,transcriber's ,notes ,text printed in italics has been transcribed between underscores4 ,small capitals have been replaced with ,,all ,,capitals4 ,a caret followed by a character represents a superscript character 7as in ft74 ,more ,transcriber's ,notes may be found at the end of this text4 ,,sex ,,character ,,the ,,german ,,press ,,on 8,,sex ,,and ,,character40 ,die ,umschau4--8,dr4 ,otto ,weininger's book is destined to place the relation of the sexes in a new light4 ,he traces the contrast between man and woman to a single principle1 and makes an attempt to reduce the spiritual differences of the sexes to a system40 ,allgemeine ,wiener ,medizinische ,zeitung4--8,an extraordinary book1 that called forth the learned criticism of two faculties1 and had appeared in a third edition a few months after its publication1 before the scientific world had been able to pronounce upon it seriously1 not to say finally4444 ,a book that will henceforth be in the hands of every doctor who has occasion to study the antithetical character of the two sexes40 ,der ,volkserzieher4--8,there is no aspect of modern thought which he 7,weininger7 has not touched upon in the course of his investigations1 no recess of the labyrinthine modern soul into which he does not invite us to glance with him1 no question on which he has not touched1 or to which he has not1 indeed1 offered a solution in accordance with his own philosophy40 ,allgemeine ,zeitung4--8,this book444 is a sensational work1 both by reason of its contents and of the tragic fate of its author4 ,weininger1 as is commonly known1 shot himself in the autumn of #aijc at the early age of twenty-three1 in the house in ,vienna where ,beethoven had died4444 ,but it is the book itself1 even more than its author's individuality1 which is abnormal4 ,it is nothing less than an attempt to construct a system of sexual characterology on the broadest scientific basis1 with all the resources of the most modern philosophy40 ,mnchener ,neueste ,nachrichten4--8#8,sex and ,character1' by ,dr4 ,weininger1 has none of the character of a youthful work4 ,the learning revealed in this book1 and indeed its whole conception1 are such that we might take it for the strenuous achievement of a lifetime40 ,neues ,wiener ,tageblatt4--8,a great philosophical1 biological1 and social question is here treated by a gifted and learned author with perfect freedom and breadth1 yet with a seriousness1 a wealth of scientific knowledge1 that would ensure the book a place in the front rank1 even were the style less excellent1 vivacious1 and individual than it is40 ,die ,wage4--8,the author is a brilliant stylist4 ,on every page ,i find aphorisms1 in which the form fits the thought like a veil of silver4 ,and these thoughts are no ordinary ones4 ,the writer goes his own way1 he knows secret paths which no man has yet trodden1 and he shrinks from no obstacles4 ,he lets himself down cautiously into the abyss1 for he has determined to sound the deepest depths2 from time to time1 however1 he looks up from the pit and rejoices in the light of the eternal stars1 even though they lie hid from his mortal vision4 ,he carries his arguments to their ultimate conclusion4 ,we rebel against these conclusions1 but we admire the uncompromising logic of the thinker40 ,,sex ,,character ,,by ,,otto ,,weininger ,,authorised ,,translation ,,from ,,the ,,sixth ,,german ,,edition ,illustration ,,london3 ,,william ,,heinemann ,,new ,,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons #aijf ,all rights reserved ,copyright1 ,london3 ,william ,heinemann1 #aijf ,copyright1 ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons1 #aijf ,,publisher',s ,,note ,on ,october #d1 #aijc1 ,otto ,weininger died by his own hand1 at the age of twenty-three and a half years4 ,there is perhaps in all history no other instance of a man who had produced a work so mature in its scientific character1 and so original in its philosophical aspect as 8,sex and ,character0 when he was no more than twenty-one years old4 ,we will not attempt to decide whether this was the case of a genius1 who1 instead of developing his intellectual powers gradually in the course of a lifetime1 concentrated them in one mighty achievement1 and then cast off the worn-out husk of the flesh1 or of an unhappy youth1 who could no longer bear the burden of his own ghastly knowledge4 8,sex and ,character0 is undoubtedly one of those rare books that will be studied long after its own times1 and whose influence will not pass away1 but will penetrate deeper and deeper1 compelling amazement and inviting reflection in steadily expanding circles4 ,it may be noted with satisfaction that the book is by no means in harmony with contemporary thought4 ,the discussions1 so much in favour nowadays1 concerning the emancipation of women1 sexuality1 the relation of women to culture1 and so forth1 are deprived of their data by this publication2 for here1 laid down with all the penetrating acumen of the trained logician1 is a characterisation of sexual types1 8,m0 7the ideal man71 and 8,w0 7the ideal woman71 which traces all the much discussed psychological phenomena back to a final source1 and actually gives a definitive solution to the feminine problem1 a solution altogether alien to the field of inquiry wherein the answer has hitherto been sought4 ,in the science of characterology1 here formulated for the first time1 we have a strenuous scientific achievement of the first importance4 ,all former psychologies have been the psychology of the male1 written by men1 and more or less consciously applicable only to man as distinguished from humanity4 8,woman does not betray her secret10 said ,kant1 and this has been true till now4 ,but now she has revealed it--by the voice of a man4 ,the things women say about themselves have been suggested by men2 they repeat the discoveries1 more or less real1 which men have made about them4 ,by a highly original method of analysis1 a man has succeeded for the first time in giving scientific and abstract utterance to that which only some few great artists have suggested by concrete images hitherto4 ,weininger1 working out an original system of characterology 7psychological typology7 rich in prospective possibilities1 undertook the construction of a universal psychology of woman which penetrates to the nethermost depths1 and is based not only on a vast systematic mastery of scientific knowledge1 but on what can only be described as an appalling comprehension of the feminine soul in its most secret recesses4 ,this newly created method embraces the whole domain of human consciousness2 research must be carried out on the lines laid down by ,nature--in three stages1 and from three distinct points of view3 the biologico-physiological1 the psychologically descriptive1 and the philosophically appreciative4 ,i will not dwell here on the equipment essential for such a task1 the necessary combination of a comprehensive knowledge of natural history with a minute and exhaustive mastery of psychological and philosophical science--a combination destined1 perhaps1 to prove unique4 ,the general characterisation of the ideal woman1 8,w10 is followed by the construction of individual types1 which are finally resolved into two elemental figures 7,platonic conceptions to some extent71 the ,courtesan and the ,mother4 ,these are differentiated by their pre-occupation with the sexual act 7the main1 and in the ultimate sense1 sole interest of 8,w071 in the first case1 as an end in itself1 in the second as the process which results in the possession of a child4 ,the abnormal type1 the hysterical woman1 leads up to a masterly psychological 7not physiological7 theory of hysteria1 which is acutely and convincingly defined as 8the organic mendacity of woman40 ,weininger himself attached the highest importance to the ethico-philosophical chapters that conclude his work1 in which he passes from the special problem of sexuality to the problems of individual talent1 genius1 sthetics1 memory1 the ego1 the ,jewish race1 and many others1 rising finally to the ultimate logical and moral principles of judgment4 ,from his most universal standpoint he succeeds in estimating woman as a part of humanity1 and1 above all1 subjectively4 ,here he deliberately comes into sharp conflict with the fashionable tendencies towards an unscientific monism and its accompanying phenomena1 pan-sexuality and the ethics of species1 and characterises very aptly the customary superficialities of the many non-philosophical modern apostles1 of whom ,wilhelm ,blsche and ,ellen ,key are perhaps the most representative types4 ,weininger1 in defiance of all reigning fashions1 represents a consolidated dualism1 closely related to the eternal systems of ,plato1 of ,christianity1 and of ,kant1 which finds an original issue in a bitterly tragic conception of the universe4 ,richard ,wagner 7whom ,weininger calls the greatest of human beings after ,jesus7 gives artistic expression in his ,parsifal to the conception ,weininger sets forth scientifically4 ,it is1 in fact1 the old doctrine of the divine life and of redemption to which the whole book1 with its array of detail1 is consecrated4 ,in ,kundry1 ,weininger recognises the most profound conception of woman in all literature4 ,in her redemption by the spotless ,parsifal1 the young philosopher sees the way of mankind marked out2 he contrasts with this the programme of the modern feminist movement1 with its superficialities and its lies2 and so1 in conclusion1 the book returns to the problem1 which1 in spite of all its wealth of thought1 remains its governing idea3 the problem of the sexes and the possibility of a moral relation between them--a moral relation fundamentally different from what is commonly understood by the term1 of course4 ,in the two chapters3 8,the ,nature of ,woman and her significance in the ,universe10 and 8,woman and ,mankind10 we drink from a fountain of the ripest wisdom4 ,a tragic and most unhappy mind reveals itself here1 and no thoughtful man will lay down this book without deep emotion and admiration2 many1 indeed1 will close it with almost religious reverence4 ,,author',s ,,preface ,this book is an attempt to place the relations of ,sex in a new and decisive light4 ,it is an attempt not to collect the greatest possible number of distinguishing characters1 or to arrange into a system all the results of scientific measuring and experiment1 but to refer to a single principle the whole contrast between man and woman4 ,in this respect the book differs from all other works on the same subject4 ,it does not linger over this or that detail1 but presses on to its ultimate goal2 it does not heap investigation on investigation1 but combines the psychical differences between the sexes into a system2 it deals not with women1 but with woman4 ,it sets out1 indeed1 from the most common and obvious facts1 but intends to reach a single1 concrete principle4 ,this is not 8inductive metaphysics02 it is a gradual approach to the heart of psychology4 ,the investigation is not of details1 but of principles2 it does not despise the laboratory1 although the help of the laboratory1 with regard to the deeper problems1 is limited as compared with the results of introspective analysis4 ,an artist who wishes to represent the female form can construct a type without actually giving formal proof by a series of measurements4 ,the artist does not despise experimental results2 on the contrary1 he regards it as a duty to gain experience2 but for him the collection of experimental knowledge is merely a starting-point for self-exploration1 and in art self-exploration is exploration of the world4 ,the psychology used in this exposition is purely philosophical1 although its characteristic method1 justified by the subject1 is to set out from the most trivial details of experience4 ,the task of the philosopher differs from that of the artist in one important respect4 ,the one deals in symbols1 the other in ideas4 ,art and philosophy stand to one another as expression and meaning4 ,the artist has breathed in the world to breathe it out again2 the philosopher has the world outside him and he has to absorb it4 ,there is always something pretentious in theory2 and the real meaning--which in a work of art is ,nature herself and in a philosophical system is a much condensed generalisation1 a thesis going to the root of the matter and proving itself--appears to strike against us harshly1 almost offensively4 ,where my exposition is anti-feminine1 and that is nearly everywhere1 men themselves will receive it with little heartiness or conviction2 their sexual egoism makes them prefer to see woman as they would like to have her1 as they would like her to be4 ,i need not say that ,i am prepared for the answer women will have to the judgment ,i have passed on their sex4 ,my investigation1 indeed1 turns against man in the end1 and although in a deeper sense than the advocates of women's rights could anticipate1 assigns to man the heaviest and most real blame4 ,but this will help me little and is of such a nature that it cannot in the smallest way rehabilitate me in the minds of women4 ,the analysis1 however1 goes further than the assignment of blame2 it rises beyond simple and superficial phenomena to heights from which there opens not only a view into the nature of woman and its meaning in the universe1 but also the relation to mankind and to the ultimate and most lofty problems4 ,a definite relation to the problem of ,culture is attained1 and we reach the part to be played by woman in the sphere of ideal aims4 ,there1 also1 where the problems of ,culture and of ,mankind coincide1 ,i try not merely to explain but to assign values1 for1 indeed1 in that region explanation and valuation are identical4 ,to such a wide outlook my investigation was as it were driven1 not deliberately steered1 from the outset4 ,the inadequacy of all empirical psychological philosophy follows directly from empirical psychology itself4 ,the respect for empirical knowledge will not be injured1 but rather will the meaning of such knowledge be deepened1 if man recognises in phenomena1 and it is from phenomena that he sets out1 any elements assuring him that there is something behind phenomena1 if he espies the signs that prove the existence of something higher than phenomena1 something that supports phenomena4 ,we may be assured of such a first principle1 although no living man can reach it4 ,towards such a principle this book presses and will not flag4 ,within the narrow limits to which as yet the problem of woman and of woman's rights has been confined1 there has been no place for the venture to reach so high a goal4 ,none the less the problem is bound intimately with the deepest riddles of existence4 ,it can be solved1 practically or theoretically1 morally or metaphysically1 only in relation to an interpretation of the cosmos4 ,comprehension of the universe1 or what passes for such1 stands in no opposition to knowledge of details2 on the other hand all special knowledge acquires a deeper meaning because of it4 ,comprehension of the universe is self-creative2 it cannot arise1 although the empirical knowledge of every age expects it1 as a synthesis of however great a sum of empirical knowledge4 ,in this book there lie only the germs of a world-scheme1 and these are allied most closely with the conceptions of ,plato1 ,kant and ,christianity4 ,i have been compelled for the most part to fashion for myself the scientific1 psychological1 philosophical1 logical1 ethical groundwork4 ,i think that at the least ,i have laid the foundations of many things into which ,i could not go fully4 ,i call special attention to the defects of this part of my work because ,i attach more importance to appreciation of what ,i have tried to say about the deepest and most general problems than to the interest which will certainly be aroused by my special investigation of the problem of woman4 ,the philosophical reader may take it amiss to find a treatment of the loftiest and ultimate problems coinciding with the investigation of a special problem of no great dignity2 ,i share with him this distaste4 ,i may say1 however1 that ,i have treated throughout the contrast between the sexes as the starting-point rather than the goal of my research4 ,the investigation has yielded a harvest rich in its bearing on the fundamental problems of logic and their relations to the axioms of thought1 on the theory of sthetics1 of love1 and of the beautiful and the good1 and on problems such as individuality and morality and their relations1 on the phenomena of genius1 the craving for immortality and ,hebraism4 ,naturally these comprehensive interrelations aid the special problem1 for1 as it is considered from so many points of view1 its scope enlarges4 ,and if in this wider sense it be proved that culture can give only the smallest hope for the nature of woman1 if the final results are a depreciation1 even a negation of womanhood1 there will be no attempt in this to destroy what exists1 to humble what has a value of its own4 ,horror of my own deed would overtake me were ,i here only destructive and had ,i left only a clean sheet4 ,perhaps the affirmations in my book are less articulate1 but he that has ears to hear will hear them4 ,the treatise falls into two parts1 the first biological-psychological1 the second logical-philosophical4 ,it may be objected that ,i should have done better to make two books1 the one treating of purely physical science1 the other introspective4 ,it was necessary to be done with biology before turning to psychology4 ,the second part treats of certain psychical problems in a fashion totally different from the method of any contemporary naturalist1 and for that reason ,i think that the removal of the first part of the book would have been at some risk to many readers4 ,moreover1 the first part of the book challenges an attention and criticism from natural science possible in a few places only in the second part1 which is chiefly introspective4 ,because the second part starts from a conception of the universe that is anti-positivistic1 many will think it unscientific 7although there is given a strong proof against ,positivism74 ,for the present ,i must be content with the conviction that ,i have rendered its due to ,biology1 and that ,i have established an enduring position for non-biological1 non-physiological psychology4 ,my investigation may be objected to as in certain points not being supported by enough proof1 but ,i see little force in such an objection4 ,for in these matters what can 8proof0 mean8 ,i am not dealing with mathematics or with the theory of cognition 7except with the latter in two cases72 ,i am dealing with empirical knowledge1 and in that one can do no more than point to what exists2 in this region proof means no more than the agreement of new experience with old experience1 and it is much the same whether the new phenomena have been produced experimentally by men1 or have come straight from the creative hand of nature4 ,of such latter proofs my book contains many4 ,finally1 ,i should like to say that my book1 if ,i may be allowed to judge it1 is for the most part not of a quality to be understood and absorbed at the first glance4 ,i point out this myself1 to guide and protect the reader4 ,the less ,i found myself able in both parts of the book 7and especially in the second7 to confirm what now passes for knowledge1 the more anxious ,i have been to point out coincidences where ,i found myself in agreement with what has already been known and said4 ,i have to thank ,professor ,dr4 ,laurenz ,mllner for the great assistance he has given me1 and ,professor ,dr4 ,friedrich ,jodl for the kindly interest he has taken in my work from the beginning4 ,i am specially indebted to the kind friends who have helped me with correction of the proofs4 ,,contents ,page ,,author',s ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,first ,,german ,,edition ix ,,first ,,or ,,preparatory ,,part ,,sexual ,,complexity ,,introduction #a ,on the development of general conceptions -- ,male and female -- ,contradictions -- ,transitional forms -- ,anatomy and natural endowment -- ,uncertainty of anatomy ,,chapter ,i ,,males ,,and ,,females #e ,embryonic neutral condition -- ,rudiments in the adult -- ,degrees of 8gonochorism0 -- ,principle of intermediate forms -- ,male and female -- ,need for typical conceptions -- ,resum -- ,early anticipations ,,chapter ,,ii ,,male ,,and ,,female ,,plasmas #aa ,position of sexuality -- ,steenstrup's view adopted -- ,sexual characters -- ,internal secretions -- ,idioplasm -- ,arrhenoplasm -- ,thelyplasm -- ,variations -- ,proofs from the effects of castration -- ,transplantation and transfusion -- ,organotherapy -- ,individual differences between cells -- ,origin of intermediate sexual conditions -- ,brain -- ,excess of male births -- ,determination of sex -- ,comparative pathology ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,laws ,,of ,,sexual ,,attraction #bf ,sexual preference -- ,probability of these being controlled by a law -- ,first formula -- ,first interpretation -- ,proofs -- ,heterostylism -- ,interpretation of heterostylism -- ,animal kingdom -- ,further laws -- ,second formula -- ,chemotaxis -- ,resemblances and differences -- ,goethe1 8elective affinities0 -- ,marriage and free love -- ,effects on progeny ,,chapter ,,iv ,,homo-,,sexuality ,,and ,,pederasty #de ,homo-sexuals as intermediate forms -- ,inborn or acquired1 healthy or diseased8 -- ,a special instance of the law of attraction -- ,all men have the rudiments of homo-sexuality -- ,friendship and sexuality -- ,animals -- ,failure of medical treatment -- ,homo-sexuality1 punishment and ethics -- ,distinction between homo-sexuality and pederasty ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,character ,,and ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,form #ec ,principle of sexually intermediate forms as fundamental principle of the psychology of individuals -- ,simultaneity or periodicity8 -- ,methods of psychological investigation -- ,examples -- ,individualised education -- ,conventionalising -- ,parallelism between morphology and characterology -- ,physiognomy and the principles of psycho-physics -- ,method of the doctrine of variation -- ,a new way of stating the problem -- ,deductive morphology -- ,correlation -- ,outlook ,,chapter ,,vi ,,emancipated ,,women #fd ,the woman question -- ,claim for emancipation and maleness -- ,emancipation and homo-sexuality -- ,sexual preferences of emancipated women -- ,physiognomy of emancipated women -- ,other celebrated women -- ,femaleness and emancipation -- ,practical rules -- ,genius essentially male -- ,movements of women in historical times -- ,periodicity -- ,biology and the conception of history -- ,outlook of the woman movement -- ,its fundamental error ,,second ,,or ,,principal ,,part ,,the ,,sexual ,,types ,,chapter ,i ,,man ,,and ,,woman #gi ,bisexuality and unisexuality -- ,man or woman1 male or female -- ,fundamental difficulty in characterology -- ,experiment1 analysis of sensation and psychology -- ,dilthey -- ,conception of empirical character -- ,what is and what is not the object of psychology -- ,character and individuality -- ,problem of characterology and the problem of the sexes ,,chapter ,,ii ,,male ,,and ,,female ,,sexuality #he ,the problem of a female psychology -- ,man as the interpreter of female psychology -- ,differences in the sexual impulse -- ,the absorbing and liberating factors -- ,intensity and activity -- ,sexual irritability of women -- ,larger field of the sexual life in woman -- ,local differences in the perception of sexuality -- ,local and periodical cessation of male sexuality -- ,differences in the degrees of consciousness of sexuality ,,chapter ,,iii ,,male ,,and ,,female ,,consciousness #ic ,sensation and feeling -- ,avenarius' division into 8element0 and 8character0 -- ,these inseparable at the earliest stage -- ,process of 8clarification0 -- ,presentiments -- ,grades of understanding -- ,forgetting -- ,paths and organisation -- ,conception of 8henids0 -- ,the henid as the simplest1 psychical datum -- ,sexual differences in the organisation of the contents of the mind -- ,sensibility -- ,certainty of judgment -- ,developed consciousness as a male character ,,chapter ,,iv ,,talent ,,and ,,genius #ajc ,genius and talent -- ,genius and giftedness -- ,methods -- ,comprehension of many men -- ,what is meant by comprehending men -- ,great complexity of genius -- ,periods in psychic life -- ,no disparagement of famous men -- ,understanding and noticing -- ,universal consciousness of genius -- ,greatest distance from the henid stage -- ,a higher grade of maleness -- ,genius always universal -- ,the female devoid of genius or of hero-worship -- ,giftedness and sex ,,chapter ,v ,,talent ,,and ,,memory #aad ,organisation and the power of reproducing thoughts -- ,memory of experiences a sign of genius -- ,remarks and conclusions -- ,remembrance and apperception -- ,capacity for comparison and acquisition -- ,reasons for the masculinity of music1 drawing and painting -- ,degrees of genius -- ,relation of genius to ordinary men -- ,autobiography -- ,fixed ideas -- ,remembrance of personal creations -- ,continuous and discontinuance memory -- ,continuity and piety -- ,past and present -- ,past and future -- ,desire for immortality -- ,existing psychological explanations -- ,true origin -- ,inner development of man until death -- ,ontogenetic psychology or theoretical biography -- ,woman lacking in the desire for immortality -- ,further extension of relation of memory to genius -- ,memory and time -- ,postulate of timelessness -- ,value as a timeless quality -- ,first law of the theory of value -- ,proofs -- ,individuation and duration constituents of value -- ,desire for immortality a special case -- ,desire for immortality in genius connected with timelessness1 by his universal memory and the duration of his creations -- ,genius and history -- ,genius and nations -- ,genius and language -- ,men of action and men of science1 not to be called men of genius -- ,philosophers1 founders of religion and artists have genius ,,chapter ,,vi ,,memory1 ,,logic ,,and ,,ethics #adb ,psychology and 8psychologismus0 -- ,value of memory -- ,theory of memory -- ,doctrines of practice and of association -- ,confusion with recognition -- ,memory peculiar to man -- ,moral significance -- ,lies -- ,transition to logic -- ,memory and the principle of identity -- ,memory and the syllogism -- ,woman non-logical and non-ethical -- ,intellectual and moral knowledge -- ,the intelligible ego ,,chapter ,,vii ,,logic1 ,,ethics ,,and ,,the ,,ego #aec ,critics of the conception of the ,ego -- ,hume3 ,lichtenberg1 ,mach -- ,the ego of ,mach and biology -- ,individuation and individuality -- ,logic and ethics as witnesses for the existence of the ego -- ,logic -- ,laws of identity and of contraries -- ,their use and significance -- ,logical axioms as the laws of essence -- ,kant and ,fichte -- ,freedom of thought and freedom of the will -- ,ethics -- ,relation to logic -- ,the psychology of the ,kantian ethics -- ,kant and ,nietzsche ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the 8,i0 ,,problem ,,and ,,genius #afc ,characterology and the belief in the 8,i0 -- ,awakening of the ego -- ,jean ,paul1 ,novalis1 ,schelling -- ,the awakening of the ego and the view of the world -- ,self-consciousness and arrogance -- ,the view of the genius to be more highly valued than that of other men -- ,final statements as to the idea of genius -- ,the personality of the genius as the perfectly-conscious microcosm -- ,the naturally-synthetic activity of genius -- ,significant and symbolical -- ,definition of the genius in relation to ordinary men -- ,universality as freedom -- ,morality or immorality of genius8 -- ,duties towards self and others -- ,what duty to another is -- ,criticism of moral sympathy and social ethics -- ,understanding of other men as the one requirement of morality and knowledge -- ,i and thou -- ,individualism and universalism -- ,morality only in monads -- ,the man of greatest genius as the most moral man -- ,why man is -- ,consciousness and morality -- ,the great criminal -- ,genius as duty and submission -- ,genius and crime -- ,genius and insanity -- ,man as his own creator ,,chapter ,,ix ,,male ,,and ,,female ,,psychology #ahf ,soullessness of woman -- ,history of this knowledge -- ,woman devoid of genius -- ,no masculine women in the true sense -- ,the unconnectedness of woman's nature due to her want of an ego -- ,revision of the henid-theory -- ,female 8thought0 -- ,idea and object -- ,freedom of the object -- ,idea and judgment -- ,nature of judgment -- ,woman and truth as a criterion of thought -- ,woman and logic -- ,woman non-moral1 not immoral -- ,woman and solitude -- ,womanly sympathy and modesty -- ,the ego of women -- ,female vanity -- ,lack of true self-appreciation -- ,memory for compliments -- ,introspection and repentance -- ,justice and jealousy -- ,name and individuality -- ,radical difference between male and female mental life -- ,psychology with and without soul -- ,is psychology a science8 -- ,soul and psychology -- ,problem of the influence of the psychical sexual characters of the male or the female ,,chapter ,x ,,motherhood ,,and ,,prostitution #bad ,special characterology of woman -- ,mother and prostitute -- ,relation of two types to the child -- ,woman polygamous -- ,analogies between motherhood and sexuality -- ,motherhood and the race -- ,maternal love ethically indifferent -- ,the prostitute careless of the race -- ,the prostitute1 the criminal and the conqueror -- ,emperor and prostitute -- ,motive of the prostitute -- ,coitus an end in itself -- ,coquetry -- ,the sensations of the woman in coitus in relation to the rest of her life -- ,the prostitute as the enemy -- ,the friend of life and its enemy -- ,no prostitution amongst animals -- ,its origin a mystery ,,chapter ,,xi ,,erotics ,,and ,,sthetics #bcf ,women1 and the hatred of women -- ,erotics and sexuality -- ,platonic love -- ,the idea of love -- ,beauty of women -- ,relation to sexual impulse -- ,love and beauty -- ,difference between sthetics1 logic and ethics -- ,modes of love -- ,projection phenomena -- ,beauty and morality -- ,nature and ethics -- ,natural and artistic beauty -- ,sexual love as guilt -- ,hate1 love and morality -- ,creation of the devil -- ,love and sympathy -- ,love and shyness -- ,love and vanity -- ,love of woman as a means to an end -- ,relation between the child and love1 the child and sexuality -- ,love and murder -- ,madonna-worship -- ,madonna1 a male idea1 without basis in womanhood -- ,woman sexual1 not erotic -- ,sense of beauty in women -- ,how man acts on woman -- ,the fate of the woman -- ,why man loves woman ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,woman ,,and ,,her ,,significance ,,in ,,the ,,universe #beb ,meaning of womanhood -- ,instinct for pairing or matchmaking -- ,man1 and matchmaking -- ,high valuation of coitus -- ,individual sexual impulse1 a special case -- ,womanhood as pairing or universal sexuality -- ,organic falseness of woman -- ,hysteria -- ,difference between man and beast1 woman and man -- ,the higher and lower life -- ,birth and death -- ,freedom and happiness -- ,happiness and man -- ,happiness and woman -- ,woman and the problem of existence -- ,non-existence of woman -- ,male and female friendship -- ,pairing identical with womanhood -- ,why women must be regarded as human -- ,contrast between subject -- ,object1 matter1 form1 man1 woman -- ,meaning of henids -- ,formation of woman by man -- ,significance of woman in the universe -- ,man as something1 woman as nothing -- ,psychological problem of the fear of woman -- ,womanhood and crime -- ,creation of woman by man's crime -- ,woman as his own sexuality accepted by man -- ,woman as the guilt of man -- ,what man's love of woman is1 in its deepest significance ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,judaism #cja ,differences amongst men -- ,intermediate forms and racial anthropology -- ,comparison of ,judaism and femaleness -- ,judaism as an idea -- ,antisemitism -- ,richard ,wagner -- ,similarities between ,jews and women -- ,judaism in science -- ,the ,jew not a monad -- ,the ,jew and the ,englishman -- ,nature of humour -- ,humour and satire -- ,the ,jewess -- ,deepest significance of ,judaism -- ,want of faith -- ,the ,jew not non-mystical1 yet impious -- ,want of earnestness1 and pride -- ,the ,jew as opposed to the hero -- ,judaism and ,christianity -- ,origin of ,christianity -- ,problem of the founders of religion -- ,christ as the conqueror of the ,judaism in ,himself -- ,the founders of religions as the greatest of men -- ,conquest of inherent ,judaism necessary for all founders of religion -- ,judaism and the present time -- ,judaism1 femaleness1 culture and humanity ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,woman ,,and ,,mankind #cca ,the idea of humanity1 and woman as the match-maker -- ,goethe-worship -- ,womanising of man -- ,virginity and purity -- ,male origin of these ideas -- ,failure of woman to understand the erotic -- ,woman's relation to sexuality -- ,coitus and love -- ,woman as the enemy of her own emancipation -- ,asceticism immoral -- ,sexual impulse as a want of respect -- ,problem of the ,jew -- ,problem of the woman -- ,problem of slavery -- ,moral relation to women -- ,man as the opponent of emancipation -- ,ethical postulates -- ,two possibilities -- ,the problem of women as the problem of humanity -- ,subjection of women -- ,persistence or disappearance of the human race -- ,true ground of the immorality of the sexual impulse -- ,earthly paternity -- ,inclusion of women in the conception of humanity -- ,the mother and the education of the human race -- ,last questions ,,index #cea ,,first ,,or ,,preparatory ,,part ,,sexual ,,complexity ,,introduction ,all thought begins with conceptions to a certain extent generalised1 and thence is developed in two directions4 ,on the one hand1 generalisations become wider and wider1 binding together by common properties a larger and larger number of phenomena1 and so embracing a wider field of the world of facts4 ,on the other hand1 thought approaches more closely the meeting-point of all conceptions1 the individual1 the concrete complex unit towards which we approach only by thinking in an ever-narrowing circle1 and by continually being able to add new specific and differentiating attributes to the general idea1 8thing10 or 8something40 ,it was known that fishes formed a class of the animal kingdom distinct from mammals1 birds1 or invertebrates1 long before it was recognised on the one hand that fishes might be bony or cartilaginous1 or on the other that fishes1 birds and mammals composed a group differing from the invertebrates by many common characters4 ,the self-assertion of the mind over the world of facts in all its complexity of innumerable resemblances and differences has been compared with the rule of the struggle for existence among living beings4 ,our conceptions stand between us and reality4 ,it is only step by step that we can control them4 ,as in the case of a madman1 we may first have to throw a net over the whole body so that some limit may be set to his struggles2 and only after the whole has been thus secured1 is it possible to attend to the proper restraint of each limb4 ,two general conceptions have come down to us from primitive mankind1 and from the earliest times have held our mental processes in their leash4 ,many a time these conceptions have undergone trivial corrections2 they have been sent to the workshop and patched in head and limbs2 they have been lopped and added to1 expanded here1 contracted there1 as when new needs pierce through and through an old law of suffrage1 bursting bond after bond4 ,none the less1 in spite of all amendment and alteration1 we have still to reckon with the primitive conceptions1 male and female4 ,it is true that among those we call women are some who are meagre1 narrow-hipped1 angular1 muscular1 energetic1 highly mentalised2 there are 8women0 with short hair and deep voices1 just as there are 8men0 who are beardless and gossiping4 ,we know1 in fact1 that there are unwomanly women1 man-like women1 and unmanly1 womanish1 woman-like men4 ,we assign sex to human beings from their birth on one character only1 and so come to add contradictory ideas to our conceptions4 ,such a course is illogical4 ,in private conversation or in society1 in scientific or general meetings1 we have all taken part in frothy discussions on 8,man and ,woman10 or on the 8,emancipation of ,women40 ,there is a pitiful monotony in the fashion according to which1 on such occasions1 8men0 and 8women0 have been treated as if1 like red and white balls1 they were alike in all respects save colour4 ,in no case has the discussion been confined to an individual case1 and as every one had different individuals in their mind1 a real agreement was impossible4 ,as people meant different things by the same words1 there was a complete disharmony between language and ideas4 ,is it really the case that all women and men are marked off sharply from each other1 the women1 on the one hand1 alike in all points1 the men on the other8 ,it is certainly the case that all previous treatment of the sexual differences1 perhaps unconsciously1 has implied this view4 ,and yet nowhere else in nature is there such a yawning discontinuity4 ,there are transitional forms between the metals and non-metals1 between chemical combinations and mixtures1 between animals and plants1 between phanerogams and cryptogams1 and between mammals and birds4 ,it is only in obedience to the most general1 practical demand for a superficial view that we classify1 make sharp divisions1 pick out a single tune from the continuous melody of nature4 ,but the old conceptions of the mind1 like the customs of primitive commerce1 become foolish in a new age4 ,from the analogies ,i have given1 the improbability may henceforward be taken for granted of finding in nature a sharp cleavage between all that is masculine on the one side and all that is feminine on the other2 or that a living being is so simple in this respect that it can be put wholly on one side or the other of the line4 ,matters are not so clear4 ,in the controversy as to the woman question1 appeal has been made to the arbitration of anatomy1 in the hope that by that aid a line could be drawn between those characters of males or females that are unalterable because inborn1 and those that are acquired4 7,it was a strange adventure to attempt to decide the differences between the natural endowment of men and women on anatomical results2 to suppose that if all other investigation failed to establish the difference1 the matter could be settled by a few more grains of brain-weight on the one side47 ,however1 the answer of the anatomists is clear enough1 whether it refer to the brain or to any other portion of the body2 absolute sexual distinctions between all men on the one side and all women on the other do not exist4 ,although the skeleton of the hand of most men is different from that of most women yet the sex cannot be determined with certainty either from the skeleton or from an isolated part with its muscles1 tendons1 skin1 blood and nerves4 ,the same is true of the chest1 sacrum or skull4 ,and what are we to say of the pelvis1 that part of the skeleton in which1 if anywhere1 striking sexual differences exist8 ,it is almost universally believed that in the one case the pelvis is adapted for the act of parturition1 in the other case is not so adapted4 ,and yet the character of the pelvis cannot be taken as an absolute criterion of sex4 ,there are to be found1 and the wayfarer knows this as well as the anatomist1 many women with narrow male-like pelves and many men with the broad pelves of women4 ,are we then to make nothing of sexual differences8 ,that would imply1 almost1 that we could not distinguish between men and women4 ,from what quarter are we to seek help in our problem8 ,the old doctrine is insufficient1 and yet we cannot make shift without it4 ,if the received ideas do not suffice1 it must be our task to seek out new and better guides4 ,,chapter ,i 8,,males0 ,,and 8,,females0 ,in the widest treatment of most living things1 a blunt separation of them into males or females no longer suffices for the known facts4 ,the limitations of these conceptions have been felt more or less by many writers4 ,the first purpose of this work is to make this point clear4 ,i agree with other authors who1 in a recent treatment of the facts connected with this subject1 have taken as a starting-point what has been established by embryology regarding the existence in human beings1 plants1 and animals of an embryonic stage neutral as regards sex4 ,in the case of a human embryo of less than five weeks1 for instance1 the sex to which it would afterwards belong cannot be recognised4 ,in the fifth week of ftal life processes begin which1 by the end of the fifth month of pregnancy1 have turned the genital rudiments1 at first alike in the sexes1 into one sex and have determined the sex of the whole organism4 ,the details of these processes need not be described more fully here4 ,it can be shown that however distinctly unisexual an adult plant1 animal or human being may be1 there is always a certain persistence of the bisexual character1 never a complete disappearance of the characters of the undeveloped sex4 ,sexual differentiation1 in fact1 is never complete4 ,all the peculiarities of the male sex may be present in the female in some form1 however weakly developed2 and so also the sexual characteristics of the woman persist in the man1 although perhaps they are not so completely rudimentary4 ,the characters of the other sex occur in the one sex in a vestigial form4 ,thus1 in the case of human beings1 in which our interest is greatest1 to take an example1 it will be found that the most womanly woman has a growth of colourless hair1 known as 8lanugo0 in the position of the male beard2 and in the most manly man there are developed under the skin of the breast masses of glandular tissue connected with the nipples4 ,this condition of things has been minutely investigated in the true genital organs and ducts1 the region called the 8urino-genital tract10 and in each sex there has been found a complete but rudimentary set of parallels to the organs of the other sex4 ,these embryological conclusions can be brought into relation with another set of facts4 ,haeckel has used the word 8gonochorism0 for the separation of the sexes1 and in different classes and groups of creatures different degrees of gonochorism may be noted4 ,different kinds of animals and plants may be distinguished by the extent to which the characters of one sex are rudimentary in the other4 ,the most extreme case of sexual differentiation1 the sharpest gonochorism1 occurs in sexual dimorphism1 that is to say1 in that condition of affairs in which 7as for instance in some water-fleas7 the males and females of the same species differ as much or even more from each other as the members of different species1 or genera4 ,there is not so sharply marked gonochorism amongst vertebrates as in the case of crustacea or insects4 ,amongst the former there does not exist a distinction between males and females so complete as to reach sexual dimorphism4 ,a condition much more frequent amongst them is the occurrence of forms intermediate in regard to sex1 what is called abnormal hermaphroditism2 whilst in certain fishes hermaphroditism is the normal condition4 ,i must point out here that it must not be assumed that there exist only extreme males with scanty remnants of the female condition1 extreme females with traces of the male1 hermaphrodite or transitional forms1 and wide gaps between these conditions4 ,i am dealing specially with human beings1 but what ,i have to say of them might be applied1 with more or less modification1 to nearly all creatures in which sexual reproduction takes place4 ,amongst human beings the state of the case is as follows3 ,there exist all sorts of intermediate conditions between male and female--sexual transitional forms4 ,in physical inquiries an 8ideal gas0 is assumed1 that is to say1 a gas1 the behaviour of which follows the law of ,boyle-,gay-,lussac exactly1 although1 in fact1 no such gas exists1 and laws are deduced from this so that the deviations from the ideal laws may be established in the case of actually existing gases4 ,in the same fashion we may suppose the existence of an ideal man1 ,m1 and of an ideal woman1 ,w1 as sexual types although these types do not actually exist4 ,such types not only can be constructed1 but must be constructed4 ,as in art so in science1 the real purpose is to reach the type1 the ,platonic ,idea4 ,the science of physics investigates the behaviour of bodies that are absolutely rigid or absolutely elastic1 in the full knowledge that neither the one nor the other actually exists4 ,the intermediate conditions actually existing between the two absolute states of matter serve merely as a starting-point for investigation of the 8types0 and in the practical application of the theory are treated as mixtures and exhaustively analysed4 ,so also there exist only the intermediate stages between absolute males and females1 the absolute conditions never presenting themselves4 ,let it be noted clearly that ,i am discussing the existence not merely of embryonic sexual neutrality1 but of a permanent bisexual condition4 ,nor am ,i taking into consideration merely those intermediate sexual conditions1 those bodily or psychical hermaphrodites upon which1 up to the present1 attention has been concentrated4 ,in another respect my conception is new4 ,until now1 in dealing with sexual intermediates1 only hermaphrodites were considered2 as if1 to use a physical analogy1 there were in between the two extremes a single group of intermediate forms1 and not an intervening tract equally beset with stages in different degrees of transition4 ,the fact is that males and females are like two substances combined in different proportions1 but with either element never wholly missing4 ,we find1 so to speak1 never either a man or a woman1 but only the male condition and the female condition4 ,any individual1 8,a0 or 8,b10 is never to be designated merely as a man or a woman1 but by a formula showing that it is a composite of male and female characters in different proportions1 for instance1 as follows3 ,m ,w ,a ,b ,w ,m always remembering that each of the factors 1 1 1 must be greater than #j and less than unity4 ,further proofs of the validity of this conception are numerous1 and ,i have already given1 in the preface1 a few of the most general4 ,we may recall the existence of 8men0 with female pelves and female breasts1 with narrow waists1 overgrowth of the hair of the head2 or of 8women0 with small hips and flat breasts1 with deep bass voices and beards 7the presence of hair on the chin is more common than is supposed1 as women naturally are at pains to remove it2 ,i am not speaking of the special growth that often appears on the faces of women who have reached middle age74 ,all such peculiarities1 many of them coinciding in the same individuals1 are well known to doctors and anatomists1 although their general significance has not been understood4 ,one of the most striking proofs of the view that ,i have been unfolding is presented by the great range of numerical variation to be found where sexual characters have been measured either by the same or by different anthropological or anatomical workers4 ,the figures obtained by measuring female characters do not begin where those got from males leave off1 but the two sets overlap4 ,the more obvious this uncertainty in the theory of sexual intermediate forms may be1 the more is it to be deplored in the interests of true science4 ,anatomists and anthropologists of the ordinary type have by no means striven against the scientific representation of the sexual types1 but as for the most part they regarded measurements as the best indications1 they were overwhelmed with the number of exceptions1 and thus1 so far1 measurement has brought only vague and indefinite results4 ,the course of statistical science1 which marks off our industrial age from earlier times1 although perhaps on account of its distant relation to mathematics it has been regarded as specially scientific1 has in reality hindered the progress of knowledge4 ,it has dealt with averages1 not with types4 ,it has not been recognised that in pure1 as opposed to applied1 science it is the type that must be studied4 ,and so those who are concerned with the type must turn their backs on the methods and conclusions of current morphology and physiology4 ,the real measurements and investigations of details have yet to be made4 ,those that now exist are inapplicable to true science4 ,knowledge must be obtained of male and female by means of a right construction of the ideal man and the ideal woman1 using the word ideal in the sense of typical1 excluding judgment as to value4 ,when these types have been recognised and built up we shall be in a position to consider individual cases1 and their analysis as mixtures in different proportions will be neither difficult not fruitless4 ,i shall now give a summary of the contents of this chapter4 ,living beings cannot be described bluntly as of one sex or the other4 ,the real world from the point of view of sex may be regarded as swaying between two points1 no actual individual being at either point1 but somewhere between the two4 ,the task of science is to define the position of any individual between these two points4 ,the absolute conditions at the two extremes are not metaphysical abstractions above or outside the world of experience1 but their construction is necessary as a philosophical and practical mode of describing the actual world4 ,a presentiment of this bisexuality of life 7derived from the actual absence of complete sexual differentiation7 is very old4 ,traces of it may be found in ,chinese myths1 but it became active in ,greek thought4 ,we may recall the mythical personification of bisexuality in the ,hermaphroditos1 the narrative of ,aristophanes in the ,platonic dialogue1 or in later times the suggestion of a ,gnostic sect 7,theophites7 that primitive man was a 8man-woman40 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,male ,,and ,,female ,,plasmas ,the first thing expected of a book like this1 the avowed object of which is a complete revision of facts hitherto accepted1 is that it should expound a new and satisfactory account of the anatomical and physiological characters of the sexual types4 ,quite apart from the abstract question as to whether the complete survey of a subject so enormous is not beyond the powers of one individual1 ,i must at once disclaim any intention of making the attempt4 ,i do not pretend to have made sufficient independent investigations in a field so wide1 nor do ,i think such a review necessary for the purpose of this book4 ,nor is it necessary to give a compilation of the results set out by other authors1 for ,havelock ,ellis has already done this very well4 ,were ,i to attempt to reach the sexual types by means of the probable inferences drawn from his collected results1 my work would be a mere hypothesis and science might have been spared a new book4 ,the arguments in this chapter1 therefore1 will be of a rather formal and general nature2 they will relate to biological principles1 but to a certain extent will lay stress on the need for a closer investigation of certain definite points1 work which must be left to the future1 but which may be rendered more easy by my indications4 ,those who know little of ,biology may scan this section hastily1 and yet run little risk of failing to understand what follows4 ,the doctrine of the existence of different degrees of masculinity and femininity may be treated1 in the first place1 on purely anatomical lines4 ,not only the anatomical form1 but the anatomical position of male and female characters must be discussed4 ,the examples already given of sexual differences in other parts of the body showed that sexuality is not limited to the genital organs and glands4 ,but where are the limits to be placed8 ,do they not reach beyond the primary and secondary sexual characters8 ,in other words1 where does sex display itself1 and where is it without influence8 ,many points came to light in the last decade1 which bring fresh support to a theory first put forward in #ahdj1 but which at the time found little support since it appeared to be in direct opposition to facts held as established alike by the author of the theory and by his opponents4 ,the theory in question1 first suggested by the zoologist ,j4 ,j4 ,s4 ,steenstrup1 of ,copenhagen1 but since supported by many others1 is that sexual characters are present in every part of the body4 ,ellis has collected the results of investigations on almost every tissue of the body1 which serve to show the universal presence of sexual differences4 ,it is plain that there is a striking difference in the coloration of the typical male and female4 ,this fact establishes the existence of sexual differences in the skin 7cutis7 and in the blood-vessels1 and also in the bulk of the colouring-matter in the blood and in the number of red corpuscles to the cubic centimetre of the blood fluid4 ,bischoff and ,rudinger have proved the existence of sexual differences in brain weight1 and more recently ,justus and ,alice ,gaule have obtained a similar result with regard to such vegetative organs as the liver1 lungs and spleen4 ,in fact1 all parts of a woman1 although in different degrees in different zones1 have a sexual stimulus for the male organism1 and similarly all parts of the male have their effect on the female4 ,the direct logical inference may be drawn1 and is supported by abundant facts1 that every cell in the body is sexually characteristic and has its definite sexual significance4 ,i may now add to the principle already laid down in this book1 of the universal presence of sexually intermediate conditions1 that these conditions may present different degrees of development4 ,such a conception of the existence of different degrees of development in sexuality makes it easy to understand cases of false hermaphroditism or even of the true hermaphroditism1 which1 since the time of ,steenstrup1 has been established for so many plants and animals1 although not certainly in the case of man4 ,steenstrup wrote3 8,if the sex of an animal has its seat only in the genital organs1 then one might think it possible for an animal really to be bisexual1 if it had at the same time two sets of sexual organs4 ,but sex is not limited to one region1 it manifests itself not merely by the presence of certain organs2 it pervades the whole being and shows itself in every point4 ,in a male body1 everything down to the smallest part is male1 however much it may resemble the corresponding female part1 and so also in the female the smallest part is female4 ,the presence of male and female sexual organs in the same body would make the body bisexual only if both sexes ruled the whole body and made themselves manifest in every point1 and such a condition1 as the manifestations of the sexes are opposing forces1 would result simply in the negation of sex in the body in question40 ,if1 however1 the principle of the existence of innumerable sexually transitional conditions be extended to all the cells of the body1 and empirical knowledge supports such a view1 ,steenstrup's difficulty is resolved1 and hermaphroditism no longer appears to be unnatural4 ,there may be conceived for every cell all conditions1 from complete masculinity through all stages of diminishing masculinity to its complete absence and the consequent presence of complete femininity4 ,whether we are to think of these gradations in the scale of sexual differentiation as depending on two real substances united in different proportions1 or as a single kind of protoplasm modified in different ways 7as1 for instance1 by different spatial dispositions of its molecules71 it were wiser not to guess4 ,the first conception is difficult to apply physiologically2 it is extremely difficult to imagine that two sets of conditions should be able to produce the essential physiological similarities of two bodies1 one with a male and the other a female diathesis4 ,the second view recalls too vividly certain unfortunate speculations on heredity4 ,perhaps both views are equally far from the truth4 ,at present empirical knowledge does not enable us to say wherein the masculinity or the femininity of a cell really lies1 or to define the histological1 molecular or chemical differences which distinguish every cell of a male from every cell of a female4 ,without anticipating any discovery of the future 7it is plain already1 however1 that the specific phenomena of living matter are not going to be referred to chemistry and physics71 it may be taken for granted that individual cells possess sexuality in different degrees quite apart from the sexuality of the whole body4 ,womanish men usually have the skin softer1 and in them the cells of the male organs have a lessened power of division upon which depends directly the poorer development of the male macroscopic characters4 ,the distribution of sexual characters affords an important proof of the appearance of sexuality in different degrees4 ,such characters 7at least in the animal kingdom7 may be arranged according to the strength of their exciting influence on the opposite sex4 ,to avoid confusion1 ,i shall make use of ,john ,hunter's terms for classifying sexual characters4 ,the primordial sexual characters are the male and female genital glands 7testes and epididymis1 ovaries and epoophoron72 the primary sexual characters are the internal appendages of the sexual glands 7vasa deferentia vesicul seminales1 oviducts and uterus71 which may have sexual characters quite distinct from those of the glands and the external sexual organs1 according to which alone the sex of human beings is reckoned at birth 7sometimes quite erroneously1 as ,i shall show7 and their consequent fate in life decided4 ,after the primary1 come all those sexual characters not directly necessary to reproduction4 ,such secondary sexual characters are best defined as those which begin to appear at puberty1 and which cannot be developed except under the influence on the system of the internal secretions of the genital glands4 ,examples of these are the beards in men1 the luxuriant growth of hair in women1 the development of the mammary glands1 the character of the voice4 ,as a convenient mode of treatment1 and for practical rather than theoretical reasons1 certain inherited characters1 such as the development of muscular strength or of mental obstinacy may be reckoned as tertiary sexual characters4 ,under the designation 8quaternary sexual characters0 may be placed such accessories as relative social position1 difference in habit1 mode of livelihood1 the smoking and drinking habit in man1 and the domestic duties of women4 ,all these characters possess a potent and direct sexual influence1 and in my opinion often may be reckoned with the tertiary characters or even with the secondary4 ,this classification of sexual characters must not be taken as implying a definite chain of sequence1 nor must it be assumed that the mental sexual characters either determine the bodily characters or are determined by them in some causal nexus4 ,the classification relates only to the strength of the exciting influence on the other sex1 to the order in time in which this influence is exerted1 and to the degree of certainty with which the extent of the influence may be predicted4 ,study of secondary sexual characters is bound up with consideration of the effect of internal secretions of the genital glands on general metabolism4 ,the relation of this influence or its absence 7as in the case of artificially castrated animals7 has been traced out in the degree of development of the secondary characters4 ,the internal secretions1 however1 undoubtedly have an influence on all the cells of the body4 ,this is clearly shown by the changes which occur at puberty in all parts of the body1 and not only in the seats of the secondary sexual characters4 ,as a matter of fact1 the internal secretions of all the glands must be regarded as affecting all the tissues4 ,the internal secretions of the genital glands must be regarded as completing the sexuality of the individual4 ,every cell must be considered as possessing an original sexuality1 to which the influence of the internal secretion in sufficient quantity is the final determining condition under the influence of which the cell acquires its final determinate character as male or female4 ,the genital glands are the organs in which the sex of the individual is most obvious1 and in the component cells of which it is most conspicuously visible4 ,at the same time it must be noted that the distinguishing characters of the species1 race and family to which an organism belongs are also best marked in the genital cells4 ,just as ,steenstrup1 on the one hand1 was right in teaching that sex extends all over the body and is not confined to the genital organs1 so1 on the other hand1 ,naegeli1 de ,vries1 ,oskar ,hertwig and others have propounded the important theory1 and supported it by weighty arguments1 that every cell in a multi-cellular organism possesses a combination of the characters of its species and race1 but that these characters are1 as it were1 specially condensed in the sexual cells4 ,probably this view of the case will come to be accepted by all investigators1 since every living being owes its origin to the cleavage and multiplication of a single cell4 ,many phenomena1 amongst which may be noticed specially experiments on the regeneration of lost parts and investigations into the chemical differences between the corresponding tissues of nearly allied animals1 have led the investigators to whom ,i have just referred to conceive the existence of an 8,idioplasm10 which is the bearer of the specific characters1 and which exists in all the cells of a multi-cellular animal1 quite apart from the purposes of reproduction4 ,in a similar fashion ,i have been led to the conception of an 8,arrhenoplasm0 7male plasm7 and a 8,thelyplasm0 7female plasm7 as the two modes in which the idioplasm of every bisexual organism may appear1 and which are to be considered1 because of reasons which ,i shall explain1 as ideal conditions between which the actual conditions always lie4 ,actually existing protoplasm is to be thought of as moving from an ideal arrhenoplasm through a real or imaginary indifferent condition 7true hermaphroditism7 towards a protoplasm that approaches1 but never actually reaches1 an ideal thelyplasm4 ,this conception brings to a point what ,i have been trying to say4 ,i apologise for the new terms1 but they are more than devices to call attention to a new idea4 ,the proof that every single organ1 and further1 that every single cell possesses a sexuality lying somewhere between arrhenoplasm and thelyplasm1 and further1 that every cell received an original sexual endowment definite in kind and degree1 is to be found in the fact that even in the same organism the different cells do not always possess their sexuality identical in kind and degree4 ,in fact each cell of a body neither contains the same proportion of ,m and ,w nor is at the same approximation to arrhenoplasm or thelyplasm2 similar cells of the same body may indeed lie on different sides of the sexually neutral point4 ,if1 instead of writing 8masculinity0 and 8femininity0 at length1 we choose signs to express these1 and without any malicious intention choose the positive sign 77 for ,m and the negative 7-7 for ,w1 then our proposition may be expressed as follows3 ,the sexuality of the different cells of the same organism differs not only in absolute quantity but is to be expressed by a different sign4 ,there are many men with a poor growth of beard and a weak muscular development who are otherwise typically males2 and so also many women with badly developed breasts are otherwise typically womanly4 ,there are womanish men with strong beards and masculine women with abnormally short hair who none the less possess well-developed breasts and broad pelves4 ,i know several men who have the upper part of the thigh of a female with a normally male under part1 and some with the right hip of a male and the left of a female4 ,in most cases these local variations of the sexual character affect both sides of the body1 although of course it is only in ideal bodies that there is complete symmetry about the middle line4 ,the degree to which sexuality displays itself1 however1 as1 for instance1 in the growth of hair1 is very often unsymmetrical4 ,this want of uniformity 7and the sexual manifestations never show complete uniformity7 can hardly depend on differences of the internal secretion2 for the blood goes to all the organs1 having in it the same amount of the internal secretion2 although different organs may receive different quantities of blood1 in all normal cases its quality and quantity being proportioned to the needs of the part4 ,were we not to assume as the cause of these variations the presence of a sexual determinant generally different in every cell but stable from its earliest embryonic development1 then it would be simple to describe the sexuality of any individual by estimating how far its sexual glands conformed to the normal type of its sex1 and the facts would be much simpler than they really are4 ,sexuality1 however1 cannot be regarded as occurring in an imaginary normal quantity distributed equally all over an individual so that the sexual character of any cell would be a measure of the sexual characters of any other cells4 ,whilst1 as an exception1 there may occur wide differences in the sexual characters of different cells or organs of the same body1 still as a rule there is the same specific sexuality for all the cells4 ,in fact it may be taken as certain that an approximation to a complete uniformity of sexual character over the whole body is much more common than the tendency to any considerable divergences amongst the different organs or still more amongst the different cells4 ,how far these possible variations may go can be determined only by the investigation of individual cases4 ,there is a popular view1 dating back to ,aristotle and supported by many doctors and zoologists1 that the castration of an animal is followed by the sudden appearance of the characters of the other sex2 if the gelding of a male were to bring about the appearance of female characteristics then doubt would be thrown on the existence in every cell of a primordial sexuality independent of the genital glands4 ,the most recent experimental results of ,sellheim and ,foges1 however1 have shown that the type of a gelded male is distinct from the female type1 that gelding does not induce the feminine character4 ,it is better to avoid too far-reaching and radical conclusions on this matter2 it may be that a second latent gland of the other sex may awake into activity and sexually dominate the deteriorating organism after the removal or atrophy of the normal gland4 ,there are many cases 7too readily interpreted as instances of complete assumption of the male character7 in which after the involution of the female sexual glands at the climacteric the secondary sexual characters of the male are acquired4 ,instances of this are the beard of the human grandam1 the occasional appearance of short antlers in old does1 or of a cock's plumage in an old hen4 ,but such changes are practically never seen except in association with senile decay or with operative interference4 ,in the case of certain crustacean parasites of fish1 however 7the genera ,cymothoa1 ,anilocra and ,nerocila of the family ,cymothoid71 the changes ,i have just mentioned are part of the normal life history4 ,these creatures are hermaphrodites of a peculiar kind2 the male and female organs co-exist in them but are not functional at the same period4 ,a sort of protandry exists2 each individual exercises first the functions of a male and afterwards those of the female4 ,during the time of their activity as males they possess ordinary male reproductive organs which are cast off when the female genital ducts and brood organs develop4 ,that similar conditions may exist in man has been shown by those cases of 8eviratio0 and 8effeminatio0 which the sexual pathology of the old age of men has brought to light4 ,so also we cannot deny altogether the actual occurrence of a certain degree of effeminacy when the crucial operation of extirpation of the human testes has been performed4#a ,on the other hand1 the fact that the relation is not universal or inevitable1 that the castration of an individual does not certainly result in the appearance of the characters of the other sex1 may be taken as a proof that it is necessary to assume the original presence throughout the body of cells determined by arrhenoplasm or thelyplasm4 #a ,so also in the opposite case2 it cannot be wholly denied that ovariotomy is followed by the appearance of masculine characters4 ,the possession by every cell of primitive sexuality on which the secretion of the sexual glands has little effect might be shown further by consideration of the effects of grafting male genital glands on female organisms4 ,for such an experiment to be accurate it would be necessary that the animal from which the testis was to be transplanted should be as near akin as possible to the female on which the testis was to be grafted1 as1 for instance1 in the case of a brother and sister2 the idioplasm of the two should be as alike as possible4 ,in this experiment much would depend on limiting the conditions of the experiment as much as possible so that the results would not be confused by conflicting factors4 ,experiments made in ,vienna have shown that when an exchange of the ovaries has been made between unrelated female animals 7chosen at random7 the atrophy of the ovaries follows1 but that there is no failure of the secondary sexual characters 7e4g41 degeneration of the mamm74 ,moreover1 when the genital glands of an animal are removed from their natural position and grafted in a new position in the same animal 7so that it still retains its own tissues7 the full development of the secondary sexual characters goes on precisely as if there had been no interference1 at least in cases where the operation is successful4 ,the failure of the transplantation of ovaries from one animal to another may be due to the absence of family relationship between the tissues2 the influence of the idioplasm probably is of primary importance4 ,these experiments closely resemble those made in the transfusion of alien blood4 ,it is a practical rule with surgeons that when a dangerous loss of blood has to be made good1 the blood required for transfusion must be obtained from an individual not only of the same species and family1 but also of the same sex as that of the patient4 ,the parallel between transfusion and transplantation is at once evident4 ,if ,i am correct in my views1 when surgeons seek to transfuse blood1 instead of being content with injections of normal salt solution they must take the blood not merely from one of the same species1 family and sex1 but of a similar degree of masculinity or femininity4 ,experiments on transfusion not only lend support to my belief in the existence of sex characters in the blood corpuscles1 but they furnish additional explanations of the failure of experiments in grafting ovaries or testis on individuals of the opposite sex4 ,the internal secretions of the genital glands are operative only in their appropriate environment of arrhenoplasm or thelyplasm4 ,in this connection1 ,i may say a word as to the curative value of organotherapy4 ,although1 as ,i have shown to be the case1 the transplantation of freshly extirpated genital glands into subjects of the opposite sex has no effect1 it does not follow that the injection of the ovarian secretion into the blood of a male might not have a most injurious effect4 ,on the other hand1 the principle of organotherapy has been opposed on the ground that organic preparations procured from non-allied species could not possibly be expected to yield good results4 ,it is more than likely that the medical exponents of organotherapy have lost many valuable discoveries in healing because of their neglect of the biological theory of idioplasm4 ,the theory of an idioplasm1 the presence of which gives the specific race characters to those tissues and cells which have lost the reproductive faculty1 is by no means generally accepted4 ,but at the least all must admit that the race characters are collected in the genital glands1 and that if experiments with extracts from these are to provide more than a good tonic1 the nearest possible relationship between the animals experimented upon must be observed4 ,parallel experiments might be made as to the effect of transplantation of the genital glands and injections of their extracts on two castrated cocks of the same strain4 ,for instance1 the effects of the transplantation of the testes of one of them into any other part of its own body or peritoneal cavity or into any similar part of the other cock might be compared with the effects of intravenous injection of testis extract of the one on the other4 ,such parallel investigations would also increase our knowledge as to the most suitable media and quantities of the extracts4 ,it is also to be desired1 from the theoretical point of view1 that knowledge may be gained as to whether the internal secretion of the genital glands enters into chemical union with the protoplasm of the cells or whether it acts as a physiological stimulus independent of the quantity supplied4 ,so far we know nothing that would enable us to come to a definite opinion on this point4 ,the limited influence of the internal secretions of the sexual glands in forming the sexual characters must be realised to warrant the theory of a primary1 generally slight1 difference in each cell1 but still determinate sexual influence4#b ,if the existence of distinct graduations of these primary characteristics in all the cells and tissues can be recognised1 there follow many important and far-reaching conclusions4 ,the individual egg-cells and spermatozoa may be found to possess different degrees of maleness and femaleness1 not only in different individuals1 but in the ovaries and testes of the same individual1 especially at different times2 for instance1 the spermatozoa differ in size and activity4 ,we are still quite ignorant on these matters1 as no one has worked on the requisite lines4 #b ,the existence of sexual distinctions before puberty shows that the power of the internal secretions of the sexual glands does not account for everything4 ,it is extremely interesting to recall in this connection that many times different investigators have observed in the testes of amphibia not only the different stages in the development of spermatozoa1 but mature eggs4 ,this interpretation of the observations was at first disputed1 and it was suggested that the presence of unusually large cells in the tubes of the testes had given rise to the error1 but the matter has now been fully confirmed4 ,moreover1 in these ,amphibia1 sexually intermediate conditions are very common1 and this should lead us to be careful in making statements as to the uniform presence of arrhenoplasm or thelyplasm in a body4 ,the methods of assigning sex to a new-born infant seem most unsatisfactory in the light of these facts4 ,if the child is observed to possess a male organ1 even although there may be complete epi- or hypo-spadism1 or a double failure of descent of the testes1 it is at once described as a boy and is henceforth treated as one1 although in other parts of the body1 for instance in the brain1 the sexual determinant may be much nearer thelyplasm than arrhenoplasm4 ,the sooner a more exact method of sex discrimination is insisted upon the better4 ,as a result of these long inductions and deductions we may rest assured that all the cells possess a definite primary sexual determinant which must not be assumed to be alike or nearly alike throughout the same body4 ,every cell1 every cell-complex1 and every organ have their distinctive indices on the scale between thelyplasm and arrhenoplasm4 ,for the exact definition of the sex1 an estimation of the indices over the whole body would be necessary4 ,i should be content to bear the blame of all the theoretical and practical errors in this book did ,i believe myself to have made the working out of a single case possible4 ,differences in the primary sexual determinants1 together with the varying internal secretions 7which differ in quantity and quality in different individuals7 produce the phenomena of sexually intermediate forms4 ,arrhenoplasm and thelyplasm1 in their countless modifications1 are the microscopic agencies which1 in co-operation with the internal secretions1 give rise to the macroscopic differences cited in the last chapter4 ,if the correctness of the conclusions so far stated may be assumed1 the necessity is at once evident for a whole series of anatomical1 physiological1 histological and histo-chemical investigations into those differences between male and female types1 in the structure and function of the individual organs by which the dowers of arrhenoplasm and thelyplasm express themselves in the tissues4 ,the knowledge we possess at the present time on these matters comes from the study of averages1 but averages fail to satisfy the modern statistician1 and their scientific value is very small4 ,investigations into the sex-differences in the weight of the brain1 for instance1 have so far proved very little1 probably because no care was taken to choose typical conditions1 the assignment of sex being dependent on baptismal certificates or on superficial glances at the outward appearance4 ,as if every 8,john0 or 8,mary0 were representative of their sexes because they had been dubbed 8male0 and 8female60 ,it would have been well1 even if exact physiological data were thought unnecessary1 at least to make certain as to a few facts as to the general condition of the body1 which might serve as guides to the male or female condition1 such as1 for instance1 the distance between the great trochanters1 the iliac spines1 and so forth1 for a sexual harmony in the different parts of the body is certainly more common than great sexual divergence4 ,this source of error1 the careless acceptance of sexually intermediate forms as representative subjects for measurement1 has maimed other investigations and seriously retarded the attainment of genuine and useful results4 ,those1 for instance1 who wish to speculate about the cause of the superfluity of male births have to reckon with this source of error4 ,in a special way this carelessness will revenge itself on those who are investigating the ultimate causes that determine sex4 ,until the exact degree of maleness or femaleness of all the living individuals of the group on which he is working can be determined1 the investigator will have reason to distrust both his methods and his hypotheses4 ,if he classify sexually intermediate forms1 for instance1 according to their external appearance1 as has been done hitherto1 he will come across cases which fuller investigation would show to be on the wrong side of his results1 whilst other instances1 apparently on the wrong side1 would right themselves4 ,without the conception of an ideal male and an ideal female1 he lacks a standard according to which to estimate his real cases1 and he gropes forward to a superficial and doubtful conclusion4 ,maupas1 for instance1 who made experiments on the determination of sex in ,hydatina senta1 a ,rotifer1 found that there was always an experimental error of from three to five per cent4 ,at low temperatures the production of females was expected1 but always about the above proportion of males appeared2 so also at the higher temperatures a similar proportion of females appeared4 ,it is probable that this error was due to sexually intermediate stages1 arrhenoplasmic females at the high temperature1 thelyplasmic males at the low temperature4 ,where the problem is more complicated1 as in the case of cattle1 to say nothing of human beings1 the process of investigation will yield still less harmonious results1 and the correction of the interpretation which will have to be made by allowing for the disturbance due to the existence of sexually intermediate forms will be much more difficult4 ,the study of comparative pathology of the sexual types is as necessary as their morphology1 physiology and development4 ,in this region of inquiry as elsewhere1 statistics would yield certain results4 ,diseases manifestly much more abundant in one sex might be described as peculiar to or idiopathic of thelyplasm or arrhenoplasm4 ,myxdema1 for instance1 is idiopathic of the female1 hydrocele of the male4 ,but no statistics1 however numerous and accurate1 can be regarded as avoiding a source of theoretical error until it has been shown from the nature of any particular affection dealt with that it is in indissoluble1 functional relation with maleness or femaleness4 ,the theory of such associated diseases must supply a reason why they occur almost exclusively in the one sex1 that is to say1 in the phrase of this treatise1 why they are thelyplasmic or arrhenoplasmic4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,laws ,,of ,,sexual ,,attraction ,,carmen3 8,l'amour est un oiseau rebelle1 ,que nul ne peut apprivoiser3 ,et c'est bien en vain qu'on l'appelle ,s'il lui convient de refuser4 ,rien n'y fait2 menace ou prire3 ,l'un parle1 l'autre se tait2 ,et c'est l'autre que je prfre2 ,il n'a rien dit1 mais il me plat4 99 99 99 99 99 ,l'amour est enfant de ,bohme ,il n'a jamais connu de loi40 ,it has been recognised from time immemorial that1 in all forms of sexually differentiated life1 there exists an attraction between males and females1 between the male and the female1 the object of which is procreation4 ,but as the male and the female are merely abstract conceptions which never appear in the real world1 we cannot speak of sexual attraction as a simple attempt of the masculine and the feminine to come together4 ,the theory which ,i am developing must take into account all the facts of sexual relations if it is to be complete2 indeed1 if it is to be accepted instead of the older views1 it must give a better interpretation of all these sexual phenomena4 ,my recognition of the fact that ,m and ,f 7maleness and femaleness7 are distributed in the living world in every possible proportion has led me to the discovery of an unknown natural law1 of a law not yet suspected by any philosopher1 a law of sexual attraction4 ,as observations on human beings first led me to my results1 ,i shall begin with this side of the subject4 ,every one possesses a definite1 individual taste of his own with regard to the other sex4 ,if we compare the portrait of the women which some famous man has been known to love1 we shall nearly always find that they are all closely alike1 the similarity being most obvious in the contour 7more precisely in the 8figure07 or in the face1 but on closer examination being found to extend to the minutest details1 ad unguem1 to the finger-tips4 ,it is precisely the same with every one else4 ,so1 also1 every girl who strongly attracts a man recalls to him the other girls he has loved before4 ,we see another side of the same phenomenon when we recall how often we have said of some acquaintance or another1 8,i can't imagine how that type of woman pleases him40 ,darwin1 in the 8,descent of ,man10 collected many instances of the existence of this individuality of the sexual taste amongst animals1 and ,i shall be able to show that there are analogous phenomena even amongst plants4 ,sexual attraction is nearly always1 as in the case of gravitation1 reciprocal4 ,where there appear to be exceptions to this rule1 there is nearly always evidence of the presence of special influences which have been capable of preventing the direct action of the special taste1 which is almost always reciprocal1 or which have left an unsatisfied craving1 if the direct taste were not allowed its play4 ,the common saying1 8,waiting for ,mr4 ,right10 or statements such as that 8,so-and-so are quite unsuitable for one another10 show the existence of an obscure presentiment of the fact that every man or woman possesses certain individual peculiarities which qualify or disqualify him or her for marriage with any particular member of the opposite sex2 and that this man cannot be substituted for that1 or this woman for the other without creating a disharmony4 ,it is a common personal experience that certain individuals of the opposite sex are distasteful to us1 that others leave us cold2 whilst others again may stimulate us until1 at last1 some one appears who seems so desirable that everything in the world is worthless and empty compared with union with such a one4 ,what are the qualifications of that person8 ,what are his or her peculiarities8 ,if it really be the case--and ,i think it is--that every male type has its female counterpart with regard to sexual affinity1 it looks as if there were some definite law4 ,what is this law8 ,how does it act8 8,like poles repel1 unlike attract10 was what ,i was told when1 already armed with my own answer1 ,i resolutely importuned different kinds of men for a statement1 and submitted instances to their power of generalisation4 ,the formula1 no doubt1 is true in a limited sense and for a certain number of cases4 ,but it is at once too general and too vague2 it would be applied differently by different persons1 and it is incapable of being stated in mathematical terms4 ,this book does not claim to state all the laws of sexual affinity1 for there are many2 nor does it pretend to be able to tell every one exactly which individual of the opposite sex will best suit his taste1 for that would imply a complete knowledge of all the laws in question4 ,in this chapter only one of these laws will be considered--the law which stands in organic relation to the rest of the book4 ,i am working at a number of other laws1 but the following is that to which ,i have given most investigation1 and which is most elaborated4 ,in criticising this work1 allowance must be made for the incomplete nature of the material consequent on the novelty and difficulty of the subject4 ,fortunately it is not necessary for me to cite at length either the facts from which ,i originally derived this law of sexual affinity or to set out in detail the evidence ,i obtained from personal statements4 ,i asked each of those who helped me1 to make out his own case first1 and then to carry out observations in his circle of acquaintances4 ,i have paid special attention to those cases which have been noticed and remembered1 in which the taste of a friend has not been understood1 or appeared not to be present1 or was different from that of the observer4 ,the minute degree of knowledge of the external form of the human body which is necessary for the investigation is possessed by every one4 ,i have come to the law which ,i shall now formulate by a method the validity of which ,i shall now have to prove4 ,the law runs as follows3 8,for true sexual union it is necessary that there come together a complete male 7,m7 and a complete female 7,f71 even although in different cases the ,m and ,f are distributed between the two individuals in different proportions40 ,the law may be expressed otherwise as follows3 ,if we take 1 any individual regarded in the ordinary way as a male1 and denote his real sexual constitution as ,m1 so many parts really male1 plus ,w1 so many parts really female2 if we also take 1 any individual regarded in the ordinary way as a female1 and denote her real sexual constitution as ,w1 so many parts really female1 plus ,m1 so many parts really male2 then1 if there be complete sexual affinity1 the greatest possible sexual attraction between the two individuals1 and 1 7#a7 ,m 7the truly male part in the 8male07 ,m 7the truly male part in the 8female07 will equal a constant quantity1 ,m1 the ideal male2 and 7#b7 ,w ,w 7the ideal female parts in respectively the 8male0 and the 8female07 will equal a second constant quantity1 ,w1 the ideal female4 ,this statement must not be misunderstood4 ,both formulas refer to one case1 to a single sexual relation1 the second following directly from the first and adding nothing to it1 as ,i set out from the point of view of an individual possessing just as much femaleness as he lacks of maleness4 ,were he completely male1 his requisite complement would be a complete female1 and vice vers4 ,if1 however1 he is composed of a definite inheritance of maleness1 and also an inheritance of femaleness 7which must not be neglected71 then1 to complete the individual1 his maleness must be completed to make a unit2 but so also must his femaleness be completed4 ,if1 for instance1 an individual be composed thus3 ,m and ,w1 then the best sexual complement of that individual will be another compound as follows3 ,m and ,w4 ,it can be seen at once that this view is wider in its reach than the common statement of the case4 ,that male and female1 as sexual types1 attract each other is only one instance of my general law1 an instance in which an imaginary individual1 #a ,m #j ,w1 finds its complement in an equally imaginary individual1 #j ,m #a ,w4 ,there can be no hesitation in admitting the existence of definite1 individual sexual preferences1 and such an admission carries with it approval of the necessity of investigating the laws of the preference1 and its relation to the rest of the bodily and mental characters of an individual4 ,the law1 as ,i have stated it1 can encounter no initial sense of impossibility1 and is contrary neither to scientific nor common experience4 ,but it is not self-evident4 ,it might be that the law1 which cannot yet be regarded as fully worked out1 might run as follows3 ,m - ,m a constant2 that is to say1 it may be the difference between the degrees of masculinity and not the sum of the degrees of masculinity that is a constant quality1 so that the most masculine man would stand just as far removed from his complement 7who in this case would lie nearly midway between masculinity and femininity7 as the most feminine man would be removed from his complement who would be near the extreme of femininity4 ,although1 as ,i have said1 this is conceivable1 it is not borne out by experience4 ,recognising that we have to do here with an empirical law1 and trying to observe a wise scientific restraint1 we shall do well to avoid speaking as if there were any 8force0 pulling the two individuals together as if they were puppets2 the law is no more than the statement that an identical relation can be made out in each case of maximum sexual attraction4 ,we are dealing1 in fact1 with what ,ostwald termed an 8invariant0 and ,avenarius a 8multiponible02 and this is the constant sum formed by the total masculinity and the total femininity in all cases where a pair of living beings come together with the maximum sexual attraction4 ,in this matter we may neglect altogether the so-called sthetic factor1 the stimulus of beauty4 ,for does it not frequently happen that one man is completely captivated by a particular woman and raves about her beauty1 whilst another1 who is not the sexual complement of the woman in question1 cannot imagine what his friend sees in her to admire4 ,without discussing the laws of sthetics or attempting to gather together examples of relative values1 it may readily be admitted that a man may consider a woman beautiful who1 from the sthetic standpoint1 is not merely indifferent but actually ugly1 that in fact pure sthetics deal not with absolute beauty1 but merely with conceptions of beauty from which the sexual factor has been eliminated4 ,i have myself worked out the law in1 at the lowest1 many hundred cases1 and ,i have found that the exceptions were only apparent4 ,almost every couple one meets in the street furnishes a new proof4 ,the exceptions were specially instructive1 as they not only suggested but led to the investigation of other laws of sexuality4 ,i myself made special investigations in the following way4 ,i obtained a set of photographs of sthetically beautiful women of blameless character1 each of which was a good example of some definite proportion of femininity1 and ,i asked a number of my friends to inspect these and select the most beautiful4 ,the selection made was invariably that which ,i had predicted4 ,with other male friends1 who knew on what ,i was engaged1 ,i set about in another fashion4 ,they provided me with photographs from amongst which ,i was to choose the one ,i should expect them to think most beautiful4 ,here1 too1 ,i was uniformly successful4 ,with others1 ,i was able to describe most accurately their ideal of the opposite sex1 independently of any suggestions unconsciously given by them1 often in minuter detail than they had realised4 ,sometimes1 too1 ,i was able to point out to them1 for the first time1 the qualities that repelled them in individuals of the opposite sex1 although for the most part men realise more readily the characters that repel them than the characters that attract them4 ,i believe that with a little practice any one could readily acquire and exercise this art on any circle of friends4 ,a knowledge of other laws of sexual affinity would be of great importance4 ,a number of special constants might be taken as tests of the existence of complementary individuals4 ,for instance1 the law might be caricatured so as to require that the sum of the length of the hairs of any two perfect lovers should always be the same4 ,but1 as ,i have already shown in chapter ii41 this result is not to be expected1 because all the organs of the same body do not necessarily possess the same degree of maleness or femaleness4 ,such heuristic rules would soon multiply and bring the whole subject into ridicule1 and ,i shall therefore abstain from further suggestions of the kind4 ,i do not deny that my exposition of the law is somewhat dogmatical and lacks confirmation by exact detail4 ,but ,i am not so anxious to claim finished results as to incite others to the study1 the more so as the means for scientific investigations are lacking in my own case4 ,but even if much remains theoretical1 ,i hope that ,i shall have firmly riveted the chief beams in my edifice of theory by showing how it explains much that hitherto has found no explanation1 and so shall have1 in a fashion1 proved it retrospectively by showing how much it would explain if it were true4 ,a most remarkable confirmation of my law may be found in the vegetable kingdom1 in a group of facts hitherto regarded as isolated and to be so strange as to have no parallel4 ,every botanist must have guessed already that ,i have in mind the phenomena of heterostylism1 first discovered by ,persoon1 then described by ,darwin and named by ,hildebrand4 ,many ,dicotyledons1 and a few ,monocotyledons1 for instance1 species of ,primulace and ,geraneace and many ,rubiace1 phanerogams in the flowers of which both the pollen and the stigma are functional1 although only in cross-fertilisation1 so that the flowers are hermaphrodite in structure but unisexual physiologically1 display the peculiarity that in different individuals the stamens and the stigma have different lengths4 ,the individuals1 all the flowers of which have long styles and therefore high stigmas and short anthers1 are1 in my judgment1 the more female1 whilst the individuals with short styles and long anthers are more male4 ,in addition to such dimorphic plants1 there are also trimorphic plants1 such as ,lythrum salicaria1 in which the sexual organs display three forms differing in length4 ,there are not only long-styled and short-styled forms1 but flowers with styles of a medium length4 ,although only dimorphism and trimorphism have been recognised in the books1 these conditions do not exhaust the actual complexities of structure4 ,darwin himself pointed out that if small differences were taken into account1 no less than five different situations of the anthers could be distinguished4 ,alongside such plain cases of discontinuity1 of the separation of the different degrees of maleness and femaleness in plainly distinct individuals1 there are also cases in which the different degrees grade into each other without breaks in the series4 ,there are analogous cases of discontinuity in the animal kingdom1 although they have always been thought of as unique and isolated phenomena1 as the parallel with heterostylism had not been suggested4 ,in several genera of insects1 as1 for instance1 some ,earwigs 7,forficul7 and ,lamellicorn ,beetles 7,lucanus cervus71 the ,stag-beetle 7,dynastes ,hercules71 and ,xylotrupes gideon1 there are some males in which the antenn1 the secondary sexual characters by which they differ most markedly from the females1 are extremely long1 and others in which they are very short4 ,bateson1 who has written most on this subject1 distinguishes the two forms as 8high males0 and 8low males40 ,it is true that a continuous series of intermediate forms links the extreme types1 but1 none the less1 the vast majority of the individuals are at one extreme or the other4 ,unfortunately1 ,bateson did not investigate the relations between these different types of males and the females1 and so it is not known if there be female types with special sexual affinity for these male types4 ,thus these observations can be taken only as a morphological parallel to heterostylism and not as cases of the law of complementary sexual attraction4 ,heterostylous plants may possibly be the means of establishing my view that the law of sexual complements holds good for every kind of living thing4 ,darwin first1 and after him many other investigators have proved that in heterostylous plants fertilisation has the best results1 or1 indeed1 may be possible only when the pollen from a macrostylous flower 7a flower with the shortest form of anthers and longest pistil7 falls on the stigma of a microstylous blossom 7one where the pistil is the shortest possible and the stamens at their greatest length71 or vice vers4 ,in other words1 if the best result is to be attained by the cross-fertilisation of a pair of flowers1 one flower with a long pistil1 and therefore high degree of femaleness1 and short stamens must be mated with another possessing a correspondingly short pistil1 and so1 with the amount of femaleness complementary to the first flower1 and with long stamens complementary to the short stamens of the first flower4 ,in the case of flowers where there are three pistil lengths1 the best results may be expected when the pollen of one blossom is transmitted to another blossom in which the stigma is the nearest complement of the stigma of the flower from which the pollen came2 if another combination is made1 either naturally or by artificial fertilisation1 then1 if a result follows at all1 the seedlings are scanty1 dwarfed and sometimes infertile1 much as when hybrids between species are formed4 ,it is to be noticed that the authors who have discussed heterostylism are not satisfied with the usual explanation1 which is that the insects which visit the flowers carry the pollen at different relative positions on their bodies corresponding to the different lengths of the sexual organs and so produce the wonderful result4 ,darwin1 moreover1 admits that bees carry all sorts of pollen on every part of their bodies2 so that it has still to be made clear how the female organs dusted with two or three kinds of pollen make their choice of the most suitable4 ,the supposition of a power of choice1 however interesting and wonderful it is1 does not account for the bad results which follow artificial dusting with the wrong kind of pollen 7so-called 8illegitimate fertilisation074 ,the theory that the stigmas can only make use of1 or are capable of receiving only 8legitimate pollen0 has been proved by ,darwin to be erroneous1 inasmuch as the insects which act as fertilisers certainly sometimes start various cross-breedings4 ,the hypothesis that the reason for this selective retention on the part of individuals is a special quality1 deep-seated in the flowers themselves1 seems more probable4 ,we have probably here to do with the presence1 just as in human beings1 of a maximum degree of sexual attraction between individuals1 one of which possesses just as much femaleness as the other possesses maleness1 and this is merely another mode of stating my sexual law4 ,the probability of this interpretation is increased by the fact that in the short-styled1 long-anthered1 more male flowers1 the pollen grains are larger and the papill on the stigmas are smaller than the corresponding parts of the long-styled1 short-anthered1 more female flowers4 ,here we have certainly to do with different degrees of maleness and femaleness4 ,these circumstances supply a strong corroboration of my law of sexual affinity1 that in the vegetable kingdom as well as in the animal kingdom 7,i shall return later to this point7 fertilisation has the best results when it occurs between parents with maximum sexual affinity4#c #c ,for special purposes the breeder1 whose object frequently is to modify natural tendencies1 will often disregard this law4 ,consideration of sexual aversion affords the readiest proof that the law holds good throughout the animal kingdom4 ,i should like to suggest here that it would be extremely interesting to make observations as to whether the larger1 heavier and less active egg-cells exert a special attraction on the smaller and more active spermatozoa1 whilst those egg-cells with less food-yolk attract more strongly the larger and less active spermatozoa4 ,it may be the case1 as ,l4 ,weill has already suggested in a speculation as to the factors that determine sex1 that there is a correlation between the rates of motion or kinetic energies of conjugating sexual cells4 ,it has not yet been determined1 although indeed it would be difficult to determine1 if the sexual cells1 apart from the streams and eddies of their fluid medium1 approach each other with equal velocities or sometimes display special activity4 ,there is a wide field for investigation here4 ,as ,i have repeatedly remarked1 my law is not the only law of sexual affinity1 otherwise1 no doubt1 it would have been discovered long ago4 ,just because so many other actors are bound up with it1#d because another1 perhaps many other laws sometimes overshadow it1 cases of undisturbed action of sexual affinity are rare4 ,as the necessary investigations have not yet been finished1 ,i will not speak at length of such laws1 but rather by way of illustration ,i shall refer to a few factors which as yet cannot be demonstrated mathematically4 #d ,in speaking of the sexual taste in men and women1 one thinks at once of the usual but not invariable preference individuals show for a particular colour of hair4 ,it would certainly seem as if the reason for so strongly marked a preference must lie deep in human nature4 ,i shall begin with some phenomena which are pretty generally recognised4 ,men when quite young1 say under twenty1 are attracted by much older women 7say those of thirty-five and so on71 whilst men of thirty-five are attracted by women much younger than themselves4 ,so also1 on the other hand1 quite young girls 7sweet seventeen7 generally prefer much older men1 but1 later in life1 may marry striplings4 ,the whole subject deserves close attention and is both popular and easily noticed4 ,in spite of the necessary limitation of this work to the consideration of a single law1 it will make for exactness if ,i try to state the formula in a more definite fashion1 without the deceptive element of simplicity4 ,even without being able to state in definite quantities the other factors and the co-operating laws1 we may reach a satisfactory exactness by the use of a variable factor4 ,the first formula was only an abstract general statement of what is common to all cases of maximum sexual attraction so far as the sexual relation is governed by the law4 ,i must now try to find an expression for the strength of the sexual affinity in any conceivable case1 an expression which on account of its general form1 can be used to describe the relationship between any two living beings1 even if these belong to different species or to the same sex4 ,if ,m ,w and ,w ,m 7where 1 1 1 and are each greater than #j and less than unity7 define the sexual constitutions of any two living beings between which there is an attraction1 then the strength of the attraction may be expressed thus3 ,k ,a -----ft - where ft is an empirical or analytical function of the period during which it is possible for the individuals to act upon one another1 what may be called the 8reaction-time02 whilst ,k is the variable factor in which we place all the known and unknown laws of sexual affinity1 and which also varies with the degree of specific1 racial and family relationship1 and with the health and absence of deformity in the two individuals1 and which1 finally1 will become smaller as the actual spacial distance between the two is greater1 and which can be determined in any individual case4 ,when in this formula ,a must be infinity2 this is the extreme case2 it is sexual attraction as an elemental force1 as it has been described with a weird mastercraft by ,lynkeus in the novel 8,im ,postwagen40 ,such sexual attraction is as much a natural law as the downward growth of a rootlet towards the earth1 or the migration of bacteria to the oxygen at the edge of a microscopic cover-glass4 ,but it takes some time to grow accustomed to such a view4 ,i shall refer to this point again4 ,if - has its maximum value1 which is when it equals unity1 then ,a ,k4 ft4 ,this would be the extreme case of the action of all the sympathetic and antipathetic relations between human beings 7leaving out of account social relations in their narrowest sense1 which are merely the safeguards of communities7 which are not included in the law of sexual affinity4 ,as ,k generally increases with the strength of congenital relationship1 ,a has a greater value when the individuals are of the same nationality than when they belong to different nationalities4 ,the value of ft is great in this case1 and one can investigate its fluctuations1 as1 for instance1 when two domestic animals of different species are in association2 at first it usually stands for violent enmity1 or fear of each other 7and ,a has a negative value71 whilst later on a friendship may come about4 ,when ,k #j in the formula ,k 4 ft ,a ---------1 - then ,a #j1 which means that between two living beings of origin too remote there may be no trace of sexual attraction4 ,the provisions of the criminal statute-books1 however1 in reference to sodomy and bestiality show plainly that even in the case of very remote species ,k has a value greater than nothing4 ,the formula may apply to two individuals not only not of the same species1 but even not of the same order4 ,it is a new theory that the union of male and female organisms is no mere matter of chance1 but is guided by a definite law2 and the actual complexities which ,i have merely suggested show the need for complete investigation into the mysterious nature of sexual attraction4 ,the experiments of ,wilhelm ,pfeffer have shown that the male cells of many cryptogams are naturally attracted not merely by the female cells1 but also by substances which they have come in contact with under natural conditions1 or which have been introduced to them experimentally1 in the latter case the substances being sometimes of a kind with which they could not possibly have come in contact1 except under the conditions of experiment4 ,thus the male cells of ferns are attracted not only by the malic acid secreted naturally by the archegonia1 but by synthetically prepared malic acid1 whilst the male cells of mosses are attracted either by the natural acid of the female cells or by acid prepared from cane sugar4 ,a male cell1 which1 we know not how1 is influenced by the degree of concentration of a solution1 moves towards the most concentrated part of the fluid4 ,pfeffer named such movements 8chemotactic0 and coined the word 8chemotropism0 to include these and many other asexual cases of motion stimulated by chemical bodies4 ,there is much to support the view that the attraction exercised by females on males which perceive them at a distance by sense organs is to be regarded as analogous in certain respects with chemotropism4 ,it seems highly probable that chemotropism is also the explanation of the restless and persistent energy with which for days together the mammalian spermatozoa seek the entrance to the uterus1 although the natural current produced from the mucous membrane of the uterus is from within outwards4 ,the spermatozoon1 in spite of all mechanical and other hindrances1 makes for the egg-cell with an almost incredible certainty4 ,in this connection we may call to mind the prodigious journeys made by many fish2 salmon travel for months together1 practically without taking any food1 from the open sea to the sources of the ,rhine1 against the current of the river1 in order to spawn in localities that are safe and well provided with food4 ,i have recently been looking at the beautiful sketches which ,p4 ,falkenberg has made of the processes of fertilisation in some of the ,mediterranean seaweeds4 ,when we speak of the lines of force between the opposite poles of magnets we are dealing with a force no more natural than that which irresistibly attracts the spermatozoon and the egg-cell4 ,the chief difference seems to be that in the case of the attraction between the inorganic substances1 strains are set up in the media between the two poles1 whilst in the living matter the forces seem confined to the organisms themselves4 ,according to ,falkenberg's observations1 the spermatozoa1 in moving towards the egg-cells1 are able to overcome the force which otherwise would be exercised upon them by a source of light4 ,the sexual attraction1 the chemotactic force1 is stronger than the phototactic force4 ,when a union has taken place between two individuals who1 according to my formula1 are not adapted to each other1 if later1 the natural complement of either appears the inclination to desert the makeshift at once asserts itself in accordance with an inevitable law of nature4 ,a divorce takes place1 as much constitutional1 depending on the nature of things1 as when1 if iron sulphate and caustic potash are brought together1 the ,,so ions leave the iron to unite with the potassium4 ,when in nature an adjustment of such differences of potential is about to take place1 he who would approve or disapprove of the process from the moral point of view would appear to most to play a ridiculous part4 ,this is the fundamental idea in ,goethe's 8,wahlverwandtschaften0 7,elective ,affinities71 and in the fourth chapter of the first part of that work he makes it the subject of a playful introduction which was full of undreamed of future significance1 and the full force of which he was fated himself to experience in later life4 ,i must confess to being proud that this book is the first work to take up his ideas4 ,none the less1 it is as little my intention as it was the intention of ,goethe to advocate divorce2 ,i hope only to explain it4 ,there are human motives which indispose man to divorce and enable him to withstand it4 ,this ,i shall discuss later on4 ,the physical side of sex in man is less completely ruled by natural law than is the case with lower animals4 ,we get an indication of this in the fact that man is sexual throughout the year1 and that in him there is less trace than even in domestic animals of the existence of a special spring breeding-season4 ,the law of sexual affinity is analogous in another respect to a well-known law of theoretical chemistry1 although1 indeed1 there are marked differences4 ,the violence of a chemical reaction is proportionate to the mass of the substances involved1 as1 for instance1 a stronger acid solution unites with a stronger basic solution with greater avidity1 just as in the case of the union of a pair of living beings with strong maleness and femaleness4 ,but there is an essential difference between the living process and the reaction of the lifeless chemical substances4 ,the living organism is not homogeneous and isotropic in its composition2 it is not divisible into a number of small parts of identical properties4 ,the difference depends on the principle of individuality1 on the fact that every living thing is an individual1 and that its individuality is essentially structural4 ,and so in the vital process it is not as in inorganic chemistry2 there is no possibility of a larger proportion forming one compound1 a smaller proportion forming another4 ,the organic chemotropism1 moreover1 may be negative4 ,in certain cases the value of ,a may result in a negative quantity1 that is to say1 the sexual attraction may appear in the form of sexual repulsion4 ,it is true that in purely chemical processes the same reaction may take place at different rates4 ,taking1 however1 the total failure of some reaction by catalytic interference as the equivalent of a sexual repulsion1 it never happens1 according to the latest investigations at least1 that the interference merely induces the reaction after a longer or shorter interval4 ,on the other hand1 it happens frequently that a compound which is formed at one temperature breaks up at another temperature4 ,here the 8direction0 of the reaction is a function of the temperature1 as1 in the vital process1 it may be a function of time4 ,in the value of the factor 8t10 the time of reaction1 a final analogy of sexual attraction with chemical processes may be found1 if we are willing to trace the comparison without laying too much stress upon it4 ,consider the formula for the rapidity of the reaction1 the different degrees of rapidity with which a sexual attraction between two individuals is established1 and reflect how the value of 8,a0 varies with the value of 8t40 ,however1 what ,kant termed mathematical vanity must not tempt us to read into our equations complicated and difficult processes1 the validity of which is uncertain4 ,all that can be implied is simple enough2 sensual desire increases with the time during which two individuals are in propinquity2 if they were shut up together1 it would develop if there were no repulsion1 or practically no repulsion between them1 in the fashion of some slow chemical process which takes much time before its result is visible4 ,such a case is the confidence with which it is said of a marriage arranged without love1 8,love will come later2 time will bring it40 ,it is plain that too much stress must not be laid on the analogy between sexual affinity and purely chemical processes4 ,none the less1 ,i thought it illuminating to make the comparison4 ,it is not yet quite clear if the sexual attraction is to be ranked with the 8tropisms10 and the matter cannot be settled without going beyond mere sexuality to discuss the general problem of erotics4 ,the phenomena of love require a different treatment1 and ,i shall return to them in the second part of this book4 ,none the less1 there are analogies that cannot be denied when human attractions and chemotropism are compared4 ,i may refer as an instance to the relation between ,edward and ,ottilie in ,goethe's 8,wahlverwandtschaften40 ,mention of ,goethe's romance leads naturally to a discussion of the marriage problem1 and ,i may here give a few of the practical inferences which would seem to follow from the theoretical considerations of this chapter4 ,it is clear that a natural law1 not dissimilar to other natural laws1 exists with regard to sexual attraction2 this law shows that1 whilst innumerable gradations of sexuality exist1 there always may be found pairs of beings the members of which are almost perfectly adapted to one another4 ,so far1 marriage has its justification1 and1 from the standpoint of biology1 free love is condemned4 ,monogamy1 however1 is a more difficult problem1 the solution of which involves other considerations1 such as periodicity1 to which ,i shall refer later1 and the change of the sexual taste with advancing years4 ,a second conclusion may be derived from heterostylism1 especially with reference to the fact that 8illegitimate fertilisation0 almost invariably produces less fertile offspring4 ,this leads to the consideration that amongst other forms of life the strongest and healthiest offspring will result from unions in which there is the maximum of sexual suitability4 ,as the old saying has it1 8love-children0 turn out to be the finest1 strongest1 and most vigorous of human beings4 ,those who are interested in the improvement of mankind must therefore1 on purely hygienic grounds1 oppose the ordinary mercenary marriages of convenience4 ,it is more than probable that the law of sexual attraction may yield useful results when applied to the breeding of animals4 ,more attention will have to be given to the secondary sexual characters of the animals which it is proposed to mate4 ,the artificial methods made use of to secure the serving of mares by stallions unattractive to them do not always fail1 but are followed by indifferent results4 ,probably an obvious result of the use of a substituted stallion in impregnating a mare is the extreme nervousness of the progeny1 which must be treated with bromide and other drugs4 ,so1 also1 the degeneration of modern ,jews may be traced in part to the fact that amongst them marriages for other reasons than love are specially common4 ,amongst the many fundamental principles established by the careful observations and experiments of ,darwin1 and since confirmed by other investigators1 is the fact that both very closely related individuals1 and those whose specific characters are too unlike1 have little sexual attraction for each other1 and that if in spite of this sexual union occurs1 the offspring usually die at an early stage or are very feeble1 or are practically infertile4 ,so also1 in heterostylous plants 8legitimate fertilisation0 brings about more numerous and vigorous seeds than come from other unions4 ,it may be said in general that the offspring of those parents which showed the greatest sexual attraction succeed best4 ,this rule1 which is certainly universal1 implies the correctness of a conclusion which might be drawn from the earlier part of this book4 ,when a marriage has taken place and children have been produced1 these have gained nothing from the conquest of sexual repulsion by the parents1 for such a conquest could not take place without damage to the mental and bodily characters of the children that would come of it4 ,it is certain1 however1 that many childless marriages have been loveless marriages4 ,the old idea that the chance of conception is increased where there is a mutual participation in the sexual act is closely connected with what we have been considering as to the greater intensity of the sexual attraction between two complementary individuals4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,homo-,,sexuality ,,and ,,pederasty ,the law of ,sexual ,attraction gives the long-sought-for explanation of sexual inversion1 of sexual inclination towards members of the same sex1 whether or no that be accompanied by aversion from members of the opposite sex4 ,without reference to a distinction which ,i shall deal with later on1 ,i may say at once that it is exceedingly probable that1 in all cases of sexual inversion1 there will be found indications of the anatomical characters of the other sex4 ,there is no such thing as a genuine 8psycho-sexual hermaphroditism02 the men who are sexually attracted by men have outward marks of effeminacy1 just as women of a similar disposition to those of their own sex exhibit male characters4 ,that this should be so is quite intelligible if we admit the close parallelism between body and mind1 and further light is thrown upon it by the facts explained in the second chapter of this book2 the facts as to the male or female principle not being uniformly present all over the same body1 but distributed in different amounts in different organs4 ,in all cases of sexual inversion1 there is invariably an anatomical approximation to the opposite sex4 ,such a view is directly opposed to that of those who would maintain that sexual inversion is an acquired character1 and one that has superseded normal sexual impulses4 ,schrenk-,notzing1 ,kraepelin1 and ,fr are amongst those writers who have urged the view that sexual inversion is an acquired habit1 the result of abstinence from normal intercourse and particularly induced by example4 ,but what about the first offender8 ,did the god ,hermaphroditos teach him8 ,it might equally be sought to prove that the sexual inclination of a normal man for a normal woman was an unnatural1 acquired habit--a habit1 as some ancient writers have suggested1 that arose from some accidental discovery of its agreeable nature4 ,just as a normal man discovers for himself what a woman is1 so also1 in the case of a sexual 8invert0 the attraction exercised on him by a person of his own sex is a normal product of his development from his birth4 ,naturally the opportunity must come in which the individual may put in practice his desire for inverted sexuality1 but the opportunity will be taken only when his natural constitution has made the individual ready for it4 ,that sexual abstinence 7to take the second supposed cause of inversion7 should result in anything more than masturbation may be explained by the supposition that inversion is acquired1 but that it should be coveted and eagerly sought can only happen when the demand for it is rooted in the constitution4 ,in the same fashion normal sexual attraction might be said to be an acquired character1 if it could be proved definitely that1 to fall in love1 a normal man must first see a woman or a picture of a woman4 ,those who assert that sexual inversion is an acquired character1 are making a merely incidental or accessory factor responsible for the whole constitution of an organism4 ,there is little reason for saying that sexual inversion is acquired1 and there is just as little for regarding it as inherited from parents or grandparents4 ,such an assertion1 it is true1 has not been made1 and seems contrary to all experience2 but it has been suggested that it is due to a neuropathic diathesis1 and that general constitutional weakness is to be found in the descendants of those who have displayed sexual inversion4 ,in fact sexual inversion has usually been regarded as psycho-pathological1 as a symptom of degeneration1 and those who exhibit it have been considered as physically unfit4 ,this view1 however1 is falling into disrepute1 especially as ,krafft-,ebing1 its principal champion1 abandoned it in the later editions of his work4 ,none the less1 it is not generally recognised that sexual inverts may be otherwise perfectly healthy1 and with regard to other social matters quite normal4 ,when they have been asked if they would have wished matters to be different with them in this respect1 almost invariably they answer in the negative4 ,it is due to the erroneous conceptions that ,i have mentioned that homo-sexuality has not been considered in relation with other facts4 ,let those who regard sexual inversion as pathological1 as a hideous anomaly of mental development 7the view accepted by the populace71 or believe it to be an acquired vice1 the result of an execrable seduction1 remember that there exist all transitional stages reaching from the most masculine male to the most effeminate male and so on to the sexual invert1 the false and true hermaphrodite2 and then1 on the other side1 successively through the sapphist to the virago and so on until the most feminine virgin is reached4 ,in the interpretation of this volume1 sexual inverts of both sexes are to be defined as individuals in whom the factor 7see page #h1 chap4 i47 is very nearly #j4e and so is practically equal to 2 in other words1 individuals in whom there is as much maleness as femaleness1 or indeed who1 although reckoned as men1 may contain an excess of femaleness1 or as women and yet be more male than female4 ,because of the want of uniformity in the sexual characters of the body1 it is fairly certain that many individuals have their sex assigned them on account of the existence of the primary male sexual characteristic1 even although there may be delayed descensus testiculorum1 or epi- or hypo-spadism1 or1 later on1 absence of active spermatozoa1 or even1 in the case of assignment of the female sex1 absence of the vagina1 and thus male avocations 7such as compulsory military service7 may come to be assigned to those in whom is less than #j4e and greater than #j4e4 ,the sexual complement of such individuals really is to be found on their own side of the sexual line1 that is to say1 on the side on which they are reckoned1 although in reality they may belong to the other4 ,moreover1 and this not only supports my view but can be explained only by it1 there are no inverts who are completely sexually inverted4 ,in all of them there is from the beginning an inclination to both sexes2 they are1 in fact1 bisexual4 ,it may be that later on they may actively encourage a slight leaning towards one sex or the other1 and so become practically unisexual either in the normal or in the inverted sense1 or surrounding influence may bring about this result for them4 ,but in such processes the fundamental bisexuality is never obliterated and may at any time give evidence of its suppressed presence4 ,reference has often been made1 and in recent years has increasingly been made1 to the relation between homo-sexuality and the presence of bisexual rudiments in the embryonic stages of animals and plants4 ,what is new in my view is that according to it1 homo-sexuality cannot be regarded as an atavism or as due to arrested embryonic development1 or incomplete differentiation of sex2 it cannot be regarded as an anomaly of rare occurrence interpolating itself in customary complete separation of the sexes4 ,homo-sexuality is merely the sexual condition of these intermediate sexual forms that stretch from one ideally sexual condition to the other sexual condition4 ,in my view all actual organisms have both homo-sexuality and hetero-sexuality4 ,that the rudiment of homo-sexuality1 in however weak a form1 exists in every human being1 corresponding to the greater or smaller development of the characters of the opposite sex1 is proved conclusively from the fact that in the adolescent stage1 while there is still a considerable amount of undifferentiated sexuality1 and before the internal secretions have exerted their stimulating force1 passionate attachments with a sensual side are the rule amongst boys as well as amongst girls4 ,a person who retains from that age onwards a marked tendency to 8friendship0 with a person of his own sex must have a strong taint of the other sex in him4 ,those1 however1 are still more obviously intermediate sexual forms1 who1 after association with both sexes1 fail to have aroused in them the normal passion for the opposite sex1 but still endeavour to maintain confidential1 devoted affection with those of their own sex4 ,there is no friendship between men that has not an element of sexuality in it1 however little accentuated it may be in the nature of the friendship1 and however painful the idea of the sexual element would be4 ,but it is enough to remember that there can be no friendship unless there has been some attraction to draw the men together4 ,much of the affection1 protection1 and nepotism between men is due to the presence of unsuspected sexual compatibility4 ,an analogy with the sexual friendship of youth may be traced in the case of old men1 when1 for instance1 with the involution following old age1 the latent amphisexuality of man appears4 ,this may be the reason why so many men of fifty years and upwards are guilty of indecency4 ,homo-sexuality has been observed amongst animals to a considerable extent4 ,f4 ,karsch has made a wide1 if not complete1 compilation from other authors4 ,unfortunately1 practically no observations were made as to the grades of maleness or femaleness to be observed in such cases4 ,but we may be reasonably certain that the law holds good in the animal world4 ,if bulls are kept apart from cows for a considerable time1 homo-sexual acts occur amongst them2 the most female are the first to become corrupted1 the others later1 some perhaps never4 7,it is amongst cattle that the greatest number of sexually intermediate forms have been recorded47 ,this shows that the tendency was latent in them1 but that at other times the sexual demand was satisfied in normal fashion4 ,cattle in captivity behave precisely as prisoners and convicts in these matters4 ,animals exhibit not merely onanism 7which is known to them as to human beings71 but also homo-sexuality2 and this fact1 together with the fact that sexually intermediate forms are known to occur amongst them1 ,i regard as strong evidence for my law of sexual attraction4 ,inverted sexual attraction1 then1 is no exception to my law of sexual attraction1 but is merely a special case of it4 ,an individual who is half-man1 half-woman1 requires as sexual complement a being similarly equipped with a share of both sexes in order to fulfil the requirements of the law4 ,this explains the fact that sexual inverts usually associate only with persons of similar character1 and rarely admit to intimacy those who are normal4 ,the sexual attraction is mutual1 and this explains why sexual inverts so readily recognise each other4 ,this being so1 the normal element in human society has very little idea of the extent to which homo-sexuality is practised1 and when a case becomes public property1 every normal young profligate thinks that he has a right to condemn such 8atrocities40 ,so recently as the year #aijj a professor of psychiatry in a ,german university urged that those who practised homo-sexuality should be castrated4 ,the therapeutical remedies which have been used to combat homo-sexuality1 in cases where such treatment has been attempted1 are certainly less radical than the advice of the professor2 but they serve to show only how little the nature of homo-sexuality was understood4 ,the method used at present is hypnotism1 and this can rest only on the theory that homo-sexuality is an acquired character4 ,by suggesting the idea of the female form and of normal congress1 it is sought to accustom those under treatment to normal relations4 ,but the acknowledged results are very few4 ,the failure is to be expected from our standpoint4 ,the hypnotiser suggests to the subject the image of a 8typical0 woman1 ignorant of the innate differences in the subject and unaware that such a type is naturally repulsive to him4 ,and as the normal typical woman is not his complement1 it is fruitless of the doctor to advise the services of any casual ,venus1 however attractive1 to complete the cure of a man who has long shunned normal intercourse4 ,if our formula were used to discover the complement of the male invert1 it would point to the most man-like woman1 the ,lesbian or ,sapphist type4 ,probably such is the only type of woman who would attract the sexual invert or please him4 ,if a cure for sexual inversion must be sought because it cannot be left to its own extinction1 then this theory offers the following solution4 ,sexual inverts must be brought to sexual inverts1 from homo-sexualists to ,sapphists1 each in their grades4 ,knowledge of such a solution should lead to repeal of the ridiculous laws of ,england1 ,germany and ,austria directed against homo-sexuality1 so far at least as to make the punishments the lightest possible4 ,in the second part of this book it will be made clear why both the active and the passive parts in male homo-sexuality appear disgraceful1 although the desire is greater than in the case of the normal relation of a man and woman4 ,in the abstract there is no ethical difference between the two4 ,in spite of all the present-day clamour about the existence of different rights for different individualities1 there is only one law that governs mankind1 just as there is only one logic and not several logics4 ,it is in opposition to that law1 as well as to the theory of punishment according to which the legal offence1 not the moral offence1 is punished1 that we forbid the homo-sexualist to carry on his practices whilst we allow the hetero-sexualist full play1 so long as both avoid open scandal4 ,speaking from the standpoint of a purer state of humanity and of a criminal law untainted by the pedagogic idea of punishment as a deterrent1 the only logical and rational method of treatment for sexual inverts would be to allow them to seek and obtain what they require where they can1 that is to say1 amongst other inverts4 ,my theory appears to me quite incontrovertible and conclusive1 and to afford a complete explanation of the entire set of phenomena4 ,the exposition1 however1 must now face a set of facts which appear quite opposed to it1 and which seem absolutely to contradict my reference of sexual inversion to the existence of sexually intermediate types1 and my explanation of the law governing the attraction of these types for each other4 ,it is probably the case that my explanation is sufficient for all female sexual inverts1 but it is certainly true that there are men with very little taint of femaleness about them who yet exert a very strong influence on members of their own sex1 a stronger influence than that of other men who may have more femaleness--an influence which can be exerted even on very male men1 and an influence which1 finally1 often appears to be much greater than the influence any woman can exert on these men4 ,albert ,moll is justified in saying as follows3 8,there exist psycho-sexual hermaphrodites who are attracted by members of both sexes1 but who in the case of each sex appear to care only for the characters peculiar to that sex2 and1 on the other hand1 there are also psycho-sexual 787 hermaphrodites who1 in the case of each sex1 are attracted1 not by the characteristics peculiar to that sex1 but by those which are either sexually indifferent or even antagonistic to the sex in question40 ,upon this distinction depends the difference between the two sets of phenomena indicated in the title of this chapter--,homo-sexuality and ,pederasty4 ,the distinction may be expressed as follows3 ,the homo-sexualist is that type of sexual invert who prefers very female men or very male women1 in accordance with the general law of sexual attraction4 ,the pederast1 on the other hand1 may be attracted either by very male men or by very female women1 but in the latter case only in so far as he is not pederastic4 ,moreover1 his inclination for the male sex is stronger than for the female sex1 and is more deeply seated in his nature4 ,the origin of pederasty is a problem in itself and remains unsolved by this investigation4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,character ,,and ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,form ,in view of the admitted close correspondence between matter and mind1 we may expect to find that the conception of sexually intermediate forms1 if applied to mental facts1 will yield a rich crop of results4 ,the existence of a female mental type and a male mental type can readily be imagined 7and the quest of these types has been made by many investigators71 but such perfect types never occur as actual individuals1 simply because in the mind1 as in the body1 all sorts of sexually intermediate conditions exist4 ,my conception will also be of great service in helping us to discriminate between the different mental qualities1 and to throw some light into what has always been a dark corner for psychologists--the differences between different individuals4 ,a great step will be made if we are able to supply graded categories for the mental diathesis of individuals2 if it shall cease to be scientific to say that the character of an individual is merely male or female2 but if we can make a measured judgment and say that such and such an one is so many parts male and so many parts female4 ,which element in any particular individual has done1 said1 or thought this or the other8 ,by making the answer to such a question possible1 we shall have done much towards the definite description of the individual1 and the new method will determine the direction of future investigation4 ,the knowledge of the past1 which set out from conceptions which were really confused averages1 has been equally far from reaching the broadest truths as from searching out the most intimate detailed knowledge4 ,this failure of past methods gives us hope that the principle of sexually intermediate forms may serve as the foundation of a scientific study of character and justifies the attempt to make of it an illuminating principle for the psychology of individual differences4 ,its application to the science of character1 which1 so far1 has been in the hands of merely literary authors1 and is from the scientific point of view an untouched field1 is to be greeted more warmly as it is capable of being used quantitatively1 so that we venture to estimate the percentage of maleness and femaleness which an individual possesses even in the mental qualities4 ,the answer to this question is not given even if we know the exact anatomical position of an organism on the scale stretching from male to female1 although as a matter of fact congruity between bodily and mental sexuality is more common than incongruity4 ,but we must remember what was stated in chap4 ii4 as to the uneven distribution of sexuality over the body4 ,the proportion of the male to the female principle in the same human being must not be assumed to be a constant quantity4 ,an important new conclusion must be taken into account1 a conclusion which is necessary to the right application of the principle which clears up in a striking fashion earlier psychological work4 ,the fact is that every human being varies or oscillates between the maleness and the femaleness of his constitution4 ,in some cases these oscillations are abnormally large1 in other cases so small as to escape observation1 but they are always present1 and when they are great they may even reveal themselves in the outward aspect of the body4 ,like the variations in the magnetism of the earth1 these sexual oscillations are either regular or irregular4 ,the regular forms are sometimes minute2 for instance1 many men feel more male at night4 ,the large and regular oscillations correspond to the great divisions of organic life to which attention is only now being directed1 and they may throw light upon many puzzling phenomena4 ,the irregular oscillations probably depend chiefly upon the environment1 as for instance on the sexuality of surrounding human beings4 ,they may help to explain some curious points in the psychology of a crowd which have not yet received sufficient attention4 ,in short1 bi-sexuality cannot be properly observed in a single moment1 but must be studied through successive periods of time4 ,this time-element in psychological differences of sexuality may be regularly periodic or not4 ,the swing towards one pole of sexuality may be greater than the following swing to the other side4 ,although theoretically possible1 it seems to be extremely rare for the swing to the male side to be exactly equal to the swing towards the female side4 ,it may be admitted in principle1 before proceeding to detailed investigation1 that the conception of sexually intermediate forms makes possible a more accurate description of individual characters in so far as it aids in determining the proportion of male and female in each individual1 and of measuring the oscillations to each side of which any individual is capable4 ,a point of method must be decided at once1 as upon it depends the course the investigation will pursue4 ,are we to begin by an empirical investigation of the almost innumerable intermediate conditions in mental sexuality1 or are we to set out with the abstract sexual types1 the ideal psychological man and woman1 and then investigate deductively how far such ideal pictures correspond with concrete cases8 ,the former method is that which the development of psychological knowledge has pursued2 ideals have been derived from facts1 sexual types constructed from observation of the manifold complexity of nature2 it would be inductive and analytic4 ,the latter mode1 deductive and synthetic1 is more in accordance with formal logic4 ,i have been unwilling to pursue the second method as fully as is possible1 because every one can apply for himself to concrete facts the two well-defined extreme types2 once it is understood that actual individuals are mixtures of the types1 it is simple to apply theory to practice1 and the actual pursuit of detailed cases would involve much repetition and bring little theoretical advantage4 ,the second method1 however1 is impracticable4 ,the collection of the long series of details from which the inductions would be made would simply weary the reader4 ,in the first or biological part of my work1 ,i give little attention to the extreme types1 but devote myself to the fullest investigation of the intermediate stages4 ,in the second part1 ,i shall endeavour to make as full a psychological analysis as possible of the characters of the male and female types1 and will touch only lightly on concrete instances4 ,i shall first mention1 without laying too much stress on them1 some of the more obvious mental characteristics of the intermediate conditions4 ,womanish men are usually extremely anxious to marry1 at least 7,i mention this to prevent misconception7 if a sufficiently brilliant opportunity offers itself4 ,when it is possible1 they nearly always marry whilst they are still quite young4 ,it is especially gratifying to them to get as wives famous women1 artists or poets1 or singers and actresses4 ,womanish men are physically lazier than other men in proportion to the degree of their womanishness4 ,there are 8men0 who go out walking with the sole object of displaying their faces like the faces of women1 hoping that they will be admired1 after which they return contentedly home4 ,the ancient 8,narcissus0 was a prototype of such persons4 ,these people are naturally fastidious about the dressing of their hair1 their apparel1 shoes1 and linen2 they are concerned as to their personal appearance at all times1 and about the minutest details of their toilet4 ,they are conscious of every glance thrown on them by other men1 and because of the female element in them1 they are coquettish in gait and demeanour4 ,viragoes1 on the other hand1 frequently are careless about their toilet1 and even about the personal care of their bodies2 they take less time in dressing than many womanish men4 ,the dandyism of men on the one hand1 and much of what is called the emancipation of women1 are due to the increase in the numbers of these epicene creatures1 and not merely to a passing fashion4 ,indeed1 if one inquires why anything becomes the fashion it will be found that there is a true cause for it4 ,the more femaleness a woman possesses the less will she understand a man1 and the sexual characters of a man will have the greater influence on her4 ,this is more than a mere application of the law of sexual attraction1 as ,i have already stated it4 ,so also the more manly a man is the less will he understand women1 but the more readily be influenced by them as women4 ,those men who claim to understand women are themselves very nearly women4 ,womanish men often know how to treat women much better than manly men4 ,manly men1 except in most rare cases1 learn how to deal with women only after long experience1 and even then most imperfectly4 ,although ,i have been touching here in a most superficial way on what are no more than tertiary sexual characters1 ,i wish to point out an application of my conclusions to pedagogy4 ,i am convinced that the more these views are understood the more certainly will they lead to an individual treatment in education4 ,at the present time shoemakers1 who make shoes to measure1 deal more rationally with individuals than our teachers and schoolmasters in their application of moral principles4 ,at present the sexually intermediate forms of individuals 7especially on the female side7 are treated exactly as if they were good examples of the ideal male or female types4 ,there is wanted an 8orthopdic0 treatment of the soul instead of the torture caused by the application of ready-made conventional shapes4 ,the present system stamps out much that is original1 uproots much that is truly natural1 and distorts much into artificial and unnatural forms4 ,from time immemorial there have been only two systems of education2 one for those who come into the world designated by one set of characters as males1 and another for those who are similarly assumed to be females4 ,almost at once the 8boys0 and the 8girls0 are dressed differently1 learn to play different games1 go through different courses of instruction1 the girls being put to stitching and so forth4 ,the intermediate individuals are placed at a great disadvantage4 ,and yet the instincts natural to their condition reveal themselves quickly enough1 often even before puberty4 ,there are boys who like to play with dolls1 who learn to knit and sew with their sisters1 and who are pleased to be given girls' names4 ,there are girls who delight in the noisier sports of their brothers1 and who make chums and playmates of them4 ,after puberty1 there is a still stronger display of the innate differences4 ,manlike women wear their hair short1 affect manly dress1 study1 drink1 smoke1 are fond of mountaineering1 or devote themselves passionately to sport4 ,womanish men grow their hair long1 wear corsets1 are experts in the toilet devices of women1 and show the greatest readiness to become friendly and intimate with them1 preferring their society to that of men4 ,later on1 the different laws and customs to which the so-called sexes are subjected press them as by a vice into distinctive moulds4 ,the proposals which should follow from my conclusions will encounter more passive resistance1 ,i fear1 in the case of girls than in that of boys4 ,i must here contradict1 in the most positive fashion1 a dogma that is authoritatively and widely maintained at the present time1 the idea that all women are alike1 that no individuals exist amongst women4 ,it is true that amongst those individuals whose constitutions lie nearer the female side than the male side1 the differences and possibilities are not so great as amongst those on the male side2 the greater variability of males is true not only for the human race but for the living world1 and is related to the principles established by ,darwin4 ,none the less1 there are plenty of differences amongst women4 ,the psychological origin of this common error depends chiefly on a fact that ,i explained in chap4 iii41 the fact that every man in his life becomes intimate only with a group of women defined by his own constitution1 and so naturally he finds them much alike4 ,for the same reason1 and in the same way1 one may often hear a woman say that all men are alike4 ,and the narrow uniform view about men1 displayed by most of the leaders of the women's rights movement depends on precisely the same cause4 ,it is clear that the principle of the existence of innumerable individual proportions of the male and female principles is a basis of the study of character which must be applied in any rational scheme of pedagogy4 ,the science of character must be associated with some form of psychology that takes into account some theory of the real existence of mental phenomena in the same fashion that anatomy is related to physiology4 ,and so it is necessary1 quite apart from theoretical reasons1 to attempt to pursue a psychology of individual differences4 ,this attempt will be readily enough followed by those who believe in the parallelism between mind and matter1 for they will see in psychology no more than the physiology of the central nervous system1 and will readily admit that the science of character must be a sister of morphology4 ,as a matter of fact there is great hope that in future characterology and morphology will each greatly help the other4 ,the principle of sexually intermediate forms1 and still more the parallelism between characterology and morphology in the widest application1 make us look forward to the time when physiognomy will take its honourable place amongst the sciences1 a place which so many have attempted to gain for it but as yet unsuccessfully4 ,the problem of physiognomy is the problem of the relation between the static mental forces and the static bodily forces1 just as the problem of physiological psychology deals with the dynamic aspect of the same relations4 ,it is a great error in method1 and in fact1 to treat the study of physiognomy1 because of its difficulty1 as impracticable4 ,and yet this is the attitude of contemporary scientific circles1 unconsciously perhaps rather than consciously1 but occasionally becoming obvious as for instance in the case of the attempt of von ,mbius to pursue the work of ,gall with regard to the physiognomy of those with a natural aptitude for mathematics4 ,if it be possible1 and many have shown that it is possible1 to judge correctly much of the character of an individual merely from the examination of his external appearance1 without the aid of cross-examination or guessing1 it cannot be impossible to reduce such modes of observation to an exact method4 ,there is little more required than an exact study of the expression of the characteristic emotions and the tracking 7to use a rough analogy7 of the routes of the cables passing to the speech centres4 ,none the less it will be long before official science ceases to regard the study of physiognomy as illegitimate4 ,although people will still believe in the parallelism of mind and body1 they will continue to treat the physiognomist as as much of a charlatan as until quite recently the hypnotist was thought to be4 ,none the less1 all mankind at least unconsciously1 and intelligent persons consciously1 will continue to be physiognomists1 people will continue to judge character from the nose1 although they will not admit the existence of a science of physiognomy1 and the portraits of celebrated men and of murderers will continue to interest every one4 ,i am inclined to believe that the assumption of a universally acquired correspondence between mind and body may be a hitherto neglected fundamental function of our mind4 ,it is certainly the case that every one believes in physiognomy and actually practises it4 ,the principle of the existence of a definite relation between mind and body must be accepted as an illuminating axiom for psychological research1 and it will be for religion and metaphysics to work out the details of a relationship which must be accepted as existing4 ,whether or no the science of character can be linked with morphology1 it will be valuable not only to these sciences but to physiognomy if we can penetrate a little deeper into the confusion that now reigns in order to find if wrong methods have not been responsible for it4 ,i hope that the attempt ,i am about to make will lead some little way into the labyrinth1 and will prove to be of general application4 ,some men are fond of dogs and detest cats2 others are devoted to cats and dislike dogs4 ,inquiring minds have delighted to ask in such cases1 ,why are cats attractive to one person1 dogs to another8 ,why8 ,i do not think that this is the most fruitful way of stating the problem4 ,i believe it to be more important to ask in what other respects lovers of dogs and of cats differ from one another4 ,the habit1 where one difference has been detected1 of seeking for the associated differences1 will prove extremely useful not only to pure morphology and to the science of character1 but ultimately to physiognomy1 the meeting-point of the two sciences4 ,aristotle pointed out long ago that many characteristics of animals do not vary independently of each other4 ,later on ,cuvier1 in particular1 but also ,geoffrey ,st4 ,hilaire and ,darwin made a special study of these 8correlations40 ,occasionally the association of the characters is easy to understand on obvious utilitarian principles2 where for instance the alimentary canal is adapted to the digestion of flesh1 the jaws and body must be adapted for the capture of the prey4 ,but association such as that between ruminant stomachs and the presence of cloven hoofs and of horns in the male1 or of immunity to certain poisons with particular colouring of the hair1 or among domestic pigeons of short bills with small feet1 of long bills with large feet1 or in cats of deafness with white fur and blue eyes--such are extremely difficult to refer to a single purpose4 ,i do not in the least mean to assert that science must be content with no more than the mere discovery of correlations4 ,such a position would be little better than that of a person who was satisfied by finding out that the placing of a penny in the slot of a particular automatic machine always was followed by the release of a box of matches4 ,it would be making resignation the leading principle of metaphysics4 ,we shall get a good deal further by such correlations1 as1 for instance1 that of long hair and normal ovaries2 but these are within the sphere of physiology1 not of morphology4 ,probably the goal of an ideal morphology could be reached best not by deductions from an attempted synthesis of observations on all the animals that creep on the land or swim in the sea 7in the fashion of collectors of postage stamps71 but by a complete study of a few organisms4 ,cuvier by a kind of guess-work used to reconstruct an entire animal from a single bone3 full knowledge would enable us to do this in a complete1 definite1 qualitative and quantitative fashion4 ,when such a knowledge has been attained1 each single character will at once define and limit for us the possibilities of the other characters4 ,such a true and logical extension of the principle of correlation in morphology is really an application of the theory of functions to the living world4 ,it would not exclude the study of causation1 but limit it to its proper sphere4 ,no doubt the 8causes0 of the correlations of organisms must be sought for in the idioplasm4 ,the possibility of applying the principle of correlated variation to psychology depends on differential psychology1 the study of psychological variation4 ,i believe1 moreover1 that a combination of study of the anatomical 8habit10 and the mental characteristics will lead to a statical psycho-physics1 a true science of physiognomy4 ,the rule of investigation in all the three sciences will have to be that the question is posed as follows2 given that two organisms are known to differ in one respect1 in what other respects are they different8 ,this will be the golden rule of discovery1 and1 following it1 we shall no longer lose ourselves hopelessly in the dark maze that surrounds the answer to the question 8,why80 ,as soon as we are informed as to one difference1 we must diligently seek out the others1 and the mere putting of the question in this form will directly bring about many discoveries4 ,the conscious pursuit of this rule of investigation will be particularly valuable in dealing with problems of the mind4 ,mental actions are not co-existent in the sense of physical characters1 and it has been only by accidental and fortunate chances1 when the phenomena have presented themselves in rapid succession in an individual1 that discoveries of correlation in mental phenomena have been noticed4 ,the correlated mental phenomena may be very different in kind1 and it is only when we know what we are after and deliberately seek for them that we shall be able to transcend the special difficulties of the kind of material we are investigating1 and so secure for psychology what is comparatively simple in anatomy4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,emancipated ,,women ,as an immediate application of the attempt to establish the principle of intermediate sexual forms by means of a differential psychology1 we must now come to the question which it is the special object of this book to answer1 theoretically and practically1 ,i mean the woman question1 theoretically so far as it is not a matter of ethnology and national economics1 and practically in so far as it is not merely a matter of law and domestic economy1 that is to say1 of social science in the widest sense4 ,the answer which this chapter is about to give must not be considered as final or as exhaustive4 ,it is rather a necessary preliminary investigation1 and does not go beyond deductions from the principles that ,i have established4 ,it will deal with the exploration of individual cases and will not attempt to found on these any laws of general significance4 ,the practical indications that it will give are not moral maxims that could or would guide the future2 they are no more than technical rules abstracted from past cases4 ,the idea of male and female types will not be discussed here2 that is reserved for the second part of my book4 ,this preliminary investigation will deal with only those charactero-logical conclusions from the principle of sexually intermediate forms that are of significance in the woman question4 ,the general direction of the investigation is easy to understand from what has already been stated4 ,a woman's demand for emancipation and her qualification for it are in direct proportion to the amount of maleness in her4 ,the idea of emancipation1 however1 is many-sided1 and its indefiniteness is increased by its association with many practical customs which have nothing to do with the theory of emancipation4 ,by the term emancipation of a woman ,i imply neither her mastery at home nor her subjection of her husband4 ,i have not in mind the courage which enables her to go freely by night or by day unaccompanied in public places1 or the disregard of social rules which prohibit bachelor women from receiving visits from men1 or discussing or listening to discussions of sexual matters4 ,i exclude from my view the desire for economic independence1 the becoming fit for positions in technical schools1 universities and conservatoires or teachers' institutes4 ,and there may be many other similar movements associated with the word emancipation which ,i do not intend to deal with4 ,emancipation1 as ,i mean to discuss it1 is not the wish for an outward equality with man1 but what is of real importance in the woman question1 the deep-seated craving to acquire man's character1 to attain his mental and moral freedom1 to reach his real interests and his creative power4 ,i maintain that the real female element has neither the desire nor the capacity for emancipation in this sense4 ,all those who are striving for this real emancipation1 all women who are truly famous and are of conspicuous mental ability1 to the first glance of an expert reveal some of the anatomical characters of the male1 some external bodily resemblance to a man4 ,those so-called 8women0 who have been held up to admiration in the past and present1 by the advocates of woman's rights1 as examples of what women can do1 have almost invariably been what ,i have described as sexually intermediate forms4 ,the very first of the historical examples1 ,sappho herself1 has been handed down to us as an example of the sexual invert1 and from her name has been derived the accepted terms for perverted sexual relations between women4 ,the contents of the second and third chapter thus at once become important with regard to the woman question4 ,the characterological material at our disposal with regard to celebrated and emancipated women is too vague to serve as the foundation of any satisfactory theory4 ,what is wanted is some principle which would enable us to determine at what point between male and female such individuals were placed4 ,my law of sexual affinity is such a principle4 ,its application to the facts of homo-sexuality showed that the woman who attracts and is attracted by other women is herself half male4 ,interpreting the historical evidence at our disposal in the light of this principle1 we find that the degree of emancipation and the proportion of maleness in the composition of a woman are practically identical4 ,sappho was only the forerunner of a long line of famous women who were either homo-sexually or bisexually inclined4 ,classical scholars have defended ,sappho warmly against the implication that there was anything more than mere friendship in her relations with her own sex1 as if the accusation were necessarily degrading4 ,in the second part of my book1 however1 ,i shall show reasons in favour of the possibility that homo-sexuality is a higher form than hetero-sexuality4 ,for the present1 it is enough to say that homo-sexuality in a woman is the outcome of her masculinity and presupposes a higher degree of development4 ,catherine ,,ii4 of ,russia1 and ,queen ,christina of ,sweden1 the highly gifted although deaf1 dumb and blind1 ,laura ,bridgman1 ,george ,sand1 and a very large number of highly gifted women and girls concerning whom ,i myself have been able to collect information1 were partly bisexual1 partly homo-sexual4 ,i shall now turn to other indications in the case of the large number of emancipated women regarding whom there is no evidence as to homo-sexuality1 and ,i shall show that my attribution of maleness is no caprice1 no egotistical wish of a man to associate all the higher manifestations of intelligence with the male sex4 ,just as homo-sexual or bisexual women reveal their maleness by their preference either for women or for womanish men1 so hetero-sexual women display maleness in their choice of a male partner who is not preponderatingly male4 ,the most famous of ,george ,sand's many affairs were those with de ,musset1 the most effeminate and sentimental poet1 and with ,chopin1 who might be described almost as the only female musician1 so effeminate are his compositions4#e ,vittoria ,colonna is less known because of her own poetic compositions than because of the infatuation for her shown by ,michael ,angelo1 whose earlier friendships had been with youths4 ,the authoress1 ,daniel ,stern1 was the mistress of ,franz ,liszt1 whose life and compositions were extremely effeminate1 and who had a dubious friendship with ,wagner1 the interpretation of which was made plain by his later devotion to ,king ,ludwig ,,ii4 of ,bavaria4 ,madame de ,staal1 whose work on ,germany is probably the greatest book ever produced by a woman1 is supposed to have been intimate with ,august ,wilhelm ,schlegel1 who was a homo-sexualist1 and who had been tutor to her children4 ,at certain periods of his life1 the face of the husband of ,clara ,schumann might have been taken as that of a woman1 and a good deal of his music1 although certainly not all1 was effeminate4 #e ,chopin's portraits show his effeminacy plainly4 ,merime describes ,george ,sand as being as thin as a nail4 ,at the first meeting of the two1 the lady behaved like a man1 and the man like a girl4 ,he blushed when she looked at him and began to pay him compliments in her bass voice4 ,when there is no evidence as to the sexual relations of famous women1 we can still obtain important conclusions from the details of their personal appearance4 ,such data support my general proposition4 ,george ,eliot had a broad1 massive forehead2 her movements1 like her expression1 were quick and decided1 and lacked all womanly grace4 ,the face of ,lavinia ,fontana was intellectual and decided1 very rarely charming2 whilst that of ,rachel ,ruysch was almost wholly masculine4 ,the biography of that original poetess1 ,annette von ,droste-,hlshoff1 speaks of her wiry1 unwomanly frame1 and of her face as being masculine1 and recalling that of ,dante4 ,the authoress and mathematician1 ,sonia ,kowalevska1 like ,sappho1 had an abnormally scanty growth of hair1 still less than is the fashion amongst the poetesses and female students of the present day4 ,it would be a serious omission to forget ,rosa ,bonheur1 the very distinguished painter2 and it would be difficult to point to a single female trait in her appearance or character4 ,the notorious ,madame ,blavatsky is extremely masculine in her appearance4 ,i might refer to many other emancipated women at present well known to the public1 consideration of whom has provided me with much material for the support of my proposition that the true female element1 the abstract 8woman10 has nothing to do with emancipation4 ,there is some historical justification for the saying 8the longer the hair the smaller the brain10 but the reservations made in chap4 ii4 must be taken into account4 ,it is only the male element in emancipated women that craves for emancipation4 ,there is1 then1 a stronger reason than has generally been supposed for the familiar assumption of male pseudonyms by women writers4 ,their choice is a mode of giving expression to the inherent maleness they feel2 and this is still more marked in the case of those who1 like ,george ,sand1 have a preference for male attire and masculine pursuits4 ,the motive for choosing a man's name springs from the feeling that it corresponds with their own character much more than from any desire for increased notice from the public4 ,as a matter of fact1 up to the present1 partly owing to interest in the sex question1 women's writings have aroused more interest1 ceteris paribus1 than those of men2 and1 owing to the issues involved1 have always received a fuller consideration and1 if there were any justification1 a greater meed of praise than has been accorded to a man's work of equal merit4 ,at the present time especially many women have attained celebrity by work which1 if it had been produced by a man1 would have passed almost unnoticed4 ,let us pause and examine this more closely4 ,if we attempt to apply a standard taken from the names of men who are of acknowledged value in philosophy1 science1 literature and art1 to the long list of women who have achieved some kind of fame1 there will at once be a miserable collapse4 ,judged in this way1 it is difficult to grant any real degree of merit to women like ,angelica ,kaufmann or ,madame ,lebrun1 ,fernan ,caballero or ,hroswitha von ,gandersheim1 ,mary ,somerville or ,george ,egerton1 ,elizabeth ,barrett ,browning or ,sophie ,germain1 ,anna ,maria ,schurmann or ,sybilla ,merian4 ,i will not speak of names 7such as that of ,droste-,hlshoff7 formerly so over-rated in the annals of feminism1 nor will ,i refer to the measure of fame claimed for or by living women4 ,it is enough to make the general statement that there is not a single woman in the history of thought1 not even the most manlike1 who can be truthfully compared with men of fifth or sixth-rate genius1 for instance with ,rckert as a poet1 ,van ,dyck as a painter1 or ,scheirmacher as a philosopher4 ,if we eliminate hysterical visionaries1#f such as the ,sybils1 the ,priestesses of ,delphi1 ,bourignon1 ,kettenberg1 ,jeanne de la ,mothe ,guyon1 ,joanna ,southcote1 ,beate ,sturmin1 ,st4 ,teresa1 there still remain cases like that of ,marie ,bashkirtseff4 ,so far as ,i can remember from her portrait1 she at least seemed to be quite womanly in face and figure1 although her forehead was rather masculine4 ,but to any one who studies her pictures in the ,salle des ,etrangers in the ,luxemburg ,gallery in ,paris1 and compares them with those of her adored master1 ,bastien ,lepage1 it is plain that she simply had assimilated the style of the latter1 as in ,goethe's 8,elective ,affinities0 ,ottilie acquired the handwriting of ,eduard4 #f ,hysteria is the principal cause of much of the intellectual activity of many of the women above mentioned4 ,but the usual view1 that these cases are pathological1 is too limited an interpretation1 as ,i shall show in the second part of this work4 ,there remain the interesting and not infrequent cases where the talent of a clever family seems to reach its maximum in a female member of the family4 ,but it is only talent that is transmitted in this way1 not genius4 ,margarethe van ,eyck and ,sabina von ,steinbach form the best illustrations of the kind of artists who1 according to ,ernst ,guhl1 an author with a great admiration for women-workers1 8have been undoubtedly influenced in their choice of an artistic calling by their fathers1 mothers1 or brothers4 ,in other words1 they found their incentive in their own families4 ,there are two or three hundred of such cases on record1 and probably many hundreds more could be added without exhausting the numbers of similar instances40 ,in order to give due weight to these statistics it may be mentioned that ,guhl had just been speaking of 8roughly1 a thousand names of women artists known to us40 ,this concludes my historical review of the emancipated women4 ,it has justified the assertion that real desire for emancipation and real fitness for it are the outcome of a woman's maleness4 ,the vast majority of women have never paid special attention to art or to science1 and regard such occupations merely as higher branches of manual labour1 or if they profess a certain devotion to such subjects1 it is chiefly as a mode of attracting a particular person or group of persons of the opposite sex4 ,apart from these1 a close investigation shows that women really interested in intellectual matters are sexually intermediate forms4 ,if it be the case that the desire for freedom and equality with man occurs only in masculine women1 the inductive conclusion follows that the female principle is not conscious of a necessity for emancipation2 and the argument becomes stronger if we remember that it is based on an examination of the accounts of individual cases and not on psychical investigation of an 8abstract woman40 ,if we now look at the question of emancipation from the point of view of hygiene 7not morality7 there is no doubt as to the harm in it4 ,the undesirability of emancipation lies in the excitement and agitation involved4 ,it induces women who have no real original capacity but undoubted imitative powers to attempt to study or write1 from various motives1 such as vanity or the desire to attract admirers4 ,whilst it cannot be denied that there are a good many women with a real craving for emancipation and for higher education1 these set the fashion and are followed by a host of others who get up a ridiculous agitation to convince themselves of the reality of their views4 ,and many otherwise estimable and worthy wives use the cry to assert themselves against their husbands1 whilst daughters take it as a method of rebelling against maternal authority4 ,the practical outcome of the whole matter would be as follows2 it being remembered that the issues are too mutable for the establishment of uniform rules or laws4 ,let there be the freest scope given to1 and the fewest hindrances put in the way of all women with masculine dispositions who feel a psychical necessity to devote themselves to masculine occupations and are physically fit to undertake them4 ,but the idea of making an emancipation party1 of aiming at a social revolution1 must be abandoned4 ,away with the whole 8woman's movement10 with its unnaturalness and artificiality and its fundamental errors4 ,it is most important to have done with the senseless cry for 8full equality10 for even the malest woman is scarcely more than #ej per cent4 male1 and it is only to that male part of her that she owes her special capacity or whatever importance she may eventually gain4 ,it is absurd to make comparisons between the few really intellectual women and one's average experience of men1 and to deduce1 as has been done1 even the superiority of the female sex4 ,as ,darwin pointed out1 the proper comparison is between the most highly developed individuals of two stocks4 8,if two lists10 ,darwin wrote in the 8,descent of ,man10 8were made of the most eminent men and women in poetry1 painting1 sculpture1 music--comprising composition and performance1 history1 science1 and philosophy1 with half a dozen names under each subject1 the two lists would not bear comparison40 ,moreover1 if these lists were carefully examined it would be seen that the women's list would prove the soundness of my theory of the maleness of their genius1 and the comparison would be still less pleasing to the champions of woman's rights4 ,it is frequently urged that it is necessary to create a public feeling in favour of the full and unchecked mental development of women4 ,such an argument overlooks the fact that 8emancipation10 the 8woman question10 8women's rights movements10 are no new things in history1 but have always been with us1 although with varying prominence at different times in history4 ,it also largely exaggerates the difficulties men place in the way of the mental development of women1 especially at the present time4#g ,furthermore it neglects the fact that at the present time it is not the true woman who clamours for emancipation1 but only the masculine type of woman1 who misconstrues her own character and the motives that actuate her when she formulates her demands in the name of woman4 #g ,there have been many celebrities amongst men who received practically no education--for instance1 ,robert ,burns and ,wolfram von ,eschenbach2 but there are no similar cases amongst women to compare with them4 ,as has been the case with every other movement in history1 so also it has been with the contemporary woman's movement4 ,its originators were convinced that it was being put forward for the first time1 and that such a thing had never been thought of before4 ,they maintained that women had hitherto been held in bondage and enveloped in darkness by man1 and that it was high time for her to assert herself and claim her natural rights4 ,but the prototype of this movement1 as of other movements1 occurred in the earliest times4 ,ancient history and medival times alike give us instances of women who1 in social relations and intellectual matters1 fought for such emancipation1 and of male and female apologists of the female sex4 ,it is totally erroneous to suggest that hitherto women have had no opportunity for the undisturbed development of their mental powers4 ,jacob ,burckhardt1 speaking of the ,renaissance1 says3 8,the greatest possible praise which could be given to the ,italian women-celebrities of the time was to say that they were like men in brains and disposition60 ,the virile deeds of women recorded in the epics1 especially those of ,boiardo and ,ariosto1 show the ideal of the time4 ,to call a woman a 8virago0 nowadays would be a doubtful compliment1 but it originally meant an honour4 ,women were first allowed on the stage in the sixteenth century1 and actresses date from that time4 8,at that period it was admitted that women were just as capable as men of embodying the highest possible artistic ideals40 ,it was the period when panegyrics on the female sex were rife2 ,sir ,thomas ,more claimed for it full equality with the male sex1 and ,agrippa von ,nettesheim goes so far as to represent women as superior to men6 ,and yet this was all lost for the fair sex1 and the whole question sank into the oblivion from which the nineteenth century recalled it4 ,is it not very remarkable that the agitation for the emancipation of women seems to repeat itself at certain intervals in the world's history1 and lasts for a definite period8 ,it has been noticed that in the tenth1 fifteenth1 and sixteenth1 and now again in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries1 the agitation for the emancipation of women has been more marked1 and the woman's movement more vigorous than in the intervening periods4 ,it would be premature to found a hypothesis on the data at our disposal1 but the possibility of a vastly important periodicity must be borne in mind1 of regularly recurring periods in which it may be that there is an excess of production of hermaphrodite and sexually intermediate forms4 ,such a state of affairs is not unknown in the animal kingdom4 ,according to my interpretation1 such a period would be one of minimum 8gonochorism10 cleavage of the sexes2 and it would be marked1 on the one hand1 by an increased production of male women1 and on the other1 by a similar increase in female men4 ,there is strong evidence in favour of such a periodicity2 if it occurs it may be associated with the 8secessionist taste10 which idealised tall1 lanky women with flat chests and narrow hips4 ,the enormous recent increase in a kind of dandified homo-sexuality may be due to the increasing effeminacy of the age1 and the peculiarities of the ,pre-,raphaelite movement may have a similar explanation4 ,the existence of such periods in organic life1 comparable with stages in individual life1 but extending over several generations1 would1 if proved1 throw much light on many obscure points in human history1 concerning which the so-called 8historical solutions10 and especially the economic-materialistic views now in vogue have proved so futile4 ,the history of the world from the biological standpoint has still to be written2 it lies in the future4 ,here ,i can do little more than indicate the direction which future work should take4 ,were it proved that at certain periods fewer hermaphrodite beings were produced1 and at certain other periods more1 it would appear that the rising and falling1 the periodic occurrence and disappearance of the woman movement in an unfailing rhythm of ebb and flow1 was one of the expressions of the preponderance of masculine and feminine women with the concomitant greater or lesser desire for emancipation4 ,obviously ,i do not take into account in relation to the woman question the large number of womanly women1 the wives of the prolific artisan class whom economic pressure forces to factory or field labour4 ,the connection between industrial progress and the woman question is much less close than is usually realised1 especially by the ,social ,democratic ,group4 ,the relation between the mental energy required for intellectual and for industrial pursuits is even less4 ,france1 for instance1 although it can boast three of the most famous women1 has never had a successful woman's movement1 and yet in no other ,european country are there so many really businesslike1 capable women4 ,the struggle for the material necessities of life has nothing to do with the struggle for intellectual development1 and a sharp distinction must be made between the two4 ,the prospects of the movement for intellectual advance on the part of women are not very promising2 but still less promising is another view1 sometimes discussed in the same connection1 the view that the human race is moving towards a complete sexual differentiation1 a definite sexual dimorphism4 ,the latter view seems to me fundamentally untenable1 because in the higher groups of the animal kingdom there is no evidence for the increase of sexual dimorphism4 ,worms and rotifers1 many birds and the mandrills amongst the apes1 have more advanced sexual dimorphism than man4 ,on the view that such an increased sexual dimorphism were to be expected1 the necessity for emancipation would gradually disappear as mankind became separated into the completely male and the completely female4 ,on the other hand1 the view that there will be periodical resurrections of the woman's movement would reduce the whole affair to ridiculous impotence1 making it only an ephemeral phase in the history of mankind4 ,a complete obliteration will be the fate of any emancipation movement which attempts to place the whole sex in a new relation to society1 and to see in man its perpetual oppressor4 ,a corps of ,amazons might be formed1 but as time went on the material for the corps would cease to occur4 ,the history of the woman movement during the ,renaissance and its complete disappearance contains a lesson for the advocates of women's rights4 ,real intellectual freedom cannot be attained by an agitated mass2 it must be fought for by the individual4 ,who is the enemy8 ,what are the retarding influences8 ,the greatest1 the one enemy of the emancipation of women is woman herself4 ,it is left to the second part of my work to prove this4 ,,second ,,or ,,principal ,,part ,,the ,,sexual ,,types ,,chapter ,i ,,man ,,and ,,woman 8,all that a man does is physiognomical of him40 ,,carlyle4 ,a free field for the investigation of the actual contrasts between the sexes is gained when we recognise that male and female1 man and woman1 must be considered only as types1 and that the existing individuals1 upon whose qualities there has been so much controversy1 are mixtures of the types in different proportions4 ,sexually intermediate forms1 which are the only actually existing individuals1 were dealt with in a more or less schematic fashion in the first part of this book4 ,consideration of the general biological application of my theory was entered upon there2 but now ,i have to make mankind the special subject of my investigation1 and to show the defects of the results gained by the method of introspective analysis1 as these results must be qualified by the universal existence of sexually intermediate conditions4 ,in plants and animals the presence of hermaphroditism is an undisputed fact2 but in them it appears more to be the juxtaposition of the male and female genital glands in the same individual than an actual fusion of the two sexes1 more the co-existence of the two extremes than a quite neutral condition4 ,in the case of human beings1 however1 it appears to be psychologically true that an individual1 at least at one and the same moment1 is always either man or woman4 ,this is in harmony with the fact that each individual1 whether superficially regarded as male or female1 at once can recognise his sexual complement in another individual 8woman0 or 8man40#h ,this uni-sexuality is demonstrated by the fact1 the theoretical value of which can hardly be over-estimated1 that1 in the relations of two homo-sexual men one always plays the physical and psychical roll of the man1 and in cases of prolonged intercourse retains his male first-name1 or takes one1 whilst the other1 who plays the part of the woman1 either assumes a woman's name or calls himself by it1 or--and this is sufficiently characteristic--receives it from the former4 #h ,i once heard a bi-sexual man exclaim1 when he saw a bi-sexual actress with a slight tendency to a beard1 a deep sonorous voice1 and very little hair on her head1 8,there is a fine woman40 8,woman0 means something different for every man or for every poet1 and yet it is always the same1 the sexual complement of their own constitution4 ,in the same way1 in the sexual relations of two women1 one always plays the male and the other the female part1 a fact of deepest significance4 ,here we encounter1 in a most unexpected fashion1 the fundamental relationship between the male and female elements4 ,in spite of all sexually intermediate conditions1 human beings are always one of two things1 either male or female4 ,there is a deep truth underlying the old empirical sexual duality1 and this must not be neglected1 even although in concrete cases there is not a necessary harmony in the anatomical and morphological conditions4 ,to realise this is to make a great step forward and to advance towards most important results4 ,in this way we reach a conception of a real 8being40 ,the task of the rest of this book is to set forth the significance of this 8existence40 ,as1 however1 this existence is bound up with the most difficult side of characterology1 it will be well1 before setting out on our adventurous task1 to attempt some preliminary orientation4 ,the obstacles in the way of characterological investigation are very great1 if only on account of the complexity of the material4 ,often and often it happens that when the path through the jungle appears to have been cleared1 it is lost again in impenetrable thickets1 and it seems impossible to recover it4 ,but the greatest difficulty is that when the systematic method of setting out the complex material has been proceeded with and seems about to lead to good results1 then at once objections of the most serious kind arise and almost forbid the attempt to make types4 ,with regard to the differences between the sexes1 for instance1 the most useful theory that has been put forward is the existence of a kind of polarity1 two extremes separated by a multitude of intermediate conditions4 ,the characterological differences appear to follow this rule in a fashion not dissimilar to the suggestion of the ,pythagorean1 ,alcmon of ,kroton1 and recalling the recent chemical resurrection of ,schelling's 8,natur-philosophie40 ,but even if we are able to determine the exact point occupied by an individual on the line between two extremes1 and multiply this determination by discovering it for a great many characters1 would this complex system of co-ordinate lines really give us a conception of the individual8 ,would it not be a relapse to the dogmatic scepticism of ,mach and ,hume1 were we to expect that an analysis could be a full description of the human individual8 ,and in a fashion it would be a sort of ,weismannistic doctrine of particulate determinants1 a mosaic psychology4 ,this brings us in a new way directly against the old1 over-ripe problem4 ,is there in a man a single and simple existence1 and1 if so1 in what relation does that stand to the complex psychical phenomena8 ,has man1 indeed1 a soul8 ,it is easy to understand why there has never been a science of character4 ,the object of such a science1 the character itself1 is problematical4 ,the problem of all metaphysics and theories of knowledge1 the fundamental problem of psychology1 is also the problem of characterology4 ,at the least1 characterology will have to take into account the theory of knowledge itself with regard to its postulates1 claims1 and objects1 and will have to attempt to obtain information as to all the differences in the nature of men4 ,this unlimited science of character will be something more than the 8psychology of individual differences10 the renewed insistence upon which as a goal of science we owe to ,l4 ,william ,stern2 it will be more than a sort of polity of the motor and sensory reactions of the individual1 and in so far will not sink so low as the usual 8results0 of the modern experimental psychologists1 which1 indeed1 are little more than statistics of physical experiments4 ,it will hope to retain some kind of contact with the actualities of the soul which the modern school of psychology seems to have forgotten1 and will not have to fear that it will have to offer to ardent students of psychology no more than profound studies of words of one syllable1 or of the results on the mind of small doses of caffein4 ,it is a lamentable testimony to the insufficiency of modern psychology that distinguished men of science1 who have not been content with the study of perception and association1 have yet had to hand over to poetry the explanation of such fundamental facts as heroism and self-sacrifice4 ,no science will become shallow so quickly as psychology if it deserts philosophy4 ,its separation from philosophy is the true cause of its impotency4 ,psychology will have to discover that the doctrine of sensations is practically useless to it4 ,the empirical psychologists of to-day1 in their search for the development of character1 begin with investigation of touch and the common sensations4 ,but the analysis of sensations is simply a part of the physiology of sense1 and any attempt to bring it into relation with the real problems of psychology must fail4 ,it is a misfortune of the scientific psychology of the day that it has been influenced so deeply by two physicists1 ,fechner and von ,helmholtz1 with the result that it has failed to recognise that only the external and not the internal world can be reconstructed from sensations4 ,the two most intelligent of the empirical psychologists of recent times1 ,william ,james and ,r4 ,avenarius1 have felt almost instinctively that psychology cannot really rest upon sensations of the skin and muscles1 although1 indeed1 all modern psychology does depend upon study of sensations4 ,dilthey did not lay enough stress on his argument that existing psychology does nothing towards problems that are eminently psychological1 such as murder1 friendship1 loneliness1 and so forth4 ,if anything is to be gained in the future there must be a demand for a really psychological psychology1 and its first battle-cry must be3 8,away with the study of sensations40 ,in attempting the broad and deep characterology that ,i have indicated1 ,i must set out with a conception of character itself as a unit existence4 ,as in the fifth chapter of ,part ,i41 ,i tried to show that behind the fleeting physiological changes there is a permanent morphological form1 so in characterology we must seek the permanent1 existing something through the fleeting changes4 ,the character1 however1 is not something seated behind the thoughts and feelings of the individual1 but something revealing itself in every thought and feeling4 8,all that a man does is physiognomical of him40 ,just as every cell bears within it the characters of the whole individual1 so every psychical manifestation of a man involves not merely a few little characteristic traits1 but his whole being1 of which at one moment one quality1 at another moment another quality1 comes into prominence4 ,just as no sensation is ever isolated1 but is set in a complete field of sensation1 the world of the ,ego1 of which now one part and now the other1 stands out more plainly1 so the whole man is manifest in every moment of the psychical life1 although1 now one side1 now the other1 is more visible4 ,this existence1 manifest in every moment of the psychical life1 is the object of characterology4 ,by accepting this1 there will be completed for the first time a real psychology1 existing psychology1 in manifest contradiction of the meaning of the word1 having concerned itself almost entirely with the motley world1 the changing field of sensations1 and overlooked the ruling force of the ,ego4 ,the new psychology would be a doctrine of the whole1 and would become fresh and fertile inasmuch as it would combine the complexity of the subject and of the object1 two spheres which can be separated only in abstraction4 ,many disputed points of psychology 7perhaps the most important7 would be settled by an application of such characterology1 as that would explain why so many different views have been held on the same subject4 ,the same psychical process appears from time to time in different aspects1 merely because it takes tone and colouring from the individual character4 ,and so it well may be that the doctrine of differential psychology may receive its completion in the domain of general psychology4 ,the confusion of characterology with the doctrine of the soul has been a great misfortune1 but because this has occurred in actual history1 is no reason why it should continue4 ,the absolute sceptic differs only in a word from the absolute dogmatist4 ,the man who dogmatically accepts the position of absolute phenomenalism1 believing it to relieve him of all the burden of proof that the mere entering on another standpoint would itself entail1 will be ready to dismiss without proof the existence which characterology posits1 and which has nothing to do with a metaphysical 8essence40 ,characterology has to defend itself against two great enemies4 ,the one assumes that character is something ultimate1 and as little the subject-matter of science as is the art of a painter4 ,the other looks on the sensations as the only realities1 on sensation as the ground-work of the world of the ,ego1 and denies the existence of character4 ,what is left for characterology1 the science of character8 ,on the one hand1 there are those who cry1 8,de individuo nulla scientia10 and 8,individuum est ineffabile02 on the other hand1 there are those sworn to science1 who maintain that science has nothing to do with character4 ,in such a cross-fire1 characterology has to take its place1 and it may well be feared that it may share the fate of its sisters and remain a trivial subject like physiognomy or a diviner's art like graphology4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,male ,,and ,,female ,,sexuality 8,woman does not betray her secret40 ,,kant4 8,from a woman you can learn nothing of women40 ,,nietzsche4 ,by psychology1 as a whole1 we generally understand the psychology of the psychologists1 and these are exclusively men6 ,never since human history began have we heard of a female psychology6 ,none the less the psychology of woman constitutes a chapter as important with regard to general psychology as that of the child4 ,and inasmuch as the psychology of man has always been written with unconscious but definite reference to man1 general psychology has become simply the psychology of men1 and the problem of the psychology of the sexes will be raised as soon as the existence of a separate psychology of women has been realised4 ,kant said that in anthropology the peculiarities of the female were more a study for the philosopher than those of the male1 and it may be that the psychology of the sexes will disappear in a psychology of the female4 ,none the less the psychology of women will have to be written by men4 ,it is easy to suggest that such an attempt is foredoomed to failure1 inasmuch as the conclusions must be drawn from an alien sex and cannot be verified by introspection4 ,granted the possibility that woman could describe herself with sufficient exactness1 it by no means follows that she would be interested in the sides of her character that would interest us4 ,moreover1 even if she could and would explore herself fully1 it is doubtful if she could bring herself to talk about herself4 ,i shall show that these three improbabilities spring from the same source in the nature of woman4 ,this investigation1 therefore1 lays itself open to the charge that no one who is not female can be in a position to make accurate statements about women4 ,in the meantime the objection must stand1 although1 later1 ,i shall have more to say of it4 ,i will say only this much--up to now1 and is this only a consequence of man's suppression8--we have no account from a pregnant woman of her sensations and feelings1 neither in poetry nor in memoirs1 nor even in a gyncological treatise4 ,this cannot be on account of excessive modesty1 for1 as ,schopenhauer rightly pointed out1 there is nothing so far removed from a pregnant woman as shame as to her condition4 ,besides1 there would still remain to them the possibility of1 after the birth1 confessing from memory the psychical life during the time2 if a sense of shame had prevented them from such communication during the time1 it would be gone afterwards1 and the varied interests of such a disclosure ought to have induced some one to break silence4 ,but this has not been done4 ,just as we have always been indebted to men for really trustworthy expositions of the psychical side of women1 so also it is to men that we owe descriptions of the sensations of pregnant women4 ,what is the meaning of this8 ,although in recent times we have had revelations of the psychical life of half-women and three-quarter women1 it is practically only about the male side of them that they have written4 ,we have really only one clue2 we have to rely upon the female element in men4 ,the principle of sexually intermediate forms is the authority for what we know about women through men4 ,i shall define and complete the application of this principle later on4 ,in its indefinite form1 the principle would seem to imply that the most womanish man would be best able to describe woman1 and that the description might be completed by the real woman4 ,this1 however1 is extremely doubtful4 ,i must point out that a man can have a considerable proportion of femaleness in him without necessarily1 to the same extent1 being able to portray intermediate forms4 ,it is the more remarkable that the male can give a faithful account of the nature of the female2 since1 indeed1 it must be admitted from the extreme maleness of successful portrayers of women that we cannot dispute the existence of this capacity in the abstract male2 this power of the male over the female is a most remarkable problem1 and we shall have to consider it later4 ,for the present we must take it as a fact1 and proceed to inquire in what lies the actual psychological difference between male and female4 ,it has been sought to attribute the fundamental difference of the sexes to the existence of a stronger sexual impulse in man1 and to derive everything else from that4 ,apart from the question as to whether the phrase 8sexual instinct0 denotes a simple and real thing1 it is to be doubted if there is proof of such a difference4 ,it is not more probable than the ancient theories as to the influence of the 8unsatisfied womb0 in the female1 or of the 8semen retentum0 in men1 and we have to be on guard against the current tendency to refer nearly everything to sublimated sexual instinct4 ,no systematic theory could be founded on a generalisation so vague4 ,it is most improbable that the greater or lesser strength of the sexual impulse determines other qualities4 ,as a matter of fact1 the statements that men have stronger sexual impulses than women1 or that women have them stronger than men1 are false4 ,the strength of the sexual impulse in a man does not depend upon the proportion of masculinity in his composition1 and in the same way the degree of femininity of a woman does not determine her sexual impulse4 ,these differences in mankind still await classification4 ,contrary to the general opinion1 there is no difference in the total sexual impulses of the sexes4 ,however1 if we examine the matter in respect to the two component forces into which ,albert ,moll analysed the impulse1 we shall find that a difference does exist4 ,these forces may be termed the 8liberating0 and the 8uniting0 impulses4 ,the first appears in the form of the discomfort caused by the accumulation of ripe sexual cells2 the second is the desire of the ripe individual for sexual completion4 ,both impulses are possessed by the male2 in the female only the latter is present4 ,the anatomy and the physiological processes of the sexes bear out the distinction4 ,in this connection it may be noted that only the most male youths are addicted to masturbation1 and although it is often disputed1 ,i believe that similar vices occur only among the maler of women1 and are absent from the female nature4 ,i must now discuss the 8uniting0 impulse of woman1 for that plays the chief1 if not the sole part in her sexuality4 ,but it must not be supposed that this is greater in one sex than the other4 ,any such idea comes from a confusion between the desire for a thing and the stimulus towards the active part in securing what is desired4 ,throughout the animal and plant kingdoms1 the male reproductive cells are the motile1 active agents1 which move through space to seek out the passive female cells1 and this physiological difference is sometimes confused with the actual wish for1 or stimulus to1 sexual union4 ,and to add to the confusion1 it happens1 in the animal kingdom particularly1 that the male1 in addition to the directly sexual stimulus1 has the instinct to pursue and bodily capture the female1 whilst the latter has only the passive part to be taken possession of4 ,these differences of habit must not be mistaken for real differences of desire4 ,it can be shown1 moreover1 that woman is sexually much more excitable 7not more sensitive7 physiologically than man4 ,the condition of sexual excitement is the supreme moment of a woman's life4 ,the woman is devoted wholly to sexual matters1 that is to say1 to the spheres of begetting and of reproduction4 ,her relations to her husband and children complete her life1 whereas the male is something more than sexual4 ,in this respect1 rather than in the relative strength of the sexual impulses1 there is a real difference between the sexes4 ,it is important to distinguish between the intensity with which sexual matters are pursued and the proportion of the total activities of life that are devoted to them and to their accessory cares4 ,the greater absorption of the human female by the sphere of sexual activities is the most significant difference between the sexes4 ,the female1 moreover1 is completely occupied and content with sexual matters1 whilst the male is interested in much else1 in war and sport1 in social affairs and feasting1 in philosophy and science1 in business and politics1 in religion and art4 ,i do not mean to imply that this difference has always existed1 as ,i do not think that important4 ,as in the case of the ,jewish question1 it may be said that the ,jews have their present character because it has been forced upon them1 and that at one time they were different4 ,it is now impossible to prove this1 and we may leave it to those who believe in the modification by the environment to accept it4 ,the historical evidence is equivocal on the point4 ,in the question of women1 we have to take people as they exist to-day4 ,if1 however1 we happen to come on attributes that could not possibly have been grafted on them from without1 we may believe that such have always been with them4 ,of contemporary women at least one thing is certain4 ,apart from an exception to be noted in chap4 xii41 it is certain that when the female occupies herself with matters outside the interests of sex1 it is for the man that she loves or by whom she wishes to be loved4 ,she takes no real interest in the things for themselves4 ,it may happen that a real female learns ,latin2 if so1 it is for some such purpose as to help her son who is at school4 ,desire for a subject and ability for it1 interest in it1 and the facility for acquiring it1 are usually proportional4 ,he who has slight muscles has no desire to wield an axe2 those without the faculty for mathematics do not desire to study that subject4 ,talent seems to be rare and feeble in the real female 7although possibly it is merely that the dominant sexuality prevents its development71 with the result that woman has no power of forming the combinations which1 although they do not actually make the individuality1 certainly shape it4 ,corresponding to true women1 there are extremely female men who are to be found always in the apartments of the women1 and who are interested in nothing but love and sexual matters4 ,such men1 however1 are not the ,don ,juans4 ,the female principle is1 then1 nothing more than sexuality2 the male principle is sexual and something more4 ,this difference is notable in the different way in which men and women enter the period of puberty4 ,in the case of the male the onset of puberty is a crisis2 he feels that something new and strange has come into his being1 that something has been added to his powers and feelings independently of his will4 ,the physiological stimulus to sexual activity appears to come from outside his being1 to be independent of his will1 and many men remember the disturbing event throughout their after lives4 ,the woman1 on the other hand1 not only is not disturbed by the onset of puberty1 but feels that her importance has been increased by it4 ,the male1 as a youth1 has no longing for the onset of sexual maturity2 the female1 from the time when she is still quite a young girl1 looks forward to that time as one from which everything is to be expected4 ,man's arrival at maturity is frequently accompanied by feelings of repulsion and disgust2 the young female watches the development of her body at the approach of puberty with excitement and impatient delight4 ,it seems as if the onset of puberty were a side path in the normal development of man1 whereas in the case of woman it is the direct conclusion4 ,there are few boys approaching puberty to whom the idea that they would marry 7in the general sense1 not a particular girl7 would not appear ridiculous1 whilst the smallest girl is almost invariably excited and interested in the question of her future marriage4 ,for such reasons a woman assigns positive value only to her period of maturity in her own case and in that of other women2 in childhood1 as in old age1 she has no real relation to the world4 ,the thought of her childhood is for her1 later on1 only the remembrance of her stupidity2 she faces the approach of old age with dislike and abhorrence4 ,the only real memories of her childhood are connected with sex1 and these fade away in the intensely greater significance of her maturity4 ,the passage of a woman from virginity is the great dividing point of her life1 whilst the corresponding event in the case of a male has very little relation to the course of his life4 ,woman is only sexual1 man is partly sexual1 and this difference reveals itself in various ways4 ,the parts of the male body by stimulation of which sexuality is excited are limited in area1 and are strongly localised1 whilst in the case of the woman1 they are diffused over her whole body1 so that stimulation may take place almost from any part4 ,when in the second chapter of ,part ,i41 ,i explained that sexuality is distributed over the whole body in both sexes1 ,i did not mean that1 therefore1 the sense organs1 through which the definite impulses are stimulated1 were equally distributed4 ,there are1 certainly1 areas of greater excitability1 even in the case of the woman1 but there is not1 as in the man1 a sharp division between the sexual areas and the body generally4 ,the morphological isolation of the sexual area from the rest of the body in the case of man1 may be taken as symbolical of the relation of sex to his whole nature4 ,just as there is a contrast between the sexual and the sexless parts of a man's body1 so there is a time-change in his sexuality4 ,the female is always sexual1 the male is sexual only intermittently4 ,the sexual instinct is always active in woman 7as to the apparent exceptions to this sexuality of women1 ,i shall have to speak later on71 whilst in man it is at rest from time to time4 ,and thus it happens that the sexual impulse of the male is eruptive in character and so appears stronger4 ,the real difference between the sexes is that in the male the desire is periodical1 in the female continuous4 ,this exclusive and persisting sexuality of the female has important physical and psychical consequences4 ,as the sexuality of the male is an adjunct to his life1 it is possible for him to keep it in the physiological background1 and out of his consciousness4 ,and so a man can lay aside his sexuality and not have to reckon with it4 ,a woman has not her sexuality limited to periods of time1 nor to localised organs4 ,and so it happens that a man can know about his sexuality1 whilst a woman is unconscious of it and can in all good faith deny it1 because she is nothing but sexuality1 because she is sexuality itself4 ,it is impossible for women1 because they are only sexual1 to recognise their sexuality1 because recognition of anything requires duality4 ,with man it is not only that he is not merely sexual1 but anatomically and physiologically he can 8detach0 himself from it4 ,that is why he has the power to enter into whatever sexual relations he desires2 if he likes he can limit or increase such relations2 he can refuse or assent to them4 ,he can play the part of a ,don ,juan or a monk4 ,he can assume which he will4 ,to put it bluntly1 man possesses sexual organs2 her sexual organs possess woman4 ,we may1 therefore1 deduce from the previous arguments that man has the power of consciousness of his sexuality and so can act against it1 whilst the woman appears to be without this power4 ,this implies1 moreover1 that there is greater differentiation in man1 as in him the sexual and the unsexual parts of his nature are sharply separated4 ,the possibility or impossibility of being aware of a particular definite object is1 however1 hardly a part of the customary meaning of the word consciousness1 which is generally used as implying that if a being is conscious he can be conscious of any object4 ,this brings me to consider the nature of the female consciousness1 and ,i must take a long dtour to consider it4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,male ,,and ,,female ,,consciousness ,before proceeding to consider the main difference between the psychical life of the sexes1 so far as the latter takes subjective and objective things as its contents1 a few psychological soundings must be taken1 and conceptions formulated4 ,as the views and principles of prevailing systems of psychology have been formed without consideration of the subject of this book1 it is not surprising that they contain little that ,i am able to use4 ,at present there is no psychology but many psychologists1 and it would really be a matter of caprice on my part to choose any particular school and attempt to apply its principles to my subject4 ,i shall rather try to lay down a few useful principles on my own account4 ,the endeavours to reach a comprehensive and unifying conception of the whole psychical process by referring it to a single principle have been particularly evident in the relations between perceptions and sensations suggested by different psychologists4 ,herbart1 for instance1 derived the sensations from elementary ideas1 whilst ,horwicz supposed them to come from perceptions4 ,most modern psychologists have insisted that such monistic attempts must be fruitless4 ,none the less there was some truth in the view4 ,to discover this truth1 however1 it is necessary to make a distinction that has been overlooked by modern workers4 ,we must distinguish between the perceiving of a perception1 feeling of a sensation1 thinking a thought from the later repetitions of the process in which recognition plays a part4 ,in many cases this distinction is of fundamental importance4 ,every simple1 clear1 plastic perception and every distinct idea1 before it could be put into words1 passes through a stage 7which may indeed be very short7 of indistinctness4 ,so also in the case of association2 for a longer or shorter time before the elements about to be grouped have actually come together1 there is a sort of vague1 generalised expectation or presentiment of association4 ,leibnitz1 in particular1 has worked at kindred processes1 and ,i believe them to underlie the attempts of ,herbart and ,horwicz4 ,the common acceptance of pleasure and pain as the fundamental sensations1 even with ,wundt's addition of the sensations of tension and relaxation1 of rest and stimulation1 makes the division of psychical phenomena into sensations and perceptions too narrow for due treatment of the vague preliminary stages to which ,i have referred4 ,i shall go back therefore to the widest classification of psychical phenomena that ,i know of1 that of ,avenarius into 8elements0 and 8characters40 ,the word 8character0 in this connection1 of course1 has nothing to do with the subject of characterology4 ,avenarius added to the difficulty of applying his theories by his use of a practically new terminology 7which is certainly most striking and indispensable for some of the new views he expounded74 ,but what stands most in the way of accepting some of his conclusions is his desire to derive his psychology from the physiology of the brain1 a physiology which he evolved himself out of his inner consciousness with only a slight general acquaintance with actual biological facts4 ,the psychological1 or second part of his 8,critique of ,pure ,experience10 was really the source from which he derived the first or physiological part1 with the result that the latter appears to its readers as an account of some discovery in ,atlantis4 ,because of these difficulties ,i shall give here a short account of the system of ,avenarius1 as ,i find it useful for my thesis4 ,an 8,element0 in the sense of ,avenarius represents what the usual psychology terms a perception1 or the content of a perception1 what ,schopenhauer called a presentation1 what in ,england is called an 8impression0 or 8idea10 the 8thing10 8fact10 or 8object0 of ordinary language2 and the word is used independently of the presence or absence of a special sense-organ stimulation--a most important and novel addition4 ,in the sense of ,avenarius1 and for our purpose1 it is a matter of indifference to the terminology how far what is called 8analysis0 takes place1 the whole tree may be taken as the 8element10 or each single leaf1 or each hair1 or 7where most people would stop71 the colours1 sizes1 weights1 temperatures1 resistances1 and so forth4 ,still1 the analysis may go yet further1 and the colour of the leaf may be taken as merely the resultant of its quality1 intensity1 luminosity1 and so forth1 these being the elements4 ,or we may go still further and take modern ultimate conceptions reaching units incapable of sub-division4 ,in the sense of ,avenarius1 then1 elements are such ideas as 8green10 8blue10 8cold10 8warm10 8soft10 8hard10 8sweet10 8bitter10 and their 8character0 is the particular kind of quality with which they appear1 not merely their pleasantness or unpleasantness1 but also such modes of presentation as 8surprising10 8expected10 8novel10 8indifferent10 8recognised10 8known10 8actual10 8doubtful10 categories which ,avenarius first recognised as being psychological4 ,for instance1 what ,i guess1 believe1 or know is an 8element02 the fact that ,i guess it1 not believe it or know it1 is the 8character0 in which it presents itself psychologically 7not logically74 ,now there is a stage in mental activity in which this sub-division of psychical phenomena cannot be made1 which is too early for it4 ,all 8elements0 at their first appearance are merged with the floating background1 the whole being vaguely tinged by 8character40 ,to follow my meaning1 think of what takes place1 when for the first time at a distance one sees something in the landscape1 such as a shrub or a heap of wood1 at the moment when one does not yet know what 8it0 is4 ,at this moment 8element0 and 8character0 are absolutely indistinguishable 7they are always inseparable as ,petzoldt ingeniously pointed out71 so improving the original statement of ,avenarius4 ,in a dense crowd ,i perceive1 for instance1 a face which attracts me across the swaying mass by its expression4 ,i have no idea what the face is like1 and should be quite unable to describe it or give an idea of it2 but it has appealed to me in the most disturbing manner1 and ,i find myself asking with keen curiosity1 8,where have ,i seen that face before80 ,a man may see the head of a woman for a moment1 and this may make a very strong impression on him1 and yet he may be unable to say exactly what he has seen1 or1 for instance1 be able to remember the colour of her hair4 ,the retina must be exposed to the object sufficiently long1 if only a fraction of a second1 for a photographic impression to be made4 ,if one looks at any object from a considerable distance one has at first only the vaguest impression of its outlines2 and as one comes nearer and sees the details more clearly1 lively sensations1 at first lost in the general mass1 are received4 ,think1 for instance1 of the first general impression of1 say1 the sphenoid bone disarticulated from a skull1 or of many pictures seen a little too closely or a little too far away4 ,i myself have a remembrance of having had strong impressions from sonatas of ,beethoven before ,i knew anything of the musical notes4 ,avenarius and ,petzoldt have overlooked the fact that the coming into consciousness of the elements is accompanied by a kind of secretion of characterisation4 ,some of the simple experiments of physiological psychology illustrate the point to which ,i have been referring4 ,if one stays in a dark room until the eye has adapted itself to the absence of light1 and then for a second subjects oneself to a ray of coloured light1 a sensation of illumination will be received1 although it is impossible to recognise the quality of the illumination2 something has been perceived1 but what the something is cannot be apprehended unless the stimulation lasts a definite time4 ,in the same way every scientific discovery1 every technical invention1 every artistic creation passes through a preliminary phase of indistinctness4 ,the process is similar to the series of impressions that would be got as a statue was gradually unwrapped from a series of swathings4 ,the same kind of sequence occurs1 although1 perhaps1 in a very brief space of time1 when one is trying to recall a piece of music4 ,every thought is preceded by a kind of half-thought1 a condition in which vague geometrical figures1 shifting masks1 a swaying and indistinct background hover in the mind4 ,the beginning and the end of the whole process1 which ,i may term 8clarification10 are what take place when a short-sighted person proceeds to look through properly adapted lenses4 ,just as this process occurs in the life of the individual 7and he1 indeed1 may die long before it is complete71 so it occurs in history4 ,definite scientific conceptions are preceded by anticipations4 ,the process of clarification is spread over many generations4 ,there were ancient and modern vague anticipations of the theory of ,darwin and ,lamarck1 anticipations which we are now apt to overvalue4 ,mayer and ,helmholtz had their predecessors1 and ,goethe and ,leonardo da ,vinci1 perhaps two of the most many-sided intellects known to us1 anticipated in a vague way many of the conclusions of modern science4 ,the whole history of thought is a continuous 8clarification10 a more and more accurate description or realisation of details4 ,the enormous number of stages between light and darkness1 the minute gradations of detail that follow each other in the development of thought can be realised best if one follows historically some complicated modern piece of knowledge1 such as1 for instance1 the theory of elliptical functions4 ,the process of clarification may be reversed1 and the act of forgetting is such a reversal4 ,this may take a considerable time1 and is usually noticed only by accident at some point or other of its course4 ,the process is similar to the gradual obliteration of well-made roads1 for the maintenance of which no provision has been made4 ,the faint anticipations of a thought are very like the faint recollections of it1 and the latter gradually become blurred as in the case of a neglected road over the boundaries of which animals stray1 slowly obliterating it4 ,in this connection a practical rule for memorising1 discovered and applied by a friend of mine1 is interesting4 ,it generally happens that if one wants to learn1 say1 a piece of music1 or a section from the history of philosophy1 one has to go over parts of it again and again4 ,the problem was1 how long should the intervals be between these successive attempts to commit to memory8 ,the answer was that they should not be so long as to make it possible to take a fresh interest in the subject again1 to be interested and curious about it4 ,if the interval has produced that state of mind1 then the process of clarification must begin from the beginning again4 ,the rather popular physiological theory of ,sigismund ,exner as to the formation of 8paths0 in the nervous system may perhaps be taken as a physical parallel of the process of clarification4 ,according to the theory1 the nerves1 or rather the fibrils1 make paths easy for the stimulations to travel along1 if these stimulations last sufficiently long or are repeated sufficiently often4 ,so also in the case of forgetting2 what happens is that these paths or processes of the nerve-cells atrophy from disuse4 ,avenarius would have explained the above processes by his theory of the articulation of the fibres of the brain1 but his physical doctrine was rather too crude and too simple for application to psycho-physics4 ,none the less his conception of articulation or jointing is both convenient and appropriate in its application to the process of clarification1 and ,i shall employ it in that connection4 ,the process of clarification must be traced thoroughly in order to realise its importance1 but for the moment1 it is important to consider only the initial stage4 ,the distinction of ,avenarius between 8element0 and 8character10 which later on will become evident in a process of clarification1 is not applicable to the very earliest moments of the process4 ,it is necessary to coin a name for those minds to which the duality of element and character becomes appreciable at no stage of the process4 ,i propose for psychical data at this earliest stage of their existence the word ,henid 7from the ,greek 1 because in them it is impossible to distinguish perception and sensation as two analytically separable factors1 and because1 therefore1 there is no trace of duality in them74 ,naturally the 8henid0 is an abstract conception and may not occur in the absolute form4 ,how often psychical data in human beings actually stand at this absolute extreme of undifferentiation is uncertain and unimportant2 but the theory does not need to concern itself with the possibility of such an extreme4 ,a common example from what has happened to all of us may serve to illustrate what a henid is4 ,i may have a definite wish to say something particular1 and then something distracts me1 and the 8it0 ,i wanted to say or think has gone4 ,later on1 by some process of association1 the 8it0 is quite suddenly reproduced1 and ,i know at once that it was what was on my tongue1 but1 so to speak1 in a more perfect stage of development4 ,i fear lest some one may expect me to describe exactly what ,i mean by 8henid40 ,the wish can come only from a misconception4 ,the very idea of a henid forbids its description2 it is merely a something4 ,later on identification will come with the complete articulation of the contents of the henid2 but the henid is not the whole of this detailed content1 but is distinguished from it by a lower grade of consciousness1 by an absence of1 so to speak1 relief1 by a blending of the die and the impression1 by the absence of a central point in the field of vision4 ,and so one cannot describe particular henids2 one can only be conscious of their existence4 ,none the less henids are things as vital as elements and characters4 ,each henid is an individual and can be distinguished from other henids4 ,later on ,i shall show that probably the mental data of early childhood 7certainly of the first fourteen months7 are all henids1 although perhaps not in the absolute sense4 ,throughout childhood these data do not reach far from the henid stage2 in adults there is always a certain process of development going on4 ,probably the perceptions of some plants and animals are henids4 ,in the case of mankind the development from the henid to the completely differentiated perception and idea is always possible1 although such an ideal condition may seldom be attained4 ,whilst expression in words is impossible in the case of the absolute henid1 as words imply articulated thoughts1 there are also in the highest stages of the intellect possible to man some things still unclarified and1 therefore1 unspeakable4 ,the theory of henids will help in the old quarrel between the spheres of perception and sensation1 and will replace by a developmental conception the ideas of element and character which ,avenarius and ,petzoldt deduced from the process of clarification4 ,it is only when the elements become distinct that they can be distinguished from the characters4 ,man is disposed to humours and sentimentalities only so long as the contours of his ideas are vague2 when he sees things in the light instead of the dark his process of thinking will become different4 ,now what is the relation between the investigation ,i have been making and the psychology of the sexes8 ,what is the distinction between the male and the female 7and to reach this has been the object of my digression7 in the process of clarification8 ,here is my answer3 ,the male has the same psychical data as the female1 but in a more articulated form2 where she thinks more or less in henids1 he thinks in more or less clear and detailed presentations in which the elements are distinct from the tones of feeling4 ,with the woman1 thinking and feeling are identical1 for man they are in opposition4 ,the woman has many of her mental experiences as henids1 whilst in man these have passed through a process of clarification4 ,woman is sentimental1 and knows emotion but not mental excitement4 ,the greater articulation of the mental data in man is reflected in the more marked character of his body and face1 as compared with the roundness and vagueness of the woman4 ,in the same connection it is to be remembered that1 notwithstanding the popular belief1 the senses of the male are much more acute than those of the woman4 ,the only exception is the sense of touch1 an exception of great interest to which ,i shall refer later4 ,it has been established1 moreover1 that the sensibility to pain is much more acute in man1 and we have now learned to distinguish between that and the tactile sensations4 ,a weaker sensibility is likely to retard the passage of mental data through the process of clarification1 although we cannot quite take it for granted that it must be so4 ,perhaps a more trustworthy proof of the less degree of articulation in the mental data of the woman may be drawn from consideration of the greater decision in the judgments made by men1 although indeed it may be the case that this distinction rests on a deeper basis4 ,it is certainly the case that whilst we are still near the henid stage we know much more certainly what a thing is not than what it is4 ,what ,mach has called instinctive experience depends on henids4 ,while we are near the henid stage we think round about a subject1 correct ourselves at each new attempt1 and say that that was not yet the right word4 ,naturally that condition implies uncertainty and indecision in judgment4 ,judgment comes towards the end of the process of clarification2 the act of judgment is in itself a departure from the henid stage4 ,the most decisive proof for the correctness of the view that attributes henids to woman and differentiated thoughts to man1 and that sees in this a fundamental sexual distinction1 lies in the fact that wherever a new judgment is to be made1 7not merely something already settled to be put into proverbial form7 it is always the case that the female expects from man the clarification of her data1 the interpretation of her henids4 ,it is almost a tertiary sexual character of the male1 and certainly it acts on the female as such1 that she expects from him the interpretation and illumination of her thoughts4 ,it is from this reason that so many girls say that they could only marry1 or1 at least1 only love a man who was cleverer than themselves2 that they would be repelled by a man who said that all they thought was right1 and did not know better than they did4 ,in short1 the woman makes it a criterion of manliness that the man should be superior to herself mentally1 that she should be influenced and dominated by the man2 and this in itself is enough to ridicule all ideas of sexual equality4 ,the male lives consciously1 the female lives unconsciously4 ,this is certainly the necessary conclusion for the extreme cases4 ,the woman receives her consciousness from the man2 the function to bring into consciousness what was outside it is a sexual function of the typical man with regard to the typical woman1 and is a necessary part of his ideal completeness4 ,and now we are brought up against the problem of talent2 the whole modern woman question appears to be resolving itself into a dispute as to whether men or women are more highly gifted4 ,as the question is generally propounded there is no attempt to distinguish between the pure types of sex2 the conclusions with regard to these that ,i have been able to set forth have an important bearing on the answer to the question4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,talent ,,and ,,genius ,there has been so much written about the nature of genius that1 to avoid misunderstanding1 it will be better to make a few general remarks before going into the subject4 ,and the first thing to do is to settle the question of talent4 ,genius and talent are nearly always connected in the popular idea1 as if the first were a higher1 or the highest1 grade of the latter1 and as if a man of very high and varied talents might be a sort of intermediate between the two4 ,this view is entirely erroneous4 ,even if there were different degrees or grades of genius1 they would have absolutely nothing to do with so-called 8talent40 ,a talent1 for instance the mathematical talent1 may be possessed by some one in a very high degree from birth2 and he will be able to master the most difficult problems of that science with ease2 but for this he will require no genius1 which is the same as originality1 individuality1 and a condition of general productiveness4 ,on the other hand1 there are men of great genius who have shown no special talent in any marked degree2 for instance1 men like ,novalis or ,jean ,paul4 ,genius is distinctly not the superlative of talent2 there is a world-wide difference between the two2 they are of absolutely unlike nature2 they can neither be measured by one another or compared to each other4 ,talent is hereditary2 it may be the common possession of a whole family 7e4g41 the ,bach family72 genius is not transmitted2 it is never diffused1 but is strictly individual4 ,many ill-balanced people1 and in particular women1 regard genius and talent as identical4 ,women1 indeed1 have not the faculty of appreciating genius1 although this is not the common view4 ,any extravagance that distinguishes a man from other men appeals equally to their sexual ambition2 they confuse the dramatist with the actor1 and make no distinction between the virtuoso and the artist4 ,for them the talented man is the man of genius1 and ,nietzsche is the type of what they consider genius4 ,what has been called the ,french type of thought1 which so strongly appeals to them1 has nothing to do with the highest possibilities of the mind4 ,great men take themselves and the world too seriously to become what is called merely intellectual4 ,men who are merely intellectual are insincere2 they are people who have never really been deeply engrossed by things and who do not feel an overpowering desire for production4 ,all that they care about is that their work should glitter and sparkle like a well-cut stone1 not that it should illuminate anything4 ,they are more occupied with what will be said of what they think than by the thoughts themselves4 ,there are men who are willing to marry a woman they do not care about merely because she is admired by other men4 ,such a relation exists between many men and their thoughts4 ,i cannot help thinking of one particular living author1 a blaring1 outrageous person1 who fancies that he is roaring when he is only snarling4 ,unfortunately1 ,nietzsche 7however superior he is to the man ,i have in mind7 seems to have devoted himself chiefly to what he thought would shock the public4 ,he is at his best when he is most unmindful of effect4 ,his was the vanity of the mirror1 saying to what it reflects1 8,see how faithfully ,i show you your image40 ,in youth when a man is not yet certain of himself he may try to secure his own position by jostling others4 ,great men1 however1 are painfully aggressive only from necessity4 ,they are not like a girl who is most pleased about a new dress because she knows that it will annoy her friends4 ,genius6 genius6 how much mental disturbance and discomfort1 hatred and envy1 jealousy and pettiness1 has it not aroused in the majority of men1 and how much counterfeit and tinsel has the desire for it not occasioned8 ,i turn gladly from the imitations of genius to the thing itself and its true embodiment4 ,but where can ,i begin8 ,all the qualities that go to make genius are in so intimate connection that to begin with any one of them seems to lead to premature conclusions4 ,all discussions on the nature of genius are either biological-clinical1 and serve only to show the absurd presumption of present knowledge of this kind in its hope to solve a problem so difficult2 or they descend from the heights of a metaphysical system for the sole purpose of including genius in their purview4 ,if the road that ,i am about to take does not lead to every goal at once1 it is only because that is the nature of roads4 ,consider how much deeper a great poet can reach into the nature of man than an average person4 ,think of the extraordinary number of characters depicted by ,shakespeare or ,euripides1 or the marvellous assortment of human beings that fill the pages of ,zola4 ,after the ,penthesilea1 ,heinrich von ,kleist created ,ktchen von ,heilbronn1 and ,michael ,angelo embodied from his imagination the ,delphic ,sibyls and the ,leda4 ,there have been few men so little devoted to art as ,kant and ,schelling1 and yet these have written most profoundly and truly about it4 ,in order to depict a man one must understand him1 and to understand him one must be like him2 in order to portray his psychological activities one must be able to reproduce them in oneself4 ,to understand a man one must have his nature in oneself4 ,one must be like the mind one tries to grasp4 ,it takes a thief to know a thief1 and only an innocent man can understand another innocent man4 ,the poseur only understands other poseurs1 and sees nothing but pose in the actions of others2 whilst the simple-minded fails to understand the most flagrant pose4 ,to understand a man is really to be that man4 ,it would seem to follow that a man can best understand himself--a conclusion plainly absurd4 ,no one can understand himself1 for to do that he would have to get outside himself2 the subject of the knowing and willing activity would have to become its own object4 ,to grasp the universe it would be necessary to get a standpoint outside the universe1 and the possibility of such a standpoint is incompatible with the idea of a universe4 ,he who could understand himself could understand the world4 ,i do not make the statement merely as an explanation3 it contains an important truth1 to the significance of which ,i shall recur4 ,for the present ,i am content to assert that no one can understand his deepest1 most intimate nature4 ,this happens in actual practice2 when one wishes to understand in a general way1 it is always from other persons1 never from oneself1 that one gets one's materials4 ,the other person chosen must be similar in some respect1 however different as a whole2 and1 making use of this similarity1 he can recognise1 represent1 comprehend4 ,so far as one understands a man1 one is that man4 ,the man of genius takes his place in the above argument as he who understands incomparably more other beings than the average man4 ,goethe is said to have said of himself that there was no vice or crime of which he could not trace the tendency in himself1 and that at some period of his life he could not have understood fully4 ,the genius1 therefore1 is a more complicated1 more richly endowed1 more varied man2 and a man is the closer to being a genius the more men he has in his personality1 and the more really and strongly he has these others within him4 ,if comprehension of those about him only flickers in him like a poor candle1 then he is unable1 like the great poet1 to kindle a mighty flame in his heroes1 to give distinction and character to his creations4 ,the ideal of an artistic genius is to live in all men1 to lose himself in all men1 to reveal himself in multitudes2 and so also the aim of the philosopher is to discover all others in himself1 to fuse them into a unit which is his own unit4 ,this protean character of genius is no more simultaneous than the bi-sexuality of which ,i have spoken4 ,even the greatest genius cannot understand the nature of all men at the same time1 on one and the same day4 ,the comprehensive and manifold rudiments which a man possesses in his mind can develop only slowly and by degrees with the gradual unfolding of his whole life4 ,it appears almost as if there were a definite periodicity in his development4 ,these periods1 when they recur1 however1 are not exactly alike2 they are not mere repetitions1 but are intensifications of their predecessors1 on a higher plane4 ,no two moments in the life of an individual are exactly alike2 there is between the later and the earlier periods only the similarity of the higher and lower parts of a spiral ascent4 ,thus it has frequently happened that famous men have conceived a piece of work in their early youth1 laid it aside during manhood1 and resumed and completed it in old age4 ,periods exist in every man1 but in different degrees and with varying 8amplitude40 ,just as the genius is the man who contains in himself the greatest number of others in the most active way1 so the amplitude of a man's periods will be the greater the wider his mental relations may be4 ,illustrious men have often been told1 by their teachers1 in their youth 8that they were always in one extreme or another40 ,as if they could be anything else6 ,these transitions in the case of unusual men often assume the character of a crisis4 ,goethe once spoke of the 8recurrence of puberty0 in an artist4 ,the idea is obviously to be associated with the matter under discussion4 ,it results from their periodicity that1 in men of genius1 sterile years precede productive years1 these again to be followed by sterility1 the barren periods being marked by psychological self-depreciation1 by the feeling that they are less than other men2 times in which the remembrance of the creative periods is a torment1 and when they envy those who go about undisturbed by such penalties4 ,just as his moments of ecstasy are more poignant1 so are the periods of depression of a man of genius more intense than those of other men4 ,every great man has such periods1 of longer or shorter duration1 times in which he loses self-confidence1 in which he thinks of suicide2 times in which1 indeed1 he may be sowing the seeds of a future harvest1 but which are devoid of the stimulus to production2 times which call forth the blind criticisms 8,how such a genius is degenerating60 8,how he has played himself out60 8,how he repeats himself60 and so forth4 ,it is just the same with other characteristics of the man of genius4 ,not only the material1 but also the spirit1 of his work is subject to periodic change4 ,at one time he is inclined to a philosophical and scientific view2 at another time the artistic influence is strongest2 at one time his intervals are altogether in the direction of history and the growth of civilisation2 later on it is 8nature0 7compare ,nietzsche's 8,studies in ,infinity0 with his 8,zarathustra072 at another time he is a mystic1 at yet another simplicity itself6 7,bjrnson and ,maurice ,maeterlinck are good modern examples47 ,in fact1 the 8amplitude0 of the periods of famous men is so great1 the different revelations of their nature so various1 so many different individuals appear in them1 that the periodicity of their mental life may be taken almost as diagnostic4 ,i must make a remark sufficiently obvious from all this1 as to the existence of almost incredibly great changes in the personal appearance of men of genius from time to time4 ,comparison of the portraits at different times of ,goethe1 ,beethoven1 ,kant1 or ,schopenhauer are enough to establish this4 ,the number of different aspects that the face of a man has assumed may be taken almost as a physiognomical measure of his talent4#i #i ,i cannot help using the word 8talent0 from time to time when ,i really mean genius2 but ,i wish it to be remembered that ,i am convinced of the existence of a fundamental distinction between 8talent10 or 8giftedness10 and 8genius40 ,people with an unchanging expression are low in the intellectual scale4 ,physiognomists1 therefore1 must not be surprised that men of genius1 in whose faces a new side of their minds is continually being revealed1 are difficult to classify1 and that their individualities leave little permanent mark on their features4 ,it is possible that my introductory description of genius will be repudiated indignantly1 because it would imply that a ,shakespeare has the vulgarity of his ,falstaff1 the rascality of his ,iago1 the boorishness of his ,caliban1 and because it identifies great men with all the low and contemptible things that they have described4 ,as a matter of fact1 men of genius do conform to my description1 and as their biographies show1 are liable to the strangest passions and the most repulsive instincts4 ,and yet the objection is invalid1 as the fuller exposition of the thesis will reveal4 ,only the most superficial survey of the argument could support it1 whilst the exactly opposite conclusion is a much more likely inference4 ,zola1 who has so faithfully described the impulse to commit murder1 did not himself commit a murder1 because there were so many other characters in him4 ,the actual murderer is in the grasp of his own disposition3 the author describing the murder is swayed by a whole kingdom of impulses4 ,zola would know the desire for murder much better than the actual murderer would know it1 he would recognise it in himself1 if it really came to the surface in him1 and he would be prepared for it4 ,in such ways the criminal instincts in great men are intellectualised and turned to artistic purposes as in the case of ,zola1 or to philosophic purposes as with ,kant1 but not to actual crime4 ,the presence of a multitude of possibilities in great men has important consequences connected with the theory of henids that ,i elaborated in the last chapter4 ,a man understands what he already has within himself much more quickly than what is foreign to him 7were it otherwise there would be no intercourse possible3 as it is we do not realise how often we fail to understand one another74 ,to the genius1 who understands so much more than the average man1 much more will be apparent4 ,the schemer will readily recognise his fellow2 an impassioned player easily reads the same power in another person2 whilst those with no special powers will observe nothing4 ,art discerns itself best1 as ,wagner said4 ,in the case of complex personalities the matter stands thus3 one of these can understand other men better than they can understand themselves1 because within himself he has not only the character he is grasping1 but also its opposite4 ,duality is necessary for observation and comprehension2 if we inquire from psychology what is the most necessary condition for becoming conscious of a thing1 for grasping it1 we shall find the answer in 8contrast40 ,if everything were a uniform grey we should have no idea of colour2 absolute unison of sound would soon produce sleep in all mankind2 duality1 the power which can differentiate1 is the origin of the alert consciousness4 ,thus it happens that no one can understand himself were he to think of nothing else all his life1 but he can understand another to whom he is partly alike1 and from whom he is also partly quite different4 ,such a distribution of qualities is the condition most favourable for understanding4 ,in short1 to understand a man means to have equal parts of himself and of his opposite in one4 ,that things must be present in pairs of contrasts if we are to be conscious of one member of the pair is shown by the facts of colour-vision4 ,colour-blindness always extends to the complementary colours4 ,those who are red blind are also green blind2 those who are blind to blue have no consciousness of yellow4 ,this law holds good for all mental phenomena2 it is a fundamental condition of consciousness4 ,the most high-spirited people understand and experience depression much more than those who are of level disposition4 ,any one with so keen a sense of delicacy and subtilty as ,shakespeare must also be capable of extreme grossness4 ,the more types and their contrasts a man unites in his own mind the less will escape him1 since observation follows comprehension1 and the more he will see and understand what other men feel1 think1 and wish4 ,there has never been a genius who was not a great discerner of men4 ,the great man sees through the simpler man often at a glance1 and would be able to characterise him completely4 ,most men have this1 that1 or the other faculty or sense disproportionately developed4 ,one man knows all the birds and tells their different voices most accurately4 ,another has a love for plants and is devoted to botany from his childhood4 ,one man pores lovingly into the many layered rocks of the earth1 and has only the vaguest appreciation of the skies2 to another the attraction of cold1 star-sown space is supreme4 ,one man is repelled by the mountains and seeks the restless sea2 another1 like ,nietzsche1 gets no help from the tossing waters and hungers for the peace of the hills4 ,every man1 however simple he may be1 has some side of nature with which he is in special sympathy and for which his faculties are specially alert4 ,and so the ideal genius1 who has all men within him1 has also all their preferences and all their dislikes4 ,there is in him not only the universality of men1 but of all nature4 ,he is the man to whom all things tell their secrets1 to whom most happens1 and whom least escapes4 ,he understands most things1 and those most deeply1 because he has the greatest number of things to contrast and compare them with4 ,the genius is he who is conscious of most1 and of that most acutely4 ,and so without doubt his sensations must be most acute2 but this must not be understood as implying1 say1 in the artist the keenest power of vision1 in the composer the most acute hearing2 the measure of genius is not to be taken from the acuteness of the sense organ but from that of the perceiving brain4 ,the consciousness of the genius is1 then1 the furthest removed from the henid stage4 ,it has the greatest1 most limpid clearness and distinctness4 ,in this way genius declares itself to be a kind of higher masculinity1 and thus the female cannot be possessed of genius4 ,the conclusion of this chapter and the last is simply that the life of the male is a more highly conscious life than that of the female1 and genius is identical with the highest and widest consciousness4 ,this extremely comprehensive consciousness of the highest types of mankind is due to the enormous number of contrasting elements in their natures4 ,universality is the distinguishing mark of genius4 ,there is no such thing as a special genius1 a genius for mathematics1 or for music1 or even for chess1 but only a universal genius4 ,the genius is a man who knows everything without having learned it4 ,it stands to reason that this infinite knowledge does not include theories and systems which have been formulated by science from facts1 neither the history of the ,spanish war of succession nor experiments in dia-magnetism4 ,the artist does not acquire his knowledge of the colours reflected on water by cloudy or sunny skies1 by a course of optics1 any more than it requires a deep study of characterology to judge other men4 ,but the more gifted a man is1 the more he has studied on his own account1 and the more subjects he has made his own4 ,the theory of special genius1 according to which1 for instance1 it is supposed that a musical 8genius0 should be a fool at other subjects1 confuses genius with talent4 ,a musician1 if truly great1 is just as well able to be universal in his knowledge as a philosopher or a poet4 ,such an one was ,beethoven4 ,on the other hand1 a musician may be as limited in the sphere of his activity as any average man of science4 ,such an one was ,johann ,strauss1 who1 in spite of his beautiful melodies1 cannot be regarded as a genius if only because of the absence of constructive faculty in him4 ,to come back to the main point2 there are many kinds of talent1 but only one kind of genius1 and that is able to choose any kind of talent and master it4 ,there is something in genius common to all those who possess it2 however much difference there may seem to be between the great philosopher1 painter1 musician1 poet1 or religious teacher4 ,the particular talent through the medium of which the spirit of a man develops is of less importance than has generally been thought4 ,the limits of the different arts can easily be passed1 and much besides native inborn gifts have to be taken into account4 ,the history of one art should be studied along with the history of other arts1 and in that way many obscure events might be explained4 ,it is outside my present purpose1 however1 to go into the question of what determines a genius to become1 say1 a mystic1 or1 say1 a great delineator4 ,from genius itself1 the common quality of all the different manifestations of genius1 woman is debarred4 ,i will discuss later as to whether such things are possible as pure scientific or technical genius as well as artistic and philosophical genius4 ,there is good reason for a greater exactness in the use of the word4 ,but that may come1 and however clearly we may yet be able to describe it woman will have to be excluded from it4 ,i am glad that the course of my inquiry has been such as to make it impossible for me to be charged with having framed such a definition of genius as necessarily to exclude woman from it4 ,i may now sum up the conclusions of this chapter4 ,whilst woman has no consciousness of genius1 except as manifested in one particular person1 who imposes his personality on her1 man has a deep capacity for realising it1 a capacity which ,carlyle1 in his still little understood book on 8,hero-,worship10 has described so fully and permanently4 ,in 8,hero-,worship10 moreover1 the idea is definitely insisted on that genius is linked with manhood1 that it represents an ideal masculinity in the highest form4 ,woman has no direct consciousness of it2 she borrows a kind of imperfect consciousness from man4 ,woman1 in short1 has an unconscious life1 man a conscious life1 and the genius the most conscious life4 ,,chapter ,v ,,talent ,,and ,,memory ,the following observation bears on my henid theory3 ,i made a note1 half mechanically1 of a page in a botanical work from which later on ,i was going to make an extract4 ,something was in my mind in henid form4 ,what ,i thought1 how ,i thought it1 what was then knocking at the door of my consciousness1 ,i could not remember a minute afterwards1 in spite of the hardest effort4 ,i take this case as a typical example of the henid4 ,the more deeply impressed1 the more detailed a complex perception may be the more easily does it reproduce itself4 ,clearness of the consciousness is the preliminary condition for remembering1 and the memory of the mental stimulation is proportional to the intensity of the consciousness4 8,i shall not forget that02 8,i shall remember that all my life02 8,that will never escape my memory again40 ,such phrases men use when things have made a deep impression on them1 of moments in which they have gained wisdom or have become richer by an important experience4 ,as the power of being reproduced is directly proportionate to the organisation of a mental impression1 it is clear that there can be no recollection of an absolute henid4 ,as the mental endowment of a man varies with the organisation of his accumulated experiences1 the better endowed he is1 the more readily will he be able to remember his whole past1 everything that he has ever thought or heard1 seen or done1 perceived or felt1 the more completely in fact will he be able to reproduce his whole life4 ,universal remembrance of all its experiences1 therefore1 is the sure1 most general1 and most easily proved mark of a genius4 ,if a common theory1 especially popular with the philosophers of the coffee-house1 be true1 that productive men 7because they are always covering new ground7 have no memory1 it is often because they are productive only from being on new ground4 ,the great extent and acuteness of the memory of men of genius1 which ,i propose to lay down dogmatically as a necessary inference from my theory1 without attempting to prove it further1 is not incompatible with their rapid loss of the facts impressed on them in school1 the tables of ,greek verbs1 and so forth4 ,their memory is of what they have experienced1 not of what they have learned4 ,of all that was acquired for examination purposes only so much will be retained as was in harmony with the natural talent of the pupil4 ,thus a house-painter may have a better memory for colours than a great philosopher2 the most narrow philologist may remember ,greek aorists that he has learned by heart better than his teacher1 who may none the less be a great poet4 ,the uselessness of the experimental school of psychology 7notwithstanding their marvellous arsenal of instruments of experimental precision7 is shown by their expectation of getting results as to memory from tests with letters1 unconnected words1 long rows of figures4 ,these experiments have so little bearing on the true memory of man1 on the memory by which he recalls the experiences of his life1 that one wonders if such psychologists have realised that such a thing as the mind exists4 ,the customary experiments place the most different subjects under the same conditions1 pay no attention to the individuality of these subjects1 and treat them merely as good or bad registering apparatus4 ,there is a parable in the fact that the two ,german words 8bemerken0 7take notice of7 and 8merken0 7remember7 come from the same root4 ,only what is harmonious with some inborn quality will be retained4 ,when a man remembers a thing1 it is because he was capable of taking some interest in the thing2 when he forgets1 it is because he was uninterested4 ,the religious man will surely and exactly remember texts1 the poet verses and the mathematician equations4 ,this brings us in another fashion to the subject of the last chapter1 and to another reason for the great memories of genius4 ,the more significant a man is1 the more different personalities he unites in himself1 the more interests that are contained in him1 the more wide his memory must be4 ,all men have practically the same opportunities of perception1 but the vast majority of men apprehend only an infinitesimal part of what they have perceived4 ,the ideal genius is one in whom perception and apprehension are identical in their field4 ,of course no such being actually exists4 ,on the other hand1 there is no man who has apprehended nothing that he has perceived4 ,in this way we may take it that all degrees of genius 7not talent7 exist2 no male is quite without a trace of genius4 ,complete genius is an ideal2 no man is absolutely without the quality1 and no man possesses it completely4 ,apprehension or absorption1 and memory or retention1 vary together in their extent and their permanence4 ,there is an uninterrupted gradation from the man whose mentality is unconnected from moment to moment1 and to whom no incidents can signify anything because there is within him nothing to compare them with 7such an extreme1 of course1 does not exist7 to the fully developed minds for which everything is unforgettable1 because of the firm impressions made and the sureness with which they are absorbed4 ,the extreme of genius also does not exist1 because even the greatest genius is not wholly a genius at every moment of his life4 ,what is at once a deduction from the necessary connection between memory and genius1 and a proof of the actuality of the connection1 lies in the extraordinary memory for minute details shown by the man of genius4 ,because of the universality of his mind1 everything has only one interpretation for him1 an interpretation often unsuspected at the time2 and so things cling obstinately in his memory and remain there inextinguishably1 although he may have taken not the smallest trouble to take note of them4 ,and so one may almost take as another mark of the genius that the phrase 8this is no longer true0 has no meaning for him4 ,there is nothing that is no longer true for him1 probably just because he has a clearer idea than other men of the changes that come with time4 ,the following appears to be one of the best means for the objective examination of the endowment of a man3 ,if after a long separation from him we resume the new intercourse with the circumstances of the last1 then we shall find that the highly endowed man has forgotten nothing1 that he vividly and completely takes up the subject from where it was left off with the fullest recollection of the details4 ,how much ordinary men forget of their lives any one can prove to his astonishment and horror4 ,it may happen that we have been for hours importantly engaged with a man a few weeks before1 and we may find that he has forgotten all about it4 ,it is true that if one recalls all the circumstances to his mind1 he begins to remember1 and1 finally1 with sufficient help1 may remember almost completely4 ,such experience has made me think that there may be an empirical proof of the hypothesis that no absolute forgetting ever occurs2 that if the right method with the individual be chosen recollection may always be induced4 ,it follows also that from one's own experience1 from what one has thought or said1 heard or read1 felt or done1 one can give the smallest possible to another1 that the other does not already know4 ,consideration of the amount that a man can take in from another would seem to serve as a sort of objective measure of his genius1 a measure that does not have to wait for an estimation of his actual creative efforts4 ,i am not going to discuss the extent to which this theory opposes current views on education1 but ,i recommend parents and teachers to pay attention to it4 ,the extent to which a man can detect differences and resemblances must depend on his memories4 ,this faculty will be best developed in those whose past permeates their present1 all the moments of the life of whom are amalgamated4 ,such persons will have the greatest opportunities of detecting resemblances and so finding the material for comparisons4 ,they will always seize hold of from the past what has the greatest resemblance to the present experience1 and the two experiences will be combined in such a way that no similarities or differences will be concealed4 ,and so they are able to maintain the past against the influence of the present4 ,it is not without reason that from time immemorial the special merit of poetry has been considered to be its richness in beautiful comparisons and pictures1 or that we turn to again and again1 or await our favourite images with impatience when we read ,homer or ,shakespeare or ,klopstock4 ,to-day when1 for the first time for a century and a half1 ,germany is without great poets or painters1 and when none the less it is impossible to find any one who is not an 8author10 the power of clear and beautiful comparison seems to have gone4 ,a period the nature of which can best be described in vague and dubious words1 the philosophy of which has become in more than one sense the philosophy of the unconscious can contain nothing great4 ,consciousness is the mark of greatness1 and before it the unconscious is dispersed as the sun disperses a mist4 ,if only consciousness were to come to this age1 how quickly voices that are now famous would become silent4 ,it is only in full consciousness1 in which the experience of the present assumes greater intensity by its union with all the experiences of the past1 that imagination1 the necessary quality for all philosophical as for all artistic effort1 can find a place4 ,it is untrue1 therefore1 that women have more imagination than men4 ,the experiences on account of which men have assigned higher powers of imagination to women come entirely from the imaginative sexual life of women4 ,the only inferences that can be drawn from this do not belong to the present section of my work4 ,the absence of women from the history of music must be referred to deeper causes2 but it also supports my contention that women are devoid of imagination4 ,to produce music requires a great deal more imagination than the malest woman possesses1 and much more than is required for other kinds of artistic or for scientific effort4 ,there is nothing in nature1 nothing in the sphere of the senses1 corresponding directly with sound pictures4 ,music has no relation to the world of experience2 there is no 8music10 no chords or melodies in the natural world2 these have to be evolved from the imagination of the composer4 ,every other art has more definite relations to empirical art4 ,even architecture1 which has been compared with music1 has definite relations to matter1 although1 like music1 it has no anticipations in the senses4 ,architecture1 too1 is an entirely masculine occupation4 ,the very idea of a female architect excites compassion4 ,the so-called stupefying effect of music on the creative or practical musician 7especially instrumental music7 depends on the fact that even the sense of smell is a better guide to man in the world of experience than the contents of a musical work4 ,and it is just this complete absence of all relation to the world of sight1 taste1 and smell1 that makes music specially unfitted to express the female nature4 ,it also explains why this peculiarity of his art demands the highest grade of imagination from a musician1 and why those to whom musical compositions 8come0 seem stranger to their fellow men than painters or sculptors4 ,the so-called 8imagination0 of women must be very different from that of men1 since there is no woman with even the same position in the history of music that ,angelica ,kaufmann had in art4 ,where anything obviously depends on strong moulding women have not the smallest leaning towards its production1 neither in philosophy nor in music1 in the plastic arts nor in architecture4 ,where1 however1 a weak and vague sentimentality can be expressed with little effort1 as in painting or verse-making1 or in pseudo-mysticism and theosophy1 women have sought and found a suitable field for their efforts4 ,their lack of productiveness in the former sphere is in harmony with the vagueness of the psychical life of women4 ,music is the nearest possible approach to the organisation of a sensation4 ,nothing is more definite1 characteristic1 and impressive than a melody1 nothing that will more strongly resist obliteration4 ,one remembers much longer what is sung than what is spoken1 and the arias better than the recitatives4 ,let us note specially here that the usual phrases of the defenders of women do not apply to the case of women4 ,music is not one of the arts to which women have had access only so recently that it is too soon to expect fruits2 from the remotest antiquity women have sung and played4 ,and yet4444 ,it is to be remembered that even in the case of drawing and painting women have now had opportunities for at least two centuries4 ,every one knows how many girls learn to draw and sketch1 and it cannot be said that there has not yet been time for results were results possible4 ,as there are so few female painters with the smallest importance in the history of art1 it must be that there is something in the nature of things against it4 ,as a matter of fact1 the painting and etching of women is no more than a sort of elegant1 luxurious handiwork4 ,the sensuous1 physical element of colour is more suitable for them than the intellectual work of formal line-drawing1 and hence it is1 that whereas women have acquired some small distinction in painting they have gained none in drawing4 ,the power of giving form to chaos is with those in whom the most universal memory has made the widest comprehension possible2 it is a quality of the masculine genius4 ,i regret that ,i must so continually use the word genius1 as if that should apply only to a caste as well defined from those below as income-tax payers are from the untaxed4 ,the word genius was very probably invented by a man who had small claims on it himself2 greater men would have understood better what to be a genius really was1 and probably they would have come to see that the word could be applied to most people4 ,goethe said that perhaps only a genius is able to understand a genius4 ,there are probably very few people who have not at some time of their lives had some quality of genius4 ,if they have not had such1 it is probable that they have also been without great sorrow or great pain4 ,they would have needed only to live sufficiently intently for a time for some quality to reveal itself4 ,the poems of first love are a case in point1 and certainly such love is a sufficient stimulus4 ,it must not be forgotten that quite ordinary men in moments of excitement1 in anger at some underhanded deed1 have found words with which they never would have been credited4 ,the greater part of what is called expression in art as in language depends 7if the reader will remember what ,i have said about the process of 8clarification07 on the fact that some individual more richly endowed clarifies1 organises1 and exhibits some idea almost instantaneously1 an idea which to a less endowed person was still in the henid form4 ,the course of clarification is much shortened in the mind of the second person4 ,if it really were the case1 as popular opinion has tried to establish1 that the genius were separated from ordinary men by a thick wall through which no sound could penetrate1 then all understanding of the efforts of genius would be denied to ordinary men1 and their works would fail to make any impression on them4 ,all hopes of progress depend on this being untrue4 ,and it is untrue4 ,the difference between men of genius and the others is quantitative not qualitative1 of degree not of kind4 ,there is1 moreover1 very little sense in preventing young people from giving expression to their ideas on the pretext that they have less experience than have older persons4 ,there are many who may live a thousand years without encountering experience of any value4 ,it could only be in a society of persons equally gifted that such an idea could have any meaning4 ,because the life of the genius is more intense even in his earliest years than that of other children1 his memory can go further back4 ,in extreme cases the memory may be complete and vivid back to the third year of life1 whereas in most recollection begins much later4 ,i know some people whose earliest recollections date only from their eighth year1 and there are instances of an even later beginning of the conscious life4 ,i do not maintain that the date at which active memory begins can be taken as a measure of relative genius1 that he who remembers from his second year is so much the more of a genius than he who can go back only to his fourth or fifth year4 ,but in a general way1 ,i believe the parallel to hold good4 ,even in the cases of the greatest men1 some time1 greater or shorter1 elapsed between the date of their earliest recollection and the time from which onwards they remember everything1 from the time1 in fact1 in which their genius was ripe4 ,but in the case of most men there is forgetfulness of the greater part of their lives2 they are conscious only that they themselves and none other have lived their lives4 ,out of their whole lives there only remain certain moments1 and scattered recollections1 which serve as sign-posts4 ,if they are asked about any particular thing they can only tell1 for instance1 because in such and such a month they were so old1 or they wore such and such clothes1 they lived at this place1 or that their income was so much4 ,if one has lived with them in former years1 it is only after great trouble that the past can be brought to their mind4 ,in such cases one is surely justified in saying that such a person is ungifted1 or at least in not considering him conspicuously able4 ,the request for an autobiography would put most men into a most painful position2 they could scarcely tell if they were asked what they had done the day before4 ,memory with most people is quite spasmodic and purely associative4 ,in the case of the man of genius every impression that he has received endures2 he is always under the influence of impressions2 and so nearly all men of genius tend to suffer from fixed ideas4 ,the psychical condition of men's minds may be compared with a set of bells close together1 and so arranged that in the ordinary man a bell rings only when one beside it sounds1 and the vibration lasts only a moment4 ,in the genius1 when a bell sounds it vibrates so strongly that it sets in action the whole series1 and remains in action throughout life4 ,the latter kind of movement often gives rise to extraordinary conditions and absurd impulses1 that may last for weeks together and that form the basis of the supposed kinship of genius with insanity4 ,for similar reasons gratitude is apparently the rarest human virtue4 ,people are often very conscious of how much they have borrowed1 but they neither can nor will try to remember the necessity in which they stood1 nor the freedom which that help brought them4 ,even if want of memory were really the cause of ingratitude1 it would not be sufficient for a man to possess a marvellous memory to have a like spirit of gratitude4 ,a special condition is also necessary1 but its description cannot be undertaken here4 ,from the connection between giftedness and memory which is so often mistaken and denied because it is not sought where it is to be found1 from the power of self recollection1 a further fact is to be deduced4 ,the poet who feels urged to write without premeditation1 without reflection1 without having willingly pressed the pedal2 the musician to whom the desire to compose has come1 so that he must create whether he will or no1 even if he feels more inclined to sleep or to rest2 these1 in such moments1 will simply reproduce thoughts they have carried in their heads all their lives4 ,a composer who can remember none of his songs or subjects by heart1 or a poet who cannot recollect any of his poems--without having carefully learned them--such men are in no sense really great4 ,before we apply these remarks to the consideration of the mental differences of the sexes1 we must make yet one more distinction between different kinds of memory4 ,the individual moments in the life of a gifted man are not remembered as disconnected points1 not as different particles of time1 each one separated and defined from the following one1 as the numerals one1 two1 and so on4 ,the result of self-observation shows that sleep1 the limitations of consciousness1 the gaps in memory1 even special experiences1 appear to be in some mysterious way one great whole2 incidents do not follow each other like the tickings of a watch1 but they pass along in a single unbroken stream4 ,with ordinary men the moments which are united in a close continuity out of the original discrete multiplicity are very few1 and the course of their lives resembles a little brook1 whereas with the genius it is more like a mighty river into which all the little rivulets flow from afar2 that is to say1 the universal comprehension of genius vibrates to no experience in which all the individual moments have not been gathered up and stored4 ,this peculiar continuity by which a man first realises that he exists1 that he is1 and that he is in the world1 is all comprehensive in the genius1 limited to a few important moments in the mediocre1 and altogether lacking in woman4 ,when a woman looks back over her life and lives again her experiences1 there is presented no continuous1 unbroken stream1 but only a few scattered points4 ,and what kind of points8 ,they are just those which accord with woman's natural instincts4 ,of what these interests exclusively consist the second chapter gave a preliminary idea2 and those who remember the ideas in question will not be astonished at the following facts3 ,the female is concerned altogether with one class of recollections--those connected with the sexual impulse and reproduction4 ,she thinks of her lovers and proposals1 of her marriage day1 of every child as if it were a doll2 of the flowers which she received at every ball1 the number1 size1 and price of the bouquets2 of every serenade2 of every verse which 7as she fondly imagines7 was written for her2 of every phrase by which a lover has impressed her2 but above all--with an exactness which is as contemptible as it is disquieting to herself--of every compliment without exception that has ever been paid her4 ,that is all that the real woman recalls of her life4 ,but it is just those things which human beings never forget1 and those they cannot remember that give the clue to knowledge of their life and character4 ,it belongs to a later period of the book to go more thoroughly into the reason why the female has precisely the remembrances she has4 ,some important conclusion may be expected from reflection on the incredible memory with which women recall all the adulation and flattery1 all the proofs of gallantry1 which have happened to them since childhood4 ,whatever may be urged against the present complete limitation of the female memory to the sphere of sexuality and conjugal life1 it is to me quite evident4 ,various arguments about girls' schools1 and so forth1 ,i am prepared for4 ,these difficulties will have to be cleared away later4 ,but ,i must just say again that all memory1 which is to be used as a means of psychological definition of the individual1 can include only the memory of what has been learnt when learning means actual experience4 ,the explanation of the discontinuity in the psychical life of women 7reference to which is introduced here1 only because it is a necessary psychological factor in the problem of memory1 and without reference to its spiritualistic or idealistic significance7 can be reached only when the nature of continuity is studied with reference to the deepest problems of philosophy and psychology4 ,as a proof of the fact ,i will at present quote nothing more than the statement of ,lotze1 which has so often caused astonishment1 that women much more readily submit themselves to new relationships and more easily accommodate themselves to them than men1 in whom the parvenu can be seen much longer1 whereas one might not be able to tell the peasant from the peeress1 the woman brought up in poor surroundings from the patrician's daughter4 ,later on ,i shall deal more exhaustively with this subject4 ,at any rate1 it will now be seen why 7if neither vanity1 desire for gossip1 nor imitation drives them to it7 only the better men write down recollections of their lives1 and how ,i perceive in this a strong evidence of the connection between memory and giftedness4 ,it is not as if every man of genius wished to write an autobiography3 the incitement to autobiography comes from special1 very deep-seated psychological conditions4 ,but on the other hand1 the writing of a full autobiography1 if it is the outcome of a genuine desire1 is always the sign of a superior man4 ,for real faithful memory is the source of reverence4 ,the really great would resist any temptation to give up his past in exchange for material advantage or mental health2 the greatest treasures of the world1 even happiness itself1 he would not take in exchange for his memories4 ,the desire for a draught of the waters of ,lethe is the trait of mediocre or inferior natures4 ,and however much a really great man1 as ,goethe says1 may condemn and abhor his past failings1 and although he sees others clinging fast to theirs1 he will never smile at those past actions and failings of his own1 or make merry over his early mode of life and thought4 ,the class of persons1 now so much in evidence1 who claim to have 8conquered0 their pasts1 have the smallest possible claim to the word 8conquer40 ,they are those who idly relate that they formerly believed this or the other1 but have now 8overcome0 their beliefs1 whereas they are as little in earnest about the present as they were about the past4 ,they see only the mechanism1 not the soul of things1 and at no stage what they believe themselves to have conquered was deep in their natures4 ,in contrast with these it may be noticed with what painful care great men render even the1 apparently1 most minute details in their own biographies3 for them the past and present are equal2 with others neither of the two are real4 ,the famous man realises how everything1 even the smallest1 most secondary1 matters played an important part in his life1 how they have helped his development1 and to this fact is due his extraordinary reverence for his own memoirs4 ,and such an autobiography is not written all at once1 as it were1 with one event treated like another1 and without meditation2 nor does the idea of it suddenly occur to a man2 the material for such a work by a great man1 so to speak1 is always at hand4 ,his new experiences acquire a deeper significance because of the past1 which is always present to him1 and hence the great man and only the great man1 feels that he himself is in very truth a 8man of destiny40 ,and so it comes that great men are always more 8superstitious0 than average men4 ,to sum up1 ,i may say3 ,a man is himself important precisely in proportion that all things seem important to him4 ,in the course of further investigation this dictum will be seen to have a deep significance even apart from its bearing on the universality1 comprehension1 and comparison exhibited by the genius4 ,the position of woman in these matters is not difficult to explain4 ,a real woman never becomes conscious of a destiny1 of her own destiny2 she is not heroic2 she fights most for her possessions1 and there is nothing tragic in the struggle as her own fate is decided with the fate of her possessions4 ,inasmuch as woman is without continuity1 she can have no true reverence2 as a fact1 reverence is a purely male virtue4 ,a man is first reverent about himself1 and self-respect is the first stage in reverence for all things4 ,but it costs a woman very little to break off with her past2 if the word irony could be fittingly used here1 one might say that a man does not easily regard his past with irony and superiority as women appear to do--and not only after marriage4 ,later on ,i shall show how women are exactly the opposite of that which reverence means4 ,i would rather be silent about the reverence of widows4 ,the superstition of women is psychologically absolutely different from the superstitions of famous men4 ,the reverent relation to one's own past1 which depends on a real continuity of memory1 and which is possible only by comprehension1 can be shown in relation to a still wider and deeper subject4 ,whether a man has a real relationship to his own past or not1 involves the question as to whether he has a desire for immortality1 or if the idea of death is indifferent to him4 ,the desire for immortality is to-day1 as a rule1 treated shamefully1 and in a very different spirit4 ,not only is the problem treated as merely ontological1 but the psychological side of it is only trifled with4 ,it has been held that it is connected1 like the doctrine of the transmigration of souls1 with the feeling that we have all experienced1 when1 in doing something certainly for the first time1 we seem to remember having gone through the same experience before4 ,another generally adopted view is to derive the idea of immortality from the belief in spirits1 as has been done by ,tylor1 ,spencer1 ,avenarius1 and others1 although in any other age than this age of experimental psychology it would have been dismissed a priori4 ,i am sure that it must seem impossible to the majority of thinking men to regard a belief so important to mankind1 about which there has been so much strife1 as merely the last stage in a syllogism of which the first premiss is the midnight dream of a dead man4 ,how can phenomena of that kind explain the belief in the continuity of their lives after death held so firmly by ,goethe or ,bach1 or the desire for immortality which speaks to us in ,beethoven's last sonatas8 ,the desire for the persistence of the conscious self must spring from sources mightier than these feeble rationalistic guesses4 ,the deeper source of the belief depends on the relation of a man to his own past4 ,our consciousness and vision of the past is the strongest ground for our desire to be conscious in the future4 ,the man who values his past1 who holds his mental life in greater respect than his corporeal life1 is not willing to give up his consciousness at death4 ,and so this organic primary desire for immortality is strongest in men of genius1 in the men whose pasts are richest4 ,this connection between the desire for immortality and memory receives strong support from what is related by those who have been rescued from sudden death4 ,even if they had not thought it out before they relive their past in a few moments1 at once and with frantic rapidity4 ,the feeling of what is impending brings in violent contrast the intensity of the present consciousness and the idea that it may cease for ever4 ,in reality we know very little of the mental state of the dying4 ,it takes more than an ordinary person to interpret it1 and for reasons connected with what ,i have been saying men of genius usually avoid death-beds4 ,but it is quite wrong to ascribe the sudden appearance of religion in so many people who are fatally ill1 to a desire to make sure of their future state4 ,it is extremely superficial to assume that the doctrine of hell can for the first time assume such an importance to the dying as to make them afraid to pass away 8with a lie on their lips40#aj #aj ,i venture to remind readers how often at the approach of death those who have been occupied with purely scientific matters have turned to religious problems1 e4g41 ,newton1 ,gauss1 ,riemann1 ,weber4 ,the important point is this3 ,why do men who have lived throughout a lying life feel towards the end a sudden desire for truth8 ,and why are others so horrified1 although they do not believe in punishment in the next world1 when they hear of a man dying with a lie on his lips or with an unrepented action8 ,and why have both the hardness of heart until the end and the death-bed repentance appealed so forcibly to the imagination of poets8 ,the discussion as to the 8euthanasia0 of atheists1 which was so popular in the eighteenth century1 is more than a mere historical curiosity as ,f4 ,a4 ,lange considered it4 ,i adduce these considerations not merely to suggest a possibility which is hardly more than a guess4 ,it seems to be unthinkable that it is not the case that many more people than actual geniuses have some trace of genius4 ,the quantitative difference in natural endowment will be most marked at the moment when the endowment becomes active4 ,and for most men this moment is the point of death4 ,if we were not accustomed to regard men of genius as a separate class shut off from the others like the payers of income-tax1 we should find less difficulty in grafting these new ideas on the old4 ,and just as the earliest recollections of childhood which a man has are not the result of some external event breaking through the continuity of the past course of his life1 but are the result of his internal development1 there comes to every one a day on which his consciousness is so intensified that remembrance remains1 and from that time onwards1 according to his endowment1 more or fewer remembrances are formed 7a factor which by itself upsets the whole of modern psychology71 so in different men there are many different stimulants of the consciousness of which the last is the hour of death1 and from the point of view of their degree of genius men might almost be classified by the number of things that excite their consciousness4 ,i take this opportunity of again urging the falseness of a doctrine of modern psychology 7which treats men simply as better or worse pieces of registering apparatus and takes no notice of the internal1 ontogenetic development of the mind72 ,i mean the idea that in youth we retain the greatest number of impressions4 ,we must not confuse really experienced impressions with the mere material on which to exercise memorising4 ,such stuff a child learns more easily simply because it is not weighted with mental impressions4 ,a psychology which is opposed to experience in matters so fundamental must be rejected4 ,what ,i am attempting at present is no more than to give the faintest indication of that ontogenetic psychology or theoretical biography which sooner or later will replace what now passes for the science of mind4 ,every programme represents some definite conviction2 before we wish to reach a goal we have some definite conception of what the goal is to be4 ,the name 8theoretical biography0 will define the new subject from philosophy and physiology1 and the biological method of treatment introduced by ,darwin1 ,spencer1 and others will be widened until it becomes a science capable of giving a rational orderly account of the whole course of the mental life from the cradle to the grave4 ,it is to be called biography1 not biology1 because it is to deal with the investigation of the permanent laws that rule the mental development of an individual1 whereas biology itself concerns itself with individuals themselves4 ,the new knowledge will seek general points of view and the establishment of types4 ,psychology must try to become theoretical biography4 ,existing psychology would find its place in the branches of the new science1 and in this way only would ,wundt's desire to establish the foundations of a science of the mind be fulfilled4 ,it would be absurd to despair of this simply because of the uselessness of the existing science of the mind which has not yet even grasped its own object4 ,in this way a justification for experimental psychology might yet be found1 in spite of the important results of the investigations by ,windelband and ,rickert on the relation between natural and psychical science1 or the old dichotomy between the physical and mental sciences4 ,the relation between the continuity of memory and the desire for immortality is borne out by the fact that woman is devoid of the desire for immortality4 ,it is to be noted that those persons are quite wrong who have attributed the desire for immortality to the fear of death4 ,women are as much afraid of death as are men1 but they have not the longing for immortality4 ,my attempted explanation of the psychological desire for immortality is as yet more an indication of the connection between the desire and memory than a deduction from a higher natural law4 ,it will always be found that the connection actually exists2 the more a man lives in his past 7not1 as a superficial reader might guess1 in his future7 the more intense will be his longing for immortality4 ,the lack of the desire for immortality in women is to be associated with the lack in them of reverence for their own personality4 ,it seems1 however1 that the absence of both reverence and desire for immortality in woman is due to a more general principle1 and in the same fashion in the case of man the co-existence of a higher form of memory and the desire for immortality may be traced to some deeper root4 ,so far1 ,i have attempted only to show the coincidence of the two1 how the deep respect for their own past and the deep desire for their own future are to be found in the same individuals4 ,it will now be my task to find the common origin of these two factors of the mind4 ,let us take as a starting-point what we were able to lay down as to the universality of the memory of great men4 ,to such everything is equally real3 what took place long ago and the most recent experience4 ,thus it happens that a single experience does not end with the moment of time in which it happened1 does not disappear as this moment of time disappears1 but through the memory is wrested from the grasp of time4 ,memory makes experience timeless2 the essence of it is that it should transcend time4 ,a man can only remember the past because memory is free from the control of time1 because events which in nature are functions of time1 in the spirit have conquered time4 ,but here a difficulty crops up4 ,how can memory be a negation of time if1 on the other hand1 it is certain that if we had no memory we should be unconscious of time8 ,it is certainly true that we shall always be conscious of the passing of time by our memory of the past4 ,if the two are in so intimate a relation how can the one be the negation of the other8 ,the difficulty is easy to resolve4 ,it is just because a living creature--not necessarily a human being--by being endowed with memory is not wholly absorbed by the experiences of the moment that it can1 so to speak1 oppose itself to time1 take cognisance of it1 and make it the subject of observation4 ,were the being wholly abandoned to the experience of the moment and not saved from it by memory then it would change with time and be a floating bubble in the stream of events2 it could never be conscious of time1 for consciousness implies duality4 ,the mind must have transcended time to grasp it1 it must have stood outside it in order to be able to reflect upon it4 ,this does not apply merely to special moments of time1 as1 for instance1 to the case that we cannot be conscious of sorrow until the sorrow is over1 but it is a part of the conception of time4 ,if we could not free ourselves from time1 we could have no knowledge of time4 ,in order to understand the condition of timelessness let us reflect on what memory rescues from time4 ,what transcends time is only what is of interest to the individual1 what has meaning for him2 in fact1 all that he assigns value to4 ,we remember only the things that have some value for us even if we are unconscious of the value4 ,it is the value that creates the timelessness4 ,we forget everything that has no value for us even if we are unconscious of that absence of value4 ,what has value1 then1 is timeless2 or1 to put it the other way1 a thing has the more value the less it is a function of time4 ,in all the world value is in proportion to independence of time2 only things that are timeless have a positive value4 ,although this is not what ,i take to be the deepest and fullest meaning of value1 it is1 at least1 the first special law of the theory of values4 ,a hasty survey of common facts will suffice to prove this relation between value and duration4 ,we are always inclined to pay little attention to the views of those whom we have known only for a short time1 and1 as a rule1 we think little of the hasty judgments of those who easily change their ideas4 ,on the other hand1 uncompromising fixedness gains respect1 even if it assume the form of vindictiveness or obstinacy4 ,the re perennius of the ,roman poets and the ,egyptian pyramids lasting for forty centuries are favourite images4 ,the reputation a man leaves behind him would soon be depreciated were it suspected that it would soon disappear instead of being handed down the centuries4 ,a man dislikes to be told that he is always changing2 but let it be put that he is simply showing new sides of his character and he will be proud of the permanence through the changes4 ,he who is tired of life1 for whom life has ceased to be of interest1 is interesting to no one4 ,the fear of the extinction of a name or of a family is well known4 ,so also statute laws and customs lose in value if their validity is expressly limited in time2 and if two people are making a bargain1 they will be the more ready to distrust one another if the bargain is to be only of short duration4 ,in fact1 the value that we attach to things depends to a large extent on our estimate of their durability4 ,this law of values is the chief reason why men are interested in their death and their future4 ,the desire for value shows itself in the efforts to free things from time1 and this pressure is exerted even in the case of things which sooner or later must change1 as1 for instance1 riches and position and everything that we call the goods of this world4 ,here lies the psychological motive for the making of wills and the bestowal of property4 ,the motive is not care for relatives1 because a man without relatives very often is more anxious to settle his goods1 not feeling1 perhaps1 like the head of a family1 that in any event his existence will have some kind of permanence1 that traces of him will be left after his own death4 ,the great politician or ruler1 and especially the despot1 whose rule ends with his death1 seeks to increase his own value by making it independent of time4 ,he may attempt it through a code of laws or a biography like that of ,julius ,csar1 by some great philosophical undertaking1 by the founding of museums or collections1 or 7and this perhaps is the favourite way7 by alterations of the calendar4 ,and he seeks to extend his power to the utmost during his life-time1 to preserve it and make it stable by enduring contracts and diplomatic marriages1 and most of all by attacking and removing everything that could endanger the permanence of his kingdom4 ,and so the politician becomes a conqueror4 ,psychological and philosophical investigations of the theory of values have neglected the time element4 ,perhaps this is because they have been very much under the influence of political economy4 ,i believe1 however1 that the application of my principle to political economy would be of considerable value4 ,very slight reflection will lead one to see that in commercial affairs the time element is a most important factor in estimating value4 ,the common definition of value1 that it is in proportion to the power of the thing valued to relieve our wants1 is quite incomplete without the element of time4 ,such things as air and water have no value only in so far as they are not localised and individualised2 but as soon as they have been localised and individualised1 and so received form1 they have received a quality that may not last1 and with the idea of duration comes the idea of value4 ,form and timelessness1 or individuation and duration1 are the two factors which compose value4 ,thus it can be shown that the fundamental law of the theory of value applies both to individual psychology and to social psychology4 ,and now ,i can return to what is1 after all1 the special task of this chapter4 ,the first general conclusion to be made is that the desire for timelessness1 a craving for value1 pervades all spheres of human activity4 ,and this desire for real value1 which is deeply bound up with the desire for power1 is completely absent in the woman4 ,it is only in comparatively rare cases that old women trouble to make exact directions about the disposition of their property1 a fact in obvious relation with the absence in them of the desire for immortality4 ,over the dispositions of a man there is the weight of something solemn and impressive--something which makes him respected by other men4 ,the desire for immortality itself is merely a specific case of the general law that only timeless things have a positive value4 ,on this is founded its connection with memory4 ,the permanence with which experiences stay with a man is proportional to the significance which they had for him4 ,putting it in a paradoxical form1 ,i may say3 ,value is created by the past4 ,only that which has a positive value remains protected by memory from the jaws of time2 and so it may be with the individual psychical life as a whole4 ,if it is to have a positive value1 it must not be a function of time1 but must subdue time by eternal duration after physical death4 ,this draws us incomparably nearer the innermost motive of the desire for immortality4 ,the complete loss of significance which a rich1 individual1 fully-lived life would suffer if it were all to end with death1 and the consequent senselessness of everything1 as ,goethe said1 in other words1 to ,eckermann 7,february #ad1 #ahbi7 lead to the demand for immortality4 ,the strongest craving for immortality is possessed by the genius1 and this is explained by all the other facts which have been discussed as to his nature4 ,memory only fully vanquishes time when it appears in a universal form1 as in universal men4 ,the genius is thus the only timeless man--at least1 this and nothing else is his ideal of himself2 he is1 as is proved by his passionate and urgent desire for immortality1 just the man with the strongest demand for timelessness1 with the greatest desire for value4#aa #aa ,it is often a cause for astonishment that men with quite ordinary1 even vulgar1 natures experience no fear of death4 ,but it is quite explicable3 it is not the fear of death which creates the desire for immortality1 but the desire for immortality which causes fear of death4 ,and now we are face to face with an almost astonishing coincidence4 ,the timelessness of the genius will not only be manifest in relation to the single moments of his life1 but also in his relation to what is known as 8his generation10 or1 in a narrower sense1 8his time40 ,as a matter of fact1 he has no relations at all with it4 ,the age does not create the genius it requires4 ,the genius is not the product of his age1 is not to be explained by it1 and we do him no honour if we attempt to account for him by it4 ,carlyle justly noted how many epochs had called for great men1 how badly they had needed them1 and how they still did not obtain them4 ,the coming of genius remains a mystery1 and men reverently abandon their efforts to explain it4 ,and as the causes of its appearance do not lie in any one age1 so also the consequences are not limited by time4 ,the achievements of genius live for ever1 and time cannot change them4 ,by his works a man of genius is granted immortality on the earth1 and thus in a threefold manner he has transcended time4 ,his universal comprehension and memory forbid the annihilation of his experiences with the passing of the moment in which each occurred2 his birth is independent of his age1 and his work never dies4 ,here is the best place to consider a question which1 strangely enough1 appears to have received no attention4 ,the question is1 if there be anything akin to genius in the world of animals and plants8 ,although it must be admitted that exceptional forms occur amongst animals and plants1 these cannot be regarded as coming under our definition of genius4 ,talent may exist amongst them as amongst men below the standard of genius4 ,but the special gift1 what ,moreau1 ,lombroso1 and others have called the 8divine spark10 we must deny to animals4 ,this limitation is not jealousy nor the anxious guarding of a privilege1 but is founded on good grounds4 ,is there anything unexplained by the assumption that the first appearance of genius was in man6 ,in the first place1 it is because of this that the human race has an objective mind2 in other words1 that man is the only organism with a history4 ,the history of the human race 7naturally ,i mean the history of its mind and not merely of its wars7 is readily intelligible on the theory of the appearance of genius1 and of the imitation by the more monkey-like individuals of the conduct of those with genius4 ,the chief stages1 no doubt1 were house-building1 agriculture1 and1 above all1 speech4 ,every single word has been the invention of a single man1 as1 indeed1 we still see1 if we leave out of consideration the merely technical terms4 ,how else could language have arisen8 ,the earliest words were 8onomatopoetic02 a sound similar to the exciting cause was evolved almost without the will of the speaker1 in direct response to the sensuous stimulation4 ,all the other words were originally metaphors1 or comparisons1 a kind of primitive poetry1 for all prose has come from poetry4 ,many1 perhaps the majority of the greatest geniuses1 have remained unknown4 ,think of the proverbs1 now almost commonplaces1 such as 8one good turn deserves another40 ,these were said for the first time by some great man4 ,how many quotations from the classics1 or sayings of ,christ1 have passed into the common language1 so that we have to think twice before we can remember who were the authors of them4 ,language is as little the work of the multitude as our ballads4 ,every form of speech owes much that is not acknowledged to individuals of another language4 ,because of the universality of genius1 the words and phrases that he invents are useful not only to those who use the language in which he wrote them4 ,a nation orients itself by its own geniuses1 and derives from them its ideas of its own ideals1 but the guiding star serves also as a light to other nations4 ,as speech has been created by a few great men1 the most extraordinary wisdom lies concealed in it1 a wisdom which reveals itself to a few ardent explorers but which is usually overlooked by the stupid professional philologists4 ,the genius is not a critic of language1 but its creator1 as he is the creator of all the mental achievements which are the material of culture and which make up the objective mind1 the spirit of the peoples4 ,the 8timeless0 men are those who make history1 for history can be made only by those who are not floating with the stream4 ,it is only those who are unconditioned by time who have real value1 and whose productions have an enduring force4 ,and the events that become forces of culture become so only because they have an enduring value4 ,if we make a criterion of genius the exhibition of this threefold 8timelessness0 we shall have a measure by which it is easy to test all claimants4 ,lombroso and ,trck have expanded the popular view which ascribes genius to all whose intellectual or practical achievements are much above the average4 ,kant and ,schelling have insisted on the more exclusive doctrine that genius can be predicated only of the great creative artists4 ,the truth probably lies between the two4 ,i am inclined to think that only great artists and great philosophers 7amongst the latter1 ,i include1 above all1 the great religious teachers7 have proved a claim to genius4 ,neither the 8man of action0 nor 8the man of science0 has any claim4 ,men of action1 famous politicians and generals1 may possess a few traits resembling genius 7particularly a specially good knowledge of men and an enormous capacity for remembering people74 ,the psychology of such traits will be dealt with later2 they are confused with genius only by those whom the externals of greatness dazzle4 ,the man of genius almost typically renounces such external greatness because of the real greatness within him4 ,the really great man has the strongest sense of values2 the distinguished general is absorbed by the desire for power4 ,the former seeks to link power with real value2 the latter desires that power itself should be valued4 ,great generals and great politicians1 like the bird ,phnix1 are born out of fiery chaos and like it disappear again in chaos4 ,the great emperor or the great demagogue is the only man who lives entirely in the present2 he does not dream of a more beautiful1 better future2 his mind does not dwell on his own past which has already passed1 and so in the two ways most possible to man1 he does not transcend time1 but lives only in the moment4 ,the great genius does not let his work be determined by the concrete finite conditions that surround him1 whilst it is from these that the work of the statesman takes its direction and its termination4 ,and so the great emperor is no more than a phenomenon of nature1 whereas the genius is outside nature and is an incorporation of the mind4 ,the works of men of action crumble at the death of their authors1 if indeed they have not already decayed1 or they survive only a brief time leaving no traces behind them except what the chronicles record as having been done and later undone4 ,the emperor creates no works that survive time1 passing into eternity2 such creations come from genius4 ,it is the genius in reality and not the other who is the creator of history1 for it is only the genius who is outside and unconditioned by history4 ,the great man has a history1 the emperor is only a part of history4 ,the great man transcends time2 time creates and time destroys the emperor4 ,the great man of science1 unless he is also a philosopher 7,i think of such names as ,newton and ,gauss1 ,linnus and ,darwin1 ,copernicus and ,galileo71 deserves the title of genius as little as the man of action4 ,men of science are not universal2 they deal only with a branch or branches of knowledge4 ,this is not due1 as is sometimes said1 merely to the extreme modern specialisation that makes it impossible to master everything4 ,even in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries there are still amongst the learned men individuals with a knowledge as many-sided as that of ,aristotle or ,leibnitz2 the names of von ,humboldt and ,william ,wundt at once come to my mind4 ,the absence of genius comes from something much more deeply seated in the men of science1 and in science itself1 from a cause which ,i shall explain in the eighth chapter4 ,probably some one may be disposed to argue that if even the most distinguished men of science have not a knowledge so universal as that of the philosopher1 there are some who stand on the outermost fringes of philosophy1 and to whom it is yet difficult to deny the word genius4 ,i think of such men as ,fichte1 ,schleiermacher1 ,carlyle1 and ,nietzsche4 ,which of the merely scientific has felt in himself an unconditioned comprehension of all men and of all things1 or even the capacity to verify any single thing in his mind and by his mind8 ,on the contrary1 has not the whole history of the science of the last thousand years been directed against this8 ,this is the reason why men of science are necessarily one-sided4 ,no man of science1 unless he is also a philosopher1 however eminent his achievements1 has that continuous unforgetting life that the genius exhibits1 and this is because of his want of universality4 ,finally1 it is to be observed that the investigations of the scientific are always in definite relation to the knowledge of their day4 ,the scientific man takes possession of a definite store of experimental or observed knowledge1 increases or alters it more or less1 and then hands it on4 ,and much will be taken away from his achievements1 much will silently disappear2 his treatises may make a brave show in the libraries1 but they cease to be actively alive4 ,on the other hand1 we can ascribe to the work of the great philosopher1 as to that of the great artist1 an imperishable1 unchangeable presentation of the world1 not disappearing with time1 and which1 because it was the expression of a great mind1 will always find a school of men to adhere to it4 ,there still exist disciples of ,plato and ,aristotle1 of ,spinoza and ,berkeley and ,bruno1 but there are now none who denote themselves as followers of ,galileo or ,helmholtz1 of ,ptolemy or ,copernicus4 ,it is a misuse of terms1 due to erroneous ideas1 to speak of the 8classics0 of science or of pedagogy in the sense that we speak of the classics of philosophy and art4 ,the great philosopher bears the name of genius deservedly and with honour4 ,and if it will always be the greatest pain to the philosopher that he is not an artist1 so the artist envies the philosopher his tenacious and controlled strength of systematic thought1 and it is not surprising that the artist has taken pleasure in depicting ,prometheus and ,faust1 ,prospera and ,cyprian1 ,paul the ,apostle and ,il ,penseroso4 ,the philosopher and the artist are alternate sides of one another4 ,we must not be too lavish in attributing genius to those who are philosophers or we shall not escape the reproach of being merely partisans of philosophy against science4 ,such a partisanship is foreign to my purpose1 and1 ,i hope1 to this book4 ,it would only be absurd to discuss the claims to genius of such men as ,anaxagoras1 ,geulincx1 ,baader1 or ,emerson4 ,i deny genius either to such unoriginally profound writers as ,angelus ,silesius1 ,philo and ,jacobi1 or to original yet superficial persons such as ,comte1 ,feuerbach1 ,hume1 ,herbart1 ,locke and ,karneades4 ,the history of art is equally full of preposterous valuations1 whilst1 on the other hand1 the history of science is extremely free from false estimations4 ,the history of science busies itself very little with the biographies of its protagonists2 its object is a system of objective1 collective knowledge in which the individual is swept away4 ,the service of science demands the greatest sacrifice1 for in it the individual human being renounces all claim to eternity as such4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,memory1 ,,logic1 ,,and ,,ethics ,the title that ,i have given to this chapter at once opens the way to misinterpretation4 ,it might appear as if the author supported the view that logical and ethical values were the objects exclusively of empirical psychology1 psychical phenomena1 like perception and sensation1 and that logic and ethics1 therefore1 were subsections of psychology and based upon psychology4 ,i declare at once that ,i call this view1 the so-called psychologismus1 at once false and injurious4 ,it is false because it can lead to nothing2 and injurious because1 while it hardly touches logic and ethics1 it overthrows psychology itself4 ,the exclusion of logic and ethics from the foundations of psychology1 and the insertion of them in an appendix1 is one of the results of the overgrowth of the doctrine of empirical perception1 of that strange heap of dead1 fleshless bones which is known as empirical psychology1 and from which all real experience has been excluded4 ,i have nothing to do with the empirical school1 and in this matter lean towards the transcendentalism of ,kant4 ,as the object of my work1 however1 is to discover the differences between different members of humanity1 and not to discuss categories that would hold good for the angels in heaven1 ,i shall not follow ,kant closely1 but remain more directly in psychological paths4 ,the justification of the title of this chapter must be reached along other lines4 ,the tedious1 because entirely new1 demonstration of the earlier part of my work has shown that the human memory stands in intimate relation with things hitherto supposed unconnected with it--such things as time1 value1 genius1 immortality4 ,i have attempted to show that memory stands in intimate connection with all these4 ,there must be some strong reason for the complete absence of earlier allusions to this side of the subject4 ,i believe the reason to be no more than the inadequacy and slovenliness which hitherto have spoiled theories of memory4 ,i must here call attention to a theory first propounded by ,charles ,bonnet in the middle of the eighteenth century and towards the end of the nineteenth century1 specially insisted upon by ,ewald ,hering and ,e4 ,mach4 ,this theory regarded the human memory as being only a special case of a property common to all organised matter1 the property that makes the path of new stimuli rather easier if these resemble stimuli that have acted at some former time4 ,the theory really makes the human memory an adaptation in the sense of ,lamarck1 the result on the living organism of repeated stimulation4 ,it is true that there is a point in common between the human memory and the increase of sensitiveness caused by the repeated application of a stimulus2 that identical element consists in the permanence of the effect of the first stimulation4 ,there is1 however1 a fundamental difference between the growth of a muscle that is much used or the adaptation of the eater of arsenic or morphia to increased doses1 and the recollection of past experiences by human beings4 ,in the one case the trace of the old is just to be felt in the new stimulation2 in the other case1 by means of the consciousness1 the old situations are actually reproduced with all their individuation4 ,the identification of the two is so superficial that it is a waste of time to dwell longer on it4 ,the doctrine of association as the theory of memory is linked with the foregoing physiological theory as a matter of history1 through ,hartley1 and1 as a matter of fact1 because the idea of habit is shared by the two4 ,the association theory attributes memory to the mechanical play of the linking of presentations according to four laws4 ,it overlooks the fact that memory 7the continuous memory of man7 is a function of the will4 ,i can remember a thing if ,i really will4 ,in the case of hypnosis1 when the recollection of all that has been forgotten is induced1 an outside will replaces the will of the subject4 ,it is will that sets in action the chains of association1 and we have to deal here with something deeper than a mechanical principle4 ,in the association psychology1 which first splits up the psychic life1 and then vainly imagines that it can weld the re-assorted pieces together again1 there is another confusion1 the confusion between memory and recollection1 which has persisted in spite of the well-founded objections of ,avenarius and von ,hffding4 ,the recognition of a circumstance does not necessarily involve the special reproduction of the former impression1 even although there seems to be a tendency for the new impression1 at least1 partly to recall the old one4 ,but there is another kind of recognition1 perhaps as common1 in which the new impression does not appear to be directly linked with an association1 but in which it comes1 so to speak1 8coloured0 7,james would say 8tinged07 with that character that would be called by von ,hffding the 8familiarity quality40 ,to him who returns to his native place the roads and streets seem familiar1 even although he has forgotten the names1 has to ask his way1 and can think of no special occasion on which he went along them4 ,a melody may seem 8familiar0 and yet ,i may be unable to say where ,i heard it4 ,the 8character0 7in the sense of ,avenarius7 of familiarity1 of intimacy1 hovers over the sense-impression itself1 and analysis can detect no associations1 none of the fusing of the old and new1 which1 according to the assertion of a presumptuous pseudo-psychology1 produces the feeling2 these cases are quite easy to distinguish from cases in which there is a real although vague association with an older experience in henid form4 ,in individual psychology this distinction is of great importance4 ,in the highest types of mankind the consciousness of the continuous past is present in so active a form that the moment such a one sees an acquaintance in the street he is at once able to reproduce the last meeting as a complete experience1 whereas in the case of the less gifted person1 the feeling of familiarity that makes recognition possible1 occurs when he is able to recall the past connection in all its details4 ,if we now1 in conclusion1 ask whether or no other animals than man possess a similar faculty for remembering and reviving their earlier lives in their entirety it is most probable that the answer must be in the negative4 ,animals could not1 as they do1 remain for hours at a time1 motionless and peaceful on one spot1 if they were capable of thinking of the future or of remembering the past4 ,animals have the feeling of familiarity and the sense of expectation 7as we find from the recognition of his master by a dog after twenty years' absence72 but they possess no memory and no hope4 ,they are capable of recognition through the sense of familiarity1 but they have no memory4 ,as memory has been shown to be a special character unconnected with the lower spheres of psychical life1 and the exclusive property of human beings1 it is not surprising that it is closely related to such higher things as the idea of value and of time1 and the craving for immortality1 which is absent in animals1 and possible to men only in so far as they possess the quality of genius4 ,if memory be an essentially human thing1 part of the deepest being of humanity1 finding expression in mankind's most peculiar qualities1 then it will not be surprising if memory be also related to the phenomena of logic and ethics4 ,i have now to explore this relationship4 ,i may set out from the old proverb that liars have bad memories4 ,it is certain that the pathological liar has practically no memory4 ,about male liars ,i shall have more to say2 they are not common1 however4 ,but if we remember what was said as to the absence of memory amongst women we shall not be surprised at the existence of the numerous proverbs and common sayings about the untruthfulness of women4 ,it is evident that a being whose memory is very slight1 and who can recall only in the most imperfect fashion what it has said or done1 or suffered1 must lie easily if it has the gift of speech4 ,the impulse to untruthfulness will be hard to resist if there is a practical object to be gained1 and if the influence that comes from a full conscious reality of the past be not present4 ,the impulse to lie is stronger in woman1 because1 unlike that of man1 her memory is not continuous1 whilst her life is discrete1 unconnected1 discontinuous1 swayed by the sensations and perceptions of the moment instead of dominating them4 ,unlike man1 her experiences float past without being referred1 so to speak1 to a definite1 permanent centre2 she does not feel herself1 past and present1 to be one and the same throughout all her life4 ,it happens almost to every man that sometimes he 8does not understand himself02 indeed1 with very many men1 it happens 7leaving out of the question the facts of psychical periodicity7 that if they think over their pasts in their minds they find it very difficult to refer all the events to a single conscious personality2 they do not grasp how it could have been that they1 being what they feel themselves at the time to be1 could ever have done or felt or thought this1 that1 or the other4 ,and yet in spite of the difficulty1 they know that they had gone through these experiences4 ,the feeling of identity in all circumstances of life is quite wanting in the true woman1 because her memory1 even if exceptionally good1 is devoid of continuity4 ,the consciousness of identity of the male1 even although he may fail to understand his own past1 manifests itself in the very desire to understand that past4 ,women1 if they look back on their earlier lives1 never understand themselves1 and do not even wish to understand themselves1 and this reveals itself in the scanty interest they give to the attempts of man to understand them4 ,the woman does not interest herself about herself1 and hence there have been no female psychologists1 no psychology of women written by a woman1 and she is incapable of grasping the anxious desire of the man to understand the beginning1 middle1 and end of his individual life in their relation to each other1 and to interpret the whole as a continual1 logical1 necessary sequence4 ,at this point there is a natural transition to logic4 ,a creature like woman1 the absolute woman1 who is not conscious of her own identity at different stages of her life1 has no evidence of the identity of the subject-matter of thought at different times4 ,if in her mind the two stages of a change cannot be present simultaneously by means of memory1 it is impossible for her to make the comparison and note the change4 ,a being whose memory is never sufficiently good as to make it psychologically possible to perceive identity through the lapse of time1 so as to enable her1 for instance1 to pursue a quantity through a long mathematical reckoning2 such a creature in the extreme case would be unable to control her memory for even the moment of time required to say that ,a will be still ,a in the next moment1 to pronounce judgment on the identity ,a ,a1 or on the opposite proposition that ,a is not equal to ,a1 for that proposition also requires a continuous memory of ,a to make the comparison possible4 ,i have been making no mere joke1 no facetious sophism or paradoxical proposition4 ,i assert that the judgment of identity depends on conceptions1 never on mere perceptions and complexes of perceptions1 and the conceptions1 as logical conceptions1 are independent of time1 retaining their constancy1 whether ,i1 as a psychological entity1 think them constant or not4 ,but man never has a conception in the purely logical form1 for he is a psychological being1 affected by the condition of sensations2 he is able only to form a general idea 7a typical1 connotative1 representative conception7 out of his individual experiences by a reciprocal effacing of the differences and strengthening of the similarities1 thus1 however1 very closely approximating to an abstract conception1 and in a most wonderful fashion using it as such4 ,he must also be able to preserve this idea which he thinks clear1 although in reality it is confused1 and it is memory alone that brings about the possibility of that4 ,were he deprived of memory he would lose the possibility of thinking logically1 for this possibility is incarnated1 so to speak1 only in a psychological medium4 ,memory1 then1 is a necessary part of the logical faculty4 ,the propositions of logic are not conditioned by the existence of memory1 but only the power to use them4 ,the proposition ,a ,a must have a psychological relation to time1 otherwise it would be ,at ,at4 ,of course this is not the case in pure logic1 but man has no special faculty of pure logic1 and must act as a psychological being4 ,i have already shown that the continuous memory is the vanquisher of time1 and1 indeed1 is necessary even for the idea of time to be formed4 ,and so the continuous memory is the psychological expression of the logical proposition of identity4 ,the absolute woman1 in whom memory is absent1 cannot take the proposition of identity1 or its contradictory1 or the exclusion of the alternative1 as axiomatic4 ,besides these three conditions of logical thought1 the fourth condition1 the containing of the conclusion in the major premiss1 is possible only through memory4 ,that proposition is the groundwork of the syllogism4 ,the premisses psychologically precede the conclusion1 and must be retained by the thinking person whilst the minor premiss applies the law of identity or of non-identity4 ,the grounds for the conclusion must lie in the past4 ,and for this reason continuity which dominates the mental processes of man is bound up with causality4 ,every psychological application of the relation of a conclusion to its premisses implies the continuity of memory to guarantee the identity of the propositions4 ,as woman has no continuous memory she can have no principium rationis sufficientis4 ,and so it appears that woman is without logic4 ,george ,simmel has held this familiar statement to be erroneous1 inasmuch as women have been known to draw conclusions with the strongest consistency4 ,that a woman in a concrete case can unrelentingly pursue a given course at the stimulation of some object is no more a proof that she understands the syllogism1 than is her habit of perpetually recurring to disproved arguments a proof that the law of identity is an axiom for her4 ,the point at issue is whether or no they recognise the logical axioms as the criteria of the validity of their thoughts1 as the directors of their process of thinking1 whether they make or do not make these the rule of conduct and the principle of judgment4 ,a woman cannot grasp that one must act from principle2 as she has no continuity she does not experience the necessity for logical support of her mental processes4 ,hence the ease with which women assume opinions4 ,if a woman gives vent to an opinion1 or statement1 and a man is so foolish as to take it seriously and to ask her for the proof of it1 she regards the request as unkind and offensive1 and as impugning her character4 ,a man feels ashamed of himself1 feels himself guilty if he has neglected to verify a thought1 whether or no that thought has been uttered by him2 he feels the obligation to keep to the logical standard which he has set up for himself4 ,woman resents any attempt to require from her that her thoughts should be logical4 ,she may be regarded as 8logically insane40 ,the most common defect which one could discover in the conversation of a woman1 if one really wished to apply to it the standard of logic 7a feat that man habitually shuns1 so showing his contempt for a woman's logic7 is the quaternio terminorum1 that form of equivocation which is the result of an incapacity to retain definite presentations2 in other words the result of a failure to grasp the law of identity4 ,woman is unaware of this2 she does not realise the law nor make it a criterion of thought4 ,man feels himself bound to logic2 the woman is without this feeling4 ,it is only this feeling of guilt that guarantees man's efforts to think logically4 ,probably the most profound saying of ,descartes1 and yet one that has been widely misunderstood1 is that all errors are crimes4 ,the source of all error in life is failure of memory4 ,thus logic and ethics1 both of which deal with the furtherance of truth and join in its highest service1 are dependent on memory4 ,the conception dawns on us that ,plato was not so far wrong when he connected discernment with memory4 ,memory1 it is true1 is not a logical and ethical act1 but it is a logical and ethical phenomenon4 ,a man who has had a vivid and deep perception regards it as a fault1 if some half-hour afterwards he is thinking of something different1 even if external influences have intervened4 ,a man thinks himself unconscientious and blameworthy if he notices that he has not thought of a particular portion of his life for a long time4 ,memory1 moreover1 is linked with morality1 because it is only through memory that repentance is possible4 ,all forgetfulness is in itself immoral4 ,and so reverence is a moral exercise2 it is a duty to forget nothing1 and for this reason we should reverence the dead4 ,equally from logical and ethical motives1 man tries to carry logic into his past1 in order that past and present may become one4 ,it is with something of a shock that we realise here that we approach the deep connection between logic and ethics1 long ago suggested by ,socrates and ,plato1 discovered anew by ,kant and ,fichte1 but lost sight of by living workers4 ,a creature that cannot grasp the mutual exclusiveness of ,a and not ,a has no difficulty in lying2 more than that1 such a creature has not even any consciousness of lying1 being without a standard of truth4 ,such a creature if endowed with speech will lie without knowing it1 without the possibility of knowing it2 ,veritas norma sui et falsa est4 ,there is nothing more upsetting to a man than to find1 when he has discovered a woman in a lie1 and has asked her1 8,why did you lie about it80 that she simply does not understand the question1 but simply looks at him and laughingly tries to soothe him1 or bursts into tears4 ,the subject does not end with the part played by memory4 ,lying is common enough amongst men4 ,and lies can be told in spite of a full remembrance of the subject which for some purpose some one wishes to be informed about4 ,indeed1 it might almost be said that the only persons who can lie are those who misrepresent facts in spite of a superior knowledge and consciousness of them4 ,truth must first be regarded as the real value of logic and ethics before it is correct to speak of deviations from truth for special motives as lies from the moral point of view4 ,those who have not this high conception should be adjudged as guilty rather of vagueness and exaggeration than of lying2 they are not immoral but non-moral4 ,and in this sense the woman is non-moral4 ,the root of such an absolute misconception of truth must lie deep4 ,the continuous memory against which alone a man can be false1 is not the real source of the effort for truth1 the desire for truth1 the basal ethical-logical phenomenon1 but only stands in intimate relation with it4 ,that which enables man to have a real relation to truth and which removes his temptation to lie1 must be something independent of all time1 something absolutely unchangeable1 which as faithfully reproduces the old as if it were new1 because it is permanent itself2 it can only be that source in which all discrete experiences unite and which creates from the first a continuous existence4 ,it is what produces the feeling of responsibility which oppresses all men1 young and old1 as to their actions1 which makes them know that they are responsible1 which leads to the phenomena of repentance and consciousness of sin1 which calls to account before an eternal and ever present self things that are long past1 its judgment being subtler and more comprehensive than that of any court of law or of the laws of society1 and which is exerted by the individual himself quite independently of all social codes 7so condemning the moral psychology which would derive morality from the social life of man74 ,society recognises the idea of illegality1 but not of sin2 it presses for punishment without wishing to produce repentance2 lying is punished by the law only in its ceremonious form of perjury1 and error has never been placed under its ban4 ,social ethics with its conception of duty to our neighbour and to society1 and practical exclusion from consideration of the other fifteen hundred million human beings1 cannot extend the realm of morality1 when it begins by limiting it in this arbitrary fashion4 ,what is this 8centre of apperception0 that is superior to time and change8 ,it can be nothing less than what raises man above himself 7as a part of the world of sense7 which joins him to an order of things that only the reason can grasp1 and that puts the whole world of sense at his feet4 ,it is nothing else than personality4 ,the most sublime book in the world1 the 8,criticism of ,practical ,reason10 has referred morality to an intelligent ego1 distinct from all empirical consciousness4 ,i must now turn to that side of my subject4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,logic1 ,,ethics ,,and ,,the ,,ego ,david ,hume is well known to have abolished the conception of the ego by seeing in it only a bundle of different perceptions in continual ebb and flow4 ,however completely ,hume thought himself to have compromised the ego1 at least he explained his view relatively moderately4 ,he proposed to say nothing about a few metaphysicians who appeared to rejoice in another kind of ego2 for himself he was quite certain that he had none1 and he dared to suppose that the majority of mankind1 leaving the few peculiar metaphysicians out of the question1 were1 like himself1 mere bundles4 ,so the polite man expressed himself4 ,in the next chapter ,i shall show how his irony recoils on himself4 ,that his view became so famous depends partly on the over-estimation in which ,hume is held and which is largely due to ,kant4 ,hume was a most distinguished empirical psychologist1 but he cannot be regarded as a genius1 the popular view notwithstanding4 ,it is not very much to be the first of ,english philosophers1 but ,hume has not even a claim to that position4 ,i do not think that ,kant would have given so much praise to ,hume if he had been fully acquainted with all ,hume's work and not merely with the 8,enquiry10 as he certainly rejected the position of ,spinoza1 according to which men were not 8substances10 but merely accidents4 ,lichtenberg1 who took the field against the ego later than ,hume1 was still bolder4 ,he is the philosopher of impersonality1 and calmly corrects the conversational 8,i think0 into an actual 8it thinks02 he regards the ego as a creation of the grammarian4 ,in this ,hume had anticipated him1 inasmuch as he also had declared1 at the end of his analysis1 all disputes as to the identity of the person to be merely a battle of words4 ,e4 ,mach has recently represented the universe as a coherent mass1 and the egos as points in which the coherent mass has greater consistency4 ,the only realities are the perceptions1 which are connected in one individual strongly1 but which are weaker in another individual who is thus differentiated from the first4 ,the contents of the perceptions are the realities1 and they persist externally to the worthless personal recollections4 ,the ego is not a real but only a practical entity and cannot be isolated1 and1 therefore1 the idea of individual immortality must be rejected4 ,none the less the idea of an ego is not wholly to be rejected2 here and there1 as1 for instance1 in ,darwin's struggle for existence1 it appears to have some validity4 ,it is extraordinary how an investigator who has accomplished so much1 not only as a historian of his special branch and as a critic of ideas1 but who is also fully equipped with knowledge of biology1 should have paid no heed to the fact that every organic being is indivisible from the first1 and is not composed of anything like atoms1 monads1 c4 ,the first distinctive mark of the living as opposed to inorganic matter is that the former is always differentiated into dissimilar1 mutually dependent parts1 and is not homogeneous like a crystal4 ,and so it should have been borne in mind that it was at least possible that individuation1 the fact that organic beings are not united1 like ,siamese twins1 would prove to have importance in psychical matters1 and the ego1 therefore1 was more than ,mach's idea of it as a mere waiting-hall of perceptions4 ,it may be that there exists a psychical correlation even amongst animals4 ,everything that an animal feels and perceives has a different 8note0 or 8colour0 in every individual4 ,this individual quality is not only characteristic of the class1 genus1 species1 race1 and family1 but also is different in every individual of the same family1 c4 ,the idioplasm is the physiological equivalent of this specific individual quality of the sensations and perceptions1 and there are reasons analogous with those in favour of the supposition of an idioplasm for the supposition of an individual character amongst animals4 ,the sportsman who has to do with dogs1 the trainer with horses1 and the keeper with animals will readily admit the existence of this individuality as a constant element4 ,it is clear that we have to do here with something more than a mere rendezvous of perceptions4 ,but even if this psychical analogue of the idioplasm were proved to exist in the case of animals1 it could not be ranked with the intelligible character1 the existence of which in any living creature except man cannot be maintained4 ,the intelligible character of men1 their individuation1 has the same relation to empirical character that memory has to the simple power of recognition4 ,and finally we come to identity1 by which the structure1 form1 law1 and cosmos persist even through the change of contents4 ,the considerations from which is drawn the proof of the existence in man of such a noumenal1 trans-empirical subject must now be stated briefly4 ,they come from logic and ethics4 ,logic deals with the true significance of the principle of identity 7also with that of contradiction2 the exact relation of these two1 and the various modes of stating it are controversial matters outside the present subject74 ,the proposition ,a ,a is axiomatic and self-evident4 ,it is the primitive measure of truth for all other propositions2 however much we may think over it we must return to this fundamental proposition4 ,it is the principle of the distinction between truth and error2 and he who regards it as meaningless tautology1 as was the case with ,hegel and many of the later empiricists 7this being not the only surprising point of contact between two schools apparently so different7 is right in a fashion1 but has misunderstood the nature of the proposition4 ,a ,a1 the principle of all truth1 cannot itself be a special truth4 ,he who finds the proposition of identity or that of non-identity meaningless does so by his own fault4 ,he must have expected to find in these propositions special ideas1 a source of positive knowledge4 ,but they are not in themselves knowledge1 separate acts of thought1 but the common standard for all acts of thought4 ,and so they cannot be compared with other acts of thought4 ,the rule of the process of thought must be outside thought4 ,the proposition of identity does not add to our knowledge2 it does not increase but rather founds a kingdom4 ,the proposition of identity is either meaningless or means everything4 ,upon what do the propositions of identity and of non-identity depend8 ,the common view is that they are judgments4 ,sigwart1 for instance1 who has recently discussed the matter1 puts it as follows3 ,the two judgments ,a is ,b and ,a is not ,b cannot be true at the same time because the judgment 8,an unlearned man is learned0 would involve a contradiction because the predicate 8learned0 is affirmed of a subject of which the judgment has been made implicitly that he is unlearned1 so that in reality two judgments are made1 ,x is learned and ,x is unlearned4 ,the 8psychologismus0 of this method of argument is plain4 ,it has recourse to a temporary judgment preceding the formation of the conception 8unlearned man40 ,the proposition1 however1 ,a is not ,a claims validity quite apart from the past1 present1 or future existence of other judgments4 ,it depends on the conception 8unlearned man40 ,it makes the conception more certain by excluding contradictory instances4 ,this1 then1 gives us the true function of the principles of identity and non-identity4 ,they are materials for conceptions4 ,this function concerns only logical conceptions1 but not what have been called psychological conceptions4 ,the conception is always represented psychologically by a generalisation2 and this presentation in a certain fashion is included in the conception4 ,the generalisation represents the conception psychologically1 but is not identical with it4 ,it can1 so to speak1 be richer 7as when ,i think of a triangle7 or it can be poorer 7the conception of a lion contains more than my generalisation of lions74 ,the logical conception is the plumb-line which the attention tries to follow2 it is the goal and pole-star of the psychological generalisation4 ,pure logical thought cannot occur in the case of men2 it would be an attribute of deity4 ,a human being must always think partly psychologically because he possesses not only reason but also senses1 and his thought cannot free itself from temporal experiences but must remain bound by them4 ,logic1 however1 is the supreme standard by which the individual can test his own psychological ideas and those of others4 ,when two men are discussing anything it is the conception and not the varying individual presentations of it that they aim at4 ,the conception1 then1 is the standard of value for the individual presentations4 ,the mode in which the psychological generalisation comes into existence is quite independent of the conception and has no significance in respect to it4 ,the logical character which invests the conception with dignity and power is not derived from experience1 for experience can give only vague and wavering generalisations4 ,absolute constancy and absolute coherence which cannot come from experience are the essence of the conception of that power concealed in the depths of the human mind whose handiwork we try hard but in vain to see in nature4 ,conceptions are the only true realities1 and the conception is not in nature2 it is the rule of the essence not of the actual existence4 ,when ,i enunciate the proposition ,a ,a1 the meaning of the proposition is not that a special individual ,a of experience or of thought is like itself4 ,the judgment of identity does not depend on the existence of an ,a4 ,it means only that if an ,a exists1 or even if it does not exist1 then ,a ,a4 ,something is posited1 the existence of ,a ,a whether or no ,a itself exists4 ,it cannot be the result of experience1 as ,mill supposed1 for it is independent of the existence of ,a4 ,but an existence has been posited2 it is not the existence of the object2 it must be the existence of the subject4 ,the reality of the existence is not in the first ,a or the second ,a1 but in the simultaneous identity of the two4 ,and so the proposition ,a ,a is no other than the proposition 8,i am40 ,from the psychological point of view1 the real meaning of the proposition of identity is not so difficult to interpret4 ,it is clear that to be able to say ,a ,a1 to establish the permanence of the conception through the changes of experience1 there must be something unchangeable1 and this can be only the subject4 ,were ,i part of the stream of change ,i could not verify that the ,a had remained unchanged1 had remained itself4 ,were ,i part of the change1 ,i could not recognise the change4 ,fichte was right when he stated that the existence of the ego was to be found concealed in pure logic1 inasmuch as the ego is the condition of intelligible existence4 ,the logical axioms are the principle of all truth4 ,these posit an existence towards which all cognition serves4 ,logic is a law which must be obeyed1 and man realises himself only in so far as he is logical4 ,he finds himself in cognition4 ,all error must be felt to be crime4 ,and so man must not err4 ,he must find the truth1 and so he can find it4 ,the duty of cognition involves the possibility of cognition1 the freedom of thought1 and the hope of ascertaining truth4 ,in the fact that logic is the condition of the mind lies the proof that thought is free and can reach its goal4 ,i can treat ethics briefly and in another fashion1 inasmuch as what ,i have to say is founded on ,kant's moral philosophy4 ,the deepest1 the intelligible1 part of the nature of man is that part which does not take refuge in causality1 but which chooses in freedom the good or the bad4 ,this is manifest in consciousness of sin and in repentance4 ,no one has attempted to explain these facts otherwise2 and no one allows himself to be persuaded that he must commit this or that act4 ,in the shall there lies the possibility of the can4 ,the causal determining factors1 the lower motives that act upon him1 he is fully aware of1 but he remains conscious of an intelligible ego free to act in a different way from other egos4 ,truth1 purity1 faithfulness1 uprightness1 with reference to oneself2 these give the only conceivable ethics4 ,duty is only duty to oneself1 duty of the empirical ego to the intelligible ego4 ,these appear in the form of two imperatives that will always put to shame every kind of psychologismus--the logical law and the moral law4 ,the internal direction1 the categorical imperatives of logic and morality which dominate all the codes of social utilitarianism are factors that no empiricism can explain4 ,all empiricism and scepticism1 positivism and relativism1 instinctively feel that their principal difficulties lie in logic and ethics4 ,and so perpetually renewed and fruitless efforts are made to explain this inward discipline empirically and psychologically4 ,logic and ethics are fundamentally the same1 they are no more than duty to oneself4 ,they celebrate their union by the highest service of truth1 which is overshadowed in the one case by error1 in the other by untruth4 ,all ethics are possible only by the laws of logic1 and logic is no more than the ethical side of law4 ,not only virtue1 but also insight1 not only sanctity but also wisdom1 are the duties and tasks of mankind4 ,through the union of these alone comes perfection4 ,ethics1 however1 the laws of which are postulates1 cannot be made the basis of a logical proof of existence4 ,ethics are not logical in the same sense that logic is ethical4 ,logic proves the absolute actual existence of the ego2 ethics control the form which the actuality assumes4 ,ethics dominate logic and make logic part of their contents4 ,in thinking of the famous passage in the 8,critique of ,practical ,reason10 where ,kant introduces man as a part of the intelligible cosmos1 it may be asked how ,kant assured himself that the moral law was inherent in personality4 ,the answer ,kant gave was simply that no other and no nobler origin could be found for it4 ,he goes no further than to say that the categorical imperative is the law of the noumenon1 belonging to it and inherent in it from the beginning4 ,that1 however1 is the nature of ethics4 ,ethics make it possible for the intelligible ego to act free from the shackles of empiricism1 and so through ethics1 the existence of whose possibilities logic assures us1 is able to become actual in all its purity4 ,there remains a most important point in which the ,kantian system is often misunderstood4 ,it reveals itself plainly in every case of wrong-doing4 ,duty is only towards oneself2 ,kant must have realised this in his earlier days when first he felt an impulse to lie4 ,except for a few indications in ,nietzsche1 and in ,stirner1 and a few others1 ,ibsen alone seems to have grasped the principle of the ,kantian ethics 7notably in 8,brand0 and 8,peer ,gynt074 ,the following two quotations also give the ,kantian view in a general way3 ,first ,hebbel's epigram1 8,lies and ,truth40 8,which do you pay dearer for1 lies or the truth8 ,the former costs you yourself1 the latter at most your happiness40 ,next1 the well-known words of ,sleika from the 8,weststlichen ,diwan03 ,all sorts go to make a world1 ,the crowd and the rogue and the hero2 ,but the highest fortune of earth's children ,is always in their own personality4 ,it matters little how a man lives ,if only he is true to himself2 ,it matters nothing what a man may lose ,if he remains what he really is4 ,it is certainly true that most men need some kind of a ,god4 ,a few1 and they are the men of genius1 do not bow to an alien law4 ,the rest try to justify their doings and misdoings1 their thinking and existence 7at least the mental side of it71 to some one else1 whether it be the personal ,god of the ,jews1 or a beloved1 respected1 and revered human being4 ,it is only in this way that they can bring their lives under the social law4 ,kant was permeated with his conviction1 as is conspicuous in the minutest details of his chosen life-work1 that man was responsible only to himself1 to such an extent that he regarded this side of his theory as self-evident and least likely to be disputed4 ,this silence of ,kant has brought about a misunderstanding of his ethics--the only ethics tenable from the psychologically introspective standpoint1 the only system according to which the insistent strong inner voice of the one is to be heard through the noise of the many4 ,i gather from a passage in his 8,anthropology0 that even in the case of ,kant some incident in his actual earthly life preceded the 8formation of his character40 ,the birth of the ,kantian ethics1 the noblest event in the history of the world1 was the moment when for the first time the dazzling awful conception came to him1 8,i am responsible only to myself2 ,i must follow none other2 ,i must not forget myself even in my work2 ,i am alone2 ,i am free2 ,i am lord of myself40 8,two things fill my mind with ever renewed wonder and awe the more often and the deeper ,i dwell on them--the starry vault above me and the moral law within me4 ,i must not look on them both as veiled in mystery or think that their majesty places them beyond me4 ,i see them before me1 and they are part of the consciousness of my existence4 ,the first arises from my position in the outer world of the senses1 and links me with the immeasurable space in which worlds and worlds and systems and systems1 although in immeasurable time1 have their ebbs and flows1 their beginnings and ends4 ,the second arises from my invisible self1 my personality1 and places me in a world that has true infinity1 but which is evident only to the reason and with which ,i recognise myself as being bound1 not accidentally as in the other case but in a universal and necessary union4 ,on the one hand1 the consciousness of an endless series of worlds destroys my sense of importance1 making me only one of the animal creatures which must return its substance again to the planet 7that1 too1 being no more than a point in space7 from whence it came1 after having been in some unknown way endowed with life for a brief space4 ,the second point of view enhances my importance1 makes me an intelligence1 infinite and unconditioned through my personality1 the moral law in which separates me from the animals and from the world of sense1 removes me from the limits of time and space1 and links me with infinity40 ,the secret of the critique of practical reason is that man is alone in the world1 in tremendous eternal isolation4 ,he has no object outside himself2 lives for nothing else2 he is far removed from being the slave of his wishes1 of his abilities1 of his necessities2 he stands far above social ethics2 he is alone4 ,thus he becomes one and all2 he has the law in him1 and so he himself is the law1 and no mere changing caprice4 ,the desire is in him to be only the law1 to be the law that is himself1 without afterthought or forethought4 ,this is the awful conclusion1 he has no longer the sense that there can be duty for him4 ,nothing is superior to him1 to the isolated absolute unity4 ,but there are no alternatives for him2 he must respond to his own categorical imperatives1 absolutely1 impartially4 8,freedom10 he cries 7for instance1 ,wagner1 or ,schopenhauer71 8rest1 peace from the enemy2 peace1 not this endless striving02 and he is terrified4 ,even in this wish for freedom there is cowardice2 in the ignominious lament there is desertion as if he were too small for the fight4 ,what is the use of it all1 he cries to the universe2 and is at once ashamed1 for he is demanding happiness1 and that his own burden should rest on other shoulders4 ,kant's lonely man does not dance or laugh2 he neither brawls nor makes merry2 he feels no need to make a noise1 because the universe is so silent around him4 ,to acquiesce in his loneliness is the splendid supremacy of the ,kantian4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the 8,i0 ,,problem ,,and ,,genius 8,in the beginning the world was nothing but the tman1 in the form of a man4 ,it looked around and saw nothing different to itself4 ,then it cried out once1 #8,it is ,i4' ,that is how the word #8,i' came to be4 ,that is why even at the present day1 if any one is called1 he answers1 #8,it is ,i1' and then recalls his other name1 the one he bears40--7,brihadranyata-,upanishad47 ,many disputations about principles in psychology arise from individual characterological differences in the disputants4 ,thus1 in the mode that ,i have already suggested1 characterology might play an important part4 ,when one person thinks to have discovered this1 the other that1 by introspection1 characterology would have to show why the results in the one case should differ from those in the other1 or1 at least1 to point out in what other respects the persons in question were unlike4 ,i see no other possible way of clearing up the disputed points of psychology4 ,psychology is a science of experiences1 and1 therefore1 it must proceed from the individual to the general1 and not1 as in the supra-individualistic laws of logic and ethics1 proceed from the universal to the individual case4 ,there is no such thing as an empirical general psychology2 and it would be a mistake to approach such without having fully reckoned with differential psychology4 ,it is a great pity that psychology has been placed between philosophy and the analysis of perceptions4 ,from whichever side psychologists approached the subject1 they have always been assured of the general validity of their results4 ,perhaps even so fundamental a question as to whether or no perception itself implies an actual and spontaneous act of consciousness cannot be solved without a consideration of characterological differences4 ,the purpose of this work is to apply characterology to the solution of a few of these doubtful matters1 with special reference to the distinctions between the sexes4 ,the different conceptions of the ,i-problem1 however1 depend not so much on differences of sex as on differences in giftedness4 ,the dispute between ,hume and ,kant receives its characterological explanation much in the same way as if ,i were to distinguish two men in so far as the one held in the highest esteem the works of ,makart and ,gounod1 the other those of ,rembrandt and ,beethoven4 ,i would simply distinguish the two by their giftedness4 ,so also the judgments about the 8,i0 must be very different in the cases of differently gifted men4 ,there have been no truly great men who were not persuaded of the existence of the 8,i02 a man who denies it cannot be a great man4 ,in the course of the following pages this proposition will be taken as absolutely binding1 and will be used really as a means of valuing genius4 ,there has been no famous man who1 at least some time in the course of his life1 and generally earlier in proportion to his greatness1 has not had a moment in which he was absolutely convinced of the possession of an ego in the highest sense4 ,let us compare the following utterances of three very great geniuses4 ,jean ,paul relates in his autobiographical sketch1 8,truths from my own ,life03 8,i can never forget a circumstance which1 so far1 has been related by no one--the birth of my own self-consciousness1 the time and place of which ,i can tell4 ,one morning ,i was standing1 as a very young child1 at the front door1 and looking towards the wood-shed ,i suddenly saw1 all at once my inner likeness4 #8,i' am #8,i' flashed like lightning from the skies across me1 and since then has remained4 ,i saw myself then for the first time and for ever4 ,this cannot be explained as a confusion of memory1 for no alien narrative could have blended itself with this sacred event1 preserved permanently in my memory by its vividness and novelty40 ,novalis1 in his 8,miscellaneous ,fragments10 refers to an identical experience3 8,this factor every one must experience for himself4 ,it is a factor of the higher order1 and reveals itself only to higher men2 but men should strive to induce it in themselves4 ,philosophy is the exercise of this factor1 it is a true self-revelation1 the stimulation of the real ego by the ideal ego4 ,it is the foundation of all other revelations2 the resolution to philosophise is a challenge to the actual ego1 to become conscious of itself1 to grow and to become a soul40 ,schelling discusses the same phenomenon in his 8,philosophical ,letters upon ,dogmatism and ,criticism10 a little known early work1 in which occur the following beautiful words3 8,in all of us there dwells a secret marvellous power of freeing ourselves from the changes of time1 of withdrawing to our secret selves away from external things1 and of so discovering to ourselves the eternal in us in the form of unchangeability4 ,this presentation of ourselves to ourselves is the most truly personal experience upon which depends everything that we know of the supra-sensual world4 ,this presentation shows us for the first time what real existence is1 whilst all else only appears to be4 ,it differs from every presentation of the sense in its perfect freedom1 whilst all other presentations are bound1 being overweighted by the burden of the object4 ,still there exists for those who have not this perfect freedom of the inner sense some approach to it1 experiences approaching it from which they may gain some faint idea of it4444 ,this intellectual presentation occurs when we cease to be our own object1 when1 withdrawing into ourselves1 the perceiving self merges in the self-perceived4 ,at that moment we annihilate time and duration of time2 we are no longer in time1 but time1 or rather eternity itself1 is in us4 ,the external world is no longer an object for us1 but is lost in us40 ,the positivist will perhaps only laugh at the self-deceived deceiver1 the philosopher who asserts that he has had such experiences4 ,well1 it is not easy to prevent it4 ,it is also unnecessary4 ,but ,i am by no means of the opinion that this 8factor of a higher order0 plays the same part in all men of genius of a mystical identity of subject and object as ,schelling describes it4 ,whether there are undivided experiences in which the dualism of actual life is overcome1 as is indicated by ,plotin and the ,indian ,mahatmas1 or whether this is only the highest intensification of experience1 but in principle similar to all others--does not signify here1 the coincidence of subject and object1 of time and eternity1 the representing of ,god through living men1 will neither be demonstrated as possible nor denied as impossible4 ,the experiencing of one's own 8,i0 is not to be begun by theoretical knowledge1 and no one has ever1 so far1 tried to put it in the position of a systematic philosophy4 ,i shall1 therefore1 not call this factor of a higher order1 which manifests itself in some men in one way and in other men in another way1 an essential manifestation of the true ego1 but only a phase of it4 ,every great man knows this phase of the ego4 ,he may become conscious of it first through the love of a woman1 for the great man loves more intensely than the ordinary man2 or it may be from the contrast given by a sense of guilt or the knowledge of having failed2 these1 too1 the great man feels more intensely than smaller-minded people4 ,it may lead him to a sense of unity with the all1 to the seeing of all things in ,god1 or1 and this is more likely1 it may reveal to him the frightful dualism of nature and spirit in the universe1 and produce in him the need1 the craving1 for a solution of it1 for the secret inner wonder4 ,but always it leads the great man to the beginning of a presentation of the world for himself and by himself1 without the help of the thought of others4 ,this intuitive vision of the world is not a great synthesis elaborated at his writing-table in his library from all the books that have been written2 it is something that has been experienced1 and as a whole it is clear and intelligible1 although details may still be obscure and contradictory4 ,the excitation of the ego is the only source of this intuitive vision of the world as a whole in the case of the artist as in that of the philosopher4 ,and1 however different they may be1 if they are really intuitive visions of the cosmos1 they have this in common1 something that comes only from the excitation of the ego1 the faith that every great man possesses1 the conviction of his possession of an 8,i0 or soul1 which is solitary in the universe1 which faces the universe and comprehends it4 ,from the time of this first excitation of his ego1 the great man1 in spite of lapses due to the most terrible feeling1 the feeling of mortality1 will live in and by his soul4 ,and it is for this reason1 as well as from the sense of his creative powers1 that the great man has so intense a self-consciousness4 ,nothing can be more unintelligent than to talk of the modesty of great men1 of their inability to recognise what is within them4 ,there is no great man who does not well know how far he differs from others 7except during these periodical fits of depression to which ,i have already alluded74 ,every great man feels himself to be great as soon as he has created something2 his vanity and ambition are1 in fact1 always so great that he over-estimates himself4 ,schopenhauer believed himself to be greater than ,kant4 ,nietzsche declared that 8,thus spake ,zarathustra0 was the greatest book in the world4 ,there is1 however1 a side of truth in the assertion that great men are modest4 ,they are never arrogant4 ,arrogance and self-realisation are contradictories1 and should never be confused although this is often done4 ,a man has just as much arrogance as he lacks of self-realisation1 and uses it to increase his own self-consciousness by artificially lowering his estimation of others4 ,of course the foregoing holds true only of what may be called physiological1 unconscious arrogance2 the great man must occasionally comport himself with what seems rudeness to contemptible persons4 ,all great men1 then1 have a conviction1 really independent of external proof1 that they have a soul4 ,the absurd fear must be laid aside that the soul is a hyperempirical reality and that belief in it leads us to the position of the theologists4 ,belief in a soul is anything rather than a superstition and is no mere handmaid of religious systems4 ,artists speak of their souls although they have not studied philosophy or theology2 atheists like ,shelley use the expression and know very well what they mean by it4 ,others have suggested that the 8soul0 is only a beautiful empty word1 which people ascribe to others without having felt its need for themselves4 ,this is like saying that great artists use symbols to express the highest form of reality without being assured as to the existence of that reality4 ,the mere empiricist and the pure physiologist no doubt will consider that all this is nonsense1 and that ,lucretius is the only great poet4 ,no doubt there has been much misuse of the word1 but if great artists speak of their soul they know what they are about4 ,artists1 like philosophers1 know well when they approach the greatest possible reality1 but ,hume had no sense of this4 ,the scientific man ranks1 as ,i have already said1 and as ,i shall presently prove1 below the artist and the philosopher4 ,the two latter may earn the title of genius which must always be denied to the scientific man4 ,without any good reason having been assigned for it1 it has usually been the case that the voice of genius on any particular problem is listened to before the voice of science4 ,is there justice in this preference8 ,can the genius explain things as to which the man of science1 as such1 can say nothing8 ,can he peer into depths where the man of science is blind8 ,the conception genius concludes universality4 ,if there were an absolute genius 7a convenient fiction7 there would be nothing to which he could not have a vivid1 intimate1 and complete relation4 ,genius1 as ,i have already shown1 would have universal comprehension1 and through its perfect memory would be independent of time4 ,to comprehend anything one must have within one something similar4 ,a man notices1 understands1 and comprehends only those things with which he has some kinship4 ,the genius is the man with the most intense1 most vivid1 most conscious1 most continuous1 and most individual ego4 ,the ego is the central point1 the unit of comprehension1 the synthesis of all manifoldness4 ,the ego of the genius accordingly is simply itself universal comprehension1 the centre of infinite space2 the great man contains the whole universe within himself2 genius is the living microcosm4 ,he is not an intricate mosaic1 a chemical combination of an infinite number of elements2 the argument in chap4 iv4 as to his relation to other men and things must not be taken in that sense2 he is everything4 ,in him and through him all psychical manifestations cohere and are real experiences1 not an elaborate piece-work1 a whole put together from parts in the fashion of science4 ,for the genius the ego is the all1 lives as the all2 the genius sees nature and all existences as whole2 the relations of things flash on him intuitively2 he has not to build bridges of stones between them4 ,and so the genius cannot be an empirical psychologist slowly collecting details and linking them by associations2 he cannot be a physicist1 envisaging the world as a compound of atoms and molecules4 ,it is absolutely from his vision of the whole1 in which the genius always lives1 that he gets his sense of the parts4 ,he values everything within him or without him by the standard of this vision1 a vision that for him is no function of time1 but a part of eternity4 ,and so the man of genius is the profound man1 and profound only in proportion to his genius4 ,that is why his views are more valuable than those of all others4 ,he constructs from everything his ego that holds the universe1 whilst others never reach a full consciousness of this inner self1 and so1 for him1 all things have significance1 all things are symbolical4 ,for him breathing is something more than the coming and going of gases through the walls of the capillaries2 the blue of the sky is more than the partial polarisation of diffused and reflected light2 snakes are not merely reptiles that have lost limbs4 ,if it were possible for one single man to have achieved all the scientific discoveries that have ever been made1 if everything that has been done by the following3 ,archimedes and ,lagrange1 ,johannes ,mller and ,karl ,ernst von ,baer1 ,newton and ,laplace1 ,konrad ,sprengel and ,cuvier1 ,thucydides and ,niebuhr1 ,friedrich ,august ,wolf and ,franz ,bopp1 and by many more famous men of science1 could have been achieved by one man in the short span of human life1 he would still not be entitled to the denomination of genius1 for none of these have pierced the depths4 ,the scientist takes phenomena for what they obviously are2 the great man or the genius for what they signify4 ,sea and mountain1 light and darkness1 spring and autumn1 cypress and palm1 dove and swan are symbols to him1 he not only thinks that there is1 but he recognises in them something deeper4 ,the ride of the ,valkyrie is not produced by atmospheric pressure and the magic fire is not the outcome of a process of oxidation4 ,and all this is possible for him because the outer world is as full and strongly connected as the inner in him1 the external world in fact seems to be only a special aspect of his inner life2 the universe and the ego have become one in him1 and he is not obliged to set his experience together piece by piece according to rule4 ,the greatest poly-historian1 on the contrary1 does nothing but add branch to branch and yet creates no completed structure4 ,that is another reason why the great scientist is lower than the great artist1 the great philosopher4 ,the infinity of the universe is responded to in the genius by a true sense of infinity in his own breast2 he holds chaos and cosmos1 all details and all totality1 all plurality1 and all singularity in himself4 ,although these remarks apply more to genius than to the nature of the productions of genius1 although the occurrence of artistic ecstasy1 philosophic conceptions1 religious fervour remain as puzzling as ever1 if merely the conditions1 not the actual process of a really great achievement has been made clearer1 yet this is nevertheless to be the final definition of genius3 ,a man may be called a genius when he lives in conscious connection with the whole universe4 ,it is only then that the genius becomes the really divine spark in mankind4 ,the great idea of the soul of man as the microcosm1 the most important discovery of the philosophy of the ,renaissance--although traces of the idea are to be found in ,plato and ,aristotle--appears to be quite disregarded by modern thinkers since the death of ,leibnitz4 ,it has hitherto been held as only holding good for genius1 as the prerogative of those masters of men4 ,but the incongruity is only apparent4 ,all mankind have some of the quality of genius1 and no man has it entirely4 ,genius is a condition to which one man draws close whilst another is further away1 which is attained by some in early days1 but with others only at the end of life4 ,the man to whom we have accorded the possession of genius1 is only he who has begun to see1 and to open the eyes of others4 ,that they then can see with their own eyes proves that they were only standing before the door4 ,even the ordinary man1 even as such1 can stand in an indirect relationship to everything3 his idea of the 8whole0 is only a glimpse1 he does not succeed in identifying himself with it4 ,but he is not without the possibility of following this identification in another1 and so attaining a composite image4 ,through some vision of the world he can bind himself to the universal1 and by diligent cultivation he can make each detail a part of himself4 ,nothing is quite strange to him1 and in all a band of sympathy exists between him and the things of the world4 ,it is not so with plants or animals4 ,they are limited1 they do not know the whole but only one element2 they do not populate the whole earth1 and where they are widely dispersed it is in the service of man1 who has allotted to them everywhere the same task4 ,they may have a relation to the sun or to the moon1 but they certainly are wanting in respect of the 8starry vault0 and 8the moral law40 ,for the latter originates in the soul of man1 in which is hidden all totality1 which can see everything because it is universal itself3 the starry heavens and the moral law are fundamentally one and the same4 ,the universalism of the categorical imperative is the universalism of the universe4 ,the infinity of the universe is only the 8thought-picture0 of the infinity of the moral volition4 ,this was taught1 the microcosm in man1 by ,empedocles that mighty magician4 1 ' 1 ' 1 1 1 4 ,and ,plotinus2 1 which ,goethe imitated in the famous verse3 8,wr' nicht das ,auge sonnenhaft1 ,die ,sonne knnt' es nie erblicken2 ,lg' nicht in uns des ,gottes eig'ne ,kraft1 ,wie knnt uns ,gttliches entzcken80 ,man is the only creature1 he is the creature in ,nature1 that has in himself a relation to every thing4 ,he to whom this relationship brings understanding and the most complete consciousness1 not to many things or to few things1 but to all things1 the man who of his own individuality has thought out everything1 is called a genius4 ,he in whom the possibility of this is present1 in whom an interest in everything could be aroused1 yet who only1 of his own accord1 concerns himself with a few1 we call merely a man4 ,the theory of ,leibnitz1 which is seldom rightly understood1 that the lower monads are a mirror of the world without being conscious of this capacity of theirs1 expresses the same idea4 ,the man of genius lives in a state of complete understanding1 an understanding of the whole2 the whole world is also in ordinary men1 but not in a condition that can become creative4 ,the one lives in conscious active relation with the whole1 the other in an unconscious relation2 the man of genius is the actual1 the common man the potential1 microcosm4 ,the genius is the complete man2 the manhood that is latent in all men is in him fully developed4 ,man himself is the ,all1 and so unlike a mere part1 dependent on other parts2 he is not assigned a definite place in a system of natural laws1 but he himself is the meaning of the law and is therefore free1 just as the world whole being itself1 the ,all does not condition itself but is unconditioned4 ,the man of genius is he who forgets nothing because he does not forget himself1 and because forgetting1 being a functional subjection to time1 is neither free nor ethical4 ,he is not brought forward on the wave of a historical movement as its child1 to be swallowed up by the next wave1 because all1 all the past and all the future is contained in his inward vision4 ,he it is whose consciousness of immortality is most strong because the fear of death has no terror for him4 ,he it is who lives in the most sympathetic relation to symbols and values because he weighs and interprets by these all that is within him and all that is outside him4 ,he is the freest and the wisest and the most moral of men1 and for these reasons he suffers most of all from what is still unconscious1 what is chaos1 what is fatality within him4 ,how does the morality of great men reveal itself in their relations to other men8 ,this1 according to the popular view1 is the only form which morality can assume1 apart from contraventions of the penal code4 ,and certainly in this respect1 great men have displayed the most dubious qualities4 ,have they not laid themselves open to accusations of base ingratitude1 extreme harshness1 and much worse faults8 ,it is certainly true that the greater an artist or philosopher may be1 the more ruthless he will be in keeping faith with himself1 in this very way often disappointing the expectations of those with whom he comes in contact in every-day life2 these cannot follow his higher flights and so try to bind the eagle to earth 7,goethe and ,lavater7 and in this way many great men have been branded as immoral4 ,goethe1 fortunately for himself1 preserved a silence about himself so complete that modern people who think that they understand him completely as the light-living ,olympian1 only know a few specks of him taken from his marvellous delineation of ,faust2 we may be certain1 none the less1 that he judged himself severely1 and suffered in full measure for the guilt he found in himself4 ,and when an envious ,nrgler1 who never grasped ,schopenhauer's doctrine of detachment and the meaning of his ,nirwana1 throws the reproach at the latter that he got the last value out of his property1 such a mean yelping requires no answer4 ,the statement that a great man is most moral towards himself stands on sure ground2 he will not allow alien views to be imposed on him1 so obscuring the judgment of his own ego2 he will not passively accept the interpretation of another1 of an alien ego1 quite different from his own1 and if ever he has allowed himself to be influenced1 the thought will always be painful to him4 ,a conscious lie that he has told will harass him throughout his life1 and he will be unable to shake off the memory in ,dionysian fashion4 ,but men of genius will suffer most when they become aware afterwards that they have unconsciously helped to spread a lie in their talk or conduct with others4 ,other men1 who do not possess this organic thirst for truth1 are always deeply involved in lies and errors1 and so do not understand the bitter revolt of great men against the 8lies of life40 ,the great man1 he who stands high1 he in whom the ego1 unconditioned by time1 is dominant1 seeks to maintain his own value in the presence of his intelligible ego by his intellectual and moral conscience4 ,his pride is towards himself2 there is the desire in him to impress his own self by his thoughts1 actions1 and creations4 ,this pride is the pride peculiar to genius1 possessing its own standard of value1 and it is independent of the judgment of others1 since it possesses in itself a higher tribunal4 ,soft and ascetic natures 7,pascal is an example7 sometimes suffer from this self-pride1 and yet try in vain to shake it off4 ,this self-pride will always be associated with pride before others1 but the two forms are really in perpetual conflict4 ,can it be said that this strong adaptation to duty towards oneself prejudices the sense of duty towards one's neighbours8 ,do not the two stand as alternatives1 so that he who always keeps faith with himself must break it with others8 ,by no means4 ,as there is only one truth1 so there can be only one desire for truth--what ,carlyle called sincerity--that a man has or has not with regard both to himself and to the world2 it is never one of two1 a view of the world differing from a view of oneself1 a self-study without a world-study2 there is only one duty and only one morality4 ,man acts either morally or immorally1 and if he is moral towards himself he is moral towards others4 ,there are few regions of thought1 however1 so full of false ideas1 as the conception of moral duty towards one's neighbours and how it is to be fulfilled4 ,leaving out of consideration1 for the moment1 the theoretical systems of morality which are based on the maintenance of human society1 and which attach less importance to the concrete feelings and motives at the moment of action than to the effect on the general system of morality1 we come at once to the popular idea which defines the morality of a man by his 8goodness10 the degree to which his compassionate disposition is developed4 ,from the philosophical point of view1 ,hutcheson1 ,hume1 and ,smith saw in sympathy the nature and source of all ethical conduct1 and this view received a very strong support from ,schopenhauer's sympathetic morality4 ,schopenhauer's 8,essay on the ,foundations of ,morality0 shows in its motto 8,it is easy to preach morality1 difficult to find a basis for it10 the fundamental error of the sympathetic ethics which always fails to recognise that the science of ethics is not merely an explanation and description of conduct1 but a search for a guide to it4 ,whoever will be at the pains diligently to listen to the inner voice of man1 in order to establish what he ought to do1 will certainly reject every system of ethics1 the aim of which is to be a doctrine of the requirements which man has invented for himself and others instead of being a relation of what he actually does in furthering these requirements or in stifling them4 ,the object of all moral science is not what is happening but what ought to happen4 ,all attempts to explain ethics by psychology overlook the fact that every psychic event in man is appraised by man himself1 and the appraiser of the psychic event cannot be a psychic event4 ,this standard can only be an idea1 or a value which is never fully realised1 and which cannot be altered by any experience because it remains constant1 even if all experience is in opposition to it4 ,moral conduct can be only conduct controlled by an idea4 ,and so we can choose only from systems of morality which set up some idea or maxim for the regulation of conduct1 and there are only two to choose from1 the ethical socialism or social ethics1 founded by ,bentham and ,mill1 but imported to the ,continent and diligently propagated in ,germany and ,norway1 and ethical individualism such as is taught by ,christianity and ,german idealism4 ,the second failure of all the systems of ethics founded on sympathy is that they attempt to find a foundation for morality1 to explain morality1 whilst the very conception of morality is that it should be the ultimate standard of human conduct1 and so must be inexplicable and non-derivative1 must be its own purpose1 and cannot be brought into relation of cause and effect with anything outside itself4 ,this attempted derivation of morality is simply another aspect of the purely descriptive1 and therefore necessarily1 relative1 ethics1 and is untenable from the fact that however diligently the search be made1 it is impossible to find in the sphere of causes and effects a high aim that would be applicable to every moral action4 ,the inspiring motive of an action cannot come from any nexus of cause and effect2 it is much more in the nature of things for cause and effect to be linked with an inspiring moral aim4 ,outside the domain of first causes there lies a domain of moral aims1 and this latter domain is the inheritance of mankind4 ,the complete science of existence is a linking together of first causes until the first cause of all is reached1 and a complete science of 8oughts0 leads to a union of all in one great aim1 the culminating moral imperative4 ,he who rates sympathy as a positive moral factor has treated as moral something that is a feeling1 not an act4 ,sympathy may be an ethical phenomenon1 the expression of something ethical1 but it is no more an ethical act than are the senses of shame and pride2 we must clearly distinguish between an ethical act and an ethical phenomenon4 ,nothing must be considered an ethical act that is not a confirmation of the ethical idea by action2 ethical phenomena are unpremeditated1 involuntary signs of a permanent tendency of the disposition towards the moral idea4 ,it is in the struggle between motives that the idea presses in and seeks to make the decision2 the empirical mixture of ethical and unethical feelings1 sympathy and malice1 self-confidence and presumption1 gives no help towards a conclusion4 ,sympathy is1 perhaps1 the surest sign of a disposition1 but it is not the moral purpose inspiring an action4 ,morality must imply conscious knowledge of the moral purpose and of value as opposed to worthlessness4 ,socrates was right in this1 and ,kant is the only modern philosopher who has followed him4 ,sympathy is a non-logical sensation1 and has no claim to respect4 ,the question now before us is to consider how far a man can act morally with regard to his fellow men4 ,it is certainly not by unsolicited help which obtrudes itself on the solitude of another and pierces the limits that he has set for himself2 not by compassion but rather by respect4 ,this respect we owe only to man1 as ,kant showed2 for man is the only creature in the universe who is a purpose to himself4 ,but how can ,i show a man my contempt1 and how prove to him my respect8 ,the first by ignoring him1 the second by being friendly with him4 ,how can ,i use him as a means to an end1 and how can ,i honour him by regarding him himself as an end8 ,in the first case1 by looking upon him as a link in the chain of circumstances with which ,i have to deal2 in the second1 by endeavouring to understand him4 ,it is only by interesting oneself in a man1 without exactly telling him so1 by thinking of him1 by grasping his work1 by sympathising with his fate1 and by seeking to understand him1 that one can respect one's neighbour4 ,only he who1 through his own afflictions1 has become unselfish1 who forgets small wranglings with his fellow man1 who can repress his impatience1 and who endeavours to understand him1 is really disinterested with regard to his neighbour2 and he behaves morally because he triumphs over the strongest enemy to his understanding of his neighbour--selfishness4 ,how does the famous man stand in this respect8 ,he who understands the most men1 because he is most universal in disposition1 and who lives in the closest relation to the universe at large1 who most earnestly desires to understand its purpose1 will be most likely to act well towards his neighbour4 ,as a matter of fact1 no one thinks so much or so intently as he about other people 7even although he has only seen them for a moment71 and no one tries so hard to understand them if he does not feel that he already has them within him in all their significance4 ,inasmuch as he has a continuous past1 a complete ego of his own1 he can create the past which he did not know for others4 ,he follows the strongest bent of his inner being if he thinks about them1 for he seeks only to come to the truth about them by understanding them4 ,he sees that human beings are all members of an intelligible world1 in which there is no narrow egoism or altruism4 ,this is the only explanation of how it is that great men stand in vital1 understanding relationship1 not only with those round about them1 but with all the personalities of history who have preceded them2 this is the only reason why great artists have grasped historical personalities so much better and more intensively than scientific historians4 ,there has been no great man who has not stood in a personal relationship to ,napoleon1 ,plato1 or ,mahomet4 ,it is in this way that he shows his respect and true reverence for those who have lived before him4 ,when many of those who have been intimate with artists feel aggrieved when later on they recognise themselves in their works2 when writers are reproached for treating everything as copy1 it is easy enough to understand the feeling4 ,but the artist or author who does not heed the littlenesses of mankind has committed no crime1 he has simply employed his creative act of understanding with regard to them1 by a single-minded representation and reproduction of the world around him1 and there can be no higher relation between men than this4 ,the following words of ,pascal1 which have already been mentioned1 are specially applicable here3 8,a mesure qu'on a plus d'esprit1 on trouve qu'il y a plus d'hommes originaux4 ,les gens du commun ne trouvent pas de diffrence entre les hommes40 ,it follows from the foregoing that the greater a man is the greater efforts he will make to understand things that are most strange to him1 whilst the ordinary man readily thinks that he understands a thing1 although it may be something he does not at all understand1 so that he fails to perceive the unfamiliar spirit which is appealing to him from some object of art or from a philosophy1 and at most attains a superficial relation to the subject1 but does not rise to the inspiration of its creator4 ,the great man who attains to the highest rungs of consciousness does not easily identify himself and his opinion with anything he reads1 whilst those with a lesser clarity of mind adopt1 and imagine that they absorb1 things that in reality are very different4 ,the man of genius is he whose ego has acquired consciousness4 ,he is enabled by it to distinguish the fact that others are different1 to perceive the 8ego0 of other men1 even when it is not pronounced enough for them to be conscious of it themselves4 ,but it is only he who feels that every other man is also an ego1 a monad1 an individual centre of the universe1 with specific manner of feeling and thinking and a distinct past1 he alone is in a position to avoid making use of his neighbours as means to an end1 he1 according to the ethics of ,kant1 will trace1 anticipate1 and therefore respect the personality in his companion 7as part of the intelligible universe71 and will not merely be scandalised by him4 ,the psychological condition of all practical altruism1 therefore1 is theoretical individualism4 ,here lies the bridge between moral conduct towards oneself and moral conduct towards one's neighbour1 the apparent want of which in the ,kantian philosophy ,schopenhauer unjustly regarded as a fault1 and asserted to arise necessarily out of ,kant's first principles4 ,it is easy to give proofs4 ,only brutalised criminals and insane persons take absolutely no interest in their fellow men2 they live as if they were alone in the world1 and the presence of strangers has no effect on them4 ,but for him who possesses a self there is a self in his neighbour1 and only the man who has lost the logical and ethical centre of his being behaves to a second man as if the latter were not a man and had no personality of his own4 8,i0 and 8thou0 are complementary terms4 ,a man soonest gains consciousness of himself when he is with other men4 ,this is why a man is prouder in the presence of other men than when he is alone1 whilst it is in his hours of solitude that his self-confidence is damped4 ,lastly1 he who destroys himself destroys at the same time the whole universe1 and he who murders another commits the greatest crime because he murders himself in his victim4 ,absolute selfishness is1 in practice1 a horror1 which should rather be called nihilism2 if there is no 8thou10 there is certainly no 8,i10 and that would mean there is nothing4 ,there is in the psychological disposition of the man of genius that which makes it impossible to use other men as a means to an end4 ,and this is it3 he who feels his own personality1 feels it also in others4 ,for him the ,tat-tvam-asi is no beautiful hypothesis1 but a reality4 ,the highest individualism is the highest universalism4 ,ernest ,mach is in great error when he denies the subject1 and thinks it is only after the renunciation of the individual 8,i0 that an ethical relation1 which excludes neglect of the strange 8,i0 and over-estimation of the individual 8,i10 may be expected4 ,it has already been seen where the want of one's own ,i leads in relation to one's neighbour4 ,the ,i is the fundamental ground of all social morality4 ,i should never be able to place myself1 as an actual psychological being1 in an ethical relation to a mere bundle of elements4 ,it is possible to imagine such a relationship2 but it is entirely opposed to practical conduct2 because it eliminates the psychological condition necessary for making the moral idea an actual reality4 ,we are preparing for a real ethical relation to our fellow men when we make them conscious that each of them possesses a higher self1 a soul1 and that they must realise the souls in others4 ,this relation is1 however1 manifested in the most curious manner in the man of genius4 ,no one suffers so much as he with the people1 and1 therefore1 for the people1 with whom he lives4 ,for1 in a certain sense1 it is certainly only 8by suffering0 that a man knows4 ,if compassion is not itself clear1 abstractly conceivable or visibly symbolic knowledge1 it is1 at any rate1 the strongest impulse for the acquisition of knowledge4 ,it is only by suffering that the genius understands men4 ,and the genius suffers most because he suffers with and in each and all2 but he suffers most through his understanding4 ,although ,i tried to show in an earlier chapter that genius is the factor which primarily elevates man above the animals1 and in connection with that fact that it is man alone who has a history 7this being explained by the presence in all men of some degree of the quality of genius71 ,i must return to that earlier side of my argument4 ,genius involves the living actuality of the intelligible subject4 ,history manifests itself only as a social thing1 as the 8objective spirit10 the individuals as such playing no part in it1 being1 in fact1 non-historical4 ,here we see the threads of our argument converging4 ,if it be the case1 and ,i do not think that ,i am wrong1 that the timeless1 human personality is the necessary condition of every real ethical relation to our fellow men1 and if individuality is the necessary preliminary to the collective spirit1 then it is clear why the 8metaphysical animal0 and the 8political animal10 the possessor of genius and the maker of history1 are one and the same1 are humanity4 ,and the old controversy is settled2 which comes first1 the individual or the community8 ,both must be equal and simultaneous4 ,i think that ,i have proved at every point that genius is simply the higher morality4 ,the great man is not only the truest to himself1 the most unforgetful1 the one to whom errors and lies are most hateful and intolerable2 he is also the most social1 at the same time the most self-contained1 and the most open man4 ,the genius is altogether a higher form1 not merely intellectually1 but also morally4 ,in his own person1 the genius reveals the idea of mankind4 ,he represents what man is2 he is the subject whose object is the whole universe which he makes endure for all time4 ,let there be no mistake4 ,consciousness and consciousness alone is in itself moral2 all unconsciousness is immoral1 and all immorality is unconscious4 ,the 8immoral genius10 the 8great wicked man10 is1 therefore1 a mythical animal1 invented by great men in certain moments of their lives as a possibility1 in order 7very much against the will of the ,creator7 to serve as a bogey for nervous and timid natures1 with which they frighten themselves and other children4 ,no criminal who prided himself in his deed would speak like ,hagen in the 8,gtterdmmerung0 over ,siegfried's dead body3 8,ha1 ha1 ,i have slain him2 ,i1 ,hagen1 gave him his death blow40 ,napoleon and ,bacon1 who are given as counter-instances1 were intellectually much over-rated or wrongly represented4 ,and ,nietzsche is the least reliable in these matters1 when he begins to discuss the ,borgia type4 ,the conception of the diabolical1 of the anti-,christ1 of ,ahriman1 of the 8radical evil in human nature10 is exceedingly powerful1 yet it concerns genius only inasmuch as it is the opposite of it4 ,it is a fiction1 created in the hours in which great men have struggled against the evil in themselves4 ,universal comprehension1 full consciousness1 and perfect timelessness are an ideal condition1 ideal even for gifted men2 genius is an innate imperative1 which never becomes a fully accomplished fact in human beings4 ,hence it is that a man of genius will be the last man to feel himself in the position to say of himself3 8,i am a genius40 ,genius is1 in its essence1 nothing but the full completion of the idea of a man1 and1 therefore1 every man ought to have some quality of it1 and it should be regarded as a possible principle for every one4 ,genius is the highest morality1 and1 therefore1 it is every one's duty4 ,genius is to be attained by a supreme act of the will1 in which the whole universe is affirmed in the individual4 ,genius is something which 8men of genius0 take upon themselves2 it is the greatest exertion and the greatest pride1 the greatest misery and the greatest ecstasy to a man4 ,a man may become a genius if he wishes to4 ,but at once it will certainly be said3 8,very many men would like very much to be #8original geniuses1'0 and their wish has no effect4 ,but if these men who 8would like very much0 had a livelier sense of what is signified by their wish1 if they were aware that genius is identical with universal responsibility--and until that is grasped it will only be a wish and not a determination--it is highly probable that a very large number of these men would cease to wish to become geniuses4 ,the reason why madness overtakes so many men of genius--fools believe it comes from the influence of ,venus1 or the spinal degeneration of neurasthenics--is that for many the burden becomes too heavy1 the task of bearing the whole world on the shoulders1 like ,atlas1 intolerable for the smaller1 but never for the really mighty minds4 ,but the higher a man mounts1 the greater may be his fall2 all genius is a conquering of chaos1 mystery1 and darkness1 and if it degenerates and goes to pieces1 the ruin is greater in proportion to the success4 ,the genius which runs to madness is no longer genius2 it has chosen happiness instead of morality4 ,all madness is the outcome of the insupportability of suffering attached to all consciousness4 ,sophocles derived his idea that a man might wish to become mad for this reason1 and lets ,aias1 whose mind finally gives way1 give utterance to these words3 4 ,i shall conclude this chapter with the solemn words1 similar to the best moments of ,kant's style1 of ,johann ,pico von ,mirandola1 to whom ,i may bring some measure of recognition4 ,in his address 8on the dignity of man0 the ,supreme ,being addresses the following words to man3 8,nec certam sedem1 nec propriam faciem1 nec munus ullum peculiare tibi dedimus1 ,o ,adam3 ut quam sedem1 quam faciem1 quae munera tute optaveris1 ea pro voto1 pro tua sententia1 habeas et possideas4 ,definita caeteris natura intra praescriptas a nobis leges coercetur2 tu nullis angustiis coercitus1 pro tuo arbitrio1 in cuius manu te posui1 tibi illam praefinies4 ,medium te mundi posui1 ut circumspiceres inde commodius quicquid est in mundo4 ,nec te caelestem1 neque terrenum1 neque mortalem1 neque immortalem fecimus1 ut tui ipsius quasi arbitrarius honorariusque plastes et fictor in quam malueris tute formam effingas4 ,poteris in inferiora quae sunt bruta degenerare1 poteris in superiora quae sunt divina1 ex tui animi sententia regenerari4 ,o summam ,dei ,patris liberalitatem1 summam et admirandam hominis felicitatem3 cui datum id habere quod optat1 id esse quod velit4 ,bruta simul atque nascuntur id secum afferunt e bulga matris1 quod possessura sunt4 ,supremi spiritus aut ab initio aut paulo mox id fuerunt1 quod sunt futuri in perpetuas aeternitates4 ,nascenti homini omniferaria semina et omnigenae vitae germina indidit ,pater2 quae quisque excoluerit1 illa adolescent et fructus suos ferent in illo3 si vegetalia1 planta fiet1 si sensualia1 obbrutescet1 si rationalia1 caeleste evadet animal1 si intellectualia1 angelus erit et ,dei filius4 ,et si nulla creaturarum sorte contentus in unitatis centrum suac se receperit1 unus cum ,deo spiritus factus1 in solitaria ,patris caligine qui est super omnia constitutus omnibus antestabit04 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,male ,,and ,,female ,,psychology ,it is now time to return to the actual subject of this investigation in order to see how far its explanation has been helped by the lengthy digressions1 which must often have seemed wide of the mark4 ,the consequences of the fundamental principles that have been developed are of such radical importance to the psychology of the sexes that1 even if the former deductions have been assented to1 the present conclusions may find no acceptance4 ,this is not the place to analyse such a possibility2 but in order to protect the theory ,i am now going to set up1 from all objections1 ,i shall fully substantiate it in the fullest possible manner by convincing arguments4 ,shortly speaking the matter stands as follows3 ,i have shown that logical and ethical phenomena come together in the conception of truth as the ultimate good1 and posit the existence of an intelligible ego or a soul1 as a form of being of the highest super-empirical reality4 ,in such a being as the absolute female there are no logical and ethical phenomena1 and1 therefore1 the ground for the assumption of a soul is absent4 ,the absolute female knows neither the logical nor the moral imperative1 and the words law and duty1 duty towards herself1 are words which are least familiar to her4 ,the inference that she is wanting in supersensual personality is fully justified4 ,the absolute female has no ego4 ,in a certain sense this is an end of the investigation1 a final conclusion to which all analysis of the female leads4 ,and although this conclusion1 put thus concisely1 seems harsh and intolerant1 paradoxical and too abrupt in its novelty1 it must be remembered that the author is not the first who has taken such a view2 he is more in the position of one who has discovered the philosophical grounds for an opinion of long standing4 ,the ,chinese from time immemorial have denied that women possess a personal soul4 ,if a ,chinaman is asked how many children he has1 he counts only the boys1 and will say none if he has only daughters4 ,mahomet excluded women from ,paradise for the same reason1 and on this view depends the degraded position of women in ,oriental countries4 ,amongst the philosophers1 the opinions of ,aristotle must first be considered4 ,he held that in procreation the male principle was the formative active agent1 the 8logos10 whilst the female was the passive material4 ,when we remember that ,aristotle uses the word 8soul0 for the active1 formative1 causative principle1 it is plain that his idea was akin to mine1 although1 as he actually expressed it1 it related only to the reproductive process2 it is clear1 moreover1 that he1 like all the ,greek philosophers except ,euripides1 paid no heed to woman1 and did not consider her qualities from any other point of view than that of her share in reproduction4 ,amongst the fathers of the ,church1 ,tertullian and ,origen certainly had a very low opinion of woman1 and ,st4 ,augustine1 except for his relations with his mother1 seems to have shared their view4 ,at the ,renaissance the ,aristotelian conceptions gained many new adherents1 amongst whom ,jean ,wier 7#aeah-aehh7 may be cited specially4 ,at that period there was a general1 more sensible and intuitive understanding on the subject1 which is now treated as merely curious1 contemporary science having bowed the knee to other than ,aristotelian gods4 ,in recent years ,henrik ,ibsen 7in the characters of ,anitra1 ,rita1 and ,irene7 and ,august ,strindberg have given utterance to this view4 ,but the popularity of the idea of the soullessness of woman has been most attained by the wonderful fairy tales of ,fouqu1 who obtained the material for them from ,paracelsus1 after deep study1 and which have been set to music by ,e4 ,t4 ,a4 ,hoffman1 ,girschner1 and ,albert ,lorzing4 ,undine1 the soulless ,undine1 is the platonic idea of woman4 ,in spite of all bi-sexuality she most really resembles the actuality4 ,the well-known phrase1 8,women have no character10 really means the same thing4 ,personality and individuality 7intelligible71 ego and soul1 will and 7intelligible7 character1 all these are different expressions of the same actuality1 an actuality the male of mankind attains1 the female lacks4 ,but since the soul of man is the microcosm1 and great men are those who live entirely in and through their souls1 the whole universe thus having its being in them1 the female must be described as absolutely without the quality of genius4 ,the male has everything within him1 and1 as ,pico of ,mirandola put it1 only specialises in this or that part of himself4 ,it is possible for him to attain to the loftiest heights1 or to sink to the lowest depths2 he can become like animals1 or plants1 or even like women1 and so there exist woman-like female men4 ,the woman1 on the other hand1 can never become a man4 ,in this consists the most important limitation to the assertions in the first part of this work4 ,whilst ,i know of many men who are practically completely psychically female1 not merely half so1 and have seen a considerable number of women with masculine traits1 ,i have never yet seen a single woman who was not fundamentally female1 even when this femaleness has been concealed by various accessories from the person herself1 not to speak of others4 ,one must be 7cf4 chap4 i4 part ,i47 either man or woman1 however many peculiarities of both sexes one may have1 and this 8being10 the problem of this work from the start1 is determined by one's relation to ethics and logic2 but whilst there are people who are anatomically men and psychically women1 there is no such thing as a person who is physically female and psychically male1 notwithstanding the extreme maleness of their outward appearance and the unwomanliness of their expression4 ,we may now give1 with certainty1 a conclusive answer to the question as to the giftedness of the sexes3 there are women with undoubted traits of genius1 but there is no female genius1 and there never has been one 7not even amongst those masculine women of history which were dealt with in the first part71 and there never can be one4 ,those who are in favour of laxity in these matters1 and are anxious to extend and enlarge the idea of genius in order to make it possible to include women1 would simply by such action destroy the conception of genius4 ,if it is in any way possible to frame a definition of genius that would thoroughly cover the ground1 ,i believe that my definition succeeds4 ,and how1 then1 could a soulless being possess genius8 ,the possession of genius is identical with profundity2 and if any one were to try to combine woman and profundity as subject and predicate1 he would be contradicted on all sides4 ,a female genius is a contradiction in terms1 for genius is simply intensified1 perfectly developed1 universally conscious maleness4 ,the man of genius possesses1 like everything else1 the complete female in himself2 but woman herself is only a part of the ,universe1 and the part can never be the whole2 femaleness can never include genius4 ,this lack of genius on the part of woman is inevitable because woman is not a monad1 and cannot reflect the ,universe4#ab #ab ,it would be a simple matter to introduce at this point a list of the works of the most famous women1 and show by a few examples how little they deserve the title of genius4 ,but it would be a wearisome task1 and any one who would make use of such a list can easily procure it for himself1 so that ,i shall not do so4 ,the proof of the soullessness of woman is closely connected with much of what was contained in the earlier chapters4 ,the third chapter explained that woman has her experiences in the form of henids1 whilst those of men are in an organised form1 so that the consciousness of the female is lower in grade than that of the male4 ,consciousness1 however1 is psychologically a fundamental part of the theory of knowledge4 ,from the point of view of the theory of knowledge1 consciousness and the possession of a continuous ego1 of a transcendental subjective soul1 are identical conceptions4 ,every ego exists only so far as it is self-conscious1 conscious of the contents of its own thoughts2 all real existence is conscious existence4 ,i can now make an important addition to the theory of henids4 ,the organised contents of the thoughts of the male are not merely those of the female articulated and formed1 they are not what was potential in the female becoming actual2 from the very first there is a qualitative difference4 ,the psychical contents of the male1 even whilst they are still in the henid stage that they always try to emerge from1 are already partly conceptual1 and it is probable that even perceptions in the male have a direct tendency towards conceptions4 ,in the female1 on the other hand1 there is no trace of conception either in recognition or in thinking4 ,the logical axioms are the foundation of all formation of mental conceptions1 and women are devoid of these2 the principle of identity is not for them an inevitable standard1 nor do they fence off all other possibilities from their conception by using the principle of contradictories4 ,this want of definiteness in the ideas of women is the source of that 8sensitiveness0 which gives the widest scope to vague associations and allows the most radically different things to be grouped together4 ,and even women with the best and least limited memories never free themselves from this kind of association by feelings4 ,for instance1 if they 8feel reminded0 by a word of some definite colour1 or by a human being of some definite thing to eat--forms of association common with women--they rest content with the subjective association1 and do not try to find out the source of the comparison1 and if there is any relation in it to actual fact4 ,the complacency and self-satisfaction of women corresponds with what has been called their intellectual unscrupulousness1 and will be referred to again in connection with their want of the power to form concepts4 ,this subjection to waves of feeling1 this want of respect for conceptions1 this self-appreciation without any attempt to avoid shallowness1 characterise as essentially female the changeable styles of many modern painters and novelists4 ,male thought is fundamentally different from female thought in its craving for definite form1 and all art that consists of moods is essentially a formless art4 ,the psychical contents of man's thoughts1 therefore1 are more than the explicit realisation of what women think in henids4 ,woman's thought is a sliding and gliding through subjects1 a superficial tasting of things that a man1 who studies the depths1 would scarcely notice2 it is an extravagant and dainty method of skimming which has no grasp of accuracy4 ,a woman's thought is superficial1 and touch is the most highly developed of the female senses1 the most notable characteristic of the woman which she can bring to a high state by her unaided efforts4 ,touch necessitates a limiting of the interest to superficialities1 it is a vague effect of the whole and does not depend on definite details4 ,when a woman 8understands0 a man 7of the possibility or impossibility of any real understanding ,i shall speak later7 she is simply1 so to speak tasting 7however wanting in taste the comparison may be7 what he has thought about her4 ,since1 on her own part1 there is no sharp differentiation1 it is plain that she will often think that she herself has been understood when there is no more present than a vague similarity of perceptions4 ,the incongruity between the man and woman depends1 in a special measure1 on the fact that the contents of the thoughts of the man are not merely those of the woman in a higher state of differentiation1 but that the two have totally distinct sequences of thought applied to the same object1 conceptual thought in the one and indistinct sensing in the other2 and when what is called 8understanding0 in the two cases is compared1 the comparison is not between a fully organised integrated thought and a lower stage of the same process2 but in the understanding of man and woman there is on the one side a conceptual thought1 on the other side an unconceptual 8feeling10 a henid4 ,the unconceptual nature of the thinking of a woman is simply the result of her less perfect consciousness1 of her want of an ego4 ,it is the conception that unites the mere complex of perceptions into an object1 and this it does independently of the presence of an actual perception4 ,the existence of the complex of perceptions is dependent on the will2 the will can shut the eyes and stop the ears so that the person no longer sees nor hears1 but may get drunk or go to sleep and forget4 ,it is the conception which brings freedom from the eternally subjective1 eternally psychological relativity of the actual perceptions1 and which creates the things in themselves4 ,by its power of forming conceptions the intellect can spontaneously separate itself from the object2 conversely1 it is only when there is a comprehending function that subject and object can be separated and so distinguished2 in all other cases there is only a mass of like and unlike images present mingling together without law and order4 ,the conception creates definite realities from the floating images1 the object from the perception1 the object which stands like an enemy opposite the subject that the subject may measure its strength upon it4 ,the conception is thus the creator of reality2 it is the 8transcendental object0 of ,kant's 8,critique of ,reason10 but it always involves a transcendental 8subject40 ,it is impossible to say of a mere complex of perceptions that it is like itself2 in the moment that ,i have made the judgment of identity1 the complex of perceptions has become a concept4 ,and so the conception gives their value to all processes of verification and all syllogisms2 the conception makes the contents of thought free by binding them4 ,it gives freedom both to the subject and object2 for the two freedoms involve each other4 ,all freedom is in reality self-binding1 both in logic and in ethics4 ,man is free only when he himself is the law4 ,and so the function of making concepts is the power by which man gives himself dignity2 he honours himself by giving freedom to the objective world1 by making it part of the objective body of knowledge to which recourse may be had when two men differ4 ,the woman cannot in this way set herself over against realities1 she and they swing together capriciously2 she cannot give freedom to her objects as she herself is not free4 ,the mode in which perceptions acquire independence in conceptions is the means of getting free from subjectivity4 ,the conception is that about which ,i think1 write1 and speak4 ,and in this way there comes the belief that ,i can make judgments concerning it4 ,hume1 ,huxley1 and other 8immanent0 psychologists1 tried to identify the conception with a mere generalisation1 so making no distinction between logical and psychological thought4 ,in doing this they ignored the power of making judgments4 ,in every judgment there is an act of verification or of contradiction1 an approval or rejection1 and the standard for these judgments1 the idea of truth1 must be something external to that on what it is acting4 ,if there are nothing but perceptions1 then all perceptions must have an equal validity1 and there can be no standard by which to form a real world4 ,empiricism in this fashion really destroys the reality of experience1 and what is called positivism is no more than nihilism4 ,the idea of a standard of truth1 the idea of truth1 cannot lie in experience4 ,in every judgment this idea of the existence of truth is implicit4 ,the claim to real knowledge depends on this capacity to judge1 involves the conception of the possibility of truth in the judgment4 ,this claim to be able to reach knowledge is no more than to say that the subject can judge of the object1 can say that the object is true4 ,the objects on which we make judgments are conceptions2 the conception is what we know4 ,the conception places a subject and an object against one another1 and the judgment then creates a relation between the two4 ,the attainment of truth simply means that the subject can judge rightly of the object1 and so the function of making judgments is what places the ego in relation to the all1 is what makes a real unity of the ego and the all possible4 ,and thus we reach an answer to the old problem as to whether conception or judgment has precedence2 the answer is that the two are necessary to one another4 ,the faculty of making conceptions cleaves subject and object and unites them again4 ,a being like the female1 without the power of making concepts1 is unable to make judgments4 ,in her 8mind0 subjective and objective are not separated2 there is no possibility of making judgments1 and no possibility of reaching1 or of desiring1 truth4 ,no woman is really interested in science2 she may deceive herself and many good men1 but bad psychologists1 by thinking so4 ,it may be taken as certain1 that whenever a woman has done something of any little importance in the scientific world 7,sophie ,germain1 ,mary ,somerville1 c47 it is always because of some man in the background whom they desire to please in this way2 and it is more often justifiable to say 8cherchez l'homme0 where women are concerned than 8cherchez la femme0 in the case of men4 ,but there have never been any great discoveries in the world of science made by women1 because the facility for truth only proceeds from a desire for truth1 and the former is always in proportion to the latter4 ,woman's sense of reality is much less than man's1 in spite of much repetition of the contrary opinion4 ,with women the pursuit of knowledge is always subordinated to something else1 and if this alien impulse is sufficiently strong they can see sharply and unerringly1 but woman will never be able to see the value of truth in itself and in relation to her own self4 ,where there is some check to what she wishes 7perhaps unconsciously7 a woman becomes quite uncritical and loses all touch with reality4 ,this is why women so often believe themselves to have been the victims of sexual overtures2 this is the reason of extreme frequency of hallucinations of the sense of touch in women1 of the intensive reality of which it is almost impossible for a man to form an idea4 ,this also is why the imagination of women is composed of lies and errors1 whilst the imagination of the philosopher is the highest form of truth4 ,the idea of truth is the foundation of everything that deserves the name of judgment4 ,knowledge is simply the making of judgments1 and thought itself is simply another name for judgment4 ,deduction is the necessary process in making judgments1 and involves the propositions of identity and of contradictories1 and1 as ,i have shown1 these propositions are not axiomatic for women4 ,a psychological proof that the power of making judgments is a masculine trait lies in the fact that the woman recognises it as such1 and that it acts on her as a tertiary sexual character of the male4 ,a woman always expects definite convictions in a man1 and appropriates them2 she has no understanding of indecision in a man4 ,she always expects a man to talk1 and a man's speech is to her a sign of his manliness4 ,it is true that woman has the gift of speech1 but she has not the art of talking2 she converses 7flirts7 or chatters1 but she does not talk4 ,she is most dangerous1 however1 when she is dumb1 for men are only too inclined to take her quiescence for silence4 ,the absolute female1 then1 is devoid not only of the logical rules1 but of the functions of making concepts and judgments which depend on them4 ,as the very nature of the conceptual faculty consists in posing subject against object1 and as the subject takes its deepest and fullest meaning from its power of forming judgments on its objects1 it is clear that women cannot be recognised as possessing even the subject4 ,i must add to the exposition of the non-logical nature of the female some statements as to her non-moral nature4 ,the profound falseness of woman1 the result of the want in her of a permanent relation to the idea of truth or to the idea of value1 would prove a subject of discussion so exhaustive that ,i must go to work another way4 ,there are such endless imitations of ethics1 such confusing copies of morality1 that women are often said to be on a moral plane higher than that of man4 ,i have already pointed out the need to distinguish between the non-moral and the immoral1 and ,i now repeat that with regard to women we can talk only of the non-moral1 of the complete absence of a moral sense4 ,it is a well-known fact of criminal statistics and of daily life that there are very few female criminals4 ,the apologists of the morality of women always point to this fact4 ,but in deciding the question as to the morality of women we have to consider not if a particular person has objectively sinned against the idea1 but if the person has or has not a subjective centre of being that can enter into a relation with the idea1 a relation the value of which is lowered when a sin is committed4 ,no doubt the male criminal inherits his criminal instincts1 but none the less he is conscious--in spite of theories of 8moral insanity0--that by his action he has lowered the value of his claim on life4 ,all criminals are cowardly in this matter1 and there is none of them that thinks he has raised his value and his self-consciousness by his crime1 or that would try to justify it to himself4 ,the male criminal has from birth a relation to the idea of value just like any other man1 but the criminal impulse1 when it succeeds in dominating him1 destroys this almost completely4 ,woman1 on the contrary1 often believes herself to have acted justly when1 as a matter of fact1 she has just done the greatest possible act of meanness2 whilst the true criminal remains mute before reproach1 a woman can at once give indignant expression to her astonishment and anger that any one should question her perfect right to act in this or that way4 ,women are convinced of their own integrity without ever having sat in judgment on it4 ,the criminal does not1 it is true1 reflect on himself1 but he never urges his own integrity2 he is much more inclined to get rid of the thought of his integrity1#ac because it might remind him of his guilt3 and in this is the proof that he had a relation to the idea 7of truth71 and only objects to be reminded of his unfaithfulness to his better self4 ,no male criminal has ever believed that his punishment was unjust4 ,a woman1 on the contrary1 is convinced of the animosity of her accuser1 and if she does not wish to be convinced of it1 no one can persuade her that she has done wrong4 #ac ,a male criminal even feels guilty when he has not actually done wrong4 ,he can always accept the reproaches of others as to deception1 thieving1 and so on1 even if he has never committed such acts1 because he knows he is capable of them4 ,so also he always feels himself 8caught0 when any other offender is arrested4 ,if any one talks to her it usually happens that she bursts into tears1 begs for pardon1 and 8confesses her fault10 and may really believe that she feels her guilt2 but only when she desires to do so1 and the outbreak of tears has given her a certain sort of satisfaction4 ,the male criminal is callous2 he does not spin round in a trice1 as a woman would do in a similar instance if her accuser knew how to handle her skilfully4 ,the personal torture which arises from guilt1 which cries aloud in its anguish at having brought such a stain upon herself1 no woman knows1 and an apparent exception 7the penitent1 who becomes a self-mortifying devotee17 will certainly prove that a woman only feels a vicarious guilt4 ,i am not arguing that woman is evil and anti-moral2 ,i state that she cannot be really evil2 she is merely non-moral4 ,womanly compassion and female modesty are the two other phenomena which are generally urged by the defenders of female virtue4 ,it is especially from womanly kindness1 womanly sympathy1 that the beautiful descriptions of the soul of woman have gained most support1 and the final argument of all belief in the superior morality of woman is the conception of her as the hospital nurse1 the tender sister4 ,i am sorry to have to mention this point1 and should not have done so1 but ,i have been forced to do so by a verbal objection made to me1 which can be easily foreseen4 ,it is very shortsighted of any one to consider the nurse as a proof of the sympathy of women1 because it really implies the opposite4 ,for a man could never stand the sight of the sufferings of the sick2 he would suffer so intensely that he would be completely upset and incapable of lengthy attendance on them4 ,any one who has watched nursing sisters is astounded at their equanimity and 8sweetness0 even in the presence of most terrible death throes2 and it is well that it is so1 for man1 who cannot stand suffering and death1 would make a very bad nurse4 ,a man would want to assuage the pain and ward off death2 in a word1 he would want to help2 where there is nothing to be done he is better away2 it is only then that nursing is justified and that woman offers herself for it4 ,but it would be quite wrong to regard this capacity of women in an ethical aspect4 ,here it may be said that for woman the problem of solitude and society does not exist4 ,she is well adapted for social relations 7as1 for instance1 those of a companion or sick-nurse71 simply because for her there is no transition from solitude to society4 ,in the case of a man1 the choice between solitude and society is serious when it has to be made4 ,the woman gives up no solitude when she nurses the sick1 as she would have to do were she to deserve moral credit for her action2 a woman is never in a condition of solitude1 and knows neither the love of it nor the fear of it4 ,the woman is always living in a condition of fusion with all the human beings she knows1 even when she is alone2 she is not a 8monad10 for all monads are sharply marked off from other existences4 ,women have no definite individual limits2 they are not unlimited in the sense that geniuses have no limits1 being one with the whole world2 they are unlimited only in the sense that they are not marked off from the common stock of mankind4 ,this sense of continuity with the rest of mankind is a sexual character of the female1 and displays itself in the desire to touch1 to be in contact with1 the object of her pity2 the mode in which her tenderness expresses itself is a kind of animal sense of contact4 ,it shows the absence of the sharp line that separates one real personality from another4 ,the woman does not respect the sorrow of her neighbour by silence2 she tries to raise him from his grief by speech1 feeling that she must be in physical1 rather than spiritual contact with him4 ,this diffused life1 one of the most fundamental qualities of the female nature1 is the cause of the impressibility of all women1 their unreserved and shameless readiness to shed tears on the most ordinary occasion4 ,it is not without reason that we associate wailing with women1 and think little of a man who sheds tears in public4 ,a woman weeps with those that weep and laughs with those that laugh--unless she herself is the cause of the laughter--so that the greater part of female sympathy is ready-made4 ,it is only women who demand pity from other people1 who weep before them and claim their sympathy4 ,this is one of the strongest pieces of evidence for the psychical shamelessness of women4 ,a woman provokes the compassion of strangers in order to weep with them and be able to pity herself more than she already does4 ,it is not too much to say that even when a woman weeps alone she is weeping with those that she knows would pity her and so intensifying her self-pity by the thought of the pity of others4 ,self-pity is eminently a female characteristic2 a woman will associate herself with others1 make herself the object of pity for these others1 and then at once1 deeply stirred1 begin to weep with them about herself1 the poor thing4 ,perhaps nothing so stirs the feeling of shame in a man as to detect in himself the impulse towards this self-pity1 this state of mind in which the subject becomes the object4 ,as ,schopenhauer put it1 female sympathy is a matter of sobbing and wailing on the slightest provocation1 without the smallest attempt to control the emotion2 on the other hand1 all true sorrow1 like true sympathy1 just because it is real sorrow1 must be reserved2 no sorrow can really be so reserved as sympathy and love1 for these make us most fully conscious of the limits of each personality4 ,love and its bashfulness will be considered later on2 in the meantime let us be assured that in sympathy1 in genuine masculine sympathy1 there is always a strong feeling of reserve1 a sense almost of guilt1 because one's friend is worse off than oneself1 because ,i am not he1 but a being separated from his being by extraneous circumstances4 ,a man's sympathy is the principle of individuality blushing for itself2 and hence man's sympathy is reserved whilst that of woman is aggressive4 ,the existence of modesty in women has been discussed already to a certain extent2 ,i shall have more to say about it in relation with hysteria4 ,but it is difficult to see how it can be maintained that this is a female virtue1 if one reflect on the readiness with which women accept the habit of wearing low-necked dresses wherever custom prescribes it4 ,a person is either modest or immodest1 and modesty is not a quality which can be assumed or discarded from hour to hour4 ,strong evidence of the want of modesty in woman is to be derived from the fact that women dress and undress in the presence of one another with the greatest freedom1 whilst men try to avoid similar circumstances4 ,moreover1 when women are alone together1 they are very ready to discuss their physical qualities1 especially with regard to their attractiveness for men2 whilst men1 practically without exception1 avoid all notice of one another's sexual characters4 ,i shall return to this subject again4 ,in the meantime ,i wish to refer to the argument of the second chapter in this connection4 ,one must be fully conscious of a thing before one can have a feeling of shame about it1 and so differentiation is as necessary for the sense of shame as for consciousness4 ,the female1 who is only sexual1 can appear to be asexual because she is sexuality itself1 and so her sexuality does not stand out separately from the rest of her being1 either in space or in time1 as in the case of the male4 ,woman can give an impression of being modest because there is nothing in her to contrast with her sexuality4 ,and so the woman is always naked or never naked--we may express it either way--never naked1 because the true feeling of nakedness is impossible to her2 always naked1 because there is not in her the material for the sense of relativity by which she could become aware of her nakedness and so make possible the desire to cover it4 ,what ,i have been discussing depends on the actual meaning of the word 8ego0 to a woman4 ,if a woman were asked what she meant by her 8ego0 she would certainly think of her body4 ,her superficies1 that is the woman's ego4 ,the ego of the female is quite correctly described by ,mach in his 8,anti-metaphysical ,remarks40 ,the ego of a woman is the cause of the vanity which is specific of women4 ,the analogue of this in the male is an emanation of the set of his will towards his conception of the good1 and its objective expression is a sensitiveness1 a desire that no one shall call in question the possibility of attaining this supreme good4 ,it is his personality that gives to man his value and his freedom from the conditions of time4 ,this supreme good1 which is beyond price1 because1 in the words of ,kant1 there can be found no equivalent for it1 is the dignity of man4 ,women1 in spite of what ,schiller has said1 have no dignity1 and the word 8lady0 was invented to supply this defect1 and her pride will find its expression in what she regards as the supreme good1 that is to say1 in the preservation1 improvement1 and display of her personal beauty4 ,the pride of the female is something quite peculiar to herself1 something foreign even to the most handsome man1 an obsession by her own body2 a pleasure which displays itself1 even in the least handsome girl1 by admiring herself in the mirror1 by stroking herself and playing with her own hair1 but which comes to its full measure only in the effect that her body has on man4 ,a woman has no true solitude1 because she is always conscious of herself only in relation to others4 ,the other side of the vanity of women is the desire to feel that her body is admired1 or1 rather1 sexually coveted1 by a man4 ,this desire is so strong that there are many women to whom it is sufficient merely to know that they are coveted4 ,the vanity of women is1 then1 always in relation to others2 a woman lives only in the thoughts of others about her4 ,the sensibility of women is directed to this4 ,a woman never forgets that some one thought her ugly2 a woman never considers herself ugly2 the successes of others at the most only make her think of herself as perhaps less attractive4 ,but no woman ever believes herself to be anything but beautiful and desirable when she looks at herself in the glass2 she never accepts her own ugliness as a painful reality as a man would1 and never ceases to try to persuade others of the contrary4 ,what is the source of this form of vanity1 peculiar to the female8 ,it comes from the absence of an intelligible ego1 the only begetter of a constant and positive sense of value2 it is1 in fact1 that she is devoid of a sense of personal value4 ,as she sets no store by herself or on herself1 she endeavours to attain to a value in the eyes of others by exciting their desire and admiration4 ,the only thing which has any absolute and ultimate value in the world is the soul4 8,ye are better than many sparrows0 were ,christ's words to mankind4 ,a woman does not value herself by the constancy and freedom of her personality2 but this is the only possible method for every creature possessing an ego4 ,but if a real woman1 and this is certainly the case1 can only value herself at the rate of the man who has fixed his choice on her2 if it is only through her husband or lover that she can attain to a value not only in social and material things1 but also in her innermost nature1 it follows that she possesses no personal value1 she is devoid of man's sense of the value of his own personality for itself4 ,and so women always get their sense of value from something outside themselves1 from their money or estates1 the number and richness of their garments1 the position of their box at the opera1 their children1 and1 above all1 their husbands or lovers4 ,when a woman is quarrelling with another woman1 her final weapon1 and the weapon she finds most effective and discomfiting1 is to proclaim her superior social position1 her wealth or title1 and1 above all1 her youthfulness and the devotion of her husband or lover2 whereas a man in similar case would lay himself open to contempt if he relied on anything except his own personal individuality4 ,the absence of the soul in woman may also be inferred from the following3 ,whilst a woman is stimulated to try to impress a man from the mere fact that he has paid no attention to her 7,goethe gave this as a practical receipt71 the whole life of a woman1 in fact1 being an expression of this side of her nature1 a man1 if a woman treats him rudely or indifferently1 feels repelled by her4 ,nothing makes a man so happy as the love of a girl2 even if he did not at first return her love1 there is a great probability of love being aroused in him4 ,the love of a man for whom she does not care is only a gratification of the vanity of a woman1 or an awakening and rousing of slumbering desires4 ,a woman extends her claims equally to all men on earth4 ,the shamelessness and heartlessness of women are shown in the way in which they talk of being loved4 ,a man feels ashamed of being loved1 because he is always in the position of being the active1 free agent1 and because he knows that he can never give himself entirely to love1 and there is nothing about which he is so silent1 even when there is no special reason for him to fear that he might compromise the lady by talking4 ,a woman boasts about her love affairs1 and parades them before other women in order to make them envious of her4 ,woman does not look upon a man's inclination for her so much as a tribute to her actual worth1 or a deep insight into her nature1 as the bestowing a value on her which she otherwise would not have1 as the gift to her of an existence and essence with which she justifies herself before others4 ,the remark in an earlier chapter about the unfailing memory of woman for all the compliments she has ever received since childhood is explained by the foregoing facts4 ,it is from compliments1 first of all1 that woman gets a sense of her 8value10 and that is why women expect men to be 8polite40 ,politeness is the easiest form of pleasing a woman1 and however little it costs a man it is dear to a woman1 who never forgets an attention1 and lives upon the most insipid flattery1 even in her old age4 ,one only remembers what possesses a value in one's eyes2 it may safely be said that it is for compliments women have the most developed memory4 ,the woman can attain a sense of value by these external aids1 because she does not possess within her an inner standard of value which diminishes everything outside her4 ,the phenomena of courtesy and chivalry are simply additional proofs that women have no souls1 and that when a man is being 8polite0 to a woman he is simply ascribing to her the minimum sense of personal value1 a form of deference to which importance is attached precisely in the measure that it is misunderstood4 ,the non-moral nature of woman reveals itself in the mode in which she can so easily forget an immoral action she has committed4 ,it is almost characteristic of a woman that she cannot believe that she has done wrong1 and so is able to deceive both herself and her husband4 ,men1 on the other hand1 remember nothing so well as the guilty episodes of their lives4 ,here memory reveals itself as eminently a moral phenomenon4 ,forgiving and forgetting1 not forgiving and understanding1 go together4 ,when one remembers a lie1 one reproaches oneself afresh about it4 ,a woman forgets1 because she does not blame herself for an act of meanness1 because she does not understand it1 having no relation to the moral idea4 ,it is not surprising that she is ready to lie4 ,women have been regarded as virtuous1 simply because the problem of morality has not presented itself to them2 they have been held to be even more moral than man2 this is simply because they do not understand immorality4 ,the innocence of a child is not meritorious2 if a patriarch could be innocent he might be praised for it4 ,introspection is an attribute confined to males1 if we leave out of account the hysterical self-reproaches of certain women--and consciousness of guilt and repentance are equally male4 ,the penances that women lay on themselves1 remarkable imitations of the sense of guilt1 will be discussed when ,i come to deal with what passes for introspection in the female sex4 ,the 8subject0 of introspection is the moral agent2 it has a relation to psychical phenomena only in so far as it sits in judgment on them4 ,it is quite in the nature of positivism that ,comte denies the possibility of introspection1 and throws ridicule on it4 ,for certainly it is absurd that a psychical event and a judgment of it could coincide if the interpretations of the positivists be accepted4 ,it is only on the assumption that there exists an ego unconditioned by time and intrinsically capable of moral judgments1 endowed with memory and with the power of making comparisons1 that we can justify the belief in the possibility of introspection4 ,if woman had a sense of her personal value and the will to defend it against all external attacks she could not be jealous4 ,apparently all women are jealous1 and jealousy depends on the failure to recognise the rights of others4 ,even the jealousy of a mother when she sees another woman's daughters married before her own depends simply on her want of the sense of justice4 ,without justice there can be no society1 so that jealousy is an absolutely unsocial quality4 ,the formation of societies in reality presupposes the existence of true individuality4 ,woman has no faculty for the affairs of ,state or politics1 as she has no social inclinations2 and women's societies1 from which men are excluded1 are certain to break up after a short time4 ,the family itself is not really a social structure2 it is essentially unsocial1 and men who give up their clubs and societies after marriage soon rejoin them4 ,i had written this before the appearance of ,heinrich ,schurtz' valuable ethnological work1 in which he shows that associations of men1 and not the family1 form the beginnings of society4 ,pascal made the wonderful remark that human beings seek society only because they cannot bear solitude and wish to forget themselves4 ,it is the fact expressed in these words which puts in harmony my earlier statement that women had not the faculty of solitude and my present statement that she is essentially unsociable4 ,if a woman possessed an 8ego0 she would have the sense of property both in her own case and that of others4 ,the thieving instinct1 however1 is much more developed in men than in women4 ,so-called 8kleptomaniacs0 7those who steal without necessity7 are almost exclusively women4 ,women understand power and riches but not personal property4 ,when the thefts of female kleptomaniacs are discovered1 the women defend themselves by saying that it appeared to them as if everything belonged to them4 ,it is chiefly women who use circulating libraries1 especially those who could quite well afford to buy quantities of books2 but1 as matter of fact1 they are not more strongly attracted by what they have bought than by what they have borrowed4 ,in all these matters the relation between individuality and society comes into view2 just as a man must have personality himself to appreciate the personalities of others1 so also he must acquire a sense of personal right in his own property to respect the rights of others4 ,one's name and a strong devotion to it are even more dependent on personality than is the sense of property4 ,the facts that confront us with reference to this are so salient that it is extraordinary to find so little notice taken of them4 ,women are not bound to their names with any strong bond4 ,when they marry they give up their own name and assume that of their husband without any sense of loss4 ,they allow their husbands and lovers to call them by new names1 delighting in them2 and even when a woman marries a man that she does not love1 she has never been known to suffer any psychical shock at the change of name4 ,the name is a symbol of individuality2 it is only amongst the lowest races on the face of the earth1 such as the bushmen of ,south ,africa1 that there are no personal names1 because amongst such as these the desire for distinguishing individuals from the general stock is not felt4 ,the fundamental namelessness of the woman is simply a sign of her undifferentiated personality4 ,an important observation may be mentioned here and may be confirmed by every one4 ,whenever a man enters a place where a woman is1 and she observes him1 or hears his step1 or even only guesses he is near1 she becomes another person4 ,her expression and her pose change with incredible swiftness2 she 8arranges her fringe0 and her bodice1 and rises1 or pretends to be engrossed in her work4 ,she is full of a half-shameless1 half-nervous expectation4 ,in many cases one is only in doubt as to whether she is blushing for her shameless laugh1 or laughing over her shameless blushing4 ,the soul1 personality1 character--as ,schopenhauer with marvellous sight recognised--are identical with free-will4 ,and as the female has no ego1 she has no free-will4 ,only a creature with no will of its own1 no character in the highest sense1 could be so easily influenced by the mere proximity to a man as woman is1 who remains in functional dependence on him instead of in free relationship to him4 ,woman is the best medium1 the male her best hypnotiser4 ,for this reason alone it is inconceivable why women can be considered good as doctors2 for many doctors admit that their principal work up to the present--and it will always be the same--lies in the suggestive influence on their patients4 ,the female is uniformly more easily hypnotised than the male throughout the animal world1 and it may be seen from the following how closely hypnotic phenomena are related to the most ordinary events4 ,i have already described1 in discussing female sympathy1 how easy it is for laughter or tears to be induced in females4 ,how impressed she is by everything in the newspapers6 ,what a martyr she is to the silliest superstitions6 ,how eagerly she tries every remedy recommended by her friends6 ,whoever is lacking in character is lacking in convictions4 ,the female1 therefore1 is credulous1 uncritical1 and quite unable to understand ,protestantism4 ,christians are ,catholics or ,protestants before they are baptized1 but1 none the less1 it would be unfair to describe ,catholicism as feminine simply because it suits women better4 ,the distinction between the ,catholic and ,protestant dispositions is a side of characterology that would require separate treatment4 ,it has been exhaustively proved that the female is soulless and possesses neither ego nor individuality1 personality nor freedom1 character nor will4 ,this conclusion is of the highest significance in psychology4 ,it implies that the psychology of the male and of the female must be treated separately4 ,a purely empirical representation of the psychic life of the female is possible2 in the case of the male1 all the psychic life must be considered with reference to the ego1 as ,kant foresaw4 ,the view of ,hume 7and ,mach71 which only admits that there are 8impressions0 and 8thoughts0 7,,abc and 44471 and which has almost driven the psyche out of present day psychology1 declares that the whole world is to be considered exclusively as a picture in a reflector1 a sort of kaleidoscope2 it merely reduces everything to a dance of the 8elements10 without thought or order2 it denies the possibility of obtaining a secure standpoint for thought2 it not only destroys the idea of truth1 and accordingly of reality1 the only claims on which philosophy rests1 but it also is to blame for the wretched plight of modern psychology4 ,this modern psychology proudly styles itself the 8psychology without the soul10 in imitation of its much over-rated founder1 ,friedrich ,albert ,lange4 ,i think ,i have proved in this work that without the acknowledgment of a soul there would be no way of dealing with psychic phenomena2 just as much in the case of the male who has a soul as in the case of the female who is soulless4 ,modern psychology is eminently womanish1 and that is why this comparative investigation of the sexes is so specially instructive1 and it is not without reason that ,i have delayed pointing out this radical difference2 it is only now that it can be seen what the acceptation of the ego implies1 and how the confusing of masculine and feminine spiritual life 7in the broadest and deepest sense7 has been at the root of all the difficulties and errors into which those who have sought to establish a universal psychology have fallen4 ,i must now raise the question--is a psychology of the male possible as a science8 ,the answer must be that it is not possible4 ,i must be understood to reject all the investigations of the experimenters1 and those who are still sick with the experimental fever may ask in wonder if all these have no value8 ,experimental psychology has not given a single explanation as to the deeper laws of masculine life2 it can be regarded only as a series of sporadic empirical efforts1 and its method is wrong inasmuch as it seeks to reach the kernel of things by surface examination1 and as it cannot possibly give an explanation of the deep-seated source of all psychical phenomena4 ,when it has attempted to discover the real nature of psychical phenomena by measurements of the physical phenomena that accompany them1 it has succeeded in showing that even in the most favourable cases there is an inconstancy and variation4 ,the fundamental possibility of reaching the mathematical idea of knowledge is that the data should be constant4 ,as the mind itself is the creator of time and space1 it is impossible to expect that geometry and arithmetic should explain the mind1 that the creature should explain the creator4 ,there can be no scientific psychology of man1 for the aim of psychology is to derive what is not derivative1 to prove to every man what his real nature and essence are1 to deduce these4 ,but the possibility of deducing them would imply that they were not free4 ,as soon as it has been admitted that the conduct1 action1 nature1 of an individual man can be determined scientifically1 it will be proved that man has no free-will4 ,kant and ,schopenhauer understood this fully1 and1 on the other hand1 ,hume and ,herbart1 the founders of modern psychology1 did not believe in free-will4 ,it is this dilemma that is the cause of the pitiful relation of modern psychology to all fundamental questions4 ,the wild and repeated efforts to derive the will from psychological factors1 from perception and feeling1 are in themselves evidence that it cannot be taken as an empirical factor4 ,the will1 like the power of judgment1 is associated inevitably with the existence of an ego1 or soul4 ,it is not a matter of experience1 it transcends experience1 and until psychology recognises this extraneous factor1 it will remain no more than a methodical annex of physiology and biology4 ,if the soul is only a complex of experiences it cannot be the factor that makes experiences possible4 ,modern psychology in reality denies the existence of the soul1 but the soul rejects modern psychology4 ,this work has decided in favour of the soul against the absurd and pitiable psychology without a soul4 ,in fact1 it may be doubted if1 on the assumption that the soul exists and has free thought and free-will1 there can be a science of causal laws and self-imposed rules of willing and thinking4 ,i have no intention of trying to inaugurate a new era of rational psychology4 ,i wish to follow ,kant in positing the existence of a soul as the unifying and central conception1 without which any explanation or description of psychic life1 however faithful in its details1 however sympathetically undertaken1 must be wholly unsatisfying4 ,it is extraordinary how inquirers who have made no attempt to analyse such phenomena as shame and the sense of guilt1 faith and hope1 fear and repentance1 love and hate1 yearning and solitude1 vanity and sensitiveness1 ambition and the desire for immortality1 have yet the courage simply to deny the ego because it does not flaunt itself like the colour of an orange or the taste of a peach4 ,how can ,mach and ,hume account for such a thing as style1 if individuality does not exist8 ,or again1 consider this3 no animal is made afraid by seeing its reflection in a glass1 whilst there is no man who could spend his life in a room surrounded with mirrors4 ,can this fear1 the fear of the doppelganger1#ad be explained on ,darwinian principles8 ,the word doppelganger has only to be mentioned to raise a deep dread in the mind of any man4 ,empirical psychology cannot explain this2 it reaches the depths4 ,it cannot be explained1 as ,mach would explain the fear of little children1 as an inheritance from some primitive1 less secure stage of society4 ,i have taken this example only to remind the empirical psychologists that there are many things inexplicable on their hypotheses4 #ad ,it is notable that women are devoid of this fear2 female doppelgangers are not heard of4 ,why is any man annoyed when he is described as a ,wagnerite1 a ,nietzchite1 a ,herbartian1 or so forth8 ,he objects to be thought a mere echo4 ,even ,ernst ,mach is angry in anticipation at the thought that some friend will describe him as a ,positivist1 ,idealist1 or any other non-individual term4 ,this feeling must not be confused with the results of the fact that a man may describe himself as a ,wagnerite1 and so forth4 ,the latter is simply a deep approval of ,wagnerism1 because the approver is himself a ,wagnerite4 ,the man is conscious that his agreement is in reality a raising of the value of ,wagnerism4 ,and so also a man will say much about himself that he would not permit another to say of him4 ,as ,cyrano de ,bergerac put it3 8,je me les sers moi-mme1 avec assez de verve1 ,mais je ne permets pas qu'un autre me les serve40 ,it cannot be right to consider such men as ,pascal and ,newton1 on the one hand1 as men of the highest genius1 on the other1 as limited by a mass of prejudices which we of the present generation have long overcome4 ,is the present generation with its electrical railways and empirical psychology so much higher than these earlier times8 ,is culture1 if culture has any real value1 to be compared with science1 which is always social and never individual1 and to be measured by the number of public libraries and laboratories8 ,is culture outside human beings and not always in human beings8 ,it is in striking harmony with the ascription to men alone of an ineffable1 inexplicable personality1 that in all the authenticated cases of double or multiple personality the subjects have been women4 ,the absolute female is capable of sub-division2 the male1 even to the most complete characterology and the most acute experiment1 is always an indivisible unit4 ,the male has a central nucleus of his being which has no parts1 and cannot be divided2 the female is composite1 and so can be dissociated and cleft4 ,and so it is most amusing to hear writers talking of the soul of the woman1 of her heart and its mysteries1 of the psyche of the modern woman4 ,it seems almost as if even an accoucheur would have to prove his capacity by the strength of his belief in the soul of women4 ,most women1 at least1 delight to hear discussions on their souls1 although they know1 so far as they can be said to know anything1 that the whole thing is a swindle4 ,the woman as the ,sphinx6 ,never was a more ridiculous1 a more audacious fraud perpetrated4 ,man is infinitely more mysterious1 incomparably more complicated4 ,it is only necessary to look at the faces of women one passes in the streets4 ,there is scarcely one whose expression could not at once be summed up4 ,the register of woman's feelings and disposition is so terribly poor1 whereas men's countenances can scarcely be read after long and earnest scrutiny4 ,finally1 ,i come to the question as to whether there exists a complete parallelism or a condition of reciprocal interaction between mind and body4 ,in the case of the female1 psycho-physical parallelism exists in the form of a complete co-ordination between the mental and the physical2 in women the capacity for mental exertion ceases with senile involution1 just as it developed in connection with and in subservience to the sexual instincts4 ,the intelligence of man never grows as old as that of the woman1 and it is only in isolated cases that degeneration of the mind is linked with degeneration of the body4 ,least of all does mental degeneration accompany the bodily weakness of old age in those who have genius1 the highest development of mental masculinity4 ,it is only to be expected that the philosophers who most strongly argued in favour of parallelism1 such as ,spinoza and ,fechner1 were also determinists4 ,in the case of the male1 the free intelligible agent who by his own will can distinguish between good and evil1 the existence of parallelism between mind and body must be rejected4 ,the question1 then1 as to the proper view of the psychology of the sexes may be taken as settled4 ,there has to be faced1 however1 an extraordinarily difficult problem that1 so far as ,i know1 has not even been stated yet1 but the answer to which1 none the less1 strongly supports my view of the soullessness of women4 ,in the earlier pages of my volume ,i contrasted the clarity of male thinking processes with their vagueness in woman1 and later on showed that the power of orderly speech1 in which logical judgments are expressed1 acts on women as a male sexual character4 ,whatever is sexually attractive to the female must be characteristic of the male4 ,firmness in a man's character makes a sexual impression on a woman1 whilst she is repelled by the pliant man4 ,people often speak of the moral influence exerted on men by women1 when no more is meant than that women are striving to attain their sexual complements4 ,women demand manliness from men1 and feel deeply disappointed and full of contempt if men fail them in this respect4 ,however untruthful or great a flirt a woman may be1 she is bitterly indignant if she discover traces of coquetry or untruthfulness in a man4 ,she may be as cowardly as she likes1 but the man must be brave4 ,it has been almost completely overlooked that this is only a sexual egotism seeking to secure the most satisfactory sexual complement4 ,from the side of empirical observation1 no stronger proof of the soullessness of woman could be drawn than that she demands a soul in man1 that she who is not good in herself demands goodness from him4 ,the soul is a masculine character1 pleasing to women in the same way and for the same purpose as a masculine body or a well-trimmed moustache4 ,i may be accused of stating the case coarsely1 but it is none the less true4 ,it is the man's will that in the last resort influences a woman most powerfully1 and she has a strong faculty for perceiving whether a man's 8,i will0 means mere bombast or actual decision4 ,in the latter case the effect on her is prodigious4 ,how is it that woman1 who is soulless herself1 can discern the soul in man8 ,how can she judge about his morality who is herself non-moral8 ,how can she grasp his character when she has no character herself8 ,how appreciate his will when she is herself without will8 ,these difficult problems lie before us1 and their solutions must be placed on strong foundations1 for there will be many attempts to destroy them4 ,,chapter ,x ,,motherhood ,,and ,,prostitution ,the chief objection that will be urged against my views is that they cannot possibly be valid for all women4 ,for some1 or even for the majority1 they will be accepted as true1 but for the rest---- ,it was not my original intention to deal with the different kinds of women4 ,women may be regarded from many different points of view1 and1 of course1 care must be taken not to press too hardly what is true for one extreme type4 ,if the word character be accepted in its common1 empirical signification1 then there are differences in women's characters4 ,all the properties of the male character find remarkable analogies in the female sex 7an interesting case will be dealt with later on in this chapter72 but in the male the character is always deeply rooted in the sphere of the intelligible1 from which there has come about the lamentable confusion between the doctrine of the soul and characterology4 ,the characterological differences amongst women are not rooted so deeply that they can develop into individuality2 and probably there is no female quality that in the course of the life of a woman cannot be modified1 repressed1 or annihilated by the will of a man4 ,how far such differences in character may exist in cases that have the same degree of masculinity or of femininity ,i have not yet been at the pains to inquire4 ,i have refrained deliberately from this task1 because in my desire to prepare the way for a true orientation of all the difficult problems connected with my subject ,i have been anxious not to raise side issues or to burden the argument with collateral details4 ,the detailed characterology of women must wait for a detailed treatment1 but even this work has not totally neglected the differences that exist amongst women2 ,i shall hope to be acquitted of false generalisations if it be remembered that what ,i have been saying relates to the female element1 and is true in the same proportion that women possess that element4 ,however1 as it is quite certain that a particular type of woman will be brought forward in opposition to my conclusions1 it is necessary to consider carefully that type and its contrasting type4 ,to all the bad and defamatory things that ,i have said about women1 the conception of woman as a mother will certainly be opposed4 ,but those who adduce this argument will admit the justice of a simultaneous consideration of the type that is at the opposite pole from motherhood1 as only in this way is it possible to define clearly in what motherhood consists and to delimit it from other types4 ,the type standing at the pole opposite to motherhood is the prostitute4 ,the contrast is not any more inevitable than the contrast between man and woman1 and certain limits and restrictions will have to be made4 ,but allowing for these1 women will now be treated as falling into two types1 sometimes having in them more of the one type1 sometimes more of the other4 ,this dichotomy may be misunderstood if ,i do not distinguish it from a contrast that is popularly made4 ,it is often said that a woman should be both mother and mistress4 ,i do not see the sense or the utility of the distinction involved in the phrase4 ,is no more meant by 8mistress0 than the condition which of necessity must precede motherhood8 ,if that is so1 then no lasting characterological property is involved4 ,for the word 8mistress0 tells us nothing about a woman except that she is in a certain relation to a man4 ,it has nothing to do with her real being2 it is something imposed on her from without4 ,the conception of being loved tells us nothing about the nature of the person who is loved4 ,the condition of being loved1 whether as mother or mistress1 is a merely accidental1 external designation of the individual1 whereas the quality of motherhood is something born in a woman1 something deep-seated in her nature4 ,it is this something that we must investigate4 ,that motherhood and prostitution are at extreme poles appears probable simply from the fact that motherly women bear far more children1 whilst the frivolous have few children1 and prostitutes are practically sterile4 ,it must be remembered1 of course1 that it is not only prostitutes who belong to the prostitute type2 very many so-called respectable girls and married women belong to it4 ,accurate analysis of the type will show that it reaches far beyond the mere women of the streets4 ,the street-walker differs from the respectable coquette and the celebrated hetaira only through her incapacity for differentiation1 her complete want of memory1 and her habit of living from moment to moment4 ,if there were but one man and one woman on the earth1 the prostitute type would reveal itself in the relations of the woman to the man4 ,this fact of limited fertility ought by itself to relieve me from the necessity of comparing my view of prostitution with the popular view that would derive what is really deep-seated in the nature of women from mere social conditions1 from the poverty of women and the economic stress of a society arranged by males1 from the difficulty of women succeeding in a respectable career1 or from the existence of a large bachelor class with the consequent demand for a system of prostitution4 ,to these suggestions it may well be replied that prostitution is by no means confined to the poorer classes2 that women without any economic necessity have frequently given way to its appeal2 that there are many situations in shops1 offices1 post-offices1 the telegraph and telephone services1 wherever mere mechanical ability is required1 where women are preferred because1 from their lower degree of differentiation1 their demands are smaller2 and business men having discovered this in anticipation of science1 readily employ them at a lower rate of wages4 ,young prostitutes have often quite as hard an economic battle to fight1 as they must wear expensive clothes1 and as they are always charged excessively high rates for food and lodging4 ,prostitution is not a result of social conditions1 but of some cause deep in the nature of women2 prostitutes who have been 8reclaimed0 frequently1 even if provided for1 return to their old way of life4 ,it is a curious circumstance that prostitutes appear to be relatively immune to certain diseases which readily affect other types of women4 ,i may note finally1 that prostitution is not a modern growth2 it has been known from the earliest times1 and even was a part of some ancient religions1 as1 for instance1 among the ,phnicians4 ,prostitution cannot be considered as a state into which men have seduced women4 ,the man may occasionally be to blame1 as1 for instance1 when a servant is discharged and finds herself deserted4 ,but where there is no inclination for a certain course1 the course will not be adopted4 ,prostitution is foreign to the male element1 although the lives of men are often more laborious and unpleasant than those of women1 and male prostitutes 7such as are found amongst waiters1 barbers1 and so on7 are always advanced sexually intermediate forms4 ,the disposition for and inclination to prostitution is as organic in a woman as is the capacity for motherhood4 ,of course1 ,i do not mean to suggest that1 when any woman becomes a prostitute1 it is because of an irresistible1 inborn craving4 ,probably most women have both possibilities in them1 the mother and the prostitute4 ,what is to happen in cases of doubt depends on the man who is able to make the woman a mother1 not merely by the physical act but by a single look at her4 ,schopenhauer said that a man's existence dates from the moment when his father and mother fell in love4 ,that is not true4 ,the birth of a human being1 ideally considered1 dates from the moment when the mother first saw or heard the voice of the father of her child4 ,biological and medical science1 under the influence of ,johannes ,mller1 ,th4 ,bischoff1 and ,darwin have been completely opposed1 for the last sixty years1 to the theory of 8impression40 ,i may later attempt to develop such a theory4 ,for the present ,i shall remark only that it is not fatal to the theory of impression that it does not agree with the view which regards the union of an ovum and spermatazoon as the only beginning of a new individual2 and science will have to deal with it instead of regarding it as being opposed to all experience and so rejecting it4 ,in an a priori science such as mathematics1 ,i may take it for granted that even on the planet ,jupiter #b and #b could not make #e1 but biology deals only with propositions of relative universality4 ,although ,i support the theory of the existence of such a power of impression1 it must not be supposed that ,i think that all malformations and abnormalities1 or even any large number of them1 are due to it4 ,i go no further than to say that it is possible for the progeny to be influenced by a man1 although physical relations between him and the mother have not taken place4 ,and just as ,schopenhauer and ,goethe were correct in their theory of colour1 although they were in opposition to all the physicists of the past1 present1 and future1 so ,ibsen 7in 8,the ,lady from the ,sea07 and ,goethe 7in 8,elective ,affinities07 may be right against all the scientific men who deal with the problems of inheritance on a purely physical basis4 ,if a man has an influence on a woman so great that her children of whom he is not the father resemble him1 he must be the absolute sexual complement of the woman in question4 ,if such cases are very rare1 it is only because there is not much chance of the absolute sexual complements meeting1 and this is no argument against the truth of the views of ,goethe and ,ibsen to which ,i have just referred4 ,it is a rare chance if a woman meets a man so completely her sexual complement that his mere presence makes him the father of her children4 ,and so it is conceivable in the case of many mothers and prostitutes that their fates have been reversed by accident4 ,on the other hand1 there must be many cases in which the woman remains true to the maternal type without meeting the necessary man1 and also cases where a woman1 even although she meets the man1 may be driven none the less into the prostitute type by her natural instincts4 ,we have not to face the general occurrence of women as one or other of two distinct inborn types1 the maternal type and the prostitute4 ,the reality is found between the two4 ,there are certainly no women absolutely devoid of the prostitute instinct to covet being sexually excited by any stranger4 ,and there are equally certainly no women absolutely devoid of all maternal instincts1 although ,i confess that ,i have found more cases approaching the absolute prostitute than the absolute mother4 ,the essence of motherhood consists1 as the most superficial investigation will reveal1 in that the getting of the child is the chief object of life1 whereas in the prostitute sexual relations in themselves are the end4 ,the investigation of the subject must be pursued by considering the relation of each type to the child and to sexual congress4 ,consider the relation to the child first4 ,the absolute prostitute thinks only of the man2 the absolute mother thinks only of the child4 ,the best test case is the relation to the daughter4 ,it is only when there is no jealousy about her youth or greater beauty1 no grudging about the admiration she wins1 but an identification of herself with her daughter so complete that she is as pleased about her child's admirers as if they were her own1 that a woman has a claim to the title of perfect mother4 ,the absolute mother 7if such existed71 who thinks only about the child1 would become a mother by any man4 ,it will be found that women who were devoted to dolls when they were children1 and were kind and attentive to children in their own childhood1 are least particular about their husbands1 and are most ready to accept the first good match who takes any notice of them and who satisfies their parents and relatives4 ,when such a maiden has become a mother1 it matters not by whom1 she ceases to pay any attention to any other men4 ,the absolute prostitute1 on the other hand1 even when she is still a child1 dislikes children2 later on1 she may pretend to care for them as a means of attracting men through the idea of mother and child4 ,she is the woman whose desire is to please all men2 and since there is no such thing as an ideally perfect type of mother1 there are traces of this desire to please in every woman1 as every man of the world will admit4 ,here we can trace at least a formal resemblance between the two types4 ,both are careless as to the individuality of their sexual complement4 ,the one accepts any possible man who can make her a mother1 and once that has been achieved asks nothing more2 on this ground only is she to be described as monogamous4 ,the other is ready to yield herself to any man who stimulates her erotic desires2 that is her only object4 ,from this description of the two extreme types we may hope to gain some knowledge of the nature of actual women4 ,i have to admit that the popular opinion as to the monogamous nature of women as opposed to the essential polygamy of the male1 an opinion ,i long held1 is erroneous4 ,the contrary is the case4 ,one must not be misled by the fact that a woman will wait very long for a particular man1 and where possible will choose him who can bestow most value on her1 the most noble1 the most famous1 the ideal prince4 ,woman is distinguished by this desire for value from the animals1 who have no regard for value either for themselves and through themselves1 as in the case of a man1 or for another and through another1 as in the case of a woman4 ,but this could be brought forward only by fools as in any way to the credit of woman1 since1 indeed1 it shows most strongly that she is devoid of a feeling of personal value4 ,the desire for this demands to be satisfied1 but does not find satisfaction in the moral idea of monogamy4 ,the man is able to pour forth value1 to confer it on the woman2 he can give it1 he wishes to give it1 but he cannot receive it4 ,the woman seeks to create as much personal value as possible for herself1 and so adheres to the man who can give her most of it2 faithfulness of the man1 however1 rests on other grounds4 ,he regards it as the completion of ideal love1 as a fulfilment1 even although it is questionable if that could be attained4 ,his faithfulness springs from the purely masculine conception of truth1 the continuity demanded by the intelligible ego4 ,one often hears it said that women are more faithful than men2 but man's faithfulness is a coercion which he exercises on himself1 of his own free will1 and with full consciousness4 ,he may not adhere to this self-imposed contract1 but his falling away from it will seem as a wrong to himself4 ,when he breaks his faith he has suppressed the promptings of his real nature4 ,for the woman unfaithfulness is an exciting game1 in which the thought of morality plays no part1 but which is controlled only by the desire for safety and reputation4 ,there is no wife who has not been untrue to her husband in thought1 and yet no woman reproaches herself with this4 ,for a woman pledges her faith lightly and without any full consciousness of what she does1 and breaks it just as lightly and thoughtlessly as she pledged it4 ,the motive for honouring a pledge can be found only in man2 for a woman does not understand the binding force of a given word4 ,the examples of female faithfulness that can be adduced against this are of little value4 ,they are either the slow result of the habit of sexual acquiescence1 or a condition of actual slavery1 dog-like1 attentive1 full of instinctive tenacious attachment1 comparable with that necessity for actual contact which marks female sympathy4 ,the conception of faithfulness to one has been created by man4 ,it arises from the masculine idea of individuality which remains unchanged by time1 and1 therefore1 needs as its complement always one and the same person4 ,the conception of faithfulness to one person is a lofty one1 and finds a worthy expression in the sacramental marriage of the ,catholic ,church4 ,i am not going to discuss the question of marriage or free-love4 ,marriage in its existing form is as incompatible as free-love with the highest interpretations of the moral law4 ,and so divorce came into the world with marriage4 ,none the less marriage could have been invented only by man4 ,no proprietary institution originated with women4 ,the introduction of order into chaotic sexual relations could have come only through man's desire for it1 and his power to establish it4 ,there have been periods in the history of many primitive races in which women had great influence2 but the period of matriarchy was a period of polyandry4 ,the dissimilarity in the relations of mother and prostitute to their child is rich in important conclusions4 ,a woman in whom the prostitute element is strong will perceive her son's manhood and always stand in a sexual relation to him4 ,but as no woman is the perfect type of mother1 there is something sexual in the relation of every mother and son4 ,for this reason1 ,i chose the relation of the mother to her daughter and not to her son1 as the best measure of her type4 ,there are many well-known physiological parallels between the relations of a mother to her children and of a wife to her husband4 ,motherliness1 like sexuality1 is not an individual relation4 ,when a woman is motherly the quality will be exercised not only on the child of her own body1 but towards all men1 although later on her interest in her own child may become all-absorbing and make her narrow1 blind1 and unjust in the event of a quarrel4 ,the relation of a motherly girl to her lover is interesting4 ,such a girl is inclined to be motherly towards the man she loves1 especially towards that man who will afterwards become the father of her child2 in fact1 in a certain sense the man is her child4 ,the deepest nature of the mother-type reveals itself in this identity of the mother and loving wife2 the mothers form the enduring root-stock of our race from which the individual man arises1 and in the face of which he recognises his own impermanence4 ,it is this idea which enables the man to see in the mother1 even while she is still a girl1 something eternal1 and which gives the pregnant woman a tremendous significance4 ,the enduring security of the race lies in the mystery of this figure1 in the presence of which man feels his own fleeting impermanence4 ,in such minutes there may come to him a sense of freedom and peace1 and in the mysterious silence of the idea1 he may think that it is through the woman that he is in true relation with the universe4 ,he becomes the child of his beloved one1 a child whose mother smiles on him1 understands him1 and takes care of him 7,siegfried and ,brnnhilde1 ,act ,,iii474 ,but this does not last long4 7,siegfried tears himself from ,brnnhilde74 ,for a man only comes to his fulness when he frees himself from the race1 when he raises himself above it4 ,for paternity cannot satisfy the deepest longings of a man1 and the idea that he is to be lost in the race is repellent to him4 ,the most terrible chapter in the most comfortless of all the great books that have been written1 the chapter on 8,death and its ,relation to the ,indestructibility of our ,nature10 in ,schopenhauer's 8,the ,world as ,will and ,idea10 is where the permanence of the will to maintain the species is set down as the only real permanence4 ,it is the permanence of the race that gives the mother her courage and fearlessness in contrast with the cowardliness and fear of the prostitute4 ,it is not the courage of individuality1 the moral courage arising from an inner sense of freedom and personal value1 but rather the desire that the race should be maintained which1 acting through the mother1 protects the husband and child4 ,as courage and cowardice belong respectively to the mother and the prostitute1 so is it with that other pair of contrasting ideas1 hope and fear4 ,the absolute mother stands in a persisting relation to hope2 as she lives on through the race1 she does not quail before death1 whilst the prostitute has a lasting fear of it4 ,the mother feels herself in a sense superior to the man2 she knows herself to be his anchor2 as she is in a secure place1 linked in the chain of the generations1 she may be likened to a harbour from which each new individual sails forth to wander on the high seas4 ,from the moment of conception onwards the mother is psychically and physically ready to feed and protect her child4 ,and this protective superiority extends itself to her lover2 she understands all that is simple and nave and childlike in him1 whilst the prostitute understands best his caprices and refinements4 ,the mother has the craving to teach her child1 to give him everything1 even when the child is represented by the lover2 the prostitute strives to impose herself on the man1 to receive everything from him4 ,the mother as the upholder of the race is friendly to all its members2 it is only when there is an exclusive choice to be made between her child and others that she becomes hard and relentless2 and so she can be both more full of love and more bitter than the prostitute4 ,the mother is in complete relation with the continuity of the race2 the prostitute is completely outside it4 ,the mother is the sole advocate and priestess of the race4 ,the will of the race to live is embodied in her1 whilst the existence of the prostitute shows that ,schopenhauer was pushing a generalisation too far when he declared that all sexuality had relation only to the future generation4 ,that the mother cares only for the life of her own race is plain from the absence of consideration for animals shown by the best of mothers4 ,a good mother1 with the greatest peace of mind and content1 will slaughter fowl after fowl for her family4 ,the mother of children is a cruel step-mother to all other living things4 ,another striking aspect of the mother's relation to the preservation of the race reveals itself in the matter of food4 ,she cannot bear to see food wasted1 however little may be left over2 whilst the prostitute wilfully squanders the quantities of food and drink she demands4 ,the mother is stingy and mean2 the prostitute open-handed and lavish4 ,the mother's object in life is to preserve the race1 and her delight is to see her children eat and to encourage their appetites4 ,and so she becomes the good housekeeper4 ,ceres was a good mother1 a fact expressed in her ,greek name1 ,demeter4 ,the mother takes care of the body1 but does not trouble about the mind4#ae ,the relation between mother and child remains material from the kissing and hugging of childhood to the protective care of maturity4 ,all her devotion is for the success and prosperity of her child in material things4 #ae ,compare the conversation in ,ibsen's 8,peer ,gynt10 ,act ii41 between the father of ,solveig and ,aase 7perhaps the best-drawn mother in all literature7 when they were discussing the search for their son3 ,aase4 8,we shall find him40 ,her ,husband4 8,and save his soul40 ,aase4 8,and his body40 ,maternal love1 then1 cannot be truly represented as resting on moral grounds4 ,let any one ask himself if he does not believe that his mother's love would not be just as great for him if he were a totally different person4 ,the individuality of the child has no part in the maternal love2 the mere fact of its being her own child is sufficient1 and so the love cannot be regarded as moral4 ,in the love of a man for a woman1 or between persons of the same sex1 there is always some reference to the personal qualities of the individual2 a mother's love extends itself indifferently to anything that she has borne4 ,it destroys the moral conception if we realise that the love of a mother for her child remains the same whether the child becomes a saint or a sinner1 a king or a beggar1 an angel or a fiend4 ,precisely the same conclusion will be reached from reflecting how children think that they have a claim on their mother's love simply because she is their mother4 ,maternal love is non-moral because it has no relation to the individuality of the being on which it is bestowed1 and there can be an ethical relation only between two individualities4 ,the relation of mother and child is always a kind of physical reflex4 ,if the little one suddenly screams or cries when the mother is in the next room1 she will at once rush to it as if she herself had been hurt2 and1 as the children grow up1 every wish or trouble of theirs is directly assumed and shared by the mother as if they were her own4 ,there is an unbreakable link between the mother and child1 physical1 like the cord that united the two before childbirth4 ,this is the real nature of the maternal relation2 and1 for my part1 ,i protest against the fashion in which it is praised1 its very indiscriminate character being made a merit4 ,i believe myself that many great artists have recognised this1 but have chosen to be silent about it4 ,the extraordinary over-praising of ,raphael is losing ground1 and the singers of maternal love are no higher than ,fischart or ,richepin4 ,maternal love is an instinctive and natural impulse1 and animals possess it in a degree as high as that of human beings4 ,this alone is enough to show that it is not true love1 that it is not of moral origin2 for all morality proceeds from the intelligible character which animals1 having no free will1 do not possess4 ,the ethical imperative can be heard only by a rational creature2 there is no such thing as natural morality1 for all morality must be self-conscious4 ,her position outside the mere preservation of the race1 the fact that she is not merely the channel and the indifferent protector of the chain of beings that passes through her1 place the prostitute in a sense above the mother1 so far at least as it is possible to speak of higher or lower from the ethical point of view when women are being discussed4 ,the matron whose whole time is taken up in looking after her husband and children1 who is working in1 or superintending the work of1 the house1 garden1 or other forms of labour1 ranks intellectually very low4 ,the most highly-developed women mentally1 those who have been lauded in poetry1 belong to the prostitute category2 to these1 the ,aspasia-type1 must be added the women of the romantic school1 foremost among whom must be placed ,karoline ,michaelis-,bhmer-,forster-,schlegel-,sc helling4 ,it coincides with what has been said that only those men are sexually attracted by the mother-type who have no desire for mental productivity4 ,the man whose fatherhood is confined to the children of his loins is he whom we should expect to choose the motherly productive woman4 ,great men have always preferred women of the prostitute type4#af ,their choice falls on the sterile woman1 and1 if there is issue1 it is unfit and soon dies out4 ,ordinary fatherhood has as little to do with morality as motherhood4 ,it is non-moral1 as ,i shall show in chap4 xiv42 and it is illogical1 because it deals with illusions4 ,no man ever knows to what extent he is the father of his own child4 ,and its duration is short and fleeting2 every generation and every race of human beings soon disappears4 #af ,wherever ,i am using this term ,i refer1 of course1 not merely to mercenary women of the streets4 ,the wide-spread and exclusive honouring of the motherly woman1 the type most upheld as the one and only possible one for women1 is accordingly quite unjustified4 ,although most men are certain that every woman can have her consummation only in motherhood1 ,i must confess that the prostitute--not as a person1 but as a phenomenon--is much more estimable in my opinion4 ,there are various causes of this universal reverence for the mother4 ,one of the chief reasons appears to be that the mother seems to the man nearer his ideal of chastity2 but the woman who desires children is no more chaste than the man-coveting prostitute4 ,the man rewards the appearance of higher morality in the maternal type by raising her morally 7although with no reason7 and socially over the prostitute type4 ,the latter does not submit to any valuations of the man nor to the ideal of chastity which he seeks for in the woman2 secretly1 as the woman of the world1 lightly as the demi-mondaine1 or flagrantly as the woman of the streets1 she sets herself in opposition to them4 ,this is the explanation of the social ostracisms1 the practical outlawry which is the present almost universal fate of the prostitute4 ,the mother readily submits to the moral impositions of man1 simply because she is interested only in the child and the preservation of the race4 ,it is quite different with the prostitute4 ,she lives her own life exactly as she pleases1 even although it may bring with it the punishment of exclusion from society4 ,she is not so brave as the mother1 it is true1 being thoroughly cowardly2 but she has the correlative of cowardice1 impudence1 and she is not ashamed of her shamelessness4 ,she is naturally inclined to polygamy1 and always ready to attract more men than the one who would suffice as the founder of a family4 ,she gives free play to the fulfilment of her desire1 and feels a queen1 and her most ardent wish is for more power4 ,it is easy to grieve or shock the motherly woman2 no one can injure or offend the prostitute2 for the mother has her honour to defend as the guardian of the species1 whilst the prostitute has forsworn all social respect1 and prides herself in her freedom4 ,the only thought that disturbs her is the possibility of losing her power4 ,she expects1 and cannot think otherwise than that every man wishes to possess her1 that they think of nothing but her1 and live for her4 ,and certainly she possesses the greatest power over men1 the only influence that has a strong effect on the life of humanity that is not ordered by the regulations of men4 ,in this lies the analogy between the prostitute and men who have been famous in politics4 ,as it is only once in many centuries that a great conqueror arises1 like ,napoleon or ,alexander1 so it is with the great courtesan2 but when she does appear she marches triumphantly across the world4 ,there is a relationship between such men and courtesans 7every politician is to a certain extent a tribune of the people1 and that in itself implies a kind of prostitution74 ,they have the same feeling for power1 the same demand to be in relations with all men1 even the humblest4 ,just as the great conqueror believes that he confers a favour on any one to whom he talks1 so also with the prostitute4 ,observe her as she talks to a policeman1 or buys something in a shop1 you see the sense of conferring a favour explicit in her4 ,and men most readily accept this view that they are receiving favours from the politician or prostitute 7one may recall how a great genius like ,goethe regarded his meeting with ,napoleon at ,erfurt2 and on the other side we have the myth of ,pandora1 and the story of the birth of ,venus74 ,i may now return to the subject of great men of action which ,i opened in chap4 v4 ,even so far-seeing a man as ,carlyle has exalted the man of action1 as1 for instance1 in his chapter on 8,the ,hero as ,king40 ,i have already shown that ,i cannot accept such a view4 ,i may add here that all great men of action1 even the greatest of them1 such as ,csar1 ,cromwell1 ,napoleon1 have not hesitated to employ falsehood2 that ,alexander the ,great did not hesitate to defend one of his murders by sophistry4 ,but untruthfulness is incompatible with genius4 ,the 8,memoirs of ,napoleon10 written at ,st4 ,helena1 are full of misstatements and watery sophistry1 and his last words1 that 8he had loved only ,france10 were an altruistic pose4 ,napoleon1 the greatest of the conquerors1 is a sufficient proof that great men of action are criminals1 and1 therefore1 not geniuses4 ,one can understand him by thinking of the tremendous intensity with which he tried to escape from himself4 ,there is this element in all the conquerors1 great or small4 ,just because he had great gifts1 greater than those of any emperor before him1 he had greater difficulty in stifling the disapproving voice within him4 ,the motive of his ambition was the craving to stifle his better self4 ,a truly great man may honestly share in the desire for admiration or fame but personal ambition will not be his aim4 ,he will not try to knit the whole world to himself by superficial1 transitory bonds1 to heap up all the things of the world in a pyramid over his name4 ,the man of action shares with the epileptic the desire to be in criminal relation to everything around him1 to make them appanages of his petty self4 ,the great man feels himself defined and separate from the world1 a monad amongst monads1 and1 as a true microcosm1 he feels the world already within him2 he realises in the fullest sense of personal experience that he has a definite1 assured1 intelligible relation to the world whole4 ,the great tribune and the great courtesan do not feel that they are marked off from the world2 they merge with it1 and demand it all as decoration or adornment of their empirical persons1 and they are incapable of love1 affection1 or friendship4 ,the king of the fairy tale who wished to conquer the stars is the perfect image of the conqueror4 ,the great genius honours himself1 and has not to live in a condition of give and take with the populace1 as is necessary for the politician4 ,the great politician makes his voice resound in the world1 but he has also to sing in the streets2 he may make the world his chessboard1 but he has also to strut in a booth2 he is no more a despot than he is a beggar for alms4 ,he has to court the populace1 and here he joins with the prostitute4 ,the politician is a man of the streets4 ,he must be completed by the public4 ,it is the masses that he requires1 not real individualities4 ,if he is not clever he tries to be rid of the great men1 or if1 like ,napoleon1 he is cunning1 he pretends to honour them in order that he may make them harmless4 ,his dependence on the public makes some such course necessary4 ,a politician cannot do all that he wishes1 even if he is a ,napoleon1 and if1 unlike ,napoleon1 he actually wished to realise ideals1 he would soon be taught better by the public1 his real master4 ,the will of him who covets power is bound4 ,every emperor is conscious of this relation between himself and the masses1 and has an almost instinctive love of great assemblages of his people1 or his army1 or of his electors4 ,not ,marcus ,aurelius or ,diocletian1 but ,kleo1 ,mark ,antony1 ,themistocles1 and ,mirabeau are the embodiments of the real politician4 ,ambition means going amongst the people4 ,the tribune has to follow the prostitute in this respect4 ,according to ,emerson1 ,napoleon used to go incognito amongst the people to excite their hurrahs and praise4 ,schiller imagined the same course for his ,wallenstein4 ,hitherto the phenomena of the great man of action have been regarded even by artists and philosophers as unique4 ,i think that my analysis has shown that there is the strongest resemblance between them and prostitutes4 ,to see an analogy between ,antonius 7,csar7 and ,cleopatra may appear at first far-fetched1 but none the less it exists4 ,the great man of action has to despise his inner life1 in order that he may live altogether 8in the world10 and he must perish1 like the things of the world4 ,the prostitute abandons the lasting purpose of her sex1 to live in the instincts of the moment4 ,the great prostitute and the great tribune are firebrands causing destruction all around them1 leaving death and devastation in their paths1 and pass like meteors unconnected with the course of human life1 indifferent to its objects1 and soon disappearing1 whilst the genius and the mother work for the future in silence4 ,the prostitute and the tribune may be called the enemies of ,god2 they are both anti-moral phenomena4 ,great men of action1 then1 must be excluded from the category of genius4 ,the true genius1 whether he be an artist or a philosopher1 is always strongly marked by his relation to the constructive side of the world4 ,the motive that actuates the prostitute requires further investigation4 ,the purpose of the motherly woman was easy to understand2 she is the upholder of the race4 ,but the fundamental idea of prostitution is much more mysterious1 and no one can have meditated long on the subject without often doubting if it were possible to get an explanation4 ,perhaps the relation of the two types to the sexual act may assist the inquiry4 ,i hope that no one will consider such a subject below the dignity of a philosopher4 ,the spirit in which the inquiry is made is the chief matter4 ,it is at least clear that the painters of ,leda and ,dane have pondered over the problem1 and many great writers--,i have in mind ,zola's 8,confession of ,claude10 his 8,hortense10 8,rene10 and 8,nana10 ,tolstoi's 8,resurrection10 ,ibsen's 8,hedda ,gabler10 and 8,rita10 and above all the 8,sonja0 of that great soul ,dostoyevski--must have been thinking of the general problem rather than merely wishing to describe particular cases4 ,the maternal woman regards the sexual relations as means to an end2 the prostitute considers them as the end itself4 ,that sexual congress may have another purpose than mere reproduction is plain1 as many animals and plants are devoid of it4 ,on the other hand1 in the animal kingdom sexual congress is always in connection with reproduction and is never simply lust2 and1 moreover1 takes place only at times suitable for breeding4 ,desire is simply the means employed by nature to secure the continuity of the species4 ,although sexual congress is an end in itself for the prostitute1 it must not be assumed that it is meaningless in the mother-type4 ,women who are sexually ansthetic no doubt exist in both classes1 but they are very rare1 and many apparent cases may really be phenomena of hysteria4 ,the final importance attached by the prostitute to the sexual act is made plain by the fact that it is only that type in which coquetry occurs4 ,coquetry has invariably a sexual significance4 ,its purpose is to picture to the man the conquest of the woman before it has occurred1 in order to induce him to make the conquest an actual fact4 ,the readiness of the type to coquet with every man is an expression of her nature2 whether it proceeds further depends on merely accidental circumstances4 ,the maternal type regards the sexual act as the beginning of a series of important events1 and so attaches value to it equally with the prostitute1 although in a different fashion4 ,the one is contented1 completed1 satisfied2 her life is made richer and of fuller meaning to her by it4 ,the other1 for whom the act is everything1 the compression and end of all life1 is never satisfied1 never to be satisfied1 were she visited by all the men in the world4 ,the body of a woman1 as ,i have already shown1 is sexual throughout1 and the special sexual acts are only intensifications of a distributed sensation4 ,here1 also1 the difference between the two types displays itself4 ,the prostitute type in coquetting is merely using the general sexuality of her body as an end in itself2 for her there is a difference only in degree between flirtation and sexual congress4 ,the maternal type is equally sexual1 but with a different purpose2 all her life1 through all her body1 she is being impregnated4 ,in this fact lies the explanation of the 8impression0 which ,i referred to as being indubitable1 although it is denied by men of science and physicians4 ,paternity is a diffused relation4 ,many instances1 disputed by men of science1 point to an influence not brought about directly by the reproductive cells4 ,white women who have borne a child to a black man1 are said if they bear children afterwards to white men1 to have retained enough impression from the first mate to show an effect on the subsequent children4 ,all such facts1 grouped under the names of 8telegony10 8germinal infection10 and so on1 although disputed by scientists1 speak for my view4 ,and so also the motherly woman1 throughout her whole life1 is impressed by lovers1 by voices1 by words1 by inanimate things4 ,all the influences that come to her she turns to the purpose of her being1 to the shaping of her child1 and the 8actual0 father has to share his paternity with perhaps other men and many other things4 ,the woman is impregnated not only through the genital tract but through every fibre of her being4 ,all life makes an impression on her and throws its image on her child4 ,this universality1 in the purely physical sphere1 is analogous to genius4 ,it is quite different with the prostitute4 ,whilst the maternal woman turns the whole world1 the love of her lover1 and all the impressions that she receives to the purposes of the child1 the prostitute absorbs everything for herself4 ,but just as she has this absorbing need of the man1 so the man can get something from her which he fails to find in the badly dressed1 tasteless1 pre-occupied maternal type4 ,something within him requires pleasure1 and this he gets from the daughters of joy4 ,unlike the mother1 these think of the pleasures of the world1 of dancing1 of dressing1 of theatres and concerts1 of pleasure-resorts4 ,they know the use of gold1 turning it to luxury instead of to comfort1 they flame through the world1 making all its ways a triumphant march for their beautiful bodies4 ,the prostitute is the great seductress of the world1 the female ,don ,juan1 the being in the woman that knows the art of love1 that cultivates it1 teaches it1 and enjoys it4 ,very deep-seated differences are linked with what ,i have been describing4 ,the mother-woman craves for respectability in the man1 not because she grasps its value as an idea1 but because it is the supporter of the life of the world4 ,she herself works1 and is not idle like the prostitute2 she is filled with care for the future1 and so requires from the man a corresponding practical responsibility1 and will not seduce him to pleasure4 ,the prostitute1 on the other hand1 is most attracted by a careless1 idle1 dissipated man4 ,a man that has lost self-restraint repels the mother-woman1 is attractive to the prostitute4 ,there are women who are dissatisfied with a son that is idle at school2 there are others who encourage him4 ,the diligent boy pleases the mother-woman1 the idle and careless boy wins approval from the prostitute type4 ,this distinction reaches high up amongst the respectable classes of society1 but a salient example of it is seen in the fact that the 8bullies0 loved by women of the streets are usually criminals4 ,the souteneur is always a criminal1 a thief1 a fraudulent person1 or sometimes even a murderer4 ,i am almost on the point of saying that1 however little woman is to be regarded as immoral 7she is only non-moral71 prostitution stands in some deep relation with crime1 whilst motherhood is equally bound with the opposite tendency4 ,we must avoid regarding the prostitute as the female analogue of the criminal2 women1 as ,i have already pointed out1 are not criminals2 they are too low in the moral scale for that designation4 ,none the less1 there is a constant connection between the prostitute type and crime4 ,the great courtesan is comparable with that great criminal1 the conqueror1 and readily enters into actual relations with him2 the petty courtesan entertains the thief and the pickpocket4 ,the mother type is in fact the guardian of the life of the world1 the prostitute type is its enemy4 ,but just as the mother is in harmony1 not with the soul but with the body1 so the prostitute is no diabolic destroyer of the idea1 but only a corrupter of empirical phenomena4 ,physical life and physical death1 both of which are in intimate connection with the sexual act1 are displayed by the woman in her two capacities of mother and prostitute4 ,it is still impossible to give a clearer solution than that which ,i have attempted1 of the real significance of motherhood and prostitution4 ,i am on an unfamiliar path1 almost untrodden by any earlier wayfarer4 ,religious myths and philosophy alike have been unable to propound solutions4 ,i have found some clues however4 ,the anti-moral significance of prostitution is in harmony with the fact that it appears only amongst mankind4 ,in all the animal kingdom the females are used only for reproduction2 there are no true females that are sterile4 ,there are analogies to prostitution1 however1 amongst male animals2 one has only to think of the display and decoration of the peacock1 of the shining glow-worm1 of singing birds1 of the love dances of many male birds4 ,these secondary sexual manifestations1 however1 are mere advertisements of sexuality4 ,prostitution is a human phenomenon2 animals and plants are non-moral2 they are never disposed to immorality and possess only motherhood4 ,here is a deep secret1 hidden in the nature and origin of mankind4 ,i ought to correct my earlier exposition by insisting that ,i have come to regard the prostitute element as a possibility in all women just as much as the merely animal capacity for motherhood4 ,it is something which penetrates the nature of the human female1 something with which the most animal-like mother is tinged1 something which corresponds in the human female1 to the characters that separate the human male from the animal male4 ,just as the immoral possibility of man is something that distinguishes him from the male animal1 so the quality of the prostitute distinguishes the human female from the animal female4 ,i shall have something to say as to the general relation of man to this element in woman1 towards the end of my investigation1 but possibly the ultimate origin of prostitution is a deep mystery into which none can penetrate4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,erotics ,,and ,,sthetics ,the arguments which are in common use to justify a high opinion of woman have now been examined in all except a few points to which ,i shall recur1 from the point of view of critical philosophy1 and have been controverted4 ,i hope that ,i have justified my deliberate choice of ground1 although1 indeed1 ,schopenhauer's fate should have been a warning to me4 ,his depreciation of women in his philosophical work 8,on ,women10 has been frequently attributed to the circumstance that a beautiful ,venetian girl1 in whose company he was1 fell in love with the extremely handsome personal appearance of ,byron2 as if a low opinion of women were not more likely to come to him who had had the best not the worst fortune with them4 ,the practice of merely calling any one who assails woman a misogynist1 instead of refuting argument by argument1 has much to commend it4 ,hatred is never impartial1 and1 therefore1 to describe a man as having an animus against the object of his criticism1 is at once to lay him open to the charge of insincerity1 immorality1 and partiality1 and one that can be made with a hyperbole of accusation and evasion of the point1 which only equal its lack of justification4 ,this sort of answer never fails in its object1 which is to exempt the vindicator from refuting the actual statements4 ,it is the oldest and handiest weapon of the large majority of men1 who never wish to see woman as she is4 ,no men who really think deeply about women retain a high opinion of them2 men either despise women or they have never thought seriously about them4 ,there is no doubt that it is a fallacious method in a theoretical argument to refer to one's opponent's psychological motives instead of bringing forward proofs to controvert his statements4 ,it is not necessary for me to say that in logical controversy the adversaries should place themselves under an impersonal conception of truth1 and their aim should be to reach a result1 irrespective of their own concrete opinions4 ,if1 however1 in an argument1 one side has come to a certain conclusion by a logical chain of reasoning1 and the other side merely opposes the conclusion without having followed the reasoning process1 it is at once fair and appropriate to examine the psychological motives which have induced the adversaries to abandon argument for abuse4 ,i shall now put the champions of women to the test and see how much of their attitude is due to sentimentality1 how much of it is disinterested1 and how much due to selfish motives4 ,all objections raised against those who despise women arise from the erotic relations in which man stands to woman4 ,this relationship is absolutely different from the purely sexual attraction which occurs in the animal world1 and plays a most important part in human affairs4 ,it is quite erroneous to say that sexuality and eroticism1 sexual impulse and love1 are fundamentally one and the same thing1 the second an embellishing1 refining1 spiritualising sublimation of the first2 although practically all medical men hold this view1 and even such men as ,kant and ,schopenhauer thought so4 ,before ,i go into the reasons for maintaining the existence of this great distinction1 ,i should like to say something about the views of these two men4 ,kant's opinion is not of much weight1 because love as sexual impulse must have been as little known to him as possible1 probably less than in the case of any other man4 ,he was so little erotic that he never felt the kindred desire to travel4#ag ,he represents too lofty and pure a type to speak with authority on this matter3 his one passion was metaphysics4 #ag ,the association of these two desires may surprise readers4 ,it rests on a metaphysical ground1 much of which will be more apparent when ,i have developed my theory of eroticism further4 ,time1 like space1 is conceived of as unlimited1 and man1 in his desire for freedom1 in his efforts stimulated by his power of free will to transcend his limits1 has the craving for unlimited time and unlimited space4 ,the desire for travel is simply an expression of this restlessness1 this fundamental chafing of the spirit against its bonds4 ,but just as eternity is not prolonged time1 but the negation of time1 so however far a man wanders1 he can extend his area but cannot abolish space4 ,and so his efforts to transcend space must always be heroic failures3 ,i shall show that his eroticism is a similar notable failure4 ,as for ,schopenhauer1 he had just as little idea of the higher form of eroticism2 his sexuality was of the gross order4 ,this can be seen from the following3 ,schopenhauer's countenance shows very little kindliness and a good deal of fierceness 7a circumstance which must have caused him great sorrow4 ,there is no exhibition of ethical sympathy if one is very sorry for oneself4 ,the most sympathetic persons are those who1 like ,kant and ,nietzsche1 have no particle of self-pity74 ,but it may be said with safety that only those who are most sympathetic are capable of a strong passion3 those 8who take no interest in things0 are incapable of love4 ,this does not imply that they have diabolical natures4 ,they may1 on the contrary1 stand very high morally without knowing what their neighbours are thinking or doing1 and without having a sense for other than sexual relations with women1 as was the case with ,schopenhauer4 ,he was a man who knew only too well what the sexual impulse was1 but he never was in love2 if that were not so1 the bias in his famous work1 8,the ,metaphysics of ,sexual ,love10 would be inexplicable2 in it the most important doctrine is that the unconscious goal of all love is nothing more than 8the formation of the next generation40 ,this view1 as ,i hope to prove1 is false4 ,it is true that a love entirely without sexuality has never been known4 ,however high a man may stand he is still a being with senses4 ,what absolutely disposes of the opposite view is this3 all love1 as such--without going into sthetic principles of love--is antagonistic to those elements 7of the relationship7 which press towards sexual union2 in fact1 such elements tend to negate love4 ,love and desire are two unlike1 mutually exclusive1 opposing conditions1 and during the time a man really loves1 the thought of physical union with the object of his love is insupportable4 ,because there is no hope which is entirely free from fear does not alter the fact that hope and fear are utterly opposite principles4 ,it is just the same in the case of sexual impulse and love4 ,the more erotic a man is the less he will be troubled with his sexuality1 and vice vers4 ,if it be the case that there is no adoration utterly free from desire1 there is no reason why the two should be identified1 since it might be possible for a superior being to attain the highest phases of both4 ,that person lies1 or has never known what love is1 who says he loves a woman whom he desires2 so much difference is there between sexual impulse and love4 ,this is what makes talk of love after marriage seem1 in most cases1 make-believe4 ,the following will show how obtuse the view of those is who persist1 with unconscious cynicism1 in maintaining the identity of love and sexual impulse4 ,sexual attraction increases with physical proximity2 love is strongest in the absence of the loved one2 it needs separation1 a certain distance1 to preserve it4 ,in fact1 what all the travels in the world could not achieve1 what time could not accomplish1 may be brought about by accidental1 unintentional1 physical contact with the beloved object1 in which the sexual impulse is awakened1 and which suffices to kill love on the spot4 ,then1 again1 in the case of more highly differentiated1 great men1 the type of girl desired1 and the type of girl loved but never desired1 are always totally different in face1 form1 and disposition2 they are two different beings4 ,then there is the 8platonic love10 which professors of psychiatry have such a poor opinion of4 ,i should say rather1 there is only 8platonic0 love1 because any other so-called love belongs to the kingdom of the senses3 it is the love of ,beatrice1 the worship of ,madonna2 the ,babylonian woman is the symbol of sexual desire4 ,kant's enumeration of the transcendental ideas of love would have to be extended if it is to be held4 ,for the purely spiritual love1 the love of ,plato and ,bruno1 which is absolutely free from desire1 is none the less a transcendental concept2 nor is its significance as a concept impaired1 because such a love has never been fully realised4 ,it is the problem put forward in 8,tannhuser40 ,we have ,tannhuser1 ,wolfram1 ,venus1 and ,maria4 ,the fact that two lovers1 who have found each other once for all--,tristan and ,isolde--choose death instead of the bridal bed1 is just as absolute a proof of a higher1 maybe metaphysical1 something in mankind1 as the martyrdom of a ,giordano ,bruno4 8,dir1 hohe ,liebe1 tne ,begeistert mein ,gesang1 ,die mir in ,engelschne ,tief in die ,seele drang6 ,du nahst als ,gott gesandte3 ,ich folg' aus holder ,fern'1-- ,so fhrst du in die ,lande1 ,wo ewig strahlt dein ,stern40 ,who is the object of such love8 ,is it woman1 as she has been represented in this work1 who lacks all higher qualities1 who gets her value from another1 who has no power to attain value on her own account8 ,impossible4 ,it is the ideally beautiful1 the immaculate woman1 who is loved in such high fashion4 ,the source of this beauty and chastity in women must now be found4 ,the question as to whether the female sex is the more beautiful1 and as to whether it deserves the title of 8the0 beautiful1 has been much disputed4 ,it may be well to consider by whom and how far woman is considered beautiful4 ,it is well known that woman is not most beautiful in the nude4 ,i admit that in pictures or statues the nude female may look well4 ,but the sexual impulse makes it impossible to look at a living woman in a nude condition with the purely critical1 unemotional eye1 which is an essential feature in judging any object of beauty4 ,but apart from this1 an absolute nude female figure in the life leaves an impression of something wanting1 an incompleteness1 which is incompatible with beauty4 ,a nude woman may be beautiful in details1 but the general effect is not beautiful2 she inevitably creates the feeling that she is looking for something1 and this induces disinclination rather than desire in the spectator4 ,the sight of an upright female form1 in the nude1 makes most patent her purposelessness1 the sense of her purpose in life being derived from something outside herself2 in the recumbent position this feeling is greatly diminished4 ,it is evident that artists have perceived this in reproducing the nude4 ,but even in the details of her body a woman is not wholly beautiful1 not even if she is a flawless1 perfect type of her sex4 ,the genitalia are the chief difficulty in the way of regarding her as theoretically beautiful4 ,if the idea were justified that man's love for woman is the direct result of his sexual impulse2 if we could agree with ,schopenhauer that 8the under-sized1 narrow-shouldered1 broad-hipped1 and short-limbed sex is called beautiful only because the male intellect is befogged by the sexual impulse1 that impulse being the creator of the conception of the beauty of woman10 it would follow that the genitalia could not be excluded from the conception of beauty4 ,it requires no lengthy exposition to prove that the genitalia are not regarded as beautiful1 and that1 therefore1 the beauty of woman cannot be regarded as due to the sexual impulse4 ,in fact1 the sexual impulse is in reality opposed to the conception of beauty4 ,the man who is most under its influence has least sense of female beauty1 and desires any woman merely because she is a woman4 ,a woman's nude body is distasteful to man because it offends his sense of shame4 ,the easy superficiality of our day has given colour to the statement that the sense of shame has arisen from the wearing of clothes1 and it has been urged that the objection to the nude arises from those who are unnatural and secretly immorally-minded4 ,but a man who has become immorally-minded no longer is interested in the nude as such1 because it has lost its influence on him4 ,he merely desires and no longer loves4 ,all true love is modest1 like all true pity4 ,there is only one case of shamelessness--a declaration of love the sincerity of which a man is convinced of in the moment he makes it4 ,this would represent the conceivable maximum of shamelessness2 but there is no declaration of love which is quite true1 and the stupidity of women is shown by their readiness to believe such protestations4 ,the love bestowed by the man is the standard of what is beautiful and what is hateful in woman4 ,the conditions are quite different in sthetics from those in logic or ethics4 ,in logic there is an abstract truth which is the standard of thought2 in ethics there is an ideal good which furnishes the criterion of what ought to be done1 and the value of the good is established by the determination to link the will with the good4 ,in sthetics beauty is created by love2 there is no determining law to love what is beautiful1 and the beautiful does not present itself to human beings with any imperative command to love it4 7,and so there is no abstract1 no super-individual 8right0 taste74 ,all beauty is really more a projection1 an emanation of the requirements of love2 and so the beauty of woman is not apart from love1 it is not an objective to which love is directed1 but woman's beauty is the love of man2 they are not two things1 but one and the same thing4 ,just as hatefulness comes from hating1 so love creates beauty4 ,this is only another way of expressing the fact that beauty has as little to do with the sexual impulse as the sexual impulse has to do with love4 ,beauty is something that can neither be felt1 touched1 nor mixed with other things2 it is only at a distance that it can be plainly discerned1 and when it is approached it withdraws itself4 ,the sexual impulse which seeks for sexual union with woman is a denial of such beauty2 the woman who has been possessed and enjoyed1 will never again be worshipped for her beauty4 ,i now come to the second question3 what are the innocence and morality of a woman8 ,it will be convenient to start with a few facts that concern the origin of all love4 ,bodily cleanliness1 as has often been remarked1 is in men a general indication of morality and rectitude2 or at least it may be said that uncleanly men are seldom of high character4 ,it may be noticed that when men1 who formerly paid little attention to bodily cleanliness1 begin to strive for a higher perfection of character1 they at the same time take more trouble with the care of the body4 ,in the same way1 when men suddenly become imbued with passion they experience a simultaneous desire for bodily cleanliness1 and it may almost be said of them that only at such a time do they wash themselves thoroughly4 ,if we now turn to gifted men1 we shall see that in their case love frequently begins with self-mortification1 humiliation1 and restraint4 ,a moral change sets in1 a process of purification seems to emanate from the object loved1 even if her lover has never spoken to her1 or only seen her a few times in the distance4 ,it is1 then1 impossible that this process should have its origin in that person3 very often it may be a bread-and-butter miss1 a stolid lump1 more often a sensuous coquette1 in whom no one can see the marvellous characteristics with which his love endows her1 save her lover4 ,can any one believe that it is a concrete person who is loved8 ,does she not in reality serve as the starting point for incomparably greater emotions than she could inspire8 ,in love1 man is only loving himself4 ,not his empirical self1 not the weaknesses and vulgarities1 not the failings and smallnesses which he outwardly exhibits2 but all that he wants to be1 all that he ought to be1 his truest1 deepest1 intelligible nature1 free from all fetters of necessity1 from all taint of earth4 ,in his actual physical existence1 this being is limited by space and time and by the shackles of the senses2 however deep he may look into himself1 he finds himself damaged and spotted1 and sees nowhere the image of speckless purity for which he seeks4 ,and yet there is nothing he covets so much as to realise his own ideal1 to find his real higher self4 ,and as he cannot find this true self within himself1 he has to seek it without himself4 ,he projects his ideal of an absolutely worthy existence1 the ideal that he is unable to isolate within himself1 upon another human being1 and this act1 and this alone1 is none other than love and the significance of love4 ,only a person who has done wrong and is conscious of it can love1 and so a child can never love4 ,it is only because love represents the highest1 most unattainable goal of all longing1 because it cannot be realised in experience but must remain an idea2 only because it is localised on some other human being1 and yet remains at a distance1 so that the ideal never attains its realisation2 only because of such conditions can love be associated with the awakening of the desire for purification1 with the reaching after a goal that is purely spiritual1 and so cannot be blemished by physical union with the beloved person2 only thus1 is love the highest and strongest effort of the will towards the supreme good2 only thus does it bring the true being of man to a state between body and spirit1 between the senses and the moral nature1 between ,god and the beasts4 ,a human being only finds himself when1 in this fashion1 he loves4 ,and thus it comes about that only when they love do many men realise the existence of their own personality and of the personality of another1 that 8,i0 and 8thou0 become for them more than grammatical expressions4 ,and so also comes about the great part played in their love story by the names of the two lovers4 ,there is no doubt but that it is through love that many men first come to know of their own real nature1 and to be convinced that they possess a soul4 ,it is this which makes a lover desire to keep his beloved at a distance--on no account to injure her purity by contact with him--in order to assure himself of her and of his own existence4 ,many an inflexible empiricist1 coming under the influence of love1 becomes an enthusiastic mystic2 the most striking example being ,auguste ,comte1 the founder of positivism1 whose whole theories were revolutionised by his feelings for ,clotilde de ,vaux4 ,it is not only for the artist1 but for the whole of mankind that ,amo1 ergo sum holds good psychologically4 ,love is a phenomenon of projection just as hate is1 not a phenomenon of equation as friendship is4 ,the latter presupposes an equality of both individuals3 love always implies inequality1 disproportion4 ,to endow an individual with all that one might be and yet never can be1 to make her ideal--that is love4 ,beauty is the symbol of this act of worship4 ,it is this that so often surprises and angers a lover when he is convinced that beauty does not imply morality in a woman4 ,he feels that the nature of the offence is increased by 8such depravity0 being possible in conjunction with such 8beauty40 ,he is not aware that the woman in question seems beautiful to him because he still loves her2 otherwise the incongruity between the external and internal would no longer pain him4 ,the reason an ordinary prostitute can never seem beautiful is because it is naturally impossible to endow her with the projection of value2 she can satisfy only the taste of vulgar minds4 ,she is the mate of the worst sort of men4 ,in this we have the explanation of a relation utterly opposed to morality3 woman in general is simply indifferent to ethics1 she is non-moral1 and1 therefore1 unlike the anti-moral criminal1 who is instinctively disliked1 or the devil who is hideous in every one's imagination1 serves as a receptacle for projected worthiness2 as she neither does good nor evil1 she neither resists nor resents this imposition of the ideal on her personality4 ,it is patent that woman's morality is acquired2 but this morality is man's1 which he in an access of supreme love and devotion has conveyed to her4 ,since all beauty is always only the constantly renewed endeavour to embody the highest form of value1 there is a pre-eminently satisfying element in it1 in the face of which all desire1 all self-seeking fade away4 ,all forms of beauty which appeal to man1 by reason of the sthetic function1 are in reality also attempts on his part to realise the ideal4 ,beauty is the symbol of perfection in being4 ,therefore beauty is inviolable2 it is static and not dynamic2 so that any alteration with regard to it upsets and annuls the idea of it4 ,the desire of personal worthiness1 the love of perfection1 materialise in the idea of beauty4 ,and so the beauty of nature is born1 a beauty that the criminal can never know1 as ethics first create nature4 ,thus it is that nature always and everywhere1 in its greatest and smallest forms1 gives the impression of perfection4 ,the natural law is only the mortal symbol of the moral law1 as natural beauty is the manifestation of nobility of the soul2 logic thus becomes the embodiment of ethics6 ,just as love creates a new woman for man instead of the real woman1 so art1 the eroticism of the ,all1 creates out of chaos the plenitude of forms in the universe2 and just as there is no natural beauty without form1 without a law of nature1 so also there is no art without form1 no artistic beauty which does not conform to the laws of art4 ,natural beauty is no less a realisation of artistic beauty than the natural law is the fulfilment of the moral law1 the natural reflection of that harmony whose image is enthroned in the soul of man4 ,the nature which the artist regards as his teacher1 is the law which he creates out of his own being4 ,i return to my own theme from these analyses of art1 which are no more than elaborations of the thoughts of ,kant and ,schelling 7and of ,schiller writing under their influence74 ,the main proposition for which ,i have argued is that man's belief in the morality of woman1 his projection of his own soul upon her1 and his conception of the woman as beautiful1 are one and the same thing1 the second being the sensuous side of the first4 ,it is thus intelligible1 although an inversion of the truth1 when1 in morality1 a beautiful soul is spoken of1 or when1 following ,shaftesbury and ,herbart1 ethics are subordinated to sthetics2 following ,socrates and ,plato we may identify the good and the beautiful1 but we must not forget that beauty is only a bodily image in which morality tries to represent itself1 that all sthetics are created by ethics4 ,every individual and temporal presentation of this attempted incarnation must necessarily be illusory1 and can have no more than a fictitious reality4 ,and so all individual cases of beauty are impermanent2 the love that is directed to a woman must perish with the age of the woman4 ,the idea of beauty is the idea of nature and is permanent1 whilst every beautiful thing1 every part of nature1 is perishable4 ,the eternal can realise itself in the limited and the concrete only by an illusion2 it is self-deception to seek the fulness of love in a woman4 ,as all love that attaches itself to a person must be impermanent1 the love of woman is doomed to unhappiness4 ,all such love has this source of failure inherent in it4 ,it is an heroic attempt to seek for permanent worth where there is no worth4 ,the love that is attached to enduring worth is attached to the absolute1 to the idea of ,god1 whether that idea be a pantheistic conception of enduring nature1 or remain transcendental2 the love that attaches itself to an individual thing1 as to a woman1 must fail4 ,i have already partly explained why man takes this burden on himself4 ,just as hatred is a projection of our own evil qualities on other persons in order that we may stand apart from them and hate them2 just as the devil was invented to serve as a vehicle of all the evil impulses in man2 so love has the purpose of helping man in his battle for good1 when he feels that he himself is not strong enough4 ,love and hate are alike forms of cowardice4 ,in hate we picture to ourselves that our own hateful qualities exist in another1 and by so doing we feel ourselves partly freed from them4 ,in love we project what is good in us1 and so having created a good and an evil image we are more able to compare and value them4 ,lovers seek their own souls in the loved ones1 and so love is free from the limits ,i described in the first part of this book1 not being bound down by the conditions of merely sexual attraction4 ,in spite of their real opposition1 there is an analogy between erotics and sexuality4 ,sexuality uses the woman as the means to produce pleasure and children of the body2 erotics use her as the means to create worth and children of the soul4 ,a little understood conception of ,plato is full of the deepest meaning3 that love is not directed towards beauty1 but towards the procreation of beauty2 that it seeks to win immortality for the things of the mind1 just as the lower sexual impulse is directed towards the perpetuation of the species4 ,it is more than a merely formal analogy1 a superficial1 verbal resemblance1 to speak of the fruitfulness of the mind1 of its conception and reproduction1 or1 in the words of ,plato1 to speak of the children of the soul4 ,as bodily sexuality is the effort of an organic being to perpetuate its own form1 so love is the attempt to make permanent one's own soul or individuality4 ,sexuality and love are alike the effort to realise oneself1 the one by a bodily image1 the other by an image of the soul4 ,but it is only the man of genius who can approach this entirely unsensuous love1 and it is only he who seeks to produce eternal children in whom his deepest nature shall live for ever4 ,the parallel may be carried further4 ,since ,novalis first called attention to it1 many have insisted on the association between sexual desire and cruelty4 ,all that is born of woman must die4 ,reproduction1 birth1 and death are indissolubly associated2 the thought of untimely death awakens sexual desire in its fiercest form1 as the determination to reproduce oneself4 ,and so sexual union1 considered ethically1 psychologically1 and biologically1 is allied to murder2 it is the negation of the woman and the man2 in its extreme case it robs them of their consciousness to give life to the child4 ,the highest form of eroticism1 as much as the lowest form of sexuality1 uses the woman not for herself but as means to an end--to preserve the individuality of the artist4 ,the artist has used the woman merely as the screen on which to project his own idea4 ,the real psychology of the loved woman is always a matter of indifference4 ,in the moment when a man loves a woman1 he neither understands her nor wishes to understand her1 although understanding is the only moral basis of association in mankind4 ,a human being cannot love another that he fully understands1 because he would then necessarily see the imperfections which are an inevitable part of the human individual1 and love can attach itself only to perfection4 ,love of a woman is possible only when it does not consider her real qualities1 and so is able to replace the actual psychical reality by a different and quite imaginary reality4 ,the attempt to realise one's ideal in a woman1 instead of the woman herself1 is a necessary destruction of the empirical personality of the woman4 ,and so the attempt is cruel to the woman2 it is the egoism of love that disregards the woman1 and cares nothing for her real inner life4 ,thus the parallel between sexuality and love is complete4 ,love is murder4 ,the sexual impulse destroys the body and mind of the woman1 and the psychical eroticism destroys her psychical existence4 ,ordinary sexuality regards the woman only as a means of gratifying passion or of begetting children4 ,the higher eroticism is merciless to the woman1 requiring her to be merely the vehicle of a projected personality1 or the mother of psychical children4 ,love is not only anti-logical1 as it denies the objective truth of the woman and requires only an illusory image of her1 but it is anti-ethical with regard to her4 ,i am far from despising the heights to which this eroticism may reach1 as1 for instance1 in ,madonna worship4 ,who could blind his eyes to the amazing phenomenon presented by ,dante8 ,it was an extraordinary transference of his own ideal to the person of a concrete woman whom the artist had seen only once and when she was a young girl1 and who for all he knew might have grown up into a ,xantippe4 ,the complete neglect of whatever worth the woman herself might have had1 in order that she might better serve as the vehicle of his projected conception of worthiness1 was never more clearly exhibited4 ,and the three-fold immorality of this higher eroticism becomes more plain than ever4 ,it is an unlimited selfishness with regard to the actual woman1 as she is wholly rejected for the ideal woman4 ,it is a felony towards the lover himself1 inasmuch as he detaches virtue and worthiness from himself2 and it is a deliberate turning away from the truth1 a preferring of sham to reality4 ,the last form in which the immorality reveals itself is that love prevents the worthlessness of woman from being realised1 inasmuch as it always replaced her by an imaginary projection4 ,madonna worship itself is fundamentally immoral1 inasmuch as it is a shutting of the eyes to truth4 ,the ,madonna worship of the great artists is a destruction of woman1 and is possible only by a complete neglect of the women as they exist in experience1 a replacement of actuality by a symbol1 a re-creation of woman to serve the purposes of man1 and a murder of woman as she exists4 ,when a particular man attracts a particular woman the influence is not his beauty4 ,only man has an instinct for beauty1 and the ideals of both manly beauty and of womanly beauty have been created by man1 not by woman4 ,the qualities that appeal to a woman are the signs of developed sexuality2 those that repel her are the qualities of the higher mind4 ,woman is essentially a phallus worshipper1 and her worship is permeated with a fear like that of a bird for a snake1 of a man for the fabled ,medusa head1 as she feels that the object of her adoration is the power that will destroy her4 ,the course of my argument is now apparent4 ,as logic and ethics have a relation only to man1 it was not to be expected that woman would stand in any better position with regard to sthetics4 sthetics and logic are closely interconnected1 as is apparent in philosophy1 in mathematics1 in artistic work1 and in music4 ,i have now shown the intimate relation of sthetics to ethics4 ,as ,kant showed1 sthetics1 just as much as ethics and logic1 depend on the free will of the subject4 ,as the woman has not free will1 she cannot have the faculty of projecting beauty outside herself4 ,the foregoing involves the proposition that woman cannot love4 ,women have made no ideal of man to correspond with the male conception of the ,madonna4 ,what woman requires from man is not purity1 chastity1 morality1 but something else4 ,woman is incapable of desiring virtue in a man4 ,it is almost an insoluble riddle that woman1 herself incapable of love1 should attract the love of man4 ,it has seemed to me a possible myth or parable1 that in the beginning1 when men became men by some miraculous act of ,god1 a soul was bestowed only on them4 ,men1 when they love1 are partly conscious of this deep injustice to woman1 and make the fruitless but heroic effort to give her their own soul4 ,but such a speculation is outside the limits of either science or philosophy4 ,i have now shown what woman does not wish2 there remains to show what she does wish1 and how this wish is diametrically opposed to the will of man4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,woman ,,and ,,her ,,significance ,,in ,,the ,,universe 8,erst ,mann und ,weib zusammen ,machen den ,menschen aus40--,,kant4 ,the further we go in the analysis of woman's claim to esteem the more we must deny her of what is lofty and noble1 great and beautiful4 ,as this chapter is about to take the deciding and most extreme step in that direction1 ,i should like to make a few remarks as to my position4 ,the last thing ,i wish to advocate is the ,asiatic standpoint with regard to the treatment of women4 ,those who have carefully followed my remarks as to the injustice that all forms of sexuality and erotics visit on woman will surely see that this work is not meant to plead for the harem4 ,but it is quite possible to desire the legal equality of men and women without believing in their moral and intellectual equality1 just as in condemning to the utmost any harshness in the male treatment of the female sex1 one does not overlook the tremendous1 cosmic1 contrast and organic differences between them4 ,there are no men in whom there is no trace of the transcendent1 who are altogether bad2 and there is no woman of whom that could truly be said4 ,however degraded a man may be1 he is immeasurably above the most superior woman1 so much so that comparison and classification of the two are impossible2 but even so1 no one has any right to denounce or defame woman1 however inferior she must be considered4 ,a true adjustment of the claims for legal equality can be undertaken on no other basis than the recognition of a complete1 deep-seated polar opposition of the sexes4 ,i trust that ,i may escape confusion of my views as to woman with the superficial doctrine of ,p4 ,j4 ,mbius--a doctrine only interesting as a brave reaction against the general tendency4 ,women are not 8physiologically weak-minded10 and ,i cannot share the view that women of conspicuous ability are to be regarded as morbid specimens4 ,from a moral point of view one should only be glad to recognise in these women 7who are always more masculine than the rest7 the exact opposite of degeneration1 that is to say1 it must be acknowledged that they have made a step forward and gained a victory over themselves2 from the biological standpoint they are just as little or as much phenomena of degeneration as are womanish men 7unethically considered74 ,intermediate sexual forms are normal1 not pathological phenomena1 in all classes of organisms1 and their appearance is no proof of physical decadence4 ,woman is neither high-minded nor low-minded1 strong-minded nor weak-minded4 ,she is the opposite of all these4 ,mind cannot be predicated of her at all2 she is mindless4 ,that1 however1 does not imply weak-mindedness in the ordinary sense of the term1 the absence of the capacity to 8get her bearings0 in ordinary everyday life4 ,cunning1 calculation1 8cleverness10 are much more usual and constant in the woman than in the man1 if there be a personal selfish end in view4 ,a woman is never so stupid as a man can be4 ,but has woman no meaning at all8 ,has she no general purpose in the scheme of the world8 ,has she not a destiny2 and1 in spite of all her senselessness and emptiness1 a significance in the universe8 ,has she a mission1 or is her existence an accident and an absurdity8 ,in order to understand her meaning1 it is necessary to start from a phenomenon which1 although old and well recognised1 has never received its proper meed of consideration4 ,it is from nothing more nor less than the phenomenon of match-making from which we may be able to infer most correctly the real nature of woman4 ,its analysis shows it to be the force which brings together and helps forward two people in their knowledge of one another1 which helps them to a sexual union1 whether in the form of marriage or not4 ,this desire to bring about an understanding between two people is possessed by all women from their earliest childhood2 the very youngest girls are always ready to act as messengers for their sisters' lovers4 ,and if the instinct of match-making can be indulged in only after the particular woman in question has brought about her own consummation in marriage1 it is none the less present before that time1 and the only things which are at work against it are her jealousy of her contemporaries1 and her anxiety about their chances with regard to her lover1 until she has finally secured him by reason of her money1 her social position1 and so forth4 ,as soon as women have got rid of their own case by their own marriage1 they hasten to help the sons and daughters of their acquaintances to marry4 ,the fact that older women1 in whom the desire for sexual satisfaction has died out1 are such match-makers is so fully recognised that the idea has wrongly spread that they are the only real match-makers4 ,they urge not only women but men to marry1 a man's own mother often being the most active and persistent advocate of his marriage4 ,it is the desire and purpose of every mother to see her son married1 without any thought of his individual taste2 a wish which some have been blind enough to regard as another charm in maternal love1 of which such a poor account was given in an earlier chapter4 ,it is possible that many mothers may hope that their sons should obtain permanent happiness through marriage1 however unfit they may be for it2 but undoubtedly this hope is absent with the majority1 and in any case it is the match-making instinct1 the sheer objection to bachelordom1 which is the strongest motive of all4 ,it is clear that women obey a purely instinctive1 inherent impulse1 when they try to get their daughters married4 ,it is certainly not for logical1 and only in a small degree for material reasons1 that they go to such lengths to attain their ends1 and it is certainly not because of any desire expressed by their daughters 7very often it is in direct opposition to the girl's choice72 and since the match-making instinct is not confined to the members of a woman's own family1 it is impossible to speak of it as being part of the 8altruistic0 or 8moral0 attitude of maternal love2 although most women if they were charged with match-making projects would undoubtedly answer 8that it is their duty to think of the future welfare of their dear children40 ,a mother makes no difference in arranging a marriage for her own daughter and for any other girl1 and is just as glad to do it for the latter if it does not interfere with the interests of her own family2 it is the same thing1 match-making throughout1 and there is no psychological difference in making a match for her own daughter and doing the same thing for a stranger4 ,i would even go so far as to say that a mother is not inconsolable if a stranger1 however common and undesirable1 desires and seduces her daughter4 ,the attitude of one sex to certain traits of the other can often be applied as a criterion as to how far certain peculiarities of character are exclusively the property of the one sex or are shared by the other4 ,so far1 we have had to deny to women many characters which they would gladly claim1 but which are exclusively masculine2 in match-making1 however1 we have a characteristic which is really and exclusively feminine1 the exceptions being either in the case of very womanish men or else special instances which will be fully dealt with later on1 in chap4 xiii4 ,every real man will have nothing to do with this instinct in his wife1 even when his own daughters1 whom he would gladly see settled in life1 are concerned2 he dislikes and despises the whole business1 and leaves it entirely to his wife1 as being altogether in her province4 ,this is a striking instance of a purely feminine psychical characteristic1 being not only unattractive to a man1 but even repulsive to him when he is aware of it3 while the male characteristics in themselves are sufficient to please the female1 man has to denude woman of hers before he can love her4 ,but the match-making instinct exerts a much deeper and more important influence on the nature of woman than can be gathered from the little ,i have said on this subject4 ,i wish now to draw attention to woman's attitude at a play3 she is always waiting to see if the hero and heroine1 the lovers in the piece1 will quarrel4 ,this is nothing but match-making1 and psychologically does not differ a hair from it3 it is the ever present desire to see the man and woman united4 ,but that is not all2 the tremendous excitement with which women await the crucial point in a decent or indecent book is due to nothing less than the desire to see the sexual union of the principal characters1 and is coupled with an actual excitation at the thought1 and positive appreciation of the force which is behind sexual union4 ,it is not possible to state this formally and logically1 the only thing is to try and understand how it is that the two things are psychologically one with women4 ,the mother's excitement on her daughter's wedding-day is of the same quality as that engendered by reading a story by ,prvost1 or ,sudermann's 8,katzensteg40 ,it is quite true that men are very interested by novels which end in sexual union1 but in quite a different way from women2 they thoroughly appreciate the sexual act in imagination1 but they do not follow the gradual approach of the two people concerned from the very beginning2 and their interest does not grow1 as woman's does1 in constant proportion to the reciprocal value which the two people have for one another4 ,the breathless pleasure with which the various obstacles are overcome1 the feeling of disappointment at each thwarting of the sexual purpose1 is altogether womanish and unmanly2 but it is always present with woman4 ,she is continually on the watch for sexual developments1 whether in real life or in literature4 ,has no one ever wondered why women are so keen and 8disinterested0 about bringing other men and women together8 ,the satisfaction they derive from it arises from a personal stimulus at the thought of the sexual union of others4 ,but the full extent to which match-making influences the point of view of all women is not yet fully grasped4 ,on a summer evening when lovers may be seen in dark corners of public places1 or on the seats and banks round about1 it is always the women who wilfully and curiously try to see what is happening1 whilst men who have to pass that way do so unwillingly1 looking the other way1 because of a sense of intrusion4 ,just in the same way it is women who turn in the streets to look at nearly every couple they meet1 and gaze after them4 ,this espionage and turning round are none the less 8match-making10 because they are sub-conscious acts4 ,if a man does not want to see a thing he turns his back on it1 and does not look round2 but women are glad to see two people in love with one another1 and take pleasure in surprising them in their love-making1 because of their innate and super-personal desire that sexual union should occur4 ,but man1 as was seen much further back1 only cares for that which has a positive value4 ,a woman when she sees two lovers together is always awaiting developments1 that is to say1 she expects1 anticipates1 hopes1 and desires an outcome4 ,i know an elderly married woman who listened expectantly at the door for some time1 when a servant of hers had allowed her sweetheart to come into her room1 before she walked in and gave her notice4 ,the idea of union is always eagerly grasped and never repelled whatever form it may take 7even where animals are concerned74#ah ,she experiences no disgust at the nauseating details of the subject1 and makes no attempt to think of anything pleasanter4 ,this accounts for a great deal of what is so apparently mysterious in the psychic life of woman4 ,her wish for the activity of her own sexual life is her strongest impulse1 but it is only a special case of her deep1 her only vital interest1 the interest that sexual unions shall take place2 the wish that as much of it as possible shall occur1 in all cases1 places1 and times4 #ah ,the one apparent exception to this rule is fully discussed in this chapter4 ,this universal desire may either be concentrated on the act itself or on the 7possible7 child2 in the first case1 the woman is of the prostitute type and participates merely for the sake of the act2 in the second1 she is of the mother type1 but not merely with the idea of bearing children herself2 she desires that every marriage she knows of or has helped to bring about should be fruitful1 and the nearer she is to the absolute mother the more conspicuous is this idea2 the real mother is also the real grandmother 7even if she remains a virgin2 ,johann ,tesman's marvellous portrayal of 8,tante ,jule0 in ,ibsen's 8,hedda ,gabler0 is an example of what ,i mean74 ,every real mother has the same purpose1 that of helping on matrimony2 she is the mother of all mankind2 she welcomes every pregnancy4 ,the prostitute does not want other women to be with child1 but to be prostitutes like herself4 ,a woman's relations with married men show how she subordinates her own sexuality to her match-making instinct1 the latter being the dominant power4 ,woman objects more strongly to bachelordom than anything else1 because she is altogether a match-maker1 and this makes her try to get men to marry2 but if a man is already married she at once loses most of her interest in him1 however much she liked him before4 ,if the woman herself is already married1 that is to say1 when each man she meets is not a possible solution to her own fate1 one would not imagine that a married man would find less favour with her because he was married than when he was a bachelor if the woman herself is unfaithful2 but women seldom carry on an intrigue with another woman's husband1 except when they wish to triumph over her by making him neglect her4 ,this shows that the disposition of woman is towards the fact of pairing2 when men are already paired she seldom attempts to make them unfaithful1 for the fact of their being paired has satisfied her instinct4 ,this match-making is the most common characteristic of the human female2 the wish to become a mother-in-law is much more general than even the desire to become a mother1 the intensity and extent of which is usually over-rated4 ,my readers may possibly not understand the emphasis ,i have laid on a phenomenon which is usually looked upon as amusing as it is disgusting2 and it may be thought that ,i have given undue importance to it4 ,but let us see why ,i have done so4 ,match-making is essentially the phenomenon of all others which gives us the key to the nature of woman1 and we must not1 as has always been the case1 merely acknowledge the fact and pass on1 but we should try to analyse and explain it4 ,one of our commonest phrases runs3 8,every woman is a bit of a match-maker40 ,but we must remember that in this1 and nothing else1 lies the actual essence of woman4 ,after mature consideration of the most varied types of women and with due regard to the special classes besides those which ,i have discussed1 ,i am of opinion that the only positively general female characteristic is that of match-making1 that is1 her uniform willingness to further the idea of sexual union4 ,any definition of the nature of woman which goes no further than to declare that she has the strong instinct for her own union would be too narrow2 any definition that would link her instincts to the child or to the husband1 or to both1 would be too wide4 ,the most general and comprehensive statement of the nature of woman is that it is completely adapted and disposed for the special mission of aiding and abetting the bodily union of the sexes4 ,all women are match-makers1 and this property of the woman to be the advocate of the idea of pairing is the only one which is found in women of all ages1 in young girls1 in adults1 and in the aged4 ,the old woman is no longer interested in her own union1 but she devotes herself to the pairing of others4 ,this habit of the old woman is nothing new1 it is only the continuance of her enduring instinct surviving the complications that were caused when her personal interests came into conflict with her general desire2 it is the now unselfish pursuit of the impersonal idea4 ,it is convenient to recapitulate at this point what my investigation has shown as to the sexuality of women4 ,i have shown that woman is engrossed exclusively by sexuality1 not intermittently1 but throughout her life2 that her whole being1 bodily and mental1 is nothing but sexuality itself4 ,i added1 moreover1 that she was so constituted that her whole body and being continually were in sexual relations with her environment1 and that just as the sexual organs were the centre of woman physically1 so the sexual idea was the centre of her mental nature4 ,the idea of pairing is the only conception which has positive worth for women4 ,the woman is the bearer of the thought of the continuity of the species4 ,the high value which she attaches to the idea of pairing is not selfish and individual1 it is super-individual1 and1 if ,i may be forgiven the desecration of the phrase1 it is the transcendental function of woman4 ,and just as femaleness is no more than the embodiment of the idea of pairing1 so is it sexuality in the abstract4 ,pairing is the supreme good for the woman2 she seeks to effect it always and everywhere4 ,her personal sexuality is only a special case of this universal1 generalised1 impersonal instinct4 ,the effort of woman to realise this idea of pairing is so fundamentally opposed to that conception of innocence and purity1 the higher virginity which man's erotic nature has demanded from women1 that not all his erotic incense would have obscured her real nature but for one factor4 ,i have now to explain this factor which has veiled from man the true nature of woman1 and which in itself is one of the deepest problems of woman1 ,i mean her absolute duplicity4 ,her pairing instinct and her duplicity1 the latter so great as to conceal even from woman herself what is the real essence of her nature1 must be explained together4 ,all that may have seemed like clear gain is now again called into question4 ,self-observation was found lacking in women1 and yet there certainly are women who observe very closely all that happens to them4 ,they were denied the love of truth1 and yet one knows many women who would not tell a lie for anything4 ,it has been said that they are lacking in consciousness of guilt2 but there are many women who reproach themselves bitterly for most trifling matters1 besides 8penitents0 who mortify their flesh4 ,modesty was left to man1 but what is to be said of the womanly modesty1 that bashfulness1 which1 according to ,hamerling1 only women have8 ,is there no foundation for the way in which the idea has grown and found such acceptance8 ,and then again3 ,can religion be absent1 in spite of so many 8professing0 women8 ,are we to exclude all women from the moral purity1 all the womanly virtues1 which poets and historians have ascribed to her8 ,are we to say that woman is merely sexual1 that sexuality only receives its proper due from her when it is so well known that women are shocked at the slightest allusion to sexual matters1 that instead of giving way to it they are often irritated and disgusted at the idea of impurity1 and quite often detest sexual union for themselves and regard it just as many men do8 ,it is1 of course1 manifest that one and the same point is bound up in all these antitheses1 and on the answer given to them depends the final and decisive judgment on woman4 ,and it is clear that if only one single female creature were really asexual1 or could be shown to have a real relationship to the idea of personal moral worth1 everything that ,i have said about woman1 its general value as psychically characteristic of the sex1 would be irretrievably demolished1 and the whole position which this book has taken up would be shattered at one blow4 ,these apparently contradictory phenomena must be satisfactorily explained1 and it must be shown that what is at the bottom of it all and makes it seem so equivocal arises from the very nature of woman which ,i have been trying to explain all along4 ,in order to understand these fallacious contradictions one must first of all remember the tremendous 8accessibility10 to use another word1 the 8impressionability10 of women4 ,their extraordinary aptitude for anything new1 and their easy acceptance of other people's views have not yet been sufficiently emphasised in this book4 ,as a rule1 the woman adapts herself to the man1 his views become hers1 his likes and dislikes are shared by her1 every word he says is an incentive to her1 and the stronger his sexual influence on her the more this is so4 ,woman does not perceive that this influence which man has on her causes her to deviate from the line of her own development2 she does not look upon it as a sort of unwarrantable intrusion2 she does not try to shake off what is really an invasion of her private life2 she is not ashamed of being receptive2 on the contrary1 she is really pleased when she can be so1 and prefers man to mould her mentally4 ,she rejoices in being dependent1 and her expectations from man resolve themselves into the moment when she may be perfectly passive4 ,but it is not only from her lover 7although she would like that best71 but also from her father and mother1 uncles and aunts1 brothers and sisters1 near relations and distant acquaintances1 that a woman takes what she thinks and believes1 being only too glad to get her opinions 8ready made40 ,it is not only inexperienced girls but even elderly and married women who copy each other in everything1 from the nice new dress or pretty coiffure down to the places where they get their things1 and the very recipes by which they cook4 ,and it never seems to occur to them that they are doing something derogatory on their part1 as it ought to do if they possessed an individuality of their own and strove to work out their own salvation4 ,a woman's thoughts and actions have no definite1 independent relations to things in themselves2 they are not the result of the reaction of her individuality to the world4 ,they accept what is imposed on them gladly1 and adhere to it with the greatest firmness4 ,that is why woman is so intolerant when there has been a breach of conventional laws4 ,i must quote an amusing instance1 bearing on this side of woman's character1 from ,herbert ,spencer4 ,it is the custom in various tribes of ,indians in ,north and ,south ,america for the men to hunt and fight and leave all the laborious and menial tasks to their wives4 ,the ,dakotan women are so imbued with the idea of the reasonableness and fitness of this arrangement that1 instead of feeling injured by it1 the greatest insult that one of these women can offer to another would be implied in some such words as follows3 8,you disgraceful creature4444 ,i saw your husband carrying home wood for the fires4 ,what was his wife doing that he had to demean himself by doing woman's work80 ,the extraordinary way in which woman can be influenced by external agencies is similar in its nature to her suggestibility1 which is far greater and more general than man's2 they are both in accordance with woman's desire to play the passive and never the active part in the sexual act and all that leads to it4#ai #ai ,the quiescent1 inactive1 large egg-cells are sought out by the mobile1 active1 and slender spermatozoa4 ,it is the universal passivity of woman's nature which makes her accept and assume man's valuations of things1 although these are utterly at variance with her nature4 ,the way in which woman can be impregnated with the masculine point of view1 the saturation of her innermost thoughts with a foreign element1 her false recognition of morality1 which cannot be called hypocrisy because it does not conceal anything anti-moral1 her assumption and practise of things which in themselves are not in her realm1 are all very well if the woman does not try to use her own judgment1 and they succeed in keeping up the fiction of her superior morality4 ,complications first arise when these acquired valuations come into collision with the only inborn1 genuine1 and universally feminine valuation1 the supreme value she sets on pairing4 ,woman's acceptance of pairing as the supreme good is quite unconscious on her part4 ,as she has no sense of individuality she has nothing to contrast with pairing2 and so1 unlike man1 she cannot realise its significance1 or even notice the presence in herself of this instinct4 ,no woman knows1 or ever has known1 or ever will know1 what she does when she enters into association with man4 ,femaleness is identical with pairing1 and a woman would have to get outside herself in order to see and understand that she pairs4 ,thus it is that the deepest desire of woman1 all that she means1 and all that she is1 remain unrecognised by her4 ,there is nothing1 then1 to prevent the male negative valuation of pairing overshadowing the female positive valuation of it in the consciousness of the woman4 ,the susceptibility of woman is so great that she can even act in opposition to what she is1 to the one thing on which she really sets a positive value6 ,but the imposture which she enacts when she allows herself to be incorporated with man's opinions of sexuality and shamelessness1 even of the imposture itself1 and when she uses the masculine standard for her actions1 is such a colossal fraud that she is never conscious of it2 she has acquired a second nature1 without even guessing that it is not her real one2 she takes herself seriously1 believes she is something and that she believes in something2 she is convinced of the sincerity and originality of her moralisings and opinions2 the lie is as deeply rooted as that2 it is organic4 ,i cannot do better than speak of the ontological untruthfulness of woman4 ,wolfram von ,eschenbach says of his hero3 8444 ,so keusch und rein ,ruht' er bei seiner ,knigin1 ,dass kein ,gengen fnd' darin ,so manches ,weib beim lieben ,mann4 ,dass doch so manche in ,gedanken ,zur ppigkeit will berschwanken1 ,die sonst sich sprde zeigen kann6 ,vor ,fremden zchtig sie erscheinen1 ,doch ist des ,herzens tiefstes ,meinen ,das ,widerspiel vom ussern ,schein40 ,wolfram indicates clearly enough what is at the bottom of woman's heart1 but he does not say all that is to be said4 ,women deceive themselves as well as others on this point4 ,one cannot artificially suppress and supplant one's real nature1 the physical as well as the other side1 without something happening4 ,the hygienic penalty that must be paid for woman's denial of her real nature is hysteria4 ,of all the neurotic and psychic phenomena1 those of hysteria are the most fascinating for psychologists2 they represent a far more difficult and1 therefore1 a more interesting study than those observed in melancholia or in simple paranoia4 ,the majority of psychiatrists have a distrust of psychological analyses which it is not easy for them to shake off2 every statement of pathological alteration of tissues or intoxication by certain means is for them a limine credible2 it is only in psychical matters that they refuse to recognise a primary cause4 ,but since no reason has so far been given why psychical phenomena should be of importance secondary to physical phenomena1 it is quite justifiable to disregard such prejudices4 ,it is quite possible--there is nothing to prevent it being so--that a very great deal1 perhaps everything1 may depend on the proper interpretation of the 8psychical mechanism0 of hysteria4 ,that this is so is proved by the fact that the few conclusions of any value with reference to hysteria so far discovered have been arrived at in this way2 the investigations carried out by ,pierre ,janet1 ,oskar ,vogt1 and particularly by ,j4 ,breuer and ,s4 ,freud1 show what ,i mean4 ,all good work on hysteria will undoubtedly follow the lines these men have worked on2 that is to say1 by investigation of the psychological processes which led up to the disease4 ,i believe myself that what may be called a psychological sexual traumatism is at the root of hysteria4 ,the typical picture of a hysterical case is not very different from the following3 ,a woman has always accepted the male views on sexual matters2 they are in reality totally foreign to her nature1 and sometime1 by some chance1 out of the conflict between what her nature asserts to be true and what she has always accepted as true and believed to be true1 there comes what may be called a 8wounding of the mind40 ,it is thus possible for the person affected to declare a sexual desire to be an 8extraneous body in her consciousness10 a sensation which she thinks she detests1 but which in reality has its origin in her own nature4 ,the tremendous intensity with which she endeavours to suppress the desire 7and which only serves to increase it7 so that she may the more vehemently and indignantly reject the thought--these are the alternations which are seen in hysteria4 ,and the chronic untruthfulness of woman becomes acute if the woman has ever allowed herself to be imbued with man's ethically negative valuation of sexuality4 ,it is well known that hysterical women manifest the strongest suggestibility with men4 ,hysteria is the organic crisis of the organic untruthfulness of woman4 ,i do not deny that there are hysterical men1 but these are comparatively few2 and since man's psychic possibilities are endless1 that of becoming 8female0 is amongst them1 and1 therefore1 he can be hysterical4 ,there are undoubtedly many untruthful men1 but in them the crisis takes a different form1 man's untruthfulness being of a different kind and never so hopeless in character as woman's4 ,this examination into the organic untruthfulness of woman1 into her inability to be honest about herself which alone makes it possible for her to think that she thinks what is really totally opposed to her nature1 appears to me to offer a satisfactory explanation of those difficulties which the tiology of hysteria present4 ,hysteria shows that untruthfulness1 however far it may reach1 cannot suppress everything4 ,by education or environment woman adopts a whole system of ideas and valuations which are foreign to her1 or1 rather1 has patiently submitted to have them impressed on her2 and it would need a tremendous shock to get rid of this strongly-rooted psychical complexity1 and to transplant woman to that condition of intellectual helplessness which is so characteristic of hysteria4 ,an extraordinary shock suffices to destroy the artificial structure1 and to place woman in the arena to undertake a fight between her unconscious1 oppressed nature1 and her certainly conscious but unnatural mind4 ,the see-sawing which now begins between the two explains the unusual psychic discontinuity during the hysterical phase1 the continual changes of mood1 none of which are subject to the control of a dominant1 central1 controlling nucleus of individuality4 ,it is extraordinary how many contradictions can co-exist in the hysterical4 ,sometimes they are highly intelligent and able to judge correctly and keenly oppose hypnotism and so forth4 ,then1 again1 they are excited by most trivial causes1 and are most subject to hypnotic trances4 ,sometimes they are abnormally chaste1 at other times extremely sensual4 ,all this is no longer difficult to explain4 ,the absolute sincerity1 the painful love of truth1 the avoidance of everything sexual1 the careful judgment1 and the strength of will--all these form part of that spurious personality which woman in her passivity has taken upon herself to exhibit to herself and to the world at large4 ,everything that belongs to her original temperament and her real sense form that 8other self10 that 8unconscious mind0 which can delight in obscurities and which is so open to suggestion4 ,it has been endeavoured to show that in what is known as the 8duplex0 and 8multiplex personality10 the 8double conscience10 the 8dual ego10 lies one of the strongest arguments against the belief in the soul4 ,as a matter of fact1 these phenomena are the very reasons why we ought to believe in a soul4 ,the 8dividing up of the personality0 is only possible when there never has been a personality1 as with woman4 ,all the celebrated cases which ,janet has described in his book1 8,l',automatisme ,psychologique10 concern women1 not in a single instance man4 ,it is only woman who1 minus soul or an intelligible ego1 has not the power to become conscious of what is in her2 who cannot throw the light of truth on her inmost self2 who can by her completely passive inundation by a consciousness belonging to another1 allow what is in her own nature to be suppressed by an extraneous element2 who can display the hysterical phenomena described by ,janet4 ,hysteria is the bankruptcy of this superficial sham self which has been put on1 and the woman becomes for the time being a tabula rasa1 whilst the working in her of her own genuine nature appears to her as something coming from without4 ,this apparent 8secondary personality10 this 8foreign body in the consciousness10 this false self1 is1 in reality1 the true female nature1 sexuality itself appearing1 and a proper understanding of this fact1 and of the complications that must ensue from the ebbings and flowings of the false1 supposed to be true1 and the true supposed to be false1 lie at the root of the most difficult phenomena of hysteria4 ,woman's incapacity for truth--which ,i hold to be consequent on her lack of free will with regard to the truth1 in accordance with ,kant's 8,indeterminism0--conditions her falsity4 ,any one who has had anything to do with women knows how often they give offhand quite patently untrue reasons for what they have said or done1 under the momentary necessity of answering a question4 ,it is1 however1 hysterical subjects who are most careful to avoid unveracity 7in a most marked and premeditated way before strangers72 but however paradoxical it may sound it is exactly in this that their untruthfulness lies6 ,they do not know that this desire for truth has come to them from outside and is no part of their real nature4 ,they have slavishly accepted the postulate of morality1 and1 therefore1 wish to show at every opportunity1 like a good servant1 how faithfully they follow instructions4 ,it is always suspicious when a man is frequently spoken of as exceptionally trustworthy3 he must have gone out of his way to let people know it1 and it would be safe to wager that in reality he is a rogue4 ,no confidence must be placed in the genuineness of hysterical morality1 which doctors 7no doubt in good faith7 often emphasise by remarks as to the high moral position of their patients4 ,i repeat3 hysterical patients do not consciously simulate4 ,it can only be made clear to them by suggestion that they actually have been simulating1 and all the 8confessions0 of the dissimulation can only be explained in the same way4 ,otherwise they believe in their own natural honesty and morality4 ,neither are the various things which torture them imaginary2 it is much more likely that in the fact that they feel them1 and that the symptoms first disappear with what ,breuer calls 8catharsis0 7the successive bringing to their consciousness of the true causes of their illness by hypnotism71 lies the proof of their organic untruthfulness4 ,the self-accusations which hysterical people are so full of are nothing but unconscious dissimulation4 ,the sense of guilt1 which is equally poignant in great and most trifling things1 cannot be genuine2 if the hysterical self-torturers possessed a standard of morality for themselves and others they would not be so indiscriminate in their self-accusations1 and not cast as much blame on themselves for a slight error as for real wrong-doing4 ,the most distinguishing character of the unconscious untruthfulness of their self-reproaches is their habit of telling others how wicked they are1 what terrible things they have done1 and then they ask if they 7the hysterical7 are not hopelessly abandoned sort of people4 ,no one who really feels remorse could talk in such a way4 ,the fallacy of representing the hysterical as being eminently moral is one which even ,breuer and ,freud have shared4 ,the hysterical simply become imbued with moral ideas which are foreign to them in their normal state4 ,they subordinate themselves to this code1 they cease to prove things for themselves1 they no longer exercise their own judgment4 ,probably these hysterical subjects approach more closely than any other natures to the moral ideal of the social and utilitarian ethics which regard a lie as moral if it is for the good of society or of the race4 ,hysterical women realise that ideal ontogenetically inasmuch as their standard of morality comes from without1 not from within1 and practically as they appear to act most readily from altruistic motives4 ,for them duty towards others is not merely a special application of duty towards oneself4 ,the untruthfulness of the hysterical is proportional to their belief in their own accuracy4 ,from their complete inability to attain personal truth1 to be honest about themselves--the hysterical never think for themselves1 they want other people to think about them1 they want to arouse the interest of others--it follows that the hysterical are the best mediums for hypnotic purposes4 ,but any one who allows him or herself to be hypnotised is doing the most immoral thing possible4 ,it is yielding to complete slavery2 it is a renunciation of the will and consciousness2 it means allowing another person to do what he likes with the subject4 ,hypnosis shows how all possibility of truth depends upon the wish to be truthful1 but it must be the real wish of the person concerned3 when a hypnotised person is told to do something1 he does it when he comes out of the trance1 and if asked his reasons will give a plausible motive on the spot1 not only before others1 but he will justify his action to himself by quite fanciful reasons4 ,in this we have1 so to speak1 an experimental proof of ,kant's 8,ethical ,code40 ,all women can be hypnotised and like being hypnotised1 but this proclivity is exaggerated in hysterical women4 ,even the memory of definite events in their life can be destroyed by the mere suggestion of the hypnotiser4 ,breuer's experiments on hypnotised patients show clearly that the consciousness of guilt in them is not deeply seated1 as otherwise it could not be got rid of at the mere suggestion of the hypnotiser4 ,but the sham conviction of responsibility1 so readily exhibited by women of hysterical constitution1 rapidly disappears at the moment when nature1 the sexual impulse1 appears to drive through the superficial restraints4 ,in the hysterical paroxysm what happens is that the woman1 while no longer believing it altogether herself1 asseverates more and more loudly3 8,i do not want that at all1 some one not really me is forcing it on me1 but ,i do not want it at all40 ,every stimulation from outside will now be brought into relation with that demand1 which as she partly believes1 is being forced on her1 but which1 in reality1 corresponds with the deepest wish of her nature4 ,that is why women in a hysterical attack are so easily seduced4 ,the 8attitudes passionelles0 of the hysterical are merely passionate repudiations of sexual desire1 which are loud merely because they are not real1 and are more plaintive than at other times because the danger is greater4 ,it is easy to understand why the sexual experiences of the time preceding puberty play so large a part in acute hysteria4 ,the influence of extraneous moral views can be imposed comparatively easily on the child1 as they have little to overcome in the almost unawakened state of the sexual inclinations4 ,but1 later on1 the suppressed1 although not wholly vanquished1 nature lays hold of these old experiences1 reinterprets them in the light of the new contents of consciousness1 and the crisis takes place4 ,the different forms that the paroxysms assume and their shifting nature are due very largely to the fact that the subject does not admit the true cause1 the presence of a sexual desire1 any consciousness of it being attributed by her to some extraneous influence1 some self that is not her 8real self40 ,medical observation or interpretation of hysteria is wrong2 it allows itself to be deceived by the patients1 who in turn deceive themselves4 ,it is not the rejecting ego but the rejected which is the true and original nature of the hysterical patients1 however much they pretend to themselves and others that it is foreign to them4 ,if the rejecting ego were really their natural ego they could act in opposition to the disturbing element which they say is foreign to them1 and be fully conscious of it1 and differentiate and recognise it in their memory4 ,but the fraud is evident1 because the rejecting ego is only borrowed1 and they lack the courage to look their own desire in the face1 although something seems to say that it is the real1 inborn1 and only powerful one they have4 ,even the desire itself has no real identity1 for it is not seated in a real individual1 and1 as it is suppressed1 leaps1 so to speak1 from one part of the body to the other4 ,it may be that my attempt at an explanation will be thought fanciful1 but at least it appears to be true that the various forms of hysteria are one and the same thing4 ,this one thing is what the hysterical patient will not admit is part of her1 although it is what is pressing on her4 ,if she were able to ascribe it to herself and criticise it in the way in which she admits trivial matters of another kind1 she would be in a measure outside and above her own experiences4 ,the frantic rage of hysterical women at what they say is imposed on them by some strange will1 whilst it in reality is their own will1 shows that they are just as much under the domination of sexuality as are non-hysterical women1 are just as subject to their destiny and incapable of averting it1 since they1 too1 are without any intelligible1 free ego4 ,but it may be asked1 with reason1 why all women are not hysterical1 since all women are liars8 ,this brings us to a necessary inquiry as to the hysterical constitution4 ,if my theory has been on the right lines1 it ought to be able to give an answer in accordance with facts4 ,according to it1 the hysterical woman is one who has passively accepted in entirety the masculine and conventional valuations instead of allowing her own mental character its proper play4 ,the woman who is not to be led is the antithesis of the hysterical woman4 ,i must not delay over this point2 it really belongs to special female characterology4 ,the hysterical woman is hysterical because she is servile2 mentally she is identical with the maid-servant4 ,her opposite 7who does not really exist7 is the shrewish dame4 ,so that women may be subdivided into the maid who serves1 and the woman who commands4#bj #bj ,we may find the analogy to this in men3 there are masculine 8servants0 who are so by nature1 and there is the masculine form of the shrew--e4g41 the policeman4 ,it is a noticeable fact that a policeman usually finds his sexual complement in the housemaid4 ,the servant is born and not made1 and there are many women in good circumstances who are 8born servants10 although they never need to put their rightful position to the test6 ,the servant and the mistress are a sort of 8complete woman0 when considered as a 8whole40#ba #ba ,a real dame would never dream of asking her husband what she was to do1 what she is to give him for dinner1 c42 the hysterical woman1 on the contrary1 is always lacking in ideas1 and wants suggestions from others4 ,this is a rough way of indicating the two types4 ,the consequences of this theory are fully borne out by experience4 ,the ,xanthippe is the woman who has the least resemblance to the hysterical type4 ,she vents her spleen 7which is really the outcome of unsatisfied sexual desires7 on others1 whereas the hysterical woman visits hers on herself4 ,the 8shrew0 detests other women1 the 8servant0 detests herself4 ,the drudge weeps out her woes alone1 without really feeling lonely--loneliness is identical with morality1 and a condition which implies true duality or manifoldness2 the shrew hates to be alone because she must have some one to scold1 whilst hysterical women vent their passion on themselves4 ,the shrew lies openly and boldly but without knowing it1 because it is her nature to think herself always in the right1 and she insults those who contradict her4 ,the servant submits wonderingly to the demands made of her which are so foreign to her nature3 the hypocrisy of this pliant acquiescence is apparent in her hysterical attacks when the conflict with her own sexual emotions begins4 ,it is because of this receptivity and susceptibility that hysteria and the hysterical type of woman are so leniently dealt with3 it is this type1 and not the shrewish type1 that will be cited in opposition to my views4#bb #bb ,it is the 8yielding type0 and not the virago type of woman that men think capable of love4 ,such a woman's love is only the mental sense of satisfaction aroused by the maleness of some particular man1 and1 therefore1 it is only possible with the hysterical2 it has nothing to do with her individual power of loving1 and can have nothing to do with it4 ,the bashfulness of woman is also due to her 8obsession0 by one man2 this also causes her neglect of all other men4 ,untruthfulness1 organic untruthfulness1 characterises both types1 and accordingly all women4 ,it is quite wrong to say that women lie4 ,that would imply that they sometimes speak the truth4 ,sincerity1 pro foro interno et externo1 is the virtue of all others of which women are absolutely incapable1 which is impossible for them6 ,the point ,i am urging is that woman is never genuine at any period of her life1 not even when she1 in hysteria1 slavishly accepts the aspect of truth laid on her by another1 and apparently speaks in accordance with those demands4 ,a woman can laugh1 cry1 blush1 or even look wicked at will3 the shrew1 when she has some object in view2 the 8maid10 when she has to make a decision for herself4 ,men have not the organic and physiological qualifications for such dissimulation4 ,if we are able to show that the supposed love of truth in these types of woman is no more than their natural hypocrisy in a mask1 it is only to be expected that all the other qualities for which woman has been praised will suffer under analysis4 ,her modesty1 her self-respect1 and her religious fervour are loudly acclaimed4 ,womanly modesty1 none the less1 is nothing but prudery1 i4e41 an extravagant denial and rejection of her natural immodesty4 ,whenever a woman evinces any trace of what could really be called modesty1 hysteria is certainly answerable for it4 ,the woman who is absolutely unhysterical and not to be influenced1 i4e41 the absolute shrew1 will not be ashamed of any reproaches her husband may shower on her1 however just2 incipient hysteria is present when a woman blushes under her husband's direct censure2 but hysteria in its most marked form is present when a woman blushes when she is quite alone3 it is only then that she may be said to be fully impregnated with the masculine standard of values4 ,the women who most nearly approximate to what has been called sexual ansthesia or frigidity are always hysterical1 as ,paul ,solliers1 with whom ,i entirely agree1 discovered4 ,sexual ansthesia is merely one of the many hysterical1 that is to say1 unreal1 simulated forms of ansthesia4 ,oskar ,vogt1 in particular 7and general observation has confirmed him71 proved that such ansthesia does not involve a real lack of sensation1 but is simply due to an inhibition which keeps certain sensations in check1 and excludes them from the consciousness4 ,if the ansthetised arm of a hypnotised subject is pricked a certain number of times1 and the medium is told to say how many times he has been pricked1 he is able to do so1 although otherwise he would not have perceived them4 ,so also with sexual frigidity2 it is an order given by the controlling force of the super-imposed asexual ideas2 but this1 like all other forms of ansthesia1 can be counteracted by a sufficiently strong 8order40 ,the repulsion to sexuality in general shown by the hysterical woman corresponds in its nature with her insensibility to sexual matters in her own case4 ,such a repulsion1 an intense disinclination for everything sexual1 is really present in many women1 and this may be urged as an exception to my generalisation as to the universality in woman of the match-making tendency4 ,but women who are made ill by discovering two people in sexual intercourse are always hysterical4 ,in this we have a special justification of the theory which holds match-making to be the true nature of woman1 and which looks upon her own sexuality as merely a special case of it4 ,a woman may be made hysterical not only by a sexual suggestion to herself which she outwardly resists whilst inwardly assenting to it1 but may be just as much so by the sight of two people in sexual intercourse1 for1 though she thinks the matter has no value for her1 her inborn assent to it forces itself through all outward and artificial barriers1 and overcomes the super-imposed and incorporated method of thought in which she usually lives4 ,that is to say1 she feels herself involved in the sexual union of others4 ,something similar takes place in the hysterical 8consciousness of guilt10 which has already been spoken about4 ,the absolute shrew never feels herself really in the wrong2 the woman who is slightly hysterical only feels so in the presence of men2 the woman who is thoroughly hysterical feels it in the presence of the particular man who dominates her4 ,one cannot prove the existence of a sense of guilt in woman by the mortifications to which 8devotees0 and 8penitents0 subject themselves4 ,it is these extreme cases of self-discipline which make one suspicious4 ,doing penance proves1 in most cases1 that the doer has not overcome his fault1 that the sense of guilt has not really entered consciousness2 it appears really to be much rather an attempt to force repentance from the outside1 to make up for not really feeling it4 ,the difference between the conviction of guilt in hysterical women and in men1 and the origin of the self-reproaches of the former1 are of some importance4 ,when the hysterical woman realises that she has done or thought something immoral1 she tries to rectify it by some code which she seeks to obey and to substitute in her mind in place of the immoral thought4 ,she does not really get rid of the thought which is too deeply rooted in her nature2 she does not really face it1 try to understand it1 and so purge herself of it4 ,she simply1 from point to point1 case by case1 tries to adhere to the moral code without ever transforming herself1 reforming her idea4 ,the moral character in the woman is elaborated bit by bit2 in the male right conduct comes from moral character4 ,the vow remodels the whole man2 the change takes place in the only possible way1 from within outwards1 and leads to a real morality which is not only a justification by works4 ,the morality of the woman is merely superficial and is not real morality4 ,the current opinion that woman is religious is equally erroneous4 ,female mysticism1 when it is anything more than mere superstition1 is either thinly veiled sexuality 7the identification of the ,deity and the lover has been frequently discussed1 as1 for instance1 in ,maupassant's 8,bel-,ami10 or in ,hauptmann's 8,hannele's ,himmelfahrt07 as in numberless spiritualists and theosophists1 or it is a mere passive and unconscious acceptance of man's religious views which are clung to the more firmly because of woman's natural disinclination for them4 ,the lover is readily transformed into a ,saviour2 very readily 7as is well known to be the case with many nuns7 the ,saviour becomes the lover4 ,all the great women visionaries known to history were hysterical2 the most famous1 ,santa ,teresa1 was not misnamed 8the patron saint of hysteria40 ,at any rate1 if woman's religiousness were genuine1 and if it proceeded from her own nature1 she would have done something great in the religious world2 but she never has done anything of any importance4 ,i should like to put shortly what ,i take to be the difference between the masculine and feminine creeds2 man's religion consists in a supreme belief in himself1 woman's in a supreme belief in other people4 ,there is left to consider the self-respect which is often described as being so highly developed in the hysterical4 ,that it is only man's self-respect which has been so thoroughly forced into woman1 is clear from its nature and the way it shows itself1 as ,vogt1 who extended and verified experiments first made by ,freud1 discovered from self-respect under hypnotism4 ,the extraneous masculine will creates by its influence a 8self-respecting0 subject in the hypnotised woman by inducing a limitation of the field of the unhypnotised state4 ,apart from suggestion1 in the ordinary life of the hysterical it is only the man with whom they are 8impregnated0 who is respected in them4 ,any knowledge of human nature which women have comes from their absorption of the right sort of man4 ,in the paroxysms of hysteria this artificial self-respect disappears with the revolt of oppressed nature4 ,this is quite parallel to the clairvoyance of hysterical mediums1 which is undoubted1 but has as little to do with 8occult0 spiritism as the ordinary hypnotic phenomena4 ,just as ,vogt's patients made strenuous efforts to observe themselves carefully under the powerful will of the suggestor1 the clairvoyante1 under the influence of the dominating voice of the man who is imposing his will on her1 is capable of telepathic performances1 and at his command can1 blindfolded1 read communications held by people unknown to her at a great distance away2 this ,i saw happen at ,mnchen under circumstances which precluded any chance of fraud4 ,in woman there are not strong passions opposed to the desire for the good and true as is the case with man4 ,the masculine will has more power over woman than over the man himself2 it can realise something in women which1 in his own case1 has to encounter too many obstacles4 ,he himself has to battle with an anti-moral and anti-logical opposition in himself4 ,the masculine will can obtain such power over woman's mind that he makes her1 in a sense1 clairvoyant1 and breaks down her limitations of mentality4 ,thus it comes about that woman is more telepathic than man1 can appear more innocent1 and can accomplish more as a 8seer10 and it is only when she becomes a medium1 i4e41 the object1 that she realises in herself most easily and surely the masculine will for the good and true4 ,wala can be made to understand1 but not until ,dotan subdues her4 ,she meets him half-way1 for her one desire is to be conquered4 ,the subject of hysteria1 so far as the purposes of this book are concerned1 is now exhausted4 ,the women who are uniformly quoted as proofs of female morality are always of the hysterical type1 and it is the very observance of morality1 in doing things according to the moral law as if this moral law were a law of their personality instead of being only an acquired habit1 that the unreality1 the immorality of this morality is shown4 ,the hysterical diathesis is an absurd imitation of the masculine mind1 a parody of free will which woman parades at the very moment when she is most under a masculine influence4 ,woman is not a free agent2 she is altogether subject to her desire to be under man's influence1 herself and all others3 she is under the sway of the phallus1 and irretrievably succumbs to her destiny1 even if it leads to actively developed sexuality4 ,at the most a woman can reach an indistinct feeling of her un-freedom1 a cloudy idea of the possibility of controlling her destiny--manifestly only a flickering spark of the free1 intelligible subject1 the scanty remains of inherited maleness in her1 which1 by contrast1 gives her even this slight comprehension4 ,it is also impossible for a woman to have a clear idea of her destiny1 or of the forces within her3 it is only he who is free who can discern fate1 because he is not chained by necessity2 part of his personality1 at least1 places him in the position of spectator and a combatant outside his own fate and makes him so far superior to it4 ,one of the most conclusive proofs of human freedom is contained in the fact that man has been able to create the idea of causality4 ,women consider themselves most free when they are most bound2 and they are not troubled by the passions1 because they are simply the embodiment of them4 ,it is only a man who can talk of the 8dira necessitas0 within him2 it is only he could have created the idea of destiny1 because it is only he who1 in addition to the empirical1 conditioned existence1 possesses a free1 intelligible ego4 ,as ,i have shown1 woman can reach no more than a vague half-consciousness of the fact that she is a conditioned being1 and so she is unable to overcome the sexuality that binds her4 ,hysteria is the only attempt on her part to overcome it1 and1 as ,i have shown1 it is not a genuine attempt4 ,the hysteria itself is what the hysterical woman tries to resist1 and the falsity of this effort against slavery is the measure of its hopelessness4 ,the most notable examples of the sex 7,i have in mind ,hebbel's ,judith and ,wagner's ,kundry7 may feel that is because they wish it that servitude is a necessity for them1 but this realisation does not give them power to resist it2 at the last moment they will kiss the man who ravishes them1 and succumb with pleasure to those whom they have been resisting violently4 ,it is as if woman were under a curse4 ,at times she feels the weight of it1 but she never flees from it4 ,her shrieks and ravings are not really genuine1 and she succumbs to her fate at the moment when it has seemed most repulsive to her4 ,after a long analysis1 then1 it has been found that there is no exception to the complete absence in women of any true1 inalienable relation to worth4 ,even what is covered by such current terms as 8womanly love10 8womanly virtue10 8womanly devoutness10 8womanly modesty10 has failed to invalidate my conclusions4 ,i have maintained my ground in face of the strongest opposition1 even including that which comes from woman's hysterical imitations of the male morality4 ,woman1 the normal receptive woman of whom ,i am speaking1 is impregnated by the man not only physically 7and ,i set down the astonishing mental alteration in women after marriage to a physical phenomenon akin to telegony71 but at every age of her life1 by man's consciousness and by man's social arrangements4 ,thus it comes about that although woman lacks all the characters of the male sex1 she can assume them so cleverly and so slavishly that it is possible to make mistakes such as the idea of the higher morality of women4 ,but this astounding receptivity of woman is not isolated1 and must be brought into practical and theoretical connection with the other positive and negative characteristics of woman4 ,what has the match-making instinct in woman to do with her plasticity8 ,what connection is there between her untruthfulness and her sexuality8 ,how does it come about that there is such a strange mixture of all these things in woman8 ,this brings us to ask the reason why women can assimilate everything4 ,whence does she derive the falsity which makes it possible for her to prefer to believe only what others have told her1 to have only what they 7choose to7 give her1 to be merely what they make her8 ,in order to give the right answer to these questions we must turn once more1 for the last time1 from the actual point4 ,it was found that the power of recognition which animals possess1 and which is the psychical equivalent of universal organic response to repeated stimuli1 was curiously like and unlike human memory2 both signify an equally lasting influence of an impression which was limited to a definite period2 but memory is differentiated from mere passive recognition by its power of actively reproducing the past4 ,later on1 it was seen that mere individuation1 the characteristic of all organic differentiation1 and individuality1 man's possession1 are different4 ,and finally it was found that it was necessary to distinguish carefully between love1 peculiar to man1 and the sexual instinct1 shared by the animals4 ,the two are allied inasmuch as they are both efforts at immortality4 ,the desire for worth was referred to as a human character1 absent in the animals where there is only a desire for satisfaction4 ,the two are analogous1 and yet fundamentally different4 ,pleasure is craved2 worth is what we feel we ought to crave4 ,the two have been confused1 with the worst results for psychology and ethics4 ,there has been a similar confusion between personality and persons1 between recognition and memory1 sexuality and love4 ,all these antitheses have been continually confused1 and1 what is even more striking1 almost always by men with the same views and theories1 and with the same object--that of trying to obliterate the difference between man and the lower animals4 ,there are other less known distinctions which have been equally neglected4 ,limited consciousness is an animal trait2 the active power of noticing is a purely human one4 ,it is evident that there is something in common in the two facts1 but still they are very different4 ,desire1 or impulse1 and will are nearly always spoken of as if they were identical4 ,the former is common to all living creatures1 but man has1 in addition1 a will1 which is free1 and no factor of psychology1 because it is the foundation of all psychological experiences4 ,the identification of impulse and will is not solely due to ,darwin2 it occurred also in ,schopenhauer's conception of the will1 which was sometimes biological1 sometimes purely philosophical4 ,i may group the two sets of factors as follows3 ,common to men and animals1 ,limited to mankind1 and in fundamentally organic4 particular to the males of mankind4 ,individuation4 ,individuality4 ,recognition4 ,memory4 ,pleasure4 ,sense of worth or value4 ,sexual desire4 ,love4 ,limitation of the field of ,faculty of 8taking consciousness4 notice40 ,impulse4 ,will4 ,the series shows that man possesses not only each character which is found in all living things1 but also an analogous and higher character peculiar to himself4 ,the old tendency at once to identify the two series and to contrast them seems to show the existence of something binding together the two series1 and at the same time separating them4 ,one may recall in this connection the ,buddhistic conception of there being in man a superstructure added to the characters of lower existences4 ,it is as if man possessed all the properties of the beasts1 with1 in each case1 some special quality added4 ,what is this that has been added8 ,how far does it resemble1 and in what respects does it differ from1 the more primitive set8 ,the terms in the left-hand row are fundamental characteristics of all animal and vegetable life4 ,all such life is individual life1 not the life of undivided masses2 it manifests itself as the impulse to satisfy needs1 as sexual impulse for the purpose of reproduction4 ,individuality1 memory1 will1 love1 are those qualities of a second life1 which1 although related to organic life to a certain extent1 are toto clo different from it4 ,this brings us face to face with the religious idea of the eternal1 higher1 new life1 and especially with the ,christian form of it4 ,as well as a share in organic life1 man shares another life1 the of the ,new ,dispensation4 ,just as all earthly life is sustained by earthly food1 this other life requires spiritual sustenance 7symbolised in the communion service74 ,the birth and death of the former have their counterparts in the latter--the moral re-birth of man1 the 8regeneration0--and the end3 the final loss of the soul through error or crime4 ,the one is determined from without by the bonds of natural causation2 the other is ruled by the moral imperative from within4 ,the one is limited and confined to a definite purpose2 the other is unlimited1 eternal and moral4 ,the characters which are in the left row are common to all forms of lower life2 those in the right-hand column are the corresponding presages of eternal life1 manifestations of a higher existence in which man1 and only man1 has a share4 ,the perpetual intermingling and the fresh complications which arise between the higher and lower natures are the making of all history of the human mind2 this is the plot of the history of the universe4 ,it is possible that some may perceive in this second life something which in man might have been derived from the other lower characters2 such a possibility dismiss at once4 ,a clearer grasp of this sensuous1 impressionable lower life will make it clear that1 as ,i have explained in earlier chapters1 the case is reversed2 the lower life is merely a projection of the higher on the world of the senses1 a reflection of it in the sphere of necessity1 as a degradation of it1 or its ,fall4 ,and the great problem is how the eternal1 lofty idea came to be bound with earth4 ,this problem is the guilt of the world4 ,my investigation is now on the threshold of what cannot be investigated2 of a problem that so far no one has dared to answer1 and that never will be answered by any human being4 ,it is the riddle of the universe and of life2 the binding of the unlimited in the bonds of space1 of the eternal in time1 of the spirit in matter4 ,it is the relation of freedom to necessity1 of something to nothing1 of ,god to the devil4 ,the dualism of the world is beyond comprehension2 it is the plot of the story of man's ,fall1 the primitive riddle4 ,it is the binding of eternal life in a perishable being1 of the innocent in the guilty4 ,but it is evident that neither ,i nor any other man can understand this4 ,i can understand sin only when ,i cease to commit it1 and the moment ,i understand it ,i cease to commit it4 ,so also ,i can never comprehend life while ,i am still alive4 ,there is no moment of my life when ,i am not bound down by this sham existence1 and it must be impossible for me to understand the bond until ,i am free from it4 ,when ,i understand a thing ,i am already outside it2 ,i cannot comprehend my sinfulness while ,i am still sinful4 ,as the absolute female has no trace of individuality and will1 no sense of worth or of love1 she can have no part in the higher1 transcendental life4 ,the intelligible1 hyperempirical existence of the male transcends matter1 space1 and time4 ,he is certainly mortal1 but he is immortal as well4 ,and so he has the power to choose between the two1 between the life which is lost with death and the life to which death is only a stepping-stone4 ,the deepest will of man is towards this perfect1 timeless existence2 he is compact of the desire for immortality4 ,that the woman has no craving for perpetual life is too apparent2 there is nothing in her of that eternal which man tries to interpose and must interpose between his real self and his projected1 empirical self4 ,some sort of relation to the idea of supreme value1 to the idea of the absolute1 that perfect freedom which he has not yet attained1 because he is bound by necessity1 but which he can attain because mind is superior to matter2 such a relation to the purpose of things generally1 or to the divine1 every man has4 ,and although his life on earth is accompanied by separation and detachment from the absolute1 his mind is always longing to be free from the taint of original sin4 ,just as the love of his parents was not pure in purpose1 but sought more or less a physical embodiment1 the son1 who is the outcome of that love1 will possess his share of mortal life as well as of eternal3 we are horrified at the thought of death1 we fight against it1 cling to this mortal life1 and prove from that that we were anxious to be born as we were born1 and that we still desire to be born of this world4 ,but since every male has a relation to the idea of the highest value1 and would be incomplete without it1 no male is really ever happy4 ,it is only women who are happy4 ,no man is happy1 because he has a relation to freedom1 and yet during his earthly life he is always bound in some way4 ,none but a perfectly passive being1 such as the absolute female1 or a universally active being1 like the divine1 can be happy4 ,happiness is the sense of perfect consummation1 and this feeling a man can never have2 but there are women who fancy themselves perfect4 ,the male always has problems behind him and efforts before him3 all problems originate in the past2 the future is the sphere for efforts4 ,time has no objective1 no meaning1 for woman2 no woman questions herself as to the reason of her existence2 and yet the sole purpose of time is to give expression to the fact that this life can and must mean something4 ,happiness for the male6 ,that would imply wholly independent activity1 complete freedom2 he is always bound1 although not with the heaviest bonds1 and his sense of guilt increases the further he is removed from the idea of freedom4 ,mortal life is a calamity1 and must remain so whilst mankind is a passive victim of sensation2 so long as he remains not form1 but merely the matter on which form is impressed4 ,every man1 however1 has some glimmer of higher things2 the genius most certainly and most directly4 ,this trace of light1 however1 does not come from his perceptions2 so far as he is ruled by these1 man is merely a passive victim of surrounding things4 ,his spontaneity1 his freedom1 come from his power of judging as to values1 and his highest approach to absolute spontaneity and freedom comes from love and from artistic or philosophical creation4 ,through these he obtains some faint sense of what happiness might be4 ,woman can really never be quite unhappy1 for happiness is an empty word for her1 a word created by unhappy men4 ,women never mind letting others see their unhappiness1 as it is not real2 behind it there lies no consciousness of guilt1 no sense of the sin of the world4 ,the last and absolute proof of the thoroughly negative character of woman's life1 of her complete want of a higher existence1 is derived from the way in which women commit suicide4 ,such suicides are accompanied practically always by thoughts of other people1 what they will think1 how they will mourn over them1 how grieved--or angry--they will be4 ,every woman is convinced that her unhappiness is undeserved at the time she kills herself2 she pities herself exceedingly with the sort of self-compassion which is only a 8weeping with others when they weep40 ,how is it possible for a woman to look upon her unhappiness as personal when she possesses no idea of a destiny8 ,the most appallingly decisive proof of the emptiness and nullity of women is that they never once succeed in knowing the problem of their own lives1 and death leaves them ignorant of it1 because they are unable to realise the higher life of personality4 ,i am now ready to answer the question which ,i put forward as the chief object of this portion of my book1 the question as to the significance of the male and female in the universe4 ,women have no existence and no essence2 they are not1 they are nothing4 ,mankind occurs as male or female1 as something or nothing4 ,woman has no share in ontological reality1 no relation to the thing-in-itself1 which1 in the deepest interpretation1 is the absolute1 is ,god4 ,man in his highest form1 the genius1 has such a relation1 and for him the absolute is either the conception of the highest worth of existence1 in which case he is a philosopher2 or it is the wonderful fairyland of dreams1 the kingdom of absolute beauty1 and then he is an artist4 ,but both views mean the same4 ,woman has no relation to the idea1 she neither affirms nor denies it2 she is neither moral nor anti-moral2 mathematically speaking1 she has no sign2 she is purposeless1 neither good nor bad1 neither angel nor devil1 never egoistical 7and therefore has often been said to be altruistic72 she is as non-moral as she is non-logical4 ,but all existence is moral and logical existence4 ,so woman has no existence4 ,woman is untruthful4 ,an animal has just as little metaphysical reality as the actual woman1 but it cannot speak1 and consequently it does not lie4 ,in order to speak the truth one must be something2 truth is dependent on an existence1 and only that can have a relation to an existence which is in itself something4 ,man desires truth all the time2 that is to say1 he all along desires only to be something4 ,the cognition-impulse is in the end identical with the desire for immortality4 ,any one who objects to a statement without ever having realised it2 any one who gives outward acquiescence without the inner affirmation1 such persons1 like woman1 have no real existence and must of necessity lie4 ,so that woman always lies1 even if1 objectively1 she speaks the truth4 ,woman is the great emissary of pairing4 ,the living units of the lower forms of life are individuals1 organisms2 the living units of the higher forms of life are individualities1 souls1 monads1 8meta-organisms10 a term which ,hellenbach uses and which is not without point4 ,each monad1 however1 is differentiated from every other monad1 and is as distinct from it as only two things can be4 ,monads have no windows1 but1 instead1 have the universe in themselves4 ,man as monad1 as a potential or actual individuality1 that is1 as having genius1 has in addition differentiation and distinction1 individuation and discrimination2 the simple undifferentiated unit is exclusively female4 ,each monad creates for itself a detached entity1 a whole2 but it looks upon every other ego as a perfect totality also1 and never intrudes upon it4 ,man has limits1 and accepts them and desires them2 woman1 who does not recognise her own entity1 is not in a position to regard or perceive the privacy of those around her1 and neither respects1 nor honours1 nor leaves it alone3 as there is no such thing as one-ness for her there can be no plurality1 only an indistinct state of fusion with others4 ,because there is no 8,i0 in woman she cannot grasp the 8thou02 according to her perception the ,i and thou are just a pair1 an undifferentiated one2 this makes it possible for woman to bring people together1 to match-make4 ,the object of her love is that of her sympathy--the community1 the blending of everything4#bc #bc ,all individuality is an enemy of the community4 ,this is seen most markedly in men of genius1 but it is just the same with regard to the sexes4 ,woman has no limits to her ego which could be broken through1 and which she would have to guard4 ,the chief difference between man's and woman's friendship is referable to this fact4 ,man's friendship is an attempt to see eye to eye with those who individually and collectively are striving after the same idea2 woman's friendship is a combination for the purpose of match-making4 ,it is the only kind of intimate and unreserved intercourse possible between women1 when they are not merely anxious to meet each other for the purpose of gossiping or discussing every day affairs4#bd #bd ,men's friendships avoid breaking down their friends' personal reserve4 ,women expect intimacy from their friends4 ,if1 for instance1 one of two girls or women is much prettier than the other1 the plainer of the two experiences a certain sexual satisfaction at the admiration which the other receives4 ,the principal condition of all friendship between women is the exclusion of rivalry2 every woman compares herself physically with every woman she gets to know4 ,in cases where one is more beautiful than the other1 the plainer of the two will idolise the other1 because1 though neither of them is in the least conscious of it1 the next best thing to her own sexual satisfaction for the one is the success of the other2 it is always the same2 woman participates in every sexual union4 ,the completely impersonal existence of women1 as well as the super-individual nature of their sexuality1 clearly shows match-making to be the fundamental trait of their beings4 ,the least that even the ugliest woman demands1 and from which she derives a certain amount of pleasure1 is that any one of her sex should be admired and desired4 ,it follows from the absorbing and absorbable nature of woman's life that women can never feel really jealous4 ,however ignoble jealousy and the spirit of revenge may be1 they both contain an element of greatness1 of which women1 whether for good or evil1 are incapable4 ,in jealousy there lies a despairing claim to an assumed right1 and the idea of justice is out of woman's reach4 ,but that is not the chief reason why a woman can never be really jealous of any man4 ,if a man1 even if he were the man she was madly in love with1 were sitting in the next room making love to another woman1 the thoughts that would be aroused in her breast would be so sexually exciting that they would leave no room for jealousy4 ,to a man1 such a scene1 if he knew of it1 would be absolutely repulsive1 and it would be nauseous to him to be near it2 woman would feverishly follow each detail1 or she would become hysterical if it dawned on her what she was doing4 ,a man is never really affected by the idea of the pairing of others3 he is outside and above any such circumstance which has no meaning for him2 a woman1 however1 would be scarcely responsible for her interest in the process1 she would be in a state of feverish excitement and as if spellbound by the thought of her proximity to it4 ,a man's interest in his fellow men1 who are problems for him1 may extend to their sexual affairs2 but the curiosity which is specially for these things is peculiar to woman1 whether with regard to men or women4 ,it is the love affairs of a man which1 from first to last1 interest women2 and a man is only intellectually mysterious and charming to a woman so long as she is not clear as to these4 ,from all this it is again manifest that femaleness and match-making are identical2 even a superficial study of the case would have resulted in the same conclusions4 ,but ,i had a much wider purpose1 and ,i hope ,i have clearly shown the connection between woman positive as match-maker1 and woman negative as utterly lacking in the higher life4 ,woman has but one idea1 an idea she cannot be conscious of1 as it is her sole idea1 and that is absolutely opposed to the spiritual idea4 ,whether as a mother seeking reputable matrimony1 or the ,bacchante of the ,venusberg1 whether she wishes to be the foundress of a family1 or is content to be lost in the maze of pleasure-seekers1 she always is in relation to the general idea of the race as a whole of which she is an inseparable part1 and she follows the instinct which most of all makes for community4 ,she1 as the missionary of union1 must be a creature without limits or individuality4 ,i have prolonged this side of my investigation because its important result has been omitted from all earlier characterology4 ,at this stage it well may be asked if women are really to be considered human beings at all1 or if my theory does not unite them with plants and animals8 ,for1 according to the theory1 women1 just as little as plants and animals1 have any real existence1 any relation to the intelligible whole4 ,man alone is a microcosm1 a mirror of the universe4 ,in ,ibsen's 8,little ,eyolf0 there is a beautiful and apposite passage4 8,rita4 #8,after all1 we are only human beings4' 8,allmers4 #8,but we have some kinship with the sky and the sea1 ,rita4' 8,rita4 #8,you1 perhaps2 not me4'0 ,woman1 according to the poet1 according to ,buddha1 and in my interpretation1 has no relation to the all1 to the world whole1 to ,god4 ,is she then human1 or an animal1 or a plant8 ,anatomists will find the question ridiculous1 and will at once dismiss the philosophy which could lead up to such a possibility4 ,for them woman is the female of ,homo sapiens1 differentiated from all other living beings1 and occupying the same position with regard to the human male that the females of other species occupy with regard to their males4 ,and he will not allow the philosopher to say1 8,what has the anatomist to do with me8 ,let him mind his own business40 ,as a matter of fact1 women are sisters of the flowers1 and are in close relationship with the animals4 ,many of their sexual perversities and affections for animals 7,pasiphe myth and ,leda myth7 indicate this4 ,but they are human beings4 ,even the absolute woman1 whom we think of as without any trace of intelligible ego1 is still the complement of man4 ,and there is no doubt that the fact of the special sexual and erotic completion of the human male by the human female1 even if it is not the moral phenomenon which advocates of marriage would have us believe1 is still of tremendous importance to the woman problem4 ,animals are mere individuals2 women are persons1 although they are not personalities4 ,an appearance of discriminative power1 though not the reality1 language1 though not conversation1 memory1 though it has no continuity or unity of consciousness--must all be granted to them4 ,they possess counterfeits of everything masculine1 and thus are subject to those transformations which the defenders of womanliness are so fond of quoting4 ,the result of this is a sort of amphi-sexuality of many ideas 7honour1 shame1 love1 imagination1 fear1 sensibility1 and so on71 which have both a masculine and feminine significance4 ,there now remains to discuss the real meaning of the contrast between the sexes4 ,the parts played by the male and female principles in the animal and vegetable kingdoms are not now under consideration2 we are dealing solely with humanity4 ,that such principles of maleness and femaleness must be accepted as theoretical conceptions1 and not as metaphysical ideas1 was the point of this investigation from the beginning4 ,the whole object of the book has been to settle the question1 in man at least1 of the really important differences between man and woman1 quite apart from the mere physiological-sexual differentiation4 ,furthermore1 the view which sees nothing more in the fact of the dualism of the sexes than an arrangement for physiological division of labour--an idea for which1 ,i believe1 the zoologist1 ,milne-,edwards1 is responsible--appears1 according to this work1 quite untenable2 and it is useless to waste time discussing such a superficial and intellectually complacent view4 ,darwinism1 indeed1 is responsible for making popular the view that sexually differentiated organisms have been derived from earlier stages in which there was no sexual dimorphism2 but long before ,darwin1 ,gustav ,theodor ,fechner had already shown that the sexes could not be supposed to have arisen from an undifferentiated stage by any principle such as division of labour1 adaptation to the struggle for existence1 and so forth4 ,the ideas 8man0 and 8woman0 cannot be investigated separately2 their significance can be found out only by placing them side by side and contrasting them4 ,the key to their natures must be found in their relations to each other4 ,in attempting to discover the nature of erotics ,i went a little way into this subject4 ,the relation of man to woman is simply that of subject to object4 ,woman seeks her consummation as the object4 ,she is the plaything of husband or child1 and1 however we may try to hide it1 she is anxious to be nothing but such a chattel4 ,no one misunderstands so thoroughly what a woman wants as he who tries to find out what is passing within her1 endeavouring to share her feelings and hopes1 her experiences and her real nature4 ,woman does not wish to be treated as an active agent2 she wants to remain always and throughout--this is just her womanhood--purely passive1 to feel herself under another's will4 ,she demands only to be desired physically1 to be taken possession of1 like a new property4 ,just as mere sensation only attains reality when it is apprehended1 i4e41 when it becomes objective1 so a woman is brought to a sense of her existence only by her husband or children--by these as subjects to whom she is the object--so obtaining the gift of an existence4 ,the contrast between the subject and the object in the theory of knowledge corresponds ontologically to the contrast between form and matter4 ,it is no more than a translation of this distinction from the theory of experience to metaphysics4 ,matter1 which in itself is absolutely unindividualised and so can assume any form1 of itself has no definite and lasting qualities1 and has as little essence as mere perception1 the matter of experience1 has in itself any existence4 ,if the ,platonic conception is followed out1 it will be apparent that that great thinker asserted to be nothing what the ordinary ,philistine regards as the highest form of reality4 ,according to ,plato1 the negation of existence is no other than matter4 ,form is the only real existence4 ,aristotle carried the ,platonic conception into the regions of biology4 ,for ,plato form is the parent and creator of all reality4 ,for ,aristotle1 in the sexual process the male principle is the active1 formative agent1 the female principle the passive matter on which the form is impressed4 ,in my view1 the significance of woman in humanity is explained by the ,platonic and ,aristotelian conception4 ,woman is the material on which man acts4 ,man as the microcosm is compounded of the lower and higher life4 ,woman is matter1 is nothing4 ,this knowledge gives us the keystone to our structure1 and it makes everything clear that was indistinct1 it gives things a coherent form4 ,woman's sexual part depends on contact2 it is the absorbing and not the liberating impulse4 ,it coincides with this1 that the keenest sense woman has1 and the only one she has more highly developed than man1 is the sense of touch4 ,the eye and the ear lead to the unlimited and give glimpses of infinity2 the sense of touch necessitates physical limitations to our own actions3 one is affected by what one feels2 it is the eminently sordid sense1 and suited to the physical requirements of an earth-bound being4 ,man is form1 woman is matter3 if that is so it must find expression in the relations between their respective psychic experiences4 ,the summing up of the connected nature of man's mental life1 as opposed to the inarticulate and chaotic condition of woman's1 illustrates the above antithesis of form and matter4 ,matter needs to be formed3 and thus woman demands that man should clear her confusion of thought1 give meaning to her henid ideas4 ,women are matter1 which can assume any shape4 ,those experiments which ascribe to girls a better memory for learning by rote than boys are explained in this way3 they are due to the nullity and inanity of women1 who can be saturated with anything and everything1 whilst man only retains what has an interest for him1 forgetting all else4 ,this accounts for what has been called woman's submissiveness1 the way she is influenced by the opinions of others1 her suggestibility1 the way in which man moulds her formless nature4 ,woman is nothing2 therefore1 and only therefore1 she can become everything1 whilst man can only remain what he is4 ,a man can make what he likes of a woman3 the most a woman can do is to help a man to achieve what he wants4 ,a man's real nature is never altered by education3 woman1 on the other hand1 by external influences1 can be taught to suppress her most characteristic self1 the real value she sets on sexuality4 ,woman can appear everything and deny everything1 but in reality she is never anything4 ,women have neither this nor that characteristic2 their peculiarity consists in having no characteristics at all2 the complexity and terrible mystery about women come to this2 it is this which makes them above and beyond man's understanding--man1 who always wants to get to the heart of things4 ,it may be said1 even by those who may wish to agree with the foregoing arguments1 that they have not indicated what man really is4 ,has he any special male characteristics1 like match-making and want of character in women8 ,is there a definite idea of what man is1 as there is of woman1 and can this idea be similarly formulated8 ,here is the answer3 ,the idea of maleness consists in the fact of an individuality1 of an essential monad1 and is covered by it4 ,each monad1 however1 is as different as possible from every other monad1 and therefore cannot be classified in one comprehensive idea common to many other monads4 ,man is the microcosm2 he contains all kinds of possibilities4 ,this must not be confused with the universal susceptibility of woman who becomes all without being anything1 whilst man is all1 as much or as little1 according to his gifts1 as he will4 ,man contains woman1 for he contains matter1 and he can allow this part of his nature to develop itself1 i4e41 to thrive and enervate him2 or he can recognise and fight against it--so that he1 and he alone1 can get at the truth about woman4 ,but woman cannot develop except through man4 ,the meaning of man and woman is first arrived at when we examine their mutual sexual and erotic relations4 ,woman's deepest desire is to be formed by man1 and so to receive her being4 ,woman desires that man should impart opinions to her quite different to those she held before1 she is content to let herself be turned by him from what she had till then thought right4 ,she wishes to be taken to pieces as a whole1 so that he may build her up again4 ,woman is first created by man's will--he dominates her and changes her whole being 7hypnotism74 ,here is the explanation of the relation of the psychical to the physical in man and woman4 ,man assumes a reciprocal action of body and mind1 in the sense rather that the dominant mind creates the body1 than that the mind merely projects itself on phenomena1 whilst the woman accepts both mental and psychical phenomena empirically4 ,none the less1 even in the woman there is some reciprocal action4 ,however1 whilst in the man1 as ,schopenhauer truly taught1 the human being is his own creation1 his own will makes and re-makes the body1 the woman is bodily influenced and changed by an alien will 7suggestion74 ,man not only forms himself1 but woman also--a far easier matter4 ,the myths of the book of ,genesis and other cosmogonies1 which teach that woman was created out of man1 are nearer the truth than the biological theories of descent1 according to which males have been evolved from females4 ,we have now to come to the question left open in chap4 ix41 as to how woman1 who is herself without soul or will1 is yet able to realise to what extent a man may be endowed with them2 and we may now endeavour to answer it4 ,of this one must be certain1 that what woman notices1 that for which she has a sense1 is not the special nature of man1 but only the general fact and possibly the grade of his maleness4 ,it is quite erroneous to suppose that woman has an innate capacity to understand the individuality of a man4 ,the lover1 who is so easily fooled by the unconscious simulation of a deeper comprehension on the part of his sweetheart1 may believe that he understands himself through a girl2 but those who are less easily satisfied cannot help seeing that women only possess a sense of the fact not of the individuality of the soul1 only for the formal general fact1 not for the differentiation of the personality4 ,in order to perceive and apperceive the special form1 matter must not itself be formless2 woman's relation to man1 however1 is nothing but that of matter to form1 and her comprehension of him nothing but willingness to be as much formed as possible by him2 the instinct of those without existence for existence4 ,furthermore1 this 8comprehension0 is not theoretical1 it is not sympathetic1 it is only a desire to be sympathetic2 it is importunate and egoistical4 ,woman has no relation to man and no sense of man1 but only for maleness2 and if she is to be considered as more sexual than man1 this greater claim is nothing but the intense desire for the fullest and most definite formation1 it is the demand for the greatest possible quantity of existence4 ,and1 finally1 match-making is nothing else than this4 ,the sexuality of women is super-individual1 because they are not limited1 formed1 individualised entities1 in the higher sense of the word4 ,the supremest moment in a woman's life1 when her original nature1 her natural desire manifests itself1 is that in which her own sexual union takes place4 ,she embraces the man passionately and presses him to her2 it is the greatest joy of passivity1 stronger even than the contented feeling of a hypnotised person1 the desire of matter which has just been formed1 and wishes to keep that form for ever4 ,that is why a woman is so grateful to her possessor1 even if the gratitude is limited to the moment1 as in the case of prostitutes with no memory1 or1 if it lasts longer1 as in the case of more highly differentiated women4 ,this endless striving of the poor to attach themselves to riches1 the altogether formless and therefore super-individual striving of the inarticulate to obtain form by contact1 to keep it indefinitely and so gain an existence1 is the deepest motive in pairing4 ,pairing is only possible because woman is not a monad1 and has no sense of individuality2 it is the endless striving of nothing to be something4 ,it is thus that the duality of man and woman has gradually developed into complete dualism1 to the dualism of the higher and lower lives1 of subject and object1 of form and matter1 something and nothing4 ,all metaphysical1 all transcendental existence is logical and moral existence2 woman is non-logical and non-moral4 ,she has no dislike for what is logical and moral1 she is not anti-logical1 she is not anti-moral4 ,she is not the negation1 she is1 rather1 nothing4 ,she is neither the affirmation nor the denial4 ,a man has in himself the possibility of being the absolute something or the absolute nothing1 and therefore his actions are directed towards the one or the other2 woman does not sin1 for she herself is the sin which is a possibility in man4 ,the abstract male is the image of ,god1 the absolute something2 the female1 and the female element in the male1 is the symbol of nothing2 that is the significance of the woman in the universe1 and in this way male and female complete and condition one another4 ,woman has a meaning and a function in the universe as the opposite of man2 and as the human male surpasses the animal male1 so the human female surpasses the female of zoology4 ,it is not that limited existence and limited negation 7as in the animal kingdom7 are at war in humanity2 what there stand in opposition are unlimited existence and unlimited negation4 ,and so male and female make up humanity4 ,the meaning of woman is to be meaningless4 ,she represents negation1 the opposite pole from the ,godhead1 the other possibility of humanity4 ,and so nothing is so despicable as a man become female1 and such a person will be regarded as the supreme criminal even by himself4 ,and so also is to be explained the deepest fear of man2 the fear of the woman1 which is the fear of unconsciousness1 the alluring abyss of annihilation4 ,an old woman manifests once for all what woman really is4 ,the beauty of woman1 as may be experimentally proved1 is only created by love of a man2 a woman becomes more beautiful when a man loves her because she is passively responding to the will which is in her lover2 however deep this may sound1 it is only a matter of everyday experience4 ,all the qualities of woman depend on her non-existence1 on her want of character2 because she has no true1 permanent1 but only a mortal life1 in her character as the advocate of pairing she furthers the sexual part of life1 and is fundamentally transformed by and susceptible to the man who has a physical influence over her4 ,thus the three fundamental characters of woman with which this chapter has dealt come together in the conception of her as the non-existent4 ,her instability and untruthfulness are only negative deductions from the premiss of her non-existence4 ,her only positive character1 the conception of her as the pairing agent1 comes from it by a simple process of analysis4 ,the nature of woman is no more than pairing1 no more than super-individual sexuality4 ,if we turn to the table of the two kinds of life given earlier in this chapter1 it will be apparent that every inclination from the higher to the lower is a crime against oneself4 ,immorality is the will towards negation1 the craving to change the formed into the formless1 the wish for destruction4 ,and from this comes the intimate relation between femaleness and crime4 ,there is a close relation between the immoral and the non-moral4 ,it is only when man accepts his own sexuality1 denies the absolute in him1 turns to the lower1 that he gives woman existence4 ,the acceptance of the ,phallus is immoral4 ,it has always been thought of as hateful2 it has been the image of ,satan1 and ,dante made it the central pillar of hell4 ,thus comes about the domination of the male sexuality over the female4 ,it is only when man is sexual that woman has existence and meaning4 ,her existence is bound up with the ,phallus1 and so that is her supreme lord and welcome master4 ,sex1 in the form of man1 is woman's fate2 the ,don ,juan is the only type of man who has complete power over her4 ,the curse1 which was said to be heavy on woman1 is the evil will of man3 nothing is only a tool in the hand of the will for nothing4 ,the early ,fathers expressed it pathetically when they called woman the handmaid of the devil4 ,for matter in itself is nothing1 it can only obtain existence through form4 ,the fall of 8form0 is the corruption that takes place when form endeavours to relapse into the formless4 ,when man became sexual he formed woman4 ,that woman is at all has happened simply because man has accepted his sexuality4 ,woman is merely the result of this affirmation2 she is sexuality itself4 ,woman's existence is dependent on man2 when man1 as man1 in contradistinction to woman1 is sexual1 he is giving woman form1 calling her into existence4 ,therefore woman's one object must be to keep man sexual4 ,she desires man as ,phallus1 and for this she is the advocate of pairing4 ,she is incapable of making use of any creature except as a means to an end1 the end being pairing2 and she has but one purpose1 that of continuing the guilt of man1 for she would disappear the moment man had overcome his sexuality4 ,man created woman1 and will always create her afresh1 as long as he is sexual4 ,just as he gives woman consciousness1 so he gives her existence4 ,woman is the sin of man4 ,he tries to pay the debt by love4 ,here we have the explanation of what seemed like an obscure myth at the end of the previous chapter4 ,now we see what was hidden in it3 that woman is nothing before man's fall1 nor without it2 that he does not rob her of anything she had before4 ,the crime man has committed in creating woman1 and still commits in assenting to her purpose1 he excuses to woman by his eroticism4 ,whence otherwise would come the generosity of love1 which can never be satisfied by giving8 ,how is it that love is so anxious to endow woman with a soul1 and not any other creature8 ,whence comes it that a child cannot love until love coincides with sexuality1 the stage of puberty1 with the repeated forming of woman1 with the renewing of sin8 ,woman is nothing but man's expression and projection of his own sexuality4 ,every man creates himself a woman1 in which he embodies himself and his own guilt4 ,but woman is not herself guilty2 she is made so by the guilt of others1 and everything for which woman is blamed should be laid at man's door4 ,love strives to cover guilt1 instead of conquering it2 it elevates woman instead of nullifying her4 ,the 8something0 folds the 8nothing0 in its arms1 and thinks thus to free the universe of negation and drown all objections2 whereas the nothing would only disappear if the something put it away4 ,since man's hatred for woman is not conscious hatred of his own sexuality1 his love is his most intense effort to save woman as woman1 instead of desiring to nullify her in himself4 ,and the consciousness of guilt comes from the fact that the object of guilt is coveted instead of being annihilated4 ,woman alone1 then1 is guilt2 and is so through man's fault4 ,and if femaleness signifies pairing1 it is only because all guilt endeavours to increase its circle4 ,what woman1 always unconsciously1 accomplishes1 she does because she cannot help it2 it is her reason for being1 her whole nature4 ,she is only a part of man1 his other1 ineradicable1 his lower part4 ,so matter appears to be as inexplicable a riddle as form2 woman as unending as man1 negation as eternal as existence2 but this eternity is only the eternity of guilt4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,judaism ,it would not be surprising if to many it should seem from the foregoing arguments that 8men0 have come out of them too well1 and1 as a collective body1 have been placed on an exaggeratedly lofty pedestal4 ,the conclusions drawn from these arguments1 however surprised every ,philistine and young simpleton would be to learn that in himself he comprises the whole world1 cannot be opposed and confuted by cheap reasoning2 yet the treatment of the male sex must not simply be considered too indulgent1 or due to a direct tendency to omit all the repulsive and small side of manhood in order to favourably represent its best points4 ,the accusation would be unjustified4 ,it does not enter the author's mind to idealise man in order more easily to lower the estimation of woman4 ,so much narrowness and so much coarseness often thrive beneath the empirical representation of manhood that it is a question of the better possibilities lying in every man1 neglected by him or perceived either with painful clearness or dull animosity2 possibilities which as such in woman neither actually nor meditatively ever come to any account4 ,and here the author cannot in any wise really rely on the dissimilarities between men1 however little he may impugn their importance4 ,it is1 therefore1 a question of establishing what woman is not1 and truly in her there is infinitely much wanting which is never quite missing even in the most mediocre and plebeian of men4 ,that which is the positive attribute of the woman1 in so far as a positive can be spoken of in regard to such a being1 will constantly be found also in many men4 ,there are1 as has already often been demonstrated1 men who have become women or have remained women2 but there is no woman who has surpassed certain circumscribed1 not particularly elevated moral and intellectual limits4 ,and1 therefore1 ,i must again assert that the woman of the highest standard is immeasurably beneath the man of lowest standard4 ,these objections may go even further and touch a point where the ignoring of theory must assuredly become reprehensible4 ,there are1 to wit1 nations and races whose men1 though they can in no wise be regarded as intermediate forms of the sexes1 are found to approach so slightly and so rarely to the ideal of manhood as set forth in my argument1 that the principles1 indeed the entire foundation on which this work rests1 would seem to be severely shaken by their existence4 ,what shall we make1 for example1 out of the ,chinese1 with their feminine freedom from internal cravings and their incapacity for every effort8 ,one might feel tempted to believe in the complete effeminacy of the whole race4 ,it can at least be no mere whim of the entire nation that the ,chinaman habitually wears a pigtail1 and that the growth of his beard is of the very thinnest4 ,but how does the matter stand with the negroes8 ,a genius has perhaps scarcely ever appeared amongst the negroes1 and the standard of their morality is almost universally so low that it is beginning to be acknowledged in ,america that their emancipation was an act of imprudence4 ,if1 consequently1 the principle of the intermediate forms of the sexes may perhaps enjoy a prospect of becoming of importance to racial anthropology 7since in some peoples a greater share of womanishness would seem to be generally disseminated71 it must yet be conceded that the foregoing deductions refer above all to ,aryan men and ,aryan women4 ,in how far1 in the other great races of mankind1 uniformity with the standard of the ,aryan race may reign1 or what has prevented and hindered this2 to arrive more nearly at such knowledge would require in the first instance the most intense research into racial characteristics4 ,the ,jewish race1 which has been chosen by me as a subject of discussion1 because1 as will be shown1 it presents the gravest and most formidable difficulties for my views1 appears to possess a certain anthropological relationship with both negroes and ,mongolians4 ,the readily curling hair points to the negro2 admixture of ,mongolian blood is suggested by the perfectly ,chinese or ,malay formation of face and skull which is so often to be met with amongst the ,jews and which is associated with a yellowish complexion4 ,this is nothing more than the result of everyday experience1 and these remarks must not be otherwise understood2 the anthropological question of the origin of the ,jewish race is apparently insoluble1 and even such an interesting answer to it as that given by ,h4 ,s4 ,chamberlain has recently met with much opposition4 ,the author does not possess the knowledge necessary to treat of this2 what will be here briefly1 but as far as possible profoundly analysed1 is the psychical peculiarity of the ,jewish race4 ,this is an obligatory task imposed by psychological observation and analysis4 ,it is undertaken independently of past history1 the details of which must be uncertain4 ,the ,jewish race offers a problem of the deepest significance for the study of all races1 and in itself it is intimately bound up with many of the most troublesome problems of the day4 ,i must1 however1 make clear what ,i mean by ,judaism2 ,i mean neither a race nor a people nor a recognised creed4 ,i think of it as a tendency of the mind1 as a psychological constitution which is a possibility for all mankind1 but which has become actual in the most conspicuous fashion only amongst the ,jews4 ,antisemitism itself will confirm my point of view4 ,the purest ,aryans by descent and disposition are seldom ,antisemites1 although they are often unpleasantly moved by some of the peculiar ,jewish traits2 they cannot in the least understand the ,antisemite movement1 and are1 in consequence of their defence of the ,jews1 often called ,philosemites2 and yet these persons writing on the subject of the hatred of ,jews1 have been guilty of the most profound misunderstanding of the ,jewish character4 ,the aggressive ,antisemites1 on the other hand1 nearly always display certain ,jewish characters1 sometimes apparent in their faces1 although they may have no real admixture of ,jewish blood4#be #be ,zola was a typical case of a person absolutely without trace of the ,jewish qualities1 and1 therefore1 a philosemite4 ,the greatest geniuses1 on the other hand1 have nearly always been antisemites 7,tacitus1 ,pascal1 ,voltaire1 ,herder1 ,goethe1 ,kant1 ,jean ,paul1 ,schopenhauer1 ,grillparzer1 ,wagner72 this comes about from the fact as geniuses they have something of everything in their natures1 and so can understand ,judaism4 ,the explanation is simple4 ,people love in others the qualities they would like to have but do not actually have in any great degree2 so also we hate in others only what we do not wish to be1 and what notwithstanding we are partly4 ,we hate only qualities to which we approximate1 but which we realise first in other persons4 ,thus the fact is explained that the bitterest ,antisemites are to be found amongst the ,jews themselves4 ,for only the quite ,jewish ,jews1 like the completely ,aryan ,aryans1 are not at all ,antisemitically disposed2 among the remainder only the commoner natures are actively ,antisemitic and pass sentence on others without having once sat in judgment on themselves in these matters2 and very few exercise their ,antisemitism first on themselves4 ,this one thing1 however1 remains none the less certain3 whoever detests the ,jewish disposition detests it first of all in himself2 that he should persecute it in others is merely his endeavour to separate himself in this way from ,jewishness2 he strives to shake it off and to localise it in his fellow-creatures1 and so for a moment to dream himself free of it4 ,hatred1 like love1 is a projected phenomenon2 that person alone is hated who reminds one unpleasantly of oneself4 ,the ,antisemitism of the ,jews bears testimony to the fact that no one who has had experience of them considers them loveable--not even the ,jew himself2 the ,antisemitism of the ,aryans grants us an insight no less full of significance3 it is that the ,jew and the ,jewish race must not be confounded4 ,there are ,aryans who are more ,jewish than ,jews1 and real ,jews who are more ,aryan than certain ,aryans4 ,i need not enumerate those non-semites who had much ,jewishness in them1 the lesser 7like the well-known ,frederick ,nicolai of the eighteenth century7 nor those of moderate greatness 7here ,frederick ,schiller can scarcely be omitted71 nor will ,i analyse their ,jewishness4 ,above all ,richard ,wagner--the bitterest ,antisemite--cannot be held free from an accretion of ,jewishness even in his art1 however little one be misled by the feeling which sees in him the greatest artist enshrined in historical humanity2 and this1 though indubitably his ,siegfried is the most un-,jewish type imaginable4 ,as ,wagner's aversion to grand opera and the stage really led to the strongest attraction1 an attraction of which he was himself conscious1 so his music1 which1 in the unique simplicity of its motifs1 is the most powerful in the world1 cannot be declared free from obtrusiveness1 loudness1 and lack of distinction2 from some consciousness of this ,wagner tried to gain coherence by the extreme instrumentation of his works4 ,it cannot be denied 7there can be no mistake about it7 that ,wagner's music produces the deepest impression not only on ,jewish ,antisemites1 who have never completely shaken off ,jewishness1 but also on ,indo-,germanic ,antisemites4 ,from the music of 8,parsifal10 which to genuine ,jews will ever remain as unapproachable as its poetry1 from the ,pilgrim's march and the procession to ,rome in 8,tannhuser10 and assuredly from many another part1 they turn away4 ,doubtless1 also1 none but a ,german could make so clearly manifest the very essence of the ,german race as ,wagner has succeeded in doing in the 8,meistersingers of ,nurnberg40 ,in ,wagner one thinks constantly of that side of his character which leans towards ,feuerbach1 instead of towards ,schopenhauer4 ,here no narrow psychological depreciation of this great man is intended4 ,judaism was to him the greatest help in reaching a clearer understanding and assertion of the extremes within him in his struggle to reach 8,siegfried0 and 8,parsifal10 and in giving to ,german nature the highest means of expression which has probably ever been found in the pages of history4 ,yet a greater than ,wagner was obliged to overcome the ,jewishness within him before he found his special vocation2 and it is1 as previously stated1 perhaps its great significance in the world's history and the immense merit of ,judaism that it and nothing else1 leads the ,aryan to a knowledge of himself and warns him against himself4 ,for this the ,aryan has to thank the ,jew that1 through him1 he knows to guard against ,judaism as a possibility within himself4 ,this example will sufficiently illustrate what1 in my estimation1 is to be understood by ,judaism4 ,i do not refer to a nation or to a race1 to a creed or to a scripture4 ,when ,i speak of the ,jew ,i mean neither an individual nor the whole body1 but mankind in general1 in so far as it has a share in the platonic idea of ,judaism4 ,my purpose is to analyse this idea4 ,that these researches should be included in a work devoted to the characterology of the sexes may seem an undue extension of my subject4 ,but some reflection will lead to the surprising result that ,judaism is saturated with femininity1 with precisely those qualities the essence of which ,i have shown to be in the strongest opposition to the male nature4 ,it would not be difficult to make a case for the view that the ,jew is more saturated with femininity than the ,aryan1 to such an extent that the most manly ,jew is more feminine than the least manly ,aryan4 ,this interpretation would be erroneous4 ,it is most important to lay stress on the agreements and differences simply because so many points that become obvious in dissecting woman reappear in the ,jew4 ,let me begin with the analogies4 ,it is notable that the ,jews1 even now when at least a relative security of tenure is possible1 prefer moveable property1 and1 in spite of their acquisitiveness1 have little real sense of personal property1 especially in its most characteristic form1 landed property4 ,property is indissolubly connected with the self1 with individuality4 ,it is in harmony with the foregoing that the ,jew is so readily disposed to communism4 ,communism must be distinguished clearly from socialism1 the former being based on a community of goods1 an absence of individual property1 the latter meaning1 in the first place a co-operation of individual with individual1 of worker with worker1 and a recognition of human individuality in every one4 ,socialism is ,aryan 7,owen1 ,carlyle1 ,ruskin1 ,fichte74 ,communism is ,jewish 7,marx74 ,modern social democracy has moved far apart from the earlier socialism1 precisely because ,jews have taken so large a share in developing it4 ,in spite of the associative element in it1 the ,marxian doctrine does not lead in any way towards the ,state as a union of all the separate individual aims1 as the higher unit combining the purposes of the lower units4 ,such a conception is as foreign to the ,jew as it is to the woman4 ,for these reasons ,zionism must remain an impracticable ideal1 notwithstanding the fashion in which it has brought together some of the noblest qualities of the ,jews4 ,zionism is the negation of ,judaism1 for the conception of ,judaism involves a world-wide distribution of the ,jews4 ,citizenship is an un-,jewish thing1 and there has never been and never will be a true ,jewish ,state4 ,the ,state involves the aggregation of individual aims1 the formation of and obedience to self-imposed laws2 and the symbol of the ,state1 if nothing more1 is its head chosen by free election4 ,the opposite conception is that of anarchy1 with which present-day communism is closely allied4 ,the ideal ,state has never been historically realised1 but in every case there is at least a minimum of this higher unit1 this conception of an ideal power which distinguishes the ,state from the mere collection of human beings in barracks4 ,rousseau's much-despised theory of the conscious co-operation of individuals to form a ,state deserves more attention than it now receives4 ,some ethical notion of free combination must always be included4 ,the true conception of the ,state is foreign to the ,jew1 because he1 like the woman1 is wanting in personality2 his failure to grasp the idea of true society is due to his lack of a free intelligible ego4 ,like women1 ,jews tend to adhere together1 but they do not associate as free independent individuals mutually respecting each other's individuality4 ,as there is no real dignity in women1 so what is meant by the word 8gentleman0 does not exist amongst the ,jews4 ,the genuine ,jew fails in this innate good breeding by which alone individuals honour their own individuality and respect that of others4 ,there is no ,jewish nobility1 and this is the more surprising as ,jewish pedigrees can be traced back for thousands of years4 ,the familiar ,jewish arrogance has a similar explanation2 it springs from want of true knowledge of himself and the consequent overpowering need he feels to enhance his own personality by depreciating that of his fellow-creatures4 ,and so1 although his descent is incomparably longer than that of the members of ,aryan aristocracies1 he has an inordinate love for titles4 ,the ,aryan respect for his ancestors is rooted in the conception that they were his ancestors2 it depends on his valuation of his own personality1 and1 in spite of the communistic strength and antiquity of the ,jewish traditions1 this individual sense of ancestry is lacking4 ,the faults of the ,jewish race have often been attributed to the repression of that race by ,aryans1 and many ,christians are still disposed to blame themselves in this respect4 ,but the self-reproach is not justified4 ,outward circumstances do not mould a race in one direction1 unless there is in the race the innate tendency to respond to the moulding forces2 the total result comes at least as much from the natural disposition as from the modifying circumstances4 ,we know now that the proof of the inheritance of acquired characters has broken down1 and1 in the human race still more than the lower forms of life1 it is certain that individual and racial characters persist in spite of all adaptive moulding4 ,when men change1 it is from within1 outwards1 unless the change1 as in the case of women1 is a mere superficial imitation of real change1 and is not rooted in their natures4 ,and how can we reconcile the idea that the ,jewish character is a modern modification with the history of the foundation of the race1 given in the ,old ,testament without any disapprobation of how the patriarch ,jacob deceived his dying father1 cheated his brother ,esau and over-reached his father-in-law1 ,laban8 ,the defenders of the ,jew have rightly acquitted him of any tendency to heinous crimes1 and the legal statistics of different countries confirm this4 ,the ,jew is not really anti-moral4 ,but1 none the less1 he does not represent the highest ethical type4 ,he is rather non-moral1 neither very good nor very bad1 with nothing in him of either the angel or the devil4 ,notwithstanding the ,book of ,job and the story of ,eden1 it is plain that the conceptions of a ,supreme ,good and a ,supreme ,evil are not truly ,jewish2 ,i have no wish to enter upon the lengthy and controversial topics of ,biblical criticism1 but at the least ,i shall be on sure ground when ,i say that these conceptions play the least significant part in modern ,jewish life4 ,orthodox or unorthodox1 the modern ,jew does not concern himself with ,god and the ,devil1 with ,heaven and ,hell4 ,if he does not reach the heights of the ,aryan1 he is also less inclined to commit murder or other crimes of violence4 ,so also in the case of the woman2 it is easier for her defenders to point to the infrequency of her commission of serious crimes than to prove her intrinsic morality4 ,the homology of ,jew and woman becomes closer the further examination goes4 ,there is no female devil1 and no female angel2 only love1 with its blind aversion from actuality1 sees in woman a heavenly nature1 and only hate sees in her a prodigy of wickedness4 ,greatness is absent from the nature of the woman and the ,jew1 the greatness of morality1 or the greatness of evil4 ,in the ,aryan man1 the good and bad principles of ,kant's religious philosophy are ever present1 ever in strife4 ,in the ,jew and the woman1 good and evil are not distinct from one another4 ,jews1 then1 do not live as free1 self-governing individuals1 choosing between virtue and vice in the ,aryan fashion4 ,they are a mere collection of similar individuals each cast in the same mould1 the whole forming as it were a continuous plasmodium4 ,the ,antisemite has often thought of this as a defensive and aggressive union1 and has formulated the conception of a ,jewish 8solidarity40 ,there is a deep confusion here4 ,when some accusation is made against some unknown member of the ,jewish race1 all ,jews secretly take the part of the accused1 and wish1 hope for1 and seek to establish his innocence4 ,but it must not be thought that they are interesting themselves more in the fate of the individual ,jew than they would do in the case of an individual ,christian4 ,it is the menace to ,judaism in general1 the fear that the shameful shadow may do harm to ,judaism as a whole1 which is the origin of the apparent feeling of sympathy4 ,in the same way1 women are delighted when a member of their sex is depreciated1 and will themselves assist1 until the proceeding seems to throw a disadvantageous light over the sex in general1 so frightening men from marriage4 ,the race or sex alone is defended1 not the individual4 ,it would be easy to understand why the family 7in its biological not its legal sense7 plays a larger rle amongst the ,jews than amongst any other people2 the ,english1 who in certain ways are akin to the ,jews1 coming next4 ,the family1 in this biological sense1 is feminine and maternal in its origin1 and has no relation to the ,state or to society4 ,the fusion1 the continuity of the members of the family1 reaches its highest point amongst the ,jews4 ,in the ,indo-,germanic races1 especially in the case of the more gifted1 but also in quite ordinary individuals1 there is never complete harmony between father and son2 consciously1 or unconsciously1 there is always in the mind of the son a certain feeling of impatience against the man who1 unasked1 brought him into the world1 gave him a name1 and determined his limitations in this earthly life4 ,it is only amongst the ,jews that the son feels deeply rooted in the family and is fully at one with his father4 ,it scarcely ever happens amongst ,christians that father and son are really friends4 ,amongst ,christians even the daughters stand a little further apart from the family circle than happens with ,jewesses1 and more frequently take up some calling which isolates them and gives them independent interests4 ,we reach at this point a fact in relation to the argument of the last chapter4 ,i showed there that the essential element in the pairing instinct was an indistinct sense of individuality and of the limits between individuals4 ,men who are match-makers have always a ,jewish element in them4 ,the ,jew is always more absorbed by sexual matters than the ,aryan1 although he is notably less potent sexually and less liable to be enmeshed in a great passion4 ,the ,jews are habitual match-makers1 and in no race does it so often happen that marriages are arranged by men4 ,this kind of activity is certainly peculiarly necessary in their case1 for1 as ,i have already stated1 there is no people amongst which marriages for love are so rare4 ,the organic disposition of the ,jews towards match-making is associated with their racial failure to comprehend asceticism4 ,it is interesting to note that the ,jewish ,rabbis have always been addicted to speculations as to the begetting of children and have a rich tradition on the subject1 a natural result in the case of the people who invented the phrase as to the duty of 8multiplying and replenishing the earth40 ,the pairing instinct is the great remover of the limits between individuals2 and the ,jew1 par excellence1 is the breaker down of such limits4 ,he is at the opposite pole from aristocrats1 with whom the preservation of the limits between individuals is the leading idea4 ,the ,jew is an inborn communist4 ,the ,jew's careless manners in society and his want of social tact turn on this quality1 for the reserves of social intercourse are simply barriers to protect individuality4 ,i desire at this point again to lay stress on the fact1 although it should be self-evident1 that1 in spite of my low estimate of the ,jew1 nothing could be further from my intention than to lend the faintest support to any practical or theoretical persecution of ,jews4 ,i am dealing with ,judaism1 in the platonic sense1 as an idea4 ,there is no more an absolute ,jew than an absolute ,christian4 ,i am not speaking against the individual1 whom1 indeed1 if that had been so1 ,i should have wounded grossly and unnecessarily4 ,watchwords1 such as 8,buy only from ,christians10 have in reality a ,jewish taint2 they have a meaning only for those who regard the race and not the individual1 and what is to be compared with them is the ,jewish use of the word 8,goy10 which is now almost obsolete4 ,i have no wish to boycott the ,jew1 or by any such immoral means to attempt to solve the ,jewish question4 ,nor will ,zionism solve that question2 as ,h4 ,s4 ,chamberlain has pointed out1 since the destruction of the ,temple at ,jerusalem1 ,judaism has ceased to be national1 and has become a spreading parasite1 straggling all over the earth and finding true root nowhere4 ,before ,zionism is possible1 the ,jew must first conquer ,judaism4 ,to defeat ,judaism1 the ,jew must first understand himself1 and war against himself4 ,so far1 the ,jew has reached no further than to make and enjoy jokes against his own peculiarities4 ,unconsciously he respects the ,aryan more than himself4 ,only steady resolution1 united to the highest self-respect1 can free the ,jew from ,jewishness4 ,this resolution1 be it ever so strong1 ever so honourable1 can only be understood and carried out by the individual1 not by the group4 ,therefore the ,jewish question can only be solved individually2 every single ,jew must try to solve it in his proper person4 ,there is no other solution to the question and can be no other2 ,zionism will never succeed in answering it4 ,the ,jew1 indeed1 who has overcome1 the ,jew who has become a ,christian1 has the fullest right to be regarded by the ,aryan in his individual capacity1 and no longer be condemned as belonging to a race above which his moral efforts have raised him4 ,he may rest assured that no one will dispute his well-founded claim4 ,the ,aryan of good social standing always feels the need to respect the ,jew2 his ,antisemitism being no joy1 no amusement to him4 ,therefore he is displeased when ,jews make revelations about ,jews1 and he who does so may expect as few thanks from that quarter as from over-sensitive ,judaism itself4 ,above all1 the ,aryan desires that the ,jew should justify ,antisemitism by being baptized4 ,but the danger of this outward acknowledgment of his inward struggles need not trouble the ,jew who wishes for liberty within him4 ,he will long to reach the holy baptism of the ,spirit1 of which that of the body is but the outward symbol4 ,to reach so important and useful a result as what ,jewishness and ,judaism really are1 would be to solve one of the most difficult problems2 ,judaism is a much deeper riddle than the many ,antisemites believe1 and in very truth a certain darkness will always enshroud it4 ,even the parallel with woman will soon fail us1 though now and then it may help us further4 ,in ,christians pride and humility1 in ,jews haughtiness and cringing1 are ever at strife2 in the former self-consciousness and contrition1 in the latter arrogance and bigotry4 ,in the total lack of humility of the ,jew lies his failure to grasp the idea of grace4 ,from his slavish disposition springs his heteronomous code of ethics1 the 8,decalogue10 the most immoral book of laws in the universe1 which enjoins on obedient followers1 submission to the powerful will of an exterior influence1 with the reward of earthly well-being and the conquest of the world4 ,his relations with ,jehovah1 the abstract ,deity1 whom he slavishly fears1 whose name he never dares to pronounce1 characterise the ,jew2 he1 like the woman1 requires the rule of an exterior authority4 ,according to the definition of ,schopenhauer1 the word #8,god' indicates a man who made the world4 ,this certainly is a true likeness of the ,god of the ,jew4 ,of the divine in man1 of 8the ,god who in my bosom dwells10 the true ,jew knows nothing2 for what ,christ and ,plato1 ,eckhard and ,paul1 ,goethe and ,kant1 the priests of the ,vedas1 ,fechner1 and every ,aryan have meant by divine1 for what the saying1 8,i am with you always even to the end of the world0--for the meaning of all these the ,jew remains without understanding4 ,for the ,god in man is the human soul1 and the absolute ,jew is devoid of a soul4 ,it is inevitable1 then1 that we should find no trace of belief in immortality in the ,old ,testament4 ,those who have no soul can have no craving for immortality1 and so it is with the woman and the ,jew2 8,anima naturaliter ,christiana10 said ,tertullian4 ,the absence from the ,jew of true mysticism--,chamberlain has remarked on this--has a similar origin4 ,they have nothing but the grossest superstition and the system of divinatory magic known as the 8,kabbala40 ,jewish monotheism has no relation to a true belief in ,god2 it is not a religion of reason1 but a belief of old women founded on fear4 ,why is it that the ,jewish slave of ,jehovah should become so readily a materialist or a freethinker8 ,it is merely the alternative phase to slavery2 arrogance about what is not understood is the other side of the slavish intelligence4 ,when it is fully recognised that ,judaism is to be regarded rather as an idea in which other races have a share1 than as the absolute property of a particular race1 then the ,judaic element in modern materialistic science will be better understood4 ,wagner has given expression to ,judaism in music2 there remains to say something about ,judaism in modern science4 ,judaism in science1 in the widest interpretation of it1 is the endeavour to remove all transcendentalism4 ,the ,aryan feels that the effort to grasp everything1 and to refer everything to some system of deductions1 really robs things of their true meaning2 for him1 what cannot be discovered is what gives the world its significance4 ,the ,jew has no fear of these hidden and secret elements1 for he has no consciousness of their presence4 ,he tries to take a view of the world as flat and commonplace as possible1 and to refuse to see all the secret and spiritual meanings of things4 ,his view is non-philosophical rather than anti-philosophical4 ,because fear of ,god in the ,jew has no relation with real religion1 the ,jew is of all persons the least perturbed by mechanical1 materialistic theories of the world2 he is readily beguiled by ,darwinism and the ridiculous notion that men are derived from monkeys2 and now he is disposed to accept the view that the soul of man is an evolution that has taken place within the human race2 formerly1 he was a mad devotee of ,buchner1 now he is ready to follow ,ostwald4 ,it is due to a real disposition that the ,jews should be so prominent in the study of chemistry2 they cling naturally to matter1 and expect to find the solution of everything in its properties4 ,and yet one who was the greatest ,german investigator of all times1 ,kepler himself1 wrote the following hexameter on chemistry3 8,o curas ,chymicorum6 ,o quantum in pulvere inane60 ,the present turn of medical science is largely due to the influence of the ,jews1 who in such numbers have embraced the medical profession4 ,from the earliest times1 until the dominance of the ,jews1 medicine was closely allied with religion4 ,but now they would make it a matter of drugs1 a mere administration of chemicals4 ,but it can never be that the organic will be explained by the inorganic4 ,fechner and ,preyer were right when they said that death came from life1 not life from death4 ,we see this taking place daily in individuals 7in human beings1 for instance1 old age prepares for death by a calcification of the tissues74 ,and as yet no one has seen the organic arise from the inorganic4 ,from the time of ,schwammerdam to that of ,pasteur it has become more and more certain that living things never arise from what is not alive4 ,surely this ontogenetic observation should be applied to phylogeny1 and we should be equally certain that1 in the past1 the dead arose from the living4 ,the chemical interpretation of organisms sets these on a level with their own dead ashes4 ,we should return from this ,judaistic science to the nobler conceptions of ,copernicus and ,galileo1 ,kepler and ,euler1 ,newton and ,linnus1 ,lamarck and ,faraday1 ,sprengel and ,cuvier4 ,the freethinkers of to-day1 soulless and not believing in the soul1 are incapable of filling the places of these great men and of reverently realising the presence of intrinsic secrets in nature4 ,it is this want of depth which explains the absence of truly great ,jews2 like women1 they are without any trace of genius4 ,the philosopher ,spinoza1 about whose purely ,jewish descent there can be no doubt1 is incomparably the greatest ,jew of the last nine hundred years1 much greater than the poet ,heine 7who1 indeed1 was almost destitute of any quality of true greatness7 or than that original1 if shallow painter1 ,israels4 ,the extraordinary fashion in which ,spinoza has been over-estimated is less due to his intrinsic merit than to the fortuitous circumstance that he was the only thinker to whom ,goethe gave his attention4 ,for ,spinoza himself there was no deep problem in nature 7and in this he showed his ,jewish character71 as1 otherwise1 he would not have elaborated his mathematical method1 a method according to which the explanation of things was to be found in themselves4 ,this system formed a refuge into which ,spinoza could escape from himself1 and it is not unnatural that it should have been attractive to ,goethe1 who was the most introspective of men1 as it might have seemed to offer to him tranquillity and rest4 ,spinoza showed his ,jewishness and the limits that always confine the ,jewish spirit in a still plainer fashion2 ,i am not thinking of his failure to comprehend the ,state or of his adhesion to the ,hobbesian doctrine of universal warfare as the primitive condition of mankind4 ,the matter goes deeper4 ,i have in mind his complete rejection of free-will--the ,jew is always a slave and a determinist--and his view that individuals were mere accidents into which the universal substance had fallen4 ,the ,jew is never a believer in monads4 ,and so there is no wider philosophical gulf than that between ,spinoza and his much more eminent contemporary1 ,leibnitz1 the protagonist of the monad theory1 or its still greater creator1 ,bruno1 whose superficial likeness with ,spinoza has been exaggerated in the most grotesque fashion4 ,just as ,jews and women are without extreme good and extreme evil1 so they never show either genius or the depth of stupidity of which mankind is capable4 ,the specific kind of intelligence for which ,jews and women alike are notorious is due simply to the alertness of an exaggerated egotism2 it is due1 moreover1 to the boundless capacity shown by both for pursuing any object with equal zeal1 because they have no intrinsic standard of value--nothing in their own souls by which to judge of the worthiness of any particular object4 ,and so they have unhampered natural instincts1 such as are not present to help the ,aryan man when his transcendental standard fails him4 ,i may now touch upon the likeness of the ,english to the ,jews1 a topic discussed at length by ,wagner4 ,it cannot be doubted that of the ,germanic races the ,english are in closest relationship with the ,jews4 ,their orthodoxy and their devotion to the ,sabbath afford a direct indication4 ,the religion of the ,englishman is always tinged with hypocrisy1 and his asceticism is largely prudery4 ,the ,english1 like women1 have been most unproductive in religion and in music2 there may be irreligious poets1 although not great artists1 but there is no irreligious musician4 ,so1 also1 the ,english have produced no great architects or philosophers4 ,berkeley1 like ,swift and ,sterne1 were ,irish2 ,carlyle1 ,hamilton1 and ,burns were ,scotch4 ,shakespeare and ,shelley1 the two greatest ,englishmen1 stand far from the pinnacle of humanity2 they do not reach so far as ,angelo and ,beethoven4 ,if we consider ,english philosophers we shall see that there has been a great degeneration since the ,middle ,ages4 ,it began with ,william of ,ockham and ,duns ,scotus2 it proceeded through ,roger ,bacon and his namesake1 the ,chancellor2 through ,hobbes1 who1 mentally1 was so near akin to ,spinoza2 through the superficial ,locke to ,hartley1 ,priestley1 ,bentham1 the two ,mills1 ,lewes1 ,huxley1 and ,spencer4 ,these are the greatest names in the history of ,english philosophy1 for ,adam ,smith and ,david ,hume were ,scotchmen4 ,it must always be remembered against ,england1 that from her there came the soulless psychology4 ,the ,englishman has impressed himself on the ,german as a rigorous empiricist and as a practical politician1 but these two sides exhaust his importance in philosophy4 ,there has never yet been a true philosopher who made empiricism his basis1 and no ,englishman has got beyond empiricism without external help4 ,none the less1 the ,englishman must not be confused with the ,jew4 ,there is more of the transcendental element in him1 and his mind is directed rather from the transcendental to the practical1 than from the practical towards the transcendental4 ,otherwise he would not be so readily disposed to humour1 unlike the ,jew1 who is ready to be witty only at his own expense or on sexual things4 ,i am well aware how difficult are the problems of laughter and humour--just as difficult as any problems that are peculiar to man and not shared by him with the beasts2 so difficult that neither ,schopenhauer nor ,jean ,paul himself were able to elucidate them4 ,humour has many aspects2 in some men it seems to be an expression of pity for themselves or for others1 but this element is not sufficient to distinguish it4 ,the essence of humour appears to me to consist in a laying of stress on empirical things1 in order that their unreality may become more obvious4 ,everything that is realised is laughable1 and in this way humour seems to be the antithesis of eroticism4 ,the latter welds men and the world together1 and unites them in a great purpose2 the former loses the bonds of synthesis and shows the world as a silly affair4 ,the two stand somewhat in the relation of polarised and unpolarised light4 ,when the great erotic wishes to pass from the limited to the illimited1 humour pounces down on him1 pushes him in front of the stage1 and laughs at him from the wings4 ,the humourist has not the craving to transcend space2 he is content with small things2 his dominion is neither the sea nor the mountains1 but the flat level plain4 ,he shuns the idyllic1 and plunges deeply into the commonplace1 only1 however1 to show its unreality4 ,he turns from the immanence of things and will not hear the transcendental even spoken of4 ,wit seeks out contradictions in the sphere of experience2 humour goes deeper and shows that experience is a blind and closed system2 both compromise the phenomenal world by showing that everything is possible in it4 ,tragedy1 on the other hand1 shows what must for all eternity be impossible in the phenomenal world2 and thus tragedy and comedy alike1 each in their own way1 are negations of the empiric4 ,the ,jew who does not set out1 like the humourist1 from the transcendental1 and does not move towards it1 like the erotic1 has no interest in depreciating what is called the actual world1 and that never becomes for him the paraphernalia of a juggler or the nightmare of a mad-house4 ,humour1 because it recognises the transcendental1 if only by the mode of resolutely concealing it1 is essentially tolerant2 satire1 on the other hand1 is essentially intolerant1 and is congruous with the disposition of the ,jew and the woman4 ,jews and women are devoid of humour1 but addicted to mockery4 ,in ,rome there was even a woman 7,sulpicia7 who wrote satires4 ,satire1 because of its intolerance1 is impossible to men in society4 ,the humourist1 who knows how to keep the trifles and littlenesses of phenomena from troubling himself or others1 is a welcome guest4 ,humour1 like love1 moves away obstacles from our path2 it makes possible a way of regarding the world4 ,the ,jew1 therefore1 is least addicted to society1 and the ,englishman most adapted for it4 ,the comparison of the ,jew with the ,englishman fades out much more quickly than that with the woman4 ,both comparisons first arose in the heat of the conflict as to the worth and the nature of ,jews4 ,i may again refer to ,wagner1 who not only interested himself deeply in the problem of ,judaism1 but rediscovered the ,jew in the ,englishman1 and threw the shadow of ,ahasuerus over his ,kundry1 probably the most perfect representation of woman in art4 ,the fact that no woman in the world represents the idea of the wife so completely as the ,jewess 7and not only in the eyes of ,jews7 still further supports the comparison between ,jews and women4 ,in the case of the ,aryans1 the metaphysical qualities of the male are part of his sexual attraction for the woman1 and so1 in a fashion1 she puts on an appearance of these4 ,the ,jew1 on the other hand1 has no transcendental quality1 and in the shaping and moulding of the wife leaves the natural tendencies of the female nature a more unhampered sphere2 and the ,jewish woman1 accordingly1 plays the part required of her1 as house-mother or odalisque1 as ,cybele or ,cyprian1 in the fullest way4 ,the congruity between ,jews and women further reveals itself in the extreme adaptability of the ,jews1 in their great talent for journalism1 the 8mobility0 of their minds1 their lack of deeply-rooted and original ideas1 in fact the mode in which1 like women1 because they are nothing in themselves1 they can become everything4 ,the ,jew is an individual1 not an individuality2 he is in constant close relation with the lower life1 and has no share in the higher metaphysical life4 ,at this point the comparison between the ,jew and the woman breaks down2 the being-nothing and becoming-all-things differs in the two4 ,the woman is material which passively assumes any form impressed upon it4 ,in the ,jew there is a definite aggressiveness2 it is not because of the great impression that others make on him that he is receptive2 he is no more subject to suggestion than the ,aryan man1 but he adapts himself to every circumstance and every race1 becoming1 like the parasite1 a new creature in every different host1 although remaining essentially the same4 ,he assimilates himself to everything1 and assimilates everything2 he is not dominated by others1 but submits himself to them4 ,the ,jew is gifted1 the woman is not gifted1 and the giftedness of the ,jew reveals itself in many forms of activity1 as1 for instance1 in jurisprudence2 but these activities are always relative and never seated in the creative freedom of the will4 ,the ,jew is as persistent as the woman1 but his persistence is not that of the individual but of the race4 ,he is not unconditioned like the ,aryan1 but his limitations differ from those of the woman4 ,the true peculiarity of the ,jew reveals itself best in his essentially irreligious nature4 ,i cannot here enter on a discussion as to the idea of religion2 but it is enough to say that it is associated essentially with an acceptance of the higher and eternal in man as different in kind1 and in no sense to be derived from the phenomenal life4 ,the ,jew is eminently the unbeliever4 ,faith is that act of man by which he enters into relation with being1 and religious faith is directed towards absolute1 eternal being1 the 8life everlasting0 of the religious phrase4 ,the ,jew is really nothing because he believes in nothing4 ,belief is everything4 ,it does not matter if a man does not believe in ,god2 let him believe in atheism4 ,but the ,jew believes nothing2 he does not believe his own belief2 he doubts as to his own doubt4 ,he is never absorbed by his own joy1 or engrossed by his own sorrow4 ,he never takes himself in earnest1 and so never takes any one else in earnest4 ,he is content to be a ,jew1 and accepts any disadvantages that come from the fact4 ,we have now reached the fundamental difference between the ,jew and the woman4 ,neither believe in themselves2 but the woman believes in others1 in her husband1 her lover1 or her children1 or in love itself2 she has a centre of gravity1 although it is outside her own being4 ,the ,jew believes in nothing1 within him or without him4 ,his want of desire for permanent landed property and his attachment to movable goods are more than symbolical4 ,the woman believes in the man1 in the man outside her1 or in the man from whom she takes her inspiration1 and in this fashion can take herself in earnest4 ,the ,jew takes nothing seriously2 he is frivolous1 and jests about anything1 about the ,christian's ,christianity1 the ,jew's baptism4 ,he is neither a true realist nor a true empiricist4 ,here ,i must state certain limitations to my agreement with ,chamberlain's conclusions4 ,the ,jew is not really a convinced empiricist in the fashion of the ,english philosophers4 ,the empiricist believes in the possibility of reaching a complete system of knowledge on an empirical basis2 he hopes for the perfection of science4 ,the ,jew does not really believe in knowledge1 nor is he a sceptic1 for he doubts his own scepticism4 ,on the other hand1 a brooding care hovers over the non-metaphysical system of ,avenarius1 and even in ,ernst ,mach's adherence to relativity there are signs of a deeply reverent attitude4 ,the empiricists must not be accused of ,judaism because they are shallow4 ,the ,jew is the impious man in the widest sense4 ,piety is not something near things nor outside things2 it is the groundwork of everything4 ,the ,jew has been incorrectly called vulgar1 simply because he does not concern himself with metaphysics4 ,all true culture that comes from within1 all that a man believes to be true and that so is true for him1 depend on reverence4 ,reverence is not limited to the mystic or the religious man2 all science and all scepticism1 everything that a man truly believes1 have reverence as the fundamental quality4 ,naturally it displays itself in different ways1 in high seriousness and sanctity1 in earnestness and enthusiasm4 ,the ,jew is never either enthusiastic or indifferent1 he is neither ecstatic nor cold4 ,he reaches neither the heights nor the depths4 ,his restraint becomes meagreness1 his copiousness becomes bombast4 ,should he venture into the boundless realms of inspired thought1 he seldom reaches beyond pathos4 ,and although he cannot embrace the whole world1 he is for ever covetous of it4 ,discrimination and generalisation1 strength and love1 science and poetry1 every real and deep emotion of the human heart1 have reverence as their essential basis4 ,it is not necessary that faith1 as in men of genius1 should be in relation only to metaphysical entity2 it can extend also to the empirical world and appear fully there1 and yet none the less be faith in oneself1 in worth1 in truth1 in the absolute1 in ,god4 ,as the comprehensive view of religion and piety that ,i have given may lead to misconstruction1 ,i propose to elucidate it further4 ,true piety is not merely the possession of piety1 but also the struggle to possess it2 it is found equally in the convinced believer in ,god 7,handel or ,fechner71 and also in the doubting seeker 7,lenau and ,drer72 it need not be made obvious to the world 7as in the case of ,bach71 it may display itself only in a reverent attitude 7,mozart74 ,nor is piety necessarily connected with the appearance of a ,founder2 the ancient ,greeks were the most reverent people that have lived1 and hence their culture was highest2 but their religion had no personal ,founder4 ,religion is the creation of the all2 and all that humanity can be is only through religion4 ,so far from the ,jew being religious1 as has been assumed1 he is profoundly irreligious4 ,were there need to elaborate my verdict on the ,jews ,i might point out that the ,jews1 alone of peoples1 do not try to make converts to their faith1 and that when converts are made they serve as objects of puzzled ridicule to them4 ,need ,i refer to the meaningless formality and the repetitions of ,jewish prayer8 ,need ,i remind readers that the ,jewish religion is a mere historical tradition1 a memorial of such incidents as the miraculous crossing of the ,red ,sea1 with the consequent thanks of cowards to their ,saviour2 and that it is no guide to the meaning and conduct of life8 ,the ,jew is truly irreligious and furthest of mankind from faith4 ,there is no relation between the ,jew himself and the universe2 he has none of the heroism of faith1 just as he has none of the disaster of absolute unbelief4 ,it is not1 then1 mysticism that the ,jew is without1 as ,chamberlain maintains1 but reverence4 ,if he were only an honest-minded materialist or a frank evolutionist6 ,he is not a critic1 but only critical2 he is not a sceptic in the ,cartesian sense1 not a doubter who sets out from doubt towards truth1 but an ironist2 as1 for instance1 to take a conspicuous example1 ,heine4 ,what1 then1 is the ,jew if he is nothing that a man can be8 ,what goes on within him if he is utterly without finality1 if there is no ground in him which the plumb line of psychology may reach8 ,the psychological contents of the ,jewish mind are always double or multiple4 ,there are always before him two or many possibilities1 where the ,aryan1 although he sees as widely1 feels himself limited in his choice4 ,i think that the idea of ,judaism consists in this want of reality1 this absence of any fundamental relation to the thing-in-and-for-itself4 ,he stands1 so to speak1 outside reality1 without ever entering it4 ,he can never make himself one with anything--never enter into real relationships4 ,he is a zealot without zeal2 he has no share in the unlimited1 the unconditioned4 ,he is without simplicity of faith1 and so is always turning to each new interpretation1 so seeming more alert than the ,aryan4 ,internal multiplicity is the essence of ,judaism1 internal simplicity that of the ,aryan4 ,it might be urged that the ,jewish double-mindedness is modern1 and is the result of new knowledge struggling with the old orthodoxy4 ,the education of the ,jew1 however1 only accentuates his natural qualities1 and the doubting ,jew turns with a renewed zeal to money-making1 in which only he can find his standard of value4 ,a curious proof of the absence of simplicity in the mind of the ,jew is that he seldom sings1 not from bashfulness1 but because he does not believe in his own singing4 ,just as the acuteness of ,jews has nothing to do with true power of differentiating1 so his shyness about singing or even about speaking in clear positive tones has nothing to do with real reserve4 ,it is a kind of inverted pride2 having no true sense of his own worth1 he fears being made ridiculous by his singing or speech4 ,the embarrassment of the ,jew extends to things which have nothing to do with the real ego4 ,it has been seen how difficult it is to define the ,jew4 ,he has neither severity nor tenderness4 ,he is both tenacious and weak4 ,he is neither king nor leader1 slave nor vassal4 ,he has no share in enthusiasm1 and yet he has little equanimity4 ,nothing is self-evident to him1 and yet he is astonished at nothing4 ,he has no trace of ,lohengrin in him1 and none of ,telramund4 ,he is ridiculous as a member of a students' corps and he is equally ridiculous as a 8philister40 ,because he believes in nothing1 he takes refuge in materialism2 from this arises his avarice1 which is simply an attempt to convince himself that something has a permanent value4 ,and yet he is no real tradesman2 what is unreal1 insecure in ,german commerce1 is the result of the ,jewish speculative interest4 ,the erotics of the ,jew are sentimentalism1 and their humour is satire4 ,perhaps examples may help to explain my interpretation of the ,jewish character1 and ,i point readily to ,ibsen's ,king ,hakon in the 8,pretenders10 and to his ,dr4 ,stockmann in 8,the ,enemy of the ,people40 ,these may make clear what is for ever absent in the ,jew4 ,judaism and ,christianity form the greatest possible contrasts2 the former is bereft of all true faith and of inner identity1 the latter is the highest expression of the highest faith4 ,christianity is heroism at its highest point2 ,judaism is the extreme of cowardliness4 ,chamberlain has said much that is true and striking as to the fearful awe-struck want of understanding that the ,jew displays with regard to the person and teaching of ,christ1 for the combination of warrior and sufferer in ,him1 for ,his life and death4 ,none the less1 it would be wrong to state that the ,jew is an enemy of ,christ1 that he represents the anti-,christ2 it is only that he feels no relation with ,him4 ,it is strong-minded ,aryans1 malefactors1 who hate ,jesus4 ,the ,jew does not get beyond being bewildered and disturbed by ,him1 as something that passes his wit to understand4 ,and yet it has stood the ,jew in good stead that the ,new ,testament seemed the outcome and fine flower of the ,old1 the fulfilment of its ,messianic prophecies4 ,the polar opposition between ,judaism and ,christianity makes the origin of the latter from the former a deep riddle2 it is the riddle of the psychology of the founder of religions4 ,what is the difference between the genius who founds a religion and other kinds of genius8 ,what is it that has led him to found the religion8 ,the main difference is no other than that he did not always believe in the ,god he worships4 ,tradition relates of ,buddha1 as of ,christ1 that they were subject to greater temptations than other men4 ,two others1 ,mahomet and ,luther1 were epileptic4 ,epilepsy is the disease of the criminal2 ,csar1 ,narses1 ,napoleon1 the greatest of the criminals1 were epileptics4 ,the founder of a religion is the man who has lived without ,god and yet has struggled towards the greatest faith4 ,how is it possible for a bad man to transform himself8 ,as ,kant1 although he was compelled to admit the fact1 asked in his 8,philosophy of ,religion10 how can an evil tree bring forth good fruit8 ,the inconceivable mystery of the transformation into a good man of one who has lived evilly all the days and years of his life has actually realised itself in the case of some six or seven historical personages4 ,these have been the founders of religions4 ,other men of genius are good from their birth2 the religious founder acquires goodness4 ,the old existence ceases utterly and is replaced by the new4 ,the greater the man1 the more must perish in him at the regeneration4 ,i am inclined to think that ,socrates1 alone amongst the ,greeks1 approached closely to the founders of religion2 perhaps he made the decisive struggle with evil in the four-and-twenty hours during which he stood alone at ,potida4 ,the founder of a religion is the man for whom no problem has been solved from his birth4 ,he is the man with the least possible sureness of conviction1 for whom everything is doubtful and uncertain1 and who has to conquer everything for himself in this life4 ,one has to struggle against illness and physical weakness1 another trembles on the brink of the crimes which are possible for him1 yet another has been in the bonds of sin from his birth4 ,it is only a formal statement to say that original sin is the same in all persons2 it differs materially for each person4 ,here one1 there another1 each as he was born1 has chosen what is senseless and worthless1 has preferred instinct to his will1 or pleasure to love2 only the founder of a religion has had original sin in its absolute form2 in him everything is doubtful1 everything is in question4 ,he has to meet every problem and free himself from all guilt4 ,he has to reach firm ground from the deepest abyss2 he has to surmount the nothingness in him and bind himself to the utmost reality4 ,and so it may be said of him that he frees himself of original sin1 that in him ,god becomes man1 but also that the man becomes ,god2 in him was all error and all guilt2 in him there comes to be all expiation and redemption4 ,thus the founder of a religion is the greatest of the geniuses1 for he has vanquished the most4 ,he is the man who has accomplished victoriously what the deepest thinkers of mankind have thought of only timorously as a possibility1 the complete regeneration of a man1 the reversal of his will4 ,other great men of genius have1 indeed1 to fight against evil1 but the bent of their souls is towards the good4 ,the founder of a religion has so much in him of evil1 of the perverse1 of earthly passion1 that he must fight with the enemy within him for forty days in the wilderness1 without food or sleep4 ,it was only thus that he can conquer and overcome the death within him and free himself for the highest life4 ,were it otherwise there would be no impulse to found a faith4 ,the founder of a religion is thus the very antipodes of the emperor2 emperor and ,galilean are at the two poles of thought4 ,in ,napoleon's life1 also1 there was a moment when a conversion took place2 but this was not a turning away from earthly life1 but the deliberate decision for the treasure and power and splendour of the earthly life4 ,napoleon was great in the colossal intensity with which he flung from him all the ideal1 all relation to the absolute1 in the magnitude of his guilt4 ,the founder of religion1 on the other hand1 cannot and will not bring to man anything except that which was most difficult for himself to attain1 the reconciliation with ,god4 ,he knows that he himself was the man most laden with guilt1 and he atones for the guilt by his death on the cross4 ,there were two possibilities in ,judaism4 ,before the birth of ,christ1 these two1 negation and affirmation1 were together awaiting choice4 ,christ was the man who conquered in ,himself ,judaism1 the greatest negation1 and created ,christianity1 the strongest affirmation and the most direct opposite of ,judaism4 ,now the choice has been made2 the old ,israel has divided into ,jews and ,christians1 and ,judaism has lost the possibility of producing greatness4 ,the new ,judaism has been unable to produce men like ,samson and ,joshua1 the least ,jewish of the old ,jews4 ,in the history of the world1 ,christendom and ,jewry represent negation and affirmation4 ,in old ,israel there was the highest possibility of mankind1 the possibility of ,christ4 ,the other possibility is the ,jew4 ,i must guard against misconception2 ,i do not mean that there was any approach to ,christianity in ,judaism2 the one is the absolute negation of the other2 the relation between the two is only that which exists between all pairs of direct opposites4 ,even more than in the case of piety and ,judaism1 ,judaism and ,christianity can best be contrasted by what each respectively excludes4 ,nothing is easier than to be ,jewish1 nothing so difficult as to be ,christian4 ,judaism is the abyss over which ,christianity is erected1 and for that reason the ,aryan dreads nothing so deeply as the ,jew4 ,i am not disposed to believe1 with ,chamberlain1 that the birth of the ,saviour in ,palestine was an accident4 ,christ was a ,jew1 precisely that ,he might overcome the ,judaism within ,him1 for he who triumphs over the deepest doubt reaches the highest faith2 he who has raised himself above the most desolate negation is most sure in his position of affirmation4 ,judaism was the peculiar1 original sin of ,christ2 it was ,his victory over ,judaism that made ,him greater than ,buddha or ,confucius4 ,christ was the greatest man because ,he conquered the greatest enemy4 ,perhaps ,he was1 and will remain1 the only ,jew to conquer ,judaism4 ,the first of the ,jews to become wholly the ,christ was also the last who made the transition4 ,it may be1 however1 that there still lies in ,judaism the possibility of producing a ,christ1 and that the founder of the next religion will pass through ,jewry4 ,on no other supposition can we account for the long persistence of the ,jewish race which has outlived so many other peoples4 ,without at least some vague hope1 the ,jews could not have survived1 and the hope is that there must be something in ,judaism for ,judaism2 it is the idea of a ,messiah1 of one who shall save them from ,judaism4 ,every other race has had some special watchword1 and1 on realising their watchword1 they have perished4 ,the ,jews have failed to realise their watchword1 and so their vitality persists4 ,the ,jewish nature has no other metaphysical meaning than to be the spring from which the founders of religion will come4 ,their tradition to increase and multiply is connected with this vague hope1 that out of them shall come the ,messiah4 ,the possibility of begetting ,christs is the meaning of ,judaism4 ,as in the ,jew there are the greatest possibilities1 so also in him are the meanest actualities2 he is adapted to most things and realises fewest4 ,judaism1 at the present day1 has reached its highest point since the time of ,herod4 ,judaism is the spirit of modern life4 ,sexuality is accepted1 and contemporary ethics sing the praises of pairing4 ,unhappy ,nietzsche must not be made responsible for the shameful doctrines of ,wilhelm ,blsche4 ,nietzsche himself understood asceticism1 and perhaps it was only as a revulsion from the evils of his own asceticism that he attached value to the opposite conception4 ,it is the ,jew and the woman who are the apostles of pairing to bring guilt on humanity4 ,our age is not only the most ,jewish but the most feminine4 ,it is a time when art is content with daubs and seeks its inspiration in the sports of animals2 the time of a superficial anarchy1 with no feeling for ,justice and the ,state2 a time of communistic ethics1 of the most foolish of historical views1 the materialistic interpretation of history2 a time of capitalism and of ,marxism2 a time when history1 life1 and science are no more than political economy and technical instruction2 a time when genius is supposed to be a form of madness2 a time with no great artists and no great philosophers2 a time without originality and yet with the most foolish craving for originality2 a time when the cult of the ,virgin has been replaced by that of the ,demi-vierge4 ,it is the time when pairing has not only been approved but has been enjoined as a duty4 ,but from the new ,judaism the new ,christianity may be pressing forth2 mankind waits for the new founder of religion1 and1 as in the year one1 the age presses for a decision4 ,the decision must be made between ,judaism and ,christianity1 between business and culture1 between male and female1 between the race and the individual1 between unworthiness and worth1 between the earthly and the higher life1 between negation and the ,god-like4 ,mankind has the choice to make4 ,there are only two poles1 and there is no middle way4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,woman ,,and ,,mankind ,at last we are ready1 clear-eyed and well armed1 to deal with the question of the emancipation of women4 ,our eyes are clear1 for we have freed them from the thronging specks of dubiety that had hitherto obscured the question1 and we are armed with a well-founded grasp of theory1 and a secure ethical basis4 ,we are far from the maze in which this controversy usually lies1 and our investigation has got beyond the mere statement of different natural capacity for men and women1 to a point whence the part of women in the world-whole and the meaning of her relation to humanity can be estimated4 ,i am not going to deal with any practical applications of my results2 the latter are not nearly optimistic enough for me to hope that they could have any effect on the progress of political movements4 ,i refrain from working out laws of social hygiene1 and content myself with facing the problem from the standpoint of that conception of humanity which pervades the philosophy of ,immanuel ,kant4 ,this conception is in great danger from woman4 ,woman is able1 in a quite extraordinary way1 to produce the impression that she herself is really non-sexual1 and that her sexuality is only a concession to man4 ,but be that as it may1 at the present time men have almost allowed themselves to be persuaded by woman that their strongest and most markedly characteristic desire lies in sexuality1 that it is only through woman that they can hope to satisfy their truest and best ambitions1 and that chastity is an unnatural and impossible state for them4 ,how often it happens that young men who are wrapped up in their work are told by women to whom they appeal and who would prefer to have them paying them attention1 or even as sons-in-law1 that 8they ought not to work too hard10 that they ought to 8enjoy life40 ,at the bottom of this sort of advice there lies a feeling on the woman's part1 which is none the less real because it is unconscious1 that her whole significance and existence depend on her mission as a procreating agent1 and that she goes to the wall if man is allowed to occupy himself altogether with other than sexual matters4 ,that women will ever change in this respect is doubtful4 ,there is nothing to show that she ever was different4 ,it may be that to-day the physical side of the question is more to the fore than formerly1 since a great deal of the 8woman movement0 of the times is merely a desire to be 8free10 to shake off the trammels of motherhood2 as a whole the practical results show that it is revolt from motherhood towards prostitution1 a prostitute emancipation rather than the emancipation of woman that is aimed at3 a bold bid for the success of the courtesan4 ,the only real change is man's behaviour towards the movement4 ,under the influence of modern ,judaism1 men seem inclined to accept woman's estimate of them and to bow before it4 ,masculine chastity is laughed at1 and the feeling that woman is the evil influence in man's life is no longer understood1 and men are not ashamed of their own lust4 ,it is now apparent from where this demand for 8seeing life10 the ,dionysian view of the music-hall1 the cult of ,goethe in so far as he follows ,ovid1 and this quite modern 8coitus-cult0 comes4 ,there is no doubt that the movement is so widespread that very few men have the courage to acknowledge their chastity1 preferring to pretend that they are regular ,don ,juans4 ,sexual excess is held to be the most desirable characteristic of a man of the world1 and sexuality has attained such pre-eminence that a man is doubted unless he can1 as it were1 show proofs of his prowess4 ,chastity1 on the other hand1 is so despised that many a really pure lad attempts to appear a blas rou4 ,it is even true that those who are modest are ashamed of the feeling2 but there is another1 the modern form of shame--not the eroticist's shame1 but the shame of the woman who has no lover1 who has not received appraisement from the opposite sex4 ,hence it comes that men make it their business to tell each other what a right and proper pleasure they take in 8doing their duty0 by the opposite sex4 ,and women are careful to let it be known that only what is 8manly0 in man can appeal to them3 and man takes their measure of his manliness and makes it his own4 ,man's qualifications as a male have1 in fact1 become identical with his value with women1 in women's eyes4 ,but ,god forbid that it should be so2 that would mean that there are no longer any men4 ,contrast with this the fact that the high value set on women's virtue originated with man1 and will always come from men worthy of the name2 it is the projection of man's own ideal of spotless purity on the object of his love4 ,but there should be no mistaking this true chastity for the shivering and shaking before contact1 which is soon changed for delighted acquiescence1 nor for the hysterical suppression of sexual desires4 ,the outward endeavour to correspond to man's demand for physical purity must not be taken for anything but a fear lest the buyer will fight shy of the bargain2 least of all the care which women so often take to choose only the man who can give them most value must not deceive any one 7it has been called the 8high value0 or 8self-respect0 a girl has for herself76 ,if one remembers the view women take of virginity1 there can be very little doubt that woman's one end is the bringing about of universal pairing as the only means by which they acquire a real existence2 that women desire pairing1 and nothing else1 even if they personally appear to be as uninterested as possible in sensual matters4 ,all this can be fully proved from the generality of the match-making instinct4 ,in order to be fully persuaded of this1 woman's attitude towards the virginity of those of her own sex must be considered4 ,it is certain that women have a very low opinion of the unmarried4 ,it is1 in fact1 the one female condition which has a negative value for woman4 ,women only respect a woman when she is married2 even if she is unhappily married to a hideous1 weak1 poor1 common1 tyrannical1 8impossible0 man1 she is1 nevertheless1 married1 has received value1 existence4 ,even if a woman has had a short experience of the freedom of a courtesan's life1 even if she has been on the streets1 she still stands higher in a woman's estimation than the old maid1 who works and toils alone in her room1 without ever having known lawful or unlawful union with a man1 the enduring or fleeting ecstasy of love4 ,even a young and beautiful girl is never valued by a woman for her attractions as such 7the sense of the beautiful is wanting in woman since they have no standard in themselves to measure it by71 but merely because she has more prospect of enslaving a man4 ,the more beautiful a young girl is1 the more promising she appears to other women1 the greater her value to woman as the match-maker in her mission as guardian of the race2 it is only this unconscious feeling which makes it possible for a woman to take pleasure in the beauty of a young girl4 ,it goes without saying that this can only happen when the woman in question has already achieved her own end 7because1 otherwise1 envy of a contemporary1 and the fear of having her own chances jeopardised by others1 would overcome other considerations74 ,she must first of all attain her own union1 and then she is ready to help others4 ,women are altogether to blame for the unpleasant associations which are so unfortunately connected with 8old maids40 ,one often hears men talking respectfully of an elderly woman2 but every woman and girl1 whether married or single1 has nothing but contempt for such a one1 even when1 as is often the case1 they are unconscious that it is so with them4 ,i once heard a married woman1 whose talents and beauty put jealousy quite out of the question1 making fun of her plain and elderly ,italian governess for repeatedly saying that3 8,io sono ancora una virgine0 7that she was still a virgin74 ,the interpretation put on the words was that the speaker wished to admit she had made a virtue of necessity1 and would have been very glad to get rid of her virginity if she could have done so without detriment to her position in life4 ,this is the most important point of all3 women not only disparage and despise the virginity of other women1 but they set no value on their own state of virginity 7except that men prize it so highly74 ,this is why they look upon every married woman as a sort of superior being4 ,the deep impression made on women by the sexual act can be most plainly seen by the respect which girls pay to a married woman1 of however short a standing2 which points to their idea of their existence being the attainment of the same zenith themselves4 ,they look upon other young girls1 on the contrary1 as being1 like themselves1 still imperfect beings awaiting consummation4 ,i think ,i have said enough to show that experience confirms the deduction ,i made from the importance of the pairing instinct in women1 the deduction that virgin worship is of male1 not female origin4 ,a man demands chastity in himself and others1 most of all from the being he loves2 a woman wants the man with most experience and sensuality1 not virtue4 ,woman has no comprehension of paragons4 ,on the contrary1 it is well known that a woman is most ready to fly to the arms of the man with the widest reputation for being a ,don ,juan4 ,woman requires man to be sexual1 because she only gains existence through his sexuality4 ,women have no sense of a man's love1 as a superior phenomenon1 they only perceive that side of him which unceasingly desires and appropriates the object of his affections1 and men who have none or very little of the instinct of brutality developed in them have no influence on them4 ,as for the higher1 platonic love of man1 they do not want it2 it flatters and pleases them1 but it has no significance for them1 and if the homage on bended knees lasts too long1 ,beatrice becomes just as impatient as ,messalina4 ,in coitus lies woman's greatest humiliation1 in love her supremest exaltation4 ,since woman desires coitus and not love1 she proves that she wishes to be humiliated and not worshipped4 ,the ultimate opponent of the emancipation of women is woman4 ,it is not because sexual union is voluptuous1 not because it is the typical example of all the pleasures of the lower life1 that it is immoral4 ,asceticism1 which would regard pleasure in itself as immoral1 is itself immoral1 inasmuch it attributes immorality to an action because of the external consequences of it1 not because of immorality in the thing itself2 it is the imposition of an alien1 not an inherent law4 ,a man may seek pleasure1 he may strive to make his life easier and more pleasant2 but he must not sacrifice a moral law4 ,asceticism attempts to make man moral by self-repression and will give him credit and praise for morality simply because he has denied himself certain things4 ,asceticism must be rejected from the point of view of ethics and of psychology inasmuch as it makes virtue the effect of a cause1 and not the thing itself4 ,asceticism is a dangerous although attractive guide2 since pleasure is one of the chief things that beguile men from the higher path1 it is easy to suppose that its mere abandonment is meritorious4 ,in itself1 however1 pleasure is neither moral nor immoral4 ,it is only when the desire for pleasure conquers the desire for worthiness that a human being has fallen4 ,coitus is immoral because there is no man who does not use woman at such times as a means to an end2 for whom pleasure does not1 in his own as well as her being1 during that time represent the value of mankind4 ,during coitus a man forgets all about everything1 he forgets the woman2 she has no longer a psychic but only a physical existence for him4 ,he either desires a child by her or the satisfaction of his own passion2 in neither case does he use her as an end in herself1 but for an outside cause4 ,this and this alone makes coitus immoral4 ,there is no doubt that woman is the missionary of sexual union1 and that she looks upon herself1 as on everything else1 merely as a means to its ends4 ,she wants a man to satisfy her passion or to obtain children2 she is willing to be used by man as a tool1 as a thing1 as an object1 to be treated as his property1 to be changed and modelled according to his good pleasure4 ,but we should not allow ourselves to be used by others as means to an end4 ,kundry appealed often to ,parsifal's compassion for her yearnings3 but here we see the weakness of sympathetic morality1 which attempts to grant every desire of those around1 however wrong such wishes may be4 ,ethics and morality based on sympathy are equally absurd1 since they make the 8ought0 dependent on the 8will10 7whether it be the will of oneself1 or of others1 or of society1 it is all the same17 instead of making the 8will0 dependent on the 8ought02 they take as a standard of morality concrete cases of human history1 concrete cases of human happiness1 concrete moments in life instead of the idea4 ,but the question is3 how ought man to treat woman8 ,as she herself desires to be treated or as the moral idea would dictate8 ,if he is going to treat her as she wishes1 he must have intercourse with her1 for she desires it2 he must beat her1 for she likes to be hurt2 he must hypnotise her1 since she wishes to be hypnotised2 he must prove to her by his attentions how little he thinks of himself1 for she likes compliments1 and has no desire to be respected for herself4 ,if he is going to treat her as the moral idea demands1 he must try to see in her the concept of mankind and endeavour to respect her4 ,even although woman is only a function of man1 a function he can degrade or raise at will1 and women do not wish to be more or anything else than what man makes them1 it is no more a moral arrangement than the suttee of ,indian widows1 which1 even though it be voluntary and insisted upon by them1 is none the less terrible barbarity4 ,the emancipation of woman is analogous to the emancipation of ,jews and negroes4 ,undoubtedly the principal reason why these people have been treated as slaves and inferiors is to be found in their servile dispositions2 their desire for freedom is not nearly so strong as that of the ,indo-,germans4 ,and even although the whites in ,america at the present day find it necessary to keep themselves quite aloof from the negro population because they make such a bad use of their freedom1 yet in the war of the ,northern ,states against the ,federals1 which resulted in the freedom of the slaves1 right was entirely on the side of the emancipators4 ,although the humanity of ,jews1 negroes1 and still more of women1 is weighed down by many immoral impulses2 although in these cases there is so much more to fight against than in the case of ,aryan men1 still we must try to respect mankind1 and to venerate the idea of humanity 7by which ,i do not mean the human community1 but the being1 man1 the soul as part of the spiritual world74 ,no matter how degraded a criminal may be1 no one ought to arrogate to himself the functions of the law2 no man has the right to lynch such an offender4 ,the problem of woman and the problem of the ,jews are absolutely identical with the problem of slavery1 and they must be solved in the same way4 ,no one should be oppressed1 even if the oppression is of such a kind as to be unfelt as such4 ,the animals about a house are not 8slaves10 because they have no freedom in the proper sense of the word which could be taken away4 ,but woman has a faint idea of her incapacity1 a last remnant1 however weak1 of the free intelligible ego1 simply because there is no such thing as an absolute woman4 ,women are human beings1 and must be treated as such1 even if they themselves do not wish it4 ,woman and man have the same rights4 ,that is not to say that women ought to have an equal share in political affairs4 ,from the utilitarian standpoint such a concession1 certainly at present and probably always1 would be most undesirable2 in ,new ,zealand1 where1 on ethical principles1 women have been enfranchised1 the worst results have followed4 ,as children1 imbeciles and criminals would be justly prevented from taking any part in public affairs even if they were numerically equal or in the majority2 woman must in the same way be kept from having a share in anything which concerns the public welfare1 as it is much to be feared that the mere effect of female influence would be harmful4 ,just as the results of science do not depend on whether all men accept them or not1 so justice and injustice can be dealt out to the woman1 although she is unable to distinguish between them1 and she need not be afraid that injury will be done her1 as justice and not might will be the deciding factor in her treatment4 ,but justice is always the same whether for man or woman4 ,no one has a right to forbid things to a woman because they are 8unwomanly02 neither should any man be so mean as to talk of his unfaithful wife's doings as if they were his affair4 ,woman must be looked upon as an individual and as if she were a free individual1 not as one of a species1 not as a sort of creation from the various wants of man's nature2 even though woman herself may never prove worthy of such a lofty view4 ,thus this book may be considered as the greatest honour ever paid to women4 ,nothing but the most moral relation towards women should be possible for men2 there should be neither sexuality nor love1 for both make woman the means to an end1 but only the attempt to understand her4 ,most men theoretically respect women1 but practically they thoroughly despise them2 according to my ideas this method should be reversed4 ,it is impossible to think highly of women1 but it does not follow that we are to despise them for ever4 ,it is unfortunate that so many great and famous men have had mean views on this point4 ,the views of ,schopenhauer and ,demosthenes as to the emancipation of women are good instances4 ,so also ,goethe's ,immer is so das ,mdchen beschftigt und reifet im stillen ,huslicher ,tugend entgegen1 den klugen ,mann zu beglcken4 ,wnscht sie dann endlich zu lesen1 so whlt sie gewisslich ein ,kochbuch1 is scarcely better than ,molire's 444 ,une femme en sait toujours assez1 ,quand la capacit de son esprit se hausse ,a connatre un pourpoint d'avec un haut de chausse4 ,men will have to overcome their dislike for masculine women1 for that is no more than a mean egoism4 ,if women ever become masculine by becoming logical and ethical1 they would no longer be such good material for man's projection2 but that is not a sufficient reason for the present method of tying woman down to the needs of her husband and children and forbidding her certain things because they are masculine4 ,for even if the possibility of morality is incompatible with the idea of the absolute woman1 it does not follow that man is to make no effort to save the average woman from further deterioration2 much less is he to help to keep woman as she is4 ,in every living woman the presence of what ,kant calls 8the germ of good0 must be assumed2 it is the remnant of a free state which makes it possible for woman to have a dim notion of her destiny4 ,the theoretical possibility of grafting much more on this 8germ of good0 should never be lost sight of1 even although nothing has ever been done1 or even if nothing could ever be done in that respect4 ,the basis and the purpose of the universe is the good1 and the whole world exists under a moral law2 even to the animals1 which are mere phenomena1 we assign moral values1 holding the elephant1 for instance1 to be higher than the snake1 notwithstanding the fact that we do not make an animal accountable when it kills another4 ,in the case of woman1 however1 we regard her as responsible if she commits murder1 and in this alone is a proof that women are above the animals4 ,if it be the case that womanliness is simply immorality1 then woman must cease to be womanly and try to be manly4 ,i must give warning against the danger of woman trying merely to liken herself outwardly to man1 for such a course would simply plunge her more deeply into womanliness4 ,it is only too likely that the efforts to emancipate women will result not in giving her real freedom1 in letting her reach free-will1 but merely in enlarging the range of her caprices4 ,it seems to me that if we look the facts of the case in the face there are only two possible courses open for women3 either to pretend to accept man's ideas1 and to think that they believe what is really opposed to their whole1 unchanged nature1 to assume a horror of immorality 7as if they were moral themselves71 of sexuality 7as if they desired platonic love72 or to openly admit that they are wrapped up in husband and children1 without being conscious of all that such an admission implies1 of the shamelessness and self-immolation of it4 ,unconscious hypocrisy1 or cynical identification with their natural instincts2 nothing else seems possible for woman4 ,but it is neither agreement nor disagreement with1 but rather the denial and overcoming of her womanishness that a woman should aim at4 ,if a woman really were to wish1 for instance1 for man's chastity1 it would mean that she had conquered the woman in her1 it would mean that pairing was no longer of supreme importance to her and that her aim was no longer to further it4 ,but here is the trouble3 such pretensions must not be accepted as genuine1 even although here and there they are actually put forward4 ,for a woman who longed for man's purity is1 apart from her hysteria1 so stupid and so incapable of truthfulness that she is unable to perceive that she is in this way negating herself1 making herself absolutely worthless1 without existence6 ,it is difficult to decide which is preferable3 the unlimited hypocrisy which can appropriate the thing that is most foreign to it1 i4e41 the ascetic ideal1 or the ingenuous admiration for the reformed rake1 the complacent devotion to him4 ,the principal problem of the woman question lies in the fact that in each case woman's one desire is to put all responsibility on man1 and in this it is identical with the problem of mankind4 ,friedrich ,nietzsche says in one of his books3 8,to underestimate the real difficulties of the man and woman problem1 to fail to admit the abysmal antagonism and the inevitable nature of the constant strain between the two1 to dream of equal rights1 education1 responsibilities and duties1 is the mark of the superficial observer1 and any thinker who has been found shallow in these difficult places--shallow by nature--should be looked upon as untrustworthy1 as a useless and treacherous guide2 he will1 no doubt1 be one of those who #8briefly deal with' all the real problems of life1 death and eternity--who never gets to the bottom of things4 ,but the man who is not superficial1 who has depth of thought as well as of purpose1 the depth which not only makes him desire right but endows him with determination and strength to do right1 must always look on woman from the oriental standpoint3--as a possession1 as private property1 as something born to serve and be dependent on him--he must see the marvellous reasonableness of the ,asiatic instinct of superiority over women1 as the ,greeks of old saw it1 those worthy successors and disciples of the ,eastern school4 ,it was an attitude towards woman which1 as is well known1 from ,homer's time till that of ,pericles1 grew with the growth of culture1 and increased in strength step by step1 and gradually became quite oriental4 ,what a necessary1 logical1 desirable growth for mankind6 if we could only attain to it ourselves60 ,the great individualist is here thinking in the terms of social ethics1 and the autonomy of his moral doctrine is overshadowed by the ideas of caste1 groups1 and divisions4 ,and so1 for the benefit of society1 to preserve the place of men1 he would place woman in subjection1 so that the voice of the wish for emancipation could no longer be heard1 and so that we might be freed from the false and foolish cry of the existing advocates of women's rights1 advocates who have no suspicion of the real source of woman bondage4 ,but ,i quoted ,nietzsche1 not to convict him of want of logic1 but to lead to the point that the solution of the problem of humanity is bound up with the solution of the woman problem4 ,if any one should think it a high-flown idea that man should respect woman as an entity1 a real existence1 and not use her merely as a means to an end1 that he should recognise in her the same rights and the same duties 7those of building up one's own moral personality7 as his own1 then he must reflect that man cannot solve the ethical problem in his own case1 if he continues to lower the idea of humanity in the women by using her simply for his own purposes4 ,coitus is the price man has to pay to women1 under the ,asiatic system1 for their oppression4 ,and although it is true that women may be more than content with such recompence for the worst form of slavery1 man has no right to take part in such conduct1 simply because he also is morally damaged by it4 ,even technically the problem of humanity is not soluble for man alone2 he has to consider woman even if he only wishes to redeem himself2 he must endeavour to get her to abandon her immoral designs on him4 ,women must really and truly and spontaneously relinquish coitus4 ,that undoubtedly means that woman1 as woman1 must disappear1 and until that has come to pass there is no possibility of establishing the kingdom of ,god on earth4 ,pythagoras1 ,plato1 ,christianity 7as opposed to ,judaism71 ,tertullian1 ,swift1 ,wagner1 ,ibsen1 all these have urged the freedom of woman1 not the emancipation of woman from man1 but rather the emancipation of woman from herself4 ,it is easy to bear ,nietzsche's anathema in such company6 ,but it is very hard for woman to reach such a goal by her own strength4 ,the spark in her is so flickering that it always needs the fire of man to relight it2 she must have an example to go by4 ,christ is an example2 ,he freed the fallen ,magdalen1 ,he swept away her past and expiated it for her4 ,wagner1 the greatest man since ,christ's time1 understood to the full the real significance of that act3 until woman ceases to exist as woman for man she cannot cease being woman4 ,kundry could only be released from ,klingsor's curse by the help of a sinless1 immaculate man--,parsifal4 ,this shows the complete harmony between the psychological and philosophical deduction which is dealt with in ,wagner's 8,parsifal10 the greatest work in the world's literature4 ,it is man's sexuality which first gives woman existence as woman4 ,woman will exist as long as man's guilt is inexpiated1 until he has really vanquished his own sexuality4 ,it is only in this way that the eternal opposition to all anti-feministic tendencies can be avoided2 the view that says1 since woman is there1 being what she is1 and not to be altered1 man must endeavour to make terms with her2 it is useless to fight1 because there is nothing which can be exterminated4 ,but it has been shown that woman is negative and ceases to exist the moment man determines to be nothing but true existence4 ,that which must be fought against is not an affair of ever unchangeable existence and essence3 it is something which can be put an end to1 and which ought to be put an end to4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this is the way1 and no other1 to solve the woman question1 and this comes from comprehending it4 ,the solution may appear impossible1 its tone exaggerated1 its claims overstated1 its requirements too exacting4 ,undoubtedly there has been little said about the woman question1 as women talk of it2 we have been dealing with a subject on which women are silent1 and must always remain silent--the bondage which sexuality implies4 ,this woman question is as old as sex itself1 and as young as mankind4 ,and the answer to it8 ,man must free himself of sex1 for in that way1 and that way alone1 can he free woman4 ,in his purity1 not1 as she believes1 in his impurity1 lies her salvation4 ,she must certainly be destroyed1 as woman2 but only to be raised again from the ashes--new1 restored to youth--as a real human being4 ,so long as there are two sexes there will always be a woman question1 just as there will be the problem of mankind4 ,christ was mindful of this when1 according to the account of one of the ,fathers of the ,church--,clemens--,he talked with ,salome1 without the optimistic palliation of the sex which ,st4 ,paul and ,luther invented later3 death will last so long as women bring forth1 and truth will not prevail until the two become one1 until from man and woman a third self1 neither man nor woman1 is evolved4 99 99 99 99 99 ,now for the first time1 looking at the woman question as the most important problem of mankind1 the demand for the sexual abstinence on the part of both sexes is put forward with good reason4 ,to seek to ground this claim on the prejudicial effects on the health following sexual intercourse would be absurd1 for any one with knowledge of the physical frame could upset such a theory at all points2 to found it on the immorality of passion would also be wrong1 because that would introduce a heteronomous motive into ethics4 ,st4 ,augustine1 however1 must certainly have been aware1 when he advocated chastity for all mankind1 that the objection raised to it would be that in such a case the whole human race would quickly disappear from the face of the earth4 ,this extraordinary apprehension1 the worst part of which appears to be the thought that the race would be exterminated1 shows not only the greatest unbelief in individual immortality and eternal life for moral well-doers2 it is not only most irreligious1 but it proves at the same time the cowardice of man and his incapacity to live an individual life4 ,to any one who thinks thus1 the earth can only mean the turmoil and press of those on it2 death must seem less terrible to such a man than isolation4 ,if the immortal1 moral part of his personality were really vigorous1 he would have courage to look this result in the face2 he would not fear the death of the body1 nor attempt to substitute the miserable certainty of the continuation of the race for his lack of faith in the eternal life of the soul4 ,the rejection of sexuality is merely the death of the physical life1 to put in its place the full development of the spiritual life4 ,hence it follows that it cannot be a moral duty to provide for the continuance of the race4 ,this common argument appears to me to be so extraordinarily false that ,i am almost ashamed to meet it4 ,yet at the risk of making myself ridiculous ,i must ask if any one ever consummated coitus to avoid the great danger of letting the human race die out1 if he failed in his duty8 ,and would it not follow that any man who prefers chastity would be open to the charge of immoral conduct8 ,every form of fecundity is loathsome1 and no one who is honest with himself feels bound to provide for the continuity of the human race4 ,and what we do not realise to be a duty1 is not a duty4 ,on the contrary1 it is immoral to procreate a human being for any secondary reason1 to bring a being into the limitations of humanity1 the conditions made for him by his parentage2 the fundamental reason why the possible freedom and spontaneity of a human being is limited is that he was begotten in such an immoral fashion4 ,that the human race should persist is of no interest whatever to reason2 he who would perpetuate humanity would perpetuate the problem and the guilt1 the only problem and the only guilt4 ,the only true goal is divinity and the union of humanity with the ,godhead2 that is the real choice between good and evil1 between existence and negation4 ,the moral sanction that has been invented for coitus1 in supposing that there is an ideal attitude to the act in which only the propagation of the race is thought of1 is no sufficient defence4 ,there is no such imperative in the mind of man2 it is merely an ingenious defence of a desire1 and there is the fundamental immorality in it1 that the being to be created has no power of choice with regard to his parents4 ,as for the sexual union in which the production of children is prevented1 there is no possible justification4 ,sexual union has no place in the idea of mankind1 not because ascetism is a duty1 but because in it woman becomes the object1 the cause1 and man does what he will with her1 looks upon her merely as a 8thing10 not as a living human being with an inner1 psychic1 existence4 ,and so man despises woman the moment coitus is over1 and the woman knows that she is despised1 even although a few minutes before she thought herself adored4 ,the only thing to be respected in man is the idea of mankind2 this disparagement of woman 7and himself71 induced by coitus1 is the surest proof that it is opposed to that idea of mankind4 ,any one who is ignorant of what this ,kantian 8idea of mankind0 means1 may perhaps understand it when he thinks of his sisters1 his mother1 his female relatives2 it concerns them all3 for our own sakes1 then1 woman ought to treated as human1 respected and not degraded1 all sexuality implying degradation4 ,but man can only respect woman when she herself ceases to wish to be object and material for man2 if there is any question of emancipation it should be the emancipation from the prostitute element4 ,it has never until now been made clear where the bondage of woman lies2 it is in the sovereign1 all too welcome power wielded on them by the ,phallus4 ,there can be no doubt that the men who have really desired the emancipation of women are the men who are not very sexual1 who have no great craving for love1 who are not very profound1 but who are men of noble and spiritual minds4 ,i am not going to try to palliate the erotic motives of man1 nor to represent his antipathy to the 8emancipated woman0 as being in any sense less than it is2 it is much easier to go with the majority1 than1 as ,kant did1 to climb1 painfully and slowly1 to the heights of isolation4 ,but a great deal of what is taken for enmity to emancipation is due to the want of confidence in its possibility4 ,man does not really want woman as a slave3 he is usually only too anxious for a companion4 ,the education which the woman of the present day receives is not calculated to fit her for the battle against her real bondage4 ,the last resource of her 8womanly0 teacher1 if she declines to do this or that1 is to say that no man will have her unless she does it4 ,women's education is directed solely to preparing them for their marriage1 the happy state in which they are to find their crown4 ,such training would have little effect on man1 but it serves to accentuate woman's womanishness1 her dependence1 and her servile condition4 ,the education of woman must be taken out of the hands of woman2 the education of mankind must be taken out of the hands of the mother4 ,this is the first step towards placing woman in a relation to the idea of mankind1 which since the beginning she has done more than anything else to hinder4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a woman who had really given up her sexual self1 who wished to be at peace would be no longer 8woman40 ,she would have ceased to be 8woman10 she would have received the inward and spiritual sign as well as the outward form of regeneration4 ,can such a thing be8 ,there is no absolute woman1 but even so to say 8yes0 to the above question is like giving one's assent to a miracle4 ,emancipation will not make woman happier2 it will not ensure her salvation1 and it is a long road which leads to ,god4 ,no being in the transition stage between freedom and slavery can be happy4 ,but will woman choose to abandon slavery in order to become unhappy8 ,the question is not merely if it be possible for woman to become moral4 ,it is this3 is it possible for woman really to wish to realise the problem of existence1 the conception of guilt8 ,can she really desire freedom8 ,this can happen only by her being penetrated by an ideal1 brought to the guiding star4 ,it can happen only if the categorical imperative were to become active in woman2 only if woman can place herself in relation to the moral idea1 the idea of humanity4 ,in that way only can there be an emancipation of woman4 ,,index sthetics and ,erotics1 ,chap4 ,,xi41 #bcf-bea ,affinity1 sexual1 compared with chemical1 #da ,ahriman1 #ahc ,alcmon1 of ,kroton1 #ha ,alexander the ,great1 #bbi ,amphibia1 hermaphroditism1 #bb ,ansthesia1 sexual1 #bgd ,anatomical distinctions of the sexes1 #c ,anatomy1 as guide to sexuality1 #c1 #d ,animals1 women and the sexual union of1 #beg ,angelo1 ,m41 #aje ,anti-,christ1 #ahc ,antisemitism1 #cjc1 #cjd1 #cab ,apprehension1 #aaf ,architecture1 #aai ,aristotle1 #ah1 #adj1 #ahg1 #bic ,arrhenoplasm1 ,chap4 ,,ii41 #aa-be ,aryans1 #cjb ,asceticism1 #cbi1 #ccf1 #cdg ,attraction1 between the sexes1 #bf1 #bg ,autobiography1 #abb ,avenarius1 #ca1 #hb1 #id1 #ajj1 #abh1 #add1 #cbb ,bach1 #ajc1 #cbc ,bachelors1 and women1 #beh ,bacon1 #ahb ,bashkirtseff1 ,marie1 #fi ,bateson1 on dimorphic earwigs1 #cd ,beatrice1 #bdj1 #ccf ,beauty1 analysis of1 #bdj1 #bdb ,beethoven1 #if1 #aab1 #cag ,bentham1 #agf1 #cag ,berkeley1 #ada1 #cag ,bisexuality1 oscillations in1 #ee ,bischoff1 #ab1 #bag ,bjrnson1 #ajh ,blavatsky1 ,mdme41 #fh ,blindness1 colour1 #aaj ,blood1 transfusion of1 #bj ,blsche1 #cbi ,bonheur1 ,rosa1 #fh ,bonnet1 #adc ,boys and girls1 education of1 #eh ,breeding1 application of laws of sexual attraction to1 #dc ,breuer1 on hysteria1 #bfe1 #bfi1 #bgj ,bridgman1 ,laura1 #ff ,brnnhilde1 #bbc ,bruno1 #ada1 #bdj1 #caf ,buchner1 #cae ,buddha1 #cbe1 #cbh ,burckhardt1 #gb ,burns1 ,robert1 #cag ,byron1 ,lord1 #bcf ,csar1 #acd1 #bbi1 #bcj1 #cbf ,carlyle1 #aac1 #acf1 #adj1 #age1 #bbi1 #cjg1 #cag ,castration1 effect of1 #ah ,catharsis1 #bfi ,catherine ,,ii4 of ,russia1 #ff ,catholic view of marriage1 #bba ,catholicism and women1 #bjg ,cattle1 homosexuality in1 #di ,causality1 invented by man1 #bgi ,cells1 sexuality of1 #ae1 #ag1 #bb1 #bc ,ceres1 #bbd ,chamberlain on ,jews1 #cab1 #cba1 #cbc1 #cbh on origin of ,christianity1 #cbh 8,character0 of ,avenarius1 #id1 #ie1 #if ,characterology1 ,chap4 ,v41 #eb-fc ,characters1 classification of1 #ad secondary sexual1 #dc ,chastity1 #cca1 #ccb1 #ccd1 #cce1 #cda1 #cdf ,chemistry1 ,kepler's estimate of1 #cae ,chemotropism1 #ci1 #da ,child1 relation of mother and prostitute to1 #bai ,chinese1 #ahg1 #cjb ,chivalry1 #bjd ,chopin1 #fg ,christ1 #cac1 #cbe1 #cbi ,christianity and ,judaism1 #cbe1 #cbg1 #cbh ,clairvoyance1 #bgg ,classification1 #ig ,clemens1 #cde ,cleopatra1 #bcj ,coitus1 #ccb1 #ccg1 #cdc ,colour blindness1 #aaj ,commerce1 and ,jews1 #cbe ,communism1 #cjg ,comparisons1 in poetry1 #aah ,compassion1 womanly1 #aig ,compliments1 and women1 #bjc ,comprehension1 power of by genius1 #aje ,comte1 ,a41 #ada1 #bjd1 #bdd ,confucius1 #cbh ,consciousness1 male and female1 ,chap4 ,,iii41 #ic-ajb ,conventions1 women and1 #bfb1 #bfc ,conversion1 ,jews and1 #cbc ,copernicus1 #adj1 #cae ,coquetry1 and sexuality1 #bcb ,correlations1 importance of1 #fa ,cromwell1 #bbi ,crustacea1 hermaphroditism in1 #ai ,cuvier1 #fa1 #fb1 #cae ,cyrano de ,bergerac1 #baa ,dane1 #bca ,dante1 #bdi1 #bii ,darwin1 #ig1 #acj1 #adj1 #bag on correlation1 #fa on female talent1 #ga on heterostylism1 #cc1 #cd on sexual tastes of animals1 #bg on union of those akin1 #dd ,da ,vinci1 #ig ,death1 #cdf ,death1 consciousness at1 #abh1 #abi ,de ,bergerac1 #baa ,decalogue1 #cac ,demeter1 #bbd ,demosthenes1 #cdj ,descartes1 #adi ,determinants1 in psychology1 #ha ,determination of sex1 #bc ,de ,vries1 on cell characters1 #af ,dilthey1 #hb ,dimorphism1 sexual1 #f ,divorce1 #bba ,don ,juan1 #ij1 #bcc1 #bii1 #ccb1 #cce ,doppelganger1 #baj ,drawing1 and women1 #abj ,dualism of the world1 #aff ,drer1 #cbb ,eckhard1 #cac ,education1 #eg of the race1 #cdh of women1 #cdh ,ego1 awakening of1 #afd ,ego1 conception of1 ,chap4 ,,vii41 #aec-afb 8,elective ,affinities10 #fi1 #bah 8,element0 of ,avenarius1 #id ,eliot1 ,george1 #fg ,emancipation of ,women1 ,chap4 ,,vi41 #fd-ge1 #cch ,embryoes1 sexual differentiation of1 #e ,emerson1 #ada1 #bcj ,empedocles1 #agb ,emperors and genius1 #aci ,empiricism1 and ,english philosophy1 #cag ,english philosophy1 #aec ,english and ,jew compared1 #cag1 #cai ,erotics1 and sthetics1 ,chap4 ,,xi41 #bcf-bea ,eroticism and humour1 #cah ,ethics and ,logic1 ,chap4 ,,vi41 #adb-aeb1 ,chap4 ,,vii41 #aec-afb ,euler1 #cae ,euripides1 #aje1 #ahg ,exner1 #ih ,faithfulness1 sexual1 #bbj ,falkenberg1 on fertilisation in seaweeds1 #dj ,fall1 meaning of1 #bhc ,familiarity1 quality of1 #add ,family1 origin of1 #bje amongst the ,jews1 #caj ,faraday1 #cae ,fechner1 #hb1 #bib1 #cac1 #cbb ,female1 contrasted with male1 ,chap4 ,i41 #gi-hd ,fr1 on sexual inversion1 #de ,ferns1 sexual attraction caused by malic acid1 #ci ,fertility1 limited in prostitutes1 #baf ,feuerbach1 #ada1 #cje ,fichte1 #adj1 #aej1 #cjg ,fischart1 #bbf ,flowers1 heterostylous1 #cc1 #cd ,forgetting1 analysis of process1 #ig ,form1 matter and form1 #bic ,formula1 of sexual attraction1 #bi1 #cg1 #ch of sexual constitution1 #h ,fouqu1 #ahh ,free love1 #bba ,free will1 #bji ,freud1 on hysteria1 #bfe-bgg ,friendship1 #di1 #bhh ,galileo1 #adj1 #cae ,gall1 on physiognomy1 #ei ,gauss1 #adj ,gaule1 #ab ,genesis1 ,book of1 #bie ,genital1 glands1 effect of transplantation1 #ba ,genius1 compared with talent1 ,chap4 ,,iv41 #ajc-aac and the ,ego1 ,chap4 ,,viii41 #afc-ahe in evolution of race1 #acg and language1 #acg and maleness1 #aac and memory1 ,chap4 ,v41 #aad-ada and morality1 #ahc and time1 #acf summary of1 #afi1 #ahb1 #ahc ,germain1 ,sophie1 #aid ,girls and boys1 education of1 #eh ,god1 ,schopenhauer's definition1 #cac ,goethe1 #dj1 #da1 #dc1 #fi1 #ig1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #abj1 #abf1 #agd1 #bjc1 #bah1 #bbh1 #cac1 #caf1 #ccb1 #cdj ,gonochorism1 #f1 #gc ,grafting1 of sexual organs1 #bj ,greeks and religion1 #cbc ,guilt1 hysterical consciousness of1 #bge ,hckel's 8gonochorism10 #f 8,hakon10 ,king1 #cbh ,hamilton1 #cag ,handel1 #cbb ,happiness1 impossibility of1 #bhe ,hartley1 #adc1 #cag ,hatred1 #bcf ,hauptmann1 #bgf ,havelock ,ellis1 #aa1 #ab ,hebbel1 #bgi ,hegel1 #aee ,heine1 #caf1 #cbc ,hellenbach1 #bhg ,helmholtz1 #hb1 #ig ,henids1 #ii ,herbart1 #ic1 #id1 #ada1 #bdf ,hering1 #adc ,hermaphroditism1 #f1 #g1 #aj1 #ac1 #af1 #ai1 #de 8,hero-worship10 #aac ,hertwig1 #af ,heterostylism1 #cc1 #cd ,hildebrand1 on heterostylism1 #cc ,hobbes1 #caf1 #cag ,homosexuality1 ,chap4 ,,iv41 #de-eb of famous women1 #ff ,horwicz1 #ic1 #id ,hume1 #ha1 #ada1 #aec1 #afd1 #age1 #aic1 #bjh1 #bah1 #cag ,humour1 analysis of1 #cah ,hunter1 ,john1 #ad ,hutcheson1 #age ,huxley1 #aic1 #cag ,hydrocele1 #be ,hypnotism1 #ej ,hypnotism and hysteria1 #bgg ,hysteria1 analysis of1 #bfe ,ibsen1 #afj1 #ahg1 #bah1 #bbd1 #bca1 #beh1 #bij1 #cbe1 #cdc ,idealism1 #agf ,idioplasm1 #af1 #ba1 #aee ,imagination1 of women1 #aai ,immortality1 #abg1 #ace1 #cad1 #cdf 8,impressions10 maternal1 #bag ,impulse1 sexual1 #hg1 #hh1 #bhb ,individualism1 #agf ,individuality1 #bhb ,individuation1 #bhb ,infants1 sex of1 #bc1 #bd ,innocence1 #bdc ,intermediate sexual forms1 #g ,inversion1 sexual1 #de ,irony1 #cbc ,israels1 #caf ,james1 ,w41 #hb1 #add ,janet1 on hysteria1 #bfe1 #bfg1 #bfh ,jealousy1 and women1 #bje1 #bhi ,jewish race1 #cjc ,jews and ,english compared1 #cai and women compared1 #cbj ,joshua1 #cbh ,judaism1 ,chap4 ,,xiii41 #cja-ccj and ,christianity1 #cbe and the ,messiah1 #cbi ,kant1 #db1 #he1 #aje1 #ach1 #aej1 #aec1 #aeh1 #aei1 #afa1 #afd1 #aib1 #bjh1 #bcg1 #bdf1 #bgj1 #cac1 #cbj1 #cca1 #cdj ,karneades1 #ada ,karsch1 #di ,kaufmann1 #aai ,kepler1 #cae ,kleptomania1 #bje ,kowalevsky1 ,sonia1 #fg ,kraepelin1 #de ,kundry1 #bgj1 #cai1 #ccg1 #cdd 8,lady from the ,sea10 #bah ,lamarck1 #ig1 #adc1 #cae ,lange1 #abi1 #bjh ,language1 origin of1 #acg ,latin1 women and1 #hi ,lavater1 #agd ,laws against homosexuality1 #ea of sexual attraction1 #bi ,leda1 #bca1 #bia ,leibnitz1 #adj1 #aga1 #agb1 #caf ,lepage1 ,bastien1 #fi ,lewes1 #cag ,liars1 and memory1 #ade ,libraries1 and women1 #bjf ,lichtenberg1 #aec ,linnus1 #adj1 #cae ,locke1 #ada1 #cag ,logic and the ,ego1 ,chap4 ,,vii41 #aec1 #afb ,logic and ethic1 ,chap4 ,,vii41 #aec-afb and memory1 ,chap4 ,,vi41 #adb-aeb ,lohengrin1 #cbd ,lombroso1 #ach ,lotze1 #abe ,love1 analysis of1 #bcf1 #bea maternal1 #bbe and sexuality1 #bci ,luther1 #cbe ,luxemburg1 #fi ,mach1 #adc1 #aed1 #bja1 #bjh1 #baj1 #cbb ,madness1 and genius1 #ahc ,madonna worship1 #bdi ,maeterlinck1 #ajh ,mahomet1 #ahg1 #cbe ,male and ,female1 ,chap4 ,i41 #gi-hd minds1 #bhd plasmas1 #aa ,malic acid in ferns1 #ci ,marriage1 effect on progeny of loveless1 #dd ideas of boys and girls on1 #ij religious1 #bba ,marx1 #cjg ,marxism1 #cbi ,masculine women1 #b1 #h1 #ag ,match-making1 and women1 #beb-cjj amongst ,jews1 #caa ,materialism1 and ,jews1 #cad ,matriarchy1 #bbb ,matter1 and form1 #bic and woman1 #bib ,maupas1 on rotifers1 #bd ,maupassant1 #bgf ,mayer1 #ig ,medicine1 ,jewish influence on1 #cae ,medical view of hysteria1 #bga 8,meistersingers10 #cje ,memory1 #bhb and genius1 ,chap4 ,v41 #aad-ada in boys and girls1 #bid in relation to logic1 ,chap4 ,,vi41 #adb-aeb ,messalina1 #ccf ,messiah1 #cbe1 #cbi ,meta-organisms1 #bhg ,metaphysics1 ,jews and1 #cbb ,microcosm1 #aga ,mill1 ,j4 ,s41 #agf1 #cag ,milne-,edwards1 #bia ,mirandola1 #ahh ,modesty1 #bfa1 #bgd womanly1 #bjj ,molire1 #cdj ,moll1 #eb1 #hh ,monads1 #aih1 #bhg1 #bid1 #big ,monogamy1 #dc1 #bbj ,morality1 #agf ,morality of women1 #aif1 #bgh1 #cdj ,more1 #gc ,morphology1 in relation to character1 ,chap4 ,v41 #eb-fc ,motherhood1 analysis of1 ,chap4 ,x41 #bad-bce ,mozart1 #cbc ,mller1 ,joh41 #bag ,murder1 #aji ,music1 and women1 #aah ,myxodema1 #be ,naegeli1 #af ,names1 and women1 #bjf 8,nana10 #bca ,napoleon1 #ahb1 #bbh1 #cbf1 #cbg ,newton1 #adj1 #cae ,new ,testament1 #cbe ,new ,zealand1 #cci ,nietzsche1 #ajd1 #ajh1 #adj1 #afg1 #cbi1 #cdb1 #cdd ,nirwana1 #agd ,nobility1 ,jews and1 #cjh ,nrgler1 #agd ,novalis1 #ajc1 #afe1 #beh ,nudity1 #bdj1 #bda ,organotherapy1 #ba ,oriental view of women1 #cdb ,origen1 #ahg ,oscillations1 in sexuality1 #ed ,ostwald1 #ca1 #cae ,ovid1 #ccb ,owen1 #cjg ,painting1 and women1 #abj ,pairing1 woman's chief instinct1 #beb-cjj and ,jews1 #caa 8,parsifal10 #cje1 #ccg1 #cdd ,pascal1 #agi1 #bje ,pasiphe1 #bia ,pasteur1 #cae ,paternity1 #bcb1 #cdf ,pathology1 #be ,paul1 ,jean1 #ajc1 #afd1 #cah ,pederasty1 ,chap4 ,,iv41 #de-eb 8,peer ,gynt10 #bbd1 foot note ,periodicity1 of genius1 #ajg ,personality1 multiple1 #baa1 #bfg ,persoon1 #cc ,petzoldt1 #if1 #ajj ,pfeffer1 #ci ,phallus1 relation of1 to women1 #bih1 #cdg ,philosophy1 ,english1 #aec ,philosophers1 and genius1 #ada ,physiognomy1 #ei1 #fj ,piety1 #cbb ,pity1 #aii ,plasmas1 male and female1 #aa ,plato1 #adi1 #aej1 #bdj1 #bdf1 #bic1 #cac1 #cdc ,platonic love1 #bci ,pleasure1 #bhb ,politeness1 and women1 #bjc ,politician1 character of1 #bcj ,politicians and genius1 #aci and value1 #acd ,pollen1 in heterostylous flowers1 #ce ,polyandry1 #bbb ,polygamy1 #bbj ,pregnancy1 #hf1 #bbb ,pre-,raphaelites1 #gc ,prvost1 #bef ,preyer1 #cae ,pride1 of women1 #bja ,property1 ,jewish relation to1 #cjf ,prostitution1 analysis of1 ,chap4 ,x41 #bad-bce ,protestantism1 and women1 #bjg ,psychology1 #adb male and female1 ,chap4 ,,ix41 #ahf-bac ,puberty1 effect of1 #ij ,pythagoras1 #cdc ,rabbis1 ,jewish1 #caa ,race1 persistence of human1 #bbd1 #cdf ,raphael1 #bbf ,recognition1 #bhb ,red ,sea1 crossing of1 #cbc ,regeneration1 of lost parts1 #af moral1 #bhc ,religion1 founders of1 #cbf1 #cbg importance of1 #cbc ,jews and1 #cba women and1 #bfa ,revenge1 #bhi ,reverence1 #cbb ,richepin1 #bbf ,rousseau1 #cjg ,rudiments1 of 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,sigwart1 #aef ,simmel1 ,george1 #adh ,slavery1 compared with ,jewish problem1 #cch ,smith1 ,adam1 #age1 #cag ,socialism1 #cjg ,society1 origin of1 #bje ,socrates1 #aej1 #bdf1 #cbf ,solidarity1 of the ,jews1 #caj ,solitude1 and women1 #bje ,solliers1 on sexual ansthesia1 #bgd ,somerville1 ,mary1 #aid ,sophocles1 #ahd ,soul1 #cac denied by modern science1 #cae and great men1 #afh and modern psychology1 #bji and women1 #ahg ,spencer1 ,herbert1 #abh1 #acj1 #bfc1 #cag ,spinoza1 #caf1 #cag ,sprengel1 #cae ,state1 #cjg ,steenstrup1 #ab1 #ac ,sterility1 #baf ,stern1 ,l4 ,w41 #hb ,sterne1 #cag 8,stockman1 ,dr410 #cbe ,strauss1 #aab ,strindberg1 #ahg ,sudermann1 #bef ,suggestibility1 of women1 #bid ,suicide1 of women1 #bhf ,sulpicia1 #cai ,superstition1 of women1 #abg ,swift1 #cag1 #cdc ,sympathy1 #agg1 #aig 8,tannhuser10 #bdj1 #cje ,telegony1 #bcc ,teresa1 ,st41 #bgg ,tertullian1 #ahg1 #cad1 #cdc 8,tesman10 in ,hedda ,gabler1 #beh ,thelyplasm1 ,chap4 ,,ii41 #aa-be ,time1 relation to value1 #acc ,tolstoy1 #bca ,touch1 sense of1 in women1 #aia ,tragedy1 #cai ,transcendentalism1 #cad ,transfusion1 of blood1 #bj ,travel1 desire of1 #bcg1 note ,truth1 #aej ,trck1 #ach ,tylor1 #abh ,types1 male and female1 mental1 #ec ,undine1 #ahh ,universality1 of genius1 #aab ,untruthfulness1 of women1 #bff ,value1 theory of1 #acc ,vanity1 of women1 #bjb ,variation in sexual characters1 #ah ,virginity1 a male idea1 #ccc woman's attitude to1 #ccd ,virtue of women1 #ccc ,vogt1 on hysteria1 #bfe1 #bgd1 #bgg ,von ,eschenbach1 #bfd ,von ,hffding1 #add ,von ,humboldt1 #adj ,von ,kleist1 #aje ,von ,mbius1 #ei ,wagner1 #fg1 #aji1 #baa1 #bdj1 #bgi1 #cje1 #cai1 #cdc ,weill1 #cf ,weismann1 #ha ,wier1 #ha ,will1 #bhb ,wit and humour1 #cah ,woman and animals1 #bij1 #bia character of1 #bhj emancipated1 #fd famous1 #fi future of1 ,chap4 ,,xiv41 #cca-cdj compared with ,jews1 #cbj and matter1 #bib sexuality of1 #bfj summary of her nature1 ,chap4 ,,xii41 #beb-cjj ,wundt1 #id1 #aca1 #adj 8,zarathustra10 #ajh1 #afg ,zionism1 #cjg1 #cab ,zola1 #aje1 #bca1 #cjd ,printed by ,,ballantyne ,,co4 ,,limited ,tavistock ,street1 ,london ,transcriber's ,notes ,the language of the source document 7including inconsistencies in spelling1 hyphenation1 etc47 has been retained1 unless listed below4 ,many of the proper names mentioned in the book are spelled differently from what is usual4 ,these have been left as printed as well1 unless listed below4 ,page xviii1 ,continuous and discontinuance memory3 as printed in the source document4 ,page #cf1 so many other actors3 possibly an error for so many other factors4 ,page #ada1 ,prospera3 possibly an error for ,prospero4 ,page #bje1 much more developed in men than in women3 probably an error for much more developed in women than in men 7cf4 remainder of paragraph74 ,page #bhb1 ,the terms in the left-hand row3 as printed in the source document4 ,page #cjg1 in the left row3 as printed in the source document4 ,changes made ,some minor obvious typographical and punctuation errors and misprints have been corrected silently4 ,footnotes have been moved to directly underneath the paragraph where they are referenced4 ,page #g3 ,boyle-,guy-,lussac changed to ,boyle-,gay-,lussac ,page #be3 thelyplastic changed to thelyplasmic ,page #bi3 closing quote mark added after 444 in different proportions4 ,page #ch3 ,postwangen changed to ,postwagen ,page #fi3 ,jeanna de la ,mothe ,guyon changed to ,jeanne de la ,mothe ,guyon2 ,footnote #f3 ,hysterias if 444 changed to ,hysteria is 444 ,page #ig3 ,helmholz changed to ,helmholtz as elsewhere ,page #aah3 ,kloppstock changed to ,klopstock ,page #afj3 ,nebbel's epigram changed to ,hebbel's epigram ,page #aha3 ,ernest ,mack changed to ,ernest ,mach ,page #ahe3 closing quote mark added after ,latin text ,page #bag3 ,th4 ,bischof changed to ,th4 ,bischoff ,page #cje3 ,tannhaser changed to ,tannhuser ,index3 some minor spelling changes made to conform to the text4