,transcrib]'s notes3 ,! text ( ?is e-book has mo/ly be5 pres]v$ 9 its orig9al =m1 b a numb] ( typographic errors h be5 correct$ sil5tly - !y are li/$ at ! end ( ! book4 ,miss+ or inconsi/5t punctuation has be5 correct$ sil5tly 9 a few places1 b inconsi/5t hyph5ation has n be5 alt]$4 ,an index item t lack$ a page ref]5ce has be5 rem$i$1 & an ar*aic symbol repres5t+ ! ma!matical #8factorial' function has be5 replac$ by ! /&>d exclamation m>k 7674 ,footnotes h be5 numb]$ & position$ bel[ ! relevant p>agraphs4 ,! m>k] = footnote #ca 0 miss+ f ! orig9al text & has be5 arbitr>ily plac$ at ! end ( ! relevant p>agraph4 ,9 ?is pla9 text v]sion1 italic text is d5ot$ by und]scores4 ,sup]script$ *>act]s are surr\nd$ by curly brackets prec$$ by a c>et symbol1 e4g4 #baj1 & subscript$ *>act]s are surr\nd$ by curly brackets prec$$ by a d[nw>d arr[1 e4g4 ,h4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,biology ,,cambridge ,,univ]sity ,,press ,london3 ,,fett] ,,lane1 ,e4,c4 ,c4 ,f4 ,,clay1 ,manag] ,illu/ration ,ed9burgh3 #ajj ,,pr9ces ,,/reet ,b]l93 ,a4 ,,a%] ,,& ,,co4 ,leipzig3 ,f4 ,a4 ,,brockhaus ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,,putnam',s ,,sons ,bombay & ,calcutta3 ,,macmillan ,,& ,,co41 ,,ltd4 ,toronto3 ,j4 ,m4 ,,d5t ,,sons1 ,,ltd4 ,tokyo3 ,,! ,,m>uz5-,,kabu%iki-,,kai%a ,all rights res]v$ ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,biology ,,by ,,james ,,john/one1 ,d4,sc4 ,cambridge3 at ! ,univ]sity ,press #aiad ,,introduction ,x has be5 sugge/$ t "s ref]5ce1 ( an apologetic nature1 to ! title ( ?is book may be desirable1 s ,i wi% to po9t out t x c really be ju/ifi$4 ,sci5ce1 says ,dries*1 is ! attempt to describe ,giv5ness1 & ,philosophy is ! attempt to und]/& x4 ,x is our task1 z inve/igators ( nature1 to describe :at seems to u to happ5 !re1 & ! k t we s atta9--t is1 our p]ceptions1 ?9n$ out1 s to speak1 modifi$ by our m5tal organisation1 relat$ to ea* o!r1 classifi$ & rememb]$--con/itutes our ,giv5ness4 ,?is is only a description ( :at seems to u to be nature4 ,b few ( u rema9 cont5t ) x1 & ! impulse to g beyond our m]e descriptions is at times an irresi/ible "o4 ,fett]$ by our habits ( ?\ght1 & by ! limitations ( s5sation1 we seem to look out into ! d>k & to see only ! %ad[s ( ?+s4 ,!n we attempt to turn r\nd 9 ord] t we might discov] :at x is t ca/s ! %ad[s1 & :at x is 9 ourselves t gives %ape to !m4 ,we seek = ! ,reality t we feel is beh9d ! %ad[s4 ,t is ,philosophy4 ,! ,physics ( a g5]ation e>li] ?an our own ?\ght t x _h discov]$ ,reality 9 its conception ( an ,univ]se consi/+ ( atoms & molecules 9 ceaseless motion4 ,:at x describ$ 7 only motions & trans=mations1 b x und]/ood ^! motions & trans=mations z matt] & en]gy4 ,yet m subtle m9ds ?an ! great physici/s ( ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury _h already se5 t s5sation might mislead u4 ,!re 0 some?+ 9 u t cont9ually *ang$--t 0 our consci\sness1 & x 0 all t we knew4 ,if ext]nal ?+s did exi/ !y exi/$ only because we ?\ght !m4 ,b we ourselves exi/1 = we are n only a /ream ( consci\sness t cont9ually *anges1 b !re is 9 u a p]sonality1 or id5tity1 :i* has rema9$ ! same ?r\gh\t all ! vicissitudes ( our consci\sness4 ,if ! ?+s t exi/ = u exi/ only because we ?9k !m1 & if we also exi/1 !n we mu/ exi/ 9 ! ?\ght ( an ,absolute ,m9d t ?9ks u4 ,physical ,sci5ce1 /udy+ only motions & trans=mations1 und]/ood t !re 0 some?+ t mov$ & trans=m$--?is 0 matt] & en]gy4 ,m5tal ,sci5ce1 /udy+ only ?\ght1 und]/ood t nature 0 only ! ?\ght ( an ,univ]sal ,m9d4 ,ei!r conclusion 0 equally valid ,philosophy 7or metaphysics71 & nei!r c\ld be prov$ or disprov$ by ! me?ods ( ,sci5ce4 ,! speculative game is drawn1 said ,huxley1 let u get to practical "w6 ,bo? ,physics & ,biology did get to "w1 ) ! results t we "k4 ,b ,physics advanc$ f> beyond ! acquirem5t ( ! results t /imulat$ ,biology to =mulate our pres5t hypo!ses ( evolution & h]$ity4 ,z its k accumulat$1 x began to d\bt :e!r matt] & en]gy1 atoms & molecules1 mass & in]tia--all ^? ?+s :i* x ?\ght at fir/ 7 s real--7 any?+ else aft] all ?an ways 9 :i* our m5tal organisation dealt ) crude s5sations4 ,!y might1 z ,b]gson said lat] on1 be ! m\lds into :i* we p\r our p]ceptions4 ,physics set up a te/ ( ,reality1 ! law ( ! cons]vation ( matt] & en]gy4 ,!re are exi/5ces :i* may or may n p]si/4 ,visions & phantasms & dreams are exi/5ces :ile !y la/4 ,!y are true = ! m9d 9 :i* !y occur4 ,b !y seem to arise out ( no?+1 & to disappe> into no?+1 & physical ,sci5ce _c inve/igate !m4 ,!y are exi/5ces :i* are n cons]v$4 ,on ! o!r h& ^? images :i* we call mov+ matt] & trans=m+ en]gy c be inve/igat$ by ! me?ods ( physics4 ,molecules *ange1 b some?+ 9 !m1 ! atoms1 rema9 con/ant4 ,en]gy becomes trans=m$1 & x may ev5 seem to cease to exi/1 b if x disappe>s1 !n some?+ is *ang$ s t ! lo/ en]gy c be trac$ 9 ! nature ( ! *ange4 ,matt] & en]gy are cons]v$ & !re=e !y are ! only ,realities4 ,b ! te/ is obvi\sly "o t has an a priori basis1 & we may d\bt :e!r x is a te/ ( ,reality4 ,?us ,physics con/ruct$ a dynamical ,univ]se1 t is1 "o :i* consi/$ ( atoms :i* attract$ or repell$ ea* o!r ) =ces :i* 7 functions ( ! di/ances betwe5 !m4 ,ev5 n[ ?is conception ( a dynamical1 ,newtonian ,univ]se is a useful "o1 ?\gh we recognise t x is only symbolism4 ,b x 0 n a conception ) :i* ,physics c\ld long rema9 cont5t4 ,h[ c\ld atoms sep>at$ f ea* o!r by empty space act on ea* o!r1 t is1 h[ c\ld a ?+ act :]e x 0 n8 ,!re mu/ be some?+ betwe5 ! atoms4 ,! ,univ]se c\ld n be a discont9u\s "o1 & s ,physics inv5t$ an ,univ]se t 0 full4 ,x 0 an immat]ial1 homog5e\s1 impond]able1 cont9u\s ,univ]se4 ,t :i* exi/$ beh9d ! appe>ances ( atoms & molecules & en]gy 0 ! e!r ( space4 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t ! conception appe>s to ! layman to involve only contradictions3 het]og5e\s1 discont9u\s1 pond]able atoms are only s+ul>ities 9 a homog5e\s1 cont9u\s1 impond]able m$ium1 or e!r4 ,yet x is easy to see t ?is contradiction arises 9 our m9d only because we _h previ\sly ?\ght ( ! ,univ]se 9 t]ms ( matt] & en]gy1 & 9 spite ( ourselves we attempt to ?9k ( ! new ,reality 9 t]ms ( ! old "o4 ,9 its attempt to und]/& all its lat] results ,physics _h !re=e to inv5t a new ,philosophy--t ( ! e!r ( space4 ,x is only 9 our own times t ,biology has become sceptical & has begun to d\bt :e!r its e>li] ,philosophy is a s\nd "o4 ,t :i* x describes--! object-matt] ( its ,sci5ce--is n t :i* ,physics describes4 ,!re are two doma9s ( ,giv5ness1 ! organic & ! inorganic4 ,biology1 lean+ on ,physics1 /udi$ motions & trans=mations1 j z ,physics did1 ?\gh ! motions :i* x /udi$ 7 m complex & ! trans=mations m my/]i\s4 ,b borr[+ ! me?ods ( inve/igation ( ,physics x borr[$ also its ,philosophy1 & s x plac$ beh9d its ,giv5ness ! ,reality t ,physics at fir/ po/ulat$ & !n ab&on$4 ,! organism 0 !re=e a mat]ial sy/em actuat$ by en]gy4 ,! notion1 x %\ld be not$1 is n a d$uction f ! results ( ,biology1 b only f its me?ods4 ,did ,physiology1 t is1 ! ,physiology ( ! ,s*ools1 ev] really inve/igate ! organism8 ,a muscle-n]ve prep>ation1 an excis$ kidney ?r\gh :i* blood is p]fus$1 an expos$ saliv>y gl& :i* is /imulat$1 ev5 a frog depriv$ ( its c]ebral hemisph]es--^! ?+s are n organisms4 ,!y are n p]man5t c5tres ( action1 autonom\s physico-*emical con/ellations capable ( indep5d5t exi/5ce1 & capable ( indef9ite gr[? by dissociation4 ,!y are p>ts ( ! organism1 :i*1 hav+ receiv$ ! impulse ( life1 an impulse :i* soon becomes exhau/$1 exhibit = a "t "s ( ! ph5om5a ( ! organism4 ,:at ,physiology did atta9 9 su* inve/igations 0 an analytical description ( "s ( ! activities ( ! organism4 ,x did n describe life1 b r ! physico-*emical reactions 9 :i* life is manife/$4 ,! description1 x %\ld be not$1 is all-important = ! human race 9 its ef=t to acquire ma/]y ov] its environm5t2 & !re is no o!r way 9 :i* x may be c>ri$ fur!r b by ! me?ods ( physical ,sci5ce4 ,giv5ness is "o1 ?\gh we arbitr>ily divide x into ! doma9s ( ! organic & ! inorganic1 & !re c be only "o way ( describ+ x4 ,t is ! me*ani/ic me?od4 ,nev]!less all ?is is only a description1 & our ,philosophy mu/ be ! attempt to und]/& our description4 ,! me*ani/ic biologi/1 9 ! attempt to id5tify 8 ,philosophy ) t ( a =m] g5]ation ( physici/s1 says t he is describ+ a physico-*emical aggregate--an assemblage ( molecules ( a high degree ( complexity--actuat$ by en]gy1 & und]go+ trans=mations4 ,b our scepticism z to ! validity ( ?is conclusion is ar\s$ by reflect+ on its orig94 ,if x 0 borr[$ f ! ,philosophy ( a pa/ ,physics1 & if ! m p5etrat+ analysis ( ! ,physics ( our own "t has made a new ,philosophy desirable1 %\ld n ,biology also revise its und]/&+ ( its descriptions8 ,= ,biology has n /ood /ill any m ?an ,physics1 & ! ,physiology ( our own day has become diff]5t f t ( ! times :5 ! me*ani/ic ,philosophy ( life took orig94 ,! embryologi/s & ! naturali/s ( our own g5]ation h /udi$ ! :ole organism 9 its normal function+ & behavi\r1 & h obta9$ results :i* _c easily be und]/ood z physico-*emical me*anism4 ,life is n ! activities ( ! organism1 b ! integration ( ! activities ( ! organism1 j z ,reality = ,physics is n ! atoms & molecules ( gross matt]1 b ! integration ( ^! 9 ! e!r ( space4 ,?is1 !n1 is all t we mean by ! philosophy ( ,biology--! attempt to und]/& ! descriptions ( ! ,sci5ce 9 ! light ( its lat] inve/igations4 ,philosophy1 9 ! academic s5se1 we h n consid]$ 9 relation to ! subject-matt] ( our sci5ce1 ?\gh !re is mu* 9 ! classic sy/ems t is ( absorb+ int]e/1 ev5 to ! work+ inve/igator ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,! biological education is n1 h[ev]1 su* z to pr$ispose "o t[>ds ^! /udies4 ,! read] w recognise t ! po9t ( view1 & ! me?ods ( treatm5t1 adopt$ 9 ?is book are ^? sugge/$ by ,dries* & ,b]gson1 ev5 if no ref]5ces are giv54 ,he may1 p]haps1 appreciate ?is limitation2 =1 influ5c$ by ! mod]n sci5tific tra9+1 he may be incl9$ to reg>d ,philosophy z ,m>k ,twa9 reg>d$ 8 ,egyptian mummy3 if he is to h a corpse x might z well be a real fre% "o4 ,j4 ,j4 ,,liv]pool ,novemb] #aiac ,,cont5ts ,,*apt] ,i ,,page ,,! ,,conceptual ,,_w #a ,argum5t4--,! consci\s organism is "o t acts4 ,its consci\sness ( an ext]nal _w is n simply ! result ( ! /imuli made by t _w on its organs ( s5se1 = x becomes fully aw>e only ( ^? /imuli :i* result 9 delib]at$ bodily activity4 ,?is aw>5ess ( an out] _w on :i* x acts is ! p]ception ( ! organism4 ,its consci\sness is an int5sive multiplicity4 ,?is multiplicity is arbitr>ily dissociat$1 = conv5i5ce' sake1 by ! m5tal organisation1 :i* conf]s ext5sion & magnitude & succession on ^? aspects ( consci\sness :i* x arbitr>ily dissociates f ea* o!r4 ,our notion ( space is an intuitive "o & dep5ds on our modes ( bodily ex]tion4 ,our notions ( motion & cont9uity are also intuitive ones1 & !y _c be repres5t$ intellectually1 b we c approximate to !m by ! me?ods ( ! inf9itesimal calculus4 ,ma!matical "t is only a s]ies ( /&>d ev5ts :i* punctuate our duration4 ,duration is ! accumulat$ exi/5ce & exp]i5ce ( ! organism4 ,we _c prove intellectually t !re is a _w ext]nal to our consci\sness1 b t ?is _w exi/s is a conviction intuitively held4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,organism ,,z ,a ,,me*anism #di ,argum5t4--,if ! organism is a physico-*emical me*anism its activities mu/ con=m to ! two pr9ciples ( en]getics3 ! law ( cons]vation ( en]gy & matt]1 & ! law ( entropy-increase4 ,!y con=m /rictly to ! law ( cons]vation4 ,! law ( ! degradation ( en]gy is true ( our exp]i5ce ( inorganic nature1 b we c %[ t x _c be univ]sally true4 ,inorganic processes are irrev]sible ones1 & !y proce$ 9 "o direction only1 & 9 !m en]gy is degrad$4 ,organic processes1 t is1 ! processes c>ri$ on 9 ! g5]alis$ organism1 are irrev]sible2 or1 at lea/1 !re is a t5d5cy = !m to be c>ri$ on )\t necess>y dissipation ( en]gy4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,activities ,,( ,,! ,,organism #hc ,argum5t4--,if ! organism is inve/igat$ by ! me?ods ( physical & *emical sci5ce1 no?+ b physico-*emical activities c be discov]$4 ,?is is necess>ily ! case1 s9ce me?ods :i* yield physico-*emical results only are employ$4 ,! physiologi/ makes an analysis ( ! activities ( ! organism1 & he r$uces ^! activities to c]ta9 categories2 al?\gh all attempts completely to describe ! function+ ( ! organism solely 9 t]ms ( physical & *emical reactions fail4 ,9 addition to ! reactions :i* make up ! function+ ( an organ or organ-sy/em1 !re is direction & co-ord9ation ( ^! reactions4 ,! individual physico-*emical reactions :i* occur 9 ! function+ ( ! organism are integrat$1 & life is n m]ely ^! reactions1 b also _! integration4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,vital ,,impetus #abj ,argum5t4--,! notion ( ! organism z a physico-*emical me*anism is a d$uction f ! me?ods ( physiology1 & n f its results4 ,! notion ( vitalism is a natural or intuitive "o4 ,! hi/oric sy/ems ( vitalism assum$ ! exi/5ce ( a spiritual ag5cy 9 ! organism1 or ( a =m ( en]gy :i* 0 peculi> to ! activities ( ! organism4 ,mod]n inve/igation l5ds no support to ei!r belief4 ,b ! /udy ( ! organism z a :ole1 t is1 ! /udy ( developm5tal processes1 or t ( ! organism act+ z a :ole1 af=d a logical dispro( ( pure me*anism4 ,x %[s t !re _c be a functionality1 9 ! ma!matical s5se1 betwe5 ! inorganic ag5cies t affect ! :ole organism & ! behavi\r or function+ ( ! :ole organism4 ,me*anism is only sugge/$ 9 ! /udy ( isolat$ p>ts ( ! organism4 ,we are compell$ t[>d ! belief t !re is an ag5cy op]ative 9 ! activities ( ! organism :i* does n op]ate 9 purely inorganic becom+4 ,?is is ! ,vital ,impetus ( ,b]gson1 or ! ,entele*y ( ,dries*4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,individual ,,& ,,! ,,species #afb ,argum5t4--,! concept ( ! organic individual is "o :i* is arbitr>y1 & is conv5i5t only = purposes ( description4 ,life on ! e>? is integrally "o4 ,p]sonality is ! intuition ( ! consci\s organism t x is a c5tre ( action1 & t all ! re/ ( ! univ]se is relative to x4 ,! individual organism1 reg>d$ objectively1 is an isolat$1 autonom\s con/ellation1 capable ( indef9ite gr[? by dissociation1 diff]5tiation1 & re-integration4 ,?is gr[? is reproduction4 ,! dissociat$ "p reproduces ! =m & mann] ( function+ ( ! individual organism f :i* x has proce$$4 ,! (fspr+ v>ies f ! p>5t organism1 b x resembles x mu* m ?an x v>ies f x4 ,!re are !re=e categories ( organisms 9 nature ! individuals ( :i* resemble ea* o!r m ?an !y resemble ! individuals belong+ to o!r categories3 ^! are ! elem5t>y species4 ,hypo!ses ( h]$ity are corpuscul> ones1 & are bas$ on ! physical analogy ( molecules & atoms4 ,! concept ( ! species is a logical "o4 ,! organism is a phase 9 an evolution>y or a developm5tal flux1 & ! idea ( ! species is atta9$ by arre/+ ?is flux4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,trans=mism #bjh ,argum5t4--,a reason$ classification ( organisms sugge/s t a process ( evolution has tak5 place4 ,x sugge/s logical relation- %ips betwe5 organisms1 :ile ! results ( embryology & palontology sugge/ *ronological relation%ips4 ,yet ?is k9%ip ( organisms might only be a logical1 & n a mat]ial "o4 ,evolution may h occurr$ some:]e1 b x might be argu$ t ! ideas ( species h g5]at$ ea* o!r 9 a ,creative ,?\ght4 ,b trans=mism may be produc$ exp]im5tally1 & s sci5ce has adopt$ a me*ani/ic hypo!sis ( ! nature ( ! process4 ,trans=mism ( species dep5ds on ! occurr5ce ( v>iations1 b ^! arise spontane\sly & indep5d5tly ( ea* o!r1 & !y mu/ be co-ord9at$4 ,?is co-ord9ation ( v>iations _c be ! "w ( ! environ m5t4 ,v>iations are cumulative1 & !y exhibit direction1 & ?is direction is ei!r an accid5tal "o1 or x is ! expression ( an impetus or direct+ ag5cy 9 ! v>y+ organism itself4 ,! problem ( ! cause ( v>iation is only a pseudo-problem4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,! ,,mean+ ,,( ,,evolution #bde ,argum5t4--,if we assume ! exi/5ce ( an evolution>y process1 ! results ( morphology1 embryology1 & palontology ought to enable u to trace ! directions foll[$ dur+ ?is process4 ,b ^! results are /ill s unc]ta9 t !y indicate only a few ma9 l9es ( trans=mism4 ,phylog5etic trees are l>gely conjectural 9 matt]s ( detail4 ,evolution has result$ 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( sev]al dom9ant gr\ps ( organisms--! metatrophic bact]ia1 ! *lorophyllian organisms1 ! ar?ropods1 & ! v]tebrates4 ,ea* ( ^! gr\ps displays c]ta9 *>act]s ( morphology1 en]gy-trans=mation1 & behavi\r2 & a c]ta9 comb9ation ( *>act]s is conc5trat$ 9 ea* ( ! gr\ps4 ,b !re is a community ( "* 9 all organisms :i* h aris5 dur+ ! evolution>y process4 ,! trans=mation ( k9etic into pot5tial en]gy is *>act]i/ic ( ! *lorophyllian organisms4 ,! utilisation ( pot5tial en]gy1 & its conv]sion into ! k9etic en]gy ( regulat$ bodily activity1 by means ( a s5sori-motor sy/em1 is *>act]i/ic ( ! animal4 ,! bact]ia c>ry to ! limit ! en]gy-trans=mations begun 9 ! tissues ( ! plants & animals4 ,immobility & unconsci\sness *>act]ise ! plant1 mobility & consci\sness ! animal4 ,animals indicate two types ( actions--intellig5t actions & in/9ctive actions4 ,in/9ctive activity involves ! habitual ex]cise ( modes ( action t h be5 inh]it$4 ,intellig5t activities involve ! ex]cise ( modes ( action t are n inh]it$1 b :i* are acquir$ by ! animal dur+ its own lifetime1 & are ! results ( p]ceptions :i* %[ ! animal t its activity is relative to an out] environm5t4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,! ,,organic ,,& ,,! ,,inorganic #bhi ,argum5t4--,a /rictly me*ani/ic hypo!sis ( evolution compels u to reg>d ! organic _w1 & ! inorganic environm5t ) :i* x int]acts1 z a physico-*emical sy/em4 ,all ! /ages ( an evolution>y process mu/ !re=e be equally complex3 !y are simply phases1 or re>rangem5ts1 ( ! elem5ts ( a trans=m+ sy/em4 ,! physics on :i* ^! me*ani/ic hypo!ses 7 bas$ 0 t ( a discont9u\s1 granul>1 ,newtonian univ]se1 t is1 "o consi/+ ( discrete p>ticles1 or mass-po9ts1 attract+ or repell+ ea* o!r ) =ces :i* are functions ( ! di/ances betwe5 !m4 ,x 0 a spatially ext5d$ sy/em ( p>ts4 ,!re=e at all /ages 9 an evolution>y process1 or "o ( individual developm5t1 ! elem5ts ( ! sy/em con/itute an ext5sive manifoldness1 & ! obligation ( me*ani/ic hypo!ses ( evolution & developm5t to accept ?is view has %ap$ mod]n !ories ( h]$ity4 ,life is an int5sive manifoldness1 b 9 individual or racial evolu- tion ?is int5sive manifoldness becomes an ext5sive manifoldness4 ,life is a bundle ( t5d5cies :i* c co-exi/1 b :i* _c all be fully manife/$1 9 ! same mat]ial con/ellation1 !re=e ^! t5d5cies become dissociat$ 9 ! evolution>y process4 ,9 ?is dissociation !re is direction & co-ord9ation1 :i* are ! ,vital ,impetus ( ,b]gson1 or ! ,entele*y ( ,dries*4 ,entele*y is an elem5tal ag5cy 9 nature :i* we are compell$ to po/ulate because ( ! failure ( me*anism4 ,x is n _s1 nor a =m ( en]gy1 b ! direction & co-ord9ation ( en]gies4 ,!re is a sign1 or direction ( inorganic happ5+ :i* absolutely *>act]ises ! processes :i* are capable ( analysis by physico-*emical me?ods ( inve/igation1 & ! result ( ?is direction ( inorganic happ5+ is mat]ial in]tia4 ,yet ?is direction _c be univ]sal3 x mu/ be evad$ some:]e 9 ! univ]se4 ,x is evad$ by ! organism4 ,! problem ( ! nature ( life is only a pseudo-problem4 ,,app5dix ,,ma!matical ,,& ,,physical ,,notions #cdb ,inf9ity & ! notion ( ! limit4 ,functionality4 ,frequ5cy di/ributions & probability4 ,matt]1 =ce1 mass1 & in]tia4 ,en]gy-trans=mations4 ,iso!rmal & adiabetic trans=mations4 ,! ,c>not eng9e & cycle4 ,entropy4 ,in]t matt]4 ,,index #cgg ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,biology ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,conceptual ,,_w ,let u suppose t we are walk+ along a /reet 9 a busy t[n2 t we are famili> ) x1 & all ! ?+s t are usually to be se5 9 x1 s t our att5tion is n likely to be arre/$ by any?+ unusual2 & let u fur!r suppose t we are ?9k+ ab\t some?+ int]e/+ b n intellectually difficult4 ,9 ^! circum/ances all ! sights ( ! t[n1 & all ! turmoil ( ! traffic fail to impress u1 ?\gh we are1 9 a vague sort ( way1 consci\s ( x all4 ,electric trams approa* & rec$e ) a gr9d+ noise2 a taxicab passes & we he> ! ?rob ( ! eng9e & ! hoot+ ( ! horn1 & smell ! burnt oil2 a hansom comes d[n ! /reet & we he> ! rhy?mic tread ( ! horse's feet & ! j+le ( ! bells2 we pass a flori/'s %op & become aw>e ( ! col\r ( ! fl[]s & ( _! od\r2 9 a caf a b& is play+ 8ragtime40 ,!re are policem51 hawk]s1 idl]s1 ladies ) gaily col\r$ dresses & hats1 newsboys1 a cr[d ( p ( _m *>act]i/ics4 ,x is all a flux ( exp]i5ce ( :i* we are g5]ally consci\s )\t analysis or att5tion1 & x is a flux :i* is nev] = a mom5t q ! same1 = ev]y?+ 9 x melts & fl[s into ev]y?+ else4 ,! noise ( ! tram-c>s is incessant1 b n[ & !n x becomes l\d]2 ! music ( ! or*e/ra /eals imp]ceptibly on our e>s & z imp]ceptibly fades away2 ! smell ( ! fl[]s l+]s aft] we pass ! %op1 & we d n notice j :5 we cease to be consci\s ( x2 ! rhy?m ( ! ragtime cont9ues to irritate aft] we h ceas$ to he> ! b&--all ! s5se-impressions t we receive melt & fl[ ov] into ea* o!r & con/itute our /ream ( consci\sness1 & ?is *anges f mom5t to mom5t )\t gap or discont9uity4 ,x is n a condition ( 8pure s5sation10 b x is z ne>ly su* z we c exp]i5ce 9 our adult intellectual life4 ,x is easy to discov] t _m ?+s mu/ h occurr$ 9 ! /reet :i* did n affect our full consci\sness4 ,we may le>n aft]w>ds t we h pass$ sev]al fri5ds )\t recognis+ !m2 we may read 9 ! newspap]s ab\t ?+s t happ5$ t we might h se51 b :i* we did n see2 we may ?9k we "k ! /reet fairly well1 b we f9d t we h difficulty 9 recall+ ! names ( ?ree contigu\s %ops 9 x2 if we happ5 to see a photograph :i* 0 tak5 at ! "t we pass$ ?r\gh ! /reet we are usually surpris$ to f9d t !re 7 _m ?+s !re t we did n see4 ,:y is x1 !n1 t s mu* t might h be5 p]ceiv$ by u 0 n really p]ceiv$8 ,we _c d\bt t ev]y?+ t came into ! visual fields ( our eyes mu/ h affect$ ! t]m9ations ( ! optic n]ves 9 ! ret9as2 ! complex di/urbances ( ! air 9 ! /reet mu/ h set our tympanic membranes 9 motion2 & all ! odorif]\s p>ticles inhal$ into our no/rils mu/ h /imulat$ ! olfactory muc\s membranes4 ,9 all ^! cases ! /imulation ( ! receptor organs mu/ h initiat$ n]v\s impulses1 & ^! mu/ h be5 propagat$ along ! s5sory n]ves1 & mu/ h rea*$ ! bra91 affect+ masses ( n]ve cells !re4 ,no?+ 9 physiology seems to indicate t we c inhibit or repress ! activity ( ! di/ance s5se-receptors1 visual1 auditory1 & olfactory1 ) _! c5tral connections 9 ! bra92 !y mu/ h function$1 & mu/ h be5 physically affect$ by ! ev5ts t took place outside ourselves1 & yet we 7 unconsci\s1 9 ! fulle/ s5se ( ?is t]m1 ( all ?is activity4 ,:y is x1 !n1 t our p]ception 0 s mu* less ?an ! actual physical reception ( ext]nal /imuli t we mu/ po/ulate z hav+ occurr$8 ,%]lock ,holmes w\ld h said t we really saw & he>d all ^! ?+s al?\gh we did n obs]ve !m1 b ! full explanation involves a mu* m c>eful consid]ation ( ! ph5om5a ( p]ception ?an ?is say+ indicates4 ,!re is1 ( c\rse1 no d\bt t we did see & he> & smell all ! ?+s t occurr$ 9 ! /reet dur+ our aimless p]egr9ation1 t is1 all ! ?+s :i* s happ5$ t !y 7 capable ( affect+ our organs ( s5se4 ,?is is true if we mean by see+ & he>+ & smell+ m]ely ! /imulation ( ! n]ve-end+s ( ! visual1 auditory1 & olfactory organs1 & ! conduction into ! bra9 ( ! n]v\s impulses s set up4 ,b m]ely to be /imulat$ is only a "p ( ! full activity ( ! bra92 ! /imulus transmitt$ f ! receptor organs mu/ result 9 "s k9d ( bodily activity if x is to affect our /ream ( consci\sness4 ,two ma9 k9ds ( activity are induc$ by ! /imulation ( a receptor organ & a c5tral ganglion1 7#a7 ^? :i* we call reflex actions1 & 7#b7 ^? actions :i* we recognise z result+ f delib]ation4 ,we mu/ n[ consid] :at are ! processes t are involv$ 9 ^! k9ds ( neuro-muscul> activity4 ,! t]m 8reflex action0 is "o t d5otes r a s*eme ( s5sori-motor activity ?an any?+ t actually happ5s 9 ! animal body2 x is a concept t is useful z a means ( analysis ( complex ph5om5a4 ,9 a reflex ?ree ?+s happ51 7#a7 ! /imulation ( a receptor organ & ( ! n]ve connect+ ?is ) ! bra91 7#b7 ! reflection1 or %unt+1 ( ! n]v\s impulse s initiat$ f ! t]m9us ad quem ( ! aff]5t or s5sory n]ve1 to ! t]m9us a quo ( ! eff]5t or motor n]ve1 & 7#c7 ! /imulation ( "s effector organ1 say a motor organ or muscle1 by ! n]v\s impulse s set up4 ,! simple/ case1 p]haps1 ( a reflex is ! rapid closure ( ! eyelids :5 some?+1 say a few drops ( wat]1 is flick$ into ! face4 ,/at$ 9 ! way we h /at$ x ! simple reflex does n exi/4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is a concept bas$ on ! /ructural analysis ( ! complex animal :]e ! body is diff]5tiat$ to =m tissues--receptor organs1 n]ves1 muscles1 gl&s1 & s on4 ,b a protozoan animal1 a ,p>amcium = in/ance1 responds to an ext]nal /imulus by "s k9d ( bodily activity1 & yet x is a homog5e\s1 or ne>ly homog5e\s1 piece ( protoplasm1 & ?is simple protoplasm acts at ! same "t z receptor organ1 conduct+ tissue or n]ve1 & effector organ4 ,9 ! high] animal c]ta9 p>ts ( ! integum5t are diff]5tiat$ s z to =m visual organs1 & ! ?re%old ( ^! = light /imuli is rais$ :ile x is l[]$ = o!r k9ds ( physical /imuli4 ,simil>ly o!r p>ts ( ! integum5t are modifi$ = ! reception ( auditory /imuli1 becom+ m susceptible = ^! b less susceptible = o!r k9ds ( /imuli ?an ! adjac5t p>ts ( ! body4 ,)9 ! body itself c]ta9 tracts ( protoplasm are diff]5tiat$ s t !y c conduct molecul> di/urbances set up 9 ! receptor organs 9 ! integum5t bett] ?an c ! g5]al protoplasm2 ^! are ! n]ves4 ,o!r p>ts are modifi$ s t !y c contract or secrete ! m easily2 ^! are ! muscles & gl&s4 ,! conception ( a reflex action1 z x is usually /at$ 9 books on physiology1 !re=e includes ?is idea ( ! diff]5tiation ( ! tissues1 b all ! processes t are includ$ 9 ! typical reflex are processes :i* c be c>ri$ on by undiff]5tiat$ protoplasm4 ,x is also a s*ematic description t assumes a simplicity t does n really exi/4 ,z a rule a reflex is initiat$ by ! /imulation ( m ?an "o receptor organ1 & ! impulses initiat$ may ?us rea* ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em by m ?an "o pa?4 ,!re is no simple %unt+ ( ! aff]5t impulse f ! cell 9 :i* x t]m9ates into ano!r n]ve1 :5 x becomes an eff]5t impulse2 b1 in/ead ( ?is1 ! impulse may 8zigzag0 ?r\gh a maze ( pa?s 9 ! bra9 or sp9al cord connect+ toge!r aff]5t & eff]5t n]ves & ganglia4 ,fur!r1 ! f9al "p ( ! reflex1 ! muscul> contraction1 is f> f be+ a simple ?+1 = usually a s]ies ( muscles are /imulat$ to contract1 ea* ( !m at ! "r "t & ) ! "r am\nt ( =ce1 & e contraction ( a muscle is accompani$ by ! relaxation ( ! antagoni/ic muscle4 ,!re are muscles :i* op5 ! eyelids & o!rs :i* close !m1 & ! c]ebral impulse :i* causes ! levators to contract at ! same "t causes ! depressors to relax4 ,x is q necess>y to rememb] t ! simple reflex is really a process ( mu* complexity & may involve _m o!r p>ts & /ructures ?an ^? to :i* we imm$iately direct our att5tion4 ,b leav+ aside ^! qualifications we may usefully consid] ! g5]al *>act]s ( ! reflex1 reg>d+ x z a common1 automatically p]=m$1 re/rict$ bodily action1 involv+ receptor organ1 c5tral n]v\s organ1 & effector organ4 ,!re are c]ta9 k9ds ( ext]nal /imuli t cont9ually affect our organs ( s5se1 & !re are c]ta9 k9ds ( muscul> & gl&ul> activity t occur 8z a matt] ( c\rse10 :5 ^! /imuli fall on our organs ( s5se4 ,! emanation f onions or ! vap\r ( ammonia causes our eyes to wat]2 ! smell ( sav\ry food causes a fl[ ( saliva2 & any?+ t approa*es ! face v rapidly causes u to close ! eyes4 ,reflexes are1 9 a way1 commonly occurr+1 purposeful & useful actions1 & _! object is ! ma9t5ance ( a normal condition ( bodily function+4 ,we d>e h>dly say t ! simple reflex is an unconsci\sly p]=m$ action1 al?\gh we are n consci\s1 9 ! fulle/ s5se ( ! t]m1 ( ! reflexes t habitually take place 9 ourselves4 ,b ev5 9 ! decapitat$ frog1 :i* moves its limbs :5 a drop ( acid is plac$ on its back1 some?+1 x has be5 said1 ak9 to consci\sness may fla% out & light up ! automatic activity ( ! sp9al cord4 ,we mu/ n ?9k ( consci\sness z t /ate ( acute m5tality :i* we exp]i5ce 9 ! p]=mance ( "s difficult task1 or 9 "s ke5ly appreciat$ pleasure1 or 9 "s condition ( m5tal or bodily di/ress2 x is also t dimly felt condition ( normality t accompanies ! satisfactory function+ ( ! p>ts ( ! bodily organism4 ,b ?is dim & obscure feel+ ( ! aw>5ess ( our actions is easily inhibit$ :5ev] :at we call intellectual activity proce$s4 ,mu* ( ! /imulation ( our receptor organs is ( ?is g5]ally occurr+ nature1 & we are n aw>e ( x al?\gh ! /imuli receiv$ are su* z to induce useful & purposeful bodily activity4 ,9 walk+ along ! /reet we automatically avoid ! p1 & ! o!r ob/acles t we enc\nt]1 by means ( regulat$ movem5ts ( ! body & limbs1 b ?is is activity t has become s habitual & easy t we are h>dly aw>e ( x1 & n at all1 p]haps1 ( ! physical /imuli :i* induce x4 ,b n only d we receive /imuli :i* are reflect$ into bodily actions )\t our be+ ke5ly aw>e ( ?is reception1 b we also receive /imuli :i* d n become reflect$ into bodily activity4 ,x is1 ,b]gson sugge/s1 z if we 7 to look out into ! /reet ?r\gh a %eet ( glass held p]p5dicul>ly to our l9e ( sight2 held 9 ?is way we see p]fectly all t happ5s 9 front ( u1 b :5 we incl9e ! glass at a c]ta9 angle x becomes a p]fect reflector & ?r[s back aga9 ! rays ( light t x receives4 ,?is is1 ( c\rse1 a physical analogy1 & no comp>ison ( mat]ial ?+s ) psy*ical processes c g v f>1 b 9 a way x is m ?an an analogy4 ,9 our indol5t absorb$ /ate ( m9d we d n z a rule see ! objects :i* we are n compell$ to avoid1 & :i* d n1 9 any way1 influ5ce our imm$iate condition ( bodily activity4 ,! optical images ( all ^! ?+s are ?r[n ^u our ret9as & are1 9 "s way1 ?r[n or project$ ^u ! c5tral ganglia1 b !re ! s]ies ( ev5ts comes to an end1 = ! images are n reflect$ out t[>ds ! p]iph]y ( ! body z muscul> actions4 ,we _c d\bt t ?is is :y we d n p]ceive all ! /imulation ( our organs ( s5se t we are sure t take place4 ,^! /imuli pass ?r\gh u1 z x 71 unless !y are reflect$ out aga9 z actions4 ,9 ?is reflection1 or translation ( neutral into muscul> activity1 p]ceptions arise4 ,b ev5 !n p]ception ne$ n arise4 ,x does n1 z a rule1 accompany ! automatically p]=m$ reflex action1 because ! latt] is ! result ( intra-c]ebral activities t h become s habitual t !y proce$ )\t friction4 ,!re are innum]able pa?s 9 ! bra9 along :i* impulses f ! receptor organs may pass into ! motor ganglia1 b 9 ! habitually p]=m$ reflex actions ^! pa?s h be5 worn smoo?1 s to speak4 ,! images ( objects :i* are p]ceiv$ ov] & ov] aga9 by ! receptor organs glide easily ?r\gh ! bra9 & z easily translate !mselves into muscul>1 or "s o!r k9d ( activity4 ,! ?+s t matt] 9 ! life ( an animal :i* lives 8accord+ to nature0 are cyclically recurr5t ev5ts 9 :i*1 aft] a "t1 !re is no?+ new4 ,mo/ ( !m proce$ j z well 9 ! animal depriv$ ( its c]ebral hemisph]es by op]ation z 9 ! intact c]ebrate animal4 ,9 ! p]=mance ( actions ( ?is k9d ! organism becomes v mu* ( an automaton4 ,let some?+ unusual happ5 9 ! /reet :ile we are walk+ ?r\gh x--a runaway horse1 or ! fall ( an ov]head 8live0 wire1 = in/ance1 some?+ t has seldom or nev] =m$ "p ( our exp]i5ce1 & some?+ t may h an imm$iate effect on u z liv+ organisms4 ,!n p]ception arises at once because ! /imulation ( our organs ( s5se pres5ts u ) some?+ :i* is unfamili>1 & yet n s unfamili> t x does n recall f memory1 or f d]iv$ exp]i5ce1 rem9isc5ces ( ! images ( some:at simil> ?+s1 & ( ! effects ( ^!4 ,! tra9 ( ev5ts t n[ proce$s 9 our c5tral n]v\s sy/em becomes radically diff]5t f t :i* proce$$ 9 our =m]1 r aimless1 s]ies ( actions4 ,! /imuli no long] pass easily ?r\gh ! 8l[]0 ganglia ( ! bra91 b fla% upw>ds into ! cortical regions1 :]e !y become confront$ ) ! possibility ( innum]able alt]native pa?s & connections ) all ! p>ts ( ! body4 ,!y wav]1 s to speak1 be=e adopt+ "o or o!r1 or a comb9ation ( ^! pa?s2 !re is hesitation1 delib]ation1 & f9ally *oice ( a pa?1 ) ! result t a s]ies ( muscul> organs become in]vat$ & motor actions1 ( a type m or less compet5t to ! situation 9 :i* we f9d ourselves1 are set up4 ,9 ?is hesitation & delib]ation p]ception arises4 ,x is :5 ! animal may act 9 a c]ta9 way z ! result ( a /imulus :i* is n a cont9ually recurr5t "o1 b at ! same "t may refra9 f act+1 or may act 9 "o ( sev]al diff]5t ways1 t p]ception ( ext]nal ?+s & _! relations arises4 ,t is to say1 we p]ceive & ?9k because we act4 ,we d n look out on ! environm5t 9 :i* we are plac$ 9 a speculative k9d ( way1 m]ely receiv+ ! images ( ?+s1 & classify+ & rememb]+ !m1 :ile all ! "t we are passive 9 s f> z our bodily activities are conc]n$4 ,if ! results ( mod]n physiology tea* u any?+ 9 an unequivocal way !y tea* u ?is--t ! organs ( activity1 muscles1 gl&s1 & s on1 & ! organs ( s5se & communication1 are integrally "o s]ies ( p>ts1 & t ap>t f motor activity n]v\s activity is an aimless k9d ( ?+4 ,x is because we act t we ?9k & dis5tangle ! images ( ?+s pres5t$ to u by our organs ( s5se1 & subject all t is 9 ! /ream ( consci\sness to conceptual analysis4#a #a ,all ?is is1 ( c\rse1 ! argum5t ( ,b]gson's e>li] books1 ,matire et ,mmoire & ,donnes immdiates de la ,consci5ce4 ,t is to say1 9 ?9k+ ab\t ! flux ( consci\sness we decompose x into :at we reg>d z its con/itu5t p>ts1 & we conf] ^u ^! p>ts sep>ate exi/5ce 9 space & "t4 ,b x is cle> t none ( ! ?+s :i* we ?us reg>d z ! elem5ts ( our consci\sness has any real exi/5ce ap>t f ! o!rs4 ,! smell ( ! fl[]s & t ( ! burnt oil int]p5etrate 9 our consci\sness ( ! /imulation ( our olfactory organs j z d ! j+le ( ! cab bells1 ! music ( ! or*e/ra1 & ! ?rob ( ! motor c> 9 ! impressions transmitt$ by our auditory organs4 ,x is difficult to see t all ^! ?+s1 ) ! multitude ( o!r ?+s :i* we p]ceive1 con/itute a 8multiplicity 9 unity10 t is an assemblage ( ?+s :i* are sep>ate ?+s1 b :i* d n lie alongside ea* o!r 9 space & mutually exclude ea* o!r1 b :i* are all jamm$ into ea* o!r1 s to speak4 ,x is easy to see t we are consci\s ( a het]og5eity1 & :5ev] we ?9k ( ?is multitude ( ?+s x seems natural t we %\ld sep>ate !m f ea* o!r4 ,! /ream ( our consci\sness is s complex t we _c att5d to x all at once1 n ev5 to ! few ?+s t we h pick$ out 9 our example4 ,if we conc5trate our att5tion on any "p1 or r aspect ( x1 all ! re/ ceases to exi/1 or r we agree to ignore x1 & ?is v conc5tration ( ?\ght ^u "o "p ( our exp]i5ce isolates x f all ! re/4 ,to a c]ta9 ext5t ! analysis ( ! complex ( s5sation is ! result ( ! "w ( diff]5t receptor organs2 c]ta9 fields ( en]gy1 :i* we call light1 radiation1 etc41 affect ! n]ve-end+s 9 ! ret9a2 *emically active p>ticles 9 ! atmosph]e affect ! n]ve-end+s 9 ! olfactory membranes2 & rapidly repeat$ *anges ( pressure 9 ! atmosph]e 7s\nd vibrations7 affect ! auditory organs 9 ! int]nal e>1 & s on4 ,b ?is reception ( diff]5t /imuli by diff]5t receptor organs exi/s only 9 ! high] animal2 !re are no specialis$ s5se organs 9 a ,p>amcium1 = in/ance1 & ! :ole p]iph]y ( ! animal mu/ receive all ^! diff]5t k9ds ( ext]nal /imuli at once4 ,! specialisation ( its receptor organs 9 ! high] animal is r ! means :]eby ! organism becomes m receptive ( its environm5t1 ?an ! means :]eby x analyses t environm5t4 ,?is analysis is ! "w ( ! consci\sness ( ! animal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,suppose t we draw a curve ,,ab freeh& ) a s+le undivid$ sweep ( ! p5cil4 ,by mak+ a c]ta9 assumption--t ! curve :i* we drew 0 "o t might be reg>d$ z cyclical1 t is1 might be repeat$ ov] & ov] aga9--we c subject x to h>monic analysis4 ,we c decompose x into a numb] ( o!r curves 7,,cd1 ,,ef1 etc471 ea* ( :i* is a sep>ate 8wave0 ris+ above & fall+ bel[ ! axis ,,ox 9 a symmetrical mann]4 ,if we draw any v]tical l9e ,,mn cutt+ ^! curves1 we %all f9d t ! di/ance betwe5 ! axis ,,ox & ! ma9 curve ,,ab is always equal to ! algebraic sum ( ! di/ances betwe5 ! axis & ! o!r curves4 ,^! latt] we call ! h>monic con/itu5ts ( ! curve ,,ab1 suppos+ !m to 8add up0 s z to =m x4 ,b ,,ab 0 some?+ q simple & elem5tal & its con/itu5ts _c be said to h exi/$ 9 x :5 we drew x freeh&2 x 0 only by an artifice ( practical utility 9 ma!matical computations t we con/ruct$ !m4 ,x may be1 ( c\rse1 t ! h>monic con/itu5ts ( a curve _h actual exi/5ce ap>t f ! curve itself1 b1 9 ! case t we take1 !y c]ta9ly _h n4 ,n[ we mu/ ?9k ( our /ream ( consci\sness 9 mu* ! same way4 ,x is some?+ imm$iately exp]i5c$ & elem5t>y2 x is ! concomitant1 if we *oose s to reg>d x1 ( ! ext]nal processes t g on outside our bodies4 ,we c inve/igate x by ?9k+ ab\t x1 & att5d+ to "o aspect ( x aft] ano!r1 ?us arbitr>ily deta*+ "o 8"p0 ( x f all ! re/1 b imm$iately we d ?is we rise above ! flux ( exp]i5ce into ! region ( intellectual concepts4 ,we h conv]t$ a multiplicity ( /ates ( consci\sness1 all ( :i* co-exi/ along ) ea* o!r1 & 9 ea* o!r1 & :i* h no spatial exi/5ce1 into a multiplicity ( /ates1 visual1 auditory1 olfactory1 etc41 :i* h become sep>at$ f ea* o!r & h !re=e acquir$ ext5sion4 ,?is dissociation ( ! flux ( exp]i5ce is ! process ( conceptual analysis c>ri$ out by ?\ght4 ,if we dissociate ! /ream ( consci\sness 9 ?is way1 break+ x up into /ates :i* we *oose to reg>d z sep>ate f ea* o!r1 we %all see t ( ! elem5ts :i* we ?us isolate _m are l ea* o!r & c be associat$4 ,obvi\sly !re is a great] resemblance betwe5 diff]5t smells ?an betwe5 smells & s\nds4 ,diff]5t musical s\nds are m l ea* o!r ?an are s\nds1 & feel+s ( heat & cold4 ,!re is a great] lik5ess betwe5 ! /ates ( consci\sness :i* arise f ! /imulation ( ! same receptor organ1 ?an betwe5 ^? t arise f ! /imulation ( diff]5t receptors4 ,^? diff]5ces ( s5sation accompany+ ! /imulation ( diff]5t s5se organs we reg>d z diff]5t 9 k9d2 !re is absolutely no resemblance betwe5 a col\r & a s\nd1 we say1 h[ev] mu* ! mod]n annotator ( conc]t programmes may sugge/ ! analogy4 ,b we say t !re may be diff]5t degrees ( /imulation ( ! same s5se organ1 & t ! s5sations t we ?us receive are ( ! same k9d ?\gh !y diff] 9 int5sity4 ,! :i/le ( a railway eng9e becomes l\d] z ! tra9 approa*es1 t is to say1 m int5se1 & if we /udy ! physical conditions t are concomitant ) ! /imulation ( our tympanic membranes we %all see t waves ( alt]nate r>efaction & compression are set up 9 ! atmosph]e outside our e>s4 ,all ! "t t ! tra9 approa*es ! frequ5cy ( ^! waves rema9s ! same1 t is1 j z _m occur 9 a second :5 ! tra9 is di/ant z :5 x is ne>4 ,b ! amplitude ( ! waves has be5 increas+1 & ! velocity ) :i* ! molecules ( air /rike aga9/ ! tympanic membranes becomes great] ! ne>] is ! s\rce ( s\nd4 ,we c repres5t ?is by means ( a diagram :i* %[s t ! amplitude ( ! waves--:i* repres5ts ! l\dness ( ! s\nd--increases :ile ! frequ5cy--:i* repres5ts ! pit*--rema9s ! same4 ,! amplitude is repres5t$ by ! /raight v]tical l9es1 #aa1 #bb1 #cc1 etc41 :i* are ( increas+ magnitude4 ,?us we repres5t ! physical cause ( ! increas+ l\dness ( ! s\nd by space-magnitudes1 & !n we transf] ^! magnitudes to ! /ates ( consci\sness concomitant ) ! vibrat+ molecules ( air4 ,suppose t we knew no?+ at all ab\t ! cause ( ! diff]5ces ( pit* ( musical s\nds & t we li/5 to ! notes ( ! octave1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1----,c1 s\nd$ by an organ2 all t we %\ld exp]i5ce w\ld be t ! s\nds 7 diff]5t4 ,if we 7 to s+ ! notes we might atta9 ! intuition t ! notes ,g1 ,a1 ,b 7 8high]0 ?an ! notes ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 because a great] ef=t 0 requir$ 9 ord] to produce ^! s\nds1 b obvi\sly ?is is a diff]5t ?+ f say+ t ! notes !mselves 7 8high]0 or 8l[]40 ,b let u mat* ! notes by /rik+ tun+-=ks1 & !n hav+ select$ =ks :i* give ! notes ( ! octave let u fix !m s t !y w make a trac+1 :ile /ill vibrat+1 on a revolv+ /rip ( pap]4 ,we %all !n f9d t ! =k emitt+ ! note ,c makes 7say7 #bef vibrations p] second1 ! =k ,d #i_/h #bef vibrations1 ! =k ,e #e_/d #bef vibrations1 & s on4 ,?us we associate ! notes ( ! octave toge!r & we say t _! quality 0 ! same b t _! pit* diff]$1 & s9ce ! pit* dep5ds on ! frequ5cy ( vibration ( ! =k1 or ( ! air 9 its vic9ity1 we say t pit* diff]5ces are quantitative ones1 & t ! /ates ( consci\sness :i* accompany ^! physical ev5ts are also quantitatively diff]5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,s also ) col\r4 ,if we _h no su* app>atus z prisms or diffraction grat+s1 :i* enable u to f9d :at is ! wave l5g? ( light1 %\ld we h any idea ( ! spectral hues1 r$1 yell[1 orange1 gre51 etc41 z diff]+ f ea* o!r quantitatively8 ,x is c]ta9 t we %\ld n4 ,b obs]vation & exp]im5t h %[n t ! n]ve-end+s ( ! optic n]ve 9 ! ret9a are /imulat$ by vibrations ( some?+ :i* we agree to call ! e!r ( space1 & t ! frequ5cy ( vibration ( light :i* we call r$ is less ?an t :i* we call orange1 :ile ! frequ5cy ( vibration ( orange light is less aga9 ?an t ( blue light1 & s on4 ,to our consci\sness r$1 orange1 yell[1 & blue light are absolutely diff]5t1 b we disreg>d ?is intuition & we say t our p]ceptions ( light are simil> 9 k9d b diff]1 9 "s ( !m are m int5se ?an are "s o!rs4 ,aga91 h we any intuitive k ( increas+ temp]ature8 ,if we dip our h&s into ice-cold wat] ! s5sation is "o ( pa91 if ! wat] has a temp]ature ( #e ,c4 x feels cold1 if x is at #ae ,c4 we h no p>ticul> appreciation ( temp]ature1 if at #be ,c4 x feels v w>m1 if x is at #fj x is v hot1 & if x is at #ij we are probably scald$ & ! feel+ is aga9 "o ( pa94 ,if we place a !rmomet] 9 ! wat] we notice t ea* s5sation 9 turn is associat$ ) a progressive l5g!n+ ( ! m]cury ?read1 & if we inve/igate ! physical condition ( ! wat] we f9d t at ea* /age ! velocity ( movem5t ( ! molecules 0 great] ?an t at ! prec$+ /age4 ,we say1 !n1 t our diff]5t p]ceptions 7 ^? ( heat ( diff]5t degrees ( int5sity1 s transf]r+ to ! p]ceptions !mselves ! notions ( space-magnitudes acquir$ by a /udy ( ! expansion ( ! m]cury 9 ! !rmomet]1 or by ! adoption ( ! physical !ory ( ! k9etic /ructure ( ! wat]4 ,yet x is q c]ta9 t :at we exp]i5c$ 7 q diff]5t ?+s or conditions1 cold1 w>m?1 heat1 & pa91 & inde$1 9 ?is s]ies ( p]ceptions diff]5t receptor organs are involv$4 ,suppose we li/5 to ! note emitt$ by a syr5 :i* is s\nd+ ) sl[ly increas+ l\dness b ) a pit* :i* rema9s con/ant4 ,we d n notice at fir/ t ! s\nd is becom+ l\d]1 b aft] a little "t we d notice a diff]5ce4 ,let u call ! amplitude ( vibration ( ! air :5 ! syr5 fir/ s\nds ,e1 & !n1 :5 we notice a diff]5ce1 let u call ! amplitude ,e ,e1 ,e be+ ! increm5t ( amplitude4 ,let u call our s5sation :5 ! syr5 fir/ s\nds ,s1 & our s5sations :5 ! s\nd has become l\d] ,s ,s1 ,s be+ ! 8increm5t ( s5sation40 ,!n ! relation holds3-- ,e_/,e con/ant4 ,t is to say1 ! l\d] is ! s\nd ! great] mu/ be ! increase ( l\dness be=e we notice a diff]5ce4 ,let u assume n[ t ! successive s5sations ( l\dness t we receive z ! syr5 bl[s l\d] & l\d] are1 ea* ( !m1 j ! same am\nt l\d] ?an ! prec$+ s\nd2 t is to say1 let u assume t :at we exp]i5ce are 8m9imal p]ceptible diff]5ces0 ( s5sation--t !y are 8elem5ts ( l\dness0--?us we con/ruct a s]ies ( s\nds ea* ( :i* diff]s f t prec$+ x by an elem5tal increm5t ( l\dness4 ,n[ ?+s t _c be fur!r decompos$ are necess>ily equal to ea* o!r2 if1 = in/ance1 ! atoms repres5t ! ultimate units into :i* we break up ! matt] call$ oxyg51 !n ^! atoms are all equal to ea* o!r4 ,!re=e ! increm5ts ( l\dness are equal to ea* o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,if we plot ^! equal increm5ts ( l\dness z ! dep5d5t v>iable ,s 9 a graph1 & ! amplitude ( ! vibrations ( ! atmosph]e z ! indep5d5t v>iable ,e1 we c obta9 ! foll[+ curve4 ,if we inve/igate ?is we %all f9d t a c]ta9 relation exi/s betwe5 ! 8values0 ( ! s5sation & ! values ( ! /imuli t correspond to !m2 a regul> increase 9 ! l\dness ( ! s5sation corresponds to a regul> increase 9 ! log>i?ms ( ! /r5g? ( ! /imuli4 ,let ,s ! s5sation1 ,e ! /imulus1 & ,c & ,q con/ants2 !n ,s ,c log7,e_/,q72 s t we seem to e/abli% a ma!matical relation betwe5 ! int5sity ( our s5sations & ! int5sity ( ! /imuli t give rise to ^? s5sations1 b ?is relation dep5ds on ! assumption t :at we call 8m9imal p]ceptible diff]5ces0 ( s5sation are num]ical diff]5ces t are equal to ea* o!r1 & ?is is1 ( c\rse1 an assumption t _c possibly be prov$4 ,?us we decompose our /ream ( consci\sness into a s]ies ( quantitatively diff]5t & qualitatively diff]5t ?+s1 ^u ea* ( :i* we conf] indep5d5t exi/5ce4 ,we attribute to ^! diff]5t aspects ( our consci\sness ext5sion1 b ! ext5sion is due only to our analysis2 = ! qualities ( pit*1 l\dness1 col\r1 od\r1 etc41 :i* we dis5tangle f ea* o!r1 did n exi/ ap>t f ea* o!r1 any m ?an d ! s9e & cos9e curves into :i* we decompose an arbitr>ily drawn curv$ l9e4 ,! multiplicity ( our consci\sness is int5sive1 l ! multiplicity t we see to exi/ 9 ! ab/ract numb] t54 ,?is numb] /&s = a gr\p ( ?+s1 b its multiplicity is int5sive & only exi/s because we are able to subdivide any?+ 9 ?\ght to an indef9ite ext5t4 ,n[1 s f> we h only sep>at$ :at we agree to reg>d z ! elem5tal p>ts ( our g5]al p]ception ( ! environm5t1 b x is to be not$ t we h n giv5 to ^! elem5ts any?+ l spatial ext5sion4 ,we may1 if we l1 reg>d our intuition ( space z t ( an indef9itely l>ge1 homog5e\s1 empty m$ium :i* surr\nds u & 9 :i* we may1 9 imag9ation1 place ?+s4 ,s reg>d$ x is difficult to see 9 :at way our notion ( space diff]s f our idea ( 8no?+10 a pseudo-idea incapable ( analysis1 except into ! idea ( some?+ :i* might be some:]e else4 ,! m we ?9k ab\t x ! m we %all become conv9c$ t space1 t is ! 8=m0 ( space1 repres5ts our actual or pot5tial modes ( motion1 t is1 our p[]s ( ex]tional activity4 ,space1 we say1 has ?ree dim5sions2 9 all our analysis ( ! univ]se1 & ( ! activities t we c p]ceive 9 x1 ?is idea ( movem5t 9 ?ree dim5sions1 =w>d & backw>d1 up & d[n1 & "r & left1 occurs2 & we h to recognise t 9 x !re is some?+ fundam5tal1 z fundam5tal z ! intuitive k t we possess ( ! direction ( "r & left4 ,x is because we c move 9 su* a way t any ( our motions1 no matt] h[ complex1 c be resolv$ into ! compon5ts ( backw>d & =w>d1 "r & left1 & up & d[n1 ^! directions all be+ at "r angles to ea* o!r1 t we speak ( our movem5ts z ?ree-dim5sional ones4 ,our geometry is f\nd$1 !re=e1 on concepts d]iv$ f our modes ( activity2 & !re is no?+ 9 ! univ]se1 ap>t f our own activity1 t makes ?is ! only geometry possible to u4 ,euclidean geometry does n dep5d on ! con/itution ( ! ext]nal univ]se1 b on ! nature ( ! organism itself4 ,!re is a little ,infusorian :i* lives1 9 its adult phase1 on ! surface ( ! sph]ical ova ( fi%es4 ,^! ova float freely 9 sea wat]1 & ! ,infusorian crawls on _! surfaces1 mov+ ab\t by means ( cili>y app5dages4 ,x does n swim ab\t 9 ! wat]1 b adh]es closely to ! surface ( ! ovum on :i* x lives4 ,let u suppose t x is an intellig5t animal & t x is able to con/ruct a geometry ( its own2 if s1 ?is geometry w\ld be v diff]5t f our own4 ,x w\ld be a two-dim5sional geometry1 = ! animal c move backw>d & =w>d1 & "r & left1 b n up & d[n2 x is a /]eotropic organism1 z ,jacques ,loeb w\ld say1 t is1 x is compell$ by its organisation to apply its body closely to ! surface on :i* x lives4 ,b its two-dim5sional geometry w\ld1 on ?is acc\nt1 be diff]5t f ours4 ,our /raight l9es are really ! directions 9 :i* we move f "o po9t to ano!r po9t 9 su* a way z to involve ! lea/ ex]tion2 !y are ! %orte/ di/ances betwe5 two po9ts1 & if we deviate f !m we ex]t a great] degree ( activity ?an if we _h mov$ along !m4 ,= u !re is only "o /raight l9e t c be drawn betwe5 two po9ts1 b ?is is n necess>ily true = our ,infusorian1 & its /raight l9e ne$ n be ! %orte/ di/ance betwe5 two po9ts4 ,x might be ei!r ! longe/ or ! %orte/ di/ance betwe5 ! po9ts1 = ! latt] c always be plac$ on a great circle pass+ ?r\gh ! two po9ts & ! poles ( ! egg1 & 9 mov+ f a po9t on :i* x is plac$ ! animal c\ld rea* ! o!r po9t by mov+ 9 two directions1 j z we c\ld g r\nd ! e>? along ! equator by mov+ to ! ea/ or to ! we/4 ,!re=e ! /raight l9e ( ! ,infusorian w\ld be n only a scal> quantity b a vector quantity1 t is1 x w\ld repres5t1 n only a quantity ( en]gy1 b a quantity ( en]gy t has direction4 ,= u only "o /raight l9e c be drawn betwe5 two giv5 po9ts1 b ?is limitation w\ld n exi/ 9 ! two-dim5sional geometry ( a curv$ surface4 ,suppose t ! two po9ts are situat$ on a great circle & t !y are exactly #ahj ap>t2 !n ! ,infusorian c\ld move f "o pole to ano!r pole along an inf9ite numb] ( /raight l9es or m]idians all ( :i* _h a diff]5t direction1 b all ( :i* 7 ( ! same l5g?2 t is to say1 9 ?is geometry an inf9ite numb] ( /raight l9es c be drawn betwe5 ! same two po9ts4 ,aga91 its triangles might be diff]5t f ours2 our triangles are figures =m$ by draw+ /raight l9es betwe5 ?ree po9ts1 & on a plane surface ! sum ( ! angles ( ! triangle are toge!r equal to two "r angles1 ?\gh on a curv$ surface !y may be great] or less ?an two "r angles4 ,b our ,infusorian c\ld n imag9e a triangle 9 :i* ! sum ( ! angles 0 n great] ?an two "r angles1 = all its figures w\ld be drawn on a convex surface4 ,our ?ree-dim5sional geometry dep5ds1 !re=e1 on our modes ( activity & ! concepts ) :i* x op]ates2 po9ts1 /raight l9es1 etc4 are conceptual limits to ^? modes ( activity4 ,we c imag9e a /raight l9e only z a direction along :i* we c move )\t deviat+ to ! "r or ! left1 or up or d[n4 ,b ev5 if we draw su* a l9e on pap] ) a f9e p5cil ! trace w\ld /ill h "s wid?1 & we c imag9e ourselves small en\gh to be able to deviate to ! "r or ! left )9 ! wid? ( ! l9e drawn on ! pap]4 ,we might make a v small m>k on ! pap]1 b no matt] h[ small ?is m>k is x w\ld /ill h "s magnitude2 o!rwise we %\ld be unable to see x4 ,if ! /raight l9e _h no wid? & ! po9t no magnitude !y w\ld h no p]ceptual exi/5ce4 ,our p]ceptual triangles are n figures1 ! angles ( :i* are necess>ily equal to two "r angles4 ,if we drive ?ree walk+ /icks into a field & !n measure ! angles betwe5 !m by means ( a sextant we %all f9d t ! sum is ne>ly #ahj1 b 9 g5]al n t am\nt4 ,if we /ick a d>n+ ne$le into ! heads ( ea* ( ! walk+ /icks & !n remeasure ! angles by means ( a !odolite we %all obta9 values :i* are ne>] to t ( two "r angles1 b we %\ld n1 except by 8accid5t10 obta9 exactly ?is value4 ,we d n1 !re=e1 get ! 8!oretical0 result1 & we say ?is is because ( ! errors ( our me?ods ( obs]vation2 b :y d we suppose t !re is su* a !oretical result f :i* our obs]vations deviate1 if our obs]vations !mselves d n 9 g5]al give ?is ideal result8 ,we might accumulate a great s]ies ( measurem5ts ( ! angles ( our triangle1 & we %\ld !n f9d t ^! results w\ld t5d to gr\p !mselves symmetrically r\nd a c]ta9 value :i* w\ld be #ahj4 ,"s ( ! results w\ld be consid]ably less ?an ! ideal1 & "s ( !m w\ld be consid]ably m2 b ^! relatively great deviations w\ld be small 9 numb] & mo/ ( ! results w\ld be a v little less ?an #ahj or a v little m1 & !re w\ld be z _m :i* w\ld be a little less z ^? t 7 a little m4 ,we %\ld h =m$ a 8frequ5cy di/ribution0#b ) its 8mode0 at #ahj4 #b ,see app5dix1 p4 #cej4 ,b by 8reason+0 ab\t ! 8prop]ties0 ( ^! l9es & triangles 9 plane two-dim5sional space1 we %\ld arrive at ! conclusion t ! angles ( a triangle 7 equal to #ahj1 & nei!r m nor less4 ,we %\ld !n ?9k ( a /raight l9e z /ill a pa? along :i* we move 9 imag9ation1 & a pa? :i* /ill has "s wid?4 ,b we imag9e ! wid? ( ! pa? to become less & less1 s t1 ev5 if we imag9e ourselves to become ?9n] & ?9n]1 we %\ld be unable to deviate ei!r to ! "r or left 9 mov+ along ! pa?1 because ! ?9n] we make ourselves ! ?9n] becomes also ! pa?4 ,we imag9e our intuition ( a deviation to ! "r or left becom+ ke5] & ke5]1 s t1 no matt] h[ small ! deviation we %\ld /ill be able to appreciate x by ! extra ex]tion :i* x w\ld involve4 ,we ?9k ( a po9t z a little spot1 & we ?9k ( ourselves z be+ v small inde$1 s t we c move ab\t on ?is spot4 ,b we c r$uce ! area ( ! spot m & m1 until x becomes 8inf9itesimally0 small2 & at ! same "t we ?9k ( ourselves z becom+ small] & small]1 s t we c /ill move ab\t on ! spot4 ,b we ?9k ( ! area ( ! spot z becom+ s small t no matt] h[ small we make ourselves we are unable to move on x4 ,?is means t we sub/itute conceptual l9es & po9ts & triangles = ! p]ceptual ones ( our exp]i5ce1 & !n we op]ate 9 imag9ation ) ^! concepts4 ,t is to say1 we c>ry our modes ( ex]tional activity to _! limits1#c 9 ! way :i* we h tri$ to indicate above--a process ( ?\ght :i* is ! f\ndation ( ! reason+ ( ! inf9itesimal calculus4 #c ,see app5dix1 p4 #cdf4 ,:at we call space1 !re=e1 dep5ds on our intuition ( bodily ex]tion4 ,?is intuition includes ! k t a c]ta9 *ange has occurr$ z ! consequ5ce ( ! exp5diture ( a c]ta9 am\nt ( bodily en]gy1 & t1 z ! result ( ?is *ange1 ! relation ( ! re/ ( ! univ]se to our body has become diff]5t4 ,we ?9k ( our body z ! orig91 or c5tre1 ( a sy/em ( co-ord9ates3-- ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,we imag9e ?ree l9es at "r angles to ea* o!r to ext5d indef9itely out into space1 & we ?9k ( ourselves z be+ situat$ at ! po9t ( int]section ( ^! ?ree /raight l9es4 ,if any?+ moves 9 ! univ]se outside ourselves we c resolve ?is motion into ?ree compon5ts1 ea* ( :i* is to be measur$ along "o ( ! axes ( our sy/em ( co-ord9ates4 ,b any motion :atev] 9 ! univ]se outside ourselves c be repres5t$ equally well by suppos+ t ! orig9 ( ! sy/em ( co-ord9ates has be5 *ang$2 t is1 by suppos+ t we h *ang$ our position relative to ! re/ ( ! univ]se4 ,!re=e motion outside ourselves is n to be di/+ui%$ f a contr>y motion ( our own body--a /atem5t ( ! 8pr9ciple ( relativity0--except t any *ange outside ourselves may be di/+ui%$ f t comp5satory *ange 9 ! position ( our body :i* appe>s to be ! same ?+1 by ! abs5ce ( ! intuition t we h exp5d$ a c]ta9 quantity ( en]gy 9 produc+ ! *ange4 ,consci\s motion ( our own body is some?+ absolute2 all o!r motion is relative4 ,s f> we h be5 speak+ ( our crude bodily motion1 b a v little consid]ation w %[ t our k ( space atta9$ by sci5tific measurem5ts dep5ds j z mu* on our intuition ( our bodily activity1 & its direction2 ! measurem5t ( a /ell> p>allax1 or t ( ! m]idian altitude ( ! sun1 = in/ance1 by a/ronomical in/rum5ts1 involves bodily ex]tion1 ?\gh ( a ref9$ k9d4 ,?ree-dim5sional space1 t is our space1 !re=e repres5ts ! mann] ( our activity1 j z convex two-dim5sional space repres5ts ! mann] ( ! activity ( ! ,infusorian1 & "o-dim5sional space w\ld repres5t ! mann] ( activity ( an animal :i* 0 compell$ to live 9 a tube1 ! sides ( :i* x fitt$ closely1 s t x c\ld move only 9 "o direction--up & d[n4 ,a p>asite1 liv+ atta*$ to "s fix$ object1 & ! movem5ts ( :i* 7 repres5t$ only by ! gr[? ( its tissues1 c\ld n =m any idea ( space2 & ! 8high]0 =ms ( geometry1 t is1 space ( f\r or m dim5sions1 pres5t no cle> notion to our m9ds1 ev5 al?\gh we reg>d ! op]ations includ$ 9 ma!matics ( ?is k9d z pure symbolism1 because we _c relate ?is imag9>y space to any =m ( bodily ex]tion4 ,geometry1 !n1 repres5ts ! mann] 9 :i* our bodily ex]tion cuts up ! homog5e\s m$ium 9 :i* we live4 ,motion1 :e!r x be t ( our own body 9 controll$ muscul> activity1 or t imag9>y motion ( ! environm5t :i* we call gidd9ess1 or a s5sibly p]ceiv$ motion ( "s "p ( ! environm5t1 t is1 a motion :i* we c comp5sate by "s actual or imag9>y *ange 9 ! position ( our own body produc$ by our own ex]tion1 is an intuitively felt *ange1 & is incapable ( intellectual repres5tation4 ,x is n cle>ly conceiv$ ei!r 9 anci5t or 9 mod]n geometry4 ,euclidean geometry is1 z we h se51 bas$ directly on our intuition ( bodily ex]tion1 b x is ess5tially /atic 9 treatm5t4 ,let x be admitt$ t we c draw a /raight l9e ( any l5g? & 9 any direction1 & s on2 !n we reg>d ^! /raight l9es1 etc41 z motionless1 ab/ract ?+s1 & we proce$ to discuss _! relation%ips4 ,c>tesian geometry1 & ! me?ods ( ! inf9itesimal calculus1 d n treat ( real motion1 & ! concept1 if x is introduc$ at all1 is introduc$ illegitimately & surreptiti\sly4 ,consid] :at we d :5 we 8plot a curve40 ,let ! latt] be a p>abola hav+ ! equation y #a_/b x4 ,n[ a p>abola is def9$ z 8! locus ( a po9t :i* moves1 s t its di/ance f a fix$ po9t is 9 a con/ant relation to its di/ance f a fix$ /raight l9e40 ,h[ d we con/ruct su* a curve8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,we proce$ to fix ! positions ( a s]ies ( po9ts 9 ?is way3 !re are two /raight l9es1 ,,ox & ,,oy1 at "r angles to ea* o!r1 & we measure (f c]ta9 /eps along ! l9e ,,ox2 ^! /eps are ,,ox#je1 ,,ox#a1 ,,ox#ae1 ,,ox#b1 & s on1 ! small num]als indicat+ ! di/ance ( ea* po9t 7,,ox#je1 etc47 f ! orig9 ,o4 ,we !n draw l9es p]p5dicul> to ! ,x-axis ?r\gh ^! po9ts4 ,we h n[ to calculate "o-half ( ! squ>e ( ea* ( ^! l5g?s ,,ox#je1 ,,ox#a1 etc41 & !n we m>k (f ^! calculat$ l5g?s along ! p]p5dicul> l9es4 ,! po9t ,a1 = in/ance1 is #a_/b7je7b f ! po9t ,x#je1 ,b is #a_/b7a7b f ,x#a1 & s on4 ,9 ?is way we obta9 a s]ies ( po9ts1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 etc41 & ^! are po9ts on ! locus ( ! 8mov+0 po9t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,!re is no?+ at all ab\t motion "h4 ,all t we h done is to measure l5g?s4 ,we h made a k9d ( c\nt]po9t1 ,x-po9ts aga9/ ,y-po9ts1 b we h n ev5 made a curve4 ,we connect ! po9ts ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 etc41 by means ( %ort1 /raight l9es1 & !n we may connect toge!r ^! %ort l9es1 &1 if we plot a numb] ( int]m$iate po9ts betwe5 ^? t we h already obta9$ & jo9 ^!1 ! po9ts may be s close toge!r t !y may seem to be indi/+ui%able f a curve4 ,yet1 no matt] h[ num]\s !y may be1 !y c nev] be connect$ toge!r s z to =m a curve2 we !re=e draw a curv$ l9e freeh& ?r\gh !m1 & at once1 9 s do+1 we ab&on our intellectual me?ods1 = our curve dep5ds on our intuition ( cont9u\sly *ang+ direction4 ,b if we ?9k ab\t x we %all f9d t we c =m no cle> intellectual notion ( cont9uity & we c only measure ! curvature ( a l9e at a po9t 9 ! l9e by draw+ a tang5t to ! curve at ?is po9t1 & !n by measur+ ! slope ( ! tang5t4 ,! curve itself we obvi\sly leave out ( consid]ation4 ,we _c conceive ( ! po9t mov+ along ! locus ,,od4 ,we c ?9k ( x only z at ! places ,o1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 etc41 b we mu/ neglect ! int]vals ,,oa1 ,,ab1 ,,bc1 ,,cd1 ,,de1 & s on1 or we c divide !m into small] int]vals by suppos+ ! po9t to h occupi$ ! positions f1 g1 i1 j1 betwe5 ! po9ts ,a & ,b1 = in/ance4 ,yet1 no matt] h[ _m ^! int]vals may be1 we c only ?9k ( ! po9t z be+ at ! places ,o1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 or at f1 g1 i1 j1 & s on4 ,we nev] ?9k ( ! int]vals !mselves1 &1 if all we ?9k ab\t is ! position ( ! po9t1 we d n really ?9k ( x z 9 motion at all4 ,we c see x 9 motion1 b we _c =m an intellectual concept ( its motion4 ,x is n really necess>y t we %\ld 9 ! affairs ( ev]yday life1 b = ! adequate treatm5t ( problems involv+ rates ( *ange sci5ce _h to wait = ! inv5tion ( ! me?ods ( ! inf9itesimal calculus be=e ?is disability ( ! human m9d c\ld be circumv5t$4 ,b ! mov+ po9t occupies successively a numb] ( diff]5t positions 9 space4 ,if x is a mat]ial po9t t we obs]ve to move f "o place to ano!r1 we p]ceive t a c]ta9 int]val ( our duration corresponds ) ! *ange ( position ( ! po9t4 ,duration 0 n us$ up 9 ! occupancy ( ! diff]5t positions ,o1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e1 & s on1 nor 9 t ( ! occupancy ( ! indef9itely num]\s o!r positions 9 :i* we may place ! mov+ po9t1 b 9 ! int]vals !mselves4 ,we h said 8duration0 & n 8"t10 us+ ,b]gson's t]m4 ,by duration & "t we und]/& diff]5t ?+s4 ,"t is1 = u1 only a s]ies ( /&>d ev5ts :i* punctuate1 s to speak1 our exp]i5c$ duration4 ,! unit ( "t is ! sid]eal day1 t is1 ! int]val ( "t betwe5 two successive transits ( a fix$ /> across ! arbitr>y m]idian4 ,b if we try to conceptualise ?is int]val we f9d t we c d s only by break+ x up into small] int]vals1 & ?is we d by us+ a p5dulum ( a c]ta9 l5g? :i* makes a c]ta9 numb] ( sw+s 7#hf1djj7 dur+ ! int]val betwe5 ! two transits ( ! />4 ,?us we obta9 a small] int]val ( duration & we call ?is a second ( "t4 ,b = _m purposes ?is int]val is too long1 & we c aga9 sub-divide x by mak+ use ( a tun+-=k :i* makes1 say1 #ajjj complete vibrations 9 a second2 9 ?is way we obta9 /ill small] int]vals ( duration--! sigmata ( ! physiologi/s4 ,a sigma1 !re=e1 repres5ts ! int]val betwe5 ! beg9n+ & end ( "o complete vibration ( a c]ta9 k9d ( tun+-=k2 a second1 t betwe5 ! beg9n+ & end ( "o complete sw+ ( a p5dulum ( a c]ta9 l5g?1 plac$ at c]ta9 p>ts ( ! e>?'s surface2 & a day1 t betwe5 two successive transits ( a fix$ /> across a select$ m]idian1 aft] all ! necess>y corrections h be5 made to ! obs]vation4 ,^! actual occurr5ces1 ! positions ( ! prongs ( ! tun+-=k1 or ^? ( ! bob ( ! p5dulum1 or ^? ( ! fix$ /> d n involve duration4 ,we consid] ! m]idian ( ,gre5wi* z an imag9>y l9e drawn across ! cele/ial sph]e1 & ! /> z a po9t ( light1 s t ! actual transit is1 9 ! limit1 an occurr5ce :i* occupies only an 8inf9itesimal0 int]val ( duration4 ,s also ) ! p5dulum & ! tun+-=k2 ! positions ( ^! ?+s d n 8use up0 "t1 & ev5 if ! int]vals into :i* we divide a/ronomical "t are indef9itely num]\s no real quantity ( duration is tak5 up by _! occurr5ce4 ,we "k t ! int]val betwe5 two successive transits ( a fix$ /> are n really con/ant1 t is1 ! a/ronomical day is l5g!n+ by an incr$ibly small "p ( a second ea* ye>1 b h[ d we "k ?is8 ,x is n t we c feel ! increm5ts ( duration1 b j t we assume t ,newton's laws ( motion are true2 & h5ce t ! tidal friction due to ! motions ( ! e>?1 sun1 & moon mu/ ret>d ! p]iod ( rotation ( ! e>? s t ! int]vals betwe5 two successive transits ( a /> mu/ become great]4 ,?us we d n conceptualise ! actual int]vals ( duration ( :i* we are able to m>k ! end-po9ts2 !y are liv$ by u1 & !y are real absolute ?+s indep5d5t ( our wills4 ,suppose we come 9 f a long walk1 tir$ & ?ir/y1 & ask ! maid to get tea ready at once4 ,%e puts ! kettle on ! gas /ove & !n sits d[n to read4 ,! wat] takes1 say1 five m9utes to boil4 ,:at d we mean by ?is8 ,?is is :at we mean3-- ,! p5dulum & x has ,! "t ( ! clock n[ swung & n[ & s elapses ,"t has already on swung ,m times ,m n times ,m #bn times ,p sw+s ,! wat] 9 x is n[ & n[ ! kettle ! kettle at & s boils is at on ,t ,t t ,t #bt #ajj ,temp]a- ture ,! volume x is n[ & n[ ,x is ( m]cury 9 & s ! !rmo- on met] is ,v ,v v ,v #bv ,w ,:at we call "t "h is only a s]ies ( simultane\sly occurr+ ev5ts4 ,! /&>d ev5ts are ! positions ( ! h&s ( ! clock on ! clock face1 t is1 l5g?s ( arc record+ ! numb] ( sw+s ( ! p5dulum t h occurr$ s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! op]ation ( ! boil+ ( ! kettle4 ,:5 ?is began1 ! h&s ( ! clock 7 at1 say1 #d4cj1 & ! temp]ature ( ! wat] 0 !n1 say1 #ag ,c42 &1 :5 x end$1 ! h&s ( ! clock 7 at #d4ce & ! temp]ature ( ! wat] 0 #ajj ,c4 ,x is only ! simultaneities ( ^! ev5ts t we h record$ & n ! int]val ( duration t !y m>k4 ,x does n matt] h[ _m times we might h look$ at ! h&s ( ! clock & ! !rmomet]1 we %\ld /ill h obs]v$ only simultaneities4 ,b we _h to wait = ! kettle to boil1 & ! temp]ature #ajj 0 atta9$ aft] ! temp]ature #ij1 & s on4 ,:at does ?is mean8 ,:ile we 7 wait+1 ! wat] seem$ to take an intol]ably long "t to boil4 ,b ! maid 0 read+ "o ( ,mr ,*>les ,g>vice's novels1 & 8be=e %e knew :]e %e 00 ! kettle boil$ ov]4 ,!re 0 a c]ta9 int]val ( duration exp]i5c$ by h]1 & ano!r1 b diff]5t1 int]val ( duration exp]i5c$ by u4 ,9 ea* case !re 0 a /ream ( consci\sness4 ,we felt fatigue1 ?ir/1 a lack ( satisfaction1 w&]+ att5tion1 & irritation--all t 0 our duration4 ,b ! maid 0 id5tify+ h]self ) ,lady ,m>y1 :o _h spra9$ an ankle & 0 be+ help$ along by ! new1 "y gamekeep]1 & t 0 h] duration4 ,!re ne$ n be any succession ( ev5ts 9 ! conceptual repres5tation ( a physical process4 ,!re is1 = in/ance1 no succession 9 su* a conception z is repres5t$ by ! foll[+ diagram--a conception well wor? analysis3-- ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,! figure repres5ts a trac+ made by a muscle-n]ve prep>ation4 ,a liv+ muscle tak5 f an animal has be5 atta*$ to a light lev]1 ! end ( :i* makes a scrat* on a piece ( smok$ pap]4 ,! pap] is fa/5$ on a revolv+ cyl9d] & s long z ! muscle is motionless ! end ( ! lev] m>ks a horizontal l9e on ! pap]4 ,b if ! muscle is /imulat$ s t x contracts & !n relaxes aga9 ! lev] is pull$ up & is !n l[]$1 & s its po9t makes a curve on ! pap]4 ,! n]ve go+ to ! muscle c be /imulat$ electrically & ! mom5t ( ! /imulation c be record$ by ano!r lev]1 :i* makes a m>k on ! pap] bel[ ! trace made by ! lev] :i* is atta*$ to ! muscle4 ,two su* %ocks h be5 appli$ to ! n]ve & !y h elicit$ two contractions ( ! muscle & ^! two contractions h fus$ toge!r4 ,9 ! actual exp]im5t ! op]ators c\ld see t ! muscle mov$1 & !y c\ld feel t a c]ta9 int]val ( _! own duration co9cid$ ) ! int]val betwe5 ! fir/ & second depressions ( ! key t made ! electric %ocks4 ,b ! ext5t ( motion ( ! muscle 0 too small1 & ! depressions ( ! key succe$$ ea* o!r too rapidly to be easily obs]v$1 & !re=e all ^! ev5ts 7 made to record !mselves on ! myogram4 ,! s]ies ( little not*es at ! base ( ! figure repres5t ! movem5ts ( ! "t-lev]1 t is1 !y are scrat*es made on ! pap] by a little lev] :i* moves up & d[n at a rate fix$ be=eh&4 ,n[ :5 ?is "t lev] _h made t5 not*es on ! pap] ! fir/ %ock 0 appli$ to ! n]ve1 & at ! elev5? ! muscle began to contract4 ,at ! sev5te5? not* ! second %ock 0 appli$ & ! muscle cont9u$ to contract4 ,at ! tw5ty-fif? not* ! muscle ceas$ to contract & began to relax1 & at ! =ty-second not* ! muscle _h ceas$ to contract4 ,ev]y?+ n[ becomes cle> & easy to repres5t m5tally2 ! "t-lev] makes #ajj not*es on ! pap] 9 a second1 s t !re 0 an int]val ( #j4jg seconds betwe5 ! two /imuli1 & ^! two /imuli produc$ a comp\nd contraction ( ! muscle la/+ = #j4a second4 ,?is is :at ! exp]im5t]s might h p]ceiv$1 _h human unaid$ s5ses be5 suffici5tly acute4 ,b !y are n1 & s ! crude p]ception ( ! results ( ! exp]im5t is replac$ by a conception ( ! tra9 ( ev5ts involv$ 9 ! op]ation4 ,duration & succession disappe> & ! myogram repres5ts only a s]ies ( simultane\s ev5ts ( ?is nature2 ! fir/ /imulus occurs simultane\sly ) ! t5? movem5t ( ! "t-lev]2 ! second /imulus ) ! sev5te5?1 & s on4 ,9 see+ ! exp]im5t ! op]ators _h to wait = "o phase to be complet$ be=e !y c\ld obs]ve ano!r "o1 b 9 reason+ ab\t x all ! phases are spread out & are pres5t 9 ! conception at once4 ,! duration 0 9 ! op]ators b n 9 ! exp]im5t3 x 0 exp]i5c$1 b x disappe>s :5 ! results ( ! exp]im5t are conceptualis$4 ,a succession ( ev5ts is 9 ourselves & n 9 ! ev5ts obs]v$4 ,if a po9t is said to move along ! locus ,,od ?r\gh ! positions ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 x is we t h ! feel+ ( succession1 & ! :ole trajectory1 or locus1 or pa? ( ! po9t corresponds ) a portion ( our duration4 ,! op]ation ( boil+ ! kettle corresponds ) a portion ( our duration1 :i* 9 its turn corresponds ) t "p ( our duration :i* 0 m>k$ by ! positions ( ! h&s ( ! clock4 ,?us we p]ceive a simultaneity 9 ^! two tra9s ( ev5ts1 & ?is enables u to assign a c]ta9 p]iod ( a/ronomical "t to ! op]ation ( rais+ ! temp]ature ( ! wat]1 9 ! conditions ( ! exp]im5t1 f #ag ,c4 to #ajj ,c4 ,b !re is no?+ absolute 9 ?is int]val ( a/ronomical "t3 :at is absolute is t c]ta9 successions ( ev5ts always correspond ) o!r successions ( ev5ts4 ,a c]ta9 numb] ( sw+s ( a seconds-p5dulum always corresponds ) a c]ta9 rise 9 temp]ature ( a def9ite mass ( wat] :i* is 9 !rmal contact ) an indef9itely l>ge res]voir ( heat at a c]ta9 temp]ature1 &1 no matt] h[ (t5 we repeat ?is exp]i5ce1 ! same simultaneity is always to be obs]v$4 ,?us :at ! physici/ consid]s is n int]vals ( 8 own duration b s]ies ( correspond5ces--t is1 correspond5ces ( c]ta9 /&>d ev5ts ) ! ev5ts :i* he is /udy+4 ,9 reality "t1 9 ! s5se ( ! a/ronom]'s "t1 does n ent] into ! me?ods ( ! ma!matical physici/4 ,let u suppose t he is inve/igat+ ! *ange t occurs 9 a mat]ial sy/em betwe5 ! two mom5ts ( "t t#a & t#b1 ^! mom5ts be+ sep>at$ f ea* o!r by a p]iod ( duration t we c feel4 ,let ! sy/em be1 say1 ! e>? & moon2 ! fir/ body be+ suppos$ to be motionless1 & ! second be+ suppos$ to h a c]ta9 tang5tial velocity ( movem5t4 ,if ! int]val t#a to t#b is really an int]val ( a/ronomical "t1 ! problem1 :at is ! diff]5ce ( position ( ! moon ow+ to ! gravitation ( ! e>?1 is incapable ( solution1 & ev5 if we r$uce ! int]val ( "t indef9itely :ile /ill suppos+ t x is a f9ite int]val1 ! ma!matical difficulty rema9s4 ,we !n replace ! f9ite int]val t#a to t#b by ! diff]5tial dt1 :i* means t ! two phases ( ! sy/em1 motionless e>? & mov+ moon at ! "t t#a1 & motionless e>? & mov+ moon at ! "t t#b1 are sep>at$ by an int]val ( "t dt1 :i* is small] ?an any f9ite int]val t we c conceive4 ,we mu/ !n integrate ! diff]5tial ( ! position diff]5ce s z to obta9 ! real diff]5ce 9 ! condition ( ! sy/em aft] ! f9ite int]val ( "t t#a to t#b has elaps$4 ,?us ma!matics1 incapable ( deal+ ) real int]vals ( "t1 evades ?is difficulty by consid]+ t5d5cies1 n real occurr5ces4 ,?+s t happ5 9 a "p ( inorganic nature arbitr>ily deta*$ f ! re/1 & inve/igat$ by ! me?ods ( ma!matical physics1 d n endure4 ,let u suppose t we take "s silv] & add nitric acid to x3 ! metal dissolves4 ,we c !n add hydro*loric acid to ! solution & precipitate ! metal 9 ! =m ( *loride2 & we c !n fuse ?is *loride ) c>bonate ( soda1 or "s o!r sub/ance1 & s obta9 ! metal aga94 ,if we "w c>efully en\gh we c repeat ?is s]ies ( op]ations aga9 & aga9 & ! orig9al portion ( silv] w rema9 un*ang$ bo? 9 nature & 9 mass4 ,all ! *emical reactions into :i* x has ent]$ h n affect$ x 9 any way2 t is to say1 ^! reactions h n endur$4 ,if we inject a s]um1 conta9+ a tox91 into ! blood /ream ( a susceptible animal1 c]ta9 ?+s happ54 ,! animal w become ill1 b1 provid$ t ! am\nt ( s]um :i* has be5 inject$ 0 n too great1 x w recov]4 ,if ! tox9 be aga9 inject$ a reaction occurs1 b ! animal does n become s ill z on ! fir/ occasion1 & aft] a numb] ( injections ! dose adm9i/]$ may be s great z to kill a susceptible animal b may yet produce no effect on ! animal :i* is ! subject ( ! process ( immunisation3 immunity has be5 conf]r$ on x4 ,n[ c we comp>e ! two op]ations1 t ( ! solution & precipitation ( ! metal & t ( ! immunisation ( ! animal8 ,we c to "s ext5t1 b ! analogy soon fails1 & inde$ we %\ld n attempt to =mulate a !ory ( immunity on a physico-*emical basis if we did n />t ) ! assumption t ! s]ies ( op]ations 0 "o 9 :i* only physico-*emical reactions 7 involv$1 t is to say1 !re is no?+ 9 ! ph5om5a ( immunisation t sugge/s t :at occurs 9 ! animal body is simil> to :at we c cause to occur 9 inorganic mat]ials outside ! tissues ( ! liv+ organism4 ,we />t ) ! assumption t ! adm9i/ration ( ! tox9 causes ! =mation ( an antitox9 9 v mu* ! same sort ( way z ! adm9i/ration ( hydro*loric acid to a solution ( nitrate ( silv] causes ! =mation ( *loride ( silv]4 ,?is antitox9 !n neutralises ! dose ( tox9 :i* may be adm9i/]$ aft] ! process ( immunisation has be5 effect$1 v mu* 9 ! same sort ( way z a c]ta9 am\nt ( "s acid c be neutralis$ by an equival5t am\nt ( "s base ) :i* ! acid c comb9e4 ,if ! read] w analyse any ( ! !ories ( immunisation curr5t at ! pres5t day he w f9d t ^! are ! physical ideas t are involv$ 9 x4#d ,b physiological sci5ce has ! mu* m =midable task ( expla9+ ! p]si/5ce ( ! immunity4 ,! animal r5d]$ immune to ! tox9s produc$ by c]ta9 species ( bact]ia may rema9 s = _m ye>s1 t is1 = a v long "t aft] ! antitox9s orig9ally produc$ by ! reaction ( ! tissues to ! tox9s fir/ adm9i/]$ h disappe>$4 ,we mu/ imag9e1 !re=e1 t ! anti-sub/ances produc$ orig9ally by ! reaction ( ! tox9 are produc$ aga9 & aga9 by ! tissues ( ! susceptible animal1 = ! latt] may resi/ repeat$ infections1 t is1 repeat$ doses ( tox91 )\t illness4 ,b !n ! tissues ( ! animal body are transitory sub/ances & !y d n p]si/ un*ang$4 ,muscles1 gl&s1 connective tissues1 ev5 n]ve-fibres & n]ve-cells und]go metabolism1 & ! *emical sub/ances ( :i* !y are compos$ break d[n into ! excretory products1 pass out into ! blood /ream1 & are elim9at$ f ! body2 :ile at ! same "t ^! tissues are cont9ually be+ r5ew$ f ! nutritive sub/ances 9 ! blood & lymph4 ,x is ! organisation ( ! tissues--_! =m & modes ( reaction--t endure1 b ! mat]ial sub/ances ( :i* !y are compos$ are 9 a /ate ( cont9ual flux4 ,yet ! organisation ( ^! tissues does n p]si/ un*ang$1 = x is cont9ually respond+ to new conditions exp]i5c$ by x4 ,! reactions t occur :5 a tox9 is adm9i/]$ to a susceptible animal affect ! organisation ( its tissues 9 su* a way t ! latt] acquire ! capability ( produc+ antitox9s :i* may--if we l to say s--neutralise ! tox9s t ent] into !m :5 !y become infect$4 ,! reaction endures4 ,b ?is is a diff]5t ?+ f say+ t ! process is a physico-*emical "o alone4 #d ,except t1 ( c\rse1 ! reactions t are suppos$ to occur are v complex ones4 ,?is is :at we mu/ und]/& by ! duration ( ! organism4 ,ev]y?+ t x exp]i5ces = ! fir/ "t p]si/s 9 its organisation4 ,x acquires ! ability ( respond+ to "s /imulus by a def9ite1 purposeful reaction1 ! effect ( :i* is to aid x 9 its /ruggle = exi/5ce2 & ?is reaction1 once c>ri$ out1 becomes a 8motor habit0 or ! basis ( a reflex1 or 9 "s o!r way1 z 9 ! process ( immunisation1 rema9s a "p ( ! modes ( function+ ( ! animal4 ,9 our behavi\r c]ta9 c]ebral n]ve tracts become laid d[n & cont9ue to exi/ ?r\gh\t life1 modify+ all our future exp]i5ce4 ,our pa/ exp]i5ce accumulates4 ,!re mu/ be direct cont9uity 9 our flux ( consci\sness1 = no p]ception seems ev] to fade absolutely f memory4 ,?is cont9ual addition ( p]ceptions to ^? t already exi/ makes our consci\sness ev] become m complex1 s t a p]ception exp]i5c$ = ! fir/ "t is nev] q ! same :5 x is aga9 exp]i5c$4 ,! fir/ "t t we g up & d[n 9 an elevator1 or sit on a 8joy-:eel10 or asc5d 9 a balloon or an a]oplane1 or become intoxicat$1 con/itutes an unique ev5t 9 our lives1 & we exp]i5ce a 8new s5sation40 ,:at ! blas man ( ! _w compla9s ( is ?is accumulation1 or r p]si/5ce1 ( 8 exp]i5ces4 ,a repetition ( ! same /imulus nev] aga9 begets ! same p]ception4 ,! fir/ he>+ ( a mod]n draw+-room song may be enjoyable1 b ! next "t we he> x we are n int]e/$1 & by-&-bye x becomes v tiresome4 ,! fir/ he>+ ( a great symphony usually p]plexes u1 & we are p]haps repell$ by unusual h>monies1 or progressions1 or /range modulations1 b subsequ5t he>+s af=d increas+ pleasure4 ,we say t !re 0 8s mu* 9 x0 t we did n und]/& x1 yet precisely ! same s]ies ( ext]nal /imuli affect$ our auditory membranes on ea* occasion1 & ! same molecul> di/urbances 7 transmitt$ along our aff]5t n]ves to ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em1 :]e ! same physical effects mu/ h be5 produc$4 ,! diff]5ce 9 all ^! cases betwe5 ! repetitions ( ! same /imuli 0 t ! lat] ones became add$ to ! e>li] ones1 s t ! /ate ( consci\sness produc$ by1 or :i* 0 concomitant )1 ^! ext]nal /imuli 0 a diff]5t /ate 9 ea* case4 ,?is is ! duration ( ! intellig5tly act+ animal3 x is n m]ely memory1 b memory & ! accumulation ( all its pa/ modes ( respond+ to *anges 9 its environm5t1 :e!r ^! modes ( response 7 consci\s ones 7z 9 ! case ( an intellig5tly p]=m$ or 8le>n$0 action71 or unconsci\s ones 7z1 = in/ance1 9 ! case ( ! acquirem5t ( immunity by an animal :i* _h become able to resi/ disease74 ,x is n m]ely ! exp]i5ce ( ! individual organism1 b also all ! exp]i5ce ( ^? ?+s :i* 7 done or exp]i5c$ by ! ance/ry ( ! organism1 & :i* 7 transmitt$ by h]$ity to ! prog5y4 ,motor habits are =m$1 s t mu* ! same s]ies ( muscul> actions are c>ri$ out :5 a /imulus =m]ly exp]i5c$ is aga9 exp]i5c$4 ,pure memory rema9s1 s t ! images ( pa/ ?+s & actions someh[ p]si/ 9 our consci\sness4 ,physical analogy sugge/s t ^! images are inscrib$ on ! sub/ance ( ! bra9 or are /or$ away 9 "s mann]2 b1 ap>t f ! incr$ible difficulty ( imag9+ a me*anism compet5t = ?is purpose1 x is obvi\s t we ?us apply to ! inve/igation ( our consci\sness 7:i* is an int5sive multiplicity71 ! concept ( ext5sion :i* c only apply 9 all its /rictness to ! ?+s outside ourselves on :i* we are able to act4 ,all ^! motor habits1 functional reactions1 & memory images are our duration or accumulat$ exp]i5ce4 ,! motor habits & ^? functional habitual reactions ( o!r p>ts ( ! body ?an ! s5sori-motor sy/em are ! basis ( our actions1 b ! memory images are1 s to speak1 press$ back into t "p ( our organisation :i* does n em]ge into consci\sness4 ,only s mu* ( !m z be> on ! situation 9 :i* we1 = ! mom5t1 f9d ourselves & :i* may !re=e influ5ce our actions1 fla% out into consci\sness4 ,z 8dream]s0 we indulge ourselves 9 ! luxury ( becom+ consci\s ( ^! memory images1 b z 8m5 ( action0 we /]nly repress !m1 or s mu* ( !m z d n assi/ u 9 ! actions t we are p]=m+4 ,yet x is 9 ! exp]i5ce ( ea* ( u t1 9 spite ( ?is cont9ual inhibition1 p>ts ( our memories slip ?r\gh ! b>ri]s ( utility & surreptiti\sly rem9d u ( all t we h be5 & ?\ght4 99 99 99 99 99 ,?us we simplify ! /ream ( our consci\sness4 ,t ( :i* we are consci\s at any "t is nev] m ?an a "p ( our crude s5sation3 we nev] p]ceive m ?an a small "p ( all t our organs ( s5se transmit to our c5tral n]v\s sy/em4 ,b ev5 ^! *os5 p]ceptions ( ! ext]nal _w are s ri*1 s *aotic & confus$1 t we are unable to att5d to !m all at once & we !re=e 8skeletonise0 ! cont5ts ( our consci\sness4 ,we ?9k ab\t x a bit at a "t4 ,x is an unit>y ?+1 unable to be brok5 up1 b we look at x f a great numb] ( diff]5t po9ts ( view1 s to speak2 & !n1 fix+ our att5tion on "s aspect ( x1 we agree to ignore all ! re/4 ,we ?us deta* p>ts ( x f ! re/ &1 hav+ ?us arbitr>ily decompos$ x1 we call ^! sep>ate aspects ! elem5ts ( our p]ceptions1 & conf] ^u !m sep>ate exi/5ce 9 space & "t4 ,we rememb] & classify ?+s & gr\p toge!r all ^? t seem to resemble ea* o!r4 ,we =m g5]a1 agree+ to ignore all b ! mo/ g5]al *>act]i/ics ( ! ?+s :i* we try to conceptualise4 ,we d n ?9k sep>ately ab\t all ! dogs or horses or fi%es t we h ev] se51 b we gr\p all ^! animals into species1 & x is usually ! species t we ?9k ab\t :5 ! idea ( a dog or a horse or a h]r+ em]ges into our consci\sness4 ,:5 we ?9k ab\t a tramc> we d n ?9k ab\t all ! sep>ate vehicles t we h se51 nor ab\t _! col\rs1 nor ! adv]tisem5ts on ! bo>ds outside1 nor ! p hang+ on to ! /raps inside4 ,j s mu* ( ! exp]i5ce ( :at is relevant to ! purpose ( our ?\ght ent]s into our idea ( ! tramc>3 x is a conceptual vehicle t we ?9k ab\t4 ,su* is ! nature ( ! concepts t =m ! basis ( our reason+3 !y are g5]alis$ aspects ( our exp]i5ce ( nature1 usually poor] 9 cont5t ?an 7 ! actually p]ceiv$ ?+s1 except :5 x is necess>y t "s individual ?+ se5 or o!rwise exp]i5c$ %\ld be inve/igat$ or reason$ ab\t4 ,all our descriptions ( nature are conceptual s*emes4 ,! _w ( p]ception1 says ,william ,james1 is too ri* to be att5d$ to all at once1 b 9 conceptualis+ x we spread x out & make x ?9n]1 & we m>k out b\nd>ies & division l9es 9 x t d n really exi/4 ,x is ?is g5]alis$ nature t is ! subject matt] ( our reason+ ( pure sci5ce2 & x is ^! concepts t =m ! matt] ( all our descriptions4 ,we d n describe nature 8z we see x10 x is our conceptions t we write ab\t4 ,g5]a & species & v>ieties d n really exi/ 9 ! animate _w3 all ^! are logical categories g5]at$ by our ?\ght1 concepts t facilitate our descriptions4 ,:5 an anatomi/ gives an acc\nt ( ! /ructure ( an animal he does n say :at x looks l1 nor z a rule does he cont5t himself by mak+ a photograph ( 8 dissections4 ,= him ! animal is a complex ( muscles1 skeleton1 n]ves1 gl&s1 & s on1 & 9 8 draw+s all ^! ?+s are giv5 an individuality t !y d n really possess4 ,9 ! liv+ creature !re 7 no su* %>ply-di/+ui%$ organs z a good draw+ repres5ts3 all are b\nd toge!r & are cont9u\s4 ,b = practical conv5i5ce 9 description--t is1 9 ! long run1 t we may act ^u ^! ?+s1 we isolate f ea* o!r aspects t are 9 reality "o unit>y :ole4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! univ]se1 t is1 all t is giv5 to u1 pres5ts itself z imm$iately p]ceiv$ ph5om5a :i* are !n conceptually trans=m$4 ,x is an aggregate ( ?+s--gross matt]1 p>ticles1 molecules1 atoms1 & electrons4 ,^! ?+s h sep>ate exi/5ce & %ape1 s t ea* ( !m lies outside all o!r ?+s--we apply to !m ! category ( ext5sion4 ,!y possess prop]ties--t is1 !y are h>d1 or heavy1 or hot1 or cold1 or !y are col\r$1 or !y smell1 & s on--we ?us apply to !m ! category ( inh]5ce4 ,!y are n ?+s t are immutable1 = !y *ange 9 place1 or are trans=m$ 9 o!r ways1 t is1 !y are act$ ^u by en]gies4 ,b b5ea? ! prop]ties ( ! ?+s1 or ! trans=mations t !y und]go1 we imag9e some?+ t has prop]ties & :i* trans=ms3 x is n conv5i5t t we speak solely ( attributes or trans=mations z entities 9 !mselves1 = we ?9k ( ?+s z hav+ prop]ties & be+ subject to trans=mations4 ,?us we apply ! category ( sub/ance4 ,has ?is univ]se t we con/ruct f ! data ( s5sation objective reality8 ,we are l$ q naturally by our /udy ( physiology to ! notion ( idealism4 ,we see t our p]ception ( ?+s1 t is1 our k ( ! univ]se1 dep5ds on ! integrity ( function+ ( c]ta9 bodily /ructures1 & ^u ! condition t 9 m5 9 g5]al ?is integrity ( function+ is normal1 t is1 common to ! great majority ( mank9d4 ,to say t a ?+ exi/s is to say t x is p]ceiv$ 9 "s way2 t imm$iately or remotely x affects our /ate ( consci\sness4 ,to say t ! /> ,sirius exi/s is to say t ! /imulation ( ! ret9a by a m9ute spot ( light transmits c]ta9 molecul> di/urbances along ! optic n]ve1 & t o!r molecul> di/urbances are set up 9 ! tissues ( ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em4 ,ev5 if we d n see ^? d>k />s t we "k to exi/1 !re are /ill evid5ces ( _! be+ t 9 "s way affect ! in/rum5ts ( ! a/ronom] & lead to _! be+ p]ceiv$4 ,ev5 if we d n actually see ! emanations f a radio-active sub/ance1 we c cause ^! emanations to produce *anges 9 some?+ t we c see4 ,we speak ( ! /> z a m9ute spot ( col\r$ light4 ,b if we are %ort-sight$ ! spot becomes a little fl>e1 & if we are col\r-bl9d ! hue ( ! /> is diff]5t f :at x is to normal p]sons4 ,if we put a drop ( atrop9e into "o eye & !n close ! o!r1 objects appe> to lose _! di/9ctness1 b if we close ?is eye & !n op5 ! o!r1 ! orig9al %>pness ( vision returns4 ,:5 we are bili\s1 wisps & spots may appe> on a %eet ( :ite pap] t at o!r times 0 blank4 ,if we take an ov]dose ( qu99e1 ru/l+s & s++ noises become app>5t ev5 9 conditions t ought to preclude all s5sation ( s\nd4 ,if we h a bad cold1 we d n smell sub/ances :i* at o!r times /rongly affect our olfactory membranes4 ,:5 we become intoxicat$1 a ho/ ( ab]rations ( s5se displace our normal p]ceptions ( ?+s4 ,our p]ception ( ! univ]se1 !re=e1 dep5ds on ! normal function+ ( our organs ( s5se1 t is1 su* modes ( function+ z we c describe & communicate to o!rs1 & :i* are ?us common to ! majority ( o!r m5 & wom54 ,^! p]ceptions result+ f ! normal function+ ( ! organs ( s5se con/itute giv5ness1 & we enl>ge1 or conceptualise ?is giv5ness & call x ! subject matt] ( sci5ce4 ,b :at is ?is reality t we say is ext]nal to u8 ,x is1 we see1 our inn] consci\sness4 ,if we walk along a road 9 ! d>k we c feel :at is ! nature ( ! pa? on :i* we tread1 :e!r /ones or gravel1 or s& or grass4 ,b ?is feel+ is obvi\sly n 9 ! soles ( our boots1 & nei!r is x 9 ! sk9 ( ! feet1 = we %\ld feel no?+ if ! aff]5t n]ves 9 ! legs 7 sev]$4 ,is x !n 9 ! bra98 ,x w\ld appe> to be !re1 b x disappe>s if c]ta9 tracts 9 ! bra9 are injur$4 ,all t we c say is t ! appe>ance ( reality ( ?+s outside ourselves is only ! ev]-*ang+ condition ( our consci\sness4 ,?is is all t we imm$iately "k1 & if we say t !re is an univ]se ext]nal to ourselves we ?us project outside our own m9ds :at is 9 !m2 & we con/ruct an environm5t :i* may or may n exi/1 b :i* we h no "r to say does exi/4 ,a philosophy bas$ on ! sci5ce ( ! organism w\ld appe> to be re/rict$ to ?is ideali/ic view ( ! univ]se4 ,:5 we come across x = ! fir/ "t :5 we are "y x appeals to u ) all ! =ce ( exact reason+1 & yet x has all ! *>m ( p>adox4 ,!re is no "p ( our intuitive k :i* appe>s to u to be m c]ta9 ?an ?is di/9ction betwe5 ourselves & an out] environm5t3 we "k t our consci\s ,ego is some?+ diff]5t f our body--& we "k t outside our body !re is some?+ else4 ,yet ! ideali/ic view s appeals to ! intellect t we _c ?9k speculatively ab\t x )\t1 at times1 almo/ conv9c+ ourselves ( ! unreality & %ad[9ess ( all t at o!r times seems mo/ real & tangible2 & we indulge 9 ^! speculations all ! m readily because we "k t :5ev] we beg9 to act1 ! intuitively felt body & out] _w w return to u ) all _! orig9al conviction ( reality4 ,"s su* sy/em ( idealism mu/ g5]ally *>act]ise a sy/em ( philosophy f\nd$ on pure reason+4 ,we _c b feel t ! univ]se t we con/ruct is "o t dep5ds on our p]ceptions3 x is our p]ceptions4 ,! ess5ce ( a ?+ is t x is p]ceiv$4 ,if !re 7 no m9d to p]ceive x1 w\ld x exi/8 ,! univ]se is our ?\ght1 & we1 t is our ?\ght1 exi/ only 9 ! ,?\ght ( an absolute ,m9d :i* we call ,god4 ,su* is ! metaphysics to :i* ! /udy ( s5sation l$ ,b]keley4 ,! metaphysics ( sci5ce has tak5 ano!r turn4 ,x is true t m5 & wom5 see some?+ outside !mselves :i* diff]s slightly 9 diff]5t individuals--^! diff]5ces are due to :at we call ! 8p]sonal equation40 ,! image ( ! univ]se se5 by "s individuals may diff] pr(\ndly f ! image se5 by "s o!rs1 or mo/ o!rs2 b a well-m>k$ gap sep>ates ^! slight individual deviations 9 ! images se5 by normal individuals f ! l>ge deviations se5 by ^? ^: p]ceptions are :at we call pa?ological ones4 ,! normal univ]se common to ! majority ( m5 & wom5 is an aggregate ( molecules 9 motion4 ,b ?is is a conclusion ) :i* mod]n physics has be5 unable to rema9 cont5t1 = molecules mu/ be able to act on ea* o!r across empty space1 & ?is is inconceivable4 ,! univ]se !re=e consi/s ( a homog5e\s immat]ial m$ium1 ! e!r ( space1 & ?is is ! true sub/antia physica4 ,molecules & radiation are conditions ( ! e!r1 & = ! physici/ x is ! only reality4 ,! 8mat]ialism0 ( our own "t is !re=e ! belief 9 ! exi/5ce1 uncondition$ by "t or any?+ else1 ( ! e!r1 or physical cont9uum2 a homog5e\s m$ium1 ( :i* matt] & en]gy1 & ! consci\sness ( ! organism1 are only /ates or conditions4 ,! mat]ialism ( ! tw5tie? c5tury1 l ! idealism ( ,b]keley1 ?us f9ds t !re is some?+ outside our own consci\sness t possesses absolute exi/5ce4 ,to ! mat]iali/ x is ! e!r ( space1 & to ,b]keley x is ! exi/5ce ( absolute ,m9d4 ,b if our desire to avoid metaphysics is a g5u9e "o1 we mu/ reject ! notion ( ! univ]sal e!r no less ?an we mu/ reject ! notion ( an absolute ,m9d1 & we mu/ re/ cont5t ) pure ph5om5alism4 ,= ea* ( u !re c be no exi/5ce except t :i* is p]ceiv$ or conceptualis$4 ,!re is no?+ b our own consci\sness2 !re _c ev5 be an ,ego :i* p]ceives2 !re is only p]ception4 ,we nev] d really believe ?is 9 spite ( our pr(essions ( reason4 ,we f9d on /rict self-analysis t we believe t !re is an ,ego t p]ceives & t !re are o!r ,egos t p]ceive1 & t ! univ]se :i* our ,ego p]ceives is also ! same univ]se t o!r ,egos p]ceive4 ,if we did n believe t !re 7 o!r m5 & wom5 t p]ceiv$--o!r consci\snesses l our own1 all t "p ( our own behavi\r t we call morality w\ld be mean+less4 ,9 a philosophy ( pure idealism o!r m5 & wom5 are only ph5om5a2 only bodies mov+ 9 nature4 ,:y1 !n1 %\ld ^! elem5ts ( our consci\sness influ5ce ! re/ ( our consci\sness z if !y 7 m5 & wom5 l ourselves4 ,all ?is am\nts to say+ t :ile our speculative ?\ght sugge/s to u t all t exi/s is our /ream ( consci\sness1 our actions mu/ conv9ce u t !re are o!r ?9k+ individuals l ourselves4#e #e ,! read] may recognise 9 ?is argum5t t ( ,dries*'s ,?ree ,w9d[s into ! ,absolute4 ,ev5 if we d surr5d] ourselves to ph5om5alism & try to believe t all t exi/s is our own consci\sness1 ! fact ( our duration w\ld sugge/ to u t ?is pres5t consci\sness is n all4 ,our reality is n only t :i* is pres5t 9 our m9ds n[1 b all t 0 ev] pres5t 9 our m9d4 ,all t we h ev] ?\ght & done p]si/s & =ms our consci\s & unconsci\s exp]i5ce4 ,?is pa/ ( ours is some?+ t is ev] be+ add$ to1 or becom+ incorporat$ )1 our pres5t /ate ( consci\sness2 & if x is some?+ o!r ?an t :i* we n[ p]ceive & conceptualise1 x is some?+ t has an exi/5ce ( its own4 ,we mu/ believe t !re is some?+ t we p]ceive1 & n t we m]ely p]ceive4 ,= ! phases ( our imm$iate giv5ness1 t is1 ^? ?+s :i* 7 pres5t 9 our m9ds f mom5t to mom5t ( ! pa/ 7 connect$ toge!r & _h direction1 & ?is direction 0 some?+ t c\ld n be influ5c$ by our w1 & may ev5 h be5 contr>y to our w4 ,some?+ t is v hot always cools1 a :eel t is revolv+ ( itself always comes to a /op1 a p5dulum ceases to sw+1 a /one t is roll+ d[n a hill cont9ues to roll4 ,let u look back at a fire t 0 go+ out3 x is n[ ne>ly dead2 let u />t a p5dulum to sw+ & !n g away3 :5 we come back ! p5dulum is /ill sw++ b ! amplitude ( its vibrations is n[ less ?an x 02 let u look away f ! /one t 0 fall+3 :5 we look aga9 x is /ill fall+ b x is n :]e x 04 ,9 all our giv5ness1 9 all ! ph5om5a t we p]ceive1 !re is some?+ t is det]m9$ & unequivocal1 some?+ t goes its own way ap>t f our consci\sness ( x4 ,above all1 we h ! conviction ( absolut5ess 9 our s5se ( p]sonal id5tity4 ,we1 t is our ,ego1 are some?+ t endures1 & we c trace no beg9n+ to our id5tity1 & we h no intuition t x w cease to exi/4 ,our ,ego is n[ ! same ,ego t x 0 9 ! pa/1 & r\nd x some?+ has accumulat$--! memories ( our =m] p]ceptions1 & ! habits t ^! h eng5d]$4 ,did our ,ego create ?is f itself8 ,0 x n r a c5tre ( action :i*1 resid+ 9 an exi/5ce o!r ?an itself--! absolute :i* we call ! univ]se--modifi$ t exi/5ce & cont9ually acquir$ new relation%ips to x8 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,organism ,,z ,a ,,me*anism ,we propose n[ to consid] ! organism purely z a physico-*emical me*anism1 b be=e do+ s x may be useful to summ>ise ! results ( ! discussions ( ! la/ *apt]4 ,let u1 = ! mom5t1 cease to reg>d ! organism z a /ructure--a 8con/ellation ( p>ts0--& ?9k ( x z ! physiologi/ does3 x is a ma*9e2 x is ess5tially 8some?+ happ5+40 ,:at1 !n1 is ! object ( its activity8 ,:atev] else ! /udy ( natural hi/ory %[s u1 x %[s u ?is1 t ! imm$iate object ( ! activity ( ! organism is to adapt itself to its surr\nd+s4 ,x mu/ ma/] its environm5t1 & subdue1 or at lea/ avoid :atev] 9 ! latt] is inimical4 ,x mu/ avoid accid5t1 disease1 & dea?1 x mu/ f9d food & %elt]2 x mu/ seek = ^? conditions ( ! environm5t :i* are mo/ fav\rable to its prolong$ exi/5ce4 ,ultimate aims--! pres]vation ( its race1 e?ical ideals--d n conc]n u 9 ! meantime4 ,! ma9 object ( ! function+ ( ! individual organism is t x may dom9ate its environm5t1 & obta9 ma/]y ov] in]t matt]4 ,consci\sly or unconsci\sly x acts t[>ds ?is end4 ,all ^? actions :i* we call reflex1 or automatic1 or in/9ctive1 h ?is 9 common1 t ! organism 9 p]=m+ !m comes into relation ) only a v limit$ region ( its environm5t4 ,b kn[+ t region intuitively1 its actions h a complet5ess t an intellig5t action does n exhibit until x has become s habitual z to approa* to automatic act+4 ,! relations betwe5 ! organism & t "p ( its _w on :i* x acts1 intuitively or in/9ctively1 is some?+ l t betwe5 a key & ! lock to :i* x is fitt$3 x op5s ?is lock1 p]haps "o or two o!rs :i* resemble x1 b no m4 ,n[ j because ( ?is p]fect1 b re/rict$1 adju/m5t ( ! in/9ctive or automatically act+ organism to ! objects on :i* x op]ates1 k ( all else 9 ! environm5t becomes ( little consequ5ce4 ,x is cle> t intellig5t act+ involves delib]ation4 ,! almo/ inevitable motor response to a /imulus1 :i* is *>act]i/ic ( ! reflex or in/9ct1 does n occur 9 ! intellig5t action3 in/ead ( ?is we f9d t we *oose betwe5 two or m responses to ! same /imulus4 ,we reply to ! latt] by do+ ?is n[1 & t ano!r "t2 & we see at once :at results fl[ f act+ diff]5tly ^u ! same "p ( our environm5t1 or act+ 9 ! same way ^u diff]5t p>ts4 ,p]ception1 t is1 k ( ! _w1 arises f act+2 & z our actions1 :5 c>ri$ out intellig5tly1 become almo/ inf9itely v>i$1 ! environm5t appe>s to u 9 v _m aspects4 ,9 e action we modify t "p ( our surr\nd+s on :i* we op]ate4 ,we c produce _m modifications t are ( no use to u3 ^! we d n att5d to4 ,we produce o!rs t are useful1 & !n we note ! sequ5ces ( ev5ts involv$ 9 our actions4 ,?us we discov] or inv5t natural law--an environm5t :i* is an ord]ly "o4 ,we c calculate & pr$ict :at w happ53 we produce1 = in/ance1 a ,nautical ,almanac1 at once ! type ( useful k & ( k ( sequ5ces ( ev5ts rigidly det]m9$--k 9 %ort t is me*ani/ic2 & :i* has be5 eng5d]$ by ! necessity = act+ on our environm5t 9 our own int]e/s4 ,all ?is1 ! read] may note1 is ,b]gson's !ory ( intellectual k1 a !ory :i*1 new & p>adoxical at fir/1 becomes m & m conv9c+ ! long] we ?9k ab\t x1 until at la/ x seems s obvi\s t we wond] t x ev] seem$ new4 ,our modes ( ?9k+ become con/ra9$ into c]ta9 grooves1 j because ^! modes ( ?9k+ h be5 ^? t 7 g5]at$ by our modes ( act+4 ,s long z our ?9k+ relates only to our act+1 its ex]cise is legitimate4 ,b if its object is pure speculation its results may be illusory1 = a me?od has be5 appli$ to objects o!r ?an ^? = :i* x 0 evolv$4 ,let u n[ ext5d our intellectual me?ods to ! inve/igation ( ! organism4 ,necess>ily we mu/ reason ab\t ! latt] z a me*anism if we reason ab\t x at all4 ,if x is a me*anism x mu/ con=m to ! laws ( en]getics1 = sci5ce1 s f> z x is quantitative1 :e!r its results are express$ 9 ! =m ( equations or inequalities1 is bas$ on ^! pr9ciples4 ,! fir/ pr9ciple ( en]getics1#f or ! fir/ law ( !rmodynamics1 is t ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy4 ,let u ?9k ( an isolat$ sy/em ( p>ts su* z ! sun ) its assemblage ( planets1 satellites1 & o!r bodies3 9 reality ^! d n =m an isolat$ sy/em1 b we c reg>d !m z su* by suppos+ t j z mu* en]gy is receiv$ by !m f ! re/ ( ! univ]se z is radiat$ (f by !m to ! re/ ( ! univ]se4 ,9 ?is sy/em1 !n1 ! sum ( a c]ta9 entity rema9s con/ant1 & no conceivable process c dim9i% or increase its quantity4 ,we call ?is entity en]gy1 & we usually ext5d ! pr9ciple ( its absolute cons]vation to matt]1 ?\gh ?is ext5sion is unnecess>y1 = we mu/ ?9k ( matt] 9 t]ms ( en]gy4 ,/at$ m g5]ally ! pr9ciple is t :atev] exi/s mu/ cont9ue to exi/1 if we are to reg>d ?is exi/5ce z a real "o4#g #f ,see app5dix1 p4 #cef4 #g ,! pr9cipal reason :y we d n believe 9 phantasms is t ^! appe>ances are n cons]v$4 ,x is n at all self-evid5t to ! m9d t en]gy mu/ be cons]v$1 = we see t1 to all appe>ance1 x may disappe>4 ,a golf-ball driv5 up ! side ( a hill possesses en]gy :ile 9 flight1 k9etic en]gy or ! en]gy ( motion2 b ?is app>5tly is lo/ :5 ! ball alights on ! hill-top & comes to re/4 ,we say1 h[ev]1 t x n[ possesses pot5tial en]gy 9 virtue ( its position2 = if ! hill is a /eep "o a little pu% w />t ! ball roll+ d[n ) increas+ velocity1 & :5 x rea*es ! spot f :i* x 0 orig9ally impell$ x possesses k9etic en]gy4 ,?is is describ$ z "o-half ( ! mass ( ! ball multipli$ by ! squ>e ( its velocity4 ,n[ ! k9etic en]gy ( ! ball at ! in/ant :5 x left ! head ( ! driv] ought to be equal to its k9etic en]gy :5 x rea*$ ! same horizontal level on its d[nw>d roll4 ,yet x c easily be %[n t ?is is n ! case1 & we acc\nt = ! lo/ k9etic en]gy by say+ t x has be5 dissipat$ by ! friction ( ! ball aga9/ ! atmosph]e 9 its flight1 & aga9/ ! side ( ! hill on its roll back4 ,we _c v]ify ?is quantitatively1 b we are q c]ta9 t x is ! case4 ,if we take a clock-spr+ & w9d x up1 ! en]gy exp5d$ becomes pot5tial 9 ! spr+1 & :5 ! latt] is releas$ mo/ ( x is recov]$4 ,b we may dissolve ! spr+ 9 weak acid )\t all[+ x to uncoil4 ,:at !n becomes ( ! en]gy imp>t$ to x8 ,we are compell$ to say t x has *ang$ ! physical condition ( ! solution into :i* x passes1 ei!r becom+ pot5tial 9 ?is solution1 or becom+ dissipat$ 9 "s way4 ,yet aga9 we _c trace ?is trans=mation exp]im5tally ?\gh we may be q sure t all ! en]gy pot5tial 9 ! coil$ spr+ is conceivably traceable4 ,suppose1 aga91 we burn "s hundr$weights ( coal 9 a /eam-boil] furnace4 ,heat is evolv$ :i* raises /eam 9 ! boil]1 & ! /eam actuates an eng9e1 & ! latt] exhibits measurable k9etic en]gy4 ,:]e did ?is come f8 ,x 0 pot5tial 9 ! coal1 we say1 ?\gh no me?od kn[n to physics enables u to prove ?is by m]e inspection ( ! coal4 ,we mu/ cause ! latt] to und]go "s trans=mation4 ,b by rigid me?ods we c e/imate v exactly ! pot5tial en]gy ( ! coal1 & we c calculate ! k9etic en]gy equival5t to ?is4 ,yet aga9 we f9d t ! k9etic en]gy ( ! /eam-eng9e is only a fraction ( t :i* calculation %[s u is ! equival5t ( ! k9etic en]gy ( ! coal4 ,:at becomes ( ! balance8 ,we c be q c]ta9 t x has be5 dissipat$ 9 friction1 radiation1 loss ( heat by conduction1 loss ( heat 9 ! cond5s]1 & s on1 al?\gh we _c prove ?is rigidly by exp]im5tal me?ods4 ,?9k ( ! univ]se z an isolat$ sy/em4 ,x conta9s an inv>iable quantity ( en]gy4 ,?is en]gy may be t ( bodies 9 motion--suns1 planets1 cosmic du/1 molecules1 etc4--:5 x is k9etic en]gy2 or x may be ! en]gy ( electric *>ges at re/ or 9 motion2 or any "o ( ! _m k9ds ( pot5tial en]gy4 ,x may pass ?r\gh num]\s trans=mations--! *emical pot5tial en]gy ( coal may be trans=m$ into ! k9etic en]gy ( wat] molecules 7/eam at high temp]ature71 & ?is into ! k9etic en]gy ( ! revolv+ armature ( a dynamo1 & ?is aga9 into ! en]gy ( mov+ electrons 7! curr5t ( electricity 9 ! circuit ( ! dynamo71 & !n aga9 into ! en]gy ( e!real vibration 7light1 heat1 ,x-rays1 or o!r electro-magnetic waves71 & ^! aga9 into me*anical or k9etic en]gy1 & s on4 ,:5 we say t we c control en]gy we say t we c produce ^! trans=mations2 we c cause ?+s to happ51 we br+ becom+ into be+4 ,9 ?is s5se en]gy is causality4 ,b :ile ! sum-total ( en]gy 9 ! univ]se rema9s con/ant1 ! sum ( causality cont9ually dim9i%es4 ,en]gy is ! p[]1 or condition1 ( produc+ div]sity1 b :ile en]gy c suff] no dim9ution ( quantity1 div]sity t5ds cont9ually to decrease4 ,9 ! la/ two s5t5ces we /ate1 9 "o way1 ! second law ( !rmodynamics--9 "s respects ! mo/ fundam5tal result ( our exp]i5ce 9 ! physical inve/igation ( ! univ]se4 ,9 its mo/ te*nical =m1 z enunciat$ by ,clausius1 ?is law /ates t ! value ( a c]ta9 ma!matical function1 call$ entropy1#h t5ds cont9ually t[>ds a maximum1 :5 x is appli$ to ! univ]se z a :ole4 ,:5 we say ! 8univ]se10 we mean all t comes )9 our p[] ( physical inve/igation4 ,let u n[ see :at ?is /atem5t means4 #h ,see app5dix1 p4 #cfi4 ,entropy is a %ad[y k9d ( concept1 difficult to grasp4 ,b aga9 we may po9t out t ! read] :o w\ld ext5d ! notion ( me*anism into life simply mu/ grasp x4 ,! en]gy ( ! sol> sy/em is 9 "p ! k9etic en]gy ( ^? p>ts ( x :i* are 9 motion--planets1 planetesimals1#i & satellites4 ,?is quantity ( en]gy is enorm\sly great4 ,9 ! case ( our e>? x is #a_/b7mv#b71 m be+ ! mass ( ! e>?1 & v its velocity4 ,translat$ into num]ical symbols we f9d ?is quantity almo/ inconceivable4 ,! great] "p ( ?is en]gy is unavailable1 t is1 x c und]go no trans=mations4 ,b because ! e>? is 9 rotation at ! same "t z x revolves r\nd ! sun1 & because ! moon revolves r\nd ! e>?1 !re are tides 9 ! wat]y & atmosph]ic envelopes ( ! e>?4 ,! en]gy ( ! tides is ! k9etic en]gy ( wat] or air 9 motion1 & we c employ ?is en]gy 9 ! production ( trans=mations1 & x is !re=e available4 ,b well-kn[n inve/igations h %[n t ! tides produce friction1 & t ! p]iod ( rotation ( ! e>? is sl[ly becom+ great]4 ,ultimately ! e>? w rotate on its own axis 9 ! same "t t x revolves r\nd ! sun--!n a ye> & day w be ( ! same l5g?4 ,:5 t occurs1 ! sun1 e>?1 & moon w be 9 equilibrium1 & tidal ph5om5a due to ! sun w cease4 ,! k9etic en]gy ( ! e>?1 rotat+ once 9 #bd h\rs is obvi\sly great] ?an its k9etic en]gy :5 rotat+ 9 ! p]iod :i* w !n be its ye>4 ,:at has become ( ! balance8 ,x has be5 trans=m$ into ! me*anical friction ( ! tides aga9/ ! surface ( ! e>?1#aj & ?is friction has be5 trans=m$ into l[-temp]ature heat1 & ?is heat has be5 radiat$ (f into space4 #i ,meteorites1 cosmic du/1 & o!r small p>ticles mov+ 9 ! sol> sy/em )9 influ5ce ( ! sun's gravity4 #aj ,n entirely1 ( c\rse1 b :atev] be ! trans=mation x ends 9 heat production4 ,! sol> sy/em also conta9s en]gy 9 ! =m ( ! heat$ sun & planets1 & 9 ! =m ( *emical pot5tial en]gy ( ! sub/ances ( :i* ^? bodies are compos$4 ,let u ?9k ( ! sy/em1 sun & e>?4 ,! sun conta9s enorm\s heat en]gy1 its temp]ature be+ "s #fjjj ,c4 absolute4#aa ,x conta9s enorm\s *emical en]gy 9 ! %ape ( comp\nds exi/+ b5ea? its out] envelopes1 & x conta9s en]gy 9 ! =m ( its own gravity--its contraction toge!r produces heat4 ,b ?is heat is be+ cont9ually radiat$ away3 *emical reactions mu/ occur 9 :i* ! pot5tial *emical en]gy ( its sub/ances mu/ become trans=m$ into heat1 & ?is heat is also radiat$ away2 contraction ( its mass mu/ occur up to a po9t :5 ! mat]ials are z closely pack$ toge!r z possible2 heat is develop$ dur+ ! contraction1 & ?is also passes away by radiation4 ,suppose t mod]n speculations are well f\nd$ & t radio-active sub/ances are pres5t 9 ! sun3 9 ! atomic dis9tegration ( ^! sub/ances heat is produc$ & aga9 radiat$4 ,!re=e 9 :atev] =m en]gy exi/s 9 ! sun1 x trans=ms into heat & ?is radiates4 ,! ultimate fate ( ! sun is to cool d[n & solidify4 ,x w !n move ?r\gh space z a body hav+ a cool1 solid cru/1 & an int5sely heat$ int]ior4 ,sl[ly1 v sl[ly1 ?is heat$ int]ior w cool d[n by ! conduction ( its heat f ! core to ! out] %ell1 & by ! radiation ( ?is heat f ! %ell into space4 ,= incr$ibly long p]iods radio-active sub/ances 9 ! int]ior mu/ g5]ate heat1 b ev5 ?is process mu/ rea* an end4 #aa ,absolute temp]ature is ,c5tigrade temp]ature #bgc4 ,?is is1 ( c\rse n a full def9ition1 b x is suffici5t = our pres5t discussion4 ,! en]gy receiv$ by ! e>? is t ( sol> & /ell> radiation4 ,/ell> radiation is m9ute1 ! absolute temp]ature ( cosmic space 7or e!r7 be+ ab\t -#bfc ,c4 ,! absolute temp]ature ( ! e>? is ab\t #ag ,c41 s t x radiates (f m heat into space 7o!r ?an t repres5t$ by ! sun7 ?an x receives4 ,all en]gy-trans=mations on ! e>? 7except tidal effects1 & en]gy-conduction f ! heat$ core1 & possibly radio-active effects7 are trans=mations ( ?is sol> en]gy receiv$ by radiation4 ,we see ^! 9 oceanic & atmosph]ic circulations 7curr5ts1 w9ds1 ra9fall1 etc474 ,we see !m also 9 ! trans=mations ( ! *emical pot5tial en]gy ( coal & o!r products ( life--products 9 :i* ! conta9$ pot5tial en]gy has be5 absorb$ f sol> radiation4 ,let u foll[ ! trans=mations ( ?is en]gy4 ,oceanic curr5ts transport heat f ! equatorial sea-areas to ! cold] temp]ate & pol> areas1 & comp5satory pol> curr5ts fl[ t[>ds ! equator1 absorb+ heat f ! wat]s ( temp]ate & equatorial areas4 ,w9ds act 9 an analog\s way4 ,wat] is evaporat$ :]e ! sol> radiation is int5se1 & heat is absorb$ 9 ! trans=mation ( wat] into aque\s vap\r4 ,!n ?is wat] vap\r is transport$ 9 ! w9ds into regions :]e x becomes cond5s$ & precipitat$ z ra9 or sn[1 heat be+ emitt$ 9 ?is cond5sation4 ,9 all ^! movem5ts !re is friction1 & ?is friction trans=ms to heat4 ,9 all ! effect is ! g5]al di/ribution ov] ! e>? ( ! heat :i* ! equatorial regions receive 9 excess ( t :i* ! pol> regions receive4 ,o!r me*anical effects are also produc$ by oceanic & atmosph]ic circulations--! d5udation ( ! coa/s by tides & /orms1 ! erosion ( ! l& by riv]s1 ra9s1 sn[1 & ice1 ! transport ( du/ 9 w9ds1 etc4 ,9 all ^! friction is produc$1 & ?is friction passes into heat4 ,! pot5tial *emical en]gy :i* results f absorption ( sol> radiation by plants is pr9cipally accumulat$ z coal4 ,ap>t f ! int]f]5ce ( man1 ?is coal w\ld sl[ly accumulate1 p]haps x w\ld m sl[ly disappe> by bact]ial action1 or by physical trans=mations4 ,9 ^! trans=mations ! en]gy ( ! coal w\ld become heat en]gy & ! pot5tial en]gy ( ! gas produc$ by bact]ial activity4 ,by man's ag5cy ! coal suff]s o!r trans=mations1 & 9 ! pres5t phase ( civilisation x is 8 *ief s\rce ( en]gy4 ,x is available = do+ "w ( _m k9ds1 & 9 all ^! =ms ( "w x becomes trans=m$ by *emical action 7burn+7 into high temp]ature heat4 ,we c cause ?is pot5tial en]gy ( coal to trans=m into me*anical en]gy ( ma*9es1 vehicles1 & %ips 9 motion by caus+ x to pass into heat4 ,9 ! /eam-eng9e1 or gas-eng9e1 a highly heat$ gas 7/eam1 or ! mixture result+ f ! explosion ( coal gas & air 9 ! cyl9d] ( ! eng9e7 exp&s & propels a pi/on or rotates a turb9e4 7,obvi\sly 9 ! petrol eng9e ! same ess5tial process takes place47 ,we employ ?is k9etic en]gy directly 9 transport1 or we cause x to und]go o!r trans=mations4 ,9 ! dynamo1 k9etic en]gy ( ma*9]y 9 motion trans=ms to electrical en]gy2 & ?is may trans=m to radiant en]gy 7light1 heat 9 electric radiators1 wireless telegraphy radiations71 or x may trans=m to *emical en]gy 7! manufacture ( c>borundum 9 ! electric furnace1 = in/ance71 or x may trans=m aga9 to ! k9etic en]gy ( bodies 9 motion 7electric traction74 ,9 innum]able ways ! human p[] ( direction causes trans=mation ( ?is accumulat$ pot5tial en]gy1 & ! read] w notice ! analogy ( all ?is ) ! ess5tial1 unconsci\sly express$ activity ( ! animal organism 9 its own metabolism--a po9t to :i* we return lat]4 ,notice n[ t all ! en]gy-trans=mations we h notic$ are irrev]sible4 ,?is is a matt] ( deep philosophical importance1 & we mu/ devote "s "t to x4 ,consid] fir/ ( all ! work+ ( ! /eam-eng9e2 :at occurs is ?is--coal is burn$ 9 ! boil]-furnace1 t is to say1 pot5tial *emical en]gy passes into heat & ?is vaporises wat] 9 ! boil]1 produc+ a gas at high temp]ature 7/eam74 ,?is gas exp&s 9 ! high-pressure cyl9d] ( ! eng9e1 driv+ =w>d a pi/on2 x exp&s fur!r 9 ! int]m$iate cyl9d]1 propell+ its pi/on also1 & aga9 9 ! l[-pressure cyl9d]4 ,x is !n cool$ by pass+ ?r\gh ! cond5s]1 & 9 ! contraction fur!r me*anical en]gy is obta9$4 ,! tra9 ( ev5ts ?us beg9s ) a gas at a high temp]ature & ends ) ! same gas at ! temp]ature ( ! wat] 9 ! cond5s]4 ,! heat lo/ is trans=m$ into ! me*anical en]gy ( ! eng9e4 ,b n all ( x4 ,a c]ta9 quantity is lo/ by radiation f ! boil] walls1 ! walls ( ! /eam-pipes1 ! cyl9d]s1 & o!r p>ts ( ! eng9e2 also "s ( ! en]gy is trans=m$ to friction1 & ?is aga9 to heat4 ,9 ?is way a v consid]able "p ( ! en]gy conta9$ 9 ! coal is fritt]$ away 9 unavoidable heat-conduction & radiation1 & a la/ residue ( x goes d[n ! dra91 s to speak1 ) ! cond5s] wat]4 ,?is loss is inh]5t 9 ! nature ( ! me*anism ( ! eng9e4 ,suppose t ! en]gy ( ! eng9e is employ$ to drive a dynamo4 ,! armature ( ! latt] rotates aga9/ ! con/ra9t ( p[]ful electro-magnets1 & 9 s do+ a curr5t ( electricity is g5]at$4 ,by ! law ( cons]vation ?is curr5t %\ld conta9 z mu* en]gy z 0 put into ! rotation ( ! armature2 z a matt] ( fact x does n1 & ! defici5cy is repres5t$ by ! friction ( ! p>ts ( ! ma*9e aga9/ ea* o!r1 by imp]fect conductivity ( electricity 9 ! wires1 & by imp]fect insulation ( ! curr5t4 ,friction1 imp]fect conductivity1 & imp]fect insulation all trans=m to heat1 & ?is radiates away4 ,suppose n[ t ! curr5t is us$ = light+ purposes3 to d ?is x mu/ heat ! metallic filam5ts 9 ! lamps1 or ! po9ts ( ! c>bons 9 an arc4 ,?is heat !n trans=ms to light1 b along ) ! light1 :i* 0 ! object ( ! trans=mation1 heat is produc$1 & ?is heat radiates away4 ,! actual process 9 :i* ! p>ticul> =m ( en]gy requir$ is g5]at$ may or may n be rev]sible 9 !ory4 ,t employ$ 9 ! /eam-eng9e is n1 = if we />t ) a cold boil] & !n "w ! eng9e backw>ds we c\ld n raise /eam4 ,! process 9 ! dynamo is !oretically rev]sible3 if we s5d a curr5t ( electricity into a dynamo ! ma*9e w beg9 to rotate1 & become a motor1 s t we c obta9 me*anical "w f x4 ,n[ 9 !ory all =ms ( en]gy are mutually conv]tible1 & all c be express$ 9 t]ms ( a common unit4 ,! unit ( me*anical en]gy is call$ ! erg3 let a curr5t1 ! en]gy ( :i* is equal to ,n ergs1 be s5t into ! dynamo1 !n we ought to obta9 f ! latt] me*anical en]gy equal to ,n ergs4 ,conv]sely1 if ,n ergs ( me*anical en]gy be employ$ to rotate ! dynamo1 we %\ld obta9 electrical en]gy equal to ?is am\nt4 ,n[ z a matt] ( fact we d n obta9 ^! !oretical conv]sions1 = "s ( ! electrical en]gy is dissipat$ :5 we employ ! ma*9e z a motor1 & "s ( ! me*anical en]gy is likewise dissipat$ :5 we employ x z a dynamo4 ,! entity t we call en]gy is ! product ( two factors1 a capacity-factor & an int5sity-factor4 ,?us3-- ,me*anical en]gy quantity ( wat] height at :i* x is ( wat] p[] situat$ above ! wat]-motor4 ,en]gy ( an quantity ( electricity electrical pot5tial4 electric curr5t ,*emical en]gy equival5t weight ( ! sub/ance *emical pot5tial4 ,:at is x t det]m9es :e!r or n an en]gy-trans=mation w occur8 ,x is ! condition t a diff]5ce ( ! int5sity-factors ( ! en]gy 9 diff]5t p>ts ( a sy/em exi/s4 ,wat] w fl[ f a high] to a l[] level1 do+ "w z x fl[s1 if x is direct$ ?r\gh a motor4 ,electricity w fl[ if !re is a diff]5ce ( electrical pot5tial4 ,a *emical reaction w occur if two sub/ances be=e int]act+ possess great] *emical pot5tial ?an d ! products :i* may possibly be =m$ dur+ ! int]action4 ,coal & oxyg5 possess great] *emical pot5tial ?an d c>bon dioxide & wat]1 !re=e !y w comb9e1 =m+ c>bon dioxide & wat]4 ,en]gy-trans=mations w !re=e occur :]ev] x is possible t diff]5ces ( int5sity or pot5tial c become aboli%$4 ,! en]gy t may ?us fl[ f a condition ( high to a condition ( l[ pot5tial1 und]go+ a trans=mation z x fl[s1 is ! available en]gy ( ! sy/em ( bodies 9 :i* x is conta9$4 ,a clos$ vessel surr\nd$ by an envelope imp]vi\s to heat1 & conta9+ a mixture ( oxyg5 & hydrog51 is an isolat$ sy/em conta9+ available en]gy4 ,let ! mixture be fir$ by an electric sp>k1 & heat is evolv$4 ,! total en]gy ( ! sy/em is unalt]$ 9 am\nt1 b ! available en]gy has disappe>$1 s9ce ! heat$ wat] vap\r is incapable ( und]go+ fur!r trans=mations :ile x =ms "p ( its isolat$ sy/em4#ab #ab ,x is really necess>y to lay /ress on ! di/9ction betwe5 available & unavailable en]gy1 z x is "o :i* _m biologi/s appe> to ignore4 ,?us1 a popul> book on ! mak+ ( ! e>? attempts to argue t ess5tial di/9ctions betwe5 liv+ & inorganic matt] are non-exi/5t4 ,"o ( ^! di/9ctions is t organisms absorb en]gy1 & ?is au?or po9ts to ! absorption ( 8lat5t heat0 by melt+ ice z an example ( ! absorption ( en]gy 9 a purely physical process4 ,consid] a sy/em consi/+ ( a block ( ice & a small /eam boil]4 ,we c obta9 "w f ?is by ! melt+ ( ! ice--t is1 its 8absorption ( lat5t heat40 ,! sy/em1 ice at #j ,c4 /eam at #ajj ,c41 possesses available en]gy1 b ! sy/em1 melt$ ice cond5s$ /eam1 bo? at ! same temp]ature1 conta9s none4 ,! molecules ( wat] at #j ,c4 8absorb en]gy10 t is to say1 _! k9etic en]gy becomes great]1 b _! available en]gy 9 ! sy/em has disappe>$4 ,9 say+ t ! organism absorbs en]gy1 we mean1 ( c\rse1 t x accumulates available en]gy1 t is1 ! p[] ( produc+ physical trans=mations4 7,see fur!r1 app5dix1 p4 #cff47 ,all physical processes are !re=e irrev]sible1 t is to say1 proce$ 9 "o direction only4 ,ei!r a process is irrev]sible 9 ! s5se t x _c proce$ bo? 9 ! positive & negative directions 7a /eam-eng9e1 = in/ance71 or x is irrev]sible 9 ! s5se t :ile x proce$s ! en]gy involv$ 9 x becomes less capable ( be+ trans=m$ into o!r conditions4 7,9 ! !oretically rev]sible dynamo1 en]gy becomes dissipat$ 9 ! =m ( heat47 ,! foll[+ /atem5ts may be reg>d$ z axioms#ac3-- #ac ,bryan1 ,!rmodynamics3 ,teubn]1 ,leipzig1 #aijg1 p4 #dj4 7#a7 8,if a sy/em c und]go an irrev]sible *ange1 x w d s40 7#b7 8,a p]fectly rev]sible *ange _c take place by itself40 ,9 ! ph5om5a /udi$ by physics we see only irrev]sible *anges4 ,9 all ^! processes en]gy desc5ds ! incl9e1 & "s 7consid]able7 fraction ( ! am\nt involv$ passes into conditions 9 :i* x is incapable ( fur!r trans=mation2 9 all1 en]gy becomes less & less available4 ,express$ 9 its mo/ te*nical =m1 ! second law ( !rmodynamics /ates t entropy t5ds cont9ually to increase4 ,e su* process z we c /udy 9 physics 8leaves an indelible impr9t some:]e or o!r on ! progress ( ev5ts 9 ! univ]se consid]$ z a :ole40#ad #ad ,bryan1 ,!rmodynamics1 p4 #aie4 ,we _c obs]ve a truly isolat$ sy/em4 ,! e>? itself is "p ( ! sol> sy/em1 & ! latt] receives en]gy f1 & radiates x to ! re/ (1 ! univ]se4 ,our only isolat$ sy/em is ! :ole univ]se4 ,we mu/ ?9k ( x1 9 s f> z we reg>d x z physical1 z a f9ite sy/em3 if x is inf9ite1 our speculations become mean+less4 ,! univ]se !re=e is a sy/em 9 :i* en]gy t5ds cont9ually t[>ds degradation4 ,9 e process t occurs 9 x--t is to say e purely physical process--heat is evolv$1 & ?is heat is di/ribut$ by conduction & radiation1 & t5ds to become univ]sally diffus$ ?r\gh\t all its p>ts4 ,:5 ?is ultimate1 uni=m di/ribution ( en]gy w h be5 atta9$1 all physical ph5om5a w h ceas$4 ,x is useless to argue t univ]sal ph5om5a are cyclical4 ,we va9ly invoke ! speculations 7f\nd$ on r prematurely develop$ cosmical physics7 ( /ell> collisions1 light-radiation pressure1 ! di/ribution ( cosmic du/1 etc4 to support our notions ( alt]nate phases ( dissipation & conc5tration ( en]gy2 close analysis w %[ t all ^! processes mu/ be irrev]sible4 ,! picture physics exhibits to u is t ( ! univ]se z a clock runn+ d[n2 ( an ultimate ext9ction ( all becom+2 an univ]sal physical dea?4 ,9 ?is conclusion !re is no?+ t is speculative4 ,x is ! lea/ metaphysical ( ! great g5]alisations ( sci5ce4 ,x repres5ts simply our exp]i5ce ( ! direction 9 :i* physical *anges are proce$+4 ,bas$ ^u ! mo/ exact me?ods ( sci5ce kn[n to u1 no?+ seems m c]ta9 & m capable ( rigor\s ma!matical inve/igation4 ,& yet we are c]ta9 t x is n univ]sally true4 ,= !re mu/ always h be5 an univ]se--at lea/ our intellect is incapable ( conceiv+ beg9n+4 ,if we suppose a beg9n+1 an uncondition$ creation1 at once we leap f sci5ce into ! ranke/ ( metaphysics4 ,hold+1 !n1 t ! duration ( our physical univ]se is an inf9ite "o1 we see t ! ultimate atta9m5t ( en]gy--dissipation--mu/ h occurr$ if our physics is true4 ,x does n matt] :at new s\rces ( en]gy mod]n inve/igation has %[n to u2 nor d ! incr$ibly great lapses ( duration necess>y = ! depletion ( ^! s\rces matt]4 ,we h et]nity to draw ^u4 ,ev]y:]e 9 ! univ]se we see div]sity & becom+4 ,is !n ! :ole problem a transc5d5tal "o1 or is ! second law untrue8 ,we refuse to reg>d ! problem z insoluble1 & we mu/ ?9k ( ! second law z true ( our physical exp]i5ce only4 ,b our conception ( ! univ]se %[s t x _c be true1 & s we h to seek = an influ5ce comp5satory to x4 ,if ! organism is a me*anism ( ! physico-*emical k9d1 x %\ld !re=e con=m to ! two great pr9ciples ( en]getics e/abli%$ by ! physici/s4 ,n[ !re c be no d\bt t ! law ( en]gy-cons]vation does apply to all ! processes obs]v$ 9 animals & plants4 ,let u consid] ! 8calorimetric exp]im5ts40 ,an animal1 toge!r ) ! food & oxyg5 suppli$ to x1 & ! v>i\s sub/ances excret$ by x1 con/itutes a physical sy/em4 ,?is sy/em c be approximately isolat$ s t no heat ent]s x f outside1 :ile ! heat t leaves x c be det]m9$ quantitatively4 ,! animal is made to p]=m me*anical "w1 & ?is is measur$4 ,! en]gy-value ( ! food +e/$ by x1 & t ( ! excreta1 c be e/imat$4 ,all ! physical conditions c ?us be controll$1 & ! results ( su* exp]im5ts %[ t en]gy is cons]v$4 ,! en]gy conta9$ 9 ! food is greatly 9 excess ( ! en]gy conta9$ 9 ! excreta1 b ! deficit is quantitatively repres5t$ by ! "w done by ! animal1 & by ! heat lo/ 9 conduction & radiation f its body4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! obs]v$ results & ! !oretical ones are )9 ! limits ( error ( ! exp]im5t4 ,! metabolism ( ! animal z a :ole1 !n1 con=ms to ! law ( cons]vation1 & ! g5]al results ( physiology all g to %[ t ?is is also true ( *emico-physical *anges consid]$ 9 detail4 ,x _c be %[n t ! second law1 t ( ! dissipation ( en]gy1 applies to ! organism ) all ! /rictness 9 :i* x applies to purely physical sy/ems4 ,if we consid] only ! w>m-blood$ animal we d inde$ f9d t its g5]al metabolism does proce$ 9 "o direction1 & t irrev]sible *anges occur4 ,9 ! mammal & bird we h organisms :i* pres5t a sup]ficial resemblance to ! heat-eng9e1 ) respect to _! *emico-physical processes1 a resemblance1 h[ev]1 :i* is r an analogy ?an an id5tity ( processes4 ,9 ! heat-eng9e we h 7#a7 a me*anism ( p>ts :i* d n *ange 9 mat]ial & relation%ips to ea* o!r 7boil]1 cyl9d]1 pi/ons1 cranks1 slide-valves1 etc472 & 7#b7 a work+ sub/ance 7! /eam74 ,en]gy 9 ! =m ( ! *emical pot5tial ( coal & oxyg5 is suppli$ to ! me*anism4 ,! coal is oxidis$1 produc+ heat4 ,! heat !n exp&s ! work+ sub/ance 7! wat] 9 ! boil]71 & ?is work+ sub/ance--n[ a gas at high temp]ature & pressure--propels ! pi/on & conf]s k9etic en]gy on ! eng9e4 ,note ! ess5tial /eps 9 ?is process3 sub/ances ( high *emical pot5tial 7coal & oxyg57 suff] trans=mation into sub/ances ( l[ *emical pot5tial 7c>bon dioxide & wat]71 & ! diff]5ce ( en]gy appe>s z high-temp]ature heat 7increas$ k9etic en]gy ( wat] molecules1 to be m precise74 ,?is heat is !n trans=m$ into me*anical "w 7! k9etic en]gy ( ! molecules ( /eam is imp>t$ to ! pi/on ( ! eng9e74 ,b 9 ?is trans=mation only a relatively small proportion 7#aj to #bj7 ( ! en]gy available is trans=m$ into me*anical "w3 ! re/ is dissipat$ z irrecov]able l[-temp]ature heat1 by radiation f boil]1 /eam-pipes1 eng9e1 & z ! heat :i* passes into ! cond5s] wat]4 ,9 ! organism 9 g5]al !re is no di/9ction betwe5 ! fix$ p>ts ( ! me*anism & ! work+ sub/ance4 ,! organism itself 7its muscles1 n]ves1 gl&s1 etc47 is ! work+ sub/ance4 ,fur!r1 x is n q c]ta9 t !re is a necess>y trans=mation ( *emical en]gy into heat4 ,! s\rce ( en]gy 9 ! case ( ! w>m-blood$ animal is ! *emical en]gy ( ! food sub/ances & oxyg5 tak5 into its body4 ,^! *emical sub/ances und]go trans=mations 9 ! alim5t>y canal & 9 ! metabolic tissues4 ,! proteids ( ! food are brok5 d[n into am9o-sub/ances 9 ! alim5t>y canal1 & ^! am9o-sub/ances are syn!sis$ into ! specific proteids ( ! animal's body4 ,correspond+ *anges occur ) ! c>bohydrates & fats +e/$4 ,^! re>rangem5ts ( ! molecul> /ructure ( ! food/uffs are ! object ( ! processes ( dige/ion & assimilation2 & :5 !y are conclud$1 a c]ta9 proportion ( ! food tak5 into ! body has become incorporat$ )1 or has actually become a "p (1 ! liv+ tissues 7muscles1 n]ves1 etc47 ( ! animal body4 ,?is liv+ sub/ance1 comp\nds ( high *emical pot5tial 7proteids1 c>bohydrates1 & fats7 und]goes trans=mation into comp\nds ( l[ *emical pot5tial 7wat]1 c>bon dioxide1 & urea74 ,!re is a diff]5ce ( en]gy1 & ?is appe>s z me*anical en]gy1 z ! *emical en]gy requir$ = gl&ul> activity1 & z heat4 ,we mu/ n1 h[ev]1 conclude t ?is heat ( ! w>m-blood$ animal is comp>able ) ! wa/e heat ( ! /eam-eng9e4 ,! homoio!rmic animal ma9ta9s its body at a con/ant temp]ature1 :i* is usually high] ?an t ( ! m$ium 9 :i* x lives1 & ?is con/ancy ( temp]ature obvi\sly conf]s _m advantages4 ,*emical reactions proce$ ) a velocity :i* v>ies ) ! temp]ature1 s t 9 ! w>m-blood$ animal ! processes ( life g on almo/ unaffect$ by *anges 9 ! m$ium4 ,! animal exhibits complete activity ?r\gh\t all ! seasons ( ! ye>4 ,x does n1 or ne$ n1 hib]nate1 & x c live 9 climates :i* are widely diff]5t4 ,we !re=e f9d t ! mo/ widely-di/ribut$ gr\ps ( l&-animals are ! w>m-blood$ mammals & birds1 :ile ! l>ge/ & mo/ cosmopolitan m>9e animals are ! w>m-blood$ :ales4 ,heat-production 9 ! mammals & birds is !re=e a direct object ( ! metabolism ( ! animal2 x is a means :]eby ! latt] acquires a m complete ma/]y ov] its environm5t4 ,t x is n necess>ily a /ep 9 ! trans=mation ( *emical into me*anical en]gy we see by consid]+ ! metabolism ( ! cold-blood$ animals4 ,9 ^! poikilo!rmic organisms ! body pres]ves ! temp]ature ( ! m$ium4 ,! temp]ature 9 su* animals may be a degree1 or a fraction ( a degree1 high] ?an t ( ! environm5t1 b1 9 ! abs5ce ( exact calorimetric exp]im5ts1 we _c say :at proportion ( ! en]gy ( ! food ( ^! animals passes into unavailable food en]gy4 ,probably x is a v small fraction ( ! :ole1 & we are ?us ju/ifi$ 9 say+ t 9 ! cold-blood$ animal *emical en]gy does n1 to a significant ext5t1 become trans=m$ into heat4 ,! result is1 ( c\rse1 t ! vital processes 9 ^! organisms keep pace1 s to speak1 ) ! temp]ature ( ! environm5t1 s9ce ! *emical reactions ( _! metabolism are affect$ by ! ext]nal temp]ature4 ,we f9d !re=e t hib]nation1 ! =mation ( re/+ /ages1 & a g5]al sl[+ d[n ( metabolic processes are m *>act]i/ic ( ! cold-blood$ animal dur+ ! cold] seasons ?an ( ! w>m-blood$ animal4 ,! =m] has n t ma/]y ov] ! environm5t atta9$ by ! mammal or bird4 ,! metabolism ( ! animal !re=e resembles ! en]gy process ( ! heat-eng9e only 9 ! g5]al way1 t 9 bo? s]ies ( trans=mations *emical en]gy desc5ds f a condition ( high pot5tial to a condition ( l[ pot5tial1 trans=m+ into me*anical en]gy 9 s do+1 & ?us p]=m+ "w4 ,9 ! heat-eng9e *emical en]gy trans=ms to heat1 & !n to me*anical en]gy1 & ( ! total quantity trans=m$ a c]ta9 l>ge proportion suff]s dissipation by conv]sion into l[-temp]ature heat4 ,9 ! animal organism *emical en]gy trans=ms directly to me*anical en]gy )\t pass+ ?r\gh ! phase ( heat4 ,if heat is produc$ x is because x is1 9 a way1 available en]gy1 inasmu* z x p]mits ( ! cont9uance ( *emical reactions at a normal rate4 ,! analogy ( ! animal ) ! heat-eng9e is !re=e a false "o4 ,x sugge/s oxidation ( ! food-/uffs & heat production1 :]eas x is n at all c]ta9 t any significant proportion ( ! en]gy ( ! organism is ! result ( oxidation3 _m animal organisms inde$ function 9 ! entire abs5ce ( free oxyg54 ,fur!r1 ! proportion ( en]gy dissipat$ is always small comp>$ ) ! heat-eng9e1 & t5ds to vani%4 ,! second law ( !rmodynamics does n1 !n1 re/rict ! en]gy-trans=mations ( ! animal organism to ! same ext5t t x re/ricts ! en]gy-trans=mations ( ! physico-*emical me*anism4 ,! processes involv$ 9 ! plant organism diff] /ill m 9 _! direction f ^? ( a 8purely physical0 tra94 ,to see ?is cle>ly we mu/ consid] ! imag9>y me*anism kn[n z a ,c>not heat-eng9e4#ae ,?is is a sy/em 9 :i* we h 7#a7 a heat-res]voir at a con/ant high temp]ature1 7#b7 a refrig]ator at a con/ant l[ temp]ature1 & 7#c7 a work+ sub/ance :i* is a gas4 ,en]gy is drawn f ! res]voir 9 ! =m ( heat1 & ?is heat exp&s ! gas1 do+ "w4 ,! gas contracts1 & its heat is !n giv5 up to ! refrig]ator4 ,! "w done is equal to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! am\nt ( heat tak5 f ! res]voir & ! am\nt giv5 to ! refrig]ator4 #ae ,see app5dix1 p4 #cfc4 ,?is s]ies ( op]ations is call$ a direct ,c>not cycle4 ,b ! me*anism c be work$ backw>ds4 ,9 ?is case heat passes f ! refrig]ator into ! work+ sub/ance1 :i* 0 at a l[] temp]ature4 ,! work+ sub/ance1 or gas1 is !n compress$1 z ! result ( :i* op]ation x is heat$ to j above ! temp]ature ( ! res]voir4 ,! heat x ?us acquires is !n giv5 up to ! res]voir4 ,9 ! direct ,c>not cycle1 !re=e1 en]gy passes f a /ate ( high pot5tial to a /ate ( l[ pot5tial & "w is done by ! me*anism4 ,9 ! rev]s$ ,c>not cycle en]gy passes f a /ate ( l[ pot5tial to a /ate ( high pot5tial & "w is done on ! me*anism4 ,! ,c>not eng9e is ?us p]fectly rev]sible4 ,no en]gy is dissipat$ 9 its work+4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 a purely imag9>y me*anism4 ,9 ! metabolism ( ! gre5 plant c>bon dioxide & wat] are tak5 into ! tissues ( ! leaf & are trans=m$ into />*4 ,b ! en]gy ( ! comp\nds1 c>bon dioxide & wat]1 is mu* less ?an t ( ! same comp\nds :5 built up into />*4 ,en]gy mu/ !re=e be d]iv$ f "s s\rce1 & ?is s\rce is said to be ! e!r4 ,sol> radiation is absorb$ by ! gre5 leaf1 & ?is en]gy is employ$ to produce ! *emical trans=mation4 ,j h[ ?is is effect$ we d n positively "k1 9 spite ( mu* inve/igation4 ,x is possible t =maldehyde is =m$ f c>bon dioxide & wat]1 polym]iz$1 & !n conv]t$ into />*4 ,x is possible t ! absorb$ electro-magnetic vibrations are conv]t$ into electricity 9 ! *lorophyll bodies ( ! leaf1 ?\gh :5 radiation is absorb$ 9 physical exp]im5ts x is conv]t$ into heat4 ,we d n "k j :at are ! /eps 9 ! trans=mation1 ?\gh x is cle> t sol> radiation is absorb$ & t ! *lorophyll ( ! leaf is in/rum5tal 9 conv]t+ ?is en]gy ( radiation into *emical pot5tial en]gy4 ,b ! important ?+ to notice is1 t we h "h a process closely analog\s to t ( a rev]s$ ,c>not eng9e4 ,en]gy 7t ( ! c>bon dioxide & wat]7 passes f a /ate ( l[ pot5tial to a /ate ( high pot5tial 7t ( ! en]gy ( />*71 & "w is done on ! plant 9 produc+ ?is trans=mation4 ,"w is n done by ! gre5 plant4 ,?is /atem5t is n1 ( c\rse1 q rigidly true1 = a c]ta9 am\nt ( me*anical "w is done by ! plant4 ,fl[]s op5 & close2 t5drils may move & clasp o!r objects2 !re is a circulation ( protoplasm 9 ! plant cells1 & a circulation ( sap 9 ! vessels ( /ems1 etc4 ,also "w is done aga9/ gravity 9 rais+ ! tissues ( ! plant above ! soil1 :ile "w is also done by ! roots 9 p5etrat+ ! soil4 ,b :5 comp>$ ) ! "w done by radiation 9 produc+ ! *emical trans=mations ref]r$ to above1 ^! o!r exp5ditures ( en]gy mu/ be insignificant4 ,speak+ g5]ally1 !n1 we may describe ! gre5 plant z a sy/em 9 :i* available en]gy is accumulat$ 9 ! =m ( *emical comp\nds ( high pot5tial4 ,x is1 fur!r1 a sy/em 9 :i* en]gy becomes trans=m$ )\t do+ me*anical "w1 except to a trifl+ ext5t1 & 9 :i* !re is no =mation ( heat1 or at lea/ 9 :i* ! quantity ( heat dissipat$ is only p]ceptible dur+ v re/rict$ phases1 is relatively small dur+ ! o!r phases1 & t5ds to vani%4 ,let u n[ comb9e ! processes ( plant & animal2 we />t ) ! latt]4 ,9 x we h a me*anism :i* does "w4 ,! s\rce ( its en]gy is ! pot5tial *emical en]gy ( its food/uffs1 :i* latt] r$uce d[n to ^? sub/ances kn[n z proteids1 fats1 & c>bohydrates4 ,! en]gy-value ( ^! comp\nds is consid]able1 t is to say1 if !y are burn$ 9 a /ream ( oxyg5 a l>ge quantity ( heat is obta9$ f _! combu/ion4 ,!y are +e/$ by ! animal1 brok5 d[n *emically1 & re>rang$4 ,! proteids eat5 by ! animal 7say ^? ( beef or mutton or :eat7 are act$ ^u by ! enzymes ( ! alim5t>y canal & are decompos$ into _! imm$iate con/itu5ts1 am9o-acids1 & !n o!r enzymes re>range ^! am9o-acids s z to =m proteid aga91 b proteids ( ! same k9ds z ^? *>act]i/ic ( ! tissues4 ,?is decomposition & re-syn!sis is c>ri$ out also ) respect to ! fats & c>bohydrates +e/$4 ,! result is t ! food tak5 into ! alim5t>y canal1 or at lea/ a "p ( x1 is built up into ! liv+ sub/ance ( ! animal's body4 ,! en]gy exp5d$ ^u ^! processes ( dige/ion & assimilation is probably inconsid]able4 ,dur+ ^! processes ! animal absorbs available *emical en]gy4 ,! en]gy ?us tak5 into ! animal is !n trans=m$4 ,! major "p ( x appe>s z me*anical en]gy--t ( bodily movem5t1 ! movem5ts ( he>t1 lungs1 blood1 etc4--& heat4 ,"s "p ( x becomes n]v\s en]gy1 by :i* r vague t]m we mean ! en]gy involv$ 9 ! propagation ( n]v\s impulses4 ,"s ( x is us$ 9 gl&ul> reactions1 9 ! =mation ( ! dige/ive juices1 = in/ance4 ,! mo/ ( x1 h[ev]1 trans=ms to me*anical en]gy & heat4 ,j h[ ^! en]gy trans=mations are effect$ we d n "k4 ,! heat is1 ( c\rse1 ! result ( *emical *anges1 oxidations1 decompositions1 or *anges ( ! same k9d z t ( ! dilution ( sulphuric acid by wat]1 b ! me*anical en]gy appe>s to result directly f *emical *ange )\t ! int]m$iation ( heat4 ,we %all return to ?is po9t 9 a lat] *apt]1 & cont5t ourselves ) say+ "h t ! *emical comp\nds conta9$ 9 ! metabolic tissues ( ! animal body und]go trans=mation f a /ate ( high to a /ate ( l[ *emical pot5tial1 & t ?is diff]5ce ( pot5tial is repres5t$ by ! "w done & ! heat g5]at$4 ,! proteid1 fat1 & c>bohydrate ( ! tissues repres5t ! condition ( high pot5tial2 & ! c>bon dioxide1 ! wat]1 & ! urea1 into :i* ^! sub/ances are trans=m$1 repres5t ! condition ( l[ pot5tial4 ,let u suppose a ,c>not heat-eng9e 9 :i* ! temp]ature ( ! res]voir ( heat is 7say7 #abj;,c41 & t ( ! refrig]ator #ej;,c4 ,! heat ( ! refrig]ator c /ill be made a fur!r s\rce ( en]gy by con/itut+ x ! heat res]voir ( ano!r ,c>not eng9e :i* has a refrig]ator at a temp]ature ( #j;,c4 ,our animal organism may be comp>$ ) a ,c>not cycle2 its en]gy res]voir is ! proteid1 fat1 & c>bohydrate +e/$1 & its refrig]ator 7or en]gy s9k7 is ! c>bon dioxide & urea excret$4 ,n[ ! urea ( ! high] mammal becomes infect$ ) c]ta9 bact]ia1 :i* conv]t x into ammonium c>bonate4 ,ano!r species ( bact]ia conv]ts ! ammonia into nitrite1 & yet ano!r turns ! nitrite into nitrate4 ,! ma9 process ( ! animal is !re=e comb9$ ) sev]al subsidi>y ones4 ,c>bohydrate1 fat1 proteid ,metabolism break d[n into ( ! animal ,c>bon dioxide ,wat] ,urea------,urea ,metabolism ( ,*emical urea bact]ia ,en]gy at passes into high pot5tial ammonium c>bonate----ammonium metabolism c>bonate ( nitrify+ bact]ia oxidises to ,"w done by nitrite----,nitrite ,metm4 ( ! sy/em nitrify+ oxidises bact]ia to nitrate *emical en]gy at l[ pot5tial ,! arr[s %[ t en]gy is desc5d+ ! incl9e indicat$ by a direct ,c>not cycle4 ,!re is no m "w to be obta9$ f ! c>bon dioxide & wat] excret$ by ! mammal1 b m "w c be obta9$ f ! urea :5 x is us$ by bact]ia1 & 8f]m5ts0 to ammonia4 ,"w c aga9 be obta9$ f ! ammonia by bact]ia1 :i* conv]t x into nitrite1 & yet aga9 f ! nitrite by o!r bact]ia1 :i* conv]t x into nitrate4 ,! nitrate repres5ts ! en]gy-z]o s f> z ! organisms consid]$ are conc]n$4 ,o!r nitrog5\s residues are conta9$ 9 ! ur9e ( animals1 & sev]al o!r excretory products may be =m$4 ,b 9 all ^! cases we c easily f9d subsidi>y en]gy-trans=mations effect$ by bact]ia1 z 9 ! above s*eme4 ,?is1 !n1 is ! positive1 or direct half1 ( t rev]sible ,c>not cycle ) :i* we are comp>+ life4 ,9 x en]gy falls 9 pot5tial 7or int5sity1 or level71 & 9 ?is fall ( pot5tial trans=mations are produc$--exhibit !mselves1 is p]haps a bett] way ( putt+ x4 ,we w consid] ^! trans=mations lat]2 9 ! meantime x %\ld be not$ t 9 ?is fall ( pot5tial is a degradation ( *emical en]gy4 ,comp\nds1 c>bon dioxide1 wat]1 & nitrate are produc$ :i* are *emically in]t4 ,x is no use to say t c>bon dioxide may react ) 7say7 gl[+ magnesium1 wat] ) metallic sodium1 & nitrate ) 7say7 gl[+ c>bon4 ,a condition ( *emical equilibrium w\ld result f purely inorganic becom+ on our e>? 9 :i* !re 0 no metallic sodium or magnesium or inc&esc5t c>bon2 9 :i* ! metals w\ld become in]t oxides1 & ! c>bon w\ld become dioxide4 ,! =mation ( ^! comp\nds repres5ts a limit to en]gy-trans=mations4 ,note also t all ^! en]gy-trans=mations are cons]vative2 ! total quantity rema9s un*ang$ ?r\gh\t1 & is ! same at ! end z at ! beg9n+4 ,b entropy has be5 augm5t$3 unavailable en]gy has increas$ at ! exp5se ( available en]gy4 ,consid] n[ ! indirect1 or rev]s$1 ,c>not cycle4 ,we beg9 ) ! in]t matt]1 result+ f ! metabolism ( ! animal1 c>bon dioxide1 wat]1 nitrate1 & a few m m9]al sub/ances4 ,we h ! en]gy ( sol> radiation4 ,by virtue ( ! liv+ *lorophyll pla/id 9 ! cells ( ! gre5 plant1 ?is sol> radiation uses ! c>bon dioxide & wat] z raw mat]ials 9 ! elaboration ( />*4 ,at ! same "t x absorbs nitrate1 ) "s o!r in]t m9]al sub/ances f ! soil1 & takes ^! into its tissues4 ,! />* =m$ 9 ! *lorophyll is conv]t$ into soluble sug>1 :i* circulates ?r\gh ! vessels ( ! plant & is associat$ ) ! nitrog5\s salt 9 ! elaboration ( proteid4 ,proteid1 oils1 fats & res9s1 & to a great] ext5t c>bohydrates1 are ?us built up by ! plant & accumulate1 = me*anical "w is n done by x1 nor is heat dissipat$--or at lea/ ^! processes occur to an insignificant ext5t4 ,metabolism -------------- are syn!sis$ to-- ,c>bon dioxide ( ! proteid ,wat] gre5 fat ,nitrate plant c>bohydrate ,*emical en]gy at -------------- ,*emical en]gy l[ pot5tial ,"w done on at high pot5tial4 ! sy/em ,! 8work+ sub/ance0 ( our organic cycle has !re=e return$ to its orig9al /ate4 ,we h consid]$ ! process ( metabolism 9 two categories ( organisms1 ! typical animal & ! gre5 plant1 & we h comb9$ ^! s z to obta9 a picture ( a rev]sible cycle ( physico-*emical processes4 ,:5 we speak ( ! 8organism0 9 ! mo/ g5]al s5se1 we mean t x exhibits ^! two modes ( metabolism4 ,?is is1 ( c\rse1 n ! case 9 any actual organism :i* we c inve/igate1 or at lea/ ! typical modes ( behavi\r :i* *>act]ise animal & plant life are n se5 9 any "o individual4 ,b we f9d t !re is no absolute di/9ction betwe5 ! two k+doms4 ,! plant may exhibit a mode ( nutrition closely resembl+ t ( ! animal 7z 9 ! insectivor\s plants71 & x is possible t photo-syn!tic process1 9 ! g5]al s5se1 may be pres5t 9 ! metabolism ( "s animals4 ,c]ta9 l[] plants1 ! zoospores ( alg1 exhibit movem5ts id5tical 9 "* ) ^? ( l[] animals4 ,at ! base ( bo? k+doms are organisms1 ! ,p]id9ians1 = in/ance1 :i* h mu* ( ! /ructure ( ! animal 7?\gh cellulose is pres5t 9 _! skeleton71 :i* possess motile organs1 b :i* also possess a photo-syn!tic app>atus1 & exhibit ! typical plant mode ( nutrition4 ,fur!r1 !re are symbiotic p>tn]%ips1 t is1 associations ( plant & animal 9 "o 8individual0 =m 7z1 = in/ance1 among ! l[] worms1 ,e*9od]ms1 polyzoa1 molluscs1 & o!r gr\ps ( animals74 ,9 ^! cases gre5 algal cells1 capable ( =m+ />* f c>bon dioxide & wat] "u ! influ5ce ( light1 become int]calat$ among ! tissues ( ! animal4 ,we f9d1 also1 t ) reg>d to "s fundam5tal *>act]s1 plant & animal display close simil>ities3 ! /ructure ( ! cell1 = example1 & ! highly special mode ( conjugation ( ! g]m-nuclei 9 sexual reproduction4 ,we mu/ reg>d all ! di/9ctive *>act]s ( ! plant z repres5t$ 9 ! animal & vice v]sa4 ,:y !y h become specialis$ 9 diff]5t directions is a "q t we discuss lat]4 ,! organism1 !n1 9 s f> z we reg>d x z a physico-*emical me*anism1 z ! !atre ( en]getic happ5+s1 exhibits ! foll[+ g5]al *>act]s3-- 7#a7 ,x sl[ly accumulates available en]gy 9 ! =m ( *emical comp\nds ( high pot5tial1 "w be+ done ^u x4 7#b7 ,x lib]ates ?is en]gy 9 relatively rapid1 controll$1 8explosive reactions10 trans=m+ into movem5ts c>ri$ out by a s5sori-motor sy/em ( p>ts1 "w be+ done by x4 7#c7 ,9 all ^! trans=mations ! am\nt ( en]gy :i* is dissipat$ is relatively small1 & t5ds to vani%4 ,f ! po9t ( view1 !n1 ( en]getic processes ^! are ! *>act]s ( life1 us+ ! t]m 9 ! g5]al s5se indicat$ above4#af #af ,?is is1 ( c\rse1 ! argum5t ( "p ( ,*apt] ,,ii4 ( ,b]gson's ,creative ,evolution4 ,! read] w n f9d ! ess5tial diff]5ces betwe5 plants & animals /at$ s cle>ly any:]e else 9 biological lit]ature4 ,is !re an absolute di/9ction betwe5 ! organic me*anism & ! inorganic "o8 ,let u note1 = ! fir/ "t1 t ! actual physico-*emical trans=mations !mselves1 :i* we /udy 9 inorganic matt]1 are id5tical ) ^? :i* we /udy 9 ! organism4 ,molecules ( c>bon dioxide1 wat]1 nitrate1 sodium *loride1 potassium *loride1 phosphate1 & s on1 are j ! same 9 in]t matt] z 9 ! organism4 ,*emical trans=mations1 su* z ! hydrolysis ( />*1 ! inv]sion ( cane sug>1 or ! splitt+ ( a neutral fat1 are c]ta9ly j ! same processes1 :e!r we c>ry !m out 9 ! glass vessels ( ! laboratory1 or obs]ve !m to proce$ 9 ! liv+ tissues ( ! animal body4 ,! same molecul> re>rangem5ts1 & ! same transf]s ( en]gy1 occur 9 bo? s]ies ( ev5ts4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n ! mat]ial ( a di/9ction3 :at we h to f9d is1 :e!r ! direction ( a gr\p ( physico-*emical reactions is ! same 9 ! organism & 9 a s]ies ( inorganic processes4 ,let u return to ! ,c>not cycle4 ,?is is a s]ies ( op]ations :i* occur 9 an imag9>y me*anism 9 su* a mann] t ! :ole s]ies c be easily rev]s$4 ,heat is suppli$ to ! imag9>y eng9e1 :i* !n p]=ms "w & yields up its heat to a refrig]ator4 ,"w is !n p]=m$ on ! eng9e1 :i* !reupon takes heat f ! refrig]ator & returns x to ! s\rce4 ,! "w done by ! eng9e 9 ! direct cycle is equal to ! "w done on x 9 ! indirect cycle4 ,! heat tak5 f ! s\rce & giv5 to ! refrig]ator 9 ! direct cycle is equal to ! heat tak5 f ! refrig]ator & giv5 to ! s\rce 9 ! indirect cycle4 ,b x is a purely imag9>y me*anism1 & all exp]i5ce %[s n only t x has n be5 realis$ 9 practice1 b t x _c s be realis$4 ,if x c\ld be realis$1 we %\ld %[ t ! second law ( !rmo-dynamics is n physically true4 ,d ! en]gy processes ( life realise su* a p]fectly rev]sible cycle ( op]ations8 ,9 ord] to answ] ?is "q we mu/ consid] ! fate ( ! en]gy :i* is absorb$ 9 ! plant metabolic cycle1 & t :i* is giv5 out 9 ! animal "o4 ,does all ! en]gy ( sol> radiation :i* is absorb$ by ! plant pass into ! =m ( ! pot5tial *emical en]gy ( ! c>bohydrates & o!r sub/ances manufactur$8 ,does any ( ! en]gy ( ! animal :i* results f ! metabolism ( its body pass into ! unavailable =m--t is1 into a =m 9 :i* x _c be utilis$ by o!r organisms8 ,t is to say1 is en]gy dissipat$ by ! organism8 ,und\bt$ly x is to "s ext5t1 b to a f> less ext5t ?an 9 ! inorganic tra9 ( processes4 ,"s ( ! en]gy ( sol> radiation absorb$ by ! plant mu/ become trans=m$1 by ! friction ( :atev] movem5ts occur1 into l[-temp]ature heat1 & "s quantity ( heat1 h[ev] small1 is g5]at$ by ! metabolism ( ! plant4 ,aga91 "s ( ! heat ( ! w>m-blood$ animal mu/ be radiat$ into space1 or conduct$ away f its body2 & ?is en]gy becomes dissipat$--let u assume1 at lea/1 t x is s dissipat$ 9 ! physical s5se4 ,probably also "s quantity ( heat is g5]at$ by ! metabolism ( ! cold-blood$ animal1 ?\gh ?is mu/ be a v small proportion ( ! total en]gy trans=m$4 ,we see1 !n1 t ! di/9ction is "o ( degree1 ?\gh ! diff]5ce betwe5 inorganic & organic en]getic processes is v great 9 ?is respect2 s great t we mu/ reg>d x z con/itut+ a fundam5tal diff]5ce1 & z indicative ( ! limitation ( ! second law :5 ext5d$ to ! function+ ( ! organism4 ,b we h also to consid] ! effect ( ! "w done by ! organism4 ,we consid] ! nature & mean+ ( ! evolution>y process 9 a lat] *apt]1 b 9 ! meantime we may /ate ?is !sis3 t ! process ( evolution leads up to man & 8 activity4 ,x leads1 if we reg>d ! process z a direct$ "o2 b ev5 if we reg>d x z a =tuit\s process we /ill f9d t man1 f> m ?an any o!r organism1 is ! result ( x4 ,all ! facts ( biology & hi/ory %[ t man dom9ates ! organic _w1 plant or animal2 t ! :ole tr5d ( 8 activity is to elim9ate :atev] organisms are inimical1 & to fo/] ^? t are useful4 ,already1 dur+ ! brief p]iod ( 8 rational activity1 ! wolf has disappe>$ f civilis$ l&s :ile ! dog has be5 produc$4 ,species aft] species ( ho/ile or h>mful organisms h be51 or are be+1 de/roy$ or *ang$1 :ile num]\s o!r species h be5 pres]v$ & alt]$ = 8 b5efit4 ,9 ! future we see an organic _w subs]vi5t to him ei!r entirely or to an enorm\s ext5t4 ,s also 9 ! inorganic _w4 ,riv]s :i* =m]ly ru%$ d[n ?r\gh rapids1 dissipat+ _! en]gy ( movem5t 9 wa/e irrecov]able heat1 n[ p\r ?r\gh turb9es & wat] :eels1 g5]at+ electricity & accumulat+ available en]gy4 ,w9ds :i* 8naturally0 dissipat$ _! me*anical en]gy 9 wa/e heat n[ propel %ips & w9dmills4 ,tides1 ) _! incr$ibly great me*anical en]gy1 n[ simply w>m up ! cru/ ( ! e>? by an inf9itesimal fraction ( a degree daily1 & produce heat :i* at once radiates into space4 ,:o d\bts t by & by ?is en]gy too w become accumulat$ = human use8 ,multitudes ( *emical reactions 7 pot5tial1 s to speak1 9 ! molecules ( petroleum1 :ile ! en]gy :i* might h produc$ !m ran to wa/e4 ,b "u human activity ?is en]gy became direct$ & made to produce *emical reactions =m]ly exi/+ only 9 _! possibility1 & all ! sub/ances ( mod]n organic *emi/ry came into exi/5ce4 ,! en]gy1 !n1 ( human activity has be5 direct$ t[>ds av]t+ or ret>d+ ! progress t[>ds dissipation1 or irrecov]able wa/e1 ( cosmic en]gy--t ( ! sun's radiation1 & ( ! motions ( e>? & moon4 ,human activity has accumulat$ available en]gy4 ,! diff]5ce ( wat]-level betwe5 ,niag>a & ! rapids bel[ repres5ts available me*anical en]gy4 ,a few ye>s ago an enorm\s quantity ( ?is en]gy became irr$eemably lo/ 9 wa/e heat e tw5ty-f\r h\rs3 n[ x rema9s available = "w2 & ?is quantity ( "w reta9$ is enorm\sly great] ?an is ! human en]gy :i* 0 exp5d$ on erect+ ! wat]-p[] in/allation !re4 ,! processes /udi$ by physics & *emi/ry are !re=e irrev]sible ones4 ,we c conceive a p]fectly rev]sible process1 z 9 ! ,c>not heat-eng9e1 b ?is is a purely intellectual conception1 =m$ z ! limit to a s]ies ( op]ations :i* approximate clos] & clos] to an ideal rev]sibility4 ,x is a conception t has no physical reality--a guide to reason+ only4 ,on ! o!r h& we see t all naturally occurr+ physical processes are irrev]sible & 9 _! sum t5d to complete degradation ( en]gy4 ,me*ani/ic biology isolates physico-*emical processes 9 ! function+ ( ! organism1 & sees t !y con=m to ! law ( dissipation1 z well z to t ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy4 ,yet ! organism z a :ole1 t is1 life z a :ole1 on ! e>?1 does n con=m to ! law ( dissipation4 ,t :i* is true ( ! isolat$ processes into :i* physiology decomposes life is n true ( life4 ,9 all inorganic happ5+s en]gy becomes unavailable = ! p]=mance ( "w4 ,sol> radiation fall+ on sea & l& fritt]s itself away 9 wa/e irrecov]able heat1 b fall+ on ! gre5 plant accumulates 9 ! =m ( available *emical en]gy4 ,! total result ( life on ! e>? 9 ! pa/ has be5 ! accumulation ( enorm\s /ores ( en]gy 9 ! %ape ( coal & o!r sub/ances4 ,by its ag5cy degradation has be5 ret>d$4 ,:5ev]1 says ,b]gson1 en]gy desc5ds ! incl9e indicat$ by ,c>not's law1 & :]e a cause ( inv]se direction c ret>d ! desc5t1 !re we h life4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,activities ,,( ,,! ,,organism ,! r l5g?y discussion ( ! la/ *apt] 0 necess>y 9 ord] to %[ j h[ f> ! pr9ciples ( en]getics e/abli%$ by ! physici/s appli$ to ! organism4 ,we h se5 t ! fir/ law ( !rmodynamics does s apply ) all its exclusiv5ess4 ,! m c>efully a physiological exp]im5t is made2 ! m closely d its results correspond ) ^? :i* !ory dem&s4 ,x is true t relatively few exp]im5tal inve/igations c be controll$ 9 ?is way1 b 9 ^? t c be *eck$ by calculation 7z1 = in/ance1 9 ! well-kn[n calorimetric exp]im5ts7 ev]y?+ t5ds to %[ t precisely ! same quantities ( matt] & en]gy ent] ! body ( an organism 9 ! =m ( food-/uff1 t leave x z radiat$ & conduct$ heat1 z "w done1 & z ! pot5tial *emical en]gy ( ! excretions4 ,ev5 :5 we are unable 7z 9 mo/ inve/igations7 to apply ! te/ ( correspond5ce ) !ory1 we h ! conviction t ! law ( cons]vation holds ) all its /rictness4 ,!n1 :5ev] x 0 possible to apply ! me?ods ( *emi/ry & physics to ! /udy ( ! organism1 x 0 se5 t ! processes at "w 7 *emical & physical4 ,! sub/ance ( ! liv+ body 0 se5 to consi/ ( a l>ge 7?\gh limit$7 numb] ( *emical comp\nds1 diff]+ ma9ly f ^? :i* exi/ 9 inorganic nature 9 _! great] complexity4 ,x 0 also se5 t physico-*emical reactions occurr$ 9 liv+ sub/ance analog\s )1 or q simil> to1 ^? :i* c\ld be /udi$ 9 non-liv+ sub/ance4 ,! conclusion1 !n1 0 irresi/ible t ! life ( ! organism 0 m]ely a phase 9 ! evolution ( matt] & en]gy1 & diff]$ 9 no ess5tial respect f ! physico-*emical activities t c\ld be obs]v$ 9 ! non-liv+ _w4 ,^! conclusions 7 /at$ s well by ,huxley 9 8 fam\s lecture on 8,! physical basis ( life10 ov] =ty ye>s ago1 t all subsequ5t utt]ances h be5 m]ely reit]ations ( ?is !sis 9 a less p]fect =m4 ,! exi/5ce ( ! matt] ( life1 ,huxley said1 dep5d$ on ! pre-exi/5ce ( c]ta9 *emical comp\nds--c>bonic acid1 wat]1 & ammonia4 ,)draw any "o ( !m f ! _w & vital ph5om5a come to an end4 ,!y are ! antec$5ts ( vegetable protoplasm1 j z ! latt] is ! antec$5t ( animal protoplasm4 ,!y are all lifeless sub/ances1 b :5 br\ght toge!r "u c]ta9 conditions !y give rise to ! complex body call$ protoplasm2 & ?is protoplasm exhibits ! ph5om5a ( life4 ,!re is no app>5t break 9 ! s]ies ( increas+ly complex comp\nds betwe5 wat]1 c>bon dioxide1 & ammonia1 on ! "o h&1 & protoplasm on ! o!r4 ,we decide to call diff]5t k9ds ( matt] c>bon1 oxyg51 hydrog51 & nitrog5 & to speak ( _! activities z _! physico-*emical prop]ties4 ,:y1 !n1 %\ld we speak o!rwise ( ! activities ( ! sub/ance protoplasm8 8,:5 hydrog5 & oxyg5 are mix$ 9 c]ta9 proportions & an electric sp>k is pass$ ?r\gh !m !y disappe>1 & a quantity ( wat]1 equal 9 weight to ! sum ( _! weights1 appe>s 9 _! place4 ,!re is n ! slighte/ p>ity betwe5 ! passive & active p[]s ( ! wat] & ^? ( ! oxyg5 & hydrog5 t h giv5 rise to x4444 ,we call ^! & _m o!r ph5om5a1 ! prop]ties ( wat]1 & we d n hesitate to believe t 9 "s way !y result f ! prop]ties ( ! compon5t elem5ts ( ! wat]4 ,we d n assume t a some?+ call$ 8aquosity0 ent]$ into & took possession ( ! oxide ( hydrog5 z soon z x 0 =m$ & guid$ ! aque\s p>ticles to _! places 9 ! facets ( ! cry/al1 or among ! leaflets ( ! ho> fro/40 8,is ! case 9 any way *ang$ :5 c>bonic acid1 wat]1 & ammonia disappe>1 & 9 _! place1 "u ! influ5ce ( pre-exi/+ protoplasm1 an equival5t weight ( ! matt] ( life makes its appe>ance80 8,x is true t !re is no sort ( p>ity betwe5 ! prop]ties ( ! compon5ts & ! prop]ties ( ! resultant4 ,b nei!r 0 !re 9 ! case ( wat]4 ,x is also true t ! influ5ce ( pre-exi/+ protoplasm is some?+ q un9telligible4 ,b does anyone q und]/& ! modus op]&i ( an electric sp>k :i* trav]ses a mixture ( oxyg5 & hydrog58 ,:at ju/ification is !re1 !n1 = ! assumption ( ! exi/5ce 9 ! liv+ matt] ( a some?+ :i* has no repres5tative or correlative 9 ! non-liv+ matt] :i* gave rise to x80 ,all ! inve/igations ( ov] =ty ye>s leave no?+ to be add$ to ?is /atem5t ( :at1 9 ,huxley's days1 0 call$ mat]iali/ic biology4 ,x 0 a v unpopul> /atem5t to make !n1 b x has become r fa%ionable n[4 ,let ! read] comp>e x ) all t has be5 spok5 & writt5 s9ce #ahfi1 ev5 ) ! utt]ances ( ! ,briti% ,association ( ! ye> #aiab1 & he w f9d t x expresses ! po9t ( view ( me*ani/ic biology f> bett] ?an all ! subsequ5t re/atem5ts4 ,! only diff]5ce he w f9d is t ! latt] h become 7z ,william ,james has said ab\t academic philosophies71 r %op-soil$4 ,!y h be5 rea*$ d[n & %[n s (t5 to ! enquir+ public1 t ea* display has tak5 away some?+ ( _! fre%ness4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,n[ ,huxley's example leads up s well to ! consid]ation ( ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! *emical activities ( ! organism & ^? ( inorganic matt] t we may consid] x 9 "s detail4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! explosion ( a mixture ( oxyg5 & hydrog51 & ! photo-syn!sis ( />* by ! gre5 plant8 ,9 ! case ( ! syn!sis ( wat] we h an example ( an exo!rmic *emical reaction4 ,we are to ?9k ( ! mixture ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 z exi/+ 9 a condition ( 8false equilibrium40 ,x may be comp>$ ) a weight re/+ on an incl9$ plane4 ,suppose t ! plane is a %eet ( smoo?ly poli%$ glass1 & t ! weight is a smoo? block ( glass4 ,by cant+ ! plane m & m an angle w be f\nd at :i* ! slighte/ pu% />ts ! weight slid+ d[n4 ,n[ 9 ! case ( ! explosive mixture ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 we h a *emical analogue4 ,ei!r ! gases d n comb9e at all at ! ord9>y temp]ature or !y comb9e 8inf9itely sl[ly40 ,b ! slighte/ impulse1 an electric sp>k requir+ an almo/ inf9itesimally small quantity ( en]gy1 />ts ! comb9ation ( ! gases1 & ?is cont9ues until all is *ang$ into wat] vap\r4 ,9 ?is reaction a l>ge quantity ( en]gy is lib]at$ 9 ! =m ( heat4 ,?is heat becomes trans=m$ into ! k9etic en]gy ( ! wat] p>ticles :i* cond5se f ! /eam =m$ 9 ! explosion1 & ^! p>ticles assume ! temp]ature ( _! surr\nd+s4 ,! en]gy :i* 0 pot5tial 9 ! explosive mixture1 & :i* 0 capable ( do+ "w1 /ill exi/s z ! k9etic en]gy ( ! wat] =m$1 b x has become unavailable = any natural process ( "w4 ,we h se5 :at is ! g5]al "* ( ! reaction s]ies 9 ! c\rse ( :i* c>bon dioxide & wat] become />*2 & !n ?is1 becom+ fir/ soluble1 & becom+ associat$ ) ! ammonia or nitrate tak5 into ! plant1 becomes protoplasm4 ,x is a reaction :i* diff]s f t j describ$1 9 t available en]gy becomes absorb$ & accumulat$1 & reta9s ! p[] ( do+ "w4 ,x is n a reaction :i* c be initiat$ by an inf9itesimal /imulus1 b "o 9 :i* j z mu* en]gy is requir$ 9 ord] t x may happ5 z is repres5t$ 9 ! en]gy :i* becomes pot5tial 9 ! liv+ sub/ance g5]at$4 ,! fir/ reaction is "o :i* may take place by itself2#ag ! o!r is "o :i* requires a comp5satory en]gy-trans=mation 9 ord] t x may happ54 ,9 ! fir/ reaction en]gy is dissipat$2 9 ! second "o x is accumulat$4 #ag ,x is no use say+ t ap>t f ! electric sp>k ! comb9ation w\ld n take place1 = we d n "k t ! ,o & ,h ( ! mixture d n comb9e v sl[ly1 molecule by molecule1 s to speak4 ,at all ev5ts !re is no functionality betwe5 ! inf9itesimal quantity ( en]gy suppli$ by ! sp>k1 & ! en]gy :i* becomes k9etic 9 ! explosion4 ,we are ?us l$ to ! consid]ation ( ! second pr9ciple ( en]getics & its limitations1 b be=e ent]+ ^u ?is discussion we mu/ consid] ! nature ( ! activities ( ! organism4 ,by ! t]m 8metabolism0 we und]/& ! totality ( ! physico-*emical *anges :i* occur 9 ! liv+ sub/ance ( ! organism4 ,9 physiological writ+s we usually f9d t two categories ( metabolic *anges are describ$3 7#a7 anabolic processes1 9 ! c\rse ( :i* simple *emical comp\nds possess+ relatively little en]gy are built up into mu* m complex sub/ances1 conta9+ a relatively l>ge quantity ( available en]gy1 & !re=e capable ( do+ "w4 ,! trans=mations con/itut+ an anabolic *ange mu/ be accompani$ by correspond+ comp5satory en]gy-trans=mations1 to acc\nt = ! en]gy :i* becomes pot5tial 9 ! sub/ances =m$4 ,! =mation ( />* f c>bon dioxide & wat]1 by ! gre5 plant1 is su* an anabolic *ange1 & ! comp5satory en]gy-trans=mation is ! absorption ( radiation f ! e!r by ! cells ( ! plant4 ,a fur!r anabolic *ange 9 ! plant organism is ! =mation ( amido-sub/ances f ! ammonia or nitrate absorb$ f ! soil1 & f ! soluble c>bohydrates =m$ f ! />* manufactur$ 9 ! gre5 cells4 ,! typical activities ( ! *lorophyll-conta9+ organism are ( ?is nature2 !y are anabolic4 ,! organism may be a gre5 l&-plant2 a m>9e gre51 r$1 or br[n alga2 a yell[-gre5 diatom1 a yell[1 gre51 r$1 or br[n p]id9ian or o!r holophytic protozoan2 an ascidian1 mollusc1 e*9od]m1 polyzoan1 worm1 or coral conta9+ 8symbiotic alg0 7t is ! *lorophyll-conta9+ cells ( "s plant organism :i* h become associat$ ) ! animal & incorporat$ 9 its tissues74 ,9 all ^! cases ! pres5ce ( ?is *lorophyllian sub/ance conf]s on ! organism ! p[] ( effect+ ! comp5satory en]gy-trans=mation1 by ! aid ( :i* c>bon dioxide & wat] are built up into />*4 ,:at ?is trans=mation is1 & :at are ! /eps by :i* ! c>bon dioxide & wat] become c>bohydrate we d n exactly "k4 ,sol> radiation imp++ ^u an inorganic sub/ance is p>tly reflect$ & p>tly absorb$4 ,! absorb$ fraction may become trans=m$ 9 su* a way z to r5d] ! sub/ance phosphoresc5t1 or x may trans=m into *emical en]gy1 z :5 light imp+es on a photographic plate1 b z a g5]al rule x is trans=m$ into heat4 ,9 ! gre5 plant1 h[ev]1 ! trans=mation ( radiation into heat does n occur--at lea/ ! heat+ is v small--& x passes directly or indirectly into ! pot5tial *emical en]gy ( ! />* :i* is syn!sis$4 ,we mu/ reg>d ?is p[] ( absorb+ radiation & utilis+ x 9 comp5satory trans=mations z a g5]al "* ( protoplasm4 ,x is true t x is n[ specialis$ 9 ! cells conta9+ ! *lorophyll bodies1 b !re are indications t x may be pres5t 9 ! tissues ( ! animal devoid ( *lorophyll4 ,o!r anabolic trans=mations occur 9 ! animal4 ,! food-/uffs :i* are absorb$ f ! inte/9e are sub/ances :i* h und]gone dissociations1 ! nature ( :i* is su* z to r5d] !m capable ( absorption & ( recon/ruction4 ,^! anabolic *anges 9 ! high] animal are exceptional1 & _! usefulness lies 9 ! fact t by _! means sub/ances become capable ( be+ transport$ by ! tissue fluids ( ! body4 7#b7 ,katabolic *anges 9 ! animal body correspond 9 _! frequ5cy ( occurr5ce to ! anabolic *anges ( ! plant organism4 ,9 !m complex *emical sub/ances und]go trans=mation into relatively simple sub/ances1 & ! conta9$ en]gy at ! same "t und]goes a p>allel trans=mation1 pass+ into ! =m ( heat & me*anical en]gy1 :ile a fraction becomes dissipat$4 ,food-/uffs tak5 into ! alim5t>y canal break d[n 9 ?is way1 b to a v limit$ ext5t4 ,proteids und]go dissociation or decomposition into amido-sub/ances1 :ile fats are dissociat$ into fatty acids & glyc]9e4 ,d\btless en]gy is dissipat$ 9 ^! processes1 s]v+ no o!r purpose b to heat ! cont5ts ( ! alim5t>y canal1 b ?is en]gy-trans=mation has n be5 work$ out v completely & x is a "q :e!r1 giv5 a heal?y animal & p]fect food-/uffs1 any en]gy w\ld necess>ily be lo/ dur+ ! dige/ive processes4 ,! reactions involv$ 9 ! latt] d n belong to ! category ( *emical *anges proce$+ f ! complex to ! simple1 ) a lib]ation ( en]gy2 b appe> to involve r a re>rangem5t ( ! con/itu5ts ( a complex molecule1 a process 9 :i* ! conta9$ en]gy ne$ n und]go *ange 9 quantity4 ,^! processes involve ! action ( enzymes4 ,enzymes play a great "p 9 mod]n physiological !ory & we mu/ consid] !m 9 detail4 ,let u atta* a concrete mean+ to ! g5]al notion ( enzyme-activity by consid]+ ! ph5om5a kn[n z catalysis4 ,! metal plat9um c be br\ght into a v f9e /age ( division :5 x is kn[n z plat9um black4 ,9 ?is condition x br+s ab\t reactions 9 *emical mixtures or sub/ances :i* w\ld n o!rwise occur3 a mixture ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 explodes :5 br\ght 9 contact ) plat9um black1 & a mixture ( coal gas & air inflames1 a reaction :i* is made use ( 9 ! little gas-light+ app>atus :i* mo/ p h se54 ,if1 aga91 a p[]ful electric curr5t be pass$ betwe5 plat9um wires :i* are a little di/ance ap>t1 & are imm]s$ 9 wat]1 ! metal becomes torn away f ! po9ts ( ! wire 9 ! =m ( an impalpable p[d]1 colloidal plat9um4 ,! liquid conta9+ ?is colloid !n has ! p[] ( sett+ up *emical *anges 9 o!r sub/ances1 *anges :i* w\ld n o!rwise occur1 or1 at lea/1 w\ld occur v sl[ly4 ,9 g5]al su* cataly/s1 plat9um black or colloidal plat9um = in/ance1 h ! foll[+ *>act]s3 7#a7 a small quantity is suffici5t to cause *ange 9 a l>ge 7!oretically an inf9ite7 quantity ( ! sub/ance act$ ^u2 7#b7 ! nature & quantity ( ! cataly/ rema9 at ! end ! same1 z at ! beg9n+ ( ! reaction2 7#c7 a cataly/ does n />t a reaction 9 any o!r sub/ance or sub/ances1 x c only influ5ce ! rate at :i* ?is reaction may occur3 app>5tly x does1 9 "s cases1 />t a reaction1 b 9 su* cases we suppose t ! latt] proce$s s sl[ly z to be imp]ceptible2 7#d7 ! f9al /ate ( ! reaction is n affect$ by ! cataly/2 x dep5ds only on ! nature ( ! int]act+ sub/ance or sub/ances2 7#e7 ! f9al /ate is n affect$ ei!r by ! nature or quantity ( ! cataly/3 x is ! same if we employ diff]5t cataly/s1 or a l>ge or small quantity ( ! same cataly/4 ,f9ally1 x appe>s t ! ph5om5a ( catalysis are univ]sal3 8,!re is probably no k9d ( *emical reaction10 says ,o/wald1 8:i* _c be influ5c$ catalytically1 & !re is no sub/ance1 elem5t1 or comp\nd :i* _c act z a catalys]40#ah #ah ,a /atem5t ( int]e/ 9 view ( ! enorm\s numb] ( 8f]m5ts0 or enzymes discov]$ by physiologi/s4 ,x w\ld appe> t any tissue 9 any organism is capable ( yield+ an enzyme to mod]n inve/igation4 ,enzymes1 !n1 are ag5ts :i* are produc$ by ! organism1 & :i* act by influ5c+ 7accel]at+ or ret>d+7 *emical reactions4 ,an enzyme1 z su*1 ne$ n exi/ 9 a tissue2 x is !re z a zymog51 a sub/ance :i* may become an enzyme :5 requir$4 ,an enzyme ne$ n be active3 x may be necess>y t x %\ld be 8activat$0 by a k9ase1 ano!r sub/ance produc$ at ! same "t4 ,associat$ ) _m enzymes are anti-enzymes1 sub/ances :i* undo :at _! correspond+ enzymes h done4 ,f9ally "s1 p]haps mo/1 enzymes are rev]sible1 t is1 if !y produce a *ange 9 a c]ta9 sub/ance !y c also produce ! opposite k9d ( *ange3 ! mean+ ( ?is w become cle>] a little lat] on4 ,we h spok5 ( enzymes z 8ag5ts0 or 8sub/ances10 b x is n at all c]ta9 t !y are def9ite *emical comp\nds4 ,9 ! prep>ation ( an enzyme :at ! bio-*emi/ obta9s is a liquid1 a glyc]9e or o!r extract :i* possesses catalytic prop]ties4 ,an actual catalytic sub/ance1 l plat9um black1 _c be obta9$ f ?is liquid4 ,a :ite p[d] may be obta9$1 b ?is usually proves to be proteid 9 composition2 x is n ! actual enzyme itself b is ! impurity associat$ ) ! latt]4 ,n[ ! v great numb] ( enzymes 8isolat$0 by ! physiologi/s has r de/roy$ ! orig9al simplicity ( ! idea ( enzyme activity & sugge/s a p>allel /atem5t to t made by ,o/wald ab\t cataly/s3 any tissue sub/ance may influ5ce ! reactions t may possibly occur 9 o!r tissue sub/ances4 ,b :ile pure *emi/ry has to deal ) def9itely kn[n *emical comp\nds 9 ! ph5om5a ( catalysis1 ?is _c be said to be ! case ) physiology 9 deal+ ) enzymes4 ,reason+ by analogy1 we may say t x is probable t enzymes are def9ite proteids1 or *emical sub/ances alli$ to ^!1 b ?is has n be5 cle>ly demon/rat$1 & x is possible t ! ph5om5a ( enzyme activity may belong to "s o!r category ( en]gy-trans=mations4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 ! conception is a useful "o 9 describ+ ! reactions ( ! organism1 & x may be illu/rat$ by consid]+ ! dige/ion & absorption ( fat 9 ! mammalian inte/9e1 a process :i* appe>s to be bett] kn[n ?an t ( proteid dige/ion4 ,a neutral fat consi/s ( an acid radicle1 oleic1 palmitic or /e>ic acids1 = in/ance1 unit$ ) glyc]9e4 ,! action ( ! pancreatic or inte/9al enzymes is to dissociate ?is fatty salt4 ,let u write ! =mula ( ! latt] z ,g ,f1 ,g be+ ! glyc]9e base1 & ,f ! fatty acid2 !n ,g ,f ,g ,f :i* means t ! enzyme c cause ! neutral fat to dissociate into glyc]9e & fatty acid4 ,?is action w g on until a /ate ( equilibrium is atta9$1 9 :i* !re is a c]ta9 quantity ( ea* ( ! radicles1 & a c]ta9 quantity ( un*ang$ neutral fat1 ! ratio ( all ^! to ea* o!r dep5d+ on v>i\s ?+s4 ,:5 ?is /ate ( equilibrium is atta9$ ! enzyme does inde$ g on splitt+ up m neutral fat1 b x is a rev]sible enzyme1 & x also causes ! glyc]9e & fatty acid already split up to recomb9e1 =m+ neutral fat4 ,a condition is1 !re=e1 rea*$ 9 :i* ! composition ( ! mixture rema9s con/ant4 ,n[ !re is dissociat$ fat 9 ! inte/9e aft] a meal1 b !re is only neutral fat 9 ! wall ( ! inte/9e4 ,! fat itself _c pass ?r\gh ! cells =m+ ! inte/9al wall1 b ! glyc]9e & fatty acid into :i* x is dissociat$ c s pass1 s9ce !y are soluble 9 ! liquids ( ! inte/9e4 ,we suppose t ! cells ( ! wall ( ! inte/9e also conta9 ! fat-splitt+ f]m5t2 ?is f]m5t 9 ! cells acts on ! glyc]9e & fatty acid imm$iately !y ent] & recomb9es ^! radicles aga9 into neutral fat1 ! above equation n[ read+ f "r to left4 ,b aft] a "t ?is reaction 9 ! cells w also beg9 to rev]se1 = ! enzyme w beg9 to split up ! syn!sis$ neutral fat :5 ! /ate ( *emical equilibrium 9 ! new conditions is atta9$4 ,fatty acid & glyc]9e w !n diffuse out f ! cells into ! adjac5t lymph /ream or blood /ream--p]haps neutral fat w also pass f ! cells into ^! liquids1 we are n sure4 ,at all ev5ts ! lymph & blood aft] a meal conta9+ mu* fat are cr[d$ ) m9ute fat globules4 ,b :y are !re no fatty acids or glyc]9e 9 ! blood1 = ! latt] also conta9s lipase 7! fat-splitt+ enzyme78 ,! explanation is1 app>5tly1 t ei!r an anti-enzyme is produc$1 or t ! enzyme passes into a zymoid condition4 ,:y also does fat accumulate 9 ! tissues8 ,"h1 aga91 ! activity ( ! enzyme1 :i* f o!r consid]ations we may reg>d z be+ univ]sally pres5t almo/ ev]y:]e 9 ! body1 mu/ be suppos$ to be arre/$ by "s means4 ,! conception ( a catalytic ag5t1 su* z we c /udy 9 pure *emi/ry1 ?us c>ries u a long way 9 our description ( ! processes ( dige/ion1 absorption1 & assimilation4 ,we h appli$ x to ! case ( fat-dige/ion1 b v mu* ! same g5]al s*eme might also apply to _m o!r processes 9 ! body4 ,obvi\sly x enables u to describe ^! processes 9 t]ms ( physico-*emical reactions1 b we _c fail to see t ultimately we are compell$ to assume ! exi/5ce ( reactions :i* 7 n includ$ 9 ! orig9al conception--! activation ( ! enzyme at ! prop] mom5t by ! k9ase1 ! op]ation ( ! anti-enzyme1 & ! passage ( ! enzyme into ! zymoid4 ,j :y ^! ?+s happ5 z !y d we d n "k1 yet ! :ole problem becomes %ift$ on to ^! reactions4 ,9 ! same way we apply ! purely physical processes ( ! osmosis & diffusion ( liquids to ! circulation ( sub/ances 9 ! animal body4 ,! nature ( ^! processes w probably be famili> to ! read]1 nev]!less x may be useful to rem9d him t by diffusion we und]/& ! passage ( a liquid1 conta9+ "s sub/ance 9 solution1 ?r\gh a membrane2 & by osmosis ! passage ( a solv5t 7b n ( ! sub/ance dissolv$ 9 x7 ?r\gh a 8semi-p]meable membrane40 ,! molecules ( ! solv5t 7wat]1 = in/ance7 pass ?r\gh ! membrane 7! wall ( a capill>y1 or lymphatic vessel71 b ! molecules ( ! sub/ance 7salt1 = in/ance7 dissolv$ 9 ! solv5t d n pass4 ,let u suppose t a /rong solution ( common salt 9 wat] is inject$ into ! blood /ream3 :at happ5s is t osmosis takes place1 ! wat] 9 ! surr\nd+ lymph spaces pass+ into ! blood /ream because ! conc5tration ( salt !re is great] ?an x is 9 ! lymph4 ,:ile ?is is happ5+1 ! capill>y walls are act+ z semi-p]meable membranes1 all[+ ! molecules ( wat] to pass ?r\gh b n ! molecules ( salt4 ,v soon1 h[ev]1 ! process ( osmosis becomes succe$$ by "o ( diffusion1 & ! salt molecules pass ?r\gh ! capill>y wall into ! lymph & are excret$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,und\bt$ly ! purely physical processes ( diffusion & osmosis occur all ov] ! animal body & are ! means :]eby food-mat]ials1 secretory1 & excretory sub/ances are transport$ f blood to lymph1 or vice v]sa1 f lymph to cell sub/ance or to gl&ul> cavities1 & s on4 ,b x is also ! case t 9 v _m processes ! activity ( ! cells !mselves plays an important "p4 ,x may ev5 be ! case t a p>ticul> process1 aft] all physical ag5cies are tak5 into acc\nt1 r$uces d[n to ?is action ( ! cells4 ,to und]/& ?is we mu/ consid] ! mode ( work+ ( "s well-kn[n organ1 & ! be/ possible example ( su* an organ1 consid]$ z a me*anism1 is t ( ! sub-maxill>y saliv>y gl& ( ! mammal4 ,:at1 !n1 is ?is me*anism & h[ does x act8 ,! gl& is a comp\nd tubul> "o1 its int]nal cavity be+ prolong$ into ! duct :i* op5s into ! m\?4 ,! saliva prep>$ 9 ! gl& issues f ?is duct4 ,blood is c>ri$ to ! gl& by twigs ( ! facial art]y1 &1 aft] circulat+ ?r\gh x1 is c>ri$ away by factors ( ! jugul> ve94 ,two n]ves supply ! gl&3 "o is ! *orda tympani1 a bran* ( a cranial n]ve1 & ! o!r is a sympa!tic n]ve4 ,lymph also leaves ! gl& by a little vessel4 ,n[ suppose we h laid b>e all ?is me*anism 9 a liv+ animal & make exp]im5ts ^u x4 ,if we /imulate ! *orda tympani !re is a copi\s fl[ ( ?9 wat]y saliva1 b if we /imulate ! sympa!tic !re is a less copi\s fl[ ( ?ick viscid saliva4 ,:y is ?is8 ,we f9d on clos] analysis t ! *orda conta9s fibres :i* dilate ! small art]ies s t !re is an increas$ fl[ ( blood ?r\gh ! gl&2 b t1 on ! o!r h&1 ! sympa!tic conta9s fibres :i* con/rict ! art]ies1 ?us lead+ to a r$uc$ fl[ ( blood4 ,?is acc\nts = ! fact t 8*orda-saliva0 is abundant & ?91 :ile 8sympa!tic-saliva0 is sc>ce & ?ick4 ,x 0 ?\ght at "o "t t ! *orda conta9$ fibres :i* /imulat$ ! gl& to produce wat]y saliva1 :ile ! sympa!tic conta9$ fibres :i* /imulat$ x to produce mucid saliva4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n ! case4 ,bo? n]ves conta9 ! same k9d ( secretory fibres3 _! o!r fibres diff] ma9ly 9 t !y act diff]5tly on ! art]ies4 ,x might be ! case--inde$ x 0 at "o "t ?\ght t x 0 ! case--t secretion ( saliva 0 simply a matt] ( blood-fl[3 an abundant art]ial circulation gave rise to abundant saliva1 a sp>se fl[ to a sp>se saliva4 ,und\bt$ly ! secretion dep5ds on blood supply1 b n solely4 ,if x did1 !n ! :ole process might be conceiv$ to be a v simple me*anical "o--filtration or diffusion ( ! saliva f ! blood /ream ?r\gh ! ?9 walls ( ! blood vessels1 & ! walls ( ! tubules into ! cavity ( ! gl&4 ,if ?is 7 ! case1 !n ! liquid 9 ! gl& w\ld be ! same 9 composition & conc5tration z ! liquid "p ( ! blood--! plasma4 ,b x is really diff]5t 9 composition & x is n s conc5trat$4 ,n[ osmotic pressure--on ! action ( :i* s mu* is bas$--_c help u1 = ! liquid 9 ! gl& is less conc5trat$ ?an t 9 ! blood vessels1 s t wat] ought to pass f gl& to blood in/ead ( f blood into gl&4 ,aga91 if we tie ! duct1 s t ! saliva _c escape1 secretion /ill goes on1 ?\gh ! hydro/atic pressure ( saliva 9 ! cavity ( ! gl& may be consid]ably great] ?an t ( ! liquid 9 ! blood vessels4 ,yet aga91 if we /op ! blood fl[ by ty+ ! art]y1 secretion ( saliva may /ill g on = a "t4 ,!re=e ! only physical ag5cies we c ?9k ( d n expla9 ! secretion4 ,! latt] is actually ! "w ( ! individual cells1 /imulat$ by ! n]ves4 ,if ! volume ( ! gl& be measur$ j :ile x is be+ /imulat$ to secrete1 x w be f\nd t ! organ becomes small]1 yet :ile x is be+ /imulat$ ! blood-vessels are be+ dilat$ s t ! volume ( ! :ole /ructure ought to become great]4 ,obvi\sly "p ( ! sub/ance ( ! gl& is be+ empti$ out ?r\gh its duct z ! secretion4 ,if we exam9e ! cells ( ! gl& 9 v>i\s /ates we see cle>ly t granules ( "s mat]ial1 diff]5t 9 nature f ! sub/ance ( ! protoplasm itself1 are be+ =m$ )9 !m4 ,evid5tly ^! granules swell up dur+ secretion & dis*>ge _! cont5ts into ! ducts4 ,fur!r *anges 9 ! *>act]s ( ! cell-sub/ance1 & 9 ! nucleus1 c be obs]v$1 & all ^! indicate t ! protoplasm ( ! cells1 z ! result ( /imulation1 elaborates c]ta9 sub/ances2 t ^! sub/ances are !n wa%$ out1 s to speak1 into ! duct by ! )drawal ( wat] f ! cell2 & t !reaft] ! cell absorbs fre% nutritive mat]ial f ! lymph :i* exudes f ! blood vessels1 along ) wat]4 ,! di/9ctive "p ( ! :ole tra9 ( processes is1 !n1 ?is elaboration ( mat]ial by ! cells !mselves2 :ile ! concomitant *anges 9 ! calibre ( ! blood vessels & 9 ! fl[ ( blood & lymph are subsidi>y ones4 ,9 ! process ( secretion ( saliva en]gy is absorb$ f ! *emical sub/ances ( ! blood to br+ ab\t ! passage ( wat] f a region ( high to a region ( l[ osmotic pressure2 oxyg5 & nitrog51 ) o!r elem5ts ( c\rse1 are )drawn f ! art]ial blood /ream = ! purpose ( ! secretion1 & c>bon dioxide & o!r sub/ances are giv5 (f to ! v5\s blood & lymph4 ,! problem ?us is pu%$ back f ! me*anical ev5ts occurr+ 9 ! n]v\s & circulatory processes1 to ! physico-*emical ones occurr+ 9 ! cells ( ! gl& tubules2 & x ?us becomes mu* m obscure4 ,x is true t we c =mulate a hypo!sis :i* describes1 9 a k9d ( way1 ^! intra-cellul> metabolic *anges1 9 t]ms ( physico-*emical reactions1 &1 )\t d\bt1 reactions ( ?is k9d mu/ occur )9 ! cell4 ,b if we c\ld te/ any su* hypo!sis z easily z ! me*anical ones sugge/$1 %\ld we f9d x any m self-suffici5t8#ai #ai ,we h n ref]r$ to 8psy*ical secretion40 ,if we smell "s v sav\ry sub/ance our 8m\? wat]s10 t is1 secretion ( saliva occurs4 ,if we ev5 see "s su* sub/ance ! same secretion occurs4 ,all ?is is cle> & c be 8expla9$0 me*ani/ically3 ! /imulation ( ! olfactory or visual organs beg9s a k9d ( reflex process4 ,b if we ev5 ?9k ab\t "s v sav\ry morsel saliva may be secret$4 ,we mu/ suppose n[ t our consci\sness1 some?+ :i* has no?+ to d1 x mu/ be not$1 ) en]gy-*anges 9 ! body1 c react on ! body4 ,if we %[ a dog an attractive bone x w secrete saliva2 if we %[ x aga9 & aga91 ! same ?+ occurs4 ,b aft] c]ta9 su* trials ! dog w realise t he is be+ play$ )1 & ! exhibition ( ! bone no long] evokes a fl[ ( secretion4 ,:y is ?is8 ,! :ole process has n[ become m my/]i\s ?an ev]4 ,irritability & contractility are g5]al prop]ties ( ! organism4 ,^! prop]ties are illu/rat$ by ! irritability ( an ,amba or ,p>amcium to /imuli ( _m k9ds2 by ! movem5ts ( ! pseudopodia ( ! =m] animal1 or ( ! cilia ( ! latt]2 by ! n]v\s irritability ( ! high] animal1 & ! contraction ( its muscles :5 !y are /imulat$4 ,!y are among ! fundam5tal prop]ties or functions ( liv+ protoplasm1 & _! /udy is ( p>am\nt int]e/1 & c>ries u to ! v c5tre ( ! problem ( ! activities ( ! organism4 ,naturally physiologi/s h nev] ceas$ to attempt to describe irritability & contractility 9 t]ms ( physics1 b ?\gh we may be q c]ta9 t ! ?+s t d occur 9 ^! ph5om5a are controll$ physico-*emical reactions1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t :at we positively "k ab\t _! precise nature is exce$+ly little4 ,:at is ! nature ( a n]v\s impulse8 ,:5 a receptor organ is /imulat$1 z1 = in/ance1 :5 light imp+es on ! cone cells ( ! ret9a1 or :5 ! n]ve-end+s 9 a 8heat-spot0 9 ! sk9 are w>m$1 or :5 ! wires convey+ an electric curr5t are laid on a nak$ n]ve1 an impulse is set up 9 ! n]ve proce$+ f ! place /imulat$1 & we mu/ suppose t approximately ! same am\nt ( en]gy moves along ! n]ve z 0 communicat$ to ! receptor or ! n]ve itself by a /imulus ( m9imal /r5g?4 ,h[ does x s move8 ,sev]al facts ( capital importance result f ! exp]im5tal "w4 7#a7 ,! impulse travels ) a velocity v>iable )9 c]ta9 limits1 say f #h to #cj metres p] second2 7#b7 x travels fa/] if ! temp]ature is rais$ 7up to a c]ta9 limit72 7#c7 x is difficult to demon/rate t ! passage ( ?is impulse is accompani$ by def9ite *emical *anges 9 ! n]ve sub/ance3 x is /at$ t c>bon dioxide is produc$1 b ?is is n c]ta9ly prov$2 7#d7 an electric curr5t is produc$ 9 ! n]ve z ! result ( /imulation2 7#e7 no heat is produc$1 or at lea/ ! rise ( temp]ature1 if x occurs1 is less ?an #j4jjjb ,c4 ,?us x is q c]ta9 t physical *anges accompany ! propagation ( ! n]ve-impulse1 = ! latt] has a c]ta9 velocity1 :i* dep5ds on ! temp]ature1 & an electric *ange also occurs 9 ! sub/ance ( ! n]ve4 ,is ?is electric *ange ! actual n]ve impulse8 ,x is h>dly likely1 s9ce ! velocity ( ! impulse is v mu* less ?an t ( ! propagation ( an electric *ange ?r\gh a conductor2 besides1 ! passage ( ! impulse is n accompani$ by a measurable heat evolution1 al?\gh ! fl[ ( electricity along a poor conductor mu/ g5]ate heat & dissipate en]gy4 ,is x a *emical *ange8 ,!n we %\ld be able to obs]ve metabolism 9 ! n]ve sub/ance--t is if ! en]gy-*ange is a !rmodynamic "o--:ile x is n at all c]ta9 t metabolic *anges d occur4 ,nev]!less x seems probable t a physico-*emical *ange is actually propagat$ :5 we consid] ! *emical specialisation ( ! sub/ance ( ! axis-cyl9d] ( ! n]ve4 ,n[ ! velocity ( propagation ( ! n]v\s impulse is ( ! same ord] ( magnitude z t ( an explosive *ange 9 *emical sub/ances 7us+ ! t]m 8explosion0 to connote *emical dis9tegrations r ?an combu/ions74 ,if we imag9e a long rod ( dynamite1 or picric acid1 or a long /r& ( loosely-pack$ gun-cotton to be explod$ by p]cussion at "o end1 !n a transmission ( ! *emical dis9tegration ( any ( ^! sub/ances w pass along ! rod1 etc41 ) a velocity :i* w c]ta9ly v>y ) ! physical condition ( ! mat]ial4 ,x w\ld be a high velocity 9 a rod ( dynamite1 or fus$ picric acid1 b a l[] velocity 9 a loosely aggregat$ /r& ( gun-cotton1 or a trail ( picric acid p[d]4 ,is ?is :at happ5s 9 ! n]ve :5 an impulse travels along x8 ,obvi\sly n1 s9ce ! sub/ance ( ! n]ve is n alt]$ appreciably1 :ile t ( ! explosive sub/ance passes into o!r *emical phases4 ,we might imag9e1 !n1 su* a *ange 9 ! n]ve fibrils z t ( a rev]sible trans=mation ( "s *emical con/itu5t3-- 7#b7 7#a7 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- 3 a b 3 a b 3 a b 3 a b 3 a b 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 c d 3 c d 3 c d 3 c d 3 c d 3 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,let u imag9e ! sub/ance ( ! fibril to be compos$ (1 or at lea/ to conta91 ! sub/ances a b :i* dissociate rev]sibly into ! sub/ances c d4 ,at any mom5t1 & 9 any p>ticul> physical /ate1 z mu* ( a & b pass into c & d z c & d pass into a & b4 ,!re w be equilibrium4 ,b n[ let a /imulus alt] ! physical conditions3 prior to ! /imulus ! phase 0 am bn cp dr--! suffixes m1 n1 p1 r1 d5ot+ ! conc5trations ( a1 b1 c1 & d--b aft] ! /imulus ! phase may be am#a bn#a cp#a dr#a4 ,n[ ! elem5t ( ! n]ve sub/ance 7#a7 =ms a sy/em ) ! elem5t 7#b74 ,! condition 9 7#b7 is am bn cp dr1 & t ( 7#a7 am#a bn#a cp#a dr#a1 b ^! two toge!r n[ fall into a new /ate ( equilibrium & ?is is transmitt$ along ! :ole n]ve-fibril ) a velocity :i* belongs to ! ord] ( magnitude ( t ( *emical *anges4 ,if ! /imulus rema9s con/ant 7a con/ant electric curr5t = in/ance71 ! new condition ( equilibrium w be e/abli%$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole l5g? ( ! fibril & ! n]v\s impulse w be a mom5t>y "o 7z x is 9 ?is case74 ,b if ! /imulus is an int]mitt5t "o 7an int]rupt$ electric curr5t1 light-vibration1 s\nd-vibrations71 !n 9 ! int]vals ! =m] condition ( equilibrium w become re-e/abli%$ & ! n]v\s impulse w be int]mitt5t 7z x is74 ,!re w\ld be no "w done on ! :ole 9 ! *anges1 except t done by ! transmission ( ! *ang$ /ate ( equilibrium to ! sub/ance ( ! effector organ 9 :i* ! n]ve-fibril t]m9ates--! sub/ance ( a muscle fibre1 or ! cell ( a secretory gl&1 = in/ances4 ,!re w\ld1 probably1 be a c]ta9 dissipation ( en]gy z 9 ! case ( ! propagation ( an electric impulse ?r\gh a poor conductor1 b all our k ( ! *emi/ry ( ! n]ve fibre po9ts to ?is am\nt ( dissipation z t5d+ to vani%4 ,some?+ analog\s to ?is may be expect$ to take place 9 a muscle fibre :5 x contracts2 except t1 ( c\rse1 en]gy is trans=m$ 9 ?is case4 ,:at precisely does happ5 we d n "k & at ! pres5t "t no physico-*emical hypo!sis ( ! nature ( muscul> contraction exactly describes all t c be obs]v$ to take place4 ,c]ta9 positive results h1 ( c\rse1 be5 obta9$ by *emical & physical inve/igation ( ! contract+ muscle3 c>bon dioxide is giv5 (f to ! lymph & blood /ream1 & ! am\nt ( ?is is increas$ :5 an increas$ am\nt ( "w is done by ! muscle2 heat is produc$ & ?is too increases ) ! "w p]=m$2 glycog5 is us$ up1 & lactic acid is produc$2 f9ally oxyg5 is requir$1 & m oxyg5 is requir$ by an actively contract+ muscle ?an by a quiesc5t "o4 ,n[ ! obvi\s hypo!sis correlat+ all ^! facts is t ! muscle sub/ance is oxidis$1 & t ! heat s produc$ is trans=m$ into me*anical en]gy4 8,we mu/ assume10 says a rec5t book on physiology1 8t !re is "s me*anism 9 ! muscle by means ( :i* ! en]gy lib]at$ dur+ ! me*anical *ange is utilis$ 9 caus+ movem5t1 some:at 9 ! same way z ! heat en]gy develop$ 9 a gas-eng9e is conv]t$ by a me*anism into me*anical movem5t40 ,n[1 mu/ we assume any?+ ( ! k9d8 ,to beg9 )1 life goes on1 & me*anical en]gy is produc$ 9 _m organisms liv+ 9 a m$ium :i* conta9s no oxyg54 ,ana]obic organisms are fairly well kn[n1 & we _c suppose t 9 !m en]gy is g5]at$ by ! combu/ion ( tissue sub/ance 9 ! inspir$ oxyg54 ,a muscle remov$ f a cold-blood$ animal w cont9ue to contract 9 an atmosph]e conta9+ no oxyg51 & x w cont9ue to produce c>bon dioxide4 ,x is true t ! contractions soon cease1 ev5 aft] cont9u$ /imulation "u conditions exclud+ ! fatigue ( ! muscle1 b d ! contractions cease because ! oxyg5 supply is cut (f1 or because ! muscle dies 9 ^! conditions8 ,we "k t "s complex *emical sub/ance is dis9tegrat$ dur+ contraction & t me*anical en]gy & heat are produc$ & t c>bon dioxide is also produc$4 ,we "k t ! c>bon conta9$ 9 ! latt] gas corresponds r\ghly ) ! c>bon conta9$ 9 ! muscle sub/ance :i* und]goes dis9tegration1 b does all ?is ju/ify u 9 say+ t ?is sub/ance is oxidis$ 9 ord] t its pot5tial *emical en]gy may be trans=m$ into me*anical en]gy8 ,obvi\sly n1 s9ce we might equally well suppose t ! complex metabolic sub/ance ( ! muscle splits d[n into simpl] sub/ances & t 9 ?is trans=mation en]gy is g5]at$4 ,suppose t ^! simpl] sub/ances are poison\s & t !y mu/ be remov$ z rapidly z =m$4 ,! rle ( ! oxyg5 may be to oxidise !m1 ?us trans=m+ !m into c>bon dioxide1 an innocu\s sub/ance :i* c be c>ri$ away quickly 9 ! blood /ream4 ,?is l9e ( ?\ght1 accord+ to :i* ! rle ( oxyg5 is an anti-poison\s "o1 is held at ! pres5t day by "s physiologi/s1 & _m consid]ations appe> to support x2 ! exi/5ce ( 8oxidases10 = in/ance1 enzymes :i* produce oxidations :i* w\ld n o!rwise occur 9 _! abs5ce4 ,su* enzymes exi/ 9 v _m tissues1 & !y may1 app>5tly1 be pres5t 9 an inactive =m1 requir+ ! ag5cy ( a 8k9ase0 be=e !y are able to act4 ,! usual view among physiologi/s is t ! muscle fibre is a !rmodynamic app>atus trans=m+ ! heat g5]at$ dur+ metabolism into me*anical en]gy4 ,h[ is ?is trans=mation effect$8 ,x _c be said t we h any "o hypo!sis m conv9c+ ?an ano!r4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t alt]ations ( surface t5sion play a "p1 or t ! heat produc$ by oxidation causes ! fibre to imbibe wat] & %ort54 ,engelmann has devis$ an artificial muscle consi/+ ( a catgut /r+ & an electrical curr5t pass+ ?r\gh a coil ( wire1 & by means ( ?is he has reproduc$ ! ph5om5a ( simple contraction & tetanus4 ,b x rema9s = future inve/igation to v]ify any "o ( ^! hypo!ses4 ,:5 ,huxley publi%$ 8 ,physical ,basis ( ,life1 probably few physiologi/s _h any d\bt t protoplasm 0 a def9ite *emical sub/ance1 diff]+ f o!r organic sub/ances only by its mu* great] complexity4 ,b 9 #ahhj ,re9ke & ,rodewald publi%$ ! results ( an analysis ( ! sub/ance ( a plant protoplasm & ^! appe> to h demon/rat$ t ! sub/ance 0 really a mixture ( a numb] ( true *emical comp\nds & 0 n a s+le def9ite "o4 ,n[ all ( ^! sub/ances might exi/ ap>t f protoplasm1 & 9 ! lifeless =m1 & a simple mixture ( !m c\ld h>dly br+ =? vital reactions4 ,^! results 7 foll[$ by ! morphological /udy ( ! cell--! discov]y ( ! ar*itecture ( ! nucleus1 & s on1 & s op9ion began to turn to ! hypo!sis t ! vital manife/ations ( protoplasm 7 ! result ( its /ructure4 ,microscopical exam9ation ( ! cell appe>$ to disclose a def9ite arrangem5t1 ! 8foam0 or 8fro?0 ( ,buts*li1 = in/ance4 ,b1 aga91 x 0 easily %[n t ! foam1 or alveol> /ructure ( protoplasm 0 m]ely ! expression ( physical diff]5ces 9 ! sub/ances compos+ ! cell-/uff--!y r$uc$ to ph5om5a ( surface t5sion & ! l4 ,artificial protoplasm & artificial ,amb 7 made--at lea/ mixtures ( olive oil & v>i\s o!r sub/ances 7 made :i* simulat$ _m ( ! ph5om5a ( protoplasm 9 mu* ! same way z cry/all9e products may be made :i* simulate ! gr[? ( a plant /em ) its bran*es4 ,= in/ance1 "o has only to %ake up a little soapy wat] 9 a flask to see :at resembles surpris+ly ! arrangem5t ( c]ta9 k9ds ( connective tissues 9 ! organism4 ,obvi\sly ^! artificial ph5om5a h no?+ to d ) liv+ sub/ance4 ,yet if we gr9d up a liv+ muscle ) "s s& 9 a mort> we d de/roy some?+4 ,! muscle c\ld be made to contract1 b aft] dis9tegration ?is p[] is lo/4 ,we h c]ta9ly de/roy$ a /ructure1 or me*anism1 ( "s k9d4 ,b1 aga91 ! pa/e ( muscle sub/ance & s& /ill possesses "s k9d ( vital activity1 = ) c]ta9 precautions x c be made to exhibit _m ( ! ph5om5a ( enzyme activity display$ by ! intact muscle fibres1 or ev5 ! entire organism4 ,me*anical dis9tegration1 !re=e1 aboli%es "s ( ! activities ( ! organism1 b n all ( !m4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we heat ! muscle pa/e above a c]ta9 temp]ature1 ! residue ( vital ph5om5a exhibit$ by x are irrev]sibly remov$1 s t heat+ de/roys ! me*anism4 ,?is we c h>dly imag9e to be ! case 7)9 ord9>y limits ( temp]ature at lea/7 ) a physical me*anism1 b aga9 a me*anism :i* is p>tly *emical might be s de/roy$4 ,we see1 !n1 t protoplasm possesses a me*anical /ructure1 b t all ( its vital activities d n necess>ily dep5d on ?is /ructure4 ,! full manife/ation ( ^! activities dep5ds on ! protoplasmic sub/ance possess+ a c]ta9 volume or mass1 & also on a c]ta9 *emical /ructure4 ,if liv+ protoplasm has a /ructure1 & is n simply a mixture ( *emical comp\nds1 :at is x !n8 ,two or ?ree physico-*emical concepts are at ! pres5t "t v mu* 9 evid5ce 9 ?is connection4 ,:5 ! sub/ances kn[n z colloids 7 fully inve/igat$ by ! *emi/s1 mu* att5tion 0 paid to !m by ! physiologi/s1 s t life 0 call$ 8! *emi/ry ( ! colloids10 j z aft] ! inve/igation ( ! enzymes x 0 call$ ! 8*emi/ry ( ! enzymes10 & :5 ! discov]y ( ! relative abundance ( phosphorus 9 cell-nuclei & 9 ! bra9 0 discov]$1 x 0 call$ ! 8*emi/ry ( phosphorus40 ,colloids 7e4g4 glue7 are sub/ances t d n readily diffuse ?r\gh c]ta9 membranes1 9 opposition to cry/alloids 7e4g4 solution ( common salt7 :i* d readily s diffuse4 ,!y =m solutions :i* easily gelat9ise rev]sibly1 t is1 c become liquid aga9 7glue72 or coagulate irrev]sibly1 t is1 _c become liquid aga9 7album572 :i* h no def9ite saturation po9t2 :i* h a l[ osmotic pressure 7& d]iv$ prop]ties71 etc42 & ! molecules ( :i* are comp\nd ones consi/+ ( comb9ations ( ! molecules ( ! sub/ance ) ! molecules ( ! solv5t1 or ) ea* o!r1 t is1 !y are molecul> aggregates4 ,colloids pass ins5sibly into cry/alloids on ! "o h& & into co>se susp5sions 7wat] %ak5 up ) f9e mud1 = in/ance7 on ! o!r4 ,we may replace ! concept ( a colloid by ^? ( 8susp5soids0 & 8emulsoids40 ,a susp5soid is a liquid conta9+ p>ticles 9 a f9e /ate ( division--if ! division is t into ! sep>ate molecules we h a solution1 if into l>ge aggregates ( molecules we h a susp5sion4 ,if ! sub/ance 9 ! liquid is itself liquid1 ! :ole is call$ an emulsoid4 ,on ! "o h& ?is approa*es to a mixture ( oil 9 soap & wat]--an emulsion--& on ! o!r h& to su* a mixture z *lor(orm %ak5 up ) wat]1 :5 ! drops ( *lor(orm readily jo9 toge!r s t two lay]s ( liquid 7*lor(orm & wat]7 =m4 ,:at we see1 !n1 9 protoplasm is a viscid sub/ance possess+ a /ructure ( "s k9d1 & conta9+ specialis$ protoplasmic bodies 9 its mass 7nuclei1 nucleoli1 granules ( v>i\s k9ds1 *lorophyll1 & o!r pla/ids1 etc474 ,x may conta9 or exhibit susp5soid or emulsoid p>ts or sub/ances1 or x may conta9 truly cry/alloid solutions4 ,^! phases ( its con/itu5ts are n fix$1 b pass into ea* o!r dur+ its activity4 ,no?+ t we "k ab\t x ju/ifies u 9 speak+ ab\t a 8liv+ *emical sub/ance40 ,on analysis we f9d t x is a mixture ( true *emical sub/ances r ?an a sub/ance4 ,x is no use say+ t 9 ord] to analyse x we mu/ kill x1 = :at we c obs]ve 9 x )\t de/roy+ its /ructure or activities indicates t x is *emically het]og5e\s4 ,?is is n a textbook ( g5]al physiology1 & ! examples ( physico-*emical reactions 9 ! organism :i* we h select$ h be5 quot$ 9 ord] to %[ to :at ext5t ! *emical & physical me?ods appli$ by ! physiologi/s h succe$$ 9 resolv+ ! activities ( ! organism4 ,! "q = our consid]ation is ?is3 d ^! results ( physico-*emical analysis fully describe organic function+8 ,dogmatic me*anism says 8yes0 )\t equivocation4 ,n[ x is cle>1 f ev5 ! few typical examples t we h quot$1 t physiological analysis %[s1 inde$1 a resolution ( ! activities ( ! organism into *emical & physical reactions4 ,h[ c\ld x d o!rwise8 ,h[ c\ld *emical & physical me?ods ( inve/igation yield any?+ else ?an *emical & physical results8 ,! fact t ^! me?ods c be appli$ to ! /udy ( ! organism ) consi/5t results %[s t _! application is valid2 t we are ju/ifi$ 9 see+ physico-*emical activities 9 life4 ,b are ^! results all t we h reason to expect8 ,we turn n[ to ,b]gson's f]tile comp>ison ( ! physiological analysis ( ! organism ) ! action ( a c9ematograph4 ,if we take a s]ies ( photographic snap%ots (1 e4g41 a trott+ horse & !n sup]pose ^! pictures ^u ea* o!r1 we produce all ! semblance ( ! co-ord9at$ motions ( ! limbs ( ! animal4 ,yet all t is conta9$ 9 ! simulat$ motion is immobility4 ,f a succession ( /atic conditions we appe> to produce a flux4 ,yet if we c\ld contract our duration (1 e4g41 a week1 into t correspond+ to five m9utes--if we c\ld spe$ up our p]ceptual activity--%\ld we n see ! c9ematographic pictures z !y really are--a s]ies ( immovable po/ures & no?+ m3 truly an illusion8 ,if1 aga91 we rev]se ! direction ( motion ( ! film1 we integrate our snap%ots into some?+ :i* is absolutely diff]5t f ! reality :i* !y at fir/ repres5t$2 & by su* devices ! illusions & p>adoxical effects ( ! picture-h\se f>ces are made possible4 ,well1 !n1 9 ! physiological analysis ( ! activity ( ! organism d we n d some?+ v analog\s to ?is8 ,! complexity ( ev5 ! simple/ function ( ! animal is su* t we c only att5d to "o or two aspects ( x at once1 arbitr>ily neglect+ all ! re/4 ,we f9d t ! hydro/atic pressure ( blood1 & lymph1 & secretion1 ! osmotic pressure1 ! diffusibility1 vaso-motor actions1 & o!r ?+s mu/ be inve/igat$ :5 consid]+ ! "q ( h[ ! submaxill>y gl& secretes saliva4 ,"o1 or z _m z possible1 ( ^! reactions are inve/igat$ at "o "t1 & !n ! results are piec$ toge!r--integrat$--9 ord] to reproduce ! full activity ( ! :ole indivisible process4 ,b 9 do+ ?is d we n introduce some?+ new--a direction or ord] ( happ5+--into ! elem5ts ( ! dissociat$ activity ( ! organism8 ,ea* elem5tal process mu/ occur at j ! "r "t4 ,:at "r h we to say t ! activity ( ! organism is made up ( physico-*emical elem5ts8 ,j z mu* z we h 9 say+ t a curve is made up ( inf9itesimal /raight l9es4 ,let u adopt ,b]gson's illu/ration1 ) a non-ess5tial modification4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,! curve #a-h is a l9e :i* we draw freeh& ) a s+le indivisible motion ( ! h& & arm & eye4 ,x is some?+ unique & individualis$1 9 t no o!r curve ev] drawn1 9 a simil> mann]1 exactly resembles x4 ,let u inve/igate x ma!matically4 ,we c select v small portions ( x--elem5ts we may call !m--& ea* ( ^! elem5ts1 if x is small en\gh does n diff] s5sibly f a /raight l9e4 ,let u produce ea* ( ^! /raight l9es 9 bo? directions1 x is !n a tang5t to ! curve1 & x does actually co9cide ) ! curve at "o ma!matical po9t--! po9ts #a-h 9 ! figure4 ,! tang5t !n has some?+ 9 common ) ! curve1 b w\ld a s]ies ( inf9itesimally small tang5ts reproduce ! curve8 ,obvi\sly n1 = ! equations ( ! tang5ts w\ld h ! =m ax b1 :ile t ( ! curve itself w\ld be q diff]5t1 conta9+ x z p[]s ( x1 or z transc5d5tal functions ( x4 ,9 ?is inve/igation :at we succe$ 9 obta9+ are ! d]ivatives ( ! curve1 & to reproduce ! latt] f its elem5ts we h to integrate ! d]ivatives2 t is1 ano!r op]ation diff]+ 9 k9d f our analytical "o mu/ be p]=m$4 ,n[ 9 ?is illu/ration we h d\btless some?+ m ?an an analogy ) our physico-*emical analysis ( life4 ,! activities ( ! organism d r$uce to bio-*emical ones 7! elem5tal /raight l9es on ! curve71 & ea* ( ^! reactions has some?+ 9 common ) life 7x is tang5t to life1 t\*+ x at "o po9t74 ,b if we attempt to recon/itute life f its physico-*emical d]ivatives we mu/ integrate ! latt]1 & 9 do+ s we ov]-pass ! b\nds ( physics1 j z integrat+ a ma!matical function we necess>ily introduce ! concept ( ! 8inf9itely small40 ,! physico-*emical reactions into :i* we dissociate any vital function ( ! organism h1 !n1 ea* ( !m1 some?+ 9 common ) ! vital function4 ,b _! m]e sum is n ! function4 ,to reproduce ! latt] we h to effect a co-ord9ation & give directions to ^! reactions4 ,9 all physiological inve/igations we proce$ a c]ta9 l5g? ) p]fect success2 ?us ! elem5ts1 s to speak1 ( ! function ( ! secretion ( saliva are 7#a7 ! blood-pressure1 7#b7 ! hydro/atic pressure ( ! secretion 9 ! lum9a ( ! gl& tubules1 7#c7 ! diffusibility ( ! sub/ances dissolv$ 9 ! blood & lymph ?r\gh ! walls ( ^! vessels1 7#d7 ! osmotic pressure ( ! same sub/ances1 & 7#e7 ! /imulation ( ! gl& cells by 8secretory n]ve fires40 ,n[ ! inve/igations c>ri$ out--& no "p ( ! physiology ( ! mammal has be5 s pati5tly /udi$ z ! saliv>y gl&--fail1 s f>1 completely to describe ! function 9 t]ms ( ^! elem5ts4 ,9 ! end we h to ref] ! secretion to intra-cellul> processes1 & !n we beg9 to invoke aga9 processes ( osmotic pressure1 diffusibility1 & s on ) ref]5ce to ! =mation ( ! drops ( secretion :i* we c see =m$ 9 ! gl& cells4 ,we are =c$ to ! =mulation ( a logical hypo!sis z to ! nature ( ^! intra-cellul> processes1 & s9ce mu* t goes on 9 ! cell sub/ance is1 s f>1 beyond physico-*emical inve/igation1 our hypo!sis w be z difficult to disprove z to v]ify4 99 99 99 99 99 ,let u return n[ to ,huxley's comp>ison ( ! activity ( ! gre5 plant ) ! *emical reaction :i* occurs :5 an electric sp>k is pass$ ?r\gh a mixture ( oxyg5 & hydrog54 ,! lecture on ! 8,physical ,basis ( ,life0 0 publi%$ 9 #ahfi2 9 #aheb ,william ,?omson publi%$ 8 pap] 8,on a ,univ]sal ,t5d5cy ( ,nature to ,dissipation ( ,en]gy10 & a ye> or two be=e t ,clausius _h appli$ ,c>not's law to ! k9etic !ory ( heat3 ! second pr9ciple ( en]getics _h !re=e ev5 !n be5 exactly =mulat$1 b its significance = biological speculation _h n be5 recognis$ by ,huxley1 any m ?an x has g5]ally be5 recognis$ by mo/ biologi/s s9ce #ahfi4 ,:at1 !n1 does ! comp>ison ( ,huxley %[8 ,cle>ly t ! physical *anges :i* occur 9 ! explosion ( a mixture ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 tr5d 9 a diff]5t direction f ^? :i* occur 9 ! photo-syn!sis ( />* by a gre5 plant4 ,g5]ally speak+1 *emical activity1 t is1 ! possibility ( occurr5ce ( *emical reactions1 is a case ( ! second law ( en]getics4 ,en]gy passes f a /ate ( high to a /ate ( l[ pot5tial4 ,a *emical reaction w occur if ?is *ange ( pot5tial is possible4 ,9 all su* *anges en]gy is dissipat$4 ,:at exactly does ?is mean8 ,x means t1 g5]ally speak+1 ! pot5tial en]gy ( *emical comp\nds t5ds to trans=m into k9etic en]gy2 :ile diff]5ces 9 ! int5sity factor ( ! k9etic en]gy ( ! bodies =m+ a sy/em t5d to become m9imal4 ,9 a mixture ( oxyg5 & hydrog5 !re is en]gy ( two k9ds1 7#a7 pot5tial en]gy due to ! position ( ! molecules 7,o & ,h molecules are sep>at$72 & 7#b7 k9etic en]gy ( ! molecules 7:i* are mov+ ab\t 9 ! masses ( gas74 ,aft] ! explosion ! pot5tial en]gy acquir$ 9 ! sep>ation ( ! molecules ( ,o & ,h has disappe>$ 7! molecules hav+ comb9$ to =m wat]71 b ! k9etic en]gy has greatly increas$1 s9ce ! explosion results 9 ! =mation ( /eam at high temp]ature4 ,b n[ ?is /eam radiates (f heat to adjac5t bodies1 or becomes cool$ by direct contact ) ! envelope :i* conta9s x4 ,! en]gy ( ! explosion is !re=e di/ribut$ to ! adjo9+ bodies1 & ! temp]ature ( ! latt] becomes rais$4 ,b ^! aga9 radiate & conduct heat to o!r bodies1 & 9 ?is way ! heat g5]at$ becomes indef9itely diffus$4 ,! g5]al effect ( all physico-*emical *anges is !re=e ! g5]ation ( heat1 & !n ?is heat t5ds to di/ribute itself ?r\gh\t ! :ole sy/em ( bodies 9 :i* ! physico-*emical *anges occur4 ,! en]gy passes into ! /ate ( k9etic en]gy1 t is1 ! motion ( ! molecules ( ! bodies to :i* ! heat is communicat$4 ,?is molecul> motion is lea/ 9 solids1 great] 9 liquids1 & greate/ 9 gases4 ,if solids1 liquids1 & gases are 9 contact1 =m+ complex sy/ems1 ! k9etic en]gy ( _! molecules becomes di/ribut$ 9 def9ite ways1 dep5d+ on ! con/ants ( ! sy/ems4 ,aft] ?is r$i/ribution ! k9etic en]gy ( ^! molecules is unavailable = fur!r en]gy trans=mations1 s t ph5om5a or *ange 9 ! sy/em ceases4 ,!re is no long] effective physical div]sity among ! p>ts ( ! sy/em4 ,we f9d t ?is conception ( dissipation ( en]gy _c be appli$ to ! organism1 at lea/ n ) ! g5]ality 9 :i* x applies to physical sy/ems4 ,:y8 ,n because ! conception is uns\nd1 or because ! physico-*emical reactions t occur 9 mat]ial ( ! organism are ( a diff]5t ord] f ^? t occur 9 inorganic sy/ems--!y are ( ! same ord]4 ,! second law ( en]getics is subject to limitations1 & x is because x is appli$ to organic happ5+s )\t reg>d to ^! limitations t x does n describe ! activities ( ! organism z well z x describes ^? ( inorganic nature4 ,:at1 !n1 are ^! limitations8 ,we note 9 ! fir/ place t ! laws ( !rmodynamics apply to bodies ( a c]ta9 range ( size2 or at lea/ ! possibility ( ma!matical inve/igation 7on :i*1 ( c\rse1 all dep5ds7 is limit$ to 8diff]5tial elem5ts0 ( mass1 en]gy1 & "t4 ,we _c apply ma!matical analysis to bodies1 or "t-int]vals ( 8f9ite size10 s9ce ! me?ods ( ! diff]5tial & integral calculus w\ld n /rictly be applicable4 ,b molecules are s small 7#a cubic c5timetre ( a gas may conta9 ab\t #e4d #ajai ( !m7 t ev5 su* a m9ute "p ( a body1 or liquid1 or gas z approximates to ! inf9itesimally small dim5sions requir$ by ! calculus1 conta9s an enorm\s numb] ( molecules4 ,obvi\sly we _c inve/igate ! individual molecules4 ,ev5 if exp]im5tal me?ods c\ld be s appli$1 su* concepts z d5sity1 pressure1 volume1 or temp]ature w\ld h no mean+4 ,physics1 !n1 is bas$ on collections ( molecules1 & ! prop]ties ( a body are n ^? ( a molecule ( ! same body4 ,su* concepts z temp]ature & pressure are /ati/ical ones1 & are appli$ to ! mean prop]ties ( a l>ge numb] ( molecules4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,we c be/ illu/rate ?is by consid]+ ,maxwell's fam\s fiction ( ! 8sort+ demons40 ,let u imag9e a mass ( gas conta9$ 9 a vessel ! walls ( :i* d n conduct heat4 ,let !re be a p>tition 9 ?is vessel also ( non-conduct+ mat]ial1 & let !re be an ap]ture 9 ?is p>tition great] 9 area ?an a molecule1 b small] ?an ! mean free pa? ( a molecule4 ,n[ ?is mass ( gas has a c]ta9 temp]ature :i* is proportional to ! mean velocity ( movem5t ( ! molecules4 ,! second law says t heat _c pass f a cold region 9 a sy/em to a hot region )\t "w be+ done on ! sy/em f outside1 nor c an inequality ( temp]ature be produc$ 9 a mass ( gas or liquid except "u a simil> condition4 ,b 8conceive a be+10 says ,maxwell1 8^: faculties are s %>p5$ t he c foll[ e molecule 9 its c\rse2 su* a be+1 ^: attributes are /ill z ess5tially f9ite z our own1 w\ld be able to d :at is at pres5t impossible to u40#bj ,= ! temp]ature ( ! gas dep5ds on ! velocities ( ! molecules1 & 9 any "p ( ! gas ^! velocities are v diff]5t4 ,suppose t ! demon saw a molecule approa* :i* 0 mov+ at a mu* great] velocity ?an ! mean3 he w\ld !n op5 ! door 9 ! ap]ture & let x pass ?r\gh f - to 4 ,on ! o!r h&1 %\ld a molecule mov+ at a velocity mu* less ?an ! mean approa* he w\ld let x pass f to -4 ,9 ?is way he w\ld sort out molecules ( high f ^? ( l[ velocity4 ,b ! collisions betwe5 ! molecules 9 ei!r division ( ! vessel w\ld cont9ually produce div]sity ( individual velocity1 & 9 ?is way ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature betwe5 & - w\ld cont9ually be increas$4 ,heat w\ld ?us fl[ f a region ( l[ to a region ( high temp]ature )\t an equival5t am\nt ( "w be+ exp5d$4 #bj ,impossible1 9 ! s5se t :ile we are unable to 8abrogate0 a physical law1 ,maxwell's f9ite demon c\ld1 al?\gh 8 faculties 7 simil> 9 nature to ours4 ,n[ we mu/ n introduce demonology into sci5ce1 s1 le/ ?is fiction ( ,maxwell's %\ld sav\r ( my/icism1 or some?+ equally repugnant1 we %all /ate ! idea involv$ 9 x 9 q unexceptionable t]ms4 ,! conclusions ( physics are f\nd$ on ! assumption t we _c control ! motions ( individual molecules4 ,9 a mass ( gas1 or liquid1 or 9 a solid1 ! molecules are free to move & d move4 ,_! individual velocities & free pa?s v>y consid]ably f ea* o!r4 ,^! motions & pa?s are un-co-ord9at$--8helt]-skelt]0--if we l s to t]m !m4 ,physics consid]s only ! /ati/ical mean velocities & free pa?s4 ,! irrev]sibility ( physical ph5om5a1 ! fact t en]gy t5ds to dissipate itself1 ! second law ( !rmodynamics1 dep5d on ! assumption t ,maxwell's demons exi/ only 9 imag9ation4 ,we mu/ appeal to exp]i5ce n[4 ,!re is no a priori reason :y ! ph5om5a ( physics %\ld be direct$ "o way & n ! o!r1 = x is possible to conceive a condition ( our ,univ]se 9 :i*1 = in/ance1 solid iron w\ld fuse :5 expos$ to ! atmosph]e4 ,9 su* conditions organisms w\ld gr[ backw>ds f old age to bir?1 ) consci\s k ( ! future b no recollections ( ! pa/4 ,exp]i5ce %[s1 h[ev]1 t ph5om5a d t5d 9 "o way--b ?is exp]i5ce is t ( exp]im5tal physics1 s t = ! latt] sci5ce ,maxwell's demons d n exi/4 ,n[ physiology has borr[$ f physics1 n only ! exp]im5tal me?ods1 b also ! fundam5tal concepts ( !rmodynamics4 ,! organism1 !re=e 7s physiology mu/ conclude71 _c control ! motions ( individual molecules1 & s vital processes are irrev]sible4 ,b we h se5 t ! processes ( t]re/rial life z a :ole are rev]sible1 or t5d to rev]sibility4 ,we mu/ !re=e seek = evid5ce t ! organism c control !1 o!rwise1 un-co-ord9at$ motions ( ! individual molecules4 ,! ,br[nian movem5t ( v small p>ticles ( matt] is s famili> to ! biologi/ t we ne$ n describe x4 ,x is d\btless due to ! impact ( ! molecules ( ! liquid 9 :i* ! p>ticles are susp5d$4 ,gr\ps ( molecules travell+ at velocities above ! mean hit ! p>ticle n[ on "o side1 & aga9 on ! o!r1 & s produce ! peculi> trembl+ :i* ,br[n ?\ght 0 life4 ,n[ ! p>ticle mu/ be bel[ a c]ta9 size 9 ord] to be s affect$4 ,are !re organisms ( ?is size8 ,und\bt$ly !re are1 = _m bacilli %[ ,br[nian movem5ts1 :ile we h reasons = believ+ t ultra-microscopic organisms exi/4 ,also1 on ! me*ani/ic hypo!sis !re are 8biophors10 ! size ( :i* is ( ! same ord] z t ( ! molecules ( ! m complex organic comp\nds4 ,all ^! mu/ be affect$ by ! molecul> impacts ( ! liquid 9 :i* !y are susp5d$4 ,c !y di/+ui% betwe5 ! impacts ( high-velocity molecules & ^? ( mean-velocity ones1 & c !y utilise ! surplus en]gy ( ! =m]8 ,?is has be5 sugge/$ by ! physici/s4 ,9 ,br[nian movem5t1 says ,po9c>1 8we c almo/ see ,maxwell's demons at "w40 ,! sugge/ion is n m]ely a speculative "o1 = x is well )9 ! region ( exp]im5t4 ,to prove x exp]im5tally we %\ld only h to %[ t ! temp]ature ( a heat-insulat$ culture ( prototrophic bact]ia falls :ile ! organisms multiply4 ,is x n /range t ! biologi/s1 to :om ! ,br[nian movem5t is s famili>1 %\ld h fail$ to see its possibly enorm\s significance8 ,is x n /range t ! biologi/s1 to :om ! di/9ction betwe5 ! /ati/ical & individual me?ods ( inve/igation is s famili>1 %\ld h fail$ to appreciate ?is di/9ction :5 x 0 made by ! physici/s8 ,is x n /range t :ile we see t mo/ ( our human ef=t is t ( direct+ natural ag5cies & en]gies into pa?s :i* !y w\ld n o!rwise take1 we %\ld yet h fail$ to ?9k ( primitive organisms1 or ev5 ( ! tissue elem5ts 9 ! bodies ( ! high] organisms1 z possess+ also ?is p[] ( direct+ physico-*emical processes8 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,vital ,,impetus ,two ma9 conclusions em]ge f ! discussions ( ! la/ ?ree *apt]s3 7#a7 t physiology enc\rages no notions z to a 8vital pr9ciple0 or =ce1 or =m ( en]gy peculi> to ! organism2 & 7#b7 t al?\gh physiological analysis resolves ! metabolism ( ! plant & animal body into physico-*emical reactions1 yet ! direction tak5 by ^! is n t tak5 by correspond+ reactions occurr+ 9 inorganic mat]ials4 ,f ^! two ma9 conclusions we h1 !re=e1 to con/ruct a conception ( ! organism :i* %all be o!r ?an t ( a physico-*emical me*anism4 ,! ord9>y p]son1 unacqua9t$ ) ! results ( physiological analysis1 & kn[+ only ! g5]al modes ( function+ ( ! human organism1 has1 probably1 no d\bt at all t x is 8animat$0 by a pr9ciple or ag5cy :i* has no c\nt]p>t 9 ! inorganic _w4 ,?is is ! 8natural0 conclusion1 & ! o!r "o1 t life is only an affair ( physics & *emi/ry1 mu/ appe> altoge!r fanciful to anyone :o kn[s no m ?an t ! he>t propels ! blood1 t ! latt] is 8purifi$0 9 ! lungs1 t ! /oma* & liv] secrete sub/ances :i* dige/ ! food1 & s on4 ,x is difficult = ! mod]n /ud5t ( biology1 saturat$ ) notions ( bio-*emical activities1 gels & sols & colloids & rev]sible enzymes & k9ases & ! l1 to realise t ! belief 9 a vital ag5cy is an intuitive "o1 & t ! me*ani/ic conception ( life is only ! result ( ! ext5sion to biology ( me?ods ( inve/igation1 & n a legitimate conclusion f _! results4 ,to ! anatomi/1 ! embryologi/1 & ! naturali/1 z well z to ! physici/ unacqua9t$ ) ! details ( physiology1 no less ?an to ! ord9>y p]son ?is is p]haps by f> ! mo/ g5]al attitude ( m9d4 ,x w\ld probably be impossible = anyone to /udy only organic =m & habits & come to any o!r conclusion ?an t !re 0 some?+ imman5t 9 ! organism entirely diff]5t f ! ag5cies :i*1 = in/ance1 %ape cont95ts1 or deltas1 or riv] valleys4 ,& ?is conclusion w\ld probably come ) /ill great] =ce to ! embryologi/1 ev5 ?\gh he /ill possess$ a g5]al k ( physiological sci5ce4 ,! me*ani/ic conception ( life has1 )\t d\bt1 be5 ! result ( ! success ( a me?od ( analysis4 ,"o sees cle>ly t j 9 proportion z physical & *emical sci5ces h be5 mo/ prolific ( discov]y1 s physiology1 lean+ ^u !m & borr[+ _! me?ods1 has be5 mo/ progressive & me*ani/ic4 ,me*ani/ic hypo!ses ( ! organism may all be trac$ back to ,desc>tes1 :o built ^u ! "w ( ,galileo & ,h>vey4 ,! anatomy ( ,vesalius & 8 successors w\ld h l$ to no su* notions1 _h n ! discov]ies ( ,cop]nicus1 ,ty*o1 & ,kepl] %[n m5 an univ]se actuat$ by me*anical law4 ,to a ?9k] l ,desc>tes1 at once ! v type ( philosoph] & man ( sci5ce1 ,h>vey's discov]y ( ! circulation ( ! blood mu/ h sugge/$ irresi/ibly ! ext5sion ( me*anical law to ! function+ ( ! human organism1 & x is significant t he made ?is ext5sion )\t includ+ a s+le *emical idea1 & yet produc$ a logical hypo!sis ( life z satisfactory & complete 9 its day z1 = in/ance1 ! ,weismannian hypo!sis ( h]$ity has be5 9 ours4 ,8 hypo!sis ( ! organism 0 purely me*anical4 ,x has be5 said t 8 organism 0 an automaton1 l ! me*anical ,diana ( ! palace g>d5s :i* hid among ! rose-bu%es :5 ! foot ( a pry+ /rang] press$ ^u ! spr+s hidd5 9 ! gr\nd4 ,its functions 7 matt]s ( hydraulics3 ( heat1 & fluids1 & valves4 ,8 physiology 0 ,gal5ic1 ap>t f ,h>vey's discov]y ( ! motion ( ! blood 9 a circuit1 = he did n accept ! notion ( ! he>t z a propulsive app>atus4 ,! food ( ! inte/9e 0 absorb$ z *yle by ! blood & c>ri$ to ! liv]1 :]e x became endu$ ) ! 8natural spirits10 & !n pass+ to ! he>t x became *>g$ ) ! 8vital spirits0 by virtue ( ! flame1 or innate heat1 ( ! he>t1 & ! action ( ! lungs4 ,?is flame ( ! he>t1 f$ by ! natural spirits1 exp&$ & r>efi$ ! blood1 & ! expansion ( ! fluid produc$ a motion1 :i*1 direct$ by ! valves ( ! he>t & great vessels1 became ! circulation4 ,! m r>efi$ p>ts ( ! blood asc5d$ to ! bra91 & !re1 9 ! v5tricles1 became ! 8animal spirits40 ,subtle & r>efi$ ?\gh !y 71 ^! animal spirits 7 a fluid1 am5able to all ! laws ( hydro-dynamics4 ,?is 0 conta9$ 9 ! c]ebral v5tricles1 & its fl[ 0 regulat$ j l ! wat] 9 ! pipes & f\nta9s ( ! g>d5 me*anisms4 ,f ! bra9 x fl[$ ?r\gh ! n]ves1 :i* 7 delicate tubes 9 communication ) ! v5tricles1 & :i* 7 provid$ ) valves2 & ?is outw>d fl[ corresponds to our mod]n eff]5t n]v\s impulse4 ,! aff]5t impulse 0 repres5t$ by ! action ( ! axial ?reads conta9$ 9 ! n]ve tubuli4 ,:5 a s5sory surface 0 /imulat$1 ^! ?reads became pull$1 & ! pull1 act+ on ! wall ( ! c]ebral v5tricle1 caus$ a valve to op5 & all[$ animal spirits to fl[ along ! n]ve to all ! p>ts ( ! body suppli$ by ! latt]4 ,9 ! effector organs1 muscles or gl&s1 ?is influx ( animal spirits produc$ motion or o!r effects4 ,?is1 9 brief1 0 ! physiology ( ,desc>tes4 ,he spoil$ x1 says ,huxley1 by 8 conception ( ! 8rational s\l40 ,fe>+ ! fate ( ,galileo1 he introduc$ ! s\l into 8 philosophy ( ! organism z a sop to ! ,c]b]us ( ! ,*ur*4 ,x 0 unwor?y3 a sacrifice ( ! tru? :i* he saw cle>ly4 ,is x likely t ,desc>tes delib]ately made "p ( 8 philosophy antagoni/ic to ! re/ ) ! object ( av]t+ ! c5sure ( ! ,*ur*8 ,he 0 n a man likely to ru% ^u disa/]1 b ! conviction t :at he wrote _h 9 x some?+ great & la/+ mu/ h made x h>dly possible t he %\ld traffic ) :at he held to be ! tru?4 ,! rational s\l 0 some?+ sup]add$ to ! bodily me*anism4 ,x 0 n a "p ( ! body ?\gh x 0 plac$ 9 ! p9eal gl&2 a "p ( ! bra91 :i* by its seque/]$ situation & ri* blood supply sugge/$ itself z ! seat ( "s important & my/]i\s function4 ,its exi/5ce 0 b\nd up ) ! integrity ( ! body1 & on ! dea? ( ! latt] ! s\l dep>t$4 ,b ! body did n die because ! s\l quitt$ x1 x _h r become an unfit habitation = ! s\l4 ,)\t ! latt] ! functions ( ! heal?y body might /ill proce$ automatically1 & if ! s\l influ5c$ action x actuat$ an exi/+ me*anism1 & )\t t me*anism x c\ld n act1 ?\gh ! me*anism might act )\t ! s\l4 ,?\ght1 und]/&+1 feel+1 w1 imag9ation1 memory1 ^! 7 ! pr]ogatives ( ! s\l1 & n ^? ( ! automatic body4 ,b ! movem5ts ( ! latt]1 ev5 volunt>y movem5ts1 dep5d$ on a prop] disposition ( organs1 & )\t ?is !y 7 want+ or imp]fect4 ,?us to a ?or\ghgo+ me*anism ,desc>tes jo9$ a spirituali/ic & immortal entity2 & ?is1 to ! mat]ialism ( ! middle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 0 ! blemi% on 8 philosophy4 ,n[ ( all m5 :o h ev] liv$ he is probably ! "o :o has mo/ pr(\ndly influ5c$ mod]n ?\ght & inve/igation3 to u :at he wrote seems /rangely mod]n1 & ?is app>5tly arbitr>y association ( spirituali/ic & mat]iali/ic elem5ts 9 life seems almo/ ! mo/ mod]n ?+ 9 8 writ+s4 ,be+1 he said1 0 inde$ ?\ght1 b h[ c\ld he d]ive ?\ght f 8 clockwork body1 ) its valves & conduits & wires8 ,no m c we d]ive consci\sness f ! wave ( molecul> di/urbance pass+ ?r\gh aff]5t n]ve & c]ebral tracts4 ,we mu/ acc\nt = all ! en]gy ( ?is di/urbance1 f its orig9 9 ! receptor organ to its trans=mation into ! wave ( *emical reaction 9 ! muscle1 & we mu/ reg>d its transmission z a cons]vative process4 ,b h[ does ! /ate ( consci\sness accompany+ ! passage ?r\gh ! cortex ( ?is molecul> di/urbance come into exi/5ce8 ,none ( ! en]gy ( ! n]ve di/urbance has be5 trans=m$ into consci\sness3 ! latt] is n en]gy nor any?+ physical4 ,x is some?+ concomitant ) ! physico-*emical ev5ts involv$ 9 a n]v\s process1 an 8epiph5om5on40 ,we h to imag9e a 8p>allelism0 betwe5 ! me*ani/ic body & ! m9d4 ,b if we admit t consci\sness may be an effective ag5cy 9 our behavi\r1 :at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 mod]n !ories ( physico-psy*ic p>allelism & ! ,c>tesian !ory ( a rational s\l 9 association ) an automatic body8 ,desc>tes d5i$ ! exi/5ce 9 animals o!r ?an man ( ! rational s\l2 ! latt] 0 n necess>y4 ,b he1 l u1 mu/ h be5 famili> ) reflex actions & mu/ h se5 t consci\sness 0 n inv>iably associat$1 ev5 9 himself1 ) bodily activity4 ,& he mu/ h recognis$ ! great di/9ction betwe5 ! intellig5t act+ ( man & ! in/9ctive behavi\r ( ! l[] animals4 ,!re 0 some?+ 9 man t 0 n 9 ! brute4 ,?us ! fir/ physiology1 borr[+ its ideas & me?ods f ! fir/ physics1 01 l ! latt]1 a me*anical sci5ce4 ,aft] ,galileo & ,torricelli came ,borelli ) 8 purely me*anical conceptions ( animal movem5t1 & ( ! blood circulation1 introduc+ ev5 !n ma!matics into biology4 ,!re 0 no *emi/ry 9 ^! speculations1 ?\gh ,basil ,val5t9e & ,p>acelsus & ,van ,helmont _h prec$$ ,desc>tes & ,borelli4 ,?is *emi/ry 0 my/ical1 & ?\gh *emical reactions _h be5 /udi$ 9 ! organism1 !y 7 suppos$ to be controll$ by spiritual ag5cies1 ! 8ar*ei0 ( ! fir/ bio-*emi/s4 ,b t notion 0 to disappe>1 & ) ,sylvius ! conception ( ! animal body z a *emical me*anism arose4 ,all t 0 valuable 9 ,van ,helmont's *emi/ry 0 tak5 up by ,sylvius1 b 9 8 m9d ! f]m5tations ( ! old] *emi/s 7 suffici5t 9 !mselves )\t ! my/ical 8s5sitive s\l0 & 8ar*ei40 ,) ,sylvius & ,may[ physiology became bas$ ^u *emical discov]y & aga9 became me*ani/ic1 & rema9$ s until ! "t ( ,/ahl1 :5 *emical discov]y atta9$ = ! "t its greate/ developm5t4 ,! sev5te5? c5tury end$ ) ! "w ( ,/ahl4 ,x is well kn[n to /ud5ts ( sci5ce h[ ! views ( ?is great *emi/ /]ilis$ *emical inve/igation almo/ until ! "t ( ,lavoisi]4 ,! notion ( phlogi/on z an active con/itu5t ( mat]ial bodies ent]+ & leav+ !m 9 _! reactions ) ea* o!r 0 a cle> & simple "o1 & x s]v$ z a work+ hypo!sis = ! *emi/s :o imm$iately foll[$ ,/ahl4 ,x 01 ( c\rse1 a false hypo!sis1 & ret>d$ discov]y to ! ext5t t ! great] "p ( ! eighte5? c5tury is a blank = *emi/ry1 :5 comp>$ ) ! sev5te5? & n9ete5? c5turies4 ,depriv$ !re=e ( ! /imulus af=d$ by new physico-*emical me?ods ( inve/igation1 physiology ceas$ to ma9ta9 ! progress x _h made dur+ ! previ\s c5tury1 & ! only great "n ( ?is p]iod is t ( von ,hall]4 ,comp>ative anatomy1 & zoological exploration1 on ! o!r h&1 made enorm\s advances1 & = ^! bran*es ( biology ! eighte5? c5tury 0 ! great p]iod4 ,x 0 ! p]iod ( ! hi/oric vitali/ic views--vital pr9ciples1 & vital & =mative =ces4 ,/ahl's tea*+ dom9at$ physiology j z x did *emi/ry4 ,*emical & physical reactions occurr$ 9 ! liv+ body j z !y did 9 non-liv+ matt]1 b !y 7 controll$ & modifi$ by ! s\l1 or vital pr9ciple4 ,x has be5 said t ,/ahl's vitali/ic tea*+ ret>d$ ! progress ( physiology1 b x does n seem cle> t ?is 0 ! case4 ,:at did ret>d physiological discov]y 0 ! lack ( progress made by *emi/ry & physics1 & ?is may h be5 ! result ( ! ,/ahlian phlogi/ic hypo!sis4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 x seems cle> t x 0 ! discov]ies ( ! great *emi/s ( ! close ( ! eighte5? c5tury t aga9 introduc$ me*ani/ic views into physiology4 ,) ! discov]ies ( ,lavoisi] & 8 successors ! latt] sci5ce acquir$ new me?ods ( rese>* & ! old] work+ hypo!ses 7 re-introduc$4 ,!re has be5 no recession f ?is position dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,me*ani/ic biology culm9at$ 9 ! writ+s ( ,huxley & ,max ,v]worn & receiv$ a new accession ( /r5g? almo/ 9 our own day 9 ! mod]n discov]ies ( physical *emi/ry2 & :5 physiology became truly a comp>ative sci5ce1 & embrac$ ! l[] inv]tebrates1 x became p]haps mo/ me*ani/ic--witness ! writ+s ( ,jacques ,loeb4 ,( f> great] philosophical importance ?an ! physico-*emical inve/igation ( ! function+ ( individual organisms has be5 ! ess5tially mod]n exp]im5tal /udy ( embryological processes4 ,! =m] deals ess5tially ) ! means ( gr[?1 reproduction1 & s on4 ,we c no long] d\bt t ! *anges :i* we c obs]ve tak+ place 9 ! organism1 ei!r ! develop+ embryo or ! fully =m$ animal1 are1 9 ! long run1 physico-*emical *anges2 & 9 ultimate analysis we _c expect to f9d any?+ else ?an processes ( ?is nature4 ,b physiological inve/igation has fail$ to provide any?+ m ?an ?is analysis4 ,if we wat* ! developm5t ( ! egg ( an animal into a l>val =m1 & cont9ue to trace ! metamorphosis ( ! l>va into ! p]fect animal1 we _c fail to conclude t1 beside ! individual physico-*emical reactions :i* proce$1 !re is also organisation4 ,! elem5t>y processes mu/ be integrat$4 ,!re mu/ be a due ord] & succession 9 !m4 ,9 /udy+ developm5tal processes1 9 consid]+ ! develop+ organism z a :ole1 we are impress$ above all else ) ! notion t n only d physico-*emical reactions occur1 b t ^! are m>%all$ into place1 s to speak4 ,:5 we attempt to make a description ( ?is integration ( ^? ultimate processes :i* we c describe 9 t]ms ( physical *emi/ry1 physiology fails u4 8,at pres5t10 says ,morgan1 8we _c see h[ any kn[n pr9ciples ( *emi/ry or ( physics c expla9 ! developm5t ( a def9ite =m by ! organism or by a piece ( ! organism40 ,x is true t we c attempt to imag9e a physico-*emical me*anism :i* is ! organisation ( ! develop+ embryo2 b ?is mu/ be a logically con/ruct$ me*anism1 n only incapable ( exp]im5tal v]ification1 b :i* c also be demon/rat$1 purely by physical argum5ts1 to be false4 ,?is conclusion may1 )\t exagg]ation1 be said to be t ( mod]n exp]im5tal embryology4 ,!re h always be5 79 mod]n times7 two views z to ! nature ( ! embryological process3 7#a7 t ! egg conta9$ ! fully =m$ organism 9 a k9d ( roll$-up condition1 & t ! process ( developm5t consi/$ m]ely 9 ! unfold+ 7evolution7 ( ?is embryonic organism1 & 9 ! increase 9 volume ( its p>ts4 ,?is 0 ! hypo!sis ( pre=mation held 9 ! beg9n+ ( embryological sci5ce4 ,x involv$ v>i\s consequ5ces3 ! limitation1 = in/ance1 ( ! duration ( a species1 s9ce ea* g5]ation ( female organisms conta9$ 9 _! ov>ies all ! future g5]ations2 ) o!r consequ5ces :i* ! pre=mationi/s did n hesitate to accept4 7#b7 ,! o!r view 0 ! lat] "o ( epig5esis3 ! egg 0 truly homog5e\s & ! embryo grew f x4 ,obvi\sly ! acceptance ( ?is hypo!sis l$ to vitalism1 & we f9d t x 0 ab&on$ j z soon z ! embryologi/s recognis$ t physics provid$ a corpuscul> !ory ( matt]1 :5 a return 0 made to ! pre=mation views ( e>li] times2 views :i* l5t !mselves to ! con/ruction ( a me*ani/ic hypo!sis ( developm5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,we may /ate v briefly ! ma9 facts ( ! developm5t ( a typical animal ovum1 su* z t ( ! sea-ur*94 ,! f]tilis$ ovum divides into two 7#b71 & !n ea* ( ^! bla/om]es divides aga9 9 a plane p]p5dicul> to ! fir/ division plane 7#c74 ,! ?ird division plane is at "r angles to ! fir/ two1 & x cuts (f a ti] ( small] bla/om]es f ! tops ( ! fir/ f\r4 ,!re are n[ 7#d7 two ti]s ( bla/om]es1 a l[] ti] ( l>ge bla/om]es & an upp] ti] ( small] ones4 ,?is is ! #h-;cell /age4 ,next1 ea* ( ^! bla/om]es divides 9 two simultane\sly s t ! embryo n[ consi/s ( sixte5 cells4 ,aft] ?is ! divisions proce$ ) less regul>ity1 b aft] ab\t t5 divisions ! embryo consi/s ( ab\t #ajjj cells 7#baj71 & ^! are arrang$ to =m a holl[ sph]e consi/+ ( a s+le lay] ( cells4 ,! latt] are furni%$ ) cilia1 & ! :ole embryo1 n[ kn[n z ! bla/ula1 c swim ab\t by ! movem5ts ( ^! cilia4 ,fur!r developm5t results 9 ano!r l>val =m--! ga/rula1 & yet ano!r1 ! pluteus l>va4 ,aft] ?is ! trans=mation into ! fully =m$ sea-ur*9 occurs4 ,) v>i\s modifications ?is s*eme repres5ts ! e>ly developm5t ( a v l>ge numb] ( animals belong+ to mo/ gr\ps4 ,if we /udy ! process ( cell-division we %all f9d x v complicat$4 ,! ovum1 imm$iately aft] f]tilisation1 consi/s ( two ma9 p>ts1 ! nucleus & ! cytoplasm4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,)9 ! nucleus is a sub/ance di/+ui%able f ! re/2 x is di/ribut$ 9 granules & is call$ ! *romat9 7#a74 ,:5 ! cell is ab\t to divide ?is *romat9 becomes arrang$ 9 a long coil$ ?read 7#b71 & !n 7#c7 ?is *romatic ?read breaks into %ort rods call$ *romosomes4 ,two little granules n[ appe>1 "o at ea* end ( ! nucleus1 & v delicate ?reads1 ! a/]s1 appe> to pass f ea* ( ^! bodies t[>ds ! *romosomes 7#d74 ,ea* ( ! latt] !n splits l5g?ways into two1 & a half *romosome appe>s to be drawn by ! a/]s t[>ds ! poles ( ! nucleus4 ,! latt] !n divides 7#e7 & !n ! :ole cell divides4 ,:at ?us1 9 ess5ce1 happ5s 9 nucle> divisions is t ! *romat9 ( ! nucleus is m or less accurately halv$4 ,app>5tly ?is sub/ance consi/s ( v m9ute granules & ! :ole process is direct$ t[>ds ! splitt+ ( ea* ( ^! granules into two4 ,a half-granule !n goes to ea* ( ! daught] nuclei4 ,e "t ! embryo divides ?is process is repeat$4 ,?us ea* ( ! 7!oretically7 #ajbh cells ( ! bla/ula conta9s #a_/ajbh? ( ! sub/ance ( ea* *romatic granule 9 ! f]tilis$ ovum4 ,pflug] & ,r\x 79 #ahhc & #ahhh respectively7 7 ! pione]s 9 ! exp]im5tal /udy ( ! developm5t ( ! ovum1 & ! results ( _! "w & t ( _! successors has1 m ?an any?+ else 9 biology1 modifi$ & %ap$ our notions ( ! activities ( ! organism4 ,r\x f\nd1 or ?\ght s at lea/1 t ! fir/ division ( ! frog's egg m>k$ out ! "r & left halves ( ! body1 ! "o bla/om]e giv+ rise to ! "r half1 ! o!r to ! left half4 ,! next division1 :i* sep>ates ea* ( ^! bla/om]es1 m>k$ out ! ant]ior & po/]ior p>ts ( ! embryo4 ,?us3-- ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,! frog's egg 9 ! #d-;bla/om]e /age se5 f ! top4 ,n[ 9 an exp]im5t :i* has become classical ,r\x succe$$ 9 kill+ "o ( ! bla/om]es 9 ! #b-;cell /age1 :ile ! o!r rema9$ alive4 ,! un9jur$ bla/om]e !n cont9u$ to develop1 b x gave rise to a half-embryo only4 ,^u ^! exp]im5ts ! ,r\x-,weismann hypo!sis ( developm5t--! 8,mosaik-,!orie0--0 develop$4 ,! lay read] w see h[ obvi\sly ! facts ( nucle> division & ! exp]im5tal results indicat$ above l5d !mselves to a me*ani/ic hypo!sis4 ,notice t b = ! physical conception ( matt] z made up ( molecules & atoms ! mosaic-!ory w\ld h>dly h %ap$ itself 9 ! m9ds ( biologi/s4 ,b ?is notion ( matt] consi/+ ( corpuscles mu/ h sugge/$ t ! ess5tial 8liv+ mat]ial0 ( ! organism consi/$ also ( corpuscles1 z soon z a microscope p[]ful en\gh to see ! *romatic granules 0 turn$ on a divid+ cell prep>$ s z to r5d] ^! bodies visible4 ,obvi\sly ! primordial ovum conta9$ all ! elem5ts ( ! organisms into :i* x 0 go+ to develop4 ,b !n 9 ! process ( division ( ! ovum all ^! *romatic granules are %>$ out among ! cells1 & a really v pretty me*anism comes into exi/5ce = ?is purpose ( di/ribution4 ,weismann built up 8 hypo!sis ( ! g]m-plasm ^u ! obs]vations we h outl9$4 ,! *romatic matt] ( ! nucleus consi/s ( elem5ts call$ det]m9ants1 ! det]m9ants !mselves be+ compos$ ( ultimate bodies call$ biophors4 ,ea* det]m9ant possesses all ! me*anism1 or factors1 necess>y = ! developm5t ( a "p ( ! body3 !re are det]m9ants = muscles1 n]ves1 connective tissues1 = ! ret9a ( ! eye1 = hairs ( ea* col\r1 = ! nails1 & s on4 ,all ^! det]m9ants are conta9$ 9 ! *romat9 ( ! nucleus ( ! egg1 & 9 ! divisions ( ! latt] !y are gradually sep>at$ s t ultimately ea* cell ( ! l>va conta9s ! det]m9ants = "o individual "p1 or organ1 or organ-sy/em ( ! adult body4 ,! "r bla/om]e1 = in/ance1 conta9s all ! det]m9ants = ! "r side ( ! frog's body1 ^? = ! left side be+ conta9$ 9 ! left half4 ,! process ( cell-division involv$ 9 ! segm5tation ( ! egg consi/s !n 9 ! ord]ly dis9tegration ( ?is complex ( det]m9ants1 & 9 ! m>%all+ into place ( ! isolat$ elem5ts4 ,! cell body--! cytoplasm--c>ri$ out a v subord9ate rle1 ma9ly t ( n\ri%+ ! ess5tial *romatic sub/ance4 ,su* 0 ! ,r\x-,weismann ,mosaic-!ory ( developm5t 9 its pri/9e =m4 ,x is cle>ly a pre=mation hypo!sis4 ,x is true t ! actual organism is n conta9$ 9 ! g]m1 b all ! p>ts ( ! latt]1 ev5 ! col\rs ( ! eyes or hair1 are pres5t 9 x 9 ! =m ( ! det]m9ants4 ,obvi\sly x involves a me*anism ( almo/ incr$ible complexity4 ,b if we reg>d x z a work+ hypo!sis ( developm5t ?is complexity ( detail does n matt]2 its tru? w\ld be indicat$ by ! fact t all analysis ( ! processes involv$ w\ld t5d to simplify x & to smoo? out ! complexity4 ,b ?is is exactly :at has n happ5$1 = all subsequ5t inve/igation has necessitat$ subsidi>y hypo!sis aft] hypo!sis4 ,z a !ory ( developm5t x has fail$ entirely4 ,if1 aft] "o ( ! bla/om]es 9 ! frog's egg at ! #b-;cell /age be kill$1 ! egg is !n turn$ upside d[n1 ! results ( ! exp]im5t become totally diff]5t2 ! un9jur$ bla/om]e develops into a :ole embryo1 diff]+ f ! normal "o *iefly 9 t x is small]4 ,if ! un9jur$ egg 9 ! #b-;cell /age be turn$ upside d[n two :ole embryos1 connect$ toge!r 9 v>i\s ways1 develop4 ,9 ! frog's egg ! two fir/ bla/om]es _c be sep>at$ f ea* o!r )\t ruptur+ !m1 b 9 ! egg ( ! salam&] !y c be sep>at$4 ,aft] ?is sep>ation two p]fect1 b small1 embryos develop4 ,9 ! egg ( ! newt a f9e ?read c be ti$ r\nd ! furr[ =m$ by ! fir/ division4 ,if ?is ligature be ti$ loosely x does n affect developm5t1 & !n x c be se5 t ! m$ian longitud9al plane ( ! embryo does n correspond1 except by *ance1 ) ! fir/ division plane4 ,if ! ligature be ti$ tightly1 !n ea* ( ! bla/om]es gives rise to an entire embryo4 ,if x is ti$ 9 v>i\s places mon/]s ( v>i\s types are produc$4 ,!re=e !re is no segregation ( ! det]m9ants 9 ! fir/ two bla/om]es4 ,^! results1 moreov]1 are n exceptional1 = simil> ones h be5 obta9$ ) o!r animal embryos1 9 fi%es1 ,amphioxus1 ascidians1 m$us1 & hydrozoa1 & 9 "s cases ev5 ea* ( ! fir/ f\r bla/om]es develops into an entire embryo :5 x is sep>at$ f ! re/4 ,9 ! sea-ur*9 embryo ! bla/om]es c be %ak5 ap>t2 or by remov+ ! calcium :i* is conta9$ 9 sea wat] ! bla/om]es c easily be sep>at$ f ea* o!r4 ,x 0 !n f\nd by ,dries* t ea* ( ! bla/om]es 9 ! #af-;cell /age c\ld develop into an entire embryo4 ,x is pla91 !n1 t up to ?is /age at lea/ !re has be5 no segregation ( ! det]m9ants4 ,^u ! results ( ^! exp]im5ts ,dries* bas$ 8 fir/ pro( ( vitalism4 ,let u suppose t !re is a me*anism 9 ! develop+ egg4 ,n[ ! embryo :i* results f ! latt] soon] or lat] acquires a ?ree-dim5sional arrangem5t ( p>ts3 head-end diff]s f tail-end1 dorsal surface diff]s f v5tral surface1 & ! p>ts diff] on ei!r side ( ! m$ian plane4 ,! me*anism mu/1 !re=e1 be "o :i* acts 9 ?ree dim5sions1 ant]ior & po/]ior1 lat]ally1 & dorso-v5trally4 ,we may repres5t x by a diagram ( ?ree co-ord9ate axes1 x1 y1 z2 x & y be+ 9 ! plane ( ! pap]1 & z at "r angles to ! plane ( ! pap]4 ,n[ 9 ! #b-;cell /age ! same me*anism mu/ be pres5t1 = ?is /age develops normally into "o entire embryo4 ,b s9ce ei!r ( ! bla/om]es may develop into an entire embryo1 ! me*anism mu/ also be pres5t 9 ea* ( !m1 & s9ce 9 ! #af-;cell /age ea* bla/om]e may develop an entire embryo1 x mu/ be pres5t 9 ea* ( ! sixte5 bla/om]es4 ,a ?ree-dim5sional me*anism is !re=e capable ( division d[n to c]ta9 limits4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,suppose n[ t we all[ ! sea-ur*9 egg to develop normally up to ! bla/ula /age4 ,9 ?is /age x is a holl[ sph]e1 ! wall ( :i* is a s+le lay] ( cells4 ,x is simil> all r\nd1 t is1 we _c di/+ui% betwe5 top & bottom1 "r & left1 ant]ior & po/]ior regions2 b s9ce x develops into a l>va 9 :i* all ^! di/9ctions become app>5t v soon1 x mu/ possess ! ?ree-dim5sional me*anism1 s9ce ! activity ( ! developm5tal process is go+ to produce diff]5t /ructures 9 ea* direction4 ,n[ ! bla/ula1 by v c>eful manipulation c be divid$1 cut into p>ts ) a %>p knife4 ,s9ce x is simil> all r\nd ! direction ( ! cut is purely a matt] ( *ance4 ,x c be cut ?r\gh along ! planes #a #b1 #c #d1 #e #f1 #g #h1 = in/ance2 really !re are an inf9ite numb] ( planes along :i* ! bla/ula c be cut into two sep>ate p>ts1 & ! direction ( ! plane is n a matt] ( *oice1 b purely a matt] ( *ance4 ,nev]!less1 ea* ( ! p>ts into :i* ! l>va is cut becomes an entire embryo4 ,= a "t ! p>tial bla/ula--approximately a holl[ hemisph]e 9 =m--goes on develop+ z if x 7 go+ to become a p>tial embryo1 b soon ! op5+ closes up & developm5t becomes normal4 ,x does n matt] ev5 if ! two p>ts into :i* x is divid$ are n alike 9 size2 provid$ t a "p is n too small1 x w foll[ ! ord9>y c\rse ( developm5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,suppose ! bla/ula op5$ out on ! flat1 l ! ,m]cator projection ( a globe on a flat map4 ,suppose t a is a small elem5t ( x4 ,suppose t ! rectangles b c d e1 ,f ,g ,h e1 ,i ,j c ,l1 ,m ,n ,o e1 & z _m m z we c>e to make1 repres5t ! pieces ( ! bla/ul> wall sep>at$ by our op]ation--!y all conta9 ! elem5t a1 b ?is is 9 a diff]5t position 9 ea* case4 ,!re are really an inf9ite numb] ( su* p>ts ( ! bla/ula & a occupies an inf9itely v>iable position 9 ea* ( !m4 ,?is demon/ration is v important1 s let u make x z cle> z possible3 ,dries*'s logical pro( ( vitalism may be /at$ z foll[s3-- ,! diff]5t p>ts ( ! bla/ula are go+ to become diff]5t p>ts ( an embryo4 ,! "p a1 occupy+ a def9ite position 9 ! entire bla/ula1 is go+ to become a def9ite "p1 hav+ a def9ite position1 9 ! embryo2 ,b ea* p>tial bla/ula becomes an entire embryo & ! same "p a occupies a diff]5t position 9 ea*4 ,!re=e any "p ( ! bla/ula may become any "p ( ! embryo4 ,n[ if a me*anism is involv$1 x mu/1 accord+ to our ideas ( me*anism1 be "o :i* is diff]5t 9 its p>ts1 = ea* "p ( x produces a diff]5t result f ! o!rs2 ,b s9ce any "p ( ! me*anism may produce any ( ! diff]5t results conta9$ 9 ! embryo1 e "o ( its p>ts mu/ be simil> to e o!r "o4 ,t is1 all ! p>ts ( ! me*anism are ! same1 ?\gh ! hypo!sis requires t !y %\ld be diff]5t4 ,we conclude1 !n1 t a me*anism su* z we und]/& a me*anism to be 9 ! physical sci5ces _c be pres5t 9 ! develop+ ovum4 ,nev]!less1 an organisation1 us+ ?is t]m z an ill-def9$ "o = ! pres5t1 mu/ exi/ 9 ! ovum1 or ! sy/em ( undiff]5tiat$ cells into :i* ! ovum divides1 dur+ ! fir/ /ages ( segm5tation4 ,9 c]ta9 animals1 ,ct5ophores 7,*un1 ,dries*1 & ,morgan71 & ,mollusca 7,crampton71 = in/ance1 sep>ation ( ! bla/om]es 9 ! fir/ /ages ( segm5tation produces diff]5t results f ^? m5tion$ above4 ,9 ^! cases ! isolat$ bla/om]es develop z p>tial embryos1 t is1 ! latt] are incomplete 9 c]ta9 respects1 & ?is incomplet5ess corresponds1 9 a g5]al way1 to ! incomplet5ess ( ! "p ( ! ovum und]go+ developm5t4 ,we h ?us ! app>5tly contradictory results3 7#a7 ea* ( ! fir/ few bla/om]es result+ f ! fir/ divisions ( ! ovum is simil> to ! entire ovum1 & develops l x2 & 7#b7 ea* ( ! fir/ few bla/om]es is diff]5t f ! o!rs1 & f ! entire ovum1 & develops diff]5tly f ! o!rs1 & f ! entire ovum4 ,let u try to con/ruct a notion ( :at ?is organisation 9 ! develop+ ovum mu/ be4 ,9 ! #af-;bla/om]e /age ( ! sea-ur*9 egg we h a 8sy/em0 ( p>ts4 ,9 ! case ( normal developm5t ea* ( ^! p>ts has a c]ta9 actual fate--x w =m a "p ( ! l>va into :i* ! embryo is go+ to develop3 ,x has1 z ,dries* says1 a prospective value4 ,b let ! normal process be int]f]$ )1 & !n ea* ( ^! p>ts does some?+ else4 ,9 ! extreme case ( int]f]5ce1 :5 ! bla/om]es are sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 ea* bla/om]e1 in/ead ( =m+ only a "p ( a l>va1 =ms a :ole l>va4 ,! prospective pot5cy ( ! "p1 t is its possible fate1 is great] ?an its prospective value4 ,normally x has a limit$1 def9ite function 9 developm5t1 b if necess>y x may greatly exce$ ?is function4 ,:at any "o bla/om]e 9 ! sy/em w become dep5ds ^u its position ) reg>d to ! o!r bla/om]es4 ,:5 ! egg ( ! frog is float+ freely 9 wat] x lies 9 a c]ta9 position ) ! light] "p upp]mo/1 & !n developm5t is normal1 ea* ( ! two fir/ bla/om]es giv+ rise to a p>ticul> "p ( ! body ( ! l>va2 t is1 ea* ( !m is affect$ by ! contact ( ! o!r & develops into :atev] "p ( ! normal embryo ! o!r does n4 ,b let ! egg 9 ! #b-;cell /age be turn$ ov] & held s t ! heavy "p is upp]mo/3 ! protoplasm !n beg9s to rotate s z to br+ ! light] "p upp]mo/2 b ! two bla/om]es d n1 z a rule1 adju/ !mselves to ! same ext5t1 & at ! same rate1 & correspond+ p>ts may fail to come into contact ) ea* o!r4 ,lack+1 !n1 ! normal /imulus ( ! o!r "p1 ea* bla/om]e beg9s to develop by itself1 & a d\ble embryo is produc$4 ,x is cle>1 !n1 bo? f ?is case & ! la/ "o1 t ! actual fate ( any "o "p ( ! sy/em ( bla/om]es is a function ( its position4 ,:at x w become dep5ds precisely on :]e x is situat$ ) respect to ! o!r p>ts4 ,dries*1 !n1 calls ! sy/em ( p>ts 9 su* cases z ! #b-;cell frog embryo1 or ! #af-;cell sea-ur*9 embryo1 an equipot5tial sy/em1 s9ce ea* "p is pot5tially able to d :at any o!r "p may d1 & :at ! :ole sy/em may d4 ,b 9 normal developm5t ea* "p has a def9ite fate & its activity is co-ord9at$ ) t ( all ! o!r p>ts4 ,x is1 !re=e1 an h>moni\s equipot5tial sy/em1 ea* "p act+ 9 h>mony1 & t[>ds a def9ite result1 ) all ! o!rs2 al?\gh if necess>y x c take ! place ( any or all ( ! o!rs4 ,su* an h>moni\s equipot5tial sy/em exi/s only at ! beg9n+ ( ! developm5t ( ! egg4 ,x is repres5t$ by ! #h-;cell /age ( ,e*9us b n by ! #af-;cell /age1 s9ce1 ?\gh ! #a_/af-;bla/om]es produce ga/rul 7! fir/ l>val /age71 !y d n produce plutei 7! second /age74 ,x is repres5t$ by ! #d-;cell /age ( ,amphioxus b n by ! #h-;cell /age4 ,x is n exhibit$ ev5 by ! #b-;cell /age ( ! ,ct5ophore egg4 ,:at does ?is mean8 ,x means t ! fur!r developm5t proce$s1 ! less complete does ! 8organisation0 inh]5t 9 any "o "p ( ! sy/em become4 8,! ontog5y assumes m & m ! "* ( a mosaic "w z x proce$s0 7,wilson74 ,or p]haps x means1 & ?is is ! bett] way ( putt+ x1 t ! 8organisation10 :atev] x may be1 dep5ds on size4 ,we see ?is v cle>ly 9 ! exp]im5t ( cutt+ 9 two ! bla/ula ( ! sea-ur*94 ,if ! pieces are ( approximately equal size ea* w =m an entire ,pluteus l>va1 b if "o ( !m is bel[ a c]ta9 limit ( size x w n cont9ue to develop4 ,! 8organisation10 !re=e1 has a c]ta9 volume1 & ?is volume is mu* great] ?an t ( any "o ( ! cells ( :i* ! fragm5t exhibit+ x is compos$4 ,x is enorm\sly great] ?an ! volume ( any gr\p ( det]m9ants :i* we c imag9e to repres5t ! diff]5t k9ds ( cells compos+ ! body ( ! ,pluteus l>va1 & /ill m enorm\sly great] ?an ! volume ( a 8molecule0 ( protoplasm4 ,n[ ?is association ( 8organisation0 & size is ( imm5se philosophical importance1 = x does away1 once & = all1 ) ! idea t ! 8organisation0 is solely a s]ies ( *emical reactions4 ,if x 71 "o cell ( ! bla/ula w\ld conta9 x1 = on ! me*ani/ic hypo!sis "o cell1 ! egg-cell1 conta9s x1 & ?is cell c be divid$ innum]able times & /ill conta9 x4 ,! egg is a complex equipot5tial sy/em 7,dries*71 :i* divides aga9 & aga9 ?r\gh\t innum]able g5]ations1 & /ill conta9s ! 8organisation40 ,x is 9 va9 t we attempt ! mislead+ analogy ( ! 8mass action0 ( physical *emi/ry1 to %[ t volume may influ5ce *emical action4 ,9 su* a mass action :at we h is ?is3-- ,aa ,bb ,cc ,dd ! lett]s ,a1 ,b & ,c /&+ = *emical sub/ances pres5t1 & ! lett]s a & b1 etc41 repres5t+ ! active masses ( ^! sub/ances4 ,b v>iations 9 ?is active mass affect only ! velocity ( ! reaction4 ,:at we h to acc\nt = 9 our bla/ula exp]im5ts is ! nature ( ! reaction1 & h[ c velocity or ev5 nature ( reaction affect =m8 ,if we c\ld %[ t ! =m ( ! cry/als deposit$ f a solution 9 "s reaction dep5d$ on ! volume ( ! solution1 ! analogy w\ld be clos]1 ?\gh ev5 !n ! difficulties 9 press+ x w\ld be s enorm\s z to r5d] x futile to attempt to ent]ta9 x4 ,a *emical me*anism _c1 !n1 be imag9$1 mu* less describ$1 & ! only o!r me*anism s f> sugge/$ is ! ,r\x-,weismann "o1 involv+ ! dis9tegration ( ! det]m9ants suppos$ to be pres5t 9 ! egg nucleus4 ,let u suppose 79 spite ( ! incr$ible difficulty 9 s do+7 t !re is su* a me*anism4 ,x mu/ u%] ! nuclei conta9+ ! det]m9ants ( ! embryonic /ructure into _! places3 ^? = ! =mation ( ! n]ve-c5tre g =w>d2 ^? = ! m\?1 gut1 & anus g backw>ds & d[nw>ds2 ^? = ! arms g =w>ds1 v5trally1 & po/]iorly1 9 a v def9ite way2 & ^? = ! complicat$ skeleton are di/ribut$ 9 a v>iety ( directions :i* defy description4 ,^! nuclei are1 9 %ort1 mov$ up & d[n1 "r & left1 backw>ds & =w>ds1 & become built up into a complicat$ ar*itecture4 ,suppose we prev5t ?is4 ,suppose we compress ! segm5t+ egg betwe5 glass plates s t ! nuclei are compell$ to di/ribute !mselves 9 "o plane only3 to =m a flatt5$ disc 9 :i* ! only directions are "r & left & ant]ior & po/]ior4 ,?is has be5 done by ,dries* & o!rs4 ,on ! ,r\x-,weismann orig9al hypo!sis a mon/r\s l>va ought to result1 = ! fir/ nuclei sep>at$ f ea* o!r h be5 =c$ into positions altoge!r diff]5t f ^? :i* !y %\ld h occupi$ _h !y develop$ normally4 ,yet on releas+ ! pressure readju/m5t takes place4 ,new divisions occur s z to re/ore ! normal =m ( l>va4 ,! ,r\x-,weismann subsidi>y hypo!sis is t ! /imulus ( ! pressure has compell$ ! nuclei to divide at fir/ 9 su* a way z to comp5sate = ! di/urbance4 ,let u remove "s ( ! bla/om]es4 ,on ! orig9al hypo!sis ! det]m9ants = ! /ructures :i* ! nuclei ( ^! bla/om]es conta9$ h be5 lo/4 ,^! /ructures %\ld1 !re=e1 be miss+ 9 ! embryo4 ,b no?+ ( ! sort is ! result4 ,o!r nuclei divide & replace ! lo/ ones1 & ! embryo develops z 9 ! normal mode4 ,! reply is t 9 addition to ! det]m9ants :i* 7 necess>y = _! own peculi> function1 ^! nuclei conta9$ a res]ve ( all o!rs4 ,on di/urbance ^! det]m9ants1 8lat5t0 9 all o!r conditions1 became active & re/itut$ ! lo/ p>ts4 ,let u remove "s organ f an adult organism4 ,! mo/ rem>kable exp]im5t ( ?is k9d is ! removal ( ! cry/all9e l5s f ! eye ( ! salam&]4 ,n[ ! l5s ( ! eye develops f ! primitive integum5t 7ectod]m7 ( ! head1 b ! iris ( ! eye develops ma9ly f a "p ( ! primitive bra94 ,aft] ! op]ation a new l5s is =m$ f ! iris & n f ! cornea4 ,!re=e ! highly specialis$ iris conta9s also det]m9ants ( o!r k9ds4 ,does x conta9 ^? = itself & l5s only1 or o!rs8 ,if x conta9s _m k9ds1 !n we conclude t ev5 ! def9ite adult /ructures conta9 det]m9ants ( _m o!r k9ds ?an _! own1 t is1 res]ve det]m9ants are h&$ d[n 9 all cells capable ( re/itutive processes1 practically all ! cells ( ! body4 ,or does x conta9 only its own & ^? ( ! l5s8 ,!n ?is highly artificial op]ation 0 anticipat$1 an absurd hypo!sis :i* ne$ n be consid]$4 ,?is p>ticul> me*ani/ic process 7& no o!r "o is ne>ly s plausible7 crumbles away be=e attempts at v]ification1 & x survives only by ! addition ( subsidi>y hypo!sis aft] hypo!sis4 ,9 itself ?is demon/rates t x is an explanation incompet5t to describe ! facts4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! 8organisation08 ,x is some?+ elem5tal1 & we may j z well ask :at is gravity1 or *emical en]gy1 or electric en]gy4 ,x _c be said to be any ( ^! ?+s or any comb9ation ( !m4 8,at pres5t10 says a skilful & di/+ui%$ exp]im5t]1 ,t4 ,h4 ,morgan1 8we _c see h[ any kn[n pr9ciple ( *emi/ry or ( physics c expla9 ! developm5t ( a def9ite =m by ! organism or a piece ( ! organism40 8,probably we %all nev] be able10 concludes ,morgan1 :o is any?+ b a vitali/4 ,b does n ?is mean j t 9 biology we obs]ve ! work+ ( factors :i* are n physico-*emical ones8 ,we h se5 t ! physiologi/ /udies some?+ v diff]5t f t :i* ! embryologi/ or naturali/ /udies4 ,! =m] inve/igates a "p ( ! animal1 arbitr>ily deta*$ f ! :ole because ! complexity ( ! functions ( ! simple/ organism is su* t all ( !m _c be exam9$ at once4 ,he adopts ! me?ods ( physical *emi/ry 9 8 inve/igation & :atev] results he obta9s are necess>ily ( ! same ord]4 ,inevitably1 f ! m]e nature ( 8 me?od1 he c see1 9 ! organism1 only physico-*emical ph5om5a4 ,! embryologi/1 on ! o!r h&1 /udies ! organism z a :ole & seeks to det]m9e h[ def9ite =ms are produc$1 & h[ a *ange 9 ! ext]nal conditions affects ! assumption ( ^! =ms4 ,we h se5 ) :at little success ! attempts to relate embryological processes ) physico-*emical ones alone h met4 ,9 all /udies ( organic =m me*anism has fail$4 ,x is useless to attempt to press ! analogies ( cry/all9e =m1 & ! =ms assum$ 9 nature by dynamical geological ag5cies4 ,if ! read] exam9es ^! analogies critically he w see t !y are sup]ficial only4 ,we seem1 h[ev]1 to see 9 ^? actions ( ! organism :i* are call$ 8tropi/ic0 or 8tactic10 reactions ( a purely physico-*emical nature1 & />t+ ) ^! z a basis a plausible !ory ( organic movem5ts on a /rictly me*ani/ic basis might be built up4#ba ,a 8tropism0 is ! movem5t ( a fix$ organism ) respect to a def9itely direct$ ext]nal /imulus4 ,?is movem5t may be t produc$ by gr[? ( its p>ts1 or by ! diff]5tial contraction or expansion ( its p>ts4 ,a 8taxis0 we may call ! motion ( a freely-mov+ organism 9 response to ! same direct$ /imuli4 ,! movem5ts :]eby a gre5 plant turns t[>ds ! light are call$ heliotropic1 & ^? ( its roots 9 ! p]p5dicul> direction are call$ geotropic4 ,! motion ( ! freely-mov+ l>va ( a b>nacle1 = in/ance1 9 swimm+ t[>ds a s\rce ( light are call$ 8phototactic40 #ba ,_m ( ,jacques ,loeb's rem>kable inve/igations po9t 9 ?is direction4 ,9 all ^! cases we h to ?9k ( ! /imulus z a 8field ( en]gy0 9 ! s5se 9 :i* physici/s speak ( electric1 or magnetic1 or electromagnetic1 or !rmal1 or gravity fields4 ,9 all ^! cases ! factors affect+ ! movem5ts ( ! organism are direct$ ones4 ,an electric field1 = in/ance1 7#a71 is produc$ by plac+ ! electrodes ( a galvanic cell at opposite extremities ( a wat]-tr\gh3 we imag9e ! electrons mov+ f "o side ( ! tr\gh to ! o!r 9 p>allel l9es1 & 9 a c]ta9 direction4 ,a light field 7#b7 w\ld be produc$ by ! radiation ( light travell+ 9 /raight l9es ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,! movem5ts ( ! organism display+ a tropism or a taxis are n caus$ by ! /imuli ( ! field1 b are only direct$ by x4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( ^! /imuli x w\ld swim at r&om4 ,9 a field1 h[ev]1 x w ori5tate itself 9 "s direction ) ref]5ce to ! l9es ( =ce4 ,a 8positively phototactic0 animal swims t[>ds ! focus f :i* ! light radiation emanates1 & a 8negatively phototactic0 "o swims 9 ! o!r direction4 ,on ! !ory ( tropi/ic & tactic movem5ts ?is ori5tation is produc$ by ! diff]5tial /imulation ( ! opposite sides ( ! organism4 ,let u take z a concrete example ! case ( a cat]pill> :i* creeps up ! /em ( a plant to fe$ on ! t5d] %oots ne> ! apex4 ,! animal possesses an elongat$ body1 ) muscles b5ea? ! integum5t1 & s5sory n]ve-end+s 9 ! latt]4 ,its muscles are 9 a /ate ( 8tone10 t is1 !y are normally always slightly t5se4 ,! incid5t rays ( light affect ! d]mal s5se-organs1 /imulat+ ganglionic c5tres & sett+ up eff]5t impulses :i* desc5d to ! muscles4 ,let u suppose ! animal is mov+ s t ! longitud9al axis ( its body is at an angle1 say ( #de1 to ! direction ( ! incid5t light3 "o side ( ! body is !re=e /imulat$ & ! o!r is n4 ,! /imulation ( ! light$ side sets up eff]5t n]ve impulses :i* desc5d to ! muscles ( ?is side & increase _! tone 7or else ! lack ( /imulation ( ! o!r side produces impulses :i* inhibit ! muscul> tone1 or impulses :i* w\ld o!rwise pres]ve ! tone cease 9 ! abs5ce ( light /imulation74 ,9 any case ! muscles ( ! light$ side contract1 & ! body ( ! cat]pill> moves s t x sets itself p>allel to ! direction ( ! radiation4 ,bo? sides ( ! body are !n equally /imulat$ & ! animal moves t[>ds ! light4 ,! animal fe$s & x !n creeps back d[n ! plant4 ,:y does x d ?is8 ,because1 says ,loeb1 ! act ( fe$+ has res]v$ ! 8sign0 ( ! taxis4 ,be=e1 :5 x 0 hungry1 x 0 positively phototactic1 b ! act ( fe$+ 7all at once1 x w\ld appe>1 be=e dige/ion & assimilation ( ! food itself7 has produc$ *emical sub/ances 9 ! muscles :i* cause ! latt] to relax 9 response to an impulse :i* previ\sly produc$ contraction4 ,! n]v\s l9k is n1 ( c\rse1 a necess>y "o4 ,! /imulation by ! en]gy ( ! field may affect ! muscle sub/ance directly1 or x may1 z 9 ! case ( a protozoan animal1 affect ! g5]al body protoplasm 9 ! same way4 ,9 ! majority ( cases1 h[ev]1 ! ori5tation w\ld be affect$ ?r\gh ! *a9 ( s5se-organ1 aff]5t n]ve1 n]ve c5tre1 eff]5t n]ve1 & effector organ4 ,?is is ! *a9 ( ev5ts :i* on ?is hypo!sis causes a mo? to fly into a flame1 or a sea-bird to da% itself aga9/ ! lant]n ( a ligh?\se4 ,a taxis is1 !n1 an inevitable response by movem5t 9 a def9ite direction1 to a direct$ /imulus4 ,includ+ also tropisms x may be admitt$ t ! movem5t is a purposeful1 or at lea/1 a useful "o 9 "s cases1 z = in/ance ! heliotropism & geotropism ( ! gre5 plant4 ,if we admit t ,loeb's description ( ! fe$+ ( ! cat]pill>1 z a tactic act1 is true1 we may also call ?is a useful act4 ,b 9 ! majority ( cases tropisms & tactes are acts :i* appe> to be ( no use to ! organism4 ,! invasion ( a "p ( ! body :i* is irritat$ by a poison 7z 9 inflammation7 by leucocytes1 is useful to ! body itself1 b we mu/ reg>d ! leucocytes z organisms1 & _! tactic motion leads to _! de/ruction1 & s also ) o!r analog\s acts4 ,j because ( ?is we f9d difficulty 9 acc\nt+ = _! orig9 9 t]ms ( natural selection4 ,?is does n matt] s mu*1 s9ce x c h>dly be ma9ta9$ n[ t ! tropi/ic or tactic act has any reality except 9 a v few cases--! motions ( plants1 galvano-taxis1 ! *emico-taxic movem5ts ( bact]ia & leucocytes1 & "s o!r analog\s cases1 p]haps1 are ^! exceptions4 ,x c h>dly be d\bt$ t ! ext5sion ( ! concept to cov] ! motions ( _m inv]tebrates1 & ev5 "s v]tebrate actions1 by ,loeb & 8 s*ool is a /ra9+ aft] g5]ality :i* has n be5 ju/ifi$4 ,! hypo!sis1 z ,loeb has /at$ x1 is evid5tly almo/ c]ta9ly a logical "o & 0 obvi\sly elaborat$ z a prote/ aga9/ ! an?ropomorphism :i* saw 9 ! fly+ ( a mo? into a flame ! expression ( an emotion2 or 9 ! movem5ts ( a cat]pill> on a gre5 %rub ! expression ( hung] & satiety & ( ! inh]it$ exp]i5ce ( ! animal2 or 9 ! avoidance by a ,p>amcium ( a drop ( acid ! emotion ( dislike ( ! feel+ ( pa94 ,well1 let x be grant$ t ?is is s1 & t ! prote/ 0 a useful "o1 = x is obvi\sly impossible t ^! notions z to ! causes ( ! movem5ts c be v]ifi$3 does x improve matt]s to take refuge 9 an hypo!sis :i* is j z purely physico-*emical dogmatism z ! o!r is an?ropomorphism8 ,b ! =m] hypo!sis is at all ev5ts "o :i* is susceptible ( exp]im5tal v]ification & 9 ?is lies its usefulness1 inasmu* z x has /imulat$ inve/igation4 ,x is evid5t1 h[ev]1 t ?is v]ification has n yet be5 made4 ,! diff]5tial aff]5t impulses set up by ! en]gy-field2 ! increases or inhibition ( muscul> tone2 ! pres5ce ( photo-s5sitive sub/ances 9 ! tissues ( tactically act+ l[] animals2 ! *ange ( velocity ( *emical reaction1 9 ^! cases1 :i* ought to foll[ /imulation--all ^! ?+s c\ld be v]ifi$ if !y possess reality4 ,yet x is only indirect pro(s1 capable p]haps ( o!r int]pretations1 & n direct exp]im5tal ones1 :i* h s f> be5 adduc$ 9 fav\r ( a g5]al !ory ( tropisms4 ,moreov]1 ! close analysis ( ! actions ( "s ( ! l[] organisms by ,j5n+s has %[n t ! tactic hypo!sis is probably false 9 ! majority ( cases4 ,?is obs]v] /udi$ ! act+ ( ! organisms !mselves & n ! beg9n+ & end ( ! s]ies1 & he %[s t ! behavi\r ( ! organisms is f> m obvi\sly describ$ by say+ t x adopts a me?od ( 8trial & error40 ,let u suppose a numb] ( infusoria 7,p>amcium7 9 a film ( wat]1 at "o "p ( :i* is a drop ( acetic acid sl[ly diffus+ out into ! surr\nd+ m$ium4 ,!re is a zone ( *ang+ conc5trations r\nd ! drop3 if we draw imag9>y cont\rs ?r\gh ! po9ts :]e ! conc5tration is approximately ! same 7! conc5tric r+s 9 ! diagram71 & !n draw /raight l9es normal to ^! r+s 7! radial l9es7 we c con/ruct a 8field0 analog\s to an electric or magnetic field4 ,! animal on approa*+ ! field ought to ori5tate itself & take ! direction ( ! 8l9es ( =ce40 ,x does n1 h[ev]1 behave 9 ?is way1 b only ent]s ! field at r&om4 ,hav+ ent]$1 x rema9s )9 a "p :]e ! conc5tration is )9 c]ta9 limits4 ,if x approa*es ! m>g9 ( ?is limit$ field x /ops1 swims backw>ds1 revolves r\nd its own axis1 & !n turns to ! aboral side2 & x repeats ?is s]ies ( movem5ts :5ev] x approa*es 7by r&om7 a region :]e ! conc5tration is too high1 or "o :]e x is too l[4 ,9 ?is1 & o!r organisms we see !n :at ,j5n+s has call$ a typical 8avoid+ reaction10 ! precise nature ( :i* dep5ds on ! 8motor-sy/em0 ( ! animal4 ,its g5]al movem5ts are r&om ones1 b hav+ f\nd a region ( 8optimum conditions0 7conditions :i* are mo/ suitable 9 its p>ticul> physiological /ate71 x rema9s !re4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,suppose 7:at inde$ repeat$ly happ5s7 t an ext5sive 8b$0 ( "y mussels =ms on a "p ( ! sea bottom4 ,9 a %ort "t ! b$ becomes populat$ by a %oal ( small plaice fe$+ gre$ily on ! little %ellfi%4 ,9 _! p]egr9ations ! fi%es mu/ repeat$ly pass out beyond ! bord]s ( ?is fe$+-gr\nd4 ,usually1 h[ev]1 !y w return1 = fail+ to f9d ! food !y l !y swim ab\t 9 v>iable directions & s re-ent] ! %ellfi% b$4 ,suppose 7?is 0 really a f9e exp]im5t made by ,y]kes7 a crab is conf9$ 9 a box f :i* two pa?s lead out b only "o ( :i* leads to ! wat]4 ,! animal runs ab\t at r&om1 f9ds ! wrong pa?1 retraces x1 tries aga9 & aga91 & !n f9ds ! "r pa? & gets back to ! wat]4 ,if ! exp]im5t is repeat$ ! animal f9ds ! "r pa? aga9 ) r less tr\ble1 & aft] _m trials x ends by f9d+ x at once on e repetition ( ! exp]im5t4 ,all ?is discussion ( concrete cases leads up to our consid]ation ( ! modes ( act+ 9 ! high] organisms4 ,on ! /rictly me*ani/ic mann] ( ?9k+ ! actions ( ! organism 9 g5]al are bas$ on reactions ( ! tactic k9d--inevitable reactions ! nature ( :i* is det]m9$1 & :i* foll[ a /imulus ) a c]ta9ty (t5 fatal to ! organism display+ !m4 ,accept+ ^! tactic reactions z1 9 g5]al1 truly descriptive ( ! behavi\r ( ! organism1 we c build up a !ory ( in/9cts4 ,9 _! simple/ =m in/9cts are reflexes--tactic movem5ts4 ,9 _! m complex =ms !y are concat5at$ reflexes1 or tactes4 ,a complicat$ in/9ctive action is "o consi/+ ( _m individual actions1 ea* ( :i* is ! /imulus = ! next "o2 or1 ( c\rse1 x may also be complex 9 ! s5se t sev]al simple reactions proce$ simultane\sly1 ^u simultane\s /imulation ( diff]5t receptors4 ,n[ ! ext5sion ( all ?is to movem5ts ( a 8high]0 grade is obvi\s4 ,let u note 9 ! fir/ place1 t ! /imuli s f> consid]$ 9 all ! examples quot$ are simple elem5tal ones4 ,!re are1 ( c\rse1 relatively few su* /imuli3 gravity1 conduct$ heat 7! k9etic en]gy ( mat]ial bodies71 radiat$ heat 7! en]gy ( ! e!r71 electric en]gy1 *emical en]gy1 & me*anical contact or pressure 7includ+ atmosph]ic vibrations74 ,9 all ^! cases we h a def9ite1 measurable1 physical quantity1 ) :i* we mu/ relate a def9ite response 9 ! =m ( a def9ite measurable1 physico-*emical reaction4 ,!re %\ld be a functionality betwe5 ! /imulus & response1 a def9ite1 quantitative en]gy-trans=mation4 ,to take a concrete example1 a c]ta9 quantity ( light en]gy fall+ ^u ! receptor organs ( ,loeb's cat]pill> ought to trans=m into ano!r quantity ( 8n]v\s en]gy10 & ?is travell+ 9 an analog\s way to a 8wave ( explosion0 ought to trans=m into an en]gy quantity ( "s k9d1 :i* initiates ano!r 8wave ( explosion0 9 ! muscle sub/ance4 ,all ^! trans=mations mu/ be quantitative ones1 & ! en]gy ( ! individual light mu/ be trac$ f ! receptor organ to ! po9ts 9 ! muscle :]e x di/urbs a condition ( false equilibrium 9 ! sub/ance ( ! latt]4 ,no?+ less ?an ?is is requir$ to demon/rate ! purely physical nature ( a reaction1 on ! "p ( ! organism1 to an ext]nal /imulus4 ,x may safely be said t physiological inve/igation has n yield$ any?+ ev5 approximat+ to su* an exp]im5tal demon/ration4 ,:at are ! /imuli to ! actions ( a high] organism8 ,x is true t _! elem5ts are en]gies su* z we h indicat$1 b ^! en]gies are integrat$ to =m individualis$ /imuli 7,dries*74 ,! /imulus 9 an exp]im5tally /udi$ taxis is1 p]haps1 a field ( p>allel p5cils ( light rays ( def9ite wave l5g?2 b 9 ! action ( a man1 or a dog say1 ! /imulus is an imm5sely complicat$ di/urbance ( ! e!r1 produc+ an image ^u ! ret9a ( ! animal4 ,a s\nd /imulus employ$ 9 an inve/igation may be ! relatively simple atmosph]ic di/urbance produc$ by ! su/a9$ note ( a syr5 or viol9-/r+2 b ! /imulus 9 li/5+ to an or*e/ra may consi/ ( doz5s ( notes1 ) all _! h>monies1 s\nd+ simultane\sly at ! rate p]haps ( "s hundr$ or two 9 ! m9ute4 ,all ^! are integrat$ by ! tra9$ li/5]1 & "o or two false ones among ! multitude may entirely spoil ! effect ( ! execution4 ,surely !re is "h some?+ m ?an a m]e diff]5ce 9 degree4 ,m important /ill is ! /rict functionality betwe5 /imulus & action t ! !ory ( tactic responses imposes on itself4 ,putt+ ?is v precisely 7b no m precisely ?an ! !ory dem&s71 we say t ,sigma,a f7x1 y1 z71 t is1 ! s]ies ( actions ,sigma,a 7! dep5d5t v>iable7 is a ma!matical function ( ! indep5d5t v>iables x1 y1 z4 ,n[ is !re any?+ l ?is functionality betwe5 ! act+ ( ! high] animal & ! /imulus8 ,evid5tly !re is n4 ,we recognise someone :om we "k v well by any "o ( a hundr$ diff]5t *>act]s1 mann]isms ( walk1 spee*1 dress1 etc4 ,he or %e is ! same p]son1 :e!r se5 close at h&1 or af> (f1 or sideways1 or 9 any "o ( almo/ inf9itely diff]5t attitudes1 & we respond to ea* ( ^! v diff]5t physical /imuli by ! same reaction ( recognition3 pleasure1 dislike1 avoidance1 greet+1 or :atev] x may be4 ,to a sportsman %oot+ wild game ! /imulus may be "s almo/ imp]ceptible t9t or %ad+ 9 cov] ( "s k9d1 diff]+ s little f its environm5t z h>dly at all to be se51 yet1 to 8 exp]i5ce1 ^u ?is almo/ inf9itesimal v>iation ( /imulus dep5ds 8 action ) all its consequ5ces4 ,9 ,dries*'s example two polyglot fri5ds met & "o says to ! o!r1 8,my bro!r is s]i\sly ill10 or 8,mon frre e/ sv]m5t malade10 or 8me9 ,brud] i/ ern/li* erkrankt40 ,"h ! physical /imulus is fundam5tally diff]5t 9 ea* case1 b ! reaction--! expressions ( sympa?y & conc]n1 ! discussions ( mutual arrangem5ts1 etc41 are absolutely ! same4 ,or let ! "o fri5d say to ! o!r1 8,my "m is s]i\sly ill10 & 9 spite ( ! v insignificant diff]5ce betwe5 ! consonantal s\nd br 9 ?is s5t5ce & ! correspond+ s\nd m 9 ! o!r ,engli% s5t5ce1 ! reaction1 t is1 ! subsequ5t conv]sation1 & ! arrangem5ts betwe5 ! two fri5ds may be entirely diff]5t4 ,putt+ ?is argum5t 9 ab/ract =m we may say1 g5]ally1 t two /imuli1 :i* are1 9 ! physical s5se1 entirely diff]5t f ea* o!r1 may produce absolutely ! same s]ies ( reactions2 & conv]sely two /imuli diff]+ f ea* o!r 9 q an insignificant degree may produce entirely diff]5t reactions4 ,x is also easy to see1 by analysis ( ! antec$5ts to ! actions ( ! intellig5t animal1 t ^! /imuli are1 9 ! majority ( cases1 n elem5tal physical ag5cies1 b individualis$ & integrat$ gr\p+s ( ^! ag5cies2 & t ! animal reacts1 n to _! ma!matical sum1 z x %\ld d on a purely me*ani/ic hypo!sis ( action1 b to ! typical :oles :i* are express$ 9 ^! gr\p+s4#bb #bb ,?us to ! ord9>y woman ! sight ( a c[ 9 ! middle ( a c\ntry road produces a c]ta9 def9ite feel+ ( appreh5sion1 :i* is always ! same al?\gh ! optical image ( ! animal diff]s rem>kably 9 diff]5t adv5tures4 ,x is no answ] to ?is argum5t to say t x is n ! actual atmosph]ic vibrations 79 ! case ( ! conv]sation71 nor ! optical image 79 ! case ( ! recognition ( a fri5d71 :i* are ! true /imuli1 b r ! m5tal conditions1 or /ates ( consci\sness1 ar\s$ by ^! physical ag5cies4 ,if we are to adopt a /rictly me*ani/ic me?od ( expla9+ actions1 su* a me?od z t indicat$ by ,loeb's hypo!sis ( ! purely tactic behavi\r ( 8 cat]pill>s1 !n ^! atmosph]ic vibrations & optical images are mo/ und\bt$ly ! true /imuli1 & ! reactions mu/ be functions ( !m 9 ! ma!matical s5se4 ,b s9ce ?is /rict functionality does n exi/ 9 any behavi\r-reaction closely analys$1 we mu/ grant at once t x is1 inde$1 n ! physical s]ies ( ev5ts t det]m9es ! actual response1 b truly ! consci\s /ate imm$iately succe$+ to ^! physical s5se-impressions4 ,n[ let u see to :at conclusions ?is admission leads u4 ,betwe5 ! ext]nal /imulus 7! atmosph]ic undulations imp++ on ! auditory membranes1 or ! light radiations imp++ on ! ret97 & ! behavi\r-reaction some?+ int]v5es4 ,?is is ! individual hi/ory ( ! organism1 ! 8associative memory0 ( ,jacques ,loeb1 ! 8physiological /ate0 ( ,j5n+s1 ! 8hi/orical basis ( react+0 7hi/oris*e ,reaktionsbasis7 ( ,dries*1 or ! 8duration0 ( ,b]gson4 ,! la/ concept is ! mo/ subtle & adequate "o & we %all adopt x4 ,! physical /imulus1 !n1 leads to a /ate ( consci\sness1 a p]ception1 & ?is is succe$$ by ! action4 ,:at is ! p]ception8 ,!re may be no p]ception 9 a reflex action2 !re is none 9 a taxis4#bc ,^! k9ds ( reaction foll[ inevitably f ! nature ( ! /imulus--dep5d ^u ! latt]1 9 fact2 b we _c fail to obs]ve t ! intellig5t behavi\r ( ! high] animal involves *oice betwe5 alt]native k9ds ( action4 ,! p]ception1 !n1 is ?is *oice1 or x is intimately associat$ ) x4 ,b x is some?+ m ?an ! *oice ( "o among _m k9ds ( response4 ,! :ole pa/ exp]i5ce ( ! animal ent]s into ! p]ception1 or at lea/ all t "p ( ! pa/ exp]i5ce :i* illum9ates1 9 any way1 ! pres5t situation4 ,:at ! intellig5t animal does 9 response to a /imulus dep5ds n only on ! /imulus b on all ! /imuli t x has receiv$ 9 its pa/1 & on all ! effects ( all ^? /imuli4 ,into ! p]ception t int]v5es betwe5 ! ext]nal /imulus1 !n1 & ! action by :i* ! animal responds :at we usually call its memory ent]s4 ,its duration is really ! some?+ :i* is *ang$ by ! /imulus1 & :i* !n leads to ! behavi\r-reaction4 #bc ,we d n f9d ?is explicitly /at$ 9 ?is way 9 me*ani/ic biological writ+s4 ,none ! less x is impli$1 & is ! legitimate conclusion f ! argum5ts us$4 ,duration1 !n1 is memory1 b x is m ?an memory z we usually ?9k ( ?is quality4 ,! pa/ endures 9 u 9 ! =m ( 8motor habits10 & :5 we recall x we may act ov] aga9 ^? motor ev5ts4 ,c>eful introspection w readily conv9ce ! read] t 9 recall+ a conv]sation he is really speak+ inaudibly1 sett+ 9 motion ! n]ves & muscles ( 8 vocal me*anisms4 ,actions t h be5 le>n$ endure2 9 "s way c]ebral & sp9al tracts & connections become e/abli%$ & p]si/3 und\bt$ly :5 a c]ebral lesion de/roys or impairs memory x is ^! physical n]ve tracts & cells t become affect$4 ,b 9 addition to ?is we h pure memory 7,b]gson's 8s\v5ir pur074 ,:at1 = in/ance1 is ! visual image ( "s ?+ se5 9 ! pa/1 :i* mo/ p c =m1 b pure recollection8#bd #bd ,a visual image may1 ( c\rse1 be some?+ t has nev] be5 actually se54 ,b !n its elem5ts h _h actual p]ceptual exi/5ce 9 ! pa/4 ,all ! pa/ exp]i5ce ( ! organism--all its p]ceptions1 & all ! actions x has p]=m$--endures1 ei!r z motor habits or me*anisms1 or z pure memories4 ,all ?is ne$ n be pres5t 9 its consci\sness2 ! motor habits w\ld n1 ( c\rse1 & only s mu* ( ! pa/ w\ld be recall$ z w\ld be relevant to ! *oice :i* ! organism 0 ab\t to make ( ! _m k9ds ( responses possible to its motor organisations4 ,out ( ?is pa/ x w\ld select all t 0 connect$ 9 any way ) ! actions :i* 7 possible to x 9 ! pres5t4 ,x w\ld recall all actions previ\sly p]=m$ :i* resembl$ ! "o provisionally decid$ ^u2 b recall+ also ! o!r circum/ances associat$ ) ^? pa/ actions1 x w\ld discov] some?+ :i* w\ld lead x to modify t provisional action4 ,n[ 9 describ+ ! :ole behavi\r ( ! act+ organism 9 ?is way are we do+ any m ?an simply express+ 9 m precise t]ms ! 8commons5se0 notions ( ! ord9>y p]son8 ,! latt] w\ld sum up all ?is discussion by say+ t :at he w\ld d 9 any set ( circum/ance dep5d$ n only on ! circum/ances !mselves b ^u 8 exp]i5ce4 ,physiology %[s u z cle>ly z possible t 9 ! /imulation ( a receptor organ1 ! propagation ( a n]v\s impulse along an aff]5t n]ve1 ! transmission ( ?is impulse ?r\gh ! cord or bra91 or bo?--9 ! propagation aga9 ( ! impulse ?r\gh an eff]5t n]ve & ! trans=mation ( ?is impulse into a releas+ ag5cy1 sett+ free ! en]gy pot5tial 9 ! muscle sub/ance--t 9 all ?is !re c be no?+ m ?an physico-*emical en]gy-trans=mations4 ,all ?is is cle> & c]ta94 ,b :y %\ld ! same aff]5t /imuli1 ent]+ ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em at diff]5t times by ! same av5ues1 & 9 ! same mann]1 trav]se diff]5t tracts1 & issue along diff]5t eff]5t n]ves1 produc+ diff]5t results8 ,or :y %\ld diff]5t /imuli ent]+ ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em take ! same intra-c]ebral pa?s & !n affect ! same eff]5t n]ves & effector organs8 ,x is because ^! /imuli lead to p]ceptions :i* fuse )1 & become "p ( ! duration (1 ! organism4 ,& ! response !n becomes a response n to ! physical /imulus1 b to ! duration modifi$ 9 ?is way4 ,c we conceive ( any physical me*anism 9 :i* ! duration ( ! organism accumulates8 ,c we ?9k ( any way 9 :i* memories are /or$ 9 ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em8 ,:5 we say 8/or$10 x is our +ra9$ habit ( ?9k+ 9 t]ms ( space & numb] t makes u reg>d memories z laid by some:]e1 9 ! way we file pap]s 9 a cab9et1 or /ore specim5s 9 a museum4 ,suppos+ p]ceptions are /or$ 9 ?is way1 we ?9k ( !m z /or$ or record$ 9 ! same way z a conv]sation is record$ & /or$ 9 a phonograph4 ,! phonograph c reproduce ! conv]sation j z x 0 receiv$1 b :at we make use ( :5 we utilise our exp]i5ce is obvi\sly ! elem5ts ( t exp]i5ce1 select$ & re-integrat$ z we require !m4 ,!re mu/1 !n1 be some?+ l an analysis ( our p]ceptions1 a dissociation ( ^! into simple con/itu5ts1 & a means ( re/or+ & record+ ^! con/itu5ts 9 su* a way t !y c be recomb9$ 9 any ord]1 & aga9 made to ent] into our consci\sness4 ,x is q possible to imag9e su* a me*anism4 ,let u suppose t an eff]5t impulse ent]s ! c]ebral cortex via any "o axon3 !re is a p]fect labyr9? ( pa?s along :i* ! impulse may travel4 ,ev]y:]e 9 ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em we come ^u int]ruptions ( n]v\s pa?s =m$ by int]-digitat+ arboresc5t =mations4 ,! twigs ( ^! arboresc5ces d n1 app>5tly1 come into actual contact ) ea* o!r & ! impulse leaps across ! gap betwe5 !m4 ,?is gap is1 ( c\rse1 exce$+ly n>r[1 & "o c almo/ speak ( x z a membrane1 s9ce x mu/ be occupi$ by "s organis$ sub/ance4 ,x has be5 call$ ! synaptic membrane4 ,let u suppose t a /imulus ( a c]ta9 nature passes ?r\gh ! synapse1 modify+ x physico-*emically z x passes4 ,!reaft] a /imulus ( simil> nature w t5d to pass across ?is p>ticul> synapse1 ! resi/ance ( ! latt] hav+ be5 decreas$4 ,x w ?us t5d to travel by a def9ite tract ?r\gh ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em4 ,n[ ! latt] we may reg>d 9 a k9d ( way z a v complicat$ swit*bo>d1 ! function ( :i* is to place any "o /imulus 7or s]ies ( /imuli7 out ( _m 9 connection ) any "o motor#be me*anism 7or s]ies ( me*anisms7 out ( _m4 ,a motor habit1 or pa?1 is !n e/abli%$ & w p]si/4 #be ,or m g5]ally effector me*anism4 ,?is enables u to include reactions1 su* z secretory ones1 :i* are n motor4 ,su* a conception is cle> & reasonable 9 pr9ciple1 & all "w on n]v\s physiology t5ds to %[ t x is a good work+ hypo!sis4 ,we _c read mod]n books )\t feel+ t imm5se advances w be made by its aid4 ,b ! complexity ( ! bra9 ( ! high] v]tebrate is s incr$ibly great1 & ! difficulties ( imag9+ ! nature ( ! necess>y physico-*emical reactions 9 ! synapses1 & else:]e1 are s imm5se t exp]im5tal v]ification may be impossible4 ,& all t we h said applies to a s+le elem5tal /imulus1 yet 9 any common action ! /imulus is a syn!sis ( almo/ innum]able simple ones1 :ile ! response is also a syn!sis4 ,! optical image ( almo/ any object conta9s a v great numb] ( t9ts & col\rs diff]+ almo/ imp]ceptibly3 !re mu/ at lea/ be z _m simple /imuli z !re are rod or cone elem5ts 9 ! "p ( ! ret9a cov]$ by ! image4 ,! motor responses consi/ ( a multitude ( delicately adju/$ & co-ord9at$ muscul> contractions & relaxations4 ,if we are to accept a me*ani/ic hypo!sis ( action1 ( ?is k9d1 & :i* includes only su* processes z are sugge/$ above1 x is n en\gh t a logical description1 consi/5t 9 itself1 & consi/5t ) physico-*emical k1 %\ld be =mulat$4 ,! m]e /atem5t ( su* an hypo!sis does n c>ry u f>4 ,if x is1 9 ess5ce1 me*ani/ic1 x mu/ be capable ( exp]im5tal v]ification 9 detail4 ,ev5 if x 7 v]ifi$ exp]im5tally x w\ld /ill leave unt\*$ ! problem ( consci\sness4 ,all t we h consid]$ are s]ies ( physico-*emical en]gy-trans=mations4 ,h[1 !n1 does consci\sness arise8 ,we _c ev5 imag9e its association 9 a functional s5se ) ! tra9 ( ev5ts =m+ an aff]5t impulse4 ,9 "s =m or o!r me*anism mu/ assume a dualism--a p>allelism ( physical & psy*ical processes4 ,physical ev5ts 9 ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em are associat$ ) psy*ical ones--:5 ! =m] occur s d ! latt]--yet ! =m] are n 8causes0 9 any physical s5se ( ! latt]4 ,consci\sness foll[s c]ebral en]gy-trans=mations z a p>allel 8epiph5om5on40 ,at once we leave ! prov9ce ( me*anism1 & h[ c we rema9 cont5t ) su* a limitation ( our descriptions8 ,& if we conclude1 z we seem oblig$ to d1 t consci\sness is an affective ag5cy 9 modify+ our responses to ext]nal /imuli1 does n ?is 9 itself %[ t our concept ( behavi\r z a purely physico-*emical process is insuffici5t 9 its exclusiv5ess8 ,we return to a consid]ation ( ! ma9 results ( exp]im5tal embryology 9 a lat] *apt]1 b let u notice "h :at is ! direction 9 :i* ^! results1 & ^? ( ! analysis ( in/9ctive & intellig5t action1 c>ry u4 ,x is t[>ds ! conclusion t physico-*emical processes 9 ! organism are only ! means :]eby ! latt] develops1 & gr[s1 & functions1 & acts4 ,9 ! analysis ( ^! processes we see no?+ b ! reactions /udi$ 9 physical *emi/ry2 b :5ev] we consid] ! organism z a :ole we seem to see a co-ord9ation1 or a control or a direction ( ^! physico-*emical processes4 ,ngeli has said t 9 ! developm5t ( ! embryo e cell acts z x if knew :at e o!r cell 7 do+4 ,!re is a k9d ( autonomy 9 ! develop+ embryo1 or reg5]at+ organism1 su* t ! normal1 typical =m & /ructure comes into exi/5ce ev5 :5 un=ese5 int]f]5ce ) ! usual c\rse ( developm5t has be5 attempt$3 9 ?is case ! physico-*emical reactions :i* proce$ 9 ! normal tra9 ( ev5ts proce$ 9 "s o!r way1 & ! new direction is impos$ on ! develop+ embryo by ! organisation :i* we h to reg>d z inh]5t 9 x4 ,?is same direction & autonomy mu/ be recognis$ 9 ! behavi\r ( ! adult organism z a :ole4 ,:at is x8 ,we attempt to ?9k ( x z an impetus :i* is conf]r$ ^u ! physico-*emical reactions :i* are ! manife/ations ( ! life ( ! organism4 ,x is ! lan vital ( ,b]gson1 or ! entele*y ( ,dries*4 ,:at is includ$ 9 ^! concepts we consid] 9 ! la/ *apt] ( ?is book2 & be=e s do+ x w be necess>y to consid] ! organism f ano!r po9t ( view1 t ( its mutability :5 x is reg>d$ z "o memb] ( a s]ies ( g5]ations4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,individual ,,& ,,! ,,species ,:at is an individual organism8 ,a ,protozoan1 su* z an ,amba or a ,p>amcium1 is a s+le cell3 x is an aggregate ( physical & *emical p>ts1 nucleus1 cytoplasm1 etc41 & no "o ( ^! p>ts c be remov$ if ! organism is to cont9ue to live4 ,! cell c be mutilat$ to "s ext5t1 b1 9 g5]al1 its life dep5ds on ! integrity ( its ess5tial /ructures1 & x _c be divid$ )\t ceas+ to be :at x 04 ,x conta9s ! m9imum numb] ( p>ts :i* are necess>y = cont9u$ organic exi/5ce4 ,su* an organism z a ,hydra consi/s ( an aggregate ( cells :i* are n all ( ! same k9d4 ,! out] lay]1 or ectod]m1 is s5sory & protective1 & conta9s organs ( aggression2 :ile ! inn] lay] consi/s ( cells :i* subs]ve ! functions ( dige/ion & assimilation4 ,all ^! p>ts are1 9 g5]al1 necess>y = ! life ( ! ,hydra4 ,!y c be mutilat$2 ! animal c be cut into two p>ts1 & ea* ( ^! p>ts may reg5]ate1 by gr[?1 ! "p t 0 remov$4 ,yet ! exi/5ce ( ectod]m & endod]m1 9 a c]ta9 m9imum ( mass1 is necess>y = ?is reg5]ation4 ,! high] animal1 or ,metazoon1 is !re=e an aggregate ( cells1 ea* ( :i* is equival5t to ! individual ,protozoon2 b ^! cells are n all alike--t is1 !re is diff]5tiation ( tissues 9 ! multicellul> organism4 ,aga91 ! ,cl5t]ates provide examples ( animals :i* are aggregates ( p>ts1 ea* ( :i* is ! morphological equival5t ( a s+le ,hydra4 ,su* an animal z a ,siphonophore1 = in/ance1 consi/s ( zooids1 & ea* ( ^! units has ! ess5tial /ructure ( a ,hydra4 ,b ! zooids are n all alike3 "s ( !m subs]ve ! function ( locomotion1 o!rs ( aggression1 o!rs ( dige/ion & assimilation1 & s on4 ,"h1 aga91 ! :ole organism may be mutilat$2 p>ts may be remov$ & reg5]ation may occur2 b1 z a ,siphonophore1 all ( ! diff]5t zooids mu/ be pres5t if ! *>act]i/ic function+ ( ! animal is to cont9ue4 ,! ,protozoon is1 !re=e1 an individual ( ! fir/ ord]1 ! ,hydra an individual ( ! second ord]1 & ! ,siphonophore an individual ( ! ?ird ord]4 ,"s su* conception ( degrees ( individuality w probably be reg>d$ z satisfactory by mo/ zoologi/s1 yet consid]ation w %[ t x is v inadequate4 ,_m unicellul> plants & animals may consi/ ( a numb] ( cells1 :i* are all alike4 ,! ,diatoms & ,p]id9ians reproduce by ! division ( _! cell bodies & nuclei1 & ! p>ts ?us =m$ may rema9 9 connection ) ea* o!r4 ,a ,diatom may consi/ ( "o cell1 or x may consi/ ( a v>iable numb] ( su* connect$ toge!r by filam5ts1 or 9 o!r ways2 & ! dissociation ( su* a s]ies may occur )\t int]f]+ 9 any way ) ! function+ ( ! p>ts sep>at$4 ,a ,tapeworm consi/s ( a 8head0 or scolex1 conta9+ a c5tral n]v\s mass & organs ( fixation2 & organically cont9u\s ) ?is is a s]ies ( segm5ts or proglottides4 ,^! proglottides are =m$ cont9u\sly f ! po/]ior "p ( ! scolex1 & !y may rema9 9 connection ) ea* o!r1 & ) ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em & "s o!r organs :i* are conc5trat$ 9 ! scolex4 ,nev]!less1 ea* proglottis conta9s a complete set ( reproductive organs2 x has locomotory organs s t x c move ab\t1 & c fix itself to any surface into :i* x comes 9 contact4 ,x c lead1 = a consid]able "t1 at lea/1 an indep5d5t exi/5ce ap>t f t ( ! scolex & ! o!r proglottides ) :i* x 0 orig9ally 9 cont9uity4 ,9 ! majority ( ,polyzoa1 ! common ,sea-,mat1 = in/ance1 ! organism consi/s ( a v l>ge numb] ( polypes or zooids1 ea* ( :i* secretes an inve/m5t ( "s k9d r\nd itself1 b all ( :i* may be connect$ toge!r by a common fle%4 ,9 _m ,zoophytes !re is ess5tially ! same /ructure4 ,9 ,corals !re are v num]\s zooids1 ea* ( :i* lives 9 a calc>e\s calyx secret$ by itself4 ,polyzoa1 ,zoophytes1 & ,corals are individuals ( ! ?ird ord]1 & we might reg>d ! tapeworm /robila--! scolex ) its *a9 ( proglottides--z belong+ also to ! same category4 ,nev]!less1 a "p ( a ,polyzoan or ,hydrozoan colony1 or a proglottis f a tapeworm1 may become deta*$1 :5 x w cont9ue to live & reproduce & exhibit all ! *>act]i/ic function+ ( ! species to :i* x belong$4 ,su* an animal z a ,hydra1 or a ,plan>ian or ,*topod worm1 or a />fi%1 may be cut into sev]al pieces1 & provid$ t ea* ( ^! pieces exce$s a c]ta9 m9imum ( mass1 x w reg5]ate ! :ole /ructure ( ! organism ( :i* x =m$ a "p4 ,9 ! develop+ embryo ( ! ,sea-ur*9 ! eight-cell /age may be treat$ s t ! bla/om]es may come ap>t f ea* o!r3 ea* ( !m w !n beg9 to segm5t aga9 & w reproduce ! typical l>val ,sea-ur*94 ,! p>asitic flat-worm1 kn[n z ! liv]-fluke1 produces l>v :i* develop to =m o!r l>v call$ r$i4 ,ea* r$ia normally develops into ano!r l>val =m1 call$ a c]c>ia1 :i* f9ally develops into ! adult worm4 ,b 9 c]ta9 circum/ances ea* r$ia may divide & reproduce a numb] ( daught]-r$i1 & !re may ev5 be sev]al g5]ations ( ^! l>v4 ,9 _m l[] animals buds may be =m$ f almo/ any "p ( ! body1 & ea* ( ^! buds may reproduce ! entire organism4 ,9 plants ! entire organism may be gr[n f a v re/rict$ "p or cutt+4 ,?us ! individual1 :e!r ( ! fir/1 second1 or ?ird ord]1 may be divid$ )\t necess>ily ceas+ to be :at x 04 ,reg5]ation ( fragm5ts deta*$ f ! fully develop$ adult body s z to =m complete organisms does n1 9 g5]al1 occur among ! high] animals1 nor1 z a g5]al rule1 does reproduction by bud-=mation occur4 ,:5 su* animals reproduce1 an ovum develops to =m a l>ge mass ( cells1 :i* lat] on become diff]5tiat$ to =m ! tissues & organs ( ! adult body4 ,b a relatively small numb] ( ! undiff]5tiat$ cells p]si/s 9 ! ov>ies ( ! females1 or 9 ! te/es ( ! males1 & ea* ( ^! cells may aga9 develop & reproduce ! organism4 ,!re is app>5tly no limit to ?is process3 any animal ovum may become divid$ successively s t an inf9ite geometrical s]ies is produc$1 & 9 e t]m ( ?is s]ies all ! pot5tialities ( ! fir/ "o are conta9$4 ,! physical concept ( individuality--t :i* _c be divid$1 or :i* may n be divid$ )\t ceas+ to be :at x 0--su* individuality z ! *emical molecule possesses _c be appli$ to ! organism4 ,any def9ition t involves ! idea ( mat]iality fails4 ,obvi\sly ! notion ( ! individual mo/ commonly met ) 9 zoological writ+s--t x is ! product ( ! developm5t ( a s+le ovum--fails1 =1 logically appli$1 x w\ld reg>d ! entire prog5y ( ! ovum1 t is1 all ! organisms belong+ to ! species1 z ! individual4 ,x is cle> t ! difficulties ( ! concept arise f our attempt to id5tify ! life ( ! organism ) ! mat]ial con/ellation 9 :i* ?is life is manife/$4 ,9 ! c\rse ( g5]ation aft] g5]ation ! ovum becomes divid$ & gr[s & is aga9 divid$1 & s on )\t app>5t limit4 ,b if we assume t ! 8organisation0 or 8entele*y0 is mat]ial & is capable ( ?is inf9ite divisibility )\t impairm5t ( its attributes1 d we n ext5d to matt] a prop]ty :i* belongs only to ! concepts dealt ) by ma!matics8 ,! discussion ( individuality ) reg>d to ! organism1 consid]$ z a morphological entity1 is1 inde$1 r a =mal "o1 & x is valuable only 9 s f> z x has = its object ! e/abli%m5t ( ! mo/ conv5i5t t]m9ology4 ,nev]!less1 ! notion ( organic individuality is cle> to u ?\gh x is a notion felt intuitively & incapable ( analysis4 ,we see 9 nature animals l ourselves1 & we d n d\bt t ea* ( !m is an entity isolat$ f ! re/ ( ! univ]se1 & to :i* ! re/ ( ! univ]se is relative4 ,we ourselves are prim>ily c5tres ( action4 ,motion1 or *ange ( position ) respect to "s object ap>t f ourselves 9 nature1 is only relative1 & !re is no /&>d or po9t 9 ! univ]se :i* is motionless & to :i* we c ref] ! motion ( a body ap>t f our own4 ,b ! motion ( our own body is some?+ felt or exp]i5c$ intuitively1 some?+ absolute4 ,z we move1 ! univ]se1 our univ]se r--t is1 all t we act ^u1 actually or 9 our contemplation--contracts 9 "o direction & exp&s 9 ano!r4 ,we feel ourselves to be ap>t f x al?\gh we may1 to "s ext5t1 control x4 ,we h no d\bt t ! high] animals h ?is feel+ ( isolation f1 & relation to1 an univ]se :i* is some?+ ap>t f !mselves2 ?\gh1 ( c\rse1 ! attempt to demon/rate ?is leads to all ! k9ds ( difficulties sugge/$ 9 our attempt to discuss individuality4 ,x is a conviction s /rongly felt t we h no d\bt ab\t x4 ,! organic individual we may !n describe z an isolat$1 autonomic con/ellation ( physico-*emical p>ts capable ( indef9ite gr[? or reproduction4#bf #bf ,! description is1 ( c\rse1 only a conv5i5t "o4 ,! notion ( individuality1 z x is express$ 9 ! e>li] "p ( ?is p>agraph1 is an intuitively felt1 or subjective1 "o4 ,x is be/ call$ p]sonality4 ,:at is reproduction8 ,x is organic gr[? by dissociation accompani$ 9 ! high] organisms by diff]5tiation & re9tegration4 ,to make ?is /atem5t cle>1 we mu/ n[ consid] ! ph5om5a ( reproduction 9 ! l[] & high] organisms4 ,we "k purely physical gr[?4 ,if a small cry/al ( "s suitable sub/ance be susp5d$ 9 an indef9itely l>ge quantity ( a solution ( ! same *emical sub/ance x w beg9 to gr[1 & !re is no app>5t limit to ! mass :i* x may atta94 ,su* giant cry/als may be gr[n 9 ! laboratory or !y may be f\nd 9 rock masses4 ,gr[? "h is a process ( accretion 9 :i* a p>ticul> =m is ma9ta9$4 ,=m 9 inorganic nature may be ess5tial or accid5tal4 ,accid5tal =ms are su* z are p>tially ! result ( a v great numb] ( small & un-co-ord9at$ causes3 ! =m ( an isl& or a m\nta9 suff]+ erosion1 or ! %ape ( a riv] valley or delta1 or ! arrangem5t ( ! /ones =m+ a mora9e at ! side ( a glaci]4 ,ess5tial =ms are su* z are assum$ z ! result ( ! op]ation ( "o or a few co-ord9at$ causes1 & su* are ! =ms ( cry/als4 ,!y are inv>iable1 or !y v>y )9 v small limits ab\t an inv>iable mean =m4 ,! =m ( a cry/al dep5ds on ! /ructure ( ! molecules ( ! *emical sub/ance f :i* x is produc$4 ,we _c1 ( c\rse1 speak ( ! %ape ( a molecule1 b we "k t ! atoms ( :i* x is compos$ h c]ta9 positions 9 space relative to ea* o!r--positions :i* are conceptualis$ 9 ! /ructural =mul ( ! *emi/s4 ,9 ! solution1 or "m-liquor1 ^! molecules move freely among ea* o!r1 b 9 ! cry/al !y become lock$ toge!r & _! motions are re/rict$4 ,! %ape ( ! cry/al dep5ds on ! way 9 :i* ! molecules are lock$ toge!r1 or on ! way 9 :i* !y are arrang$4 ,a cube may be built up by ! arrangem5t ( a numb] ( v small cubes3 obvi\sly we c\ld n make a cube f a numb] ( v small hexagonal prisms if ! latt] 7 to be pack$ toge!r 9 su* a way z to occupy ! m9imum ( space4 ,an inf9itely great numb] ( cubes might also be =m$ by add+ s+le lay]s ( v small cubes to ! faces ( an already exi/+ "o--t is1 by ! accretion ( elem5ts ( ess5tially simil> =m4 ,9 e cube 7or cry/al7 ( ?is inf9ite numb] ! geometrical =m w\ld be ! same1 & if we 7 to measure any "o side ( any cube ( ?is s]ies we %\ld f9d t ! total surface w\ld always be a def9ite function ( ! l5g? ( ?is side4 ,! mass ( a cube w\ld also be a function ( su* a measurem5t3 x w\ld be al#c1 a be+ a con/ant dep5d+ on ! unit ( mass & on ! specific weight ( ! sub/ance ( :i* ! cry/al 0 compos$4 ,if we take a s]ies ( cry/als ( increas+ size1 ?is relation holds = e "o ( !m3 ,m al#c1 ,m be+ ! mass1 a ! con/ant ref]r$ to above1 & l1 ! indep5d5t v>iable1 be+ any "o l5g? ( a side ( ! cry/al4 ,if ! organism gr[s by accretion 9 ! same way z does a cry/al1 ?is relation ought also to hold 9 all ! exclusiv5ess ) :i* we expect x to hold 9 ! gr[? ( a cry/al4 ,b x does n s gr[4 ,its gr[? is some?+ ess5tially diff]5t1 & none ( ! sup]ficial analogies s preval5t n[adays ought to obscure ?is diff]5ce4 ,! organism may gr[ by accretion1 ?us lay]s ( calc>e\s matt] may be add$ to ! outside ( a membrane bone f ! inve/+ p]io/eum1 or x may gr[ by ! deposition ( matt] )9 ! actual cell bodies1 7! process ( gr[? by intussusception ( ! plant physiologi/s74 ,b ! ext5t ( gr[? by accretion is /rictly limit$ 9 all organisms3 = ea* !re is a maximal mass det]m9$ by ! nature ( ! animal or plant1 & ?is mass is t ( ! unicellul> organism itself1 or t ( ! cells ( :i* ! multi-cellul> organism is compos$4 ,!re may also be gr[? by accretion 9 ! case ( ! =mation ( skeletal /ructures1 :i* are laid d[n by ! ag5cy ( ! cells ( ! organism b if we conf9e our att5tion to ! gr[? ( ! actual liv+ sub/ance we %all see t accretion ceases :5 ! mass *>act]i/ic ( ! cells has be5 atta9$1 :5 gr[? by dissociation beg9s4 ,! cell !n divides1 & ea* ( ! p>ts into :i* x has divid$ gr[s to ! limit+ size1 & division aga9 occurs4 ,?is is :at happ5s 9 ! case ( ! gr[? ( ! ,sea-ur*9 egg to =m ! l>va1 or bla/ula4 ,! ovum segm5ts into two bla/om]es1 ea* ( :i* !n gr[s to a c]ta9 ext5t1 & aga9 segm5ts into two bla/om]es4 ,aft] ! completion ( t5 divisions !re are ab\t #ajjj cells :i* are arrang$ s z to =m a holl[ ball--! bla/ula4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,! ,sea-ur*9 ,ga/rula l>va 9 section4 ,diff]5tiation is n[ set up4 ,9 ! bla/ula /age all ! cells are alike1 actually & pot5tially4 ,b soon "o "p ( ! holl[ ball ( cells becomes pu%$ inw>ds1 & ! cells ( ?is inturn$ lay] become diff]5t f ^? ( ! ext]nal lay]1 :ile cells ( a ?ird k9d appe> 9 ! space betwe5 ! ext]nal & int]nal lay]s4 ,?is is ! process ( diff]5tiation lead+ to ! developm5t ( ! v>i\s tissues--protective1 s5sory1 dige/ive1 skeletal1 etc4 ,! cells /ill cont9ue to divide & gr[ to _! maximal size1 b :5 ! process ( diff]5tiation beg9s1 ! cells :i* are =m$ are n q ! same z ^? f :i* !y orig9at$4 ,f9ally1 h[ev]1 :5 ! rudim5ts ( all ! tissues ( ! adult body h be5 laid d[n1 ! cells beg9 to produce daught]-cells ( only "o k9d4 ,gr[? ( ! embryo consi/s1 !re=e1 ( ! dissociation or division ( ! sub/ance ( ! ovum & bla/om]es1 foll[$ by a gradually increas+ diff]5tiation ( ! cells s produc$4 ,re9tegration proce$s all ! "t4 ,bla/ula & ga/rula l>v are really organisms capable ( lead+ an indep5d5t exi/5ce--t is1 !y are autonom\s entities or individuals4 ,! activities ( ! p>ts ( :i* !y are compos$--ectod]mal locomotory cells1 ectod]mal s5sory cells1 endod]mal assimilatory cells1 & s on1 mu/ be co-ord9at$4 ,! cells are 9 organic mat]ial cont9uity ) ea* o!r1 & ev5ts :i* occur 9 any "o ( !m affect all ! re/4 ,impressions made ^u ! s5sory cells are transmitt$ to ! locomotory cells1 & food-mat]ial assimilat$ by ! assimilatory cells is di/ribut$ to all ! o!rs4 ,at all /ages ! gr[+ embryo is an organic unity4 ,! m fully x is develop$1 ! great] ! morphological complexity ( ! organism1 & ! m num]\s its activities1 ! great] is ! diff]5tiation2 b ! great] also is ! co-ord9ation ( ! organs & tissues4 ,9 ! high] animals ?is co-ord9ation & integration ( activities is effect$ 7ma9ly7 by ! c5tral & p]iph]al n]v\s sy/ems1 b specially diff]5tiat$ n]v\s cells are n necess>y = ?is purpose4 ,diff]5tiation dur+ gr[? is !re=e necess>ily accompani$ by re9tegration ( ! p>ts dissociat$ & diff]5tiat$4#bg #bg ,societies & civilisations1 ! associations ( bees & ants1 or ! ,mod]n ,/ate1 obvi\sly exhibit ?is diff]5tiation4 ,x is morphological & functional 9 ! case ( ! ,ar?ropods1 s9ce individuals p]=m+ diff]5t duties are modifi$ 9 =m4 ,x is functional only 9 ! case ( human societies4 ,integration ( ! activities ( ! individuals 9 bo? k9ds ( societies is effect$ by int]-communication3 articulate symbols 9 ! case ( ! l[] animals1 language 9 ! case ( man4 ,if ! concept ( 8ord]s ( individuality0 7 any?+ m ?an a conv5i5t1 ?\gh artificial1 analysis ( naturally integral entities1 we might speak ( ! ideal /ate or ! insect society z a 8f\r? ord] ( individuality40 ,9 ! process ( organic gr[? ! relation betwe5 mass & =m no long] holds 9 all ! exactness ) :i* x applies to ! gr[? ( ! cry/al4 ,we might sp5d a lifetime gr[+ tablets ( cane-sug>1 b 9 all cases we %\ld f9d t ! mass ( any cry/al 0 proportional to ! cube ( a l5g? ( a diamet]3 !re w\ld be a /rict relation betwe5 mass & geometrical =m4 ,b ?is /rict relation does n hold 9 ! case ( a s]ies ( organisms belong+ to ! same species b diff]+ 9 size4 ,if we measure1 = in/ance1 ! l5g?s ( a great numb] ( fi%es ( ! same species1 we %\ld f9d t we mu/ describe ! law ( gr[?1 n by ! simple equation ,m al#c1 b by an empirically evaluat$ expression ( ! =m ,m a bl cl#b dl#c 444 & t ! con/ants 9 ?is equation w\ld v>y ) ! species /udi$ & ) ! conditions 9 :i* x is liv+--t is1 ! organism *anges 9 =m z x increases 9 size4 ,?is is inconceivable 9 ! case ( purely physical gr[? by ! accretion ( molecules1 & we f9d aga9 t ! *>act]s ( ! organism dep5d n only on :at x is b also ^u :at x has be5--t is1 ^u its duration4 ,gr[?1 !n1 9 plants & animals implies v>iability 9 =m1 9 g5]al cumulative v>iability1 lead+ to an indef9ite dep>ture f ! typical =m4 ,! organism1 !re=e1 does n gr[ simply by ! accretion ( mat]ial1 b1 hav+ atta9$ a c]ta9 limit ( size1 x divides or reproduces4 ,9 ! l[e/ plants & animals ?is process ( division is simple3 ei!r ! organism 7unicellul> or multicellul>7 divides itself into two approximately equal p>ts or x divides into a numb] ( su* p>ts4 ,! fir/ process is repres5t$ by ! reproduction ( a bact]ium or an ,amba1 or by ! division ( a ,plan>ian worm2 ! second is repres5t$ by ! division 79 _m ,protozoa1 = in/ance7 ( ! :ole organism into a numb] ( spores4 ,fundam5tally ! two processes are alike3 ! simple1 b9>y division ( ! ,bact]ium is foll[$ at once by gr[? by accretion1 :ile 9 brood-=mation 7! cases ( multiple division7 ! p>5t cell divides1 & !n ea* ( ! daught]-cells divide1 & s on = sev]al g5]ations4 ,aft] ! completion ( ^! divisions ! brood-cells gr[ by accretion to _! normal size4 ,x is mean+less1 9 ! light ( our previ\s discussion1 to say t ! individuality ( ! "m-cell 8is m]g$ 9 t ( ! daught]-cells40 ,b we may believe t a ,p>amcium possesses "s degree ( consci\sness4 ,does x possess p]sonality--t is1 ! feel+ ( isolation f ! re/ ( ! univ]se1 & ! feel+ ( on5ess ) its own pa/-memory or consci\s duration8 ,if s1 its p]sonality1 :5 x divides1 becomes "o ) t ( its daught]-cells4 ,or is its p]sonality & consci\s pa/ t also ( its si/]-cells1 & also t ( ! no long] exi/5t "m-cell1 & ! cell ( :i* ?is 9 its turn 0 a "p8 ,we mu/ rememb] t su* an organism z a ,p>amcium %[s 9 its behavi\r mo/ ( ! signs ( intellig5ce2 t ! p>ts into :i* x divides :5 x reproduces are equally develop$2 & t ! process ( division may n int]rupt ! consci\s duration ( ei!r "p4 ,is !re a common p]sonality1 or on5ess ( consci\sness1 ( all ! organisms ( ?is k9d :i* are desc5d$ f ! same individual8 ,reproduction by division1 simple or multiple1 does n proce$ indef9itely 9 ! case ( ! unicellul> organisms4 ,soon] or lat] !re is a limit1 & ! cell is !n no long] able to cont9ue divid+4 ,conjugation !n occurs 9 "o ( _m modes4 ,ess5tially two organisms come into contact & _! nuclei fuse1 or r "s ( ! mat]ial ( "o nucleus is transf]r$ to ! o!r4 ,! cells !n sep>ate & reproduction by division beg9s aga94 ,?is is n necess>ily sexual reproduction3 x is ! conjugation ( ess5tially simil> morphological entities4 ,if two conjugat+ ,p>amcia possess$ di/9ct p]sonalities we might imag9e a m]g+ or addition ( two consci\s durations or memories4 ,sexuality1 h[ev]1 includes less ?an ?is4 ,9 ?is mode ( reproduction ! conjugat+ bodies are n organisms 9 ! usual s5se1 b r modifi$ organisms or highly modifi$ p>ts ( organisms4 ,9 "s l[] plants ! conjugat+ cells may be modifi$ ) respect to ! cells *>act]i/ic ( ! organism1 b !y may be approximately equal 9 size4 ,b 9 ! multicellul> plant & animal1 9 g5]al1 ! conjugates are cells deta*$ f ! p>5tal body1 & diff]+ *iefly f ! cells ( ! latt] 9 t !y %[ a lack ( diff]5tiation4 ,"o ( ^! cells1 t deta*$ f ! pat]nal body1 is ! sp]matozoon 79 ! case ( ! animal71 or ! poll5 cell 79 ! case ( ! plant74 ,x is mu* small] ?an ! sexual cell deta*$ f ! mat]nal body3 ?is is ! ovum 9 ! case ( ! animal1 or ! oosph]e 9 ! case ( ! plant4 ,9 g5]al ! ovum is a relatively l>ge cell1 s9ce x conta9s abundant cytoplasm1 :i* may also be load$ ) yolk or o!r res]ve food mat]ial4 ,! sp]matozoon is v mu* small] & consi/s ( a nucleus ) a m9imal mass ( cytoplasm4 ,! ovum is1 9 g5]al1 immobile2 ! sp]matozoon is g5]ally highly mobile4 ,! ess5tial process 9 ! sexual reproduction ( ! unicellul> organisms is !re=e ! conjugation ( ! organisms !mselves4 ,9 multicellul> organisms1 modifi$ cells--! g]m-cells--become deta*$ f ! bodies ( ! p>5ts1 & ^! cells conjugate4 ,9 _m l[] plants & animals phases ( sexual & asexual reproduction alt]nate1 ?us ,p>amcium reproduces by simple division1 b at int]vals conjugation occurs4 ,9 plants sporophytic & gametophytic g5]ations alt]nate1 ! sporophyte reproduc+ by multiple division--t is1 by ! =mation ( spores1 & ! gametophyte reproduc+ by ! =mation ( g]m-cells4 ,!re are few organisms--possibly none--9 :i* cont9u$ asexual reproduction by simple or multiple division1 spore-=mation1 bud-=mation1 etc41 c proce$ )\t limit4 ,9 ! great majority ( cases inve/igat$ asexual reproduction becomes feeble aft] a "t & !n ceases1 & x has be5 held t ! /imulus ( conjugation ( ! cells1 or t ( sexual reproduction1 is necess>y = its r5ewal4 ,9 su* cases ! organism is said to h become 8s5esc5t10 & 8rejuv5esc5ce0 by "s means becomes necess>y4 ,z a g5]al rule rejuv5esc5ce is effect$ by ! int]*ange ( nucle> matt] betwe5 two conjugat+ organisms1 b x may be effect$ by re/1 or by a *ange ( environm5t1 or by ! supply ( "s unusual food-mat]ial to ! liquid 9 :i* ! divid+ organism is conta9$4 ,?us1 if v>i\s mat]ials be add$ to ! wat] inhabit$ by a divid+ ,p>amcium1 ! ,protozoon may cont9ue to reproduce by simple division = at lea/ two ?\s& g5]ations4 ,we mu/ rememb]1 h[ev]1 t 8s5esc5ce0 & 8rejuv5esc5ce0 are only words2 :at is ! ess5tial nature ( ! *anges d5ot$ by !m we d n "k4 ,9 sexual reproduction1 z x occurs 9 ! great majority ( plants & animals1 ! ovum1 or female g]m-cell1 is f]tilis$ or 8activat$0 by ! male g]m-cell4 ,b ?is activation by ! sp]matozoon is n necess>y1 = ! ovum itself is capable ( division & developm5t to =m a complete organism4 ,?is occurs 9 ! cases ( natural p>!nog5esis among insects & "s o!r animals1 :]e ! ovum proce$s1 )\t f]tilisation1 to segm5tation & developm5t4 ,9 "s l[] plants1 :]e ! size ( ! male & female g]m-cells is ne>ly equal1 ei!r ( !m may und]go p>!nog5etic developm5t3 9 su* cases we _c1 ( c\rse1 prop]ly speak ( sexual diff]5tiation4 ,9 ! cases ( organisms normally reproduc+ sexually1 ! /imulus to developm5t is af=d$ by ! entrance into ! ovum ( ! sp]matozoon--t is1 by ! mixture ( ! male & female g]m-plasms2 b 9 "s animals ?is /imulus may be replac$ by ! addition to ! wat] 9 :i* !y are liv+ ( c]ta9 *emical sub/ances4 ,?is is ! process ( artificial p>!nog5esis fir/ /udi$ by ,loeb 9 ! case ( ! eggs ( ! ,sea-ur*92 & its analysis sugge/s t ! sp]matozoon conveys "s sub/ance into ! egg1 & t ?is sub/ance initiates segm5tation by sett+ up a tra9 ( *emical reactions4 ,:at ^! reactions are exactly1 & :at is ! process ( 8=mative /imulation0 by ! sp]matozoon1 we d n "k4 ,x is q c]ta91 h[ev]1 t mu* m ?an ?is process ( =mative /imulation is involv$ 9 ! f]tilisation ( ! egg by ! sp]matozoon4 ,! mixture ( ! male & female g]m-plasms result+ f conjugation conf]s ^u ! embryo ! *>act]s ( bo? ! p>5ts & ( _! ance/ries4 ,9 an unicellul> organism ! 8body0 consi/s ( a s+le cell conta9+ a nucleus4 ,! extra-nucle> "p ( ! cell--! cytoplasm--is modifi$ 9 v>i\s ways3 ?us x may possess flagella1 or cilia1 s t x may be actively locomotory4 ,x is at once a receptor app>atus1 susceptible to *anges 9 ! m$ium 9 :i* x lives1 & x is also an effector app>atus1 capable ( trans=m+ /imuli receiv$ into motor impulses4 ,x may be able to accumulate available en]gy by mak+ use ( ! en]gy ( radiation 9 ! syn!sis ( c>bohydrate & proteid f ! inorganic sub/ances 9 solution 9 ! wat] 9 :i* x lives2 & x is also able to exp5d ?is en]gy 9 controll$ movem5ts4 ,all ! *>act]i/ics ( life1 9 fact1 are exhibit$ by ! unicellul> organism1 ! diff]5tiation ( ! cytoplasm correspond+ functionally to ! diff]5tiation ( ! tissues ( ! multicellul> animal or plant4 ,9 ! latt] ! organs1 organ-sy/ems1 & tissues are compos$ ( diff]5tiat$ cells4 ,developm5t consi/s ess5tially ( a process ( cell-=mation by simple division1 & at ! end ( ?is process ( segm5tation v>i\s rudim5ts 7,anlag57 are e/abli%$4 ,! old] embryologi/s s\ght to recognise ! =mation ( ?ree 8g]m-lay]s0 9 mo/ gr\ps ( animals3 ^! 7 ! out] lay] or ectod]m1 ! middle lay] or mesod]m1 & ! int]nal lay] or endod]m4 ,! ectod]m1 x 0 held1 gave rise to ! integum5t1 ! c5tral & p]iph]al n]v\s sy/ems1 & ! s5sory organs4 ,! mesod]m gave rise to ! musculature & skeleton1 ! excretory organs1 & "s o!r tissues4 ,! endod]m gave rise ma9ly to ! alim5t>y canal & its gl&s4 ,! 8,ga/rea-,!ory0 ( ,haeckel s\ght to recognise a simil> l>val =m1 or 8,ga/rea10 9 ! developm5t ( mo/ multicellul> animals1 & mu* +5uity ( argum5t 0 requir$ = ! e/abli%m5t ( ?is homology4 ,! new] embryology recognises ! difficulties impli$ 9 ! application1 9 all its exclusiv5ess1 ( ! ,ga/rea-!ory to ! high] phyla ( multicellul> animals2 s t n[adays x has be5 necess>y to ab&on ! notion ( ! metazoan animal z be+ built up f ^! ?ree prim>y g]m-lay]s4 ,at ! conclusion ( segm5tation1 !n1 ! embryo consi/s ( a mass ( cells simil> to ea* o!r 9 /ructure1 b diff]+ 9 fate & 9 pot5cy4 ,"s ( ^! cells are de/9$ to give rise to ! integum5t1 ! n]v\s sy/em1 & ! s5se-organs2 o!rs become ! skeleton & musculature2 & o!rs aga9 ! organs ( dige/ion1 assimilation1 & excretion4 ,a prim>y arrangem5t ( ^! gr\ps ( cells into ?ree lay]s is inde$ set up 9 _m cases ( developm5t1 b x is pla9 t ?is arrangem5t is f> f be+ an univ]sal "o4 ,mod]n embryology %[s 9 ! cle>e/ possible mann] t at ! end ( segm5tation ! embryo consi/s ( a gr\p ( cells ea* ( :i* has normally a diff]5t fate 9 subsequ5t developm5t4 ,:at precisely ea* cell w become dep5ds on its position ) reg>d to ! o!rs4 ,b ea* cell is capable ( becom+ m ?an x normally becomes3 its pot5cy is great] ?an its actual fate4 ,if ! normal c\rse ( developm5t is int]rupt$1 a cell1 :i* w\ld usually h giv5 rise to a "p ( ! skeleton1 may give rise to a "p ( ! alim5t>y canal4 ,! cells ( ! develop+ embryo are autonom\s4 ,9 ! normal c\rse ( developm5t mo/ ( ! cells exi/+ at ! end ( segm5tation give rise to ! 8body0 ( ! organism1 und]go+ diff]5tiation z !y s develop4 ,b a few embryonic cells p]si/ )\t /ructural modification ?r\gh\t ! developm5t ( ! animal4 ,!y divide & gr[ & become great] 9 numb]1 b rema9 un*ang$ 9 o!r respects4 ,^! cells become ! ess5tial reproductive organs1 or gonads1 ( ! adult animal--t is1 ! ov>ies ( ! female & ! te/es ( ! male4 ,9 ! females ( ! high] animals 7! mammals1 & p]haps "s ( ! ,ar?ropods7 ^! cells only divide & gr[ dur+ ! e>ly /ages ( developm5t1 & long be=e ! beg9n+ ( adult life ! numb] ( ova 9 ! gonads has become fix$4 ,9 all males1 & 9 ! females ( mo/ animals1 h[ev]1 ! reproductive cells appe> to be capable ( unlimit$ multiplication4 ,! ess5tial cells ( ! gonads1 ! ov>ian "m-cells or ! sp]m "m-cells1 con/itute ! g]m-plasm4 ,9 mod]n1 speculative1 biological lit]ature ! t]m g]m-plasm is1 h[ev]1 re/rict$ to ! *romatic mat]ial 9 ! nuclei ( ! reproductive cells1 ! cytoplasm be+ reg>d$ z non-ess5tial = ! transmission ( ! h]$it>y qualities ( ! organism4 ,x seems cle>1 h[ev]1 t ?is di/9ction betwe5 ! cytoplasm & ! *romatic matt] ( ! nucleus is n always a valid "o1 s t x is be/ to speak ( ! :ole cell z con/itut+ ! g]m-plasm4 ,! embryonic cells1 !re=e1 h diff]5t fates3 "s ( !m become trans=m$ dur+ developm5t into ! body or soma1 & o!rs rema9 unmodifi$ ?r\gh\t life z ! g]m4 ,! soma ent]s into intimate relation%ips ) ! environm5t2 x is affect$ by ! vicissitudes ( ! latt]2 & x may actively respond to !m4 ,! g]m-cells may possibly migrate ?r\gh ! body1 p]haps1 x has be5 sugge/$1 develop+ fatally & irresponsibly into ! my/]i\s1 malignant tum\rs ( adult life4 ,normally1 h[ev]1 !y rema9 segregat$ 9 ! reproductive gl&s1 seclud$ f ! out] environm5t4 ,_! activities are inh]5t 9 !mselves1 are rhy?mic1 & become functional only on ! assumption by ! soma ( ! phase ( sexual maturity4 ,f ! po9t ( ! species ! soma is only ! envelope ( ! g]m-cells4 ,x is affect$ by e *ange ( ! environm5t1 & be+ usually cumulatively affect$ by ! latt] x becomes at l5g? an unfit envelope4 ,somatic dea? !n foll[s z a natural consummation1 b ! g]m-cells are1 9 a s5se1 immortal 9 t !y rema9 capable ( indef9ite gr[? by division4 ,9 ! sexual reproduction ( ! high] organism a "p ( ! g]m-plasm becomes deta*$1 und]goes gr[?1 & develops into an organism exhibit+ ! p>5tal organisation4 ,b 9 ! developm5t ( ! (fspr+1 "p ( ! g]m-plasm receiv$ f ! p>5t p]si/s un*ang$1 is transmitt$ to ano!r g5]ation1 & s on )\t app>5t limit4 ,some?+ is transmitt$ f p>5t to (fspr+4 ,?is some?+ we reg>d z a cell exhibit+ a def9ite *emical & physical /ructure2 b :ile ! g]m-cell diff]s 9 c]ta9 respects f an ord9>y somatic cell1 ^! /ructural & *emical diff]5ces are insignificant :5 !y are comp>$ ) ! diff]5ces 9 ! pot5tialities ( ! cells4 ,! somatic cells are1 9 g5]al1 capable ( reproduc+ only ! g5]al "* ( ! tissues ( :i* !y =m "p4 ,"s ( !m1 ! cells ( ! grey matt] ( ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em1 = in/ance1 appe> to be incapable ( division & gr[?4 ,b aga9 ! facts ( reg5]ation appe> to po9t to ! possession by ! somatic cells ( m ?an ?is re/rict$ p[] ( reproduc+ ! tissues ( :i* !y =m "p3 to ?is ext5t ! reg5]ation exp]im5ts t5d to remove ! ess5tial di/9ction betwe5 ! somatic & g]m9al cells4 ,neglect+ ^! results 9 ! meantime1 we see t ! g]m-cells conta9 )9 !mselves ! pot5tiality ( reproduc+ ! entire organism 9 all its specificity4 ,t :i* is transmitt$ f ! p>5t to ! (fspr+ is ! p>5tal organisation 9 all its specificity2 & to say t ?is organisation is a mat]ial ?+ is1 ( c\rse1 to /ate a hypo!sis1 n a fact ( obs]vation4 ,?is transmission ( a specific =m & mode ( behavi\r f g5]ation to g5]ation is :at a hypo!sis ( h]$ity attempts to expla9--t is1 to describe 9 ! simple/ possible t]ms1 mak+ use ( ! concepts ( physical sci5ce4 8,twelve ye>s ago10 says ,jacques ,loeb1 8! field ( h]$ity 0 ! /amp+ gr\nd = ! rhetorician & metaphysician2 x is to-day p]haps ! mo/ exact & rationali/ic "p ( biology1 :]e facts _c only be pr$ict$ qualitatively1 b also quantitatively40 ,let ! read] exam9e = himself ! meagre array ( facts on :i* ?is apo!osis ( me*ani/ic biology is bas$4 ,two mod]n hypo!ses ( h]$ity dem& att5tion--,weismann's hypo!sis ( ! cont9uity ( ! g]m-plasm1 & ,semon's 8,mnemic0 hypo!sis4 ,9 ! latt] x is assum$ t ! basis ( h]$ity is ! unconsci\s memory ( ! organism3 modes ( function+ are 8rememb]$0 by ! g]m-plasm & are transmitt$4 ,?is notion pres5ts _m po9ts ( simil>ity to t :i* we consid] lat] on1 s t x ne$ only be m5tion$ "h4 ,weismann's hypo!sis--l ,d>w9's hypo!sis ( ,pang5esis--is a corpuscul> "o1 & has obvi\sly be5 sugge/$ by ! mod]n developm5t ( ! concepts ( molecules & atoms 9 ! physical sci5ces4 ,x supposes t t :i* is h&$ d[n is a mat]ial sub/ance ( a def9ite *emical & physical /ructure4 ,?is is n ! g]m-cell1 nor ev5 ! nucleus ( ! latt]1 b a c]ta9 mat]ial conta9$ 9 ! nucleus4 ,! latt] conta9s prote9 sub/ances conta9+ a great] proportion ( phosphoric acid ?an does ! cytoplasm ( ! cells 9 g5]al2 ^! prote9s are kn[n z nucleo-prote9s1 ?\gh our k ( _! *emical /ructure is1 s f>1 n v exact4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 ^! t are ! g]m-plasm1 b a sub/ance 9 ! nucleus :i* becomes visible :5 ! cell is kill$ 9 c]ta9 ways1 & :i* becomes /a9$ by c]ta9 basic dyes4 ,x is di/+ui%$ by ?is "* alone & on t acc\nt is loosely call$ 8*romat940 ,?is sub/ance ,weismann id5tifies z 8! mat]ial basis ( inh]itance40 ,:5 a cell divides1 a v complex tra9 ( ev5ts usually occurs4 ,?is process ( 8,mitosis0 exhibits _m v>iations ( detail1 & )\t actual demon/ration x is r difficult to expla9 cle>ly4 ,b its ess5tial feature is evid5tly ! exact halv+ ( all ! /ructures 9 ! cell :i* is ab\t to divide4 ,9 ! ord9>y cell :i* is n go+ to divide imm$iately1 ! *romat9 is diffus$ ?r\gh\t ! nucleus z v num]\s f9e granules1 recognis$ only by _! /a9+ reactions4 ,!y may be conc5trat$ at "s "p ( ! nucleus1 s t a division ?r\gh a plane ( geometrical symmetry ( ! cell w\ld n1 9 g5]al1 exactly halve ! *romat94 ,prior to division1 !re=e1 ?is sub/ance becomes aggregat$ z granules ly+ along a convolut$ filam5t ( a sub/ance call$ 8l9910 :i* is *>act]is$ pr9cipally by ! fact t x does n /a9 ) ! dyes t /a9 ! *romat94 ,! filam5t breaks up into %ort rods1 call$ ,*romosomes1 & ^! rods become arrang$ 9 ! equator ( ! nucleus4 ,! rods !n split longitud9ally1 & "o-half ( ea* moves t[>ds "o pole ( ! nucleus1 ! o!r half mov+ t[>ds ! o!r pole4 ,v>i\s o!r modifications ( ! cell & nucleus occur concomitantly ) ^! *anges1 b ! ess5tial ?+ t happ5s seems to be ! halv+ ( all ! /ructures ( ! cell1 & ?is is ! simple/ explanation ( ! ph5om5a ( mitotic cell division4 ,two daught]-cells are !n =m$ by ! division ( ! "m-cell1 & ea* ( ^! daught]-cells receives "o-half ( ea* ( ! *romat9 granules t 7 conta9$ 9 ! "m-cell4 ,! *romosomes1 or 8,idants10 are se5 to consi/ ( discrete granules1 & ^! are 7g5]ally7 ! bodies kn[n z ! 8,ids40 ,! id _c be resolv$ by ! microscope into any small] /ructures3 x lies on ! limits ( aid$ vision2 b ! hypo!sis assumes t x is compos$ ( p>ts call$ 8,det]m9ants10 & ! det]m9ants are fur!r suppos$ to consi/ ( 8,biophors40 ,! biophors are ! ultimate organic units or elem5ts1 & !y are ( ! same ord] ( magnitude z *emical molecules4 ,we mu/ suppose !m to be m complex ?an a prote9 molecule1 & ! latt] conta9s _m hundr$s 7at lea/7 ( *emical atoms4 ,n[ x is possible to calculate ! numb] ( atoms conta9$ 9 a p>ticle ( ! same size z ! id3 su* a calculation may be made by diff]5t me?ods1 all ( !m yield+ concordant results4 ,?is calculat$ numb] ( atoms may be less ?an t :i* we mu/ suppose to be pres5t 9 ! biophors1 ( :i* ! hypo!tical id is compos$6#bh #bh 8,b10 says ,weismann1 ref]r+ to an objection ( ?is nature1 8x %\ld r be ask$ :e!r ! size ( ! atoms & molecules is a fact1 & n r ! v que/ionable result ( an unc]ta9 me?od ( inve/igation40 ,! id is suppos$ to conta9 all ! pot5tialities ( ! completely develop$ organism4 ,x is compos$ ( a def9ite numb] ( det]m9ants1 ea* ( ! latt] be+ a 8factor0 = "s def9ite1 mat]ial con/itu5t ( ! adult body4 ,!re w\ld be a det]m9ant = ea* k9d ( cell 9 ! ret9a ( ! eye1 "o = ! l5s1 "o = ! cornea 7or r = ea* k9d ( tissue 9 ! latt]71 "o = ea* k9d ( pigm5t 9 ! *oroid & iris1 & s on2 e p>ticul> k9d ( tissue 9 ! body w\ld be repres5t$ by a det]m9ant4 ,?us pack$ away 9 a p>ticle :i* lies j on ! limits ( microscopic vision are repres5tatives ( all ^? p>ts ( ! body :i* are *emically & physically individualis$1 ea* ( ^! hypo!tical 8factors0 be+ a v complex assemblage ( *emical atoms4 ,9 developm5t ! det]m9ants become sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 s t :atev] p>ts ( ! body are =m$ by ! fir/ two bla/om]es are repres5t$ by det]m9ants :i* are conta9$ 9 ^? cells1 & :i* are sift$ out f ea* o!r & segregat$4 ,z developm5t proce$s ?is process ( sift+ becomes f9] & f9]1 until :5 ! rudim5ts ( ea* k9d ( tissue h be5 laid d[n a cell conta9s only "o k9d ( det]m9ant4 ,?is consi/s ( biophors ( a special k9d1 & ! latt] !n migrate out f ! *romat9 into ! cytoplasm ( ! cells 9 :i* !y are conta9$1 & proce$ to build up ! p>ticul> k9d ( tissue requir$4 ,! nucleus ( ! g]m-cell is ?us a mixture ( incr$ible complexity1 b 9 addition to ?is mat]ial mixture !re mu/ exi/ 9 x ! means = ! arrangem5t ( ! det]m9ants 9 ! positions relative to ea* o!r occupi$ by ! adult organs & tissues4 ,a me*anism ( unimag9able complexity w\ld be requir$ = ?is purpose1 & x mu/ be a me*anism involv+ only kn[n *emical & physical factors4 ,x is safe to say t absolutely no h9t z to ! nature ( ?is me*anism is conta9$ 9 ! hypo!sis4 ,! det]m9ants mu/ be able to gr[ by reproduction1 or by ! accretion ( new biophors1 s9ce 9 ea* g5]ation new g]m-cells are =m$4 ,if we say t !y gr[ by reproduction 9 ! s5se t an organism gr[s by reproduction1 we beg ! "q ( _! means ( =mation4 ,d !y gr[ by ! addition ( simil> sub/ances 9 ! way t a cry/al gr[s8 ,if s1 ! molecules ( :i* !y are compos$ mu/ exi/ 9 ! lymph /ream ba?+ ! g]m-cells--t is1 ! biophors !mselves mu/ already exi/ 9 ?is liquid1 = if we suppose t ! biophors are able to divide & gr[ by mak+ use ( ! prote9 sub/ances :i* we "k are pres5t 9 ! lymph /ream1 !n we conf] ^u ^! bodies all ! prop]ties ( ! fully develop$ organism4 ,if !y are pres5t 9 ! blood1 !n ! composition ( ! latt] mu/ be "o ( inconceivable complexity1 s9ce x mu/ conta9 z _m sub/ances z !re are di/9ct tissues 9 ! animal body4 ,we "k1 ( c\rse1 t ?is is n ! case4 ,h[1 !n1 are ! biophors reproduc$8 ,we mu/ leave ?is field ( unbridl$ speculation 7:i* _c surely be 8! mo/ exact & rationali/ic "p ( biology407 ,:at ! /udy ( ! reproduction ( ! organism does %[ is t some?+--:i* we call ! specific organisation--is h&$ d[n f p>5t to (fspr+1 & t ?is some?+ may possess a high degree ( /ability4 ,no app>5t *ange ( significance c be obs]v$ 9 ! v num]\s g5]ation ( organisms 7! #bjjj g5]ations ( ,p>amcium1 = in/ance1 :i* 7 br$ by ,woodruff7 :i* c be produc$ by exp]im5tal bre$+4 ,"s species ( animals--! ,bra*iopod ,l+ula1 = in/ance--h p]si/$ un*ang$ s9ce ,palozoic times4 ,?r\gh\t ! incr$ibly num]\s g5]ations repres5t$ by ?is animal s]ies1 ! specific organisation mu/ h be5 transmitt$ 9 an almo/ absolutely un*ang$ condition4 ,! g]m-plasm is !re=e cont9u\s f g5]ation to g5]ation1 & x possesses an exce$+ly great degree ( con/ancy ( "*4 ,?is conception ( ! cont9uity & /ability ( ! specific organisation is ! feature ( value 9 ,weismannism1 & all t we "k ( ! ph5om5a ( h]$ity confirms x4 ,b x is pure speculation to reg>d ! organisation z an aggregate ( *emically di/9ct sub/ances1 or if we say t ?is speculation is r a work+ hypo!sis1 !n x mu/ ju/ify itself by lead+ u back aga9 to ! results ( exp]i5ce4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 n q accurate to say t ! organisation p]si/s un*ang$ f g5]ation to g5]ation4 ,! (fspr+ is simil> to ! p>5t--t is1 ! organisation has be5 transmitt$ un*ang$4 ,b ! (fspr+ also diff]s j a little f ! p>5t--t is to say1 ! organisation is modifi$ by ea* transmission4 ,9 ^! two /atem5ts we =mulate 9 ! simple/ mann] ! law ( organic v>iability4 ,organisms may obvi\sly be arrang$ 9 categories 9 su* a way t ! individuals 9 any "o category resemble ea* o!r m closely ?an !y resemble ! individuals belong+ to ano!r category4 ,we may1 by exp]im5tal bre$+1 produce an assemblage ( organisms all ( :i* h _h a common ance/or1 or a pair ( ance/ors4 ,n[ ! individuals compos+ su* an assemblage w\ld exhibit a close resemblance to ea* o!r1 su* a resemblance z our categories ( naturally occurr+ organisms are se5 to exhibit4 ,we %\ld also f9d t ! individuals ( our naturally occurr+ assemblage w\ld be able to int]bre$ among !mselves1 j z 9 ! case ( ! exp]im5tally produc$ population4 ,x may be conclud$1 !n1 t ! naturally occurr+ population is also ! product ( a pair ( ance/ors4 ,?is int]-f]tility1 z well z ! close morphological resemblance ( ! individuals1 are ! facts on :i* ! hypo!sis ( ! common orig9 & unity ( ! assemblage1 or species1 is =m$4 ,! morphological resemblance betwe5 ! individuals1 ei!r 9 ! natural or ! artificial populations1 is n absolute4 ,if we take any s+le "* capable ( measurem5t we %all f9d t x is v>iable f organism to organism4 ,?is important concept ( organic v>iability may be made m cle> by a concrete example4 ,exam9ation ( a l>ge numb] ( cockle %ells tak5 f ! same re/rict$ "p ( ! sea-%ore1 & !re=e belong+ presumably to ! same race1 w %[ t ! numb] ( ! radiat+ ridges on ! %ell v>ies f #ai to #bg1 & t ! ratio ( ! l5g? to ! dep? ( ! %ell also v>ies f #a 3 #j4ei to #a 3 #j4he4 ,9 ! =m] case ! mo/ common numb] ( ridges is #bc1 & 9 ! latt] case ! mo/ common ratio ( l5g? to dep? is #a 3 #j4ga4 ,^! are ! *>act]i/ic or modal values ( ! morphological *>act]s 9 "q1 & ! o!r or less commonly occurr+ values are di/ribut$ symmetrically on ei!r side ( ! mean or modal value1 =m+ 8frequ5cy di/ributions40#bi ,! value ( ! fir/ "* *anges by unity 9 any di/ribution3 obvi\sly !re _c be a fraction ( a ridge2 & ?is k9d ( v>iation is call$ 8discont9u\s40 ,! value ( ! second "* may *ange imp]ceptibly1 & x is !re=e call$ 8cont9u\s10 a t]m :i* is n /rictly accurate1 s9ce 9 apply+ x we assume t ! num]ical diff]5ce betwe5 two v>iates may be less ?an any f9ite numb]1 h[ev] small4 ,9 ?is assumption we po/ulate = biology ! di/9ctive ma!matical concept ( inf9ite divisibility4 #bi ,see ,app5dix1 p4 #cej4 ,! diff]5ce f ! mode1 or mean1 ) respect to a def9ite "* 9 a fully gr[n organism may be due to ! direct action ( ! environm5t1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* we h reg>d$ ! environm5t z influ5c+ ! organism2 or x may be due to ! *anges 9 ! organism result+ f ! increas$ or decreas$ use ( "s ( its p>ts4 ,! conditions ) reg>d to nutrition1 = in/ance1 w n be ! same = all ! individuals compos+ a clu/] ( mussels gr[+ on ! sea-bottom4 ,^? 9 ! int]ior ( ! clu/] d n receive s abundant a supply ( sea-wat] z ^? on ! outside ( ! clu/]2 & s9ce ! am\nt ( food receiv$ by any individual dep5ds on ! quantity ( wat] /ream+ ov] x 9 unit "t1 we %all f9d t ! int]nally situat$ individuals w be /unt$ or dw>f$1 :ile ^? on ! outside w be well gr[n4 ,su* v>iations are acquir$ ones1 b ev5 :5 we all[ = !m1 ev5 if we take c>e t all ! organisms /udi$ live "u conditions :i* are z ne>ly uni=m z possible1 !re w /ill be "s degree ( v>iability4 ,we _c be sure t ?is absolute uni=mity ev] exi/s2 & ! notion ( ! environm5t ( an organism may be ext5d$ s z to include ! m$ium 9 :i* embryonic developm5t took place1 & ev5 ! p>5tal body :i* =m$ ! environm5t = ! g]m-cells f :i* embryonic developm5t began4 ,b x is probably ! case t ev5 ) an uni=m environm5t1 or ) "o 9 :i* ! diff]5ces 7 insignificant1 v>iability w\ld /ill exi/4 ,! v>iations t might be obs]v$ 9 su* a case w\ld belong to two k9ds--8fluctuat+ v>iations10 & 8mutations40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,:e!r ! v>iations obs]v$ 9 a population ( organisms are fluctuations or mutations c only be det]m9$ by exp]im5t4 ,let u suppose t we are deal+ ) a human population1 & t ! v>iation /udi$ is t ( /ature4 ,let ! m5 ) /atures consid]ably ov] ! mean value m>ry ! wom5 :o are correspond+ly tall1 !n x w be f\nd t ! *ildr5 f ^! unions w1 :5 gr[n up1 exhibit a /ature :i* is great] ?an t ( ! :ole population1 b n s great z t ( _! p>5ts--t is1 regression t[>ds ! mean ( ! :ole population takes place4 ,?is is %[n 9 ! above diagram1 :]e ! l9es above & bel[ ! mean "o indicate ! proportion 7relative to ! value or frequ5cy ( ! mean7 ( p ( ea* grade ( /ature4 ,! latt] is proportional to ! di/ance f ! mean measur$ along ! v]tical l9e1 di/ances bel[ ?is l9e indicat+ /atures bel[ ! mean1 & vice v]sa4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! m5 & wom5 ) /atures consid]ably bel[ ! mean m>ry1 _! *ildr5 w ultimately exhibit /atures :i* are great] ?an t ( _! p>5ts1 b :i* are less ?an t ( ! :ole population4 ,regression aga9 occurs1 b 9 ! opposite direction1 & su* a case w\ld be repres5t$ by ! above diagram rev]s$4 ,cont9u$ selection ( ?is k9d w\ld lead to an imm$iate increase 9 ! mean /ature 7or ! opposite1 if ! 8sign0 ( ! selection 7 rev]s$7 9 "o or two g5]ations1 b aft] t ! am\nt ( *ange w\ld be v small1 :ile if ! selection 7 to cease ! race produc$ w\ld sl[ly rev]t to ! mean1 :i* is *>act]i/ic ( ! :ole population f :i* x arose4 ,x is v important to grasp ?is result ( ! practical & !oretical /udy ( h]$ity--! selection ( ! ord9>y v>iations %[n by a g5]al population leads at once to a small *ange 9 ! mean value ( ! "* :i* is select$1 b cont9u$ selection !reaft] makes v little diff]5ce to ?is result1 :ile ! race sl[ly rev]ts to ! value ( t f :i* x arose on ! cessation ( ! selection4 ,races :i* 8bre$ true0 d1 ( c\rse1 exi/2 ?us ! mean height ( ! ,gall[ay peasant is great] ?an t ( ! ,wel%4 ,9 ! cases ( 8pure races0--t is1 races :i* bre$ true ) respect to "o or m *>act]s1 we h to deal ) ano!r k9d ( v>iation1 "o :i* %[s no t5d5cy to rev]t to ! value f :i* x arose4 ,let ! obs]v$ v>iability ( /ature 9 a human population be repres5t$ by ! frequ5cy di/ribution ,a1 & let ! individuals at ,n--t is1 ^? 9 :i* ! /ature 0 great] ?an ! mean by ! deviation ,,on--int]m>ry4 ,x might !n happ5 t ! v>iability ( ! (fspr+ ( ^! unions w\ld be repres5t$ by ! frequ5cy di/ribution ,b1 9 :i* ! value ( ! mean is also t ( ! /ock1 at ,n1 f :i* ! race orig9at$4 ,x does n matt] n[ f :at v>iants 9 ,b a prog5y ( ! ?ird g5]ation arises3 ! mean height ( ! latt] w be t ( ! pure race4 ,9 ?is case ! individuals f :i* ! pure race orig9at$ 7^? at ,n 9 ,a7 h exhibit$ a mutation4 ,! /ature ( ! individuals ( ?is new race w cont9ue to exhibit fluctuat+ v>iations1 & ! range ( ?is v>iability may be z mu* z t ( ! /ock f :i* x arose1 b ! mean /ature ( ! new race w cont9ue to be t ( ! orig9al mutants4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,x is well kn[n t de ,vries himself consid]$ fluctuat+ v>iations & mutations z some?+ q diff]5t4 ,! =m] he consid]$ z no?+ new1 only z augm5tations or dim9utions ( some?+ previ\sly exi/+2 & he reg>d$ fluctuations z due to ! action ( ! environm5t1 foll[+ 9 _! di/ribution ! laws ( *ance4#cj ,mutations1 on ! o!r h&1 7 some?+ q new4 ,n[ future analysis ( v>iability w n1 we ?9k1 be> out ! validity ( ?is di/9ction4 ,x is f> m likely t a fluctuation is a v>iation :i* is ! result ( "s causes ! action ( :i* is v>iable4 7,we are reg>d+ v>iability n[ z subject to 8causation0 9 ! physical s5se1 = only by s reg>d+ x c we attempt its analysis74 ,z a rule ?is process results 9 a fluctuation1 b if its ext5t1 or degree ( op]ation1 exce$s a c]ta9 8critical value0 a mutation is produc$4 ,we may1 foll[+ ! example ( ! physici/s1 illu/rate ?is by a 8model40 #cj ,see ,app5dix1 p4 #cea4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,?is model is a modification ( ,galton's illu/ration ( ! degrees ( /ability ( a species4 ,x is a disc ( wood roll+ on its p]iph]y4 ,we divide x into sectors1 & ! arcs ab1 cd1 ef1 & gh h all ! same radius1 #aj1 #bj1 #cj1 & #dj4 ,!n we flatt5 ! sectors bc1 de1 fg1 & ha1 s t _! radii are great] ?an are ^? ( ! o!r arcs4 ,n[ let u cause ! disc to roll ab\t ! po9t #h z a c5tre4 ,x w oscillate backw>ds & =w>ds ab\t a mean position #h4 ,let u ?9k ( ^! oscillations z fluctuations4 ,suppose1 h[ev]1 t we cause ! disc to roll a little m viol5tly1 s t x oscillates until ei!r ( ! po9ts #c or #d are p]p5dicul>ly b5ea? ! c5tre ,o4 ,9 ei!r ( ^! positions ! disc is 9 a condition ( 8un/able equilibrium10 & an inf9itesimal increase 9 ! ext5t ( an oscillation w cause x to roll beyond ! po9ts #c or #d4 ,b if x does pass ei!r ( ^! critical po9ts x w beg9 to oscillate ab\t ei!r ( ! new c5tres #e or #g1 ?us roll+ on "o ( ! arcs1 ha or de4 ,?is assumption ( a new condition ( /ability we may comp>e ) ! =mation ( a mutation4 ,all ?is is m]ely a conceptual physical model ( a process ab\t :i* we "k no?+ at all4 ,x is meant to illu/rate ! view t ! organisation ( a plant or animal is n some?+ absolutely fix$ & inv>iable4 ,! organism 9 respect ( ea* recognisable & measurable "* oscillates ab\t a po9t ( /ability1 t is to say exhibits fluctuat+ v>iations ab\t ! mean value ( ?is "*4 ,if ! /ability ( ! organisation is upset1 s t x oscillates1 or fluctuates ab\t a new c5tre1 t is1 if ! v>iations deviate 9 ei!r direction f a new 8type0 or mean1 a mutation has be5 e/abli%$4 ,a mutation is n1 !re=e1 necess>ily a l>ge dep>ture f 8normality40 ,x is n necess>ily a 8discont9u\s v>iation10 nor a 8sport0 nor a 8freak40 ,x is ess5tially a %ift+ ( ! mean position ab\t :i* ! v>iations exhibit$ by ! organism fluctuate4 ,su* a mutation w1 9 g5]al1 involve ! creation ( an 8elem5t>y species40 ,we h consid]$ only "o "*1 say /ature1 9 ! above discussion1 b x g5]ally happ5s t ! assumption ( a new c5tre ( /ability involves all ! *>act]s ( ! mutat+ organism4 ,an elem5t>y species !re=e diff]s a little 9 respect ( all its *>act]s f ! species f :i* x arose1 or f ! o!r elem5t>y species ne> :i* x is situat$4 ,?is is :at we d usually f9d 9 ! cases ( ! 8races10 or 8local v>ieties10 ( any "o common species ( plant or animal4 ,t we d n recognise t mo/1 or p]haps all1 ( ! species kn[n to sy/ematic biology are really compos$ ( su* local races is m]ely because su* results involve an am\nt ( close inve/igation su* z has n g5]ally be5 possible except 9 ! few cases /udi$ ) ! object ( prov+ su* v>iability2 or 9 ! case ( ^? species :i* are /udi$ ) great att5tion to detail because ( _! economic importance4 ,?us ! h]r+s ( ,nor? ,european seas c be divid$ into su* races1 & x is possible = a p]son possess+ great famili>ity ) ^! fi%es to id5tify ! v>i\s races or elem5t>y species--t is1 to "n ! locality f :i* ! fi% 7 tak5--by consid]+ ! *>act]i/ics 9 respect ( :i* ! h]r+s ( "o "p ( ! sea diff] f ^? ( o!r p>ts4 ,! t]m 8v>iety0 has r a diff]5t connotation 9 sy/ematic biology f t :i* is includ$ by ! t]m 8elem5t>y species40 ,! mean+ ( ! latt] is simple & cle>4 ,two or m elem5t>y species are assemblages ( organisms1 9 ea* ( :i* assemblages ! mean positions ab\t :i* ! v>i\s *>act]s fluctuate is diff]5t4 ,! t]m 8v>iety0 _c s easily be def9$4 ,! prog5y ( two diff]5t species 79 ! s5se ( ! t]m z x is usually appli$ by sy/emati/s7 may be call$ a hybrid v>iety ( "o or o!r ( ! p>5t species4 ,9 ! case ( ! ord9>y species ( zoology su* a hybrid w\ld1 9 g5]al1 be inf]tile1 or if x did produce (fspr+ ^! w\ld be inf]tile4 ,9 ! case ( ord9>ily br$ (fspr+ f p>5ts ( ! same species a l>ge deviation f ! p>5tal *>act]s might be a mal=mation1 or ! result ( "s irregul>ity ( developm5t4 ,an 8atavi/ic0 v>iation we may reg>d z ! reappe>ance ( "s "* pres5t 9 a m or less remote ance/or4 ,?us dogfi%es & skates are no d\bt desc5d$ f "s elasmobran* fi% :i* possess$ an ant]ior dorsal f94 ,?is f9 p]si/s 9 ! dog-fi%es1 b has be5 lo/ 9 ! skates & rays4 ,yet x may appe> 9 ! latt] fi%es z an atavi/ic v>iation4 ,9 a v>iety 7foll[+ de ,vries' analysis7 a "* :i* disappe>s is n really lo/3 x is only suppress$1 & x /ill exi/s 9 a lat5t =m4 ,"s fl[]s are col\r$1 = in/ance1 b !re may be v>ieties 9 ! species to :i* !y belong 9 :i* ! fl[]s are col\rless4 ,x may n be q correct1 9 ! physical s5se1 to say t ! col\r has be5 lo/1 b we may put x 9 ?is way4 ,^! fl[]s are !n col\r$ & col\rless v>ieties ( ! same species4 ,col\r or lack ( col\r is n1 h[ev]1 fix$ 9 ! v>iety1 = ! individual plant be>+ col\rless fl[]s also be>s 9 its organisation ! pot5tiality ( produc+ col\r$ fl[]s4 ,! petals ( a fl[] may be smoo? or cov]$ ) hairs1 & 9 ! same /ock bo? ( ^! v>ieties may occur4 ,b we mu/ n speak ( ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( hairs z con/itut+ a diff]5ce ( k9d3 ! smoo?-petall$ fl[]s might be reg>d$ z conta9+ ! epid]mal rudim5ts ( hairs4 ,s also col\r$ & col\rless fl[]s may be reg>d$ z conta9+ ! same k9ds ( pigm5t1 b ^! pigm5ts are mix$ 9 diff]5t proportions4 ,su* a view enables u to look ^u ^! contra/+ *>act]s 9 ! same way z we look ^u fluctuat+ v>iations1 t is1 z quantitative diff]5ces 9 ! value ( ! same "*4 ,su* a suppression ( a "* is n really a loss4 ,an organism belong+ to an elem5t>y species 9 :i*1 say1 mono*romatic fl[]s are usually produc$ may produce fl[]s :i* are /rip$4 ,! prog5y ( ! plant may /ill produce mono*romatic fl[]s1 b we mu/ ?9k ( x z also possess+ ! pot5tiality ( produc+ /rip$ fl[]s4 ,9 ! t]m9ology ( ,m5delism ! *>act]s are dom9ant & recessive ones4 ,9 discuss+ ,m5delian v>ieties we consid] ! mann] 9 :i* two contra/+ *>act]s--"o pres5t 9 ! male p>5t & "o 9 ! female--are transmitt$ to ! (fspr+4 ,! *>act]s 9 "q may be ! tallness ( ! male p>5t & ! contra/+ %ortness ( ! female2 or ! br[n eyes ( ! male & ! blue eyes ( ! female2 or ! br[n sk9 ( ! female p>5t & ! :ite sk9 ( ! male "o4 ,^! *>act]s may be inh]it$ 9 two ways3 ei!r !y may be bl5d$ or !y may rema9 di/9ct 9 ! (fspr+4 ,! *ildr5 ( ! br[n "m & ! :ite fa!r are usually col\r$ 9 "s t9t int]m$iate betwe5 ^? ( ! p>5ts4 ,! mulatto hybrid is f]tile ) ei!r ( ! p>5t races1 & aga9 ! (fspr+ may take a t9t int]m$iate betwe5 ^? ( ! p>5ts1 & s on ?r\gh a numb] ( g5]ations4 ,b some:]e 9 ?is s]ies ! conceal$ or recessive br[n col\r may appe> 9 all its complet5ess1 %[+ t x has be5 pres5t 9 ! organisations ( all ! int]v5+ g5]ations4 ,! prog5y ( a tall male p>5t & a %ort female p>5t are n1 9 g5]al1 int]m$iate 9 /ature betwe5 ! p>5ts2 "s ( !m may be tall & o!rs %ort4 ,! *ildr5 ( a br[n-ey$ "m & a blue-ey$ fa!r d n usually h eyes 9 :i* ! col\rs ( ! p>5tal eyes are bl5d$3 !y are blue-ey$ or br[n-ey$4 ,! contra/+ *>act]s are spok5 ( z dom9ant & recessive3 if tallness is transmitt$ to (fspr+1 :i* may nev]!less produce dw>f (fspr+1 ! latt] "* is said to be recessive to tallness4 ,! contra/+ *>act]s ( ! p>5ts !re=e rema9 di/9ct 9 ! prog5y1 "s ( ! latt] exhibit+ ! "o "* & "s ! o!r2 :ile x may happ5 t ! "o "* or ! o!r may be segregat$1 s t x only appe>s 91 & is transmitt$ by1 ! (fspr+4 ,!re are num]ical relation%ips betwe5 ! numb]s ( ! (fspr+ 9 :i* ! contra/+ *>act]s appe>4 ,obvi\sly1 tallness & dw>fness are n *>act]s :i* diff] 9 quality3 !y are diff]5t degrees ( ! same ?+4 ,br[n eyes & blue eyes are n necess>ily diff]5t 9 quality1 = we may ?9k ( ! same k9ds ( pigm5t z be+ pres5t 9 ! iris b mix$ 9 diff]5t proportions4 ,b ! t]m9ology ( ?is bran* ( biology appe>s to sugge/ t ! contra/+ *>act]s are1 ea* ( !m1 some?+ q diff]5t f ! o!r3 !re are 8factors0 = 8tallness10 8dw>fness10 = blue eyes & br[n eyes1 & s on4 ,^! qualities are call$ 8unit-*>act]s10 & !y are suppos$ to possess mu* ! same individuality 9 ! g]m-plasm z ! 8radicles0 ( ! *emi/ possess 9 a comp\nd4 ,sodium *loride1 = in/ance1 is n a bl5d ( sodium & *lor9e3 ! two k9ds ( atoms d n fuse toge!r b are held toge!r m]ely4 ,! analogy is1 h[ev]1 v imp]fect1 = 9 ! *emical molecule ! *>act]s are n ^? ( ei!r ( ! con/itu5ts b some?+ q diff]5t1 :]eas 9 ! ,m5delian cross ! *>act]s rema9 di/9ct1 b "o ( !m is pat5t :ile ! o!r is lat5t4 ,9 ! molecule1 h[ev]1 ! atoms are reg>d$ by ! *emi/ z ly+ beside ea* o!r 9 c]ta9 positions1 & ! ,m5delian factors are also spok5 ( z if !y lay side by side 9 ! g]m-plasm4 ,?is t]m9ology is useful1 p]haps necess>y1 9 ! "w ( inve/igation1 b we mu/ n =get t x symbolises1 r ?an describes1 ! results ( exp]im5t4 ,if ! factors are id5tifi$ ) c]ta9 morphological /ructures 9 ! nuclei ( ! g]m-cells1 obvi\sly all ! objections t may be urg$ aga9/ ! ,weismannian hypo!sis z an hypo!sis ( developm5t apply also to ! ,m5delian hypo!ses z descriptions ( a physical process ( ! transmission ( morphological *>act]s4 ,x %\ld cle>ly be und]/ood :at is impli$ 9 ! con/ruction ( su* a hypo!sis4 ,c]ta9 processes are obs]v$ to take place :5 a somatic cell divides3 ^! processes we h reg>d$ z hav+ = _! object ! exact division ( all ! p>ts ( ! cell into two halves4 ,?is process ( somatic cell division is modifi$ :5 a g]m cell divides prior to maturation 7! process fitt+ x to become f]tilis$74 ,!n ! cell nucleus divides into f\r daught]-nuclei4 ,"o ( ^! rema9s 9 ! cell sub/ance :i* is to become ! ovum1 & ! o!r ?ree1 ea* ( !m inve/$ 9 a m9imal quantity ( cytoplasm1 are elim9at$ z ! 8pol> bodies40 ,also ! numb] ( *romosomes 9 ! "m-cell becomes halv$1 s t ! mature ovum1 or sp]matozoon1 possesses only "o-half ( ! numb] ( *romosomes :i* are pres5t 9 ! ord9>y somatic cell4 ,n[ let ! read] puzzle out = himself :at may be meant by ?is behavi\r ( ! g]m cells1 & he w c]ta9ly see t sev]al int]pretations are possible4 ,b suppose t ! *romat9 consi/s ( an incr$ibly l>ge numb] ( bodies diff]+ 9 *emical /ructure f ea* o!r1 & occupy+ def9ite positions ) reg>d to ea* o!r2 & suppose t !re is a me*anism ( unimag9able complexity 9 ! cell capable ( reject+ "s ( ^! *emically individualis$ p>ts1 & ( 8assembl+0 or arrang+ ! o!rs 9 mu* ! same way z an eng9e] assembles ! p>ts ( a dynamo :5 he completes ! ma*9e4 ,!n we may reg>d ! hypo!tical discrete bodies :i* =m ! hypo!tical nucle> ar*itecture z ! mat]ial c>ri]s ( ,m5delian *>act]s4 ,x is /range t ! correspond5ce ( su* a logically con/ruct$ me*anism ) ! effects :i* x w\ld produce if x exi/$ %\ld be reg>d$ z a pro( t x does exi/1 yet biological speculation has actually made use ( su* an argum5t4 8,x seems exce$+ly unlikely t a me*anism s exactly adapt$ to br+ x0 7! sep>ation f ea* o!r ( ! ,m5delian mat]ial 8factors0 ( inh]itance7 8ab\t %\ld be f\nd 9 e develop+ g]m cell if x _h no connection ) ! segregation ( *>act]s t is obs]v$ 9 exp]im5tal bre$+40 ,put q pla9ly ?is argum5t is z foll[s3 !re is a c]ta9 segregation to be se5 9 exp]im5tal bre$+1 & c]ta9 processes may be obs]v$ to occur 9 ! develop+ g]m cell4 ,add to ^! processes _m o!rs logically conceivable1 & add to ! obs]v$ mat]ial /ructure ( ! cell ano!r /ructure also logically conceivable4 ,!n ! assum$ me*anism & /ructure is 8exactly adapt$0 to produce ! effects :i* are to be expla9$4 ,!re=e ! me*anism & /ructure d actually exi/6 ,t :i* r5d]s ! son simil> to ! fa!r--! specific organisation--is und\bt$ly v /able1 & x may p]si/ 9 ! face ( a v>iable environm5t4 ,b n[ & !n ! son diff]s f ! fa!r4 ,! diff]5ces may be 8accid5tal0 & may n be transmitt$ fur!r--!n we h to deal ) an un/able fluctuation2 or ! diff]5ces may be p]man5t--!n we h to deal ) a /able mutation4 ,:at 8produces0 a mutation8 ,a *ange ( ! environm5t1 x may be said3 if s1 ! mutation is an active *ange or adaptation ( ! organism to a *ange 9 its surr\nd+s1 & ?is adaptation is a p]man5t "o & is transmitt$4 ,or ! mutation may be a spontane\s *ange ( function+4 ,if ?is di/urbance ( ! /ability ( ! organisation is g5]al1 if x affects all ! *>act]s ( ! organism1 we h to deal ) ! e/abli%m5t ( a new elem5t>y species4 ,b if ! di/urbance affects only "o1 or a few *>act]s1 !n we ne$ n recognise t a new elem5t>y species has come into exi/5ce4 ,m5 & wom5 rema9 m5 & wom5 79 _! morphology71 al?\gh "s "t or o!r among ! br[n eyes *>act]i/ic ( a race blue eyes may h appe>$4 ,! result ( ! di/urbance1 9 ?is case1 has be5 to cause "o1 or a few1 ( ! *>act]s t fluctuate to surpass _! limits ( /ability4 ,! idea ( ! elem5t>y species is a cle> & simple "o4 ,x is a gr\p ( organisms connect$ by ties ( blood relation%ip3 all h desc5d$ f "o pair ( ance/ors4 ,! individuals exhibit c]ta9 *>act]s1 all ( :i* are v>iable4 ,?is v>iability is n cumulative2 9 g5]ation aft] g5]ation ! individuals ( ! species display v>iations :i* fluctuate r\nd ! same mean values4 ,two or m elem5t>y species may h _h ! same orig9--a common ance/or or ance/ors--b ! organisms 9 "o species exhibit *>act]s :i*1 al?\gh simil> 9 nature to ^? ( ! o!r species1 yet fluctuate ab\t diff]5t mean values4 ,?is is n ! 8species0 ( ! sy/ematic biologi/4 ,! ,l9nean or sy/ematic species is a concept :i* is mu* m difficult to def9e3 x is a concept inde$ :i* has n any cle> & def9ite mean+1 9 actual practice4 ,we (t5 =get h[ v "y ! sci5ce ( sy/ematic biology is1 & h[ intimately its progress has be5 dep5d5t on t ( human inv5tion & indu/rial ent]prise4 ,physics & ma!matics might be /udi$ 9 a mona/ic cell1 b ! /udy ( sy/ematic biology c only be c>ri$ on :5 we h %ips & o!r means ( travell+--! means1 9 %ort1 ( collect+ ! animals & plants inhabit+ all ! p>ts ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,until a comp>atively few ye>s ago ! fauna & flora ( great tracts ( l& & sea 7 almo/ unkn[n3 ev5 n[ our k ( ! life ( _m p>ts ( ! e>? is scanty & inaccurate4 ,sy/ematic biology has !re=e _h to collect & describe ! organisms ( ! e>?1 & 9 s do+ x has set up ! ,l9nean species ( plants & animals4 ,^! we may describe z1 9 ! ma91 categories ( morphological /ructures4 ,! old] & m famili> species are cle>ly def9$ 9 ?is respect3 su* are cats & dogs1 rabbits1 tig]s1 h]r+s1 lob/]s1 oy/]s1 & s on3 ! individuals 9 ea* ( ^! categories are cle>ly m>k$ out ) respect to _! morphology1 & ! limits ( ! categories are cle>ly def9$4 ,9 all ( !m ! specific organisation has atta9$ a high degree ( /ability s t ! individuals 8bre$ true to type02 & x has also atta9$ a high degree ( specialisation1 s t x does n fuse ) o!r organisations4 ,yet1 9 ! majority ( ! sy/ematic species ( biology1 ?is crit]ion ( specific individuality--?is recognition ( ! isolation ( ! species f o!r species--_c be appli$4 ,v _m species h be5 describ$ f a few specim5s only1 _m f only "o4 ,h[ does a sy/emati/ recognise t an organism ) :i* he is deal+ has n already be5 classifi$8 ,x diff]s f all o!r organisms mo/ l x1 t is1 he _c id5tify x ) any kn[n specific description4 ,b ! diff]5ces may be v small1 & if he _h a numb] ( specim5s ( ! species mo/ ne>ly resembl+ x he might f9d t ^! diff]5ces 7 less ?an ! limits ( v>iation 9 ?is mo/ closely alli$ species1 & he w\ld !n relegate x to ?is category4 ,b if he has to comp>e 8 specim5 ) ! 8type0 "o1 t is1 ! only exi/+ specim5 on :i* ! species ( comp>ison 0 f\nd$1 ! te/ w\ld be unavailable4 ,! "q to be answ]$ is ?is3 are ! diff]5ce or diff]5ces to be reg>d$ z fluctuations1 or are !y ( 8specific rank08 ,n[ c]ta9ly _m sy/emati/s ( great exp]i5ce possess ?is p[] ( judgm5t1 ?\gh !y might be emb>rass$ by hav+ to /ate cle>ly :at 7 ! gr\nds on :i* _! judgm5t 0 bas$4 ,b on ! o!r h& ho/s ( species h be5 made by work]s :o did n possess ?is quality ( judgm5t2 & ev5 ) ! great sy/emati/s ( biology confusion has orig9at$4 ,sl[ly1 v sl[ly1 ! organic _w is becom+ bett] kn[n1 & ?is confusion is disappe>+4 ,! species1 !n1 :e!r x is ! sy/ematic gr\p ( ! biological sy/ems1 or ! elem5t>y species bas$ on ! /udy ( v>iability & inh]itance1 is an intellectual con/ruction3 an artifice design$ to facilitate our description ( nature4 ,?is is cle>ly ! case ) ! high] ord]s ( gr\ps 9 classifications3 g5]a1 families1 ord]s1 classes1 & phyla express logical relation%ips1 or describe 9 a hypo!tical =m our notions ( an evolution>y process4 ,b species1 x may be said1 h an actual reality3 !re are no g5]a 9 nature1 only species4 ,^! categories ( organisms really exi/2 !y h individuality1 a c]ta9 k9d ( organic unity1 inasmu* z ! individuals compos+ !m h desc5d$ f a common ance/or4 ,yet j z mu* may be said ( g5]a1 families1 & ! o!r gr\p+s4 ,"o species orig9ates f ano!r by a process ( transmutation3 a g5us is a gr\p ( species :i* h all _h a common orig92 a family is a simil>ly relat$ gr\p ( g5]a1 & s on4 ,! high] categories ( biological sci5ce are int5d$ to introduce ord] & simplification into ! confusion & ri*ness ( nature z we obs]ve x1 b obvi\sly ! concept ( ! species has ! same practical object4 ,mu/ we !n say t !re are no species 9 nature1 only individuals8 ,if s1 we are at once emb>rass$ by ! difficulty ( =m+ a cle> notion ( :at is meant by organic individuality4 ,does x n indicate t life on ! e>? is really integral1 & t our analysis ( its =ms--species1 g5]a1 families1 & s on--are only conv5i5t ways ( deal+ actively ) all its ri*ness8 ,sy/ematic biology is a v matt]-(-fact occupation1 & "o is surpris$ to f9d ^u reflection h[ he1 9 8 h&l+ ( ! concepts ( ! sci5ce1 foll[s ! me?ods ( anci5t philosophy4 ,9 classical metaphysical sy/ems mutability 0 an illusion4 ,beh9d ! confusion & *ange giv5 to s5sation !re is some?+ t is immutable & et]nal4 ,if !re is *ange !re is some?+ t *anges2 or1 at lea/ !re ought to be some?+ t *anges :5 x is p]ceiv$ ?r\gh ! mi/s ( s5sation1 j z ! image ( a well-kn[n object on ! horizon wav]s & is di/ort$ by refraction4 ,?is immutable reality is ! ,=m or ,ess5ce ( ! ,platonic ,idea3 t :i* is 9 "s way degrad$ by its projection into mat]iality1 s t we become aw>e ( x only ?r\gh our imp]fect organs ( s5se4 ,we d n see ! ,=m itself1 b its quality r1 ! ,=m ) some?+ add$ or some?+ tak5 away f x4 ,! ,=m itself is only a phase 9 a process ( transmutation4 ,ev]y?+ t exi/s 9 "t fl[s or passes into some?+ else4 ,b x is n a mom5t>y or in/antane\s view ( ! flux t we see1 b r a c]ta9 aspect ( ! reality t fl[s1 t 9 "s way expresses ! nature ( ! transmutation f "o ,=m into ano!r4 ,! sculptor repres5ts ! motion ( a man runn+ by symbolis+ 9 "o attitude all ! actions ( body & limbs2 s t f our actual1 s5sible exp]i5ce or intuition ( ! movem5t ( ! runn] we see 9 ! rigid m>ble all ! pla/icity ( life4 ,! in/antane\s photograph %[s u a mom5t>y fix$ attitude ( ! runn]--an attitude :i* is /range & unfamili>4 ,! ,idea does n1 !n1 repres5t a mom5t ( becom+ l ! photograph1 b r a typical or ess5tial phase ( ! process ( transmutation1 j z ! sculptor repres5ts 9 immobile =m ! *>act]i/ic leap =w>d ( ! runn]4 ,j z our intuitive k ( ! actions ( our own bodies enables u to read into ! *>act]i/ic attitude repres5t$ 9 ! m>ble all ! o!r attitudes ( ! s]ies ( movem5ts1 s our exp]i5ce enables u to exp& ! =mal mom5t ( becom+ into ! action :i* x symbolises4 ,?is action has a purpose1 an int5tion or design :i* 0 contemplat$ be=e x began4 ,!re is !re=e ! ?reefold mean+ 9 ! ,platonic ,idea3 7#a7 an immutable & ess5tial ,=m ( :i* we p]ceive only ! quality2 7#b7 ! *>act]i/ic phase 9 ! transmutation ( ?is ,=m into "s o!r "o2 & 7#c7 ! design or int5tion ( ! transmutation4 ,?is 01 z ,b]gson says1 ! natural metaphysics ( ! intellect4 ,x 01 9 reality1 ! 8practical0 way ( introduc+ ord] & simplification into ! confusion ( ! s5sible _w--all t is pres5t$ to u by our intuitions4 ,& 9 ! ef=t to r$uce to ord] ! welt] ( ! organic _w biology has foll[$ ! same me?od1 s t x repres5ts ! species ) ! ?reefold significance ( ! ,platonic ,idea4 ,t :i* is express$ 9 ! t]m species is an assemblage ( organisms ea* ( :i* is def9$ by an ess5tial =m & an ess5tial mode ( behavi\r--! *>act]s indicat$ 9 ! specific diagnosis4 ,b organisms are v>iable1 _! specific *>act]s fluctuate r\nd a mean1 & 9 say+ ?is we sugge/ t !re is some?+ :i* v>ies--!re ought to be an ess5tial =m f :i* ! obs]v$ =ms ( ! individuals deviate1 some?+ inv>iable :i* nev]!less v>ies accid5tally4 ,?is is 7#a7 ! quality ( ! specific idea4 ,s also we nev] d actually obs]ve ! ess5tial individual2 :at we d see is ! embryo1 or ! "y & sexually immature organism1 or ! sexually mature "o1 or ! s5esc5t "o3 !re is cont9ual *ange f ! "t ( bir? to t ( s5ile decay4 ,?is confusion is unmanageable1 & = x we sub/itute ! *>act]i/ic =m & function+1 & t phase 9 ! life-hi/ory ( ! organism :i* sugge/s all t ! previ\s phases h l$ up to1 & all t subsequ5t phases take away4 ,?us !re is conta9$ 9 our idea ( ! species 7#b7 ! notion ( a typical mom5t 9 an individual trans=mation4 ,x is n a 8snap-%ot0 ( "s mom5t 9 ! life-hi/ory t we make3 9 id5tify+ a l>val =m z "s species ( animal we are id5tify+ x ) all ! o!r phases ( ! life-hi/ory4 ,s9ce we accept ! doctr9e ( trans=mism1 ! specific idea also includes t ( an evolution>y process4 ,= ! organic _w is a flux ( becom+1 & species are only mom5ts 9 ?is becom+4 ,x does n help u to reflect t if ! hypo!sis ( evolution by mutations is true ! process is a discont9u\s "o3 mutability is ! result ( p]iods ( immutability dur+ :i* ! *ange 0 g]m9at+1 s to speak4 ,9 ?is flux ( becom+ we seize mom5ts at :i* ! specific =m fla%es out--n z in/antane\s views ( ! flux1 b z aspects ( x :i* sugge/ ! /eps1 ! morphological processes1 by :i* ! transmutation ( ! species has be5 effect$4 ,?us our specific idea repres5ts n only a phase ( becom+ 9 an individual life-hi/ory1 b also a phase ( becom+ 9 an evolution>y hi/ory4 ,:e!r we consid] ?is evolution>y movem5t z ! work+ out ( a ,creative ,?\ght1 or z ! developm5t ( elem5ts assembl$ toge!r by design1 or z ! results ( ! action ( a me*anism work+ by itself1 we mu/ suppose t und]ly+ x !re is design1 or purpose1 or det]m9ism4 ,all is giv51 !re=e1 & our comp>ison betwe5 ! metaphysical ,platonic ,idea & ! mod]n concept ( ! species becomes complete4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,trans=mism ,! species is !re=e a gr\p ( organisms all ( :i* exhibit ! same morphological *>act]s4 ,?is sam5ess is n absolute1 = ! individuals compos+ ! species may v>y f ea* o!r ) respect to any "o "*4 ,b ! range ( ^! v>iations is limit$4 ,!y fluctuate ab\t an imag9>y mean value :i* rema9s con/ant 9 ! case ( a species :i* is n und]go+ selection1 & is !re=e ne>ly ! same ?r\gh\t a s]ies ( g5]ations4 ,! =mal *>act]s :i* we reg>d z diagno/ic ( ! species are ^! imag9>y mean ones4 ,x is possible to bre$ f /ock a v great numb] ( animals1 all ( :i* are connect$ by a tie ( blood-relation%ip1 t is1 all h desc5d$ f ! same ance/or or ance/ors4 ,su* an assemblage ( animals w\ld resemble ^? assemblages liv+ 9 ! wild :i* we call species1 9 t a c]ta9 morphological simil>ity w\ld be exhibit$ by all ! individuals4 ,if ! bre$+ 7 conduct$ s z to avoid selection1 ! range ( v>iability w\ld be v mu* ! same z t obs]v$ 9 ! wild race4 ,! two gr\ps ( animals--t br$ artificially1 & t obs]v$ 9 natural conditions--w\ld be v mu* alike1 & x is impossible to resi/ ! conclusion t ! natural race1 l ! artificial "o1 is a family 9 ! human s5se1 t is1 all ! individuals compos+ x are connect$ toge!r by a tie ( common desc5t4 ,let u ext5d ?is reason+ to categories ( organisms ( high] ord]s ?an species4 ,we c associate toge!r gr\ps ( species 9 ! same way t we associate toge!r ! individuals ( ! same species4 ,!re are c]ta9 morphological *>act]s :i* are common to all ! species 9 ! category1 b !re are also diff]5ces betwe5 specific gr\p & specific gr\p1 & ^! diff]5ces may be reg>d$ z v>iations f ! g5]ic morphological type4 ,all ! ,cats1 = in/ance1 h c]ta9 *>act]s 9 common3 fully retractile claws1 a c]ta9 k9d ( d5tition1 c]ta9 cranial *>act]s1 & s on4 ,we po/ulate a fel9e type ( /ructure1 & we !n reg>d ! *>act]s display$ by ! cat1 lion1 tig]1 leop>d1 etc41 z deviations f ?is fel9e morphological type4 ,?us we e/abli% ! ,family ,felid4 ,b aga9 we f9d t ! ,felid toge!r ) ! ,canid1 & _m o!r species ( animals1 also display common *>act]s1 d5tal & o/eological *iefly1 & we express ?is resemblance by assembl+ all ^! families 9 "o ,ord]1 ! ,c>nivora4 ,! ,c>nivores1 h[ev]1 are only "o l>ge gr\p ( ,quadrup$s3 !re are _m o!rs1 su* z ! ,rod5ts1 ,ungulates1 ,cetacea1 etc41 & all ( ^! possess common *>act]s4 ,9 all ( !m ! integum5t is provid$ ) hairs1 or o!r simil>ly develop$ /ructures2 all brea! by means ( a diaphragm2 9 all1 ! "y are n\ri%$ by suckl+ ! mamm ( ! "m2 & all develop on a plac5ta4 ,we !re=e gr\p !m all 9 ! ,class ,mammalia4 ,n[ ! ,mammals possess an int]nal skeleton ( :i* ! mo/ fundam5tal "p is an axial rod--! noto*ord--develop+ to =m a v]tebral column2 & ?is noto*ordal skeleton is also possess$ by ! ,birds1 ,reptiles1 ,amphibia1 & ,fi%es4 ,!re are also "s small] gr\ps 9 :i* ! noto*ord is pres5t b does n develop to =m segm5t$ v]tebr4 ,includ+ ^!1 we are able to =m a l>ge category ( animals--! ,*ordata--& ?is phylum is %>ply di/+ui%$ f all o!r cognate gr\ps4 ,all animals & plants may be classifi$ 9 a simil> way4 ,insects1 ,spid]s1 & ,cru/acea1 = in/ance1 are all animals 9 :i* ! body is jo9t$1 ea* jo9t or segm5t be+ typically provid$ ) a pair ( jo9t$ app5dages or limbs4 ,because ( ?is simil>ity ( fundam5tal /ructure we include all ^! animals1 ) "s o!rs1 9 "o phylum1 ! ,ar?ropoda4 ,s also ) ! re/ ( ! animal k+dom1 & simil> me?ods may be ext5d$ to ! classification ( ! plants4 ,a few small gr\ps 9 ea* ( ! k+doms are difficult to classify1 b x has be5 possible to arrange mo/ liv+ organisms 9 a small numb] ( sub-k+doms or phyla1 & ev5 to attempt to trace relation%ips betwe5 ^! v>i\s categories4 ,! m]e sy/ematic description ( ! organic _w w\ld h result$ 9 su* a reason$ classification ap>t altoge!r f any notions ( an evolution>y process4 ,b ! classification1 orig9ally a conv5tional way ( mak+ a li/ ( organisms1 w\ld at once sugge/ morphological simil>ities4 ,x w\ld sugge/ t all ! ,cats 7 ,c>nivores1 t all ! ,c>nivores 7 ,mammals1 & t all ! ,mammals 7 ,*ordates4 ,x w\ld sugge/ t all ,wasps 7 ,hym5opt]a1 t all ,hym5opt]a 7 ,insects1 & t all ,insects 7 ,ar?ropods4 ,x w\ld e/abli% a ho/ ( logical relations betwe5 animals ( all k9ds4 ,x w\ld %[ u a numb] ( gr\ps ( animals sep>at$ f ea* o!r by morphological dissimil>ities4 ,b let u also consid] all ^? animals :i* liv$ 9 ! pa/ ( ! e>?1 & ! rema9s ( :i* are f\nd 9 ! rocks z fossils4 ,includ+ all ! =ms ( life kn[n to ,palontology1 we %\ld f9d t ! dissimil>ities betwe5 ! v>i\s gr\ps w\ld t5d to disappe>4 ,! gaps betwe5 exi/+ ,birds & ,reptiles1 = in/ance1 w\ld become p>tially bridg$4 ,palontology w\ld also supplem5t morphology 9 ano!r way4 ,! /udy ( ! /ructure ( animals leads u to describe !m z 8high]0 & 8l[]0--high] 9 ! s5se ( a great] complexity ( /ructure4 ,?us ! body ( a ,c>nivore is m complex ?an t ( a ,fi%1 inasmu* z x possesses ! homologues ( ! truly pisc9e gills1 b x also possesses a f\r-*amb]$ he>t in/ead ( a two-*amb]$ "o2 & x possesses ! mammalian lungs1 diaphragm1 & plac5ta1 /ructures :i* are n pres5t 9 ! ,fi%4 ,n[1 s f> z its imp]fect mat]ials g1 palontology %[s u t ! high] =ms ( life appe>$ on ! e>? at a lat] date ?an did ! l[] =ms4 ,! rema9s ( ,mammals1 = in/ance1 are fir/ f\nd 9 rocks :i* are y\ng] ?an 7t is1 !y are sup]pos$ ^u7 ^? rocks 9 :i* ,reptiles fir/ appe>2 & s also ,reptiles appe> lat] 9 ! rock s]ies ?an d ,fi%es4 ,palontology ?us adds to ! logical ord] sugge/$ by morphology a *ronological ord] ( ?is nature3 high]1 or m complex =ms ( life appe>$ at a lat] date 9 ! hi/ory ( ! e>? ?an did l[] or less complex ones4 ,a p>allel *ronological sequ5ce w\ld also be sugge/$ by ! results ( embryology4 ,?is bran* ( biology %[s u t all animals pass ?r\gh a s]ies ( /ages 9 _! individual developm5t1 or ontog5y4 ,! e>li] /ages repres5t a simple type ( /ructure1 usually a holl[ ball ( cells1 b z developm5t proce$s1 ! /ructure ( ! embryo becomes m & m complex4 ,! process ( developm5t is cont9u\s 9 _m animals1 b 9 o!rs 7p]haps 9 mo/7 l>val /ages appe>1 t is1 developm5t is int]rupt$1 & ! animal may lead = a "t an indep5d5t exi/5ce simil> to t ( ! fully develop$ =m4 ,(t5 ^! l>val /ages sugge/ types ( /ructure l[] ?an t ( ! fully develop$ animal into :i* !y trans=m4 ,ev5 if l>val /ages may n appe> 9 ! ontog5y1 x is v (t5 ! case t ! develop+ embryo exhibits traces1 or at lea/ rem9isc5ces1 ( ! types ( morphology *>act]i/ic ( ! animals :i* are l[] or less complex ?an itself2 ?us ! pisc9e gills appe> dur+ ! developm5t ( ! tail$ ,amphibian1 & ev5 9 t ( ! ,mammal1 & !n vani%1 or are conv]t$ into organs ( ano!r k9d4 ,! individual ?us passes ?r\gh a s]ies ( developm5tal /ages ( increas+ complexity3 x repeats1 9 its ontog5y1 ! palontological sequ5ce 9 a di/ort$ & abbreviat$ =m4 ,x is true t ! evid5ce af=d$ by palontology is v meagre4 ,! pres]vation ( ! rema9s ( organisms 9 ! /ratifi$ rocks is a v haphaz>d process1 & x dep5ds = its success on a s]ies ( conditions t are n always pres5t4 ,z ! surface ( ! e>? becomes bett] kn[n1 our k ( ! life ( ! pa/ w become full]1 b !re c be little d\bt t :ole s]ies ( organisms mu/ h exi/$ 9 ! pa/1 & t no recognisable traces ( ^! are kn[n to u4 ,!re is also no d\bt t ! sequ5ces indicat$ by palontology are v incomplete3 !y are obscur$ & %ort5$ by _m conditions4 ,! e>li] embryologi/s ent]ta9$ hopes t ! /udy ( embryology w\ld reveal ! direction ( ! evolution>y process 9 _m gr\ps ( animals3 if ! organism repeats 9 its ontog5y ! s]ies ( /ages ?r\gh :i* x pass$ 9 its phylog5etic developm5t1 !n a close /udy ( ! embryological process ought to disclose ^! /ages4 ,al?\gh ^! hopes h n be5 realis$1 !re is yet suffici5t tru? 9 ! doctr9e ( recapitulation to enable u to /ate t !re is a r\gh p>allelism betwe5 ! palontological & embryological sequ5ces4 ,we !re=e /ate a plausible hypo!sis :5 we ass]t t diff]5t species may be relat$ to ea* o!r 9 ! same way t ! individuals ( ! same species are relat$1 t is1 by a tie ( blood-relation%ip2 & t diff]5t g5]a1 families1 ord]s1 & s on are also s relat$4 ,morphological /udies enable u to arrange numb]s ( species 9 su* a way t s]ies1 9 ea* ( :i* !re is an increas+ specialisation ( /ructure1 are =m$4 ,bo? palontology & embryology %[1 to "s ext5t at lea/1 t ^! /ages ( ev]-increas+ specialisation ( /ructure occurr$ "o aft] ! o!r4 ,n[1 /at$ briefly & baldly z we h put x1 ?is argum5t may n appe> to ! g5]al read] to possess mu* =ce1 b x is almo/ impossible to ov]-/ate ! /r5g? ( ! appeal :i* x makes to ! /ud5t ( biology4 ,to su* a "o a belief 9 a process ( trans=mism w appe> to be insep>able f a reason$ description ( ! facts ( ! sci5ce4 ,b x w\ld be no m ?an a belief1 n ev5 a hypo!sis1 if we did n attempt to v]ify x exp]im5tally4 ,x is m]ely logical relation%ips t we e/abli%1 & ! *ronological succession ( =ms ( life1 high] =ms succe$+ l[] ones1 does n itself d m ?an sugge/ an evolution>y process4 ,all t we h said is compatible ) a belief 9 a process ( special creation4 ,b if we cl+ to su* a belief1 if we suppose t ! organisms inhabit+ ! e>?1 n[ & 9 ! pa/1 are ! manife/ations ( a ,creative ,?\ght1 we mu/ /ill accept ! notion ( logical & *ronological relation%ips betwe5 all ^! =ms ( life4 ,if we p]mit ourselves to speculate on ! work+ ( ! ,creative ,?\ght1 we seem to recognise t ! ideas ( ! diff]5t species mu/ h g5]at$ ea* o!r1 & t ! g5esis ( liv+ ?+s mu/ h occurr$ 9 "s su* ord] z is indicat$ by a sci5tific hypo!sis ( trans=mism4 ,an evolution>y process mu/ h occurr$ some:]e1 b ! k9%ips s e/abli%$ betwe5 organisms w\ld be logical & n mat]ial ones4 ,sci5ce mu/ n1 ( c\rse1 describe ! mode ( orig9 ( species 9 ?is way4 ,s long z x inve/igates liv+ ?+s by ! same me?ods :i* x uses 9 ! inve/igation ( inorganic ?+s1 x mu/ hold t ! concepts ( physical sci5ce are also adequate = ! description ( organic nature4 ,x mu/ assume t matt] & en]gy & natural law are giv52 & t1 ev5 9 ! conditions ( our _w1 life mu/ h orig9at$ f lifeless matt]2 mu/ h %ap$ itself1 & und]gone ! trans=mations t are sugge/$ by ! results ( biology4 ,x mu/ assume1 9 spite ( ! =midable difficulties t ! assumption enc\nt]s1 t cosmic physical processes are rev]sible & cyclical2 & t worlds & sol> sy/ems are born1 evolve1 & decay aga94 ,e /age 9 su* a cosmic process1 z well z e /age 9 ! evolution ( liv+ ?+s1 mu/ h be5 inevitably det]m9$ by ! /ages prec$+ x4 ,su* a me*ani/ic explanation mu/ assume t a sup]human intellect1 b /ill a f9ite intellect l our own1 su* a calculator z t imag9$ by ,laplace or ,du ,bois-,reymond1 w\ld be able to d$uce any /ate ( ! _w1 or univ]sal sy/em1 f any o!r /ate1 by means ( an imm5se sy/em ( diff]5tial equations4 ,x w\ld be able1 z ,huxley says1 to calculate ! fauna ( ,great ,brita9 f a k ( ! prop]ties ( ! primitive nebulosity ) z mu* c]ta9ty z we c say :at w be ! fate ( a man's brea? on a fro/y day4 ,su* a f9e notion z t ( an univ]sal ma!matics mu/ ev] rema9 z ! ideal t[>ds :i* sci5ce /rives to approximate4 ,or we may suppose t a plan or design has be5 sup]pos$ on nature1 is imman5t 9 matt] & en]gy1 & works itself out1 s to speak4 ,su* a teleological explanation ( inorganic & organic evolution inevitably =ces itself ^u u if we reject ! notion ( radical me*anism4 ,we ?9k ( an univ]sal sy/em ( matt] & en]gies z consi/+ ( elem5ts :i*1 :5 assembl$ toge!r1 int]act 9 a c]ta9 way1 & ) results :i* are def9ite & calculable4 ,! assembl+ toge!r ( ! elem5ts ( ! sy/em w\ld be ! result ( ! previ\s phases ( ! sy/em4 ,t is radical me*anism4 ,b let u ?9k ( ! elem5ts ( ! sy/em z be+ diff]5tly assembl$--?us involv+ ! idea ( an ag5cy1 ext]nal to ! sy/em1 :i* re>ranges !m--!n ! same en]gies inh]5t 9 ?is sy/em1 z 9 t previ\sly imag9$1 w also "w out by !mselves4 ,b ! result w be diff]5t1 & w dep5d on ! mann] 9 :i* ! elem5ts 7 orig9ally arrang$4 ,t w\ld be radical f9alism4 ,sci5ce mu/ reject ?is notion z x rejects t ( special creation1 s9ce x introduces indet]m9ism into ! evolution>y process4 ,x mu/ reg>d ! organism & its environm5t z a physico-*emical sy/em /udi$ f )\t4 ,x mu/ avoid all attempts to acquire an intuitive k ( ! actions ( ! organism1 = ! latt]1 & ! ?+s :i* environ x1 are only bodies mov+ 9 nature4 ,9 ! sy/ems /udi$ by x "t mu/ be ! indep5d5t v>iable1 & !re mu/ be a /rict functionality betwe5 ! p>ts ( ! organism & ! p>ts ( ! react+ environm5t1 s t any *ange 9 ! "o mu/ necess>ily be dep5d5t on a *ange 9 ! o!r4 ,su* a sy/em & s]ies ( int]actions is t :i* is describ$ 9 a me*ani/ic hypo!sis ( trans=mism4 ,all ?is is inde$ sugge/$ to ord9>y & aid$ me?ods ( obs]vation4 ,! plant or animal acts ^u1 & is act$ on by1 ! environm5t1 ?\gh x is usually ! modification ( ! organism to :i* we att5d4 ,a man's face becomes r$d5$ by w9d & sun & ra92 manual lab\r r\gh5s 8 h&s & develops callosities2 9 ! summ] he sweats & loses heat2 9 ! w9t] ! blood-vessels ( 8 sk9 contract & heat is economis$4 ,9 ! w9t] mon?s ! fur ( _m animals becomes m luxuriant & may *ange 9 col\r4 ,fi%es :i* inhabit lightly col\r$ s& are lightly pigm5t$1 b _! sk9s become d>k :5 !y move on to d>kly col\r$ sea-bottoms2 prawns :i* are br[n :5 !y live on br[n we$1 become gre5 :5 !y are plac$ on gre5 we$4 ,birds migrate into w>m] c\ntries1 & vice v]sa1 :5 ! seasons *ange4 ,su* are in/ances ( ! adaptations ( ! morphology & function+ ( organisms consequ5t on *anges ( environm5t4 ,:at is an adaptation8 ,! t]m plays a great "p 9 biological speculation1 b x is (t5 us$ 9 a loose & inaccurate mann]1 & n always 9 ! same s5se4 ,x sugge/s t ! organism is conta9$ by ! environm5t1 & t its =m becomes adapt$ to t ( ! latt]1 j z ! metal :i* ! ironf\nd] p\rs into ! m\ld takes ! =m ( ! cavity 9 ! s&4 8,we see once m h[ pla/ic is ! organism 9 ! grasp ( its environm5t0--su* a quotation f morphological lit]ature is p]haps a typical "o4 ,ov] & ov] aga9 ?is passive *ange 9 ! organism z ! result ( ! action ( some?+ rigid :i* presses ^u x is :at is und]/ood by an adaptation4 ,no d\bt ! organism may be s affect$1 & (t5 ! *ange :i* x exp]i5ces is ( ! same ord] z ! environm5tal *ange4 ,9 ! w9t] _m animals become sluggi% & may hib]nate2 _! he>t-beats sl[ d[n2 _! respiratory movem5ts become less frequ5t1 & g5]ally ! rate ( metabolism1 t is ! rapidity ) :i* *emical reactions proce$ 9 _! tissues1 becomes less5$4 ,all ^! *anges become rev]s$ 9 sign :5 ! temp]ature aga9 rises4 ,! "t ( ye> at :i* a fi% spawns dep5ds on ! nature ( ! previ\s season4 ,! rate ( developm5t ( ! egg ( a cold-blood$ animal v>ies ) ! temp]ature4 ,! quantity ( />* =m$ 9 a gre5 leaf dep5ds on c]ta9 v>iables--! int5sity ( light1 ! temp]ature1 & ! quantity ( c>bonic acid conta9$ 9 ! m$ium 9 :i* x is plac$4 ,9 all ^! cases ! rate at :i* c]ta9 metabolic processes g on 9 ! body ( an organism v>ies accord+ to ! conditions ( ! environm5t4 ,9 g5]al !y are cases ( van't ,h(f's law1 t is1 ! rapidity at :i* a *emical reaction proce$s v>ies accord+ to ! temp]ature4 ,!y are *anges ( function+ passively exp]i5c$ by ! organism z ! result ( environm5tal *anges1 & we mu/ cle>ly di/+ui% betwe5 !m & su* *anges z are ! result ( "s activity or ef=t on ! "p ( ! organism4 ,a fl\nd] :i* lives 9 a riv] migrates out to sea :5 ! fir/ ( ! w9t] sn[s melt & flood ! e/u>y ) ice-cold wat]4 ,br[n or /rip$ prawns liv+ on br[n or /rip$ we$s become gre5 :5 !y are plac$ on gre5 we$1 *ang+ _! pigm5tation to mat* t ( ! alga4 ,a kitt5 br\ght up 9 a cold-/orage w>eh\se develops a sleek] & m luxuriant coat ?an does its si/] re>$ 9 a well-w>m$ h\se4 ,an animal :i* recov]s f diph!ria =ms an antitox9 :i* enables x to resi/1 = a "t at lea/1 repeat$ infection4 ,a man :o goes explor+ 9 pol> seas puts on w>m] clo?+ ?an he we>s 9 ! tropics4 ,x is n necess>y t an environm5tal *ange %\ld occur 9 ord] t an adaptation %\ld be evok$1 = ! organism may react actively & purposefully to a *ange 9 itself4 ,! a?lete acquires by runn+ or r[+ a m p[]ful he>t2 ! blacksmi? develops m muscul> %\ld]s & arms2 & ! pr(essional piani/ m supple wri/s & f+]s4 ,if "o kidney is remov$ by op]ation1 or if "o lung becomes diseas$1 ! organ on ! o!r side ( ! body becomes hyp]trophi$4 ,aphasia1 :i* is due to a lesion 9 ! unilat]al spee*-c5tre1 may pass away if ! previ\sly unus$ c5tre on ! o!r side ( ! bra9 %\ld become functionally active4 ,9 g5]al1 ! cont9u$ use ( an organ leads to its increase 9 size & effici5cy1 & conv]sely disuse leads to a decrease ( size & ev5 to atrophy4 ,! ess5ce ( an adaptation is t x is an active1 purposeful *ange ( behavi\r1 or function+1 or morphology1 by :i* ! organism responds to "s *ange 9 its physical environm5t1 or to "s o!r *ange 9 its own behavi\r1 or function+1 or morphology4 ,x is also a *ange :i* rema9s z a p]man5t "* 9 ! organisation ( ! animal exhibit+ x4 ,x does n matt] ev5 if ! *ange ( behavi\r is "o :i* is will$ 9 response to "s *ange ( environm5t actually exp]i5c$1 or :e!r x anticipates "s *ange t is =ese54 ,a *ang$ mode ( behavi\r adapt$ intellig5tly leaves1 at ! lea/1 a memory :i* becomes a p]man5t "p ( ! consci\sness ( ! animal1 & may influ5ce its future actions2 or if x is evok$ by a process ( education x mu/ involve ! e/abli%m5t ( a 8motor habit40 ,! education ( a s+] sets up1 9 ! cortex & l[] c5tres ( ! bra91 a n]v\s me*anism :i* controls & co-ord9ates ! muscles ( ! *e/ & l>ynx1 & :i* did n exi/ prior to ! process ( education4 ,adaptations are !re=e acquir$ *anges ( "s k9d or o!r by means ( :i* ! organism is able to ex]t a great] degree ( ma/]y ov] its environm5t1 includ+ 9 ! latt] bo? ! in]t matt] ( inorganic nature & ! o!r organisms ) :i* ! animal competes4 ,!y are acquirem5ts because ( :i* ! organism deviates f ! morphological /ructure *>act]i/ic ( ! species to :i* x belongs4 ,d !y affect ! entire organisation ( ! animal exhibit+ !m1 t is1 may an acquir$ *ange ( /ructure be s fundam5tal t x affects n only ! body ( ! animal 9 :i* x occurs b also ! prog5y ( ?is animal8 ,let u suppose t ?is is ! case2 let u suppose t q a l>ge proportion ( all ! individuals ( a species inhabit+ a re/rict$ "p ( ! e>?'s surface acquire ! same *ange ( "* simultane\sly & t !y transmit ?is deviation ( /ructure to _! prog5y4 ,!n we %\ld h an adequate means :]eby ! specific type becomes modifi$--a means ( trans=mism4 ,?is is ! hypo!sis :i* is associat$ ) ! "n ( ,lam>ck1 & its ess5tial po/ulate is t *>act]s :i* are acquir$ by an organism dur+ its own lifetime are transmitt$ to its (fspr+4 ,x seems reasonable to suppose t ?is transmission ( acquir$ *>act]s %\ld occur--h[ reasonable we %\ld note :5 we see t de ,vries tacitly assumes t fluctuat+ v>iations due to ! action ( ! environm5t may be inh]it$ by ! (fspr+ ( organisms :i* exhibit !m4 ,t transmutation ( species might occur 9 ?is way 0 a popul> & widespread belief 9 ,engl& & ,g]many ?r\gh\t ! great] "p ( ! n9ete5? c5tury2 & x 0 a belief ent]ta9$ by ,d>w9 himself1 & confid5tly1 & ev5 dogmatically affirm$ at "o "t by ! majority ( biologi/s 9 bo? c\ntries4 ,h[ 0 x1 !n1 t a v g5]al *ange ( op9ion ) reg>d to ?is "q occurr$ bo? 9 ,engl& & ,g]many dur+ ! la/ two decades ( ! la/ c5tury8 ,c]ta9ly _m botani/s & zoologi/s cont9u$ to adh]e to ! old] hypo!sis1 & mo/ physiologi/s /ill d n appe> to make any cle> di/9ction betwe5 morphological *>act]s :i* are inh]it$ & ^? :i* are acquir$2 b ! majority ( biologi/s did n hesitate to conclude t n only 0 ! transmission ( acquir$ *>act]s an unprov$ conjecture1 b t x 0 ev5 !oretically inconceivable4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ?is belief _h almo/ become a doctr9e dogmatically ass]t$1 & "o _c fail to notice a tone ( irritation & impati5ce on ! "p ( ! spokesm5 ( zoology :5 ! contr>y op9ions are express$4 8,nature10 says ,sir ,e4 ,ray ,lanke/]1 87& !re's an end ( x7 does n use acquir$ *>act]s 9 ! mak+ & su/a9+ ( species = ! v simple reason t %e _c d s40 ,!re c be little d\bt t ! int]rogation ( nature ) reg>d to ?is "q 0 n a v ?or\gh process4 ,! dogmatic d5ial ( ! transmission ( acquir$ *>act]s 0 n ! result ( exhau/ive exp]im5t & obs]vation1 b 0 due r to ! v g5]al acceptance 9 ,engl& & ,g]many ( ,d>w9's hypo!sis ( ! transmutation ( species by means ( natural selection1 & ( ,weismann's hypo!sis ( ! cont9uity ( ! g]m-plasm4 ,! new] hypo!sis ( transmutation 0 "o :i* seem$ adequate to acc\nt = ! div]sity ( =ms ( life1 s t x 0 unnecess>y to invoke ! old] "o2 ?\gh ,d>w9 himself admitt$ t ! individual acquirem5t ( /ructural modifications might be a factor 9 ! evolution>y process2 & = m ?an tw5ty ye>s aft] ! publication ( ! 8,orig9 ( ,species0 ,lam>ck's hypo!sis 0 n /r5u\sly d5i$ by naturali/s4 ,e>ly 9 ! 'eighties1 h[ev]1 ,weismann publi%$ 8 book on ! g]m-plasm1 & ! brilliancy & con/ructive ability ( ! speculations conta9$ 9 ?is rem>kable "w1 z well z ! analogies :i* !y sugge/$ betwe5 organic & inorganic ph5om5a1 compell$ ! att5tion ( biologi/s4 ,! ess5tial p>ts ( ,weismann's hypo!sis1 z x 0 fir/ pres5t$ to ! _w1 are z foll[s3 v e>ly 9 ! evolution ( liv+ f non-liv+ matt] _m k9ds ( life-sub/ance came into exi/5ce4 ,^! 7 *emical comp\nds ( great complexity1 able to accumulate & exp5d en]gy1 & capable ( indef9ite gr[? & reproduction4 ,!y 7 able to exi/ 9 an environm5t :i* 0 ho/ile to !m & :i* t5d$ always to _! dissolution1 & :i* 0 able to modify _! nature & _! mann] ( react+1 ?\gh x c\ld n de/roy !m4 ,^! elem5t>y life-sub/ances 7 v diff]5t f ^? :i* we "k 9 ! _w ( to-day4 ,!y 7 nak$ protoplasmic aggregates1 undiff]5tiat$ into cellul> or nucle> plasmata1 mu* less into somatic & g]m9al tissues4 ,all ( _! p>ts 7 simil>1 or r _! sub/ance 0 homog5e\s4 ,b ev5 ) ! evolution ( ! unicellul> organism a pr(\nd *ange 0 initiat$1 = h5ce=? "o "p ( ! liv+ entity1 ! nucleus1 became *>g$ ) ! function ( reproduction1 al?\gh x /ill cont9u$ to ex]cise g5]al control ov] ! functions ( ! extra-nucle> "p ( ! cell4 ,:5 ! multi-cellul> plant & animal became evolv$1 ! het]og5eity ( ! p>ts ( ! organism became great] /ill4 ,all ! cells ( ! metazoan animal d inde$ conta9 nuclei1 b ^! /ructures are only ! functional c5tres ( ! cells3 "s ( ! latt] are s5sory1 o!rs motor1 o!rs assimilatory1 o!rs excretory1 & s on4 ,only 9 ! nuclei :i* =m ! ess5tial p>ts ( ! reproductive organs does ! reproductive function p]si/ 9 all its entire pot5tiality3 !re only does ! protoplasm reta9 all ! prop]ties :i* 7 possess$ by ! primitive life-sub/ance be=e x became het]og5e\s1 t is1 be=e nucleus & cytoplasm evolv$4 ,:5 "p ( ! primitive life-sub/ance became seclud$ 9 a nucle> envelope1 x became1 to t ext5t1 %ield$ f ! action ( ! physical environm5t1 & :5 ! organism became compos$ ( multicellul> tissues ?is seclusion became m complete4 ,clo!d 9 ! g>m5ts ( ! fle%1 x 0 h5ce=? protect$ f ! %ocks ( ! environm5t1 & x became ! immutable g]m-plasm4 ,b = a v long "t be=e ?is evolution ( tissues ! nak$ life-sub/ance _h be5 expos$ to ! action ( ext]nal physical ag5cies1 & x _h be5 modifi$ by ^! into v num]\s =ms ( protoplasmic matt]4 ,:5 multicellul> plants & animals _h be5 evolv$ !re 71 !re=e1 n "o1 b _m k9ds ( life-sub/ance 9 exi/5ce1 & ^! h p]si/$ until to-day z ! un*ang+ g]m-plasmata ( ! exi/+ organisms4 ,! ,weismannian hypo!sis ( to-day1 support$ & amplifi$1 z x is1 by subsidi>y hypo!ses1 does n make ! same appeal to ! /ud5t z did ! pri/9e & altoge!r attractive speculation ( ?irty ye>s ago4 ,! analogy :i* x !n pres5t$ ) ! matur$ *emical !ory ( matt] mu/ h be5 almo/ irresi/ible4 ,j z ! indef9itely num]\s comp\nds ( *emi/ry are only ! p]mutations & comb9ations ( "s ( eighty-odd diff]5t k9ds ( matt]1 s all ! =ms ( life are comb9ations & p]mutations ( "s ( ! _m diff]5t k9ds ( life-sub/ance :i* came into exi/5ce be=e ! evolution ( ! multicellul> organism4 ,& j z ! *emical elem5ts 7 reg>d$ 79 #ahhc7 z immutable ?+s1 pres]v+ _! individuality ev5 :5 !y 7 associat$ toge!r z comp\nds1 s ,weismann & 8 foll[]s look$ ^u ! diff]5t k9ds ( life-sub/ance conta9$ 9 ! *romatic matt] ( ! nucleus z immutable & immortal liv+ entities4 ,associat$ toge!r 9 indef9itely num]\s ways by sexual conjugation1 !y may build up indef9itely v>iable liv+ /ructures1 b !y rema9 individualis$ & ly+ side by side 9 ! g]m-plasmata ( organisms1 j z ! atoms 7 suppos$ to lie side by side 9 ! *emical molecule ( ! inorganic comp\nd4#ca #ca ,we "k n[ t ?is /atem5t is n q accurate4 ,if ^! speculations 7 true1 a *ange ( morphology or function+1 acquir$ by ! body1 or somatoplasm1 c\ld n possibly be transmitt$ to ! prog5y ( ! organism1 = by hypo!sis ! g]m-plasm _c be affect$ by ext]nal *anges1 & x is only ! g]m-plasm conta9$ 9 ! sp]matozoon ( ! male p>5t1 or 9 ! ovum ( ! female1 t %apes & builds ! body ( ! (fspr+4 ,z if ?is 7 n en\gh1 ,weismann & 8 foll[]s argu$ t ! transmissibility ( a somatic *ange to ! g]m 0 inconceivable4 ,:y8 ,because ! g]m-cells are app>5tly simple3 !y are only semi-fluid protoplasmic cell bodies & nuclei1 n diff]+ appreciably f ! cell bodies & nuclei ( ! somatoplasm 7by hypo!sis1 x %\ld be not$1 ! diff]5ce is pr(\nd74 ,!re are no /ructural connections--no n]ves1 = in/ance--:i* jo9 toge!r ! cells ( ! bodily tissues ) ! p>ts ( ! g]m & transmit *anges 9 ! =m] to ! latt]4 ,h[1 !n1 c\ld a somatic *ange affect ! g]m s t :5 ! latt] develop$ into an organism ?is p>ticul> *ange became reproduc$8 ,n[ ?is may h seem$ a conclusive argum5t 9 #ahhc1 b is x s conclusive to-day8 ,we "k t ! cells & tissues are n isolat$ p>ticles1 b t all are connect$ toge!r by protoplasmic filam5ts4 ,we "k t specialis$ n]v\s tissues are n necess>y = ! transmission ( an impulse f a s5sory to a motor surface1 b t su* an impulse may be transmitt$ by undiff]5tiat$ protoplasm4 ,we "k t n]ve-cells & n]ve-fibres are n /ructurally cont9u\s ) ea* o!r b t ! impulse leaps across gaps1 s to speak4 ,we "k t ev5ts t occur 9 "o "p ( ! body ( ! mammal may affect o!r p>ts by means ( ! lib]ation ( a *emical sub/ance1 or hormone1 into ! blood /ream4 ,x w\ld be /range inde$ if a logical hypo!sis capable ( acc\nt+ = ! transmission ( a p>ticul> *ange f ! soma to ! g]m c\ld n be elaborat$4 ,b acquir$ *>act]s 7 n really transmitt$ aft] all4 ,s ^? :o clung to ,weismannism argu$--an unnecess>y task surely if ?is transmissibility 7 inconceivable4 ,we _c discuss ! evid5ce "h1 & x is unnecess>y t we %\ld d s1 s9ce x is all consid]$ 9 ! popul> books on h]$ity4 ,!re is an app>5t cons5sus ( op9ion 9 ^! books :i* %\ld n influ5ce ! read] unfamili> ) zoological lit]ature1 nor obscure ! fact t _m zoologi/s & botani/s accept ! opposite conclusion4 ,! discussion is all v tiresome1 b we may glean "s results ( positive value f x4 ,x is unque/ionable t v few conclusive & adequate inve/igations h be5 made3 "o _c help notic+ t ! lit]ature conta9s an am\nt ( controv]sy out ( all proportion to ! am\nt ( s\nd exp]im5tal & obs]vational "w actually c>ri$ out4 ,mo/ ( ! exp]im5ts deal ) ! consid]ation ( traumatic lesions or mutilations1 & x seems to be prov$ t su* defects are n transmitt$1 or at lea/ are v r>ely transmitt$4 ,! tails ( kitt5s h be5 cut (f2 ! e>s ( t]ri]-dogs h be5 lopp$2 & ! feet & wai/s ( ,*9ese & ,european ladies h be5 compress$1 & all ?r\gh\t v num]\s g5]ations1 yet ^! defects are n transmitt$ f p>5t to (fspr+4 ,?is k9d ( evid5ce =ms ! bulk ( t :i* or?odox zoological op9ion has adduc$ 9 fav\r ( ! belief 9 ! non-inh]itability ( acquir$ *>act]s1 b does x all really matt]8 ,:at might be transmitt$ is a useful1 purposeful modification ( morphology1 or function+1 or behavi\r1 induc$ by ! environm5t ?r\gh\t a numb] ( g5]ations--an adaptation r ?an a h>mful lesion4 ,!re is little conclusive evid5ce t su* adaptations are inh]it$1 ?\gh anyone :o c>efully /udies ! evid5ce 9 exi/5ce w n be likely to say t !y are c]ta9ly n transmitt$4 ,does1 = in/ance1 ! blacksmi? transmit 8 muscul> %\ld]s & arms to 8 sons1 or ! piani/e h] supple wri/s & f+]s to h] daught]s8 ,!re are no obs]vations & exp]im5ts 9 ! lit]ature wor?y ( ! importance atta*+ to ! "q at issue4 ,x %\ld be not$ also t ! g]m-plasm is c]ta9ly n ! immutable sub/ance t ! hypo!sis orig9ally po/ulat$4 ,*anges 9 ! out] physical environm5t may c]ta9ly affect x2 ?us ! l>v br$ f animals :i* live 9 abnormal physical conditions 7temp]ature1 moi/ure1 etc47 may diff] morphologically f ! l>v br$ f animals belong+ to ! same species b liv+ 9 a normal environm5t4 ,! latt] mu/ !re=e react on ! g]m-plasm1 b ! environm5t =m$ by ! bodily tissues :i* surr\nd ! g]m-cells may also s react3 ?us ! g]m-cells may be affect$ by su* bodily *anges z diff]5ces 9 ! supply ( nutritive matt]1 = in/ance4 ,! (fspr+ may deviate f ! p>5tal /ructure z ! result ( /ructural modifications acquir$ by ! p>5t dur+ its own lifetime1 &1 ev5 if ! filial deviation 7 n ( ! same nature z ! p>5tal modification1 its inh]itance w\ld be an adequate cause ( "s degree ( transmutation4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 c]ta9ly difficult to prove t organisms transmit to _! prog5y ! same k9ds ( deviation f ! specific /ructure t !y !mselves acquire z ! result ( ! action ( ! environm5t4 ,ev5 if !y did transmit su* acquir$ deviations1 x does n seem cle> t ?is k9d ( inh]itance alone w\ld be a suffici5t cause ( ! div]sity ( =ms ( life t we d actually obs]ve 9 nature4 ,*ange ( morphology w\ld inde$ occur1 b we %\ld expect to f9d ins5sible gradations ( =m & n individualis$ species4 ,let u suppose t ,lam>ckian inh]itance acts = a consid]able "t on two or ?ree orig9ally di/9ct species inhabit+ an isolat$ tract ( l&1 & let u suppose t we inve/igate ! v>iations occurr+ among all ! organisms :i* are accessible to our obs]vation ) respect to "s "o v>iable "*4 ,! diagram ,a repres5ts :at w\ld seem to be ! result ( ?is process ( transmutation4 ,! numb]s along ! horizontal l9e are proportional to _! di/ance f o1 ! orig91 & repres5t ! magnitude ( ! v>iation consid]$2 & ! height ( ! v]tical l9es repres5ts ! numb] ( organisms exhibit+ ea* degree ( v>iation4 ,we %\ld expect to f9d t all ! v>iations 7 equally frequ5t 9 _! occurr5ce1 b ?is is n :at a /udy ( v>iability 9 su* a case z we h suppos$--t ( ! animals inhabit+ an isolat$ "p ( l&--does actually indicate4 ,:at we %\ld f9d w\ld be ! conditions repres5t$ by ! diagram ,b4 ,!re w\ld be two or m modes1 t is1 values ( ! v>iable "* :i* are repres5t$ by a great] numb] ( individuals ?an any o!r value ( ! v>iation4 ,! environm5tal conditions fav\r ! individuals display+ ?is v>iation to a great] ext5t ?an !y fav\r ! re/4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,t is to say1 ! environm5t selects "s k9ds ( v>iations among ! _m t are exhibit$1 & ?is is1 ( c\rse1 ! ess5tial feature ( ! hypo!sis ( ! transmutation ( species by means ( natural selection ( v>iable *>act]s4 ,organisms ent] ! _w diff]5tly end[$ ) ! p[] ( act+ on ! m$ium 9 :i* !y live1 or on ! environm5t consi/+ ( _! fell[-organisms4 ,^? t are mo/ fav\rably end[$ live longe/ & h a m num]\s prog5y ?an ^? t are less fav\rably end[$1 & !y transmit ?is fav\rable end[m5t to _! (fspr+4 ,among ! prog5y ( ! prog5y !re may be "s 9 :i* ! fav\rable v>iation is /ill m fav\rable ?an x 0 :5 x fir/ appe>$4 ,?us ! v>iations :i* are select$ increase 9 am\nt4 ,elim9ation ( ! weake/ occurs4 ,! idea is em95tly cle> & simple1 & possesses a great degree ( g5]ality3 x is self-evid5t1 says ,dries*1 mean+ t x _c be refut$1 = x 0 c]ta9ly n cle>ly obvi\s to ! naturali/s be=e ,d>w9 & ,wallace4 ,b1 unless we *oose to be dogmatic1 we c h>dly claim t x is an all-suffici5t cause = ! evolution>y process1 & x is useless to attempt to m9imise ! difficulties ( ! hypo!sis4 ,x is n easy to make x acc\nt = ! orig9 ( in/9cts or tropisms1 or = re/itutions & reg5]ations ( lo/ p>ts1 or = ! appe>ance ( ! fir/ non-functional rudim5ts ( organs :i* lat] become functional & useful4 ,x is1 inde$1 possible to devise plausible hypo!ses acc\nt+ = all ^! ?+s 9 t]ms ( natural selection1 b ea* su* subsidi>y hypo!sis loads ! orig9al "o & weak5s x to t ext5t4 ,natural selection does n1 ( c\rse1 induce or evoke v>iations2 ^! are giv5 to its activity1 & !y are ! mat]ial on :i* x op]ates4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! nature ( ! deviations f ! specific types ( morphology t are select$ or elim9at$8 ,n ^? induc$ by ! environm5t1 & transmitt$ 9 _! nature & direction to ! prog5y ( ! organisms fir/ display+ !m4 ,x is n unprov$ t su* v>iations d occur1 & x is ev5 probable t !y d occur4 ,b we may conclude t ! frequ5cy ( _! occurr5ce is n great en\gh to af=d suffici5t mat]ial = natural selection4 ,x is also cle> t ! ord9>ily occurr+ v>iations t we obs]ve 9 any l>ge gr\p ( organisms collect$ at r&om are n alone ! mat]ial = selection2 = we h se5 t exp]im5tal bre$+ f su* v>iations does n lead to ! e/abli%m5t ( a /able race or 8v>iety40 ,nev]!less "s effect is produc$1 & ?is may be acc\nt$ = by suppos+ t ! obs]v$ v>iations are really ( two k9ds--fluctuat+ v>iations1 :i* are n inh]it$1 & mutations1 :i* are inh]it$4 ,! small obs]v$ effect is due to ! selection ( ! mutations alone3 x is a real effect ( selection1 an und\bt$ transmutation ( ! specific =m1 b exp]im5tal & /ati/ical inve/igations seem to %[ t selection f ! v>iations t we usually obs]ve is too sl[ a process to acc\nt = ! exi/+ =ms ( life4 ,natural selection acts1 !re=e1 on mutations4 ,n[ x seems t we are =c$ to recognise ! exi/5ce ( two categories ( mutations1 7#a7 ^? /able modifications ( an 8unit-"*0 :i* we t]m 8,m5delian *>act]s10 & 7#b7 ^? gr\ps ( /able modifications to :i* de ,vries appli$ ! t]m mutations4 ,x seems at fir/ difficult to see h[ p]man5t modifications ( ! specific =m c be br\ght ab\t by ! transmission ( ,m5delian *>act]s1 = ^! *>act]s are always transmitt$ 9 pairs4 ,let u take a concrete case--t ( a man :o has six f+]s on 8 "r h&1 & let u suppose t ?is 0 a real1 spontane\sly appe>+ "* or mutation :i* _h n previ\sly occurr$ 9 ! ance/ry ( ! man4 ,two contra/+ *>act]s w\ld !n be transmitt$1 7#a7 ! normal five-f+]$ h&1 & 7#b7 ! six-f+]$ h&4 ,bo? ( ^! *>act]s are suppos$ to be pres5t at ! same "t 9 ! organisation ( ! m5 & wom5 ( ! family orig9at+ 9 ?is individual1 b "o ( !m is always lat5t or recessive4 ,!re w\ld1 h[ev]1 be individuals 9 :i* only "o ( ! *>act]s w\ld be pres5t--ei!r ! normal or abnormal numb] ( digits1 b int]m>riage ) individuals belong+ to ! o!r pure /ra9 w\ld imm$iately lead aga9 to ! transmission ( ! contra/+ *>act]s1 or allelomorphs1 al?\gh m>riage ) an individual belong+ to ! same pure /ra9 w\ld c>ry on ! normal or abnormal unmix$ "* into ano!r g5]ation4 ,b if ! possession ( six f+]s convey$ an und\bt$ advantage1 & if natural selection did really act 9 civilis$ man z reg>ds ! transmission ( morphological *>act]s1 !n a /able v>iety 7,homo sapi5s hexadactylus1 let u say7 might be produc$ by its ag5cy4 ,! mutations :i* we consid] 9 ! inve/igation ( ! inh]itance ( alt]nat+ *>act]s are !re=e j z mu* ! mat]ial = natural selections z ! mutations :i* occur among ! ord9>y v>iations display$ by organisms 9 g5]al3 b s9ce only "o or two *>act]s appe> to be subject to ?is mode ( transmission1 ! process w\ld be s sl[ z to be inadmissible z an exclusive cause ( evolution4 ,if we assume t de ,vries' mutations are ! mat]ial on :i* selection works1 ?is difficulty is imm$iately remov$1 = we n[ h to deal ) gr\ps ( /able deviations3 n "o or two1 b all ! *>act]s ( ! organism appe> to %>e 9 ! mutability4 ,b ano!r difficulty n[ arises4 ,a species ( plant or animal may h got along v well ) its ord9>y /ructural end[m5t1 & !n a numb] ( individuals beg9 to mutate4 ,"s ( ! deviations f ! specific type may be ( real advantage1 b o!rs may n3 we c1 inde$1 imag9e an 9-co-ord9ation betwe5 ! mutat+ p>ts or organs :i* w\ld be fatal to ! animal2 on ! o!r h&1 !re might be complete co-ord9ation1 ) ! result t great advantage might be conf]r$ ^u ! individual4 ,x is easy to see h[ co-ord9ation ( mutat+ p>ts is absolutely ess5tial4 ,an animal :i* pres]ves its exi/5ce by successful avoidance ( its enemies w\ld n be greatly b5efit$ by a m transp>5t cry/all9e l5s if ! vitre\s hum\r ( its eye 7 slightly opaque2 & ev5 if all ! p>ts ( ! eye 7 p]fectly co-ord9at$1 increas$ acuity ( vision w\ld n greatly help x if its limbs 7 n able to respond all ! m quickly to ! m acute s5sation4 ,un-co-ord9at$ mutations w\ld !re=e t5d to become elim9at$1 :ile co-ord9at$ ones w\ld become select$ & w\ld become ! *>act]s ( new species4 ,we mu/ n[ ask :y "s gr\ps ( v>iations are co-ord9at$ :ile o!rs are n1 & x is "h t we enc\nt] ! mo/ =midable ( ! difficulties ( any hypo!sis ( trans=mism :i* dep5ds on ! concept ( natural selection4 ,if we assume t ! environm5t induces ! appe>ance ( v>iations1 x seems to foll[ t ^! v>iations are likely to be co-ord9at$1 b we !n invoke ! pr9ciple ( ! acquirem5t ( *>act]s & _! transmission by h]$ity4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 we assume t v>iations appe> spontane\sly1 & q irresponsibly1 s to speak1 9 ! g]m-plasm ( ! organism1 ! selection1 or elim9ation1 by ! environm5t w n occur until ! co-ord9at$ or un-co-ord9at$ v>iations appe>4 ,x is f> m likely t a l>ge numb] ( simultane\sly appe>+ v>iations w be un-co-ord9at$ ?an t !y w be co-ord9at$4 ,m]ely z a matt] ( probability ! progressive modification ( a species w take place sl[ly--too sl[ly to acc\nt = :at we see4 ,two examples w make x easi] to appreciate ?is difficulty4 ,evolution has und\bt$ly proce$$ 9 def9ite directions4 ,!re are two dom9ant gr\ps ( fi%es1 ! ,teleo/s & ! ,elasmobran*s1 & bo? mu/ h orig9at$ f a common /ock4 ,all ! *>act]s 9 ea* k9d ( fi% mu/ h be5 useful 7s9ce !y 7 select$71 & all mu/ h be5 modifications ( ! *>act]s ( ! common /ock4 ,! latt] became modifi$ along two ma9 l9es1 or directions1 :i* are indicat$ by ! *>act]s ( ! exi/+ ,teleo/s & ,elasmobran*s4 ,! :ole skeleton1 ! gills1 ! circulatory sy/em1 & ! bra9 diff] 9 c]ta9 respects 9 ^! gr\ps4 ,!re=e a modification ( ! bra9 9 ! primitive ,elasmobran*s 0 associat$ ) a modification ( ! cranium1 & !re=e ) ! jaw-app>atus1 & s ) ! bran*ial skeleton & ! gills1 & !re=e also ) ! he>t1 & s on4 ,suppose t ! evolution>y process includ$ t5 useful & co-ord9at$ v>iations--n an unlikely hypo!sis--& suppose t ea* ( ^! t5 useful v>iations 0 associat$ ) n9ete5 useless ones4 ,! *ance t any "o ( !m did occur 0 !re=e "o 9 tw5ty2 & if !y all occurr$ indep5d5tly1 t is1 if ! occurr5ce ( any "o ( !m 0 compatible ) ! occurr5ce ( any o!r "o1 or ( all ! o!rs1 !n ! *ance t all ! t5 v>iations occurr$ simultane\sly 0 #bj-aj t is1 "o 9 ! numb] #bj foll[$ by #aj cyph]s1 a r great improbability4 ,mo/ biological /ud5ts are famili> ) ! simil>ity ( ! s-call$ eye ( ! mollusc ,pect5 & t ( ! v]tebrate4 ,! resemblance is "o ( g5]al /ructure3 9 ea* ( ^! organs !re is a cam]a obscura1 a transp>5t cornea1 & beh9d t a cry/all9e l5s4 ,on ! po/]ior wall ( ! cam]a !re is a receptor organ1 or ret9a1 & ?is is compos$ ( sev]al lay]s ( n]v\s elem5ts4 ,! actual n]ve-end+s are on ! surface ( ! ret9a1 :i* is turn$ away f ! light1 t is1 ! optic n]ve runs t[>ds ! ant]ior surface ( ! ret9a1 & !n its fibres turn backw>ds4 ,?is 8inv]sion ( ! ret9al lay]s0 occurs 9 all v]tebrate animals1 b x is exceptional 9 ! inv]tebrates4 ,! above g5]al description applies equally well to ! eye ( ! v]tebrate & to t ( ,pect54 ,let u admit t ^! mantle organs 9 ,pect5 are eyes1 = !re is no conclusive exp]im5tal evid5ce t !y really are visual organs1 & plausible reason+ sugge/s t !y may subs]ve o!r functions4 ,let u assume t ! m9ute /ructure ( ! ,pect5 eye is simil> to t ( ! v]tebrate1 & t its developm5t is also simil>3 z a matt] ( fact bo? hi/ology & embryology are diff]5t4 ,!n we h to expla91 on ! pr9ciples ( natural selection1 ! p>allel evolution ( simil> /ructures along indep5d5t l9es ( desc5t2 = mollusc & v]tebrate h c]ta9ly be5 evolv$ f "s v remote common ance/or 9 :i* ! eye c\ld n h be5 m ?an a simple pigm5t spot ) a special n]ve t]m9ation beh9d x4 ,9 ea* case ! organ 0 =m$ by a v great numb] ( s]ially occurr+ v>iations1 yet ^! two sets ( v>iations mu/ h be5 ! same at ea* /age 9 two indep5d5tly occurr+ processes4 ,on any reasonable assumption z to ! numb] ( co-ord9at$ v>iations requir$1 & _! *ances ( occurr5ce1 ! ma!matical improbability t ^! two s]ies ( v>iations did occur is s great z to am\nt to impossibility s f> z our !ory ( trans=mism is conc]n$4 ,natural selection c\ld n1 !re=e1 h produc$ ^! two organs4 ,?is argum5t ( ,b]gson's fails1 ( c\rse1 9 ! p>ticul> in/ance *os5 by him1 b ?is is because ! case is an un=tunate "o4 ,probably a morphologi/ c\ld f9d a v mu* bett] case ( conv]g5t evolution--! p>allelism betwe5 ! tee? ( "s ,m>supials & "s ,rod5ts1 = in/ance4 ,if detail$ hi/ological & embryological inve/igation %\ld %[ a simil>ity ( /ructure & developm5t1 9 su* comp>$ organs ,b]gson's argum5t w\ld reta9 all its =ce4 ,we %\ld !n h to assume t !re 0 a direct+ ag5cy1 or t5d5cy 9 ! organism1 co-ord9at+1 or p]haps actually produc+1 v>iations4 ,me*ani/ic biology c sugge/ no means :]eby simultane\sly occurr+ v>iations are co-ord9at$3 let u !re=e ?9k ( ^! v>iations z occurr+ indep5d5tly ( ea* o!r1 & let u ignore ! difficulty ( ! infrequ5cy ( occurr5ce ( suitably co-ord9at$ v>iations4 ,v>iations are exhibit$ by ! evolv+ organism1 & ! selection ( co-ord9at$ s]ies is ! "w ( ! environm5t4 ,b ! environm5t is m]ely a passive ag5cy1 & x has to conf] direction on ! innum]able v>iations pres5t$ to x by ! organism1 reject+ mo/ b select+ "s4 ,let u ?9k ( ! environm5t1 says a critic ( ,b]gson1 z a blank wall aga9/ :i* num]\s jets ( s& are be+ project$4 ,! jets scatt] z !y approa* ! wall3 ea* ( !m repres5ts ! v>iations display$ by "s organ or organ-sy/em ( an animal4 ,let u ?9k ( a patt]n drawn on ! wall 9 "s k9d ( adhesive sub/ance3 :]e ! wall is blank ! s& w\ld /rike1 b w\ld fall (f aga91 b x w\ld adh]e to ! p>ts cov]$ by ! adhesive pa9t4 ,! s& gra9s /rike ! wall f all sides1 t is1 _! directions are un-co-ord9at$4 ,! wall is passive1 yet a patt]n is impr9t$ ^u x4 ,f passivity & un-co-ord9ation come symmetry & ord]4 ,?is argum5t )/&s sup]ficial exam9ation1 b to accept x is truly to be 8fool$ by a metaphor40 ,= :at is ! patt]n on ! wall8 ,x is ! environm5t1 says ! critic4 ,b :at is ! environm5t8 ,inevitably we ?9k ( x z some?+ t makes or m\lds ! organism1 a way ( reg>d+ x t drags aft] x all ! confusion ( ?\ght impli$ 9 ! above analogy4 ,cle>ly ! environm5t is made by ! organism4 ,its =m1 t is1 space1 is only ! mode ( motion possible to ! organism2 x is cle> t :e!r ! space p]ceiv$ by an organism is "o-1 two-1 or ?ree-dim5sional1 space dep5ds ^u its mode ( motion4 ,its univ]se is :atev] x c act ^u1 actually or 9 contemplation4 ,atoms & molecules1 planets & suns are its environm5t because x c 9 "s measure act ^u ^! bodies1 or at lea/ !y c be made useful to x4 ,*lor(orm or sac*>9e1 or me?yl-blue & all ! dye-/uffs prep>$ f coal-t> by ! *emi/s1 are "p ( our environm5t because we h made !m4 ,!y exi/$ only 9 pot5tiality prior to ! developm5t ( organic *emi/ry4 ,!y 7 possible1 b man _h to assemble _! elem5ts be=e !y became actual4 ,9 mak+ !m1 he conf]r$ direction on inorganic reactions4 ,surely ! organism itself selects ! v>iations ( /ructure & function+ t are exhibit$ by itself4 ,if we hesitate to say t ^! modifications are creations1 let u say t !y are p]mutations ( elem5ts ( /ructure1 & t !y 7 pot5tial 9 ! organisation ( ! creature exhibit+ !m4 ,!y occur 9 ! latt] if we mu/ n say t !y are produc$4 ,if !y are detrim5tal1 ! organism is ! less able to live & reproduce1 & if x does reproduce1 its prog5y are subject to ! same disability4 ,if1 z is usual1 !y simply d n matt]1 !y may or may n affect ! direction ( evolution4 ,if !y are ( advantage1 t is1 if !y conf] increas$ ma/]y ov] ! environm5t1 ov] ! in]t ?+s ) :i* ! organism comes into contact1 ! latt] enl>ges its univ]se or environm5t1 lives long]1 & transmits to its prog5y its increas$ p[]s ( action4 ,indef9ite increase ( p[] ov] in]t matt] is pot5tial 9 liv+ ?+s1 & v>iation conv]ts ?is pot5tiality into actuality4 ,?is discussion is all v =mal1 b two conclusions em]ge f x3 7#a7 ! insuffici5cy ( ! me*ani/ic hypo!ses ( trans=mism to acc\nt = all ! div]sity ( life t has appe>$ on ! e>? dur+ ! limit$ p]iod ( "t :i* physics all[s = ! evolution>y process4 ,!re does n appe> to be any possibility ( meet+ ?is objection if we cont9ue to adh]e to ! hypo!sis ( trans=mism already discuss$3 x faces u at e turn 9 our discussion4 ,h[ great a "p is play$1 = in/ance1 by 8pure *ance0 9 ! elim9ation ( individual organisms dur+ ! /ruggle = exi/5ce6 ,let u ?9k ( a %oal ( sprats on :i* sea-birds are fe$+3 x is *ance :i* det]m9es :e!r ! birds prey on "o "p ( ! %oal r ?an ano!r4 ,or let u ?9k ( ! millions ( "y fi%es t are left /r&$ on ! sea-%ore by ! rec$+ tide3 x is *ance t det]m9es :e!r an individual fi% w be left /r&$ 9 a %all[ s&pool :i* dries up "u ! sun's rays1 r ?an 9 a deep] "o t reta9s its wat] until ! tide next fl[s ov] x4 ,x is no use to urge t !re is no su* ?+ z 8pure *ance10 & t :at we s speak ( is only ! summation ( a multitude ( small indep5d5t causes4 ,let u grant ?is1 & x /ill foll[s t ! alt]native ( life or dea? to multitudes ( organisms dep5ds n ^u _! adaptability b ^u m9ute un-co-ord9at$ causes :i* h no?+ to d ) _! morphology or behavi\r4 ,^! are in/ances among _m o!rs :i* w occur to ! field naturali/3 !y %ort5 /ill fur!r ! "t available = natural selection 9 ! %ap+ ( species1 = !y r$uce ! mat]ial on :i* ?is factor op]ates4 ,! o!r result ( our discussion is to indicate t ! problem ( trans=mism ( species is 9 reality ! problem ( organic v>iability4 ,let u assume t all ! hypo!ses ( evolution are true3 t ! environm5t may induce *anges ( morphology & function+ 9 animals & plants1 & t ^! *anges !mselves--! actual acquirem5ts !mselves1 t is--are transmissible by h]$ity4 ,let u assume t ! g]m-cells may be affect$ by ! environm5t1 ei!r ! out] physical environm5t1 or ! inn] somatic environm5t1 & t mutations may ?us arise4 ,let u assume t mutations may be select$ 9 "s way1 s t specific discont9uities ( /ructure--8individualis$0 categories ( organisms1 or species--may ?us come into exi/5ce4 ,ev5 !n trans=mism is /ill z great a problem z ev]1 = ! "q ( ! mode ( orig9 ( ^! v>iations or modifications /ill presses = solution4 ,! simple/ possible cases t we c ?9k ( pres5t ! mo/ =midable difficulties4 ,! muscles ( ! %\ld]s & arms ( ! blacksmi? become bigg] & /rong] z ! result ( 8 activity4 ,:y8 ,we say t ! increas$ katabolism ( ! tissues causes a great] output ( c>bonic acid & o!r excretory sub/ances1 & t ^! /imulate c]ta9 c]ebral c5tres1 :i* 9 turn accel]ate ! rate ( action ( ! he>t & respiratory organs4 ,an increas$ fl[ ( nutritive matt] & oxyg5 !n trav]ses ! blood-vessels 9 ! muscles ( ! %\ld]s & arms1 & ! latt] gr[4 ,probably processes ( ?is k9d d occur1 b to say t !y d is n to give any real explanation ( ! hyp]trophy ( ! musculature ( ! man's body1 = :at ess5tially occurs is ! division ( ! nuclei & ! =mation ( new muscle fibres4 ,h[ precisely does an increas$ supply ( nutritive matt] cause ^! nuclei to divide & gr[8 ,?is is a relatively simple example ( ! adaptability ( a s+le tissue-sy/em to a *ange 9 ! g5]al bodily activity1 t is to say x is a v>iation ( /ructure induc$ by an environm5tal *ange4 ,9 mo/ cases1 h[ev]1 ! v>iations ( /ructure t =m ! />t+-po9ts ( transmutation processes _c cle>ly be relat$ to environm5tal *anges4 ,"s fi%es produce v great numb]s ( ova 9 s+le broods--a female l+1 = in/ance1 is said to spawn annually "s eighte5 millions ( eggs4 ,if we exam9e ^! ova we %all f9d t !re is consid]able v>iation 9 ! diamet] & 9 o!r measureable *>act]s4 ,we may attempt to correlate ^! deviations f ! mean *>act]s ) environm5tal diff]5ces4 ,all ! eggs 8mature10 t is1 !y absorb wat] & swell1 :ile v>i\s p>ts1 su* z ! yolk1 und]go *emical *anges1 dur+ ! mon? or s be=e ! fi% spawns4 ,?is process ( maturation takes place 9 ! clos$ ov>ian sac2 & ! eggs lie practically free 9 ?is sac1 & are ba!d 9 a fluid :i* exudes f ! blood-vessels 9 its walls4 ,x may inde$ be ! case t !re are v>iations 9 ! composition ( ?is fluid 9 ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! sac2 b ^! v>iations _c be great2 ! fluid is n really a nutritive "o2 & ! process ( maturation is n hurri$4 ,we c h>dly believe t ! diff]5ces 9 morphology are due to ^! m9ute environm5tal diff]5ces4 ,we may inde$ say t we d n really /udy ! g]m cells :5 we measure ! diamet] ( ! egg or inve/igate any o!r measurable "*1 = ! real g]m-plasm is ! *romatic matt] ( ! nucleus4 ,b ?is obvi\sly begs ! :ole "q3 all ! p>ts ( ! egg t are accessible to obs]vation d v>y1 & ought we to conclude t ! p>ts :i* are n accessible d n v>y8 ,!y mu/ v>y3 ! g]m-plasm ( ea* egg mu/ be diff]5t f t ( all ! o!rs1 = ! organisms :i* develop f ^! g]ms %[ inh]itable diff]5ces4 ,fur!r1 c we cont5d t su* m9ute environm5tal diff]5ces z we h indicat$ affect ! g]m-plasm8 ,is x s susceptible to ext]nal *anges8 ,a high degree ( /ability ( ! g]m-plasm is po/ulat$ 9 ! me*ani/ic hypo!sis t we h consid]$1 & inde$ ev]y?+ indicates t ! specific organisation is v /able4 ,c x !n be upset by su* m9ute diff]5ces 9 ! somatic environm5t8 ,b ! g]m-plasm is n really simple1 says ,weismann2 x is a complex mixture ( ance/ral g]m-plasms4 ,! individual fi% t we 7 consid]+ arose f an aggregate ( det]m9ants1 & half ( ^! det]m9ants 7 receiv$ f ! male p>5t & half f ! female "o4 ,b ea* ( ^! p>5ts also arose f a simil> aggregate ( det]m9ants1 :i* aga9 7 receiv$ f bo? p>5ts1 & s on ?r\gh\t ! ance/ry ( ! fi%4 ,x is true t ! g]m-plasms contribut$ by ! ance/ors 7 n q diff]5t1 b !y diff]$ to "s ext5t4 ,!n !re mu/ h be5 z _m p]mutations ( det]m9ants 9 ! ovum f :i* ! fi% develop$ z !re 7 p]mutations ( *>act]s 9 ! eighte5 millions ( ova produc$ by x4 ,does n ! hypo!sis collapse by its own weight8 ,x c\ld only h be5 su* difficulties z are "h sugge/$ t l$ ,weismann to =mulate 8 hypo!sis ( g]m9al selection4 ,all ^? eighte5 millions ( eggs arose f ! division ( relatively few g]m cells4 ,ea* ( ^! orig9al cells conta9$ ! specific assemblage ( det]m9ants1 & ! elem5ts ( ! latt] are ( c\rse ! biophors4 ,! biophors1 x w be rememb]$1 are ei!r v complex *emical molecules1 or aggregates ( su*4 ,:5 ! g]m cells ( ! g]m9al epi!lium divide to =m ^? cells :i* are go+ to become ! ova1 ! biophors mu/ divide & gr[ to _! =m] size1 & aga9 divide--x is really a *emical hypo!sis t we are /at+1 ?\gh we h to employ language :i* seems to d viol5ce to all s\nd *emical notions6 ,n[ :ile ! biophors 7 divid+ & gr[+ !y 7 8compet+0 = ! food matt] :i* 0 9 ! liquid ba?+ !m1 & "s got less1 :ile o!rs got m ?an ! av]age quantity4 ,9 ?is way _! *>act]s became diff]5t1 s t ! eggs1 on ! atta9m5t ( maturity1 became diff]5t f ea* o!r4 ,n[1 ap>t altoge!r f ! impossibility ( apply+ any te/ z to ! objective reality ( ?is hypo!sis1 x mu/ be reject$1 = x conf]s on bodies :i* belong to ! ord] ( molecules prop]ties :i* are really ^? ( aggregates ( molecules4 ,! typical prop]ties ( a gas1 = in/ance1 are n ! prop]ties ( ! molecules ( :i* ! gas is compos$1 b are /ati/ical prop]ties exhibit$ by aggregates ( molecules4 ,on ! hypo!sis ( g]m9al selection ! prop]ties ( ! animals :i* develop f ! biophors are ext5d$ to ! biophors !mselves4 ,x 0 surely a desp]ate plight :i* evok$ ?is notion6 ,x is1 z ,william ,james said ab\t ,mr ,bradley's intellectualism1 me*anism 9 extremis6 ,we seem =c$ to ! conclusion--& ?is is ! result to :i* all ?is discussion is int5d$ to approximate--t v>iations1 h]itable v>iations at lea/1 arise spontane\sly4 ,t is1 !re are organic diff]5ces :i* h no causes1 a conclusion aga9/ :i* all our habits ( reason+ rebel4 ,yet x may be possible to argue t ! problem ( ! causes ( v>iations is really a pseudo-problem aft] all1 & t !re is no logical reason :y we %\ld be compell$ to po/ulate su* causes4 ,:5 we ?9k ( organic v>iability1 d we n ?9k1 surreptiti\sly x may be1 ( some?+ t v>ies1 t is1 some?+ t ought to be immutable b :i* is compell$ to deviate8 ,b :at is giv5 to our obs]vation is simply ! v>iations among organisms4 ,let u ?9k ( ! crude m9t+ ma*9es ( ,tudor times :i* produc$ co9s :i* 7 n v simil> 9 weight & design4 ,f t "t onw>d m9t+ ma*9es h cont9ually be5 improv$1 ea* successive eng9e turn+ out co9s m & m alike 9 e respect1 s t we n[ possess ma*9es :i* /amp out sov]eigns z ne>ly z possible id5tical ) ea* o!r4 ,yet !y are n q alike1 & ?is is because ! action ( ! eng9e1 9 all its op]ations1 is n inv>iably ! same4 ,9 imag9ation1 h[ev]1 we make a m9t+ ma*9e :i* does "w p]fectly1 & turns out co9s absolutely alike1 b ?is ideal eng9e is only ! conceptual limit to a s]ies ( ma*9es ea* ( :i* is m ne>ly p]fect ?an 0 ! la/ "o4 ,x is unlikely t matt] possesses ! rigidity & homog5eity :i* w\ld enable u to obta9 ?is p]fect id5tity ( result2 nev]!less ?is id5tity has a v obvi\s utility1 & we /rive aft] x1 s t ! result ( our activity is ! conception ( a p]fect me*anism1 & ( products :i* are id5tical4 ,we assume t ! reasons :y our e>ly & crud] ma*9es 7 imp]fect are also ! reasons :y our lat] & m p]fect ones d n produce ! results t we desire4 ,we are artisans fir/ ( all1 & !n philosoph]s1 & s we ext5d ?is +ra9$ me*anism ( ! intellect into our speculations4 ,to ! biologi/ ! organism is a me*anism :i*1 9 reproduction1 ought to turn out p]fect replicas ( itself4 ,x does n d s4 ,n[1 if biology %[s u any?+1 x %[s u t liv+ matt] is ess5tially 8labile10 t is1 some?+ flu5t1 :ile lifeless matt] is ess5tially rigid1 or ne>ly s4 ,yet1 ignor+ ?is diff]5ce1 we expect f ! organism t id5tity ( result & op]ation t we conceptualise1 b d n actually obta9 f ! artificial ma*9e4 ,we reg>d ! organism1 n only z a me*anism l ! m9t+ ma*9e1 b z ! conceptual limit to a s]ies ( me*anisms4 ,! reproductive app>atus ( our fi% does n turn out ova :i* are id5tical1 b :i* diff] f ea* o!r4 ,"s ( ?is v>iation1 we say1 is due to ! action ( ! environm5t2 & "s ( x is due to ! condition t ea* ovum receives a slightly diff]5t legacy ( *>act]s f ! multitude ( ance/ors4 ,! re/ we conceive z due to ! imp]fect work+ ( ! reproductive ma*9]y4 ,x is useful t sci5ce %\ld s reg>d ! work+ ( ! organism1 = 9 ! se>* = ! causes ( v>iation our analysis ( ! ph5om5a ( life becomes m p5etrat+4 ,b does any result ( inve/igation or reason+ ju/ify u 9 assum+1 z a matt] ( pure speculation1 t deviations f ! specific type ( /ructure are physically det]m9$ 9 all _! ext5t8 ,h we n j z mu* ju/ification = ! belief t ^! deviations are truly spontane\s1 & t !y arise de novo8 ,s we approa*1 f ! po9t ( view ( exp]im5tal biology1 ,b]gson's idea ( ,creative ,evolution4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,! ,,mean+ ,,( ,,evolution ,ap>t f exp]im5tal inve/igation1 ! results ( comp>ative anatomy1 ev5 if !y are amplifi$ by ^? ( comp>ative embryology1 & ev5 if !y include fossil z well z liv+ organisms1 d no m ?an sugge/ ! occurr5ce ( an evolution>y process4 ,x is 9 va9 t we attempt a demon/ration ( transmutation ( =ms ( life by %[+ t a simil>ity ( /ructure is to be obs]v$ 9 all animals belong+ to ! same gr\p4 ,we may %[ successfully t ! skeleton ( ! limbs & limb-girdles ( v]tebrate animals is anatomically ! same s]ies ( p>ts1 :e!r x be ! arms & legs ( man1 or ! w+s & legs ( birds1 or ! pectoral & pelvic f9s ( fi%es3 su* homologies z ^! 7 inde$ sugge/$ by ! m$ival comp>ative anatomi/s ap>t altoge!r f any notions z to an evolution>y process4 ,we may %[ t ! simplicity ( ! skeleton ( ! head ( man is app>5t only1 & t 9 x are to be trac$ mo/ ( ! anatomical elem5ts t ent] into ! skull & visc]al ar*es ( ! fi%2 & t fusions & losses & translocations ( p>ts h occurr$ & c be made to acc\nt = ! obs]v$ diff]5ces ( =m4 ,all ?is might j z easily be expla9$ by assum+ a process ( special creation1 or ! gradual developm5t ( a plan or design4 ,j z ,god made ,eve f a sup]flu\s rib tak5 f ! body ( h] husb&1 s ,he may h =m$ ! auditory ossicles ( ! high] v]tebrate f ^? p>ts ( ! visc]al ar*es ( ! l[] =ms :i* _h become sup]flu\s 9 ! con/ruction ( ! m highly organis$ creature4 ,h[ev] mu* ! language ( evolution may =ce itself on biology1 x does no m ?an symbolise ! results ( anatomy & embryology1 & provide a conv5i5t framework on :i* ^! may be arrang$4 ,b if1 z all mod]n exp]im5tal "w %[s1 ! =m ( ! organism is1 9 ! long run1 ! result ( its int]action ) ! environm5t2 if1 z inde$ we see1 ?is =m is n an immutable "o1 b a /age 9 a flux2 & if deviations f x may occur ) all ! appe>ance ( spontaneity1 !n x w\ld appe> t ! obs]v$ facts ( comp>ative anatomy & embryology are capable ( only "o explanation4 ,!y repres5t ! results ( an evolution>y process1 & ! relation%ips t morphological /udies indicate are no long] m]ely logical1 b really mat]ial ones4 ,we c n[ endeav\r to utilise ^! results 9 ! attempt to trace ! directions tak5 by ! process ( evolution4 ,9 s do+ we set up ! s*emes ( phylog5y4 ,we divide all organisms into plants & animals1 & !n we subdivide ea* ( ^! k+doms ( life into a small numb] ( sub-k+doms1 9 ea* ( :i* we set up classes1 ord]s1 families1 g5]a1 & species4 ,b our classification is no long] m]ely a =mal arrangem5t :]eby we introduce ord] into ! confusion ( naturally occurr+ ?+s4 ,x is n[ a 8family tree10 & f x we attempt to d$uce ! desc5t ( any "o ( ! memb]s repres5t$ 9 x4 ,! sub-k+doms1 or phyla1 ( organisms are ! prim>y gr\ps 9 ?is evolution>y classification4 ,we divide all animals into ab\t n9e ( ^! phyla--! ,protozoa or unicellul> organisms2 ! ,porif]a or sponges2 ! ,cl5t]ates1 a gr\p :i* includes all su* organisms z ,zoophytes1 ,corals1 ,sea-,anemones1 & 8,jelly-fi%es02 ! ,platyhelm9? worms1 t is ! ,tapeworms1 ,trematodes1 & "s o!r /ructurally simil> animals :i* live freely 9 nature2 ! ,annelids1 a r het]og5e\s assemblage ( creatures :i* includes all ^? animals commonly call$ worms2 ! ,e*9od]ms1 :i* are ! ,/>-fi%es1 ,sea-,ur*9s1 & ,fea!r-,/>s f\nd 9 ! sea2 ! ,molluscs1 t is ! animals ( :i* ! ,oy/]1 ! ,p]iw9kle1 ! ,g>d5-,slug & ! ,octopus are good examples2 ! ,ar?ropods1 :i* include ! ,cru/acea1 ! ,insects1 & ! ,spid]s2 & la/ly ! ,v]tebrates4 ,any su* classification we naturally endeav\r to make z complete a "o z possible1 b r\nd ! bases ( ! l>g] gr\ps !re cl+ small gr\ps ( organisms ! precise relation%ips ( :i* are d\btful4 ,yet1 on ! :ole1 ^! sub-k+doms ( organisms repres5t cle>ly ! ma9 directions along :i* ! pres5t complexity ( animal /ructure has be5 evolv$4 ,!re is an ess5tial /ructure :i* we endeav\r to assign to all ! animals ( ea* phylum1 & :i* is diff]5t f ! /ructure ( ! animals belong+ to all o!r phyla4 ,! ,protozoa1 :i* = ! pres5t we reg>d z animals1 are organisms ! bodies ( :i* consi/ ( s+le cells4 ,^! cells may become aggregat$ into colonies1 b !y may z well exi/ ap>t f ea* o!r4 ,!y may be enclos$ 9 limy1 silice\s1 or cellulose skeletons or %ells1 or !y may possess limy or silice\s spicules 9 _! tissues--^! p>ts are non-ess5tial1 & ! s*ematic ,protozoan is a cell conta9+ a s+le nucleus1 & capable ( indep5d5t exi/5ce4 ,! ,porif]a1 & all ! o!r phyla1 include organisms ! bodies ( :i* are made up ( aggregates ( cells4 ,9 ! ,porif]a ! cells1 :i* are specially modifi$ 9 /ructure1 are arrang$ to =m ! int]nal walls ( a 8sponge-"w0 ! cavities ( :i* op5 to ! outside by s]ies ( pores ?r\gh :i* wat] is circulat$4 ,! bodies ( ! ,cl5t]ates are typically sacs =m$ by a d\ble wall ( cells--endod]m & ectod]m4 ,?is sac op5s to ! ext]ior by a s+le op5+1 or m\?1 surr\nd$ by a circlet ( t5tacles1 & its cavity is ! only "o conta9$ 9 ! body ( ! animal4 ,! ,platyhelm9? worms are animals ! bodies ( :i* are also compos$ ( ectod]mal & endod]mal tissues1 betwe5 :i* is int]calat$ ano!r mesod]mal tissue4 ,!y h a s+le dige/ive sac or alim5t>y canal op5+ to ! ext]ior by means ( a m\? only2 & !y all possess a complex1 h]maphrodite1 reproductive app>atus4 ,9 all ! o!r phyla !re are also ?ree pr9cipal lay]s or k9ds ( tissue1 b 9 addition to ! cavity ( ! alim5t>y canal !re is also a body cavity1 or clom1 :i* is conta9$ 9 ! mesod]mal tissues4 ,! ,e*9od]ms are su* clomate animals1 b ! alim5t>y canal n[ op5s to ! ext]ior by means ( bo? m\? & anus2 !re are sep>ate sy/ems ( vessels ?r\gh :i* wat] & blood circulate2 ! blood-vascul> sy/em ( vessels is clos$ to ! ext]ior1 ! wat]-vascul> sy/em be+ op52 & ! integum5t is arm$ by means ( calc>e\s sp9es or plates4 ,! ,annelids are animals ) cyl9drically %ap$ bodies1 segm5t$ s z to =m num]\s jo9ts4 ,ea* segm5t be>s sp9es or hairs or app5dages ( "s sort1 & also conta9s a sep>ate n]ve-c5tre4 ,! alim5t>y canal op5s ext]nally by a m\? & anus1 & !re is a spaci\s body cavity4 ,! ,molluscs are unsegm5t$ animals4 ,! dorsal "p ( _! bodies conta9s ! visc]a1 & is protect$ by a %ell2 :ile ! v5tral "p is modifi$ = ! purpose ( locomotion4 ,a fold ( integum5t hangs d[n all r\nd ! body & encloses a cavity 9 :i* ! gills are conta9$4 ,! ,ar?ropods are segm5t$ animals4 ,! body is arm$ by a calc>e\s c>apace or %ell :i* =ms ! exo-skeleton4 ,ea* bodily segm5t be>s a pair ( jo9t$ app5dages1 & also conta9s a sep>ate n]ve-c5tre4 ,! :ole s]ies ( ganglia are connect$ toge!r by means ( a n]ve-cord1 & ! n]v\s sy/em lies v5tral to ! alim5t>y canal4 ,! ,v]tebrata are also segm5t$ animals1 b ! segm5tation is n app>5t ext]nally4 ,! skeleton is an int]nal "o1 & is built up r\nd an axial rod or noto*ord4 ,! n]v\s sy/em is situat$ dorsally to ! alim5t>y canal4 ,!re are two pairs ( limbs4 ,?us we set up an ess5tial or s*ematic /ructure *>act]i/ic ( ea* phylum4 ,^! s*emata h no real exi/5ce3 !y are morphological types f :i* ! actual bodily /ructure ( ! animals 9 ea* phylum may be d$uc$4 ,!y repres5t ! m9imum ( p>ts :i* mu/ be pres5t 9 ord] t an animal may be plac$ 9 ! phylum to :i* we assume t x may belong4 ,b ^! anatomical p>ts ne$ n actually be pres5t 9 ! fully develop$ organism3 ?us !re are ,cru/acea 9 :i* ! body is n segm5t$1 & 9 :i* nei!r calc>e\s exo-skeleton nor jo9t$ app5dages are pres5t2 & !re are ,v]tebrata 9 :i* ! limbs may be abs5t4 ,b 9 su* cases we require evid5ce t ! ess5tial anatomical *>act]s :i* are abs5t 9 ! fully develop$ animal h appe>$ at "s /age 9 its ontog5y1 & ?is evid5ce is usually available4 ,or if embryological evid5ce _c be obta9$1 we require pro( t ! animal c be trac$ backw>ds 9 "t1 by means ( o!r *>act]s1 to "s =m 9 :i* ! miss+ /ructures reappe>4 ,! s*emata are ?us ! g5]alis$ or conceptual morphology ( ! phyla4 ,!y are n ! morphology ( an individual organism1 b !y include ! morphology ( ! race4 ,!y are1 ,b]gson says1 !mes on :i* innum]able v>iations h be5 con/ruct$4 ,/ructural elem5ts may be suppress$1 z :5 ! noto*ord disappe>s 9 ! developm5t ( ! individual ,tunicate1 ?\gh x is pres5t 9 ! l>va4 ,or elem5ts may disappe> & become replac$ by o!r /ructures1 z :5 ! true molluscan gills are lo/ 9 ! ,nudibran*s & are replac$ by ! respiratory plumes4 ,!y may be r$uc$ to ve/iges1 z 9 ! case ( ! 8p50 ( ! ,squids1 or ! 8cuttlebone0 ( ! cuttlefi%1 remnants ( ! dom$ %ell ( ! primitive mollusc2 or 9 ! app5dix v]mi=mis ( ! human be+1 a remnant ( ! volum9\s ccum ( ! h]bivor\s animal4 ,/ructures :i* 7 orig9ally di/9ct may coalesce1 z :5 ! great] numb] ( ! primitively di/9ct segm5ts ( ! ?orax ( ! cru/acean fuse to =m ! 8body0 ( ! crab2 or :5 ! segm5tal ganglia ( ! same animal fuse toge!r to =m ! great ?oracic n]ve-c5tre4 ,! =m & situation ( a /ructure may v>y )9 wide limits3 ?us ! dige/ive cavity ( "s ,cl5t]ates may be a simple sac1 z 9 ! ,hydra1 b x may be p>tially subdivid$ by num]\s mes5t]ies z 9 ! zooid ( ! ,corals2 or ! simple tubul> alim5t>y canal 9 "s ,platyhelm9? worms may be bifurcat$ 9 o!rs1 triple-bran*$ 9 o!rs aga91 or ev5 provid$ ) num]\s lat]al bran*es1 z 9 ! m specialis$ species 9 ! gr\p4 ,organs orig9ally simple may und]go progressive modification3 ?us ! eye ( a mollusc may be a simple integum5t>y cavity 9 ! floor ( :i* !re are "s simple n]ve-end+s1 & "s black pigm5t2 or ?is cavity may close up s z to =m a sac1 & ! ant]ior "p ( ! sac may become transp>5t s z to =m a cornea4 ,beh9d ! cornea a l5s may be =m$1 & ! simple t]m9al twigs ( ! n]ve-end+s may become a _m-lay]$ ret9a ( great complexity ( /ructure4 ,9 ! l[e/ ,*ordates ! c5tral "p ( ! blood-vascul> sy/em is a simple contractile vessel1 b ?is becomes ! two-*amb]$ he>t ( ! fi%1 ! ?ree-*amb]$ he>t ( ! reptile1 or ! p[]ful f\r-*amb]$ he>t ( ! w>m-blood$ animal4 ,anatomical elem5ts may *ange 9 function2 ?us p>ts ( ! visc]al skeleton 9 ! fi% may become ! ossicles ( ! middle e> 9 ! ,reptiles & ,mammals2 :ile its swim-bladd] may possibly be repres5t$ 9 ! high] v]tebrates by ! lungs4 ,?us !re may be suppression ( p>ts lead+ to entire disappe>ance or to m]e ve/iges ( ! orig9al morphology4 ,a /ructure deg5]at+ ?r\gh disuse may become remov$ f its typical relations ) o!r /ructures & may acquire altoge!r new ones4 ,or its increas+ importance may lead to its hyp]trophy & to increas$ complexity ( /ructure1 & p]haps to ! inclusion ( new anatomical elem5ts1 or to ! incorporation ( o!r p>ts1 ! function ( :i* may orig9ally h be5 q diff]5t4 ,9 all sorts ( ways organs & organ-sy/ems may become anatomically diff]5t z ! result ( adaptive modifications1 or indirectly z non-adaptive modifications induc$ by ! adaptive modifications ( adjac5t p>ts4 ,x is ! task ( comp>ative anatomy to trace ^! *anges ( morphology1 aid$ by ! /udy ( embryology & by ! comp>ison ( ! /ructure ( ! p>ts ( fossil animals4 ,reg>d+ ! process ( trans=mism z prov$ by exp]im5ts & obs]vations 9 bre$+ & h]$ity1 ! naturali/ endeav\rs to trace ! l9es along :i* evolution has proce$$ f ! results ( morphological inve/igations4 ,su* results _c h m ?an a v limit$ value1 & x is (t5 ! case t sev]al int]pretations ( morphological results are equally probable4 ,we may conclude t ! exi/+ ,teleo/ & ,elasmobran* fi%es are desc5d$ f a common /ock :i* no long] exi/s2 we may simil>ly conclude t ! ,birds & ,reptiles are closely alli$1 m s ?an ei!r gr\p is to ! ,mammals2 & we may conclude t ! ,primates--! gr\p ( ,mammals to :i* ,man belongs--is desc5d$ f "s gr\p alli$ to ! exi/+ ,ungulates or ,insectivores1 :ile ! ,mammals !mselves may h come d[n f "s gr\p ( v]tebrates relat$ to bo? ! ,amphibia & ! ,reptiles4 ,b z to ! nature ( ! animals :i* comb9$ ! *>act]s ( ! ,birds & ,reptiles1 or ( ! ,reptiles & ,amphibia1 we "k no?+4 ,palontology1 if its results 7 m num]\s ?an !y are1 w\ld af=d u ! mat]ial = ! discov]y ( ^! 8miss+ l9ks10 & !re c be no d\bt t z ! _w becomes bett] kn[n our k ( palontological /ages 9 ! hi/ory ( exi/+ gr\ps w become m complete1 s t we may1 9 "t1 possess an actual hi/orical record ( ! phylog5y ( ! ma9 gr\ps ( animals4 ,b x is rem>kable t :ile ! results ( comp>ative anatomy & embryology1 aid$ by ^? ( palontology1 enable u to trace back %ort s]ies ( /ages 9 ! evolution>y process1 !y /ill %[ u gaps at all ! places :]e l9es ( desc5t ought to conv]ge4 ,!y %[ u1 = in/ance1 t ! olde/ ,birds kn[n 7 decid$ly reptilian 9 _! morphology1 b !y d n %[ u an animal :i* 0 nei!r ,bird nor ,reptile1 b f :i* bo? gr\ps ( ,v]tebrata h desc5d$2 & ?is is almo/ always ! case 9 our hypo!tical s*emes ( phylog5y4 ,morphology has cont9ually to po/ulate ! exi/5ce ( 8annectant0 =ms1 8,ar*i-,mollusc10 8,protosaurian10 8,proto*ordate10 etc43 hypo!tical animals :i* comb9e ! *>act]s ( ^? :i* lie ne> ! bases ( div]g+ l9es ( desc5t4 ,!re is no?+ to guide u 9 ! con/ruction ( ^! annectant =ms except ! progressive simplicity ( /ructure indicat$ 9 ! morphological & palontological s]ies4 ,! e>li] ,birds _h tee?1 = in/ance1 & s h ! ,reptiles1 !re=e ! annectant =m _h tee?1 & x 0 an animal comb9+ ! s*ematic morphology ( bo? ,birds & ,reptiles4 ,b j accord+ to ! value :i* we atta* to "o morphological "* r ?an ano!r1 s w ! /ructure ( ! annectant =m diff]4 ,is1 = in/ance1 ! alim5t>y canal ( ! ,v]tebrate ! mo/ fundam5tal & cons]vative "p ( its morphology3 t is1 is x ! /ructure :i* has be5 mo/ resi/ant to *ange 9 ! c\rse ( ! evolution>y process8 ,!n we may reg>d ! ,v]tebrates z hav+ desc5d$ f "s animal :i* 0 closely relat$ to ! ,annelid worms4 ,or is ! n]v\s sy/em ! mo/ cons]vative "p ( ! ,v]tebrate anatomy8 ,if s1 we may trace back ! ma9 ,*ordate /em to animals :i* includ$ among _! *>act]s ^? ( ! mo/ primitive ,ar?ropods4 ,9 ! "o case ! annectant =m jo9s toge!r ! ,v]tebrate & ,annelid /ems1 b 9 ! o!r case x w\ld jo9 toge!r ! ,v]tebrate & ,ar?ropod /ems1 a conclusion :i* a rigid application ( ! results ( morphology w\ld seem to make ! m probable "o4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,b1 h[ev] ?is may be1 we mu/ n fail to notice t annectant =ms--8,ar*i-,mollusc10 8,protosaurian10 8,proto*ordate10 & ! l1 are only fictions :i* we base on ! precise importance t we atta* to "o "p ( ! ess5tial morphology ( a gr\p ( animals r ?an ano!r4 ,^! hypo!tical animals1 & ! g5ealogical s*emes or phylog5ies ( :i* !y =m ! roots1 are conv5tional summ>ies ( ! results ( comp>ative anatomy1 ?is t]m be+ us$ to include ! anatomy ( ! develop+ animal & t ( ext9ct =ms4 ,s long z we d n possess a repres5tative s]ies ( ! fossil rema9s ( ! animals :i* h exi/$ 9 ! pa/1 all s*emes ( desc5t f\nd$ on ! comp>ison ( ! p>ts or ! organs ( liv+ animals1 or on ! comp>ison ( /ages ( developm5t1 mu/ possess d\btful value :5 !y pr(ess to indicate ! direction tak5 by evolution4 ,_! true value lies r 9 ! way !y epitomise our k ( morphology1 & 9 ! inc5tive :i* !y give to su/a9$ & m9ute inve/igation ( ! /ructure ( animals4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,:y did ,haeckel's 8,ga/rea-,!orie0 ga9 ! acceptance t x did dur+ ! latt] "p ( ! n9ete5? c5tury8 ,x correlat$ a great numb] ( facts1 9 t x po/ulat$ a g5]al uni=mity ( /ructure 9 ! e>ly developm5tal /ages ( v _m animals belong+ to widely sep>at$ gr\ps4 ,9 all ( ^! ! ovum segm5ts into a mass ( cells1 :i* !n become arrang$ z a holl[ ball 7,a74 ,"o side ( ?is ball becomes pu%$ 9 s t ! inn] "p ( ! holl[ sph]e becomes oppos$ to ! inn] wall ( ! upp] "p4 ,?us a little sac1 consi/+ ( two lay]s ( cells1 ectod]m & endod]m1 & op5+ to ! outside by an ap]ture1 ! bla/opore1 is =m$ 7,b74 ,?is is ess5tially ! anatomy ( ! s*ematic ,cl5t]ate animal--,hydra1 = in/ance1 /rongly sugge/s x4 ,suppose n[ t ! lips ( ! bla/opore fuse toge!r at "o place s t !re are two op5+s into ! cavity ( ! ga/rula in/ead ( "o2 & suppose t ! sph]ical organism elongates s z to =m a cyl9d]1 ! elongation involv+ ! fus$ "p ( ! bla/oporic region4 ,!n we obvi\sly h a worm-l animal ) an alim5t>y canal1 a m\? & an anus 7,c74 ,suppose fur!r t an additional lay] ( cells becomes =m$ betwe5 ! endod]m & ectod]m by prolif]ation f "o ( ^! tissues1 & suppose t ?is becomes d\ble & t a cavity appe>s betwe5 ! two %eets ( cells =m+ ?is middle lay]3 ?is cavity becomes ! body cavity or clom 7,d74 ,n[ su* bla/ula & ga/rula /ages appe> 9 ! ontog5y ( animals belong+ to widely diff]5t gr\ps1 & su* a =mation ( ! middle lay]1 or mesobla/1 & ( ! mesobla/ic or clomic cavities also actually occurs4 ,let u assume !re=e t all multicellul> animals h desc5d$ f a primitive ,ga/rea-=m ess5tially simil> 9 morphology to ! ga/rula l>va2 & let u assume t all clomate animals h desc5d$ f a =m 9 :i* a ?ird lay] ( cells1 or mesobla/1 became int]calat$ betwe5 ! o!r two4 ,^! two assumptions are ! bases ( ! classic phylog5ies ( ! la/ c5tury2 all ,cl5t]ate animals h desc5d$ f a ,ga/rea-=m1 & all animals high] ?an ! ,cl5t]ates h be5 evolv$ f a ?ree-lay]$ =m4 ,impli$ 9 ?is hypo!sis is also a ?ird "o1 t ! ,ga/rea-/age ( evolution possesses su* a degree ( /ability t x has p]si/$1 ?\gh 9 an obscure condition x may be1 9 ! developm5t ( ne>ly all multicellul> animals4 ,! triple g]m9al lay]s1 endod]m1 ectod]m1 & mesod]m1 :i* fir/ became di/9ct f ea* o!r 9 ! primitive clomate animal1 also acquir$ a high degree ( /ability1 & !y h be5 transmitt$ by h]$ity to all animals high] ?an ,cl5t]ates4 ,! ,ga/rea & ! ?ree g]m9al lay]s are !re=e to be s\ght = 9 ! developm5tal /ages ( all ! high] animals1 & !y h usually be5 f\nd4 ,let x be admitt$ t !y may make a transi5t appe>ance--t !y may be obscur$ 9 _m ways1 /ill !y ought to be !re4 ,! ,ga/rea-,!orie ceas$ to be useful1 z a means ( description1 or a work+ hypo!sis ( inve/igation1 aft] ! rise ( exp]im5tal embryology4 ,x c\ld n be prov$ t ! process ( developm5t by ga/rulation & ! cleavage ( a mesod]mal lay] are s v cons]vative t !y h p]si/$ ?r\gh\t ! great] "p ( ! evolution ( ! animal _w1 yet )\t ?is pro( x c\ld n be cont5d$ t ! veil$ ga/rula ( ! develop+ frog's egg1 = in/ance1 is relat$ g5etically to ! ga/rula ( ! ,e*9od]m l>va4 ,:at exp]im5tal embryology does indicate is t ! =mation ( ga/rula & 79 mo/ gr\ps7 ! ?ree g]m9al lay]s are only ! means ( morphog5esis4 ,9 ! division ( ! ovum1 & ! arrangem5t ( ! cells to =m ! organ-rudim5ts1 ! =mation ( ! ga/rula & ! mesod]m are 9 g5]al ! l9e ( lea/ resi/ance 9 ! process ( developm5t4 ,if !y d n appe>1 or are difficult to recognise 9 ! ontog5y ( a gr\p ( animals1 x is n a s\nd me?od to assume _! pres5ce 9 an abbreviat$ or di/ort$ =m1 po/ulat+ t !y ought to be pres5t1 hav+ be5 transmitt$ by h]$ity4 ,physical conditions und\bt$ly influ5ce developm5tal processes & !re is no reason = assum+ t all ontog5etic processes 7 orig9ally ! same4 ,if we d n /ra9 ! facts ( our descriptions ( organic nature1 & if we d n build on unprovable conjectures1 all t morphology c]ta9ly %[s u is t ! evolution>y process has l$ to ! e/abli%m5t ( "s doz5 or s great gr\ps ( organisms1 ea* ) app5d$ small] gr\ps m or less closely relat$ to !m4 ,:e!r ^! great] l9es ( desc5t are to be repres5t$1 z !y usually are1 z bran*es spr++ f a s+le /em1 or :e!r !y are truly collat]al1 ea* evolv$ indep5d5tly ( all ! o!rs1 is a "q :i* is n to be solv$ m]ely by ! me?ods ( comp>ative anatomy or embryology4 ,! widely diff]5t1 & equally probable1 phylog5ies ( ! pa/ indicate t data = ! solution ( su* a problem d n exi/1 n j yet at all ev5ts4 ,:at we may discuss ) great] advantage is ! "q z to :i* ( ! great subdivisions ( life repres5ts ! ma9 results ( ! evolution ( complex organic entities f ! simple liv+ sub/ances 9 :i* we suppose life fir/ became mat]ialis$ on our e>?4 ,:at activities & /ructural =ms repres5t ! ma9 manife/ations ( ! evolution>y process8 ,t is to say1 :at great gr\ps ( organisms are ! dom9ant ones on ! e>?8 ,great] or less degrees ( dom9ance are indicat$ by ! ext5t to :i* a gr\p ( organisms is di/ribut$ on ! e>?1 by its abundance1 & by ! p]iod ( "t dur+ :i* x c be recognis$ 9 ! fossil condition4 ,ubiquit\s di/ribution implies a high degree ( adaptability3 a gr\p ( organisms inhabit+ l& & sea & atmosph]e is obvi\sly "o 9 :i* ! morphological /ructure has be5 ela/ic en\gh to admit ( ! developm5t ( v>i\s modes ( locomotion2 & ! limbs may be ei!r ! app5dages ( a t]re/rial animal1 or ! f9s1 or o!r swimm+ organs1 ( an aquatic creature1 or ! w+s ( "o adapt$ = flight4 ,dom9ance 9 ?is respect implies mobility & activity1 & a relatively highly develop$ n]v\s sy/em2 x implies ! developm5t ( organs specialis$ = preh5sion1 t is1 = ! capture ( food2 & x also implies a high degree ( adaptability to widely diff]5t physical conditions1 to temp]ature *anges1 = in/ance4 ,dom9ance 9 geological "t means also ?is great adaptability to *anges 9 climatic conditions1 & ! developm5t ( means ( di/ribution suffici5t to ov]come ext5sive physical *anges on ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,a t]re/rial species might become isolat$ by ! =mation ( a m\nta9 range1 or ! subm]g5ce ( ! l& adjac5t to t :i* x inhabit$1 & "s widely di/ribut$ species ( plants & insects mu/ h be5 able to trav]se oceanic areas4 ,! abundance ( a gr\p obvi\sly implies great p[]s ( reproduction1 ! ability to )/& physical *anges1 & ! ability to resi/ competition ) o!r pr$atory creatures4 ,dom9ance1 9 %ort1 means t ! organism possesses 9 high degree ! inh]5t p[]s ( reproduction2 & also ^? activities :i* enable x to respond by adaptations ( morphology1 function+1 & behavi\r1 to environm5tal *anges4 ,^! environm5tal *anges are ^? :i* mu/ h be5 exp]i5c$ dur+ l5g?y geological p]iods1 & also ^? exp]i5c$ by ! organism 9 its attempt cont9ually to enl>ge its area ( di/ribution4 ,if we make a broad survey ( ! animal _w we %all f9d t dom9ance 9 ^! respects has be5 acquir$ by ?ree great gr\ps ( organisms1 7#a7 ! ,bact]ia1 7#b7 ! *lorophyllian organisms1 7#c7 ! ,ar?ropods1 & 7#d7 ! ,v]tebrates4 ,9 ea* case ! ?reefold condition ( wide di/ribution ov] all ! e>?1 bo? 9 fre% & m>9e wat] areas1 on ! l& & 9 ! atmosph]e2 ( exi/5ce ?r\gh\t ! great] "p ( geological "t2 & ( ability to )/& environm5tal *ange1 are satisfi$4 ,! bact]ia are kn[n to h exi/$ 9 ! c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,at ! pres5t "t _! di/ribution on ! e>? is univ]sal3 no "p ( ! l& surface1 & no wat] masses1 ei!r m>9e or lacu/r9e--no matt] h[ unsuitable !y may be = ! life ( m highly organis$ creatures--are unt5ant$ by bact]ia4 ,!y are able to )/& extremes ( temp]ature1 or ( sal9ity1 :i* w\ld be fatal to ! multicellul> plant or animal4 ,p>asitism is a mode ( life :i* !y exhibit 9 a m manifold degree ?an d any o!r organisms4 ,! upp] regions ( ! atmosph]e are ! only p>ts ( ! e>? & its envelopes :i* !y d n inhabit4 ,! *lorophyllian organisms include ^? unicellul> plants & animals--! di/9ction becomes obscure ) reg>d to ^! organisms--:i* are pigm5t$ blue1 gre51 br[n1 or r$ ow+ to ! exi/5ce 9 ! cells ( *lorophyll1 or ( "s sub/ance alli$ to ?is comp\nd1 & !y include1 ( c\rse1 ! gre5 plants4 ,l ! ,bact]ia _! di/ribution is _w-wide1 ext5d+ ov] l& & sea & fre%-wat] areas2 & x is re/rict$ ma9ly by ! di/ribution ( sunlight1 & by a l[] limit ( temp]ature4 ,! ,m>9e ,alg1 ! ,diatoms1 ! ,p]id9ians1 & o!r *lorophyll-conta9+ organisms appe> to inhabit all p>ts ( ! _w ocean1 c]ta9ly )9 a dep? ( ab\t tw5ty to fifty fa?oms f ! surface ( ! sea4 ,gre5 plants inhabit ! l& ev]y:]e except )9 pol> areas1 ! tops ( high m\nta9s1 & ov] areas des]t by reason ( lack ( wat]1 or by ! pres5ce ( m9]al sub/ances4 ,^! conditions--temp]ature1 light1 soil1 etc4--d n appe> to limit ! di/ribution ( ! ,ar?ropods & ,v]tebrates4 ,we f9d bo? k9ds ( animals 9 ! deepe/ oceanic abysses 7deep-sea fi%es & ,cru/acea71 9 pol> l& & sea regions 7,man1 "s ,insects1 ,cru/acea1 & ,birds71 z well z 9 des]t areas & on ! summits ( ! l(tie/ m\nta9s4 ,! ,ants %>e ! subsoil ) ! ,bact]ia4 ,birds & ,insects conqu] ! atmosph]e by _! activity & n1 l ! ,bact]ia1 m]ely by be+ bl[n ab\t4 ,cru/aceans su* z ! ,copepoda h mu* ! same di/ribution 9 ! sea z ! ,insects h 9 ! atmosph]e1 :ile ,isopods & ,amphipods are a p>allel1 s f> z ! sea bottom is conc]n$1 to ! ,spid]s1 ,millip$es1 & ,ants on ! l&4 ,fi%es are di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t all dep?s1 & 9 almo/ all physical conditions 9 ! sea4 ,"s species ( m>9e ,mammalia & ,birds are q cosmopolitan except t !y are re/rict$ to ! upp] lay]s ( ! ocean4 ,l& ,mammals are subject to ! same re/rictions z are ! gre5 plants1 be+ unable to survive 9 des]t & pol> areas4 ,! only p>ts ( ! sea :i* are n inhabit$ by ,ar?ropods & ,v]tebrates are ^? limit$ deep /rata ( wat] 7z 9 ! case ( ! deep] lay]s ( ! ,black ,sea7 :]e !re are accumulations ( poison\s *emical sub/ances 9 solution4 ,b ! ,bact]ia inhabit ev5 ^! regions4 ,gre5 plants1 ,ar?ropods1 & ,v]tebrates appe> z fossils 9 almo/ e "p ( ! /ratifi$ rocks4 ,! ,trilobites repres5t ! end ( a long evolution>y process1 & ! same is to be said ( ! fir/ fi%es f\nd 9 ,silurian rocks1 s t ^! gr\ps ( animals mu/ h exi/$ 9 ! geological p]iods repres5t$ by ^? rema9s ( rocks :i* are old] ?an ! e>lie/ fossilif]\s ones4 ,plant rema9s are pres5t 9 ,silurian rocks1 b !re c be no d\bt t ,f]ns & o!r *lorophyllian organisms mu/ h be5 9 exi/5ce long be=e ?is "t4 ,we c h>dly suppose t ! ,bact]ia f\nd 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks fir/ appe>$ at ?is "t 9 ! e>?'s hi/ory3 l ! o!r great gr\ps ( life !y probably _h a prolong$ hi/ory prior to t date ( ! geological =mations 9 :i* !y are fir/ to be recognis$4 ,our dom9ant gr\ps ( organisms may !re=e be trac$ back almo/ to ! v beg9n+s ( life on ! e>?4 ,dom9ance1 su* z we h def9$ x1 _c be said to h be5 atta9$ by any o!r ( ! sub-k+doms ( life4 ,cl5t]ates & sponges appe> to h exi/$ ?r\gh\t ! :ole p]iod dur+ :i* ! rema9s ( organisms are to be trac$ 9 ! rocks1 b !y h always be5 exclusively aquatic animals & !y are v sp>sely di/ribut$ 9 fre% wat] regions4 ,e*9od]ms are also a v old gr\p1 b !y 7 m abundant 9 ! pa/ ?an !y are n[1 & !y appe> to h be5 an exclusively m>9e gr\p ( animals4 ,molluscs h exi/$ s9ce ! beg9n+s ( /ratifi$ deposits & !y are bo? aquatic & t]re/rial animals1 b !y belong pr$om9antly to ! sea4 ,!y h always be5 relatively sluggi% & inactive animals1 ) ! exceptions ( ! great ,squids & ,cuttlefi%es1 b =tunately = ! o!r inhabitants ( ! sea ^! =midable creatures appe> to possess re/rict$ p[]s ( reproduction1 & !y h nev] be5 v abundant4 ,all ! small] gr\ps ( animals are re/rict$ 9 _! di/ribution3 ! flat-worms occur sp>+ly bo? on ! l& & 9 ! sea1 & !y atta9 _! highe/ developm5t z p>asites 9 ! bodies ( o!r animals4 ,annelid worms1 ,gephyrea1 ,nem]t9e worms1 ,polyzoa1 ,rotif]s1 etc41 are all gr\ps ( animals occurr+ ma9ly 9 fre% & sea wat] & none ( !m is abundant4 ,relat$ to mo/ ( ! great phyla are small] gr\ps3 ! ext9ct ,trilobites1 ,eurypt]ids1 etc41 9 relation to ! ,ar?ropoda2 ! gr\p repres5t$ n[ by ,p]ipatus 9 relation to ! ,ar?ropods & ,annelids2 ! ,ent]opneu/a & "s o!r creatures :i* appe> to possess aff9ities ) ! ,e*9od]ms & ,*ordates2 & ! ext9ct ,o/racod]ms1 :i* appe> to h be5 relat$ to ei!r ! ,ar?ropods or ,v]tebrates1 or to bo?4 ,all ^! small] gr\ps ( animals we mu/ reg>d z repres5t+ sidepa?s tak5 by ! evolution>y process--pa?s :i* h ei!r end$ bl9dly1 z 9 ! case ( ^? gr\ps :i* h become ext9ct1 or :i* we c /ill trace 9 ! exi/+ remnants ( gr\ps :i* 7 =m]ly m abundant ?an !y are n[4 ,only among ! exi/+ ,bact]ia1 *lorophyllian organisms1 ,ar?ropods1 & ,v]tebrates has ! vital impetus f\nd its mo/ complete manife/ation1 & we may ev5 n>r[ d[n ! ma9 pa? t evolution has tak5 to c]ta9 gr\ps 9 ea* ( ^! phyla4 ,"s ( ! ,bact]ia--^? :i* are exclusively p>asitic 9 ! bodies ( ! w>m-blood$ animals--h adopt$ a mo/ specialis$ mode ( life1 & may ev5 be said to exi/ only ) difficulty1 s9ce ! heal?y animal is able to de/roy !m4 ,only ^? ,bact]ia liv+ 9 ! op5 or ^u ! dead tissues ( plants & animals h atta9$ to real dom9ance4 ,"s gre5 plants1 l ! ,f]ns1 are f> less abundant n[ ?an !y 7 9 ! pa/2 :ile ! ,fungi & "s o!r saprophytic & p>asitic plants h specialis$ 9 mu* ! same way z h ! p>asitic worms1 & are re/rict$ 9 _! di/ribution4 ,m>9e ,alg are conf9$ to a relatively n>r[ selv$ge ( sea r\nd ! l& m>g94 ,! great trees1 ! grasses1 & ! microscopic gre5 plants su* z ! ,diatoms & ,p]id9ians1 repres5t ! truly dom9ant organisms 9 ! vegetable k+dom4 ,on ! side ( ! ,ar?ropods & ,v]tebrates !re h be5 _m unsuccessful l9es ( evolution3 ! ,trilobites1 = in/ance1 9 ! =m] gr\p2 & ! arm\r$ ,ganoid fi%es1 ! arm$ ,reptiles1 ! volant ,reptiles1 & ! giant ,saurians & ,mammals among ! ,v]tebrates4 ,among ! exi/+ ,ar?ropods & ,v]tebrates !re are "s small] gr\ps :i* p]si/1 s to speak1 only ) difficulty4 ,su* are ! ,spid]s1 ,mites1 & ,scorpions among ! ,ar?ropods2 & ! ,tunicates1 ! ,dipnoan fi%es1 ! tail$ ,amphibians1 _m ,reptiles1 & ! volant ,mammals among ! ,*ordates3 su* are1 ( c\rse1 only in/ances ( ! less successful l9es ( evolution 9 ^! phyla4 ,! dom9ant ,ar?ropods & ,v]tebrates are ! ,cru/acea1 ! ,hym5opt]\s ,insects1 ! ,teleo/ & ,elasmobran* fi%es1 & ! t]re/rial ,mammals4 ,! e>? belongs to ,man1 to ! social & solit>y ,ants1 ,wasps & ,bees1 ! m>9e ,cru/acea1 ! ,teleo/ fi%es1 ! ,trees1 ,grasses1 & unicellul> ,diatoms & ,p]id9ians1 & to ! putrefactive & prototrophic ,bact]ia4 ,^! are ! organisms 9 :i* life has atta9$ its fulle/ manife/ations1 & has be5 mo/ successful 9 its ma/]y ov] in]t matt]4 ,9 :at k9ds ( activity & morphology1 !n1 has ! vital impetus f\nd mo/ complete expression8 ,we see at once t 9 relation to en]getic processes life has foll[$ two div]g5t l9es--animal & vegetable4 ,!re is no absolute di/9ction betwe5 ! en]gy-trans=mations :i* proce$ 9 ! liv+ plant & animal--we return to ?is po9t lat] on--b we may trace an unmi/akable diff]5ce 9 t5d5cy1 t is1 9 ! direction tak5 by evolution4 ,?is diff]5ce we h already consid]$ 9 an e>li] *apt]1 b we may illu/rate x by consid]+ a lifeless e>?1 & also "o t5ant$ only by plants1 or animals1 or by bo?4 ,9 a lifeless e>? all en]getic processes w\ld t5d cont9ually t[>d a condition ( /ability4 ,! cru/ ( ! e>?1 t is1 ! "p kn[n to u by direct obs]vation1 is made up ( rocks & ! rema9s ( rocks2 mat]ials consi/+ ( comp\nds ( oxyg51 silicon1 iron1 alum9ium1 sodium1 potassium1 calcium1 & s on4 ,!y are sub/ances :i* w\ld be /able b = ! erod+ action ( wat]1 ! gases ( ! atmosph]e1 & volcanic activity4 ,b z volcanic activity t5ds always t[>d cessation1 ! oxyg5 ( ! atmosph]e w\ld gradually disappe>1 fir/ by its comb9ation ) oxidisable sub/ances1 & second by its comb9ation ) ! nitrog5 ( ! atmosph]e "u ! influ5ce ( electric dis*>ges4 ,c>bon dioxide w\ld ei!r comb9e ) mat]ials 9 ! rocks1 or w\ld rema9 9 ! atmosph]e along ) nitrog5 & o!r in]t gases 9 a /able condition4 ,wat]1 mov$ by ! tides & w9ds1 w\ld gradually plane d[n ! surface ( ! l&1 unless along ) o!r gases x w\ld gradually become dissipat$ into out] space4 ,we see1 !n1 t ! mat]ials ( ! e>? t5d to fall into /able comb9ations1 & t !y approximate t[>d conditions 9 :i* pot5tial *emical en]gy becomes r$uc$ to a m9imum1 ! :ole en]gy possess$ by matt] be+ t ( ! motions ( ! molecules1 t is1 k9etic en]gy unavailable = trans=mations ( any k9d4 ,x w\ld be an e>? devoid ( ph5om5a4 ,vegetable life alone w\ld be possible only = a "t on an e>? su* z we "k x at pres5t4 ,! gre5 plant dep5ds = its exi/5ce on ! pres5ce 9 ! soil ( m9]al sub/ances su* z salts ( nitric acid & ( ammonia1 & on ! pres5ce ( wat] & c>bon dioxide 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,! *lorophyllian app>atus is ess5tially a me*anism :]eby ^! sub/ances become built up into c>bohydrates1 l />* & sug>2 hydroc>bons1 l res9s & oils2 & proteids4 ,! en]gy necess>y = ^! syn!ses is obta9$ f sol> radiation ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( ! *lorophyll pla/ids4 ,! gre5 plant w\ld dep5d = its supply ( nitrate or ammonia on ! comb9ation ( ! nitrog5 ( ! atmosph]e ) oxyg51 or on ! exhalations f volcanoes1 & ^! are irrev]sible processes :i* t5d cont9ually t[>d cessation4 ,! plant requires also c>bon dioxide & ! am\nt ( ?is sub/ance 9 ! atmosph]e is v limit$1 :ile ! only inorganic s\rce f :i* x c be r5ew$ seems to be volcanic activity3 ?is sub/ance also w\ld t5d to disappe>4 ,a "t w\ld !re=e come :5 plant life on ! e>? w\ld cease to be possible because ( ! disappe>ance ( ! mat]ials on :i* x dep5ds2 b :ile x did exi/ its result w\ld be ! accumulation ( *emical comp\nds ( high pot5tial en]gy4 ,! result ( ! metabolism ( ! plant is ! =mation ( su* comp\nds z cellulose f woody tissues & %$ leaves1 ( o!r plant c>bohydrates1 ( oils & res9s1 & ( proteids4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( bact]ia su* sub/ances w\ld p]si/ un*ang$3 ev5 9 an e>? t5ant$ by bact]ia su* products z oils1 lignite1 peat1 coal1 etc41 h be5 able to accumulate ?r\gh\t geological "t4 ,! t5d5cy ( plant life is !re=e t[>d ! accumulation ( comp\nds ( high pot5tial en]gy1 & ?is process also is irrev]sible4 ,bact]ial activity w\ld1 ( itself1 make cont9u$ plant life possible on ! e>?4 ,! ess5tial *>act]s ( ^! organisms are _! ability to br+ ab\t ! mo/ v>i$ en]gy-trans=mations4 ,f our pres5t po9t ( view bact]ia may be divid$ into p>atrophic1 metatrophic1 & prototrophic =ms4 ,p>atrophic bact]ia are ^? :i* live z p>asites )9 ! liv+ tissues ( plants & animals3 ?is mode ( life is obligatory1 & ^! organisms are unable to live 9 ! op54 ,! result ( _! activity is ! break+ d[n ( protoplasmic sub/ance4 ,metatrophic bact]ia are ^? t produce putrefaction & f]m5tation ( organic comp\nds4 ,!y may be p>asitic 9 _! mode ( life1 b mo/ ( !m live 9 soil1 9 wat]1 & 9 ! cavities ( ! animal body--! m\?1 alim5t>y canal1 nose1 & vag9a4 ,proteids are decompos$ by !m into simple *emical comp\nds su* z amido-acids1 & !n ^! sub/ances1 along ) c>bohydrates1 are f]m5t$ s z ultimately to =m wat]1 c>bonic acid1 & salts ( nitric acid4 ,^! bact]ia obta9 _! en]gy f ! conv]sion ( *emical comp\nds ( high pot5tial en]gy into comp\nds ( l[ pot5tial en]gy4 ,prototrophic bact]ia are nev] p>asites1 nor d !y live 9 ! cavities ( ! bodies ( animals3 !y always live 9 ! op54 ,!y c>ry on /ill fur!r ! action ( ! putrefactive bact]ia by conv]t+ ammonia into nitr\s acid1 & nitr\s acid into nitric acid4 ,o!rs rev]se ?is s]ies ( *anges by r$uc+ nitric acid to nitr\s acid1 nitr\s acid to ammonia1 & ammonia to free nitrog54 ,o!rs aga9 oxidise sulphurett$ hydrog5 to sulphuric acid1 o!rs f]r\s hydrate to f]ric hydrate1 :ile x has rec5tly be5 %[n t "s bact]ia are app>5tly able to oxidise ! c>bon ( coal to c>bonic acid4 ,"s are able to oxidise ! free nitrog5 ( ! atmosph]e into nitr\s & nitric acids4 ,h[ precisely ! en]gy necess>y = ^! trans=mations is obta9$ is n at all cle>ly und]/ood1 & x may be possible t "s ( ! prototrophic bact]ia obta9 _! en]gy by mak+ use ( ! un-co-ord9at$ k9etic en]gy ( ! m$ium 9 :i* !y live4 ,f our po9t ( view ! net result ( ! activity ( ! pr$om9ant species ( bact]ia :i* inhabit ! e>? is t !y rev]se ! processes :i* are ! manife/ations ( ! metabolism ( plants & animals4 ,! result ( ! metabolism ( plants is ! accumulation ( /ores ( high pot5tial comp\nds su* z c>bohydrates1 & ! depletion ( ! t]re/rial /ores ( c>bon dioxide & o!r mat]ials necess>y = ! cont9u$ exi/5ce ( ! plants !mselves4 ,! result ( ! metabolism ( ! bact]ia is ! break-d[n ( ?is accumulation ( su* comp\nds z c>bohydrates1 & ! repl5i%+ ( ! /ores ( c>bon dioxide & nitrog5\s m9]al sub/ance on :i* ! plant dep5ds4 ,if bact]ia are pres5t1 ! life process becomes a rev]sible "o4 ,plant life & bact]ial life are ?us complem5t>y to ea* o!r1 =1 on ! :ole1 ! en]getic processes ( ! gre5 plant proce$ 9 ! opposite direction to ^? ( ! bact]ia4 ,an organic _w consi/+ ( gre5 plants & bact]ia w\ld !re=e be "o capable ( p]man5t exi/5ce4 ,n[1 s f>1 we ne$ only consid] ^! v>i\s k9ds ( organisms z liv+ protoplasmic sub/ances 9 :i* en]gy-trans=mations ( diff]5t types proce$4 ,! bact]ium is simply a cell conta9+ a nucleus1 & ! gre5 plant ne$ only be a nucleat$ cell conta9+ a *lorophyll pla/id3 ?is is1 inde$1 all t x is 9 ! case ( a ,diatom or a ,p]id9ian4 ,! morphology ( ! gre5 plant is only accessory to ! *lorophyllian app>atus4 ,neglect+ ! reproductive app>atus1 ! high] gre5 plant consi/s ess5tially ( ! *lorophyllian cells 9 ! p>5*yma ( ! leaf1 = roots & /omata are only organs = ! absorption ( wat] & m9]al salts f ! soil & c>bon dioxide f ! atmosph]e2 :ile ! tissues ( ! trunk1 /ems1 & bran*es are1 9 ! ma91 app>atus = ! conduction ( ^! raw mat]ials ?r\gh ! body ( ! plant1 &1 ( c\rse1 ! nutritive sub/ances into :i* !y are elaborat$4 ,all ! innum]able v>iations ( =m 9 ! plant 7ap>t f ! /ructure ( ! fl[] or o!r reproductive organ7 are adaptations :i* provide = ! absorption & di/ribution ( ^! sub/ances2 or = ! me*anical support ( ! plant body2 or are non-adaptive v>iations1 pure luxuries1 s to speak4 ,m ?an ?is is repres5t$ by ! /ructure ( ! animal body1 b we mu/ fir/ ( all consid] ! po9ts ( diff]5ce betwe5 plant & animal reg>d$ m]ely z app>atus 9 :i* en]gy-trans=mations occur4 ,9 ! gre5 plant en]gy is accumulat$ 9 ! =m ( high pot5tial *emical comp\nds1 b 9 ! animal en]gy is exp5d$4 ,inorganic m9]al sub/ances are built up by ! plant into c>bohydrate1 proteid1 & fat or oil1 b 9 ! animal body c>bohydrate1 proteid1 & fat are dissociat$ into wat]1 c>bonic acid1 & urea 7or "s o!r nitrog5\s excretory sub/ance72 & ! urea or o!r analog\s sub/ance is brok5 d[n by bact]ia into nitrate1 wat]1 & c>bon dioxide4 ,! metabolic activities ( ! animal are said to be 8analytic0 or de/ructive1 :ile ^? ( ! plant are said to be 8syn!tic0 or con/ructive1 b ^! contra/+ t]ms h>dly describe accurately ! ess5tial nature ( ! activities ( ! two k9ds ( organisms4 ,:at fur!r con/itutes 8animality08 ,x is purposeful mobility1 & ! en]gy-trans=mations t occur are ! means :]eby ?is mobility is atta9$4 ,! plant is ess5tially immobile1 = su* movem5ts z ! turn+ ( leaves t[>d ! light1 ! d[n-gr[? ( roots1 ! up-gr[? ( /ems1 ! tw9+ ( t5drils r\nd support+ objects1 & ! op5+ & clos+ ( fl[]s are only ! movem5ts ( p>ts ( ! plant organism4 ,!y are con/ant1 direct$ responses to ext]nal /imuli--real tropisms--& ! ext5sion ( ?is k9d ( response s z to describe 9 g5]al ! movem5ts ( animals is only an in/ance ( ! insuffici5t analysis ( facts4 ,! movem5ts ( ! typical gre5 plant are !re=e movem5ts ( its p>ts1 !y are few 9 numb]1 !y belong to a few simple types1 & !y are evok$ by simple ext]nal physical *anges 9 ! m$ium4 ,! movem5ts ( ! typical animal are movem5ts ( ! organism z a :ole2 !y are inf9itely v>i$ 9 _! nature2 !y are evok$ by individualis$ /imuli & !y are cont9ually be+ modifi$ by ! exp]i5ce ( ! organism4 ,! bodily /ructure ( ! animal is ! means :]eby ?is purposeful mobility is atta9$ & ! en]gy-trans=mations direct$2 & ! great] & m v>i$ ! movem5ts ( ! animal1 ! m complex is its /ructure4 ,9 respect ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! en]gy-trans=mations are effect$1 t is1 9 respect ( ! mat]ial means :]eby en]gy falls f a /ate ( high pot5tial to a /ate ( l[ pot5tial1 ! morphology ( ! animal is simil> to t ( ! plant1 t is1 ! en]gy-trans=mations are ! functions ( nucleat$ cells4 ,b 9 ! plant ! k9etic en]gy ( sol> radiation passes into ! pot5tial en]gy ( *emical comp\nds :i* become /or$ 9 ! body ( ! plant2 :ile 9 ! animal ! pot5tial en]gy ( +e/$ *emical comp\nds passes into ! k9etic en]gy ( ! movem5ts ( ! animal itself4 ,h[ exactly x moves1 h[ ?is k9etic en]gy is employ$ is det]m9$ by ! s5sori-motor sy/em4 ,x is ! exi/5ce ( ! s5sori-motor sy/em t makes ! animal an animal4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! s5sori-motor sy/em8 ,x is ! skeleton & muscles1 t is1 ! organs ( locomotion1 aggression1 preh5sion1 & ma/ication2 ! p]iph]al s5sory & motor n]ves2 & ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em or bra94 ,! skeleton ( an animal1 :e!r x be ! c>apace or exoskeleton ( a cru/acean1 or ! v]tebral column1 limb-girdles1 & limb-bones ( a v]tebrate1 is a rigid & fix$ s]ies ( supports to :i* ! muscles are atta*$4 ,organs ( locomotion are1 = in/ance1 ! app5dages ( a cru/acean1 ! w+s ( a bird or insect1 ! tail & f9s ( a fi%1 or ! limbs ( a v]tebrate4 ,organs ( aggression are ! m&ibles ( a spid] or blood-suck+ fly1 ! *elate claws ( a crab or lob/]1 ! jaws ( a fi%1 or ! claws & tee? ( a t]re/rial v]tebrate4 ,organs ( preh5sion & ma/ication are 9 ! ma9 also ^? ( aggression4 ,all ^! p>ts consi/ ( modifi$ skeletal /ructures1 tee?1 claws1 etc41 atta*$ to muscles :i* orig9ate 9 ! rigid p>ts ( ! skeleton4 ,:5 we speak ( ! movem5ts ( an animal we speak ( ! motions ( su* p>ts z we h m5tion$2 o!r p>ts d inde$ move--! he>t pulsates1 ! lungs dilate & contract1 & ! blood & o!r fluids circulate ?r\gh clos$ vessels2 b ^! are movem5ts ( ! p>ts ( ! animal1 & are comp>able r ) ^? movem5ts ( ! plant organism t we h consid]$4 ,!y are n to be reg>d$ z examples ( ! mobility ( ! animal 9 ! s5se ( ! ex]cise ( its s5sori-motor sy/em4 ,a c5tral & p]iph]al n]v\s sy/em is1 ( c\rse1 b\nd up ) a motor sy/em4 ,receptor organs1 eyes1 olfactory1 auditory1 tactile organs ( s5se1 & s on1 are ! means :]eby ! animal is affect$ by *anges 9 its environm5t--x ne$ n be cognisant (1 or become aw>e (1 or p]ceive ^! impressions on its receptor organs4 ,^! /imuli are transmitt$ along ! s5sory1 or aff]5t1 n]ves to ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em3 ?is is ! way 94 ,! effector n]v\s organs are ! motor plates1 t is1 ! n]v\s /ructures 9 ! muscles 9 :i* ! n]ves t]m9ate4 ,! motor n]ves are ! eff]5t pa?s1 ! way out f ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em4 ,! c5tral n]v\s sy/em is ess5tially ! organ = ! integration ( ! activities ( ! :ole body4 ,x is ! 8seat ( multitud9\s synapses10 a description :i* bett] ?an any o!r applies to ! morphology ( ! bra9 ( ! v]tebrate animal4 ,we h already consid]$ :at is meant by ! t]m 8reflex action10 x is ! s]ies ( processes :i* occur :5 a 8reflex arc0 becomes functionally active4 ,a reflex arc consi/s ( 7#a7 a receptor organ1 say a tactile corpuscle 9 ! sk92 7#b7 an aff]5t n]ve fibre2 7#c7 a n]ve cell 9 ! bra9 or sp9al cord2 7#d7 an eff]5t n]ve fibre2 & 7#e7 an effector n]ve organ1 say a motor plate 9 a muscle fibre4 ,! s]ies ( processes involv$ 9 a reflex action consi/ ( ! /imulation ( ! receptor organ1 ! passage ( ! aff]5t impulse into ! bra9 or cord1 ! passage ( ! impulse ?r\gh a s]ies ( cells 9 ! n]ve c5tre =m+ a synapse1 ! transmission ( ! impulse ?r\gh ! eff]5t n]ve fibre into ! effector organ 9 ! muscle & ! /imulation ( ! latt] to an act ( contraction4 ,?is is a purely s*ematic description ( ! /ructures & processes =m+ a reflex action & arc3 9 reality ! pa? bo? into & out f ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em is int]rupt$ aga9 & aga91 & at ea* place ( int]ruption !re are alt]native pa?s4 ,! int]ruptions occur at ! synapses4 ,at a synapse ! n]v\s impulse passes ?r\gh an arboresc5ce ( f9e n]v\s twigs1 into :i* ! fibre breaks up1 into a simil> arboresc5ce1 & ^! two arboresc5ces are n 9 actual physical contact3 ! impulse leaps ov] a gap4 ,at num]\s places 9 bo? bra9 & cord !re are alt]native synapses & at ^! places ! impulse may travel 9 m ?an "o direction4 ,! bra9 & cord are a swit*-bo>d ( unimag9able complexity1 s t an eff]5t impulse ent]+ x f1 say1 ! eye1 c be %unt$ on to "o n]ve pa? aft] ano!r1 s t x may affect any muscle 9 ! :ole body4 ,?is is no fiction3 x may actually be ! case4 ,9 normal respiration a c5tre 9 ! h9d-bra9 is /imulat$ to rhy?mical activity by ! pres5ce ( c>bon dioxide 9 ! blood1 & f x eff]5t impulses orig9ate :i* /imulate ! muscles ( ! *e/ wall & diaphragm4 ,b 9 ! di/ress ( asphyxia e muscle ( ! body may be /imulat$ to activity 9 ! ef=t to accel]ate ! oxyg5ation ( ! blood1 & ^! are n spasmodic movem5ts ( ! muscles ( limbs1 etc41 b purposeful contractions hav+ = _! object ! increas$ intake ( air into ! lungs4 ,! c5tral n]v\s sy/em is1 !re=e1 a swit*-bo>d--s me*ani/ic physiology tea*es1 neglect+ any idea ( an op]ator4 ,b ! :ole tr5d ( mod]n inve/igation is to %[ t e increase ( specialisation 9 ! evolution ( ! high] animal adds to ! complexity ( ?is n]v\s app>atus by increas+ ! numb] ( alt]native pa?s t an impulse orig9at+ any:]e 9 ! body may take be=e x issues f ! bra9 or sp9al cord4 ,yet ) all ?is increase ( complexity x is nev]!less ! case t 9 ! high] animal ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! c5tral & p]iph]al n]v\s sy/em are m & m integrat$1 s t 9 ! actions ( ! animal x becomes m & m ! organism z a :ole t acts4 ,all o!r organs 9 ! animal body--except+ always ! reproductive app>atus--are accessory to ! s5sori-motor sy/em4 ,! alim5t>y canal & its gl&s dissolve ! food-/uffs +e/$2 ! metabolic organs1 t is1 ! cells ( ! wall ( ! inte/9e1 ! liv]1 etc41 trans=m ^! +e/$ proteids1 fats1 & c>bohydrates ( ! food into ! proteids1 fats1 & c>bohydrates ( ! animal itself2 ! he>t1 blood1 & lymph vessels c>ry ?is food mat]ial to ! muscles & n]v\s organs2 ! respiratory organs absorb oxyg5 :i* is di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t ! body 9 ! blood /ream2 ! excretory organs1 t is1 ! lungs1 sk91 & kidneys1 remove noxi\s mat]ials l c>bonic acid & urea1 or its precursors2 & purposeful *anges ( function+ ( all ^! organs are br\ght ab\t by *anges 9 motor activity4 ,r\nd ! s5sori-motor sy/em all ! re/ ( ! /ructure ( ! animal body is built up4 ,:at we see cle>ly 9 ! evolution ( ! animal body is ! progressive increase ( activity ( ! s5sori-motor sy/em4 ,! animal becomes m & m mobile4 ,x is 9 ?is way t dom9ance has be5 atta9$ & all ! directions ( /ructural evolution 9 ! pa/ t h n t5d$ 9 ?is direction h be5 unsuccessful1 irrev]sible1 evolution>y processes4 ,great size has n succe$$ 9 ! animal k+dom1 & s ! gigantic reptiles & mammals ( ! second>y & t]ti>y p]iods h become ext9ct4 ,def5ce aga9/ enemies by ! developm5t ( d]mal arm\r has n succe$$1 & s ! ,d9osaurs1 & o!r arm$ animals ( ! ,t]ti>y ,age h also become ext9ct4 ,! trans=mation ( ! =e limbs ( ! reptile into w+s1 or ! legs ( ! mammal into flapp]s1 did n succe$1 because all ! re/ ( ! /ructure ( ^! animals _h become adapt$ to locomotion on dry l&1 & ! *ange ( /ructure _h become too pr(\nd to be modifi$3 s ! ,pt]odactyls pass$ away1 z ! :ales ( our own p]iod are also pass+4 ,only 9 ! lightly bon$1 fea!r$ bird1 ) ! possibility ( ! developm5t ( p[]ful pectoral muscles1 did indef9ite possibilities ( flight reside2 & only 9 ! fi%1 ) ! concomitant evolution ( gills1 ! r$uction ( a m9imum ( ! mass ( ! alim5t>y canal & its gl&s1 & ! conv]sion ( mo/ ( ! muscles ( ! body into organs actuat+ ! tail f91 0 ! complet5ess ( adaptation to aquatic life realis$4 ,mobility1 a bodily /ructure capable ( indef9itely v>i$ movem5ts1 & a n]v\s sy/em by ! aid ( :i* any "p ( ! body might become l9k$ to any o!r "p--^! 7 ! /ructural adaptations t h be5 successful alike 9 ,ar?ropod & ,v]tebrate4 ,!re 7 app>5tly two ma9 types ( /ructure by means ( :i* ?is mobility & ela/icity c\ld be atta9$1 ! ,ar?ropod type & ! ,v]tebrate type4 ,!re seems little to *oose betwe5 !m if we _h to select "o ( !m 9 ord] to obta9 a highly mobile organic me*anism4 ,ar?ropod & ,v]tebrate seem to be equally complex if we take acc\nt ( diff]5ce 9 size & ! additional bodily me*anism t great size mu/ involve4 ,c]ta9ly ! musculature ( ! ,v]tebrate is m complex ?an 9 ! ,ar?ropod4 ,b great] weight mu/ require l>g] & m p[]ful muscles if ! same degree ( mobility relative to ! size ( ! animal is to be atta9$1 & ?is m complex musculature mu/ c>ry ) x a m complex bra94 ,x mu/ also be concomitant ) a m massive skeleton1 = rigid supports = ! muscles mu/ be pres5t 9 ! me*anism4 ,:y are !re no great insects or cru/aceans8 ,mr ,wells has sugge/$ 9 "o ( 8 novels ! =midability ( a wasp two feet long6 ,su* a creature w\ld inde$ be m dreadful ?an any pr$atory bird t we "k if its activity 7 also t ( ! wasps t we "k1 j z a ,copepod z l>ge z a %>k w\ld be a m =midable animal ?an ! fi%4 ,x seems possible t ! reason = ! small] size ( ! ,v]tebrate is to be f\nd 9 ! nature ( ! skeleton4 ,p[]ful muscles w\ld require a v /rong & ?ick c>apace1 & ?is w\ld atta9 a mass 9 a v l>ge insect or cru/acean :i* w\ld require too mu* en]gy = its rapid transport4 ,a rigid exoskeleton l t ( an ,ar?ropod also means t gr[? mu/ take place by a process ( ecdysis1 t is1 ! animal gr[s only dur+ ! p]iods :5 x ca/s its %ell2 & ! necessity ( ?is process ( ecdysis mu/ be a =midable disadvantage 9 ! case ( a v l>ge animal1 if inde$ x w\ld be possible at all4 ,?us ! ,ar?ropod develop+ an exoskeleton mu/ rema9 small1 & ?is smallness1 =tunately = ! ,v]tebrate1 has made x ! less =midable animal4 ,x 0 an accid5t ( evolution t ! ,ar?ropods develop$ an exoskeleton in/ead ( an endoskeleton4 ,und\bt$ly ! int]nal skeleton ( ! ,v]tebrates1 ) its light1 holl[1 cancellat$ bones1 0 me*anically ! be/ means = ! atta*m5t ( muscles4 ,x made possible a great] degree ( fre$om ( movem5t ( ! p>ts ( ! body1 great] v>iety & pla/icity ( action1 & x remov$1 to "s ext5t1 ! limit ( size & ! emb>rass+ discont9uity ( gr[? by ecdysis1 ) all ! dang]s t ?is involves4 ,above all1 x l$ to ! increas$ complexity ( ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em1 s9ce ?is became b\nd up ) ! increas+ v>iety ( bodily movem5t4 ,9 ! evolution ( ! dom9ant gr\ps ( organisms we see1 !n1 ! developm5t ( sev]al t5d5cies4 ,fir/1 t t5d5cy :i* seems to (f] ! greate/ contra/ to ! univ]sal t5d5cy display$ 9 inorganic processes1 ! dissipation ( en]gy4 ,! plant organism is ess5tially a sy/em 9 :i* en]gy is accumulat$ 9 ! pot5tial =m4 ,!n1 9 ! animal k+dom we see t ! ma9 t5d5cy ( evolution has be5 ! developm5t ( sy/ems 9 :i* en]gy becomes exp5d$ 9 inf9itely v>i$ movem5ts4 ,x may seem1 on sup]ficial exam9ation1 t 9 ! animal mode ( metabolism en]gy is dissipat$ z x is 9 inorganic processes2 & ?is is ! conclusion t we %\ld rea* if we consid]$ ! actions1 & ! results ( ! actions1 ( ! l[] animals only1 t is1 animals l[] ?an man4 ,we return to ?is po9t lat] on1 b 9 ! meantime x is to be not$ t ! fundam5tal division ( organisms is t f\nd$ ^u _! activities z en]gy-trans=m]s1 t is1 into plants & animals4 ,)9 ea* ( ^! k+doms ( organisms /ructural evolution has occurr$3 ! unicellul> gre5 plant has evolv$ along v num]\s l9es1 ea* ( !m *>act]is$ by a diff]5t type ( morphological /ructure4 ,! unicellul> animal has also evolv$ 9 a simil> way ) ! result t ! pres5t phyla h become e/abli%$4 ,look+ at ^! great gr\ps ( animals1 we see t two ( !m h atta9$ dom9ance by ! developm5t along diff]5t l9es ( a s5sori-motor sy/em4 ,"h we see ano!r fundam5tal diff]5ce betwe5 ! plant & animal organism1 b "o :i* is a consequ5ce ( ! diff]5ce t exi/s betwe5 ! two k+doms 9 respect ( ! en]gy-trans=mations c>ri$ out by !m4 ,! plant is *>act]is$ by immobility1 ! animal by mobility4 ,immobility implies unconsci\sness1 mobility consci\sness1 & ?is physical diff]5ce is ! ?ird "o :i* we c e/abli% betwe5 ! plant & ! animal4 ,n[ few physiologi/s are likely to accept ?is di/9ction z "o :i* has any real objective mean+4 ,consci\sness is n a concept to be dealt ) 9 any process ( reason+1 x is n ev5 some?+ felt 9 ! way 9 :i* we speak ( ! feel+s ( pa91 or light1 or hung]3 ^! are all /ates ( our consci\sness4 ,! diff]5ce 9 ourselves1 says ,ladd1 :5 we are sunk 9 s\nd dreamless sleep1 & :5 we are 9 full wak+ activity1 t is consci\sness4 ,if we reason ab\t organisms & _! activities z we d ab\t inorganic ?+s we h no "r to speak ab\t consci\sness1 = outside our own ,ego x has no exi/5ce4 ,! act+ animal is only a body1 or a sy/em ( bodies1 mov+ 9 nature1 & all its activities are to be describ$ by a sy/em ( g5]alis$ =ce & position co-ord9ates ) ref]5ce to "s arbitr>ily *os5 po9t ( space4 8,?is animal ma*9e10 says a zoologi/1 writ+ ab\t in/9ct1 8:i* ,i call my wife1 exhibits c]ta9 facial contortions & emits c]ta9 articulate s\nds :i* correspond ) ^? emitt$ by myself :5 ,i h a heada*e1 b ,i h no "r to say t %e has a heada*e40 ,?is k9d ( argum5t does n appe> to be capable ( refutation except1 p]haps1 by ! dome/ic conflicts :i* x w\ld usually evoke if appli$ 9 su* cases z t quot$4 ,9 a description ( nature by ! me?ods & symbolism ( sci5ce we see only sy/ems ( molecules 9 motion1 & 9 ^? sy/ems :i* we describe z organisms ! motions are only m complex ?an !y are 9 inorganic sy/ems4 ,su* is ! me?od ( sci5ce1 z irrefutable 9 ! /udy ( ! organism z we "k t x is false4 ,valid 9 pure speculation accord+ to ! me?ods ( ! intellect x w\ld nev]!less be absurd 9 ! ev]yday affairs ( common civilis$ life & ! sci5tific man :o applies x 9 8 writ+ w\ld nev]!less hesitate to apply x 9 ! affairs ( 8 own h\sehold4 ,we mu/ recognise t our k t o!r be+s l ourselves1 z well z animals l[] 9 organisation ?an ourselves1 are consci\sly act+ organisms is intuitive k1 atta9able because ( community ( organisation3 our intuitive k ( ! behavi\r & feel+s ( our own bro!rs & si/]s is great] ?an our k ( o!r m5 & wom52 & we c1 by intuition1 place ourselves )9 ! consci\sness ( an intellig5t dog to a great] ext5t ?an 9 ! case ( o!r animals4 ,?is k ( ! consci\sness ( o!r animals is n sci5tific k & x is unatta9able & unprovable by reason+ or me?ods ( sci5tific obs]vation4 ,x is a conviction 9 itself incapable ( analysis or pro(1 b yet a conviction on :i* we confid5tly base mo/ ( our deal+s ) our fell[-creatures1 & :i* is ju/ifi$ by our exp]i5ce4 ,x is nev]!less a sci5tific hypo!sis ( mu* ! same validity z _m o!r sci5tific hypo!ses4 ,we _c br+ ourselves to d\bt t o!r m5 & wom5 are consci\sly act+ organisms1 h[ev] impossible x may be to adduce sci5tific reason = ! fai? t is 9 u4 ,we _c d\bt t a compass ne$le :i* 8responds0 by turn+ "o or o!r ( its poles t[>ds u accord+ z we pu% =w>ds "o or o!r ( ! poles ( a magnet is an unconsci\s piece ( metal1 ?\gh we f9d x impossible to say :y ?is belief possesses su* conviction4 ,f ?is to ! movem5ts ( ! typical gre5 plant is only a /ep4 ,! turn+ ( a gre5 leaf t[>ds ! s\rce ( light1 or ! d[nw>d movem5t ( a root into ! soil1 are responses to ext]nal /imuli :i* exhibit mo/ ( ! inevitability ( response ( ! magnet4 ,!y are 8tropisms03 ! plant leaf is oblig$ to turn t[>ds ! light s t ! latt] /rikes aga9/ its surface p]p5dicul>ly1 & ! root mu/ gr[ d[nw>ds because gravity acts along v]tical l9es4 ,b suppose t reflex actions are tropi/ic3 suppose1 = in/ance1 t ! mo? is b\nd to fly into ! c&le flame because ! light /imulates bo? sides ( its body equally & ?is ori5tates x & guides x t[>ds ! direction f :i* ! /imulus proce$s4 ,complex actions1 9 ! high] animal1 on ?is view are *a9s ( reflexes1 & ! act+ mu/ be unconsci\s & inevitable1 j z ! turn+ ( ! magnet or gre5 leaf are unconsci\s movem5ts4 ,!re=e ! actions ( our fell[-creatures are unconsci\s & automatic1 a conclusion t[>d :i* ! :ole t5d5cy ( me*ani/ic physiology =ces u4 ,yet we "k t ! conclusion _c be true4 ,betwe5 ! obligatory reaction ( ! compass ne$le to ! magnet1 or ! analog\s heliotropism & geotropism ( ! plant organism1 & ! inf9itely v>iable responses ( ! high] animal t[>d *anges 9 its environm5t1 consci\sness mu/ come into exi/5ce4 ,x is abs5t 9 ! inorganic sy/em & ! typical gre5 plant2 x is dim 9 ! s$5t>y sea-anemone or mollusc2 x becomes bright] 9 ! freely mov+ ,ar?ropod or fi%2 & x is mo/ int5se 9 man4 ,?is1 x mu/ be admitt$1 is only a belief1 b accept+ x z su* we may attempt to support x by %[+ a p>allelism ( /ages ( /ructural complexity & actions4 ,! s5sori-motor sy/em is abs5t 9 ! gre5 plant2 x is simple 9 ! extreme 9 ! sea-anemone2 & x is rudim5t>y or ve/igial 9 ! s$5t>y mollusc4 ,x becomes m complex 9 ! ,ar?ropod or fi%1 & x is develop$ to ! greate/ degree 9 ourselves4 ,if we n[ exam9e our own m5tal /ates1 ) _! correspond+ conditions ( bodily activity1 we see z cle>ly z possible t our consci\sness waxes & wanes ) our activities4 ,x is abs5t 9 normal sleep1 :5 bodily activity 9 ! real s5se ceases almo/ absolutely1 :5 ! c]ebral cortex becomes inactive1 & :5 ! only movem5ts p]=m$ are ^? truly automatic ones ( p>ts ( ! body :i* are analog\s to ! movem5ts ( ! plant organism4 ,su* movem5ts are ! rhy?mic ones ( ! he>t & lungs1 ! movem5ts ( ! blood1 & s on1 9 g5]al ! movem5ts lead+ to con/ructive metabolism4 ,consci\sness is mo/ int5se 9 difficult unfamili> actions3 ! lad le>n+ to r[2 ! *ild le>n+ scales on ! piano1 or ! f+]+ ( ! viol92 ! eng9e] assembl+ toge!r ! p>ts ( a new ma*9e2 or ! arti/ engag$ on a picture4 ,9 ea* ( ^! cases ! work] is acutely consci\s1 9 a delib]ative mann]1 ( 8 own bodily actions4 ,b ) ! habitual ex]cise ( ^! movem5ts1 & ) ! ease & facility ) :i* !y are p]=m$1 consci\sness t !y are be+ p]=m$ fades t[>ds no?+ness4 ,:at does ?is mean b t degrees ( consci\sness are p>allel to degrees ( complexity ( delib]at$ & purposeful bodily movem5ts or actions8 ,or degrees ( consci\sness are also p>allel to ! attempt ( ! organism to p]=m ^! actions4 ,:at is pa91 ! mo/ acutely felt ( all our m5tal /ates8 ,x is1 ,b]gson says1 ! consci\sness ( ! p]si/5t & unsuccessful ef=t ( ! tissues to respond purposefully to a p]si/5tly r5ew$ /imulus4 ,b complex actions require = _! p]=mance sy/ems ( skeletal & muscul> p>ts capable ( mov+ 9 ! mo/ v>i$ ways1 & a sy/em ( aff]5t & eff]5t n]ves ) all _! connections 9 ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em3 t is1 a s5sori-motor sy/em4 ,!re=e j z ! s5sori-motor sy/em is m or less complex s1 9 g5]al1 is consci\sness m or less acute4 ,yet 9 ! same organism consci\sness is ! m or less acute z ! actions :i* x p]=ms are m or less famili>4 ,! piani/ :o plays scales z a matt] ( ex]cise c>ries out mo/ complex movem5ts ( h&s & wri/s unconsci\sly & )\t ef=t1 b to play an unfamili> composition = ! fir/ "t )\t error involves att5tion ( ! highe/ degree4 ,a girl :o c\nts ! %eets ( pap] com+ f a ma*9e seizes a h&ful 9 "o h&1 & drops a sep>ate %eet betwe5 e two f+]s ( ! o!r h&1 repeat+ ?is mo/ difficult op]ation ) great rapidity1 & c\nt+ ! h&fuls ( %eets accurately :ile ?9k+ & talk+ delib]ately ab\t "s o!r matt]4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( h] "w ^! actions 7 clumsily p]=m$ & facility 0 only atta9$ by su/a9$ att5tion to ! movem5ts ( ! h&s1 yet ) exp]i5ce !y become unconsci\sly p]=m$4 ,complex movem5ts ( ! body & limbs & digits1 involv+ ! co-ord9at$ activity ( num]\s muscles1 n]ves1 & n]ve c5tres1 are p]=m$ at fir/ only aft] a high degree ( consci\s ef=t1 b ) ea* repetition ( ! s]ies ( movem5ts ! animal ceases to be aw>e ( !m1 or at lea/ ( _! difficulty4 ,9 ! high] animals !re are1 !re=e1 two categories ( actions1 7#a7 ^? unfamili> actions :i* are difficult1 & 9 ! p]=mance ( :i* ! animal becomes consci\s ( complex muscul> activities2 & 7#b7 ^? habitual actions :i* h become easy by d9t ( repetition1 & ! p]=mance ( :i* is unatt5d$ by consci\s ef=t4 ,analysis ( our own activities reveals ^! two categories ( actions1 & we h no d\bt :atev] t ! high] animals h ! same feel+s ( difficulty & ef=t 9 ! "o case1 & ( lack ( consci\s ef=t 9 ! o!r4 ,! diff]5ce is "o ( ^? :i* sep>ate in/9ctive f intellig5t activities4 ,n[ we hesitate to attempt ! discussion ( ?is mu*-controv]t$ "q ( ! di/9ction betwe5 in/9ct & intellig5ce3 aft] read+ mu* t has be5 said z to ! nature ( ?is diff]5ce1 "o rises ) ! uncom=table impression t ! "t is n yet ripe = its discussion1 & t ! problem is /ill "o f> m = ! naturali/ ?an = ! psy*ologi/4 ,reliable data are /ill urg5tly requir$4 ,yet x is a "q :i* we _c fail to consid]4 ,! typical plant diff]s f ! typical animal 9 t a s5sori-motor sy/em has be5 evolv$ 9 ! "o b n 9 ! o!r2 & among ! animals 9 :i* ?is sy/em is develop$ to a high degree ! activities :i* involve its ex]cise diff] 9 _! =m4 ,actions ( a /]eotyp$ patt]n *>act]ise ! behavi\r ( ! high] ,inv]tebrate1 :ile 9 ! high] ,v]tebrate all t we see indicates t ! behavi\r is ! result ( delib]ation1 & t ! actions p]=m$ are n /]eotyp$ b diff] inf9itely 9 _! patt]ns4 ,j z cle>ly z diff]5ces 9 morphology diff]5tiate ,ar?ropod f ,v]tebrate1 s also d diff]5ces 9 ! mode ( activity ( ! s5sori-motor sy/em m>k div]g5t l9es ( evolution culm9at+ 9 ! ,hym5opt]\s ,insect on ! "o h& & 9 ,man on ! o!r4 ,:at is ! ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 an action p]=m$ in/9ctively & "o p]=m$ intellig5tly8 ,x is n t ! animal is unaw>e ( its activity 9 ! fir/ case & n 9 ! second2 h[ev] mu* we t5d to 8expla90 organic activity 9 t]ms ( inorganic reactions1 we d n really believe t ! in/9ctively act+ wasp is a pure automaton1 :ile admitt+ t ! s*oolgirl is acutely consci\s ( h] own multif>i\s activities4 ,x is n t ! in/9ctive action displays a 8f9i%10 or p]fection ( te*nique1 t ! delib]ative action lacks3 ! comb built by ! wasp is n m p]fect 9 its way ?an is ! doorway con/ruct$ by a skill$ mason1 or ! 8buttonholes0 /it*$ by a seam/ress4 ,x is n t in/9ctive actions are s absolutely /]eotyp$1 z is sometimes assum$1 :ile intellig5t actions gr[ m p]fect 9 _! result by repetition3 ! "w ( ! insect or bird is (t5 faulty & x is improv$ by practice4 ,! mo/ obvi\s diff]5ce is t ! in/9ctive action is effective ! v fir/ "t x is p]=m$1 :ile ! intellig5t action only becomes effective aft] x has be5 attempt$ sev]al times1 or v _m times1 accord+ to its difficulty4 ,! flight ( ! "y swall[ is effective inasmu* z x su/a9s ! bird 9 ! air1 b x is also an exce$+ly difficult s]ies ( muscul> ef=ts :i* is at fir/ clumsily p]=m$ & :i* becomes m p]fect by repetition4 ,b ! flight ( an a]oplane1 ev5 n[ aft] ye>s ( exp]im5t1 is n always effective1 & exhibits at its be/ all ! imp]fections ( ! flight ( ! "y swall[4 ,yet c we d\bt t 9 "t x w exhibit all ! ease & c]ta9ty & f9i% ( ! flight ( ! bird8 ,! typical intellig5tly p]=m$ action is ! action ( a tool1 or ( a "p ( ! body :i* is us$ = "s o!r purpose ?an t :i* is indicat$ by its imm$iate evolution>y hi/ory1 or by its previ\s use4 ,! typical in/9ctively p]=m$ action is always ! action ( a bodily organ1 ! /ructure & imm$iate evolution>y hi/ory ( :i* indicates t x orig9at$ z an adaptation = ! p]=mance ( ^! p>ticul> actions1 or category ( actions4 ,"h x seems to u t we f9d ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two k9ds ( bodily activity2 & ! di/9ction is "o :i* dep5ds = its validity on our notions z to :at a tool is4 ,an implem5t made by man is a piece ( in]t matt] fa%ion$ 9 ord] t x may be us$ = a def9ite preconceiv$ purpose4 ,x has an exi/5ce z a def9ite specific object ap>t f its use2 & its ex]cise by ! man :o made x & its exi/5ce 9 nature are two diff]5t ?+s4 ,its use mu/ be le>n$1 & ! results obta9$ by its employm5t become m p]fect ) e repetition ( its use4 ,b ! m&ibles ( an insect are implem5ts purposefully adapt$ = "s action or s]ies ( actions1 j z ! p9c]s ( ! blacksmi? are s adapt$4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 implem5ts :i* are "p ( ! organisation ( ! animal us+ !m--organis$ tools--& x does n seem z if we ought to ?9k ( !m1 & ( _! %ape & nature1 z some?+ ap>t f _! ex]cise4 ,mu/ we ?9k ( an animal z hav+ to le>n h[ to use any "p ( its body8 ,if s1 !n ! problem ( in/9ct rema9s ) u 9 all its hi/oric obscurity4 ,b if we ?9k ( ! exi/5ce ( a bodily tool z some?+ insep>able f ! function+ ( ! tool1 ! problem becomes less obscure1 or at lea/ x c be /at$ 9 t]ms ( "s o!r problems :i* we h already consid]$4 ,we d actually ?9k ( bodily p>ts or organs z mat]ial /ructures q ap>t f ! consid]ation ( _! functions3 x is ! di/9ction betwe5 morphology & physiology--an altoge!r artificial "o4 ,an animal1 = ! morphologi/1 is a complex ( skeleton1 muscles1 n]ves1 gl&s1 & s on2 & x does n matt] :e!r x is conta9$ 9 a j> ( me?ylat$ _s or is runn+ ab\t 9 a cage4 ,= ! physiologi/ x is 8some?+ happ5+02 b is x n really bo? ?+s1 & are n ! /ructure & ! function+ only two conv5i5t1 b arbitr>y1 aspects f :i* we consid] ! organism8 ,we ought n to ?9k ( diaphragm & lungs ap>t f ! movem5ts ( ^! organs1 & we d n say t ! fir/ brea? drawn by ! newly-born mammal is an in/9ctive action1 involv+ ! use ( inborn bodily tools--! diaphragm1 lungs1 etc4 ,we ought n to ?9k ( ! lips & m\? & ph>ynx ( ! "y baby ap>t f ! actions ( suckl+ ! mamm ( its "m1 b usually we say t ?is action is an in/9ctive "o4 ,:]e does ! ord9>y function+ ( an organ end & its in/9ctive function+ beg98 ,are ! muscul> actions ( ! lob/] :5 x frees its body & app5dages f ! c>apace dur+ ! act ( ecdysis in/9ctive ones8 ,mo/ zoologi/s w\ld say t !y are n1 any m ?an ! movem5ts ( ! maxillip$es 9 respiration are in/9ctive ones1 yet !y probably w\ld n hesitate to say t ! action ( ! 8s(t0 lob/] 9 creep+ into a rock crevice is in/9ctive4 ,does a "y *ild really 8le>n0 to walk8 ,x is m likely t ! actions ( walk+ are pot5tial 9 its limbs & t !y become actual :5 all ! connections ( n]ve tracts & c5tres 9 its bra9 & sp9al cord become e/abli%$4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! acquirem5t ( ! ability to walk & to write8 ,! latt] s]ies ( actions are unfamili> comb9ations ( n]v\s & muscul> activities :i* are no "p ( ! organisation ( ! "y *ild2 :ile ! =m] are simply ! result ( ! complete functional developm5t ( c]ta9 n]v\s & muscul> app>atus4 ,x seems difficult1 !n1 to express cle>ly :at is ! ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 in/9ctive & intellig5t behavi\r2 & x is d\btless ! case t reason$ exp]im5ts & obs]vations are /ill too few to enable u to make s\nd d$uctions4 ,b x c]ta9ly seems z if we ought to ?9k ( in/9ctive actions z hav+ evolv$ concomitantly ) ! /ructure ( ! organs :i* effect !m3 !y are ^? inh]itable adaptations ( behavi\r :i* are b\nd up )--are inde$ ! same ?+s z--inh]itable adaptations ( /ructure4 ,9 p]=m+ !m ! in/9ctively act+ animal is d\btless aw>e ( its own activity1 b we mu/ ?9k ( ?is aw>5ess z be+ ( mu* ! same nature z our consci\sness ( ! automatic activities ( our own bodies--! rhy?mic activities ( ! he>t & respiratory organs1 or ! actions ( our arms & legs 9 walk+1 = in/ance4 ,x is k ( ! inborn ability ( ! organisms to use an inborn bodily tool4 ,9 ! intellig5t action we c]ta9ly see some?+ diff]5t f ?is4 ,! organ or organ-sy/em :i* c>ries out su* an action functions 9 a mann] :i* is diff]5t f t = :i* x 0 evolv$3 ! action is ! consci\s adaptation ( ! organ = "s =m ( activity new to x1 & ?is acquirem5t ( activity seems to be non-inh]itable--at lea/ x is non-inh]itable 9 ! s5se 9 :i* we speak ( acquir$ *>act]s be+ non-inh]it$4 ,x is accompani$1 :ile x is be+ acquir$1 by a consci\sness :i* is delib]ative1 & is diff]5t f t aw>5ess ( its own activity :i* accompanies ! act+ ( ! in/9ctive animal--! k t x is act+ 9 an effective mann]4 ,x does n seem z if ! animal 9 s act+ is aw>e ( ! relation ( ! bodily tool to ! object on :i* x is act+4 ,b intellig5ce seems to imply m ?an ?is3 x implies ! k ( ! organism t "s p>ts ( its body be> c]ta9 relations to ! p>ts ( ! environm5t on :i* !y are act+1 & t ^! relations are v>iable ones & may be ! objects ( consci\s *oice4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,! ,,organic ,,& ,,! ,,inorganic ,x is conv5i5t t we %\ld express ! results ( biological inve/igation 9 s*emes ( classification1 = only 9 ?is way c we r$uce ! app>5t *aos ( naturally occurr+ organic ?+s to ord]1 & /ate our k 9 su* a way t x c easily be communicat$ to o!rs4 ,b we mu/ always rememb] t ! classifications ( sy/ematic biology are conceptual arrangem5ts1 dep5d+ = _! precise nature on ! po9t ( view tak5 by _! au?ors4 ,! cle>-cut di/9ctions t app>5tly sep>ate phylum f phylum1 class f class1 ord] f ord]1 & s on1 d n really exi/4 ,!re are no su* categories ( organisms 9 nature z g5]a1 families1 & ! high] gr\p+s4 ,all t we c say exi/ naturally are ! species1 s9ce all ! organisms compos+ ea* ( ^! gr\ps are relat$ toge!r by ties ( blood-relation%ip1 & all are isolat$ f ! organisms compos+ o!r species by physiological dissimil>ities :i* r5d] ! plants or animals ( "o species inf]tile ) ^? ( any o!r4 ,su* w\ld d\btless h be5 ! op9ion ( mo/ botani/s & zoologi/s prior to ! "w ( de ,vries1 b we mu/ n[ recognise t ! sy/ematic1 or ,l9nean1 species ( ! n9ete5? c5tury 0 j z artificial a category z 7 ! g5]a & families4 ,our arrangem5ts ( plants & animals into sy/ematic species & ! high] gr\p+s are !re=e conv5i5t ways ( symbolis+ ! results ( morphological & physiological inve/igations1 al?\gh !y also indicate ! ma9 directions tak5 by ! evolution>y process1 b ! mann] 9 :i* !y are /at$ 9 taxonomic s*emes is always a m or less =mal "o4 ,!re are no absolute di/9ctions betwe5 gr\p & gr\p1 ev5 betwe5 ! animals & ! plants4 ,!re is no?+1 = in/ance1 9 ! morphology ( a ,diatom to indicate t x belongs to ! vegetable k+dom1 or 9 t ( a ,radiol>ian1 to indicate t x is an animal4 ,p]id9ians are ei!r plants or animals accord+ to ! g5]al argum5t1 or ! po9t ( view ( ! au?or :o writes ab\t !m4 ,ev5 a /udy ( ! en]gy-trans=mations t are effect$ 9 ! liv+ sub/ance ( ^! l[] organisms does n af=d an absolute di/9ction3 syn!tic metabolic processes 9 :i* en]gy passes into ! pot5tial condition may be c>ri$ out 9 animals1 :ile _m plants--! saprophytic fungi1 or ! insectivor\s plants1 = in/ances--may effect analytic en]gy-trans=mations ( ess5tially ! same nature z ^? exhibit$ 9 ! typical mode ( animal metabolism4 ,motility & ! possession ( a s5sori-motor sy/em d n af=d ! means ( mak+ a %>ply drawn l9e ( division betwe5 plants & animals4 ,pot5tial en]gy passes into ! condition ( k9etic en]gy 9 ! typical animal1 & ?is k9etic en]gy is direct$ by ! s5sori-motor sy/em4 ,b "s l[] unicellul> plants are motile1 & !y possess ! rudim5ts ( a s5sori-motor sy/em 9 ! flagella by :i* _! movem5ts are effect$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! s5sori-motor sy/em has become ve/igial 9 _m animal p>asites--9 ! ,cru/acean ,saccul9a1 = in/ance1 :i* is p>asitic on "s ,crabs4 ,! possession ( consci\sness1 9 s f> z we c say t o!r animals ?an ourselves possess x1 is no di/9ction betwe5 ! two k+doms ( life4 ,consci\sness1 judg$ by ! degree ( developm5t ( motility1 mu/ be suppos$ to be abs5t or v dim 9 ! extreme cases ( p>asitism atta9$ by "s animals2 on ! o!r h&1 we may assume t x is pres5t1 to "s ext5t at lea/1 9 ! highly motile zoospores ( ! ,alg4 ,?us "s l[] organisms1 ! ,p]id9ians & ! algal spores1 exhibit all ! *>act]s :i* we utilise 9 sep>at+ animals f plants--! *lorophyllian app>atus1 by means ( :i* ! k9etic en]gy ( sol> radiation becomes trans=m$ into ! pot5tial en]gy ( organic *emical comp\nds2 ! app>atus ( receptor & motile organs1 by means ( :i* ! pot5tial en]gy ( /or$ *emical comp\nds passes into ! k9etic en]gy ( bodily movem5ts2 & ! exi/5ce 7s f> z we c say t x exi/s 9 organisms o!r ?an ourselves7 ( "s degree ( consci\sness4 ,nei!r d ^? morphological s*emata :i* we con/ruct z diagno/ic ( phyla1 or classes1 or ord]s1 etc41 sep>ate ^! gr\ps f ea* o!r s cle>ly & unequivocally z our classifications sugge/4 ,x might seem = in/ance t ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( a noto*ord w\ld %>ply di/+ui% betwe5 ! v]tebrate & inv]tebrate1 b /ructures :i* sugge/ 9 _! developm5t ! true noto*ordal skeleton ( ! typical v]tebrate animal are to be trac$ 9 animals :i* exhibit few or none ( ! *>act]s :i* we reg>d z diagno/ic ( ! ,v]tebrate4 ,typical ,ar?ropods & typical ,v]tebrates seem to be di/9ct f ea* o!r1 b ! ext9ct ,o/racod]ms ( ,silurian times may h be5 animals :i* possess$ an int]nal axial skeleton1 & :i* 7 also arm$ by a heavy d]mal exo-skeleton4 ,x is a hypo!sis ( consid]able plausibility t !y really 7 ,ar?ropods1 on ! o!r h& !y are usually reg>d$ z ,v]tebrates4 ,s also ) mo/ o!r phyla3 ! morphological *>act]s :i* absolutely di/+ui% betwe5 "o gr\p & o!rs are v few inde$1 & ! small app5d$ gr\ps t lie ab\t ! bases ( ^! l>g] gr\ps may pres5t "o or o!r ( ! *>act]s ( sev]al phyla4 ,look+ at ! morphology ( ! animal k+dom 9 a g5]al k9d ( way1 "o does inde$ see t a c]ta9 /ructural plan is *>act]i/ic ( ! organisms belong+ to ea* ( ! great phyla1 :ile m detail$ /ructural plans may be said to be *>act]i/ic ( ! sub-gr\ps4 ,b m9ute morphological & embryological inve/igation r$uces almo/ to no?+ ! *>act]s :i* are absolutely diagno/ic ( ^! v>i\s gr\ps4 ,no m ?an ! nature ( ! en]gy-trans=mations1 & ! ess5tial morphology1 does ! behavi\r ( animals af=d u ! means ( sett+ up absolute di/9ctions betwe5 gr\p & gr\p4 ,really tropi/ic behavi\r is exhibit$ by ! movem5ts ( ! /ems1 roots1 & leaves ( gre5 plants1 or 9 ! movem5ts ( ,bact]ia1 & p]haps "s unicellul> animals4 ,typically in/9ctive behavi\r is exhibit$ by ! individuals ( societies ( ,insects & by _m solit>y-liv+ animals belong+ to ?is class2 & typically intellig5t behavi\r is exhibit$ by ! act+ ( ! high] ,mammalia4 ,yet !re is und\bt$ly mu* t is truly in/9ctive 9 ! behavi\r ( ,man1 & some?+ ( ! same nature z 8 intellig5ce seems to inh]e 9 ! in/9ctively-act+ mammal or insect3 h[ else c\ld an in/9ctive action become capable ( improvem5t8 ,we _c d\bt t intellig5ce is manife/$ by a dog or by mu* t we see 9 ! behavi\r ( ants4 ,no rigid di/9ctions betwe5 tropisms1 su* z we h m5tion$ above1 & ! reflexes t may be tak5 to con/itute in/9ctive behavi\r1 c be e/abli%$4 ,m9ute analysis1 su* z t c>ri$ out by ,j5n+s on ! swimm+ movem5ts ( ! ,protozoa1 leaves u q 9 d\bt z to h[ ^! modes ( behavi\r are mo/ prop]ly to be describ$2 & all ! controv]sy z to ! nature ( tropisms1 reflexes1 in/9ct1 & intellig5ce surely indicates t ^! modes ( behavi\r h some?+ t is common to all ( !m1 & t no cle> & c]ta9 di/9ction c be said to sep>ate "o f ! o!r4 ,ev5 ^? psy*ic processes :i* we call intellectual d n seem to be diff]5t 9 k9d f "s t we attribute to ! l[] animals3 ! ,protozoan ,p>amcium /udi$ by ,j5n+s1 or ! crabs1 crayfi%es1 & />fi%es /udi$ by ,y]kes & o!rs really le>n to p]=m actions1 b ?is le>n+ is said to be ! result ( a process ( 8trial & error40 ,! animal tries "o s]ies ( movem5ts & f9ds t x fails1 tries ano!r & ano!r ) a simil> result1 & 9 ! end f9ds "o t is effective4 ,?is is rememb]$1 & :5 ! same problem aga9 confronts ! animal x is solv$ aft] few] trials1 & f9ally1 aft] exp]i5ce1 ! end-result is atta9$ at once )\t previ\s trials4 ,n[ _m ( :at we call truly intellectual processes are c]ta9ly processes ( precisely ?is nature4 ,hypo!sis aft] hypo!sis occurs to ! sci5tific man 7or to ! detective1 or to ! eng9e] confront$ ) "s exceptional difficulty71 & "o aft] ano!r is te/$ by actual trial1 or by a process ( reason+ 7:i* is really ! rapid & =mal resum+ ( previ\s exp]i5ce71 until a hypo!sis v]ifiable1 or a priori v]ifiable1 is f\nd4 ,:at1 = in/ance1 are our ma!matical me?ods ( integrat+ a function1 or work+ a long division sum1 b me?ods ( sci5tific 8guess+10 & v]ification ( ! hypo!ses s made8 ,!y are truly in/ances ( ! me?od ( trial & error practis$ by ! l[] animals4 ,all ! above am\nts to say+ t !re is a community ( en]getic processes1 ( morphology1 & ( behavi\r 9 animals & plants4 8,protoplasm0 is ! same1 or mu* ! same *emical aggregate1 :e!r x is conta9$ 9 ! cells ( animals or plants4 ,! cell1 ) its nucleus1 *romatic ar*itecture1 cell-inclusions1 & cell-wall1 is ess5tially ! same /ructure 9 all organisms4 ,! complex & specialis$ process ( nucle> division 9 tissue gr[?1 or ! s]ies ( ev5ts :i* con/itute ! acts ( f]tilisation ( ! ovum or its plant correlative1 are ! same all ?r\gh ! organic _w4 ,! s5sori-motor sy/em--receptor organ1 n]ve-fibre & cell1 & effector-motor organ--is ! same all ?r\gh ! animal k+dom4 ,alim5t>y canal & gl&s1 enzymes1 excretory tubules1 contractile blood-vascul> app>atus--all ^! are /ructures :i* are functionally ! same1 :i* are built on ess5tially ! same morphological plan4 ,life1 :e!r x is ! life ( plant or animal1 makes use ( ! same mat]ial means ( p]petuat+ itself on ! e>? & avoid+ ! desc5t ( matt] t[>ds complete in]tia4 ,absolute dissimil>ities1 dissimil>ities su* z ^? betwe5 atoms ( hydrog5 & oxyg51 or betwe5 a po9t & a /raight l9e1 or betwe5 re/ & motion1 d n exi/ betwe5 ! diff]5t categories ( entities t make up ! organic _w4 ,yet diff]5ces d exi/1 & mu/ we conclude t because ^! diff]5ces are n absolute ones1 because !y are diff]5ces ( degree1 & n ( k9d1 !y are n ess5tial1 are n diff]5ces at all8 ,mu/ we say1 = in/ance1 t al?\gh an animal is a mu* m effici5t ma*9e ?an a gas-eng9e 79 ! s5se ( effici5cy z und]/ood by ! eng9e]71 !re is really no diff]5ce betwe5 !m1 t !y are bo? !rmo-dynamic me*anisms1 s9ce 9 bo? en]gy is dissipat$8 ,ought we to say t1 because ! la/ /eps 9 ! =mation ( urea 9 ! animal body are syn!tic ones1 !re is really no diff]5ce betwe5 ! nature ( ! en]gy-trans=mations t occur 9 ! animal & ! plant modes ( metabolism8 ,ought we to say t1 because a dog may sometimes act intellig5tly & a man in/9ctively1 psy*ically !y are simil>ly-behav+ organisms8 ,surely ?is am\nts to say+ t1 because ?+s are n absolutely diff]5t1 !y are ! same2 & surely ! mode ( reason+ is a vici\s "o6 ,:at we cle>ly see 9 ! diff]5t k9ds ( organisms--9 ! metabolically con/ructive plant & ! metabolically de/ructive animal2 or 9 ! in/9ctively-act+ ,ar?ropod & ! intellig5tly-act+ ,mammal--is ! progressive developm5t ( diff]5t t5d5cies4 ,if ! gre5 plant is1 9 its ess5ce1 ! same k9d ( physico-*emical con/ellation z is ! animal1 yet ! t5d5cy ( its evolution has be5 t m & m x has acquir$ ! habit1 or ! p[]1 ( us+ sol> radiation to comb9e toge!r c>bon dioxide1 wat]1 & nitrog5\s inorganic salts to =m proteid & c>bohydrate sub/ances4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! t5d5cy ( ! animal has be5 m & m to absorb into its own tissues ! proteid & c>bohydrates syn!sis$ by ! gre5 plant1 & !n to break ^! sub/ances d[n into c>bon dioxide & wat]1 & less & less to effect su* syn!ses z are effect$ by ! plant4 ,ev5 if ! ,annelid worm1 ! ,ar?ropod1 & ! ,v]tebrate 71 at ! orig9 ( _! ance/ries1 animals :i* 7 v l ea* o!r 9 ! morphological s5se2 ev5 if !re are "s ,ar?ropods :i* are v l ,annelids1 & "s ,annelids :i* might v easily be imag9$ to become trans=m$ into ,v]tebrates1 & "s ext9ct ,ar?ropods :i* may aft] all h be5 ,v]tebrates1 yet x is ! case t ! t5d5cies ( ! evolution ( ea* ( ^! gr\ps h be5 v diff]5t4 ,all ! :ile ! ,v]tebrate t5d$ m & m to develop a rigid axial rod or noto*ord1 becom+ lat] a jo9t$ v]tebral column1 & a s(t1 pliable1 exo-skeleton2 :ile ! ,ar?ropod t5d$ m & m to develop a rigid exo-skeleton1 & to rema9 s(t 9 its axial p>ts4 ,ev5 if ^! two t5d5cies may n h be5 fully realis$1 is x n ! case t !y are really diff]5t ?+s8 ,! evolution>y process has !re=e be51 9 its ess5ce1 ! developm5t1 or unfold+1 ( t5d5cies orig9ally "o4 ,:at is ! evolution>y process8 ,x is usually reg>d$ z a progress f organic simplicity t[>ds organic complexity4 ,yet if we ?9k ab\t x z a physical process we _c say t any "o /age is any m simple or complex ?an any o!r /age4 ,let u comp>e organic evolution ) ! process ( inorganic evolution1 z1 ( c\rse1 we are compell$ to d if we reg>d ! =m] process z a physico-*emical "o4 ,assume1 !n1 t ! nebul> hypo!sis ( ,kant & ,laplace is true--x w make no diff]5ce to our argum5t ev5 if ?is hypo!sis is n true1 & x is m easily und]/ood ?an any o!r hypo!sis ( planet>y evolution4 ,orig9ally all ! mat]ials compos+ our sol> sy/em exi/$ 9 ! =m ( a gase\s nebula possess+ a sl[ rotatory motion ( its own4 ,x does n matt] t ! silicates1 c>bonates1 oxides1 & all o!r m9]al sub/ances t we n[ "k exi/$ !n 9 ! =m ( *emical elem5ts1 or ! precursors ( *emical elem5ts3 all ! mat]ial bodies n[ pres5t 9 ! sol> sy/em 7 pres5t 9 ! orig9al nebula4 ,! en]gy ( ?is nebula consi/$ ( ! pot5tial en]gy repres5t$ by ! sep>ation ( atoms :i* lat] on became comb9$ toge!r1 & ( ! k9etic en]gy ( motion ( ^! atoms2 & ?is mat]ial & en]gy1 toge!r ) ! o!r cosmic bodies radiat+ en]gy to x & ^? bodies receiv+ ! en]gy :i* x lo/ by its own radiation1 con/itut$ a sy/em1 9 ! s5se ( ! t]m z x is employ$ by ! physici/s4 ,n[1 9 ! process ( cosmic evolution ?is sy/em became trans=m$1 because x 0 cont9ually los+ en]gy by radiation4 ,z x cool$1 ! mean free pa?s ( its atoms & molecules became less & less1 & f9ally cond5sation to ! liquid & !n to ! solid condition occurr$4 ,! p>ts ( ! nebula cont9ually gravitat$ toge!r1 s t x became small] & small] :ile its rotatory motion became great]4 ,f9ally1 me*anical /ra9s became set up 9 its mass z ! consequ5ce ( ! increas$ velocity ( rotation1 & disruption occurr$ ) ! =mation ( ! sun1 ! planets1 & ! satellites4 ,!re 0 no increase ( complexity ( ! sy/em4 ,at any mom5t ( "t its elem5ts1 t is1 ! *emical atoms compos+ x & ! en]gy ( ^! atoms1 0 ! same z at any o!r mom5t ( "t4 ,heat-en]gy may h be5 radiat$ f "o "p ( ! sy/em--! heat$ nebula--to "s o!r "p ( ! sy/em--! o!r cosmic bodies absorb+ ?is radiation1 b ! total en]gy ( ! sy/em rema9$ ! same4 ,! *emical atoms may h comb9$ toge!r to =m molecules & comp\nds1 & _! en]gy ( position may h become ! en]gy ( motion1 b ! ultimate mat]ials 7 /ill ! same4 ,:at happ5$ dur+ ! cool+ & contraction ( ! nebula 0 a re>rangem5t ( ! elem5ts ( ! sy/em1 t is1 ( ! atoms & _! en]gies4 ,at any mom5t ( "t ! condition ( ! sy/em 0 an inevitable consequ5ce ( ! condition at ! mom5t imm$iately prec$+ ?is1 & a /rict functionality1 9 ! ma!matical s5se1 exi/$ betwe5 ! two conditions4 ,x 0 n m complex 9 ! lat] /age ?an 9 ! e>li] "o--x 0 m]ely diff]5t4 ,/ages ( evolution 7 really phases 9 a trans=m+ sy/em ( matt] & en]gies4 ,if we *oose to reg>d organic evolution z a simil> process ( physico-*emical trans=mation1 we mu/ also reg>d ! totality ( life on our e>?1 ) all ! inorganic mat]ials :i* int]act ) organic ?+s1 & ) all ! en]gies1 cosmic & t]re/rial1 :i* also s int]act1 z a sy/em 9 ! physical s5se4 ,we are n[ compell$ to ?9k ab\t ?is sy/em 9 ! same way z we ?\ght ab\t ! cosmic "o1 t is1 we mu/ po/ulate t a rigid ma!matical functionality exi/$ betwe5 any two conditions ( x1 & t ! latt] condition 0 inevitably det]m9$ by ! =m] "o4 ,we mu/ ?9k ( ! sy/em z at all times compos$ ( ! same elem5ts4 ,9 its lat] condition life may h be5 manife/$ 9 a great] mass ( mat]ial sub/ance ?an 9 its e>li] conditions1 b ?is increase ( mass 0 only ! increase ( "o "p ( ! sy/em at ! exp5se ( ano!r "p4 ,at all times1 !n1 ! con/itution ( ! sy/em 0 ! same1 & diff]5t /ages ( ! evolution>y process h only be5 diff]5t phases1 or arrangem5ts1 ( ! same elem5ts4 ,at no "t 0 ! organic _w any m or less complex ?an at any o!r "t4 ,9 its 8primitive0 condition all 0 giv54 ,me*ani/ic biology does n1 ( c\rse1 hesitate to accept ?is view ( ! evolution>y process4 ,! 8,laplacian m9d0 mu/ h be5 able to calculate :at w\ld be ! condition ( ! sy/em at any phase1 kn[+ ! positions ( all ! atoms or molecules 9 ! orig9al nebula1 & ! velocities & directions ( motions ( all ^! atoms or molecules4 ,j z 79 ,huxley's illu/ration7 a physici/ is able to calculate :at w be ! fate ( a man's brea? on a fro/y day1 s ! ,laplacian m9d mu/ h be5 able to pr$ict ! fauna & flora ( ! _w 9 ! ye> #aiac f a complete k ( ! mat]ial nature & en]getic prop]ties ( ! nebula f :i* x arose4 ,we _c fail to see1 on reflection1 to :at ?is view ( ! nature ( ! evolution>y process leads u4 ,! primitive _w-nebula 0 a sy/em ( p>ts :i* _h ext5sion 9 space4 ,mat]ially x consi/$ ( atoms isolat$ f ea* o!r by space1 & en]getically x consi/$ ( ! movem5ts ( ^! atoms1 & ( ! en]gy ( _! positions ) reg>d to ea* o!r4 ,no two atoms c\ld occupy ! same space--!y mutually exclud$ ea* o!r3 ?is is :at we mean by say+ t ! orig9al--& e o!r--/ate ( ! sy/em 0 a /ate ( mat]ial ?+s or elem5ts spatially ext5d$4 ,!re=e1 if ! physical analogy is consi/5tly to be reta9$1 ! organic sy/em und]go+ evolution 0 a sy/em ( elem5ts :i* at any mom5t :atev] 7 spatially ext5d$4 ,x 0 really a sy/em ( atoms or molecules possess+ k9etic en]gy ( motion1 or pot5tial en]gy ( position--molecules :i* lay outside ea* o!r1 & en]gies :i* 7 really ! movem5ts or positions ( ^! molecules1 & :i* !re=e lay outside ea* o!r 9 ! same s5se4 ,! evolution ( ! individual organism mu/ be a process ( ! same k9d4 ,l cosmic & phylog5etic evolution1 x is app>5tly a progress f ! simple to ! complex4 ,a m9ute fragm5t ( protoplasmic matt]1 homog5e\s 9 composition1 or app>5tly s1 gr[s & diff]5tiates1 becom+ ! complex /ructure ( ! adult organism4 ,"h ! sy/em 9 ! physical s5se is ! f]tilis$ ovum1 ! oxyg5 & nutritive matt] :i* h become incorporat$ ) x1 & ! physical environm5t ) :i* ^! ?+s int]act4 ,all ^! elem5ts exi/$ 9 t phase ( ! sy/em :i* conta9$ among its p>ts ! f]tilis$ ovum1 z well z 9 t phase :i* conta9$ ! fully develop$ organism4 ,complex by comp>ison ) ! f]tilis$ ovum & its environm5t z ! adult animal & its environm5t may seem to be1 x is only a diff]5t phase ( ! same sy/em4 ,fur!r1 all ! p>ts t =m ! tissues ( ! adult1 & all _! motions1 are spatially ext5d$1 & are only re>rangem5ts ( ! molecules & ( ! motions ( ! molecules t 7 actually pres5t 9 ! sy/em 9 its initial phase4 ,speculation along ^! l9es has l$ to all ! results ( ,weismannism4 ,all ! p>ts ( ! adult organism are really pres5t 9 ! f]tilis$ ovum & ! nutritive matt] :i* is to build up ! fully develop$ animal1 n 9 pot5tiality x mu/ be not$1 b actually pres5t 9 ! spatially ext5d$ condition4 ,x is true t ! hypo!sis only requires t ! det]m9ants ( ! adult organs & tissues1 & ( ! adult qualities1 %\ld be pres5t 9 ! ovum2 b s9ce ! en]gies necess>y = ! sep>ation ( ^! det]m9ants1 & = _! arrangem5t & gr[? 9 mass1 mu/ also be pres5t 9 ! initial phase ( ! sy/em1 x is evid5t t ! hypo!sis implies t all ! mat]ial /ructure ( ! animal is pres5t 9 ! spatially ext5d$ =m 9 ! initial phase ( ! sy/em4 ,j z ! adult animal is a manifoldness ( mat]ial p>ts & en]gies t possess ext5sion1 s also is ! undiff]5tiat$ embryo & its mat]ial environm5t an ext5sive manifoldness4 ,we _c o!rwise conceive x if we are to reta9 ! me*ani/ic view ( ! developm5t ( ! individual organism4 ,let u ?9k ( ! process ( organic evolution 9 ano!r way by comp>+ x ) ! ma!matical process by :i* we =m ! p]mutations & comb9ations ( a numb] ( diff]5t ?+s4 ,individual developm5t is t]m$ ! assumption ( a mosaic /ructure1 t is1 all ! p>ts ( ! adult are assum$ to be pres5t 9 ! embryo1 b 9 a sort ( 8jumbl$-up0 condition4 ,z developm5t proce$s1 ^! p>ts become sort$ out & arrang$ 9 a patt]n :i* cont9ually becomes m & m di/9ct4 ,mu* ! same process ( arrangem5t & segregation mu/ be assum$ to h occurr$ dur+ ! process ( racial evolution3 ! p>ts ( ! 8primitive0 life-sub/ance1 ) all ! p>ts ( ! physical environm5t :i* become incorporat$ ) x dur+ its evolution1 mu/ h become segregat$ & arrang$ s z to =m ! exi/+ species ( plants & animals4 ,a p]mutation1 !n1 ( ! sep>ate ?+s a1 b1 c--x1 y1 z1 is an arrangem5t ( all ^! ?+s3 obvi\sly !re are a v great numb] ( ways 9 :i* ! lett]s ( ! alphabet may be arrang$1 #bf6 9 all4 ,b we may take "s ( ! lett]s & arrange !m 9 diff]5t ways3 ! selections a1 b1 c1 d1 c be arrang$ 9 #d6 ways b1 c1 d1 e1 also 9 #d6 ways1 & s on4 ,?us by a process ( dissociation & arrangem5t ( a c]ta9 numb] ( elem5ts1 a v great numb] ( diff]5t ?+s--?+s :i* consi/ ( elem5ts spatially ext5d$--c be obta9$4 ,! gr\p ( ?+s1 a1 b1 c1 d--x1 y1 z1 0 an ext5sive manifoldness1 s9ce x 0 =m$ by juxtapos+ 9 space ! sep>ate units ( :i* x is compos$4 ,yet x is an unit>y ?+1 = x is a diff]5t ?+ f ! gr\p1 b1 c1 a--x1 y1 z4 ,x is also a multiplicity1 = x c be trans=m$ into e "o ( ! #bf6 p]mutations1 & brok5 up into ! selections ( "s ( ! sep>ate ?+s ( :i* x is compos$1 & ( ! p]mutations ( ! ?+s tak5 9 ea* ( ^! selections4 ,9 a way ^! arrangem5ts exi/ 9 ! gr\p a1 b1 c--x1 y1 z1 & yet ! gr\p itself possesses no o!r actual ext5d$ exi/5ce ?an ! gr\p ( ?+s t x is4 ,x is an int5sive multiplicity or manifoldness 9 t ! pot5tiality ( all ! arrangem5ts exi/s 9 x b n 9 ! spatially ext5d$ condition4 ,x is a multiplicity only :5 we associate ) x ! m5tal op]ations by :i* we conceive ( its dissociation & re>rangem5t4 ,by reason ( ^! m5tal op]ations ! int5sive multiplicity ( ! gr\p becomes ! ext5sive multiplicity ( its arrangem5ts4 ,?is appe>s to be ! only really philosophical way 9 :i* we c attempt to picture to ourselves ! processes ( individual & racial evolution4 ,! 8primitive0 life-sub/ance1 or ! undiff]5tiat$ ovum1 ea* ( !m ) its environm5t1 0 an int5sive manifoldness1 a multiplicity ( di/9ct ?+s or qualities :i* co-exi/$1 & :i* 7 n sep>ate ea* f o!r 9 t !y occupi$ diff]5t comp>tm5ts ( space1 b :i* int]p5etrat$ ea* o!r4 ,?is notion ( di/9ct ?+s co-exi/+ 9 "t1 yet occupy+ ! same space1 is n at all a difficult "o4 ,our consci\sness is su* a multiplicity ( /ates or qualities all 9 "o4 ,! idea ( a gr\p ( figures has a v real exi/5ce = ! sculptor1 & he may visualise x ) almo/ all ! appe>ance ( reality t ! actual1 mat]ial piece ( /atu>y possesses4 ,9 8 m9d x is a real manifold exi/5ce1 :i* nev]!less does n occupy ! ?ree-dim5sional space :i* ! m>ble fills4 ,! musical notes ,c1 ,f1 ,a1 ,c1 he>d 9 arpeggio1 are ?+s :i* possess real exi/5ce1 b :i* are ext5d$ 9 "t1 & :5 we ?9k ( ^! sep>ate s\nds we lay !m alongside ea* o!r 9 our m9d 9 an empty1 homog5e\s m$ium :i* seems to be all t we ?9k ( z space4 ,yet ! same notes he>d simultane\sly z a *ord are n ext5d$4 ,!y int]p5etrate ea* o!r1 b yet !y are di/9ct ?+s1 s9ce on he>+ ! *ord we c recognise ! notes compos+ x4 ,z an arpeggio ! notes are an ext5sive manifoldness1 b z a *ord !y are an int5sive manifoldness4 ,! me*ani/ic biology ( ! latt] "p ( ! n9ete5? c5tury bas$ itself on ! me?ods & concepts ( physics1 & x 0 !re=e compell$ to assume t ! manifoldness ( ! 8primitive0 life-sub/ance--! 8,biophorid0 ( ,weismann & 8 foll[]s--or t ( ! f]tilis$ ovum1 0 a manifoldness t _h spatial ext5sion4 ,all ! sy/ems /udi$ by physics 7 aggregates ( elem5ts1 or p>ts1 t _h su* ext5sion3 ! sun1 ) its att5dant planets & satellites1 0 a sy/em ( bodies isolat$ f ea* o!r 9 space4 ,ev5 ! atmosph]e1 or ! sea1 m$ia :i* to our unaid$ s5ses appe> to be homog5e\s1 are really m$ia consi/+ ( discrete bodies1 or molecules1 :i* are n actually 9 contact ) ea* o!r1 b :i* are sep>at$ f ea* o!r by empty space4 ,*emical comp\nds 7 assemblages ( molecules1 molecules 7 assemblages ( atoms1 & ! atoms !mselves 7 ei!r simple or 7 compos$ ( corpuscles1 or /ill small] bodies4 ,?is mode ( analysis 0 =c$ ^u ! human m9d by =mal logic & geometry1 & x 0 app>5tly ! only me?od ( acquir+ ma/]y ov] nature4 ,yet !re 7 difficulties1 appreciat$ no less by ! philosophical physici/s ?an by ! writ]s on =mal philosophy4 ,h[ c\ld bodies1 or molecules1 or atoms t 7 sep>at$ f ea* o!r act ^u ea* o!r8 ,! molecule ,a c\ld only act ^u ! molecule ,b if !re 7 "s p>ticles betwe5 !m :i* c\ld convey ! impulse or attraction1 b !n we mu/ suppose t !re 7 o!r p>ticles betwe5 ^! int]m$iate ones1 & s on ad inf9itum1 o!rwise h[ c\ld a body act1 t is1 really exi/1 :]e x 0 n8 ,9 o!r words1 h[ c\ld !re be action at a di/ance8 ,h[1 = in/ance1 c\ld ! atoms ( ! e>? attract ^? ( ! moon ) a =ce suffici5t to break a /eel rope ( #djj miles 9 diamet]8 ,physics _h !re=e to inv5t ! e!r ( space1 n only to acc\nt = int]/ell> or int]planet>y gravitation & o!r modes ( radiant en]gy1 b also to acc\nt = ! int]action ( ! atoms or molecules :i* make up *emical comp\nds4 ,9 our own day atoms h ceas$ to be ! limits to ! subdivision ( ?+s3 !y are compos$ ( electrons1 b ! electrons are entities sep>at$ f ea* o!r by empty space4 ,!y are n1 h[ev]1 ! ultimate limits ( subdivision ( matt]1 z ! atoms 7 suppos$ to be by ! *emi/ry ( ! e>ly "p ( ! la/ c5tury1 b are reg>d$ z 8s+ul>ities0 9 an univ]sal cont9u\s m$ium or e!r4 ,x is ( no mom5t t we are unable to describe ! e!r 9 t]ms ( our =m] concepts ( matt] & en]gy1 or at lea/ t we c only s describe x 9 su* a way t x is repres5t$ by negative qualities3 we are compell$ to po/ulate its exi/5ce 9 ord] to avoid philosophical confusion4 ,! univ]se is !re=e a cont9uum1 & an atom or any o!r body exi/s :]ev] x c act4 ,! atoms ( a fix$ />1 s f> away t we c only repres5t its di/ance 9 billions ( miles1 are nev]!less on our e>? z well z at ! po9t ( space :i* we reg>d z _! a/ronomical position1 = ! light emitt$ by !m acts on our ret9as4 ,! univ]se is an unit>y ?+ 9 t x is a cont9u\s m$ium or sub/ance 9 ! philosophic s5se1 b x is also a multiplicity 9 t s+ul>ities or conditions ( ?is m$ium p]vade ea* o!r ?r\gh\t space4 ,su* seem to be ! conclusions t[>ds :i* ! lat] physics =ces u1 & x is int]e/+ to reflect h[ diff]5t biological speculation might h be5 _h x be5 =mulat$ n[ in/ead ( half a c5tury ago6 ,:y has a process ( evolution occurr$ at all8 ,:y is x t t5d5cies t might h co-exi/$1 t inde$ d co-exi/ to "s ext5t1 h become sep>ate f ea* o!r8 ,x is possible to conceive ( an organism :i* conta9s *lorophyll1 & :i* might !re=e syn!sise c>bohydrate & proteid f inorganic sub/ances1 b :i* might also conta9 a s5sori-motor sy/em1 & :i* might !re=e exp5d ! en]gy s obta9$ 9 regulat$ movem5ts4 ,to a c]ta9 ext5t su* organisms comb9+ ! plant & animal modes ( metabolism d exi/ among ! ,proti/a4 ,yet1 ! effect ( ! evolution>y process has be5 m & m to dissociate ! plant & animal modes ( metabolism until ! typical animal is q unable to make use ( c>bon dioxide & wat] z mat]ials to be syn!sis$1 :ile ! typical plant has lo/ all p[] ( motion except ! tropi/ic movem5ts ( its roots1 leaves1 & /ems4 ,in/9ctive & intellig5t behavi\r coexi/ 9 _m animals1 yet ! t5d5cy ( man1 mo/ highly intellig5t ( all1 is m & m to act intellectually2 :ile ! oppos+ t5d5cy1 t is1 to act in/9ctively1 has be5 evolv$ 9 ! ,hym5opt]a4 ,x seems z if su* contra/+ me?ods ( trans=m+ en]gy1 or ( act+1 7 incompatible ) ea* o!r1 & yet x is cle> t !y are n really incompatible1 = !y may co-exi/4 ,b x does seem cle> t ea* ( ^! contra/+ t5d5cies _c be manife/$ to ! fulle/ ext5t if x is accompani$ by ! o!r4 ,t is to say1 life is limit$ 9 its p[] ov] in]t matt]4 ,manife/$ 9 ! same mat]ial con/ellation1 x _c bo? use sol> radiation to build up sub/ances ( high pot5tial en]gy & !n break d[n ^! sub/ances s z to obta9 k9etic en]gy ( movem5t4 ,n[ we see cle>ly t life on our e>? is inde$ limit$ to a v re/rict$ range ( physical conditions4 ,:5 we ?9k ( ! mass ( ! e>? we are surpris$ to f9d :at an insignificant fraction ( all ?is matt] displays vital ph5om5a4 ,! surface ( ! l& is clo!d ) a lay] ( vegetation1 luxuriant & abundant z we see x :5 we walk ?r\gh a tropical =e/1 b :i* is really a film ( inconceivable t5uity :5 we comp>e its ?ickness ) ! diamet] ( ! globe4 ,ev5 ! :ole surface ( ! l& is n s clo!d ) vegetation1 = pol> regions & ! tops ( high m\nta9s are almo/ lifeless1 :ile des]t tracts may be absolutely s4 ,! l[] /rata ( ! atmosph]e are inhabit$ by birds1 insects1 & bact]ia1 b ! total mass ( ^! is inf9itesimal :5 comp>$ ) ! total mass ( ! gases ( :i* ! atmosph]e is compos$4 ,ev5 ! sea1 :i* we reg>d z ri* 9 life1 is n really s3 e/imates ( ! luxuriance ( planktonic life are really mislead+1 = al?\gh a s+le drop ( wat] may conta9 "s hundr$s ( organisms1 ! mass ( ^! is exce$+ly small & is usually express$ z "o or two p>ts p] million4 ,all ?is means t life has difficulty 9 manife/+ itself 9 mat]ial =ms4 ,:e!r x be simply a mode ( int]action ( "s complex *emical sub/ances ) a relatively simple physico-*emical environm5t--! me*ani/ic view--or :e!r x be an impetus or ag5cy :i* is nei!r physical nor *emical1 b :i* acts ?r\gh physical & *emical elem5ts--! vitali/ic view1--life is capable ( act+ on t]re/rial mat]ials to a v limit$ ext5t4 ,act+ ?r\gh all ! t5d5cies :i* we see to exi/ 9 x1 life may be1 s to speak1 dilut$2 b by be+ conc5trat$ 9 "o or a few ( !m x becomes m effective4 ,! dissociation ( ?is bundle ( t5d5cies :i* we call life is !re=e ! mean+ ( ! evolution>y process4 ,ontog5etic developm5t1 says ,r\x1 is ! production ( a visible manifoldness4 ,x _c be said t ?is cauti\s description ( ! developm5tal process has be5 appreh5d$ by ^? :o exp\nd ! dogmas ( me*ani/ic biology4 ,developm5t is inde$ ! production ( a div]sity1 b ?is div]sity is only a phase ( a prec$+ div]sity1 a re>rangem5t ( spatially ext5d$ pre-exi/+ elem5ts4 ,h[ else c\ld ! develop+ embryo & its mat]ial environm5t be reg>d$ z a sy/em ( physico-*emical elem5ts1 capable ( /udy by ! me?ods ( exp]im5tal & ma!matical physics1 except by reg>d+ x z a sy/em pass+ ?r\gh phases ea* ( :i* is a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! prec$+ "o1 & ea* ( :i* conta9$ ! same elem5ts sep>at$ f ea* o!r 9 space8 ,let u ?9k ( wat] occupy+ a vessel at a high temp]ature & cont9ually cool+4 ,! /ates ( ?is sy/em are 7#a7 ! gase\s /ate 9 :i* ! molecules ( ! wat] are mov+ at a high velocity & are a relatively consid]able di/ance ap>t1 & 9 :i* !y are incessantly collid+ ) ea* o!r & ) ! walls ( ! vessel2 7#b7 ! /ate ( ! sy/em consi/+ ( ! sep>ate phases1 liquid wat] & gase\s /eam 9 contact ) x2 & 7#c7 ! solid phase1 9 :i* ! molecul> motions almo/1 or q1 cease4 ,"h ! progress ( ! sy/em ?r\gh its phases leads to physical div]sity & !n aga9 to physical homog5eity4 ,b ! div]sity ( ! diff]5t phases is 9 a s5se an app>5t "o only3 any s+le phase1 or at lea/ ^? :i* involve ! passage ( ! sy/em f ! gase\s to ! liquid phases1 & vice v]sa1 c be repres5t$ by van d] ,waal's g5]al equation1 ,,rt 7p a_/v#b7 7v - b74 ,does any?+ 9 mod]n biological inve/igation1 except1 ( c\rse1 ! speculations ( non-physical physiologi/s1 sugge/ t an ontog5etic process c be repres5t$ 9 su* a mann]8 ,are ! arbitr>y 8/ages0 ( ! embryologi/s--! ovum1 bla/ula1 ga/rula1 etc41 phases 9 a sy/em 9 ! above s5se1 ! only s5se 9 :i* ! process c be reg>d$ z capable ( physico-*emical analysis8 ,:at precisely is ! embryo at ! close ( ! process ( segm5tation8 ,x is an h>moni\s equipot5tial sy/em1 t is to say1 an assemblage ( discrete organic p>ts or cells1 ea* ( :i* has all ! pot5tialities t e "o ( ! o!rs has4 ,any cell 9 ! bla/ula may become a cell1 or a s]ies ( su*1 9 any "p ( ! ga/rula or pluteus l>va4 ,?is is :at ! p>ts are 9 pot5tiality1 b actually _! individual fates are diff]5t4 ,! sy/em is an h>moni\s "o1 & ea* ( its p>ts1 al?\gh able to d :atev] any o!r "p c d1 yet does "o ?+ only3 x becomes an endod]m cell1 or an ectod]mal cell1 or a "p ( ! skeleton1 & s on2 :at x does dep5ds on its position ) reg>d to ! o!r cells4 ,an ext5sive manifoldness or div]sity is produc$1 b ?is 0 n ! consequ5ce ( a prec$+ ext5sive manifoldness1 = 9 ! prec$+ /age all ! p>ts ( ! sy/em 7 ! same4 ,! manifoldness ( ! ovum or bla/ula--t pot5tial manifoldness :i* became actual 9 developm5t--mu/ be an int5sive manifoldness1 & admitt+ ?is we mu/ ab&on ! comp>ison ( ! ontog5etic 7&1 ( c\rse1 phylog5etic7 processes ) ! phases ( a physico-*emical sy/em 9 process ( trans=mation4 ,evolution is ! trans=mation ( an int5sive into an ext5sive manifoldness4 ,m ?an ?is--mu* m ?an ?is--mu/ be ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! trans=m+ sy/ems ( physics & ! evolv+ sy/ems ( biology4 ,!re is a quality1 or s5se1 or direction 9 all naturally occurr+ inorganic processes :i* is n l t ( organic evolution>y processes4 ,we return n[ to ! consid]ation ( ! second law ( !rmodynamics1 = only 9 ?is way c we approa* ! notion ( ! vital impetus4 ,if an en]gy-trans=mation occurs 9 inorganic nature1 t is to say1 if any?+ happ5s1 ! trans=mation occurs or ! ?+ happ5s because !re 7 div]sities 9 ! sy/em 9 :i* x occurr$4 ,! condition = inorganic happ5+ is t !re mu/ h be5 diff]5ces ( en]gy 9 ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! sy/em3 9 ! mo/ g5]al s5se !re mu/ h be5 div]sity ( ! elem5ts4 ,b ) ! trans=mation ?is div]sity disappe>s1 or t5ds to disappe>1 & x _c be re/or$--t is1 diff]5ces ( en]gy _c aga9 be e/abli%$ unless by a comp5satory en]gy-trans=mation2 t is1 en]gy mu/ be exp5d$ on ! sy/em f )\t by "s ext]nal ag5cy4 ,:atev] else physics %[s u x %[s u an unit>y univ]se1 t is1 an univ]se 9 :i* any?+ t happ5s affects1 to "s ext5t1 all ! o!r p>ts4 ,!re=e ! dim9ution ( div]sities1 or en]gy-diff]5ces1 is some?+ t _c be undone1 or comp5sat$1 = !re is no?+ )\t ! univ]se4#cb ,ev]y?+ t happ5s 9 our univ]se r$uces ! possibility ( fur!r happ5+4 ,we desire1 at ! risk ( reit]ation1 t ?is pr9ciple ( en]getics %\ld be p]fectly cle>3 inorganic happ5+1 ( :atev] k9d x may be1 is a case or consequ5ce ( ! second law ( en]getics--is ! second law itself 9 a s5se4 ,all en]gy-trans=mations occur because en]gy-diff]5ces are be+ dim9i%$1 because div]sities are be+ aboli%$4 ,?is is ! s5se1 or quality1 or direction ( inorganic ph5om5a4 #cb ,x is assum$ t ! univ]se is a f9ite "o4 ,if x 7 inf9ite ! :ole discussion becomes mean+less1 & we mu/ give up ?is & o!r problems4 ,x is n ! direction ( organic evolution4 ,9 ! developm5t ( ! individual organism :at we mo/ cle>ly see is ! progressive increase ( div]sity ( ! p>ts4 ,9 phylog5etic evolution "o1 or a few1 simple morphological =ms ( life h become1 & are becom+1 indef9itely num]\s morphological =ms4 ,div]sity is cont9ually increas+4 ,if we cl+ to ! me*ani/ic view ( life1 we mu/ suppose t ! div]sity ( ! fully develop$ organism1 or t ( ! organic _w ) all its species1 0 also ! div]sity ( ! f]tilis$ ovum or t ( ! primitive life-sub/ance 9 ano!r phase4 ,!n we commit ourselves to all ! crudities ( mod]n speculations on h]$ity4 ,) ?is increas+ div]sity ( =m !re is a concomitant segregation ( en]gy4 ,we see z cle>ly z possible t ! t5d5cy ( all inorganic happ5+ is ! trans=mation ( pot5tial into k9etic en]gy1 & ! equal di/ribution ( ?is k9etic en]gy ?r\gh\t all ! p>ts ( ! sy/em 9 :i* ! happ5+ occurr$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! t5d5cy ( organic happ5+ is ! trans=mation ( k9etic en]gy into pot5tial en]gy1 7#a7 9 ! /ores ( *emical comp\nds :i* result f ! metabolism ( ! gre5 plants1 & :i* are capable ( yield+ en]gy aga92 & 7#b7 9 ! results ( ! in/9ctive or intellig5t activities ( ! animal's organism4 ,! fir/ result ( organic evolution is cle>ly to be trac$ & ne$s no fur!r explanation1 ! second is app>5t on reflection1 b is p]haps n cle>ly appreh5d$ 9 all its significance by ! /ud5t ( biology & physics4 ,organic evolution is ! process :i* has _h1 or is hav+1 = its t5d5cy ! developm5t ( ! putrefactive & f]m5tation bact]ia1 ! *lorophyllian organisms1 ! ,ar?ropods1 & man & o!r mammals4 ,all t we h said has be5 futile if ?is teleological description ( ! evolution>y process has n be5 cle>ly sugge/$4 ,! indef9itely num]\s =ms ( life t h appe>$ on ! e>? 9 ! pa/1 & are n[ appe>+1 seem to be exp]im5ts mo/ ( :i* h be5 unsuccessful4 ,only 9 ! organisms m5tion$1 organisms :i* are complem5t>y 9 _! metabolic activities1 has life be5 successful 9 manife/+ itself 9 activities :i* are comp5satory to ^? ( inorganic nature4 ,! en]gy :i* is dissipat$ 9 ! radiation ( ! cool+ sun is aga9 made pot5tial 9 ! =m ( ! c>bohydrates1 syn!sis$ f wat] & c>bon dioxide by ! ag5cy ( ! *lorophyllian organisms1 & ?is en]gy accumulates4 ,x is employ$ by ! in/9ctive & intellig5t animal1 9 t x is us$ z food & conv]t$ into bodily en]gy1 :i* c !n be utilis$ = any purpose t is contemplat$4 ,^! plant sub/ances tak5 9 by ! animal z s\rces ( en]gy are brok5 d[n into excretory sub/ances1 :i* are fur!r brok5 d[n by ! metabolic activity ( ! f]m5tation & putrefaction bact]ia1 & become ! sub/ances us$ z foods by ! *lorophyllian organisms4 ,if ! activities ( man 7 only ^? ( undirect$ or misappli$ muscul> movem5ts 7z inde$ mo/ ( 8 activities h s f> be571 !n cosmic en]gy w\ld truly be dissipat$ aft] x _h become ! en]gy ( organisms4 ,b does n all ! hi/ory ( man po9t to 8 ev]-increas+ activity 9 ! conque/ ov] nature1 t is1 ! ef=t to ho>d & employ natural s\rces ( en]gy1 & to arre/ its t5d5cy t[>ds dissipation8 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t ! pa/ hi/ory ( human civilisation has be5 almo/ entirely t ( ! irresponsible exploitation ( natural res\rces--= x has be5 f\nd$ on ! ?\ghtless & wa/eful utilisation ( en]gy :i* 0 made pot5tial by ! plant & animal organisms ( ! pa/4 ,man1 ! hunt]1 ma9ta9$ himself & multipli$ by ! de/ruction ( o!r animals or plants1 or by ! m]e collection & utilisation ( naturally occurr+ fruits & o!r plant-sub/ances4 ,dur+ hi/oric times ! bison & o!r animals h almo/ become ext9ct ow+ to 8 ru?less activity1 j z 9 our own days ! :ale1 sole1 & turbot are disappe>+ be=e ! activity ( ! ma*9e-aid$ fi%]man4 ,indu/rial man has be5 successful ) 8 factories & railroads & /eam%ips1 & 8 electrical p[] & transport1 only because he has be5 able to utilise ! /ores ( en]gy conta9$ 9 ! coal & oil accumulat$ 9 ! rocks ( ! e>?4 ,! progress ( civilisation has be5 a progress r5d]$ possible by discov]y & inv5tion1 & by ! application ( ! k s obta9$ to ! practical ?+s ( human life1 b 9 ?is speculation & its application two diff]5t ?+s are indicat$4 ,= ! sci5tific man & ! philosoph] ! r$uction ( ! app>5t *aos ( nature to law & regul>ity is ! beg9n+ & end ( 8 m5tal activity2 b ! object ( ! 8entrepr5eur0 or 8organis]0 or ! 8capta9 ( indu/ry0 has be5 to employ ^! results ( ?\ght to ! irresponsible exploitation & ! selfi% depletion ( natural s\rces ( en]gy4 ,j z ! bison & o!r animals h disappe>$ or are disappe>+ be=e ! hunt] & fi%]man1 s ! /ores ( coal & oil are disappe>+ be=e ! activities ( comm]ce4 ,x has be5 said t ! triumphs ( indu/rialism are only ! triumphs ( ! sci5tific *ildhood ( our race4 ,human ef=t has s f> only contribut$ to ! g5]al dissipation ( natural en]gy4 ,yet j z man1 ! hunt]1 has be5 succe$$ by man1 ! agriculturali/1 s ?is irresponsible depletion ( natural weal? mu/ be succe$$ by ! endeav\r to ret>d1 & n to accel]ate1 ! degradation ( en]gy4 ,plants & animals :i* 7 simply kill$ by primitive man are n[ s[n & h>ve/$1 or cultivat$ & br$2 s t ! en]gy ( sol> radiation1 :i* =m]ly ran to wa/e1 s to speak1 is n[ be+ fix$ by ! metabolic activity ( ! gre5 plants ( our crops & h>ve/s4 ,ra9fall & w9ds1 tides & riv]s1 all repres5t en]gy prim>ily d]iv$ f sol> radiation & f ! orbital & rotatory motions ( ! e>? & moon4 ,?is en]gy ev5 n[ is almo/ entirely dissipat$ z wa/e1 irrecov]able1 l[-temp]ature heat2 b m & m z our /ores ( coal & oil are be+ deplet$1 ! att5tion ( m5 is be+ direct$ to ^! s\rces ( k9etic en]gy4 ,wat]:eels & w9dmills1 & ! m effective me*anisms t mu/ be evolv$ f ^! primitive motors1 w capture ?is wa/e en]gy & conv]t x into ! k9etic en]gy ( ma*9es s]viceable to man1 or into ! pot5tial en]gy ( *emical comp\nds capable ( /orage & future utilisation4 ,! /udy ( radio-activity has made u acqua9t$ ) ! enorm\s /ores ( pot5tial en]gy lock$ up 9 ! atoms1 & if x ev] %\ld become possible to utilise ?is by ! dis9tegration ( ^! p>ticles1 ! d[nw>d tr5d ( natural en]getic processes w fur!r be ret>d$4 ,life1 :5 we reg>d x f ! po9t ( view ( en]getics1 appe>s !re=e z a t5d5cy :i* is oppos$ to t :i* we see to be *>act]i/ic ( inorganic processes4 ,! direction ( ! latt] is t[>ds ! conv]sion ( pot5tial into k9etic en]gy1 & ! equal di/ribution ( ! latt] ?r\gh\t all ! p>ts ( ! univ]se4 ,! direction ( ! t5d5cy :i* we call life is t[>ds ! conv]sion ( k9etic into pot5tial en]gy1 or t[>ds ! e/abli%m5t & ma9t5ance ( diff]5ces ( k9etic en]gy1 :]eby ! latt] rema9s available = ! p]=mance ( "w4 ,9 g5]al t]ms1 ! effect ( ! movem5t :i* we call inorganic is t[>ds ! abolition ( div]sities1 :ile t :i* we call life is t[>ds ! ma9t5ance ( div]sities4 ,!y are movem5ts :i* are opposite 9 _! direction4 ,:at is cosmic evolution8 ,9 all ! hypo!ses :i* a/ronomical physics has imag9$ we see ! trans=mation ( a sy/em--a "p ( ! univ]se arbitr>ily deta*$ f all ! re/--?r\gh a s]ies ( /ages1 ea* phase ( ! s]ies be+ m>k$ by a progressive decrease ( div]sity1 t is1 by "s degradation ( en]gy4 ,two ma9 s]ies ( hypo!ses acc\nt+ = ! pres5t condition ( ! univ]se seem to h be5 ! result ( physical inve/igation3 7#a7 ! orig9 ( discrete sol> & planet>y bodies by a process ( cond5sation ( a gase\s nebul> sub/ance2 & 7#b7 ! orig9 ( ! same sy/ems by aggregations ( meteoric du/4 ,plausible z is ! nebul> hypo!sis on fir/ consid]ation1 x fails :5 x is subject$ to m9ute analysis4 ,:at is a gase\s nebula8 ,x is a mass ( heat$ vap\r contract+ by ! mutual gravity ( its p>ts z its molecules lose _! heat by radiation--s ! hypo!sis /ates4 ,b x has be5 po9t$ out t we _c be c]ta9 t ! gase\s nebul kn[n to a/ronomy are hot1 or ev5 t !y gravitate4 ,! great nebula 9 ,orion1 x is /at$1 is at an enorm\s di/ance f u1 & mak+ a m9imal e/imate ( ?is di/ance ! volume ( ! nebula mu/ /ill be incr$ibly great4 ,!re are good reasons = believ+ t ! mass ( ! visible univ]se _c be great] ?an t ( a ?\s& million ( suns su* z our own4 ,assum+ t all ?is matt] is conta9$ 9 ! great nebula 9 ,orion 7& obvi\sly only a small portion ( x c be s conta9$71 we f9d on calculation t ! 8gas0 s =m$ w\ld be mu* less d5se ?an ev5 ! trace ( gas conta9$ 9 a high vacuum artificially produc$4#cc ,h[1 !n1 c we speak ( su* a body z ?is nebula z an ext5d$ mass ( hot gas1 cool+ & gravitat+ z x loses heat8 #cc ,its d5sity w\ld be #a_/7eh #ajh7? t ( our atmosph]e4 ,ev5 on ! o!r hypo!ses1 ^? ( ! =mation ( discrete suns & planets by ! aggregation ( meteoric du/1 & ! comp5satory disp]sal ( su* du/ by radiation pressure1 app>5tly insurm\ntable difficulties arise4 ,all su* hypo!ses z we h indicat$ assume mat]ial sub/ance & modes ( en]gy-trans=mation simil> to ^? t we /udy 9 laboratory processes1 & all su* hypo!ses involve ! notion ( ! degradation ( en]gy4 ,s long z we suppose t all cosmic processes are trans=mations ( ext5d$ sy/ems ( mat]ial sub/ances we mu/ assume t en]gy is dissipat$ at e /age ( ! trans=mation1 & :5ev] we assume ?is we admit t ! processes are irrev]sible ones1 & t ! mat]ial univ]se z a :ole t5ds t[>ds a condition ( in]tia4 ,yet ?is1 we see1 _c be true1 = ! univ]se teems ) div]sity4 ,is ! progress t[>ds ! ultimate /ate ( in]tia an asymptotic "o1 z ,w>d sugge/s8 ,?is does n help u1 s9ce all t ! sugge/ion does is to misapply a ma!matical device ( s]vice only 9 ! treatm5t ( ! problems = :i* x 0 develop$4 ,some:]e or o!r1 x has be5 said1 ! second law ( !rmodynamics mu/ be evad$ 9 our univ]se4 ,h[ c x be evad$8 ,t movem5t or progress :i* we call inorganic is a movem5t ( en]gy-trans=mations 9 "o direction--t[>ds _! cessation4 ,x is a movem5t :i* we c easily rev]se 9 imag9ation4 ,a cig>ette consum$ by a smok] repres5ts ! d[nfall ( en]gy3 ! cellulose & oils ( ! tobacco burn ) ! lib]ation ( heat1 & ! =mation ( wat]1 c>bon dioxide1 & "s soot2 & ?is is :at happ5s :5 pot5tial en]gy conta9$ 9 an organis$ sub/ance becomes conv]t$ into k9etic en]gy4 ,n[1 ! opposite process c cle>ly be conceiv$--x c ev5 be pictur$4 ,if we make a k9ematographic record ( ! smok+ ( ! cig>ette & !n rev]se ! direction ( motion ( ! film1 we %all see ! p>ticles ( soot recomb9+ to =m ! sub/ance ( ! cig>ette1 & we c imag9e ! concomitant comb9ation ( ! wat]1 c>bon dioxide1 & o!r sub/ances =m$ dur+ ! combu/ion ) ! absorption ( k9etic en]gy4 ,?is is n a m]e analogy1 = ! same rev]sal ( ord9>y *emical happ5+ occurs :5ev] a gre5 plant builds up />* f ! wat] & c>bon dioxide ( ! atmosph]e & x also occurs :5ev] a *emical syn!sis ( an 8organic0 comp\nd1 l t ( urea by ,whl]1 or t ( ! sug>s by ,fis*]1 is br\ght ab\t 9 ! laboratory4 ,9 all su* syn!ses ! exp]im5t] rev]ses ! direction ( inorganic *emical happ5+4 ,he may cause endo!rmic *emical reactions1 reactions accompani$ by ! absorption ( available en]gy1 to take place1 & 9 ^! k9etic en]gy becomes trans=m$ into pot5tial en]gy4 ,all ! syn!ses ( organic comp\nds s complac5tly in/anc$ by me*ani/ic biologi/s & *emi/s z indicative ( ! lack ( di/9ction betwe5 ! organic & ! inorganic po9t to no su* conclusion4 ,sug> is built up 9 ! cells ( ! gre5 plant f ! inorganic comp\nds1 wat]1 & c>bon dioxide1 & is !re=e a comp\nd prep>$ by life--t ( ! plant organism4 ,b sug> may also be built up 9 ! laboratory f inorganic comp\nds1 :i* may fur!r h be5 syn!sis$ by ! *emi/ f _! elem5ts4 ,does ?is de/roy ! di/9ction betwe5 comp\nds =m$ by ! ag5cy ( ! organism & ^? =m$ by inorganic ag5cies8 ,obvi\sly x does n1 = 9 ! gre5 plant ! sug> 0 =m$ z ! result ( ! vital ag5cy ( ! liv+ *lorophyllian cell1 :ile 9 ! laboratory x 0 built up because ( ! intellig5ce ( ! exp]im5t]4 ,ap>t f ?is intellig5ce or vital ag5cy1 ! s]ies ( *emical trans=mations beg9n+ ) ! elem5ts c>bon1 oxyg51 & hydrog51 & end+ ) ! sub/ance sug>1 w\ld n h occurr$4 ,we h no "r to say1 !re=e1 t su* syn!ses de/roy ! di/9ction betwe5 ! organic & ! inorganic4 ,:at !y d indicate is ! di/9ction betwe5 ! t5d5cy express$ by ! second law ( !rmo-dynamics 7inorganic processes71 & ^? t occur z ! result ( direction conf]r$ ^u processes tak5 z a :ole1 ei!r by ! vital ag5cy ( ! liv+ cell1 or by ! intellig5ce ( man 7vital processes74 ,! direction1 !re=e1 t may be conf]r$ on a s]ies ( physico-*emical processes is :at we mu/ und]/& by ! 8vital impetus0 ( ,b]gson1 or ! 8entele*y0 ( ,dries*4 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t x is difficult to describe m precisely ?an we h done above :at is meant by ^! t]ms4 ,x is ) v mu* ! same emb>rassm5t t is exp]i5c$ by ! physici/ :5 he has to apply ! concepts ( mass & in]tia1 9 _! eighte5?-c5tury mean+1 to 8 description ( an univ]se 9 t]ms ( electro-magnetic !ory1 t we seek to describe ! mod]n concept ( entele*y4 ,yet ! physici/ has _h to make ?is /ep =w>d1 & ! same adv5ture awaits ! biologi/ if ! speculative side ( 8 sci5ce is to make fur!r progress1 & if he is dis9cl9$ to make 8 sci5ce an app5dage ( physics & *emi/ry4 ,entele*y does n correspond to ! eighte5?-c5tury notion ( a 8vital =ce10 or to ! 8s\l0 ( ,desc>tes1 z ! writ] ( a book on evolution>y biology seems to sugge/4 ,x is a concept :i* is =c$ ^u u ma9ly because ( ! failure ( me*ani/ic hypo!ses ( ! organism4 ,if our physical analysis ( ! behavi\r ( ! develop+ embryo1 or ! evolv+ race or /ock1 or ! activities ( ! organism 9 ! mid/ ( an ev]-*ang+ environm5t1 or ev5 ! reactions ( ! function+ gl&1 fail1 !n we seem to be =c$ to po/ulate an elem5tal ag5cy 9 nature manife/+ itself 9 ! ph5om5a ( ! organism1 b n 9 ^? ( inorganic nature4 ,?is argum5t p] ignorantium possesses little =ce to _m m9ds3 x makes little appeal to ! ?9k]1 or ! critic1 or ! g5]al read]1 b x is almo/ impossible to ov]-e/imate ! appeal :i* x makes to ! inve/igator1 z 8 exp]i5ce ( ! ph5om5a ( ! organism increases1 & z he feels m & m ! difficulty ( describ+ 9 t]ms ( ! concepts ( physics ! activities ( ! liv+ animal4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 attempt to illu/rate ma9ly by analogy :at is meant by ,dries*'s entele*ia1 a m precise concept ?an is ,b]gson's lan vital4 ,we return to ! consid]ation ( ! behavi\r ( ! embryo at ! close ( ! process ( segm5tation4 ,! organism at ?is /age consi/s ( a numb] ( cells organically 9 cont9uity ) ea* o!r1 ei!r by actual protoplasmic filam5ts or by ! apposition ( p>ts ( _! surfaces1 ?us con/itut+ 8semi-p]meable0 membranes4 ,^! cells are all simil> to ea* o!r1 bo? /ructurally & functionally4 ,x does n matt] t mod]n speculations on h]$ity describe !m z unlike 9 t ea* conta9s a diff]5t "p ( ! orig9al g]m-plasm :i* _h be5 dis9tegrat$ 9 ! process ( ! division ( ! ovum & ! fir/ few bla/om]es2 & x does n matt] t ^! hypo!ses are compell$ to assume t a "p ( ! orig9al g]m-plasm rema9s intact1 be+ de/9$ to =m ! gonads ( ! adult animal4 ,^! are hypo!ses inv5t$ to acc\nt = ! diff]5tiation ( ! embryo 9 t]ms ( eighte5?-c5tury physics & *emi/ry1 & !y h yet to be support$ by exp]im5t be=e we c accept !m z a description ( :at is to be obs]v$ 9 ! processes ( nucle> division & segm5tation4 ,fur!r1 x is c]ta9ly ! case t any "o cell ( ! e>ly embryo c give rise to any "p ( ! l>va4 ,! segm5t$ embryo is !re=e a sy/em ( p>ts1 all ( :i* are pot5tially simil> to ea* o!r4 ,b actually ea* ( ^! p>ts has a diff]5t fate 9 ! process ( ! developm5t ( ! l>va1 & ?is fate dep5ds on :at is ! fate ( ! adjac5t cells4 ,!re is also a plan or design 9 ! developm5t ( ! embryo--t is1 a v def9ite /ructure results f ?is process--& ea* ( ! cells %>es 9 ! evolution ( ?is design4 ,! sy/em ( cells is !re=e an h>moni\s equipot5tial sy/em4 ,! cells !mselves are n ! ultimate p>ts ( ?is sy/em1 = ea* ( !m is an aggregate ( a v great numb] ( sub/ances :i* are physico-*emically *>act]is$--at lea/ our me?ods ( analysis seem to %[ t ea* cell is a mixture ( a numb] ( *emical comp\nds1 b we mu/ nev] =get t x is ! dead cell :i* we ?us subject to analysis1 & n a liv+ organism4 ,let u call ^! suppos$ *emical con/itu5ts ( ! liv+ cells ! elem5ts ( ! sy/em2 !n at ! beg9n+ ( ! process ( developm5t ! latt] is compos$ ( elem5ts :i* are n def9itely arrang$ b :i* are di/ribut$ 9 an 8homog5e\s0 mann] v l ! di/ribution :i* is effect$ on %uffl+ a pack ( c>ds4 ,b z diff]5tiation proce$s1 ! elem5ts ( ?is sy/em become unequally di/ribut$1 & ! div]sity becomes great] & great]1 atta9+ its maximum :5 ! def9itive tissues & organs ( ! adult become e/abli%$1 j z at ! close ( a game ( bridge ! c>ds acquire a p>ticul> arrangem5t indicative ( a v def9ite plan :i* 0 pres5t 9 ! m9ds ( ! play]s %ortly aft] ! game began4 ,me*ani/ic biology w\ld seek to expla9 ?is trans=mation ( a homog5e\s sy/em ( elem5ts into a het]og5e\s & specific arrangem5t by ! int]action ( ! elem5ts ) ea* o!r1 & by ! reaction ( ! environm5t4 ,b1 giv5 a homog5e\s arrangem5t ( elem5ts capable ( int]act+ ) ea* o!r1 !n only "o f9al phase c be suppos$ to be produc$4 ,a mixture ( sulphur1 c>bon du/1 copp] & iron fil+s rais$ sudd5ly to a high temp]ature w only int]act 9 "o way1 & ! f9al phase ( ! sy/em w dep5d on ! composition ( ! mixture1 on ! temp]ature1 & on ! conduction ( heat into ! mixture 9 ! initial /age ( heat+4 ,a mixture ( *lor(orm & wat] %ak5 up 9 a bottle is at fir/ a 8homog5e\s0 mixture ( ! p>ticles ( ! two sub/ances1 b "u ! influ5ce ( gravity ! liquids sep>ate f ea* o!r & =m two di/9ct lay]s1 ea* ( :i* w conta9 9 solution "s ( ! o!r liquid4 ,a homog5e\s mixture ( diff]5t sub/ances !re=e becomes a het]og5e\s arrangem5t 9 ! inorganic sy/em1 z 9 ! organic "o1 b :ile we c pr$ict ! =m] "o we _c pr$ict ! latt]4 ,we c express ! result ( ! comb9ation ( ! elem5ts ( ! inorganic mixture z some?+ t dep5ds on *emical & physical pot5tials1 b ?is is q impossible 9 ! case ( ! developm5t ( ! embryonic sy/em4 ,x is n only t our k ( ! developm5tal process is imp]fect3 ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two processes ( diff]5tiation is a fundam5tal "o4 ,a *ange 9 ! conditions "u :i* ! inorganic sy/em diff]5tiates leads ( necessity to a diff]5t f9al phase1 b a *ange 9 ! conditions "u :i* ! embryo develops ne$ h no su* effect4 ,if "s un=ese5 occurr5ce takes place--"s artificial int]f]5ce ) ! process ( segm5tation1 :i* c\ld nev] h be5 exp]i5c$ 9 ! racial hi/ory ( ! organism--a regulation by ! p>ts ( ! embryo occurs1 & ! f9al phase ( developm5t may be ! same z if no int]f]5ce _h be5 exp]i5c$4 ,t :i* is op]at+ 9 ! developm5t ( ! embryo is some?+ t is p]mitt+1 or susp5d+1 or arrang+ physico-*emical reactions4 ,let u ?9k ( ! develop+ embryo m]ely z an aggregation ( sub/ances conta9$ 9 an inorganic m$ium3 ! segm5t$ frog's egg float+ on ! wat] at ! surface ( a pond is an example4 ,z an inorganic sy/em its fate is det]m9$4 ,autolysis ( ! sub/ances 9 ! cells w occur & ! proteids w break d[n ) ! =mation ( amido-bodies1 :ile o!r *emical *anges1 /rictly pr$ictable if our k ( organic *emi/ry 7 m complete ?an x is1 w\ld also occur4 ,putrefactive & f]m5tative bact]ia w attack ! proteids1 fats1 & c>bohydrates1 & 9 ! end our aggregation ( *emical sub/ances w become an aggregation ( mu* simpl] comp\nds--wat]1 c>bon dioxide1 m>% gas1 sulphurett$ hydrog51 phosphorett$ hydrog51 ammonia1 nitrates1 etc41 all ( :i* w dissolve 9 ! wat] ( ! pond1 or w diffuse into ! adjac5t atmosph]e4 ,b 9 ! liv+ embryo ?is is n :at occurs3 an entirely diff]5t1 & mu* m complex1 arrangem5t ( ! *emical sub/ances orig9ally pres5t 9 ! segm5t$ egg1 or at lea/ a physical & *emical re-arrangem5t1 is br\ght ab\t4 ,! entele*y ( ! develop+ embryo prev5ts "s reactions f occurr+ & directs ! en]gy :i* is pot5tial 9 ! sy/em t[>ds ! p]=mance ( o!r reactions4 ,two analogies1 sugge/$ by ,dries*1 w p]haps make ! rle ( entele*y m cle>4 ,a workman1 a heap ( bricks1 "s mort>1 "s food1 & "s oxyg5 con/itute a sy/em 9 ! physico-*emical s5se4 ,f 8 heap ( bricks & mort> ! workman may build "o ( sev]al diff]5t k9ds ( small h\se1 or he may p]haps con/ruct sev]al walls )\t any def9ite arrangem5t1 or he may m]ely conv]t "o 8disord]ly0 heap ( bricks & mort> into ano!r 8disord]ly0 heap4 ,9 ! same way a man1 a case ( movable types1 "s food1 & "s oxyg5 con/itute ano!r sy/em4 ,! initial phase ( ?is sy/em consi/s ( ! compositor1 8 food1 & "s fifty-odd boxes ( types1 ea* ( :i* conta9s a l>ge numb] ( simil> elem5ts4 ,a f9al phase ( ! sy/em may be ! arrangem5t ( ! types to =m an epic poem1 or a s]ies ( dramatic criticisms1 or a mean+less jumble ( correctly spelt words4 ,9 all ^! cases ! same am\nt ( en]gy 0 exp5d$3 ! bricklay] us$ up ! same quantity ( food & oxyg5 & excret$ ! same quantities ( wat]1 c>bon dioxide1 & urea1 :e!r he made a h\se1 or a small *imney1 or a heap ( bricks )\t ar*itectural arrangem5t4 ,! sy/em ( bricks & mort> acquir$ dur+ ! process ( diff]5tiation a gradually increas+ complexity2 :ile 9 ! case ( ! type-sett+ ! div]sity ( arrangem5t acquir$ 9 ! f9al phases may be ( a v high ord]4 ,yet ! intellig5t m9d ( ! work] rema9$ 9 ei!r case un*ang$4 ,let u consid] fur!r a man walk+ along ! ties1 or sleep]s1 ( a railway track4 ,! ties are at v>iable di/ances ap>t1 s t ! /eps ( ! walk] mu/ v>y 9 l5g?1 be+ sometimes clos] toge!r1 sometimes fur!r ap>t4 ,! mean /ep has a def9ite l5g? & requires ! exp5diture ( a c]ta9 am\nt ( en]gy1 & ! condition t ! man takes sometimes a long /ep & sometimes a %ort "o does n require t ! en]gy exp5d$ on ! /eps %\ld be m ?an if e "o ( !m 7 ( ! mean l5g?1 = ! additional en]gy t is requir$ = ! long /eps is sav$ f ! %ort ones4 ,t :i* op]ates "h is ! p[] ( regulation ex]cis$ by ! walk] reg>d$ z a me*anism4 ,!re is no purely inorganic process precisely simil> to ?is4 ,x might be ?\ght t ! gov]nor ( a /eam eng9e did v mu* ! same ?+1 admitt+ m /eam into ! cyl9d] :5 ! load on ! eng9e increases1 & vice v]sa4 ,b ! gov]nor is a me*anism design$ to comp5sate = v>iations t are giv5 9 advance4 ,9 ! case ( ! man walk+ on ! railway track1 entele*y op]ates by susp5d+ en]getic happ5+ 7! muscul> contractions ( ! %ort /eps7 :5 necess>y1 & all[+ x to proce$ :5 necess>y4 ,entele*y itself1 :atev] x may be1 ne$ n be affect$ by ^! regulations4 ,! organism is !re=e an aggregation ( *emical sub/ances arrang$ 9 a typical mann]4 ,^! sub/ances possess en]gy 9 ! pot5tial =m1 capable ( und]go+ trans=mation s t !y may give rise to o!r *emical sub/ances--secretions1 = in/ance--or to en]gy 9 ! k9etic =m1 t is1 ! movem5ts ( muscles4 ,9 ! re/+ organism ^! trans=mations d n take place3 ! en]gy rema9s pot5tial1 s t *emical happ5+ is susp5d$4 ,9 ! unf]tilis$ ovum1 = in/ance1 no?+ happ5s al?\gh all ! pot5tialities ( segm5tation are conta9$ 9 ! cell4 ,if reactions did occur 9 consequ5ce ( ! *emical pot5tials conta9$ 9 ! sub/ances ( ! cells1 ! progress ( ^! w\ld be su* z to lead to ! =mation ( sub/ances 9 :i* pot5tial en]gy 0 m9imal1 & 9 :i* ! orig9al en]gy ( ! cell w\ld be repres5t$ by ! un-co-ord9at$ k9etic en]gy ( ! molecules result+ f ! breakd[n ( ! sub/ances und]go+ ! *emical *anges4 ,?is is n :at happ5s 9 ! diff]5tiation ( ! ovum3 ! develop+ cell =ms new sub/ances f ^? ( its inorganic m$ium simil> to ! sub/ances ( :i* x is already compos$1 & !n ^! sub/ances become arrang$ to produce ! specific =m ( ! organism into :i* ! ovum is ab\t to develop4 ,all hypo!ses :i* attempt to describe ! function+ ( ! diff]5tiat+ ovum1 or ! function+ organism1 9 t]ms ( ! physical concepts ( matt] & en]gy alone1 fail on be+ subject$ to close analysis4 ,! manife/ations ( ! life ( ! organism are1 x is said1 p>ticul> 8en]gy-=ms10 ( ! same ord] z light1 heat1 *emical & electrical en]gy1 etc4 ,all ^! en]gy-=ms are 8concat5at$10 t is1 ea* c be conv]t$ into any ( ! o!rs4 ,a p>ticul> frequ5cy ( ! vibration ( ! e!r c be conv]t$ into a movem5t ( ! molecules ( a mat]ial body1 & s become heat1 :ile *emical en]gy may become conv]t$ into electrical en]gy1 or vice v]sa1 & s on4 ,x is said t life may be m]ely a trans=mation ( "s 8en]gy-=m0 kn[n to u3 ! pot5tial en]gy ( food may be conv]t$ into 8biotic en]gy10 & ?is may !n manife/ itself 9 ! *>act]i/ic behavi\r ( ! organism4 ,?is is ! me?od ( physical sci5ce4 ,en]gy cont9ually disappe>s f our k3 ! me*anical en]gy :i* 0 employ$ to c>ry a weight to ! top ( a hill1 or t :i* raises a p5dulum to ! highe/ po9t ( its sw+1 app>5tly disappe>s4 ,if we pass a curr5t ( electricity ?r\gh wat]1 en]gy disappe>s1 = x requires m curr5t to pass ?r\gh wat] ?an ?r\gh a piece ( metal ( ! same section4 ,9 ^! & simil> cases physics inv5ts pot5tial en]gies 9 ord] to pres]ve ! validity ( ! law ( cons]vation4 ,! k9etic en]gy ( ! weight1 or t ( ! sw++ p5dulum1 becomes ! pot5tial en]gy ( ! weight re/+ at ! top ( ! hill1 or t ( ! bob ( ! p5dulum at its highe/ po9t1 :ile ! electrical en]gy t has app>5tly be5 lo/ becomes ! pot5tial en]gy ( ! *ang$ positions ( ! molecules ( oxyg5 & hydrog54 ,?is assumption t ! visible k9etic en]gy ( motion becomes conv]t$ into ! invisible pot5tial en]gy ( position is ju/ifi$ by our exp]i5ce1 = 7neglect+ dissipation7 we c recov] ?is lo/ en]gy1 9 its orig9al quantity1 f ! condition ( ! bodies :i* became *ang$ physically :5 ! k9etic en]gy disappe>$4 ,apply ! same me?od to ! ph5om5a ( ! organism & suppose t ! *emical pot5tial en]gy ( ! food consum$ becomes conv]t$ into ! k9etic en]gy ( motion ( ! p>ts ( ! body3 we are ju/ifi$ 9 ?is assumption by ! results ( physiology4 ,b !n "s ( ?is *emical en]gy und]goes a trans=mation ( q ano!r k9d & becomes ! 8biotic en]gy10 :i* is app>5tly t :i* is 9 u :i* enables u to p]=m regulations1 or e/abli%es t condition :i* we call consci\sness4 ,we _c say exactly :at ?is 8biotic en]gy0 is1 or :at are ! /eps by :i* ! en]gy ( food becomes conv]t$ into x2 b no m c we say :at is electrical en]gy1 nor :at are ! /eps by :i* *emical en]gy becomes conv]t$ into x4 ,?us our ignorance ( ! precise nature ( ! en]gy-trans=mations ( inorganic ?+s--an ignorance :i* is all ! :ile disappe>+--becomes ! excuse = a comp>ison ( ^! ) vital trans=mations1 & = ! assumption t !re is a fundam5tal simil>ity 9 ! two k9ds ( happ5+4 ,less is assum$ 9 ! assumption ( an entele*ian ag5cy ?an 9 assum+ t ! manife/ations ( life are ! consequ5ces ( a vital 8en]gy-=m10 diff]5t f inorganic =ms1 ?\gh belong+ to ! same ord]1 inasmu* z x may be concat5at$ ) ^! inorganic en]gy-=ms4 ,we ne$ n suppose t a p>ticul> k9d ( trans=mation occurs only 9 ! sph]e ( ! organic3 all t we ne$ assume is t1 by "s ag5cy inh]5t 9 ! activities ( ! organism1 *emical reactions t w\ld occur if ! con/ellation ( p>ts 7 an inorganic "o are susp5d$4 ,no?+ unfamili> to physical sci5ce is involv$ 9 ?is assumption4 ,hydrog5 & *lor9e1 gases t comb9e toge!r :5 mix$ ) ! production ( heat & light1 may be mix$ "u conditions su* t ! comb9ation may be delay$ = an indef9ite "t4 ,iron :i* dissolves 9 nitric acid may nev]!less be br\ght into ! 8passive0 =m :5 x rema9s 9 contact ) ! re-ag5t b is n dissolv$ by x4 ,enzymes :i* are 9 contact ) ! walls ( ! alim5t>y canal d n dissolve ^! membranes s long z ! tissues are alive1 & !y d n dissolve ! food /uff until !y h be5 8activat$40 ,oxyg5 :i* is conta9$ 9 ! tissues does n oxidise ! tissue sub/ances until an enzyme or a catalase has ex]t$ its influ5ce4 ,m & m1 z physiology has become m se>*+ 9 its /udy ( ! functions ( ! animal1 has x s\ght to expla9 ! metabolic processes by assum+ ! int]v5tion ( enzymes1 until ! numb] ( ^! sub/ances has become legion1 & mu* ( ! orig9al simplicity ( ! notion ( f]m5t-activity has be5 lo/4 ,b :y d n ^! enzymes1 if !y are always pres5t 9 ! tissues1 always act8 ,!y mu/ be activat$1 says mod]n physiology2 t is1 ! enzyme really exi/s 9 ! tissues z a 8zymog50 or a sub/ance :i* is n1 b :i* may become1 an enzyme2 or !y exi/ z 8zymoids10 t is1 sub/ances :i* appe> to be *emically enzymes1 b :i* mu/ be activat$ by 8k9ases0 be=e !y c become functional4 ,und\bt$ly x is along ^! l9es t physiology is mak+ advances1 has increas$ our k ( ! activities ( ! animal1 & is conf]r+ on ! physician great] p[] ( combat+ disease2 b ! hypo!ses ( ! activity ( ! enzymes is obvi\sly "o :i* has be5 bas$ on ! results ( ! physico-*emical inve/igation ( inorganic reactions1 & x has tak5 ! precise =m x has because ( ! attempt$ analogy ( _m metabolic processes ) catalytic processes4 ,:y d ! in]t zymoids become activat$ by ! k9ases j :5 !y are requir$ by ! g5]al economy ( ! :ole organism8 ,we d "k t k9ases are produc$ by ! entrance ( dige/$ food into c]ta9 p>ts ( ! alim5t>y canal1 & t ^! k9ases are c>ri$ 9 ! blood /ream to o!r p>ts :]e !y activate ! zymoids already !re4 ,b ( ! nature ( ! ma*9]y by means ( :i* all ?is is effect$ physiology gives u no h9t1 & x is an assumption t ! me*anism involv$ is a purely physico-*emical "o4 ,suppose we say t ! entele*y ( ! organism possesses ! p[] ( susp5d+ ! activation ( ! enzyme1 t is to say1 ( arre/+ ! drop ( *emical pot5tial involv$ 9 ! process ( ! hydrolysis ( 7say7 a proteid4 ,:5 ?is process ( hydrolysis is necess>y 9 ! int]e/ ( ! organism entele*y c !n in/itute ! reaction :i* x has itself susp5d$3 all ?is is 9 accord ) ! law ( cons]vation4 ,entele*y does n cause *emical reactions to occur :i* are 8impossible03 x c\ld n1 = in/ance1 cause sulphuric acid & an alkal9e phosphate to react ) ! =mation ( hydro*loric acid4 ,b *emical reactions :i* are possible may be susp5d$1 & susp5d$ reactions may !n become actual :5 ?is is necess>y 9 ! int]e/ ( ! organism4 ,entele*y is !re=e n en]gy1 nor any p>ticul> =m ( en]gy-trans=mation1 & 9 its op]ations en]gy is nei!r us$ nor dissipat$4 ,9 all t x does ! law ( cons]vation holds ) all ! rigidity ) :i* we imag9e x to hold 9 purely inorganic happ5+--at lea/ we ne$ n assume t x does n hold--& ?is is ! ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 ! entele*ian manife/ations & ! manife/ations ( ! 8vital0 or 8biotic0 =ces or en]gies ( ! hi/oric sy/ems ( vitalism4 ,x is ess5tially arrangem5t1 or ord] ( happ5+1 & x is !re=e a non-en]getic ag5cy4 ,! workman :o may build half-a-doz5 zigzag walls1 or an ar*way1 or a small h\se1 f ! same mat]ials & ) ! exp5diture ( ! same quantity ( en]gy1 is inde$ an en]getical ag5t1 b he is m ?an t4 ,he is a physico-*emical sy/em 9 :i* any "o phase is n det]m9$ by ! prec$+ phase4 ,diff]5t results may arise f ! same initial arrangem5t ( mat]ials & en]gies1 & ?is is because ! sy/em conta9s m ?an ! mat]ial & en]getical elem5ts4 ,x conta9s ! intellig5ce or entele*y ( ! workman4 ,:at is ?is entele*y8 ,soon] ( lat] 9 all our speculation on organic happ5+ we mu/ cross ! arbitr>y l9e :i* divides ! space ( our concepts f ! non-spatial--! int5sive f ! ext5sive4 ,j z ! physici/s h left mat]iality beh9d !m 9 _! speculations & treatm5t ( ! ph5om5a ( radiation1 s biology mu/ attempt to trace back ! mat]iality ( ! organism to some?+ :i* is immat]ial4 ,j z physics has n[ ab&on$ ! idea ( matt] z some?+ :i* consi/s ( discrete p>ticles1 or atoms1 hav+ ext5sion 9 space1 & :i* !re=e exclude ea* o!r1 s biology mu/ seek ! orig9 ( liv+ ?+s1 n 9 ! hypo!tical 8biophorid10 or o!r ultimate liv+ mat]ial p>ticles1 b 9 ! int5sive manifoldness ( entele*y4 ,!re is a manifoldness 9 ! pot5tiality :i* ! simple & homog5e\s ovum possesses ( becom+ ! het]og5e\s adult organism4 ,?is manifoldness1 says ! me*ani/ic biologi/1 consi/s ( a manifoldness ( ext5d$ mat]ial units1 ! det]m9ants ( ,weismann1 & ! organisation t arranges ^! units--:at is ?is organisation8 ,x _c be a ?ree-dim5sional ma*9]y1 z all close analysis ( ! facts ( developm5t & regulation %[s4 ,x is !n some?+ t is int5sive1 some?+ :i* is n 9 space1 b :i* acts into space1 & ! result ( :i* is manife/$ 9 spatial mat]ial arrangem5ts & activities4 ,vague & incompreh5sible z is ?is concept ( ! activities ( ! organisms1 x is only vague & incompreh5sible because we h be5 accu/om$ to express all *emical & physical happ5+ 9 t]ms ( ! fundam5tal concepts ( matt] & en]gy1 & ! sci5ce ( ! la/ two c5turies has left u ) a t]m9ology :i* applies /rictly to op]ations 9 :i* only ^! concepts are involv$4 ,b if1 z all m9ute analysis ( vital ph5om5a %[s1 ! se>* = ! antec$5ts ( "s en]getic1 mat]ial1 ext5d$ sy/em ( elem5ts 9 a prec$+ en]getical1 mat]ial1 ext5d$ sy/em ( elem5ts only leads to confusion & contradictions1 !n ?is concept ( an ag5cy :i* is nei!r en]getic1 nor mat]ial1 nor spatial mu/ be =mulat$4 ,entele*y1 !n1 is n en]gy1 b r ! arrangem5t & co-ord9ation ( en]getic processes4 ,x is n some?+ t is ext5d$ 9 space1 b some?+ :i* acts into space4 ,x is n mat]ial1 b x manife/s itself 9 mat]ial *anges4 ,x is a manifoldness1 or organisation1 b ! manifoldness is an int5sive "o4 ,comp>e ?is def9ition ) ! notion ( ! e!r ( space n[ accept$ by ! ma!matical physici/s1 & x w be se5 t our speculations are simil> to ^? ( ! physici/s1 &1 l !m1 ! te/ ( _! reality & usefulness is to be ju/ifi$ pragmatically4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we may n[ attempt a =mal description ( ! organism bas$ on ! discussions ( ! previ\s *apt]s4#cd #cd ,?is description is l>gely an expansion ( ,dries*'s 8,analytical def9ition ( ! individual liv+ organism40 ,! read] %\ld note also t x includes ! ,b]gsonian idea ( duration1 & t ( ! organism z a typical phase 9 an evolution>y flux1 z p>ts ( ! description4 ,! organism is a typical con/ellation ( physico-*emical p>ts or elem5ts4 ,t is to say1 x is an object 9 nature possess+ a def9ite =m1 :i* is ! result ( ! arrangem5t ( its tissues4 ,ea* tissue is aga9 an arrangem5t ( cells1 & ea* cell is a complex ( *emical sub/ances4 ,! organism !re=e resembles1 s f> z our def9ition goes1 an inorganic cry/al4 ,b x is ! typical organism t we are consid]+1 & ?is is a pure conception1 = our typical organism does n occur 9 nature4 ,! organisms t are accessible to our obs]vation are con/ellations ( physico-*emical p>ts1 b ^! con/ellations t5d cont9ually to deviate f ! conceptual arrangem5t4 ,progressive v>iation f ! type is some?+ t di/+ui%es ! organic con/ellation f ! inorganic "o4 ,! organism is an entity 9 :i* en]gy-trans=mations ( a p>ticul> nature are effect$4 ,^! trans=mations raise en]gy f a /ate ( l[1 to a /ate ( high pot5tial4 ,?is is ! g5]al t5d5cy ( t]re/rial life1 & x is express$ mo/ fully 9 ! metabolism ( ! gre5 plant4 ,! en]gy-trans=mations t are effect$ "h are ^? 9 :i* ! k9etic en]gy ( radiation is employ$ to build up *emical comp\nds ( high pot5tial1 f inorganic sub/ances incapable 9 !mselves ( und]go+ fur!r trans=mations4 ,! g5]al t5d5cy ( all inorganic trans=mations is t[>ds in]tia4 ,9 !m en]gy is n de/roy$1 b x is dissipat$3 x becomes uni=mly di/ribut$ ?r\gh\t mat]ial bodies z ! un-co-ord9at$ motions ( ! molecules ( :i* ^? bodies are compos$1 & x ceases to be available = fur!r trans=mations4 ,! gre5 plant rev]ses ?is trans=mation1 & accumulates en]gy 9 ! =m ( *emical comp\nds ( high pot5tial4 ,inorganic processes are ^? 9 :i* available en]gy becomes unavailable1 & ?is unavailable en]gy c only become available aga9 if a comp5satory en]gy-trans=mation is effect$4 ,life is t :i* effects ^! comp5satory en]gy-trans=mations4 ,! organism is a con/ellation capable ( indef9ite gr[? by dissociation4 ,t is to say1 x is a con/ellation :i* reproduces itself 9 all its specificity4 ,gr[? consi/s 9 ! sep>ation f ! organism ( a "p1 or reproductive cell1 :i* divides 7or dissociates7 repeat$ly1 ea* dissociat$ "p gr[+ aga9 9 mass by ! addition ( sub/ances simil> to its own1 b :i* are tak5 f a m$ium dissimil> 9 composition to itself4 ,! aggregate ( p>ts s =m$ !n diff]5tiates s t ! con/ellation is reproduc$ 9 all its specificity4 ,!re is no?+ precisely simil> to ?is 9 inorganic happ5+4 ,! gr[? ( a cry/al consi/s simply ( ! accretion ( elem5ts simil> 9 nature to ^? ( ! gr[+ body1 & !re is no diff]5tiation4 ,! organism exhibits autonomy4 ,x is a con/ellation :i* p]si/s 9 ! mid/ ( an ev]-*ang+ environm5t1 & ! typical organic =m rema9s ! same1 al?\gh ! mat]ial ( :i* x is compos$ und]goes cont9ual *ange4 ,!re are inorganic entities :i* resemble ! organism 9 ?is respect3 ! =m ( a cyclone or atmosph]ic di/urbance1 = in/ance1 rema9s ! same ev5 ?\gh ! air ( :i* x is compos$ is cont9ually *ang$4 ,b ! =m ( ! organism does n v>y /rictly ) ! *anges 9 ! environm5t 9 :i* x is plac$1 = x may respond to an environm5tal *ange by a regulation1 or comp5satory *ange 9 =m or function+1 ! effect ( :i* is to ma9ta9 ! con/ellation 9 all its specificity4 ,! regulation is n a complete or p]fect "o1 = environm5tal *anges d1 to "s ext5t1 produce *anges 9 ! organic con/ellation1 b !re is no functionality betwe5 ! environm5tal *ange & ! organic response4 ,9 inorganic happ5+ a *ange 9 "o "p ( a trans=m+ sy/em necess>ily det]m9es ! nature & ext5t ( ! *anges t occur 9 ! o!r p>ts ( ! sy/em4 ,! organism is a c5tre ( cont9u\s action4 ,x is fir/ ( all a "p ( nature 9 :i* en]gy-trans=mations cont9ually take place--a description :i* applies equally well to plants & animals4 ,x is only :5 we attempt to seek an inorganic sy/em to :i* ?is def9ition w\ld apply t we f9d h[ well x diff]5tiates ! organic f ! inorganic4 ,an inorganic sy/em :i* trans=ms en]gy is ei!r "o :i* t5ds cont9ually t[>ds /ability1 or x is a ma*9e made by man = a def9ite purpose1 & x is !re=e a sy/em involv+ a teleological idea4 ,an organic c5tre ( action is "o 9 :i* en]gy-trans=mations proce$ )\t cessation4 ,9 ! plant organism ! en]gy-trans=mations repres5t1 ) ! exception ( ! reproductive processes1 ! :ole activity ( ! organism4 ,9 ! animal organism !y are accessory to regulat$ & purposeful motile activity1 t is1 muscul> action4 ,! object ( ?is muscul> activity v>ies ) ! /age ( evolution atta9$ by ! animal4 ,its sole object 9 ! l[] animal is t ( individual or racial pres]vation4 ,liv+ 9 an organic & inorganic environm5t :i* is always ho/ile & t5ds cont9ually t[>ds its de/ruction1 ! :ole activity ( ! organism is direct$ to ! attempt to ma/] ?is environm5t3 x /ruggles = its individual exi/5ce1 & t ( its (fspr+4 ,! activities ( man are also ^!1 b !y are m ?an ^!1 =1 kn[+ t physical processes t5d cont9ually t[>ds in]tia1 he seeks to control ^! processes1 & to pres]ve ! in/ability ( nature on :i* ! possibility ( fur!r becom+ dep5ds4 ,! activity ( ! organism1 :e!r x be ! en]gy-trans=mations ( ! plant or ! motile activities ( ! animal1 are direct$ & regulat$ activities4 ,! activity ( ! organism is n a functional activity 9 ! s5se t ! activity ( a dynamo is a function ( ! nature ( ! ma*9e1 & ( ! nature & quantity ( ! en]gy suppli$ to x4 ,! nature ( ! activity ( ! organism is regulat$ autonom\sly by purposes :i* x 8wills0 to c>ry out4 ,! organism is a phase 9 an evolution>y flux4 ,categories ( organisms--v>ieties1 species1 g5]a1 etc4--are fictions4 ,!y are arbitr>y def9itions design$ to facilitate our description ( nature4 ,!y are types or ideas4 ,9 con/ruct+ !m we foll[ ! me?od ( ! intellect1 & we repres5t by immobility t :i* is ess5tially mobile & fl[s4 ,betwe5 ! f]tilis$ egg & ! s5ile organism !re is absolute cont9uity4 ,our description ( ! individual organism is a description ( x at a typical mom5t ( its life-hi/ory1 & ?is description includes all t has l$ up to1 z well z all t w fall away f1 ! morphology at ?is p>ticul> typical mom5t4 ,ev5 !n ! arbitr>ily def9$ organism is only a phase4 ,9 def9+ x we arre/1 n only ! individual1 b also ! racial1 evolution>y flux4 ,! specific morphology is t ( a typical mom5t 9 a racial flux4 ,lead+ up to x at ?is mom5t are all ! v>iations t h jo9$ x ) its ance/ry1 & lead+ away f x w be all ! v>iations t w conv]t x into its desc5dants4 ,! individual & racial developm5ts are true evolutions4 ,!y are ! unfold+ ( an organisation :i* 0 n express$ 9 a sy/em ( mat]ial p>ticles or elem5ts int]act+ ) ea* o!r1 & ) ! elem5ts ( ! environm5t1 b :i* we mu/ seek 9 an int5sive1 non-spatial manifoldness4 ,9 ! evolution>y flux ! *anges are non-functional ones1 t is to say1 any phase1 :e!r x be "o 9 an individual or a racial developm5t1 is n m]ely a re>rangem5t ( ! elem5ts ( ! prec$+ phases1 z 9 ! case ( a trans=m+ sy/em ( mat]ial p>ticles & en]gies4 ,!re is inh]5t1 spontane\s v>iability4 ,! organism endures4 ,t is1 all its activities p]si/ & become "p ( its organisation4 ,x does n matt] :e!r or n we decide t *>act]s :i* are acquir$ are transmitt$1 nor does x matt] :e!r or n we conclude t ! environm5t is ! cause ( ^! acquirem5ts4 ,"s "t or o!r 9 ! individual or racial hi/ory new *>act]s arise by ! activity ( ! organism itself1 & ^! *>act]s ei!r p]si/ 9 an individual or 9 a race4 ,!y endure4 ,all its activities1 ev5 its ?\ghts1 p]si/ & =m ! exp]i5ce ( ! animal--an exp]i5ce :i* cont9ually modifies its conduct4 ,9 man ^? true acquirem5ts1 ! results ( education & ( inve/igation1 p]si/ z writt5 language1 or z tradition1 ev5 if !y are n inh]it$4 ,duration is n "t4 ,! ma!matician does n employ1 9 8 inve/igations1 int]vals ( duration4 ,:5 he relates some?+ :i* is happ5+ n[ to some?+ :i* happ5$ "s "t ago he employs ! diff]5tial co-effici5t dy_/dx1 s t ! int]val betwe5 ! two occurr5ces becomes an 8inf9itesimal0 "o4 ,:5 ! a/ronom] pr$icts ev5ts t w happ5 "s ye>s h5ce1 or describes ^? t happ5$ "s ye>s ago1 he is really describ+ ?+s t are all !re at once1 s to speak1 ?+s :i* are giv54 ,if we unfold a fan1 /ick by /ick1 we see ! sep>ate memb]s 9 succession1 b !y are all !re1 & we c1 if we l1 see !m all at once4 ,! m we reflect on x ! m we see t ma!matical "t is only a way 9 :i* we see ?+s ap>t f ea* o!r4 ,?+s become ext5d$ 9 "t z !y become ext5d$ 9 space4 ,:e!r occurr5ces capable ( analysis by ! me?ods ( physics are :at we call pa/ or future occurr5ces1 !y are all giv51 9 t ea* ( !m is only a phase ( ! o!rs4 ,duration belongs to ! organism4 ,! pa/ is kn[n because all t has occurr$ to ! organism /ill p]si/s 9 its organisation4 ,! future is unkn[n because x has /ill to be made4 ,duration is !re=e a vector--some?+ hav+ direction1 & ! organism progresses out ( ! pa/ into ! future4 ,x gr[s old] b n y\ng]4 99 99 99 99 99 ,su* appe>s to be ! nature ( life4 ,c we discuss ! problem ( its orig98 ,did life orig9ate on our e>?8 ,we mu/ fir/ consid] :at we mean :5 we speak ( an orig94 ,! organic _w ( ! pres5t mom5t1 ) all its environm5t--t is to say1 ! totality ( organisms on ! e>?1 ) all ! mat]ials :i* !y c utilise 9 any way1 ! en]gy ( radiation f :i* !y ultimately d]ive _! en]gy1 & all ! p>ts ( ! cosmos :i* int]act ) !m--con/itute a sy/em 9 ! physical s5se4 ,! pres5t condition ( ! organic _w1 t is1 ! k9ds & numb]s ( organisms1 & _! di/ribution1 & ! di/ribution ( ! mat]ials :i* !y c utilise1 & ! quantity & nature ( ! en]gy :i* is available to !m1 are ! pres5t phase ( ?is sy/em4 ,all ! conditions ( life 9 ! pa/1 t is to say1 ! k9ds1 & numb]s1 & di/ribution ( organisms1 & ! quantity & nature ( _! environm5t at any "t1 toge!r =m$ phases ( ?is sy/em4 ,if !re 0 a "t :5 life1 z we "k x1 did n exi/1 !n ! mat]ials & ! en]gies1 :i* 7 antec$5t to life :5 x did appe>1 7 also a phase ( ! sy/em4 ,on a /rictly me*ani/ic hypo!sis !re c\ld be no orig93 !re c\ld only be a trans=mation ( a sy/em :i* 0 already 9 exi/5ce4 ,all t exi/s to-day 0 giv5 !n4 ,:51 !re=e1 we speak ( ! orig9 ( life f non-liv+ mat]ials we mean simply a trans=mation ( ^? mat]ials & en]gies4 ,!re 0 a "t1 x is said1 :5 life c\ld n exi/ on ! e>?4 ,= ! organism is ess5tially t aggregate ( *emical comp\nds :i* we call protoplasm1 & ?is _c exi/ at temp]atures high] ?an #ajj ,c41 & x _c function at temp]atures l[] ?an #j ,c4 ,x requires c>bon dioxide1 & ammonia or nitrate1 z ! mat]ials = its con/ructive metabolism1 & !re 0 a "t :5 ^! comp\nds c\ld n exi/1 = !y mu/ h be5 dissociat$ by ! heat ( ! gase\s nebula f :i* our e>? orig9at$4 ,! organism requires en]gy 9 ! =m ( sol> radiation ( a p>ticul> frequ5cy ( vibration1 & !re 0 a "t :5 ! sun's radiation 0 diff]5t f :at x is n[4 ,!re=e life did n exi/ !n4 ,ev5 if we believe t life came to ! e>? z g]ms1 :i* exi/$ previ\sly 9 out] cosmic space1 ?is belief does n solve ! problem1 :i* simply becomes transf]r$ f our e>? to "s o!r cosmic body4 ,b life1 z we "k x1 makes use ( ! mat]ials & ! en]gies :i* are available to x 9 ! conditions 9 :i* x exi/s4 ,! plant organism obta9s its en]gy f sol> radiation because ?is is ! mo/ abundant s\rce ( t]re/rial en]gy4 ,! human eye is mo/ susceptible to light ( a p>ticul> frequ5cy ( wave-l5g?1 b ?is is ! radiation t is mo/ abundant 9 ! light ( ! sun4 ,does ?is n mean t ! organism has m]ely adapt$ itself to ! mat]ial & en]getic conditions 9 :i* x exi/s8 ,does x necess>ily mean t because ! conditions 7 v diff]5t life c\ld n exi/8 ,protoplasm c\ld n exi/ at a temp]ature ( sev]al ?\s& degrees ,c5tigrade1 b does t mean t life1 :i* on any hypo!sis ( me*anism mu/ be describ$ 9 t]ms ( en]gy1 c\ld n exi/ 9 ^! conditions8 ,x mu/ h _h an orig91 says ,weismann1 because x has an end4 ,organic ?+s are de/roy$1 inasmu* z !y dis9tegrate into inorganic ?+s4 ,organisms die4 ,?us ! organic process comes to an end1 & because x comes to an end x mu/ h a beg9n+4 ,spontane\s g5]ation ( life is ?us1 = ,weismann1 a 8logical necessity40 ,ne$ ?is logical necessity exi/8 ,! argum5t cle>ly implies t life is a rev]sible process4 ,organic ?+s become inorganic1 & !re=e inorganic ?+s mu/ become organic ?+s4 ,! fir/ /atem5t is a fact ( our exp]i5ce1 b ! second "o w\ld only be logically true if we 7 to po/ulate t ! process ( life1 :atev] x may be1 is a rev]sible process4 ,b we mu/ n po/ulate ?is if we are to hold to a physico-*emical me*anism1 = x is a fundam5tal result ( physical inve/igation t all inorganic processes are irrev]sible3 rev]sible inorganic processes are only ! limits to irrev]sible ones4 ,physical processes g only 9 "o way1 & t organic sub/ance is de/roy$ to ! ext5t t x becomes inorganic is a p>ticul> case ( ?is irrev]sible physical t5d5cy4 ,n[ ! me*anism ( ,weismann mu/ base itself on ! concepts ( physics & *emi/ry1 & x mu/ po/ulate ! orig9 ( life f non-liv+ sub/ances4 ,:y8 ,because life is a rev]sible process1 t is1 x exhibits a t5d5cy :i* does n exi/ 9 inorganic processes4 ,cle>ly ! logic is faulty6 ,& mu/ we conclude t life has an end8 ,weismann himself sugge/s t no?+ 9 ! results ( biology indicates t physical dea? is a necessity3 x is r an adaptation4 ,! soma1 or body1 is ! envelope ( ! g]m-plasm1 & expos$ z x is to ! vicissitudes ( an environm5t :i* is always ho/ile1 x becomes at l5g? an unfit envelope4 ,b ) ! reproductive act ! g]m-plasm acquires a new soma1 & x is no long] necess>y t ! =m] "o %\ld cont9ue to exi/ z an unfit envelope4 ,physical dea? !re=e occurs z an adaptation s]v+ = ! be/ int]e/s ( ! race4 ,! organism ne$ n die1 = ! g]m-plasm may be a physical cont9uum ?r\gh\t innum]able g5]ations4 ,somatic dea? is only a de/ructive metabolism3 x is a cata/rophic metabolism1 if we l4 ,we may legitimately discuss su* problems z ! orig9 ( ! protoplasm ( ! prototrophic organism1 or t ( ! *lorophyll-conta9+ cell1 or t ( ! n]ve-cell4 ,on ! me*ani/ic view ea* ( ^! conditions is a phase ( a trans=m+ physico-*emical sy/em1 & x is )9 ! scope ( ! me?ods ( physical sci5ce to inve/igate ! nature ( ^! trans=mations4 ,b if ! argum5t ( ?is book is s\nd1 !n ! problem ( ! orig9 ( life1 z x is usually /at$1 is only a pseudo-problem2 we may z usefully discuss ! orig9 ( ! second law ( !rmo-dynamics6 ,if life is n only en]gy b also ! direction & co-ord9ation ( en]gies2 if x is a t5d5cy ( ! same ord]1 b ( a diff]5t direction1 f ! t5d5cy ( inorganic processes1 all t biology c usefully d is to inquire into ! mann] 9 :i* ?is t5d5cy is manife/$ 9 mat]ial ?+s & en]gy-trans=mations4 ,b ! t5d5cy itself is some?+ elem5tal4 ,,app5dix ,,ma!matical ,,& ,,physical ,,notions#ce #ce ,x mu/ be und]/ood t "s ( ! ?+s dealt ) 9 ^! app5dices are v h>d to und]/& by ! read] acqua9t$ only ) ! results ( biological sci5ce4 ,we urge1 h[ev]1 t !y are all relevant if biological results are to be employ$ speculatively4 ,,inf9ity ,:at is really meant :5 ! ma!matician uses ! concept ( inf9ity 9 8 op]ations8 ,suppose t we take a l9e ( f9ite l5g? & divide x into halves1 & !n divide ea* half into halves1 & s on ad inf9itum4 ,we make cuts 9 ! l9e1 & ^! cuts h no magnitude1 s t ! sum ( ! l5g?s into :i* we divide ! l9e is equal to ! l5g? ( ! undivid$ l9e4 ,we c divide ! l9e into z _m p>ts z we *oose1 t is1 into an 8inf9ite0 numb] ( p>ts4 ,suppose t we are mak+ a ?+ :i* is to mat* ano!r ?+1 & suppose t we c make ! ?+ z great z we *oose4 ,if1 !n1 no matt] h[ great we make ! ?+1 x is /ill too small1 ! ?+ t we are try+ to mat* is inf9itely great4 ,sub/itute 8small0 = 8great10 & ?is is also a def9ition ( ! inf9itely small4 ,cle>ly ! idea ( inf9ity does n reside 9 ! results ( an op]ation1 b 9 its t5d5cy4 ,x inh]es 9 our intuition ( /riv+ t[>ds some?+1 b n 9 ! results ( our /riv+4 ,,functionality ,if we p\r "s m]cury into a ,u-tube clos$ at "o end1 ! air 9 ?is end w be conta9$ 9 a clos$ vessel "u pressure4 ,we c increase ! pressure by p\r+ m m]cury into ! op5 end ( ! tube4 ,we c measure ! volume ( ! air by measur+ ! l5g? ( ! tube :i* x occupies4 ,we c measure ! pressure on ?is air by measur+ ! diff]5ce ( l5g? ( ! m]cury 9 ! two limbs ( ! tube4 ,by tak+ all necess>y precautions we %all f9d t = ea* value :i* ! pressure atta9s !re is a correspond+ value ( ! volume ( ! air4 ,we ?us f9d ! pressure values1 p#a1 p#b1 p#c1 p#d1 p#e1 etc41 & ! correspond+ volumes1 v#a1 v#b1 v#c1 v#d1 v#e1 etc41 & we may !n plot ^! values s z to make a graph4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,9 ?is figure ! values repres5t$ along ! horizontal axis are pressure-values1 & ^? repres5t$ along ! v]tical axis are volume-values4 ,we h s made ! exp]im5t t we c make ! pressure-values :atev] we *oose--let u call !m ! values ( ! indep5d5t v>iable or argum5t4 ,= ea* value ( ! pressure1 or argum5t1 !re is a correspond+ value ( ! volume1 :i* dep5ds on ! pressure--let u call ^! values ( ! volume values ( ! dep5d5t v>iable or function4 ,we c make arbitr>y values ( ! pressure1 b :5ev] we d ?is ! correspond+ values ( ! volume are fix$4 ,we say1 !n1 t ! volume is a function ( ! pressure4 ,9 g5]al1 :5 we *oose "o value ( an indep5d5t v>iable1 or argum5t1 !re c be only "o1 or a small numb]1 ( values ( ! dep5d5t v>iable1 or function4 ,if !re are two or m values ( ! function = "o value ( ! argum5t ea* ( ^! is necess>ily det]m9$ by ! value :i* we *oose to assign to ! argum5t4 ,!re is a /rict functionality betwe5 ! two s]ies ( v>iables4 ,9 ! exp]im5t we h *os5 ?is functionality is express$ by ! equation pv k7#a at71 :]e p is ! pressure1 v ! volume1 k & a con/ants1 & t is ! temp]ature at :i* ! exp]im5t is c>ri$ out4 ,9 a numb] ( exp]im5ts l t :i* we h m5tion$1 k1 a1 & t are ! same ?r\gh\t1 & ?is is :y we call !m con/ants4 ,we give p any value we l1 & !n v c be calculat$ f ! equation4 ,,rate ,,( ,,v>iation ,if we "k ! equation pv k7#a at71 we c f9d h[ mu* ! volume *anges :5 ! pressure *anges1 t is1 ! rate ( v>iation ( v ) respect to p4 ,b ev5 if we don't "k t ?is equation applies1 we c /ill f9d ! rate ( v>iation f our exp]im5ts4 ,we see f ! graph t1 :5 ! pressure increases f p#a to p#b1 ! volume decreases f v#a to v#b b t if ! pressure is aga9 increas$ to p#c1 t is1 by a simil> am\nt to ! increase ( pressure f p#a to p#b1 ! volume decreases f v#b to v#c4 ,n[ we f9d1 by measurem5ts made on ! graph1 t ! decrease v#a to v#b is great] ?an ! decrease v#b to v#c1 & ! latt] decrease is great] aga9 ?an ! decrease f v#c to v#d4 ,evid5tly ! rate ( v>iation ( volume is n l ! rate ( v>iation ( pressure1 t is1 ! same ?r\gh\t1 & :5 we look at ! graph we see t ! rate ( v>iation is greate/ :]e ! slope ( ! curve is /eepe/4 ,! latt] is /eepe/ ne> ! po9t a1 less /eep ne> ! po9t b1 & /ill less /eep ne> ! po9t c4 ,n[ any small "p ( ! curve is indi/+ui%able f a /raight l9e4 ,let u draw a /raight l9e ee#a1 :i* appe>s to co9cide ) a small "p ( ! curve ne> a1 & simil> /raight l9es ff#a1 & gg#a1 :i* also appe> to co9cide ) small p>ts ( ! curve ne> b & c4 ,!n ! /eepness ( ! curve w be proportional to ! angles :i* ^! /raight l9es make ) ! axis op1 & ^! angles are measur$ by _! tang5ts1 t is1 by ! ratio oe#a_/oe1 :i* is ! tang5t t e#a;e makes ) op1 ! ratio (#a_/(1 & ! ratio og#a_/og4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,! po9t a on ! curve corresponds ) a pressure a#a & a volume a#aa4 ,! po9t b corresponds ) a pressure b#a & a volume b#aa1 & c ) a pressure c#a & a volume c#aa4 ,! av]age rate ( v>iation ( ! volume ( ! gas1 z ! pressure *anges f a to c1 is !re=e proportional to ! sum ( ! tang5ts oe#a_/oe & og#a_/og1 divid$ by #b4 ,,! ,,notion ,,( ,,! ,,limit ,suppose t we wi% to f9d ! rate ( v>iation ( volume = a pressure *ange 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( ! value b#a1 t is1 ! rate ( v>iation z ! pressure *anges f a little less ?an b#a to a little m ?an b#a4 ,if we f9d ! po9t b on ! curve correspond+ to b#a1 & if we !n draw a l9e ff#a1 t\*+ ! curve at ! po9t b1 we %all obta9 ! angle (f#a4 ,x might appe> n[ t ! tang5t ( ?is angle1 t is1 ! ratio (#a_/(1 w\ld give u a measure ( ! rate ( v>iation ( volume4 ,b ! reason+ w\ld be faulty4 ,! l9e ff#a only t\*es ! curve1 x does n co9cide ) an elem5t ( ! curve4 ,also at ! po9t b#a ! pressure has a c]ta9 def9ite value1 & !re is no *ange4 ,at ! correspond+ po9t b#aa ! volume also has a c]ta9 def9ite value1 & !re is no *ange4 ,!re c !re=e be no rate ( v>iation4 ,! value ( ! tang5t does n give u a measure ( ! rate ( v>iation3 x gives u ! limit to ! rate ( v>iation1 :5 ! pressure is *ang+ 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( b#a4 ,we mu/ /ick to ! notion ( a pressure *ange 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( b#a4 ,:at d we mean by 8imm$iate vic9ity08 ,we mean t we are ?9k+ ( a range ( pressure-values 9 :i* ! p>ticul> pressure-value b#a is conta9$1 b n z an end-po9t4 ,we mean also t we *oose a def9ite /&>d ( approximation to ! value b#a1 s t any pressure-value )9 our int]val diff]s f b#a by less ?an ?is /&>d ( approximation4 ,x means fur!r t1 no matt] h[ small is ! numb] repres5t+ ?is /&>d ( approximation1 any pressure-value )9 ! int]val w diff] f b#a by less ?an ?is numb]4 ,?is is :at we really mean :5 we say t ! int]val we are ?9k+ ab\t is an 8inf9itely small "o40 ,n[ correspond+ to ?is int]val ( pressure-values 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( b#a1 !re w be an int]val ( volume-values 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( b#aa1 &1 z be=e1 any "o ( ^! volume-values w diff] f b#aa by less ?an any numb] repres5t+ a /&>d ( approximation to b#aa4 ,we !n f9d ! po9t on ! curve correspond+ to bo? b#a & b#aa1 t is b1 & we draw ! l9e ff#a1 & f9d ! tang5t ( ! angle :i* ?is l9e makes ) op4 ,! value ( ?is tang5t is ! limit ( ! rate ( v>iation ( ! volume ( ! gas :5 ! pressure und]goes a *ange 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( b#a4 8,rate ( v>iation0 is a function ( ! argum5t 8pressure40 ,?is function has ! limit l = a value ( its argum5t b#a1 :51 z ! argum5t v>ies 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( b#a1 ! value ( ! function approximates to l )9 any /&>d :atev] ( approximation4#cf #cf ,if ! read] does n und]/& ?is1 he %\ld read ,:itehead's 8,introduction to ,ma!matics40 ,he %\ld read ?is book 9 any case4 ,we %\ld n1 ( c\rse1 f9d ! rate ( v>iation ( volume ( ! gas by ?is means4 ,we %\ld calculate ! value ( ! diff]5tial co-effici5t dv_/dp f ! equation pv k7#a at73 ?is w\ld be k 7#a at7_/p#b4 ,b ! reason+ involv$ 9 ! me?ods ( ! calculus are ^? :i* we h attempt$ to outl9e4 ,we try to avoid ! t]ms 8inf9itely small10 8inf9itely ne>10 8inf9itely small quantities10 & s on1 by ! device ( /&>ds ( approximation4 ,x may appe> to ! non-ma!matical read] t all ?is is r to be reg>d$ z 8quibbl+10 b ! success ( ! me?ods ( ma!matical physics %\ld conv9ce him t su* is n ! case4 ,he %\ld also reflect t cle> & def9ite ideas on ! fundam5tal concepts ( ! sci5ce are j z necess>y 9 speculative biology z !y are 9 ma!matics4 7,ano!r example47 ,let u consid] ! case ( a /one fail+ f a /ate ( re/4 ,obs]vations w %[ t :5 ! /one has fall5 = "o second x has trav]s$ a space ( #af feet2 at ! end ( two seconds x has fall5 ?r\gh #fd feet2 & at ! end ( ?ree seconds ! space trav]s$ is #add feet4 ,f ^! & simil> data we c d$uce ! velocity ( motion ( ! /one z x passes any po9t 9 its pa?4 ,! velocity is ! space trav]s$ 9 a c]ta9 "t s_/t4 ,if we take any easily obs]vable space 7say five feet7 on ei!r side ( ! po9t *os51 & !n det]m9e ! times :5 ! /one 0 at ! extremities ( ?is int]val1 & divide ! int]val ( space by ! int]val ( "t1 we %all obta9 ! av]age velocity ( motion ( ! /one ov] ?is fraction ( ! :ole pa? *os54 ,b ! velocity did n v>y 9 a con/ant mann] dur+ ?is int]val 7z we see by consid]+ ! spaces trav]s$ dur+ ! fir/ ?ree seconds ( ! fall74 ,!re=e our av]age velocity does n accurately repres5t ! velocity ( ! /one z x passes ! po9t at ! middle ( ! pa? *os54 ,we !re=e r$uce ! l5g? ( ! pa? m & m s z to make ! av]age velocity approximate clos] & clos] to ! velocity ne> ! middle portion ( ! pa?4 ,9 ?is way we f9d ! ratio s_/t1 :]e s is a v small int]val ( pa? conta9+ ! po9t *os51 b n z an end-po9t1 & t is a v small int]val ( "t4 ,p]haps ?is av]age velocity may be ne> en\gh = our purposes1 b p]haps x may n4 ,! int]val ( pa? s is /ill a f9ite int]val1 & t is /ill a f9ite "t1 & s long z ^! values are f9ite ones ! velocity d$uc$ f !m rema9s a mean "o4 ,all t we c say is t x approximates to ! velocity1 z ! arbitr>y po9t 0 pass$1 )9 a c]ta9 /&>d ( approximation4 ,obvi\sly ! small] ! int]val s1 ! clos] w be ?is approximation4 ,suppose1 !n1 t we dim9i% s till x 8becomes z]o40 ,x might appe> n[ t :5 s co9cides ) ! po9t *os5 we %all obta9 ! velocity ( ! /one at ?is po9t4 ,b if !re is no int]val ( pa?1 & no int]val ( "t1 !re c be no velocity1 :i* is an int]val ( pa? divid$ by an int]val ( "t2 & if ! /one is 8at ! po9t10 x does n move at all4 ,we mu/ /ick to ! idea ( int]vals ( space & "t1 & yet we mu/ ?9k ( ^! int]vals z be+ s small t no error :atev] is involv$ 9 reg>d+ ! mean velocity d$uc$ f !m z ! 8true velocity40 ,we !re=e ?9k ( ! po9t z be+ plac$ 9 an int]val ( pa?1 b n at an end-po9t ( ?is int]val4 ,we ?9k ( ! velocity z a mean "o1 b we mu/ h a /&>d ( approximation1 s t we may be able to say t ! mean velocity approximates to ! 8actual0 or limit+ velocity ( ! /one z x passes ! po9t1 )9 ?is /&>d ( approximation4 ,! small] we make ! int]val1 ! clos] w ! mean velocity approximate to ! limit+ velocity4 ,we !re=e ?9k ( ! /one z mov+ 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( ! po9t 9 ! s5se already discuss$4 ,we say t ! 8imm$iate vic9ity0 is an int]val su* t any po9t 9 x1 p#a1 approximates to ! arbitr>y po9t p :i* we are consid]+ )9 any /&>d ( approximation3 t is1 no po9t 9 ! int]val is fur!r away f p ?an a c]ta9 numb] express+ ! /&>d ( approximation1 & ?is c be any numb]1 h[ev] small4 ,we say ! same ?+ ab\t ! int]val ( "t4 ,t is to say1 we make ! int]vals z small z we l3 !y c be small] ?an any int]val :i* w cause an error 9 our d$uc$ velocity1 no matt] h[ small ?is error may be4 ,! limit ( ! velocity ( a /one fall+ pa/ a po9t 9 its pa? is1 !re=e1 t velocity t[>ds :i* ! mean velocities approximate )9 any /&>d ( approximation1 :5 we reg>d ! int]val ( space z be+ ! imm$iate vic9ity ( ! po9t1 & ! int]val ( "t z be+ ! "t 9 ! imm$iate vic9ity ( ! mom5t :5 ! /one passes ! po9t4 ,! limit ( ! velocity is n s_/t b ds_/dt1 dt & ds be+1 n f9ite int]vals ( "t & space1 b 8diff]5tials40 ,we det]m9e ?is limit by ! me?ods ( ! diff]5tial calculus4 ,,frequ5cy ,,di/ributions ,,& ,,probability ,let ! read] keep a note ( ! numb] ( trumps held by himself & p>tn] 9 a l>ge numb] ( games ( :i/ 7! c>ds be+ cut = trump74 ,9 #bjj h&s he may get su* results z ! foll[+3 ,no4 ( trumps 9 8 own & p>tn]'s h&s--#j1 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 #ac4 ,no4 ( times ?is h& 0 held--#j1 #j1 #j1 #a1 #i1 #bi1 #ec1 #eb1 #ce1 #ad1 #f1 #a1 #j1 #j4 ,he %\ld note also ! numb] ( times t trumps 7 spades1 clubs1 diamonds1 & he>ts3 he w get "s su* results z ! foll[+3 spades1 #df2 clubs1 #ec2 diamonds1 #ea2 he>ts1 #ej4 ,! numb]s 9 ! l[] l9e ( ! fir/ s]ies =m a 8frequ5cy di/ribution10 = !y tell u ! frequ5cy ( occurr5ce ( ! h&s indicat$ 9 ! numb]s above !m4 8,no4 ( trumps0 is ! indep5d5t v>iable1 & 8no4 ( times ^! nos4 ( trumps 7 held0 is ! dep5d5t v>iable4 ,a frequ5cy di/ribution repres5ts ! way 9 :i* ! results ( a s]ies ( exp]im5ts diff] f ! mean result4 ,a p>ticul> result is expect$ f ! op]ation ( "o1 or a few1 ma9 causes4 ,b a numb] ( o!r relatively unimportant causes lead to ! deviation ( a numb] ( results f ?is mean or *>act]i/ic "o4 ,yet s9ce "o1 or a few1 ma9 causes are pr$om9ant1 ! majority ( ! results ( ! exp]im5t w approximate closely to ! mean2 & a relatively small proportion w deviate to v>iable di/ances on ei!r side ( ! mean4 ,if a pack ( c>ds 7 %uffl$ s t all ! suits 7 ?or\ghly mix$ among ea* o!r1 !n we %\ld expect ! trumps to be z equally divid$ z possible betwe5 ! f\r play]s4 ,b a numb] ( causes lead to irregul>ities 9 ?is desir$ uni=m di/ribution1 & s ! results ( a l>ge numb] ( deals deviate f ! mean result4 ,x is possible1 by an application ( ! !ory ( probability1 to calculate ideal1 or !oretical frequ5cy di/ributions1 bas+ our reason+ on ! consid]ations sugge/$ above4 ,we !n f9d t ! obs]v$ & calculat$ frequ5cy di/ributions may be v mu* alike4 ,9 biological inve/igation1 f> m ?an 9 physical inve/igation1 we deal ) mean results4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 j z important t ! mean %\ld be consid]$ z ! individual div]g5ces f ! mean4 ,we want to "k ! mean results1 & ! way & ! ext5t 9 :i* ! individual results div]ge f ! mean4 ,!re is a mean or 8ideal0 result1 b we mu/ ?9k ( a great numb] ( small indep5d5t causes :i* cause ! actually obta9$ results to div]ge f ?is mean4 ,if ^! small un-co-ord9at$ causes are j z likely to cause ! results to be less ?an ! mean1 z great] ?an ! mean1 we %all obta9 a frequ5cy di/ribution resembl+ ! "o giv5 above1 9 t ! v>iations f ! mean are equal on bo? sides ( ! mean4 ,b if ! g5]al t5d5cy ( ! small un-co-ord9at$ causes is to cause ! results1 on ! :ole1 to t5d to be great] ?an ! mean1 !n ! frequ5cy di/ribution w be 8"o-sid$10 t is1 if we repres5t x by a curve ! latt] w be an asymmetrical "o4 ,curves :i* are asymmetrical are ^? mo/ frequ5tly obta9$ 9 biological1 /ati/ical inve/igations4 ,,matt] ,our g5]alis$ notion ( matt] is t x is ! physical sub/ance und]ly+ ph5om5a4 ,imm$iately1 or intuitively1 we atta9 ! notion ( matt] because ( our p]ceptions ( t\*1 & our p]ception ( muscul> ex]tion4 ,! di/ance s5se-receptors1 visual1 auditory1 & olfactory1 w\ld n give u ?is intuition ( matt]4 ,mat]ial ?+s are ext5d$1 t is1 !y h =m1 & !y exclude ea* o!r1 s t !y _c occupy ! same place4 ,!y appe> to u to be aggregates ( diff]5t nature3 !y may be solid & homog5e\s1 l a piece ( metal2 or solid & por\s1 l a piece ( pumice-/one2 or loose & granul>1 l s&2 or visc\s or liquid1 l pit* or wat]4 ,!y may h col\r4 ,!y are opaque1 or transp>5t 9 v>i\s degrees4 ,!y may h od\r4 ,mat]ial ?+s1 z !y are p]ceiv$ by ! di/ance s5se-receptors1 appe> to h qualities4 ,mat]ial ?+s are aggregates ( molecules4 ,! aggregates may possess ess5tial =m1 l t ( a cry/al1 or an organism4 ,! =m ( ! aggregate may be ess5tial & homog5e\s1 s t x consi/s ( molecules1 all ( :i* are ( ! same k9d1 l a cry/al4 ,x may be het]og5e\s & ess5tial1 l ! body ( ! organism1 :5 x consi/s ( molecules :i* are n all ( ! same k9d4 ,! aggregates may h accid5tal =m1 l t ( a riv] valley1 or a delta1 or a m\nta91 & ! =m 9 ^!1 & simil> cases1 is n a "p ( ! ess5tial nature ( ! aggregate4 ,! molecules are selections 79 ! ma!matical s5se7 ( "s ( ab\t eighty diff]5t k9ds ( atoms4 ,a molecule is a small numb] ( atoms arrang$ toge!r 9 a def9ite way1 & its nature dep5ds1 n only on ! k9ds ( atoms ( :i* x is compos$1 b also on ! arrangem5t ( ^! atoms4 ,two or m diff]5t arrangem5ts ( ! same atoms are1 9 g5]al1 diff]5t molecules4 ,,mass ,:5 matt] is p]ceiv$ by ! tactile & muscul> s5se organs1 we h ! intuition ( mass4 ,x is heavy1 & ! degree ( heav9ess is proportional to ! quantity ( matt] 9 ! body :i* we feel1 t is1 to its mass4 ,heav9ess is synonym\s ) weight1 b weight does n dep5d alone on ! quantity ( matt] 9 ! body4 ,if ! latt] 7 remov$ to an inf9ite di/ance f ! e>? or o!r cosmic bodies1 its weight w\ld disappe>1 b its mass w\ld rema94 ,we c\ld /ill t\* & move x1 & we %\ld /ill f9d t diff]5t degrees ( muscul> ex]tion w\ld be necess>y :5 bodies ( diff]5t masses _h to be mov$4 ,,in]tia ,if ! body 7 9 motion1 we %\ld f9d t muscul> ex]tion is necess>y 9 ord] t x might be br\ght to re/2 & if x 7 at re/1 we %\ld f9d t muscul> ex]tion 0 necess>y 9 ord] t x might be mov$4 ,! body1 matt] 9 g5]al1 possesses in]tia1 & ?is is its mo/ fundam5tal attribute4 ,mass we c only conceive 9 t]ms ( in]tia4 ,if two bodies 7 at re/1 & if ! same degree ( muscul> ex]tion conf]r$ on ea* ! same initial velocity ( motion1 _! masses w\ld be equal4 ,if ! same degree ( muscul> ex]tion conf]r$ diff]5t velocities on diff]5t bodies1 _! masses w\ld be diff]5t1 & w\ld v>y directly ) ! initial velocities conf]r$4 ,,=ce ,! feel+ :i* we exp]i5ce :5 we move a body f a /ate ( re/1 or /op a body :i* is mov+1 is :at we call =ce4 ,if on climb+ a /air 9 ! d>k we ?9k !re is "o /ep m ?an !re is1 & s h ! que]1 famili>1 feel+ ( tread+ on no?+1 we h ! intuition ( en]gy2 b :5 we tread on ! /eps1 & s raise our body1 we h ! intuition ( =ce4 ,=ce is t :i* accel]ates ! velocity ( a mass4 ,if ! latt] is at re/1 we consid] x to h z]o velocity4 ,if x is mov+1 & we /op x1 !re is /ill accel]ation1 b ?is is negative4 ,matt]1 t is1 ! sub/antia physica1 is cle>ly to be conceiv$ only 9 t]ms ( en]gy4 ,x is1 to our direct intuitions1 resi/ance1 or in]tia1 t :i* requires en]gy 9 ord] t x may be made to und]go *ange4 ,our /atic idea ( physical solidity1 or massiv5ess1 disappe>s on ultimate analysis4 ,molecules are made up ( atoms1 & ! atoms are assum$ to h all ! *>act]s ( matt]3 we c\ld n see !m1 ( c\rse1 ev5 if we possess$ all ! magnify+ p[] t we wi%$1 = !y w\ld be too small to reflect light4 ,mod]n physical !ory is compell$ to reg>d atoms z complex1 & imag9es !m z be+ compos$ ( mov+ electrons4 ,! electron is immat]ial--x is ! unit-*>ge ( electricity4 ,x is said to possess mass1 b mass is n[ und]/ood to mean in]tia4 ,s long z ! electron is mov+1 x sets up a field ( en]gy r\nd x1 & ?is field--! electro-magnetic "o--ext5ds 9 all directions4 ,p]iodic di/urbances 9 x con/itute radiation1 & ?is radiation travels ) ! velocity ( light4 ,x is because ( ! exi/5ce ( ?is field t we are oblig$ to po/ulate ! exi/5ce ( an e!r ( space4 ,unfamili> to u until ! discov]y ( ,h]tzian waves & 8wireless0 telegraphy1 ?is electro-magnetic radiation 9 space is n[ accessible to our direct intuitions4 ,we c initiate x by sett+ electrons 9 motion1 t is1 by exp5d+ en]gy 7produc+ ! sp>k+ 9 ! transmitt]s ( ! wireless telegraphy app>atus72 & we c /op x1 if x is 9 exi/5ce1 by absorb+ ! en]gy 79 ! receiv]s ( ! wireless telegraphy app>atus74 ,?is is ess5tially :at we und]/& by ! in]tia ( gross matt]4 ,we set a body 9 motion by exp5d+ en]gy on x 7! explosion ( ! p[d] 9 a c>tridge1 :i* conv]ts pot5tial *emical en]gy into ! k9etic en]gy ( ! mov+ projectile72 & we c /op a body :i* is 9 motion by absorb+ ?is en]gy ( motion 7by caus+ ! projectile to /rike aga9/ a t>get1 :5 ! k9etic en]gy ( its motion becomes ! k9etic en]gy ( ! heat ( ! arre/$ body74 ,in]tia is !re=e ! same ?+ :e!r x be ! in]tia ( visible1 mat]ial bodies1 or ! in]tia ( invisible1 mat]ial molecules1 or ! in]tia ( ! immat]ial1 non-tangible e!r4 ,x is ! condition t en]gy-*anges mu/ occur if any?+ accessible to our obs]vation is to *ange its /ate ( re/ or motion4 ,,en]gy ,en]gy is !re=e indef9able4 ,x is an elem5tal aspect ( our exp]i5ce4 ,nature to u is an aggregate ( p>ticles 9 motion4 ,we h to speak ( massive p>ticles1 :e!r we call ^! visible mat]ial bodies1 or molecules1 or atoms1 or electrons1 9 ord] t we may describe nature4 ,we mu/ employ ! fiction ( a sub/antia physica4 ,we only "k ! sub/ance or matt] 9 t]ms ( en]gy2 x is really ! latt] t is kn[n to u4 ,x is ! pov]ty ( our language1 or r x is ! legacy ( a mat]iali/ic age1 t compels u to speak ( p>ticles t move1 r ?an ( motions z entities 9 !mselves4 ,consid]+1 !n1 ! idea ( p>ticles 9 motion z a fiction necess>y = cle> description1 we c /udy en]gy4 ,!re is only "o k9d1 or =m1 ( en]gy :i* pres5ts itself to our aid$ or unaid$ intuitions1 t is k9etic en]gy4 ,bodies t move possess ?is en]gy repres5t$ by _! motion3 !y c be made to d "w1 t is1 _! en]gy c be trans=m$ into o!r =ms ( en]gy4 ,all ?+s are 9 motion4 ,a gas consi/s ( molecules incessantly mov+ ) high velocity1 & collid+ & reb\nd+ f ea* o!r4 ,! en]gy ( a gas is ! sum ( "o-half ( ! masses ( all ! molecules1 multipli$ by ! squ>es ( ! velocities ( all ! molecules1 t is1 #a_/bmv#b4 ,?is is also ! k9etic en]gy ( a projectile1 or ( a planet revolv+ r\nd ! sun4 ,k9etic en]gy is t ( ! uni=m1 un*ang+ motion ( "s entity possess+ mass1 b we mu/ ext5d our notion ( mass s z to include immat]ial1 impond]able entities su* z electrons4 ,?is en]gy _c be de/roy$ or creat$--! law ( cons]vation ( en]gy4 ,?is is a pr9ciple or mode ( our ?\ght4 ,we are unable sci5tifically or philosophically to ?9k ( an entity ceas+ to be4 ,dreams & phantoms %[ u entities :i* are real :ile !y la/1 b :i* cease to exi/4 ,if we d attempt to ?9k ( entities t appe> f1 or disappe> into1 no?+1 we surr5d] ! notion ( reality4 ,! m we ?9k ( x ! m cle>ly we %all see t ! ?+s :i* we call real are ! ?+s :i* are cons]v$4 ,yet en]gy1 to our imm$iate intuitions1 seems to disappe>4 ,a fly+ bullet /rikes aga9/ a t>get & becomes flatt5$ out into a motionless piece ( lead4 ,a r$-hot piece ( iron cools d[n to ! temp]ature ( its surr\nd+s4 ,a golf-ball driv5 up ! side ( a hill comes to re/ 9 ! grass4 ,a curr5t ( electricity pass+ ?r\gh wat] is us$ up1 t is1 electricity ( a high] pot5tial is requir$ to =ce ! curr5t ?r\gh wat] ?an to =ce x ?r\gh ?ick copp] wire4 ,9 all ^! cases we might ?9k t en]gy is lo/1 b we _c believe ?is4 ,! k9etic en]gy ( ! fly+ bullet becomes trans=m$ into ! increase ( ! k9etic en]gy ( ! molecules ( ! metal ( :i* ! bullet 0 compos$2 = ! latt] becomes greatly heat$ :5 its flight is arre/$ & ?is increas$ heat ought to be equal to ! k9etic en]gy ( ! bullet 9 flight4 ,! r$-hot piece ( iron cools1 & ! k9etic en]gy ( its molecules becomes less & less1 b ?is does n cease to exi/1 = ! en]gy is simply transf]r$ by radiation & conduction to ! surr\nd+ bodies1 ! temp]ature ( :i* x raises4 ,! golf-ball driv5 up ! hill comes to re/ & loses its k9etic en]gy4 ,"s ( ?is has be5 transf]r$ to ! air ?r\gh :i* x passes1 ! latt] be+ heat$ v slightly2 "s ( x is exp5d$ by friction ) ! grass ov] :i* ! ball rolls be=e com+ to re/1 & ?is en]gy is traceable 9 heat-effects1 or 9 me*anical effects1 b ! re/ ( x app>5tly ceases to exi/4 ,b ?is w\ld be contradictory to ! pr9ciple ( cons]vation1 & s we say t ! lo/ k9etic en]gy has become pot5tial4 ,! curr5t ( electricity may heat ! wat] ?r\gh :i* x passes1 & "s ( ! en]gy :i* seems to disappe> is s to be trac$1 b ! great] fraction is app>5tly lo/4 ,a quantity ( free hydrog5 & oxyg5 is1 h[ev]1 g5]at$1 & we say t ! k9etic en]gy ( ! mov+ electrons has become trans=m$ into ! pot5tial *emical en]gy ( ! gase\s mixture4 ,,pot5tial ,,en]gy ,!re=e1 if en]gy disappe>s or appe>s1 we d n say t x is de/roy$ or is creat$3 we inv5t pot5tial en]gies1 into :i* we suppose t ! en]gies 9 "q h become trans=m$1 9 ord] t we may /ill ?9k ( !m z be+ subject to an a priori pr9ciple ( cons]vation4 ,al?\gh a p>ticle ( radium cont9ually g5]ates heat1 we d n !re=e ?9k ( ! fir/ pr9ciple ( en]getics z be+ invalidat$1 = we suppose t ! en]gy :i* ?us appe>s 0 really pot5tial 9 ! atoms ( radium4 ,b x 0 contr>y to all our =m] exp]i5ce ( atoms t !y %\ld conta9 any o!r en]gy ?an t ( _! own motion1 & s ! fur!r assumption 0 made t ! atom1 at lea/ ! atom ( ! radio-active sub/ance1 is really complex1 & n simple1 z *emical !ory dem&s4 ,x is made up ( small] p>ticles1 & possesses a def9ite /ructure4 ,9 c]ta9 circum/ances ! atom may dis9tegrate1 & ! en]gy :i* held toge!r its p>ticles1 :e!r ^! 7 simpl] corpuscles or electrons1 is giv5 (f z ! heat :i* ! radio-active sub/ance app>5tly g5]ates4 ,! pot5tial en]gy ( ! *emical atom is !re=e a hypo!sis :i* has be5 devis$ 9 ord] to pres]ve ! validity ( ! law ( cons]vation1 & ! reality ( ?is hypo!sis is be+ te/$ by inve/igation4 ,if we accept x z true1 are ! d$uctions made f x ju/ifi$ 9 our exp]i5ce8 ,t is ! te/ :i* mu/ be satisfi$ 9 all ! hypo!ses :]e pot5tial en]gies are inv5t$1 & ! pot5tials are only real if ! te/ is satisfactory4 ,! golf ball at re/ at ! top ( ! hill is a diff]5t entity f ! golf ball at re/ at ! bottom ( ! hill3 x is capable ( develop+ en]gy1 = a t\* may cause x to roll d[n ! hill1 :5 mo/ ( ! en]gy :i* 0 exp5d$ 9 ord] to drive x to ! top ( ! hill w reappe> 9 ! =m ( ! k9etic en]gy ( motion ( ! ball4 ,! atoms ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 :i* 7 dissociat$ by ! en]gy ( ! electric curr5t are diff]5t ?+s f ! atoms ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 :i* are comb9$ toge!r to =m ! molecules ( wat]4 ,_! /ate :5 ! gases are 9 ! elem5t>y condition1 or are 8free10 is t ( molecules mov+ rapidly & incessantly1 reb\nd+ f ea* o!r aft] collid+ ) ea* o!r3 !y possess en]gy ( position--pot5tial en]gy--because !y are sep>ate f ea* o!r4 ,if !y 8comb9e10 z :5 a m9ute electric sp>k explodes ! mixture ( gases1 !y tractate toge!r1 & rema9 9 proximity to ea* o!r1 becom+ molecules ( wat]4 ,! en]gy :i* became pot5tial 9 ! gase\s mixture1 :5 ! electric en]gy ( ! curr5t seem$ to disappe>1 n[ appe>s z ! heat g5]at$ by ! combu/ion1 t is1 z ! greatly increas$ k9etic en]gy ( ! molecules ( ! gas 7/eam7 :i* takes ! place ( ! mixture ( hydrog5 & oxyg54 ,previ\s to ! explosion ?is gas 0 a mixture ( molecules ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 7#b;,h#b #b,o7 at ! ord9>y temp]ature1 b aft] ! explosion x consi/s ( a small] numb] ( molecules at a v mu* high] temp]ature4 ,:at is 8en]gy ( position08 ,! golf ball at ! bottom ( ! hill 0 at a di/ance ( ,r feet f ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 b at ! top ( ! hill x is at a di/ance ( ,r #ajj feet f ! c5tre ( ! e>?4 ,9 ! fir/ case x 0 free to fall ,r feet1 b 9 ! second case x is free to fall ,r #ajj feet4 ,! atoms ( ! con/itu5t molecules ( wat] occupy ! position ,h - ,o - ,h1 ! bonds 7-7 indicat+ t ! atoms are v close toge!r2 b :5 ! wat] is decompos$ by an electric curr5t1 ! atoms occupy ! positions ,o - ,o ,h - ,h ,h - ,h1 ! 77 indicat+ t ! atoms are relatively f> ap>t f ea* o!r4 ,n[ ! golf ball & ! e>?1 or ! atoms ( hydrog5 & oxyg51 are physically ! same mat]ial entities1 :e!r !y are close toge!r or f> ap>t1 yet :5 ! e>? & ! ball1 or ! atoms ( oxyg5 & hydrog51 are sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 _! 8prop]ties0 are diff]5t f :at !y are :5 !y are close toge!r4 ,:at is x t makes ! diff]5ce8 ,x is t :i* is betwe5 !m4 ,is x1 9 ! la/ case1 8! pot5tial en]gy ( *emical aff9ity08 ,?is dreadful phrase is actually us$ 9 a rec5t book on biology3 8,9 ! elem5ts c>bon & oxyg51 s long z !y rema9 sep>ate1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( en]gy rema9s lat5t4 ,:5 ! c>bon & oxyg5 atoms are all[$ to come toge!r & unite1 ?is pot5tial en]gy ( *emical aff9ity is lib]at$ z k9etic en]gy40 ,:at is *ang$ by ! tractation & pellation 7! t]ms sugge/$ by ,soddy 9 place ( ! an?ropomorphic ones1 8attraction0 & 8repulsion078 ,x is ! e!r :i* has become *ang$ 9 "s way4 ,pot5tial en]gy resides !re=e 9 ! e!r ( space4 ,,iso!rmal ,,& ,,adiabatic ,,*anges ,let u consid] ! *anges :i* occur 9 a gas "u ! influ5ce ( *anges 9 temp]ature & pressure1 premis+ t ! rem>ks :i* we h to make c be appli$ to bodies 9 ! liquid & solid conditions1 ) "s necess>y modifications4 ,a gas1 !n1 consi/s ( a v great numb] ( p>ticles1 or molecules1 9 motion4 ,^! molecules move 9 /raight l9es at v high velocities1 & if ! envelope 9 :i* ! gas is conta9$ is a re/rict$ "o1 ! molecules collide ) ea* o!r1 & ) ! walls ( ! envelope2 &1 be+ assum$ p]fectly ela/ic1 !y reb\nd f ea* o!r1 & f ! walls ( ! vessel1 ) ! same velocity :i* !y _h :5 !y collid$4 ,! pressure ( ! gas 7say t ( /eam at a temp]ature ( #aaj ,c41 & a pressure ( #abj lbs4 to ! squ>e in* 9 a /eam boil]7 is ! sum ( ! impacts ( ! molecules on ! walls ( ! conta9+ vessel4 ,:5 ! temp]ature is high ! molecules are mov+ at a high] mean velocity ?an :5 ! temp]ature is l[]1 & _! mean free pa? t5ds to become great]4 ,! volume ( a c]ta9 mass ( gas1 t is1 ! volume occupi$ by a c]ta9 v great numb] ( molecules1 is great] ! high] is ! temp]ature1 provid$ ! envelope is "o capable ( yield+4 ,if we r$uce ! capacity ( ! envelope 9 :i* ! gas is conta9$1 ! pressure w rise1 = ! intr9sic en]gy ( ! gas is /ill ! same2 b we h done "w on x1 & by ! law ( cons]vation ?is "w1 or at lea/ ! en]gy repres5t$ by x1 mu/ /ill exi/4 ,x is repres5t$ by ! decreas$ l5g? ( free pa? ( ! molecules1 & ?is means t ! impacts on ! walls ( ! vessel w be great] ?an !y 74 ,!re is1 !re=e1 a c]ta9 relation betwe5 ! volume ( a gas & its pressure1 & ?is relation c be repres5t$ by an equation involv+ ! temp]ature1 ! pressure1 & ! volume4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,! diagram repres5ts ! pressure & ! volume ( a gas :5 ^! ?+s *ange4 ,!re are two conditions1 7#a7 :5 ! heat develop$ by ! compression is all[$ to escape ?r\gh ! walls ( ! vessel to ! outside1 or :5 ! heat lo/ 9 ! expansion ( ! gas is comp5sat$ by ! conduction ( heat ?r\gh ! walls ( ! vessel f outside2 & 7#b7 :5 ! heat develop$ is reta9$ 9 ! gas1 z :5 ! latt] is conta9$ 9 a vessel ! walls ( :i* d n conduct heat4 ,! pressure ( ! gas is measur$ along ! horizontal axis1 & ! volume is measur$ along ! v]tical axis1 & a curve is drawn s t = any value ( ! pressure !re is a correspond+ value ( ! volume4 ,?us ! values ( ! pressures p & p#a 9 ! diagram correspond to ! value ( ! volume v4 ,! curve relat+ ! *ange ( pressure ) a correspond+ *ange ( volume is1 9 g5]al1 t call$ a rectangul> hyp]bola4 ,b !re are two k9ds ( su* curves3 7#a7 t :i* we obta9 by plott+ ! correspond+ values ( pressure & volume1 :5 ! temp]ature ( ! gas rema9s con/ant ?r\gh\t ! s]ies ( *anges1 t is1 :5 ! rise ( temp]ature :i* w\ld occur :5 ! gas is compress$ is comp5sat$ by ! conduction ( ?is heat to ! outside ( ! vessel conta9+ ! gas4 ,su* a s]ies ( *anges ( pressure & volume is call$ an iso!rmal "o4 7#b7 ,:5 ! heat develop$ by ! compression ( ! gas is reta9$ 9 ! gas1 z :5 ! walls ( ! vessel 9 :i* ^! *anges are effect$ are su* z d n conduct heat3 su* a s]ies ( *anges is call$ an adiabatic "o4 ,adiabatic curves are /eep] ?an are iso!rmal ones4 ,,! ,,c>not ,,eng9e ,?is is an imag9>y me*anism :i* p]=ms a c]ta9 cycle ( op]ations4 ,x does n really exi/1 b ! conception ( its op]ation is ( ! greate/ value 9 ! consid]ation ( en]gy-trans=mations1 & x is = ?is reason t we discuss x "h4 ,consid] a gas1 or "s o!r sub/ance capable ( exp&+ or contract+4 ,x conta9s intr9sic en]gy1 & x is capable ( do+ "w4 ,?us1 s9ce a gas c exp& indef9itely x c be made to d me*anical "w4 ,a mass ( gas at a pressure p#a1 & hav+ a volume v#a1 & at a temp]ature ,t1 c d "w by exp&+ till its pressure is r$uc$ to p1 & its volume increas$ to v4 ,if x exp&s adiabatically its temp]ature w fall to t4 ,let u suppose t t is ! temp]ature ( ! surr\nd+ m$ium3 ! gas _c !re=e cool fur!r1 & we c obta9 no m "w f x4 ,if ! gas is ! sub/ance :i* we wi% to employ z ! work+ sub/ance 9 ! ,c>not eng9e1 we mu/ !re=e br+ x back to ! condition repres5t$ by ,a4 ,t is1 we mu/ raise its temp]ature to ,t1 we mu/ r$uce its volume to v#a1 & we mu/ increase its pressure to p#a4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,?us ! /eam ( an eng9e is 7say7 at a temp]ature ( #aaj ,c41 & a pressure ( #abj lbs4 to ! squ>e in*4 ,:5 x has pass$ ?r\gh ! cyl9d] & cond5s] x is wat] at a temp]ature (1 say1 #ae ,c41 & x is at atmosph]ic pressure4 ,we mu/1 !re=e1 br+ x back to its =m] condition by heat+ ?is wat] 9 ! boil] till x is /eam "u ! =m] conditions ( temp]ature & pressure4 ,!re=e we mu/1 9 ord] to obta9 a self-act+ eng9e1 cause ! work+ sub/ance1 & ! me*anism ( ! eng9e1 to p]=m a s]ies ( cyclical op]ations4 ,! ,c>not eng9e is a cyl9d] conta9+ a gas call$ ! work+ sub/ance ,s1 & ?is gas c be br\ght into !rmal contact ) a s\rce ( heat1 or a refrig]ator1 t is1 ! gas c be heat$ or cool$ by a me*anism outside itself4 ,! walls ( ! cyl9d] are made ( "s sub/ance :i* is a p]fect non-conductor ( heat1 b ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] is made ( a sub/ance :i* conducts heat p]fectly4 ,!re is a pi/on 9 ! cyl9d] :i* fits x closely1 b :i* moves up & d[n )\t friction4 ,at ! bottom ( ! latt] is a valve :i* c be turn$ s z to place ! bottom ( ! cyl9d]1 & !re=e ! gas1 9 !rmal contact ) a res]voir ( heat 771 or a refrig]ator 7-74 ,b :5 ! valve is turn$ s t ! non-conduct+ "p ,o fills ! bottom1 ! gas is p]fectly insulat$1 & heat c nei!r ent] nor leave x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,su* an eng9e is1 ( c\rse1 an imag9>y "o1 s9ce !re c be no me*anism 9 :i* !re is n a c]ta9 am\nt ( friction betwe5 mov+ p>ts1 & !re are no sub/ances :i* conduct or insulate heat p]fectly4 ,! eng9e is1 9 fact1 ! limit to a s]ies ( eng9es ea* ( :i* is suppos$ to be m p]fect ?an ! la/ "o4 ,x is a fiction :i* is ( consid]able use 9 !oretical "w4 ,,! ,,c>not ,,positive ,,cycle ,we h !re=e a sub/ance :i* c be heat$ by contact ) a hot body1 & :i* c !n exp&1 do+ me*anical "w by rais+ a pi/on1 & p]haps turn+ a fly:eel1 & on :i* "w is !n done s t x returns to its orig9al condition4 ,?is is a cycle ( op]ations4 ,if we consid] only ! *anges :i* occur 9 ! work+ sub/ance we c repres5t ^! *anges by a diagram4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,fir/ op]ation1 7#ab74 ,we suppose t ! valve is turn$ s t ! non-conduct+ plug closes ! cyl9d]4 ,! pi/on is 9 ! position ,,ii 7,fig4 #ca74 ,heat _c !n ent] or leave ! gas4 ,b ! latt] already conta9s heat3 x is at a temp]ature ( ,t#b1 s t x c exp& do+ "w4 ,let x exp&1 =c+ up ! pi/on4 ,dur+ ?is op]ation ! pressure ( ! gas w fall f a po9t on ! v]tical axis opposite #a to a po9t opposite #b1 & its volume w increase f a po9t on ! horizontal axis b5ea? #a to a po9t b5ea? #b4 ,x w cool because x has exp&$1 & no heat is all[$ to ent] x dur+ ?is act ( expansion4 ,! expansion is !re=e adiabatic2 ! temp]ature falls f ,t#b to ,t#a2 & "w is done by ! gas4 ,second op]ation1 7#bc74 ,! pi/on is n[ at ! position ,i1 t is1 at ! upp] end ( its /roke1 & we mu/ br+ x back aga9 to ! l[] end ( ! cyl9d]4 ,! valve is turn$ s t ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] is plac$ 9 !rmal communication ) ! refrig]ator 7-71 & ! pi/on is pu%$ 9 to ! position ,,ii4 ,! gas is !re=e compress$ until its volume decreases f a po9t b5ea? #b to a po9t b5ea? #c4 ,z x is be+ compress$1 heat is g5]at$ & its temp]ature w\ld rise1 b z ?is heat is g5]at$ x fl[s into ! refrig]ator1 s t ! temp]ature ( ! gas rema9s ! same dur+ ! op]ation4 ,! contraction is !re=e an iso!rmal "o2 ! temp]ature rema9s at ,t#a2 & "w is done on ! gas f outside4 ,?ird op]ation1 7#cd74 ,b ! pi/on is n at ! l[] end ( its /roke yet4 ,we turn ! valve s t ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] is clos$ by ! non-conduct+ plug ,o1 & !n pu% 9 ! pi/on until x rea*es ! position ,,iii4 ,! gas is /ill fur!r compress$1 & ?is compression g5]ates heat4 ,b ! heat _c escape1 s t ! temp]ature ( ! gas rises until x rea*es ,t#b4 ,! contraction is !re=e an adiabatic "o4 ,"w is done on ! gas4 ,f\r? op]ation1 7#da74 ,! pi/on is n[ at ! l[] end ( its /roke4 ,we turn ! valve s t ! bottom ( ! cyl9d] is plac$ 9 communication ) ! s\rce ( heat 774 ,! gas exp&s f ! po9t b5ea? #d to ! po9t b5ea? #a1 rais+ ! pi/on to ! position ,,ii4 ,?is expansion ( ! gas w\ld l[] its temp]ature1 b x is 9 communication ) ! s\rce ( heat1 & s x does n cool1 b draws heat f ! s\rce & rema9s at a con/ant temp]ature1 ,t#b4 ,! expansion is !re=e an iso!rmal "o4 ,"w is done by ! gas4 ,?is completes ! cycle4 ,b ! gas is heat$1 & :5 ! pi/on is at position ,,ii1 ! valve is turn$ s z to close ! cyl9d] by ! non-conduct+ plug ,o4 ,! heat already conta9$ 9 ! gas cont9ues to exp&1 ! latt] do+ m "w1 b ?is expansion causes ! temp]ature to fall f ,t#b to ,t#a4 ,?is is ! op]ation ) :i* ! cycle comm5c$4 ,summ>is+ ! positive ,c>not cycle1 we see t ! eng9e takes heat f a s\rce 77 & gives up "p ( ?is to a refrig]ator 7-71 79 an actual /eam-eng9e heat is tak5 f ! boil] & giv5 up to ! cond5s] wat]74 ,if we measure ! quantity ( heat tak5 f ! boil] 9 ! /eam :i* ent]s ! cyl9d]s we %all f9d t ?is quantity ( heat is great] ?an ! quantity :i* is giv5 up to ! cond5s] wat]4 ,:at becomes ( ! balance8 ,x is conv]t$ into ! me*anical "w ( ! eng9e4 ,! ,c>not eng9e !re=e takes a quantity ( heat1 ,q#b1 f ! s\rce & gives up ano!r quantity ( heat1 ,q#a1 to ! refrig]ator4 ,we f9d t ,q#b is great] ?an ,q#a & ! balance1 ,q#b - ,q#a1 is repres5t$ by ! "w done by ! eng9e4 ,heat-en]gy falls f a /ate ( high1 to a /ate ( l[ pot5tial1 & is p>tly trans=m$ into me*anical "w4 ,,! ,,c>not ,,negative ,,cycle ,?is is simply ! positive cycle rev]s$4 ,! read] %\ld puzzle x out = himself if he is n already famili> ) x4 ,x consi/s ( an adiabatic contraction #ba1 an iso!rmal contraction #ad1 an adiabatic expansion #dc1 & an iso!rmal expansion #cb4 ,a quantity ( heat1 ,q#a1 is tak5 f ! refrig]ator at a temp]ature ,t#a1 & ano!r quantity1 ,q#b1 is giv5 up to ! s\rce at a temp]ature ,t#b4 ,b ,q#b is great] ?an ,q#a1 & ! eng9e !re=e gives up m heat ?an x receives1 :ile1 fur!r1 heat fl[s f a body at a l[ temp]ature to ano!r body at a high] temp]ature4 ,:]e does ! eng9e get ?is en]gy f8 ,x gets x because "w is done ^u x by means ( an outside ag5cy1 & all ( ?is "w is conv]t$ into heat4 ,,rev]sibility ,! ,c>not eng9e & cycle are !re=e p]fectly rev]sible4 ,n only c ! eng9e turn heat into "w1 b x c turn "w into heat4 ,?is p]fect1 quantitative rev]sibility is1 h[ev]1 a prop]ty ( ! imag9>y me*anism only1 & x does n exi/ 9 any actual eng9e4 ,,entropy ,let u consid] ! cycle m closely4 ,9 ! op]ation #da1 :i* is an iso!rmal expansion1 !re is a fl[ ( heat-en]gy f ! s\rce & a trans=mation ( en]gy into "w4 ,! gas 9 ! condition repres5t$ by ! po9t #d _h a c]ta9 pressure & a c]ta9 volume4 ,9 ! condition repres5t$ by ! po9t #a1 its pressure has decreas$1 its volume has increas$1 & its temp]ature is ! same4 ,its physical condition has be5 *ang$1 & to br+ x back into its =m] condition some?+ mu/ be done to x4 ,let1 !n1 ! gas cont9ue to exp& )\t receiv+ any m heat1 or p>t+ ) any3 t is1 let x und]go ! adiabatic expansion #ab until its temp]ature falls to t ( ! refrig]ator1 ,t#a4 ,we n[ compress ! gas :ile keep+ x at ?is temp]ature1 t is1 we cause x to und]go ! iso!rmal contraction #bc1 dur+ :i* op]ation x is giv+ up heat to ! refrig]ator1 s t !re is aga9 a fl[ ( heat-en]gy4 ,we !n compress x /ill fur!r )\t all[+ heat to escape f x1 t is1 we cause x to und]go ! adiabatic contraction #cd4 ,dur+ ?is op]ation ! gas rises 9 temp]ature to ,t#b4 ,x is n[ 9 ! condition t x 0 :5 ! cycle comm5c$4 ,9 ?is cycle ( op]ations heat fir/ ent]$1 & !n left ! gas1 & ) ?is entrance or rejection ( heat1 ! condition ( ! gas ) respect to its p[] ( do+ "w *ang$4 ,we inve/igate ?is fl[ ( heat1 & ! concomitant *ange ( prop]ties ( ! sub/ance1 ) reg>d to :i* ! fl[ took place1 by =m+ ! concept call$ entropy4 ,we make ! conv5tion t :5 heat ent]s a sub/ance ! entropy ( ! latt] increases1 & :5 heat leaves x its entropy decreases4 ,we call ! quantity ( heat ent]+ or leav+ a sub/ance ,q1 & ! temp]ature ( ! sub/ance ,t4 ,!n ,q_/,t is proportional to ! *ange ( entropy ( ! sub/ance :5 ! quantity ( heat1 ,q1 ent]s or leaves x4 ,n[ x is a fact ( our exp]i5ce t heat c only fl[1 ( itself1 f a hott] to a cold] body4 ,consid] two su* bodies =m+ an isolat$ sy/em1 ! temp]ature ( ! hott] "o be+ ,t#b1 & t ( ! cold] "o ,t#a4 ,let ,q units ( heat fl[ f ! body at ,t#b to t at ,t#a no "w be+ done4 ,!n ! loss ( entropy ( ! hott] body is ,q_/,t#b1 & ! ga9 ( entropy ( ! cold] body is ,q_/,t#a4 ,! nett *ange ( entropy ( ! sy/em is ,q_/,t#a - ,q_/,t#b4 ,s9ce ,t#b is great] ?an ,t#a1 ,q_/,t#b is less ?an ,q_/,t#a4 ,!re=e ! expression ,q_/,t#a - ,q_/,t#b is positive1 t is1 ! entropy ( ! sy/em1 z a :ole1 has increas$4 ,:5 heat fl[s f a hott] to a cold] body ! nett entropy ( ! two bodies1 !re=e1 increases4 ,b we c also cause heat to fl[ f a cold] to a hott] body by effect+ a comp5satory en]gy-trans=mation4 ,su* a comp5sation w\ld n occur by itself 9 any sy/em capable ( effect+ an en]gy-trans=mation1 if x is to be effect$ "s ext]nal ag5cy mu/ act on ! trans=m+ sy/em4 ,we c suppose x to happ5 9 a p]fectly rev]sible imag9>y me*anism4 ,suppose a ,c>not eng9e works 9 ! positive direction1 tak+ heat f a res]voir at temp]ature ,t#b1 & giv+ up "p ( ?is heat to a refrig]ator at ,t#a1 & do+ a c]ta9 am\nt ( "w ,w4 ,suppose t ?is "w is /or$ up1 s to speak1 say by rais+ a heavy weight1 :i* c !n fall & actuate ! same ,c>not eng9e 9 ! opposite 7negative7 direction4 ,! eng9e !n exactly rev]ses its =m] s]ies ( op]ations4 ,! "w x did is reconv]t$ into heat1 & z mu* ( ?is heat fl[s f ! refrig]ator into ! s\rce1 t is1 f a cold] to a hott] body1 9 ! negative op]ations1 z fl[$ f ! s\rce to ! refrig]ator 9 ! positive op]ations4 ,9 ?is prim>y en]gy-trans=mation1 comb9$ ) a comp5satory en]gy-trans=mation1 !re is no *ange ( entropy4 ,! me*anism is an ideal "o--! limit to an irrev]sible me*anism4 ,b--& n[ we appeal to exp]i5ce & cease to "w ) ideal me*anisms--! actual eng9e :i* we c design & "w is "o 9 :i* !re w be friction1 9 :i* "s p>ts w conduct heat imp]fectly1 & o!r p>ts w insulate heat imp]fectly4 ,let ! friction g5]ate q units ( heat1 & let ! quantity ( heat :i* is 8wa/$0 by imp]fect conduction & insulation be q#a4 ,?is heat w fl[ into ! refrig]ator1 or w be radiat$ or conduct$ to ! surr\nd+ m$ium1 :i* we suppose to be at ! same temp]ature z ! refrig]ator4 ,if1 !n1 we divide ?is total quantity ( heat by ! temp]ature ,t#a1 we get 7q q#a7_/,t#a ,s#a z ! quantity ( entropy :i* is g5]at$ z ! result ( ! imp]fections ( ! eng9e1 9 addition to ! quantity ( entropy1 ,s1 :i* w\ld be g5]at$ if ! eng9e 7 a p]fect "o4 ,bo? ,s & ,s#a are positive4 ,also 9 ! work+ ( ! eng9e 9 ! negative direction a c]ta9 quantity ( entropy1 ,s#a1 is g5]at$ = reasons simil> to ^? m5tion$ above4 ,! entropy g5]at$ :5 ! eng9e works 9 ! positive direction is !re=e ,s ,s#a1 & :5 x works negatively ! quantity g5]at$ is also ,s#a4 ,! entropy de/roy$ :5 ! eng9e works negatively is ,s4 ,! total *ange ( entropy is !re=e #b,s#a ,s - ,s1 t is1 #b,s#a4 ,9 an actual en]gy-trans=mation comb9$ ) a comp5satory en]gy-trans=mation !re is !re=e an increase ( entropy4 ,we c g5]alise ^! /atem5ts s t !y w apply n only to a heat-eng9e b to all me*anisms :i* effect en]gy-trans=mations4 ,9 all su* trans=mations entropy is g5]at$4 ,!re=e ! ,entropy ( ! ,univ]se t5ds to a maximum4 ,,available ,,& ,,unavailable ,,en]gy ,consid] ! ,c>not eng9e z a p]fect me*anism4 ,x takes heat-en]gy f a s\rce at a temp]ature ,t#b1 & x gives up heat to a refrig]ator at a temp]ature ,t#a1 ,t#b be+ great] ?an ,t#a4 ,9 ! adiabatic expansion #ab ! gas cont9ues to exp& until its temp]ature becomes equal to t ( ! refrig]ator4 ,x _c1 !n1 exp& & d "w any long]1 & ?us ! proportion ( ! heat1 ,q#b1 receiv$ f ! s\rce1 :i* c be conv]t$ into "w1 dep5ds on ! diff]5ce ( temp]ature ,t#b - ,t#a4 ,! great] is ?is diff]5ce ! great] w be ! proportion ( ! heat-en]gy receiv$ :i* c be conv]t$ into "w4 ,if ! eng9e 7 a p]fect "o1 & if ! gas 7 also a p]fect "o 7t is a gas :i* w\ld cont9ue to exp& accord+ to ! equation = ! adiabatic expansion ( gases71 & if ! refrig]ator 7 absolutely cold1 !n all ! heat en]gy receiv$ f ! s\rce c\ld be conv]t$ into "w4 ,we _c produce a refrig]ator ( absolute temp]ature #j1 & !re=e only a c]ta9 proportion ( ! heat :i* is receiv$ by ! eng9e c be trans=m$ into me*anical "w4 ,b ?is "w c be us$ to rev]se ! action ( ! eng9e1 & ?us ! same fraction ( ! total heat-en]gy :i* 0 giv5 to ! refrig]ator c be tak5 f x & giv5 back to ! s\rce4 ,! p]fect eng9e is !re=e rev]sible )\t loss ( available en]gy4 ,n[ consid] /ill ! eng9e z a me*anism :i* takes heat f a s\rce & gives x to a refrig]ator1 b let x be an actual eng9e4 ,in/ead ( giv+ up a c]ta9 fraction ( ! heat receiv$ to ! refrig]ator--a fraction equal to ,q#a 7,t#a_/,t#b71 x gives up r m1 because x is n a p]fect me*anism1 t is1 x g5]ates friction1 etc4 ,"s ( ! heat receiv$ ?us ceases to be available = ! p]=mance ( "w2 & passes into ! refrig]ator4 ,! fraction ( ! heat-en]gy :i* passes into ! refrig]ator 9 ! p]fectly rev]sible eng9e 0 unavailable en]gy 9 ! conditions 9 :i* ! me*anism work$1 or 0 imag9$ to "w1 b 9 ! actual eng9e ?is fraction is increas$4 ,if we divide ! increase ( unavailable en]gy by ! temp]ature ( ! refrig]ator1 ! product is ! increase ( entropy g5]at$ 9 ! actual eng9e ov] t g5]at$ 9 ! ideal eng9e4 ,because ( ?is r$uction ( available en]gy ! actual eng9e is an irrev]sible me*anism4 ,?is is ! connection betwe5 unavailable en]gy & entropy4 ,9 all trans=mations "s fraction ( ! trans=m+ en]gy becomes heat1 & ?is heat fl[s by conduction & radiation into ! surr\nd+ bodies4 ,9 g5]al ?is heat simply raises ! temp]ature ( ! m$ium into :i* x fl[s1 & becomes unavailable = fur!r trans=mations4 ,) e trans=mation t occurs "s "p ( ! en]gy involv$ becomes unavailable4 ,!re=e al?\gh ! sum ( ! available & unavailable en]gy ( ! ,univ]se rema9s con/ant1 ! fraction ( unavailable en]gy t5ds cont9ually to a maximum4 ,,in]t ,,matt] ,we c see n[ :at is indicat$ by ,b]gson's 8in]t matt]40 ,x is n matt] depriv$ ( en]gy--su* an expression has no mean+--x is en]gy :i* is unavailable = fur!r trans=mations4 ,! matt] 9 :i* we *oose to say t ?is en]gy is inh]5t has become in]t4 ,let u sub/itute = ! ,c>not eng9e ! actual /eam-eng9e ( a %ip1 ! cond5s] ( :i* is cool$ by ! sea wat] :i* is tak5 91 & :i* is !n heat$ & fl[s out aga9 into ! sea4 ,! heat d]iv$ f ! s\rce1 t is1 f ! furnace ( ! boil] :]e coal is burn$ to raise /eam1 ?us passes out into ! sea4 ,n[ ! heat capacity ( ! sea is s great t ! temp]ature ( ! wat] is n appreciably rais$ by ?is heat1 :i* dra9s into x f ! eng9e3 ev5 if x 7 appreciably rais$1 ! heat w\ld be conduct$ into ! e>?1 or w\ld be radiat$ out into space1 & w\ld !n raise ! temp]ature ( ! mat]ial bodies ( ! univ]se4 ,b let all ?is heat rema9 9 ! sea4 ,x !n simply raises ! temp]ature ( ! wat] by an exce$+ly small am\nt1 & ! motions ( ! molecules become inf9itesimally increas$4 ,b ! heat becomes equally di/ribut$ by conduction & convection ?r\gh\t ! mass ( ! wat] 9 ! sea1 & z !re are no diff]5ces 9 adjac5t p>ts !re are no means :]eby ! en]gy :i* ?us passes into ! sea c be aga9 trans=m$4 ,a new ord] ( ?+s is ! result ( ! processes we h indicat$4 ,! segregat$1 available heat-en]gy ( mat]ial bodies has become transf]r$ to ! un-co-ord9at$1 diffuse1 unavailable en]gies ( ! molecules :i* compose ^! bodies4 ,! trans=mations :i* we c effect dep5d on ! condition t ! en]gy :i* we utilise is t ( aggregates ( molecules :i* are 9 a diff]5t physical condition1 z reg>ds ?is en]gy1 f adjac5t aggregates4 ,b :5 ?is en]gy becomes equally di/ribut$ among ! molecules ( all ! aggregates1 ! matt] 9 :i* x inh]es becomes in]t4 ,if we c\ld1 by a sort+ process l t ( ,maxwell's hypo!tical demons1 a process :i* does n exp5d ! en]gy ) :i* x deals1 sep>ate ! molecules :i* 7 mov+ sl[ly f ^? :i* 7 mov+ m quickly1 we c\ld make ?is en]gy aga9 available4 ,b x mu/ cle>ly be und]/ood t our physics is ! physics n ( individual molecules1 b ( aggregates ( molecules4 ,,index ,absolute1 ,dries*'s !ory (1 #dg4 ,accel]ation 79 physics71 #cee4 ,acquir$ *>act]s induc$ by ! environm5t1 #baf2 a means ( trans=mism1 #bbj2 evid5ce ( transmission scanty1 #bbe2 transmission n inconceivable1 #bbf4 ,actions1 categories (1 & consci\sness1 #bhb2 delib]ative1 #bhc2 me*ani/ic hypo!sis (1 #aeg2 /]eotyp$1 #bhc2 at a di/ance1 #cjd4 ,activation ( ! ovum1 #agf4 ,adaptability1 indicative ( dom9ance1 #beh4 ,adaptation1 #bag2 & acquir$ *>act]s1 #bai2 & *anges ( morphology & function1 #bai2 n inh]it$1 #bbj2 causes (1 #bci4 ,adaptive response1 #bai4 ,adiabatic *anges1 #cfa4 ,aggregates1 molecul>1 #cec4 ,alg1 di/ribution (1 #bfj4 ,allelomorphs1 ,m5delian1 #bca4 ,alt]nation ( g5]ations1 #age4 ,amido-sub/ances1 #hh4 ,anabolism1 #hh4 ,anatomical p>ts1 homologies (1 #bea4 ,animal action1 consid]$ objectively1 #bgh4 ,animal & plant contra/$1 #bfi4 ,animality1 #bfi4 ,annectant =ms ( life1 #bec4 ,annelids1 morphology (1 #bdh4 ,an?ropomorphism 9 !ories ( action1 #adh4 ,anti-enzymes1 #id4 ,antitox9s1 #cf4 ,ants1 a dom9ant gr\p1 #bfj4 ,app5dix v]mi=mis1 #bej4 ,approximation1 /&>ds (1 #cdg4 ,arm\r$ animals1 #bfc4 ,ar?ropods1 morphology (1 #bdi2 a dom9ant gr\p1 #bei2 di/ribution1 #bfj2 musculature (1 #bge2 adaptations = mobility1 #bge2 limits to size (1 #bge4 ,assimilation1 #fg4 ,atoms1 con/itution (1 #cee2 arrangem5ts (1 #cec4 ,automatism ( animals d$uc$ f me*ani/ic !ories1 #bhj4 ,autonomy 9 developm5t1 #cbb4 ,available en]gy1 #fb2 & entropy1 #cgd4 ,bact]ia1 a dom9ant gr\p1 #bei2 di/ribution1 #bei2 geological hi/ory1 #bei1 #bfa2 morphology1 #bfh2 metabolism1 #bff2 specialisation1 #bfc2 p>asitism1 #bei2 nitrog51 #gc2 prototrophic1 #aai1 #bff2 p>atrophic1 #bff2 putrefactive1 #bff2 f]m5tation1 #bff2 & ,br[nian movem5ts1 #aai2 comp5satory to plants1 #bfg4 ,b]gson1 #bh2 creative evolution1 #bdd2 duration1 #aed2 animals & plants1 #gh2 eye ( ,pect51 #bcd2 in]t matt]1 #cge2 inf9itesimal analysis ( ! organism1 #aaa2 k9ematographic analysis1 #aaj2 !ory ( intellectualism1 #ea2 memory1 #aef2 morphological !mes1 #bej2 !ory ( pa91 #bha2 !ory ( p]ception1 #g1 #aj2 ! vital impetus1 #cah4 ,biology1 sy/ematic1 #bja1 #bjc4 ,biophors1 #acb2 size (1 #ahc2 gr[? (1 #ahe4 ,biotic en]gy1 #cbe4 ,borelli & animal me*anism1 #abe4 ,br[nian movem5t1 #aah2 significance (1 #aai4 ,bryan & !rmodynamics1 #fb4 ,bud-=mation1 #afe4 ,calculus1 inf9itesimal1 #be1 #aae1 #cej4 ,calorimetric exp]im5ts1 #fe1 #fh4 ,capacity-en]gy factors1 #fa4 ,c>not's cycle1 #fi1 #gh1 #aac2 negative1 #cfh2 description (1 #cfc1 #cff2 comp>$ ) plant metabolism1 #ge2 comp>$ ) ! organism1 #gc4 ,catalysis1 #ij2 univ]sality (1 #ia4 ,cataly/s1 *>act]s (1 #ia4 ,categories ( organisms1 #bji4 ,c5tral n]v\s sy/em1 specialisation (1 #bgc2 a swit*bo>d1 #bgc2 evolution (1 p>allel ) evolution ( muscul> sy/em1 #bha4 ,*ance 9 evolution1 #bcg4 ,*emical aff9ity1 #cfa4 ,*emical en]gy1 degradation (1 #ge4 ,*emical reactions1 direction (1 #gh2 exo!rmic1 #hf2 explosive1 #hf2 simil> 9 organic & inorganic sy/ems1 #gh4 ,*emical syn!sis1 involve vital activity1 #cah4 ,*emi/ry1 m$ieval1 #abe4 ,*lorophyll1 #fi4 ,*lorophyllian organisms1 #hh2 metabolism (1 #bfe2 a dom9ant gr\p1 #bei2 ess5tial morphology (1 #bfh2 di/ribution (1 #bfj4 ,*romat9 ( ! nucleus1 #acj2 ! mat]ial basis ( inh]itance1 #ahb4 ,*romosomes1 #acj1 #ahb1 #ahc4 ,classification ( organisms1 #bji4 ,classificatory sy/ems1 are artificial arrangem5ts1 #bhi2 sugge/ evolution>y process1 #baj4 ,clausius1 #ed2 & ,c>not's ,law1 #aac4 ,cl5t]ates1 morphology (1 #bdh4 ,clomate animals1 #bef4 ,colloidal plat9um1 #ia4 ,colloids1 #ajg4 ,colonial organisms1 #afd4 ,comp>ative anatomy1 task (1 #bea4 ,comp5satory en]gy-trans=mations effect$ by life1 #cji4 ,conjugation1 #agc2 & h]$ity1 #agf2 a /imulus to gr[?1 #age4 ,consci\sness involves analysis ( ! environm5t1 #aa2 analysis (1 is an arbitr>y process1 #ab2 a feel+ ( normality1 #f2 a "p ( crude s5sation1 #dj2 simplifi$ by reason+1 #da2 an int5sive multiplicity1 #cjc2 degree (1 is p>allel to developm5t ( s5sori-motor sy/em1 #bhj2 n exi/5t outside ourselves1 #bgh2 n a function ( *emico-physical me*anism1 #afj2 int5se 9 difficultly p]=m$ op]ations1 #bha2 & activity ( c]ebral cortex1 #bha2 abs5t 9 p>asites1 #bia4 ,cons]vation a te/ ( reality1 #ceg4 ,cons]vation ( en]gy1 #eb2 9 organisms1 #hc4 ,cons]vation ( /ructure1 #bec1 #bef4 ,con/ants1 ma!matical1 #cdd4 ,cont9uity ( cells 9 embryo1 #aga4 ,contractility1 #ajj2 muscul>1 #ajc4 ,co-ord9ates1 sy/ems (1 #bc4 ,corals1 #afd4 ,cosmic evolution1 #cad2 is a t5d5cy t[>ds degradation ( en]gy1 #caf4 ,creation1 special1 #bad4 ,curvature1 #bg4 ,curves1 iso!rmal & adiabatic1 #cfb4 ,cuttle-fi%es1 #bej4 ,cytoplasm1 #acj4 ,d>w91 & natural selection1 #bba2 acquir$ *>act]s are inh]it$1 #bbj2 hypo!sis ( pang5esis1 #aha4 ,dea?1 is cata/rophic katabolism1 #cdj4 ,degradation ( en]gy1 #ha4 ,delib]ation & consci\sness1 #bha4 ,demons1 ,maxwell's1 #aaf4 ,desc>tes & me*anism1 #aba2 ! rational s\l1 #abc1 #cah2 8 physiology1 #abb2 8 spiritualism1 #abd2 & animal automatism1 #abe4 ,desc5t1 collat]al1 #beg4 ,det]m9ants 9 embryology1 #acb1 #ahc2 arrangem5t (1 #ahd2 lat5t 9 reg5]ative processes1 #adb4 ,developm5t1 organisation 91 #abh2 p>!nog5etic1 #agf2 rev]ses inorganic t5d5cies1 #cbd2 impossibility ( *emical hypo!ses1 #ada2 is ! assumption ( a mosaic /ructure1 #cja2 bla/ula /age 91 #abi2 ga/rula /age 91 #acj2 pluteus /age 91 #adj2 individual1 #cjj4 ,developm5tal sy/ems prospective value (1 #ach2 prospective pot5cy (1 #ach4 ,diatoms1 #afc2 di/ribution (1 #bfj4 ,diff]5tial elem5ts1 #aae4 ,diff]5tiation 9 developm5t1 #agj4 ,diffusion 9 ! animal body1 #ie4 ,dige/ion1 #fg2 *emi/ry (1 #gb4 ,d9osaurs1 an unsuccessful l9e ( evolution1 #bge4 ,dissipation ( en]gy1 #aad2 9 physical me*anisms1 #ei2 by ! organism1 #fh1 #gi4 ,di/ribution ( organisms1 #bfb2 limits to1 #bei2 indicative ( dom9ance1 #beh4 ,div]sity1 physical1 #ed2 effective & ineffective1 #aae4 ,dom9ance 9 geological "t1 #beh2 implies long geological hi/ory1 #bfa2 ,m5delian1 #aif4 ,dom9ant organisms1 #beh1 #bei1 #bfd4 ,dries* natural selection1 #bbi2 analytical def9ition ( ! organism1 #cca2 entele*y1 #cah2 exp]im5tal embryology1 #acd2 hi/orical basis ( react+1 #aed2 logical pro( ( vitalism1 #acf2 pro( ( vitalism f behavi\r1 #aec2 !ory ( ! absolute1 #dg4 ,duration1 #bh2 duration & "t illu/rat$1 #cj2 illu/rat$ by immunity1 #ce2 m ?an memory1 #aee2 a factor 9 respond+1 #aee4 ,ecdysis1 #bgf4 ,e*9od]ms1 morphology (1 #bdh4 ,ectod]m1 #agg4 ,effector organs1 #aeh1 #bga4 lan vital1 #afa4 ,electromagnetism1 #cee4 ,electrons1 #cjd1 #cee4 ,elim9ation1 natural1 #bbi4 ,embryological /ages comp>$ ) physical phases1 #cjh4 ,embryology1 #abg2 hypo!ses (1 #abh2 physical hypo!ses fail1 #abh2 exp]im5tal1 #abh2 sugge/s phylog5etic hi/ory1 #bac4 ,emulsoids1 #ajh4 ,endoskeleton1 #agg1 #bgf4 ,en]getics1 fir/ law (1 #ea2 second law (1 #aac4 ,en]gy1 #cef2 available & unavailable1 #ee2 biotic1 #cbe2 *emical1 #fa2 & causation1 #ed2 degradation (1 #fc2 dissipation (1 #ec2 electrical1 #fa2 =ms (1 #cbe2 k9etic1 #eb1 #ceg2 me*anical1 #fj1 #fa2 pot5tial1 #ec1 #ceh2 ( position1 #cfj4 ,en]gy-trans=mations1 #ed1 #cga2 anabolic1 #hi2 9 ! animal1 #gj2 comp5satory1 #hh2 comp5satory organic1 #bfh2 irrev]sible1 #ei2 9 physical me*anisms1 #eh2 9 ! plant1 #ga4 ,engelmann1 & ! artificial muscle1 #aje4 ,entele*y1 #afa1 #cah2 n en]gy1 #cbi2 is p[] ( direction1 #cbi2 n spatial b acts into space1 #ccj2 an int5sive manifoldness1 #ccj2 is arrangem5t1 #cbc2 involves regulations1 #cbc2 arre/s inorganic happ5+1 #cbg2 initiates *emical happ5+1 #cbg2 comp>$ ) enzyme action1 #cbg2 illu/rat$ by analogy1 #cbb4 ,entropy1 #ed2 augm5tation (1 #ge2 & ,c>not eng9e1 #cfi4 ,environm5t1 does n select v>iations1 #bce2 made by ! organism1 #bcf4 ,enzymes1 #ij2 nature (1 #ib2 pancreatic1 #ic2 rev]sible1 #ic2 activation (1 #ib4 ,enzyme activity1 #ic4 ,epig5esis 9 developm5t1 #abi4 ,equilibrium1 *emical1 #ajb4 false1 #hf1 #aea4 ,e!r ( space1 #df1 #cjd1 #cfa2 pot5tial en]gy resides 91 #cfa4 ,evolution t5d5cies (1 #beb1 #bfd1 #bgf1 #bie2 sep>ation ( t5d5cies1 #bif2 a trans=mation ( int5sive into ext5sive manifoldness1 #cji2 a dissociation ( t5d5cies orig9ally coalesc5t1 #cje2 increases div]sity1 #caj2 segregates en]gy1 #caa2 comp>$ ) p]mutations & comb9ations1 #cja2 a s]ies ( phases 9 a trans=m+ sy/em1 #bih2 a logical hypo!sis1 #bad2 p>allel processes 91 #bcd2 geological "t inadequate =1 #bcg2 side pa?s 91 #bfb2 me*ani/ic hypo!ses inadequate1 #bcg2 cosmic1 #bad1 #big1 #cad2 ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 #bfd4 ,excretory products1 #bfi4 ,exoskeleton1 #bgf4 ,exo!rmic reactions1 #hf4 ,exp]i5ce & duration1 #aef4 ,exp]im5tal biology proves evolution1 #bdf4 ,explosive reactions1 #aja4 ,ext5sion 9 space1 #ah4 ,ext9ct gr\ps1 #bfc4 ,fats1 dige/ion (1 #ic4 ,fecundity ( animals1 #agi1 #bci4 ,f]m5ts1 #ib4 ,f]tilisation 79 reproduction71 #agf4 ,f9alism1 #baf4 ,fi%es1 di/ribution (1 #bfa4 ,fluctuat+ v>iations1 #bjj4 ,food-/uffs1 absorption (1 #hi4 ,=ce1 #ced4 ,=m1 accid5tal & ess5tial1 #afg1 #cec2 geological1 #afh2 cry/all9e1 #afh4 ,frequ5cy di/ributions1 #bb1 #ahg1 #cej4 ,frog1 developm5t ( egg (1 #aca4 ,functionality1 #cdc2 9 physical sy/ems1 #cjg4 ,galvanotropism1 #ade4 ,gases1 compression (1 #cfb2 k9etic !ory (1 #aag1 #cfa4 ,ga/rea-!ory1 #agg2 illu/rat$1 #bee2 limitations (1 #bef4 ,g5]a1 /ability (1 #ahf4 ,geometry1 ,c>tesian1 #be2 ,euclidean1 #ai1 #be2 p]ceptual & conceptual limits1 #ba4 ,geotropism1 #add4 ,g]m-cells1 #age2 & soma1 #agi4 ,g]m9al selection1 #bda4 ,g]m-lay]s1 #agg2 !ory (1 #bef4 ,g]m-plasm1 a mixture1 #bdj2 /ability (1 #bdj4 ,giv5ness1 #dg4 ,gonads1 #agi4 ,gr[? law (1 9 ! organism1 #agb2 by accretion1 #afi2 by ecdysis1 #bgf2 geometrical1 #afi2 physical1 #afg2 ( cry/als1 #afg2 & diff]5tiation1 #agj2 v>iability (1 #agb4 ,haeckel1 ! ,ga/rea-,!orie1 #agg1 #bed4 ,h>monic analysis1 #aa4 ,h>vey1 & ! circulation ( ! blood1 #aba4 ,heat1 fl[ (1 #aag2 production (1 9 physical *anges1 #aad4 ,heliotropism1 #add4 ,h]$ity1 #aha4 ,h]tzian waves1 #cee4 ,homoio!rmic animals1 #fg4 ,hormones1 #bbe4 ,human activity1 t5ds to arre/ dissipation ( en]gy1 #cab4 ,huxley1 #hd2 & me*ani/ic biology1 #abg2 & ! physical basis ( life1 #aac2 & me*anism1 #ajf2 & univ]sal ma!matics1 #bae4 ,hybrids1 ,m5delian1 #aif2 inf]tility (1 #aie2 betwe5 ,l9nean species1 #aid4 ,hydra1 reg5]ation (1 #afb4 ,idants1 #ahc4 ,idealism f\nd$ on pure reason+1 #de2 ( ,b]keley1 #de4 ,ids1 #ahc4 ,immunity1 #ce4 ,individual1 #afb2 def9ition (1 #afg4 ,individuality1 ord]s (1 #afc2 physical concept (1 #afe2 morphologically an artificial concept1 #aff2 9 societies1 #aga4 ,in]tia1 #ced4 ,inf9ity1 a def9ition (1 #cdb4 ,inorganic happ5+ aboli%es div]sity1 #caj4 ,in/9ct1 a problem = naturali/s1 #bhc2 an inh]itable adaptation ( behavi\r1 #bhg4 ,in/9ct & intellig5ce1 #bhc2 di/9ction n absolute1 #bid2 may coexi/1 #cjf4 ,in/9ct & function+1 #bhf4 ,in/9ctive actions n necess>ily unconsci\s1 #bhc2 n le>n$1 #bhf2 n necess>ily p]fect1 #bhd2 effective f ! fir/1 #bhe2 capable ( improvem5t1 #bhe4 ,intellig5t actions1 non-inh]itable adaptations ( behavi\r1 #bhg2 involve delib]ation1 #ej1 #bhg2 involve consci\s relations ) ! environm5t1 #bhh2 involve use ( tools1 #bhd4 ,int5sity-factors1 #fa4 ,int5sive multiplicity1 #cjc4 ,irrev]sibility1 #fb4 ,irritability1 #ajj4 ,iso!rmal *anges1 #cfa4 ,james1 ,william 7& academic philosophies71 #hj4 ,j5n+s1 & physiological /ates1 #aed2 behavi\r ( ,protozoa1 #bic2 animal movem5ts1 #adi2 ! avoid+ reaction1 #adi4 ,katabolism1 #ij4 ,k9ases1 #ib4 ,k9ematographic analysis1 #caf4 ,lam>ck1 hypo!ses ( evolution1 #bbj4 ,lam>ckian inh]itance1 an inadequate cause ( trans=mism1 #bbg4 ,lanke/]1 acquir$ *>act]s n inh]it$1 #bba4 ,laplace1 & univ]sal ma!matics1 #bae4 ,laplacian m9d1 #bii4 ,l>val /ages1 #agj4 ,lat5cy 7( *>act]s71 #aie4 ,lavoisi]1 & *emi/ry ( ! organism1 #abg4 ,life & adaptation to physical conditions1 #cch2 & rev]sibility1 #cci2 a direction ( en]gies1 #cda2 def9$ en]getically1 #ccg2 cosmic orig9 (1 #cch2 physical conditions =1 #cch2 limit$ 9 p[]1 #cjf2 sp>sity (1 on ! e>?1 #cjf2 t5ds to arre/ dissipation ( en]gy1 #cad2 its orig9 a pseudo-problem1 #ccg4 ,life-sub/ance1 ! primitive1 #cja4 ,locomotion1 #beh4 ,loeb & ! associative memory1 #aee2 & artificial p>!nog5esis1 #agf2 me*anism & life1 #abg2 /]eotropism1 #ai2 !ory ( tropisms1 #add2 tropi/ic movem5ts1 #adf2 !ories ( h]$ity1 #aha4 ,limit1 ! ma!matical1 #cdf4 ,limits to p]ceptual activity1 #bc4 ,l9ks1 miss+1 #beb4 ,l9nean species1 #bja4 ,manifoldness1 int5sive1 #cjb4 ,mass1 #cec4 ,mass action1 #adj4 ,mat]ialism1 #he4 ,ma!matics1 evades consid]ation ( "t1 #ce4 ,matt]1 #cec2 in]t1 #cge2 notion ( is an intuitive "o1 #ceb4 ,maxwell1 & sort+ demons1 #aaf1 #cgg4 ,may[1 & *emical physiology1 #abf4 ,me*anical "w1 done by ! animal1 #fg2 n done by ! plant1 #ga4 ,me*anism1 organic & inorganic1 #gh2 ! !rmodynamic1 #ff2 radical1 #bae2 9 life1 #aba4 ,membranes1 semi-p]meable1 #ie4 ,memory1 #ci2 a possible c]ebral me*anism (1 #aeh2 me*ani/ic hypo!ses impossible1 #aeg4 ,m5delism1 #aif2 a logical hypo!sis1 #aii2 t]m9ology is a symbolism1 #aih2 analogy ( unit *>act]s ) *emical radicles1 #aig2 transmission ( *>act]s (1 #bcj4 ,mesod]m1 #agg2 orig9 (1 #bee4 ,metabolism1 #cg1 #hh1 #bji2 analytic1 #bfi2 ( animals1 #fe1 #fg2 con/ructive1 #bfi2 de/ructive1 #bfi2 direction (1 #fi2 9 gre5 plant1 #gj1 #ge2 intra-cellul>1 #ii2 integration ( its activities1 #aaa2 rle ( oxyg5 91 #aje2 specialisation ( dur+ evolution1 #cje2 syn!tic1 #bfi4 ,metaphysics ( sci5ce1 #de4 ,metazoan animals1 #afb4 ,mitosis1 #ahb4 ,mobility1 organic1 #bfi2 /ructural adaptations t5d+ to1 #bge4 ,modifications ( /ructure adaptive & non-adaptive1 #bea4 ,molecules1 #cec2 size (1 #aaf2 9 a gas1 #aae2 aggregations (1 #ajh4 ,molluscs1 morphology (1 #bdi4 ,morgan1 & physico-*emical me*anisms1 #abh1 #adc4 ,morphog5esis1 #beg4 ,morphological evolution1 t5d5cies (1 #bie4 ,morphological /ructures deg5]ation (1 #bea2 suppression (1 #bej2 coalesc5ce (1 #bej2 replacem5t (1 #bej2 specialisation (1 #bej2 *ange ( function (1 #bea4 ,morphology1 #bji2 a basis ( classification1 #baj2 relates gr\ps ( organisms1 #baa2 di/9ctions (1 n absolute1 #bhe1 #bij2 g5]alis$1 #bej2 sugge/s blood relation%ips1 #bac2 s*emata (1 #bdi1 #bia2 _c be consid]$ ap>t f physiology1 #bhe4 ,mosaic-!ory ( developm5t1 #aca4 ,motion n an intellectual concept1 #bg2 n consid]$ 9 ,euclidean or ,c>tesian geometry1 #bf2 bodily motion is absolute1 #bd2 outside ourselves is relative1 #bd4 ,motor-habits1 #ch1 #aee4 ,multicellul> organisms1 evolution (1 #bbc4 ,muscul> contraction1 #ajd2 metabolism 91 #ajd2 heat production 91 #ajd4 ,muscul> & n]v\s organs1 #bge4 ,musculature & weight ( body1 #bge4 ,mutations1 #ahi2 ess5tial nature (1 #aic2 causes (1 #bjj2 mu/ be co-ord9at$1 #bca2 physical model (1 #aib2 ! mat]ial = selection1 #bcj4 ,ngeli1 & autonomy 9 developm5t1 #afj4 ,natural selection1 #bbh2 g5]ality (1 #bbi2 a sl[ process1 #bcj4 ,nebul1 #cae4 ,nebul> hypo!sis1 #bif4 ,n]ve impulses1 #ajj2 velocity (1 #aja2 integration (1 #bgc4 ,n]v\s sy/em1 #bgb2 9 co-ord9ation ( activities1 #aga2 pa?s 91 #aeg4 ,n]v\s activity1 #ajg2 metabolism 91 #ajg2 electric *anges 91 #ajg2 influ5ce ( metabolism on1 #ig4 ,no?+1 a pseudo-idea1 #ah4 ,nucleus1 evolution (1 #bbb2 division (1 #acj1 #ahb4 ,ontog5etic /ages1 #bee4 ,ord]s ( individuality1 #aga4 ,organism1 def9ition (1 #cca2 analysis ( its activities1 #aji2 animal & plant1 #gf2 consid]$ en]getically1 #gg2 ! dom9ant1 #beh2 a function ( ! environm5t1 #baf2 a me*anism1 #ea2 ! primitive1 #bbb2 a physico-*emical sy/em1 #fe2 a !rmodynamic me*anism1 #ajd4 ,organic *emical syn!ses1 #cag4 ,organisation 9 developm5t1 #acg4 ,organ-rudim5ts1 #beg4 ,osmosis1 #ie1 #ii4 ,o/racod]ms1 #bia4 ,o/wald on catalysis1 #ia4 ,ovum1 developm5t (1 #abi2 maturation (1 #aih1 #bci2 an int5sive manifoldness1 #cjb4 ,oxidases1 #aje4 ,oxyg5 9 metabolism1 #fi4 ,pa91 ,b]gson on1 #bha4 ,palontology1 #baj2 relates gr\ps ( organisms1 #baa4 ,pang5esis1 #aha4 ,p>amcium1 division (1 #agc1 #age2 responses (1 #d4 ,p>asitism1 #bei2 t5ds to immobility1 #bij4 ,p>!nog5esis1 #agf2 artificial1 #agf4 ,p>ticles1 #cef4 ,pect51 eye (1 #bcc4 ,p]ception n m]ely physical /imulation1 #g2 involves effector activity1 #g2 involves delib]ative action1 #i2 arises f act+1 #ej2 & *oice ( response1 #aee2 is unfamili> c]ebral activity1 #h2 skeletonises consci\sness1 #dj4 ,p]id9ians1 #gg1 #afc2 di/ribution (1 #bfj4 ,p]sonal equation1 #de4 ,p]sonality1 #afg2 an intuition1 #afg2 division (1 #agc2 is absolute1 #dh4 ,pflg]1 & exp]im5tal embryology1 #aca4 ,phases 9 physical sy/ems & organic sy/ems1 #cba2 9 trans=m+ sy/ems1 #cjh4 ,ph5om5alism1 #df4 ,photosyn!sis1 #gj1 #gf1 #hf4 ,phototaxis1 #add4 ,phyla animal1 #bdg2 morphology (1 #bdg2 relations betwe51 #beb2 ance/ries (1 #beb4 ,phylog5ies1 #bec2 are summ>ies ( morphological results1 #bed2 indicative ( directions ( evolution1 #bed2 crit]ia (1 #bec4 ,phylog5y1 #bdf4 ,phylum1 #baj4 ,physical basis ( life1 #hd4 ,physico-*emical reactions1 #hj2 are direct$1 #aah2 ! means ( developm5t & behavi\r 9 ! organism1 #afj4 ,physico-psy*ical p>allelism1 #afj4 ,physics1 a /ati/ical sci5ce1 #aaf1 #cgg4 ,physiology ,gal5ic1 #abb2 an analysis ( organic activity1 #abj1 #cbh4 ,plants1 geological hi/ory (1 #bfa2 *>act]is$ by immobility1 #bgg2 contra/$ ) animals1 #bgg4 ,platonic ideas1 #bjd4 ,platyhelm9?s1 morphology (1 #bdh4 ,poikilo!rmic animals1 #fh4 ,po9c>1 & ,br[nian movem5t1 #aai4 ,pol> bodies1 #aih4 ,polyzoa1 #afd4 ,porif]a1 #bdh4 ,pot5tial1 #fa4 ,pot5tial en]gy1 #eh1 #aad4 ,pre=mation an embryological hypo!sis1 #abh4 ,probability1 #cej4 ,proteids1 dige/ion (1 #ij4 ,proto-=ms1 #bed4 ,protoplasm1 nature (1 #ajf2 artificial1 #ajf2 dis9tegration (1 #ajg2 activities (1 #ajg2 simil> 9 plant & animal1 #bid4 ,protozoa1 #bdg2 behavi\r (1 #bic4 ,pt]odactyls1 #bgd4 ,races 79 specific gr\ps71 #aid4 ,radiation1 #cee2 ( sun1 #ea2 trans=mation ( en]gy (1 #eg4 ,radio-activity1 #ef1 #cei4 ,reality1 objective1 #dc4 ,reception1 #c2 organs (1 #bga2 by specialis$ s5se-organs1 #aa4 ,recessiv5ess1 ,m5delian1 #aif4 ,reflex action1 #d1 #bgb2 concat5at$1 #aej2 a complex s]ies ( actions1 #f2 n necess>ily accompani$ by p]ception1 #aee2 ! basis ( in/9cts1 #aej2 a s*ematic description1 #e2 9 decapitat$ frog1 #f2 frictionless c]ebral activity1 #h2 involves a limit$ "p ( ! environm5t1 #ej4 ,reflex arcs1 #bgb4 ,reg5]ation1 #adb2 9 ,hydra1 #afd2 9 sea-ur*9 embryo1 #afd2 9 ,plan>ia1 #afd4 ,regression1 #ahi4 ,re9ke1 & /ructure ( protoplasm1 #ajf4 ,re9tegration 9 developm5t1 #aga4 ,rejuv5esc5ce1 #age4 ,releas+ ag5cies1 #aeg4 ,reproduction1 #afg2 asexual1 #age2 by brood-=mation1 #agc2 by conjugation1 #agc2 sexual1 #agd2 by division1 #agb2 comp>$ ) m9t+ ma*9e1 #bdb2 ( ! tissues1 #ahj4 ,responses ( organisms1 #bag2 direct$1 #bfi2 ( magnet1 #bgi2 ( gre5 plant1 #bgi4 ,rev]sibility1 physical1 #cfi4 ,rodewald1 *emical nature ( protoplasm1 #ajf4 ,r\x1 exp]im5tal embryology1 #aca2 developm5t ! production ( a visible manifoldness1 #cjg4 ,saliva1 secretion (1 #if4 ,saliv>y gl&s1 metabolism (1 #if4 ,saliv>y secretion1 n a purely me*ani/ic process1 #aab4 ,sea1 n really ri* 9 life1 #cjf4 ,sea-ur*9 ga/rula1 #agj4 ,secretion describ$ me*ani/ically1 #ih4 ,secretion1 psy*ical1 #ii4 ,segm5tation ( ! ovum1 #abi4 ,selection1 natural1 #bbh2 f fluctuat+ v>iations1 #ahi2 f mutations1 #aij4 ,semon1 mnemic hypo!sis ( h]$ity1 #aha4 ,s5esc5ce1 #age4 ,s5sation1 #b2 analysis (1 #ac4 ,s5se-receptors & ! idea ( matt]1 #ceb4 ,s5sori-motor sy/em1 #bgj2 dom9ant 9 animals1 #bga1 #bgc2 specialisation (1 #bga1 #bgc2 ess5tially ! same 9 all animals1 #bid2 abs5t 9 plants1 #bfi2 ve/igial 9 "s p>asites1 #bij4 ,sexuality1 #agd4 ,siphonophores1 reg5]ation 91 #afc4 ,size ( animals1 #bgd4 ,skeleton ( v]tebrates1 #bgf2 ( ar?ropods1 #bgf2 & mobility1 #bgf4 ,soddy1 & *emical en]gy1 #cfa4 ,soma1 #agi2 evolution (1 #bbc4 ,space1 =m (1 #ah2 #c-;dim5sional1 #ah2 #c-;dim5sional space an intuition1 #ai2 #b-;dim5sional1 #ai2 ! =m (1 dep5ds on modes ( activity1 #ba1 #be4 ,species1 are categories ( /ructure1 #bja2 comp>ison ) ,platonic ideas1 #bjd2 crit]ia (1 #bjb2 elem5t>y1 #aic2 are intellectual con/ructions1 #bjc2 individuality (1 #bjc2 ,l9nean1 #bja1 #bhi2 are phases 9 an evolution>y flux1 #bjf2 are families 9 ! human s5se1 #bjh2 sy/ematic1 #bja4 ,specific organisation1 /ability (1 #ahf4 ,/ahl1 & ! phlogi/ic hypo!sis1 #abf2 & vitalism1 #abf4 ,/imuli1 elem5tal1 #aea2 physico-*emical1 #aea2 =mative1 #agf2 complex auditory1 #aeb2 integration (1 #aeb2 individualis$1 #aeb1 #bgj2 contractile1 #ajc4 ,/imulus & response1 functionality (1 #aeb4 ,sub/antia physica1 #df1 #cee4 ,surface t5sion1 #aje1 #ajf4 ,susp5soids1 #ajh4 ,sylvius1 ! organism a *emical me*anism1 #abe4 ,symbiosis1 #gg4 ,symbiotic organisms1 #hh4 ,synapses1 9 c5tral n]v\s sy/em1 #aeh1 #bgb4 ,syn!tic *emi/ry1 #bcf1 #cag4 ,sy/em1 isolat$1 #fc4 ,sy/ems 9 developm5t equipot5tial1 #aci2 h>moni\s equipot5tial1 #aci2 complex equipot5tial1 #adj4 ,taxis1 #add2 no p]ception 91 #aee4 ,telegraphy1 wireless1 #cee4 ,temp]ature ( sun1 #ef2 ( space1 #eg4 ,!rmodynamics1 #ea2 #a/ law (1 #ea2 #bnd law (1 #ed1 #fc1 #cji1 #caf2 & ,maxwell's demons1 #aah2 laws ( subject to limitations1 #aae4 ,!rmodynamical me*anism1 ! organism n a1 #fi4 ,?omson1 ,w41 dissipation ( en]gy1 #aac4 ,"t a s]ies ( /&>d ev5ts1 #bh2 a/ronomical1 #cd2 "t diff]5tials1 #cd4 ,tissues1 evolution (1 #bbc4 ,tools1 nature (1 #bhe2 use ( mu/ be le>n$1 #bhe2 bodily1 #bhe4 ,tox9s1 #cf4 ,trans=mism1 #bac4 ,trematodes1 l>val /ages (1 #afe4 ,trial & error1 #bic2 9 reason+1 #bic2 a hypo!sis ( animal movem5ts1 #aej4 ,trigg] reactions1 #hg4 ,trilobites1 an anci5t gr\p1 #bfa4 ,tropisms1 #add2 9 plants1 #bfi1 #bgi2 9 mo?s1 #bhj2 & natural selection1 #adg2 & movem5ts ( cat]pill>s1 #adf2 an inadequate basis = a !ory ( animal movem5ts1 #adg4 ,tunicates1 suppress$ noto*ord (1 #bej4 ,unavailable en]gy & entropy1 #cge2 t5d5cy to increase (1 #cge4 ,unicellul> organisms1 en]gy-trans=mations 91 #agg4 ,unit-*>act]s1 #bcj4 ,van't ,h(f's law1 #bah4 ,v>iability1 #agb1 #ahf2 cont9u\s1 #ahh2 discont9u\s1 #ahh2 examples (1 #ahg2 & ! environm5t1 #ahi2 indep5d5t ( ! environm5t1 #bci2 & gr[?1 #ahh2 t5d5cies (1 #bce4 ,v>iation1 rate ( 7ma!matical71 #cdd2 9 biology1 #ahf2 atavi/ic1 #aie2 direction (1 #bcc2 fluctuat+1 #ahi2 mu/ be co-ord9at$1 #bca2 ma!matical probability ( co-ord9ation ( #bcc2 ! mat]ial = selection1 #bbi2 orig9 (1 #bcj2 select$ by ! organism1 #bcg2 cause (1 a pseudo-problem1 #bdb2 arise de novo1 #bdd4 ,v>iables 7ma!matical71 #cdc4 ,v>ieties1 specific1 #aid4 ,vegetable life1 #bfe4 ,v]tebrates1 #bdi2 adaptations secur+ mobility1 #bge2 ance/ry (1 #bec2 morphology (1 #bdi2 a dom9ant gr\p1 #bei2 di/ribution (1 #bfj4 ,v]worn1 & me*anism 9 life1 #abg4 ,vesalius1 anatomical s*ool (1 #aba4 ,vital activities1 integration (1 #abh2 co-ord9ation (1 #aga4 de ,vries & mutations1 #aia2 fluctuat+ v>iations inh]it$1 #bbj4 ,vital =ce1 #cah4 ,van d] ,waal's equation1 #cjh4 ,web]'s law1 #af2 a quasi-ma!matical relation1 #ag4 ,weismann1 hypo!sis ( h]$ity1 #ahb2 hypo!sis ( g]m9al selection1 #bda2 hypo!sis ( developm5t1 #acb2 mosaic-!ory1 #aca2 pre=mation hypo!sis1 #acc2 hypo!sis ( ! g]m-plasm1 cont9uity ( ! g]m-plasm1 #aha2 g]m9al *anges inconceivable1 #bbd2 size ( biophors1 #ahc2 orig9 ( life1 #cci2 spontane\s g5]ation a logical necessity1 #cci4 ,weismannism1 a s]ies ( logical hypo!ses1 #cbj2 physico-*emical analogies1 & subsidi>y hypo!ses1 #bbc4 ,:ales1 an unsuccessful l9e ( evolution1 #bgd4 ,:itehead1 & ma!matical reason+1 #cdg4 ,wilson1 mosaic-!ory ( developm5t1 #aci4 ,y]kes1 & behavi\r ( cru/acea1 #bic4 ,zymog5s1 #ib4 ,zymoids1 #id4 ,,pr9t$ ,,by ,,turnbull ,,& ,,spe>s1 ,,ed9burgh ,spell+ corrections3 animo-acids am9o-acids animo-sub/ances am9o-sub/ances diff]5 tk9ds diff]5t k9ds algae alg organsim organism 7x#b7 diffusbility diffusibility m>joity majority hy?o!sis hypo!sis execretory excretory conconsid]$ consid]$