,transcriber's ,note ,when italics were used in the original book1 the corresponding text has been surrounded by underscores4 ,some corrections have been made to the printed text4 ,these are listed in a second transcriber's note at the end of the text4 ,,physical ,,geography4 ,,by ,,mary ,,somerville1 ,,author ,,of ,,the 8,,connection ,,of ,,the ,,physical ,,sciences10 8,,mechanism ,,of ,,the ,,heavens10 ,,etc41 ,,etc4 ,,second ,,american1 ,,from ,,the ,,new ,,and ,,revised ,,london ,,edition4 ,,with ,,additions ,,and ,a ,,glossary ,,prepared ,,for ,,this ,,edition4 ---------------------------- ,,philadelphia3 ,,lea ,,blanchard4 #ahej4 ,,entered1 according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahdi1 by ,,lea ,,blanchard1 in the ,clerk's ,office1 of the ,district ,court of the ,eastern ,district of ,pennsylvania4 ,,to ,,sir ,,john ,f4 ,w4 ,,herschel1 ,,bart41 ,k4,h41 c41 c4 ,,dear ,,sir ,,john1 ,i avail myself with pleasure of your permission to dedicate my book to you1 as it gives me an opportunity of expressing my admiration of your talents1 and my sincere estimation of your friendship4 ,i remain1 with great regard1 ,yours truly1 ,,mary ,,somerville4 ,london1 #bith ,february1 #ahdh4 ,,advertisement4 ,,the improvements and additions embodied in the new ,london edition are fully enumerated in the ,author's ,preface4 ,the ,american publishers have supplied what was much needed1 a complete ,glossary of ,scientific and ,technical ,terms2 which1 with some few additions scattered through the pages1 and enclosed in brackets 1 were prepared by ,dr4 ,ruschenberger4 ,these additions1 while they have improved the work1 have added materially to the number and size of the pages4 ,the publishers1 consequently1 trust that it will be found more effectually suited to the wants of the private reader as well as to those of the higher classes in schools4 ,philadelphia1 ,december1 #ahdi4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,new ,,edition4 ,,since the publication of the first edition of this work1 the ,author has been able to correct many inaccuracies that had crept into it1 and to collect much new matter from works since published1 which is embodied in the present edition1 and has considerably added to its size4 ,the recently-published ,second ,volume of ,baron ,humboldt's invaluable 8,cosmos10#a with ,colonel ,sabine's learned notes1 and sundry papers that have appeared in the scientific periodicals of ,europe1 ,america1 and ,india1 bearing on questions of ,physical ,geography1 have yielded profitable information4 ,it was the ,author's wish1 and her ,publisher's intention1 that the present edition should be accompanied by a series of ,maps to illustrate the more important questions of ,physical ,geography treated of in it2 but ,mr4 ,a4 ,keith ,johnston having announced the publication of a new edition of his 8,physical ,atlas0 in a reduced size1 at a low price1#b the first two ,nos4 of which have already appeared1 the project was relinquished1 in the belief that ,mr4 ,a4 ,k4 ,johnston's smaller ,atlas will furnish suitable illustrations to this work4 ,the reader will find this edition enriched with some of the results of the recent researches of ,messrs4 ,campbell1 ,thomson1 ,strachey1 and ,dr4 ,hooker in the ,himalaya1 which tend largely to elucidate the ,physical ,history of that gigantic chain4 ,the book is also indebted to ,mr4 ,pentland for some new matter1 hitherto unpublished1 on the countries of ,south ,america visited by him during his two public missions to ,peru and ,bolivia4 ,the absence of the ,author from ,england during the printing of the following sheets has obliged her to have recourse to a friend conversant with her subject to revise the press2 to him she begs to express her acknowledgments1 as well as to ,sir ,william ,jackson ,hooker1 who very kindly undertook to correct the portion of this new edition connected with ,geographical ,botany and ,vegetable ,physiology--subjects respecting which he has so much contributed to extend our knowledge4 ,captain ,beechey has been good enough to render similar service1 in revising certain passages bearing upon ,hydrography4 ,may1 #ahdi4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,of ,physical ,geography--,position of the ,earth in the ,solar ,system-- ,distance from the ,sun--,civil ,year--,inclination of ,terrestrial ,orbit--,mass of the ,sun--,distance of the ,moon--,figure and ,density of the ,earth from the ,motions of the ,moon--,figure of the ,earth from ,arcs of the ,meridian--,from ,oscillations of ,pendulum--,local ,disturbances--,mean ,density of the ,earth--,known ,depth below its ,surface--,outline of ,geology ,,page #ac ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,direction of the ,forces that raised the ,continents--,proportion of ,land and ,water--,size of the ,continents and ,islands--,outline of the ,land--,extent of ,coasts1 and proportion they bear to the ,areas of the ,continents--,elevation of the ,continents--,forms of ,mountains-- ,forms of ,rocks--,connection between ,physical ,geography of ,countries and their ,geological ,structure--,contemporaneous ,upheaval of parallel ,mountain ,chains--,parallelism of ,mineral ,veins or ,fissures--,mr4 ,hopkins's ,theory of ,fissures--,parallel ,chains similar in ,structure--,interruptions in ,continents and ,mountain ,chains--,form of the ,great ,continent--,the ,high ,lands of the ,great ,continent--,the ,atlas1 ,spanish1 ,french1 and ,german ,mountains--,the ,alps1 ,balkan1 and ,apennines--,glaciers--,geological ,notice #cg ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,the ,high ,lands of the ,great ,continent 7continued7--,the ,caucasus-- ,the ,western ,asiatic ,table-,land and its ,mountains #ed ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,the ,high ,lands of the ,great ,continent 7continued7--,the ,oriental ,table-,land and its ,mountains #eh ,,chapter ,v4 ,secondary ,mountain ,systems of the ,great ,continent--,that of ,scandinavia--,great ,britain and ,ireland--,the ,ural ,mountains--,the ,great ,northern ,plain #fi ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,the ,southern ,low ,lands of the ,great ,continent1 with their ,secondary ,table-,lands and ,mountains #gg ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,africa--,table-,land--,cape of ,good ,hope and ,eastern ,coast--,western ,coast--,abyssinia--,senegambia--,low ,lands and ,deserts #he ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,american ,continent--,the ,mountains of ,south ,america--,the ,andes--,the ,mountains of the ,parima and ,brazil #ic ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,the ,low ,lands of ,south ,america--,desert of ,patagonia--,the ,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres--,the ,silvas of the ,amazons--,the ,llanos of the ,orinoco and ,venezuela--,geological ,notice #aje ,,chapter ,x4 ,central ,america--,west ,indian ,islands--,geological ,notice #aad ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,north ,america--,table-,land and ,mountains of ,mexico--,the ,rocky ,mountains--,the ,maritime ,chain and ,mountains of ,russian ,america #aai ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,north ,america 7continued7--,the ,great ,central ,plains1 or ,valley of the ,mississippi--,the ,alleghany ,mountains--,the ,atlantic ,slope--,the ,atlantic ,plain--,geological ,notice--,the ,mean ,height of the ,continents #abc ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,the ,continent of ,australia--,tasmania1 or ,van ,diemen's ,land-- ,islands--,continental ,islands--,pelasgic islands--,new ,zealand--,new ,guinea--,borneo--,atolls--,encircling ,reefs--,coral ,reefs--,barrier ,reefs-- ,volcanic ,islands--,areas of ,subsidence and ,elevation in the ,bed of the ,pacific--,active ,volcanos--,earthquakes--,secular ,changes in the ,level of the ,land #acf ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,arctic ,lands--,greenland--,spitzbergen--,icela nd--,its ,volcanic ,phenomena and ,geysers--,jan ,mayen's ,land--,new ,siberian ,islands--,antarctic ,lands--,victoria ,continent #aei ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,nature and ,character of ,mineral ,veins--,metalliferous ,deposits-- ,mines--,their ,drainage and ,ventilation--,their ,depth--,diffusion of the ,metals--,gold--,silver--,lead--,british ,mines--,quicksilver--,copper--,tin-- ,cornish ,mines--,coal--,iron--,most abundant in the ,temperate ,zones1 especially in the ,northern--,european and ,british ,iron and ,coal-- ,american ,iron and ,coal--,arsenic and other ,metals--,salt--,sulphur-- ,diffusion of the ,gems #afh ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,the ,ocean--,its ,size1 ,colour1 ,pressure1 and ,saltness--,tides--,waves-- their ,height and ,force--,currents--their ,effect on ,voyages-- ,temperature--,the ,stratum of ,constant ,temperature--,line of ,maximum ,temperature--,north and ,south ,polar ,ice--,inland ,seas #ahh ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,springs--,basins of the ,ocean--,origin1 ,course1 and ,heads of ,rivers-- ,hydraulic ,systems of ,europe--,african ,rivers--the ,nile1 ,niger1 c4 #bji ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,asiatic ,rivers--,euphrates and ,tigris--,river ,systems ,south of the ,himalaya--,chinese ,rivers--,siberian ,rivers #bbd ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,river ,systems of ,north ,america--,rivers of ,central ,america--,rivers of ,south ,america and of ,australia #bcd ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,lakes--,northern ,system of the ,great ,continent--,mountain ,system of the same--,american ,lakes #bde ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,temperature of the earth--,temperature of the ,air--,radiation--,foci of ,maximum ,cold--,thermal ,equator--,its ,temperature1 mean and absolute-- ,isothermal ,lines--,continental and ,insular ,climates--,extreme ,climates--,stability of ,climate--,decrease of ,heat in ,altitude--,line of ,perpetual ,snow--,density of the ,atmosphere--,the ,barometer-- ,measurement of ,heights--,variations in ,density and their ,causes-- ,horary ,variations--,independent ,effect of the dry and aqueous ,atmospheres--,mean height of ,barometer in different ,latitudes-- ,depression in the ,antarctic ,ocean and in ,eastern ,siberia-- ,barometric ,storms--,polar and ,equatorial ,currents of ,air-- ,trade-,winds--,monsoons--,land and ,sea ,breezes--,gyration of the ,winds in the ,extra-,tropical ,zones--,winds in ,middle ,european ,latitudes-- ,hurricanes--,the ,laws of their ,motion--,their ,effect on the ,barometer--,how to steer clear of them--,the ,storm-,wave-- ,storm-,currents--,arched ,squalls--,tornadoes--,whirlwinds--,wate r ,spouts #bed ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,evaporation--,distribution of ,vapour--,dew--,hoar-,frost--,fog--,regi on of ,clouds--,forms of ,clouds--,rain--,distribution of ,rain--,quantity--,number of rainy ,days in different ,latitudes--,rainless ,districts--,snow ,crystals--,line of perpetual ,snow--,limit of ,winter ,snow on the ,plains--,sleet--,hail--,minuteness of the ultimate ,particles of ,matter-- ,their ,densities and ,forms--,their ,action on ,light--,colour of ,bodies-- ,colour of the ,atmosphere--,its ,absorption and ,reflection of ,light-- ,mirage--,fog ,images--,coron and ,halos--,the ,rainbow--,iris in ,dewdrops-- ,the ,polarization of the ,atmosphere--,atmospheric ,electricity--,its ,variations--,electricity of ,fogs and ,rain--,inductive ,action of the ,earth--,lightning--,thunder--,distribut ion of ,thunder-,storms--,back ,stroke--,st4 ,elmo's ,fire--,phosphorescence--,aurora--,magne tism-- ,terrestrial ,magnetism--,the ,dip--,magnetic ,poles and ,equator--,magnetic ,intensity--,dynamic ,equator--,declination--,magnetic ,meridian--,lines of equal ,variation--,horary ,variations--,line of ,alternate ,horary ,phenomena--,magnetic ,storms--,coincidence of the ,lines of equal ,magnetic ,intensity with ,mountain ,chains--,diamagnetism #bgb ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,vegetation--,nourishment and ,growth of ,plants--,effects of the different ,rays of the ,solar ,spectrum--,classes--,botanical ,districts #bih ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,vegetation of the ,great ,continent--,of the ,arctic ,islands--,and of the ,arctic and ,north ,temperate ,regions of ,europe and ,asia #cab ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,flora of ,tropical ,asia--,of the ,indian ,archipelago1 ,india1 and ,arabia #cbc ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,african ,flora--,flora of ,australia1 ,new ,zealand1 ,norfolk ,island1 and of ,polynesia #ccj ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,american ,vegetation--,flora of ,north1 ,central1 and ,south ,america-- ,antarctic ,flora--,origin and ,distribution of the ,cerealia--,ages of ,trees--,marine ,vegetation #cda ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,distribution of ,insects #cfc ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,distribution of ,marine ,animals in general--,fishes--,the ,marine ,mammalia--,phoc1 ,dolphins1 and ,whales #cfh ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,distribution of ,reptiles--,frogs and ,toads--,snakes1 ,saurians1 and ,tortoises #chc ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,distribution of ,birds in the ,arctic ,regions--,in ,europe1 ,asia1 ,africa1 ,america1 and the ,antarctic ,regions #cib ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,distribution of ,mammalia throughout the ,earth #dab ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,the ,distribution1 ,condition1 and future ,prospects of the ,human ,race #dcf ,,appendix4 ,table of ,heights above the ,sea of some of the ,principal ,mountain ,chains #dge ,,glossary #dhg ,,index #ebg ,,physical ,,geography4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,geology4 ,of ,physical ,geography--,position of the ,earth in the ,solar ,system--,distance from the ,sun--,civil ,year--,inclination of ,terrestrial ,orbit--,mass of the ,sun--,distance of the ,moon--,figure and ,density of the ,earth from the ,motions of the ,moon--,figure of the ,earth from ,arcs of the ,meridian--from ,oscillations of ,pendulum--,local ,disturbances--,mean ,density of the ,earth-- ,known ,depth below its ,surface--,outlines of ,geology4 ,,physical ,geography is a description of the earth1 the sea1 and the air1 with their inhabitants animal and vegetable1 of the distribution of these organized beings1 and the causes of that distribution4 ,political and arbitrary divisions are disregarded1 the sea and the land are considered only with respect to those great features that have been stamped upon them by the hand of the ,almighty1 and man himself is viewed but as a fellow-inhabitant of the globe with other created things1 yet influencing them to a certain extent by his actions1 and influenced in return4 ,the effects of his intellectual superiority on the inferior animals1 and even on his own condition by the subjection of some of the most powerful agents in nature to his will1 together with the other causes which have had the greatest influence on his physical and moral state1 are among the most important subjects of this science4 ,the former state of our terrestrial habitation1 the successive convulsions which have ultimately led to its present geographical arrangement1 and to the actual distribution of land and water1 so powerfully influential on the destinies of mankind1 are circumstances of primary importance4 ,the position of the earth with regard to the sun1 and its connection with the bodies of the solar system1 have been noticed by the author elsewhere4 ,it was there shown that our globe forms but an atom in the immensity of space1 utterly invisible from the nearest fixed star1 and scarcely a telescopic object to the remote planets of our system4 ,the increase of temperature with the depth below the surface of the earth1 and the tremendous desolation hurled over wide regions by numerous fire-breathing mountains1 show that man is removed but a few miles from immense lakes or seas of liquid fire4 ,the very shell on which he stands is unstable under his feet1 not only from those temporary convulsions that seem to shake the globe to its centre1 but from a slow almost imperceptible elevation in some places1 and an equally gentle subsidence in others1 as if the internal molten matter were subject to secular tides1 now heaving and now ebbing1 or that the subjacent rocks were in one place expanded and in another contracted by changes of temperature4 ,the earthquake and the torrent1 the august and terrible ministers of ,almighty ,power1 have torn the solid earth and opened the seals of the most ancient records of creation1 written in indelible characters on the 8perpetual hills and the everlasting mountains40 ,there we read of the changes that have brought the rude mass to its present fair state1 and of the myriads of beings that have appeared on this mortal stage1 have fulfilled their destinies1 and have been swept from existence to make way for new races1 which1 in their turn1 have vanished from the scene1 till the creation of man completed the glorious work4 ,who shall define the periods of those mornings and evenings when ,god saw that his work was good8 and who shall declare the time allotted to the human race1 when the generations of the most insignificant insect existed for unnumbered ages8 ,yet man is also to vanish in the ever-changing course of events4 ,the earth is to be burnt up1 and the elements are to melt with fervent heat--to be again reduced to chaos--possibly to be renovated and adorned for other races of beings4 ,these stupendous changes may be but cycles in those great laws of the universe1 where all is variable but the laws themselves1 and ,he who has ordained them4 ,the earth is one of seventeen planets which revolve about the sun in elliptical orbits3 of these1 twelve have been discovered since the year #aghg4c ,mercury and ,venus are nearer the sun than the earth1 the others are more remote4 ,the earth revolves at a mean distance of #ie1jjj1jjj miles from the sun's centre1 in a civil year of #cfe days #e hours #dh minutes #dig seconds1 at the same time that it rotates in #bd hours about an axis which always remains parallel to itself1 and inclined at an angle of #bc #bg #cdfi to the plane of the ecliptic2 consequently1 the days and nights are of equal length at the equator1 from whence their length progressively differs more and more as the latitude increases1 till at each pole alternately there is perpetual day for six months1 and a night of the same duration3 thus the light and heat are very unequally distributed1 and both are modified by the atmosphere by which the earth is encompassed to the height of about forty miles4 ,with regard to magnitude1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus1 and ,neptune are larger than the earth1 the rest are smaller1 but even the largest is incomparably inferior to the sun in size3 his mass is #ced1icf times greater than that of the earth1 but the earth is nearly four times as dense4 ,though the planets disturb the earth in its motion1 their form has no effect on account of their great distance2 but it is otherwise with regard to the moon1 which revolves about the earth at a mean distance of #bdj1jjj miles1 and is therefore so near that the form of both bodies causes mutual disturbances in their respective motions4 ,the perturbations in the moon's motions from that cause1 compared with the same computed from theory1 show that the earth is not a perfect sphere1 but that it bulges at the equator1 and is flattened at the poles3 it even gives a value of the compression or flattening4#d ,again1 theory shows that1 if the earth were throughout of the same density1 it would be much less flat at the poles than the moon's motions show it to be1 but that it would be very nearly the same were the earth to increase regularly in density from the surface to its centre2 and thus the lunar motions not only make known the form1 but reveal the internal structure of the globe4 ,actual measurement has proved the truth of these results4 ,the courses of the great rivers1 which are generally navigable to a considerable extent1 show that the curvature of the land differs but little from that of the ocean2 and as the heights of the mountains and continents are inconsiderable when compared with the magnitude of the earth1 its figure is understood to be determined by a surface at every point perpendicular to the direction of gravitation1 or of the plumb-line1 and is the same which the sea would have if it were continued all round the earth beneath the continents4 ,such is the figure that has been measured in various parts of the globe4 ,a terrestrial meridian is a line passing through both poles1 all the points of which have their noon contemporaneously1 and a degree of a meridian is its #cfjth part4 ,now1 if the earth were a sphere1 all degrees would be of the same length2 but1 as it is flattened at the poles1 the degrees are longest there1 and decrease in length to the equator1 where they are least4 ,the form and size of the earth may therefore be determined by comparing the length of degrees in different latitudes4#e ,eleven arcs have been measured in ,europe1 one in ,peru1 and two in the ,east ,indies2 but a comparison of no two gives the same result1 which shows that the earth has a slightly irregular form4 ,from a mean of ten of these arcs1 ,m4 ,bessel found that the equatorial radius of the earth is #cifcjbe miles1 and the polar radius #cidih miles nearly4 ,whence1 assuming the earth to be a sphere1 the length of a mean degree of the meridian is #fije ,british statute miles2 therefore #cfj degrees1 or the whole circumference of the globe1 is #bd1heh miles2 the diameter1 which is something less than a third of the circumference1 is about #hbhf1 or #hjjj statute miles2 and the length of a geographical mile of #fj to a degree is #fjhfgf feet4 ,the breadth of the torrid zone is #gje geographical miles1 the breadth of each of the temperate zones is #fde miles1 and that of each of the spaces within the arctic and antarctic circles #aa1dca miles nearly4 ,the ,astronomer ,royal ,mr4 ,airy's results1 obtained ten years afterwards1 only differ from those of ,m4 ,bessel by #abg feet in the equatorial1 and #ach feet in the polar radius1 quantities not greater than the length of a ball-room4 ,in consequence of the round form of the earth1 the dip or depression of the horizon is a fathom for every three miles of distance2 that is to say1 an object a fathom or six feet high would be hid by the curvature of the earth at the distance of three miles4 ,since the dip increases as the square1 a hill #ajj fathoms high1 would be hid at the distance of ten miles1 and the top of ,dhawalagori1 the culminating point of the ,himalaya1 #bh1jjj feet high1 would be seen to sink beneath the horizon by a person about #afg miles off2 thus1 when the height is known1 an estimate can be formed of the distance of a mountain4 ,the oscillations of the pendulum have afforded another method of ascertaining the form of the earth4 ,like all heavy bodies1 its descent1 and consequently its oscillations1 are accelerated in proportion to the force of gravitation1 which increases from the equator to the poles4 ,in order1 therefore1 that the oscillations may be everywhere performed in the same time1 the length of the pendulum must be increased progressively in going from the equator to the poles1 according to a known law1#f from whence the compression or flattening at the poles may be deduced4 ,experiments for that purpose have been made in a great number of places1 but1 as in the measurement of the arcs1 no two sets give exactly the same results2 the mean of the whole1 however1 differs very little from that given by the degrees of the meridian and the perturbations of the moon2 and as the three methods are so entirely independent of each other1 the figure and dimensions of the earth may be considered to be known4 ,the sea has little effect on these experiments1 both because its mean density is less than that of the earth1 and that its mean depth of perhaps four miles is inconsiderable when compared with #djjj miles1 the mean terrestrial radius4#g ,the discrepancies in the results1 from the comparison of the different sets of pendulum experiments1 and also of degrees of the meridian1 arise from local attraction1 as well as from irregularities in the form of the earth4 ,these attractions1 arising from dense masses of rock in mountains1 cause the plumb-line to deviate from the vertical1 and when under ground they alter the oscillations of the pendulum4 ,colonel ,sabine1 who made experiments with the pendulum from the equator to within ten degrees of the north pole1 discovered that the intensity is greatly augmented by volcanic islands4 ,a variation to the amount of a tenth of a second in twenty-fours can be perfectly ascertained in the rate of the pendulum1 but from some of these local attractions a variation of nearly ten seconds has occurred during the same period4 ,the islands of ,st4 ,helena1 ,ascension1 ,st4 ,thomas1 the ,isle of ,france1 are some of those noted by ,colonel ,sabine4 ,there are other remarkable instances of local disturbance1 arising from the geological nature of the soil2 for example1 the intensity of gravitation is very small at ,bordeaux1 from whence it increases rapidly to ,clermont-,ferrand1 ,milan1 and ,padua1 where it attains a maximum 7owing probably to dense masses of rock under ground71 and from thence it extends to ,parma4 ,in consequence of this local attraction1 the degrees of the meridian in that part of ,italy seem to increase towards the equator through a small space1 instead of decreasing1 as if the earth were drawn out instead of flattened at the poles4 ,it appears from this that the effect of the whole earth on a pendulum or torsion balance may be compared with the effect of a small part of it1 and thus a comparison maybe instituted between the mass of the earth and the mass of that part of it4 ,now1 a leaden ball was weighed against the earth by comparing the effects of each upon a balance of torsion2 the nearness of the smaller mass making it produce a sensible effect as compared with that of the larger1 for by the laws of attraction the whole earth must be considered as collected in its centre2 in this manner a value of the mass of the earth was obtained1 and1 as its volume was known1 its mean density was found to be #efge times greater than that of water at the temperature of #fb of ,fahrenheit's thermometer4 ,now1 as that mean density is double that of basalt1 and more than double that of granite1 rocks which undoubtedly emanate from very great depths beneath the surface of the earth1 it affords another proof of the increase in density towards the earth's centre4 ,these experiments were first made by ,mr4 ,cavendish and ,mitchell1 and latterly with much greater accuracy by ,m4 ,baily1 who devoted four years of unremitted attention to the accomplishment of this important and difficult object4#h ,although the earth increases in density regularly from the surface to the centre1 as might naturally be expected from the increasing pressure1 yet the surface consists of a great variety of substances of different densities1 some of which occur in amorphous masses2 others are disposed in regular layers or strata1 either horizontal or inclined at all angles to the horizon4 ,by mining1 man has penetrated only a very little way2 but by reasoning from the dip or inclination of the strata at or near the surface1 and from other circumstances1 he has obtained a pretty accurate idea of the structure of our globe to the depth of about ten miles4 ,all the substances of which we have any information are divided into four classes1 distinguished by the manner in which they have been formed3 namely1--plutonic and volcanic rocks1 both of igneous origin1 though produced under different circumstances2 aqueous or stratified rocks1 entirely due to the action of water1 as the name implies2 and metamorphic rocks1 deposited by water1 according to the opinion of many eminent geologists1 and consequently stratified1 but subsequently altered and crystallized by heat4 ,the aqueous and volcanic rocks are formed at the surface of the earth1 the plutonic and metamorphic at great depths2 but all of them have originated simultaneously during every geological period1 and are now in a state of slow and constant progress4 ,the antagonist principles of fire and water have ever been and still are the cause of the perpetual vicissitudes to which the crust of the earth is liable4 ,it has been ascertained by observation that the plutonic rocks1 consisting of the granites and some of the porphyries1 were formed in the deep and fiery caverns of the earth1 of melted matter1 which crystallized as it slowly cooled under enormous pressure1 and was then heaved up in unstratified masses by the elastic force of the internal heat even to the tops of highest mountains1 or forced in a semi-fluid state into fissures of the superincumbent strata1 sometimes into the cracks of the previously formed granite3 for that rock1 which constitutes the base of so large a portion of the earth's crust1 has not been all formed at once2 some portions had been solid1 while others were yet in a liquid state4 ,this class of rocks is completely destitute of fossil remains4 ,although granite and the volcanic rocks are both due to the action of fire1 their nature and position are very different2 granite1 fused in the interior of the earth1 has been cooled and consolidated before coming to the surface2 besides1 it generally consists of few ingredients1 so that it has nearly the same character in all countries4 ,but as the volcanic fire rises to the very surface of the earth1 fusing whatever it meets with1 volcanic rocks take various forms1 not only from the different kinds of strata which are melted1 but from the different conditions under which the liquid matter has been cooled1 though most frequently on the surface--a circumstance that seems to have had the greatest effect on its appearance and structure4 ,sometimes it approaches so nearly to granite that it is difficult to perceive a distinction2 at other times it becomes glass2 in short1 all those massive1 unstratified1 and occasionally columnar rocks1 as basalt1 greenstone1 porphyry1 and serpentine1 are due to volcanic fires1 and are devoid of fossil remains4 ,there seems scarcely to have been any age of the world in which volcanic eruptions have not taken place in some part of the globe4 ,lava has pierced through every description of rocks1 spread over the surface of those existing at the time1 filled their crevices1 and flowed between their strata4 ,ever changing its place of action1 it has burst out at the bottom of the sea as well as on dry land4 ,enormous quantities of scori and ashes have been ejected from numberless craters1 and have formed extensive deposits in the sea1 in lakes1 and on the land1 in which are embedded the remains of the animals and vegetables of the epoch4 ,some of these deposits have become hard rock1 others remain in a crumbling state2 and as they alternate with the aqueous strata of almost every period1 they contain the fossils of all the geological epochs1 chiefly fresh and salt water testace4 ,according to a theory now generally adopted1 which originated with ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 whose works are models of philosophical investigation1 the metamorphic rocks1 which consist of gneiss1 micaschist1 clay-slate1 statuary marble1 c41 were formed of the sediment of water in regular layers1 differing in kind and colour1 but1 having been deposited near the place where plutonic rocks were generated1 they have been changed by the heat transmitted from the fused matter1 and1 in cooling under heavy pressure and at great depths1 they have become as highly crystallized as the granite itself1 without losing their stratified form4 ,an earthy stratum has sometimes been changed into a highly crystallized rock1 to the distance of a quarter of a mile from the point of contact1 by transmitted heat2 and there are instances of dark-coloured limestone1 full of fossil shells1 that has been changed into statuary marble from that cause4 ,such alterations may frequently be seen to a small extent on rocks adjacent to a stream of lava4 ,there is seldom a trace of organic remains in the metamorphic rocks2 their strata are sometimes horizontal1 but they are usually tilted at all angles to the horizon1 and form some of the highest mountains and most extensive table-lands on the face of the globe4 ,although there is the greatest similarity in the plutonic rocks in all parts of the world1 they are by no means identical2 they differ in colour1 and even in ingredients1 though these are few4 ,aqueous rocks are all stratified1 being the sedimentary deposits of water4 ,they originate in the wear of the land by rain1 streams1 or the ocean4 ,the dbris carried by running water is deposited at the bottom of the seas and lakes1 where it is consolidated1 and then raised up by subterraneous forces1 again to undergo the same process after a lapse of time4 ,by the wasting away of the land the lower rocks are laid bare1 and1 as the materials are deposited in different places according to their weight1 the strata are exceedingly varied1 but consist chiefly of arenaceous or sandstone rocks1 composed of sand1 clay1 and carbonate of lime4 ,they constitute three great classes1 which1 in an ascending order1 are the primary and secondary fossiliferous strata and the tertiary formations4 ,the primary fossiliferous strata1 the most ancient of all the sedimentary rocks1 consisting of limestone1 sandstones1 and shales1 are entirely of marine origin1 having been formed far from land at the bottom of a very deep ocean2 consequently1 they contain the exuvi of marine animals only1 and after the lapse of unnumbered ages the ripple-marks of the waves are still distinctly visible on some of their strata4 ,this series of rocks is subdivided into the ,cambrian and the upper and lower ,silurian systems1 on account of differences in their fossil remains4 ,the ,cambrian rocks1 sometimes many thousand yards thick1 are1 for the most part1 destitute of organic remains1 but the ,silurian rocks abound in them more and more as the strata lie higher in the series4 ,in the lower ,silurian group are the remains of shell-fish1 almost all of extinct genera1 and the few that have any affinity to those alive are of extinct species2 crinoidea1 or stone lilies1 which had been fixed to the rocks like tulips on their stems1 are coval with the earliest inhabitants of the deep2 and the trilobite1 a jointed creature of the crab kind1 with prominent eyes1 are almost exclusively confined to the ,silurian strata1 but the last traces of them are found in the coal-measures above4 ,in the upper ,silurian group are abundance of marine shells of almost every order1 together with crinoidea1 vast quantities of corals1 and some sea-weeds3 several fossil sauroid fishes1 of extinct genera1 but high organization1 have been found in the highest beds--the only vertebrated animals that have yet been discovered among the countless profusion of the lower orders of creatures that are entombed in the primary fossiliferous strata4 ,the remains of one or more land plants1 in a very imperfect state1 have been found in the ,silurian rocks of ,north ,america1 which shows that there had been land with vegetation at that early period4 ,the type of these plants1 as well as the size of the shells and the quantity of the coral1 indicate that a uniformly warm temperature had then prevailed over the globe4 ,during the ,silurian period an ocean covered the northern hemisphere1 islands and lands of moderate size had just begun to rise1 and earthquakes1 with volcanic eruptions from insular and submarine volcanos1 were frequent towards its close4 ,the secondary fossiliferous strata1 which comprise a great geological period1 and constitute the principal part of the high land of ,europe1 were deposited at the bottom of an ocean1 like the primary1 from the dbris of all the others1 carried down by water1 and still bear innumerable tokens of their marine origin1 although they have for ages formed a part of the dry land4 ,calcareous rocks are more abundant in these strata than in the crystalline1 probably because the carbonic acid was then1 as it still is1 driven off from the lower strata by the internal heat1 and came to the surface as gas or in calcareous springs1 which either rose in the sea and furnished materials for shell-fish and coral insects to build their habitations and form coral-reefs1 or deposited their calcareous matter on the land in the form of rocks4 ,the ,devonian or old red sandstone group1 in many places #aj1jjj feet thick1 consisting of strata of dark red and other sandstones1 marls1 coralline limestones1 conglomerates1 c41 is the lowest of the secondary fossiliferous strata1 and forms a link between them and the ,silurian rocks1 by an analogy in their fossil remains4 ,it has fossils peculiarly its own1 but it has also some shells and corals common to the strata both above and below it4 ,there are various families of extinct sauroid fishes in this group1 some of which were gigantic1 others had strong bony shields on their heads1 and one genus1 covered with enamelled scales1 had appendages like wings4 ,the shark approaches nearer to some of these ancient fish than any other now living4 ,during the long period of perfect tranquility that prevailed after the ,devonian group was deposited1 a very warm1 moist1 and extremely equable climate1 which extended all over the globe1 had clothed the islands and lands in the ocean then covering the northern hemisphere with exuberant tropical forests and jungles4 ,subsequent inroads of fresh water1 or of the sea1 or rather partial sinkings of the land1 had submerged these forests and jungles1 which1 being mixed with layers of sand and mud1 had in time been consolidated into one mass1 and were then either left dry by the retreat of the waters or gently raised above their surface4 ,these constitute the remarkable group of the carboniferous strata1 which consists of numberless layers of various substances filled with a prodigious quantity of the remains of fossil land-plants1 intermixed with beds of coal1 which is entirely composed of vegetable matter4 ,in some cases1 the plants appear to have been carried down by floods1 and deposited in estuaries2 but in most instances the beauty1 delicacy1 and sharpness of the impressions show that they had grown on the spot where the coal was formed4 ,more than #cjj fossil plants have been collected from the strata where they abound1 frequently with their seeds and fruits1 so that enough remains to show the peculiar nature of this flora1 whose distinguishing feature is the preponderance of ferns2 among these there were tree-ferns which must have been #dj or #ej feet high4 ,there were also plants resembling the horse-tail tribe1 of gigantic size1 others like the tropical club mosses2 an aquatic plant of an extinct family was very abundant1 beside many others to which we have nothing analogous4 ,forest-trees of great magnitude1 of the pine and fir tribes1 flourished at that period4 ,the remains of an extinct araucaria1 one of the largest of the pine family1 have been found in the ,british coal-fields2 the existing species now grow in very warm countries2 a few rare instances occur of grasses1 palms1 and liliaceous plants4 ,the botanical districts were very extensive when the coal-plants were growing1 for the species are nearly identical throughout the coal-fields of ,europe and ,america4 ,from the extent of the ocean1 the insular structure of the land1 the profusion of ferns and fir-trees1 and the warm1 moist1 and equable climate1 the northern hemisphere during the formation of the coal strata is thought to have borne a strong resemblance to the ,south ,pacific1 with its fern and fir clothed lands of ,new ,zealand1 ,kerguelen islands1 and others4 ,the animal remains of this period are in the mountain limestone1 a rock occasionally #ijj feet thick1 which in some instances lies beneath the coal-measures1 and sometimes alternates with the shale and sandstone4 ,they consist of crinoidea and marine testace1 among which the size of the chambered shells1 as well as that of the corals1 shows that the ocean was very warm at that time1 even in the high northern latitudes4 ,the footsteps of a very large reptile of the frog tribe have been found on some of the carboniferous strata of ,north ,america4 ,the coal strata have been very much broken and deranged in many places by earthquakes1 which frequently occurred during the secondary fossiliferous period1 and from time to time raised islands and land from the deep4 ,however1 these and all other changes that have taken place on the earth have been gradual and partial1 whether brought about by fire or water4 ,the older rocks are more shattered by earthquakes than the newer1 because the movement came from below2 but these convulsions have never extended all over the earth at the same time--they have always been local3 for example1 the ,silurian strata have been dislocated and tossed in ,britain1 while a vast area in the south of ,sweden and ,russia still retains a horizontal position4 ,there is no proof that any mountain-chain has ever been raised at once2 on the contrary1 the elevation has always been produced by a long-continued and reiterated succession of internal convulsions with intervals of repose4 ,in many instances the land has risen up or sunk down by an imperceptible equable motion continued for ages1 while in other places the surface of the earth has remained stationary for long geological periods4 ,the magnesian limestone1 or permian formation1 comes immediately above the coal-measures1 and consists of breccias or conglomerates1 gypsum1 sandstone1 marl1 c42 but its distinguishing feature is a yellow limestone rock1 containing carbonate of magnesia1 which often takes a granular texture1 and is then known as dolomite4 ,the permian formation has a fossil flora and fauna peculiar to itself1 mingled with those of the coal strata4 ,here the remnant of an earlier creation gradually tends to its final extinction1 and a new one begins to appear4 ,the flora is1 in many instances1 specifically the same with that in the coal strata below4 ,certain fish are also common to the two1 which never appear again4 ,they belong to a race universal in the early geological periods1 and bear a strong resemblance to saurian reptiles4 ,a small number of existing genera only1 such as the shark and sturgeon1 make some approach to the structure of these ancient inhabitants of the waters4 ,the new creation is marked by the introduction of two species of saurian reptiles2 the fossil remains of one have been found in the magnesian limestone in ,england1 and those of the other in a corresponding formation in ,germany4 ,they are the earliest members of a family which was to have dominion on the land and water for ages4 ,a series of red marls1 rock-salt1 and sandstones1 which have arisen from the disintegration of metamorphic slates and porphyritic trap1 containing oxide of iron1 and known as the trias or new red sandstone system1 lies above the magnesian limestone4 ,in ,england this formation is particularly rich in rocksalt1 which1 with layers of gypsum and marl1 is sometimes #fjj feet thick2 but in this country the muschelkalk1 a peculiar kind of shell limestone1 is wanting1 which in ,germany is so remarkable for the quantity of organic remains4 ,at this time creatures like frogs1 of enormous dimensions1 had been frequent1 as they have left their footsteps on what must then have been a soft shore4 ,forty-seven genera of fossil remains have been found in the trias in ,germany1 consisting of shells1 cartilaginous fish1 encrinites1 c41 all distinct in species1 and many distinct in genera1 from the organic fossils of the magnesian limestone below1 and also from those entombed in the strata above4 ,during a long period of tranquility the oolite or ,jurassic group was next deposited in a sea of variable depth1 and consists of sands1 sandstones1 marls1 clays1 and limestone4 ,at this time there was a complete change in the aqueous deposits all over ,europe4 ,the red iron-stained arenaceous rocks1 the black coal1 and dark strata1 were succeeded by light-blue clays1 pale-yellow limestones1 and1 lastly1 white chalk4 ,the water that deposited the strata must have been highly charged with carbonate of lime1 since few of the formations of that period are without calcareous matter1 and calcareous rocks were formed to a prodigious extent throughout ,europe2 the ,pyrenees1 ,alps1 ,apennines1 and ,balkan abound in them2 and the ,jura mountains1 which have given their name to the series1 are formed of them4 ,the ,european ocean then teemed with animal life2 whole beds consist almost entirely of marine shells and corals4 ,belemnites and ammonites1 from an inch in diameter to the size of a cart-wheel1 are entombed by myriads in the strata3 whole forests of that beautiful zoophyte the stone-lily flourished on the surface of the oolite1 then under the waters2 and the encrinite1 one of the same genus1 is embedded in millions in the enchorial shell-marble1 which occupies such extensive tracts in ,europe4 ,fossil fish are numerous in these strata1 but different from those of the coal series1 the permian formation1 and trias3 not one genus of the fish of this period is now in existence4 ,the newly-raised islands and lands were clothed with vegetation like that of the large islands of the intertropical archipelagos of the present day1 which1 though less rich than during the carboniferous period1 still indicates a very moist and warm climate4 ,ferns were less abundant1 and they were associated with various genera and species of the cicade1 which had grown on the southern coast of ,england1 and in other parts of northern ,europe1 congeners of the present cycas and zamia of the tropics4 ,these plants had been very numerous1 and the pandan1 or screw-pine1 the first tenant of the new lands in ancient and modern times1 is a family found in a fossil state in the inferior oolite of ,england1 which was but just rising from the deep at that time4 ,the species now flourishing grows only on the coasts of such coral islands in the ,pacific as have recently emerged from the waves4 ,in the upper strata of this group1 however1 the conferv and monocotyledonous plants become more rare--an indication of a change of climate4 ,the new lands that were scattered on the ocean of the oolite period were drained by rivers1 and inhabited by huge crocodiles and saurian reptiles of gigantic size1 mostly of extinct genera4 ,the crocodiles come nearest to modern reptiles2 but the others1 though bearing a remote similitude in general structure to living forms1 were quite anomalous1 combining in one the structure of various distinct creatures1 and so monstrous that they must have been more like the visions of a troubled dream than things of real existence2 yet in organization a few of them came nearer to the type of living mammalia than any existing reptiles do4 ,some of these had lived in rivers1 others in the ocean--some were inhabitants of the land1 others were amphibious2 and the various species of one genus even had wings like a bat1 and fed on insects4 ,there were both herbivorous and predaceous saurians2 and from their size and strength they must have been formidable enemies4 ,besides1 the numbers deposited are so great1 that they must have swarmed for ages in the estuaries and shallow seas of the period1 especially in the lias1 a marine stratum of clay1 the lowest of the oolite series4 ,they gradually declined towards the end of the secondary fossiliferous epoch2 but as a class they lived in all subsequent eras1 and still exist in tropical countries1 although the species are very different from their ancient congeners4 ,tortoises of various kinds were contemporary with the saurians1 also a family that still exists4 ,in the ,stonefield slate1 a stratum of the lower oolite group1 there are the remains of insects1 and the bones of two small quadrupeds have been found there belonging to the marsupial tribe1 such as the opossum--a very remarkable circumstance1 because that family of animals at the present time is confined to ,new ,holland1 ,south ,america1 and as far north as ,pennsylvania at least4 ,the great changes in animal life during this period were indications of the successive alterations that had taken place on the earth's surface4 ,the cretaceous strata follow the oolite in ascending order1 consisting of clay1 green and iron sands1 blue limestone1 and chalk1 probably formed of the decay of coral and shells1 which predominates so much in ,england and other parts of ,europe1 that it has given the name and its peculiar feature to the whole group4 ,it is1 however1 by no means universal2 the chalk is wanting in many parts of the world where the other strata of this series prevail1 and then their connection with the group can only be ascertained by the identity of their fossil remains4 ,with the exception of some beds of coal among the oolitic series1 the ,wealden clay1 the lowest of the cretaceous group in ,england1 is the only fresh-water formation1 and the tropical character of its flora shows that the climate was still very warm4 ,plants allied to the zamias and cycades of our tropical regions1 many ferns and pines of the genus araucaria1 characterized its vegetation1 and the upright stems of a fossil forest at ,portland show that it had been covered with trees4 ,it was inhabited by tortoises approaching to families now living in warm countries1 and saurian reptiles of five different genera swarmed in the lakes and estuaries4 ,this clay contains fresh-water shells and fish of the carp kind4 ,the ,wealden clay is one of the various instances of the subsidence of land which took place during this period4 ,the cretaceous strata above our ,wealden clay are full of marine exuvi4 ,there are vast tracts of sand in ,northern ,europe1 and many very extensive tracts of chalk2 but in the southern part of the ,continent the cretaceous rocks assume a different character4 ,there and elsewhere extensive limestone rocks1 filled with very peculiar shells1 show that1 when the cretaceous strata were forming1 an ocean extended from the ,atlantic into ,asia1 which covered the south of ,france1 all ,southern ,europe1 part of ,syria1 the isles of the gean ,sea1 the coasts of ,thrace and the ,troad4 ,the remains of turtles have been found in the cretaceous group1 quantities of coral1 and abundance of shells of extinct species2 some of the older kinds still existed1 new ones were introduced1 and some of the most minute species of microscopic shells1 which constitute a large portion of the chalk1 are supposed to be the same with creatures now alive1 the first instance of identity of species in the ancient and modern creation4 ,an approximation to recent times is to be observed also in the arrangement of organized nature1 since at this early period1 and even in the ,silurian and oolitic epochs1 the marine fauna was divided1 as now1 into distinct geographical provinces4 ,the great saurians were on the decline1 and many of them were found no more1 but a gigantic creature1 intermediate between the monitor and iguana1 lived at this period4 ,from the permian group to the chalk inclusive1 only two instances of fossil birds occur1 one in a chalk deposit in the ,swiss ,alps1 and the other a kind of albatross in the chalk in ,england2 in ,north ,america1 however1 the foot-marks of a variety of birds have been found in the strata between the coal and lias1 some of which are larger than those of the ostrich4 ,an immense geological cycle elapsed between the termination of the secondary fossiliferous strata and the beginning of the tertiary4 ,with the latter a new order of things commenced1 approaching more closely to the actual state of the globe4 ,during the tertiary formation the same causes under new circumstances produced an infinite variety in the order and kind of the strata1 accompanied by a corresponding change in the animal and vegetable life4 ,the old creation1 which had nothing in common with the existing order of things1 had passed away and given place to one more nearly approaching to that which now prevails4 ,among the myriads of beings that inhabited the earth and the ocean during the secondary fossiliferous epoch1 scarcely one species is to be found in the tertiary4 ,two planets could hardly differ more in their natural productions4 ,this break in the law of continuity is the more remarkable1 as hitherto some of the newly-created animals were always introduced before the older were extinguished4 ,the circumstances and climate suited to the one became more and more unfit for the other1 which consequently perished gradually1 while their successors increased4 ,it is possible that1 as observations become more extended1 this hiatus maybe filled up4 ,the series of rocks1 from the granite to the end of the secondary fossiliferous strata1 taken as a whole1 constitute the solid crust of the globe1 and in that sense are universally diffused over the earth's surface4 ,the tertiary strata occupy the hollows formed in this crust1 whether by subterraneous movements1 by lakes1 or denudation by water1 as in the estuaries of rivers1 and consequently occur in irregular tracts1 often1 however1 of prodigious thickness and extent4 ,indeed1 they seem to have been as widely developed as any other formation1 though time has been wanting to bring them into view4 ,the innumerable basins and hollows with which the continents and larger islands had been indented for ages after the termination of the secondary fossiliferous series had sometimes been fresh-water lakes1 and at other times inundated by the sea2 consequently1 the deposits which took place during these changes alternately contain the spoils of terrestrial and marine animals4 ,the frequent intrusion of volcanic strata among the tertiary formations shows that1 in ,europe1 the earth had been in a very disturbed state1 and that these repeated vicissitudes had been occasioned by elevations and depressions of the soil1 as well as by the action of water4 ,there are three distinct groups in these strata3 the lowest tertiary or ,eocene group1 so called by ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 because1 among the myriads of fossil shell-fish it contains1 very few are identical with those now living2 the ,miocene1 or middle group1 has a greater number of the exuvi of existing species of shells2 and the ,pleiocene1 or upper tertiary group1 still more4 ,though frequently heaved up to great elevations on the flanks of the mountain-chains1 as1 for example1 on the ,alps and ,apennines1 by far the greater part of the tertiary strata maintain their original horizontal position in the very places where they were formed4 ,immense insulated deposits of this kind are to be met with all over the world2 ,europe abounds with them1 ,london1 ,paris1 and ,vienna stand on such basins1 and they cover immense tracts both in ,north and ,south ,america4 ,the monstrous reptiles had mostly disappeared1 and the mammalia now took possession of the earth1 of forms scarcely less anomalous than their predecessors1 though approaching more nearly to those now living4 ,numerous species of extinct animals that lived during the earliest or ,eocene period have been found in various parts of the world1 especially in the ,paris basin1 of the order of ,pachydermata1 to the greater number of which we have nothing analogous2 they were mostly herbivorous quadrupeds1 which had frequented the borders of the rivers and lakes that covered the greater part of ,europe at that time4 ,this is the more extraordinary1 as existing animals most similar to these1 the tapirs for instance1 are confined to the torrid zone4 ,these creatures were widely diffused1 and some of them were associated with genera still existing1 though of totally different species2 such as animals allied to the racoon and dormouse1 the ox1 bear1 deer1 the fox1 the dog1 and others4 ,although these quadrupeds differ so widely from those of the present day1 the same proportion existed then as now between the carnivorous and herbivorous genera4 ,the spoils of marine mammalia of this period have also been found1 sometimes of great elevations above the sea1 all of extinct species1 and some of these cetacea were of huge size4 ,this marvellous change of the creative power was not confined to the earth and the ocean2 the air also was now occupied by many extinct races of birds allied to the owl1 buzzard1 quail1 curlew1 c4 ,the climate must still have been warmer than at present1 from the remains of land and sea plants found in high latitudes4 ,even in ,england1 bones of the opossum1 monkey1 and boa have been discovered1 all animals of warm countries1 besides fossil sword and saw fish1 both of genera foreign to the ,british seas4 ,during the ,miocene period1 new amphibious quadrupeds were associated with the old1 of which the deinotherium is the most characteristic and much the largest of the mammalia yet found1 far surpassing the largest elephant in size1 of a singular form1 and unknown nature4 ,the palotherium was of this period1 and also the mastodon1 both of large dimensions4 ,various families1 and even genera1 of quadrupeds now existing were associated with these extraordinary creatures1 though of extinct species1 such as the elephant1 rhinoceros1 hippopotamus1 tapir1 horse1 bear1 wolf1 hyna1 weasel1 beaver1 ox1 buffalo1 deer1 c42 and also marine mammalia1 as dolphins1 sea-calves1 walruses1 and lamantines4 ,indeed1 in the constant increase of animal life manifested throughout the whole of the tertiary strata1 the forms approach nearer to living species as their remains lie high in the series4 ,in the older ,pleiocene period some of the large amphibious quadrupeds1 and other genera of mammalia of the earlier tertiary periods1 appear no more2 but there were the mastodon1 and the ,elephas primigenius or mammoth1 some species of which1 of prodigious size1 were associated with numerous quadrupeds of existing genera1 but lost species4 ,extinct species of almost all the quadrupeds now alive seem to have inhabited the earth at that time2 their bones have been discovered in caverns2 they were embedded in the breccias and in most of the strata of that epoch--as the hippopotamus1 rhinoceros1 elephant1 horse1 bear1 wolf1 water-rat1 hyna1 and various birds4 ,it is remarkable that in the caverns of ,australia the fossil bones all belong to extinct species of gigantic kangaroos and wombats1 animals belonging to the marsupial family1 which are so peculiarly the inhabitants of that country at the present day1 but of diminished size4 ,the newer ,pleiocene strata show that the same analogy existed between the extinct and recent mammalia of ,south ,america1 which1 like their living congeners1 as far as we know1 belonged to that continent alone2 for the fossil remains1 quite different from those in the old world1 are of animals of the same families with the sloths1 anteaters1 and armadilloes which now inhabit that country1 but of vastly superior size and different species4 ,in fact1 there were giants in the land in those days4 ,were change of species possible1 one might almost fancy that these countries had escaped the wreck of time1 and that their inhabitants had pined and dwindled under the change of circumstances4 ,the megatherium and ,equus curvidens1 or extinct horse1 had so vast a range in ,america1 that1 while ,sir ,charles ,lyell collected their bones in ,georgia in #cc ,n4 latitude1 ,mr4 ,darwin brought them from the corresponding latitude in ,south ,america4 ,the ,equus curvidens differed as much from the living horse as the quagga or zebra does1 and the ,european fossil horse is also probably a distinct and lost species4 ,a comparison of the fossil remains with the living forms has shown the analogy between these beings of the ancient world and those that now people the earth2 and the greatest triumph of the geologist is the certainty with which he can decide upon the nature of animals that have been extinct for thousands of years1 from a few bones entombed on the earth's surface4 ,baron ,cuvier will ever be celebrated as the founder of this branch of comparative anatomy1 and which ,professor ,owen has brought to the highest perfection4 ,among many discoveries1 he has found1 by the most minute microscopic observation1 that the structure of the tissue of which teeth are formed is different in different classes of animals1 and that the species can in many instances be determined from the fragment of a tooth4 ,a small portion of a bone enabled him to decide on the nature of an extinct race of birds1 and the subsequent discovery of the whole skeleton confirmed the accuracy of this determination4 ,the greater part of the land in the northern hemisphere was elevated above the deep during the tertiary period1 and such lands as already existed acquired additional height2 consequently the climate1 which had previously been tropical1 became gradually colder1 for an increase of land1 which raises the temperature between the tropics1 has exactly the contrary effects in higher latitudes4 ,hence1 excessive cold prevailed during the latter part of the ,pleiocene period1 and a great part of the ,european continent was covered by an ocean full of floating ice1 not unlike that seen at this day off the north-eastern coast of ,america4#i ,during the latter part of the ,pleiocene period1 however1 the bed of that glacial ocean rose partially1 and after many vicissitudes the ,european continent assumed nearly the form it now bears4 ,there is every reason to believe that the glacial sea extended also over great portions of the arctic lands of ,asia and ,america4 ,old forms of animal and vegetable life were destroyed by these alterations in the surface of the earth1 and the consequent change of temperature2 and when1 in the progress of the ,pleiocene period1 the mountain-tops appeared as islands above the water1 they were clothed with the flora and peopled by the animals they still retain2 and new forms were added as the land rose and became dry and fitted to receive and maintain the races of animals now alive1 all of which had possession of the earth for ages prior to the historical or human period4 ,some of the extinct animals had long resisted the great vicissitudes of the times2 of these the mammoth or ,elephas primigenius1 whose fossil remains are found all over ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america1 but especially in the gelid soil of ,siberia1 alone outlived its associates1 the last remnant of a former world4 ,in two or three instances this animal has been discovered entire1 entombed in frozen mud1 with its hair and its flesh so fresh that wolves and dogs fed upon it4 ,the globe of the eye of one found by ,m4 ,middendorf at ,tas1 between the rivers ,oby and ,jenesei1 was so perfect that it is now preserved in the museum at ,moscow4 ,it has been supposed that1 as the ,siberian rivers flow for hundreds of miles from the southern part of the country to the ,arctic ,ocean1 these elephants might have been drowned by floods while browsing in the milder regions1 and that their bodies were carried down by the rivers and embedded in mud1 and frozen before they had time to decay4 ,mr4 ,darwin has suggested that1 if the climate of ,siberia has at any time been similar to that of the high latitudes of ,south ,america1 where the line of perpetual snow in the ,andes1 and its sudden flexure in ,southern ,chile1 come close to a nearly tropical vegetation1 such a vegetation may have prevailed south of the frozen regions in ,siberia1 and1 consequently1 the bodies of animals entombed a few feet below the icy surface might be preserved for ages4 ,on the other hand1 although the congeners of this animal are now inhabitants of the torrid zone1 they may have been able to endure the cold of a ,siberian winter1 for ,baron ,cuvier found that this animal differed as much from the living elephant as the horse does from the ass4 ,mr4 ,darwin has shown that the supply of food in summer was probably sufficient1 since the quantity requisite for the maintenance of the larger animals is by no means in proportion to their bulk1 or it may have migrated to a more genial climate in the colder months4 ,shell-fish seem to have been more able to endure all the great geological changes than any of their organic associates1 but they show a constant approximation to modern species during the progress of the tertiary period4 ,the whole of these strata contain enormous quantities of shells of extinct species2 in the oldest1 three and a half per cent4 of the shells are identical with species now existing1 while on the uppermost strata of this geological period there are not less than from ninety to ninety-five in a hundred identical with those now alive4 ,of all the fossil fishes1 from the ,silurian strata to the end of the tertiary1 scarcely one is specifically the same with living forms3 the ,mallotus villosus1 or captan1 of the salmon family1 is an exception1 and perhaps a few others of the most recent of these periods4 ,in the ,eocene strata one-third belong to extinct genera4 ,under the vegetable mould in every country there is a stratum of loose sand1 gravel1 and mud1 lying upon the subjacent rocks1 often of great thickness1 called alluvium1 which in the high latitudes of ,north ,america and ,europe is mixed with enormous fragments of rock1 sometimes angular and sometimes rounded and water-worn1 which have been transported hundreds of miles from their origin4 ,it is there known as the ,boulder formation1 or ,northern ,drift1 because1 from the identity of the boulders with the rocks of the northern mountains1 they evidently have come from them1 and their size becomes less as the distance increases4 ,in ,russia there are blocks of great magnitude that have been carried #hjj and even #ajjj miles south-east from their origin in the ,scandinavian range4 ,there is much reason to believe that such masses1 enormous as they are1 have been transported by ice-bergs1 and deposited when the northern parts of the continents were covered by the glacial sea1 by which part of ,russia was submerged to the depth of at least #ajjj feet4 ,the same process is now in progress in the high southern latitudes1 where icebergs have been met with covered with fragments of rock and boulders4#aj ,the last manifestation of creative power1 with few exceptions1 differs specifically from all that preceded it2 the recent strata contain only the exuvi of animals now living1 often mixed with the works of man4 ,the solid earth thus tells us of mountains washed down into the sea with their forests and inhabitants2 of lands raised from the bottom of the ocean loaded with the accumulated spoils of centuries2 of torrents of water and torrents of fire4 ,in the ordinances of the heavens no voice declares a beginning1 no sign points to an end2 in the bosom of the earth1 however the dawn of life appears1 the time is obscurely marked when first living things moved in the waters1 when the first plants clothed the land4 ,there we see that during ages of tranquillity the solid rock was forming at the bottom of the ocean1 that during ages it was tossed and riven by fire and earthquake4 ,what years must have gone by since that ocean flowed which has left its ripple-marks on the sand1 now a solid mass on the mountain--since those unknown creatures left their foot-prints on the shore1 now fixed by time on the rock for ever6 time1 which man measures by days and years1 nature measures by thousands of centuries4 ,the thickness of the fossiliferous strata up to the end of the tertiary formation has been estimated at about seven or eight miles2 so that the time requisite for their deposition must have been immense4 ,every river carries down mud1 sand1 or gravel1 to the sea3 the ,ganges brings more than #gjj1jjj cubic feet of mud every hour1 the ,yellow ,river in ,china #b1jjj1jjj1aa and the ,mississippi still more2 yet1 notwithstanding these great deposits1 the ,italian hydrographer ,manfredi has estimated that1 if the sediment of all the rivers on the globe were spread equally over the bottom of the ocean1 it would require #ajjj years to raise its bed one foot1 so that at that rate it would require #c1ifj1jjj years to raise the bed of the ocean alone to a height nearly equal to the thickness of the fossiliferous strata1 or seven miles and a half1 not taking account of the waste of the coasts by the sea itself3 but if the whole globe be considered1 instead of the bottom of the sea only1 the time would be nearly four times as great1 even supposing as much alluvium to be deposited uniformly both with regard to time and place1 which it never is4 ,besides1 in various places the strata have been more than once carried to the bottom of the ocean1 and again raised above its surface by subterranean fires after many ages1 so that the whole period from the beginning of the primary fossiliferous strata to the present day must be great beyond calculation1 and only bears comparison with the astronomical cycles1 as might naturally be expected1 the earth being without doubt of the same antiquity with the other bodies of the solar system4 ,what then shall we say if the time be included which the granitic1 metamorphic1 and recent series occupied in forming8 ,these great periods of time correspond wonderfully with the gradual increase of animal life and the successive creation and extinction of numberless orders of being1 and with the incredible quantity of organic remains buried in the crust of the earth in every country on the face of the globe4 ,every great geological change in the nature of the strata was accompanied by the introduction of a new race of beings1 and the gradual extinction of those that had previously existed1 their structure and habits being no longer fitted for the new circumstances in which these changes had placed them4 ,the change1 however1 never was abrupt2 and it may be observed that there is no proof of progressive development of species by generation from a low to a high organization1 for animals and plants of high organization appeared among the earliest of their kind1 yet throughout the whole1 the gradual approach to living and more perfect forms is undoubted1 not by change of species1 but by increasing similarity of type4 ,the geographical distribution of animated beings was much more extensive in the ancient seas and land than in latter times4 ,in very remote ages the same animal inhabited the most distant parts of the sea3 the corallines built from the equator to within ten or fifteen degrees of the pole2 and previous to the formation of the carboniferous strata there appears to have been even a greater uniformity in the vegetable than in the animal world1 though ,new ,holland had formed even then a peculiar district1 supposing the coal in that country to be of the same epoch as in ,europe and ,america2 but as the strata became more varied1 species were less widely diffused4 ,some of the saurians were inhabitants of both the ,old and ,new ,world1 while others lived in the latter only4 ,during the tertiary period1 the animals of ,australia and ,america differed nearly as much from those of ,europe as they do at the present day4 ,the world was then1 as now1 divided into great physical regions1 each inhabited by a peculiar race of animals2 and even the different species of mollusca of the same sea were confined to certain shores4 ,of #dje species of shell-fish which inhabited the ,atlantic ,ocean during the early and middle parts of the tertiary period1 only #ab were common to the ,american and ,european coasts4 ,in fact1 the divisions of the animal and vegetable creation into geographical districts had been in the latter periods contemporaneous with the rise of the land1 each portion of which1 as it rose above the deep1 had been clothed with a vegetation and peopled with creatures suited to its position with regard to the equator1 and to the existing circumstances of the globe2 and the marine creatures had1 no doubt1 been divided into districts at the same periods1 because the bed of the ocean had been subject to similar changes4 ,the quantity of fossil remains is so great that1 with the exception of the metals and some of the primary rocks1 probably not a particle of matter exists on the surface of the earth that has not at some time formed part of a living creature4 ,since the commencement of animated existence1 zoophytes have built coral reefs extending hundreds of miles1 and mountains of limestone are full of their remains all over the globe4 ,mines of shells are worked to make lime2 ranges of hills and rocks1 many hundred feet thick1 are almost entirely composed of them1 and they abound in every mountain-chain throughout the earth4 ,the prodigious quantity of microscopic shells discovered by ,m4 ,ehrenberg is still more astonishing2 shells not larger than a grain of sand form entire mountains2 a great portion of the hills of ,san ,casciano1 in ,tuscany1 consist of chambered shells so minute that ,signor ,soldani collected #aj1ded of them from one ounce of stone4 ,chalk is often almost entirely composed of them4 ,tripoli1 a fine powder long in use for polishing metals1 is also almost wholly composed of shells which owe their polishing property to their siliceous coats2 and there are even hills of great extent consisting of this substance1 the dbris of an infinite variety of microscopic insects4 ,the facility with which many clays and slates are split is owing1 in some instances1 to layers of minute shells4 ,fossil fish are found in all parts of the world1 and in all the fossiliferous strata1 with the exception of some of the lowest1 but each great geological period had species of fish peculiar to itself4 ,the remains of the great saurians are innumerable2 those of extinct quadrupeds are very numerous2 but there is no circumstance in the whole science of fossil geology more remarkable than the inexhaustible multitudes of fossil elephants that are found in ,siberia4 ,their tusks have been an object of traffic in ivory for centuries1 and in some places they have been in such prodigious quantities1 that the ground is tainted with the smell of animal matter4 ,their huge skeletons are found from the frontier of ,europe through all ,northern ,asia to its extreme eastern point1 and from the foot of the ,alta mountains to the shores of the ,frozen ,ocean1 a surface equal in extent to the whole of ,europe4 ,some islands in the ,arctic ,sea1 as1 for instance1 the first of the ,lchow group1 are chiefly composed of their remains1 mixed with the bones of various other animals of living genera1 but extinct species4#ab ,equally wonderful is the quantity of fossil plants that still remain1 if it be considered that1 from the frail nature of many vegetable substances1 multitudes must have perished without leaving a trace behind4 ,the vegetation that covered the terrestrial part of the globe previous to the formation of the carboniferous strata had far surpassed in exuberance the rankest tropical jungles4 ,there are many coal-fields of great extent in various parts of the earth1 especially in ,north ,america1 where that of ,pittsburg occupies an area of about #ad1jjj square miles1 and that in the ,illinois is not much inferior to the area of all ,england4#ac ,as coal is entirely a vegetable substance1 some idea may be formed of the richness of the ancient flora3 in latter times it was less exuberant1 and never has again been so luxuriant1 probably on account of the decrease of temperature during the deposition of the tertiary strata1 and in the glacial period which immediately preceded the creation of the present tribes of plants and animals4 ,even after their introduction the temperature must have been very low1 but by subsequent changes in the distribution of the sea and land the cold was gradually mitigated1 till at last the climate of the northern hemisphere became what it now is4 ,such is the marvellous history laid open to us on the earth's surface4 ,surely it is not the heavens only that declare the glory of ,god--the earth also proclaims ,his handiwork6#ad ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,direction of the ,forces that raised the ,continents--,proportion of ,land and ,water--,size of the ,continents and ,islands--,outline of the ,land-- ,extent of ,coasts1 and proportion they bear to the ,areas of the ,continents--,elevation of the ,continents--,forms of ,mountains--,forms of ,rocks--,connection between ,physical ,geography of ,countries and their ,geological ,structure--,contemporaneous ,upheaval of parallel ,mountain ,chains--,parallelism of ,mineral ,veins or ,fissures--,mr4 ,hopkins's ,theory of ,fissures--,parallel ,chains similar in ,structure--,interruptions in ,continents and ,mountain ,chains--,form of the ,great ,continent--,the ,high ,lands of the ,great ,continent--,the ,atlas1 ,spanish1 ,french1 and ,german ,mountains--,the ,alps1 ,balkan1 and ,apennines--,glaciers--,geological ,notice4 ,,at the end of the tertiary period the earth was much in the same state as it is at present with regard to the distribution of land and water4 ,the preponderance of land in the northern hemisphere indicates a prodigious accumulation of internal energy under these latitudes at a very remote geological period4 ,the forces that raised the two great continents above the deep1 when viewed on a wide scale1 must evidently have acted at right angles to one another1 nearly parallel to the equator in the old continent1 and in the direction of the meridian in the new2 yet the structure of the opposite coasts of the ,atlantic points at some connection between the two4 ,the mountains1 from their rude and shattered condition1 bear testimony to repeated violent convulsions similar to modern earthquakes2 while the high table-lands1 and that succession of terraces by which the continents sink down from their mountain-ranges to the plains1 to the ocean1 and even below it1 show also that the land must have been heaved up occasionally by slow and gentle pressure1 such as appears now to be gradually elevating the coast of ,scandinavia and many other parts of the earth4 ,the periods in which these majestic operations were effected must have been incalculable1 since the dry land occupies an area of nearly #ch1jjj1jjj of square miles4 ,the ocean covers nearly three-fourths of the surface of the globe1 but the distribution is very unequal1 whether it be considered with regard to the northern and southern hemispheres1 or the eastern and western4 ,independently of ,victoria ,land1 whose extent is unknown1 the quantity of land in the northern hemisphere is three times greater than in the southern4 ,in the latter it occupies only one-sixteenth of the space between the ,antarctic ,circle and the thirtieth parallel of south latitude1 while between the corresponding parallels in the northern hemisphere the extent of land and water is nearly equal4 ,if the globe be divided into two hemispheres by a meridian passing through the island of ,teneriffe1 the land will be found to predominate greatly on the eastern side of that line1 and the water on the western4 ,in consequence of the very unequal arrangement of the solid and liquid portions of the surface of the earth1 ,england is nearly in the centre of the greatest mass of land1 and its antipode1 the island of ,new ,zealand1 is in the centre of the greatest mass of water2 so that a person raised above ,falmouth1 which is almost the central point1 till he could perceive a complete hemisphere1 would see the greatest possible expanse of land1 while1 were he elevated to the same height above ,new ,zealand1 he would see the greatest possible extent of ocean4 ,in fact1 only one twenty-seventh of the land has land directly opposite to it in the opposite hemisphere1 and under the equator five-sixths of the circumference of the globe is water4 ,it must1 however1 be observed that there is still an unexplored region within the ,antarctic ,circle more than twice the size of ,europe1 and of the north polar basin we know nothing4 ,with regard to the land alone1 the great continent has an area of about #bd1jjj1jjj square miles1 while the extent of ,america is #aa1jjj1jjj1 and that of ,australia with its islands scarcely #c1jjj1jjj4 ,africa is more than three times the size of ,europe1 and ,asia is more than four times as large4 ,the extent of the continents is twenty-three times greater than that of all the islands taken together4#ae ,of the polar lands little is known4 ,greenland probably is part of a continent1 the domain of perpetual snow2 and the recent discovery of so extensive a mass of high volcanic land near the south pole is an important event in the history of physical science1 though the stern severity of the climate must for ever render it unfit for the abode of animated beings1 or even for the support of vegetable life4 ,it seems to form a counterpoise to the preponderance of dry land in the northern hemisphere4 ,there is something sublime in the contemplation of these lofty and unapproachable regions--the awful realm of ever-during ice and perpetual fire1 whose year consists of one day and one night4 ,the strange and terrible symmetry in the nature of the lands within the polar circles1 whose limits are to us a blank1 where the antagonist principles of cold and heat meet in their utmost intensity1 fills the mind with that awe which arises from the idea of the unknown and the indefinite4 ,the tendency of the land to assume a peninsular form is very remarkable1 and it is still more so that almost all the peninsulas tend to the south--circumstances that depend on some unknown cause which seems to have acted very extensively4 ,the continents of ,south ,america1 ,africa1 and ,greenland1 are peninsulas on a gigantic scale1 all tending to the south2 the ,asiatic peninsula of ,india1 the ,indo-,chinese peninsula1 those of ,corea1 ,kamtchatka1 of ,florida1 ,california1 and ,aliaska1 in ,north ,america1 as well as the ,european peninsulas of ,norway and ,sweden1 ,spain and ,portugal1 ,italy and ,greece1 take the same direction4 ,all the latter have a rounded form except ,italy1 whereas most of the others terminate sharply1 especially the continents of ,south ,america and ,africa1 ,india1 and ,greenland1 which have the pointed form of wedges2 while some are long and narrow1 as ,california1 ,aliaska1 and ,malacca4 ,many of the peninsulas have an island or group of islands at their extremity1 as ,south ,america1 which terminates with the group of ,tierra del ,fuego3 ,india has ,ceylon2 ,malacca has ,sumatra and ,banca2 the southern extremity of ,new ,holland ends in ,van ,dieman's ,land2 a chain of islands run from the end of the peninsula of ,aliaska2 ,greenland has a group of islands at its extremity2 and ,sicily lies close to the termination of ,italy4 ,it has been observed as another peculiarity in the structure of peninsulas that they generally terminate boldly1 in bluffs1 promontories1 or mountains1 which are often the last portions of the continental chains4 ,south ,america terminates in ,cape ,horn1 a high promontory1 which is the visible termination of the ,andes2 ,africa with the ,cape of ,good ,hope2 ,india with ,cape ,comorin1 the last of the ,ghauts2 ,new ,holland ends with ,south-,east ,cape in ,van ,dieman's ,land2 and ,greenland's farthest point is the elevated bluff of ,cape ,farewell4#af ,there is a strong analogy between ,south ,america and ,africa in form and the unbroken mass which their surface presents1 while ,north ,america resembles ,europe1 in being much indented by inland seas1 gulfs1 and bays4 ,eastern ,asia is evidently continued in a subaqueous continent from the ,indian ,ocean across the ,pacific nearly to the west coast of ,america1 of which ,new ,holland1 the ,indian ,archipelago1 the islands of the ,asiatic coast and of ,oceania1 are the great table-lands and summits of its mountain-chains4 ,with the exception of a vast peninsula in ,siberia1 between the mouths of the rivers ,yenesei and ,khatanga and the unknown regions of ,greenland1 the two great continents terminate in a very broken line to the north2 and as they sink beneath the ,icy ,ocean1 the tops of their high lands and mountains rise above the waves and stud the coast with innumerable snow-clad rocks and islands4 ,the #gjth parallel is the average latitude of these northern shores1 which have a great similarity on each side of ,behring's ,straits in form1 direction1 and in the adjacent islands4 ,the peninsular form of the continents adds greatly to the extent of their coasts1 of such importance to civilization and commerce4 ,all the shores of ,europe are deeply indented and penetrated by the ,atlantic ,ocean1 which has formed a number of inland seas of great magnitude1 so that it has a greater line of maritime coast1 compared with its size1 than any other quarter of the world4 ,the extent of coast from the ,straits of ,waigatz1 in the ,polar ,ocean1 to the ,strait of ,caffa1 at the entrance of the ,sea of ,azoff1 is about #ag1jjj miles4 ,the coast of ,asia has been much worn by currents1 and possibly also by the action of the ocean occasioned by the rotation of the earth from west to east4 ,on the south and east especially it is indented by large seas1 bays1 and gulfs2 and the eastern shores are rugged and encompassed by chains of islands which render navigation dangerous4 ,its maritime coast is about #cc1jjj miles in length4 ,the coast of ,africa1 #af1jjj miles long1 is very entire1 except perhaps at the ,gulf of ,guinea and in the ,mediterranean4 ,the shores of ,north ,america have probably been much altered by the equatorial current and the ,gulf-stream4 ,there is little doubt that these currents1 combined with volcanic action1 have hollowed out the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and separated the ,antilles and ,bahama ,islands from the continent4 ,the coast is less broken on the west1 but in the ,icy ,ocean there is a labyrinth of gulfs1 bays1 and creeks4 ,the shores of ,south ,america on both sides are very entire1 except towards ,southern ,chile and ,cape ,horn1 where the tremendous surge and currents of the ocean in those high latitudes have eaten into the mountains1 and produced endless sounds and fiords which run far into the land4 ,the whole continent of ,america has a sea-coast of #ca1jjj miles4 ,thus1 it appears that the ratio of the number of linear miles in the coast-line to the number of square miles in the extent of surface1 in each of these great portions of the globe1 is #afd for ,europe1 #cgf for ,asia1 #ecj for ,africa1 and #cei for ,america4 ,hence1 the proportion is most favourable to ,europe1 with regard to civilization and commerce2 ,america comes next1 then ,asia1 and last of all ,africa1 which has every natural obstacle to contend with1 from the extent and nature of its coasts1 the desert character of the country1 and the insalubrity of its climate1 on the ,atlantic coast at least4 ,the continents had been raised from the deep by a powerful effort of the internal forces acting under widely-extended regions1 and the stratified crust of the earth either remained level1 rose in undulations1 or sank into cavities1 according to its intensity4 ,some thinner portion of the earth's surface1 giving way to the internal forces1 had been rent into deep fissures1 and the mountain masses had been raised by violent concussions1 perceptible in the convulsed state of their strata4 ,the centres of maximum energy are marked by the pyrogenous rocks1 which generally form the nucleus or axis of the mountain masses1 on whose flanks the stratified rocks are tilted at all angles to the horizon1 whence1 declining on every side1 they sink to various depths1 or stretch to various distances in the plains4 ,enormous as the mountain-chains and table-lands are1 and prodigious as the forces that elevated them1 they bear a very small proportion to the mass of the level continents and to the vast power which raised them even to their inferior altitude4 ,both the high and the low lands had been elevated at successive periods2 some of the very highest mountain-chains are but of recent geological date1 and some chains that are now far inland once stood up as islands above the ocean1 while marine strata filled their cavities and formed round their bases4 ,the influence of mountain-chains on the extent and form of the continents is beyond a doubt4 ,notwithstanding the various circumstances of their elevation1 there is everywhere a certain regularity of form in mountain masses1 however unsymmetrical they may appear at first1 and rocks of the same kind have identical characters in every quarter of the globe4 ,plants and animals vary with climate1 but a granite mountain has the same peculiarities in the southern as in the northern hemisphere--at the equator as near the poles4 ,single mountains1 insulated on plains1 are rare1 except where they are volcanic2 they generally appear in groups intersected by valleys in every direction1 and more frequently in extensive chains symmetrically arranged in a series of parallel ridges1 separated by narrow longitudinal valleys1 the highest and most rugged of which occupy the centre3 when the chain is broad and of the first order in point of magnitude1 peak after peak arises in endless succession4 ,the lateral ridges and valleys are constantly of less elevation1 and are less bold1 in proportion to their distance from the central mass1 till at last the most remote ridges sink down into gentle undulations4 ,extensive and lofty branches diverge from the principal chains at various angles1 and stretch far into the plains4 ,they are often as high as the chains from which they spring1 and it happens not unfrequently that these branches are united by transverse ridges1 so that the country is often widely-covered by a net-work of mountains1 and1 at the point where these offsets diverge1 there is frequently a knot of mountains spreading over hundreds of square miles4 ,one side of a mountain range is usually more precipitous than the other1 but there is nothing in which the imagination misleads the judgment more than in estimating the steepness of a declivity4 ,in the whole range of the ,alps there is not a single rock which has #afjj feet of perpendicular height1 or a vertical slope of #ij4 ,the declivity of ,mont ,blanc towards the ,alle ,blanche1 precipitous as it seems1 does not amount to #de2 and the mean inclination of the peak of ,teneriffe1 according to ,baron ,humboldt1 is only #ab #cj4 ,the ,silla of ,caraccas1 which rises precipitously from the ,caribbean ,sea1 at an angle of #ec #bh1 to the height of between #fjjj and #gjjj feet1 is a majestic instance of perhaps the nearest approach to perpendicularity of any great height yet known4 ,the circumstances of elevation are not the only causes of that variety observed in the summits of mountains4 ,a difference in the composition and internal structure of a rock has a great influence upon its general form1 and on the degree and manner in which it is worn by the weather4 ,thus dolomite assumes generally the form of peaks like saw-teeth2 crystalline schists assume the form of needles1 as in the ,alps2 slates and quartziferous schists take the form of triangular pyramids2 calcareous rocks a rounded shape2 serpentine and trachyte are often twisted and crumpled2 phonolites assume a pyramidal form2 dark walls like those in ,greenland are of trap and basalt2 and volcanoes are indicated by blunt cones and craters4 ,thus1 the mountain-peaks often indicate by their form their geological nature4 ,viewing things on a broad scale1 it appears that there is also a very striking connection between the physical geography or external aspect of different countries and their geological structure4 ,by a minute comparison of the different parts of the land1 ,m4 ,bou has shown that a critical similarity of outward forms1 while indicating similarity in the producing causes1 must also1 to a large extent1 indicate identity of structure1 and therefore from the external appearance of an unexplored country its geological structure may be inferred1 at least to a certain extent4 ,this he illustrates by pointing out a correspondence1 even in their most minute details1 between the leading features of ,asia and ,europe1 and the identity of their geological structure4 ,it has been justly observed1 that when the windings of our continents and seas are narrowly examined1 and the more essential peculiarities of their contours contemplated1 it is evident that ,nature has not wrought after an indefinite number of types or models1 but that1 on the contrary1 her fundamental types are very few1 and derived from the action of definite constructive forces on a primary base4#ag ,the whole of our land and sea1 in fact1 may be decomposed into a less or greater number of masses1 either exhibiting all these fundamental forms or merely a portion of them4#ah ,the peninsular structure of the continents with their accompanying islands is a striking illustration of the truth of this remark1 and many more might be adduced4 ,it follows1 as a consequence of that law in ,nature's operations1 that analogy of form and contour throws the greatest light on the constitution of countries far removed from each other4 ,even the picturesque descriptions of a traveller often afford information of which he may be little aware4 ,the determination of the contemporaneous upheaval of parallel mountain-chains1 by a comparison of the ages of the inclined and horizontal strata resting on them1 is one of the highest steps of generalization which has been attempted by geologists4 ,it was first observed by the miners of the ,freyberg school1 and established as a law by ,werner1 that veins of the same nature in mines occur in parallel fissures opened at the same time1 and probably filled with metal1 also simultaneously1 at a subsequent period2 and that fissures differing in direction differ also in age4 ,as these veins and fissures are rents through the solid strata1 often of unfathomable depth and immense length1 there is the strongest analogy between them and those enormous fissures in the solid mass of the globe through which the mountain-chains have been heaved up4 ,were the analogy perfect1 it ought to follow that parallel mountain-chains have been raised simultaneously1 that is1 by forces acting during the same geological periods4 ,by a careful examination of the relative ages of the strata resting on the flanks of many of the mountain systems1 ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont has shown1 if not proved1 that all strata elevated simultaneously assume a parallel direction1 or1 that parallel strata are contemporaneous4 ,should this be confirmed1 parallel chains in the most distant regions will no longer be regarded as insulated masses4 ,they will indicate the course of enormous fissures that have simultaneously rent the solid globe and passed through the bed of the ocean from continent to continent1 from island to island4 ,m4 ,von ,buch has found that four systems of mountains in ,germany accord with this theory1 and ,mr4 ,sedgwick has observed the same in the ,westmoreland system of mountains1 believed to be the most ancient of which the globe can now furnish any traces4 ,this theory of elevation of mountain-chains1 which originated with ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont1 has already led to the discovery of twelve different periods of fracture and elevation in the ,european continent alone4 ,mr4 ,hopkins1 of ,cambridge1 has taken a purely mathematical view of the subject1 and has proved that1 when an internal expansive force acts upwards upon a single point in the earth's crust1 the splits or cracks must all diverge from that point like radii in a circle1 which is exactly the case in many volcanic districts2 that when the expansive force acts uniformly from below on a wide surface or area1 it tends to stretch the surface1 so that it would split or crack where the tension is greatest1 that is1 either in the direction of the length or breadth2 and if the area yields in more places than one1 he found that the fissures would necessarily be parallel to one another1 which agrees with the law of arrangement of veins in mines4 ,these results are greatly modified by the shape of the area1 but the modification is according to a fixed law1 which1 instead of interfering with that of the parallelism of the fissures1 actually arises from the same action which produces it4 ,this investigation agrees in all its details with the fractures in the districts in ,england to which they were applied1 so that theory comes to the aid of observation in this still unsettled question4#ai ,it seems to bear on the subject1 that parallel mountain-chains are similar in geological age1 even when separated by seas4 ,for instance1 the mountains of ,sweden and ,finland are of the same structure1 though the ,gulf of ,bothnia is between them2 those of ,cornwall1 ,brittany1 and the north-west of ,spain are similar2 the ,atlas and the ,spanish mountains1 the chains in ,california and those on the adjacent coast of ,america1 and1 lastly1 those of ,new ,guinea and the north-east of ,australia1 furnish examples4 ,the same correspondence in geological epoch prevails in chains that are not parallel1 but that are convergent from the form of the earth4 ,this observation is also extensively exemplified in those that run east and west1 as the ,alps1 the ,balkan1 ,taurus1 ,paropamisus with its prolongation1 the ,hindoo ,coosh1 the ,himalaya1 and in ,america the mountains of ,parima and the great chain of ,venezuela4 ,continents and mountain-chains are often interrupted by posterior geological changes1 such as clefts and cavities formed by erosion1 as evidently appears from the correspondence of the strata4 ,the chalk cliffs on the opposite sides of the ,british ,channel show that ,britain once formed part of the continent2 the formation of the ,orkney ,islands and ,ireland is the same with that of the ,highlands of ,scotland2 the formation is the same on each side of the ,straits of ,gibraltar2 that of ,turkey in ,europe passes into ,asia ,minor1 the ,crimea into the ,caucasus1 a volcanic region bounds the ,straits of ,babelmandel1 and ,behring's ,straits divide the ancient strata of a similar age4 ,this is particularly the case with coast islands4#bj ,immediately connected with the mountains are the high table-lands which form so conspicuous a feature in the ,asiatic and ,american continents4 ,these perpetual storehouses of the waters send their streams to refresh the plains1 and to afford a highway between the nations4 ,table-lands of less elevation1 sinking in terraces of lower and lower level1 constitute the links between the high ground and the low1 the mountains and the plains1 and thus maintain the continuity of the land4 ,they frequently are of the richest soil1 and enjoy the most genial climate1 affording a delightful and picturesque abode to man1 though the plains are his principal dwelling4 ,sloping imperceptibly from the base of the inferior table-lands1 or from the last undulations of the mountains1 to the ocean1 they carry off the superfluous waters4 ,fruitfulness and sterility vary their aspect3 immense tracts of the richest soil are favoured by climate1 and hardly require culture2 a greater portion is only rendered productive by hard labour1 compelling man to fulfil his destiny2 while vast regions are doomed to perpetual barrenness1 never gladdened by a shower4 ,the form of the great continent has been determined by an immense zone of mountains and table-lands1 lying between the #cjth and #djth or #deth parallels of north latitude1 which stretches across it from ,w4,s4,w4 to ,e4,n4,e41 from the coasts of ,barbary and ,portugal1 on the ,atlantic ,ocean1 to the farthest extremity of ,asia1 at ,behring's ,straits1 in the ,north ,pacific4 ,north of this lies a vast plain1 extending almost from the ,pyrenees to the utmost parts of ,asia1 the greater portion of which is a dead level1 or low undulations1 uninterrupted except by the ,scandinavian and ,british system on the north1 and the ,ural chain1 which is of small elevation4 ,the low lands south of the mountainous zone are much indented by the ocean1 and of the most diversified aspect4 ,by much the greater part of the flat country lying between the ,china ,sea and the river ,indus is of the most exuberant fertility1 while that between the ,persian ,gulf and the foot of the ,atlas is1 with some happy exceptions1 one of the most desolate tracts on the earth4 ,the southern lowlands1 too1 are broken by a few mountain systems of considerable extent and height4 ,the ,atlas and ,spanish mountains form the western extremity of that great zone of high lands that girds the old continent almost throughout its extent3 these two mountain systems were certainly at one time united1 and from their geological formation1 and also the parallelism of their mountain-chains1 they must have been elevated by forces acting in the same direction2 now1 indeed1 the ,strait of ,gibraltar1 a sea-filled chasm #ifj fathoms deep1 divides them4#ba ,a very elevated and continuous mountain region extends in a broad belt along the north-west of ,africa1 from the promontory of ,gher1 on the ,atlantic1 to the ,gulf of ,sidra1 in the ,mediterranean1 enclosing all the high lands of ,morocco1 ,algiers1 and ,tunis4 ,it is bounded by the ,atlantic and ,mediterranean1 and insulated from the rest of ,africa by the desert of ,sahara4 ,this mountain system consists of three parts4 ,the chain of the ,greater ,atlas1 which is farthest inland1 extends from ,cape ,gher1 on the ,atlantic1 to the ,lesser ,syrtis2 and1 in ,morocco1 forms a knot of mountains #ae1jjj feet high1 covered with perpetual snow4 ,the ,lesser ,atlas begins at ,cape ,spartel 7the ancient ,cape ,cotes7 opposite to ,gibraltar1 and keeps parallel to the ,mediterranean till it attains the ,gharian range in ,tripoli1 the last and lowest of the ,little ,atlas1 which runs due east in a uniformly diminishing line till it vanishes in the plain of the ,great ,syrtis4 ,that long1 rugged1 but lower chain of parallel ridges and groups which forms the bold coasts of the ,straits of ,gibraltar and the ,mediterranean1 is only a portion of the ,lesser ,atlas1 which rises above it majestically1 covered with snow4 ,the flanks of the mountains are generally clothed with forests1 but their summit is one uninterrupted line of bare inaccessible rocks1 and they are rent by fissures frequently not more than a few feet wide--a peculiar feature of the whole system4 ,the ,middle ,atlas1 lying between the two great chains1 consists of a table-land1 rich in valleys and rivers1 which rises in successive terraces to the foot of the ,greater ,atlas1 separated by ridges of hills parallel to it4 ,this wide and extensive region has a delightful climate1 abounds in magnificent forests1 and the valleys are full of vitality4 ,the crest of the ,atlas is of granite and crystalline strata2 their flanks and lower ranges are sandstone and limestone1 on which the tertiary strata rest4 ,the ,spanish peninsula consists chiefly of a table-land traversed by parallel ranges of mountains1 and is surrounded by the sea1 except where it is separated from ,france by the ,pyrenees1 which extend from the ,mediterranean to the ,bay of ,biscay1 but are continued by the ,cantabrian chain to ,cape ,finisterre on the ,atlantic4 ,the ,pyrenean chain is of moderate height at its extremities1 but its summit maintains a waving line1 whose mean altitude is #giij feet2 it rises to a greater height on the east2 its highest point is the ,malahite or ,nethou1 #aa1agj feet above the sea4 ,the snow lies deep on these mountains during the greater part of the year1 and is perpetual on the highest parts2 but the glaciers1 which are chiefly on the northern side1 are neither so numerous nor so large as in the ,alps4 ,the greatest breadth of this range is about #fj miles1 and its length #bgj4 ,it is so steep on the ,french side1 so rugged and so notched1 that from the plains below its summits look like the teeth of a saw1 whence the term ,sierra has been appropriated to mountains of this form4 ,on the ,spanish side1 gigantic sloping offsets1 separated by deep precipitous valleys1 extend to the banks of the ,ebro4 ,all the ,spanish mountains are torn by deep crevices1 the beds of torrents and rivers4 ,the interior of ,spain is a table-land with an area of #ic1jjj square miles1 nearly equal to half of the peninsula4 ,it dips to the ,atlantic from its western side1 where its altitude is about #bcjj feet4 ,there it is bounded by the ,iberian mountains1 which begin at the point where the ,pyrenees take the name of the ,cantabrian chain1 and run in a tortuous south-easterly direction through all ,spain1 constituting the eastern boundary of ,valencia and ,murcia1 and sending many branches through those provinces to the ,mediterranean3 its most elevated point is the ,sierra ,urbion4 ,four nearly parallel ranges of mountains originate in this limiting chain1 running from ,e4,n4,e4 to ,w4,s4,w4 diagonally across the peninsula to the ,atlantic4 ,of these1 the high ,castilian chain of the ,guadarama and the ,sierra de ,toledo cross the table-land1 the ,sierra ,morena1 so called from the dingy colour of its forests of ,hermes oak1 on the southern edge2 and lastly1 the ,sierra ,nevada1 though only #ajj miles long and #ej broad1 the finest range of mountains in ,europe after the ,alps1 traverses the plains of ,andalusia and ,grenada4 ,the table-land is monotonous and bare of trees2 the plains of ,old ,castile are as naked as the ,steppes of ,siberia1 and uncultivated1 except along the banks of the rivers4 ,corn and wine are produced in abundance on the wide plains of ,new ,castile and ,estremadura3 other places serve for pasture4 ,the table-land becomes more fertile as it extends towards ,portugal1 which is altogether more productive than ,spain1 though the maritime provinces of the latter on the ,mediterranean are luxuriant and beautiful1 with a semi-tropical vegetation4 ,granite1 crystalline strata1 and primary fossiliferous rocks prevail chiefly in the ,spanish mountains1 and give them their peculiar1 bold1 serrated aspect4 ,the valleys between the parallel ranges1 through which the great ,spanish rivers flow to the ,atlantic1 appear to have been at one time the basins of lakes4 ,the mass of high land is continued through the south of ,france1 at a much lower elevation1 by chains of hills and table-lands1 the most remarkable of which are the ,montagnes ,noires1 and the great plateau of ,auvergne1 once the theatre of violent volcanic action4 ,it continued from the beginning to the middle of the tertiary period1 so that there are cones and craters of various ages and perfect form3 some of the highest1 as the ,puy de ,dme1 are trachytic domes of elevation2 ,mont d',or1 #fbjj feet high1 is a portion of an immense crater of elevation4#bb ,the volcanic mountains of ,auvergne1 and the ,cvennes1 which are a little lower1 are the most remarkable of the ,french system2 the offsets of the latter reach the right bank of the ,rhone4 ,in fact1 the ,french mountains are the link between the more elevated masses of ,western and ,eastern ,europe4 ,the eastern and highest part of the ,european portion of the mountain-zone begins to rise above the low-lands about the #eb;d parallel of north latitude1 ascending by terraces1 groups1 and chains of mountains1 through six or seven degrees of latitude1 till it reaches its highest point in the great range of the ,alps and ,balkan4 ,the descent on the south side of this lofty mass is much more rapid and abrupt1 and the immediate offsets from the ,alps shorter2 but1 taking a very general view1 the ,apennines and mountains of ,northern ,sicily1 those of ,greece and the southern part of ,turkey in ,europe1 with all the islands of the adjacent coasts1 are but outlying members of the general protuberance4 ,the principal chain of the ,hyrcanian mountains1 the ,sudetes1 and the ,carpathian mountains1 form the northern boundary of these high lands3 the first1 consisting of three parallel ridges1 extends from the right bank of the ,rhine to the centre of ,germany1 about #ea or #eb of ,n4 lat41 with a mean breadth of about #ajj miles1 and terminates in the knot of the ,fichtelberge1 covering an area of #ijjj square miles1 on the confines of ,bavaria and ,bohemia4 ,the ,sudetes begin on the east of this group1 and1 after a circuit of #cjj miles round ,bohemia1 terminate at the small elevated plain of the ,upper ,oder1 which connects them with the ,carpathian mountains4 ,no part of these limiting ranges attains the height of #ejjj feet1 except the ,carpathians1 some of which are very high4 ,they consist of mountain-groups united by elevated plains1 rather than of a single chain3 the ,tatra mountains1 bisected by the #bjth meridian1 is their loftiest point4 ,this range is high also in ,transylvania1 before it reaches the ,danube1 which divides it from a secondary branch of the ,balkan4 ,spurs decline in undulations from these limiting chains on the great northern plain1 and the country to the south1 intervening between them and the ,alps1 is covered with an intricate network of mountains and plains of moderate elevation4 ,the higher ,alps1 which form the western crest of the elevated zone1 may be said to begin at the ,cape della ,melle on the ,gulf of ,genoa1 and bend round by the west and north to ,mont ,blanc2 then turning ,e4,n4,e4 they run through the ,grisons and ,tyrol to the ,great ,glockner1 in #dj #g ,n4 lat41 and #ab #dc ,e4 long41 where the higher ,alps terminate a course #dbj miles long4 ,all this chain is lofty2 much of it is above the line of perpetual congelation2 the most elevated part lies between the ,col de la ,seigne1 on the western shoulder of ,mont ,blanc1 and the ,simplon4 ,the highest mountains in ,europe are comprised within this space1 not more than #fj miles long1 where ,mont ,blanc1 the highest of all1 has an absolute elevation of #ae1geih feet4 ,the central ridge of the higher ,alps is jagged with peaks1 pyramids1 and needles of bare and almost perpendicular rock1 rising from fields of perpetual snow and rivers of ice to an elevation of #ad1jjj feet4 ,many parallel chains and groups1 alike rugged and snowy1 press on the principal crest1 and send their flanks far into the lower grounds4 ,innumerable secondary branches1 hardly lower than the main crest1 diverge from it in various directions2 of these1 the chain of the ,bernese ,alps is the highest and most extensive4 ,it breaks off at the ,st4 ,gothard1 in a line parallel to the principal chain1 separates the ,valais from the ,canton of ,berne1 and with its ramifications forms one of the most remarkable groups of mountain scenery in ,europe4 ,its endless maze of sharp ridges and bare peaks1 mixed with gigantic masses of pure snow1 fading coldly serene into the blue horizon1 present a scene of sublime quiet and repose1 unbroken but by the avalanche or the thunder4 ,at the ,great ,glockner the range of the ,alps1 hitherto undivided1 splits into two branches1 the ,noric and ,carnic ,alps3 the latter is the continuation of the chief stem4 ,never rising to the height of perpetual snow1 it separates the ,tyrol and ,upper ,carinthia from the ,venetian ,states1 and1 taking the name of the ,julian ,alps at ,mont ,terglou1 runs east till it joins the ,eastern ,alps1 or ,balkan1 under the #ahth meridian4 ,offsets from this chain cover all the neighbouring countries4 ,it is difficult to estimate the width of the ,alpine chain3 that of the higher ,alps is about #ajj miles2 it increases to #aej east of the ,grisons1 and amounts to #bjj between the #aeth and #afth meridians1 but is not more than #hj at its junction with the ,balkan4 ,the ,stelvio1 #iagd feet above the sea1 is the highest carriage-pass in these mountains4 ,that of ,st4 ,gothard goes directly over the crest of the ,alps4 ,passes very rarely go over the summit of a mountain2 they generally cross the watershed1 ascending by the valley of a torrent1 and descending by a similar path on the other side4 ,the frequent occurrence of extensive deep lakes is a peculiar feature in ,european mountains1 rarely to be met with in the ,asiatic system1 except in the ,alta and on the elevated plains4 ,with the exception of the ,jura1 whose pastoral summit is about #cjjj feet above the sea1 there are no elevated table-lands in the ,alps3 the tabular form1 so eminently characteristic of the ,asiatic high lands1 begins in the ,balkan4 ,the ,oriental peninsula rises by degrees from the ,danube to ,bosnia and ,upper ,macedonia1 which are some hundred feet above the sea2 and the ,balkan extends #fjj miles along this elevated mass1 from the ,julian ,alps to ,cape ,eminec on the ,black ,sea4 ,it begins by a table-land #gj miles long1 traversed by low hills1 ending1 towards ,albania and ,myritida1 in precipitous limestone rocks from #fjjj to #gjjj feet high4 ,rugged mountains1 all but impassable1 succeed to this1 in which the domes and needles of the ,schandach1 or ancient ,scamus1 are covered with perpetual snow4 ,another table-land follows1 whose marshy surface is bounded by mural precipices at ,mount ,arbelus1 near the town of ,sophia4 ,there the ,hemus1 or ,balkan properly so called1 begins1 and runs in parallel ridges1 separated by longitudinal valleys1 to the ,black ,sea1 dividing the plains between the ,lower ,danube and the ,propontis into nearly equal parts4 ,the central ridge is passable in few places1 and where there is no lateral ridge the precipices descend at once to the plains4 ,the ,balkan is everywhere rent by terrific fissures across the chains and table-lands1 so deep and narrow that daylight is almost excluded4 ,these chasms afford the safest passes across the range2 the others along the faces of the precipices are frightful4 ,the ,mediterranean is the southern boundary of the elevated zone of ,eastern ,europe1 whose last offsets rise in rocky islands along the coasts4 ,the crystalline mountains of ,sardinia and ,corsica are outlying members of the ,maritime ,alps1 while shorter offsets end in the plains of ,lombardy1 forming the magnificent scenery of the ,italian lakes4 ,even the ,apennines1 whose elevation has given its form to the peninsula of ,italy1 are but secondary on a greater scale to the broad central band1 as well as the mountains and high land in the north of ,sicily1 which form the continuance of the ,calabrian chain4 ,the ,apennines1 beginning at the ,maritime ,alps1 enclose the ,gulf of ,genoa1 and run through the centre of ,italy in parallel ranges to the middle of ,calabria1 where they split into two branches1 one of which goes to ,capo de ,leuca1 on the ,gulf of ,torento1 the other to ,cape ,spartivento1 in the ,straits of ,messina4 ,the whole length is about #hjj miles4 ,none of the ,apennines come within the line of perpetual snow1 though it lies nine months in the year on the ,gran ,sasso d'ltalia1 #ieba feet high1 in ,abruzza ,ulteriore4 ,offsets from the ,julian and ,eastern ,alps render ,dalmatia and ,albania perhaps the most rugged tract in ,europe2 and the ,pindus1 which forms the watershed of ,greece1 diverges from the latter chain1 and1 running south #bjj miles1 separates ,albania from ,macedonia and ,thessaly4 ,greece is a country of mountains1 and1 although none are perpetually covered with snow1 it lies nine months on several of their summits4 ,the chains terminate in strongly projecting headlands1 which reach far into the sea1 and reappear in the numerous islands and rocks which stud that deeply-indented coast4 ,the ,grecian mountains1 like the ,balkan1 are torn by transverse fractures4 ,the defile of ,blatamana and the ,gulf of ,salonica are examples4 ,the ,adriatic1 the ,dardanelles1 and the ,sea of ,marmora limit the secondaries of the southern part of the ,balkan4 ,the valleys of the ,alps are long and narrow2 those among the mountains of ,turkey in ,europe and ,greece are mostly caldron-shaped hollows1 often enclosed by mural rocks4 ,many of these cavities of great size lie along the foot of the ,balkan4 ,in the ,morea they are so encompassed by mountains that the water has no escape but through the porous soil4 ,they consist of tertiary strata1 which had formed the bottom of lakes4 ,caldron-shaped valleys occur also in most volcanic countries1 as ,sicily1 ,italy1 and central ,france4 ,the table-lands which constitute the tops of mountains or of mountain-chains are of a different character from those terraces by which the high lands slope to the low4 ,the former are on a small scale in ,europe1 and of a forbidding aspect1 with the exception of the ,jura1 which is pastoral1 whereas the latter are almost always habitable and cultivated4 ,the mass of high land in south-eastern ,europe shelves on the north to the great plain of ,bavaria1 #cjjj feet high2 ,bohemia1 which slopes from #aejj to #ijj feet2 and ,hungary1 from #djjj above the sea to #cjj4 ,the descent on the south of the ,alps is six or seven times more rapid1 because the distance from the axis of the chain is shorter4 ,it is scarcely possible to estimate the quantity of ice on the ,alps2 it is said1 however1 that1 independent of the glaciers in the ,grisons1 there are #aejj square miles of ice in the ,alpine range1 from #hj to #fjj feet thick4 ,there are no glaciers east of the ,great ,glockner1 except on the small group of ,hallstadt4 ,thirty-four bound the snowy regions of ,mont ,blanc1 and #ie square miles of snow and ice clothe that mountain4 ,some glaciers have been permanent and stationary in the ,alps time immemorial1 while others now occupy ground formerly bearing corn or covered with trees1 which the irresistible force of the ice has swept away4 ,these ice-rivers1 formed on the snow-clad summits of the mountains1 fill the hollows and high valleys1 hang on the declivities1 or descend by their weight through the transverse valleys to the plains1 where they are cut short by the increased temperature1 and deposit those accumulations of rocks and rubbish1 called moraines1 which had fallen upon them from the heights above2 but their motion is so slow1 that six generations may pass before a stone fallen on the upper end of a long glacier can reach the moraine4 ,in the ,alps1 the glaciers move at the rate of from #ab to #be feet annually1 and1 as in rivers1 the motion is most rapid in the centre1 and slower at the sides and bottom on account of friction4 ,it is slower in winter1 yet it does not cease1 because the winter's cold penetrates the ice1 as it does the ground1 only to a limited depth4 ,glaciers are not of solid ice2 they consist of a mixture of ice1 snow1 and water2 so that they are in some degree flexible and viscous1 but acquire more solidity as they descend to lower levels2 evaporation goes on at their surface1 but they are not consumed by it4 ,the front is perpetually melting1 but maintains a permanent form2 it is steep and inaccessible1 owing to the figure of the ground over which it tumbles in its icy cascade1 sometimes #ajjj feet high4 ,the middle course is rather level1 the higher part very steep1 and the surface is uneven and rent by crevices into which the purest blue streams fall in rushing cascades while the sun is up1 but they freeze at his setting1 and then a death-like silence prevails4 ,the rocks and stones that fall on them from the surrounding heights protect the ice below from the sun which melts it all around1 so that at last they rest on elevated pinnacles till they fall off by their weight1 and in this manner those numerous pyramids are formed with which the surface is bristled4 ,throughout much of the length of a glacier the winter's snow melts from its surface as completely as it does from the ground2 it is fed from above1 for in the upper part the snow never melts1 but accumulates in a stratified form and is consolidated4 ,in some of the largest glaciers1 where there is a difference of #djjj feet in height between the origin and termination1 the pressure is enormous and irresistible1 carrying all before it2 even the thickest forest is overwhelmed and crushed4 ,glaciers advance or retreat according to the severity or mildness of the season2 they have been advancing in ,switzerland of late years1 but they are subject to cycles of unknown duration4 ,from the moraines1 as well as the stri engraven on the rocks over which they have passed1 ,m4 ,agassiz has ascertained that the valley of ,chamouni was at one time occupied by a glacier that had moved towards the ,col de ,balme4 ,a moraine #bjjj feet above the ,rhone at ,st4 ,maurice would appear to indicate that1 at a remote period1 glaciers had covered ,switzerland to the height of #baee feet above the ,lake of ,geneva4 ,their increase is now limited by various circumstances--as the mean temperature of the earth1 which is always above the freezing-point in those latitudes2 excessive evaporation2 and blasts of hot air1 which occur at all heights1 in the night as well as in the day1 from some unknown cause4 ,they are not peculiar to the ,alps1 but have been observed also in the glaciers of the ,andes4 ,from the heat of the valley thawing the ice1 the natural springs that rise under the glacier as they do elsewhere1 the heat of the earth1 the melting of the glacier itself1 the rain that falls on its surface1 which rushes down its crevices1 a stream of turbid water is formed which works out an icy cavern at the termination of the glacier and flows through it into the lower ground4 ,thus1 a glacier 8begins in the clouds1 is formed by the mountains1 and ends in the ocean40#bc ,granite no doubt forms the base of the mountain system of ,eastern ,europe1 though it more rarely comes into view than might have been expected4 ,crystalline schists of various kinds are enormously developed1 and generally form the most elevated pinnacles of the ,alpine crest and its offsets1 and also the principal chains in ,greece and ,turkey in ,europe2 but the secondary fossiliferous strata constitute the chief mass1 and often rise to the highest summits2 indeed1 secondary limestones occupy a great portion of the high land of ,eastern ,europe4 ,calcareous rocks form two great mountain-zones on each side of the central chain of the ,alps1 and rise occasionally to altitudes of #aj1jjj or #ab1jjj feet4 ,they constitute a great portion of the central range of the ,apennines1 and fill the greater part of ,sicily4 ,they are extensively developed in ,turkey in ,europe1 where the plateau of ,bosnia with its high lands on the south1 part of ,macedonia1 and ,albania with its islands1 are principally composed of them4#bd ,tertiary strata of great thickness rest on the flanks of the ,alps1 and rise in some places to a height of #ejjj feet2 zones of the older ,pleiocene period flank the ,apennines on each side1 filled with organic remains2 and half of ,sicily is covered with the ,pleiocene strata4 ,it appears that the ,atlas1 the ,sierra ,morena and most of the ,spanish mountains1 the central chain of the ,caucasus1 and the ,balkan1 were raised before the period of the erratic blocks4 ,from numerous dislocations in the strata1 the ,alps appear to have been heaved up by many violent and repeated convulsions1 separated by intervals of repose1 and different parts of the chain have been raised at different times2 for example1 the ,maritime ,alps and the south-western part of the ,jura mountains were raised previously to the formation of the chalk3 but the tertiary period appears to have been that of the greatest commotions2 for nearly two-thirds of the lands of ,europe have risen since the beginning of that epoch1 and those that existed then acquired additional height1 though some sank below their original level4 ,during that time the ,alps acquired an additional elevation of between #bjjj and #cjjj feet2 ,mont ,blanc then attained its present altitude2 the ,apennines rose #ajjj or #bjjj feet higher2 and the ,carpathians seem to have gained an accession of height since the seas were inhabited by the existing species of animals4#be ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,the ,high ,lands of the ,great ,continent 7continued7--,the ,caucasus--,the ,western ,asiatic ,table-,land and its ,mountains4 ,,the ,dardanelles and the ,sea of ,marmora form but a small break in the mighty girdle of the old continent1 which again appears in immense table-lands1 passing through the centre of ,asia1 of such magnitude that they occupy nearly two-fifths of the continent4 ,here everything is on a much grander scale than in ,europe3 the table-lands rise above the mean height of the ,european mountains1 and the mountains themselves that gird and traverse them surpass those of every other country in altitude4 ,the most barren deserts are here to be met with1 as well as the most luxuriant productions of animal and vegetable life4 ,the earliest records of the human race are found in this cradle of civilization1 and monuments still remain which show the skill and power of those nations which have passed away1 but whose moral influence is still visible in their descendants4 ,customs1 manners1 and even prejudices1 carry us back to times beyond the record of history1 or even of tradition2 while the magnitude with which the natural world is here developed evinces the tremendous forces that must have been in action at epochs immeasurably anterior to the existence of man4 ,the gigantic mass of high land which extends for #fjjj miles between the ,mediterranean and the ,pacific is #bjjj miles broad at its eastern extremity1 #gjj to #ajjj in the middle1 and somewhat less at its termination4 ,colossal mountains and elevated terraces form the edges of the lofty plains4 ,between the #dgth and #fhth eastern meridians1 where the low plains of ,hindostan and ,bokara press upon the table-land and reduce its width to #gjj or #ajjj miles1 it is divided into two parts by an enormous knot of mountains formed by the meeting of the ,hindoo ,coosh1 the ,himalaya1 the ,tsung-lin1 and the transverse ranges of the ,beloot ,tagh1 or ,cloudy ,mountains3 these two parts differ in height1 form1 and magnitude4 ,the western portion1 which is the table-land of ,persia or plateau of ,iran1 is oblong1 extending from the shores of ,asia ,minor to the ,hindoo ,coosh and the ,solimaun range1 which skirts the right bank of the ,indus4 ,it occupies an area of #a1gjj1jjj square miles1 generally about #djjj feet above the sea1 and in some places #gjjj4 ,the ,oriental plateau or table-land of ,tibet1 much the largest1 has an area of #g1fjj1jjj square miles1 a mean altitude of #ad1jjj feet1 and in some parts of ,tibet an absolute altitude of #ag1jjj feet4 ,as the table-lands extend from ,s4,w4 to ,n4,e41 so also do the principal mountain-chains1 as well those which bound the high lands as those which traverse them4 ,remarkable exceptions to this equatorial direction of the ,asiatic mass1 however1 occur in a series of meridional chains1 whose axes extend from ,s4,s4,e4 to ,n4,n4,w41 between ,cape ,comoron1 opposite to ,ceylon1 and the ,arctic ,ocean1 under the names of the ,western ,ghauts1 the ,solimaun range 7which forms the eastern boundary of the table-land of ,persia71 the ,beloot ,tagh1 or ,bolor 7which is the western limit of the ,oriental plateau71 and the ,ural ,mountains4 ,these chains1 rich in gold1 lie in different longitudes1 and so alternate among themselves that each begins only in that latitude which has not yet been attained by the preceding one4 ,the ,khinghan1 in ,china1 also extends from south to north along the eastern slopes of the table-land1 and forms its boundary at that end4#bf ,the lofty range of the ,caucasus1 which extends #gjj miles between the ,black and ,caspian ,seas1 is an outlying member of the ,asiatic high lands4 ,offsets diverge like ribs from each side of the central crest1 which penetrate the ,russian ,steppes on one hand1 and on the other cross the plains of ,kara1 or valley of the ,kour and ,rioni1 and unite the ,caucasus to the table-land4 ,some parts of these mountains are very high2 the ,elburz1 on the western border of ,georgia1 is #ag1gif feet4 ,the central part of the chain is full of glaciers1 and the limit of perpetual snow is at the altitude of #aa1jjj feet1 which is higher than in any other chain of the old continent1 except the ,himalaya4 ,anatolia1 the most western part of the table-land of ,iran1 #cjjj feet above the sea1 is traversed by short chains and broken groups of mountains1 separated by fertile valleys1 which sink rapidly towards the ,archipelago1 and end in promontories and islands along the shores of ,asia ,minor1 which is a country abounding in vast1 luxuriant1 but solitary plains1 watered by broad rivers--in ,alpine platforms and mountain-ridges broken up by great valleys1 opening seawards1 with meandering streams4 ,single mountains of volcanic formation are conspicuous objects on the table-land of ,anatolia1 which is rich in pasture1 though much of the soil is saline and covered with lakes and marshes4 ,a triple range of limestone mountains1 #fjjj or #gjjj feet high1 divided by narrow but beautiful valleys1 is the limit of the ,anatolian table-land along the shores of the ,black ,sea4 ,two-thirds of their height are covered with forests1 and broken by wooded glens1 leaving a narrow coast1 except near ,trebizond1 where it is broad and picturesque4 ,the high land is bounded on the south by the serrated snowy range of the ,taurus1 which1 beginning in ,rhodes1 ,cos1 and other islands in the ,mediterranean1 fills the south-western parts of ,asia ,minor with ramifications1 and1 after following the sinuosities of the iron-bound coast of ,karamania in a single lofty range1 extends at ,samisat1 where the ,euphrates has pierced a way through this stony girdle4 ,about the #ejth meridian the table-land is compressed to nearly half its width1 and there the lofty mountainous regions of ,armenia1 ,kourdistan1 and ,azerbijan tower higher and higher between the ,black ,sea1 the ,caspian1 and the ,gulf of ,scanderoon in the ,mediterranean4 ,here the cold treeless plains of ,armenia1 the earliest abode of man1 #gjjj feet above the sea1 bear no traces of the ,garden of ,eden2 ,mount ,ararat1 on which the ,ark is said to have rested1 stands a solitary majestic volcanic cone1 #ag1bfj feet above the sea1 shrouded in perpetual snow4 ,though high and cold1 the soil of ,armenia is richer than that of ,anatolia1 and is better cultivated4 ,it shelves on the north in luxuriant and beautiful declivities to the low and undulating valley of ,kara1 south of the ,caucasus2 and1 on the other hand1 the broad and lofty belt of the ,kourdistan mountains1 rising abruptly in many parallel ranges from the plains of ,mesopotamia1 form its southern limit1 and spread their ramifications wide over its surface4 ,they are rent by deep ravines1 and in many places are so rugged that communication between the villages is always difficult1 and in winter impracticable from the depth of snow4 ,the line of perpetual congelation is decided and even along their summit2 their flanks are wooded1 and the valleys populous and fertile4 ,a thousand square miles of ,kourdistan is occupied by the brackish lake ,van1 which is seldom frozen1 though #edfg feet above the sea1 and surrounded by lofty mountains4 ,the ,persian mountains1 of which ,elburz is the principal chain1 extend along the northern brink of the plateau1 from ,armenia1 almost parallel to the shores of the ,caspian ,sea1 maintaining a considerable elevation up to the volcanic peak of ,demavend1 near ,tehrn1 their culminating point1 which1 though #ij miles inland1 is a landmark to sailors on the ,caspian4 ,elevated offsets of these mountains cover the volcanic table-land of ,azerbijan1 the fire-country of ,zoroaster1 and one of the most fertile provinces of ,persia2 there the ,koh ,salavan elevates its volcanic cone4 ,beautiful plains1 pure streams1 and peaceful glades1 interspersed with villages1 lie among the mountains1 and the ,vale of ,khosran ,shah1 a picture of sylvan beauty1 is celebrated as one of the five paradises of ,persian poetry4 ,the vegetation at the foot of these mountains on the shores of the ,caspian has all the exuberance of a tropical jungle4 ,the ,elburz loses its height to the east of ,demavend1 and then joins the mountains of ,khorasan and the ,paropamisan range1 which appear to be chains of mountains when viewed from the low plains of ,khorasan and ,balkh1 but on the table-land of ,persia they merely form a broad hilly country of rich soil1 till they join the ,hindoo ,coosh4 ,the table-land of ,iran is bounded1 for #a1jjj miles along the ,persian ,gulf and ,indian ,ocean1 by a mountainous belt of from three to seven parallel ranges1 having an average width of #bjj miles1 and extending from the extremity of the ,kourdistan ,mountains to the mouth of the ,indus4 ,the ,lasistn ,mountains1 which form the northern part of this belt1 and bound the vast level plain of the ,tigris1 rise from it in a succession of high table-lands divided by very rugged mountains1 the last ridge of which1 mostly covered with snow1 abuts on the table-land of ,persia4 ,oaks clothe their flanks2 the valleys are of generous soil1 verdant1 and cultivated2 and many rivers flow through them to swell the stream of the ,tigris4 ,insulated hill forts1 from #bjjj to #ejjj feet high1 occur in this country1 with flat cultivated tops some miles in extent1 accessible only by ladders1 or holes cut in their precipitous sides4 ,these countries are full of ancient inscriptions and remains of antiquity4 ,the moisture decreases more and more south from ,shiraz1 and then the parallel ridges1 repulsive in aspect and difficult to pass1 are separated by arid longitudinal valleys1 which ascend like steps from the narrow shores of the ,persian ,gulf to the table-land4 ,the coasts of the gulf are burning hot sand solitudes1 so completely barren1 that the country from ,bassora to the ,indus1 a distance of #abjj miles1 is nearly a sterile waste4 ,in the few favoured spots on the terraces where water occurs there is vegetation1 and the beauty of these valleys is enhanced by surrounding sterility4#bg ,with the exception of ,mazenderan and the other provinces bordering upon the ,caspian1 and in the ,paropamisan range1 ,persia is arid1 possessing few perennial springs1 and not one great river2 in fact1 three-tenths of the country is a desert1 and the table-land is nearly a wide scene of desolation4 ,a great salt-desert occupies #bg1jjj square miles between ,irak and ,khorasan1 of which the soil is a stiff clay1 covered with efflorescence of common salt and nitre1 often an inch thick1 varied only by a few saline plants and patches of verdure in the hollows4 ,this dreary waste joins the large sandy and equally dreary desert of ,kerman4 ,kelat1 the capital of ,belochistan1 is #gjjj feet above the level of the sea3 round it there is cultivation1 but the greater part of that country is a lifeless plain1 over which the brick-red sand is drifted by the north wind into ridges like the waves of the sea1 often #ab feet high1 without a vestige of vegetation4 ,the blast of the desert1 whose hot and pestilential breath is fatal to man and animals1 renders these dismal sands impassable at certain seasons4 ,barren lands or bleak downs prevail at the foot of the ,lukee and ,solimaun ranges1 formed of bare porphyry and sandstone1 which skirt the eastern edge of the table-land1 and dip to the plains of the ,indus4 ,in ,afghanistan there is little cultivation except on the banks of the streams that flow into the ,lake ,zerrah1 but vitality returns towards the north-east4 ,the plains and valleys among the offsets from the ,hindoo ,coosh are of surpassing loveliness1 and combine the richest peaceful beauty with the majesty of the snow-capped mountains by which they are encircled4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,the ,high ,lands of the ,great ,continent 7continued7--,the ,oriental ,table-,land and its ,mountains4 ,,the ,oriental plateau1 or table-land of ,tibet1 is an irregular four-sided mass stretching from ,s4,w4 to ,n4,e41 enclosed and traversed by the highest mountains in the world4 ,it is separated from the table-land of ,persia by the ,hindoo ,coosh1 which may be considered as the western prolongation of the ,himalaya1 occupying the terrestrial isthmus between the low lands of ,hindostan and ,bucharia4 ,the cold dreary plateau of ,tibet is separated on the south from the glowing luxuriant plains of ,hindostan by the ,himalaya1 which extends from the eastern extremity of the ,hindoo ,coosh in ,cabulistan to about the #ieth meridian1 where it joins the immense mountain-knot which renders the south-western corner of the table-land and the ,chinese province of ,yun-nan one of the most elevated regions on the earth4 ,on the west1 the table-land has its limits in the chain of the ,bolor or ,beloot ,tagh1 the 8,cloudy ,mountains10 the ,tartash ,tagh of the natives1 a transverse range which detaches itself from the ,hindoo ,coosh nearly at a right angle about the #gb;d degree of ,e4 longitude1 and1 pursuing a northerly direction1 forms magnificent mountain-knots with the diagonal chains of the table-land1 and is the watershed between the valley of the ,oxus and ,chinese ,tartary4 ,it descends in a succession of tiers or terraces through the countries of ,bokhara and ,balkh to the deep cavity in which the ,caspian ,sea and the ,sea of ,azoff lie1 and forms1 with the ,western ,ghauts1 the ,solimaun range1 and the ,ural1 a singular exception to the general parallelism of the ,asiatic mountains4 ,two narrow difficult passes lead over the ,beloot ,tagh from the low plains of ,bucharia and ,independent ,tourkistan to ,kashgar and ,yarkand1 on the table-land in ,chinese ,tartary4 ,the north-eastern edge of the table-land is bounded by the ,khing-han ,mountains1 a serrated granitic chain running from south to north1 which separates the plateau of ,mongolia from the country of ,mantchouria1 and joins the ,yablonoi branch of the ,alta at right angles about the #eeth degree of north latitude4 ,little more is known of the south-eastern boundary of the table-land than that it is a mass of exceedingly high mountains4 ,in fact1 between the sources of the ,brahmapootra and the ,alta chain1 nearly #a1jjj1jjj of square miles of the ,chinese empire is covered with mountains4 ,the table-land itself is crossed longitudinally from west to east by two great chains4 ,the ,kuenlun1 or ,chinese range1 begins about #ce #cj ,n4 lat4 at the mountain-knot of ,tsung-lin1 formed by the ,hindoo ,coosh and ,himalaya1 and1 running eastward1 it terminates about the #aajth meridian1 but probably covers a great part of the western provinces of ,china with its branches4 ,the ,thian-shan1 or 8,celestial ,mountains10 lie more to the north2 they begin at the ,bolor or ,beloot ,tagh1 and1 running along the #db;d parallel1 sink to the desert of the ,great ,gobi about the centre of the plateau1 but1 rising again1 they are continued under the name of ,shan-,garjan1 which runs to the north-east and ends on the shores of the ,japan ,sea4 ,the ,thian-shan is exceedingly volcanic1 and1 though so far inland1 pours forth lava1 and exhibits all the other phenomena of volcanic districts4 ,tibet is enclosed between the ,himalaya and the ,kuen-lun2 ,tungut1 or ,chinese ,tartary1 lies between the latter chain and the ,thian-shan1 or ,celestial ,mountains2 and ,zungary1 or ,mongolia1 between the ,celestial range and the ,alta4 ,the meridional chain of the ,bolor encloses ,chinese ,tartary on the west2 and ,mongolia1 which is entirely open on the west1 is shut in on the east by the ,khing-han range1 also running from south to north4 ,the ,himalaya and ,alta ranges diverge in their easterly courses1 so that the table-land1 which is only from #gjj to #ajjj miles wide at its western extremity1 is #bjjj between the ,chinese province of ,yunnan and the country of the ,mantchou ,tonguses4#bh ,of all these vast chains of mountains the ,himalaya1 and its principal branch the ,hindoo ,coosh1 are best known2 though even of these a great part has never been explored1 on account of their enormous height and the depth of snow1 which make it impossible to approach the central ridge1 except in a very few places4 ,the range consists of three parts3 the ,hindoo ,coosh1 or ,indian ,caucasus1 which extends from the ,paropamisan range in ,afghanistan to ,cashmere2 the ,himalaya1 or ,imaus of the ancients1 which stretches from the valley of ,cashmere to ,bhotan2 and1 lastly1 the mountains of ,bhotan and ,assam--the three making one magnificent unbroken chain4 ,the ,hindoo ,coosh1 which has its name from a mountain of great height1 north of the city of ,cabul1 is very broad to the west1 extending over many degrees of latitude1 and1 together with the offsets of the ,beloot ,tagh1 fills the countries of ,kafferistan1 ,koonduz1 and ,budakshan4 ,from the plains to the south it seems to consist of four distinct ranges running one above another1 the last of which abuts on the table-land1 and is so high that its snowy summits are visible at the distance of #aej miles4 ,a ridge of stupendous height encloses the beautiful valley of ,cashmere1 to the east of which the chain takes the name of ,himalaya1 8the dwelling of snow40 ,from the great mountain-knot of ,tsung-lin1 the ,himalaya no longer maintains its direct easterly course1 but makes a vast arch to the south of #cjj miles1 which extends to the ,brahmapootra1 varying in breadth from #bej to #cej miles1 and occupying an area of #fjj1jjj square miles4#bi ,the general structure of the ,himalaya is very regular3 the first range of hills that rise above the plains of ,hindostan is alluvial1 north of which lies the ,tariyani1 a tract from #aj to #cj miles wide1 #ajjj feet above the sea1 covered with dense pestilential jungle1 and extending along the foot of the range4 ,north of this region are rocky ridges #ejjj or #fjjj feet high4 ,between these and the higher ranges lie the peaceful and well-cultivated valleys of ,nepaul1 ,bhotan1 and ,assam1 of inexhaustible fertility1 interspersed with picturesque and populous towns and villages4 ,though separated by mountain-groups1 they form the principal terrace of the ,himalaya between the ,sutlej and ,brahmapootra4 ,behind these are mountains from #aj1jjj to #ab1jjj feet high1 flanked by magnificent forests2 and1 lastly1 the snowy ranges rise in succession to the table-land4 ,the principal and most elevated chains are cut by narrow1 gloomy ravines and transverse dusky gorges1 through which the torrents of melted snow rush to swell the rivers of ,hindostan4 ,the character of the valleys becomes softer in the lower regions1 till at last the luxuriance of vegetation and beauty cannot be surpassed4 ,transverse valleys1 however1 are more frequent in the ,hindoo ,coosh than in the ,himalaya1 where they consist chiefly of such chasms filled with wreck as the tributaries of the ,indus and ,ganges have made in bursting through the chain4 ,the mean height of the ,himalaya is stupendous4 ,captain ,gerard and his brother estimated that it could not be less than from #af1jjj to #bj1jjj feet2 but1 from the average elevation of the passes over these mountains1 ,baron ,humboldt thinks it must be under #ae1gjj feet4 ,colonel ,sabine estimates it to be only #aa1eaj feet1 though the peaks exceeding that elevation are not to be numbered1 especially at the sources of the ,sutlej2 indeed1 from that river to the ,kalee1 the chain exhibits an endless succession of the loftiest mountains on earth2 forty of them surpass the height of ,chimborazo1 one of the highest of the ,andes1 and several reach the height of #be1jjj feet at least4 ,so rugged is this part of the magnificent chain1 that the military parade at ,sabathoo1 half a mile long and a quarter of a mile broad1 is said to be the only level ground between it and the ,tartar frontier on the north1 or the valley of ,nepaul on the east4 ,towards the fruitful valleys of ,nepaul and ,bhotan the ,himalaya is equally lofty1 some of the mountains being #bh1jjj feet high2 but it is narrower1 and the descent to the plains excessively rapid1 especially in the territory of ,bhotan1 where the dip from the table-land is more than #aj1jjj feet in ten miles4 ,the valleys are crevices so deep and narrow1 and the mountains that hang over them in menacing cliffs are so lofty1 that these abysses are shrouded in perpetual gloom1 except where the rays of a vertical sun penetrate their depths4 ,from the steepness of the descent the rivers shoot down with the swiftness of an arrow1 filling the caverns with foam and the air with mist4 ,at the very base of this wild region lies the elevated and peaceful valley of ,bhotan1 vividly green1 and shaded by magnificent forests4 ,another rapid descent of #ajjj feet leads to the plain of the ,ganges4 ,the ,himalaya still maintains great height along the north of ,assam1 and at the ,brahmapootra the parent stem and its branches extend in breadth over two degrees of latitude1 forming a vast mountain-knot of great elevation4 ,beyond this point nothing certain is known of the range1 but it or some of its branches are supposed to cross the southern provinces of the ,chinese empire1 and to end in the volcanic island of ,formosa4 ,little more is known of the northern side of the mountains than that the passes are about #ejjj feet above the plains of ,tibet4 ,the passes over the ,hindoo ,coosh1 though not the highest1 are very formidable3 there are six from ,cabul to the plains of ,turkistan2 and so deep and so much enclosed are the defiles1 that ,sir ,alexander ,burnes never could obtain an observation of the pole-star in the whole journey from ,barmeean till within thirty miles of ,turkistan4 ,most of the passes over the ,himalaya are but little lower than the top of ,mont ,blanc3 many are higher1 especially near the ,sutlej1 where they are from #ah1jjj to #ai1jjj feet high2 and that north-east of ,khoonawur is #bj1jjj feet above the level of the sea--the highest that has been attempted4 ,all are terrific1 and the fatigue and suffering from the rarity of the air in the last #ejj feet is not to be described4 ,animals are as much distressed as human beings1 and many die2 thousands of birds perish from the violence of the wind1 the drifting snow is often fatal to travellers1 and violent thunderstorms add to the horror of the journey4 ,the ,niti ,pass1 by which ,mr4 ,moorcroft ascended to the sacred lake of ,manasa1 in ,tibet1 is tremendous2 he and his guide had not only to walk barefooted1 from the risk of slipping1 but they were obliged to creep along the most frightful chasms1 holding by twigs and tufts of grass1 and sometimes they crossed deep and awful crevices on a branch of a tree1 or on loose stones thrown across4 ,yet these are the thoroughfares for commerce in the ,himalaya1 never repaired nor susceptible of improvement from frequent landslips and torrents4 ,the loftiest peaks being bare of snow gives great variety of colour and beauty to the scenery1 which in these passes is at all times magnificent4 ,during the day1 the stupendous size of the mountains1 their interminable extent1 the variety and sharpness of their forms1 and1 above all1 the tender clearness of their distant outline melting into the pale blue sky1 contrasted with the deep azure above1 is described as a scene of wild and wonderful beauty4 ,at midnight1 when myriads of stars sparkle in the black sky1 and the pure blue of the mountains looks deeper still below the pale white gleam of the earth and snow-light1 the effect is of unparalleled solemnity1 and no language can describe the splendour of the sunbeams at daybreak streaming between the high peaks1 and throwing their gigantic shadows on the mountains below4 ,there1 far above the habitation of man1 no living thing exists1 no sound is heard2 the very echo of the traveller's footsteps startles him in the awful solitude and silence that reigns in these august dwellings of everlasting snow4 ,nature has in mercy mitigated the intense rigour of the cold in these high lands in a degree unexampled in other mountainous regions4 ,the climate is mild1 the valleys are verdant and inhabited1 corn and fruit ripen at elevations which in other countries--even under the equator-- would be buried in permanent snow4 ,it is also a peculiarity in these mountains that the higher the range the higher likewise is the limit of snow and vegetation4 ,on the southern slopes of the first range1 ,mr4 ,gerard found cultivation #aj1jjj feet above the sea1 though it was often necessary to reap the corn still green and unripe2 while in ,chinese ,tartary good crops are raised #af1jjj feet above the sea4 ,captain ,gerard saw pasture and low bushes up to #ag1jji feet2 and corn as high as even #ah1edd feet1 which is #bghd feet higher than the top of ,mont ,blanc1 and #abgi feet above the snow-line in the province of ,quito under the equator4 ,birch-trees with tall stems grow at the elevation of #ad1jfh feet1 and the vine and other fruits thrive in the valleys of these high plains4 ,the temperature of the earth probably has some influence on the vegetation3 as many hot springs exist in the ,himalaya at great heights1 there must be a source of heat below these mountains1 which in some places comes near the surface1 and possibly may be connected with the volcanic fires in the central chains of the table-land4 ,hot springs abound in the valley of ,jumnotra2 and as it is well known that many plants thrive in very cold air if their roots are well protected1 it may be the cause of pine-trees thriving at great elevations in that valley1 and of the splendid forests of the deodar1 a species of cypress that grows to gigantic size even in the snow4 ,according to ,captain and ,mr4 ,gerard1 the line of perpetual congelation is at an elevation of only #ab1iha feet on the southern slopes of the ,himalaya2 while on the northern side1 or rather on the peaks which rise above the table-land1 the limit is #af1fbj feet2 but the mean height of the table-land of ,tibet1 and the relative elevation of the line of perpetual snow on the two declivities of the ,himalaya1 require to be better investigated4 ,the greater elevation of the snow-line on the northern side is the joint result of the serenity of the sky1 the less frequent formation of snow in very cold dry air1 and the radiation of heat from the neighbouring plains1 which1 being so near1 have much greater effect on the temperature than the warmer but more distant plains on the south4 ,there are fewer glaciers in the ,asiatic mountains than might have been expected from the great mass of snow2 they are chiefly on the ,thibetian side of the ,himalaya1 and on the ,kuenlun4 ,there is a very large one at the source of the ,indus1 and another at the source of the ,ganges1 on the southern face of the ,himalaya4 ,various secondary chains of great length detach themselves from the eastern extremity of the ,himalaya1 or rather the vast knot of mountains1 near the sources of the ,brahmapootra1 in the ,chinese province of ,yun-nan1 which is a terra incognita2 their origin1 therefore1 is unknown4 ,but in ,upper ,assam they run cross to the equatorial system of ,asiatic mountains1 and1 extending in a southerly but diverging direction1 they spread like the spokes of a fan through the countries east of the ,ganges and the ,indo-,chinese peninsula1 leaving large and fertile kingdoms between them4 ,the ,birmano-,siamese chain is the most extensive1 reaching to ,cape ,romania1 at the southern extremity of the ,malay peninsula1 the most southerly point of the ,asiatic continent2 it may be traced through the island of ,sumatra parallel to the coast1 and also in the islands of ,banca and ,biliton1 where it ends4 ,another range1 called the ,laos-,siamese chain1 forms the eastern boundary of the kingdom of ,siam1 and the ,annamatic chain1 from the same origin1 separates the empire of ,annam from ,tonquin and ,cochin ,china4 ,these slightly diverging lines of mountains yield gold1 silver1 tin of the best quality and in great plenty1 almost on the surface1 and precious stones1 as rubies and sapphires4 ,mountains in low latitudes have nothing of the severe character of those in less favoured climes4 ,magnificent forests reach their summit2 spices1 dyes of brilliant tints1 medicinal and odoriferous plants1 clothe their declivities2 and in the low grounds the fruits of ,india and ,china grow in perfection1 in a soil which yields three crops of grain in the year4 ,the crest of the ,himalaya is of stratified crystalline rocks1 especially gneiss1 with large granitic veins1 and beds of quartz of huge magnitude4 ,the zone between #ae1jjj and #ah1jjj feet above the level of the sea is of ,silurian strata2 granite is most frequent at the base1 and probably forms the foundation of the chain4 ,strata of comparatively modern date occur at great elevations4 ,the sedimentary formations1 prevailing also on the acclivities of the ,alps and ,apennines1 show that the epochs of elevation in parts of the earth widely remote from one another1 if not simultaneous1 were at least not very different4 ,there can be no doubt that very great geological changes have taken place at a comparatively recent period in the ,himalaya1 and through an extensive part of the ,asiatic continent4 ,the ,alta mountains1 which form the northern margin of the table-land1 are unconnected with the ,ural chain3 they are separated from it by #djj miles of a low marshy country1 part of the steppe of the ,kirghiz1 and by the ,dala mountains1 a low range never above #bjjj feet high1 which runs between the #fdth meridian and the left bank of the ,irtish4 ,the ,alta chain rises on the right bank of that river1 at the north-west angle of the table-land1 and extends in a serpentine line to the ,pacific1 south of the ,gulf of ,okhotzk1 dividing the high lands of ,tartary and ,china from the wastes of ,asiatic ,siberia4 ,under various names1 its branches skirt the north-west side of the ,gulf of ,okhotzk1 and thence stretching to ,behring's ,straits1 it ends at ,eastern ,cape1 the most eastern extremity of the old continent1 the whole length of the chain being #dejj miles4 ,the breadth of this chain varies from #djj to #ajjj miles1 but towards the #ajeth meridian it is contracted to about #aej by a projection of the desert of the ,great ,gobi4 ,its height bears no proportion to its length and breadth4 ,the ,alta1 the only part of the chain properly so called1 can only be regarded as a succession of terraces of a swelling outline1 descending by steps from the table-land1 and ending in the promontories of the ,siberian plains4 ,there are numerous large lakes on these terraces and in the valleys1 as in the mountain systems of ,europe4 ,the general form of this part of the chain is monotonous from the prevalence of straight lines and smooth rounded outlines--long ridges with flattened summits1 or small table-lands not more than #fjjj feet high1 which rarely attain the line of perpetual congelation3 snow1 however1 is permanent on the ,korgon table-land1 #iijj feet above the sea1 supposed to be the culminating point of this part of the chain4 ,these table-lands bear a strong resemblance to those in the ,scandinavian mountains in baldness and sterility1 but their flanks are clothed with forests1 verdant meadows1 and pastoral valleys4 ,east of the #hfth meridian this region of low mountains splits into three branches1 enclosing longitudinal valleys for #dej miles4 ,the ,sayansk and ,zongnou mountains1 which are the northern and central branches1 form a mountain-knot nearly as large as ,england1 which projects like a huge promontory on the ,siberian plains#cj west of ,lake ,baikal1 and is celebrated for the richness of its mines4 ,the third branch1 which is the ,ulangomula1 lies south of ,lake ,oubsa4 ,the principal part of the ,baikal group is #ejj miles long1 from #aj to #fj wide1 high and snow-capped1 and said to be without glaciers4 ,it flanks lake ,baikal on the north1 the largest of ,alpine lakes1 so embedded in a knot of mountains1 partly granitic1 partly volcanic1 that rocks and pillars of granite rise from its bed4 ,the mountains south of the lake are but the face of the table-land2 a traveller ascending them finds himself at once in the desert of ,gobi1 which stretches in unbroken sadness to the great wall of ,china4 ,the ,daouria mountains1 a volcanic portion of the ,alta1 which borders the table-land on the north-east1 follow the ,baikal chain2 and farther east1 at the sources of the ,aldan1 the ,alta range takes the name of the ,yablonnoi ,khrebet1 and stretches south of the ,gulf of ,okhotzk to the coast of the ,pacific opposite to the island of ,saghalian2 while another part1 #ajjj miles broad1 fills the space between the ,gulf of ,okhotzk and the river ,lena1 and then1 bending to the north-east1 ends in the peninsula of ,kamtchatka4 ,between the western end of ,lake ,baikal and the ,yablonnoi ,khrebet the mountain-chains are parallel1 and extend from the ,w4,s4,w4 to the ,e4,n4,e41 which is the general direction of the high lands in the most easterly regions of ,asia4 ,a great part of the ,alta chain is unknown to ,europeans2 the innumerable branches that penetrate the ,chinese empire are completely so3 those belonging to ,russia abound in a great variety of precious and rare metals and minerals--silver1 copper1 and iron4 ,in the ,yablonnoi range1 and other parts1 there are whole mountains of porphyry1 with red and green jasper2 coal is also found2 and in a branch of the ,alta between the rivers ,obi and ,yennissei there are mines of coal which1 having been set on fire by lightning1 have continued to burn for more than a century4 ,the ,siberian mountains far surpass the ,andes in the richness of their gold mines4 ,the eastern flank of the ,ural chain1 and some of the northern spurs of the ,alta1 have furnished a vast quantity of gold1 but a region as large as ,france has lately been discovered in ,siberia covered with the richest gold alluvium1 lying above rocks abounding in that precious metal4 ,the mines of the ,ural and ,alta are situated principally in metamorphic rocks1 adjacent to the greenstones1 syenites1 and serpentines that have caused their change2 and as the same formation prevails throughout the greater part of the ,alta and ,aldan chains almost to ,kamtchatka1 there is every reason to believe that the whole of that vast region is auriferous3 besides1 as many of the northern offsets of the ,alta are particularly rich1 it may be concluded that the southern branches in the ,chinese empire are equally so4 ,thus1 ,southern ,siberia and ,chinese ,tartary form an auriferous district1 probably greater in area than all ,europe1 which extends even to our dominions in ,hindostan1 where the formations containing gold are unexplored4#ca ,the sedimentary deposits in this extensive mountain-range are more ancient than the granite1 syenite1 and porphyries3 consequently these igneous rocks have not here formed part of the original crust of the globe4 ,rocks of the ,palozoic series occupy the greater part of the ,alta1 and probably there are none more modern4 ,there are no volcanic rocks1 properly speaking1 ancient or modern1 west of the ,yenissei1 but they abound to the east of that river1 even to ,kamtchatka1 which is full of them4 ,the physical characters and the fossil remains of this extensive mountain system have little relation with the geological formations of ,europe and ,america4 ,eastern ,siberia seems even to form an insulated district by itself1 and that part between the town of ,yakoutzk and the mouth of the ,lena appears to have been raised at a later period than the part of ,siberia stretching westward to the ,sayansk mountains2 moreover1 the elevation of the western part of the ,alta was probably contemporaneous with that of the ,ural mountains4#cb ,on the whole1 the chains in the direction of parallels of latitude in the ,old ,continent are much more numerous and extensive than those in the meridians2 and as they lie chiefly towards the equator1 the internal forces that raised them were probably modified by the rotation of the earth4 ,the table-land of ,tibet is only #djjj feet above the sea towards the north1 but it rises in ,little ,tibet to between #aa1jjj and #ab1jjj feet4 ,the ,kuen-lun1 the most southerly of the two diagonal mountain-chains that cross the table-land1 begins at the ,hindoo ,coosh1 in latitude #ce #cj1 being1 in fact1 a branch of that chain1 and extends eastward in two branches1 which surround the lake ,tengri-,nor1 and again unite in the ,k'han of eastern ,tibet4 ,the most southerly of the two branches1 known as the ,ice ,mountains1 or ,kara-,korum of the natives1 maintains a curved course parallel to the ,himalaya1 and then bends north towards the ,kuen-lun1 which pursues a more direct line across the table-land4 ,chains more or less connected with these form an elevated mountain plain round ,lake ,koko-,nor1 nearly in the centre of the table-land1 from whence those immense mountain-ranges diverge1 which render the south-western provinces of ,china the most elevated region on earth4 ,the country of ,tibet lying between the ,himalaya and the ,kuen-lun consists of rocky mountainous ridges1 extending from ,n4,w4 to ,s4,e41 separated by long valleys1 in which flow the upper courses of the ,brahmapootra1 ,sutlej1 and ,indus4 ,according to ,mr4 ,moorcroft1 the sacred lake ,manasa1 in ,great ,tibet1 and the surrounding country1 is #ag1jjj feet above the sea1 which is #abdj feet higher than ,mont ,blanc4 ,in this elevated region wheat and barley grow1 and many of the fruits of ,southern ,europe ripen4 ,the city of ,h',lassa1 in eastern ,tibet1 the residence of the ,grand ,lama1 is surrounded by vineyards1 and is called by the ,chinese the 8,realm of ,pleasure40 ,there are some trees in this country2 but the ground in cultivation bears a small proportion to the grassy steppes1 which extend in endless monotony1 grazed by thousands of the shawl-wool goats1 sheep1 and cattle4 ,there are many lakes in the table-land3 some in ,ladak contain borax--a salt very useful in the arts1 found only here1 at ,monte ,cerboliti in ,tuscany1 and in one of the ,lipari islands4 ,in summer the sun is powerful at mid-day1 the air is of the purest transparency1 and the azure of the sky so deep that it seems black as in the darkest night4 ,the rising moon does not enlighten the atmosphere1 no warning radiance announces her approach1 till her limb touches the horizon1 and the stars shine with the distinctness and brilliancy of suns4 ,in southern ,tibet the verdure is confined to favoured spots2 the bleak mountains and high plains are sternly gloomy--a scene of barrenness not to be conceived4 ,solitude reigns in these dreary wastes1 where there is not a tree1 nor even a shrub to be seen of more than a few inches high4 ,the scanty1 short-lived verdure vanishes in ,october2 the country then looks as if fire had passed over it1 and cutting dry winds blow with irresistible fury1 howling in the bare mountains1 whirling the snow through the air1 and freezing to death the unfortunate traveller benighted in their defiles4 ,yarkand and ,khotan1 provinces of ,chinese ,tartary1 which lie beyond the two diagonal chains1 are less elevated and more fertile than ,tibet2 yet it is so cold in winter that the river ,yarkiang is frozen for three months4 ,they are watered by five rivers1 and contain several large cities2 ,yarkand1 the most considerable of these1 is the emporium of commerce between ,tibet1 ,turkistan1 ,china1 and ,russia4 ,gold1 rubies1 silk1 and other productions are exported4 ,the ,tartar range of the ,thian-,shan is very high2 the ,bogda ,oola1 or 8,holy ,mountain10 near ,lake ,lob1 its highest point1 is always covered with snow1 and it has two active volcanoes1 one on each side4 ,this range runs along the #db;d parallel of north latitude1 forming at its western extremity a mountain-knot with the ,beloot ,tagh1 in the centre of which lies the small table-land of ,pamer1 #ae1fjj feet high1 called by the natives the 8,roof of the ,world40 ,its remarkable elevation was first described by the celebrated ,venetian traveller ,marco ,polo1 six centuries ago4 ,the ,oxus originates in a glacier of the ,pooshtee ,khur1 a peak of the ,beloot ,tagh near the plain of ,pamer2 the lake ,sir-i-,kol is here the source of the river of ,yarkand2 and the ,kokan also rises in the same plain1 which is intensely cold in winter1 and in summer is alive with flocks of sheep and goats4 ,snow lies deep on the ,thian-,shan range in winter1 yet little falls on the plains on account of the dryness of the air4 ,there are only two or three showers annually on these mountains1 for a very short time1 and the drops are so minute as scarcely to wet the ground1 yet the streams from them suffice for irrigation4 ,zungary1 or ,mongolia1 the country between the ,thian-,shan and the ,alta1 is hardly known1 further than that its grassy steppes1 intersected by many lakes and offsets from the ,alta1 are the pasture-grounds of the wandering ,kirghiz4 ,the remarkable feature of the table-land is the desert of the ,great ,gobi1 which occupies an area of #cjj1jjj square miles in its eastern extremity1 interrupted only by a few spots of pasture and low bushes4 ,wide tracts are flat1 and covered with small stones or sand1 and widely separated from one another are low hills destitute of wood and water2 its general elevation is #dbbj feet above the sea1 but it is intersected from west to east by a depressed valley aptly named ,shamo1 or the 8,sea of ,sand10 which is also mixed with salt4 ,west from it lies the ,han-,hai1 the 8,dry ,sea10 a barren plain of shifting sand blown into high ridges4 ,here1 as in all deserts1 the summer sun is scorching1 no rain falls1 and when thick fog occurs it is only the precursor of fierce winds4 ,all the plains of ,mongolia are intensely cold in winter1 because the hills to the north are too low to screen them from the polar blast1 and1 being higher than the ,siberian deserts1 they are bitterly cold2 no month in the year is free from frost and snow1 yet it is not deep enough to prevent cattle from finding pasture4 ,sandy deserts like that of the ,great ,gobi occupy much of the country south of the ,chinese branches of the ,alta4 ,such is the stupendous zone of high land that girds the old continent throughout its whole length4 ,in the extensive plains on each side of it several independent mountain systems rise1 though much inferior to it in extent and height4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,secondary ,mountain ,systems of the ,great ,continent--,that of ,scandinavia-- ,great ,britain and ,ireland--,the ,ural ,mountains--,the ,great ,northern ,plain4 ,,the great northern plain is broken by two masses of high land1 in every respect inferior to those described2 they are the ,scandinavian system and the ,ural mountains1 the arbitrary limit between ,europe and ,asia4 ,the range of primary mountains which has given its form to the ,scandinavian peninsula begins at ,cape ,lindesnaes1 the most southerly point of ,norway1 and1 after running along its western coast #ajjj miles in a north-easterly direction1 ends at ,cape ,nord ,kyn1 on the ,polar ,ocean1 the extremity of ,europe4 ,the highest elevation of this chain is not more than #hdab feet4 ,it has been compared to a great wave or billow1 rising gradually from the east1 which1 after having formed a crest1 falls perpendicularly into the sea in the west4 ,there are #cfif square miles of this peninsula above the line of perpetual snow4 ,the southern portion of the chain consists of ridges following the general direction of the range1 #aej miles broad4 ,at the distance of #cfj miles from ,cape ,lindesnaes1 the mountains form a single elevated mass1 terminated by a table-land which maintains an altitude of #dejj feet for #ajj miles4 ,it slopes towards the east1 and plunges at once in high precipices into a deep sea on the west4 ,the surface is barren1 marshy1 and bristled with peaks2 besides an area of #fjj square leagues is occupied by the ,snae ,braen1 the greatest mass of perpetual snow and glaciers on the continent of ,europe4 ,a prominent cluster of mountains follows1 from whence a single chain1 #be miles broad1 maintains an uninterrupted line to the island of ,megaree1 where it terminates its visible career in ,north ,cape1 a huge barren rock perpetually lashed by the surge of the ,polar ,ocean1 but from the correspondence in geological structure it must be continued under the sea to where it reappears1 according to ,m4 ,bou1 in the schistose rocks of ,spitzbergen4 ,offsets from these mountains cover ,finland and the low rocky table-land of ,lapland3 the valleys and countries along the eastern side of the chain abound in forests and ,alpine lakes4 ,the iron-bound coast of ,norway is a continued series of rocky islands1 capes1 promontories1 and precipitous cliffs1 rent into chasms which penetrate miles into the heart of the mountains4 ,these chasms1 or fiords1 are either partly or entirely filled by arms of the sea2 in the former case1 the shores are fertile and inhabited1 and the whole country abounds in the most picturesque scenery4 ,fiords are not peculiar to the coast of ,norway2 they are even more extensive in ,greenland and ,iceland1 and of a more stern character1 overhung by snow-clad rocks and glaciers4 ,as the ,scandinavian mountains1 those of ,feroe1 ,britain1 ,ireland1 and the north-eastern parts of ,iceland1 have a similar character1 and follow the same general directions1 they must have been elevated by forces acting in parallel lines1 and therefore may be regarded as belonging to the same system4 ,the ,feroe islands1 due west from ,norway1 rise at once in a table-land #bjjj feet high1 bounded by precipitous cliffs1 which dip into the ocean4 ,the rocky islands of ,zetland1 and those of ,orkney1 form part of the mountain system of ,scotland2 the ,orkney islands have evidently been separated from the mainland by the ,pentland ,firth1 where the currents run with prodigious violence4 ,the north-western part of ,scotland is a table-land from #ajjj to #bjjj feet high1 which ends abruptly in the sea1 covered with heath1 peat-mosses1 and pasture4 ,the general direction of the ,scottish mountains1 like those of ,scandinavia1 is from north-east to south-west1 divided by a long line of lakes in the same direction1 extending from the ,moray ,firth completely across the island to south of the island of ,mull4 ,lakes of the most picturesque beauty abound among the ,scottish mountains4 ,the ,grampian hills1 with their offsets and some low ranges1 fill the greater part of ,scotland north of the ,clyde and ,forth4 ,ben ,nevis1 only #dcgd feet above the sea1 is the highest hill in the ,british islands4 ,the east coast of ,scotland is generally bleak1 though in many parts it is extremely fertile1 and may be cited as a model of good cultivation2 and the midland and southern counties are not inferior either in the quality of the soil or the excellence of the husbandry4 ,to the west the country is wildly picturesque2 the coast of the ,atlantic1 penetrated by the sea1 which is covered with islands1 bears a strong resemblance to that of ,norway4 ,there cannot be a doubt that the ,hebrides formed part of the mainland at some remote geological period1 since they follow the direction of the mountain system in two parallel lines of rugged and imposing aspect1 never exceeding the height of #cbjj feet4 ,the undulating country on the borders of ,scotland becomes higher in the west of ,england and ,north ,wales1 where the hills are wild1 but the valleys are cultivated like gardens1 and the ,english lake-scenery is of the most gentle beauty4 ,evergreen ,ireland is mostly a mountainous country1 and opposes to the ,atlantic storms an iron-bound coast of the wildest aspect2 but it is rich in arable land and pasture1 and possesses the most picturesque lake-scenery3 indeed1 freshwater lakes in the mountain valleys1 so peculiarly characteristic of the ,european system1 are the great ornaments of the high lands of ,britain4 ,various parts of the ,british islands were dry land while most of the continent of ,europe was yet below the ancient ocean4 ,the high land of ,lammermuir and the ,grampian hills in ,scotland1 and those of ,cumberland in ,england1 were raised before the ,alps had begun to appear above the waves4 ,in general1 all the highest parts of the ,british mountains are of granite and stratified crystalline rocks4 ,the primary fossiliferous strata are of immense thickness in ,cumberland and in the north of ,wales1 and the old red sandstone1 many hundred feet thick1 stretches from sea to sea along the flanks of the ,grampians4 ,the coal strata are developed on a great scale in the south of ,scotland and the north of ,england2 and examples of every formation1 with the exception of the muschelkalk1 are to be found in these islands4 ,volcanic fires had been very active in early times1 and nowhere is the columnar structure more beautifully exhibited than in ,fingal's ,cave and the ,storr of ,skye1 in the ,hebrides3 and in the north of ,ireland a base of #hjj square miles of mica-slate is covered with volcanic rocks1 which end on the coast in the magnificent columns of the ,giant's ,causeway4 ,the ,ural chain1 the boundary between ,europe and ,asia1 is the only interruption to the level of the great northern plain1 and is altogether unconnected with and far separated from the ,alta mountains by salt lakes1 marshes1 and deserts4 ,the central ridge may be traced from between the ,lake of ,aral and the ,caspian ,sea to the northern extremity of ,nova ,zemlia1 a distance of more than #agjj miles2 but as a chain it really begins on the right bank of the ,ural river1 at the steppes of the ,kirghiz1 about the #east degree of north latitude1 and runs due north in a long narrow ridge to the ,karskaa ,gulf1 in the ,polar ,ocean1 though it may be said to terminate in dreary rocks on the west side of ,nova ,zemlia4 ,the ,ural range is about the height of the mountains in the ,black ,forest or the ,vosges2 and1 with few exceptions1 it is wooded to the top1 chiefly by the ,pinus cembra4 ,the immense mineral riches of these mountains--gold1 platina1 magnetic iron1 and copper--lie on the ,siberian side1 and mostly between the #edth and #fjth degrees of north latitude3 the only part that is colonized1 and one of the most industrious and civilized regions of the ,russian empire4 ,to the south the chain is pastoral1 about #ajj miles broad1 consisting of longitudinal ridges1 the highest of which does not exceed #cdih feet3 in this part diamonds are found4 ,to the north of the mining district the narrow mural mass is covered with impenetrable forests and deep morasses1 altogether uninhabitable and unexplored4 ,throughout the ,ural mountains there are neither precipices1 transverse gorges1 nor any of the characteristics of a high chain2 the descent on both sides is so gentle that in many places it is difficult to know where the plain begins2 and the road over the chain from ,russia by ,ekaterinburg is so low that it hardly seems to be a mountain-pass4 ,the gentle descent and sluggishness of the streams produce extensive marshes along the ,siberian base of the range4 ,to the arduous and enterprising researches of ,sir ,roderick ,murchison we are indebted for almost all we know of these mountains3 he found them on the western side to be composed of ,silurian1 ,devonian1 and carboniferous rocks1 more or less altered and crystallized2 on the eastern declivity the mines are in metamorphic strata1 mixed with rocks of igneous origin2 and the central axis is of quartzose and chloritic rocks4 ,the great zone of high land which extends along the old continent from the ,atlantic to the shores of the ,pacific ,ocean divides the low lands into two very unequal parts4 ,that to the north1 only broken by the ,ural range of the ,valdai table-land of still less elevation1 stretches from the ,thames or the ,british hills1 and the eastern bank of the ,seine to ,behring's ,straits1 including more than #aij of longitude1 and occupying an area of at least #d1ejj1jjj square geographical miles1 which is a third more than all ,europe4 ,the greater part of it is perfectly level1 with a few elevations and low hills1 and in many places a dead level extends hundreds of miles4 ,the country between the ,carpathian and ,ural mountains is a flat on which there is scarcely a rise in #aejj miles2 and in the steppes of southern ,russia and ,siberia the extent of level ground is immense4 ,the mean absolute height of the flat provinces of ,france is #dhj feet4 ,moscow1 the highest point of the ,european plain1 is also #dhj feet high1 from whence the land slopes imperceptibly to the sea both on the north and south1 till it absolutely dips below its level4 ,holland1 on one side1 would be overflowed1 were it not for its dykes1 and towards ,astrakan the plain sinks still lower4 ,with the exception of the plateau of ,ust-,urt1 of no great elevation1 situated between the ,caspian and ,aral1 and which is the extreme southern ridge of the ,ural chain1 the whole of that extensive country north and east of the ,caspian ,sea and around the ,lake of ,aral forms a vast cavity of #ah1jjj square leagues1 all considerably below the level of the ocean2 and the surface of the ,caspian ,sea itself1 the lowest point1 has a depression of rather more than #hc feet4 ,the ,european part of the plain is highly cultivated1 and very productive in the more civilized countries1 in its western and middle regions1 and along the ,baltic4 ,the greatest amount of cultivated land lies to the north of the watershed which stretches from the ,carpathians to the centre of the ,ural chain1 yet there are large heaths which extend from the extremity of ,jutland through ,lunebourg and ,westphalia to ,belgium4 ,the land is of excellent quality to the south of it4 ,round ,polkova and ,moscow there is an extent of the finest vegetable mould1 equal in size to ,france and the ,spanish peninsula together1 which forms part of the ,high ,steppe1 and is mostly in a state of nature4 ,a large portion of the great plain is pasture-land1 and wide tracts are covered with natural forests1 especially in ,poland and ,russia1 where there are millions of acres of pine1 fir1 and deciduous trees4 ,the quantity of waste land in ,europe is very great1 and there are also many swamps4 ,a morass as long as ,england extends from the #eb;d parallel of latitude1 following the course of the river ,prepit1 a branch of the ,dnieper1 which runs through its centre4 ,there are swamps at the mouths of many of the sluggish rivers in ,central ,europe4 ,they cover #aigj miles in ,denmark1 and mossy quagmires occur frequently in the more northerly parts4 ,towards the eastern extremity of ,europe the great plain assumes the peculiar character of desert called a steppe1 a word supposed to be of ,tartar origin1 signifying a level waste destitute of trees3 hence the steppes may vary according to the nature of the soil4 ,they commence in the river ,dnieper1 and extend along the shores of the ,black ,sea4 ,they include all the country north and east of the ,caspian lake and ,independent ,tartary2 and1 passing between the ,ural and ,alta mountains1 they may be said to occupy all the low lands of ,siberia4 ,hundreds of leagues may be traversed east from the ,dnieper without variation of scene4 ,a dead level of thin but luxuriant pasture1 bounded only by the horizon1 day after day the same unbroken monotony fatigues the eye4 ,sometimes there is the appearance of a lake1 which vanishes on approach1 the phantom of atmospheric refraction4 ,horses and cattle beyond number give some animation to the scene1 so long as the steppes are green2 but winter comes in ,october1 and they then become a trackless field of spotless snow4 ,fearful storms rage1 and the dry snow is driven by the gale with a violence which neither man nor animal can resist1 while the sky is clear and the sun shines cold and bright above the earthly turmoil4 ,the contest between spring and winter is long and severe1 for 8,winter oft at once resumes the breeze1 ,chills the pale morn1 and bids his driving sleets ,deform the day1 delightless40 ,yet when gentler gales succeed1 and the waters run off in torrents through the channels which they cut in the soft ground1 the earth is again verdant4 ,the scorching summer's sun is as severe in its consequences in these wild regions as the winter's cold4 ,in ,june the steppes are parched1 no shower falls1 nor does a drop of dew refresh the thirsty and rent earth4 ,the sun rises and sets like a globe of fire1 and during the day he is obscured by a thick mist from the evaporation4 ,in some seasons the drought is excessive3 the air is filled with dust in impalpable powder1 the springs become dry1 and cattle perish in thousands4 ,death triumphs over animal and vegetable nature1 and desolation tracks the scene to the utmost verge of the horizon1 a hideous wreck4 ,much of this country is covered by an excellent but thin soil1 fit for corn1 which grows luxuriantly wherever it has been tried2 but a stiff cold clay at a small distance below the surface kills every herb that has deep roots1 and no plants thrive but those which can resist the extreme vicissitudes of climate4 ,a very wide range is hopelessly barren4 ,the country from the ,caucasus1 along the shores of the ,black and ,caspian ,seas--a dead flat1 twice the size of the ,british islands--is a desert destitute of fresh water4 ,saline efflorescences cover the surface like hoar-frost4 ,even the atmosphere and the dew are saline1 and many salt lakes in the neighbourhood of ,astrakan furnish great quantities of common salt and nitre4 ,saline plants1 with patches of verdure few and far between1 are the only signs of vegetable life1 but about ,astrakan there is soil and cultivation4 ,some low hills occur in the country between the ,caspian and the ,lake of ,aral1 but it is mostly an ocean of shifting sand1 often driven by appalling whirlwinds4 ,turkistan is a sandy desert1 except on the banks of the ,oxus and the ,jaxartes1 and as far on each side of them as canals convey the fertilizing waters4 ,to the north1 barrenness gives place to verdure between the river ,ural and the terraces and mountains of ,central ,asia1 where the steppes of the ,kirghiz afford pasture to thousands of camels and cattle belonging to these wandering hordes4 ,siberia is either a dead level or undulating surface of more than #g1jjj1jjj of square miles between the ,north ,pacific and the ,ural mountains1 the ,polar ,sea and the ,alta range1 whose terraces and offsets end in those plains1 like headlands and promontories in the ocean4 ,m4 ,middendorf1 indeed1 met with a chain of most desolate mountains on the shores of the ,polar ,ocean1 in the country of the ,samoides2 and the almost inapproachable coast far to the east is unexplored4 ,the mineral riches of the mountains have brought together a population who inhabit towns of considerable importance along the base of the ,ural and ,alta chains1 where the ground yields good crops and pasture2 and there are forests on the undulations of the mountains and on the plains4 ,there are many hundred square miles of rich black mould covered with trees and grass1 uninhabited1 between the river ,tobal and the upper course of the ,obi1 within the limit where corn would grow2 but even this valuable soil is studded with small lakes of salt and fresh water1 a chain of which1 #cjj miles long1 skirts the base of the ,ural mountains4 ,north of the #fb;d parallel of latitude corn does not ripen on account of the biting blasts from the ,icy ,ocean1 which sweep supreme over these unprotected wastes4 ,in a higher latitude1 even the interminable forests of gloomy fir are seen no more3 all is a wide-spreading desolation of salt steppes1 boundless swamps1 and lakes of salt and fresh water4 ,the cold is so intense there that the spongy soil is perpetually frozen to the depth of some hundred feet below the surface2 and the surface itself1 not thawed before the end of ,june1 is again ice-bound by the middle of ,september1 and deep snow covers the ground nine or ten months in the year4 ,happily1 gales of wind are not frequent during winter1 but when they do occur no living thing ventures to face them4 ,the ,russian ,admiral ,wrangel1 who travelled during the most intense cold from the mouth of the river ,kolyma to ,behring's ,strait1 gives an appalling account of these deserts4 8,here endless snows and ice-covered rocks bound the horizon1 nature lies shrouded in all but perpetual winter1 life is a constant conflict with privation and with the terrors of cold and hunger--the grave of nature1 which contains only the bones of another world4 ,the people1 and even the snow smokes1 and this evaporation is instantly changed into millions of needles of ice1 which make a noise in the air like the sound of torn satin or thick silk4 ,the reindeer take to the forest1 or crowd together for heat1 and the raven alone1 the dark bird of winter1 still cleaves the icy air with slow and heavy wing1 leaving behind him a long line of thin vapour1 marking the track of his solitary flight4 ,the trunks of the thickest trees are rent with a loud noise1 masses of rock are torn from their sites1 the ground in the valleys is rent into yawning fissures1 from which the waters that are underneath rise1 giving off a cloud of vapour1 and immediately become ice4 ,the atmosphere becomes dense1 and the glistening stars are dimmed4 ,the dogs outside the huts of the ,siberians burrow in the snow1 and their howling1 at intervals of six or eight hours1 interrupts the general silence of winter40#cc ,in many parts of ,siberia1 however1 the sun1 though long absent from these dismal regions1 does not leave them to utter darkness4 ,the extraordinary brilliancy of the stars1 and the gleaming snowlight1 produce a kind of twilight1 which is augmented by the splendid coruscations of the aurora borealis4 ,the scorching heat of the summer's sun produces a change like magic on the southern provinces of the ,siberian wilderness4 ,the snow is scarcely gone before the ground is covered with verdure1 and flowers of various hues blossom1 bear their seeds1 and die in a few months1 when ,winter resumes his empire4 ,a still shorter-lived vegetation scantily covers the plains in the far north1 and1 on the shores of the ,icy ,ocean1 even reindeer-moss grows scantily4 ,the abundance of fur-bearing animals in the less rigorous parts of the ,siberian deserts has tempted the ,russians to colonize and build towns on these frozen plains4 ,yakutsk1 on the river ,lena1 in #fb #a #cj ,n4 lat41 is probably the coldest town on the earth4 ,the ground is perpetually frozen to the depth of more than #djj feet1 of which three feet only are thawed in summer1 when ,fahrenheit's thermometer is frequently #gg in the shade2 and as there is in some seasons no frost for four months1 larch forests cover the ground1 and wheat and rye produce from fifteen to forty fold4 ,in winter the cold is so intense that mercury is constantly frozen two months1 and occasionally even three4 ,in the northern parts of ,europe the ,silurian1 ,devonian1 and carboniferous strata are widely developed1 and more to the south they are followed in ascending order by immense tracts of the higher series of secondary rocks1 abounding in the huge monsters of a former world4 ,very large and interesting tertiary basins fill the ancient hollows in many parts of the plain1 which are crowded with the remains of animals that no longer exist4 ,of these1 the most important are the ,london1 ,paris1 ,vienna1 and ,moscow basins1 with many others in the north of ,germany and ,russia2 and alluvial soil covers the greater part of the plain4 ,in the east1 ,sir ,roderick ,murchison has determined the boundary of a region twice as large as ,france1 extending from the ,polar ,ocean to the southern steppes1 and from beyond the ,volga to the flanks of the ,ural chain1 which consists of a red deposit of sand and marl1 full of copper in grains1 belonging to the ,permian system4 ,this1 and the immense tract of black loam already mentioned1 are among the principal features of ,eastern ,europe4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,the ,southern ,low ,lands of the ,great ,continent1 with their ,secondary ,table-,lands and ,mountains4 ,,the low lands to the south of the great mountain girdle of the old continent are much broken by its offsets1 by separate groups of mountains1 and still more by the deep indentation of bays and large seas4 ,situate in lower latitudes1 and sheltered by mountains from the cutting ,siberian winds1 these plains are of a more tropical character than those to the north2 but they are strikingly contrasted in their different parts--either rich in all the exuberance that heat1 moisture1 and soil can produce1 or covered by wastes of bare sand--in the most advanced state of cultivation1 or in the wildest garb of nature4 ,the barren parts of the low lands lying between the eastern shores of ,china and the ,indus bear a small proportion to the riches of a soil vivified by tropical warmth and watered by the periodical inundations of the mighty rivers that burst from the icy caverns of ,tibet and the ,himalaya4 ,on the contrary1 the favoured regions in that part of the low lands lying between the ,persian ,gulf1 the ,euphrates1 and the ,atlas mountains1 are small when compared with the immense expanse of the ,arabian and ,african deserts1 scorched and calcined by an equatorial sun4 ,the blessing of a mountain-zone1 pouring out its everlasting treasures of moisture1 the life-blood of the soil1 is nowhere more strikingly exhibited than in the contrast formed by these two regions of the globe4 ,the ,tartar country of ,mandshur1 watered by the river ,amour1 but little known to ,europeans1 lies immediately south of the ,yablonnoi branch of the ,alta chain1 and consequently partakes of the desert aspect of ,siberia1 and1 in its northern parts1 even of the ,great ,gobi4 ,it is partly intersected by mountains1 and covered by dense forests2 nevertheless1 oats grow in the plains1 and even wheat in sheltered places4 ,towards ,corea the country is more fertile2 in that peninsula there are cultivated plains at the base of its central mountain-range4 ,china is the most productive country on the face of the earth2 an alluvial plain of #baj1jjj square miles1 formed by one of the most extensive river systems in the old world1 occupies its eastern part4 ,this plain1 seven times the size of ,lombardy1 is no less fertile1 and perfectly irrigated by canals4 ,the ,great ,canal traverses the eastern part of the plain for #gjj miles1 of which #ejj are in a straight line of considerable breadth1 with a current in the greater part of it4 ,most part of the plain is in rice and garden ground1 the whole cultivated with the spade4 ,the tea-plant grows on a low range of hills between the #cjth and #cb;d parallels of north latitude1 an offset from the ,pe-ling chain4 ,the cold in winter is much greater than in the corresponding ,european latitudes1 and the heat in summer is proportionally excessive4 ,the ,indo-,chinese peninsula1 lying between ,china and the river ,brahmapootra1 has an area of #gg1gjj square miles1 and projects #aejj miles into the ocean4 ,the plains lying between the offsets descending from the east end of the ,himalaya1 and which divide it longitudinally1 as before mentioned1 are very extensive4 ,the ,birman empire alone1 which occupies the valley of the ,irrawaddy1 is said to be as large as ,france1 and not less fertile1 especially its southern part1 which is the granary of the empire4 ,magnificent rivers intersect the alluvial plains1 whose soil they have brought down from the table-land of ,tibet1 and still continue to deposit in great quantities in the deltas at their mouths4 ,the plains of ,hindostan extend #bjjj miles along the southern slope of the ,himalaya and ,hindoo ,coosh1 between the ,brahmapootra and the ,indus1 and terminate on the south in the ,bay of ,bengal1 the table-land of the ,deccan1 and the ,indian ,ocean--a country embracing in its range every variety of climate from tropical heat and moisture to the genial temperature of southern ,europe4 ,the valley of the ,ganges is one of the richest on the globe1 and contains a greater extent of vegetable mould1 and of land under cultivation1 than any other country in this continent1 except perhaps the ,chinese empire4 ,in its upper part1 ,sirhind and ,delhi1 the seat of the ancient ,mogul empire1 still rich in splendid specimens of ,indian art1 are partly arid1 although in the latter there is fertile soil4 ,the country is beautiful where the ,jumna and other streams unite to form the ,ganges4 ,these rivers are often hemmed in by rocks and high banks1 which in a great measure prevent the periodical overflow of the waters2 this1 however1 is compensated by the coolness and moisture of the climate4 ,the land gradually improves towards the east1 as it becomes more flat1 till at last there is not a stone to be seen for hundreds of miles down to the ,gulf of ,bengal4 ,wheat and other ,european grain are produced in the upper part of this magnificent valley1 while in the south every variety of ,indian fruit1 rice1 cotton1 indigo1 opium1 and sugar1 are the staple commodities4 ,the ascent of the plain of the ,ganges from the ,bay of ,bengal is so gradual that ,saharampore1 nearly at the foot of the ,himalaya1 is only #aajj feet above the level of ,calcutta2 the consequence of which is that the ,ganges and ,brahmapootra1 with their branches1 in the rainy season between ,june and ,september1 lay ,bengal under water for hundreds of miles in every direction1 like a great sea4 ,when the water subsides1 the plains are verdant with rice and other grain2 but when harvest is over1 and the heat is intense1 the scene is changed--the country1 divested of its beauty1 becomes parched and dusty everywhere1 except in the extensive jungles4 ,it has been estimated that one-third of the ,british territory in ,india is covered with these rank marshy tracts4 ,it was estimated by ,lord ,cornwallis1 and confirmed by ,mr4 ,colebrooke1 that a third of the ,east ,india ,company's territory is jungle4 ,the peninsula of ,hindostan is occupied by the triangular-shaped table-land of the ,deccan1 which is much lower1 and totally unconnected with the table-land of ,tibet4 ,it has the primary ranges of the ,ghauts on the east and west1 and the ,vendhya mountains on the north1 sloping by successive levels to the plains of ,hindostan ,proper4 ,a trace of the general equatorial direction of the ,asiatic high land is still perceptible in the ,vendhya mountains1 sometimes called the central chain of ,india1 and in the ,saulpoora range to the south1 both being nearly parallel to the ,himalaya4#cd ,the surface of the ,deccan between #cjjj and #djjj feet above the sea is a combination of plains1 ridges of rock1 and insulated flat-topped hills1 which are numerous1 especially in its north-eastern parts4 ,these solitary and almost inaccessible heights rise abruptly from the plains1 with all but perpendicular sides1 which can only be scaled by steps cut in the rock1 or by very dangerous paths4 ,many are fortified1 and were the strongholds of the natives1 but they never have withstood the determined intrepidity of ,british soldiers4 ,the peninsula terminates with the table-land of the ,mysore1 #gjjj feet above the sea1 surrounded by the ,nilgherry or ,blue ,mountains1 which rise #bida feet higher4 ,the base of this plateau1 and indeed of all the ,deccan is granite1 and there are also many syenitic and trap rocks1 with abundance of primary and secondary fossiliferous strata4 ,though possessing the diamond-mines of ,golconda1 the true riches of the country consist in its vegetable mould1 which in the ,mysore is #ajj feet thick1 an inexhaustible source of fertility4 ,the sea-coasts on the two sides of the peninsula are essentially different3 that of ,malabar on the western side is rocky1 but in many parts well cultivated1 and its mountains covered with forests form a continuous wall of very simple structure1 #eaj miles long1 and rather more than #ejjj feet high4 ,on the coast of ,coromandel the mountains are bare1 lower1 frequently interrupted1 and the wide maritime plains are for the most part parched4 ,the island of ,ceylon1 nearly equal in extent to ,ireland1 is almost joined to the southern extremity of the peninsula by sandbanks and small islands1 between which the water is only six feet deep in spring tides4 ,the ,sanscrit name of the 8,resplendent0 may convey some idea of this island1 rich and fertile in soil1 adorned by lofty mountains1 numerous streams1 and primeval forests2 in addition to which it is rich in precious stones1 and has the pearl oyster on its coast4 ,the ,asiatic low lands are continued westward from the ,indian peninsula by the ,punjab and the great ,indian desert4 8,the ,punjab1 or country of the five rivers10 lies at the base of the ,hindoo ,coosh4 ,its most northern part consists of fertile terraces highly cultivated1 and valleys at the foot of the mountains4 ,it is very productive in the plain within the limits of the periodical inundations of the rivers1 and where it is watered by canals2 in other parts it is pastoral4 ,lahore occupies the chief part of the ,punjab1 and the city of that name on the ,indus1 once the rival of ,delhi1 lies on the high road from ,persia to ,india1 and was made the capital of the kingdom by ,runjeet ,sing4 ,the valley of the ,indus throughout partakes of the character of the ,punjab2 it is fertile only where it is within reach of water2 much of it is delta1 which is occupied by rice-grounds2 the rest is pasture1 or sterile salt marshes4 ,south of the ,punjab1 and between the fertile plains of ,hindostan and the left bank of the ,indus1 lies the great ,indian desert1 which is about #djj miles broad1 and becomes more and more arid as it approaches the river4 ,it consists of a hard clay1 covered with shifting sand1 driven into high waves by the wind1 with some parts that are verdant after the rains4 ,in the province of ,cutch1 south of the desert1 a space of #gjjj square miles1 known as the ,run of ,cutch1 is alternately a sandy desert and an inland sea4 ,in ,april the waves of the sea are driven over it by the prevailing winds1 leaving only a few grassy eminences1 the resort of wild asses4 ,the desert of ,mekram1 an equally barren tract1 extends along the ,gulf of ,oman from the mouths of the ,indus to the ,persian ,gulf3 in some places1 however1 it produces the ,indian palm and the aromatic shrubs of ,arabia ,felix4 ,it was the line followed by ,alexander the ,great returning with his army from ,india4 ,the scathed shores of the ,arabian ,gulf1 where not a blade of grass freshens the arid sands1 and the uncultivated valleys of the ,euphrates and ,tigris1 separate ,asia from ,arabia and ,africa1 the most desert regions in the old world4 ,the peninsula of ,arabia1 divided into two parts by the ,tropic of ,cancer1 is about four times the size of ,france4 ,no rivers1 and few streams or springs nourish the thirsty land1 whose barren sands are scorched by a fierce sun4 ,the central part is a table-land of moderate height1 which1 however1 is said to have an elevation of #hjjj feet in the province of ,haudramaut4 ,to the south of the tropic it is an almost interminable ocean of drifting sand1 wafted in clouds by the gale1 and dreaded even by the wandering ,bedouin4 ,at wide intervals1 long narrow depressions cheer the eye with brushwood and verdure4 ,more to the north1 mountains and hills cross the peninsula from ,s4,e4 to ,n4,w41 enclosing cultivated and fine pastoral valleys adorned by grooves of the date-palm and aromatic shrubs4 ,desolation once more resumes its domain where the table-land sinks into the ,syrian desert1 and throughout the rest of its circumference it descends in terraces or parallel ranges of mountains and hills to a flat sandy coast from #cj to #ajj miles wide1 which surrounds the greater part of the peninsula1 from the mouths of the ,euphrates to the ,isthmus of ,suez4 ,the hills come close to the beach in the province of ,oman1 which is traversed by chains1 and broken into piles of arid mountains not more than #cejj feet high1 with the exception of the ,jebel ,okkdar1 which is #fjjj feet above the sea1 and is cleft by temporary streams and fertile valleys4 ,here the ground is cultivated and covered with verdure1 and still farther south there is a line of oases fed by subterraneous springs1 where the fruits common to ,persia1 ,india and ,arabia1 are produced4 ,the south-eastern coast is scarcely known1 except towards the provinces of ,haudramaut and ,yemen or ,arabia ,felix1 where ranges of mountains1 some above #ejjj feet high1 line the coast1 and in many places project into the ocean1 sometimes forming excellent harbours1 as that of ,aden1 which is protected by projecting rocks4 ,in the intervals there are towns and villages1 cotton-plantations1 date-groves1 and cultivated ground4 ,on the northern side of these granite ranges1 where the table-land is #hjjj feet above the sea1 and along the edge of the desert of ,el ,aklaj in ,haudramaut1 there is a tract of land so loose and so very fine1 that a plummet was sunk in it by ,baron ,wrede to the depth of #cfj feet without reaching the bottom4 ,there is a tradition in the country that the ,saban army of ,king ,suffi perished in attempting to cross this desert4 ,arabia ,felix1 which merits its name1 is the only part of that country with permanent streams1 though they are small4 ,here also the mountains and fertile ground run far inland1 producing grain1 pasture1 coffee1 odoriferous plants1 and gums4 ,high cliffs line the shores of the ,indian ,ocean and the ,strait of ,bab-el-man-deb--8the ,gate of ,tears40 ,the fertile country is continued a considerable way along the coast of the ,red ,sea1 but the character of barrenness is resumed by degrees1 till at length the hills and intervening terraces1 on which ,mecca and ,medina1 the holy cities of the ,mahomedans1 stand1 are sterile wastes wherever springs do not water them4 ,the blast of the desert1 loaded with burning sand1 sweeps over these parched regions4 ,mountains skirt the table-land to the north2 and the peninsula1 between the ,gulfs of ,akabah and ,suez on the ,red ,sea1 the ,eliath of ,scripture1 is filled by the mountain-group of ,sinai and ,horeb4 ,jebel ,houra1 ,mount ,sinai1 on which ,moses received the ,ten ,commandments1 is #ijjj feet high1 surrounded by higher mountains1 which are covered with snow in winter4 ,the group of ,sinai abounds in springs and verdure4 ,at its northern extremity lies the desert of ,el-,teh1 #gj miles long and #cj broad1 in which the ,israelites wandered forty years4 ,it is covered with long ranges of high rocks1 of most repulsive aspect1 rent into deep clefts only a few feet wide1 hemmed in by walls of rock sometimes #ajjj feet high1 like the deserted streets of a ,cyclopean town4 ,the journey from ,sinai to ,akabah1 by the ,wadee-el-,ain or ,valley of the ,spring1 is perfectly magnificent1 and the site of ,petra itself is a tremendous confusion of black and brown mountains4 ,it is a considerable basin closed in by rocks1 with chasms and defiles in the precipices4 ,the main street is #b miles long1 and not more than from #aj to #cj feet wide1 enclosed between perpendicular rocks from #ajj to #gjj feet high1 which so nearly meet as to leave only a strip of sky4 ,a stream runs through the street which must once have been a considerable torrent1 and the precipitous rocks are excavated into thousands of caverns once inhabited--into conduits1 cisterns1 flights of steps1 theatres1 and temples1 forming altogether one of the most wonderful remains of antiquity4 ,the whole of ,arabia ,petrea1 ,edom of the sacred writers1 presents a scene of appalling desolation1 completely fulfilling the denunciation of prophecy4#ce ,a sandy desert1 crossed by low limestone ridges1 separates the table-land of ,arabia from the habitable part of ,syria1 which the mountains of ,lebanon divide into two narrow plains4 ,these mountains may almost be considered offsets from the ,taurus chain2 at least they are joined to it by the wooded range of ,gawoor1 the ancient ,amanus1 impassable except by two defiles1 celebrated in history as the ,amanic and ,syrian ,gates4 ,the group of ,lebanon begins with ,mount ,casius1 which rises abruptly from the sea in a single peak to the height of #gjjj feet1 near the mouth of the ,orontes4 ,from thence the chain runs south1 at a distance of about twenty miles from the shores of the ,mediterranean1 in a continuous line of peaks to the sources of the ,jordan1 where it splits into two nearly parallel naked branches1 enclosing the wide and fertile plain of ,beka or ,ghor1 the ancient ,clo-,syria1 in which are the ruins of ,balbec4 ,the ,lebanon branch terminates at the sea near the mouth of the river ,leontes1 a few miles north of the city of ,old ,tyre2 while the ,anti-,libanus1 which begins at ,mount ,hermon1 #ijjj feet high1 runs west of the ,jordan through ,palestine in a winding line1 till its last spurs1 south of the ,dead ,sea1 sink into rocky ridges on the desert of ,sinai4 ,the tops of all these mountains1 from ,scanderoon to ,jerusalem1 are covered with snow in winter2 it is permanent on ,lebanon only1 whose absolute elevation is #icjj feet4 ,the precipices are terrific1 the springs abundant1 and the spurs of the mountains are studded with villages and convents2 there are forests in the higher grounds1 and1 lower down1 vineyards and gardens4 ,many offsets from the ,anti-,libanus end in precipices on the coast between ,tripoli and ,beyrout1 among which the scenery is superb4 ,the valleys and plains of ,syria are full of rich vegetable mould1 particularly the plain of ,damascus1 which is brilliantly verdant1 though surrounded by deserts1 the barren uniformity of which is relieved on the east by the broken columns and ruined temples of ,palmyra 7,tadmor74 ,the ,assyrian wilderness1 however1 is not everywhere absolutely barren4 ,in the spring-time it is covered with a thin but vivid verdure1 mixed with fragrant aromatic herbs1 of very short duration4 ,when these are burnt up1 the unbounded plains resume their wonted dreariness4 ,the country1 high and low1 becomes more barren towards the ,holy ,land1 yet even here some of the mountains--as ,carmel1 ,bashan1 and ,tabor--are luxuriantly wooded1 and many of the valleys are fertile1 especially the valley of the ,jordan1 which has the appearance of pleasure-grounds with groves of wood and aromatic plants1 but almost in a state of nature4 ,one side of the ,lake of ,tiberias in ,galilee is savage2 on the other there are gentle hills and wild romantic vales1 adorned with palm-trees1 olives1 and sycamores--a scene of calm solitude and pastoral beauty4 ,jerusalem stands on a declivity encompassed by severe stony mountains1 wild and desolate4 ,the greater part of ,syria is a desert compared with what it formerly was4 ,mussulman rule has blighted this fair region1 once flowing with milk and honey--the ,land of ,promise4 ,farther south1 desolation increases2 the valleys become narrower1 the hills more denuded and rugged1 till1 south of the ,dead ,sea1 their dreary aspect announces the approach of the desert4 ,the valley of the ,jordan affords the most remarkable instance known of the depression of the land below the general surface of the globe4 ,this hollow1 which extends from the ,gulf of ,akabah on the ,red ,sea to the bifurcation of ,lebanon1 is #fbj feet below the ,mediterranean at the ,sea of ,galilee1 and the acrid waters of the ,dead ,sea have a depression of #acjj feet4#cf ,the lowness of the valley had been observed by the ancients1 who gave it the descriptive name of ,clo-,syria1 8,hollow ,syria40 ,it is absolutely walled in by mountains between the ,dead ,sea and ,lebanon1 where it is from ten to fifteen miles wide4#cg ,a shrinking of the strata must have taken place along this coast of the ,mediterranean1 from a sudden change of temperature in the earth's crust1 or perhaps in consequence of some of the internal props giving way1 for the valley of the ,jordan is not the only instance of a dip of the soil below the sea-level3 the small bitter lakes on the ,isthmus of ,suez are cavities of the same kind1 as well as the ,natron lakes on the ,libyan desert1 west from the delta of the ,nile4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,africa--,table-,land--,cape of ,good ,hope and ,eastern ,coast--,western ,coast-- ,abyssinia--,senegambia--,low ,lands and ,deserts4 ,,the continent of ,africa is #ejjj miles long from the ,cape of ,good ,hope to its northern extremity1 and as much between ,cape ,guardafu1 on the ,indian ,ocean1 and ,cape ,verde1 on the ,atlantic2 but from the irregularity of its figure it has an area of only #ab1jjj1jjj of square miles4 ,it is divided in two by the equator1 consequently the greater part of it lies under a tropical sun4 ,the high and low lands of this portion of the old continent are so distinctly separated by the ,mountains of the ,moon1 or rather of ,komri1 that1 with the exception of the mountainous territory of the ,atlas1 and the small table-land of ,barca1 it may be said to consist of two parts only1 a high country and a low4 ,an extensive1 though not very elevated1 table-land occupies all ,southern ,africa1 and even reaches to six or seven degrees north of the equator4 ,on three sides it shelves down in tiers of narrow parallel terraces to the ocean1 separated by mountain-chains which rise in height as they recede from the coast2 and there is reason to believe that the structure of the northern declivity is similar1 though its extremities only are known--namely1 ,abyssinia on the east1 and the high land of ,senegambia on the west2 both of which project farther to the north than the central part4 ,the borders of the table-land are very little known to ,europeans1 and still less its surface1 which no white man has crossed north of the ,tropic of ,capricorn4 ,a comparatively small part1 north from the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 has been explored by ,european travellers4 ,mr4 ,truter and ,mr4 ,somerville were the first white men whom the inhabitants of ,litakoo had seen4 ,of an expedition that followed their track1 a few years after1 no one returned4 ,north of the ,cape the land rises to #fjjj feet above the sea2 and the ,orange ,river1 or ,gareep1 with its tributaries1 may be more aptly said to drain than to irrigate the arid country through which they flow2 many of the tributaries1 indeed1 are only the channels through which torrents1 from the periodical rains1 are carried to the ,orange ,river1 and are destitute of water many months in the year4 ,the 8,dry ,river10 the name of one of these periodical streams1 is in that country no misnomer4 ,their margins are adorned with mimosas1 and the sandy plains have furnished treasures to the botanist2 and1 indeed1 zoology is no less indebted to the whole continent of ,africa for the various animals it produces4 ,dr4 ,smith crossed the ,tropic of ,capricorn in a journey from the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 where the country had still the same arid character4 ,north from that there is a vast tract unexplored4 ,in #ahjb two native travelling merchants crossed the continent1 which is #aeij miles wide1 from ,loando on the ,atlantic to ,zambeze on the ,mozambique ,channel4 ,they found various mercantile nations1 considerably advanced in civilization1 who raise abundance of maize and millet1 though the greater part of the country is in a state of nature4 ,ridges of low hills1 yielding copper1 the staple commodity of this country1 run from ,s4,e4 to ,n4,w4 to the west of the dominions of the ,camleaze1 a country full of rivers1 morasses1 and extensive salt marshes which supply this part of the continent with salt4 ,the travellers crossed #ajb rivers1 most of them fordable4 ,the leading feature of this country is ,lake ,n'yassi1 of great1 but unknown length1 and comparatively narrow4 ,it begins #bjj miles north from the town of ,tete1 on the ,zambeze1 and extends from ,s4,e4 to ,n4,w41 flanked on the east by a range of mountains of the same name1 running in the same direction1 at the distance of #cej miles from the ,mozambique ,channel4 ,this is all we know from actual observation of the table-land of ,south ,africa1 till about the #ajth northern meridian1 where ,dr4 ,beke's ,abyssinian journey terminated4 ,it is evident1 however1 that there can be no very high mountains covered with perpetual snow on the table-land1 for1 if there were1 ,southern ,africa would not be destitute of great rivers2 nevertheless1 the height of the table-land1 and of the mountains of ,komri on its northern edge1 must be considerable1 to supply the perennial sources of the ,nile1 the ,senegal1 and the ,niger4 ,the edges of the table-land are better known4 ,at the ,cape of ,good ,hope the ,african continent is about #gjj miles broad1 and ends in three narrow parallel ridges of mountains1 the last of which is the highest1 and abuts on the table-land4 ,all are cleft by precipitous deep ravines1 through which winter torrents flow to the ocean4 ,the longitudinal valleys1 or koroos1 that separate them1 are tiers1 or steps1 by which the plateau dips to the maritime plains4 ,the descent is rapid1 as both these plains and the mountain-ranges are very narrow4 ,on the western side the mountains form a high group and end in steep promontories on the coast1 where ,table ,mountain1 at ,cape ,town1 #cehb feet high1 forms a conspicuous landmark for mariners4 ,granite1 which is the base of ,southern ,africa1 rises to a considerable height in many places1 and is generally surmounted by vast horizontal beds of sand-stone1 which give that character of flatness peculiar to the summits of many of the ,cape mountains4 ,the koroos are arid deserts in the dry season1 but soon after the rains they are covered with verdure and a splendid flora4 ,the maritime plains partake of the same temporary aridity1 though a large portion is rich in cereal productions1 vineyards1 fruits1 and pasture4 ,the most inland of the parallel ranges1 about the #bjth meridian east1 is #aj1jjj feet high1 and1 though it sinks to some groups of hills at its eastern extremity1 it rises again1 about the #bgth meridian1 in a truly alpine and continuous chain--the ,quotlamba mountains1 which follow the northerly direction of ,natal1 and are continued in the ,lupata range of hills1 #hj miles inland1 through ,zanguebar4 ,at ,natal the coast is grassy1 with clumps of trees1 like an ,english park4 ,the ,zambeze1 and other streams from the table-land1 refresh the plains on the ,mozambique ,channel and ,zanguebar1 where1 though some parts are marshy and covered with mangroves1 groves of palm-trees adorn the plains1 which yield prodigious quantities of grain1 and noble forests cover the mountains2 but from #d ,n4 latitude to ,cape ,guardafu is a continued desert4 ,there is also a barren tract at the southern end of the ,lupata chain1 where gold is found in masses and grains on the surface and in the watercourses1 which tempted the ,portuguese to make settlements on these unwholesome coasts4 ,the island of ,madagascar1 with its magnificent range of mountains1 full of tremendous precipices1 and covered with primeval forests1 is parallel to the ,african coast1 and only separated from it by the ,mozambique ,channel1 #cjj miles broad1 so it may be presumed that it rose from the deep at the same time as the ,lupata chain4 ,the contrast between the eastern and western coasts of ,south ,africa is very great4 ,the escarped bold mountains round the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and its rocky coast1 which extends a short way along the ,atlantic to the north1 are succeeded by ranges of sandstone of small elevation1 which separate the internal sandy desert from the equally parched sandy shore4 ,the terraced dip of the ,atlantic coast for #ijj miles1 between the ,orange ,river and ,cape ,negro1 has not a drop of fresh water4 ,at ,cape ,negro1 ranges of mountains1 separated by long level tracts1 begin1 and make a semicircular bend into the interior1 leaving plains along the coast #adj miles broad4 ,in ,benguela these plains are healthy and cultivated2 farther north there are monotonous grassy savannahs1 and forests of gigantic trees4 ,the ground1 in many places saturated with water1 bears a tangled crop of mangroves and tall reeds1 which even cover the shoals along the coasts2 but pestilential vapours hang over them1 never dissipated by a breeze4 ,the country of ,calbongos is the highest land on the coast1 where a magnificent group of mountains1 covered almost to their tops with large timber1 lie not far inland4 ,the low plains of ,biafra and ,benin1 west of them1 and especially the delta of the ,niger1 consist entirely of swamps loaded with rank vegetation4 ,the angel of ,death1 brooding over these regions in noisome exhalations1 guards the interior of that country from the aggressions of the ,european1 and has hitherto baffled his attempts to form settlements on the banks of this magnificent river4 ,many portions of ,north ,guinea are so fertile that they might vie with the valley of the ,nile in cereal riches1 besides various other productions2 and though the temperature is very high1 the climate is not very unhealthy4 ,no ,european has yet seen the high mountains of ,komri1 generally known as the ,mountains of the ,moon1 which are said to cross the continent along the northern edge of the great plateau1 between the two projections or promontories of ,abyssinia and ,senegambia4 ,this chain divides the semi-civilized states of ,soudan1 ,bornou1 and ,begharmi from the barbarous nations on the table-land4 ,it extends south of ,abyssinia at one end1 at the other it joins the high land of ,senegambia1 and is continued in the ,kong range1 which runs #abjj miles behind ,dahomy and the ,gold ,coast1 and ends in the promontory of ,sierra ,leone4 ,the vast alpine promontory of ,abyssinia or ,ethiopia1 #gjj miles wide1 projects from the table-land for #cjj miles into the low lands of ,north ,africa4 ,it dips to a low swampy region on the north1 to the plains of ,senaar and ,kordofan on the west1 and on the east sinks abruptly to the coast at a short distance from the ,red ,sea4 ,it is there from #hjj to #ijj feet high1 but declines to the westward1 so that in the #aeth parallel of ,n4 latitude the eastern slope of the table-land towards the ,red ,sea is nearly twenty times greater than the counter-slope towards the ,nile2 the edge of the latter1 however1 is from #cjjj to #djjj feet above the plains4#ch ,the character of ,abyssinia is in that respect like the ,deccan1 or ,southern ,india1 where the ,ghauts rise abruptly near the coast of ,malabar1 and the surface falls gradually towards that of ,coromandel4 ,the table-land of ,abyssinia is a succession of undulating plains1 broken by higher insulated mountain-masses1 which in ,samien1 ,godjam1 and in ,kaffa more to the south1 attain an absolute altitude of from #aa1jjj to #ae1jjj feet4 ,the plains are intersected by numerous streams which form the ,nile and its tributaries on the one hand1 and the ,hawsh and its affluents1 which flow into the ,indian ,ocean1 on the other4 ,the edge of the table-land towards the ,nile is steep2 the streams run to the low lands through valleys from #cjjj to #djjj feet deep1 so that a traveller in ascending them might imagine that he is crossing a mountain-range1 whereas1 on coming to the top1 he finds himself on a high plain4 ,this elevated country has lakes1 swamps1 verdant meadows1 and cultivated land1 producing various grains1 and occasionally coffee4 ,the plain of the ,dembia1 the granary of the country1 enjoys perpetual spring4 ,dr4 ,beke1 to whom we are indebted for so much valuable information with regard to this part of ,africa1 travelled to within less than ten degrees of the equator1 and1 from the accounts he received1 the country south of ,abyssinia appears to be similar to those of ,shoa and ,godjam--extensive undulating plains1 with occasional mountain-masses1 and traversed by numerous streams2 wide tracts must be #gjjj or #hjjj feet high1 as they only produce barley3 the country towards ,kaffa and the sources of the ,gojeb is still higher1 and in some parts desert2 but the caravan-road between ,wallega and ,kaffa passes through a vast forest impervious to the rays of the sun1 which1 according to the accounts of the merchants1 is not seen for four or five days successively2 and west of the ,dedhesa there are immense grassy plains1 the elephant-hunting grounds of the ,galla tribes4 ,the geological structure of ,abyssinia is similar to that of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 the base being granite and the superstructure sandstone1 occasionally limestone1 schist1 and breccia4 ,the granite comes to the surface in the lower parts of ,abyssinia1 but sandstone predominates in the upper parts1 and assumes a tabular form1 often lying on the tops of the mountains in enormous flat masses1 only accessible by steps cut in the rocks or by ladders3 such insulated spots are used as state prisons4 ,large tracts are of ancient volcanic rocks1 especially in ,shoa4 ,senegambia1 the appendage to the western extremity of the table-land1 also projects far into the low lands1 and is the watershed whence the streams flow on one side to the plains of ,soudan1 where they join the ,joliba or ,niger2 and from the other side1 the ,gambia1 ,senegal1 and other rivers1 run into the ,atlantic over a rich cultivated plain1 but unhealthy from the rankness of the vegetation4 ,the moisture that descends from the northern edge of the table-land of ,south ,africa1 under the fiery radiance of a tropical sun1 fertilizes a tract of country stretching from sea to sea across the continent1 the commencement of the ,african low lands4 ,a great part of this region1 which contains many kingdoms and commercial cities1 is a very productive country4 ,the abundance of water1 the industry of the natives in irrigating the ground1 the periodical rains1 and the tropical heat1 leave the soil no repose4 ,agriculture is in a rude state1 but nature is so bountiful that rice and millet are raised in sufficient quantity to supply the wants of a numerous population4 ,gold is found in the river-courses1 and there are elephants in the forests2 but man is the staple of their commerce--a disgrace to the savage who sells his fellow-creature1 but a far greater disgrace to the more savage purchaser who dares to assume the sacred name of ,christian4 ,this long belt of never-failing vitality1 which has its large lakes1 poisonous swamps1 deep forests of gigantic trees1 and vast solitudes in which no white men ever trade1 is of small width compared with its length4 ,in receding from the mountains1 the moisture becomes less and the soil gradually worse1 sufficing only to produce grass for the flocks of the wandering ,bedouin4 ,at last a hideous barren waste begins1 which extends northwards #hjj miles in unvaried desolation to the grassy steppes at the foot of the ,atlas2 and for #ajjj miles between the ,atlantic and the ,red ,sea the nakedness of this blighted land is unbroken but by the valley of the ,nile and a few oases4 ,in the west about #gfj1jjj miles1 an area equal to that of the ,mediterranean ,sea1 and1 in some parts1 of a lower level1 is covered by the trackless sands of the ,sahara desert1 which is even prolonged for miles into the ,atlantic ,ocean in the form of sandbanks4 ,this desert is alternately scorched by heat and pinched by cold4 ,the wind blows from the east nine months in the year2 and at the equinoxes it rushes in a hurricane1 driving the sand in clouds before it1 producing the darkness of night at midday1 and overwhelming caravans of men and animals in common destruction4 ,then the sand is heaped up in waves ever varying with the blast2 even the atmosphere is of sand4 ,the desolation of this dreary waste1 boundless to the eye as the ocean1 is terrific and sublime2 the dry heated air is like a red vapour1 the setting sun seems to be a volcanic fire1 and at times the burning wind of the desert is the blast of death4 ,there are many salt lakes to the north1 and even the springs are of brine2 thick incrustations of dazzling salt cover the ground1 and the particles1 carried aloft by whirlwinds1 flash in the sun like diamonds4 ,sand is not the only character of the desert2 tracts of gravel and low bare rocks occur at times1 not less barren and dreary2 but on the eastern and northern borders of the ,sahara1 fresh water rises near the surface1 and produces an occasional oasis where barrenness and vitality meet4 ,the oases are generally depressed below the level of the desert1 with an arenaceous or calcareous border enclosing their emerald verdure like a frame4 ,the smaller oases produce herbage1 ferns1 acacias1 and some shrubs2 forests of date-palms grow in the larger1 which are the resort of lions1 panthers1 gazelles1 reptiles1 and a variety of birds4 ,in the ,nubian and ,libyan deserts1 to the east of the ,sahara1 the continent shelves down towards the ,mediterranean in a series of terraces1 consisting of vast level sandy or gravelly deserts1 lying east and west1 separated by low rocky ridges4 ,this shelving country1 which is only #edj feet above the sea at the distance of #gej miles inland1 is cut transversely by the ,nile1 and by a deep furrow parallel to it1 in which there is a long line of oases4 ,this furrow1 the ,nile1 and the ,red ,sea1 nearly parallel to both1 are flanked by rocky eminences which run north from the table-land4 ,on the interminable sands and rocks of these deserts no animal--no insect--breaks the dread silence2 not a tree nor a shrub is to be seen in this land without a shadow4 ,in the glare of noon the air quivers with the heat reflected from the red sand1 and in the night it is chilled under a clear sky sparkling with its host of stars4 ,strangely but beautifully contrasted with these scorched solitudes is the narrow valley of the ,nile1 threading the desert for #ajjj miles in emerald green1 with its blue waters foaming in rapids among wild rocks1 or quietly spreading in a calm stream amidst fields of corn and the august monuments of past ages4 ,at the distance of a few days' journey west from the ,nile1 over a hideous flinty plain1 lies the furrow already mentioned1 trending to the north1 and containing the oases of ,darfour1 ,selime1 the ,great and ,little ,oases1 and the parallel valleys of the ,natron ,lakes1 and ,bahr-,belama or the 8,dry ,river40 ,the ,great ,oasis1 or ,oasis of ,thebes1 is #abj miles long and #d or #e broad2 the ,lesser ,oasis1 separated from it by #dj miles of desert1 is of the same form4 ,both are rich in verdure and cultivation1 with villages amid palm-groves and fruit-trees1 mixed with the ruins of remote antiquity1 offering scenes of peaceful and soft beauty contrasted with the surrounding gloom4 ,the ,natron ,lakes are in the northern part of the ,valley of ,nitrn1 #ce miles west of the ,nile2 the southern part is a beautiful quiet spot1 that became the retreat of ,christian monks in the middle of the second century1 and at one time contained #cfj convents1 of which #d only remain2 from these some very valuable manuscripts of old date have recently been obtained4 ,another line of oases runs along the latitude of ,cairo1 with fresh-water lakes--consequently no less fertile than the preceding4 ,the ruins of the ,temple of ,jupiter ,ammon are in one of them4 ,hundreds of miles on the northern edge of the desert1 from the ,atlantic along the southern foot of the ,atlas to the ,great ,syrtis1 are pasture-lands without a tree--an ocean of verdure4 ,at the ,great ,syrtis the ,sahara comes to the shores of the ,mediterranean2 and1 indeed1 for #aajj miles between the termination of the ,atlas and the little table-land of ,barca1 the ground is so unprofitable that the population only amounts to about #cj1jjj1 and these are mostly wandering tribes who feed their flocks on the grassy steppes4 ,magnificent countries lie along the ,mediterranean coast north of the ,atlas1 susceptible of cultivation4 ,history1 and the ruins of many great cities1 attest their former splendour2 even now there are many populous commercial cities1 and much grain is raised1 though a great part of these valuable kingdoms is badly cultivated or not cultivated at all4 ,the base of the sandy parts of ,north ,africa is stiff clay2 in ,lower ,nubia1 between the parallels of ,assouan and ,esneh1 red and white granite prevail1 followed by argillaceous sandstone2 ,middle ,egypt is calcareous2 and1 lower down1 the alluvium of the ,nile covers the surface4 ,it would appear that ,southern ,africa1 though similar in its unbroken surface and peninsular shape to ,south ,america1 bears no resemblance to it in other respects1 but has a great analogy to the ,deccan in its triangular form1 its elevated platform1 and in the position of its encompassing mountain-chains1 if1 as there is every reason to believe1 from the fertile region to the north1 either that ,south ,africa descends in a succession of terraces to the low lands1 or that the ,komri mountains have a real existence1 and run directly across the continent4 ,from the connection already mentioned between external appearance and internal structure1 as well as from partial information1 it is surmised that the mountains surrounding the two triangles in question are of corresponding constitution2 that1 if any secondary strata do exist in this part of ,africa1 they must be exterior to these chains1 and neither on the summits of the high mountains nor in the interior2 and that any tertiary strata on the table-land must1 as in the ,deccan1 have formed the basins of fresh-water lakes4#ci ,the prodigious extent of desert is one of the most extraordinary circumstances in the structure of the old continent4 ,a zone of almost irretrievable desolation prevails from the ,atlantic ,ocean across ,africa and through central ,asia almost to the ,pacific ,ocean1 through at least #abj degrees of longitude4 ,there are also many long districts of the same sterile nature in ,europe2 and if to these sandy plains the deserts of ,siberia be added1 together with all the barren and rocky mountain tracts1 the unproductive land in the ,old ,world is prodigious4 ,the quantity of salt on the sandy plains is enormous1 and proves that they have been part of the bed of the ocean or of inland seas at no very remote geological period4 ,the low lands round the ,black ,sea and ,caspian1 and the ,lake of ,aral1 seem to have been the most recently reclaimed1 from the great proportion of shells in them identical with those now existing in these seas4 ,the same may be said of the ,sahara desert1 where salt and recent shells are plentiful4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,american ,continent--,the ,mountains of ,south ,america--,the ,andes--,the ,mountains of the ,parima and ,brazil4 ,,some thinner portion of the crust of the globe under the meridians that traverse the continent of ,america from ,cape ,horn to the ,arctic ,ocean must have yielded to the expansive forces of the subterranean fires1 or been rent by contraction of the strata in cooling4 ,through this the ,andes had arisen1 producing the greatest influence on the form of the continent1 and the peculiar simplicity that prevails in its principal mountains systems1 which1 with very few exceptions1 have a general tendency from north to south4 ,the continent is #ijjj miles long1 and1 its form being two great peninsulas joined by a long narrow isthmus1 it is divided by nature into three parts1 of ,south1 ,central1 and ,north ,america2 yet these three are connected by the mighty chain of the ,andes1 but little inferior in height to the ,himalaya1 running along the coast of the ,pacific from within the ,arctic nearly to the ,antarctic circle4 ,in this course every variety of climate is to be met with1 from the rigour of polar congelation to the scorching heat of the torrid zone2 while the mountains are so high that the same extremes of heat and cold may be experienced in the journey of a few hours from the burning plains of ,peru to the snow-clad peaks above4 ,in this long chain there are three distinct varieties of character1 nearly1 though not entirely1 corresponding to the three natural divisions of the continent4 ,the ,andes of ,south ,america differ materially from those of ,central ,america and ,mexico1 while both are dissimilar to the ,north ,american prolongation of the chain1 generally known as the ,chippewayan or ,rocky ,mountains4 ,the greatest length of ,south ,america1 from ,cape ,horn to the ,isthmus of ,panam is about #djbj geographical miles4 ,it is very narrow at its southern extremity1 but increases in width northwards to the latitude of ,cape ,roque on the ,atlantic1 between which and ,cape ,blanco on the ,pacific it attains its greatest breadth of nearly #bgej miles4 ,it consists of three mountain systems1 separated by the basins of three of the greatest rivers in the world4 ,the ,andes run along the western coast from ,cape ,horn to the ,isthmus of ,panam1 in a single chain of inconsiderable width but majestic height1 dipping rapidly to the narrow maritime plains of the ,pacific1 but descending on the east in high valleys and occasional offsets to plains of vast extent1 whose dead level is for hundreds of miles as unbroken as that of the ocean by which they are bounded4 ,nevertheless1 two detached mountain systems rise on these plains1 one in ,brazil between the ,rio de la ,plata and the river of the ,amazons2 the other is that of ,parima and ,guiana1 lying between the river of the ,amazons and the ,orinoco4 ,the great chain of the ,andes first raises its crest above the waves of the ,antarctic ,ocean in the majestic dark mass of ,cape ,horn1 the southernmost point of the archipelago of ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,this group of mountainous islands1 equal in size to ,britain1 is cut off from the main land by the ,straits of ,magellan4 ,the islands are penetrated in every direction by bays and narrow inlets of the sea1 or fiords1 ending often in glaciers fed by the snow on the summits of mountains #fjjj feet high4 ,peatmosses cover the higher declivities of these mountains1 and their flanks are beset with densely entangled forests of brown beech1 which never lose their dusky leaves1 producing altogether a savage1 dismal scene4 ,the mountains which occupy the western side of this cluster of islands sink down to wide level plains to the east1 like the continent itself1 of which the archipelago is but the southern extremity4#dj ,the ,pacific washes the very base of the ,patagonian ,andes for about #ajjj miles1 from ,cape ,horn to the #djth parallel of south latitude4 ,the whole coast is lined by a succession of archipelagos and islands1 separated from the iron-bound shores by narrow arms of the sea1 which1 in the more southern part1 are in fact profound longitudinal valleys of the ,andes filled by the ocean1 so that the chain of islands running parallel to the axes of the mountains is but the summits of an exterior range rising above the sea4 ,the coast itself for #fej miles is begirt by walls of rock1 which sink into unfathomable depths1 torn by long crevices or fiords1 similar to those on the ,norwegian shore1 ending in tremendous glaciers1 whose masses1 falling with a crash like thunder1 drive the sea in sweeping breakers through these chasms4 ,the islands and the mainland are thickly clothed with forests1 which are of a less sombre aspect as the latitude decreases4 ,between the ,pass of ,chacabuco north of ,santiago1 the capital of ,chile1 and the archipelago of ,chiloe1 a chain of hills1 composed in general of crystalline rocks1 borders the coast2 between which and the ,andes exists a longitudinal valley1 well watered by the rivers descending from the central chain1 and which constitutes the most fertile portion1 nay the garden of the ,chillian republic--the rich provinces of ,santiago1 ,colchagua1 and ,maule4 ,this longitudinal depression may be considered as a prolongation of the strait that separates ,chiloe from the mainland4 ,many peaks of the ,andes enter within the limits of perpetual snow1 between the #djth and #cast parallels2 and some of which are active volcanos4 ,in lat4 #cb #ci rises the giant of the ,american ,andes1 the ,nevado of ,aconcagua1 which towers over the ,chillian village of the same name1 and is so clearly visible from ,valparaiso4 ,although designated as a volcano1 a term generally applied in ,chile to every elevated and snowy peak1 it offers no trace of modern igneous origin4 ,it appears to be composed of a species of porphyry generally found in the centre of the ,chillian chain4 ,its height1 according to ,captain ,beechey's very accurate observations1 exceeds #bd1jjj feet4#da ,about the latitude of ,concepcion the dense forests of ,araucarias and of other semi-tropical plants cease with the humid equable climate2 and as no rain falls in central ,chile for nine months in the year1 the brown1 purple1 and tile-red hills and mountains are only dotted here and there with low trees and bushes2 very soon1 however1 after the heavy showers have moistened the cracked ground1 it is covered with a beautiful but transient flora4 ,in some valleys it is more permanent and of a tropical character1 mixed with alpine plants4#db ,in southern ,chile rain falls only once in two or three years1 the consequence of which is sterility on the western precipitous and unbroken descent of the ,andes2 but on the east1 two secondary branches leave the central ,cordillera1 which extend #cjj or #djj miles into the plains1 wooded to a great height4 ,the ,sierra de ,cordova1 the most southern of these1 begins between the #cc;d and #cast parallels1 and extends in the direction of the ,pampas2 more to the north1 the ,sierra di ,salta and ,juguy stretches from the valley of ,catamarca and ,tucuman towards the ,rio ,vermejo1 one of the tributaries of the ,rio de la ,plata4 ,the chain takes the name of the ,peruvian ,andes about the #bdth degree of south latitude1 and is separated from the ,pacific by a range of hills composed of crystalline rocks1 and parallel to the sea coast1 and of an intervening sandy desert1 seldom above #fj miles broad1 on which rain scarcely ever falls1 where bare rocks pierce through the moving sand4 ,the width of the coast is nearly the same to the ,isthmus of ,panam1 but damp luxuriant forests full of orchide1 begin about the latitude of ,payta1 and continue northwards4 ,from its southern extremity to the ,nevado of ,chorolque1 in #ba #cj ,s4 lat41 the ,andes are merely one grand and continuous range of mountains1 but north of that the chain intercepts a very elevated table-land1 or wide longitudinal valley1 in the direction of the chain1 bounded on each side by a parallel range of high mountains1 rising much above it4 ,these parallel ,cordilleras are united at various points by enormous transverse groups or mountain-knots1 or by single ranges crossing between them like dykes1 a structure that prevails to ,pasto1 #a #ac #f ,n4 lat4 ,the descent to the ,pacific is very steep2 the dip is also very rapid to the east1 whence offsets diverge to the level plains4 ,unlike the table-lands of ,asia of the same elevation1 where cultivation is confined to the more sheltered spots1 or those still lower in ,europe1 which are only fit for pasture1 these lofty regions of the ,andes yield exuberant crops of every ,european grain1 and have many populous cities enjoying the luxuries of life1 with universities1 libraries1 civil and religious establishments1 at altitudes equal to that of the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 which is #ab1agj feet above the sea-level4 ,villages are placed and mines are worked at heights as great and even greater than the top of ,mont ,blanc4#dc ,this state is not limited to the present times1 since these table-lands were once the centre of civilization by a race of mankind which 8bear the same relation to the ,incas and the present inhabitants that the ,etruscans bear to the ancient ,romans and to the ,italians of our own days40 ,the table-land or valley of ,desaguadero1 one of the most remarkable of these1 has an absolute altitude of #ab1ijj feet1 and a breadth varying from #cj to #fj miles3 it stretches #djj miles between the two parallel chains of the ,andes1 and between the transverse mountain-group of ,lipez1 in #bj ,s4 lat41 and the enormous mountain-knot of ,vilcaota1 which1 extending from east to west1 shuts in the valley on the north-west1 and occupying an area three times as large as ,switzerland1 some of the snowy peaks rising #hcjj feet above the surface of the table-land1 from which an idea may be formed of the gigantic scale of the ,andes4 ,this table-land or valley is bounded on each side by the two grand chains of the ,bolivian ,andes3 that on the west is the ,cordillera of the coast2 the range on the east is the ,bolivian ,cordillera1 properly speaking2 and on its north-west prolongation the ,cordillera ,real4#dd ,these two rows of mountains lie so near the edge that the whole breadth of the table-land1 including both1 is only #bbf miles4 ,all the snowy peaks of the ,cordilleras of the coast are either active volcanoes or of igneous origin1 and are all situate near the maritime declivity of the chain2 consequently1 the descent is very abrupt4 ,the eastern ,cordillera1 which begins at the metalliferous mountain of ,potosi1 is below the level of perpetual snow to the south1 but its northern portion contains the three peaked mountains of ,sorata1 of ,supwasi1 and ,illimani1 and is one of the most magnificent portions of the ,andes4#de ,the snowy part begins with the gigantic mass of ,illimani1 whose serrated ridges are elongated in the direction of the axis of the chain4 ,the lowest glacier on its southern slope does not descend below #af1ejj feet1 and the valley of ,totoral1 a mere gulf in which ,vesuvius might stand1 comes between ,illimani and the ,nevado of ,la ,mesada1 from whence the eastern ,cordillera runs to the north-west in a continuous line of snow-clad peaks to the group of ,vilcaoto1 where it unites with the ,cordillera of the coast4 ,the valley of the ,desaguadero1 occupying #aej1jjj square miles1 has a considerable variety of surface2 in the south1 throughout the mining district1 it is poor and cold4 ,potosi1 the highest city in the world1 stands at an absolute elevation of #ac1ccj feet1 at the foot of a mountain celebrated for its silver mines4 ,chiquisaca1 the capital of ,bolivia1 containing #ac1jjj inhabitants1 lies to the north-east of ,potosi1 in the midst of cultivated fields4 ,the northern part of the valley is populous1 and produces wheat1 barley1 and other grain2 and the ,lake of ,titicaca1 twenty times as large as the ,lake of ,geneva1 fills the north-western portion of this great basin4 ,the islands and shores of this lake still exhibit ruins of gigantic magnitude1 monuments of a people more ancient than the ,incas4 ,the modern city of ,la ,paz with #dj1jjj inhabitants1 not far from its southern shores1 stands in the most sublime situation that can be imagined1 having in full view the vast ,nevado of ,illimani to the east-south-east at a distance of seven leagues4 ,many offsets leave the eastern side of the ,bolivian ,cordillera which terminates in the great plain of ,chiquitos and ,paraguay2 the most important is the ,cordillera of ,yuracaras1 which bounds the rich valley of ,cochabamba on the north1 and ends near the town of ,santa ,cruz de la ,sierra4 ,there are some fertile valleys in the snow-capped group of ,vilcaota and ,cusco4 ,the city of ,cusco1 which contains nearly #ej1jjj inhabitants1 was the capital of the empire of the ,incas3 it still contains numerous ruins of that dynasty1 among which the remains of the ,temple of the sun and its ,cyclopean ,fortress still mark its former splendour4 ,four ancient ,peruvian roads led from ,cusco to the different parts of the empire1 little inferior in many respects to the old ,roman ways3 all crossing mountain-passes higher than the ,peak of ,teneriffe4 ,on the northern prolongation of the chain1 in lat4 #aa ,s41 encircled by the ,andes1 is the elevated plain of ,bombon1 near to the celebrated silver-mines of ,pasco1 at a height of #ad1jjj feet above the sea4 ,in it is situated the ,lake of ,lauricocha1 which may be considered1 from its remoteness1 as one of the sources of the ,amazon4 ,there are many small lakes on the table-lands and high valleys of the ,andes1 some even within the range of perpetual snow4 ,they are very cold and deep1 often of the purest sea-green colour2 some of them may have been craters of extinct volcanos4 ,the chain of the ,andes is divided into three ranges of mountains running from south to north in the transverse group or mountain-knot of ,pasco and ,huanuco1 which shuts in the valley of ,bombon between the #aath and #ajth parallels of south latitude3 that in the centre separates the wide fertile valley of the ,upper ,maraon from the still richer valley of the ,huallaga1 whilst the more eastern forms the barrier between the latter and the tropical valley of the ,yucayali4 ,the western chain alone reaches the limit of perpetual snow1 and1 if we except the ,nevado of ,huaylillas1 in #g #ej1 no mountain north of this for nearly #djj miles to the ,andes of ,quito arrives at the snow-line4 ,in lat4 #d #ej ,s4 the ,andes form the mountain-knot of ,loxa1 once celebrated for its forests1 in which the cinchona or ,peruvian bark was discovered4 ,from this knot the chain divides into two great longitudinal ridges or cordilleras1 in an extent of #cej miles1 passing through the republic of the ,equator to the mountain-group of ,los ,pastos in that of ,new ,grenada4 ,these ridges enclose a vast longitudinal valley1 which1 divided by the cross ridges of ,assuay and ,chisinche into three basins1 form the valleys of ,cuena1 ,tapia1 and ,quito4 ,the plain of ,cuena offers little interest2 that of ,tapia is magnificent2 whilst the valley of ,quito is one of extraordinary beauty3 on either side rise a series of snow-capped peaks1 celebrated in every way in the history of science1 as the valley itself is in that of the aboriginal races of the ,new ,world4 ,here the energies of volcanic action have been studied with the greatest fruits2 here1 now one hundred years ago1 took place that measurement of an arc of the meridian which afforded the most accurate data at the time towards the determination of the mass and form of our planet1 and which has conferred eternal honour on the body with which it originated1 the ,french ,academy of ,sciences2 and celebrity on the names of ,bouguier1 ,la ,condamine1 and ,godin1 ,don ,george ,juan and ,ulloa1 who conducted it on the part of the crowns of ,france and of ,spain4 ,the ,cordillera or ridge which hems in the valley of ,quito on the east contains the snow-capped peaks of ,antisana1 ,cotopaxi1 one of the most beautiful of active volcanoes1 whose dazzling cone rises to a height of #ah1gge feet1 of ,tungaragua and el-,altar1 the latter once equal to ,chimborazo in height1 and ,sangay4 ,the western range includes the gigantic ,chimborazo1 which may be seen from the coast of the ,pacific1 the pyramidal peak of ,illinissa1 the wreck of an ancient volcano4 ,the height of ,illinissa was measured by the ,french ,academicians1 by very careful operations1 directly above the level of the ocean1 the latter being visible from it2 and by its means the absolute elevation of the valley of ,quito1 and of the other peaks that encircle it1 was deduced1 as well as the first approximate value of the barometrical coefficient4 ,north of ,chimborazo and near it is the ,carguirazo1 and close to the city of ,quito rises the scarcely less celebrated volcano of ,pichincha1 whilst the ,nevado of ,cayamb1 whose summit1 elevated #ai1ece feet1 is traversed by the terrestrial equator1 perhaps the greatest and most remarkable landmark on the surface of our planet1 closes the north-east extremity of the valley4 ,the valley of ,quito1 one of the finest in the ,andes1 is #bjj miles long and #cj wide1 with a mean altitude of #aj1jjj feet1 bounded by the most magnificent series of volcanoes and mountains in the ,new ,world4 ,a peculiar interest is attached to two of the many volcanos in the parallel ,cordilleras that flank it on each side4 ,the beautiful snow-clad cone of ,cayamb ,urcu1 as already stated1 traversed by the equator1 the most remarkable division of the globe closes it on the north2 and in the western ,cordillera the cross still stands on the summit of ,pichincha1 #ae1ibd feet above the ,pacific1 which served for a signal to ,bouguier and ,la ,condamine in their memorable measurement of an arc of the meridian4#df ,some parts of the plain of ,quito to the south are sterile1 but the soil generally is good1 and perpetual spring clothes it with exuberant vegetation4 ,the city of ,quito1 containing #gj1jjj inhabitants1 on the side of ,pichincha has an absolute height of #iedj feet4 ,the city is well built and handsome2 the churches are splendid2 it possesses universities1 the comforts and luxuries of civilized life1 in a situation of unrivalled grandeur and beauty4 ,thus1 on the very summit of the ,andes there is a world by itself1 with its mountains and its valleys1 its lakes and rivers1 populous towns and cultivated fields4 ,many monuments of the ,incas are still found in good preservation in these plains1 where the scenery is most noble--eleven volcanic cones are visible from one spot4 ,although the ,andes are inferior in height to the ,himalaya1 yet the domes of trachyte1 the truncated cones of the active volcanos1 and the serrated ruins of those that are extinct1 mixed with the bold features of primary mountains1 give an infinitely greater variety to the scene1 while the smoke1 and very often the flame1 issuing from these regions of perpetual snow increase its sublimity4 ,stupendous as these mountains appear even from the plains of the table-land1 they are merely the inequalities of the tops of the ,andes1 the serrated summit of that mighty chain4 ,between the large group of ,los ,pastos1 containing several active volcanos1 and the group of ,las ,papas1 in the second degree of north latitude1 the bottom of the valley is only #fijj feet above the sea2 and north of the latter mountain-knot the crest of the ,andes splits into three ,cordilleras1 which diverge not again to unite4 ,the most westerly of these1 the chain of ,choco1 which may be considered the continuation of the great chain1 divides the valley of the river ,cauca from the ,pacific2 it is only #ejjj feet high1 and the lowest of the three4 ,though but #bj miles broad1 it is so steep1 and so difficult of access1 that travellers cannot cross it on mules1 but are carried on men's shoulders3 it is rich in gold and platina4 ,the central branch1 or ,cordillera of ,quindiu1 runs due north between the ,magdalena and ,cauca1 rising to a great height in the volcanic ,peak of ,tolima4 ,the two last chains are united by the mountain-knot of ,antioquia1 of which little more is known than that it forms two great masses1 which1 after separating the streams of the ,magdalena1 ,cauca1 and ,atrato1 trends to the ,n4,w41 greatly reduced in height1 and with the chain of ,choco forms the low mountains of the ,isthmus of ,panam4 ,the most easterly of the three ,cordilleras1 called the ,sierra de la ,summa ,paz1 spreads out on its western declivity into the table-lands of ,bogota1 ,tunja1 and others1 the ancient ,cundinamarca1 which have an elevation of about #ijjj feet2 whilst on its eastern slope rise the rivers ,guaviari and ,meta1 which form the head waters of the ,orinoco4 ,the tremendous crevice of ,icononzo occurs in the path leading from the city of ,santa ,f de ,bogota to the banks of the ,magdalena4 ,it probably was formed by an earthquake1 and is like an empty mineral vein1 across which are two natural bridges3 the lowest is composed of stones that have been jammed between the rocks in their fall4#dg ,this ,cordillera comprises the ,andes of ,cundinamarca and ,merida1 and goes north-east through ,new ,grenada to the #ajth northern parallel1 where it joins the coast-chain of ,venezuela or ,caraccas1 which runs due east1 and ends at ,cape ,paria in the ,caribbean ,sea1 or rather at the eastern extremity of the island of ,trinidad4 ,this coast-chain is so majestic and beautiful that ,baron ,humboldt says it is like the ,alps rising out of the sea without their snow4 ,the insulated group of ,santa ,martha1 #ai1jjj feet high1 deeply covered with snow1 stands on an extensive plain between the delta of the ,magdalena and the sea-lake of ,maracaybo1 and is a landmark to mariners far off in the ,caribbean ,sea4 ,the passes over the ,chilian ,andes are numerous2 that of the ,portillo1 leading from ,st4 ,jago to ,mendoza1 is the highest2 it crosses two ridges1 offering a valley between1 a diminutive representation of the great ,peru-,bolivian depression and of the valley of ,quito2 the most elevated is so high that vegetation ceases far below its summit4 ,those in ,peru are higher1 though very few reach the snow-line4 ,in ,bolivia the mean elevation of the passes in the western and eastern ,cordillera is #ad1hib and #ad1dbb feet respectively4 ,that leading from ,sorata to the auriferous valley of ,tipauni is perhaps the highest in ,bolivia4 ,from the total absence of vegetation1 and the intense cold1 it is supposed to be #af1jjj feet above the ,pacific2 those to the north are but little lower4 ,the pass of ,quindiu in ,colombia1 though not so high1 is the most difficult of all across the ,andes3 but those crossing the mountain-knots from one table-land to another are the most dangerous2 for example1 that over the ,paramo del ,assuay1 in the plain of ,quito1 where the road is nearly as high as ,mont ,blanc1 and travellers not unfrequently perish from cold winds in attempting it4#dh ,on the western side of the ,andes little or no rain falls1 except at their most southern extremity1 and scanty vegetation appears only on spots or in small valleys1 watered by streams from the ,andes4 ,excessive heat and moisture combine to cover the eastern side and its offsets with tangled forests of large trees and dense brushwood4 ,this exuberance diminishes as the height increases1 till at last the barren rocks are covered only by snow and glaciers4 ,in the ,andes near the equator1 glaciers descending below the snow-line are unknown4 ,the steepness of the declivities and the dryness of the air1 at such great elevations1 prevent any accumulation of infiltrated water3 the annual changes of temperature besides are small4 ,nothing can surpass the desolation of these regions1 where nature has been shaken by terrific convulsions4 ,the dazzling snow fatigues the eye2 the huge masses of bold rock1 the mural precipices1 and the chasms yawning into dark unknown depths1 strike the imagination2 while the crash of the avalanche1 or the rolling thunder of the volcano1 startles the ear4 ,in the dead of night1 when the sky is clear and the wind hushed1 the hollow moaning of the volcanic fire fills the ,indian with superstitious dread in the deathlike stillness of these solitudes4 ,in the very elevated plains in the transverse groups1 such as that of ,bombon1 however pure the sky1 the landscape is lurid and colourless3 the dark-blue shadows are sharply defined1 and from the thinness of the air it is hardly possible to make a just estimate of distance4 ,changes of weather are sudden and violent2 clouds of black vapour arise and are carried by fierce winds over the barren plains2 snow and hail are driven with irresistible impetuosity2 and thunder-storms come on1 loud and awful1 without warning4 ,notwithstanding the thinness of the air1 the crash of the peals is quite appalling2 while the lightning runs along the scorched grass1 and1 sometimes issuing from the ground1 destroys a team of mules or a flock of sheep at one flash4#di ,currents of warm air are occasionally met with on the crest of the ,andes--an extraordinary phenomenon on such gelid heights1 which is not yet accounted for3 they generally occur two hours after sunset1 are local and narrow1 not exceeding a few fathoms in width1 similar to the equally partial blasts of hot air in the ,alps4 ,a singular instance1 probably1 of earth-light occurs in crossing the ,andes from ,chile to ,mendoza4 ,on this rocky scene a peculiar brightness occasionally rests1 a kind of undescribable reddish light1 which vanishes during the winter rains1 and is not perceptible on sunny days4 ,dr4 ,pppig ascribes the phenomenon to the dryness of the air3 he was confirmed in his opinion from afterwards observing a similar brightness on the coast of ,peru1 and it has also been seen in ,egypt4 ,the ,andes descend to the eastern plains by a series of cultivated levels1 as those of ,tucuman1 ,salta1 and ,jujuy1 in the ,republic of ,la ,plata1 with many others4 ,that of ,tucuman is #bejj feet above the sea--the garden of the republic4 ,the low lands to the east of the ,andes are divided by the table-lands and mountains of ,parima and ,brazil into three parts of very different aspect--the deserts and pampas of ,patagonia and ,buenos ,ayres1 the ,silvas or woody basin of the ,amazons1 and the ,llanos or grassy steppes of the ,orinoco4 ,the eastern table-lands nowhere exceed #bejj feet of absolute height2 the plains are so low and flat1 especially at the foot of the ,andes1 that a rise of #ajjj feet in the ,atlantic ,ocean would submerge more than half the continent of ,south ,america4 ,the system of ,parima is a group of mountains scattered over a table-land not more than #bjjj feet above the sea1 which extends #fjj or #gjj miles from east to west1 between the river ,orinoco1 the ,rio ,negro1 the ,amazons1 and the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,it is quite unconnected with the ,andes1 being #hj leagues east from the mountains of ,new ,grenada4 ,it begins #fj or #gj miles from the coast of ,venezuela1 and ascends by four successive terraces to undulating plains1 which come within one or two degrees of the equator1 and is twice as long as it is broad4 ,seven chains1 besides groups of mountains1 cross the table-land from west to east1 of which the chief is the ,sierra del ,parima4 ,beginning at the mouth of the ,meta1 it crosses the plains of ,esmeralda to the borders of ,brazil4 ,this chain is not more than #fjj feet high1 is everywhere escarped1 and forms the watershed between the tributaries of the ,amazons and those of the ,orinoco4 ,the ,orinoco rises on the northern side of the ,sierra del ,parima1 and in its circuitous course over the plains of ,esmeralda it breaks through that chain and the parallel chain of the ,maypures #cg miles to the south3 dashing with violence against the transverse shelving rocks and dykes1 it forms the magnificent series of rapids and cataracts of ,maypures and ,atures1 from whence the ,parima mountains have got the name of the ,cordillera of the cataracts of the ,orinoco4 ,the chain is of granite1 which forms the banks and fills the bed of the river1 covered with luxuriant tropical vegetation1 especially palm-forests4 ,in the district of the ,upper ,orinoco1 near ,charichana1 there is a granite rock which emits musical sounds at sunrise1 like the notes of an organ1 occasioned by the difference of temperature of the external air and that which fills the deep narrow crevices with which the rock is everywhere torn4 ,something of the same kind occurs at ,mount ,sinai4#ej ,the other parallel chains that extend over the table-land in ,venezuela and ,guiana1 though not of great height1 are very rugged and often crowned with mural ridges2 they are separated by flat savannahs1 generally barren in the dry season1 but after the rains covered with a carpet of emerald-green grass1 often six feet high1 mixed with flowers4 ,the vegetation in these countries is beautiful beyond imagination3 the regions of the ,upper ,orinoco and ,rio ,negro1 and of almost all the mountains and banks of rivers in ,guiana1 are clothed with majestic and impenetrable forests1 whose moist and hot recesses are the abode of the singular and beautiful race of the ,orchide and tangled creepers of many kinds4 ,although all the mountains of the system of ,parima are wild and rugged1 they are not high2 the inaccessible peak of the ,cerro ,duida1 which rises insulated #gaee feet above the plain of ,esmeralda1 is the culminating point1 and one of the highest mountains in ,south ,america east of the ,andes4 ,the fine savannahs of the ,rupununi were the country of romance in the days of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,south of ,pacaraime1 near an inlet of the river1 the far-famed city of ,manoa was supposed to stand1 the object of the unfortunate expedition of ,sir ,walter ,raleigh2 about #aa miles south-west of which is situated the lake ,amucu1 8the ,great ,lake with golden banks10--great only during the periodical floods4#ea ,on the southern side of the basin of the river ,amazons lies the table-land of ,brazil1 nowhere more than #bejj feet high1 which occupies half that empire1 together with part of the ,argentine republic and ,uruguay ,orientale4 ,its form is a triangle1 whose apex is at the confluence of the rivers ,mamore and ,beni1 and its base extends1 near the shore of the ,atlantic1 from the mouth of the ,rio de la ,plata to within three degrees of the equator4 ,it is difficult to define the limits of this vast territory1 but some idea may be formed of it by following the direction of the rapids and cataracts of the rivers descending from it to the plains around4 ,thus1 a line drawn from the fall of the river of the ,tocantins1 in #c #cj ,s4 latitude1 to the cataracts of the ,madeira1 in the eighth degree of south latitude1 will nearly mark its northern boundary2 from thence the line would run ,s4,w4 to the junction of the ,mamore and ,beni2 then turning to the ,s4,e4 along the ridges of mountains called the ,cordillera ,geral1 and ,sierra ,parecis1 it would proceed south to the cataract of the ,paran1 called the ,sete ,quedas1 in #bd #cj ,s4 lat42 and lastly from thence1 by the great falls of the river ,iguassu1 to the ,morro de ,santa ,martha1 in lat4 #bh #dj1 south of the island of ,st4 ,catherine4 ,chains of mountains1 nearly parallel1 extend from south-west to north-east1 #gjj miles along the base of the triangle1 with a breadth of about #djj miles4 ,of these1 the ,sierra de ,mar1 or the 8coast-chain10 reaches from the river ,uruguay to ,cape ,san ,roque1 never more distant than #bj miles from the ,atlantic1 except to the south of the bay of ,santos1 where it is #hj4 ,offsets diverge to the right and left2 the granitic peaks of the ,corcovado and ,tejuco1 which form such picturesque objects in that most magnificent of panoramas the bay of ,rio de ,janeiro1 are the ends of one4 ,the parallel chain of ,espenhao1 beginning near the town of ,san ,paolo1 and the continuous chains of the ,serro ,frio1 and forming the western boundary of the basin of the ,rio ,san ,francisco1 is the highest in ,brazil1 one of its mountains1 ,itambe1 being #hdbf feet above the sea4 ,all the mountains in ,brazil have a general tendency from ,s4,w4 to ,n4,e41 except the transverse chain of the ,sierra dos ,vertentes1 which begins #fj miles south of ,villa ,rica1 and runs in a tortuous line to its termination near the junction of the ,mamore and ,beni4 ,it forms the watershed of the tributaries of the ,san ,francisco and ,amazons on the north1 and those of the ,rio de la ,plata on the south2 its greatest height is #cejj feet above the sea3 its western part1 the ,sierra ,parecis1 is merely a succession of detached hills4 ,this chain1 the coast-chain of ,venezuela1 and the mountains of ,parima1 are the only ranges in the continent of ,america that do not entirely1 or in some degree1 lie in the direction of the meridians4 ,magnificent forests of tall trees1 bound together by tangled creeping and parasitical plants1 clothe the declivities of the mountains and line the borders of the ,brazilian rivers1 where the soil is rich and the verdure brilliant4 ,many of the plains on the table-land bear a coarse nutritious grass after the rains only1 others forests of dwarf trees2 but vast undulating tracts are always verdant with excellent pasture intermixed with fields of corn3 some parts are bare sand and rolled quartz1 and the ,campos ,parecis1 north of the ,sierre dos ,vertentes1 in the province of ,matto ,grosso1 is a sandy desert of unknown extent1 similar to the ,great ,gobi on the table-land of ,tibet4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,the ,low ,lands of ,south ,america--,desert of ,patagonia--,the ,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres--,the ,silvas of the ,amazons--,the ,llanos of the ,orinoco and ,venezuela--,geological ,notice4 ,,the southern plains are the most barren of the three great tracts of ,american low lands2 they stretch from ,tierra del ,fuego over #bg degrees of latitude1 or #aijj miles1 nearly to ,tucuman and the mountains of ,brazil4 ,palms grow at one end1 deep snow covers the other many months in the year4 ,this enormous plain1 of #a1fbj1jjj square miles1 begins on the eastern part of ,tierra del ,fuego1 which is a flat covered with trees1 and therefore superior to its continuation on the continent through eastern ,patagonia1 which1 for #hjj miles from the land's end to beyond the ,rio ,colorado1 is a desert of shingle4#eb ,it is occasionally diversified by huge boulders1 tufts of brown grass1 low bushes armed with spines1 brine-lakes1 incrustations of salt1 white as snow1 and by black basaltic platforms1 like plains of iron1 at the foot of the ,andes1 barren as the rest4 ,eastern ,patagonia1 however1 is not one universal flat1 but a succession of shingly horizontal plains at higher and higher levels1 separated by long lines of cliffs or escarpments1 the gable ends of the tiers or plains4 ,the ascent is small1 for even at the foot of the ,andes the highest of these platforms is only #cjjj feet above the ocean4 ,the plains are here and there intersected by a ravine or a stream1 the waters of which do not fertilize the blighted soil4 ,the transition from intense heat to intense cold is rapid1 and piercing winds often rush in hurricanes over these deserts1 shunned even by the ,indian1 except when he crosses them to visit the tombs of his fathers4 ,the shingle ends a few miles to the north of the ,rio ,colorado3 there the red calcareous earth of the ,pampas begins1 monotonously covered with coarse tufted grass1 without a tree or bush4 ,this country1 nearly as level as the sea and without a stone1 extends almost to the table-land of ,brazil1 and for #ajjj miles between the ,atlantic and the ,andes1 interrupted only at vast distances by a solitary umb1 the only tree of this soil1 rising like a great landmark4 ,this wide space1 though almost destitute of water1 is not all of the same description4 ,in the ,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres there are four distinct regions4 ,for #ahj miles west from ,buenos ,ayres they are covered with thistles and lucern of the most vivid green so long as the moisture from the rain lasts4 ,in spring the verdure fades1 and a month afterwards the thistles shoot up #aj feet high1 so dense and so protected by spines that they are impenetrable4 ,during the summer the dried stalks are broken by the wind1 and the lucern again spreads freshness over the ground4 ,the ,pampas for #dcj miles west of this region is a thicket of long tufted luxuriant grass1 intermixed with gaudy flowers1 affording inexhaustible pasture to thousands of horses and cattle2 this is followed by a tract of swamps and bogs1 to which succeeds a region of ravines and stones1 and1 lastly1 a zone1 reaching to the ,andes1 of thorny bushes and dwarf trees in one dense thicket4 ,the flat plains in ,entre ,rios in ,uruguay1 those of ,santa ,f1 and a great part of ,cordova and ,tucuman1 are of sward1 with cattle-farms4 ,the banks of the ,paran1 and other tributaries of the ,la ,plata1 are adorned with an infinite variety of tropical productions1 especially the graceful tribe of palms2 and the river islands are bright with orange-groves4 ,a desert of sand1 called ,el ,gran ,chaco1 exists west of the ,paraguay1 the vegetable produce of which is confined to a variety of the aloe and cactus tribes4 ,adjoining this desert are the ,bolivian provinces of ,chiquitos and ,moxos1 covered with forests and jungle1 the scene of the most laborious and benificent exertions of the ,jesuit ,missionaries towards the civilization of the aborigines of ,south ,america in the last century4 ,the ,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres1 #ajjj feet above the sea1 sink to a low level along the foot of the ,andes1 where the streams from the mountains collect in large lakes1 swamps1 lagoons of prodigious size1 and wide-spreading salines4 ,the swamp or lagoon of ,ybera1 of #ajjj square miles1 is entirely covered with aquatic plants4 ,these swamps are swollen to thousands of square miles by the annual floods of the rivers1 which also inundate the ,pampas1 leaving a fertilizing coat of mud4 ,multitudes of animals perish in the floods1 and the drought that sometimes succeeds is more fatal4 ,between the years #ahcj and #ahcb two millions of cattle died from want of food4 ,millions of animals are sometimes destroyed by casual and dreadful conflagrations in these countries when covered with dry grass and thistles4#ec ,the ,silvas of the river of the ,amazons1 lying in the centre of the continent1 form the second division of the ,south ,american low lands4 ,this country is more uneven than the ,pampas1 and the vegetation is so dense that it can only be penetrated by sailing up the river or its tributaries4 ,the forests not only cover the basin of the ,amazons from the ,cordillera of ,chiquitos to the mountains of ,parima1 but also its limiting mountain-chains1 the ,sierra dos ,vertentes and ,parima1 so that the whole forms an area of woodland more than six times the size of ,france1 lying between the #ahth parallel of south latitude and the #gth of north2 consequently inter-tropical and traversed by the equator4 ,there are some marshy savannahs between the #c;d and #dth degrees of north latitude1 and some grassy steppes south of the ,pacaraimo chain2 but they are insignificant compared with the ,silvas1 which extend #aejj miles along the river1 varying in breadth from #cej to #hjj miles1 and probably more4 ,according to ,baron ,humboldt1 the soil1 enriched for ages by the spoils of the forest1 consists of the richest mould4 ,the heat is suffocating in the deep and dark recesses of these primeval woods1 where not a breath of air penetrates1 and where1 after being drenched by the periodical rains1 the damp is so excessive that a blue mist rises in the early morning among the huge stems of the trees1 and envelops the entangled creepers stretching from bough to bough4 ,a death-like stillness prevails from sunrise to sunset1 then the thousands of animals that inhabit these forests join in one loud discordant roar1 not continuous1 but in bursts4 ,the beasts seem to be periodically and unanimously roused by some unknown impulse1 till the forest rings in universal uproar4 ,profound silence prevails at midnight1 which is broken at the dawn of morning by another general roar of the wild chorus4 ,nightingales too have their fits of silence and song2 after a pause they 8---- all burst forth in choral minstrelsy1 ,as if some sudden gale had swept at once ,a hundred airy harps40 ,coleridge4 ,the whole forest often resounds when the animals1 startled from their sleep1 scream in terror at the noise made by bands of its inhabitants flying from some night-prowling foe4 ,their anxiety and terror before a thunder-storm is excessive1 and all nature seems to partake in the dread4 ,the tops of the lofty trees rustle ominously1 though not a breath of air agitates them2 a hollow whistling in the high regions of the atmosphere comes as a warning from the black floating vapour2 midnight darkness envelops the ancient forests1 which soon after groan and creak with the blast of the hurricane4 ,the gloom is rendered still more hideous by the vivid lightning and the stunning crash of thunder4 ,even fishes are affected with the general consternation2 for in a few minutes the ,amazons rages in waves like a stormy sea4 ,the ,llanos of the ,orinoco and ,venezuela1 covered with long grass1 form the third department of ,south ,american low lands1 and occupy #aec1jjj square miles between the deltas of the ,orinoco and the river ,coqueta1 flat as the surface of the sea4 ,it is possible to travel over these flat plains for #aajj miles from the delta of the ,orinoco to the foot of the ,andes of ,pasto2 frequently there is not an eminence a foot high in #bgj square miles4 ,they are twice as long as they are broad2 and as the wind blows constantly from the east1 the climate is the more ardent the farther west4 ,these steppes for the most part are destitute of trees or bushes1 yet in some places they are dotted with the mauritia and other palm-trees4 ,flat as these plains are1 there are in some places two kinds of inequalities2 one consists of banks or shoals of grit or compact limestone1 five or six feet high1 perfectly level for several leagues1 and imperceptible except on their edges3 the other inequality can only be detected by the barometer or levelling instruments2 it is called a ,mesa1 and is an eminence rising imperceptibly to the height of some fathoms4 ,small as the elevation is1 a mesa forms the watershed from ,s4,w4 to ,n4,e41 between the affluents of the ,orinoco and the streams flowing to the northern coast of ,terra ,firma4 ,in the wet season1 from ,april to the end of ,october1 the tropical rains pour down in torrents1 and hundreds of square miles of the ,llanos are inundated by the floods of the rivers4 ,the water is sometimes #ab feet deep in the hollows1 in which so many horses and other animals perish1 that the ground smells of musk1 an odour peculiar to many ,south ,american quadrupeds4 ,from the flatness of the country too1 the waters of some affluents of the ,orinoco are driven backwards by the floods of that river1 especially when aided by the wind1 and form temporary lakes4 ,when the waters subside1 these steppes1 manured by the sediment1 are mantled with verdure1 and produce ananas1 with occasional groups of fan palm-trees1 and mimosas skirt the rivers4 ,when the dry weather returns1 the grass is burnt to powder2 the air is filled with dust raised by currents occasioned by difference of temperature1 even where there is no wind4 ,if by any accident a spark of fire falls on the scorched plains1 a conflagration spreads from river to river1 destroying every animal1 and leaves the clayey soil sterile for years1 till vicissitudes of weather crumble the brick-like surface into earth4 ,the ,llanos lie between the equator and the ,tropic of ,cancer2 the mean annual temperature is about #hd of ,fahrenheit4 ,the heat is most intense during the rainy season1 when tremendous thunder-storms are of common occurrence4 ,,geology ,,of ,,south ,,america4 ,the most remarkable circumstance in the geological features of the ,south ,american continent is the vast development of volcanic force1 which is confined to the chain of the ,andes1 and where it has acquired a considerable breadth1 as in the ,peru-,bolivian portion1 to the part nearest the sea-coast4 ,it would be wrong1 however1 to say that there are no traces of modern volcanic action at a great distance from the sea3#ed it is one of those theories which recent discoveries in both continents have proved the fallacy of4 ,the volcanic vents occur in the ,andes in linear groups3 the most southern of these is that of ,chile1 extending from the latitude of ,chiloe to that of ,santiago1 #db to #cc ,s43 in this space exist five well-authenticated craters in ignition--the most southern is the volcano of ,llanquihae or ,osorno1 observed by ,m4 ,gaye1 and the most northern that of ,maypu1 the fires of which are sometimes seen from the capital of ,chile4 ,between the #cb;d parallel and the ,bolivian frontier there does not appear to be a single volcanic vent1 but in the province of ,atacama rises the volcano of ,san ,pedro of ,atacama4 ,the mountain of ,isluga1 in the province of ,tarapaca1 is said to be an active volcano1 but the great centre of volcanic action in this part of the ,western ,cordillera extends from #ah #aj to #af #bj1 where the ,andes have changed their direction from being parallel to the meridian to one inclined nearly #de degrees to that line4 ,the trachytic giant domes of the ,andes1 ,sahama1 and the ,nevado of ,chuquibamba mark the ,n4 and ,s4 limits of this line of vents3 the former1 one of the most perfect trachytic pyramids in the ,andes1 rises to a height of #bb1cej feet1 in lat4 #ah #g and long4 #fh #ed ,w42 near to it are the twin ,nevados of ,pomarape and ,parinacota1 one of which appears to emit smoke4 ,the group of snowy peaks seen from ,arica1 the centre of which1 the ,nevado of ,tacora1 is in lat4 #ag #dc1 offers a broken-down crater1 and an active solfaterra1 on one of its sides4 ,between this point and the volcano of ,arequipa no active volcano has been observed4 ,it is well known that the latter has vomited flames and ashes1 and spread desolation around1 at a comparatively recent period2 the crater of ,uvinas1 active in the #afth century1 is now filled up and completely extinct4 ,between the latitude of ,arequipa 7#af #bd7 and the ,equatorial group of volcanos1 the ,andes do not present a single active crater4 ,this ,equatorial group extends over a meridional line of #c-a_/d degrees--between the ,peak of ,sangay and the volcano of ,los ,pastos4 ,the most remarkable of these volcanic vents are the ,sangay1 ,tunguragua1 and ,cotopaxi1 all situated in the ,cordillera most remote from the ocean4 ,pichincha burned as recently as #ahca2 and north of the ,equator1 ,imbaburu1 the volcanos of ,chiles1 of ,cumbal1 of ,tuqueres or ,los ,pastos1 of ,sotara and ,purace1 mark the extension of actual volcanic action into our hemisphere4 ,granite1 which seems to be the base of the whole continent1 is widely spread to the east and south3 it appears in ,tierra del ,fuego and in the ,patagonian ,andes abundantly1 and at great elevations1 and in ,chile and southern ,peru forms the line of hills parallel to the ,pacific1 and where are situated the mineral riches of the former republic2 but it comes into view so rarely in the northern parts of the chain1 that ,baron ,humboldt says a person might travel years in the ,andes of ,peru and ,quito without falling in with it4 ,he never saw it at a greater height above the sea than #aa1ejj feet4 ,gneiss is here and there associated with the granite1 but micaschist is by much the most common of the crystalline rocks4 ,quartz rock1 probably of the ,devonian period1 is much developed1 generally mixed with mica1 and rich in gold and specular iron4 ,it sometimes extends several leagues in the western declivities of ,peru #fjjj feet thick4 ,red sandstone1 with its gypseous and saliferous marls1 of the age of our ,english red marl1 of vast dimensions1 occurs in the ,andes1 and on the table-land east of them1 where1 in some places1 as in ,colombia1 it spreads over thousands of square miles to the shores of the ,atlantic4 ,it is widely extended at altitudes of #aj1jjj and #ab1jjj feet-- for example1 on the plains of ,tarqui and in the valley of ,cuena4 ,coal is sometimes associated with it1 and is found in the ,andes of ,pasco1 in ,peru1 #ad1gej feet above the sea4 ,porphyry abounds all over the ,andes1 from ,patagonia to ,colombia1 at every elevation1 on the slopes and summits of the mountains rising to the greatest elevation1 but of very different ages and mineralogical characters4 ,one variety which frequently occurs is rich in metals1 and hence has been designated as metalliferous3 in it are situated some of the most celebrated silver mines of ,peru1 those of ,potosi1 ,oruro1 ,puno4 ,the bare and precipitous porphyry-rocks give great variety to the colouring of the ,andes1 especially in ,chile1 where purple1 tile-red1 and brown are contrasted with the snow on the summit of the chain4#ee ,trachyte is almost as abundant as porphyry2 many of the loftiest parts1 and all the great dome-shaped mountains1 are formed of it4 ,masses of this rock1 from #ad1jjj to #ah1jjj feet thick1 are seen on ,chimborazo and ,pichincha4 ,prodigious quantities of volcanic products1 lava1 tufa1 and obsidian1 occur on the western face of the ,andes1 where volcanos are active4 ,on the eastern side there are none4 ,this is especially the case in that part of the chain lying between the equator and ,chile4 ,the ,bolivian ,cordilleras1 which encircle the valley of ,desaguadero1 furnish a striking example4 ,the ,cordillera of the coast is composed of crystalline and stratified rocks at its base1 and of trachytes1 obsidian1 and trachytic conglomerates at greater elevations1 while the eastern ,cordillera consists of stratified rocks of the ,silurian system1 with granites1 quartziferous porphyries1 and syenites injected1 and of secondary rocks of the triassic period1 and marls1 containing gypsum1 oolitic limestone1 and rock-salt of the most beautiful colours4 ,towards ,chile1 and throughout the ,chilian range1 the case is different1 because active volcanos are there in the centre of the chain4 ,sea-shells of different geological periods are found at various elevations1 which shows that many upheavings and subsidences have taken place in the chain of the ,andes4#ef ,the whole range1 after twice subsiding some thousand feet1 was brought up by a slow movement in mass during the ,eiocene period1 after which it sank down once more several hundred feet1 to be again uplifted to its present level by a slow and often interrupted motion4 ,these vicissitudes are very perceptible1 especially at its southern extremity4 ,stems of large trees1 which ,mr4 ,darwin found in a fossil state in the ,uspallata range1 on the eastern declivity of the ,chilian ,andes1 now #gjj miles distant from the ,atlantic1 exhibit a remarkable example of such vicissitudes4 ,these trees1 with the volcanic soil on which they had grown1 had sunk from the beach to the bottom of a deep ocean1 from which1 after five alternations of sedimentary deposits and deluges of submarine lava of prodigious thickness1 the whole mass was raised up1 and now forms the ,uspallata chain4 ,subsequently1 by the wearing of streams1 the embedded trunks have been brought into view in a silicified state1 projecting from the soil in which they grew--now solid rock4 8,vast and scarcely comprehensible as such changes must ever appear1 yet they have all occurred within a period recent when compared with the history of the ,cordillera2 and the ,cordillera itself is absolutely modern compared with many of the fossiliferous strata of ,europe and ,america40#eg ,from the quantity of shingle and sand in the valleys in the lower ridges1 as well as at altitudes from #gjjj to #ijjj feet above the present level of the sea1 it appears that the whole area of the ,chilian ,andes has been rising for centuries by a gradual motion2 and the coast is now rising by the same imperceptible degrees1 though it is sometimes suddenly elevated by a succession of small upheavings of a few feet by earthquakes1 similar to that which shook the continent for #ajjj miles on the #bjth of ,february1 #ahce4 ,on the eastern side of the ,andes the land from ,tierra del ,fuego to the ,rio de la ,plata has been raised en masse by one great elevating force1 acting equally and imperceptibly for #bjjj miles1 within the period of the shell-fish now existing1 which1 in many parts of these plains1 even still retain their colours4 ,the gradual upward movement was interrupted by at least eight long periods of rest1 marked by the edges of the successive plains1 which1 extending from south to north1 had formed so many lines of sea-coast1 as they rose higher and higher between the ,atlantic and the ,andes4 ,it appears1 from the shingle and fossil shells found on both sides of the ,cordillera1 that the whole south-western extremity of the continent has been rising slowly for a long time1 and indeed the whole ,andean chain4 ,the rise on the coast of ,chile has been at the rate of several feet in a century2 but it has diminished eastward1 till1 in the ,patagonian plains and ,pampas1 it has been only a few inches in the same line4 ,the instability of the southern part of the continent is less astonishing1 if it be considered that at the time of the earthquake of #ahce the volcanos in the ,chilian ,andes were in eruption contemporaneously for #gbj miles in one direction and #djj in another1 so that in all probability there was a subterranean lake of burning lava below this end of the continent twice as large as the ,black ,sea4#eh ,the terraced plains of ,patagonia1 which extend hundreds of miles along the coast1 are tertiary strata1 not in basins1 but in one great deposit1 above which lies a thick stratum of a white pumaceous substance1 extending at least #ejj miles1 a tenth part of which consists of marine infusoria4 ,over the whole lies the shingle already mentioned1 spread over the coast for #gjj miles in length1 with a mean breadth of #bjj miles1 and #ej feet thick4 ,these myriads of pebbles1 chiefly of porphyry1 have been torn from the rocks of the ,andes1 and water-worn1 at a period subsequent to the deposition of the tertiary strata--a period of incalculable duration4 ,all the plains of ,tierra del ,fuego and ,patagonia1 on both sides of the ,andes1 are strewed with huge boulders1 which have been supposed to have been transported by icebergs which had descended to lower latitudes in ancient times than they do now--observations of great interest1 which we owe to ,mr4 ,darwin4 ,the stunted vegetation of these sterile plains was sufficient to nourish large animals of the pachydermata tribe1 now extinct1 even at a period when the present shell-fish of the ,patagonian seas existed4 ,the ,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres are entirely alluvial1 the deposit of the ,rio de la ,plata4 ,granite prevails to the extent of #bjjj miles along the coast of ,brazil1 and with syenite forms the base of the table-land4 ,the superstructure of the latter consists of metamorphic and old igneous rocks1 sandstone1 clay-slate1 limestone1 in which are large caverns with bones of extinct animals1 and alluvial soil4 ,gold is found in the alluvial soil on the banks of the rivers1 and diamonds1 so abundant in that country1 in a ferruginous conglomerate of a very recent period4 ,the fertile soil of the ,silvas has travelled from afar3 washed down from the ,andes1 it has been gradually deposited1 and manured by the decay of a thousand forests4 ,granite again appears1 in more than its usual ruggedness1 in the table-land and mountains of the ,parima system4 ,the sandstone of the ,andes is found there also2 and on the plains of ,esmeralda it caps the granite of the solitary prism-shaped ,duida1 the culminating mountain of the ,parima system4 ,limestone appears in the ,brigantine or ,cocollar1 the most southern of the three ranges of the coast-chain of ,venezuela2 the other two are of granite1 metamorphic rocks1 and crystalline schists1 torn by earthquakes and worn by the sea1 which has deeply indented that coast4 ,the chain of islands in the ,spanish main is merely the wreck of a more northern ridge1 broken up into detached masses by these irresistible powers4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,central ,america--,west ,indian ,islands--,geological ,notice4 ,,taking the natural divisions of the continent alone into consideration1 ,central ,america may be regarded as lying between the ,isthmus of ,panam and ,darien and the ,isthmus of ,tehuantepec1 and consequently in a tropical climate4 ,this narrow tortuous strip of land1 which unites the continents of ,north and ,south ,america1 stretches from ,s4,e4 to ,n4,w4 about #abjj miles1 varying in breadth from #bj to #cjj or #djj miles4 ,as a regular chain1 the ,andes descend suddenly at the ,isthmus of ,panam1 but as a mass of high land they continue through ,central ,america and ,mexico1 in an irregular mixture of table-lands and mountains4 ,the mass of high land which forms the central ridge of the country1 and the watershed between the two oceans1 is very steep on its western side1 and runs near the coast of the ,pacific1 where ,central ,america is narrow2 but to the north1 where it becomes wider1 the high land recedes to a greater distance from the shore than the ,andes do in any other part between ,cape ,horn and ,mexico4 ,this country consists of three distinct groups1 divided by valleys which run from sea to sea1 namely1 ,costarica1 the group of ,honduras and ,nicaragua1 and the group of ,guatemala4#ei ,the plains of ,panam1 very little raised above the sea1 and in some parts studded with hills1 follow the direction of the isthmus for #bhj miles1 and end at the ,bay of ,parita4 ,from thence the forest-covered ,cordillera of ,veragua1 supposed to be #ijjj feet high1 extends to the small but elevated table-land of ,costarica1 surrounded by volcanos1 and terminates at the plain of ,nicaragua1 which1 together with its lake1 occupies an area of #cj1jjj square miles1 and forms the second break in the great ,andean chain4 ,the lake is only #abh feet above the ,pacific1 from which it is separated by a line of active volcanos4 ,the river ,san ,juan de ,nicaragua flows from its eastern end into the ,caribbean ,sea1 and at its northern extremity it is connected with the smaller lake of ,managua or ,leon by the river ,penaloya4 ,by this water-line it has been projected to unite the two seas4 ,the high land begins again1 after an interval of #agj miles1 with the ,mosquito country and ,honduras1 which mostly consist of table-lands and high mountains1 some of which are volcanos4 ,guatemala is a table-land intersected by deep valleys1 which lies between the plain of ,comayagua and the ,isthmus of ,tehuantepec4 ,it spreads to the east in the peninsula of ,yucatan1 which terminates at ,cape ,catoche1 and encompasses the ,bay of ,honduras with terraces of high mountains4 ,the table-land of ,guatemala consists of undulating verdant plains of great extent1 of the absolute height of #ejjj feet1 fragrant with flowers4 ,in the southern part of the table-land the cities of ,old and ,new ,guatemala are situate1 #ab miles apart4 ,the portion of the plain on which the new city stands is bounded on the west by the three volcanos of ,pacayo1 del ,fuego1 and de ,agua2 these1 rising from #gjjj to #aj1jjj feet above the plain1 lie close to the new city on the west1 and form a scene of wonderful boldness and beauty4 ,the ,volcano de ,agua1 at the foot of which ,old ,guatemala stands1 is a perfect cone1 verdant to its summit1 which occasionally pours forth torrents of boiling water and stones4 ,the old city has been twice destroyed by it1 and is now nearly deserted on account of earthquakes4 ,the ,volcano del ,fuego generally emits smoke from one of its peaks2 and the ,volcano de ,pacayo is only occasionally active4 ,the wide grassy plains are cut by deep valleys to the north1 where the high land of ,guatemala ends in parallel ridges of mountains1 called the ,cerro ,pelado1 which run from east to west along the #idth meridian1 filling half the ,isthmus of ,tehuantepec1 which is #adj miles broad1 and unites the table-land of ,guatemala with that of ,mexico4 ,though there are large savannahs on the high plains of ,guatemala1 there are also magnificent primeval forests1 as the name of the country implies1 ,guatemala signifying1 in the ,mexican language1 a place covered with trees4 ,the banks of the ,rio de la ,papian1 or ,usumasinta1 which rises in the alpine lake of ,lacandon1 and flows over the table-land to the ,gulf of ,mexico1 are beautiful beyond description4 ,the coasts of ,central ,america are generally narrow1 and in some places the mountains and high lands come close to the water's edge4 ,the sugar-cane is indigenous1 and on the low lands of the eastern coast all the ordinary produce of the ,west ,indian islands is raised1 besides much that is peculiar to the country4 ,as the climate is cool on the high lands1 the vegetation of the temperate zone is there in perfection4 ,on the low lands1 as in other countries where heat and moisture are in excess1 and where nature is for the most part undisturbed1 vegetation is vigorous to rankness3 forests of gigantic timber seek the foul air above an impenetrable undergrowth1 and the mouths of the rivers are dense masses of jungle with mangroves and reeds #ajj feet high1 yet delightful savannahs vary the scene1 and wooded mountains dip into the water4 ,nearly all the coast of the ,pacific is skirted by an alluvial plain1 of small width1 and generally very different in character from that on the ,atlantic side4 ,in a line along the western side of the table-land and the mountains there is a continued succession of volcanos1 at various distances from the shore1 and at various heights1 on the declivity of the table-land4 ,it seems as if a great crack or fissure had been produced in the earth's surface1 along the junction of the mountains and the shore1 through which the internal fire had found a vent4 ,there are more than #bj active volcanoes in succession between the #ajth and #bjth parallels of north latitude2 some higher than the mountains of the central ridge1 and several subject to violent eruptions4 ,altogether1 there are #ci in ,central ,america1 #ag of which are in ,guatemala--a greater number than in any other country1 ,java excepted4 ,the ,colombian ,archipelago1 or ,west ,indian ,islands1 which may be regarded as the wreck of a submerged part of the continent of ,south and ,central ,america1 consists of three distinct groups1 namely1 the ,lesser ,antillas or ,caribbean ,islands1 the ,greater ,antillas1 and the ,bahama or ,lucay ,islands4 ,some of the ,lesser ,antillas are flat1 but their general character is bold1 with a single mountain or group of mountains in the centre1 which slopes to the sea all around1 more precipitously on the eastern side1 which is exposed to the force of the ,atlantic current4 ,trinidad is the most southerly of a line of magnificent islands1 which form a semi-circle1 enclosing the ,caribbean ,sea1 with its convexity facing the east4 ,the row is single to the island of ,gaudeloupe1 where it splits into two chains1 known as the ,windward and ,leeward ,islands4 ,trinidad1 ,tobago1 ,st4 ,lucia1 and ,dominica are particularly mountainous1 and the mountains are cut by deep narrow ravines1 or gullies1 covered by ancient forests4 ,the volcanic islands1 which are mostly in the single part of the chain1 have conical mountains bristled with rocks of a still more rugged form2 but almost all the islands of the ,lesser ,antillas have a large portion of excellent vegetable soil in a high state of cultivation4 ,most of them are surrounded by coral reefs1 which render navigation dangerous1 and there is little intercourse between these islands1 and still less with the ,greater ,antillas1 on account of the prevailing winds and currents1 which make it difficult to return4 ,the ,lesser ,antillas terminate with the group of the ,virgin ,islands1 which are small and flat1 some only a few feet above the sea1 and most of them are mere coral rocks4 ,the four islands which form the group of the ,greater ,antillas are the largest and finest in the ,archipelago4 ,porto ,rico1 ,haiti or ,san ,domingo1 and ,jamaica1 separated from the ,virgin ,islands by a narrow channel1 lie in a line parallel to the coast-chain of ,venezuela1 from east to west2 while ,cuba1 by a serpentine bend1 separates the ,caribbean ,sea1 or ,sea of the ,antillas1 from the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,porto ,rico is #ij miles long and #cf broad1 with wooded mountains passing through its centre nearly from east to west1 which furnish abundance of water4 ,there are extensive savannahs in the interior1 and very rich soil on the northern coast1 but the climate near the sea is unhealthy4 ,haiti or ,san ,domingo1 #cdj miles long and #acb broad1 has a chain of mountains in its centre1 extending from east to west like all the mountains in the ,greater ,antillas1 the highest point of which is #ijjj feet above the sea4 ,a branch diverges from the main stem to ,cape ,tiburon1 so that ,haiti contains a great proportion of high land4 ,the mountains are susceptible of cultivation nearly to the summit1 and are clothed with undisturbed tropical forests4 ,the extensive plains are well watered1 and the soil1 though not deep1 is productive4 ,jamaica1 the most valuable of the ,british possessions in the ,west ,indies1 has an area of #dbef square miles1 of which #aaj1jjj acres are cultivated1 chiefly as sugar-plantations4 ,the principal chain of the ,blue ,mountains lies in the centre of the island1 from east to west1 with so sharp a crest that in some places it is only four yards across4 ,the offsets from it cover all the eastern part of the island2 some of them are very high4 ,the more elevated ridges are flanked by lower ranges1 descending to verdant savannahs4 ,the escarpments are wild1 the declivities steep1 and mingled with stately forests4 ,the valleys are very narrow1 and not more than a twentieth part of the island is level ground4 ,there are many small rivers1 and the coast-line is #ejj miles long1 with at least #cj good harbours4 ,the mean summer-heat is #hj of ,fahrenheit1 and that of winter is #ge4 ,the plains are often unhealthy1 but the air in the mountains is salubrious2 fever has never prevailed at the elevation of #bejj feet4 ,cuba1 the largest island in the ,colombian ,archipelago1 has an area of #cfae square leagues1 and #bjj miles of coast1 but so beset with coral reefs1 sandbanks1 and rocks1 that only a third of it is accessible4 ,its mountains1 which attain the height of #hjjj feet1 occupy the centre and fill the eastern part of the island1 in a great longitudinal line4 ,no island in these seas is more important with regard to situation and natural productions2 and although much of the low ground is swampy and unhealthy1 there are vast savannahs1 and about a seventh part of the island is cultivated4 ,the ,bahama ,islands are the least valuable and least interesting part of the ,archipelago4 ,the group consists of about #ejj islands1 many of them mere rocks1 lying east of ,cuba and the coast of ,florida4 ,twelve are rather large1 and are cultivated2 and though arid1 they produce ,campeche or log-wood and mahogany4 ,the most intricate labyrinth of shoals and reefs1 chiefly of corals1 madrepores1 and sand1 encompass these islands2 some of them rise to the surface1 and are adorned with groves of palm-trees4 ,the ,great ,bahama is the first part of the ,new ,world on which ,columbus landed--the next was ,haiti1 where his ashes rest4 ,the geology of ,central ,america is little known2 nevertheless it appears1 from the confused mixture of table-lands and mountain-chains in all directions1 that the subterraneous forces must have acted more partially and irregularly than either in ,south or ,north ,america4 ,granite1 gneiss1 and mica-slate form the substrata of the country2 but the abundance of igneous rocks bears witness to strong volcanic action1 both in ancient and in modern times1 which still maintains its activity in the volcanic groups of ,guatemala and ,mexico4 ,from the identity of the fossil remains of extinct quadrupeds1 there is every reason to believe that the ,west ,indian ,archipelago was once part of ,south ,america1 and that the rugged and tortuous isthmus of ,central ,america1 and the serpentine chain of islands winding from ,cumana to the peninsula of ,florida1 are but the shattered remains of an unbroken continent4 ,the powerful volcanic action in ,central ,america and ,mexico1 the volcanic nature of many of the ,west ,indian islands1 and the still-existing fire in ,st4 ,vincent's1 together with the tremendous earthquakes to which the whole region is subject1 render it more than probable that the ,caribbean ,sea and the ,gulf of ,mexico are one great area of subsidence1 which possibly has been increased by the erosion of the ,gulf-stream and ground-swell--a temporary current of great impetuosity1 common among the ,west ,indian islands from ,october to ,may4 ,the subsidence of this extensive area must have been very great1 since the water is of considerable depth between the islands1 and it must have taken place after the destruction of the great quadrupeds1 and consequently at a very recent geological period4 ,the elevation of the table-land of ,mexico may have been a contemporaneous event4 ,in the ,colombian ,archipelago1 volcanic action is confined to the smaller islands1 which1 forming a line in a meridional direction1 extend from #ab to #ah ,n41 and which may be designated as the ,caribbean range3 it commences with ,grenada and ceases with ,st4 ,eustatius4 ,st4 ,vincent1 ,st4 ,lucia1 ,martinique1 a great portion of ,guadaloupe1 ,montserrat1 ,nevis1 and ,st4 ,kitts are volcanic2 most of them possess craters recently extinct1 which have vomited ashes and lava within historical periods2 whilst the less elevated of the ,leeward and ,windward ,islands1 ,tobago1 ,barbadoes1 ,deseada1 ,antigua1 ,barbuda and ,st4 ,bartholomew's1 with the ,virgin ,islands and ,bahamas1 are composed either of calcareous or coral rocks4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,north ,america--,table-,land and ,mountains of ,mexico--,the ,rocky ,mountains--,the ,maritime ,chain and ,mountains of ,russian ,america4 ,,according to the natural division of the continent1 ,north ,america begins about the #bjth degree of north latitude1 and terminates in the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,it is longer than ,south ,america1 but the irregularity of its outline renders it impossible to estimate its area4 ,its greatest length is about #eajj miles1 and its breadth1 at the widest part1 is #cejj miles4 ,the general structure of ,north ,america is still more simple than that of the southern part of the continent4 ,the table-lands of ,mexico and the ,rocky ,mountains1 which are the continuation of the high land of the ,andes1 run along the western side1 but at so great a distance from the ,pacific as to admit of another system of mountains along the coast4 ,the immense plains to the east are divided longitudinally by the ,alleghany ,mountains1 which stretch from the ,carolinas to the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence1 parallel to the ,atlantic1 and at no great distance from it4 ,although the general direction of the mountains is from south to north1 yet1 as they maintain a degree of parallelism to the two coasts1 they diverge towards the north--one in clinging towards the north-west1 and the other towards the north-east4 ,the long narrow plain between the ,atlantic and the ,alleghanies is divided1 throughout its length1 by a line of cliffs not more than #bjj or #cjj feet above the ,atlantic plain1 the out-cropping edge of the ,second ,terrace1 or ,atlantic ,slope1 whose rolling surface goes west to the foot of the mountains4 ,an enormous table-land occupies the greater part of ,mexico or ,anahuac4 ,it begins at the ,isthmus of ,tehuantepec1 and extends north-west to the #db;d parallel of north latitude1 a distance of about #afjj miles1 which is nearly equal to the distance from the north extremity of ,scotland to ,gibraltar4 ,it is narrow towards the south1 and expands towards the north-west till about the latitude of the city of ,mexico1 where it attains its greatest breadth of #cfj miles1 and there also it is highest4 ,the most easterly part in that parallel is #gejj feet above the sea1 from whence it extends towards the west1 the height being #gdcj feet at the city of ,mexico1 and then gradually diminishes to #djjj feet towards the ,pacific4 ,its height in ,california is not known1 but it still bears the character of a table-land1 and maintains an elevation of #fjjj feet along the east side of the ,sierra ,madre1 even to the #cb;d degree of north latitude1 where it sinks to a lower level before joining the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,the descent from this plateau to the low lands is very steep on all sides2 on the east1 especially1 it is so precipitous that1 seen from a distance1 it is like a range of high mountains4 ,there are only two carriage-roads to it from the ,mexican ,gulf1 by passes #ejj miles asunder-- one at ,xalapa1 near ,vera ,cruz1 the other at ,saltillo1 west of ,monterey4 ,the descent to the shores of the ,pacific is almost equally rapid1 and that to the south no less so1 where1 for #cjj miles between the plains of ,tehuantepec and the ,rio ,yopez1 it presses on the shores of the ,pacific1 and terminates in high mountains1 leaving only a narrow margin of hilly maritime coast4 ,where the surface of the table-land is not traversed by mountains1 it is as level as the ocean4 ,there is a carriage-road over it for #aejj miles1 without hills1 from the city of ,mexico to ,santa ,f4 ,the southern part of the plateau is divided into four parts or distinct plains1 surrounded by hills from #ejj to #ajjj feet high4 ,in one of these1 the plain of ,tenochtitlan1 surrounded by a wall of porphyritic mountains1 stands the city of ,mexico1 once the capital of the empire of ,montezuma1 which must have far surpassed the modern city in extent and splendour1 as many remains of its ancient glory testify4 ,it is #gdcj feet above the sea4 ,one of the singular crevices through which the internal fire finds a vent1 stretches from the ,gulf of ,mexico to the ,pacific1 directly across the table-land1 in a line about #af miles south of the city of ,mexico4 ,a very remarkable row of active volcanoes occurs along this parallel2 ,tuxtla1 the most eastern of them1 is in the #ieth degree of west longitude1 near the ,mexican ,gulf1 in a low range of wooded hills4 ,more to the west stands the snow-shrouded cone of ,orizaba1 with its ever-fiery crater1 seen like a star in the darkness of the night1 which has obtained it the name of ,cittalapetl--the 8,mountain of the ,star40 ,popocatepetl1 the loftiest mountain in ,mexico1 #ag1hhd feet above the sea1 lies still farther west1 and is in a state of constant eruption1 which1 with the peaks of ,iztacihuatl and of ,toluca1 form a kind of volcanic circus1 in the midst of which the city of ,mexico and its lake are situated4 ,a chain of smaller volcanoes unites the three4 ,on a plain on the western slope of the table-land1 and about #gj miles in a straight line from the ,pacific1 is the volcanic cone of ,jorullo4#fj ,it suddenly appeared1 and rose #afhc feet above the plain1 on the night of the #bith of ,september1 #agei1 and is the highest of six mountains which have been thrown up on this part of the table-land since the middle of last century4 ,the great cone of ,colima1 the last of this volcanic series1 stands insulated in the plain of that name1 between the western declivity of the table-land and the ,pacific4 ,a high range of mountains extends along the eastern margin of the table-land to the ,real de ,catorce1 and the surface of the plain is divided into two parts by the ,sierra ,madre1 which begins at #ba of ,n4 lat42 and1 after running north about #fj miles1 its continuity is broken into the insulated ridges of the ,sierra ,altamina1 and the group containing the celebrated silver-mines of ,fresnillo and ,zacatecas2 it soon after resumes its character of a regular chain1 and1 with a breadth of #ajj miles1 proceeds in parallel ridges and longitudinal valleys to ,new ,mexico1 where it skirts both banks of the ,rio ,bravo del ,norte1 and joins the ,sierra ,verde1 the most southern part of the ,rocky ,mountains1 in #dj of ,n4 lat4 ,to the south1 some points of the ,sierra ,madre are said to be #aj1jjj feet high and #djjj feet above their base2 and between the parallels of #cf and #db1 where the chain is the watershed between the ,rio ,colorado and the ,rio ,bravo del ,norte1 they are still higher1 and perpetually covered with snow4 ,the mountains on the left bank of the last-mentioned river are the eastern ridges of the ,sierra ,madre1 and contain the sources of the innumerable affluents of the ,missouri and other rivers that flow into the ,mississippi and ,mexican ,gulf4 ,deep cavities1 called ,barancas1 are a characteristic feature of the table-lands of ,mexico3 they are long rents1 two or three miles in breadth1 and many more in length1 often descending #ajjj feet below the surface of the plain1 with a brook or the tributary of some river flowing through them4 ,their sides are precipitous and rugged1 with overhanging rocks covered with large trees4 ,the intense heat adds to the contrast between these hollows and the bare plains1 where the air is more cool4 ,vegetation varies with the elevation2 consequently1 the splendour which adorns the low lands vanishes on the high plains1 which1 though producing much grain and pasture1 are often saline1 sterile1 and treeless1 except in some places where oaks grow to an enormous size1 free of underwood4 ,the ,rocky ,mountains run #aejj miles in two parallel chains from the ,sierra ,verde to the mouth of the ,mackenzie river in the ,arctic ,ocean1 sometimes united by a transverse ridge4 ,in some places the eastern range rises to the snow-line1 and even far above it1 as in ,mounts ,hooper and ,brown2 but the general elevation is only above the line of trees4 ,the western range is not so high till north of the #eeth parallel1 where both ranges are of the same height1 and frequently higher than the snow-line4 ,they are generally barren1 though the transverse valleys have fertile spots with grass1 and sometimes trees4 ,their only offset in the south is the ,saba and ,ozark mountains1 which run through ,texas to the ,mississippi4 ,the long valley between the two rows of the ,rocky ,mountains1 which is #ajj miles wide1 must have considerable elevation in the south1 since the tributaries of the ,colombia river descend from it in a series of rapids and cataracts for nearly #ajj miles2 and it is probably still higher towards the sources of the ,peace river1 where the mountains1 only #aejj feet above it1 are perpetually covered with snow4 ,the ,sierra ,verde is #dij miles from the ,pacific1 but1 as the coast trends due north to the ,sound of ,juan de ,fuca1 the western range of the ,rocky ,mountains maintains a distance of #chj miles from the ocean1 from that point to the latitude of ,behring's ,sea1 in #fj of ,n4 lat4 ,the mountains on the west coast consist of two chains1 one of which1 beginning in ,mexico1 about the same latitude with the ,sierra ,madre1 skirts the ,gulf of ,california on the east1 and maintains rather an inland course till north of the ,oregon river1 where it forms the ,sea ,alps of the coast2 and then1 increasing in breadth as it passes through ,russian ,america1 it ends at ,nootka ,sound4 ,the other chain1 known as the ,sea ,alps of ,california1 begins at the extremity of the peninsula1 and1 running northward with increasing height close to the ,pacific1 it passes through the island of ,quadra and ,vancouver1 and1 after joining the ,alps of the north-west coast1 it terminates at ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 which is #ag1hfj feet high4 ,a range of very high snowy mountains1 which begins at ,cape ,mendocino1 goes directly across both of these coast-chains1 and unites them to the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,it forms the watershed between the ,colorado1 which goes to the ,gulf of ,california1 and the affluents of the ,oregon or ,colombia river1 which flows into the ,pacific1 and is continued to the east of the ,rocky ,mountains1 at a less elevation1 under the name of the ,black ,mountains1 which stretch to the ,missouri4 ,prairies extend between this coast-chain and the ,rocky ,mountains from ,california to the north of the ,oregon river4 ,the ,oregon coast1 for #bjj miles1 is a mass of undisturbed forest-thickets and marshes2 and north from it1 with few exceptions1 is a mountainous region of bold aspect1 often reaching above the snow-line4 ,a branch of the ,sea ,alps1 which runs westward to ,bristol ,bay1 has many active volcanos1 and so has that which fills the promontory of ,aliaska4 ,the archipelagos and islands along the coast1 from ,california to the promontory of ,aliaska1 have the same bold character as the mainland1 and may be regarded as the tops of a submarine chain of table-land and mountains which constitute the most westerly ridge of the maritime chains4 ,prince of ,wales's ,archipelago contains seven active volcanos4 ,the mountains on the coasts of the ,pacific and the islands are in many places covered with colossal forests1 but wide tracts in the south are sandy deserts4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,north ,america 7continued7--,the ,great ,central ,plains1 or ,valley of the ,mississippi--,the ,alleghany ,mountains--,the ,atlantic ,slope--,the ,atlantic ,plain--,geological ,notice--,the ,mean ,height of the ,continents4 ,,the great central plain of ,north ,america1 lying between the ,rocky and ,alleghany ,mountains1 and reaching from the ,gulf of ,mexico to the ,arctic ,ocean1 includes the valleys of the ,mississippi1 ,st4 ,lawrence1 ,nelson1 ,churchill1 and most of those of the ,missouri1 ,mackenzie1 and ,coppermine rivers4 ,it has an area of #c1bde1jjj square miles1 which is #bde1jjj square miles more than the central plain of ,south ,america1 and about half the size of the great plain of the old continent1 which is less fertile2 for although the whole of ,america is not more than half the size of the old continent1 it contains at least as much productive soil4 ,the plain1 #ejjj miles long1 becomes wider towards the north1 and has no elevations1 except a low table-land which crosses it at the line of the ,canadian lakes and the sources of the ,mississippi1 and is nowhere above #aejj feet high1 and rarely more than #gjj3 it is the watershed between the streams that go to the ,arctic ,ocean and those that flow to the ,mississippi4 ,the character of the plain is that of perfect uniformity1 rising by a gentle regular ascent from the ,gulf of ,mexico to the sources of the ,mississippi1 which river is the great feature of the ,north ,american low lands4 ,the ground rises in the same equable manner from the right bank of the ,mississippi to the foot of the ,rocky ,mountains1 but its ascent from the left bank to the ,alleghanies is broken into hill and dale1 containing the most fertile territory in the ,united ,states4 ,under so wide a range of latitude the plain embraces a great variety of soil1 climate1 and productions2 but1 being almost in a state of nature1 it is characterized in its middle and southern parts by interminable grassy savannahs1 or prairies1 and enormous forests1 and in the far north by deserts which rival those of ,siberia in dreariness4 ,in the south a sandy desert1 #djj or #ejj miles wide1 stretches along the base of the ,rocky ,mountains to the #dast degree of ,n4 lat4 ,the dry plains of ,texas and the upper region of the ,arkansas have all the characteristics of ,asiatic table-lands2 more to the north1 the bare treeless steppes on the high grounds of the far west are burnt up in summer1 and frozen in winter by biting blasts from the ,rocky ,mountains2 but the soil improves towards the ,mississippi4 ,at its mouth1 indeed1 there are marshes which cover #ce1jjj square miles1 bearing a rank vegetation1 and its delta is a labyrinth of streams and lakes1 with dense brushwood4 ,there are also large tracts of forest and saline ground1 especially the ,grand ,saline between the rivers ,arkansas and ,neseikelongo1 which is often covered two or three inches deep with salt like a fall of snow4 ,all the cultivation on the right bank of the river is along the ,gulf of ,mexico and in the adjacent provinces1 and is entirely tropical1 consisting of sugar-cane1 cotton1 and indigo4 ,the prairies1 so characteristic of ,north ,america1 then begin4 ,to the right of the ,mississippi these savannahs are sometimes rolling1 but oftener level1 and interminable as the ocean1 covered with long rank grass of tender green1 blended with flowers chiefly of the liliaceous kind1 which fill the air with their fragrance4 ,in the southern districts they are sometimes interspersed with groups of magnolia1 tulip1 and cotton trees2 and in the north with oak and black walnut4 ,these are rare occurrences1 as the prairies may be traversed for many days without finding a shrub1 except on the banks of the streams1 which are beautifully fringed with myrtles1 azaleas1 kalmias1 andromedas1 and rhododendrons4 ,on the wide plains the only objects to be seen are countless herds of wild horses1 bison1 and deer4 ,the country assumes a more severe aspect in higher latitudes4 ,it is still capable of producing rye and barley in the territories of the ,assinaiboia ,indians1 and round ,lake ,winnepeg there are great forests2 a low vegetation with grass follows1 and towards the ,icy ,ocean the land is barren and covered with numerous lakes4 ,east of the ,mississippi there is a magnificent undulating country about #cjj miles broad1 extending #ajjj miles from south to north between that great river and the ,alleghany mountains1 mostly covered with trees4 ,when ,america was discovered1 one uninterrupted forest spread over the country1 from the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence and the ,canadian lakes to the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and from the ,atlantic ,ocean it crossed the ,alleghany mountains1 descended into the valley of the ,mississippi on the north1 but on the south it crossed the main stream of that river altogether1 forming an ocean of vegetation of more than #a1jjj1jjj of square miles1 of which the greater part still remains4 ,although forests occupy so much of the country1 there are immense prairies on the east side of the river also4 ,pine barrens1 stretching far into the interior1 occupy the whole coast of the ,mexican ,gulf eastward from the ,pearl ,river1 through ,alabama and a great part of ,florida4 ,these vast monotonous tracts of sand1 covered with forests of gigantic pine-trees1 are as peculiarly a distinctive feature of the continent of ,north ,america as the prairies1 and are not confined to this part of the ,united ,states2 they occur to a great extent in ,north ,carolina1 ,virginia1 and elsewhere4 ,tennessee and ,kentucky1 though much cleared1 still possess large forests1 and the ,ohio flows for hundreds of miles among magnificent trees1 with an undergrowth of azaleas1 rhododendrons1 and other beautiful shrubs1 matted together by creeping plants4 ,there the ,american forests appear in all their glory3 the gigantic deciduous cypress1 and the tall tulip-tree1 overtopping the forest by half its height1 a variety of noble oaks1 black walnuts1 ,american plane1 hickory1 sugar-maple1 and the lireodendron1 the most splendid of the magnolia tribe1 the pride of the forest4 ,the ,illinois waters a country of prairies ever fresh and green1 and five new states are rising round the great lakes1 whose territory of #bhj1jjj square miles contains #ahj1jjj1jjj of acres of land of excellent quality4 ,these states1 still mostly covered with wood1 lie between the lakes and the ,ohio1 and they reach from the ,ohio river to the ,upper ,mississippi--a country twice as large as ,france1 and six times the size of ,england4 ,the quantity of water in the north-eastern part of the central plain greatly preponderates over that of the land2 the five principal lakes1 ,huron1 ,superior1 ,michigan1 ,erie1 and ,ontario1 cover an area equal to ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 without reckoning small lakes and rivers innumerable4 ,the north-west country1 or ,upper ,mississippi valley1 comprehends about ten degrees of latitude1 from #ci to #di north1 and about fourteen degrees of longitude1 from #hg to #aja 7from #aj to #bd from the meridian of ,washington71 and contains about #cjj1jjj square miles4 ,a large part of this tract1 consisting of the northern portion1 is still held by the ,indians4 ,this country has some very peculiar natural features4 ,the most remarkable of these is the numberless lakes which spangle its northern surface1 the remains1 no doubt1 of a vast sea that once covered the whole country extending north from the ,gulf of ,mexico1 possibly to ,hudson's ,bay4 ,the country1 from the outlets of the ,illinois and ,missouri rivers to ,st4 ,peter's1 and from ,lake ,michigan to ,council ,bluffs1 and beyond that point westerly1 is a vast gently-inclined plane1 ascending to the north and to the west4 ,between the ,mississippi and the lake the elevation above the ,atlantic has been found to be a little more than #ejj feet3 and west of the river1 on the same parallel1 towards the ,missouri1 something more than #gjj feet4 ,at ,st4 ,peter's it is about #gjj feet4 ,nicollet states that ,council ,bluffs is #ajcg feet above the gulf2 and the elevation of ,rock ,island1 in the same latitude on the ,mississippi1 he says1 is #ebh2 and the height of ,fort ,pierre ,chouteau1 on the ,missouri1 on the same authority1 is #adef2 the lower end of ,lake ,pepin1 in the same latitude 7#dd #bd north71 is #gaj feet1 and the mouth of the ,st4 ,peter's1 in about latitude #de1 is #gdd feet4 ,there are a few elevations above the general range1 called mounds2 but with the exception of these1 the surface is marked only by ravines running down to the beds of the streams1 which are usually from one to two hundred feet lower4 ,there are large tracts of this north-west country wholly destitute of tree or shrub1 and covered only with a luxuriant growth of wild grass1 and beautifully interspersed with flowers of every hue and variety1 each successively making the prairie to look gay with their presence from ,april to ,october4 ,this beautiful natural meadow yields bountiful returns for culture and toil bestowed upon it4 ,it consists of a very dark-brown vegetable mould1 and is mellow beyond the conception of those who are acquainted only with the hard1 stiff soils of the ,atlantic slope4 ,this mould is from one and a half to two feet deep1 and entirely free from gravel4 ,the sub-soil is yellow light clay or clay loam1 which resembles the soil of timbered lands4 ,the country is a limestone formation4 ,timber is found only along the streams3 it consists of elm1 ash1 black walnut1 butternut1 maple1 mulberry1 and iron-wood1 on the bottoms2 and on the upland1 white1 red1 black1 and burr-oaks1 shell-bark and common hickory1 with1 occasionally1 linden1 birch1 wild-plum and cherry1 locust1 and some other trees4 ,on the ,wisconsin and ,st4 ,croix rivers are heavy growths of pine1 from which supplies of lumber are carried down the ,mississippi river4#fa ,the mighty rivers of this region must be measured by travel1 the prairies must be crossed1 and the lakes seen before the mind fully comprehends a description of them4 8,to look at a prairie up or down10 says ,nicollet1 8to ascend one of its undulations2 to reach a small plateau 7or1 as the voyageurs call it1 a prairie planch71 moving from wave to wave over alternate swells and depressions2 and1 finally1 to reach the vast interminable low prairie that extends itself in front1--be it for hours1 days1 or weeks1 one never tires2 pleasurable and exhilarating sensations are all the time felt2 ennui is never experienced4 ,doubtless there are moments when excessive heat1 a want of fresh-water1 and other privations1 remind one that life is toil2 but these drawbacks are of short duration4 ,there is almost always a breeze over them4 ,the security that one feels in knowing that there are no concealed dangers--so vast is the extent which the eye takes in--no difficulties of road2 a far spreading verdure1 relieved by a profusion of variously coloured flowers2 the azure of the sky above1 or the tempest that can be seen from its beginning to its end2 the beautiful modifications of the changing clouds2 the curious looming of objects between earth and sky1 taxing the ingenuity every moment to rectify3-- all1 everything1 is calculated to excite the perceptions and keep alive the imagination4 ,in the summer season1 especially1 everything upon the prairies is cheerful1 graceful1 and animated4 ,the ,indians1 with herds of deer1 antelope1 and buffalo1 give life and motion to them4 ,it is then they should be visited2 and ,i pity the man whose soul could remain unmoved under such a scene of excitement40 ,the ,canadas contain millions of acres of good soil1 covered with immense forests4 ,upper ,canada is the most fertile1 and in many respects is one of the most valuable of the ,british colonies in the west3 every ,european grain1 and every plant that requires a hot summer and can endure a cold winter1 thrives there4 ,the forests consist chiefly of black and white spruce1 the ,weymouth and other pines--trees which do not admit of undergrowth3 they grow to great height1 like bare spars1 with a tufted crown1 casting a deep gloom below4 ,the fall of large trees from age is a common occurrence1 and not without danger1 as it often causes the destruction of those adjacent2 and an ice-storm is awful4 ,after a heavy fall of snow1 succeeded by rain and a partial thaw1 a strong frost coats the trees and all their branches with transparent ice often an inch thick2 the noblest trees bend under the load1 icicles hang from every bough1 which come down in showers with the least breath of wind4 ,the hemlock-spruce especially1 with its long drooping branches1 is then like a solid mass4 ,if the wind freshens1 the smaller trees become like corn beaten down by the tempest1 while the large ones swing heavily in the breeze4 ,the forest at last gives way under its load1 tree comes down after tree with sudden and terrific violence1 crushing all before them1 till the whole is one wide uproar1 heard from afar like successive discharges of artillery4 ,nothing1 however1 can be imagined more brilliant and beautiful than the effect of sunshine in a calm day on the frozen boughs1 where every particle of the icy crystals sparkles1 and nature seems decked in diamonds4#fb ,although the subsoil is perpetually frozen at the depth of a few feet below the surface beyond the #efth degree of north latitude1 yet trees grow in some places up to the #fdth parallel4 ,farther north the gloomy and majestic forests cease1 and are succeeded by a bleak1 barren waste1 which becomes progressively more dreary as it approaches the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,four-fifths of it are like the wilds of ,siberia in surface and climate1 covered many months in the year with deep snow4 ,during the summer it is the resort of herds of rein-deer and bisons1 which come from the south to browse on the tender short grass which then springs up along the streams and lakes4 ,the ,alleghany or ,appalachian chain1 which constitutes the second or subordinate system of ,north ,american mountains1 separates the great central plain from that which lies along the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,its base is a strip of table-land1 from #ajjj to #cjjj feet high1 lying between the sources of the rivers ,alabama and ,yazoo1 in the southern states of the ,union1 and ,new ,brunswick1 at the mouth of the river ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,this high land is traversed throughout #ajjj miles1 between ,alabama and ,vermont1 by from three to five parallel ridges of low mountains1 rarely more than #cjjj or #djjj feet high1 and separated by fertile longitudinal valleys1 which occupy more than two-thirds of its breadth of #ajj miles4 ,in ,virginia and ,pennsylvania1 the only part of the chain to which the name of the ,alleghany mountains properly belongs1 it is #aej miles broad1 and the whole is computed to have an area of #b1jjj1jjj of square miles4 ,the parallelism of the ridges1 and the uniform level of their summits1 are the characteristics of this chain1 which is lower and less wild than the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,the uniformity of outline in the southern and middle parts of the chain is very remarkable1 and results from their peculiar structure4#fc ,these mountains have no central axis1 but consist of a series of convex and concave flexures1 forming alternate hills and longitudinal valleys1 running nearly parallel throughout their length1 and cut transversely by the rivers that flow to the ,atlantic on one hand1 and to the ,mississippi on the other4 ,the watershed nearly follows the windings of the coast from the point of ,florida to the north-western extremity of the ,state of ,maine4#fd ,the picturesque and peaceful scenery of the ,appalachian mountains is well known2 they are generally clothed with a luxuriant vegetation1 and their western slope is considered one of the finest countries in the ,united ,states4 ,to the south they maintain a distance of #bjj miles from the ,atlantic1 but approach close to the coast in the south-eastern part of the ,state of ,new ,york1 from whence their general course is northerly to the river ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,but the ,blue ,mountains1 which form the most easterly ridge1 are continued in the double range of the ,green ,mountains to ,gasp ,point in the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,they fill the ,canadas1 ,maine1 ,new ,brunswick1 and ,nova ,scotia with branches as high as the mean elevation of the principal chain1 and extend even to the dreary regions of ,baffin's ,bay4 ,the chief ,canadian branches are parallel to the river ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,one goes ,n4,e4 from ,quebec2 and the ,mealy ,mountains1 which are of much greater length1 extend from ,ottowa ,river to ,sandwich ,bay1 and1 though low1 are always covered with snow4 ,little is known of the high lands within the ,arctic ,circle1 except that they probably extend from ,s4,e4 to ,n4,w4 ,the country between ,hudson's ,bay1 the mouths of the ,churchill and that of the ,mackenzie river1 is also an unknown region2 on the east it descends steeply to the coast1 but the western part1 known as the ,barren ,ground1 is low and destitute of wood1 except on the banks of the streams4 ,the whole is covered with low precipitous hills4 ,not only the deep forests1 but vegetation in general1 diminishes as the latitude increases1 till on the arctic shores the soil becomes incapable of culture1 and the majestic forest is superseded by the arctic birch1 which creeps on the ground4 ,many of the islands along the north-eastern coasts1 though little favoured by nature1 produce flax and timber3 and ,newfoundland1 as large as ,england and ,wales1 maintains a population of #gj1jjj souls by its fisheries3 it is nearer to ,britain than any part of ,america--the distance from the port of ,st4 ,john to the harbour of ,valentia in ,ireland is only #afef nautical miles4 ,the long and comparatively narrow plain which lies between the ,appalachian mountains and the ,atlantic extends from the ,gulf of ,mexico to the eastern coast of ,massachusetts4 ,at its southern extremity it joins the plain of the ,mississippi1 and gradually becomes narrower in its northern course to ,new ,england1 where it merely includes the coast islands4 ,it is divided throughout its length by a line of cliffs from #bjj to #cjj feet high1 which begins in ,alabama and ends on the coast of ,massachusetts4 ,this escarpment is the eastern edge of the terrace known as the ,atlantic ,slope1 which rises above the ,maritime or ,atlantic ,plain1 and undulates westward to the foot of the ,blue ,mountains1 the most eastern ridge of the ,appalachian chain4 ,it is narrow at its extremities in ,alabama and ,new ,york1 but in ,virginia and the ,carolinas it is #bjj miles wide4 ,the surface of the slope is of great uniformity2 ridges of hills and long valleys run along it parallel to the mountains1 close to which it is #fjj feet high4 ,it is rich in soil and cultivation1 and has an immense water power in the streams and rivers flowing from the mountains across it1 which are precipitated over its rocky edge to the plains on the west4 ,more than twenty-three rivers of considerably size fall in cascades down this ledge between ,new ,york and the ,mississippi1 affording scenes of great beauty4#fe ,both land and water assume a new aspect on the ,atlantic ,plain4 ,the rivers1 after dashing over the rocky barrier1 run in tranquil streams to the ocean1 and the plain itself is a monotonous level1 not more than #ajj feet above the surface of the sea4 ,along the coast it is scooped into valleys and ravines1 with innumerable creeks4 ,the greater part of the magnificent countries east of the ,alleghanies is in a high state of cultivation and commercial prosperity1 with natural advantages not surpassed in any country4 ,nature1 however1 still maintains her sway in some parts1 especially where pine-barrens and swamps prevail4 ,the territory of the ,united ,states occupies #g1jjj1jjj or #h1jjj1jjj of square miles1 the greater part of which is capable of producing everything that is useful to man1 but not more than a twenty-sixth part of it has been cleared4 ,the climate is generally healthy1 the soil fertile1 abounding in mineral treasures1 and it possesses every advantage from navigable rivers and excellent harbours4 ,the outposts of civilization have already advanced half-way to the ,pacific1 and the tide of white men is continually and irresistibly pressing onwards to the ultimate extinction of the original proprietors of the soil--a melancholy1 but not a solitary1 instance of the rapid extinction of a whole race4 ,crystalline and ,silurian rocks1 rich in precious and other metals1 form the substratum of ,mexico1 for the most part covered with plutonic and volcanic formations and secondary limestone2 yet granite comes to the surface on the coast of ,acapulco1 and occasionally on the plains and mountains of the table-land4 ,the ,rocky ,mountains are mostly ,silurian1 except the eastern ridge1 which is of stratified crystalline rocks1 amygdaloid and ancient volcanic productions4 ,the coast-chain has the same character1 with immense tracts of volcanic rocks1 both ancient and modern1 especially obsidian1 which is nowhere developed on a greater scale1 except in ,mexico and the ,andes4 ,in ,north ,america1 as in the southern part of the continent1 volcanic action is entirely confined to the coast and high land along the ,pacific4 ,the numerous vents in ,mexico and ,california are often in great activity1 and hot springs abound4 ,though a considerable interval occurs north of them1 where the fire is dormant1 the country is full of igneous productions1 and it again finds vent in ,prince of ,wales's ,archipelago1 which has seven active volcanos4 ,from ,mount ,st4 ,elias westward through the whole southern coast of the peninsula of ,russian ,america and the ,aleutian ,islands1 which form a semicircle between ,cape ,aliaska1 in ,america1 and the peninsula of ,kamtchatka1 volcanic vents occur1 and in the latter peninsula there are three of great height4 ,from the similar nature of the coasts1 and the identity of the fossil mammalia on each side of ,behring's ,strait1 it is more than probable that the two continents were united1 even since the sea was inhabited by the existing species of shell-fish4 ,some of the gigantic quadrupeds of the old continent are supposed to have crossed1 either over the land or over the ice1 to ,america2 and to have wandered southward through the longitudinal valleys of the ,rocky ,mountains1 ,mexico1 and ,central ,america1 and to have spread over the vast plains of both continents1 even to their utmost extremity4#ff ,an extinct species of horse1 the mastodon1 a species of elephant1 three gigantic edentata1 and a hollow-horned ruminating animal roamed over the prairies of ,north ,america--certainly since the sea was peopled by its present inhabitants1 probably even since the existence of the ,indians4 ,the skeletons of these creatures are found in great numbers in the saline marshes on the prairies called the ,licks1 which are still the resort of the existing races4#fg ,there were1 however1 various animals peculiar to ,america1 as well as to each part of that continent1 at least as far as yet known4 ,south ,america still retains in many cases the type of its ancient inhabitants1 though on a very reduced scale4 ,but on the ,patagonian plains1 and on the ,pampas1 skeletons of creatures of gigantic size and anomalous forms have been found1 one like an anteater of great magnitude1 covered with a prodigious coat of mail similar to that of the armadillo2 others like rats or mice1 as large as the hippopotamus--all of which had lived on vegetables1 and had existed at the same time with those already mentioned4 ,these animals were not destroyed by the agency of man1 since creatures not larger than a rat vanished from ,brazil within the same period4 ,the geological outline of the ,united ,states1 the ,canadas1 and all the country of the ,polar ,ocean1 though highly interesting in itself1 becomes infinitely more so when viewed in connection with that of northern and middle ,europe4 ,a remarkable analogy exists in the structure of the land on each side of the ,north ,atlantic basin4 ,gneiss1 mica-schist1 and occasional granite1 prevail over wide areas in the ,alleghanies1 on the ,atlantic ,slope1 and still more in the northern latitudes of the ,american continent2 and they range also through the greater part of ,scandinavia1 ,finland1 and ,lapland4 ,in the latter countries1 and in the more northern parts of ,america1 ,sir ,charles ,lyell has observed that the fossiliferous rocks belong either to the most ancient or to the newest formations1#fh to the ,silurian strata1 or to such as contain shells of recent species only1 no intermediate formation appearing through immense regions4 ,silurian strata extend over #bjjj miles in the middle and high latitudes of ,north ,america2 they occupy a tract nearly as great between the most westerly headlands of ,norway and those that separate the ,white ,sea from the ,polar ,ocean2 and ,sir ,roderick ,murchison has traced them through central and eastern ,europe1 and the ,ural ,mountains1 even to ,siberia4 ,throughout these vast regions1 both in ,america and ,europe1 the ,silurian strata are followed in ascending order by the ,devonian and carboniferous formations1 which are developed on a stupendous scale in the ,united ,states1 chiefly in the ,alleghany mountains and on the ,atlantic ,slope4 ,the ,devonian and carboniferous strata together are a mile and a half thick in ,new ,york1 and three times as much in ,pennsylvania1 where one single coal-field occupies #fc1jjj square miles between the northern limits of that state and ,alabama4 ,there are many others of great magnitude1 both in the ,states and to the north of them1 so that most valuable of all minerals is inexhaustible1 which is not the least of the many advantages enjoyed by that flourishing country4 ,the coal formation is also developed in ,new ,brunswick1 and traces of it are found on the shores and in the islands of the ,polar ,ocean1 on the east coast of ,greenland1 and even in ,spitzbergen4 ,vast carboniferous basins exist in ,belgium1 above the ,silurian strata2 and a great portion of ,britain is perfectly similar in structure to ,north ,america4 ,the ,silurian rocks in many instances are the same1 and the coal-fields of ,new ,england are precisely similar to those in ,wales1 #cjjj miles off4 ,in all the more northern countries that have been mentioned1 so very distant from one another1 the general range of the rocks is from north-east to south-west2 and in northern ,europe1 the ,british isles1 and ,north ,america1 great lakes are formed along the junction of the strata1 the whole analogy affording a proof of the wide diffusion of the same geological conditions in the northern regions at a very remote period4 ,at a later time those erratic blocks1 which are now scattered over the higher latitudes of both continents1 were1 most likely1 brought from the north by drift ice or currents1 while the land was still covered by the deep4 ,volcanic agency has not been wanting to complete the analogy4 ,the ,silurian and overlying strata have been pierced in many places by trappean rocks on both continents1 and they appear also in the islands of the ,north ,atlantic and ,polar ,seas4 ,even now the volcanic fires are in great activity in the very centre of that basin in ,iceland1 and in the very distant and less-known island of ,jan ,meyen4 ,the average height of the continents above the level of the sea is the mean between the height of all the high lands and all the low4 ,baron ,humboldt1 by whom the computation was effected1 found that the table-lands1 with their slopes1 on account of their great extent and mass1 have a much greater influence upon the result than mountain-chains4 ,for example1 if the range of the ,pyrenees were pulverized1 and strewed equally over the whole of ,europe1 it would only raise the soil #f feet2 the ,alps1 which occupy an area four times as great as that on which the ,pyrenees stand1 would only raise it #bb feet2 whereas the compact plateau of the ,spanish peninsula1 which has only #aibj feet of mean height1 would elevate the soil of ,europe #gf feet2 so that the table-land of the ,spanish peninsula would produce an effect four times as great as the whole system of the ,alps4 ,a great extent of lowland necessarily compensates for the high--at least it diminishes its effect4 ,the mean elevation of ,france1 including the ,pyrenees1 ,juras1 ,vosges1 and all the other ,french mountains1 is #hgj feet1 while the mean height of the whole ,european continent1 of #a1gbj1jjj square miles1 is only #fgj feet1 because the vast ,european plain1 which is nine times as large as ,france1 has a mean altitude of but #chj feet1 although it has a few intumescences1 which1 however1 are not much above #ajjj feet high1 so that it is #bjj feet lower than the mean height of ,france4#fi ,the great table-land of ,eastern ,asia1 with its colossal mountain-chains1 has a much less effect on the mean height of ,asia than might have been expected1 on account of the depression round the ,caspian ,sea2 and still more from the very low level and the enormous extent of ,siberia1 which is a third larger than all ,europe4 ,the intumescences in these vast plains are insignificant in comparison with their vast area1 for ,tobolsk is only #aae feet above the level of the sea2 and even on the ,upper ,angora1 at a point nearer the ,indian than the ,arctic ,sea1 the elevation is only #hcj feet1 which is not half the height of the city of ,munich1 and the third part of ,asia has a mean height of only #bee feet4 ,the effect of the ,great ,gobi1 that part of the table-land lying between ,lake ,baikal and the wall of ,china1 is diminished by a vast hollow #befj feet deep1 the dry basin of an ancient sea of considerable extent near ,erg1 so that this great desert has a mean height of but #dbbj feet1 and consequently it only raises the centre of gravity of the ,asiatic continent #abh feet1 though it is twice as large as ,germany4 ,the table-land of ,tibet1 whose mean elevation1 according to ,baron ,humboldt1 is #aa1fjj feet1 together with the chains of the ,himalaya and ,kuenlun1 which enclose it1 only produces an effect of #ceh feet4 ,on the whole the mean level of ,asia about the sea is #aaej feet4#gj ,notwithstanding the height and length of the ,andes1 their mass has little effect on the continent of ,south ,america on account of the extent of the eastern plains1 which are exactly one-third larger than ,europe4 ,for if these mountains were reduced to powder1 and strewn equally over them1 it would not raise them above #eah feet2 but when the minor mountain systems and the table-land of ,brazil are added to the ,andes1 the mean height of the whole of ,south ,america is #aacj feet4 ,north ,america1 whose mountain-chains are far inferior to those in the southern part of the continent1 has its mean elevation increased by the table-land of ,mexico1 so that it has #gej feet of mean height4 ,the mean elevation of the whole of the ,new ,world is #icj feet1 and the height of the centre of gravity of all the continental masses above the level of the sea1 ,africa excepted1 is #ajaj feet4 ,thus1 it appears that the internal action in ancient times has been most powerful under ,asia1 somewhat less under ,south ,america1 considerably less under ,north ,america1 and least of all under ,europe4 ,in the course of ages changes will take place in these results1 on account both of the sudden and gradual rise of the land in some parts of the earth1 and its depression in others4 ,the continental masses of the north are the lowest portions of our hemisphere1 since the mean heights of ,europe and ,north ,america are #fgj and #gej feet4#ga ,so little is known of the bed of the ocean that no inference can be drawn with regard to its heights and hollows1 and what relation its mean depth bears to the mean height of the land4 ,from its small influence on the gravitating force1 ,la ,place assumed it to be about four miles4 ,as the mean height of the continents is about #ajjj feet1 and their extent only about a fourth of that of the sea1 they might be easily submerged1 were it not that1 in consequence of the sea being only one-fifth of the mean density of the earth1 and the earth itself increasing in density towards its centre1 ,la ,place has proved that the stability of the equilibrium of the ocean can never be subverted by any physical cause3 a general inundation from the mere instability of the ocean is therefore impossible4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,the ,continent of ,australia--,tasmania1 or ,van ,diemen's ,land--,islands-- ,continental ,islands--,pelasgic ,islands--,new ,zealand--,new ,guinea--,borneo-- ,atolls--,encircling ,reefs--,coral ,reefs--,barrier ,reefs--,volcanic ,islands-- ,areas of ,subsidence and ,elevation in the ,bed of the ,pacific--,active ,volcanos--,earthquakes--,secular ,changes in the ,level of the ,land4 ,,the continent of ,new ,holland1 situate in the ,eastern ,pacific ,ocean1 is so destitute of large navigable rivers that probably no very high land exists in its interior1 which1 as far as it has been explored1 seems to be singularly flat and low1 but it is still so little known that no idea can be formed of its mean elevation4 ,it is #bdjj miles from east to west1 and #agjj from north to south1 and is divided into two unequal parts by the ,tropic of ,capricorn2 consequently it has both a temperate and a tropical climate4 ,new ,guinea1 separated from ,new ,holland by ,torres ,straits1 and traversed by the same chain of mountains with ,new ,holland and ,van ,diemen's ,land1 is so perfectly similar in structure1 that it forms but a detached member of the adjacent continent4 ,the coasts of ,new ,holland are indented by very large bays1 and by harbours that might give shelter to all the navies in ,europe4 ,the most distinguishing feature of the eastern side1 which is chiefly occupied by the ,british colony of ,new ,south ,wales1 is a long chain of mountains which never retires far from the coast1 and1 with the exception of some short deviations in its southern part1 maintains a meridional directing through #ce degrees of latitude4 ,it is continued at one extremity from ,torres ,straits1 at the north of the ,gulf of ,carpentaria1 far into the interior of ,new ,guinea2 and at the other it traverses the whole of ,van ,diemen's ,land4 ,it is low in the northern parts of ,new ,holland1 being in some places merely a high land2 but about the #cjth degree of south latitude it assumes the form of a regular mountain-chain1 and1 running in a very tortuous line from ,n4,e4 to ,s4,w41 terminates its visible course at ,wilson's ,promontory1 the southern extremity of the continent4 ,it is continued1 however1 by a chain of mountainous islands across ,bass's ,straits to ,cape ,portland1 in ,van ,diemen's ,land2 from thence the range proceeds in a zigzag line of high and picturesque mountains to ,south ,cape1 where it ends1 having1 in its course of #aejj miles1 separated the drainage of both countries into eastern and western waters4 ,the distance of the chain from the sea in ,new ,south ,wales is from #ej to #ajj miles1 but at the #cb;d parallel it recedes to #aej1 yet soon returns1 and forms the wild group of the ,corecudgy ,peaks1 from whence1 under the names of the ,blue ,mountains and ,australian ,alps1 its highest part1 it proceeds in a general westerly direction to the land's end4 ,the average height of these mountains is only from #bdjj to #dgjj feet above the level of the sea1 and even ,mount ,kosciusko1 the loftiest of the ,australian ,alps1 is not more than #fejj feet high2 yet its position is so favourable1 that the view from its snowy and craggy top sweeps over an area of #gjjj square miles4 ,the rugged and savage character of these mountains far exceeds what might be expected from their height3 in some places1 it is true1 their tops are rounded and covered with forests2 but by far the greater part of the chain1 though wooded along the flanks1 is crowned by naked needles1 tooth-formed peaks1 and flat crests of granite or porphyry1 mingled with patches of snow4 ,the spurs give a terrific character to these mountains1 and in many places render them altogether inaccessible1 both in ,new ,south ,wales and ,van ,diemen's ,land4 ,these shoot right and left from the ridgy axis of the main range1 equal to it in height1 and separated from it1 and from one another1 by dark and almost subterraneous gullies1 like rents in the bosom of the earth1 iron-bound by impracticable precipices1 and streams flowing through them in black silent eddies or foaming torrents4 ,the intricate character of these ravines1 the danger of descending into them1 and the difficulty of getting out again1 render this mountain-chain1 in ,new ,south ,wales at least1 almost a complete barrier between the country on the coast and that in the interior--a circumstance very unfavourable to the latter4#gb ,in ,new ,south ,wales the country slopes westward from these mountains to a low1 flat1 unbroken plain4 ,on the east side1 darkly verdant and round-topped hills and ridges are promiscuously grouped together1 leading to a richly-wooded undulating country1 which gradually descends to the coast1 and forms the valuable lands of the ,british colony4 ,discovered by ,cook in the year #aggj1 it was not colonized till #aghh4 ,it has become a prosperous country2 and although new settlers in the more remote parts suffer the privations and difficulties incident to their position1 yet there is educated society in the towns1 with the comforts and luxuries of civilized life4 ,the coast-belt on the western side of ,new ,holland is generally of inferior land1 with richer tracts interspersed near the rivers1 and bounded on the east by a range of primary mountains from #cjjj to #djjj feet high1 in which granite occasionally appears4 ,beyond this the country is level1 and the land better1 though nowhere very productive except in grass4 ,none of the rivers of ,new ,holland are navigable to any great distance from their mouths4 ,the want of water is severely felt in the interior1 which1 as far as it is known1 is a treeless desert of sand1 swamps1 and jungle2 yet a belief prevails that there is a large sea or fresh-water lake in its centre2 and this opinion is founded partly on the nature of the soil1 and also because all the rivers that flow into the sea on the northern coast1 between the ,gulfs of ,van ,diemen and ,carpentaria1 converge towards their sources1 as if they served for drains to some large body of water4 ,however unpropitious the centre of the continent may be--and the shores generally have the same barren character--there is abundance of fine country inland from the coast4 ,on the north all tropical productions might be raised1 and in so large a continent there must be extensive tracts of arable land1 though its peculiar character is pastoral4 ,there are large forests on the mountains and elsewhere1 yet that moisture is wanting which clothes other countries in the same latitudes with rank vegetation4 ,in the colonies1 the clearing of a great extent of land has modified in some degree the mean annual temperature1 so that the climate has become hotter and drier1 and not thereby improved4 ,van ,diemen's ,land1 of triangular form1 has an area of #bg1bjj square miles1 and is very mountainous4 ,no country has a greater number of deep1 commodious harbours2 and as most of the rivers1 though not navigable to any distance1 end in arms of the sea1 they afford secure anchorage for ships of any size4 ,the mountain-chain that traverses the colony of ,new ,south ,wales and the islands in ,bass's ,straits1 rises again from ,cape ,portland1 and1 winding through ,van ,diemen's ,land in the form of the letter ,z1 separates it into two nearly equal parts1 with a mean height of #cgej feet1 and at an average distance of #dj miles from the sea4 ,it encloses the basins of ,derwent and ,heron rivers1 and1 after sending a branch between them to ,hobart ,town1 ends at ,south ,cape4 ,the offsets which shoot in all directions are as savage and full of impassable chasms as it is itself4 ,there are cultivable plains and valleys along the numerous rivers and large lakes by which the country is well watered2 so that ,van ,diemen's ,land is more agricultural and fertile than the adjacent continent1 but its climate is wet and cold4 ,the uncleared soil of both countries1 however1 is far inferior to that in the greater part of ,north or ,south ,america4#gc ,granite constitutes the entire floor of the western portion of ,new ,south ,wales1 and extends far into the interior of the continent1 bearing a striking resemblance in character to a similar portion of the ,alta chain described by ,baron ,humboldt4 ,the central axis of the mountain-range1 in ,new ,south ,wales and in ,van ,diemen's ,land1 is of granite1 syenite1 and quartz rock2 but in early times there had been great invasions of volcanic substances1 as many parts of the main chain1 and most of its offsets1 are of the older igneous rocks4 ,the fossiliferous strata of the two colonies are mostly of the ,palozoic period1 but their fossil fauna is poor in species4 ,some are identical with1 and others are representatives of1 the species of other countries1 even of ,england4 ,it appears from their coal-measures that the flora of these countries was as distinct in appearance from that of the northern hemisphere1 previous to the carboniferous period1 as it is at the present day4 ,though the innumerable islands that are scattered through the ocean and seas differ much in size1 form1 and character1 they have been grouped by ,m4 ,von ,buch into the two distinct classes of ,continental and ,pelasgic islands1 most of the latter being either of volcanic or coral formation4 ,continental islands are long in proportion to their breadth1 and follow each other in succession along the margin of the continents1 as if they had been formed during the elevation of the mainland1 or had subsequently been separated from it by the action of the sea1 and still mark its ancient boundary4 ,these islands1 which follow one another in their elongated dimensions1 generally run parallel to the maritime chains of mountains1 and are mostly of the same structure1 so that they suggest the idea of a submarine portion of the maritime range that has not yet completely emerged from the deep--or1 if sinking1 has not yet disappeared below the waves4 ,america offers numerous examples of this kind of island4 ,on the north-western coast there is a long chain of them1 beginning with the ,new ,norfolk group1 and ending with ,vancouver's ,island1 all similar and parallel to the maritime chain4 ,another range of ,continental islands occurs at the southern extremity of ,america1 extending from ,chiloe to ,cape ,horn1 evidently an exterior range of the ,patagonian ,andes1 and the southern prolongation of the granitic or coast chain of ,chile2 in the ,gulf of ,mexico1 the ancient margin of the mainland is marked by the curved group of ,porto ,rico1 ,san ,domingo1 ,jamaica1 and ,cuba1 which nearly joins the peninsula of ,yucatan4 ,the various islands along the ,american coast of the ,polar ,ocean are the shattered fragments of the continent4 ,the old continent also affords innumerable examples2 along the whole coast of ,norway1 from ,north ,cape southwards1 there is a continuous chain of rocky islands similar and parallel to the great range of the ,scandinavian ,alps2 ,great ,britain itself1 with the ,hebrides1 ,orkney1 and ,zetland islands1 are remarkable instances of ,continental islands4 ,it would be superfluous to mention the various instances which occur in the ,mediterranean1 where many of the islands are merely the prolongations of the mountain-chains of the mainland rising above the sea1 as ,corsica and ,sardinia1 which are a continuation of the ,maritime ,alps4 ,the great central chain of ,madagascar and its elongated form1 parallel to the ,lupata ,mountains1 show that the island once formed part of the ,african continent4 ,asia1 also1 abounds in instances1 as ,sumatra1 ,java1 and the ,moluccas1 and another vast chain extends along the western coast of ,asia from ,formosa to ,kamtchatka4 ,pelasgic islands have risen from the bed of the ocean1 independently of the continents1 and generally far from land4 ,they are mostly volcanic1 altogether or in part2 often very lofty2 sometimes single1 and frequently in groups1 and each group has1 or formerly has had1 a centre of volcanic action in one or more of the islands1 round which the others have been formed4 ,many have craters of elevation1 that is to say1 they have been raised up in great hollow domes by the internal elastic vapours1 and have either remained so1 have become rent at the surface into gigantic fissures1 or have collapsed into hollow cups1 in which craters have formed1 by the eruption of loose incoherent matter1 or of lava currents1 when the pressure from below was removed3#gd a considerable number have active vents4 ,the small islands and groups scattered at enormous distances from one another1 within the ,antarctic ,circle1 are all of volcanic formation1 though none are active4 ,in the ,atlantic1 ,tristan da ,cunha1 ,st4 ,helena1 ,ascension1 and ,madeira are volcanic1 though not now actively so2 whereas the ,cape de ,verde1 ,canaries1 and ,azores have each volcanic vents3 the peak of ,teyda1 in ,teneriffe1 is one of the most magnificent volcanic cones in the world4 ,the labyrinth of islands scattered over the ,pacific ,ocean for more than #cj degrees on each side of the equator1 and from the #acjth eastern meridian to ,sumatra1 which all but unites this enormous archipelago to the continent of ,asia1 has the group of ,new ,zealand or ,tasmania1 and the continent of ,australia1 with its appendage1 ,van ,diemen's ,land1 on the south1 and altogether forms a region which1 from1 the unstable nature of the surface of the earth1 is partly the wreck of a continent that has been engulfed by the ocean1 and partly the summits of a new one rising above the waves4 ,this extensive portion of the globe is in many parts terra incognita2 the ,indian ,archipelago has been little explored1 and1 with the exception of our colonies in ,new ,holland and ,new ,zealand1 is little known4 ,m4 ,von ,buch conceives that the enormous circuit1 beginning with ,new ,zealand and extending through ,norfolk ,island1 ,new ,caledonia1 ,new ,hebrides1 ,solomon's ,island1 ,new ,britain1 ,new ,hanover1 ,new ,ireland1 ,louisiade1 and ,new ,guinea1 once formed the western and northern boundary of the ,australian continent4 ,new ,zealand1 divided into three islands by rocky and dangerous channels1 is superior to ,australia in richness of soil1 fertility1 and beauty2 it abounds in a variety of vegetable and mineral productions4 ,high mountains1 of volcanic origin1 run through the islands1 which1 in the most northerly1 rise #ad1jjj feet above the stormy ocean around1 buried two-thirds of their height in permanent snow and glaciers1 exhibiting on the grandest scale all the alpine characters1 with the addition of active volcanos on the eastern and western coasts3 that of ,tangarara pours forth deluges of boiling water1 which deposit vast quantities of siliceous sinter like the ,geysers in ,iceland2 and such is the vitality of the vegetation1 that plants grow richly on the banks1 and even in water too hot to be endured4#ge ,the coast is a frozen country1 overspread with a most luxuriant but dark and gloomy vegetation4 ,there are undulating tracts and table-lands of great extent without a tree1 over-run by ferns and a low kind of myrtle2 but the mountain-ridges are clothed with dense and gigantic forests4 ,there is much good land and many lakes1 with navigable rivers1 the best of harbours1 and a mild climate2 so that no country is better suited for a prosperous and flourishing colony4 ,it may be considered1 even at this early period of its colonial existence1 as the ,great ,britain of the southern hemisphere4 ,a very different scene from the stormy seas of ,new ,zealand presents itself to the north of ,australia4 ,there1 vivified by the glowing sun of the equator1 the islands of the ,indian ,archipelago are of matchless beauty1 crowned by lofty mountains1 loaded with aromatic verdure1 that shelve to the shore1 or dip into a transparent glassy sea4 ,their coasts are cut by deep inlets1 and watered by the purest streams1 which descend in cascades rushing through wild crevices4 ,the whole is so densely covered with palms and other beautiful forms of tropical vegetation that they seem to realize a terrestrial paradise4 ,papua or ,new ,guinea1 the largest island in the ,pacific after ,new ,holland1 is #aajj miles long and #djj in width1 with mountains rising above mountains1 till in the west they attain the height of #af1jjj feet1 capped with snow1 and two volcanos burn on its northern shores4 ,from its position so near the equator it is probable that ,new ,guinea has the same vegetation with the ,spice ,islands to the east1 and1 from the little that is known of it1 must be one of the finest countries in existence4 ,borneo1 next in size to ,new ,guinea1 is a noble island1 divided into two nearly equal parts by the equator1 and traversed through its whole length by magnificent chains of mountains1 which end in three branches at the ,java ,sea4 ,beautiful rivers flow from them to the plains1 and several of these spring from a spacious lake on the table-land in the interior1 among the peaks of ,keni-,balu1 the highest point of the island4 ,diamonds1 gold1 and antimony are among its minerals2 gums1 gutta percha1 precious woods1 and all kinds of spices and tropical fruits are among its vegetable productions4 ,situate in the centre of a vast archipelago1 and in the direct line of an extensive and valuable commerce1 it will in the course of time become the seat of a great nation1 whose civilization and prosperity will hand down to posterity the name of the enterprising1 philanthropic ,sir ,james ,brooke1 ,rajah of ,sarawak1 with the highest honour to which man can aspire4 ,the climate is healthy1 tempered by sea-breezes1 and in some parts even ,european2 and its appendage1 the small island of ,labuan1 rich in coal1 is happily situate in the route of steam-vessels between ,india and ,china4 ,a volume might be written on the beauty and riches of the ,indian ,archipelago4 ,many of the islands are hardly known2 the interior of the greater number has never been explored1 so that they offer a wide field of discovery to the enterprising traveller1 and they are now of easier access since the seas have been cleared of pirates by the exertions of the ,honourable ,captain ,keppel1 and other officers of ,her ,majesty's ,navy4 ,they have become of much importance since our relations with ,china have been extended1 on which account surveys of their coasts have been already made1 and are going on1 under the able direction of the ,hydrographer of the ,navy1 ,sir ,f4 ,beaufort4 ,the great intertropical islands of the ,pacific1 likewise other large islands1 as ,ceylon and ,madagascar1 in the ,indian ,seas1 which by the way do not differ in character from the preceding1 are really continents in miniature1 with their mountains and plains1 their lakes and rivers2 and in climate they vary1 like the main land1 with the latitude1 only that continental climates are more extreme both as to heat and cold4 ,it is a singular circumstance1 arising from the instability of the crust of the earth1 that all the smaller tropical pelasgic islands in the ,pacific and ,indian ,oceans are either volcanic or coralline1 except ,new ,caledonia and the ,seychelles2 and it is a startling fact1 that in most cases where there are volcanos the land is rising by slow and almost imperceptible degrees above the ocean1 whereas there is every reason to believe that those vast spaces1 studded with coral islands or atolls1 are actually sinking below it1 and have been for ages4#gf ,there are four different kinds of coral formations in the ,pacific and ,indian ,oceans1 all entirely produced by the growth of organic beings1 and their detritus1 namely1 lagoon islands or atolls1 encircling reefs1 barrier reefs1 and coral fringes4 ,they are all nearly confined to the tropical regions2 the atolls to the ,pacific and ,indian ,oceans alone4 ,an atoll or lagoon island consists of a chaplet or ring of coral1 enclosing a lagoon or portion of the ocean in its centre4 ,the average breadth of the part of the ring above the surface of the sea is about a quarter of a mile1 oftener less1 and it seldom rises higher than from #f to #aj or #ab feet above the waves4 ,hence1 the lagoon islands are not discernible1 even at a very small distance1 unless when they are covered with the cocoa-nut1 palm1 or the pandanus1 which is frequently the case4 ,on the outer side this ring or circlet shelves down to the distance of #ajj or #bjj yards from its edge1 so that the sea gradually deepens to #be fathoms1 beyond which the sides plunge at once into the unfathomable depths of the ocean1 with a more rapid descent than the cone of any volcano4 ,even at the small distance of some hundred yards1 no bottom has been found with a sounding-line a mile and a half long4 ,all the coral at a moderate depth below water is alive--all above is dead1 being the detritus of the living part1 washed up by the surf1 which is so tremendous on the windward side of the tropical islands of the ,pacific and ,indian ,oceans1 that it is often heard miles off1 and is frequently the first warning to seamen of their approach to an atoll4 ,on the lagoon side1 where the water is calm1 the bounding ring or reef shelves into it by a succession of ledges1 also of living coral1 though not of the same species with those which build the exterior wall and the foundations of the whole ring4 ,the perpetual change of water brought into contact with the external coral by the breakers probably supplies them with more food than they could obtain in a quieter sea1 which may account for their more luxuriant growth4 ,at the same time1 they deprive the whole of the coral in the interior of the most nourishing part of their food1 because the still water in the lagoon1 being supplied from the exterior by openings in the ring1 ceases to produce the hardier corals2 and species of more delicate forms1 and of much slower growth1 take their place4#gg ,the depth of the lagoon varies1 in different atolls1 from #bj to #ej fathoms1 the bottom being partly detritus and partly live coral4 ,by the growth of the coral1 some few of the lagoons have been filled up2 but the process is very slow from the causes assigned1 and also because there are marine animals that feed on the living coral1 and prevent its indefinite growth4 ,in all departments of nature1 the exuberant increase of any one class is checked and limited by others4 ,the coral is of the most varied and delicate structure1 and of the most beautiful tints3 dark brown1 vivid green1 rich purple1 pink1 deep blue1 peach-colour1 yellow1 with dazzling white1 contrasted with deep shadows1 shine through the limpid water2 while fish of the most gorgeous hues swim among the branching coral1 which are of many different kinds1 though all combine in the structure of these singular islands4 ,lagoon islands are sometimes circular1 but more frequently oval or irregular in their form4 ,sometimes they are solitary or in groups1 but they occur most frequently in elongated archipelagos1 with the atolls elongated in the same direction4 ,the grouping of atolls bear a perfect analogy to the grouping of the archipelagos of ordinary islands4 ,the size of these fairy rings of the ocean varies from #b to #ij miles in diameter1 and islets are frequently formed on the coral rings by the washing up of the detritus1 for they are so low that the waves break over them in high tides or storms4 ,they have openings or channels in their circuit1 generally on the leeward side1 where the tide enters1 and by these ships may sail into the lagoons1 which are excellent harbours1 and even on the surface of the circlet or reef itself there are occasionally boat-channels between the islets4 ,dangerous ,archipelago1 lying east of the ,society ,islands1 is one of the most remarkable assemblages of atolls in the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,there are #hj of them1 generally in a circular form1 surrounding very deep lagoons1 and separated from each other by profound depths4 ,the reefs or rings are about half a mile wide1 and seldom rise more than #aj feet above the edge of the surf1 which beats upon them with such violence that it may be heard at the distance of #h miles2 and yet on that side the coral insects build more vigorously1 and vegetation thrives better1 than on the other4 ,many of the islets are inhabited4 ,the ,caroline ,archipelago1 the largest of all1 lies north of the equator1 and extends its atolls in #fj groups over #ajjj miles4 ,many are of great size1 and all are beat by a tempestuous sea and occasional hurricanes4 ,the atolls in the ,pacific ,ocean and ,china ,sea are beyond enumeration4 ,though less frequent in the ,indian ,ocean1 none are more interesting1 or afford more perfect specimens of this peculiar formation1 than the ,maldive and ,laccadive archipelagos1 both nearly parallel to the coast of ,malabar1 and elongated in that direction4 ,the former is #dgj miles long and about #ej miles broad1 with atolls arranged in a double row1 separated by an unfathomable sea1 into which their sides descend with more than ordinary rapidity4 ,the largest atoll is #hh miles long and somewhat less than #bj broad2 ,suadiva1 the next in size1 is #dd miles by #bc1 with a large lagoon in its centre1 to which1 there is access by #db openings4 ,there are inhabited islets on most of the chaplets or rings not higher than #bj feet1 while the reefs themselves are nowhere more than #f feet above the surge4 ,the ,laccadives run to the north of this archipelago in a double line of nearly circular atolls1 on which are low inhabited islets4 ,encircling reefs differ in no respect from atoll-reefs1 except that they have one or more islands in their lagoon4 ,they commonly form a ring round mountainous islands1 at a distance of two or three miles from the shore1 rising on the outside from a very deep ocean1 and separated from the land by a lagoon or channel #bjj or #cjj feet deep4 ,these reefs surround the submarine base of the island1 and1 rising by a steep ascent to the surface1 they encircle the island itself4 ,the ,caroline ,archipelago exhibits good examples of this structure in the encircled islands of ,hogoleu and ,siniavin2 the narrow ring or encircling reef of the former is #ace miles in its very irregular circuit1 on which are a vast number of islets3 six or eight islands rise to a considerable height from its lagoon1 which is so deep1 and the opening to it so large1 that a frigate might sail into it4 ,the encircling reef of ,siniavin is narrow and irregular1 and its lagoon is so nearly filled by a lofty island1 that it leaves only a strip of water round it from #b to #e miles wide and #cj fathoms deep4 ,otaheite ,tahiti1 the largest of the ,society group1 is another instance of an encircled island of the most beautiful kind2 it rises in mountains #gjjj feet high1 with only a narrow plain along the shore1 and1 except where cleared for cultivation1 it is covered with forests of cocoa-nut1 palms1 bananas1 bread-fruit1 and other productions of a tropical climate4 ,the lagoon1 which encompasses it like an enormous moat1 is #cj fathoms deep1 and is hemmed in from the ocean by a coral band of the usual kind1 at a distance varying from half a mile to three miles4 ,barrier-reefs are of precisely the same structure as the two preceding classes1 from which they only differ in their position with regard to the land4 ,a barrier reef off the north-east coast of the continent of ,australia is the grandest coral formation existing4 ,rising at once from an unfathomable ocean1 it extends #ajjj miles along the coast1 with a breadth varying from #bjj yards to a mile1 and at an average distance of from #bj to #cj miles from the shore1 increasing in some places to #fj and even #gj miles4 ,the great arm of the sea included between it and the land is nowhere less than #aj1 occasionally #fj fathoms deep1 and is safely navigable throughout its whole length1 with a few transverse openings by which ships can enter4 ,the reef is really #abjj miles long1 because it stretches nearly across ,torres ,straits4 ,it is interrupted off the southern coast of ,new ,guinea by muddy water1 which destroys the coral animals1 probably from some great river on that island4 ,there are also extensive barrier-reefs on the islands of ,louisiade and ,new ,caledonia1 which are exactly opposite to the great ,australian reef2 and as atolls stud that part of the ,pacific which lies between them1 it is called the ,coralline ,sea4 ,the rolling of the billows along the great ,australian reef has been admirably described4 8,the long ocean-swell1 being suddenly impeded by this barrier1 lifted itself in one great continuous ridge of deep blue water1 which1 curling over1 fell on the edge of the reef in an unbroken cataract of dazzling white foam4 ,each line of breaker ran often one or two miles in length with not a perceptible gap in its continuity4 ,there was a simple grandeur and display of power and beauty in this scene that rose even to sublimity4 ,the unbroken roar of the surf1 with its regular pulsation of thunder1 as each succeeding swell fell first on the outer edge of the reef1 was almost deafening1 yet so deep-toned as not to interfere with the slightest nearer and sharper sound4444 ,both the sound and sight were such as to impress the spectator with the consciousness of standing in the presence of an overwhelming majesty and power40#gh ,coral-reefs are distinct from all the foregoing2 they are merely fringes of coral along the margin of a shore1 and1 as they line the shore itself1 they have no lagoons4 ,a vast extent of coast1 both on the continents and islands1 is fringed by these reefs1 and1 as they frequently surround these shoals1 they are very dangerous4 ,lagoon islands are the work of various species of coral animals2 but those particular polypi which build the external wall1 the foundation and support of the whole ring or reef1 are most vigorous when most exposed to the breakers2 they cannot exist at a greater depth than #be or #cj fathoms at most1 and die immediately when left dry3 yet the coral wall descends precipitously to unfathomable depths2 and although the whole of it is not the work of these animals1 yet the perpendicular thickness of the coral is known to be very great1 extending hundreds of feet below the depth at which these polypi cease to live4 ,from an extensive survey of the ,coralline ,seas of the tropics1 ,mr4 ,darwin has found an explanation of these singular phenomena in the instability of the crust of the earth4 ,since there are certain proofs that large areas of the dry land are gradually rising1 and others sinking down1 so the bottom of the ocean is not exempt from the general change that is slowly bringing about a new state of things2 and as there is evidence1 on multitudes of the volcanic islands in the ,pacific1 of a rise in certain parts of the basis of the ocean1 so the lagoon islands indicate a subsidence in others--changes arising from the expansion and contraction of the strata under the bed of the ocean4 ,there are strong reasons for believing that a continent once occupied a great part of the tropical ,pacific1 some part of which subsided by slow and imperceptible degrees4 ,as portions of it gradually sank down below the surface of the deep1 the tops of mountains and table-lands would remain as islands of different magnitude and elevation1 and would form archipelagos elongated in the direction of the mountain-chains4 ,now1 the coral-animal1 which constructs the outward wall and mass of the reefs1 never builds laterally1 and cannot exist at a greater depth than #be or #cj fathoms4 ,hence1 if it began to lay the foundation of its reef on the submerged flanks of an island1 it would be obliged to build its wall upwards in proportion as the island sank down1 so that at length a lagoon would be formed between it and the land4 ,as the subsidence continued1 the lagoon would increase1 the island would diminish1 and the base of the coral-reef would sink deeper and deeper1 while the animal would always keep its top just below the surface of the ocean1 till at length the island would entirely disappear1 and a perfect atoll would be left4 ,if the island were mountainous1 each peak would form a separate island in the lagoon1 and the encircled islands would have different forms1 which the reefs would follow continuously4 ,this theory perfectly explains the appearances of the lagoon islands and barrier-reefs1 the continuity of the reef1 the islands in the middle of the lagoons1 the different distances of the reefs from them1 and the forms of the archipelago1 so exactly similar to the archipelagos of ordinary islands1 all of which are but the tops of submerged mountain-chains1 and generally partake of their elongated forms4#gi ,every intermediate form between an atoll and an encircling reef exists3 ,new ,caledonia is a link between them4 ,a reef runs along the north-western coast of that island #djj miles1 and for many leagues never approaches within #h miles of its shore1 and the distance increases to #af miles near the southern extremity4 ,at the other end the reefs are continued on each side #aej miles beyond the sub-marine prolongation of the land1 marking the former extent of the island4 ,in the lagoon of ,keeling ,atoll1 situate in the ,indian ,ocean1 #fjj miles south of ,sumatra1 many fallen trees and a ruined store-house show that it has subsided3 these movements take place during the earthquakes at ,sumatra1 which are also felt in this atoll4 ,violent earthquakes have lately been felt at ,vanikora 7celebrated for the wreck of ,la ,prouse71 a lofty island of the ,queen ,charlotte group1 with an encircling reef in the western part of the ,south ,pacific1 and on which there are marks of recent subsidence4 ,other proofs are not wanting of this great movement in the beds of the ,pacific and ,indian ,oceans4 ,the extent of the atoll formations1 including under this name the encircling reefs1 is enormous4 ,in the ,pacific1 from the southern end of ,low ,archipelago to the northern extremity of ,marshall or ,radick ,archipelago1 a distance of #dejj miles1 and many degrees of latitude in breadth1 atolls alone rise above the ocean4 ,the same may be said of the space in the ,indian ,ocean between ,saya de ,matha and the end of the ,laccadives1 which includes #be degrees of latitude--such are the enormous areas that have been1 and probably still are1 slowly subsiding4 ,other spaces of great extent may also be mentioned1 as the large archipelago of the ,carolinas1 that in the ,coralline ,sea of the north-west coast of ,australia1 and an extensive one in the ,china ,sea4 ,though the volcanic islands in the ,pacific are so numerous1 there is not one within the areas mentioned1 and there is not an active volcano within several hundred miles of an archipelago1 or even group of atolls4 ,this is the more interesting1 as recent shells and fringes of dead coral1 found at various heights on their surfaces1 show that the volcanic islands have been rising more and more above the surface of the ocean for a very long time4 ,the volcanic islands also occupy particular zones in the ,pacific1 and it is found from extensive observation that all the points of eruption fall on the areas of elevation4#hj ,one of the most terribly active of these zones begins with the ,banda group of islands1 and extends through the ,sunda group of ,timor1 ,sumbawa1 ,bali1 ,java1 and ,sumatra1 separated only by narrow channels1 and altogether forming a gently curved line #bjjj miles long2 but as the volcanic zone is continued through ,barren ,island and ,narcondam in the ,bay of ,bengal1 northward through the islands along the coast of ,aracan1 the entire length of this volcanic range is a great deal more4 ,during the last hundred years all the islands and rocks for #ajj miles along the coast of ,aracan have been gradually rising4 ,the greatest elevation of #bb feet has taken place about the centre of the line of upheaval1 in the north-west end of the island of ,cheduba1 containing two mud volcanos1 and is continued through ,foul ,island and the ,terribles4#ha ,the little island of ,gonung-,api1 belonging to the ,banda group1 contains a volcano of great activity2 and such is the elevating pressure of the submarine fire in that part of the ocean1 that a mass of black basalt rose up1 of such magnitude as to fill a bay #fj fathoms deep1 so quietly that the inhabitants were not aware of what was going on till it was nearly done4 ,timor and the other adjacent islands also bear marks of recent elevation4 ,there is not a spot of its size on the face of the earth that contains so many volcanos as the island of ,java4#hb ,a range of volcanic mountains1 from #ejjj to #ac1jjj feet high1 forms the central crest of the island1 and ends to the east in a series of #ch separate volcanos with broad bases1 rising gradually into cones4 ,they all stand on a plain but little elevated above the sea1 and each individual mountain seems to have been formed independently of the rest4 ,most of them are of great antiquity1 and are covered with thick vegetation4 ,some are extinct1 or only emit smoke2 from others sulphureous vapours issue with prodigious violence2 one has a large crater filled with boiling water2 and a few have had fierce eruptions of late years4 ,the island is covered with volcanic spurs from the main ridge1 united by cross chains1 together with other chains of less magnitude1 but no less fury4 ,in #aggb the greater part of one of the largest volcanic mountains was swallowed up after a short but severe combustion2 a luminous cloud enveloped the mountain on the #aath of ,august1 and soon after the huge mass actually disappeared under the earth with tremendous noise1 carrying with it about #ij square miles of the surrounding country1 #dj villages1 and #bieg of their inhabitants4 ,the northern coast of ,java is flat and swampy1 but the southern provinces are beautiful and romantic2 yet in the lovely peaceful valleys the stillness of night is disturbed by the deep roaring of the volcanos1 many of which are perpetually burning with slow but terrific action4 ,separated by narrow channels of the sea1 ,bali and ,sumbawa are but a continuation of ,java1 the same in nature and structure1 but on a smaller scale1 their mountains being little more than #hjjj feet high4 ,the intensity of the volcanic force under this part of the ,pacific may be imagined from the eruption of ,tomboro in ,sumbawa in #ahae1 which continued from the #eth of ,april till ,july4 ,the explosions were heard at the distance of #igj miles2 and in ,java1 at the distance of #cjj miles1 the darkness during the day was like that of deep midnight1 from the quantity of ashes that filled the air3 they were carried to ,bencoolen1 a distance of #aajj miles1 which1 with regard to distance1 is as if the ashes of ,vesuvius had fallen at ,birmingham4 ,the country round was ruined1 and the town of ,tomboro was submerged by heavy rollers from the ocean4 ,in ,sumatra the extensive granitic formations of ,eastern ,asia join the volcanic series which occupies so large a portion of the ,pacific4 ,this most beautiful of islands presents the boldest aspect2 it is indented by arms of the most transparent sea1 and watered by innumerable streams2 it displays in its vegetation all the bright colouring of the tropics4 ,here the submarine fire finds vent in three volcanos on the southern1 and one on the northern side of the island4 ,a few atolls1 many hundreds of miles to the south1 show that this volcanic zone alternates with an area of subsidence4 ,more to the north1 and nearly parallel to the preceding zone1 another line of volcanic islands begins to the north of ,new ,guinea1 and passes through ,new ,britain1 ,new ,ireland1 ,solomon ,islands1 and the ,new ,hebrides1 containing many open vents4 ,this range or area of elevation separates the ,coralline ,sea from the great chain of atolls on the north between ,ellice's group and the ,caroline ,islands1 so that it lies between two areas of subsidence4 ,the third and greatest of all the zones of volcanic islands includes ,gilolo1 one of the ,molucca group1 which is bristled with volcanic cones2 and from thence it may be traced northwards through the ,philippine ,islands and ,formosa3 bending thence to the north-east1 it passes through ,loo-,choo1 the ,japan ,archipelago1 and is continued by the ,kurile ,islands to the peninsula of ,kamtchatka1 where there are several volcanos of great elevation4 ,the ,philippine ,islands and ,formosa form the volcanic separation between the atoll region in the ,china ,sea1 and that of the ,caroline and ,pellew groups4 ,there are six islands east of ,jephoon in the ,japan ,archipelago which are subject to eruptions1 and the internal fire breaks through the ,kurile ,islands in #ah vents1 besides having raised two new islands in the beginning of this century1 one #d miles round1 and the other #cjjj feet high1 though the sea there is so deep that the bottom has not been reached with a line #bjj fathoms long4 ,thus1 some long rent in the earth had extended from the tropics to the gelid seas of ,okhotsk1 probably connected with the peninsula of ,kamtchatka3 a new one begins to the east of the latter in the ,aleutian ,islands1 which are of the most barren and desolate aspect1 perpetually beaten by the surge of a restless ocean1 and bristled by the cones of #bd volcanos2 they sweep in a half-moon round ,behring's ,sea till they join the volcanic peninsula of ,russian ,america4 ,the line of volcanic agency has been followed far beyond the limits of the coral-working animals1 which extend but a short way on each side of the tropics2 but it has been shown that in the equatorial regions immense areas of elevation alternate with as great areas of subsidence3 north of ,new ,holland they are so mixed that it indicates a point of convergence4#hc ,on the other side of the ,pacific the whole chain of the ,andes1 and the adjacent islands of ,juan ,fernandez and the ,galapagos1 form a vast volcanic area1 which is actually now rising2 and though there are few volcanic islands north of the zone of atolls1 yet those that be indicate great internal activity1 especially in the ,sandwich ,islands1 where the volcanos of ,owhyhee ,hawaii are inferior to none in awful sublimity4 ,that of ,kirawah is on the flanks of ,mowna ,roa1 which is itself a volcano4 ,it was seen in high activity by ,mr4 ,douglas in #ahcd2 he describes it as a deep sunken pit1 occupying five square miles1 covered with masses of lava which had been in a state of recent fusion4 ,in the midst of these were two lakes of liquid lava3 in both there was a vast caldron in furious ebullition1 occasionally spouting to the height of from #bj to #gj feet1 whence streams of lava1 hurrying along in fiery waves1 were finally precipitated down an ignited arch1 where the force of the lava was partly arrested by the escape of gasses1 which threw back huge blocks1 and literally spun them into threads of glass1 which were carried by the wind like the refuse of a flax-mill4 ,he says the noise could hardly be described--that of all the steam-engines in the world would be a whisper to it2 and the heat was so overpowering1 and the dryness of the air so intense1 that the very eyelids felt scorched and dried up4#hd ,it may be observed that1 where there are coral fringes1 the land is either rising or stationary2 for1 were it subsiding1 lagoons would be formed4 ,on the contrary1 there are many fringing reefs on the shores of volcanic islands along the coasts of the ,red ,sea1 the ,persian ,gulf1 and the ,west ,indian islands1 all of which are rising4 ,indeed1 this occurrence1 in numberless instances1 coincides with the existence of upraised organic remains on the land4 ,as the only coral formations in the ,atlantic are fringing reefs1 and as there is not one in its central expanse1 except in ,bermuda1 it may be concluded that the bed of the ocean is not sinking2 and with the exception of the ,leeward ,islands1 the ,canaries1 the ,azores1 and the ,cape de ,verde groups1 there are no active volcanos on the islands or on the coasts of that ocean4 ,at present the great continent has few centres of volcanic action in comparison with what it once had4 ,the ,mediterranean is still undermined by fire1 which occasionally finds vent in ,vesuvius and the stately cone of ,etna4 ,though ,stromboli constantly pours forth inexhaustible showers of incandescent matter1 and a temporary island now and then starts up from the sea1 the volcanic action is diminished1 and ,italy has become comparatively more tranquil4 ,the table-land of ,western ,asia1 especially ,azerbijan1 had once been the seat of intense commotion1 now spent1 as the ,seiban ,dagh and ,ararat1 or only smoking from the snowy cone of ,demavend4 ,the table-land of ,eastern ,asia furnishes the solitary instance of igneous explosion at a distance of #aejj miles from the sea1 in the volcanic chain of the ,thean-,tchan4 ,besides the two active volcanos of the ,pe-shan and ,ho-tcheou in the chain itself1 at the distance of #fgj miles from each other1 with a solfatara between them1 it is the centre of a most extensive volcanic district1 extending northward to the ,alta ,mountains1 in which there are many points of connection between the interior of the earth and the atmosphere1 not by volcanos1 but by solfataras1 hot springs1 and vapours4 ,in the range of ,targatabai1 in the country of the ,kirghiz1 there is a mount said to emit smoke and even flame1 which produces sulphur and sal-ammoniac in abundance4 ,it is not ascertained that there are any mountains in ,china that eject lava1 but there are many fire-hills and fire-springs2 the latter are real ,artesian wells five or six inches wide1 and from #aejj to #cjjj feet deep3 from some of these water rises containing a great quantity of common salt2 from others gases issue2 and when a flame is applied1 fire rushes out with great violence1 rising #bj or #cj feet high1 with a noise like thunder4 ,the gas1 conducted in tubes of bamboo cane1 is used in the evaporation of salt water from the neighbouring springs4 ,there are altogether about #bgj active volcanos1 of which #aij are on the shores and islands of the ,pacific4 ,they are generally disposed in lines or groups4 ,the chain of the ,andes furnishes a magnificent example of linear volcanos4 ,the peak of ,teneriffe1 encompassed by the volcanic islands of ,palma and ,lancerote1 is an equally good specimen of a central group4 ,eruptions are much more frequent in low than in high volcanos3 that in the island of ,stromboli is in perpetual activity2 whereas ,cotopaxi1 #ah1gge feet high1 and ,tungaragua in the ,andes1 have only been active once in a hundred years4 ,on account of the force requisite to raise lava to such great elevations1 it rarely flows from very elevated cones4 ,antisana is the only instance to the contrary among all the lofty volcanos in ,quito4 ,in ,etna also the pressure is so great that the lava forces its way through the sides of the mountain or at the base of the cone4 ,an explosion begins by a dense volume of smoke issuing from the crater1 mixed with aqueous vapour and gases2 then masses of rock and molten matter in a half-fluid state are ejected with tremendous explosion and violence2 after which lava begins to flow1 and the whole terminates by a shower of ashes from the crater--often the most formidable part of the phenomenon1 as was experienced at the destruction of ,pompeii4 ,there are several volcanos which eject only streams of boiling water1 as the ,volcano de ,agua in ,guatemala2 others pour forth boiling mud1 as in the islands of ,trinidad1 ,java1 and ,cheduba in the ,bay of ,bengal4 ,a more feeble effort of the volcanic force appears in the numerous solfataras4 ,hot springs show that the volcanic fire is not extinguished1 though not otherwise apparent4 ,to these may be added acidulous springs1 those of naphtha1 petroleum1 and various kinds of gas1 as carbonic acid gas1 the food of plants--and1 when breathed1 the destruction of animals1 as is fearfully seen in the ,guero ,upas1 or 8,valley of ,death10 in ,java3 it is half a mile in circumference1 and about #ce feet deep1 with a few large stones1 and not a vestige of vegetation on the bottom1 which is covered with the skeletons of human beings and the bones of animals and birds blanched white as ivory4 ,on approaching the edge of the valley1 which is situate on the top of a hill1 a nauseous sickening sensation is felt2 and nothing that has life can enter its precincts without being immediately suffocated4#he ,the seat of activity has been perpetually changing1 but there always has been volcanic action1 possibly more intense in former times1 but even at present it extends from pole to pole4 ,notwithstanding the numerous volcanic vents in the globe1 many places are subject to violent earthquakes1 which ruin the works of man1 and often change the configuration of the country4 ,the most extensive district of earthquakes comprises the ,mediterranean and the adjacent countries1 ,asia ,minor1 the ,caspian ,sea1 ,caucasus1 and the ,persian mountains4 ,it joins a vast volcanic district in ,central ,asia1 whose chief focus seems to be the ,thean-,tchan1 which includes ,lake ,baikal and the neighbouring regions4 ,a great part of the continent of ,asia is more or less subject to shocks3 but1 with the exception of the shores of the ,red ,sea and the northern parts of ,barbary1 ,africa is entirely free from these tremendous scourges2 and it is singular that1 notwithstanding the terrible earthquakes which shake the countries west of the ,andes1 the ,andean chain itself1 and all the countries round the ,gulf of ,mexico and the ,caribbean ,sea1 they are extremely rare in the great eastern plains of ,south ,america4 ,for the most part the shocks are transmitted in the line of the primary mountain-chains1 and seem often to be limited by them in the other direction4 ,there must be some singular volcanic action underneath part of ,great ,britain1 which has occasioned #bee slight shocks of earthquake1 of which #aci took place in ,scotland3 the most violent of them have been felt at ,comre1 in ,stratherne2 of the rest #ad took place on the borders of ,yorkshire and ,derbyshire1 #cj in ,wales1 and #ca on the south coast of ,england3 they were preceded by singular phenomena1 as a sudden fall of the barometer1 fogs1 and unusual sultriness2 the two latter are said to indicate these convulsions about ,siena1 and in the ,maremma of ,tuscany1 where they have of late years been attended with very disastrous effects4 ,earthquakes are probably produced by fractures and sudden heavings and subsidences in the elastic crust of the globe1 from the pressure of the liquid fire1 vapour1 and gases in its interior1 which there find vent1 relieve the tension which the strata acquire during their slow refrigeration1 and restore equilibrium4 ,but whether the initial impulse be eruptive1 or a sudden pressure upwards1 the shock originating in that point is propagated through the elastic surface of the earth in a series of circular or oval undulations1 similar to those produced by dropping a stone into a pool1 and like them they become broader and lower as the distance increases1 till they gradually subside2 in this manner the shock travels through the land1 becoming weaker and weaker till it terminates4 ,when the impulse begins in the interior of a continent1 the elastic wave is propagated through the solid crust of the earth1 as well as in sound through the air1 and is transmitted from the former to the ocean1 where it is finally spent and lost1 or1 if very powerful1 is continued in the opposite land4 ,almost all the great earthquakes1 however1 have their origin in the bed of the ocean1 far from land1 whence the shocks travel in undulations to the surrounding shores4 ,no doubt many of small intensity are imperceptible3 it is only the violent efforts of the internal forces that can overcome the pressure of the ocean's bed1 and that of the superincumbent water4 ,the internal pressure is supposed to find relief most readily in a belt of great breadth that surrounds the land at a considerable distance from the coast1 and being formed of the dbris1 the internal temperature is in a perpetual state of fluctuation1 which would seem to give rise to sudden flexures and submarine eruptions4 ,when the original impulse is a fracture or eruption of lava in the bed of the deep ocean1 two kinds of waves or undulations are produced and propagated simultaneously--one through the bed of the ocean1 which is the true earthquake shock1 and coincident with this a wave is formed and propagated on the surface of the ocean1 which rolls to the shore1 and reaches it in time to complete the destruction long after the shock or wave through the solid ocean-bed has arrived and spent itself on the land4 ,the sea rose #ej feet at ,lisbon and #fj at ,cadiz after the great earthquake2 it rose and fell #ah times at ,tangier on the coast of ,africa1 and #ae times at ,funchal in ,madeira4 ,at ,kinsale in ,ireland a body of water rushed into the harbour1 and the water in ,loch ,lomond in ,scotland rose two feet four inches--so extensive was the oceanic wave4#hf ,the height to which the surface of the ground is elevated1 or the vertical height of the shock-wave1 varies from one inch to two or three feet4 ,this earth-wave1 on passing under deep water1 is imperceptible1 but when it comes to soundings it carries with it to the land a long1 flat1 aqueous wave2 on arriving at the beach1 the water drops in arrear from the superior velocity of the shock1 so that at that moment the sea seems to recede before the great ocean-wave arrives4 ,it is the small forced wave that gives the shock to ships1 and not the great wave2 but when ships are struck in very deep water1 the centre of disturbance is either immediately under1 or very nearly under1 the vessel4 ,three other series of undulations are formed simultaneously with the preceding1 by which the sound of the explosion is conveyed through the earth1 the ocean1 and the air1 with different velocities4 ,that through the earth travels at the rate of from #gjjj to #aj1jjj feet in a second in hard rock1 and somewhat less in looser materials1 and arrives at the coast a short time before1 or at the same moment with1 the shock1 and produces the hollow sounds that are the harbingers of ruin2 then follows a continuous succession of sounds1 like the rolling of distant thunder1 formed1 first1 by the wave that is propagated through the water of the sea1 which travels at the rate of #dgjj feet in a second1 and1 lastly1 by that passing through the air1 which only takes place when the origin of the earthquake is a submarine explosion1 and travels with a velocity of #aabc feet in a second4 ,the rolling sounds precede the arrival of the great wave on the coasts1 and are continued after the terrific catastrophe when the eruption is extensive4 ,when there is a succession of shocks all the phenomena are repeated4 ,sounds sometimes occur when there is no earthquake3 they were heard on the plains of the ,rio ,apure1 in ,caraccas1 at the moment the volcano in ,st4 ,vincent's1 #gjj miles off1 discharged a stream of lava4 ,the bellowings of ,guanaxuato afford a singular instance3 these subterraneous noises have been heard for a month uninterruptedly when there was no earthquake felt on the table-land of ,mexico1 nor in the rich silver-mines #afjj feet below its surface4 ,the velocity of the great oceanic wave varies as the square root of the depth2 it consequently has a rapid progress through deep water1 and less when it comes to soundings4 ,that raised during the earthquake at ,lisbon travelled to ,barbadoes at the rate of #gh miles in a minute1 and to ,portsmouth at the rate of a little more than two miles in a minute4 ,the velocity of the shock varies with the elasticity of the strata it passes through4 ,the undulations of the earth are subject to the same laws as those of light and sound2 hence1 when the shock or earth-wave passes through strata of different elasticity1 it will partly be reflected1 and a wave will be sent back1 producing a shock in a contrary direction1 and partly refracted1 or its course changed1 so that shocks will occur both upwards and downwards1 to the right or to the left of the original line of transit4 ,hence1 most damage is done at the junction of deep alluvial plains with the hard strata of the mountains1 as in the great earthquake in ,calabria in the year #aghc4 ,when the height of the undulations is small1 the earthquake will be a horizontal motion1 which is the least destructive2 when the height is great1 the central and horizontal motions are combined1 and the effect is terrible4 ,the concussion was upwards in the earthquake which took place at ,riobamba in #agig4 ,baron ,humboldt mentions that some of the inhabitants were thrown across a river1 several hundred feet in height1 on a neighbouring mountain4 ,the worst of all is a vorticose or twisting motion1 which nothing can resist2 it is occasioned by the crossing of two waves of horizontal vibration1 which unite at their point of intersection and form a rotatory movement4 ,this1 and the interferences of shocks arriving at the same point from different origins or routes of different lengths1 account for the repose in some places1 and those extraordinary phenomena that took place during the earthquake of #aghc in ,calabria1 where the shock diverged on all sides from a centre through a highly elastic base covered with alluvial soil1 which was tossed about in every direction4 ,the dynamics of earthquakes are ably discussed by ,mr4 ,mallet in a very interesting paper in the 8,transactions of the ,royal ,irish ,academy40 ,there are few places where the earth is long at rest1 for1 independently of those secular elevations and subsidences that are in progress over such extensive tracts of country1 small earthquake-shocks must be much more frequent than we imagine1 though imperceptible to our senses1 and only to be detected by means of instruments4 ,the shock of an earthquake at ,lyons in ,february1 #ahbb1 was not generally perceptible at ,paris1 yet the wave reached and passed under that city1 and was detected by the swinging of the large declination needle at the ,observatory1 which had previously been at rest4 ,the undulations of some of the great earthquakes have spread to an enormous extent4 ,the earthquake that happened in #ahdb in ,guadaloupe was felt over an extent of #cjjj miles in length2 and that which destroyed ,lisbon had its origin in the bed of the ,atlantic1 from whence the shock extended over an area of about #gjj1jjj square miles1 or a twelfth part of the circumference of the globe2 the ,west ,indian islands1 and the lakes in ,scotland1 ,norway1 and ,sweden were agitated by it4 ,in linear distance the effects of that earthquake extended through #cjj miles1 the shocks were felt through a line of #bgjj miles1 and the vibrations or tremors were perceptible in water through #djjj miles4 ,it began without warning1 and in five minutes the city was a heap of ruins4 ,the earthquake of #aghc1 in ,calabria1 which completely changed the face of the country1 only lasted two minutes2 but it was not very extensive1 yet all the towns and villages for #bb miles round the small town of ,oppido were utterly ruined4 ,the destruction is generally accomplished in a fearfully short time2 the earthquake at ,caraccas1 in ,march #ahab1 consisted of three shocks1 which lasted three or four seconds1 separated by such short intervals that in #ej seconds #aj1jjj people perished4 ,baron ,humboldt's works are full of interesting details on this subject1 especially with regard to the tremendous convulsions in ,south ,america4 ,sometimes a shock has been perceived under-ground which was not felt at the surface1 as in the year #ahjb1 in the silver-mine of ,marienberg1 in the ,hartz4 ,in some instances miners have been insensible to shocks felt on the surface above1 which happened at ,fahlun1 in ,sweden1 in #ahbc-- circumstances in both instances depending on the elasticity of the strata1 the depth of the impulses1 or obstacles that may have changed the course of the terrestrial undulation4 ,during earthquakes dislocations of strata take place1 the course of rivers is changed1 and in some instances they have been permanently dried up1 rocks are hurled down1 masses raised up1 and the configuration of the country altered2 but if there be no fracture at the point of original impulse1 there will be no noise4 ,the power of the earthquake in raising and depressing the land has long been well known1 but the gradual and almost imperceptible change of level through immense tracts of the globe is altogether a recent discovery2 it has been ascribed to the expansion of rocks by heat1 and subsequent contraction by the retreat of the melted matter from below them4 ,it is not at all improbable that there may be motions1 like tides1 ebbing and flowing in the internal lava1 for the changes are by no means confined to those enormous elevations and subsidences that appear to be in progress in the basin of the ,pacific and its coasts1 nor to the ,andes and the great plains east of them--countries for the most part subject to earthquakes2 they take place1 to a vast extent1 in regions where these convulsions are unknown4 ,there seems to be an extraordinary flexibility in the crust of the globe from the #edth or #eeth parallel of north latitude to the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,there is a line crossing ,sweden from east to west in the parallel of #ef #c ,n4 lat41 along which the ground is perfectly stable1 and has been so for centuries4 ,to the north of it for #ajjj miles1 between ,gottenburg and ,north ,cape1 the ground is rising1 the maximum elevation1 which takes place at ,north ,cape1 being at the rate of five feet in a century1 from whence it gradually diminishes to three inches in a century at ,stockholm4 ,south of the line of stability1 on the contrary1 the land is sinking through part of ,christianstad and ,malmo1 for the village of ,stassten in ,scania is now #chj feet nearer to the ,baltic than it was in the time of ,linnus1 by whom it was measured #hg years ago4 ,the coast of ,denmark on the sound1 the island of ,saltholm1 opposite to ,copenhagen1 and that of ,bornholm are rising1 the latter at the rate of a foot in a century4 ,the coast of ,memel on the ,baltic has actually risen a foot and four inches within the last #cj years1 while the coast of ,pillau has sunk down an inch and a half in the same period4 ,the west coast of ,denmark1 part of the ,feroe ,islands1 and the west coast of ,greenland are all being depressed below their former level4 ,in ,greenland1 the encroachment of the sea1 in consequence of the change of level1 has submerged ancient buildings on the low rocky islands1 and on the main land4 ,the ,greenlander never builds near the sea on that account1 and the ,moravian settlers have had to move inland the poles to which they moor their boats4 ,it has been in progress for four centuries1 and extends through #fjj miles from ,igalito ,firth to ,disco ,bay4#hg ,mr4 ,robert ,chambers has shown that in our own country the land has been for ages on the rise1 and that the parallel roads in ,glen ,roy1 which have so long afforded matter of discussion1 are merely margins left by the retreat of the water1 as the land alternately rose and remained stationary4 ,in the present day the elevation is going on in many places1 especially on the ,murray ,firth and in the ,channel islands4 ,the notice of this curious subject of the gradual changes of level on the land has been chiefly revived by ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 in whose admirable works on geology all the details will be found4#hh ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,arctic ,lands--,greenland--,spitzbergen--,icela nd--,its ,volcanic ,phenomena and ,geysers--,jan ,mayen's ,land--,new ,siberian ,islands--,antarctic ,lands--,victoria ,continent4 ,,greenland1 the most extensive of the ,arctic lands1 begins with the lofty promontory of ,cape ,farewell1 the southern extremity of a group of rocky islands1 which are separated by a channel five miles wide from a table-land of appalling aspect1 narrow to the south1 but increasing in breadth northward to a distance of which only #acjj miles are known4 ,this table-land is bounded by mountains rising from the deep in mural precipices1 which terminate in needles and pyramids1 or in parallel terraces1 of alternate snow and bare rock1 occasionally leaving a narrow shore4 ,the coating of ice is so continuous and thick that the surface of the table-land may be regarded as one enormous glacier1 which overlaps the rocky edges and dips between the mountain-peaks into the sea4 ,the coasts are beset with rocky islands1 and cloven by fiords1 which in some instances wind like rivers for #ajj miles into the interior4 ,these deep inlets of the sea1 now sparkling in sunshine1 now shaded in gloom1 are hemmed in by walls of rock often #bjjj feet high1 whose summits are hid in the clouds4 ,they generally terminate in glaciers1 which are sometimes forced on by the pressure of the upper ice-plains till they fill the fiord1 and even project far into the sea like bold headlands1 when1 undermined by the surge1 huge masses of ice fall from them with a crash like thunder1 making the sea boil4 ,these icebergs1 carried by currents1 are stranded on the ,arctic coast1 or are drawn into lower latitudes4 ,the ice is very transparent and compact in the ,arctic regions2 its prevailing tints are blue1 green1 and orange1 which1 contrasted with the dazzling whiteness of the snow and the gloomy hue of the rocks1 produce a striking effect4 ,a great fiord in the #fhth parallel of latitude is supposed to extend completely across the table-land1 dividing the country into south and north ,greenland1 which last extends indefinitely towards the pole2 but it is altogether inaccessible from the frozen sea and the iron-bound shore1 so that1 excepting a very small portion of the coast1 it is an unknown region4 ,in some sheltered spots in south ,greenland1 especially along the borders of the fiords1 there are meadows where the service-tree bears fruit1 beech and willow trees grow by the streams1 but not taller than a man2 still farther north the willow and juniper scarcely rise above the surface2 yet this country has a flora peculiar to itself4 ,south of the island of ,disco on the west coast1 ,danish colonies and missionaries have made settlements on some of the islands and at the mouths of fiords2 the ,esquimaux inhabit the coasts even to the extremity of ,baffin's ,bay4 ,the pelasgic islands in the ,arctic ,ocean are highly volcanic1 with the exception of ,spitzbergen4 ,in the island of ,spitzbergen the mountains spring sharp and grand from the margin of the sea in dark gloomy masses1 mixed with pure snow and enormous glaciers1 presenting a sublime spectacle4 ,seven valleys filled by glaciers ending at the sea form a remarkable object on the east coast4 ,one of the largest masses of ice seen by ,captain ,scoresby on the island was north of ,horn ,sound3 it extended #aa miles along the shore1 with a sea-face in one part more than #bjjj feet high1 from which he saw a huge fragment hurled into the sea1 which it lashed into vapour1 as it broke into a thousand pieces4 ,the sun is not seen for several months in the year1 when the intensity of the cold splits rocks1 and makes the sea reek like a boiling caldron4 ,many have perished in the attempt to winter in this island1 yet a colony of ,russian hunters and fishermen lead a miserable existence there1 within #aj of the pole1 the most northern inhabited spot on the globe4 ,although the direct rays of the sun are powerful in sheltered spots within the ,arctic ,circle1 the thermometer does not rise above #de of ,fahrenheit4 ,july is the only month in which snow does not fall1 and in the end of ,august the sea at night is covered with a thin coating of ice1 and a summer often passes without one day that can be called warm4 ,the snow-blink1 the aurora1 the stars1 and the moon1 which appears ten or twelve days without intermission in her northern declination1 furnish the greatest light the inhabitants enjoy in their long winter4 ,iceland is #bjj miles east from ,greenland1 and lies south of the ,arctic ,circle1 which its most northern part touches4 ,though a fifth part larger than ,ireland1 not more than #djjj square miles are habitable1 all beside being a chaos of volcanos and ice4 ,the peculiar feature of ,iceland lies in a trachytic region which seems to rest on an ocean of fire4 ,it consists of two vast parallel table-lands covered with ice-clad mountains1 stretching from ,n4,e4 to ,s4,w4 through the very centre of the island1 separated by a longitudinal valley nearly #ajj miles wide1 which reaches from sea to sea4 ,these mountains assume rounded forms1 with long level summits or domes with sloping declivities1 as in the trachytic mountains of the ,andes and elsewhere2 but such huge masses of tufa and conglomerate project from their sides in perpendicular or overhanging precipices1 separated by deep ravines1 that the regularity of their structure can only be perceived from a distance2 they conceal under a cold and tranquil coating of ice the fiery germs of terrific convulsions1 sometimes bursting into dreadful activity1 sometimes quiescent for ages4 ,the most extensive of the two parallel ranges of ,jockuls or ,ice ,mountains runs along the eastern side of the valley1 and contains ,ordefa1 the highest point in ,iceland1 seen like a white cloud from a great distance at sea2 the western high land passes through the centre of the island4 ,glaciers cover many thousand square miles in ,iceland1 descending from the mountains1 and pushing far into the low lands4 ,this tendency of the ice to encroach has very materially diminished the quantity of habitable ground1 and the progress of the glaciers is facilitated by the influence of the ocean of subterranean fire1 which heats the superincumbent ground1 and loosens the ice4 ,the longitudinal space between the mountainous table-lands is a low valley #ajj miles wide1 extending from sea to sea1 where a substratum of trachyte is covered with lava1 sand1 and ashes1 studded with low volcanic cones4 ,it is a tremendous desert1 never approached without dread even by the natives--a scene of perpetual conflict between the antagonist powers of fire and frost1 without a drop of water or a blade of grass2 no living creature is to be seen--not a bird1 nor even an insect4 ,the surface is a confused mass of streams of lava rent by crevices2 and rocks piled on rocks1 and occasional glaciers1 complete the scene of desolation4 ,as herds of reindeer are seen browsing on the ,iceland moss that grows plentifully at its edges1 it is presumed that some unknown parts may be less barren4 ,the extremities of the valley are more especially the theatres of perpetual volcanic activity4 ,at the southern end1 which opens to the sea in a wide plain1 there are many volcanos1 of which ,heckla is most known1 from its insulated position1 its vicinity to the coast1 and its tremendous eruptions4 ,between the years #ajjd and #agff twenty-three violent eruptions have taken place1 one of which continued six years1 spreading devastation over a country once the abode of a thriving colony1 now covered with lava1 scoria1 and ashes3 in the year #ahdf it was in full activity4 ,the eruption of the ,skaptar ,jockul1 which broke out on the #hth of ,may1 #aghc1 and continued till ,august1 is one of the most dreadful recorded4 ,the volcanic fire must have been in fearful commotion under ,europe1 for a tremendous earthquake ruined a wide extent of ,calabria that year1 and a submarine volcano had been burning fiercely for many weeks in the ocean1 #cj miles from the south-west cape of ,iceland4 ,its fires suddenly ceased1 the island was shaken by earthquakes1 when1 at the distance of #aej miles1 they burst forth with almost unexampled fury in ,skaptar4 ,the sun was hid many months by dense clouds of vapour1 which extended to ,england and ,holland1 and clouds of ashes were carried many hundreds of miles to sea4 ,the quantity of matter thrown out in this eruption was computed at fifty or sixty thousand millions of cubic yards4 ,the lava flowed in a stream in some places from #bj to #cj miles broad1 and of enormous thickness1 which filled the beds of rivers1 poured into the sea nearly #ej miles from the places of its eruption1 and destroyed the fishing on the coast4 ,some rivers were heated to ebullition1 others dried up2 the condensed vapour fell in snow and torrents of rain2 the country was laid waste2 famine and disease ensued2 and in the course of the two succeeding years #acjj people and #aej1jjj sheep and horses perished4 ,the scene of horror was closed by a dreadful earthquake4 ,previous to the explosion an ominous mildness of temperature indicated the approach of the volcanic fire towards the surface of the earth2 similar warnings had been observed before in the eruptions of ,heckla4 ,a semicircle of volcanic mountains on the eastern side of the ,lake ,myvatr is the focus of the igneous phenomena at the northern end of the great central valley4 ,leirhnukr and ,krabla1 on the ,n4,e4 of the lake1 have been equally formidable4 ,after years of quiescence they suddenly burst into violent eruption1 and poured such a quantity of lava into the lake ,myvatr1 which is #bj miles in circumference1 that the water boiled many days4 ,there are other volcanos in this district no less formidable4 ,various caldrons of boiling mineral pitch1 the shattered craters of ancient volcanos1 occur at the base of this semicircle of mountains1 and also on the flanks of ,mount ,krabla3 these caldrons throw up jets of the dark matter1 enveloped in clouds of steam1 at regular intervals1 with loud explosion4 ,that which issues from the crater of ,krabla must1 by ,mr4 ,henderson's description1 be one of the most terrific objects in nature4 ,the eruptive boiling springs of ,iceland are perhaps the most extraordinary phenomena in this singular country4 ,all the great aqueous eruptions occur in the trachytic formation2 they are characterized by their high temperature1 by holding siliceous matter in solution1 which they deposit in the form of siliceous sinter1 and by the discharge of sulphuretted hydrogen gas4 ,numerous instances of spouting springs occur at the extremities of the great central valley1 especially at its southern end1 where more than fifty have been counted in the space of a few acres--some constant1 others periodical--some merely agitated1 or stagnant4 ,the ,great ,geyser and ,strokr1 #ce miles north-west from ,heckla1 are the most magnificent2 at regular intervals they project large columns of boiling water #ajj feet high1 enveloped in clouds of steam1 with tremendous noise4 ,the tube of the ,great ,geyser whence the jet issues is about #aj feet in diameter and #ge feet deep2 it opens into the centre of a basin #d feet deep and between #df and #ej feet in diameter3 as soon as the basin is filled by the boiling water that rises through the tube1 explosions are heard1 the ground trembles1 the water is thrown to the height of #ajj or #aej feet1 followed by large volumes of steam4 ,no farther explosion takes place till the empty basin and tube are again replenished4 ,,mm4 ,descloiseaux and ,bunsen1 who visited ,iceland in #ahdf1 found the temperature of the ,great ,geyser1 at the depth of #gb feet1 before a great eruption1 to be #bfj-a_/b of ,fahrenheit1 and after the eruption #bea-a_/b2 an interval of #bh hours passed without any eruption4 ,the ,strokr 7from stroka1 to agitate71 #adj yards from the ,great ,geyser1 is a circular well1 a little more than #dd feet deep1 with an orifice of #h feet1 which diminishes to little more than #aj inches at a depth of #bg feet4 ,the surface of the water is in constant ebullition1 while at the bottom the temperature exceeds that of boiling water by about #bd4 ,by the experiments of ,m4 ,donny of ,ghent1 water long boiled becomes more and more free from air1 by which the cohesion of the particles is so much increased that when it is exposed to a heat sufficient to overcome the force of cohesion1 the production of steam is so instantaneous and so considerable as to cause explosion4 ,to this cause he ascribes the eruptions of the ,geysers1 which are in constant ebullition for many hours1 and become so purified from air1 that the strong heat at the bottom at last overcomes the cohesion of the particles1 and an explosion takes place4 ,the boiling spring of ,tunquhaer1 in the valley of ,reikholt1 is remarkable from having two jets1 which play alternately for about four minutes each4 ,some springs emit gas only1 or gas with a small quantity of water4 ,such fountains are not confined to the land or fields of ice2 they occur also in the sea1 and many issue from the crevices in the lava-bed of ,lake ,myvatr1 and rise in jets above the surface of the water4 ,a region of the same character with the mountains of the ,icelandic desert extends due west from it to the extremity of the long narrow promontory of the ,sneefield ,syssel1 ending in the snow-clad cone of the ,sneefield ,jockul1 #ejjj feet high1 one of the most conspicuous mountains in ,iceland4 ,with the exception of the purely volcanic districts described1 trap-rocks cover a great part of ,iceland1 which have been formed by streams of lava at very ancient epochs1 occasionally #djjj feet deep4 ,the dismal coasts are torn in every direction by fiords1 penetrating many miles into the interior1 and splitting into endless branches1 in these fissures the sea is still1 dark1 and deep1 between walls of rock #ajjj feet high4 ,the fiords1 however1 do not here1 as in ,greenland1 terminate in glaciers1 but are prolonged in narrow valleys1 through which streams and rivers run to the sea4 ,in these valleys the inhabitants have their abode1 or in meadows which have a transient verdure along some of the fiords1 where the sea is so deep that ships find safe anchorage4 ,in the valleys on the northern coast1 near as they approach to the ,arctic ,circle1 the soil is wonderfully good1 and there is more vegetation than in any other part of ,iceland1 with the exception of the eastern shore1 which is the most favoured portion of this desolate land4 ,rivers abounding in fish are much more frequent there than elsewhere2 willows and juniper adorn the valleys1 and birch-trees1 #bj feet high1 grow in the vale of ,lagerflest1 the only place which produces them large enough for house-building1 and the verdure is fine on the banks of those streams which are heated by volcanic fires4 ,the climate of ,iceland is much less rigorous than that of ,greenland1 and it would be still milder were not the air chilled by the immense fields of ice from the ,polar ,sea which beset its shores4 ,the inhabitants are supplied with fuel by the ,gulf ,stream1 which brings drift-wood in great quantities from ,mexico1 the ,carolinas1 ,virginia1 the river ,st4 ,lawrence1 and some even from the ,pacific ,ocean is drifted by currents round by the northern shores of ,siberia4 ,the mean temperature in the south of the island is about #ci of ,fahrenheit1 that of the central districts #cf1 and in the north it is rarely above the freezing point4 ,the cold is most intense when the sky is clear1 but that is a rare occurrence1 as the wind from the sea covers mountain and valley with thick fog4 ,hurricanes are frequent and furious2 and although thunder is seldom heard in high latitudes1 ,iceland is an exception1 for tremendous thunder-storms are not uncommon there--a circumstance no doubt owing to the volcanic nature of that island1 as lightning accompanies volcanic eruptions everywhere4 ,at the northern end of the island the sun is always above the horizon in the middle of summer1 and under it in mid-winter1 yet there is no absolute darkness4 ,the island of ,jan ,mayen lies midway between ,iceland and ,spitzbergen2 it is the most northern volcanic country known4 ,its principal feature is the volcano of ,beerenberg1 #fhgj feet high1 whose lofty snow-capped cone1 apparently inaccessible1 has been seen to emit fire and smoke4 ,it is flanked by enormous glaciers1 like frozen cataracts1 which occupy three hollows in an almost perpendicular cliff1 which descends from the base of the mountain to the sea4 ,the group of ,new ,siberian ,islands1 which lie north of the province of ,yakutsk1 and in about #gh of ,n4 lat41 have so rude a climate that they have no permanent inhabitants2 they are remarkable for the vast quantity of fossil bones they contain3 the elephant's tusks found there have for years been an article of commerce4 ,the south polar lands are equally volcanic1 and as deeply ice-bound1 as those to the north4 ,victoria ,land1 which from its extent seems to form part of a continent1 was discovered by ,sir ,james ,ross1 who commanded the expedition sent by the ,british government in #ahci to ascertain the position of the south magnetic pole4 ,this extensive tract lies under the meridian of ,new ,zealand2 ,cape ,north1 its most northern point1 is situate in #gj #ca ,s4 lat41 and #afe #bh ,e4 long4 ,to the west of that cape the northern coast of this new land terminates in perpendicular ice-cliffs1 from #bjj to #ejj feet high1 stretching as far as the eye can reach1 with a chain of grounded icebergs extending for miles from the base of the cliffs1 all of tabular form1 and varying in size from one to nine or ten miles in circumference4 ,a lofty range of peaked mountains rises in the interior at ,cape ,north1 covered with unbroken snow1 only relieved from uniform whiteness by shadows produced by the undulations of the surface4 ,the indentations of the coast are filled with ice many hundreds of feet thick1 which makes it impossible to land4 ,to the east of ,cape ,north the coast trends first to ,s4,e4 by ,e4 and then in a southerly direction to #gh-a_/d of ,s4 lat41 at which point it suddenly bends to the east1 and extends in one continuous vertical ice-cliff to an unknown distance in that direction4 ,the first view of ,victoria ,land is described as most magnificent4 8,on the #aath of ,january1 #ahda1 in about latitude #ga ,s4 and longitude #aga ,e41 the ,antarctic continent was first seen1 the general outline of which at once indicated its volcanic character1 rising steeply from the ocean in a stupendous mountain-range1 peak above peak enveloped in perpetual snow1 and clustered together in countless groups resembling a vast mass of crystallization1 which1 as the sun's rays were reflected on it1 exhibited a scene of such unequalled magnificence and splendour as would baffle all power of language to portray1 or give the faintest conception of4 ,one very remarkable peak1 in shape like a huge crystal of quartz1 rose to the height of #ghfg feet1 another to #ijif1 and a third to #hddd feet above the level of the sea4 ,from these peaks ridges descended to the coast1 terminating abruptly in bold capes and promontories1 whose steep escarpments1 affording shelter to neither ice nor snow1 alone showed the jet black lava or basalt1 which reposed beneath the mantle of eternal frost40444 8,on the #bhth1 in lat4 #gg #ca and long4 #afg #a1 the burning volcano1 ,mount ,erebus1 was discovered1 covered with ice and snow from its base to its summit1 from which a dense column of black smoke towered high above the other numerous lofty cones and crateriferous peaks with which this extraordinary land is studded from the #gb;d to the #ghth degree of latitude4 ,its height above the sea is #ab1cfg feet1 and ,mount ,terror1 an extinct crater near to it1 which has doubtless once given vent to fires beneath1 attains an altitude little inferior1 being #aj1hhd feet in height1 and ending in a cape1 from which a vast barrier of ice extended in an easterly direction1 checking all farther progress south4 ,this continuous perpendicular wall of ice1 varying in height from #bjj to #ajj feet1 its summit presenting an almost unvarying level outline1 we traced for #cjj miles1 when the pack-ice obstructed all farther progress40#hi ,the vertical cliff in question forms a completely solid mass of ice about #ajjj feet thick1 the greater part of which is below the surface of the sea2 there is not the smallest appearance of a fissure throughout its whole extent1 and the intensely blue sky beyond indicated plainly the great distance to which the ice-plains reach southward4 ,gigantic icicles hang from every projecting point of the icy cliff1 showing that it sometimes thaws in these latitudes1 although in the month of ,february1 which corresponds with ,august in ,england1 ,fahrenheit's thermometer did not rise above #ad at noon4 ,in the ,north ,polar ,ocean1 on the contrary1 streams of water flow from every iceberg during the summer4 ,the whole of this country is beyond the pale of vegetation3 no moss1 not even a lichen1 covers the barren soil where everlasting winter reigns4 ,parry's ,mountains1 a lofty range1 stretching south from ,mount ,terror to the #gith parallel1 is the most southern land yet discovered4 ,the ,south ,magnetic ,pole1 one of the objects of the expedition1 is situate in ,victoria ,land1 in #ge #e ,s4 lat41 and #aed #h ,e4 long41 according to ,sir ,james ,c4 ,ross's observations4 ,various tracts of land have been discovered near the ,antarctic ,circle1 and within it1 though none in so high a latitude as ,victoria ,land4 ,whether they form part of one large continent remains to be ascertained4 ,discovery ships sent by the ,russian1 ,french1 and ,american governments have increased our knowledge of these remote regions1 and the spirited adventures of ,british merchants and captains of whalers have contributed quite as much4#ij ,the land within the ,antarctic ,circle is generally volcanic1 at least the coast-line1 which is all that is yet known1 and that1 being covered with snow and ice1 is destitute of vegetation4 ,the land described by ,sir ,james ,ross as ,victoria ,land1 was1 in fact1 discovered by the ,u4 ,s4 ,exploring ,expedition1 under the command of ,charles ,wilkes1 ,esq41 ,u4 ,s4 ,navy4 ,he says3--8,that land does exist within the ,antarctic ,circle is now confirmed by the united testimony of both ,french and ,english navigators4 ,d',urville1 the celebrated ,french navigator1 within a few days after land was seen by the three vessels of our squadron1 reports that his boats landed on a small point of rocks1 at the place 7as ,i suppose7 which appeared accessible to us in ,piner's ,bay1 whence the ,vincennes was driven by a violent gale2 this he called ,clarie ,land1 and testifies to his belief of the existence of a vast tract of land1 where our view of it has left no doubt of its existence4 ,ross1 on the other hand1 penetrated to the latitude of #gi ,s4 in the succeeding year1 coasted for some distance along a lofty country connected with our ,antarctic ,continent1 and establishes beyond all cavil the correctness of our assertion that we have discovered1 not a range of detached islands1 but a vast ,antarctic ,continent4 ,how far ,captain ,ross was guided in his search by our previous discoveries will best appear by reference to the chart1 with a full account of the proceedings of the squadron1 which ,i sent to him1 and which ,i have inserted in ,appendix ,,xxiv41 and ,atlas4 ,although ,i have never received any acknowledgment of their receipt from him personally1 yet ,i have heard of their having reached his hands a few months prior to his ,antarctic cruise40-- ,wilkes's 8,narrative of the ,u4 ,s4 ,exploring ,expedition10 vol4 ii41 p4 #bha-b4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,nature and ,character of ,mineral ,veins--,metalliferous ,deposits--,mines--,their ,drainage and ,ventilation--,their ,depth--,diffusion of the ,metals--,gold-- ,silver--,lead--,british ,mines--,quicksilver--,copper--,tin--,co rnish ,mines--,coal-- ,iron--,most abundant in the ,temperate ,zones1 especially in the ,northern-- ,european and ,british ,iron and ,coal--,american ,iron and ,coal--,arsenic and other ,metals--,salt--,sulphur--,diffusion of the ,gems4 ,,the tumultuous and sudden action of the volcano and the earthquake on the great masses of the earth is in strong contrast with the calm1 silent operations on the minute atoms of matter by which ,nature seems to have filled the fissures in the rocks with her precious gifts of metals and minerals1 sought for by man from the earliest ages to the present day4 ,tubal-cain was 8the instructor of every artificer in brass and iron40 ,gold was among the first luxuries1 and even in our own country1 from time immemorial1 strangers came from afar to carry off the produce of the ,cornish mines4#ia ,the ancients scarcely were acquainted with a third of the thirty-five metals now known1 and the metallic bases of the alkalis only date from the time of ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 having formed a remarkable part of his brilliant discoveries4#ib ,minerals are deposited in veins or fissures of rocks1 in masses1 in beds1 and sometimes in gravel and sand1 the detritus of water4 ,most of the metals are found in veins2 a few1 as gold and tin1 iron and copper1 are disseminated through the rocks1 though rarely4 ,veins are cracks or fissures in rocks1 seldom in a straight line1 yet they maintain a general direction1 though in a zigzag form1 striking downwards at a very high angle1 seldom deviating from the perpendicular by so much as forty-five degrees1 and extending to an unfathomable depth4 ,they are for the most part accompanied by a subsidence of the strata on one side of their course1 and by an elevation on the other2 the throw1 or perpendicular distance between the corresponding strata on the opposite sides of a vein1 varies from a few inches to thirty1 forty1 even a hundred fathoms4 ,the beginning or end of a vein is scarcely ever known2 but1 when explored1 they are found to begin abruptly1 and1 after continuing entire to a greater or less distance1 they branch into small veins or strings4 ,in the downward zigzag course of a vein1 the bending of the strata upwards on one side and downwards on the other1 and the chemical changes almost always observed on the adjacent rocks1 veins bear a strong analogy to the course and effects of a very powerful electrical discharge4 ,veins have been filled with substances foreign to them1 which have probably been disseminated in atoms in the adjacent rocks or by sublimation4 ,nothing can be more certain than that the minute particles of matter are constantly in motion from the action of heat1 mutual attraction1 and electricity4 ,prismatic crystals of salts of zinc are changed in a few seconds into crystals of a totally different form by the heat of the sun3 casts of shells are found in rocks1 from which the animal matter has been removed1 and its place supplied by mineral matter2 and the excavations made in rocks diminish sensibly in size in a short time if the rock be soft1 and in a longer time when it is hard-- circumstances which show an intestine motion of the particles1 not only in their relative positions1 but in space1 which there is every reason to believe is owing to electricity--a power which1 if not the sole agent1 must at least have co-operated essentially in the formation and filling of mineral veins4#ic ,the magnetism of the earth is presumed to be owing to electrical currents circulating through its surface in a direction at right angles to the magnetic meridians4 ,mr4 ,fox1 so well known in the scientific world1 has long since shown1 from observations in the ,cornish mines1 that such currents do flow through all metallic veins4 ,now1 as the different substances of which the earth is composed are in different states of electro-magnetism1 and are often interrupted by non-conducting rocks1 the electric currents1 being stopped in their course1 act chemically on all the liquids and substances they meet with4 ,hence1 ,mr4 ,fox has come to the conclusion that not only the nature of the deposits must have been determined by their relative electrical conditions1 but that the direction of the metallic veins themselves must have been influenced by the direction of the magnetic meridians2 and1 in fact1 almost all the metallic deposits in the world are in parallel veins or fissures tending from east to west1 or from north-east to south-west4 ,veins at right angles to these are generally non-metalliferous1 and1 if they do contain metallic ores1 they are of a different kind4 ,in some few cases both contain the same ore1 but in very different quantities1 as in the silver-mine at ,pasco1 in the ,andes1 and both veins are richer near the point of crossing than elsewhere4 ,sir ,henry de la ,beche conceives that the continued expansion and elevation of an intensely heated mass from below would occasion numerous vertical fissures through the superincumbent strata1 within which some mineral matters may have been drawn up by sublimation1 and others deposited in them when held in solution by ascending and descending streams of water2 but even on this hypothesis the direction of the rents and the deposition of the minerals would be influenced by the electrical currents4 ,but if veins were filled from below1 the richest veins would be lowest1 which is not the case in ,cornwall1 ,mexico1 or ,peru4#id ,the primum mobile of the whole probably lies far beyond our globe3 we must look to the sun's heat1 if not as the sole cause of electrical currents1 at least as combined with the earth's rotation in their evolution4#ie ,when veins cross one another1 the traversed veins are presumed to be of prior formation to those traversing1 because the latter are dislocated and often heaved out of their course at the point of meeting2 and such is the case with the metalliferous veins1 which are therefore the most recent4 ,veins are rarely filled in every part with ore2 they contain sparry and stony matter1 called its matrix1 with here and there irregular masses of the metallic ores1 often of great size and value4 ,solitary veins are generally unproductive1 and veins are richer when near one another4 ,the prevalence and richness of mineral veins are intimately connected with the proximity or junction of dissimilar rocks1 where the electro-molecular and electro-chemical actions are most energetic4 ,granite1 porphyry1 and the plutonic rocks are often eminently metalliferous2 but mineral deposits are also abundant in rocks of sedimentary origin1 especially in and near situations where these two classes of rocks are in contact with one another1 or where the metamorphic structure has been induced upon the sedimentary4 ,this is remarkably the case in ,cornwall1 the north of ,england1 in the ,ural1 and all the great mining districts4 ,the metalliferous deposits are peculiar to particular rocks3 gold and tin are most plentiful in granite and the rocks lying immediately above it2 copper is deposited in various slate formations resting on the preceding1 and in the trias2 lead is found in the mountain-limestone system1 and is rare where iron and copper abound2 iron abounds in the coal and oolitic strata1 and in a state of oxidule and carbonate in the older rocks2 and silver is found in almost all of these formations2 its ores being frequently combined with those of other metals1 especially of lead and copper4 ,there is such a connection between the contents of a vein and the nature of the rock in which the fissure is1 that1 when in the oldest rocks the same vein intersects clay-slate and granite1 the contents of the parts enclosed in one rock differ very much from what is found in the other4 ,it is believed that in the strata lying above the coal-measures none of the more precious metals have been found in ,england in such plenty as to defray the expense of raising them1 although such a rule does not extend to the continent of ,europe or to ,south ,america1 where copper and silver ores abound in our new red sandstone series4 ,in ,great ,britain no metal is raised in any stratum newer than the magnesian limestone4 ,metals exist chiefly in the primary and early secondary strata1 especially near the junction of the granite and slates2 and it is a fact that rich veins of lead1 copper1 tin1 c41 abound only in and near the districts which have been greatly shaken by subterraneous movements4 ,in other countries1 as ,auvergne and the ,pyrenees1 the presence of igneous rocks may have caused mineral veins to appear in more recent strata than those which contain them in ,great ,britain4 ,when a mine is opened1 a shaft like a well is sunk perpendicularly from the surface of the ground1 and from it horizontal galleries are dug at different levels according to the direction of the metallic veins1 and gunpowder is used to blast the rocks when too hard for the pickaxe4 ,when mines extend very far in a horizontal direction1 it becomes necessary to sink more shafts1 for ventilation as well as for facility in raising the ore4 ,such is the perfection of underground surveying in ,england1 that the work can be carried on at the same time from above and below so exactly as to meet2 and in order to accelerate the operation1 the shaft is worked simultaneously from the different galleries or levels of the mine4 ,in this manner a perpendicular shaft was sunk #bjd fathoms deep1 about nineteen years ago1 in the ,consolidated mines in ,cornwall2 it was finished in twelve months1 having been worked in fifteen different points at once4 ,in that mine there are ninety-five shafts1 besides other perpendicular communications under-ground from level to level3 the depth of the whole of these shafts added together amounts to about #be miles2 the galleries and levels extend horizontally about #dc miles1 and #bejj people are employed in it3 yet this is but one of many mines now in operation in the mining district of ,cornwall alone4#if ,the infiltration of the rain and surface-water1 together with subterranean springs and pools1 would soon inundate a mine and put a stop to the work1 were not adequate means employed to remove it4 ,the steam-engine is often the only way of accomplishing what in many cases would otherwise be impossible1 and the produce of mines has been in proportion to the successive improvements in that machine4 ,in the ,consolidated mines already mentioned there are nine steam-engines constantly pumping out the water2 four of these1 which are the largest ever made1 together lift from thirty to fifty hogsheads of water per minute1 from an average depth of #bcj fathoms4 ,the power of the steam-engines in draining the ,cornish mines is equal to #dd1jjj horses-- one-sixth of a bushel of coals performing the work of a horse4 ,the largest engine is between #cjj and #cej horse-power2 but as horses must rest1 and the engine works incessantly1 it would require #ajjj horses to do its work4#ig ,mines in high ground are sometimes drained to a certain depth by an adit or gallery dug from the bottom of a shaft in a sloping direction to a neighbouring valley4 ,one of these adits extends through the large mining district of ,gwennap1 in ,cornwall2 it begins in a valley near the sea1 and very little above its level1 and goes through all the neighbouring mines1 which it drains to that depth1 and with all its ramifications is #cj miles long4 ,nent ,force ,level1 in the north of ,england1 forms a similar drain to the mines in ,alston ,moor3 it is a stupendous aqueduct #i feet broad1 and in some places from #af to #bj feet high2 it passes for more than #c miles under the course of the river ,nent to ,nentsbury engine-shaft1 and is navigated underground by long narrow boats4 ,daylight at its mouth is seen like a star at the distance of a mile in the interior4 ,most of the adits admit of the passage of men and horses1 with rails at the sides for wagons4 ,the ventilation of mines is accomplished by burning fires in some of the shafts1 which are in communication with the others1 so that currents of air flow up one and down the others4 ,in some cases fresh air is carried into the mines by streams that are made to flow down some of the shafts4 ,were this not done1 the heat1 which increases with the depth1 would be insupportable2 ventilation diminishes the danger from the fire-damp1 for1 even where ,sir ,humphry ,davy's safety-lamp is used1 accidents happen from the carelessness of the miners4#ih ,the access to deep mines1 as in ,cornwall1 is by a series of perpendicular or slightly inclined ladders1 sometimes uninterrupted1 but generally broken at intervals by resting-places4 ,it is computed that one-third of a miner's physical strength was exhausted in ascending and descending a deep mine3 they are now drawn up by the steam-engine4 ,the greatest depth to which man has excavated is nothing when compared with the radius of the earth4 ,the ,eselschacht mine at ,kuttenberg in ,bohemia1 now inaccessible1 which is #cggh feet below the surface1 is deeper than any other mine4 ,its depth is only #aej feet less than the height of ,vesuvius1 and it is eight times greater than the height of the pyramid of ,cheopos1 or the cathedral of ,strasburg4 ,the ,monkwearmouth coal-mine near ,sunderland1 descends to #aejj feet below the level of the sea1 so that the barometer stands there at #cahj1 which is higher than anywhere on the earth's surface4#ii ,the salt-works of ,new ,saltzwerk in ,prussia are #bbca feet deep1 and #aiic feet below the level of the sea2 and various other mines1 such as the ,liege coal-mine of ,esperance1 and that of ,mont ,massi1 in the ,maremma of ,tuscany1 do the same4 ,mines on high ground may be very deep without extending to the sea-level3 that of ,valenciana1 near ,guanaxuato in ,mexico1 is #afhf feet deep1 yet its bottom is #eifj feet above the surface of the sea2 and the mines in the higher ,andes must be much more4 ,for the same reason the rich mine of ,joachimsthal in ,bohemia1 #babj feet deep1 has not yet reached that level4 ,the fire-springs at ,tseu-lieu-tsing in ,china are #caig feet deep1 but their relative depth is unknown4#ajj ,how insignificant are all the works of man compared with nature6--,a line #bg1fjj feet long did not reach the bottom of the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,the metals are very profusely diffused over the earth4 ,few countries of any extent do not contain some of them4 ,a small number occur pure1 but in general they are in the form of ores1 in which the metal is chemically combined with other substances1 and the ore is often so mixed with earthy matter and rock that it is necessary to reduce it to a coarse powder in order to separate the ore1 which is rarely more than a third or fourth part of the mass brought above ground4 ,gold is found in almost every country1 but in such minute quantities that it is often not worth the expense of working4 ,it is almost always in a native state1 and in the form of crystals1 grains1 or rolled masses4 ,sometimes it is combined with silver4 ,it is exhausted in several parts of ,europe where it was formerly found4 ,the united produce of the mines in ,transylvania1 ,hungary1 the north-western districts of ,austria1 and the bed of the ,danube1 is nearly #fj1jjj ounces annually4 ,gold is found in small quantities in ,spain1 in the lead-hills in ,scotland1 and the ,wicklow mountains in ,ireland4 ,gold abounds in ,asia1 especially in ,siberia4 ,the deposits at the foot of the ,ural mountains are very rich4 ,in #ahbf a piece of pure gold weighing #bc pounds was found there1 along with others weighing three or four pounds each1 together with the bones of elephants4 ,all the diluvium there is ferruginous2 and more to the east1 as already mentioned1 a region as large as ,france has lately been discovered with a soil rich in gold-dust1 resting on rocks filled with it4 ,in #ahcd the treasures in that part of the ,alta chain called the ,gold ,mountains were discovered1 forming a mountain-knot nearly as large as ,england1 from which a great quantity of gold has been extracted4 ,gold is found in ,tibet1 in the ,chinese province of ,yun-nan1 and abundantly in the mountains of the ,indo-,chinese peninsula1 in ,japan1 and ,borneo4 ,in the latter island it occurs near the surface in six different places4 ,africa has long furnished a large supply to ,europe4 ,that part of the ,kong ,mountains west of the meridian of ,greenwich is one of the most auriferous regions in the world4 ,the gold stratum lies from #bj to #be feet below the surface1 and increases in richness with the depth4 ,it is found in particles and pieces in a reddish sand4 ,most of the streams from the table-land bring down gold1 as well those that descend to the low ground to the north1 as those that flow to the ,atlantic4 ,on the shores of the ,red ,sea it was found in sufficient quantity to induce the ,portuguese to form a settlement there4 ,in ,south ,america1 the western ,cordillera is poor in metals except in ,new ,grenada1 where the most westerly of the three chains of the ,andes is rich in gold and platinum--a metal found only there1 in ,brazil1 and on the ,european side of the ,ural mountains--in alluvial deposits4 ,the largest piece of platinum that has been found weighed #ba ounces4 ,gold is found in sand and gravel on the high plains of the ,andes1 on the low lands to the east of them1 and in almost all the rivers that flow on that side4 ,the whole country between ,jaen de ,bracamores and the ,guaviare is celebrated for its metallic riches4 ,almost all the ,brazilian rivers bring down gold2 and the mine of ,gongo ,socco1 near ,rio de ,janeiro1 is said to yield several varieties of gold-ore4 ,central ,america1 ,mexico1 and ,california are auriferous countries4 ,the quantity of gold recently found near the surface in ,california is very great4 ,there is no definite statement of the amount4 ,a considerable quantity is found in ,tennessee1 the mountains of ,georgia1 and on #ajjj square miles of ,north ,carolina it occurs in grains and masses4 ,a great deal of silver is raised in ,europe4 ,the mines of ,hungary are the most productive1 especially those in the mountains of ,chemnitz4 ,the metalliferous mountains of the ,erzgebirge are also very rich1 as also the mines near ,christiania in ,sweden4 ,silver is also found in ,saxony1 ,transylvania1 and ,austria4 ,in no part of the old continent is silver in greater abundance than in the ,ural and ,alta mountains1 especially in the district of ,kolywan4 ,there are silver-mines in ,armenia1 ,anatolia1 ,tibet1 ,china1 ,cochin-,china1 and ,japan4 ,the richness of the ,andes in silver can hardly be conceived1 but the mines are frequently on such high ground that the profits are diminished by the difficulty of carriage1 the expense of living in a barren country1 sometimes destitute of water1 where the miners suffer from the cold and snow1 and especially the want of fuel4 ,this is particularly the case at the silver-mines of ,copiapo in ,chile1 where the country is utterly barren1 and not a drop of water is to be found in a circuit of nine miles4 ,these mines were discovered by a poor man in #ahcb1 who hit upon a mass of silver in rooting out a tree4 ,they extend over #aej square leagues4 ,sixteen veins of silver were found in the first four days1 and1 before three weeks elapsed1 forty more1 not reckoning smaller ramifications1 were discovered4 ,the rolled pieces which lay on the surface produced a large quantity of pure silver4 ,a single mass weighed #ejjj pounds4#aja ,in ,peru there are silver-mines along the whole range of the ,andes1 from ,caxamarea to the confines of the desert of ,atacama4 ,the richest at present are those of ,pasco1 which were discovered by an ,indian in #afcj4 ,they have been worked without interruption since the beginning of the seventeenth century1 and seem to be still inexhaustible4 ,the soil under the town of ,pasco is metalliferous1 the ores probably forming a series of beds contemporaneous with the strata4 ,the richness of these beds is not everywhere the same1 but the nests of ore are numerous4 ,the mines of ,potosi1 #af1aej feet above the sea-level1 are celebrated for riches1 but the owners have to contend with all the difficulties which such a situation imposes4 ,the small depth at which the silver lies on the high plains of the ,andes1 and the quantity of it on the surface1 is probably owing1 as has been already stated1 to the greater deposition of the sublimed mineral from refrigeration near the surface4 ,the ore in the mines at ,chota is near the surface over an extent of half a square league1 and the filaments of silver are sometimes even entwined with the roots of the grass4 ,this mine is #ac1cjj feet above the level of the sea1 and even in summer the thermometer is below the freezing-point in the night4 ,in the district of ,huantajaya1 not far from the borders of the ,pacific1 there are mines where masses of pure silver are found1 of which one weighed #hjj pounds4#ajb ,according to ,baron ,humboldt1 the quantity of the precious metals brought to ,europe between the discovery of ,america and the year #ahjc was worth #abeg millions sterling2 and the silver alone taken from the mines during that period would form a ball #hi feet in diameter4 ,the disturbed state of the ,south ,american republics has interfered with the working of the mines4 ,lead-ore is very often combined with silver1 and is then called ,argentiferous ,galena4 ,it is one of the principal productions of the ,british mines1 especially in the northern mining district1 which occupies #djj square miles at the junction of ,northumberland1 ,cumberland1 ,westmoreland1 ,durham1 and ,yorkshire4 ,it comprises ,alstan ,moor1 the mountain-ridge of ,crossfell1 and the dales of ,derwent1 ,east and ,west ,allen1 the ,wear1 and ,tees4 ,there are other extensive mining tracts separated from this by cultivated ground4 ,the principal products of this rich district are lead and copper4 ,the lead-mines lie chiefly in the upper dales of the ,tyne1 ,wear1 and ,tees1 and all of it contains more or less silver1 though not always enough to indemnify the expense of refining or separating the silver4 ,the deleterious vapours resulting from this process are conveyed in a tube along the surface of the ground for #ad miles2 and instead of being1 as formerly1 a dead loss to the proprietor1 they are condensed in their passage1 and in one instance yield metal to the annual value of #aj1jjjl4#ajc ,the ,hudgillburn lead-mine in that district has yielded treasures almost unexampled in the annals of mining4 ,the veins1 from ten to twelve1 and in some places even twenty feet wide1 were filled with ore which is entirely obtained with the pickaxe1 without blasting4 ,in #ahba the galena of this mine yielded #cb1jjj ounces of silver4 ,lead-mines are in operation in ,france1 but not to any great amount3 those of the south of ,spain furnish large quantities of this metal2 also in ,saxony1 ,bohemia1 and ,carinthia1 where they are very rich4 ,lead is not very frequently found in ,siberia1 though it does occur in the ,nerchinsk mining district1 in the basin of the river ,amur4 ,it is also a production of ,china1 of the peninsula beyond the ,ganges1 and of ,america4 ,it is also found in ,lower ,peru1 ,mexico1 and in ,california1 where the richest argentiferous lead is worked4 ,the northwest country1 or ,upper ,mississippi ,valley1 is among the most remarkable in the world for the variety and abundance of its mineral deposits1 and especially for those which are of most extensive use in the arts4 ,the sulphuret of lead occupies about one degree of latitude1 extending north from a point on the ,mississippi1 about eight miles below ,galena1 and lying on both sides1 varying in width1 till it covers as great an extent from east to west4 ,on the east side of the river the lead-ore is found principally in a clay matrix1 at a depth of sometimes only five or six feet from the surface2 on the west side of the river it runs at the depth of one hundred feet or more1 overlaid with magnesian limestone4 ,to the south-west of the lead deposit is a very abundant bed of iron1 about forty miles long by twenty-five broad4 ,the copper region extends north from the lead deposits to ,lake ,superior2 it embraces about three hundred square miles4 ,to the south of the lead region is a vast bed of bituminous coal of good quality1 at no great distance below the surface4 ,in the mineral district there are about four thousand persons employed in digging lead-ore4 ,the value of the lead annually produced is estimated at #a1ejj1jjj4 ,a considerable quantity1 in form of pig-lead1 is exported to ,china4 ,quicksilver--a metal so important in separating silver from its ores1 and in other arts as well as in medicine--occurs either liquid in the native state1 or combined with sulphur in that of cinnabar4 ,it is found in the mines of ,idria and some other places in the ,austrian empire1 in the ,palatinate on the left bank of the ,rhine1 and in ,spain4 ,the richest quicksilver mines of ,europe1 at the present day1 are those of ,almaden1 where the quicksilver is found in the state of sulphuret chiefly4 ,these mines were worked #gjj years before the ,christian era1 and as many as #abjj tons of the metal are extracted annually4 ,it occurs in ,china1 ,japan1 and ,ceylon1 at ,san ,onofro in ,mexico2 and in ,peru1 at ,guancavelica1 the mines of which1 now almost deserted1 produced1 up to the beginning of the present century1 the enormous quantity of #ed1jjj tons of quicksilver4 ,the discovery of quicksilver mines in ,california has been announced4 ,copper is of such common occurrence that it would be vain to enumerate the localities where it is found4 ,it is produced in ,africa and ,america1 in ,persia1 ,india1 ,china1 and ,japan4 ,the ,siberian mines are very productive both in ore and native copper4 ,malachite is the most beautiful of the ores1 and the choicest specimens come from ,siberia4 ,almost every country in ,europe yields copper4 ,the mines in ,sweden1 ,norway1 and ,germany are very productive2 and it forms a principal part of our own mineral wealth4 ,it is raised in all the principal mining districts in ,england and ,wales4 ,in ,cornwall it is very plentiful1 and is often associated with tin4 ,the period at which the ,cornish mines were first worked goes far beyond history1 or even tradition3 certain1 however1 it is that the ,phnicians came to ,britain for tin4 ,probably copper was also worked very early in small quantities1 for its exportation was forbidden in the time of ,henry ,,viii4 ,it was only in the beginning of the eighteenth century that the ,cornish copper-mines were worked with success1 in consequence of the invention of an improved machine for draining them4#ajd ,on the lands south of ,lake ,superior is a body of copper ore1 supposed to be the richest in the world4 ,it is almost pure in some specimens3 so that1 as taken from the earth1 it was wrought into church utensils by some of the ,french who first visited the place2 and a portion of the large rock deposited on the grounds of the ,war ,department1 at ,washington1 has been polished so as to present the appearance of sheet-copper4 ,at a recent meeting of the 8,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science10 held at ,cambridge1 ,mass41 ,august #ahdi1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,hodge1 speaking of the mineral region of ,lake ,superior1 said3--8,the mines are wrought wholly for native copper4 ,the veinstone with scattered particles1 furnish what is called stamp work2 which is crushed under heavy stamps and then washed2 the lumps are called barrel ore1 being packed in barrels for transportation2 and the masses1 after being cut up into pieces not exceeding two tons in weight1 are shipped in bulk4 ,the size of some of these masses is so enormous as almost to exceed belief4 ,they have been broken up in the ,cliff mine of #fj and even #hj tons in weight4 ,such pieces are reduced1 in the mine1 to fragments of seven tons weight and less1 and after being hoisted to the surface are still further reduced4 8,at the ,minesota mine1 near the ,ontonagon river1 ,i had an opportunity of examining1 in ,june1 the most extraordinary mass yet met with4 ,two shafts had been sunk on the line of the vein #aej feet apart4 ,at the depth of about #cj feet they struck massive copper1 which lay in a huge sheet with the same underlay as that of the vein--about #ee towards the north4 ,leaving this sheet as a hanging wall1 a level was run under it connecting the two shafts4 ,for this whole distance of #aej feet the mass appears to be continuous1 and how much further it goes on the line of the vein either way there is no evidence1 nor beside to what depth it penetrates in the solid vein4 ,i examined it with care1 striking it repeatedly with my hammer in order to detect1 if possible1 by the sound1 any break or interruption there might be in the mass--for a thin scale of stone encrusted it sometimes and concealed the face of the metal4 ,examinations had been made by drilling through this scale1 where it attained the thickness of an inch or so2 but in no place had any sign of a break been found4 ,it forms the whole hanging wall of the level1 showing a width of at least eight feet above the floor in which its lower edge was lost4 ,it had been cut through in only one place1 where a partial break afforded a convenient opportunity4 ,measuring the thickness here as well as the irregular shape of the gap admitted1 it was found somewhat to exceed five feet4 ,assuming the thickness to average only one foot1 there would be in this mass #abjj cubic feet1 or about #bej tons--still it is not safe to assume even one foot1 for the masses vary extremely in thickness4 8,the mode adopted to remove these masses is to cut channels through them with cold chisels1 after they are shattered by large sand blasts put in behind them4 ,grooves are cut with the chisels across their smallest places1 one man holding1 and another striking1 as in drilling4 ,a chip of copper three-quarters of an inch wide1 and up to six inches in length1 is taken out1 and the process is repeated until the groove passes through the mass4 ,the expense of this work is from eight to twelve dollars per superficial foot of the face exposed4 ,fragments of veinstone enclosed in the copper prevent the use of saws4 ,a powerful machine1 occupying little room1 is much needed1 which would perform more economically this work4 8,the greatest thickness of any mass cut through at the ,cliff ,mine has been about three feet4 ,their occurrence through the vein is not regular4 ,barren spots alternate with productive portions4 ,the same is the case in all the mines4 ,the total product of the ,cliff ,mine for the year #ahdh is estimated at #hcj tons1 averaging #fj per cent4 ,during the present year more than half this amount has been already sent down1 and there is enough more on the surface and in sight in the mine to warrant the belief that #ajjj tons will be the product of the year's work1 or #fjj tons of copper4 ,the whole amount of copper annually imported into the ,united ,states is about the value of two million dollars1 or about #edjj tons4 ,but little has been supplied from our own mines4 ,nine such mines1 then1 as the ,cliff1 would render us independent of foreign supplies4 ,from present appearances1 after careful examination of the region1 and consideration of the progress made in mining since my last visit in #ahdf1 ,i feel myself warranted in expressing a decided conviction that this amount of copper must be supplied in very few years1 and this metal soon become1 as lead already has1 one of export instead of import4 ,the recent failures of mining speculations1 wildly undertaken1 and ignorantly and extravagantly conducted1 may for a time check the development of these mines2 but their wonderfully rich character is now beginning to be properly appreciated1 as well as the reliance which may be put in the surface-appearance of the veins4 ,some curious features in their character and distribution have been detected1 which have heretofore escaped observation for want of sufficient data1 and which will1 ,i believe1 be found of great consequence in the selection of the best localities4 ,these1 after farther examination1 ,i may at another time make public4 ,the history of these mines1 so far1 has remarkably proved the foresight and excellent judgment of the lamented ,dr4 ,houghton1 particularly so in his predictions of the disastrous effects that must result from such speculations as have caused the country to be overrun by hordes of adventurers4 8,the silver found associated with the copper has not proved of much importance1 perhaps for the reason that the greater part of it is purloined by the miners4 ,the ,cliff ,mine has probably yielded more than thirty thousand dollars worth1 of which not more than a tenth part has been secured by the proprietors4 ,i saw myself1 the present season1 no less than six pounds and eight ounces of lumps and bars of silver seized in the hands of an absconding workman40 ,in ,cornwall clay-slate rests upon granite1 and is traversed by porphyritic dykes4 ,the veins which contain copper or tin1 or both1 run east and west1 and penetrate both the granite and the clay-slate4 ,the non-metalliferous veins run north and south2 and if veins in that direction do contain any metal1 it never is tin or copper1 but lead1 silver1 cobalt1 or antimony1 which with little exception are believed to be always in the clay-slate4 ,no miner in ,cornwall has ever seen the end or bottom of a vein2 their width varies from the thickness of a sheet of paper to #cj feet2 the average is from one to three feet4 ,it rarely happens that either tin or copper is found nearer the surface than #hj or #ajj feet4 ,if tin be first discovered1 it sometimes disappears after sinking the mine #ajj feet deeper1 when copper is found1 and in some instances tin is found #ajjj feet deep without a trace of copper2 but if copper is first discovered1 it is very rarely succeeded by tin4 ,tin is found in rolled pieces1 in horizontal beds of sand and gravel1 and is called stream-tin4 ,the most valuable tin-mines on the continent of ,europe are those in ,saxony2 it also occurs in ,france1 ,bohemia1 and ,spain4 ,one of the richest deposits of tin known is in the province of ,tenasserim1 on the east side of the gulf of ,martaban1 in the ,malayan peninsula4 ,these deposits occur in several parts of that country2 the richest is a layer eight or ten feet thick of sand and gravel1 in which masses of oxide of tin are sometimes the size of a pigeon's egg4 ,the best of all comes from the island of ,banca1 at the extremity of the ,malacca peninsula2 a large portion of it is imported into ,britain1 and much goes to ,china4 ,it is found in the alluvial tracts through every part of the island1 rarely more than #be feet below the surface4 ,great deposits occur also in the ,siberian mining district of ,nertshinsk1 near the desert of the ,great ,gobi1 and in ,bolivia1 near ,oruro4 ,there are comparatively few coal-mines worked within the tropics2 they are mostly in the temperate zones1 especially between the ,arctic ,circle and the ,tropic of ,cancer2 and as iron1 the most useful of metals1 is chiefly found in the carboniferous strata1 it follows the same distribution4 ,in fact1 the most productive iron-mines yet known are in the temperate zones4 ,in the eastern mining district of ,siberia1 in the valley of the river ,vilui1 the ores are very rich1 and very abundant in many parts of the ,alta and ,ural4 ,in the latter1 the mountain of ,blagod1 at #aecd feet above the sea1 is one mass of magnetic iron-ore4#aje ,coal and iron are worked in so many parts of ,northern ,china1 ,japan1 ,india1 and ,eastern ,asia1 that it would be tedious to enumerate them4 ,in ,europe the richest mines of iron1 like those of coal1 lie chiefly north of the ,alps4 ,sweden1 ,norway1 ,russia1 ,germany1 ,styria1 ,belgium1 and ,france1 all contain it plentifully4 ,in ,britain many of the coalfields contain subordinate beds of a rich argillaceous iron-ore1 interstratified with coal1 worked at the same time and in the same manner2 besides1 there is a substratum of limestone1 which serves as a flux for melting the metal4 ,the mines lie near ,birmingham1 on the northeast frontier of the great coal-basin of ,south ,wales1 near ,pontypool and ,merthyr ,tydvil4 ,there are extensive iron-mines in ,staffordshire1 ,shropshire1 ,north and ,south ,wales1 ,yorkshire1 ,derbyshire1 and ,scotland4 ,altogether there are about #bbj mines1 which yield iron sufficient for our own enormous consumption1 and for exportation4 ,these productive mines would have been of no avail had it not been for the abundance of fuel with which the greater part of them in the north of ,england1 ,scotland1 and ,wales are associated--the great source of our national wealth1 more precious than mines of gold4 ,most of the coal-mines would have been inaccessible but for the means which their produce affords of draining them at a small expense4 ,a bushel of coals1 which costs only a few pence1 in the furnace of a steam-engine generates a power which in a few minutes will raise #bj1jjj gallons of water from a depth of #cfj feet--an effect which could not be accomplished in a shorter time than a whole day by the continuous labour of twenty men working with the common pump4 ,yet this circumstance1 so far from lessening the demand for human labour1 has caused a greater number of men to be employed in the mines4#ajf ,the coal strata lie in basins1 dipping from the sides towards the centre1 which is often at a vast depth below the surface of the ground4 ,the centre of the ,liege coal-basin is #ba1ceh feet1 or #c-a_/b geographical miles deep1 which is easily estimated from the dip1 or inclination1 of the strata at the edges1 and the extent of the basin4 ,the coal lies in strata of small thickness and great extent4 ,it varies in thickness from #c to #i feet1 though in some instances several layers come together1 and then it is #bj and even #cj feet thick2 but these layers are interrupted by frequent dislocations1 which raise the coal-seam towards the surface4 ,these fissures1 which divide the coalfield into insulated masses1 are filled with clay1 so that an accumulation of water takes place1 which must be pumped up4 ,there are three immense coalfields in ,england4 ,the first lies north of the ,trent1 and occupies an area of #cfj square miles2 and although the quantity of coal annually raised in ,northumberland and ,durham amounts to a million and a half of tons1 there is enough to last #ajjj years4 ,london is chiefly supplied from it4 ,the second or central coalfield1 which includes ,leicester1 ,worcester1 ,stafford1 and ,shropshire1 has an area of #adie square miles1 and supplies the manufactories round it1 and the midland counties south and east of ,derbyshire4 ,the third or western coalfield includes ,south ,wales1 ,gloucestershire1 and ,somersetshire4 ,the coalfield of ,south ,wales alone is #ajj miles long1 and #ah or #bj broad4 ,the ,workington and ,whitehaven coal-mines go a mile under the sea2 several shafts in the latter are #ajj fathoms deep2 and it is one of the finest in ,england for extent and thickness of strata1 some of the seams being nine feet thick4 ,the ,scotch coal-measures occupy the great central low-land of ,scotland1 lying between the southern high lands and the ,highland mountains2 the whole of that rude tract is occupied by them1 besides which there are other coalfields of less extent4 ,coal has been found in seventeen counties in ,ireland1 but the island contains only four principal coal districts--,leinster1 ,munster1 ,connaught1 and ,ulster4 ,thus1 there is coal enough in the ,british islands to last some thousands of years2 and were it exhausted1 our friends across the ,atlantic have enough to supply the world for ages uncountable4 ,moreover1 if science continues to advance at the rate it has lately done1 a substitute for coal will probably be discovered before our own mines are worked out4#ajg ,the carboniferous strata are enormously developed in the ,states of ,north ,america4 ,the ,appalachian coalfield extends1 without interruption1 #gbj miles1 with a maximum breadth of #bhj miles1 from the northern border of ,pennsylvania to near ,huntsville1 in ,alabama1 occupying an area of #fc1jjj square miles4 ,it is intersected by three great navigable rivers--the ,monogahela1 the ,alleghany1 and the ,ohio--which expose to view the seams of coal on their banks4 ,the ,pittsburgh seam1 #aj feet thick1 exposed on the banks of the ,monogahela1 extends1 horizontally1 #bbe miles in length and #ajj in breadth1 and covers an area of #ad1jjj square miles1 so that this seam of coal may be worked for ages almost on the surface1 and in many places literally so4 ,indeed1 the facility is so great1 that it is more profitable to convey the coal by water to ,new ,orleans1 #aajj miles distant1 than to cut down the trees with which the country is covered for fuel1 and which may be had for the expense of felling4 ,the coal is bituminous1 similar to the greater part of the ,british coal2 forty miles to the east1 however1 among the ridges of the ,appalachian chain1 there is an extensive outlying member of the great coalfield1 which yields anthracite1 a species of coal which has the advantage of burning without smoke4 ,in the western ,states1 the ,illinois coalfield1 which occupies part of ,illinois1 ,indiana1 and ,kentucky1 is as large as ,england1 and consists of horizontal strata1 with numerous seams of rich bituminous coal4 ,there is a vast coalfield also in ,michigan4 ,large areas in ,new ,brunswick and ,nova ,scotia abound in coal4 ,iron is worked in many parts of the ,states1 from ,connecticut to ,south ,carolina4#aji ,the tropical regions of the globe have been so little explored that no idea can be formed of the quantity of coal or iron they contain2 but as iron is so universal1 it is probable that coal is not wanting4 ,it is found in ,formosa4 ,both abound in ,borneo1 and in various parts of tropical ,africa and ,america4 ,there is comparatively so little land in the southern temperate zone1 that the mineral produce must be more limited than in the northern1 yet ,new ,holland1 ,van ,diemen's ,land1 and ,new ,zealand are rich in coal and iron4 ,arsenic1 used in the arts and manufactures1 is generally found combined with other metals in many countries as well as our own4 ,manganese1 zinc1 bismuth1 and antimony are raised to a considerable amount4 ,as the qualities of the greater part of the more rare metals are little known1 they have hitherto been interesting chiefly to the mineralogist4 ,the mines of rock-salt in ,cheshire seem to be inexhaustible4 ,enormous deposits of salt extend #fjj miles on each side of the ,carpathian mountains1 and throughout wide districts in ,austria1 ,gallicia1 and ,spain4 ,it would not be easy to enumerate the places in ,asia where rock-salt has been found4 ,armenia1 ,syria1 and extensive tracts in the ,punjab abound in it1 also ,china and the ,ural district2 and the ,andes contain vast deposits of rock-salt1 some at great heights4 ,volcanic countries in both continents yield sulphur4 ,sicily1 where it is found in the tertiary marine strata1 unconnected with the volcanic district1 is the magazine which supplies the greater part of the manufactures of ,europe4 ,it is often found beautifully crystallized4 ,asphalt1 nitre1 alum1 and naphtha are found in various parts of ,europe and ,asia1 and natron is procured from small lakes in an oasis on the west of the ,valley of the ,nile4 ,the diffusion of precious stones is very limited4 ,diamonds are mostly found in a soil of sand and gravel1 and in the beds of rivers4 ,brazil furnishes most of the diamonds in commerce2 they are the produce of tracts on each side of the ,sierra ,espenhao1 and of a district watered by some of the affluents of the ,rio ,san ,francesco4 ,during the century ending in #ahbb1 diamonds were collected in ,brazil to the value of three millions sterling1 one of which weighed #ach-a_/b carats4 ,the celebrated mines of ,golconda have produced many splendid diamonds2 they are also found in ,borneo1 which produced one weighing #cfg carats1 valued at #bfi1cghl4 ,the eastern parts of the ,thian-,tchan1 on the great platform of ,asia1 and a wide district of the ,ural ,mountains1 yield diamonds4 ,the ruby and sapphire have the same crystalline form1 and are nearly allied to corundum2 both are found in ,ceylon1 in the gravel of streams4 ,the rubies at ,gharan1 on the verge of the river ,oxus1 are found imbedded in limestone4 ,the gravel of rivulets in the ,birman empire contains the oriental1 star1 and opalescent rubies4 ,the spinelle also occurs in that country in a district five days' journey from ,ava4 ,the ,hungarian rubies are of inferior value4 ,the blue1 green1 yellow1 and white sapphires are the produce of the ,birman empire1 and the spinelle is not uncommon in ,brazil4 ,the finest emeralds come from veins of clay-slate in the valley of ,musa1 in ,new ,grenada4 ,beryls are found in ,brazil1 and in the old mines in ,mount ,zabarah1 in ,upper ,egypt4 ,those of ,hungary and of the ,heubach ,valley1 near ,saltzburg1 are very inferior in colour and quality4 ,hungary and ,bohemia yield the finest opals2 the most esteemed are opaque1 of a pale brown1 and shine with the most brilliant iridescence2 some are white1 transparent1 or semi-transparent1 and radiant in colours3 the precious opal is found in ,hungary and in ,mexico4 ,the most beautiful garnets come from ,bohemia and ,hungary2 they are found in the ,hartz mountains1 ,ceylon1 and many other localities4 ,the turquoise is a ,persian gem1 and supposed to be the fossilized enamel of the tooth of a fossil mastodon2 it is also found in ,tibet and in the ,belat-,tagh in ,badakshan1 which is the country of the lapis lazuli1 mined by heating the rock1 and then throwing cold water upon it4 ,this beautiful mineral is also found in several places of the ,hindoo ,coosh1 in the hills of ,istalif north of ,cabool1 in ,tibet1 and in the ,baikal mountains in ,siberia4 ,the cat's-eye is peculiar to ,ceylon2 the king of ,kandy had one two inches broad4 ,topaz1 beryl1 and amethyst are of very common occurrence1 especially in ,brazil1 ,siberia1 and other places4 ,they are little valued1 and scarcely accounted gems4 ,agates are so beautiful on the table-land of ,tibet1 and in some parts of the desert of the ,great ,gobi1 that they form a considerable article of commerce in ,china2 and some are brought to ,rome1 where they are cut into cameos and intaglios4 ,but the greater part of the agates1 cornelians1 and chalcedonies used in ,europe are found in the trap-rocks of ,oberstein1 in the ,palatinate4 ,thus1 by her unseen ministers1 electricity and reciprocal action1 the great artificer ,nature has adorned the depths of the earth and the heart of the mountains with her most admirable works1 filling the veins with metals1 and building the atoms of matter1 with the most elegant and delicate symmetry1 into innumerable crystalline forms of inimitable grace and beauty4 ,the calm and still exterior of the earth gives no indication of the activity that prevails in its bosom1 where treasures are preparing to enrich future generations of man4 ,gold will still be sought for in the deep mine1 and the diamond will be gathered among the dbris of the mountains1 while time endures4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,the ,ocean--its ,size1 ,colour1 ,pressure1 and ,saltness--,tides--,waves--their ,height and ,force--,currents--their ,effect on ,voyages--,temperature--,the ,stratum of ,constant ,temperature--,line of ,maximum ,temperature--,north and ,south ,polar ,ice--,inland ,seas4 ,,the ocean1 which fills a deep cavity in the globe1 and covers three-fourths of its surface1 is so unequally distributed that there is three times more land in the northern than in the southern hemisphere4 ,the torrid zone is chiefly occupied by sea1 and only one twenty-seventh part of the land on one side of the earth has land opposite to it on the other4 ,the form assumed by this immense mass of water is that of a spheroid1 flattened at the poles2 and as its mean level is nearly the same1 for anything we know to the contrary1 it serves as a base to which all heights of land are referred4 ,the bed of the ocean1 like that of the land1 of which it is the continuation1 is diversified by plains and mountains1 table-lands and valleys1 sometimes barren1 sometimes covered with marine vegetation1 and teeming with life4 ,now it sinks into depths which the sounding-line has never fathomed1 now it appears in chains of islands1 or rises near to the surface in hidden reefs and shoals1 perilous to the mariner4 ,springs of fresh water rise from the bottom1 volcanos eject their lavas and scori1 and earthquakes trouble the deep waters4 ,the ocean is continually receiving the spoils of the land1 and from that cause would constantly be decreasing in depth1 and1 as the quantity of water is always the same1 its superficial extent would increase4 ,there are1 however1 counteracting causes to check this tendency3 the secular elevation of the land over extensive tracts in many parts of the world is one of the most important4 ,volcanos1 coral islands1 and barrier-reefs show that great changes of level are constantly taking place in the bed of the ocean itself--that symmetrical bands of subsidence and elevation extend alternately over an area equal to a hemisphere1 from which it may be concluded that the balance is always maintained between the sea and land1 although the distribution may vary in the lapse of time4 ,the ,pacific1 or ,great ,ocean1 exceeds in superficies all the dry land on the globe4 ,it has an area of #ej millions of square miles2 including the ,indian ,ocean1 its area is nearly #gj millions2 and its breadth from ,peru to the coast of ,africa is #af1jjj miles4 ,its length is less than the ,atlantic1 as it only communicates with the ,arctic ,ocean by ,behring's ,straits1 whereas the ,atlantic1 as far as we know1 stretches from pole to pole4 ,the continent of ,australia occupies a comparatively small portion of the ,pacific1 while innumerable islands stud its surface many degrees on either side of the equator1 of which a great number are volcanic1 showing that its bed has been1 and indeed actually is1 the theatre of violent igneous eruptions4 ,so great is its depth1 that a line five miles long has not reached the bottom in many places2 yet as the whole mass of the ocean counts for little in the total amount of terrestrial gravitation1 its mean depth is but a small fraction of the radius of the globe4 ,the bed of the ,atlantic is a long deep valley1 with few mountains1 or at least but few that raise their summits as islands above its surface4 ,its greatest breadth1 including the ,gulf of ,mexico1 is #ejjj miles1 and its superficial extent is about #be millions of square miles4 ,this sea is exceedingly deep3 in #bg #bf ,s4 latitude and #ag #bi ,w4 longitude ,sir ,james ,ross found the depth to be #ad1eej feet2 about #dej miles west from the ,cape of ,good ,hope it was #af1jfb feet1 or #ccb feet more than the height of ,mont ,blanc2 and #ijj miles west from ,st4 ,helena a line of #bg1fjj feet did not reach the bottom1 a depth which is equal to the height of some of the most elevated peaks of the ,himalaya2 but there is reason to believe that many parts of the ocean are still deeper4 ,a great part of the ,german ,ocean is only #ic feet deep1 though on the ,norwegian side1 where the coast is bold1 the depth is #aij fathoms4 ,immense sandbanks often project from the land1 which rise from great depths to within a few fathoms of the surface4 ,of these1 the ,aghullas ,banks1 off the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 are amongst the most remarkable2 those of ,newfoundland are still greater in extent3 they consist of a double sandbank1 which is supposed to reach to the north of ,scotland4 ,the ,dogger ,bank1 in the ,north ,sea1 and many others1 are well known4 ,according to ,mr4 ,stevenson1 one-fifth of the ,german ,ocean is occupied by sandbanks1 whose average height is #gh feet1 an area equal to about one-third of ,great ,britain4 ,currents are sometimes deflected from their course by sandbanks whose tops do not come within #ej or even #ajj feet of the surface4 ,some on the coast of ,norway are surrounded by such deep water that they must be submarine table-lands4 ,all are the resort of fish4 ,the pressure at the great depths is enormous4 ,in the ,arctic ,ocean1 where the specific gravity of the water is lessened1 on account of the greater proportion of fresh water produced by the melting of the ice1 the pressure at the depth of a mile and a quarter is #bhji pounds on a square inch of surface2 this was confirmed by ,captain ,scoresby1 who says1 in his 8,arctic ,voyages10 that the wood of a boat suddenly dragged to a great depth by a whale was found1 when drawn up1 so saturated with water forced into its pores1 that it sank in water like a stone for a year afterwards4 ,even sea-water is reduced in bulk from #bj to #ai solid inches at the depth of #bj miles4 ,the compression that a whale can endure is wonderful4 ,many species of fish are capable of sustaining great pressure1 as well as sudden changes of pressure4 ,divers in the pearl-fisheries exert great muscular strength1 but man cannot bear the increased pressure at great depths1 because his lungs are full of air1 nor can he endure the diminution of it at great altitudes above the earth4 ,the depth to which the sun's light penetrates the ocean depends upon the transparency of the water1 and cannot be less than twice the depth to which a person can see from the surface4 ,in parts of the ,arctic ,ocean shells are distinctly seen at the depth of #hj fathoms2 and among the ,west ,india islands1 in #hj fathoms of water1 the bed of the sea is as clear as if seen in air2 shells1 corals1 and sea-weeds of every hue display the tints of the rainbow4 ,the purest spring is not more limpid than the water of the ocean2 it absorbs all the prismatic colours1 except that of ultramarine1 which1 being reflected in every direction1 imparts a hue approaching the azure of the sky4 ,the colour of the sea varies with every gleam of sunshine or passing cloud1 although its true tint is always the same when seen sheltered from atmospheric influence4 ,the reflection of a boat on the shady side is often of the clearest blue1 while the surface of the water exposed to the sun is bright as burnished gold4 ,the waters of the ocean also derive their colour from animalcules of the infusorial kind1 vegetable substances1 and minute particles of matter4 ,it is white in the ,gulf of ,guinea1 black round the ,maldives2 off ,california the ,vermilion ,sea is so called on account of the red colour of the infusoria it contains2 the same red colour was observed by ,magellan near the mouth of the river ,plate4 ,the ,persian ,gulf is called the ,green ,sea by eastern geographers1 and there is a trail of green water off the ,arabian coast so distinct that a ship has been seen in green and blue water at the same time4 ,rapid transitions take place in the ,arctic ,sea1 from ultramarine to olive-green1 from purity to opacity4 ,these appearances are not delusive1 but constant as to place and colour2 the green is produced by myriads of minute insects1 which devour one another and are a prey to the whale4 ,the colour of clearer shallow water depends upon that of its bed2 over chalk or white-sand it is apple-green1 over yellow sand dark-green1 brown or black over dark ground1 and grey over mud4 ,the sea is supposed to have acquired its saline principle when the globe was in the act of subsiding from a gaseous state4 ,the density of sea-water depends upon the quantity of saline matter it contains3 the proportion is generally a little above #c per cent41 though it varies in different places2 the ocean contains more salt in the southern than in the northern hemisphere1 the ,atlantic more than the ,pacific4 ,the greatest proportion of salt in the ,pacific is in the parallels of #bb ,n4 lat4 and #ag ,s4 lat42 near the equator it is less1 and in the ,polar ,seas it is least1 from the melting of the ice4 ,the saltness varies with the seasons in these regions1 and the fresh water1 being lightest1 is uppermost4 ,rain makes the surface of the sea fresher than the interior parts1 and the influx of rivers renders the ocean less salt at their estuaries2 the ,atlantic is brackish #cjj miles from the mouth of the ,amazons4 ,deep seas are more saline than those that are shallow1 and inland seas communicating with the ocean are less salt1 from the rivers that flow into them2 to this1 however1 the ,mediterranean is an exception1 occasioned by the great evaporation1 and the influx of salt currents from the ,atlantic4 ,the water in the ,straits of ,gibraltar at the depth of #fgj fathoms is four times as salt as that at the surface4 ,fresh water freezes at the temperature of #cb of ,fahrenheit2 the point of congelation of salt water is much lower4 ,as the specific gravity of the water of the ,greenland ,sea is about #ajbffd1 it does not freeze till its temperature is reduced to #bh-a_/b of ,fahrenheit1 so that the saline principle preserves the sea in a liquid state to a much higher latitude than if it had been fresh1 while it is better suited for navigation by its greater buoyancy4 ,the healthfulness of the sea is ascribed to the mixing of the water by tides and currents which prevents the accumulation of putrescent matter4 ,besides its saline ingredients1 the sea contains bromine and iodine in very minute quantities1 and1 no doubt1 portions of other substances too small to be detected by chemical analysis1 since it has constantly received the dbris of the land and all its organized matter4 ,raised by the moon and modified by the sun1 the area of the ocean is elevated into great tidal waves which keep time with the attractions of these luminaries at each return to the upper and lower meridian4 ,the water under the moon is drawn from the earth by her attraction1 at the same time that she draws the earth from the water diametrically opposite to her1 in both cases producing a tide of nearly equal height4 ,the height to which the tides rise depends upon the relative positions of the sun and moon1 upon their declination and distance from the earth1 but much more upon local circumstances4 ,the spring-tides happen at new and full moon1 consequently1 twice in a month1 because in both cases the sun and moon are in the same meridian2 for when the moon is new they are in conjunction1 and when she is full they are in opposition1 and in each of these positions their attraction is combined to raise the water to its greatest height2 while1 on the contrary1 the neap or lowest tides happen when the moon is in quadrature1 or #ij distant from the sun1 for then they counteract each other's attraction to a certain degree4 ,the tides ordinarily happen twice in #bd hours1 because the rotation of the globe brings the same point of the ocean twice under the meridian of the moon2 but peculiar local circumstances sometimes affect the tides1 so as to produce only one tide in #bd hours1 while1 on the other hand1 there have been known three and even four tides in the same space of time4 ,as the earth revolves1 a succession of tides follow one another1 and are diffused over the ,pacific1 ,indian1 and ,atlantic ,oceans1 giving birth to the tides which wash the shores of the vast continents and islands which rise above their surfaces2 but in what manner those marginal tides branch off from the parent wave1 science has not yet determined3 we know only their course along each shore1 but are unable to connect these curves with the great ridge of the tidal wave4 ,in the ,atlantic the marginal wave travels towards the north1 and impinges upon the coasts of ,north ,america and of ,europe4 ,in the ,indian ,ocean it also pursues a northerly course1 and finally washes the shores of ,hindostan1 the ,bay of ,bengal1 and the ,arabian ,gulf3 while in the ,pacific1 on the contrary1 the waves diverge from the equator towards the poles--but in all they partake also of the westerly course of the moon4 ,although such are the directions in which the tides unquestionably proceed along the shores of those seas1 yet observations at islands in the open sea and towards the centres of the oceans contradict the idea of corresponding progressive waves throughout the entire area of those seas4 ,upon the coasts of ,britain and ,new ,brunswick the tides are high1 from the local circumstances of the coast and bottom of the sea2 while in the centre of the ocean1 where they are due to the action of the sun and moon only1 they are remarkably small4 ,the spring-tides rise more than #dj feet at ,bristol1 and in the ,bay of ,fundy1 in ,nova ,scotia1 they rise upwards of #ej feet2 the general height in the ,north ,atlantic is #aj or #ab feet1 but in the open and deep sea they are less2 and at ,st4 ,helena they are not more than #c feet1 whilst among the islands in the ,pacific they are scarcely perceptible4 ,the mean height of the tides will be increased by a very small quantity for ages to come1 in consequence of the decrease in the mean distance of the moon from the earth2 the contrary effect will take place after that period has elapsed1 and the moon's mean distance begins to increase again1 which it will continue to do for many ages4 ,thus1 the mean distance of the moon1 and the consequent minute increase in the height of the tides1 will oscillate between fixed limits for ever4#aaj ,the tidal wave extends to the bottom of the ocean1 and moves uniformly and with great speed in very deep water1 variably and slow in shallow water2 the time of propagation depends on the depth of the water as well as on the nature and form of the shores4 ,its velocity varies inversely as the square of the depth--a law which theoretically affords the means of ascertaining the proportionate depth of the sea in different parts2 it is one of the great constants of nature1 and is to fluids what the pendulum is to solids--a connecting link between time and force4 ,the great oceanic wave that twice a-day brings the tides to our shores1 has occupied a day and a half in travelling from the place where it was generated4 ,the wave first impinges on the west coast of ,ireland and ,england1 and then passes round the north of ,scotland1 up the ,north ,sea1 and enters the ,thames1 having made the tour of ,great ,britain in about #ah hours4 ,at the equator the tide-wave follows the moon at the rate of #ajjj miles an hour2 it moves very slowly in the northern seas on account of the shallowness of the water2 but the tides are so retarded by the form of the coasts and irregularities of the bottom of the sea1 that a tide is sometimes impeded by an obstacle till a second tide reaches the same point by a different course1 and the water rises to double the height it would otherwise have attained4 ,a complete extinction of the tide takes place when a high-water interferes in the same manner with a low-water1 as in the centre of the ,german ,ocean--a circumstance predicted by theory1 and confirmed by ,captain ,hewett1 who was not aware that such an interference existed4 ,when two unequal tides of contrary phases meet1 the greater overpowers the lesser1 and the resulting height is equal to their difference2 such varieties occur chiefly in channels among islands and at the estuaries of rivers4 ,when the tide flows suddenly up a river encumbered with shoals1 it checks the descent of the stream2 the water spreads over the sands1 and a high crested wave1 called a bore1 is driven with force up the channel4 ,this occurs in the ,ganges2 in the ,amazon1 at the equinoxes1 where1 during three successive days1 five of these destructive waves1 from #ab to #ae feet high1 follow one another up that river daily2 and in a lesser degree in some of our own rivers4 ,there may be some small flow of stream with the oceanic tide2 but that does not necessarily follow1 since the tide in the open ocean is merely an alternate rise and fall of the surface3 so that the wave1 not the stream1 follows the moon4 ,a bird resting on the sea is not carried forward as the waves rise and fall2 indeed1 if so heavy a body as water were to move at the rate of #ajjj miles in an hour1 it would cause universal destruction1 since in the most violent hurricanes the velocity of the wind hardly exceeds #ajj miles an hour4 ,during the passage of the great tidal wave in deep water1 the particles of the fluid glide for the moment over each other into a new arrangement1 and then retire to their places2 but this motion is extremely limited and momentary4 ,over shallows1 however1 and near the land1 both the water and the waves advance during the flow of the tide1 and roll on the beach4#aaa ,the friction of the wind combines with the tides in agitating the surface of the ocean1 and1 according to the theory of undulations1 each produces its effect independently of the other2 wind1 however1 not only raises waves1 but causes a transfer of superficial water also4 ,attraction between the particles of air and water1 as well as the pressure of the atmosphere1 brings its lower stratum into adhesive contact with the surface of the sea4 ,if the motion of the wind be parallel to the surface1 there will still be friction1 but the water will be smooth as a mirror2 but if it be inclined1 in however small a degree1 a ripple will appear4 ,the friction raises a minute wave1 whose elevation protects the water beyond it from the wind1 which consequently impinges on the surface at a small distance beyond2 thus1 each impulse1 combining with the other1 produces an undulation which continually advances4 ,those beautiful silvery streaks on the surface of a tranquil sea called cat's-paws by sailors1 are owing to a partial deviation of the wind from a horizontal direction4 ,the resistance of the water increases with the strength and inclination of the wind4 ,the agitation at first extends little below the surface1 but in long-continued gales even the deep water is troubled3 the billows rise higher and higher1 and1 as the surface of the sea is driven before the wind1 their 8monstrous heads10 impelled beyond the perpendicular1 fall in wreaths of foam4 ,sometimes several waves overtake one another1 and form a sublime and awful sea4 ,the highest waves known are those which occur during a north-west gale off the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 aptly called by the ancient ,portuguese navigators the ,cape of ,storms3 ,cape ,horn also seems to be the abode of the tempest4 ,the sublimity of the scene1 united to the threatened danger1 naturally leads to an over-estimate of the magnitude of the waves1 which appear to rise mountain-high1 as they are proverbially said to do3 there is1 however1 reason to doubt if the highest waves off the ,cape of ,good ,hope exceed #dj feet from the hollow trough to the summit4 ,the waves are short and abrupt in small shallow seas1 and on that account are more dangerous than the long rolling billows of the wide ocean4 8,the sea-shore after a storm presents a scene of infinite grandeur4 ,it exhibits the expenditure of gigantic force1 which impresses the mind with the presence of elemental power as sublime as the water-fall or the thunder4 ,long before the waves reach the shore they may be said to feel the bottom as the water becomes shallower1 for they increase in height1 but diminish in length4 ,finally1 the waves become higher1 more pointed1 assumes a form of unstable equilibrium1 totters1 becomes crested with foam1 breaks with great violence1 and continuing to break1 is gradually lessened in bulk till it ends in a fringed margin40#aab ,the waves raised by the wind are altogether independent of the tidal waves2 each maintains its undisturbed course2 and as the inequalities of the coasts reflect them in all directions1 they modify those they encounter and offer new resistance to the wind1 so that there may be three or four systems or series of co-existing waves1 all going in different directions1 while the individual waves of each maintain their parallelism4 ,the undulation called a ground-swell1 occasioned by the continuance of a heavy gale1 is totally different from the tossing of the billows1 which is confined to the area vexed by the wind2 whereas the ground-swell is rapidly transmitted through the ocean to regions far beyond the direct influence of the gale that raised it1 and it continues to heave the smooth and glassy surface of the deep long after the wind and the billows are at rest4 ,in the ,south ,pacific1 billows which must have travelled #ajjj miles against the trade-wind from the seat of the storm1 expend their fury on the lee side of the many coral islands which bedeck that sunny sea4#aac ,a swell sometimes comes from a quarter in direct opposition to the wind1 and occasionally from various points of the compass at the same time1 producing a vast commotion even in a dead calm1 without ruffling the surface4 ,they are the heralds that point out to the mariner the distant region where the tempest has howled1 and not unfrequently they are the harbingers of its approach4 ,at the margin of the polar ice1 in addition to other dangers1 there is generally a swell which would be very formidable to the mariner in thick weather1 did not the loud grinding noise of the ice warn him of his approach4 ,heavy swells are propagated through the ocean till they gradually subside from the friction of the water1 or till the undulation is checked by the resistance of land1 when they roll in surf to the shore1 or dash in spray and foam over the rocks4 ,the rollers at the ,cape de ,verde ,islands are seen at a great distance approaching like mountains4 ,when a gale is added to a ground-swell the commotion is great and the force of the surge tremendous1 tossing huge masses of rock and shaking the cliffs to their foundations4 ,during heavy gales on the coast of ,madras the surf breaks in nine fathoms water at the distance of four and even four and a half miles from the shore4 ,the violence of the tempest is sometimes so intense as to quell the billows and scatter its surface in a heavy shower called by sailors spoon-drift4 ,on such occasions saline particles have impregnated the air to the distance of #ej miles inland4 ,the force of the waves in gales of wind is tremendous2 from experiments made by ,mr4 ,stevenson1 civil engineer1 on the west coast of ,scotland1 exposed to the whole fury of the ,atlantic1 it appears that the average pressure of the waves during the summer months was equal to #faa pounds weight on a square foot of surface1 while in winter it was #bjhf pounds1 or three times as great4 ,during the storm that took place on the #ith of ,march1 #ahde1 it amounted to #fjhc pounds4 ,now1 as the pressure of a wave #bj feet high not in motion is only about half a ton on a square foot1 it shows how much of their force waves owe to their velocity4 ,the rolling breakers on the cliffs on the west coast of ,ireland are magnificent3 ,lord ,adair measured some that were #ej and even #aej feet high4 ,in the ,isle of ,man1 a block winch weighed about #aj stone was lifted from its place and carried inland during a north-westerly gale2 and in the ,hebrides a block of #db tons weight was moved several feet by the force of the waves4 ,the ,bell ,rock light-house in the ,german ,ocean1 though #aab feet high1 is literally buried in foam and spray to the very top during ground-swells when there is no wind4 ,on the #bjth of ,november1 #ahbg1 the spray rose #aag feet1 so that the pressure was computed by ,mr4 ,stevenson to be nearly three tons on a square foot4 ,the effect of a gale descends to a comparatively small distance below the surface2 the sea is probably tranquil at the depth of #bjj or #cjj feet2 were it not so1 the water would be turbid and shellfish would be destroyed4 ,anything that diminishes the friction of the wind smoothes the surface of the sea--for example1 oil or a small stream of packed ice1 which suppresses even a swell4 ,when the air is moist1 its attraction for water is diminished1 and consequently so is the friction2 hence the sea is not so rough in rainy as in dry weather4 ,currents of various extent1 magnitude1 and velocity disturb the tranquillity of the ocean2 some of them depend upon circumstances permanent as the globe itself1 others on ever-varying causes4 ,constant currents are produced by the combined action of the rotation of the earth1 the heat of the sun1 and the trade-winds2 periodical currents are occasioned by tides1 monsoons1 and other long-continued winds2 temporary currents arise from the tides1 melting ice1 and from every gale of some duration4 ,a perpetual circulation is kept up in the waters of the main by these vast marine streams2 they are sometimes superficial and sometimes submarine1 according as their density is greater or less than that of the surrounding sea4 ,the exchange of water between the poles and the equator affects the great currents of the ocean4 ,although these depend upon the same causes as the trade-winds1 they differ essentially in this respect--that whereas the atmosphere is heated from below by its contact with the earth1 and transmits the heat to the strata above1 the sea is heated at its surface by the direct rays of the sun1 which diminish the specific gravity of the upper strata1 especially between the tropics1 and also occasion strong and rapid evaporation1 both of which causes disturb the equilibrium of the ocean4 ,the rotation of the earth also gives the water a tendency to take an oblique direction in its flow towards the equatorial regions1 as1 in order to restore the equilibrium1 deranged by so many circumstances1 great streams perpetually descend from either pole4 ,when these currents leave the poles they flow towards the equator2 but1 before proceeding far1 their motion is deflected by the diurnal rotation of the earth4 ,at the poles they have no rotatory motion2 and although they gain it more and more in their progress to the equator1 which revolves at the rate of #ajjj miles an hour1 they arrive at the tropics before they have acquired the same velocity of rotation with the intertropical ocean4 ,on that account they are left behind1 and consequently seem to flow in a direction contrary to the diurnal rotation of the earth4 ,for that reason the whole surface of the ocean1 for #cj degrees on each side of the equator1 has an apparent tendency from east to west1 which produces all the effects of a great current or stream flowing in that direction4 ,the trade-winds1 which blow constantly in one direction1 combine to give this current a mean velocity of #aj or #aa miles in #bd hours4 ,it has been supposed that the primary currents1 as well as those derived from them1 are subject to periodical variations of intensity occasioned by the melting of the ice at each pole alternately4 ,in consequence of the uninterrupted expanse of ocean in the southern hemisphere1 the prevalence of westerly winds1 and the tendency of the polar water towards the equator1 a great oceanic current is originated in the ,antarctic ,sea4 ,driven by the prevailing winds1 the waters take an easterly direction inclining to the northward1 and one part sets upon the ,american coast1 where it is divided4 ,a small part doubles ,cape ,horn1 while the main cold stream flows down the ,american shore2 then turning suddenly to the west1 it loses itself in the great equatorial current of the ,pacific1 which crosses that ocean between the parallels of #bf ,s4 and #bd ,n4 in a vast stream nearly #cejj miles broad4 ,in the north this stream is interrupted by the coast of ,china1 the ,eastern ,peninsula1 and the islands of the ,indian ,archipelago2 but a part forces its way between the islands1 and joins the great equatorial current of the ,indian ,ocean1 which1 impelled by the ,s4,e4 trade-wind1 maintains a westerly course between the #ajth and #bjth parallels of south latitude2 as it approaches the ,island of ,madagascar the stream is divided2 one part runs to the north-west1 bends round the northern end of ,madagascar1 flows through the ,mosambique ,channel1 and1 being joined by the other branch1 it doubles the ,cape of ,good ,hope outside of the ,agullhas ,bank1 and1 under the name of the ,south ,atlantic ,current1 it runs along the west coast of ,africa to the parallel of ,st4 ,helena4 ,there it is deflected by the coast of ,guinea1 and forms the ,great ,atlantic ,equatorial ,current1 which flows westward and divides upon ,cape ,st4 ,roque in ,brazil4 ,one branch of the stream setting southward along the continent of ,south ,america1 becomes insensible before it reaches the ,straits of ,magellan2 but an offset from it stretches directly across the ,atlantic to the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 having made the circuit of the ,south ,atlantic ,ocean1 and keeping #aej miles outside of the ,cape or ,agullhas current1 which runs in the opposite direction1 it pursues its course into the ,indian ,ocean1 where traces of it are met with #bjjj miles from the ,cape4 ,the principal branch of the great equatorial current takes a northerly course from off ,cape ,st4 ,roque1 and rushes along the coast of ,brazil with such force and depth that it suffers only a temporary deflection by the powerful streams of the river ,amazon and of the ,orinoco4 ,though much weakened in passing among the ,west ,indian islands1 it acquires new strength in the ,caribbean ,sea4 ,from thence1 after sweeping round the ,gulf of ,mexico with the high temperature of #hh #eb of ,fahrenheit1 it flows through the ,straits of ,florida1 and along the ,north ,american coast to ,newfoundland under the name of the ,gulf-stream3 it is there deflected eastward by the form of the land and the prevalent wind1 and after passing ,newfoundland by a current from ,baffin's ,bay4 ,from the ,azores it bends southward1 and aided by the north-east trade rejoins the equatorial current1 having made a circuit of #chjj miles with various velocity1 leaving a vast loop or space of water nearly stagnant in its centre1 which is thickly covered with sea-weed4 ,the bodies of men1 animals1 and plants of unknown appearance1 brought to the ,azores by this stream1 suggested to ,columbus the idea of land beyond the ,western ,ocean1 and thus led to the discovery of ,america4 ,the ,gulf-stream is more salt1 warmer1 and of a deeper blue than the rest of the ocean1 till it reaches ,newfoundland1 where it becomes turbid from the shallowness of that part of the sea4 ,its greatest velocity is #gh miles a-day soon after leaving the ,florida ,strait2 and its breadth increases with its distance from the strait until the warm water spreads over a large surface of the ocean4 ,an important branch leaves the current near ,newfoundland1 setting towards ,britain and ,norway2 which is again subdivided into many branches1 whose origin is recognized by their greater warmth1 even at the edge of perpetual ice in the ,polar ,ocean2 and in consequence of some of these branches the ,spitzbergen ,sea is #f or #g warmer at the depth of #bjj fathoms than at its surface4 ,though the warmth of the ,gulf-stream diminishes as it goes north1 ,lieutenant ,murray says 8that the quantity of heat which it spreads over the ,atlantic in a winter's day would be sufficient to raise the whole atmosphere that covers ,france and ,great ,britain from the freezing point to summer heat20 and it really is the cause of the mildness and of the damp of ,ireland and the south of ,england4 ,these oceanic streams exceed all the rivers in the world in breadth and depth as well as length4 ,the equatorial current in the ,atlantic is #afj miles broad off the coast of ,africa1 and towards its mid-course across the ,atlantic its width becomes nearly equal to the length of ,great ,britain3 but as it then sends off a branch to the ,n4,w41 it is diminished to #bjj miles before reaching the coast of ,brazil4 ,the depth of this great stream is unknown2 but the ,brazilian branch must be very profound1 since it is not deflected by the river ,la ,plata1 which crosses it with so strong a current that its fresh muddy waters are perceptible #ejj miles from its mouth4 ,when currents pass over banks and shoals1 the colder water rises to the surface and gives warning of the danger4 ,in summer1 the great north polar current coming along the coasts of ,greenland and ,labrador1 together with the current from ,davis's ,straits1 brings icebergs to the margin of the ,gulf-,stream4 ,the difference between the temperatures of these two oceanic streams brought into contact is the cause of the dense fogs that brood over the banks of ,newfoundland4 ,the north polar current runs inside of the ,gulf-,stream1 along the coast of ,north ,america to ,florida1 and beyond it--since it sends an under-current into the ,caribbean ,sea4 ,counter-currents on the surface are of such frequent occurrence that there is scarcely a strait joining two seas that does not furnish an example--a current running in along one shore1 and a counter-current running out along the other4 ,one of the most remarkable occurs in the ,atlantic3 it begins off the coast of ,france1 and1 after sending a mass of water into the ,mediterranean1 it holds a southerly direction at some distance from the continent of ,africa2 till1 after passing ,cape ,mesurada1 it flows rapidly for #ajjj miles due east to the ,bight of ,biafra in immediate contact with the equatorial current1 running with great velocity in the opposite direction1 and seems to merge in it at last4 ,periodical currents are frequent in the eastern seas3 one flows into the ,red ,sea from ,october to ,may1 and out of it from ,may to ,october4 ,in the ,persian ,gulf this order is reversed2 in the ,indian ,ocean and ,china ,sea the waters are driven alternately backwards and forwards by the monsoons4 ,it is the southwesterly monsoon that causes inundations in the ,ganges1 and a tremendous surf on the coast of ,coromandel4 ,the tides also produce periodical currents on the coasts and in straits1 the water running in one direction during the flood1 and the contrary way in the ebb4 ,the ,roost of ,sumburgh1 at the southern promontory of ,shetland1 runs at the rate of #ae miles an hour2 indeed1 the strongest tidal currents known are among the ,orkney and ,shetland islands2 their great velocity arises from local circumstances4 ,currents in the wide ocean move at the rate of from one to three miles an hour1 but the velocity is less at the margin and bottom of the stream from friction4 ,whirlpools are produced by opposing winds and tides2 the whirlpool of ,maelstrom1 on the coast of ,norway1 is occasioned by the meeting of tidal currents round the islands of ,lofoden and ,moske2 it is a mile and a half in diameter1 and so violent that its roar is heard at the distance of several leagues4 ,although with winds1 tides1 and currents1 it might seem that the ocean is ever in motion1 yet in the equatorial regions1 far from land1 dead calms prevail2 the sea is of the most perfect stillness day after day2 partaking of the universal quiet1 and heaving its low flat waves in noiseless and regular periods as if nature were asleep4 ,the safety and length of a voyage depends upon the skill with which a seaman avails himself of the set of the different currents1 and the direction of the permanent and periodical winds2 it is frequently shortened by following a very circuitous track to take advantage of them if favourable1 or to avoid them if unfavourable4 ,from ,acapulco1 in ,mexico1 across the ,pacific to ,manilla or ,canton1 the trade-wind and the equatorial current are so favourable that the voyage is accomplished in #ej or #fj days2 whereas1 in returning1 #ij or #ajj are required4 ,within the ,antillas navigation is so difficult from winds and currents1 that a vessel1 going from ,jamaica to the lesser ,antillas1 cannot sail directly across the ,caribbean ,sea1 but must go round about through the windward passage between ,cuba and ,haiti to the ocean2 nearly as many weeks are requisite to accomplish this voyage as it takes days to return4 ,on account of the prevalence of westerly winds in the ,north ,atlantic1 the voyage from ,europe to the ,united ,states is longer than that from the latter to ,europe2 but the ,gulf-stream is avoided in the outward voyage i4 e4 from ,europe1 because it would lengthen the time by a fortnight4 ,ships going to the ,west ,indies1 ,central or ,south ,america1 from ,europe1 generally make the ,canary ,islands in order to fall in with the ,n4,e4 trade-winds4 ,the passage to the ,cape of ,good ,hope from the ,british ,channel may be undertaken at any season1 and is accomplished in #ej or #fj days2 but it is necessary to regulate the voyage from the ,cape to ,india and ,china according to the seasons of the monsoons4 ,there are various courses adopted for that purpose1 but all of them pass through the very focus of the hurricane district1 which includes the islands of ,rodriguez1 the ,mauritius1 and ,bourbon1 and extends from ,madagascar to the island of ,timor4 ,the extensive deposits of coal discovered in the ,bay of ,talcahuano1 in ,chile1 in ,australia1 ,new ,zealand1 in the ,british settlement at ,labuan1 and in ,borneo1 will be the means of increasing the steam navigation of the ,pacific1 and shortening the voyages upon that ocean4 ,sea-water is a bad conductor of heat1 therefore the temperature of the ocean is less liable to sudden changes than the atmosphere2 the influence of the seasons is imperceptible at the depth of #cjj feet2 and as light probably does not penetrate lower than #gjj feet1 the heat of the sun cannot affect the bottom of a deep sea4 ,it has been established beyond a doubt that in all parts of the ocean the water has a constant temperature of about #cie of ,fahrenheit1 at a certain depth1 depending on the latitude4 ,at the equator the stratum of water at that temperature is at the depth of #gbjj feet2 from thence it gradually rises till it comes to the surface in ,s4 lat4 #ef #bf1 where the water has the temperature of #cie at all depths2 it then gradually descends till ,s4 lat4 #gj1 where it is #dejj feet below the surface4 ,in going north from the equator the same law is observed4 ,hence1 with regard to temperature1 there are three regions in the ocean3 one equatorial and two polar4 ,in the equatorial region the temperature of the water at the surface of the ocean is #hj of ,fahrenheit1 therefore higher than that of the stratum of #cie2 while in the polar regions it is lower4 ,thus1 the surface of the stratum of constant temperature is a curve which begins at the depth of #dejj feet in the southern basin1 from whence it gradually rises to the surface in ,s4 lat4 #ef #bf2 it then sweeps down to #gbjj feet at the equator1 and rises up again to the surface in the corresponding northern latitude1 from whence it descends again to a depth of #dejj feet in the northern basin4 ,the temperature of the surface of the ocean decreases from the equator to the poles4 ,for #aj degrees on each side of the line the maximum is #hj of ,fahrenheit1 and remarkably stable2 from thence to each tropic the decrease does not exceed #cg4 ,the tropical temperature would be greater were it not for the currents1 because the surface reflects much fewer of the sun's rays which fall on it directly1 than in higher latitudes where they fall obliquely4 ,in the torrid zone the surface of the sea is about #ce of ,fahrenheit warmer than the air above it2 because the polar winds1 and the great evaporation which absorbs the heat1 prevent equilibrium2 and as a great mass of water is slow in following the changes in the atmosphere1 the vicissitude of day and night has little influence1 whereas in the temperate zones it is perceptible4 ,the line of maximum temperature1 or that which passes through all the points of greatest heat in the ocean1 is very irregular1 and does not coincide with the terrestrial equator2 six-tenths of its extent lies on an average #e to the north of it1 and the remainder runs at a mean distance of #c on its southern side4 ,it cuts the terrestrial equator in the middle of the ,pacific ,ocean in #ba ,e4 longitude in passing from the northern to the southern hemisphere1 and again between ,sumatra and the peninsula of ,malacca in returning from the southern to the northern4 ,its maximum temperature in the ,pacific is #hhe of ,fahrenheit on the northern shores of ,new ,guinea1 where it touches the terrestrial equator1 and its highest temperature in the ,atlantic1 which is exactly the same1 lies in the ,gulf of ,mexico1 which furnishes the warm water of the ,gulf-stream4 ,the superficial water of the ,pacific is much cooled on the east by the ,antarctic current2 it sends a cold stream along the coasts of ,chile and ,peru1 which has great influence on the climate of both countries2 it was first observed by ,baron ,humboldt1 and is known as ,humboldt's current4 ,it is more than #ad colder than the adjacent ocean1 and renders the air #aa cooler than the surrounding atmosphere4 ,in the ,indian ,ocean the highest temperature of the surface-water 7#hgd7 is in the ,arabian ,sea1 between the ,strait of ,bab-el-,mandeb and the coast of ,hindostan2 it decreases regularly from south to north in the ,red ,sea4 ,the superficial temperature diminishes from the tropics with the increase of the latitude more rapidly in the southern than in the northern hemisphere1 till towards the poles the sea is never free from ice4 ,in the ,arctic ,ocean the surface is at the freezing point even in summer2 and during the eight winter months a continuous body of ice extends in every direction from the pole1 filling the area of a circle of between #cjjj and #djjj miles in diameter4 ,the outline of this circle1 though subject to partial variations1 is found to be nearly similar at the same season of each succeeding year1 yet there are periodical changes in the polar ice which are renewed after a series of years4 ,the freezing process itself is a bar to the unlimited increase of the oceanic ice4 ,fresh water congeals at the temperature of #cb of ,fahrenheit1 but sea-water must be reduced to #bhe before it deposits its salt and begins to freeze3 the salt thus set free1 and the heat given out1 retard the process of congelation more and more below4 ,the ice from the north pole comes so far south in winter as to render the coast of ,newfoundland inaccessible3 it envelops ,greenland1 sometimes even ,iceland1 and always invests ,spitzbergen and ,nova ,zembla4 ,as the sun comes north the ice breaks up into enormous masses of what is called packed ice4 ,in the year #ahjf ,captain ,scoresby forced his ship through #bej miles of packed ice1 in imminent danger1 until he reached the parallel of #ha #ej1 his nearest approach to the pole3 the ,frozen ,ocean is rarely navigable so far4 ,in the year #ahbg ,sir ,edward ,parry arrived at the latitude of #hb #de1 which he accomplished by dragging a boat over fields of ice1 but he was obliged to abandon the bold and hazardous attempt to reach the pole1 because the current drifted the ice southward more rapidly than he could travel over it to the north4 ,the following considerations have induced some persons to believe that there is sea instead of land at the north pole4 ,the average latitude of the northern shores of the continent is #gj1 so that the ,arctic ,ocean is a circle whose diameter is #bdjj geographical miles1 and its circumference #gbjj4 ,on the ,asiatic side of this sea are ,nova ,zembla and the ,new ,siberian islands1 each extending to about #gf ,n4 latitude4 ,on the ,european and ,american sides are ,spitzbergen1 extending to #hj1 and a part of ,old ,greenland1 whose northern termination is unknown4 ,facing ,america is a large island--,melville ,island--with some others not extending so far north as those mentioned2 consequently all of them may be considered continental islands4 ,as there are no large islands very far from land in the other great oceans1 there is reason to presume that the same structure may prevail here also1 and1 consequently1 it may be open sea at the north pole4 ,possibly also it may be free from ice1 for ,admiral ,wrangel found a wide and open sea1 free from ice and navigable1 beginning #af miles north of the island of ,kotelnoi1 and extending to the meridian of ,cape ,jackan4 ,in fine summers the ice suddenly clears away and leaves an open channel of sea along the western coast of ,spitzbergen from #fj to #aej miles wide1 reaching to #hj or even to #hj-a_/b ,n4 latitude probably owing to warm currents from low latitudes4 ,it was through this channel that ,captain ,scoresby made his nearest approach to the pole4 ,a direct course from the ,thames1 across the pole to ,behring's ,straits1 is #cegj geographical miles1 while by ,lancaster ,sound it is #dffj miles4 ,the ,russians would be saved a voyage of #ah1hjj geographical miles could they go across the pole and through ,behring's ,straits to their ,north ,american settlements1 instead of going by ,cape ,horn4 ,floating fields of ice1 #bj or #cj miles in diameter1 are frequent in the ,arctic ,ocean3 sometimes they extend #ajj miles1 so closely packed together that no opening is left between them2 their thickness1 which varies from #aj to #dj feet1 is not seen1 as there is at least two-thirds of the mass below water4 ,sometimes these fields1 many thousand millions of tons in weight1 acquire a rotatory motion of great velocity1 dashing against one another with a tremendous collision4 ,packed ice always has a tendency to drift southwards1 even in the calmest weather2 and in their progress the ice-fields are rent in pieces by the swell of the sea4 ,it is computed that #bj1jjj square miles of drift ice are annually brought by the current along the coast of ,greenland to ,cape ,farewell4 ,in stormy weather the fields and streams of ice are covered with haze and spray from constant tremendous concussions2 yet our seamen1 undismayed by the appalling danger1 boldly steer their ships amidst this hideous and discordant tumult4 ,huge icebergs and masses detached from the glaciers1 which extend from the ,arctic lands into the sea1 especially in ,baffin's ,bay1 are drifted southwards #bjjj miles from their origin to melt in the ,atlantic1 where they cool the water sensibly for #cj or #dj miles around1 and the air to a much greater distance4 ,they vary from a few yards to miles in circumference1 and rise hundreds of feet above the surface4 ,seven hundred such masses have been seen at once in the polar basin4 ,when there is a swell the loose ice dashing against them raises the spray to their very summits2 and as they waste away they occasionally lose equilibrium and roll over1 causing a swell which breaks up the neighbouring field-ice2 the commotion spreads far and wide1 and the uproar resounds like thunder4 ,icebergs have the appearance of chalk-cliffs with a glittering surface and emerald-green fractures3 pools of water of azure-blue lie on their surface or fall in cascades into the sea4 ,the field-ice also1 and the masses that are heaped up on its surface1 are extremely beautiful from the vividness and contrast of their colouring4 ,a peculiar blackness in the atmosphere around a bright haze at the horizon indicates their position in a fog1 and their place and character are shown at night by the reflection of the snow-light on the horizon4 ,an experienced seaman can readily distinguish by the blink1 as it is termed1 whether the ice is newly-formed1 heavy1 compact1 or open4 ,the blink or snow-light of field-ice is the most lucid1 and is tinged yellow2 of packed ice it is pure white3 ice newly formed has a greyish blink1 and a deep yellow tint indicates snow on land4 ,icebergs come to a lower latitude by #aj from the south pole than from the north1 and appear to be larger2 they have been seen near the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and are often of great size2 one observed by ,captain ,d',urville was #ac miles long1 with perpendicular sides #ajj feet high2 they are less varied than those on the northern seas1 a tabular form is the most prevalent4 ,the discovery ships under the command of ,sir ,james ,ross met with multitudes with flat surfaces1 bounded by perpendicular cliffs on every side1 from #ajj to #ahj feet high1 sometimes several miles in circumference4 ,on one occasion they fell in with a chain of stupendous bergs close to one another1 extending farther than the eye could reach even from the mast-head4 ,packed ice too is often in immense quantities3 these ships forced their way through a pack #ajjj miles broad1 often under the most appalling circumstances4 ,it generally consists of smaller pieces than the packs in the comparatively tranquil ,north ,polar seas1 where they are often several miles in diameter1 and where fields of ice extend beyond the reach of vision4 ,the ,antarctic ,ocean1 on the contrary1 is almost always agitated2 there is a perpetual swell1 and terrific storms are common1 which break up the ice and render navigation perilous4 ,the floe pieces are rarely a quarter of a mile in circumference1 and generally much smaller4 ,a more dreadful situation can hardly be imagined than that of ships beset during a tempest in a dense pack of ice in a dark night1 thick fog1 and drifting snow1 with the spray beating perpetually over the decks1 and freezing instantaneously4 ,sir ,james ,ross's own words can alone give an idea of the terrors of one of the many gales which the two ships under his command encountered3--8,soon after midnight our ships were involved in an ocean of rolling fragments of ice1 hard as floating rocks of granite1 which were dashed against them by the waves with so much violence1 that their masts quivered as if they would fall at every successive blow2 and the destruction of the ships seemed inevitable from the tremendous shocks they received4 ,in the early part of the storm the rudder of the ,erebus was so much damaged as to be no longer of any use2 and about the same time ,i was informed by signal that the ,terror's was completely destroyed and nearly torn away from the stern-post4 ,hour passed away after hour without the least mitigation of the awful circumstances in which we were placed4 ,the loud crashing noise of the straining and working of the timbers and decks1 as they were driven against some of the heavier pieces of ice1 which all the exertions of our people could not prevent1 was sufficient to fill the stoutest heart1 that was not supported by trust in ,him who controls all events1 with dismay2 and ,i should commit an act of injustice to my companions if ,i did not express my admiration of their conduct on this trying occasion4 ,throughout a period of #bh hours1 during any one of which there appeared to be very little hope that we should live to see another1 the coolness1 steady obedience1 and untiring exertions of each individual1 were every way worthy of ,british seamen4 8,the storm gained its height at #b ,p4,m41 when the barometer stood at #bhdj inches1 and after that time began to rise4 ,although we had been forced many miles deeper into the pack1 we could not perceive that the swell had at all subsided1 our ships still rolling and groaning amidst the heavy fragments of crushing bergs1 over which the ocean rolled its mountainous waves1 throwing huge masses upon one another1 and then again burying them deep beneath its foaming waters1 dashing and grinding them together with fearful violence40 ,for three successive years were these dangers encountered during this bold and hazardous enterprise4 ,the ocean is one mass of water1 which1 entering into the interior of the continents1 has formed seas and gulfs of great magnitude1 which afford easy and rapid means of communication1 while they temper the climates of the widely expanding continents4 ,the inland seas communicating with the ,atlantic are larger1 and penetrate more deeply into the continents1 than those connected with the great ocean2 a circumstance which gives a coast of #dh1jjj miles to the former1 while that of the great ocean is only #dd1jjj4 ,most of these internal seas have extensive river domains1 so that by inland navigation the ,atlantic virtually enters into the deepest recesses of the land1 brings remote regions into contact1 and improves the condition of the less cultivated races of mankind by commercial intercourse with those that are more civilized4 ,the ,baltic1 which occupies #abe1jjj square miles in the centre of northern ,europe1 is one of the most important of the inland seas connected with the ,atlantic1 and1 although inferior to the others in size1 the drainage of more than a fifth of ,europe flows into it4 ,only about a fourth part of the boundary of its enormous basin of #ijj1jjj square miles is mountainous2 and so many navigable rivers flow into it from the watershed of the great ,european plain1 that its waters are one-fifth less salt than those of the ,atlantic3 it receives at least #bej streams4 ,its depth nowhere exceeds #afg fathoms1#aad and generally it is not more than #dj or #ej4 ,from that cause1 together with its freshness and northern latitude1 the ,baltic is frozen five months in the year4 ,from the flatness of the greater part of the adjacent country1 the climate of the ,baltic is subject to influences coming from regions far beyond the limits of its river-basin4 ,the winds from the ,atlantic bring warmth and moisture1 which1 condensed by the cold blasts from the ,arctic plains1 falls in rain in summer1 and deep snow in winter1 which also makes the sea more fresh4 ,the tides are imperceptible2 but the waters of the ,baltic occasionally rise more than three feet above their usual level from some unknown cause--possibly from oscillations in its bed1 or from changes of atmospheric pressure4 ,the ,black ,sea1 which penetrates most deeply into the continent of all the seas in question1 has1 together with the ,sea of ,azov1 an area of #aij1jjj square miles3 it must at a remote period have been united with the ,caspian ,lake1 and must have covered all the ,steppe of ,astracan4 ,it receives some of the largest ,european rivers1 and drains about #iej1jjj square miles1 consequently its waters are brackish and freeze on its northern shores in winter4 ,it is very deep1 no bottom having been reached with a line of #adj fathoms3 on the melting of the snow1 such a body of water is poured into it by the great ,european rivers that a rapid current is produced1 which sets along the western shore from the mouth of the ,dnieper to the channel of ,constantinople4 ,of all the branches of the ,atlantic that enter deeply into the bosom of the land1 the ,mediterranean is the largest and most beautiful1 covering with its dark blue waters more than #gfj1jjj square miles4 ,situate in a comparatively low latitude1 exposed to the heat of the ,african deserts on the south1 and sheltered on the north by the ,alps1 the evaporation is excessive2 on that account the water of the ,mediterranean is salter than that of the ocean1 and for the same reason the temperature at its surface is #c-a_/b of ,fahrenheit higher than that of the ,atlantic3 it does not decrease so rapidly downwards as in tropical seas1 and it becomes constant at depths of from #cdj to #ajjj fathoms1 according to the situations4 ,although its own river domain is only #bej1jjj square miles1 the constant current that sets in through the ,dardanelles brings a great part of the drainage of the ,black ,sea1 so that it is really fed by the melted snow and rivers from the ,caucasus1 ,asia ,minor1 ,abyssinia1 the ,atlas1 and the ,alps4 ,yet the quantity of water that flows into the ,mediterranean from the ,atlantic1 by the central current in the ,straits of ,gibraltar1 exceeds that which goes out by the lateral currents4 ,near ,alexandria the surface of this sea is #bf feet #f inches lower than the level of the ,red ,sea at ,suez at low water1 and about #cj feet lower at high water4#aae ,on the shore of ,cephalonia there is a cavity in the rocks1 into which the sea has been flowing for ages4#aaf ,the ,mediterranean is divided into two basins by a shallow that runs from ,cape ,bon on the ,african coast to the ,strait of ,messina1 on each side of which the water is exceedingly deep1 and said to be unfathomable in some parts4 ,m4 ,brard has sounded to the depth of more than #ajjj fathoms in several places without reaching the bottom4 ,at ,nice1 within a few yards of the shore1 it is nearly #gjj fathoms deep2 and ,captain ,smyth1 ,r4 ,n41 ascertained the depth to be #ifj fathoms between ,gibraltar and ,ceuta4 ,this sea is not absolutely without tides2 in the ,gulf of ,venice they rise three feet1 and at the ,great ,syrte to five feet at new and full moon1 but in most other places they are scarcely perceptible4 ,the surface is traversed by various currents1 two of which1 opposing one another1 occasion the celebrated whirlpool of ,charybdis1 whose terrors were much diminished by the earthquake of #aghc4 ,its bed is subject to violent volcanic paroxysms1 and its surface is studded with islands of all sizes1 from the magnificent kingdom of ,sicily to mere barren rocks-- some actively volcanic1 others of volcanic formation1 and many of the secondary geological period4 ,various parts of its coasts are in a state of great instability2 in some places they have sunk down and risen again more than once within the historical period4 ,far to the north the ,atlantic penetrates the ,american continent by ,davis's ,straits1 and spreads out into ,baffin's bay1 twice the size of the ,baltic1 very deep1 and subject to all the rigours of an arctic winter--the very storehouse of icebergs--the abode of the walrus and the whale4 ,hudson's ,bay1 though without the ,arctic ,circle1 is but little less dreary4 ,very different is the character of those vast seas where the ,atlantic comes 8cranking in0 between the northern and southern continents of ,america4 ,the surface of the sea in ,baffin's ,bay is seldom above the freezing-point2 here1 on the contrary1 it is always #hhe of ,fahrenheit1 while the ,atlantic ,ocean in the same latitude is not above #gg or #gh4 ,of that huge mass of water1 partially separated from the ,atlantic by a long line of islands and banks1 the ,caribbean ,sea is the largest2 it is as long from east to west as the distance between ,great ,britain and ,newfoundland1 and occupies a million of square miles4 ,its depth in many places is very great1 and its water is limpid4 ,the ,gulf of ,mexico1 fed by the ,mississippi1 one of the greatest of rivers1 is more than half its size1 or about #fbe1jjj square miles1 so that the whole forms a sea of great magnitude4 ,its shores1 and the shores of the numerous islands1 are dangerous from shoals and coral-reefs1 but the interior of these seas is not4 ,the trade-winds prevail there2 they are subject to severe northern gales1 and some parts are occasionally visited by tremendous hurricanes4 ,by the levelling across the peninsula of ,panama by ,mr4 ,lloyd1 in #ahbh1 the mean height of the ,pacific above that of the ,atlantic was found to be three feet six inches4 ,the ,pacific does not penetrate the land in the same manner that the ,atlantic does the continent of ,europe4 ,the ,red ,sea and ,persian ,gulf are joined to it by very narrow straits2 but almost all the internal seas on the eastern coast of ,asia1 except the ,yellow ,sea1 are great gulfs shut in by islands1 like the ,caribbean ,sea and the ,gulf of ,mexico1 to which the ,china ,sea1 the ,sea of ,japan1 and that of ,okhotsk are perfectly analogous4 ,the set of the great oceanic currents has scooped out and indented the southern and eastern coasts of the ,asiatic continent into enormous bays and gulfs1 and has separated large portions of the land1 which now remain as islands--a process which probably has been increased by the submarine fires extending along the eastern coast from the equator nearly to the ,arctic ,circle4 ,the perpetual agitation of the ocean by winds1 tides1 and currents1 is continually1 but slowly1 changing the form and position of the land-- steadily producing those vicissitudes on the surface of the earth to which it has been subject for ages1 and to which it will assuredly be liable in all time to come4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,springs--,basins of the ,ocean--,origin1 ,course1 and ,heads of ,rivers-- ,hydraulic ,systems of ,europe--,african ,rivers--the ,nile1 ,niger1 c4 ,,the vapour which rises invisibly from the land and water ascends in the atmosphere till it is condensed by the cold into clouds1 which restore it again to the earth in the form of rain1 hail1 and snow2 hence1 there is probably not a drop of water on the globe that has not been borne on the wings of the wind4 ,part of this moisture restored to the earth is reabsorbed by the air1 part supplies the wants of animal and vegetable life1 a portion is carried off by the streams1 and the remaining part penetrates through porous soils till it arrives at a stratum impervious to water1 where it accumulates in subterranean lakes often of great extent4 ,the mountains receive the greatest portion of the arial moisture1 and1 from the many alternations of permeable and impermeable strata they contain1 a complete system of reservoirs is formed in them1 which1 continually overflowing1 form perennial springs at different elevations1 which unite and run down their sides in incipient rivers4 ,a great portion of the water at these high levels penetrates the earth till it comes to an impermeable stratum below the plains1 where it collects in a sheet1 and is forced by hydraulic pressure to rise in springs1 through cracks in the ground1 to the surface4 ,in this manner the water which falls on hills and mountains is carried through highly-inclined strata to great depths1 and even below the bed of the ocean1 in many parts of which there are springs of fresh water4 ,in boring ,artesian wells the water often rushes up with such impetuosity by the hydrostatic pressure as to form jets #dj or #ej feet high4 ,in this operation several successive reservoirs have been met with2 at ,st4 ,ouen1 near ,paris1 five sheets of water were found2 the water in the first four not being good1 the operation was continued to a greater depth2 it consists merely in boring a hole of small diameter1 and lining it with a tube4 ,it rarely happens that water may not be procured in this way2 and as the substratum in many parts of deserts is an argillaceous marl1 it is probable that ,artesian wells might be bored with success4 ,a spring will be intermittent when it issues from an opening in the side of a reservoir fed from above1 if the supply be not equal to the waste1 for the water will sink below the opening1 and the spring will stop till the reservoir is replenished4 ,few springs give the same quantity of water at all times2 they also vary much in the quantity of foreign matter they contain4 ,mountain-springs are generally very pure1 the carbonic acid gas almost always found in them escapes into the atmosphere1 and their earthy matter is deposited as they run along1 so that river-water from such source is soft1 while wells and springs in the plains are hard1 and more or less mineral4 ,the water of springs takes its temperature from that of the strata through which it passes3 mountain-springs are cold1 but1 if the water has penetrated deep into the earth1 it acquires a temperature depending on that circumstance4 ,the temperature of the surface of the earth varies with the seasons to a certain depth1 where it becomes permanent and equal to the mean annual temperature of the air above4 ,it is evident that the depth at which this stratum of invariable temperature lies must vary with the latitude4 ,at the equator the effect of the seasons is imperceptible at the depth of a foot below the surface3 between the parallels of #dj and #eb the temperature of the ground in ,europe is constant at the depth of from #ee to #fj feet3 and in the high ,arctic regions the soil is perpetually frozen a foot below the surface4 ,now1 in every part of the world where experiments have been made1 the temperature of the earth increases with the depth below the constant stratum at the rate of #a of ,fahrenheit for every #ej or #fj feet of perpendicular depth2 hence1 should the increase continue to follow the same ratio1 even granite must be in fusion at little more than five miles below the surface4 ,in ,siberia1 the stratum of frozen earth is some hundred feet thick1 but below that the increase of heat with the depth is three times as rapid as in ,europe4 ,the temperature of springs must therefore depend on the depth to which the water has penetrated before it has been forced to the surface1 either by the hydraulic pressure of water at higher levels1 or by steam4 ,if it never goes below the stratum of invariable temperature1 the heat of the spring will vary with the seasons1 more or less1 according to the depth below the surface3 should the water come from the constant stratum itself1 its temperature will be invariable2 and if from below it1 the heat will be in proportion to the depth to which it has penetrated4 ,thus1 there may be hot and even boiling springs hundreds of miles distant from volcanic action and volcanic strata1 of which there are many examples1 though they are more frequent in volcanic countries and those subject to earthquakes4 ,the temperature of hot springs is very constant1 and that of boiling springs has remained unchanged for ages2 shocks of earthquakes sometimes affect the temperature1 and have even stopped them altogether4 ,jets of steam of high tension are frequent in volcanic countries1 as in ,iceland4 ,both hot and cold water dissolves and combines with many of the mineral substances it meets with in the earth1 and comes to the surface from great depths as medicinal springs1 containing various ingredients4 ,so numerous are they that in the ,austrian dominions alone there are #aejj2 and few countries of any extent are destitute of them4 ,they contain hydro-sulphuric and carbonic acids1 sulphur1 iron1 magnesia1 and other substances4 ,boiling springs deposit silex1 as in ,iceland and in the ,azores2 and others of lower temperature deposit carbonate of lime in great quantities all over the world4 ,springs of pure brine are rare2 those in ,cheshire are rich in salt1 and have flowed unchanged #ajjj years1 a proof of the tranquil state of that part of the globe4 ,many substances that lie beyond our reach are brought to the surface by springs1 as naphtha1 petroleum1 and boracic acid3 petroleum is particularly abundant in ,persia1 and numberless springs and lakes of it surround some parts of the ,caspian ,sea4 ,it is found in immense quantities in various parts of the world4 ,,rivers4 ,rivers have had a greater influence on the location and fortunes of the human race than almost any other physical cause1 and1 since their velocity has been overcome by steam navigation1 they have become the highway of the nations4 ,they frequently rise in lakes1 which they unite with the sea2 in other instances they spring from small elevations in the plains1 from perennial sources in the mountains1 alpine lakes1 melted snow and glaciers2 but the everlasting storehouses of the mightiest floods are the ice-clad mountains of table-lands4 ,rivers are constantly increased1 in descending the mountains and traversing the plains1 by tributaries1 till at last they flow into the ocean1 their ultimate destination and remote origin4 8,all rivers run into the sea1 yet the sea is not full10 because it gives in evaporation an equivalent for what it receives4 ,the ,atlantic1 the ,arctic1 and the ,pacific ,oceans are directly or indirectly the recipients of all the rivers1 therefore their basins are bounded by the principal watersheds of the continents2 for the basin of a sea or ocean does not mean only the bed actually occupied by the water1 but comprehends also all the land drained by the rivers which fall into it1 and is bounded by an imaginary line passing through all their sources4 ,these lines generally run through the elevated parts of a country that divide the streams which flow in one direction from those that flow in another4 ,but the watershed does not coincide1 in all cases1 with mountain-crests of great elevation1 as the mere convexity of a plain is often sufficient to throw the streams into different directions4 ,from the peculiar structure of the high land and mountain-chains1 by far the greater number of important rivers on the globe flow into the ocean in an easterly direction1 those which flow to the south and north being the next in size1 while those that flow in a westerly direction are small and unimportant4 ,the course of all rivers is changed when they pass from one geological formation to another1 or by dislocations of the strata3 the sudden deviations in their directions are generally owing to these circumstances4 ,none of the ,european rivers flowing directly into the ,atlantic exceed the fourth or fifth magnitude1 except the ,rhine2 the rest of the principal streams come to it indirectly through the ,baltic1 the ,black ,sea1 and the ,mediterranean4 ,it nevertheless receives nearly half the waters of the old continent1 and almost all the new1 because the ,andes and ,rocky ,mountains1 which form the watershed of the ,american continent1 lie along its western side1 and the rivers which rise on the western slope of the ,alleghanies are tributaries to the ,mississippi1 which comes indirectly into the ,atlantic by the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,the ,arctic ,ocean drains the high northern latitudes of ,america1 and receives those magnificent ,siberian rivers that originate in the ,alta range from the ,steppe of the ,kerghis to the extremity of ,kamtchatka1 as well as the very inferior streams of ,north ,european ,russia4 ,the running waters of the rest of the world flow into the ,pacific4 ,the ,caspian and ,lake ,aral are mere salt-water lakes1 which receive rivers but emit none4 ,however1 nearly one-half of all the running water in ,europe falls into the ,black ,sea and the ,caspian4 ,mountain-torrents gradually lose velocity in their descent to the low lands by friction1 and when they enter the plains their course becomes still more gentle1 and their depths greater4 ,a slope of one foot in #bjj prevents a river from being navigable1 and a greater inclination forms a rapid or cataract4 ,the speed1 however1 does not depend entirely upon the slope1 but also upon the height of the source of the river1 and the pressure of the body of water in the upper part of its course2 consequently1 under the same circumstances1 large rivers run faster than small1 but in each individual stream the velocity is perpetually varying with the form of the banks1 the winding of the course1 and the changes in the width of the channel4 ,the ,rhone1 one of the most rapid ,european rivers1 has a declivity of one foot in #bfbj1 and flows at the rate of #abj feet in a minute2 the sluggish rivers in ,flanders have only one-half that velocity4 ,the ,danube1 the ,tigris1 and the ,indus are among the most rapid of the large rivers4 ,in flat countries rivers are generally more meandering1 and thus they afford a greater amount of irrigation2 the windings of the ,vistula are nearly equal to nine-tenths of its direct course from its source to its mouth4 ,when one river falls into another1 the depth and velocity are increased1 but not always proportionally to the width of the channel1 which sometimes even becomes less1 as at the junction of the ,ohio with the ,mississippi4 ,when the angle of junction is very obtuse1 and the velocity of the tributary stream great1 it sometimes forces the water of its primary to recede a short distance4 ,the ,arve1 swollen by a freshet1 occasionally drives the water of the ,rhone back into the ,lake of ,geneva2 and it once happened that the force was so great as to make the mill-wheels revolve in a contrary direction4 ,streams sometimes suddenly vanish1 and after flowing underground to some distance reappear at the surface1 as in ,derbyshire4 ,instances have occurred of rivers suddenly stopping in their course for some hours1 and leaving their channels dry4 ,on the #bfth of ,november1 #ahch1 the water failed so completely in the ,clyde1 ,nith1 and ,teviot1 that the mills were stopped eight hours in the lower part of their streams4 ,the cause was the coincidence of a gale of wind and a strong frost1 which congealed the water near their sources4 ,exactly the contrary happens in the ,siberian rivers1 which flow from south to north over so many hundreds of miles2 the upper parts are thawed1 while the lower are still frozen1 and the water1 not finding an outlet1 inundates the country4 ,the alluvial soil carried down by streams is gradually deposited as their velocity diminishes2 and if they are subject to inundations1 and the coast flat1 it forms deltas at their mouths2 there they generally divide into branches1 which often join again1 or are united by transverse channels1 so that a labyrinth of streams and islands is formed4 ,deltas are sometimes found in the interior of the continents at the junction of rivers1 exactly similar to those on the ocean1 though less extensive3 deltas are said to be maritime1 lacustrine1 or fluviatile1 according as the stream that forms them falls into the sea1 a lake1 or another river4 ,tides flow up rivers to a great distance1 and to a height far above the level of the sea3 the tide is perceptible in the river of the ,amazons #egf miles from its mouth1 and it ascends #bee miles in the ,orinoco4 ,in the temperate zones rivers are subject to floods from autumnal rains1 and the melting of the snow1 especially on mountain-ranges4 ,the ,po1 for example1 spreads desolation far and wide over the plains of ,lombardy2 but these torrents are as variable in their recurrence and extent as the climate which produces them4 ,the inundations of the rivers in the torrid zone1 on the contrary1 occur with a regularity peculiar to a region in which meteoric phenomena are uniform in all their changes4 ,these floods are due to the periodical rains1 which1 in tropical countries1 follow the cessation of the trade-winds after the vernal equinox and at the turn of the monsoons1 and are thus dependent on the declination of the sun1 the immediate cause of all these variations4 ,the melting of the snow no doubt adds greatly to the floods of the tropical rivers which rise in high mountain-chains1 but it is only an accessory circumstance2 for although the snow-water from the ,himalaya swells the streams considerably before the rains begin1 yet the principal effect is owing to the latter1 as the southern face of the ,himalaya is not beyond the influence of the monsoon1 and the consequent periodical rains1 which besides prevail all over the plains of ,india traversed by the great rivers and their tributaries4 ,under like circumstances1 the floods of rivers1 whose sources have the same latitude1 take place at the same season2 but the periods of the inundations of rivers on one side of the equator are exactly the contrary of what they are in rivers on the other side of it1 on account of the declination of the sun4 ,the flood in the ,orinoco is at its greatest height in the month of ,august1 while that of the river of the ,amazons1 south of the equinoctial line1 is at its greatest elevation in ,march4#aag ,the commencement and end of the annual inundations in each river depend upon the mean time of the beginning1 and on the duration of the rains in the latitudes traversed by its affluents4 ,the periods of the floods in such rivers as run towards the equator are different from those flowing in an opposite direction2 and as the rise requires time to travel1 it happens at regular but different periods in various parts of the same river1 if very long4 ,the height to which the water rises in the annual floods depends upon the nature of the country1 but it is wonderfully constant in each individual river where the course is long2 for the inequality in the quantity of rain in a district drained by any of its affluents is imperceptible in the general flood1 and thus the quantity of water carried down is a measure of the mean humidity of the whole country comprised in its basin from year to year4 ,by the admirable arrangement of these periodical inundations the fresh soil of the mountains1 borne down by the water1 enriches countries far remote from their source4 ,the waters from the high lands designated as the ,mountains of the ,moon1 and of ,abyssinia1 have fertilized the banks of the ,nile through a distance of #bejj miles for thousands of years4 ,when rivers rise in mountains1 water communication between them in the upper parts of their course is impossible2 but when they descend to the plains1 or rise in the low lands1 the boundaries between the countries drained by them become low1 and the different systems may be united by canals4 ,it sometimes happens in extensive and very level plains1 that the tributaries of the principal streams either unite or are connected by a natural canal1 by which a communication is formed between the two basins--a circumstance advantageous to the navigation and commerce of both1 especially where the junction takes place far inland1 as on the ,orinoco and ,amazons in the interior of ,south ,america4 ,the ,rio ,negro1 one of the largest affluents of the latter1 is united to the ,upper ,orinoco in the plains of ,esmeralda by the ,cassiquiare--a stream as large as the ,rhine1 with a velocity of #ab feet in a second4 ,baron ,humboldt observes that the ,orinoco1 sending a branch to the ,amazons1 is1 with regard to distance1 as if the ,rhine should send one to the ,seine or ,loire4 ,at some future period this junction will be of great importance4 ,these bifurcations are frequent in the deltas of rivers1 but very rare in the interior of continents4 ,the ,mahamuddy and ,godavery1 in ,hindostan1 seem to have something of the kind2 and there are several instances in the great rivers of the ,indo-,chinese peninsula4 ,the hydraulic system of ,europe is eminently favourable to inland navigation1 small as the rivers are in comparison with those in other parts of the world2 but the flatness of the great plain1 and the lowness of its watershed1 are very favourable to the construction of canals4 ,in the west1 however1 the ,alps and ,german mountains divide the waters that flow to the ,atlantic on one side1 and to the ,mediterranean and ,black ,sea on the other2 but in the eastern parts of ,europe the division of the waters is merely a more elevated ridge of the plain itself1 for in all plains such undulations exist1 though often imperceptible to the eye4 ,this watershed begins on the northern declivity of the ,carpathian ,mountains1 about the #bc;d meridian1 in a low range of hills running between the sources of the ,dnieper and the tributaries of the ,vistula1 from whence it winds in a tortuous course along the plain to the ,valdai table-land1 which is its highest point1 #abjj feet above the sea2 it then declines northward towards ,onega1 about the #fjth parallel1 and lastly turns in a very serpentine line to the sources of the ,kama in the ,ural mountains near the #fb;d degree of north latitude4 ,the waters north of this line run into the ,baltic and ,white ,sea1 and1 on the south of it1 into the ,black ,sea and the ,caspian4 ,thus1 ,europe is divided into two principal hydraulic systems2 but since the basin of a river comprehends all the plains and valleys drained by it and its tributaries from its source to the sea1 each country is subdivided into as many natural divisions or basins as it has primary rivers1 and these generally comprise all the rich and habitable parts of the earth1 and are the principal centres of civilization1 or are capable of becoming so4 ,the streams to the north of the general watershed are very numerous2 those to the south are of greater magnitude4 ,the systems of the ,volga and ,danube are the most extensive in ,europe2 the former has a basin comprising #fdj1jjj square miles1 and is navigable throughout the greater part of its course of #aijj miles4 ,it rises in a small lake on the slopes of the ,valdai table-land1 #eej feet above the level of the ocean1 and falls into the ,caspian1 which is #hc feet #g inches below the level of the ,black ,sea1 so that it has a fall of #fcc feet in a course of more than #bdjj miles4 ,it carries to the ,caspian one-seventh of all the river-water of ,europe4 ,danube drains #cjj1jjj square miles1 and receives #fj navigable tributaries4 ,its quantity of water is nearly as much as that of all the rivers that empty themselves into the ,black ,sea taken together4 ,its direct course is #ijj miles1 its meandering line is #bdjj4 ,it rises in the ,black ,forest at an elevation of #bhej feet above the level of the sea1 so that it has considerable velocity1 which1 as well as rocks and rapids1 impedes its navigation in many places1 but it is navigable downwards1 through ,austria1 for #fjj miles1 to ,new ,orsova1 from whence it flows in a gentle current to the ,black ,sea4 ,the commercial importance of these two rivers is much increased by their flowing into inland seas4 ,by canals between the ,volga and the rivers north of the watershed1 the ,baltic and ,white ,seas are connected with the ,black ,sea and the ,caspian2 and the ,baltic and ,black ,sea are also connected by a canal between the ,don and the ,dnieper4 ,altogether1 the water system of ,russia is the most extensive in ,europe4 ,the whole of ,holland is a collection of deltoid islands1 formed by the ,rhine1 the ,meuse1 and the ,scheldt--a structure very favourable to commerce1 and which has facilitated an extensive internal navigation4 ,the ,mediterranean is already connected with the ,north ,sea by the canal which runs from the ,rhone to the ,rhine2 and this noble system1 extended over the whole of ,france by #geia miles of inland navigation1 has conduced mainly to the improved state of that great country4 ,many navigable streams rise in the ,spanish mountains2 of these the ,tagus has depth enough for the largest ships as high as ,lisbon4 ,its actual course is #dhj miles1 but its direct line much less4 ,in point of magnitude1 however1 the ,spanish rivers are of inferior order1 but canals have rendered them beneficial to the country4 ,italy is less favoured in her rivers1 which only admit vessels of small burthen2 those on the north are by much the most important1 especially the ,po and its tributaries1 which by canals connect ,venice and ,milan with various fertile provinces of ,northern ,italy but whatever advantages nature has afforded to the ,italian states have been improved by able engineers1 both in ancient and modern times4 ,the application of the science of hydraulics to rivers took its rise in ,northern ,italy1 which has been carried to such perfection in some points1 that ,china is the only country which can vie with it in the practice of irrigation4 ,the lock on canals was in use in ,lombardy as early as the #acth century1 and in the end of the #aeth it was applied to two canals which unite the ,ticino to the ,adda1 by that great artist and philosopher ,leonardo da ,vinci3 about the same time he introduced the use of the lock into ,france4#aah ,various circumstances combine to make the ,british rivers more useful than many others of greater magnitude4 ,the larger streams are not encumbered with rocks or rapids2 they all run into branches of the ,atlantic2 the tides flow up their channels to a considerable distance2 and above all1 though short in their course1 they end in wide estuaries and sounds1 capable of containing whole navies--a circumstance that gives an importance to streams otherwise insignificant1 when compared with the great rivers of either the old or new continent4 ,the ,thames1 whose basin is only #ejbg square miles1 and whose length is but #bdj miles1 of which1 however1 #bjd are navigable1 spreads its influence over the remotest parts of the earth2 its depth is sufficient to admit large vessels even up to ,london1 and throughout its navigable course a continued forest of masts display the flags of every nation3 its banks1 which are in a state of perfect cultivation1 are the seat of the highest civilization1 moral and political4 ,local circumstances have undoubtedly been favourable to this superior development1 but the earnest and energetic temperament of the ,saxon races has rendered the advantages of their position available4 ,the same may be said of other rivers in the ,british islands1 where commercial enterprise and activity vie with that on the ,thames4 ,there are #bgij miles of canal in ,britain1 and1 including rivers1 #edcj miles of inland navigation1 which1 in comparison with the size of the country1 is very great2 it is even said that no part of ,england is more than #ae miles distant from water communication4 ,on the whole1 ,europe is fortunate with regard to its water systems1 and its inhabitants are for the most part alive to the bounties which ,providence has bestowed4 ,,african ,,rivers4 ,in ,africa the tropical climate and the extremes of aridity and moisture give a totally different character to its rivers4 ,the most southerly part is comparatively destitute of them1 and those that do exist are of inferior size1 except the ,gariep1 or ,orange ,river1 which has a long course on the table-land1 but is nowhere navigable4 ,from the eastern edge of the table-land of ,south ,africa1 which is very abrupt1 rise all those rivers which flow across the plains of ,mozambique and ,zanguebar to the ,indian ,ocean4 ,of these1 the ,zambesi1 or ,quillimane1 is probably the largest3 it is said to have a course of #ijj miles1 and to be navigable during the rains for #bjj or #cjj miles from its mouth4 ,the ,ozay1 not far south of the equator1 is also believed to be of great extent1 and the ,juba1 more to the north2 all these streams have little water at their mouths during the dry season1 but in the rainy season they are navigable4 ,some of those still farther north do not reach the sea at all times of the year1 but end in lakes and marshes1 as the ,haines and ,hawash4 ,the first1 after coming to within a small distance of the ,indian ,ocean1 runs southward parallel to the coast1 and falls into a very large and deep lake about a degree north of the equator4 ,between the ,hawash and the ,straits of ,bab-el-,mandeb there is no river of any note4 ,in many parts of the coast1 near the rivers1 grain ripens all the year1 yielding from #hj to #aej fold1 and every eastern vegetable production might be raised4 ,the ,hawash runs through a low desert country inhabited by the ,dankali ,beduins3 that river is the recipient of the waters which come from the eastern declivity of the table-land of ,abyssinia1 while the ,nile receives those of the counter slope4 ,the part of the table-land between the #ahth parallel of south latitude and the equator is the origin from whence the waters flow to the ,atlantic on one hand1 and to the ,mediterranean on the other4 ,those which go to the ,atlantic rise south of ,lake ,n'yassi1 chiefly in a ridge of no great elevation which runs from ,s4,w4 to ,n4,e4 to the west of the dominions of the ,cambeze1 and1 after falling in cascades and rapids through the chains that border the table-land on the west1 fertilize the luxuriant maritime plains of ,benguela1 ,congo1 ,angola1 and ,loando4 ,the ,zaire1 or ,congo1 by much the largest of these1 is navigable for #adj miles1 where the ascent of the tide is stopped by cataracts4 ,the lower course of this river is #e or #f miles broad1 full of islands1 and #afj fathoms deep at its mouth4 ,its upper course1 like that of most of these rivers1 is unknown2 the greater number are fordable on the table-land1 but1 from the abrupt descent of the high country to the maritime plains1 none of them afford access to the interior of ,south ,africa4 ,the mountainous edge of the table-land1 with its terminal projections1 ,senegambia and ,abyssinia1 which separate the northern from the southern deserts1 are the principal source of running water in ,africa4 ,various rivers have their origin in these mountainous regions1 of which the ,nile and the ,niger yield in size only to some of the great ,asiatic and ,american rivers4 ,in importance and historical interest the ,nile is inferior to none4 ,two large rivers unite their streams to form the ,nile--the ,bahr-el-,abiad1 or ,white ,nile1 and the ,bahr-el-,azrek1 or ,blue ,nile2 but the latter is so far inferior to the ,bahr-el-,abiad that it may almost be regarded as a tributary4 ,the main stream has never been ascended by any traveller above #d #db #db north latitude1 where a ledge of gneiss crossing it arrested the progress of the second expedition sent by the ,viceroy of ,egypt to discover its source4 ,bahr-el-,abiad1 or the true ,nile1 is supposed1 from the report of the natives1 to rise1 under the name of the ,tubiri1 at a comparatively small distance from the sea1 in the country of ,mono ,mozi1 which is a continuation of the high plateau of ,abyssinia1 situate to the north of the great ,lake ,zambze1 or ,n'yassi4 ,the natives say that it flows from the lake itself2 at all events it seems to be pretty certain that its origin is in the mountainous or hilly country of ,mono ,mozi1 a word which in all the languages of that part of ,africa signifies the ,moon3 hence1 the ,nile has been said1 since the days of ,ptolemy1 to rise in the ,mountains of the ,moon4 ,amidst many windings it takes a general direction towards the ,n4,e4 to the #adth northern parallel1 whence it follows the same course till its junction near ,khartum with the ,blue ,nile in the plains of ,sennaar4 ,the ,shoaberri and ,godjeb1 the chief affluents of the ,white ,nile1 come from the east2 the former makes a great circuit round the country of ,berri before it falls into the ,nile1 and the ,godjeb1 which has its origin in the great forest already mentioned1 in the ,galla country1 south of ,abyssinia1 makes a similar spiral dtour round ,kaffa1 and under the name of ,subat joins the ,nile1 which it enlarges to nearly double its size4 ,the ,abyssinian branch of the ,nile1 known as the ,bahr-el-,azrek1 or ,blue ,river1 rises under the name of the ,dedhesa in the ,galla country1 south of ,abyssinia1 about #gc miles west of ,sokka1 the capital of ,enarea4 ,it springs from a swampy meadow in the same elevated plains where the ,godjeb and other affluents of the ,white ,nile originate1 and after a completely spiral course1 in which it separates the kingdoms of ,guma and ,enarea1 it maintains a general north-westerly direction till it joins the ,white ,nile at ,khartum4 ,of the many tributaries to the ,blue ,river1 the ,abi1 the ,nile of ,bruce1 is the greatest and most celebrated4 ,its sources are in a swampy meadow near ,mount ,giesk1 in the district of ,skkata1 from whence it takes a circular direction round the peninsula of ,gojam1 passing through ,lake ,dembea1 and receiving many affluents from the mountain-chain that forms the cone of the peninsula1 and at last falls into the ,dedhesa or ,bahr-el-,azrek1 in about #aa ,n4 latitude4 ,from that point no stream of any consequence joins either the ,blue ,river1 or the united streams of the ,blue and ,white ,rivers1 till #afj miles below their confluence1 where the ,atbarah1 or ,takkazie1 falls into it4 ,this river1 which is the principal tributary of the ,nile1 is formed by two branches4 ,the ,takkazie rises in the mountains of ,lasta1 near ,lalbata1 one of the most celebrated places in ,abyssinia1 remarkable for its churches hewn out of the living rock1 and the ,tselari1 which springs from ,mount ,bila1 the northern extremity of the high land of ,lasta1 which divides the head waters of the two branches4 ,the united stream1 after winding like the other rivers of this country1 joins the ,nile in #ah ,n4 latitude1 the northern limit of the tropical rains4 ,the ,abyssinian rivers in the early part of their course are little more than muddy brooks in the dry season1 but during the rains they inundate the plains4 ,they break from the table-lands through fissures in the rocky surface1 which are at first only a few yards wide1 but gradually increase to several miles2 the streams form cataracts from #hj to more than #ajj feet high1 and then continue to descend by a succession of falls and rapids1 which decrease in height as they go northwards to join the main stream4 ,the ,takkazie takes its name of 8,the ,terrible0 from the impetuosity with which it rushes through the chasms and over the precipices of the mountains4 ,a peculiarity of most of the principal affluents of the ,nile is their spiral course1 so that1 after having formed a curve of greater or less extent1 generally round insulated mountain masses1 they return upon themselves at a short distance from their sources4 ,it is by no means improbable that the head stream of the ,nile itself takes a spiral course round a lofty mountain mass1 similar to the snow-clad mountains of ,smien and ,kffa4#aai ,from the ,takkazie down to the ,mediterranean1 a distance of #abjj miles1 the ,nile does not receive a single brook4 ,the first part of that course is interrupted by cataracts1 from the geological structure of the ,nubian desert1 which consists of a succession of broad sterile terraces1 separated by ranges of rocks running east and west4 ,over these the ,nile falls in nine or ten cataracts1 the last of which is at ,es-,souan 7,syene71 where it enters ,egypt4 ,most of them are only rapids1 where each successive fall of water is not a foot high4 ,that they were higher at a former period has recently been ascertained by ,dr4 ,lepsius1 the very intelligent traveller sent by the ,king of ,prussia at the head of a mission to explore that country4 ,he found a series of inscriptions on the rocks at ,sennaar1 marking the height of the ,nile at different periods2 and it appears from these1 that in that country the bed of the river had been #cj feet higher than it is now4 ,fifteen miles below ,cairo1 and at #ij miles from the sea1 the ,nile is divided into two branches1 of which one1 running in a northerly direction1 enters the ,mediterranean below ,rosetta2 the other1 cutting ,lower ,egypt into two nearly equal parts1 enters the sea above ,damietta1 so that the delta between these two places has a sea-coast of #ahg miles4 ,the fall from the great cataract to the sea is two inches in a mile4 ,the basin of the ,nile1 occupying an area of #ejj1jjj square miles1 has an uncommon form3 it is wide in ,ethiopia and ,nubia1 but for the greater part of a winding course of #bgej miles it is merely a verdant line of the softest beauty1 suddenly and strongly contrasted with the dreary waste of the ,red ,desert4 ,extending from the equatorial far into the temperate zone1 its aspect is less varied than might have been expected on account of the parched and showerless country it passes through4 ,nevertheless1 from the great elevation of the origin of the river1 the upper part has a perpetual spring1 though within a few degrees of the equator4 ,at the foot of the table-land of ,abyssinia the country is covered with dense tropical jungles1 while the rest of the valley is rich soil1 the detritus of the mountains for thousands of years4 ,as the mean velocity of the ,nile1 when not in flood1 is about two miles and a half an hour1 a particle of water would take twenty-two days and a half to descend from the junction of the ,takkazie to the sea2 hence1 the retardation of the annual inundations of the ,nile in its course is a peculiarity of this river1 owing to some unknown cause towards its origin which affects the whole stream4 ,in ,abyssinia and ,sennaar the river begins to swell in ,april1 yet the flood is not sensible at ,cairo till towards the summer solstice2 it then continues to rise about a hundred days1 and remains at its greatest height till the middle of ,october1 when it begins to subside1 and arrives at its lowest point in ,april and ,may4 ,the height of the flood in ,upper ,egypt varies from #cj to #ce feet2 at ,cairo it is #bc1 and in the northern part of the delta only #d feet4 ,anubis1 or ,sirius1 the ,dog-star1 was worshipped by the ,egyptians1 from its supposed influence on the rising of the ,nile4 ,according to ,champollion1 their calendar commenced when the heliacal rising of that star coincided with the summer solstice--the time at which the ,nile began to swell at ,cairo4 ,now this coincidence made the nearest approach to accuracy #cbia years before the ,christian era2 and as the rising of the river still takes place precisely at the same time and in the same manner1 it follows that the heat and periodical rains in ,upper ,ethiopia have not varied for #ejjj years4 ,in the time of ,hipparchus1 the summer solstice was in the sign of ,leo1 and probably about that period the flowing of the fountains from the mouths of lions of basalt and granite was adopted as emblematical of the pouring forth of the floods of the ,nile4 ,the emblem is still common in ,rome1 though its origin is probably forgotten1 and the signs of the ,zodiac have moved backwards more than #cj4 ,the two greatest ,african rivers1 the ,nile and the ,niger1 are dissimilar in almost every circumstance2 the ,nile1 discharging for ages into a sea1 the centre of commerce and civilization1 has been renowned by the earliest historians1 sacred and profane1 for the exuberant fertility of its banks1 and for the learning and wisdom of their inhabitants1 who have left magnificent and imperishable monuments of their genius and power4 ,egypt was for ages the seat of science1 and by the ,red ,sea it had intercourse with the most highly cultivated nations of the east from time immemorial4 ,the ,niger1 on the contrary1 though its rival in magnitude1 and running through a country glowing with all the brilliancy of tropical vegetation1 has ever been inhabited by barbarous or semi-barbarous nations2 and its course till lately was little known1 as its source still is4 ,in early ages1 before the ,pillars of ,hercules had been passed1 and indeed long afterwards1 the ,atlantic coast of ,africa was an unknown region1 and thus the flowing of the ,niger into that lonely ocean kept the natives in their original rude state4 ,such are the effects of local circumstances on the intellectual advancement of man4 ,the sources of the ,niger1 ,joliba1 or ,quorra1 are supposed to be on the northern side of the ,kong ,mountains1 in the country of ,bambarra1 more than #afjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,from thence it runs north1 and1 after passing through ,lake ,debo1 makes a wide circuit in the plains of ,soudan to ,timbuctoo through eight or nine degrees of latitude3 then bending round1 it again approaches the ,kong ,mountains1 at the distance #ajjj miles in a straight line from its source2 and having threaded them1 it flows across the low lands into the ,gulf of ,guinea1 a course of #bcjj miles4 ,in the plains of ,soudan it receives many very large affluents from the high land of ,senegambia on the west1 and the ,tchadda on the east--a navigable river larger than itself1 probably the outlet of the great lake ,tchad1 which drains the high land of ,komri1 designated by the ancients as the ,mountains of the ,moon1 and falls into it a little below ,fundah1 after a course of some hundred miles3 thus1 the ,niger probably affords an uninterrupted water-communication from the ,atlantic to the heart of ,africa4#abj ,long before leaving the plains of ,soudan it becomes a noble river with a smooth stream1 gliding at the rate of from #e to #h miles an hour1 varying in breadth from #a to #h miles4 ,its banks are studded with densely populous towns and villages1 groves of palm-trees1 and cultivated fields4 ,this great river divides into three branches near the head of a delta which is equal in area to ,ireland1 intersected by navigable branches of the principal stream in every direction4 ,the soil is rich mould1 and the vegetation so rank that the trees seem to grow out of the water4 ,the ,nun1 which is the principal or central branch1 flows into the sea near ,cape ,formosa1 and is that which the brothers ,lander descended4 ,there are1 however1 six rivers which run into the ,bight of ,benin1 all communicating with the ,niger1 and with one another4 ,the old ,calabar is the most eastern2 it rises in the high land of ,calbongos1 and is united to the ,niger by a natural canal4 ,the ,niger1 throughout its long winding course1 lies entirely within the tropic of ,cancer1 and is consequently subject to periodical inundations1 which reach their greatest height in ,august1 about #dj or #ej days after the summer solstice4 ,the plains of ,soudan are then covered with water and crowded by boats4 ,these fertile regions are inaccessible to ,europeans from the pernicious climate1 and dangerous from the savage condition of many of the tribes4 ,the coast of ,guinea1 west from the ,niger1 is watered by many streams1 of no great magnitude1 from the ,kong ,mountains4 ,the table-land of ,senegambia is the origin of the ,rio ,grande1 the ,gambia1 the ,senegal1 and others of great size2 and also of many of an inferior order that fertilize the luxuriant maritime plains on the ,atlantic4 ,their navigable course is cut short by a semicircular chain of mountains which forms the boundary of the high land1 through which they thread their way in rapids and cataracts4 ,the ,gambia rises in ,foula ,toro1 and after a course of about #fjj miles enters the ,atlantic by many branches connected by natural channels1 supposed at one time to be separate rivers4 ,the ,senegal1 the largest river in this part of ,africa1 is #hej miles long4 ,it receives many tributaries in the upper part of its course1 and the lower is full of islands4 ,it drains two lakes1 has several tributaries1 and is united to the basin of the ,gambia by the river ,neriko4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,asiatic ,rivers--,euphrates and ,tigris--,river ,systems ,south of the ,himalaya-- ,chinese ,rivers--,siberian ,rivers4 ,,the only river system of importance in ,western ,asia is that of the ,euphrates and ,tigris4 ,in the basin of these celebrated streams1 containing an area of #bcj1jjj square miles1 immense mounds of earth1 in a desolate plain1 point out the sites of some of the most celebrated cities of antiquity--of ,nineveh and ,babylon4 ,innumerable remains and inscriptions1 the records of times very remote1 have been discovered by adventurous travellers1 and bear testimony to the truth of some of the most interesting pages of history4 ,the ,euphrates1 and its affluent the ,merad-,cha 7supposed to be the stream forded1 as the ,euphrates1 by the ,ten ,thousand in their retreat71 rise in the heart of ,armenia1 and1 after running #ahjj miles on the table-land to #ch #da of north latitude1 they join the northern branch of the ,euphrates1 which rises in the ,gheul ,mountains1 near ,erzeroum4 ,the whole river then descends in rapids through the ,taurus chain1 north of ,romkala1 to the plains of ,mesopotamia4 ,the ,tigris rises in the mountains to the ,n4 and ,w4 of ,dyarbekir1 and after receiving several tributaries from the high lands of ,kurdistan1 it pierces the ,taurus range about #ajj miles above ,mosul1 from whence it descends in a tortuous course through the plain of ancient ,assyria1 receiving many streams from the ,tyari mountains1 inhabited by the ,nestorian ,christians1 and1 farther south1 from those of ,luristan4 ,the country through which it flows is rich in cornfields1 date-groves1 and forest-trees4#aba ,near to the city of ,bagdad the ,tigris and ,euphrates approach to within #ab miles1 where they were once connected by two great canals4 ,from this point they run nearly parallel for more than #ajj miles1 encircling the plain of ,babylon or ,southern ,mesopotamia--the modern ,irak-,arabi4 ,the two rivers unite at ,korna1 and form one stream1 which1 under the name of ,shat-el-,arab1 runs for #aej miles before it falls into the ,persian ,gulf4 ,the banks of the ,tigris and ,euphrates1 once the seat of an extensive population1 and of art1 civilization1 and industry1 are now nearly deserted1 covered with brushwood and grass1 dependent on the rains alone for that luxuriant vegetation which1 under an admirable system of irrigation1 formerly covered them4 ,excepting the large centres of population1 ,bagdad and ,mosul1 the inhabitants consist of nomade ,kurdish tribes4 ,what remains of civilization has taken refuge in the mountains1 where the few traces of primitive and most ancient ,christianity1 under the misapplied denomination of ,nestorian ,christians1 are to be found in the ,tyari range4 ,the floods of the rivers are very regular in their period2 beginning in ,march1 they attain their greatest height in ,june4 ,the ,persian ,gulf may be navigated by steam all the year1 the ,euphrates only eight months2 it might1 however1 afford easy intercourse with eastern ,asia1 as it did in former times4 ,the distance from ,aleppo to ,bombay by the ,euphrates is #bhgj miles1 of which #bgjj1 from ,bir to ,bombay1 are by water2 in the time of ,queen ,elizabeth this was the common route to ,india1 and a fleet was then kept at ,bir1 expressly for that navigation4 ,six rivers of the first magnitude descend from the southern side of the table-land of eastern ,asia and its mountain barriers1 all different in origin1 direction1 and character1 while they convey to the ocean a greater volume of water than all the rivers of the rest of the continent conjointly4 ,of these1 the ,indus1 the double system of the ,ganges1 and ,brahmapootra1 and the three parallel rivers in the ,indo-,chinese peninsula1 water the plains of southern ,asia2 the great system of rivers that descend from the eastern terraces of the table-land irrigates the fertile lands of ,china2 and lastly1 the ,siberian rivers1 not inferior to any in magnitude1 carry the waters of the ,alta and northern slope of the table-land to the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,the hard-fought battles and splendid victories recently achieved by ,british valour over a bold and well-disciplined foe have added to the historical interest of the ,indus and its tributary streams1 now the boundaries of our ,asiatic territories4 ,the sources of the ,indus were only ascertained in #ahab2 the ,ladak1 the largest branch of the ,indus1 has its origin in the snowy mountains of ,karakorum2 and the ,shyook1 which is the smaller stream1 rises in the ,kentese or ,gangri range1 a ridge parallel to the ,himalaya1 which extends along the table-land of ,tibet1 north and west of the sacred lake of ,mnasarowar4 ,these two streams join north-west of ,ladak and form the ,indus2 the ,sutlej1 its principal tributary1 springs from the lake of ,rakas ,tal1 which communicates with that of ,mnasarowar1 both situated in a valley between the ,himalaya and ,gangri chain at the great elevation of #ae1bjj feet4 ,these rivers1 fed by streams of melted snow from the northern side of the ,himalaya1 both flow westward along the extensive longitudinal valley of western ,tibet4 ,the ,sutlej breaks through the ,himalaya about the #geth meridian1 and traverses the whole breadth of the chain1 in frightful chasms and clefts in the rocks1 to the plains of the ,punjab2 the ,indus1 after continuing its course on the table-land through several degrees of longitude farther1 descends near the junction of the ,himalaya and the ,hindoo ,coosh1 west of the valley of ,cashmere1 to the same plain4 ,three tributaries--the ,jelum or ,hydaspes1 the ,chenab or ,acescines1 and the ,ravee or ,hydrates1 all superior to the ,rhone in size--flow from the southern face of the ,himalaya1 and with the ,sutlej 7the ancient ,hyphasis7 join the ,indus before it reaches ,mittun2 hence the name ,punjab1 8the plain of the five rivers10 now one of the most valuable countries in the ,east4 ,from ,mittun to the ocean1 the ,indus1 like the ,nile1 does not receive a single accessary1 from the same cause-- the sterility of the country through which it passes4 ,the ,cabul river1 which rises near ,guzni1 and is joined by a larger affluent from the southern declivities of the ,hindoo ,coosh1 flows through picturesque and dangerous defiles1 and joins the ,indus at the town of ,attock1 and is the only tributary of any magnitude that comes from the west4 ,the ,indus is not favourable to navigation3 for #gj miles after it leaves the mountains the descent in a boat is dangerous1 and it is only navigable for steam-vessels of small draught of water2 yet1 from the fertility of the ,punjab1 and the near approach of its basin to that of the ,ganges at the foot of the mountains1 it must ultimately be a valuable acquisition1 and the more especially because it commands the principal roads between ,persia and ,india1 one through ,cabul and ,peshawer1 and the other from ,herat through ,candahar4 ,the delta of the ,indus1 formerly celebrated for its civilization1 has long been a desert2 but from the luxuriance of the soil1 and the change of political circumstances1 it may again resume its pristine aspect4 ,it is #fj miles long1 and presents a face of #abj miles to the sea at the ,gulf of ,oman1 where the river empties itself by many mouths1 of which only three or four are navigable3 one only can be entered by vessels of #ej tons1 and all are liable to change4 ,the tide ascends them with extraordinary rapidity for #ge miles1 and so great is the quantity of mud carried by it1 and the absorbing violence of the eddies1 that a vessel wrecked on the coast was buried in sand and mud in two tides4 ,the annual floods begin with the melting of the snow in the ,himalaya in the end of ,april1 come to their height in ,july1 and end in ,september4 ,the length of this river is #aejj miles1 and it drains an area of #djj1jjj square miles4 ,the second group of ,south ,indian rivers1 and one of the greatest1 is the double system of the ,ganges and ,brahmapootra4 ,these two rivers1 though wide apart at their courses1 have their sources little removed from each other1 on opposite sides of the central ridge of the ,himalaya1 and which1 converging to a common delta1 constitute one of the most important groups on the globe4 ,mr4 ,alexander ,elliot1 of the ,body ,guard in ,bengal1 son of ,admiral ,elliot1 with his friends1 are the first who have accomplished the arduous expedition to the sources of the ,ganges4 ,the river flows at once in a very rapid stream not less than #dj yards across1 from a huge cave in a perpendicular wall of ice at the distance of about three marches from the ,temple of ,gungoo-tree1 to which the pilgrims resort4 ,mr4 ,elliot says1 8,the view from the glacier was perfectly amazing2 beautiful or magnificent is no word for it1--it was really quite astonishing4 ,if you could fancy a bird's-eye of all the mountains in the world in one cluster1 and every one of them covered with snow1 it would hardly give you an idea of the sight which presented itself40 ,many streams from the southern face of the ,himalaya unite at ,hurdwar to form the great body of the river4 ,it flows from thence in a south-easterly direction through the plains of ,bengal1 receiving in its course the tribute of #ai or #bj rivers1 of which #ab are larger than the ,rhine4 ,about #bbj miles in a direct line from the ,bay of ,bengal1 into which the ,ganges flows1 the innumerable channels and branches into which it splits form an intricate maze over a delta twice as large as that of the ,nile4 ,the ,brahmapootra1 a river equal in the volume of its waters to the ,ganges1 may be considered as the continuation of the ,dzangho ,tchou or river of ,lassa1 which rises near the sources of the ,sutlej and the ,indus1 in long4 #hb ,e4 ,after watering the great longitudinal valley of eastern ,tibet1 it makes a sudden bend to the south in long4 #ij ,e41 cutting through the ,himalaya chain1 as the ,indus does at its opposite extremity between ,iskasdo and ,attock2 after which it receives several tributaries from the northern mountains of the ,birman empire2 but very little is known of this part of its basin4 ,the upper part of the ,brahmapootra is parallel to the ,himalaya chain1 until it enters ,upper ,assam1 where1 passing through the sacred pool of ,brahma-,koond1 it receives the name which it bears in the lower part of its course-- ,brahmapootra1 the 8off-spring of ,brahma30 the natives call it the ,lahit1 ,sanscrit for the 8,red ,river40 ,in ,upper ,assam1 through which it winds #ejj miles1 and forms some extensive channel islands1 it receives six very considerable accessories1 of which the origin is unknown1 though some are supposed to come from the table-land of ,tibet4 ,they are only navigable in the plains1 but vessels of considerable burthen ascend the parent stream as far as ,sundiva4 ,before it enters the plains of ,bengal1 below ,goyalpara1 the ,brahmapootra runs with rapidity and in great volume1 and1 after receiving the rivers of ,bhotan and other streams1 branches of it unite with those of the ,ganges about #dj miles from the coast1 but the two rivers enter the sea by different mouths1 though they sometimes approach within two miles4 ,the length of the ,brahmapootra is probably #hfj miles1 so that it is #ejj miles shorter than the ,ganges3 the volume of water discharged by it during the dry season is about #adf1ahh cubic feet in a second2 the quantity discharged by the ,ganges in the same time1 and under the same circumstances1 is #hj1jjj cubic feet4 ,in the perennial floods the quantity of water poured through the tributaries of the ,brahmapootra from their snowy sources is incredible2 the plains of ,upper ,assam are an entire sheet of water from the #aeth of ,june to the #aeth of ,september1 and there is no communication but by elevated causeways eight or ten feet high3 the two rivers1 with their branches1 lay the plain of ,bengal under water for hundreds of miles annually4 ,they begin first to swell from the melting of the snow on the mountains1 but1 before their inferior streams overflow from that cause1 all the lower parts of ,bengal adjacent to the ,ganges and ,brahmapootra are under water from the swelling of these rivers by the rains4 ,the increase is arrested before the middle of ,august1 by the cessation of the rains in the mountains1 though they continue to fall longer on the plains4 ,the delta is traversed in every direction by arms of the rivers4 ,the ,hoogly branch1 at all times navigable1 passes ,calcutta and ,chandernagor2 and the ,hauringotta arm is also navigable1 as well as the ,ganges1 properly so called4 ,the channels1 however1 are perpetually changing1 from the strength of the current1 and the prodigious quantity of matter washed from the high lands2 the ,ganges alone carries to the sea #fjj1jjj cubic feet of mud in a second1 the effects of which are perceptible #fj miles from the coast4 ,the elevation of the mountains1 and indeed of the land generally1 must have been enormous1 since it remains still so stupendous after ages of such degradation4 ,the ,sunderbunds1 a congeries of innumerable river islands formed by the endless streams and narrow channels of the rivers1 as well as by the indentations of arms of the sea1 line the coast of ,bengal for #ahj miles1 a wilderness of jungle and heavy timber4 ,the united streams of the ,ganges and ,brahmapootra drain an area of #fej1jjj square miles1 and there is scarcely a spot in ,bengal more than #bj miles distant from a river navigable even in the dry season4 ,these three great rivers of ,southern ,india do not differ more widely in their physical circumstances than in the races of men who inhabit their banks1 yet from their position they seem formed to unite nations the most varied in their aspect and speech4 ,the tributaries of the ,ganges and ,indus come so near to each other at the foot of the mountains1 that a canal only two miles long would unite them1 and thus an inland navigation from the ,bay of ,bengal to the ,gulf of ,oman might be established4 ,an immense volume of water is poured in a series of nearly parallel rivers of great magnitude1 and running in the direction of the meridian through the ,indo-,chinese peninsula1 to empty themselves into the ocean on either side of the peninsula of ,malacca4 ,they rise in those elevated regions at the south-eastern angle of the table-land of ,tibet1 the lofty but unknown provinces of the ,chinese empire1 and water the great valleys that extend nearly from north to south with perfect uniformity1 between chains of mountains no less uniform1 which spread out like a fan as they approach the sea4 ,scarcely anything is known of the origin or upper parts of these rivers1 and1 with a few exceptions1 almost as little of the lower4 ,their number amounts to six or seven1 all large1 though three surpass the rest--the ,irawady1 which waters the ,birman empire1 and falls into the ,bay of ,bengal at the ,gulf of ,martaban2 the ,menam1 or river of ,siam2 and the river ,cambodja1 which flows through the empire of ,annam3 the last two fall into the ,gulf of ,siam and the ,china ,sea4 ,the sources of the ,irawady are in the same chain of mountains with the eastern affluents of the ,brahmapootra more to the south4 ,its course is through countries hardly known to ,europeans1 but it seems to be navigable by boats before coming to the city of ,amarapoora1 south of which it enters the finest and richest plain of the empire1 containing its four capital-cities4 ,there it receives two large affluents1 one from the ,chinese province of ,yun-nan1 which flows into the ,irawady at the city of ,ava1 #ddf miles from the sea1 the highest point attained by the ,british forces during the ,burmese war4 ,from ,ava to its delta the ,irawady is a magnificent river1 more than four miles broad in some places1 but encumbered with channel islands4 ,in this part of its course it receives its largest tributary1 and forms in its delta one of the most extensive systems of internal navigation4 ,the ,rangoon is the only one of its #ad mouths that is always navigable1 and in it the commerce of the empire is concentrated4 ,the internal communication is extended by the junction of the two most navigable deltoid branches with the rivers ,salaen and ,pegu by natural canals3 that joining the former is #bjj miles long2 the canal uniting the latter is only navigable at high water4 ,the ,menam1 one of the largest ,asiatic rivers1 is less known than the ,irawady2 it comes from the ,chinese province of ,yun-nan1 and runs through the kingdom of ,siam1 which it cuts into several islands by many diverging branches1 and enters the ,gulf of ,siam by three principal arms1 the most easterly of which forms the harbour of ,bangkok4 ,it is joined to the ,menam ,kong1 or ,cambodja1 by the small river ,anan-,myit4 ,the river of ,cambodja has the longest course of any in the peninsula3 it is supposed to be the ,lantsan-,kiang1 which rises in the high land of ,k'ham1 in eastern ,asia1 not far from the sources of the great ,chinese river1 the ,yang-tse-,kiang4 ,after transversing the elevated plain of ,yun-nan1 where it is navigable1 it rushes through the mountain barriers1 and1 on reaching a wider valley about #cjj miles from its mouth1 it is joined to the ,menam by the natural canal of the ,anan-,myit4 ,more to the south it is said to split into branches which unite again4 ,the ancient capital of ,annam is situate on the ,cambodja1 about #aej miles from the sea2 a little to the south its extensive delta begins1 projects far into the ocean1 and is cut in all directions by arms of the river1 navigable during the floods2 three of its mouths are permanently so for large vessels up to the capital4 ,the ,sang1 more to the east1 is much shorter than the ,cambodja1 though said to be #ajjj miles long1 but ,europeans have not ascended higher than the town of ,sai-gon4 ,near its mouth it sends off several branches to the eastern arm of the ,cambodja4 ,all rivers of this part of ,asia are subject to periodical inundations1 which fertilize the plains at the expense of the mountains4 ,the parallelism of the mountain-chains constitutes formidable barriers between the upper basins of the ,indo-,chinese rivers1 and decided lines of separation between the inhabitants of the intervening valleys2 but this inconvenience is in some degree compensated by the natural canals of junction and the extensive water communication towards the mouths of the rivers4 ,four great systems of rivers take their origin on the eastern declivity of the great table-land of central ,asia1 and running from west to east1 traverse the ,chinese empire3--the ,hong-,kiang1 which1 rising in the province of ,yun-nan1 empties itself into the bay of ,canton2 the ,yang-tse-,kiang1 or ,son of the ,ocean2 the ,hoang-,ho2 and the great river of ,amur4 ,the length of the ,hoang-,ho is #bjjj miles1 that of the ,yang-tse-,kiang #bijj4 ,though near their sources they are widely separated by the mountain-chains that border the table-land1 they approach as they proceed on their eastern course1 and are not more than #ajj miles apart when they enter the ,yellow ,sea4 ,from a map constructed by the ,jesuit missionaries in the #ahth century1 it appears that the mouth of the ,hoang-,ho or ,yellow ,river has shifted to the enormous distance of #abf leagues from its former position4 ,the ,yang-tse-,kiang and the ,yellow ,river1 in the lower part of their course1 are united by innumerable canals1 forming the grandest system of irrigation and of internal navigation in existence4 ,the ,hoang-,ho brings down so large a quantity of earthy matter to the sea1 that1 like the ,tiber of old1 it is called the 8,yellow0 ,river4 ,strong tides ascend these rivers to the distance of #djj miles1 and for the time prevent the descent of the fresh water1 which forms large interior seas frequented by thousands of trading-vessels1 and they irrigate the productive lands of central ,china1 from time immemorial the most highly cultivated and the most densely-peopled region of the globe4 ,almost all the ,chinese rivers of less note--and they are numerous--feed these giant streams1 with the exception of the ,ta-si or ,hong-,kiang and the ,pee-ho or ,white ,river1 which have their own basins4 ,the former1 rising to the east of the town of ,yun-nan1 flows through the plains of ,canton eastward to the ,gulf of ,canton1 into which it discharges itself1 increased in its course by the ,sekiang4 ,the ,white ,river1 rising in the mountains near the ,great ,wall1 becomes navigable a few miles east of ,pekin1 unites with the ,eu-ho1 joins the ,great ,canal1 and1 as the tide ascends it for #hj miles1 it is crowded with shipping4 ,the ,amur1 the sources of which are partly in the ,russian dominions1 though its course is chiefly in the ,mantchoo territory of ,china1 is #bjjj miles long1 including its windings1 and has a basin of #hec1jjj square miles4 ,almost all its tributaries come from that part of the ,baikalian group called the ,yablonnoi ,khrebit by the ,russians1 and ,khing-,khan-,oola by the ,chinese4 ,the river ,onon1 which is the parent stream1 has its origin in the ,khentai ,khan1 a branch of the latter2 and though its course is through an uninhabited country1 it is celebrated as being the birthplace and the scene of the exploits of ,tshingis ,khan4 ,after passing through the lake of ,dalai-nor1 which is #baj miles in circumference1 it takes the name of ,argun1 and forms the boundary between the ,chinese and ,russians for #djj miles2 it is then joined by the ,shilka1 where it assumes the ,tunguse name of the ,amur or ,great ,river3 the ,mandchoos call it the ,sagalin or ,black ,water4 ,it receives most of the unknown rivers which come from the mountain-slopes of the ,great ,gobi1 and falls into the ,pacific opposite to the island of ,sagalin1 after having traversed three degrees of latitude and thirty-three of longitude4 ,three great rivers1 the ,lena1 the ,yenessei1 and the double system of the ,irtish and ,oby1 not inferior in size to any of the rivers of ,asia1 carry off the waters of the ,alta chain1 and of the mountains which bound the northern border of the great ,asiatic table-land4 ,the ,lena1 whose basin occupies #hjj1jjj square miles1 springs from mountains north of the ,lake of ,baikal1 and runs north-east through more than half its course to the ,siberian town of ,yakutzk1 the coldest town on the face of the earth1 receiving in its course the ,vitim and the ,olekma1 its two principal affluents1 the former from the ,baikal mountains1 the latter from ,stannovoi ,khrebit1 the most southerly part of the ,aldan range4 ,north of ,yakutzk1 about the #fc;d degree of latitude1 the ,lena receives the ,aldan1 its greatest tributary1 which also comes from the ,stannovoi ,khrebit2 it then goes to the ,arctic ,ocean1 between banks of frozen mud1 prodigious masses of which are hurled down by the summer floods1 and bring to view the bones of those huge animals of extinct species which at some remote period had found their nourishment in these desert plains4 ,the length of the ,lena1 including its windings1 is #aijj miles4 ,a difference in the pressure of the air has been observed on the banks of this river1 on the shores of the ,sea of ,okhotzk1 and at ,kamchatka2 which indicates that in the distance of five degrees of latitude there is an apparent difference in the level of the sea amounting to #aci feet4#abb ,a similar phenomenon was observed by ,captain ,foster near ,cape ,horn1 and by ,sir ,james ,ross throughout the ,south ,polar ,ocean4 ,the ,yenessei1 a much larger river than the ,lena1 drains about #a1jjj1jjj square miles1 and is formed by the union of the ,great and ,little ,kem4 ,the former rises at the junction of the ,sayansk range1 with the ,baikalian mountains to the north-west of ,lake ,kassagol2 the latter comes from the ,egtag or ,little ,alta1 in quite an opposite direction1 so that these two meet nearly at right angles1 and take the name of ,yenessei2 it then crosses the ,sagaetses range in cataracts and rapids1 entering the plains of ,siberia below the town of ,krasnojarsk4 ,below this many rivers join it1 chiefly the ,angara from the ,lake ,baikal2 but its greatest tributaries1 the ,upper and ,lower ,tunguska1 both large rivers from the ,baikalian mountains1 join it lower down1 the first to the south1 the latter to the north of the town of ,yeniseisk1 whence it runs north to the ,icy ,ocean1 there forming a large gulf1 its length1 measured along its bed1 being #bejj miles4 ,the ,oby rises in the ,lake of ,toleskoi1 8the ,lake of ,gold10 in ,great ,tartary2 all the streams of the ,lesser ,alta unite to swell it and its great tributary the ,irtish4 ,the rivers which come from the northern declivity of the mountains go to the ,oby1 those from the western side to the ,irtish1 which springs from numerous streams on the south-western declivity of the ,little ,alta1 and run westward into ,lake ,zaidzan1 #bjj miles in circumference4 ,issuing from thence1 it takes a westerly course to the plain on the north of ,semipolatinsk4 ,in the plain it is joined by the ,tobol1 which crosses the steppe of the ,kirghiz ,cossacks from the ,ural ,mountains1 and soon unites with the ,oby2 the joint stream then proceeds to the ,arctic ,ocean in #fg ,n4 lat4 ,the ,oby is #bjjj miles long1 and the basin of these two rivers occupies a third part of ,siberia4 ,before the ,oby leaves the mountains1 at a distance of #abjj miles from the ,arctic ,ocean1 its surface has an absolute elevation of not more than #djj feet1 and the ,irtish1 at the same distance1 is only #gb feet higher2 both are consequently sluggish4 ,when the snow melts they cover the country like seas2 and as the inclination of the plains in the middle and lower parts of their course is not sufficient to carry off the water1 those immense lakes and marshes are formed which characterize this portion of ,siberia4 ,the bed of the ,oby is very deep1 and there are no soundings at its mouth2 hence1 the largest vessels might ascend at least to its junction with the ,irtish4 ,its many affluents also might admit ships1 did not the climate form an insurmountable obstacle the greater part of the year4 ,indeed all ,siberian rivers are frozen annually for many months1 and even the ocean along the ,arctic coasts is rarely disencumbered from ice2 therefore these vast rivers never can be important as navigable streams2 but towards the mountains they afford water communication from the steppe of ,issim to the ,pacific4 ,they abound in fish and water-fowl1 for which the ,siberian braves the extremest severity of the climate4 ,local circumstances have nowhere produced a greater difference in the human race than in the basins of the great rivers north and south of the table-land of eastern ,asia4 ,the ,indian1 favoured by the finest climate1 and a soil which produces the luxuries of life1 intersected with rivers navigable at all seasons1 and affording easy communication with the surrounding nations1 attained early a high degree of civilization2 while the ,siberian and ,samoide1 doomed to contend with the rigours of the polar blasts in order to obtain mere existence1 have never risen beyond the lowest grade of humanity2 but custom softens the rigour of this stern life1 so that even here a share of happiness is enjoyed4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,river ,systems of ,north ,america--,rivers of ,central ,america--,rivers of ,south ,america and of ,australia4 ,,north ,america is divided into four distinct water systems by the ,rocky ,mountains1 the ,alleghanies1 and a table-land which contains the great lakes1 and separates the rivers that flow into the ,arctic ,ocean from those which go to the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,this table-land1 which is a level1 nowhere more than #abjj or #aejj feet above the surface of the sea1 is the watershed of the ,mackenzie1 the ,mississippi1 the ,st4 ,lawrence1 and of the rivers that flow into ,hudson's ,bay4 ,the ,st4 ,lawrence rises under the name of the ,st4 ,louis in #dg #dc ,n4 lat4 and #ic ,w4 long42 after joining the ,lakes ,superior1 ,huron1 ,erie1 and ,ontario1 it issues from the last by the name of the ,iroquois1 and1 expanding in its north-easterly course into ,lakes ,st4 ,francis1 ,st4 ,louis1 and ,st4 ,peter1 it is first known as the ,st4 ,lawrence at ,montreal1 from whence it runs north-east into the ,atlantic1 and ends in an estuary #ajj miles wide4 ,it has a basin of #big1fjj square miles1 of which #id1jjj are covered with water1 exclusive of the many lesser lakes with which it is in communication4 ,north of the watershed there is an endless and intricate labyrinth of lakes and rivers1 almost all connected with one another4 ,but the principal streams of these ,arctic lands are--the ,great ,fish ,river1 which flows north-east in a continued series of dangerous and all but impassable rapids to the ,arctic ,ocean at ,melville ,strait2 the ,copper-mine ,river1 of much the same character1 which1 after traversing many lakes1 enters the ,icy ,sea at ,george the ,fourth's ,gulf2 and the ,mackenzie ,river1 a stream of greater magnitude1 formed by the confluence of the ,peace ,river and the ,athabasca from the ,rocky ,mountains1 which1 after flowing north over #af degrees of latitude1 enters the ,frozen ,ocean in the ,esquimaux country beyond the ,arctic ,circle4 ,all these rivers are frozen more than half the year1 and the ,mackenzie1 in consequence of its length and direction from south to north1 is subject to floods like the ,siberian rivers1 because its lower course remains frozen for several hundred miles long after the upper part is thawed1 and the water1 finding no outlet1 flows over the ice and inundates the plains4 ,south of the table-land the valley of the ,mississippi extends for #ajjj miles1 and this greatest of ,north ,american rivers has its origin in the junction of streams from the small lakes ,itaska and ,ussawa1 on the table-land at no greater height than #aejj feet above the sea4 ,before their junction these streams frequently spread out into sheets of water1 and the ,mississippi does the same in the upper part of its course4 ,this river flows from north to south through more degrees of latitude than any other1 and receives so many tributaries of the higher orders that it would be difficult even to name them4 ,among those that swell its volume from the ,rocky ,mountains1 the ,missouri1 the ,arkansas1 and the ,red ,river are the largest1 each being in itself a mighty stream1 receiving tributaries without number4 ,before their junction the ,missouri is a stream much superior to the ,mississippi both in length and volume1 and has many affluents larger than the ,rhine4 ,it rises in about #dd ,n4 lat41 and runs partly in a longitudinal valley of the ,rocky ,mountains1 and partly at their foot1 and drains the whole of the country on the right bank of the ,mississippi between the #dith and #djth parallels of north latitude4 ,it descends in cataracts through the mountain regions1 and in the plains it sometimes passes through large prairies and sometimes through dense forests1 in all accomplishing #cjjj miles in a very tortuous and generally south-eastern direction till it joins the ,mississippi near the town of ,st4 ,louis4 ,lower down1 the ,mississippi is joined by the ,arkansas1 #bjjj miles long1 with many tributaries1 and then by the ,red ,river1 the former from the ,rocky ,mountains2 the latter1 which rises in the table-land of ,new ,mexico1 is fed by rivers from the ,sierra del ,sacramento1 and enters the main stream not from the beginning of the delta1 at the head of which the ,mississippi sends off a large branch called the ,atchafalaya to the south1 and then turning to the east it discharges itself by five mouths at the extremity of a long tongue of land which stretches #ej miles into the ,gulf of ,mexico1 having formed a delta considerably larger than that of the ,nile4 ,the shore is lined with shallow salt lagoons2 the greater part of the delta is covered with water and unhealthy marshes1 the abode of the alligator1 and during the floods it is a muddy sea4 ,this river is navigable for #bbdj miles4 ,its valley is of variable width1 but at its greatest width1 at the junction of the ,white ,river1 it is #hj miles4 ,the tributaries from the ,rocky ,mountains1 though much longer1 run through countries of less promise than those which are traversed by the ,ohio and the other rivers that flow into the ,mississippi on the east1 which offer advantages unrivalled even in this wonderful country1 only beginning to be developed4 ,the ,ohio is formed by the union of the rivers ,alleghany and ,monongahela1 the latter from the ,laurel ridge of the ,alleghany chain in ,virginia2 the former comes from sources near ,lake ,erie1 and the two unite at ,pittsburg1 from whence the river winds #idh miles through some of the finest states of the ,union1 till its junction with the ,mississippi1 having received many accessories1 six of which are navigable streams4 ,there are some obstacles to navigation in the ,ohio1 but they have been avoided by canals4 ,other canals join both the ,mississippi and its branches with ,lake ,erie1 so that there is an internal water communication between the ,st4 ,lawrence and the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,the whole length of the ,mississippi is #cafj miles1 but1 if the ,missouri be considered the main stem1 it is #dbfe1 and the joint stream drains an area of about a million and a quarter of square miles4 ,the breadth of the river nowhere corresponds with its length4 ,at the confluence of the ,missouri each river is half a mile wide1 and after the junction of the ,ohio it is not more4 ,a steamer may ascend the ,mississippi for #bjjj miles from ,balize without any perceptible difference in its breadth4 ,the depth is #afh feet where it enters the ,gulf of ,mexico at ,new ,orleans3 the fall of the river at ,cape ,girardeau is four inches in a mile4 ,this river is a rapid desolating torrent loaded with mud2 its violent floods1 from the melting of the snow in the high latitudes1 sweep away whole forests1 by which the navigation is rendered very dangerous1 and the trees1 being matted together in masses many yards thick1 are carried down by the spring floods1 and deposited over the delta and ,gulf of ,mexico for hundreds of square miles4 ,north ,america can boast of two other great water systems1 one from the eastern versant of the ,alleghanies1 which flows into the ,atlantic1 and another from the western versant of the ,rocky ,mountains1 which runs into the ,pacific4 ,all the streams that flow eastward through the ,united ,states to the ,atlantic are short1 and comparatively small1 but of the highest utility1 because many of them1 especially those to the north1 end in gulfs of vast magnitude1 and the whole are so united by canals that few places are not accessible by water--one of the greatest advantages a country can possess4 ,there are at least #bd canals in the ,united ,states1 the aggregate length of which is #caja miles4 ,many of the streams which ultimately come to the ,atlantic rise in the western ridges of the ,alleghany chain1 and traverse its longitudinal valleys before leaving the mountains to cross the ,atlantic slope1 which terminates in a precipitous ledge for #cjj miles parallel to the range4 ,by falling over this rocky barrier in long rapids and picturesque cascades they afford an enormous and extensive water-power2 and as the rivers are navigable from the ,atlantic quite across the maritime plains1 these two circumstances have determined the location of most of the principal cities of the ,united ,states at the foot of this rocky ledge1 which1 though not more than #cjj feet high1 has had a greater influence on the political and commercial interests of the ,union than the highest chains of mountains have had in other countries4 ,the ,hudson in the north is navigable to ,albany2 the ,delaware and ,susquehanna1 ending in bays1 are important rivers2 and the ,potomac1 which falls into ,chesapeake ,bay1 passes ,washington1 the capital of the ,united ,states1 to which the largest ships can ascend4 ,the watershed of the ,rocky ,mountains lies at a greater distance from the ,pacific than that of the ,alleghanies from the ,atlantic2 consequently the rivers are longer1 but they are few1 and little known2 the largest are1 the ,oregon or ,colombia1 and the ,rio ,colorado4 ,the former has its sources not far from those of the ,missouri and of the ,rio del ,norte2 and after an exceedingly tortuous source1 in which it receives many tributaries1 it falls into the ,pacific at ,astoria4 ,the ,colorado is a ,mexican stream1 which comes from the ,sierra ,verde and falls into the ,gulf of ,california4 ,the ,sacramento with its tributaries1 a ,californian stream1 lying between the two1 and much inferior to either1 has been brought into notice of late from the extensive and rich auriferous country through which it flows in its course to the ,bay of ,san ,francisco on the ,pacific4 ,on the table-land of ,mexico there is a basin of continental streams1 which1 rising from springs on the eastern side of the ,sierra ,madre1 and fed by the periodical rains1 flow northward and terminate in lakes1 which part with their superfluous water by evaporation4 ,of these1 the ,rio ,grande1 which1 after a course of #cjj miles1 falls into the ,parras1 is the greatest4 ,the largest river in the isthmus of ,mexico is the ,rio de ,lerma or ,rio ,grande ,santiago1 which rises on the table-land of ,toluca1 passes through ,lake ,chapala1 forms numerous cascades1 and falls into the ,pacific after a course of #djj miles4 ,there are many streams in ,central ,america1 and above #aj rivers that are navigable for some miles2 six of these fall into the ,gulf of ,mexico and ,caribbean ,sea1 and four into the ,pacific4 ,of these1 the ,guasacualco1 which traverses the ,isthmus nearly from sea to sea1 and which has by some been considered as the best point for a sea canal between the two oceans1 and the ,montagua1 which rises in the mountains near ,guatemala3 the first empties itself into the ,gulf of ,mexico1 whilst the second flows into the ,gulf of ,honduras1 and has a long line of navigation4 ,in the southern part of the ,state of ,guatemala is situated the ,river of ,san ,juan1 which drains the ,lakes of ,nicaragua and ,leon1 and by which it is supposed a water communication could be easily effected between the ,atlantic and the ,pacific4 ,the ,andes1 the extensive watershed of ,south ,america1 are so close to the sea1 that there are no rivers of considerable size which empty themselves into the ,pacific2 even some of the streams that rise in the western ,cordilleras find their way to the eastern plains4 ,the ,magdalena1 at the northern end of the ,andes1 though a secondary river in ,america1 is #fbj miles long4 ,it rises in the central chain1 at the divergence of the ,cordilleras of ,suma ,paz and ,quindiu1 and enters the ,caribbean ,sea by various channels2 it is navigable as far as ,honda4 ,the ,cauca1 its only feeder on the left1 comes from ,popayan1 and is nearly as large as its primary1 to which it runs parallel the greater part of its course4 ,many streams join the ,magdalena on the right1 as the stream which waters the elevated plain of ,bogota1 and forms the cataract of ,tequendama1 one of the most beautiful and wildest scenes in the ,andes4 ,the river rushes through a chasm #cj feet wide1 which appears to have been formed by an earthquake1 and at a double bound descends #ecj feet into a dark gloomy pool1 illuminated only at noon by a few feeble rays4 ,a dense cloud of vapour rising from it is visible at the distance of #ae miles4 ,at the top the vegetation is that of a temperate climate1 while palms grow at the bottom4 ,the river ,atrato1 parallel to the ,cauca and ,magdalena1 but less considerable1 empties itself into the ,gulf of ,darien4 ,the rivers of ,patia1 of ,san ,juan1 of ,las ,esmeraldas1 and of ,guyaquil1 all rise on the western declivity of the ,andes to flow into the ,pacific4 ,with these exceptions1 all the water from the inexhaustible sources of the ,andes north of ,chile is poured into the ,orinoco1 the ,river of the ,amazons1 and the ,rio de la ,plata1 which convey it eastward across the continent to the ,atlantic4 ,in the far south1 indeed1 there are the ,colorado and ,rio ,negro1 but they are insignificant when compared with these giant floods4 ,the basins of these three rivers are separated in their lower parts by the mountains and high lands of the ,parima and ,brazil2 but the central parts of the basins of all three1 toward the foot of the ,andes1 form an extensive level1 and are only divided from one another by imperceptible elevations in the plains1 barely sufficient to form the watersheds between the tributaries of these majestic rivers4 ,this peculiar structure is the cause of the natural canal of the ,cassiquiare1 which joins the ,upper ,orinoco with the ,rio ,negro1 a principal affluent of the ,amazons4 ,ages hence1 when the wilds are inhabited by civilized man1 the tributaries of these three great rivers1 many of which are navigable to the foot of the ,andes1 will1 by means of canals1 form a water system infinitely superior to any that now exists4 ,the ,orinoco1 altogether a ,colombian river1 rises in the ,sierra del ,parima1 #bjj miles east of the elevated ,peak of ,duida1 and maintains a westerly course to ,san ,fernando de ,atabapo1 where it receives the ,atabapo1 and ,guaviare1 which is larger than the ,danube2 here ends the ,upper ,orinoco4 ,the river then forces a passage through the ,sierra del ,parima1 and runs due north for three degrees of latitude1 between banks almost inaccessible2 its bed is traversed by dykes1 and filled with boulders of granite and islands clothed with a variety of magnificent palm-trees4 ,large portions of the river are here engulfed in crevices1 forming subterranean cascades2 and in this part are the celebrated falls of the ,atures and ,apures1 #cf miles apart1 which are heard at the distance of many miles4 ,at the end of this tumultuous part of its course it is joined by the ,meta1 and farther north by the ,apure1 two very large rivers1 which drain the whole eastern side of the ,andes in an extent of #aj degrees of latitude1 and then runs eastward to its mouth1 where it forms an extensive delta and enters the ,atlantic by many channels4 ,as the ,upper ,orinoco runs west1 and the ,lower ,orinoco east1 it makes a complete circuit round the ,parima mountains1 so that its mouth is only two degrees distant from the meridian of its sources4 ,the ,cassiquiare leaves the ,orinoco near the south base of the ,peak of ,duida1 and joins the ,rio ,negro1 a chief tributary of the ,amazons1 at the distance of #ahj miles4 ,the ,orinoco is navigable for #ajjj miles at all seasons2 a fleet might ascend it from the ,dragon's ,mouth to within #de miles of ,santa ,f de ,bogota4 ,it receives many navigable rivers1 of which the ,guaviare1 the ,atures1 and the ,meta are each larger than the ,danube4 ,the ,meta may be ascended to the foot of the ,andes2 its mean depth is #cf feet1 and in many places #hj or #ij4 ,it rises so high in the ,andes that ,baron ,humboldt says the vegetable productions at its source differ as much from those at its confluence with the ,orinoco1 though in the same latitude1 as the vegetation of ,france does from that of ,senegal4 ,the larger feeders of the ,orinoco come from the ,andes1 though many descend to it from both sides of the ,parima1 in consequence of its long circuit among these mountains4 ,the basin of the ,orinoco has an area of #cjj1jjj square miles1 of which the upper part is impenetrable forest1 the lower is ,llanos4 ,the floods of the ,orinoco1 like those of all rivers entirely within the torrid zone1 are very regular1 and attain their height nearly at the same time with those of the ,ganges1 the ,niger1 and the ,gambia4 ,they begin to swell about the #beth of ,march1 and arrive at their full and begin to decrease on the #beth of ,august4 ,the inundations are very great1 owing to the quantity of rain that falls in the wooded regions1 which exceeds #ajj inches in a year4 ,below the confluence of the ,apure the river is three miles and a quarter broad1 but during the floods it is three times as much4 ,by the confluence of four of its greatest tributaries at the point at which it bends to the east1 a low inland delta is formed1 in consequence of which #cfjj square miles of the plain are under water during the inundation4 ,the ,orinoco in many places smells of musk1 from the number of dead crocodiles4 ,upper ,peru is the cradle of the ,amazons1 the greatest of rivers1 which drains the chain of the ,andes from the equator to the #bjth parallel of southern latitude4 ,its highest branch1 which bears the name of ,maraon1 issues in two streams from the ,lake of ,lauricocha in the plain of ,bombon1 at a great elevation in the ,andes3 it runs in a deep longitudinal valley from south to north1 till it bursts through the eastern ridge at the ,pongo de ,manseriche1 near the town of ,san ,borja1 from whence it follows an uniform eastern course of nearly #djjj miles including its windings1 till it reaches the ,atlantic4 ,west of ,san ,borja1 and on its southern bank1 it receives the ,huallaga and ,yucayali1 the latter a river of great size which rises in the ,andes of ,vilcaota1 ,s4 of ,cusco1 where its source was visited and its position determined by ,mr4 ,pentland4 ,the ,amazons is supposed to drain an area of two millions and a half of square miles1 which is ten times the size of ,france4 ,in some places it has a great depth2 it is navigable #bbjj miles from its source1 and is #if miles wide at its mouth4 ,the name of the river is three times changed in its course3 it is known as the ,maraon from its source to the confluence of the ,yucayali2 from that point to its junction with the ,rio ,negro1 it is called the ,solimoes2 and from the ,rio ,negro till it enters the ocean it is the ,river of the ,amazons4 ,the number1 length1 and volume of its tributaries are in proportion to its magnitude2 even the affluents of its affluents are noble streams4 ,more than #bj superb rivers1 navigable almost to their sources1 pour their waters into it1 and streams of less importance are numberless4 ,two of the largest are the ,huallaga and the ,yucayali3 like their primary1 the former has its origin in the mining district of ,pasco1 and after a long northern course between the ,cordilleras it breaks through a gorge similar to that of ,manseriche and joins the ,maraon in the plains2 it is almost a mile broad above its junction4 ,the ,spanish governor of ,peru sent ,pedro de ,orsoa down this river in the year #aefj to search for the ,lake of ,parima and the city of ,el ,dorado4 ,the ,yucayali1 not inferior to the ,maraon itself1 is believed by some eminent geographers to be the true ,maraon4 ,in a course of #ajhj miles it is fed by accessaries from a wide extent of country1 and at its junction with the main stream1 near the mission of ,san ,joaquin de ,omaguas1 a line of #ej fathoms does not reach the bottom1 and in breadth it is more like a sea than a river4 ,by these streams there is access to ,peru1 and there is communication between the ,amazons and the most distant regions around by other navigable feeders4 ,nothing is known of the rivers that empty themselves into the ,amazon on its southern bank1 between the ,yucayali and the ,madeira2 the latter1 which is its greatest affluent1 comes near the sources of the ,paraguay1 the principal accessary of the ,rio de la ,plata4 ,the ,river of the ,amazons is not less extensively connected on the north4 ,the high lands of ,colombia are accessible by the ,putumayo1 the ,japura1 and other great navigable rivers2 the ,rio ,negro1 nearly nine miles broad1 a little way above its junction with the ,amazons1 unites it with the ,orinoco by the ,cassiquiare2 and lastly1 the sources of the ,rio ,branco come very near to those of the ,essequibo1 an independent river of ,demerara4 ,the main stream1 from its mouth nearly throughout its length1 is full of river islands1 and most of its tributaries have deltoid branches at their junction with it4 ,the annual floods of the ,amazons are less regular than those of the ,orinoco1 and1 as the two rivers are in different hemispheres1 they occur at opposite seasons4 ,the ,amazons begins to rise in ,december1 is at its greatest height in ,march1 and its least in ,july and ,august4 ,the quantity of rain that falls in the deep forests traversed by this river is so great that1 were it not for the enormous evaporation1 and the streams that carry it off1 the country would be flooded annually to the depth of eight feet4 ,the ,amazons is divided into two branches at its mouth1 of which one joins the ,par south of the island of ,das ,joanes or ,marajo1 the other enters the ocean to the north of it4 ,the water of some of the rivers in equatorial ,america is white2 in others it is of a deep coffee-colour1 or dark green when seen in the shade1 but perfectly transparent1 and1 when ruffled by a breeze1 of a vivid green like some of the ,swiss lakes4 ,in ,scotland1 the brown waters come from peat-mosses2 but it is not so in ,america1 since they occur as often in forests as in savannahs4 ,sir ,robert ,schomburgk thinks they are stained by the iron in the granite2 however1 the colouring matter has not been chemically ascertained4 ,the ,orinoco and the ,cassiquiare are white2 ,rio ,negro1 as its name implies1 is black1 yet the water does not stain the rocks1 which are of a dazzling white4 ,black waters are sometimes1 though rarely1 found on the table-lands of the ,andes4 ,the ,rio de la ,plata forms the third great water system of ,south ,america4 ,the ,rio ,grande1 its principal stream1 rises in the mountains of ,minas ,geraes1 in ,brazil1 and runs #ejj miles on the table-land from north to south before it takes the name of ,paran4 ,for more than #ajj miles it is a continued series of cataracts and rapids1 the greatest of which1 the ,salta ,grande1 is in about #bd #e lat4 ,above the fall the river is three miles broad1 when all at once it is confined in a rocky pass only #fj yards wide1 through which it rushes over a ledge with thunderous noise1 heard at the distance of many miles4 ,the ,paran receives three large rivers on the right--the ,paraguay1 the ,pilcomayo1 and the ,vermejo3 all generally tend to the south1 and unite at different distances before entering their primary at ,corrientes4 ,the ,paraguay1 #abjj miles long1 is the finest of these3 in its upper part it is singularly picturesque1 adorned with palms and other tropical vegetation1 and its channel islands are covered with orange-groves4 ,it springs from a chain of seven lakes1 on the southern slopes of the ,campos ,parecis1 in ,brazil1 and may be ascended by vessels of considerable burthen through nineteen degrees of latitude4 ,the ,pilcomayo and ,vermejo both come from ,bolivia2 the former traverses the desert of the ,gran ,chaco1 the latter the district of ,tarija4 ,at ,santa ,f the ,la ,plata turns eastward1 and before entering the ,atlantic is augmented by the ,uruguay from the north1 which takes its name from the turbulence of its streams4 ,the ,rio de la ,plata is #bgjj miles long1 and for #bjj miles from its mouth1 up to ,buenos ,ayres1 it is never less than #agj miles broad4 ,were it not for the freshness of its water it might be mistaken for the ocean3 it is1 however1 shallow1 and loaded with mud1 which stains the ,atlantic for #bjj miles from its mouth4 ,the ,paraguay is subject to dreadful floods4 ,in #ahab the atmosphere was poisoned by the putrid carcases of drowned animals4 ,the ordinary annual inundations of the ,paran1 the principal or upper branch of the ,la ,plata1 cover #cf1jjj square miles4 ,in consequence of the vast extent of the very level plains along the base of the ,andes1 the basins of the three great rivers are apparently united4 ,so small are the elevations that determine their direction1 that1 with the exception of a portage of three miles1 a vessel might sail from ,buenos ,ayres in #ce ,s4 lat4 to the mouth of the ,orinoco in #i ,n4 lat4 by inland navigation4 ,the ,colorado1 which runs in a long shallow stream through the ,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres to the ,atlantic1 is formed of two principal branches1 one from the west1 and the other from the north1 which unite at a great distance from the ,atlantic1 into which the river flows4 ,the ,rio ,negro or ,cusu-debu rises at a great elevation1 and separates the ,pampas from ,patagonia4 ,in its long course through arid deserts to the ,atlantic it does not receive a single adjunct1 but it forms a communication between that ocean and ,chile1 as it reaches a pass in the ,andes that is free from snow4 ,there is some vegetation in its immediate neighbourhood2 it has a bar at its mouth1 and is navigable only for four miles above ,carmen2 it has floods twice in the year1 one from the rains1 the other from the melting of the snow in the ,andes4 ,some other streams from the ,chilian ,andes run through1 but do not fertilize1 the desolate plains of ,patagonia4 ,there are various rivers in ,south ,america1 unconnected with those described1 which in any other country would be esteemed of a high order4 ,of many which descend from the mountains of ,guiana1 the ,essequibo is the largest2 its general width is a mile and a quarter2 its water1 though black1 is transparent2 and on its banks and those of all its adjuncts the forest reigns in impenetrable thickness4 ,it rises in the ,sierra ,acaray1 which separates its basin from that of the ,amazons1 and1 after a northerly course1 falls into the ,atlantic near #g ,n4 lat4 by an outlet #ad miles broad1 separated by three low islands into four branches4 ,sir ,robert ,schomburgk1 whose scientific journeys have made us acquainted with a country of which so little was known1 has shown that1 by cutting a canal three miles long between the ,madeira and ,guapore1 an affluent of the ,mamore1 an inland navigation might be opened from ,demerara to ,buenos ,ayres1 over an extent of #db degrees of latitude1 with the exception of a portage of only #hjj yards in the rainy season between ,lake ,amucu and the ,quatata1 a branch of the ,rupununi1 which flows into the ,essequibo4 ,but that is not the only water communication between ,guayana and remote countries1 great though the distance be1 for the ,napo1 a tributary of the ,solimoes1 offers communication with ,quito1 the ,huallaga with ,peru and countries not far distant from the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,by the ,rio ,negro1 the ,orinoco1 the ,cassiquiare1 and its tributary the ,meta1 there is uninterrupted navigation to ,new ,granada and to within eight miles of ,santa ,f de ,bogota4 8,if10 says the distinguished traveller already mentioned1 8,british ,guayana did not possess the fertility which is such a distinguishing feature1 this water communication alone would render it of vast importance2 but1 blessed as it is with abundant fruitfulness1 this extensive inland navigation heightens its value as a ,british colony2 and1 if emigration sufficient to make its resources available were properly directed thither1 the port of ,demerara would rival any in the vast continent of ,south ,america40 ,it is certainly very remarkable that the tide of emigration has never set towards a country of such promise1 abounding in valuable natural productions1 and so much nearer to ,great ,britain than her colonies in the ,pacific4 ,the ,par and ,san ,francisco are the chief ,brazilian rivers3 both rise on the table-land2 the former results from the union of the ,tocantins and ,araguay2 it descends from the high lands in rapids in its northerly course1 and1 after running #aejj miles1 joins the southern branch of the ,amazons before entering the ,atlantic south of the island of ,marajo4 ,the ,san ,francisco is only #abge miles long3 it rises in the ,sierra ,canastra in the province of ,minas ,geraes1 and1 after travelling northward between mountain ranges parallel to the coast1 it breaks through them and reaches the ocean about the #aath degree of ,s4 lat4 ,as in the ,appalachian chain1 so here1 many rivers come down the edge of the table-land to the level maritime plains of the ,atlantic4 ,the historical renown and the high civilization of ,asia and ,europe1 their great wealth and population1 may be attributed in a very great degree to the facility of transport afforded by their admirable river systems1 and still more to the genius of the people who knew how to avail themselves of them2 the same may be said of the inhabitants of the ,united ,states of ,america1 while the ,indians who have possessed these countries for ages never took advantage of the noble streams with which ,providence had enriched and embellished them4 ,,rivers ,,of ,,new ,,holland4 ,after ,america1 the land of the river and the flood1 ,new ,holland appears in more than its usual aridity4 ,the absence of large rivers is one of the greatest impediments to the improvement of this continent4 ,what it may possess in the interior is not known1 but it is certain that no large river discharges its water into the ocean1 and most of the small ones are absorbed before they reach it4 ,the streams from the mountains on the eastern side of the continent are mere torrents1 and would have short courses did they not run in longitudinal valleys1 as1 for example1 the ,hawkesbury4 ,the ,murumbidgee1 the ,lachlan1 and the ,macquarrie1 formed by the accumulation of mountain-torrents1 are the largest4 ,the ,murumbidgee rises in the ranges west of ,st4 ,george's ,lake1 and1 running south-west1 meets the ,lachlan1 of unknown origin1 coming from the east4 ,after their junction they run into the ,murray1 a much larger stream1 though only #cej feet broad1 and not more than #bj feet deep3 before entering the ocean in ,encounter ,bay1 it passes through the ,alexandrine ,marsh3 it is too shallow even for boats4 ,the ,darling is supposed to be merely the upper part of the ,murray1 probably rising towards the head of ,st4 ,vincent's ,gulf4 ,the origin of the ,macquarrie is unknown3 it is called the ,fish ,river between ,bathurst and ,sydney2 after running #fjj miles north-west it is lost in the marshes4 ,swan ,river1 on the western side of the continent1 has much the same character2 and from that river to the ,gulf of ,carpentaria1 along the whole of the western and northern shores of the continent1 there are none4 ,the want of water makes it hardly possible to explore the interior of this continent4 ,no country stands more in need of a complete system of irrigation1 which could easily be accomplished from the nature of the rivers1 which lie in deep channels1 and might be converted into canals by dams1 from whence the water might be conveyed by channels over the surrounding country1 as in ,lombardy4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,lakes--,northern ,system of the ,great ,continent--,mountain ,system of the same--,american ,lakes4 ,,the hollows formed on the surface of the earth by the ground sinking or rising1 earthquakes1 streams of lava1 craters of extinct volcanos1 the intersection of strata1 and those that occur along the edges of the different formations1 are generally filled with water1 and constitute systems of lakes1 some salt and some fresh4 ,many of the former may be remnants of an ancient ocean left in the depressions of its beds during its retreat as the continent arose4 ,almost all lakes are fed by springs in their beds1 and they are occasionally the sources of the largest rivers4 ,some have neither tributaries nor outlets2 the greater number have both4 ,the quantity of water in lakes varies with the seasons everywhere1 especially from the melting snow on mountain-chains and in high latitudes1 and from periodical rains1 between the tropics4 ,small lakes occur in mountain-passes1 formed by water which runs into them from the commanding peaks2 they are frequently1 as in the ,alps1 very transparent1 of a bright green or azure hue4 ,large lakes are common on table-lands1 and in the valleys of mountainous countries1 but the largest are on extensive plains4 ,the basin of a lake comprehends all the land drained by it2 consequently it is bounded by an imaginary line passing through the sources of all the waters that fall into it4 ,there are more lakes in high than in low latitudes1 because evaporation is much greater in low latitudes than in high1 and in this respect there is a great analogy between the northern plains of the two principal continents4 ,sheets of water of great beauty occur in the mountain valleys of the ,british islands1 of ,norway1 and ,sweden1 countries similar in geological structure2 and besides these there are two regions in the old world in which lakes particularly abound4 ,one begins on the low coast of ,holland1 goes round the southern and eastern sides of the ,baltic1 often passing close to its shores1 along the ,gulf of ,bothnia1 and through the ,siberian plains to ,behring's ,straits4 ,the lakes which cover so much of ,finland and the great lakes of ,ladoga and ,onega lie in a parallel direction2 they occupy transverse rents which had taken place across the palozoic strata1 while rising in a direction from ,s4,w4 to ,n4,e41 between the ,gulf of ,finland and the ,white ,sea2 that elevation was1 perhaps1 the cause of the cavities now occupied by these two seas4 ,ladoga is the largest lake in this zone1 having a surface of nearly #ajjj square miles4 ,it receives tributary streams1 and sends off its superfluous water by rivers1 and ,onega does the same2 but the multitude of small steppe lakes among the ,ural mountains and in the basin of the river ,obi neither receive nor emit rivers1 being for the most part mere ponds1 though of great size1 some of fresh and some of salt water1 lying close together--a circumstance which has not been accounted for3 those on the low ,siberian plains have the same character4 ,the second system of lakes in the old continent follows the zone of the mountain mass1 and comprehends those of the ,pyrenees1 ,alps1 ,apennines1 ,asia ,minor1 the ,caspian1 the ,lake ,aral1 together with those on the table-land and in the mountains of central ,asia4 ,in the ,pyrenees1 lakes are most frequent on the ,french side2 many are at such altitudes as to be perpetually frozen3 one on ,mont ,perdu1 #hcic feet above the sea1 has the appearance of an ancient volcanic crater4 ,there is scarcely a valley in the ,alpine range and its offsets that has not a sheet of water1 no doubt owing to the cavities formed during the elevation of the ridges1 and1 in some instances1 to subsidence of the soil2 ,lake ,trb1 #gbjj feet above the level of the sea1 is the most elevated4 ,there are more lakes on the north than on the south side of the ,alps--the ,german valleys are full of them4 ,in ,bohemia1 ,gallicia1 and ,moravia1 there are no less than #cj1jjj sheets of water1 besides great numbers throughout the ,austrian empire4 ,of the principal lakes on the northern side of the ,alps1 the ,lake of ,geneva1 or ,lake ,leman1 is the most beautiful from its situation1 the pure azure of the waters1 and the sublime mountains that surround it4 ,its surface1 of about #bdj square miles1 is #aaej feet above the sea1 and near ,meillerie it is #ajab deep4 ,the lake of ,lucerne is #adjj feet above the sea1 and the lakes of ,brienz #aijj feet4 ,the ,italian ,lakes are at a lower level2 the ,lago ,maggiore has only #fgh feet of absolute altitude2 they are larger than most of those on the north of the ,alps1 and1 with the advantage of an ,italian climate1 sky1 and vegetation1 they surpass the others in beauty1 though the mountains that surround them are less lofty4 ,these great lakes are fed by rivers rising in the glaciers of the higher ,alps1 and many large rivers issue from them4 ,in this respect they differ from most of the lakes in ,lower ,italy1 some of which are craters of ancient volcanos1 or perhaps ancient craters of elevation1 where the earth had been swelled up by subterranean vapour without bursting1 and had sunk down again into a hollow when the internal pressure was removed4 ,in ,syria1 the ,lake of ,tiberias and the ,dead ,sea1 sacred memorials to the ,christian world1 are situate in the deepest cavity on the earth4 ,the surface of the ,lake ,tiberias is #cbi feet below the level of the ,mediterranean1 surrounded by verdant plains bearing aromatic shrubs2 while the heavy bitter waters of the ,dead ,sea1 #acab feet below the level of the ,mediterranean1 is a scene of indescribable desolation and solitude1 encompassed by desert sands1 and bleak1 stony1 salt hills4 ,thus1 there is a difference of level of #ihc feet in little more than #fj miles1 which makes the course of the river ,jordan very rapid4 ,the water of the ,dead ,sea is so acrid1 from the large proportion of saline matter it contains1 that it irritates the skin3 it is more buoyant1 and has a greater proportion of salt1 than any that is known except the small lake of ,eltonsk east of the ,volga4#abc ,though extensive sheets of water exist in many parts of ,asia ,minor1 especially in ,bithynia1 yet the characteristic feature of the country1 and of all the table-land of western ,asia and the adjacent steppes1 is the number and magnitude of the saline lakes4 ,a region of salt lakes and marshes extends at least #bjj miles along the northern foot of the ,taurus range1 on a very elevated part of the table-land of ,anatolia4 ,there are also many detached lakes1 some exceedingly saline4 ,fish cannot live in the ,lake of ,toozla2 it is shallow1 and subject to excessive evaporation4 ,neither can any animal exist in the ,lake of ,shahee or ,urmiah1 on the confines of ,persia and ,armenia1 #cjj miles in circumference3 its water is perfectly clear1 and contains a fourth part of its weight of saline matter4 ,these lakes are fed by springs1 rain1 and melted snow1 and1 having no emissaries1 the surplus water is carried off by evaporation4 ,it is possible that the volcanic soil of the table-land may be the cause of this exuberance of salt water4 ,lake ,van1 a sheet of salt water #bdj miles in circumference1 is separated from the equally salt lake ,urmiah only by a low range of hills2 and there are many pieces of fresh water in that neighbourhood1 possibly in similar hollows4 ,persia is singularly destitute of water2 the ,lake of ,zurrah1 on the frontiers of ,afghanistan1 having an area of #ah square miles1 is the only piece of water on the western part of the table-land of ,iran4 ,it is evident from the saline nature of the soil1 and the shells it contains1 that the plains round the ,caspian1 the ,lake ,aral1 and the steppes1 even to the ,ural ,mountains1 had once formed part of the ,black ,sea2 #eg1jjj square miles of that country are depressed below the level of the ocean--a depression which extends northwards beyond the town of ,saratov1 #cjj miles distant from the ,caspian4 ,the surface of the ,caspian itself1 which is #hc feet #g inches below the level of the ocean1 is its lowest part1 and has an area of #ah1jjj square miles1 nearly equal to the area of ,spain4 ,in ,europe alone it drains an extent of #hej1jjj square miles1 receiving the ,volga1 the ,ural1 and other great rivers on the north4 ,it has no tide1 and its navigation is dangerous from heavy gales1 especially from the south-east1 which drive the water miles over the land2 a vessel was stranded #df miles inland from the shore4 ,it is #fjj feet deep to the south1 but is shallower to the east where it is bounded by impassable swamps many miles broad4#abd ,the ,lake of ,eltonsk1 on the steppe east of the ,volga1 has an area of #acj square miles1 and furnishes two-thirds of the salt consumed in ,russia4 ,its water yields #biac per cent4 of saline matter1 and from this circumstance is more buoyant than any that is known4#abe ,the ,lake of ,aral1 which is shallow1 is higher than the ,caspian1 and has an area of #ccgb square miles2 it has its name from the number of small islands at its southern end1 ,aral signifying 8island0 in the ,tartar language4 ,neither the ,caspian nor the ,lake of ,aral have any outlets1 though they receive large rivers2 they are brackish1 and1 in common with all the lakes in ,persia1 they are decreasing in extent1 and becoming more salt1 the quantity of water supplied by tributaries being less than that lost by evaporation4 ,most of the rivers that are tributary to the ,lake of ,aral are diminished by canals1 that carry off water for irrigation3 for that reason a very diminished portion of the waters of the ,oxus reaches the lake4 ,besides1 the ,russian rivers yield less water than formerly from the progress of cultivation4 ,the small mountain-lake ,sir-i-,kol1 in the high table-land of ,pamer1 from whence the ,oxus flows1 is #ae1fjj feet above the sea2 consequently there is a difference of level between it and the ,dead ,sea of nearly #ag1jjj feet4 ,the small number of lakes in the ,himalaya is one of the peculiarities of these mountains4 ,the ,lake of ,ular1 in the valley of ,cashmere1 is the only one of any magnitude2 it is but #dj miles in circumference1 and seems to be the residue of one that had filled the whole valley at some early period4 ,there are many great lakes1 both fresh and salt1 on the table-land2 the annular form of ,lake ,palte1 at the northern base of the ,himalaya1 as represented on maps1 is unexampled2 the sacred lakes of ,manasarowar1 in ,great ,tibet1 and of ,rakas ,tal1 occupy a space of about #djj square miles1 in the centre of the ,himalaya1 between the gigantic peaks of ,gurla on the south and of ,kailas on the north2 it is from the westernmost of these lakes 7which communicate with each other71 the ,cho ,lagan of the ,tibetians1 that the ,sutlej rises1 at an elevation of #ae1bjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,these remarkable lakes mark the point from around which all the great rivers rising in the ,himalaya have their origin4 ,tibet is full of lakes1 many of which produce borax1 found nowhere else but in ,tuscany and in the ,lipari ,islands4 ,as most of the great lakes on the table-land are in the ,chinese territories1 strangers have not had access to them2 the ,koko-nor and ,lake ,lop seem to be very large2 the latter is said to have a surface of #bahg square miles1 and there are others not inferior to it in the north4 ,the lakes in the ,alta are beautiful1 larger and more numerous than in any other mountain-chain4 ,they are at different elevations on the terraces by which the table-land descends to the flats of ,siberia1 and are1 owing to geological phenomena1 essentially different from those which have produced the ,caspian and other steppe lakes4 ,they seem to have been hollows formed where the axes of the different branches of the chain cross1 and are most numerous and deepest in the eastern ,alta4 ,baikal1 the largest mountain lake1 supposed to owe its origin to the sinking of the ground during an earthquake1 has an area of #ad1hjj square miles1 nearly equal to the half of ,scotland4 ,it lies buried in the form of a crescent1 amid lofty granite mountains1 which constitute the edge of the table-land to the south1 ending in the desert of the ,great ,gobi1 and in the north-west they gird the shore so closely that they dip into the water in many places2 #afj rivers and streams fall into this salt lake1 which drains a country probably twice the size of ,britain4 ,the river ,angara1 which runs deep and strong through a crevice at its eastern end1 is its principal outlet1 and is supposed to carry off but a small proportion of its water4 ,its surface is #agic feet above the sea-level1 and the climate is as severe as it is in ,europe #aj farther north2 yet the lake does not freeze till the middle of ,december1 possibly from its depth1 being unfathomable with a line of #fjj feet4 ,two hundred and eighty years before the ,christian era1 the large fresh-water lake of ,oitz1 in ,japan1 was formed in one night1 by a prodigious sinking of the ground1 at the same time that one of the highest and most active volcanos in that country rose from the depths of the earth4 ,very extensive lakes occur in ,africa2 there appears to be a great number on the low-lands on the east coast of ,africa1 in which many of the rivers from the edge of the table-land terminate4 ,among others1 there is the salt lake ,assal1 #be miles west of ,tadjurra1 in the country through which the ,hawash flows1 which has a depression of more than #gjj feet below the level of the ocean1 by ,dr4 ,beke's estimation1 who first observed that curious circumstance2 but by the actual measurement of ,lieutenant ,christopher1 it is #egj feet4 ,notwithstanding the arid soil of the southern table-land1 it contains the fresh-water lake of ,n'yassi or ,zambeze1 one of the largest1 being some hundred miles long2 and1 though narrow in proportion1 it cannot be crossed in a boat of the country in less than three days1 resting at night on an island1 of which there are many4 ,it lies between #cjj and #djj miles west from the ,mozambique ,channel1 and begins #bjj miles north of the town of ,tete1 which is situate on the river ,zambeze1 from whence it extends from south-east to north-west1 possibly to within a degree or two of the equator4 ,it receives the drainage of the country to the south-east3 but no river is known to flow out of it1 unless it be the ,bahr-el-,abiad or ,white ,nile1 which probably rises in this lake4 ,no one knows what there may be in the unexplored regions of the ,ethiopian desert2 but ,abyssinia has the large and beautiful lake of ,dembia1 situate in a spacious plain--the granary of the country--so high above the sea that spring is perpetual1 though within the tropics4 ,there are many other lakes in this great projecting promontory1 so full of rivers1 mountains1 and forests2 but the lowlands of ,soudan and the country lying along the base of the northern declivity of the table-land is the region of ,african lakes1 of which the ,tchad1 almost the size of an inland sea1 is in the very centre of the continent4 ,its extent1 and the size of its basin1 are unknown2 it receives many affluents from the high lands called the ,mountains of the ,moon1 certainly all those that flow from them east of ,bornou1 and it is itself drained by the ,tchadda1 a principal tributary of the ,niger4 ,other lakes of less magnitude are known to exist in these regions1 and there are probably many more that are unknown4 ,salt-water lakes are numerous on the northern boundaries of the great lowland deserts1 and many fine sheets of fresh water are found in the valleys and flat terraces of the ,great and ,little ,atlas4 ,fresh-water lakes are characteristic of the higher latitudes of both continents1 but those in the old continent sink into insignificance in comparison with the number and extent of those in the new4 ,indeed a very large portion of ,north ,america is covered with fresh water2 the five principal lakes--,superior1 ,huron1 ,michigan1 ,erie1 and ,ontario--with some of their dependants1 probably cover an area of #id1jjj square miles2 that of ,lake ,superior alone1 #cb1jjj which is only #ahjj square miles less than the whole of ,england4 ,the ,american lakes contain more than half the amount of fresh water on the globe4 ,the altitude of these lakes shows the slope of the continent2 the absolute elevation of ,lake ,superior is #fgb feet2 ,lake ,huron is #cj feet lower2 ,lake ,erie #cb feet lower than the ,huron2 and ,lake ,ontario is #cca feet below the level of ,erie4 ,the river ,niagara1 which unites the two last lakes1 is #cc-a_/b miles long1 and in that distance it descends #ff feet2 it falls in rapids through #ee feet of that height in the last half-mile1 but the upper part of its course is navigable4 ,the height of the cascade of ,niagara is #afb feet on the ,american side of the central island1 and #aabe feet wide4 ,on the ,canadian side the fall is #adi feet high1 and #bajj feet wide--the most magnificent sheet of falling-water known1 though many are higher4 ,the river ,st4 ,lawrence1 which drains the whole1 slopes #bcd feet between the bottom of the cascade and the sea4 ,the bed of ,lake ,superior is #cjj feet1 and that of the ,ontario #bfh feet below the surface of the ,atlantic1 affording another instance of deep indentation in the solid matter of the globe4 ,some lakes are decreasing in magnitude1 though the contrary seems to be the case in ,america2 between the years #ahbe and #ahch1 ,ontario rose nearly seven feet2 and1 according to the ,american engineers1 ,lake ,erie had gained several feet in the same time4 ,lake ,huron is said to be the focus of peculiar electrical phenomena1 as thunder is constantly heard in one of its bays4 ,the lakes north of this group are innumerable2 the whole country1 to the ,arctic ,ocean1 is covered with sheets of water which emit rivers and streams4 ,lake ,winnipeg1 ,rein-deer ,lake1 ,slave ,lake1 and some others1 may be regarded as the chief members of separate groups or basins1 each embracing a wide extent of country almost unknown4 ,there are also many lakes on each side of the ,rocky ,mountains2 and in ,mexico there are six or seven lakes of considerable size1 though not to be compared with those in ,north ,america4 ,there are many sheets of water in ,central ,america1 though only one is of any magnitude1 and the ,lake of ,nicaragua1 in the province of that name1 about #ajj miles from the sea1 and which communicates with the ,gulf of ,mexico by the ,river of ,san ,juan4 ,in ,central ,america1 the ,andes are interrupted by plains and mere hills on the ,isthmus of ,tehuantepec and of ,nicaragua1 on each side of which there is a series of lakes and rivers1 which1 aided by canals1 might form a water communication between the ,atlantic and ,pacific oceans4 ,in the former1 the line proposed would connect the river ,guasacalco1 on the ,gulf of ,mexico1 with the ,bay of ,tehuantepec in the ,pacific4 ,in the ,isthmus of ,nicaragua1 the ,gulf of ,san ,juan would be connected by the river of that name1 and the chain of ,lakes of ,nicaragua and ,leon1 with the ,bay of ,realejo or the ,gulf of ,fonseca1 with the ,gulf of ,costa ,rica4 ,here the watershed is only #fae feet above the sea1 and of easy excavation1 and the lake1 situate in an extensive plain1 is deep enough for vessels of considerable size4 ,a range of lakes goes along the eastern base of the ,andes1 but the greater part of them are mere lagoons or marshes1 some very large1 which inundate the country to a great extent in the time of the tropical rains4 ,there appears to be a deep hollow in the surface of the earth at the part where ,bolivia1 ,brazil1 and ,paraguay meet1 in which lies the ,lake ,xarayos1 extending on each side of the river ,paraguay1 but1 like many ,south ,american lakes1 it is not permanent1 being alternately inundated and dry1 or a marsh4 ,its inundations cover #cf1jjj square miles4 ,salt and fresh water lakes are numerous on the plains of ,la ,plata1 and near the ,andes in ,patagonia1 resembling1 in this respect1 those in high northern latitudes1 though on a smaller scale4 ,in the elevated mountain-valleys and table-lands of the ,andes there are many small lakes of the purest blue and green colours1 intensely cold1 some being near the line of perpetual congelation4 ,they are generally of considerable depth4 ,the lake of ,titicaca1 however1 in the ,bolivian ,andes1 has an area of #bbbe square miles1 of #fj to a degree1 and is more than #abj fathoms deep in many places1 surrounded by splendid scenery4 ,though #ab1hdf feet above the level of the ,pacific1 and consequently higher than the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 its shores are cultivated1 producing corn1 barley1 and potatoes2 and peopled by a large aboriginal population1 inhabiting towns and villages4 ,numerous vestiges of ,peruvian civilization are everywhere to be met with2 and in the island from which it derives its name1 and where tradition places the origin of the last ,inca dynasty1 numerous specimens of ,peruvian architecture still exist4 ,the limpid transparency of the water in lakes1 especially in mountainous countries1 is remarkable2 minute objects are visible at the bottom through many fathoms of water4 ,the vivid green tints so often observed in ,alpine lakes may be produced by vegetable dyes dissolved in the water1 though chemical analysis has not detected them4 ,lakes1 being the sources of some of the largest rivers1 are of great importance for inland navigation as well as for irrigation2 while1 by their constant evaporation1 they maintain the supply of humidity in the atmosphere so essential to vegetation1 besides the embellishment a country derives from them4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,temperature of the earth--,temperature of the ,air--,radiation--,foci of ,maximum ,cold--,thermal ,equator--,its ,temperature1 mean and absolute-- ,isothermal ,lines--,continental and ,insular ,climates--,extreme ,climates-- ,stability of ,climate--,decrease of ,heat in ,altitude--,line of ,perpetual ,snow--,density of the ,atmosphere--,the ,barometer--,measurement of ,heights-- ,variations in ,density and their ,causes--,horary ,variations--,independent ,effect of the dry and aqueous ,atmospheres--,mean height of ,barometer in different ,latitudes--,depression in the ,antarctic ,ocean and in ,eastern ,siberia--,barometric ,storms--,polar and ,equatorial ,currents of ,air-- ,trade-,winds--,monsoons--,land and ,sea ,breezes--,gyration of the ,winds in the ,extra-,tropical ,zones--,winds in ,middle ,european ,latitudes--,hurricanes--,the ,laws of their ,motion--,their ,effect on the ,barometer--,how to steer clear of them--,the ,storm-,wave--,storm-,currents--,arched ,squalls--,tornadoes-- ,whirlwinds--,water ,spouts4 ,,the atmosphere completely envelops the earth to the height of about #bj miles2 it bulges at the equator1 and is flattened at the poles1 in consequence of the diurnal rotation4 ,it is a mixture of water in an invisible state and of air2 but the air is not homogeneous2 #ajj parts of it consist of #gi parts of hydrogen or azotic gas1 and #ba of oxygen1 the source of combustion and animal heat4 ,besides these1 there is a little ammoniacal vapour1 and a small quantity of carbonic acid gas1 which is sufficient to supply all the vegetation on the earth with wood and leaves4 ,no doubt exhalations of various kinds ascend into the air1 such as those which produce miasmata1 but they are in quantities too minute to be detected by chemical analysis1 so that the atmosphere is found to be of the same composition at all heights above the sea hitherto attained4#abf ,the temperature of the earth's surface1 and the phenomena of the atmosphere1 depend upon the revolution and rotation of the earth1 which successively expose all the parts of the earth1 and the air which surrounds it1 to a perpetual variation of the gravitating forces of the two great luminaries1 and to annual and diurnal vicissitudes of solar heat4 ,atmospheric phenomena are consequently periodical and connected with one another1 and their harmony1 and the regularity of the laws which govern them1 become the more evident in proportion as the mean values of their vicissitudes are determined from simultaneous observations made over widely-extended tracts of the globe4 ,the fickleness of the wind and weather is proverbial1 but1 as the same quantity of heat is annually received from the sun1 and annually radiated into space1 it follows that all climates on the earth are stable1 and that their changes1 like the perturbations of the planets1 are limited1 and accomplished in fixed cycles1 whose periods are still in many instances unknown4 ,it is possible1 however1 that the earth and air may be affected by secular variations of temperature during the progress of the solar system through space1 or from periodical changes in the sun's light and heat1 similar to those which take place in many of the fixed stars4 ,the secular variation in the moon's mean distance will no doubt alter the amount of her attractive force1 though probably by a quantity inappreciable in the arial tides2 at all events1 variations arising from such circumstances could only become perceptible after many ages4 ,from experiments made by ,m4 ,peltier it appears that1 if the absolute quantity of heat annually received by the earth were equally dispersed over its surface1 it would1 in the course of a year1 melt a stratum of ice #df feet deep covering the whole globe4 ,it is evident that1 if so great a quantity of heat had been continually accumulated in the earth1 instead of being radiated into space1 it would have been transmitted through the surface to the poles1 where it would have melted the ice1 and the torrid zone1 if not the whole globe1 would by this time have been uninhabitable4 ,in fact1 every surface absorbs and radiates heat at the same time1 and the power of radiation is always equal to the power of absorption1 for1 under the same circumstances1 bodies which become soon warm also cool rapidly1 and the earth1 as a whole1 is under the same law as the bodies at its surface4 ,although part of the heat received from the sun in summer is radiated back again1 by far the greater part sinks into the earth's surface1 and tempers the severity of the winter's cold while passing through the atmosphere into the etherial regions4 ,the power of the solar rays depends on the manner in which they fall1 as may be seen from the difference of climates4 ,the earth is about #c1jjj1jjj of miles nearer to the sun in winter than in summer1 but the rays strike the northern hemisphere more obliquely in winter than in the other half of the year4 ,diurnal variations of heat are perceptible only to a small distance below the surface of the ground1 because the earth is a bad conductor3 the annual influence of the sun penetrates much farther4 ,at the equator1 where the heat is greatest1 it descends deeper than elsewhere with a diminishing intensity1 but there1 and everywhere throughout the globe1 there is a stratum1 at a depth varying from #dj to #ajj feet below the surface of the ground1 where the temperature never varies1 and is nearly the same with the mean temperature of the country over it4 ,this zone1 unaffected by the sun's heat from above1 or by the internal heat from below1 serves as an origin whence the effects of solar heat are estimated on one hand1 and the internal temperature of the globe on the other4 ,below it the heat of the earth increases1 as already mentioned1 at the rate of one degree of ,fahrenheit's thermometer for every #ej or #fj feet of perpendicular depth2 were it to continue increasing at that rate1 every substance would be in a state of fusion at the depth of #ba miles2 hitherto1 however1 the experiments in mines and ,artesian wells1 whence the earth's temperature below the constant stratum is ascertained1 have not been extended below #agjj feet4 ,m4 de ,beaumont has estimated by the theory of ,fourier1 from the observations of ,m4 ,arago1 that the quantity of central heat which reaches the surface of the earth is capable1 in the course of a year1 of melting a shell of ice covering the globe a quarter of an inch thick4#abg ,the superficial temperature of the earth is great at the equator1 it decreases gradually towards the poles1 and is an exact mean between the two at the #deth parallel of latitude2 but a multitude of causes disturb this law even between the tropics4 ,it is affected chiefly by the unequal distribution of land and water1 by the height above the sea1 by the nature of the soil1 and by vegetation1 so that a line drawn on a map through all the places where the mean temperature of the earth is the same would be very far from coinciding with the parallels of latitude1 but would approximate more to them near the equator4 ,between the tropics the temperature of the earth's surface is greater in the interior of continents than on the sea-coasts and islands1 and in the interior of ,africa it is greater than in any other part of the globe4 ,temperature depends upon the property all bodies possess1 more or less1 of perpetually absorbing and emitting or radiating heat4 ,when the interchange is equal1 the temperature of a substance remains the same2 but when the radiation exceeds the absorption1 it becomes colder1 and vice vers4 ,the temperature of the air is certainly raised by the passage of the solar heat through it1 because it absorbs one-third of it before reaching the earth1 but it is chiefly warmed by heat transmitted and radiated from the earth4 ,the radiation is abundant when the sky is clear and blue1 but clouds intercept it2 so that a thermometer rises in cloudy weather1 and sinks when the air becomes clear and calm2 even a slight mist diminishes radiation from the earth1 because it returns as much heat as it receives4 ,the temperature of the air is subject to such irregularities from these circumstances1 and from the difference in the radiating powers of the bodies at the surface of the globe1 that it is necessary to find1 by experiment1 the mean or average warmth of the day1 month1 and year1 at a great variety of places1 in order to have a standard by which the temperature in different parallels of latitude may be compared4 ,the mean diurnal temperature of the air1 at any place1 is equal to half the sum of the greatest and least heights of the thermometer during #bd hours1 and1 as the height of the thermometer is twice in the course of that time equal to the mean temperature of the place of observation1 it might seem easy to obtain its value2 yet that is not the case1 for a small error in observation produces a very great error in such minute quantities1 so that accuracy can only be attained from the average of a great number of observations1 by which the errors1 sometimes in excess and sometimes in defect1 neutralize or balance each other4 ,the mean value of quantities is a powerful aid to the imperfections of our nature in arriving at truth in physical inquiries1 and in none more than in atmospheric phenomena3 almost all the certain knowledge man has acquired with regard to the density and temperature of the air1 winds1 rain1 c41 has been acquired by that method4 ,the mean temperature of any one month at the same place differs from one year to another1 but the mean temperature of the whole year remains nearly the same1 especially when the average of #aj or #ae years is taken2 for although the temperature in any one place may be subject to very great variations1 yet it never deviates more than a few degrees from its mean state4#abh ,the motion of the sun in the ecliptic occasions perpetual variations in the length of the day1 and in the direction of his rays with regard to the earth2 yet1 as the cause is periodic1 the mean annual temperature from the sun's motion alone must be constant in each parallel of latitude4 ,for it is evident that the accumulation of heat in the long days in summer1 which is but little diminished by radiation during the short nights1 is balanced by the small quantity of heat received during the short days of winter and its radiation in the long frosty and clear nights4 ,were the globe everywhere on a level with the surface of the sea1 and of uniform substance1 so as to absorb and radiate heat equally1 the mean heat of the sun would be regularly distributed over its surface in zones of equal annual temperature parallel to the equator1 and would decrease regularly to each pole4 ,the distribution of heat1 however1 in the same parallel is very irregular in all latitudes1 except between the tropics1 from the inequalities in the level and nature of the surface of the earth1 so that lines drawn on a map through all places having the same mean annual temperature are nearly parallel to the equator only between the tropics2 in all other latitudes they deviate greatly from it1 and from one another4#abi ,radiation is the principal cause of temperature2 hence1 the heat of the air is most powerfully modified by the ocean1 which occupies three times as much of the surface of the globe as the land1 and is more uniform in its surface1 and also in its radiating power4 ,on the land the difference in the radiating force of the mountains and table-lands from that of the plains--of deserts from grounds covered with rich vegetation--of wet land from dry1 are the most general causes of variation2 the local causes of irregularity are beyond enumeration4 ,there are two points in the northern hemisphere1 both in the #hjth parallel of latitude1 where the cold is more intense than in any other part of the globe with which we are acquainted4 ,one north of ,canada in #ajj ,w4 long4 has a temperature of -#ce of ,fahrenheit2 while1 at the ,siberian point1 in #ie ,e4 long41 the temperature of the air is #a2 consequently it is four and a half degrees warmer than that north of ,canada--a difference that has an influence even to the equator1 where the mean temperature of the air is different in different longitudes4 ,the line of the maximum temperature of the atmosphere1 or the atmospheric thermal equator1 which cuts the terrestrial equator in the meridians of ,otaheite and ,singapore1 passes through the ,pacific in its southern course1 and through the ,atlantic in its northern1 has a mean temperature of #hchd of ,fahrenheit4 ,but by the comparison of many observations the mean equatorial temperature of the air is #hbid in ,asia1 #heaj in ,africa1 and #hjif in ,america3 thus1 it appears that tropical ,africa is the hottest region on earth4 ,moreover1 the atmosphere in the tropical zone of the ,pacific1 when free from currents1 is two degrees and a quarter warmer than the corresponding zone in the ,atlantic1 which is #hbdj4 ,on account of the great extent of ocean1 the isothermal lines in the southern hemisphere coincide more nearly with the parallels of latitude than in the northern4 ,in the ,antarctic ,ocean the only flexure is occasioned by the cold of the south polar current1 which flows along the western coast of the ,american continent4 ,in the northern hemisphere the predominance of land and its frequent alternations with water1 the prevalence of particular winds1 irregularities of the surface1 and the difference in the temperature of the points of maximum cold1 cause the isothermal lines to deviate more from the parallels of latitude4 ,they make two deep bends northward1 one in the ,northern ,atlantic and another in the northeast of ,america1 and at last they separate into two parts1 and encircle the points of maximum cold4 ,professor ,dove has discovered that1 in consequence of the excess of land in the northern hemisphere1 and the difference in the effect produced by the sun's heat according as it falls on a solid or liquid surface1 there is an annual variation in the aggregate mean temperature at the surface of the earth1 whose maximum takes place during the sun's northern declination1 and its minimum during its southern4#acj ,places having the same mean annual temperature1 often differ materially in climate3 in some1 the winters are mild and the summers cool1 whereas in others the extremes of heat and cold prevail3 ,england is an example of the first2 ,quebec1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 and the ,arctic regions1 are instances of the second4 ,the solar heat penetrates more abundantly and deeper into the sea than into the land2 in winter it preserves a considerable portion of that which it receives in summer1 and from its saltness does not freeze so soon as fresh water2 hence1 the ocean is not liable to the same changes of temperature as the land1 and by imparting its heat to the winds it diminishes the severity of the climate on the coasts and in islands1 which are never subject to such extremes of heat and cold as are experienced in the interior of continents4 ,the difference between the influence of sea and land is strikingly exemplified in the high latitudes of the two hemispheres4 ,in consequence of the unbounded extent of the ocean in the south1 the air is so mild and moist that a rich vegetation covers the ground1 while in the corresponding latitudes in the north the country is barren from the excess of land towards the ,polar ,ocean1 which renders the air dry and cold4 ,a superabundance of land in the equatorial regions1 on the contrary1 raises the temperature1 while the sea tempers it4 ,professor ,dove has shown1 from a comparison of observations1 that northern and central ,asia have what may be termed a true continental climate1 both in summer and in winter--that is to say1 a hot summer and cold winter2 that ,europe has a true insular or sea climate in both seasons1 the summers being cool and the winters mild2 and that in ,north ,america the climate is inclined to be continental in winter1 and insular in summer4 ,the extremes of temperature in the year are greater in central ,asia than in ,north ,america1 and greater in ,north ,america than in ,europe1 and that difference increases everywhere with the latitude4 ,in ,guiana1 within the tropics1 the difference between the hottest and coldest months in the year is #bb of ,fahrenheit1 in the temperate zone it is about #fj1 and at ,yakutsk in ,siberia #aadd4 ,even in places which have the same latitude as in northern ,asia1 compared with others in ,europe or ,north ,america1 the diversity is very great4 ,at ,quebec the summers are as warm as those in ,paris1 and grapes sometimes ripen in the open air1 yet the winters are as severe as those in ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,in short1 lines drawn on a map through places having the same mean summer or winter temperature are neither parallel to one another1 to the isothermal or geothermal lines1 and they differ still more from the parallels of latitude4#aca ,observations tend to prove that all the climates on the earth are stable1 and that their vicissitudes are only oscillations of greater or less extent1 which vanish in the mean annual temperature of a sufficient number of years4 ,there may be a succession of cold summers and mild winters1 but in some other country the contrary takes place2 the distribution of heat may vary from a variety of circumstances1 but the absolute quantity gained and lost by the whole earth in the course of a year is invariably the same4 ,since the air receives its warmth chiefly from the earth1 its temperature diminishes with the height so rapidly1 that at a very small elevation the cold becomes excessive1 as the perpetual snow on the mountain-tops clearly shows4 ,the decrease of heat is at the rate of a degree of ,fahrenheit's thermometer for every #ccd feet4 ,the atmosphere1 being a heavy and elastic fluid1 decreases in density upwards1 according to a determinate law1 so rapidly1 that three-fourths of the whole air it contains are within four miles of the earth1 and all the phenomena perceptible to us--as clouds1 rain1 snow1 and thunder--occur within that limit4 ,the air even on the tops of mountains is so rare as to diminish the intensity of sound1 to affect respiration1 and to occasion a loss of muscular strength in man and animals4#acb ,since the space in the top of the tube of a barometer is a vacuum1 the column of mercury is suspended in the tube by the pressure of the atmosphere on the surface of the mercury in the cistern3 hence1 every variation in the density or height of the atmosphere occasions a corresponding rise or fall in the barometric column4 ,the actual mean pressure of the atmosphere at the level of the sea is #ae pounds on the square inch2 hence1 the pressure on the whole earth is enormous4 ,the decrease in the density of the air affords a very accurate method of finding the height of mountains above the level of the sea1 which would be very simple1 were it not for changes of temperature which alter the density and interfere with the regularity of the law of its decrease4 ,but as the heat of the air diminishes with the height above the earth at the rate of one degree of ,fahrenheit's thermometer for every #ccd feet1 tables are constructed1 by the aid of which heights may be determined with great accuracy4 ,in consequence of diminished pressure also1 water boils at a lower temperature on mountain-tops than at the level of the sea1 which affords another method of ascertaining heights4#acc ,by the annual and diurnal revolutions of the earth1 each column of air is alternately exposed to the heat and cold of summer and winter1 of day and night1 and also to variations in the attraction of the sun and moon1 which disturb its equilibrium1 and produce tides similar to those in the ocean4 ,those produced by the moon ebb and flow twice during a lunation1 and diurnal variations in the barometer1 to a very small amount1 are also due to the moon's attraction4#acd ,the annual undulations occasioned by the sun have their greatest altitudes at the equinoxes1 and their least at the solstices1 and the diurnal variations in the height of the barometer1 which accomplish their rise and fall twice in #bd hours1 are chiefly due to the effects of temperature on the dry air and moisture of the atmosphere1 which1 according to ,mr4 ,dove's discoveries1 produce independent pressures upon the mercurial column4 ,a quantity of vapour is continually raised by the heat of the sun from the surface of the globe1 which mixes in an invisible state with the dry air or gaseous part of the atmosphere4 ,it is most abundant in the torrid zone1 and1 like the heat on which it depends1 varies with the latitude1 the season of the year1 the time of the day1 the elevation above the sea1 and also with the nature of the soil1 the land1 and the water4 ,there is no chemical combination between the arial and aqueous atmospheres1 they are merely mixed2 and the diurnal variations arise from the superposition of two distinct diurnal oscillations1 each going through its complete period in #bd hours2 one taking place in the arial atmosphere from the alternate heating and cooling of the air1 which produce a flux and reflux over the point of observation2 the other arising from the aqueous atmosphere1 owing to the alternate production and destruction of vapour by the heat of the day and the cold of the night4 ,the diurnal variations of the vapour have their maximum at or near the hottest hour of the day1 and their minimum at or near the coldest1 which is exactly the converse of the diurnal variations of the dry air4 ,on the whole1 there are two maxima and two minima heights of the barometer in the course of #bd hours from the combinations of these1 but in the interior of continents far from water1 where the air is very dry1 there ought to be one maximum and one minimum during that period1 according to this theory4 ,between the tropics the barometer attains its greatest height at nine or half-past nine in the morning2 it then sinks till four in the afternoon1 after which it again rises and attains a second maximum at ten or half-past ten in the evening2 it then begins to fall till it reaches a second time its lowest point at four in the morning4 ,the difference in the height is #jaag of an inch1 which gradually decreases north and south4 ,baron ,humboldt mentions that the diurnal variations of the barometric pressure are so regular between the tropics1 that the hour of the day may be inferred from the height of the mercury to within fifteen or sixteen minutes1 and that it is undisturbed by storm1 tempest1 rain1 or earthquake1 both on the coasts and at altitudes #ac1jjj feet above them4 ,the mean height of the barometer between the tropics at the level of the sea is #cj inches with very little fluctuation1 but1 owing to the ascending currents of air from the heat of the earth1 it is less under the equator than in the temperate zones4 ,it attains a maximum in western ,europe between the parallels of #dj and #de2 in the ,north ,atlantic the maximum is about the #cjth parallel1 and in the southern part of that ocean it is near the tropic of ,capricorn2 the amplitude of the oscillations decreases from the tropics to about the #gjth parallel1 where the diurnal variations cease4 ,they are affected by the seasons1 being greatest in summer and least in winter4 ,it appears1 also1 that the fluctuations are the reverse on mountain-tops from what they are on the plains1 and probably at a certain height they would cease altogether4#ace ,it is a singular fact1 discovered by our navigators1 that the mean height of the barometer is an inch lower throughout the ,antarctic ,ocean and at ,cape ,horn than it is at the ,cape of ,good ,hope or ,valparaiso3 that difference in the pressure of the atmosphere is probably connected with the perpetual gales off the extremity of ,south ,america4 ,m4 ,erman observed a similar depression near the ,sea of ,okhotsk in eastern ,siberia4 ,besides the small horary undulations1 there are vast waves moving over the oceans and continents in separate and independent systems1 being confined to local yet very extensive districts1 probably occasioned by long-continued rains or dry weather over wide tracts of country4 ,by numerous barometrical observations made simultaneously in both hemispheres1 the courses of several have been traced1 some of which take #bd1 others #cf hours1 to accomplish their rise and fall4 ,one especially of these vast barometric waves1 many hundreds of miles in breadth1 has been traced over the greater part of ,europe1 and not its breadth only1 but also the direction of its front1 and its velocity1 have been clearly ascertained4 ,the course of another wave has been made out from the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 through many intermediate stations1 to the observatory at ,toronto in ,canada4 ,since every undulation has its perfect effect independently of the others1 each one is marked by a change in the barometer1 and this is beautifully illustrated by curved lines on paper1 constructed from a series of observations4 ,the general form of the curve shows the course of the principal wave1 while small undulations in its outline mark the maxima and minima of the minor oscillations4 ,although1 like all other waves1 these in the atmosphere are but waving forms1 in which there is no transfer of air1 yet winds arise from them like tide-streams in the ocean1 and ,sir ,john ,herschel is of opinion that the crossing of two of these vast arial waves1 coming in different directions1 may generate1 at the point of intersection1 those tremendous revolving storms1 or hurricanes1 which spread desolation far and wide4 ,the air expands and becomes lighter with heat1 contracts and becomes heavier with cold1 and1 as there are #hb degrees of difference between the equatorial and polar temperature1 the light warm air at the equator is constantly ascending to the upper regions of the atmosphere1 and flowing north and south to the poles1 from whence the cold heavy air rushes along the surface of the earth to supply its place between the tropics1 for the same tendency to restore equilibrium exists in air as in other fluids4 ,these two superficial currents1 which have no rotatory motion when they leave the poles1 are deflected from their meridional paths by friction from the continually increasing velocity of the earth's rotation1 as they come nearer and nearer to the tropics2 and1 as they revolve slower than the corresponding parts of the earth at which they arrive1 the bodies on its surface strike against them with the excess of their velocity1 so that the wind appears1 to a person who thinks himself at rest1 to blow in a direction contrary to that of the earth's rotation4 ,for that reason the current from the north pole becomes a north-east wind before arriving at the tropic of ,cancer1 and that from the south pole becomes a south-east wind before it comes to the tropic of ,capricorn1 their limit being the #bhth parallel of latitude on each side of the equator4 ,in fact1 the difference of temperature puts the air in motion1 and the direction of the resulting wind1 at every place1 depends upon the difference between the rotatory motion of the wind and the rotatory motion of the earth--the whole theory of the winds depends upon these circumstances4 ,near the equator the trade-winds1 north and south of it1 so completely neutralize each other1 that far at sea a candle burns without flickering i4 e4 when it is flat calm4 ,this zone of calms and light breezes1 known as the ,variables1 which has a breadth of about five degrees and a half1 is subject to heavy rains and violent thunder-storms4 ,on account of the arrangement of land and water1 it does not coincide with the equator1 but its centre runs along the sixth parallel of north latitude2 however1 it changes in position and extent with the declination of the sun1 but never crosses the line4 ,though the trade-winds extend to the #bhth degree on each side of the equator1 their limits vary considerably in different parts of the ocean1 moving two or three degrees to the north or south1 according to the position of the sun2 and in the ,atlantic the north-east trade-wind is less steady than the south-east4#acf ,these perennial winds are known by recent observations to be less uniform in the ,pacific than in the ,atlantic2 they only blow permanently over that portion between the ,galapagos ,archipelago1 off the coast of ,america1 and the ,marquesas4 ,in the ,indian ,ocean the south-east trade-wind blows from a few degrees east of ,madagascar to the coast of ,australia1 between #aj and #bh ,s4 lat4 ,the trade-winds are only constant far from land1 because continents and islands intercept them1 and change their course4 ,on that account the numerous groups of islands westward from the ,marquesas change the trade-winds into the periodical monsoons1 which are steady currents of air in the ,arabian ,gulf1 the ,indian ,ocean1 and ,china ,sea1 arising from diminished atmospheric pressure at each tropic alternately1 from the heat of the sun1 thereby producing a regular alternation of north and south winds1 which1 combining with the rotation of the earth on its axis1 become a north-east wind in the northern hemisphere1 and a south-east in the southern4 ,the former blows from ,april to ,october1 the latter from ,october to ,april2 the change is accompanied by heavy rain and violent storms of thunder and lightning4 ,the ascent of the warm air between the tropics occasions a depression of the barometer amounting to the tenth of an inch1 which is a measure of the force producing the trade-winds4 ,in both hemispheres there is a regular variation in the mean height of the barometer within the zone in which these great arial currents flow2 it is higher at their polar limits1 and decreases with extreme uniformity towards their equatorial boundaries1 the difference in both hemispheres being #jbe of an inch4 ,the unequal temperature of the land and sea causes sea-breezes which blow towards the land during the day1 and land-breezes which blow sea-ward in the night2 they are not perceptible in the mornings and evenings1 because the temperature of the land and water is then nearly the same4 ,the trade-winds and monsoons are permanent1 depending on the apparent motion of the sun2 but it is evident from theory that there must be partial winds in all parts of the earth1 occasioned by the local circumstances that affect the temperature of the air4 ,consequently1 the atmosphere is divided into districts1 both over the sea and land1 in which the winds have nearly the same vicissitudes from year to year4 ,the regularity is greatest towards the tropics1 where the causes of disturbance are fewer4 ,in the higher latitudes it is more difficult to discover any regularity1 on account of the greater proportion of land1 the difference in its radiating power1 and the greater extremes of heat and cold4 ,but even there a degree of uniformity prevails in the succession of the winds2 for example1 in all places where north and south winds blow alternately1 a vane veers through every point of the compass in the transition1 and in some places the wind makes several of these gyrations in the course of the year4#acg ,the south-westerly winds1 so prevalent in the ,atlantic ,ocean between the #cjth and #fjth degrees of north latitude1 are produced by the upper current being drawn down to supply the superficial current which goes towards the equator1 and1 as it has a greater rotatory motion than the earth in these latitudes1 it produces a south-westerly wind4 ,on this account the average voyage from ,liverpool to ,new ,york in a sailing vessel is #dj days1 while it is only #bc days from ,new ,york to ,liverpool4 ,for the same reason the average direction of the wind in ,england1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,denmark1 ,sweden1 and ,north ,america1 is some point between south and west4 ,north-westerly winds prevail in the corresponding latitudes of the southern hemisphere from the same cause4 ,in fact1 whenever the air has a greater velocity of rotation than the surface of the earth1 a wind more or less westerly is produced2 and when it has less velocity of rotation than the earth1 a wind having an easterly tendency results4 ,thus1 there is a perpetual change between the different masses of the atmosphere1 the warm air tempering the cold of the higher latitudes1 and the cold air mitigating the heat of the lower2 it will be shown afterwards that the arial currents are the bearers of principles on which the life of the animal and vegetable world depends4 ,hurricanes are those storms of wind in which the portion of the atmosphere that forms them revolves in a horizontal circuit round a vertical or somewhat inclined axis of rotation1 while the axis itself1 and consequently the whole storm1 is carried forwards along the surface of the globe1 so that the direction in which the storm is advancing is quite different from the direction in which the rotatory current may be blowing at any point2 the progressive motion may continue for days1 while the wind accomplishes many gyrations through all the points of the compass in the same time4 ,in the ,atlantic the principal region of hurricanes is to the east of the ,west ,indian islands1 and in the ,pacific it lies east of the island of ,madagascar2 consequently the former is in the northern hemisphere1 the latter in the southern2 but in every case the storm moves in an elliptical or parabolic curve4 ,the ,west ,indian hurricanes generally have their origin eastward of the ,lesser ,antillas or ,caribbean islands1 and the vertex of their path near the tropic of ,cancer1 or about the exterior limit of the north-east trade-wind4 ,as the motion of the storm before it reaches the tropic is in a straight line from ,s4,e4 to ,n4,w41 and after it has passed the tropic from ,s4,w41 to ,n4,e41 the bend of the curve is turned towards ,florida and the ,carolinas4 ,in the ,south ,pacific ,ocean the body of the storms moves in an exactly opposite direction4 ,the hurricanes which originate south of the equator1 and whose initial path is from ,n4,e4 to ,s4,w41 turn at the tropic of ,capricorn1 and then tend from ,n4,w4 to ,s4,e41 so that the bend of the curve is turned towards ,madagascar4 ,the extent and velocity of the ,atlantic hurricanes are great2 the most rapid move at the rate of #dc miles an hour1 the slowest #af4 ,the hurricane which took place on the #abth of ,august1 #ahcj1 was traced from the eastward of the ,caribbean islands to the banks of ,newfoundland1 a distance of more than #cjjj miles1 which it passed over in six days4 ,although that of the #ast of ,september1 #ahba1 was not so extensive1 its velocity was greater1 as it moved at the rate of #cj miles an hour4 ,small storms are generally more rapid than those of great magnitude4 ,sometimes they appear to be stationary1 sometimes they stop and again proceed on their course1 like water-spouts4 ,hurricanes are occasionally contemporaneous1 and so near to one another as to travel in almost parallel tracks4 ,this happened in the ,china seas in ,october1 #ahdj1 when the two storms met at an angle of #dg1 and it was supposed that the ship ,golconda foundered in that spot with #cjj people on board4 ,a hurricane has been split or divided by a mountain into two separate storms1 each of which continued its new course1 and the gyrations were made with increased violence4 ,this occurred in the gale of the #beth of ,december1 #ahba1 in the ,mediterranean1 when the ,spanish mountains and the maritime ,alps became new centres of motion4 ,by the friction of the earth the axis of the storm bends a little forward1 and the whirling motion begins in the higher regions of the atmosphere before it is felt on the earth3 this causes a continual intermixture of the lower and warmer strata of air with those that are higher and colder1 producing torrents of rain1 and sometimes violent electric explosions4 ,the rotation as well as the course of the storm is in a different direction in the two hemispheres1 though always alike in the same4 ,in the northern hemisphere the gyration is contrary to the movement of the hands of a watch1 that is to say1 the wind revolves from east1 through the north1 to west1 south1 and east again2 while in the southern hemisphere the rotation about the axis of the storm is in the contrary direction4 ,hurricanes happen south of the equator between ,december and ,april2 in the ,west ,indies between ,june and ,october4 ,rotatory storms frequently occur in the ,indian ,ocean1 and the typhoons of the ,china seas are real hurricanes of great violence4 ,both conform to the laws of such winds in the northern hemisphere4 ,the ,atlantic storms probably reach ,spain1 ,portugal1 and the coast of ,ireland4 ,two circular storms have passed over ,great ,britain1 and small ones often occur between the ,chops of the ,channel and ,madeira4 ,the revolving motion accounts for the sudden and violent changes observed during hurricanes4 ,in consequence of the rotation of the air1 the wind blows in opposite directions on each side of the axis of the storm1 and the violence of the blast increases from the circumference towards the centre of gyration1 but in the centre itself the air is in repose3 hence1 when the body of the storm passes over a place1 the wind begins to blow moderately1 and increases to a hurricane as the centre of the whirlwind approaches2 then in a moment a dead and awful calm succeeds1 suddenly followed by a renewal of the storm in all its violence1 but now blowing in a direction diametrically opposite to what it had before3 this happened in the island of ,st4 ,thomas on the #b;d of ,august1 #ahcg1 where the hurricane increased in violence till half-past seven in the morning1 when perfect stillness took place for #dj minutes1 after which the storm recommenced in a contrary direction4 ,the breadth of a hurricane is greatly augmented when its path changes its direction in crossing the tropic4 ,in the ,atlantic1 the vortex of one of these tempests has covered an area from #fjj to #ajjj miles in diameter4 ,the breadth of the lull in the centre varies from #e to #cj miles3 the height is from #a to #e miles at most2 so that a person might see the strife of the elements from the top of a mountain1 such as ,teneriffe or ,mowna ,roa1 in a perfect calm1 for the upper clouds are frequently seen to be at rest during the hideous turmoil in the lower regions4 ,the sudden fall of the mercury in the barometer in latitudes habitually visited by hurricanes is a certain indication of a coming tempest4 ,in consequence of the centrifugal force of these rotatory storms1 the air becomes rarified1 and1 as the atmosphere is disturbed to some distance beyond the actual circle of gyration or the limits of the storm1 the barometer often sinks some hours before its arrival3 it continues sinking the first half of the hurricane1 and again rises during the passage of the latter half1 though it does not attain its greatest height till the storm is over4 ,the diminution of atmospheric pressure is greater1 and extends over a wider area1 in the temperate zones than in the torrid1 on account of the sudden expansion of the circle of rotation where the gale crosses the tropic4 ,as the fall of the barometer gives warning of the approach of a hurricane1 so the laws of the storm's motion afford to the seaman knowledge to avoid it4 ,in the northern temperate zone1 if the gale begins from the ,s4,e4 and veers by ,s4 to ,w41 the ship should steer to the ,s4,e42 but if the gale begins from the ,n4,e4 and changes through ,n4 to ,n4,w41 the vessel ought to go to the ,n4,w4 ,in the northern part of the torrid zone1 if the storm begin from the ,n4,e4 and veer through ,e4 to ,s4,e41 the ship should steer to the ,n4,e42 but if it begin from the ,n4,w4 and veer by ,w4 to ,s4,w41 the ship should steer to the ,s4,w41 because she is on the south-western side of the storm4 ,since the laws of storms are reversed in the southern hemisphere1 the rules for steering vessels are necessarily reversed also4#ach ,a heavy swell or storm-wave is peculiarly characteristic of these tempests4 ,in the centre of the hurricane the pressure of the atmosphere is so much diminished by rotation1 that the mercury in the barometer falls from one to two1 and even two and a-half inches4 ,on that account1 the pressure of the ocean beyond the range of the wind raises the water in the centre of the vortex about two feet above its usual level1 and proportionally to the degree of diminished pressure over the whole area of the storm4 ,this mass of water1 or storm-wave1 is driven bodily along with1 or before1 the tempest1 and rolls in upon the land like a huge wall of water4 ,it is similar to the earthquake wave1 and is by no means the heaping up of the water after a long gale4 ,ships have been swept by it out of docks and rivers1 and it has sometimes carried vessels over reefs and banks so as to land them high and dry2 this happened to two ships on the coast of the ,eastern ,andaman islands1 in #ahdd4 ,coringa1 on the ,coromandel coast1 is particularly subject to inundations from that cause4 ,in #aghi1 the town and #bj1jjj inhabitants were destroyed by a succession of these great waves during a hurricane1 and as many perished there in #ahci4 ,besides storm-waves1 storm-currents are raised1 which revolve with the rotation of the wind1 and are of the greatest force near the centre of the vortex4 ,the rise of the sea by the pressure of the surrounding ocean1 and the irresistible fury of the wind1 makes a tremendous commotion in the centre of the storm1 where the sea rises1 not in waves1 but in pyramidal masses3 the noise during its passage resembles the deafening roar of the most tremendous thunder2 and in the typhoons in the ,china seas it is like numberless voices raised to the utmost pitch of screaming4 ,in general1 there is very little thunder and lightning2 sometimes a vivid flash occurs during the passage of the centre1 or at the beginning of the storm2 yet in ,barbadoes the whole atmosphere has been enveloped in an electric cloud4 ,a thick lurid appearance1 with dense masses of cloud in the horizon1 ominous and terrible1 are the harbingers of the coming tempest4 ,the sun and clouds frequently assume a fiery redness1 the whole sky takes a wild and threatening aspect1 and the wind rises and falls with a moaning sound1 like that heard in old houses on a winter's night3 it is akin to the 8calling of the sea10 a melancholy noise which1 in a dead calm1 presages a storm on some parts of the ,english coast4 ,those intensely violent gales1 of short duration1 called arched squalls1 because they rise from an arch of clouds on the horizon1 are not rotatory2 they occur in the ,straits of ,malacca1 attended by fierce thunder and lightning and a lurid phosphorescent gleam4 ,the north-western gales in the ,bay of ,bengal1 the tornadoes on the ,african coast1 and the pampros of the ,rio de la ,plata1 are of the same nature4 ,on an average1 a strong gale moves at the rate of #dj miles an hour1 a storm at about #ef1 and hurricanes at #ij4 ,whirlwinds are frequent in tropical countries1 especially in deserts2 sometimes several are seen at one time in the ,arabian deserts1 of all sizes1 from a few feet to some hundred yards in diameter4 ,they occur in all kinds of weather1 by night as well as by day1 and come without the smallest notice1 rooting up trees1 overwhelming caravans1 and throwing down houses2 and as they produce water-spouts when they reach the sea1 they dismantle and even sink ships4 ,the water-spouts so frequently seen on the ocean originate in adjacent strata of air of different temperatures1 running in opposite directions in the upper regions of the atmosphere4 ,they condense the vapour1 and give it a whirling motion1 so that it descends tapering to the sea below1 and causes the surface of the water to ascend in a pointed spiral till it joins that from above1 and then it looks like two inverted cones1 being thinner in the middle than either above or below4 ,when a water-spout has a progressive motion1 the upper and under part must move in the same direction1 and with equal velocity1 otherwise it breaks1 which frequently happens4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,evaporation--,distribution of ,vapour--,dew--,hoar-,frost--,fog--,regi on of ,clouds-- ,forms of ,clouds--,rain--,distribution of ,rain--,quantity--,number of rainy ,days in different ,latitudes--,rainless ,districts--,snow ,crystals--,line of perpetual ,snow--,limit of ,winter ,snow on the ,plains--,sleet--,hail-- ,minuteness of the ultimate ,particles of ,matter--,their ,densities and ,forms--,their ,action on ,light--,colour of ,bodies--,colour of the ,atmosphere-- ,its ,absorption and ,reflection of ,light--,mirage--,fog ,images--,coron and ,halos--,the ,rainbow--,iris in ,dewdrops--,the ,polarization of the ,atmosphere-- ,atmospheric ,electricity--,its ,variations--,electricity of ,fogs and ,rain-- ,inductive ,action of the ,earth--,lightning--,thunder--,distribut ion of ,thunder-,storms--,back ,stroke--,st4 ,elmo's ,fire--,phosphorescence--,aurora-- ,magnetism--,terrestrial ,magnetism--,the ,dip--,magnetic ,poles and ,equator-- ,magnetic ,intensity--,dynamic ,equator--,declination--,magnetic ,meridian--,lines of equal ,variation--,horary ,variations--,line of ,alternate ,horary ,phenomena--,magnetic ,storms--,coincidence of the ,lines of equal ,magnetic ,intensity with ,mountain ,chains--,diamagnetism4 ,,moisture is evaporated in an invisible form from every part of the land and water1 and at all temperatures1 even from snow4 ,mr4 ,darwin mentions that the snow once entirely disappeared from the volcano of ,aconcagua1 in ,chile1 which is #bc1cjj feet high1 from evaporation under a cloudless sky and an excessively dry air4 ,the vapour rises and mixes with the atmosphere2 and as its pressure and density diminish with the height above the surface of the earth1 in consequence of gravitation1 there is absolutely less moisture in the higher than in the lower regions of the air4 ,seven-tenths of the atmosphere rests on the ocean2 therefore the sea has the greatest influence in modifying climates and supplying the air with moisture4 ,the evaporation is greatest between the tropics1 from the excess of heat and the preponderance of the ocean1 and its average quantity decreases from thence to the poles4 ,over the open sea1 in all latitudes1 the air is saturated with moisture2 and in that over the coasts the quantity is very great1 but it diminishes from the coasts to the interior of the continents4 ,in the interior of the ,united ,states of ,north ,america1 in the deserts of ,asia1 and in the interior of ,new ,holland1 the air is continually dry4 ,there is scarcely any evaporation in the deserts of ,africa1 and the extreme heat1 increased by the reverberation of the sand1 opposes aqueous precipitations1 so this land is doomed to perpetual sterility4 ,the air over the steppes of ,siberia is likewise nearly deprived of moisture4 ,the greatest degree of dryness on record is that observed by ,m4 ,erman between the valleys of the ,irtish and ,obi1 after a continued south-west wind and a temperature of #gd #g of ,fahrenheit4 ,throughout all the countries in the northern hemisphere where observations have been made on the variations of atmospheric moisture1 it appears that the air contains less vapour in ,january than in any other month of the year1 yet at that time there is the greatest dampness2 while in ,july the air is driest1 and yet1 on account of the heat1 evaporation is the greatest3 the reason is1 that the heat in ,july dissolves the moisture and increases its elasticity or tension so much that it becomes insensible1 whereas the cold of winter condenses it and renders it apparent4 ,the quantity of atmospheric moisture varies also with the hours of the day and night4 ,in early morning the evaporation accumulates near the surface of the ground from the resistance of the air above it1 but as the sun rises above the horizon the warm air descends and carries the vapour with it2 so that the quantity near the ground is diminished till evening1 when1 on account of the lowness of the temperature1 the ascending currents cease1 and the air becomes loaded with vapour1 and deposits its excess in the shape of dew or hoar-frost4 ,for in the night the earth radiates part of the heat it received during the day through the atmosphere into space1 and the temperature of the bodies on its surface sinks below that of the air2 and by abstracting part of the heat which holds the humidity of the air in solution a deposition takes place4 ,if the radiation be great1 the dew is frozen and becomes hoar-frost1 which is the ice of dew4 ,cloudy weather is unfavourable for the formation of dew by preventing the free radiation of heat1 and actual contact is necessary for its formation1 as it is never suspended in the air like fog4 ,dew falls in calm serene nights1 but not on all substances indifferently2 it wets them in proportion to their power of radiation1 leaving those dry that radiate feebly or not at all4 ,dew is most abundant on coasts2 in the interior of continents there is very little1 except near lakes or rivers4 ,when dew is congealed into hoar-frost it forms beautiful crystals1 and the cold which produces it is very hurtful to vegetation1 but a slight covering preserves plants from its effects4 ,when the atmosphere is so saturated with the vapour of water that it is precipitated in the air itself1 a fog is the result1 which consists of small globular particles of water4 ,when dew is formed the earth is colder than the air in contact with it2 but the case is exactly the contrary when fogs take place1 the moist soil being warmer than the air4 ,in countries where the soil is moist and warm1 and the air damp and cold1 thick and frequent fogs arise1 as in ,england1 where the coasts are washed by a sea of elevated temperature1 and the excess of the heat of the ,gulf-stream above the cold moist air is the cause of the perpetual fogs in ,newfoundland4 ,superior to all these phenomena1 and at a considerable height above the earth1 the air is very dry1 because1 under ordinary circumstances1 the vapour ascends in a highly elastic and invisible state till it reaches a stratum of air of lower temperature1 and then it is condensed into clouds4 ,the region of clouds is a zone at a height varying from one to four miles above the surface of the earth1 which is saturated with moisture4 ,from friction and other causes the currents of air in the lower parts of that zone run horizontally on each other2 and as they generally differ in moisture1 temperature1 and velocity1 the colder condense the invisible vapour in the warmer1 and make it apparent in the form of a cloud1 which differs in no respect from a fog1 except that one floats high in the air1 while the other rests on the ground4 ,at moderate heights clouds consist of vapour1 but at great elevations1 where the cold is severe1 they are an assemblage of minute crystals of ice4 ,they assume three primary characters1 from whence four subordinate forms are derived4 ,the cirrus1 or cat's-tail of sailors1 is the highest2 it sometimes resembles a white brush1 at other times it consists of horizontal bands of slender silvery filaments4 ,to these all ,kmtz's measurements assign a height of #ai1ejj feet1 which is confirmed by their appearance being the same when seen from the tops of mountains or from the plains2 consequently1 they must consist of minute particles of ice or flakes of snow floating in the higher regions of the zone of clouds4 ,the cirri for the most part arrange themselves in parallel bands which converge to opposite points in the horizon by the effects of perspective1 and as they travel in their longitudinal direction they appear to be stationary4 ,in the middle and higher latitudes of the northern hemisphere they tend from south-west to north-east1 and at the equator from south to north4 ,it is supposed that their parallel form arises from their being conductors between two foci of electricity1 but1 whatever the cause of this arrangement may be1 it is very extensive4 ,among these clouds1 which occasionally appear like fleecy cotton or wool1 halos and parhelia are formed1 which often precede a change of weather1 announcing rain in summer1 in winter frost and snow4 ,cumuli1 or summer-clouds1 are rounded forms resting on a straight band in the horizon1 and resemble mountains covered with snow4 ,they are formed by ascending currents drawing the vapours into the higher regions of the atmosphere2 sometimes they rise and cover the whole sky1 and in the evening they frequently become more numerous and of deeper tint1 presaging storm or rain4 ,the stratus is the third of the primary characters of clouds3 it is a horizontal band1 which forms at sunset and vanishes at sunrise4 ,the subordinate varieties of clouds are combinations of these three principal classes4#aci ,the winds1 the great agents in all atmospheric changes1 carry the vapour to a distance1 where it is often condensed on the tops of mountains into clouds which seem to be stationary1 but which in reality are only maintained by a constant condensation of fresh vapour1 which is carried off1 as soon as formed1 by the wind1 and becomes invisible on entering warmer air4 ,when two masses of air of different temperature meet1 the colder1 by abstracting the heat which holds the moisture in solution1 causes the particles to coalesce and form drops of water1 which fall in the shape of rain by their gravitation4 ,and when two strata of different temperature moving rapidly in contrary directions come into contact1 a heavy fall of rain takes place2 and as the quantity of aqueous vapour is most abundant in tropical regions1 the drops are larger and the rain heavier than elsewhere4 ,since heat is the cause of evaporation1 rain is very unequally distributed1 and with it decreases from the equator to the poles4 ,from the island of ,otaheite ,tahiti1 in the ,pacific1 to ,uleaborg1 in ,finland1 the annual quantity of rain that falls decreases from #aej inches to #ac4 ,it is1 however1 more abundant in the ,new ,world than in the ,old2 #aae inches fall annually in tropical ,america1 while in the ,old ,world the annual fall is only #gf inches2 so also in the temperate zone of the ,united ,states the annual quantity is #cg inches1 while in the ,old ,continent it is but #ca-c_/d inches4 ,between the tropics the rains follow the sun3 when he is north of the equator the rains prevail in the northern tropic2 and when he is south of that line1 in the southern3 hence1 one half of the year is extremely wet and the other half extremely dry2 the change taking place near the equinoxes4 ,nevertheless1 in countries situate between the #eth and #ajth parallels of latitude1 north and south1 there are two rainy seasons1 and two dry2 one occurs when the sun passes the zenith in his progress to the nearest tropic1 and the other at his return1 but in the latter the rains are less violent and of shorter duration4 ,although the quantity of water which falls between the tropics in a month is greater than that of a whole year in ,europe1 yet the number of rainy days increases with the latitude1 so that there are fewest where the quantity is greatest4 ,neither does it fall continually during the rainy season between the tropics1 for the sky is generally clear at sunrise1 it becomes cloudy at ten in the morning1 at noon the rain begins to fall1 and1 after pouring for four or five hours1 the clouds vanish at sunset1 and not a drop falls in the night1 so that a day of uninterrupted rain is very rare4 ,at sea1 within the region of the trade-winds1 it seldom rains1 but in the narrow zone between them known as the ,variables1 in both the great oceans1 it rains almost continually1 attended by violent thunder and lightning4 ,throughout the whole region where the monsoons prevail1 it is not the sun1 directly1 but the winds1 that regulate the periodical rains4 ,that region extends from the eastern coasts of ,africa and ,madagascar across the ,indian ,ocean to the northern districts of ,australia1 and from the tropic of ,capricorn to the face of the ,himalaya1 the interior of ,china1 and even to ,corea1 inclusive4 ,in these countries the western coasts are watered during the south-west monsoon1 which prevails from ,april to ,october2 and the eastern coasts are watered during the north-east monsoon1 which blows from ,october to ,april4 ,for example1 the south-west wind condenses the vapour on the summit of the ,ghauts1 and violent rains fall daily on the coast of ,malabar1 while on the ,coromandel coast the sky is serene4 ,exactly the contrary takes place during the north-east monsoon2 it rains on the coast of ,coromandel1 while there is fair weather on the ,malabar coast1 and the table-land of the ,deccan partakes of both4 ,in the southern hemisphere the rainy season corresponds with the south-west monsoon1 and the dry with the south-eastern4 ,between the tropics it rains rarely during the night1 and for months together not a drop falls2 while in the temperate zone it often rains in the night1 and rain falls at all seasons1 though more abundantly in some than in others4 ,it seldom rains in summer throughout the north of ,africa1 ,madeira1 the southern parts of ,spain and ,portugal1 ,sicily1 southern ,italy1 all ,greece1 and the north-western part of ,asia2 but it falls copiously during the other seasons1 especially in winter2 consequently1 that extensive region is called the province of winter rains4 ,the province of autumnal rains includes all ,europe south of the ,carpathians1 western ,france1 the delta of the ,rhine1 northern and western ,scandinavia1 and the ,british isles2 throughout these countries more rain falls in autumn than in the other three seasons4 ,the province of summer rains comprises the eastern parts of ,france1 the ,netherlands 7with the exception of the delta of the ,rhine71 the north of ,switzerland1 all ,germany north of the ,alps1 the ,carpathian mountains1 ,denmark1 southern ,scandinavia1 all central ,europe1 and the countries beyond the ,ural ,mountains to the interior of ,siberia1 where showers are very rare in winter4 ,in some places it rains almost perpetually1 as in the island of ,sitka1 on the north-eastern coast of ,north ,america1 where the year has sometimes passed with only #dj days of fair weather4 ,in the southern hemisphere1 in ,chile and the south-western part of ,america1 winter is the rainy season1 while on the eastern side of the ,cordilleras the rains occur in summer4 ,in ,tierra del ,fuego and the extreme point of the continent the two provinces meet1 the periodical precipitation disappears1 and it snows and rains throughout the year in torrents4 ,at ,cape ,horn the quantity of rain which fell in #da days measured nearly #aed inches4 ,this excessive fall of rain occurs along the whole western shores of ,patagonia1 from the ,straits of ,magellan to ,cape ,tres ,montes--a circumstance favoured by the high and rugged coasts1 and the incessant westerly winds1 which carry the vapour exhaled from the ocean to be precipitated here in the form of rain4 ,south ,africa and ,australia resemble each other in their rainy seasons1 which in both countries take place in the winter months4 ,the annual amount of rain at the equator is #ie inches1 which falls in #gh or #hj days1 giving an average of #aad inch daily2 while at ,st4 ,petersburg the annual amount is #ag inches1 which falls in #afi days1 the average being little more than the tenth of an inch daily4 ,the quantity of rain decreases in ascending from the plains to table-lands1 especially if these be edged by mountains1 because they precipitate the vapour before it arrives at the high plains4 ,on the contrary1 the quantity increases in ascending from plains to the tops or slopes of rugged mountains1 on account of partial currents of air which condense the moisture into clouds4 ,the quantity of rain decreases on receding from the coasts into the interior of continents1 because more vapour rises from the sea than from the land4 ,the vapour from the ,gulf-stream produces a greater quantity of rain and fog in the southern counties of ,england and ,ireland than that which falls in the other parts of the islands4 ,the number of rainy days depends upon the direction of the wind4 ,in ,europe1 if the wind always blew from the north-east1 it would never rain1 because it blows over a great extent of continent2 whereas it would never cease raining were the wind always to blow from the south-west1 because it would come loaded with vapour from the ,atlantic4 ,hence1 the greatest quantity of rain falls on the west coasts of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 the coast of ,scandinavia1 the eastern ,alps1 and the centre of ,portugal2 in the two last it depends partly on the height and serrated form of the mountains4 ,in western ,europe it rains on twice as many days as in the eastern part2 in ,ireland there are three times as many rainy days as in ,italy or ,spain4 ,in fact1 on the western side of ,ireland it rains on #bjh days out of the #cfe4 ,in ,england1 ,france1 and the north of ,germany1 there are from #aeb to #aee rainy days in the year2 the number decreases towards the interior of the continent1 so that in ,siberia it only rains on #fj days in the year4 ,there are enormous tracts of land on which rain never falls1 and others where it rains at long intervals and in small quantities4 ,the most extensive rainless district stretches from the borders of ,morocco eastward through the desert of ,africa1 the low coasts of ,arabia1 ,persia1 and the desert province of ,meekran1 in ,beloochistan1 occupying a space of #hj degrees of longitude and #ag of latitude4 ,the desert of ,gobi1 on the table-land of ,tibet1 and part of ,mongolia1 form another rainless province in the great continent2 while1 in the ,new ,world1 the rainless districts are--the table-land of ,mexico1 part of ,guatemala and ,california1 and the western declivity of the ,andes of ,peru1 towards the ,pacific2 in all occupying a surface equal to #e1ejj1jjj square miles4 ,the whole of the moisture is intercepted by the ,andes of ,peru2 so that rain only occurs on the coast once or twice in a century--to the great terror of the inhabitants when it does fall4 ,the absence of rain is here compensated for by copious dews and mists1 termed 8llovisnas40 ,south ,africa1 and ,australia beyond the tropics1 suffer from droughts1 which are periodical in ,australia2 they recur in the countries of the eastern coasts in a period of #ab years1 and continue #c years4 ,the ,pampas of ,south ,america are also subject to droughts1 though they do not appear to be periodical1 nor do they continue more than a season4#adj ,when the temperature of the air is near the freezing-point or below it1 snow falls instead of rain2 but the colder the air the less moisture does it contain1 consequently the less snow falls1 which is the reason of the comparatively small quantity on the high plains of the ,himalaya and ,andes4 ,snow sometimes assumes the form of grains2 but is generally in regular crystals of great beauty1 varying in form according to the degree of cold4 ,captain ,scoresby1 whose voyages in the ,polar ,seas afforded him constant opportunities of studying them1 of which he so diligently availed himself1 mentions five principal kinds of snow crystals1 each of which had many varieties1 in all amounting to #if4 ,m4 ,kmtz1 however1 is of opinion that there are several hundred4 ,snow never falls between the tropics except on the tops of very high mountains4 ,the mean elevation of the line of perpetual snow above the level of the sea in these hot regions is about #ae1bjg feet1 from whence it decreases on both sides1 and at last grazes the surface of the earth at the arctic and antarctic circles1 subject however to various flexures4 ,in the ,andes1 near ,quito1 the lowest level has an elevation of #ae1gie feet1 which is higher than the top of ,mont ,blanc2 from thence it varies very irregularly1 both to the north and south4 ,in #ah of ,n4 lat4 it descends to #ad1ggb feet on the mountains of ,mexico1 while on the south it rises to #ah1jjj feet in some parts of the western ,cordillera of the ,bolivian ,andes1 owing to the extensive radiation from the subjacent plains and valleys4 ,the line is at an altitude of #ag1jjj feet on the western ,cordillera1 whence it sinks to #ac1hjj feet at ,copiapo1 to #ab1ghj near ,valparaiso2 it is only #hcjj in the southern end of the ,chilian ,andes1 and #ccij in the ,straits of ,magellan4 ,in lat4 #ca ,n4 the snow-line is at an elevation of #ab1iha feet on the southern side of the ,himalaya1 and at #af1fbj feet on the northern side1 while ,captain ,gerard gives from #ah1jjj to #ai1jjj as its altitude on the mountains in the middle of the plain of ,tartary4 ,on ,mont ,blanc the line is at the height of #hejj feet1 so that mountain is snow-clad for #gjjj feet below its summit4 ,in the ,pyrenees it is #hahd feet1 and at the island of ,mageroe it is at #bafj feet above the ,polar ,ocean4 ,in the southern hemisphere1 snow never falls on the low lands at the level of the sea north of the #dhth parallel of latitude1 on account of the predominance of water1 whereas in the northern hemisphere it falls on the plains much nearer the equator1 on account of the excess of land1 but its limit is a curved line1 on account of the alternations of land and water4 ,in the western part of the great continent1 the southern limit of the fall of snow on the low lands nearly coincides with the #cjth parallel of north latitude1 so that it includes all ,europe4 ,in the ,american continent it follows nearly the same line1 extending through the southern parts of the ,united ,states4 ,in ,china1 snow falls at the level of the sea as far south as ,canton2 on the north-western coast of ,america1 on the contrary1 it does not fall at that level till about the #dhth degree of ,n4 lat4--these are the two extremes4 ,although ,europe lies within the region of snow1 the quantity that falls is very different in different places1 increasing greatly from south to north4 ,on an average1 it snows only one day and a-half at ,rome in the year1 while at ,petersburg there are #aga snowy days1 but in that city the quantity of rain is to that of snow as #ajjj to #chd4 ,sleet1 which is formed of small particles of rounded hail1 falls in squally weather in spring and autumn4 ,true hail1 when large1 is pear-shaped1 and consists of a nucleus of frozen snow coated with ice1 and sometimes with alternate layers of snow and ice4 ,hailstones have often fallen as large as pigeons' and even hens' eggs4 ,the masses and blocks of ice of great size1 which have not unfrequently fallen1 appear to have been formed of hailstones of large size frozen together4 ,it appears to be formed in the high cold regions of the atmosphere1 by the sudden condensation of vapour during the contention of opposing winds1 and is intimately connected with electricity1 since its fall is generally accompanied with thunder and lightning4 ,hail-showers are of short duration1 exceedingly partial1 and extend over a country in long narrow bands2 one which took place on the #acth of ,july1 #aghh1 began in the morning in the south of ,france1 and reached ,holland in a few hours1 destroying a narrow line of country in its passage4 ,local circumstances1 no doubt1 have a great influence on its formation2 it occurs more frequently in countries at a little distance from mountains than in those close to them or farther off1 and at all hours1 but most frequently at the hotter time of the day4 ,in the interior of ,europe one half of the hail-storms take place in summer4 ,hail is very rare on the tropical plains1 and often altogether unknown1 though it frequently falls at heights of #agjj or #ahjj feet above them4 ,if the air is very cold throughout the greater part of the stratum through which hail falls1 it is probably increased in size during its descent2 and1 on the contrary1 large drops of rain which precede a thunder-storm are supposed to be hail melted in its passage through low warm air4 ,,light4 ,we know nothing of the size of the ultimate particles of matter1 except that they must be inconceivably small1 since organized beings possessing life and exercising all its functions have been discovered so minute that a million of them would occupy less space than a grain of sand4 ,the air is only visible when in mass2 the smallest globule of steam tells no more of its atoms than the ocean2 the minutest grain of sand magnified appears like the fragment of a rock--no mechanical division can arrive at the indivisible4 ,although the ultimate atoms are beyond the power of vision1 chemical compounds show that the divisibility of matter has a limit1 and that the particles have different densities2 moreover1 the cleavage of crystalline substances gives reason to believe that they have different forms4#ada ,thus1 the reasoning power of man has come to the aid of his imperfect sense of vision1 so that what were before imaginary things are now real beings with definite weights1 and uniting by fixed laws4 ,though nothing had been known of their size1 their effects were evident in the perceptions of sweet and sour1 salt and bitter1 and in the endless varieties of aroma in the food we eat and the liquors we drink4 ,moreover1 their different densities are evident1 as they arise by their buoyancy in the perfume of the rose1 or sink by their weight in the heavy odour of mignonette4 ,every substance on earth is merely a temporary compound of the ultimate atoms1 sooner or later to be resolved into its pristine elements1 which are again to be combined in other forms1 and according to other laws2 so that literally there is nothing new under the sun1 for there is no evidence of new matter being added to the earth1 nor of that which exists being annihilated4 ,fire1 which seems utterly to destroy1 only resolves bodies into their elementary parts1 to become what they were before1 the support of animal or vegetable life1 or to form new mineral compounds4 ,it is to the action of these particles on the light of the sun that nature owes all its colours4 ,when a sunbeam passes through a glass prism#adb an oblong image of the sun is formed1 consisting of colours in the following order--red1 orange1 yellow1 green1 blue1 indigo1 and violet4 ,sir ,john ,herschel discovered lavender rays beyond the violet1 and dark red rays exterior to the red1 which are not so easily brought into evidence as the rest4 ,even the most transparent substances absorb light2 air1 water1 the purest crystal1 stop some of the rays as they pass through them4 ,a portion of the light is also reflected from the surface of all bodies2 were it otherwise1 they would be invisible4 ,we should be unconscious of the presence and form of material substances beyond our reach except by the reflected rays1-- 8,the mist of light from whence they take their form ,hides what they are40 ,as the same light does not come to all eyes1 each person sees his own rainbow1 the same flower by different rays4 ,white substances reflect all the light1 black substances absorb all but that which renders them visible1 while coloured bodies decompose the light1 absorb some of the colours1 and reflect or transmit the rest4 ,thus1 a violet absorbs all but the violet rays1 which it reflects2 a red flower only reflects the red and absorbs the rest2 a yellow substance absorbs all but the yellow4 ,in the same manner transparent substances1 whether solid or fluid1 absorb some colours and transmit others3 thus1 an emerald absorbs all but the green1 a ruby all but the red2 whereas a diamond does not decompose the light1 but transmits every ray alike4 ,very few1 however1 of the colours1 whether transmitted or reflected1 are pure1 but the substance takes its hue from the colour that predominates4 ,the atmosphere absorbs all the colours of the sun's light except the blue1 which is its true colour4 ,in countries where the air is pure1 the azure of the sky is deep2 it is still more so at great elevations1 where the density of the air is less2 and its colour is most beautiful as it gradually softens the outlines of the mountains into extreme distance1 or blends the sea with the sky4 ,the air reflects and scatters part of the white solar beams1 whence the brightness and cheerfulness of day2 that property1 together with the refractive power of the aqueous vapour1 gives the roseate hue to the early morning1 and the gold and scarlet tints to the closing day4 ,were it not for the reflective power of the air1 the sun and moon would be like sharply-defined balls of fire in the profoundly black vault of the heavens1 and dark night would instantly follow sunset4 ,when the sun is #ah degrees below the horizon1 the air1 at the height of #cj miles1 is still dense enough to reflect his rays1 and divide the day from the night by the solar shades of twilight4 ,a considerable portion of the sun's light is absorbed by the atmosphere3 the loss increases with the density and obliquity of incidence and the density of the air4 ,it is diminished #acjj times by the thickness of the air in the horizon1 which enables us to look at the sun when setting without being dazzled4 ,mirage1 or the delusive appearance of water1 so frequent in deserts1 is owing to the reflection of light between two strata of air of different densities1 occasioned by the radiation of heat from the arid soil4 ,it is very common on the extensive plains in ,asia and ,africa1 and especially in ,upper ,egypt2 villages on small eminences above the plain appear as if they were built on islands in the middle of a lake when the dry sandy ground is heated by the mid-day sun4 ,sometimes objects appear double1 and occasionally several images appear above one another1 some direct and some inverted2 this is particularly the case in high latitudes1 where the ,icy ,sea cools the stratum of air resting on it4#adc ,in the polar regions1 or on the tops of mountains1 when the sun is in the horizon the shadow of a person is sometimes thrown on an opposite cloud or mist1 the head being surrounded by concentric coloured rings or circles1 the number varying from one to five2 ,captain ,scoresby saw four of these rings1 on one occasion1 round the shadow of his head1 as he stood between the sun and a thick low fog3 the first ring consisted of concentric bands of white1 yellow1 red1 and purple2 the second consisted of concentric bands of blue1 green1 yellow1 red1 and purple2 the third of green1 white1 yellowish white1 red1 and purple2 and in the fourth were greenish white1 deeper on the edges4 ,these appearances1 called glories1 or fog-images1 and the coron or small concentric coloured circles which surround the sun or moon when partly obscured by thin white clouds1 are owing to the refraction of the light in the aqueous particles of the cloud or fog4 ,the colours in the concentric bands of the coron1 however1 differ from the foregoing2 that nearest the sun is of deep blue1 white1 and red2 the circle exterior to that consists of purple1 blue1 green1 pale yellow1 and red2 but the series is very rarely complete4 ,halos1 which surround the sun in large circles1 or a complicated combination of circles1 are1 on the contrary1 supposed to be produced by the light falling on minute crystals of ice suspended in the atmosphere2 they are particularly brilliant and frequent in high latitudes4 ,it is scarcely possible to give an idea of these beautiful and singular objects4 ,sometimes a large coloured circle surrounds the sun or passes through his centre1 which is occasionally touched or cut by segments of others4 ,one seen at ,st4 ,petersburg on the #bith of ,june1 #agij1 consisted of four coloured circles of different sizes intersecting each other1 which were either cut or touched by segments of eight others1 and at the points of intersection mock suns or parhelia appeared4 ,the sky is very hazy on these occasions4 ,mock suns1 without circles and halos1 are by no means uncommon round both sun and moon1 but seldom of that complicated kind4 ,they are situate between the observer and the sun1 whereas the rainbow is always in that part of the sky opposite the sun1 because it is produced by refraction and reflection of the sun's rays in the drops of rain2 and when the light is intense and the rain abundant1 there are two concentric bows1 the prismatic colour of the innermost of which are the most vivid1 the violet being within and the red outside3 sometimes the inner edge exhibits a repetition of colours in fine fringes1 in which red and green predominate4 ,the colours are reversed in the exterior bow1 the violet being outside and the red on the inner edge4 ,besides these two principal and most common bows1 supernumerary rainbows occasionally appear within the interior bow1 generally green and violet1 though there are sometimes more or less perfect repetitions of all the colours4 ,in squally weather a rainbow is sometimes seen on a blue sky when rain is falling1 but it is generally on clouds2 it is constantly seen when the sun shines on the fine drops of fountains and cascades4 ,as the light of the moon is feeble1 lunar rainbows are rare1 and1 for the most part1 colourless4 ,in the early morning1 when the sun throws his slanting beams across the fields1 a miniature bow1 with all its vivid colours1 may be seen in each dewdrop as it hangs on the points of the bending grass4 ,light is said to be polarized when1 after having been once refracted or reflected1 it is rendered incapable of being again refracted or reflected at certain angles4 ,for example1 if a crystal of brown tourmaline be cut longitudinally into thin slices1 and polished1 the light of a candle may be seen through a slice as if it were glass4 ,but if one of these slices be held perpendicularly between the eye and the candle1 and a second slice be turned round between the eye and the other plate of tourmaline1 the image of the candle will vanish and come into view at every quarter-revolution of the plate1 varying through all degrees of brightness down to total or almost total evanescence1 and then increasing again by the same degrees as it had decreased4 ,thus1 the light1 in passing through the first plate of tourmaline1 is said to be polarized because it has been rendered incapable of passing through the second piece of tourmaline in certain positions4 ,a ray of light acquires the same property if it be reflected from a pane of plate-glass at an angle of #eg degrees2 it is by that rendered incapable of being reflected by another pane of plate-glass in certain definite positions1 for the image of the light vanishes and reappears alternately at every quarter-revolution of the second pane4 ,if a thin plate of mica be interposed when the image of the candle has vanished1 the darkness will instantly disappear1 and a succession of the most gorgeous colours will come into view1 varying with every inclination of the mica1 from the richest reds to the most vivid greens1 blues1 and purples4 ,the most splendid colours arranged in symmetrical forms are exhibited by thin plates of an infinite variety of substances besides mica4 ,they display some of the most beautiful objects in nature1 and show differences otherwise inappreciable in the arrangement of the molecules of crystalline bodies4#add ,m4 ,arago discovered that the light of the sun is polarized by the reflection of the atmosphere1 but not equally so on every part of the sky2 the polarization is least in the vicinity of the sun1 and greatest at #ij from him1 for there his light is reflected at an angle of #de1 which is the polarizing angle for air4#ade ,there are three points in the sky where the light is not polarized3 one of these neutral points1 discovered by ,m4 ,arago1 is #ah #cj above the point diametrically opposite to the sun when he is in the horizon2 the second neutral point1 discovered by ,m4 ,babinet1 is #ah #cj above the sun when he is rising or setting2 and the third1 discovered by ,sir ,david ,brewster1 is #ae or #af below the sun4 ,these points vary with the height of the sun1 and the two latter rise and coincide in his centre when he is in the zenith4#adf ,now1 the portion of polarized light sent to the eye from any part of a clear sky is in a plane passing through that point1 the eye of the observer1 and the centre of the sun4 ,if that point be the north pole of the heavens1 it is clear that1 as the sun moves in his diurnal course1 the plane will move with him as an hour circle1 and may be used as a dial to determine the hour of the day4 ,professor ,wheatstone1 by whom that beautiful application of the polarization of the atmosphere has been made1 has constructed a clock1 of very simple form1 which shows the time of day with great accuracy1 and which has many advantages over a sun-dial4 ,,electricity4 ,electricity pervades the earth1 the air1 and all substances1 without giving any visible sign of its existence when in a latent state1 but1 when elicited1 it exhibits forces capable of producing the most sudden1 violent1 and irresistible effects4 ,it is roused from its dormant state by every disturbance in the chemical1 mechanical1 or calorific condition of matter1 and then experience shows that bodies in one electric state repel1 and in another they attract each other4 ,probably their mutual attraction and repulsion arise from the redundancy and defect of electricity2 in the first case they are said to be positively1 in the latter negatively electric4#adg ,when they have different kinds of electricity they attract each other1 and1 when not opposed1 the electricity coalesces with great rapidity1 producing the flash1 explosion1 and shock1 and that with the more violence the greater the tension or pressure of the electricity on the surrounding air which resists its escape4 ,equilibrium is then restored1 and the electricity remains latent till called forth by a new exciting cause4 ,the electrical state of substances is easily disturbed1 for1 without contact1 positive electricity tends to produce negative electricity in a body near it1 and vice vers3 the latter is then said to be electric by induction4 ,the electricity of the atmosphere arises from evaporation1 and the chemical changes that are in perpetual progress on the globe2 no electricity1 however1 is developed by the evaporation of pure water1 but it arises abundantly from water containing matter susceptible of chemical action during the evaporation2 consequently1 the ocean is one of the greatest sources of atmospheric electricity2 combustion is another1 and a large portion arises from vegetation4 ,the air1 when pure1 is almost always positively electric2 but as the chemical changes on the earth sometimes produce positive and sometimes negative electricity1 it is subject to great local variations2 a passing cloud or a puff of wind produces a change1 and a distant storm renders it negative for the time1 but the earth is always in a negative state4 ,the quantity of electricity varies with the hours of the day and the seasons2 it is more powerful in the day than in the night1 in winter than in summer1 and it diminishes from the equator to the poles4 ,it thunders daily in many places1 in others never1 as on the east coast of ,peru and in the ,arctic regions1 except where there are violent volcanic explosions1 which always generate electricity1 as in ,iceland4 ,wherever there are no trees or high objects to conduct it to the ground1 the quantity of positive electricity increases with the height above the surface of the earth4 ,violent thunder-storms take place on the tops of the ,andes and ,himalaya mountains1 at heights of #bf1fej feet above the plains4 ,electricity becomes very strong when dew is deposited1 and in some cases it is strongly developed in fogs4 ,mr4 ,cross found it so powerful on one occasion1 that it was dangerous to approach the apparatus for measuring its intensity4 ,a continued succession of explosions lasted nearly five hours1 and the stream of fire between the receiving-ball and the atmospheric conductor was too vivid to look at4 ,m4 ,peltier has found that the common fogs arising from the mere condensation of the moisture in the air are neutral1 but that others1 which are produced by exhalations from the earth1 are sometimes positive1 sometimes negative2 the subject1 however1 requires further investigation4 ,though in long-continued mild rains there are no traces of electricity1 yet1 when rain or snow falls from the higher regions of the atmosphere1 it is more or less developed1 sometimes positive1 sometimes negative1 depending a good deal on the direction of the wind4 ,the atmosphere being positively electric1 negative rain is supposed to arise from the evaporation of the drops in passing through dry air2 the vapour carries off the positive electricity and leaves the drop in a negative state--a circumstance which seems to be confirmed by the electricity of cascades1 near which there always is more or less negative electricity2 the positive flows into the earth1 while the other remains united to the drops of the cascade4 ,the inductive action of the earth upon the clouds1 and of the different strata of clouds on each other1 produces great variations in their electrical state4 ,if rain falls from the lowermost of two strata of positively electrical clouds1 the inductive action of the earth renders the under surface positive and the upper negative1 and the rain is positive4 ,by-and-bye the under surface of the cloud and the earth become neutral2 and after a time the lower cloud becomes charged with negative electricity by the induction of the upper strata1 and the rain is then negatively electric4 ,clouds are very differently charged2 grey clouds have negative--red1 white1 and orange clouds positive electricity2 and when clouds differently charged meet1 an explosion takes place4 ,when the sky is clear and the air calm and warm1 a succession of small white fleecy clouds rising rapidly above the horizon1 and flying swiftly in the very high regions of the atmosphere1 is a certain presage of a thunder-storm4 ,electricity of each kind is probably elicited by the friction of currents of air1 or masses of clouds moving rapidly in different directions1 as in thunder-storms1 when small white clouds are seen flying rapidly over the black mass2 yet the quick and irregular motion of clouds in storms is probably owing to the strong electrical attraction and repulsion among themselves1 though both may be concerned in these hostile encounters4 ,when two clouds differently charged by the sudden condensation of vapour1 and driven by contending winds1 approach within a certain distance1 the thickness of the coating of electricity increases on the two adjacent sides1 and1 when the accumulation becomes so great as to overcome the coercive pressure of the atmosphere between them1 a discharge takes place which occasions a flash of lightning4 ,the actual quantity of electricity in any part of a cloud is very small4 ,the intensity of the flash depends upon the extent of surface occupied by the electricity1 which acquires its intensity by its instantaneous condensation4 ,the air1 being a non-conductor1 does not convey the electricity from the clouds to the earth1 but it acquires from them an opposite electricity1 and when the tension is very great the force of the electricity becomes irresistible1 and an interchange takes place between the clouds and the earth1 but the motion of the lightning is so rapid that it is difficult to ascertain when it goes from the clouds to the earth1 or from the earth to the clouds1 though there is no doubt it does both3 explosions have burst from the ground1 and people have been killed by them4 ,when the air is highly rarified by heat1 its coercive power is diminished1 so that the electricity escapes from the clouds in the form of diffuse lambent sheets of lightning without thunder or rain1 frequently seen in warm summer evenings1 sometimes even near the zenith1 and quite different from that sheet-lightning at the horizon which is in general only the reflection of the forked lightning of a distant storm4 ,when the quantity of electricity developed by the sudden condensation of vapour is very great1 the lightning is always forked2 its zigzag form is occasioned by the unequal conducting power of the air1 by which it is sometimes divided into several branches4 ,the author once saw a flash divide into four parallel streams--a very uncommon occurrence4 ,occasionally1 in very great storms1 the lightning sends off lateral branches4 ,it often appears as a globe of fire moving so slowly that it is visible for several seconds1 while the flashes of forked lightning do not last the millionth part of a second4 ,professor ,wheatstone1 who has measured the velocity of lightning by experiments of great ingenuity1 found that it far surpasses the velocity of light1 and would encircle the globe in the twinkling of an eye4 ,this inconceivable velocity is beautifully exemplified in the electric telegraph1 by which the most violent and terrific agent in nature is rendered obedient to man1 and conveys his thoughts as rapidly as they are formed4 ,the colour of lightning is generally a dazzling white or blue1 though in highly rarified air it is rose-colour or violet4 ,the sudden compression of the air during the passage of lightning must convert a great quantity of latent into sensible heat1 for heat in a latent or insensible state exists in all bodies independent of their temperature4 ,heat is absorbed and becomes insensible to the thermometer when solids become liquids1 and when liquids are changed to vapour2 and it again becomes sensible when vapour is condensed1 and when liquids become solid4 ,when water freezes1 all the heat that kept it liquid is given out2 and when ice melts1 it absorbs heat from everything near it4 ,the air is full of heat in a latent state1 whatever its temperature may be1 but it can be squeezed out by sudden compression so as to kindle tinder4 ,every arial wave1 every sound1 every word spoken must set free an infinitesimal quantity of heat2 so everything that tends to rarify the air must cause it to absorb a proportional quantity4 ,the rolling noise of thunder is probably owing to the difference between the velocity of lightning and that of sound4 ,thunder may be regarded as originating in every point of a flash of lightning at the same instant2 and as sound takes a considerable time to travel1 it will arrive first from the nearest point2 and if the flash run in a direct line from a person1 the noise will come later and later from the remote points of its path1 in a continued roar4 ,should the direction of the flash be inclined1 the succession of sounds will be more rapid and intense2 and if the lightning describe a circular course above a person1 the sound will arrive at the same instant from every point with a stunning crash4#adh ,in passing to the earth1 lightning follows the best conductors--metals by preference1 then damp substances--which is the reason why men and animals are so often struck4 ,if it meets with a bad conductor1 it shivers it to pieces and scatters the fragments to a considerable distance4 ,a powerful flash scatters gunpowder1 while a feeble one ignites it2 the hardest trees are split and torn to shreds2 when a tree is struck1 the heat of the flash converts the sap into steam1 the expansive force of which shivers the tree4 ,the surface of rocks is vitrified by it2 and when it falls on a sandy soil1 its course underground is marked by vitrified tubes many feet long4 ,thunder-storms occur daily within the region of the ,variables1 which is also the region of storms3 in countries under the influence of the monsoons they are tremendous at the changes of these periodical winds2 where the trade-winds prevail they are hardly known1 though electrical discharges are frequent at their limits4 ,in ,greece and ,italy there are about #dj thunder-storms annually1 which occur in spring and autumn1 while north of the ,alps they chiefly take place in summer4 ,there are about #bd in the year on the coasts of the ,atlantic and in ,germany1 but they are much more frequent among mountains than on plains4 ,in the interior of the old continent they rarely occur in winter1 and three-fourths of the number happen in summer4 ,they are of such rare occurrence in high latitudes1 that in a residence of #f years in ,greenland ,sir ,charles ,geiseke only heard it thunder once4 ,some storms arise from the contention of opposite currents in the air2 others are occasioned by currents of warm air ascending from the earth1 which are suddenly condensed as they enter the upper regions of the atmosphere1 and1 as this sometimes happens at the hottest hour of the day1 these storms are periodical for many successive days1 recurring always at the same hour4 ,sometimes they extend over a great expanse of country1 and the lightning darts from all points of the compass4 ,a person may be killed at the distance of #bj miles from the explosion by the back stroke4 ,if the two extremities of a highly-charged cloud dip towards the earth1 they will repel the electricity of the earth1 if it be of the same kind with their own1 and will attract the other kind2 and if a discharge should take place at one end of the cloud1 the equilibrium will instantly be restored by a flash from that part of the earth which is under the other1 sufficiently strong to destroy life1 and it is the most dangerous1 though never so strong as the direct stroke4 ,when thunder-clouds are very low1 there is frequently no lightning2 the electricity produced by induction is so powerful that it escapes from pointed objects in the shape of flame without heat1 known as ,st4 ,elmo's fire4 ,these flames are not unfrequently seen at the topmasts of ships and the extremities of their yard-arms4 ,bodies between the clouds and earth may be electrized by induction1 and their electricity will be seen in the form of flame1 as showers of phosphorescent snow4 ,phosphorescence is ascribed to electricity2 various substances emit light when decaying1 as fish and wood4 ,although many marine animals are phosphorescent1 yet the luminous appearance which the sea often assumes is not always to be attributed to them1 but probably to the decaying animal matter it contains4 ,the aurora is decidedly an electrical phenomenon4 ,it generally appears soon after sunset in the form of a luminous arch stretching more or less from east to west1 the most elevated point being always in the magnetic meridian of the place of the observer3 across the arch the coruscations are rapid1 vivid1 and of various colours1 darting like lightning to the zenith1 and at the same time flitting laterally with incessant velocity4 ,the brightness of the rays varies in an instant3 they sometimes surpass the splendour of stars of the first magnitude1 and often exhibit colours of admirable transparency1 blood-red at the base1 emerald-green in the middle1 and clear yellow towards their extremity4 ,sometimes one1 and sometimes a quick succession of luminous currents run from one end of the arch or bow to the other1 so that the rays rapidly increase in brightness2 but it is impossible to say whether the coruscations themselves are actually affected by a horizontal motion of translation1 or whether the more vivid light is conveyed from ray to ray4 ,the rays occasionally dart far past the zenith1 vanish1 suddenly reappear1 and1 being joined by others from the arch1 form a magnificent corona or immense dome of light4 ,the segment of the sky below the arch is quite black1 as if formed by dense clouds2 yet ,m4 ,struve is said to have seen stars in it1 consequently the blackness must be from contrast4 ,the lower edge of the arch is evenly defined2 its upper margin is fringed by the coruscations1 their convergence towards the north1 and that of the arch itself1 being probably an effect of perspective4 ,either the aurora must be high above the earth1 or its coruscations must be very extensive1 since the same display is visible at places wide asunder4 ,it has frequently been seen in ,north ,america and all over the north of ,europe at the same time1 sometimes even as far south as ,italy1 yet ,sir ,edward ,parry certainly saw a ray dart from it to the ground near him4 ,m4 ,struve1 ,admiral ,wrangel1 and others who have had many opportunities of seeing the aurora in high latitudes1 assign a very moderate elevation to it4 ,the arch probably passes through the magnetic pole2 hence1 in the north of ,greenland it lies south of the observer1 and ,sir ,edward ,parry saw it to the south in ,melville ,island1 which is in #gj ,n4 lat42 consequently it must appear in the zenith in some places4 ,dr4 ,faraday conjectures that the electric equilibrium of the earth is restored by the aurora conveying the electricity from the poles to the equator1 for it appears in the high southern latitudes1 as well as in the northern2 and the ,rev4 ,g4 ,fisher has lately suggested1 that1 as the principal display of the aurora takes place at or near the margin of the polar ice1 the electricity may be conveyed by the conducting power of the frozen particles which abound in the air in these latitudes1 and which1 being rendered fitfully luminous by the passage of the electricity1 produce the arch and the ever-varying flashes of the aurora4 ,the aurora has a powerful influence on the magnetic needle1 even in places where the display is not seen4 ,its vibrations seem to be slower or quicker according as the auroral light is quiescent or in motion1 and the disturbances of the magnetic needle and the auroral displays were simultaneous at ,toronto1 in ,canada1 on #ac days out of #bd1 the remaining days having been clouded2 and contemporaneous observations show that on these #ac days there were also magnetic disturbances at ,prague and at ,van ,diemen's ,land1 so that the 8occurrence of aurora at ,toronto on these occasions may be viewed as a local manifestation connected with magnetic effects1 which1 whatever may have been their origin1 probably prevailed on the same day over the whole surface of the globe40#adi ,,magnetism4 ,magnetism is one of those unseen imponderable existences which1 like electricity and heat1 are known only by their effects4 ,it is certainly identical with electricity1 for1 although it never comes naturally into evidence1 magnets can be made to exhibit all the phenomena of electrical machines4 ,terrestrial magnetism1 which pervades the whole earth1 is extremely complicated2 it varies both with regard to space and time1 and1 probably1 depends upon the heat of the sun1 upon his motion in the ecliptic1 which produces changes of temperature1 on galvanic currents circulating through the surface of the globe1 and possibly on the earth's rotatory motion4 ,the distribution of terrestrial magnetism is determined by the declination-needle1 or mariner's compass1 and the dipping-needle2 they consist of magnetized needles or bars of steel1 so suspended that the declination-needle revolves in a horizontal direction1 and the dipping-needle moves in a plane perpendicular to the horizon4 ,the north end of the declination-needle or magnet points to the north1 and the south end to the south1 and it only remains at rest when in that position4 ,the direction of the needle is the magnetic meridian of the place of observation4 ,the north end of the dipping-needle bends or dips below the horizon in the northern hemisphere1 and the south end bends or dips beneath it in the southern hemisphere1 and between the two there is a line which encircles the whole earth1 where the dipping-needle remains horizontal4 ,that line1 which is the magnetic equator or line of no dip1 crosses the terrestrial equator in several places1 extending alternately on each side1 but never deviating more than #ab degrees from it4 ,the deviation is greater in that part of the ,pacific where there are most islands1 and it is greatest both to the south and north in traversing the continents of ,africa and ,america2 thus1 it appears that the configuration of the land and water has an influence on terrestrial magnetism4 ,north and south of the magnetic equator the needle dips more and more1 till at last it becomes perpendicular to the horizon in two points1 or rather linear spaces1 known as the north and south magnetic poles1 which are quite distinct from the poles of the earth's rotation4 ,one1 whose position was determined by ,captain ,ross1 is in #gj ,n4 lat4 and #ig ,w4 long41 while that in the southern hemisphere1 determined by ,sir ,james ,ross1 in the interior of ,victoria ,island1 is in #gj ,s4 lat4 and #afb ,e4 long4 ,lines of equal dip are such as may be drawn on a globe through all those places where the dipping-needle makes the same angle with the horizon4 ,the angle of the dip is not always the same3 according to ,colonel ,sabine1 who is the highest authority on this subject1 it has been decreasing in the northern hemisphere1 for the last fifty years1 at the rate of three minutes annually3 it is also subject to variations of short periods1 and it seems to be affected by shocks of earthquakes1 even when very distant4 ,the intensity of the magnetic force is as variable and even more complicated than the other magnetic phenomena3 it is measured by the number of vibrations made by the declination-needle in a given time4 ,it is very different in different parts of the earth1 but there are four points in which the intensity is greater than anywhere else4 ,two of these are in the northern and two in the southern hemisphere2 they neither coincide with the poles of the earth's rotation nor with the magnetic poles1 nor are they all of equal intensity4 ,one of these foci of maximum magnetic intensity is situate in ,north ,america1 south-west from ,hudson's ,bay2 another is in northern ,siberia in #abj ,e4 long4 ,in the southern hemisphere1 one of the points of maximum magnetic intensity is in the ,south ,atlantic in #bj ,s4 lat4 and #cbd ,e4 long41 and the other is situate in #fj ,s4 lat4 and #aca #bj ,e4 long4#aej ,in consequence of the unequal intensity of the force in these #d foci1 the decrease in magnetic power from them towards the equator is extremely irregular1 so that the dynamic equator1 which is a line supposed to be drawn through all the points on the earth where the intensity is the least1 encircles the globe in a waving line1 which neither coincides with the geographical nor magnetic equator2 it forms the division between the magnetic intensities in the two hemispheres4 ,lines drawn on a globe through all the points where the magnetic intensity is the same are so complicated that it is scarcely possible to convey an idea of them in words4 ,they form a series of ovals round each of the foci of maximum force1 then a figure of #h in each hemisphere having a focus and its ovals in each loop1 then they open into tortuous lines which encompass the globe1 but which become less so as they approach the dynamic equator4 ,the complication is increased by the foci in the two hemispheres being unsymmetrically placed with regard to one another1 as well as by the difference in their intensities4 ,the declination or horizontal needle only remains at rest when in a magnetic meridian1 that is1 when it points to the north and south magnetic poles4 ,the magnetic meridians coincide with the geographical meridians in some places1 and in these the magnet points to the true north and south1 that is1 to the poles of the earth's rotation4 ,but if it be carried successively to different longitudes1 it will deviate sometimes to the east1 sometimes to the west of the true north4 ,imaginary lines on the globe1 passing through all places where the magnet points to the poles of the earth's rotation1 are lines of no variation2 and lines passing through all places where the magnet deviates by an equal quantity from the geographical meridians are lines of equal variation2 they are also very irregular1 and form two closed systems or loops1--that is1 they surround two points1 one in northern ,siberia and another in the ,pacific1 nearly in the meridian of the ,pitcairn ,islands and the ,marquesas4#aea ,the whole magnetic system is perpetually undergoing secular and periodical changes1 which are so irregular and complicated that half a century is sufficient to alter the form and position of all the lines that have been mentioned4 ,the foci of magnetic intensity1 and the whole system represented by the magnetic lines1 are moving along the two hemispheres in opposite directions2 those in the northern hemisphere are going from west to east1 and those in the southern from east to west2 and as the foci of maximum intensity move with different velocities1 the forms1 as well as the places1 of the curves are slowly1 yet continually1 changing4 ,the weaker magnetic focus in the northern hemisphere moved through #ej degrees of longitude in #bej years4 ,the declination is subject to periodic variations depending upon the position of the moon1 and to annual variations arising from the motion of the sun in the ecliptic1 as well as to horary variations corresponding to changes of temperature from the diurnal rotation of the earth4 ,throughout the middle latitudes of the northern hemisphere the north end of the magnet has a mean motion from east to west from eight in the morning till half-past one1 it then moves to the east till evening1 after which it makes another excursion to the west1 and returns again to its original position at eight in the morning4 ,the extent of its variation is greater in the day than in the night1 in summer than in winter4 ,it decreases from the middle latitudes in ,europe1 where it is #ac or #ad minutes1 to the equator1 where it is only #c or #d2 but at the equator the variations are performed with extreme regularity4 ,the horary motions of the south end of the magnet in the southern hemisphere are accomplished in an exactly opposite direction4 ,between these two magnetic hemispheres there is a line passing through an infinity of places1 and very nearly coinciding with the line of minimum magnetic intensity1 where the horary phenomena of both hemispheres are combined1 each predominating alternately at opposite seasons4 ,at ,st4 ,helena1 which is one of the places in question1 and nearly on the line of minimum intensity1 the horary motion of the north end of the magnet corresponds in direction during one half of the year with the movement in the northern hemisphere1 and in the other half of the year the direction at the same hours corresponds with that in the southern hemisphere1 the passage from the one to the other being at the equinoxes1 when the diurnal variations at the usual hours partake more or less of the characteristics of both on different days4#aeb ,it thus appears that there are six points on the earth peculiarly remarkable for magnetic phenomena1 all of which are distinct from one another1 and from the poles of the earth's rotation--namely1 two magnetic poles where the dipping-needle makes an angle of #ij degrees with the horizon4 ,the magnetic equator corresponds with these in every point of which the angle of the dip is zero3 it encircles the earth1 and intersects the terrestrial equator1 but does not coincide with it4 ,the other four points are the foci of maximum magnetic intensity1 and to them the dynamical equator or line of minimum magnetic intensity corresponds1 also surrounding the earth in an irregular line1 but which coincides with neither the terrestrial nor magnetic equator4 ,besides these1 and either partly or nearly coinciding with the line of minimum intensity1 is that line which is supposed to pass through all places where the horary variations of the magnet partake of the phenomena of each hemisphere alternately4 ,the earth's magnetism is subject to vast unaccountable commotions or storms of immense extent1 which occur at irregular intervals1 and are of short duration4 ,in #ahah1 a magnetic storm1 shown by a violent agitation of the needle1 took place at the same time over #dg degrees of longitude1 extending through all the countries from ,paris to ,kasan2 and on the #beth of ,september1 #ahda1 one of these storms was simultaneously observed at ,toronto in ,north ,america1 at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 ,prague in ,europe1 at ,macao in ,china1 and there is reason to believe that it extended to ,van ,diemen's ,land4 ,similar storms have happened simultaneously in ,sicily and at ,upsala in ,sweden2 others of less extent and shorter periods more frequently occur1 and are1 like the greater storms1 not to be attributed to any known cause4 ,m4 ,necker de ,saussure has traced a marked coincidence between the prevailing direction of the stratified masses of the mountain chains and that of the curves of equal magnetic intensity4 ,the coincidence is perfect in the ,ural chain1 for there the lines of force tend north and south2 and they do not deviate much from the stratification in the great plains of ,european ,russia4 ,there is every reason to believe that a coincidence takes place in the ,scandinavian mountains1 for a line of equal magnetic intensity passes parallel to the ,norwegian coast4 ,in ,scotland1 a line almost coincides with the ,grampians2 and as it becomes less northerly before reaching ,portugal and ,spain1 it is there also in singular coincidence with the sierras on the table-land2 the ,pyrenees1 however1 form an exception to the law4 ,a magnetic line follows the break of the chain of the ,alps with great precision4 ,the intersection of two upheavals makes these mountains alter their direction from ,s4,w4 and ,n4,e4 to ,e4 nearly1 and near to that change the magnetic line takes a similar bend1 and coincides with the ,caucasus1 ,taurus1 ,hindoo-,coosh1 ,himalaya1 and ,chinese mountains1 after which it again tends to the north1 and follows the ,yablonia chain to ,behring's ,straits4 ,in ,africa1 the lines of equal magnetic force coincide with the ,komri1 and with the lofty sea-coast range which unites the mountains of ,abyssinia with those at the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,throughout ,north ,america the lines of equal force coincide with the ,alleghanies1 and on the coast of the ,pacific they take the direction of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,in ,mexico1 the stratified rocks are parallel to the mountains of ,anahuac1 which is the same with the direction of the magnetic curves1 and a similar coincidence takes place in the ,parima ranges1 and in the coast-chain of ,venezuela4 ,the ,andes1 and the lines of equal magnetic intensity1 are completely discordant1 for they cross one another2 but lines of equal magnetic force stretch from the southern promontories of ,america and ,asia to the mountains of ,victoria ,land4 ,there is strong presumptive evidence of the influence of the electric and magnetic currents on the formation and direction of the mountain masses and mineral veins1 but their slow persevering action on the ultimate atoms of matter has been placed beyond doubt by the formation of rubies and other gems1 as well as various other mineral substances1 by voltaic electricity4 ,the existence of electric currents on the surface of the earth has been deduced from terrestrial magnetism1 and from the connection between the diurnal variations of the magnet and the apparent motion of the sun2 also from the electro-magnetic properties of metalliferous veins1 and from atmospheric electricity1 which is continually passing between the air and the earth4 ,dr4 ,faraday's brilliant discoveries have changed the received opinions with regard to the magnetic properties of matter4 ,although all bodies are magnetic1 they show that it assumes a totally different form in different substances4 ,for example1 if a bar of iron be freely suspended between the poles of an electro-magnet1 or very powerful horse-shoe magnet1 it will be attracted by both poles1 and will rest in the direction between them--that is1 on the line of force4 ,but if a bar of bismuth be suspended in the same manner1 it will be repelled by both poles1 and will assume a direction at right angles to that which the iron took1 and thus the same force1 whether electric or magnetic1 produces opposite effects upon these two metals4 ,substances affected after the manner of iron are magnetic--those affected after the manner of bismuth are said to be diamagnetic4 ,all substances come under one or other of these two classes3 the diamagnetic are infinitely more abundant than the magnetic2 almost all bodies on earth belong to that class4 ,many of the metals1 acids1 oils1 sugar1 starch1 animal matter1 flame1 and all the gases1 whether light or heavy1 have the diamagnetic property less or more1 but oxygen less than any other1 and that is the reason why atmospheric air is the most feebly diamagnetic of all substances at its natural temperature2 for when very hot it becomes more diamagnetic1 and if extremely cold it takes a place among the magnetic class4 ,important results with regard to the magnetic state of the globe will undoubtedly be deduced from this new property of matter1 and ,dr4 ,faraday's observations on that subject show that he is not without such anticipations4 8,when we consider the magnetic condition of the earth as a whole1 without reference to its possible relation to the sun1 and reflect upon the enormous amount of diamagnetic matter which forms its crust2 and when we remember that magnetic curves of a certain amount of force1 universal in their presence1 are passing through these matters1 and keeping them constantly in a state of tension1 and therefore of action1 we cannot doubt that some great purpose1 of utility to the system and to us its inhabitants1 is fulfilled by it4 ,if the sun have anything to do with the magnetism of the globe1 then it is possible that part of this effect may be due to the action of the light that comes to us from that body2 and in that view the air seems most strikingly placed round our sphere1 investing it with a transparent diamagnetic1 which1 therefore1 is permeable to his rays1 and1 at the same time1 moving with great velocity across them4 ,such conditions seem to suggest the possibility of magnetism being thence generated40 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,vegetation--,nourishment and ,growth of ,plants--,effects of the different ,rays of the ,solar ,spectrum--,classes--,botanical ,districts4 ,,in the present state of the globe1 a third part only of its surface is occupied by land1 and probably not more than a fourth part of that is inhabited by man1 but animals and vegetables have a wider range4 ,the greater part of the land is clothed with vegetation and inhabited by quadrupeds1 the air is peopled with birds and insects1 and the sea teems with living creatures and plants4 ,these organized beings are not scattered promiscuously1 but all classes of them have been originally placed in regions suited to their respective wants4 ,many animals and plants are indigenous only in determinate spots1 while a thousand others might have supported them as well1 and to many of which they have been transported by man4 ,plants extract inorganic substances from the ground1 which are indispensable to bring them to maturity1 but the atmosphere supplies the vegetable creation with the principal part of its food4 ,the black or brown mould which is so abundant is the produce of decayed vegetables4 ,when the autumnal leaves1 the spoil of the summer1 fall to the ground1 and their vitality is gone1 they enter into combination with the oxygen of the atmosphere1 and convert it into an equal volume of carbonic acid gas1 which1 consequently1 exists abundantly in every good soil1 and is the most important part of the food of vegetables4 ,this process is slow1 and stops as soon as the air in the soil is exhausted2 but the plough1 by loosening the earth1 and permitting the atmosphere to enter more freely and penetrate deeper into the ground1 accelerates the decomposition of the vegetable matter1 and consequently the formation of carbonic acid4 ,in loosening and refining the mould1 the common earth-worm is the fellow-labourer with man2 it eats earth1 and1 after extracting the nutritious part1 ejects the refuse1 which is the finest soil1 and may be seen lying in heaps at the mouth of its burrow4 ,so instrumental is this creature in preparing the ground1 that it is said that there is not a particle of the finer vegetable mould that has not passed through the intestines of a worm3 thus1 the most feeble of living things is employed by ,providence to accomplish the most important ends4 ,the food of the vegetable creation consists of carbon1 hydrogen1 nitrogen1 and oxygen--all of which plants obtain entirely from the atmosphere in the form of carbonic acid gas1 water1 and ammonia4 ,they imbibe these three substances1 and1 after having decomposed them1 they give the oxygen to the air1 and consolidate the carbon1 water1 and nitrogen into wood1 leaves1 flowers1 and fruit4 ,the vitality of plants is a chemical process entirely due to the sun's light2 it is most active in clear sunshine1 feeble in the shade1 and nearly suspended in the night1 when plants1 like animals1 have their rest4 ,the atmosphere contains only one two-thousandth part of carbonic acid gas1 yet that small quantity yields enough of carbon to form the solid mass of all the magnificent forests and herbs that clothe the face of the earth1 and the supply of that necessary ingredient in the composition of the atmosphere is maintained by the breath of animals1 by volcanos1 and by combustion4 ,the green parts of plants constantly imbibe carbonic acid in the day2 they decompose it1 assimilate the carbon1 and return the oxygen pure to the atmosphere4 ,as the chemical action is feeble in the shade and in gloomy weather1 only a part of the carbonic acid is decomposed1 then both oxygen and carbonic acid are given out by the leaves2 but during the darkness of the night a chemical action of a different character takes place1 and almost all the carbonic acid is returned unchanged to the atmosphere1 together with the moisture which is evaporated from the leaves both night and day4 ,thus1 plants give out pure oxygen during the day1 and carbonic acid and water during the night4 ,since the vivifying action of the sun brings about all these changes1 a superabundance of oxygen is exhaled by the tropical vegetation in a clear unclouded sky1 where the sun's rays are most energetic1 and atmospheric moisture most abundant4 ,in the middle and higher latitudes1 on the contrary1 under a more feeble sun and a gloomy sky1 subject to rain1 snow1 and frequent atmospheric changes1 carbonic acid is given out in greater quantity by the less vigorous vegetation4 ,but here1 as with regard to heat and moisture1 equilibrium is restored by the winds2 the tropical currents carry the excess of oxygen along the upper strata of the atmosphere to higher latitudes1 to give breath and heat to men and animals2 while the polar currents1 rushing along the ground1 convey the surplus carbonic acid to feed the tropical forests and jungles4 ,harmony exists between the animal and vegetable creations2 animals consume the oxygen of the atmosphere1 which is restored by the exhalation of plants1 while plants consume the carbonic acid exhaled by men and animals2 the existence of each is thus due to their reciprocal dependence4 ,few of the great cosmical phenomena have only one end to fulfil1 they are the ministers of the manifold designs of ,providence4 ,when a seed is thrown into the ground1 the vital principal is developed by heat and moisture1 and part of the substance of the seed is formed into roots1 which suck up water mixed with carbonic acid from the soil1 decompose it1 and consolidate the carbon4 ,in this stage of their growth1 plants derive their whole sustenance from the ground4 ,as soon1 however1 as the sugar and mucilage of the seed appear above the ground1 in the form of leaves or shoots1 they absorb and decompose the carbonic acid of the atmosphere1 retain the carbon for their food1 give out the oxygen in the day1 and pure carbonic acid in the night4 ,in proportion as plants grow1 they derive more of their food from the air and less from the soil1 till their fruit is ripened1 and then the whole of their nourishment is derived from the atmosphere4 ,trees are fed from the air after their fruit is ripe till their leaves fall2 annuals till they die4 ,air-plants1 and several species of cactus and others1 derive all their food from the atmosphere4 ,it is wonderful that so small a quantity of carbonic acid as exists in the air should suffice to supply the whole vegetation of the world--and still more wonderful that a seed1 minute enough to be wafted invisibly by a breath of air1 should be the theatre of all the chemical changes that make it germinate4#aec ,plants absorb water from the ground by their roots2 they decompose it1 and the hydrogen combines in different proportions with their carbonic acid to form wood1 sugar1 starch1 gum1 vegetable1 oils1 and acids4 ,as the green parts combine with the oxygen of the air1 especially during night1 when the functions of plants are torpid1 it is assimilated on the return of daylight1 and assists in forming oils1 resins1 and acids4 ,the combination of the oxygen of the air with the leaves1 and also with the blossom and fruit1 during night1 is quite unconnected with the vital process1 as it is the same in dead plants4 ,an acid exists in the juice of every plant1 generally in combination with an alkali4 ,it must be observed1 however1 that these different substances are produced at different stages in the growth2 for example1 starch is formed in the roots1 wood1 stalk1 and seed1 but it is converted into sugar as the fruit ripens1 and the more starch the sweeter the fruit becomes4 ,most of these new compounds are formed between the flowering of the plant and the ripening of the fruit1 and indeed they furnish the materials for the flowers1 fruit1 and seed4 ,ammonia1 the third organic constituent of plants1 is the last residue from the decay and putrefaction of animal matter4 ,it is volatilized1 and rises into the atmosphere1 where it exists as a gas1 but in so small a quantity that it is with difficulty detected by chemical analysis2 yet1 as it is very soluble in water1 enough is brought to the ground by rain to supply the vegetable world4 ,ammonia enters plants by their roots along with rain-water1 and is resolved within them into its constituent elements1 hydrogen and nitrogen4 ,the hydrogen aids in forming the wood1 acids1 and other substances before mentioned2 while the nitrogen enters into every part of the plant and forms new compounds2 it exists in the blossom and fruit before it is ripe1 and in the wood1 as albumen2 it also forms gluten1 which is the nutritious part of wheat1 barley1 oats1 and all other cerealia1 as well as of esculent roots1 as potatoes1 beet-root1 c4 ,nitrogen exists abundantly in peas1 beans1 and pulse of every kind2 it enters into the composition of most elementary vegetable substances2 in short1 a plant may grow without ammonia1 but it cannot produce seed or fruit2 the use of animal manure is to supply plants with this essential article of their food4 ,thus1 the decomposition and consolidation of the elementary food of plants1 the formation of the green parts1 the exhalation of moisture by their leaves1 its absorption by their roots1 and all the other circumstances of vegetable life1 are owing to the illuminating power of the sun4 ,heat can be supplied artificially in our northern climates1 but it is impossible to replace the splendour of a southern sun4 ,his illuminating influence is displayed in a remarkable degree by the cacalia ficoides2 its leaves combine with the oxygen of the atmosphere during the night1 and are as sour as sorrel in the morning2 as the sun rises they gradually lose their oxygen1 and are tasteless at noon2 by the continued action of light they lose more and more1 till towards evening they become bitter4 ,the difference of a clear or cloudy sky has an immense effect on vegetation2 the ripening of fruit depends upon the habitual serenity of the sky more than on summer temperature alone4 ,the blue rays of the solar spectrum have most effect on the germination of seed2 the yellow rays1 which are the most luminous1 on the growing plant4 ,that is on account of the chemical rays1 now so well known by their action in ,daguerreotype impressions4 ,they are most abundant beyond the visible part of the solar spectrum1 and diminish through the violet1 blue1 and green1 to the yellow1 where they cease4 ,they penetrate the ground1 and have a much greater influence on the germination of seeds than ordinary light or darkness4 ,that invisible principle1 together with light1 is essential to the formation of the colouring matter of leaves2 it is most active in spring1 and is in very considerable excess compared with the quantity of light and heat2 but as summer advances the reverse takes place2 the calorific radiation1 or those hot rays corresponding to the extreme red of the spectrum1 which facilitate the flowering and forming of the fruit1 become by far the most abundant2 and a set of invisible rays1 which exist near the point of maximum heat in the solar spectrum1 are also most abundant in summer4 ,mr4 ,hunt found that the hot rays immediately beyond the visible red destroy the colour of palm-leaves2 and for that reason the glass of the palm-house at ,kew ,gardens is tinged pale yellow-green by oxide of copper1 which excludes the scorching rays in question1 though it is permeable by the other rays of heat1 those of light1 and the chemical rays4#aed ,in spring and summer the oxygen taken in by the green leaves in the night aids in the formation of oils1 acids1 and the other parts that contain it2 but as soon as autumn comes1 the vitality or chemical action of vegetables is weakened2 and the oxygen1 no longer given out in the day1 though still taken in during the night1 becomes a minister of destruction2 it changes the colour of the leaves1 and consumes them when they fall4 ,nitrogen1 so essential during the life of plants1 also resumes its chemical character when they die1 and by its escape hastens their decay4 ,although the food which constitutes the mass of plants is derived principally from water and the gases of the atmosphere1 fixed substances are also requisite for their growth and perfection1 and these they obtain from the earth by their roots4 ,the inorganic matters are the alkalis1 phosphates1 silica1 sulphur1 iron1 and others4 ,it has already been mentioned that vegetable acids are found in the juices of all the families of plants4 ,they generally are in combination with one or other of the alkaline substances1 as lime1 soda1 potash1 and magnesia1 which are as essential to the existence of plants as the carbonic acid by which these acids are formed3 for example1 vines have potash2 plants used as dyes never give vivid colours without it2 all leguminous plants require it1 and only grow naturally on ground that contains it4 ,none of the corn tribe can produce perfect seeds unless they have both potash and phosphate of magnesia2 nor can they or any of the grasses thrive without silica1 which gives the hard coating to straw1 to the beard of wheat and barley1 to grass1 canes1 and bamboos2 it is even found in solid lumps in the hollows and joints of cane1 known in ,india by the name of tabashir4 ,to bring the cerealia to perfection1 it is indispensable that in their growth they should be supplied with carbonic acid for the plant1 silica to give it strength and firmness1 and nitrogen for the grain4 ,phosphoric acid1 combined with an earth or alkali1 is found in the ashes of all vegetables1 and is essential to many4 ,pulse contain but little of it1 and on that account are less nutritious than the cerealia4 ,the family of the crucifer1 as cabbages1 turnips1 mustard1 c41 contain sulphur in addition to the substances common to the growth of all plants2 each particular tribe has its own peculiarities1 and requires a combination suited to it4 ,on that account there is often a marked difference in the arborescent vegetation on the same mountain1 depending on the nature of the rocks4 ,the ocean furnishes some of the matters found in plants2 the prodigious quantity of sea-water constantly evaporated carries with it salt in a volatilized state1 which1 dispersed over the land by the wind1 supplies the ground with salt and the other ingredients of sea-water4 ,the inorganic matters which enter plants by their roots are carried by the sap to every part of the vegetable system4 ,the roots imbibe all liquids presented to them indiscriminately1 but they retain only the substances they require at the various stages of their growth1 and throw out such parts as are useless1 together with the effete or dead matter remaining after the nutriment has been extracted from it4 ,plants1 like animals1 may be poisoned1 but the power they have of expelling deleterious substances by their roots generally restores them to health4 ,the feculent matter injures the soil2 besides1 after a time the ground is drained of the inorganic matter requisite for any one kind of plant3 hence the necessity for a change or rotation of crops4 ,a quantity of heat is set free and also becomes latent in the various transmutations that take place in the interior of plants2 so that they1 like the animal creation1 have a tendency to a temperature of their own1 independent of external circumstances4 ,the quantity of electricity requisite to resolve a grain weight of water into its elementary oxygen and hydrogen is equal to the quantity of atmospheric electricity which is active in a very powerful thunder-storm2 hence1 some idea may be formed of the intense energy exerted by the vegetable creation in the decomposition of the vast mass of water and other matters necessary for its sustenance4 ,but there must be a compensation in the consolidation of the vegetable food1 otherwise a tremendous quantity would be in perpetual activity4 ,it is said to be given out from the points of their leaves1 so1 possibly1 some part of the atmospheric electricity may be ascribed to this cause2 but there is reason to believe that electricity1 excited by the power of solar light1 constitutes the chemical vitality of vegetation4 ,the colouring matter of flowers is various1 if we may judge from the effect which the solar spectrum has upon their expressed juices4 ,the colour is very brilliant on the tops of mountains and in the ,arctic lands4 ,possibly the diminished weight of the air may have some effect1 for it can scarcely be supposed that barometrical changes should be entirely without influence on vegetation4 ,the perfume of flowers and leaves is owing to a volatile oil1 which is often carried by the air to a great distance3 in hot climates it is most powerful in the morning and evening4 ,the odour of the ,humiria has been perceived at the distance of three miles from the coast of ,south ,america1 a species of ,tetracera sends its perfume as far from the island of ,cuba1 and the aroma of the ,spice ,islands is wafted out to sea4 ,the variety of perfumes is infinite1 and shows the innumerable combinations of which a few simple substances are capable1 and the extreme minuteness of the particles of matter4 ,in northern and mean latitudes1 winter is a time of complete rest to the vegetable world1 and in tropical climates the vigour of vegetation is suspended during the dry1 hot season1 to be resumed at the return of the periodical rains4 ,the periodical phenomena of the appearance of the first leaves1 the flowering1 ripening of the fruit1 and the fall of the leaf1 depend upon the annual and diurnal changes of temperature1 moisture1 electricity1 and perhaps on magnetism1 and succeed with such perfect harmony and regularity1 that1 were there a sufficient number of observations1 lines might be drawn on a globe passing through all places where the leaves of certain plants appear simultaneously1 and also for the other principal phases of vegetation4 ,in places where the same plant flowers on the same day1 the fruit may not ripen at the same period in both2 it would therefore be interesting to know what relation lines passing through those would have to one another and to the isothermal lines2 more especially with regard to the plants indispensable to man1 since the periodicity of vegetation affects his whole social condition4#aee ,almost all plants sleep during the night2 some show it in their leaves1 others in their blossom4 ,the ,mimosa tribe not only close their leaves at night1 but their foot-stalks droop2 in a clover-field not a leaf opens until after sunrise4 ,the common daisy is a familiar instance of a sleeping flower2 it shuts up its blossom in the evening1 and opens its white and crimson-tipped star1 the 8day's eye10 to meet the early beams of the morning sun2 and then also 8winking mary-buds begin to ope their golden eyes40 ,the crocus1 tulip1 convolvulus1 and many others1 close their blossoms at different hours towards evening1 some to open them again1 others never4 ,the ivy-leaved lettuce opens at eight in the morning1 and closes for ever at four in the afternoon4 ,some plants seem to be wide awake all night1 and to give out their perfume then only1 or at nightfall4 ,many of the jessamines are most fragrant during the twilight3 the ,olea fragrans1 the ,daphne odorata1 and the night-stock reserve their sweetness for the midnight hour1 and the night-flowering ,cereus turns night into day4 ,it begins to expand its magnificent sweet-scented blossom in the twilight1 it is full blown at midnight1 and closes1 never to open again1 with the dawn of day2--these are 8the bats and owls of the vegetable kingdom40#aef ,many plants brought from warm to temperate climates have become habituated to their new situation1 and flourish as if they were natives of the soil2 such as have been accustomed to flower and rest at particular seasons change their habits by degrees1 and adapt themselves to the seasons of the country that has adopted them4 ,it is much more difficult to transfer alpine plants to the plains4 ,whether from a change of atmospheric pressure or mean temperature1 all attempts to cultivate them at a lower level generally fail3 it is much easier to accustom a plant of the plains to a higher situation4 ,plants are propagated by seeds1 offsets1 cuttings1 and buds2 hence they1 but more especially trees1 have myriads of seats of life1 a congeries of vital systems acting in concert1 but independently of each other1 every one of which might become a new plant4 ,in this respect the fir and pine tribe are inferior to deciduous trees1 which lose their leaves annually1 because they are not easily propagated except by seeds4 ,it has been remarked that all plants that are propagated by buds from a common parent stock have the same duration of life2 this has been noticed particularly with regard to some species of apple-trees in ,england4 ,it appears that all the garden varieties of fruit1 whether from buds1 layers1 or cuttings1 wear out after a time2 and that seedlings have a great tendency to revert to the original wild character of the plant4 ,a certain series of transitions takes place throughout the lives of plants1 each part being transformed and passing into another2 a law that was first observed by the illustrious poet ,gthe4 ,for example1 the embryo leaves pass into common leaves1 these into bracte1 the bracte into sepals1 the sepals into petals1 which are transformed into stamens and anthers1 and these again pass into ovaries with their styles and stigmas1 that are to become the fruit and ultimately the seed of a new plant4 ,plants are naturally divided into three classes1 differing materially in organization3--,the ,cryptogamia1 whose flowers and seeds are either too minute to be easily visible1 or are hidden in some part of the plant1 as in fungi1 mosses1 ferns1 and lichens1 which are of the least perfect organization4 ,next to these are the monocotyledonous plants1 as grasses and palms1 in which the foot-stalks of the old leaves form the outside of the stem2 plants of this class have but one-seed-lobe1 which forms one little leaf in their embryo state4 ,their flowers and fruit are generally referable to some law in which the number #c prevails1 as1 for example1 the petals and other parts are three in number4 ,the dicotyledonous plants form the third class1 which is the most perfect in its organization1 and by much the most numerous1 including the trees of the forest and most of the flowering shrubs and herbs4 ,they increase by coatings from without1 as trees1 where the growth of each year forms a concentric circle of wood round the pith or centre of the stem3 the seeds of these plants have two lobes1 which in their embryo state appear first in two little leaves above ground1 like most of the ,european species4 ,the parts of the flowers and fruit of this class generally have some relation to the number #e4 ,the three botanical classes are distributed in very different proportions in different zones3 monocotyledonous plants1 such as grasses and palms1 are much more rare than the dicotyledonous class4 ,between the tropics there are four of the latter to one of the grass or palm tribes1 in the temperate zones six to one1 and in the polar regions only two to one1 because mosses and lichens are most abundant in the high latitudes1 where dicotyledonous plants are comparatively rare4 ,in the temperate zones one-sixth of the plants are annuals1 omitting the cryptogamia2 in the torrid zone scarcely one plant in twenty is annual1 and in the polar regions only one in thirty4 ,the number of ligneous vegetables increases on approaching the equator1 yet in ,north ,america there are #abj different species of forest-trees1 whereas in the same latitudes in ,europe there are only #cd4 ,the social plants1 grasses1 heaths1 furze1 broom1 daisies1 c41 which cover large tracts1 are rare between the tropics1 except on the mountains and table-lands and on the llanos of equatorial ,america4 ,equinoctial ,america has a more extensive and richer vegetation than any other part of the world2 ,europe has not above half the number of indigenous species of plants2 ,asia1 with its islands1 has somewhat less than ,europe2 ,australia1 with its islands in the ,pacific1 still less2 and there are fewer vegetable productions in ,africa than in any part of the globe of the same extent4 ,since the constitution of the atmosphere is very much the same everywhere1 vegetation depends principally on the sun's light1 moisture1 and the mean annual temperature1 and it is also in some degree regulated by the heat of summer in the temperate zones1 and also by exposure1 for such plants as require warmth are found at a lower level on the north than on the south side of a mountain4 ,between the tropics1 wherever rain does not fall1 the soil is burnt up and is as unfruitful as that exposed to the utmost rigour of frost2 but where moisture is combined with heat and light1 the luxuriance of the vegetation is beyond description4 ,the abundance and violence of the periodical rains combine with the intense light and heat to render the tropical forests and jungles almost impervious from the rankness of the vegetation4 ,this exuberance gradually decreases with the distance from the equator2 it also diminishes progressively as the height above the level of the sea increases1 so that each height has a corresponding parallel of latitude where the climates and floras are similar1 till the perpetual snow on the mountain-tops1 and its counterpart in the polar regions1 have a vegetation that scarcely rises above the surface of the ground4 ,hence1 in ascending the ,himalaya or ,andes from the luxuriant plains of the ,ganges or ,amazons1 changes take place in the vegetation analogous to what a traveller would meet with in a journey from the equator to the poles4 ,this law of decrease1 though perfectly regular over a wide extent1 is perpetually interfered with by local climate and soil4 ,from the combination of various causes1 as the distribution of land and water1 their different powers of absorption and radiation1 together with the form1 texture1 and clothing of the land1 and the prevailing winds1 it is found that the isothermal lines1 or imaginary lines drawn through places on the surface of the globe which have the same mean annual temperature1 do not correspond with the parallels of latitude4 ,thus1 in ,north ,america the climate is much colder than in the corresponding ,european latitudes4 ,quebec is in the latitude of ,paris1 and the country is covered with deep snow four or five months in the year1 and it has occurred that a summer has passed there in which not more than #fj days have been free from frost4 ,in the southern hemisphere1 beyond the #cdth parallel1 the summers are colder and the winters milder than in corresponding latitudes of the northern hemisphere4 ,neither does the temperature of mountains vary exactly with their height above the sea2 other causes1 as prevailing winds1 difference of radiation1 and geological structure1 concur in producing irregularities which have a powerful effect on the vegetable world4 ,however1 no similarity of existing circumstances can account for whole families of plants being confined to one particular country1 or even to a very limited district1 which1 as far as we can judge1 might have grown equally well on many others4 ,latitude1 elevation1 soil1 and climate1 are but secondary causes in the distribution of the vegetable kingdom1 and are totally inadequate to explain why there are numerous distinct botanical districts in the continents and islands1 each of which has its own vegetation1 whose limits are most decided when they are separated by the ocean1 mountain-chains1 sandy deserts1 salt-plains1 or internal seas4 ,each of these districts is the focus of families and genera1 some of which are found nowhere else1 and some are common to others1 but1 with a very few remarkable exceptions1 the species of plants in each are entirely different or representative4#aeg ,this does not depend upon the difference in latitude1 for the vegetation of the ,united ,states of ,north ,america is totally unlike that of ,europe under the same isothermal lines1 and even between the tropics the greatest dissimilarity often prevails under different degrees of longitude3 consequently1 the cause of this partial distribution of plants1 and that of animals also1 which is according to the same law1 must be looked for in those early geological periods when the earth first began to be tenanted by the present races of organized beings4 ,as the land rose at different periods above the ocean1 each part1 as it emerged from the waves1 had probably been clothed with vegetation1 and peopled with animals1 suited to its position with regard to the equator1 and to the climate and condition of the globe then being4 ,and as the conditions and climate were different at each succeeding geological epoch1 so each portion of the land1 as it rose1 would be characterized by its own vegetation and animals1 and thus at last there would be many centres of creation1 as at this day1 all differing more or less from one another1 and hence1 alpine floras must be of older date than those in the plains4 ,the vegetation and faunas of those lands that differed most in age and place would be most dissimilar1 while the plants and animals of such as were not far removed from one another in time and place would have correlative forms or family likenesses1 yet each would form a distinct province4 ,thus1 in opposite hemispheres1 and everywhere at great distances1 but under like circumstances1 the species are representatives of one another1 rarely identical3 when1 however1 the conditions which suit certain species are continuous1 identical species are found throughout1 either by original creation or by migration4 ,the older forms may have been modified to a certain extent by the succeeding conditions of the globe1 but they never could have been changed1 since immutability of species is a primordial law of nature4 ,neither external circumstances1 time1 nor human art1 can change one species into another1 though each to a certain extent is capable of accommodating itself to a change of external circumstances1 so as to produce varieties even transmissible to their offspring4 ,the flora of ,cashmere and the higher parts of the ,himalaya mountains is similar to that of southern ,europe1 yet the species are representative1 not identical4 ,in the plains of ,tartary1 where from their elevation the degree of cold is not less than in the wastes of ,siberia1 the vegetation of one might be mistaken for that of the other2 the gooseberry1 currant1 willow1 rhubarb1 and in some places the oak1 hazel1 cypress1 poplar1 and birch1 grow in both1 but they are of different species4 ,the flora near the snow-line on the lofty mountains of ,europe1 and lower down1 has also a perfect family likeness to that in high northern latitudes4 ,in like manner many plants on the higher parts of the ,chilian ,andes are similar1 and even identical1 with those in ,tierra del ,fuego2 nay1 the ,arctic flora has a certain resemblance to that of the ,antarctic regions1 and even occasional identity of species4 ,these remarkable coincidences may be accounted for by the different places having been at an early geological period at the same level above the ocean1 and that they continue to retain part of their original flora after their relative positions have been changed4 ,the tops of the ,chilian ,andes were probably on a level with ,tierra del ,fuego when both were covered with the same vegetation1 and in the same manner the lofty plains of ,tartary may have acquired their vegetation when they were on the level of southern ,siberia4 ,in the many vicissitudes the surface of the globe has undergone1 continents formed at one period were broken up at another into islands and detached masses by inroads of the sea and other causes4 ,now1 ,professor ,e4 ,forbes has shown that some of the primary floras and faunas have spread widely from their original centres over large portions of the continents before the land was broken up into the form it now has1 and thus accounts for the similarity and sometimes identity of the plants and animals of regions now separated by seas1--as1 for example1 islands1 which generally partake of the vegetation and fauna of the continents adjacent to them4 ,taking for granted the original creation of specific centres of plants and animals1 ,professor ,e4 ,forbes has clearly proved that 8the specific identity1 to any extent1 of the flora and fauna of one area1 with those of another1 depends on both areas forming1 or having formed1 part of the same specific centre1 or on their having derived their animal and vegetable population by transmission1 through migration1 over continuous or closely contiguous land1 aided1 in the case of alpine floras1 by transportation on floating masses of ice40 ,by the preceding laws the limited provinces and dispersion of animal and vegetable life are explained1 but the existence of single species in regions very far apart has not yet been accounted for4 ,very few of the exogenous or dicotyledonous plants are common to two or more countries far apart3 among the few1 the ,samolus ,valerandi1 a common ,english plant1 is a native of ,australia2 the ,potentilla tridentata1 not found in ,britain1 except on one hill in ,angusshire1 is common to ,arctic ,europe and the mountains of ,north ,america2 and in the ,falkland ,islands there are more than #cj flowering plants identical with those in ,great ,britain4 ,there are many more instances of wide diffusion among the monocotyledonous plants1 especially grasses3 the ,phleum alpinum of ,switzerland grows without the smallest variation at the ,straits of ,magellan1 and ,mr4 ,bunbury met with the ,european quaking-grass in the interior of the country at the ,cape of ,good ,hope2 but the cellular or cryptogamous class is most widely diffused--plants not susceptible of cultivation1 of little use to man1 and of all others the most difficult to transport4 ,the ,sticta aurata1 found in ,cornwall1 is a native of the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 ,st4 ,helena1 the ,west ,indian islands1 and ,brazil2 the ,trichomanes brevisetum1 long supposed to be peculiar to the ,british isles1 is ascertained to grow in ,madeira1 ,south ,america1 c42 and our eminent botanist1 ,mr4 ,brown1 found #ch ,british lichens and #bh ,british mosses in ,new ,holland1 yet in no two parts of the world is the vegetation more dissimilar2 and almost all the lichens brought from the southern hemisphere by ,sir ,james ,ross1 amounting to #bjj species1 are also inhabitants of the northern hemisphere1 and mostly ,european4 ,in islands far from continents the number of plants is small1 but of these1 a large proportion occur nowhere else4 ,in ,st4 ,helena1 of #cj flower-bearing plants1 #a or #b only are native elsewhere1 but in #fj species of cryptogamous plants ,dr4 ,hooker found only #ab peculiar to the island4 ,some plants are more particularly confined to certain regions3 the species of ,cinchona which furnish the ,peruvian bark grow along the eastern declivity of the ,andes1 as far as #ah ,s4 lat42 the cedar of ,lebanon is indigenous on that celebrated mountain only2 and the ,disa grandiflora is limited to a very small spot on the top of the ,table-mountain at the ,cape of ,good ,hope2 but whether these are remnants whose kindred have perished by a change of physical circumstances1 or centres only beginning to spread1 it is impossible to say4 ,plants are dispersed by currents3 of #fjj plants from the vicinity of the river ,zaire on the coast of ,africa1 #ac are found also on the shores of ,guiana and ,brazil1 evidently carried by the great equatorial current to countries congenial in soil and climate4 ,the seeds of the ,mimosa scandens1 the ,guilandina ,bonduc1 and the cashew-nut1 are wafted from the ,west ,india islands to the coasts of ,scotland and ,ireland by the ,gulf-stream1 a climate and soil which do not suit them1 therefore they do not grow4 ,of all the great orders1 the species of ,leguminos are most widely dispersed on coasts1 because their seeds are not injured by the water4 ,winds also waft seeds to great distances2 birds and quadrupeds1 and above all man1 are active agents in dispersing plants4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,vegetation of the ,great ,continent--,of the ,arctic ,islands--,and of the ,arctic and ,north ,temperate ,regions of ,europe and ,asia4 ,,the southern limit of the polar flora1 on the great continent1 lies mostly within the ,arctic ,circle1 but stretches along the tops of the ,scandinavian mountains1 and reappears in the high lands of ,scotland1 ,cumberland1 and ,ireland1 on the summits of the ,pyrenees1 ,alps1 and other mountains in southern ,europe1 as well as on the table-land of eastern ,asia1 and on the high ridges of the ,himalaya4 ,the great ,european plain to the ,ural ,mountains1 as well as the low lands of ,england and ,ireland1 were at one period covered by a sea full of floating ice and icebergs1 which made the climate much colder than it now is4 ,at the beginning of that period the ,scandinavian range1 the other continental mountains1 and those in ,britain and ,ireland1 were islands of no great elevation1 and were then clothed with the ,arctic flora1 or a representative of it1 which they still retain now that they form the tops of the mountain-chains1 and at that time both plants and animals were conveyed from one country to another by the floating ice4 ,it is even probable1 from the relations of the fauna and flora1 that ,greenland1 ,iceland1 and the very high ,european latitudes1 are the residue of a great northern land which had sunk down at the close of the glacial period1 for there were many vicissitudes of level during that epoch4 ,at all events1 it may be presumed that the elevation of the ,arctic regions of both continents1 if not contemporaneous1 was probably not far removed in time4 ,similarity of circumstances had extended throughout the whole ,arctic regions1 since there is a remarkable similarity and occasional identity of species of plants and animals in the high latitudes of both continents1 which is continued along the tops of their mountain-chains1 even in the temperate zones2 and there is reason to believe that the relations between the faunas and floras of ,boreal ,america1 ,asia1 and ,europe1 must have been established towards the close of the glacial period4 ,the flora of ,iceland approaches that of ,britain1 yet only one in four of the ,british plants are known in ,iceland4 ,there are #hgj species in ,iceland1 of which more than half are flower-bearing3 this is a greater proportion than is found in ,scotland1 but there are only #cb of woody texture4 ,this flora is scattered in groups according as the plants like a dry1 marshy1 volcanic1 or marine soil4 ,many grow close to the hot-springs3 some not far from the edge of the basin of the ,great ,geyser1 where every other plant is petrified2 and species of ,conferv flourish in a spring said to be almost hot enough to boil an egg4 ,the grains cannot be cultivated on account of the severity of the climate1 but the ,icelanders make bread from metur1 a species of wild corn1 and also from the bulbous root of ,polygonum viviparum2 their greatest delicacy is the ,angelica archangelica2 ,iceland moss1 used in medicine1 is an article of commerce4 ,there are #ehc species in the ,feroe islands1 of which #bgj are flowering plants3 many thrive there that cannot bear the cold of ,iceland4 ,,arctic ,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,continents4 ,in the most northern parts of the ,arctic lands the year is divided into one long intensely cold night and one bright and fervid day1 which quickly brings to maturity the scanty vegetation4 ,within the limit of perpetual congelation the ,palmella nivalis 7or red snow of ,arctic voyagers71 a very minute red or orange-coloured plant1 finds nourishment in the snow itself1 the first dawn of vegetable life2 it is also found colouring large patches of snow in the ,alps and ,pyrenees4 ,lichens are the first vegetables that appear at the limits of the snow-line1 whether in high latitudes or mountain-tops1 and they are the first vegetation that takes possession of volcanic lavas and new islands1 where they prepare soil for plants of a higher order3 they grow on rocks1 stones1 and trees1 in fact on anything that affords them moisture4 ,more than #bdjj species are already known2 no plants are more widely diffused1 and none afford a more striking instance of the arbitrary location of species1 as they are of so little direct use to man that they could not have been disseminated by his agency4 ,the same kind prevail throughout the ,arctic regions1 and the species common to both hemispheres are very numerous4 ,some lichens produce brilliant red1 orange1 and brown dyes2 and the tripe de roche1 a species of ,gyrophora1 is a miserable substitute for food1 as our intrepid countryman ,sir ,john ,franklin and his brave companions experienced in their perilous ,arctic journey4 ,mosses follow lichens on newly-formed soil1 and they are found everywhere throughout the world in damp situations1 but in greatest abundance in temperate climates3 #hjj species are known1 of which a great part inhabit the ,arctic regions1 constituting a large portion of the vegetation4 ,in ,asiatic ,siberia1 north of the #fjth parallel of latitude1 the ground is perpetually frozen at a very small depth below the surface3 a temperature of #gj below zero of ,fahrenheit is not uncommon1 and1 in some instances1 the cold has been #abj below zero4 ,then it is fatal to animal life1 especially if accompanied by wind4 ,in some places trees grow and corn ripens even at #gj of north latitude2 but in the most northern parts boundless swamps1 varied by lakes both of salt and fresh water1 cover wide portions of this desolate country1 which is buried under snow nine or ten months in the year4 ,as soon as the snow is melted by the returning sun1 these extensive morasses are covered with coarse grass and rushes1 while mosses and lichens mixed with dwarf willows clothe the plains2 saline plants abound1 and whole districts produce ,diotis ceratoides4 ,in ,nova ,zembla and other places in the far north1 the vegetation is so stunted that it barely covers the ground1 but a much greater variety of minute plants of considerable beauty are crowded together there in a small space than in the alpine regions of ,europe where the same genera grow4 ,this arises from the weakness of the vegetation2 for in the ,swiss ,alps the same plant frequently occupies a large space1 excluding every other1 as the dark-blue gentian1 the violet-coloured pansy1 the pink and yellow stone-crops4 ,in the remote north1 on the contrary1 where vitality is comparatively feeble and the seeds do not ripen1 thirty different species may be seen crowded together in a brilliant mass1 no one having strength to overcome the rest4 ,in such frozen climates plants may be said to live between the air and the earth1 for they scarcely rise above the soil1 and their roots creep along the surface1 not having power to enter it4 ,all the woody plants1 as the ,betula nana1 the reticulated willow1 ,andromeda tetragona1 with a few berry-bearing shrubs1 trail along the ground1 never rising more than an inch or two above it4 ,the ,salix lanata1 the giant of these boreal forests1 never grows more than five inches above the surface1 while its stem1 #aj or #ab feet long1 lies hidden among the moss1 owing shelter to its lowly neighbour4 ,the chief characteristic of the vegetation of the ,arctic regions is the predominance of perennial and cryptogamous plants1 and also of the sameness of its nature2 but more to the south1 where night begins to alternate with day1 a difference of species appears in longitude as well as in latitude4 ,a beautiful flora of vivid colours adorns these latitudes both in ,europe and ,asia during their brief but bright and ardent summer1 consisting of potentillas1 gentians1 chickweeds1 saxifrages1 sedums1 ,ranunculi1 spiras1 drabas1 artemisias1 claytonias1 and many more4 ,such is the power of the sun1 and the consequent rapidity of vegetation1 that these plants spring up1 blossom1 ripen their seed1 and die1 in six weeks3 in a lower latitude woody plants follow these1 as berry-bearing shrubs1 the glaucous ,kalmia1 the trailing ,azalea and rhododendrons4 ,the ,siberian flora differs from that in the same ,european latitudes by the ,north ,american genera ,phlox1 ,mitella1 ,claytonia1 and the predominance of asters1 ,solidago1 ,spira1 milk-vetches1 wormwood1 and the saline plants goosefoot and saltworts4 ,social plants abound in many parts of the northern countries1 as grass1 heath1 furze1 and broom3 the steppes are an example of this on a very extensive scale4 ,both in ,europe and ,asia they are subject to a rigorous winter1 with deep snow and chilling blasts of wind2 and as the soil generally consists of a coating of vegetable mould over clay1 no plants with deep roots thrive upon them2 hence1 the steppes are destitute of trees1 and even bushes are rare except in ravines3 the grass is thin1 but nourishing4 ,hyacinths and some other bulbs1 mignonette1 asparagus1 liquorice1 and wormwood1 grow in the ,european steppes2 the two last are peculiarly characteristic4 ,the ,nelumbium speciosum grows in one spot five miles from the town of ,astracan1 and nowhere else in the wide domains of ,russia3 the leaves of this beautiful aquatic plant are often two feet broad1 and its rose-coloured blossoms are very fragrant4 ,it is also native in ,india and ,tibet1 where it is held sacred1 as it was formerly in ,egypt1 where it is said to be extinct3 it is one of the many instances of a plant growing in countries far apart4 ,each steppe in ,siberia has its own peculiar plants2 the ,peplis and ,camphorosma are peculiar to the steppe of the ,irtish1 and the ,amaryllis tatarica abounds in the meadows of eastern ,siberia1 where the vegetation bears a great analogy to that of north-western ,america3 several genera and species are common to both4 ,half the plants found by ,wormskiold in ,kamtchatka are ,european1 with the exception of eight or ten1 which are ,american4 ,few ,european trees grow in ,asiatic ,siberia1 notwithstanding the similarity of climate1 and most of them disappear towards the rivers ,tobol and ,irtish4 ,in ,lapland and in the high latitudes of ,russia1 large tracts are covered with birch-trees1 but the pine and fir tribe are the principal inhabitants of the north4 ,prodigious forests of these are spread over the mountains of ,norway and ,sweden1 and in ,european ,russia #bjj1jjj1jjj acres are clothed with these ,conifer alone1 or occasionally mixed with willows1 poplars1 and alders4 ,although soils of pure sand and lime are absolutely barren1 yet they generally contain enough of alkali to supply the wants of the fir and pine tribes1 which require ten times less than oaks and other deciduous trees4 ,the ,siberian steppes are bounded on the south by great forests of pine1 birch1 and willow3 poplars1 elms1 and ,tartarian maple overhang the upper courses of the noble rivers which flow from the mountains to the ,frozen ,ocean1 and on the banks of the ,yenessei the ,pinus ,cembra1 or ,siberian pine1 with edible fruit1 grows #abj feet high4 ,the ,alta are covered nearly to their summit with similar forests1 but on their greatest heights the stunted larch crawls on the ground1 and the flora is like that of northern ,siberia3 round the lake ,baikal the ,pinus ,cembra grows nearly to the snow-line4 ,forests of black birch are peculiar to ,dahuria1 where there are also apricot and apple trees1 and rhododendrons1 of which a species grows in thickets on the hills1 with yellow blossoms4 ,here1 and everywhere else throughout this country1 are found all the species of ,caragana1 a genus entirely ,siberian4 ,each terrace of the mountains1 and each steppe on the plains1 has its peculiar plants1 as well as some common to all3 perennial plants are more numerous than annuals4 ,if temperature and climate depended upon latitude alone1 all ,asia between the #ejth and #cjth parallels would have a mild climate2 but that is far from being the case1 on account of the structure of the continent1 which consists of the highest table-lands and the lowest plains on the globe4 ,the table-land of ,tibet1 where it is not cultivated1 has the character of great sterility1 and the climate is as unpropitious as the soil3 frost1 snow1 and sleet begin early in ,september1 and continue with little interruption till ,may2 snow1 indeed1 falls every month in the year4 ,the air is always dry1 because in winter moisture falls in the form of snow1 and in summer it is quickly evaporated by the intense heat of the sun4 ,the thermometer sometimes rises to #add of ,fahrenheit in the sun1 and even in winter his direct rays have great power for an hour or two1 so that a variation of #ajj in the temperature of the air has occurred in twelve hours4 ,notwithstanding these disadvantages1 there are sheltered spots which produce most of the ,european grain and fruits1 though the natural vegetation bears the ,siberian character1 but the species are quite distinct4 ,the most common indigenous plants are ,tartarian furze and various prickly shrubs resembling it1 gooseberries1 currants1 hyssop1 dog-rose1 dwarf sow-thistle1 ,equisetum1 rhubarb1 lucern1 and asaftida1 on which the flocks feed4 ,prangos1 an umbelliferous plant1 with broad leaves and scented blossom1 is peculiar to ,ladak and other parts of ,tibet4 ,mr4 ,moorcroft says it is so nutritious1 that sheep fed on it become fat in twenty days4 ,there are three species of wheat1 three of barley1 and two of buckwheat1 natives of the lofty table-land1 where the sarsinh is the only fruit known to be indigenous4 ,owing to the rudeness of the climate trees are not numerous1 yet on the lower declivities of some mountains there are aspens1 birch1 yew1 ash1 ,tartaric oak1 various pines1 and the ,pavia1 a species of horse-chestnut4 ,much of the table-land of ,tartary is occupied by the ,great ,gobi and other deserts of sand1 with grassy steppes near the mountains2 but of the flora of these regions we know nothing4 ,,flora ,,of ,,britain ,,and ,,of ,,middle ,,and ,,southern ,,europe4 ,the ,british islands afford an excellent illustration of distinct provinces of animals and plants1 and also of their migration from other centres4 ,professor ,e4 ,forbes has determined five botanical districts1 four of which are restricted to limited provinces1 whilst the fifth1 which comprehends the great mass of ,british plants1 is1 everywhere1 either alone or mixed with the others4 ,all of these1 with a very few doubtful exceptions1 have migrated before the ,british islands were separated from the continent4 ,the first1 which is of great antiquity1 includes the flora of the mountain districts of the west and south-west of ,ireland1 and is similar to that in the south of ,spain1 but the more delicate plants had been killed by the change of climate after the separation of ,ireland from the ,asturias4 ,the flora in the south of ,england and the south-east of ,ireland is different from that in all other parts of the ,british islands2 it is intimately related to the vegetation of the ,channel ,islands and the coast of ,france opposite to them1 yet there are many plants in the ,channel ,islands which are not indigenous in ,britain4 ,in the south-west of ,england1 where the chalk-plants prevail1 the flora is like that on the adjacent coast of ,france4 ,the tops of the ,scottish mountains are the focus of a separate flora1 which is the same with that in the ,scandinavian ,alps1 and is very numerous4 ,scotland1 ,wales1 and a part of ,ireland received this flora when they were groups of islands in the ,glacial ,sea4 ,the rare ,eriocaulon is found in the ,hebrides1 in ,connemara1 and in ,northern ,america1 and nowhere else4 ,some few individuals of this flora grow on the summits of the mountains in ,cumberland and ,wales4 ,the fifth1 of more recent origin than the alpine flora1 including all the ordinary flowering plants1 as the common daisy and primrose1 hairy ladies' smock1 upright meadow crowfoot1 and the lesser celandine1 together with our common trees and shrubs1 has migrated from ,germany before ,england was separated from the continent of ,europe by the ,british ,channel4 ,it can be distinctly traced in its progress across the island1 but the migration was not completed till after ,ireland was separated from ,england by the ,irish ,channel1 and that is the reason why many of the ordinary ,english plants1 animals1 and reptiles1 are not found in the sister island1 for the migration of animals was simultaneous with that of plants1 and took place between the last of the tertiary periods and the historical epoch1 that of man's creation3 it was extended also over a great part of the continent4#aeh ,deciduous trees are the chief characteristic of the temperate zone of the old continent1 more especially of middle ,europe2 these thrive best in soil produced by the decay of the primary and ancient volcanic rocks1 which furnish abundance of alkali4 ,oaks1 elms1 beech1 ash1 larch1 maple1 lime1 alder1 and sycamore1 all of which lose their leaves in winter1 are the prevailing vegetation1 occasionally mixed with fir and pine4 ,the undergrowth consists of wild apple1 cherry1 yew1 holly1 hawthorn1 broom1 furze1 wild rose1 honeysuckle1 clematis1 c4 ,the most numerous and characteristic herbaceous plants are the umbelliferous class1 as carrot and anise1 the campanulas1 the ,cichorace1 a family to which lettuce1 endive1 dandelion1 and sow-thistle belong4 ,the cruciform tribe1 as wallflower1 stock1 turnip1 cabbage1 cress1 c41 are so numerous1 that they form a distinguishing feature in the botany of middle ,europe1 to which #de species of them belong4 ,this family is almost confined to the northern hemisphere1 for1 of #hjj known species1 only #ajj belong to the southern1 the soil of which must contain less sulphur1 which is indispensable for these plants4 ,in the ,pyrenees1 ,alps1 and other high lands in ,europe1 the gradation of botanical forms1 from the summit to the foot of the mountains1 is similar to that which takes place from the ,arctic to the middle latitudes of ,europe4 ,the analogy1 however1 is true only when viewed generally1 for many local circumstances of climate and vegetation interpose2 and although the similarity of botanical forms is very great between certain zones of altitude and parallels of latitude1 the species are1 for the most part1 different4 ,evergreen trees and shrubs become more frequent in the southern countries of ,europe1 where about a fourth part of the ligneous vegetation never entirely lose their leaves4 ,the flora consists chiefly of ilex1 oak1 cypress1 hornbeam1 sweet chestnut1 laurel1 laurustinus1 the apple tribe1 manna or the flowering ash1 carob1 jujube1 juniper1 terebinths1 lentiscus and pistaccio which yield resin and mastic1 arbutus1 myrtle1 jessamine 7yellow and white71 and various pines1 as the ,pinus maritima1 and ,pinus ,pinea1 or stone pine1 which forms so picturesque a feature in the landscape of southern ,europe4 ,the most prevalent herbaceous plants are ,caryophylle1 as pinks1 ,stellaria1 and arenarias1 and also the labiate tripe1 mint1 thyme1 rosemary1 lavender1 with many others1 all remarkable for their aromatic properties1 and their love of dry situations4 ,many of the choicest plants and flowers which adorn the gardens and grounds in northern ,europe are indigenous in these warmer countries3 the anemone1 tulip1 mignonette1 narcissus1 gladiolus1 iris1 asphodel1 amaryllis1 carnation1 c4 ,in ,spain1 ,portugal1 ,sicily1 and the other ,european shores of the ,mediterranean1 tropical families begin to appear in the arums1 plants yielding balsams1 oleander1 date and palmetto palms1 and grasses of the group of ,panicum or millet1 ,cyperace or sedges1 ,aloe and ,cactus4 ,in this zone of transition there are six herbaceous for one woody plant4 ,,flora ,,of ,,temperate ,,asia4 ,the vegetation of western ,asia approaches nearly to that of ,india at one extremity1 and ,europe at the other2 of #bha genera of plants which grow in ,asia ,minor and ,persia1 #aji are ,european4 ,syria and ,asia ,minor form a region of transition1 like the other countries on the ,mediterranean1 where the plants of the temperate and tropical zones are united4 ,we owe many of our best fruits and sweetest flowers to these regions4 ,the cherry1 almond1 oleander1 syringa1 locust-tree1 c41 come from ,asia ,minor2 the walnut1 peach1 melon1 cucumber1 hyacinth1 ranunculus1 come from ,persia2 the date-palm1 fig1 olive1 mulberry1 and damask rose1 come from ,syria2 the vine and apricot are ,armenian1 the latter grows also everywhere in middle and northern ,asia4 ,the tropical forms met with in more sheltered places are the sugar-cane1 date and palmetto palms1 mimosas1 acacias1 ,asclepias gigantea1 and arborescent ,apocine4 ,on the mountains south of the ,black ,sea1 ,american types appear in rhododendrons and the ,azalea pontica1 and herbaceous plants are numerous and brilliant in these countries4 ,the table-land of ,persia1 though not so high as that of eastern ,asia1 resembles it in the quality of the soil1 which is chiefly clayey1 sandy1 or saline1 and the climate is very dry2 hence1 vegetation is poor1 and consists of thorny bushes1 acacias1 mimosas1 tamarisk1 jujube1 and asaftida4 ,forests of oak cover the ,lusistan mountains1 but the date-palm is the only produce of the parched shores of the ,arabian ,gulf and of the oases on the ,persian table-land4 ,in the valleys1 which are beautiful1 there are clumps of ,oriental plane and other trees1 hawthorn1 tree-roses1 and many of the odoriferous shrubs of ,arabia ,felix4 ,afghanistan produces the seedless pomegranate1 acacias1 date-palms1 tamarisks1 c4 ,the vegetation has much the same general character as that of ,egypt4 ,the valleys of the ,hindoo ,coosh are covered with clover1 thyme1 violets1 and many odoriferous plants3 the greater part of the trees in the mountains are of ,european genera1 though all the species of plants1 both woody and herbaceous1 are peculiar4 ,the small leguminous plant1 from whose leaves and twigs the true indigo dye is extracted1 grows spontaneously on the lower offsets of the ,hindoo ,coosh4 ,this dye has been in use in ,india from the earliest times1 but the plant which produces it was not known in ,england till towards the end of the #afth century4 ,since that time it has been cultivated in the ,west ,indies and tropical ,america1 though in that country there is a species indigenous4 ,hot arid deserts bound ,india on the west1 where the stunted and scorched vegetation consists of tamarisks1 thorny acacia1 deformed ,euphorbi1 and almost leafless thorny trees1 shaggy with long hair1 by which they imbibe moisture and carbon from the atmosphere4 ,indian forms appear near ,delhi1 in the genera ,flacourtia and others1 mixed with ,syrian plants4 ,east of this transition the vegetation becomes entirely ,indian1 except on the higher parts of the mountains1 where ,european types prevail4 ,the ,himalaya mountains form a distinct botanical district4 ,immediately below the snow-line the flora is almost the same with that on the high plains of ,tartary1 to which may be added rhododendrons and andromedas1 and among the herbaceous plants primroses appear4 ,lower down1 vast tracts are covered with prostrate bamboos1 and ,european forms become universal1 though the species are ,indian1 as gentians1 plantagos1 campanulas1 and gale4 ,there are extensive forests of ,conifer1 consisting chiefly of ,pinus excelsa1 ,deodora1 and ,morinda1 with many deciduous forest and fruit trees of ,european genera4 ,a transition from this flora to a tropical vegetation takes place between the altitudes of #ijjj and #ejjj feet1 because the rains of the monsoons begin to be felt in this region1 which unites the plants of both4 ,here the scarlet and other rhododendrons grow luxuriantly2 walnuts1 and at least #be species of oak1 attain a great size1 one of which1 the ,quercus semi-carpifolia1 has a clean trunk from #hj to #ajj feet high4 ,geraniums and labiate plants are mixed in sheltered spots with the tropical genera of ,scitamine1 or the ginger tribe2 bignonias and balsams1 and camellias1 grow on the lower part of this region4 ,it is remarkable that ,indian1 ,european1 ,american1 and ,chinese forms are united in this zone of transition1 though the distinctness of species still obtains3 the ,triosteum1 a genus of the honeysuckle tribe1 is ,american2 the ,abelia1 another genus of the same1 together with the ,camellia and ,tricyrtis1 are peculiarly ,chinese2 the daisy and wild thyme are ,european4 ,a few of the trees and plants mentioned descend below the altitude of #ejjj feet1 but they soon disappear on the hot declivities of the mountain1 where the ,erythrina monosperma and ,bombax heptaphyllum are the most common trees1 together with the ,millingtoni1 a tribe of large timber-trees1 met with everywhere between the ,himalaya and #aj ,n4 lat4 ,the ,shorea robusta1 ,dalbergia1 and ,cedrela1 a genus allied to mahogany1 are the most common trees in the forests of the lower regions of these mountains4 ,the temperate regions of eastern ,asia1 including ,chinese ,tartary1 ,china1 and ,japan1 have a vegetation totally different from that of any other part of the globe similarly situated1 and show in a strong point of view the distinct character which vegetation assumes in different longitudes4 ,in ,mandshuria and the vast mountain-chains that slope from the eastern extremity of the high ,tartarian table-land to the fertile plains in ,china1 the forests and flora are generally of ,european genera1 but ,asiatic species2 in these countries the buckthorn and honeysuckle tribes are so numerous as to give a peculiar character to the vegetation4 ,mixed with these and with roses are thickets of azaleas covered with blossoms of dazzling brightness and beauty4 ,the transition zone in this country lies between the #ceth and #bgth parallels of north latitude1 in which the tropical flora is mixed with that of the northern provinces4 ,the prevailing plants on the ,chinese low grounds are ,glycine1 ,hydrangea1 the camphor laurel1 ,stillingia sebifera1 or wax-tree1 ,clerodendron1 ,hibiscus ,rosa-sinensis1 ,thuia orientalis1 ,olea fragrans1 the sweet blossoms of which are mixed with the finer teas to give them flavour2 ,melia azedarach1 or ,indian pride1 the paper mulberry1 and others of the genus1 and ,camellia sasanqua1 which covers hills in the province of ,kiong-si4 ,the tea-plant1 and other species of ,camellia1 grow in many parts2 the finest tea is the produce of a low range of hills from between the #cc;d and #beth parallels1 an offset from the great chain of ,peling4 ,thea viridis and bohea are possibly only varieties of the same plant2 the green tea is strong and hardy1 the black a small delicate plant4 ,the quality of the tea depends upon the stage of growth at which it is gathered2 early leaves make the best tea1 those picked late in the season give a very coarse tea4 ,bohea grows in the province of ,fu-kian1 hyson in ,song-lo4 ,pekoe or pak-ho1 which means white down in ,chinese1 consists of the first downy sprouts or leaf-buds of three-years-old plants4 ,a very costly tea of this kind1 never brought to ,europe1 and known as the tea of the ,wells of the ,dragon1 is used only by persons of the highest rank in ,china4 ,the true ,imperial tea1 also1 called ,flos the1 which is not1 as was supposed1 the flower-buds1 but merely a very superior quality of tea1 seldom reaches ,europe2 that sold under this name is really ,chusan tea flavoured with blossoms of ,olea fragrans4#aei ,the ,chinese keep tea a year before they use it1 because fresh tea has an intoxicating quality which produces disturbance of the nervous system like the effect of ,erythroxylon ,coca on the ,peruvians4 ,it is a remarkable circumstance that tea and coffee1 belonging to different families1 natives of different quarters of the globe1 should possess the same principle1 and it is not less remarkable that their application to the same use should have been so early discovered by man4 ,the tea-plant grows naturally in ,japan and upper ,assam2 it is hardy1 and possesses great power of adaptation to climate4 ,it has lately been cultivated in ,brazil1 in ,provence1 and in ,algiers1 but at an expense which renders it unprofitable4 ,tea comes to ,europe almost exclusively from ,china1 but the plant thrives so well in the north-western provinces of ,india that the ,english will ultimately compete with the ,chinese in producing it1 especially for the consumption of ,tibet4 ,tea was first brought to ,europe by the ,dutch in #afaj2 a small quantity came to ,england in #afff1 and now the annual consumption of tea in ,great ,britain is about fifty millions of pounds4#afj ,the climate of ,japan is milder than its latitude would indicate1 owing to the influence of the surrounding ocean4 ,european forms prevail in the high lands1 as they do generally throughout the mountains of ,asia and the ,indian ,archipelago1 with the difference of species1 as ,abies1 ,cembra1 ,strobus1 and ,larix4 ,the ,japanese flora is similar to the ,chinese1 and there are #cj ,american plants1 besides others of ,indian and tropical climates4 ,these islands1 nevertheless1 have their own peculiar flora1 distinct in its nature2 as the ,sophora1 ,kerria1 ,aucuba1 ,mespilus1 and ,pyrus ,japonica1 ,rhus vernix1 ,illicium anisatum1 or the anise-tree1 ,daphne odorata1 the soap-tree1 various species of the ,calycanthus tribe1 the custard-apple1 the ,khair mimosa1 which yields the catechu1 the litchi1 the sweet orange1 the ,cycas revoluta1 a plant resembling a dwarf palm1 with various other fruits4 ,many tropical plants mingle with the vegetation of the cocoanut and fan palms4 ,thus1 the vegetation in ,japan and ,china is widely different from that in the countries bordering the ,mediterranean1 though between the same parallels of latitude4 ,in the tropical regions of ,asia1 where heat and moisture are excessive1 the influence of latitude vanishes altogether1 and the peculiarities of the vegetation in different longitudes become more evident4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,flora of ,tropical ,asia--,of the ,indian ,archipelago1 ,india1 and ,arabia4 ,,tropical ,asia is divided by nature into three distinct botanical regions3 the ,malayan peninsula1 with the ,indian ,archipelago2 ,india1 south of the ,himalaya1 with the island of ,ceylon2 and the ,arabian peninsula4 ,the two first have strong points of resemblance1 though their floras are peculiar4 ,,flora ,,of ,,the ,,indo-,,chinese ,,peninsula ,,and ,,the ,,indian ,,archipelago4 ,many of the vegetable productions of the peninsula beyond the ,ganges are the same with those of ,india1 mixed with the plants of the ,indian ,archipelago1 so that this country is a region of transition1 though it has a splendid vegetation of innumerable native productions1 dyes of the most vivid hues1 spices1 medicinal plants1 and many with the sweetest perfume4 ,the soil in many places yields three crops in the year2 the fruits of ,india1 and most of those of ,china1 come to perfection in the low lands4 ,the arang forms an exception to the extreme beauty of the multitude of palms which adorn the ,malayan peninsula2 though it is eminently characteristic of that country1 it is an ugly plant1 covered with black fibres like horsehair1 sufficiently strong to make cordage4 ,it is cultivated for the sugar and wine made from its juice4 ,teak is plentiful2 almost all that is used in ,bengal comes from the ,birman empire1 though it is less durable than that of the ,malabar coast4 ,the ,hopea odorata is so large that a canoe is made of a single trunk2 the ,gordonia integrifolia is held in such veneration that every ,birman house has a beam of it4 ,there are seven species of native oak in the forests2 the ,mimosa catechu1 which furnishes the terra japonica used in medicine2 the trees which produce varnish and stick-lac2 the ,glyphyria nitida1 a myrtle1 the leaves of which are used as tea in ,bencoolen1 called by the natives the tree of long life4 ,the coasts are wooded by the ,heritiera robusta1 a large tree which thrives within reach of the tide2 bamboos with stems a foot and a half in diameter grow in dense thickets in the low lands4 ,the ,palmyra palm and the ,borassus flabelliformis grow in extensive groves in the valley of the ,irawaddy3 it is a magnificent tree1 often #ajj feet high1 remarkable for its gigantic leaves1 one of which would shelter #ab men4 ,the anomalous trees the ,zamias and ,cycade1 somewhat like a palm with large pinnated leaves1 but of a different family1 are found here and in tropical ,india2 those in ,america are of a different species4 ,orchide and tree-ferns are innumerable in the woody districts of the peninsula4 ,the vegetation of the ,indian ,archipelago is gorgeous beyond description2 although in many instances it bears a strong analogy to that of the ,malayan peninsula1 tropical ,india1 and ,ceylon1 still it is in an eminent degree peculiar4 ,the height of the mountains causes variety in the temperature sufficient to admit of the growth of dammar pines1 oaks1 rhododendrons1 magnolias1 valerians1 honeysuckles1 bilberries1 gentians1 oleasters1 and other ,european orders of woody and herbaceous plants2 yet there is not one species in common4 ,palm-trees are more abundant in these islands than in any other part of the world1 especially in the ,sunda group1 the origin of many1 a few of which are now widely spread over the eastern countries4 ,three species of ,areca1 attaining a height of from #dj to #ej and more feet1 are cultivated in all the hot parts of ,india2 and ,caryota ,urens1 the fruit of which is acrid1 yet it yields wine and sugar1 are all native4 ,the attempt is vain to specify the multitudes of these graceful trees which form so characteristic a feature in the vegetation of these tropical islands1 where a rich moist soil with intense heat brings them to such perfection4 ,it has been observed that monocotyledonous plants are generally more plentiful in islands than on continents1 and also that they extend farther into the southern than into the northern hemisphere1 which may be accounted for by the moist and mild climate of the former4 ,jungle and dense pestilential woods entirely cover the smaller islands and the plains of the larger2 the coasts are lined with thickets of mangroves1 a matted vegetation of forest-trees1 bamboos1 and coarse grass1 entwined with climbing and creeping plants1 and overgrown by orchideous parasites in myriads2 and the gutta-percha is also a native of these alluvial tracts4 ,the forest-trees of the ,indian ,archipelago are almost unknown2 teak and many of the continental trees grow there1 but the greater number are peculiarly their own4 ,the naturalist ,rumphius had a cabinet inlaid with #djj kinds of wood1 the produce of ,amboyna and the ,molucca islands4 ,sumatra1 ,java1 and the adjacent islands1 are the region of the ,dryobalanops camphora1 in the stems of which solid lumps of a remarkable and costly kind of camphor are found4 ,all the trees of that order1 and of several others1 are peculiar to these islands1 and #gh species of trees and shrubs of the ,melastomaceous tribe grow there and in continental ,india4 ,there are thickets of the sword-leaved vaquois-tree and of the ,pandanus or screw-pine1 a plant resembling the anana1 with a blossom like that of a bulrush1 very odoriferous1 and in some species edible4 ,this is the region of spices1 which are very limited in their distribution3 the ,myristica moschata 7the nutmeg and mace-plant7 is confined to the ,banda ,islands1 but it is said to have been discovered lately in ,new ,guinea4 ,the ,amboyna and the ,molucca groups are the focus of the ,caryophyllus aromaticus1 a myrtle1 the buds of which are known as cloves4 ,various species of cinnamon and cassia1 both of the laurel tribe1 together with varieties of pepper1 different from those in ,india and ,ceylon1 grow in this archipelago4 ,all the pepper-plants require great heat3 they are rare in ,africa1 but plentiful in ,america and the ,indian ,archipelago2 the common black pepper is peculiar to the hottest parts of ,asia1 extending only a few degrees on each side of the equator4 ,in #ahdb more than #cj1jjj1jjj pounds weight of pepper were produced in ,sumatra alone4 ,some of the most excellent fruits are indigenous here only1 as the dourio1 the ayer ayer1 ,loquat1 the choapa of ,molucca1 peculiar kinds of orange1 lemon1 and citron1 with others known only by name elsewhere4 ,those common to the continent of ,india are the jambrose1 rose-apple1 jack1 various species of bread-fruit1 mango1 mangosteen1 and the banana1 which is luxuriant4 ,here the nettle tribe assume the most pernicious character1 and the upas-tree of ,java1 one of the most deadly vegetable poisons2 and even the plants resembling our common nettle are so acrid that the sting of one in ,java occasions not only pain but illness1 which lasts for days4 ,a nettle in the island of ,timor1 called by the natives the 8,devil's leaf10 is so poisonous that it produces long illness and even death4 ,the chelik1 a shrub growing in the dense forests1 produces a poison even more deadly than the upas4 ,some of the fig genus1 which belongs also to the natural order of nettles1 have acrid juices4 ,trees of the cashew tribe have a milky sap3 the fine japan lacquer is made from the juice of the ,stagmaria verniciflua4 ,barringtonia and palms are very splendid here1 the latter generally of peculiar species and limited in their distribution1 as the ,nipa4 ,no country is richer in club-mosses and orchideous plants1 which overrun the trees in thousands in the deep dark mountain-forests1 choked by huge creeping plants1 an undergrowth of gigantic grasses1 through which not a ray of light penetrates4 ,sir ,stamford ,raffles describes the vegetation of ,java as 8fearful40 ,in these forests the air is heavy1 charged with dank and deadly vapours1 never agitated by a breath of wind2 the soil1 of the deepest black vegetable mould1 always moist and clammy1 stimulated by the fervid heat of a tropical sun1 produces trees whose stems are of a spongy texture from their rapid growth1 loaded with parasites1 particularly the orchideous tribe1 of which no less than #cjj species are peculiar to that island4 ,tree-ferns are in the proportion of one to twenty of the other plants1 and form a large portion of the vegetation of ,java and all these islands2 and there are above #bjj tropical species of club-mosses growing to the length of #c feet1 whereas in cold countries they creep on the ground4 ,the ,rafflesias1 of which there are four species1 are the most singular productions of this archipelago4 ,the most extraordinary one is common to ,java and ,sumatra1 where it was discovered by ,dr4 ,arnold1 and therefore is called ,rafflesia ,arnoldi4 ,it is a parasitical plant1 with buds the size of an ordinary cabbage1 and the flower1 which smells of carrion1 is of a brick-red colour1 #c-a_/b feet in diameter3 that found by ,mr4 ,arnold weighed #ae pounds1 and the cup in its centre could contain #ab pints of liquid4 ,according to ,sir ,stamford ,raffles there are six distinct climates in ,java1 from the top of the mountains to the sea1 each having an extensive indigenous vegetation4 ,no other country can show an equal abundance and variety of native fruit and esculent vegetables4 ,there are #ajj varieties of rice1 and of fragrant flowers1 shrubs1 and ornamental trees the number is infinite4 ,abundant as the ,orchide are in ,java1 ,ceylon1 and the ,birmese empire1 these countries possess very few that are common to them all1 so local is their distribution4 ,ferns are more plentiful in this archipelago than elsewhere3 tree-ferns are found chiefly between or near the tropics1 in airless damp places4 ,,indian ,,flora4 ,the plains of ,hindostan are so completely sheltered from the ,siberian blasts by the high table-lands of ,tartary and the ,himalaya mountains1 that the vegetation at the foot of that range already assumes a tropical character4 ,in the jungles and lower ridges of the fertile valley of ,nepal1 and on the dark and airless recesses of the ,silhet forests1 arborescent ferns and orchideous plants are found in profusion1 scarcely surpassed even in the islands of the ,indian ,archipelago--indeed the marshy ,tariyane is full of them4 ,the lowest ranges of the ,himalaya1 the pestilential swamp of the ,tariyane1 the alluvial ridges of the hills that bound it on the south1 and many parts of the plains of the ,ganges1 are covered with primeval forests1 which produce whole orders of large timber-trees1 frequently overrun with parasitical loranths4 ,the native fruits of ,india are many2 the orange tribe is almost all of ,indian origin1 though some of the species are now widely spread over the warmer parts of the other continents and the more distant countries of ,asia4 ,two or three species are peculiar to ,madagascar2 one is found in the forests of the ,essequibo1 and another in ,brazil1 which are the only exceptions known4 ,the ,limonia laureola grows on the tops of the high ,asiatic mountains1 which are covered with snow several months in the year2 and the wampee1 a fruit much esteemed in ,china and the ,indian ,archipelago1 is produced by a species of this order4 ,the vine grows wild in the forests2 plantain1 banana1 jambrose1 guava1 mango1 mangosteen1 date1 areca1 palmyra1 cocoa-nut1 and gameto-palms are all ,indian1 also the gourd family4 ,the ,scitamine1 or ginger tribe1 are so numerous1 that they form a distinguishing and beautiful feature of ,indian botany3 they produce ginger1 cardamoms1 and turmeric4 ,the flowers peculiar to ,india are brilliant in colours1 but generally without odour1 except the rose and some jessamines4 ,the greater part of the trees and plants mentioned belong also to tropical ,india1 where vegetation is still more luxuriant2 a large portion of that magnificent country1 containing #a1jjj1jjj square miles1 has been cultivated time immemorial1 although vast tracts still remain in a state of nature4 ,those extensive mountain-chains which traverse and surround the ,deccan are rich in primeval forests of stupendous growth with dense underwood4 ,the most remarkable of these trees are the ,indian cotton-tree and the ,dombeya1 which is of the same order2 that which produces the ,trincomalee wood1 used for building boats at ,madras2 the red-wood tree1 peculiar to the ,coromandel coast1 the satin-wood1 the superb ,butea frondosa1 the agallochum tribe1 which yields the odorous wood of aloes mentioned in ,scripture1 the ,melaleuca leucadendron and the ,melaleuca cajepute1 from which the oil is prepared4 ,the dragon's-blood tree is a native of ,india1 though not exclusively1 as some of the best specimens grow in ,madagascar1 where it is planted for hedges4 ,sanders-wood and dragon's-blood are obtained from the ,pterocarpus sandalinus and ,draco2 the sappan-tree gives a purple dye3 these are all of the leguminous or bean tribe1 of which there are #deb ,indian species3 ebony grows in these tropical regions1 in ,mauritius1 and the south coast of ,africa4 ,some of the fig tribe are among the most remarkable vegetable productions of ,india for gigantic size and peculiarity of form1 which renders them valuable in a hot climate from the shade which their broad-spreading tops afford4 ,some throw off shoots from their branches1 which take root on reaching the ground1 and1 after increasing in girth with wonderful rapidity1 produce branches which also descend to form new roots1 and this process is continued till a forest is formed round the parent tree4 ,mr4 ,reinwardt saw in the island of ,simao a large wood of the ,ficus ,benjamina which sprang from one stem4 ,the ,ficus ,indica1 or banyan-tree1 is another instance of this wide-spreading growth2 it is found in the islands1 but is in greatest perfection around the villages in the ,circar mountains3 there is a tree of it on the banks of the ,nerbudda1 in the province of ,guzerat1 with #cej main stems1 occupying an area of #bjjj feet in circumference1 independent of its branches1 which extend much farther4 ,the camphor genus is mostly ,indian1 as well as many more of the laurel tribe of great size4 ,the banana is the most generally useful tree in this country2 its fruit is food1 its leaves are applied to many domestic purposes1 and flax fit for making muslin is obtained from its stem4 ,cotton is a hairy covering of the seeds of several species of the mallow tribe which grow spontaneously in tropical ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america2 it is1 however1 cultivated in many countries beyond these limits4 ,that grown in ,china and the ,united ,states of ,america is an herbaceous annual from #ah inches to #b feet high3 there are also cotton-trees1 native and cultivated1 in ,india1 ,china1 ,africa1 and ,america4 ,herodotus mentions cotton garments #dde years before the ,christian era1 and the ,mexicans manufactured cotton cloth before the discovery of ,america4 ,palms1 the most stately and graceful of the vegetable productions of tropical regions1 are abundant in ,india1 in forests1 in groups1 and in single trees4 ,some species grow at the limit of perpetual snow1 some #ijj feet above the sea1 others in valleys and on the shores of the continent and islands4 ,they decrease in number and variety as the latitude increases1 and terminate at ,nice1 in #dd ,n4 lat41 their limit in the great continent4 ,the leaves of some are of gigantic size1 and all are beautiful1 varying in height from the slender ,calamus rotang1 #acj feet high1 to the ,chamrops humilis1 not more than #ae or #bj4 ,different species yield wine1 oil1 wax1 flour1 sugar1 thread1 and rope2 weapons and utensils are made of their stems and leaves2 they serve for the construction of houses2 the cocoa-nut palm gives food and drink2 sago is made from all except the ,areca catechu1 the fruit of which1 the betel-nut1 is used by the natives for its intoxicating quality4 ,though palms in general are very limited in their distribution1 a few species are very widely spread2 for example1 the cocoa-nut palm1 which grows spontaneously on the southern coasts of the ,indo-,chinese peninsula and the ,sunda ,islands1 from whence it has been carried to all the intertropical regions of the globe1 where it has been extensively cultivated from its usefulness4 ,so luxuriant is its growth in ,ceylon1 that in one year nearly #c1jjj1jjj of nuts were exported2 in parts of that island1 on the ,malabar and ,coromandel coasts1 and in some districts in ,bengal1 the ,borassus flabelliformis supplies its place4 ,the island of ,ceylon1 which may be regarded as the southernmost extremity of the ,indian peninsula1 is very mountainous1 and rivals the islands of the ,indian ,archipelago in luxuriance of vegetable productions1 and1 in some respects1 bears a strong resemblance to them4 ,the laurel1 the bark of which is cinnamon1 is indigenous1 and one of the principal sources of the revenue of ,ceylon4 ,the taleput leaves of a species of palm are of such enormous size1 that they are applied to many uses by the ,cingalese2 in ancient times strips of the leaf were written upon with a sharp style1 and served as books4 ,the sandalwood of ,ceylon is of a different species from that of the ,south ,sea islands1 and its perfume more esteemed4 ,indigo is indigenous1 and so is the choya1 whose roots give a scarlet dye4 ,the mountains produce a great variety of beautiful woods used in cabinet-work4 ,it is a remarkable circumstance in the distribution of plants1 that the orchide are very numerous in this island4 ,,arabian ,,vegetation4 ,the third division of the tropical flora of ,asia is the ,arabian1 which differs widely from the other two1 and is chiefly marked by trees yielding balsams4 ,oceans of barren sand extend to the south1 from ,syria through the greater part of ,arabia1 varied only by occasional oases in those spots where a spring of water has reached the surface2 there the prevalent vegetation consists of the grasses1 ,holcus and ,panicum dicotomum growing under the shade of the date-palm2 mimosas and stunted prickly bushes appear here and there in the sand4 ,there is verdure on the mountains1 and along some of the coasts1 especially in the province of ,yemen1 which has a flora of its own4 ,the ,keura odorifera1 a superb tree1 with agreeable perfume1 eight species of figs1 the three species of ,amyris--gileadensis1 or balm of ,gilead1 opobalsamum also yielding balsam1 and the kataf1 from which myrrh is supposed to come--are peculiar to ,arabia4 ,frankincense is said to be the produce of the ,boswellia serrata2 and there are many species of ,acacia1 among others the ,acacia arabica1 which produces gum arabic4 ,the arak and tamarind trees connect the botany of ,arabia with that of the ,west ,indies1 while it is connected with that of the ,cape of ,good ,hope by ,stapelias1 mesembryanthemums1 and liliaceous flowers4 ,the character of ,arabian vegetation1 like that of other dry hot climates1 consists in its odoriferous plants and flowers4 ,arabia produces coffee1 which1 however1 is not indigenous1 but is supposed to have come from the table-land of ,ethiopia1 and to have its name from the province of ,kaffa1 where it forms dense forests4 ,it was introduced into ,arabia in the end of the fifteenth century1 and grows luxuriantly in ,arabia ,felix1 where the coffee is of the highest flavour4 ,most of that now used is the progeny of plants raised from seed and brought from ,mocha to the ,botanic ,garden at ,amsterdam in #afij1 by ,van ,hoorn1 ,governor of ,batavia4 ,a plant was sent to ,louis ,,xiv41 in #agad1 by the magistrates of ,amsterdam--it was from this plant that the first coffee-plants were introduced in #agag into the ,west ,india islands4 ,a year afterwards the ,dutch introduced coffee-trees into ,surinam1 from whence they spread rapidly over the warm parts of ,america and the ,west ,india islands4 ,many thousands of people are now employed in its cultivation there1 in ,demerara1 ,java1 ,manilla1 the isle of ,bourbon1 and other places4 ,more than #c1jjj1jjj pounds of coffee-beans are produced1 and #ajj1jjj tons of shipping are annually employed in its transport across the ,indian and ,atlantic ,oceans4 ,coffee was not known till many centuries after the introduction of sugar4 ,the first coffee-house was opened in ,london in #afeb1 and the first in ,france1 at ,marseilles1 in #afga4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,african ,flora--,flora of ,australia1 ,new ,zealand1 ,norfolk ,island1 and of ,polynesia4 ,,the northern coast of ,africa1 and the range of the ,atlas generally1 may be regarded as a zone of transition1 where the plants of southern ,europe are mingled with those peculiar to the country2 half the plants of northern ,africa are also found in the other countries on the shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,of #fj trees and #bdh shrubs which grow there1 #ajj only are peculiar to ,africa1 and about #ah of these belong to its tropical flora4 ,there are about six times as many herbaceous plants as there are trees and shrubs2 and in the ,atlas mountains1 as in other chains1 the perennial plants are much more numerous than annuals4 ,evergreens predominate1 and are the same as those on the other shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,the pomegranite1 the locust-tree1 the oleander1 and the palmetto abound2 and the cistus tribe give a distinct character to the flora4 ,the sandarach1 or ,thuia articulata1 peculiar to the northern side of the ,atlas mountains and to ,cyrenaica1 yields close-grained hard timber1 used for the ceiling of mosques1 and is supposed to be the shittim-wood of ,scripture4 ,the ,atlas produces seven or eight species of oak1 various pines1 especially the ,pinus maritima1 and forests of the ,aleppo pine in ,algiers4 ,the sweet-scented arborescent heath and ,erica scoparia are native here1 also in the ,canary ,islands and the ,azores1 where the tribe of house-leeks characterizes the botany4 ,there are #ecd phanerogamous plants1 or such as have the parts of fructification evident1 in the ,canary ,islands2 of these1 #caj are indigenous1 the rest ,african3 the ,pinus canariensis is peculiar1 and also the ,dracn1 which grow in perfection here4 ,the stem of the ,dracna ,draco1 of the ,villa ,oratava in ,teneriffe1 measures #df feet in circumference at the base of the tree1 which is #ge feet high4 ,it is known to have been an object of great antiquity in the year #adjb1 and is still alive1 bearing blossoms and fruit4 ,if it be not an instance of the partial location of plants1 there must have been intercourse between ,india and the ,canary ,islands in very ancient times4 ,plants with bluish-green succulent leaves are characteristic of tropical ,africa and its islands2 and though the group of the ,canaries has plants in common with ,spain1 ,portugal1 ,africa1 and the ,azores1 yet there are many species1 and even genera1 which are found in them only2 and the height of the mountains causes much variety in the vegetation4 ,on the continent1 south of the ,atlas1 a great change of soil and climate takes place2 the drought on the borders of the desert is so excessive that no trees can resist it1 rain hardly ever falls1 and the scorching blasts from the south speedily dry up any moisture that may exist2 yet1 in consequence of what descends from the mountains1 the date-palm forms large forests along their base1 which supply the inhabitants with food1 and give shelter to crops which could not otherwise grow4 ,the date-palm1 each tree of which yields from #aej to #afj pounds weight of fruit1 grows naturally1 and is also cultivated1 through northern ,africa4 ,it has been carried to the ,canary ,islands1 ,arabia1 the ,persian ,gulf1 and to ,nice1 the most northern limit of the palm-tribe4 ,stunted plants are the only produce of the desert1 yet large tracts are covered with the ,pennisetum dichotomum1 a harsh prickly grass1 which1 together with the ,alhagi maurorum1 is the food of camels4 ,the plants peculiar to ,egypt are acacias1 mimosas1 cassias1 tamarisks1 the ,nympha ,lotus1 the blue ,lotus1 the ,papyrus1 from which probably the first substance used for writing upon was made1 and has left its name to that we now use2 also the ,zizyphus or jujub1 various mesembryanthemums1 and most of the plants of ,barbary grow here4 ,the date-palm is not found higher on the ,nile than ,thebes1 where it gives place to the doom-palm or ,cucifera ,thebaica1 peculiar to this district1 and singular as being the only palm that has a branched stem4 ,the eastern side of equatorial ,africa is less known than the western1 but the floras of the two countries1 under the same latitude1 have little affinity3 on the eastern side the ,rubiace1 the ,euphorbi1 a race peculiarly ,african1 and the ,malvace1 are most frequent4 ,the genus ,danais of the coffee tribe distinguishes the vegetation of ,abyssinia1 also the ,dombeya1 a species of vine1 various jessamines1 a beautiful species of honeysuckle2 and ,bruce says a caper-tree grows to the height of the elm1 with white blossoms1 and fruit as large as a peach4 ,the daroo1 or ,ficus sycomorus1 and the arak-tree1 are native4 ,the kollquall1 or ,euphorbia antiquorum1 grows #dj feet high on the plain of ,baharnagach1 in the form of an elegant branched candelabrum1 covered with scented fruit4 ,the kantuffa or thornby shrub1 is so great a nuisance from its spines1 that even animals avoid it4 ,the ,erythrina ,abyssinica bears a poisonous red bean with a black spot1 used by the shangalla and other tribes for ages as a weight for gold1 and by the women as necklaces4 ,mr4 ,rochet has lately brought some seeds of new grain from ,shoa1 that are likely to be a valuable addition to ,european cerealia4 ,the vegetation of tropical ,africa on the west is known only along the coast1 where some affinity with that of ,india may be observed4 ,it consists of #egc species of flower-bearing plants1 and is distinguished by a remarkable uniformity1 not only in orders and genera1 but even in species1 from the #afth degree of ,n4 lat4 to the river ,congo in #f ,s4 lat4 ,the most prevalent are the grasses and bean tribes1 the ,cyperace ,rubiace1 and the ,composit4 ,the ,adansonia1 or baobab of ,senegal1 is one of the most extraordinary vegetable productions2 the stem is sometimes #cd feet in diameter1 though the tree is rarely more than #ej or #fj feet high2 it covers the sandy plains so entirely with its umbrella-shaped top1 that a forest of these trees presents a compact surface1 which at some distance seems to be a green field4 ,cape ,verde has its name from the numbers that conceal the barren soil under their spreading tops2 some of them are very old1 and1 with the dragon-tree at ,teneriffe1 are supposed to be the most ancient vegetable inhabitants of the earth4 ,the ,pandanus candelabrum1 instead of growing crowded together in masses like the baobab1 stands solitary on the equatorial plains1 with its lofty forked branches ending in tufts of long stiff leaves4 ,numerous sedges1 of which the ,papyrus is the most remarkable1 give a character to this region1 and cover boundless plains1 waving in the wind like corn-fields1 while other places are overgrown by forests of gigantic grasses with branching stems4 ,a rich vegetation1 consisting of impenetrable thickets of mangrove1 the poisonous manchineel1 and many large trees1 cover the deltas of the rivers1 and even grow so far into the water1 that their trunks are coated with shell-fish2 but the pestilential exhalations render it almost certain death to botanize in this luxuriance of nature4 ,various kinds of the soap or sapodilla trees are peculiar to ,africa2 the butter-tree of the enterprising but unfortunate ,mungo ,park1 the star-apple1 the cream-fruit1 the custard-apple1 and the water-vine1 are plentiful in ,senegal and ,sierra ,leone4 ,the ibraculea is peculiarly ,african2 its seeds are used to sweeten brackish water4 ,the safu and bread-fruit of ,polynesia are represented here by the musanga1 a large tree of the nettle tribe1 the fruit of which has the flavour of the hazel-nut4 ,a few palms have very local habitations1 as the ,elais ,guineensis1 or palm-oil plant1 found only on that coast4 ,that graceful tribe is less varied in species in equatorial ,africa than in the other continents4 ,it appears that a great part of the flora of this portion of ,africa is of foreign origin4 ,the flora of south ,africa differs entirely from that of the northern and tropical zones1 and as widely from that of every other country1 with the exception of ,australia and some parts of ,chile4 ,the soil of the table-land at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 stretching to an unknown distance1 and of the ,karoo plains and valleys between the mountains1 is sometimes gravelly1 but more frequently is composed of sand and clay2 in summer it is dry and parched1 and most of its rivers are dried up2 it bears but a few stunted shrubs1 some succulent plants and mimosas1 along the margin of the river-courses4 ,the sudden effect of rain on the parched ground is like magic3 it is recalled to life1 and in a short time is decked with a beautiful and peculiar vegetation1 comprehending1 more than any other country1 numerous and distinctly-defined foci of genera and species4 ,twelve thousand species of plants have been collected in the colony of the ,cape in an extent of country about equal to ,germany4 ,of these1 heaths and proteas are two very conspicuous tribes2 there are #cjj species of the former1 and #bjj of the latter1 both of which have nearly the same limited range1 though ,mr4 ,bunbury found two heaths1 and the ,protea cynaroides1 the most splendid of the family 7bearing a flower the size of a man's hat71 on the hills round ,graham's ,town1 in the eastern part of the colony4 ,these two tribes of plants are so limited that there is not one of either to be seen north of the mountains which bound the ,great ,karoo1 and by much the greatest number of them grew within #ajj miles of ,cape ,town2 indeed at the distance of only #dj miles the prevailing ,proteace are different from those at the ,cape4 ,the ,leucadendron argenteum1 or silver-tree1 which forms groves at the back of the table-mountain1 is confined to the peninsula of the ,cape4 ,the beautiful ,disa grandiflora is found only in one particular place on the top of the table-mountain4 ,the dry sand of the west coast1 and the country northward through many degrees of latitude1 is the native habitation of ,stapelias1 succulent plants with square leafless stems1 and flowers like star-fish1 with the smell of carrion4 ,a great portion of the eastern frontier of the ,cape colony and the adjacent districts is covered with extensive thickets of a strong succulent and thorny vegetation1 called by the natives the bush3 similar thickets occur again far to the west1 on the banks of the river ,gauritz4 ,the most common plants of the bush are aloes of many species1 all exceedingly fleshy and some beautiful3 the great red-flowering arborescent aloe1 and some others1 make a conspicuous figure in the eastern part of the colony4 ,other characteristic plants of the eastern districts are the spek-boem1 or ,portulacaria afra1 ,schotia speciosa1 and the great succulent euphorbias1 which grow into real trees #dj feet high1 branching like a candelabrum1 entirely leafless1 prickly1 and with a very acrid juice4 ,the ,euphorbia meloformis1 three feet in diameter1 lies on the ground1 to which it is attached by slender fibrous roots1 and is confined to the mountains of ,graaf ,reynet4 ,euphorbias1 in the ,old ,world1 correspond with the ,cactus tribe1 which belong exclusively to the ,new4 ,the ,zamia1 a singular plant1 having the appearance of a dwarf-palm1 without any real similarity of structure1 belongs to the eastern districts1 especially to the great tract of bush on the ,caffir frontier4 ,various species of ,acacia are indigenous and much circumscribed in their location3 the ,acacia horrida1 or the white-thorned acacia1 is very common in the eastern districts and in ,caffirland4 ,the ,acacia cafra is strictly eastern1 growing along the margins of rivers1 to which it is a great ornament4 ,the ,acacia detinens1 or hook-thorn1 is almost peculiar to ,zand valley4 ,it appears1 from the instances mentioned1 that the vegetation in the eastern districts of the colony differs from that on the western1 yet many plants are generally diffused of orders and genera found only in this part of ,africa3--,nearly all the #cjj species of the fleshy succulent tribe of ,mesembryanthemum1 or ,hottentot's fig2 a great many beautiful species of the ,oxalis1 or wood-sorrel-tribe2 every species of ,gladiolus1 with the exception of that in the cornfields in ,italy and ,france2 ixias innumerable1 one with petals of apple-green colour2 geraniums1 especially the genus ,pelargonium1 or stork's bill1 almost peculiar to this locality2 many varieties of ,gnaphalium and ,xeranthemum2 the brilliant ,strelitzia2 #acc species of the house-leek tribe1 all fleshy1 attached to the soil by a strong wiry root1 and nourished more or less from the atmosphere3 ,diosmas are widely scattered in great variety2 shrubby ,boragine with flowers of vivid colours1 and ,orchide with large and showy blossoms4 ,the leguminous plants and ,crucifer of the ,cape are peculiar2 indeed all the vegetation has a distinct character1 and both genera and species are confined within narrower limits than anywhere else1 without any apparent cause to account for a dispersion so arbitrary4 ,notwithstanding the peculiarity of character with which the botany of the ,cape is so distinctly marked1 it is connected with that of very remote countries by particular plants2 for example1 of the seven species of bramble which grow at the ,cape1 one is the common ,english bramble or blackberry4 ,the affinity with ,new ,holland is greater3 in portions of the two countries in the same latitude there are several genera and species that are identical3 ,proteace are common to both1 so are several genera of ,iride1 ,leguminos1 ,ficoide1 ,myrtace1 ,diosme1 and some others4 ,the botany of the ,cape is connected with that of ,india1 and even that of ,south ,america1 by a few congeners4 ,the vegetation of ,madagascar1 though similar in many respects to the floras of ,india and ,africa1 nevertheless is its own3 the ,brexiace and ,chlenace are orders found nowhere else3 there are species of ,bignonia1 ,cycade1 and ,zamias1 a few of the mangosteen tribe1 and in the mountains some heaths4 ,the ,hydrogeton fenestralis is a singular aquatic plant1 with leaves like the dried skeletons of leaves1 having no green fleshy substance1 and the ,tanghinia veneniflua1 which produces a poison so deadly that its seeds are used to execute criminals1 and one seed is sufficient4 ,some genera and species are common and peculiar to ,madagascar1 the ,isle of ,bourbon1 and ,mauritius2 yet of the #afa known genera in ,madagascar only #ed grow on the other two islands4 ,the three islands are rich in ferns4 ,the ,pandanus1 or screw-pine genus1 abounds in ,bourbon and the ,mauritius1 where it covers sandy plains1 sending off strong arial roots from the stem1 which strike into the ground and protect the plant from the violent winds4 ,of #bij genera in ,bourbon and ,mauritius1 #aif also grow in ,india1 though the species are different3 there is also some resemblance to the vegetation of ,south ,africa1 and there is a solitary genus in common with ,america4 ,eight or ten degrees north of ,madagascar lies the group of the ,seychelles ,islands1 in which are groves of the peculiar palm which bears the double cocoa-nut1 or coco de mer1 the growth of these islands only4 ,its gigantic leaves are employed in the construction of houses1 and other parts of the plant are applied to various domestic purposes4 ,,flora ,,of ,,australia4 ,the interior of the ,australian continent is so little known1 that the flora which has come under observation is confined to a short distance from the coast2 but it is of so strange and unexampled a character1 that it might easily be mistaken for the production of another planet4 ,many entire orders of plants are known only in ,australia1 and the genera and species of others that grow elsewhere assume new and singular forms4 ,evergreens1 with hard narrow leaves of a sombre1 melancholy hue1 are prevalent1 and there are whole shadowless forests of leafless trees2 the foot-stalks1 dilated and set edgewise on the stem1 supply their place and perform the functions of nutrition2 their altered position gives them a singular appearance4 ,plants in other countries have glands on the under side of the leaves1 but in ,australia there are glands on both sides of these substitutes for leaves1 which make them dull and lustreless1 and the changes of the seasons have no influence on the unvarying olive-green of the ,australian forests2 even the grasses are distinguished from the gramine of other countries by a remarkable rigidity4 ,torres ,straits1 in the north1 only #ej miles broad1 separates this dry1 sombre vegetation from the luxuriant jungle-clad shores of ,new ,guinea1 where deep and dark forests are rich in more than the usual tropical exuberance--a more complete and sudden change can hardly be imagined4 ,the peculiarly ,australian vegetation is in the southern part of the continent of ,new ,holland distributed in distinct foci in the same latitude1 a circumstance of which the ,proteace afford a remarkable instance4 ,nearly one-half of the known species of these beautiful shrubs grow in the parallel of ,port ,jackson1 from which they decrease in number both to the south and the north4 ,in that latitude1 however1 there are twice as many species on the eastern side of the continent as there are on the western1 and four times as many as in the centre4 ,although the ,proteace at both extremities of the continent have all the characters peculiar to ,australia1 yet those on the eastern coast resemble the ,south ,american species1 while those on the western side have a resemblance to ,african forms1 and are confined to the same latitudes4 ,species of this family are numerous in ,van ,diemen's ,land2 where they thrive at the elevation of #cejj feet1 and also on the plains4 ,the myrtle tribe form a conspicuous feature in ,australian vegetation1 particularly the genera ,eucalyptus1 ,melaleuca1 ,beaufortia1 and others1 with splendid blossoms--white1 purple1 yellow1 crimson3 #ajj species of the ,eucalypti1 most of them large trees1 grow in ,new ,holland2 they form great forests in the colony of ,port ,jackson4 ,the leafless acacias1 of which there are #ic species1 are a prominent feature in the ,australian landscape4 ,the leaves1 except in very young plants1 are merely foliaceous foot-stalks1 presenting their margin towards the stem2 yet these and the ,eucalypti form the densest shade of any trees in the country4 ,the genus ,casuarina1 with its strange-jointed1 drooping branches1 called the marsh-oak1 holds a conspicuous place2 it is chiefly confined to the principal parallel of this vegetation1 and produces excellent timber2 it grows also in the ,malayan peninsula and ,south ,sea islands4 ,the ,oxleya xanthoxylon or yellow wood1 one of the mahogany tribe1 grows to great size1 and the ,podocarpus aspleniifolia forms a new genus of the cone-bearing trees4 ,some of the nettle tribe grow #ae or even #bj feet high4 ,the ,epacride1 with scarlet1 rose1 and white blossoms1 supply the place of1 and very much resemble1 heaths1 which do not exist here4 ,the purple-flowering ,tremandre2 the yellow-flowering ,dilleniace2 the ,doryanthes excelsa1 the most splendid of the lily tribe1 #bd feet high1 with a brilliant crimson blossom2 the ,banksia1 the most ,australian of all the ,proteace2 with ,zamias of new species1 are all conspicuous in the vegetation of ,port ,jackson4 ,there is a change on the north-eastern coast of ,new ,holland4 ,the ,castanospermum ,australe is so plentiful that it furnishes the principal food of the natives2 a caper-tree of grotesque form1 having the colossal dimensions of the ,senegal baobab1 and extraordinary trees of the fig genus1 characterize this region4 ,it sometimes occurs1 when the seeds of these fig-trees are deposited by birds on the iron-bark-tree1 or ,eucalyptus resinifera1 that they vegetate and enclose the trunk of the tree entirely with their roots1 whence they send off enormous lateral branches1 which so completely envelop the tree1 that at last its top alone is visible in the centre of the fig-tree1 at the height of #gj or #hj feet4 ,the ,pandanus genus flourishes within the influence of the sea-air4 ,there are only six species of palms1 equally local in their habitations as elsewhere1 not one of which grows on the west side of the continent4 ,the ,araucaria excelsa1 or ,norfolk ,island pine1 produces the best timber of any tree in this part of ,australia3 it1 or others of the same genus1 extends from the parallel of #bi on the east coast towards the equator1 and grows over an area of #ijj square miles1 including ,new ,norfolk1 ,new ,caledonia1 and other islands1 some of which have no other timber-tree3 they are supposed to exist only within the influence of the sea4 ,the ,asphodele abound and extend to the southern extremity of ,van ,dieman's ,land4 ,the south-western districts of ,new ,holland exhibit another focus of vegetation1 less rich in species than that of ,port ,jackson1 but not less peculiar4 ,the ,kingia ,australis1 or grass-tree1 rises solitary on the sandy plains1 with bare blackened trunks as if scathed by lightning1 occasioned by the fires of the natives1 and tufts of long grassy leaves at their extremities2 ,banksias1 particularly the kind called wild honeysuckle1 are numerous2 the ,stylidium1 whose blossoms are even more irritable than the leaves of the sensitive mimosa1 and plants with dry1 everlasting blossoms1 characterize the flora of these districts4 ,the greater part of the southern vegetation vanishes on the northern coasts of the continent1 and what remains is mingled with the cabbage-palm1 various species of the nutmeg tribe1 sandal-wood1 and other ,malayan forms--a circumstance that may hereafter be of importance to our colonists4 ,orchide1 chiefly terrestrial1 are in great variety in the extra-tropical regions of ,new ,holland1 and the grasses amount to one-fourth of the monocotyledonous plants4 ,reeds of gigantic size form forests in the marshes1 and kangaroo-grass covers the plains4 ,beautiful and varied as the flora is1 ,new ,holland is by no means luxuriant in vegetation4 ,there is little appearance of verdure1 the foliage is poor1 the forests often shadeless1 and the grass thin2 but in many valleys of the mountains1 and even on some parts of the plains1 the vegetation is vigorous4 ,it is not the least remarkable circumstance in this extraordinary flora1 that1 with the exception of a few berries1 there is no edible fruit1 grain1 or vegetable indigenous either in ,new ,holland or ,van ,diemen's ,land4 ,the plants of ,new ,holland prevail in every part of ,van ,diemen's ,land2 yet the coldness of the climate and the height of the mountains permit genera of the northern hemisphere to be mixed with the vegetation of the country4 ,butter-cups1 anemones1 and polygonums of peculiar species grow on the mountain-tops1 together with ,proteace and other ,australian plants4 ,the plains glow with the warm golden flowers of the black wattle1 a ,mimosa1 emblematic of the island1 and with the equally bright and orange blossom of the gorse1 which perfumes the whole atmosphere4 ,only one tree-fern grows in this country2 it rises #bj feet to the base of the fronds1 which spread into an elegant top1 producing a shadow gloomy as night-fall1 and there are #aej species of orchis4 ,the southern extremities both of ,new ,holland and ,van ,diemen's ,land are characterized by the prevalence of evergreen plants3 but the trees here1 as well as in the other parts of the southern hemisphere1 do not shed their leaves periodically as with us4 ,the botany of ,new ,zealand appears to be intimately allied to that of ,new ,holland1 ,south ,america1 and ,south ,africa1 but chiefly to that of ,new ,holland4 ,noble trees form impenetrable forests1 #fj of which yield the finest timber1 and many are of kinds to which we have nothing similar4 ,here there are no representatives of our oak1 birch1 or willow1 but five species of beech and ten of ,conifer have been discovered that are peculiar to the country4 ,they are all alpine1 and only descend to the level of the sea in the southern parts of the island4 ,the ,conifer of the southern hemisphere are more local than in the northern2 of the ten species peculiar to ,new ,zealand it is not certain that more than two or three are found in the middle island1 or that any of them grow south of the #djth parallel4 ,the ,kauri pine1 or ,dammara australis1 is indigenous in all the three islands1 but it is the only cone-bearing tree in ,north ,island1 where it grows in hilly situations near the sea1 shooting up with a clean stem #fj or #ij feet1 sometimes #cj feet in diameter1 with a spreading but thin top1 and generally has a quantity of transparent yellow resin imbedded at its base4 ,this fine tree does not grow beyond the #chth degree of ,s4 lat4 ,the ,metrosideros tomentosa1 with rich crimson blossoms1 is one of the greatest ornaments of the forests1 and the ,metrosideros robusta the most singular4 ,it grows to a very great size1 and sends shoots from its trunk and branches to the ground1 which become so massive that they support the old stem1 which to all appearance loses its vitality2 it is in fact an enormous epiphyte1 growing to1 and not from1 the ground4 ,many of the smaller trees are of the laurel tribe1 with poisonous berries4 ,besides1 there is a cabbage-palm1 the ,areca sapida1 elder1 the ,fuchsia excorticata1 and other shrubs4 ,this country is probably the southern limit of the orchideous plants that grow on trees4 ,before ,new ,zealand was colonized1 the natives lived chiefly on the roots of the edible fern1 ,pteris esculenta1 with which the country is densely covered1 mixed with a shrub that grows like a cypress1 and the tea-plant1 which is a kind of myrtle whose berries afford an intoxicating liquor4 ,more than #adj species of fern are natives of these islands1 some of which are arborescent and #dj feet high2 the country is chiefly covered with these and with the ,new ,zealand flax1 ,phormium tenax1 which grows abundantly both on the mountains and plains4 ,the vegetation is so vigorous on these volcanic islands that it grows richly on the banks of hot springs1 and even in water too hot to be touched4#afa ,in ,norfolk ,island1 #aeb species of plants are already known1 and many1 no doubt1 are yet to be discovered4 ,the ,cape gooseberry or ,physalis edulis1 the guava-tree1 pepper1 white and swamp oak1 iron1 blood-wood1 and lemon trees1 are native2 also the bread-fruit tree1 which blossoms1 but does not bear fruit4 ,the ,araucaria excelsa and some palms are indigenous1 and there are three times as many ferns as of all the other plants together4 ,the multitude of islands of ,polynesia constitute a botanical region apart from all others1 though it is but little varied1 and characterized principally by the number of syngenesious plants with arborescent terms and tree-ferns4 ,in continental ,india and the tropical parts of ,new ,holland1 the proportion of ferns to conspicuously-flowering plants is as #a to #bf1 while on the ,polynesian islands it is as #a to #d1 and perhaps even as #a to #c4afb ,the cocoa-nut palm and the pandanus are common to all the islands1 but the latter thrives only when exposed to the sea-air4 ,this archipelago produces ,tacca pinnatifida1 which yields arrow-root2 the ,morus papyrifera1 whose bark is manufactured into paper2 and one of the ,dracna tribe1 from which an intoxicating liquor is made4 ,fifty varieties of the bread-fruit tree are indigenous1 which produce three or four crops annually4 ,it is most abundant in the ,friendly1 ,society1 and ,caroline groups1 from whence it has been taken to ,america1 where it thrives in very low latitudes4 ,the ,sandwich group is peculiar in the number of ,goodenias and ,lobelias2 while the ,coral ,islands1 whose flora is entirely borrowed1 rarely have two species belonging to the same genus2 the fragrant suriana and sweet-scented ,tournfortia are among their scanty vegetation4 ,the two species of banana-trees which are natives of southern ,asia have been introduced at an unknown and probably early period into the ,polynesian islands1 and all tropical countries in the eastern and western hemispheres4 ,syria is their northern limit1 where the ,musa paradisaica grows to #cd ,n4 lat4 ,the sweet fruit of these trees produces1 on the same extent of ground1 #dd times as much nutriment as the potato1 and #acc times more than wheat4 ,st4 ,helena1 the ,sandwich group1 ,new ,zealand1 ,juan ,fernandez1 and above all the ,galapagos islands1 are more peculiar in their floras than any other tracts of their size4 ,the ,galapagos archipelago consists of #aj principal islands lying immediately under the equator1 #fjj miles from the coast of ,america4 ,they are entirely volcanic1 and contain #bjjj extinct craters4 ,the vegetation is so peculiar that1 of #ahj plants which have been collected1 #ajj are found nowhere else2 of #ba species of ,composit all but one are new1 and belong to #aj genera1 #h of which are confined to these islands exclusively4 ,this flora has no analogy to that of ,polynesia1 but it bears a double relation to the flora of ,south ,america4 ,the plants peculiar to the ,galapagos islands are1 for the most part1 allied to those on the cooler part of the continent or on high lands1 while the others are the same with those that abound in the hot damp intertropical regions of the continent4 ,the greatest number of peculiar plants grow on the tops of the islands where the sea vapour is condensed1 and many of them are confined to some one islet of the group4 ,though this flora is singular1 it is poor compared with that of the ,sandwich group1 or the ,cape de ,verde ,islands4#afc ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,american ,vegetation--,flora of ,north1 ,central1 and ,south ,america--,antarctic ,flora--,origin and ,distribution of the ,cerealia--,ages of ,trees--,marine ,vegetation4 ,,from similarity of physical circumstances the arctic flora of ,america bears a strong resemblance to that of the northern regions of ,europe and ,asia4 ,this botanical district comprises ,greenland1 and extends considerably to the south of the arctic circle1 especially at the eastern and western ends of the continent1 where it reaches the #fjth parallel of ,n4 lat41 and even more2 it is continued along the tops of the ,rocky ,mountains almost to ,mexico1 and it re-appears on the ,white ,mountains and a few other parts of the ,alleghanies4 ,greenland has a much more arctic flora than ,iceland2 the valleys are entirely covered with mosses and marsh-plants1 and the gloomy rocks are cased in sombre lichens that grow under the snow1 and the grasses on the pasture-grounds that line the fiords are nearly four times less varied than those of ,iceland4 ,in some sheltered spots the service-tree bears fruit1 and birches grow to the height of a few feet3 but ligneous plants in general trail on the ground4 ,the arctic flora of ,america has much the same character with that of ,europe and ,asia1 and many species are common to all2 still more are representative1 but there is a difference in the vegetation at the two extremities of the continent2 there are #cj species in the east and #bj in the west end which grow nowhere else4 ,the sameness of character changes with the barren treeless lands at the verge of the ,arctic region1 and the distribution of plants varies both with the latitude and the longitude4 ,taking a broad view of the botanical districts of ,north ,america1 there are two woody regions1 one on the eastern1 the other on the western side of the continent1 separated by a region of prairies where grasses and herbaceous plants predominate4 ,the vegetation of these three parts1 so dissimilar1 varies with the latitude1 but not after the same law as in ,europe1 for the winter is much colder and the summer warmer on the eastern coasts of ,america than on the western coast of ,europe1 owing1 in a great measure1 to the prevalence of westerly winds which bring cold and damp to our shores4 ,boundless forests of black and white spruce1 with an undergrowth of reindeer moss1 cover the country south of the ,arctic region1 which are afterwards mixed with other trees2 gooseberries1 strawberries1 currants1 and some other plants thrive there4 ,there are vast forests in ,canada of pines1 oak1 ash1 hickory1 red beech1 birch1 the lofty ,canadian poplar1 sometimes #ajj feet high and #cf feet in circumference1 and sugar-maple2 the prevailing plants are ,kalmias1 azaleas1 and asters1 the former vernal1 the latter autumnal2 solidagos and asters are the most characteristic plants of this region4 ,the splendour of the ,north ,american flora is displayed in the ,united ,states2 the ,american sycamore1 chestnut1 black walnut1 hickory1 white cedar1 wild cherry1 red birch1 locust-tree1 tulip-tree1 or ,liriodendron1 the glory of ,american forests1 liquid-ambar1 oak1 ash1 pine-trees of many species1 grow luxuriantly1 with an undergrowth of rhododendrons1 azaleas1 ,andromedas1 ,gerardias1 ,calycanthus1 ,hydrangea1 and many more of woody texture1 with an infinite variety of herbaceous and climbing plants4 ,the vegetation is different on the two sides of the ,alleghany mountains2 the locust-tree1 ,canadian poplar1 ,hibiscus1 and ,hydrangea1 are most common on the west side2 the ,american chestnut and ,kalmias are so numerous on the ,atlantic side as to give a distinctive character to the flora3 here1 too1 aquatic plants are more frequent2 among these the ,sarracenia or side-saddle flower1 singular in form1 with leaves like pitchers covered with a lid1 half full of water4 ,the autumnal tints of the forests in the middle ,states are beautiful and of endless variety2 the dark leaves of the evergreen pine1 the red foliage of the maple1 the yellow beech1 the scarlet oak1 and purple ,nyssa1 with all their intermediate tints1 ever changing with the light and distance1 produce an effect at sunset that would astonish the native of a country with a more sober-coloured flora under a more cloudy sky4 ,in ,virginia1 ,kentucky1 and the southern ,states1 the vegetation assumes a different aspect1 though many plants of more northern districts are mixed with it4 ,trees and shrubs here are remarkable for broad shining leaves and splendid blossoms1 as the ,gleditschia1 ,catalpa1 ,hibiscus1 and all the family of ,magnolias1 which are natives of the country1 excepting a very few found in ,asia and the ,indian islands4 ,they are the distinguishing feature of the flora from ,virginia to the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and from the ,atlantic to the ,rocky ,mountains3 the ,magnolia grandiflora and the tulip-tree are the most splendid specimens of this race of plants2 the latter is often #abj feet high4 ,the long-leaved pitch-pine1 one of the most picturesque of trees1 covers an arid soil on the coast of the ,atlantic of #fj1jjj square miles4 ,the swamps so common in the southern ,states are clothed with gigantic deciduous cypress1 the aquatic oak1 swamp hickory1 with the magnificent ,nelumbium luteum and other aquatics1 and among the innumerable herbaceous plants the singular ,diona muscipula1 or ,american fly-trap3 the trap is formed by two opposite lobes of the leaf1 covered with spines1 and so irritable1 that they instantly close upon the insect that has come to light upon them4 ,this ,magnolia region corresponds in latitude with the southern shores of the ,mediterranean1 but the climate is hotter and more humid1 in consequence of which there is a considerable number of ,mexican plants4 ,a few dwarf-palms appear among the ,magnolias1 and the forests in ,florida and ,alabama are covered with ,tillandsia usneoides1 an air-plant1 which hangs from the boughs4#afd ,ten or twelve species of grass cover the extensive prairies or steppes of the valley of the ,mississippi4 ,the forms of the ,tartarian steppes appear to the north in the ,centaurea1 ,artemisia1 ,astragali2 but the ,dahlias1 notheras1 with many more1 are their own4 ,the ,helianthus and ,coreopsis1 mixed with some ,european genera1 mark the middle regions2 and in the south1 towards the ,rocky ,mountains1 ,clarkia and ,bartonia are mixed with the ,mexican genera of ,cactus and ,yucca4 ,the western forest is less extensive and less varied than the eastern1 but the trees are larger4 ,this flora in high latitudes is but little known2 the ,thuia gigantea on the ,rocky ,mountains and the coast of the ,pacific is #bjj feet high4 ,claytonias and currants1 with plants of northern ,asia1 are found here4 ,farther west1 the ,pinus ,lambertiana is another specimen of the stupendous trees of this flora2 seven species of pine are indigenous in ,california1 some of which have measured #bjj1 and even #cjj feet high1 and #hj in circumference4 ,captain ,sir ,edward ,belcher1 in his 8,voyage on the ,pacific10 mentions having measured an oak #bg feet in circumference1 and another #ah feet girth at the height of #fj feet from the ground1 before the branches began to spread4 ,this is the native soil of the currant-bushes with red and yellow blossoms1 of many varieties of lupins1 ponies1 poppies1 and other herbaceous plants so ornamental in our gardens4 ,there are #ccb genera of plants peculiar to ,north ,america1 exclusive of ,mexico1 but no family of any great extent has yet been discovered there4 ,about #afj large trees yield excellent timber2 the wood of the pine-trees of the eastern forests is of inferior quality to that grown on the other side of the continent1 and both appear to be less valuable than the pine-wood of ,europe1 which is best when produced in a cold climate4 ,the ,pinus ,cembra and the ,pinus uncinata are the most esteemed of the ,old ,world4 ,the native fruits of ,north ,america are mostly of the nut-kind1 and there are many of these1 to which may be added the ,florida orange1 the ,chicasa plum1 the papaw1 the banana1 the red mulberry1 and the plumlike fruit of the persimon4 ,there are seven species of wild grapes1 but good wine has not hitherto been produced4 ,although ,america has contributed so much to the ornament of our pleasure-grounds and gardens1 yet there are comparatively few ,north ,american plants which have become an object of extensive cultivation1 while ,america has borrowed largely from other parts of the globe2 the grapes cultivated in ,north ,america are ,european2 tobacco1 ,indian corn1 and many others of the utmost commercial value are strangers to the soil1 having been introduced by the earliest inhabitants from ,mexico and ,south ,america1 which have contributed much more to general utility4 ,,flora ,,of ,,mexico ,,and ,,the ,,west ,,indies4 ,mexico itself unites the vegetation of ,north and ,south ,america1 though it resembles that of the latter more nearly4 ,whole provinces on the table-land and mountains produce alpine plants1 oaks1 chestnuts1 and pines spontaneously4 ,the ,cheirostemon1 or hand-tree1 so named from the resemblance its stigma bears to the human hand1 grows here1 and also in the ,guatemala forests4 ,the low lands of ,mexico and ,central ,america have a very rich flora1 consisting of many orders and genera peculiar to them1 and species without number1 a great portion of which are unknown4 ,the ,hymenea ,courbaril1 from which the copal of ,mexico is obtained1 logwood1 mahogany1 and many other large trees1 valuable for their timber1 grow in the forests2 sugar-cane1 tobacco1 indigo1 ,american aloe1 yam1 capsicum1 and yucca1 are indigenous in ,mexico and ,central ,america4 ,it is the native region of the ,melastomas1 of which #fbj species are known2 almost all the pepper tribe1 the ,passiflor1 the ornament and pride of tropical ,america and the ,west ,indian islands1 begin to be numerous in these regions4 ,the pine-apple is entirely ,american1 growing in the woods and savannahs3 it has been carried to the ,west ,indies1 to the ,east ,indies and ,china1 and is naturalized in all4 ,this country has also produced the cherimoya1 said to be the most exquisite of fruits4 ,all the vanilla that is used in ,europe comes from the ,states of ,vera ,cruz and ,oaxaca1 on the eastern slopes of the ,cordillera of ,anahuac in ,mexico4 ,it is native throughout tropical ,america1 growing in hot1 damp1 shady places4 ,hot arid tracts are covered with the ,cactus tribe1 a family of ,central ,america and ,mexico1 which is more widely dispersed than the anana3 some species bear a considerable degree of cold4 ,they are social plants1 inhabiting sandy plains in thickets1 and of many species3 their forms are various1 and their blossoms beautiful4 ,a few occur at a considerable distance from the tropics1 to the north and the south4 ,the night-flowering ,cereus grows in all its beauty in the arid parts of ,chile1 filling the night air with its perfume4 ,the ,cactus opuntia grows in the ,rocky ,mountains2 and ,sir ,george ,back found a small island in the ,lake of the ,woods covered with it4 ,this species has been brought to ,europe1 and now grows a common weed on the borders of the ,mediterranean4 ,in ,mexico1 the cochineal insect was collected from the ,cactus coccinellifer long before the ,spanish conquest4 ,there are large fields of ,american aloe1 from which a liquor called pulque1 and also an ardent spirit1 are made4 ,the ancient ,mexicans made their hemp from this plant1 and also their paper4 ,the forests of ,panama contain at least #ig different kinds of trees1 which grow luxuriantly in a climate where the torrents of rain are so favourable to vegetation1 and so unfavourable to life that the tainted air is deadly even to animals4 ,the sugar-cane is a native of both continents2 ,columbus found it wild in many parts of ,america3 the sweet cane is mentioned by the ,prophets1 and it has grown time immemorial on the coasts of ,china and in the islands of the ,pacific4 ,its culture ranges throughout the torrid zone1 and to latitudes where the mean temperature is not under #fd of ,fahrenheit4 ,it grows on the plains of ,nepaul at an absolute elevation of #dhjj feet1 and at the height of from #cejj to #eajj feet in the ,cordillera of ,new ,grenada4 ,it is now scarcely cultivated in the southern provinces of ,new ,spain1 where it was introduced by the ,spaniards1 but it is extensively raised in ,guiana1 ,brazil1 the ,west ,india islands1 the ,mauritius1 ,bourbon1 ,bengal1 ,siam1 ,java1 the ,philippine islands1 and ,china4 ,maize or ,indian corn is believed to have come originally from ,mexico and ,south ,america4 ,it is an annual1 requiring only summer heat2 its limit is #ej ,n4 in the ,american continent1 and #dg ,n4 in ,europe2 it ripens at an elevation of #gfjj feet in low latitudes1 and in the ,lower ,pyrenees at the height of #cbhi feet4#afe ,the flora of each ,west ,indian island is similar to that of the continent opposite to it4 ,the ,myrtus pimento1 producing allspice1 is common in the hills2 custard-apple1 guava1 the avocado pear1 and tobacco1 are indigenous2 the cabbage-palm grows to the height of #aej feet2 the palma-real of ,cuba is the most majestic of that noble family2 and in ,barbadoes there still exists a tree1 but wearing out rapidly1 which has given the island its name4 ,,flora ,,of ,,tropical ,,america4 ,although the flora of tropical ,america is better explored than that of ,asia or ,africa1 there must still be thousands of plants of which we have no knowledge2 and those which have come under observation are so varied and so numerous1 that it is not possible to convey an idea of the peculiarities of this vegetation1 or of the extent and richness of its woodlands4 ,the upper ,orinoco flows for some hundred miles chiefly through forests2 and the silvas of the ,amazons are six times the size of ,france4 ,in these the trees are colossal1 and the vegetation so matted together by underwood1 creeping and parasitical plants1 that the sun's rays can scarcely penetrate the dense foliage4 ,these extensive forests are by no means uniform2 they differ on each side of the equator1 though climate and other circumstances are the same4 ,venezuela1 ,guiana1 the ,amazona1 and ,brazil1 are each the centre of a peculiar flora4 ,so partial is this splendid vegetation1 that almost each tributary of the great rivers has a flora of its own3 particular families of plants are so restricted in their localities1 and predominate so exclusively where they occur1 that they change the appearance of the forest4 ,thus1 from the prevalence of the orders ,laurine1 ,sapotace1 and others1 which have leathery1 shining1 and entire leaves1 the forests through which the ,rio ,negro1 ,cassiquiare1 and ,tuamine flow1 differ in aspect from those of the other affluents of the ,amazons4 ,even the grassy llanos1 so uniform in appearance1 have their centres of vegetation2 and only agree with the pampas of ,buenos ,ayres in being covered with grass and herbs4 ,in these tropical regions the flora varies with the altitude also4 ,on the ,andes1 almost at the limit of vegetation1 the ground is covered with purple1 azure1 and scarlet gentians1 drabas1 alchemillas1 and many other brilliantly-coloured alpine plants4 ,this zone is followed by thickets of coriaceous-leaved plants1 in perpetual bloom and verdure2 and then come the forest-trees4 ,arborescent ferns ascend to #gjjj feet2 the coffee-tree and palms to #ejjj2 and neither indigo nor cocoa can be cultivated lower than #bjjj4 ,the tree yielding cocoa1 of which chocolate is made1 grows wild in ,guiana1 ,mexico1 and on the coast of the ,caraccas2 it is now cultivated in ,central and ,south ,america1 even to ,chile1 also in the ,canary and ,philippine islands1 into which it was introduced by the ,spaniards4 ,the seeds of its fruit1 which is like a cucumber1 are the cocoa4 ,many parts of the coasts of ,venezuela and ,guiana are rendered pestilential by the effluvia of the mangrove1 ,avicennia1 and the manchineel1 one of the ,euphorbia family1 consisting of #efb species in tropical ,america1 all having milky juice1 deleterious in the greater number4 ,the well-known poison ,ourari is prepared by the ,indians of ,guiana from the fruit and bark of the ,strychnos toxicaria1 than which nature has probably produced no plants more deadly4 ,this ,ourari 7or ,wourali7 is a creeping plant which yields the deadly juice1 the powerful effect of which was proved by ,mr4 ,waterton's experiments4 ,the ,cinchona1 or true bark-tree1 grows only on the ,cordilleras of the ,andes4#aff ,some of its medicinal qualities are found in other plants of different genera in ,guiana1 as the ,cusparia carony1 which produces the ,angostura bark4 ,the ,sapindus saponaria1 or soap-tree1 is used by the natives for washing4 ,capsicum1 vanilla1 the incense-plant1 the ,dipteryx odorata1 whose fruit is the tonquin-bean1 and the cassava or mandioc1 are natives of the country4 ,there are two kinds of mandioc1 a shrub whose fleshy roots yield a farina eaten by the natives of ,spanish ,america and ,brazil3 the root of one is harmless1 but the other contains a poisonous milky juice1 the effects of which are removed by cultivation or pressure4 ,it grows to about #cj on each side of the equator1 and to #cbjj feet above the sea-level4 ,an acre of mandioc is said to yield as much nourishment as six acres of wheat4 ,arrow-root is native in ,south ,america2 it has been transported to the ,west ,indies and ,ceylon4 ,the flour is the produce of the root4 ,the plant is said to owe its name to the belief of its being an antidote to the poison of the arrows of the ,indians4 ,the cow-tree1 almost confined to the ,cordillera of the coast of ,venezuela1 yields such abundance of nutritious milky juice that it is carried in gourds1 like milk from the cow4 ,the chocolate-plant1 or cacao-shrub1 fruits of the most excellent flavour1 plants yielding balsam1 resin1 and gum1 are numerous in the tropical regions4 ,there the laurel tribe assume the character of majestic trees3 some are so rich in oil1 that it gushes from a wound in the bark4 ,one of these laurels produces the essential oil which dissolves caoutchouc1 or ,indian rubber1 used in rendering cloth waterproof4 ,plantains of gigantic size form large forests2 but palms are the most numerous and the most beautiful of all the trees in these countries4 ,there are #ij species of them2 and they are so local that a change takes place every #ej miles4 ,they are the greatest ornament of the upper ,orinoco4 ,the llanos of ,venezuela and ,guiana are covered with tall grass1 mixed with lilies and other bulbous flowers1 sensitive mimosas1 and palms constantly varying in species4 ,no language can describe the glory of the forests of the ,amazon and ,brazil1 the endless variety of form1 the contrasts of colour and size3 there even the largest trees bear brilliant blossoms2 scarlet1 purple1 blue1 rose-colour1 and golden yellow1 are blended with every possible shade of green4 ,majestic trees1 as the ,bombax ceiba 7or silk-cotton tree71 the dark-leaved mora with its white blossoms1 the fig1 cashew1 and mimosa tribes1 which are here of unwonted dimensions1 and a thousand other giants of the forest1 are contrasted with the graceful palm1 the delicate ,acacia1 reeds of #ajj feet high1 grasses of #dj1 and tree-ferns in myriads4 ,passiflor and slender creepers twine round the lower plants1 while others as thick as cables climb the lofty trees1 drop again to the ground1 rise anew and stretch from bough to bough1 wreathed with their own leaves and flowers1 yet intermixed with the vividly coloured blossoms of the ,orchide4 ,an impenetrable and everlasting vegetation covers the ground2 decay and death are concealed by the exuberance of life2 the trees are loaded with parasites while alive--they become masses of living plants when they die4 ,one twenty-ninth part of the flowering plants of the ,brazilian forests are of the coffee-tribe1 and the rose-coloured and yellow-flowering bignonias are among their greatest ornaments1 where all is grace and beauty4 ,thousands of herbs and trees must still be undescribed where each stream has its own vegetation4 ,the palm-trees are the glory of the forest3 #ha species of these plants are natives of the intertropical parts of ,brazil alone2 they are of all sizes1 from such as have hardly any stem to those that rise #acj feet4#afg ,in those parts of ,brazil less favoured by nature1 the forests consist of stunted deciduous trees1 and the boundless plains have grasses1 interspersed with myrtles and other shrubs4#afh ,the forests on the banks of the ,paraguay and ,vermejo are almost as rich as those of the tropics4 ,noble trees furnish timber and fruit2 the algaroba1 a kind of acacia1 produces clusters of a bean1 of which the ,indians make bread1 and also a strong fermented liquor2 the palm and cinchona grow there2 and the yerba-mat1 the leaves of which are universally used as tea in ,south ,america1 and were in use before the ,spanish conquest4 ,it is a species of holly1 with leaves five or six inches long4 ,the sandy deserts towards the mountains are the land of the ,agave and ,cactus in all their varieties4 ,the fibres of the ,agave are made into cordage by the ,indians for fishing-nets and other uses1 and the juice affords them drink4 ,some larger species of ,cactus give a light and durable wood2 and the ,cochineal insect1 which feeds on them1 is a valuable article of commerce4 ,grass1 clover1 and ,european and ,african thistles1 which have been introduced1 with a solitary ,ombu at wide intervals1 are the unvarying features of the pampas2 and thorny stunted bushes1 characteristic of all deserts1 are the only vegetation of the ,patagonian shingle4 ,but on the mountain valleys in the far south may be seen the winter's bark1 arbutus1 new species of beech-trees1 stunted berberries1 and ,misodendron1 which latter is a singular kind of parasitical plant4 ,large forests of ,araucaria imbricata grow in the ,andes of ,chile and ,patagonia4 ,this tall and handsome pine1 with cones the size of a child's head1 supplies the natives with a great part of their food4 ,it is said that the fruit of one large tree will maintain eighteen persons for a year4 ,nothing grows under these great forests2 and when accidentally burnt down in the mountainous parts of ,patagonia1 they never rise again1 but the ground they grew on is soon covered with an impenetrable brushwood of other plants4 ,in ,chile the violently stinging ,loasa appears first in these burnt places1 bushes grow afterwards1 and then comes a tree-grass1 #ah feet high1 of which the ,indians make their huts4 ,the new vegetation that follows the burning of primeval forests is quite unaccountable4 ,the ancient and undisturbed forests of ,pennsylvania have no undergrowth1 and when burnt down they are succeeded by a thick growth of rhododendrons4 ,the southern coasts of ,chile are very barren1 and all plants existing there1 even the herbaceous1 have a tendency to assume a hard knotty texture4 ,the stem of the wild potato1 which is indigenous in ,chile and ,peru1 becomes woody and bristly as it grows old4 ,it is a native of the sea-strand1 and is never found naturally more than #djj feet above it4 ,in its wild state the root is small and bitter2 it is one of many instances of the influence of cultivation in rendering unpromising plants useful to man4 ,it was cultivated in ,america at the time of its discovery1 and is so now1 at the height of from #ihjj to #ac1jjj feet above the sea on the ,andes1 and as high as #dhjj feet on the ,swiss ,alps2 it does not succeed on the plains in hot countries1 nor farther north than ,iceland4 ,it had been introduced into ,europe by the ,spaniards before the time of ,sir ,walter ,raleigh2 he brought it to ,england from ,virginia in #aehf4 ,coca1 the ,erythroxylon ,coca of botanists1 is a native of the tropical valleys on the eastern declivity of the ,andes of ,peru and ,bolivia1 where it is extensively cultivated for its leaf1 of which the tree furnishes #c or #d crops annually2 the coca-leaf1 which possesses nutritive and narcotic qualities1 is chewed by the aborigines mixed with an alcaline substance3 it allays hunger1 and enables the ,indian to undergo great fatigue without any other nourishment for days together2 it is an article of great trade1 and absolutely indispensable in the more laborious profession of the miner4 ,between the southern parallels of #ch and #de ,chile is covered with extensive forests4 ,stately trees of many kinds1 having smooth and brightly-coloured trunks1 are bound together by parasitical plants of the monocotyledonous structure2 large and elegant ferns are numerous1 and arborescent grasses entwine the trees to the height of #bj or #cj feet2 palm-trees grow to the #cgth parallel of latitude1 their southern limit4 ,although the flora1 at an elevation of #ijjj feet on the ,chilian ,andes1 is almost identical with that of the ,straits of ,magellan1 yet the climate is so mild in some valleys1 especially that of ,antuco1 that the vegetation is semi-tropical4 ,in it broad-leaved and bright-coloured plants1 and the most fragrant and brilliant ,orchide1 are mixed with the usual alpine genera4 ,dr4 ,pppig says1 that whatever ,south ,africa or ,new ,holland can boast of in beauty1 in variety of form1 or brilliancy of colour1 is rivalled by the flora in the highest zone in this part of the ,andes1 even up to the region of perpetual snow2 and1 indeed1 it bears a strong analogy to the vegetation of both these countries4 ,the ,andes so completely check the migration of plants1 that almost throughout their whole length there is no mingling of the floras on their east and west sides1 except at the ,isthmus of ,panama1 where the mahogany-tree crosses from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific side1 and in the same way many of the plants on the lands on the east are brought to the west1 and spread to ,california on one side1 and as far as the dry plains of ,peru on the other4#afi ,the humidity or dryness of the prevailing winds makes an immense difference in the character of the countries on each side of the ,andes4 ,within the southern tropic the trade-winds come loaded with vapour from the ,atlantic1 which is partly precipitated by the mountains of ,brazil1 and supplies the noble forests of that country with never ceasing moisture1 while the remainder is condensed by the ,andes1 so that on their eastern side there is an exuberant vegetation1 while on the western declivities and in the space which separates them from the ,pacific they are almost barren1 and on the plains and in the valleys of ,peru1 where rain very seldom falls1 completely so1 except where artificial irrigation is employed4 ,even on the eastern side of these mountains the richness of the vegetation gradually disappears with the increasing height1 till at an elevation of about #ae1jjj feet arborescent plants vanish1 and alpine races1 of the most vivid beauty1 succeed2 which1 in their turn1 give place to the grasses at the height of #af1ach feet4 ,above these1 in the dreary plains of ,bombon1 and other lands of the same altitude1 even the thinly-scattered mosses are sickly2 and at the height of #ba1hgh feet the snow-lichen forms the last show of vegetable life2 confirming the observation of ,don ,ulloa1 that the produce of the soil is the thermometer of ,peru4 ,,antarctic ,,flora4 ,tierra del ,fuego and ,kerguelen's ,land are the northern boundary of the antarctic lands1 which are scattered round the south pole at immense distances from one another4 ,on these the vegetation decreases as the latitude increases1 till at length utter desolation prevails2 not a lichen covers the dreary storm-beaten rocks2 and1 with the exception of a microscopic marine plant1 not a sea-weed lives in the gelid waves4 ,in the arctic regions1 on the contrary1 no land has yet been discovered that is entirely destitute of vegetable life4 ,this remarkable difference does not so much depend on a greater degree of cold in winter as on the want of warmth in summer4 ,in the high northern latitudes the power of the summer sun is so great as to melt the pitch between the planks of the vessels2 while1 in corresponding southern latitudes1 ,fahrenheit's thermometer does not rise above #ad at noon at a season corresponding to our ,august4 ,the perpetual snow comes to a much lower latitude in the southern lands than it does in the north4 ,sandwich ,land1 in a latitude corresponding to that of the north of ,scotland1 is perpetually covered with many fathoms of snow4 ,a single species of grass1 the ,aira antarctica1 is the only flowering plant in the ,south ,shetland islands1 which are no less ice-bound2 and ,cockburn ,island1 one of that group1 in the #fjth parallel1 contains the last vestiges of vegetation2 while the ,namesake islands1 in an equally high latitude1 to the north of ,scotland1 are inhabited and cultivated2 nay1 ,south ,georgia1 in a latitude similar to that of ,yorkshire1 is always clad in frozen snow1 and only produces some mosses1 lichens1 and wild burnet2 while ,iceland1 #aj degrees nearer the pole1 has #hgj species1 more than half of which are flower-bearing4 ,the forest-covered islands of ,tierra del ,fuego are only #cfj miles from the desolate ,shetland group4 ,such is the difference that a few degrees of latitude can produce in these antarctic regions1 combined with an equable climate and excessive humidity4 ,the prevalence of evergreen plants is the most characteristic feature in the ,fuegian flora4 ,densely entangled forests of winter's bark1 and two species of beech-trees1 grow from the shore to a considerable height on the mountains4 ,of these1 the ,fagus betuloides1 which never loses its brownish-green leaves1 prevails almost to the exclusion of the evergreen winter's bark and the deciduous beech1 which is very beautiful4 ,there are dwarf species of ,arbutus1 the ,myrtus nummularia1 which is used instead of tea1 besides berberry1 currant1 and fuchsia2 peculiar species of ,ranunculi1 calceolarias1 ,caryophylle1 cruciform plants1 and violets4 ,wild celery and scurvy-grass are the only edible plants2 and a bright yellow fungus1 which grows on the beech-trees1 forms a great part of the food of the natives4 ,there is a greater number of plants in ,tierra del ,fuego1 either identical with those in ,great ,britain1 or representatives of them1 than exists in any other country in the southern hemisphere4 ,the sea-pink1 or thrift1 the common sloewort1 a primula farinosa1 and at least #cj other flowering plants1 with almost all the lichens1 #dh mosses1 and many other plants of the cryptogamous kinds1 are identically the same2 while the number of genera common to both countries is still greater1 and1 though unknown in the intermediate latitudes1 reappear here4 ,hermite ,island1 west from ,cape ,horn1 is a forest-land1 covered with winter's bark and the ,fuegian beeches2 and is the most southern spot on earth on which arborescent vegetation is found4 ,an alpine flora1 many of the species of ,european genera1 grows on the mountains1 succeeded higher up by mosses and lichens4 ,mosses are exceedingly plentiful throughout ,fuegia2 but they abound in ,hermite ,island more than in any other country1 and are of singular and beautiful kinds4 ,although the ,falkland ,islands are in a lower latitude than ,tierra del ,fuego1 not a tree is to be seen4 ,the ,veronica elliptica1 resembling a myrtle1 which is extremely rare1 and confined to ,west ,falkland1 is the only large shrub2 a white-flowering plant like the aster1 about four feet high1 is common2 while a bramble1 a crowberry1 and a myrtle1 bearing no resemblance1 however1 to the ,european species1 trail on the ground1 and afford edible fruit4 ,the balsam bog1 or ,bolax globaria1 and grasses1 form the only conspicuous feature in the botany of these islands2 and1 together with rushes and ,dactylis cspitosa1 or ,tussack grass1 cover them1 almost to the exclusion of other plants4 ,the ,bolax grows in tufted hemispherical masses1 of a yellow-green colour1 and very firm substance1 often four feet high1 and as many in diameter1 from whence a strong-smelling resinous substance exudes1 perceptible at a distance4 ,this plant has umbelliferous flowers1 and belongs to the carrot order1 but forms an antarctic genus quite peculiar4 ,the ,tussack grass is the most useful and the most singular plant in this flora4 ,it covers all the small islands of the group1 like a forest of miniature palm-trees1 and thrives best on the shores exposed to the spray of the sea4 ,each tussack is an isolated plant1 occupying about two square yards of ground4 ,it forms a hillock of matted roots1 rising straight and solitary out of the soil1 often six feet high and four or five in diameter2 from the top of which it throws out a thick grassy foliage of blades1 six feet long1 drooping on all sides1 and forming1 with the leaves of the adjacent plants1 an arch over the ground beneath1 which yields shelter to sea-lions1 penguins1 and petrels4 ,cattle are exceedingly fond of this grass1 which yields annually a much greater supply of excellent fodder than the same extent of ground would do either of common grass or clover4 ,both the ,tussack-grass and the ,bolax are found1 though sparingly1 in ,tierra del ,fuego2 indeed1 the vegetation of the ,falkland ,islands consists chiefly of the mountain plants of that country1 and of those that grow on the arid plains of ,patagonia2 but it is kept close to the ground by the fierceness of the terrific gales that sweep over these antarctic islands4 ,peculiar species of ,european genera are found here1 as a calceolaria1 wood sorrel1 and a yellow violet2 while the shepherd's purse1 cardamine hirsuta1 and the primula farinosa1 appear to be identical with those at home4 ,in all1 there are scarcely #abj flowering plants1 including grasses4 ,ferns and mosses are few1 but lichens are in great variety and abundance1 among which many are identical with those in ,britain4 ,in the same hemisphere1 far1 far removed from the ,falkland group1 the ,auckland ,islands lie in the boisterous ocean south of ,new ,zealand4 ,they are covered with dense and all but impenetrable thickets of stunted trees1 or rather shrubs1 about #bj or #cj feet high1 gnarled by gales from a stormy sea4 ,there is nothing analogous to these shrubs in the northern hemisphere2 but the ,veronica elliptica1 a native of ,tierra del ,fuego and ,new ,zealand1 is one of them4 ,fifteen species of ferns find shelter under these trees1 and their fallen trunks are covered with mosses and lichens4 ,eighty flowering plants were found during the stay of the discovery ships1 of which #ef are new2 and half of the whole number are peculiar to this group and to ,campbell's ,island4 ,some of the most beautiful flowers grow on the mountains1 others are mixed with the ferns in the forests4 ,a beautiful plant was discovered1 like a purple aster1 a ,veronica1 with large spikes of ultramarine colour2 a white one1 with a perfume like jessamine2 a sweet-smelling alpine ,hierochloe2 and in some of the valleys the fragrant and bright-yellow blossoms of a species of asphodel were so abundant that the ground looked like a carpet of gold4 ,a singular plant grows on the sea-shore1 having bunches of green waxy blossoms the size of a child's head4 ,there are also antarctic species of ,european genera1 as beautiful red and white gentians1 geraniums1 c4 ,the vegetation is characterized by an exuberance of the finer flowering plants1 and an absence of grasses and sedges2 but the landscape1 though picturesque1 has a sombre aspect1 from the prevalence of brownish-leaved plants of the myrtle tribe4 ,campbell's ,island lies #abj miles to the south of the ,auckland group1 and is much smaller1 but from the more varied form of its surface it is supposed to produce as many species of plants4 ,during the two days the discovery ships1 under the command of ,sir ,james ,ross1 remained there1 between #bjj and #cjj were collected1 of which #ff were flowering plants1 #ad of which were peculiar to the country4 ,many of the ,auckland ,island plants were found here1 yet a great change had taken place2 #cd species had disappeared and were replaced by #bj new1 all peculiar to ,campbell's ,island alone1 and some were found that hitherto had been supposed to belong to ,antarctic ,america only4 ,in the ,auckland group only one-seventh of the plants are common to other ,antarctic lands1 whilst in ,campbell's ,island a fourth are natives of other longitudes in the ,antarctic ,ocean4 ,the flora of ,campbell's ,island and the ,auckland group is so intimately allied to that of ,new ,zealand1 that it may be regarded as the continuation of the latter1 under an ,antarctic character1 though destitute of the beech and pine trees4 ,there is a considerable number of ,fuegian plants in the islands under consideration1 though #djjj miles distant2 and whenever their flora differs in the smaller plants from that of ,new ,zealand1 it approximates to that of ,antarctic ,america3 but the trees and shrubs are entirely dissimilar4 ,the relation between this vegetation and that of the northern regions is but slight4 ,the ,auckland group and ,campbell's ,island are in a latitude corresponding to that of ,england1 yet only three indigenous plants of our island have been found in them1 namely1 the ,cardamine hirsuta1 ,montia1 and ,callitriche4 ,this is the utmost southern limit of tree-ferns4 ,perhaps no spot in either hemisphere1 at the same distance from the pole1 is more barren than ,kerguelen ,islands1 lying in a remote part of the south polar ocean4 ,only #ah species of flowering plants were found there1 which is less than the number in ,melville ,island1 in the ,arctic ,seas1 and three times less than the number even in ,spitzbergen4 ,the whole known vegetation of these islands only amounts to #aej1 including sea-weeds4 ,the ,pringlea1 a kind of cabbage1 acceptable to those who have been long at sea1 is peculiar to the island1 and grass1 together with a plant similar to the ,bolax of the ,falkland ,islands1 covers large tracts4 ,about #bj mosses1 lichens1 c41 are only found in these islands1 but many of the others are also native in the ,european ,alps and north polar regions4 ,it is a very remarkable circumstance in the distribution of plants1 that there should be so much analogy between the floras of places so far apart as ,kerguelen ,islands1 the groups south from ,new ,zealand1 the ,falkland ,islands1 ,south ,georgia1 and ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,,origin ,,and ,,distribution ,,of ,,cerealia4 ,the plants which the earth produces spontaneously are thus confined within certain districts1 and few of them would survive a change of circumstances2 nevertheless1 ,providence has endowed those most essential to man with a greater flexibility of structure1 so that the limits of their production can be extended by culture beyond what have been assigned to them by nature4 ,the grasses yielding the grains are especially favoured in this respect1 though their extension depends upon the knowledge and industry of man2 no grain will be cultivated where it can be procured from a foreign market at less expense2 so that with regard to useful plants there is an artificial as well as a natural boundary4 ,the cultivation of plants in gardens and hot-houses is entirely artificial1 and depends on luxury and fashion4 ,tartary and ,persia are presumed to have been the original countries of wheat1 rye1 and oats2 but these grains have been so long in use that it is impossible to trace their origin with certainty4 ,barley grows spontaneously in ,tartary and ,sicily1 probably of different species4 ,those plants which produce the grains must have had a more extended location than any other1 and they can endure the greatest extremes of heat and cold4 ,in high northern latitudes wheat is protected from the inclemency of winter by sowing it in spring1 or if sown in autumn a coating of snow defends it3 the polar limit is the isothermal line of #eg #b1 and wheat will not form seed within less than #bj or #bc of the equator4 ,in ,america the northern limit is unknown1 the country being uninhabited2 but at ,cumberland ,house1 in the very middle of the continent1 one of the stations of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 in #ed ,n4 lat41 there are fields of wheat1 barley1 and maize4 ,wheat thrives luxuriantly in ,chile and ,rio de la ,plata1 and at elevations of #hejj and #aj1jjj feet above the sea4 ,it even produces grain on the banks of the ,lake ,titicaca in the ,peru-,bolivian ,andes at the absolute height of #ab1gie feet in sheltered situations1 and good crops of barley are raised in that elevated region4 ,barley bears cold better than any of the grains1 yet neither it nor any other will grow in ,iceland4 ,it is successfully cultivated in the ,feroe ,islands1 near ,cape ,north1 the extreme point of ,norway1 near ,archangel on the ,white ,sea1 and in ,central ,siberia to between #eh and #ei ,n4 lat4 ,rye is only cultivated where the soil is very poor1 and agriculture little understood1 yet a third of the population of ,europe lives on rye-bread1 chiefly inhabitants of the middle and especially of the northern parts2 its limit is about the #fgth parallel of ,n4 latitude4 ,oats are scarcely known in middle and southern ,europe2 in the north they are extensively cultivated to the #feth degree of ,n4 latitude4 ,rice is the food of a greater number of human beings than any other grain2 it has been cultivated from such high antiquity that all traces of its origin are lost4 ,it contains a greater proportion of nutritious matter than any of the ,cerealia1 but1 since it requires excessive moisture1 and a temperature of #gc #d at least1 its cultivation is limited to countries between the equator and the #deth parallel4 ,indian corn and millet are much cultivated in ,europe south of the #deth and #dgth parallels1 and form an important article of food in ,france1 ,italy1 ,africa1 ,india1 and ,america4 ,buck-wheat is extensively cultivated in northern ,europe and ,siberia and the table-lands of central ,asia2 it is a native of ,asia1 from whence it was brought into ,europe in the #aeth century4 ,the cerealia afford one of the most remarkable examples of numberless varieties arising from the seed of one species4 ,in ,ceylon alone there are #afj varieties of rice1 and at least #cj of ,panicum4 ,the endless varieties which may be raised from the seed of one plant is most conspicuous in the flower-garden3 the rose affords above #adjj2 the varieties of the pansy1 calceolaria1 tulip1 auricula1 and primrose are without end1 and often differ so much from the parent plant that it seems almost impossible they should have had a common origin3 it seems difficult to believe that red cabbage1 cauliflower1 and many others1 should have sprung from the sea-kale or ,brassica oleracea1 so totally dissimilar from any of them1 with its bitter sea-green curly leaves4 ,fashion changes so much with regard to plants that it is scarcely possible to form even an approximation to the number known to be in cultivation2 new plants are introduced from a foreign country1 and are apt to take the place of some of the older1 which are neglected and sometimes lost2 of #abj1jjj plants which are known to exist on the earth1 not more than #ae1jjj are believed to be in cultivation4 ,it is supposed that plants capable of bearing a great range of temperature would exist through longer geological periods than those more limited in their endurance of vicissitudes of temperature1 and it appears that in many instances at least the existence of varieties depends on the life of the plant from whence they originated2 the actual duration of individuals is a subject which has not been sufficiently studied1 though the progress of physiological botany has given the means of doing so without destroying the plant4 ,since forest-trees increase by coatings from without1 the growth of each year forming a concentric circle of wood round the pith or centre of the stem1 the age of a tree may be ascertained by counting the number of rings in a transverse section of the trunk1 each ring representing a year4 ,moreover1 the progress of the growth is known by comparing the breadth of the rings1 which are broader in a favourable than in an unfavourable season1 though this may depend also1 in some measure1 on the quality of the soil which the roots have come to in their downward growth4 ,if the number of concentric rings in a transverse section has shown the age of a tree1 and its girth has been ascertained by measurement1 an approximation to the age of any other tree of the same kind still growing1 under similar circumstances1 maybe determined by comparison4 ,in this way the age of many remarkable trees has been ascertained4 ,the yew attains a greater age than any other tree in ,europe4 ,according to ,m4 ,de ,candolle this tree increases in girth the twelfth part of an inch in a year during the first #aej years1 and rather less in the next hundred1 the increase probably decreasing progressively4 ,by that estimate a yew at ,fountaine ,abbey was reckoned by ,pennant to be #abad years old2 one at ,crowhurst1 in ,surrey1 was #adjj years old when measured by ,evelyn2 it has been shown by the same method that a yew at ,fotherngill1 in ,scotland1 was between #bejj and #bhjj years old2 and one at ,braburn1 in ,kent1 must have been #cjjj years old3 these are the veterans of ,european vegetation4 ,the cypress rivals the yew in longevity1 and may perhaps surpass it4 ,there is a cypress in the palace garden at ,grenada which had been celebrated in the time of the ,moors1 and was still known in the year #aggf1 as ,cipres della ,regina ,sultana1 because a sultana met with ,abencerrages under its shade4 ,oaks come next in order3 they are supposed to live #aejj or #afjj years4 ,one in ,welbec ,lane1 mentioned by ,evelyn1 was computated to be #adjj years old4 ,chestnut-trees are known to live #ijj years2 lime-trees have attained #ejj or #fjj years in ,france2 and birches are supposed to be equally durable4 ,some of the smaller and less conspicuous ,european plants perhaps rival these giants of the forest in age3 heaths1 and the alpine willow1 which covers the ground with its leaves1 although it is really a subterranean tree spreading to a vast distance1 are long lived4 ,ivy is another example of this3 there is one near ,montpellier1 six feet in girth1 which must be #dhe years old4 ,a lichen was watched for forty years without the appearance of change4 ,the antiquity of these ,european vegetables sinks into insignificance when compared with the celebrated baobab1 or ,adansonia digitata1 in ,senegal3 taking as a measure the number of concentric rings counted on a transverse incision made for the purpose in the trunk of that enormous tree1 it was proved to be #eaej years old2 yet ,baron ,humboldt considers a cypress in the garden of ,chapultepec to be still older2 it had already reached a great age when ,montezuma was on the throne of ,mexico1 in #aebj4 ,these two trees are probably the most aged organized beings on the face of the earth4 ,eight olive-trees on the ,mount of ,olives are supposed to be #hjj years old2 it is at least certain that they existed prior to the taking of ,jerusalem by the ,turks4 ,there is some doubt as to the age of the largest cedar on ,lebanon2 it is nine feet in diameter1 and has probably existed #hjj or #ijj years4 ,there are two cedar-trees in the ,botanic ,garden at ,chelsea which were mentioned #fjj years ago4 ,the age of palms and other monocotyledonous plants is ascertained by a comparison of their height with the time which each kind takes to grow4 ,m4 ,de ,candolle thus estimates that the ,cocos oleracea1 or cabbage-palms1 may live #fjj or #gjj years1 while the cocoa-nut palm lives from #hj to #ccj years4 ,mr4 ,babbage has made an approximation to the age of peat-mosses from the concentric rings of the trees found in them4 ,,marine ,,vegetation4 ,a vegetable world lies hid beneath the surface of the ocean1 altogether unlike that on land1 and existing under circumstances totally different with regard to light1 heat1 and pressure1 yet sustained by the same means4 ,carbonic acid and ammonia are as essential1 and metallic oxides are as indispensable1 to marine vegetation as they are to land-plants4 ,sea-water contains ammonia1 and something more than a twelve-thousandth part of its weight of carbonate of lime1 yet that minute portion is sufficient to supply all the shell-fish and coral-insects in the sea with materials for their habitations1 as well as food for vegetation4 ,marine plants are more expert chemists than we are1 for the water of the ocean contains rather less than a millionth part of its weight of iodine1 which they collect in quantities impossible for us to obtain otherwise than from their ashes4 ,sea-weeds fix their roots to anything--to stone1 wood1 and to other sea-weeds3 they must1 therefore1 derive all their nourishment from the water1 and the air it contains2 and the vital force or chemical energy by which they decompose and assimilate the substances fit for their maintenance is the sun's light4 ,marine plants1 which are very numerous1 consist of two groups--a jointed kind1 which include the ,conferv1 or plants having a thread-like form2 and a jointless kind1 to which belong dulse1 laver1 the kinds used for making kelp1 vegetable glue1 iodine1 that in the ,indian ,archipelago1 of which the sea-swallows make their edible nests1 and all the gigantic species which grow in submarine forests1 or float like green meadows in the open sea4 ,flower-bearing sea-weeds are very limited in their range1 which depends upon the depth of water and the nature of the coasts2 but the cryptogamic kinds are widely dispersed1 some species are even found in every climate from pole to pole4 ,no doubt the polar currents at the surface1 and the stratum of uniform temperature lower down1 are the highways by which these cosmopolites travel4#agj ,there are fewer vegetable provinces in the seas than on land1 because the temperature is more uniform1 and the dispersion of the plants is not so much interfered with by the various causes which disturb it on land4#aga ,marine vegetation varies both horizontally and vertically with the depth1 and it seems to be a general law throughout the ocean that the light of the sun and vegetation end together2 it consequently depends on the power of the sun and the transparency of the water2 so different kinds of sea-weeds affect different depths1 where the weight of the water1 the quantity of light and heat1 suit them best4 ,one great marine zone lies between the high and low water marks1 and varies in species with the nature of the coasts1 but exhibits similar phenomena throughout the northern hemisphere4 ,in the ,british seas1 where1 with two exceptions1 the whole flora is cryptogamic1#agb this zone does not extend deeper than #cj fathoms1 but is divided into two distinct provinces1 one to the south and another to the north4 ,the former includes the southern and eastern coasts of ,england1 the southern and western coasts of ,ireland1 and both the channels2 while the northern flora is confined to the ,scottish seas and the adjacent coasts of ,england and ,ireland4 ,the second ,british zone begins at low-water mark1 and extends below it to a depth from #g to #ae fathoms4 ,it contains the great tangle sea-weeds1 growing in miniature forests1 mixed with fuci1 and is the abode of a host of animals4 ,a coral-like sea-weed is the last plant of this zone1 and the lowest in these seas1 where it does not extend below the depth of #fj fathoms1 but in the ,mediterranean it is found at #gj or #hj fathoms1 and is the lowest plant in that sea4 ,the same law prevails in the ,bay of ,biscay1 where one set of sea-weeds is never found lower than #bj feet below the surface2 another only in the zone between the depths of #e and #cj feet2 and another between #ae and #ce feet4 ,in these two last zones they are most numerous2 at a greater depth the kinds continue to vary1 but their numbers decrease4 ,the seeds of each kind float at the depth most genial to the future plant2 they must therefore be of different weights4 ,the distribution in the ,egean ,sea was found by ,professor ,e4 ,forbes to be perfectly similar1 only that the vegetation is different1 and extends to a greater depth in the ,mediterranean than in more northern seas4#agc ,he also observed that sea-weeds growing near the surface are more limited in their distribution than those that grow lower down1 and that with regard to vegetation depth corresponds with latitude1 as height does on land4 ,thus1 the flora at great depths1 in warm seas1 is represented by kindred forms in higher latitudes4 ,there is every reason to believe that the same laws of distribution prevail throughout the ocean and every sea4 ,sea-weeds adhere firmly to the rocks before their fructification1 but they are easily detached afterwards1 which accounts for some of the vast fields of floating weeds2 but others1 of gigantic size and wide distribution1 are supposed to grow unattached in the water itself4 ,there are permanent bands of sea-weed in our ,british ,channel and in the ,north ,sea1 of the kind called ,fucus ,filum1 which grow abundantly on the western coasts of the ,channel1 and they lie in the direction of the currents1 in beds #ae or #bj miles long1 and not more than #fjj feet wide4 ,these bands must oscillate with the tides between two corresponding zones of rest1 one at the turn of the flood1 and the other at the turn of the ebb4 ,it is doubtful whether the ,fucus natans or ,sargassum bacciferum grows on rocks at the bottom of the ,atlantic1 between the parallels of #dj north and south of the equator1 and1 when detached1 is drifted uniformly to particular spots which never vary1 or whether it is propagated and grows in the water2 but the mass of that plant1 west of the ,azores1 occupies an area equal to that of ,france1 and has not changed its place since the time of ,columbus4 ,fields of the same kind cover the sea at the ,bahama ,islands and other places1 and two new species of it were discovered in the ,antarctic seas4 ,the ,macrocystis pyrifera and the ,laminaria radiata are the most remarkable of marine plants for their gigantic size and the extent of their range4 ,they were met with on the ,antarctic coasts two degrees nearer the south pole than any other vegetable production1 forming1 with one remarkable exception1 the utmost limit of vegetable life in the south polar seas4 ,the ,macrocystis pyrifera exists in vast detached masses1 like green meadows1 in every latitude from the south polar ocean to the #deth degree ,n4 lat4 in the ,atlantic1 and to the shores of ,california in the ,pacific1 where there are fields of it so impenetrable1 that it has saved vessels driven by the heavy swell towards that shore from shipwreck4 ,it is never seen where the temperature of the water is at the freezing point1 and is the largest of the vegetable tribe1 being occasionally #cjj or #djj feet long4 ,the ,laminaria abounds off the ,cape of ,good ,hope and in the ,antarctic ,ocean4 ,these two species form great part of a band of sea-weed that girds ,kerguelen ,islands so densely1 that a boat can scarcely be pulled through it2 and they are found in great abundance on the coasts of the ,falkland group1 and also in vast fields in the open sea1 hundreds of miles from any land3 had it ever grown on the distant shores1 it must have taken ages to travel so far1 drifted by the wind1 currents1 and the sand of the seas4 ,the red1 green1 and purple lavers of ,great ,britain are found on the coasts of the ,falkland ,islands2 and1 though some of the northern weeds are not found in the intervening warm seas1 they reappear here4 ,the ,lessonia is the most remarkable marine plant in this group of islands4 ,its stems1 much thicker than a man's leg1 and from #h to #aj feet long1 fix themselves by clasping fibres to the rocks beyond the high-water mark4 ,many branches shoot upwards from these stems1 from which long leaves droop into the water like willows4 ,there are immense submarine forests off ,patagonia and ,tierra del ,fuego1 attached to the rocks at the bottom4 ,these plants are so strong and buoyant1 that they bring up large masses of stone2 and1 as they grow slanting1 and stretch along the surface of the sea1 they are sometimes #cjj feet long4 ,the quantity of living creatures which inhabit these marine forests and the parasitical weeds attached to them is inconceivable1 they absolutely teem with life4 ,of the species of marine plants which are strictly antarctic1 including those in the seas of ,van ,diemen's ,land and ,new ,zealand1 ,dr4 ,hooker has identified one-fifth with the ,british ,alg4 ,the high latitudes of the ,antarctic ,ocean are not so destitute of vegetation as was at first believed4 ,most minute objects1 altogether invisible to the naked eye1 except in mass1 and which were taken for siliceous shelled animalcules of the infusoria kind1 prove to be vegetable4 ,they are a species of the ,diatomace1 which1 from their multitudes1 give the sea a pale ochreous brown colour4 ,they increase in numbers with the latitude1 up to the highest point yet attained by man1 and1 no doubt1 afford the supply of food to many of the minute animals in the antarctic seas4 ,genera and species of this plant exist in every sea from ,victoria ,land to ,spitzbergen4 ,it is one of the remarkable instances of a great end being effected by small means2 for the death of this antarctic vegetation is forming a submarine bank between the #gfth and #ghth parallels of south latitude1 and from the #afeth to the #afjth western meridian4 ,great patches of ,conferv are occasionally met with in the high seas4 ,bands several miles long1 of a reddish-brown species1 like chopped hay1 occur off ,bahia1 on the coast of ,brazil2 the same plant is said to have given the name to the ,red ,sea2 and different species are common in the ,australian seas4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,distribution of ,insects4 ,,three hundred thousand insects are known3 some with wings1 others without2 some are aquatic1 others are aquatic only in the first stage of their existence1 and many are parasitical4 ,some land insects are carnivorous1 others feed on vegetables2 some of the carnivorous tribe live on dead1 others on living animals1 but they are not half so numerous as those that live on vegetables4 ,some change as they are developed2 in their first stage they eat animal food1 and vegetables when they come to maturity4 ,insects maintain the balance among the species of the vegetable creation by preventing the tendency that plants have to encroach on one another4 ,the stronger would extirpate the weaker1 and the larger would destroy the smaller1 were it not checked by insects which live on vegetables4 ,on the other hand1 many plants would be extirpated by insects were these not devoured by other insects and spiders4 ,of the #hjjj or #ijjj ,british insects the greatest part are carnivorous1 and therefore keep the others within due bounds4 ,insects increase in kinds and in numbers from the poles to the equator3 in a residence of #aa months in ,melville ,island1 ,sir ,edward ,parry found only #f species1 because lichens and mosses do not afford nourishment for the insect tribes1 though it is probable that every other kind of plant gives food and shelter to more than one species2 it is even said that #dj different insects are quartered upon the common nettle4 ,the increase of insects from the poles to the equator does not take place at the same time everywhere4 ,the polar regions and ,new ,holland have very few specifically and individually2 they are more abundant in ,northern ,africa1 ,chile1 and in the plains west of the ,brazils2 ,north ,america has fewer species than ,europe in the same latitude1 and ,asia has few varieties of species in proportion to its size2 ,caffraria1 the ,african and ,indian islands1 possess nearly the same number of species2 but by far the richest of all1 both in species and numbers1 are central and intertropical ,america4 ,beetles are an exception to the law of increase towards the equator1 as they are infinitely more numerous in species in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere than in equatorial countries4 ,the location of insects depends upon that of the plants which yield their food2 and1 as almost each plant is peopled with inhabitants peculiar to itself1 insects are distributed over the earth in the same manner as vegetables2 the groups1 consequently1 are often confined within narrow limits1 and it is extraordinary that1 notwithstanding their powers of locomotion1 they often remain within a particular compass1 though the plants1 and all other circumstances in their immediate vicinity1 appear equally favourable for their habitation4 ,the insects of eastern ,asia and ,china are different from those in ,europe and ,africa2 those in the ,united ,states differ specifically from the ,british1 though they often approach very near2 and in ,south ,america the equinoctial districts of ,new ,grenada and ,peru have distinct groups from those in ,guiana4 ,though insects are distributed in certain limited groups1 yet most of the families have representatives in all the great regions of the globe1 and some identical species are inhabitants of countries far from one another4 ,the ,vanessa ,cardui1 or 8,painted ,lady ,butterfly10 is found in all the four quarters of the globe and in ,australia2 and one1 which never could have been conveyed by man1 is native in southern ,europe1 the coast of ,barbary1 and ,chile4 ,it is evident from these circumstances that not only each group1 but also each particular species1 must have been originally created in the places they now inhabit4 ,mountain-chains are a complete barrier to insects1 even more so than rivers3 not only lofty mountains like the ,andes divide the kinds1 but they are even different on the two sides of the ,col de ,tende in the ,alps4 ,each soil has kinds peculiar to itself1 whether dry or moist1 cultivated or wild1 meadow or forest4 ,stagnant water and marshes are generally full of them2 some live in water1 some run on its surface1 and every water-plant affords food and shelter to many different kinds4 ,the east wind seems to have considerable effect in bringing the insect or in developing the eggs of certain species2 for example1 the aphis1 known as the blight in our country1 lodges in myriads on plants1 and shrivels up their leaves after a continued east wind4 ,they are almost as destructive as the locust1 and sometimes darken the air by their numbers4 ,caterpillars are also very destructive2 the caterpillar of the ,y moth would soon ruin the vegetation of a country were it not a prey to some other4 ,insects sometimes multiply suddenly to an enormous extent1 and decrease as rapidly and as unaccountably4 ,temperature1 by its influence on vegetation1 has an indirect effect on the insects that are to feed upon plants1 and extremes of heat and cold have more influence on their locality than the mean annual temperature4 ,thus1 in the polar regions the mosquito tribes are more numerous and more annoying than in temperate countries1 because they pass their early stages of existence in water1 which shelters them1 and the short but hot summer is genial to their brief span of life4 ,in some instances height corresponds with latitude4 ,the ,parnassius ,apollo1 a butterfly native in the plains of ,sweden1 is also found in the ,alps1 the ,pyrenees1 and a closely-allied species in the ,himalaya4 ,the ,parnassius ,smyntheus1 true to the habitat of the genus1 has recently been found on the ,rocky ,mountains of ,north ,america4 ,some insects require several years to arrive at their perfect state2 they lie buried in the ground in the form of grubs3 the cock-chafer comes to maturity in #c years1 and some ,american species require a much longer time4 ,insects do not attain their perfect state till the plants they are to feed upon are ready for them4 ,hence1 in cold and temperate climates their appearance is simultaneous with vegetation2 and as the rainy and dry seasons within the tropics correspond to our winter and summer1 insects appear there after the rains1 and vanish in the heat3 the rains1 if too violent1 destroy them2 and in countries where that occurs1 there are two periods in the year in which they are most abundant--one before and one after the rains4 ,it is also observed in ,europe that insects decrease in the heat of summer1 and become more numerous in autumn3 the heat is thought to throw some into a state of torpor1 but the greater number perish4 ,it is not known that any insect depends entirely upon only one species of plant for its existence1 or whether it may not have recourse to congeners should its habitual plant perish4 ,when particular species of plants of the same family occur in places widely apart1 insects of the same genus will be found on them1 so that the existence of the plant may often be inferred from that of the insect1 and1 in several instances1 the converse4 ,when a plant is taken from one country to another in which it has no congeners1 it is not attacked by the insects of the country3 thus1 our cabbages and carrots in ,cayenne are not injured by the insects of that country1 and the tulip-tree and other magnolias are not molested by our insects2 but if a plant has congeners in its new country1 the inhabitants will soon find their way to the stranger4 ,the common fly is one of the most universal of insects1 yet it was unknown in some of the ,south ,sea islands till it was carried there by ships from ,europe1 and it has now become a plague4 ,the mosquito and culex are spread over the world more generally than any other tribe2 they are the torment of men and animals from the poles to the equator by night and by day3 the species are numerous1 and their location partial4 ,in the ,arctic regions the ,culex ,pipiens1 which passes two-thirds of its existence in water1 swarms in summer in myriads3 the lake ,myvatr1 in ,iceland1 has its name from the legions of these tormentors that cover its surface4 ,they are less numerous in central ,europe1 though one species of mosquito1 the ,simulium columbaschense1 which is very small1 appears in such clouds in parts of ,hungary1 especially the ,bannat of ,temeswar1 that it is not possible to breathe without swallowing many3 even cattle and children have died from them4 ,in ,lapland there is a plague of the same kind4 ,of all places on earth the ,orinoco and other great rivers of tropical ,america are the most obnoxious to this plague4 ,the account given by ,baron ,humboldt is really fearful3 at no season of the year1 at no hour of the day or night1 can rest be found2 whole districts in the upper ,orinoco are deserted on account of these insects4 ,different species follow one another with such precision1 that the time of day or night may be known accurately from their humming noise1 and from the different sensations of pain which the different poisons produce4 ,the only respite is the interval of a few minutes between the departure of one gang and the arrival of their successors1 for the species do not mix4 ,on some parts of the ,orinoco the air is one dense cloud of poisonous insects to the height of #bj feet4 ,it is singular that they do not infest rivers that have black water1 and each white stream is peopled with its own kinds2 though ravenous for blood1 they can live without it1 as they are found where no animals exist4 ,in ,brazil the quantity of insects is so great in the woods1 that their noise is heard in a ship at anchor some distance from the shore4 ,various genera of butterflies and moths are very limited in their habitations1 others are dispersed over the world1 but the species are almost always different4 ,bees and wasps are equally universal1 yet each country has its own4 ,the common honey-bee is the only ,european insect directly useful to man2 it was introduced into ,north ,america not many years ago1 and is now spread over the continent3 it is now naturalized in ,van ,diemen's ,land and ,new ,zealand4 ,european bees1 of which there are many species1 generally have stings2 the ,australian bee1 like a black fly1 is without a sting2 and in ,brazil there are #cj species of stingless bees4 ,fire-flies are mostly tropical1 yet there are four species in ,europe2 in ,south ,america there are three species1 and so brilliant that their pale green light is seen at the distance of #bjj paces4 ,the silkworm comes from ,china1 and the cochineal insect is a native of tropical ,america3 there are many species of it in other countries4 ,the ,coccus ,lacca is ,indian1 the ,coccus ,ilicis lives in ,italy1 and there is one in ,poland1 but neither of these have been cultivated4 ,scorpions under various forms are in all warm climates2 #b or #c species are peculiar to ,europe1 but they are small in comparison with those in tropical countries3 one in ,brazil is six inches long4 ,as in mosquitos1 the poison of the same species is more active in some situations than in others4 ,at ,cumana the sting of the scorpion is little feared1 while that of the same species in ,carthagena causes loss of speech for many days4 ,ants1 ,formicid 7,hymenoptera71 are universally distributed1 but of different kinds4 ,near great rivers they build their nests above the line of the annual inundations4 ,the insects called white ants1 belonging to a different genus and family ,termitid 7,neuroptera71 are so destructive in ,south ,america1 that ,baron ,humboldt says there is not a manuscript in that country a hundred years old4 ,there are upwards of #abjj species of spiders and their allies known2 each country has its own1 varying in size1 colour1 and habits1 from the huge bird-catching spider of ,south ,america1 to the almost invisible ,european gossamer floating in the air on its silvery thread4 ,many of this ferocious family are aquatic2 and spiders1 with some other insects1 are said to be the first inhabitants of new islands4 ,the migration of insects is one of the most curious circumstances relating to them3 they sometimes appear in great flights in places where they never were seen before1 and they continue their course with perseverance which nothing can check4 ,this has been observed in the migration of crawling insects3 caterpillars have attempted to cross a stream4 ,countries near deserts are most exposed to the invasion of locusts1 which deposit their eggs in the sand1 and1 when the young are hatched by the sun's heat1 they emerge from the ground without wings2 but as soon as they attain maturity1 they obey the impulse of the first wind1 and fly1 under the guidance of a leader1 in a mass1 whose front keeps a straight line1 so dense that it forms a cloud in the air1 and the sound of their wings is like the murmur of the distant sea4 ,they take immense flights1 crossing the ,mozambique ,channel from ,africa to ,madagascar1 which is #abj miles broad3 they come from ,barbary to ,italy1 and a few have been seen in ,scotland4 ,even the wandering tribes of locusts differ in species in different deserts1 following the universal law of organized nature4 ,insects1 not habitually migratory1 sometimes migrate in great flocks4 ,in #ahdg lady-birds or coccinell and the bean aphis arrived in immense multitudes at ,ramsgate and ,margate from the continent1 in fine calm weather1 and a mass of the ,vanessa cardui flew over a district in a column from #aj to #ae yards wide1 for #b hours successively4 ,why these butterflies should simultaneously take wing in a flock is unaccountable1 for had it been for want of food they would probably have separated in quest of it4 ,in #ahdg the cabbage butterfly came in a mass from the coast of ,france to ,england4 ,dragon-flies migrate in a similar manner4 ,professor ,ehrenberg has discovered a new world of creatures in the ,infusoria1 so minute that they are invisible to the naked eye4 ,he found them in fog1 rain1 and snow1 in the ocean1 in stagnant water1 in animal and vegetable juices1 in volcanic ashes and pumice1 in opal1 in the dusty air that sometimes falls on the ocean2 and he detected #ah species #bj feet below the surface of the ground in peat-earth1 which was full of microscopic live animals3 they exist in ice1 and are not killed by boiling water4 ,this lowest order of animal life is much more abundant than any other1 and new species are found every day4 ,magnified1 some of them seem to consist of a transparent vesicle1 and some have a tail3 they move with great alacrity1 and show intelligence by avoiding obstacles in their course3 others have siliceous shells4 ,language1 and even imagination1 fails in the attempt to describe the inconceivable myriads of these invisible inhabitants of the ocean1 the air1 and the earth3 they no doubt become the prey of larger creatures1 and perhaps bloodsucking insects may have recourse to them when other prey is wanting4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,distribution of ,marine ,animals in general--,fishes--the ,marine ,mammalia-- ,phoc1 ,dolphins1 and ,whales4 ,,before ,sir ,james ,ross's voyage to the ,antarctic regions1 the profound and dark abysses of the ocean were supposed to be entirely destitute of animal life2 now it may be presumed that no part of it is uninhabited1 since during that expedition live creatures were fished up from a depth of #fjjj feet4 ,but as most of the larger fish usually frequent shallow water near the coasts1 deep seas must form barriers as impassable to the greater number of them as mountains do to land animals4 ,the polar1 the equatorial ocean1 and the inland seas1 have each their own particular inhabitants2 almost all the species and some of the genera of the marine creation are different in the two hemispheres1 and even in each particular sea2 and under similar circumstances the species are for the most part representative1 though not the same4 ,identity of species1 however1 does occur1 even at the two extremities of the globe1 for living animals were brought up from the profound depths of the ,antarctic ,ocean which ,sir ,james ,ross recognized to be the very same species which he had often met with in the ,arctic seas4 8,the only way they could have got from the one pole to the other must have been through the tropics2 but the temperature of the sea in these regions is such that they could not exist in it unless at a depth of nearly #bjjj fathoms4 ,at that depth they might pass from the ,arctic to the ,antarctic ,ocean without a variation of #e degrees of temperature2 whilst any land animal1 at the most favourable season1 must experience a difference of #ej degrees1 and1 if in winter1 no less than #aej degrees of ,fahrenheit's thermometer20--a strong presumption that marine creatures can exist at the depth and under the enormous pressure of #ab1jjj feet of water4 ,the stratum of constant temperature in the ocean may indeed afford the means of migration from pole to pole to those which live in shallower water1 as they would only have to descend to a depth of #gbjj feet at the equator4 ,the great currents1 no doubt1 offer paths for fish without any sudden change of temperature3 the inhabitants of the ,antarctic ,sea may come to the coasts of ,chile and ,peru by the cold stream that flows along them from the south polar ocean1 and1 on the contrary1 tropical fish may travel by the ,gulf-stream to the middle and high latitudes in the ,atlantic1 but few will leave either one or other to inhabit the adjacent seas1 on account of the difference of heat4 ,nevertheless1 quantities of medus or sea-nettles are brought by the ,gulf-stream to feed the whales at the ,azores1 though the whales themselves never enter the stream1 on account of its warmth4 ,the form and nature of the coasts have great influence on the distribution of fishes2 when they are uniformly of the same geological structure1 so as to afford the same food and shelter1 the fish are similar4 ,their distribution is also determined by climate1 the depth of the sea1 the nature of the bottom1 and the influx of fresh water4 ,the ocean1 the most varied and most wonderful part of the creation1 absolutely teems with life3 8things innumerable1 both great and small1 are there40 ,the forms are not to be numbered even of those within our reach2 yet1 numerous as they are1 few have been found exempt from the laws of geographical distribution4 ,the discoloured portions of the ocean generally owe the tints they assume to myriads of insects4 ,in the ,arctic seas1 where the water is pure transparent ultramarine colour1 parts of #bj or #cj square miles1 #aejj feet deep1 are green and turbid from the quantity of minute animalcules4 ,captain ,scoresby calculated that it would require #hj1jjj persons1 working unceasingly from the creation of man to the present day1 to count the number of insects contained in #b miles of the green water4 ,what1 then1 must be the amount of animal life in the polar regions1 where one-fourth part of the ,greenland ,sea1 for #aj degrees of latitude1 consists of that water6 ,these animalcules are of the medusa tribe1 mixed with others that are moniliform4 ,some medus are very large1 floating like jelly2 and although apparently carried at random by the waves1 each species has its definite location1 and even organs of locomotion4 ,one species comes in spring from the ,greenland seas to the coast of ,holland2 and ,baron ,humboldt met with an immense shoal of them in the ,atlantic1 migrating at a rapid rate4 ,dr4 ,pppig mentions a stratum of red water near ,cape ,pilares1 #bd miles long and #g broad1 which1 seen from the mast-head1 appeared dark-red1 but on proceeding it became a brilliant purple1 and the wake of the vessel was rose-colour4 ,the water was perfectly transparent1 but small red dots could be discerned moving in spiral lines4 ,the vermilion sea off ,california is no doubt owing to a similar cause1 as ,mr4 ,darwin found red and chocolate-coloured water on the coast of ,chile over spaces of several square miles full of microscopic animalcules1 darting about in every direction1 and sometimes exploding4 ,infusoria are not confined to fresh water2 the bottom of the sea swarms with them4 ,siliceous-coated infusoria are found in the mud of the coral islands under the equator2 and #fh species were discovered in the mud in ,erebus ,bay1 near the ,antarctic pole4 ,these minute forms of organized being1 invisible to the naked eye1 are intensely and extensively developed in both of the polar oceans1 and serve for food to the higher orders of fish in latitudes beyond the limits of the larger vegetation1 though they themselves probably live on the microscopic plant already mentioned1 which abounds in all seas4 ,some are peculiar to each of the polar seas1 some are common to both1 and a few are distributed extensively throughout the ocean4 ,the enormous prodigality of animal life supplies the place of vegetation1 so scanty in the ocean in comparison with that which clothes the land1 and which probably would be insufficient for the supply of the marine creation1 were the deficiency not made up by the superabundant land vegetation and insects carried to the sea by rivers4 ,the fish that live on sea-weed must bear a smaller proportion to those that are predacious than the herbivorous land animals do to the carnivorous4 ,fish certainly are most voracious2 none are without their enemies2 they prey and are preyed upon2 and there are two which devour even the live coral1 hard as its coating is2 nor does the coat of mail of shell-fish protect them4 ,whatever the proportion may be which predatory fish bear to herbivorous1 the quantity of both must be enormous1 for1 besides the infusoria1 the great forests of fuci and sea-weed are everywhere a mass of infinitely varied forms of being1 either parasitical1 feeding on them1 seeking shelter among them1 or in pursuit of others4 ,the observations of ,professor ,e4 ,forbes in the ,egean ,sea show that depth has great influence in the geographical distribution of marine animals4 ,from the surface to the depth of #bcj fathoms there are eight distinct regions in that sea1 each of which has its own vegetation and inhabitants4 ,the number of shell-fish and other marine animals is greater specifically and individually between the surface and the depth of #b fathoms than in all the regions below taken together1 and both decrease downwards to the depth of #aje fathoms2 between which and the depth of #bcj only eight shells were found2 and animal life ceases in that part of the ,mediterranean at #cjj fathoms4 ,the changes in the different zones are not abrupt2 some of the creatures of an under region always appear before those of the region above vanish2 and although there are a few species the same in some of the eight zones1 only two are common to all4 ,those near the surface have forms and colours belonging to the inhabitants of southern latitudes1 while those lower down are analogous to the animals of northern seas2 so that in the sea depth corresponds with latitude1 as height does on land4 ,moreover1 the extent of the geographical distribution of any species is proportional to the depth at which it lives2 consequently1 those living near the surface are less widely dispersed than those inhabiting deep water4 ,professor ,forbes also discovered several shells living in the ,mediterranean that have hitherto only been known as fossils of the tertiary strata2 and also that the species least abundant as fossils are most numerous alive1 and the converse2 hence1 the former are near their maximum1 while the latter are approaching to extinction4 ,these very important experiments1 it is true1 were confined to the ,mediterranean2 but analogous results have been obtained in the ,bay of ,biscay and in the ,british seas4 ,there are four zones of depth in our seas1 each of which has its own inhabitants1 consisting of shell-fish1 crustace1 corallines and other marine creatures4 ,the first zone lies between high and low-water marks1 consequently it is shallow in some places and #cj feet deep in others4 ,in all parts of the northern hemisphere it presents the same phenomena2 but the animals vary with the nature of the coast1 according as it is of rock1 gravel1 sand1 or mud4 ,in the ,british seas the animals of this littoral or coast zone are distributed in three groups that differ decidedly from one another1 though many are common to all4 ,one occupies the seas on the southern shores of our islands and both channels2 a middle group has its centre in the ,irish seas2 and the third is confined to the ,scottish seas1 and the adjacent coasts of ,england and ,ireland4 ,the second zone extends from the low-water mark to a depth below it of from #g to #ae fathoms1 and is crowded with animals living on and among the sea-weeds1 as radiated animals1 shell-fish1 and many zoophites4 ,in the third zone1 which is below that of vegetable life1 marine animals are more numerous and of greater variety than in any other4 ,it is particularly distinguished by arborescent creatures1 that seem to take the place of plants1 carnivorous mollusca1 together with large and peculiar radiata4 ,it ranges from the depth of #ae to #ej fathoms4 ,the last zone is the region of stronger corals1 peculiar mollusca1 and of others that only inhabit deep water4 ,this zone extends to the depth of #ajj fathoms or more4 ,except in the ,antarctic seas1 the superior zone of shell-fish is the only one of which anything is known in the great oceans1 which have numerous special provinces4 ,many1 like the harp1 are tropical2 others1 as the nautilus and the pearl-oyster1 are nearly so2 the latter abounds throughout the ,persian ,gulf and on the coasts of ,borneo and ,ceylon1 which are thought to produce the finest pearls4 ,there are many also in the ,caribbean ,sea1 and in the ,pacific1 and especially in the ,bay of ,panama1 but whether the species are different is not known4 ,some shells are exceedingly limited in their distribution1 as the ,haliotis gigantea1 which is peculiar to the sea of ,van ,diemen's ,land4 ,according to ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 nearly all the species of molluscous animals in the seas of the two temperate zones are distinct1 yet the whole species in one bears a strong analogy to that in the other2 both differ widely from those in the tropical and arctic oceans2 and1 under the same latitude1 species vary with the longitude4 ,the east and west coasts of tropical ,america have only one shell-fish in common2 and those of both differ from the shell-fish in the islands of the ,pacific and the ,galapagos ,archipelago1 which forms a distinct region4 ,notwithstanding the many definite marine provinces1 the same species are occasionally found in regions widely separated4 ,a few of the shell-fish of the ,galapagos ,archipelago are the same with those of the ,philippine islands1 though so far apart4 ,the east coast of ,america1 which is poor in shell-fish1 has a considerable number in common with the coasts of ,europe4 ,the ,cypra moneta lives in the ,mediterranean1 the seas of ,south ,africa1 the ,mauritius1 the ,east ,indies1 ,china1 and the ,south ,seas even to ,otaheite2 and the ,janthina frangilis1 the animal of which is of a beautiful violet-colour1 floats on the surface in every tropical and temperate sea4 ,mollusca have a greater power of locomotion than is generally believed4 ,some migrate in their larva state1 being furnished with lobes which enable them to swim freely4 ,the larva of the scalop is capable of migrating to distant regions2 the argonauta spreads its sail and swims along the surface4 ,the numerous species of ,zoophytes which construct the extensive coral banks and atolls are chiefly confined to the tropical seas of ,polynesia1 the ,east and ,west ,indies3 the family is represented by a very few species in our seas1 and in the ,mediterranean they are smaller and different1 generally1 from those in the torrid zone4 ,the larger and more active inhabitants of the waters obey the same laws with the rest of the creation1 though the provinces are in some instances very extensive4 ,dr4 ,richardson observes that there is one vast province in the ,pacific1 extending #db degrees on each side of the equator1 between the meridians including ,australia1 ,new ,zealand1 the ,malay ,archipelago1 ,china1 and ,japan1 in which the genera are the same2 but at its extremities the ,arctic and ,antarctic genera are mingled with the tropical forms4 ,many species1 however1 which abound in the ,indian ,ocean range as far north as ,japan1 from which circumstance it is presumed that a current sets in that direction4 ,the middle portion of this province is vastly extended in longitude1 for very many species of the ,red ,sea1 the eastern coast of ,africa1 and the ,mauritius range to the ,indian and ,china ,seas1 to those of northern ,australia and all ,polynesia2 so in this immense belt1 which embraces three-fourths of the circumference of the globe1 and #fj degrees of latitude1 the fish are very nearly alike1 the continuous chains of islands in the ,pacific being favourable to their dispersion4 ,few of the ,pacific fish enter the ,atlantic2#agd and from the depth and want of islands in it the great bulk of species is different on its two sides4 ,north of the #ddth parallel1 however1 the number common to both shores increases4 ,the salmon of ,america is identical with that of the ,british isles1 the coasts of ,norway and ,sweden2 the cod-fish is the same1 as well as several others of the cod family4 ,the ,cottus or bullhead tribe are also the same on both sides of the ,north ,atlantic1 and they increase in numbers and variety on approaching the ,arctic seas4 ,the same occurs in the northern ,pacific1 though the generic forms differ from those in the ,atlantic4 ,from the near approach of the ,american and ,asiatic coasts at ,behring's ,straits1 the fish on both sides are nearly alike1 down to the ,sea of ,okhotsk on one side and to ,admiralty ,inlet on the other4 ,the ,japan ,sea and the neighbouring coasts of ,china are frequented by fish having northern forms1 which are there mingled with many species common to the temperate and warm parts of the ocean4 ,species of the genus ,gadus or ,cod reappear in the southern seas very like those of the northern2 and two very remarkable ,greenland genera1 which inhabit deeper water1 and are seldom taken except when thrown up by a storm1 have been discovered on the coasts of ,new ,zealand and ,south ,australia1 where the fish differ but little from those in the seas of ,van ,diemen's ,land4 ,several genera are peculiar to the southern hemisphere1 and range throughout the whole circle of the high latitudes4 ,the sharks of the ,china seas are1 for the most part1 identical with those of ,australia3 the cartilaginous fish to which they belong have a much wider range than those which have been under consideration4 ,the ,british islands lie between two great provinces of fishes--one to the south1 the other to the north--from each of which we have occasionally visitors4 ,the centre of the first is on the coasts of the ,spanish peninsula1 extending into the ,mediterranean2 that on the north has its centre about the ,shetland ,islands2 but the group peculiarly ,british1 and found nowhere else1 has its focus in the ,irish ,sea4 ,it is1 however1 mixed with fish from the seas bounding the western shores of central ,europe1 which form a distinct group4 ,the ,prince of ,canino has shown that there are #hec species of ,european fish1 of which #baj live in fresh water1 #fdc are marine1 and #fj of these go up rivers to spawn4 #ddd of the marine fish inhabit the ,mediterranean1 #baf are ,british1 and #aga are peculiar to the ,scandinavian seas2 so that the ,mediterranean is richest in variety of species4 ,in it there are peculiar sharks1 sword-fish1 dolphins1 anchovies1 and six species of scomber or tunny1 one of the largest of edible fish1 for which fisheries are established on the southern coasts of ,france1 in ,sardinia1 ,elba1 the ,straits of ,messina1 and the ,adriatic4 ,four of the species are found nowhere else but in the ,mediterranean4 ,rays of numerous species are particularly characteristic of the ,mediterranean1 especially the two torpedos1 which have the power of giving an electric shock1 and even the electric spark4 ,the ,mediterranean has two or three ,american species1 #da fish in common with ,madeira1 one in common with the ,red ,sea1 and a very few seem to be ,indian4 ,some of these fish must have entered the ,mediterranean before it was separated from the ,red ,sea by the ,isthmus of ,suez2 but geological changes have had very great influence on the distribution of fishes everywhere4 ,taking salt and fresh-water fish together1 there are #ajj species common to ,italy and ,britain2 and although the communication with the ,black ,sea is so direct1 there are only #bg fish common to it and the ,mediterranean2 but the ,black ,sea forms a district by itself1 having its own peculiar fish2 and those in the ,caspian ,sea differ entirely from those in every other part of the globe4 ,the island of ,madeira1 solitary amid a great expanse of ocean1 has many species4 ,they amount in number to half of those in ,britain2 and nearly as many are common to ,britain and ,madeira as to that island and the ,mediterranean2 so that many of our fish have a wide range in the ,atlantic4 ,the ,mediterranean certainly surpasses the ,british and ,scandinavian seas in variety1 though it is far inferior to either in the quantity or quality of useful fish4 ,cod1 turbot1 haddock1 tusk1 ling1 herring1 and many more1 are better in northern seas than elsewhere1 and several exist there only4 ,the greater number of fish used by man as food frequent shoal water4 ,the coast of ,holland1 our own shores1 and other parts of the ,north ,sea where the water is shallow1 teem with a never-ending supply of excellent fish of many kinds4 ,vast numbers are gregarious and migratory4 ,cod arrive in the shallow parts of the coast of ,norway in ,february1 in shoals many yards deep1 and so closely crowded together that the sounding-lead can hardly pass between them3 #af1jjj1jjj have been caught in one place in a few weeks4 ,in ,april they return to the ocean4 ,herrings come in astonishing quantities in winter4 ,the principal cod fisheries are on the banks of ,newfoundland and the ,dogger-bank4 ,they1 like all animals1 frequent the places to which they have been accustomed4 ,herrings come to the same places for a series of years1 and then desert them1 perhaps from having exhausted the food4 ,pilchards1 mackerel1 and many others1 may be mentioned among the gregarious and migratory fish4 ,sharks like deep water4 ,they are found of different species in all tropical and temperate seas2 and1 although always dangerous1 they are more ferocious in some places than in others1 even of the same species4 ,most lakes have fish of peculiar species1 as the lake ,baikal4 ,the fishes of the great interalpine ,lake of ,titicaca amount to #g or #h species1 and belong to genera only found in the higher regions of the ,andes4 ,in the ,north ,american lakes there is a thick-scaled fish1 analogous to those of the early geological eras2 and the gillaroo trout1 which is remarkable in having a gizzard1 is found in ,ireland only4 ,pike and salmon are the only species of fresh-water fish common to ,europe and ,north ,america2 the pike is1 however1 unknown west of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,the common salmon does not exist beyond #de of ,n4 lat4 on the eastern coast of ,america1 and it is probably confined within similar limits on the eastern coast of ,asia4 ,it is said to be an inhabitant of all the northern parts of the old world from the entrance of the ,bay of ,biscay to ,north ,cape1 and along the arctic shores of ,asia and ,kamtchatka to the ,sea of ,okhotsk1 including the ,baltic1 ,white ,sea1 ,gulf of ,kara1 and other inlets4 ,other kinds of the ,salmon tribe are plentiful in the estuaries of ,kamtchatka and on the opposite coast of ,america down to ,oregon1 but apparently they do not extend to ,china4 ,salmon go up rivers to spawn1 and make extraordinary leaps over impediments of rocks or walls1 in order to reach the suitable places for depositing their eggs4 ,forty-four fish inhabit the ,british lakes and rivers1 and #ej those of ,scandinavia1 of the very best kinds4 ,the fresh-water fish of northern climates are better than those of the southern4 ,each tropical river has its own species of fish4 ,the fresh-water fish of ,china agree with those of ,india in generic forms1 but not in species2#age and those of the ,cape of ,good ,hope and ,south ,america differ from those in ,india and ,china4 ,sea-fish1 in immense quantities1 frequent the estuaries of rivers everywhere4 ,the mouth of the ,mississippi is full of fish2 and the quantity at the mouth of the ,don1 in the ,sea of ,azof1 is prodigious4 ,there are some singular analogies between the inhabitants of the sea and those of the land4 ,many of the medus1 two corallines1 the ,physalia1 or ,portuguese man-of-war1 of sailors1 and some others1 sting like a nettle when touched4 ,a cuttle-fish1 at the ,cape de ,verde islands1 changes colour like the chameleon1 assuming the tint of the ground under it4 ,herrings1 pilchards1 and many other fish1 as well as sea insects1 are luminous4 ,the medusa tribe1 the species of which are numerous1 have the faculty of shedding light in the highest degree4 ,in warm climates1 especially1 the sea seems to be on fire1 and the wake of a ship is like a vivid flame4 ,probably fish that go below the depths to which the light of the sun penetrates are endowed with this faculty2 and shoals of luminous insects have been seen at a considerable depth below the surface of the water4 ,the glow-worm1 some beetles1 and fire-flies1 shine with the same pale-green light4 ,but among the terrestrial inhabitants there is nothing analogous to the property of the ,gymnotus electricus of ,south ,america1 the trembler1 or ,silurus electricus1 of the ,african rivers1 and the different species of the torpedo of the ,mediterranean1 which possess the faculty of giving the electric shock4 ,the marine mammalia1 which1 as their name indicates1 suckle their young1 form two distinct families--the ,phoc or seals1 and the ,cetacea or whales1 and porpoises3 whilst fish breathe by means of gills1 which separate the air dissolved in the water1 the marine mammalia possess lungs and breathe as the terrestrial quadrupeds2 they are obliged to come to the surface from time to time1 consequently1 to inhale the air4 ,the first family consists of the seal tribe1 and is most abundant in the polar regions2 they live exclusively on fish1 are carnivorous1 and are seldom found at a great distance from the land or ice islands4 ,to this division belong the common seal and the walrus in our northern hemisphere2 whilst the genus ,otaria or sea-lion1 with different forms and characters1 and which attains in general a greater size1 is only found in high southern latitudes4 ,the family of ,cetacea consists of three great genera3 the manati and dugong1 which live in or near the estuaries of tropical rivers1 are herbivorous2 the dolphins or porpoises1 which are carnivorous1 provided with long jaws and numerous teeth1 and are found in almost every latitude and in every sea2 and the whales1 which1 unprovided with cutting teeth1 are furnished with whalebone inserted in the upper jaw1 the extreme filaments of which are destined as a kind of net to catch the minute marine animals which form their food4 ,the marine ,cetacea breathe by an opening in the centre of the head1 called1 in whales1 the blower1 corresponding to the nose of terrestrial quadrupeds1 and which also serves to expel the water taken into the mouth with the food1 in the form of jets1 which1 in the whale tribe1 varies in height and form according to the species4 ,the favorite haunts of the seal tribe are the polar oceans and desert islands in high latitudes1 where they bask in hundreds on the sunny shores during the brief summer of these inhospitable regions1 and become an easy prey to man1 who has nearly extirpated the race in many places4 ,a million are annually killed in the ,south ,atlantic alone4 ,seven species are natives of the ,arctic1 ,atlantic1 and ,polar ,oceans2 the ,greenland seal1 the bearded or great seal1 and the ,phoca leporina are found also in the high latitudes of the ,northern ,pacific4 ,the ,phoca oceanica is only in the ,white ,sea and the sea at ,nova ,zembla1 and the ,phoca sagura on the coast of ,newfoundland4 ,the sea-lion is to be found on all the coasts of the ,south ,pacific1 but their principal gathering is on the island of ,st4 ,george1 one of the ,pruibiloff group1 in lat4 #ef ,n4 ,the common seal is #f or #g feet long1 with a face like that of a dog1 and a large intelligent eye4 ,it is easily tamed1 and in the ,orkney island it is so much domesticated that it follows its master1 and helps him to catch fish4 ,this seal migrates in herds from ,greenland twice in the year1 and returns again to its former haunts2 they probably come to the coasts of ,europe and the ,british islands at the time of their migrations1 but the ,phoca vitulina is a constant inhabitant of our shores4 ,some of the seal tribe have a very wide range1 as the fur species1 ,arctocephalus ursinus1 of the ,falkland islands1 which at one time frequented the southern coasts of ,new ,holland in multitudes1 but they and three other species have now become scarce1 from the indiscriminate slaughter of old and young4 ,sir ,james ,ross found some of the islands in the ,antarctic seas overrun with the sea-elephant1 ,phoca elephantina1 and they captured a new species of seal without external ears4 ,the ,walrus1 a grim-looking creature1 with tusks #b feet long1 bent downwards1 and its nose covered with transparent bristles1 has a body like that of a seal1 #bj feet long1 with a coat of short grey or yellow hair4 ,it sleeps on the floating ice1 feeds on sea-weed and marine animals1 and never leaves the ,arctic seas4 ,the manati and dugong form the first group of the family of the ,cetacea2 they are exclusively herbivorous1 and inhabit near the mouths of the great tropical rivers4 ,the lamantin or manatus of two species is found in the ,amazon and ,orinoco1 and in some rivers of ,western ,africa4 ,in the former1 where it is known as the sea-cow1 its body is round like a wine-bag1 and sometimes attains a length of #ab or #ae feet2 it browses in herds on the herbage at the bottom of streams2 and when attacked1 the mother defends her young at the sacrifice of her own life4 ,the dugong is an inhabitant of the eastern archipelago1 and of the shallow parts of the ,indian ,ocean1 where it also feeds on sea-weed2 it is more a marine animal than the lamantin1 as it is scarcely ever seen in fresh water4 ,the dugong is so harmless and tame as to allow itself to be handled4 ,when it suckles its young it sits upright1 which has given rise to the fable of the ,mermaid4 ,this animal1 like the lamantin1 will sacrifice its life for its young1 and is1 hence1 among the ,malays1 held as the type of maternal affection4 ,the animal called the ,manatus septentrionalis1 which frequents the ,arctic seas1 is very little known1 and probably not one of the herbivorous ,cetacea4 ,the second group or genus of the ,cetacea consists of those of predatory habits2 they live on fish1 and1 consequently1 have sharp and numerous teeth1 such as porpoises1 dolphins1 and spermaceti whales or ,cachalots2 they have1 like all the animals of this family1 spouting nostrils in the upper part of the head4#agf ,the common porpoise is seen spouting and tumbling on the surface of all the seas of ,europe2 shoals of them go in pursuit of herrings and mackerel1 and even swim up the rivers in chase of salmon4 ,they have more the form of fish than the seal tribe1 and have a dorsal fin4 ,the several species of ,dolphins1 so remarkable for their voracity and for the swiftness of their motions1 owing to the symmetry of their form and the width of their horizontally-placed tail1 are seen in almost every latitude4 ,the white dolphin1 eaten by the ,icelanders1 is #ah feet long1 and migrates from the ,atlantic to ,greenland in the end of ,november4 ,the ,grampus1 ,delphinus ,orca1 nearly allied to the killer of the ,south ,sea whalers1 is fierce and voracious1 often #bj feet long1 roams in numerous shoals1 preying upon the larger fish1 and even attacking the whale4 ,the ,grind or black dolphin has been known to run ashore in hundreds in the bays of ,feroe1 ,orkney1 and ,shetland4 ,this seems to be the same or nearly allied to the black fish which was met with in vast numbers by ,sir ,james ,ross in the ,antarctic seas3 they had so little fear1 that they darted below the ship on one side and came up at the other4 ,the white porpoise1 ,delphinus peronii1 of the southern whalers1 is a rare and elegant species of dolphin which chiefly inhabits the high southern latitudes1 but has been seen at the equator in the ,pacific4 ,they are about six feet long1 the hinder part of the head1 the back1 and the flukes of their tail are black1 and all the rest of the purest white4 ,the ,narwhal1 or sea-unicorn 7,monodon monoceros71 has no teeth1 but a tusk of fine ivory wreathed with a spiral groove extending #h or #aj feet straight from the head2 in general there is only one tusk1 but there are always the rudiments of another1 and occasionally both grow to an equal length4 ,the old narwhals are white with blackish spots1 the young are dark-coloured4 ,this singular creature1 which is about sixteen feet long without the tusks1 swims with great swiftness4 ,mr4 ,scoresby has seen #ae or #bj at a time playing round his ship in the ,arctic seas1 and crossing their long tusks in all directions as if they were fencing2 they are found in all parts of the ,northern ,ocean4 ,the spermaceti whale1 the ,cachalot or ,physeter ,macrocephalus1 belonging to the family of the predaceous spouters1 is one of the most formidable inhabitants of the deep4 ,its average size is #fj feet long and #dj feet in circumference2 its head1 equal to a third of its length1 is extremely thick and blunt in front1 with a throat wide enough to swallow a man4 ,the proportionally small swimming paws or pectoral fins are at a short distance behind the head1 and the tail1 which is a horizontal triangle #f or #g feet long1 and #ai feet wide1 with a notch between the flukes1 is the chief organ of progressive motion and defence4 ,it has a hump of fat on its back1 is of a dark colour1 but with a very smooth clean skin4 ,these sperm whales have two nostrils on the top of their head1 through which they throw1 at each expiration1 a succession of jets like smoke1 at intervals of #ae or #bj minutes1 after which they toss their tails high in the air and go head foremost to vast depths1 where they remain for a considerable time1 and then return again to the surface to breathe4 ,the jet or spout is from #f to #h feet high1 and consists of water mixed with air1 expired from the lungs4 ,this whale has sperm-oil and spermaceti in every part of its body1 but the latter is chiefly in a vast reservoir in its head1 which makes it very buoyant1 and ambergris is sometimes found in the inside of the body1 supposed to be the produce of disease4 ,these huge monsters1 occasionally #ge feet long1 go in great herds of #ejj or #fjj1 or schools1 as the whalers call them4 ,females with their young1 and two or three old males1 generally form one company1 and the young males another1 while the old males feed and hunt singly4 ,the sperm whales swim gracefully and equally1 with their head above the water2 but when a troop of them play on the surface of the water1 some of these uncouth and gigantic creatures leap with the agility of a salmon several feet into the air1 and fall down again heavily with a tremendous crash and noise like a cannon1 driving the water up in lofty columns capped with foam4 ,the fishery of the sperm whale is attended with great danger2 not only the wounded animal1 but its companions who come to its aid1 sometimes fight desperately1 killing the whalers and tossing them into the air with a sweep of their tremendous tails1 or biting a boat in two4 ,in #ahbj1 the ,american whaler ,essex was wrecked in the ,pacific by a sperm whale2 it first gave the ship so severe a blow that it broke off part of the keel1 then1 retreating to a distance1 it rushed furiously1 and with its enormous head beat in a portion of the planks1 and the people had just time to save themselves in the boats when the vessel filled4 ,they often lie and listen when suspicious of mischief4 ,no part of the aqueous globe1 except the ,arctic seas1 is free from their visits2 they have been seen in the ,mediterranean and the ,adriatic1 in the ,british ,channel1 and even in the estuary of the ,thames1 but their chief resort is the deepest parts of the warmer seas within or near the tropics1 and in the ,antarctic ,ocean1 where they feed on floating mollusc1 the sepia or cuttle-fish1 c4 ,the second and last genus of the ,cetacea are whalebone whales1 such as the ,greenland whale and rorquals4 ,instead of teeth1 the upper jaws of these animals are furnished with plates and filaments of whalebone1 which are moveable1 and are adapted to retain1 as in a net1 the medus and other small marine animals that are the food of these colossal inhabitants of the deep4 ,the common ,greenland species1 ,balna ,mysticetus1 was formerly much more numerous1 but it is now chiefly confined to the very high northern latitudes2 however1 should it be the same with the whale found in such multitudes in shallow water on the coasts of the ,pacific and in the ,antarctic ,ocean by ,sir ,james ,ross1 it must have a very wide range1 but it is more probable that each pole has its own species4 ,the ,greenland whale is from #fe to #gj feet long1 but they are so much persecuted that they probably never live long enough to come to their full size4 ,the head is very large1 but the opening of the throat is so narrow that it can only swallow small animals4 ,it has no dorsal fin3 the swimming paws are about nine feet long1 and the flat tail is half-moon shaped and notched in the middle4 ,it has two spouts or nostrils1 through which it throws jets like puffs of smoke some yards high4 ,it only remains two or three minutes on the surface to breathe1 and then goes under water for five or six4 ,the back and tail are velvet-black1 shaded in some places into grey1 the rest is white3 some are piebald4 ,the capture of this whale is often attended with much cruelty1 from their affection for their young2 indeed the custom of killing the calf in order to capture the mother has ruined the fishery in several places1 especially in ,new ,zealand1 where there were eight species of whales in vast abundance4 ,rorquals are also whalebone whales1 differing from the common whale in the more elongated form of the head4 ,one species is from #hj to #ajj feet long1 the largest of marine animals4 ,the bottle-nosed whale1 a smaller species1 was exceedingly numerous in the ,arctic seas2 in the year #ahji1 #aajj were stranded in ,huel-fiord in ,iceland4 ,this whale travels to lower latitudes in pursuit of herrings and other fish4 ,it had been caught on the coast of ,norway as early as the year #hij1 and probably long before4 ,the first northern navigators were not attracted by the whale as an object of commerce1 but stumbled upon it in their search for a north-west passage to the ,pacific4 ,the hump-backed whale1 ,balna gibbosa1 a rorqual #cj or #dj feet long1 is met with in small herds in the intertropical and southern regions of the ,pacific and ,atlantic2 it is seldom molested by the whalers1 and is very dangerous for boats1 from the habit it has of leaping and rising suddenly to the surface4 ,none of the senses of the whale tribe are very acute2 the whalebone whales alone have the sense of smelling1 and1 although the sperm whale is immediately aware of a companion being harpooned at a very great distance1 they do not hear well in air1 and none have voice4#agg ,the existence of creatures in the ocean resembling enormous serpents has been announced at different times for more than a century1 but has never been authentically established4 ,accounts of such monsters having been seen in the northern seas1 in the fiords of ,norway and ,sweden1 had been given to the world by ,egede and ,pantoppidan3 by the latter more on hearsay evidence than from his own observation4 ,but1 as in every instance1 the pretended sea-serpent was represented to possess either the blow-holes of the ,cetacea or the head and mane of a seal1 it was evident the credulity of our ,scandinavian neighbours had converted some well-known animals into the incomprehensible marine monsters of their imagination4 ,the same may be said of the sea-serpent represented to have been stranded on one of the ,orkney ,islands in #ahjh1 of which a part of a skeleton is preserved in the ,museum of the ,college of ,surgeons1 and which1 when examined by the naturalist1 proved to belong to a large species of shark2 and of that fallen in with off the coast of ,halifax in #ahcc1 by some ,british officers engaged on a fishing expedition4 ,the existence of the sea-serpent was looked upon therefore as one of those creations of that imaginative credulity1 so frequently entertained by ignorant seafaring persons1 and had ceased to attract any attention except occasionally by an illusion to it in some ,transatlantic newspaper2 when it has been again revived by no less a person than the commander of one of her ,majesty's ships1 who has considered its discovery by him to be worthy of a report to the ,lords of the ,admiralty4 ,the officer in question1 ,captain ,m',quhae1 of her ,majesty's ship ,ddalus1 states that1 on the #fth of ,august1 #ahdh1 being in lat4 #bd #dd ,s41 long4 #i #bb ,e41 consequently not far from the south-western coast of ,africa1 he descried in broad daylight1 and at a short distance1 an animal with the head of a serpent and at least #fj feet long1 passing his ship to the south-westward at the rate of #ae miles an hour4 ,professor ,owen1 after a careful and impartial consideration of all the details given of this strange apparition1 has shown to the satisfaction of every unbiassed mind that the animals seen by the officers of the ,ddalus was probably a large species of southern seal1 and perhaps the ,otaria ,proboscidea4 ,the genus ,otaria is longer in proportion than our ,arctic seals1 and its fore flappers being situated farther back1 the neck of the animal becomes longer1 and is generally1 in the act of swimming1 raised out of the water1 as seen and represented by ,captain ,m',quhae in his drawing4 ,professor ,owen supposes that this seal had been carried from its usual haunts in or near the ,antarctic circle on an iceberg1 which having melted away in these middle latitudes1 the animal was obliged to find its way back by its own locomotive powers2 an opinion rendered the more likely1 when we consider that it was making for the nearest land1 where such animals are known to live1 ,gough ,island and ,tristan d',acunha1 from which it was distant about #aejj miles1 or #d days' journey1 at the rate and in the direction it is represented by ,captain ,m',quhae to have been progressing when seen from his ship4 ,this statement of the appearance therefore of the sea-serpent in #ahdh adds nothing to our certainty as to the existence of such monsters2 whilst it shows how easy it is1 for even well-informed persons1 to raise up imaginary beings out of animals well-known to the naturalist4 ,the general public1 always fond of the marvellous and extraordinary1 is too prone to credit such stories1 and too ready to admit the existence of beings1 however opposed to all the known laws of organic co-existences4 ,to persons ready to give credit to the assertions of those ignorant of the first principles of zoology1 it would be a loss of time for the naturalist to endeavour to explain how impossible it is that the head and jaws of a serpent1 with the skin and mane of a seal1 and the blow-hole of a porpoise1 could ever be found united in the same animal4 ,as well might one try to reason with a believer in ghosts and fairies on the non-existence of those creations of a disordered imagination4 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,distribution of ,reptiles--,frogs and ,toads--,snakes1 ,saurians1 and ,tortoises4 ,,reptiles1 more than any other class of animals1 show the partial distribution of animated beings1 because1 being unable to travel to any great distance1 they have remained in the places wherein they were originally stationed2 and as they inhabit deserts1 forests1 and uncultivated ground1 they have not been disturbed by man1 who has only destroyed some individuals1 but has not diminished the number of species1 which is probably the same as ever it was4 ,few of the mammalia hybernate1 or fall into a torpid state in winter1 except the bear1 marmot1 bats1 and some others4 ,their fat supplies the carbon consumed by the oxygen during their feeble and imperceptible respiration1 and is wasted by the time the warm weather returns1 which rouses them from their lethargy1 thin and extenuated4 ,but reptiles1 being colder-blooded1 bury themselves in the ground1 and hybernate during the winter in cold and temperate climates4 ,in hot countries1 they fall into a state of torpor during the dry season1 so that they have no occasion to wander1 either on account of temperature or want of sustenance2 and the few that do migrate in quest of food always return to their old haunts4 ,as the blood of reptiles receives only a small part of the oxygen they inhale1 little heat and strength are generated2 consequently they are cold-blooded1 and1 for the most part1 sluggish in their motions1 which1 however1 are more varied than in quadrupeds2 but as some reptiles1 such as tortoises and lizards1 breathe more frequently than others1 there are1 consequently1 great differences in their energy and sensibility4 ,the order of ,reptiles is divided by naturalists into four classes1 commencing in the ascending order3--#a4 ,batracians or frogs1 toads1 and salamanders2 #b4 ,ophidians or serpents2 #c4 ,saurians1 lizards1 chameleons1 crocodiles2 and #d4 ,emydians or tortoises1 and turtles4 ,with very few exceptions they are oviparous2 they partake of both terrestrial and aquatic forms1 and many are amphibious3 they all increase in numbers towards the equator1 and few live in cold climates2 but they can endure a cold winter better than a cool summer4 ,frogs and salamanders inhabit the banks of the ,m',kenzie river in ,north ,america1 where the mean temperature is between #g and #h of ,fahrenheit2 the thermometer in winter even sinks to #ij below the freezing point4 ,the southern limit of reptiles1 so far as it is known1 is in #ej ,s4 lat41 where a frog was found on the banks of the river ,santa ,cruz4 ,the number of species of reptiles in the torrid zone is at least double that in the temperate2 ,australia has fewer than ,europe1 and of all places in the ,old ,world1 ,java is richest in reptiles4 ,america possesses more than half of all the species1 the maximum being in ,brazil1 but everyone of them is peculiar to that continent alone4 ,the ,batrachians approach nearest to the nature of fishes1 and form a link between land and water animals4 ,as tadpoles they have tails and no feet1 but when full-grown they generally acquire feet and lose their tails4 ,besides1 in that early stage they are aquatic and breathe by gills1 like fishes2 but in a state of maturity they breathe by lungs like quadrupeds1 though some of the genera always retain their gills and tails1 and some never acquire feet4 ,these animals have the power of retarding and accelerating their respiration without stopping the circulation of their blood1 so that they can resist heat and cold to a certain degree--a power most remarkable in the salamander1 which forms part of this class1 so varied in appearance and nature4 ,some1 as toads and frogs1 imbibe a quantity of water1 which is evaporated through their skin more or less quickly4 ,this keeps them at the temperature of the medium they live in1 and the air they inhale through the skin is as necessary to their existence as that which they breathe4 ,the group of toads and frogs consists of four families1 which have four feet1 but without tails2 namely1 frogs1 hylas or rainettes1 toads1 and pip4 ,frogs1 which are amphibious1 have no nails on their toes1 and their hind legs are longer than the fore1 and webbed1 consequently better fitted for swimming and jumping1 which they do by leaps4 ,there are #af genera1 and above #ej species1 so that they are more numerous and more varied than any other reptile4 ,of the hyla or tree-frog there are #fj species1 all of the most vivid and brilliant tints1 and several colours are frequently united on the same animal4 ,they mostly live on high trees1 and their webbed feet have little cushions at the points of their toes1 forming a kind of sucker1 by means of which they can squeeze out the air from under their feet1 and1 by the pressure of the atmosphere1 they adhere firmly to the under side of the smoothest leaf1 exactly on the same principle by which flies walk on the ceiling of a room4 ,the bufo1 or toad1 is the ugliest of the race2 many are hideous1 with swollen bodies1 wart-like excrescences1 and obtuse toes4 ,they seldom go into water1 but frequently marshy1 damp places1 and only crawl1 whereas the frog and hyla leap4 ,they are much fewer than either of the other two families2 only #cj species are known4 ,the pip are also toads of a still more disgusting form1 and are distinguished from their congeners by not having an extensile tongue4 ,all these reptiles produce noises1 which are exceedingly varied2 they croak in concert1 following a leader1 and when he is tired another takes his place4 ,one of the ,north ,american frogs croaks in bands2 one band begins1 another answers1 and a third replies1 till the noise is heard at a great distance2 a pause then takes place1 after which the croaking is renewed4 ,mr4 ,darwin mentions a little musical hyla at ,rio de ,janeiro1 which croaks a kind of harmony in different notes4 ,toads and frogs are found in almost all parts of the earth1 though very unequally and partially distributed4 ,america has more than all the other countries taken together1 and ,europe the fewest4 ,six species of frogs1 one rainette1 and two toads1 are ,european2 and all1 except four of the frogs1 are also found in ,asia and ,africa4 ,the ,rana temporaria lives at the height of #ggjj feet in the ,pyrenees1 and near the snow-line on the ,alps4 ,the law of circumscribed distribution is strongly marked in ,asia2 for of ten species of frogs peculiar to that continent1 three only are in the mainland1 two are confined to ,japan1 and1 of the five that are ,javanese1 one is also common to ,amboina1 and the other four to ,bengal4 ,the eight species of rainettes1 or tree-frogs1 are still more limited in their domicile2 five of them are in ,java only1 and one in ,japan2 and the ,hyla viridis is in ,asia ,minor4 ,there are nine species of toad peculiar to ,asia4 ,none of these reptiles exist in the ,galapagos ,archipelago1 nor in any of the innumerable islands in ,oceanica1 and there are very few in ,australia1 but all peculiar4 ,in ,africa there are eight species of frogs1 two or three of rainettes1 and two of toads4 ,one of the two species of pipa1 more horrid in appearance than any toad1 is very common at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and there only4 ,the great extent of marshes1 rivers1 and forests1 together with the heat of the climate1 make ,america the very home of reptiles of this kind1 and there they grow to a greater size than anywhere else3 #bc species of frog1 #bg species of tree-frog or rainette1 and #ba of toads1 are indigenous in that continent1 not one of which is the same with any of those in the ,old ,world2 and most of those in ,south ,america are different from those in the northern part of the continent1 though they are sometimes replaced by analogous kinds4 ,all these reptiles have abodes1 with fixed demarcations1 often of small extent4 ,the pipa1 or toad of ,surinam1 is the most horrid of the tribe2 the ,bufo agua1 of ,brazil1 #aj or #ab inches long1 and the ,rana pipiens1 of ,carolina1 are the largest4 ,the second family of this class of reptiles have tails and feet1 as the salamanders1 which are very like lizards in their general form1 having a long round or flattened tail and four feet4 ,some are terrestrial1 and some are aquatic2 the former are known as salamanders or newts1 the latter as tritons4 ,both are met with in ,europe1 but the greater number are ,american4 ,the amphibious genera of ,amphiuma ,menopoma and ,syren1 possessing both lungs and gills1 are ,american2 the latter are peculiar to the marshes and rice-grounds of ,carolina1 and the ,axolotl is only found in the ,lake of ,mexico3 they are very like eels with two feet4 ,the ,proteus anguinus1 of a light flesh-colour1 has four little feet and a flat tail1 and has been found nowhere but in the dark subterraneous caverns in ,carniola4 ,the third group of this order of ,batrachians are the ,ccili1 of which there are only eight species1 all inhabitants of the warm parts of ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america4 ,they have a cylindrical body1 without feet or neck1 and move exactly as the serpent1 so they seem to form the link between these reptiles and the class of frogs and toads4 ,there are serpents in all hot and temperate countries1 but they abound most in intertropical regions4 ,java contains #ef species1 which is a greater number comparatively than any other country1 while in ,borneo not one has been found4 ,those in ,japan are peculiar4 ,wherever snakes exist1 there also are some of the venomous kinds1 but they are fewer1 specifically and individually1 than is generally supposed4 ,of #bfc species1 only #eg are venomous1 or about one in five1 although that proportion is not everywhere the same4 ,in sterile1 open countries1 the proportion of venomous snakes is greater than in those that are covered with vegetation4 ,thus1 in ,new ,holland1 seven out of ten species are poisonous2 and in ,africa1 one of every two or three individuals is noxious4 ,in general1 however1 the number of harmless individuals is twenty times as great as the number of the poisonous4 ,the three great families of venomous serpents are the colubriform or adder-shaped snakes1 sea-serpents1 and the triangular-headed snakes4 ,the adder-formed snakes are divided into three genera1 the elaps1 which are slender like a cord1 with a small head1 and of brilliant colours4 ,there are four species in ,south ,america1 of which two are confined to ,guiana1 and one to ,surinam1 while the other is found everywhere from ,brazil to ,carolina4 ,there is only one in ,africa1 three in ,australia1 and the rest are in limited districts in tropical ,asia1 especially in ,sumatra and ,java2 and an entire genus is found only in ,india1 and the islands of ,ceylon and ,java4 ,the hooded snakes 7or ,cobra ,capello7 are the best known of this family1 especially the spectacled or dancing snake of the ,indian jugglers1 which is common everywhere from ,malabar to ,sumatra1 and two other species are only found in ,sumatra and ,java4 ,the three or four ,african species are chiefly at the ,cape of ,good ,hope and on the ,gold ,coast2 but the most celebrated is that generally known as the ,egyptian asp1 which has been tamed by magicians of ancient and modern times1 and is frequently figured in ,egyptian monuments2 it derives some of its celebrity from ,cleopatra's death4 ,two of the family inhabit ,new ,holland1 one of which is spectacled1 like1 but of a different species from1 that in ,india4 ,all the seven species of sea-snakes are very venomous1 and more ferocious than any other4 ,they frequent the ,indian ,ocean in shoals from ,malabar to the ,philippine ,islands and the ,bay of ,bengal2 they never enter fresh water4 ,the third venomous family consists of the triangular-headed serpents1 rattle-snakes1 and vipers4 ,the first are of a hideous aspect1--a large head1 broad at the base like a heart1 a wide mouth1 with their hooked poisonous fangs strongly developed4 ,they quietly watch their prey till it is within reach1 then dart upon it1 and inflict the deadly wound in a moment2 the yellow viper of the ,french ,west ,india islands1 the ,trigonocephalus lanceolatus1 being amongst the dangerous snakes in existence4 ,one species in the ,old ,world is to be met with everywhere from ,ceylon to the ,phillippine ,islands2 one is a native in ,sumatra1 ,timor1 and ,celebes2 the rest are narrowly limited in their abode2 two are confined to ,java alone4 ,ceylon1 ,sumatra1 ,japan1 and ,tartary1 have each a species of these serpents peculiar to itself4 ,the rattle-snakes are all ,american--two in the warm districts of ,north ,america1 and two in the intertropical parts of ,south ,america4 ,one of the latter1 however1 has a hard horn at the end of its tail1 instead of a rattle1 and sometimes grows to the length of #aj feet1 being1 with the ,trigonocephalus1 the longest of the venomous snakes4 ,vipers come farther north than any other of the noxious tribe3 two are ,asiatic1 though one is also common to ,africa1 which1 however1 has four peculiar to itself2 and the only venomous serpents in ,europe are three species of viper1 one of which is also spread over the neighbouring parts of ,asia and ,africa4 ,the common viper inhabits all central ,europe and temperate ,asia1 even to ,lake ,baikal1 in the ,alta ,mountains3 it is also found in ,england and ,sweden1 but it does not go farther west than the ,seine1 nor does it pass the ,alps4 ,one which frequents dry soils1 in the south-east of ,europe1 is in ,styria1 ,greece1 ,dalmatia1 and ,sicily2 and the aspic viper1 which lives on rocky ground1 inhabits ,france between the ,seine and the ,pyrenees1 ,switzerland1 ,italy1 and ,sicily4 ,there are six families of innocuous serpents1 consisting of numerous species4 ,four of the families are terrestrial2 their species are very limited in their domicile1 the greater number being confined to some of the islands of the ,indian ,archipelago1 ,ceylon1 or to circumscribed districts in tropical ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america4 ,nine or ten species are ,european1 some of which are also found in ,asia and ,africa4 ,tree-serpents of various genera and numerous species live only in the great tropical forests of ,asia and ,america1 especially in the latter4 ,they are long and slender1 the head for the most part ending in a sharp point1 and generally green1 though there are some of brighter colours2 many of these serpents are fierce1 though not venomous2 some feed on birds1 which they watch hanging by the tail from a bough4 ,in all temperate and warm countries abounding in lakes and rivers1 fresh-water snakes are numerous2 some live in the water1 but they mostly inhabit the banks near it2 they are excellent swimmers1 and may be seen crossing lakes in shoals4 ,america is particularly rich in them1 there are several in ,europe and ,asia1 but they are rare in ,africa1 and none have been yet discovered in ,australia4 ,the genus ,boa is peculiarly ,american1 though some smaller in size and differing in species are found in ,asia4 ,the boa constrictor1 generally from #i to #ae feet long1 lives in the great tropical forests of ,south ,america1 where it often watches its prey hanging from the boughs of trees4 ,two of smaller size have similar habits1 and two are aquatic1 one of which is sometimes #bj feet long1 and another #f feet2 the latter inhabits banks of the rivers from the ,amazons to ,surinam2 and a species is found at the foot of the ,andes of ,quito1 as high as #cjjj feet4 ,pythons are the largest snakes of the eastern world1 where they represent the boas of the western2 one species1 which sometimes attains the length of #bj feet1 is spread from the western coast of ,africa1 throughout intertropical ,asia1 to ,java and ,china4 ,another1 only #ad feet long1 is confined to ,malacca and some of the ,sunda ,islands4 ,two others are found only in the islands of ,timor and ,saparua1 and one in ,new ,holland4 ,there are only two species of ,acrochordi1 which1 like boas and pythons1 twist themselves round their victims and crush them to death3 one aquatic1 peculiar to ,java2 the other is a land snake1 found everywhere through ,india to ,new ,guinea4 ,the ,west ,indian islands have the snakes of ,north and ,south ,america1 and some peculiar2 the snakes of central ,america are little known4 ,saurians have representatives in every warm and temperate climate4 ,the crocodile1 from its size and ferocity1 claims the first place4 ,there are three genera of this family1 all amphibious1 living in rivers1 or in their estuaries3 the ,crocodile1 properly speaking1 common to the old and new continents2#agh the ,alligator or ,caiman1 peculiar to ,america2 and the ,gavial1 which comes nearer to the form of certain fossil crocodiles than any other1 is limited to the ,ganges and other great rivers of ,india4 ,the various species of crocodiles are confined to local habitations3 three are ,asiatic2 two ,african1 one of which is only in ,sierra ,leone2 two are peculiar to ,madagascar2 and in ,america there are two species of crocodiles and five of alligators4 ,the ,american crocodiles inhabit the estuaries of great rivers1 a species is to be met with which ascends as high as #cjjj feet at the base of the ,andes of ,quito4#agi ,the alligators of the ,mississippi1 and of the rivers and marshes of ,carolina1 are more ferocious than those of ,south ,america1 attacking men and animals2 they only prey in the night2 while in the water1 like all their congeners1 they cannot swallow their food1 but they drown the animal they have caught1 hide it under water till it is putrid1 and then bring it to land to eat it4 ,locality has considerable influence on the nature and habits of these animals2 in one spot they are very dangerous1 while in another1 at no great distance1 they are cowardly4 ,alligators are rarely more than #ae feet long1 and are seen in large herds basking on the banks of rivers2 their cry is like the roar of a bull2 in a storm they bellow loudly1 and are said to be much afraid of some of the whale family that ascend the great ,american rivers4 ,the female watches her eggs and her young for months1 never losing sight of them2 but the male devours many of them when they go into the water4 ,all animals of this class are covered with scales2 those of the crocodile family are hard1 horny1 often osseous1 and impenetrable4 ,lizards are chiefly distinguished from crocodiles by having a long1 thin1 forked tongue like that of the viper2 by their rapid motions1 smaller size1 and by some peculiarities of form4 ,the monitors1 which are entirely confined to the old continent1 have the tail compressed laterally1 which enables them to swim rapidly3 and they are furnished with strong sharp teeth4 ,many species inhabit ,africa and ,india1 especially the ,indian ,archipelago3 the terrestrial crocodile of ,herodotus is common on the deserts which surround ,egypt2 and an aquatic species in the ,nile1 which devours the crocodile's eggs1 is often represented on the ancient ,egyptian monuments4 ,another group of the monitor family is peculiarly ,american2 some of the species inhabiting the marshes in ,guiana are #f feet long4#ahj ,lizards are very common2 more than #fc species are ,european1 of which #ag inhabit ,italy1 and one lives on the ,alps at an elevation of #dejj feet2 the iguanians1 which differ from them only in the form of the tongue1 are so numerous in genera and species1 that it would be in vain to attempt to follow all their ramifications1 which are nevertheless distributed according to the same laws with other creatures3 but the dragons1 only found in ,india1 are too singular to be passed over4 ,the dragon is in fact a lizard with wings of skin1 which are spread along its sides and attached to its fore and hind feet1 like those of the bat1 and1 though they do not enable it to fly1 they act like a parachute when the animal leaps from bough to bough in pursuit of insects4 ,nocturnal lizards of many species inhabit the hot countries of both continents2 they are not unlike salamanders1 but they have sharp claws1 which they can draw in and conceal like those of a cat1 and seize their prey4 ,one of this species1 the ,gecko1 climbs on walls in all the countries round the ,mediterranean4 ,chameleons are frequent in northern ,africa2 and several species inhabit different districts and islands in ,asia3 the only ,european species is found in ,spain2 it is common to ,north ,africa4 ,the anolis1 which lives on trees1 replaces the chameleon in the hot regions of ,south ,america and in the ,antilles1 having the property common to chameleons of changing its colour1 but it is a more nimble and beautiful animal4 ,in ,new ,holland1 where everything is anomalous1 there is a lizard with a leaf-shaped tail4 ,skinks resemble serpents in form1 but with four very short feet and sharp nails on their claws2 they burrow in the sands of ,africa and ,arabia3 there is a species of gigantic black and yellow skink in ,new ,holland1 and those in the islands of the ,indian ,archipelago are green1 with blue tails4 ,two anomalous saurians of the genus ,amblyrhinchus were discovered by ,mr4 ,darwin in the ,galapagos ,archipelago4 ,one found only in the central islands is terrestrial1 and in many places it has undermined the ground with its burrows2 the other is the only lizard known that lives on sea-weed and inhabits the sea2 it is about four feet long1 and hideously ugly1 with feet partially webbed1 and a tail compressed laterally4 ,it basks on the beach1 and in its marine habits and food it resembles1 on a small scale1 the huge monsters of a former creation4 ,tortoises are covered with a shell or buckler1 but their head1 legs1 and tail are free1 covered with a wrinkled skin1 and the animal can draw them into the shell when alarmed4 ,the head is sometimes defended by a regular shield1 and the jaws1 instead of teeth1 have a horny case4 ,the upper buckler is rounded1 and formed of eight pairs of plates symmetrically disposed1 and often very beautiful2 the under shell is flat1 and consists of four pair of bones and one in the centre4 ,one family of tortoises is terrestrial1 two others are amphibious1 one of which lives in fresh water1 the other in tropical and warm seas4 ,there are more land tortoises in ,africa than in all the rest of the world1 both specifically and individually4 ,they abound also in the great ,sunda ,islands1 in the ,united ,states of ,america1 ,south ,america1 and especially ,brazil4 ,there are a few ,european species1 of which the common tortoise 7,testudo ,grca71 which is found in all the countries round the ,mediterranean1 is the largest1 being about a foot long2 it lives on insects and vegetables1 and burrows in the ground in winter4 ,some of the ,east ,indian species are enormously large1 above three feet long1 and remarkable for the beautiful distribution of their colours2 certain species are peculiar to ,brazil1 one to ,demerara1 and one to ,north ,america2 but perhaps the largest known species is that of the ,galapagos ,islands1 the ,testudo ,indicus1 which attains #ejj or #fjj pounds in weight4 ,there are two families of the fresh water tortoises that live in ponds and ditches4 ,the emys is very numerous in ,america2 there are #ae species peculiar to the northern part of the continent1 and four to the southern3 only one has been found in ,africa1 two in ,europe1 and eight in ,asia4 ,the ,emys caspia1 in ,asia ,minor1 follows a leader1 and plunges into the water when alarmed4 ,the ,chelyd are found in the ,south ,american rivers4 ,the trionyx1 or fresh-water turtle1 lives in the great rivers and lakes in warm countries2 there are two species peculiar to ,north ,america2 they are very large and voracious1 devouring birds1 reptiles1 and young crocodiles1 and often are a prey to old ones4 ,one is peculiar to the ,nile1 one to the ,euphrates2 there are four species in the ,ganges1 which are constantly seen eating the bodies of the natives that are thrown into the sacred stream2 one of these turtles often weighs #bdj pounds4 ,the starred trionyx is in the rivers of ,java only1 and another kind is common also to the rivers of ,borneo and ,sumatra4 ,the ,chelonians1 or sea-turtles1 live in the seas of the torrid and temperate zones1 to the #ejth parallel of latitude1 some eating alg1 and others small marine animals4 ,different species are found in different parts of the ocean4 ,the green turtle1 of which there are many varieties1 inhabits the intertropical ,atlantic2 they may be seen eating sea-weed at the bottom of the water along the coasts1 and they come in great shoals to the mouths of rivers to lay their eggs in the sand from distances of many hundred miles4 ,this turtle is often six or seven feet long1 and weighs #fjj or #gjj pounds2 it is much esteemed for food1 but the shell is of no value4 ,the hawk's-bill turtle1 which yields the tortoise-shell1 is caught among the ,molucca ,islands1 and on the north-western coast of ,new ,guinea4 ,there is also a fishery in the western hemisphere at ,haiti and the ,caiman ,islands1 but the shell is less valuable than that from the east4 ,there are two species in the ,mediterranean1 which are only valued for the oil4 ,with respect to the whole class of reptiles it may be observed1 that not one species is common to the ,old and ,new ,world1 and few are common to ,north and ,south ,america2 those in ,new ,holland are altogether peculiar2 and1 as far as is at present known1 with the exception of ,marianne ,islands1 there are neither toads1 frogs1 nor snakes in any of the islands of ,oceanica1 though the ,indian ,archipelago abounds in them2 neither are they found in ,tierra del ,fuego1 in the ,straits of ,magellan1 nor in the ,falkland ,islands4 ,five species of reptiles only appear to have existed in ,ireland before its geological separation from ,england--a lizard1 a frog1 a toad1 and two tritons4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,distribution of ,birds in the ,arctic ,region--,in ,europe1 ,asia1 ,africa1 ,america1 and the ,antarctic ,regions4 ,,more than #fjjj species of birds are known1 which are arranged in six natural orders or groups1 namely1 ,birds of prey--or vultures1 eagles1 hawks2 ,climbers1 including parrots and woodpeckers2 ,songsters1 the most numerous of all the six2 ,gallinaceous birds1 including our domestic fowls1 partridges1 grouse1 and pheasants2 ,waders--herons1 snipes1 curlews2 and ,swimmers1 or web-footed birds4 ,next to tropical ,america1 ,europe is richest in species3 the greatest number of birds of prey inhabit ,europe and ,america1 which last surpasses every country in the number of songsters and climbers4 ,there is great similarity in the birds of the northern parts of the old and new continents1 and many are identical4 ,towards the south1 the forms differ more and more1 till in the tropical and south temperate zones of ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america1 they become entirely different1 whole families and genera often being stationary within very narrow limits4 ,some birds1 however1 are almost universal1 especially birds of prey1 waders1 and sea-fowl4 ,the bald buzzard is to be met with in every country from ,europe to ,australia2 the ,chinese gosshawk inhabits the ,american continent1 and every station between ,china and the west coast of ,europe2 the peregrine falcon lives in ,europe1 ,america1 and ,australia2 the common and purple herons are indigenous in the old continent and the new2 and the flamingo of different species fishes in almost every tropical river1 and in the ,andes to the height of #ac1jjj feet4 ,many of the sea-fowl also are widely spread3 the wagel-gull is at home in the northern and southern oceans4 ,captain ,beechy's ship was accompanied by pintadoes1 or ,cape pigeons1 during a voyage of #ejj miles in the ,pacific2 and even the common house-sparrow is as much at home in the villages in ,bengal as it is in ,britain4 ,many more instances might be given1 but they do not interfere with the general law of special distribution4 ,birds migrate to very great distances in search of food1 passing the winter in one country and the summer in another1 many breeding in both4 ,in cold climates1 insects die or hybernate during winter2 between the tropics they either perish or sleep in the dry season3 so that1 in both cases1 insect-eating birds are compelled to migrate4 ,when the ground is covered with snow1 the want of corn and seeds forces those kinds whose food is vegetable to seek it elsewhere2 and in tropical countries the annual inundations of the rivers regulate the migrations of birds that feed on fish4 ,some migrate singly1 some in groups1 others in flocks of thousands2 and1 in most instances1 the old and the young birds go separately4 ,those that fly in company generally have a leader1 and such as fly in smaller numbers observe a certain order4 ,wild swans fly in the form of a wedge1 wild geese in a line4 ,some birds are silent in their flight1 others utter constant cries1 especially those that migrate during night1 to keep the flock together1 as herons1 goat-suckers1 and rails4 ,birds of passage in confinement show the most insurmountable disquietude when the time of migration draws near4 ,the ,canadian duck rushes impetuously to the north at the usual period of summer flight4 ,redbreasts1 goldfinches1 and orioles1 brought from ,canada to the ,united ,states1 when young1 dart northwards1 as if guided by the compass1 as soon as they are set at liberty4 ,birds return to the same place year after year4 ,storks and swallows take possession of their former nests1 and the times of their departure are exact even to a day4 ,various ,european birds spend the winter in ,asia and ,africa2 while many natives of these countries come to central ,europe in summer4 ,the birds of passage in ,america are more numerous1 both in species and individually1 than in any other country4 ,ducks1 geese1 and pigeons migrate in myriads from the severity of the northern winters2 and when there is a failure of grain in the south1 different families of birds go the north4 ,the ,virginian partridge crosses the ,delaware and goes to ,pennsylvania when grain is scarce in ,new ,jersey2 but it is so heavy on the wing1 that many fall into the river1 and end the journey by swimming4 ,the same thing happens to the wild turkey1 which is caught in hundreds as it arrives wet on the banks of the ,ohio1 ,missouri1 and ,mississippi4 ,these birds are not fitted for long flight by their structure1 because their bones have fewer of those air-cells which give buoyancy to the feathered tribes4 ,the number of air-cells is greatest in birds that have to sustain a continued and rapid flight2 probably the extremes are to be met with in the swift and the ostrich--the one ever on the wing1 the other never4 ,the strength of the ostrich is in the muscles of its legs2 while the muscles on the breast of the swift weigh more than all the rest of the body2 hence1 it flies at the rate of #ajj miles an hour easily4 ,the wild duck and wild pigeon fly between #djj and #ejj miles in a day4 ,the stork1 and some other migratory birds1 do not halt till the end of their journey4 ,many sea-fowl are never seen to rest2 and all the eagles1 vultures1 and hawks are birds of strong flight1 and capable of sustaining themselves at heights beyond the reach of less buoyant creatures4 ,,distribution ,,of ,,arctic ,,and ,,european ,,birds4 ,the birds of ,europe and ,north ,america are better known than those of any part of the globe4 ,new species are constantly discovered in ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,south ,america2 and extensive regions in the ,east are yet unexplored3 however1 about #fjjj have already been described4 ,there are #ejc species of birds in ,europe1 many of which are distributed over ,asia and ,africa1 without any apparent variation2 and #ajj of our ,european species are also in ,north ,america4 ,of these1 #ij are land-birds1 #bh waders1 and #fb water-fowl2 among which are most of the marine birds of northern ,europe1 which1 like all sea-fowl1 have a wider range4 ,more than three-fourths of the species1 and a much larger proportion of individuals1 of the birds of ,greenland1 ,iceland1 and ,feroe1 are more or less aquatic1 and many of the remainder are only occasional visitors4 ,of the few small birds1 the greater number are ,british2 but many that reside constantly in ,britain are migratory in ,iceland and ,feroe1 and all the small birds leave ,greenland in winter4 ,the ,aquila albicilla1 or fishing eagle1 is the largest bird of these northern islands2 it feeds on salmon and trout1 and builds its nest on the boldest crags4 ,the jer-falcon1 or ,falco ,islandicus1 though native1 is rare even in ,iceland4 ,the snowy owl lives near the glaciers in the interior of ,greenland1 and is sometimes seen in ,orkney4 ,particular kinds of grouse are peculiar to high latitudes1 as the ptarmigan or white grouse4 ,the ,columba neas lives on all the rocky coasts of ,europe1 and it is also an ,american bird4 ,the crow family are inhabitants of every part of the globe4 ,the common crow is very generally distributed2 the carrion-crow and jackdaw are all over ,europe and ,north ,america4 ,the ,royston crow is the only one of the genus within the ,arctic circle1 and but a summer visitor4 ,the magpie is everywhere in ,europe4 ,the ,jay1 one of the most beautiful birds of its tribe1 is found in ,europe1 ,north ,america1 and ,china4 ,the raven is everywhere1 from ,greenland to the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and from ,hudson's ,bay to ,mexico2 it is capable of enduring the extremes of heat and cold1 and is larger1 stronger1 and more ravenous in the ,arctic islands than anywhere else4 ,it is said to destroy lambs1 and to drive the eider-ducks from their nests to take their eggs or young3 they unite in flocks to chase intruding birds from their abode4 ,waders are more numerous than land-birds in the ,arctic regions4 ,the snipe and the golden plover are mere visitors2 and the oyster-catcher remains all the year in ,iceland3 it makes its nest near streams1 and wages war with the crow tribe4 ,the heron1 curlew1 plover1 and most of the other waders1 emigrate2 sand-pipers and the water-ousel remain all the year round4 ,web-footed birds1 being clothed with down and oily feathers1 are best able to resist the cold of a polar climate4 ,the ,cygnus musicus1 or whistling swan1 is the largest migratory bird of ,europe or ,america4 ,it is #e feet long from the tip of the bill to the end of the tail1 and #h feet from tip to tip of the wings3 its plumage is pure white1 tinged orange or yellow on the head4 ,some of them winter in ,iceland2 and in the long ,arctic night their song is heard1 as they pass in flocks3 it is like the notes of a violin4 ,various species of the duck tribe live in the far north1 in prodigious multitudes4 ,the mallard1 supposed to be the origin of our tame duck1 is everywhere in the ,arctic lands4 ,there are two species of eider-duck3 the king duck1 or ,somateria spectabilis1 one of these1 is widely dispersed over the islands and coasts of the ,north ,atlantic1 and all the ,arctic land and islands in ,europe and ,america4 ,in ,europe its most southern building-place is the ,fern ,islands on the coasts of ,northumberland2 in ,america it never goes south of ,new ,york4 ,it lives in the open sea in winter1 and resorts to the coast when the grass begins to grow4 ,the duck makes her nest of sea-weed1 lined with down from her breast4 ,the islanders take the eggs and down twice in the season2 but they do not kill the old birds1 because the down of a dead duck is of no value1 having lost its elasticity4 ,the third time the drake repairs the nest with down from his breast3 the birds are allowed to hatch their brood2 and1 as soon as the young can feed themselves1 they are taken out to sea by the duck4 ,they attain maturity in #d years1 and then measure #b feet from tip to tip of the wing4 ,the same couple has been known to frequent a nest #bj years1 and the ,icelanders think the eider-duck lives to #ajj4 ,the cormorant1 which lives on fish1 is universal in the northern seas1 and is scarcely ever eaten by the natives4 ,it sits singly1 or sometimes in flocks1 on the rocks1 watching the fish with its keen eye3 it plunges after them1 and pursues them for three or four minutes under water4 ,auks are very numerous1 especially the razor-billed auk1 or penguin2 but the great auk1 which is incapable of flight with its little wings1 is now nearly extinct in the ,arctic islands4 ,the tern1 or sea-swallow1 is seen everywhere in these seas1 skimming along the surface of the water1 catching mollusca and small fish4 ,gulls of many species1 and in countless numbers1 are inhabitants of the ,arctic regions1 whilst in the ,antarctic they are represented by the equally numerous genus of ,procellaria1 of which the ,mother-,cary's-chicken or stormy petrel is the type4 ,no birds are more widely dispersed than these two genera4 ,they are at home1 and brave the storm1 in every latitude and in every sea2 but those in the north are said to be larger and more numerous than elsewhere4 ,there are nine or ten species in the ,arctic regions1 and the most numerous of these probably are the kittywakes1 the young of which cover the rocks in ,iceland1 packed so close together that #ej are killed at a shot4 ,the skua is one of the boldest and most rapacious of birds1 forming a link between gulls and birds of prey4 ,it lives by robbing other birds1 and is so audacious that it forces the gulls to disgorge the fish they have swallowed1 and has been seen to kill a puffin at a single blow4 ,its head-quarters are in ,feroe1 ,shetland1 and the ,hebrides1 where it hatches its brood1 and attacks animals if they come near them4 ,a few species of petrel inhabit the ,arctic seas1 but the ,south ,pacific and the ,antarctic seas are the favourite resort of this genus4 ,they take their name from the faculty they have of walking on the water1#aha which they do by the aid of their flat webbed feet and widely-extended wings4 ,the stormy petrels1 consisting of several distinct species1 confounded by sailors under the name of tempest-bird or ,mother-,cary's-chicken1 are the most widely diffused1 about the size of a swallow1 and nearly of the same colour as the latter2 their flight is rapid2 they shelter themselves from the storm in the hollow of a wave1 and go to land only at the breeding season4 ,it is observed that all birds living on islands fly against the wind when they go to sea1 so as to have a fair wind when they return home tired4 ,the direction of the prevailing winds1 consequently1 has great influence on the choice of their abode3 for example1 the #be bird-rocks1 or ,vogel-berg1 in ,feroe1 face the west or north-west2 and no bird frequents the cliffs facing the east1 though the situation is to all appearance equally good2 a preference accounted for by the prevalence of westerly wind in these latitudes4 ,most marine birds are gregarious4 ,they build their nests on the same rock1 and live in society4 ,of this a curious instance occurs on the rocks in question4 ,the ,fugle-berg lies in a frightful chasm among the cliffs of ,westmanshavn in ,feroe4 ,the chasm is encompassed by rocks #ajjj feet high1 and myriads of sea-fowl cluster round the top of the crags2 but different kinds have separate habitations2 and no race or individual leaves his own quarters1 or ventures to intrude upon his neighbours4 ,upon some low rocks1 scarcely rising above the surface of the water1 sits the glossy cormorant2 the predatory skuas1 on a higher shelf1 are anxiously regarded by myriads of kittywakes on nests in crowded rows along the shelving rock above1 with nothing visible but the heads of the mothers almost touching one another2 the auks and guillemots are seated a stage higher on the narrow shelves1 in order as on a parade1 with their white breasts facing the sea1 and in absolute contact4 ,the puffins form the summit of this feathered pyramid1 perched on the highest station1 and scarcely discernible from its height1 if they did not betray themselves by flying backwards and forwards4 ,some of these tribes have a watch posted to look out for their safety2 and such confidence has the flock in his vigilance1 that if he is taken the rest are easily caught4 ,when the whole take flight1 the ear is stunned by their discordant screams4 ,the greater part of the marine birds of the ,arctic seas are inhabitants also of the northern coasts of the continent of ,europe and of the ,british islands4 ,no part of ,europe is richer in birds than ,britain1 both in species and numbers of individuals2 and the larger game is so abundant1 that no one thinks of eating nightingales and redbreasts4 ,of the #ejc species of ,european birds1 #bgg are native in our islands4 ,the common grouse1 the yellow and pied wagtails1 and the ,english starling1 are found nowhere else4 ,it is probable that most of the ,british birds came from ,germany before the separation of our island from the continent1 and many of short flight never reached ,ireland4 ,the ptarmigan and capercailzie came from ,norway4 ,there are five ,european vultures3 the lemmergeyer of the ,alps and ,pyrenees builds its nest in the most inaccessible parts of the mountains1 and is seldom seen2 it lives also in the mountains of ,abyssinia and on the ,mongolian steppes4 ,ten eagles are ,european2 one is peculiar to ,sardinia2 and several of them are common in ,america3 the golden eagle is one2 that beautiful bird1 which once gave a characteristic wildness to our ,scotch mountains1 and the distinguishing feather to the bonnet of our chieftains1 is now nearly extirpated4 ,the osprey or fishing eagle is equally an inhabitant of ,europe and ,america1 and so are some of our numerous hawks2 among others the jer or gentil falcon has been so much destroyed1 that it is now rare even in ,iceland1 its native place3 there are still a few in ,scotland1 and several are caught in their migratory flight over the ,low ,countries1 and reclaimed by the expert falconers for the now nearly obsolete sport of falconry4 ,the owl tribe is numerous1 and many of them are very handsome4 ,the ,bubo maximus1 the great owl1 the largest of nocturnal birds1 inhabits the forests of middle and southern ,europe2 it is rare in ,france and ,england1 though not uncommon in ,ireland and ,orkney3 in ,italy a small owl is tamed and used as a decoy4 ,owls1 eagles1 and hawks1 have representatives in every country1 but of different species4 ,the two species of ,european ,goatsuckers migrate to ,africa in winter2 their peculiar cry may be heard on a moonlight night when a large flock takes wing for the journey4 ,several of our swallows go to ,africa3 both our kingfishers are ,african1 and only visit us in summer2 one1 the ,alcedo ispida1 is a native of ,lower ,egypt and the shores of the ,red ,sea4 ,some of the #g species of ,european creeping birds1 or certhias1 creep on the trunks and branches of trees in search of insects2 others pursue their prey clinging to the face of rocks and walls1 supported by the stiff elastic feathers of the tail3 the hoopoe1 an inhabitant of southern ,europe1 is also a creeper1 but it pursues small reptiles and insects on the ground4 ,the ,fringill or thick-billed birds are by much the most characteristic of ,europe2 to them belong our finest songsters4 ,the sylvias have soft beaks1 and feed on insects and worms2 the nightingale1 the redbreast1 the wren1 the smallest of ,european birds1 the warblers1 white-throat1 and others1 are of this family ,thick-billed birds live on seed1 as the common sparrow1 the gold1 and other finches1 linnets1 buntings1 and crossbeaks4 ,four species of fly-catchers are peculiar to ,europe1 and five species of shrikes4 ,ravens1 crows1 jays1 and magpies are everywhere2 the ,alpine crow and nutcracker are found in central ,europe only4 ,compared with ,america the starling family is poor1 and the woodpecker race still more so1 yet we have six species1 some of which are very beautiful4 ,there is only one cuckoo entirely ,european1 the other two kinds only come accidentally1 and all are birds of passage4 ,there are four species of the pigeon tribe2 the ringdove frequents the larch forests1 and is migratory2 the stockdove also leaves us in ,october2 the biset or rock pigeon1 supposed to be the origin from which the infinite variety of our domestic pigeons has sprung1 flies in flocks1 and makes its flimsy nest on trees and rocks2 it is also found in the ,da-ouria part of the ,alta chain4 ,of gallinaceous birds there are many2 the only native pheasant is in the south-western parts of the continent2 and the capercailzie1 extinct in the ,british forests1 inhabits many parts of ,europe2 in ,scandinavia especially it is plentiful as far as the pine-tree grows1 which is nearly to ,north ,cape1 and also in the ,russian forests4 ,the hazel grouse frequents the pine and aspen forests in central and northern ,europe1 where the black cock also is plentiful4 ,five species of grouse and six of partridges afford abundance of game2 four of the latter are confined to the southern parts of the continent1 and so are the sand and pentailed grouse1 which form a separate family2 the former inhabits the sterile plains of ,andalusia and ,granada1 and the latter the stony uncultivated parts of ,france1 southern ,italy1 and ,sicily4 ,the ,ortigis ,gibraltarica is a peculiar bird allied to the grouse family1 found in the south of ,europe only4 ,european waders are very numerous1 and among them there are specimens of all the genera2 woodcocks1 snipes1 plovers1 curlews1 and grebes1 are very abundant1 and herons of various species2 three of them are egrets or crested herons1 and the common heron now assembles on the tops of trees unmolested1 since the progress of agriculture has rendered the country unfit for hawking4 ,several cranes and storks1 and two species of ibis1 are ,european3 a species of flamingo is met with in the south-eastern parts of the continent1 and in the maremme on the east coast of ,italy4 ,many of the waders1 however1 migrate in winter4 ,the stork1 so great a favourite in ,holland that it is specially protected1 is a wanderer2 it retires to ,asia ,minor1 and on the return of summer resumes its old nest on a chimney-top1 breeding in both countries4 ,about #aci species of ,european birds either live in the more elevated parts of the ,alps1 or cross them in their annual migrations4 ,they generally take their flight by the great ,st4 ,bernard1 the pass of ,st4 ,theodule1 the ,simplon1 and ,st4 ,gothard4 ,europe is particularly rich in web-footed birds2 there are three species of wild swans1 four of wild geese1 and more than #cj of the duck tribe1 including the inhabitants of the ,arctic seas4 ,,birds ,,of ,,asia ,,and ,,the ,,indian ,,archipelago4 ,european birds are widely spread over ,asia2 most of the ,arctic sea-fowl frequent its northern coasts3 between #ej and #fj ,european birds are also ,siberian1 and there are above #gj ,european species in ,japan and ,corea1 which probably are also inhabitants of ,siberia and the ,alta ,mountains1 and several are identical with the birds of ,north ,america2 so that the same affinity prevails in the feathery tribes of the ,arctic regions as in the vegetable productions4 ,asia ,minor is a country of transition1 and many ,european birds are mixed with those of warmer regions1 as the ,halcyon smyrnensis1 a large bird with gorgeous plumage1 identical with the great ,bengal kingfisher1 general throughout ,india4 ,european birds also inhabit the ,caucasus1 the shores of the ,caspian ,sea1 and ,persia4 ,moreover1 these warmer climates are the winter-quarters of various ,european species4 ,in ,asia ,minor1 and especially in ,armenia1 the number and variety of birds is very great2 large eagles1 vultures1 falcons1 buzzards1 quails1 partridges1 starlings1 herons1 storks1 cranes1 legions of ,arctic grebes1 swans1 wild geese1 ducks1 and pelicans1 are natives of these countries2 besides singing-birds1 the nightingale1 the constant theme of the poet's song1 abounds in ,persia3 hawks are trained for hunting deer in that country1 and the ,asiatic partridges1 or francolins1 more vividly coloured than ours1 differ also in having beaks fitted for digging up bulbous roots1 which is their food in the deserts4 ,farther east the types become more ,indian2 the great peninsulas on each side of the ,ganges are the habitations of the most peculiar and the most gorgeous of birds4 ,many species1 and some entire genera1 of kingfishers are here1 of the gaudiest colouring2 the plumage of the fly-catchers has the richest metallic lustre2 and the shrikes1 of a sober hue with us1 are there decked in the brightest colours2 the drongo has a coat of ultramarine1 and the calyptomene has one of emerald green4 ,the large-beaked climbing-birds are singularly handsome4 ,the great green parrot1 so easily taught to speak1 has inhabited the ,indian forests and the banks of the ,ganges time out of mind1 with a host of congeners of every colour2 not one species of these1 or indeed of the whole parrot tribe1 is common to ,asia1 ,africa1 ,america1 or ,australia1 nor even to any two of these great continents4 ,they are vividly coloured in ,india1 but the cuckoo tribe rivals them2 several genera of these birds exist nowhere else1 as the large-beaked ,malcahos1 the ,coucals with their stiff feathers1 and the ,couroucous or ,trogons1 dressed in vermilion and gold2 the last1 however1 also inhabit other tropical climates4 ,eastern ,asia is distinguished by the variety of its gallinaceous birds and the gorgeousness of their plumage4 ,to this country we owe our domestic fowls2 and two species of peacock are wild in the woods of ,india and ,ceylon4 ,the ,polyplectron1 the only bird of its kind1 and the ,tragopons1 are ,indian2 and some of the most brilliant birds of the ,east are among the pheasant tribe1 of which five species are peculiar to ,china and ,tibet4 ,there are various species of the pheasant in the ,himalaya1 and one whose feathers have a metallic lustre4 ,the gold1 the silver1 and ,reeves' pheasant1 the tail-feathers of which are four feet long1 belong to ,china4 ,the ,lophophorus refulgens1 and some others of that genus1 are altogether ,indian4 ,the pigeons also are very splendid in their plumage2 they mostly belong to ,china and ,japan2 those in the ,birman empire are green4 ,it would be vain to enumerate the fine birds that range in the forests1 or fish in the rivers1 of the ,asiatic continent1 yet the birds of the ,indian ,archipelago far surpass them in splendour of plumage2 these islands indeed are the abode of the most gorgeously arrayed birds in existence4 ,even in ,java and ,sumatra1 though most similar to ,india in their winged inhabitants1 there are many peculiar1 especially #ab or #ac species of the climbing tribe1 and several of the honey-sucking kind2 but the dissimilarity increases with the distance1 as in ,new ,guinea and its islands1 where the honey-sucking genera are developed in novel forms and sumptuous plumage4 ,in the various islands of the archipelago there are altogether at least #ae genera1 with their numerous species1 found there only4 ,there are the ,cassicans1 which resemble jays1 with plumage of metallic lustre2 the only two species of ,pirolls1 one bright violet1 the other of brilliant green2 various species of ,buceros with large horned beaks1 ,orioles of vivid colours1 the swallow that builds the edible nest1 the most numerous and splendid ,sylvias1 and all the species but one of the ,philedons or honey-sucking birds with tongues that end in a brush4 ,birds of ,paradise of many kinds inhabit ,new ,guinea and the neighbouring ,moluccas and ,aroo ,islands4 ,they are birds of passage1 and change their quarters with the monsoon4 ,the king bird of paradise has two long slender filaments from the tail1 ending in a curled flat web of emerald green1 and the male of the green species has long flowing plumes from the sides of his body1 which give him a magnificent appearance4 ,the pigeons are peculiarly beautiful and numerous1 but limited in their abode4 ,the ,gouroa1 or great crowned pigeon1 the largest of its tribe1 is an inhabitant of ,borneo4 ,each island has its own species of ,louries1 which exist nowhere else2 many peculiar paroquets and cockatoos1 couroucous or trogons1 coucals1 and the barbu1 with huge beaks1 are all peculiar to these islands4 ,even the partridges have thrown aside their grave colours and assumed the vivid hues of the tropics1 as the green and tufted ,cryptonyx4 ,but the other gallinaceous birds far surpass them1 as the fire and the ,argus pheasant1 and two or three species still more splendid1 with a host of other birds already known1 and multitudes which ,europeans never have seen1 in the deep jungles and impenetrable forests of these unexplored islands4 ,the ,cassowary1 a bird akin to the ostrich1 without the power of flying1 but fleet in its course1 has a wide range in the ,indian ,archipelago and the south-eastern peninsula of ,asia1 and1 though destitute of beauty1 is interesting from its peculiar location and the character of the whole race4 ,,african ,,birds4 ,a great number of ,european birds are also inhabitants of ,africa1 and many migrate there in winter1 yet the birds of this continent are very peculiar and characteristic2 those in the north and north-east1 and at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 are best known1 but the greater part of tropical ,africa is still unexplored4 ,it may be observed1 generally1 that the tropical birds differ from those of north ,africa1 but are1 with a few exceptions1 the same with those in the southern part of the continent1 and the whole of ,africa1 south of the desert1 differs in species from those of north and western ,africa and from ,europe4 ,moreover1 there is a strong analogy1 though no affinity1 between the birds of ,africa and ,america in the same parallels of latitude2 there is not a single perching bird common to the two1 though some of the rapacious are in both4 ,there are #ei species of birds of prey1 of which a few are also ,european4 ,the ,secretary-bird is the most singular of this order3 it preys upon serpents at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 in ,abyssinia1 and other parts of the continent4 ,africa possesses at least #cjj species of the passerine order1 of which #aj genera1 with all their species1 are peculiarly its own4 ,the swallows are more beautiful than ours1 especially the ,cecropis striata1 with two tail-feathers twice as long as its body4 ,many kingfishers1 the most beautifully coloured of their brilliant race1 frequent the lakes and rivers3 four species of ,hoopoes1 one of which visits ,europe in summer1 are natives2 and the honey-birds1 the representatives of the humming-birds of ,south ,america1 are peculiarly ,african4 ,they abound at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 where the nectaries of proteas and other plants produce the sacccharine juice which is their food4 ,the ,malurus ,africanus1 and many other singing-birds1 for the most part unknown elsewhere1 inhabit the forests4 ,the canary-bird is confined to the ,canary ,islands2 its song differs even in two adjacent districts3 there are1 however1 other instances of this4 ,the ,capirote1 also indigenous in the ,canary ,islands1 is a finer songster1 but it cannot be tamed4 ,various shrikes are peculiar to ,africa1 but the species known as the grand ,baratra is confined to the ,azores4 ,there are several birds of the raven tribe1 or nearly akin to them3 as the ,lampratornis superba2 another with purple wings1 the ,buphaga1 the only bird of its genus2 and several species of the ,calaos4 ,the weaving-bird1 or ,loxia textor1 is one of the most remarkable of the graminivorous tribe2 it weaves its nest with grass and twigs very dexterously2 one brought to ,europe wove a quantity of thread among the wires of its cage1 with great assiduity1 into a strong texture4 ,the ,widow-bird1 the ,calious1 the blue bee-eater1 and all the fly-catching touracous1 with many species of woodpeckers1 are found nowhere else4 ,the parrots and paroquets1 which swarm in the tropical forests1 from the size of a hen to that of a sparrow1 are of original forms4 ,the ,trogons1 or ,couroucous1 the most beautiful of the large-beaked climbing-birds1 are the same as in ,asia2 but the ,barbu and the four species of ,barbicans are altogether ,african1 and so are some of the cuckoos4 ,among the latter are two species of the ,cuculus indicator1 so named from indicating where the bees have their nests2 one is peculiar to ,abyssinia1 the other to the interior at the ,cape of ,good ,hope2 and mocking-birds are spread over a wide extent of this continent4 ,there are at least #ac species of ,african pigeons2 and to ,africa we are indebted for the guinea-fowl1 of which there are three or four kinds3 it wanders in flocks of hundreds among the brushwood on the banks of rivers and lakes in ,numidia and all the tropical regions1 and they are even more abundant in ,madagascar4 ,many grouse and partridges are peculiar1 especially the ,gangas1 of which there are five species2 some go in coveys1 and others traverse the deserts in flocks of many hundreds4 ,the sand-grouse1 one of this family1 is much more abundant on the arid deserts of north ,africa than in ,europe2 and the partridges of this country are francolins1 which feed on bulbous roots4 ,the ,ostrich takes the wide range of ,africa and ,arabia2 the bird of the desert1 and bustards1 also wanderers in the plains1 are numerous3 the most peculiar are the rhaad and the ,otis kori1 in south ,africa1 five feet high1 and remarkable for the brilliancy of its eye4 ,waders of infinite variety inhabit the rivers1 lakes1 and marshes-- woodcocks1 snipes1 plovers1 storks1 cranes1 herons1 and spoonbills4 ,the most peculiar are the ,dromes and ,marabous1 whose feathers form a considerable article of commerce2 the cream-coloured plover1 the ,scorpus or ombrette1 the water-treader of ,abyssinia1 and the ,tantalus tribe1 among which is the ibis 7,tantalus ibis71 held sacred by the ancient ,egyptians1 so frequently found in mummies in the catacombs1 and represented on their monuments4 ,swimming-birds are no less numerous3 the ,bernicla cyanaptera is a goose peculiar to ,shoa2 the rhynchops and pelicans1 several of the duck kind1 or birds allied to them1 are found nowhere else4 ,,birds ,,of ,,north ,,america4 ,of #dga species of ,north ,american birds1 about #ajj are also found in ,europe1 the greater number of which are water-fowl1 and those common to the northern coasts of both continents4 ,the sea-fowl on the ,north ,pacific and ,behring's ,straits are very much the same with those in the ,greenland seas and the ,north ,atlantic1 but the great ,auk or penguin1 with featherless wings1 still exists on the ,north ,pacific1 and the large white albatross1 seldom seen in the ,north ,atlantic1 frequents ,behring's ,straits and the western coasts of ,north ,america in immense flocks4 ,it is almost universal in the ,pacific and in the stormy regions towards the southern pole4 ,like the ,mother-,cary's-chicken1 it is a bird of the tempest1 sailing calmly on its huge wings in the most tremendous gales1 and following a ship a whole day without resting on the waves3 it is the largest of winged sea-fowls2 some measure #ad feet from tip to tip of the wings4 ,there is no vulture common to the two continents1 but there are five eagles1 half of the other birds of prey1 a fourth part of the crow tribe1 several waders and web-footed birds which inhabit both2 yet the general character of ,north ,american birds is different from that of ,european3 #ha ,american generic forms and two families are not found in ,europe4 ,the humming-birds are altogether ,american2 only four species are in ,north ,america2 one of these is migratory1 and another is common to ,south ,america4 ,the parrot family1 distributed with generic differences in almost all tropical countries1 has but one representative here1 which lives in the forests of the ,carolinas4 ,europe has nothing analogous to these two families4 ,it is singular that a country with so many rivers and lakes should possess only one kingfisher4 ,the woods are filled with many species of creeping birds1 and there are #fh peculiar species of sylvias and fly-catchers2 among others the ,todus viridis1 which forms a genus by itself4 ,ravens1 crows1 pies1 and jays abound1 and there are #ac species of starlings4 ,the finch tribe are very numerous1 and there are #af species of woodpeckers1 as might be expected in a country covered with forests4 ,of pigeons there are eight species1 but individually they are innumerable1 especially the ,columba migratoria1 which passes over ,canada and the northern ,states in myriads for successive days twice in the year4 ,the poultry-yard is indebted to ,north ,america for the domestic turkey1 which there ranges wild in its native woods1 and attains great size4 ,there are no partridges1 properly speaking1 and of #ac ,american species of grouse1 three are probably ,european1 a family which exists in every country under different forms4 ,the vast expanse of water and marshy ground makes ,north ,america the home of water-fowl and waders without end4 ,most of the waders and graminivorous birds are migratory2 in winter they find no food north of the great lakes1 where the ground is frozen upwards of six months in the year4 ,many pass the winter in ,california1 as storks and cranes2 wild geese cover acres of ground near the sea1 and when they take wing their clang is heard far off4 ,even gulls and other northern sea-fowl come to the coasts of ,california1 and indeed to the shores of all the north and temperate ,pacific4 ,it may be said generally that1 with regard to the web-footed tribe1 ,north ,america possesses specimens of all the genera of the old world1 and many peculiarly its own4 ,the table-land of ,mexico has some peculiar forms1 and some species of swimming-birds found only in more northern latitudes2 but1 except the ,ampelid1 there are representatives of every group of ,north and ,south ,america4 ,,birds ,,of ,,south ,,america4 ,the tenants of the air in ,south ,america differ more from those in ,north ,america than these do from the birds of ,europe3 there are not more than #ej or #fj species in common4 ,south ,america has a greater variety of original forms than any other country2 more than #be genera1 with all their species1 inhabit that country only2 of the passerine family alone there are at least #ajjj species1 all peculiar to it4 ,the vultures are of different genera from those in ,europe2 the ,condor of the ,andes is the largest of these2 it frequents the highest pinnacles of the ,andes in summer1 and builds its nest at the height of #ae1jjj feet and more above the sea2 and ,baron ,humboldt saw it wheeling in circles at the elevation of #bb1jjj feet4 ,it inhabits the ,andes from the ,straits of ,magellan to #g ,n4 lat41 but it never crosses the isthmus of ,panama1 the condor of ,california being a smaller bird4 ,it roams over the plains of ,patagonia even to the mouth of the ,rio ,negro1 and in winter it descends in groups to feed on the plains and sea-shore2 and1 like all the vulture race1 it possesses the faculty of descrying a dead or dying animal from a very great distance4 ,although the condor lives principally on dead animals and carrion1 it will sometimes attack live animals2 its habits are those of our ordinary vulture2 much exaggeration has found its way into books as to its size and ferocity2 the most remarkable point in its history is the great vertical extent in which it is known to live1 from the level of the sea1 to an elevation of #bb1jjj feet4 ,the ,vultur papa1 or king of the vultures1 an inhabitant of the tropical regions1 is remarkable for the bright blue and vermilion colour of the head and neck2 the black vulture lives in large assemblages on the tops of high trees in the sylvas of ,brazil2 another numerous species prey on animals in the llanos4 ,many other rapacious birds are peculiar to this continent2 the burrowing owl1 so common in the ,pampas and ,chile1 is one of these4 ,the ,guachero forms a genus by itself2 it is of the size of a common fowl1 with the form and beak of a vulture1 and is the only instance known of a nocturnal bird feeding on fruit4 ,it is confined to a limited district in the province of ,cumana1 and shuns the day2 incredible numbers have taken possession of a dark cavern in the valley of ,caripe1 where they are killed in thousands every year by the ,indians for their fat4 ,the ,troupials represent our ,orioles1 the ,baratras and ,becardes our shrikes1 while the ,tangaras partake of the form both of the shrike and pie1 which last1 with all the rest of the crow family1 have various representatives in this country4 ,swallows1 or birds allied to them1 are numerous1 and many that live on the honeyed juice of flowers1 like the humming-bird1 so peculiarly characteristic of ,south ,america3 #aej species of humming-birds1 from the size of a wren to that of an humble-bee1 adorn the tropical regions of ,brazil and ,guiana4 ,this family1 so entirely ,american1 has a range from the ,straits of ,magellan to the #chth parallel of ,n4 lat43 it may be met with in the forests on the mountain of ,orizaba1 at an elevation of #aa1jjj feet above the sea2 and some beautiful species of it at still greater heights in the ,andes of ,bolivia and ,new ,grenada4 ,there is only one ,south ,american humming-bird which is also permanent in the ,united ,states1 and only two are found in ,central ,america3 many of them are migratory2 they come in multitudes to north ,chile in summer1 and disappear in winter4 ,the climbing-birds1 with large bills1 are mostly confined to the tropical forests1 which swarm with peculiar races of parrots1 paroquets1 and macaws4 ,it is a remarkable circumstance in the distribution of birds that there should be #dj species of parrots in the torrid zone of ,america1 and only three species on the opposite coast of ,africa1 though the climate is similar and the vegetation nearly as luxuriant4 ,parrots range from the ,straits of ,magellan to the #db;d parallel of ,n4 lat42 where the ,eider-duck1 which is a peculiarly ,arctic bird1 begins4 ,there are whole families of birds in tropical ,america not to be seen elsewhere3 as the vividly-coloured ,toucan1 with its huge beak2 the ,araucari1 which lives on the fruit of the ,araucaria2 some peculiar species of the gorgeous trogons or couroucous2 the ,tomalias1 birds related to the cuckoo tribe2 and the ,jacmars1 which represent the woodpeckers4 ,the gallinaceous family is totally different from that of the ,north ,american forests2 the ,guan or penelope represents our pheasants1 the different species of ,crax or ,alectors the wild turkey1 which they equal in size and brilliancy of plumage2 whilst the numerous species of ,tinamous and cognate genera fill the place of the grouse1 quails1 and partridges of the old continent4 ,south ,america furnishes two species of gallinaceous birds of a very peculiar character--the ,cariama of ,brazil1 like to the secretary-bird of the ,cape of ,good ,hope in its form and its habits of destroying reptiles2 and the ,kamichi1 which possesses one or more sharp triangular spurs at the point of each wing1 a dreadful instrument of attack and defence1 such as is possessed by no other bird4 ,the three-toed or ,american ostrich1 or ,struthio ,rhea1 ranges1 like all its congeners1 over a wide extent of country4 ,it is found from the silvas of ,brazil to the ,rio ,negro1 which bounds the ,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres on the south1 and in some of the elevated plains of the ,peru-,bolivian ,cordilleras2 while the ,struthio ,darwinii has the plains of ,patagonia to the ,straits of ,magellan for its residence4 ,the water-fowl and waders in this land of rivers are beyond number2 millions of flamingoes1 spatules1 cormorants1 herons1 fishing falcons1 and scissor-beaks1 follow the fish that go up the rivers to spawn2 nor are gulls wanting where fish are to be found3 a little snow-white heron walks on the back and over the head of the crocodile while it sleeps4 ,the water-fowl are almost all peculiar2 the few that are excepted are ,north ,american4 ,eight or nine genera belonging to the warm climates of the old world are here under new forms1 and the number of specific forms of the same genus is greater than in any other country4 ,the beautiful red ,ibis or ,tantalus ruber inhabits ,cayenne2 the ,ardea helias and scolopax are the most beautiful of the heron tribe1 from their variegated plumage4 ,ducks migrate in immense flocks1 alternately between the ,orinoco and the ,amazons1 on account of the greater supply of fish afforded by the floods of these rivers1 which take place at intervals of six months from each other4 ,between the tropics the vicissitudes of drought and humidity have much influence on the migration of birds1 because the supply of their food depends upon these changes4 ,if anything more were required to show the partial location of birds1 the ,galapagos ,archipelago might be mentioned3 of #bf specimens shot by ,mr4 ,darwin1 #be were peculiar1 though bearing a strong resemblance to ,american types2 some birds were even confined to particular islands2 and the gulls1 one of the most widely dispersed families1 are peculiar4 ,but on this comparatively recent volcanic group1 only #ejj miles distant from the coast of ,america1 everything is peculiar--birds1 plants1 reptiles1 and fish2 and though under the equator1 none have brilliant colours4 ,the coasts of ,peru and northern ,chile are not rich in birds1 but in southern ,chile there are many humming-birds1 parrots1 flamingoes1 peculiar ducks and geese2 and there commences that inconceivable quantity of sea-fowl that swarm on the seas and coasts of the ,antarctic regions4 ,the black scissor-bill1 or ,rhynchops nigra1 has been seen to form a dense mass seven miles long2 shags fly in an unbroken line two miles4 ,pelicans1 terns1 petrels1 and many others1 cover the low islands and coasts of the mainland1 and those of ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,in the ,antarctic and ,southern seas ,petrels take the place of our gulls2 seven species of them inhabit these high southern latitudes in prodigious numbers4 ,two remarkable species of this genus are found throughout the ,southern ,ocean--the ,giant ,petrel 7,p4 gigantea71 equal to the albatross in size1 and resembling it in its mode of life--it sometimes becomes perfectly white2 and the ,equinoctial ,petrel 7,p4 equinoctialis71 a beautiful bird as large as our domestic fowl1 and of a jet black colour4 ,a flock of what was supposed to be the young of the species known as the ,pintado or ,cape pigeon 7,procellaria capensis7 was estimated to have been from six to ten miles long1 and two or three miles broad1 absolutely darkening the air during the two or three hours they were flying over the ,discovery ships4 ,the snowy petrel1 a most elegant bird1 never leaves the ice1 and consequently is never seen north of the ,antarctic circle in summer4 ,three species of the southern ,penguin 7,aptenodytes7 inhabit these seas2 the ,a4 ,patachonica1 the largest of sea-fowls1 is a rare and1 for the most part1 solitary bird1 lives on the pack ice1 and weighs from #fj to #gj pounds4 ,the other two species are smaller and gregarious2 they crowd the snow-clad islands in the high southern latitudes in myriads2 every ledge of rock swarms with them1 and on the shore of ,possession ,island1 close to ,victoria ,land1 it was difficult to pass through the multitudes4 ,they are fine1 bold birds1 pecking and snapping with their sharp bills at those who venture among them4 ,they can scarcely walk1 and1 their wings being merely rudimentary1 they cannot fly2 they skim along the snow1 and swim rapidly1 even under water1 resembling more a fish or a seal than a bird in their movements1 and the noise they make baffles all description4 ,two species of albatross breed in the ,antarctic islands2 a kind of skua gull1 which robs their nests2 and a goose which1 like the eider-duck1 makes its nest with the down from its breast4 ,a very curious bird1 forming as it were a passage between the gallinaceous birds and waders1 the ,chionis or ,vaginalis ,alba1 is only found near the southern extremity of this continent3 it is of a milky white1 and of the size of our domestic pigeon1 and often takes refuge on the yards of ships off ,cape ,horn and ,staten ,land2 it lives chiefly on a small species of cuttle-fish4 ,few land birds are met with within the ,antarctic circle3 there are but seven or eight species in the ,auckland ,islands1 mostly ,new ,zealand birds2 among others1 the tooa or tui1 and an olive-coloured creeper1 the choristers of the woods4 ,one only was found in ,campbell ,island4 ,many generic forms are the same at the two extremities of the globe1 yet with distinct specific differences4 ,sea-fowls are more excursive than other birds1 but even they confine themselves within definite limits1 so that the coasts may be known from their winged inhabitants4 ,,australian ,,birds4 ,the ,australian birds are1 in many respects1 as singular as the quadrupeds and plants of that country3 a white falcon is among its birds of prey1 a black swan among its water-fowl1 and of #de genera1 #ce are purely ,australian4 ,the passeres are so original1 that many new genera have been found4 ,the ,cassican1 a handsome bird of bright colours1 approaching somewhat to the crow family1 the ,choucalcyon1 the golden and black oriole1 and one species of ,philedon1 are peculiarly ,australian4 ,the ,menura superba1 or lyre-bird1 from the resemblance its outspread tail bears to the form of the ancient lyre1 is the only bird of its genus1 and the only one which approaches the character of the gallinaceous family1 of which none have been discovered in the ,australian continent4 ,here are many specific kinds of cuckoos1 as the ,coucal and the ,scythrops1 the only bird of that genera4 ,woodpeckers there are none4 ,the parrots1 paroquets1 and cockatoos1 which live in numerous societies1 are all peculiar1 especially the black cockatoo1 which is found here only2 it is not so gregarious1 but even more suspicious than the white cockatoos1 which have a sentinel to warn them of danger4 ,chious1 with huge bills like the toucan satin-birds1 pigeons and doves of peculiar forms1 abound2 and the ,cereopsis goose is no less peculiar among the web-footed tribe4 ,the desert plains of this great continent are allotted to the ,emu1 a large struthious bird1 like its congener the cassowary incapable of flight1 and once very plentiful1 but now in progress of being extirpated or driven by the colonists to the unexplored regions of the interior4 ,the ,apteryx1 a bird of the same family1 still lingers in ,new ,zealand1 but it is on the verge of extinction1 and probably owes its existence to its nocturnal and burrowing habits4 ,it is one of those anomalous creatures that partakes of the character of several others2 its head is in shape something like that of the ibis1 with a long slender bill1 fitted for digging into the ground for worms and grubs2 its legs and feet resemble those of the common fowl1 with a fourth toe or spur behind1 in which it differs from its congeners2 and its wings1 if wings they can be called1 are exceedingly small4 ,in a specimen1 whose body measured #ai inches1 the wings1 stripped of the feathers1 were only an inch and a half long1 ending in a hard horny claw three inches long4 ,the comparatively small wings are characteristic of the whole family3 the rhea and ostrich have the largest1 which1 though unavailing in flight1 materially aid their progress in running2 the wings of the emu and apteryx serve only as weapons of defence3 the whole tribe also defend themselves by kicking4 ,no animals have a more remarkable geographical distribution than this family1 or show more distinctly the decided limits within which animals have originally been placed4 ,these huge birds can neither fly nor swim1 consequently they could not have passed through the air or the ocean to distant continents and islands4 ,there are five distinct genera1 to each of which very extensive and widely separated countries have been allotted3 the ,ostrich is spread over ,africa1 from the ,cape of ,good ,hope to the deserts of ,arabia2 two species of the ,rhea range over the plains of the ,pampas and ,patagonia1 in ,south ,america2 the continent of ,australia is the abode of the ,emu2 the ,cassowary roves over some of the large islands of the ,indian ,archipelago2 and the ,apteryx dwells in ,new ,zealand4 ,the ,dodo1 a very large bird of the struthious kind1 extirpated by the ,dutch navigators1 once inhabited ,mauritius and the adjacent island of ,don ,rodriguez4 ,the remains of a very numerous group of extinct struthious birds have been recently discovered imbedded in the very recent geological deposits of ,new ,zealand4 ,one of its genera1 the ,dinornis1 has several species1 the largest of which1 the ,d4 giganteus1 attains a height of #aa feet1 or double that of the largest ostrich2 another1 the ,palapteryx1 upwards of #i feet4 ,from the position in which these bones are found1 as well as from their state of preservation1 they can scarcely be considered as fossil1 although belonging to species which have become extinct4 ,professor ,owen has described no less than six species of dinornis1 and four of palapteryx2 and later discoveries in the colony will probably add several to these numbers4 ,no better example can be cited as elucidating the certitude of the deductions of the comparative anatomist than what led to the first discovery of this extraordinary group of birds4 ,a small portion of a bone1 which from its dimensions appeared to have belonged rather to a quadruped of the size of an ox than to a bird1 was submitted to ,mr4 ,owen2 he boldly pronounced it1 from its structure1 to belong to a bird of the ostrich kind--a decision that was soon abundantly confirmed by the subsequent discovery not only of the bones of the bird1 but of its eggs4 ,the bones of another extinct bird1 the ,nestor1 have been found1 mixed with those of the ,dinornis4 ,it had been something between an owl and a parrot1 but more nearly allied to the latter4 ,there are two species living of the nestor1 one in ,new ,zealand1 another in ,philip ,island1 only five miles in extent1 and it is found in no other part of the world4 ,the ,notornis1 an extinct race1 closely allied to the water-hen1 of the size of a bustard1 had also been an ancient inhabitant of these islands1 where birds did and do exist1 almost to the entire exclusion of quadrupeds and reptiles3 an extinct species of dog1 and a rat still existing1 are the only land animals which shared in these extensive territories with multitudes of the feathered race4#ahb ,the ostrich family live on vegetables2 the form of those that had their home in ,new ,zealand would lead to the conclusion that they had fed on the edible roots of the fern which covers that country2 and as no quadruped excepting a rat is indigenous in ,new ,zealand1 though #gjj miles long1 and in many places #ij wide1 these birds could have had no enemy but man1 the most formidable of all4 ,the beautiful and sprightly ,tui1 or parson-bird1 native in ,new ,zealand1 is jet black with a white tuft on its breast1 and so imitative that it can be taught to repeat whole sentences4 ,there are parrots and paroquets1 vast numbers of pigeons1 fine warblers1 many small birds1 and a great variety of water-fowl1 amongst others a cormorant1 which1 though web-footed1 perches on the trees that overhang the streams and sea1 watching for fish2 and a snow-white frigate-bird1 that pounces on them from a great height in the air4 ,altogether1 there are at least #hd species of birds that inhabit these islands4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,distribution of ,mammalia throughout the ,earth4 ,,carbonic acid1 water1 and ammonia1 contain the elements necessary for the support of animals1 as well as of vegetables4 ,they are supplied to the graminivora in the vegetable food1 which is converted into animal substance by their vital functions4 ,vitality in animals1 as in vegetables1 is the power they have of assimilating their food1 a process independent of volition1 since it is carried on during sleep1 and is the cause of force4 ,animals inhale oxygen with the air they breathe2 part of the oxygen combines with the carbon contained in the food1 and is exhaled in the form of carbonic acid gas4 ,with every effort1 with every breath1 and with every motion1 voluntary or involuntary1 at every instant of life1 a part of the muscular substance becomes dead1 separates from the living part1 combines with the remaining portion of inhaled oxygen1 and is removed4 ,food1 therefore1 is necessary to compensate for the waste1 to supply nourishment1 and to restore strength to the nerves1 on which all vital motion depends2 for by the nerves volition acts on living matter4 ,food would not be sufficient to make up for this waste1 and consequent loss of strength1 without sleep2 during which voluntary motion ceases1 and the undisturbed assimilation of the food suffices to restore strength1 and to make up for the involuntary motion of breathing1 which is also a source of waste4 ,the perpetual combination of the oxygen of the atmosphere with the carbon of the food1 and with the effete substance of the body1 is a real combustion1 and is supposed to be the cause of animal heat1 because heat is constantly given out by the combination of carbon and oxygen2 and1 without a constant supply of food1 the oxygen would soon consume the whole animal1 except the bones4 ,graminivorous animals inhale oxygen in breathing1 and1 as vegetable food does not contain so much carbon as animal food1 they require a greater supply to compensate for the wasting influence of the oxygen2 therefore1 cattle are constantly eating4 ,but the nutritious parts of vegetables are identical in composition with the chief constituents of the blood2 and from blood every part of the animal body1 and even a portion of the bones1 is formed4 ,carnivorous animals have not pores in the skin1 therefore their supply of oxygen is from their breath only2 and1 as animal food contains a greater quantity of carbon1 they do not require to eat so often as animals that feed on vegetables4 ,the restlessness of carnivorous animals when confined in a cage is owing to the superabundance of carbon in their food4 ,they move about continually to quicken respiration1 and by that means procure a supply of oxygen to carry off the redundant carbon4 ,the quantity of animal heat is in proportion to the amount of the oxygen inspired in equal times4 ,the heat of birds is greater than that of quadrupeds1 and in both it is higher than the temperature of amphibious animals and fishes1 which have the coldest blood4 ,on these subjects we are indebted to ,professor ,liebig1 who has thrown so much light on the important sciences of animal and vegetable chemistry4 ,the mammalia consist of nine orders of animals1 which differ in appearance and in their nature2 but they agree in the one attribute of suckling their young4 ,these orders are--the ,quadrumana1 animals which can use their fore feet as hands1 as monkeys and ,apes2 ,cheiroptera1 animals with winged arms1 as bats2 ,carnivora1 that live on animal food1 as the lion1 tiger1 bear1 c42 ,rodentia1 or gnawers1 as beavers1 squirrels1 mice2 ,edentata or toothless animals or more properly wanting certain teeth1 as the canines or incisors1 as anteaters and armadilloes2 ,pachydermata1 or thick-skinned animals1 as the elephant1 the horse2 ,ruminantia1 animals that chew the cud1 as camels1 lamas1 giraffes1 cows1 sheep1 deer2 ,marsupialia1 possessing a pouch in which the young is received after birth2 and ,cetace1 as whales and dolphins4 ,the animal creation1 like the vegetable1 varies correspondingly with height and latitude2 the changes of species in ascending the ,himalaya1 for instance1 are similar to what a traveller would meet with in his journey from a southern to a high northern latitude4 ,the number of land animals increases from the frigid zones to the equator1 but the law is reversed with regard to the marine mammalia1 which abound most in high latitudes4 ,taking a broad view of the distribution of the nine orders of mammalia1 it may be observed that the tropical forests are the chief abode of the monkey tribe3 ,asia is the home of the ape1 especially the islands of the ,indian ,archipelago1 as far as the most easterly meridian of ,timor1 beyond which there are none4 ,they abound throughout ,africa from the ,cape of ,good ,hope to ,gibraltar1 where the ,barbary ape or magot is found3 another species of magot inhabits the island of ,niphon1 the northern limit of monkeys at the eastern extremity of the continent4 ,the bats that live on fruits are chiefly met with in tropical and warm climates1 especially in the ,indian ,archipelago2 the common bats1 which live on insects1 and are so numerous in species as to form more than a third of the whole family1 are found everywhere except in arctic ,america4 ,the ,vampire is only met with in tropical ,america4 ,carnivorous mammalia are distributed all over the globe1 though very unequally3 in ,australia there are only four species1 two of which are bats2 there are only #ac in ,south ,america1 and #bg in the ,oceanic region2 while in the tropical regions of ,america there are #aji1 in ,africa #acj1 and in ,asia #aff species of carnivora2 and so rapid is their increase towards the tropical regions1 that there are nearly three times as many in the tropical as in the temperate zones4 ,with regard to the ,gnawers or ,rodents1 species of the same group frequently have a wide range in the same1 or nearly the same1 parallels of latitude1 but when they are inhabitants of high mountain-ridges they follow the direction of the chain1 whatever that may be1 and groups confined to high latitudes often appear again at great elevations in low latitudes4 ,the ,edentata are particularly characteristic of ,south ,america1 where there are three times as many species as there are in ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,australia1 taken together4 ,in the three latter countries they only occur at intervals1 but in ,america they extend from the tropic of ,cancer to the plains of ,patagonia4 ,thick-skinned and ruminating animals are very abundant in the old continent1 especially in ,asia and ,africa2 they are also in ,north ,america1 but in the southern part of that continent there is only the ,tapir1 and in ,australia there are none4 ,the marsupialia are confined to ,australia and ,america4 ,the distribution of animals is guided by laws analogous to those which regulate the distribution of plants1 insects1 fishes1 and birds4 ,each continent1 and even different parts of the same continent1 are centres of zoological families1 which have always existed there1 and nowhere else2 each group being almost always specifically different from all others4 ,food1 security1 and temperature have no influence1 as primary causes1 in the distribution of animals4 ,the plains of ,america are not less fit for rearing oxen than the meadows of ,europe2 yet the common ox was not found in that continent at the time of its discovery2 and with regard to temperature1 this animal thrives on the llanos of ,venezuela and the pampas of ,brazil as well as on the steppes in ,europe4 ,the horse is another example3 originally a native of the deserts of ,tartary1 he now roams wild in herds of hundreds of thousands on the grassy plains of ,america1 though unknown in that continent at the time of the ,spanish invasion4 ,all animals1 however1 are not so flexible in their constitutions1 for most of them would perish from change of climate4 ,the stations which the different families now occupy must have been allotted to them as each part of the land rose above the ocean2 and because they have found in these stations all that was necessary for their existence1 many have never wandered from them1 notwithstanding their powers of locomotion2 while others have migrated1 but only within certain bounds4 ,instinct leads animals to migrate when they become too numerous2 the rat in ,kamtchatka1 according to ,pennant1 sets out in spring in great multitudes1 and travels #hjj miles1 swimming over rivers and lakes2 and the ,lapland marmot or lemming1 native in the mountains of ,kolen1 migrates in bands1 once or twice in #be years1 to the ,western ,ocean1 which they enter and are drowned2 other bands go through ,swedish ,lapland and perish in the ,gulf of ,bothnia4 ,thus1 nature provides a remedy against the over increase of any one species1 and maintains the balance of the whole4 ,a temporary migration for food is not uncommon in animals4 ,the wild ass1 a native of the deserts of ,great ,tartary1 in summer feeds to the east and north of the lake of ,aral1 and in autumn they migrate in thousands to the north of ,india1 and even to ,persia4#ahc ,the ruminating animals that dwell in the inaccessible parts of the ,himalaya descend to their lower declivities in search of food in winter2 and for the same reason the reindeer and musk-ox leave the ,arctic snows4 ,the ,arctic regions form a district common to ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america4 ,on this account1 the animals inhabiting the northern parts of these continents are sometimes identical1 often very similar2 in fact1 there is no genus of quadrupeds in the ,arctic regions that is not found in the three continents1 though there are only #bg species common to all1 and these are mostly fur-bearing animals4 ,in the temperate zone of ,europe and ,asia1 which forms an uninterrupted region1 identity of species is occasionally met with1 but1 for the most part1 marked by such varieties in size and colour as might be expected to arise from difference of food and climate4 ,the same genera are sometimes found in the intertropical parts of ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america1 but the same species never2 much less in the south temperate zones of these continents1 where all the animals are different1 whether birds1 beasts1 insects1 or reptiles2 but in similar climates analogous tribes replace one another4 ,europe has no family and no order peculiarly its own1 and many of its species are common to other countries2 consequently the great zoological districts1 where the subject is viewed on a broad scale1 are ,asia1 ,africa1 ,oceanica1 ,america1 and ,australia2 but in each of these there are smaller districts1 to which particular genera and families are confined4 ,yet when the regions are not separated by lofty mountain-chains1 acting as barriers1 the races are in most cases blended together on the confines between the two districts1 so that there is not a sudden change4 ,,european ,,quadrupeds4 ,the character of the animals of temperate ,europe has been more changed by the progress of civilization than that of any other quarter of the globe4 ,many of its original inhabitants have been extirpated1 and new races introduced2 but it seems always to have had various animals capable of being domesticated4 ,the wild cattle in the parks of the ,duke of ,hamilton and the ,earl of ,tankerville are the only remnants of the ancient inhabitants of the ,british forests1 though they were spread over ,europe1 and perhaps were the parent stock from which the ,european cattle of the present time have descended2 though the ,aurochs1 a race nearly extinct1 and found only in the forests of ,lithuania and the ,caucasus1 may have some claim to the pedigree4 ,both races are supposed to have come from ,asia4 ,the ,mouflon1 which exists in ,corsica and ,sardinia1 is said to be the parent stock of our domestic sheep4 ,the pig1 the goat1 the fallow-deer1 and red-deer1 have been reclaimed1 and also the reindeer1 which cannot strictly be called ,european1 since it also inhabits the northern regions of ,asia and ,america4 ,the cat is ,european2 and1 altogether1 eight or ten species of tamed quadrupeds have sprung from native animals4 ,there are still about #ahj wild land-animals in ,europe3 #de of these are also found in western ,asia1 and nine in northern ,africa4 ,the most remarkable are the reindeer1 elk1 red and fallow deer1 the roe-buck1 glutton1 lynx1 polecat1 several wild-cats1 the common and black squirrels1 the fox1 wild boar1 wolf1 the black and the brown bear1 eight species of weasels1 and seven of mice4 ,the otter is common2 but the beaver is now found only on the ,rhine1 the ,rhone1 the ,danube1 and some other large rivers2 rabbits and hares are numerous2 the hedgehog is everywhere2 the porcupine in southern ,europe only2 the chamois and ibex in the ,alps and ,pyrenees4 ,many species of these animals are widely distributed over ,europe1 generally with variations in size and colour4 ,the chamois of the ,alps and ,pyrenees1 though the same in species1 is slightly varied in appearance2 and the fox of the most northern parts of ,europe is larger than that in ,italy1 with a richer fur1 and somewhat different colour4 ,some animals never descend below a certain height1 as the ibex and chamois1 which live on higher ground than any of their order1 being usually found between the region of trees and the line of perpetual snow1 which is about #hijj feet on the southern1 and #hbjj on the northern declivities of the ,alps4 ,the common stag does not go above #gjjj feet1 and the fallow-deer not more than #fjjj1 above the level of the sea3 these two1 however1 descend to the plains1 the former never do4 ,the bear1 lynx1 and the stoat ascend nearly to the limit of perpetual snow4 ,some ,european animals are much circumscribed in their locality4 ,the ichneumon is peculiar to ,egypt2 the mouflon is confined to ,corsica and ,sardinia2 there are a weasel and bat which inhabit ,sardinia only2 and ,sicily has several peculiar species of bats and mice4 ,there is only one species of monkey in ,europe1 which lives on the rock of ,gibraltar1 and is supposed to have been brought from ,africa4 ,all the indigenous ,british quadrupeds now existing1 together with the hyna1 tiger1 bear1 and wolf1 whose bones have been found in caverns1 are also found in the same state in ,germany4 ,ireland was separated by the ,irish ,channel before all the animals had migrated across ,england2 so that our squirrel1 mole1 polecat1 dormouse1 and many smaller quadrupeds1 never reached the sister island4 ,mr4 ,owen has shown that the ,british horse1 ass1 hog1 the smaller wild ox1 the goat1 roe1 beaver1 and many small rodents1 are the same species with those which had co-existed with the mammoth1 the great northern hippopotamus1 and two kinds of rhinoceros long extinct4 ,so that a part only of the modern tertiary fauna has perished1 from whence he infers that the cause of their destruction was not a violent universal catastrophe from which none could escape4 ,the ,bos longifrons was co-existent with man4 ,,asiatic ,,quadrupeds4 ,asia has a greater number and a greater variety of wild animals than any country1 except ,america1 and also a larger proportion of those that are domesticated4 ,though civilized from the earliest ages1 the destruction of the animal creation has not been so great as in ,europe1 owing to the inaccessible height of the mountains1 the extent of the plains and desert1 and1 not least1 to the impenetrable forests and jungles1 which afford them a safe retreat3 #bhh mammalia are ,asiatic1 of which #ahh are common to it and other countries2 these1 however1 chiefly belong to the temperate zone4 ,asia ,minor is a district of transition from the fauna of ,europe to that of ,asia4 ,there the chamois1 the bouquetin1 the brown bear1 the wolf1 fox1 hare1 and others1 are mingled with the hyna1 the ,angora goat1 which bears a valuable fleece1 the ,argali or wild sheep1 the white squirrel2 and even the ,bengal royal tiger is sometimes seen on ,mount ,ararat1 and is not uncommon in ,azerbijan and the mountains in ,persia4 ,arabia is inhabited by the hyna1 panther1 jackal1 wolf1 and musk-deer4 ,antelopes and monkeys are found in ,yemen and ,aden4 ,most of these are also indigenous in ,persia4 ,the wild ass1 ,onagra1 a handsome spirited animal of great speed1 and so shy that it is scarcely possible to come near it1 wanders in herds over the plains and table-lands of central ,asia4 ,it is also found in the ,indian desert1 and especially in the ,run of ,cutch--8the wilderness and the barren lands are his dwelling0--and in the most elevated regions of ,tartary and ,tibet1 on the shores of the sacred lakes of ,manasarowar and ,rakastal1 at a height of more than #ae1bej feet above the sea4#ahd ,the table-lands and mountains which divide eastern ,asia almost into polar and tropical zones1 produce as great a distinction in the character of its indigenous fauna4 ,the severity of the climate in ,siberia renders the skins of its numerous fur-bearing animals more valuable4 ,these are reindeer1 elks1 wolves1 the large white bear1 that lives among the ice on the ,arctic shores1 several other bears1 the lynx1 various kinds of martens and cats1 the common1 the blue1 and the black fox1 the ermine1 and sable4 ,the fur of these last is much esteemed1 and is only equalled by that of the sea-otter1 which inhabits the shores on both sides of the northern ,pacific4 ,with the exception of the ,jerboa1 which burrows in sandy deserts1 on the table-land and elsewhere1 all the ,asiatic species of gnawers are confined to ,siberia4 ,the most remarkable of these is the flying squirrel4 ,the ,alta ,mountains teem with wild animals1 besides many of those mentioned4 ,there are large stags1 bears1 some peculiar weasels1 the argali1 and the wild sheep4 ,the wild goat of the ,alps is found in the ,sayansk part of the chain2 the glutton and musk-deer in the ,baikal2 and in ,da-,ouria the red-deer and the ,antelope ,saiga4 ,the ,bengal tiger and the ,felis ,irbis1 a species of panther1 wander from the ,celestial ,mountains to the ,alta chain and southern ,siberia3 the ,tiger is met with even on the banks of the ,obi1 and also in ,china1 though in the northern regions it differs considerably from the same species in ,bengal2 thus it can bear a mean annual temperature of from #ha of ,fahrenheit to the freezing point4 ,the ,tapir1 and many of the animals of the ,indian ,archipelago1 are found in the southern provinces of the ,chinese empire2 but its fauna is little known4 ,it is1 however1 probable that in the northern parts it resembles that of the ,alta mountains and ,siberia4 ,the animals of ,japan have a strong analogy to those of ,europe3 many are identical1 or slightly varied1 as the badger1 otter1 mole1 common fox1 marten1 and squirrel4 ,on the other hand1 a large species of bear in the island of ,jezo resembles the grizzly bear in the ,rocky ,mountains of ,north ,america4 ,a chamois in other parts of ,japan is similar to the ,antelope montana of the same mountains3 and other animals native in ,japan are the same with those in ,sumatra2 so that its fauna is connected with that of very distant regions4 ,a few animals are peculiar to the high cold plains of the table-land of eastern ,asia3 the dziggetai1 a very fleet animal1 resembling both the horse and the ass1 is peculiar to these ,tartarian steppes2 it is probably the same species as the ,kiang of ,tibet1 which inhabits at very great heights1 and has been seen on the banks of the sacred lake of ,manasarowar1 at an elevation of #ae1bej feet1 by ,lieutenant ,strachey3 two species of antelopes inhabit the plains of ,tibet1 congregating in immense herds1 with sentinels so vigilant that it is scarcely possible to approach them4 ,the ,dzeran1 or yellow goat1 which is both swift and shy1 and the handsome ,tartar ox1 are native in these wilds2 also the shawl-wool goat and the manul1 from which the ,angora cat1 so much admired in ,persia and ,europe1 is descended4 ,most of the animals that live at such heights cannot exist in less elevated and warmer regions1 exhibiting a striking instance of the limited distribution of species4 ,goats and sheep best endure the thin air and great cold of high lands3 the ,cashmere goat and ,argoli sheep browse on the plains of ,tibet at elevations of from #aj1jjj to #ac1jjj feet2 the rass1 a sheep with straight spiral horns1 lives on the table-lands of ,pamer1 which are #ae1jjj feet above the sea2 and also the kutch-gar1 a species of sheep which is about the height of a year-old colt1 with fine-curling horns3 they congregate in flocks of many hundreds1 and are hunted by the ,kirghis4 ,the ruminating animals of ,asia are more numerous and excellent than those of any other part of the world2 #fd species are native1 and #df of these exist there only4 ,there are several species of wild oxen2 one in the ,birmese empire1 and on the mountains of north-eastern ,india1 with spiral twisted horns4 ,the buffalo is native in ,china1 ,india1 ,borneo1 and the ,sunda ,islands2 it is a large animal1 formidable in a wild state1 but domesticated universally in the ,east4 ,it was introduced into ,italy in the sixth century1 and large herds now graze in the low marshy plains near the sea4 ,various kinds of oxen have been domesticated in ,india time immemorial3 the handsome ,indian ox1 with a hump on the shoulder1 has been venerated by the ,brahmins for ages2 the beautiful white silky tail of the domesticated ox of ,tartary1 used in the ,east to drive away flies1 was adopted as the ,turkish standard2 and the common ,indian ox differs from all others in the great speed of its course4 ,some other species of cattle have been tamed1 and some are still wild in ,india1 ,java1 and other ,asiatic islands4 ,the ,cashmere goat1 which bears the shawl-wool1 is the most valuable of the endless varieties of goats and sheep of ,asia2 it is kept in large herds in the great valleys on the northern and southern declivities of the ,himalaya1 and in the upper regions of ,bhotan1 where the cold climate is congenial to it4 ,the ,bactrian camel1 with two humps1 is strong1 rough1 and hairy1 and is said to occur in a wild state in the desert of ,shamo3 it is the camel of central ,asia1 north of the ,himalaya and ,taurus1 also of the ,crimea and the countries round the ,caucasus4 ,the common or ,arabian camel with one hump is a native of ,asia1 though only known now in a domesticated state2 it has been introduced into ,africa1 ,italy1 the ,canary islands1 and even into the elevated regions of the ,peru-,bolivian ,andes4 ,the best come from the province of ,nejed in ,arabia1 which1 on that account1 is called the 8mother of camels40 ,the camel of ,oman is remarkable for beauty and swiftness4 ,ten species of antelopes and twenty of deer are peculiar to ,asia3 two species of antelopes have already been mentioned as peculiar to the table-lands1 the others are distributed in the ,asiatic archipelago4 ,the genuine musk-deer 7,moschus moschiferus7 inhabits the mountainous countries of central and south-eastern ,asia1 between ,china and ,tartary1 the regions round ,lake ,baikal1 the ,alta mountains1 ,nepaul1 ,bhotan1 ,tibet1 and the adjacent countries of ,china and ,tonquin4 ,asia possesses about ten native species of ,pachydermata1 including the elephant1 horse1 ass1 which have been domesticated from the time of the earliest scriptural records4 ,the horse is supposed to have existed wild in the plains of central ,asia1 as the dromedary in ,arabia2 though now they are only known as domestic animals4 ,the ,arabian and ,persian horses have acknowledged excellence and beauty1 and from these our best ,european horses are descended2 the ,african horse1 which was introduced into ,spain by the ,moors1 is probably of the same race4 ,the elephant has long been a domestic animal in ,asia1 though it still roams wild in formidable herds through the forests and jungles at the foot of the ,himalaya1 in other parts of ,india1 the ,indo-,chinese peninsula1 and the islands of ,sumatra and ,ceylon2 the hunting elephant is esteemed the most noble4 ,a one-horned rhinoceros is a native of continental ,asia4 ,there are #fj genera of ,asiatic carnivorous animals1 of which the royal tiger is the handsomest and the most formidable3 its favourite habitation is in the jungles of ,hindostan1 though it wanders nearly to the limit of perpetual snow in the ,himalaya1 to the ,persian and ,armenian mountains1 to ,siberia and ,china4 ,leopards and panthers are common1 and there is a maneless lion in ,guzerat3 the ,chitta1 used in hunting1 is the only one of the panthers capable of being tamed4 ,the hyna is found everywhere1 excepting the ,birman empire1 in which there are neither wolves1 hynas1 foxes1 nor jackals4 ,there are four species of bears in ,india2 that of ,nepaul has valuable fur3 the wild boar1 hog1 and dogs of endless variety1 abound4 ,the ,edentata have only two representatives in ,india1 both manis or pangolins2 which differ from all others except the ,african1 in being covered with imbricated scales4 ,of these the short-tailed pangolin1 or scaly anteater1 is found throughout the ,deccan1 ,bengal1 ,nepaul1 the southern provinces of ,china1 and ,formosa4 ,the ,indian ,archipelago and the ,indo-,chinese peninsula form a zoological province of a very peculiar nature1 being allied to the faunas of ,india1 ,australia1 and ,south ,america1 yet having animals exclusively its own4 ,the royal tiger is in great abundance in the ,malay peninsula1 and also the black variety of the panther1 leopard1 wild cats1 multitudes of elephants1 the rhinoceros of all three species1 the ,malayan tapir1 many deer1 the ,babiroussa hog1 and another species of that genus4 ,some groups of the islands have several animals in common1 either identical or with slight variations1 that are altogether wanting in other islands1 which1 in their turn1 have creatures of their own4 ,many species are common to the archipelago and the neighbouring parts of the continent1 or even to ,china1 ,bengal1 ,hindostan1 and ,ceylon4 ,flying quadrupeds are a distinguishing feature of this archipelago1 though some do not absolutely fly1 but1 by an extension of the skin of their sides to their legs1 which serves as a parachute1 they take long leaps4 ,nocturnal flying squirrels1 of several species1 are common to the ,malayan peninsula and the ,sunda ,islands1 especially ,java2 and three species of flying ,lemurs inhabit ,sunda1 ,malacca1 and the ,pelew ,islands4 ,besides these1 there are the frugivorous bats1 which really fly1 differing from bats in other countries by living exclusively upon vegetable food4 ,the edible roussette1 or kalong1 one of the largest known1 appears in flocks of hundreds1 and even thousands1 in ,java1 ,sumatra1 and ,banda3 the ,pteropus funereus1 another of these large bats1 assembles in as great numbers4 ,a hundred and eighty species of the ape and monkey tribe are entirely ,asiatic3 monkeys are found only on the coast of ,india1 ,cochin-,china1 and the ,sunda ,islands2 the long-armed apes or gibbons are in the ,sunda ,islands and the ,malayan peninsula4 ,the ,simayang1 a very large ape of ,sumatra and ,bencoolen1 goes in large troops1 following a leader1 and makes a howling noise at sunrise and sunset that is heard miles off4 ,sumatra and ,borneo are the peculiar abode of the ,orang-outang1 which1 in the ,malay language1 means the 8man of woods10 which1 except perhaps the ,chimpanzee of ,africa1 approaches nearest to man4 ,it has never spread over the islands it inhabits1 though there seems to be nothing to prevent it1 but it finds all that is necessary within a limited district4 ,the orang-outang and the long-armed apes have extraordinary muscular strength1 and swing from tree to tree by their arms4 ,the ,malays have given the name of orang1 or man1 to the whole tribe1 on account of their intelligence as well as their form4 ,a two-horned rhinoceros is peculiar to ,java1 of a different species from the ,african1 also the ,felis macrocelis1 and a very large bear2 there are only two species of squirrels in ,java1 which is remarkable1 as the ,sunda ,islands are rich in them4 ,the royal tiger of ,india and the elephant are found only in ,sumatra1 and the babiroussa lives in ,borneo2 but these two islands have many quadrupeds in common1 as a leopard1 the one-horned rhinoceros1 the black antelope1 some graceful miniature creatures of the deer kind1 the ,tapir1 also found in ,malacca1 besides a wild boar1 an inhabitant of all the marshy forest from ,borneo to ,new ,guinea4 ,in the larger islands deer abound1 some as large as the elk1 probably the ,hippelaphus of ,aristotle4 ,the ,anoa1 a ruminating animal about the size of a sheep1 a species of antelope1 shy and savage1 goes in herds in the mountains of ,celebes1 where many forms of animals strangers to the ,sunda ,islands begin to appear1 as some sorts of phalangers1 or pouched quadrupeds4 ,these new forms become more numerous in the ,moluccas1 which are inhabited by flying phalangers and other pouched animals1 with scaly tails4 ,the phalangers are nocturnal1 and live on trees4 ,in ,new ,guinea there are kangaroos1 the spotted phalanger1 the pelandoe1 the ,new ,guinea hog1 and the ,papua dog1 said to be the origin of all the native dogs in ,australia and ,oceanica1 wild or tame4 ,the fauna of the ,philippine ,islands is analogous to that in the ,sunda ,islands4 ,they have several quadrupeds in common with ,india and ,ceylon1 but there are others which probably are not found in these localities4 ,,african ,,quadrupeds4 ,the opposite extremes of aridity and moisture in the ,african continent have had great influence in the nature and distribution of its animals2 and since by far the greater part consists of plains utterly barren or covered by temporary verdure1 and watered by inconstant streams that flow only a few months in the year1 fleet animals1 fitted to live on arid plains1 are far more abundant than those that require rich vegetation and much water4 ,the latter are chiefly confined to the intertropical coasts1 and especially to the large jungles and deep forests at the northern declivity of the table-land1 where several genera and many species exist that are not found elsewhere4 ,africa has a fauna in many respects insulated from that of every other part of the globe2 for although about #ajj of its quadrupeds are common to other countries1 there are #bej species its own4 ,several of these animals1 especially the larger kinds1 are distributed over the whole table-land from the ,cape of ,good ,hope to the highlands of ,abyssinia and ,senegambia without the smallest variety1 and many are slightly modified in colour and size4 ,ruminating animals are very numerous1 though few have been domesticated3 of these1 the ox of ,abyssinia and ,bornou is remarkable from the extraordinary size of its horns1 which are sometimes #b feet in circumference at the root2 and the ,galla ox of ,abyssinia has horns #d feet long4 ,there are many ,african varieties of buffalo2 that at the ,cape of ,good ,hope is a large1 fierce animal1 wandering in herds in every part of the country1 even to ,abyssinia3 the flesh of the whole race is tainted with the odour of musk4 ,the ,african sheep and goats1 of which there are many varieties1 differ from those of other countries2 the wool of all is coarse1 except that of the ,merino sheep1 said to have been introduced into ,spain by the ,moors from ,morocco4 ,no country has produced a ruminating animal similar1 or even analogous1 to the ,giraffe1 or ,camelopard1 which ranges widely over south ,africa from the northern banks of the ,gareep1 or ,orange river1 to the ,great ,desert2 it is also found in ,dongola and in ,abyssinia4 ,it is a gentle1 timid animal1 which has been seen in troops of #ajj4 ,the earliest record we have of it is in the sculptured monuments of the ancient ,egyptians1 and it is well known that it was brought to ,rome to grace the triumph of a victorious emperor4 ,africa may truly be said to be the land of the genus ,antelope1 which is found in every part of it1 where it represents the deer of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america4 ,different species have their peculiar localities1 while others are widely dispersed1 sometimes with and sometimes without any sensible variety of size or colour4 ,the greater number are inhabitants of the plains1 while a few penetrate into the forests4 ,sixty species have been described1 of which at least #bf are found north of the ,cape of ,good ,hope and in the adjacent countries4 ,they are of every size1 from the pigmy antelope not larger than a hare1 to the ,caama1 which is as large as an ox4 ,timidity is the universal character of the race4 ,most species are gregarious2 and the number in a herd is far too great even to guess at4 ,like all animals that feed in groups1 they have sentinels2 and they are the easy prey of so many carnivorous animals1 that their safety requires the precaution4 ,at the head of their enemies is the lion1 who lurks among the tall reeds at the fountain to seize them when they come to drink4 ,they are graceful in their motions1 especially the spring-buck1 which goes in a compact troop2 and in their march there is constantly one which gathers its slender limbs together and bounds into the air4 ,africa has only two species of deer1 both belonging to the ,atlas3 one is the common fallow-deer of ,europe4 ,the #ch species of rodentia1 or gnawing quadrupeds1 of this continent1 live on the plains2 and many of them are leaping animals1 as the ,jerboa capensis4 ,squirrels are comparatively rare4 ,there are some species of the horse peculiar to south ,africa2 of these the gaily-striped ,zebra and the more sober-coloured ,quagga wander in troops over the plains1 often in company with ostriches4 ,an alliance between creatures differing in nature and habits is not easily accounted for4 ,the two-horned rhinoceros of ,africa is different from that of ,asia3 there are certainly three1 and probably five1 species of these huge animals peculiar to the table-land4 ,dr4 ,smith saw #aej in one day near the #bdth parallel of south latitude4 ,the hippopotamus is exclusively ,african3 multitudes inhabit the lakes and rivers in the intertropical and southern parts of the continent2 those that inhabit the ,nile and ,senegal appear to form different species4 ,an elephant1 differing in species from that of ,asia1 is so numerous1 that #bjj have been seen in a herd near ,lake ,tchad4 ,they are not domesticated in ,africa1 and are hunted by the natives for their tusks4 ,the ,phacochre1 or ,ethiopian hog1 and a species of ,hyrax1 are among the ,pachydermata of this country4 ,the monkey tribe is found in all the hot parts of ,africa3 peculiar genera are allotted to particular districts4 ,except a few in ,asia1 the family of guenons is found in no part of the world but the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 the coasts of ,loango and ,guinea1 where they swarm4 ,the species are numerous1 and vary much in size and colours3 the cynocephalus1 or blue-headed baboon1 with a face like that of a dog1 is large1 ferocious1 and dangerous4 ,one species of these baboons inhabits ,guinea1 others the southern parts of the table-land1 and one is met with everywhere from ,sennaar to ,cafraria4 ,a remarkable long-eared kind is found in ,abyssinia2 the mandrills1 which belong to the same genus1 are confined to central ,africa4 ,the magot or ,barbary ape is in north ,africa2 and the only macac in this continent inhabits the mountains in the high country of southern ,abyssinia1 #hjjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,the ,african species of thumbless apes are met with in the tropical countries on the west coast1 where the ,colobus comosus1 or king of the monkeys1 also lives1 so called by the natives from its beautiful fur and singular head of hair2 another of these is peculiar to the low lands of ,gojam1 ,kulla1 and ,damot4 ,the ,chimpanzee1 which so nearly approaches the human form1 inhabits the forests of south ,africa from ,cape ,negro to the ,gambia4 ,living in society like all apes and monkeys1 which are eminently sociable1 it is very intelligent and easily tamed4 ,a new species of ,african ,chimpanzee1 equalling in size the ,orang-outang1 has been recently described by ,professor ,owen3 it is probably the largest of the quadrumana1 and by all accounts the most dangerous and ferocious4 ,baron ,humboldt observes that all apes resembling man have an expression of sadness2 that their gaiety diminishes as their intelligence increases4 ,africa possesses the cat tribe in great variety and beauty2 lions1 leopards1 and panthers are numerous throughout the continent2 servals and viverrine cats are in the torrid districts2 and the lion of the ,atlas is said to be the most formidable of all4 ,in no country are foxes so abundant4 ,various species inhabit ,nubia1 ,abyssinia1 and the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,the corsac is peculiar to the ,cape4 ,the long-eared fox1 the famel of ,kordofan1 and some others1 are found in ,africa only4 ,there are also various species of dogs1 the hyna1 and the jackal4 ,the hynas hunt in packs1 attack the lion and panther1 and easily destroy them4 ,two species of ,edentata are ,african--the long-tailed manis1 and the ,aard-vark1 or earth-hog3 the first is covered with scales1 the latter with coarse long hair2 they burrow in the ground and feed on ants4 ,great flocks of a large migratory vampire-bat frequent the ,slave-coast4 ,altogether there are #bf species of ,african bats4 ,multitudes of antelopes of various species1 lions1 leopards1 panthers1 hynas1 jackals1 and some other carnivora1 live in the oases of the great northern deserts2 jerboas1 and endless species of leaping gnawers1 rats1 and mice burrow in the ground4 ,the dryness of the climate and soil keeps the coats of the animals clean and glossy2 and it has been observed that tawny and grey tints are the prevailing colours in the fauna of the north ,african deserts1 not only in the birds and beasts1 but in reptiles and insects4 ,in consequence of the continuous desert extending from ,north ,africa through ,arabia to ,persia and ,india1 many analogous species of animals exist in those countries3 in some instances they are the same1 or varieties of the same1 species1 as the ass1 the dziggeti1 antelopes1 leopards1 panthers1 jackals1 and hynas4 ,the fauna on the eastern side of the great island of ,madagascar is analogous to that of ,india2 on the western side it resembles that of ,africa1 though1 as far as it is known1 it seems to be a distinct centre of animal life4 ,it has no ruminating animals2 and the monkey tribe is represented by the ,lemures and the ,galagos1 which are characteristic of this fauna4 ,a frugivorous bat1 the size of a common fowl1 forms an article of food4 ,,american ,,quadrupeds4 ,no species of animal has yet been extirpated in ,america1 which is the richest zoological province1 possessing #ecg species of mammalia1 of which #dhj are its own2 yet no country has contributed so little to the stock of domestic animals4 ,with the exception of the ,llama and ,alpaca1 and the turkey1 and perhaps some sheep and dogs1 ,america has furnished no animal or bird serviceable to man1 while it has received from ,europe all its domestic animals and its civilized inhabitants4 ,arctic ,america possesses most of the valuable fur-bearing animals that are in ,siberia2 and they were very plentiful till the unsparing destruction of them has driven those yet remaining to the high latitudes1 where the hunters that follow them are exposed to great hardships4 ,nearly #f1jjj1jjj of skins were brought to ,england in one year1 most of which were taken in the forest regions2 the barren grounds are inhabited by the ,arctic fox1 the polar hare1 by the brown and the white bear1 a formidable animal which often lives on the ice itself4 ,the reindeer lives on the lichens and mosses of these barren grounds1 and wanders to the shores of the ,polar ,ocean3 its southern limit in ,europe is the ,baltic ,sea1 in ,america it is the latitude of ,quebec4 ,some of the fur-bearing quadrupeds of these deserts never pass the #feth degree of ,n4 lat42 the greater number live in the northern forests1 as the black bear1 racoon1 badger1 the ermine1 and four or five other members of the weasel tribe1 the red fox1 the polar and brown lynxes1 the beaver1 the musquash or musk-rat1 of which half a million are killed annually1 and the moose-deer1 whose northern range ends where the aspen and willows cease to grow4 ,the grizzly bear1 the largest and most ferocious of its kind1 inhabits the range of the ,rocky ,mountains to ,mexico1 as well as the western savannahs4 ,the prairie-wolf1 the grey fox1 the ,virginian hare1 live in the prairies2 the ,wapiti1 a large stag1 inhabits those on both sides of the ,rocky ,mountains2 and the ,prongbuck1 an antelope fleeter than a horse1 roams throughout the western part of the continent1 and migrates to ,california and ,mexico in winter4 ,the musk-ox and shaggy bison are peculiar to ,north ,america4 ,the musk-ox travels to ,parry's ,islands in the ,arctic regions1 yet it never has been seen in ,greenland or on the north-western side of the continent4 ,the shaggy bison goes south to the ,arkansas1 roams in herds of thousands over the prairies of the ,mississippi and on both sides of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,it never wanders farther north than the #cjth parallel1 the southern limit of the musk-ox4 ,a marmot known as the prairie-dog is universal4 ,there are at least eight varieties of ,american dogs1 several of which are natives of the far north4 ,the lagopus1 or isatis1 native in ,spitzbergen and ,greenland1 is found in all the ,arctic regions of ,america and ,asia and in some of the ,kurile ,islands4 ,dogs are employed to draw sledges in ,newfoundland and ,canada2 and the ,esquimaux travel drawn by dogs as well as by reindeer4 ,the dogs are strong and docile4 ,the ,esquimaux dogs were mute till they learned to bark from dogs in our discovery ships4 ,there are #ac species of the ruminating genus in ,north ,america1 including the bison1 the musk-ox of the ,arctic regions1 the big-horned sheep1 and the goat of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,the horse1 now roaming wild in innumerable herds over the plains of ,south ,america1 was unknown there till the ,spanish conquest4 ,the quadrupeds of the temperate zone are distributed in distinct groups3 those of the state of ,new ,york1 consisting of about #dj species1 are different from those of the ,arctic regions1 and also from those of ,south ,carolina and ,georgia2 while in ,texas another assemblage of species prevails4 ,the ,racoon1 the ,coatimondi1 and the ,kinkajou are all natives of the southern ,states4 ,there are #aah species of rodentia or gnawing animals in ,north ,america1 rats1 mice1 squirrels1 beavers1 c41 many of which1 especially in the north1 appear to be identical with those in the high latitudes of ,europe and ,asia4 ,the genera of very different latitudes are often representative but never identical4 ,squirrels abound in ,north ,america2 the grey squirrel is found in thousands4 ,there are #ba species of ,opossum in this continent1 a family of the pouched animals which are so peculiarly characteristic of ,australia4 ,of these1 the ,virginian opossum inhabits the whole extent of the ,american continent between the great ,canadian lakes and ,paraguay1 and also the ,west ,indian islands1 where it is called the manitu2 and two other animals of that order live in ,mexico4 ,there is a porcupine in the ,united ,states and ,canadian forests which climbs trees4 ,the bats are different from those in ,europe1 and1 excepting two1 are very local4 ,in ,california there are ounces1 polecats1 the ,berenda 7an animal peculiar to that country71 and a deer of remarkable size and speed4 ,the high land of ,mexico forms a very decided line of division between the fauna of ,north and that of the ,south ,america2 yet some ,north ,american animals are seen beyond it1 particularly two of the bears1 and one of the otters1 which inhabits the continent from the icy ocean to beyond ,brazil4 ,on the other hand1 the ,puma1 ,jaguar1 ,opossum1 ,kinkajou1 and ,peccari1 have crossed the barrier from ,south ,america to ,california and the ,united ,states4 ,in the varied and extensive regions of ,south ,america there are several centres of a peculiar fauna1 according as the country is mountainous or level1 covered with forest or grass1 fertile or desert1 but the mammalia are inferior in size to those of the old world4 ,the largest1 most powerful1 and perfect animals of this class are confined to the old continent4 ,the ,south ,american quadrupeds are on a smaller scale1 more feeble and more gentle2 many of them1 as the toothless group and the sloths1 are of anomalous and less perfect structure than the rest of the animal creation1 but the fauna of ,south ,america is so local and so peculiar1 that the species of five of the terrestrial orders1 which are indigenous there1 are found nowhere else4 ,the monkey tribe are in myriads in the forests of tropical ,america and ,brazil1 but they never go north of the ,isthmus of ,darien1 nor farther south than the ,rio de la ,plata4 ,they differ widely from those in the old world1 bearing less resemblance to the human race1 but they are more gentle and lively1 and1 notwithstanding their agility1 are often a prey to the vulture and puma4 ,there are two great ,american families of four-handed animals--the sapajous with prehensile tails1 by which they suspend themselves1 and swing from bough to bough4 ,some of these inhabitants of the woods are very noisy1 especially the ,argualis1 a large ape whose bawling is heard a mile off4 ,the howlers are generally very large1 and have a wider range than any of the genus2 one species1 the ,mycetus rufimanus or beelzebub1 ascends the ,andes to the height of #aa1jjj feet4 ,the cebus or weepers1 which are frequently brought to ,europe1 belong also to this family2 the genus has a greater number of species than any other in the ,new ,world1 but a very narrow location2 they are most abundant in ,guiana4 ,the saquis or bushy-tailed monkeys form the other great ,american family4 ,the fox-monkey sleeps during the day2 it frequents the deepest forests from the ,orinoco to ,paraguay4 ,squirrel-monkeys inhabit the banks of the ,orinoco1 and the night-monkeys1 with very large eyes1 live in ,guiana and ,brazil4 ,the marmosets are pretty little animals1 easily tamed1 especially the ,midas leonina1 not more than #g or #h inches long4 ,some ,american monkeys have no thumb1 others have a versatile thumb on both their hands and feet4 ,in the ,new ,world the monkey tribe inhabit the continent from ,honduras to beyond ,brazil1 in thousands1 yet each kind has its own peculiar location4 ,the forests are also inhabited by opossums1 a family of the marsupial tribe1 or animals with pouches1 in which they carry their young2 they are analogous to those which form the distinguishing feature of the ,australian fauna1 but of distinct genera and species4 ,few of these animals are larger than a rat1 and they mostly live on trees1 except one kind which is aquatic1 found near the small streams from ,honduras to ,brazil4 ,a species in ,surinam carries its young upon its back2 the elegant opossum is very numerous on the west side of the ,andes1 and there only4 ,all the opossums and the yassacks of this country have thumbs on their hind feet1 opposite to the toes1 so that they can grasp2 they are1 moreover1 distinguished from the ,australian family by a long prehensile tail1 and by greater agility4 ,the numerous tribe of sapajou monkeys1 the ant-eaters1 the kinkajou1 and a species of porcupine1 have also grasping tails1 a property of many ,south ,american animals4 ,five genera and #bj species of the ,edentata are characteristic of this continent1 and exclusively confined to ,south ,america3 they are the sloths of two kinds1 the ai and unau2 the ,armadilloes1 ,chlamyphores1 and ,anteaters4 ,the animals of these five genera have very different habits3 the sloths1 as their name implies1 are the most inactive of animals2 they inhabit the forests from the southern limit of ,mexico to ,rio de ,janeiro1 and to the height of #cjjj feet on the ,andes in the region of palms and scitamine4 ,of these1 the common sloth or ,ai ranges from ,honduras to ,brazil2 while the ,unau1 the larger of the two1 is confined to ,guiana4 ,the ,armadillo1 in its coat of mail1 is in perpetual motion1 and can outrun a man in speed4 ,they live on all the plains and table-lands of ,south ,america even to ,paraguay4 ,the one-banded armadillo rolls itself up like a ball2 the nine-banded species is eaten by the natives2 the giant armadillo1 #c feet long1 inhabits the forests only4 ,most species of these animals are nocturnal1 and burrow in the earth in the ,pampas4 ,the chlamyphores are also burrowing animals1 peculiar to the province of ,cuyo on the eastern slope of the ,chilian ,andes2 they have the faculty of sitting upright4 ,the ant-eater1 larger than a ,newfoundland dog1 with shorter legs1 defends itself against the jaguar with its power claws2 it inhabits the swampy savannahs and damp forests from ,columbia to ,paraguay1 and from the ,atlantic to the foot of the ,andes2 its flesh1 like that of some other ,american animals1 has a flavour of musk4 ,the little ant-eater has a prehensile tail1 and lives on trees in the tropical forests1 feeding on the larv of bees1 wasps1 honey1 and ants2 another of similar habits lives in ,brazil and ,guiana4 ,the cat tribe in ,south ,america is beautiful and powerful3 the ,puma1 the lion of ,america1 is found both in the mountains and the plains1 in great numbers2 so different are its habits in different places1 that in ,chile it is timid and flies from a dog2 in ,peru it is bold1 though it rarely attacks a man4 ,the ,jaguar1 which inhabits the lower forests1 is very abundant1 and so ferocious that it has been known to spring upon ,indians in a canoe2 hunting as it sometimes does in troops1 it has been known to destroy the inhabitants of entire ,indian villages2 it is one of the few ,south ,american animals that cross the ,isthmus of ,darien1 being found in ,california1 on the territory of the ,mississippi1 and has been seen in ,canada4 ,the vampire is a very large bat1 much dreaded by the natives1 because it enters their huts at night1 and1 though it seldom attacks human beings1 it wounds calves and small animals1 which sometimes die from the loss of blood4 ,the other three ,south ,american bats are harmless4 ,the only ruminating animals that existed in ,south ,america prior to the ,conquest were the four species of the genus ,auchenia--the ,llama1 the ,alpaca1 the ,vicua1 and the ,guanco3 the three first are exclusively confined to the colder and more elevated regions of the ,peruvian ,andes2 the last has a wider geographical range1 extending to the plains of ,patagonia1 and even to the southernmost extremity of the continent4 ,the ,llama inhabits the high valleys of the ,peru-,bolivian ,andes1 its favourite region being in the valley of the lake of ,titicaca3 it was the only beast of burthen possessed by the aborigines2 hence1 we find it wherever the ,incas carried their conquests and civilization1 from the equator to beyond the southern tropic4 ,it is still extensively employed by the ,indian as a beast of burthen1 and its wool1 though coarse1 is used by the aborigines3 like all domestic animals1 it varies in colour2 its flesh is nauseous1 black1 and ill tasted4 ,the ,alpaca1 or paco1 a gentle and handsome animal1 although more closely allied to the llama than any of its congeners1 is a distinct species3 it inhabits at still more elevated places than the llama1 its favourite haunts being on the streams descending from the snowy peaks3 it is only found in a domestic state2 it is reared for its wool1 which is extremely fine1 silky1 and long1 and which now bears a high price1 from its introduction into some of our finest woollen tissues4 ,the vicua is only found in the wild state1 in the plains on the ,andes1 as high as #aejj feet3 its wool is much prized for its fineness4 ,the animal has a shrill whistle2 it is easily domesticated4 ,the ,guanco1 by some naturalists considered erroneously as the parent stock of the llama and alpaca1 is also only found in the wild state3 it is seen as far north as lat4 #ab ,s41 is very abundant and in large flocks on the ,bolivian and ,chilian ,andes1 and has been seen as far as the southern extremity of the ,american continent4 ,all these animals feed on a species of coarse wiry grass called ichu4#ahe ,several species of deer are found in the tropical regions of ,south ,america1 and a remarkable species1 with fragile hair like that of the roebuck1 the cervus 7,andium71 as high as #aa1jjj feet in the ,andes4 ,the rodentia1 or gnawers1 of ,south ,america1 are very numerous2 there are #ib in ,brazil alone3 there are only #h species of squirrels and #fd species of rats and mice1 some of which are very peculiar4 ,the agoutis represent our hares in the plains of ,patagonia1 in ,paraguay1 c41 and extend as far as ,guiana4 ,the family of the cavias1 or guinea-pigs1 are found in ,brazil1 and some species in the great table-lands of the ,peru-,bolivian ,andes2 the ,echymys1 or spiny rat1 is an inhabitant of the shores of the ,rio de la ,plata and ,paraguay2 the ,vizcacha of the pampas1 a burrowing animal1 inhabits the great plain of ,buenos ,ayres2 an animal bearing the same name is frequent in the rocky districts of the ,andes1 as high as #ae1jjj feet above the sea2 and the beautiful ,chinchilla1 nearly allied to the latter1 whose fur is so highly esteemed1 inhabits the same regions at the same great elevations in the ,andes of ,peru1 ,bolivia1 and ,chile3 the best fur of the chinchilla is collected in the ,bolivia province of ,potosi1 and in the ,chilian province of ,copiabo4 ,the largest of all the rodentia1 the ,cabiai 7,myopotamus71 inhabits the banks of the great rivers of tropical ,america1 where its habits resemble1 according to some travellers1 those of the hippopotamus4 ,the ,paca1 the next in size1 is less aquatic in its habits1 and lives in the dense forests of ,brazil and ,paraguay4 ,it is very remarkable that in a country which has the most luxuriant vegetation there should not be one species of hollow-horned ruminants1 as the ox1 sheep1 goat1 or antelope2 and it is still more extraordinary that the existing animals of ,south ,america1 which are so nearly allied to the extinct inhabitants of the same soil1 should be so inferior in size not only to them1 but even to the living quadrupeds of ,south ,africa1 which is comparatively a desert4 ,the quantity of vegetation in ,britain at any one time exceeds the quantity on an equal area in the interior of ,africa ten-fold1 yet ,mr4 ,darwin has computed that the weight of #aj of the largest south ,african quadrupeds is #bd times greater than that of the same number of quadrupeds of ,south ,america2 for in ,south ,america there is no animal the size of a cow1 so that there is no relation between the bulk of the species and the vegetation of the countries they inhabit4 ,the largest animals indigenous in the ,west ,indian islands are the ,agouti1 the ,raccoon1 the ,houtias1 a native of the forests of ,cuba2 the ,didelphous carnivora and the ,kinkajou are common also to the continent3 the kinkajou is a solitary instance of a carnivorous animal with a prehensile tail4 ,,australian ,,quadrupeds4 ,australia is not farther separated from the rest of the world by geographical position than by its productions4 ,its animals are creatures by themselves1 of an entirely unusual type2 few in species1 and still fewer individually1 if the vast extent of country be taken into consideration2 and there has not been one large animal discovered4 ,there are only #ec species of land quadrupeds in ,new ,holland1 and there is not a single example of the ruminating or pachydermatous animals1 so useful to man1 among them2 there are no native horses1 oxen1 or sheep1 yet all these thrive and multiply on the grassy steppes of the country1 which seem to be so well suited to them4 ,there are none of the monkey tribe2 indeed they could not exist in a country where there is no fruit4 ,of the species of indigenous quadrupeds1 #dj are found nowhere else1 and #ach are marsupial or pouched animals1 distinguished from all others by their young being1 as it were1 prematurely born and nourished in the pouch till they are mature4#ahf ,though all the members of this numerous family agree in this circumstance1 they are dissimilar in appearance1 internal structure1 in their teeth and feet1 consequently in their habits2 two genera live on vegetable food1 one set are gnawers and another toothless4 ,the ,kangaroo and the kangaroo-rat walk on their hind legs1 and go by bounds1 aided by their strong tail2 the rat holds its food in its hands like the squirrel2 the opossum walks on all fours2 the phalangers live on trees1 and swing by their bushy tail1 some burrow in the sand2 the flying opossum or ,phalanger1 peculiarly an ,australian animal1 lives on the leaves of the gum-tree2 by expanding the skin of its sides it supports itself in the air in its leaps from bough to bough4 ,several of the genera come out at night only1 a characteristic of many ,australian animals4 ,the pouched tribe vary in size from that of a large dog to a mouse2 the kangaroos1 which are the largest1 are easily domesticated1 and are used for food by the natives4 ,some go in large herds in the mountains1 others live in the plains2 however1 they have become scarce near the ,british colonies1 and1 with all other native animals1 are likely to be extirpated4 ,in ,van ,diemen's ,land they are less persecuted2 several species exist there4 ,the kangaroos1 of which there are #dj species1 are more widely dispersed than any of the marsupial animals of the old world4 ,they exist not only in ,new ,holland and ,van ,diemen's ,land1 but also in ,new ,guinea and ,java4 ,some are limited within narrow bounds3 the banded kangaroo1 the handsomest of his tribe1 is found only in the islands of ,shark's ,bay1 on the west coast of ,australia4 ,the ,wombat is peculiar to ,australia1 the islands in ,bass's ,strait1 and ,van ,diemen's ,land2 to which the two largest carnivorous marsupials peculiarly belong1 called by the natives the tiger hyna1 and the native devil2 both are nocturnal1 predatory1 and ferocious4 ,a wild dog in the woods1 whose habits are ferocious1 is1 with the tiger hyna1 the largest carnivorous animal in ,australia4 ,the gnawing animals are aquatic and very peculiar1 but the edentata of ,new ,holland are quite anomalous2 of these there are two genera1 the ,ornithorhynchus1 or duck-billed mole1 and the ,echidna3 they are the link that connects the edentata with the pouched tribe1 and mammal with oviparous animals4 ,the ornithorhynchus is about #ad inches long1 and covered with thick brown fur2 its head is similar to that of a quadruped1 ending in a bill like that of a duck3 it has short furry legs with half-webbed feet1 and the hind feet are armed with sharp claws4 ,it inhabits burrows on the banks of rivers1 which have two entrances1 one above1 the other below the level of the water1 which it seldom leaves1 feeding on insects and seeds in the mud4 ,the echidna is similar in its general structure to the ornithorhynchus1 but entirely different in external appearance1 being covered with quills like the porcupine2 it is also a burrowing animal1 sleeps during winter1 and lives on ants in summer4 ,a singular analogy exists between ,australia and ,south ,america in this respect1 that the living animals of the two countries are stamped with the type of their ancient geological inhabitants1 while in ,england and elsewhere the difference between the existing and extinct generations of beings is most decided4 ,australia and ,south ,america seem still to retain some of those conditions that were peculiar to the most ancient eras4 ,thus1 each tribe of the innumerable families that inhabit the earth1 the air1 and the waters1 has a limited sphere4 ,how wonderful the quantity of life that now is1 and the myriads of beings that have appeared and vanished6#ahg ,dust has returned to dust through a long succession of ages1 and has been continually remoulded into new forms of existence--not an atom has been annihilated2 the fate of the vital spark that has animated it1 with a vividness sometimes approaching to reason1 is one of the deep mysteries of ,providence4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,the ,distribution1 ,condition1 and future ,prospects of the ,human ,race4 ,,more than #hjj1jjj1jjj of human beings are scattered over the face of the earth1 of all nations and kindreds and tongues1 and in all stages of civilization1 from a high state of moral and intellectual culture1 to savages but little above the animals that contend with them for the dominion of the deserts and forests through which they roam4 ,this vast multitude is divided into nations and tribes1 differing in external appearance1 character1 language1 and religion4 ,the manner in which they are distributed1 the affinities of structure and language by which they are connected1 and the effect that climate1 food1 and customs may have had in modifying their external forms1 or their moral and mental powers1 are subjects of much more difficulty than the geographical dispersion of the lower classes of animals1 inasmuch as the immortal spirit is the chief agent in all that concerns the human race4 ,the progress of the universal mind in past ages1 its present condition1 and the future prospects of humanity1 rouse the deep sympathies of our nature1 for the high but mysterious destiny of the myriads of beings yet to come1 who1 like ourselves1 will be subject for a few brief years to the joys and sorrows of this transient state1 and fellow-heirs of eternal life hereafter4 ,notwithstanding the extreme diversity1 personal and mental1 in mankind1 anatomists have found that there are no specific differences--that the hideous ,esquimaux1 the refined and intellectual ,caucasian1 the thick-lipped ,negro1 and the fair blue-eyed ,scannavian1 are mere varieties of the same species4 ,the human race forms five great varieties marked by strong distinctive characters4 ,many nations are included in each2 distinguished from one another by different languages1 manners1 and mental qualities1 yet bearing such a resemblance in general physiognomy and appearance as to justify a classification apparently anomalous4 ,the ,caucasian group of nations1 which includes the handsomest and most intellectual portion of mankind1 inhabit all ,europe1 except ,lapland1 ,finland1 and ,hungary2 they occupy ,north ,africa1 as far as the #bjth parallel of north latitude1 ,arabia1 ,asia ,minor1 ,persia1 the ,himalaya to the ,brahmapootra1 all ,india between these mountains and the ocean1 and the ,united ,states of ,north ,america4 ,these nations are remarkable for a beautifully-shaped small head1 regular features1 fine hair1 and symmetrical form4 ,the ,greeks1 ,georgians1 and ,circassians are models of perfection in form1 especially the last1 which is assumed as the type of this class of mankind2 of which it is evident that colour is not a characteristic1 since they are of all shades1 from the fair and florid1 to the clear dark brown and almost black4 ,this family of nations has always been1 and still is1 the most civilized portion of the human race4 ,the inhabitants of ,hindostan1 the ,egyptians1 ,arabians1 ,greeks1 and ,romans1 were in ancient times what the ,european nations are now4 ,the cause of this remarkable development of mental power is1 no doubt1 natural disposition1 for the difference in the capabilities of nations seems to be as great as that of individuals4 ,the origin of spontaneous civilization and superiority may generally be traced to the talent of some master-spirit gaining an ascendancy over his countrymen4 ,natural causes have also combined with mental--mildness of climate1 fertility of soil2 rivers and inland seas1 by affording facility of intercourse1 favoured enterprise and commerce2 and the double-river systems in ,asia brought distant nations together1 and softened those hostile antipathies which separate people1 multiply languages1 and reduce all to barbarism4 ,the genius of this family of nations has led them to profit by these natural advantages2 whereas the ,american ,indians are at this day wandering as barbarous hordes in one of the finest countries in the world4 ,an original similarity or even identity of many spoken languages may be adverted to as facilitating communication and mental improvement among the ,caucasian variety in very ancient times4 ,the ,mongol-,tartar family forms the second group of nations4 ,they occupy all ,asia north of the ,persian table-land and of the ,himalaya2 the whole of ,eastern ,asia from the ,brahmapootra to ,behring's ,straits1 together with the ,arctic regions of ,america north of ,labrador4 ,this family includes the ,tourkomans1 ,mongol and ,tartar tribes1 the ,chinese1 ,indo-,chinese1 ,japanese1 the ,esquimaux1 and the ,hungarians1 now located in the very heart of ,europe4 ,these nations are distinguished by broad skulls and high cheek-bones1 small black eyes obliquely set1 long black hair1 and a yellow or sallow olive complexion2 some are good-looking1 and many are well-made4 ,a portion of this family is capable of high culture1 especially the ,chinese1 the most civilized nation of eastern ,asia1 although they never have attained the excellence of the ,caucasian group1 probably from their exclusive social system1 which has separated them from the rest of mankind1 and kept them stationary for ages2 the peculiarity and difficulty of their language have also tended to insulate them4 ,the ,kalmuks1 who lead a pastoral wandering life on the steppes of central ,asia1 and the ,esquimaux1 have wider domains than any other of this set of nations4 ,the ,kalmuks are rather a handsome people1 and1 like all who lead a savage life1 have acute senses of seeing and hearing4 ,the inhabitants of ,finland and ,lapland are nearly allied to the ,esquimaux1 who are spread over all the high latitudes of both continents--a diminutive race1 equally ugly in face and form4 ,malayan nations occupy the ,indian ,archipelago1 ,new ,zealand1 ,chatham ,island1 the ,society group1 and several other of the ,polynesian islands1 together with the ,phillipines and ,formosa4 ,they are very dark1 with lank coarse black hair1 flat faces1 and obliquely set eyes4 ,endowed with great activity and ingenuity1 they are mild and gentle1 and far advanced in the arts of social life1 in some places2 in others1 ferocious and vindictive1 daring and predatory2 and from their maritime position and skill1 they are a migratory race4 ,several branches of this class of nations had a very early indigenous civilization1 with an original literature in peculiar characters of their own4 ,the ,ethiopian nations are widely dispersed2 they occupy all ,africa south of the ,great ,desert1 half of ,madagascar1 the continent of ,australia1 ,mindanao1 ,gilolo1 the high lands of ,borneo1 ,sumbawa1 ,timor1 and ,new ,ireland4 ,the distinguishing characters of this group are1 a black complexion1 black woolly or frizzled hair1 thick lips1 projecting jaws1 high cheek-bones1 and large prominent eyes4 ,a great variety1 however1 exists in this jetty race3 some are handsome both in face and figure1 especially in ,ethiopia2 and even in ,western ,africa1 where the ,negro tribes live1 there are groups in which the distinctive characters are less exaggerated4 ,this great family has not yet attained a high place among nations1 though by no means incapable of cultivation2 part of ,ethiopia appears to have made considerable progress in civilization in very ancient times4 ,but the formidable deserts1 so extensive in some parts of the continent1 and the unwholesome climate in others1 have cut off intercourse with civilized nations2 and1 unfortunately1 the infamous traffic in slaves1 to the disgrace of ,christianity1 has made the nations of tropical ,africa more barbarous than they were before3 while1 on the contrary1 the ,foulahs and other tribes who were converts to ,mahommedanism #djj years ago1 have now large commercial towns1 cultivated grounds1 and schools4 ,the ,australians and ,papuans1 who inhabit the eastern islands mentioned1 are the most degraded of this dark race1 and indeed of all mankind4 ,the ,american race1 who occupy the whole of that continent from #fb ,n4 lat4 to the ,straits of ,magellan1 are almost all of a reddish brown or copper colour1 with long black hair1 deep-set black eyes1 aquiline nose1 and often of handsome slender forms4 ,in ,north ,america they live by hunting1 are averse to agriculture1 slow in acquiring knowledge1 but extremely acute1 brave1 and fond of war1 and1 though revengeful1 are capable of generosity and gratitude4 ,in ,south ,america many are half-civilized1 but a greater number are still in a state of utter barbarism4 ,in a family so widely scattered great diversity of character prevails1 yet throughout the whole there is a similarity of manners and habits which has resisted all the effects of time and climate4 ,each of these five groups of nations1 spread over vast regions1 is accounted one family2 and if they are so by physical structure1 they are still more so by language1 which expresses the universal mind of a people1 modified by external circumstances1 of which none have a greater influence than the geographical features of the country they inhabit--an influence that is deepest in the early stages of society4 ,the remnants of ancient poetry in the south of ,scotland partake of the gentle and pastoral character of the country2 while ,celtic verse1 and even the spoken language of the ,highlander1 are full of poetical images of war and stern mountain scenery4 ,this is particularly to be observed in the noble strains of ,homer1 and in the heroic poems of the early ,hindus1 which reflect the lofty and sublime character of eastern scenery4#ahh ,as civilization advances1 and man becomes more intellectual1 language keeps pace in the progress4 ,new words and new expressions are added1 as new ideas occur and new things are invented1 till at last language itself becomes a study1 is refined and perfected by the introduction of general terms4 ,the improvement in language and the development of the mind have been the same in all nations which have arrived at any degree of refinement1 and shows the identity of human nature in every country and climate4 ,the art of printing perpetuates a tongue1 and great authors immortalize it2 yet language is ever changing to a certain degree1 though it never loses traces of its origin4 ,chaucer and ,spenser have become obscure2 ,shakespeare requires a glossary for the modern reader2 and in the few years that the ,united ,states of ,america have existed as an independent nation1 the colloquial language has deviated from the mother-tongue4 ,when a nation degenerates1 it is split by jealousy and war into tribes1 each of which1 in process of time1 acquires a peculiar idiom1 and thus the number of dialects is increased1 though they still retain a similarity2 whereas when masses of mankind are united into great political bodies1 their languages by degrees assimilate to one common tongue1 which retains traces of all to the latest ages4 ,the form of the dialects now spoken by some savage tribes1 as the ,north ,american ,indians1 bears the marks of a once higher state of civilization4 ,more than #bjjj languages are spoken1 but few are independent2 some are connected by words having the same meaning1 some by grammatical structure1 others by both2 indeed the permanency of language is so great1 that neither ages of conquest1 nor mixing with other nations1 have obliterated the native idiom of a people4 ,the ,french1 ,spanish1 and ,german retain traces of the common language spoken before the ,roman conquest1 and the ,celtic tongue still exists in the ,british ,islands4 ,by a comparison of their dialects1 nations far apart1 and differing in every other respect1 are discovered to have sprung from a common1 though remote origin4 ,thus1 all the numerous languages spoken by the ,american ,indians1 or red men1 are similar in grammatical structure3 an intimate analogy exists in the languages of the ,esquimaux nations who inhabit the arctic regions of both continents4 ,dialects of one tongue are spoken throughout ,north ,africa1 as far south as the oasis of ,siwah on the east1 and the ,canary ,islands on the west4 ,another group of cognate idioms is common to the inhabitants of ,equatorial ,africa1 while all the southern part of the continent is inhabited by people whose languages are connected4 ,the monosyllabic speech of the ,chinese and ,indo-,chinese shows that they are the same people2 and all the insular nations of the ,pacific derived their dialects from some tribes on the continent of ,india and the ,indian ,archipelago4 ,cognate tongues are spoken by the ,tartars1 ,mandtchoux1 ,fins1 ,laplanders1 many of the ,siberian nations1 and by the ,hungarians4 ,the ,persian1 ,arabic1 ,greek1 ,latin1 ,german1 and ,celtic tongues are connected by grammatical structure1 and words expressive of the same objects and feelings1 with the ,sanscrit1 or sacred language of ,india2 consequently1 the nations inhabiting that vast extent of country from the mouths of the ,ganges to the ,british ,isles1 the coast of ,scandinavia and ,iceland1 must have had the same origin4 8,the words that fall thoughtlessly from our lips in the daily vocations of life are no idle sounds1 but magic symbols which preserve for ever the first migrations of the race1 and whose antiquity makes ,greece and ,rome appear but of yesterday40 ,the number of languages spoken from the ,ganges to ,scandinavia1 differing so widely from one another1 is a proof of the strength of individual character in nations1 which can so powerfully impress its peculiarities on the same mother tongue4 ,in fact every nation1 as well as every individual1 has its own physical1 moral1 and intellectual organization1 which influences its language and its whole existence4 ,in the ,indo-,germanic nations1 which have been dominant for ages1 civilization has been progressive1 though not without interruptions4 ,providence has endowed these nations with the richest and most ornamental gifts4 ,imagination has been liberally granted1 and embodied in all that is sublime and beautiful in architecture1 sculpture1 painting1 and poetry4 ,in strength of intellect and speculation1 in philosophy1 science1 laws1 and the political principles of society1 they have been pre-eminent4 ,the prevailing races of mankind now inhabiting ,europe are the ,teutonic1 ,celtic1 and ,sclavonian4 ,in the greater part of the continent these races are mixed1 but the blood is purely ,teutonic throughout ,iceland1 ,scandinavia1 round the ,gulf of ,bothnia1 in ,denmark1 ,germany1 and the east of ,england from ,portsmouth to the ,tyne4 ,pure ,celtic blood is confined to the ,basque ,provinces in ,spain1 the south and south-west of ,france1 a part of the ,grisons and ,switzerland1 and some part of ,great ,britain4 ,the ,sclavonian blood is widely dispersed in middle ,russia1 from the ,ural ,mountains to the west of the ,valdai table-land1 and from ,novogorod to the lower course of the ,don4 ,the three races have been much improved by mixture1 in appearance1 energy1 and versatility of mind4 ,it is extraordinary that nations should lose their vitality without any apparent cause2 throughout the ,indian ,archipelago there is no longer any one great ,malayan nation1 in ,europe pure ,celtic blood has been on the decline for twenty centuries1 and even the mixed ,celtic variety has not increased in proportion to the ,teutonic1 although for #bjjj years they have been exposed to the same external circumstances4 ,at present the ,teutonic race1 including the inhabitants of ,north ,america and the ,british colonies1 considerably outnumber the ,celtic1 though its numbers were far inferior in ancient times4 ,the ,teutonic variety has subdued and even exterminated the other varieties in its progress towards the west2 it is undoubtedly the most vigorous1 both in body and mind1 of all mankind1 and seems destined to conquer and civilize the whole world4 ,it is a singular fact1 whatever the cause may be1 that the ,celts are invariably ,catholic1 while the ,teutonic population is inclined to ,protestantism4 ,various other races inhabit ,europe1 much inferior in numbers to those above mentioned1 though occasionally mixed with them1 as the ,turks1 ,fins1 the ,samojedes1 who live on the shores of the ,white ,sea and in the north-east of ,russia1 and the ,hungarians1 the higher class of which are a fine race of men1 and on a par with the most civilized of the ,european nations4 ,there are many mixed ,tartar tribes1 chiefly in the south and east of the ,russian territories2 also ,jews and ,gipsies1 who live among all nations1 yet mix with none4#ahi ,the inhabitants of ,great ,britain are of ,celtic and ,teutonic origin4 ,the ,celtic blood is purest in ,cornwall and the ,scilly ,islands1 in ,wales1 and the ,isle of ,man3 in the highlands of ,scotland and the ,hebrides it is more mixed than is generally supposed1 as plainly appears from the frequency of red hair and blue eyes4 ,in some parts of ,ireland there is pure ,celtic blood1 but throughout the greater part of that country it is mixed1 although the ,celtic character predominates2 but in ,ulster1 where the earliest colony settled1 the blood is purely ,teutonic4 ,in ,ireland the difference in the organization of the two races is strongly marked3 placed under the same circumstances1 the ,teutonic part of the population has prospered1 which1 unfortunately1 has not been the case with the ,celtic4#aij ,the dialects spoken in the ,celtic districts are closely allied to the ,semitic languages of ,asia1 and to one another4 ,the ,cornish is worn out1 the ,manx is nearly so1 and the ,gaelic is declining fast in the highlands of ,scotland4 ,the ,roman invasion had no effect on the ,anglo-,saxon or old ,english1 a language of ,teutonic origin1 but the ,normans in ancient times had altered it considerably1 and in modern times the ,english tongue has unfortunately been corrupted by the introduction of ,french1 ,latin1 and ,latinized words4 ,scotch spoken throughout the ,lowlands of ,scotland is a language independent of the ,english1 though of the same stock2 it is derived from the low ,german1 the ,frisian1 ,dutch1 and ,flemish1 and differs widely from the ,anglo-,saxon4 ,no circumstance in the natural world is more inexplicable than the diversity of form and colour in the human race4 ,it had already begun in the antediluvian world1 for 8there were giants in the land in those days40 ,no direct mention is made of colour at that time1 unless the mark set upon ,cain1 8lest any one finding him should kill him10 may allude to it4 ,perhaps1 also1 it may be inferred that black people dwelt in ,ethiopia1 or the land of ,cush1 which means black in the ,hebrew language4 ,at all events1 the difference now existing must have arisen after the flood1 consequently all must have originated with ,noah1 whose wife1 or the wives of his sons1 may have been of different colours1 for aught we know4 ,many instances have occurred in modern times1 of albinos and red-haired children having been born of black parents1 and these have transmitted their peculiarities to their descendants for several generations1 but it may be doubted whether pure-blooded white people have had perfectly black offspring4 ,the varieties are much more likely to have arisen from the effects of climate1 food1 customs1 and civilization upon migratory groups of mankind2 and of such1 a few instances have occurred in historical times1 limited1 however1 to small numbers and particular spots2 but the great mass of nations had received their distinctive characters at a very early period4 ,the permanency of type is one of the most striking circumstances1 and proves the length of time necessary to produce a change in national structure and colour4 ,a nation of ,ethiopians existed #cdej years ago1 which emigrated from a remote country and settled near ,egypt1 and there must have been black people before the age of ,solomon1 otherwise he would not have alluded to colour1 even poetically4 ,the national appearance of the ,ethiopians1 ,persians1 and ,jews1 has not varied for more than #cjjj years1 as appears from the ancient ,egyptian paintings in the tomb of ,rhameses the ,great1 discovered at ,thebes by ,belzoni1 in which the countenance of the modern ,ethiopian and ,persian can be readily recognized1 and the ,jewish features and colour are identical with those of the ,israelites daily met with in ,london4 ,civilization is supposed to have great influence on colour1 having a tendency to make the dark shade more general1 and it appears that1 in the crossing of two shades1 the offspring takes the complexion of the darker and the form of the fairer4 ,but as there is no instance of a new variety of mankind having been established as a nation since the ,christian era1 there must either have been a greater energy in the causes of change before that time1 or1 brief as the span of man on earth has been1 a wrong estimate of time antecedent to the ,christian period must have made it shorter4#aia ,darkness of complexion has been attributed to the sun's power from the age of ,solomon to this day--8,look not upon me1 because ,i am black1 because the sun hath looked upon me20 and there can be no doubt that1 to a certain degree1 the opinion is well founded4 ,the invisible rays in the solar beams1 which change vegetable colours1 and have been employed with such remarkable effect in the ,daguerreotype1 act upon every substance on which they fall1 producing mysterious and wonderful changes in their molecular state--man not excepted4#aib ,other causes must have been combined to occasion all the varieties we now see1 otherwise every nation between the tropics would be of the same hue1 whereas the sooty ,negro inhabits equatorial ,africa1 the ,red man equinoctial ,america1 and both are mixed with fairer tribes4 ,in ,asia1 the ,rohillas1 a fair race of ,affghan extraction1 inhabit the plains north of the ,ganges3 the ,bengalee and the mountaineers of ,nepaul are dark1 and the ,mahrattas are yellow4 ,the complexion of man varies with height and latitude2 some of the inhabitants of the ,himalaya and ,hindoo ,koosh are fair1 and even a red-haired race is found on the latter4 ,there are fair-haired people with blue eyes in the ,ruddhua mountains in ,africa4 ,the ,kabyles1 that inhabit the country behind ,tunis and ,algiers1 are similar in complexion to the nations in high northern latitudes4 ,this correspondence1 however1 only maintains with regard to the northern hemisphere1 for it is a well-known fact that the varieties of the numerous species in the great southern continents are much more similar in physical characters to the native races of the torrid zone1 than any of the aboriginal people of the northern regions4 ,even supposing that diversity of colour is owing to the sun's rays only1 it is scarcely possible to attribute the thick lips1 the woolly hair1 and the entire difference of form1 extending even to the very bones and skull1 to anything but a concurrence of circumstances1 not omitting the invisible influence of electricity1 which pervades every part of the earth and air--and possibly terrestrial magnetism4 ,the flexibility of man's constitution enables him to live in every climate1 from the equator to the ever-frozen coasts of ,nova ,zembla and ,spitzbergen1 and that chiefly by his capability of bearing the most extreme changes of temperature and diet1 which are probably the principal causes of the variety in his form4 ,it has already been mentioned that oxygen is inhaled with the atmospheric air1 and also taken in by the pores on the skin2 part of it combines chemically with the carbon of the food1 and is expired in the form of carbonic acid gas and water2 that chemical action is the cause of vital force and heat in man and animals4 ,the quantity of food must be in exact proportion to the quantity of oxygen inhaled1 otherwise disease and loss of strength would be the consequence4 ,since cold air is incessantly carrying off warmth from the skin1 more exercise is requisite in winter than in summer1 in cold climates than in warm2 consequently1 more carbon is necessary in the former than in the latter1 in order to maintain the chemical action that generates heat1 and to ward off the destructive effects of the oxygen1 which incessantly strives to consume the body4 ,animal food1 wine1 and spirits1 contain many times more carbon than fruit and vegetables1 therefore animal food is much more necessary in a cold than in a hot climate4 ,the esquimaux1 who lives by the chace1 and eats #aj or #ab pounds weight of meat and fat in #bd hours1 finds it not more than enough to keep up his strength and animal heat1 while the indolent inhabitant of ,bengal is sufficiently supplied with both by his rice diet4 ,clothing and warmth make the necessity for exercise and food much less1 by diminishing the waste of animal heat4 ,hunger and cold united soon consume the body1 because it loses its power of resisting the action of the oxygen1 which consumes part of our substance1 when food is wanting4 ,hence1 nations inhabiting warm climates have no great merit in being abstemious1 nor are those guilty of committing an excess who live more freely in colder countries4 ,the arrangement of ,divine ,wisdom is to be admired in this as in all other things1 for1 if man had only been capable of living on vegetable food1 he never could have had a permanent residence beyond the latitude where corn ripens4 ,the ,esquimaux1 and all the inhabitants of the very high latitudes of both continents1 live entirely on fish and animal food4 ,what effects the difference of food may have upon the intellect is not known4 ,a nation or tribe driven by war1 or any other cause1 from a warm to a cold country1 or the contrary1 would be forced to change their food both in quality and quantity1 which in the lapse of ages might produce an alteration in the external form and internal structure4 ,the probability is still greater1 if the entire change that a few years produces in the matter of which the human frame is composed be considered4 ,at every instant during life1 with every motion1 voluntary and involuntary1 with every thought and every exercise of the brain1 a portion of our substance becomes dead1 separates from the living part1 combines with some of the inhaled oxygen1 and is removed4 ,by this process it is supposed that the whole body is renewed every #g years2 individuality1 therefore1 depends on the spirit1 which retains its identity during all the changes of its earthly house1 and sometimes even acts independently of it4 ,when sleep is restoring exhausted nature1 the spirit is often awake and active1 crowding the events of years into a few seconds1 and1 by its unconsciousness of time1 anticipates eternity4 ,every change of food1 climate1 and mental excitement1 must have their influence on the reproduction of the mortal frame2 and thus a thousand causes may co-operate to alter whole races of mankind placed under new circumstances1 time being granted4 ,the difference between the effects of manual labour and the efforts of the brain appears in the intellectual countenance of the educated man1 compared with that of the peasant1 though even he is occasionally stamped with nature's own nobility4 ,the most savage people are also the ugliest4 ,their countenance is deformed by violent unsubdued passions1 anxiety1 and suffering4 ,deep sensibility gives a beautiful and varied expression1 but every strong emotion is unfavourable to perfect regularity of feature2 and of that the ,greeks were well aware when they gave that calmness of expression and repose to their unrivalled statues4 ,the refining effects of high culture1 and1 above all1 the ,christian religion1 by subduing the evil passions1 and encouraging the good1 are more than anything calculated to improve even the external appearance4 ,the countenance1 though perhaps of less regular form1 becomes expressive of the amiable and benevolent feelings of the heart1 the most captivating and lasting of all beauty4#aic ,thus1 an infinite assemblage of causes may be assigned as having produced the endless varieties in the human race2 but the fact remains an inscrutable mystery4 ,but amidst all the physical vicissitudes man has undergone1 the species remains permanent2 and let those who think that the difference in the species of animals and vegetables arises from diversity of conditions1 consider1 that no circumstances whatever can degrade the form of man to that of the monkey--or elevate the monkey to the form of man4 ,animals and vegetables1 being the sources of man's sustenance1 have had the chief influence on his destiny and location1 and have induced him to settle in those parts of the world where he could procure them in greatest abundance4 ,wherever the chace or the spontaneous productions of the earth supply him with food1 he is completely savage1 and only a degree further advanced where he plants the palm and the banana2 where grain is the principal food1 industry and intelligence are most perfectly developed1 as in the temperate zone4 ,on that account the centres of civilization have generally been determined1 not by a hot1 but by a genial climate1 fertile soil1 by the vicinity of the sea-coast or great rivers1 affording the means of fishing and transport1 which last has been one of the chief causes of the superiority of ,europe and ,southern ,asia4 ,the mineral treasures of the earth have been the means of assembling great masses of men in ,siberia and the table-land of the ,andes1 and have given rise to many great cities1 both in the ,old and the ,new ,world4 ,nations inhabiting elevated table-lands and high ungenial latitudes have been driven there by war1 or obliged to wander from countries where the population exceeded the means of living--a cause of migration to which both language and tradition bear testimony4 ,the belief in a future state1 so universal1 shown by respect for the dead1 has no doubt been transmitted from nation to nation4 ,the ,american ,indians1 driven from their hunting-grounds1 still make pilgrimages to the tombs of their fathers2 and these tribes alone1 of all uncivilized mankind1 worship the ,great ,spirit as the invisible ,god and ,father of all--a degree of abstract refinement which could hardly have sprung up spontaneously among a rude people1 and which must have been transmitted from races who held the ,jewish faith4 ,it is probable that ,america had been peopled from ,asia before the separation of the continents by ,behring's ,straits1 and there is reason to believe that the location of various races of mankind1 now insulated1 may have taken place before the separation of the lands by mediterranean seas2 whilst others1 previously insulated1 may be now united by the drying up of inland seas1 as those which covered the ,sahara desert1 and the great hollow round the ,caspian ,sea1 of which it and the ,black ,sea are probably the remnants4 ,m4 ,bou has observed that mountain chains running nearly east and west establish much more striking differences among nations than those which extend from north to south--a circumstance confirmed by observation through the history of mankind4 ,the ,scandinavian ,alps have not prevented the countries on both sides from being occupied by people of a common descent2 while the feeble barrier of the ,cheviot ,hills1 between ,england and ,scotland1 and the moderate elevation of the ,highland mountains1 have prevented the amalgamation of the ,anglo-,saxons and the ,celts1 even in a period of high civilization4 ,the ,franks and ,belgians are distinct1 though separated by hills of still less elevation4 ,for the same reason the ,spaniards and ,italians differ far more from their neighbours on the other side of the eastern and western chains1 than the ,spaniards do from the ,portuguese1 or the ,piedmontese from the ,provenals4 ,a similar distinction prevails throughout ,asia2 and in ,america1 where all the principal chains run north and south1 there is but one copper-coloured race throughout the continent1 which stretches over more climates than ,europe and ,africa1 or even than ,asia and ,australia1 united4 ,it is along chains running north and south that the fusion of languages takes place1 and not along those of an easterly and westerly direction4 ,from ,poland1 for instance1 there are intermediate insensible gradations through ,germany into ,france2 while in crossing from a ,german district of the ,alps to the valleys of ,italy1 different tribes and different languages are separated by a single mountain4 ,even wars and conquest have ever been more easy in one direction than in the other4 ,the difference in the fauna and flora on the two sides of the great table-land and mountains of ,asia is a striking illustration of the influence which high lands running east and west have on natural productions1 and thus1 both directly and indirectly1 they affect the distribution of mankind4 ,the circumstances which thus determine the location of nations1 and the fusion or separation of their languages1 must1 conjointly with moral causes1 operate powerfully on their character4 ,the minds of mankind1 as well as their fate1 are influenced by the soil on which they are born and bred4 ,the natives of elevated countries are attached to their mountains2 the ,dutch are as much attached to their meadows and canals2 and the savage1 acquainted only with the discomforts of life1 is unhappy when brought among civilized man4 ,early associations never entirely leave us1 however much our position in life may alter1 and strong attachments are formed to places which generate in us habits differing from those of other countries4 ,the ,baltic and ,mediterranean ,seas have had no inconsiderable share in civilizing ,europe2 one combined with a cold and gloomy climate1 the other with a warm and glowing sky1 have developed dissimilar characters in the temperament and habits of the surrounding nations1 originally dissimilar in race4 ,the charms of climate1 and the ease with which the necessaries of life are procured1 were favourable to the development of imagination in the more southern nations1 and to an indolent enjoyment of their advantages4 ,in the north1 on the contrary1 the task imposed upon man was harder1 and perhaps more favourable to strength of character4 ,the ,dutch owe their industry and perseverance to their unceasing struggle against the encroachments of the ocean2 the ,british are indebted to their insular position for their maritime disposition1 and to the smallness of their country and the richness of their mines1 for their manufacturing and colonizing habits2 the military propensities of the ,french1 to the necessity of maintaining their independence among the surrounding nations1 as well as to ambition and the love of fame4 ,thus1 external circumstances materially modify the character of nations1 but the original propensities of race are never eradicated1 and they are nowhere more prominent than in the progress of the social state in ,france and ,england4 ,the vivacity and speculative disposition of the ,celt appear in the rapid and violent changes of government and in the succession of theoretical experiments in ,france2 while in ,britain the deliberate slowness1 prudence1 and accurate perceptions of the ,teuton are manifest in the gradual improvement and steadiness of their political arrangements4 8,the prevalent political sentiment of ,great ,britain is undoubtedly conservative1 in the best sense of the word1 with a powerful under-current of democratic tendencies4 ,this gives great power and strength to the political and social body of this country1 and makes revolutions by physical force almost impossible4 ,it can be said1 without assumption or pretension1 that the body politic of ,britain is in a sounder state of health than any other in ,europe2 and that those know very little of this country1 who1 led away by what they see in ,france1 always dream of violent and revolutionary changes in the constitution4 ,great ,britain is the only country in ,europe which has had the good fortune to have all her institutions worked out and framed by her in a strictly organic manner--that is1 in accordance with organic wants1 which require different conditions at different and successive stages of national development--and not by theoretical experiments1 as in many other countries which are still in a state of excitement consequent upon these experiments4 ,the social character of the people of this country1 besides the features which they have in common with other nations of ,teutonic origin1 is1 on the whole1 domestic1 reserved1 aristocratic1 and exclusive40#aid ,in speculating upon the effects of external circumstances1 and on the original dispositions of the different races of mankind1 the stationary and unchanged condition is a curious phenomenon in the history of nations4 ,the inhabitants of ,hindostan have not advanced within the historical period2 neither have the ,chinese4 ,the ,peruvians and ,mexicans had arrived at a considerable degree of civilization1 at which they became stationary1 never having availed themselves of their fine country and noble rivers2 and their conquerors1 the ,spaniards1 degenerated into the same apathy with the conquered4 ,the unaccountable gipsies have for ages maintained their peculiarities in all countries2 so have the ,jews and ,armenians1 who by the perseverance with which they have adhered to their language and institutions1 have resisted the influence of physical impressions4 ,the influence of external circumstances on man is not greater than his influence on the material world4 ,he cannot create power1 it is true1 but he dexterously avails himself of the powers of nature to subdue nature4 ,air1 fire1 water1 steam1 gravitation1 his own muscular strength1 and that of animals rendered obedient to his will1 are the instruments by which he has converted the desert into a garden1 drained marshes1 cut canals1 made roads1 turns the course of rivers1 cleared away forests in one country1 and planted them in another4 ,by these operations he has altered the climate1 changed the course of local winds1 increased or diminished the quantity of rain1 and softened the rigour of the seasons4 ,in the time of ,strabo1 the cold in ,france was so intense1 that it was thought impossible to ripen grapes north of the ,cevennes3 the ,rhine and the ,danube were every winter covered with ice thick enough to bear any weight4 ,man's influence on vegetation has been immense1 but the most important changes had been effected in the antediluvian ages of the world4 ,cain was a tiller of the ground4 ,the olive1 the vine1 and the fig-tree have been cultivated time immemorial3 wheat1 rice1 and barley1 have been so long in an artificial state1 that their origin is unknown2 even maize1 which is a ,mexican plant1 was in use among the ,american tribes before the ,spanish conquest2 and tobacco was already used by them to allay the pangs of hunger1 to which those who depend upon the chace for food must be exposed4 ,most of the ordinary culinary vegetables have been known for ages1 and it is remarkable that in these days1 when our gardens are adorned with innumerable native plants in a cultivated state1 few new grains1 vegetables1 or fruits have been reclaimed2 the old have been produced in infinite variety1 and many brought from foreign countries3 yet there must exist many plants capable of cultivation1 as unpromising in their wild state as the turnip or carrot4 ,some families of plants are more susceptible of improvement than others1 and1 like man himself1 can bear almost any climate4 ,one kind of wheat grows to #fb ,n4 latitude2 rye and barley are hardier1 and succeed still farther north2 and few countries are absolutely without grass4 ,the cruciform tribe abounds in useful plants1 indeed that family1 together with the solanum1 the papilionaceous and umbelliferous tribes1 furnish most of our vegetables4 ,many plants1 like animals1 are of one colour only in their wild state1 and their blossoms are single4 ,art has introduced the variety we now see in the same species1 and1 by changing the anthers of the wild flowers into petals1 has produced double blossoms3 by art1 too1 many plants1 natives of warm countries1 have been naturalized in colder climates4 ,few useful plants have beautiful blossoms--but if utility were the only object1 of what pleasure should we be deprived6 ,refinement is not wanting in the inmates of a cottage covered with roses and honeysuckle2 and the little garden cultivated amidst a life of toil1 tells of a peaceful home4 ,among the objects which tend to the improvement of our race1 the flower-garden and the park adorned with native and foreign trees have no small share3 they are the greatest ornaments of the ,british ,islands2 and the love of a country life1 which is so strong a passion1 is chiefly owing to the law of primogeniture1 by which the head of a family is secured in the possession and transmission of his undivided estate1 and therefore each generation takes pride and pleasure in adorning the home of its forefathers4 ,animals yield more readily to man's influence than vegetables1 and certain classes have greater flexibility of disposition and structure than others4 ,those only are capable of being perfectly reclaimed that have a natural tendency for it1 without which man's endeavours would be unavailing4 ,this predisposition is greatest in animals which are gregarious and follow a leader1 as elephants1 dogs1 horses1 and cattle do in their wild state2 yet even among these some species are refractory1 as the buffalo1 which can only be regarded as half-reclaimed4 ,the canine tribe1 on the contrary1 are capable of the greatest attachment1 not the dog only1 man's faithful companion1 but even the wolf1 and especially the hyna1 generally believed to be so ferocious4 ,after an absence of many months1 a hyna which had been the fellow-passenger of a friend of the author's in a voyage from ,india1 recognized his voice before he came in sight1 and on seeing him it showed the greatest joy1 lay down like a dog and licked his hands4 ,he had been kind to it on the voyage1 and no animal forgets kindness1 which is the surest way of reclaiming them4 ,there cannot be a greater mistake than the harsh and cruel means by which dogs and horses are too commonly trained2 but it is long before man learns that his power is mental1 and that it is his intellect alone that has given him dominion over the earth and its inhabitants1 of which so many far surpass him in physical strength4 ,the useful animals were reclaimed by the early inhabitants of ,asia1 and it is very remarkable1 notwithstanding the enterprise and activity of the present times1 that among the multitudes of animals that inhabit ,america1 ,central and ,southern ,africa1 ,australia and the ,indian ,archipelago1 #d only have been domesticated1 yet many may be capable of becoming useful to man4 ,of #ce species1 of which we possess one or more domestic races1 #ca are natives of ,asia1 ,europe1 and ,north ,africa2 these countries are far from being exhausted1 and a complete hemisphere is yet unexplored4 ,an attempt has been made to domesticate the ,llama1 the ,dziggetai1 ,zebra1 and some species of ,indian deer1 but the success is either doubtful or the attempt has not been followed up4 ,little has been left for modern nations but the improvement of the species1 and in that they have been very successful4 ,the variety of horses1 dogs1 cattle1 and sheep is beyond number4 ,the form1 colour1 and even the disposition1 may be materially altered1 and the habits engrafted are transmitted to the offspring1 as instinctive properties independent of education4 ,domestic fowls go in flocks on their native meads when wild4 ,there are1 however1 instances of solitary birds being tamed to an extraordinary degree1 as the raven1 one of the most sagacious4 ,man's necessities and pleasure have been the cause of great changes in the animal creation--and his destructive propensity of still greater4 ,animals are intended for our use1 and field-sports are advantageous by encouraging a daring and active spirit in young men1 but the utter destruction of some races1 in order to protect those destined for his pleasure1 is too selfish4 ,animals soon acquire a dread of man1 which becomes instinctive and hereditary2 in newly-discovered uninhabited countries1 birds and beasts are so tame as to allow themselves to be caught2 whales scarcely got out of the way of the ships that first navigated the ,arctic ,ocean1 but now they universally have a dread of the common enemy3 whales and seals have been extirpated in various places2 sea-fowl and birds of passage are not likely to be extinguished1 but many land animals and birds are vanishing before the advance of civilization4 ,drainage1 cultivation1 cutting down of forests1 and even the introduction of new plants and animals1 destroy some of the old1 and alter the relations between those that remain4 ,the inaccessible cliffs of the ,himalaya and ,andes will afford a refuge to the eagle and condor1 but the time will come when the mighty forests of the ,amazons and ,orinoco will disappear with the myriads of their joyous inhabitants4 ,the lion1 the tiger1 and the elephant will be known only by ancient records4 ,man1 the lord of the creation1 will extirpate the noble creatures of the earth--but he himself will ever be the slave of the canker-worm and the fly4 ,cultivation may lessen the scourge of the insect tribe1 but ,god's great army will ever1 from time to time1 appear suddenly--no one knows from whence2 the grub will take possession of the ground1 and the locust will come from the desert and destroy the fairest prospects of the harvest4 ,though the unreclaimed portion of the animal creation is falling before the progress of improvement1 yet man has been both the voluntary and the involuntary cause of the introduction of new animals and plants into countries in which they were not natives4 ,the ,spanish conquerors little thought that the descendants of the few cattle and horses they allowed to run wild1 would resume the original character of their species1 and roam in hundreds of thousands over the savannahs of ,south ,america4 ,wherever man is1 civilized or savage1 there also is the dog1 but he too has in some places resumed his native state and habits1 and hunts in packs4 ,domestic animals1 grain1 fruit1 vegetables1 and the weeds that grow with them1 have been conveyed by colonists to all settlements4 ,birds and insects follow certain plants into countries in which they were never seen before4 ,even the inhabitants of the waters change their abode in consequence of the influence of man4 ,fish1 natives of the rivers on the coast of the ,mexican ,gulf1 have migrated by the canals to the heart of ,north ,america2 and the mytilus polymorphus1 a shell-fish brought to the ,london ,docks in the timbers of ships from the brackish waters of the ,black ,sea and its tributary streams1 has spread into the interior of ,england by the ,croydon and other canals4 ,the influence of man on man is a power of the highest order1 far surpassing that which he possesses over inanimate or animal nature4 ,it is1 however1 as a collective body1 and not as an individual1 that he exercises this influence over his fellow-creatures4 ,the free-will of man1 nay1 even his most capricious passions1 neutralize each other1 when large numbers of men are considered4 ,professor ,quetelet has most ably proved1 that the greater the number of individuals1 the more completely does the will of each1 as well as all individual peculiarities1 moral or physical1 disappear1 and allow the series of general facts to predominate1 which depend upon the causes by which society exists and is preserved4 ,the uniformity with which the number of marriages in ,belgium occurred in #bj years1 places the neutralization of the free-will of the individual man beyond a doubt1 and is one of many instances of the importance of average quantities in arriving at general laws4 ,certainly no event in a man's life depends more upon his free will than his marriage1 yet it appears from the records in ,brussels1 that nearly the same number of marriages take place every year1 in the towns as well as in the country1 and1 moreover1 that the same constancy prevails in each province1 though the numbers of the people are so small1 that accidental causes might be more likely to affect the general result than when the numbers are larger4 ,in fact the whole affair passes as if the inhabitants of ,belgium had agreed to contract nearly the same number of marriages annually1 at each stage of life4 ,young people may possibly be in some degree under the control of parents1 but there can be no restraint on the free will of men of #cj and women of #fj years of age1 yet the same number of such incongruous marriages do annually take place between men and women at those unsuitable ages--a fact which almost exceeds belief4 ,the day fixed for a wedding is of all things most entirely dependent on the will of the parties1 yet even here there is regularity in the annual recurrence4 7,see ,table on next page47 ,with regard to crimes also1 ,m4 ,quetelet observes that the same number of crimes of the same description are committed annually1 with remarkable uniformity1 even in the case of those crimes which would seem most likely to baffle all attempt at prediction4 ,the same regularity occurs in the sentences passed on criminals3 in ,france1 in every hundred trials there were sixty-one convictions regularly1 year after year4 ,forgetfulness1 as well as free-will1 is under constant laws3 the number of undirected letters put into the post-office in ,london and in ,paris is very nearly the same year after year respectively--in ,london they amount to #bjjj3 so that even the deviations from free-will proves the generality and the constancy of the laws that govern us4 ,scientific discoveries and social combinations1 which put in practice great social principles1 are not without a decided influence2 but these causes of action coming from man1 are placed out of the sphere of the free-will of each3 so that individual impulse has less to do with the progress of mankind than is generally believed4 ,when society has arrived at a certain point of advancement1 certain discoveries will naturally be made2 the general mind is directed that way1 and if one individual does not hit upon the discovery1 another will4 ,therefore1 on the disputes and discussions of different nations for the honour of particular inventions or discoveries1 as for example the steam-engine1 a narrow view of the subject is taken2 they properly belong to the age in which they are made1 without derogating from the merits of those benefactors of mankind who have lessened his toil or increased his comfort by the efforts of their genius4 ,the time had come for the invention of printing1 and printing was invented2 and the same observation is applicable to many objects in the physical1 as well as to the moral world4 ,in the present disturbed state of society the time is come for the termination of the feudal system1 which will be swept away by the force of public opinion1 though individuality merges in these general movements4 ,the following ,table1 which is one of the most curious of statistical documents1 was formed by ,professor ,quetelet from the ,register of ,marriages at ,brussels3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,,marriages ,,in ,,belgium ,,in ,,the ,,years ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- #ahda #ahdb #ahdc #ahdd #ahde ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,women of #cj years of age and under #ab1ghh #ab1dbb #ab1cfh #ac1jbd #ac1aeg ,men of #cj years of ,women from #cj to #de #b1fcj #b1fbf #b1djf #b1cge #b1dch age and under1 to ,women from #de to #fj #ic #aba #abe #abi #ajb ,women from #fj upwards #g #f #h #e #h ,women of #cj and under #f1abb #e1hjc #e1fag #d1idh #e1haj ,men from #cj to #ce ,women from #cj to #de #e1eca #e1cif #e1ajj #e1bje #d1iha inclusive1 to ,women from #de to #fj #ebi #edb #dgi #dic #ecb ,women from #fj upwards #ah #ab #ah #ba #ba ,women of #cj and under #cgf #cdf #chj #cee #cdf ,men from #de to #fj ,women from #cj to #de #hif #hgi #hif #iea #iic inclusive1 to ,women from #de to #fj #dfa #ddg #dcc #dfb #dfj ,women from #fj upwards #bc #ai #bi #cf #bh ,women of #cj and under #dh #ce #de #da #cf ,men from #fj and ,women from #cj to #de #aci #adg #acc #aai #abe above1 to ,women from #de to #fj #aec #agj #acg #aab #ade ,women from #fj upwards #fb #eb #dh #ej #ca ---------------------------------------- ,annual ,number of ,marriages #bi1hgf #bi1jbc #bh1bbj #bi1cbf #bi1baj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---- ,though each individual is accountable to ,god for his conduct1 it is evident that the great laws which regulate mankind are altogether independent of his will1 and that liberty of action is perfectly compatible with the general design of ,providence4 8,a more profound study of the social system will have the effect of limiting more and more the sphere in which man's free-will is exercised1 for the ,supreme ,being could not grant him a power which tends to overthrow the laws impressed on all the parts of creation3 ,he has traced its limits1 as ,he has fixed those of the ocean40 ,man is eminently sociable2 he willingly gives up part of his free-will to become a member of a social body2 and it is this portion of the individuality of each member of that body1 taken in the aggregate1 which becomes the directrice of the principal social movements of a nation4 ,it may be greater or less1 good or bad1 but it determines the customs1 wants1 and the national spirit of a people2 it regulates the sum of their moral statistics2 and it is in that manner that the cultivation or savageness1 the virtues or the vices1 of individuals have their influence4 ,it is thus that private morality becomes the base of public morality4 ,the more man advances in civilization the greater will be his collective influence1 for knowledge is power2 and at no time did the mental superiority of the cultivated races produce such changes as they do at present1 because they have extended their influence to the uttermost parts of the earth by emigration1 colonization1 and commerce4 ,in civilized society the number of people in the course of time exceeds the means of sustenance1 which compels some to emigrate2 others are induced by a spirit of enterprise to go to new countries1 some for the love of gain1 others to fly from oppression4 ,the discovery of the ,new ,world opened a wide field for emigration4 ,spain and ,portugal1 the first to avail themselves of it1 acquired dominion over some of the finest parts of ,south ,america1 which they have maintained till lately a change of times has rendered their colonies independent states4 ,liberal opinions have spread into the interior of that continent1 in proportion to the facility of communication with the cities on the coasts1 from whence ,european ideas are disseminated4 ,of this ,venezuela and ,chile are instances1 where civilization and prosperity have advanced more rapidly than in the interior parts of ,south ,america1 where the ,andes are higher and the distance from the sea greater4 ,civilization has been impeded in many of the smaller states by war1 and those broils inevitable among people unaccustomed to free institutions4 ,brazil would have been further advanced but for slavery1 that stain on the human race1 which corrupts the master as much as it debases the slave4 ,some of the native ,south ,american tribes have spontaneously made considerably progress in civilization in modern times2 others have benefited by the ,spanish and ,portuguese colonists2 and many have been brought into subjection by the ,jesuits1 who have instructed them in some of the arts of social life4 ,but these ,indians are not more religious than their neighbours1 and1 from the restraint to which they have been subject1 have lost vigour of character without improving in intellect2 so that now they are either stationary or retrograde4 ,extensive regions are still the abode of men in the lowest state of barbarism3 some of the tribes inhabiting the silvas of the ,orinoco1 ,amazons1 and ,uruguay are cannibals4 ,the arrival of the colonists in ,north ,america sealed the fate of the red men4 ,the inhabitants of the ,union1 too late awakened to the just claims of the ancient proprietors of the land1 have recently1 but vainly1 attempted to save the remnant4 ,the white man1 like an irresistible torrent1 has already reached the centre of the continent2 and the native tribes now retreat towards the far west1 and will continue to retreat1 till the ,pacific ,ocean arrests them1 and the animals on their hunting-grounds are exterminated4 ,the almost universal dislike the ,indian has shown for the arts of peace has been one of the principal causes of his decline1 although the ,cherokee tribe1 which has lately migrated to the west of the ,mississippi1 is a remarkable exception2 the greater number of them are industrious planters or mechanics2 they have a republican government1 and publish a newspaper in their own language1 in a character lately invented by one of that nation4 ,no part of the world has been the scene of greater iniquity than the ,west ,indian islands--and that perpetrated by the most enlightened nations of ,europe4 ,the native race has long been swept away by the stranger1 and a new people1 cruelly torn from their homes1 have been made the slaves of hard task-masters4 ,if the odious participation in this guilt has been a stain on the ,british name1 the abolition of slavery by the universal acclamation of the nation will ever form one of the brightest pages in their history1 so full of glory3 nor will it be the less so1 that justice was combined with mercy1 by the millions of money granted to indemnify the proprietors4 ,it is deeply to be lamented that our brethren on the other side of the ,atlantic have not followed the example of their fatherland2 but in limited monarchies the voice of the people is listened to1 while republican governments are more apt to become its slave4 ,the ,northern ,states have nobly declared every man free who sets his foot on their territory--and the time will come when the ,southern ,states will sacrifice interest to justice and mercy4 ,it seems to be the design of ,providence to supplant the savage by civilized man in the continent of ,australia as well as in ,north ,america1 though every effort has been made to prevent the extinction of the natives4 ,most of the tribes in that continent are as low in the scale of mankind as the cannibal ,fuegians1 whom ,captain ,fitzroy so generously1 but so ineffectually1 attempted to reclaim4 ,some of the ,new ,hollanders are faithful servants for a time1 but they almost always find the restraint of civilized life irksome1 and return to their former habits1 though truly miserable in a country where the means of existence are so scanty4 ,animals and birds are very scarce1 and there is no fruit or vegetable for the sustenance of man4 ,slavery has been a greater impediment to the improvement of ,africa than even the physical disadvantages of the country--the great arid deserts and unwholesome coasts4 ,a spontaneous civilization has arisen in various parts of ,southern and ,central ,africa1 in which there has been considerable progress in agriculture and commerce2 but civilized man has been a scourge on the ,atlantic coast1 which has extended its baneful influence into the heart of the continent1 by the encouragement it has given to warfare among the natives for the capture of slaves1 and for the introduction of ,european vices1 unredeemed by ,christian virtues4 ,now that ,france and ,england have united in the suppression of this odious traffic1 some hopes may be entertained that their colonies may be beneficial to the natives1 and that other nations may follow their example1 in which1 however1 they have been anticipated by three ,mahommedan sovereigns2 the ,sultan has abolished the slave market in ,constantinople1 ,ibrahim ,pasha on his return from ,france and ,england gave freedom to his bondsmen in ,egypt1 and the ,bey of ,tunis has abolished slavery in his dominions4 ,the ,french are zealous in improving the people in ,algiers1 but the constant warfare in which they have been embroiled ever since their conquest must render their success in civilizing the natives at least remote4 ,the inhabitants of those extensive and magnificent countries in the eastern seas that have long been colonized by the ,dutch have made but little progress under their rule4 ,the ,british colony at the ,cape of ,good ,hope has had considerable influence on the neighbouring rude nations1 who now begin to adopt more civilized habits4 ,when ,mr4 ,somerville visited ,litako1 the natives for the first time saw a white person and a horse1 and were scantily clothed with skins4 ,when ,dr4 ,smith visited them #bj years afterwards1 he found the chief men mounted on horseback1 wearing hats made of rushes1 and an attempt made to imitate ,european dress4 ,colonization has nowhere produced such happy results as among the amiable and cultivated inhabitants of ,india1 who are sensible of the benefits they derive from the impartial administration of just and equal laws1 the foundation of schools and colleges1 and the wide extension of commerce4 ,all the causes of emigration have operated by turns on the inhabitants of ,britain1 and various circumstances have concurred to make their colonies permanent4 ,in ,north ,america1 that which not many years ago was a ,british colony has become a great independent nation1 occupying a large portion of the continent4 ,the ,australian continent and ,new ,zealand will in after ages be peopled by a ,british race1 and will become centres of civilization which will spread its influence to the uttermost islands of the ,pacific4 ,these splendid islands1 possessing every advantage of climate and soil1 with a population in many parts far advanced in the arts of civilized life1 industry1 and commerce1 though in others savage1 will in time come in for a share of the general improvement4 ,the success that has attended the noble and unaided efforts of ,sir ,j4 ,brooke in ,borneo1 shows how much the influence of an active and benevolent mind can in a short time effect4 ,the colonies on the continent of ,india are already centres from which the culture of ,europe is spreading over the ,east4 ,commerce has not less influence on mankind than colonization1 with which it is intimately connected2 and the narrow limits of the ,british ,islands have rendered it necessary for its inhabitants to exert their industry4 ,the riches of our mines in coal and metals1 which produce a yearly income of #bd1jjj1jjjl4 sterling1 is a principal cause of our manufacturing and commercial wealth2 but even with these natural advantages1 more is due not only to our talents and enterprise1 but to our high character for faith and honour4 ,every country has its own peculiar productions1 and by an unrestrained interchange of the gifts of ,providence the condition of all is improved4 ,the exclusive jealousy with which commerce has hitherto been fettered1 shows the length of time that is necessary to wear out the effects of those selfish passions which separated nations when they were yet barbarous4 ,it required a high degree of cultivation to break down those barriers consecrated by their antiquity2 and the accomplishment of this important change evinces the rate at which the present age is advancing4 ,a new era in the history of the world began when ,china was opened to ,european intercourse2 but many years must pass before ,european influence can penetrate that vast empire1 and eradicate those illiberal prejudices by which it has so long been governed4 ,two important triumphs yet remain to be achieved over physical difficulties by the science and energy of man1 namely1 the junction of the ,pacific and ,atlantic ,oceans at the ,isthmus of ,central ,america1 and the union of the ,red ,sea with the ,mediterranean at that of ,suez4 ,the first seems to be on the eve of accomplishment1 and1 in conjunction with the treasures with which the auriferous district of ,california is said to abound1 may bring about a complete revolution in the tide of affairs2 and that country1 hitherto so completely separated from the rest of the world and so little known1 will become a new centre of civilization1 whose influence will be diffused over the wide ,pacific to the shores of the eastern continent2 the expectation of ,columbus will then be realized--of a passage to the ,east ,indies by the ,atlantic4 ,should the ,mediterranean and ,red ,sea be united by a water communication1 ,alexandria1 ,venice1 and the other maritime cities of southern ,europe may regain1 at least in part1 the mercantile position which they lost by the discovery of ,vasco da ,gama4#aie ,the advantages of colonization and commerce to the less civilized part of the world are incalculable1 as well as to those at home1 not only by furnishing an exchange for manufactures1 important as this is1 but by the immense accession of knowledge of the earth and its inhabitants1 that has been thus attained4 ,the history of former ages exhibits nothing to be compared with the mental activity of the present4 ,steam1 which annihilates time and space1 fills mankind with schemes for advantage or defence3 but however mercenary the motives for enterprise may be1 it is instrumental in bringing nations together4 ,the facility of communication is rapidly assimilating national character4 ,society in most of the capitals is formed on the same model2 and as the study of modern languages is now considered a part of polite education1 and every well-educated person speaks more than one modern tongue1 one of the great barriers to the assimilation of character amongst nations will be removed4 ,science has never been so extensively and so successfully cultivated as at the present time3 the collective wisdom and experience of ,europe and the ,united ,states of ,america is now brought to bear on subjects of the highest importance in annual meetings1 where the common pursuit of truth is as beneficial to the moral as to the intellectual character1 and the noble objects of investigation are no longer confined to a philosophic few1 but are becoming widely diffused among all ranks of society1 and the most enlightened governments have given their support to measures that could not have been otherwise accomplished4#aif ,simultaneous observations are made at numerous places in both hemispheres on electricity1 magnetism1 on the tides and currents of the air and the ocean1 and those mysterious vicissitudes of temperature and moisture1 which bless the labours of the husbandman one year1 and blight them in another4 ,the places of the nebul and fixed stars1 and their motions1 are known with unexampled precision1 and the most refined analyses embrace the most varied objects4 ,three new satellites and six new planets have been discovered within four years1 and one of these under circumstances the most unprecedented4 ,in the far heavens1 from disturbances in the motions of ,uranus which could not be accounted for1 an unknown and unseen body was declared to be revolving on the utmost verge of the solar system2 and it was found in the very region of the heavens pointed out by analysis4 ,on earth1 though hundreds of miles apart1 that invisible messenger1 electricity1 instantaneously conveys the thoughts of the invisible spirit of man to man--results of science sublimely transcendental4 ,vain would be the attempt to enumerate the improvements in machinery and mechanics1 the canals and railroads that have been made1 the harbours that have been improved1 the land that has been drained1 the bridges that have been constructed2 and now1 although ,britain is inferior to none in many things1 and superior to all in some1 one of our most distinguished engineers declares that we are scarcely beyond the threshold in improvement2 to stand still is to retrograde1 human ingenuity will always keep pace with the unforeseen1 the increasing wants of the age4#aig 8,who knows what may yet be in store for our use2 what new discovery may again change the tide of human affairs2 what hidden treasures may yet be brought to light in the air or in the ocean1 of which we know so little2 or what virtues there may be in the herbs of the field1 and in the treasures of the earth--how far its hidden fires1 or stores of ice1 may yet become available--ages can never exhaust the treasures of nature or the talent of man40#aih ,it would be difficult to follow the rapid course of discovery through the complicated mazes of magnetism and electricity2 the action of the electric current on the polarized sun-beam1 one of the most beautiful of modern discoveries1 leading to relations hitherto unsuspected between that power and the complex assemblage of visible and invisible influences on solar light1 by one of which nature has recently been made to paint her own likeness4 ,it is impossible to convey an idea of the rapid succession of the varied and curious results of chemistry1 and its application to physiology and agriculture2 moreover1 distinguished works have lately been published at home and abroad on the science of mind1 which has been so successfully cultivated in our own country4 ,geography has assumed a new character1 by that unwearied search for accurate knowledge and truth that marks the present age1 and physical geography is altogether a new science4 ,the spirit of nautical and geographical discovery1 begun in the #aeth century1 by those illustrious navigators who had a new world to discover1 is at this day as energetic as ever1 though the results are less brilliant4 ,neither the long gloomy night of a polar winter1 nor the dangers of the ice and the storm1 deter our gallant seamen from seeking a better acquaintance with 8this ball of earth10 even under its most frowning aspect2 and that1 for honour1 which they are as eager to seek even in the cannon's mouth4 ,nor have other nations of ,europe and ,america been without their share in these bold adventures4 ,the scorching sun and deadly swamps of the tropics as little prevent the traveller from collecting the animals and plants of the present creation1 or the geologist from investigating those of ages long gone by4 ,man daily indicates his birthright as lord of the creation1 and compels every land and sea to contribute to his knowledge4 ,the most distinguished modern travellers1 following the noble example of ,baron ,humboldt1 the patriarch of physical geography1 take a more extended view of the subject than the earth and its animal and vegetable inhabitants afford1 and include in their researches the past and present condition of man1 the origin1 manners1 and languages of existing nations1 and the monuments of those that have been4 ,geography has had its dark ages1 during which the situation of many great cities and spots of celebrity in sacred and profane history had been entirely lost sight of1 which are now discovered by the learning and assiduity of the modern traveller4 ,of this1 ,italy1 ,egypt1 the ,holy ,land1 ,asia ,minor1 ,arabia1 and the valleys of the ,euphrates and ,tigris1 with the adjacent mountains of ,persia1 are remarkable instances1 not to mention the vast region of the ,east1 and the remote centres of aboriginal civilization in the ,new ,world4 ,the interesting discoveries of ,mr4 ,layard1 who possessed every acquirement that could render a traveller competent to accomplish so arduous an undertaking1 have brought to light the long-hidden treasures of the ancient ,nineveh1 where its own peculiar style of art had existed anterior to that of ,egypt4#aii ,in many parts of the world the ruins of cities of extraordinary magnitude and architecture show that there are wide regions of whose original inhabitants we know nothing4 ,the ,andes of ,peru and ,mexico have remains of civilized nations before the age of the ,incas4 ,mr4 ,pentland has found numerous remains of ,peruvian monuments in every part of the great valley of the ,peru-,bolivian ,andes1 and many parts of the imperial capital ,cusco1 little changed from what they were at the downfall of ,atahualpa4 ,mr4 ,stephens has found in the woods of ,central ,america the ruins of great cities1 adorned with sculpture and pictorial writings1 vestiges of a people far advanced1 who had once cultivated the soil where these entangled forests now grow4 ,picture-writings have been discovered by ,sir ,robert ,schomburgk on rocks in ,guiana1 spread over an extent of #cej1jjj square miles1 similar to those found in the ,united ,states and in ,siberia4 ,magnificent buildings still exist in good preservation all over eastern ,asia1 and many in a ruinous state belong to a period far beyond written record4 ,ancient literature has furnished a subject of still more interesting research1 from which it is evident that the mind of man is essentially the same under very different circumstances3 every nation far advanced in civilization has had its age of poetry1 the drama1 romance1 and philosophy1 each stamped with the character of the people and times1 and still more with their religious belief4 ,our profound ,oriental scholars have made known to ,europeans the refined ,sanscrit literature of ,hindostan1 its schools of philosophy and astronomy1 its dramatic writings and poetry1 which are original and beautiful1 and to these the learned in ,greece and ,italy have contributed4 ,the riches of ,chinese literature1 and their valuable geography1 were introduced into ,europe by the ,french ,jesuits of the last century1 and followed up with success by the ,french and ,english philosophers of the present3 to ,france we also owe much of our knowledge of the poetry and letters of ,persia2 and from the time that ,dr4 ,young deciphered the inscriptions on the ,rosetta ,stone1 ,egyptian hieroglyphics and picture-writing have been studied by the learned of ,france1 ,england1 and ,italy1 and we have reason to expect much new information from the more recent researches of ,professor ,lepsius of ,berlin4 ,the ,germans1 indeed1 have left few subjects of ancient literature unexplored1 even to the language written at ,babylon and ,nineveh--the most successful attempt to decipher which is due to a distinguished countryman of our own1 ,colonel ,rawlinson4 ,the press has overflowed with an unprecedented quantity of literature1 some of standard merit1 and much more that is ephemeral1 suited to all ranks1 on every subject1 with the aim1 in our own country at least1 to improve the people1 and to advocate the cause of morality and virtue4 ,all this mental energy is but an effect of those laws which regulate human affairs1 and include in their generality the various changes that tend to improve the condition of man4 ,the fine arts do not keep pace with science1 though they have not been altogether left behind4 ,painting1 like poetry1 must come spontaneously1 because a feeling for it depends upon innate sympathies in the human breast4 ,nothing external could affect us1 unless there were corresponding ideas within2 poetically constituted minds of the highest organization are most deeply impressed with whatever is excellent4 ,all are not gifted with a strong perception of the beautiful1 in the same way as some persons cannot see certain colours1 or hear certain sounds4 ,those elevated sentiments which constitute genius are given to few2 yet something akin1 though inferior in degree1 exists in most men4 ,consequently1 though culture may not inspire genius1 it cherishes and calls forth the natural perception of what is good and beautiful1 and by that means improves the tone of the national mind1 and forms a counterpoise to the all-absorbing useful and commercial4 ,historical painting is successfully cultivated both in ,france and ,germany4 ,the ,germans have modelled their school on the true style of the ancient masters4 ,they have become their rivals in richness and beauty of colouring1 and are not surpassed in vividness of imagination1 nor in variety and sublimity of composition1 which is poetry of the highest order embodied4 ,sculpture and architecture are also marked by that elevated and pure taste which distinguish their other works of art4#bjj ,french artists1 following in the same steps1 have produced historical works of great merit4 ,pictures of genre and scenes of domestic life have been painted with much expression and beauty by our own artists2 and ,british landscapes1 like some painted by ,german artists1 are not mere portraits of nature1 but pictures of high poetical feeling1 and the excellence of their composition has been acknowledged all over ,europe1 by the popularity of the engravings which illustrate many of our modern books4 ,the encouragement given to this branch of art at home may be ascribed to the taste for a country life so general in ,england4 ,water-colour painting1 which is entirely of ,british growth1 has now become a favourite style in every country1 and is brought to the highest perfection in our own4 ,the ,italians have had the merit of restoring sculpture to the pure style which it had lost1 and that gifted people have produced some of the noblest specimens of modern art4 ,the greatest genius of his time left the snows of the far ,north to spend his days in ,rome1 the head-quarters of art2 and our own sculptors of eminent talents have established themselves in ,rome1 where they find a more congenial spirit than in their own country1 in which the compositions of ,flaxman were not appreciated till they had become the admiration of ,europe4 ,munich can boast of some of the finest specimens of modern sculpture and architecture4 ,the ,opera1 one of the most refined of theatrical amusements in every capital city in ,europe1 displays the excellence and power of ,italian melody1 which has been transmitted from age to age by a succession of great composers4 ,german music1 partaking of the learned character of the nation1 is rich in original harmony1 which requires a cultivated taste to understand and appreciate4 ,italy is the only country that has had two poetical eras of the highest order2 and1 great as the ,latin period was1 that of ,dante was more original and sublime4 ,the ,germans1 so eminent in every branch of literature1 have also been great as poets2 the power of ,goethe's genius will render his poems as permanent as the language in which they are written4 ,france is1 as it long has been1 the abode of the ,comic ,muse2 and although that nation can claim great poets of a more serious cast1 yet the language and the habits of the people are more suited to the gay than the grave style4 ,though the ,british may have been inferior to other nations in some branches of the fine arts1 yet poetry1 immeasurably the greatest and most noble1 redeems1 and more than redeems us4 ,the nation that produced the poetry of ,chaucer1 ,spenser1 ,shakespeare and ,milton1 with all the brilliant train1 down nearly to the present time1 must ever hold a distinguished place1 as an imaginative people4 ,shakespeare alone would stamp a language with immortality4 ,the ,british novels stand high among works of imagination1 and they have generally had the merit of advancing the cause of morality4 ,had ,french novelists attended more to this1 their knowledge of the human heart and the brilliancy of their composition would have been more appreciated4 ,poetry of the highest stamp has fled before the utilitarian spirit of the age2 yet there is as much talent in the world1 and imagination too1 at the present time1 as at any former period1 though directed to different and more important objects1 because the whole aspect of the moral world is altered4 ,the period is come for one of those important changes in the minds of men which occur from time to time1 and form great epochs in the history of the human race4 ,the whole of civilized ,europe could not have been roused to the enthusiasm which led them to embark in the ,crusades by the preaching of ,peter the ,hermit1 unless the people had been prepared for it3 men were ready for the ,reformation before the impulse was given by ,luther2 and ,pius ,,ix4 merely applied the match to a train already laid4 ,these are the barometric storms of the human mind4 ,the present state of transition has been imperceptibly in progress1 aided by many concurring circumstances1 among which the increasing intelligence of the lower orders1 and steam-travelling1 have been the most efficient4 ,the latter has assisted eminently in the diffusion of knowledge1 and has probably accelerated the crisis of public affairs on the ,continent1 by giving the inhabitants of different countries opportunities of intercourse1 and comparing their conditions4 ,no invention that has been made for ages has so levelling a tendency1 which accords but too well with the present disposition of the people4 ,the spirit of emancipation1 so peculiarly characteristic of this century1 appears in all the relations of life1 political and social4 ,on the continent of ,europe it has shaken the whole fabric of society1 subverted law and order1 and ruined thousands1 in order to throw down the crumbling remains of the feudal system4 ,the same emancipating spirit which has thrown young and old into a state of insubordination and rebellion abroad1 has been quietly but gradually altering the relations of social and domestic life at home4 ,parent and child no longer stand in the same relation to one another2 even at an early age boys assume the character and independence of men1 which may perhaps fit them sooner for taking their share in the affairs of the world2 for it must be acknowledged that1 whether from early independence or some other cause1 no country has produced more youthful and able statesmen than our own2 but1 at the same time1 it places them on a less amicable and more dangerous position1 by depriving them of the advice and experience of the aged1 to which the same deference is no longer paid4 ,the working man considers his interest to be at variance with that of the manufacturer1 and the attachment of servants to their masters is nearly as extinct in ,britain as vassalage4 ,ambition1 to a great extent1 pervades the inferior and middle grades of society1 and so few are satisfied with the condition in which they were born1 that the pressure upwards is enormous4 ,the numerous instances of men rising from an inferior rank to the highest offices in the ,state encourages the endeavour to rise in society1 which is right and natural1 if pursued by legitimate means1 but the levelling disposition so prevalent abroad is pernicious as it is impracticable4 ,so long as men are endowed with different dispositions and different talents1 so long will they differ in condition and fortune1 and this is as strongly marked in republics as in any other form of government2 for man1 with all his attempts to liberate himself from nature's ordinances1 by the establishment of equal laws and civil rights1 never can escape from them--inequality of condition is permanent as the human race4 ,hence1 from necessity we must fulfil the duties of the station in which we are placed1 bearing in mind that1 while ,christianity requires the poor to endure their lot with patience1 it imposes a heavy responsibility on the rich4 ,in ,britain1 respect for the labouring classes1 together with active benevolence1 form the counterpoise to the evil propensities of this state of transition2 a benevolence which is not confined to alms-giving1 but which consists in the earnest desire to contribute with energy to the sum of human happiness4 ,in proportion as that disposition is diffused among the higher classes1 and the more they can convince the lower orders that they have an ardent desire to afford them every source of happiness and comfort that is in their power1 so much sooner will the transient evils pass away1 and an improved state of things will commence2 kindly and confiding feelings will then take the place of coldness and mistrust4 ,the continual increase of that disinterested benevolence and liberal sentiment1 which in our own country is the most hopeful and consoling feature of the age1 manifests itself in the frequency with which plans for ameliorating the condition of the lower classes are brought before ,parliament2 in the societies formed for their relief2 and in the many institutions established for their benefit and comfort4 ,three of the most beneficial systems of modern times are due to the benevolence of ,english ladies--the improvement of prison discipline1 savings-banks1 and banks for lending small sums to the poor4 ,the success of all has exceeded every expectation1 and these admirable institutions are now adopted by several foreign countries4 ,the importance of popular and agricultural education is becoming an object of attention to the more enlightened governments2 and one of the greatest improvements in education is1 that teachers are now fitted for their duties1 by being taught the art of teaching4 ,the gentleness with which instruction is conveyed no longer blights the joyous days of youth1 but1 on the contrary1 encourages self-education1 which is the most efficient4 ,the system of infant-schools1 established in many parts of ,europe and throughout the ,united ,states of ,america1 is rapidly improving the condition of the people4 ,the instruction given in them is suited to the station of the scholars1 and the moral lessons taught are often reflected back on the uneducated parents by their children4 ,moreover1 the personal intercourse with the higher orders1 and the kindness which the children receive from them1 strengthen the bond of reciprocal good feeling4 ,since the abolition of the feudal system1 the separation between the higher and the lower classes of society has been increasing2 but the generous exertions of individuals1 whose only object is to do good1 is now beginning to correct a tendency that1 unchecked1 might have led to the worst consequences to all ranks4 ,we learn from statistical reports that the pains taken by individuals and associations are not without their effect upon the character of the nation4 ,for example1 during the eleven years that preceded #ahdf1 in which the criminal returns indicated the intellectual condition of persons accused1 there were #ca counties in ,england and ,wales in which not one educated woman was called before a court of law1 in a population of #b1fag1fec females4#bja ,crime has generally decreased in proportion to the religious and moral education of the people3 the improvement in the morality of the factory-children is immense since ,government appointed inspectors to superintend their health and education2#bjb and indeed the improvement in the condition of the whole population appears from the bills of mortality1 which unquestionably prove that the duration of human life is continually increasing throughout ,great ,britain4#bjc ,the voluntary sacrifices that have been made to relieve the necessities of a famishing nation evince the humane disposition of the age4 ,but it is not one particular and extraordinary case1 however admirable1 that marks the general progress--it is not in the earthquake or the storm1 but in the still small voice of consolation heard in the cabin of the wretched1 that is the prominent feature of the charities of the present time1 when the benevolent of all ranks seek for distress in the abodes of poverty and vice1 to aid and to reform4 ,no language can do justice to the merit of those who devote themselves to the reformation of the children who have hitherto wandered neglected in the streets of great cities2 in the unpromising task they have laboured with patience1 undismayed by difficulties that might have discouraged the most determined--but they have had their reward1 they have succeeded4#bjd ,the language of kindness and sympathy1 never before heard by these children of crime and wretchedness1 is saving multitudes from perdition4 ,but it would require a volume to enumerate the exertions that are making for the accommodation1 health1 and improvement of the people1 and the devotion of high and low to the introduction of new establishments and the amelioration of the old4 ,noble and liberal sentiments mark the proceedings of public assemblies1 whether in the cause of nations or of individuals1 and the severity of our penal laws is mitigated by a milder system4 ,happily this liberal and benevolent spirit is not confined to ,britain1 it is universal in the ,states of the ,american ,union1 and it is spreading widely through the more civilized countries of ,europe4 ,no retrograde movement can now take place in civilization2 the diffusion of ,christian virtues and of knowledge ensures the progressive advancement of man in those high moral and intellectual qualities that constitute his true dignity4 ,but much yet remains to be done at home1 especially in religious instruction and the prevention of crime2 and millions of our fellow-creatures in both hemispheres are still in the lowest grade of barbarism4 ,ages and ages must pass away before they can be civilized2 but if there be any analogy between the period of man's duration on earth and that of the frailest plant or shell-fish of the geological periods1 he must still be in his infancy2 and let those who doubt of his indefinite improvement compare the first revolution in ,france with the last1 or the state of ,europe in the middle ages with what it is at present4 ,for1 notwithstanding the disturbed condition of the ,continent1 and the mistaken means the people employ to improve their position1 crime is less frequent and less atrocious than it was in former times1 and the universal indignation it now raises is a strong indication of improvement4 ,in our own country1 men who seem to have lived before their time were formerly prosecuted and punished for opinions which are now sanctioned by the legislature1 and acknowledged by all4 ,the moral disposition of the age appears in the refinement of conversation4 ,selfishness and evil passions may possibly ever be found in the human breast1 but the progress of the race will consist in the increasing power of public opinion1 the collective voice of mankind regulated by the ,christian principles of morality and justice4 ,the individuality of man modifies his opinions and belief2 it is a part of that variety which is a universal law of nature2 so that there will probably always be a difference of views as to religious doctrine1 which1 however1 will become more spiritual1 and freer from the taint of human infirmity2 but the power of the ,christian religion will appear in purer conduct1 and in the more general practice of mutual forbearance1 charity1 and love4 ,,appendix4 ,table of the ,heights above the ,sea of some of the ,principal ,mountain ,chains4 ,,europe4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,names of ,places1 ,mountains1 c4 ,heights ,countries ,authorities4 in ,english in which ,feet4 situated4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,,mont ,,blanc #ae1gci ,alps1 ,p4#bje ,p4 ,s4#bjf ,monte ,rosa #ae1baj ,alps1 ,l4 ,p4 ,s4 ,mont ,cervin #ad1hcf ,alps1 ,p4 ,p4 ,s4 ,finsterrhorn #ad1jbf ,alps1 ,b4 ,eichman4 ,jungfrau #ac1fgb ,alps1 ,b4 ,eichman4 ,le ,gant du ,m4 ,blanc #ac1ghf ,alps1 ,p4 ,p4 ,s4 ,mont ,combin #ad1abd ,alps1 ,p4 ,p4 ,s4 ,mont ,isran #ac1bgb ,alps1 ,g4 ,p4 ,s4 ,monte ,viso #ac1eii ,alps1 ,c4 ,p4 ,s4 ,ortler ,spitz #ab1hea ,alps1 ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 ,le ,grand ,rioburent #aa1jfc ,alps1 ,m4 ,p4 ,s4 ,drey ,herrn ,spitz #aj1abb ,alps1 ,car4 ,a4 ,s4 ,mont ,terglou #i1chf ,alps1 ,j4 ,a4 ,s4 ,passes of the ,alps3-- ,col du ,gant #aa1bchbjg ,alps1 ,p4 ,saussure4 ,col de ,st4 ,theodule #aa1ahe ,alps1 ,p4 ,p4 ,s4 ,pass of ,great ,st4 ,bernard #h1agc ,alps1 ,p4 ,p4 ,s4 ,pass of ,la ,furka #h1gad ,alps1 ,l4 ,s4 ,s4 ,pass of ,mont ,moro #h1icg ,alps1 ,l4 ,p4 ,s4 ,pass of ,le ,tavernette #i1hbg ,alps1 ,c4 ,p4 ,s4 ,pass of ,mont ,isran #i1aif ,alps1 ,g4 ,p4 ,s4 ,pass of ,col des ,fentres #i1eha ,alps1 ,p4 ,p4 ,s4 ,pass of the ,stelvio #i1agg ,alps1 ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 ,pass of ,bernardino #g1jae ,alps1 ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 ,pass of the ,splugen #f1idf ,alps1 ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 ,pass of ,st4 ,gothard #f1hjh ,alps1 ,r4 ,s4 ,s4 ,pass of ,mont ,cenis #f1ggb ,alps1 ,g4 ,p4 ,s4 ,pass of ,simplon #f1egh ,alps1 ,l4 ,p4 ,s4 ,pass of ,tende #f1aei ,alps1 ,m4 ,p4 ,s4 ,pass of ,mont ,genvre #f1aai ,alps1 ,c4 ,p4 ,s4 ,pass of ,brenner #d1fei ,alps1 ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 ,pass of ,pontebba #c1fbe ,alps1 ,j4 ,a4 ,s4 ,malahite ,peak #aa1afh ,pyrenees ,a4 ,b4 ,l4#bjh ,mont ,perdu ,peak #aj1iid ,pyrenees ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,mabor1 ,cylinder of #aj1hii ,pyrenees ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,maladetta1 ,cylinder of #aj1hhf ,pyrenees ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,vignemale1 ,cylinder of #aj1hbj ,pyrenees ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,pic du ,midi #i1edj ,pyrenees ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,canigou #i1acg ,pyrenees ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,passes of the ,pyrenees3-- ,pass or ,port d',oo #i1hdc ,france ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,pass or ,port d',estaube #h1djb ,france ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,pass or ,port de ,gavarnie #g1fed ,france ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,pass or ,port de ,tourmalet #g1adc ,france ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,pic de ,sancy #f1ahh ,france ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,plomb du ,cantal #f1jic ,france ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,mont ,mezen #e1gie ,france ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,puy de ,dme #d1hjf ,france ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,ballon des ,vosges #d1fhh ,france ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,mont ,ventoux #f1bfc ,france ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,mulachaen #aa1dhc ,spain ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,sierra de ,gredos #aj1eeb ,spain ,bory4 ,estrella #g1ebf ,spain ,franzini4 ,siete ,picos #g1bdd ,spain ,bauza4 ,pea ,laza #h1bbb ,spain ,bauza4 ,el ,gador #f1ege ,spain ,rojas4 ,monte ,corno1 or ,gran ,sasso #i1eba ,italy1 d',italia ,apennines ,monte ,vellino #g1hea ,italy1 ,m4 de ,prony4 ,apennines ,termenillo ,grande #g1bab ,italy1 ,schow4 ,apennines ,monte ,amaro di ,majella #i1aac ,italy1 ,schow4 ,apennines ,monte ,cimone #f1ige ,italy1 ,schow4 ,apennines ,mont ,amiata #e1gid ,tuscany ,schow4 ,st4 ,oreste or ,soracte #b1adj ,campagna ,schow4 of ,rome4 ,passes of the ,appennines3-- ,pass of ,noviordi ,giovi #a1eej ,schow4 ,pass of ,la ,bochetta #b1eej ,schow4 ,pass of ,pietramala #c1bid ,schow4 ,islands of the ,mediterranean3-- ,monte ,rotondo #h1gfg ,corsica ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,monte d',oro #h1gja ,corsica ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,monte ,generargenta #f1jjd ,sardinia ,la ,marmora4 ,mount ,etna #aj1hgd ,sicily ,w4 ,h4 ,smyth4 ,pizzo di ,cane #f1eji ,sicily ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,mount ,eryx #c1hid ,sicily ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,stromboli #b1fhg ,lipari ,isles ,de ,borch4 ,greece and ,morea3-- ,mount ,guiona #h1ech ,peytier4#bji ,parnassus #h1jfh ,peytier4 ,taygetus1 ,mont ,st4 ,elias #g1ijd ,peytier4 ,mont ,olonas #g1bic ,peytier4 ,mont ,kelmos #g1gbf ,peytier4 ,mont ,athos #f1ggh ,de ,borch4 ,mont ,helicon #e1gch ,peytier4 ,delphi #e1gbe ,peytier4 ,mont ,hymettus #c1cgh ,peytier4 ,central ,europe3-- ,ruska ,joyana #i1iab ,e4 ,carpaths4 ,malte ,brun4 ,budosch1 ,transylvania #i1eic ,e4 ,carpaths4 ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,surrul #i1eic ,mount ,tatra2 highest point #h1ebd ,w4 ,carpaths4 ,wahlenberg4 ,mount ,tatra2 ,csabi ,peak #h1cad ,w4 ,carpaths4 ,wahlenberg4 ,mount ,tatra2 ,lomnitz #h1hfa ,w4 ,carpaths4 ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,riesenhoppe1 in the ,riesengeberge #e1cid ,germany ,horen4 ,feldberg1 in the ,schwarzwald #d1fge ,germany ,french ,engineers4 ,belchenberg1 in the ,schwarzwald #d1fdb ,germany ,french ,engineers4 ,kandelberg1 in the ,schwarzwald #d1afj ,germany ,bohnenberger4 ,schneeberg1 ,geisengebirge #d1ghd ,germany ,kammkoppel1 ,geisengebirge #d1bfe ,germany ,charpentier4 ,sonnenwerbel1 in the ,erzgebirge #d1abd ,germany ,rachelberg1 in the ,bhmerwald #d1efa ,germany ,sternberg4 ,steinberg1 ,moravia #c1eaa ,germany ,david4 ,brocken1 ,hartz #c1feh ,germany ,zach4 ,schneeberg1 in the ,fichtelgebirge #c1dfa ,germany ,goldfuss4 ,blessberg1 in the ,thuringerwald #b1gdh ,germany ,zach4 ,glockner1 in the ,thuringerwald #b1bca ,germany ,zach4 ,gross ,feldberg1 in the ,taunus chain #b1gge ,germany ,schmidt4 ,lowenberg1 in the ,siebengebirge #b1jbd ,germany ,nose4 ,norway and ,sweden3-- ,skagtltend ,lat4 #fa #bd #h1aja ,scandinavian ,keilhau4 ,mountains ,koldetind #g1bbd ,scandinavian ,keilhau4 ,mountains ,sognefield #g1ahb ,scandinavian ,hagelstam4 ,mountains ,mugnafield ,lat4 #fa #bj #g1bae ,scandinavian ,forsell4 ,mountains ,schneehattan ,lat4 #fb #bj #h1abj ,scandinavian ,eismark4 ,mountains ,pighttan ,lat4 #fb #b #f1ghh ,scandinavian ,hagelstam4 ,mountains ,sulitelma ,lat4 #fg #e #f1agh ,scandinavian ,wahlenberg4 ,mountains ,langfield ,lat4 #fa #ec #f1eih ,scandinavian ,hagelstam4 ,mountains ,melderskin ,lat4 #fj #j #d1hei ,scandinavian ,von ,buch4 ,mountains ,lyngen ,mountains ,lat4 #fi #cj #d1cjj ,scandinavian ,von ,buch4 ,mountains ,great ,britain3-- ,ben ,nevis #d1chj ,scotland ,jameson4 ,cairntoul1 ,aberdeenshire #d1bbc ,scotland ,playfair4 ,ben ,avon1 ,aberdeenshire #c1ica ,scotland ,playfair4 ,ben ,more1 ,grampians #c1hai ,scotland ,playfair4 ,schehallien1 ,grampians #c1ead ,scotland ,playfair4 ,snowdon #c1eeg ,wales ,roy4 ,cader ,idris #c1eej ,wales ,roy4 ,carn ,llewellyn #c1dga ,wales ,roy4 ,cross ,fell1 ,cumberland #c1chc ,england ,jameson4 ,helvyllen1 ,cumberland #c1cac ,england ,jameson4 ,skiddaw1 ,cumberland #c1jch ,england ,dr4 ,young4 ,schunner ,fell1 ,yorkshire #b1chh ,england ,smith4 ,coniston ,fell1 ,lancashire #b1ege ,england ,smith4 ,cheviot ,hills #b1feg ,england ,smith4 ,pentland ,hills #a1hgh ,scotland ,playfair4 ,curran ,tual1 ,kerry #c1dab ,ireland ,nimmo4 ,sleib ,donnard #c1adf ,ireland ,nimmo4 ,nephin1 ,mayo #b1fdd ,ireland ,jameson4 ,mourne ,mountains1 ,down #b1dic ,ireland ,jameson4 ,ben ,more1 ,isle of ,mull #c1ajj ,hebrides ,jameson4 ,hecla1 ,isle of ,s4 ,uist #c1jjb ,hebrides ,bou4 ,cuchullin1 ,isle of ,skye #b1iie ,hebrides ,m',culloch4 ,mount ,rona #c1eic ,shetland ,laing4 ,iceland and ,feroe3-- ,snfials1 ,jokull #e1aae ,iceland ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,hecla #c1cbd ,iceland ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,skalingefield1 ,isle ,stromoe #b1agb ,feroe ,stein4 ,,asia4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,names of ,places1 ,mountains1 c4 ,heights ,countries ,authorities4 in ,english in which ,feet4 situated4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,himalaya ,chain3-- ,kunchinginga1 ,w4 part #bh1agh ,sikim ,col4 ,waugh4#baj ,kunchinginga1 ,e4 ,peak #bg1hbf ,sikim ,col4 ,waugh4 ,dwalagari #bf1hfb ,nepaul ,webb4 ,juwahir #be1fgj ,kumaon ,herbert4 ,jumoo #be1cab ,sikim ,waugh4 ,jumnautri #be1ejj ,nepaul ,webb4 ,dhaibun #bd1gdj ,nepaul ,webb4 ,kabroo #bd1jje ,sikim ,waugh4 ,chamalari #bc1ibi ,tibet ,waugh4 ,powhunry #bc1agf ,sikim ,waugh4#baj ,momonangli1 or ,gurla #bc1ejj ,tibet ,strachey4#baa ,api ,peak #bb1gii ,nepaul ,webb4 ,peak ,no4 #ab #bc1bfc ,between the ,webb4 ,peak ,no4 #ac #bb1cac ,kali and ,e4 ,webb4 ,peak ,no4 #bc #bb1gbg branch of ,webb4 ,peak ,no4 #be #bb1bgg the ,ganges4 ,webb4 ,st4 ,george's ,peak #bb1ejj ,between ,webb4 ,st4 ,patrick's ,peak #bb1fch the ,ganges ,webb4 ,gungoutri ,pyramid #ba1bai and ,sutlej4 ,webb4 ,jownlee ,peak 7highest7 #ba1idj ,kumaon ,webb4 ,kailas ,peak #ba1jjj ,tibet ,strachey4 ,kohibaba #ag1ije ,hindoo ,cush ,burnes4 ,peak ,n4 of ,cabul #bj1bcb ,hindoo ,cush ,burnes4 ,passes of the ,himalaya3-- ,karokorum ,pass #ah1fjj ,tibet ,dr4 ,thomson#bab ,parangla ,pass #ah1ejj ,tibet ,cunningham4 ,kronbrung ,pass #ah1cac ,tibet ,gerard4 ,langpya ,dhura or ,doora ,ghaut #ag1gej ,tibet ,strachey4 ,lipu ,lek ,pass #af1hhd ,tibet ,manson4 ,niti ,ghaut ,pass #af1had ,tibet ,gerard4 ,paralaha ,pass #af1ejj ,tibet ,webb4 ,shatool ,pass #ae1ejj ,tibet ,webb4 ,elbrouz #ah1dic ,caucasus ,fuss4 ,kasbeck #af1ecj ,caucasus ,a4 ,c4#bac ,demavend #ad1fie ,persia ,thomson4 ,ararat #ag1aab ,persia ,parrot4 ,argus #ac1aig ,asia ,minor ,a4 ,c4 ,beloukha #aa1jfb ,altai ,a4 ,c4 ,mount ,lebanus #i1eag ,syria ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,mount ,horeb #h1eic ,syria ,rppell4 ,mount ,sinai #g1dih ,syria ,rppell4 ,jebel ,serbal #f1gfj ,syria ,rppell4 ,kamen ,peak #e1cig ,ural ,a4 ,c4 ,tremel ,peak #e1jga ,ural ,a4 ,c4 ,,africa1 ,,and ,,islands ,,in ,,the ,,atlantic4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,names of ,places1 ,mountains1 c4 ,heights ,countries ,authorities4 in ,english in which ,feet4 situated4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,mount ,atlas 7,miltsin7 #aa1djj ,morocco ,washington4 ,mount ,abba ,jarrat #ac #aj ,n #ae1jjh ,abyssinia ,rppell4 ,mount ,buahat #ac #ab ,n #ad1cfb ,abyssinia ,rppell4 ,kilimandjaro #d #j ,s #bj1jjj ,abyssinia in ,ans4 of ,phil4 7doubtful47 the ,mtns4 of the ,moon4 ,table ,mountain #c1haf ,cape of ,good ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,hope4 ,pico ,ruivo #f1jef ,madeira ,vidal4 ,peak of ,teyde1 ,teneriffe #ab1agb ,canaries4 ,von ,buch4 ,chahorra1 ,teneriffe #i1hhe ,canaries4 ,von ,buch4 ,pico de ,cruz1 ,palma #g1gcj ,canaries4 ,vidal4#bad ,los ,pexos1 ,great ,canary #f1djj ,canaries4 ,vidal4 ,alto ,garaona1 ,gomera #d1djj ,canaries4 ,vidal4 ,san ,anton1 ,ferro #c1ijg ,canaries4 ,vidal4 ,asses' ,ears1 ,fuestaventura #b1ggj ,canaries4 ,vidal4 ,peak of ,fogo #i1aed ,cape ,verde ,deville4 ,islands4 ,pico1 ,island of ,san ,antonio #h1hae ,cape ,verde ,capt4 ,king4 ,islands4 ,pico1 ,island of ,pico #g1fac ,azores ,vidal4 ,pico de ,vara1 ,island of ,st4 ,michael's #c1egj ,azores ,vidal4 ,caldeira de ,sta4 ,barbara1 ,terceira #c1ejj ,azores ,vidal4 ,pico de ,san ,jorje #c1dih ,azores ,vidal4 ,morro ,gordo1 ,flores #c1jhg ,azores ,vidal4 ,caldeira de ,corvo #b1dfj ,azores ,vidal4 ,,america4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,names of ,places1 ,mountains1 c4 ,heights ,countries ,authorities4 in ,english in which ,feet4 situated4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,north ,america3-- ,mount ,st4 ,elias #af1gge ,n4 ,america ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,popocatepetl #ag1gag ,mexico ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,orizaba #ag1cgd ,mexico ,humboldt4 ,iztacihuatl #ae1gje ,mexico ,humboldt4 ,nevado of ,toluca #ae1edb ,mexico ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,sierra ,nevada #ae1agj ,mexico ,humboldt4 ,perote ,mount #ac1dac ,mexico ,humboldt4 ,fair ,weather ,mountain #ad1ibe ,n4 ,america ,jorullo #d1bfe ,mexico ,humboldt4 ,volcan de ,fuego1 west peak #ac1afj ,guatemala ,basil ,hall4 ,volcan de ,fuego1 east peak #ac1jej ,guatemala ,basil ,hall4 ,irasu1 or ,volcano of ,cartago #aa1dhj ,guatemala ,phys4 ,atlas4 ,west ,indies3-- ,blue ,mountains #g1bgg ,jamaica ,la ,souffrire #e1ajh ,guadaloupe ,montagne ,pelee #d1dcb ,martinique ,monnier4 ,mount ,garon #d1cgj ,st4 ,vincent's ,chisholm4 ,south ,america3-- ,la ,silla de ,caraccas #h1fjj ,venezuela ,humboldt4 ,cerro de ,duida #h1bhj ,venezuela ,humboldt4 ,roraima ,lat4 #e #cj ,n4 #g1dej ,guiana ,schomburgk4 ,mountains of ,santa ,martha #ai1jjj8 ,new ,grenada ,plains of ,bogota #h1gcj ,new ,grenada ,humboldt4 ,volcano of ,tolima #ah1jbj ,andes of ,humboldt4 ,n4 ,grenada ,volcano of ,purace #ag1jcd ,humboldt4 ,andes of ,cumbal #ae1fbj ,n4 ,grenada ,bousingault4 ,andes of the ,cayambe #ai1ece ,equator ,humboldt4 ,andes of the ,antisana #ai1acg ,equator ,humboldt4 ,andes of the ,cotopaxi #ah1hge ,equator ,humboldt4 ,andes of the ,pinchincha #ae1ibd ,equator ,humboldt4 ,andes of the ,chimborazo #ba1dbd ,equator ,humboldt4 ,andes of the ,illinissa #ag1chj ,equator ,bouguer4 ,andes of the ,tunguragua #af1dbd ,equator ,humboldt4 ,andes of the ,sangai #af1ach ,equator ,la ,condamine4 ,vilcaota ,mount #ag1ebe ,peru ,pentland4#bae ,apu-,cunuranu #ag1eij ,peru ,pentland ,guaracoota ,peak1 ,snowline #af1big ,peru ,pentland ,cololo ,lat4 #ad #eh #ag1icj ,bolivia ,volcano of ,arequipa #bj1cbj ,peru ,pentland ,quenuta ,lat4 #ag #da #ah1gfe ,peru ,pentland ,chipicani #ai1gde ,peru ,pentland ,pomarape #ba1gjj ,peru ,pentland ,parinacota #bb1jcj ,peru ,pentland ,sahama #bb1cej ,peru ,pentland ,gualateiri ,lat4 #ah #bc #ba1ifj ,peru ,pentland ,ancohuma1 ,s4 ,peak #ba1bhf ,bolivian ,pentland ,andes ,ancohuma1 ,n4 ,peak #ba1jdc ,bolivian ,pentland ,andes ,chachacomani1 ,n4 ,peak #bj1cee ,bolivian ,pentland ,andes ,angel ,peak ,lat4 #af #aj #bj1aae ,bolivian ,pentland ,andes ,supawasi1 or ,huayna ,potosi #bj1bfj ,bolivian ,pentland ,andes ,cacaca ,lat4 #af #be #ah1baj ,bolivian ,pentland ,andes ,la ,mesada1 ,s4 ,peak #ai1cef ,bolivian ,pentland ,andes ,illimani1 ,s4 ,peak #ba1adj ,bolivian ,pentland ,andes ,mount de las ,litanias #ad1ejj ,bolivian ,pentland ,andes ,mount ,miriquiri ,peak ,lat4 #ag #af1ajj ,bolivian ,pentland ,andes ,cerro1 or ,mountain of ,potosi #af1aeb ,bolivian ,pentland ,andes ,cerro1 or ,mountain of ,bolivian ,chorolque1 near ,tupisa #af1eej ,andes ,redhead4 ,aconcagua ,mountain #bc1iaj ,chile#baf ,fitzroy and ,beechey ,tupungato #ae1jjj ,chile ,antuco #af1jjj ,chile ,fitzroy ,villarica #af1jjj ,chile ,fitzroy ,volcano of ,osorno1 or #g1eej ,chile ,fitzroy ,llanquihue ,yanteles #h1jcj ,chile ,fitzroy ,minchinmadava ,volcano #h1jjj ,chile ,fitzroy ,mount ,stokes #f1djj ,patagonia ,fitzroy ,mount ,burney #e1hjj ,patagonia ,fitzroy ,mount ,sarmiento #f1ijj ,tierra del ,fitzroy ,fuego ,mount ,darwin #f1hjj ,tierra del ,fitzroy ,fuego ,passes of the ,andes3 ,rumihuasi #af1afj ,peru ,gaye4 ,altos de ,toledo #ae1gij ,peru ,pentland4 ,pacuani #ae1cdj ,bolivia ,pentland4 ,chullunquiani #ae1afj ,bolivia ,pentland4 ,vilcaota1 or la ,raya #ad1ebj ,peru ,pentland4 ,gualillas #ad1gej ,peru ,pentland4 ,paramo d',assay #ae1ebh ,equator ,humboldt4 ,guanacas #ad1gjh ,equator ,bouguer4 ,pass of ,quindiu #aa1ejb ,n4 ,grenada ,humboldt4 ,pass of el ,almorsadero #ab1hej ,n4 ,grenada ,humboldt4 ,pass of ,la ,cumbre #ab1dej ,chile ,pentland4 ,pass of ,peuquenes #ac1baj ,chile ,dr4 ,gillies4 ,pass of el ,portillo #ad1cfe ,chile ,humboldt4 ,mountains of ,brazil3 ,itambe #e1ifj ,eschwege4 ,villarica chain1 ,sierra da ,piedade #e1hcj ,eschwege4 ,itacolumi #e1gej ,eschwege4 ,,islands ,,in ,,the ,,pacific1 ,,polynesia1 ,,australasia1 c4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,names of ,places1 ,mountains1 c4 ,heights ,countries ,authorities4 in ,english in which ,feet4 situated4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,isle of ,bourbon1 highest point #h1cdj ,phys4 ,atlas4 ,mount ,ambotismene #aa1ejf ,madagascar ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,adam's ,peak #f1aeb ,ceylon ,mount ,slamat or ,tajal #aa1icj ,java ,junghuhn4 ,mount ,sumbung #aa1jcj ,java ,junghuhn4 ,mount ,gounnong ,pasama1 or ,ophir #ac1hdj ,sumatra ,raffles4 ,volcano of ,matua #d1ejj ,kurile ,is4 ,phys4 ,atlas4 ,peak of ,unimak #h1eic ,aleutian ,is4 ,phys4 ,atlas4 ,mowna ,kea #ac1iec ,sandwich ,is4 ,wilkes4 ,mowna ,roa #ac1gfj ,sandwich ,is4 ,wilkes4 ,tobreonou #ab1bej ,otaheite ,phys4 ,atlas4 ,mount ,wellington1 or ,kosciusco #f1ejj ,new ,holland ,strelizki4 ,mount ,lindsay ,lat4 #bh #bj ,s4 #e1gjj ,new ,holland ,mitchell4 ,mount ,canobolas ,lat4 #cc #be #d1eea ,new ,holland ,mitchell4 ,mount ,edgecumbe #i1fcj ,new ,zealand ,bidwell4 ,mount ,egmont #h1hdj ,new ,zealand ,dieffenbach4 ,tongariro ,mountain #f1bjj ,new ,zealand ,dieffenbach4 ,mount ,erebus #ab1djj ,antarctic ,sir ,j4 ,c4 ,ross4 ,mount ,terror #aj1hhj ,lands ,sir ,j4 ,c4 ,ross4 ,,lakes ,,and ,,inland ,,seas4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,names of ,places1 ,mountains1 c4 ,heights ,countries ,authorities4 in ,english in which ,feet4 situated4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,sirikol1 source of the ,oxus #ae1fcj ,pameo ,wood4 ,manasarowar and ,raikas ,thal #ae1bej ,tibet ,strachey4 ,chumurari ,lake #ae1jjj ,tibet ,cunningham4 ,titicaca #ab1hdg ,peru-,bolivia ,pentland4 ,baikal #a1ece ,asia ,a4 ,c4 ,lake of ,van #eff ,turkey in ,a4 ,c4 ,asia ,aral #cf ,asia ,a4 ,c4 ,caspian ,sea1 below the level of the ,ocean #hb ,asia ,r4 ,survey4 ,dead ,sea1 below the ,ocean #a1cab ,syria ,symond4 ,lake ,superior #eif ,n4 ,america ,lake of ,lucerne #a1djg ,switzerland ,eschman4 ,lake of ,geneva #a1bcj ,switzerland ,eschman4 ,,heights ,,of ,,some ,,remarkable ,,inhabited ,,places4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,names of ,places1 ,mountains1 c4 ,heights ,countries ,authorities4 in ,english in which ,feet4 situated4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,rumihuasi1 ,post ,station #ae1edb ,andes of ,peru ,gaye4 ,ayavirini1 ,post ,station #ad1ifj ,peru ,gaye4 ,pati1 ,post ,station #af #je #ad1djj ,peru ,pentland4 ,apo ,post ,station #af #ac,s4 #ad1cgf ,peru ,pentland4 ,ancochallani1 farm #ag #ce #ad1fhc ,peru ,pentland4 ,tacora1 village #ag #dg #ac1fij ,peru ,pentland4 ,calamarca #af #ed #ac1fej ,bolivia ,pentland4 ,antisana1 farm #ac1ded ,equator ,humboldt4 ,potosi1 city #ac1ccj ,bolivia ,pentland4 ,puno1 city #ab1hgj ,peru ,pentland4 ,oruro1 city #ab1ded ,bolivia ,pentland4 ,la ,paz1 city #ab1bbf ,bolivia ,pentland4 ,miquipampa1 village #aa1hgj ,peru ,humboldt4 ,cusco1 city #aa1chd ,peru ,pentland4 ,quito1 capital of the ,equator #i1edc ,humboldt4 ,chuquisaca1 capital of ,bolivia #i1cdc ,bolivia ,pentland4 ,bogota1 capital of ,new ,grenada #h1gcj ,n4 ,grenada ,humboldt4 ,mexico #g1egj ,mexico ,humboldt4 ,arequipa1 city #g1heb ,peru ,pentland4 ,highest villages on ,s4 side of the ,himalaya #ac1jjj ,kumon ,strachey4 ,ladak #i1iie ,tibet ,a4 ,c4 ,niti1 village #aa1dgc ,kumon ,webb4 ,darjeeling1 town #g1afe ,sekim ,waugh4 ,himalaya ,cabool #f1chb ,afghanistan ,burnes4 ,kandahar #e1efc ,afghanistan ,humboldt4 ,teheran #d1acg ,persia ,a4 ,c4 ,kashmir1 city #e1hah ,kashmir ,hugel4 ,hospital of ,great ,st4 ,bernard #h1aaj ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,hospital of ,st4 ,gothard #f1hjh ,alps1 ,p4 ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,st4 ,veran1 village #f1fic ,alps1 ,c4 ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,breuil1 village #f1ehd ,alps1 ,p4 ,p4 ,s4 ,barges1 village #d1jgb ,pyrenees ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,brianon1 town #d1bhe ,alps1 ,m4 ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,madrid1 city #a1iid ,spain ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,mnich1 city #a1gfd ,bavaria ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,geneva1 city #a1dej ,switzerland ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,lima1 city #ebj ,peru ,pentland4 ,vienna1 city #dcf ,austria ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,milan1 city #dbj ,lombardy ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,paris1 ,observatory #bac ,france ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,rome1 ,capitol #aea ,italy ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,berlin #aca ,prussia ,a4 ,b4 ,l4 ,,glossary4 ,a,,bies4 ,lat4 ,a fir-tree4 ,specific name of a tree4 ,,abyssi,,nica4 ,lat4 ,abyssinian2 belonging or relating to ,abyssinia4 ,,aca,,cia4 ,gr4 ake1 a point1 and akios1 not subject to worms3 a thorny tree4 ,a genus of the family ,legumins and order ,mims4 ,about #cjj species are enumerated2 many of them yield gum4 ,,aca,,cia ,,ara,,bica4 ,arabian acacia4 ,,aca,,cias4 ,trees belonging to the genus acacia4 ,a,,cid4 ,a term given by chemists to those compound bodies which unite with salifiable bases to form salts3 for example1 a compound of sulphur and oxygen1 called sulphuric acid1 unites with magnesia and forms a salt named sulphate of magnesia1 or ,epsom salts4 ,,aci,,dulous4 ,sourish2 possessing acid properties4 ,,acrocho,,rdi4 ,lat43 plural of acrochordus4 ,,acrocho,,rdus4 ,from the ,greek akrochordon1 a wart4 ,a genus of non-venemous ophidians1 whose bodies are entirely covered by scales resembling warts3 these scales1 or rather squamous tubercles1 are small1 numerous1 rhomboidal1 and surmounted by a small horn or point1 more or less sharp4 ,,adanso,,nia4 ,a genus of plants named in honor of ,michel ,adanson1 a famous ,french botanist1 born in #agbg4 ,adansonia digitata4 ,sour gourd4 ,monkeys' bread or ,baobab tree of ,senegal1 which is considered the largest or rather the broadest tree in the world4 8,several measured by ,adanson1 were from sixty-eight to seventy-eight feet in circumference1 but not extraordinarily high4 ,the trunks were from twelve to fifteen feet high1 before they divided into many horizontal branches1 which touched the ground at their extremities2 these were from forty-five to fifty-five feet long1 and were so large that each branch was equal to a monstrous tree2 and where the water of a neighboring river had washed away the earth1 so as to leave the roots of one of these trees bare and open to the sight1 they measured #aaj feet long1 without including those parts of the roots which remained covered4 ,it yields a fruit which resembles a gourd1 and which serves for vessels of various uses2 the bark furnishes a coarse thread1 which they form into ropes1 and into cloth with which the natives cover their middle from the girdle to the knees2 the small leaves supply them with food in time of scarcity1 while the large ones are used for covering their houses1 or1 by burning1 for the manufacture of good soap4 ,at ,sierra ,leone this tree does not grow larger than an orchard apple tree40 ,loudon4 ,a,,dit4 ,lat4 adeo1 ,i approach4 ,a horizontal shaft or passage in a mine1 either for access1 or for carrying off water4 ,,africa,,nus4 ,lat4 ,african2 belonging or relating to ,africa4 ,,agallo,,chum4 ,from the ,gr4 aggalomai1 to become splendid4 ,a resinous1 aromatic wood1 burned by the ,chinese and ,japanese for the sake of its agreeable odour1 from the ,exccaria aggallocha4 ,aloes wood4 ,a,,gamous4 ,from the ,gr4 a1 privative1 and gamos1 marriage4 ,having no sex4 ,a,,gate4 ,a name given to all varieties of quartz which have not a vitreous aspect2 are compact1 semi-transparent1 and whose fracture resembles that of wax4 ,agates are of various colors and admit of a fine polish4 ,according to ,theophrastes and ,pliny1 the name comes from the river ,achates in ,sicily1 now the ,drillo1 on the banks of which the first agates were found4 ,,agla,,ia4 ,from the ,gr4 ,aglaia1 beauty1 elegance4 ,a genus of plants1 trees or shrubs1 of which there are five or six species in the ,island of ,java4 ,the odorata is one4 ,a,,gua4 ,spanish4 ,water4 ,,aira4 ,from the ,gr4 aira1 a tare1 cockle weed4 ,a genus of the family of ,gramne1 or grasses1 of the tribe of ,avence4 ,hair-grass4 ,a4 antarctica4 ,antarctic hair-grass4 ,,air-,,plants4 ,a name given to certain parasitic plants which were supposed to be nourished by the air alone1 without contact with the soil4 ,there are some species which will live many months suspended by a string in a warm apartment4 ,,alba1 ,,albus1 ,lat4 ,white4 ,,album1 ,,albi,,no4 ,spanish4 ,from the ,lat4 albus1 white4 ,applied to individuals of the human race1 7and extended also to some other animals71 who have white hair2 the iris1 pinkish or very pale2 and the eyes unable to bear much light4 ,albinos are most frequent in the negro race2 but it does not seem to be true that there are tribes of ,albinos in any part of the world4 ,,al,,bumen4 ,from the ,lat4 albus1 white4 ,a chemical term1 applied to an immediate organic principle1 which constitutes the chief part of the white of egg4 ,animal and vegetable albumen are nearly the same in composition4 ,,al,,caline4 ,having properties of an alkali4 ,,alchemi,,llas or ,,alchemi,,lla4 ,arabic4 ,a genus of plants of the family ,rosce4 ,the ,a4 vulgaris1 common ladies' mantle4 ,a,,lga4 ,lat4 ,sea-weed4 ,a,,lg4 ,plural of alga4 ,name of a sub-class of crytgamous plants1 which is subdivided into three families3 the ,phyce1 or submerged sea-weeds2 the ,lichens1 or emerged sea-weed1 and the ,byssace1 or amphibious sea-weeds4 ,the alg or sea-weeds are gamous plants which live in the air1 on the surface or at the bottom of fresh or salt water2 they are remarkable for their cellular or filamentous structure into which no vessels enter4 ,,alha,,gi4 ,arabic4 ,genus of plants of the family of ,legumins4 ,the alhagi maurorum grows in the deserts of ,egypt2 a sweet1 gummy substance exudes from the bark in form of small yellowish grains1 which1 it appears1 was the manna the ,hebrews ate while in the deserts of ,arabia ,petria4 ,,al,,kali or ,,al,,cali4 ,a chemical term formerly applied to potash and soda3 it now embraces the oxides of potassium1 sodium1 lithium1 barium1 strontium and calcium1 metals which decompose water at ordinary temperatures and absorb1 that is1 combine with its oxygen1 giving out heat and flame4 ,a,,loe4 ,name of a genus of plants which includes very many species4 ,the inspissated juice of several of these species constitutes the varieties of the medicine called ,soccotrine1 ,barbadoes aloes1 c4 ,,allu,,vial4 ,of the nature of alluvium4 ,,allu,,vion1 ,from the ,lat4 alluo1 ,i wash upon4 ,gravel1 ,,alluvium1 sand1 mud and other transported matter1 washed down by rivers and floods upon lands not permanently submerged beneath water4 ,a deposit formed of transported matter4 ,,alpi,,num1 ,lat4 ,alpine2 belonging or relating to the ,alps4 ,,alpi,,nus1 ,,alu,,minum or ,,alumi,,nium4 ,from alumen1 alum4 ,the mettaloid which forms the basis of alum2 of alumina or pure argil4 ,,amary,,llis4 ,from the ,gr4 amarusso1 to be resplendent4 ,a nymph in ancient mythology4 ,name of a genus of plants1 forming the type of the family of ,amaryllde1 composed of about sixty species4 ,generally they are bulbous plants1 remarkable for the size and beauty of their flowers4 ,,amblyrhi,,nchus4 ,from the ,gr4 amblus1 obtuse1 and rugchos1 snout4 ,name of a genus of iguanian reptiles4 ,a,,methyst4 ,from the ,gr4 amithustos1 not drunk4 ,the ancients gave this name to a stone in which the wine red colour was tempered with violet4 ,a violet variety of hyaline quartz4 ,,ammo,,nia4 ,a colourlous gas of a peculiar1 pungent odour4 ,it causes death when respired2 and its strong alcaline reaction distinguishes it from all other elastic fluids4 ,it is liberated from all its chemical combinations by the alkalis4 ,spirits of hartshorn is a solution of this gas4 ,,ammoni,,acal4 ,of the nature of ammonia4 ,,am,,monite4 ,from the ,lat4 ,ammon1 a name of ,jupiter4 ,a fossil so called from a supposed resemblance to the horns engraven on the heads of ,jupiter ,ammon4 ,in certain parts of ,england called snake-stones4 ,ammonites are fossil shells1 rolled upon the same plane1 consisting of a series of separate chambers1 like the nautilus4 ,,amor,,phous4 ,from the ,gr4 a1 privative1 and morphe1 form4 ,without definite or regular shape4 ,,ampe,,lid4 ,lat4 7ampelis71 name of a family of birds in the tribe of dentirstres4 ,,ampeli,,de4 ,from the ,gr4 ampelos1 a vine4 ,name of the family of ,phanergamous plants1 which includes the vine4 ,,amphi,,bious4 ,from the ,gr4 amphibios1 two-lived4 ,having the faculty of living in two elements4 ,,amphiu,,ma4 ,from the ,gr4 amphi1 both1 on all sides1 and uma1 that which has been moistened4 ,a genus of ,batrachians in which lungs but no bronchi exist through life4 ,amphiuma menopoma4 ,a kind of ,batrachian which resembles the ,salamander4 ,it is found in ,louisiana4 ,a,,mplitude4 ,in astronomy denotes the angular distance of a celestial body1 at the time it rises or sets1 from the east or west points of the horizon4 ,it is sometimes used to designate the horizontal distance a projectile reaches when thrown from a gun4 ,,amy,,ris4 ,from the ,gr4 amuros1 not perfumed4 ,a genus of phanergamous plants1 which is the type of the family of ,amyride which is allied to the family of turpentines4 ,amyris gileadensis4 ,the ,balm of ,gilead4 ,amyris kataf4 ,the myrrh tree4 ,amyris opobalsamum4 ,the opobalsam1 or balsam of ,mecca4 ,,ana,,nas4 ,portuguese4 ,pine-apple4 ,genus of the family ,bromelice1 and type of the tribe ,anance4 ,,andro,,meda4 ,mythological name of a constellation4 ,genus of the family ,ericce1 and type of the tribe ,andromde or ,andromedas4 ,,ange,,lica ,,archenge,,lica4 ,garden ,angelica4 ,root and seeds used in medicine as an aromatic stimulant4 ,,angui,,nus4 ,lat4 ,of the nature of a snake2 belonging or relating to a snake4 ,,ane,,roid ,,baro,,meter4 ,consists of a cylinder of copper with a very thin and corrugated end1 partially exhausted of air and hermetically sealed4 ,the effect of the varying pressure of the atmosphere on the thin end is magnified by a system of levers1 so as to affect the index of a dial like that of a watch or clock4 ,this is a ,french invention1 but was patented in ,england1 in the year #ahdd4 ,see ,barmeter4 ,,anima,,lcula4 ,lat4 ,animalcule4 ,,anima,,lcul4 ,lat4 plural of ,animlcula4 ,,anima,,lcule4 ,a diminutive animal4 ,a term used to designate animals so small that they cannot be seen by the unassisted eye4 ,,anisa,,tum4 ,,lat4 ,belonging or relating to aniseed4 ,specific name of the tree which produces star-aniseed4 ,,ano,,lis4 ,a kind of ,saurian1 called anoli in the ,antilles4 ,also called1 long-toed lizard1 or dactyloa4 ,,an,,nual4 ,from the ,lat4 annus1 a year4 ,yearly4 ,a plant which rises from the seed1 reaches perfection1 and perishes within a year1 is termed an annual4 ,,anta,,rctica4 ,lat4 ,antarctic4 ,,antelope ,,monta,,na4 ,mountain ,antelope4 ,a4 rupicapra4 ,chamois4 ,a4 cervicapra4 ,common antelope4 ,a4 dorcas4 ,gazelle4 ,a4 gazella4 ,algazel4 ,a4 mhorr4 ,mhorr4 ,a,,nther4 ,from the ,gr4 anthera1 a flowery herb4 ,in botany3 the essential part of the stamen4 ,the small yellowish body1 compared to a diminutive leaf folded on itself1 which crowns the stamen1 and in which the pollen is formed4 ,,antiquo,,rum4 ,lat4 ,of the ancients4 ,a,,phis4 ,gr4 ,a plant-louse2 a vine-fretter4 ,a,,phides4 ,plural of aphis4 ,,apocy,,ne4 ,from the ,gr4 apo1 far from1 and knon1 dog4 ,having the virtue of driving away dogs1 the plant which kills dogs4 ,botanical name of a family of plants of which the genus apocynum is the type4 ,a,,ptenody,,tes4 ,from the ,gr4 apten1 without wings1 and dutes1 diver4 ,a genus of birds4 ,aptenodytes patagonica4 ,a species of ,penguin4 ,a,,pteryx4 ,from the ,gr4 apteros1 without wings4 ,name of a genus of birds4 ,,aqueous ,,rocks4 ,are those formed by deposits from water4 ,,aquila4 ,lat4 ,an eagle4 ,aquila albicilla4 ,the fishing eagle4 ,,arauca,,ria4 ,from ,arauco4 ,name of a department or district of ,chile where the first species was seen4 ,name of a genus of the family of conifers4 ,araucaria excelsa4 ,the ,norfolk ,island pine4 ,,arbu,,tus4 ,lat4 ,a shrub4 ,a genus of plants4 ,,arctoce,,phalus4 ,from the ,gr4 arktos1 a bear1 kephale1 head4 ,name of a genus of mammals4 ,,arde,a4 ,lat4 ,a ,heron4 ,name of a genus of birds4 ,ardea helias4 ,the ,sun ,bird4 ,a,,rea ,,of ,,subsidence4 ,a geological expression used to designate a space which has settled4 ,,are,,ca4 ,cabbage-tree4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,palm4 ,areca catechu4 ,the medicinal or betel-nut palm4 ,,arena,,ceous4 ,from the ,lat4 arena1 sand4 ,sandy2 of the nature of sand4 ,,argen,,teum4 ,lat4 ,silvery2 relating to silver4 ,,argenti,,ferous4 ,from the ,lat4 argentum1 silver1 and fero1 ,i bear4 ,containing silver4 ,,argilla,,ceous4 ,from the ,lat4 argilla1 clay or argil4 ,of the nature of clay4 ,,argonau,,ta4 ,lat4 ,from the ,gr4 argo1 name of a vessel1 and nautes1 a navigator4 ,name of a genus of cephalopdous mollusks4 ,,armadi,,llo4 ,spanish4 ,diminutive of armado1 armed4 ,name of a mammal of the family of edentta or edentates4 ,,aroma,,ticus4 ,lat4 ,aromatic2 spicy4 ,,ar,,senic4 ,a metal of a shining1 steel gray colour4 ,heated in contact with atmospheric air1 it rapidly absorbs oxygen1 and forms arsenious acid1 which is the poison commonly called arsenic1 or rat's bane4 ,arsenic is found in its metallic state1 in the form oxide or arsenious acid1 or white arsenic2 and combined with sulphur1 forming orpiment1 and realgar4 ,,arteme,,si4 ,a tribe of plants1 of which the genus ,artemsia ,,artemesias4 is the type4 ,many of them are used in medicine4 ,,arte,,sian4 ,from ,artois1 name of a province of ,france where especial attention has been given to a means of obtaining water1 which consists in boring vertical perforations of small diameter in the exterior crust of the earth1 frequently of great depth4 ,these are termed ,artesian wells4 ,,articula,,ta4 ,lat4 ,from articulus1 a joint or articulation4 ,having joints or articulations4 ,,ascle,,pias4 ,a name of ,esculapius4 ,a genus of phanergamous plants4 ,asclepias gigantea4 ,mudar of the ,hindoos4 ,the milky juice is very caustic2 the bark of the root as well as the juice are used in medicine by the ,asiatics4 ,,asphalt4 ,from the ,gr4 a1 privative1 and sphalto1 ,,asphaltum4 ,i slip1 or asphaltos1 bitumen4 ,used anciently as a cement4 ,a black brittle bitumen1 found on the surface and banks of the ,dead ,sea1 hence called the ,asphaltic lake4 ,,asphode,,le4 ,name of a family of phanergamous plants4 ,,assi,,milate4 ,from the ,lat4 ad1 and similare1 to render similar4 ,assimilation is the act by which living bodies appropriate and transform into their own substance1 matters with which they may be placed in contact4 ,in man1 assimilation is a function of nutrition4 ,,asple,,niifo,,lia4 ,compound of asplenium1 a genus of ferns1 and folia1 leaves4 ,having leaves resembling those of the asplnium4 ,a,,ster4 ,from the ,gr4 aster1 a star4 ,a name given to the plant by the ,greeks in allusion to the radiate form of the flowers4 ,name of a genus of plants which forms the type of the asteroides or asters-- literally1 star-flowers4 ,,astra,,gali4 ,lat4 plural of ,astragalus4 ,,astra,,galus4 ,lat4 ,name of a genus of phanergamous plants of the family of legumins4 ,,atoll4 ,a chaplet or ring of coral1 enclosing a lagoon or portion of the ocean in its centre4 ,,aucu,,ba4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,rhamnoides4 ,there ,,auku,,ba4 is but one species1 which grows in ,japan4 ,aucuba ,japonica4 ,,auche,,nia4 ,from the ,gr4 auchenios1 belonging to the head or neck4 ,lat4 name of a genus of mammals1 the ,llama4 ,also1 a genus of colepterous insects4 ,,auri,,cula4 ,lat4 ,little ear4 ,a genus of phanergamous plants of the family of ,primulce4 ,,auri,,ferous4 ,from the ,lat4 aurum1 gold1 and fero1 ,i bear4 ,gold-bearing containing gold4 ,,aurochs4 ,an alteration of the ,german ,auerochs1 wild-bull4 ,their race is now almost extinct2 a few individuals are found in the forests of ,lithuania1 c4 ,,austra,,le4 ,lat4 ,belonging or relating to the south4 ,,austra,,lis4 ,,aza,l,a4 ,from the ,gr4 azalea1 burned4 ,a genus of phanergamous plants of the family of ,ericce4 ,,aze,,darach4 ,from the ,arab4 ,azadaracht1 a name given by ,avicenna to a plant4 ,,azote4 ,from the ,gr4 a1 privative and zoon1 ,,azotic ,,gas4 life4 ,the name given by chemists to a gas1 now also called nitrogen1 which will support neither respiration nor combustion4 ,it constitutes seventy-nine per cent4 of the atmosphere1 and enters into the composition of all animal matter1 except fatty substances1 and into a certain number of proximate vegetable principles4 ,,baccife,,rum4 ,lat4 ,compound of bacca1 a berry1 and fero1 ,i bear4 ,berry-bearing4 ,specific name of a plant4 ,,balance ,,of ,,torsion1 or ,,torsion ,,balance4 ,a machine invented by ,coulomb for measuring the intensities of electric or magnetic forces1 by establishing an equilibrium between them and the force of torsion4 ,,bal,,na4 ,lat4 ,a whale4 ,name of a genus of mammals1 belonging to the order ,cetcea4 ,balna mystecetus4 ,the common whale4 ,balnu gibbosa4 ,a kind of whale which has five or six protuberances on its back4 ,,ban,,ksia4 ,a genus of phanergamous plants of the family of ,protece4 ,,bao,,bab4 ,see ,adansonia4 ,,ba,,rium4 ,from the ,gr4 barus1 heavy4 ,a metal obtained from barytes by ,sir ,h4 ,davy4 ,,barometer4 ,from the ,gr4 baros1 weight1 and metron1 a measure4 ,an instrument for measuring the weight of atmospheric air4 ,,barometric4 ,belonging1 or relating to the barometer4 ,,barometrical4 ,,barringto,,nia4 ,a genus of phanergamous plants of the family of ,myrtce1 and the type of the tribe of ,barringtni4 ,,ba,,salt4 ,an ,ethiopian word4 ,a black or bluish gray rock1 harder than glass1 very tenacious1 and consequently difficult to break3 it is homogenous in appearance although essentially composed of pyroxene and feldspar1 with a large proportion of oxide of iron or titanium4 ,basalt is considered by all geologists to be a product of igneous formation4 ,,basa,,ltic4 ,belonging or relating to basalt4 ,,batra,,hcian4 ,from the ,gr4 batrachos1 a frog4 ,the name given by naturalists to those reptiles which resemble frogs in their organization4 ,batrahcians form the fourth order in the class of ,reptiles4 ,,beaufo,,rtia4 ,name of a genus of the family of ,myrtce1 named in honor of ,mary1 the ,duchess of ,beaufort1 who encouraged the study of ,botany4 ,,belem,,nites4 ,from the ,gr4 belemnon1 a dart4 ,a genus of fossil dibranchiate cephalopods1 the shells of which are chambered and perforated by a siphon1 but internal4 ,they are long1 straight and conical2 and commonly called 8thunder stones40 ,,benjami,,na4 ,lat4 ,benjamin4 ,a genus of plants2 also the specific name of a plant4 ,,berni,,cla4 ,generic name of a kind of goose1 having a short beak4 ,bernicla cyanaptera4 ,the goose of ,shoa4 ,,ber,,yl4 ,a mineral allied to the emerald4 ,it is transparent1 of a pale green colour1 and in ,brazil it is sometimes sold under the name of emerald4 ,,bete,l4 ,the leaf of the betel or ,siriboa pepper4 ,,be,,tula4 ,lat4 ,birch4 ,name of a genus of plants4 ,betula nana4 ,dwarf birch4 ,,betul,,ides4 ,from betula1 a birch-tree1 the ,gr4 eidos1 resemblance4 ,specific name of a plant4 ,,bigno,,nia4 ,a genus of plants named in honor of the ,abbey ,bignon1 the ,librarian of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,,bis,,muth4 ,from the ,germ4 ,wismuth4 ,a brittle1 yellowish white metal4 ,,bi,,tumen4 ,a combustible mineral1 composed of carbon1 hydrogen and oxygen4 ,,bixa ,,orleana4 ,a plant which produces a colouring matter1 called annotto4 ,,boa4 ,name of a genus of non-venemous reptiles4 ,,bohea4 ,specific name of a tea-plant4 ,,bombax4 ,from bombux1 one of the ,greek names of cotton4 ,a genus of plants of the family ,malvce4 ,bombax heptaphyllum4 ,a kind of cotton-tree4 ,bombax ceiba4 ,the cotton-wood tree1 much valued for making canoes4 ,,bonduc4 ,a synonym of the ,guilandina4 ,specific name of a plant4 ,,bora,,cic ,,acid4 ,an acid obtained from borax1 consisting of boron and oxygen4 ,,bora,,ssus4 ,from the ,gr4 borassos1 a date4 ,a genus of the family of ,palms4 ,borassus flabelliformus4 ,the fan-leaved palm4 ,,bo,,rate4 ,the salt resulting from a combination of boracic acid and a salifiable base1 as the borate of soda4 ,,bo,,rax4 ,tinkal4 ,a natural compound of soda and boracic acid4 ,,boron4 ,a simple or undecomposable substance1 the basis of boracic acid and borax4 ,,bori,,chthys4 ,from the ,fr4 borgne1 one-eyed or blind1 and the ,gr4 ichthus1 a fish4 ,,borragi,,ni4 ,name given by ,jussieu to a group of plants4 ,,borrer,,ia4 ,from ,borrera1 name of a man4 ,a genus of phanergamous plants of the family of ,rubice4 ,,boswe,,llia4 ,a genus named in honor of ,dr4 ,john ,boswell4 ,boswellia serrata4 ,the olibanum tree4 ,,botany4 ,from the ,gr4 botane1 plant4 ,the branch of natural history which embraces the knowledge and study of plants4 ,,botanic4 ,belonging or relating to botany4 ,,bos4 ,lat4 ,an ox4 ,a genus of ruminating mammals1 embracing several species4 ,bos aurus4 ,the ,urus4 ,bos caffer4 ,cape buffalo4 ,bos bubalus4 ,common buffalo4 ,bos ,americanus4 ,the ,bison4 ,bos moschatus4 ,the ,musk ox4 ,bos gruniens4 ,the ,yak4 ,,boulders1 or ,,bowlders4 ,rounded masses of stone lying upon the surface or loosely imbedded in the soil4 ,,boulder ,,formation1 or ,erratic block formation4 ,a geological term applied to a part of the diluvial drift4 ,see ,ruschenberger's ,natural ,history4 ,,brac,,te4 ,lat4 ,bracts4 ,floral leaves1 different in colour from other leaves4 ,,bras,,sica4 ,lat4 ,cabbage4 ,,breccia4 ,italian4 ,a rock composed of an agglutination of angular fragments4 ,when the fragments are rolled pebbles1 it constitutes a conglomerate rock1 called pudding stone4 ,,brevise,,tum4 ,lat4 ,brevis1 short1 and setum1 a bristle4 ,a specific name4 ,,brexia4 ,from the ,gr4 brexis1 rain3 in allusion to the protection from rain afforded by its ample foliage4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,brexice4 ,,bubo4 ,lat4 ,an owl4 ,a specific as well as generic name4 ,bubo maximus4 ,a kind of owl4 ,,bu,,fo4 ,lat4 ,a toad4 ,bufo ,agua4 ,a ,brazilian toad4 ,,bupha,,ga4 ,lat4 ,from the ,gr4 bous1 an ox1 and phago1 ,i eat4 ,a genus of birds1 which includes the ,african beef-eater4 ,,bursa4 ,lat4 ,a sack1 a purse or pouch4 ,,bu,,tea4 ,a genus of the family of ,papillionce1 named in honor of ,john1 ,count of ,bute1 a cultivator of botanic science4 ,butea frondosa yields a gum 7butea7 which has been confounded with ,kino4 ,,cac,,ti4 ,lat4 ,plural of cactus4 ,,cac,,tus4 ,from the ,gr4 kaktos1 spiny plant4 ,name of a genus of the family of ,cactce4 ,cactus coccinellifer4 ,the cochineal cactus4 ,cactus opuntia4 ,indian fig4 ,,caca,,lia4 ,name of a genus of phanergamous plants of the family of ,compsit4 ,several species are useful as condiments4 ,,cachalot1 or ,,cachelot4 ,fr4 ,name of the spermaceti whale4 ,used to designate a variety of the order of cetceans1 which has teeth in both jaws4 ,,coccine,,llifer4 ,from coccinella 7the diminutive of the ,lat4 coccinus1 crimson17 a genus of coleopterous insects1 and fero1 ,i bear4 ,a specific name4 ,,cad,,mium4 ,a white metal1 much like tin4 ,its ores are associated with those of zinc4 ,discovered in #ahah4 ,,ca,,ducous4 ,from the ,lat4 cado1 ,i fall4 ,in ,botany when a part is temporary1 and soon disappears or falls off1 it is said to be caducous4 ,c,,ci,,li4 ,from the ,lat4 ccus1 blind4 ,a tribe of ,batrachians4 ,c,,espito,,sa4 ,lat4 ,from cspes1 turf or sod4 ,belonging or relating to turf4 ,,cafeine4 ,fr4 ,in chemistry the name of the proximate principle of coffee4 ,,cajapute1 ,a ,malay name for a greenish1 volatile oil used as ,,cajaputa1 a remedy in rheumatism1 c4 ,,ca,,lamus4 ,a genus of phanergamous plants of the family of ,palms4 ,calamus draco4 ,an ,east ,indian plant which yields an astringent substance called ,dragon's blood4 ,calamus rotan ,the rattan plant4 ,,calca,,reous4 ,from the ,lat4 calx1 calcis1 lime4 ,belonging to or relating to lime4 ,calcareous rocks are those of which lime forms a principal part4 ,,calceola,,ria4 ,from the ,lat4 calceolus1 a little shoe4 ,a remarkable genus of phanergamous plants of the family of ,scrophularice4 ,,cal,,cium4 ,from the ,lat4 calx1 calcis1 lime4 ,a metal discovered by ,sir ,h4 ,davy in #ahjg1 which united with oxygen forms oxide of calcium or lime4 ,,callitri,,che4 ,from the ,gr4 kallithrix1 having luxuriant hair4 ,a genus of aquatic plants4 ,also the name of a genus of ,american monkeys4 ,,calo,,ric4 ,from the ,lat4 caleo1 ,i am warm4 ,the term used by chemists to designate the matter of heat4 ,,calori,,fic4 ,belonging or relating to caloric4 ,,calyca,,nthus4 ,from the ,gr4 kalux1 a calyx1 and anthos1 flower4 ,a genus of the family of ,calycanthce4 ,,calyp,,tomene4 ,from the ,gr4 kaluptos1 concealed1 and meno1 ,i remain4 ,name of a genus of birds4 ,,cam,,brian ,,system4 ,from ,cambria in ,wales4 ,a name given by geologists to the lowest sedimentary rocks1 characterized by fossil remains of animals1 lowest in the scale of organization1 such as corallines1 c4 ,it is also called the ,schistose system1 on account of its slaty nature4 ,,camel,,lia4 ,a genus of the family of ,aurantice1 named in honor of ,kamel1 a botanist4 ,it contains the tea plants4 ,camellia sasanqua4 ,lady ,bank's ,camellia4 ,camellia odorifera4 ,sweet smelling ,camellia4 ,,campa,,nula4 ,from the ,lat4 campana1 a bell1 from the shape of its corolla4 ,a genus of phanergamous plants of the family of ,campanulce1 of which it is the type4 #ahb species are described4 ,,camphor,,sma4 ,from the ,lat4 camphora1 camphor1 and the ,gr4 osme1 odour4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,chenopodce4 ,,campho,,ra4 ,lat4 ,camphor4 ,belonging or relating to camphor4 ,,canarie,,nsis4 ,lat4 ,belonging or relating to the ,canary islands4 ,,candela,,brum4 ,lat4 ,a candlestick4 ,,ca,,nine4 ,from the ,lat4 canis1 a dog4 ,teeth which resemble those of a dog are so called2 the canine teeth of the upper jaw in man are commonly called the eye-teeth4 ,,caou,,tchouc4 ,gum elastic2 ,india-rubber1 a substance obtained from the ,jatropha elastica1 the ,ficus indica and the ,urceola elastica4 ,,cape,,nsis4 ,lat4 ,belonging or relating to the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,,caraga,,na4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,papilionce4 ,,car,,bon4 ,from the ,lat4 carbo1 charcoal4 ,a chemical element or undecomposed body4 ,the diamond is pure carbon4 ,it is the basis of anthracite1 and of all the varieties of mineral coal1 and is one of the principal constituents of all organic bodies4 ,,carbo,,nic ,,acid4 ,a compound of carbon and oxygen4 ,,car,,bonate4 ,any compound of carbonic acid and a salifiable base1 as carbonate of lime1 carbonate of soda4 ,,carboni,,ferous4 ,from the ,lat4 carbo1 coal1 fero1 ,i bear1 coal-bearing2 containing carbon4 ,in geology the term is applied to those strata which contain coal1 and to the period when the coal measures were formed4 ,,cardamine4 ,gr4 ,name of a plant4 ,a genus of the family of crucfer4 ,lady's smock4 ,cardamine hirsuta4 ,hairy ,cardamine4 ,,cardui4 ,lat4 ,genitive case of carduus1 a thistle4 ,specific name of a butterfly4 ,,carni,,vora4 ,from the ,lat4 caro1 carnis1 flesh1 and voro1 ,i eat4 ,name of a family of ,mammals4 ,,cartila,,ginous ,,fishes4 ,a term used to designate that division of the class of fishes which includes only those having cartilaginous instead of bony skeletons4 ,,caryo,,phyllus4 ,lat4 ,a garden pink4 ,a genus of plants of the family of caryophylle4 ,caryophyllus aromaticus4 ,the clove-tree4 ,,caryo,,ta4 ,a genus of ,palms of equatorial ,asia4 ,the caryota urens derives its specific name from a burning sensation its fruit imparts when eaten4 ,,ca,,spia4 ,lat4 ,belonging or relating to the ,caspian ,sea4 ,,cas,,sia4 ,from the ,gr4 kassia1 cinnamon4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,papilionce4 ,the genus contains more than #cjj species4 ,,ca,,stanospe,,rrnum4 ,from the ,gr4 kastanon1 chestnut1 and sperma1 fruit4 ,a genus of the family of ,papilionce4 ,,casuari,n4 ,a family of plants separated from that of the cnifers4 ,the casuarin are found in ,new ,holland1 and in ,india1 and are remarkable for the absence of leaves4 ,,cata,,lpa4 ,a genus of plants of the family of the ,bignonice4 ,,cat,,echu4 ,an astringent extract1 used in medicine4 ,,cat',s ,,eye4 ,a beautiful silicious mineral1 penetrated by fibres of asbestos1 which1 when polished1 reflects an effulgent1 pearly light1 much resembling the mutable reflections from the eye of a cat4 ,,caule,,rpa4 ,from the ,gr4 kaulos1 a stem1 and erpo1 ,i creep4 ,a genus of alg of the family of ,zoosperme4 ,there are about #ce species of caulrpa1 which inhabit equatorial seas4 ,the caulerpa prolifera belongs to the ,mediterranean4 ,,ca,,via4 ,genus of mammals of the family of rodents1 including the guinea-pig4 ,,ce,,bus4 ,lat4 ,name of a genus of monkeys2 the marmoset4 ,,cecro,,pis4 ,a genus of birds4 ,,cedre,,la4 ,genus of plants of the family of ,cedrelce4 ,,cei,,ba4 ,synonym of ,bombax1 cotton4 ,specific name of a kind of cotton4 ,,centa,,urea4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,synanthre ,cyanre and type of the tribe of ,centarie4 ,,cerati,,tes4 ,from the ,gr4 keratetes1 horned4 ,a generic name of certain insects4 ,,cerato,,des4 ,from the ,gr4 keratodes1 formed of horns4 ,a genus of mollusks4 ,,cer,,eal4 ,from the ,lat4 ,ceres1 corn4 ,applied to grasses which produce the bread corns2 as wheat1 rye1 barley1 oats1 rice1 c4 ,,cerea,,lia4 ,lat4 ,name of a tribe of grasses4 ,,cereo,,psis4 ,from the ,gr4 keros1 wax1 and opsis1 aspect4 ,a genus of birds of the order of palmpedes and family of lamellirstres4 ,it is marked by a wax-like membrane on the beak4 ,cereopsis striata4 ,a kind of goose4 ,,ce,,rium4 ,named after the planet ,ceres4 ,a white brittle metal discovered in #ahjc1 by ,hisinger and ,berzelius4 ,,cer,,thia4 ,latin4 ,name of a genus of passerine birds1 commonly called creepers4 ,,cer,,vus4 ,latin4 ,a stag4 ,a genus of mammals4 ,,ceta,,cea4 ,from the ,gr4 ketos1 a whale4 ,a genus of pisciform mammals that have fins in place of feet1 and inhabit the sea4 ,name of an order of aquatic mammals4 ,,chalk4 ,earthy carbonate of lime4 ,,chambered ,,shells4 ,a term used to designate those shells of mollusks which are divided internally into cells or chambers by partitions4 ,,cham,,rops4 ,from the ,gr4 chamai1 on the ground1 and rops1 a brush4 ,name of a genus of palms4 ,chamrops humilis4 ,the dwarf fan palm4 ,,cheiro,,ptera4 ,from the ,gr4 cheir1 hand1 and pteron1 a wing2 signifying the hand has become a wing4 ,name of a family of mammals1 including the bats4 ,,cheiros,,temon4 ,from the ,gr4 cheir1 hand1 and stemon1 filament4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,sterculice1 and tribe of bombce4 ,,chelo,,nian4 ,from the ,gr4 chelone1 a tortoise4 ,applied to reptiles resembling tortoises4 ,,chel,,yd4 ,from the ,gr4 chelus1 a tortoise4 ,a tribe of reptiles of the family ,emydes4 ,,chlam,,yphore4 ,from the ,gr4 chlamus1 a cloak1 and phero1 ,i bear4 ,a genus of mammals of the tribe of armadillos4 ,,chlena,,ce4 ,from the ,gr4 chlaina1 a cloak4 ,a tribe of plants1 native in ,madagascar4 ,,chloa,,nthes4 ,from the ,gr4 chloros1 greenish yellow1 and anthos1 flower4 ,a genus of plants of the family of chloanthce4 ,,chlori,,tic4 ,from the ,gr4 chloros1 green4 ,belonging or relating to chlorite1 an earthy mineral found in the cavities of slate rocks4 ,,chrome1 ,,chro,,mium4 ,from the ,gr4 chroma1 colour4 ,a whitish brittle metal1 discovered by ,vauquelin in #agig4 ,in union with oxygen it forms chromic acid4 ,,cichora,,ce4 ,from the ,gr4 kichore1 chichory4 ,a tribe of plants of the family of ,compsit4 ,,ci,,rri4 ,plural of cirrus4 ,,ci,,rro-,,cumulus4 ,a sondercloud2 a kind of cloud4 ,the cirro-cumulus is intermediate between the cirrus and cumulus1 and is composed of small well defined masses closely arranged4 ,,ci,,rro-,,stratus4 ,a wanecloud4 ,the cirro-stratus1 intermediate between the cirrus and stratus1 consists of horizontal masses separated into groups1 with which the sky is sometimes so mottled as to suggest the idea of resemblance to the back of a mackerel4 ,,ci,,rrus4 ,lat4 ,a tendril4 ,a kind of cloud4 ,applied to certain appendages of animals2 as the beard from the end and sides of the mouth of certain fishes4 ,the cirrus cloud consists of fibres or curling streaks which diverge in all directions4 ,it occupies the highest region1 and is frequently the first cloud which is seen after a continuance of clear weather4 ,,ci,,stus4 ,a genus of plants of the family of cistce4 ,,cla,,rkia4 ,proper name4 ,a genus of plants of the tribe of epilbi4 ,,clay-,,slate4 ,a rock which resembles clay or shale1 but is generally distinguished by its structure2 the particles having been re-arranged1 and exhibiting what is called slaty cleavage4 ,it is one of the metamorphic rocks4 ,,clayto,,nia4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,portulce-calandrne4 ,,cleavage4 ,the mechanical division1 the lamin of rocks and minerals1 to show the constant direction in which they may be separated4 ,,clerode,,ndron4 ,from the ,gr4 kleros1 accident1 and dendron1 tree4 ,in allusion to its accidental effects in medicine4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,verbence-,lantne4 ,,coal ,,measures4 ,the geological formation in which coal is found4 ,,co,,balt4 ,from the ,germ4 kobold1 a devil1 ,a brittle metal of a reddish gray colour4 ,its ores are always associated with arsenic4 ,,cobra ,,capello4 ,portu4 cobra1 snake1 and capello1 a cawl or hood4 ,hood snake1 a venomous serpent4 ,,coca4 ,quechua or aboriginal ,peruvian word4 ,specific name of the genus ,erythrxylum4 ,,coccine,,lla4 ,from the ,gr4 kokkinos1 scarlet4 ,a genus of coleopterous insects3 commonly called ,lady birds4 ,,coc,,cus4 ,from the ,gr4 kokkos1 a seed which dyes scarlet4 ,a genus of insects of the order ,hemptera4 ,coccus lacca4 ,a species of cochineal insect4 ,coccus ilicus4 ,green oak cochineal4 ,,co,,cos4 ,gr4 ,a genus of palms2 the cocoanut4 ,cocos oleracia4 ,the oil cocoanut4 ,,codi,,um4 ,from the ,gr4 kodion1 a fleece4 ,a genus of plants of the tribe siphne4 ,codium bursa and ,codium flabelliforme are species4 ,,colo,,bus4 ,from the ,gr4 kolobos1 mutilated4 ,a genus of monkeys which belong to the old world4 ,colobus comosus4 ,a hairy monkey4 ,,colu,,briform4 ,from the ,lat4 coluber1 a serpent1 an adder1 and forma1 shape4 ,adder-shape4 ,,colum,,ba4 ,lat4 ,a pigeon4 ,a genus of birds4 ,columba migratoria4 ,wild pigeon4 ,,colum,,bium4 ,a metal discovered in a mineral found in ,massachusetts by ,mr4 ,hachett1 in #ahja4 ,,colu,,mnar4 ,in the form of columns4 ,,combu,,stion4 ,the combination of two bodies accompanied by the extrication of heat and light4 ,when a body rapidly combines with oxygen1 for example1 with a disengagement of heat and light1 it is said to undergo combustion4 ,,comparative ,,anatomy4 ,the comparative study of the various parts of the bodies of different animals4 ,,compo,,site4 ,a family of monopetalous plants4 ,,conductor4 ,those substances which possess the property of transferring caloric or heat1 and electricity1 are termed conductors of heat or caloric1 and conductors of electricity4 ,,confe,,rv4 ,tribe of plants of the family of ,zosprme4 ,it includes many sea-weeds4 ,,con,,gener4 ,from the ,lat4 con1 with1 and genus1 race4 ,species belonging to the same genus1 are termed congeners4 ,,conglo,,merate4 ,from the ,lat4 conglomero1 ,i heap together4 ,any rock composed of pebbles cemented together by another mineral substance1 either calcareous1 silicious or argillaceous4 ,,co,,nifer4 ,from the ,lat4 conus1 a cone1 and fero1 ,i bear4 ,a tree or plant which bears cones1 such as pines1 fir-trees1 c4 ,,coni,,fer4 ,a family of plants which includes the conifers4 ,,co,,ral4 ,from the ,gr4 koreo1 ,i ornament1 and als1 the sea4 ,the hard calcareous support formed by certain polypi4 ,,cora,,lline4 ,belonging or relating to coral4 ,,coralli,,ne4 ,the corallines1 a tribe of calciferous polypi4 ,,coreo,,psis4 ,from the ,gr4 koris1 a bug1 and opsis1 aspect4 ,a genus of plants4 ,,cor,,dia4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,cordice4 ,it contains about #aej species4 ,,coria,,ceous4 ,from the ,lat4 corium1 the hide of a beast4 ,leathery4 ,,coro,,na4 ,lat4 ,a crown4 ,a genus of plants4 ,,coro,n4 ,plural of corona4 ,,coru,,ndum4 ,a crystallized or massive mineral of extreme hardness1 almost opaque1 and of a reddish colour4 ,it is allied to the sapphire1 and is composed of nearly pure almina4 ,,cot,,tus4 ,a genus of fishes4 ,,coty,,ledon4 ,from the ,gr4 katuledon1 a seed-lobe4 ,,cotyle,,donous4 ,belonging or relating to a cotyledon or seed lobe4 ,,cra,,ter4 ,lat4 ,a great cup or bowl4 ,the mouth of a volcano4 ,,crate,,riform4 ,in form of a crater4 ,,crateri,,ferous4 ,containing craters4 ,,creta,,ceous4 ,from the ,lat4 creta1 chalk4 ,of the nature of chalk1 relating to chalk4 ,,crinoi,,de4 ,from the ,gr4 krinon1 a lily1 and eidos1 resemblance4 ,a family of radiate animals4 ,,crop ,,out4 ,when a rock1 in place1 emerges on the surface of the earth1 it is said to crop out4 ,,cro,,ton4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,euphorbice4 ,,crucife,r4 ,from the ,lat4 crux1 crucis1 a cross1 and fero1 ,i bear4 ,a family of plants which have flowers in form of a ,maltese cross4 ,,cru,,ciform4 ,in shape of a cross4 ,,crusta,,cea4 ,from the ,lat4 crusta1 a crust4 ,a class of articulated animals4 ,,crusta,,cean4 ,an animal of the class of crustacea2 a crab4 ,,cryptoga,,mia4 ,from the ,gr4 kruptos1 concealed1 and gamos1 marriage4 ,a class of plants1 which are propagated without apparent seeds4 ,,cryto,,gamous4 ,belonging or relating to crytogmia4 ,,crypto,,nyx4 ,from the ,gr4 kruptos1 concealed1 and onux1 a nail4 ,a genus of birds2 also1 a genus of insects4 ,,cryst,,al4 ,from the ,gr4 krustallos1 ice4 ,this term was originally applied to those beautiful transparent varieties of silica or quartz known under the name of rock-crystal4 ,when substances pass from the fluid to the solid state1 they frequently assume those regular forms which are generally termed crystals4 ,a crystal is any inorganic solid of homogeneous structure1 bounded by natural planes and right lines1 symmetrically arranged4 ,,crys,,talline4 ,relating to1 or resembling crystals4 ,,crystalliza,,tion4 ,the process by which crystals are formed4 ,,cucife,,ra ,,thebai,,ca4 ,a palm of ,egypt which grows to the height of #bj feet4 ,also known as the genus ,hyphne1 from the ,gr4 ,huphaino1 ,i entwine4 ,a fan-leaf palm of the tribe of ,borassne4 ,,cu,,culus4 ,lat4 ,a cuckoo4 ,a genus of passerine birds4 ,,cu,,lex4 ,lat4 ,a gnat4 ,a genus of insects of the family of ,diptera1 and type of the tribe of ,culcides3 culex pipiens1 the common gnat4 ,,cu,,muli4 ,plural of cumulus4 ,,cu,,mulo-,,stra,,tus4 ,twain cloud3 it partakes of the appearance of the cumulus and stratus4 ,,cu,,mulus4 ,a form of cloud4 ,a convex aggregate of watery particles1 increasing upwards from a horizontal base1 and assuming more or less of a conical figure4 ,,cur,,videns4 ,lat4 ,curvus1 bent1 and dens1 tooth4 ,having a bent tooth4 ,,cuspa,,ria4 ,a genus of plants1 named after the tree which yields the ,angustura bark4 ,,cyanap,,tera4 ,from the ,gr4 kuanos1 blue1 and pteron1 wing4 ,a specific name4 ,,cyaneroi,,des4 ,from the ,gr4 kuanos1 blue1 and eidos1 resemblance4 ,a family of medus4 ,,cy,,cas4 ,a genus of plants1 the type of the family cycde4 ,cycas revoluta4 ,narrow-leaved cycas4 ,,cyca,,de4 ,a family of plants allied to the cnifers4 ,,cycada,,ceous4 ,belonging or relating to the cycde4 ,,cy,,clas4 ,from the ,gr4 kuklos1 a circle4 ,a genus of gasteropods4 ,,cygnus4 ,lat4 ,a swan4 ,a genus of birds4 ,cygnus musicus4 ,the whistling swan4 ,,cynoce,,phalus4 ,from the ,gr4 kuon1 a dog1 and kephale1 head4 ,a genus of mammals4 ,dog headed monkey or baboon4 ,,cypera,,ce4 ,name of a family of herbaceous plants4 ,,cyp,r,a4 ,from the ,gr4 kupris1 ,venus4 ,a cowry4 ,a genus of mollusks4 ,cypra moneta4 ,the money cowry4 ,,cypri,,nid4 ,from the ,gr4 kuprinos1 a carp4 ,name of a family of fishes4 ,,cystosei,,ri4 ,from the ,gr4 kustis1 a vesicle1 and seira1 a chain4 ,a tribe of sea-weeds4 ,,dac,,tylis4 ,from the ,gr4 daktulos1 a finger4 ,a genus of the family of ,gramne4 ,dactylis cspitosa4 ,tussock grass4 ,,dahlia4 ,after ,dahl1 a ,swedish botanist4 ,genus of plants of the family of ,compsit4 ,,dalbe,,rgia4 ,after ,dalberg1 a ,swedish botanist4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,papilionce1 and of the tribe of ,dalbergi4 ,,daman4 ,alteration of the ,arabic word ,ghannem1 the name of an animal4 ,specific name of a mammal4 ,,danais4 ,genus of plants of the family of ,rubice4 ,,daph,,ne4 ,a genus of plants of the family ,daphnce4 ,,darwi,,nii4 ,the name of ,darwin latinized4 ,belonging or relating to ,darwin4 ,,dasy,,urid4 ,from the ,gr4 dasus1 thick1 hairy1 and oura1 tail4 ,a family of mammals4 ,,debris4 ,fr4 ,wreck1 ruins1 remains4 ,in geology the term is applied to large fragments1 to distinguish them from detritus1 or those which are pulverized4 ,,deci,,duous4 ,from the ,lat4 decido1 ,i fall off4 ,applied to plants whose leaves fall off in autumn1 to distinguish them from evergreens4 ,,dec,,lination of any celestial body1 is the angular distance of the body1 north or south1 from the equator4 ,,deinothe,,rium4 ,from the ,gr4 deinos1 terrible1 and thereion1 wild beast4 ,a genus of fossil pachyderms4 ,,delesse,,ri4 ,proper name4 ,tribe of plants of the family of ,floride4 ,,delphi,,nus4 ,lat4 ,dolphin4 ,a genus of aquatic mammals4 ,,del,,ta4 ,the ,gr4 letter 4 ,the triangular deposits1 shoals or islands1 at the mouths of rivers are called deltas4 ,,del,,toid4 ,from the ,gr4 letter and eidos1 resemblance4 ,resembling the letter delta4 ,,denuda,,tion4 ,from the ,lat4 denudo1 ,i strip4 ,a removal of a part of the land1 so as to lay bare the inferior strata4 ,,deoda,r4 ,a kind of pine tree4 ,,de,,position4 ,from the ,lat4 depono1 ,i let fall4 ,in geology the falling to the bottom of matters suspended or dissolved in water4 ,,devonian ,,system4 ,so called because it is largely developed in ,devonshire1 ,england4 ,it is synonymous with the old red sand formation4 ,it is composed at first of pudding stone1 and then passes into sandstone1 with which it alternates at different places4 ,,de,,tinens4 ,lat4 ,detaining2 that which has the power to detain4 ,,de,,tritus4 ,a geological term applied to deposits composed of various substances which have been comminuted by attrition4 ,the larger fragments are usually termed debris2 those which are pulverized1 as it were1 constitute detritus4 ,sand is the detritus of silicious rocks4 ,,diamagnetic4 ,if a bar of iron be suspended between the poles of an electro-magnet1 it will be attracted by both poles on the line of force4 ,but if a bar of bismuth be suspended in the same manner1 it will be repelled by both poles1 and rest at right angles to the line of force4 ,substances which are attracted by both poles of an electro-magnet are said to be magnetic1 and those which are repelled by both poles are termed diamagnetic4 ,,dichoto,,ma1 ,from the ,gr4 dicha1 divided1 and tomos1 ,,dichoto,,mu1 section4 ,in zoology this term is applied to a species ,,dichoto,,mus1 of the genus ,iris1 the body of which is bifurcate4 ,in botany it is applied to the stem1 branches1 peduncles1 leaves1 hairs1 styles1 c41 when they are bifurcated in form4 ,,dicoty,,ledon4 ,from the ,gr4 dis1 two1 and kotuledon1 seed lobe4 ,a double seed lobe4 ,,dicotyle,,donous4 ,relating to dicotyledon2 having a double seed lobe4 ,,didel,,phous4 ,from the ,gr4 dis1 double1 and delphus1 womb4 ,applied to opossums and other marsupial mammals4 ,,didel,,phis4 ,a genus of marsupial mammals4 ,,didel,,phid4 ,a tribe of marsupial mammals4 ,,digita,,ta4 ,lat4 ,digitate2 spread out like the fingers4 ,,dino,,rnis4 ,from the ,gr4 deinos1 great1 terrible1 and ornis1 a bird4 ,a genus of fossil1 or extinct birds4 ,,dio,,tis4 ,from the ,gr4 ditos1 having two ears3 referring to the flower4 ,a genus of plants of the family of helianthce4 ,,dislocation4 ,displacement4 ,in geology where strata or veins have been displaced from the position where first deposited or formed1 they are said to be dislocated4 ,,di,,sa4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,orchide4 ,disa grandiflora4 ,large-flowered ,disa4 ,,dio,,sma4 ,from the ,gr4 dios1 divine1 and osme1 smell4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,diosme4 ,,dillenia,,ce4 ,proper name4 ,a family of plants4 ,,dion,a4 ,one of the names of ,venus4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,drosercea4 ,diona muscipula4 ,venus' ,fly-trap4 ,,dip,,teryx4 ,from the ,gr4 dis1 double1 and pterux1 a wing1 in allusion to the two appendages of the calyx4 ,tonquin ,bean4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,legumins4 ,dipteryx odorata4 ,sweet-scented ,tonquin ,bean4 ,,dic,,tyota4 ,from the ,gr4 dictuon1 a net4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,phyce1 and tribe of dictyte4 ,,dictyo,,nema4 ,from the ,gr4 dictuon1 a net1 and nema1 a filament4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,phyce4 ,,dip4 ,in geology direction of the inclination of strata4 8,to take a dip10 is to measure the degree that a stratum inclines or dips from a horizontal line4 ,,dis,,integrate4 ,from the ,lat4 de1 privative1 and integer1 a whole4 ,to separate or break up an aggregate into parts4 ,,do,,lomite4 ,magnesian marble1 or granular magnesian carbonate of lime4 ,named after ,dolomieu4 ,,dombe,,ya4 ,in honor of ,joseph ,dombey4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,byttnericea3 it is found in ,madagascar and the ,isle of ,bourbon4 ,,dorsige,,ra4 ,lat4 ,from dorsum1 the back1 a ridge1 and gero1 ,i carry or wear4 ,a specific name4 ,,dorya,,nthes4 ,from the ,gr4 doru1 doratos1 a lance1 and anthesis1 a flowering4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,amaryllidce4 ,,draba4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,crucifer4 ,,drac,,na4 ,lat4 ,a genus of ,saurians4 ,,drac,n4 ,plural of ,dracna4 ,,dryoba,,lanops4 ,from the ,gr4 drus1 os1 an oak1 balanos1 an acorn1 and ops1 aspect4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,dipterocrpe4 ,dryobalanos camphora4 ,the camphor tree of ,sumatra4 ,,dyna,,mic4 ,from the ,gr4 dunamis1 power1 force4 ,belonging or relating to dynamics4 ,,dynamics4 ,the doctrine of forces as exhibited in moving bodies which are at liberty to obey the impulses communicated to them4 ,the motions of celestial bodies in their orbits1 or of a stone falling freely through the air1 are embraced in the study of dynamics4 ,,di,,dymium4 ,a metal discovered recently by ,mosander4 ,,earths4 ,formerly chemists1 believing them to be simple bodies1 included the following substances under the name of earths3 ,baryta1 ,strontia1 ,lime1 ,magnesia1 ,alumina or clay1 ,silica1 ,glucina1 ,zirconia1 and ,yttria4 ,research has shown that all have metallic or metalloid bases4 ,,echid,,na4 ,greek name of a monster1 supposed to have the body of a beautiful woman1 and the tail of a serpent4 ,a genus of mammals of the family of ,monotrema4 ,e,,chimys4 ,from the ,gr4 echinos1 spiny1 and mus1 a rat4 ,a genus of mammals2 a sort of rat found in ,south ,america4 ,,ecliptic4 ,in ,astronomy the great circle of the heavens which the sun appears to describe in his annual revolution4 ,,edenta,,ta4 ,from the ,lat4 e1 without1 and dens1 tooth3 without teeth4 ,an order of mammals which are destitute of teeth4 ,e,,dulis4 ,lat4 ,eatable2 that which may be eaten4 ,,efflore,,scence4 ,the pulverulent covering formed on the surface of saline substances from which the atmosphere has removed the water of crystallization4 ,when saline substances give up their water of crystalization to the air1 they are said to effloresce4 ,,elais4 ,from the ,gr4 elaia1 the olive4 ,a genus of plants ,,el,,is4 of the family of ,palms4 ,the ,elais ,guineaensis yields the ,palm oil4 ,,elaps4 ,gr4 ,name of a serpent4 ,a genus of ophidians4 ,,electricity4 ,from the ,gr4 elektron1 amber1 the substance in which it was first observed4 ,the property acquired by glass and resin from friction to attract light substances4 ,electricity exists in all bodies1 and becomes manifest1 at least partially1 whenever the natural state of equilibrium of their molecules is disturbed by any cause4 ,,electro-,,magnetism4 ,the phenomena produced when a current of electricity is traversing any substance1 or when electricity is in motion1 magnetism is at the same time developed4 ,,electro-,,magnet4 ,an apparatus for exhibiting the phenomena of electro-magnetism4 ,,elec,,tricus4 ,lat4 ,electric4 ,belonging to1 or relating to electricity4 ,,ellip,,tica4 ,lat4 ,elliptic4 ,e,,lephas4 ,lat4 ,gr4 name of the elephant4 ,a genus of mammals of the order of pachydemus4 ,,elephanti,,na4 ,lat4 ,belonging or relating to an elephant2 elephantine4 ,,em,,bryo4 ,from the ,gr4 embruon1 from1 bru ,i bud forth4 ,a germ at the early stages of development4 ,e,,merald4 ,a mineral of a beautiful green colour1 much valued for ornamental jewelry4 ,it consists of silica1 alumina1 glucina1 oxide of chromium1 which is the colouring matter1 and a trace of lime4 ,e,,mys4 ,lat4 ,from the ,gr4 emus1 a water tortoise4 ,a genus of reptiles of the family of emydians4 ,,emy,,dians4 ,a family of reptiles of the order of ,chelnia4 ,,encri,,nites4 ,from the ,gr4 krinon1 a lily4 ,a genus of fossil ,echinoderms4 ,the skeleton of this animal is said to consist of not less than #bf1jjj separate pieces4 ,e,,oce,,ne4 ,from the ,gr4 es1 dawn1 and kainos1 recent4 ,in geology a name for the older tertiary formation1 in which the first dawn1 as it were1 of existing species1 appear4 ,,epacri,,de4 ,from the ,gr4 epi1 upon1 and akros1 an elevated place1 a hill4 ,a family of plants4 ,,ep,,iphyte4 ,from the ,gr4 epi1 upon1 and phutos1 a plant4 ,applied to plants which grow upon other plants4 ,,equinoctia,,lis4 ,lat4 ,equinoctial4 ,,equise,,tum4 ,from the ,lat equus1 a horse1 and seta1 hair4 ,a genus of plants of the family of equisitce4 ,,equus4 ,lat4 ,a horse4 ,a genus of mammals4 ,,er,,bium4 ,a metal1 recently discovered4 ,,erica4 ,a genus of plants of which there are #dbi species4 ,,eri,,ocaulon4 ,from the ,gr4 erion1 wool1 and kaulon1 stem or stalk4 ,a genus of plants of the family of eriocaulne4 ,,erythri,,na4 ,from the ,gr4 eruthros1 red4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,papilionce4 ,,erythrox,,ylon4 ,from the ,gr4 eruthros1 red1 and xulon1 wood4 ,a genus of plants4 ,,escarpment4 ,from the ,ital4 scarpa1 sharp1 formed from the ,lat4 carpere1 to cut4 ,the steep face often presented by the abrupt termination of strata where subjacent beds crop out from beneath them4 ,,esculenta4 ,lat4 ,esculent4 ,,eucaly,,pti4 ,lat4 ,plural of eucalyptus4 ,,eucaly,,ptus4 ,from the ,gr4 eu1 well1 and kaluptos1 covered4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,myrtce4 ,,eupho,,rbia4 ,gr4 ,name of a plant4 ,a genus of plants of which there are #cjj species4 ,,exce,,lsa4 ,lat4 ,noble1 tall1 stately4 ,,exco,,rtica4 ,lat4 ,without bark4 ,,ex,,ogenous4 ,from the ,gr4 ex1 from1 and geinomai1 ,i grow4 ,applied to plants which grow by successive external additions to their wood4 ,,extensile4 ,having the power to extend itself4 ,,exu,,vi4 ,lat4 ,the sloughs or cast skins1 or cast shells of animals4 ,,fa,,gus4 ,lat4 ,beech4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,amentce4 ,,falco4 ,lat4 ,falcon4 ,a genus of birds4 ,falco islandicus4 ,the ,gerfalcon4 ,,family4 ,in natural history the term is applied to an assemblage of several genera which resemble each other in many respects4 ,,far,,ina4 ,lat4 ,meal4 ,,far,,inha4 ,portu4 ,meal1 flour4 ,,farino,,sa4 ,lat4 ,meally2 belonging or relating to meal4 ,,fauna4 ,all animals of all kinds peculiar to a country constitute the fauna of that country4 ,,felis4 ,lat1 ,a cat4 ,a genus of mammals of the family of carnivra4 ,felis irbis4 ,the panther4 ,,fenestra,,lis4 ,lat4 ,belonging or relating to a window or opening4 ,,fer,,bium4 ,a recently discovered metal4 ,,ferns4 ,the filices2 an order of cryptogmic plants4 ,,fi,,cus4 ,lat4 ,a fig4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,morce4 ,,ficoide4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,mesembryantheme1 of which there are about #bjj species4 ,,ficoides4 ,the family of ,mesembrynthme4 ,ficoides ,,ficoide4 is applied as a specific name4 ,,flacour,,tia4 ,proper name4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,flacourtice4 ,,flabel,,liforme4 ,from the ,lat4 flabellum1 a fan1 and forma1 form4 ,fan-shaped4 ,,flora4 ,lat4 ,name of the ,goddess of ,flowers4 ,all the plants of all kinds belonging to a country constitute the flora of that country4 ,,flo,,rida4 ,belonging or relating to flowers2 or relating to the ,state of ,florida4 ,,foci4 ,lat4 ,plural of focus4 ,,focus4 ,lat4 ,a hearth4 ,in optics the term describes the point or space where the rays of light are concentrated by a lens4 ,the apex of a cone of rays of light1 or of heat1 formed by a lens1 or concave mirror4 ,,folia,,ceous4 ,from the ,lat4 folium1 a leaf4 ,leafy4 ,having the form of leaves4 ,,footstalks4 ,in botany the stalks of flowers1 or of leaves4 ,,fossil4 ,from the ,lat4 fodio1 ,i dig4 ,any organic body1 or the traces of any organic body1 whether animal or vegetable1 which has been buried in the earth by natural causes4 ,,fossili,,ferous4 ,contain fossils4 ,,formi,,cid4 ,from the ,lat4 formica1 an ant1 and the ,gr4 eidos1 resemblance4 ,a family of insects of the family of ,hymenptera4 ,,frond4 ,also1 frons4 ,a name applied to the leaves of palms1 and of cryptgamous plants4 ,,frondo,,sa4 ,lat4 ,full of green leaves4 ,,fra,,grans4 ,lat4 ,fragrant2 odorous4 ,,fra,,gilis4 ,lat4 ,fragile2 easily broken4 ,,fringi,,ll4 ,lat4 fringilla1 a chafinch4 ,a family of birds1 the most numerous of the group of conirostres1 or thick billed birds4 ,,fucca4 ,name of a genus of aquatic plants4 ,,fuci4 ,lat4 ,plural of fucus4 ,,fucus4 ,lat4 ,sea-weed4 ,a genus of aquatic plants4 ,,fuchsia4 ,after ,leonard ,fuchs1 a physician of the #afth century4 ,a genus of plants4 ,,function4 ,from the ,lat4 fungor1 ,i act4 ,the action of an organ1 or system of organs4 ,,fungi4 ,lat4 ,plural of fungus4 ,,fungus4 ,lat4 ,a mushroom4 ,,fune,,reus4 ,lat4 ,funeral3 belonging to a dead body4 ,,ga,,dus4 ,lat4 ,a codfish4 ,,gallina,,ceous4 ,from the ,lat4 gallena1 a hen4 ,relating to birds of the order of ,gallince4 ,,gale,,na4 ,from the ,gr4 galene1 lead ore4 ,a mineral composed of sulphur and lead3 a natural sulphuret of lead4 ,,gal,,vanism4 ,from ,galvani1 a distinguished ,italian philosopher4 ,that branch of electrical science in which electricity is made manifest by the mediate contact of different metals4 ,also1 the phenomena exhibited by living animal matter when placed between the poles or extremities of an apparatus for showing electricity by the mediate contact of different metals4 ,,galva,,nic4 ,belonging or relating to galvanism4 ,,gangea,,ticus4 ,lat4 ,gangeatic2 belonging or relating to the river ,ganges4 ,,garde,,nia4 ,after a proper name4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,rubice2 it contains some forty species4 ,the ,gardenia grandiflora is the ,cape ,jasmin4 ,,gar,,net4 ,a mineral consisting of silicates of alumina1 lime1 iron1 and manganese4 ,it occurs imbedded in mica-slate1 granite1 and gneiss1 and occasionally in limestone1 chlorite-slate1 serpentine1 and lava4 ,there are several varieties of garnet4 ,,gas4 ,from the ,germ4 geist1 spirit4 ,the name given to all permanently elastic fluids1 or airs1 different from the atmospheric air4 ,,gaseous4 ,of the nature of gas4 ,,genre4 ,fr4 ,genus1 kind1 manner1 style4 ,in painting it is applied to signify the representation of certain kinds of objects1 as landscapes1 views1 animals1 plants1 flowers1 scenes in common life4 ,pictures of genre1 then1 are pictures of a genus or kind as to subject2 as landscapes1 marine views1 flower pieces1 still-life1 c4 ,,ge,,nera4 ,lat4 ,plural of genus4 ,,genus4 ,lat4 ,a kindred1 breed1 race or family4 ,,ge,,ology4 ,from the ,gr4 ge1 the earth1 and logos1 discourse4 ,that branch of natural history which treats of the structure of the terrestrial globe4 ,it is divided into descriptive geology2 dynamic geology1 which treats of the forces by which the surface of the earth has been modified2 practical and economic geology1 embracing the application of geological science to mining1 road-making1 architecture1 and agriculture4 ,,geother,,mal4 ,from the ,gr4 ge1 the earth1 and thermos1 heat1 temperature4 ,relating to the temperature of the earth4 ,,gera,,rdia4 ,proper name4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,scrophulrie4 ,,germina,,tion4 ,the process of the development of the seed1 and the embryo which it contains4 ,,gey,,sers4 ,from an ,icelandic word1 signifying raging or roaring4 ,celebrated spouting fountains of boiling water in ,iceland4 ,,gibbosa4 ,lat4 ,gibbous2 having protuberances or bunches4 ,,gibralta,,rica4 ,lat4 ,belonging or relating to ,gibraltar4 ,,gigan,,tea4 ,lat4 ,gigantic1 huge4 ,,gigan,,teus4 ,,gileade,,nsis4 ,lat4 ,belonging or relating to ,gilead4 ,,gla,,cial4 ,belonging or relating to ice4 ,,gla,,ciers4 ,fr4 ,masses or beds of ice formed in high mountains1 derived from the snows or lakes frozen by the continued cold of those regions4 ,,gladio,,lus4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,iride4 ,,gland4 ,an organ formed for the purpose of secreting a peculiar fluid4 ,,glau,,cous4 ,from the ,gr4 glaukos1 blue4 ,applied to the bluish and pulverulent aspect which certain plants present1 such as the leaves of cabbages1 c4 ,also used to signify the bloom of the color of cabbage leaves1 sometimes observed on polished bodies4 ,,gledi,,tschia4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,legumins1 named in honor of ,j4 ,g4 ,gleditsch1 a ,german botanist4 ,it includes the ,honey and ,swamp locust trees among its species4 ,,globba,,ria4 ,from the ,lat4 globum1 a ball4 ,a genus of insects3 also a specific name4 ,,gluci,,num4 ,a metal discovered in glucina in #agih by ,vauquelin4 ,,glu,,ten4 ,lat4 ,the viscid elastic substance which remains when wheat flour is wrapped in a coarse cloth1 and washed under a stream of water1 so as to carry off the starch and soluble matters4 ,it exists in many plants and in animals4 ,it is the basis of glue4 ,,glyce,,ria4 ,a genus of plants of the family of gramine1 and the tribe ,festucce4 ,,gly,,cine4 ,from the ,gr4 glukus1 sweet4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,papilionce4 ,,gnapha,,lium4 ,from the ,gr4 gnaphalion1 the cotton tree4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,composit4 ,,gneiss4 ,germ4 ,a rock resembling granite4 ,it is composed chiefly of feldspar and mica1 and is more or less slaty in its structure4 ,gneiss is used for building and flagging4 ,,gold4 ,the most valuable and longest known of the metals4 ,,goode,,nia4 ,proper name4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,goodenice4 ,,gordo,,nia4 ,proper name4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,gordonie4 ,,grandiflora4 ,lat4 ,large-flowered4 ,,grami,,ne4 ,lat4 ,grasses4 ,a family of monocotyldonous plants1 containing about #cjjj species4 ,,granivorous4 ,applied to animals which feed upon grains1 ,,granivora4 especially to passerine birds4 ,,gr,,ca4 ,lat4 ,greek4 ,,gra,,nular4 ,composed of grains4 ,,granite4 ,a rock which is a crystaline aggregate of quartz1 feldspar1 and mica4 ,,granitic4 ,of the nature of granite4 ,,greenstone4 ,a rough variety of trap-rock1 consisting chiefly of hornblende4 ,,grit4 ,a coarse-grained sandstone4 ,,guilandi,,na4 ,a proper name4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,legumins4 ,guilandina ,bonduc1 the oval-leaved ,nicker-tree4 ,,guineaen,,sis4 ,lat4 ,belonging or relating to ,guinea4 ,,gum4 ,a vegetable product1 which is tasteless and inodorous1 and is distinguished by being soluble in water1 and insoluble in alcohol4 ,gum arabic1 for example4 ,,gymno,,tus4 ,from the ,gr4 gumnos1 naked1 and ntos1 back4 ,a genus of fishes4 ,,gypsum4 ,native sulphate of lime4 ,it is converted into plaster of ,paris by heat4 ,,gyro,,phora4 ,from the ,gr4 guros1 a circle1 and pher1 ,i give4 ,a genus of cryptgamous plants4 ,,habitat4 ,lat4 ,he inhabits4 ,used to designate the place in which animals and plants are naturally found4 ,,halio,,tis4 ,from the ,gr4 als1 the sea1 and ous1 the ear4 ,a genus of mollusks4 ,,ha,,lcyon4 ,from the ,gr4 alkuon1 a king-fisher4 ,a genus of birds4 ,,helia,,nthus4 ,from the ,gr4 elios1 the sun1 and anthos1 flower2 sunflower4 ,,heli,,acal4 ,from the ,gr4 elios1 the sun4 ,relating to the sun4 ,when a star rises so as to be visible in morning twilight before the appearance of the sun1 it is said to rise heliacally4 ,,hep,,taphyllum4 ,from the ,gr4 epta1 seven1 and phulon1 a leaf4 ,seven-leaved4 ,a specific name4 ,,herba,,ceous4 ,in botany1 ,herb-like2 that perishes every year4 ,an annual stem4 ,not woody4 ,,herbivo,,ra4 ,lat4 ,herbivorous4 ,,herbivo,,rous4 ,from the ,lat4 herba1 a plant1 and vorare1 to eat4 ,plant eating4 ,applied to animals which feed chiefly or exclusively on plants or herbs4 ,,heritie,,ra4 ,proper name4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,sterculice4 ,,hibernate4 ,from the ,lat4 hibernare1 to winter4 ,animals which retire and sleep throughout the winter1 are said to hibernate4 ,,hibi,,scus4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,malvce4 ,,hieroch,,loa4 ,from the ,gr4 ieros1 sacred1 and chloa1 herb4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,gramine4 ,,hippopo,,tamus4 ,from the ,gr4 ippos1 a horse1 and potamos1 river4 ,river ,horse4 ,a genus of mammals4 ,,hirsu,,ta4 ,lat4 ,hirsute2 covered with soft hairs4 ,,hol,,cus4 ,a genus of plants of the family ,gramine4 ,,hopea1 or ,,hoppea4 ,proper name4 ,a genus of plants4 ,,ho,,rrida4 ,lat4 ,horrid2 spiny4 ,,ho,,rary4 ,from the ,lat4 hora1 an hour4 ,the motion of a celestial body1 or the space it moves through in an hour1 is termed its horary motion4 ,,horse-,,shoe ,,magnet4 ,a magnet in form of a horse-shoe4 ,,humi,,ria4 ,a genus of plants of the family of humorice4 ,they inhabit tropical ,america4 ,,hydran,,gea4 ,from the ,gr4 udr1 water1 and aggos1 a vessel4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,saxifragce1 and tribe of ,hydrange4 ,,hydrau,,lic4 ,from the ,gr4 udr1 water1 and aulos1 a pipe4 ,relating to liquids in motion4 ,hydraulics is that branch of natural philosophy or physics which treats of the force of water and other liquids in motion4 ,,hydrosta,,tic4 ,from the ,gr4 udr1 water1 and sta1 ,i stand4 ,relating to water in a state of rest4 ,hydrostatics is the science which treats of the equilibrium and pressure of water and other liquids4 ,,hy,,drogen4 ,from the ,gr4 udr1 water1 and gennaein1 to generate4 ,a colorless1 tasteless1 inodorous gas1 one part of which1 by weight1 combined with eight parts of oxygen forms water2--combined with sulphur it constitutes sulphuretted ,hydrogen2--and with carbon1 carburetted ,hydrogen1 the gas used for illumination4 ,,hydrogeton4 ,a synonym of ,ouviraudra4 ,a genus of aquatic plants4 ,,hyla4 ,from the ,gr4 ule1 wood1 a tree4 ,a tree frog4 ,,hymen,a4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,papilionce4 ,a resinous tree of tropical ,america4 ,,hymeno,,ptera4 ,from the ,gr4 umen1 a membrane1 and pteron1 wing4 ,systematic name of a class of insects1 characterized by membranous wings4 ,,hy,,rax4 ,from the ,gr4 urax1 a shrew mouse4 ,a genus of mammals4 ,,ianthina4 ,see ,janthina4 ,i,,bex4 ,lat4 ,a wild goat4 ,a genus of mammals4 ,i,,bis4 ,a genus of birds4 ,,igneous ,,rocks4 ,are those rocks whose structure is attributable to the influence of heat1 such as granite and basalt4 ,they are distinct from stratified rocks1 or those formed by deposits from water4 ,i,,guana4 ,a reptile of the lizard tribe4 ,,igua,,nian4 ,applied to ,saurians which resemble the iguana4 ,,igua,,nodon4 ,from iguana1 and the ,gr4 odous1 tooth4 ,a genus of extinct or fossil reptiles of gigantic size discovered in the south of ,england4 ,i,,lex4 ,lat4 ,the ,holly4 ,,ili,,cis4 ,lat4 ,of the ,holly2 belonging or relating to the holly4 ,,illi,,cium4 ,from illicio to attract2 from its agreeable perfume4 ,the aniseed tree4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,magnolice4 ,,im,,bricate4 ,laid one over another like tiles4 ,,inconspicuus4 ,lat4 ,not conspicuous or remarkable4 ,,incisor4 ,from the ,lat4 incido ,i cut4 ,applied to those teeth which occupy the anterior or centre of the upper and lower jaws1 because they are used for cutting the food4 ,,inca4 ,designation of the aboriginal ,peruvian princes2 used as a specific name4 ,also1 a genus of insects4 ,,indica--,,indicus4 ,lat4 ,indian3 ,belonging or relating to ,india4 ,,indica,,tor4 ,lat4 ,indicator2 one who points out4 ,a genus of birds4 ,,infuso,,ria4 ,animals of infusions2 microscopic animalcules4 ,,infuso,,rial4 ,belonging or relating to the ,infusoria4 ,,inorganic4 ,without organs or organization4 ,,insect4 ,from the ,lat4 in1 into1 seco1 ,i cut4 ,applied to animals whose bodies are cut1 as it were1 into three parts--head1 thorax1 and abdomen4 ,,irid,e4 ,a family of monocotyldonous plants4 ,,iridium4 ,from the ,lat4 iris1 the rainbow4 ,a grey1 brittle1 very infusible metal1 which is found associated with the ores of platinum4 ,,isatis4 ,from the ,gr4 isaz1 ,i render equal4 ,woad4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,crucifer4 ,also the name of a species of dog4 ,,isla,,ndicus4 ,lat4 ,belonging or relating to ,iceland4 ,,iso,,geo,,thermal4 ,from the ,gr4 isos1 equal1 ge1 the earth1 and thermos1 heat4 ,applied to lines which are supposed to pass through all parts of the earth's structure on the surface where the mean heat is the same4 ,,isothe,,rmal4 ,from the ,gr4 isos1 equal1 and thermos1 heat4 ,isothermal lines are supposed to pass through all places where the mean temperature of the air is the same4 ,,isotherial4 ,from the ,gr4 isos1 equal1 and thereios1 having the heat of summer4 ,isotherial lines are supposed to be drawn through all places having the same mean summer temperature4 ,,isochi,,menal4 ,from the ,gr4 isos1 equal1 and cheima1 winter4 ,isochimenal lines pass through all places where the mean winter temperature is the same4 ,,ixia4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,iride4 ,,janthi,,na4 ,from the ,gr4 ianthinos1 violet4 ,a genus of mollusks4 ,,japo,,nica--,,japo,,nicus4 ,belonging or relating to ,japan4 ,,jasper4 ,a silicious mineral of various colors2 sometimes spotted1 banded or variegated4 ,it takes a fine polish4 ,,jerbo,a4 ,a genus of mammals of the family of ,rodents1 or gnawers4 ,,jura,,ssic4 ,belonging or relating to the ,jura mountains4 ,applied to a system of rocks of the middle secondary geological period4 ,also termed oolitic4 ,,ka,,lmia4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,ericce4 ,,ker,,ria4 ,proper name4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,rosce4 ,,ke,,urva4 ,synonym of ,pandanus4 ,,king,,ia4 ,proper name4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,joncce1 found in ,new ,holland4 ,kingia australis2 the grass tree4 ,,labia,t4 ,from the ,lat4 labium1 lip2 in allusion to the form of the corolla4 ,a family of dicotyldonous plants4 ,,lago,,pus4 ,from the ,gr4 lags1 a hare1 and pous1 foot3 hare-footed4 ,a genus of birds of the order ,gallince4 ,,lam,,antin4 ,the manatus4 ,a genus of mammals of the order of ,cetcea4 ,,lamina,,ria4 ,a genus of aquatic plants of the family of ,phyce4 ,,lamprato,,rnis4 ,a genus of birds4 ,lampratornis superba4 ,a kind of raven4 ,,lana,,ta4 ,lat4 ,woolly4 ,,lanceola,,tus4 ,lat4 ,lanceolate2 lance-shaped4 ,,landslip1 or ,,landslide4 ,in geology1 the removal of a portion of land down an inclined surface1 from its attachment being loosened by the action of water beneath1 or by an earthquake4 ,,lanta,,nium4 ,a metal discovered in #ahdj by ,mosander4 ,,lapis ,,lazuli4 ,a mineral belonging to the aluminous silicates1 of an azure blue colour4 ,,laureo,,la4 ,specific name of a plant4 ,,lauri,,ne4 ,from laurus1 laurel1 one of the genera4 ,,laurea,,ce4 ,a family of plants4 ,,latent ,,heat4 ,heat not indicated by the thermometer1 upon which the liquid and ariform conditions of bodies depend1 and which becomes sensible during the conversion of vapour into liquids1 and of liquids into solids4 ,,la,,rva4 ,lat4 ,a mask4 ,the first state of an insect after leaving the egg4 ,,la,,rv4 ,lat4 ,plural of larva4 ,,la,,va4 ,in geology1 substances which flow in a melted state from a volcano4 ,lavas vary in consistence and texture4 ,,legumino,s4 ,from the ,lat4 legumen1 a bean4 ,a family of plants4 ,,legu,,minous4 ,belonging or relating to the ,leguminose4 ,,leoni,,na4 ,belonging or relating to a lion4 ,,lepori,,na4 ,lat4 ,belonging or relating to a hare4 ,,lepido,,ptera4 ,from the ,gr4 lepis1 a scale1 and pteron1 a wing1 scaly wings4 ,an order of insects characterized by scaly wings4 ,,lesso,,nia4 ,proper name4 ,a genus of plants2 also a genus of birds4 ,,leucade,,ndron4 ,from the ,gr4 leukos1 white1 and dendron1 tree4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,protece4 ,,lias4 ,provincial corruption of the word layers4 ,in geology1 a division of the secondary formation4 ,it is also called the ,liassic1 ,jurassic1 and ,oolitic system of rocks4 ,,li,,chens4 ,an order of cryptgamous plants4 ,they include various mosses4 ,,lilia,,ceous4 ,belonging or relating to the lily4 ,,lilia,,ce4 ,a family of plants4 ,,llanos4 ,span4 ,planes4 ,,limo,,nia4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,aurantice4 ,,limb4 ,in botany1 the spreading part or border of a leaf or petal4 ,in astronomy1 the outermost edge of the sun or moon4 ,,li,,riode,,ndron4 ,from the ,gr4 leirion1 a lily1 and dendron1 a tree4 ,the tulip tree4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,magnolice4 ,,li,,thium4 ,a metal4 ,,lo,,asa4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,loasce4 ,,lobe4 ,a term applied in botany to the more or less profound divisions of a leaf1 corolla1 or other part of a plant4 ,,lobelia,,ce4 ,in honor of ,lobel1 a botanist4 ,a family of dicotyldonous plants4 ,,longifrons4 ,lat4 ,having a long front or forehead4 ,,lophobra,,nches4 ,from the ,gr4 lophos1 a tuft1 or crest1 and branchia1 gills4 ,an order of fishes4 ,,lophopho,,rus4 ,from the ,gr4 lophos1 a tuft1 and phoros1 bearer4 ,a genus of birds of the order ,gallince4 ,,lora,,nthus4 ,from the ,gr4 lron1 a leather strap1 and anthos1 flower4 ,loranth4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,loranthce4 ,,lo,,tus4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,legumins4 ,,loxia4 ,a genus of birds4 ,,lu,,teum4 ,lat4 ,yellow2 dirty2 made of clay4 ,a specific name4 ,,macroce,,phalus4 ,from the ,gr4 makros1 large1 and kephale1 head4 ,a genus of insects4 ,the specific name of a mammal4 ,,macrocy,,stis4 ,from the ,gr4 makros1 large1 and kustis1 bladder4 ,a genus of aquatic plants of the family of ,phyce4 ,gigantic sea-weeds found in the southern hemisphere4 ,,macrou,,rous4 ,from the ,gr4 makros1 great1 and oura1 tail4 ,having a long or large tail4 ,,magnet4 ,loadstone is the natural magnet1 which has the property of attracting iron4 ,artificial magnets are prepared so as to possess the peculiar attractive properties of the loadstone4 ,,mag,,netism4 ,the science which investigates the phenomena presented by natural and artificial magnets1 and the laws by which they are connected4 ,,magne,,sium4 ,a silvery white metal obtained from magnesia4 ,,magne,,sian4 ,containing magnesia4 ,,magno,,lia4 ,name of ,magnol1 a ,french botanist4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,magnolice4 ,,ma,,lachite4 ,a mineral2 native green carbonate of copper4 ,,mal,,lotus4 ,a genus of fishes of the family of ,salmones4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,euphorbice4 ,a synonyme of the genus ,rottlera4 ,,malu,,rus4 ,a genus of passerine birds4 ,,mam,,mal4 ,any animal that suckles its young4 ,,mamma,,lia4 ,from the ,lat4 mamma1 a breast4 ,the name of the class of mammals or animals which suckle their young4 ,,mammi,,fer4 ,same as mammalia4 ,,mana,,ti4 ,lat4 ,plural of manatus4 ,,mana,,tus4 ,a genus of mammals4 ,the ,lamantin4 ,,mangane,,se4 ,a metal4 ,,mariti,,ma4 ,lat4 ,maritime2 relating to the sea4 ,,marl4 ,argillaceous carbonate of lime4 ,there are several varieties of marl4 ,,marsu,,pial4 ,from the ,lat4 marsupium1 a pouch4 ,any animal having a peculiar pouch in front or on the abdomen4 ,,mas,,todon4 ,from the ,gr4 mastos1 a nipple1 and odous1 a tooth4 ,a genus of extinct mammals allied to the elephant4 ,,ma,,trix4 ,in geology1 the stony substance or bed in which metallic ores and crystaline minerals are embedded4 ,the gangue4 ,,mauri,,tia4 ,lat4 ,belonging to the island of ,maritius4 ,,mauro,,rum4 ,lat4 ,of the ,moors4 ,,maximus4 ,,maxima4 ,lat4 ,the greatest4 ,,maximum4 ,,medu,,sa4 ,a genus of marine animals of the class ,acalepha4 ,,megathe,,rium4 ,from the ,gr4 megas1 great1 and therion1 beast4 ,name of a fossil quadruped4 ,,melaleu,,ca4 ,from the ,gr4 melas1 black1 and leukos1 white4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,myrtce4 ,,mela,,stoma4 ,from the ,gr4 melas1 black1 and stoma1 opening4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,melastomce4 ,,mel,,ia4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,melice4 ,,melofo,,rmis4 ,from the ,lat4 melo1 a melon1 and forma1 shape4 ,melon-shaped4 ,,menopoma4 ,from the ,gr4 menos1 strong1 and poma1 cover4 ,a genus of reptiles of the family of ,salamanders4 ,specific name of a batrachian4 ,,menura4 ,a genus of passerine birds4 ,the ,menura superba1 the lyre-bird4 ,,mercury4 ,quicksilver4 ,a metal which is liquid at the ordinary temperature4 ,,mese,,meryan,,themum4 ,from the ,gr4 mesembria1 the mid-day1 and anthemum1 flowering1 because the flowers usually expand at that time4 ,the fig marygold4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,ficoides4 ,,me,,sa4 ,span4 ,a table4 ,,mespilus4 ,from the ,gr4 mesos1 half1 and pil1 bullet1 the fruit resembling a half ball4 ,the medlar4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,rosce4 ,,met,,alloid4 ,literally1 resembling metal4 ,the metals obtained from the alkalis and earths are called metalloids4 ,,metalli,,ferous4 ,containing metal1 or metals4 ,,metamor,,phic4 ,from the ,gr4 meta1 indicating change1 and morphe1 form4 ,metamorphic rocks are those which are evidently of mechanical origin1 but owing to the presumed action of heat1 have undergone change4 ,altered rocks4 ,,metrosi,,deros4 ,from the ,gr4 metra1 heart of a tree1 and sideron1 iron1 in allusion to the hardness of its wood4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,myrtce4 ,,metur4 ,a species of wild corn which grows in ,iceland4 ,,mia,,sma4 ,from the ,gr4 miain1 ,i contaminate4 ,applied ,,mia,,smata4 to any emanation from animal or vegetable substances1 or from the earth1 which may prejudicially influence the health of those persons who may be exposed to it4 ,,mi,,ca4 ,from the ,lat4 mico1 ,i shine4 ,a mineral1 generally found in thin elastic lamin1 soft1 smooth1 and of various colors and degrees of transparency4 ,it is one of the constituents of granite4 ,,mica-,,schist4 ,germ4 7,gr4 schistos1 slaty1 easily split47 ,mica-slate4 ,a lamellar rock composed of quartz1 ordinarily grayish1 and a great quantity of brilliant lamell of mica arranged in scales1 or extended leaves4 ,,mi,,das4 ,name of a genus of monkeys2 also1 of a genus of reptiles4 ,,migrato,,ria4 ,lat4 ,migrating4 ,,millingto,,nia4 ,proper name4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,bignonice4 ,,millepo,,ra4 ,from mil1 a thousand1 and pori1 holes4 ,a genus of stony polyps1 or corallines4 ,,mimo,,sa4 ,from the ,lat4 mimus1 a comedian1 in allusion to its numerous varieties4 ,a genus1 and a tribe of plants4 ,,mi,,ocene4 ,from the ,gr4 mein1 less1 and kainos1 recent4 ,in geology a name of a group of rocks of the tertiary period4 ,,mi,,nimum4 ,lat4 ,the least4 ,,mira,,ge4 ,fr4 ,a kind of natural optical illusion1 arising from the unequal refraction of the lower strata of the atmosphere4 ,the illusive appearance of water in deserts is explained in this manner4 ,,misodendron4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,loranthce4 ,,mite,,lla4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,saxafragce4 ,,mollusk4 ,from the ,lat4 mollis1 soft4 ,applied to certain soft animals which inhabit shells1 as oysters4 ,,mollu,,sca4 ,a branch of the animal kingdom4 ,,mollu,,scous4 ,belonging or relating to mollusks4 ,,molyb,,denum4 ,a white1 brittle metal4 ,,monocotyle,,don4 ,from the ,gr4 monos1 single1 and kotuledon1 seed-lobe4 ,a single seed-lobe4 ,,monocotyle,,donous4 ,relating to monocotyledon4 ,,mono,,ceros4 ,from the ,gr4 monos1 single1 and keras1 horn4 ,having one horn4 ,,mo,,nodon4 ,from the ,gr4 monos1 single1 and odous1 tooth4 ,name of a genus of aquatic mammals4 ,the ,narwhal4 ,,mone,,ta4 ,lat4 ,belonging or relating to money4 ,,moni,,liform4 ,from the ,lat4 monile1 a necklace4 ,in form of a string of beads1 necklace-like4 ,,mo,,nitor4 ,a genus of ,saurian reptiles4 ,,monospe,,rma4 ,from the ,gr4 monos1 single1 sperma1 seed4 ,one-seeded4 ,a specific name4 ,,mon,,tia4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,portulce4 ,,mori,,nda4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,rubice4 ,,moraines4 ,longitudinal deposits of stony detritus found at the bases1 and along the edges of all the great glaciers4 ,,mo,,rus4 ,mulberry4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,urtice4 ,,mosasau,,rus4 ,from ,meuse1 name of a river1 and the ,gr4 sauros1 a lizard4 ,a genus of fossil reptiles4 ,,mos,,chus4 ,from the ,gr1 moschos1 musk4 ,a genus of mammals4 ,,moschi,,ferus4 ,lat4 ,musk bearing2 containing musk4 ,,mosses4 ,crytgamous parasites of the family of ,lycopodec4 ,,mu,,cilage4 ,a mixture of gum and water4 ,,mural4 ,belonging or relating to a wall4 ,,musa4 ,the banana4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,musce4 ,,muschelkalk4 ,german4 ,shell limestone4 ,,musci,,pula4 ,lat4 ,a fly trap or mouse trap4 ,,musicus4 ,lat4 ,relating to music2 musical4 ,,mycetus4 ,name of a genus of monkeys4 ,,myopo,,tamus4 ,from the ,gr4 mus1 a rat1 and potamos1 a river4 ,a genus of gnawing mammals4 ,,myri,,stica4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,myristace2 ,mystritica moschata1 the nutmeg tree4 ,,myrtus4 ,myrtle4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,myrtace4 ,,nana4 ,from the ,gr4 nanos1 a dwarf4 ,a specific name4 ,,na,,ptha4 ,a limpid bitumen4 ,,narci,,ssus4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,amaryllide4 ,,na,,trium4 ,a metal4 ,,natron4 ,a subcarbonate of soda4 ,,nectary4 ,that part of a flower which produces honey4 ,,nelum,,bium4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,nymphce4 ,sacred ,bean4 ,,nestor4 ,an extinct bird4 ,,neuro,,ptera4 ,from the ,gr4 neuron1 a nerve1 and pteron1 wing4 ,an order of insects4 ,,new ,,red ,,sandstone4 ,in geology1 a system of rocks of the secondary formation4 ,,nickel4 ,a white metal4 ,it is the basis of 8,german ,silver40 ,,nigra4 ,lat4 ,black4 ,,nimbus4 ,a rain cloud4 ,,ni,,tida4 ,lat4 ,neat1 clean1 bright4 ,,nitrogen4 ,a simple1 permanently elastic fluid or gas1 which constitutes four-fifths of the atmosphere1 and is the basis of nitric acid4 ,,niva,,lis4 ,lat4 ,snowy4 ,,non-,,conductor4 ,applied to substances which do not possess the property of transmitting electricity1 or heat4 ,,notacanthus4 ,from the ,gr4 ntos1 back1 and akantha1 a spine4 ,a genus of fishes4 ,,nototherium4 ,a fossil genus of marsupial mammals4 ,,notornis4 ,an extinct bird4 ,,nummula,,ria4 ,from the ,latin nummus1 a coin4 ,a family of ,mollusks4 ,nummulites4 ,,nymph,a4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,nymphace4 ,,nyssa4 ,from the ,gr4 nuss1 ,i prick4 ,a genus of plants4 ,,obsi,,dian4 ,a glassy lava4 ,volcanic glass4 ,,ocean,,ica4 ,lat4 ,relating to the ocean4 ,,oeno,,thera4 ,from the ,gr4 oinos1 wine1 and ther1 ,i hunt4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,oenotherace4 ,synonym of onagrari4 ,,odora,,ta4 ,lat4 ,odorous4 ,,odoratissi,,ma4 ,lat4 ,very1 or most odorous4 ,,odori,,fera4 ,lat4 ,odoriferous4 ,o,,lea4 ,lat4 ,olive4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,oleace4 ,,old ,,red ,,sandstone4 ,a system of rocks of the secondary formation4 ,o,,olite4 ,from the ,greek on1 an egg1 and lithos1 stone4 ,a granular variety of carbonate of lime1 frequently called roestone4 ,o,,pal4 ,a brittle mineral1 characterized by its iridescent reflection of light4 ,it consists of silica with about ten per cent4 of water4 ,o,,pales,,cent4 ,resembling opal4 ,,ophi,,dian4 ,from the ,gr4 ophis1 a serpent2 applied to reptiles of the order of ,ophidia4 ,,ophice,,phalus4 ,from the ,gr4 ophis1 serpent1 and kephale1 head4 ,serpent-head4 ,a genus of acnthopterygian1 or bony-finned fishes4 ,,or,,chis4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,orchide1 named from most of the species being marked by two tubercles4 ,,orchid,,eous4 ,relating to the genus orchis4 ,,organ4 ,from the ,gr4 organon1 an instrument4 ,part of an organized being1 destined to exercise some particular function2 for example1 the ears are the organs of hearing1 the muscles are the organs of motion4 ,,orga,,nic4 ,relating to an organ4 ,organic remains1 are the fossil remains of organized beings4 ,,organiza,,tion4 ,the mode or manner of structure of an organized being4 ,,organized4 ,composed of organs2 having a mode of structure4 ,,orienta,,lis4 ,lat4 ,eastern4 ,belonging to the ,east4 ,,orienta,,le4 ,,ornithoryn,,chus4 ,from the ,gr4 ornis1 ornithos1 a bird1 and rugchos1 a beak4 ,a genus of mammals1 having the beak of a duck4 ,,or,,tygis4 ,from the ,gr4 ortux1 a quail4 ,a genus of birds4 ,,os,,mium4 ,from the ,gr4 osme1 odour4 ,a metal discovered in #ahjc1 by ,tennant4 ,,oscilla,,tion4 ,the act of moving backwards and forwards like a pendulum4 ,,ota,,ria4 ,from the ,gr4 tarion1 a small ear4 ,a genus of amphibious mammals1 of the tribe of seals4 ,,out ,,crop4 ,in geology1 the emergence of a rock in place1 at the surface4 ,o,,vary4 ,in botany1 that part of a flower in which the young seeds are contained4 ,,oxa,,lis4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,oxalide4 ,,oxle,,ya4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,cedrelace4 ,,oxygen4 ,the vivifying gas which constitutes about one-fifth of the atmosphere1 the presence of which is essential to life4 ,,ozo,,ne4 ,from the ,gr4 oz1 ,i smell of something4 ,the odorous matter perceived when electricity passes from pointed bodies into the air4 ,,pachyder,,mata4 ,from the ,gr4 pachus1 thick1 and derma1 skin4 ,an order of mammals--,pachyderms4 ,,padi,,na4 ,same as ,zonria1 a beautiful marine plant4 ,padina pavonia1 or ,zonaria pavonia4 ,turkey feather4 ,,palap,,teryx4 ,from the ,gr4 palaios1 ancient1 and apteryx1 formed from the ,gr4 a1 privative1 and pteron1 wing1 wingless4 ,name of a genus of fossil birds1 discovered recently in ,new ,zealand4 ,,pal,,othe,,rium4 ,from the ,gr4 palaios1 ancient1 and therion1 beast4 ,a fossil genus of pachydermatous mammals4 ,,pal,,onto,,logy4 ,from the ,gr4 palaios1 ancient1 and on1 a being or creature1 and logos1 discourse4 ,that branch of zoological science which treats of fossil organic remains4 ,,pal,,ozoic4 ,from the ,gr4 palaios1 ancient1 and zoe1 life4 ,relating to ancient life2 belonging or relating to fossils4 ,,palma ,,rea,l4 ,spanish4 ,royal ,palm4 ,,palla,,dium4 ,a white1 hard1 very maleable and ductile metal1 which is susceptible of a fine polish4 ,it is more difficult to melt than gold4 ,,palmel,,la4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,confervce4 ,palmella nivalis1 a plant of the snowy regions1 which gives color to the snow amidst which it grows4 ,protococcus is the red snow plant4 ,,panda,,nus4 ,from the ,malay name of the tree1 pandang4 ,screw-pine4 ,a genus of plants1 of the family of ,pandanc4 ,pandanus candelabrum4 ,candlestick screw-pine4 ,,panda,,na4 ,relating to1 or resembling the ,screw-pines4 ,,pa,,nicum4 ,panic-grass4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,gramine4 ,panicum miliaceum1 millet1 a grain used for feeding poultry in ,england4 ,,papa4 ,spanish4 ,pope4 ,specific name of a vulture4 ,,papy,,rus4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,cyperace4 ,the ,papyrus antiquorum yields the substance used as paper by the ancient gyptians4 ,,papyri,,fera4 ,from papyrus1 a sort of paper1 and fero1 ,i bear4 ,paper-bearing4 ,,parhelia4 ,plural of parhelion4 ,,parhelion4 ,from the ,gr4 para1 for1 elios1 the sun1 ,a mock sun4 ,a meteor which consists in the simultaneous appearance of several suns1 8fantastic images of the true one40 ,,paradisa,,ica4 ,lat4 ,belonging or relating to ,paradise4 ,a specific name4 ,,parna,,ssus4 ,a genus of lepidopterous insects of the tribe of ,parnassid4 ,,pass,,erines4 ,from the ,lat4 ,passer1 a sparrow1 name ,,pass,,eres4 of a varied and extensive order of birds1 not ,,passerine ,,birds4 easily characterized4 ,,passiflora4 ,abbreviation of flos1 flower1 and passionis1 of the passion4 ,passion-flower1 so called from a supposed resemblance between its floral organs1 and the instruments of the ,passion of our ,saviour4 ,an extensive and beautiful genus of plants4 ,,patago,,nica4 ,lat4 ,relating to ,patagonia4 ,specific name of a penguin4 ,,pavo,,nia4 ,formed from the ,latin1 pavo1 a peacock4 ,a specific name4 ,,peat4 ,the natural accumulation of vegetable matter on the surface of lands not in a state of cultivation2 always moist to a greater or less degree1 varying1 according to the kind of plants to the decay of which the formation of peat is due4 ,,pelo,,pium4 ,a metal discovered by ,prof4 ,h4 ,rose4 ,,pelargo,,nium4 ,from the ,gr4 pelargos1 a stork4 ,stork's bill4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,geranice4 ,,pela,,sgic4 ,after a mythological name of ,jupiter4 ,,pen,,dulum4 ,from the ,lat4 pendo1 ,i hang4 ,a weight suspended at the end of a rod1 so that it may vibrate from side to side in a plane1 is called a pendulum4 ,,pennise,,tum4 ,from the ,lat4 penna1 a feather or pen1 and seta1 a bristle4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,gramine4 ,,pep,,lis4 ,gr4 ,water-purslane4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,salicri4 ,,per,,mian4 ,after the ancient kingdom of ,permia4 ,a name applied by ,mr4 ,murchison to a system of rocks1 consisting of an extensive group of fossiliferous strata1 intermediate1 in their geological position1 between the ,carboniferous and ,triassic systems1 the latter being the upper portion of the ,new ,red ,sandstone formation4 ,,perturbation4 ,in astronomy1 the deviation of a celestial body from the elliptic orbit which it would describe1 if acted upon by no other attractive force than that of the sun1 or central body about which it revolves4 ,,pe,,tal4 ,from the ,gr4 petalon1 a leaf4 ,a part of the corolla of a flower analogous to a leaf4 ,,petro,,leum4 ,from the ,gr4 petros1 a rock1 and the ,lat4 oleum1 oil4 ,rock-oil1 often called ,barbadoes tar4 ,a brown1 liquid bitumen1 found in the ,west ,indies1 ,europe1 c4 ,,phaco,,ch,,re4 ,fr4 ,from the ,gr4 phake1 a wart1 and ,,phaco,,ch,,rus4 ,lat4 choiros1 a hog4 ,agenus of mammals of the order of pachydermata2 allied to the hogs4 ,,phala,,nger4 ,from the ,gr4 phalagx1 a phalanx4 ,a genus of marsupial or pouch-bearing mammals4 ,,phaneroga,,mia4 ,from the ,gr4 phaneros1 evident1 and gamos1 marriage4 ,phanergamous plants4 ,applied to plants having distinct flowers4 ,,phi,,ledon4 ,name of a genus of birds4 ,,phi,,lemon4 ,,phle,,um4 ,cat's tail grass4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,gramine4 ,,phlox4 ,gr4 ,flame4 ,a genus of beautiful plants of the family of ,polemonice4 ,,pho,c4 ,lat4 ,plural of phoca4 ,,pho,,ca4 ,lat4 ,a seal4 ,a genus of aquatic mammals1 embracing the common seal or ,phoca vitulina2 the ,harp seal or ,p4 oceanica2 the ,hare-tailed seal or ,p4 lagura2 the sea-lion2 sea-wolf2 sea-elephant2 sea-cow2 c41 c4 ,,pho,,nolite4 ,from the ,gr4 phone1 ,i resound1 and lithos1 a stone4 ,clinkstone4 ,a kind of compact basalt which is sonorous when struck4 ,,phor,,mium4 ,from the ,gr4 phormos1 a basket4 ,flax-lilly4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,asphodle4 ,phormium tenax1 ,iris-leaved flax-lilly of ,new ,zealand4 ,,phos,,phorus4 ,from the ,gr4 phos1 light1 and pher1 ,i bear4 ,a simple substance which is highly inflammable4 ,,phospho,,ric ,,acid4 ,a compound of phosphorus and oxygen1 having the properties of acids4 ,,phos,,phates4 ,compounds of phosphoric acid with salifiable bases1 as soda1 are termed phosphates2 ,phosphate of soda1 for example4 ,,phosphore,,scence4 ,emission of light from substances at common temperatures1 or below a red heat4 ,,phosphorescent4 ,having the property of emitting light without sensible heat4 ,,physa,,lia4 ,from the ,gr4 phuse1 a vesicle4 ,a genus of ,,physa,,lis4 animals of the family of ,acalepha4 ,the ,portuguese man-of-war belongs to this genus4 ,,physa,,lis4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,solance4 ,physalis edulis1 the ,cape gooseberry4 ,,physe,,ter4 ,a blower4 ,name of a genus of mammals of the family of ,cetacea4 ,,pime,,nto4 ,allspice2 ,jamaica pepper4 ,,pinnate4 ,from the ,lat4 pinnatus1 feathered4 ,having leaflets arranged along each side of a common petiole1 like the feather of a quill4 ,,pinnati,,fida4 ,lat4 ,pinnatifid4 ,a leaf is so called when it is divided into lobes from the margin nearly to the midrif4 ,,pinus4 ,lat4 ,a pine-tree4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,conifer4 ,pinus abies4 ,the ,norway ,spruce4 ,pinus canariensis4 ,the ,canary pine4 ,pinus cembra4 ,the ,riga balsam tree2 the ,cembran or ,siberian pine4 ,pinus excelsa4 ,the lofty or ,nepal pine4 ,pinus maritima4 ,the maritime pine4 ,pinus pinea4 ,the ,stone pine4 ,,pipiens4 ,lat4 ,peeping like a chicken4 ,,pipa4 ,a genus of batrachian reptiles4 ,a kind of toad4 ,,plat,,ina4 ,the diminutive of the ,spanish plata1 silver4 ,,plat,,inum4 ,a metal of a steel gray colour1 approaching to the white colour of silver1 to which resemblance it owes its name4 ,it was found in ,choco1 one of the provinces of ,columbia1 and brought to ,europe in #agda1 by ,don ,antonio de ,ulloa4 ,,plei,,ocene4 ,from the ,gr4 pleion1 more1 and kainos1 ,,pli,,ocene4 recent4 ,a term applied by geologists to the newer tertiary formation1 because there is found fossilized in it a greater number of existing than of extinct species4 ,,plumb-,,line4 ,from the ,lat4 plumbum1 lead4 ,an instrument1 ,,plummet4 consisting of a string with a weight1 usually of lead1 attached to a straight staff1 for the purpose of ascertaining the direction of gravitation1 or the perpendicular to the horizon4 ,,pluto,,nic ,,rocks4 ,unstratified crystaline rocks1 probably formed at great depths beneath the surface by igneous fusion4 ,volcanic rocks are formed near the surface4 ,,podoca,,rpus4 ,from the ,gr4 pous1 podos1 the foot1 and karpos1 fruit4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,conifer4 ,,polarized ,,light4 ,light so modified as to possess poles1 or sides1 having opposite properties4 ,,polariza,,tion4 ,light1 by reflexion1 by passing through crystals possessing the power of double refraction1 becomes modified1 so that it does not present the same phenomena of transmission and reflection1 as light which had not been polarized4 ,,polyg,,onum4 ,from the ,gr4 polus1 many1 and gonu1 a knee or joint4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,polygonace4 ,polygonum viriparum1 ,alpine ,bistort4 ,,polymo,,rpha4 ,lat4 ,from the ,gr4 polus1 many1 and morphe1 form4 ,many-shaped4 ,a specific name4 ,,po,,lypi4 ,lat4 ,plural of polypus4 ,,polyple,,ctron4 ,name of a genus of birds4 ,,pol,,ypus4 ,from the ,gr4 polus1 many1 and pous1 foot4 ,a genus of radiate animals4 ,,pon,,tica4 ,from pontus1 the sea4 ,belonging or relating to the sea4 ,,pontop,,pida,,na4 ,synonym of ,couroupita4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,myrtce1 ,lecythide4 ,a large tree of ,guiana4 ,,ponto,,phidan4 ,from the ,lat4 pontus1 the sea1 and the ,gr4 ophis1 a serpent4 ,the sea serpent4 ,,portulaca,,ria4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,portulace4 ,the ,purslane-tree4 ,portulacaria afra4 ,the ,african purslane-tree4 ,,porphyri,,tic4 ,of the nature of porphyry4 ,,porphyry4 ,from the ,gr4 porphura1 purple4 ,originally applied to a red rock found in ,egypt4 ,a compact feldspathic rock containing disseminated crystals of feldspar1 the latter when polished forming small angular spots1 of a light color1 thickly sprinkled over the surface4 ,the rock is of various colors1 dark green1 red1 blue1 black1 c4 ,,portland ,,bed4 ,a name given by geologists to the superior division of the upper olite or lias system4 ,the 8,portland stone0 is a kind of limestone found in the south of ,england1 and more particularly in the ,isle of ,portland4 ,in this series of strata is a silicious sand known as the 8,portland ,sand40 ,,potas,,sium4 ,a metal discovered in potash by ,sir ,h4 ,davy in #ahjg4 ,,potenti,,lla4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,rosce4 ,cinquefoil4 ,potentilla tridentata4 ,trifid-leaved cinquefoil4 ,,pre,,hensile4 ,from the ,lat4 prehendere1 to lay hold of4 ,having the faculty to lay hold of4 ,applied to the tails of those monkeys1 for example1 which have the power to suspend themselves by the tail4 ,,preda,,ceous4 ,living on prey4 ,,primary ,,formation4 ,a term applied by geologists to designate the different rocks which were formed prior to the creation of plants and animals4 ,,primigenius4 ,lat4 ,original2 first of its kind4 ,,pri,,mum ,,mo,,bile4 ,that which first imparts motion4 ,,prim,,ula4 ,lat4 ,a primrose4 ,a genus of plants of the family of primulce4 ,primula farinosa1 the ,bird's-eye primrose4 ,,prism4 ,a solid bounded by three planes1 two of which are equal4 ,,prismatic4 ,belonging or relating to a prism4 ,,probosci,,dian4 ,from the ,gr4 proboskis1 a proboscis or trunk4 ,applied to mammals of the family which includes the elephant4 ,,procella,,ria4 ,from the ,lat4 procella1 a tempest at sea4 ,a genus of birds of the family of ,palmipedes4 ,,proli,,fera4 ,formed from proles1 a race or stock1 and fero1 ,i bear4 ,prolific4 ,,pro,,tea4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,protece4 ,protea cyaneroides1 ,artichoke-flowered protea4 ,,pro,,teus4 ,a genus of reptiles4 ,,pteroca,,rpus4 ,from the ,gr4 pteron1 a wing1 and karpos1 fruit4 ,the pods have membranous wings4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,legumins4 ,pterocarpus santalinus4 ,the red saunders tree4 ,,pte,,ris4 ,gr4 ,name of ,fern4 ,a genus of cryptgamous plants4 ,brake4 ,pteris esculenta4 ,edible fern4 ,,pteropus4 ,from the ,gr4 pteron1 wing1 and pous1 foot4 ,a genus of mammals of the tribe of bats1 termed ,roussettes4 ,,pu,,ma4 ,a name of the couguar or ,american ,lion4 ,,pyroge,,nous4 ,from the ,gr4 pur1 fire1 and geinomai1 ,i beget4 ,applied to rocks which owe their origin to the action of fire1 as granite4 ,,py,,rus4 ,a genus of plants of the family ,rosce4 ,a pear-tree4 ,,pyri,,fera4 ,lat4 ,from pyrus1 a pear1 and fero1 ,i bear4 ,,python4 ,a genus of reptiles4 ,,quadruma,,na4 ,formed from the ,lat4 quatuor1 four1 and manus1 hand4 ,an order of mammals characterized by having four hands4 ,,qua,,rtz4 ,germ4 ,rock crystal4 ,,quartzose4 ,of the nature of quartz4 ,,quicksilver4 ,a metal which is fluid at ordinary temperatures4 ,also called mercury4 ,,radia,,ta4 ,lat4 ,radiate2 the name of a class of zophytes4 ,,ra,,diate4 ,from the ,lat4 radius1 a ray4 ,furnished with rays2 having rays4 ,,radia,,tion4 ,the emission of the rays of light1 or of heat1 from a luminous or a heated body4 ,,raffle,,sia4 ,after ,sir ,t4 ,raffles4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,rafflesice1 which are parasites1 growing on the roots of dicotyledonous plants4 ,the flowers of some of them are enormously large2 the ,rafflesia arnoldi are said to be three feet in diameter4 ,,raine,,tte4 ,fr4 ,a tree-frog4 ,,ranun,,culus4 ,from the ,lat4 rana1 a frog1 because the species inhabit humid places4 ,crow-foot4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,ranunculce4 ,,ranun,,culi4 ,lat4 ,plural of ranunculus4 ,,ra,,na4 ,lat4 ,a frog4 ,a genus of reptiles4 ,,refra,,ction4 ,from the ,lat4 refractus1 broken4 ,the deviation of a ray of light from its rectilinear course1 caused by passing through a transparent substance4 ,the degree of refraction depends upon the density of the medium through which the ray of light passes4 ,,refu,,lgens4 ,lat4 ,shining brightly2 refulgent4 ,,re,,ptile4 ,from the ,lat4 repere1 to crawl4 ,a term applied to any animal that moves naturally upon its belly1 or on very short legs1 as serpents1 c4 ,,repti,,lia4 ,the class of reptiles3 it comprises those vertebrate animals which have cold blood1 an arial respiration1 and an incomplete circulation4 ,,resenife,,ra4 ,lat4 ,containing resin4 ,,revolu,,ta4 ,lat4 ,turned back2 tumbled4 ,,rhea4 ,synonyme of ,struthio1 an ostrich4 ,,rho,,dium4 ,from the ,gr4 rodon1 a rose1 on account of the rose red color of some of its salts4 ,a metal discovered in the year #ahjc by ,wollaston4 ,,rhodode,,ndron4 ,from the ,gr4 rodon1 a rose1 and dendron1 a tree4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,ericce4 ,,rhodome,,lia4 ,from the ,gr4 rodon1 a rose1 and melas1 black4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,phyce4 ,,rhus4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,terebintce4 ,rhus vernix4 ,the varnish ,sumach4 ,,rhynchops4 ,from the ,gr4 rugchops1 a beak4 ,a genus of birds3 the skimmers or scissor-bills4 ,,rock-,,salt4 ,common salt found in masses or beds in the new red sandstone4 ,,rod,,entia4 ,from the ,lat4 rodere1 to gnaw4 ,an order of mammals4 ,,rodents4 ,animals of the order ,rodentia4 ,,ror,,qual4 ,a kind of whalebone whale4 ,,ro,,sa4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,rosce4 ,rosa sinensis4 ,the ,chinese rose4 ,,ru,,ber4 ,lat4 ,red4 ,,rubia,,ce4 ,a family of plants4 ,,ru,,by4 ,a crystalized gem of various shades of red4 ,,rufima,,nus4 ,lat4 ,red-handed4 ,,ru,,minant4 ,an animal that chews the cud4 ,,rumina,,ntia4 ,an order of mammals which are characterized by chewing the cud4 ,,ru,,minati4 ,to chew the cud4 ,,sa,,lines4 ,natural deposits of salt2 salt springs4 ,,sa,,lix4 ,lat4 ,willow4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,salicine ,salix lanata4 ,woolly willow4 ,,salt4 ,a combination of an acid with one or more bases4 ,,samo,,lus4 ,from the ,celtic1 san1 salutary1 and mos1 pig4 ,salutary to pigs4 ,brook-weed4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,primulce4 ,samolus valerandi4 ,common brook-weed4 ,,sandara,,ch4 ,a name given by the ,arabs to an odorous resin4 ,,sandali,,nus4 ,lat4 ,sandal-like4 ,,sandstone4 ,any rock consisting of aggregated grains of sand4 ,,sapa,,jou4 ,fr4 ,a genus of monkeys4 ,,sapi,,ndus4 ,abbreviation of sapo1 soap1 and indicus1 ,indian soap4 ,soap-berry4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,sapindce4 ,sapindus saponaria4 ,common soap-berry4 ,,sapona,,ria4 ,lat4 ,soapy4 ,,sapota,,ce4 ,a family of plants4 ,,sa,,pphire4 ,a very hard gem consisting essentially of crystalized alumina4 ,it is of various colors2 the blue variety being usually called sapphire2 the red1 the oriental ruby2 the yellow1 the oriental topaz4 ,,sa,,quis4 ,a genus of monkeys4 ,,sakis4 ,,sarga,,sum4 ,from the ,span4 sargazo1 sea-lentils4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,phyce4 ,,sarrace,,nia4 ,after ,dr4 ,sarrazin4 ,the side-saddle flower1 or pitcher plant4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,sarracnie4 ,,sau,,rian4 ,from the ,gr4 sauros1 a lizard4 ,applied to animals of the lizard tribe4 ,,sauroid4 ,from the ,gr4 sauros1 a lizard1 and eidos1 resemblance4 ,resembling a lizard4 ,,sca,,ndens4 ,lat4 ,climbing4 ,,schist4 ,from the ,gr4 schistos1 split4 ,slate4 ,,schisto,,se4 ,slaty4 ,,schot,,ia4 ,after ,schott1 a ,dutch gardener4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,legumins4 ,schotia speciosa4 ,small-leaved ,schotia4 ,,sci,,tame,,ne4 ,a family of plants4 ,,scie,,ria4 ,from the ,gr4 skleros1 hard4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,cyperce4 ,,sco,,lopax4 ,a genus of birds3 a heron4 ,,scopa,,ria4 ,from scopa1 a broom4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,scrophularine4 ,,sco,,ri4 ,volcanic cinders4 ,cinders and slags of basaltic lavas of a reddish brown and black color4 ,,scoria,,ceous4 ,of the nature of scori4 ,,sco,,riform4 ,in form of scori4 ,,scy,,throps4 ,from the ,gr4 skuthrops1 sad4 ,a genus of birds of the order of climbers4 ,a cuckoo4 ,,seams4 ,thin layers or strata interposed between others4 ,,secondary ,,formation4 ,in geology the formation which is next in order to the transition formation4 ,,se,,cular4 ,from the ,lat4 seculum1 a century4 ,secular elevations are those which take place gradually and imperceptibly1 through a long period of time4 ,secular tides are those which are dependent upon the secular variation of the moon's mean distance from the earth4 ,,se,,diment4 ,from the ,lat4 sedeo1 ,i sit4 ,that which subsides or settles to the bottom of any liquid4 ,,sedime,,ntary4 ,belonging or relating to sediment4 ,,sebife,,ra4 ,lat4 ,containing tallow4 ,,seed-,,lobe4 ,the envelope in which the seed in plants is formed4 ,,sele,,nite4 ,a variety of gypsum1 or sulphate of lime4 ,,se,,mitic4 ,applied to the languages of the descendants of ,sem1 or the ,orientals4 ,,se,,pal4 ,that part of the calyx of a flower which resembles a leaf4 ,,se,,pia4 ,a kind of paint prepared from the cuttle fish4 ,a genus of mollusks4 ,,ser,,pentine4 ,a magnesian rock of various colors1 and often speckled like a serpent's back4 ,it is generally dark green4 ,,se,,ptentriona,,lis4 ,lat4 ,northern4 ,,ser,,rate4 ,from the ,lat4 serra1 a saw4 ,toothed like a saw4 ,,serra,,ta4 ,lat4 ,serrate4 ,,shaft4 ,a cylindrical hollow space1 or pit1 in mines1 made for the purpose of extracting ores1 c4 ,,shale4 ,an indurated slaty clay1 or clay-slate4 ,,shingle4 ,loose1 water-worn gravel and pebbles4 ,,shore,a4 ,synonym of ,vatica4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,diptrocrpe4 ,,sierra4 ,span4 ,a mountain chain4 ,,si,,lex4 ,from the ,gr4 chalis1 a pebble4 ,the principal constituent of quartz1 rock-crystal1 and other silicious minerals4 ,,si,,lica4 ,silicious earth3 the oxide of silicon 7the elementary basis of ,silica17 constituting almost the whole of silex or flint4 ,it combines with many of the metallic oxides1 and is for this reason sometimes called silicic acid4 ,,si,,licate4 ,a compound of silicic acid and a base4 ,plate-glass and window-glass are silicates of soda and potassa2 and flint-glass is a similar compound with a large addition of silicate of lead4 ,,sili,,cious4 ,containing silica4 ,,sili,,cified4 ,petrified or mineralized by silicious earth4 ,,silt4 ,the name given to the sand1 clay1 and earth1 which accumulate in running waters4 ,,sili,,cium4 ,the metalloid which forms the basis of silica4 ,,silurian ,,system4 ,series of rocks formerly known as the greywacke series4 ,so called after the ,silures or ,siluri1 the ancient ,britons who inhabited the region where these strata are most distinctly developed4 ,they are entirely of marine origin4 ,,silu,,rus4 ,a genus of fishes of the family of ,silurida4 ,,silva4 ,a forest1 or woods4 ,,simu,,lium4 ,from the ,lat4 simulo1 ,i feign4 ,a genus of insects of the order of ,diptera4 ,,sine,,nsis4 ,lat4 ,chinese2 belonging or relating to ,china4 ,,sin,,ter4 ,germ4 ,a scale4 ,calcareous sinter is a variety of carbonate of lime composed of successive concentric layers4 ,silicious sinter is a variety of common opal4 ,,sipho,,nia4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,euphorbice4 ,,slate4 ,a well known rock which is divisible into thin plates or layers4 ,,smynthus1 or ,,sminthus4 ,from the ,gr4 sminthos1 rat4 ,a genus of rodent mammals4 ,,smyrne,,nsis4 ,lat4 ,belonging1 or relating to ,smyrna4 ,,solar ,,spe,,ctrum4 ,lat4 ,spectrum1 an image4 ,in optics the name given to an elongated image of the sun formed on a wall or screen by a beam of undecomposed light1 received through a small hole1 and refracted by a prism4 ,,solfata,,ra4 ,italian4 ,a volcanic vent emitting sulphur and sulphurous compounds4 ,,solida,,go4 ,golden-rod4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,compsit4 ,,so,,mate,,ria4 ,synonym with platypus4 ,a genus of birds4 ,,sopho,,ra4 ,a genus of plants of the family ,legumins4 ,,spar4 7,germ4 ,spath47 ,applied to certain crystalized mineral substances1 which easily break into cubic1 prismatic1 or other forms4 ,,spar,,ry4 ,of the nature of spar4 ,,spe,,cies4 ,a kind2 a subdivision of genus4 ,extinct species is a term applied to those kinds of organized beings1 whether plants or animals1 which are not found living upon the face of the earth4 ,,speci,,fic4 ,relating to species4 ,,specific ,,weight1 or ,,specific ,,gravity4 ,the relative weight of one body with that of another of equal volume4 ,,specio,,sa4 ,,specio,,sus4 ,lat4 ,handsome4 ,a word used as a specific name4 ,,specio,,sum4 ,,spe,,cular ,,iron4 ,a kind of iron ore of granular structure1 and metallic lustre1 sometimes shining4 ,,specta,,bilis4 ,lat4 ,visible1 remarkable1 noteable4 ,,spica,,ta4 ,lat4 ,having spikes2 eared like corn4 ,,spine,,lle1 or ,,spine,l4 ,french4 ,a sub-species of ruby4 ,,spir,a4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,rosce4 ,,spores4 ,the seeds of lichens1 and crytgamous plants4 ,,sporu,,les4 ,the diminutive of spores4 ,,spuma,,ceous4 ,from the ,lat4 spuma1 foam4 ,foamy4 ,,stagma,,ria4 ,from the ,gr4 stagma1 a drop4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,anacardice4 ,stagmaria verniciflua1 a tree of ,sumatra1 from the bark of which exudes an extremely acrid juice4 ,this juice quickly dries in the air1 becomes black1 and is sold at a high price2 it is employed in the preparation of a varnish4 ,the ,sumatrans consider it dangerous to sit or sleep in the shade of this tree4 ,,sta,,men4 ,lat4 ,the male apparatus of a flower4 ,,stape,,lia4 ,proper name4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,asclepide4 ,,starch4 ,a vegetable substance which exists in many tuberous roots1 the stalks of palms1 and in the seeds of the cereal grasses4 ,,step,,pe4 ,fr41 from the ,lat4 stipes1 a landmark4 ,a term applied to the ,savanahs of ,tartary1 of the ,crimea1 c41 and salt deserts of ,northern ,asia4 ,,sti,,gma4 ,the superior1 terminating part of the pistil of a flower4 ,,stillin,,gia4 ,after ,dr4 ,stillingfleet4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,euphorbice4 ,stillingia sebifera4 ,the tallow tree of ,china4 ,,stra,,ta4 ,lat4 ,plural of stratum1 a layer1 a bed4 ,,stratifica,,tion4 ,an arrangement in beds or layers4 ,,stra,,tified4 ,arranged in strata4 ,,stra,,tus4 ,a kind of cloud3 it consists of horizontal layers1 and includes fogs and mists2 its under surface usually rests upon the land or sea1 and it is therefore the lowest of the clouds4 ,,strelit,,zia4 ,after ,queen ,charlotte1 of the family of ,mecklenburgh ,strelitz4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,musce4 ,,stri4 ,lat4 ,diminutive channels or creases4 ,,stria,,ta4 ,lat4 ,striated2 marked with stri4 ,,stron,,tium4 ,a metalloid found in the earth called strontia4 ,,stru,,thio4 ,lat4 ,an ostrich4 ,a genus of birds4 ,,stru,,theous4 ,of the nature of an ostrich4 ,,strych,,nos4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,apocyne4 ,strychnos toxicaria4 ,the poison strychnos4 ,,style,,dium4 ,from the ,gr4 stulos1 a column4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,stylide1 found in ,new ,holland4 ,,sublima,,tion4 ,the process by which volatile substances are raised by heat1 and again condensed into the solid form4 ,the substances so obtained are called sublimates4 ,,sub ,,soil4 ,an under soil4 ,,sub ,,stra,,ta4 ,lat4 ,plural of substratum1 an under layer or bed4 ,,sul,,phuret4 ,a compound of sulphur with another solid1 as with iron1 forming sulphuret of iron4 ,,sul,,phuretted4 ,containing sulphur2 as hydrogen1 containing sulphur1 is called sulphuretted hydrogen4 ,,supe,,rba4 ,lat4 ,superb1 elegant4 ,,suria,,na4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,surine2 it was formerly of the ,rosce4 ,,sycomo,,rus4 ,lat4 ,the ,sycamore2 applied also as a specific name4 ,,sy,,enite and ,,si,,enite4 ,a granite rock from ,syene or ,siena in ,egypt4 ,it consists of quartz1 feldspar1 and hornblende4 ,it is tougher than granite4 ,,syl,,via4 ,name of a genus of birds4 ,,syngene,,sia4 ,from the ,gr4 sun1 together1 and geinomai1 to grow4 ,linnean name of a class of plants4 ,,tac,,ca4 ,malay4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,arode4 ,tacca pinnatifida4 ,the ,salep tree4 ,,tang,,hinia4 ,from the ,madagascar name1 ,tanghing4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,apocyne4 ,tanghinia veneniflua yields an active poison which is used to cause death1 under judicial sentence1 by the natives of ,madagascar4 ,,tanta,,lium4 ,a metal1 remarkable for its insolubility in acids4 ,,tan,,talus4 ,a genus of birds of the family of ,herons4 ,,tata,,rica4 ,lat4 ,belonging or relating to ,tartary4 ,,telesco,,pic4 ,relating to the telescope2 telescopic objects are those which may be seen by the aid of a telescope4 ,,tellu,,rium4 ,a rare metal1 found in the gold mines of ,transylvania4 ,,tempera,,ture4 ,a definite degree of sensible heat4 ,,tempora,,ria4 ,lat4 ,temporary2 relating to time4 ,,te,,nax4 ,lat4 ,tenacious4 ,,ter,,mes4 ,a genus of insects of the order of ,neuroptera1 and family of ,termitid4 ,white ants4 ,,terra ,,japo,,nica4 ,an astringent medicinal gum1 obtained from the ,accia catechu4 ,,tertiary ,,formation4 ,a series of sedimentary rocks which are superior to the primary and secondary1 and distinguished by the fossil remains found in them4 ,,testa,,ce4 ,from testa1 a shell4 ,testceans2 animals provided with an external shelly cover1 composed chiefly of carbonate of lime4 ,,testa,,ceous4 ,consisting of carbonate of lime and animal matter4 ,,testu,,do4 ,lat4 ,tortoise4 ,a genus of reptiles of the order of ,chelonians4 ,,tetrace,,ra4 ,from the ,gr4 tettaras1 four1 and keras1 a horn4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,dillence4 ,,te,,trago,,na4 ,from the ,gr4 tetra1 four1 and gonos1 angle4 ,having four angles2 applied as a specific name4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,portulce4 ,,the,a4 ,a genus of plants of the tribe of ,camelle4 ,thea bohea1 ,bohea tea2 ,thea viridis1 ,green tea4 ,,the,,ine4 ,the proximate principle of tea4 ,,ther,,mal4 ,from the ,gr4 thermos1 heat4 ,warm2 belonging or relating to heat4 ,,tho,,rium4 ,a metal obtained from ,thorina1 an earthy substance4 ,,thu,,ia1 also ,,thu,,ja4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,conifer4 ,thuia articulata4 ,jointed arbor vit4 ,t4 orientalis2 ,chinese arbor vit4 ,t4 sandarach1 ,shittim wood4 ,,tidal4 ,relating to tides4 ,tidal wave is the elevation of the water of the ocean1 produced by the attraction of the moon4 ,,tilland,,sia4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,bromelice4 ,,tita,,nium4 ,a metal discovered in #agha1 by ,w4 ,gregor1 in a ferruginous sand4 ,,to,,dus4 ,a genus of birds of the order of ,passerin4 ,,to,,paz4 ,a crystalized mineral1 harder than quartz1 of a yellow wine color4 ,,torsion ,,balance4 ,see1 ,,balance4 ,,tou,,rmaline4 ,a mineral substance consisting of a ,boro-silicate of alumine1 harder than quartz1 but not as hard as topaz4 ,,tournfo,,rtia4 ,after ,tournefort4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,borragine4 ,,tra,,chyte4 ,from the ,gr4 trachus1 rough4 ,a variety of lava4 ,a feldspathic rock1 which often contains glassy feldspar and hornblende4 ,when the feldspar crystals are thickly and uniformly disseminated1 it is called trachytic porphyry4 ,,trap4 ,from the ,swedish trappa1 a flight of stairs1 because trap rocks frequently occur in large tabular masses rising one above another like the successive steps of a stair-case4 ,applied to certain igneous rocks composed of feldspar1 angite1 and hornblende4 ,,tra,,ppean4 ,belonging to trap rocks4 ,,trema,,ndra4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,tremndrea4 ,,trias4 ,from the ,lat4 tres1 three4 ,synonym of the trissic system of rocks1 consisting of the ,bunter sandstein1 the ,muschelkalk1 and ,keuper1 a group of sandy marls of variegated colors4 ,,tricho,,manes4 ,from the ,gr4 trichos1 hair1 and mania1 madness1 excess4 ,a genus of plants of the class of ,crytogamia4 ,trichomanes brevisetum4 ,short-styled trichmanes4 ,,tricy,,rtis4 ,from the ,gr4 treis1 three1 and kurtis1 a sack or pouch4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,melanthce4 ,,tridenta,,ta4 ,lat4 ,three-toothed2 having three teeth4 ,,tri,,gonoce,,phalus4 ,from the ,gr4 treis1 three1 gonos1 an angle1 and kephale1 head4 ,a genus of very venemous serpents4 ,trigonocephalus lanceolatus4 ,lance-head viper4 ,,tri,,lobite4 ,from the ,lat4 tres1 three1 and lobus1 lobe4 ,a genus of fossil crustceans4 ,,trio,,nyx4 ,from the ,gr4 treis1 three1 and onux1 a nail4 ,a genus of ,chelonians4 ,,trio,,steum4 ,from the ,gr4 treis1 three1 and osteon1 a bone1 a nut4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,caprifolice4 ,,tu,,fa4 ,italian4 ,a volcanic rock1 composed of an agglutination of fragmented scori4 ,,tung,,sten4 ,swedish4 ,heavy stone4 ,a metal which is hard1 white1 brittle1 and difficult to fuse4 ,,tu,,rquoise4 ,a blue mineral found in ,persia2 its color depends on the presence of oxide of copper4 ,,um,,bel4 ,a form of inflorescence1 in which several peduncles expand so as to produce a flower somewhat resembling a parasol when open4 ,,umbelli,,fer4 ,from umbel1 screen1 and fero1 ,i bear4 ,name of a family of plants4 ,,umbelli,,ferous4 ,belonging or relating to ,umbellifer4 ,,uncina,,ta4 ,lat4 ,from uncus1 a hook4 ,hooked2 having hooks4 ,,upheaval4 ,the elevation of land by earthquakes4 ,,ura,,nium4 ,a metal discovered by ,klaproth1 in #aghi4 ,,ursi,,nus4 ,lat4 ,belonging or relating to bears4 ,u,,sneoides4 ,from usne1 a kind of lichen1 and the ,gr4 eidos1 resemblance4 ,resembling the usne4 ,u,,rens4 ,lat4 ,burning4 ,,va,,cuum4 ,from the ,lat4 vacuus1 empty4 ,a portion of space void of matter4 ,,vagina,,lis4 ,lat4 ,from vagina1 a sheath4 ,a genus of birds4 ,,vana,,dium4 ,a silvery white metal1 discovered originally by ,del ,rio1 in #ahja1 but not admitted until #ahcj4 ,,vane,,ssa4 ,a genus of butterflies4 ,vanessa cardui1 the painted lady butterfly4 ,,vero,,nica4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,scropularn4 ,,ve,,rtebra4 ,from the ,lat4 vertere1 to turn4 ,a joint or bone of the spine4 ,vertebral column1 is the spine or back bone4 ,,ver,,tebrate4 ,having vertebr1 or a spine4 ,,verticose4 ,whorl-like4 ,,vene,,niflua4 ,lat4 ,flowing with poison4 ,,verni,,ciflua4 ,lat4 ,flowing with varnish4 ,,ver,,nix4 ,lat4 ,varnish4 ,,villo,,sus4 ,lat4 ,velvety4 ,,vi,,ridis4 ,lat4 ,green4 ,,vi,,tex4 ,chaste-tree4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,verbence4 ,,vit,,rified4 ,from the ,lat4 vitrea1 glass4 ,converted into glass4 ,,vituli,,na4 ,from the ,lat4 vitulus1 a sea calf4 ,belonging or relating to seals4 ,,vivipa,,rum4 ,lat4 ,viviparous4 ,,volca,,nic4 ,belonging or relating to volcanoes4 ,,volta,,ic4 ,applied to electricity produced after the manner of ,volta1 an ,italian philosopher4 ,,vultur ,,papa4 ,the king of vultures4 ,,watershed4 ,the general declivity of the face of a country which determines the direction of the flowing of water4 ,,weald4 ,name of a part of ,kent and ,surrey in ,england4 ,the ,wealden clay and ,wealden deposit are found in this part of ,england4 ,,xanthox,,ylum4 ,from the ,gr4 xanthos1 yellow1 xulon1 wood4 ,tooth-ache tree4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,rutce4 ,,xera,,nthemum4 ,from the ,gr4 xeros1 dry1 and anthos1 flower4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,composit4 ,,yerba ,,mate4 ,spanish name of the ,ilex paraguensis4 ,,ytt,,rium4 ,a metal discovered by ,whler1 in #ahbh2 it is of a dark gray color and brittle4 ,,yuc,,ca4 ,adam's needle4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,lilice4 ,it yields an esculent root4 ,,za,,mia4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,cycde4 ,,zanniche,,llia4 ,after ,zannichella1 a ,venetian apothecary4 ,pond weed4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,naiades4 ,,zirco,,nium4 ,a metal found in zirconia1 an earth1 discovered by ,klaproth in #aghi4 ,,zi,,zyphus4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,rhamni4 ,z4 jujuba1 yields the jujube fruit4 ,,zoste,,ra4 ,from the ,gr4 zoster1 a riband4 ,sea-wrack grass4 ,a genus of plants of the family of ,fluviales4 ,,zo,,ology4 ,from the ,gr4 zoon1 an animal1 and logos1 a discourse4 ,that branch of ,natural ,history which treats of animals4 ,,zo,,ophyte4 ,from the ,gr4 zoon1 an animal1 and phuton1 a plant4 ,an animal without vertebr1 or extremities1 that attaches itself to solid bodies1 and seems to live and vegetate like a plant4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,abyssinia1 #hi2 dimensions of1 ib42 table-land1 ib42 mountains1 ib42 geological structure1 ib4 ,acidulous springs1 #aec4 ,admiralty1 its encouragement of science1 #dfc4 ,afghanistan1 flora of1 #cbj4 ,africa1 extent and area1 #he2 height of table-land1 ib42 interior of continent1 #hf2 width at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 ib42 western mountains1 #hg2 the koroos1 ib42 western coast1 ib42 fertile tract across the continent1 #hi1 #ij2 deserts1 #ij1 #ia2 analogy of ,southern ,africa to the ,deccan1 #ib2 earthquake1 #aed4 ,africa1 rivers of1 #bah-bbd2 the ,gariep1 or ,orange ,river1 #bah2 the ,zambesi1 #bai2 the ,haines1 ib42 the ,hawash1 ib42 the ,zaire1 ib42 the ,nile1 ib4-#bbc2 the ,white ,nile1 #bbj2 its affluents1 ib42 the ,blue ,nile1 ib42 its tributaries1 ib42 the ,takkazie1 ib42 ,abyssinian rivers1 #bba2 course of the ,nile1 ib42 its basin1 #bbb2 velocity1 ib42 inundations1 ib42 ancient renown of1 ib42 the ,niger1 #bbc2 barbarous state of its nations1 ib42 its sources and course1 #bbc2 its affluents1 ib42 its branches1 ib42 inundations1 #bbd2 the ,gambia1 ib42 the ,senegal1 ib4 ,africa1 flora of1 #ccj2 quadrupeds of1 #dbc2 birds of1 #djb4 ,agassiz1 ,m41 on a former glacier in ,chamouni1 #ec4 ,agouti1 #dcb4 ,aconcagua1 volcano of1 #ie4 ,ai1 species of sloth1 #dbi4 ,airy1 ,mr41 #af2 #dfb4 ,alector1 genus of birds1 #djg4 ,alleghanies1 chain of1 #abh1 #abi2 area1 ib42 scenery1 ib42 branches1 #abi2 vegetation on1 #cdb4 ,alligators1 #chi4 ,alpaca or ,paco1 #dca2 on naturalization of1 in ,europe1 ib4 ,alpine vegetation1 #cah4 ,alps1 the1 #di2 higher ,alps1 their extent1 ib42 elevation of central ridge of1 ib42 width of the chain1 #ej2 ice in1 #eb2 flora of1 #cac4 ,altai ,mountains1 #fe2 length and breadth of the chain1 ib42 form1 ib42 geology of1 #ff4 ,alluvial deposits by rivers1 #cc4 ,amblyrhinchus1 genus of reptiles1 #cia4 ,amboyna1 its vegetation1 #cbe4 ,america1 length and form of the continent1 #ic2 its natural divisions1 ib42 climate1 ib42 mountains1 ib42 mean height of1 #ace4 ,america1 rivers of1 #bcd-bdd2 the ,st4 ,lawrence1 #bce2 ,arctic streams1 ib42 the ,mississippi1 #bce1 #bcf2 its sources1 #bce2 its tributaries1 ib42 the ,missouri1 ib42 the ,arkansas1 ib42 the ,red ,river1 ib42 the ,ohio1 #bcf2 length of the ,mississippi1 ib42 floods1 #bcg2 rivers of the ,alleghany chain1 ib42 of the ,rocky ,mountains1 ib42 ,mexican rivers1 ib42 rivers of the ,andes1 #bch2 the ,orinoco1 its rise and course1 #bci2 tributaries1 ib42 area of its basin1 #bdj2 floods1 ib42 the ,amazons1 its rise and course1 ib42 its basin1 ib42 tributaries1 #bda2 floods1 ib42 branches1 ib42 colour of ,american rivers1 #bdb2 the ,rio de la ,plata1 its rise1 ib42 tributaries1 ib42 length1 ib42 floods and inundations1 #bdc2 the ,colorado1 #bdc2 the ,rio ,negro1 ib42 the ,essequibo1 ib42 navigation of ,south ,american rivers1 ib42 the ,par1 #bdd2 the ,san ,francisco1 ib4 ,america1 continental islands of1 #aci4 ,american quadrupeds1 #dbf2 birds1 #djd1 #dje2 races of man1 #dch4 ,america peopled from ,asia1 #ddh4 ,america1 ,central1 its dimensions1 #aad2 mountains1 ib42 climate and vegetation1 #aaf2 volcanos1 ib42 geology1 #aah4 ,america1 ,central1 flora of1 #cdd4 ,america1 ,north1 its dimensions and structure1 #aai2 mountains1 #aai-abc1 #abh-abi2 plains1 #abc1 #acj2 progressive extinction of aborigines1 #aca2 geological notice1 #aca-acc2 volcanic action1 #aca2 fossil mammalia1 ib42 analogy of the geology of ,north ,america with that of ,europe1 #acb-acc2 mean height of the continent1 #ace2 coalfields1 #ahd1 #ahe2 flora of1 #cda4 ,america1 ,south1 length and width1 #ic2 its mountains1 #id-aje2 low lands1 #aje-aad2 their extent and area1 #aje2 geology1 #aji-aad2 volcanic remains1 #aji1 note2 upheavings and subsidences1 #aab2 mean height of the continent1 #acd2 earthquakes1 #aed2 tropical flora of1 #cdf4 ,ammonia1 its use in vegetation1 #cja4 ,amphiuma1 #chf4 ,amucu1 lake1 #ajd4 ,anatolia1 table-land and mountains of1 #ef4 ,andes1 chain of1 #ic-ajc2 ,patagonian ,andes1 #id2 ,chilian ,andes1 #ie2 ,peruvian ,andes1 #if2 fertility and populousness of1 ib42 ancient civilization1 ib42 ,bolivian ,andes1 ib41 #ig2 three ranges of the chain1 #ih2 ,andes of ,cundinamarca and ,merida1 #ajj2 passes of the ,andes1 elevations of1 #aja2 climate and temperature1 #ajb2 development of volcanic force in the ,andes1 #aji1 #aaj2 geology of1 #aaa1 #aac2 coal found in1 #aaa2 volcanic products1 #aab2 sea-shells in1 ib42 alternate elevation and depression of1 #aab1 #aac2 volcanos in eruption in #ahce1 #aab2 ,andes of ,central ,america1 #aad1 #aae4 ,aneroid barometer1 #bfa4 ,angara1 a ,siberian river1 #bej4 ,angora goat1 #dah4 ,animated beings1 new races of1 accompany great geological changes in the strata1 #cd2 their ancient geographical distribution1 #ce4 ,anjou1 ,lieutenant1 his voyage1 #gf1 note4 ,anoa1 the1 #dbb4 ,anolis1 genus of reptiles1 #cij4 ,antarctic lands1 #afe-afg4 ,ant-eaters1 #dbj4 ,antelopes of ,asia1 #dbj2 of ,africa1 #dbd4 ,antelope ,saiga1 #dai4 ,antelope1 ,prongbuck1 or ,american1 #dbg4 ,anti-,libanus1 height of1 #hc4 ,ants1 #cfg4 ,ants1 white1 their ravages1 ib4 ,antuco1 vegetation at1 #cej4 ,apennines1 their extent1 #ea4 ,aptenodytes1 southern penguin1 #djh4 ,apteryx1 anomalous bird1 #daj4 ,arabia1 peninsula of1 #ha1 #hb2 elevation of table-land1 #ha2 mountains1 #hb4 ,arabia ,felix1 #hb4 ,arabia ,petrea1 #hc4 ,arabia1 flora of1 #cbi4 ,arabians1 #dcg4 ,arago1 ,m41 on polarized light1 #bhd4 ,aral1 lake of1 #bdh1 #bdi4 ,ararat1 ,mount1 #ef1 #dah4 ,araucari1 a bird1 #djg4 ,araucaria1 genus of plants1 #cdi4 ,arctic lands1 #aei-afg4 ,ardea helias1 #djh4 ,areca tree and nut1 #cbd4 ,argali sheep1 #dah4 ,armadilloes1 #dbi4 ,armenia1 plains of1 #ef4 ,arrow-root1 #cdg4 ,artesian wells1 #aeb1 #baj4 ,asia1 mean height of1 #acd2 volcanos of1 #aeb2 earthquakes in1 #aec4 ,asia1 rivers of1 #bbd1 #bcd2 system of the ,euphrates and ,tigris1 area of its basin1 #bbd2 rise and course of the ,euphrates1 #bbe2 of the ,tigris1 ib42 their junction1 ib42 ancient and present state of their banks1 ib42 the ,indus1 its sources1 #bbf2 its tributaries1 ib42 its navigation1 #bbg2 its delta1 ib42 length and area1 ib42 the ,ganges and ,brahmapootra1 sources of1 #bbh2 their tributaries1 ib42 length1 #bbh1 #bbi2 inundations1 #bbi2 branches1 ib42 drainage1 ib42 the ,irawady1 #bcj2 the ,menam1 ib42 the ,cambodja1 ib42 the ,sang1 #bca2 the ,hoang-,ho1 ib42 the ,yang-tse-,kiang1 ib42 the ,hong-,kiang1 #bcb2 the ,white ,river1 ib42 the ,amur1 ib42 the ,lena1 ib42 the ,yenessei1 #bcc2 the ,oby and ,irtish1 ib42 great difference in the inhabitants of the basins of ,asiatic rivers1 #bcd4 ,asia1 flora of1 #cai2 quadrupeds of1 #dag2 birds of1 #djj4 ,asp1 ,egyptian1 a snake1 #chg4 ,ass1 wild1 or onagra1 #dah4 ,assal1 lake of1 #bej4 ,assam1 ,upper1 its mountains1 #fd4 ,assam1 tea-plant in1 #cbb4 ,assyrian wilderness1 #hd4 ,atlantic ,ocean1 volcanic islands of1 #adj2 its size1 #ahi4 ,atlantic ,plain1 #acj4 ,atlantic ,slope1 #acj4 ,atlas mountains1 #df4 ,atmosphere influential in modifying the distribution of light and heat1 #ae4 ,atolls1 #adb-ade2 description of1 #adc2 diameter1 #add2 atolls of the ,pacific1 ib42 of the ,china ,sea1 ib42 of the ,indian ,ocean1 #ade2 great extent of atolls1 #adh4 ,auchenia1 genus of llamas1 #dcj4 ,auckland ,islands1 flora of1 #cec4 ,aurochs1 or wild ox1 #daf4 ,aurora1 the1 #bij2 form and height of1 #bia2 effect on the magnetic needle1 ib4 ,australia1 continent of1 #acf-aci4 ,australia1 rivers of1 their insignificance1 #bdd2 the ,murray1 ib42 the ,macquarrie1 ib42 ,swan ,river1 ib4 ,australia1 flora of1 #ccf2 quadrupeds of1 #cdd2 birds of1 #cji2 human races1 #dch4 ,axolotl1 a ,mexican reptile1 #chf4 ,azerbijan1 #dah4 ,b4 ,babbage1 ,mr41 on age of peat-mosses1 #ceh4 ,babiroussa hog1 #dba4 ,back1 ,sir ,george1 #dfc4 ,bahama ,islands1 #aah4 ,bahr-el-,abiad1 or ,white ,nile1 #bea4 ,see ,nile4 ,bahr-el-,azrek1 or ,blue ,nile4 ,see ,nile4 ,baikal mountains1 #ii4 ,baily1 ,mr41 #ai2 and note4 ,balkan1 #ej4 ,baltic ,sea1 its area1 #bjg2 basin1 ib42 depth1 ib42 climate1 ib42 influence on ,european civilization1 #ddi4 ,baratra1 the1 #djc4 ,barbican1 a genus of birds1 #djc4 ,baring1 ,sir ,francis1 #dfc4 ,barley1 origin and cultivation of1 #cef4 ,barometer1 use in determining heights1 #bfa2 how affected by storms1 #bfi2 horary visitations of1 #bfb2 aneroid1 #bfa1 note4 ,barren ,ground1 the1 of ,north ,america1 #abi4 ,barrier-reefs1 #ade2 notice of a reef off the north-east coast of ,australia1 #adf4 ,batrachians1 an order of reptiles1 #chd2 their distribution1 #che4 ,bear1 #dag1 #dai4 ,bear1 the grizzly1 #dbg4 ,beaufort1 ,admiral ,sir ,francis1 #dfc4 ,beaumont1 ,m4 ,elie de1 extension of ,von ,buch's views1 #ci1 note2 parallelism of contemporary chains1 #dc4 ,beechey1 ,captain1 his measurement of the height of the ,nevado of ,aconcagua1 #ie4 ,bees1 distribution of1 #cff4 ,beke1 ,dr41 travels in ,africa1 #hi4 ,beloot ,tagh1 or ,cloudy ,mountains1 #ei4 ,benguela1 #hh4 ,ben ,nevis1 its elevation1 #ga4 ,besborough1 ,earl of1 #dfc4 ,bessel1 ,m41 his measurement of the earth's radii1 #af2 his results compared with those of ,mr4 ,airy1 #ag2 with ,colonel ,sabine's1 #ag1 note4 ,birds1 classification of1 #cib2 geographical distribution of1 #cic2 migration of1 ib42 gregarious1 #cig2 ,british1 #cih2 ,european1 #cid2 ,asiatic1 #djj2 ,african1 #djb2 ,north ,american1 #djd2 ,south ,american1 #dje2 ,australian1 #dji2 of ,new ,zealand1 #daj2 fossil from ,new ,zealand1 #daj4 ,bison1 the1 a species of ox1 #dbg4 ,black ,sea1 its area1 #bjg2 basin1 ib42 depth1 ib4 ,blue ,mountains1 #aag4 ,boa1 a genus of serpents1 #chh4 ,boar1 wild1 #daf4 ,bombon1 plain1 its height1 #ih4 ,borax1 lakes of1 in ,tibet1 #bej4 ,borneo1 general features1 products1 and climate of1 #adc2 population of1 #dch4 ,bou1 ,m41 his deductions from a comparison of different parts of the land1 #db2 nature's fundamental types few1 #dc2 interruptions in continents and mountain-chains1 #de2 ,scandinavian mountain system1 #gj4 ----1 ,dr41 on the influence of chains of mountains on the difference of nations1 #ddh4 ,brazil1 table-land1 its form1 #ajd2 boundaries1 ib42 soil1 #aje2 flora of1 #cdh4 ,brienz1 lake of1 #bdg4 ,britain1 flora of1 #cag4 ,british mountains1 geology of1 #ga4 ,british population1 #ddc4 ,brooke1 ,sir ,j41 at ,borneo1 #dfj4 ,buch1 ,von1 the structure of the globe1 #ci1 note2 notice of mountains in ,germany1 #dd2 classification of islands1 #aci2 boundary of the ,australian continent1 #ada4 ,bunsen1 ,chevalier1 on the antiquity of the ,egyptian dynasties1 #ddd1 note4 ,buphaga1 a genus of birds1 #djc4 ,c4 ,caama antelope1 #dbd4 ,cabiai1 or myopotamus1 #dcc4 ,cachalot1 or spermaceti whale1 #cgi4 ,calbongos1 #hh4 ,camel1 ,bactrian1 #dbj2 ,arabian1 or dromedary1 ib4 ,camellia1 country of1 #cba4 ,campbell's ,island1 #ced4 ,campos ,parecis1 desert of1 #aje4 ,canadas1 the1 products1 #abg2 ice-storms #abh2 waste-land1 ib4 ,cape ,negro1 #hg4 ,cape pigeons1 or pintadoes1 #cic4 ,cariama1 a gallinaceous bird1 #djg4 ,caribbean ,sea1 #bji4 ,caroline ,archipelago1 #add4 ,carpathian mountains1 #di4 ,carnivorous quadrupeds1 #dad4 ,cashmere1 flora of1 #caj4 ,cashmere1 goat1 #dai4 ,casius1 ,mount1 height of1 #hc4 ,caspian ,sea1 its depression1 #gc4 ,caspian ,sea1 #bdh4 ,cassican1 genus of birds1 #dja4 ,cassowary1 #djb4 ,caucasus1 the1 #ee4 ,caucasian race of mankind1 #dcf2 its distribution1 ib4 ,cavendish1 ,mr41 #ai4 ,cebus1 an ,american monkey1 #dbi4 ,celtic races of man1 #dda4 ,cerealia1 geographical distribution of1 #cee4 ,cereopsis1 a ,new ,holland bird1 #daj4 ,cerro ,duida1 height of1 #ajd4 ,cetacea1 division of1 #cgg4 ,ceylon1 island of1 #hj2 flora of1 #cbi4 ,chameleons1 #cij4 ,chamois1 #dag1 #dai4 ,charpentier1 ,m41 his measurement of the base of the ,pyrenees1 #acd1 note4 ,cheiroptera1 or bats1 #dad4 ,chelonians1 or turtles1 #cib4 ,chelyd1 #cia4 ,cherokee ,indians1 #deh4 ,chile1 its climate1 #ie2 group of volcanic vents1 #aaj2 rise of the coast1 #aac2 vegetation of1 #cdi4 ,chimpanzee1 #dbb1 #dbe4 ,china1 great productiveness of1 #gh2 area of its alluvial plain1 ib42 extent of great canal of1 ib42 climate1 ib42 fire-hills and fire-springs of1 #aeb2 flora of1 #cba4 ,chinchilla1 #dcb4 ,chinese empire1 extent of mountains in1 #ei4 ,chinese population1 #dcg4 ,chionis1 an antarctic bird1 #dji4 ,chious1 #daj4 ,chiquisaca1 #ig4 ,chitta1 the hunting leopard1 #dba4 ,chlamyphores1 #dbi4 ,choco1 chain of1 #ajj4 ,cinchona1 or ,peruvian-bark tree1 #caa2 #cdg4 ,circassians1 #dcf4 ,civilization1 effects of1 #dci2 greatest in the vicinity of the sea1 #deg4 ,climate during the ,eocene period1 #bi2 excessive cold of the ,pleiocene period1 #ca4 ,climate altered by cultivation1 #dea4 ,clouds1 formation and height of1 #bgd2 different names given to1 ib4 ,coal1 diffusion of1 #aha-ahf2 quantity consumed and exported annually by ,great ,britain1 #ahd1 note2 quantity produced in ,france in #ahda1 ib42 quantity raised in one year1 ib41 note2 annual value of coal1 #ahd4 ,coalfields1 great extent of1 #cf4 ,coasts1 extent and form of1 #dj2 comparative extent of1 in the four quarters of the globe1 #da4 ,cobra capello1 or hooded snake1 #chg4 ,coca 7,erythroxylon71 #cej4 ,coccineal insect1 #cff4 ,ccili1 genus of reptiles1 #chf4 ,coffee-plant1 and history of1 #ccj4 ,cold1 regions where greatest1 #beh4 ,colima1 volcanic cone1 #aba4 ,colobus1 genus of ,lemurid1 #dbe4 ,colombian ,archipelago4 ,see ,west ,indian ,islands4 ,condor1 the1 #djf4 ,conifer1 family of plants1 #cfb4 ,continent1 the great1 form of1 #de2 its high lands1 #df1 #fi2 ,european portion of its mountains1 #dg2 extent and breadth of high lands between the ,mediterranean and the ,pacific1 #ee2 area of its high land1 #gc2 southern low lands1 #gg2 great extent of desert1 #ib2 continental islands of1 #adj4 ,continents1 forces that raised them1 their mode of action1 #cg2 area of the great continent1 #ch2 relative extent of continents and islands1 ib42 elevation of continents1 #da2 interruptions in1 #de2 mean height of1 #acc2 height of their centres of gravity1 #ace4 ,continental islands described1 #aci4 ,copper1 diffusion of1 #agh4 ,coral formations1 four kinds of1 #adc4 ,coral reefs1 #adf4 ,cotopaxi1 height of1 #ii4 ,coucals1 genus of birds1 #dja4 ,coucou1 #djg4 ,couroucou1 species of bird1 #dja4 ,crater of elevation1 definition of1 #dh1 note4 ,crax alector1 #djg4 ,crime1 decrease of1 by education1 #dga4 ,crocodiles in general1 #chi2 of the ,nile1 ib42 of the ,ganges1 ib4 ,cryptogamia1 #cjf4 ,cuba1 area and coast-line1 #aah2 height of its mountains1 ib4 ,culture1 its influence on the human form1 #ddg4 ,currents1 causes of1 #aig2 direction and velocity1 ib42 great oceanic currents1 #aih2 ,gulf-stream1 #aii2 breadth of currents1 ib42 counter-currents1 #bjj2 periodical currents1 ib42 effect of currents on voyages1 #bja4 ,cusco1 city1 #ih2 reliques of the ,incas1 ib4 ,cush1 or land of ,ethiopia1 #ddc4 ,cutch1 river of1 #ha4 ,cuvier1 ,baron1 #cj1 #cb1 #dfc4 ,cuyo1 a province of ,south ,america1 #dcj4 ,d4 ,daman1 or ,hyrax1 #dbe4 ,dangerous ,archipelago1 #add4 ,daouria mountains1 #ff4 ,daouria1 flora of1 #caf4 ,darwin1 ,mr41 his speculations on perfect animals found buried in ,siberia1 #cb2 his #8,travels in ,south ,america' quoted1 #aab2 on red water on the coast of ,chile1 #cgj2 on reptiles of ,galapagos1 #cia2 on ,aconcagua ,peak1 #bgb4 ,dasyurus1 a genus of carnivora1 #dcd4 ,da ,vinci1 ,leonardo1 his hydraulic operations1 #bag1 note4 ,davy1 ,sir ,humphry1 his discovery of metalloids1 #afh2 his safety-lamp1 #agc1 note4 ,day and night1 unequal duration of1 #ae4 ,dead ,sea1 depression of1 #hd1 note4 ,dead ,sea1 #bdg4 de ,candolle1 ,m41 on botanical regions1 note1 #cjh2 on growth of trees1 #ceh4 ,deccan1 table-land of1 #gi2 its height and composition1 #hj2 structure1 ib42 soil1 ib4 ,deer1 ,asiatic1 #dba4 ,de la ,beche1 ,sir ,henry1 on metalliferous deposits1 #agj1 #dfc4 ,dembia lake1 #bea4 ,deodora pine1 #cbj4 ,desaguadero1 table-land or valley of1 its dimensions1 #if2 its area1 #ig4 ,dinornis1 a fossil bird1 #daj4 ,dip of the horizon1 #ag4 ,distance estimated from known height of an object1 #ag4 ,dodo1 an extinct bird1 #daj4 ,dogs1 ,american1 #dbg4 ,dolphins1 #cgh4 ,domestic animals1 number of species1 #deb4 ,donny1 ,m41 his experiments with boiling water1 #afc4 ,douglas1 ,mr41 his account of an eruption of the volcano of ,kirawah in #ahcd1 #aea4 ,dove1 ,professor1 on mean temperatures1 #bei4 ,dragon lizard1 #cij4 ,dry ,river1 #hf4 ,dugong1 the1 #cgg4 ,dzeran goat1 #dai4 ,dziggetai1 the1 #dah1 note4 ,e4 ,earth1 the1 its insignificance in space1 #ac2 instability of its shell1 #ad2 its internal fires1 ib42 changes which have brought about its present state1 ib42 its future destruction1 ib42 its distance from the sun1 #ae2 its annual and diurnal revolutions1 ib42 its position in the solar system1 ib42 inclination of the axis1 ib42 its relative magnitude1 ib42 its oblateness1 note1 ib42 its figure and density deduced from the perturbations in the motions of the moon1 ib42 its curvature1 #af2 modes of determining its form and size1 ib42 its radii1 ib42 its circumference and diameter1 ib42 experiment to ascertain the value of its mass1 #ah2 its mean density1 #ai2 increase in density towards the centre1 ib42 constitution of its surface1 ib42 an idea of its structure obtained from mining1 ib42 its antiquity1 #cd2 unequal arrangement of land and water1 #cg1 #ch2 ancient internal action1 #ace4 ,earthquakes1 #aec-aeg2 causes of1 #aed2 propagation of the shocks ib42 effect on the sea1 #aee2 elevation of the ground1 ib42 sound of the explosion1 rate of progression of1 ib42 velocity of the great oceanic wave1 #aef2 comparative destructiveness of earthquakes1 #aeg2 frequency of small shocks1 ib42 extent of undulations1 ib42 rapidity of destruction1 ib42 partial shocks1 ib42 effects of earthquakes on the configuration of the country1 #aeh4 ,eagles1 #cie4 ,east ,india ,company1 its encouragement of science1 #dfc4 ,echidna1 #dce4 ,edentata1 #dad2 ,south ,american1 #dbi4 ,egede1 ,m41 on sea-serpents1 #cha4 ,ehrenberg1 ,m41 microscopic shells discovered by1 #ce4 ,eider duck1 the1 #djg4 ,eocene period1 the globe and its inhabitants during1 #bi4 ,elburz1 elevation of1 #ef4 ,electricity in general1 #bhe2 of the atmosphere1 #bhf4 ,elephants1 fossil1 multitudes of1 in ,siberia1 #cf4 ,elephants1 ,asiatic1 #dba2 ,african1 #dbd4 ,elk1 the1 #daf4 ,elliot1 ,mr4 ,alexander1 his expedition to the sources of the ,ganges1 #bbh4 ,el-,teh1 desert of1 #hb4 ,eltonsk1 lake of1 #bdh4 ,emigration1 its effects in ,great ,britain1 #dei4 ,emu1 ,australian cassowary1 #daj4 ,emys1 fresh-water tortoise1 #cia4 ,encircling reefs1 #ade4 ,england1 earthquakes in1 #aed2 its coalfields1 #ahb4 ,equator1 protuberant matter at1 influences and is influenced by the moon's motion1 #ag1 note4 ,erebus1 ,mount1 #aff4 ,erie1 lake1 #bea4 ,erman1 ,m41 on evaporation1 #bgc4 ,espenhao1 chain of1 #aje4 ,esquimaux1 #dcg4 ,ethiopian races1 #dch4 ,etna1 manner of its explosions1 #aec4 ,europe1 mean height and area of1 #acd4 ,european mountains1 frequency of deep lakes in1 #ej2 geological notice1 #ec4 ,evaporation in different regions1 #bgb4 ,f4 ,factory labour1 #dab1 note4 ,falkland ,islands1 vegetation of1 #ceb4 ,famel1 #dbe4 ,faraday1 ,dr41 on auroras1 #bia2 on magnetic properties of matter1 #bif4 ,feroe ,islands1 #gj4 ,fichtelberge1 area of1 #dh4 ,finns1 the1 #ddb4 ,fire1 subterranean lakes of liquid1 #ad2 volcanic1 its agency in the formation of rocks1 #bj4 ,firefly1 the1 #cff4 ,fishes1 geographical distribution1 #cgc2 migration of1 #cge2 fresh-water1 ib4 ,fitzroy1 ,captain1 #ddg2 note1 #dei4 ,floras of different countries1 #cab4 ,fogs1 how produced1 #bgc4 ,fonseca ,bay1 #beb4 ,forbes1 ,professor ,e41 on ,british fauna and flora1 #ca1 note2 on glaciers1 #ec2 on primary floras1 #caj2 on ,egean fuci1 #cfj2 on the influence of depth on marine animals1 #cgj2 on the ,mediterranean1 #cga4 ,formosa1 population of1 #dch4 ,fossil remains1 immense quantity of1 #ce4 ,foulahs1 an ,african nation1 #dch4 ,fourier's theory of central heat1 #bef4 ,fox1 the1 #daf4 ,fox1 ,mr41 on metalliferous deposits1 #agj4 ,france1 its high lands1 #dh2 mean height of its flat provinces1 #gc2 mean elevation of1 #acd4 ,franklin1 ,sir ,john1 #dfd4 ,fringill1 genus of birds1 #cih4 ,frogs1 #chd4 ,fuci1 or sea-weeds1 #cfa4 ,fuegians1 #cib4 ,fuego1 volcano del1 #aae4 ,future state1 a universal belief in1 #ddh4 ,g4 ,galago1 genus of ,lemurid1 #dbf4 ,galapagos islands1 flora of1 #cda2 birds of1 #djh2 mollusca of1 #cgb4 ,ganges1 valley of the1 #gi2 soil1 ib42 flatness1 ib4 ,gardner1 ,mr41 his computation of the extent of dry land1 #ch1 note4 ,gecko1 a species of lizard1 #cij4 ,gems1 diffusion of1 #ahf4 ,geneva1 lake of1 #bdg4 ,geography1 ,physical1 definition of1 #ac2 effects of the intellectual superiority of man among its most important subjects1 ib42 connection between it and geological structure of countries1 #db4 ,geology1 outline of1 #ai-cf4 ,georgian race1 #dcf4 ,gerard1 ,captain1 his estimate of the mean height of the ,himalaya1 #fa2 notices of its vegetation1 #fc2 snow-line1 ib42 height of the snow-line on mountains of ,middle ,asia1 #ace1 note4 ,gerboa1 or ,jerboa1 #dai4 ,geysers1 #afb2 ,great ,geyser1 #afc2 ,strokr1 ib4 ,giant petrel1 #djh4 ,gibbon1 a genus of monkeys1 #dbb4 ,gibraltar1 ,strait1 depth of1 #df4 ,gipsies1 number of1 #ddb4 ,giraffe1 #dbc4 ,glaciers1 #eb2 their rate of motion in the ,alps1 ib42 their composition1 ib42 their enormous pressure1 ib4 ,glutton1 #dag4 ,goatsuckers1 #cih4 ,gobi1 ,great1 area and elevation of1 #fi2 climate1 ib42 mean height1 #acd4 ,gobi1 desert of1 #bej4 ,gold1 diffusion of1 #agd4 ,gonung-,api1 volcanic island of1 #adi4 ,gothard1 ,st41 pass of1 #ej4 ,guasacalco river1 #beb4 ,gough's ,islands1 #bhb4 ,grampian hills1 #ga4 ,grampus1 #cgi4 ,gran ,chaco1 desert of1 #ajg4 ,gran ,sasso d',italia1 height of1 #ea4 ,gravitation1 variations in its intensity1 #ah4 ,great ,central ,plain of ,north ,america1 see ,mississippi1 valley of4 ,great ,northern ,plain1 #gc2 its soil1 ib42 geology1 #gg4 ,grecian mountains1 #ea4 ,greeks1 #dcf4 ,greenland1 #aei2 flora of1 #cda4 ,greenwich ,observatory1 #dfb4 ,guachero1 the1 #djf4 ,guan1 a gallinaceous bird1 #djg4 ,guanco1 #dca4 ,guatemala1 table-land of1 #aae2 fertility1 ib42 elevation1 ib42 volcanos1 ib4 ,guinea1 flora of1 #cdh4 ,guinea1 ,north1 #hh4 ,guinea1 ,new1 its size1 #ada2 height of its mountains1 #adb4 ,gulf of ,mexico1 #bji4 ,gurla1 mountain of1 #bdi4 ,h4 ,hail1 how formed1 #bhj4 ,haiti 7,san ,domingo71 dimensions1 #aag2 its mountains1 ib4 ,halos1 #bhc4 ,haudramaut1 depth of loose sand in1 #hb2 tradition concerning1 ib4 ,hebrides1 #ga4 ,heckla1 mount1 #afa4 ,heights of places1 table of1 #dge4 ,helena1 ,st41 #bie4 ,hermit ,island1 #ceb4 ,herschel1 ,sir ,john1 on cause of revolving storms1 #bfd4 ,himalaya1 chain1 general structure1 #fj2 mean height1 ib42 height of its peaks1 ib42 passes of1 #fb2 climate1 #fc2 range of vegetation1 ib42 geology of1 #fd4 ,hindoo ,coosh1 #fj1 #bif2 passes of1 #fb4 ,hindostan1 plains of1 their extent1 #gi2 peninsula1 ib4 ,hippelaphus of ,aristotle1 #dbb4 ,hippopotamus1 #dbd4 ,holland1 depression of1 #gc4 ,holland1 ,new1 length and breadth1 #acf2 climate1 ib42 coasts1 ib42 mountain-chain1 #acg2 length and average height of mountains1 ib42 rivers1 #ach4 ,see ,australia1 rivers of4 ,hooker1 ,sir ,william ,j41 #dfc1 note4 ,hooker1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,d41 on marine plants1 #cei1 note2 on ,antarctic ,alg1 #cfb4 ,hopkins1 ,mr41 his theory of fissures1 #dd4 ,horizon1 its dip1 #ag4 ,horse1 #dba2 varieties of1 ib41 #dbg4 ,houtias1 a gnawing animal1 #dcc4 ,human races1 #dcf2 permanency of type1 #ddd2 discrepancy of their colour1 #dde4 ,human constitution1 its flexibility1 #dde4 ,humboldt1 ,baron1 his #8,cosmos1' #e2 on the inclination of the ,peak of ,teneriffe1 #db2 estimate of the mean height of the ,himalaya1 #fa2 on the silvas of the ,amazons1 #ajg2 on the influence of table-lands and mountains on the mean height of continents1 #acc2 estimate of height of mean crest of the ,pyrenees1 #acd1 note2 measurements of highest peaks and mean heights of several mountain-chains1 #ace1 note2 notice of an earthquake at ,riobamba in #agig1 #aeg2 his statement of the quantity of the precious metals brought to ,europe from ,america1 #agf2 on river-floods1 #bae4 ,humming birds1 #djf4 ,hunter1 ,john1 #dfc4 ,huron1 lake1 #bej4 ,hurricanes1 #bfg4 ,hydraulic systems of ,europe1 #baf2 divisions1 ib42 system of the ,volga1 ib42 ,danube1 ib42 origin of the application of hydraulics to rivers1 #bag2 system of ,britain1 #bah4 ,hydrogen1 influence on vegetation1 #cja4 ,hydrographic ,office1 ,admiralty1 #dfc4 ,hyna1 ,asiatic species1 #dca2 ,african species1 #dbe4 ,hyla1 or tree-frog1 #che4 ,hyrax1 or ,daman1 #dbe4 ,hyrcanian mountains1 #dh4 ,i4 ,ibex1 or wild goat1 #dag4 ,ibis1 the red1 #djh4 ,ice1 quantity in the ,alps1 #eb2 rivers of1 ib4 ,ice1 polar1 #bjc2 area of1 in the ,arctic ,ocean1 ib42 north polar ice1 ib42 packed ice1 #bjd2 icebergs1 ib42 colours of ice1 #bje4 ,ice mountains1 #fg4 ,iceland1 #aff2 ice mountains1 #afa2 glaciers1 ib42 desert1 ib42 volcanos1 ib42 eruptions1 ib42 geysers1 #afc2 fiords1 #afd2 products1 ib42 climate1 ib42 storms1 ib4 ,ichneumon1 a carnivorous quadruped1 #dag4 ,india1 flora of1 #cbj4 ,indian ,archipelago1 islands of1 #ada2 their importance1 #adb2 surveys of their coasts1 ib42 flora of1 #cbf4 ,indian desert1 #ha4 ,indo-,chinese peninsula1 #gh2 its population1 #dcg4 ,insects1 geographical distribution of1 #cfc2 number of1 ib42 migration of1 #cfg4 ,iran1 plateau of1 see ,persia4 ,ireland1 its scenery1 #ga2 coal districts1 #ahc4 ,iron1 diffusion of1 #ahb2 quantity manufactured in ,britain in #ahdd1 #ahc1 note2 uses1 #ahd1 note2 value of1 in ,france1 in #ahch1 ib41 note4 ,isatis fox1 #dbg4 ,islands1 their relative extent to that of the continents1 #ch2 classification of1 #aci4 ,isothermal lines1 #beh4 ,itambe1 mountain1 height of1 #aje4 ,j4 ,jackal1 #dbe4 ,jaguar1 or ,american tiger1 #dbh4 ,jamaica1 its area1 #aag2 mountains1 ib42 extent of coast1 #aah2 temperature1 ib4 ,jan ,mayen's ,land1 #afd4 ,japan1 flora of1 #cba4 ,japanese1 #dcg4 ,java1 volcanos of1 #adi2 height of volcanic mountains1 ib42 destruction of a mountain in #aggb1 ib42 character of the coast1 ib42 8,valley of ,death10 #aec4 ,jebel ,houra1 #hb4 ,jebel ,okkdar1 height of1 #hb4 ,jewish population of ,europe1 #ddb4 ,johnston1 ,mr4 ,keith1 his ,physical ,atlas1 #e2 #dc1 note4 ,jordan1 valley of1 its fertility1 #hd2 its depression1 ib4 ,jordan1 river1 #bdg4 ,jorullo1 volcanic cone1 its sudden appearance1 #aba4 ,jukes1 ,mr41 his description of the rolling of the billows along the great ,australian barrier-reef1 #adf4 ,jura1 elevation of1 #ej4 ,k4 ,kailas ,peak1 #bdi4 ,kalmuks1 #dcg4 ,kamichi1 a gallinaceous bird1 #djg4 ,kamtchatka1 flora of1 #cae4 ,kangaroo1 #dcd4 ,kangaroo rat1 #dcd4 ,kelat1 elevation of1 #eh4 ,kerguelen's ,land1 vegetation of1 #cee4 ,keyserling1 ,count1 #fg1 note4 ,khing-han mountains1 #ei4 ,kiang1 wild ass of ,tibet1 #dai4 ,kingfishers1 #cih4 ,kinkajou1 the1 #dbh4 ,kirawah1 volcano of1 #aea2 eruption in #ahcd1 ib4 ,kirghiz1 steppes of1 #ge4 ,koko-nor lake1 #bej4 ,kombst's ethnographic map1 #ddc1 note4 ,kosciusko1 mount1 height of1 #acg4 ,kourdistan mountains1 #ef4 ,kuen-lun 7or ,chinese7 mountains1 #ei4 ,kurile ,islands1 volcanic vents of1 #aea4 ,l4 ,laccadive ,archipelago1 #ade4 ,ladak1 #cag4 ,ladoga1 lake of1 #bdf4 ,lagoons and ,lagoon ,islands1 #adc2 described1 #adf2 theories of their formation1 ib42 and note1 #adg4 ,land1 dry1 its area1 #cg2 its proportion to the ocean1 #ch1 note2 relative quantity in the northern and southern hemispheres1 #ch2 and in the various quarters of the globe1 ib42 unexplored1 ib42 polar lands1 ib42 tendency of land to assume a peninsular form1 #ci2 outline of the land1 ib42 changes in its level1 #aeh4 ,languages varying1 #ddj2 number of1 ib42 derivation and comparison of1 ib42 spoken in ,britain1 #ddc4 ,la ,paz1 city1 #ig4 ,lapland1 flora of1 #cae4 ,lasistn mountains1 #eg4 ,latitude1 sine of1 #ag1 note4 ,layard1 ,mr41 his antiquarian researches1 #bbe1 note4 ,lead1 diffusion of1 #agf4 ,lebanon1 mountains of1 #hc4 ,leithart1 ,mr41 #afi1 note4 ,lemurs1 #dbb1 #dbf4 ,leon or ,managua1 lake of1 #beb4 ,leopard1 #dba4 ,life1 duration of1 in different classes of society1 #dej1 note4 ,light1 composed of different rays1 #bhj2 its properties1 #bha2 absorbed by the atmosphere1 #bhb2 polarized1 #bhd2 influence on vegetation1 #cja4 ,lightning1 #bhh4 ,lion1 the1 #dbe4 ,litako1 in ,south ,africa1 #dei4 ,lizards1 #cij4 ,llama1 #dcj2 on its naturalization in ,europe1 #dca1 note4 ,llanos of the ,orinoco and ,venezuela1 #ajh2 area of1 ib42 character1 ib42 climate1 ib42 floods and conflagrations1 #aji2 temperature1 ib4 ,locusts1 flights of1 #cfg4 ,locks on canals1 early use of1 #bag2 their application by ,leonardo da ,vinci1 ib4 ,lophophorus1 a bird1 #dja4 ,lop lake1 #bej4 ,loudon1 ,alex41 ,esq41 account of the 8,valley of ,death10 in ,java1 #aec4 ,lourie1 a genus of parrots1 #djb4 ,loxa1 mountain-knot of1 #ih4 ,lucerne1 lake of1 #bdg4 ,lyell1 ,sir ,charles1 his theory of the formation of rocks1 #bj2 division of tertiary strata1 #bh2 on the ,alleghany mountains1 #abh2 on the fossiliferous rocks of northern ,europe and ,america1 #acb2 on the coal fields of ,north ,america1 #ahe2 on mollusca in the temperate zones1 #cgb2 on the number of existing species of animals1 #cha4 ,lynch1 ,lieut41 relative height of ,dead ,sea and ,jerusalem2 analysis of ,dead ,sea1 #bdh1 note4 ,lynch1 ,lieut41 expedition to the ,dead ,sea1 #hd1 note4 ,lynx1 the1 #daf4 ,m4 ,mac,cormick1 ,robert1 ,esq41 his description of the first view of ,victoria ,land1 #afe4 ,mace plant1 #cbe4 ,madagascar1 #hg2 fauna of1 #dbf2 inhabitants of1 #dch4 ,mageroe ,island1 #bgi4 ,maggiore lake1 #bdg4 ,magnetism1 #bia4 ,magnetic poles of the earth1 #bib4 ,magnetic intensity1 force of1 #bic4 ,magnetic needle1 hourly variation of1 ib4 ,magnetic variation or declination1 #bid4 ,magnetic storms1 #bie4 ,magnetic force1 lines of equal1 #bif4 ,magnolias1 region of1 #cdc4 ,maize1 or ,indian corn1 origin and culture of1 #cde4 ,malabar1 extent and height of its mountains1 #hj4 ,malayan races of man1 #dch4 ,maldive ,archipelago1 its dimensions1 #ade2 size of its atolls1 ib4 ,malurus ,africanus1 #djc4 ,mammalia1 division into groups1 #dac2 geographical distribution1 #dad2 migration of1 #dae2 instinct of1 ib4 ,man1 division into races1 #dcf2 his influence on the material world1 #dej4 ,manasa1 or ,manasarowar1 lake of1 #fg2 height of1 #dah4 ,manatus1 or lamantin1 #cgg4 ,mandshur1 its aspect1 #gh4 ,mandshuria1 #cba4 ,manfredi on the rate of rise in the bed of the ocean1 #cd4 ,mango1 a fruit1 #cbg4 ,manis1 #dba1 #dbe4 ,mankind1 numbers of1 #dcf4 ,marabous crane or stork1 #djd4 ,marine animals in general1 #cgj4 ,marine mammalia1 classification of1 #cgf4 ,marine vegetation1 #ceh4 ,marriage1 average number of1 annually1 #dee4 ,marsupial1 or pouched quadrupeds1 #dcd4 ,martineau1 ,miss1 her #8,journey to ,egypt and ,syria' quoted1 #aeb4 ,mediterranean ,sea1 volcanos of1 #aeb2 its area1 #bjg2 sources of supply1 ib42 depth1 ib42 tides and currents1 #bjh2 bed1 ib42 coasts1 ib42 its influence on ,european civilization1 #ddi4 ,miocene period1 the globe and its inhabitants during1 #bi4 ,mekram1 desert of1 #ha4 ,menopoma1 genus of reptiles1 #chf4 ,menura1 or lyre-bird1 #dji4 ,meridian1 terrestrial1 #af2 area of1 measured by ,m4 ,bessel1 ib42 length of a degree of1 ib42 measurement of an arc at ,quito1 #ii4 ,metals1 list of1 #afh1 note2 diffusion of1 #agd4 ,metalliferous ,deposits1 #afi1 c42 direction of1 #agj2 peculiar to particular rocks1 #aga4 ,metalloids1 list of1 #afh1 note4 ,mexico1 table-land and mountains1 #abj2 dimensions1 ib42 city of1 ib42 volcanos1 #aba2 ,barancas1 #abb2 vegetation1 ib42 flora1 #cdd4 ,midas ,leonina1 a genus of monkeys1 #dbi4 ,middendorf1 ,m41 #fg1 note4 ,millet1 its cultivation1 #cef4 ,mindanao1 population of1 #dch4 ,mines1 mode of opening1 #agb2 drainage1 ib42 ventilation1 #agc2 access1 ib42 depth1 ib4 ,mineral produce of ,europe1 value of1 in #ahbi1 #ahc1 note2 proportion furnished by ,england1 ib41 note4 ,mineral veins1 parallelism of1 #dc2 filling of1 #afi2 richest near the surface1 #agj1 note4 ,mirage1 #bhb4 ,mississippi1 valley of the1 its area1 #abc2 table-land1 ib42 general character1 #abd2 southern desert1 ib42 marshes1 ib42 the ,grand ,saline1 ib42 prairies1 ib42 forests1 #abe2 ,upper ,valley of the1 #abf1 #agg2 new states1 #abe2 principal lakes1 ib4 ,mitchell1 ,mr41 on the causes of earthquakes1 quoted1 #aee4 ,mongol ,tartar races1 #dcg4 ,mongolia1 its situation1 #fj2 little known1 #fi4 ,monitor1 genus of reptiles1 #chi2 fossil1 #cij4 ,monkeys1 ,american1 #dbh2 ,african1 #dbe4 ,monocotyledonous plants1 #cjf4 ,monsoons1 #bff4 ,mont ,blanc1 its height1 #di2 quantity of ice on1 #eb4 ,moon1 the1 its influence on1 and distance from the earth1 #ae2 its perturbations show the compression at the poles1 ib42 inequality in its motions produced by matter at the earth's equator1 #ag1 note4 ,moon1 the1 mountains of1 #hh4 ,moorcroft1 ,mr41 elevation of the sacred lake ,manasa1 #fg4 ,moose-deer1 or elk1 #dbe4 ,moraines1 #eb4 ,mosasaurus1 #cij1 note4 ,moscow1 height of1 #gc4 ,mosquito1 the1 #cfe4 ,mountains1 forms of1 #da2 their declivity1 #db2 contemporaneous upheaval of parallel mountain-chains1 #dc2 interruptions in1 #de2 table of the heights of the principal mountains of the globe1 #dge4 ,mountain-chains1 assumed form of1 #abi1 note2 a barrier to insects1 #cfd4 ,mouflon1 #daf4 ,mowna ,roa mountain1 #bfi4 ,m',quhae1 ,capt41 #chb4 ,murchison1 ,sir ,roderick ,j41 on the geology of the ,altai chain1 #ff2 observations on ,siberia1 #fg1 note2 researches in the ,ural mountains1 #gb2 on the geology of ,northern ,europe1 #gg4 ,museum1 ,british1 improved state of1 #dfb4 ,museum1 of ,practical ,geology1 #dfc4 ,museum1 ,hunterian1 #dfc4 ,musk-deer1 ,moschus1 #dbj4 ,musk-ox1 #dbg4 ,musk-rat1 or musquash1 #dbg4 ,mycetus1 or ,beelzebub monkey1 #dbi4 ,mysore1 table-land of1 height1 #hj2 soil1 ib4 ,myvatr1 #cfe4 ,n4 ,narwhals1 or ,monoceros1 #cgi4 ,negro tribes1 #dch4 ,nejed1 province of ,arabia1 #dbj4 ,newfoundland1 population of1 #acj2 distance from ,ireland1 ib4 ,new ,ireland1 people of1 #dch4 ,new ,siberian ,islands1 #afe4 ,new ,zealand1 flora1 #cch2 fauna #daa2 birds1 #daj2 inhabitants1 #dch4 ,nevado of ,aconcagua1 height of1 #ie4 ,nevado of ,cayamb1 height of1 #ii4 ,niagara1 lake and fall of1 #bea4 ,nicaragua1 plain and lake1 area of1 #aae2 lake and isthmus1 #beb4 ,nile1 valley of1 #ia2 river1 #bai4 ,nilgherry mountains1 height of1 #hj4 ,niti or ,netee ,pass1 #fb4 ,nitrogen contained in the air1 #cjj2 in plants1 ib4 ,nitrn1 valley of1 its convents1 #ia4 ,norway1 character of its coast1 #gj4 ,notornis1 fossil bird1 #daa4 ,nova ,zembla1 flora of1 #cad4 ,nutmeg1 the plant1 #cbe4 ,n'yassi1 lake1 #hf4 ,o4 ,ocean1 the proportion it bears to the land1 #cg2 mean depth of1 #ace2 its bed1 #ahh2 size1 ib42 sandbanks1 #ahi2 pressure1 #aij2 colour1 ib42 saltness1 #aia2 tides1 ib42 waves1 #aib2 currents1 #aig2 temperature1 #bja2 polar ice1 #bjc2 inland seas1 #bjf2 agency of the ocean in changing the surface of the earth1 #bji4 ,oitz1 lake of1 #bej4 ,okhotsk1 sea of1 #bfc4 ,oman1 height of its mountains1 #ha4 ,onega1 lake1 #bdf4 ,ontario1 lake of1 #bea4 ,opossum1 #dbh1 #dbi4 ,orange ,river1 #he4 ,orang-outang1 #dbb4 ,oriental plateau4 ,see ,tibet4 ,orinoco1 river1 #ajc2 its cataracts1 ib42 region of ,upper ,orinoco1 its fertility1 #ajd4 ,ornithorhynchus1 #dce4 ,oscillations of the ,pendulum4 ,see ,pendulum4 ,ostrich1 the ,african1 #djd2 the ,american1 #daj4 ,otaheite1 #ade4 ,otter1 the1 #dag4 ,owen1 ,professor1 his discoveries as a geologist1 #cj2 on sea-serpent1 #chb2 on ,british fossil quadrupeds1 #dag1 #dfc4 ,owhyhee1 its volcanos1 #aea4 ,owls1 #cih4 ,ox1 varieties of1 #dbj4 ,oxygen1 its influence on vegetation1 #cja4 ,p4 ,paca1 #dcc4 ,pacayo1 ,volcano de1 #aae4 ,pachydermata1 #dac4 ,pacific ,ocean1 islands of1 #adj2 volcanic islands in1 #adh2 great volcanic zone in1 #adi2 areas of elevation and subsidence in its bed1 ib42 its size1 #ahi4 ,palapteryx1 fossil bird1 #daa4 ,palms1 distribution of1 #ccc4 ,palte1 lake of1 #bdi4 ,pamer1 table-land1 #dbj4 ,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres1 #ajf2 their elevation1 ib42 floods1 #ajg2 conflagrations1 ib42 geology1 #aac4 ,pampros hurricanes1 #bga4 ,panama1 plains of1 extent1 #aae4 ,pandanus1 genus of plants1 #add4 ,pangolin1 or manis1 #dba4 ,panicum1 genus of ,cerealia1 #cef4 ,panthers1 #dba4 ,paradise1 birds of1 #djb4 ,parima1 mountain system of1 #ajc2 ,sierra del ,parima1 ib42 musical rock in1 ib4 ,parry1 ,sir ,edward1 #dfd4 ,parry's ,mountains1 #aff4 ,passages across the ,atlantic1 #bfg4 ,patagonia1 desert of1 #ajf2 climate1 ib42 geology1 #aac4 ,peccari1 or ,south ,american hog1 #dbh4 ,pelasgic ,islands1 description of1 #adj4 ,peltier's experiments on the heat of the earth1 #bee4 ,pendulum1 #ag2 its oscillations influenced by gravitation1 ib42 variations in1 #ah2 experiments with1 for ascertaining compression at the poles1 #ag2 affected by volcanic islands1 ib4 ,penguins1 southern 7,aptenodytes71 #djh4 ,peninsulas1 their southward tendency1 #dj2 form1 ib4 ,pentland1 ,mr4 his measurements of ,cordilleras and mountains of the ,andes1 #ig1 note2 and of their passes1 #aja1 note2 his discovery of a volcanic crater in the valley of the ,yucay1 #aji1 note2 and of fossil shells in ,bolivia and ,peru1 #aab1 note2 on measurement of highest peaks and mean heights of several mountain-chains1 #ace1 note2 on horary variation of the barometer1 #bfe2 on fishes of ,lake of ,titicaca1 #cge2 on the naturalization of the ,llama tribe1 #dca4 ,pepper-tree1 #cbe4 ,perfume of flowers1 cause of1 #cjd4 ,persia1 table-land of 7,plateau of ,iran71 area and elevation of1 #ee2 extent of ,persian mountains1 #eg2 great salt desert1 #eh2 flora1 #cai4 ,petra1 appearance of its site1 #hc4 ,petrel1 stormy1 the1 #cig4 ,petrel1 genus1 or ,procellari1 #cig1 #djh4 ,phacochre1 or ,african hog1 #dbe4 ,phalanger1 #dcd4 ,pheasants1 different species of1 #dja4 ,philedon1 genus of birds1 #dja4 ,phoc1 or seals1 #cgg4 ,physalia1 #cgf4 ,physeters1 or cachalots1 #cgi4 ,pichincha1 height of1 #ajj4 ,planets1 their magnitude relative to that of the earth1 #ae2 their influence on the earth's motion1 ib4 ,plants1 division of1 #cjf2 propagation of1 #cje2 sleep of1 ib42 nourishment of1 #cjj2 elements of1 #cja2 geographical distribution of1 #cjf4 ,pleiocene period1 the earth and its inhabitants during1 #cj2 changes during1 #ca2 discoveries of perfect animals buried in this period1 #cb4 ,pppig1 ,dr41 his #8,travels' quoted1 #id1 #agf2 on red water of the ocean1 #cgj4 ,pole1 ,north1 reasons for the existence of sea at1 #bjc4 ,poles1 compression at1 ascertained by perturbations in the moon's motions1 #ae2 by oscillations of the pendulum1 #ag4 ,polynesia1 flora of1 #dja4 ,polyplectron1 genus of birds1 #djg4 ,pontoppidan1 or sea-serpent1 #cha4 ,popocatepetl1 mountain1 #aba4 ,porcupine1 #dag4 ,porpoise1 genus of1 #cgi4 ,porter1 ,g4 ,r41 ,esq41 his #8,progress of the ,nation' quoted1 #ahd1 note4 ,porto ,rico1 dimensions and climate1 #aag4 ,portugal1 flora of1 #cai4 ,potato1 country of1 #cej4 ,potosi1 the height of1 #ig1 note2 city of1 its elevation1 #ig2 its mines1 #age4 ,prairies1 ,n4 ,american1 #abg1 note4 ,prairie-dog1 a marmot1 #dbg4 ,prairie wolf1 #dbg4 ,prongbuck antelope1 #dbg4 ,prongos1 #cae4 ,proteus anguinus1 #chf4 ,puma1 or ,american lion1 #dbh4 ,punjab1 #hj4 ,pyrenees1 flora of1 #cah4 ,python1 genus of snakes1 #chh4 ,q4 ,quadrumana1 or monkeys1 #dac4 ,quadrupeds1 ,european1 #daf2 ,asiatic1 #dag2 ,african1 #dbc2 ,american1 #dbf2 ,australian1 #dcc4 ,quagga1 species of horse1 #dbd4 ,quebec1 summer of1 #bfj4 ,quicksilver1 diffusion of1 #agh4 ,quito1 valley of1 #ii2 dimensions1 ib42 city of ,quito1 #ajj2 monuments of the ,incas1 ib4 ,quotlamba mountains1 #hg4 ,r4 ,races of mankind1 #dcf2 inhabiting ,europe1 #dda4 ,racoon1 #dbg4 ,radii of the earth measured by ,m4 ,bessel1 #af4 ,rakastal lake1 #bdi4 ,rain1 cause of1 and distribution1 #bge4 ,rains1 periodical1 #bge2 countries without1 #bgh4 ,rainbows1 #bhc4 ,rattle-snakes1 #chg4 ,realejo ,bay1 #beb4 ,redfield1 ,w4 ,c41 on storms1 #bgj1 note4 ,reich1 ,m41 mean density of the earth as ascertained by the torsion balance1 #ai1 note4 ,reid1 ,colonel1 on storms1 #bgj4 ,rein-deer ,lake1 #beb4 ,reptiles1 classification of1 #chc2 geographical distribution of1 #che4 ,rhinoceros of ,asia1 #dbb2 of ,java1 ib42 of ,africa1 #dbd4 ,rhyncops1 or scissor-bill bird1 #djh4 ,rice1 cultivation of1 #cef4 ,richardson1 ,dr4 ,sir ,j41 his account of the fauna of ,north ,america quoted1 #aca1 #dfd4 ,rivers1 origin of1 #bab2 course of1 ib42 velocity1 #bac2 junction of rivers1 ib42 influence of wind and frost1 #bad2 deltas1 ib42 tides1 ib42 floods1 ib42 inundations1 #bae2 heads of rivers1 ib4 ,rocks1 their division into four classes1 #ai2 plutonic rocks1 ib42 volcanic rocks1 #bj2 metamorphic rocks1 ib42 aqueous rocks1 #ba2 pierced by lava1 ib42 ,sir ,charles ,lyell's theory concerning1 #bj2 forms of1 #db2 height of calcareous rocks in the ,alps1 #ec4 ,rocky ,mountains1 #abb4 ,rodentia1 or gnawers1 #dad2 ,american1 #dcb4 ,rogers1 ,h4 ,d41 ,esq41 his #8,physical ,geography of ,north ,america' quoted1 #acj4 ,rorqual1 a species of whale1 #cha4 ,ross1 ,sir ,james1 his account of a gale1 #bje1 #dfd4 ,ruminating animals1 #dac4 ,russell1 ,j4 ,scott1 ,esq41 his #8,theory of ,waves' quoted1 #aie1 note4 ,rye1 cultivation of1 #cef4 ,s4 ,sabine1 ,colonel1 experiments with the pendulum1 #ah1 and note2 mean height of the ,himalaya1 #fa2 on terrestrial magnetism1 #bid1 #dfd4 ,saquis1 bush-tailed monkeys1 #dbi4 ,sahama1 trachytic dome of1 its height1 #aaa4 ,sahara desert1 #ij4 ,salamanders1 #chf4 ,salt1 diffusion of1 #ahf4 ,samojedes1 #ddb4 ,sanders-wood1 #cbg4 ,sandwich ,land1 vegetation1 #cea4 ,santa ,martha1 group of1 #ajj4 ,saratov1 #bdh4 ,saurians1 order of1 #chi4 ,saussure1 ,necker1 on direction of stratified masses1 #bie4 ,solimaun chain1 #ei4 ,scandinavian mountain system1 #fi2 extent and elevation1 #gj2 part of the same system as those of ,feroe1 ,britain1 ,ireland1 and northeastern ,ireland1 ib4 ,schomburgk1 ,sir ,robert1 on water-communication in ,south ,america1 #bdc4 ,schools1 ragged1 #dgc4 ,sclavonian races1 #dda4 ,scorpions1 #cff4 ,scotland1 its mountains1 #ga2 direction of1 ib42 table-land1 height of1 ib42 lakes1 ib42 earthquakes1 #aed2 coal-measures1 #ahc4 ,scythrops1 genus of birds1 #dji4 ,sea1 its mean depth1 #ag2 rise and fall of1 after an earthquake1 #aee4 ,sea1 ,alps of ,north ,america1 #abb4 ,sea serpents1 pretended1 #bhb4 ,sea snakes1 #chg4 ,secretary-bird1 the1 #djb4 ,sedgwick1 ,mr41 mountains of ,westmoreland1 #dd4 ,seed1 mode of development1 #cjj4 ,serpents1 or ophidians1 #chf2 venomous1 ib42 innocuous1 #chh2 tree1 ib4 ,shahee ,lake1 #bdh4 ,siberia1 its area1 #ge2 mineral riches1 ib42 soil1 ib42 climate1 ib42 flora1 #cad4 ,sicily1 plants of1 #cai4 ,sierra do ,mar1 #ajd4 ,sierra dos ,vertentes1 #aje4 ,sierra ,madre1 #abb4 ,silk-worms1 #cff4 ,silvas of the ,amazons1 #ajg2 dense vegetation1 ib42 area of woodland1 ib42 ,humboldt's description of1 ib42 geology of1 #aad4 ,silver1 diffusion of1 #age4 ,simayang1 a species of ape1 #dbb4 ,sinai1 ,mount 7,jebel ,houra71 its height1 #hb2 group of ,sinai1 ib4 ,sine of the latitude1 #ag1 note4 ,sir-i-,kol1 lake of1 #bdi4 ,skaptar ,jokull1 eruption of1 in #aghc1 #afa4 ,skink1 a species of lizard1 #cij4 ,skua gull1 #cif4 ,slave-lake1 #beb4 ,slave-trade1 its evil effects1 #dei4 ,sleet1 nature of1 #bhc4 ,smyth1 ,captain1 ,r4 ,n41 report of soundings1 #df1 note4 ,snae ,braen1 area of1 #gj4 ,snow1 how produced1 #bgh2 form of its crystals1 #bgi4 ,snow-line1 its height on mountains in different latitudes1 #bgi4 ,solar system1 #ae1 note4 ,soudan1 #bea4 ,south magnetic pole1 its situation1 #aff4 ,senegambia1 #hi4 ,south ,shetland1 vegetation1 #ceb4 ,south ,wales1 ,new character of the country1 #acg2 structure1 #aci4 ,spain1 its mountains1 #dg2 table-land1 area of1 ib42 plants of1 #cai4 ,spiders1 numbers of1 #cfg4 ,spitzbergen1 #afj4 ,springs1 their origin1 #bji2 intermittent1 #baj2 temperature1 #baa2 hot springs1 ib42 medicinal springs1 ib42 saline springs1 ib4 ,squalls1 arched1 #bga4 ,squirrels1 flying1 #dbb4 ,steam-power1 amount of1 in ,great ,britain in #ahcc1 #agb1 note4 ,st4 ,elias1 ,mount1 height of1 #abc4 ,stelvio1 pass of1 its height1 #ej4 ,steppes of ,eastern ,europe1 #gd2 great extent of1 ib42 climate1 ib42 soil1 ib42 atmosphere1 #ge4 ,st4 ,lawrence1 river1 #ab4 ,stonefield slate1 #bf4 ,storms1 rotatory1 #bfh2 waves1 #bgj4 ,strata1 primary fossiliferous1 #ba2 ,cambrian1 #ba2 lower ,silurian1 ib42 upper ,silurian1 #bb2 secondary fossiliferous1 ib42 ,devonian1 ib42 carboniferous1 #bc2 mountain limestone1 ib42 magnesian limestone1 #bd2 new red sandstone1 #be2 oolite1 ib42 cretaceous strata1 #bg2 tertiary strata1 divided by ,sir ,charles ,lyell into ,eocene1 ,miocene1 and ,pleiocene1 #bh2 boulder formation1 #cb2 parallel direction of contemporary strata1 #dc4 ,strata1 tertiary1 of the ,alps1 height of1 #ec4 ,strachey1 ,lieut41 journeys1 #ag4 ,sudetes1 the1 #dh4 ,suez1 projected canal of1 #dfa4 ,sulphur1 diffusion of1 #ahf4 ,sumatra1 character of the island1 #aej4 ,sumbawa1 population of1 #dch4 ,summa ,paz1 ,sierra de la1 #ajj4 ,sun1 his mass1 #ae4 ,superior1 ,lake1 #bea4 ,symonds1 ,major ,a41 on the depression of the ,dead ,sea1 #hd1 note4 ,syren1 genus of reptiles1 #chf4 ,syria1 its soil1 #hd2 deterioration of the country1 ib42 shrinking of the strata1 ib4 ,swamps1 area of1 in ,denmark1 #gd4 ,t4 ,table-lands1 their soil and climate1 #de4 ,table ,mountain 7,cape ,town71 its height1 #hf4 ,tangaras1 ,american birds1 #djf4 ,tapir1 ,indian or ,malayan1 #dai2 ,american1 #dad4 ,targatabai1 volcanic range of1 #aeb4 ,tartary1 flora of1 #cba4 ,tariyani1 tract of1 #fj4 ,taurus mountains1 #bif4 ,taylor1 ,mr41 description of an ice-storm in ,canada1 #abg4 ,taylor1 ,john1 ,esq41 on the ,cornish mines1 #agb1 note4 ,tchad1 river and lake1 #bea4 ,tea1 cultivation and varieties of1 #cba4 ,tehuantepec1 isthmus of1 #aaf1 #beb2 bay1 ib4 ,temperature of the ocean1 #bja2 stratum of constant temperature1 #bjb2 line of maximum temperature1 ib4 ,temperature of the earth1 #bed2 mean at any place1 #beg2 highest observed1 #beh4 ,terror1 ,mount1 #aff4 ,teutonic races1 #ddb4 ,thean-,tchan1 volcanic chain of1 #aeb4 ,thian-shan1 or ,celestial ,mountains1 #ei1 etc4 ,thomas1 ,st41 island1 #bfi4 ,thunder storms1 #bhf2 causes of1 #bhg4 ,tiberias1 ,lake1 #bdg4 ,tibet1 table-land of 7,oriental plateau71 its area and altitude1 #ee2 its form and situation1 #eh2 its width1 #fi2 mean height1 #acd4 ,tibet1 flora of1 #caf4 ,tides1 influence of the sun and moon upon1 #aia2 spring tides1 #aib2 neap-tides1 ib42 frequency of tides1 ib42 their succession1 ib42 marginal tide1 ib42 heights of tides1 #aic2 variation in1 ib42 velocity1 ib42 stream1 #aid4 ,tierra del ,fuego1 account of1 #id1 #aje2 geology1 #aac2 flora of1 #ceb4 ,tiger1 royal1 country of1 #dba4 ,tin1 diffusion of1 #agh4 ,tinamous1 an ,american bird1 #djg4 ,titicaca1 lake of1 #ig2 area and height1 #bec4 ,toads1 #chd4 ,tobolsk1 elevation of1 #acd4 ,tomboro1 volcanic eruption of1 in #ahae1 #aej4 ,toozla ,lake1 #bdh4 ,tortoises1 #cia4 ,trade-winds1 #bfe4 ,tragopons1 an ,east ,indian bird1 #dja4 ,trees1 growth of1 #ceg2 age of1 ib4 ,trigonocephalus1 or yellow ape1 #chg4 ,tripe de ,roche1 #cad4 ,tristan d',acunha1 island1 #bhb4 ,trogon1 #dja4 ,troupials1 #djf4 ,trb1 lake of1 #bdg4 ,trionyx1 #cia4 ,tui1 a ,new ,zealand bird1 #dab4 ,tnngut1 or ,chinese ,tartary1 its geographical position1 #fj4 ,turks1 #ddb4 ,turtles1 #cib4 ,tuscany1 earthquakes in1 #aed4 ,tussack grass1 #cec4 ,u4 ,uleaborg1 #bge4 ,ular1 lake1 #bdi4 ,unau sloth1 the1 #dbi4 ,united ,states territory1 area of1 #acj4 ,ural ,mountains1 #gb2 extent1 ib42 height1 ib42 mineral riches1 ib42 geology1 #gc4 ,urmiah ,lake1 #bdh4 ,v4 ,valmiki1 author of the ,ramayana1 #dci1 note4 8,valley of ,death10 #aec4 ,vampire-bats1 #dbj4 ,van1 lake1 #eg1 #bdh4 ,van ,dieman's ,land1 area of1 #ach2 mountains1 ib42 soil1 ib42 structure1 #aci2 flora1 #ccg4 ,vanessa ,cardui1 a butterfly1 #cfd4 ,vanilla ,epidendron1 #cde4 ,variables1 the1 #bfe4 ,vegetation1 mode of1 #bih2 effects of1 on the atmosphere1 #bii4 ,veragua1 ,cordillera of1 its height1 #aae4 ,verneuil1 ,m4 de1 #fg1 note4 ,vermejo river1 #cdi4 ,victoria ,land1 #afe2 ice cliffs1 ib42 mountains1 ib42 its appearance described1 ib4 ,vicua1 #dcj2 its naturalization1 ib4 ,vipers1 #chg4 ,vultures1 ,european1 #cih2 ,american1 #djd4 ,volcanic eruptions1 frequency of1 #aec4 ,volcanic islands1 #adh4 ,volcanos1 eruptions of1 #bj2 active volcanos1 #aeb4 ,w4 ,wales1 earthquakes in1 #aed4 ,waves1 causes of1 #add2 height1 #aie2 ground-swell1 ib42 billows1 ib42 surf1 #aif2 force of waves1 ib4 ,wealden clay1 #bg4 ,weddell1 ,dr41 on ,cinchona1 #cdg1 note2 on breed of alpaca and vicuna1 #dca4 ,werner1 law of parallelism of mineral veins1 #dc4 ,western ,asia1 its table-lands and mountains1 #ee4 ,west ,indian islands1 #aaf2 ,lesser ,antillas 7group71 ib42 ,greater ,antillas1 #aag2 ,bahamas1 #aah2 structure1 ib4 ,whales1 #chj4 ,wheat1 varieties and cultivation1 #cee4 ,whirlwinds1 #bga4 ,wilkes1 ,capt4 ,c41 discovery of ,antarctic ,continent1 #afg4 ,winds1 theory of1 #bfd2 trade1 #bfe4 ,winnipeg ,lake1 #beb4 ,wombat1 #dcd4 ,wrangel1 ,admiral1 on the climate of ,siberia1 #gf2 his attempt to reach the ,north ,pole1 ib41 note4 ,x4 ,xarayos ,lake1 #beb4 ,y4 ,yablonnoi ,khrebet1 #ff4 ,yablonnoi ,mountains1 #bif4 ,yakutsk1 8the coldest town on the earth10 #gg1 #bfj4 ,ybera1 swamp1 its area1 #ajg4 ,yenesei1 flora of1 #caf4 ,z4 ,zambeze1 lake1 ,africa1 #bej4 ,zealand1 ,new1 its mountains1 #ada2 coast1 ib42 general character1 ib4 ,zebra1 #dbd4 ,zenes1 their breadth1 #af4 ,zungary1 or ,mingolia1 its situation1 #fj4 ,zurrah1 lake1 #bdh4 ,footnotes ,footnote #a3 8,cosmos10 by ,alexander ,von ,humboldt1 translated under the superintendence of ,colonel ,e4 ,sabine1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,second ,edition4 ,london1 #ahdh4 ,footnote #b3 ,alexander ,keith ,johnston's 8,physical ,atlas10 #dto41 in ,monthly ,numbers4 ,edinburgh1 #ahdi4 ,published by ,lea ,blanchard1 ,philadelphia1 #ahej4 ,footnote #c3 ,the ,solar ,system3-- ,mercury1 nearest the ,sun1 known to the ancients4 ,venus1 known to the ancients4 ,the ,earth4 ,mars1 known to the ancients4 ,flora1 discovered by ,mr4 ,hind in #ahdg4 ,vesta1 discovered by ,mr4 ,olbers in #ahjg4 ,iris1 discovered by ,mr4 ,hind in #ahdg4 ,metis1 discovered by ,mr4 ,graham in #ahdh4 ,hebe1 discovered by ,mr4 ,hencke in #ahdg4 ,astra1 discovered by ,mr4 ,hencke in #ahde4 ,juno1 discovered by ,mr4 ,harding in #ahjd4 ,ceres1 discovered by ,m4 ,piazza in #ahja4 ,pallas1 discovered by ,mr4 ,olbers in #ahjb4 ,jupiter1 known to the ancients4 ,saturn1 known to the ancients4 ,uranus1 discovered by ,sir ,william ,herschel in #agha4 ,neptune1 discovered by ,m4 ,le ,verrier and ,mr4 ,adams in #ahdf4 ,footnote #d3 ,the compression of the earth is the flattening at the poles4 ,its numerical value is equal to the difference between the equatorial and polar diameters1 expressed in feet or miles4 ,the amount of compression1 oblateness at the poles1 is measured by the ratio of the difference of the equatorial and polar diameters to the equatorial diameter1 which is technically termed the oblateness4 ,the following are the dimensions of the earth in miles3 ,miles4 ,diameter4 ,radius at the equator #cifbf #gibeb ,radius at the pole #cidif #ghiib ,difference of equatorial and polar radii #acj #bfj ,mean radius1 or at #de ,latitude #ciefa #giabb ,mean length of a degree #fije ---- ,the fourth part of a meridian #fbadb ---- ,footnote #e3 ,the theoretical investigation of the figure of the earth1 the method employed for measuring arcs of the meridian1 and that of finding the form of the earth from the oscillations of the pendulum1 are given in the 8,connection of the ,physical ,sciences10 by ,mary ,somerville1 #gth ,section1 #gth edition4 ,footnote #f3 ,a pendulum which oscillates #hf1djj times in a mean day at the equator1 will do the same at every point of the earth's surface if its length be increased progressively to the pole as the square of the sine of the latitude4 ,the sine of the latitude is a perpendicular line drawn from any point of a terrestrial meridian to the equatorial radius of the earth4 ,that line expressed in feet or miles1 and multiplied by itself1 is the square of the sine of the latitude4 ,gravitation increases from the equator to the poles according to that law1 and the length of the degrees augments very nearly in the same ratio4 ,footnote #g3 ,the compression deduced by ,m4 ,bessel from arcs of the meridian is #a_/bii2 that deduced by ,colonel ,sabine from his experiment with the pendulum is #a_/bhhg4 ,other pendulum experiments have given a compression of #a_/bihb and #a_/bffd4 ,the protuberant matter at the earth's equator produces inequalities in the moon's motions1 from whence the compression of the earth is found to be #a_/cjeje2 and although the reciprocal action of the moon on the protuberant matter at the earth's equator does not actually give the compression1 it proves that it must be between #a_/bgi and #a_/egc4 ,coincidences so near and so remarkable1 arising from such different methods1 show how nearly the irregular figure of the earth has been determined4 ,the inequalities in the motions of the moon and earth alluded to are explained in ,sections #e and #aa 8,connection of the ,physical ,sciences40 ,footnote #h3 ,it is clear that the mean density of the earth may be found from the attraction of the plumb-line by mountains1 or by the irregularity in the oscillations of the pendulum1 but the torsion balance is a much more sensible instrument than either4 ,the density determined by ,m4 ,reich differs from that found by ,mr4 ,baily by only one twenty-eighth part4 ,footnote #i3 ,if a line be drawn from the north-eastern coast of ,north ,america within the limit of floating ice1 and if it be continued across the southern half of ,ireland and ,england1 and prolonged eastward so as to strike against the ,ural mountains1 it will mark the boundary of the ,european portion of the ,glacial ,sea4 ,it submerged part of ,russia to the depth of #ajjj feet4--,essay on the ,british ,fauna and ,flora1 by ,professor ,e4 ,forbes1 in the 8,memoirs of the ,geological ,survey of ,great ,britain10 vol4 i4 ,footnote #aj3 ,sir ,james ,ross and ,captain ,wilkes met with icebergs covered with mud and stones in the antarctic seas1 and even in #ff #e lat4 ,one block seen by ,sir ,james ,ross was estimated to weigh many tons4--,antarctic ,voyages4--,narrative of ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition4 ,by ,charles ,wilkes1 ,u4 ,s4 ,n44 ,footnote #aa3 ,account of the ,ganges and ,brahmapootra1 by ,major ,rennell4--8,phil4 ,trans410 #agha4 ,sir ,george ,staunton's ,embassy to ,china4 ,elie de ,beaumont1 ,leons de ,gologie1 #a vol41 #hvo4 ,the latter work contains a very elaborate essay on alluvial deposits by rivers1 c4 ,footnote #ab3 ,lieut4 ,anjou's ,polar ,voyage4 ,footnote #ac3 ,see ,statistics of ,coal4 ,by ,richard ,cowling ,taylor4 ,philadelphia1 #ahdh4 ,footnote #ad3 ,the author's geological information rests on the authority of those distinguished authors whose works are in the hands of every one1 namely1 ,baron ,cuvier1 ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 ,sir ,roderick ,murchison1 ,sir ,henry de la ,beche1 ,professor ,owen1 and the ,memoirs of the ,geological ,society4 ,footnote #ae3 ,the proportions of land to water referred to in the text were estimated by ,mr4 ,gardner4 ,according to his computation1 the extent of land is about #cg1fgc1jjj square ,british miles1 independently of ,victoria ,continent discovered by ,charles ,wilkes1 ,u4 ,s4 ,n42 and the sea occupies #aaj1hdi1jjj4 ,hence1 the land is to the sea as #a to #d nearly4 ,the unexplored region within the ,arctic ,circle is about #g1fbj1jjj square miles4 ,footnote #af3 ,this very general view of the structure of the globe originated chiefly with the celebrated ,german geologist ,von ,buch1 and has been much extended and developed by ,m4 ,elie de ,beaumont1 one of the most philosophical of modern geologists4 ,footnote #ag3 ,m4 ,bou4 ,footnote #ah3 ,the author avails herself with much pleasure of an opportunity of expressing her admiration of the accuracy1 extent1 and execution of ,mr4 ,keith ,johnston's ,physical ,atlas1 and of the valuable information contained in the letterpress which accompanies it1 which has afforded her the greatest assistance4 ,as ,mr4 ,johnston is publishing a small and cheap edition of his ,atlas1 well fitted to illustrate these volumes1 the necessity of inserting in them any similar maps1 which was at one time contemplated1 is obviated4 ,footnote #ai3 8,on the ,parallel ,lines of ,simultaneous ,elevation in the ,weald of ,kent and ,sussex10 by ---- ,hopkins1 ,esq4 ,footnote #bj3 ,m4 ,bou4 ,footnote #ba3 ,by the soundings of ,captain ,smyth1 ,r4 ,n41 the ,strait is #ifj fathoms deep between ,gibraltar and ,ceuta1 and varying from #afj to #ejj in the narrowest part4 ,footnote #bb3 ,a crater of elevation is a mountain1 generally dome-shaped1 whose top has sunk into a crater or hollow1 after the internal force which raised it was withdrawn1 but from which no lava has issued4 ,dome-shaped mountains owe their form to internal pressure1 probably from lava1 but which have not sunk into a crater4 ,footnote #bc3 ,professor ,forbes on ,glaciers4 ,footnote #bd3 ,dr4 ,bou4 ,footnote #be3 ,sir ,charles ,lyell4 ,footnote #bf3 ,johnston's ,physical ,atlas4 ,footnote #bg3 ,sir ,john ,malcolm on ,persia1 and ,mr4 ,morier's ,travels4 ,footnote #bh3 ,johnston's ,physical ,atlas4 ,footnote #bi3 ,ibid4 ,footnote #cj3 ,johnston's ,physical ,atlas4 ,footnote #ca3 ,sir ,roderick ,i4 ,murchison4 ,footnote #cb3 ,from the observations of ,sir ,roderick ,murchison1 ,m4 ,middendorf1 ,m4 de ,verneuil1 and ,count ,keyserling1 it appears also that the low land of ,siberia has been extended since the existing species of shell-fish inhabited the northern seas2 a circumstance that must have rendered the ,siberian climate still more severe1 and materially affected that of the northern parts of ,europe and ,asia4 ,footnote #cc3 ,in #ahbj1 ,admiral 7then ,lieutenant7 ,wrangel travelled from the mouth of the ,kolyma to ,behring's ,straits on sledges drawn by dogs1 and made a bold but vain attempt to reach the ,north pole4 ,lieutenant ,anjou1 at the same time1 sailed from the mouth of the ,jana river1 reached #gf-a_/b degrees of north latitude1 and passed round the group of the ,new ,siberian ,islands4 ,footnote #cd3 ,johnston's ,physical ,atlas4 ,footnote #ce3 ,from ,miss ,martineau's spirited and picturesque account of her journey to ,egypt and ,syria4 ,footnote #cf3 ,by the trigonometrical measurement of ,major ,anthony ,symonds1 confirmed by ,french authorities1 and adopted by ,baron ,humboldt1 the depression of the ,dead ,sea is1 as stated in the text1 #acjj feet2 but ,,mm4 ,bertou and ,russiger made it out to be #achh by the barometer4 ,see ,lieut4 ,molyneux's paper in the ,journal of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 #ahdh4 ,footnote #cg3 ,for a very interesting and reliable account of the river ,jordan and its valley1 the reader is directed to a 8,narrative of the ,united ,states' ,expedition to the ,river ,jordan and the ,dead ,sea1 by ,w4 ,f4 ,lynch1 ,u4 ,s4 ,n41 ,commander of the ,expedition40 ,philadelphia1 #ahdi4 ,footnote #ch3 ,estimated from ,n4,e4 to ,s4,w41 the proportion of the two slopes of the ,abyssinian table-land is as #abf to #a4 ,footnote #ci3 ,johnston's ,physical ,atlas4 ,footnote #dj3 ,the ,voyage of ,captain ,king1 ,r4 ,n41 ,mr4 ,darwin's 8,journal of a ,naturalist10 ,dr4 ,pppig's 8,travels in ,south ,america10 are the authorities for the account of ,tierra del ,fuego1 ,patagonia1 and ,chile2 ,baron ,humboldt1 ,mr4 ,pentland1 ,drs4 ,pppig and ,meyer of ,berlin1 for ,peru and the ,andean ,chain to the ,isthmus of ,panam4 ,footnote #da3 ,this great height has been deduced1 adopting the position of the ,peak as fixed by ,captain ,fitz ,roy1 and employing the angles of elevation observed by ,captain ,beechey near ,valparaiso4 ,footnote #db3 ,dr4 ,pppig's ,travels4 ,footnote #dc3 ,the celebrated silver mines of ,potosi were formerly worked to the very summit of that metalliferous mountain1 #af1aej feet above the sea level4 ,footnote #dd3 ,baron ,humboldt and ,mr4 ,pentland4 ,footnote #de3 ,the breadth of the table-land1 and the two ,cordilleras of the ,bolivian ,andes given in the text1 was measured by ,mr4 ,pentland2 he also determined the heights of ,illimani to be #ba1aej feet2 of ,supwasi or ,huayna ,potosi1 #bj1bfj feet2 and of ,ancohuma or the ,nevado of ,sorata1 #ba1bij feet4 ,footnote #df3 ,baron ,humboldt4 ,footnote #dg3 ,baron ,humboldt4 ,footnote #dh3 ,it appears by the measurements of ,mr4 ,pentland in the ,peru-,bolivian ,andes1 that many of their passes are higher than in the equatorial portion of the chain4 ,the passes of ,rumihuasi1 on the high road from ,cusco to ,arequipa1 of ,toledo 7between ,arequipa and ,puno71 of ,gualillas and ,chullunquiani 7between ,arica and ,la ,paz71 all in the ,western ,cordillera1 attain the respective elevations of #af1afj1 #ae1gij1 #ad1gej1 and #ae1afj feet2--whilst in the ,eastern or ,bolivian ,cordillera the passes of ,challa 7between ,oruro and ,cochabamba71 of ,pacuani 7between ,la ,paz and ,corico71 of ,pumapacheta 7between the lake of ,titicaca and the affluents to the ,amazon71 of ,vilcaoto 7between the valley of the ,collao and that of the river ,yucay71 rise to heights of #ac1fjj1 #ae1cej1 #ac1fjj1 and #ad1ebj ,english feet4 ,footnote #di3 ,dr4 ,pppig4 ,footnote #ej3 ,baron ,humboldt4 ,footnote #ea3 ,baron ,humboldt's ,personal ,narrative4 ,footnote #eb3 ,captain ,king1 ,r4 ,n41 and ,mr4 ,darwin4 ,footnote #ec3 ,sir ,woodbine ,parish on ,buenos ,ayres1 and ,sir ,francis ,head's ,journey over the ,pampas4 ,footnote #ed3 ,mr4 ,pentland found a very perfect volcanic crater1 with well-marked currents of lava issuing from it--a rare occurrence in the higher craters of the ,andes--near to ,san ,pedro de ,cacha1 in the valley of the ,yucay 7lat4 #ad #ab1 long4 #ga #ae ,w41 and at an elevation of #ab1jjj feet71 near to the ruins of the ,temple of the ,inga ,viracocha1 a monument and a locality celebrated in ,peruvian legend1 the nearest point of the sea-coast being #age miles distant4 ,it is probable that many of the most celebrated mining districts of ,alto ,peru--,potosi1 for instance1 situated in a porphyry--have been upheaved at a very recent period4 ,modern volcanic rocks are not wanting in the valley of the ,desaguadero2 volcanic conglomerates exist in the deep ravines round the city of ,la ,paz4 lat4 #af #cj2 and the mountain of ,litanias1 which furnishes the building-stone for that ,bolivian city 7lat4 #af #db1 long4 #fh #ai-a_/b71 is composed of a most perfect trachyte1 and rises to a height of #ad1ejj feet above1 and at a distance of #afj miles from the ,pacific4 ,footnote #ee3 ,dr4 ,pppig4 ,footnote #ef3 ,mr4 ,pentland found fossil shells of the ,silurian period at a height of #ag1ejj feet1 on the ,bolivian ,nevado of ,antakua1 lat4 #af #ba1 and those of the carboniferous limestone as high as #ad1bjj in several parts of ,upper ,peru4 ,footnote #eg3 ,mr4 ,darwin's ,journal of ,travels in ,south ,america4 ,footnote #eh3 ,mr4 ,darwin's ,journal of ,travels in ,south ,america4 ,footnote #ei3 ,johnston's ,physical ,atlas4 ,footnote #fj3 ,baron ,humboldt4 ,footnote #fa3 ,notes on the ,north-west1 or ,valley of the ,upper ,mississippi4 ,by ,wm4 ,j4 ,a4 ,bradford4 ,new ,york1 #ahdf4 ,footnote #fb3 ,mr4 ,taylor4 ,footnote #fc3 ,sir ,charles ,lyell's ,travels in ,north ,america4 ,footnote #fd3 ,a chain of mountains is assumed to be a three-sided horizontal prism1 whose height is the mean elevation of the chain1 and the base the mean length and breadth of the same1 or the area on which the chain stands1 and thus its mass may be computed approximately4 ,it is evident that a table-land must have a greater effect on the mean height of a continent than a chain of mountains1 for1 supposing both to be of the same base and altitude1 one would be exactly double the other2 and even if the mountains be the higher of the two1 their upper parts contain much less solid matter than their lower on account of the intervals and deep valleys between the peaks4 ,footnote #fe3 ,the author is indebted to the 8,physical ,geography of ,north ,america0 by ,h4 ,d4 ,rogers1 ,esq41 of the ,united ,states1 for much valuable information4 ,footnote #ff3 ,dr4 ,richardson on the ,fauna of the ,high ,latitudes of ,north ,america4 ,footnote #fg3 ,sir ,charles ,lyell4 ,footnote #fh3 ,this remarkable analogy between the fossil remains of the ,silurian systems in the ,old and ,new ,world has been more particularly shown by the researches of ,messrs4 de ,verneuil and ,sharpe4 ,footnote #fi3 ,according to ,m4 ,charpentier1 the area of the base of the ,pyrenees is #agbj square ,english miles4 ,as the mean elevation of the passes gives the mean height of the mountains1 ,baron ,humboldt estimated from the height of #bc passes over the ,pyrenees that the mean crest of that chain is #giij feet high1 which is #cjj feet higher than the mean height of the ,alps1 though the peaks in the ,alps have a greater elevation than those of the ,pyrenees in the ratio #a-d_/aj to #a4 ,footnote #gj3 ,the ,russian ,academicians ,,mm4 ,fuss and ,bunge1 found by barometrical measurement the mean height of that part of the ,eastern ,asiatic table-land lying between ,lake ,baikal and the ,great ,wall of ,china to be only about #fifj feet4 ,the smallness of this mean is owing to hollows in the table-land1 especially in the desert of the ,great ,gobi4 ,footnote #ga3 ,by the mensuration and computation of ,baron ,humboldt and ,mr4 ,pentland1 the elevation of the highest peaks1 and the mean heights of the ,himalaya1 of the equatorial and ,bolivian ,andes and the ,alps1 are as follows3-- ,peaks4 ,mean ,height4 ,himalaya #be1gjj #ae1fgj ,andes between #e ,n4 and #b ,s4 lat4 #ba1dbj #aa1chj ,eastern ,cordillera ,between #ah #ba1bjj #ae1bej ,western ,cordillera and #ae ,s4 lat4 #bb1cjj #ad1ijj ,alps #ae1fff #g1cec ,however1 the ,peak of ,dhawalaghini is certainly #bh1jjj feet high4 ,captain ,gerard gives #ah1jjj or #ai1jjj feet as the height of the snow-line on the mountains in the middle of the ,asiatic table-land1 and #cj1jjj feet as the absolute elevation of the ,kuen-lun1 but ,colonel ,sabine observes that these measures want confirmation4 ,footnote #gb3 ,memoirs of ,count ,strzelecki4 ,footnote #gc3 ,count ,strzelecki4 ,footnote #gd3 ,m4 ,von ,buch4 ,footnote #ge3 ---- ,mansel1 ,esq4 ,footnote #gf3 ,mr4 ,darwin on ,coral ,reefs4 ,footnote #gg3 ,supplement to the ,observations on the ,temple of ,serapis1 by ,charles ,babbage1 ,esq4 ,footnote #gh3 ,by ,mr4 ,jukes1 ,naturalist to the ,surveying ,voyage of ,captain ,blackwood1 ,r4 ,n41 in ,torres ,straits4 ,footnote #gi3 ,another theory relative to the formation of the lagoon islands is1 that the coral circuit is but the edge of a submarine elevation crater1 on which the coral animals have raised their edifice4 ,this view1 which has been adopted by ,von ,buch and ,captain ,beechy1 to whom we are indebted more than to any other navigator for positive information and admirable surveys of the coral islands of the ,pacific1 receives corroboration from the perfect conformity in shape between many of the lagoon islands of the ,gambier group and the known elevation craters1 and from the circumstance of a lagoon island having been seen to rise in #ahbe1 in lat4 #cj #ad1 accompanied with smoke1 and communicating so high a temperature to the surrounding sea as rendered it impossible to land4--,see ,beechy's ,voyages1 and ,pppig's ,reise4 ,footnote #hj3 ,few books have more interest than ,mr4 ,darwin's on ,coral ,reefs and ,volcanic ,islands1 to which the author is much indebted4 ,consult also ,captain ,beechy's ,voyages1 and his beautiful charts of the ,coral ,islands in the ,pacific4 ,footnote #ha3 ,by the ,nautical ,survey in #ahdh4 ,footnote #hb3 ,sir ,stamford ,raffles on ,java4 ,footnote #hc3 ,mr4 ,darwin on ,volcanic ,islands4 ,footnote #hd3 ,mr4 ,douglas's ,voyage to the ,sandwich ,islands in #ahcc-d4--;,journal of the ,royal ,geographical ,society of ,london4 ,footnote #he3 ,letter from ,alex4 ,loudon1 ,esq41 in the ,journal of the ,geographical ,society of ,london4 ,footnote #hf3 ,mitchell on the ,causes of ,earthquakes1 in ,philosophical ,transactions for #agfj4 ,footnote #hg3 ,captain ,graah's ,survey in #ahbc-d1 and ,dr4 ,pingel1 #ahcj-b4 ,footnote #hh3 ,lyell's ,principles of ,geology1 in #hvo4 ,see also ,mr4 ,darwin's observations on the same subject1 in the voyage of the ,adventure and ,beagle4 ,footnote #hi3 ,remarks on the ,antarctic ,continent and ,southern ,islands1 by ,robert ,mac,cormick1 ,esq41 ,surgeon of ,h4,m4,s4 ,erebus4 ,footnote #ij3 ,captain ,cook discovered ,sandwich ,land in #aggb-e4--;,captain ,smith1 of the brig ,william1 discovered ,new ,south ,shetland in #ahai4--;,captain ,billingshausen discovered ,peter's ,island1 and the coast of ,alexander the ,first4--,captain ,weddel discovered the ,southern ,orcades4--,captain ,bisco discovered ,enderby's ,land and ,graham's ,land in #ahcb1 ,admiral d',urville ,la ,terre d',adelie in #ahda2 and ,sir ,james ,ross ,victoria ,land in the same year4 ,footnote #ia3 ,the author owes much information on ,british mines to two publications on the ,mining ,district of the ,north of ,england1 by ,j4 ,sopwith1 ,esq41 ,civil ,engineer1 and ,mr4 ,leithart1 ,mine ,agent4 ,on the ,cornish mines she has derived much information from the writings of ,john ,taylor1 ,esq41 and ,sir ,charles ,lemon1 ,bart42 from a store of valuable materials contained in the 8,progress of the ,nation10 by ,g4 ,r4 ,porter1 ,esq42 from the ,statistical ,journal2 and on the general distribution of minerals over the globe1 from the 8,penny ,cyclopdia10 and various other sources4 ,footnote #ib3 ,the metals are gold1 silver1 platinum1 copper1 lead1 tin1 iron1 zinc1 arsenic1 bismuth1 antimony1 nickel1 quicksilver1 manganese1 cadmium1 cerium1 cobalt1 iridium1 uranium1 chrome1 lantanium1 molybdenum1 columbium1 osmium1 palladium1 pelapium1 tantalum1 tellurium1 rhodium1 titanium1 vanadium1 tungsten1 dydynium1 ferbium1 erbium4 ,the three last are little known4 ,sir ,humphry ,davy discovered that lime1 magnesia1 alumine1 and other similar substances1 are metals combined with oxygen4 ,there are thirteen of these metalloids1 namely--calcium1 magnesium1 aluminum1 glucinum1 thorium1 yttrium1 zirconium1 strontium1 barium1 lithium1 natrium1 potassium1 and silicium4 ,footnote #ic3 ,this subject is ably discussed by ,mr4 ,leithart in his work1 already mentioned1 on the formation and filling of metallic veins4 ,mr4 ,leithart is an instance of the intelligence that prevails among miners1 notwithstanding the scanty opportunities of acquiring that knowledge which they are generally so eager to obtain4 ,he was a working miner1 whose only education was at a ,sunday-school4 ,footnote #id3 ,mineral veins are generally richer near the surface than at great depths3 this is particularly the case in the mines of the precious metals in ,america1 where the greatest quantities of ore have been found near the surface--a fact that may be explained by supposing the mineral substances brought by sublimation from the interior of the earth1 and deposited where the temperature was lowest at or near the surface in the rocks among which they are situated4 ,footnote #ie3 ,rotation alone produces electrical currents in the earth4--8,connection of the ,physical ,sciences10 page #cfd1 #gth edition4 ,footnote #if3 ,j4 ,taylor1 ,esq41 on ,cornish mines4 ,footnote #ig3 ,the total amount of steam-power in ,great ,britain in #ahcc was equal to that of #b1jjj1jjj of men4--,j4 ,taylor1 ,esq41 on ,cornish ,mines4 ,footnote #ih3 ,the splendid discovery of ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 that flame does not pass through fine wire-gauze1 prevents the fatal explosion of inflammable air in the mines1 by which thousands of lives have been lost4 ,by means of a light enclosed in a wire-gauze lantern1 a miner now works with safety surrounded by fire-damp4 ,to the honour of the illustrious author of this discovery1 be it observed that it was not1 like that of gunpowder and others1 the unforeseen result of chance by new combinations of matter1 but the solution of a question based on scientific experiment and induction1 which it required the genius of a philosophic mind like his to arrive at4 ,footnote #ii3 ,supposing the barometer to be #cj inches on the level of the sea4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,note to the ,english translation of ,kosmos1 by ,colonel ,sabine1 on the depths below the surface of the earth attained by man4 ,footnote #aja3 ,dr4 ,pppig's 8,travels in ,chile and ,peru40 ,footnote #ajb3 ,dr4 ,pppig4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,constructed under the direction of ,thomas ,sopwith1 ,esq4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,sir ,charles ,lemon1 ,bart4 ,footnote #aje3 ,m4 ,erman's 8,travels in ,siberia40 ,footnote #ajf3 ,in #ahda there were #aif1iba persons employed in the mines of ,great ,britain and ,ireland4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,in the year #ahbi the value of the mineral produce of ,europe1 including ,asiatic ,russia1 but exclusive of manganese1 amounted to-- ,gold and ,silver #a1idc1jjj ,other metals #bh1eai1jjj ,salts #g1fdj1jjj ,combustibles #ah1jej1jjj ---------- ,total #ef1adh1jjj ,england contributed more than half this amount1 namely1-- ,silver #bh1ejj ,copper #a1cfi1jjj ,iron #aa1bib1jjj ,lead #gfj1jjj ,tin #ecf1jjj ,salts #gef1bej ,vitriol #cc1fjj ,alum #cc1jjj ,coal #ac1jjj1jjj ---------- ,total #bh1gaf1gej --nearly #bi1jjj1jjj sterling4--,john ,taylor1 ,esq41 on the ,cornish ,mines4 ,at present there are #cd1jjj1jjj of tons of coals consumed in ,great ,britain annually1 besides the quantity exported to our colonies and to foreign countries1 amounting to nearly #b1jjj1jjj of tons4 #h1jjj1jjj of tons are consumed in our iron-foundries alone4 ,between #ejj1jjj and #fjj1jjj tons are used in making gas4 ,the iron made in ,britain in #ahdd amounted to #a1djj1jjj tons4 ,iron is now applied to many uses instead of timber1 especially in ship-building3 between the years #ahcj and #ahdg1 #aej iron vessels were launched in ,britain4 #be of the steamships of the ,east ,india ,company are of iron4 ,the produce of our copper-mines has increased threefold within the last #fj years4 ,the quantity of tin has also increased from our own mines1 and also from the extensive importation of that metal from ,banca1 where the country yielding stream-tin extends from #g ,n4 lat4 to #c ,s4 lat4 ,the yearly produce amounts to #cjj tons of pure metal4-- 8,progress of the ,nation1 in its ,social and ,commercial ,relations1 since the beginning of the ,nineteenth ,century10 by ,g4 ,r4 ,porter1 ,esq41 #b;d edition4 ,in ,france there are #fb coal-mines1 which yielded #c1daj1bjj tons in #ahda1 and in #ahch the #ab iron districts in that country yielded to the value of #d1ige1dbdl4 ,the ,british coal and metal imported into ,france amounted to #a1bbb1bbhl4--,progress of the ,nation4 ,belgium is next to ,britain as a ,european coal country4 ,in ,britain the coalfields occupy one-twentieth part of the area of the country--in ,belgium one twenty-second part--in ,france one two hundred and tenth part of its area4 ,the quantity of coal raised in one year is1 according to 8,the ,statistics of ,germany10 by ,r4 ,valpy1 ,esq4-- ,in ,britain #cdg1jjj1jjj tons ,belgium #d1jjj1jjj ,france #c1ghc1jjj ,germany #c1jjj1jjj ,the following table exhibits the quantity and value of coal produced1 in the six principal coal countries in the world1 in the year #ahde3-- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------- ,tons of ,official estimated value at ,order ,square ,fuel ,relative the places of production4 in ,,countries4 miles of raised in parts of ---------------------------- #ahde4 ,coal the year #ajjj4 ,united ,states ,english formations4 #ahde4 ,dollars4 ,sterling4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------- #a ,great ,britain #aa1hei #ca1ejj1jjj #fdb #de1gch1jjj #i1dej1jjj #b ,belgium #eah #d1ifj1jgg #aja #g1fhi1ijj #a1ffj1jjj #c ,united ,states #acc1acb #d1djj1jjj #hi #f1fej1jjj #a1cgc1ifc #d ,france #a1gai #d1ada1fag #hd #g1ffc1jjj #a1fjc1ajf #e ,prussian ,states ,not defined #c1ejj1jjj #gj #d1abb1ide #hef1cgj #f ,austrian ,states ,not defined #fei1cdj #ad #hjj1jjj #afe1bij ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------- ,total #di1afa1jcd #ajjj #gb1ffc1hde #ae1ajh1gbi ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------- ,the coal trade appears to be increasing in all parts of the world4 ,there are no authentic data from which the increasing production of bituminous coal in the ,united ,states can be exactly deduced1 but what we have show that it is very rapid4 ,the production of anthracite may be said to be entirely confined to the ,state of ,pennsylvania1 which possesses a numerous and interesting group of coal basins1 of various sizes and characters4 ,in the year #ahbj1 the anthracite coal trade commenced with #cfe tons2 in #ahbg it reached #dh1jdg tons2 in #ahcg1 #hha1jbf tons1 and advanced to #c1jjj1jjj tons in #ahdg4 ,the following table exhibits the production of smelted or manufactured iron in different countries in the year #ahde3-- #a4 ,great ,britain #b1bjj1jjj #b4 ,united ,states #ejb1jjj #c4 ,france #ddh1jjj #d4 ,russia #djj1jjj #e4 ,zollverein1 or ,prussian ,states #cjj1jjj #f4 ,austria #aij1jjj #g4 ,belgium #aej1jjj #h4 ,sweden #ade1jjj #i4 ,spain 7in #ahda7 #bf1jjj #aj4 ,all other ,european countries #ej1jjj --------- #d1daa1jjj ,the rapid increase in the number of railroads and locomotive engines1 and the number of steam vessels employed in commerce1 augments the demand1 proportionally1 for iron and fuel4 ,at the commencement of #ahdg1 the length of railroad completed and partly finished in the principal countries of ,europe and ,america was #bj1jjj miles1 only a few thousand miles less than the entire circumference of the globe4#ajh ,footnote #ajh3 8,statistics of ,coal40 ,by ,richard ,cowling ,taylor1 ,philadelphia1 #ahdh4 ,footnote #aji3 ,sir ,charles ,lyell's 8,travels in the ,united ,states of ,north ,america40 ,footnote #aaj3 ,for the reason of this secular variation in the ,moon's distance1 see page #db of 8,the ,connection of the ,physical ,sciences40 ,footnote #aaa3 ,every undulating motion consists of two distinct things--an advancing form and a molecular movement4 ,the motion of each particle is in an ellipse lying wholly in a vertical plane1 so that1 after the momentary disturbance during the passage of the wave1 they return to their places again4--8,theory of ,waves10 by ,j4 ,scott ,russell1 ,esq4 ,footnote #aab3 ,j4 ,scott ,russell1 ,esq41 on ,waves4 ,footnote #aac3 ,beechy's ,voyage to the ,pacific4 ,footnote #aad3 ,by ,captain ,albrecht's soundings4 ,footnote #aae3 ,by the measurement of ,m4 ,lepre in the ,french expedition to ,egypt4-- 8,annales du ,bureau de ,longitude10 #ahcf4 ,footnote #aaf3 ,proceedings of the ,royal ,geological ,society1 vol4 ii41 p4 #baj4 ,footnote #aag3 ,baron ,humboldt's ,personal ,narrative4 ,footnote #aah3 ,leonardo da ,vinci was appointed ,director of ,hydraulic ,operations in ,lombardy by the ,duke of ,milan1 and during the time he was painting the 8,last ,supper0 he completed the ,canal of ,martesana1 extending from the ,adda to ,milan1 and improved the course of the latter river from where it emerges from the ,lake of ,como to the ,po4 ,by means of the ,naviglio ,grande1 the ,martesana canal establishes a water communication between the ,adda and the ,ticino1 the ,lakes of ,como and ,maggiore4 ,footnote #aai3 ,dr4 ,beke on the ,nile and its affluents4 ,footnote #abj3 ,captain ,w4 ,allen1 ,r4 ,n4 ,footnote #aba3 ,it is in the space comprised between two of the eastern tributaries of the ,tigris1 the ,khaus and the ,great ,zab1 or ,abou ,selman of the ,arabs1 that the extensive ruins of ,koyunjik1 ,khorsabad1 and especially of ,nimroud1 are situated1 the last of which have been so satisfactorily identified with the capital of ,assyria--the ancient ,nineveh--by our enterprising and talented countryman ,mr4 ,layard1 to whose exertions1 under circumstances of peculiar difficulty1 surrounded by every privation1 our national ,museum is indebted for that magnificent collection of ,assyrian monuments which at this moment forms the admiration of the ,british public4 ,it is to be hoped that our ,government will follow up the researches commenced by ,mr4 ,layard1 and that several of the gigantic sculptures removed by him1 with such perseverance and labour1 to ,bussorah1 will ere long be added to the riches of the ,british ,museum4 ,see ,mr4 ,layard's work on 8,nineveh and its ,remains10 #b vols4 #hvo41 and his illustrated work in folio--the former one of the most interesting narratives ever published on the antiquities of ,central ,asia4 ,footnote #abb3 ,m4 ,erman4 ,footnote #abc3 ,lieutenant ,w4 ,f4 ,lynch1 of the ,united ,states ,navy1 has recently published an interesting and valuable narrative of an expedition to the ,dead ,sea and ,river ,jordan4 ,according to his measurements and surveys1 the level of the ,dead ,sea is #a1cafg feet below that of the ,mediterranean4 ,the city of ,jerusalem is #b1faje feet above the latter1 and #c1ibgbd feet above the former sea4 ,the greatest depth of the ,dead ,sea is #acjh feet4 ,lieutenant ,lynch states the density of the water of the ,dead ,sea to be #aac1 that of distilled water being #a4 ,footnote #abd3 ,the water of ,lake ,eltonsk contains chloride of calcium4 ,footnote #abe3 ,the water of the ,dead ,sea1 according to ,lieutenant ,lynch1 contains #bfdb per cent4 of saline ingredients1 one of which is chloride of magnesium4 ,footnote #abf3 ,professor ,schoenbein of ,basle attributes the peculiar smell1 when bodies are struck by lightning1 to a principle existing in the atmosphere1 which he calls ozone1 liberated by the decomposing action of electricity1 and possessing the same electrical characters as bromine1 chlorine1 and iodine4 ,he ascribes the luminous appearance of the ocean to the action of that principle on the animal matter it contains4 ,footnote #abg3 ,annales des ,sciences ,gologiques1 par ,m4 ,rivire1 #ahdb4 ,footnote #abh3 ,the mean of any number of unequal quantities is equal to their sum divided by their number3 thus the mean temperature of the air at any place during a year is equal to the sum of the mean temperature of each month divided by #ab4 ,this method1 however1 will only give an approximate value2 therefore1 to ascertain the mean annual temperature at any place accurately1 the mean of a number of years must be taken4 ,footnote #abi3 ,lines drawn on a map or globe through all places where the mean annual temperature is the same are isothermal lines4 ,footnote #acj3 ,for example1 ,professor ,dove has found that the mean temperature of ,december1 ,january1 and ,february1 at ,toronto in ,canada1 added to the mean temperature of the same months at ,hobart ,town in ,van ,diemen's ,land1 exceeds the sum of the mean temperature of ,june1 ,july1 and ,august1 at the same places1 added together1 by #bbg of ,fahrenheit4 ,similar results1 though varying in amount1 were obtained for many corresponding places in the two hemispheres1 which establishes the law given in the text4 ,footnote #aca3 ,in the same manner as isothermal lines are supposed to pass through all parts of the globe where the mean temperature of the air is the same1 so the isogeothermal lines are supposed to pass through all places where the mean heat of the ground is the same3 the isotherial lines are supposed to be drawn through all places having the same mean summer temperature2 and the isochimenal lines pass through all places where the mean winter temperature is the same4 ,the practice of representing to the eye these lines on a map or terrestrial globe is of the greatest use in following and understanding the complicated phenomena of temperature and magnetism4 ,footnote #acb3 ,if the heights above the earth increase by equal quantities1 as a foot or a mile1 the densities of the strata of air1 or the heights of the barometer which are proportional to them1 will decrease in geometrical progression3 for example1 if the height of the barometer at the level of the sea be #biibb inches1 it will be #adifa inches at the height of #ah1jjj feet1 or one-half as great2 it will be one-fourth as great at the height of #cf1jjj feet1 one-eighth at the height of #ed1jjj feet1 and so on4 ,footnote #acc3 ,a very ingenious little instrument1 called the ,aneroid ,barometer1 has been lately invented in ,france2 which1 at the same time that it forms an exact and very portable weather-glass1 in the common acceptation of that term1 may be employed with considerable accuracy in ascertaining differences of level4 ,although not to be compared1 as an instrument of precision1 with the ordinary mercurial barometer1 it is infinitely more portable1 and gives with promptitude and accuracy small differences of level4 ,a friend of the author's has recently tested it in the latter respect on some of our railways1 and found that observations made with it carefully will give1 on a line of #bjj miles in extent1 the relative levels of the different stations within a few feet4 ,the observations can be made in a couple of minutes4 ,the gentleman in question writes to us1 that he considers the ,aneroid ,barometer will prove a very useful instrument to the geological and the botanical traveller4 ,see1 for a description of this instrument1 a pamphlet recently published at #hd1 ,strand1 by ,mr4 ,e4 ,j4 ,dent1 on the ,construction and ,uses of the ,aneroid ,barometer4 ,london1 #ahdi4 ,footnote #acd3 ,the moon's orbit is very much elongated1 so that her distance from the earth varies considerably1 and consequently her attractive force4 ,moreover1 her attraction varies with the rotation of the earth1 which brings her twice in #bd hours in the meridian of any place1 once in the superior and once in the inferior meridian2 but her action on the atmosphere is much inferior to that of the heat of the sun4 ,footnote #ace3 ,mr4 ,pentland has1 however1 found in the ,peru-,bolivian ,andes1 at elevations between #aa1jjj and #ad1jjj feet1 the horary oscillations of the barometer as regular1 and nearly as extensive1 as on the level of the sea in the same latitude4 ,footnote #acf3 ,lieutenant ,maury1 of the ,united ,states ,navy1 is led to believe that there is a region within the limit of the ,n4,e4 trade-winds1 in the ,atlantic1 in which the prevailing winds are from the south and west3 this region is somewhat in the shape of a wedge1 with its base towards the coast of ,africa1 between the equator and #aj ,n4 lat41 and between the meridians of #aj and #be ,w4 long4 ,in this space1 in which the law of the trade-winds is reversed1 there are great atmospheric disturbances1 violent squalls1 sudden gusts of wind1 thunder1 storms1 heavy rains1 baffling airs1 and calms4 ,footnote #acg3 ,in the northern hemisphere1 a north wind sets out with a less rotatory motion than the places have at which it successively arrives1 consequently it veers through all the points of the compass from ,n4 to ,n4,e4 and ,e4 ,if a south wind should now spring up1 it would gradually veer from ,s4 to ,s4,w4 and ,w41 because its rotatory velocity would be greater than that of the places it successively comes to4 ,the combination of the two would cause a vane to veer from ,e4 to ,s4,e4 and ,s42 but the rotation of the earth would now cause the south wind to veer round from ,s4 to ,s4,w4 and ,w42 and should a north wind now arise1 its combination with the west wind would bring the vane round from ,w4 to ,n4,w4 and ,n4 again4 ,at the ,greenwich ,observatory the wind makes five gyrations in that direction in the course of a year4 ,in ,europe it is the contention of the ,n4,e4 and ,s4,w4 winds which causes the rotation of the wind1 and the principal changes of weather1 the ,s4,w4 being warm and moist1 the ,n4,e4 cold and dry1 except where it comes over the ,german ,ocean4 ,footnote #ach3 ,in all hurricanes hitherto observed1 the sinking of the mercury1 and the increase of the wind1 have been more or less regularly progressive till within three or four hours' sail of the centre of the storm2 and in one class they have continued so even to the centre2 while in another class1 and by far the most terrible1 the depression of the mercury has been sudden and excessive when within that distance of the centre1 and the violence of the tempest far beyond the average4 ,when a ship is within #ej or #fj miles of the centre1 the storm has the mastery1 and seamanship is of little avail4 ,rules for avoiding this calamity1 and for managing a ship when involved in a hurricane1 are fully explained in the 8,sailor's ,horn-,book for the ,laws of ,storms10 by ,h4 ,piddington1 ,esq41 ,president of the ,marine ,courts of ,inquiry at ,calcutta4 ,the following approximate table is given by him1 to serve as a guide till better data shall be obtained3-- ,average fall of the ,distance of a ship from the barometer per hour4 centre of the storm1 in miles4 ,from #jjbj to #jjfj ,from #bej to #aej ,from #jjfj to #jjhj ,from #aej to #ajj ,from #jjhj to #jabj ,from #ajj to #hj ,from #jabj to #jaej ,from #hj to #ej ,the rate of fall per hour doubles after the storm has lasted six hours1 and within three hours of the centre of the hurricane the mercury will fall four times as fast1 if it be of the violent class4 ,colonel ,james ,capper discovered the rotatory motions of storms1 and ,w4 ,c4 ,redfield1 ,esq41 of ,new ,york1 was the first who determined their laws4 ,colonel ,reid1 ,governor of ,barbadoes1 and ,dr4 ,thom1 of the #hfth regiment1 have also written on the subject4 ,footnote #aci3 ,the four subordinate forms of clouds are the cirro-stratus1 composed of little bands of filaments1 more compact than the cirrus1 forming horizontal strata1 which seem to be numerous thin clouds when in the zenith1 and at the horizon a long narrow band4 ,the cumulo-stratus consists of the summer-cloud1 like snowy mountains heaped on one another1 which at sunrise have a black or bluish tint at the horizon1 and pass into the nimbus1 or rain-cloud1 which has a uniform grey tint1 fringed at the edges2 and the fourth is the cirro-cumulus1 a combination of filaments and heaped-up cumuli or summer-clouds4 ,footnote #adj3 ,the reader is referred to the chart of the distribution of rain in the ,physical ,atlas of ,alexander ,keith ,johnston1 ,esq41 where the value of the practice referred to in note p4 #bg is shown4 ,footnote #ada3 ,the reader is referred to the 8,connection of the ,physical ,sciences0 for an account of ,dr4 ,dalton's theory of definite proportions1 and the relative weight of atoms4 ,footnote #adb3 ,the reader is referred to the #ahth section of the 8,physical ,sciences0 for reflection1 refraction1 and absorption of light1 and to the #aith section for the constitution of the solar light and colours4 ,footnote #adc3 ,for the cause of mirage1 see the 8,connection of the ,physical ,sciences40 ,footnote #add3 ,for phenomena and theory of polarized light1 see section #ba1 8,connection of the ,physical ,sciences40 ,footnote #ade3 ,every substance1 whether solid or fluid1 has its own polarizing angle4 ,footnote #adf3 ,the reader is referred to a plate in 8,johnston's ,physical ,atlas0 showing the phenomena of the polarization of the atmosphere4 ,footnote #adg3 ,see sections #bh and #bi of the 8,connection of the ,physical ,sciences30 on ,electricity4 ,footnote #adh3 ,sound travels at the rate of #aabj feet in a second in air at the temperature of #fb of ,fahrenheit2 so if that number be multiplied by the seconds elapsed between the flash of lightning and the thunder1 the result will be the distance in feet at which the stroke took place4 ,footnote #adi3 ,colonel ,sabine's ,notes to 8,kosmos40 ,footnote #aej3 ,the foci are all of different intensities2 that in the ,south ,atlantic1 discovered by ,m4 ,erman1 has the least intensity of the four1 and the other in the southern hemisphere1 discovered by ,sir ,james ,ross1 has the greatest2 taking #a as the unit at the magnetic equator in ,peru1 their intensities are as #bjga and #jgjf4 ,in the northern hemisphere the ,american focus is more intense than that in ,siberia1 which is moving from west to east1 while the minor focus in the southern hemisphere is moving from east to west4 ,footnote #aea3 ,the author is indebted to the admirable and profound investigations of ,colonel ,sabine for almost all she knows on the subject of terrestrial magnetism4 ,in these1 and in his notes on the ,english translation of 8,kosmos10 the reader will find all that is most interesting on the subject4 ,in his own works there are plates of the course of the different magnetic lines mentioned in the text4 ,footnote #aeb3 ,at ,st4 ,helena1 the north end of the needle reaches its eastern extreme in ,may1 ,june1 ,july1 and ,august1 and nearly at the same hours it reaches its western extreme in ,november1 ,december1 ,january1 and ,february4 ,the passage from one to the other takes place at1 or soon after1 the equinoxes in ,march and ,april1 ,september and ,october4-- ,colonel ,sabine's ,notes to 8,kosmos40 ,footnote #aec3 ,the sporules or seeds of the fungi are so minute that ,m4 ,freis counted above ten millions in a single plant of the recticularia maxima3 they were so subtile that they were like smoke4 ,footnote #aed3 ,the solar spectrum1 or coloured image of the sun1 formed by passing a sunbeam through a prism1 is composed of a variety of invisible as well as visible rays4 ,the chemical rays are most abundant beyond the violet end of the spectrum1 and decrease through the violet1 blue1 and green1 to the yellow1 where they cease4 ,the rays of heat are in excess a little beyond the red end1 and gradually decrease towards the violet end4 ,besides these there are two insulated spots at a considerable distance from the red1 where the heat is a maximum4 ,were the rays of heat visible1 they would exhibit differences as distinct as the coloured rays1 so varied are their properties according to their position in the spectrum4 ,there are also peculiar rays which produce phosphorescence1 others whose properties are not quite made out1 and probably many undiscovered influences2 for time has not yet fully revealed the sublimity of that creation1 when ,god said1 8,let there be light--and there was light40 ,footnote #aee3 ,professor ,quetelet is desirous that the periodical phenomena of vegetation should be observed at a number of places1 in order to establish a comparison between the periods at which they take place2 and for that purpose he gives a list of the commonest plants1 as lilac1 laburnum1 elder1 birch1 oak1 horse-chestnut1 peach1 pear1 crocus1 daisy1 c41 which he himself observes annually at ,brussels4 ,footnote #aef3 ,dandelion opens at five or six in the morning1 and shuts at nine in the evening2 the goat's-beard wakes at three in the morning1 and shuts at five or six in the afternoon4 ,the orange-coloured ,escholtzia is so sensitive that it closes during the passage of a cloud4 8,the marigold that goes to bed wi' the sun1 and with him rises weeping10 with many more1 are instances of the sleep of plants4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,m4 de ,candolle established #bj botanical regions1 and ,professor ,schow the same number2 but ,professor ,martius1 of ,munich1 has divided the vegetation of the globe into #ea provinces1 namely1 #e in ,europe1 #aa in ,africa1 #ac in ,asia1 #c in ,new ,holland1 #d in ,north and #h in ,south ,america1 besides ,central ,america1 the ,antillas1 the ,antarctic ,lands1 ,new ,zealand1 ,van ,diemen's ,land1 ,new ,guinea1 and ,polynesia4 ,to these1 other divisions might be added1 as the ,galapagos1 which is so strongly defined4 ,baron ,humboldt gives the following concise view of the distribution of plants1 both as to height and latitude3-- ,the equatorial zone is the region of palms and bananas4 ,the tropical zone is the region of tree-ferns and figs4 ,the subtropical zone1 that of myrtles and laurels4 ,the warm temperate zone1 that of evergreen trees4 ,the cold temperate zone1 that of ,european or deciduous trees4 ,the subarctic zone1 that of pines4 ,the arctic zone1 that of rhododendrons4 ,the polar zone1 that of alpine plants4 ,upper ,limit of ,trees on ,mountains4--,the upper limit of trees is distinguished by the ,escalloni1 on the ,andes of ,quito1 at the height of #aa1ejj feet above the level of the sea4 ,in tropical ,mexico1 the upper limit of trees1 at the height of #ab1ghi feet1 is distinguished by the ,pinus occidentalis4 ,in the temperate zone the limit of trees is marked by the ,quercus ,semicarpifolia1 at #aa1ejj feet1 on the south side of the ,himalaya1 and by the ,betula ,alba1 on the north side1 at the height of #ad1jjj feet3 the same birch forms the limit on the ,caucasus1 at the elevation of #fcid feet4 ,on the ,pyrenees and ,alps the limit is marked by the ,conifer or pine tribe3 on the ,pyrenees by the ,pinus uncinata1 at the height of #aj1hgj feet2 on the south side of the ,alps by the larch1 at the elevation of #fgjj feet2 and by the ,pinus abies1 at #ehhc feet1 on the north4 ,in ,lapland1 the ,betula ,alba forms the upper limit of trees1 at the height of only #aiah feet4 ,the upper ,limit of ,shrubs4--,in the ,andes of ,quito the ,bejarias are the shrubs that attain the greatest height1 and terminate at #ac1dbj feet above the sea-level4 ,the juniper1 ,salix1 and ,ribes1 or currant tribe1 form the upper limit of ,shrubs on the south side of the ,himalaya1 at the height of #aa1ejj feet4 ,the tama1 or ,genista versicolor1 a species of broom1 flourishes at the height of #ag1jjj feet on the north side1 and vegetation is prolonged to nearly #ah1jjj feet4 ,the ,rhododendron forms the upper limit of shrubs on the ,caucasus1 at #hhbe feet2 in the ,pyrenees it grows to #hcab feet2 in the ,alps to #gdhj feet2 and in ,lapland it forms the upper limit of shrubs at an elevation of #cjjj above the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,the ,british flora contains at least #cjjj species4 ,footnote #aei3 ,the plants with which the ,chinese give flavour to tea are the ,olea fragrans1 ,chloranthus inconspicuus1 ,gardenia florida1 ,aglaia odorata1 ,mogorium sambac1 ,vitex spicata1 ,camellia sasanqua1 ,camellia odorifera1 ,illicium anisatum1 ,magnolia yulan1 ,rosa indica odoratissima1 turmeric1 oil of ,bixa orellana1 and the root of the ,florentine iris4 ,the principles of caffeine and theine are1 in all respects1 identical4 ,footnote #afj3 ,davis on ,china4 ,footnote #afa3 ,dr4 ,mantel4 ,footnote #afb3 ,dr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,hooker4 ,footnote #afc3 ,the ,euphorbia and ,borreria are the distinguishing features of the low grounds in the ,galapagos islands2 while the ,scleria1 croton1 and ,cordia mark the high grounds4 ,composit and ,campanulace distinguish ,st4 ,helena and ,juan ,fernandez4 ,the prevailing plants in the ,sandwich group are the ,goodeniace and ,lobeliace2 and in ,new ,zealand ferns and club-mosses prevail1 almost to the exclusion of the grasses4--,dr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,hooker4 ,footnote #afd3 ,of #bhia species of flower-bearing plants in the ,united ,states of ,north ,america1 there are #che found also in northern and temperate ,europe4 ,footnote #afe3 ,in the basin of ,titicaca in ,peru-,bolivia1 ,mr4 ,pentland has seen a variety of maize ripen as high as #ab1hjj feet4 ,footnote #aff3 ,dr4 ,weddell1 a very distinguished botanist1 who has recently returned from an exploration of the districts of the ,andes which furnish the ,peruvian bark of commerce1 has discovered several new species of ,cinchona1 the total number of which1 according to his beautiful monography1 now amounts to #ba4 ,footnote #afg3 ,professor ,martius1 of ,munich1 in his great work on ,palms1 has described #ejj1 accompanied with excellent coloured plates4 ,it is supposed that the number of species throughout the world amounts to #ajjj4 ,footnote #afh3 ,there are innumerable points of analogy between the vegetation of the ,brazils1 equinoctial ,africa1 and ,india3 but the number of species common to these three continents is very small4 ,footnote #afi3 ,dr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,hooker4 ,footnote #agj3 ,the cosmopolite ulv are the ,enteromorpha1 ,codium1 c4 ,footnote #aga3 ,dr4 ,j4 ,d4 ,hooker has divided the marine vegetation into ten provinces3--the ,northern ,ocean1 from the pole to the #fjth parallel of north latitude2--the ,north ,atlantic1 between the #fjth and #djth parallels1 which is the province of the delessari and fucus proper2-- the ,mediterranean1 which is a sub-region of the warmer temperate zone of the ,atlantic1 lying between the #djth and #bc;d northern parallels2-- the tropical ,atlantic1 in which sargassum1 rhodomelia1 corallinia1 and siphinea abound2--the antarctic ,american region1 from ,chile to ,cape ,horn1 the ,falkland ,islands1 and the whole circumpolar ocean south of the #ejth southern parallel2--the ,australian and ,new ,zealand province1 which is very peculiar1 being characterized1 among other generic forms1 by cystoseiri and fuce2--the ,indian ,ocean and the ,red ,sea2--and the last1 which comprises the ,japan and ,china ,seas4 ,there are several undetermined botanical marine provinces in the ,pacific and elsewhere4 ,footnote #agb3 ,the ,british flowering sea-weeds are the ,zostera and ,zanichellia4 ,footnote #agc3 ,the vegetation at different depths in the ,egean ,sea is as distinctly marked as that at different heights on the declivity of a mountain4 ,the coast plants are the ,padina pavonia and ,dictyota dichotoma4 ,a greater depth is characterized by the vividly green and elegant fronds of the ,caulerpa prolifera1 probably the prasium of the ancients2 associated with it are the curious sponge-like ,codium ,bursa1 and four or five others4 ,the ,codium flabelliforme1 and the rare and curious vegetable net called ,microdictyon umbilicatum1 characterize depths of #cj fathoms4 ,the ,dictyomenia1 with stiff purple corkscrew-like fronds1 and some others1 go as low as #ej fathoms1 beyond which no flexible sea-weeds have been found4 ,the coral-like ,millepora polymorpha take their place1 and range to the depth of #ajj fathoms1 beyond which there is no trace of vegetable life1 unless some of the minute and microscopic infusorial bodies living there be regarded as plants4-- 8,travels in ,lycia10 by ,lieutenant ,spratt1 ,r4 ,n41 and ,professor ,e4 ,forbes4 ,footnote #agd3 ,the notocanthus and macrourus are the deep-water fish in the arctic regions2 they also inhabit the seas of ,new ,zealand4 ,the ,pacific fish that enter the ,atlantic are some of the mackerel tribe1 sharks1 and lophobranches4 ,the genera most prevalent in the southern hemisphere are the notothemia1 borichthys1 and harpagifer4 ,the same species of these genera are found in the seas of the ,falkland ,islands1 ,cape ,horn1 the ,auckland ,islands1 and ,kerguelen's ,land4--,dr4 ,richardson4 ,footnote #age3 ,the ,chinese fresh-water fish are cyprinid1 ophicephali1 and silurid-- genera which agree closely with those in ,india1 though the species are different4 ,footnote #agf3 ,the carnivorous ,cetacea1 with two remarkable exceptions1 inhabit the ocean--the ,delphinus ,inca1 of the ,amazons and its affluents2 and the ,d4 ,gangeticus1 of the ,ganges4 ,footnote #agg3 ,captain ,scoresby's 8,arctic ,voyages40 ,footnote #agh3 ,one of the most celebrated species of this division is the crocodile of the ,nile1 which probably is to be met with in the western branch of that river1 the ,bahr-el-,abiad1 as high as #djjj feet4 ,immense numbers of this species1 of every size and age1 are found embalmed in the catacombs of the ancient ,egyptians1 which are perfectly identical with the existing species1 and offering another proof of the important fact first announced by ,cuvier1 from his examination of the mummies of the ibis1 that no animal1 in its wild state1 had presented the least change1 within the longest historical periods4 ,footnote #agi3 ,mr4 ,pentland informs me that crocodiles are found in some of the rivers of ,bolivia at a much greater elevation4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,animals of a gigantic size1 and allied to the lizard family1 formerly inhabited the latitudes of ,britain4 ,a monster 7the ,mosasaurus7 much surpassing the largest living crocodile is found in our ,sussex chalk-beds2 and an animal allied to the ,iguana1 the iguanodon of ,mantell1 is of frequent occurrence in the strata upon which the chalk reposes in the weald of ,sussex1 the ,isle of ,wight1 c4 ,some bones of the iguanodon would indicate an animal more than #ej feet long4 ,footnote #aha3 ,petrel1 from ,st4 ,peter4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,in some parts of the earth the same conditions which regulated the distribution of the ancient fauna and flora still prevail4 ,the flora of the carbonaceous epoch is perfectly similar to that of ,new ,zealand1 where ferns and club-mosses are so abundant2 and the fauna of that ancient period had been representative of that which recently prevailed in these islands1 since foot-prints of colossal birds have been discovered in the red sandstone of ,connecticut4 ,the age of reptiles of the ,wealden and other secondary periods is representative of the fauna of the ,galapagos islands1 which chiefly consists of tortoises and creatures of the lizard or crocodile family2 and the cycadaceous plants and marsupial animals of the oolite are representative of the flora and fauna of ,australia4 ,the colossal birds which prevailed in ,new ,zealand1 almost to the entire exclusion of reptiles and quadrupeds1 lasted to a very late period2 they differed in the structure of the beak and skull from every class of birds1 recent or fossil4 ,footnote #ahc3 ,perhaps no quadruped in the wild state will be found to have so wide a vertical range of habitat as this animal4 ,it is found in the plains of ,tartary1 in the valley of the ,tigris1 at a very few feet above the sea-level1 and in the most elevated plains of the ,himalaya1 at elevations exceeding #ae1cjj feet4 ,footnote #ahd3 ,it is by no means certain that the wild ,ass of the three countries mentioned in the text belongs to the same species4 ,the ,kiang of ,tibet appears to be the same as the ,dziggetai 7,equus ,hemonus7 of ,pallas1 which is met with throughout central ,asia2 but the species found in the ,run of ,cutch is of a different colour and form3 whilst the one neighs like a horse1 the other brays like an ass2 in one the striped colour of the zebra family exists in the young1 and not in the second4 ,footnote #ahe3 ,the attention of the scientific world in ,france has been recently directed to the advantages that might arise from the naturalization of the ,llama tribe in ,europe1 and especially of its two most useful species1 the ,llama and the ,alpaca4 ,m4 ,j4 ,geoffroy ,st4 ,hilaire1 a zoologist of some note1 but rather carried away by theoretical views in a branch of science where observation1 and observation alone1 ought to be our guide1 and ignorant perhaps of what had been done in ,england on the same subject1 where the experiment had long since been tried1 and with very inadequate success1 has presented lately some papers to the ,academy of ,sciences on this subject4 ,we cannot imagine1 even if the naturalization of the ,llama on a large scale was possible1 what benefit could arise from it to our agriculturists4 ,the wool of the llama is coarse1 and so infinitely inferior to the commonest qualities of sheep's wool1 that in its native country it is seldom used for any other purpose than the manufacture of ropes1 of a rough carpeting and packing-cloth1 and for the coarsest apparel of the poor ,indian4 ,as to its use as a beast of burden1 whilst the llama eats as much as the ass1 it does not carry more than one half what he can1 and can scarcely travel one half of the same daily distance2 besides1 the female llama is useless in this respect4 ,the flesh of the llama1 as above stated1 is greatly below that of all our domestic animals1 even of the ,italian buffalo4 ,as to the ,alpaca1 it is very doubtful if1 living as it does in an extremely dry1 elevated1 equable1 and clear atmosphere1 it would ever become accustomed to the damp and variable climate of our northern latitudes1 or to that of the great ,european chains of mountains1 the ,alps and the ,pyrenees1 and if it did1 that its wool would not be greatly deteriorated4 ,as to the vicua1 it is purely a wild species1 and has hitherto resisted all the efforts of the aborigines1 the most patient and docile of the human race1 to render it prolific in its own climate and in domesticity4 ,it appears1 therefore1 that the domestication of the several species of ,auchenia in ,europe would be a costly and useless experiment1 on the large scale on which it is proposed to try it2 indeed1 this will appear evident when it is known that in the ,peru-,bolivian ,andes the llama and alpaca are daily disappearing to make room for the more useful and profitable breed of the common ,european sheep1 whilst1 as a beast of burden1 the ass is everywhere taking its place4 ,connected with this subject1 a very singular fact1 and1 if well established1 a very curious one1 has been announced by ,m4 ,geoffroy ,st4 ,hilaire1 on the authority of one of our countrymen1 ,dr4 ,weddel1 recently returned from ,south ,america1 that a cross-breed between the ,alpaca and the ,vicua had been obtained1 and that the mules from this cross-breed were capable of reproducing this newly-created species1 the wool of which is represented to be of a valuable quality4 ,now1 if there exists in zoological science a fact clearly established1 it is this3 that within historical periods no new species of vertebrate animal has been created--in fact1 the great law of the immutability of species4 ,the remains of the several wild animals which have been buried for more than #cj centuries in the catacombs of ,egypt1 and in the ruins of ,nineveh1 are perfectly identical with those now existing in the most minute details of their anatomical structure4 ,we have examined1 in the case referred to1 the evidence adduced by ,m4 ,geoffroy ,st4 ,hilaire in support of his favourite doctrine1 and we do not by any means consider it sufficient to shake the conclusions arrived at by all the great zoologists of past and present times--by the ,cuviers1 the ,humboldts1 and the ,owens of our own period--on the impossibility of the production of a new species of animals1 or the immutability of species in the animal creation4 ,contradictions to this law we know have been brought forward by writers of the theoretical school of naturalists1 to support favourite theories of their authors2 but we believe such dangerous doctrines are founded on the vagaries of a school which have ever placed in natural history observation in the back1 and the dreams of imagination in the foreground4 ,footnote #ahf3 ,there are #h families1 #ad genera1 and #abc species of marsupial animals1 amounting to about one-twelfth of all the mammalia4 ,the opossum is ,american2 the seven other families are inhabitants of ,australia and the ,indian ,archipelago4 ,of the ,didelphid or opossum family there are #ba species1 all inhabitants of ,america2 the ,virginian opossum is about the size of a cat1 the other species are not larger than rats or mice4 ,a pretty kind in ,surinam1 the ,d4 dorsigera1 is so named because it carries its young on its back1 which hold on by their prehensile tails twisted round that of the mother3 another species is aquatic1 and in its habits resembles the otter4 ,the ,dasyurid and ,phalangers are nocturnal3 the ,dasyurid and wombats burrow4 ,footnote #ahg3 ,sir ,charles ,lyell estimates the number of existing species of animals and vegetables1 independent of the infusoria1 to be between one and two millions1 which must surely be under the mark1 considering the enormous quantity of animal life in the ocean1 to the amount of which we have not even an approximation4 ,if the microscopic and infusorial existence be taken into the account1 the surface of the globe may be viewed as one mass of animal life--perpetually dying--perpetually renewed4 ,a drop of stagnant water is a world within itself1 an epitome of the earth and its successive geological races4 ,a variety of microscopic creatures appear1 and die2 in a few days a new set succeeds2 these vanish and give place to a third set1 of different kinds from the preceding2 and the dbris of all remain at the bottom of the glass4 ,the extinction of these creatures takes place without any apparent cause1 unless a greater degree of putrescence of the water be to them what the mighty geological catastrophes were to beings of higher organization--the introduction of the new is not more mysterious in one case than in the other4 ,footnote #ahh3 ,valmiki1 the ,hindu poet1 is supposed to have been contemporary with ,homer1 if not his predecessor3 his great work is the 8,ramayana10 an heroic poem of the highest order1 four cantos of which have been translated by ,gaspare ,gorresco1 an ,italian4 ,according to ,dr4 ,pritchard1 the four great dynasties of languages in the old continent are--the ,indo-,european or ,indo-,germanic1 now called the ,arian or ,iranian languages2 the ,turanian or ,ugro-,tartarian1 the language of high ,asia2 the ,chinese and ,indo-,chinese1 or ,monosyllabic2 and the ,syro-,arabian or ,semitic languages4 ,the three first are common to ,europe and ,asia2 the fourth1 common to ,africa and some parts of ,asia near ,africa4 ,the ,arians are the ancient ,medes and ,persian2 the ,ugrians are the ,fins1 ,laplanders1 ,hungarians1 and many ,siberian nations4 ,footnote #ahi3 ,,european ,,population4 ,pure blood4 ,teutonic #eb1jjj1jjj ,sclavonian #ej1jjj1jjj ,celtic #ab1jjj1jjj ,magyar #i1jjj1jjj ,fins and ,samojedes #c1jjj1jjj ,tartar #b1jjj1jjj ,jews #b1jjj1jjj ----------- ,total ,european population of pure blood #acj1jjj1jjj ,mixed blood in ,europe4 ,teutonic ,celtic #bb1jjj1jjj ,teutonic ,sclavonian #f1jjj1jjj ,teutonic mixed with ,walloons in ,belgium #a1bjj1jjj ,teutonic ,northmen in ,normandy #a1ejj1jjj ,celtic in its different crosses #ef1jjj1jjj ,sclavonian #f1jjj1jjj ,lettons #b1jjj1jjj ,turks #d1jjj1jjj ,turco-,tatar-,sclavonic in centre1 south-east1 and east of ,russia #b1fjj1jjj ,kalmuk1 between the rivers ,volga and ,ural #cjj1jjj ----------- ,the number of people of mixed blood in ,europe #aja1fjj1jjj ,the total population of ,europe1 pure and mixed1 amounts to about #bcb millions1 including #fjj1jjj ,gipsies4 ,the ,teutonic population in the ,united ,states of ,north ,america and in the ,british colonies amounts to #bj millions2 so that the total number of people of ,teutonic blood is rather more than #ajj millions4--,notes accompanying the ,ethnographic ,map of ,europe1 by ,dr4 ,gustaf ,kombst3 8,phys4 ,atlas40 ,footnote #aij3 ,,population ,,or ,,great ,,britain ,,and ,,ireland4 ,on an average the pure-blooded population amounts to ,teutonic in ,england1 ,scotland1 and in the east and north-east of ,ireland #aj1jjj1jjj ,celtic in ,cornwall1 ,wales1 the ,scottish ,highlands1 and ,ireland4 #f1jjj1jjj ---------- ,the pure-blooded inhabitants amounts to #af1jjj1jjj ,mixed blood4 ,mixture in which the ,teutonic blood predominates #f1jjj1jjj ,mixture in which the ,celtic blood predominates #d1jjj1jjj ---------- #aj1jjj1jjj ,in all #bf1jjj1jjj of inhabitants4 ,notes accompanying the ,ethnographic ,map of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 by ,gustaf ,kombst3 8,phys4 ,atlas40 ,the fear that ,britain may be ruined by over population may be allayed by considering that we are ignorant of the immense treasures and inexhaustible resources of the natural world--that the ingenuity of man is infinite1 and will continually discover new powers and innumerable combinations that will furnish sources of wealth and happiness to millions4 ,footnote #aia3 ,from the discrepancies in the chronological systems it is evident that the actual period of man's creation is not accurately known4 ,the ,chevalier ,bunsen has ascertained1 from monumental inscriptions1 that the successive ,egyptian dynasties may be traced back to ,meres1 #cfdj years before the ,christian era1 and from the high state of civilization during the reign of that prince1 proved by the magnificence of the works thus executed1 he infers that the ,egyptians must have existed #ejj years previous to their consolidation into one empire by him1 which goes back to the renewed period of man's creation4 ,compared with geological periods1 man is of very recent creation1 as appears from the vast extent of uninhabited land1 but which would require ages and ages to people1 even if the increase of population were as rapid as in the ,united ,states of ,north ,america4 ,footnote #aib3 ,dark-coloured substances absorb more of the sun's heat than light-coloured ones2 therefore1 the black skins of the natives of tropical climates absorb more heat than fair skins1 but1 from some unknown cause1 the black skin is protected from a degree of heat that would blister a fair one4 ,footnote #aic3 ,the countenances of the ,fuegians brought to ,england in #ahcj by ,captain ,fitzroy improved greatly in expression by their intercourse with civilized men1 but they had not returned to their savage brethren more than a year before their whole appearance was completely changed2 the look of intelligence they had acquired was gone2 and when compared with likenesses that had been taken of them when in ,england1 they were not to be recognized as the same persons4 ,footnote #aid3 ,johnston's 8,physical ,atlas40 ,the average age of a nation1 or the mean duration of life1 has a considerable influence on the character of a people4 ,the average age of the population of ,england and ,wales is #bf years #g months4 ,by the census1 the average age of the population of the ,united ,states of ,north ,america is #bb years #b months4 ,in ,england there are #acfe persons in every #aj1jjj1 who have attained #ej years of age1 and consequently of experience2 while1 in the ,united ,states1 only #hcj in each #aj1jjj have arrived at that age3 hence1 in the ,united ,states1 the moral predominance of the young and passionate is greatest4 ,in ,ireland there are #ajej persons in every #aj1jjj of the population1 above #ej years of age1 to exercise the influence of their age and experience upon the community--an influence that will diminish with the progress of emancipation4 ,footnote #aie3 ,it is singular that the ,british should1 for years1 have possessed such extensive territories in ,asia without having explored their mineral wealth4 ,perhaps the quantity of gold recently discovered in ,california and ,africa may call the attention of the ,east ,india ,company to the subject4 ,some of the richest mining districts are in countries where primary formations have been crossed or disturbed by volcanic action2 and as that is eminently the case along the eastern coast of the ,bay of ,bengal1 from ,aracan to the peninsula of ,malacca1 mines of the precious metals will most likely be found on that frontier1 possibly in ,siam and the ,birman empire4 ,the interior of the ,deccan has also been greatly disturbed by ancient volcanos2 and as that country is said to bear a strong analogy in structure to ,south ,africa1 it may also resemble it in the production of gold4 ,the auriferous territory in ,california appears to be at least #djj miles long and #ajj broad4 ,footnote #aif3 ,in bringing to a close a work which may in some measure be considered a kind of ,rsum of ,natural knowledge1 it may not be either out of place or irrelevant to our subject to allude more particularly to the encouragement of late years granted to scientific investigation by our own ,government4 ,it must be confessed that ,great ,britain for a long time remained behind the nations of the continent in fostering scientific enterprise and research2 and if ,england has rivalled in most branches of natural knowledge1 and surpassed in some1 every other people1 it has arisen more from individual exertion1 and that spirit of association which forms so happy a characteristic of our race1 and which has in our political institutions so mainly contributed to our national greatness and prosperity1 than from any direct encouragement from our rulers4 ,whilst ,france and other continental nations were endowing the votaries of science1 were lavishing money on scientific expeditions1 and founding institutions which will hand down the names of their sovereigns to posterity as the benefactors of mankind1 ,england had done little in the same track beyond fitting out those memorable expeditions of ,cook1 and1 subsequently1 those of ,vancouver and ,flinders1 and the support granted to our great national ,observatory1 which1 under the direction of ,bradley1 ,maskelyne1 ,pond1 and ,airy1 has attained a degree of celebrity and utility unequalled by any astronomical foundation in ancient or modern times4 ,the conclusion of a long war1 in opening the scientific repositories of the continent to our countrymen1 showed us how much our great institutions1 with the above solitary exception1 were behindhand1 not only in extent and utility1 but in the liberality with which they were conducted4 ,possessing as we did the most ample means1 from our immense colonial possessions and our widely-extended commerce1 to add to the stock of our knowledge in natural history1 our collections were infinitely behind those of the great states of the continent1 and scarcely on a par with those of the sovereigns of a second and even third rate importance4 ,a better system was loudly called for1 and a better system has been adopted4 ,our great national collection of the ,british ,museum--and ,i here refer more particularly to its scientific and antiquarian department1 for there is still much room for improvement in the literary--has in a few years1 thanks to the liberality of ,parliament and the exertions of its trustees and officers1 become equal in every respect1 and superior in many1 to any similar institution on the continent4 ,two establishments have been created within the last dozen of years which reflect the greatest honour on the statesmen1 ,sir ,f4 ,baring1 then ,chancellor of the ,exchequer1 and the late ,earl of ,besborough1 as chief ,commissioner of the ,woods and ,forests1 who fostered them in their infancy1 and on the talented individuals who had been selected to carry out the enlightened views of the ,government--the ,museum of ,practical ,geology1 a designation that conveys a very inadequate idea of the extent of its attributes or of its utility1 and the ,royal ,botanic ,gardens at ,kew4 ,to the first the public is already indebted for such a geological survey and map of the empire as never had been planned or executed in any other country--only a small instalment1 however1 of great services which the nation and geological science are likely to derive from the labours of ,sir ,h4 ,delabeche and his collaborators4 ,the ,royal ,gardens at ,kew1 under the direction of ,sir ,w4 ,j4 ,hooker1 lose nothing when compared with the most celebrated establishments of the kind1 ancient or modern3 never was public money better bestowed1 or in a way to convey more useful instruction and gratification to the great mass of the community4 ,whilst every ,german university had its ,museum of ,comparative ,anatomy1 when the government of revolutionary ,france had placed at the disposal of ,cuvier ample means to lay the basis of that science of which he was to be considered the founder1 an eminent surgeon1 ,john ,hunter1 animated by the love of science alone1 and unaided by his ,government1 was rendering a similar service to ,great ,britain1 in laying the foundation of that ,museum which so justly bears his honoured name4 ,thanks to the liberality of the ,government1 and to the well-judged appreciation of the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons1 the ,hunterian ,collection has become the property of the nation1 and has received such additions and ameliorations as not to be behind any of those of the continent2 whilst in point of arrangement1 facilities granted for study1 and real practical utility1 it infinitely surpasses them all4 ,to it we principally are indebted for the introduction of the study of comparative anatomy into this country1 and for the possession of one of its greatest modern expositors1 ,professor ,owen4 ,it may appear invidious1 at a time when every department of our ,government is showing itself so desirous of promoting the cause of science1 to point to any in particular3 still we cannot refrain from making special mention of one to which science in general1 and more particularly that branch of it which forms the principal object of this work1 and our best national interests1 owe a deep and lasting debt of gratitude--the ,hydrographic department of the ,admiralty2 which1 under its present able chief1 ,sir ,francis ,beaufort1 has attained a degree of eminence unequalled by that of any other maritime country4 ,the ,admiralty has profited of a long peace to extend our knowledge over almost every region of the globe1 conferring thereby an immense service on geographical science1 and placing in the hands of our national and commercial marine a collection of charts and nautical instructions unparalleled in the history of navigation for their extent and exactitude4 ,another branch of inquiry1 closely connected with ,hydrography and ,navigation1 which it required the encouragement of a government to institute1 the investigation of the laws of terrestrial magnetism and meteorology1 has been very liberally provided for by ,parliament1 and most ably carried out1 under the direction of ,colonel ,sabine1 by the establishment of special observatories in our widely extended colonies1 and by the publication and distribution of their results4 ,the several maritime expeditions undertaken since the peace in a purely scientific view reflect the highest credit on the departments of the ,government with which they have originated1 as they do on the eminent individuals1 many of whom still live to enjoy their well-merited fame1 who have carried out their country's wishes4 ,the names of ,parry1 ,franklin1 ,back1 ,james ,c4 ,ross1 and ,richardson1 will be preserved in the memory of posterity long after the ephemeral glory of their professional career will have been forgotten4 ,although it is to the projectors of such an altered state of things1 and to the statesmen who encouraged and brought it about1 that our first acknowledgement is due1 our thanks must be also expressed to that branch of the legislature which1 holding1 as it rightly does1 the public purse1 has so liberally come forward upon every occasion1 when solicited1 in granting the means to promote scientific enterprise4 ,the votary of science therefore owes to the ,house of ,commons the expression of his unmingled gratitude4 ,but1 in paying that just tribute to the ministers of the ,crown and to ,parliament1 we must not pass over in silence the encouragement which science has in every department met with from the ,east ,india ,company4 ,lords of an immense territory1 the ,court of ,directors1 and its representatives in ,india1 have always shown themselves ready to contribute in a most liberal spirit to the extension of our knowledge of their widely extended empire4 ,the trigonometrical surveys of ,india1 the establishment of observatories1 the endowment of colleges and of scientific societies1 the formation of collections of natural history at great expense1 and which it distributes to all those who are likely to make good use of them1 the publication of works on physical researches1 on natural history1 of astronomical observations1 bestowed with so liberal a hand to men of science1 the formation of such a map of its extended dominions and of charts of its coasts as would do honour to any government1 must place the ,east ,india ,company in the first rank of those mighty potentates of the earth to whom science will both now and in after ages feel placed under the most lasting obligations4 ,connected with our ,oriental empire1 it is due to some of the native sovereigns of ,india to state that they have not been behindhand in imitating the liberal example of their powerful protectors4 ,two native princes1 the ,rajah of ,travancore and the ,king of ,oude1 have at very great expense established astronomical observatories in their territories1 furnished with ,european instruments of the most delicate construction1 and placed under the direction of ,european officers amply endowed and provided for4 ,the peninsula of ,india at the present moment possesses four astronomical observatories little behind those of ,europe as regards the means of observation2 until very lately there did not exist one public observatory in the whole extent of the ,united ,states of ,america4 ,a national observatory was established at ,washington in the year #ahdc4 ,footnote #aig3 ,sir ,john ,rennie4 ,footnote #aih3 ,charles ,babbage1 ,esq4 ,footnote #aii3 ,we learn1 on closing the present volume1 that this distinguished traveller1 through the liberality of ,her ,majesty's ,government1 is again about to proceed to the former field of his exertions4 ,footnote #bjj3 ,the works of ,cornelius and ,kaulbach bear testimony to the justice of the observations in the text4 ,in drawing1 nothing can be more beautiful--in composition1 nothing can be more varied or sublime4 ,the 8,destruction of ,jerusalem10 by ,kaulbach1 in which a powerful genius has combined the truth of the historian with the imagination of the poet1 and executed with the hand of a master1 might bear comparison even with the ,italian school for colouring4 ,footnote #bja3 ,twenty of these counties were in ,england and #aa in ,wales1 and so few crimes took place among educated women in the other counties during the #aa years mentioned1 that the annual proportion of accusations against educated females was only #a in #a1cdi1jei4 ,during the year #ahdf only #dh educated persons were convicted of crimes out of the whole population of ,england and ,wales1 and none were sentenced to death4 ,and during the years #ahde and #ahdf there were #ae counties in ,england and #aa in ,wales in which no well-educated person was convicted of any crime4 ,the number of accusations among educated persons in ,scotland is greater1 because education is more general1 and because the quantity of ardent spirits used in ,scotland is five times greater than in ,england4 ,crime is very much below the average in the mining districts1 and it is still less frequent in ,wales and in the mountainous country in the ,north of ,england4 ,the accomplishments of a well-educated person in these statistical records consist merely in being able to read and write fluently4--8,london ,statistical ,journal40 ,footnote #bjb3 ,every factory-child is limited to #dh hours of labour in the week1 and the children must by law attend school at least two hours a-day for six days out of the seven1 besides a ,sunday-school--one penny being deducted out of each shilling of wages for education4 ,the inspectors have the power of establishing schools where wanted1 and of dismissing incompetent teachers4 ,the engagement of factory-children in ,britain lasts till they are #ac1 in the ,united ,states it ends at #ae years of age4--8,statistical ,journal40 ,footnote #bjc3 ,the average duration of the life of sovereigns is greater in modern than in ancient times1 but it is still lower than any other class of mankind4 ,the most favourable average for them is #gjje years2 for the ,english aristocracy it is #gafi2 for the ,english gentry1 #gdjj2 for the learned professions1 #gcfb2 for ,english literary and scientific men it is #gbaj2 for the army and navy1 #gaii2 and for the professions of the fine arts1 #gaae4--8,london ,statistical ,journal40 ,footnote #bjd3 ,there are #fb ,ragged ,schools in ,london1 and ,government undertakes to send annually to the colonies #aej of such of the scholars as choose to go4--8,london ,statistical ,journal40 ,footnote #bje3 ,the letters affixed indicate the parts of the ,alps to which each locality belongs--,m41 ,maritime2 ,c41 ,cottian2 ,g41 ,grecian2 ,p41 ,pennine2 ,l41 ,lepontine2 ,b41 ,bernese1 or ,helvetian2 ,r41 ,rhetian2 ,j41 ,julian2 ,car41 ,carniac4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,the authorities on which these heights are given are--the ,piedmontese ,surveys 7,p4 ,s471 as published in #ahde1 in the ,work entitled 8,le ,alpi che cingono l',italia10 #a vol4 #hvo42 the ,austrian ,survey 7,a4 ,s471 as given in the splendid ,maps1 published by the ,austrian ,government1 of the ,regno ,lombardo-,veneto1 in #hd sheets2 and the ,swiss ,trigonometrical ,survey1 by ,eichman1 #a vol4 #dto41 #ahdf4 ,footnote #bjg3 ,the first eight passes are only fit for foot-passengers1 and in certain seasons for mules2 the remaining eleven offer carriage-roads1 and are generally open at all seasons of the year1 with the exception of the ,stelvio4 ,footnote #bjh3 ,heights taken from the list published in the ,french 8,annuaire du ,bureau des ,longitudes10 converted from metres into ,english feet4 ,footnote #bji3 ,heights determined by the ,french expedition under ,captains ,peytier and ,boblaye1 and published in the 8,connaissance des ,temps0 for #ahci4 ,footnote #baj3 ,the heights in the ,sikim ,himalaya are the results of the observations of ,colonel ,waugh1 ,director of the ,trigonometrical ,survey of ,india4 ,see 8,journal of ,as4 ,soc4 of ,bengal10 ,nov4 #ahdh4 ,footnote #baa3 ,for ,lieut4 ,strachey's observations during his very interesting journey to the ,sacred ,lakes of ,manasarowar1 c41 see 8,journal of ,as4 ,soc4 of ,bengal10 ,aug4 #ahdh4 ,footnote #bab3 ,see ,hooker's 8,journal of ,botany10 ,may1 #ahdi4 ,footnote #bac3 ,the heights followed by the letters ,a4 ,c4 have been taken from ,humboldt's 8,asie ,centrale40 ,footnote #bad3 ,the heights given on ,captain ,vidal's authority are taken from the elaborate ,admiralty ,surveys of ,madeira1 the ,canaries1 and ,azores1 partly executed under his direction2 the latter not yet published4 ,footnote #bae3 ,the heights given in this table on ,mr4 ,pentland's authority have been taken from his ,map of 8,the ,laguna of ,titicaca1 and of the ,valleys of ,yucay1 ,collao1 and ,desaguadero10 published in #ahdh4 ,footnote #baf3 ,as stated in the text1 vol4 i41 p4 #aee4 ,the height here assigned to the ,peak of ,aconcagua differs #gjj feet from that given by ,captain ,fitzroy4 ,a re-calculation1 however1 of his elements has led us to adopt a much greater elevation for the giant of the ,chilian ,andes than given by that talented officer4 ,captain ,fitzroy's observations place the summit of the ,peak of ,aconcagua1 which on his chart is incorrectly designated as a volcano1 in lat4 #cb #ch #cj1 long4 #gj #jj #cj ,w41 or #bc #bc ,n41 and #ajj #de ,e4 of ,valparaiso1 or its nearest distance about #hh #i-aj geographical miles4 ,from a station near ,captain ,fitzroy's1 at ,valparaiso1 ,captain ,beechy found the angle of elevation of ,aconcagua1 by several very careful observations1 to be #a #ee #de1 the distance from this station to the ,peak being #hhgd geographical miles4 ,from a discussion of all these data1 the compiler of this table has deduced for the height of ,aconcagua #bc1iaj feet above the sea4 ,transcriber's ,note ,this book uses inconsistent spelling and hyphenation1 which were retained in the ebook version4 ,some corrections have been made to the text1 including normalizing punctuation and capitilization1 replacing ditto marks with the text they represent1 and correcting the spelling of ,index entries to match the spelling in the main text4 ,where incorrect page number references were found in the ,index1 these were corrected4 ,several instances of ,antartic or antartic were changed to ,antarctic or antarctic4 ,further corrections are noted below3 p4 #h3 ,maratime ,chain - ,maritime ,chain p4 #ae3 ,william ,herschell - ,william ,herschel ,footnote #g3 earth's equaor - earth's equator ,footnote #g3 ,the inequalties - ,the inequalities ,footnote #g3 ,connection of ,physical ,sciences - ,connection of the ,physical ,sciences p4 #bc3 from the strata were they abound - from the strata where they abound p4 #bf3 mosily of extinct genera - mostly of extinct genera p4 #bi3 horizonial position - horizontal position ,footnote #i3 mark the boundery - mark the boundary p4 #cb3 specificially the same - specifically the same p4 #ch3 perpetural fire - perpetual fire p4 #de3 ,immediately counected - ,immediately connected p4 #dg3 mountains of this foam - mountains of this form p4 #ea3 ,the chains terminates - ,the chains terminates p4 #eb3 have been permament - have been permanent p4 #eb3 tranverse valleys - transverse valleys p4 #ec3 in the giaciers of the ,andes - in the glaciers of the ,andes p4 #fb3 ,hindo ,coosh - ,hindoo ,coosh p4 #ff3 that rocks and pillars rises - that rocks and pillars rise p4 #fi3 wondering ,kirghi - wandering ,kirghi p4 #gc3 greographical miles - geographical miles p4 #gg3 remains of animals that no longer exists - remains of animals that no longer exist p4 #hj3 most nothern part - most northern part p4 #hh3 sinks abrubtly - sinks abruptly p4 #hi3 tops of the monntains - tops of the mountains p4 #ib3 suceptible of cultivation - susceptible of cultivation p4 #ic3 are connnected by - are connected by p4 #ii3 once equal to ,chimboroza in height - once equal to ,chimborazo in height p4 #ajd3 which is situate - which is situated p4 #abj3 thoughout its length - throughout its length p4 #aba3 ,mexico and it lake - ,mexico and its lake p4 #abc3 ,culf of ,california - ,gulf of ,california p4 #abg3 the forests consists of - the forests consist of p4 #aca3 a considerable intervals - a considerable interval p4 #acb3 over wide area - over wide areas p4 #acb3 they cccupy a tract - they occupy a tract p4 #acf3 idea can be formad - idea can be formed p4 #acf3 ,tropic of ,capricon - ,tropic of ,capricorn p4 #acf3 frem ,new ,holland - from ,new ,holland p4 #adj3 along the the whole coast - along the whole coast p4 #adb3 nothern shores - northern shores p4 #adc3 it seldem rises - it seldom rises p4 #adg3 of the the crust - of the crust p4 #aec3 ,hot spings - ,hot springs p4 #aed3 fall of the barometer1 frogs1 and unusual sultriness - all of the barometer1 fogs1 and unusual sultriness p4 #aef3 are continned after - are continued after p4 #aeh3 on which they moor their boots - on which they moor their boats p4 #afh3 of these mettalloids - of these metalloids ,footnote #ih3 the unforseen result - the unforeseen result ,footnote #ii3 ,suppposing - ,supposing p4 #age3 ,rio de ,janeira - ,rio de ,janeiro ,footnote #aab3 ,j4 ,scott ,russel - ,j4 ,scott ,russell p4 #aie3 the waves becomes higher - the waves become higher p4 #aig3 where it not so - were it not so p4 #aii3 closing quote position assumed 444 to summer heat20 p4 #bjf3 the ,alantic virtually enters - the ,atlantic virtually enters p4 #bai3 the ,nile recieves - the ,nile receives p4 #bbf3 a greater volumne of water - a greater volume of water p4 #bbh3 covored with snow - covered with snow p4 #bcd3 insersected with rivers - intersected with rivers p4 #bdb3 branches as its mouth - branches at its mouth p4 #bea3 cannot br crossed - cannot be crossed p4 #bfg3 ,carribean islands - ,caribbean islands p4 #bgc3 whereas the the cold - whereas the cold p4 #bha3 only resolve bodies - only resolves bodies p4 #bhe3 polarization of the atmosphese - polarization of the atmosphere p4 #bhf3 positive elctricty increases - positive electricity increases p4 #bif3 two upheavels makes - two upheavals makes p4 #bih3 combination witht he oxygen - combination with the oxygen p4 #cae3 ,north ,amerian - ,north ,american p4 #cae3 which are ,amercian - which are ,american p4 #caf3 ,the themometer sometimes rises - ,the thermometer sometimes rises p4 #cbb3 ,rosa indica odoratissima1 tumeric1 oil of ,bixa orellana - ,rosa indica odoratissima1 turmeric1 oil of ,bixa orellana p4 #ccg3 crimson blosssom - crimson blossom p4 #cdd3 in the ,guatimala forest - in the ,guatemala forest p4 #cdd3 logwood1 mohogony1 and many other - logwood1 mahogony1 and many other p4 #cdi3 which cones the - with cones the p4 #ceb3 of the cyptogamous kinds - of the cryptogamous kinds p4 #ceb3 aborescent vegetation - arborescent vegetation p4 #ceh3 tranverse incision - transverse incision p4 #cfb3 and alse in vast fields - and also in vast fields p4 #cga3 their are eight distinct regions - there are eight distinct regions p4 #cgd3 of the mackarel tribe - of the mackerel tribe p4 #chc3 ,emydians or tortoises1 and turtle - ,emydians or tortoises1 and turtles p4 #chd3 and and form a link - and form a link p4 #chf3 from ,bazil to ,carolina - from ,brazil to ,carolina p4 #cij3 at an elevavation of - at an elevation of p4 #cia3 ,testuno ,grca - ,testudo ,grca p4 #cib3 the ,indian ,arcipelago - the ,indian ,archipelago p4 #cie3 ,more than three-fourth of the species - ,more than three fourths of the species p4 #cie3 ,aquilla albicilla - ,aquila albicilla p4 #cif3 catching moluscas and small fish - catching mollusca and small fish p4 #cii3 allied to to the grouse family - allied to the grouse family p4 #dja3 ,oriols of vivid colours - ,orioles of vivid colours p4 #djg3 ,straits of ,magellen - ,straits of ,magellan p4 #daj3 unexplored regions of the inferior - unexplored regions of the interior p4 #dac3 the restlessness of carniverous animal - the restlessness of carniverous animals p4 #dbj3 also of the ,crimera - also of the ,crimea p4 #dbb3 which serves as a parchute - which serves as a parachute p4 #dbe3 a new speeies of - a new species of p4 #dbg3 known as the prarie-dog - known as the prairie dog p4 #dcd3 a characteristeric of many - a characteristic of many ,footnote #ahf3 wombats bnrrow - wombats burrow p4 #deb3 are absoutely without grass - are absolutely without grass p4 #deg3 knowlege is power - knowledge is power p4 #deg3 ides are disseminated - ideas are disseminated p4 #deh3 stationary or retrogade - stationary or retrograde p4 #dff3 ancient ,ninevah - ancient ,nineveh p4 #dgb3 years that preceeded - years taht preceded p4 #dgc3 particlar and extraordinary - particular and extraordinary ,footnote #bjh3 ,annuaire du ,bureau des ,laugitutdes - ,annuaire du ,bureau des ,longitudes p4 #ejj3 opposums and other marsupial - opossums and other marsupial p4 #ejf3 soluble in alchol - soluble in alcohol p4 #ejg3 ,the anniseed tree - ,the aniseed tree p4 #ejh3 ,synonyne of ,pandanus - ,synonym of ,pandanus p4 #eah3 ,erom the ,gr4 - ,from the ,gr4 p4 #eai3 ,fram the ,gr4 - ,from the ,gr4 p4 #ebj3 a genu of mollusks - a genus of mollusks p4 #ebj3 ,smybnensis - ,smyrnensis p4 #ebd3 ,grom the ,gr4 - ,from the ,gr4