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,,?ree ,,p]iods ,,( ,,greek ,,philosophy1 #ab ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,cosmological ,,p]iod3 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,nature1 #ae ,,! ,,p]il ,,9 ,,! ,,greek ,,political ,,situation3 ,,p]sia ,,& ,,c>?age1 #ae ,,! ,,p]il ,,9 ,,! ,,new ,,religion3 ,,! ,,my/]ies ,,& ,,py?agoras1 #af ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,cosmologi/s1 #ah ,,table ,,( ,,cosmologi/s1 #bj ,,h[ ,,! ,,philosophical ,,"q ,,arose1 #bj ,,map ,,%[+ ,,! ,,cities ,,:]e ,,! ,,cosmologi/s ,,liv$1 #ba ,,summ>y ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,! ,,moni/ic ,,philosophies1 #bb #a4 ,,! ,,milesian ,,s*ool1 #bd ,,! ,,milesian ,,philosophy1 #be #b4 ,,x5ophanes1 ,,! ,,religi\s ,,philosoph]1 #bf ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,x5ophanes1 #bg #c4 ,,h]acleitus1 8,,! ,,misan?ropi/0 ,,& 8,,! ,,obscure10 #bh a4 ,h]acleitus' ,doctr9e ( ,absolute & ,univ]sal ,*ange1 #bh b4 ,fire is ! ,cosmic ,sub/ance1 #bi c4 ,! ,def9ite ,*anges ( ,fire1 #cj d4 ,! ,practical ,philosophy ( ,h]acleitus1 #ca #d4 ,,! ,,eleatic ,,s*ool1 #cb a4 ,,p>m5ides1 #cb 7#a7 ,! ,cosmic ,sub/ance is ,be+1 #cc 7#b7 ,o!r ,?+s ?an ! ,cosmic ,sub/ance 7,be+7 h no ,real ,exi/5ce1 #cd b4 ,,z5o1 #ce ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,z5o1 #cf ,,! ,,results ,,( ,,! ,,conflict ,,betwe5 ,,h]acleitus ,,& ,,p>m5ides1 #cg ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,pluralism1 #ci ,,ef=ts ,,t[>d ,,reconciliation1 #ci ,,! ,,new ,,conception ,,( ,,*ange ,,( ,,! ,,plurali/s1 #dj ,,! ,,new ,,conception ,,( ,,! ,,un*ang+ ,,( ,,! ,,plurali/s,,! ,,elem5t1 #dj ,,! ,,introduction ,,( ,,! ,,conception ,,( ,,! ,,effici5t ,,cause1 #da ,,summ>y ,,( ,,simil>ities ,,& ,,diff]5ces ,,9 ,,! ,,!ories ,,( ,,! ,,reconcil]s1 #da ,,! ,,plurali/ic ,,philosoph]s3 ,,emp$ocles1 ,,anaxagoras1 ,,leucippus1 ,,& ,,! ,,lat] ,,py?agoreans1 #db ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,emp$ocles1 #dd ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,anaxagoras1 #de ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,atomi/s,,leucippus ,,& ,,! ,,s*ool ,,at ,,abd]a1 #dg ,,! ,,lat] ,,py?agoreans1 #dh #a4 ,! ,py?agorean ,conception ( ,be+1 #di #b4 ,! ,py?agorean ,duali/ic ,_w1 #ea #c4 ,py?agorean ,a/ronomy1 #eb ,,hi/orical ,,retrospect1 #ec ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,an?ropological ,,p]iod3 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,man1 #ee ,,an ,,hi/orical ,,summ>y ,,( ,,! ,,an?ropological ,,p]iod1 #ee ,,! ,,p]sian ,,w>s ,,& ,,! ,,rise ,,( ,,a!ns1 #ef ,,! ,,greek ,,enlight5m5t1 #eh #a4 ,! ,impulse = ,le>n+1 #eh #b4 ,! ,practical ,ne$ ( ,k1 #ei #c4 ,! ,critical ,attitude ( ,m9d1 #fa ,,! ,,significance ,,( ,,! ,,sophi/s1 #fd ,,! ,,prom95t ,,sophi/s1 #fg ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,! ,,sophi/s1 #fh #a4 ,! ,relativism ( ,protagoras1 #fi #b4 ,! ,nihilism ( ,gorgias1 #gj ,,! ,,e?ics ,,( ,,! ,,sophi/s4,,! ,,application ,,( ,,_! ,,critical ,,!ory ,,to ,,political ,,life1 #ga ,,summ>y1 #gc ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,socrates1 #gd ,,socrates ,,& ,,ari/ophanes1 #gd ,,! ,,p]sonality ,,& ,,life ,,( ,,socrates1 #ge ,,socrates ,,& ,,! ,,sophi/s1 #hj ,,! ,,unsy/ematic ,,"* ,,( ,,! ,,socratic ,,philosophy1 #hb ,,! ,,ideal ,,( ,,socrates1 #hc ,,:at ,,! ,,socratic ,,ideal ,,involves1 #he ,,! ,,two ,,/eps ,,( ,,! ,,me?od ,,( ,,socrates1 #hh ,,socrates ,,& ,,a!ns1 #ia ,,! ,,logical ,,exp$i5ts ,,( ,,socrates1 #ib ,,socrates ,,& ,,! 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,academy1 #abd ,,conc]n+ ,,! ,,dialogues ,,( ,,plato1 #abf ,,! ,,factors ,,9 ,,! ,,con/ruction ,,( ,,plato',s ,,doctr9e1 #abh #a4 ,8 ,inh]it$ ,t5d5cies1 #abh #b4 ,8 ,philosophical ,s\rces1 #acj ,,! ,,divisions ,,( ,,plato',s ,,philosophy1 #aca ,,summ>y ,,( ,,plato',s ,,doctr9e1 #acb ,,! ,,=mation ,,( ,,plato',s ,,metaphysics1 #acb ,,! ,,developm5t ,,( ,,plato',s ,,metaphysics,,! ,,developm5t ,,( ,,plato',s ,,ideas ,,9 ,,! ,,two ,,drafts1 #acf ,,brief ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,! ,,two ,,drafts ,,( ,,! ,,ideas1 #acg ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,! ,,two ,,drafts ,,( ,,ideas ,,9 ,,m ,,detail1 #acg #a4 ,! ,numb] ( ,ideas 9 ! ,e>li] & ,lat] ,drafts comp>$1 #acg #b4 ,! ,relation ( ! ,ideas & ! ,_w ( ,nature 9 ! ,two ,drafts comp>$1 #ach #c4 ,! ,relation among ! ,ideas 9 ! ,two ,drafts comp>$1 #adj ,,plato',s ,,conception ,,( ,,god1 #ada ,,plato',s ,,conception ,,( ,,physical ,,nature1 #adb ,,plato',s ,,conception ,,( ,,man1 #add ,,plato',s ,,doctr9e ,,( ,,immortality1 #adf #a4 ,! ,immortality ( ,pre-,exi/5ce1 #adf #b4 ,! ,immortality ( ,po/-,exi/5ce1 #adi ,,! ,,two ,,t5d5cies ,,9 ,,plato1 #aej ,,platonic ,,love1 #aea ,,plato',s ,,!ory ,,( ,,e?ics1 #aec #a4 ,developm5t ( ,plato's ,!ory ( ! ,good1 #aec #b4 ,! ,f\r ,c>d9al ,virtues1 #aed #c4 ,plato's ,!ory ( ,political ,society1 #aee ,,app5dix,,j[ett',s ,,selection ,,( ,,passages ,,f ,,plato ,,= ,,engli% ,,read]s1 #aeh ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,ari/otle1 #aff ,,ari/otle ,,9 ,,! ,,academy ,,& ,,lyceum1 #aff ,,biography ,,( ,,ari/otle1 #afh ,,brief ,,*ronological ,,sket* ,,( ,,ari/otle',s ,,life1 #afh ,,ari/otle',s ,,biography ,,9 ,,detail1 #afi #a4 ,fir/ ,p]iod,e>ly ,influ5ces1 #afi #b4 ,second ,p]iod,travel] & ,collector1 #aga #c4 ,?ird ,p]iod,adm9i/rator ( ! ,lyceum1 #agb ,,! ,,writ+s ,,( ,,ari/otle1 #agc #a4 ,! ,popul> ,writ+s1 publi%$ by ,ari/otle himself1 #agd #b4 ,! ,compilations1 #age #c4 ,! ,didactic ,writ+s1 #age ,,ari/otle',s ,,/>t+-,,po9t1 #agf ,,! ,,fundam5tal ,,pr9ciple ,,9 ,,ari/otle',s ,,philosophy1 #agg ,,ari/otle',s ,,logic1 #ahj ,,ari/otle',s ,,metaphysics1 #ahe #a4 ,developm5t is ,purposeful1 #ahe #b4 ,ari/otle's ,two ,diff]5t ,conceptions ( ,purpose1 #ahg #c4 ,ari/otle's ,conception ( ,god1 #aij #d4 ,ari/otle's ,conception ( ,matt]1 #aia #e4 ,ari/otle's ,conception ( ,nature1 #aib ,,! ,,me*anical ,,s]ies1,,ari/otle',s ,,!ory ,,( ,,physics1 #aid ,,! ,,teleological ,,s]ies3 ,,! ,,qualitative ,,*anges ,,( ,,ph5om5a1 #aif #a4 ,! ,psy*ology ( ,ari/otle1 #aif #b4 ,! ,e?ics ( ,ari/otle1 #aii 7a7 ,! ,practical ,virtues1 #bjj 7b7 ,! ,dianoetic ,virtues1 #bja ,,! ,,political ,,philosophy ,,( ,,ari/otle1 #bjb ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,! ,,hell5ic-,,roman ,,p]iod1 #bjd ,,its ,,"t ,,l5g?1 #bjd ,,! ,,fall ,,( ,,! ,,greek ,,nation ,,& ,,! ,,p]si/5ce ,,( ,,its ,,civilization1 #bjd ,,map ,,( ,,! ,,empire ,,( ,,alex&]1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,ext5sion ,,( ,,hell5ism1 #bje ,,! ,,two ,,p>ts ,,( ,,! ,,hell5ic-,,roman ,,p]iod1 #bjh #a4 ,! ,e?ical ,p]iod1 #bjh #b4 ,! ,religi\s ,p]iod1 #bjh ,,! ,,und]curr5t ,,( ,,skepticism ,,9 ,,! ,,hell5ic-,,roman ,,p]iod1 #bji ,,! ,,fundam5tal ,,problem ,,( ,,! ,,hell5ic-,,roman ,,p]iod1 #baa ,,! ,,c5tres ,,( ,,hell5ism1 #bac #a4 ,a!ns1 #bac #b4 ,alex&ria1 #bae ,,g5]al ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,! ,,e?ical ,,p]iod1 #bae #a4 ,! ,ab&onm5t ( ,metaphysical ,speculation1 #baf #b4 ,! ,gr[? ( ,sci5ce1 #baf #c4 ,e?ics became ! ,c5tral ,int]e/1 #bag ,,! ,,s*ools1 #bah ,,map ,,( ,,a!ns1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,location ,,( ,,! ,,f\r ,,s*ools1 #bai ,,! ,,old ,,s*ools,,! ,,academy ,,& ,,! ,,lyceum1 #bbj #a4 ,! ,academy1 #bbj #b4 ,! ,lyceum1 #bba ,,! ,,new ,,s*ools,,! ,,epicureans ,,& ,,! ,,/oics1 #bbb ,a ,,summ>y ,,( ,,! ,,agreem5ts ,,& ,,diff]5ces ,,( ,,! ,,/oics ,,& ,,epicureans1 #bbe ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,epicureanism1 #bbg ,,! ,,life ,,( ,,epicurus1 #bbg ,,! ,,epicureans1 #bbh ,,"s ,,types ,,( ,,h$onism1,,ari/ippus1 ,,epicurus1 ,,& ,,r\sseau1 #bbh ,,! ,,epicurean ,,ideal1 #bcj ,,! ,,place ,,( ,,virtue ,,9 ,,epicureanism1 #bcc ,,! ,,epicurean ,,wise ,,man1 #bcd ,,! ,,epicurean ,,wise ,,man ,,9 ,,society1 #bce ,,! ,,great ,,ob/acles ,,to ,,happ9ess1 #bcf ,,epicurus' ,,conception ,,( ,,! ,,physical ,,_w4,,qualifi$ ,,atomism1 #bch ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,/oicism1 #bda ,,! ,,position ,,( ,,/oicism ,,9 ,,antiquity1 #bda ,,! ,,?ree ,,p]iods ,,( ,,/oicism1 #bdb #a4 ,p]iod ( ,=mulation ( ! ,doctr9e1 #bdb #b4 ,p]iod ( ,modifi$ ,/oicism1 #bdb #c4 ,p]iod ( ,roman ,/oicism1 #bdc ,,! ,,/oic ,,lead]s1 #bdc ,,! ,,/oic ,,writ+s1 #bdf ,,! ,,/oics ,,& ,,cynics1 #bdf ,,! ,,two ,,prom95t ,,/oic ,,conceptions1 #bdg ,,! ,,conception ,,( ,,p]sonality1 #bdh #a4 ,! ,/oic ,psy*ology1 #bdh #b4 ,! ,highe/ ,good1 #bej ,,! ,,conception ,,( ,,nature1 #bea #a4 ,nature is an ,all-p]vad+ ,_w-,be+1 #bec #b4 ,nature is an ,all-compell+ ,law1 #bec #c4 ,nature is ,matt]1 #bed ,,! ,,conceptions ,,( ,,nature ,,& ,,p]sonality ,,supplem5t ,,ea* ,,o!r1 #bef ,,! ,,/oic ,,& ,,society1 #beg ,,duty ,,& ,,responsibility1 #bei ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,evil ,,& ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,fre$om1 #bfj ,,! ,,modifications ,,( ,,! ,,/oic ,,doctr9e ,,aft] ,,! ,,fir/ ,,p]iod1 #bfa ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,skepticism ,,& ,,eclecticism1 #bfd ,,! ,,appe>ances ,,( ,,philosophic ,,skepticism1 #bfd ,,! ,,?ree ,,phases ,,( ,,philosophic ,,skepticism1 #bfe #a4 ,! ,fir/ ,phase ( ,philosophic ,skepticism is call$ ,pyrrhonism1 #bfe #b4 ,! ,second ,p]iod ( ,philosophic ,skepticism,! ,skepticism ( ! ,academy1 #bff #c4 ,! ,?ird ,p]iod ( ,philosophic ,skepticism,s5sationali/ic ,skepticism1 #bfh ,,! ,,la/ ,,c5tury ,,& ,a ,,half ,,( ,,! ,,e?ical ,,p]iod1 ,,eclecticism1 #bfi ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,! ,,religi\s ,,p]iod1 #bgc ,,! ,,two ,,causes ,,( ,,! ,,rise ,,( ,,religi\s ,,feel+1 #bgc ,,! ,,ne$ ,,( ,,spiritual ,,au?ority1 #bge ,,! ,,rise ,,( ,,! ,,conception ,,( ,,spirituality1 #bgg ,,! ,,revival ,,( ,,platonism1 #bgi ,,! ,,divisions ,,( ,,! ,,religi\s ,,p]iod1 #bhj ,,! ,,hell5ic ,,religi\s ,,philosophies1 #bhb ,,! ,,introductory ,,p]iod ,,( ,,hell5ic ,,religi\s ,,philosophy4 ,,! ,,turn+ ,,to ,,! ,,pa/ ,,= ,,spiritual ,,au?ority1 #bhb #a4 ,! ,greek-,jewi% ,philosophy ( ,philo1 #bhb #b4 ,neo-,py?agoreanism1 #bhe ,,! ,,developm5t ,,p]iod ,,( ,,hell5ic ,,religi\s ,,philosophy4 ,,! ,,turn+ ,,to ,,! ,,pres5t ,,= ,,spiritual ,,au?ority4 ,,platonism ,,& ,,neo-,,platonism1 #bhg ,,neo-,,platonism ,,& ,,! ,,two ,,introductory ,,philosophies1 #bhh ,,neo-,,platonism ,,& ,,*ri/ianity1 #bhh ,,! ,,p]iods ,,( ,,neo-,,platonism1 #bij ,,! ,,alex&rian ,,s*ool4 ,,! ,,sci5tific ,,!ory ,,( ,,neo-,,platonism4 ,,! ,,life ,,& ,,writ+s ,,( ,,plot9us1 #bij ,,! ,,g5]al ,,"* ,,( ,,! ,,tea*+ ,,( ,,plot9us1 #bia ,,! ,,my/ic ,,god1 #bib #a4 ,! ,supra-,consci\sness ( ,god1 #bib #b4 ,! ,conception ( ,dynamic ,pan!ism1 #bic ,,! ,,two ,,problems ,,( ,,plot9us1 #bic ,,! ,,_w ,,( ,,emanations4,,! ,,metaphysical ,,problem ,,( ,,plot9us1 #bid ,,! ,,_s1 #bid ,,! ,,s\l1 #bie ,,matt]1 #bie ,,! ,,return ,,( ,,! ,,s\l ,,to ,,god4,,! ,,e?ical ,,problem ,,( ,,plot9us1 #big ,,! ,,syrian ,,s*ool4,,! ,,sy/ematiz+ ,,( ,,poly!isms4,,jambli*us1 #bih ,,! ,,a!nian ,,s*ool4,,recapitulation4,,proclus1 #bii ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,patri/ics4,,! ,,hell5iz+ ,,( ,,! ,,gospel1 #cjb ,,! ,,e>ly ,,situation ,,( ,,*ri/ianity1 #cjb ,,! ,,philosophies ,,influ5c+ ,,*ri/ian ,,?\ght1 #cje ,,! ,,p]iods ,,( ,,e>ly ,,*ri/ianity1 #cjf ,,! ,,apologi/s1 #cjg ,,! ,,gno/ics1 #caj ,,! ,,reaction ,,aga9/ ,,gno/icism4,,! ,,old ,,ca?olic ,,!ologians1 #cab ,,orig5 ,,& ,,! ,,s*ool ,,( ,,cate*i/s1 #cad ,,book ,,ii4 ,,! ,,middle ,,ages 7#dgf-adec7 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,*>act]i/ics ,,& ,,conditions ,,( ,,! ,,middle ,,ages1 #cai ,,comp>ison ,,( ,,! ,,hell5ic-,,roman ,,p]iod ,,& ,,! ,,middle ,,ages1 #cai ,,! ,,m$i,,val ,,man1 #cbj ,,h[ ,,! ,,univ]se ,,appe>$ ,,to ,,! ,,m$i,,val ,,man1 #cbb ,,maps ,,( ,,! ,,ptolemaic ,,cosmography1 #cbc1 #cbe ,,! ,,m$i,,val ,,man ,,at ,,s*ool1 #cbe ,a ,,m$i,,val ,,libr>y1 #cbf #a4 ,books mo/ commonly read1 #cbg #b4 ,books t ! s*ol>s might use1 #cbg #c4 ,! ,books mo/ influ5tial philosophically ^u ! "t1 #cbh ,,! ,,?ree ,,p]iods ,,( ,,! ,,middle ,,ages1 #cbh ,,summ>y ,,( ,,! ,,political ,,& ,,educational ,,worlds ,,( ,,! ,,m$i,,val ,,man1 #ccj ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,! ,,e>ly ,,p]iod ,,( ,,! ,,middle ,,ages1 #ccd ,,! ,,g5]al ,,"* ,,( ,,! ,,e>ly ,,p]iod1 #ccd ,,an ,,e>ly ,,m$i,,val ,,geographical ,,map1 #cce ,,! ,,hi/orical ,,position ,,( ,,augu/9e1 #cce ,,! ,,secul> ,,sci5ce1 #cci ,,! ,,life ,,( ,,augu/9e1 #cci ,,! ,,two ,,elem5ts ,,9 ,,augu/9e',s ,,tea*+1 #cdj ,,! ,,neo-,,platonic ,,elem5t3 ,,! ,,inn] ,,c]ta9ties ,,( ,,consci\sness1 #cda ,,! ,,au?ority ,,( ,,! ,,*ur* ,,accord+ ,,to ,,augu/9e1 #cde ,,! ,,d>k ,,ages1 #cdg ,,! ,,revival ,,( ,,*>lemagne1 #cdi ,,john ,,scotus ,,erig5a3 ,,life ,,& ,,tea*+1 #cej ,,! ,,greek ,,pr9ciple ,,:i* ,,erig5a ,,=mulat$ ,,= ,,! ,,middle ,,ages1 #ceb ,,! ,,la/ ,,c5tury ,,( ,,! ,,e>ly ,,p]iod1 #cec ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,! ,,transitional ,,p]iod1 #ced ,,! ,,g5]al ,,"* ,,( ,,! ,,transitional ,,p]iod1 #ced ,,:at ,,is ,,s*ola/icism8 #cee ,,anselm3 ,,life ,,& ,,position ,,9 ,,m$i,,val ,,philosophy1 #cei ,,anselm',s ,,argum5ts ,,= ,,! ,,exi/5ce ,,( ,,god1 #cfa ,,roscell9us3 ,,life ,,& ,,tea*+1 #cfa ,,/orm ,,& ,,/ress1 #cfb ,,! ,,life ,,( ,,abel>d1 #cfc ,,abel>d',s ,,conceptualism4 ,,univ]sals ,,exi/ ,,9 ,,! ,,p>ticul>s1 #cfd ,,abel>d',s ,,rationalism4,,! ,,relation ,,betwe5 ,,reason ,,& ,,dogma1 #cfe ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,! ,,p]iod ,,( ,,classic ,,s*ola/icism1 #cfh ,,! ,,g5]al ,,"* ,,( ,,?is ,,la/ ,,p]iod1 #cfh ,,! ,,two ,,civilizations1 #cfi ,,map ,,%[+ ,,! ,,gr[? ,,( ,,mohamm$an ,,civilization ,,9 ,,! ,,middle ,,ages1 #cgj ,,! ,,fir/ ,,contact ,,( ,,! ,,two ,,civilizations1 #cgb ,,! ,,conflict ,,betwe5 ,,! ,,two ,,civilizations4,,! ,,crusades1 #cgd ,,! ,,revival ,,( ,,le>n+1 #cge ,,diagram ,,( ,,dante',s ,,poetic ,,conception ,,( ,,! ,,univ]se1 #cgf ,,! ,,/r5g? ,,& ,,burd5 ,,( ,,ari/otle ,,to ,,! ,,*ur*1 #cgh #a4 ,! ,/r5g? ( ,ari/otle to ! ,*ur*1 #cgh #b4 ,! ,burd5 ( ,ari/otle to ! ,*ur*1 #cgi ,,! ,,pr$ecessors ,,( ,,aqu9as1 #cgi ,,! ,,life ,,( ,,?omas ,,aqu9as4,,! ,,f\nd] ,,( ,,! ,,dom9ican ,,tradition1 #chj ,,! ,,c5tral ,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,?omas',s ,,doctr9e,,! ,,tw(old ,,tru?1 #cha ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,individuality,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,p>ticul>s ,,& ,,univ]sals1 #chc ,,! ,,primacy ,,( ,,! ,,w ,,or ,,! ,,intellect1 #che ,,duns ,,scotus1 ,,! ,,f\nd] ,,( ,,! ,,franciscan ,,tradition,,life ,,& ,,philosophical ,,position1 #chf ,,duns ,,scotus',s ,,conception ,,( ,,! ,,tw(old ,,tru?4,,! ,,sep>ation ,,( ,,sci5ce ,,& ,,religion1 #chg ,,! ,,inscrutable ,,w ,,( ,,god1 #chh ,,! ,,problem ,,( ,,individuality1 #chi ,,aft] ,,duns ,,scotus1 #cij ,,william ,,( ,,ockam3 ,,life ,,& ,,tea*+1 #cia ,,aft] ,,ockam1 #cic ,,index1 #cie ,,illu/rations ,,socrates1 ,frontispiece ,,map ,,%[+ ,,:]e ,,! ,,cosmologi/s ,,liv$1 #ba ,,! ,,empire ,,( ,,alex&]1 #bje ,,map ,,( ,,a!ns ,,%[+ ,,! ,,location ,,( ,,! ,,f\r ,,s*ools1 #bai ,,ptolemaic ,,cosmography ,,%[+ ,,! ,,division ,,( ,,! ,,univ]se ,,into ,,sph]es1 #cbc ,,ptolemaic ,,cosmography ,,%[+ ,,! ,,epicyclic ,,movem5ts ,,( ,,! ,,planets1 #cbe ,,m$i,,val ,,geography4 ,,! ,,cosmas ,,map1 ,a4 ,d4 #edg1 #cce ,,gr[? ,,( ,,mohamm$anism ,,dur+ ,,! ,,middle ,,ages1 ,,%[+ ,,its ,,contact ,,) ,,*ri/ian ,,civilization1 #cgj ,,diagram ,,( ,,dante',s ,,poetic ,,conception ,,( ,,! ,,univ]se1 #cgf ,a ,,beg9n]',s ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy ,,introduction ,,! ,,?ree ,,g5]al ,,p]iods ,,( ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,philosophy ,! ,comp>ative ,l5g?s ( ! ,?ree ,g5]al ,p]iods3 ,anci5t ,philosophy1 #fbe ,b4 ,c4-#dgf ,a4 ,d4 ,m$ival ,philosophy1 #dgf ,a4 ,d4-#adec ,a4 ,d4 ,mod]n ,philosophy1 #adec ,a4 ,d4-! pres5t "t4 ,^! are ! ?ree g5]al p]iods into :i* ! hi/ory ( philosophy naturally falls4 ,! two dates t =m ! divid+ l9es betwe5 ^! ?ree p]iods are #dgf1 ! fall ( old ,rome1 & #adec1 ! fall ( new ,rome 7,con/ant9ople74 ,f ?is x w be se5 t #ajjj ye>s ( m$ival life lie betwe5 antiquity on ! "o side & #dej ye>s ( mod]n times on ! o!r4 ,:atev] value may be put ^u ! respective intellectual products ( ^! ?ree p]iods1 x is important to note ! great diff]5ce 9 _! "t-l5g?s4 ,x is #bejj ye>s s9ce philosophical reflection began 9 ,europe4 ,only #dej ( ^! ye>s belong to mod]n times4 ,9 o!r words1 aft] ! ,european man grew to reflective manhood1 two fif?s ( 8 life belong to :at is kn[n z anci5t civilization1 two fif?s to m$ival1 & only "o fif? to mod]n civilization4 ,! ,real ,diff]5ces ( ! ,?ree ,g5]al ,p]iods4 ,! diff]5ces betwe5 ^! ?ree p]iods ( ! reflective life ( ! ,european h be5 v real4 ,!y are n to be expla9$ by m]ely political %ift+s or economic *anges2 nor are !y fully express$ z diff]5ces 9 lit]>y or arti/ic productions4 ,_! diff]5ces lie deep]1 = !y are diff]5ces ( m5tal attitude4 ,! hi/ory ( philosophy is m pr(\nd1 m difficult1 & m human ?an any o!r hi/ory1 because x is ! record ( human po9ts ( view4 ,a good deal ( sympa!tic appreciation is dem&$ if ! /ud5t takes on ! attitude ( m9d ( anci5t & m$ival times4 ,"o _c expect to be possess$ ( su* appreciation until "o has trav]s$ ! hi/ory ( ?\ght ?r\gh its entire l5g?4 ,! hi/ory ( philosophy is an organic developm5t f an objective to a subjective view ( life1 ) a traditional middle p]iod 9 :i* subjective & objective m+le4 ,anci5t ?\ght is prop]ly call$ objective1 ! m$ival traditional1 ! mod]n subjective4 ,c we briefly sugge/ :at ^! ab/ract t]ms mean8 ,by ! objectivity ( anci5t ?\ght is meant t ! anci5t1 9 mak+ 8 reflections ^u life1 />ts f ! univ]se z a :ole4 ,f ?is out] po9t ( view he tries to see ! int]connections betwe5 ?+s4 ,nature is reality2 m5 & gods are a "p ( nature4 ,man's m5tal processes ev5 are a "p ( ! totality ( ?+s4 ,ev5 e?ically man is n an indep5d5t individual1 b ! memb] ( a /ate4 ,:5 ! anci5t came to make di/9ctions betwe5 m9d & matt]1 he did n ?9k ( man z ! kn[] 9 anti!sis to matt] z ! object kn[n1 b he ?\ght ( m9d & matt] z p>ts ( "o cosmos4 ,! anti!sis 9 anci5t ?\ght is r betwe5 appe>ances & ess5ce1 betwe5 non-realities & realities ) diff]+ emphasis4 ,! anci5t attempts speculatively to recon/ruct 8 _w1 b x is always f ! po9t ( view ( ! _w4 ,by ! traditionalism ( m$ival ?\ght is meant t m5 are controll$ 9 _! ?9k+ by a set ( au?oritative doctr9es f ! pa/4 ,9 ! ,middle ,ages1 z ! m$ival p]iod is call$1 ! indep5d5t ?9k+ ( antiquity _h ceas$4 ,m5 reflect$ & reflect$ deeply1 b !y 7 con/ra9$ by a set ( religi\s traditions4 ,au?ority 0 plac$ above !m & c5sor$ _! ?9k+4 ,! objective ,*ri/ian *ur* & its au?ority took ! place ( ! objective ,greek cosmos4 ,t *ur* _h c]ta9 infallible dogma1 & ?9k+ 0 all[$ only 9 s f> z x cl>ifi$ dogma4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 we say t mod]n ?\ght is subjective1 we ref] to an entire *ange 9 ! c5tre ( intellectual gravity4 ,! />t+-po9t is n ! _w1 b ! individual4 ,! univ]se is set ov] aga9/ m9d 7dualism71 or is ! creation ( m9d 7idealism74 ,9 any case ! mod]n man looks ^u ! univ]se z 8 s]vant1 ! /&>d ( tru? to be f\nd 9 himself & n 9 some?+ ext]nal4 ,! subject z kn[] is n[ plac$ 9 anti!sis to ! object z kn[n1 & ! object is n indep5d5t ( ! human ?9k+ process4 ,reality is man r ?an ! cosmos4 ,! political /ate is ju/ifiable s long z x en=ces ! rights ( ! individual2 religi\s au?ority is ! expression ( ! individual consci5ce2 physical nature is a human int]pretation4#a ,plato1 ,dante1 & ,goe! are good repres5tatives ( ^! ?ree diff]5t hi/orical p]iods ( ! human m9d4 ,h[ c !y be und]/ood )\t a philosophical appreciation ( ! p]iods 9 :i* !y liv$8 ,table ( ! ,subdivisions ( ! ,?ree ,g5]al ,p]iods ( ,philosophy ,cosmological1 #fbe-dhj 7to ,greek1 #fbe-cbb ,p]sian ,w>s74 ,b4 ,c4 7to dea? ( ,an?ropological1 #dhj-cii 7to ,ari/otle74 dea? ( ,socrates74 ,sy/ematic1 #cii-cbb 7to dea? ( ,ari/otle74 #a4 ,anci5t #fbe ,b4 ,c4-#dgf ,a4 ,d4 ,hell5ic-,roman #cbb ,b4 ,c4-#dgf ,e?ical1 #cbb ,b4 ,c4-#a ,a4 ,d4 ,a4 ,d4 7f 7to beg9n+ ( ,*ri/ian dea? ( era74 ,ari/otle to fall ( old ,religi\s1 #ajj ,b4 ,c4-#dgf ,a4 ,d4 ,rome74 ,e>ly ,m$ival1 #dgf-ajjj 7f ! fall ( old ,rome to ! beg9n+s ( mod]n ,europe74 #b4 ,m$ival ,transitional ,m$ival 7#ajjj-abjj71 7f #dgf-adec beg9n+s ( mod]n ,europe to ,crusades74 ,classic ,m$ival1 #abjj-adec 7f ! ,crusades to ! fall ( new ,rome or ,con/ant9ople74 ,r5aissance1 #adec-afij ,humani/ic1 #adec-afjj4 7to ,locke's ,essay & ! ,engli% ,natural ,sci5ce1 #afjj-afij4 ,revolution74 #c4 ,mod]n #adec-mod]n times ,enlight5m5t1 #afij-agha 7f ,locke's ,essay to ,kant's ,critique74 ,g]man ,idealism1 #agha-ahca 7f ,kant's ,critique to ! dea? ( ,hegel74 ,evolution1 #ahbj to ! pres5t "t4 ,,book ,i ,,anci5t ,,philosophy 7#fbe ,b4 ,c4-#dgf ,a4 ,d47 ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,e>ly ,,greek ,,9 ,,anci5t ,,philosophy ,! ,divisions ( ,anci5t ,philosophy4 ,! hi/ory ( anci5t philosophy falls naturally into two l>ge divisions3 pure ,greek philosophy & ,hell5ic-,roman philosophy 7or ,greek philosophy 9 ! ,roman _w74 ,! date1 #cbb ,b4 ,c41 ! dea? ( ,ari/otle1 :i* m>ks ! l9e betwe5 ^! two p]iods1 is "o ( ! mile/ones ( hi/ory4 ,alex&] ! ,great _h di$ 9 #cbc ,b4 ,c4 ,! co9cid5ce ( ! dea?s ( ,ari/otle & ,alex&] n only sugge/s _! intimate relations z tea*] & pupil dur+ _! lives1 b x ?r[s into contra/ ,greek civilization be=e & aft] !m4 ,be=e ,ari/otle & ,alex&] culture 0 ! product entirely ( ! pure ,greek _s2 aft] !m anci5t culture 0 ! complex product ( _m factors( ,greek & ,roman civilizations1 & _m ,ori5tal religions1 includ+ ,*ri/ianity4 ,be=e ,ari/otle & ,alex&]1 anci5t culture 0 *>act]iz$ by a love ( k = its own sake1 by fre$om f ult]ior ends ei!r ( s]vice or ( use2 aft] ^! great mak]s ( hi/ory1 culture became att5uat$ to "w 9 ! special sci5ces & enslav$ to practical que/ions4 ,be=e ,ari/otle & ,alex&]1 ! ,greek city-/ates _h aris5 to political p[]2 aft] ,ari/otle & ,alex&]1 ,greece decl9$ politically & 0 absorb$ into ! ,roman empire4 ,! ,lit]>y ,s\rces ( ,anci5t ,philosophy4#b ,! lit]>y s\rces ( anci5t philosophy are ?ree3 7#a7 ! prim>y s\rces1 or orig9al writ+s2 7#b7 ! second>y s\rces1 or reports ( ! orig9al writ]s obta9$ indirectly1 or ?r\gh o!r writ]s2 7#c7 ! int]pretations ( reliable mod]n hi/orians ( philosophy4 ,! speciali/ 9 philosophy w1 ( c\rse1 g to ! fir/ two s\rces = 8 in=mation4 ,o!r /ud5ts w f9d _m accurate mod]n hi/ories ( anci5t philosophy4 ,! /ud5t %\ld h at h& ! translations ( ! hi/ories ( ,zell]1 ,w9delb&1 ,web]1 ,euck51 ,ueb]weg2 ^? ( ! ,engli%m51 ,burnet & ,fairbanks2 ( ! ,am]icans1 ,rog]s & ,turn]4 8,! writ+s ( ! e>ly ,greek philosoph]s ( ! pre-,socratic p]iod exi/ n[ only 9 fragm5ts4 ,! complete works ( ,plato are /ill extant2 s also are ! mo/ important works ( ,ari/otle1 & c]ta9 o!rs :i* belong to ! ,/oic1 ,epicurean1 ,skeptic1 & neo-,platonic s*ools4 ,we possess ! pr9cipal works ( mo/ ( ! philosoph]s ( ! ,*ri/ian p]iod 9 suffici5t complet5ess40#c ,! second>y s\rces include quotations & comm5ts ^u e>li] philosoph]s f\nd 9 ! writ+s ( ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 ! ,/oics1 ,skeptics1 neo-,platoni/s1 & ! s-call$ doxograph]s4 ,doxography! comm5tat+ ^u & collat+ ( ! works ( =m] timesdevelop$ enorm\sly 9 ,alex&ria1 ,p]gamos1 & ,rhodes j aft] ,ari/otle4 ,! f\nd] ( ?is "w 0 ,!ophra/us1 :o 0 a disciple ( ,ari/otle & 8 successor 9 ! ,lyceum4 ,among ! important doxograph]s 7 ,plut>*1 ,/obu1 & ,aetios4 ,! ,environm5t ( ! ,e>ly ,greek4 ,! biologi/ seeks to expla9 a liv+ creature by its previ\s environm5t & inh]it$ in/9cts4 ,s if we "k ! environm5t & inh]it$ in/9cts ( ! e>ly ,greek1 we %all be able to und]/& bett] fir/ly1 :y ,european philosophy began ) ! ,greeks & n ) "s o!r p2 & secondly1 :y ,greek philosophy took c]ta9 l9es t x did take4 7#a74 ,8 ,geographical ,environm5t4 ,! ,greece into :i* philosophy 0 born 0 mu* l>g] ?an ! ,greece ( to-day4 ,anci5t ,greece consi/$ ( all ! coa/s & isl&s :i* 7 wa%$ by ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea f ,asia ,m9or to ,sicily & s\!rn ,italy1 & f ,cyr5e to ,?race4 ,! mo!rl&1 ! p59sula ( ,greece1 at fir/ play$ an insignificant rle4 ,! lead]%ip 0 9 ! h&s ( ! ,ionians1 :o _h coloniz$ ! coa/s ( ,asia ,m9or4 ,9 ! sev5? c5tury ,b4 ,c41 :5 ! fir/ ,greek philosophy appe>s1 ^! ,ionians comm&$ ! _w's comm]ce among ! ?ree cont95ts4 ,ov] ! coa/s ( ! entire ,m$it]ranean !y _h ext5d$ _! trade & e/abli%$ _! colonies4 ,miletus became ! weal?ie/ ( ^! colonies & ! cradle ( ,greek sci5ce4 ,its weal? af=d$ leisure to its p & !re=e ! opportunity = reflection4 7#b74 ,8 ,political ,environm5t4 ,an und]/&+ ( ! ,greek political _w1 9 :i* its fir/ philosophy appe>$1 requires an hi/orical explanation ( its rise4 ,x takes u back f\r c5turies to ! age ( ! ,epic 7#ajjj-gej ,b4 ,c474 ,dur+ m ?an two c5turies ( ! age ( ! ,epic two *anges occurr$ :i* 7 to influ5ce future ,greek civilization3 7#a7 ,! olig>*y :i* _h supplant$ ! anci5t patri>*al mon>*y became firmly e/abli%$2 & 7#b7 ! ,epic 0 =m$4 ,! importance ( ! ,epic ( ,hom] lies n s mu* 9 ! fact t a great poem 0 con/ruct$1 z t x 0 ! =mulation ( ! ,greek religion1 ! ,greek /hetic poly!ism4 ,its writ+ indicates t ! e>li] unorganiz$1 primitive1 & savage =ms ( religion _h giv5 way1 among ! rul+ classes at lea/1 to an /hetic poly!ism1 :i* 9 a g5]al way 0 fix$ by ! ,epic itself4 ,! p]iod ( m ?an a c5tury1 f #gej to #fbe ,b4 ,c41 ly+ betwe5 ! age ( ! ,epic & ,greek philosophy1 may be call$ an age ( political di/urbances4 ,! olig>*y _h become oppressive to ! ri* & poor alike4 ,!re _h gr[n up 9 ,greece1 especially 9 ! colonies1 a class ( citiz5s :o _h become weal?y ?r\gh comm]ce4 ,! result ( ! misgov]nm5t by ! olig>*y 0 t 7#a7 migrations took place1 & 7#b7 _m revolutions occurr$4 ,?is 0 p>ticul>ly true ( ! colonies :]e ! prolet>iat 0 p[]ful & ! cities 7 full ( adv5tur]s4 ,plutocracy 0 at w> ) ari/ocracy1 & ?is 0 ! opportunity = bold m54 ,^! political tr\bles took =m f #fej ,b4 ,c4 on1 & ! hi/ory ( ! ,greek cities consi/s ( ! endeavor to e/abli% popul> gov]nm5t4 ,ab\t ! "t ( ! fir/ ,greek philosoph]s !re arose "h & !re f ! ru9s ( ^! civil /ruggles ! s-call$ tyrants1 ( :om ,?rasybulus at ,miletus1 ,pittacus at ,lesbos1 ,p]i&] at ,cor9?1 & ,pisi/ratus at ,a!ns are examples4 ,! c\rts ( ^! tyrants became c5tres ( intellectual life4 ,!y patroniz$ poets1 writ]s1 & arti/s4 ,! univ]salism ( ! ,epic _h vani%$1 & 9 its place came ! individualism ( ! lyric & ! satire4 ,9 _m places ! ari/ocrat w5t into gloomy retirem5t1 & (t5 cultivat$ poetry1 sci5ce1 & philosophy4 ,! ,native ,t5d5cies ( ! ,e>ly ,greek4 ,:y 7 ! ,greeks ! fir/ philosoph]s ( ,europe8 ,_! geographical surr\nd+s ( sea & l& _h some?+ to d ) x4 ,! passionate p>ty /rife betwe5 ! old1 rul+ families ( nobles & ! newly ri* trad+-class1 :i* took place dur+ ! sev5? c5tury ,b4 ,c41 no d\bt cultivat$ an e>ly indep5d5ce ( op9ion & /r5g? ( p]sonality4 ,b1 aft] all1 g5ius 0 9 ! blood ( ! race1 & :o c say t ! true cause 0 n 9 ! mix+ ( ! blood ( ! virile ,aryan invad]s ) t ( ! aborig9al inhabitants8 ,:atev] may be ! answ] to t "q1 ! ,greek race 9 ! sev5? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 _h an extraord9>y curiosity ab\t ! _w ( nature4 ,x lov$ ! concrete fact z no o!r race ( ! "t lov$ x1 & x lov$ to give a cle> & articulate expression to ! concrete fact t x saw4 ,x _h an arti/ic nature t 0 ho/ile to all confusion4 ,let u po9t out ?ree ways 9 :i* ! ,greek 0 ev5 9 ?is e>ly "t organiz+ 8 exp]i5ces1 reflect+ ^u ! work+s ( social & nature =ces1 & ?us prep>+ ! way = consid]ation ( ! m ultimate que/ions ( philosophy4 7#a7 ,?is c be se5 fir/ 9 ! developm5t ( 8 religion4 ,! fir/ /ep 9 ! organization ( 8 religion we h already se51 = ! ,hom]ic epic 0 ! expression ( a well-def9$1 poetic1 & /hetic poly!ism develop$ out ( a primitive savage naturalism4 ,! ,greek's s5se ( measure 0 %[n 9 ! way bo? gods & m5 7 plac$ z a "p ( ! _w ( nature4 ,he c\ld accompli% ?is ! m freely because he _h no hi]>*y ( prie/s & no dogma ( belief to cramp 8 imag9ation4 ,! ,greek prie/s did n p5etrate into ! private life nor tea* religion4 8,!y 7 n !ologians b sacri/ans & liturgical function>ies40 ,9 ! fifty ye>s be=e philosophy appe>$1 ?is t5d5cy t[>d sci5tific religi\s organiz+ %[$ ! beg9n+ ( ano!r advance4 ,moni/ic belief1 ( :i* signs may be f\nd ev5 9 ! e>li] ,greek writ+s1 came to ! surface4 ,?is monism#d 0 express$ or impli$ by ! ,gnomic poets1 8wise poets10 s call$1 because !y made s5t5ti\s utt]ances ^u ! pr9ciples ( morality4 7#b7 ,! e>ly g5ius ( ! ,greek is %[n 9 8 reflections ^u physical ev5ts4 ,! ,greek _h be5 accumulat+ = a long "t _m k9ds ( in=mation1 b1 :at is m important1 he _h be5 reflect+ ^u ?is in=mation4 ,! ,ionian 0 a sea-f>+ man4 ,he _h _h mu* practical exp]i5ce & _h made _m true obs]vations ab\t ! ?+s he _h se54 ,9 8 travels he _h come 9 contact ) ! ,ori5tals & ! ,egyptians1 & al?\gh 8 sci5tific conceptions 7 probably 9 ! ma9 8 own1 8 k 0 und\bt$ly increas$ by 8 travels4 ,9 ! sev5? c5tury ,b4 ,c41 ! ,greeks _h a respectable body ( physical sci5ce4 ,x 0 mo/ly inorganic sci5ce1 h[ev]1a/ronomy1 geography1 & meteorology4 ,! e>ly ,greek k ( organic ph5om5a 0 v meagre1 z1 = example1 m$ical & physiological k4 ,!y also %[$ little g5u9e rese>* 9 ! field ( ma!matics1 al?\gh !y _h pick$ up ma!matical in=mation "h & !re4 ,_m ( ! fir/ philosoph]s 7 sci5ti/s4 7#c7 ,n only did ! ,greek e>ly br+ a religi\s sy/em out ( ! *aos ( 8 naturalism1 n only did he e>ly ?r[ 8 physical in=mation into sci5tific =m2 b also e>ly did he %[ an especial int]e/ 9 human conduct4 ,?is c be se5 fir/ 9 ,hom] 7#hjj ,b4 ,c471 9 a m develop$ =m 9 ,hesiod 7#gjj ,b4 ,c471 & ) /ill deep] reflection 9 ! ,gnomic poets4 ,al?\gh ! ,iliad is a descriptive poem1 x ab\nds 9 e?ical obs]vations4 ,= example1 ,hector says1 8,! be/ om5 is to fight = "o's c\ntry02 & ,ne/or 9 c\ncil says1 8,a wret* )\t ! tie ( k91 a lawless man )\t a home1 is he :o delights 9 civil /rife40 ,! poem by ,hesiod 7,works & ,days7 is int5d$ to tea* morals4 ,x is di/9ctly a didactic poem4 ,hesiod /&s at ! beg9n+ ( a long l9e ( ,greek e?ical tea*]s4 ,8 moral obs]vations are1 h[ev]1 incoh]5tly express$4 ,!y are n wide g5]alizations1 b are only comm5ts ^u s+le exp]i5ces4 ,! ,gnomic poets appe>$ at ! end ( ! sev5? c5tury ,b4 ,c41 z ! moral re=m]s 9 ! age ( political di/urbances4 ,?is p]iod 0 call$ by ! ,greeks ! age ( ! ,sev5 ,wise ,m52 = among ! m5 :o 7 !n exhort+ ! age to come back to its s5ses1 tradition e>ly select$ sev5 ( ! mo/ notable4#e ,! _s ( ,gnomic poetry 0 prom95t 9 _! report$ say+s4 ,!y 7 fe>ful because ( ! common disreg>d ( ! conv5tions ( ! previ\s age1 & because ( ! pres5t excesses4 ,_! wat*word 0 8mod]ation10 & !y 7 ev] repeat+ 8no?+ too mu*40 ,by apo!gm1 riddle1 epigram1 & cat*words !y tri$ to re=m society4 ,! names ( all sev5 are n c]ta91 & only f\r ( !m are kn[n1,?ales1 ,solon1 ,pittacus1 & ,bias4 ,_! e?ical reflections are n conc]n$1 z 9 ,hesiod1 ) ! home1 ! village1 & ! rules ( conv5tion1 b ) ! individual's g5]al relation to society4 ,_! k ( e?ical matt]s is rem>kable = _! "t4 ,"s ( _! say+s are z foll[s3 8,no man is happy2 all are full ( tr\ble40 8,ea* ?9ks to d ! "r1 yet no "o kn[s :at w be ! result ( 8 do+s1 & no "o c escape 8 de/9y40 8,! p by _! own inju/ice de/roy ! city1 :i* ! gods w\ld h protect$40 8,z oppos$ to ^! evils ! fir/ necessity is law & ord] = ! /ate1 cont5tm5t & mod]ation = ! individual40 8,n weal?1 b mod]ation1 is ! highe/ good40 8,sup]fluity ( possessions begets self-exaltation40 ,! ,?ree ,p]iods ( ,greek ,philosophy1 #fbe-cbb ,b4 ,c4 ,^! are #a4 ,! ,cosmological ,p]iod1 #fbe-dhj ,b4 ,c4 #b4 ,! ,an?ropological ,p]iod1 #dhj-cii ,b4 ,c4 #c4 ,! ,sy/ematic ,p]iod1 #cii-cbb ,b4 ,c4 #a4 ,! ,cosmological ,p]iod beg9s ) ! bir? ( ,greek philosophical reflection 7#fbe ,b4 ,c47 & has a nom9al end+ ) ! ,p]sian w>s 7#dhj ,b4 ,c474 ,?is does n mean t ! int]e/ ( ! ,greeks 9 cosmology /opp$ 9 #dhj ,b4 ,c41 b t x 0 no long] _! prom95t int]e/4 ,cosmology is ! /udy ( ! reality ( ! physical univ]se 7! cosmos74 ,! p>ticul> cosmological "q occupy+ ! m9ds ( ! ,greeks 9 ?is p]iod may be /at$ ?us3 ,:at1 amid ! *anges ( ! physical _w1 is p]man5t8 ,?is w be se5 to be a philosophical "q & n ! same z a "q 9 natural sci5ce4 ,! !atre ( philosophical activity 0 ! colonies & n ! mo!rl&4 ,two important aspects ( ?is p]iod mu/ be consid]$ besides ! philosophical1! political situation & ! religi\s my/]ies4 #b4 ,! ,an?ropological ,p]iod beg9s 9 ! mo!rl& be=e ! cosmological movem5t end$ 9 ! colonies4 ,x />ts ) a great social impulse j aft] ! victories ( ! ,p]sian w>s 7#dhj ,b4 ,c47 & ends ) ! dea? ( ,socrates 7#cii ,b4 ,c474 ,a!ns is ! c5tre4 ,?is p]iod includes ! mo/ productive intellectual epo* ( ,greece z a :ole1 al?\gh n its greate/ philosoph]s4 ,socrates is ! mo/ /rik+ p]sonality 9 ! p]iod4 ,! p]iod is call$ an?ropological1 because its int]e/ is 9 ! /udy ( man & n ( ! physical univ]se4 ,! ^w an?ropology means ! /udy ( man4 #c4 ,! ,sy/ematic ,p]iod beg9s ) ! dea? ( ,socrates 7#cii ,b4 ,c47 & ends ) ! dea? ( ,ari/otle 7#cbb ,b4 ,c474 ,alex&] ! ,great di$ #cbc ,b4 ,c4 ,! p]iod is call$ sy/ematic because x conta9s ! ?ree great organiz]s or sy/ematiz]s ( ,greek philosophy4 ,^! 7 ,democritus1 ,plato1 & ,ari/otle4 ,! spread ( ,greek culture beyond its own limits ?r\gh ! conque/s ( ,alex&] is ( great importance = ! hi/ory ( ?\ght 9 ! ,hell5ic-,roman ,p]iod1 :i* foll[s ?is p]iod4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,cosmological ,,p]iod 7#fbe-dhj ,b4 ,c473 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,nature ,:5 we ent] ^u ! "o hundr$ & fifty ye>s ( philosophical beg9n+s ( ,greece1 :i* are call$ ! ,cosmological ,p]iod1 we f9d ourselves confront$ ) an extremely int]e/+ social situation1 :i* has be5 br\ght ab\t p>tly by ! political & geographical environm5t ( ! ,greek1 p>tly by 8 inh]it$ g5ius4 ,on ! "o h&1 dur+ ?is c5tury & a half1 ! political tr\bles ( ! ,greeks became increas+ly aggravat$ by ! gr[? ( ,p]sia on ! ea/ & ( ,c>?age on ! we/4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we f9d t ! ,greek religion took a sudd5 turn to my/icism1 & by its side a sl[ b increas+ int]e/ 9 philosophical que/ions4 ,all ?r\gh ?is p]iod ,greek politics & ,greek religion 7 a con/ant p]il to ,greek life4 ,greek philosophy prov$ to be its safety4 ,! ,p]il 9 ! ,greek ,political ,situation3 ,p]sia & ,c>?age4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! ,greek cities nev] unit$ into a nation4 ,!y 7 always fight+ among !mselves4 ,we h already po9t$ out ! civil di/urbances betwe5 ! olig>*y & ! democracy ?r\gh\t ! l&4 ,^! int]nal tr\bles cont9u$ to ! end ( ,greek hi/ory4 ,9 ?is p]iod !re 0 add$ to ^! int]nal tr\bles a critical ext]nal situation :i* ?reat5$ ! exi/5ce ( ,greece itself4 ,! six? c5tury 0 a mom5t\s "o = ,greece4 ,9 bo? ! ea/ & ! we/ !re arose mighty empires t ?reat5$ to wipe out its civilization4 8,! expansion ( ! ,p]sian p[] 7on ! "o h&7 _h susp5d$ a /one ( ,tantalus ov] ,hellas1 & x seem$ likely t ,greek civilization might be subm]g$ 9 an ,ori5tal mon>*y40#f ,cyrus _h laid ! f\ndation ( ,p]sia by tak+ ,m$ia 9 #eej ,b4 ,c41 ,lydia 9 #edf ,b4 ,c41 ,babylonia 9 #ech ,b4 ,c42 ,egypt 0 add$ by ,cambyses 9 #ebh ,b4 ,c42 & ,d>ius organiz$ ! great ,p]sian possessions 9 8 long reign f #ebh to #dhf ,b4 ,c4 ,on ! we/1 ,c>?age 0 ?reat5+ ! ,greek cities ( ,sicily1 & at ! close ( ?is p]iod 0 act+ 9 conjunction ) ,p]sia to obta9 possession ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,! ,p]il 9 ! ,new ,religion3 ,! ,my/]ies & ,py?agoras4 ,already 9 ! sev5? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ! political society ( ,greece felt t x 0 "u ! wra? ( ! gods because ( "s unaton$ guilt4 8,! e>? is full ( ills1 ( ills ! sea10 sang ! poet4 ,religi\s depression became univ]sal4 ,dissatisfi$ ) ! old poly!ism1 especially z express$ 9 ! !ogony ( ,hesiod1 ! ,greek 9 ! six? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 began to int]pret x accord+ to 8 pres5t ne$4 ,among ! masses !re appe>$ ! crav+ = immortality & = p]sonal k ( ! sup]natural4 ,! desire to solve ! my/]y ( life by a %ort road became univ]sal4 ,m5 look$ to rites to purify !m f ! guilt ( ! _w & = ga9+ p]sonal contact ) ! _w ( %ades4 ,?is new religion became pan-,hell5ic4 ,x is call$ ! ,my/]ies or ! ,orgia4 ,by ,my/]ies is n meant societies f\nd$ on "s occult intellectual belief1 z ! "n might sugge/4 ,! ,my/]ies 7 bas$ on cult 7c]emony71 & n on dogma4 ,! special c]emonies 7 ^? ( initiation & purification4 ,!y 7 suppos$ to purify ! p>ticipant & put him 9 a new frame ( m9d4 ,! s\l w\ld !n be protect$ f ! malici\s spirits to :i* x 0 con/antly expos$4 ,! c]emonies are report$ to h be5 att5d$ sometimes by m ?an ?irty ?\s& p4 ,!y consi/$ ( processions1 songs1 dances1 & dramatic spectacles4 ,! mo/ important ( ! ,my/]ies 7 ! ,orphic & ! ,eleus9ian4 ,! ,my/]ies 7 ! basis ( ! society ( ,py?agoreans4 ,py?agoras ( ,samos 0 a rem>kable man1 :o w5t to ,italy & settl$ at ,crotona4 ,8 sect is ( d\ble importance to u because 9 lat] times x develop$ a philosophy on its ma!matical & a/ronomical sides4 ,py?agoras & 8 imm$iate foll[+ mu/ be di/+ui%$ f ! lat] ,py?agoreans4 ,py?agoras & ! e>ly ,py?agoreans 7 n philosoph]s1 b a sect l ! ,orphic society ( ,my/]ies1 yet ! sect ( ,py?agoreans embrac$ mu* m 9 its scope4 ,x tri$ to control ! public & private life ( its memb]s & to evolve a common me?od ( education4#g ,py?agoras 0 an exil$ ari/ocrat1 & 8 sect 0 an ari/ocratic religi\s body 9 reaction aga9/ ! democratic excesses4 ,! only doctr9e ^u :i* ,py?agoras plac$ any emphasis 0 t ( immortality 9 ! =m ( metempsy*osis 7transmigration ( ! s\l f "o bodily =m into ano!r74 ,! sect 0 disp]s$ z a religi\s body ab\t #dej ,b4 ,c4 ,! scatt]$ memb]s =m$ a s*ool ( philosophy at ,!bes until ab\t #cej ,b4 ,c4 ,( ^! lat] philosophical ,py?agoreans & _! numb] !ory1 we %all speak 9 ! prop] place4 ,at ! "t ( ! disp]sion ( ! ,py?agoreans !re exi/$ no long] any p]il f ! new religion4 ,! craze ( ! new religion 0 pass+ away4 ,dur+ ! six? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 x 0 a great p]il to ! future intellectual life ( ,greece4 ,_h x !n ga9$ a little m p[] x w\ld probably h be5 admitt$ by ! prie/hood to ! temples4 ,9 ! ex]cise ( su* enorm\s sac]dotal p[]1 ! prie/s w\ld h enslav$ ! ,greek m9d to sup]/ition1 & ! prie/hood 9 turn w\ld h become an easy tool = tyrants4 ,!re w\ld !n h be5 no ,socrates1 no ,plato1 & no ,ari/otle4 ,! ,my/]ies 7 a reaction t[>d asceticism z a religi\s salvation f ! political p]il1 b !y 71 h[ev]1 equally z great a p]il to ,greece4 ,! m$ium c\rse along ! l9e ( a rational philosophy1 :i* ! ,greek g5ius actually took1 prov$ its salvation4 ,*>act]i/ics ( ! ,cosmologi/s4 ,!re are c]ta9 *>act]i/ics ( ?is e>ly philosophy t %\ld be not$ at ! beg9n+4 7#a7 ,all ! ,cosmologi/s 7 physical sci5ti/s1 & ) few exceptions _! sci5tific views 7 notewor?y4 ,ari/otle calls !m physici/s 9 di/9ction f _! pr$ecessors1 :om he calls !ologians4 7#b7 ,!y (t5 work$ toge!r 9 s*ools4 ,tradition has be5 common s9ce ,bacon t philosophy c5tres 9 individuals2 b hi/ory %[s t frequ5tly ! ,greeks work$ 9 corporate bodies4 ,^! philosophical sci5ti/s work$ 9 s*ools2 j z ! ,hom]id develop$ ! epic2 ! ,ddalid1 a gr\p ( ! e>lie/ arti/s1 ! secret ( art2 ! ,my/]ies1 religion4 ,philosophy n[ is 9 ! cloi/]1 & ! intellect ( ! "t speaks f its retreat f public life4 ,:ile ! ,milesian s*ool 0 undi/urb$1 ow+ to ! long peace t ,miletus enjoy$1 we %all f9d t mo/ ( ! philosoph]s ( ! ,cosmological p]iod 7 9 retirem5t on acc\nt ( political p]secution4 ,we mu/ rememb] t by 8s*ool0 is n necess>ily meant a gr\p ( pupils "u ! e/abli%$ in/ruction ( a tea*]4 ,a s*ool at ?is e>ly p]iod is a gr\p ( le>n$ m5 at "w on ! same problems4 ,lat] on 9 hi/ory we %all f9d t "o ( ! gr\p m le>n$ ?an ! o!rs /&s 9 ! position ( tea*]3 = example1 ,plato 9 ! ,academy4 7#c7 ,all ! ,cosmologi/s 7 hylozoi/s4 ,! etymological mean+ ( hylozoism is its true "omatt] is alive4 ,?is is ! fundam5tal *>act]i/ic ( ^! pre-,socratics f ,?ales d[n to ,anaxagoras1 al?\gh "s au?orities cont5d t ^? f ! "t ( ,emp$ocles 7 n hylozoi/s4 ,! mean+ ( hylozoism is simple en\gh1 b ! conception is a difficult "o = ! mod]n m9d2 = to-day we are accu/om$ to ?9k ( an imp]sonal nature "u me*anical laws4 ,to ! ,greek ( ! ,cosmological p]iod ! sub/antial con/itution ( ! univ]se is imp]sonal liv+ matt]2 to u x is imp]sonal dead matt]4 ,bo? ^! views are to be contra/$ ) ! religi\s belief involv$ 9 ,greek poly!ism1 9 :i* ! cosmos is conceiv$ to be liv+ p]sonal spirits2 ?is ,hom]ic poly!ism is aga9 to be contra/$ ) ! animism ( ! tribal p]iod1 9 t x _h organiz$ into an /hetic unity ! e>ly savage animism4 ,^! hylozoi/ic philosoph]s did n1 h[ev]1 give up ! ,hom]ic gods1 b !y treat$ _! exi/5ce 9 a poetic way4 ,!y usually believ$ 9 _! exi/5ce1 b !y always subord9at$ !m to ! "o liv+ _w-gr\nd4 7#d7 ,9 common ) all anci5t peoples ^! ,greek philosoph]s did n believe t ! univ]se _h unlimit$ space4 ,on ! contr>y1 !y believ$ t x 0 limit$ & 9 ! %ape ( an egg4 ,table ( ,cosmologi/s4 ,! ,cosmologi/s are divid$ into two classes3 7#a7 ! e>li] 7 moni/s^? :o believe t ! reality ( ! univ]se is a simple1 undiff]5tiat$ unity2 7#b7 ! lat] 7 plurali/s^? :o believe t ! reality ( ! univ]se consi/s ( sev]al elem5ts equally real4 ,!y are enum]at$ z foll[s3 ,,! ,,moni/s ,?ales #a4 ,! ,milesian s*ool ,anaxim&] at ,miletus4 ,anaxim5es #b4 ,x5ophanes at ,colophon & ,elea4 ,p>m5ides #c4 ,! ,eleatic s*ool ,z5o at ,elea4 #d4 ,h]acleitus at ,ephesus4 ,,! ,,plurali/s #e4 ,emp$ocles at ,agrig5tum4 #f4 ,anaxagoras at ,clazom54 #g4 ,! lat] ,py?agoreans ma9ly at ,!bes4 #h4 ,leucippus at ,abd]a4 ,h[ ! ,philosophical ,"q ,arose4 ,! int]e/s ( ^! philosophical sci5ti/s %>ply diff]5tiate !m f ! prec$+ !ogoni/s1 l ,hesiod & ,epim5ides1 z well z f ! masses :o 7 absorb$ 9 ! religion ( ! ,my/]ies4 ,!y 71 moreov]1 ! m5 ( ,greece to :om ! emotional excitem5t ( a religi\s revival w\ld n appeal z a refuge f ! tr\bles ( ! "t4 ,_! own exp]i5ce 9 ! political tr\bles _h made p>am\nt ! "q z to ! p]man5ce ( ?+s4 ,nev]!less1 its answ] mu/ be f\nd 9 nature & 9 an intellectual way4 ,:5 !y turn$ to ! traditional !ogonies !y f\nd no answ] to _! "q1 = !re 0 only a my?ical *ronicle ( a succession ( gods beg9n+ ) ! unkn[n4 ,! "q ( ! ,cosmologi/s 0 n1 !re=e1 :at 0 ! orig9al =m ( ?is *ang+ _w1 b :at is fundam5tal 9 ! _w always4 ,! "t factor is no long] important4 ,n ! temporal prius b ! real prius is :at !y seek4 ,! idea ( a temporal orig9 ( ?+s gives place to t ( et]nal be+1 & ! "q f9ally em]ges1 ,:at is ! real sub/ance t con/itutes ! univ]se8 ,illu/ration3 ,,map ,,%[+ ,,:]e ,,! ,,cosmologi/s ,,liv$ 7,none ( ! ,cosmologi/s1 except ! lat] ,py?agoreans1 liv$ 9 ! mo!rl& ( ,greece4 ,philosophical activity dur+ ?is p]iod took place 9 ! colonies4 ,! map %[s ! cities :i* 7 ! c5tres ( philosophy & ! homes ( ! philosoph]s z indicat$47 ,! ,greek ,moni/ic ,philosophies4 ,turn+ back to our classification on page #bj1 we see t ! e>lie/ ,greek philosoph]s emphasiz$ ! moni/ic t5d5cy1 :i* _h become s prom95t 9 ,greek religion4 ,?is gr\p ( moni/s 0 compos$ ( ! ,milesians1 ,x5ophanes1 ! ,eleatic ,s*ool1 & ,h]acleitus4 ,! c\rse ( reason+ ( ^! e>ly ?9k]s is navely simple1 & l all nave ?\ght1 x conta9s su* contradictions t ! mod]n read] is likely to become impati5t ) x4 ,! value ( ! /udy ( ! philosophy ( ^! e>ly ,greeks is entirely hi/orical4 ,its hi/orical value1 h[ev]1 is v great1 = x is a revelation ( ! culture ( ! ,greece ( t "t1 x ?r[s light on _m ( ! tea*+s ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 & mo/ ( all x conta9s ! g]ms ( mod]n metaphysical problems4 ,^! fir/ ,greek philosoph]s rais$ ! "q1 ,:at is ! con/itution ( ! sub/ance ( ! univ]se8 ,_! answ]s are nave solutions to ! hi/orical metaphysical 8riddle40 ,! ,milesians1 :o =m ! e>lie/ philosophical s*ool 9 ,european hi/ory1 seem to h assum$ two facts z self-evid5t ab\t ! sub/ance ( ! univ]se3 7#a7 ,!re is a s+le cosmic sub/ance id5tical ) itself1 :i* is ! basis ( all ! *anges 9 nature2 7#b7 ,mov+ matt] is ! same z life4 ,! ,milesians 7 q unconsci\s t ^! two assumptions 7 contradictory1 b ! contradiction impress$ _! successors,x5ophanes1 ,h]acleitus1 & ! ,eleatics2 & divid$ !m 9 _! developm5t ( philosophy4 ,matt] :i* keeps id5tical ) itself is ! ,un*ang+#h & is br\ght into opposition ) ,life1 ! ,*ang+1 or matt] :i* moves4 ,! "q = ,x5ophanes1 ,h]acleitus1 & ! ,eleatics& inde$ = all future philosophy03 ,h[ c ! *ang+ processes ( life be expla9$ by an un*ang+ sub/ance8 ,x5ophanes1 :o 0 m ( a religi\s re=m] ?an a philosoph]1 0 s absorb$ 9 ! fir/ ( ^! assumptions t he develop$ x = 8 purpose 9 8 practical social re=mation to ! entire neglect ( ! second assumption4 ,! ,eleatics1 h[ev]1 to ^: city ,x5ophanes _h come1 c\ld n leave 8 doctr9e 9 its "o-sid$ & undevelop$ =m4 ,!y accept$ 8 tea*+ ( ! div9e ,un*ang+ness ( ! univ]se1 b ?is compell$ ^! pr(\nd] ?9k]s to (f] "s explanation ( ! natural processes ( *ange4 ,*ange to !m _c really exi/4 ,h]acleitus1 on ! o!r h&1 0 impress$ ) ! aspect ( life t is express$ 9 ! second assumption ( ! ,milesiansliv+ matt] is mov+ matt]4 ,he !re=e ma9ta9$ 9 direct opposition to ! ,eleatics1 t ! *ang+1 liv+ processes ( nature alone are real4 ,! two contradictory assumptions t lay s mutually indiff]5t 9 ! ,milesian doctr9e ?us became ! basis ( a %>p metaphysical controv]sy betwe5 ,h]acleitus & ! ,eleatics4 ,! sub/ance ( ! _w is p]man5t1 *ange is an illusion1 said ! ,eleatics4 ,! sub/ance ( ! _w *anges1 p]man5ce is an illusion1 said ,h]acleitus4 ,ei!r all ?+s are p]man5t or all ?+s *ange4 ,^! e>ly philosoph]s _h no weal? ( empirical k nor ( psy*ological reflection ^u :i* to draw1 & x is n /range t !y %\ld take extreme positions & be bl9d to _! practical consequ5ces4 #a4 ,! ,milesian ,s*ool4 ,( all ! ,greek cities 9 ! six? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,miletus 0 ! weal?ie/ & mo/ prosp]\s4 ,x 0 "o ( ! ,ionian colonies & 0 situat$ on ! coa/ ( ,asia ,m9or1 & x alone 0 able to pres]ve its autonomy z neighbor ( ! w>r+ ea/]n empires4 ,n until ! battle ( ,lade 0 x captur$ & de/roy$ 7#did ,b4 ,c474 ,f two g5]ations ( philosoph]s hi/ory has pres]v$ ?ree names1,?ales1 ,anaxim&]1 & ,anaxim5es4 ,! s*ool is call$ indiff]5tly ! ,milesian or ! ,ionic s*ool4 ,! proximity ( ,miletus to ,ephesus1 ,colophon1 & ,clazom5 7z a glance at ! map w %[7 expla9s ! influ5ce ( ! ,milesian s*ool ^u ! doctr9es ( ,h]acleitus1 ,x5ophanes1 & ,anaxagoras4 ,und\bt$ly ! contact ( ! ,milesians ) ! ,ori5t & ,egypt _h br\ght to !m k & correct sci5tific obs]vations ( _m sorts1 especially a/ronomical4 ,?ales 7b4 #fdj ,b4 ,c47 0 a memb] ( "o ( ! lead+ families ( ,miletus1 & liv$ dur+ ! fl\ri%+ p]iod ( ! city "u ! tyranny ( ,?rasybulus4 ,he is c\nt$ among ! sev5 ,wise ,m51 & belong$ to ! ri* comm]cial class4 ,he probably engag$ 9 comm]ce & travel$ 9 ,egypt4 ,he 0 v]s$ 9 ! curr5t le>n+1 pr$ict$ an eclipse1 & 0 acute 9 ma!matics & physics4 ,probably he nev] committ$ any?+ to writ+4 ,ari/otle's comm5ts are ! only data ab\t him4 ,anaxim&] 7#faa-ede ,b4 ,c487 0 an a/ronom] & geograph]2 he made an a/ronomical globe1 a sundial1 & a geographical map4 ,he 0 an intimate disciple ( ,?ales & wrote ,conc]n+ ,nature1 :i* is ref]r$ to z ! fir/ ,greek philosophical treatise4 ,no?+ is kn[n ( 8 life4 ,anaxim5es 7#efj-ejj ,b4 ,c487 0 ! disciple ( ,anaxim&]4 ,"o s5t5ce is pres]v$ ( 8 writ+s4#i ,! ,milesian ,philosophy4 ,! ,milesians liv$ ^u ! seacoa/1 & ! *anges ( ! sea & air mu/ h deeply impress$ !m4 ,!y _h an intellectual curiosity to f9d ! cosmic matt] :i* rema9$ id5tical ) itself & at ! same "t mov$4 7,see p4 #bb47 ,!y 7 n1 !re=e1 int]e/$ to discov] ! *emical composition ( matt]1 b to f9d :at matt] 0 mo/ mov+ & !re=e mo/ alive4 ,?ales said t x 0 wat]2 ,anaxim5es1 air2 & ,anaxim&]1 ! ,apeiron1 or ! ,unlimit$4 ,_! respective *oices 7 det]m9$ by :at seem$ to possess ! mo/ mobility & ! greate/ inn] vitality4 ,?ales ?\ght wat] possess$ ?is quality4 ,wat] is always mov+4 ,?ales saw x mov+4 ,x !re=e has life 9 itself4 ,anaxim&] felt t no object 9 our p]ceptual exp]i5ce w\ld fully expla9 ! ceaseless mobility ( nature1 & he call$ x ! ,unlimit$ or ! ,indet]m9ate! ,apeiron4 ,x is a mixture 9 :i* all qualities are lo/4 ,! *anges 9 nature are endless1 & !re=e ! s+le cosmic sub/ance1 f :i* !y come1 mu/ be endless z well1 = 8f :atev] s\rce ?+s come1 9 t !y h _! end40 ,we le>n t ?is is j ! reason = ,anaxim5es *oos+ ! air = ! s+le und]ly+ cosmic sub/ance4 ,! air is ! mo/ *angeable ?+ & is ,unlimit$4#i ,bo? ,?ales & ,anaxim5es /ill held to ! traditional poly!ism ( ! ,greek ,epic4 ,anaxim&] rises above !m 9 ?is respect4 ,?is conception ( ! ,unlimit$1 to :i* 8 sci5tific se>* l$ him1 is reg>d$ by him z ,deity4 ,he calls x 8! div9e0 7 72 al?\gh he speaks ( x 9 ! neut] g5d] x is1 nev]!less1 ! fir/ ,european philosophical conception ( ,god4 ,x is ! fir/ attempt to conceive ( ,god z purely physical & yet )\t any my?ical dress4 ,9 ,anaxim&] ! ,milesian monism has a religi\s aspect4 #b4 ,x5ophanes1 ! ,religi\s ,philosoph] 7#egj ,b4 ,c474 ,! sci5tific monism ( ,anaxim&] 0 aft] all only expressive ( t religi\s dissatisfaction1 fir/ voic$ by ! ,wise ,m51 aga9/ ! ,hesiod cosmogony & ! immorality ( ! ,hom]ic my?s4 ,n[ = ! fir/ "t a positive conflict betwe5 religion & philosophy arose ?r\gh ,x5ophanes1 ! rhapsodi/ ( ,colophon4 ,colophon1 an ,ionian city ne> ,miletus1 0 not$ = its obsc5e & cruel religi\s practices1 & :5 8 native city capitulat$ to ! ,p]sians1 ,x5ophanes *>g$ its feebl5ess to its immoral religion4 ,he w5t to ,magna ,grcia1 &1 disguis$ z a musician1 he w&]$ ab\t = sixty-sev5 ye>s ?r\gh its l5g? & bread? declaim+ 9 song aga9/ ! an?ropomorphism1 ! my/ic ec/asies1 & ! g5]al social practices ( ! ,greeks4 ,he f9ally settl$ 9 ,elea1 s\!rn ,italy 7see map71 & on ?is acc\nt he is sometimes call$ ! f\nd] ( ! ,eleatic s*ool4 ,x5ophanes' influ5ce ^u ! ?\ght ( ,greece 0 ?reefold3 7#a7 ,he prea*$ ! ,milesian philosophical monism to ! p ( ,greece 9 ! =m ( a religi\s monism2 7#b7 ,he c>ri$ ?is doctr9e f ea/]n ,greece 7,asia ,m9or7 to ,we/]n ,greece 7,magna ,grcia72 7#c7 ,he 0 ! connect+ l9k betwe5 ! ,milesian & ! foll[+ ,eleatic s*ool4 ,! ,philosophy ( ,x5ophanes4 ,bas$ on "o ( ! ,milesian assumptions1 viz41 a s+le cosmic sub/ance rema9s id5tical ) itself 9 nature1 ,x5ophanes felt t he _h a "r to set d[n two pr9ciples ab\t nature4 #a4 ,! s+le primordial sub/ance bel[ ! *anges ( nature is ,god4 ,! reality bel[ nature :i* ,?ales conceiv$ to be wat]1 ,anaxim&] to be unlimit$ sub/ance )\t a "n1 ,anaxim5es to be air1 0 said by ,x5ophanes to be ,god4 ,! important po9t "h is t ,x5ophanes has n giv5 ! ,greeks a spirituali/ic conception ( ,god2 b t he has positively /at$ t ! sub/ance ( ! univ]se is an object ( religi\s devotion4 ,he calls ! cosmic sub/ance ,god in/ead ( call+ x wat]1 ,apeiron1 or air4 ,x is a mat]ial ?+1 & yet x is an object ( rev]5ce4 ,he ascribes to ?is ,god a sph]ical =m1 & yet also m5tal p[] ( omnisci5ce4 ,god is 8"o & all0 1 & yet he is 8"o god1 ! greate/ among gods & m51 nei!r 9 =m & ?\ght l unto mortals40 ,! positive conception ( ,god hangs confus$ 9 ! m9d ( ,x5ophanes4 ,he is sc>cely a mono!i/1 nor yet a pan!i/4 ,he is a hylozoi/1 :o conceives ! und]ly+ cosmic sub/ance to be an object ( religi\s rev]5ce4 #b4 ,! s+le cosmic sub/ance bel[ ! *anges ( nature is un*angeable4 ,to ! ,milesians ! m mov+ is matt]1 ! m alive is x4 ,life & activity are ! same ?+4 ,to ,x5ophanes ?is is n ! case1 b1 on ! contr>y1 ! opposite is true4 ,he conceives ,god to be a def9ite sph]e t is un*angeable & homog5e\s4 ,! mat]ial sub/ance1 ,god1 always rema9s ! same4 8,he has no ne$ ( go+ ab\t1 n[ hi!r1 n[ ?i!r1 9 ord] to c>ry out 8 wi%es2 b he gov]ns all m5 )\t toil40 ,x5ophanes ?us becomes ! =]unn] ( ! ,eleatic s*ool4 #c4 ,h]acleitus1 8! ,misan?ropi/0 & 8! ,obscure0 7ab\t #efc-dgj ,b4 ,c474 ,h]acleitus 0 a native ( ,ephesus1 belong$ to ! ari/ocracy1 & suff]$ at ! h&s ( ! democracy4 ,he wrote a treatise t 0 difficult to und]/& ev5 by ! anci5ts1 "s fragm5ts ( :i* are pres]v$4 ,he 0 call$ ! 8weep+ philosoph]0 because ( 8 misan?ropy1 & also ! 8d>k philosoph]0 because ( ! obscurity ( 8 writ+s4 ,he 0 a !ori/ r ?an a physici/1 & 8 doctr9es =e%ad[ our mod]n physical !ories4 ,8 "n is c\pl$ ) t ( ,p>m5ides 9 ! deep impression he made ^u ,greek ?\ght4 ,f 8 complac5t & gloomy retirem5t he look$ =? ^u ! _w ar\nd him ) pr(\nd contempt1 z did ! ,/oics aft] him4 a4 ,h]acleitus' ,doctr9e ( ,absolute & ,univ]sal ,*ange4 ,! wond] :i* ! ,ionians felt1 t nature ph5om5a *ange into "o ano!r1 f\nd its livelie/ expression 9 ,h]acleitus4 ,he n only f\nd t mutability 0 ! primal aspect ( nature ph5om5a1 b he also po9t$ out t human exp]i5ces also _h _! rapid & complete transitions4 ,especially 0 he fond ( cit+ ! *anges ( opposites into ea* o!r4 ,b :at %[s 8 developm5t ov] ! e>ly ,milesian doctr9e 0 8 isolation ( ! aspect ( *ange f ! ,milesian conception ( ! cosmic matt]1 !reby affirm+ t abid+ p]man5ce is an illusion4 ,x is "o ?+ to affirm t reality is ess5tially *ange2 x is ano!r to univ]salize *ange by affirm+ t ! p]man5t has no exi/5ce4 ,! ,milesian doctr9e 0 too nave to g z f> z t4 ,h]acleitus piles up figures ( spee* to %[ t !re is no p]man5ce :atev]4 ,all exi/+ ?+s are only 8becom+0-?+s1 pass+-away ?+s4 ,be+ is always becom+1 ab\t-to-be4 ,! only un*ang+ ?+ is *ange4 8,y _c /ep into ! same riv]s1 = fre% wat]s are ev] fl[+ 9 ^u y40 8,god is day & night1 w9t] & summ]1 w> & peace1 satiety & hung]40 8,all ?+s fl[0 7 74 ,:at abides & des]ves ! "n ( ,deity is n ?+1 b motion,becom+4 b4 ,fire is ! ,cosmic ,sub/ance4 ,"h we come to a difficulty 9 expla9+ ! doctr9e ( ,h]acleitus because ( ! confusion 9 8 own m9d4 ,he evid5tly goes a long way t[>d conceiv+ ! cosmic sub/ance z an ab/ractionz ! process ( *ange4 ,b he c\ld n be :olly ab/ract4 ,he /ops & tells u t ! cosmic sub/ance is fire1 & he probably means by fire j ! same sort ( ?+ z ,anaxim5es meant by air4 ,fire is ! cosmic sub/ance4 ,x is ! ess5ce ( all mat]ial ?+s because x is ! mo/ mobile4 ,b1 aft] all1 ! fire ( :i* ,h]acleitus is ?9k+ is n a localiz$ ?+1 l ! fire on ! he>?4 ,= ! he>? fire 9 a s5se is ev] id5tical ) itself4 ,! fire :i* ,h]acleitus means is ev] d>t+1 ev] trans=m+ mat]ial4 ,to sum up3 ,h]acleitus does n mean by fire an ab/raction l ! law ( *ange2 he does n mean1 on ! o!r h&1 a mat]ial ev] rema9+ l itself3 he does mean a mat]ial1 b a trans=m+ mat]ial4 c4 ,! ,def9ite ,*anges ( ,fire4 ,h]acleitus makes "s acute obs]vations ab\t ! *>act]i/ics ( ! *ang+ fire4 ,! ,milesians _h be5 cont5t to obs]ve atmosph]ic *anges & to "n cond5sation & r>efaction z ! =ms ( cosmic *ange4 ,h]acleitus goes f>!r & emphasizes def9ite relations ( *ange4 ,! succession ( *anges always rema9s ! same4 ,_! def9ite relation is ! only p]man5ce 9 ! _w1 & ,h]acleitus' conception =e%ad[s ! mod]n conception ( ! uni=mity ( ! law ( nature4 ,! *anges are 7#a7 fateful1 7#b7 rational1 & 7#c7 j4 ,!y %[ t ! _w is a de/9y1 a reason1 & a ju/ice4 ,?is id5tification ( e?ical & logical qualities ) ! physical betrays ! undevelop$ condition ( ! ?\ght ( ,h]acleitus4 ,9 g5]al1 !re are two *>act]i/ics to be not$ ) ref]5ce to ,h]acleitus' conception ( a def9ite succession ( *anges3 7#a7 ! *anges are always a h>mony ( opposites2 7#b7 & ! *anges are 9 a clos$ circuit4 ,! process ( *ange is n a fl[ 9 "o direction l a riv] ov] its b$1 b x is a movem5t 9 two opposite directions4 ,by *ange ,h]acleitus means n only a pass+ into some?+ else b a pass+ into ! opposite4 ,ev]y?+ is ! union ( opposites1 & ev]y?+ is ! transition po9t ( opposites ab\t to sep>ate4 ,! flux ( ?+s is ?us poetically conceiv$ z a w> ( ?+s1 & ?is w> is 8! fa!r ( all ?+s40 ,?is unity ( opposites has an equilibrium t illudes u into ?9k+ x is p]man5t4 ,! univ]se is an invisible h>mony1 divid$ into itself & aga9 unit$4 ,inve/igate life & !re are anti!ses ev]y:]e4 ,w> is life4 ,! second g5]al *>act]i/ic ( ! succession ( *anges is _! clos$ circuit4 ,fire *anges into all ?+s1 & all ?+s are *ang+ back into fire4 ,^! two movem5ts are call$ ! 8,upw>d ,way0 & ! 8,d[nw>d ,way40 ,d[nw>d1 fire *anges ?r\gh air & wat] into e>?4 ,upw>d1 e>? *anges back to wat]1 air1 & fire4 ,) e *ange1 !re is c\nt]-*ange1 action is accompani$ by a reaction4 8,m5 d n "k h[ t :i* is drawn 9 opposite directions h>monizes ) itself4 ,! h>moni\s /ructure ( ! _w dep5ds ^u opposite t5sion1 l t ( ! b[ & ! lyre40 d4 ,! ,practical ,philosophy ( ,h]acleitus4 ,h]acleitus 0 m ( a metaphysician ?an a physici/1 & 8 *ief conc]n 0 9 ! =mation & ! practical application ( 8 !ory ( *ange4 ,he look$ ^u man z a bit ( cosmic fire /ruck (f & imprison$ 9 a body ( e>?1 wat]1 & air4 ,aft] dea? ?is fi]y s\l is releas$ & absorb$ 9 ! cosmic fire4 ,9 8 pres5t /ate man has a divid$ exi/5ce3 ! life ( ! s\l1 or ! fire ( ! reason2 & ! life ( ! s5ses ( ! imprison+ body4 ,! reason retires f ! illusions ( s5se1 & sees 9 its ari/ocratic isolation h[ illusory ! s5sations are4 ,= ! s5ses tell u t _! objects are p]man5t1 :ile ! reason sees ?r\gh ?is deception to ! *ang+ness ( ! _w4 ,?us ! beg9n+ is made by ,h]acleitus 9 di/+ui%+ ! reflections ( ! reason f s5sations4 ,tru? is = ! fir/ "t sy/ematically set ov] aga9/ op9ion4 ,! reasonable ,wise ,man resigns himself to :atev] happ5s because he kn[s t x is fateful1 wise1 & j4 ,! ,wise ,man recognizes t all is *ange1 & he is happy because he sees provid5ce 9 ! vicissitudes ( 8 own life4 ,?us 9 ! ari/ocratic hate1 :i* ,h]acleitus holds aga9/ democracies1 he makes con=mity to law ! only way to happ9ess4 ,! reason ( ,wise ,m51 & n ! s5ses ( ! multitude1 mu/ be ! true guide ( society4 ,h]acleitus 0 a pr(\nd obs]v] & !ori/4 ,8 physical !ory =e%ad[$ ! mod]n !ories ( natural law & ( relativity2 8 practical !ories reappe> 9 ! psy*ology ( ,protagoras & ! e?ics ( ! ,/oics4 #d4 ,! ,eleatic ,s*ool4 ,! t[n ( ,elea to :i* ,x5ophanes came 9 ! c\rse ( 8 w&]+s _h be5 rec5tly settl$ by ! ,ionian refugees f ,phoca1 a great m>itime city 9 ,asia ,m9or1 :i* _h be5 conqu]$ by ! ,p]sians 7#edc ,b4 ,c474 ,elea is n[ ,ca/ellam>e on ! we/ coa/ ( ,italy4 ,x is celebrat$ z ! bir?place ( ,p>m5ides & ,z5o1 :o f\nd$ ! s-call$ ,eleatic s*ool4 a4 ,p>m5ides 7b4 #eae ,b4 ,c474 ,p>m5ides wrote ab\t #dgj ,b4 ,c4 ,he is repres5t$ z a s]i\s & influ5tial man1 ) a high moral "*4 ,he ex]cis$ /rong influ5ce ^u su* philosoph]s z ,plato & ,democritus1 & 0 a political p[] 9 ! city ( ,elea1 ( :i* he 0 a native4 ,he 0 n a /rang] to ! ,py?agoreans4 ,! l>ge fragm5t ( 8 poem is ! mo/ anci5t monum5t extant ( metaphysical speculation among ! ,greeks4 ,p>m5ides takes ! doctr9e ( ,x5ophanes ) great s]i\sness1 & :at ,x5ophanes says ab\t ! ,godhead1 ,p>m5ides says ab\t all ?+s4 ,x5ophanes' religi\s weapon ( an un*ang+ cosmic sub/ance becomes 9 ! h&s ( ,p>m5ides an academic doctr9e ( sci5ce & ! basis ( logical controv]sy4 ,p>m5ides us$ ! conception ( ,x5ophanes 9 8 great didactic poem1 ,! ,way ( ,tru? & ! ,way ( ,op9ion1 ) ! evid5t purpose ( refut+ ! !ory ( ,h]acleitus4 ,! fragm5t ( ! poem reveals ! drie/ ab/ractions dress$ 9 ri* poetry4 ,z a ?9k] ,p>m5ides is ! mo/ important 9 ?is p]iod4 ,z5o 0 ! fri5d & pupil ( ,p>m5ides4 7#a7 ,! ,cosmic ,sub/ance is ,be+4 ,! fir/ assumption 9 ! ,milesian doctr9et !re is a s+le matt] t ev] rema9s id5tical ) itself0 s self-evid5t to ,p>m5ides t he does n attempt to prove x4 ,he assumes x1 z if x 7 cog5t to ev]ybody4 ,h[ev]1 he expla9s :at he means by ,be+ 9 a negative /atem5t3 ,n-,be+1 or :at is n1 _c be ?\ght4 ,be+ & ?\ght are s correlat$ t !y are ! same4 ,?9k+ always has ,be+ z its cont5t1 & !re is no ,be+ t is n ?\ght4 ,be+ ,?\ght4 ,?is explanation ( ,p>m5ides' id5tification ( ?\ght & ,be+ may be put 9 ?is logical =m3 ,all ?9k+ ref]s to some?+ ?\ght1 & !re=e has ,be+ = its cont5t2 ,?9k+ t ref]s to no?+1 & is !re=e cont5tless1 _c be2 ,!re=e1 n-,be+ _c be ?\ght1 mu* less c x be4 ,^! propositions look v ab/ract1 & make u believe t we are to plunge imm$iately into a k9d ( ,g]man idealism4 ,b ,p>m5ides leaves u 9 no d\bt t he is "o ( ! hylozoi/s ( 8 "t4 ,be+ is inde$ ?\ght1 b ,be+ is also matt]4 ,we may !re=e am5d our equation to ,be+ ,?\ght ,matt]4 ,be+ is :at fills space1 & all ,be+ has ?is & only ?is prop]ty4 ,all ,be+ is !re=e exactly alike1 & !re is only "o1 s+le ,be+4 ,!re are no di/9ctions 9 ,be+4 ,by n-,be+ ,p>m5ides means empty space or t :i* is n mat]ial4 ,s t ,p>m5ides' assumption ( ,be+ z ! cosmic sub/ance means ?is3 all t exi/s1 includ+ ?\ght1 fills space2 & all t does n exi/ does n fill space4 ,be+1 ! cosmic sub/ance1 is "o1 et]nal1 imp]i%able1 homog5e\s1 un*angeable1 & mat]ial4 ,:5 m5 see ! _w z x really is1 :5 !y see its cosmic sub/ance1 !y see x to be "o cont9u\s mat]ial block4 ,! _w is n made up ( p>ts ) int]vals ( no?+ betwe5 !m1 b x is a solid1 homog5e\s :ole4 ,! cosmic ,be+ is a timeless1 spaceless ,be+ ) no di/9ctions4 ,! =m ( ,be+ is sph]ical4 ,x is cosmic-body & cosmic-?\ght4 ,?is is ! assumption ( ,p>m5ides1 :i* is s self-evid5t & s cog5t to him t he does n attempt to prove b only to expla9 x4 7#b7 ,o!r ,?+s ?an ! ,cosmic ,sub/ance 7,be+7 h no ,real ,exi/5ce4 ,if ,be+ is space t is fill$1 n-,be+ is empty space4 ,h[ev]1 empty space has no exi/5ce4 ,b ! exi/5ce ( a plural numb] ( ?+s dep5ds ^u ! exi/5ce ( empty spaces betwe5 !m4 ,fur!rmore1 ! motion ( ?+s & ! *ange ( ?+s dep5d ^u ! exi/5ce ( empty spaces 9 :i* !y c move & *ange4 ,s9ce empty space is n-,be+ & has no exi/5ce1 ! plurality ( ?+s & ! motion & *ange ( ?+s h also no exi/5ce4 ,!y are illusions4 ,! nature-_w1 ) its ri*ness ( qualities & v>iety ( motions1 be=e ! logic ( ,p>m5ides 8folds up its t5ts l ! ,arabs & sil5tly /eals away40 ,?is logical draw+ out ( "o ( ! aspects ( ! ,milesian conception ( ! cosmic matt] has a curi\s result4 ,! ,milesians & ,x5ophanes s\ght to expla9 by ! cosmic sub/ance ! _m nature *anges4 ,b :5 9 ! h&s ( ,p>m5ides ! cosmic sub/ance is all ( reality1 !n !re is no reality to ! *anges4 ,consequ5tly ! concept =m$ = ! explanation ( *ange has s develop$ z to d5y ! exi/5ce ( *ange4 ,! cosmic sub/ance excludes all orig9ation & decay1 all space & "t diff]5ces1 all divisibility1 div]sity1 & movem5t4 ,!re is only "o real1 all else is illusion4 ,b :at c we say ( ! v>i$ _w ( nature z x appe>s to u8 ,d we see1 he>1 & t\* _m ?+s & motions8 ,9 ,"p ,,ii ( 8 poem he raises ! "q1 ,suppose man takes ! _w ( *ange z real h[ mu/ he expla9 x8 ,he answ]s by us+ ! explanation ( ,h]acleitus4 ,b ^! *anges ( eye & e> belong to ! _w ( s5se1 & ,p>m5ides is talk+1 9 ,"p ,i ( 8 poem1 ab\t ! real _w or t _w kn[n to ?\ght4 ,p>m5ides insi/s z /rongly z did ,h]acleitus t ! reason & n ! s5se %all be our guide to :at is real4 ,yet he arrives at exactly ! opposite conclusion f ,h]acleitus z to :at ! reason sees z real4 ,! s5ses %[ u only ! _m & ! *ang+4 ,! reason %[s u no?+ ( ! sort1 b only p]man5ce & un*ang+ness4 b4 ,z5o 7b4 #dij-dcj ,b4 ,c474 ,z5o 0 born 9 ,elea4 ,he 0 contempor>y ) ^? :o tri$ to reconcile ! two sides ( ! metaphysical controv]sy1,emp$ocles1 ,anaxagoras1 & ! ,atomi/s4 ,he wrote 9 prose 9 ! =m ( "q & answ]4 ,?is is ! beg9n+ ( ! dialogue lit]ature1 :i* 9 ! "t ( ! ,sophi/s1 ,socrates & ,plato1 0 ri*ly develop$ & became kn[n z dialectic4 ,on ! ,greek /age dur+ ! "t ( ,p]icles x came =? 9 dramatic =m ?r\gh s*ylus1 ,sophocles1 & ,euripides4 ,! ,philosophy ( ,z5o4 ,z5o 0 ! active controv]siali/ ( ! s*ool ( ,elea1 & he 0 n a con/ructive philosoph]4 ,he (f]$ no contribution to advance ! ?\ght ( ,p>m5ides4 ,he appe>$ r z ! ma/] ( logical argum5t 9 def5se ( 8 pr$ecessor1 by te>+ to pieces ! argum5ts ( 8 oppon5ts4 ,! oppon5ts t ,z5o is attack+ are ! ,atomi/s ( ,abd]a1 :o 7 8 contempor>ies1 r ?an ,h]acleitus4 ,8 contribution 0 negative & =mal1 b x 0 nev]!less effective & se>*+4 ,8 argum5ts & p>adoxes w1 h[ev]1 lose _! cog5cy unless x be kept 9 m9d t he is try+ to %[ h[ absurd magnitude1 multiplicity1 & *ange w\ld be 9 discont9u\s space su* z ! ,atomi/s describe4 ,:ile 8 p>adoxes h be5 attack$ aga9 & aga91 !y /ill h effectiv5ess aga9/ atomic !ories4 ,8 argum5ts are aga9/ magnitude1 multiplicity1 & motion4 ,!re c be no magnitude1 because a ?+ w\ld !n be bo? inf9itely small & inf9itely great4 ,!re c be no multiplicity ( ?+s1 s9ce !y w\ld be bo? limit$ & unlimit$ 9 numb]4 ,!re c be no motion1 because 7#a7 x is impossible to g ?r\gh a fix$ space2 7#b7 x is impossible to g ?\gh a space t has movable limits2 & 7#c7 because ( ! relativity ( motion4 ,! dilemmas :i* he propos$ ( ,a*illes & ! tortoise1 ! fly+ arr[ at re/1 & ! bu%el ( corn are classic4#aj ,! ,results ( ! ,conflict betwe5 ,h]acleitus & ,p>m5ides4 #a4 ,"o important result ( ?is f9al conflict betwe5 ! inconsi/5t motives 9 ! ,milesian tea*+ 0 t reason 0 contra/$ ) s5se1 reflection ) exp]i5ce4 ,! m fully ! philosoph]s develop$ _! doctr9es1 ! m _! doctr9es became contra/$ ) ! op9ions ( unreflect+ p4 ,at fir/ ! contra/ appe>$ 9 ?is nave =m3 t :at !y ?\ght 0 "r1 & :at o!rs ?\ght mu/ be wrong1 if o!rs diff]$ f !m4 ,!n ! contra/ came 9 ?is =m3 t reflection gives ! true & s5sations ! false4 ,?us reflection came to h su* conclusiv5ess t x ga9$ indep5d5ce4 ,! philosoph] began to feel ! supremacy ( reason1 to ass]t t he has tru?1 to call unreason$ belief by ! opprobri\s "n ( 8op9ion40 ,?is is curi\sly illu/rat$ 9 ! case ( ,h]acleitus & ,p>m5ides4 ,_! oppos+ conceptions ( ! cosmic sub/ance are claim$ to be ! result ( reason1 :ile ea* calls ! o!r's !ory 8op9ion40 #b4 ,ano!r result 0 t 9 ! ,greek ?\ght ! moni/ic !ory 0 f\nd to be useless 9 ! /udy ( nature4 ,^! e>ly moni/ic views l$ up z necess>y /eps to pluralism1 b !y 7 n 9 !mselves s]viceable4 ,! imp]fection 9 ! ,milesian tea*+ appe>$ 9 ! impassable gulf betwe5 ,h]acleitus & ,p>m5ides4 ,x n[ rema9$ = ! la/ ,cosmologi/s to see if1 on ! basis ( pluralism1 !y c\ld n reconcile ! prec$+ views & at ! same "t obta9 a satisfactory metaphysics ( nature4 #c4 ,! ?ird result ( ! controv]sy betwe5 ! ,eleatics & ,h]acleitus 0 t ! p]il f ! ,orphic ,my/]ies 0 av]t$1n imm$iately1 nor 9 a ye>'s "t1 b aft] _m ye>s4 ,philosophy became e/abli%$4 ,! ,greek reason n[ _h an object ( int]e/1 9 a %>p sci5tific issue4 ,my/]y 0 n cru%$1 b subdu$4 ,! m5tal life ( ! future ,greek _h a topic = its reflection :i* supplant$1 :5 ! "t came1 its emotional int]e/ 9 ! sup]natural4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,pluralism ,ef=ts t[>d ,reconciliation4 ,! !ories ( ,h]acleitus & ,p>m5ides 7 9 "p fanta/ic & 9 "p ab/ract4 ,!y 7 ! two motives ( ! ,milesian s*ool t _h be5 develop$ s f> z to reveal _! inh]5t inconsi/5cies4 ,physical !ories n[ began to spr+ up :i* modifi$ ! metaphysical !ories2 & ^! produc$ results :i* :ile n s logical1 7 less di/ant f ! facts ( life4 ,! ,eleatics _h s conceiv$ ,be+ z to d5y ! exi/5ce ( *ang+ ph5om5a p]ceiv$ 9 ! _w ( nature4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,h]acleitus _h s emphasiz$ ! univ]sality ( *ange t !re 0 little reality left 9 ! p>ticul> *anges4 ,! lat] ,h]acleitans 7 ,h]acleitus gone mad4 8,we n only _c /ep into ! same riv] twice1 b we _c d x once40 ,all ! prec$+ philosoph]s _h be5 moni/s4 ,! "t _h !re=e come = ?9k]s to ab&on monism if ?\ght 7 to h any usefulness4 ,monism1 :e!r 9 ! =m ( ,h]acleitus' doctr9e ( univ]sal *ange or ( ,p>m5ides' doctr9e ( univ]sal p]man5ce1 _h m]ely set aside ! problem ab\t ! ,_m4 ,( c\rse1 a m satisfactory solution ( ?is problem c\ld come only :5 human life _h become rip] & _h m exp]i5ces ^u :i* to draw4 ,x 0 natural = ! ,greek philosoph] to look n[ to pluralism = 8 solution1 :5 he turn$ away f monism4 ,at ! outset pluralism tri$ to reconcile ! two extremes to :i* ! ,milesian motifs _h gone4 ,its lat] developm5t 9 ! doctr9e ( ,protagoras 0 z extreme z t ( ! moni/s4 ,! ,new ,conception ( ,*ange ( ! ,plurali/s4 ,fac+ ! fact t *ange has to be expla9$ & _c be d5i$1 *ange is conceiv$ by ! plurali/s to be n a trans=mation b a transposition4 ,x is an alt]ation 9 position ( ! p>ts ( a mass4 ,bir?1 gr[?1 dea?1 are only su* *anges ( transposition4 ,emp$ocles1 to :om ! orig9 ( ! doctr9e is attribut$1 says1 8,!re is no com+ into ,be+ ( aught t p]i%es1 nor any end = x 9 baneful dea?1 b only a m+l+ & a sep>ation ( :at has be5 m+l$4 ,j z :5 pa9t]s are elaborat+ temple (f]+s1!y1 :5 !y h tak5 ! pigm5ts ( _m colors 9 _! h&s1 mix !m 9 a h>mony1s let n ! error prevail 9 ?y m9d t !re is any o!r s\rce ( all ! p]i%able creatures t appe> 9 c\ntless numb]s40 ,all orig9ation1 !n1 is a new comb9ation1 & e de/ruction only a sep>ation ( ! orig9al p>ts4 ,! ,plurali/s ?us make ,h]acleitus' conception useful 9 ! explanation ( nature4 ,! ,new ,conception ( ! ,un*ang+ ( ! ,plurali/s,! ,elem5t4 ,b !re mu/ be a p]man5ce 9 ord] t !re be *ange4 ,?is c only be conceiv$ by assum+ t !re are _m orig9al units t 9 !mselves d n *ange4 ,! mass ( ! _w is ev] ! same2 !re is no new creation4 ,be+ consi/s 9 _m elem5ts1 & n 9 a s+le block4 ,s to ,emp$ocles 9 p>ticul> is accr$it$ ! priority ( =m+ ! conception ( ! elem5t1 :i* has occupi$ an important place 9 sci5ce4 ,! elem5t is conceiv$ by ! ,plurali/s z unorig9at$1 imp]i%able1 & un*ang+4 ,x has all ! qualities t ,p>m5ides attribut$ to 8 s+le ,be+1 only ! elem5ts may *ange _! place & suff] me*anical division4 ,! ,plurali/s ?us make ! ,eleatic conception useful 9 ! explanation ( nature4 ,! ,introduction ( ! ,conception ( ! ,effici5t ,cause4 ,! ,eleatics _h deta*$ ! quality ( motion f ,be+4 ,! ,plurali/s1 9 re9troduc+ x1 7 oblig$ to make x a sep>ate =ce 9 ord] to get movem5t into _! univ]se4 ,! elem5ts are *angeless4 ,h[ c !y move8 ,!y _c move !mselves4 ,!y are mov$ f )\t4 ,"h 9 ,emp$ocles is made a diff]5tiation ( great importance! concept ( ! mov+ or effici5t cause4 ,h[ev]1 ?is does n appe> 9 ?is e>ly "t 9 conceptual b 9 my?ical-poetic & undef9$ =m4 ,) ?is diff]5tiat$ effici5t cause1 c ,pluralism be consid]$ to be hylozoism8 ,au?orities diff]4 ,c]ta9ly ?is new concept %[s ! beg9n+ ( ! break+ up ( hylozoism & ! beg9n+ ( ! =mation ( a me*ani/ic conception ( ! univ]se4 ,b probably ! ,plurali/s 7 z mu* hylozoi/s z _! pr$ecessors1 ! moni/s4 ,_! effici5t causes are mat]ial l ! elem5ts1 & !y are poetically & indef9itely describ$4 ,!y are 9 e case conceiv$ z ! mat]ial :i* has a lively or an orig9at+ motion4 ,we mu/ keep 9 m9d t all ! ,cosmologi/s except ! ,eleatics believ$ movem5t to be life4 ,summ>y ( ,simil>ities & ,diff]5ces 9 ! ,!ories ( ! ,reconcil]s4 ,! g5]al common *>act]i/ics ( ! !ories ( ! ,reconcil]s3 #a4 ,a plurality ( ! elem5ts4 #b4 ,an effici5t cause :i* expla9s ! %ift+ ( ! elem5ts 9 caus+ ! orig91 gr[?1 & decay ( ! _w ( nature4 ,! g5]al diff]5ces betwe5 ! !ories ( ! ,reconcil]s3 #a4 ,9 ! numb] & quality ( ! elem5ts4 #b4 ,9 ! numb] & quality ( ! causes4 ,! ,plurali/ic ,philosoph]s3 ,emp$ocles1 ,anaxagoras1 ,leucippus1 & ! ,lat] ,py?agoreans4 ,) ! ,plurali/s we pass completely out ( ! six? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,! lives ( ! hylozoi/ic ,plurali/s span ! fif? c5tury1 & cosmological int]e/ ext5ds lat]4 ,ev5 ! ,eleatic ,z5o liv$ f #dij to #dcj ,b4 ,c4 ,emp$ocles liv$ f #dij to #dcj ,b4 ,c41 ,anaxagoras f #ejj to #dbe ,b4 ,c41 & ! ,py?agoreans & ,leucippus lat]4 ,:5 ! cosmological movem5t 0 /ill virile 9 ! ,grecian colonies1 & ev5 be=e x _h rea*$ its sy/ematic =m 9 ,democritus ( ,abd]a1 ! an?ropological movem5t _h begun 9 ! mo!rl&1 9 ,a!ns4 ,! ,p]sian ,w>s are ! divid+ l9e betwe5 ! two p]iods1 b only because !y d5ote ! beg9n+ ( ! new movem5t 9 ,a!ns1 n ! end ( ! old movem5t 9 ,asia ,m9or & ,magna ,grcia4 ,contemporane\s ) ! ,plurali/s 0 ! brilliant ,age ( ,p]icles1 :5 ! ,sophi/s 7 c>ry+ education to ! p & ,socrates 0 tea*+ 9 ! ,a!nian m>ket-place4 ,by ! middle ( ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 !re 0 ! livelie/ int]*ange ( sci5tific ideas ?r\gh\t ,greek society1 & ! contemporane\sness ( ! ,plurali/s ) "o ano!r & ) ! ,a!nian philosoph]s %[s ?is 9 _m simil>ities 9 _! doctr9es & 9 _m polemical ref]5ces4 ,!re are f\r s*ools ( ,reconcil]s1 ( :i* ,emp$ocles1 ,anaxagoras1 ,leucippus1 & ! lat] ,py?agoreans are ! repres5tatives4 ,emp$ocles#aa 7#dij to #dcj ,b4 ,c47 0 ! fir/ ,dorian philosoph]1 a p>tisan ( ! democracy1 & belong$ to a ri* family ( ,agrig5tum4 ,he became a di/+ui%$ /atesman1 b he lat] fell f popul> favor4 ,!n1 9 ! g>b ( a magician1 he travel$ z physician & prie/ ?r\gh ,magna ,grcia4 ,8 political affiliations w\ld prev5t 8 direct connection ) ! ,py?agoreans1 b he %[$ t ! ,py?agoreans influ5c$ him1 & 8 c>e] is an imitation ( t ( ,py?agoras4 ,he 0 acqua9t$ ) ! !ory ( ,h]acleitus1 & he knew ,p>m5ides p]sonally4 ,he 0 "o ( ! fir/ rhetoricians1 & 0 probably connect$ ) a l>ge lit]>y circle4 ,he is ! fir/ & mo/ imp]fect repres5tative ( ! reconciliation4 ,! /ory ( 8 suicide by leap+ into ,mt4 tna is suppos$ to be a my?4 ,anaxagoras 7#ejj-dbe ,b4 ,c471 a man ( weal?y antec$5ts1 0 mu* e/eem$1 0 born 9 ,clazom5 9 a circle ri* 9 ,ionian culture1 b 0 isolat$ f practical life4 ,he decl>$ ! heav5 to be 8 fa!rl& & ! /udy ( ! heav5ly bodies to be 8 life's task4 ,he w5t to ,a!ns ab\t #dej ,b4 ,c41 :]e he =m$ "o ( a circle ( notable m5 ( culture4 ,he liv$ 9 ,a!ns "u ! patronage ( ,p]icles1 b 9 #dcd ,b4 ,c4 he 0 expell$4 ,9 ,a!ns he 0 intimate ) su* m5 z ,euripides1 ,?ucydides1 & ,protagoras4 ,he repres5ts ! fir/ appe>ance ( philosophy 9 ,a!ns4 ,! life ( ,leucippus is almo/ unkn[n4 ,he 0 probably born 9 ,miletus1 visit$ ,elea1 & settl$ 9 ,abd]a4 ,! ,lat] ,py?agoreans4 ,aft] ! ,py?agoreans z a religi\s & political body _h be5 defeat$ at ,crotona1 !y lo/ _! pre/ige & 7 scatt]$ to ! f\r w9ds4 ,!y 7 beat5 9 ! battle ( ,crotona 7#eaj ,b4 ,c47 & disp]s$ ab\t #dej ,b4 ,c4 ,py?agoras di$ #ejd ,b4 ,c4 ,8 scatt]$ foll[]s1 ^! lat] ,py?agoreans1 =m$ a s*ool ( philosophy :i* _h its c5tre at ,!bes4 ,de/roy$ z a religi\s body ! memb]s lo/ _! sup]/itions & turn$ _! att5tion to philosophy1 a/ronomy1 ma!matics1 m$ic9e1 & physics4 ,z ma!maticians & z a/ronom]s !y are ! mo/ notable among ! anci5ts4 ,philolaus is ! probable orig9ator ( _! philosophy ( numb]s4 ,?is s*ool disappe>$ ab\t #cej ,b4 ,c4 ,py?agoreanism reappe>$ lat] "u ! "n ( neo-,py?agoreanism4 ,! ,philosophy ( ,emp$ocles4 ,emp$ocles conceiv$ ! numb] ( elem5ts to be f\r1e>?1 air1 fire1 & wat]1an arbitr>y enum]ation1 :i* nev]!less p]si/$ 9 ! popul> imag9ation ?r\gh\t ! ,middle ,ages4 ,he *ose ?is numb] ( elem5ts because !y includ$ all ! elem5ts 9 8 pr$ecessors' !ories4 ,by ! transposition & new arrangem5t ( ^! elem5ts he c\ld acc\nt = ! v>iety ( ! _w4 ,! effici5t causes t make ^! diff]5t sep>ations & mixtures are ,love & ,hate1 two my?ical & s5su\s entities4 ,love is ! cause ( ! union ( ?+s1 ,hate ( _! sep>ation4 ,?is is ! g5]al metaphysical !ory t ,emp$ocles uses to expla9 ! physical _w & especially physiological ph5om5a2 & he is probably be/ kn[n z ! au?or ( ! aphorism1 8,l attracts ,l40 ,= example1 he conceives ! physical _w z cont9u\sly repeat+ itself ?r\gh f\r cosmic /ages1 ea* c5turies long4 ,! _w moves !re=e 9 cyclical evolution1 9 :i* ,love is br++ l elem5ts toge!r only to be foll[$ by /ages ( ! sep>ation ( ! l elem5ts by ,hate1an endless cosmic procession4 ,b ,emp$ocles' int]e/ 9 cosmology 0 only a "p ( 8 dom9at+ int]e/ 9 ! organic _w4 ,he held "s int]e/+ evolution !ories4 ,8 special int]e/ 9 human physiology l$ him to frame ! fir/ !ory ( p]ception4 ,man is compos$ ( ! f\r elem5ts1 & he c "k ! univ]se ar\nd himself because ,l 9 him attracts ,l 9 ! ext]nal _w4 ,! e>? =ms our solid p>ts1 wat] ! liquid p>ts1 air is ! vital brea?1 & fire is ! s\l4 ,! blood conta9s ! f\r elem5ts1 & is !re=e ! real c>ri] ( life4 ,if we p]ceive any?+1 x is because we h qualities simil> to t ?+4 ,! elem5t 9 u attracts ! l elem5t outside4 ,he fancifully expla9$ h[ p>ts ( ea* elem5t press$ ^u p>ts ( l elem5tse>? ^u e>?1 air ^u air2 & h[ ^! clung toge!r until sund]$ by ,hate4 ,! s5ses h only a p>tial numb] ( elem5ts1 :ile ! reason has !m all2 !re=e s5se k is p>tial :5 comp>$ ) rational k4 ,! ,philosophy ( ,anaxagoras4 ,! plurali/ic conception ( ! nature-sub/ance1 t 0 orig9at$ by ,emp$ocles 9 ?is crude =m1 got a m complete "* 9 ! h&s ( ,anaxagoras4 ,= ,anaxagoras took exception to ! arbitr>y assumption ( ,emp$ocles t ! elem5ts 7 only f\r 9 numb]4 ,h[ c\ld ?is _w ( inf9ite v>iety be d]iv$ f only f\r elem5ts8 ,we mu/ po/ulate z _m elem5ts z !re are qualities1 if by m]ely %uffl+ !mby v>i\s comb9+s & sep>at+s ( !m_! inf9ite numb] is to be expla9$4 ,!re are a plural numb] ( elem5ts qualitatively di/9ct4 ,e p]ceptual ?+ is compos$ ( ^! het]og5e\s p>ts or qualities or elem5ts4 ,b h[ d y "k an elem5t :5 y f9d "o8 ,always by ! fact t :5 y divide x1 its p>ts are homog5e\s4 ,! elem5ts are1 !re=e1 ^? sub/ances t divide into p>ts t are l "o ano!r2 :ile ! p]ceptual objects ( nature c be divid$ into p>ts t are unlike "o ano!r4 ,!y are call$ 8se$s0 by ,anaxagoras1 & designat$ z 8homoiom]iai0 by ,ari/otle & lat] philosophy4 ,?is 0 a "t1 x mu/ be rememb]$1 :5 *emical analysis _h n develop$1 & :5 me*anical division & *ange ( temp]ature 7 ! only means ( inve/igation4 ,=m1 color1 & ta/e 7 ! *>act]i/ics t diff]5tiat$ elem5ts4 ,s ,anaxagoras 0 cont5t to "n z elem5ts su* ?+s z bones1 muscles1 fle%1 m>r[1 metals1 etc4 ,! c\ntless elem5ts or qualities are pres5t 9 a f9ely divid$ /ate ?r\gh\t ! univ]se4 ,e p]ceptual object has pres5t 9 x all elem5ts1 ev5 opposite elem5ts4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 kn[n & nam$ by ! elem5t t prevails 9 x at any p>ticul> in/ant4 ,= example1 fire conta9s an elem5t ( cold b ! fire elem5t prevails4 ,opposites attract1 & ! qualitative *ange 9 a ?+ consi/s 9 ! pr$om9ance ( "s o!r quality already pres5t 9 x4 ,= ! effici5t cause ( ! comb9+ & sep>at+ ( ! elem5ts ,anaxagoras select$ "o ( ! elem5ts4 ,he call$ x ! ,n\s1 ! ,greek ^w = m9d or reason4 ,_m hi/orians h !re=e conclud$ t ,anaxagoras is ! au?or ( an ideali/ic philosophy4 ,ari/otle says ( ,anaxagoras t he 8/ood out l a sob] man among ! r&om talk]s t _h prec$$ him40 ,b bo? ,plato#ab & ,ari/otle are disappo9t$ ) ! way 9 :i* ,anaxagoras h&les ! conception ( ,n\s &1 z a matt] ( fact1 ! ,n\s1 z ,anaxagoras uses x1 is n less hylozoi/ic ?an ! ,love & ,hate ( ,emp$ocles4 ,9 ! ,n\s ,anaxagoras ?rew out a ?\ght t 0 too big = him4 ,its introduction1 h[ev]1 m>ks ! break+ up ( pre-,socratic hylozoism4 ,anaxagoras wrote d[n ! ^w1 ,n\s1 f :i* comes ! contra/ ) matt]4 ,he /ripp$ ! my?ical dress f ! effici5t cause ( ,emp$ocles & sub/itut$ ,n\s1 because he wi%$ to emphasize ! unity ( ! cosmic process4 ,! ,n\s is "o ( ! elem5ts2 x is 8?\ght-/uff10 x is a corporeal sub/ance4 ,x diff]s f all ! o!r elem5ts 9 t x is ! f9e/1 ! mo/ mobile1 & has ! p[] ( self-motion4 ,if among ! e>ly s*ools motion is life1 "h we f9d ! new conception ( self-motion z mo/ alive4 ,in/ead ( a dep>ture f hylozoism1 ?is is a rehabilitation ( hylozoism 9 m p]fect =m4 ,! ,n\s is ! cause ( ! h>mony & ord] ( ! cosmos4 ,! ,philosophy ( ! ,atomi/s,leucippus & ! ,s*ool at ,abd]a4 ,only circum/antial evid5ce is left to te/ify to ! e>ly beg9n+s ( ! s*ool ( atomi/s at ,abd]a4 ,ab\t #dej ,b4 ,c41 ow+ to ! rise ( ,a!ns & ! great victory ( ,cimon ov] ! ,p]sians1 ! ,ionian civilization on ! coa/s ( ,asia ,m9or _h a new lease ( life1 & !re 0 a r5ewal ( sci5tific activity 9 ! cities4 ,! influ5ce ( ! ,milesians appe>$ & ,anaxagoras' doctr9e1 :i* _h be5 widely dissem9at$1 began to h great vigor4 ,among ! philosoph]s ( ?is section 0 "o ab\t :om we "k v little1 except t 8 "n 0 ,leucippus & t he 0 ! fa!r ( atomism4 ,miletus 0 probably 8 native place1 & aft] visit+ ,elea he settl$ 9 ,abd]a 9 ,?race4 ,we "k t ! polemic ( ,z5o 0 direct$ aga9/ contempor>y atomism2 & we "k ! !ories ( ! pupils ( ,leucippus1 ( ,protagoras1 & ( ,democritus1 9 :om ! doctr9e ( atomism culm9at$4 ,probably ! !ory ( ,leucippus 0 t ! cosmic sub/ance is compos$ ( an inf9ite numb] ( elem5ts quantitatively di/9ct1 9 opposition to ,emp$ocles' !ory ( a f\rfold division z well z aga9/ ,anaxagoras' !ory ( an inf9ite numb] ( qualities4 ,atomism 9 ?is e>ly =m repres5ts "o ( ! ways t ,greek ?\ght took 9 reconcil+ ! conflict+ claims ( ,h]acleitus & ,p>m5ides4 ,! doctr9e ( atomism w be pres5t$ fully 9 its greate/ repres5tative1 ,democritus4 ,! ,lat] ,py?agoreans4 ,_h ! ,py?agorean b& rema9$ :at ,py?agoras _h design$ x1 _h x n _h its political aspirations cru%$ at ! battle ( ,crotona & ! memb]s scatt]$ f> & wide1 x w\ld probably h = ! hi/orian ( to-day only ! importance ( a local b& ( political & religi\s re=m]s4 ,! adv]sity at ,crotona 01 h[ev]1 a bless+ 9 disguise = ! ,py?agoreans & = ,greece1 = x turn$ ! ,py?agoreans f religi\s politics to sci5ce & metaphysics4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !y became ! au?ors ( an important metaphysical !ory4 ,?is 0 ! !ory ( numb]s1 :i* influ5c$ ,plato1 became ! f\ndation ( a vigor\s s*ool 9 ,alex&ria 9 ! ,hell5ic-,roman ,p]iod1 fl\ri%$ dur+ ! ,middle ,ages1 & unit$ ) ! doctr9es ( ! ,jews 9 :at is call$ ! ,cabala4 ,to-day ! magic numb]s p]si/ 9 our sup]/itions4 ,9 ! second place1 ! ,py?agoreans turn$ to sci5ce1especially to ma!matics & a/ronomy1& 9 ^! two bran*es became v celebrat$ 9 anci5t times4 ,_! a/ronomical !ory _h a mo/ extraord9>y hi/ory4 ,) modifications x 0 pres]v$ by ,plato & ,ari/otle1 & lat] became ! basis ( ! ,ptolemaic sy/em ( a/ronomy4 ,?is sy/em 0 ! sci5tifically accept$ sy/em = fifte5 hundr$ ye>s1 :5 x 0 supplant$ by ! ,newtonian !ory4 ,x is a mo/ s+ul> fact t ! cosmological backgr\nd ( ! ,epics ( ,dante & ,milton is ! a/ronomical sy/em ( ! ,py?agoreans z express$ 9 ! ,ptolemaic sy/em4 ,! ,py?agoreans1 be x rem>k$1 7 8,reconcil]s10 b !y 7 m4 ,! orig9al e?ical motive ( ,py?agoras influ5c$ !m z sci5ti/s4 ,!y did n attempt to =mulate a sci5ce ( e?ics1 b ! e?ical motive 0 always back ( _! ma!matics & a/ronomy4 #a4 ,! ,py?agorean ,conception ( ,be+4 ,! ,py?agorean conception ( reality is ! mo/ advanc$ ( any cosmological !ory 9 ?is p]iod4 ,! ,py?agoreans 7 hylozoi/s1 b !y come ! ne>e/ to transc5d+ ! hylozoism ( _! "t4 ,! influ5ce ( ! lat] ,py?agoreans1 :om ,plato met 9 ,italy1 ^u ,plato %[s t ,py?agorean philosophy =ms a l9k betwe5 ! cosmology ( ! colonies & ! foll[+ compreh5sive sy/ems ( ?\ght4 ,! important position 9 ! evolution ( ,greek ?\ght occupi$ by ! ,py?agoreans dep5ds ^u _! conception ( t ,be+ t abides amid all *ange4 ,py?agoreanism is usually spok5 ( z 8! numb] !ory40 ,?is is1 h[ev]1 only a sugge/ion ( its import4 ,= numb]s are n to ! ,py?agoreans :at ! diff]5t k9ds ( cosmic matt] 7 to ! e>ly moni/s1 or :at ! sev]al elem5ts 7 to ! plurali/s1,emp$ocles1 ,anaxagoras1 & ! atomi/s4 ,nei!r are !y ab/ractions m]ely1 su* z we use 9 sci5tific reckon+4 ,! ,py?agoreans 7 plurali/s & hylozoi/s ^: plural numb]s look beyond hylozoism4 ,!re are two k9ds ( reality 9 ! ,py?agorean tea*+3 7#a7 numb]s1 & 7#b7 unlimit$ space4 ,! ess5tial nature ( ?+s1 ! ,be+ t abides1 consi/s 9 ! %ap+ ( ?is unlimit$ space into ma!matical =ms4 ,! numb]s or ! =ms are ! limit$ aspect ( ,be+2 space is ! unlimit$ aspect ( ,be+4 ,actual ,be+ consi/s 9 ! union ( ! two aspects4 ,be+ !re=e has two roots1 ea* be+ necess>y to ! o!r4 ,! lat] ,py?agoreans1 inde$1 call$ att5tion to ! fact t _! numb]s 7 n ! same z ! diff]5t k9ds ( matt] out ( :i* ! o!r ,cosmologi/s conceiv$ ! _w to be fa%ion$4 ,numb]s are n ! /uff out ( :i* ! _w ( nature-objects h aris51 b r are =ms ( nature-objects4 ,numb]s are ! patt]ns or models ( ?+s2 ?+s are ! copies or imitations ( numb]s4 ,unlimit$ space furni%es ! mat]ial2 numb]s or ma!matical =ms furni% ! m\ld2 ! result is a mat]ial ?+4 ,"h we f9d ! e>ly basis ( ,plato's doctr9e ( ,ideas1 & ! correlation 9 ,ari/otle ( ,=m & matt]4 ,if we 7 to draw an analogy betwe5 ! ,py?agorean conception ( numb]s & any "p ( ! prec$+ cosmological tea*+1 we %\ld f9d ! simil>ity betwe5 ! numb]s & ! e>li] effici5t causes & n betwe5 ! numb]s & ! elem5ts4 ,= example1 ,py?agorean numb]s h a function m ne>ly l ,love & ,hate ?an l ! f\r elem5ts 9 ,emp$ocles' tea*+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,py?agorean unlimit$ space is analog\s to ! ,emp$oclean elem5ts4 #b4 ,! ,py?agorean ,duali/ic ,_w4#ac ,! ,py?agoreans c>ri$ out _! conception ( ?is tw(old reality bo? 9 _! ma!matical /udies & 9 _! conceptions ( natural objects4 ,x 0 f su* inve/igations t !y 7 impress$ by ! dualism 9 ev]y?+ & s rea*$ _! pr9ciple4 ,!y obs]v$ 9 ma!matics t ! numb]-s]ies consi/s ( alt]nate odd & ev5 numb]s4 ,! odd numb]s are limit$ & ! ev5 unlimit$ 7because !y c\ld be divid$74 ,!y expla9$ ! elem5ts z det]m9$ by ma!matical =ms3 fire has ! =m ( a tetrah$ron2 e>?1 ( ! cube2 air1 ( ! octoh$ron2 wat]1 ( ! icosah$ron2 & an additional fif? elem5t1 ! !r1 ( ! dodecah$ron4 ,!y c>ri$ ?is dualism fur!r by id5tify+ ! limit$ =m ) ! odd1 ) ! p]fect1 & ) ! good2 :ile ! unlimit$ 0 id5tifi$ ) ! ev51 ! imp]fect1 & ! bad4 ,"s ( ! ,py?agoreans ev5 s\ght to trace out ?is dualism 9 ! _m realms ( exp]i5ce1 & !y orig9at$ a table ( t5 pairs ( opposites3 limit$ & unlimit$2 odd & ev52 "o & _m2 "r & left2 male & female2 re/ & motion2 /raight & crook$2 light & d>k2 good & bad2 squ>e & oblong4 ,!re is a sy/em 9 ! ,py?agorean !ory n to be f\nd 9 ! tea*+ ( ! o!r reconcil]s4 ,al?\gh all ! numb]s1 & ) !m all ! _w1 are divid$ into two oppos+ classes1 ^! are1 nev]!less1 unit$ 9 a h>mony4 ,! h>mony ( a dualism rem9ds u ( ,h]acleitus' h>mony ( anti!ses4 ,all s]ies ( numb]s h _! unity & h>mony 9 ! odd-ev5 numb]1 ,"o4 ,to ! ,py?agorean ! opposites ( life! good & ! bad1 ! limit$ & unlimit$1 ! p]fect & imp]fect1 ! odd & ev5exi/ 9 an h>moni\s :ole4 ,z ! ,py?agorean s*ool grew 9 ye>s1 ! realms to :i* x appli$ its !ory increas$4 ,:ile we h /at$ its metaphysical !ory fir/ 9 ord] to give x prom95ce1 ! s*ool came to ! =mulation ( its !ory ?r\gh its inve/igations 9 ma!matics1 music1 & a/ronomy4 ,!n x appli$ ! !ory to geometrical /ructures & to o!r fields ) a proc$ure t 0 arbitr>y & unme?odical4 ,yet s univ]sal 0 ! application ( ! !ory t x liv$ to h sup]/iti\s au?ority = ! human m9d 9 ! ,middle ,ages4 #c4 ,py?agorean ,a/ronomy4 ,! =mation ( ! _w-all began f ! ,"o1 or c5tral fire1 :i* attract$ & limit$ ! ne>e/ portions ( ! unlimit$4 ,?is fire became ! c5tre ( ! _w-all1 :i* _h ! %ape ( a holl[ globe4 ,ar\nd ! c5tral fire ! cele/ial bodies move 9 globul> transp>5t %ells4 ,_! movem5ts are conc5tric to ! fire4 ,?is is ! beg9n+ ( ! a/ronomical !ory ( ! cry/all9e sph]es4 ,! _w-all is divid$ into ?ree conc5tric portions4 ,! p]iph]y or out] rim is ,olympus1 :]e all is p]fection & :]e ! gods dwell4 ,betwe5 ,olympus & ! moon is ,cosmos1 :]e all is ord]ly & all movem5ts are 9 circles4 ,betwe5 ! moon & ! c5tral fire is ! region call$ ,uranus1 :]e all is disord]ly & ! movem5ts are up & d[n4 ,! e>? is 9 ?is l[] section ( disord]1 & moves 9 a transp>5t globul> %ell l ! cele/ial bodies ar\nd ! c5tral fire4 ,! numb] ( ! heav5ly bodies is ! p]fect numb]1 t54 ,! _w-all is conceiv$ z a heav5ly hepta*ord1 ) ! orbits ( ! sev5 planets z ! s\nd+ /r+s4 ,^u ?is notion 0 f\nd$ ! h>mony ( ! sph]es1 :i* h>mony is n he>d by man because x is con/ant4 ,9 modify+ ?is a/ronomical !ory & !n accept+ x1 ! mo/ important *ange t ,ari/otle made 0 to conceive ! e>? z at ! c5tre ( ! _w-all ) ! sun revolv+ ab\t x4 ,?is 0 ! =m 9 :i* ! ,ptolemaic a/ronom]s receiv$ x4 ,hi/orical ,retrospect4 ,9 ^! _m se>*+s ( ! ,cosmologi/s = a reality amid ! *anges ( nature1 :at result c be f\nd significant = ! ,cosmological ,p]iod & valuable z a beque/ = ! foll[+ p]iods8 ,are ^! crude sci5tific speculations ( ! e>ly ,greeks to be look$ ^u z out ( connection ) _! own age & ! age to come8 ,! ,cosmological philosophy _h two def9ite results4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ) ref]5ce to its own c5tury & a half1 x sav$ ! intellectual _w ( ,greece f ! slav]y ( a my/ic religion4 ,:5 we />t$ ) ,?ales 9 #fbe ,b4 ,c41 we saw ,greece confront$ ) two p]ils4 ,"o 0 political1 & consi/$ ( int]nec9e tr\bles & ( dang] f its w>like neighbors4 ,?is p]il grew /ill great]1 until at ! v end ( ! p]iod x 0 av]t$ at ! battle ( ,salamis4 ,greek arms bani%$ ?is political p]il4 ,b ! o!r p]il 0 subjective & !re=e m m5ac+4 ,! my/]ies ( ! ,orphic religion w\ld h qu5*$ ! ,greek g5ius _h n its rational philosophy giv5 ! ,greek intellectual life new conceptions4 ,9 ! next place1 x bequea!d to ! succe$+ p]iod a fairly well-drawn contra/ betwe5 a _w ( intellectual ord] & a _w ( s5su\s disord]4 ,! ?\ght ( an ord] 9 nature 9 con=mity to law 0 develop$ into cle>ness 9 ! ,cosmological ,p]iod4 ,! ord] 0 obta9$ f ! a/ronomical /udies ( ^! sci5ti/s4 ,reason+ f ! ord] t !y saw1 to an ord]+ pr9ciple1 ,anaxagoras & ! ,py?agoreans almo/1 b n q1 gave to t pr9ciple a teleological mean+4 ,! pr9ciple ( p]man5ce t ^! nature sci5ti/s s\ght 0 f\nd 9 ! great & simple relations ( ! />s1 ^: revolutions are ! expression ( ord] & con/ancy4 ,impregnat$ z !y 7 ) _! elem5tal hylozoism1 ! ,greek ,cosmologi/s 7 z yet n q able to f9d an ord]ly p]man5ce 9 ! t]re/rial _w ) its manifold & int]sect+ motions4 ,yet ,greek ?\ght 0 look+ =w>d4 ,! ,cosmologi/ _h already contra/$ ! t]re/rial z ! imp]fect ) ! cele/ial z ! p]fect peace & p]man5ce4 ,! /ep 0 b a %ort "o f ! contra/ ( ! two realms to ! ef=t to br+ !m into a unity4 ,?us 9 ?is a/ronomical & concrete =m a di/9ction ( value 0 obta9$ t _h la/+ e?ical & /hetical significance1 n only ^u ,plato & ,ari/otle1 b ^u mod]n ?\ght4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,an?ropological ,,p]iod 7#dij-cii ,b4 ,c473 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,man ,an ,hi/orical ,summ>y ( ! ,an?ropological ,p]iod4 ,! ,an?ropological ,p]iod beg9s ) ! ,p]sian ,w>s1 #dij & #dhj ,b4 ,c4 ,aft] ! battle ( ,m>a?on !re sprang up a di/9ct impulse t[>d k all ov] ,greece2 & detail$ inve/igations 7 begun 9 ma!matics1 a/ronomy1 biology1 m$ic9e1 hi/ory1 & physics4 ,sci5ce1 :i* _h up to ?is "t be5 unorganiz$ & undiff]5tiat$1 n[ became %>ply divid$ into ! special sci5ces4 ,b :at makes ! ,p]sian ,w>s ( p>ticul> importance is t !y are ! />t+-po9t 9 ! mo!rl& ( ! movem5t 9 ! /udy ( man & human relations4 ,! battle ( ,m>a?on does n !re=e m>k ! end ( ! ,cosmological movem5t & ! wan+ ( ! ,greeks' int]e/ 9 sci5ce2 b x m>ks r ! beg9n+ 9 ,a!ns ( ! ,an?ropological movem5t4 ,! ,cosmological & ! ,an?ropological ,p]iods ov]lap4 ,! ,an?ropological ,p]iod easily divides itself into ?ree epo*s f ! po9t ( view ( its political affairs3 #a4 ,! ,p]sian ,w>s1 #dij & #dhj ,b4 ,c4 #b4 ,! ,age ( ,p]icles1 #dfg-dbh ,b4 ,c4 #c4 ,! ,peloponnesian ,w>s1 #dcb-djc ,b4 ,c4 ,! fir/ epo* is ! bir? & ! la/ epo* ! decad5ce ( pure ,greek civilization1 :ile ! ?irty-n9e ye>s ( ! supremacy ( ,p]icles cov] ! ripe/ p]iod ( ,greek life4 ,9 ?is connection x is well to m5tion ,hegel's ?\ght t nations d n rip5 intellectually until !y beg9 to decay politically 78,! owl ( ,m9]va does n />t ^u its flight until ! ev5+ twilight has begun to fall074 ,plato & ,ari/otle d n come until aft] ?is p]iod1 :5 ,greek political life _h begun to wane4 ,! foll[+ table is a p>tial li/ ( ! notable m5 ( ! p]iod1 ) ! date ( _! bir?3 s*ylus1 #ebe 7dramati/ be=e ,p]icles74 ,sophocles1 #die 7dramati/ dur+ ,age ( ,p]icles74 ,phidias1 #dij4 ,euripides1 #dhj 7dramati/ ( ! ,sophi/ic & ! new le>n+74 ,h]odotus1 #dge4 ,?ucydides1 #dga4 ,x5ophon1 #dcj8 ,ari/ophanes1 #ddd4 ,anaxagoras1 #ejj4 ,emp$ocles1 #die4 ,protagoras1 #dhj4 ,democritus1 #dgj4 ,sophi/s 7_m71 #dej-cej4 ,socrates1 #dfi4 ,anti/h5es1 #ddj4 ,ari/ippus1 #dce4 ,plato1 #dbg4 ,! ,p]sian ,w>s & ! ,rise ( ,a!ns4 ,! bl[ t _h be5 imp5d+ ov] ,greece dur+ ! six? c5tury _h be5 /ruck1 b _h be5 av]t$ 9 ! ,p]sian ,w>s ( #dij ,b4 ,c4 & #dhj ,b4 ,c4 ,! p[]ful & spl5didly organiz$ 8b>b>ic neighbor10 :o _h ?reat5$ ! civilization ( ! ,greek cities ( ,asia ,m9or = s _m ye>s1 _h swept ov] ! ,hellespont into ,greece & _h be5 turn$ back4 ,x has be5 po9t$ out#ad t ! ,p]sian ,w>s 7 only "o ( a s]ies ( conflicts betwe5 ,ori5tal & ,occid5tal civilizations2 & t ! /rip ( ,asia ,m9or along ! ,m$it]ranean has always be5 a disput$ bord]l& betwe5 irreconcilable hemisph]es4 ,fir/ 0 ! my?ical invasion ( ,troy2 !n ! ,p]sian ,w>s2 !n came ! arms ( ,alex&] conqu]+ ,p]sia2 !n ! invasion ( ! ,mohamm$ans to ! v walls ( ,t\rs2 !n ! ,crusades2 & to-day we /ill h ! et]nal ,ea/]n "q ) u4 ,:ile ea* ( ^! conflicts 0 mom5t\s = ,europe1 none 0 m important 9 its issues = ! _w ?an ! ,p]sian ,w>s4 ,= ?r\gh ^? w>s did ,greece fir/ come to a consci\sness ( h]self4 ,nev] be=e did %e realize h] unit$ /r5g?1! greatness ( h] inh]it$ in/9cts4 ,! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 0 ! mo/ cle>ly consci\s mom5t ( ,greece1 if n ( ! _w4 ,classic ,greece! ,greece ^: ?\ght became fundam5tal to we/]n civilization0 born f ! ,p]sian ,w>s4 ,! c5tre ( gravity ( ! ,greek _w 0 %ift$ aft] ! ,p]sian ,w>s f ,miletus to ,a!ns1 f ! colonies to ! mo!rl&4 ,inde$1 ! hi/ory ( classic ,greece is almo/ entirely ! hi/ory ( ,a!ns4 ,( ! l>ge cities ( ,greece1,cor9?1 g9a1 ,sp>ta1 & ,!bes1,a!ns 0 naturally ! locality :]e ,grecian civilization w\ld c5tre :5 ! comm]cial & m>itime colonies fell4 ,! ,ionian race1 by :om x _h be5 settl$1 0 a mix$ race1 & by nature v v]satile4 ,be=e ! ,p]sian ,w>s x _h be5 "u ! wise tyranny ( ,pisi/ratus1 :o took ! fir/ /eps t[>d ! f\nd+ ( an ,a!nian empire4 ,9 ! p]iod betwe5 ! two w>s1 ,!mi/ocles _h built ! ,a!nian fleet & !reby made ,a!ns ! great m>itime & naval c5tre ( ,greece4 ,!re 01 inde$1 e reason :y ,a!ns & n "s o!r ,grecian city %\ld become ! new c5tre ( classic ,greece4 ,! ,sp>tans 7 olig>*ical1 /]n1 un9tellectual1 & (f5sive to /rang]s2 ! p ( ,!bes 7 held "u a /rict ari/ocratic gov]nm5t1 ! p ( ,!ssaly 7 ari/ocratic1 luxuri\s1 & /agnant2 b ! ,a!nians 7 democratic1 social to /rang]s1 lit]>y1 lib]al1 frugal1 & al]t4 ,aft] ! ,p]sian ,w>s ! p[] ( ! ,delian conf$]acy became m & m c5traliz$ 9 ! city ( ,a!ns4 ,controll+ ! fleet ( ! ,conf$]acy = h] own def5se & us+ ! ri* treasury ( ! ,conf$]acy = h] own municipal improvem5ts1 ,a!ns "u ! brilliant rule ( ,p]icles1 :o summon$ s*ol>s & arti/s f all ,greece1 0 ! only city ( ,greece :]e ! ,r5aissance ( ,greece 0 possible4 ,a!ns _h become ! eye ( ,greece1 & ! foll[+ description ( ! ,greek ,r5aissance is especially significant 9 reg>d to h]4 ,! ,greek ,enlight5m5t4 ,foll[+ ! ,p]sian ,w>s !re arose ?r\gh\t ,greece a great national intellectual movem5t4 ,! ye>s m>k ! ,greek ,r5aissance1 ! ,age ( ,p]icles1 & ! "t :5 ! ,greek ma/]pieces 9 lit]ature & pla/ic art 7 produc$4 ,p]haps ! greate/ ,greek production 0 ,a!ns itself1 ^: cultural influ5ce 0 p]sonifi$ 9 ! s*ol>-politician1 ,p]icles4 #a4 ,! ,impulse = ,le>n+4 ,9 ! fir/ place !re 0 a g5]al impulse ?r\gh\t ,greece = education4 ,ev]ybody seem$ to want to "k :at ! s*ools ( ,cosmologi/s _h _h to say ab\t sci5ce4 ,! ,greeks n[ _h weal? & !re=e leisure2 !y _h come into contact ) ! ,ori5tal peoples & !re=e !y _h _! curiosity excit$4 ,le>n+1 :i* _h be5 conf9$ 9 ! ,cosmological ,p]iod to a few s*ol>s 9 ! s*ools1 n[ came =? into ! m>ket place4 ,le>n+ 9 ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 0 drawn f ! s*ools into publicity4 ,! objects ( int]e/ _h greatly wid5$ & ! le>n+ ( ! s*ol>s began to filt] into ! g5]al consci\sness4 ,:]eas 9 ! six? c5tury philosophy 0 a matt] betwe5 le>n$ m51 9 ! fif? c5tury we f9d ,socrates & ! ,sophi/s tea*+ :osoev] w\ld li/54 #b4 ,! ,practical ,ne$ ( ,k4 ,b m]e curiosity w n entirely expla9 ! ,greek intellectual movem5t4 ,!re _h gr[n up an imp]ative practical ne$ = k4 ,9 ,a!ns & o!r ,greek cities ! democracy ( ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 _h supplant$ ! tyranny ( ! six? c5tury4 ,duty & incl9ation toge!r =c$ ! citiz5 into active p>ticipation 9 public affairs4 ,9 ^! democratic cities family tradition & "* 7 no long] suffici5t = success2 b x became g5]ally recogniz$ t ! mo/ useful & successful man 0 ! educat$ man4 ,! complex relations exi/+ betwe5 /ates & betwe5 ! citiz5s 9 ! /ates made education absolutely necess>y = ! politician4 ,n[h]e 0 ! ne$ ( an education m imp]ative ?an 9 ,a!ns2 n[h]e 0 ! ne$ m easily fill$4 ,9 a v %ort "t aft] ! ,p]sian ,w>s ! social position ( sci5ce *ang$ to "o ( p[]2 & ! inn] "* ( sci5ce *ang$ f ! /udy ( nature to ! /udy ( e?ical & political problems4 ,sci5ti/s became tea*]s ( eloqu5ce1 = ! citiz5 n[ ne$$ to be an orator & a rhetorician4 ,/atesm5 & g5]als mu/ "k h[ to p]suade4 ,c\rts ( law 7 public1 _! proce$+ oral1 & p]sonal att5dance 0 !re=e requir$4 ,!re 0 no man 9 ,a!ns :o might n be condemn$1 if he c\ld n p]sonally 9 c\rt refute falsehoods & dis5tangle sophi/ries4 ,besides1 to be beat5 9 debate 0 z disgraceful 9 ! eyes ( ! public z to lose "o's cause4 ,two classes ( m51 ) an importance hi!rto unkn[n1 appe> 9 ,greek hi/ory1! rhetoricians & ! dialecticians4 ,rhetoric 0 public oratory1 necess>y = ! public def5se ( "o's rights1 or = ! ma9t5ance ( "o's dignity1 or = ! gratification ( "o's ambition4 ,! dialectic 01 on ! o!r h&1 argum5t employ$ 9 private betwe5 two p]sons1 usually fri5ds1 to unravel an obscurity1 to r$uce an oppon5t to sil5ce1 to ex]cise "o's self 9 ! ma/]y ( a subject1 or to sift evid5ce4 ,! dialectic1 !re=e1 became a di/9ct m5tal pursuit = m5 :o _h a natural defect 9 public speak+ or rhetoric4 ,besides rhetoric & dialectic1 !re grew up some:at lat] :at 0 call$ ! eri/ic4 ,eri/ic 0 polemical argum5t consi/+ ( cat*-phrases & logical subtleties4 ,x 0 taught z an art ( adroit argum5t4 ,! great ,greek trag$ies occupy a place 9 ! developm5t ( ! dialectic & ! satisfy+ ( ! ne$ ( k4 ,sci5ce1 ?r\gh ! drama1 trans=m$ ! old religi\s views & br\ght its new int]pretation to ! common p4 ,! developm5t ( ! fif?-c5tury drama out ( ! epic ( ! six? c5tury 0 n m]ely a *ange 9 ar*itectonic1 b a trans=mation ( its e?ical & religi\s _s4 ,! g]m 0 9 ! previ\s e?ics1 lyrics1 & gnomics1 yet x 0 fully amplifi$ 9 ! drama4 ,in/ead ( a summ>y ( de$s ! tragic poet makes 8 *>act]s talk1 def5d1 refute1 accuse1 lam5t1 etc4 ,?is gives rise to exig5cies t require ! dialectic4 ,9 ! conflict+ duties & 9 ! ju/ification ( ! wrong done by ! wrong suff]$1 dialectical skill is call$ = 9 ! drama to weigh ! e?ical motives 9 a mann] t ! epic does n dem&4 ,?us ! drama ( s*ylus1 ,sophocles1 & ,euripides 0 a l9k betwe5 ! lyric & gnomic poetry ( ! six? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 & ! dialogue lit]ature ( ,plato4#ae #c4 ,! ,critical ,attitude ( ,m9d4 ,! mo/ important *>act]i/ic ( ?is p]iod is nei!r ! int5sifi$ social curiosity nor ! increas$ social ne$s4 ,x is r e?ical 9 its "*4 ,x is ! 8critical0 or 8individuali/ic0 attitude ( m9d4 ,?is began ) ! 8free city feel+0! consci\sness ( ! free man 9 a free /ate9 ! fir/ half ( ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c41 & develop$ rapidly into individualism & critical skepticism t[>d ! end ( t c5tury4 ,if "o 7 to comp>e 9 a s+le ^w ! hi/ory ( ,greece be=e ! ,p]sian ,w>s ) t aft] ! ,p]sian ,w>s1 he w\ld say t ! =m] 0 traditional & ! latt] 0 critical4 ,nev]!less1 at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,cosmological ,p]iod ,greek traditional cu/oms 7 be+ weak5$ by attacks ^u !m4 ,religi\s ideas 7 ?reat5$ by ! ,cosmologi/s4 ,! subord9ation ( ! gods to ! cosmic sub/ance 0 an attack ^u ! e/abli%$ poly!ism ( ! ,epic1 & ! attack became direct 9 ! h&s ( ,x5ophanes4 ,x 0 8! dive/iture ( ,nature ( its gods by sci5ce40 ,! ,my/]ies 7 a "p ( ?is dep>ture f ! traditional religion4 ,b ! new & m critical sci5tific attitude t[>d traditional religion 0 only incid5tal to ! gr[+ criticism ( law4 ,9 ! days ( ! olig>*y !re 7 two self-evid5t political assumptions3 7#a7 t law has validity because x is law2 7#b7 t ob$i5ce to law is = "o's advantage4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! political di/urbances began1 a self-consci\s individualism develop$ among ! ,greeks4 ,! ,gnomic ,poets _h be5 ! fir/ to appeal to ! individual consci\sness ( ! p4 ,all ?r\gh ! six? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,greece _h /]n exp]i5ces1 & ! individual f\nd himself que/ion+ ! sanctity ( tradition & ( "t-honor$ laws4 ,!re 0 no long] a tacit acquiesc5ce 9 e/abli%$ ord]1 & ! claims ( au?ority 7 no long]1 z =m]ly1 un*all5g$4 ,confid5ce 9 political assumptions began to wav]1 & a critical attitude 0 tak5 t[>d laws :i* *ang$ f ye> to ye>4 ,! appe>ance ev]y:]e ( ! tyrant1 ! vigor\s p]sonality :o c\ld set up 8 w aga9/ ! w ( a traditional ari/ocracy1 impress$ ! age ) ! p[] ( individual egoism4 ,! seat ( au?ority 0 %ift$ f tradition to ! individual reason1 & all in/itutions 7 br\ght "u individual criticism4 ,! ,p]sian ,w>s m>k ! po9t ( transition f ! traditional attitude to ! critical attitude ( ! ,greek m9d4 ,9 !mselves ! ,p]sian ,w>s 7 a great moral uplift1 & 7 a return = a "t to ! traditional in/itutions4 ,! *anges long s9ce begun 7 susp5d$ = a "t 9 ! unit$ ef=t ( ! ,greek nation4 ,b ! t5d5cies became m insi/5t :5 ! dang] 0 pa/4 ,! ,p]sian ,w>s _h cle>$ ! atmosph]e ( its pessimism & _h giv5 fre$om to ! intellectual movem5t4 ,!n lat]1 9 ! heat ( t intellectual movem5t1 individualism & criticism came to fulle/ fruitage4 ,d\bt grew into positive skepticism4 ,9 ! la/ "p ( ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c41 critical skepticism became univ]sal4 ,9 religion ! an?ropomorphism ( ! ,epic passes "u ridicule4 ,critias decl>es t ! gods are ! inv5tion ( %rewd /atecraft4 ,9 lit]ature ! ,epic1 9 :i* ! gods int]f]e 9 all human details1 yields to ! naturali/ic descriptions ( ,h]odotus & ,?ucydides1 & to ! p]sonal note ( lyric & satirical poetry4 ,m important ?an all 0 ! *ange ( attitude t[>d ! laws4 ,in/ead ( ! law hav+ a div9e au?ority1 ! individual plac$ himself above x & sat 9 judgm5t ^u x4 ,! tribal conception ( guilt1 t :5 a memb] ( a tribe s9n$ ! :ole tribe w\ld suff] at ! h&s ( ! gods1 _h giv5 way at ! "t ( ! ,p]sian ,w>s to t ( p]sonal responsibility & retribution4 ,x 0 not$ t laws *ange 9 ! same /ate1 t !y diff] 9 diff]5t /ates1 & t moral cu/oms h a great v>iety4 ,all laws seem !re=e to be made by man1 & ! "q !n arose1 ,is !re any law :i* has univ]sal validity8 ,is !re any real prius or 8,nature0 ( laws8 ,9 ! ,an?ropological ,p]iod1 ! important "q 0 ab\t ! real prius or 8,nature0 ( human in/itutions1 j z 9 ! ,cosmological ,p]iod ! "q 0 ab\t ! real prius or 8,nature0 ( ! _w ( physical ph5om5a4 ,yet ! "q ( ! ,an?ropologi/s 0 a "p ( ! ,cosmological problem4 ,! ,cosmologi/s _h call$ ! real prius or 8,nature0 771 t :i* ev] rema9s l itself1 & x is n[ ask$ if 8,nature0 9 itself conta9s any un*ang+ & et]nal politico-moral law4 ,! contra/ is ?us drawn = all "t betwe5 natural law & /atute law1 & ! di/9ction dom9ates ?is p]iod4 ,human legal in/itutions 7 reg>d$ z only make%ifts1 & (t5 ev5 z contradict+ ! div9e law4 ,! conflict betwe5 natural or div9e law & human law appe>s work$ out 9 ! ,antigone ( ,sophocles4 ,! same int]e/ 9 ! f\ndations ( morality & moral relations op5$ up ! :ole subject ( ! p[] ( human consci\sness to disc]n su* relations4 ,x 0 a logical necessity t turn$ ?\ght f a review ( man's relations ) 8 fell[s to a criticism ( 8 own con/itution4 ,:at is man8 ,:at are 8 faculties8 ,has he any t give him ! tru? & ! reality8 ,or d !y all deceive him s t he _c detect ! real f ! %am ( life8 ,:at are ! m5tal faculties us$ 9 disputation1 & h[ are !y to be tra9$ s t man may rise to an em95ce ( culture among 8 fell[s8 ,! ,greek ?us turn$ to a criticism ( 8 kn[+ faculties1 & ! positive social & moral dem&s made su* a criticism necess>y to 8 well-be+4 ,greek sci5ce took a /rong an?ropological direction1 & logic1 e?ics1 psy*ology1 rhetoric1 etc41 took ! place ( natural sci5ce subjects4 ,! ,greek 9 ! fif? c5tury ,b4 ,c4 0 int]e/$ 9 man9 8 inn] activities1 8 ideations & volitions4 ,( ?is critical & individuali/ic attitude ,euripides is ! lit]>y expon5t2 ,p]icles is ! political p]sonification2 ,socrates & ! ,sophi/s are its philosophical expression4 ,! ,significance ( ! ,sophi/s4 ,! ,sophi/s 7 ! direct means ( br++ ?is intellectual *ange into ,greek life4 ,!y 7 ! be>]s ( ?is ,greek ,enlight5m5t1 & !y 7 ! mission>ies t spread its influ5ce f> & wide4 ,?is significance ( ! ,sophi/s to ! culture ( ,greece 0 nev] und]/ood by ! hi/orian until ,hegel set !m 9 _! true light4 ,! d>k side ( _! "* has be5 pa9t$ 9 blacke/ colors1 s t ! ^w 8,sophi/0 has c>ri$ an opprobrium ) x4 ,!y 71 h[ev]1 ! expon5ts ( ! ,greek illum9ation1 & n ! cause ( x4 ,!y !re=e %>e all its weaknesses & its excell5cies2 & any judgm5t ^u !m is a judgm5t ^u ! "t itself4 ,! mo/ accurate description ( !m is t !y 7 ! expon5ts ( ,greek culture 9 ! age ( ,p]icles2 ! wor/ t c be said ( !m is t !y /imulat$ ! ,greek _s 9 directions 9 :i* x %\ld h be5 controll$4 ,_! true "w 0 to c>ry ! gospel ( ,greek individualism ev]y:]e2 _! fault lay 9 ! fact t too frequ5tly !y confus$ individualism ) hypocrisy1 & l$ _! he>]s to believe t appe>ance k is ! same z true k4 ,! ^w 8,sophi/0 _h a developm5t among ! ,greeks4 ,x fir/ meant a wise man 7! ,cosmologi/s1 f ,?ales to ,anaxagoras1 7 ,sophi/s72 !n a tea*] ( wisdom2 !n a paid tea*] ( wisdom4 ,moreov]1 among ! ,sophi/s !re is a diff]5ce betwe5 ! e>ly ,sophi/s1 :o 7 inspir$ by a di/9ct desire to spread culture1 & ! lat] ,sophi/s1 :o 7 m]c5>y tea*]s1 & _h on t acc\nt deg5]at$ into m]e quibbl]s4 ,9 g5]al1 ! gr\nd ( ! contempor>y ho/ility to ! ,sophi/s 0 ! hatr$ ( ! cons]vative & reaction>y p>ty1 to :i* belong$ ,ari/ophanes ! satiri/1 s*ylus 8! fa!r ( trag$y10 & ! expon5t ( in/itutional morals1 & ,x5ophon1 :o /ood = a complete return to a patri>*al /ate4 ,?is p>ty 0 v bitt] aga9/ ! expon5ts ( ! new & radical _s spr++ up 9 ,greece4 ,all ! philosoph]s ( ! new le>n+1 includ+ ,socrates1 suff]$ at ! h&s ( ^? :o w\ld cons]ve ! old traditions4 ,9 p>ticul>1 ! accusations aga9/ ! ,sophi/s ( ?is p]iod 73 !y 7 cavil]s2 !y taught = pay2 !y repres5t$ ! univ]saliz+ ( education aga9/ ! old ari/ocracy2 !y m5ac$ in/itutions4 ,! ,sophi/s 7 !n prim>ily &1 on ! :ole1 ! transmitt]s to ! p ( ! culture ( ! "t4 ,!y 7 ! tea*]s ( ! humanities to t age4 ,!y 7 n te*nically philosoph]s1 b 7 int]e/$ 9 philosophical que/ions4 ,protagoras 0 ! only ,sophi/ :o 0 ! au?or ( any fruitful philosophical conceptions4 ,gorgias made occasional essays into philosophy4 ,b besides ,protagoras & ,gorgias no o!r ,sophi/s c be class$ z philosoph]s1 except possibly ,hippias & ,prodicus4 ,! ,sophi/s introduc$ a pr(usion ( k among ! p4 ,!y made inve/igations 9 language1 logic1 & ! !ory ( cognition4 ,!y taught lit]ature1 hi/ory1 gramm>1 ! pr9ciples ( ! dialectic1 ! eri/ic1 & rhetoricall subjects conc]n$ ) ! art ( human expression4 ,!y /udi$ & taught ! special subjects conc]n$ ) human relations1 l e?ics1 ! !ory ( k1 psy*ology1 & politics4 ,any?+ t _h a place 9 ,greek culture 0 sy/ematically & skillfully pres5t$ by su* m5 z ,protagoras1 ,gorgias1 ,hippias1 & ,prodicus1 :o 7 m5 ( encyclopdic erudition4 ,! ,sophi/ took ! education ( ! ,greek *ild at ! age ( sixte51 aft] he _h receiv$ 8 elem5t>y tra9+1 fir/ at home & !n at ! h&s ( ! tea*] at s*ool4 ,! ,greek boy's education 0 naturally divid$ into two p>ts3 gymna/ics = ! body & music = ! s\l4 ,"u music 0 includ$ geometry1 p]=mance on ! lyre1 pronunciation1 ! *orus & poetry1 a/ronomy1 physics1 & geography4 ,at ! age ( sixte5 he got 8 in/ruction by meet+ public m51 su* z ! ,sophi/s1 9 ! /reet1 9 ! ,agora1 & o!r public places4 ,x 0 at ?is p]iod ( 8 life t ! ,sophi/ took 8 education into ^? high] bran*es :i* 7 necess>y = 8 success 9 politics1 society1 & law4 ,?us ! in/ruction ( ! ,sophi/ 0 usually = a specific purpose1 & ?us rhetoric1 dialectic1 & ! m5tal sci5ces 7 9 great dem&4 ,! ,prom95t ,sophi/s4 ,! li/ ( ,sophi/s is a long "o4 ,! fir/ to call himself a ,sophi/ & a tea*] ( public virtue 01 accord+ to ,plato1 ,protagoras ( ,abd]a4 ,he 0 also probably ! mo/ em95t ( ! numb]4 ,he 0 born ab\t #dhj ,b4 ,c4 ,polus & ,?rasyma*us 7 ! la/2 & ,ari/otle m5tions ! ,sophi/s z 9 ! pa/4 ,s t we may conclude t z a b& !y exi/$ only "o hundr$ ye>s 7#dej-cej ,b4 ,c474 ,already at ! beg9n+ ( ! f\r? c5tury 7#djj ,b4 ,c47 _! importance _h greatly dim9i%$4 ,9 ?is hundr$ ye>s we f9d "s f\rte5 or fifte5 prom95t ,sophi/s4 ,!re is1 fir/1 ,protagoras1 ^: !ory ( k is n only 9 itself a contribution to ?\ght1 b also ( importance z a factor 9 =m+ ! mat]iali/ atomi/ic doctr9e ( ! s*ool ( ,abd]a1! s*ool ( ,leucippus & ,democritus2 ,gorgias ( ,leont9i1 ! head ( an embassy to ,a!ns1 a man ( eloqu5ce1 ^: /yle 0 imitat$ by ,?ucydides & :om we might h /udi$ 9 connection ) ! ,eleatic s*ool1 = he c>ri$ out /ill fur!r ! doctr9es ( ,z5o2 ,prodicus1 ! pupil ( ,protagoras & ,gorgias1 a brilliant man & a travel]1 ^: me?od ( in/ruction 0 us$ by ,socrates2 ,hippias1 contempor>y ( ,prodicus1 rem>kable = 8 ma!matical1 physical1 & hi/orical erudition1 & a man full ( vanity2 ! bro!rs1 ,eu?ydemus & ,dionysiodorus1 tea*]s ( eri/ic2 ! rhetorician ,?rasyma*us & ! rhetoricians ( ! s*ool ( ,gorgias1 viz41 ,polus1 ,lycophron1 ,prot>*us1 & ,alcidamus2 ,ev5us1 rhetorician1 morali/1 & poet2 ,critias1 ! lead] ( ! ?irty2 ,callicles & ,hippodamus4 ,_m ( ^! m5 7 re=m]s4 ,"s 7z ,alcidamus7 7 oppos$ to ! in/itution ( slav]y 9 ,greece2 "s to m>riage2 "s 7z ,lycophron7 to ! nobility2 "s to ! inequality ( prop]ty2 :ile ,hippodamus 0 ! fir/ to propose an ideal /ate4 ,! me?od ( argum5tation employ$ by ! ,sophi/s 0 fir/ to p]plex & confuse _! oppon5ts z to :at _h be5 tak5 9 ! pa/ z valid4 ,!n !y made _! oppon5ts ridicul\s by draw+ out consequ5ces f _! /atem5ts4 ,_! conclusions 7 (t5 v]bal & _! witticisms vulg>4#af ,! ,philosophy ( ! ,sophi/s4 ,! philosophy ( ! ,sophi/s 0 only ! logical foll[+ out ( ! g5]al attitude ( ! "t t[>d all traditions4 ,! m ! old physical !ories fell into disrepute1 ! m ! *anges ( ! _w ( politics seem$ to indicate in/ability ev]y:]e1 ! m op9ions diff]$ on ! same subject1s mu* ! m did ! possibility pres5t itself to ! ,sophi/s ( tak+ two contradictories z equally true1 & s mu* ! fa/] did ! :ole ,greek _w lose fai? 9 any valid tru? & 9 any c]ta9 k4 ,! dogmatism ( ! ,cosmological ,p]iod is ?us naturally foll[$ by ! skepticism ( ! ,an?ropological4 ,beg9n+ ) ! cauti\s & enlight5$ relativism ( ,protagoras1 !re grew up a volume ( criticism1 until ! lat] ,sophi/s appli$ de/ructive doctr9es to ev]y?+4 ,! be/ repres5tatives ( ! philosophical aspect ( ! ,sophi/ic movem5t 7 ,protagoras & ,gorgias4 #a4 ,! ,relativism ( ,protagoras4 ,al?\gh !oretically skepticism is ! c5tre & logical result ( ! ,sophi/ic movem5t1 ! tea*+ ( ! greate/ ,sophi/1 ,protagoras1 _c be /rictly call$ skepticism4 ,philosophically1 skepticism is n ! d5ial ( ?is or t p>ticul> belief z true1 b ! d5ial ( ! exi/5ce ( any tru? :atev]4 ,protagoras refus$ to make any positive /atem5tsei!r 9 d5ial or affirmationab\t ultimate tru?1 because1 z he said1 we h no insight :atev] into ! nature ( absolute tru?4 ,our k is conf9$ to motions & ! ph5om5a ( motion4 ,8 tea*+ w\ld be call$ 9 mod]n times relativism or ph5om5alism4 ,! fundam5tal pr9ciple b5ea? su* a doctr9e is t k is humannev] absolute1 b always relative4 ,! relativism ( ,protagoras 0 bas$ on two pr9ciples3 ! fir/ is t ( univ]sal *ange1 :i* he borr[$ f ,h]acleitus2 ! second is1 s f> z we "k1 orig9al ) ,protagoras1t s5se-p]ception is ! only s\rce & only k9d ( k4 ,9 ,h]acleitus' doctr9e *ange is univ]sal1 ea* t]m ( a s]ies ( *anges pass+ into ano!r4 ,! s5ses are a "p ( ?is flux1 & s9ce !y are1 accord+ to ,protagoras1 ! only s\rce ( k1 k is ephem]al & unreal4 ,reason is ext5d$ & cont9u$ s5sation4 ,a movem5t ext]nal to ! organism /imulates an organ ( ! body & is met by a react+ movem5t ( ! organ4 ,! result is p]ception4 ,p]ception be+ itself a process1 ea* pres5t mom5t ( p]ception is ! only k4 ,we _c "k ?+s z !y are 9 !mselves2 !re is no insight into ! ,be+ ( ?+s ov] & above our p]ceptions4 ,on ! contr>y1 reality is n only :at x p]ceptually appe>s = ea* individual1 b also :at x appe>s at ea* individual mom5t>y p]ception4 ,:at is ! result ( su* a !ory ( k8 ,protagoras expresses x well 9 8 fam\s words1 8,man is ! measure ( all ?+s40 ,x is absolute s5sationalism4 ,!re is no tru? except t ( ! pres5t mom5t4 ,ea* man sees ! tru? = himself at ! mom5t ( 8 p]ception4 ,x does n matt] if ano!r has a diff]5t p]ception4 ,x does n matt] if at ! next mom5t 8 p]ception diff]s4 ,ea* p]ception exi/s at ! mom5t1 is true1 & at t mom5t is ! only p]ception4 ,!re are z _m tru?s z !re are individuals1 z _m z !re are mom5ts 9 an individual's life4 ,ea* individual is ! measure ( ! true1 ! beautiful1 & ! good2 = a ?+ t is good or true to "o man may be h>mful or false to ano!r4 ,metaphysical discussions are va91 = ! only reality to prove is ! cont5t ( ! pres5t mom5t4 ,all causes & ultimate crit]ia are impossible to be kn[n4 #b4 ,! ,nihilism ( ,gorgias4 ,z ! philosophy ( ,protagoras tea*es t ev]y?+ is equally true1 t ( ,gorgias tea*es t ev]y?+ is equally false4 ,gorgias decl>$ t ,be+1 k1 & ! communication ( k are impossible4 ,/>t+ f ! dialectic ( ! ,eleatic1 ,z5o 7z ,protagoras />t$ f t ( ,h]acleitus71 ,gorgias ma9ta9$3 7#a7 ,no?+ is2 7#b7 ,if any?+ is1 x _c be ?\ght2 7#c7 ,ev5 if x c be ?\ght1 x _c be communicat$4 ,! k ( ! ?+ is diff]5t f ! ?+2 ! expression ( ! ?\ght 9 words is diff]5t f ! ?\ght itself4 ,! ,e?ics ( ! ,sophi/s4,! ,application ( _! ,critical ,!ory to ,political ,life4 ,! e?ical-political life 0 ( p>am\nt importance to ! ,greek4 ,:5 ! lat] ,sophi/s began to scrut9ize x f ! po9t ( view ( ! individual1 _! skepticism became a direct m5ace to ,greek political in/itutions4 ,! individual became a law unto himself1 & ! citiz5 set himself up z sup]ior to society4 ,s9ce ! "t ( ! ,gnomic poets ! cont5t ( bo? moral & political laws _h become m & m a subject ( reflection2 & at ! "t ( ! ,sophi/s ! :ole f\ndation ( law 0 call$ 9 "q4 ,:5 ! individual man is decl>$ to be ! measure ( all ?+s1 all legal & moral in/itutions hang 9 ! balance4 ,all rules ( conduct & all laws become !n artificial & m]ely conv5tional products2 & j z !re is no /&>d ( tru? or error 9 k1 s !re is no /&>d ( good citiz5%ip or morality4 ,! good man is ! prud5t man2 ! good citiz5 is ! successful & p[]ful man4 ,might is "r4 ,?us ! ,sophi/s came to tea* su* doctr9es z ^!3 ,laws are made by ! /ronge/1 repres5t _! w1 & mu/ be obey$ if !y _c be disobey$2 x takes a /rong man to make a law1 b a /rong] to break x2 ! laws are only conv5tions inv5t$ ei!r by ! _m to re/ra9 ! p[]ful few1 or by ! few to enslave ! _m4 ,ev5 religions are devices ( ! crafty to en*a9 ! p4 ,ob$i5ce to law is !re=e a matt] ( p]sonal int]e/4 ,happ9ess is ! mo/ important consid]ation ( ! individual4 ,sometimes p]sonal int]e/ conflicts ) law & law does n !n br+ happ9ess1 = crim9als are (t5 ! mo/ happy4 ,x is n ob$i5ce to law t br+s happ9ess b 7,polus7 a %rewd calculation ( ends ) no reg>d to "r or law4 ,! ,sophi/s made no attempt to put _! !ories into execution4 ,!y express$ ! s5tim5ts ( ! ,greek p1 & ,greek public op9ion !n po9t$ to segregation & individualism4 ,plato said t1 aft] all1 ! ,greek public 0 ! great ,sophi/4 ,x 0 ?us t ! di/9ction arose betwe5 positive law & natural law4 ,reflect+ ^u ! diff]5ces among ! con/itutions ( ! ,greek /ates & ^u ! con/ant alt]ations 9 ^! con/itutions1 ! ,sophi/ conclud$ t ! great] "p ( !m 7 ( human inv5tion4 ,!y 7 positive laws & 7 to be contra/$ ) natural law1 :i* 0 su* law z is b9d+ on all m5 equally4 ,natural law is !re=e ( great] wor? ?an positive law1 & is set 9 anti!sis to x4 ,sir ,h5ry ,ma9e says 9 8 ,anci5t ,law t ! ,greeks did n f\nd any sy/em ( jurisprud5ce1 because natural law 0 always ref]r$ to by !m 9 argu+ any "q4 ,! only way to f9d natural law is to /rip x ( ! mass ( conv5tional laws4 ,! ^w 8nature0 has be5 9 its hi/ory "o ( ! mo/ ambigu\s ( words2 & ,protagoras' tea*+ t 8nature0 consi/s ( prim>y e?ical feel+s is h>dly a complete & satisfactory def9ition4 ,! m ! !ory ( ! ,sophi/s limit$ 8nature0 to human nature1 & to human nature 9 its caprici\s & individual aspects1 s mu* ! m did /atute laws appe> antagoni/ic to natural law & seem to be detrim5tal to x4 ,summ>y4 #a4 ,al?\gh a skepticism & a criticism1 ,sophi/ry 0 a relative advance ov] ! traditionalism & dogmatism ( ! ,cosmologi/s4 #b4 ,sophi/ry turn$ ! att5tion to man & 8 int]e/s z ! pr9cipal object ( inquiry4 #c4 ,! ,sophi/s /ood = fre$om ( ?\ght by po9t+ to individual consci\sness z ! f9al c\rt ( appeal4 #d4 ,al?\gh ! ,sophi/s diff]$ v mu* 9 _! tea*+1 !y _h a mutual dep5d5ce & common presuppositions4 #e4 ,! ,sophi/s disreg>d$ ! lik5esses & emphasiz$ ! diff]5ces among m54 #f4 ,! ,sophi/s built up _! doctr9es ^u ! basis ( a s5sationali/ psy*ology4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,socrates 7#dfi-cii ,b4 ,c474 ,socrates & ,ari/ophanes4 ,!re 7 two ways 9 :i* ! o!r elem5ts 9 ,greek society tri$ to meet ! ,sophi/s4 ,"o 0 l$ by ,ari/ophanes1 ! o!r by ,socrates4 ,ari/ophanes 0 a ri* nobleman :o look$ back ) pride ^u ! good old times4 ,he w\ld h a gov]nm5t ( ! be/ r ?an ( ! _m4 ,he w\ld de/roy ! ,sophi/ic movem5t1 & he wrote _m satires ^u ,greek life ) t end 9 view4 ,8 satire1 ,! ,cl\ds1 is ( especial int]e/ 9 ?is connection4 ,socrates repres5ts ! o!r way 9 :i* ! ,sophi/ic movem5t 0 met4 ,he accept$ ! ,sophi/ic movem5t1 b he read m deeply into x ?an ! ,sophi/s !mselves1 & he tri$ to f9d its tru?4 ,! extraord9>y p]sonality ( ,socrates is ! c5tral figure 9 ?is age ( critical inquiry4 ,= ! fir/ "t d we f9d philosophy c5tr$ 9 a great p]sonality1 & !re is no m picturesque figure 9 hi/ory4 ,! exposition ( 8 doctr9es is ess5tially a biography4 ,he wrote no?+ himself1 & ! lit]>y s\rces ( 8 life & tea*+ are f\nd 9 ,x5ophon's ,memorabilia & ,symposium1 9 ! writ+s ( ,plato1 & 9 ^? ( ,ari/otle4 ,!y ?r[ diff]5t lights ^u 8 "*1 & toge!r give a fairly complete picture4 ,x5ophon records ! sob]1 practical1 & popul> side ( ,socrates1 caught 9 casual conv]sation4 ,plato idealizes ,socrates1 especially 9 8 lat] writ+s1 & he reveals ,socrates' "* on its imag9ative & spiritual sides4 ,ari/otle is m discrim9at+ & less sympa!tic1 b always reliable because he is a g5]ation remov$4#ag ,! ,p]sonality & ,life ( ,socrates4 ,alcibiades describ$ ,socrates z l ! little cases sold ^u ! /reets ( ,a!ns1 :i* 7 made 9 ! %ape ( ,sil5us & conta9$ a c>v$ image4 ,! description 0 apt1 = ,socrates _h a f9e spiritual nature )9 an a/oni%+ %ell4 ,he 0 %ort1 /\t1 & ?ick-set1 ) 8 head set ^u 8 %\ld]s4 ,8 eyes 7 bulg+1 8 nose flat ) upturn$ no/rils1 8 m\? big & gr9n+1 & 8 be>d disord]$4 ,8 protrud+ belly 0 set ^u sl5d] legs1 & 8 dress 0 slov5ly4 ,nev]!less 8 g5iality1 8 f9e humor1 ! unselfi%ness :i* he manife/$ un/9t$ly t[>d 8 fri5ds1 ex]cis$ an irresi/ible *>m ^u all ! rem>kable p]sonalities ( 8 "t4 ,ov] ! ,a!nian y\? 8 influ5ce 0 v great1 & he surr\nd$ himself ) a l>ge circle ( admir]s1 to ! neglect ( 8 home c>es & 8 wife ,xantippe4 ,:ile ! habit ( ! ,sophi/s 0 to talk 9 private & = pay1 ,socrates 0 di/+ui%$ f all 8 contempor>ies by ! fact t he w\ld talk 9 ! public places ) any "o1 ri* or poor1 & )\t remun]ation4 ,8 life _h its ascetic side4 ,he 0 frugal 9 8 ne$s4 ,he w5t b>efoot1 summ] & w9t]1 & 8 clo?+ 0 ! scantie/4 ,he 0 ab/emi\s 9 food & dr9k4 ,:ile on occasion at ! fea/ he w\ld dr9k m w9e ?an any "o else1 yet he nev] 0 se5 intoxicat$4 ,! ascetic side ( 8 nature is se5 9 8 refusal to cultivate gymna/ics1 because su* tra9+ requir$ mu* food4 ,he tri$ to limit 8 wants4 ,he 0 a model ( h>d9ess1 self-d5ial1 & self-ma/]y1 z _m an anecdote w %[4 8,no "o ev] saw or he>d any?+ wick$ 9 ,socrates10 said ,x5ophon4 8,s pi\s 0 he t he nev] did any?+ )\t fir/ consult+ ! ,gods1 s ma/] ( himself z nev] to pref] pleasure to goodness1 s s5sible z nev] to err 9 ! *oice betwe5 ! bett] & ! worse4 ,9 a ^w1 he 0 ! be/ & ! mo/ happy ( m540 ,at times ,socrates seems intellectually /iff & prosaic4 ,?is may h be5 incid5tal to 8 asceticism1 or ! result ( x4 ,he 0 indiff]5t to ! s5su\s1 & he expla9$ ! beautiful 9 t]ms ( ! useful4 ,he refus$ to walk out because trees & fl[]s c\ld tea* him no?+4 ,art (f]$ no sugge/ions to him1 = x is useless ev5 if x is inspir$4 ,8 unpoetic & prosy nature 0 p]haps n due s mu* to 8 lack ( ta/e z to 8 orig9al m9d ov]fl[+ ) ideas4 ,he 0 n p]ceptive1 b reflective4 ,he said t a/ronomy is a my/]y1 geometry is l& measur+1 :i* any man c d1 ari?metic is m]ely p]missible1 & physics some?+ to be neglect$4 8,ye may judge h[ unpr(itable ^! /udies are by see+ h[ m5 diff] among !mselves40 ,he 0 once f\nd danc+ at home by himself :5 he 0 expect$ to be at a dance ) o!rs1 & 8 practical nature is also reveal$ 9 ! fact t at ! fea/ he 0 rem9d$ ( its utility4 ,! influ5ce ( ,socrates' dmon or div9e voice ^u him is v int]e/+4 ,he felt himself div9ely call$ by 8 dmon 7,apology1 #bi1 #cc f47 to unremitt+ labor 9 ! moral p]fect+ ( society ?r\gh an exam9ation ( himself & 8 fell[s4 ,socrates 0 mov$ by a deep religi\s feel+ 9 all t he und]took4 ,?is div9e lead+ is :at he designates z 8 dmon4 ,he speaks ( x z 8! ,god0 or 8! gods0 :i* speaks to o!r m5 ?r\gh ! oracles4 ,?is div9e voice 0 ev] ) him1 b z to specific actions x only w>n$ him aga9/ ! injudici\s action1 nev] incit$ him to ! correct action4 ,specifically x did n tell him :at to d s mu* z :at n to d4 ,:5 he 0 ab\t to prep>e a def5se be=eh& t he %\ld make to ! judges1 8 dmon int]pos$1 & s he reli$ ^u ! inspiration ( ! mom5t4 ,on "o ( 8 campaigns he 0 obs]v$ to /& 9 communion ) ! dmon ! :ole day1 unm9dful ( ! wea!r4 ,z to ! education & intellectual tra9+ ( ,socrates1 "o mu/ say t x =m$ a factor ( less importance 9 8 life4 ,! uniqu5ess ( ,socrates' "* is only 9 small measure to be acc\nt$ = by 8 environm5t4 ,he 0 "o ( ^? m5 :o w\ld h be5 great 9 any "t4 ,he got b little f 8 fa!r1 :o 0 a sculptor1 or f 8 "m1 :o 0 a midwife4 ,he 0 n /rictly an educat$ man1 al?\gh he _h ! e>ly education ( an ,a!nian y\?1 & ( c\rse no "o c\ld gr[ up a citiz5 ( ,a!ns 9 ! "t ( ,p]icles )\t absorb+ its culture4 ,8 =mal education probably consi/$ ( music & gymna/ics1 & he 0 c]ta9ly famili> ) ! prec$+ s*ools ( philosophy4 ,socrates liv$ a long life ( cont5t$ pov]ty1 & he d$icat$ 8 life to ! public4 ,two inh]it$ in/9cts 7 /rong )9 him1 :i* alone w acc\nt = 8 c>e]3 7#a7 8 /rong religi\s p]suasion t he 0 act+ "u a mission f ! gods2 7#b7 8 great intellectual orig9ality1 z %[n 9 8 tea*+ & 9 8 p[] ov] o!rs4 ,!re are few /rik+ ev5ts 9 ,socrates' c>e]1 except 8 dea?4 ,he 0 born 9 ,a!ns 9 #dfi ,b4 ,c4 ,he began 8 div9ely appo9t$ "w ( r$eem+ ,a!ns f ! dang]\s t5d5cies ( ! ,sophi/s at ! comm5cem5t ( ! ,peloponnesian ,w>4 ,he s]v$ 9 ?ree campaigns z a soldi]4 ,he also act$1 :5 call$ ^u1 z prytanis1 or lawgiv]1 al?\gh he /ood alo( f political activity4 ,at ! advanc$ age ( sev5ty he 0 accus$ ( corrupt+ ! y\? & d5y+ ! gods4 ,8 life ?us f> w\ld h seem$ to be "o ( unimpea*able moral & brilliant intellectual monotony4 ,b 8 dea? illum9ates 8 life & makes x h]oic1 because 8 dea? %[s :at 9 reality 8 life 01! tragic epitome ( ! ,a!nian social situation4 ,8 dea? 0 n due to himself1 al?\gh he c\ld h escap$1 nor to 8 judges1 al?\gh !y c\ld h acquitt$ him4 ,x repres5ts ! inevitable conflict betwe5 ! ,greek ideal ( univ]salism & ,greek individualism4 ,its value is !re=e hi/oric4 ,8 p>ticul> accus]s 7 actuat$ by p]sonal animosity4 ,beh9d !m 7 _m o!rs :om 8 ef=ts at re=m & 8 bitt] irony _h made ho/ile4 ,beh9d all 0 ! voice ( ,a!nian cons]vatism aga9/ ! ,a!nian culture movem5t4 ,! *>ges aga9/ ,socrates 7 9 "p true1 & besides z a moral re=m] he _h be5 a public nuisance4 ,yet 8 dea? 0 a judicial murd]4 ,he 0 f\nd guilty by 8 judges4 ,to ! s5t5ce ( dea? propos$ by ,meletus1 "o ( 8 accus]s1 ,socrates _h ! "r to propose an alt]native s5t5ce1 & ! judges mu/ *oose betwe5 ! two4 ,_h ,socrates propos$ a small f9e1 x w\ld probably h be5 accept$ by ! judges4 ,he propos$1 h[ev]1 t ,a!ns provide = him at ! public exp5se1 arrogant z he 0 9 8 complac5t s5se ( virtue4 ,! judges !n c\ld d no?+ else ?an pron\nce ! s5t5ce ( dea?4 ,?is 0 delay$ ?irty days on acc\nt ( ! sacrifice at ,delos4 ,ev5 !n ,socrates c\ld h easily escap$ f jail4 ,b he refus$ to d ! law a wrong1 & drank ! hemlock 9 ,may1 #cii ,b4 ,c4 ,pr(essor ,g4 ,h4 ,palm] po9ts out ! irony t *>act]izes ! life & dea? ( ,socrates4 ,he /&s = ! h>mony ( opposite qualities4 ,he devot$ himself to ! good ( ,a!ns1 & yet ,a!ns put him to dea?4 ,9 ! s]vice ( ! et]nal 0 he sacrific$4 ,8 own p]sonality is an exemplification ( ?is irony4 ,9 appe>ance 8 un-,greek physical ugl9ess is 9 contra/ ) 8 beautiful ,greek s\l2 he 0 ! mo/ au/]e & yet ! mo/ s5sitive ( m52 he 0 always a s]i\s morali/ & yet always a je/]2 he 0 sc>cely out ( ,a!ns & yet he 0 a _w's man2 he 0 ! _w's philosoph] & yet he _h no sy/em ( ?\ght & left no writ+s4 ,socrates & ! ,sophi/s4 ,9 8 po9t ( dep>ture ,socrates is 9 entire agreem5t ) ! ,sophi/s4 ,he is a critical philosoph]4 ,criticism is ! />t+-po9t ( 8 philosophy z a :ole1 & he beg9s ea* p>ticul> argum5t afre% ) a critical exam9ation ( its gr\nds4 ,?is means t he1 l ! ,sophi/s1 turns to ! individual reason z ! f9al c\rt ( appeal4 ,l !m he refus$ to accept any traditional dogma unexam9$1 & he comm5c$ a critical inquiry into all k9ds ( conceptions4 ,socrates & ! ,sophi/s are "o 9 ! _s ( ! ,greek illum9ation 9 _! critical attack ^u intellectual problems4 ,socrates' fam\s say+ t 8virtue is k0 c\ld equally well be put into ! m\? ( ,protagoras2 & ! doctr9e ( ,protagoras t 8man is ! measure ( all ?+s0 c\ld be ascrib$ to ,socrates )\t inconsi/5cy4 ,9 8 conclusions 9 "o respect ,socrates arrives at ! same po9t z ! ,sophi/s1b 9 only "o respect4 ,he agrees ) !m z to ! wor?lessness ( ! results ( natural sci5ce4 ,natural sci5ce _c be wor? :ile1 because x does n lead to moral excell5ce4 ,! meagre results ( ! ,cosmologi/s %[ ! wor?lessness ( natural sci5ce to man4 ,9 ?is "o respect ,socrates' criticism leads him to skepticism l ! ,sophi/s1to a skepticism ( natural sci5ce4 ,b 9 8 conclusions z to ! value ( human nature1 ,socrates set himself entirely aga9/ ! outcome ( ! reflections ( ! ,sophi/s1 & inde$ ( 8 "t4 ,9 ! absorb+ an?ropological topics ( 8 "t1 he laid ! f\ndations ( a con/ructive philosophy aga9/ ! skeptical conclusions ( ! ,sophi/s4 ,9 human matt]s he ma9ta9$ t !re is a validity to tru? & a possibility ( absolute k4 ,he admitt$ ) ! ,sophi/s t !re are obscurities 9 human ?\ght1 & t obvi\sly ! /&>d ( tru? does n belong to any "o man4 ,b :ile ! ,sophi/s emphasiz$ ^! contradictions & reason$ !re=e t no valid tru? exi/$1 ,socrates cut 8 way ?r\gh su* contradictions & obscurities1 emphasiz$ ! id5tity 9 m51 & ma9ta9$ t ! tru? is 9 all m5 toge!r19 humanity4 ,x exi/s z an ideal to be /riv5 = by m5 toge!r4 ,:5 ,protagoras says t 8man is ! measure ( all ?+s10 he means by 8man0 ! individual man2 :ile ,socrates1 if he _h us$ t expression1 w\ld h meant 8humanity40 ,& ,socrates means by 8 pr9ciple 8virtue is k0 t ! k ( t same humanity 7i4 e4 insight1 reason7 is virtue2 :ile ,protagoras1 agree+ z he did =mally ) ! maxim t 8virtue is k10 w\ld always def9e 8k0 z ! individual feel+s4 8,! individual man is ! measure ( all ?+s10 ,protagoras w\ld say2 8,humanity is ! measure ( all ?+s10 ,socrates w\ld reply4 8,virtue is k ga9$ by ! feel+s10 ,protagoras w\ld say2 8,virtue is k ga9$ by ! reason10 ,socrates w\ld reply4 ,b5ea? ! *ang+ caprici\s individual1 b5ea? ! v>iety ( m51 ,socrates believ$ t !re 0 a common humanity1 "o un*ang+ man1 :o conta9$ ! ultimate tru?4 ,!re are _m op9ions1 ideas1 & feel+s1 b only "o k4 ,?is k is rational2 & human nature is a unity 9 ! possession ( ?is k4 ,?is is ! pr9ciple t di/+ui%es ,socrates f ! o!r lead]s ( ! ,greek ,illum9ation4 ,:ile he 0 imbu$ ) ! motives ( ! ,greek culture ( 8 "t1curi\s ab\t its results1 feel+ its usefulness1 & critical ( all tradition1he nev]!less )held himself f its skeptical conclusions4 ,any culture illum9ation runs ! dang] ( defeat+ itself & becom+ skeptical ( its own p[]s4 ,?is is :at actually happ5$ 9 ! ,sophi/ic philosophy4 ,b :5 ,socrates set himself aga9/ ?is sup]ficial & self-de/ructive outcome ( 8 age1 he became 9 8 con/ructive philosophy ! cle>e/ & mo/ compreh5sive expression ( t age4 ,because he grasp$ ! pr9ciple ( ! ,greek ,enlight5m5t deeply & =mulat$ x con/ructively1 8 intellectual reign became hi/orically e/abli%$4 ,! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! philosophy ( ,socrates 0 !re=e ! real pr9ciple ( classic ,greek civilization1 & by sav+ t pr9ciple he sav$ ,greek civilization = mod]n ,europe4 ,! ,unsy/ematic ,"* ( ! ,socratic ,philosophy4 ,! casual read] is (t5 tr\bl$ to "k = :at precisely ,socrates is se>*+4 ,! vagu5ess ( ! ,socratic que/ is p>tly due to ! fact t he _h no sy/em4 ,inde$1 he _h no gr\ndwork = a sy/em ( ?\ght4 ,8 psy*ology or !ory ( ! human m9d 0 undef9$4 ,he speaks ( s5sations & p]ceptions1 b !y1 ) ! feel+s & ! w1 are consid]$ by him to be unimportant factors 9 ! consci\s life4 ,on ! :ole1 ! m9d 0 ?\ght by him to be an aggregation ( conceptions or ideas4 ,! feel+s cl\d ! activity ( ^! conceptions1 & ! only feel+ to :i* ,socrates atta*$ any importance 0 8 dmon or div9e voice4 ,?is grew to be 8 m5tor z he grew old]4 ,socrates nev] made a sci5tific psy*ological analysis4 ,he began r ) ?ree assumptions :i* am\nt$ to convictions4 ,!y 7 ^!3 t only by acquir+ conceptions is true k to be f\nd2 t virtue consi/s 9 act+ accord+ to conceptions2 t ! _w has be5 design$ accord+ to conceptions4 ,conceptions 71 s to speak1 an obsession ) ,socrates4#ah ,!y 7 8 po/ulates1 8 in/rum5ts1 & 8 goal4 ,! o!r factors ( ! m9d 7 neglect$ by him4 ,! ,ideal ( ,socrates4 ,! goal ( ! que/ ( ,socrates is an ideal1 & 9 ! nature ( ?+s _h ! vagu5ess ( any ideal4 ,! cont5t ( an ideal has to rema9 undef9$ until x has be5 ga9$ by exp]i5ce1 & !n ( c\rse x is no long] an ideal4 ,any ideal1 h[ev]1 c be /at$ =mally1 & ! =mal & d$uctive side ( k has _h an important place bo? 9 practical conduct & 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce4 ,socrates c\ld /ate 8 ideal =mally & to "s ext5t he c\ld give x cont5t2 b x always rema9$ = him an object to be s\ght4 ,he believ$ t ! ideal lay 9 conceptions & c\ld be f\nd if he got ! tru? ( any "o conception4 ,s he und]took to def9e su* conceptions z fri5d%ip1 c\rage1 prud5ce1 etc41 b 8 se>* 0 nev] satisfi$4 ,nev]!less1 ! se>* itself 0 sc>cely less important to him ?an its accompli%m5t4 ,! ideal ( ,socrates 0 ,k or ,wisdom1 & 8 =mal /atem5t ( ! ideal 0 ,k is ,virtue4 ,! primal end to be /riv5 = is wisdom1 t is1 9 conceptions & by conceptions4 ,b :]e are ^! conceptions to be f\nd b 9 "o's own m9d8 ,!re=e ! region ( ! que/ ( ,socrates 0 8 own m9d1 & 8 motto 01 8,"k ?yself40 ,& :at is ?is ,virtue ( :i* k or wisdom is ! equival5t8 ,x does n mean virtue 9 ! n>r[ mod]n mean+ ( ! t]m1 nor yet 9 ! n>r[ orig9al mean+1 ( w>like pr[ess or valor4 ,! ,greek ^w :i* ,socrates us$ 0 1 & is be/ translat$ excell5ce or ability4 ,9 ! hi/ory ( ! ^w x _h a v>iety ( mean+s1 l ! ,lat9 ^w virtus1 ^: equival5t x is4 ,x is d]iv$ f ! same root z ! ^w 1 ,ares 7or ,m>s71 ! "n ( ! god ( w>4 ,:ile !re=e orig9ally x meant milit>y valor1 x came to mean any k9d ( excell5ce4 ,9 mod]n times !re appe>$ a book call$ ,! ,greate/ ,?+ 9 ! ,_w1 :i* _h z its aim to %[ t ,*ri/ian love is ! 8greate/ ?+ 9 ! _w40 ,to ,socrates n 8,love0 b 8,wisdom0 is ! 8greate/ ?+ 9 ! _w10 & ,greek civilization is ?us contra/$ ) t ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,b n[ ! "q comes1 ,:at k9d ( k or wisdom does ,socrates mean z ! greate/ excell5ce8 ,9 contra/ to ! ,sophi/s1 :o reli$ ^u ! s5sations & impulses z wisdom1 ,socrates turn$ to t elem5t :i* _h be5 ! decisive factor ( ! culture ( ! "t4 ,?is 0 insight4 ,! greate/ excell5ce is insight4 ,he :o acts accord+ to 8 feel+s is n sure ( 8 k1 b he :o acts accord+ to insight has ! greate/ excell5ce 9 ! _w4 ,b ,socrates re/ricts ! mean+ ( k /ill fur!r4 ,n only is k to ,socrates insight1 b x is moral insight4 ,= ! problems 9 :i* he 0 int]e/$ 7 ! problems ( human life & pr9cipally ! problem ( self-exam9ation4 ,?us we c translate ! conv5tional =mal /atem5t ( ,socrates1 viz41 ,k is virtue1 into ?is r long] s5t5ce1 ,moral insight is ! mo/ excell5t ?+ 9 ! _w4 ,= ! fir/ "t 9 ! hi/ory ( ?\ght philosophy is f\nd$ ^u a moral po/ulate4 ,:at ! ,socratic ,ideal involves4 ,we h n[ exam9$ ! mean+ ( ! =mal /atem5t ( ! ,socratic ideal4 ,a fur!r "q along ?is same l9e conc]ns :at t ideal involves4 #a4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 to possess k is to act righte\sly4 ,k righte\s conduct4 ,socrates does n mean t k is m]ely ! condition ( "r conduct2 he means t k actually con/itutes moral conduct4 ,! developm5t ( ! reason is actually ! same z ! developm5t ( ! w4 ,k is virtue & virtue is k4 ,vice is ignorance & ignorance is vice4 ,to h an insight into ! tru? is ! pr9ciple ( liv+4 ,n only is defici5t insight ! cause ( evil1 b x is itself ! greate/ evil4 ,n only does a man act wrongly because he does n "k ! good1 b n to "k ! good is ! greate/ wrong t c happ5 to him4 #b4 ,n only is moral insight ! same z virtu\s activity1 b ?is insight is always accompani$ by happ9ess4 ,! w foll[s ! recognition ( ! good1 & ! appropriate action makes man happy4 ,happ9ess is ! necess>y result ( moral excell5ce4 ,! ,wise ,man kn[s :at is good = him & does x2 ?us 9 8 p]=mance he becomes happy4 ,socrates w\ld subscribe to ! prov]b 8,be good & y w be happy40 ,su* tea*+ on ! "p ( ,socrates implies t he believ$ two ?+s3 7#a7 t man by unremitt+ e>ne/ exam9ation ( himself & o!rs c\ld ga9 su* p]fect happ9ess2 & 7#b7 t ! _w is "u provid5tial guidance4 ,socrates nev] expressly d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( ! ,hom]ic gods & nev] expressly decl>$ himself a mono!i/4 ,he is1 h[ev]1 always ref]r+ to "o ov]-rul+ wisdom4 ,he _h a p]sonal conviction ( immortality1 b he nev] attempt$ its pro(4 ,al?\gh ,socrates _h little confid5ce 9 human k ab\t ! _w ( physical nature1 he 0 animat$ by a belief t am\nt$ to a conviction 9 ! provid5tial arrangem5t ( ! _w4 ,9 su* a div9ely ord]$ _w ! good mu/ be happy4 ,only a p]fect wisdom c1 h[ev]1 be c]ta9 t always ! results ( 8 actions w ga9 happ9ess 9 ! environm5t 9 :i* he lives2 b /ill man c be sure t happ9ess increases proportionately ) k4 ,greek philosophy did g beyond ?is po9t 9 e?ics1 & ?is is call$1 9 te*nical language1 eudmonism4 ,eudmonism & h$onism are pleasure !ories t are simil>4 ,eudmonism is ! !ory t active well-be+ is ! highe/ good 9 life & t t good is always accompani$ by pleasure4 ,9 h$onism pleasure is ! good to be aim$ at4 ,9 hi/ory eudmonism has easily deg5]at$ into h$onism4 #c4 ,socrates makes moral insight ! same z virtu\s activity1 & he says t its inevitable accompanim5t is happ9ess4 ,does he also make moral insight ! same z utility8 ,accord+ to ,x5ophon1 ,socrates reg>ds moral excell5ce z t :i* is mo/ useful4 ,inde$1 9 "s ( ! ,platonic dialogues ,socrates seems to def9e insight z ! art ( measur+ or prud5ce1 & x is po9t$ out t ,socrates develop$ no virtue s fully z self-control4 ,9 ! exig5cies ( ! argum5t ,socrates also (t5 resort$ to ! useful to def9e ! good4 ,! "q1 ,:at is ! good8 (t5 resolves itself into ! o!r "q1 ,:at is ! ?+ good =8 ,inde$1 ! =m ( ! argum5t (t5 assumes ! vici\s circle3 ,:y is ! act j8 ,because x is useful8 ,:y is x useful8 ,because x is j4 ,= ! purposes ( disputation1 9 :i* ,socrates 0 always %rewd & n always scrupul\s1 he s frequ5tly ref]s ! good to :at is suitable to m5's happ9ess & pr(it t 8 philosophy does n seem to rise above ! relativism ( ! ,sophi/s4 ,b x is c]ta9 t ,socrates /rove to transc5d ?is relativism1 al?\gh n ) full success & al?\gh 8 =mulat$ tea*+ does n always g beyond x4 ,h[ev]1 t he believ$ 9 an absolute r ?an a relative good appe>s 9 _m ways3 9 8 doctr9e t x is bett] to suff] wrong ?an to d x2 9 8 /rict con=mity to law r ?an to save himself f dea? by break+ ! law2 9 8 con/ant int]pretation ( life z "r-do+1 e?ical improvem5t1 & p>ticipation 9 ! good4 ,! utility t is always 9 ! backgr\nd ( 8 ?\ght is ! usefulness = ! s\l4 ,we may conclude1 !re=e1 t x 0 only sup]ficially = ! purposes ( argum5tation t ,socrates made ! useful an equival5t ( moral insight4 ,! purpose ( ,socrates 01 aft] all1 n to tea* m5 to ?9k correctly nor to become cultur$ b to become happy & useful ,a!nians4 ,moral excell5ce is ! ,socratic goal2 & k1 happ9ess1 & usefulness are only aspects ( t goal4 ,k is ! ess5tial means1 happ9ess ! ess5tial result1 & usefulness ! ess5tial sign ( moral excell5ce4 ,x foll[s z a coroll>y f ,socrates' philosophical ideal t he %\ld also tea*3 7#a7 t virtue is tea*able1 & 7#b7 t ! virtues are "o4 ,virtue is obvi\sly tea*able if x is k4 ,x foll[s also1 al?\gh n s obvi\sly1 t all ! virtues are fundam5tally ! same1 & t a man _c be virtu\s 9 "o ?+ )\t be+ virtu\s 9 all4 ,! really temp]ate man is also c\rage\s1 wise1 & j4 ,! ,two ,/eps ( ! ,me?od ( ,socrates4 ,! ext]nal =m ( ! me?od ( ,socrates 0 conv]sation4 ,?9k+ 0 to him an inn] conv]sation4 ,! result ( a conv]sation1 ext]nal or int]nal1 0 evolvem5t1! implicit 9 ?\ght made explicit4 ,?is 0 q oppos$ to ! me?od ( ! ,sophi/s1 :i* 0 ! supply+ ( k4 ,socrates did n propose to />t f any k9d ( k except ! ideal to be /riv5 =4 ,/>t+ ) ! presupposition t man conta9$ k1 ! end :i* ,socrates attempt$ to rea* by 8 me?od 0 a practical "o4 ,) s mu* 9 summ>y1 let u exam9e ! two /eps ( ! me?od ( ,socrates4 ,! fir/ /ep t ,socrates deems necess>y = man 9 atta9+ ?is ideal ( moral excell5ce is negative4 ,inde$1 x is m1x is complete abnegation on ! "p ( ! seek] = tru?4 ,"o mu/ confess t he himself kn[s no?+1 & come to a realization t 8 unte/$ individual op9ions are n ! tru?4 ,he mu/ approa* ! subject z a seek] & n z a tea*]4 ,?is attitude ( m9d is ! beg9n+ ( wisdom4 ,plato relates h[ ! ,delphic oracle amaz$ ,socrates by ann\nc+ t he 0 ! wise/ ( ! ,greeks4 ,9 reflect+ ^u ! /atem5t ( ! oracle he came to agree ) ! oracle because1 z he said1 he 0 ignorant & he knew x1 :ile ! o!r ,greeks 7 ignorant & did n "k x4 ,be=e ,socrates began to exam9e any conception1 he pr(ess$ or assum$ to pr(ess absolute ignorance ( x4 ,he is ! mode/ inquir]4 ,he is always describ$ 9 ! rle ( ! que/ion] :o is seek+ in=mation & light4 ,he laid ! same requirem5t ^u o!rs t he did ^u himself4 ,! dialectic conv]sation c\ld n be successfully c>ri$ on unless 8 int]locutors _h ! same recognition ( self-ignorance1! same measure ( self-k4 ,! ,sophi/s ) :om he (t5 c>ri$ on 8 discussions laid claim to k on e kn[n subject "u ! ,greek sun & 7 ready to tea* any?+ to ! ,greek y\?4 ,to ,socrates' m9d no?+ c\ld m imp$e 8 und]tak+s ?an su* an affectation ( wisdom2 to ! ,sophi/s no?+ c\ld be m repugnant ?an su* a confession :i* ,socrates always oblig$ !m to make4 ,al?\gh pr(ess+ to be only a seek] = k1 he tri$ fir/ by 8 que/ions to scrut9ize & to break d[n ) 8 exasp]at+ logic ! half-=m$ conceptions ( ! egoti/4 ,?is cle>-cut analysis = purely de/ructive purposes1 :i* he us$ 9 prep>ation = 8 lat] con/ructive conv]sation1 is call$ ! ,socratic irony4 ,z he prov$ himself sup]ior to any ( 8 companions 9 ! use ( ! dialectic1 he c\ld beg9 8 conv]sations 9 ! mo/ de/ructive fa%ion4 ,8 me?od 0 de/ructive ( all prejudice & preconceiv$ op9ion t w\ld 9 any way /& a?w>t p]fectly free inquiry into ! tru?4 ,8 wi% 0 to beg9 de novo ) e "o1 s t all traditional beliefs hav+ be5 giv5 up & ! inve/igators hav+ confess$ _! ignorance1 con/ructive /udy ( ! concept 9 h& c\ld be begun4 ,! second /ep 9 ,socrates' me?od ( dialectical inquiry foll[s ^u ! initial de/ructive criticism4 ,x is 9 ?is "p ( ! conv]sation t we f9d 8 own con/ructive !ory4 ,! dialogue is1 ( c\rse1 its necess>y condition2 = ! tru? is n 9 me nor 9 !e1 b 9 u all4 ,x is lat5t 9 ! m9d & n on ! surface ( any op9ion4 ,let u rub our m9ds toge!r4 ,let u sift our v>i$ concepts1 unfold our real selves1 & br+ ! unborn tru? to ! light4 ,our ideas supplem5t "o ano!r & h a common gr\nd4 ,intellectual int]c\rse is an intellectual & a p]sonal ne$1 = x reveals common sympa?ies & a on5ess ( life4 ,common love ( k makes fri5ds1 & ?is mutual intellectual helpfulness he calls by ! my?ical t]m ,eros4 ,inquiry is indef9ite 9 duration2 ! que/ ( tru? is endless2 & ,socrates ackn[l$ges by 8 fre% beg9n+s aga9 & aga9 8 failure to rea* ! ideal4 ,?us ! !oretical self-abnegation ( ,socrates _h a tw(old significance 9 8 con/ructive philosophy4 ,on ! "o h&1 x 0 an invitation to 8 c\ntrym5 to help him 9 8 se>* = ! univ]sal tru?2 on ! o!r1 x 0 an ackn[l$gm5t t he _h fail$ to atta9 t univ]sal tru?4 ,socrates & ,a!ns4 ,socrates _h a religi\s rev]5ce = 8 own mission 9 ! ,a!nian community4 ,he 0 ! 8gad-fly ( ! ,a!nian public02 he 0 ! educator ( ! "t2 he 0 div9ely appo9t$ to ! ,a!nian p4 ,he felt himself s necess>y to ! ,a!nian ,/ate t at 8 trial he pr\dly sugge/$ t in/ead ( puni%+ him ! ,/ate keep him at ! public exp5se 9 ! ,prytaneum4 ,b ! educator creates no?+2 he only awak5s & develops ! g]ms ( k t lie lat5t4 ,! human ,a!nian nature is big ) tru?2 ,socrates 0 div9ely appo9t$ to br+ x =?4 ,he call$ 8 me?od1 aft] ! pr(ession ( midwif]y ( 8 "m1 ! maieutic me?od4 ,x 0 intellectual midwif]y1 & he 0 ! intellectual midwife ( ,a!ns4 ,al?\gh he fail$ to f9d any concrete =m ( ultimate tru?1 he nev] _h any d\bt ab\t ! correctness ( 8 me?od & ( und]tak+ ! problem afre%4 ,he believ$ t 8 failure 0 due to ! inh]5t weakness ( human disc]nm5t2 & s f> z man's disc]nm5t or insight is cle>1 s f> w he "k ! true significance ( ?+s4 ,socrates believ$ 9 man1 & he believ$ t 9 man 7 conta9$ all ^? elem5ts t make up a firm1 rational1 & moral society4 ,s9ce he fail$ to ju/ify ?is belief 9 a !oretical way1 8 belief became l>gely a matt] ( fai?4 ,humanity is some?+ to be won1 some?+ to be develop$4 ,he 0 p]sonally ! embodim5t ( 8 fai?1 & 8 l>ge influ5ce 0 due to 8 unsw]v+ confid5ce 9 e?ical ideals t did n all[ ! lea/ palt]+4 ,! ,logical ,exp$i5ts ( ,socrates4 ,! exam9ation ( concepts by ,socrates 0 an attempt to f9d a logical 8,nature10 j z ! ,cosmologi/s _h se>*$ physical ph5om5a to f9d a physical 8,nature40 ,?is makes ,socrates ! fir/ to tea* by induction & "o ( ! fir/ to use def9ition effectively4 ,9 contra/ to ! ,sophi/s1 he tri$ to give words exact mean+s2 = ! ,sophi/s fix$ artificial mean+s to words ) ref]5ce to p>ticul> objects4 ,9 seek+ = ! exact mean+1 ,socrates 0 look+ bel[ ! *ang+ p>ticul>s to ! 8,nature0 ( ! fact & ! univ]sal pr9ciple4 ,?us he 0 mak+ 8 he>]s consci\s ( ! logical dep5d5ce ( ! p>ticul> ^u ! univ]sal4 ,! univ]sal is t :i* is common to all p>ticul> conceptions or op9ions4 ,x lies b5ea? !m & b9ds !m toge!r4 ,?us1 by logical analysis1 ,socrates is tak+ /eps 9 ! educational process ( ga9+ ! univ]sal4 ,provisional def9ition w\ld be giv5 by him 9 "s dialogue2 ?is def9ition w\ld be tri$ by _m facts2 ?us an advance w\ld be made t[>d a true def9ition & a univ]sal pr9ciple4 ,?is process is t ( induction4 ,x leads to g5]ic concepts by comp>ison ( p>ticul> views & individual p]ceptions1 by br++ toge!r analog\s cases & alli$ relations4 ,! subord9ation ( ! p>ticul> "u ! univ]sal ?us became a pr9ciple ( sci5ce4 ,h[ev] imp]fect & *ildlike 0 ,socrates' me?od ( proc$ure1 :atev] lack ( caution 9 g5]alization & 9 ! collection ( mat]ial1 h[ev] ha/y (t5times 8 judgm5ts1 he nev]!less made ! subord9ation ( ! p>ticul> to ! univ]sal a pr9ciple ( logical proc$ure4 ,x5ophon says t ,socrates 0 untir+ 9 8 ef=ts to exam9e & def9e goodness & wick$ness1 ju/ice & inju/ice1 wisdom & folly1 c\rage & c[>dice1 ! /ate & ! citiz54 ,socrates & ! ,less] ,socratics4 ,! dea? ( ,socrates prov$ to be 8 transfiguration4 ,8 influ5ce1 widespread & pr(\nd1 came m f 8 p]sonality ?an f 8 =mulat$ !ory4 ,he 0 a revelator )\t a revelation4 ,an absolutely true end ( life1 ! ,good1 he firmly believ$ to exi/2 b x 0 an ideal to be won by ea* & all4 ,aft] him1 !re=e1 !re 0 opportunity = v>i\s int]pretations ( 8 doctr9e1 & sev]al s*ools 7 f\nd$ by 8 disciples4 ,8 true/ & mo/ discrim9at+ pupil 0 ,plato1 :o is 9 a class by himself z develop+ ! philosophy ( ,socrates to a sy/ematic p]fectness4 ,! philosophy ( ,plato /&s ) t ( ,democritus & ,ari/otle z "o ( ! ?ree sy/ematic philosophies t ,greek civilization produc$4 ,besides ,plato !re 7 ! ,less] ,socratics3 ,euclid 7n ! ma!matician71 ,phd1 ,ari/ippus1 & ,anti/h5es4 ,ea* ( ^! 0 respectively ! f\nd] ( a s*ool4 ,^! f\r ,less]-,socratic s*ools 7 t at ,meg>a f\nd$ by ,euclid1 ! ,elean-,eretrian f\nd$ by ,phd1 ! ,cynic f\nd$ by ,anti/h5es1 & ! ,cyr5aic f\nd$ by ,ari/ippus4 ,! influ5ce ( ! ,meg>ian & ,elean-,eretrian s*ools 0 unimportant4 ,x may suffice to dismiss !m by say+ t ,phd 0 ! favorite pupil ( ,socrates1 & t ,plato 0 a memb] ( ! ,meg>ian s*ool = a %ort "t aft] ! dea? ( ,socrates4 ,! two o!r ,less]-,socratic s*ools _h an important influ5ce ^u contempor>y & lat] civilization & w be m5tion$ "h4 ,^! are ! ,cynic & ,cyr5aic s*ools4 ,9 ^! two s*ools two great types ( e?ical !ory t h s9ce exi/$ 7 =mulat$4 ,all f\r ( ! ,less] ,socratics pret5d$ to be ! true developm5t ( ! tea*+ ( ,socrates2 & ^! two1 z well z ! o!r two1 diff] 9 ! acc5tuation t !y place on "s phase ( ! ma/]'s doctr9e4 ,socrates' own def9ition ( ideal excell5ce be+ incomplete1 ! ,cynics & ,cyr5aics tri$ to def9e x1 to give x cont5t & to %[ a practical way ( rea*+ x4 ,!y attempt$ 7#a7 to answ] affirmatively t !re is a univ]sal validity2 7#b7 to %[ 9 :at x consi/s2 7#c7 to %[ h[ man mu/ prep>e himself 9 ord] to rea* x4 ,bo? s*ools are individuali/ic & eudmoni/ic4 ,!y ma9ta9$ t to affirm t ! ,good is good = its own sake is to leave ! ,good cont5tless2 & to affirm t ! ,good is insight into ! ,good is to g 9 a circle4 ,! "o unambigu\s answ] to ! "q ( ,socrates1 ,:at is ideal excell5ce or ! ,good8 is ?is3 ,goodness is happ9ess4 ,?is gives a cont5t to ! o!rwise cont5tless ideal ( ,socrates4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two s*ools consi/s 9 ! e?ical way 9 :i* ?is happ9ess may be obta9$4 ,x w appe>1 !re=e1 t ! ,less] ,socratics 7 m ,sophi/ic ?an ,socratic4 ,!y 7 diametrically oppos$ to ,socrates' !ory ( ! univ]sality ( tru?4 ,! excell5t ,good mu/ be s\ght by ea* 9 8 own way4 ,?is is individuali/ic virtue1 & n t ( humanity4 ,civilization 0 valu$ by !m only z x satisfi$ individual ne$s4 ,! common problem ( individuali/ic happ9ess limit$ ! ef=ts ( bo? s*ools1 :ile ! results t !y rea*$ 9 solv+ x 7 q diff]5t4 ,!re are two ways ( a*iev+ happ9ess2 "o is by satisfy+ ! desires1 ! o!r is by cutt+ (f ! desires4 ,= happ9ess is ! p]fect proportion ( desire & satisfaction4 ,a liv+ creature is happy if 8 desires are satisfi$1 :e!r ^? desires be few or _m4 ,9 ! !ory ( ! ,cyr5aic s*ool1 happ9ess is ga9$ by increas+ ! satisfactions2 9 ! !ory ( ! ,cynic s*ool1 happ9ess is ga9$ by decreas+ ! desires4 ,! ,cynic ,s*ool 0 f\nd$ by ,anti/h5es1 & numb]$ among its adh]5ts ,diog5es1 ab\t :om s _m curi\s /ories h be5 told1 ,crates ( ,!bes1 8 wife ,hipp>*ia1 & h] bro!r1 ,metrocles4 ,virtue 9 ! eudmoni/ic s5se is ! only end1 & ?is s*ool agre$ ) ,socrates t ?is end is to be atta9$ by k4 ,t is to say1 virtue or k is only a means ( ga9+ happ9ess1 & all o!r possessions ! ,cynics affect$ to despise4 ,virtue z k is !re=e to be s\ght2 ignorance is to be %unn$2 all else is a matt] ( indiff]5ce4 ,ri*es1 luxury1 fame1 honor1 s5se-pleasure & pa91 & lat] ) logical consi/5cy all %ame1 conv5tion1 family1 & c\ntry 7 objects ( contempt4 ,man mu/ make himself indep5d5t by cutt+ (f ! desires :i* he _c satisfy or ! desires t seem sup]flu\s4 ,he %\ld keep alive only su* desires z are necess>y to exi/5ce4 ,9 indep5d5ce ( all outw>d circum/ance ! ,cynic conceives himself to be ! ,wise ,man1 9 contra/ to :om ! mass ( m5 are fools4 ,! ,cynic is1 !re=e1 ! equal ( ! undesir+ gods4 ,he has indep5d5t lord%ip & does n ne$ ! artificialities ( civilization4 ,natural law 0 contra/$ by him 9 a ,sophi/ic way ) /atutory law1 & 9 ! mid/ ( ! ref9em5ts ( society he prea*$ a return to a /ate ( nature4 ,! ,cyr5aic ,s*ool 0 f\nd$ by ,ari/ippus1 :o liv$ 9 ,cyr5e1 a luxuri\s city ( nor!rn ,africa4 ,ari/ippus 0 a man ( ! _w4 ,he 0 fir/ a ,sophi/ & lat] a disciple ( ,socrates4 ,aft] ,socrates' dea? he return$ to ,cyr5e4 ,"h he f\nd$ 8 s*ool1 :i* includ$ ?ree g5]ations ( 8 own family4 ,! prom95t memb]s ( x 7 ,arete1 8 daught]2 ,ari/ippus1 8 gr&son2 ,!odorus1 ,hegesias1 ,annic]is1 & ,euhem]us1 ! au?or ( s-call$ ,euhem]ism1 :i* taught t ! gods 7 orig9ally only great m54 ,9 opposition to ! brutal b>5ess ( ! ,cynic s*ool1 ! ,cyr5aics saw ! true end ( life 9 ! pleasures ( s5se4 ,foll[+ ,protagoras1 ,ari/ippus said t ! s5sations are always true & c be def9$ 9 t]ms ( motion4 ,! s*ool develop$ an elaborate psy*ology ( s5sation :i* summ>izes its doctr9e4 ,x is z foll[s3 7#a7 ,! int5sity & n ! duration ( a s5sation det]m9es its value2 7#b7 ,bodily pleasures are ( great] value ?an m5tal because !y are m int5se2 7#c7 ,i c "k only my own s5sations1 & !re=e !y are ( great] value ?an ano!r's2 7#d7 ,man has a reasonable insight :i* det]m9es him 9 ! *oice ( 8 s5sations4 ,! practical problem ( life = ?is1 z x 0 = ! ,cynic s*ool1 0 h[ to become individually indep5d5t ( ! _w4 ,b ! ,cyr5aic taught indep5d5ce by enjoym5t1 9 opposition to ! ,cynic's indep5d5ce by r5unciation4 ,! ,cyr5aic ,wise ,man kn[s all ! pleasures ( life ?or\ghly1 f animal satisfactions to spiritual ec/asies4 ,he uses !m all1 b nev] =gets himself4 ,he is "l ( 8 appetites1 nev] wi%es ! impossible1 & has p]fect & s]5e peace4 ,x is an int]e/+ fact t ?is pleasure-lov+ s*ool drew pessimism z ! consequ5ce ( its !ory4 ,if life fails to give enjoym5t1 x is a failure4 ,t life alone is repreh5sible t has m pa9 ?an pleasure4 ,x is on ?is gr\nd t man %\ld submit to law & cu/om r ?an give up 8 pleasures4 ,yet "s memb]s ( ! s*ool ma9ta9$ t man is b\nd to be unhappy4 ,:ile he %\ld h pleasure1 he is s con/itut$ t he _c ga9 x4 ,! body ( man is an inevitable suff]]4 ,! highe/ t we c hope is pa9lessness4 ,! ,cynic & ,cyr5aic s*ools occupy an important position 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,! ,cynic doctr9e 0 ! basis ( ! tea*+ ( ! ,/oic s*ool1 & ! ,cyr5aic 0 ! legitimate pr$ecessor ( ! ,epicurean s*ool4 ,^! great s*ools 7 f\nd$ 9 ,a!ns sev5ty-five ye>s lat]1 & w be discuss$ "u ! ,hell5ic-,roman ,p]iod4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,sy/ematic ,,p]iod 7#cii ,b4 ,c4-#cbb ,b4 ,c47 ,! ,wan+ ( ! ,greek ,national ,_s4 ,! ,sy/ematic ,p]iod ext5ds f ! dea? ( ,socrates to ! dea? ( ,ari/otle4 ,x is only sev5ty-sev5 ye>s longab\t ! same l5g? z ! ,an?ropological & half z long z ! ,cosmological ,p]iod4 ,x beg9s ) ^? sorry days aft] ! ,peloponnesian ,w> & ends ) ! supremacy ( ,mac$onian p[]4 ,! p]iod 0 fill$ ) f]oci\s w>s among ! ,grecian cities4 ,fir/ came ! supremacy ( ,sp>ta1 !n ( ,!bes 7#cga-cfb ,b4 ,c471 !n ! invasion by ,philip ( ,mac$on & ! battle ( ,*ronea1 #cch ,b4 ,c4 ,9 #ccd ,b4 ,c4 ,alex&] ! ,great began ! conque/ ( ! ,ori5t1 :i* he accompli%$ 9 two ye>s4 ,he ?\ght by ?is t he c\ld reunite ! ,greeks 9 a common cause4 ,he fail$ = two reasons4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 z a ,mac$onian ! ,greeks w\ld n take him z a national repres5tative4 ,9 ! second place1 ! ,greek _s 0 wan+4 ,! p _h lo/ _! glori\s ideals4 ,decay _h set 94 ,! worm 0 at ! root ( ,greek life4 ,greek art1 lit]ature1 & /atesman%ip _h pass$4 ,! ,place ( ! ,?ree ,sy/ematic ,philosoph]s 9 ,greek ,hi/ory4 ,nev]!less1 :5 ,greek national life 0 approa*+ dissolution1 sci5ce rip5$ its ri*e/ fruits & creat$ its mo/ compreh5sive sy/ems ( philosophy4 ,^! are connect$ ) ! names ( ,democritus1 ,plato1 & ,ari/otle4 ,^! great sy/ems evid5tly _c be acc\nt$ = by ! social conditions 9 :i* !y appe>4 ,nei!r ! ne$ nor ! dem& ( ! disrupt$ ,greece ( ^! ye>s w\ld be a suffici5t cause to expla9 ! appe>ance ( a ,plato or an ,ari/otle4 ,! int]e/s ( ! ,greek p became n>r[] z ! int]e/s ( ! ,greek philosoph]s became m broadly human4 ,! intellectual t5d5cy ( ?is %ort p]iod 0 utilit>ian & practical4 ,! problems t n[ int]e/$ ! ,a!nians 7 ! details ( me*anics1 physiology1 rhetoric1 & politics4 ,! field ( sci5ce 0 n[ = ! fir/ "t sy/ematiz$ to logic1 e?ics1 & physicsa classification :i*1 we %all f9d1 w exi/ = _m c5turies4 ,sp>ta & ,mac$onia1 n ,a!ns & ,abd]a1 repres5t ! _s ( ! p]iod4 ,if !n ,democritus1 ,plato1 & ,ari/otle d n reflect ! "t 9 :i* !y live1 :at relation d !y be> to ,greek civilization8 ,!y are n isolat$ & out ( all relation to ! life ( ! ,greek p4 ,on ! contr>y1 !y are ! mo/ compreh5sive & ! mo/ pr(\nd expression ( ,greek life4 ,"o turns to !m z ! mo/ p]fect repres5tation ( ,greek culture4 ,!y are ! intimate expression ( ,greek ?\ght1 ev5 if n ( contemporane\s ,greek ?\ght4 ,!y are ! f9al /atem5ts ( ! two prec$+ p]iods1 project$ into a "t t _h o!r int]e/s4 ,democritus br\ght ! ,cosmological movem5t to a close1 0 its f9al expression1 & gave x sy/ematic =m4 ,plato did ! same = ! ,an?ropological ,p]iod4 ,9 ,ari/otle ! sy/ematic cosmology ( ,democritus & ! sy/ematic e?ics ( ,plato f9d a new mean+1 9 a clos] union1 "u a m cord9at+ pr9ciple4 ,ari/otle 0 ! la/ possible ^w ( ,greek philosophy1 = he sy/ematiz$ e bran* kn[n to ! ,greeks4 ,he n only evolv$ a speculative !ory ( ! :ole1 b he organiz$ ! special sci5ces4 ,x mu/ be fur!r said t no "o ( ^! ?ree great ,greeks c\ld h produc$ ! results ea* did produce1 if ea* _h n be5 ! lead] ( a s*ool ( _m work]s4 ,)9 ea* s*ool !re mu/ h be5 vigor\s cop]ation along l9es accord+ to ! incl9ation ( ! individual memb]s4 ,?us ea* s*ool collect$ a va/ am\nt ( mat]ial :i* 0 work$ ov] accord+ to ! me?od & purpose ( ! lead]4 ,! ,fundam5tal ,pr9ciple ( ! ,sy/ematic ,p]iod4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ?is book att5tion 0 call$ to ! diff]5ce betwe5 ,greek1 ,m$ival1 & ,mod]n ?\ght4 ,greek ?\ght 0 *>act]iz$ z objective4 ,x is important to reit]ate ?is objective significance ( ,greek ?\ght at ?is po9t1 :5 we are ab\t to discuss ! tea*+s ( ,democritus1 ,plato1 & ,ari/otle4 ,plato's !ory is (t5 call$ an idealism & ,democritus' !ory mat]ialism1 b !y are n ! idealism & mat]ialism ( mod]n times4 ,no t]ms h fluctuat$ 9 _! mean+s m ?an su* philosophical t]ms z ^!1 z c be judg$ f ! fact t 9 ! ,middle ,ages ,plato's doctr9e 0 call$ realism4 ,! ,greeks 7 n ideali/s 9 ! s5se t ,b]keley & ,hegel 7 ideali/s4 ,9 g5]al1 x %\ld be rememb]$ t :5 we speak ( ,greek art1 ,greek politics1 ,greek philosophy z ideali/ic1 !y are n ideali/ic 9 ! mod]n s5se4#ai ,! op5-m9d$ ,greek s\ght to picture1 to asc]ta91 to pres5t4 ,he 0 n dom9at$ by ! wi% to %[ h[ ?+s %\ld be4 ,to "k & to und]/&1 to expla9 by und]/&+ ! abid+ reason 9 ?+s1 to f9d out ! fundam5tal pr9ciple 9 ?+s r ?an to adju/ x to ! p]sonal desires?is 0 ! objective attitude ( m9d ( ! ,greeks4 ,! ,greek saw be=e he reason$2 he visualiz$ 8 ?\ght 9 =m be=e he subject$ ! =m to rational analysis4 ,! cosmos 0 a h>mony & an art be=e :i* he /ood 9 contemplation r ?an 9 criticism4 ,human elem5ts 7 f\nd 9 x ev]y:]e1 b only z p>ts ( t cosmos4 8,! unity ( ! spiritual & ! natural1 :i* ,greek ?\ght dem&s & presupposes1 is ! direct unbrok5 unity ( ! classic !ory ( ! _w40#bj ,by :atev] names ! great !ories ( ! ,sy/ematic ,p]iod are call$1 we mu/ rememb] t !y did n dep>t f ?is objective ,greek po9t ( view4 ,at c]ta9 times ! moor+s ( ,greek ?\ght seem ab\t to be %ift$1 z :5 ,plato passes beyond ! anci5t ,greek attitude & anticipates ,*ri/ian morality by flight f ! _w ( s5se1 & :5 ,ari/otle elaborates 8 doctr9e ( a transc5d5t god4 ,b ! tie nev] breaks1 & ! ,sy/ematic philosoph]s rema9 ,greek & n mod]n4 ,!y h ! ,greek objective attitude ( m9d4 ,! inn] consci\sness does n /& ) its atte/ations ov] aga9/ all o!r ?+s4 ,! greate/ ( ^! philosoph]s nev] ?\ght ( himself b z 8bone ( ! bone & fle% ( ! fle%0 ( ! _w surr\nd+ him4 ,9 art ! classic ,greek 8c\ld obey b n surpass nature02 9 religion he wor%ip$ be+s t 7 only sup]ior human be+s2 9 politics he 0 a memb] ( a social :ole4 ,to s*ylus1 ,p]icles1 ,socrates1 ,protagoras1 ,ari/ophanes1 ,democritus1 ,plato1 & ,ari/otle alike1 human nature is a "p ( ! _w & n vice v]sa4 ,! ,greek m9d int]pret$ nature r ?an recreat$ x4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! nature ( ! developm5t ( ,greek ?\ght1 & 9 :at respect does ! ,greek ,sy/ematic philosophy diff] f ! philosophy ( ! ,greek ,cosmologi/s8 ,greek philosophy 9 ! ,cosmological ,p]iod />ts ) a conception ( an objective h>mony ( nature & _s :i* is call$ hylozoism4 ,/ep by /ep 9 ! ,an?ropological & ,sy/ematic ,p]iods t h>mony becomes brok5 into a dualism ( m9d & matt]4 ,! philosophy ( ?is ,sy/ematic ,p]iod is a dualism ( ! p>ts ( "o objective _w1 n a subjective-objective anti!sis4 ,! realm ( _s lies side by side ) t ( nature1 & ! sep>ation & ali5ation nev] rea*$ ! complete =m t x did 9 ! ,middle ,ages4 ,! great ,greek ,sy/ematiz]s 9 "p repres5t ?is duali/ic t5d5cy1 9 "p are a sci5tific ef=t to ov]come x4 8,9 spite ( ?is t5d5cy to a dualism ! orig9al presupposition a h>mony betwe5 nature & _s ass]ts itself 9 decisive traits2 & we %all f9d t ! true cause ( its incapacity to reconcile ^! contradictions satisfactorily lies 9 its refusal to ab&on t presupposition4 ,:5 t unity is cancel$1 !re rema9s to x no possible way ( fill+ up a *asm :i*1 accord+ to its own /&po9t1 _c exi/40#ba ,a ,summ>y ( ,greek ,philosophy4 ,at ?is po9t a summ>y ( ,greek objective philosophy w be helpful4 ,! philosophical problem t _h be5 work+ itself out s9ce ,?ales _h be5 ?is3 ,h[ may we ?9k ! ,be+ t abides amid ! *anges ( ph5om5a8 ,! ,cosmologi/s scrut9iz$ physical nature &1 )\t diff]5tiat+ nature & _s1 conceiv$ abid+ ,be+ to be liv+ matt]4 ,! ,an?ropologi/s 7except ,socrates7 d\bt$ if !re is any abid+ ,be+4 ,among ! ,sy/ematic ,philosoph]s a dualism = ! fir/ "t appe>s4 ,nature & _s are diff]5tiat$1 b bo? rema9 entirely objective4 ,democritus reg>d$ ! mat]ial univ]se z abid+ ,be+1 b 9 s l>ge a way z to be able to con/ruct ^u x a psy*ology & an e?ics4 ,plato f\nd abid+ ,be+ 9 ! realm ( ! _s1 9 a gr\p ( moral & /hetic entities4 ,ari/otle attempts to ov]come ! opposition betwe5 mat]ialism & ,platonism4 ,to him abid+ ,be+ is nei!r physical nature nor ! _s ap>t f physical nature4 ,abid+ ,be+ to ,ari/otle is ! _s 9 nature4 ,greek ,philosophy 7objective74 #a4 ,! ,cosmologi/s,hylozoism4 ,abid+ ,be+ is liv+ nature"s =m ( liv+ matt]4 #b4 ,! ,an?ropologi/s,relativism 7except ,socrates74 ,be+ is n abid+1 b consi/s ( transitory m5tal /ates4 ,?is is a =m ( :at 0 call$ by ! s*oolm5 ,nom9alism1 & summ$ up by ! phrase ,univ]salia po/ rem4 #c4 ,! ,sy/ematic ,philosoph]s4 ,democritus,mat]ialism4 ,be+ consi/s 9 mat]ial atoms1 b reg>d$ 9 s l>ge a way z to furni% a basis = a psy*ology & an e?ics4 ,plato,objective ,idealism4 ,be+ consi/s ( p]man5t moral & /hetic concepts or types4 ,9 m$ival philosophy ,platonism 0 call$ realism & 0 summ$ up by ! phrase ,univ]salia ante rem4 ,ari/otle,conceptualism4 ,! abid+ ,be+ does n consi/ ( mat]ial atoms nor 9 spiritual types ap>t f matt]1 b is an unfold+ ess5ce 9 matt]4 ,?is 0 usually call$ conceptualism by ! ,s*oolm51 & 0 summ$ up by ! phrase ,univ]salia 9 re4 ,ari/otle's conception 0 z difficult z x 0 important4 ,he 0 n always cle>ly a conceptuali/1 b sometimes appe>$ 9 ! rle ( an 8objective reali/40 ,democritus & ,plato,_! ,simil>ities & ,diff]5ces4 ,! mat]ialism ( ,democritus & ! idealism ( ,plato 7 z oppos$ z 0 possible )9 ! realm ( ,greek ?\ght4 ,we mu/ n exagg]ate _! simil>ities1 b !y _h at lea/ f\r common *>act]i/ics4 ,_! ,simil>ities4 #a4 ,bo? develop an outspok5 rationalism1#bb :i* />ts z a reaction f ! p]ception !ory ( ,protagoras4 ,!y agree ) ,protagoras t p]ception _c yield tru?1 & s !y turn away f p]ception to ! reason to f9d true k4 #b4 ,bo? develop a _w ( tw(old reality4 ,p]ceptions are n reg>d$ by !m z illusions1 al?\gh p]ceptions are transitory4 ,bo? make a new e/imate ( p]ceptions1 & give to ! _w ( p]ceptions a relative value4 ,!re are !re=e two k9ds ( reality3 ! relative reality ( ! _w ( p]ceptions & ! absolute reality ( ! _w ( reason4 ,! result 9 bo? is a broad !ory ( k4 #c4 ,9 bo?1 reality consi/s 9 a plural numb] ( objective norms4 ,bo? rea* _! conception ( ^! norms 9 ! same way4 ,! *ang+ qualities ( ?+s are /ripp$ away & ! true reality is discov]$ b5ea?4 ,bo? designate ?is true =m by ! same ^w1 idea 774 ,to bo?1 ! =ms are objective entities4 #d4 ,bo? are attempts to ov]come sci5tifically ! dualism :i* _h em]g$ f ! =m] hylozoism ( ,greek ?\ght4 ,_! ,diff]5ces,! ,developm5t ( ! ,mean+ ( ,idea4 #a4 ,b ! =ms or ideas are s vitally diff]5t 9 ! doctr9es ( ^! two philosoph]s t !y h no?+ 9 common save ! "n4 ,on ! "o h&1 ,democritus took ! ^w 8idea0 j z he f\nd x 9 popul> spee*4 ,x is ! %ape ( a visible ?+1 ! geometrical =m ( physical objects4 ,x gets no new cont5t 9 8 h&s1 b is m]ely ! physical atom4 ,) ,plato1 h[ev]1 ! ^w gets a new mean+4 ,he fills ! =m or idea ) an e?ical cont5t4 ,! idea z a quantity becomes n[ a quality4 ,! idea becomes an ,idea4 ,! =ms ( ,plato are logical species & teleological causes1 :ile ! =ms ( ,democritus are atom-complexes4#bc ,9 bo? philosoph]s !y are ! norms ( reality4 ,b :ile ,democritus /ill keeps 8 =ms z ! realities ( physical nature1 ,plato conceives 8 =ms to be true realities ( objective human nature4 #b4 ,?is vital diff]5ce betwe5 ! two philosoph]s may get "s explanation f ! diff]5ce 9 ! philosophical inh]itance ( ea*4 ,to be sure1 !y 7 contempor>ies1 bo? be+ born 9 ! ,an?ropological ,p]iod & bo? do+ _! mo/ mature "w 9 ! ,sy/ematic ,p]iod4 ,bo?1 too1 7 acqua9t$ ) ! philosophy ( ! prec$+ "t4 ,b ! e?ical tea*+ ( ,socrates dom9at$ ,plato1 & ?r\gh x he became ! legitimate p]fect] ( ! ,greek enlight5m5t & ! an?ropological movem5t4 ,b :at 0 ! influ5ce ( ,socrates ^u ,democritus8 ,x seems to h be5 no?+4 ,:y is ,plato absolutely sil5t ab\t ,democritus :5 he m5tions o!r ,greek philosoph]s8 ,no "o has yet be5 able to say4 ,democritus /&s at ,abd]a isolat$ f ! e?ical movem5t at ,a!ns4 ,! only influ5ce ^u him f t movem5t came f ,protagoras1 :o 0 a memb] ( ! s*ool at ,abd]a4 ,democritus is ! f9i%] ( ! ,cosmological movem5t4 ,! ,life ( ,democritus 7#dfj-cgj ,b4 ,c474 ,democritus 0 tw5ty ye>s y\ng] ?an ,protagoras1 ab\t t5 ye>s y\ng] ?an ,socrates1 & a g5]ation old] ?an ,plato4 ,he 0 outliv$ by ,plato2 & ,ari/otle 0 a "y man :5 ,democritus di$4 ,he 0 !re=e contempor>y ) ! intellectual movem5t go+ on 9 ,greece1 ) ,a!ns z a c5tre4 ,:ile he does n appe> to h come "u ! influ5ce ( ,socrates1 he 0 well acqua9t$ ) ! de/ructive epi/emology ( ! ,sophi/s4 ,abd]a1 :]e he liv$1 is 9 ,?race1 & seems to h be5 outside ! ,an?ropological movem5t at ,a!ns4 ,! s*ool ( ,leucippus 0 at ,abd]a2 & ,democritus 0 in/ruct$ 9 ! ,sophi/ic doctr9e directly f ,protagoras1 :o 0 a memb] ( ! ,atomi/ic s*ool be=e go+ to ,a!ns4 ,! ?ree ,sy/ematic philosoph]s 7 wide travel]s1 ,democritus n less ?an ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,he travel$ ext5sively ?r\gh ,greece1 ,egypt1 & ! ,ori5t4 ,he !n return$ to ,abd]a & began 8 sci5tific activity4 ,he rema9$ five ye>s 9 ,egypt1 & came to "k ! great] "p ( we/]n ,asia4 ,he return$ to ,abd]a ab\t #dbj ,b4 ,c41 & !re=e did n beg9 8 tea*+ be=e he 0 =ty ye>s old4 ,! l5g? ( "t t ,democritus1 ,plato1 & ,ari/otle took = _! appr5tice%ip1 & ! advanc$ age be=e !y began _! ma/]%ip1 is rem>kable4 ,democritus 0 ! greate/ inve/igator ( nature 9 antiquity1 & ,ari/otle us$ mu* ( ,democritus' "w = 8 own sci5tific writ+s4 ,! anci5ts admir$ ! writ+s ( ,democritus1 & ! loss ( !m 9 ! f\r? c5tury aft] ,*ri/ is "o ( ! mo/ lam5table t has happ5$ to ! lit]>y docum5ts ( antiquity4 ,8 works 7 extraord9>y 9 numb]1 & ^u e kn[n subject4 ,democritus 0 ! real expon5t ( ! ,atomi/ic s*ool4 ,! f\nd]1 ,leucippus1 belong$ to ! ,cosmological ,p]iod2 ,protagoras1 ! ,sophi/1 belong$ to ! ,an?ropological ,p]iod1 & _h great influ5ce 9 ! developm5t ( ! s*ool at ,abd]a2 b ,democritus1 9 sy/ematiz+ ! doctr9es ( ,leucippus & 9 accept+ ! p]ception !ory ( ,protagoras1 became its mo/ notable repres5tative4 ,he 0 ! great sy/ematiz] ( ! ,cosmologi/s1 & yet he diff]$ f all ! ,cosmologi/s 9 embody+ 9 8 !ory ! results ( ! ,sophi/ic movem5t4 ,! ,compreh5siv5ess ( ! ,aim ( ,democritus4 ,! recon/ruction ( ! philosophy ( ,democritus has always be5 difficult = ! hi/orian because1 f ! orig9ally great mass ( 8 writ+s1 only fragm5ts rema94 ,! fragm5ts %[1 h[ev]1 _m int]e/+ ?+s3 t he cov]$ ! entire range ( exp]i5ce 9 8 inve/igations2 t he 0 q z mu* int]e/$ 9 psy*ical z 9 physical problems2 t 8 contribution to epi/emology 0 ev5 great] ?an to physics2 & t he 0 int]e/$ 9 ! atomic !ory because he believ$ t x 0 a work+ hypo!sis = ! explanation ( exp]i5ce ( e k9d4 ,?is la/ *>act]i/ic %[s ! sy/ematic nature ( 8 "w & 8 "r to /& ) ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,democritus fully realiz$ t ! task ( sci5ce 0 to expla9 exp]i5ces ?r\gh a conception ( reality4 ,s he con/ruct$ 8 conception ( ! atom 9 ord] t he might expla9 ph5om5a intelligibly4 ,he saw t no conception /range to exp]i5ce or aga9/ exp]i5ce1 l ! ,eleatic ,be+1 w\ld answ] sci5tific dem&s4 ,a rational conception ( absolute reality w h value only z exp]i5ce te/ifies to x &1 on ! o!r h&1 z x expla9s exp]i5ce4 ,democritus valu$ 8 !ory ( ! atoms because x seem$ to expla9 all ph5om5a4 ,?is con/ruction ( a s+le fundam5tal rational pr9ciple = all k9ds ( ph5om5a %[s h[ mu* m ( a sy/ematic sci5ti/ he 0 ?an ! ,cosmologi/s4 ,! ,enri*$ ,physics ( ,democritus,hylozoism becomes ,mat]ialism4 ,!re is s great enri*m5t 9 elaboration & g5]alization 9 ! physical doctr9e ( ,democritus ov] t ( ,leucippus t x am\nts to a *ange 9 pr9ciple4 ,9 all probability ,leucippus1 l o!r ,cosmologi/s1 0 a hylozoi/1 & did n diff]5tiate matt] & life4 ,he is to be gr\p$ ) ! ,reconcil]s1 or ev5 ) ! ,eleatics1 r ?an ) ,democritus4 ,democritus 0 a mat]iali/4 ,! p]iod ( =ty ye>s betwe5 himself & ,leucippus _h be5 ! ri* p]iod ( ! introduction ( psy*ological inve/igation & ( ! discrim9ation ( psy*ical f physical processes4 ,mat]ialism or spiritualism is n possible 9 ! hi/orical developm5t ( ! human m9d until x passes ?r\gh j su* a p]iod ( diff]5tiation z ! ,sophi/ic ,enlight5m5t4 ,be=e su* a p]iod !re is animism & hylozoism2 aft] su* a p]iod !re is mat]ialism & spiritualism ( v>i\s sorts4 ,matt] mu/ be discrim9at$ f _s be=e "o ( ! t]ms c be r$uc$ to ! o!r4 ,s ! hylozoi/ic pluralism ( ,leucippus became 9 ! h&s ( ,democritus a reali/ic mat]ialism1 plurali/ic z well4 ,! r$uction ( all ph5om5a by ,democritus to a me*anics ( atoms 0 !oretically an enri*m5t ( physics1 = x anticipat$ ! und]ly+ pr9ciple ( mod]n physics4 ,! app>5t qualities ( ?+s & ! qualitative *anges ( ?+s are conceiv$ by ,democritus to be 9 tru? only a quantitative relation ( atoms4 ,he set be=e himself ! task ( expla9+ 9 detail h[ ?is or t quality consi/s ( atoms 9 me*anical motion4 ,! m5tal life ( man mu/ be expla9$ 9 ! same way4 ,s too1 :]ev] he c\ld1 he emphasiz$ m %>ply ?an 8 pr$ecessors ! me*anical necessity ( ! movem5t ( atoms4 ,impact caus$ by contact ( ! atoms 0 ! cause ( e occurr5ce & *ange4 ,no ev5t is to be expla9$ z ! manife/ation ( "s _s1 or ref]r$ to "s spiritual ag5cy4 ,me*anical cause is beh9d e ev5t2 me*anical cause is ! unify+ pr9ciple ( ! doctr9e ( ,democritus2 me*anical cause is ! reason = ! *asm betwe5 ! philosophy ( ,plato1 ( ,ari/otle1 & t ( ,democritus4 ,x is ! reason1 too1 :y ! !ory ( ,democritus 0 obscur$ until mod]n times4 ,all teleological conceptions & all hylozoi/ic & animi/ic ideas are expell$ f ! !ory ( ,democritus1 on ! assumption t spatial =m & motion are simpl] & m compreh5sible t]ms ( explanation4 ,?us = ! fir/ "t we h a consci\s outspok5 mat]ialism1 & = ! fir/ "t ! _w is conceiv$ to be a univ]sal reign ( me*anical law4 ,! physical !ory ( ,democritus also yield$ a ri* sci5tific explanation ( ! hi/orical evolution ( ! univ]se4 ,! univ]se1 accord+ to ,democritus1foll[+ ! tea*+ ( ,leucippus1consi/s ( two p>ts3 ! ,pl5um or self-mov+1 qualitatively simil> atoms2 & ! ,void or empty space1 9 :i* ! atoms move4 ,! ,pl5um1 or ! atoms1 is ,be+2 ! ,void is n-,be+4 ,! atoms diff] only 9 =m & size2#bd !y are inf9ite 9 numb] & !re=e are ( an inf9ite numb] ( =ms & sizes2 !y are imp]ceptibly small4 ,! p]ceptible qualities d n belong to !m1 b to _! motions4 ,motion is an irr$ucible function ( atoms1 & ea* atom1 lawless 9 itself1 is 9 flight ?r\gh space4 ,an aggregation ( atoms arises :5 ! atoms meet 9 _! cosmic flight4 ,! %ock causes a vortex :i* draws m atoms into itself4 ,l atoms are drawn toge!r1 & ! heavy atoms press ! f9e fire-atoms to ! p]iph]y4 ,?us innum]able worlds are =m$1 = any place ( ! meet+ ( sev]al atoms c be ! beg9n+ ( a new _w4 ,sometimes small worlds are drawn into ! vortices ( l>ge worlds1 & sometimes l>ge worlds dis9tegrate 9 fatal collisions4 ,! worlds are !re=e endless & 9 endless succession4 ,! :ole sw+s 9 space l a ball2 ! rim ( ! :ole consi/s ( compact atoms2 ! c5tre is fill$ ) air4 ,to mu* fur!r l5g? ?an we c g "h ,democritus develop$ a !oretical description ( cosmic evolution ^u ! pr9ciple ( me*anical necessity& ! description is almo/ mod]n4 ,! ,mat]iali/ic ,psy*ology ( ,democritus4 ,x is easy to und]/& an explanation ( ! physical univ]se z atoms 9 motion2 = our mod]n sci5tific !ories ( nature are set 9 ^! t]ms1 ev5 if we h trans=m$ ! ,democritan /atic atom into a dynamic entity4 ,x is r m int]e/+ to foll[ su* a mat]iali/ z ,democritus 9 8 ext5sion ( ! mat]iali/ic pr9ciple ov] ^u ! realm ( ! m5tal life4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ,democritus conceives man to be "p & p>cel ( ! _w ( atoms4 ,man is compos$ ( all k9ds ( atoms4 ,8 body consi/s ( e>?1 wat]1 & air atoms4 ,8 m9d is made up ( fire atoms1 :i* diff] f ! o!rs 9 be+ ! f9e/1 smoo!/1 & mo/ mobile4 ,on ?is acc\nt ! fire atoms are ! mo/ p]fect ( all4 ,psy*ical activity is ! motion ( fire atoms4 ,!y are scatt]$ ?r\gh\t ! univ]se1 & :]ev] !y are1 !re is life4 ,!y are 9 plants & animals z well z 9 man4 ,!re is a l>g] collection ( !m 9 man1 & ?is %[s 8 sup]iority ov] o!r liv+ ?+s4 ,9 man !re is a fire atom betwe5 e two o!r atoms1 & ! :ole is held toge!r by brea?+4 ,! diff]5t =ms ( m5tal activity are simply diff]5t =ms ( atomic motion4 ,9 ! next place1 our atomic make-up involves ! pres5ce ( o!r atomic complexes1 if we are to h any psy*ical activity4 ,ext]nal ?+s mu/ /imulate u4 ,b ^! ext]nal ?+s are atoms 9 action4 ,!y c1 h[ev]1 influ5ce u only by com+ into contact ) our bodies4 ,only by impact on our bodies c !y set 9 motion ! fire atoms :i* are scatt]$ ?r\gh our bodies4 ,e k9d ( k or m5tal life involves ! p>ticipation ( ! fire atoms 9 u4 ,?us m5tal activity involves two factors2 ! fire atoms )9 u & an ext]nal gr\p ( atoms )\t u4 ,h[ did ,democritus expla9 ! v>i$ m5tal life z ! resultant ( ^! two factors8 ,he employ$ ! !ory ( effluxes1 belief 9 :i* he %>$ ) 8 "t4 ,?is is a purely physiological assumption1 orig9at$ by su* ,cosmologi/s z ,emp$ocles1 t someh[ ext]nal bodies s5d (f emanations f !mselves :i* /rike ^u our bodies4 ,mo/ objects 9 ! _w influ5ce u at a di/ance & only ?r\gh ! emission ( ^! effluxes4 ,democritus conceiv$ ^! emanations to be little copies or 8eidola0 ( ! ?+ t s5ds !m (f4 ,to illu/rate ,democritus' mean+3 a tree is se5 by me because little trees1 ?r[n (f by x1 hit my eye4 ,?is !ory reta9$ its position 9 philosophical circles until aft] ,locke4 ,x p]si/s 9 ! popul> m9d to-day4 ,x is a g5]al belief t a ?\ght is a copy1 photograph1 or image ( ! ?+4 ,! words 8image0 & 8imag9ation0 betray _! orig94 ,x 0 believ$ by ,democritus t su* copies set 9 motion ! s5se organs & ?r\gh !m ! fire atoms4 ,! effluxes c1 h[ev]1 affect only ^? organs ( ! body t h simil> =mation & simil> atomic motions4 ,b ! effluxes v>y v mu* 9 ! degree ( f95ess ( _! atomic /ructure4 ,!re are all sorts1 f v f9e to v co>se4 ,s9ce ! efflux mu/ correspond to a p>ticul> s5se if t s5se is to be affect$ by x1 ! effluxes t c affect ! s5ses v>y respectively z to _! f95ess4 ,democritus 0 p>ticul>ly int]e/$ 9 ! s5sations ( sight & he>+ z examples ( ?is4 ,none ( ! effluxes affect+ ! s5ses are z f9e z ^? t /imulate ! reason4 ,unless !y 7 ! f9e/ ( all ! effluxes1 !y c\ld n affect ! f9e motions ( ! fire atoms ( ! reason4 ,^! f9e/ 8eidola0 or effluxes are ! true copies ( ?+s1 & ! reason !re=e alone kn[s ?+s truly4 ,?\ght1 on ! "o h&1 is precisely ! atomic motion ( ! direct impact ( ! f9e/ effluxes ^u ! f9e fire-atoms ( ! s\l4 ,s5sation1 on ! o!r h&1 is atomic motion f ! indirect impact ( ! co>s] grades ( effluxes ^u ! fire atoms4 ,! reason kn[s reality directly4 ,s5sations are ar\s$ 9 a r\ndab\t way by ! co>se effluxes sett+ 9 motion ! correspond+ s5se organ1 :i* 9 turn sets 9 motion ! fire atoms4 ,?us does ,democritus make ! di/9ction betwe5 ?\ght & s5sation 9 quantitative t]ms4 ,?us does he r$uce 8 psy*ology to a consi/5cy ) 8 metaphysical pr9ciple ( mat]ialism4 ,democritus' ,!ory ( ,k,! ,_w ( ,tw(old ,reality4 ,democritus w\ld h be5 only "o ( ! great ,cosmologi/s1 & he w\ld n h 8 place by ! side ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 if 8 mat]ialism _h illum9at$ no o!r subject ?an physics4 ,inde$1 x is d\btful if 8 physics w\ld h be5 s gr&ly compreh5sive & unqualifi$ _h x n be5 /r5g!n$ by 8 discrim9at+ !ory ( tw(old k4 ,he might h ext5d$ & sy/ematiz$ 8 mat]ialism s t x expla9$ to ! satisfaction ( 8 "t bo? physical & psy*ical ph5om5a1 & /ill h be5 a hylozoi/1 l ,leucippus1 ! f\nd] ( ! ,atomi/ic s*ool4 ,! problem ( k! problem ( e/imat+ our m5tal /ates0 z incompreh5sible to ,leucippus z to ! ,eleatics4 ,democritus1 h[ev]1 0 a rationali/ & reali/ l ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,he recogniz$1 z did !y1 t !re is a diff]5ce 9 epi/emological values4 ,8 univ]saliz$ mat]ialism did n prev5t him f evaluat+ our exp]i5ces f ! same g5]al po9t ( view z ! lead] ( ! ,academy & ! ,/agirite4 ,he felt t a tw(old reality is z consi/5t ) mat]iali/ic pr9ciples z ) idealism4 ,s he r$uc$ all qualities to quantities1 & !n z quantities re-valu$ & classifi$ !m4 ,8 *ief contribution 0 to ! subject ( epi/emology & n to physics1 & t is :y he is treat$ among ! ,greek ,sy/ematiz]s & n among ! ,cosmologi/s4 ,probably 8 *ief int]e/ lay :]e he did 8 *ief "w4 ,! p]ception !ory ( ,protagoras 0 ! />t+-po9t ( bo? ,democritus & ,plato4 ,bo? adopt$ x 9 ord] to transc5d x & make x ( real significance4 ,democritus1 ^u ! basis ( 8 mat]iali/ic psy*ology1 admitt$ t s5se-p]ception is only a transitory process1 & its k mu/ be z transitory4 ,b he did n agree ) ,protagoras t all k is p]ceptual4 ,s5se-p]ception does yield only relative k2 b !re is ano!r k9d ( k t is n relative b absolute4 ,?is is k ( ! reason4 ,human be+s h reason z well z s5se-p]ception4 ,?us is ,democritus a rationali/1 al?\gh a mat]iali/4 ,! contribution ( ,democritus to ! !ory ( k consi/s 9 j ?is turn :i* he gave to ,protagoras' doctr9e ( p]ception4 ,! relativity ( p]ception becomes 9 ! ,democritan !ory a diff]5t ?+ f :at x 0 9 ! doctr9e ( ! great ,sophi/4 ,to ,protagoras p]ceptual k is relative1 & !re=e ( no value 9 det]m9+ :at is real4 ,to ,democritus p]ceptual k is relative1 b x has a value1a relative value4 ,x gets ?is relative value f ! fact t ! reason c det]m9e absolute reality4 ,p]ception is ! contributor to ! reason1 & also 9 turn is illum9at$ by ! reason4 ,9 ! same brea? we may say t ,protagoras 0 a contributor to ! !ory ( ,democritus1 & 9 turn t ! ,protagorean relativism 0 illum9at$ by ! ,democritan rationalism4 ,! result 0 a tw(old k9 ! language ( ,democritus1 8g5u9e k0 & 8obscure insight40 ,! objects correspond+ to ^! two k9ds ( k mu/ be ( two k9ds4 ,on ! "o h&1 ! objects ( ! reason1 or 8g5u9e k10 are ! g5u9e1 prim>y1 or real prop]ties ( ! atoms= ! atoms are reality to ,democritus4 ,^! are =m1 size1 in]tia1 d5sity1 & h>dness4#be ,a /udy ( ^! prop]ties ( ?+s is1 !re=e1 a /udy ( real objects4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! objects ( p]ception or 8obscure insight0 are ! prop]ties ( atoms z p]ceiv$ obscurely by ! s5ses4 ,^! are color1 s\nd1 ta/e1 smell4 ,!y are ! qualities or relative prop]ties ( ?+s4 ,a /udy ( ^! is a /udy ( only :at is relatively real4 ,:5 mat]ialism 0 reviv$ by ! ,r5aissance1 ! =m] gr\p ( objects 7 call$ 8prim>y qualities0 & ! latt] 8second>y qualities40 ,^! t]ms h become classic1 & h r5d]$ p]man5t ,democritus' evaluation ( ! objects ( ! two k9ds ( k4 ,out ( ! fragm5ts ( ! tea*+ ( ! ,cosmologi/s & ! "o-sid$ epi/emology ( ! ,sophi/s1 ,democritus con/ruct$ contemporane\sly ) ,plato1 p]haps antec$5tly to him1 a !ory ( tw(old k4 ,! ,e?ical ,!ory ( ,democritus4 ,! e?ics ( ,democritus is ano!r example ( 8 g5]al pr9ciple ( a me*anism ( atoms4 ,8 attempt to r$uce all qualitative to quantitative relations1 :i* gives 8 !ory a unique place 9 ,greek ?\ght1 rea*es its highe/ di/9ction 9 8 e?ics4 ,! influ5ce ( 8 e?ical doctr9e ^u ! ,epicureans1 & possibly ^u ! ,cyr5aics1 %[s its importance 9 hi/ory4 ,fur!rmore1 its high quality proves t a mat]ialism c (f] inspir+ e?ical doctr9es4 ,"s h plac$ ! e?ics ( ,democritus ^u a level ) ! e?ics ( ,socrates because1 z x is po9t$ out1 he plac$ x ^u an intellectual basis4 ,! basal e?ical pr9ciple ( ,democritus may be /at$ ?us3 ,z true k is ! ideal object ( ! intellect1 s true happ9ess is ! ideal object ( our conduct4 ,! e?ics ( ,democritus is eudmoni/ic1 l t ( ,socrates4 ,pleasures h fundam5tal diff]5ces4 ,!y are 9 e case ! results ( atomic motions2 b ! atomic motions ( ! intellect diff] f ^? ( ! s5ses1 & ^? ( ! s5ses diff] f "o ano!r4 ,! fire atoms ( ! intellect are small1 & h a g5tle1 peaceful motion2 ! atomic motions ( ! s5ses are co>se & viol5t1 caus$ by ! co>se effluxes ( ! objects t excite !m4 ,s5se-pleasures are relative1 l ! p]ceptions4 ,z p]ception is obscure insight & ga9s ! appe>ance & n ! true reality1 s ! pleasures ( s5se are transitory1 unc]ta91 viol5t1 & deceitful4 ,intellectual pleasures are1 l ! intellect1 real1 true1 p]man5t1 g5tle1 & peaceful4 ,true happ9ess1 ! goal ( human activity1 att5ds ^u t "r insight^u ! g5tle atomic motions ( ! intellectual life4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! co>se atomic motions ( ! s5ses di/urb ! intellectual calm1 & are (t5 viol5t explosions4 ,democritus believ$ t k ( ! atoms1 z ! true explanation ( ! _w1 w give to ! s\l a measure & a h>mony1 w gu>d x f excitem5t & make x possessor ( a peace :i*to use 8 happy simileis l ! ocean calm4 ,two ideals seem to /& be=e ,democritus1 :i* he did n try to reconcile4 ,sometimes be=e 8 m9d's eye ! ideal happ9ess is purely intellectual pleasure & po9ts t[>d asceticism4 ,sometimes he speaks ( happ9ess z ! life ( p]fect self-control & temp]ance4 ,he nev] positively d5ies all value to s5se-pleasure1 b he gives to s5se-pleasure ! relative value t he gives to ! s5ses !mselves4 ,9 e case ! gr\nd ( happ9ess is intellectual ref9em5t1 & ! gr\nd ( unhapp9ess ! lack ( x4 ,! majority ( m5 are s5suali/s & are to be contra/$ ) ! ,wise ,man1 :o f9ds 8 happ9ess ei!r 9 8 individual life or 9 8 fri5d%ip ) o!r ,wise ,m54 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,plato 7#dbg-cdg ,b4 ,c47 ,abd]a & ,a!ns4 ,! mat]ialism ( ,democritus 0 ! natural consummation ( ! ?\ght ( ! ,cosmological ,p]iod4 ,! influ5ce ( ! ,sophi/ic psy*ology only enri*$ x1 wid5$ x1 & br\ght its mat]ialism into a sy/ematic =mulation4 ,! ,democritan sy/em f ! isolat$ c5tre ( ,abd]a po9ts only to ! pa/4 ,^u ! dea? ( ,democritus ! s*ool quickly disappe>$4 ,its mat]iali/ic doctr9e reappe>$ f "t to "t 9 "o =m & ano!r19 ! ,skeptics1 ! ,epicureans1 & ! ,/oics4 ,x 0 re9troduc$ z a sy/em into ,europe dur+ ! ,r5aissance4 ,s f> z ,greece 0 conc]n$1 ! s*ool ( ,abd]a 0 an e>ly rip5+ & an e>ly dy+ bran*4 ,! s*ool ( ,a!nian immat]ialism1 ! pr9cipal t5d5cy ( ,greek ?\ght1 arose f ! c5tre ( ,attic civilization & po9t$ to ! future4 ,x drew its mat]ials f practically ! same s\rces z ! philosophy ( ,abd]a1 b ! mat]ials 7 pol>iz$ ab\t ! e?ical tea*+ ( ,socrates4 ,! life ( ,plato co9cides ) ! unhappy hi/ory ( ,a!ns aft] ! dea? ( ,p]icles 7#dbi ,b4 ,c474 ,! ,peloponnesian ,w> began 9 #dca ,b4 ,c41 two ye>s be=e ! dea? ( ,p]icles & f\r ye>s be=e ! bir? ( ,plato2 & x did n end until #djc ,b4 ,c4 ,! ev5t mo/ disa/r\s to ! ,a!nians dur+ ?is w> 0 ! ,sicilian exp$ition 9 #dac ,b4 ,c4 ,a!ns 0 captur$ by ! ,sp>tans 9 #djc ,b4 ,c41 & ! great walls ( ! city 7 de/roy$4 ,! rema9d] ( ,plato's life 0 contemporane\s ) ! deva/at+ w>s among ! ,greek cities1 = !re 0 no city /rong en\gh to hold ! balance ( p[] aft] x left ! h&s ( ! ,a!nians4 ,9 #cei ,b4 ,c4 ,mac$on began to loom up z a p[] 9 ! nor?4 ,! life ( ,plato1 ! =mulator ( ,a!nian immat]ialism1 may be easily rememb]$ z cov]+ t p]iod betwe5 ! rise ( ,sp>ta & ! rise ( ,mac$on4 ,! ,difficulties 9 ,und]/&+ ! ,tea*+ ( ,plato4 ,! !ory ( ,plato is "o ( ! mo/ involv$ & "o ( ! mo/ difficult to und]/& 9 ! :ole hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,?is difficulty ( int]pret+ ,plato z a philosoph] dep5ds ^u _m factors3 ^u ! arti/ic lit]>y =m ( ! dialogue 9 :i* 8 philosophy is pres5t$2 ^u ! conflict+ t5d5cies ( ?\ght 9 ,plato himself2 ^u ! fact t ! composition ( 8 dialogues ext5d$ ov] a p]iod ( m ?an half a c5tury2 ^u ! con/ant re%ap+ ( ! cont5t z well z ! =m ( 8 ?\ght2 & ^u ! unc]ta9ty ( ! *ronological ord] ( 8 writ+s4 ,?is *ronological ord] ( ,plato's dialogues is an important factor 9 det]m9+ 8 tea*+4 ,s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury a va/ am\nt ( lit]ature has be5 publi%$ on ! subject1 & _m !ories ( ! dialogue-*ronology h be5 propos$4 ,!re are ?ree pr9cipal gr\ps ( !ories3 7#a7 ^? bas$ ^u purely a priori hypo!ses1 z1 = example1 t ( ,h]mann1 t ea* dialogue is a /age 9 ! developm5t ( ,plato's ?\ght2 or t ( ,s*lei]ma*]1 t ,plato _h a sy/ematic plan f ! beg9n+2 7#b7 ^? bas$ ^u an empirical /udy ( ! hi/orical allusions 9 ! dialogues !mselves 7,zell]1 ,w9delb&1 et als472 7#c7 ^? rec5t !ories bas$ ^u ! 8/ylometric te/10 i4 e4 by an exam9ation ( ! peculi>ities ( ! /yle ( ,plato4 ,lutoslawski is a prom95t repres5tative ( ?is me?od4 ,! result to ! /ud5t is bewild]+1 on acc\nt ( ! diff]+ conclusions4 ,b s9ce "s *oice mu/ be made1 we %all foll[ ! ord] laid d[n by ,w9delb&1#bf because x is fairly or?odox & cons]vative4 ,= conv5i5ce to ! memory1 ! writ+s w be gr\p$ 9 ! p]iods ( ,plato's life4 ,our int]pretation w !re=e foll[ ,w9delb& 9 respect to ! "* ( ,plato's !ory itself4 ,! ,life & ,writ+s ( ,plato4 ,two important ev5ts divide ,plato's long life ( eighty ye>s into ?ree p]iods4 ,^! ev5ts 7 ! dea? ( 8 ma/]1 ,socrates1 9 #cii ,b4 ,c41 & ,plato's return f ,sicily 9 #chg ,b4 ,c41 aft] hav+ !re come "u ! influ5ce ( ! ,py?agoreans4 ,8 fir/ p]iod may be call$ 8 /ud5t life1 & 0 tw5ty-eight ye>s long2 ! second p]iod 0 t ( ! travel]1 & 0 twelve ye>s long2 ! ?ird p]iod 0 t ( tea*] ( ! ,academy1 & 0 =ty ye>s long4 ,! fir/ half ( 8 life !re=e cov]s ! fir/ two p]iods1 & ! second half cov]s 8 p]iod z tea*]4 ,probably he 0 engag$ 9 ! composition ( ! dialogues dur+ all ^! p]iods1 & ,cic]o reports him to h di$ 8p5 9 h&0 7scrib5s e/ mortuus74 #a4 ,plato's ,/ud5t ,life 7#dbg-cii ,b4 ,c474 ,?is p]iod closes ) ! dea? ( ,socrates4 ,8 acqua9tance ) ,socrates began :5 he 0 tw5ty ye>s old1 & !re=e la/$ eight ye>s4 ,! dialogues writt5 dur+ ?is p]iod are pres5tations ( ! doctr9e ( ,socrates & d n conta9 ! con/ructive !ory ( ,plato4 ,!y are conc]n$ ei!r ) ,socratic subjects or ) ,socrates p]sonally1 & 7 writt5 9 "p dur+ ,socrates' life1 9 "p directly aft] 8 dea?4 7a7 ,dialogues writt5 "u ! influ5ce ( ,socrates3 ,lysis1 conc]n+ fri5d%ip2 ,la*es1 conc]n+ c\rage2 ,*>mides1 conc]n+ mod]ation4 7b7 ,dialogues writt5 9 def5se ( ,socrates3 ,crito1 conc]n+ ,socrates' fidelity to law2 ,apology1 a g5]al def5se ( ,socrates2 ,eu?ryphro1 conc]n+ ,socrates' true piety4 #b4 ,plato z ,travel] 7#cii-chg ,b4 ,c474 ,dur+ ?is p]iod ,plato made "o %ort & two long j\rneys1 & aft] ea* he return$ to ,a!ns4 ,^u ! dea? ( ,socrates he w5t to ,meg>a1 :]e a =m] pupil ( ,socrates _h a s*ool4 ,^u ?is j\rney he 0 accompani$ by o!r pupils ( ,socrates1 :o1 z tradition has x1 fe>$ viol5ce to !mselves aft] ! dea? ( _! ma/]4 ,plato rema9$ 9 ,meg>a b a %ort "t1 & soon return$ to ,a!ns4 ,imm$iately ^u 8 return to ,a!ns he w5t to ,cyr5e & ,egypt1 & 0 away f ,a!ns ab\t f\r ye>s 7until #cie ,b4 ,c474 ,! ,egyptian j\rney _h little influ5ce ^u 8 ?\ght1 b mu/ h /imulat$ 8 imag9ation4 ,he !n rema9$ at ,a!ns f\r ye>s 7#cie-cia ,b4 ,c471 & dur+ ?is "t he taught a small circle & wrote 8 polemics aga9/ ! ,sophi/s4 ,9 #cia ,b4 ,c4 ,plato made 8 fir/ ,italian j\rneyto ,sicily & s\!rn ,italy4 ,?is m>ks ! second critical po9t 9 8 m5tal developm5t4 ,= at ?is "t 7#a7 he came "u ! influ5ce ( ! ,italian ,py?agoreans1 & 7#b7 he attempt$ & fail$ 9 connection ) ,dion#bg & ,dionysius to erect 8 ideal /ate 9 ,syracuse4 ,he 0 sold z a slave by ,dionysius1 r$eem$ by a fri5d1 & return$ to ,a!ns 9 #chg ,b4 ,c41 hav+ be5 away ab\t f\r ye>s4 ,x is to be not$ t ,democritus & ,plato 7 wide travel]s1 consid]+ ! difficulties ( locomotion ( ! "t4 ,bo? ,democritus & ,plato w5t to ,egypt1 & ,democritus sp5t sev]al ye>s 9 ,asia ,m9or 7see p4 #ajg74 ,! dialogues writt5 dur+ ?is p]iod may be divid$ into 7a7 ! gr\p ( polemics aga9/ ! ,sophi/s1 & 7b7 ! ,m5o4 7a7 ,! polemics aga9/ ! ,sophi/s 7writt5 betwe5 8 return f ,egypt 9 #cie ,b4 ,c4 & 8 fir/ ,italian j\rney 9 #cia ,b4 ,c474 ,!y are an attempt to pres5t a solid front aga9/ ! ,sophi/s1 & to %[ ! weakness ( ! ,sophi/ic doctr9es4 ,^! polemical dialogues are3 ,protagoras1 a criticism ( ! ,sophi/ic assumption t virtue is tea*able1 because t assumption is incompatible ) ! ,sophi/ic fundam5tal pr9ciple2 ,gorgias1 %[+ h[ sup]ficial ! ,sophi/ic rhetoric is :5 comp>$ ) true culture1 :i* is ! f\ndation ( real /atecraft2 ,eu?ydemus1 an exposition ( ! fallacies 9 ! ,sophi/ic eri/ic2 ,cratylus1 a criticism ( ! philological attempts ( ! ,sophi/s2 ,!tetus1 a criticism ( ! ,sophi/ic !ories ( k2 ,! ,fir/ ,book ( ! ,republic 7! 8,dialogue conc]n+ ,ju/ice071 a criticism ( ! ,sophi/ic naturali/ic !ory ( ! /ate4 7b7 ,m5o1 :i* conta9s ! fir/ positive /atem5t by ,plato ( 8 own con/ructive !ory4 ,x is ! fir/ intimation ( developm5t beyond ! simple ,socratic !ory ( k4 ,plato /ates ?is1 h[ev]1 r timidly1 by sugge/ions & aft] ! mann] ( a ma!matician4 #c4 ,plato z ,tea*] ( ! ,academy 7#chg-cdg ,b4 ,c474 ,^! =ty ye>s 7 sp5t by ,plato 9 ,a!ns z ma/] & tea*] ( 8 s*ool1 ! ,academy1 ) ! exception ( two j\rneys to ,italy4 ,he und]took ^! j\rneys 9 ! hope ( realiz+ 9 a practical way 8 political ideals4 ,he made 8 second ,italian j\rney ^u ! invitation ( ,dion1 9 ! hope ( influ5c+ ! y\ng] ,dionysius1 & ! ?ird ,italian j\rney 9 ord] to reconcile ,dion & ,dionysius4 ,?is la/ j\rney br\ght him aga9 into great p]sonal dang]4 ,:at 0 ! ,academy8 ,x 0 a public grove or g>d5 9 ! suburbs ( ,a!ns 7see map1 p4 #bai7 t _h be5 left to ! city = gymna/ics by a public-spirit$ man nam$ ,academus4 ,x _h be5 surr\nd$ by a wall & _h be5 adorn$ by olive trees1 /atues1 & temples4 ,ne> ?is inclosure ,plato possess$ by inh]itance a small e/ate4 ,x 0 "h t he op5$ 8 s*ool1 & few places c\ld be m favorable = ! /udy ( philosophy4 ,plato bequea!d ?is e/ate to ! s*ool1 :i* held ! prop]ty 9 a corporate capacity = sev]al c5turies4 ,! lead] ( ! s*ool 0 call$ s*ol>*1 & he appo9t$ 8 own successor4 ,! s*ool 0 a k9d ( religi\s bro!rhood bas$ ^u ! wor%ip ( ! ,muses4 ,note t ,democritus1 ,plato1 & ,ari/otle f9i%$ _! education at an age mu* beyond :at is suppos$ to be ! limit 9 mod]n "t4 ,!y 71 9 fact1 mature m5 be=e !y began _! life "w4 ,plato 0 #cb be=e he began to tea* 9 ,a!ns & #dj be=e he set himself ab\t 8 real life task 9 ! f\nd+ ( ! ,academy4 ,democritus 0 #dj be=e he return$ to ,abd]a f 8 travels 9 ,asia ,m9or4 ,ari/otle 0 #da :5 he und]took to act z tutor ( ,alex&]1 & #di :5 he began 8 adm9i/ration ( ! ,lyceum4 ,! dialogues ( ! ?ird p]iod ( ,plato's life conta9 8 con/ructive !ory1 & are 8 ma/]pieces ( art4 ,! topics ) :i* !y deal %[ ! advance ( 8 ?\ght ov] ! dialogues ( 8 fir/ p]iod4 ,! purely ,socratic dialogues 7 e?ical discussions2 ^! are e?ical1 metaphysical1 & physical4 ,phdrus1 ,plato's deliv]y ( 8 programme ^u 8 entrance into active tea*+ 9 ! ,academy1 9 #chf ,b4 ,c4 ,symposium1 an exposition ( 8 entire doctr9e 9 8love spee*es40 ,x is ! mo/ arti/ic ( 8 writ+s1 & repres5ts ! climax ( 8 intellectual p[] 7#che or #chd ,b4 ,c474 ,republic 7major portion74 ,! composition ( ! ,republic ext5d$ ov] a long p]iod4 ,x is a discussion3 7#a7 conc]n+ ju/ice 7writt5 9 ! second p]iod1 see above72 7#b7 conc]n+ ! ideal /ate :i* %all realize ju/ice2 7#c7 conc]n+ ! ,idea ( ! ,good & 9 criticism ( ! con/itutions ( /ates4 ,x is ,plato's ma/]piece & 8 life "w4 ,p>m5ides & ,sophi/1 writt5 to express ! objections to ! !ory ( ,ideas1 & to discuss su* objections4 7,w9delb& holds ^! dialogues 7 n writt5 by ,plato1 b by "s memb] ( 8 s*ool4 ,?is is1 h[ev]1 n ! cons5sus ( op9ion47 ,politicus1 a discussion ( ! field ( k & ( action = a /atesman4 ,phd1 ,plato's f9al w & te/am5t to ! s*ool1 writt5 %ortly be=e 8 ?ird ,sicilian j\rney1 9 #cfa ,b4 ,c4 ,x is 8 complet$ conception ( ! ,idea ( ! ,good & ( ! relation ( o!r ,ideas to x4 ,x conta9s ,anaxagorean & ,py?agorean elem5ts4 ,philebus1 conc]n+ ! +r$i5ts ( ! ,idea ( ! ,good4 ,timu1 ,plato's conception ( physical nature1 express$ 9 my?ical =m4 ,laws1 ! "w ( ,plato's old age1 8 revision ( ! ideal ,/ate4 ,conc]n+ ! ,dialogues#bh ( ,plato4 ,! e>ly philosoph]s pres5t$ _! philosophy 9 metrical =m z poems 8conc]n+ nature02 ,socrates p]petuat$ 8 tea*+s ?r\gh conv]sations ) m52 ,plato made 8 influ5ce p]man5t by writt5 dialogues2 ,ari/otle's philosophy1 9 ! works t h be5 pres]v$1 /&s 9 ! =m ( treatises ^: sole purpose is t ( exposition4 ,plato's dialogues !re=e h a tw(old place 9 ! hi/ory ( lit]ature4 ,on ! "o h&1 9 ! hi/ory ( lit]ature prop] we h already m5tion$ !m z /&+ aft] ! ,greek drama 9 ! developm5t ( ,greek dialectics2 on ! o!r h&1 9 ! developm5t ( philosophical in/ruction !y /& betwe5 ! conv]sations ( ,socrates & ! sci5tific expositions ( ,ari/otle4 ,plato 0 ! fir/ *ild ( ,=tune1 & ! complete pres]vation ( 8 works 0 ! mo/ rem>kable pro( ( x4 s*ylus 0 ! au?or ( at lea/ #gj writ+s1 ( :i* #g are pres]v$2 ,euripides 0 ! au?or ( #ie writ+s1 ( :i* #ah are pres]v$2 ,sophocles _h #abc writ+s1 aside f 8 lyric works1 ( :i* #g are pres]v$4 ,%akespe>e wrote #cf plays1 ,plato wrote #ce dialogues t are g5u9e4 ,all ( ,plato's writ+s h come d[n to u4 ,:y 7 ! writ+s ( ,plato pres]v$ f ! de/roy+ h& ( "t8 ,!re are at lea/ ?ree causes ( _! pres]vation3 7#a7 !y _h intr9sic beauty2 7#b7 !re 0 contempor>y public int]e/ 9 !m2 7#c7 ! *ief cause1 ,plato's s*ool kept close gu>d ov] !m4 ,by ! dialogue ,plato c\ld employ ! ,socratic me?od1 give dramatic effect1 & idealize ,socrates4 ,! ,republic is 8 cr[n+ lit]>y ef=t1 & ! mo/ complete /atem5t ( 8 mature political views4 ,p]haps ! ,philebus is ! be/ expression ( 8 idea ( goodness1 & pres5ts 8 mo/ complete organization ( ! sci5ces4 ,all ,plato's dialogues h a transp>5t beauty & a purity ( diction2 & !y may be tak5 z a revelation ( himself4 ,all are dialogues save ! ,apology1 b ! dialogue elem5t gr[s less & less 9 8 lat] works4 ,socrates is usually ! spokesman 9 !m1 & to him is usually giv5 ! decid+ ^w4 ,only a few h a fix$ plan ( argum5t4 ,"o ?read & !n ano!r is foll[$1 & 9 _m no decision :atev] is rea*$2 = ! dialogues mu/ always be tak5 z arti/ic products 9 :i* philosophical exp]i5ces are idealiz$4 ,plato (t5 employs my?s or p>ables to illum9ate 8 argum5ts4 ,! situations & ! lit]>y adornm5ts %[ ! human t\*1 & ! conv]sation (t5 moves to a dramatic close4 ,9 ! ,republic ,plato s\ght to =mulate !oretically c]ta9 political conceptions ( ! ideal ,/ate t 7 !n 9 ! air4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t 8 conception influ5c$ ! political idealism ( lat] "t1 z1 = example1 ,cic]o's ,de ,republica1 ,augu/9e's ,city ( ,god1 ,m's ,utopia1 ,campanella's ,/ate ( ! ,sun1 ,bacon's ,new ,atlantis1 ,mac*iavelli's ,il ,pr9cipe4 ,! ,factors 9 ! ,con/ruction ( ,plato's ,doctr9e4 #a4 ,8 ,inh]it$ ,t5d5cies4 7a7 ,9 ! fir/ place ,plato 0 by in/9ct an ari/ocrat4 ,8 family 0 "o ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ 9 ,a!ns1 & trac$ its desc5t f ,solon & ,codrus4 ,9 mak+ an e/imate ( 8 philosophy "o mu/ take acc\nt ( ! ca/e ( society 9 :i* he 0 born4 ,8 metaphysical !ory ( ,ideas is ari/ocratic1 & 9 x he turns f all t is ( ! e>? e>?y to :at is above ! life ( 8op9ion40 ,8 f\r c>d9al virtues are possible only to ! few4 ,8 political attitude 0 peculi>4 ,he 0 ho/ile to ! democracy1 & yet 8 political idealism div]g$ s f> f ! practical politics ( ,a!nian ari/ocracy t he completely ab/a9$ f public life4 ,) ,plato1 philosophy once m retires to ! s*ool4 ,"h we h ! /range juxtaposition ( ,socrates1 ! tea*]1 :o _h be5 engag$ 9 a practical re=mation1 ^: fa!r 0 an artisan & ^: "m a midwife1 & ,plato1 8 ador+ pupil & true/ int]pret]1,plato1 ! ideali/1 8^: speculation is n l ! ,phili/9e1 ^: life is sp5t 9 ! m>ket place or ! work%op1 & ^: _w is measur$ by ! n>r[ b\nd>ies ( 8 native t[n2 x is ! "l ( ! manor1 :o retires to 8 mansion1 aft] hav+ se5 ! _w1 & turns 8 gaze t[>ds ! di/ant horizon2 disda9+ ! noise ( ! cross-roads1 he m+les only 9 ! be/ society1 :]e is he>d ! mo/ elegant1 ! noble/1 & ! l(tie/ language t has ev] be5 spok5 9 ! home ( ! ,muses40#bi 7b7 ,9 ! next place ,plato _h an in/9ctive love = ! beautiful1 & 9 ?is he 0 great1 ev5 9 8 "t4 ,e ,p]iclean ,greek 0 arti/ic1 b ,plato 0 m ?an ?is4 ,he is to be rank$ among ! great creators ( ! art ( 8 day1) ,phidias & ,sophocles4 ,he repres5t$ 9 8 p]son ev]y?+ ideally ,greek4 ,he 0 a man ( great beauty1 a human ,apollo1 a man end[$ ) e physical & m5tal tal5t1 & 8 moral "* 0 almo/ ideal 9 its purposes4 ,8 real "n 0 ,ari/ocles1 & he got 8 "n ,plato f 8 broad frame4 ,! arti/ic developm5t ( ! "t appeal$ to him 9 8 y\?1 & he 0 e>ly int]e/$ 9 ! writ+ ( epic & dramatic poetry4 ,?is arti/ic in/9ct det]m9$ 9 no small measure n only ! =m ( ! pres5tation ( 8 ?\ght1 b also ! cont5t ( ! ?\ght itself4 ,x det]m9$ 8 pr9ciple ( conceiv+ ! ,ideas1 ! con/itution ( 8 ,/ate1 8 !ory ( pleasure1 & 8 conception ( ! highe/ ,good4 ,! arti/ic =m ( ! pres5tation ( 8 writ+s 0 z important to him z ! matt] pres5t$4 #b4 ,8 ,philosophical ,s\rces4 ,plato _h receiv$ a c>eful education t made him famili> ) all ! sci5tific !ories ( curr5t int]e/ to ! ,a!nians4 ,! elem5ts ( ! e>li] philosophies1 t 7 fundam5tal to ! me*anical atomism ( ,democritus1 7 recomb9$ 9 a diff]5t way by ,plato "u ! influ5ce ( ,socrates' e?ical pr9ciple4 ,ev5 ,plato's political & arti/ic ideals are subord9ate to 8 entire absorption 9 ! p]sonality & tea*+ ( ,socrates4 ,h]acleitus1 ,protagoras1 ,p>m5ides1 &1 lat]1 ,anaxagoras & ! ,py?agoreans1 furni%$ him ) 8 philosophical mat]ials4 ,we may po9t out ?ree ( ! prec$+ philosophies t _h an especially p[]ful influ5ce ^u him3 ^? ( 7#a7 ,socrates2 7#b7 ,p>m5ides2 & 7#c7 ! ,py?agoreans4 ,8 rev]$ ma/]1 ,socrates1 furni%$ ,plato ?r\gh\t ) ! conceptual pr9ciple1 by :i* he work$ ov] all 8 mat]ial into 8 d>+ sy/em4 ,! influ5ce ( ,p>m5ides ^u him 0 also v great4 ,he speaks ( ! ,eleatic z 8,p>m5ides1 my fa!r40 ,plato betook himself to ! ,eleatic s*ool at ,meg>a ^u ! dea? ( ,socrates1 & ?is %[s t he mu/ already h be5 hospitable to ! philosophy :i* taught ! conception ( an absolute & et]nal ess5ce ( ?+s kn[n by ! human reason4 ,! influ5ce ( ! ,py?agoreans 0 felt by ,plato on 8 fir/ visit to ,italy4 ,?is influ5ce grew ) him1 & seems to dom9ate ! dialogue ( 8 old age1 ! ,laws4 ,! ,eleatic ,on5ess 0 a s+le1 immutable block4 ,9 ! ,py?agorean doctr9e ( numb]s he f\nd ! conceptual divisions ( t ,on5ess1 & he also f\nd t su* conceptions w\ld give a cont5t to ,socrates' conception ( ! ,good4 ,inde$1 ! numb]s seem$ to be ! conceptual models = :i* ,socrates 0 se>*+4 ,ma!matical tru?s are indep5d5t ( p]ception4 ,!y are innate ideas4 ,!y are et]nal & immutable ,=ms4 ,!y 7 ! weapons ne$$ aga9/ ! ,protagorean doctr9e ( p]ception4 ,:ile ,plato agre$ ) ,h]acleitus t ! visible _w is a *ang+ _w1 & ) ,protagoras t our s5se-p]ceptions ( t _w c yield only relative tru?1 he develop$ 8 philosophy almo/ entirely on its conceptual side2 & ?is is due to ! influ5ce fir/ ( ,socrates1 second ( ,p>m5ides1 & ?ird ( ! ,py?agoreans4 ,plato's complet$ philosophy 0 ! !ory ( ,ideas1 work$ ov] 9 8 m9d a half-c5tury or m1 & is 9 itself a hi/ory ( ! developm5t ( pure concepts4 ,! ,divisions ( ,plato's ,philosophy4 ,plato himself _h no cle> conception ( an exact division ( sci5ce1 & did n conf9e himself 9 a s+le dialogue to a s+le sci5ce4 ,ari/otle1 h[ev]1 di/+ui%$ 9 ! philosophy ( 8 ma/] dialectic1 e?ics1 & physics1 & ^! divisions ( ,plato's tea*+ h be5 traditionally adopt$4 ,! dialectic1 z commonly us$ 9 8 "t1 meant 8! dialogue or conv]sation employ$ z a means ( sci5tific inve/igation40 ,x 0 trans=m$ by ,plato to mean n logical b metaphysical discussion4 ,plato 0 conc]n$ ) ! laws ( ,be+ r ?an ! laws ( logic1 &1 z ,be+ to him consi/$ ( ,ideas1 8 dialectic int]e/ 0 to r$uce exp]i5ce by division & induction to "s unity4 ,plato's dialectic 0 n logical b me?odological1logical op]ations tak5 z a :ole1by means ( :i* ! ,ideas & _! relations to "o ano!r 7 to be f\nd4 ,! physics ( ,plato is ( little value4 ,x 0 an aft]?\ght to satisfy ! dem&s ( 8 s*ool4 ,! _w ( nature ph5om5a c\ld nev] be = ,plato ! object ( true k4 ,un=tunately1 ! teleological physics ( ,plato 0 reg>d$ by ! ,hell5i/ic "t & ! ,middle ,ages z ,plato's mo/ important a*ievem5t4 ,plato wrote entirely 9 ! _s ( ! ,enlight5m5t1 & 8 works %[ a great int]e/ 9 man z a moral be+1 b little int]e/ 9 physical nature4 ,summ>y ( ,plato's ,doctr9e4 ,! int]pretation ( ,plato z set =? 9 :at foll[s may be ?us summ>iz$3 ,plato began ) ! conceptual =m ( idealism1 sugge/$ by ! logical me?od ( ,socrates1 ) ! purpose ( solv+ logical & e?ical problems4 ,he advanc$ to a teleological idealism1 condition$ by ! doctr9es ( ,anaxagoras & ! ,py?agoreans1 ) ! purpose ( apply+ 8 doctr9e to physical problems4 ,! ,=mation ( ,plato's ,metaphysics4 ,9 8 e>lie/ p]iod ,plato made ^! v cle> /atem5ts3 7#a7 virtue is k2 7#b7 by k is n meant s5se-p]ceptions4 ,9 8 f9al /atem5t ( 8 philosophy1 z he bequea!d x to po/]ity1 he only gave a new evaluation ( ^! two e>ly pr9ciples1 al?\gh he express$ !m 9 a highly complex =m4 8,virtue is k0 is ! basis ( agreem5t betwe5 ,socrates & ! ,sophi/s2 & 8by k is n meant s5se-p]ceptions0 is ! basis ( _! opposition4 ,dur+ ,plato's e>ly p]iod he 0 act+ z a fai?ful transcrib] ( ,socrates 9 ! pres5tation ( ?is fir/ pr9ciple3 virtue is k1 is tea*able1 is "o4 ,dur+ ,plato's second p]iod he 0 call$ on to def5d ! second /atem5t aga9/ ! ,sophi/s4 ,plato's =mation ( 8 own !ory beg9s at ?is po9t1at ! po9t :]e 8 def5se ( 8 ma/] 0 ke5e/4 ,f ?is "t1 = a full half-c5tury1 ,plato develop$ ! ,socratic pr9ciples 9 a !ory t w5t f> beyond ,socrates1 b t 0 nev] untrue to him4 ,! simple/ way ( /at+ ,plato's =mation ( 8 own doctr9e is ?is3 he accept$ ! ,protagorean doctr9e ( a p]ceptual _w ( relative k2 he plac$ x beside ! ,socratic !ory ( conceptual reality2 & z a result he conceiv$ ! _w to be tw(old4 ,bo? ,be+ & ,becom+ %>e 9 reality4 ,!re are1 on ! "o side1 ! immutable concepts t compose true reality2 !re are1 on ! o!r side1 ! *ang+ p]ceptions t come & g4 ,! _w ( true reality is1 b nev] becomes2 ! _w ( relative reality becomes1 b nev] is4 ,^! two worlds are by nature sep>ate2 "o is ! object ( ! reason1 ! o!r is ! object ( ! s5ses2 "o is incorporeal1 ! o!r is corporeal4 ,! fir/ _w is ! immutable ,"o ( ! ,eleatics pres5t$ by ,plato z a plural numb] ( ,socratic concepts2 ! o!r _w is ! ,h]acleitan flux pres5t$ z p]ceivable ?+s4 ,!re is true k1 b ,protagoras is "r 9 say+ t x _c be f\nd 9 ! p]ception ( ! mat]ial _w4 ,x is k ( an incorporeal _w1 & t is precisely ! _w ( ,socratic concepts :i* n[ 9 ,plato's h&s become ,ideas4 ,x w\ld1 h[ev]1 be a mi/ake to suppose t ,plato's conception ( ! _w 0 an artificial eclecticism1 obta9$ by putt+ two worlds side by side4 ,to be sure1 he nev] 0 able to br+ !m into an organic unity1 & ! dualism betwe5 !m is (t5 v m>k$4 ,b !y d n lie l two draw]s 9 a desk1 ea* hav+ no vital influ5ce on ! "* ( ! o!r4 ,9 ! juxtaposition ( ! two worlds ea* gets a new mean+1 & ! value ( ea* becomes great]4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 p]ception#cj gets a new value4 ,! logic ( ! ,sophi/ic doctr9e ( p]ception 0 t p]ceptions are ! only =m ( k1 & ev5 p]ceptions h no %>e ( tru?fulness4 ,protagoras himself did n g s f> z ?is absolute skepticism1 b ?is is ! logic ( 8 position4 ,p]ceptions c h no value1 because ea* is a /&>d to itself4 ,plato incorporates ! p]ception !ory into 8 own1 & imm$iately gives x a new value4 ,p]ceptions d n1 to be sure1 yield true k1 b !y h a relative value4 ,!y h a value = ! practical _w1 al?\gh ! highe/ !y c give is ,"r ,op9ion4 ,:5 we rememb] t ! _w ( t day 0 we>y ( its own speculations lead+ to nihilism1 x is rem>kable t ,plato did n turn away entirely f ! doctr9e ( ! ,sophi/s4 ,on ! contr>y1 he took up ! ,sophi/ic doctr9e into 8 own & gave to x a value :i* x _h n possess$ by itself4 ,9 ! second place1 conception gets a new value4 ,:at 0 conception to ,socrates8 ,x 0 ! common cont5t ( op9ions & p]ceptions2 x 0 ! univ]sal t 0 develop$ inductively out ( _m p>ticul>s4 ,socrates br\ght _m p>ticul>s toge!r 9 ord] to reveal _! common qualities4 ,! abode ( conceptions 0 to ,socrates ! half-=m$ individual op9ions & exp]i5ces 9 :i* conception lay1 z 9 an envelope2 & ! conv]sation 0 ne$$ to br+ x =?4 ,! concept to ,socrates 0 ! logical 8nature0 ( p]ceptions4 ,b n[ s9ce ,plato admitt$ ! relative reality ( all p]ceptions1 he 0 oblig$ to look else:]e to acc\nt = conceptions4 ,if ! conceptions are true reality1 !y _c be ! common quality 9 op9ions1 nor ! logical 8nature0 ( *ang+ p]ceptions4 ,! true conception _c be conta9$ 9 ! p]ception4 ,accord+ly ! conception mu/ exi/ 9 an incorporeal _w & possess an indep5d5t reality4 ,! concepts are hypo/asiz$ by ,plato4 ,!y become ,ideas4 ,?us ! ,socratic concept became ! ,platonic ,idea1 & = ! fir/ "t 9 ,european ?\ght1 reality is conceiv$ z immat]ial4 ,! conceptual _w gr[s "u ,plato's h&s to be 8o!r ?an0 ! p]ceptual _w1 & ?is 0 8 fir/ /ep beyond ,socrates4 ,! conceptual _w is ! p]fect reality t _c be conta9$ 9 any mat]ial ?+ nor 9 ! sum ( all mat]ial ?+s4 ,! immat]ial ,ideas are ! object ( ?\ght1 z nature ph5om5a are ! objects ( p]ception4 ,ideas are n ! ab/ractions ( p]ceptions1 = ! process ( ?\ght is n an analysis nor an ab/raction1 b an intuition ( reality pres5t$ 9 s+le in/ances4 ,ideas are ! reality ( :i* p]ceptions are ! copies or %ad[s4 ,p]ceptions d n conta9 ! tru?4 ,!y are only ! sugge/ions or prompt+s by :i* ! s\l be?9ks itself ( ! ,ideas4 ,mat]ial ?+s m]ely h9t to ! s\l ( ! exi/5ce ( ! ,ideas4 ,x is important 9 ?is connection to po9t out t ,plato's conception ( immat]iality is n to be tak5 z :at we mean 9 mod]n times by ! spiritual or psy*ical2 =1 accord+ to ,plato1 our psy*ical functions belong to ! _w ( ,becom+1 j z ! functions ( our body & o!r p]ceptual ?+s belong to x4 ,besides1 ev5 ! ,ideas ( s5se qualities h reality4 ,plato does n id5tify ! human m9d ) ! incorporeal _w ( ,ideas1 nor does he make ! mod]n duali/ic division ( ! _w into m9d & matt]4 ,! immat]ial _w is 8o!r ?an0 ! _w ( p]ception1 & be>s ! relation to ! mat]ial _w ( ! un*ang+ to ! *ang+1 ( ! simple to ! manifold1 ( ,be+ to ,becom+4 ,! ,developm5t ( ,plato's ,metaphysics,! ,developm5t ( ,plato's ,ideas 9 ! ,two ,drafts4 ,! tw(old _w ) its new evaluation ( ! ,socratic conception & ( ! ,protagorean p]ception 01 aft] all1 only ,plato's po9t ( dep>ture = 8 con/ructive "w4 ,x 0 8 fir/ & undevelop$ appreh5sion ( a !ory ( ,ideas4 ,x appe>$ fir/ 9 ! ,m5o 9 8 doctr9e ( recollection & immortality1 :i* 0 writt5 9 8 second p]iod j aft] 8 s]ies ( spl5did polemics aga9/ ! ,sophi/s4 ,f ?is "t = a full half-c5tury ,plato develop$ ! conception ( a tw(old _w into a ,!ory ( ,ideas4 ,9 ! c\rse ( "t he f\nd himself confront$ ) ?ree problems3 7#a7 ,h[ _m ,ideas are !re8 7#b7 ,:at is ! relation betwe5 ,ideas & physical ?+s8 7#c7 ,:at is ! relation ( ! ,ideas to "o ano!r8 ,plato's answ]s to ^! ?ree que/ions compose :at is kn[n z 8 ,!ory ( ,ideas4 ,h[ev]1 he answ]s ^! ?ree que/ions diff]5tly :5 he fir/ consid]$ !m ?an lat]1 :5 8 grasp ^u ! significance ( 8 problem became m mature4 ,plato's ,!ory ( ,ideas1 !re=e1 may be said to h _h a developm5t 9 two /ages4 ,^! two /ages are call$ 8 8two drafts0 7,w9delb&7 ( ! ,ideas4 ,we %all n[ pres5t1 fir/ 9 summ>y =m & !n 9 m detail1 8 answ]s to ^! ?ree que/ions 9 ! two drafts1 & !reby %[ h[ 8 !ory develop$ to its f9al =mulation4 ,brief ,comp>ison ( ! ,two ,drafts ( ! ,ideas4 #a4 ,! ,e>li] ,draft ( ,ideas4 7a7 ,! ,numb] ( ,ideas is inf9ite4 7b7 ,! ,relation ( ,ideas to ,physical ,?+s is simil>ity4 ,! ,ideas on _! side are spok5 ( z hav+ a 8pres5ce0 9 physical ?+s1 b nev] fully appe>+ 9 !m2 ! physical ph5om5a on _! side are spok5 ( z 8p>ticipat+0 9 ! ,ideas4 7c7 ,! ,ideas are ,relat$ to ,"o ,ano!r logically1 z g5]a to species1 b !y are only r\ghly classifi$ by ,plato4 #b4 ,! ,lat] ,draft ( ,ideas,plato's ,f9al ,/atem5t4 7a7 ,! ,numb] ( ,ideas is limit$ to ^? ( wor?1 ma!matical relations1 & nature-products1 b ,plato nev] arriv$ at any def9ite selection4 7b7 ,! ,relation ( ,ideas to ,physical ,?+s is teleological4 ,! ,ideas are ! ideal or purposeful ends ( physical objects4 7c7 ,! ,ideas are ,relat$ to ,"o ,ano!r teleologically4 ,! ,idea ( ! ,good /&s at ! head1 & is ! purposeful end ( all ! o!r ,ideas4 ,comp>ison ( ! ,two ,drafts ( ,ideas 9 ,m ,detail4 #a4 ,! ,numb] ( ,ideas 9 ! ,e>li] & ,lat] ,drafts comp>$4 ,:5 ,plato fir/ pres5t$ ! ,!ory ( ,ideas to himself1 he conceiv$ _! numb] to be inf9ite4 ,!re are ,ideas ( ev]y?+ t is ?9kable4 ,!re are z _m z !re are class concepts1 z !re are qualities ( ?+s 9 ! univ]se1 z !re are common n\ns 9 ! language4 ,b x 0 po9t$ out to ,plato t he _h only reproduc$ & p>allel$ 9 ! immat]ial _w :at exi/s 9 ! mat]ial _w2 t su* a !ory did n solve1 b only d\bl$ our difficulties4 ,!n !re 7 te*nical difficulties 9 ! conception ( ! ,ideas ( ev]y?+( ?+s1 qualities1 relations1good1 bad1 & indiff]5t4 ,b :at probably appeal$ to him mo/ cog5tly 0 ! raill]y to :i* he f\nd 8 !ory subject$ 7see ,p>m5ides71 t he z a ,greek c\ld ?9k ( ugly ,ideas1 l hair & fil?1 z real4 ,! result 0 t 9 ! lat] draft+ ( 8 !ory ! numb] ( qualities wor?y to be call$ ,ideas becomes v mu* limit$4 ,plato makes ! elim9ation f no av[$ pr9ciple except t ( wor?1 because z a ,greek x 0 absolutely repell5t to him to reg>d any?+ z real except wor?4 ,consequ5tly 9 8 lat] dialogues he speaks ( 7#a7 ,ideas hav+ an inh]5t value1 l ! ,good & ! ,beautiful1 7#b7 ,ideas correspond+ to nature products1 7#c7 ,ideas ( ma!matical relations4 ,norms ( value ?us take ! place ( class-concepts1 & 9 8 selection ( ,ideas 8 *oice is det]m9$ m & m by _! moral wor?4 #b4 ,! ,relation ( ,ideas & ! ,_w ( ,nature 9 ! ,two ,drafts comp>$4 ,plato did n con/ruct 8 _w ( ,ideas 9 ord] to expla9 ! _w ( physical nature4 ,8 orig9al purpose 0 to f9d an object = k2 & 8 ,ideas 7 born out ( 8 /riv+ to give a reality to ! conceptions ( ,socrates4 ,9 8 evaluation ( ! doctr9e ( 8 ma/] he _h drawn a di/9ction betwe5 ! two worlds1 b he _h n ?\ght ( expla9+ "o by ! o!r4 ,!y 7 relat$ & di/+ui%$1 b "o ?rew no light ^u ! o!r4 ,9 ,plato's fir/ draft ( ! ,ideas he speaks ( ?is relation z imitation4 ,! ph5om5a are an imitation ( reality4 ,! ,ideas are ! orig9als & physical objects are copies4 ,to /ate ! relation 9 mod]n t]ms1 ! laws ( ! gr[? ( a tree are p]man5t1 :ile ! tree *anges4 ,! l[] _w ( ,becom+ has a simil>ity to ! high] _w ( ,be+4 ,z ! ,py?agoreans _h conceiv$ ?+s z imitations ( numb]s1 ,plato1 /rongly influ5c$ by ! ,py?agoreans1 ?\ght t concrete ?+s correspond to _! class concepts only 9 a degree4 ,on ! "o h&1 ! individual ?+ p>takes ( ! univ]sal ( ! ,idea1 & ?is is call$ 8p>ticipation0 9 ! ,idea4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ^w 8pres5ce0 describes ! way ! ,idea exi/s 9 ! ?+1 :i* means t ! ,idea is pres5t 9 ! ?+ s long z ! ?+ possesses ! quality ( ! ,idea4 ,! ,ideas are pres5t & !n )draw1 & ?us ! p]ception *anges4 ,9 ! second draft+ ( ! ,ideas1 ,plato has become consci\s ( ! ne$ ( expla9+ physical nature by ! ,ideas4 ,he did n at fir/ ?9k ( expla9+ ! nature ( ! physical _w by 8 metaphysical reality4 ,x 0 an aft]?\ght1 & arose out ( ! compulsion ( hav+ a sy/ematic !ory4 ,8 conception ( ! _w ( ,ideas z ! _w ( true ,be+ ultimately dem&$ t ! _w ( physical nature %\ld be n m]ely 8o!r ?an0 b dep5d5t ^u ! ,ideas4 ,! ,ideas are un*ang+2 ! ph5om5a are *ang+4 ,if ! ,ideas are ! reality ( ! *ang+ _w1 9 :at o!r s5se c !y be its reality ?an z its cause8 ,! ,m5o1 ,!tetus1 ,symposium1 & ,phdrus d n discuss ?is problem4 ,! ,sophi/ proposes x1 & 9 ! ,phd ! ?\ght is fir/ express$ t ! ,ideas are ! causes ( physical ph5om5a appe>+ z !y d appe>4 ,b h[ c ! ,ideas be causes1 :5 ! v conception ( !m z pure & immat]ial realities d5ies to !m all qualities ( motion & *ange8 ,! ,platonic !ory rea*$ its z5i? 9 its solution ( ?is problem4 ,! ,ideas mu/ be conceiv$ z ! causes ( nature ph5om5a1 & /ill z n mov+ nor suff]+ *ange4 ,!y are teleological causes4 ,!y are ! realiz$ ends ( ! ph5om5al _w4 ,! _w ( ,ideas is ! actual goal ( p]fection = physical nature4 ,! _w ( ,ideas is n only ! tru? ( all k2 x is also ! p]fect teleological cause ( all actual *ange4 ,?is ?\ght is develop$ 9 ! ,philebus & ! ,republic1 :]e ! ,ideas z a :ole1 & 9 p>ticul> ! ,idea ( ! ,good1to :i* all ! o!r ,ideas are means1/& z ! f9al cause ( all occurr5ce4 ,! physical ph5om5a /& !re=e 9 a teleological relation to ! ,idea ( ! ,good4 ,f ! ,good all ?+s get _! mean+4 ,x p]meates & expla9s all4 #c4 ,! ,relation among ! ,ideas 9 ! ,two ,drafts comp>$4 ,x 0 natural t ! conception ( a pluralism ( ,ideas %\ld lead ,plato to a consid]ation ( ! law ( _! relation%ip4 ,a sy/ematic !ory ( a multiplicity ( reals involves _! ord]ly relation%ip4 ,!y _c exi/ indep5d5tly 9 ! same _w4 ,:at is ! relation%ip among ! ,ideas8 ,9 ! e>li] draft+ ( 8 !ory ,plato 0 pr9cipally att5tive to ! relations ( cord9ation & subord9ation among ! ,ideas2 9 ! possibility ( ! division ( class concepts into g5]a & species4 ,! relation%ip t he s\ght 0 logical relation%ip1 ! relation%ip t ! sci5ti/ seeks to f9d 9 ! classification ( plants or rocks4 ,j :at result ,plato tri$ to rea* by su* a logical classification ( 8 realities1 x is difficult to say4 ,he 0 n successful4 ,8 attempt to erect a logically arrang$ pyramid ( conceptions ) ! mo/ ab/ract at ! apex 0 n c>ri$ out4 ,9 8 second draft+ ( ! ,ideas1 ,plato felt ! inadequacy ( a m]e logical relation%ip among !m1 & conceiv$ !m to be teleologically relat$4 ,8 r$uction ( ! numb] ( ,ideas _h naturally br\ght ab\t a new conception ( _! relation%ip4 ,!re mu/ be "s pr9ciple = _! elim9ation1 = ! reject+ ( "s & ! keep+ ( o!rs4 ,t pr9ciple 0 ! pr9ciple ( _! e?ical wor?4 ,t is to say1 ! ,idea ( ! ,good1 :i* _h be5 ! /&>d = elim9at+ "s concepts f ! li/ ( ,ideas & = reta9+ o!rs1 n[ became = him ! pr9ciple ( ! relation%ip ( ! ,ideas among !mselves4 ,plato turn$ f ! logical to ! teleological relation among ,ideas4 ,! ,idea ( ! ,good embraces & realizes all ! o!rs4 ,x is !re=e ! absolute end ( all ! o!r ,ideas1 & !y be> ! relation to x1 n ( p>ticul>s to a g5]al t]m1 b ( means to an end4 ,! pr9ciple 9 _! selection becomes ! pr9ciple ( _! arrangem5t4 ,plato's ,conception ( ,god4 ,! above sket* ( ! =mation & developm5t ( ,plato's !ory ( ,ideas %[s h[ difficult x w\ld be to frame a %ort def9ition ( !m t w\ld at ! same "t be adequate4 ,z he f9ally def9$ !m1 !y are immat]ial ar*etypes or ideals1 dom9at$ by a moral purpose4 ,?is dom9at+ moral purpose 9 ! ,ideas is ! highe/ ,idea ( all1 ! ,idea ( ! ,good1 :i* /&s above all ! o!rs & gives to !m & to ev]y?+ else _! value & inde$ _! actuality4 ,is ?is ,idea ( ! ,good ! same z ,god8 ,plato calls ! ,good 8,deity0 & ! 8,_w ,reason10 & ascribes to x ! "n ( ,n\s4 ,nev]!less ! ,idea ( ! ,good is n ! same z ! ,*ri/ian ,god1 & ,plato is only %[+ "h ! influ5ce ( ,anaxagoras' conception ^u him4 7,see p4 #dg47 ,! ,idea ( ! ,good is n a p]son or a spiritual be+4 ,x is m]ely ! absolute e?ical end & purpose ( ! _w4 ,plato did n attempt to give x a cont5t1 any m ?an did 8 ma/]1 ,socrates2 b ,plato presuppos$ x1 because x 0 9 itself ! simple/ & mo/ compreh5sible ?+ 9 ! _w4 ,plato's ,conception ( ,physical ,nature4 ,plato con/ruct$ a r\gh sket* ( ! philosophy ( nature 9 8 lat] ye>s1 9 compliance ) ! ne$s ( 8 ,s*ool1 & p]haps ) ! urg+ ( 8 pupil1 ,ari/otle4 ,9 8 e>li] p]iod1 he w\ld h no?+ ( physics1 & 0 9 ?is respect q 9 accord ) ! _s ( ,socrates4 ,to ! end ( 8 life he ma9ta9$ t !re c be no true k ( ! physical _w2 = x is a _w ( *ange1 & !re=e all sci5tific conclusions ab\t x c\ld be only probable4 ,9 a my?ical acc\nt 9 ! ,timu he drew a picture ( ! con/itution ( ! _w4 ,he conceiv$ a ,demiurge or _w-=m+ ,god to exi/1 & he ?\ght t ?is ,god made ! _w out ( n-,be+ or empty space 8) reg>d to ! ,ideas40 ,! _w ?us con/ruct$ is conceiv$ by ,plato z a huge liv+ ?+1 compos$ ( a visible body & an invisible s\l4 ,! _w-s\l sets ! _w-body 9 a circul> motion1 :i* motion 0 consid]$ by antiquity to be ! mo/ p]fect ( all motions4 ,9 %>p opposition to ! me*anical !ory ( ! _w1 ,plato conceiv$ ! _w to be end[$ ) k1 ( :i* ! sph]ical motion 9 its return ^u itself is ! symbol4 ,! _w is unit>y & unique1 ! mo/ p]fect & mo/ beautiful _w1 & its orig9 c be trac$ only to a reason work+ t[>d ends4 ,plato's physics1 ( :i* ! above is an abbreviat$ acc\nt1 w be se5 to be ( little importance2 b x 0 un=tunately1 z we h said1 ?is side ( 8 doctr9e t 0 emphasiz$ 9 ! ,middle ,ages4 ,?is my?ical acc\nt %[s1 h[ev]1 ! inh]5t dualism 9 ,plato's doctr9e4 ,! ,idea nev] fully realizes itself 9 corporeal ?+s1 & ,plato 0 call$ on to expla9 ! cause ( ! evil & imp]fection ( ! physical _w4 ,moreov]1 ! imp]fection ( ! physical _w got new emphasis 9 ! influ5ce ^u him ( ! ,py?agorean doctr9e1 :i* _h set ! p]fect & imp]fect worlds 9 opposition4 ,:at prev5ts ! ,idea f fully appe>+ 9 ph5om5a8 ,! m ,plato conceiv$ ! _w ( ,ideas z e?ical ,ideals & a k+dom ( pure wor?1 & ! m teleological ! ,ideas became1 ! less c\ld he reg>d ! ,ideas z ! cause ( imp]fection 9 nature4 ,ideas are ,be+1 & ! ess5ce ( p]fection4 ,! cause ( imp]fection mu/ !re=e be t :i* has no be+ :atsoev]4 ,! physical _w z 8becom+0 has p>ticipation1 n only 9 t :i* has ,be+ 7,ideas71 b 9 t :i* has no ,be+ 7empty space74 ,! physical _w has a composite "*4 ,x has sprung f ! union ( ! ,ideas & an absolutely negative factor1 :i* ,plato calls empty space4 ,?is et]nal negative is =mless & unfa%ion$1 b x is capable ( tak+ on all possible =ms4 ,! physical univ]se is !re=e nei!r ,ideas simply1 nor matt] simply1 b a composition ( ! two4 ,?is non-,be+ is n l ! matt]1 8un=m$ /uff10 ( ,ari/otle1 f :i* all s5sible ?+s are made2 b x is t 9 :i* ,ideas h to appe>4 ,! ,ideas are plung$ into ?is empty non-,be+1 :i* !y take on z a veil4 ,& j ?is is ! orig9 ( imp]fection2 non-,be+ )holds ! ,ideas f p]fect expression4 ,non-,be+1 or empty space1 is an indisp5sable auxili>y to ! ,ideas1 = )\t x no physical univ]se w\ld be possible4 ,b at ! same "t x is ! et]nal foe & ob/ruction ( ! ,ideas4 ,its cop]ation ) ! ,ideas is at ! same "t a resi/ance to !m4 ,x is ! p]petual negation ( ,be+1 & ! prim>y cause ( imp]fection1 *ange1 & in/ability4 ,on ?is acc\nt ! univ]se c nev] be l ! ,ideas1 b x c approximate !m4 ,! s\l ( ! _w1 = example1:i* 0 reg>d$ by ,plato 9 ,py?agorean fa%ion z numb] subject+ *aotic space to h>mony1is ! mo/ p]fect reproduction ( ! ,idea ( ! ,good4 ,! exi/5ce ( matt] detracts f ! p]fection ( ! _w1 b x does n detract f ! maje/y ( ! ,ideas4 ,plato's ,conception ( ,man4 ,plato ne$$ a psy*ology ( ano!r sort f t develop$ by ! ,cosmologi/s4 ,8 analysis ( ! m5tal life ( man /&s or falls ) 8 metaphysical !ory ( ,ideas1 b x has ?is importance3 x is ! fir/ attempt to und]/& ! psy*ical life f )94 ,! dualism ( ! two worlds appe>s 9 %>p outl9es 9 ! n>r[] field ( ! life ( man4 ,! s\l ( man belongs to bo? worlds4 ,on ! "o h&1 x belongs to ! _w ( ,becom+ & p>takes ( t _w ?r\gh its s5se-p]ceptions1 desires1 & _! pleasures4 ,9 ?is l[] _w x is ! pr9ciple ( life & motion2 x is t :i* moves itself & o!r ?+s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x %>es 9 ! _w ( ,be+ ?r\gh its intuitive reason or k4 ,x %>es 9 ! in/ability & *ange ( psy*ical ph5om5a2 x also possesses ! immutability ( reality4 ,?r\gh its p]ceptions x con/ructs its 8op9ions0 or inf]5ces ( *ang+ ph5om5a2 ?r\gh its reason x has true k ( ! et]nal ,ideas4 ,!re=e ! s\l mu/ be> 9 itself traits t correspond to ! two worlds4 ,plato conceives man to h an irrational & a rational nature2 & he divides ! irrational nature into two p>ts1! noble irrational "p & ! ignoble irrational "p4 ,! rational "p ( man is ! reason1 ! noble irrational "p is ! w1 ! ignoble irrational "p is ! s5su\s appetites4 ,rational nature reason ,man ,irrational nature ,noble w ,ignoble s5su\s appetites ,?is is ! celebrat$ doctr9e ( ! 8?ree p>ts0 ( ! s\l4 ,are !y ?ree p>ts or ?ree functions ( ! s\l8 ,plato is n cle> z to ?is po9t4 ,he sometimes speaks ( !m z ?ree divisions1 & treats !m z sep>able 9 su* a way t only ! reason is immortal & ! o!r two p>ts are mortal4 ,aga91 he speaks ( ! s\l z a unity1 :i* c>ries ) x 9 ! next life all ?ree functions4 ,9 ?is latt] mean+ ! ?ree p>ts are ?ree natures or ?ree diff]5t degrees ( wor? ( ! unit>y s\l4 ,plato's ,doctr9e ( ,immortality4 ,beg9n+ ) ?is conception ( ! dual nature ( ! human s\l1 ,plato reasons bo? backw>d & =w>d f x3 backw>d to its pre-exi/5ce1 & =w>d f its po/-exi/5ce1its exi/5ce aft] dea?4 ,9 ! ,phd1 ,plato has put into ! m\? ( :at has become 8 ,platoniz$ ,socrates 8 f9al ?\ght conc]n+ ! relation ( ?is pres5t life to its pa/ & its future4 ,x is pla9ly ! doctr9e ( ! transmigration ( s\ls1 :i* he got f ! ,py?agoreans4 ,! s\l has a reality t is imp]i%able1 & ! s\l is rew>d$ or puni%$ = its conduct 9 "o exi/5ce by ! k9d ( exi/5ce into :i* x is metamorphos$4 ,9 prison1 on t fatal day :5 he drank ! poison1 ,socrates expla9$ to ^? ar\nd him :y he 0 s *e]ful at ! ?\ght ( dea?4 ,is n our pres5t exi/5ce a k9d ( dea?8 ,is n ! s\l 9 ! pres5t life det]r$ f true k by ! trammels ( ! bodily desires8 ,! true philosoph] is he :o turns away f 8 body's passions1dies to !m1 & tries to live ! reality ( ! _w ( ,ideas4 ,we %all h full k :5 we pass beyond ! grave & !n we %all be rew>d$1 if we h /riv5 truly4 ,b at pres5t our body hamp]s & misleads u ) its p]ceptions ( *ang+ mortality ar\nd u1 & ) its transitory desires4 ,?is life itself is ! rew>d or puni%m5t = our conduct 9 our prec$+ /ate4 #a4 ,! ,immortality ( ,pre-exi/5ce4 ,:at pro( does ,plato (f] = our exi/5ce be=e ?is life8 ,! ,ideas1 ^! te/imonies ( reality1 =m a "p ( ! human s\l4 ,!y are et]nal1 & h n be5 creat$ by ! s\l4 ,k is n ! orig9ation ( a new tru?1 b is ! recognition ( ,ideas1 ^: pres5ce ! m9d m]ely records4 ,greek psy*ology nev] got mu* f>!r ?an ?is4 ,! mod]n psy*ological conception ( ! s\l z a dynamic some?+1 :i* creates its own cont5t1 0 q =eign to ! ,greeks4 ,to ,plato1 z to all o!r ,greeks1 ! s\l is z passive z ! wax t receives ! impress ( ! seal4 ,all ,greek psy*ology 0 "u ?is g5]al limitation3 all ideas mu/ be 8giv50 to ! s\l4 ,!re=e if ! ,ideas are n 8giv50 by p]ception1 because p]ception is ( ! *ang+2 if nev]!less ! s\l f9ds itself 9 possession ( ! ,ideas on ! occasion ( p]ception2 if ! s\l did n create ! ,ideas1 because ! s\l is by nature passive2 ! logical & only conclusion is t ! s\l 0 already 9 possession ( ! ,ideas 9 a pre-exi/5t /ate4 ,pre-exi/5ce is ! only way ( acc\nt+ = ! full-born k ( ! s\l1 & x is int]e/+ to note h[ important 0 ! pre-exi/5t /ate to ! imag9ation ( ! anci5t _w4 ,plato !re=e advanc$ ! doctr9e ( rem9isc5ce1 or z he call$ x1 ,anamnesis1 z pro( ( our pre-exi/5ce4 ,k is recollection4 ,! ,ideas h always be5 pres5t 9 ! m9d1 & :5 we recognize !m we h k4 ,! ,ideas h no pa/ or future1 b !y always exi/4 ,x is ! m9d t und]goes awak5+an awak5+ to _! exi/5ce 9 itself4 ,:5 ! m9d sees ! objects ( physical nature1 x awak5s 9 pa9ful a/oni%m5t at ! contra/ betwe5 ! s5se _w & ! ,ideas ( its native _w ( immat]iality4 ,9 a my?ical repres5tation 9 ! ,phdrus1 ,plato supposes t be=e ! pres5t life our s\ls h beheld ! pure ,ideas 9 _! full reality1 t ! ,ideas _h be5 =gott5 9 our bir? into ! pres5t life1 b t ! p]ception ( simil> corporeal ?+s calls ! s\l back to ! ,ideas !mselves4 ,!n ! 8,eros0 is awak5$! native philosophical impulse or inborn love = ! ,ideas1 by :i* ! s\l is rais$ aga9 to ! k ( t true reality4 ,only ! pure ,ideas !mselves w satisfy ?is long+2 ! embodim5t ( ! ,ideas 9 art or p]sonalities is n adequate4 ,! ,eros ties u to ! ,ideas4 ,god does n h ?is long+1 = ,he fully kn[s ! ,good4 ,! ignorant man does n h ?is long+1 = he does n suspect ! exi/5ce ( ! ,ideas 9 himself4 ,! ,eros is ! homesickness t ! lov] ( ! tru? feels4 ,our bir? is b a sleep & a =gett+1 ,! s\l t rises 9 u1 our life's />1 ,ha? _h else:]e its sett+1 ,& come? f af>2 ,n 9 entire =getfulness1 ,& n 9 utt] nak$ness1 ,b trail+ cl\ds ( glory d we come ,f ,god1 :o is our home4#ca ,:51 9 ! ,m5o1 ! ,sophi/ic dilemma 0 propos$ to ,socrates1 8,h[ c inquiry be made into :at we "k or into :at we don't "k80 ,socrates po9t$ out t ! only escape f ! dilemma 0 ! process ( recollect+1 & t k is ! ?+ recall$4 ,socrates !n call$ a slave to him1 & by skillfully que/ion+ him f\nd t ! slave recogniz$ ! ma!matical relation%ip betwe5 ! squ>e on ! hypo!nuse ( a "r triangle & ! sums ( ! squ>es on ! o!r two sides4 8,! ignorant slave c only h be5 recollect+10 says ,socrates4 ,ma!matical k is extract$ f ! s5se-p]ception ( ! slave only because ! slave has ?r\gh su* p]ception ! opportunity ( recollect+ ,ideas pres5t 9 himself & n hi!rto suspect$ by himself4 ,9 ,plato's sy/em1 ma!matical =ms h an important place4 ,!y are ! l9ks by means ( :i* ! ,idea %apes space teleologically into ! s5se _w4 #b4 ,! ,immortality ( ,po/-,exi/5ce4 ,plato's gr\nd = belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( s\l aft] dea? is practically ! same z t = its previ\s exi/5ce4 ,its de/9y h]eaft] dep5ds ^u h[ f> x has fre$ itself 9 ?is e>?ly life f ! s5su\s appetite4 ,z pro(s = future exi/5ce ,plato m5tions ! s\l's possession ( ! ,ideas1 ! simplicity & unity ( ! s\l1 ! s\l z ! pr9ciple ( life1 & ! goodness ( ,god4 ,h[ev] weak ,plato's argum5ts may be = ! exi/5ce ( future immortality1 8 absolute belief 9 x is "o ( ! *ief po9ts 9 8 tea*+4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ! mod]n we/]n _w seems to h no conc]n 9 ! previ\s /ate ( ! s\l1 b ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ! ,*ri/ian religion has focus$ its att5tion ^u ! future life4 ,ori5tal religions conta9 ! doctr9e ( pre-exi/5ce & ! transmigration ( s\ls1 b n 9 ! same s5se z ,plato4 ,9 ,plato ! s\l possesses an id5tity t p]si/s4 ,x has all ! qualities ( ! ,ideas1 b is also an entity possess+ ^! qualities4 ,x has non-orig9ation1 inde/ructibility1 unity1 & *angelessness4 ,! doctr9e ( ! immortality ( po/-exi/5ce _h appe>$ 9 ! ,greek religion1 b ?is is ! fir/ "t t we h f\nd x z a "p ( philosophic tea*+4 ,! /ud5t w1 ( c\rse1 feel ! difficulties 9 ,plato's conception z he has pres5t$ x4 ,= h[ c ! s\l pres]ve its individuality z a unity1 :5 ! s\l belongs 9 "p to a _w :i* is temporal8 ,! ,two ,t5d5cies 9 ,plato4 ,f ! doctr9e ( ! two worlds !re are two di/9ct t5d5cies runn+ ?r\gh ! entire tea*+ ( ,plato4 ,^! are 7#a7 ! t5d5cy to glorify nature1 & 7#b7 ! t5d5cy to turn away f nature to ascetic contemplation4 ,on ! "o h&1 ,plato felt )9 himself ! light he>t-beat ( ! arti/1 & ! ,hell5ic love ( life 0 /rong )9 him4 ,he felt t ! ,idea ( ! ,good 0 realiz$ ev5 9 ! _w ( s5se1 t !re 0 pleasure 9 ! s5su\s imitation ( ! ,idea1 9 practical arti/ic skill1 & 9 an intellig5t und]/&+ ( ma!matical ord]+s4 ,^! 7 at lea/ prep>ations = ! highe/ ,good1 :i* consi/$ 9 k ( ! ,ideas4 ,on ! o!r h&1 "o f9ds beside ?is ! ascetic t5d5cy to be repell$ by nature1 a negative e?ics t w\ld leave ! _w ( s5se & w\ld spiritualize ! life4 ,! ,!tetus sets up an ideal ( retirem5t = ! philosoph]1 & po9ts out t he %\ld f9d refuge z soon z possible f ! evils ( ! _w 9 ! div9e pres5ce4 ,! ,phd pictures ! :ole life ( ! philosoph] z a dy+1 a purification ( ! s\l1 an exi/5ce 9 prison1 f :i* escape is only by virtue & k4 ,?is ascetic t5d5cy seems v anti-,greek2 & yet is x =eign to ,greek life8 ,9 ,greek hi/ory d we n f9d1 by ! side ( ! ,epic & ! glorification ( nature1 ! ,my/]ies & ! )drawal ( ! individual f ! _w8 ,bo? ^! hi/oric t5d5cies appe> 9 ,plato1 & on ! :ole ! ascetic t5d5cy is /rong]4 ,! ,ideas are contra/$ ) ! nature _w m (t5 ?an !y transfigure x4 ,! dualism ( ,heav5 & e>? is emphasiz$1 & ! contra/ is /rongly drawn betwe5 ! reality ( ! ,ideas & ! temporality ( s5se4 ,platonic ,love4 ,describ$ 9 te*nical t]ms1 9 bo? ,socrates & ,plato1 ,love 7,eros7 is ! philosophic & n a purely intellectual impulse4 ,its r m didactic "* 9 ,socrates ( an attempt to eng5d] k & virtue 9 o!rs appe>s 9 ,plato 9 a l>g] way z ! p]sonal & practical realization ( ! tru?4 ,r$uc$ to its simple/ t]ms1 ,platonic ,love is ! long+ ( ! human be+ 9 8 imp]fectness = p]fectness & complet5ess4 ,x is ! innate desire = immortality4 ,true love1 accord+ to ,plato1 takes its beg9n+ 9 ! a/oni%m5t or pa9 at ! pres5tm5t ( ! ,ideas ?r\gh remembrance1 & ! />t+-po9t ( ,love 9 an individual is ! pr9ciple fundam5tal 9 pre-exi/5ce4 ,! philosophic impulse = ! ,ideas takes ! =m ( ,love1 because visible beauty has a special brightness & makes a /rong impression on ! m9d4 ,love belongs only to mortal natures2 = !y1 s9ce !y d n possess ! div9e un*angeabl5ess1 h to propagate !mselves cont9ually4 ,love may be describ$ !re=e z ! propagative impulse4 ,on ! "o side x may be view$ z an inspiration f above1 spr++ f ! high]1 div9ely-relat$ nature 9 man2 on ! o!r h& x may be view$ z an aspiration f bel[ ( ! s5su\s & human 9 man4 ,on ?is side x is a ye>n+ & n a possession2 & x presupposes a want4 ,analyz$ 9 ?is way1 ,love is ! middle t]m betwe5 hav+ & n hav+4 ,x is ! union ( ! high] & l[] natures 9 man1 & ?r\gh\t ! univ]se !re /irs ?is long+ = ! et]nal & imp]i%able4 ,:at is ! object ( ?is ,love1( ?is desire ( ! f9ite to fill itself ) ! et]nal & to g5]ate some?+ endur+8 ,t object is ! possession ( ! ,good1 :i* is happ9ess4 ,! possession ( ! ,good is immortality4 ,:at is ! ext]nal condition ( ,love's exi/5ce8 ,! pres5ce ( ,beauty2 = ?is alone1 by its h>moni\s =m1 corresponds to our desire & awak5s x4 ,does ?is ,love appe> fir/ 9 its complete realization8 ,no2 !re are _m k9ds ( beauty1 & ,love is z v>i\s 9 degree & k9d z beautiful objects4 ,love rises /ep by /ep1 & is realiz$ 9 a graduat$ s]ies ( =ms4 ,!re is ,love = beautiful %apes1 sexual love2 ,love = beautiful s\ls1 & ?is appe>s 9 works ( art1 education1 & legislation2 ,love = beautiful sci5ces1 ! seek+ ( beauty :]ev] f\nd2 & f9ally ,love = ! pure1 %apeless1 et]nal1 & un*angeable! ,idea1 :i* is immortality4 ,all else is prelim9>y to ! dialectical k ( ! ,ideas4 ,9 all ?is1 man is rea*+ out f 8 s5se ( want = satisfaction1 f 8 pov]ty to ! complet$ ri*es ( life4 ,love be>s him on f height to height until1 9 religion & ,love ( ! ,good1 man ga9s 8 immortality4 ,9 ,platonic ,love all k9ds ( ,love h place 9 po9t+ ! s\l onw>d to ! div9ely p]fect4 ,yet ?is ,love = ! div9ely p]fect is ! s\l's aspiration f ! beg9n+1 & all ! prelim9>y /ages are only ! unc]ta9 attempts to seize ! ,idea 9 ! copies4 ,love1 !re=e1 is ?is univ]sal /ruggle ( ! f9ite to in=m itself ) ! ,idea2 & delight 9 any "o object ( beauty is a /age 9 ! developm5t ( ?is impulse4#cb ,plato's ,!ory ( ,e?ics4 ,plato's ,!ory ( ,ideas is1 aft] all1 fundam5tally only an outspok5 e?ical metaphysics1 & 8 ,e?ics is 8 mo/ fruitful accompli%m5t4 ,plato's e?ical tea*+ is !re=e involv$ 9 all t we h said ab\t him up to ?is po9t4 ,an und]/&+ ( 8 e?ics includes an und]/&+ ( ! =mation & gr[? ( 8 dialectic1 an insight into 8 physical !ory1 k ( ! two t5d5cies :i* run ?r\gh 8 tea*+1 & especially an und]/&+ ( 8 doctr9e ( ,love4 ,if "s ( ! previ\s exposition is repeat$1 x w be only to br+ out m fully 8 e?ical tea*+ z a special sci5ce4 ,we %all speak ( ?ree topics "u ?is g5]al subject ( 8 e?ics3 7#a7 8 developm5t ( 8 !ory ( ! ,good2 7#b7 ! f\r c>d9al virtues2 7#c7 8 !ory ( political society4 #a4 ,developm5t ( ,plato's ,!ory ( ! ,good4 ,plato betrays 8 ascetic t5d5cy 9 8 fir/ draft+ ( ! ,ideas &1 z we h said1 ! d\ble-_w !ory is ! cause ( ?is4 ,only "o ( ! two worlds is real & w appeal to ! ,wise ,man4 ,! s\l belongs to ! sup]s5sible _w1 & ! k1 ( :i* virtue consi/s1 takes man away f ! s5sible _w4 ,s9ce e>?ly life is full ( evil1 ! s\l %\ld die to x & turn away z soon z possible to ! div9e pres5ce4 ,?is ascetic aspect ( morality is set =? 9 ! ,phd & ! ,!tetus4 ,9 ! g5]al developm5t ( 8 metaphysics 9 ! second draft+ ( 8 ,ideas1 ,plato's e?ical !ory develop$ also4 ,he n only w5t beyond ! ab/ract /atem5t ( ,socrates1 b beyond 8 own orig9al asceticism4 ,:5 he br\ght 8 two worlds into teleological relation%ip1 he 0 logically compell$ to ab&on 8 conception ( ascetic morals4 ,! physical _w has n[ a relative reality1 & by ! same sign s5se-life has a relative moral value4 ,x 0 ,plato's firm conviction t moral conduct makes man truly bless$1 9 ?is & ano!r _w4 ,he /ill held1 too1 t ?is bless$ness1 ?is complete p]fection ( ! s\l1 ?is %>+ 9 ! div9e _w ( ! ,ideas1 is ! ,highe/ ,good4 ,yet he n[ came to recognize o!r k9ds ( happ9ess z /eps t[>d ! ideal ,good4 ,!re are v>ieties ( ,goods1 z appe>$ 9 8 doctr9e ( ,love4 ,besides ! intuition ( k & its pleasures1 !re are physical ,goods & _! pleasures4 ,intellectual pleasure may be unmix$ ) pa91 b !re are also s5su\s pleasures unmix$ ) pa94 ,"h is inde$ ,plato1 ! ,greek1 speak+2 ,plato1 ! ,greek arti/1 impell$ by ! *>m ( ! ,greek _w ar\nd him4 ,/rongly z he combat$ ! ,cyr5aic h$onism1 & closely z he 0 alli$ to ,socrates1 8 ,greek nature gave way be=e ! manife/ations ( ! ,idea ( ! ,good 9 ! physical _w4 ,! pleasure 9 nature objects1 9 educational developm5t1 9 ! practical & pla/ic arts1 9 ma!matical sci5ces1 & 9 ! ord]l9ess ( lifeall ^! became = him prelim9>y /ages 9 ! full p>ticipation 9 ! e?ical ,good4 ,!y came to h = him a relative value1 z express$ 9 ! ,philebus1 ,republic1 & ,symposium4 #b4 ,! ,f\r ,c>d9al ,virtues4 ,b ,plato w5t f>!r1 & 0 n cont5t m]ely to po9t out ! place ( human conduct 9 ! tw(old _w4 ,he develop$ 8 !ory ( e?ics sy/ematically4 ,he classifi$ ! virtues on ! basis ( 8 ?reefold division ( ! s\l4 ,naturally en\gh1 9 8 fir/ draft ( 8 !ory1 ,plato foll[$ ,socrates 9 r$uc+ ! s+le virtues to "o1 viz41 ! virtue ( k4 ,9 8 second draft+1 h[ev]1 9 ! lat] dialogues1 he assum$ _! di/9ct indep5d5ce1 & he reflect$ ^u _! respective sph]es4 ,a virtue corresponds to ea* "p ( ! s\l4 ,ea* "p has its own p]fection1 :i* is its virtue4 ,moreov]1 9 s f> z "o or ano!r "p ( ! s\l prepond]ates 9 diff]5t m51 s f> are !y suit$ to develop+ ! correspond+ virtue4 ,rational nature9 bra9 7,wisdom7 ,s\l 7,ju/ice7 ,irrational ,noble "p9 he>t 7,c\rage7 nature ,ignoble "p9 liv] 7,temp]ance7 ,f ! above s*eme x w be obs]v$ t ! rational nature has ! bra9 z its organ & rea*es its p]fection or virtue 9 ,wisdom2 t ! ignoble irrational nature has ! liv] z its organ1 & rea*es its virtue 9 self-control or ,temp]ance4 ,f9ally1 s9ce ! p]fection ( ! :ole s\l consi/s 9 ! ord]ly relation ( its s+le p>ts1 s subord9at$ & regulat$ t ! s\l c rea* its highe/ p]fection1 ! f\r? & highe/ virtue is ,ju/ice4 ,! f\r c>d9al virtues are ,temp]ance1 ,c\rage1 ,wisdom1 & ,ju/ice4 #c4 ,plato's ,!ory ( ,political ,society4 ,! virtue1 ,ju/ice1 has little mean+ 9 individual e?ics1 & z an e?ical p]fection c only be atta9$ 9 society4 ,!re is no ,engli% ^w t is q ! equival5t = ! ,greek t]m1 b ,ju/ice is ! usual translation4 ,ju/ice1 h[ev]1 does n conta9 ! moral _s ( ! ,greek ^w4 ,consi/5t ) 8 conception ( ! ,ideas 9 8 metaphysics1 ,plato's ideal ( moral p]fection is to be f\nd1 n 9 ! individual1 b 9 ! species4 ,plato pictures less ! p]fect man ?an ! p]fect society4 ,p]fect happ9ess is r t ( ! social :ole ?an ( ! individual1 & ?is ideal ( happ9ess c be rea*$ only 9 ! ideal ,/ate4 ,t is :y ! dialogue1 ! ,republic1 occupies s important a place 9 ,plato's writ+s4 ,x is an attempt to %[ h[ ! f\r? & la/ virtue1 ,ju/ice1 c be atta9$4 ,! fir/ book 0 writt5 9 ,plato's e>ly p]iod1 & 0 p]haps call$ a 8dialogue conc]n+ ,ju/ice40 ,ju/ice is di/9ctly ! social virtue f\nd only 9 a p]fect society1 & x w make possible ! fulfillm5t ( ,wisdom1 ,c\rage1 & ,temp]ance4 ,! individual man is a vital be+ ^: he>t is ! c5tral organ1 ^: *>act]i/ic virtue is c\rage4 ,8 c\rage is inde$ a comb9ation ( wisdom & temp]ance4 ,! picture is ( ! individual man1 n am5able to society1 b 9 8a /ate ( w>f>e40 ,9 su* isolation ,ju/ice w\ld n exi/ z a virtue4 ,! political /ate is necess>y if ! ,idea ( ! ,good is to be manife/$ 9 human life4 ,! /ate is ! true educator 9 ,ju/ice1 & at ! same "t ! ideal /ate w be ! realization ( ,ju/ice4 ,! task ( ! /ate ev]y:]e is ! same1 to wit1 to direct ! common life ( man s t e "o may be happy ?r\gh virtue4 ,! result may be atta9$ only by s ord]+ ! relations ( society t ,ju/ice may prevail4 ,plato's ,republic is a c>efully work$-out plan ( su* an ideal society4 ,! au?or made sev]al attempts at ,syracuse ) ! aid ( ,dion to get fir/ ! eld] & !n ! y\ng] ,dionysius to trans=m ! tyranny into an ideal /ate4 ,^! attempts result$ disa/r\sly4 ,9 ! disappo9tm5t ( 8 old age t 8 ideal s*eme _h nev] succe$$1 he wrote ! ,laws1 :i* is a revis$ v]sion ( ! ,republic ) ! ,py?agorean numb] !ory z a basis4 ,! ,sp>tan /ate is 8 model4 ,! ,platonic ,republic is ari/ocratic4 ,!re is pat]nal gov]nm5t 9 ev]y?+1 c5sor%ip ( ev]y?+4 ,ea* individual's c\rse is m>k$ out = him4 ,:5 ,greek political life 0 und]go+ dissolution1 ,plato rais$ ! ideal ( political unity z necess>y to individual happ9ess z aga9/ ! an>*ism ( segregation4 ,yet ev5 9 ?is he 0 reflect+ ! curr5t di/ru/ ( political in/itutions4 ,! comp>ison ( exi/+ political conditions ) 8 own political ideal re9=c$ 8 ari/ocratic lean+s1 & made him ! m di/ru/ful ( ! political possibilities ( a democracy4 ,he believ$ t an intellig5tly work$ out s*eme ( gov]nm5t 0 practicable1 & %\ld be =c$ ^u p1 if necess>y4 ,9 no o!r way 0 political salvation possible4 ,s9ce ! ,/ate is ! man 8writ l>ge10 x has ?ree p>ts1 correspond+ to ! ?ree p>ts ( ! human s\l4 ,!re is 7#a7 ! work+ or peasant class1 :i* corresponds to ! appetitive "p ( man2 ! only object ( su* a class is to furni% food = ! ,/ate1 & ! highe/ virtue ( ?is class is temp]ance4 ,! peasant c only "w1 eat1 & dr9k1 & ! highe/ praise ( him is t he controls 8 appetites4 7#b7 ,! w>rior class gu>ds ! ,/ate )9 & )\t2 & its *>act]i/ic virtue is c\rage4 ,! w mu/ %[ its highe/ effici5cy 9 guidance ( ! emotions4 7#c7 ,highe/ ( all is ! cultur$ class ( philosoph]s or rul]s1 :o det]m9e by _! insight ! laws t %\ld rule ! ,/ate4 ,! virtue ( ?is class is wisdom1 = is ?is class n ! bra9 ( ! ,/ate8 ,! p]fection ( ! entire ,/ate exi/s :5 ! ?ree classes h _! prop] di/ribution ( p[]4 ,!n does ju/ice exi/4 ,! duty ( ! rul]s is !re=e to h ! highe/ wisdom possible1 ( ! w>riors to be unfl9*+ 9 _! devotion to duty1 ( ! peasants to ex]cise self-control4 ,?us ,plato's ,republic is an ari/ocracy 9 ! h&s ( ! c>efully cultur$1 :i* consi/s ( ! two upp] classes4 ,by means ( community ( wives1 ! exposure ( de=m$ infants1 & ! ,/ate's education ( ! *ildr5 ( ! two upp] classes1 a cont9u\s selection c be made1 ! two upp] classes c be r5ew$1 & all private ends c be r5\nc$ 9 favor ( ! ,/ate4 ,?us ! sole end ( a community is moral education1 & ,plato arranges 8 ideal community ) ref]5ce to t4 ,! two upp] classes are a great family1 to :om ?is is intru/$4 ,!y h d$icat$ _! lives to ! fur!r+ ( sci5ce & to its adm9i/ration4 ,a ,,selection ,,( ,,passages ,,f ,,plato ,,= ,,engli% ,,read]s4 ,by ,pr(essor ,b5jam9 ,j[ett1 late ,pr9cipal ( ,balliol ,college1 ,ox=d4 ,! figures ref] to ! pages 9 ! m>g9 ( ,pr(essor ,j[ett's translation ( ,plato's ,dialogues2 ! lett]s 7,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e7 to ! subdivisions ( ^! pages4 ,,fir/ ,,volume4 ,,*>mides4 ,socrates prescribes = ,*>mides' heada*e4 #aef ,d 7444 #8,su*1 ,*>mides1 is ! nature ( ! *>m'44447 -#aeg ,c 7444 #8my de> ,*>mides4'7 ,,lysis4 ,we only tru/ ^? :o appe> to "k m ?an ourselves4 #bjf ,d 7#8,^u ent]+' 4447 -#baj ,b 7#8,he ass5t$4'7 ,,la*es4 7#a7 ,! art ( fight+ 9 arm\r is useless to ! soldi]4 #ahb ,e 7#8,i %\ld n l to ma9ta9' 4447 -#ahd ,c 7444 #88 op9ion ( ! matt]4'7 7#b7 ,! h>mony ( words & de$s4 #ahh ,c 7#8,i h b "o feel+' 4447 -#ahi ,b 7444 #8! diff]5ce ( our ages4'7 ,,protagoras4 7#a7 ,! ,sophi/s at ! h\se ( ,callias4 #cad ,b 7444 #8,& n[ let u g' 4447 -#caf ,a 7444 #8r5d]$ 8 words inaudible4'7 7#b7 ,protagoras tells ! /ory ( ,prome!us & ,epime!us4 #cbj ,d 7#8,once ^u a "t' 4447 -#cbb ,d 7444 #8a plague ( ! /ate4'7 7#c7 ,! education ( a ,greek *ild4 #cbe ,d 7#8,education & admonition' 4447 -#cbf ,e 7444 #8w\ld be f> m surpris+4'7 ,,eu?ydemus4 ,! doctr9aire politician & ! true philosoph]4 #cjd ,b 7#8,su* 0 ! discussion1 ,crito' 4447 -to end 7444 #8& be ( good *e]4'7 ,,cratylus4 ,! significations ( ! v>i\s lett]s4 #dbf ,b 7#8,my fir/ notions' 4447 -#dbg ,c 7444 #8& out ( !m by imitation comp\nd+ o!r signs4' 4447 ,,pha$rus4 7#a7 ,! philosoph] mu/ /udy ! nature ( man4 #bbi ,a 7#8,let u turn aside1' 4447 -#bcj ,a 7444 #8a div9] & l[li] de/9y8' 4447 7#b7 ,! banks ( ! ,ilissus4 #bcj ,b 7444 #8,b let me ask y1 fri5d1' 4447 -,e 7444 #89 :i* y c read be/4'7 7#c7 ,! s\l 9 a figure & h] transmigrations4 #bde ,c 7#8,! s\l ?r\gh all h] be+' 4447 -#beg ,a 7444 #8leave y a fool 9 ! _w bel[4'7 7#d7 ,! true orator4 #bfi ,e 7#8,i conceive ,p]icles' 4447 -#bgb ,c 7444 #8& yet ! creation ( su* an art is n easy4'7 7#e7 ,! tale ( ,?amus & ,!u?4 #bgd ,c 7#8,i h he>d a tradition ( ! anci5ts' 4447 -#bge ,c 7444 #8t ! ,!ban is "r 9 8 view ab\t lett]s4'7 7#f7 ,spee* bett] ?an writ+4 #bge ,c 7#8,i _c help feel+' 4447 -#bgg ,a 7444 #8to ! utmo/ ext5t ( human happ9ess4'7 7#g7 ,! true art ( composition4 #bgg ,b 7#8,until a man kn[s ! tru?' 4447 -#bgh ,d 7444 #8poet or spee*-mak] or law-mak]4'7 ,,ion4 ,! inspiration ( ! poet4 #ecc ,c 7#8,i p]ceive1 ,ion1' 4447 -#ecf ,c 7444 #8n by art1 b by div9e inspiration4'7 ,,symposium4 ,! ,"* ( ,socrates4 7#a7 ,8 fit ( ab/raction 9 ! por*4 #agd ,a 7#8,he said t he met ,socrates' 4447 -#age ,c 7444 #8,socrates ent]$4' 4447 7#b7 ,8 /range appe>ance & m>vell\s p[] ( influ5c+ o!rs4 #bae ,a 7#8,& n[1 my boys1' 4447 -#baf ,g 7444 #8s t ,i am at my wit's end4'7 7#c7 ,8 endurance1 ecc5tricity1 & brav]y4 #bai ,e 7444 #8,all ?is happ5$' 4447 -#bbb ,a 7444 #8a good & hon\rable man4'7 ,,second ,,volume4 ,,m5o4 ,le>n+ is only ,recollection 773 ,! ,immortality ( ! ,s\l prov$ out ( ,p9d>4 #ha ,a 7#8,i w tell y :y' 4447 -,e 7444 #8active & inquisitive4' 4447 ,,apology1 ,,or ,,! ,,def5ce ,,( ,,socrates4 ,! :ole4 ,,crito1 ,,or ,,socrates ,,9 ,,prison4 ,! :ole4 ,,pha$o1 ,,or ,,! ,,la/ ,,day ,,( ,,socrates' ,,life4 7#a7 ,socrates 9 prison4 #eg-fj ,c 7444 #8pleasure appe>s to succe$4'7 7#b7 ,:y ! philosoph] is will+ to die1 al?\gh he w n take 8 own life4 #fj ,c 7#8,^u ?is ,cebes said' 4447 -#fi ,e 7444 #8x w be well4'7 7#c7 ,! ,description ( ! ,o!r ,life4 #ajg ,c 7#8,b !n1 ,o my fri5ds1' 4447 -#aae ,a 7444 #8aft] ,i am dead4'7 7#d7 ,! ,dea? ( ,socrates4 #aae ,a 7#8,:5 he _h done speak+' 4447 -to end4 ,,gorgias4 7#a7 ,! good man desires1 n a long1 b a virtu\s1 life4 #eaa ,a 7#8,y always contrive' 4447 -#eac ,a 7444 #8_! own p]dition4' 4447 7#b7 ,! ,judgm5t ( ! ,dead4 #ebc ,a 7#8,li/51 !n1' 4447 -#ebg ,a 7444 #8any sort ( insult4'7 7#c7 ,! ,moral ( ! ,tale4 #ebg ,a 7#8,p]haps ?is may appe>' 4447 -to end4 ,app5dix4 ,i ,alcibiades4 ,socrates humiliates ,alcibiades by %ew+ him 8 inf]iority to ! ,k+s ( ,lac$aemon & ( ,p]sia4 #abj ,a 7#8,:y1 y surely "k' 4447 -#abd ,b 7444 #8ev] desir$ any?+4'7 ,,ii ,alcibiades4 ,! ,gods approve ( simple wor%ip4 #adh ,c 7#8,! ,lac$aemonians1 too1' 4447 -#aej ,b 7444 #8= me to oppose4'7 ,eryxias4 ,! nature ( money4 #cii ,e 7#8,!n n[ we h to consid]' 4447 -#djj ,e 7444 #8( no use to u 444 ,true4'7 ,,?ird ,,volume4 ,,republic4 ,book i4 ,! comm5cem5t ( ! ,dialogue3 ,cephalus on ,old ,age4 #cbg-cca ,b 7444 #8is1 9 my op9ion1 ! greate/4'7 ,book ii4 7#a7 ,! argum5t ( ,adeimantus4 #cfb ,e 7444 #8,b let me add some?+ m' 4447 -#cfg ,e 7444 #8se5 or unse5 by ,gods & m54'7 7#b7 ,! true nature ( ,god4 #cgf ,d 7#8,come1 !n1 & let u pass' 4447 -#chc ,a 7#8,y\r ?\ghts 444 my own4'7 ,book iii4 7#a7 ,grace & beauty 9 art & education4 #djj ,d 7#8,b !re is no difficulty' 4447 -#djb ,a 7444 #8made him long famili>4'7 7#b7 ,! good physician & ! good judge4 #djh ,c 7#8,all t1 ,socrates1 is excell5t1' 4447 -#dji ,e 7#8,& 9 m9e also4'7 7#c7 ,! true use ( music & gymna/ic4 #dji ,e 7#8,?is is ! sort ( m$ic9e' 4447 -#dab ,a 7#8,y are q "r1 ,socrates4'7 ,book iv4 ,virtue ! heal?1 ,vice ! disease1 ( ! ,s\l4 #ddc ,c 7#8,!n our dream has be5 realiz$' 4447 -#ddd ,e 7#8,assur$ly4'7 ,book v4 7#a7 ,! "r treatm5t ( enemies4 #dfi ,a 7#8,next1 h[ %all our soldi]s' 4447 -#dga ,c 7444 #8l all our previ\s enactm5ts1 are v good4'7 7#b7 ,! la/ wave3,! ,gov]nm5t ( ,philosoph]s4 #dga ,c 7#8,b /ill ,i mu/ say1 ,socrates4' 4447 -#dgc ,e 7444 #8is inde$ a h>d ?+4'7 ,book vi4 7#a7 ,! ,p>able ( ! ,pilot4 #dhg ,a 7#8,"h ,adeimantus int]pos$' 4447 -#dhi ,d 7#8,precisely s1 he said4'7 7#b7 ,! l[ e/imation 9 :i* ,philosophy is held by ! ,_w4 #dic ,e 7#8,y recognize ! tru? ( :at ,i h be5 say+8' 4447 -#dig ,a 7444 #8z well z ( himself4'7 ,book vii4 ,! ,allegory ( ! ,cave4 #ead ,a-#ebj ,e 7444 #8pres5t rul]s ( ! ,/ate4'7 ,book viii4 ,democracy & ! ,democratic ,man4 #eee ,b 7#8,next comes democracy' 4447 -#efb ,a 7 444 #8! democratic man4'7 ,book ix4 ,! ,_m-head$ ,mon/]4 ,! ,city ( :i* ! ,patt]n is laid up 9 ,heav54 #ehh ,a 7#8,well1 ,i said1 & n[' 4447 -to ! end ( ! book4 ,book x4 ,! ,vision ( ,er4 #fad ,b 7#8,well1 ,i said1 ,i w tell y a tale2' 4447 -to ! end ( ! book4 ,,timaeus4 7#a7 ,! ,tale ( ,solon4 #bj ,e 7#8,!n li/51 ,socrates' 4447 -#bf ,d 7 444 #8^! anci5t ,a!nians4' 4447 7#b7 ,! ,balance ( ,m9d & ,body4 #hg ,c 7#8,!re is a correspond+ enquiry' 4447 -#ij ,d 7 444 #8! pres5t & ! future4'7 ,,critias1 ,,or ,,! ,,isl& ,,( ,,atlantis4 ,! entire ,dialogue4 ,,f\r? ,,volume4 ,,p>m5ides4 ,! meet+ ( ,socrates & ,p>m5ides at ,a!ns4 ,criticism ( ! ,ideas4 #abf ,a 7#8,we _h come f our home' 4447 -#acf ,c 7 444 #8& see ! real tru?4'7 ,,!aetetus4 7#a7 ,socrates1 a midwife1 & ! son ( a midwife4 #adh ,e 7#8,^! are ! pangs ( lab\r' 4447 -#aea ,e 7 444 #8by ! help ( ,god y w be able to tell4'7 7#b7 ,! ,lawy] & ! ,philosoph]4 #agb ,b 7 444 #8,"h arises a new "q' 4447 -#agg ,c 7 444 #8,let u g back to ! argum5t4'7 ,,sophi/4 ,! ,pre-,socratic ,philosoph]s & _! puzzles4 #bda ,d 7#8,w y !n =give me' 4447 -#bdf ,d 7 444 #8b seek]s aft] tru?4'7 ,,/atesman4 ,! ,reign ( ,cronos4 #bfi ,a 7#8,aga91 we h be5 (t5 told' 4447 -#bgd ,e 7444 #8& at ano!r "t 9 ano!r4' 4447 ,,philebus4 ,! fir/ ,ta/e ( ,logic4 ,! ,art ( ,dialectic4 #ae ,c 7#8,good2 & :]e %all we beg9' 4447 -#ag ,a 7444 #8& true dialectic4'7 ,,fif? ,,volume4 ,,laws4 ,book i4 7#a7 ,! true nature ( ,education4 #fdc ,a 7#8,y seem to be q ready to li/5' 4447 -#fdd ,b 7444 #8( e man :ile he lives4'7 7#b7 ,man a puppet ( ! ,gods4 #fdd ,e 7#8,let u look at ! matt] ?us' 4447 -#fde ,b 7444 #8m cle>ly di/+ui%$ by u4' 4447 ,book iii4 ,! ,orig9 ( ,gov]nm5t4 #fgf ,a 7#8,en\gh ( ?is' 4447 -#fgi ,e 7#8,v true4'7 ,book iv4 7#a7 ,! virtu\s ,tyrant4 #gji ,c 7#8,& does n a l pr9ciple' 4447 -#gab ,a 7444 #8grant+ our supposition4'7 7#b7 ,! life ( ,virtue4 #gae ,e 7#8,& n[ :at is to be ! next /ep8' 4447 -#gah ,a 7444 #8= ! mo/ "p 9 good hope4' 4447 ,book v4 7#a7 ,! hon\r ( ! ,s\l4 ,precepts = a virtu\s life4 #gbf ,a-#gcb ,d 7444 #8bo? 9 je/ & e>ne/4'7 7#b7 ,! be/ & second-be/ /ate4 #gci ,a 7#8,! next move' 4447 -#gda ,a 7444 #8to fight aga9/ necessity4'7 7#c7 ,ri*es & ,godl9ess4 #gdb ,d 7444 #8,! int5tion1 z we affirm' 4447 -#gdd ,a 7444 #8! "w ( legislation4'7 ,book vii4 7#a7 ,! good citiz5 mu/ n lead an inactive life4 #hjf ,d 7#8,:at w be ! mann] ( life' 4447 -#hjh ,c 7444 #8to ! :ole /ate4'7 7#b7 ,! education ( ! "y4 #hjh ,d 7444 #8,:5 ! day breaks' 4447 -#hji ,a 7444 #8accord+ to ! law4'7 #haj ,a 7444 #8,a fair "t'4447 -#hab ,a 7444 #8come to an end4'7 ,book viii4 ,! evils ( lic5ti\sness4 #hce ,c 7444 #8,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r matt]' 4447 -#hda ,e 7444 #8wrongly indulg$4'7 ,book x4 7#a7 ,! ?ree classes ( unbeliev]s4 ,advice to ! "y4 #hhe ,b 7444 #8,= we h already said' 4447 -#hhh ,d 7444 #8! tru? ( ^! matt]s4'7 7#b7 ,god is n an idle rul] ( ! ,univ]se2 b ord]s all1 ev5 ! smalle/ ?+s1 = our good4 #hii ,d 7444 #8,& n[ we are to address him' 4447 -#ije ,d 7444 #8any und]/&+ :atsoev]' 4447 7#c7 ,god _c be propitiat$ by ! gifts ( ! wick$4 #ije ,d 7444 #8,= ,i ?9k t we h suffici5tly prov$' 4447 -#ijg ,d 7444 #8w n discr$it ! lawgiv]4'7 ,book xi4 7#a7 ,! evils ( retail trade1 & ! cure ( !m4 #iah ,a 7#8,aft] ! practices ( adult]ation' 4447 -#iai ,c 7444 #8%amelessness & meanness4'7 7#b7 ,! hon\r ( p>5ts4 #icj ,e 7#8,nei!r ,god1 nor a man' 4447 -#icb ,a 7444 #8to :at has n[ be5 said4'4447 ,book xii4 7#a7 ,! good /ate 9 its int]c\rse ) ! _w4 #idi ,e 7#8,n[ a /ate' 4447 -#iea ,c 7444 #8is ill-conduct$4'7 7#b7 ,! ,burial ( ! ,dead4 #ieh ,c 7#8,?us a man is born' 4447 -#ifj ,a 7444 #8a fitt+ p5alty4'4447 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,ari/otle 7#chd-cbb ,b4 ,c47 ,ari/otle 9 ! ,academy & ,lyceum4 ,_m notable pupils ga!r$ ar\nd ,plato dur+ 8 ma/]%ip ( m ?an =ty ye>s4 ,plato's nephew1 ,speusippus1 succe$$ him z lead] ( ! ,academy1 & = ! next ?ree hundr$ & fifty ye>s ! ,academy is call$ by v>i\s names4 ,x is ! ,old] ,academy "u ,speusippus & lat]2 !n x is kn[n z ! ,middle ,academy2 & !n1 ab\t #abj ,b4 ,c41 x is kn[n z ! ,new ,academy4 ,! hi/ory ( ! ,academy is1 h[ev]1 a "p ( ! ,hell5ic-,roman ,p]iod4 ,x is suffici5t to say "h t ! lead]s succe$+ ,plato 9 ! ,academy add$ b little to philosophical speculation1 al?\gh mu* to empirical rese>*4 ,! important fact is t ! sceptre 9 philosophy pass$ f ! ,academy :5 ,plato di$ & 8 greate/ pupil ,ari/otle left x4 ,j z ,plato /ood among ! pupils ( ,socrates z ,socrates' mo/ discrim9at+ int]pret]1 s among ! pupils ( ,plato !re 0 "o prem95t pupil1,ari/otle4 ,ari/otle 0 too great a man to be subord9at$ to ! lead]%ip ( ,speusippus4 ,^u ! dea? ( ,plato he left ! ,academy1 & f\rte5 ye>s lat] he return$ to ,a!ns & f\nd$ ! ,lyceum1 :i* became "u 8 ma/]%ip ! mo/ influ5tial ,a!nian s*ool4 ,! ,lyceum 0 an inclos$ space ( gr\nd1 l ! ,academy4 ,x 0 situat$ j outside ! walls ( ,a!ns1 on ! "r bank ( ! ,ilissus4 ,x 0 d$icat$ to ,apollo1 decorat$ ) f\nta9s1 g>d5s1 & build+s1 & conta9$ "o ( ! great gymnasia ( ,a!ns4 ,x 0 frequ5t$ by philosoph]s1 & is kn[n to h be5 ! favorite walk ( ,ari/otle & 8 pupils1 :5ce !y got _! "n ( ,p]ipatetics4 ,!ophra/us1 ! mo/ em95t pupil ( ,ari/otle1 b\ght a prop]ty ne> ! grove & bequea!d x to ! s*ool4 ,x 0 a religi\s f\ndation1 l ! ,academy4 ,! me?od ( *oos+ ! s*ol>*s v>i$ at diff]5t times4 ,! "n ,lyceum is f ! same root z ,lycian1 & 0 giv5 to ,ari/otle's s*ool f ! fact t ! grove 0 d$icat$ to ! ,lycian ,apollo4 ,"h1 9 ! ,lyceum1 ,greek philosophy 0 br\ght to its mo/ complete expression4 ,"h all ! ?reads ( ,greek cosmological & an?ropological und]tak+s 7 f9ally wov5 toge!r4 ,"h an adju/m5t 0 accompli%$ betwe5 ,ari/otle's two great pr$ecessors1 ,plato & ,democritus2 & mat]iali/ic & ideali/ic realism cry/alliz$ 9 a !ory ( developm5t4 ,! great =m ( ,ari/otle rises to speak ! f9al ^w ( pure ,greek civilization1 at a "t :5 ! cu/ody ( ,greece _h pass$ f ! h&s ( ! ,a!nians1 ! ,sp>tans1 ! ,!bans 9 succession to ! ,mac$onians4 ,he 0 ! mo/ influ5tial ?9k] t hi/ory _h se54 ,9 8 =mative p[] ^u human ?\ght he has sc>cely a pe]4 ,dante call$ him 8! ma/] ( ^? :o "k40 8,9 my op9ion10 said ,cic]o1 8,ari/otle /&s almo/ alone 9 philosophy40 ,eusebius said ( him1 8,ari/otle1 nature's private secret>y1 dipp$ 8 p5 9 ?\ght40 ,goe! rem>k$1 8,if n[ 9 my quiet days ,i _h y\?ful faculties at my comm&1 ,i %\ld devote myself to ,greek1 9 spite ( all ! difficulties ,i "k4 ,nature & ,ari/otle %\ld be my sole /udy4 ,x is beyond all conception :at t man espi$1 saw1 beheld1 rem>k$1 obs]v$40 ,! portrait t we draw ( ,ari/otle is v diff]5t f t ( ,plato4 ,in/ead ( ! deeply poetic temp]1 ! man :o sees all ?+s 9 an ideal unity ( inf9it5ess & va/ness1 we h be=e u n[ ! sci5ti/ 9 se>* ( facts1 ! accurate man ( good s5se1 ^: imag9ation does n so> above ! cl\ds1 b at ! same "t has extraord9>y f]tility 9 hi/orical & sci5tific !oretical explanations4 ,8 0 a life fill$ ) ! love ( tru?4 ,8 le>n+ took up into itself ! entire range ( human k 9 su* a way z to include its e>li] developm5t4 ,& :at is m1 he %[$ an equal int]e/ 9 all dep>tm5ts4 ,ari/otle 0 m ( a sci5ti/ ?an ,plato1 = ! !oretical r ?an ! e?ical int]e/ 0 fundam5tal 9 8 "w4 ,he is ! p]sonification & completion ( pure ,greek le>n+4 ,biography ( ,ari/otle1 #chd-cbb ,b4 ,c4 ,brief ,*ronological ,sket* ( ,ari/otle's ,life4 ,fir/ ,p]iod,ari/otle ! ,/ud5t#cg ye>s4 #chd-cdg ,b4 ,c4 #chd ,born 9 ,/agira 9 ,mac$onia4 #cfg ,ent]$ ! ,academy4 ,rema9$ #ai ye>s4 #cdg ,left ! ,academy ^u ! dea? ( ,plato4 ,second ,p]iod,ari/otle ! ,travel]#ab ye>s4 #cdg-cce ,b4 ,c4 #cdg ,w5t to ! c\rts at ,at>neus & ,mytil5e 9 ,asia ,m9or4 #cdc ,return$ to ! c\rt ( ,mac$on at ,pella1 9 response to ! summons ( ,k+ ,philip1 to tea* ! "y pr9ce ,alex&]4 ,rema9$ #d ye>s4 #cdj ,w5t f ,pella to ,/agira to engage 9 sci5tific "w4 ,rema9$ #e ye>s4 ,?ird ,p]iod,ari/otle ! ,lead] ( ! ,lyceum#ac ye>s4 #cce-cbb ,b4 ,c4 #cce ,f\nd$ ! ,lyceum 9 ,a!ns4 ,taught & adm9i/]$ ! s*ool #ab ye>s4 #cbc ,fl$ to ,*alcis4 #cbb ,di$ 9 ,*alcis4 ,ari/otle's ,biography 9 ,detail4 #a4 ,fir/ ,p]iod1 #chd-cdg ,b4 ,c4,e>ly ,influ5ces4 ,ari/otle 0 born 9 ,/agira 9 ,mac$onia4 ,8 fa!r 0 c\rt physician to ,k+ ,amyntas1 ! f\nd] ( ! ,mac$onian p[] & ! fa!r ( ,k+ ,philip4 ,he came f a long l9e ( physicians 7! ca/e1 ,asclepiad7 :o trac$ _! orig9 to ,asclepius4 ,little is kn[n ab\t ! e>ly ye>s ( ,ari/otle except t 8 fa!r & "m di$1 leav+ him 9 ! gu>dian%ip ( ,prox5us ( ,at>neus4 7,at>neus is ! /ate 9 ,asia ,m9or :i* he lat] visit$47 ,x c sc>cely be d\bt$ t he 0 de/9$ by 8 family to be a physician1 & t ! empirical works ( ,hippocrates & ,democritus 7 ! fir/ elem5ts ( 8 e>ly education4 ,ari/otle grew up 9 ?is atmosph]e ( m$ic9e ( ,mac$onia1 :i* expla9s 8 respect = ! results ( exp]i5ce & 8 accuracy 9 details1all ( :i* contra/s him ) ! ,attic philosoph]s4 ,he 0 s5t by ,prox5us to ! ,academy 9 #cfg ,b4 ,c41 at ! age ( eighte51 & he rema9$ !re = n9ete5 ye>s1 or until he 0 ?irty-sev54 ,he 0 n m]ely a pupil 9 ! s*ool1 b 8 brilliancy won = him imm$iately a prom95t position !re4 ,he became a tea*]1 an attractive writ]1 & *ampion ( ! lit]>y _s ( ! s*ool4 ,ev5 :ile he 0 a memb] ( ! ,academy he became a fam\s man4 ,x is difficult to say j h[ mu* influ5ce ! ,academy _h ^u ! ca/+ ( 8 ?\ght4 ,8 sci5tific incl9ations 7 =m$ be=e he w5t to ! ,academy2 he got 8 imm5se sci5tific erudition 9 ,asia ,m9or & 9 ,/agira lat]1 aft] he left ! ,academy4 ,probably ! _s ( ! ,platonic s*ool turn$ 8 att5tion to e?ical & metaphysical !ories1 & probably x 0 due to 8 /ay 9 ! ,academy t he became int]e/$ 9 rhetorical & purely cultural /udies4 ,at ! same "t 8 own influ5ce mu/ h be5 v great 9 =m+ ! policy ( ! ,academy1 & he 0 probably responsible = its turn+ its att5tion to sci5tific matt]s4 ,! s\rces f :i* ,ari/otle drew ! mat]ial ( 8 philosophical sci5ce 7 !re=e 7#a7 8 inh]it$ ta/e = m$ic9e & empirical sci5ce2 & 7#b7 ! influ5ce ( ! ,academy 9 e?ical1 metaphysical1 & cultural subjects4 ,bo? ^! factors appe> ?r\gh\t ! philosophical developm5t ( ,ari/otle4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x mu/ n be =gott5 t probably ,ari/otle's influ5ce ^u ! ,academy 0 z great z t ( ! ,academy ^u him4 ,8 own p]si/5ce along ! l9e ( empirical sci5ce %[s itself 9 8 p]iod at ,at>neus1 ,mityl5e1 & on 8 return to ,/agira4 ,mu* has be5 said ab\t an e/rangem5t betwe5 ,ari/otle & 8 tea*]1 ,plato4 ,?is is probably idle gossip4 ,ari/otle held 8 ma/] 9 great e/eem1 z he himself te/ifies 9 8 ,e?ics4 ,ari/otle 0 an indep5d5t & orig9al m9d1 & probably ev5 9 ! s*ool he w\ld po9t out defects 9 ,plato's ?\ght1 :5 8 ag$ tea*] w\ld lead 8 !ories ^u mi/ak5 l9es4 ,plato said t 8 pupil ,x5ocrates ne$$ ! spur1 :ile ,ari/otle ne$$ ! bridle4 ,ari/otle 0 call$ ! bra9 ( ! ,academy4 #b4 ,second ,p]iod1 #cdg-cce ,b4 ,c4,travel] & ,collector4 ,:5 ,plato di$1 & 8 nephew ,speusippus became s*ol>* ( ! ,academy1 ,ari/otle1 9 company ) ,x5ocrates1 w5t to ! c\rt ( ,h]meias1 rul] ( ,at>neus & ,mityl5e4 ,h]meias 0 ano!r pupil ( ,plato at ! ,academy4 ,"h ,ari/otle m>ri$ twice1 & "h he resid$ = six ye>s4 ,9 #cdc ,b4 ,c4 he obey$ ! summons ( ,k+ ,philip to come to ,pella & become ! tutor ( ,alex&]4 ,he act$ 9 ?is capacity = f\r ye>s1 & seems to h be5 m =tunate ?an ,plato z in/ructor ( a k+4 ,8 influ5ce ^u ,alex&] 0 v great4 ,)\t los+ himself 9 ! impracticable1 ,ari/otle seems to h impress$ high philosophical ideals ^u ! noble _s ( 8 k+ly w>d4 ,alex&] says ( ,ari/otle1 8,to my fa!r ,i owe my life1 to ,ari/otle ! k h[ to live wor?ily40 ,dur+ ! t$ium ( ! protract$ campaign 9 ,bactria1 ,alex&] s5t = ! trag$ies ( ,euripides1 ,sophocles1 & s*ylus4 ,! ,e?ics ( 8 tea*] 0 always ) him4 ,! ideals ( /atesman%ip1 ! wide purposes 9 political control1 ! greatness ( ! aims ( ! "y conqu]or1 z well z 8 self-control1 8 av]sion to meanness & petty ?+s1 & 8 sublime mod]ation 7 due 9 "p to ! tea*+s ( ,ari/otle4 ,nev] 0 !re a m =tunate conjunction ( two great m9ds ?an "h4 ,9 #cdj ,b4 ,c41 :5 ,alex&] ent]$ ^u 8 adm9i/rative & milit>y duties1 ,ari/otle became indep5d5t ( ! ,mac$onian c\rt4 ,he sp5t ! mo/ ( ^! f\r ye>s 7#cdj-cce ,b4 ,c47 9 sci5tific "w at ,/agira1 9 intimate companion%ip ) 8 "y fri5d ,!ophra/us1 :o lat] succe$$ him z s*ol>* ( ! ,lyceum4 8,among ! special subjects ( /udy 9 ! s*ool ( ,mieza & ,/agira1 natural hi/ory =m$ a "p4444 ,alex&] at "o "t contribut$ eight hundr$ tal5ts to =w>d 8 =m] tea*]'s inve/igations 9 zology1 plac$ at 8 disposal a ?\s& m5 ?r\gh\t ,asia & ,greece1 ) in/ructions to foll[ out ,ari/otle's directions 9 collect+ & report+ details conc]n+ ! life1 conditions1 & habits ( animals1 & 9 e way made 8 campaigns s]ve ! purpose ( sci5tific inve/igation40#cc ,! reports ( ! anci5ts conc]n+ ! va/ sums plac$ at ,ari/otle's disposal = use 9 sci5tific inve/igation are ( c\rse exagg]at$4 ,t he made l>ge collections dur+ ?is p]iod1 z well z lat]1 is c]ta94 ,?is 0 possible to him1 fir/1 because he 0 a ri* man himself1 & second1 because ( 8 relations to ! c\rts at ,at>neus & ,mac$onia4 #c4 ,?ird ,p]iod1 #cce-cbb ,b4 ,c4,adm9i/rator ( ! ,lyceum4 ,:5 ,alex&] ent]$ ^u 8 campaigns 9 ,asia1 & ,ari/otle felt himself free f imm$iate duty to him1 he w5t to ,a!ns & f\nd$ ! ,lyceum4 ,?is s*ool v soon arose above ! ,academy1 & became ! model ( lat] societies ( s*ol>s ( antiquity4 ,its greatness p>took ( ! greatness ( ,ari/otle19 ! univ]sality ( its int]e/s1 9 ! ord]l9ess ( its adm9i/ration1 & 9 me?odical cop]ation4 ,= twelve ye>s he 0 ! executive1 tea*]1 adm9i/rator1 & inspiration ( ?is s*ooldevelop+ 8 philosophy1 accumulat+ mat]ials1 & in/ruct+ 8 pupils4 ,! enorm\s product ( ! s*ool c\ld n h be5 ! "w ( "o pair ( h&s4 ,nev]!less ! writ+s1 ! imm5se collections1 ! e?ical & political treatises1 %[ a unity t speaks ( "o ma/]-m9d t _h !m "u direction4 ,:5 ! ,a!nians began to rise aga9/ ! ,mac$onian rule1 ,ari/otle's position 9 ,a!ns z a fri5d ( ,alex&] became unsafe4 ,he fl$ to ,*alcis1 excus+ himself1 s ! tradition goes1 because he wi%$ to sp>e ! ,a!nians a second crime aga9/ philosophy4 ,he di$ 9 ,*alcis ! next ye> 7#cbb ,b4 ,c474 ,a comp>ison ( ^! ?ree p]iods ( ,ari/otle's life discloses ! uni=mity ( t life1 f beg9n+ to end4 ,he 01 f ! "t he ent]$ ! ,academy to ! f\nd+ ( ! ,lyceum1 a tea*]4 ,ev5 z pupil ( ,plato 8 orig9al m9d 0 influ5c+ ! ,platonic tea*+ into new *annels4 ,dur+ 8 second p]iod he 0 a travel]1 to be sure2 b he 0 m1a collector & a k+'s tutor4 ,he 0 always ,ari/otle1 ! philosophical tea*]4 ,h5ce ! p]iods ( 8 life _c be s %>ply m>k$ z ,plato's1 & ! l9es t are drawn po9t only to phases ( a life t _h unity1 l 8 doctr9e4 ,8 life is a regul> developm5t f s\rces 9 8 fir/ p]iod1 & ) no lat] deviat+ influ5ce4 ,! ,writ+s ( ,ari/otle4 ,on e page ( ,plato's dialogues y meet ,plato2 9 ,ari/otle's writ+s ! p]sonality ( ! au?or is subord9at$ to 8 sci5ce4 ,! collections ( writ+s transmitt$ "u ! "n ( ,ari/otle d n give ev5 an approximately complete picture ( ! imm5se activity ( ! man4 ,!y =m1 inde$1 a /ately memorial1 ev5 aft] ! spuri\s writ+s h be5 omitt$1 b _! bulk is small comp>$ ) :at we "k 0 ! product ( 8 lit]>y work%op4 ,=ty treatises h be5 pres]v$4 ,a catalogue ( ! libr>y ( ,alex&ria 9 #bbj ,b4 ,c4 includes a li/ ( "o hundr$ & =ty-six o!rs1 :i* h s9ce be5 lo/4 ,ari/otle 0 writ]1 lectur]1 tea*]1 & ! adm9i/rator ( ! ,lyceum4 ,8 lead]%ip ( t s*ool1 8 c>eful direction ( 8 cop]ators 9 rese>* & /udy1 0 n only an in/ruction b an impulsion to indep5d5t sci5tific /udy = all "t4 ,8 great collections ( sci5tific data c be expla9$ only by _! be+ ! comb9$ ef=ts ( _m diff]5t =ces1 guid$ & s*ool$ by a common ma/]4 ,! _w 0 ready to take an acc\nt ( /ock1 & ,ari/otle 0 ! fir/ encyclopdic philosoph]4 #a4 ,! ,popul> ,writ+s1 publi%$ by ,ari/otle himself4 ,^! 7 int5d$ = a circle ( read]s wid] ?an 8 own s*ool4 ,no "o ( ^! works is extant 9 complete =m4 ,!y 7 writt5 by ,ari/otle dur+ 8 life 9 ! ,academy4 ,!y 7 dialogues 9 =m2 9 cont5t !y 7 discussions ( ju/ice1 weal?1 wisdom1 rhetoric1 politics1 love1 conduct1 pray]1 g5]osity1 education1 gov]nm5t1 etc4 ,!y 7 less arti/ic ?an ,plato's dialogues1 b m orig9al & /rik+2 & !y 7 full ( happy inv5tions & ri* ?\ght1 express$ 9 florid diction4 ,! anci5ts spoke (t5 ( ,ari/otle's 8gold5 fl[ ( ?\ght10 b ?is _c tru?fully apply to any save ^! lo/ writ+s4 #b4 ,! ,compilations4 ,^! 7 exc]pts f sci5tific works1 collections ( zological1 lit]>y1 hi/orical1 & antiqu>ian data1 :i* ,ari/otle & 8 pupils _h ga!r$ toge!r4 ,only a few fragm5ts ( ! total rema94 ,!re 7 critical notes ^u ! ,py?agoreans1 reports ( extracts ( ,plato's dialogues1 a descriptive basis = zology ) illu/rations1 collections ( previ\s rhetorical !ories & models1 hi/ories ( trag$ies & com$ies1 discussions ab\t ,hom]1 ,hesiod1 ,ar*ilo*us1 ,euripides1 & o!r poets2 !re 7 hi/orical miscellanies & reports conc]n+ "o hundr$ fifty-eight ,greek /ate con/itutions4 #c4 ,! ,didactic ,writ+s4 ,^! h 9 "p be5 pres]v$1 & !y make up ! collection ( :at we h ( ,ari/otle's writ+s4 ,!y h a consi/5tly develop$ t]m9ology1 b !y are want+ 9 grace & beauty ( pres5tation4 ,! plan ( ! books is g5]ally ! same3 ! problem is precisely /at$2 !n foll[s a criticism ( v>i\s attempt$ solutions2 !n a discussion ( ! sali5t po9ts ( ! problem2 !n a m>%al+ ( ! facts2 &1 f9ally1 an attempt to get a conclusive result4 ,! me?od is mod]n 9 its sci5tific proc$ure & ! contra/ ) ,plato is /rik+4 ,yet x mu/ n be inf]r$ t ^! books ( ,ari/otle are ord]ly4 ,!re are repetitions1 ha/e1 unequal developm5t ( p>ts1 & unfulfill$ promises4 ,^! books 7 no?+ else ?an ! writt5 notes :i* he _h made ! basis ( 8 lectures & _h int5d$ to =m into text-books 9 "s future "t4 ,only p>ts ( ! ,logic seem to h be5 complet$ = text-book purposes4 ,^! didactic writ+s are simply arrang$ z foll[s 7,wallace73 #a4 ,! treatise on ,logic call$ ,organon4 #b4 ,speculative ,philosophy4 ,fir/ ,philosophy or ,!ology or ,metaphysics4 ,ma!matics 7writ+s n extant74 ,physics 7includ+ ! hi/ory ( animals & ! psy*ology74 #c4 ,practical ,philosophy4 ,e?ics4 ,economics4 ,politics4 #d4 ,poetic ,philosophy4 ,art4 ,poetry4 ,rhetoric4 ,ari/otle's ,/>t+-,po9t4 ,! two e>ly influ5ces 9 ,ari/otle's m5tal developm5t (f] an explanation = 8 philosophical po9t ( view4 ,^! influ5ces 7 8 empirical tra9+ 9 m$ic9e & 8 conceptual tra9+ 9 ! moral ideals ( ! ,academy4 ,plato _h conv9c$ him t if !re 7 to be any true sci5ce1 x mu/ be f\nd$ on concepts t are un*ang+4 ,8 own sci5tific tra9+1 h[ev]1 re9=c$ by ! influ5ce ( ,democritus1 made him respect ! value ( empirical facts4 ,:ile ! philosophical problem = ,ari/otle 0 ! same z t = ,plato1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 !m 0 9 ! ma9 a matt] ( emphasis due to _! diff]5t />t+-po9ts4 ,plato />t$ ) ! refutation ( ! ,protagorean !ory ( p]ception1 & consequ5tly he emphasiz$ ! value ( ! conceptual _w2 ,ari/otle1 h[ev]1 felt t ,plato _h ov]e/imat$ ! conceptual _w1 & he emphasiz$ ! importance ( empirical facts4 ,bo? :5 a memb] ( ! ,academy & lat]1 he /rongly cont5d$ aga9/ ,plato's evaluation ( ! _w ( ,ideas1 because !y s transc5d$ ! s5se _w t !y nei!r expla9$ nor illum9at$ x4 ,ari/otle's reaction aga9/ ,plato's !ory fur!rmore gives u a m correct notion ( :at ,plato really taught4 ,if conceptions are to ent] into k1 !y mu/ n exi/ 9 ! cl\ds ( ab/raction4 ,he ma9ta9$ t ,plato _h increas$ ! difficulty ( ! problem by add+ a second _w ( entities q di/9ct f ! _w ( nature4 ,! same problem t ,plato confront$ /ill exi/s unansw]$1 said ,ari/otle4 ,x is ! problem ( ! tw(old _w4 ,if ,ideas are ap>t f ?+s1 we c\ld n "k t !y exi/$1 we %\ld n be able to "k any?+ ab\t !m1 nor %\ld we be able to expla9 ! _w ?r\gh !m4 ,x is true t ,plato1 9 8 lat] draft1 _h conceiv$ ,ideas to be teleologically relat$ to ! physical ?+s1 b h[ c\ld ?is be if !y 7 ap>t f ?+s8 ,?us 9 8 reaction f ,plato's !ory ( ,ideas1 ,ari/otle re/abli%$ ! _w ( p]ceptual fact4 ,?is is ! />t+-po9t ( ,ari/otle4 ,! ,fundam5tal ,pr9ciple 9 ,ari/otle's ,philosophy4 ,! fir/ "q !n is1 ,h[ did ,ari/otle re/abli% ! p]ceptual fact8 ,:at means did he employ to give ! p]ceptual fact a reality8 ,! answ] to ?is "q w be ! /atem5t ( ,ari/otle's fundam5tal pr9ciple4 ,x w %[ 8 advance ov] ,plato by %[+ 8 new e/imate ( ! p]ceptual _w4 ,plato accept$ ! ,protagorean doctr9e ( p]ception1 b also gave x a new value by plac+ p]ceptions beside conceptions 9 ! _w ( reality2 ,ari/otle develop$ ,plato's tea*+ ab\t p]ceptions by l9k+ !m insep>ably ) conceptions4 ,ari/otle felt t ,plato's difficulties arose f ! lack ( close relation%ip betwe5 conceptual ,be+ & p]ceptual fact4 ,:at is t l9kage8 ,:at b9ds abid+ reality & *ang+ ph5om5a s closely8 ,! l9kage is developm5t4 ,developm5t is ! relation betwe5 conception & p]ception4 ,x is ! fundam5tal pr9ciple 9 ! philosophy ( ,ari/otle ?r\gh\t & places a new e/imate ^u ! value ( p]ception4 ,p]ceptual facts ap>t f conceptions h no reality2 conceptions ap>t f p]ceptions are m]e ab/ractions4 ,9 ! _w ( reality conceptual ,be+ resides 9 ! p]ceptual facts1 & ! p]ceptual facts express conceptions4 ,!y always exi/ toge!r 9 a l9kage or relation%ip t is teleological1 purposeful! l9kage ( developm5t4 ,an ab/ract /atem5t ( ?is relation%ip is1 8,ari/otle felt ! conceptual necessity ( ! empirically actual40 ,p]haps ! cle>e/ /atem5t ( ?is fundam5tal pr9ciple c be made 9 ! t]ms ( evolution4 ,x is ?is3 true reality is ! ess5ce :i* unfolds 9 ph5om5a4 ,notice t ?is s5t5ce has two p>ts equally freight$3 reality is an unfold+ ess5ce2 reality is 9 ph5om5a4 ,! true univ]sal mu/ be ?\ght z realiz+ itself ?r\gh its developm5t 9 p>ticul>s2 ! true concept z realiz+ itself ?r\gh its developm5t 9 p]cepts2 ! true abid+ ,be+ z realiz+ itself 9 its developm5t ?r\gh *ange4 ,on ! "o h&1 reality is ! ess5ce ( ?+s2 on ! o!r1 reality has exi/5ce only 9 ?+s4 ,true reality is ! individual4 ,! individual consi/s ( two aspects3 7#a7 conceptual be+1 & 7#b7 p]ceptual *ange4 ,^! two aspects always /& 9 a relation%ip4 ,t relation%ip is develop+ purpose4 ,"h is ! key to ! tea*+ ( ,ari/otle t seems to op5 ! doors ( its _m *amb]s4 ,9 8 metaphysics reality is ! individual develop+ f possibility to actuality4 ,9 physics individual ph5om5a get a reality ?r\gh _! developm5t f l[] to high] types4 ,9 psy*ology ! individual p]son is real :5 ! p>ticul>s1 ! physiological & psy*ological /ates1 develop t[>d ! s\l1 :i* is _! tru?4 ,s1 too1 9 ! great sy/em ( logic 9 :i* ,ari/otle 0 pione]1 he is simply try+ to give ! p>ticul> judgm5t a mean+ by %[+ its l9kage to ! univ]sal judgm5t4 ,ev]y:]e ! />t+-po9t ( ,ari/otle is ! p]ceptual fact4 ,ev]y:]e 8 purpose is to re/abli% x by %[+ its relation to abid+ conception 9 ! individual4 ,x may be well to rem>k1 h[ev]1 t ,ari/otle does n altoge!r succe$ 9 con/ruct+ a consi/5t !ory4 ,9 spite ( 8 criticism ( ,plato's transc5d5t ,ideas1 9 _m places ,ari/otle does n ov]come ,plato's dualism4 ,frequ5tly he diff]s f ,plato m 9 words ?an 9 mean+4 ,we %all obs]ve "s ( 8 inconsi/5cies 9 _! place4 ,we %all see t ,ari/otle z he meant to be 0 diff]5t f ,ari/otle z he 04 ,ari/otle z he meant to be,ari/otle z ! oppon5t ( ,plato's dualismdevelops a philosophy f a s+le fundam5tal pr9ciple4 ,ari/otle z he 01 rev]ts at _m critical po9ts to ,plato's dualism4 ,ari/otle's pr9ciple ( developm5t may appe> at fir/ blu% v mu* l ! mod]n pr9ciple ( evolution4 ,z a matt] ( fact x 0 v diff]5t4 ,9 all ,greek philosophy aft] ,socrates ! /udy ( morals 0 fundam5tal4 ,! ideal ( ,socrates1 ,democritus1 ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 & ! lat] ,s*ools 0 a moral ideal4 ,be+ moral x 0 fix$1 & x fix$ all ! *anges ( life to x z a c5tre4 ,nature 0 to ! ,greek a museum ( types oscillat+ ar\nd a p]fect =m4 ,!re 0 no evolution 9 ! s5se ( progress4 ,!re 0 developm5t )9 ! individual! boy becomes a man1 ! se$ becomes a fl[]2 b !re 0 no evolution f g5us to g5us4 ,inde$1 any v>iation ( ! individual f its type 0 consid]$ a defect4 ,ari/otle's ,logic4 ,ari/otle felt t !re mu/ be a sci5ce ( ! me?ods ( sci5ce2 & s successful 0 he 9 its =mulation t x has practically rema9$ z he transmitt$ x4 ,we are /ruck by ! way 9 :i* he divid$ sci5ce into ! special sci5ces1 ea* ) its well-def9$ field4 ,x 0 p]fectly natural t he %\ld also1 ) 8 great p[] ( ab/ract reason+1 discuss ! body ( rules = legitimate ?9k+4 ,9 sci5ce !re mu/ be an art ( inve/igation1 j z 9 rhetoric !re is an art ( p]suasion4 ,at an e>ly p]iod ^! logical writ+s 7 collect$ "u ! "n ,organon1 because ! ,lyceum reg>d$ !m s intimately connect$ ) sci5tific proc$ure z to be ! in/rum5t or 8organ0 ( all k4 ,c]ta9 p>ts ( ,ari/otle's ,organon are ( d\btful g5u95ess4 ,! important sections are ! ,analytics1 a ma/]ly logical gr\ndwork ( ! conclusion & pro(1 & ! ,topics1 :i* treats ( ! inductive me?ods ( probability4 ,ari/otle !re=e made logic a prelim9>y & sep>ate /udy1 z x %\ld be4 ,x became ! preface to 8 sci5tific "w4 ,we %all briefly discuss ,ari/otle's logic1 because x is an exemplification ( 8 g5]al philosophical pr9ciple4 ,among ! subjects 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 logic is p]haps ! only "o t has _h no int]nal hi/ory4 ,ari/otle 0 ! pione] 9 ! subject4 ,he left x s f9i%$ t sc>cely any *anges ( consequ5ce c\ld be made 9 x4 ,! ext]nal hi/ory ( ! ,ari/otelian logic has1 h[ev]1 be5 notable4 ,a portion ( ! ,categories & ,de ,int]pretatione 0 mo/ influ5tial 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,! ,logic _h be5 misund]/ood & misappli$ by ,ari/otle's own ,s*ool1 s t :5 x came into ! h&s ( ! ,s*oolm5 x _h acquir$ ! reputation ( be+ only an ab/ract =mal logic4 ,z ?us int]pret$ x 0 us$ by ! ,s*oolm5 & attack$ by ! philosoph]s ( ! ,r5aissance4 ,su* a view ( ,ari/otle's logic is unju/ to ! au?or4 ,he _h conceiv$ logic 9 its :ol5ess to be ! true me?od to be us$ 9 inve/igat+ practical sci5tific problems4 ,! ,sophi/s _h propos$ rules ( practical value 9 ! /udy ( individual cases2 ,socrates _h tri$ to fix ^u "s univ]sal pr9ciple z ! basis ( k2 ,ari/otle made a compreh5sive /udy ( ! regul> =ms ( ?\ght & ! rules t gov]n ! arrangem5t ( ^! =ms 9 "r ?9k+4 ,9 true ,platonic fa%ion he conceiv$ physical ev5ts 9 nature to be due to "s univ]sal cause4 ,if1 !re=e1 logical proc$ure be sci5tific1 x mu/ foll[ ! ways ( nature3 logic mu/ d$uce p>ticul> p]ceptions f "s univ]sal idea4 ,! necess>y ?\ght-relations 9 :i* ! p>ticul> /&s w !n appe>4 ,d$uction ( ! p>ticul> f ! univ]sal is ! true sci5tific me?od1 us$ 9 ! explanation ( nature-ph5om5a2 s 9 pro( ! same d$uctive reason+ %\ld be us$4 ,9 sci5tific /udy we are try+ to %[ ! conceptual necessity ( an empirical fact2 9 pro( we are %[+ ! conceptual necessity ( ! p>ticul> t]m4 ,:e!r we are expla9+ an ev5t or prov+ a conclusion1 we are employ+ ! same logical process4 ,ari/otle ?us reg>d$ 8 logic z ! true sci5tific me?od = practical s]vice1 n z a m]ely ab/ract discipl9e 9 v]bal hair-splitt+4 ,socrates & ,plato conf9$ !mselves to ! /udy ( ! concept or simple t]m4 ,ari/otle also /udi$ ! concept4 ,inde$1 he tri$ to f9d out :at concepts are fundam5tal 9 our ?9k+1 s fundam5tal t !y are our ?\ght r$uc$ to its l[e/ t]ms4 ,he names t5 ( ^! fundam5tal concepts & calls !m categories4 ,b ,ari/otle goes f>!r ?an ,socrates & ,plato1 & makes 8 real po9t ( dep>ture ! judgm5t4 ,a s+le t]m does n express tru?4 ,= tru? we mu/ h two t]ms connect$ by ! v]b 8is10 i4 e4 "s relation mu/ be %[n betwe5 !m4 ,?is is a judgm5t4 ,reason+ is /ill m complex4 ,x is ! putt+ toge!r or %[+ ! relation betwe5 two judgm5ts4 ,?is process takes ! =m ( ! syllogism4 ,! fir/ task ( d$uction is to pres5t ! laws ( ! syllogism4 ,^! w !n be ! laws ( sci5tific inve/igation4 ,accord+ to ^!1 p>ticul>s c be d]iv$ ) c]ta9ty f univ]sal propositions1 provid$ su* univ]sals are e/abli%$4 ,! syllogism is 9 ! =m ( two premises & a d]iv$ conclusion4 ,x conta9s ?ree t]ms4 ,! problem is to inf]1 f ! relation t "o ( ^! t]ms be>s to ! two o!r t]ms1 :at ! two be> to ea* o!r4 ,! pr9ciple employ$ is t ( subord9ation2 & ! diff]5tiations ( ! syllogism c be _m1 dep5d+ on ! quality & quantity ( ! premises & ! di/ribution ( ! middle t]m4 ,! work+ ( ! syllogism 9 inf]5ce has a c]ta9ty s great t ,ari/otle call$ x apodictic4 ,b !re is ano!r side to ! syllogi/ic besides ! d$uction ( pro( or ! explanation ( empirical fact4 ,?is is ! e/abli%m5t ( ! premises4 ,all d$uction presupposes absolute premises4 ,all d$uction is gr\nd$ on some?+ n d$uc$2 all pro( on some?+ n prov$2 all explanation on some?+ t has n be5 expla9$4 ,^! presuppositions are univ]sal propositions t c be kn[n only imm$iately ?r\gh intuitions4 ,ari/otle is n altoge!r cle> z to :at ^! intuitions are4 ,he names su* axioms z ! law ( contradiction & ! law ( ! exclud$ middle1 & "s special propositions :i* apply only to p>ticul> sci5ces4 ,s9ce ! premises :i* we actually use are n op5 to pro(1 b only /r5g!n$ z to ! validity ( _! application1 we mu/ use ! me?od ( induction 9 our se>* = !m4 ,we accumulate data f op9ions & v>i$ exp]i5ces1 & !n we asc5d to a g5]alization :i* we take z a premise4 ,! results ( induction _c !re=e be 9 !mselves c]ta94 ,! results are only probable1 & c h ! "* ( k only z !y expla9 ph5om5a4 ,ari/otle means by induction some?+ diff]5t f ! pres5t use ( ! t]m4 ,induction 9 mod]n times means a k9d ( pro(2 ,ari/otle means a me?od ( discov]y ( relatively univ]sal t]ms :]e ! absolutely univ]sal _c be obta9$4 ,!re is an ideal involv$ 9 ?is conception ( logic t is int]e/+4 ,9 a p]fectly intellectual society !re w\ld be a p]fect sci5ce 9 :i* all p>ticul> facts c\ld be d]iv$ ) absolute c]ta9ty f premises absolutely kn[n4 ,life & logic w\ld be id5tical4 ,we %\ld !n be c]ta9 n only z to our pro( b z to our premises4 ,logic has sometimes be5 us$ v effectively 9 ?is way4 ,:5 ! m$ival *ur* conceiv$ its dogmas to be ! ultimate premises ( tru?1 x c\ld d$uce f !m complete rules = liv+4 ,to ! m$ival m9d ! p]fect sci5ce 0 =mulat$ by d$uc+ x f ! dogma ( ! *ur*4 ,! dogmas 7 ! absolute premises4 ,! ,r5aissance did n d\bt ! infallibility ( ! traditional dogmas s mu* z ! logical me?od1 & ,ari/otle1 :o _h be5 s long artificially id5tifi$ ) ! pro( ( ecclesia/ical dogma1 0 set aside4 ,ari/otle1 moreov]1 %[$ great insight into ! pres5t relation ( ?\ght & reality4 ,! sequ5ce ( facts 9 our exp]i5ce1 he po9t$ out1 is exactly ! rev]se ( :at x is 9 reality4 ,:at is fir/ 9 reality comes la/ 9 our exp]i5ce1 & :at is fir/ 9 our exp]i5ce is la/ 9 reality4 ,to illu/rate3 ! mission ( ! ,a!nian ,/ate 9 ! et]nity ( ?+s did n appe> until e ev5t 9 its hi/ory _h occurr$4 ,a p]fect be+ w\ld see ! univ]sal gr\nd be=e ! hi/orical p>ticul>s d]iv$ f x1 :ile we look f ! p>ticul>s to _! univ]sal causes4 ,logic & metaphysics agree2 b !y /& 9 inv]t$ p>allelism to hi/orical & psy*ological processes4 ,k is a developm5t f ! s5ses into ! ,ideas1 & yet1 on ! o!r h&1 ,ari/otle nev] fails to rem9d u t ?is developm5t is ! expression ( an idea :i* has be5 pres5t f ! beg9n+4 ,ari/otle's ,metaphysics4 #a4 ,developm5t is ,purposeful4 ,! conception ( relation is1 ( c\rse1 q z fundam5tal 9 ,ari/otle's !ory ( metaphysics z 9 8 logic4 ,9 logic k ( ! p>ticul> is possible ?r\gh its relation%ip to ! univ]sal2 9 metaphysics ! relation%ip is ! relation%ip ( developm5t! p>ticul> has significance & value ?r\gh ! univ]sal ess5ce t unfolds f )9 x4 ,if ,ari/otle %[s g5ius = ab/ract ?9k+ by becom+ ! 8,fa!r ( ,logic10 he %[s equal g5ius = ab/ract ?9k+ 9 8 metaphysical conception ( developm5t4 ,he believ$ t metaphysics applies ! same conditions to ?+s t logic discov]s 9 ?\ght4 ,b 9 metaphysics ! relation%ip is n ! ab/ract relation%ip t ,ari/otle saw 9 ,plato1 b ! vital relation ( developm5t 9 ! life & *ange ( nature4 ,we h already /at$ ! fundam5tal pr9ciple 9 ,ari/otle's tea*+ z an unfold+ ess5ce 9 ph5om5a4 ,! unfold+ is ! relation%ip ( developm5t4 ,reality does n consi/ 9 ! p>ticul> ?+s ( nature1 nor 9 some?+ outside nature1 b 9 ?is ess5tial l9kage ( ! p]ceptual & conceptual 9 nature4 ,z ! _w is spread out be=e u1 x pres5ts objects t are dynamic1 h[ev] mu* !y may appe> to be /atic4 ,ev]y:]e matt] is 9 ! process ( =m+4 ,! _w is a =m+1 n a =m$ nor a =mless _w4 ,s1 also1 if y und]took to describe any individual object 9 ! _w1 y w\ld h to def9e x z a =m+ or develop+ ?+4 ,a tree1 = example1 w\ld n be adequately def9$ or describ$ by enum]at+ its p>ts at any "o mom5t2 b y mu/ describe x z a unit>y organism develop+ f a se$4 ,! reality ( ! _w is ! developm5t ( its mean+ 9 its hi/ory2 ! same is true ( ! reality ( any individual ?+ 9 ! _w4 ,! _w & ! ?+s !re9 h an unfold+ ess5ce4 ,! next po9t to be obs]v$ ab\t ,ari/otle's conception is t ! relation%ip ( developm5t is betwe5 two t]ms4 ,! individual mu/ h two aspects3 !re mu/ be t out ( :i* ! developm5t is pass+1 & t into :i* x is pass+4 ,ari/otle calls ^! two aspects ( developm5t respectively ,matt] & ,=m4 ,e object ( nature consi/s ( ,=m & ,matt]1 & ^! two t]ms h pass$ into hi/ory4 ,to ,ari/otle ev]y?+ is ,matt] becom+ ,=m1 or1 9 o!r words1 ,=m realiz+ itself 9 ,matt]4 ,! tree has its ,matt] :i* is becom+ ,=m$1 & its ,=m into :i* ! ,matt] is gr[+4 ,! pr9ciple :i* unites ! two is developm5t1! pr9ciple ( ! individual4 ,matt]1 !n1 is ! possibility or pot5tiality ( an individual ?+x is ! ?+ giv5 pot5tially2 ,=m is its actuality or reality4 ,if y emphasize m]ely ! /ages 9 ! developm5t1 y are reg>d+ m]ely ! occurr5ces2 if1 h[ev]1 y emphasize ! /ages ( developm5t z aspects ( a unity1 y see its ess5ce4 ,! relation%ip ( developm5t betwe5 two t]ms ?us becomes "u ,ari/otle's h&s ! relation ( purpose4 ,ari/otle calls ?is self-realization ( ! ess5ce 9 ph5om5a by ! te*nical ^w entele*y1 i4 e4 9 opposition to ! e>li] conceptions ( nature ,ari/otle conceiv$ nature teleologically4 ,teleology or purpose we f\nd ,plato us+ 9 8 second draft ( ! ,ideas1 b m z a po/ulate ?an z an effici5t means ( explanation4 ,ari/otle uses teleology z 8 positive fundam5tal pr9ciple ( nature4 #b4 ,ari/otle's ,two ,diff]5t ,conceptions ( ,purpose4 ,ari/otle illu/rat$ 8 conception ( ! purposeful relation 9 nature f two v diff]5t types3 7#a7 ! developm5t ( organisms2 7#b7 ! developm5t t takes place :5 an artisan m\lds pla/ic mat]ial4 ,manife/ly "h are two diff]5t k9ds ( teleological activities4 ,9 organic gr[? ! ,=m t realizes itself 9 ,matt] is imman5t 9 ! organism2 ! arti/1 on ! o!r h&1 sup]imposes ! ,=m ^u ! pla/ic mat]ial4 ,9 ! case ( organisms ,matt] & ,=m are sep>able only by ab/raction1 & are only two aspects ( a developm5t :i* is id5tical f ! beg9n+ to ! end2 9 ! case ( arti/ic con/ruction ! ,matt] is fir/ a possibility exi/+ by itself1 & ! purpose ( ! arti/ is lat] add$ unto x4 ,9 ! case ( organisms ,ari/otle speaks ( two causes1! mat]ial & ! =mal2 9 ! case ( arti/ic con/ruction he employs f\r causes1! mat]ial1 ! effici5t1 ! =mal1 & ! f9al4 ,ari/otle did n expressly =mulate ^! two diff]5t conceptions ( purpose1 b he completely appli$ !m 9 practice4 ,on ! "o h& he reg>d$ individual ?+s z self-realiz+1 & on ! o!r he look$ ^u !m z realiz$ 9 o!r ?+s4 ,?is seem+ly h>mless diff]5ce is really v fundam5tal1 = x is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ,ari/otle z he meant to be,ari/otle z ! critic ( ,plato's dualism& ,ari/otle :o rev]ts to ,plato's tea*+4 ,we f9d !re=e two ,ari/otles2 "o a dynamic moni/1 ! o!r a transc5d5t duali/4 ,we _c say t ,ari/otle z he meant to be is ! true ,ari/otle1 = he is a duali/ 9 v _m important doctr9es4 ,ari/otle's conception ( purpose z exemplifi$ by organisms is 8 orig9al conception1 & is :at he int5d$ to be ! basis ( 8 philosophy4 ,"h ! truly real is ! individual det]m9$ by its own ,=m4 ,x is ! dynamic & n ! arti/ic view ( life4 ,activity is direct$ to an end n )\t b )9 itself4 ,! individual is a complete organic unity at re/ )9 itself4 ,! individual is prim>ily ! ess5ce or sub/ance4 ,( ! t5 categories :i* he enum]ates1 sub/ance f ?is po9t ( view is to ,ari/otle ! mo/ important4 ,! n9e o!r categories only describe ! /ates or relations ( ! sub/ance4 ,! ess5ce ( ! individual is ! sub/ance2 & ,ari/otle conceives ! sub/ance z ! species or univ]sal 9 ! ?+4 ,x is po9t$ out t ev5 "h ,ari/otle is guilty ( a dualism 9 ! d\ble mean+ 9 :i* he uses sub/ance4 ,b ! conception ( ,ari/otle "h is ( an imman5t1 dynamic reality4 ,he has 9 m9d ! self-conta9$ unity ( ! individual1 :e!r t be a tree1 a man1 or ! univ]se4 ,ari/otle's conception ( purpose z exemplifi$ by arti/ic products prepond]ates ov] 8 orig9al conception ( purpose4 ,:5 he reg>ds ! individual objects 9 ! _w1 n z self-conta9$ b z relative to "o ano!r1 he has a diff]5t conception ( ! _w4 ,9 ?is case ! individuals are n realities b h ref]5ce to a reality transc5d+ !m4 ,! _w is /ill a develop+ _w1 b ! ess5ce t unfolds itself is n 9 ph5om5a4 ,x is a goal = :i* ph5om5a /rive4 ,! fulfillm5t ( ! purpose is beyond4 ,individual ?+s are only a scale ( values relative to "s transc5d5t /&>d4 ,to illu/rate3 ! bud1 ! blossom1 ! fruit1 h n _! realization 9 !mselves1 b z food2 aga91 ! gr[+ tree1 ! timb] ly+ on ! gr\nd1 ! timb] 9 ! h\se1 h _! realization 9 ! complet$ h\se2 aga91 9 ! _w at l>ge1 ! orig9al nebul\s matt] ( ! univ]se1 ! fir/-=m$ worlds1 ! e>ly ye>s ( ?is e>?1 ! succe$+ c5turies1 ! #bj? c5tury ( ?is _w1 are only a scale ( values = some?+ 9 ! future4 ,9 fac+ su* facts1 ,ari/otle _h to dep>t f 8 orig9al conceptuali/ic /&>d ( ! _w z an organic unity & ( individual ?+s hav+ _! mean+ 9 !mselves4 ,view a ?+ by itself1 & x seems to be a self-conta9$ reality :i* unfolds = itself alone4 ,view a ?+ ) ref]5ce to o!r ?+s1 & its reality is 9 some?+ else4 ,"h is ,ari/otle no long] z he meant to be1 b z he really 04 ,he is n[ ,plato's pupil4 ,ea* ?+ n[ is to be reg>d$1 n z conta9+ 9 itself ! two aspects ( ,=m & ,matt]1 b z ! possibility ( some?+ & ! actuality ( some?+ else4 ,! blossom is ! possibility or ,matt] ( ! fruit & ! ,=m or actuality ( ! bud4 ,! n9ete5? c5tury is ! ,=m ( ! eighte5? & ! ,matt] ( ! tw5tie?4 ,b developm5t has a limit above & bel[1 accord+ to ,ari/otle3 bel[1 9 ,matt] t is )\t ,=m2 above1 9 ,=m t is )\t ,matt]4 ,pure ,=m is ,god1 :o excludes f ,himself all ,matt] or possibility1 because ,he is p]fect4 ,pure ,matt] is ! l[] limit1 :i* is entire possibility1 & exi/s only to be =m$4 ,"h is a dualism z di/9ct z ,plato's1 :i* ,ari/otle n only did n ov]come b :i* he develop$4 ,9 ! same way t ,plato contra/$ ,ideas & empty space1 ,ari/otle contra/$ ,god z pure ,=m & ,matt] z pure possibility4 ,9 ?is f9al duali/ic =m 9 :i* ,ari/otle left 8 tea*+1 !re are ?ree specific doctr9es :i* ! /ud5t mu/ consid] c>efully4 ,!y are important because !y _h great influ5ce 9 lat] or?odox !ology & 9 !ories ( nature4 ,^! special doctr9es are 7#a7 ,ari/otle's conception ( ,god2 7#b7 8 conception ( matt]2 7#c7 8 conception ( nature4 #c4 ,ari/otle's ,conception ( ,god4 ,9 ! ,ari/otelian sy/em ! assumption ( an upp] f9al t]m ( pure ,=m 0 necess>y1 because ,matt] z ! possible & pot5tial is n end[$ ) ! p[] ( motion & g5]ation4 ,to ,ari/otle developm5t is n a process ) temporal beg9n+ & end+1 b is a k9d ( clos$ circuit4 ,s9ce reality is 9 itself a develop+ ess5ce1 motion is z et]nal z reality4 ,we %\ld n ask1 !re=e1 ,:5 did ! _w beg91 & :5 w x end8 b we c legitimately ask1 ,:at is ! nature ( reality t keeps motion alive8 ,:5 we exam9e individual ?+s1 we f9d1 accord+ to ,ari/otle's explanation1 t motion is ! result ( ! influ5ce ( ,=m ^u ,matt]4 ,!re is inh]5t 9 matt] an impulse to be =m$1 & !re is inh]5t 9 ,=m an active =m+ purpose4 ,b we may se>* individual ?+s 9 va9 = ! causal explanation ( motion1 s9ce e ,=m is 9 turn ! ,matt] = a high] ,=m4 ,! *a9 w\ld be endless & n intelligible if !re did n exi/ a pure ,=m1 :i* is unmov$4 ,god z ! unmov$ mov] is ! cause ( ! _w-motion1 b ,god mu/ be ! cause 9 a diff]5t s5se f ! physical causes1 :i* are !mselves mov$4 ,god op]ates z a cause ^u ,matt]1 n z a me*anical cause b z pure ,=m1z a f9al or teleological cause4 ,god is ! cause 9 ! s5se t ,god excites 9 ,matt] ! impulse to be actual1 l ,god4 ,?is prime mov] is simil> to ,plato's ,idea ( ! ,good4 ,z to its =m x is et]nal1 unmovable1 un*angeable1 :olly indep5d5t & incorporeal1 & yet ! cause ( all g5]ation & *ange4 ,god is ! p]fect ,be+ 9 :om all possibility is actuality4 ,z to its cont5t ,god is pure ?\ght4 ,b 9 respect to 8 ?\ght ,god is n l human ?\ght1 :i* is conc]n$ ) ext]nal ph5om5a & *ang+ ?+s4 ,god is ?\ght t has no?+ else = its object ?an itself & its own un*ang+ cont5t4 ,god is 8?\ght ( ?\ght40 ,god's contemplation ( himself is 8 own bless$ life4 ,"h 9 ,ari/otle is a mom5t\s conception =m$ = ! fir/ "t 9 ! hi/ory ( ?\ght4 ,mono!ism is = ! fir/ "t conceptually fram$ & sci5tifically gr\nd$4 ,! monism ( ,ari/otle's pr$ecessors passes ov] into a !ism4 ,god is n only immat]ial 9 ! s5se t ,plato def9$ ! ,ideas1 b he is spiritual4 ,9 ,ari/otle's transc5d5t ,god1 conceiv$ z pure self-consci\sness1 we h ! ripe/ fruit ( ,greek philosophy4 #d4 ,ari/otle's ,conception ( ,matt]4 ,! o!r & l[] limit ( ,ari/otle's dualism is ,matt]1 8fir/ ,matt]10 z ,ari/otle call$ x4 ,9 itself x is :olly un=m$ & m]e possibility4 ,b x is unlike pure ,=m 9 ?is respect1x nev] exi/s 9 itself4 ,god exi/s ap>t f ,matt]1 b s9ce ,matt] is m]e possibility1 ,matt] nev] exi/s ap>t f ,=m4 ,matt] has a d\ble "*4 ,on ! "o h& ,matt] is t :i* z an accessory cause makes ! _w ( ph5om5a possible2 on ! o!r h& x is ! s\rce ( ! lawless & purposeless 9 nature4 ,?r\gh its seek+ to be =m$ x makes ! pres5tation ( ! ,idea possible1 & yet x /&s z a det]r5t pr9ciple to ! full pres5tation ( ! ,=m4 ,on ! "o h& x is ! s9e qua non ( physical nature1 %[s itself 9 real physical effects1 & is ! basis ( me*anical causation1 motion1 & impact4 ,on ! o!r h& x /&s 9 ! way ( ! ,=ms actualiz+ !mselves fully1 & x prev5ts ! univ]se f p]fect+ itself z ,god is p]fect4 ,:ile ,matt] is n an indiff]5t negative 7z 9 ,plato's tea*+71 b ! necess>y sub/ratum ( corporeal ?+s1 x is h[ev] ! indet]m9ate1 & ! gr\nd ( ! accid5tal & purposeless 9 nature4 ,matt] is ! inf9ite & unlimit$1 & is ! s\rce ( unusual ph5om5a1 l mon/rosities & abortions4 ,bo? fate & accid5t are due to ! ret>d+ influ5ce ( ,matt]1 because x ob/ructs ! successful work+ out ( ,=m4 ,q 9 accord ) ,greek ?\ght1 ,ari/otle conceiv$ necessity & *ance to be fundam5tally ! same1 & ! ,greek cu/om ( draw+ lots %[s ! univ]sality ( ! notion4 #e4 ,ari/otle's ,conception ( ,nature4 ,nature is !re=e to ,ari/otle a f> m complex _w ?an ,plato _h conceiv$ x4 ,nature has a d\ble "* to ,ari/otle1 z 8 tw(old conception ( causation %[s4 ,nature is compos$ ( me*anical & teleological causes4 ,purpose & necessity are ! two pr9ciples ( motion 9 ! _w1 & 9 ?is tw(old conception ( causation did ,ari/otle reconcile ,plato & ,democritus4 ,h[ev] mu* ,ari/otle conc$es to ! ,democritan idea ( me*anical necessity1 x is evid5t t 9 8 conception ( nature ! pr9ciple ( teleology pr$om9ates ov] ! me*anical4 ,! highe/ actuality is ,god1 & he is a f9al or teleological cause2 & all results ( value 9 nature come ?r\gh f9al causes4 ,f9al causes are prim>y causes2 me*anical causes are second>y causes4 ,!re w\ld be no motion :atev] 9 ! univ]se b = ! highe/ f9al cause1 ,god4 ,yet ,god is ! unmov$ mov]1 & matt] _c move itself4 ,motion occurs because matt] feels ! impulse to =m itself l ,god4 ,h[ diff]5t ?is ,ari/otelian conception ( nature f our mod]n sci5tific conception ( an imp]sonal nature "u a me*anical causation t is univ]sal6 ,! teleological conception ( nature & natural ev5ts 0 v /rongly intr5*$ 9 ! human m9d dur+ ! ,middle ,ages1 & 0 n dislodg$ easily by mod]n inve/igation4 ,nature 0 a liv+ ?+ to ,ari/otle4 ,x 0 at once intr9sically spontane\s1 & self-det]m9$ & uni=m4 ,its spontaneity 0 n t ( caprici\s *ance4 ,its uni=mity 0 t ( purpose & end4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,ari/otelian conception ( nature is n ! same z ei!r ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e ( creat$ nature or ,d>w9's !ory ( evolution4 ,! _w ( ,ari/otle _h always exi/$2 x is a limit$ _w 9 space1 b n 9 "t4 ,also ! div9e reason always exi/$ 9 x4 ,yet its evolution is n a progressive climb+ sort1 l ! ,d>w9ian1 9 :i* new species evolve4 ,x means only t !re is a relation%ip ( rank & value among nature objects4 ,nature is a unity4 ,teleological *ange occurs )9 x4 ,nature is !re=e a connect$ sy/em ( liv+ be+s 9 ! process ( developm5t f ,=m to ,=m1 approximat+ ! ,deity & exi/+ z ! pot5tiality ( ! ,deity4 ,!re is a grad$ scale ( ?+s ( relative wor?4 ,b ! d\ble /&>d ( e/imat+ ! wor? ( nature-objectst ( me*anical necessity & t ( teleological causemakes two diff]5t s]ies1 :i* f9d _! union only at ! end 9 ,god4 ,f our =ego+ description ( ! nature ( ,god1 x w be se5 t he has two ess5tial *>act]i/ics3 he is ,be+ :o ev] re/s )9 himself & rema9s l himself2 & he is a pure reason4 ,he !re=e comb9es 9 himself ! two nature s]ies 9 _! mo/ ideal "*4 ,nature-objects 9 ! s]ies ( me*anical necessity h z _! ideal "* j t uni=mity1 regul>ity1 & ord] t we f9d 9 ! abid+ ,be+ ( ,god4 ,! great] ! uni=mity1 ! m ne>ly l ,god4 ,nature-objects1 9 ! teleological s]ies1 h z _! ideal *>act]i/ic ! reason ( ,god4 ,! m ne>ly rational su* a liv+ be+ is1 ! m ne>ly is x l ,god4 ,9 ! "o l9e ! s]ies ( ph5om5a asc5ds f ! disord] ( ! t]re/rial univ]se to ! absolute uni=mity ( ! />s1 :i* are close to ,god4 ,9 ! o!r l9e ! s]ies asc5ds 9 teleological values f ! me*anical & vegetative *>act]i/ics ( organisms to _! rational activity4 ,bo? s]ies t]m9ate 9 ,god4 ,! />s h rational intellig5ce & ! mo/ uni=m motions4 ,ari/otle conceiv$ ,physics z ! sci5ce t includes ! fir/ s]ies1 & ! second s]ies he conceiv$ to be includ$ by ,psy*ology1 ,e?ics1 & ,politics4 ,! ,me*anical ,s]ies1,ari/otle's ,!ory ( ,physics4 ,! g5]al a/ronomical assumptions ( ! "t det]m9$ ,ari/otle's !ory ( ! physical _w4 ,he adopt$ ! old ,py?agorean conception ( ! limit$ _w-all3 a holl[ sph]e made up ( conc5tric cry/all9e sph]es4 ,9 opposition to ! ,py?agoreans1 he conceiv$ ! e>? at ! c5tre4 ,x is sph]ical & /ation>y4 ,ar\nd x ! cry/all9e sph]es revolve1 9 :i* ! moon1 sun1 five planets1 & fix$ />s are plac$4 ,! fix$ />s are 9 ! rim ( ! great sph]e1 are outside all1 & are ne>e/ !re=e to ,god1 :o animates all4 ,god z x 7 holds ! _w-all 9 ! holl[ ( 8 h&4 ,he moves ! :ole1 :i* 9 turn moves ! fifty-five conc5tric cry/al sph]es )94 ,! pr9ciple ( ! movem5t ( fix$ />s is t ( ! ,deity1 :ile ! pr9ciple ( ! o!r sph]es is t ( ! spirits :i* reside 9 !m4 ,! movem5t ( ! planets h an influ5ce ^u t]re/rial life4 ,ari/otle made ! usual ,py?agorean division betwe5 ! cele/ial & ! t]re/rial p>ts ( ! _w-all1 :i* has _h s mu* influ5ce ^u !ology4 ,! motion ( ! _w-all is mo/ p]fect1 be+ a circle2 its =m is mo/ p]fect1 be+ a sph]e4 ,! cele/ial "p ( ?is _w-all1 :i* is ! region ly+ ne> ! p]iph]y1 is mo/ l ,god4 ,! motion ( ?is heav5 is circul>1 & x is ! place ( uni=mity1 p]fectness1 & *angeabl5ess4 ,! />s d n *ange nor pass away4 ,!y are sup]human be+s1 :o 9 _! regul>ity are l ! bless$ gods4 ,! t]re/rial "p ( ! _w-all bel[ ! moon has motions 9 /raight l9es4 ,?is is ! !atre ( imp]fection & irregul>ity1 ( increase & dim9ution4 ,!re are _m int]e/+ discussions by ,ari/otle ^u p>ticul> physical matt]s1 su* z space1 "t1 ! elem5ts4 ,8 conception ( motion %[s h[ ! s]ies ( uni=m nature-motions lead up to ! second s]ies ( teleological values4 ,9 nature !re are ?ree k9ds ( motion3 *ange ( place 7me*anical72 *ange 9 quality 7*emical72 *ange 9 sub/ance 7organic74 ,:ile *ange ( place is ! l[e/ k9d ( motion1 x is necess>y to *emical & organic *anges4 ,yet ,ari/otle refuses to all[ t qualitative *anges c be r$uc$ to quantitative *anges1 b ma9ta9s t quality is self-subsi/5t4 ,organic *ange1 or *ange 9 sub/ance1 on ! contr>y1 has a high] ,=m ( reality ?an ! l[] *anges4 ,?is /& tak5 by ,ari/otle1 9 refus+ to r$uce qualitative to quantitative det]m9ations1 %[s h[ compreh5sive & sane a sci5ti/ he 04 ,x introduces u to a psy*ology & an e?ics t are intimately l9k$ to physics1 & at ! same "t h realms ( _! own4 ,let u n[ turn to ! s]ies ( qualitative nature *anges1 or to psy*ology1 e?ics1 & politics4 ,! ,teleological ,s]ies3 ,! ,qualitative ,*anges ( ,ph5om5a4 #a4 ,! ,psy*ology ( ,ari/otle4 ,z ! fir/ exp]im5tal psy*ologi/1 ,ari/otle intimately connect$ 8 /udies 9 psy*ology ) 8 /udies 9 biology & m$ic9e4 ,man is a "p ( ! _w ( nature1 & psy*ology is 9 "p a comp>ative /udy4 ,z we pass upw>d f ! me*anical *anges1 we f9d *emical *anges ( quality1 & !n *anges ( organic life4 ,/udy+ ! organic realm1 we f9d organisms to consi/ ( s\ls ( relative rank+4 ,!re are vegetative s\ls1 s5sitive s\ls1 & rational s\ls4 ,plants h vegetative s\ls ) ! p[]s ( assimilation & propagation2 besides vegetative s\ls animals h s5sitive s\ls1 ) ! p[]s ( appetition & locomotion2 man possesses1 besides bo? ^! s\ls1 ! rational s\l4 ,"h is a s]ies ( teleological relation%ips1 :]e ! purpose ( ! organism is expla9$ only by ! activity ( its s\l4 ,! s\l builds up its body z a sy/em ( organs1 & z an organology ! !ory ( ,ari/otle has great significance4 ,nature /rives ev] upw>d1 ev5 9 ! inorganic processes1 ?r\gh an unbrok5 s]ies ( creations to its highe/ ,=m 9 man4 ,ea* /ep 9 ! upw>d progress is ! realization ( an entele*y1 or purpose1 & con/itutes = ! mom5t ! goal ( ! impulse to /rive4 ,! :ole _w is /riv+ to realize ! p]fect ,=m4 ,! l[] ends1 ! me*anical & vegetable & appetitive ,=ms1 are n lo/ b are utiliz$ 9 ! process2 = !y are ! ,matt] ^u :i* ! ,=ms high] ?an !mselves are built4 ,e memb] is bo? ,=m & ,matt] 9 ! :ole s]ies4 ,! psy*ology has !re=e two p>ts3 7#a7 ! g5]al !ory ( animal s\ls1 :i* possesses ri* sugge/ions2 7#b7 ! doctr9e ( ! ,n\s z ! di/9ctive *>act]i/ic ( man4 ,^! are ! empirical & speculative sides to ,ari/otle's psy*ology4 ,man is an epitome ( all ! *anges 9 ! univ]se4 ,he has vegetative1 appetitive1 & rational s\ls4 ,yet !re is unity 9 man1 = ! l[] s\ls are subs]vi5t to ! reason & exi/ = x4 ,! appetitive s\l is ! ,=m ( ! vegetative s\l1 ! ,matt] ( ! ,rational s\l1 etc4 ,accord+ly1 ,ari/otle def9es ! s\l z ! entele*y ( ! body1 because bodily human activity is enli/$ 9 ! s]vice ( ! reason4 ,reality 9 man is an unfold+ purpose1 j z x is 9 nature4 ,! real self is ?is unfold+ rational self1 ^: possibility is ! body2 ^: actuality is pure reason4 ,! m9d is actualiz$ body1 ! body is pot5tial m9d4 ,ari/otle made _m contributions to psy*ology ab\t ! orig9 & value ( ! sev]al s5sations1 ab\t ! feel+s ( pleasure & pa9 & ! desires4 ,he %[s 8 rem>kable g5ius 9 po9t+ to ! necessity ( a unity ( consci\sness1 :i* he calls ! 8common-s5sibility40 ,8 discussion ( ! ,n\s1 or reason1 is ( importance = two reasons3 fir/1 because x leads to & illum9ates 8 e?ical !ory2 & second1 because x is an example ( 8 deviation f 8 orig9al conceptual position4 ,! reason1 accord+ to 8 fir/ int5tion1 is ! unfold+ purpose ( ! body1x is ! imman5t ess5ce ( ! body4 ,z ,ari/otle f9ally left 8 discussion ( ! ,reason1 x is z transc5d5t z 8 ,god1 or z any ,idea ( ,plato4 ,! ,n\s1 or ,reason1 is n a ,=m ( ! body1 b a ,=m ( ! s\l4 ,x is purely immat]ial1 simple1 un*angeable1 & incapable ( suff]+4 ,x does n orig9ate ) ! body z a function4 ,x comes f )\t z a godlike activity1 & w rema9 aft] ! body passes away4 ,its fundam5tal activity is ?\ght1 & its object is ^? ultimate pr9ciples ( ,be+ :i* are ! ultimate premises ( logical ?9k+4 ,ari/otle's !ory ( ! ,reason is consid]ably complicat$ by 8 division ( x into two p>ts1! active & ! passive ,reason4 ,)9 itself1 ! ,reason is to be di/+ui%$ z ,=m & ,matt]4 ,! passive ,reason is ! ,matt] = ! active ,reason1 & ! active ,reason is ! ,=m = ! passive ,reason4 ,by ! passive ,reason ,ari/otle evid5tly means ! individual & develop+ man4 ,! active ,reason c alone p]si/ aft] dea?1 b :e!r absorb$ 9 ! ,deity or n he does n say4 ,immortality to ,ari/otle 9 any case is n a p]petuation ( ! individuality4 #b4 ,! ,e?ics ( ,ari/otle4 ,we h se5 t nature ph5om5a are ( two classes1^? me*anically relat$1 & ^? relat$ z to _! purposes or ends4 ,physics is conc]n$ ) ! fir/ class2 psy*ology is conc]n$ ) ! second class4 ,b 9 a special way are e?ics & politics sci5ces ( ! ph5om5a ( ! second classsci5ces ( teleologically relat$ ph5om5a4 ,moral life is an unfold+ ess5ce hav+ a possibility & an actuality4 ,! ,possibility or ,matt] ( ! e?ical life is our feel+s1 temp]am5t1 disposition1 impulses1 & p]ceptionsj ^? psy*ological factors t make up ! end[m5t ( ! human p]sonality4 ,! ultimate ,=m or actuality ( ! e?ical life is ! reason4 ,! reason z ! goal ( ! moral be+ det]m9es its "*4 ,man is di/9ctly a rational be+4 ,virtue is ! process ( ! e?ical life f its possibilities to its actuality2 x is ! ess5ce ( ! e?ical life4 ,virtue is t cont9u\s /ate ( m9d t makes rational activity possible4 ,s mu* = ! factors t make ! e?ical situation2 ! natural end[m5ts ( ! m9d are its mat]ial1 ! reason is its goal1 :ile ! means ( develop+ ! natural end[m5ts into rational activity is virtue4 ,! situation w\ld be simple en\gh = u z moral be+s if1 9 our /riv+1 ea* _h only himself & 8 own developm5t to consid]4 ,b man lives 9 a _w ( m51 & 8 highe/ good is det]m9$ some:at by 8 environm5t1by ri*es1 bodily com=ts1 success4 ,^! are n ess5tials b only accessories1 & ! lack ( !m is only a limitation4 ,! ess5tial factor is ! rational activity4 ,nev]!less1 ^! modify ! def9ition ( :at we mean :5 we def9e rational activity z ! highe/ ,good or ,=m ( ! moral life4 ,= ! "q :i* ,ari/otle proposes 9 8 notable treatise ( ,e?ics is1 ,:at is ! end or supreme good ( human action8 ,! highe/ ,good = a man among m5 is ,happ9ess1 or well-be+2 t includes n only rational activity1 b also ! pleasures t accrue to su* activity4 ,b :at is happ9ess8 ,x is an end 9 itself1 & n ! means to any?+ else2 x is ! result ( function+1 a /ate ( consci\s vitality2 x accords ) ! law ( excell5ce ( t function+4 ,p]fect happ9ess is1 !re=e1 p>tly ! result ( "o's own individual ef=t1 p>tly dep5d5t on circum/ance4 ,:ile virtue is ! measure ( ! wor? ( diff]5t pleasures1 yet pleasures d n always att5d our acts 9 our pres5t society4 ,! greate/ ,good is happ9ess1 b s9ce ?is dep5ds 9 "p on ext]nal goods1 ! goal to :i* we %\ld directly att5d! factor )9 our controlis rational activity4 ,!re are two classes ( virtues bas$ on ! two k9ds ( rational life1! practical virtues & ! dianoetic virtues4 ,! practical virtues are ^? ( conduct bas$ ^u ! rational control ( ! impulses2 ! dianoetic virtues are ^? ( intellectual activity bas$ ^u ! developm5t ( ! p]ceptions4 ,! p]fect moral developm5t ( human nature w consi/ 7#a7 9 ! p]fect developm5t & true regulation ( ! feel+s & desires 9 moral excell5ce2 & 7#b7 a p]fect developm5t ( ! intellectual faculties = rational culture4 7a7 ,! ,practical ,virtues4 ,! ess5tial ?+ = ! individual to reg>d1 !re=e1 is ! tra9+ ( 8 w by "r rational insight4 ,he %\ld seek to direct 8 impulses by reason1 & n only once b s _m times t ! impulses w become rational habits4 ,?is is :at ,ari/otle means by tra9+ 9 virtue4 ,x is cont9uity 9 rational activity2 x is a p]man5t developm5t t[>d reason2 x is ! unfold+ ( ! real ,self4 ,ari/otle _h reg>d = ! facts ( life :5 he diff]$ f ,socrates1 :o said t virtue is k4 ,ari/otle did n conceive ! w z psy*ological p[] indep5d5t ( ! reason4 ,he d\bt$ if rational insight 0 m p[]ful ?an ! impulses1 :5 ! te/ comes4 ,exp]i5ce (t5 %[s t al?\gh we may "k :at is "r1 an impulse w (t5 drive u into habits n guid$ by reason4 ,?is presupposes = ,ari/otle a w t is free to *oose among ! desires t "o :i* w lead him along ! pa? t reason po9ts out4 ,x is impossible to =mulate a rule = ! acquirem5t ( ! p>ticul> virtues4 ,ea* virtue mu/ be treat$ by itself4 ,! only pr9ciple = guidance is t ! reason %\ld always seek ! mean betwe5 two extremes4 ,?us c\rage is ! mean betwe5 c[>dice & ra%ness2 temp]ance betwe5 intemp]ance & ins5sibility2 fri5dl9ess betwe5 obsequi\sness & brusqu5ess1 etc4 ,mod]ation is ! wat*word 9 ! cultivation ( ! practical virtues4 7b7 ,! ,dianoetic ,virtues are ! means t[>d ! atta9m5t ( pure rationality = "o's self4 ,! dianoetic virtues are high] ?an ! practical4 ,!y unfold ! pure =mal activity ( ! ,n\s1 & give ! mo/ noble & p]fect pleasure4 ,man f9ds ?r\gh !m 8 possible p>ticipation 9 ! div9e happ9ess4 ,^! intellectual virtues may be ei!r !oretical or practical insight2 9 ! latt] case1 ,ari/otle means k ( ! "r 9 art1 & k ( ju/ice4 ,b ! pure/ is ,wisdom 771 :i* is k = its own sake4 ,x is ! k t ,god has ( himself4 ,man may approximate ?is4 ,9 ,ari/otle's e?ical !ory !re appe> ?ree features t are di/9ctly ,greek4 7#a7 ,! lead+ "q t he asks at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,e?ics1 ,:at is ! end or ,supreme ,good ( human action8 is ,greek4 ,! mod]n writ] asks1 ,:at is ! nature ( duty8 7#b7 ,! emphasis on ! 8mean0 is ,greek4 ,! idea ( ! 8mean0 0 ! fundam5tal pr9ciple 9 ,greek life1 & appe>$ 9 su* lit]ature z ,gnomic poetry & ,plato4 7#c7 ,! subord9ation ( individual e?ical conduct to ! conception ( ! /ate is ,greek4 ,ari/otle says t politics w h to settle ! "q ( ! ,supreme ,good1 = ! ,good ( ! /ate & t ( ! individual are id5tical4 ,! ,political ,philosophy ( ,ari/otle4 ,9 ! pres5t real _w rational activity r ?an happ9ess is ! *ief conc]n ( man4 ,happ9ess is1 h[ev]1 8 highe/ ,good1 :i* he c atta9 if 8 environm5t favors him4 ,! political environm5t is a moral factor to be consid]$4 ,! /ate %\ld be ! fulfillm5t ( ! morals ( ! individual1 & %\ld also be 8 e?ical tra9]4 ,t ,/ate is fulfill+ its own possibilities mo/ completely :i* br+s to ! full its natural end[m5ts4 ,e ,con/itution is "r t has ! weal ( ! p at he>t1 s t we f9d ,ari/otle hold+ ?is extraord9>ily lib]al position1 t ! ext]nal /ructure ( ! ,/ate is n s mu* ( consequ5ce z t ! ,/ate %\ld be ! educator ( its p & ! actualization ( its own inh]5t possibilities4 ,ari/otle did n con/ruct an ideal /ate1 l ,plato4 ,he m]ely po9t$ out "s ess5tials necess>y to ! well-be+ ( a /ate1 l education & provid5ce = ! future life ( ! ,/ate4 ,al?\gh ! ,/ate is ! (fspr+ ( necessity1 & arises out ( ! ne$s ( utility1 x is ! ,=m or actuality ( ! inn] self-realization ( man f 8 savag]y4 ,race1 blood1 soil1 & geographical position are all ! ,matt] ( ! ,/ate2 ! rational p]fection ( ^! is ! ,=m2 ! civic virtue is ! p]man5t means ( ! social developm5t4 ,! individual 9 ,ari/otle's ,/ate is subord9at$1 b n absorb$1 9 ! ,/ate4 ,he c p>ticipate 9 ! intellectual virtues4 ,s9ce 8 own enjoym5t 9 wisdom approximates ,god's1 he himself has di/9ction4 ,ari/otle 0 a /an* support] ( m>riage & ! family relations4 ,no philosoph] 9 anci5t times s elevat$ ! position ( woman4 ,he reluctantly cons5t$ to ! in/itution ( slav]y because x seem$ to him a necessity4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,! ,,hell5ic-,,roman ,,p]iod 7#cbb ,b4 ,c4-#dgf ,a4 ,d47 ,its ,"t ,l5g?4 ,greek ,p]iod1 #cjj ye>s4 ,hell5ic-,roman ,p]iod1 #hjj ye>s4 ,middle ,ages1 #ajjj ye>s4 ,mod]n ,p]iod1 #dej ye>s4 ,we ought to appreciate at ! beg9n+ ! enorm\s "t l5g? ( ?is p]iod4 ,x seems long s9ce mod]n ?\ght began1 b x 0 only ab\t #dej ye>s ago4 ,! ,hell5ic-,roman ,p]iod 0 #hjj ye>s long1 or ne>ly twice z long z mod]n times4 ,x is1 fur!rmore1 two & a half times z long z ! p]iod :i* we h j be5 discuss+1! pure ,greek p]iod4 ,n[ ! ,hell5ic-,roman ,p]iod & ! ,middle ,ages toge!r =m ! epo* ( human hi/ory t is relatively uncreative4 ,?is is an ext5t ( #ahjj ye>s1 a long int]val :5 comp>$ ) ! #gej ye>s ( creative hi/ory1 :i* repres5ts ! comb9$ l5g? ( ! pure ,greek ,p]iod & mod]n times4 ,9 ,european hi/ory ! p]iods ( productive ?\ght h be5 less ?an half z long z ^? ( ! unproductive4 ,yet we mu/ n be misl$ by su* /ati/ics4 ,hi/ory is an organic gr[?4 ,its se$time & gr[? are long2 its h>ve/ is %ort4 ,! ,fall ( ! ,greek ,nation & ! ,p]si/5ce ( its ,civilization4 ,! #hjj ye>s aft] ! dea? ( ,ari/otle are nam$ ! ,hell5ic-,roman ,p]iod1 because ,greek civilization bur/ its own national b\nd>ies & became a "p ( ,roman civilization4 ,! ,greek nation di$2 its culture rema9$4 ,x is no long] pure ,greek1 b ,greek 9 ! environm5t ( ! ,roman _wx becomes ,hell5ism4 ,) ! dea? ( ,alex&] 9 #cbc ,b4 ,c4 ! mo!rl& ( ,greece became a prey to revolutions = #bjj ye>s4 ,x 0 (t5 ! battlegr\nd ( =eign]s & ! object ( _! cont5tions4 ,its gov]nm5t & population sank into hopeless decay4 ,x 0 incorporat$ into ! ,roman empire 9 #adf ,b4 ,c4 & %>$ 9 ! depress+ times ( ! ,civil ,w>s ( ! fir/ c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ,by becom+ a "p ( ,rome ,greece lo/ its uniqu5ess b ! _w ga9$ its culture z a common h]itage4 ,its autonomy 0 =ev] gone1 b its p became ! tea*]s ( mank9d4 ,9 political p[] ,greece rea*$ its height ) ,alex&]1 9 creative ?\ght ) ,ari/otle2 !n by its own mom5tum its civilization p]si/$ z a mission>y =ce to ! :ole _w4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,empire ,,( ,,alex&] 7,%[+ ! spread ( ,hell5ism ea/w>d1 beg9n+ #ccd ,b4 ,c4 ) ,alex&]'s ,campaign7 ,! ov]fl[ ( ,greek civilization 0 fir/ ea/w>d1 to ! nations ( ,asia4 ,alex&]1 ) 8 milit>y & adm9i/rative g5ius1 _h only made a prelim9>y conque/ ( ^! ,ori5tal peoples4 ,! conque/ became p]man5t ?r\gh ,greek art1 le>n+1 & in/itutions4 ,9 ! c5tury aft] ,alex&] ! habits & cu/oms ( ! ,ea/ _h be5 ,hell5iz$4 ,greek s*ools1 !atres1 & ba?s 7 to be f\nd 9 almo/ e city ( ! ,ea/4 ,9 ! ,ea/ & ,egypt an inexhau/ible field 0 op5$ = ! f\nd+ ( new c5tres ( culture4 ,9 ! k+doms p>tition$ (f f ! old ,alex&rian doma91 ! k+s 7 ,greek1 spoke ,greek1 ador$ ,greek gods1 & pres]v$ ,greek fa%ions4 ,amid ,asiatics !y s\ght to ma9ta9 ,greek c\rts1 h ,greek adm9i/rative (fic]s1 & be surr\nd$ ) ,greek s*ol>s4 ,greek coloni/s1 soldi]s1 & m]*ants 7 attract$ to ^! k+doms 9 su* numb]s t ! natives adopt$ ! co/umes1 religions1 mann]s1 & ev5 ! language ( ! ,greeks4 ,! ,ori5t ceas$ to be ,asiatic & became ,hell5ic4 ,! ,romans f\nd !re 9 ! fir/ c5tury ,b4 ,c4 peoples l ! ,greeks :o spoke ,greek4 ,greek civilization began to ov]fl[ ^u ! we/]n _w :51 9 ! second c5tury1 ,greece ) all ! o!r c\ntries ^u ! ,m$it]ranean 0 absorb$ by ,rome4 ,! conque/ ( ,greece by ,rome 9 #adf ,b4 ,c4 gave curr5cy to ,greek art1 lett]s1 & morals 9 ,roman life4 ,t ,greek civilization 0 n lo/ 9 ?is great amalgamation %[s h[ deep & fundam5tal x 04 ,! second>y nations disappe>$ & none rema9$ to compete ) ! ,greek & ,lat94 ,! result 0 ! sup]imposition ( ,greek culture ^u ,roman society4 ,at ! "t ( ! conque/ ( ,greece1 ,greek s*ol>s w5t to ,rome 9 great numb]s & op5$ s*ools ( eloqu5ce & lit]ature4 ,lat] ! ,roman y\?s w5t to ,a!ns to /udy4 ,art & sci5ce 7 gradually introduc$ into ,rome4 ,! old ,roman h\se got a ,greek addition4 ,/atues & pa9t+s 7 transport$ f ,greece to ,rome4 ,greek arti/s 7 commission$4 ,by #ajj ,b4 ,c4 ! great ,romans 7 liv+ 9 ,greek or ,ori5tal /yle4 ,! co>se/ ,greeks1 too1 came into ,italy & m+l$ ) ! ,roman prolet>iat4 ,?us1 ) ! complete ,lat9iz+ ( ! p59sula ( ,italy 9 ! second c5tury1 an increas+ ,hell5ism w5t h& 9 h&4 ,b ! two civilizations nev] completely unit$4 ,roman adoption ( ,greek culture 0 nev] m ?an a v5e]4 ,greek art & le>n+ 7 r>ely /udi$ by ! ,roman except z a p>ade & luxury4 ,z "t w5t on ! ,roman resort$ less to ! classic & m to ! frivol\s mod]n products ( ! ,greeks4 ,= x mu/ be rememb]$ t :5 ,greece 0 conqu]$ by ,rome1 ! ,romans 7 /ill only peasants1 soldi]s1 & m]*ants1 )\t sci5ce1 art1 or philosophy4 ,be=e #aej ,b4 ,c4 ! ,roman *ildr5 7 taught no?+ high] ?an read+1 writ+1 etc4 ,b ! ,roman f\nd a culture 9 ,greece t he lik$ & imitat$4 ,he kept 8 co/ume1 language1 & political laws1 b he adopt$ ,greek lett]s1 art1 morals1 & incorporat$ _m elem5ts ( ! ,greek religion into 8 own4 ,two results came f ?is sup]imposition ( ,greek culture ^u ,roman society4 ,on ! "o h& ! ,greek s\ght to create a philosophy :i* w\ld make him a citiz5 ( ! _w1 s9ce x 0 no long] an honor to be a citiz5 ( a ,greek city4 ,on ! o!r h&1 to ! ,roman !re came a mix$ good4 ,!re 0 a ga9 to ,roman lit]ature & p]haps to jurisprud5ce1 b a fatal loss to ,roman fai? & morals4 ,on ! :ole ,roman vulg>ity 0 only conceal$ by ,greek culture1 except 9 su* spirits z ,scipio1 ,paulus1 & ! ,grac*i1 9 :om culture 0 g5u9e4 ,! ,roman felt ! ne$ ( ri* intellectual life1 & he s\ght x 9 ! ri* treasures & ! fil? ( lat] ,greek culture4 ,! ,greek culture t he f\nd 0 no long] pure ,greek1 b ,hell5ism1 sometimes t+$ ) ,ori5talism4 ,x act$ z a poison on ! ,roman & (t5 0 bitt]ly oppos$4 ,! ,two ,p>ts ( ! ,hell5ic-,roman ,p]iod4 ,we mu/ n =get t1 except+ ! fir/ #age ye>s ( ?is p]iod1 ,rome is ! backgr\nd ^u :i* all philosophical movem5ts ( ! "t are to be trac$4 ,^u ?is backgr\nd two g5]al movem5ts are prom95t1 :i* divide ! p]iod into two p>ts3 7#a7 ! ,e?ical ,p]iod1 & 7#b7 ! ,religi\s ,p]iod4 #a4 ,! ,e?ical ,p]iod1 #cbb ,b4 ,c4-#a ,a4 ,d41 _h its orig9 9 ! ,greek culture t 0 sup]impos$ ^u ,roman civilization4 ,?is epo* is notable = ! rise & controv]sies ( ! f\r celebrat$ philosophical ,s*ools ( ,a!ns2 ! introduction ( ! tea*+ ( ^! ,s*ools into ,roman society2 & ! f9al m]g+ & reconciliation ( ^! ,s*ools 9 ,eclecticism & ,skepticism4 #b4 ,! ,religi\s ,p]iod1 #ajj ,b4 ,c4-#dgf ,a4 ,d41 arose out ( ! ,ori5tal religions t swept into ,rome be=e ! beg9n+ ( ?is era4 ,!y 7 modifi$ by _! ,roman environm5t1 & intellectualiz$ & sy/ematiz$ by ,hell5ic culture4 ,neo-,py?agoreanism1 ! ,alex&rian-,judaic !osophies 9 ! fir/ "p1 ,*ri/ianity & neo-,platonism 9 ! second "p ( ?is p]iod1 are ! mo/ important philosophical results4 ,note ?ree ?+s4 7#a7 ,! spiritual life ( ,rome dur+ ^! #hjj ye>s has its orig9 9 import$ =eign movem5ts4 ,! s\rce ( ! e?ical movem5t is ,greek1 t ( ! religi\s movem5t is ,ori5tal4 7#b7 ,! two movem5ts ov]lap4 ,inde$1 ea* f its beg9n+ to its end cov]s ab\t #fjj ye>s4 ,m precisely ! e?ical movem5t did n disappe> until ab\t #bjj ,a4 ,d42 ! religi\s movem5t began ab\t #bjj ,b4 ,c4 ,e?ical consid]ations dom9ate ! fir/ & religi\s impulses ! second p]iod4 7#c7 ,! c5tury & a half f #aej ,b4 ,c4 to #a ,a4 ,d4 is a p]iod ( transition4 ,x is ! "t :5 ! emphasis *anges f e?ics to religion4 ,x is a p]iod ( unsettl$ conditions bo? politically & intellectually4 ,politically x is ! "t ( ! ,civil w>s & ! =mation ( ! empire4 ,intellectually x is ! "t ( ,eclecticism & ,skepticism4 ,! ,und]curr5t ( ,skepticism 9 ! ,hell5ic-,roman ,p]iod4 ,if we g b5ea? ! surface ( ! *ronological divisions ( ?is p]iod1 :i* h be5 giv5 above1 we %all f9d _! significance 9 ! und]curr5t ( ,skepticism1 :i* runs f ! beg9n+ to ! end ( ! p]iod1 & includes bo? its e?ical & religi\s phases4 8,skepticism0 is a ^w ) a hi/ory ( its own1 b1 z philosophically us$1 x means ! disbelief 9 ! possibility ( true k4 ,skepticism 0 ! fundam5tal frame ( m9d t gradually grew to consci\s expression 9 ! entire anci5t _w1 al?\gh x 0 entirely at v>iance ) ! _s ( ! ,greek culture t _h be5 sup]impos$ ^u t _w4 ,z an und]curr5ta widespread feel+,skepticism p]vad$ ! :ole p]iod1 :ile at diff]5t times & places x appe>$ di/9ctly on ! surface4 ,^! 7 #hjj ye>s ( lack ( confid5ce 9 ! p[] ( ! human reason1 b ! really negative "* ( ! "t is (t5 conceal$ by dogmatic tea*+s ( ! philosophical ,s*ools4 ,dogmatic ,skepticism does n appe> except ) ref]5ce to ! positive tea*+s ( ! ,s*ools1 & !n x appe>s conspicu\sly4 ,! successive /ages ( ,skepticism c h _! cle> outl9e1 !re=e1 only aft] ! positive philosophical tea*+s1 contempor>y ) x & oppos$ by x1 h be5 und]/ood4 ,?is is ! reason = treat+ ! ,skeptics aft] & n be=e ! ,s*ools4 ,! read] w1 h[ev]1 lose ! :ole mean+ ( ! ,hell5ic-,roman ,p]iod if he does n see t x is fundam5tally ,skeptical2 t 9 ! ,e?ical ,division ! ,s*ools furni%$ ! occasion ( its appe>ance1 & t 9 ! ,religi\s ,division religi\s fai? rose because ,skepticism _h tak5 possession ( ! field ( k4 ,! e?ical ,s*ools /ood z ! la/ repres5tatives ( ! old ,greek rationalism ( ! ,sy/ematic ,p]iod1 b ev5 !y yield$ to ! ,skeptical _s ( ! "t4 ,/oicism1 ,epicureanism1 & ,skepticism seek ! same end1! )drawal ( ! individual f ! _w & 8 exaltation above 8 environm5t4 ,all ?ree valu$ sci5ce only s f> z x w\ld help e?ical conduct4 ,skepticism alone 0 av[$ly antagoni/ic to intellectual ideals4 ,! /r5g? ( ,skepticism appe>s m evid5t :5 we look at its gr[? dur+ ?is p]iod4 ,at ! end ( ! ,e?ical ,p]iod ! ,s*ools weak5$ & we f9d a c5tury & a half 7#aej ,b4 ,c4-#a ,a4 ,d47 ( ,skepticism & ,eclecticism4 ,!re !n foll[$ at ! beg9n+ ( ?is era ! ,religi\s ,p]iod4 ,man !n turn$ to religion because he 0 pr(\ndly skeptical ( ! tru/wor?9ess ( ! reasonhe felt t x 0 s untru/wor?y z to be unable to furni% him ev5 a true !ory ( moral conduct4 ,! ,skeptical und]curr5t ( ! ,hell5ic-,roman ,p]iod 0 ! conc5tration ( all ! negative results ( ! ,greek ,sophi/s4 ,x !re=e _h m ?an "o po9t ( dep>ture1! philosophies ( ,protagoras1 ( ! ,meg>ian1 ,cynic1 & ,cyr5aic ,s*ools4 ,?is ,sophi/ic und]curr5t f$ popul> ?\ght dur+ ! days ( ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,x took its =mal beg9n+ contempor>y ) ! rise ( ! ,/oic & ,epicurean ,s*ools2 & 9 ,a!ns1 ,alex&ria1 & ,rome !re rose to ! surface ! problem ( ! possibility ( human k4 ,=mally x modifi$ its sweep+ negations1 :5 x came 9 contact ) ! press+ ne$s ( morality & ( spiritual retirem5t1 b x 0 ev] pres5t z ! significant attitude ( ! "t4 ,:ile ! nature ( ! ,skeptical tea*+ /ood 9 ! way ( its =mation into a ,s*ool1 ! doctr9e itself1 nev]!less1 develop$ into a sy/em & _h its hi/orical gr[? & culm9ation4 ,web] po9ts out t ! fir/ appe>ance ( ,skepticism m>ks 9 ,greece ! inauguration ( ! age ( reason & its reappe>ance m>ks ! decl9e ( ! age ( reason4 ,! ,fundam5tal ,problem ( ! ,hell5ic-,roman ,p]iod4 ,! fundam5tal attitude ( ?is p]iod be+ ,skepticism1 ! fundam5tal problem pres5t$ to x 0 !re=e a practical "o4 ,:ile at he>t ! age d\bt$ ! validity ( ! human reason1 x 0 consci\sly engag$ 9 solv+ a v practical problem4 ,! p]iod _h an ext]nal side t 0 positive4 ,no age c be m]ely skeptical1 especially = s long a "t z #hjj ye>s4 ,to d\bt ! p[] ( ! human reason is usually ! occasion ( %unt+ human en]gies along o!r l9es4 ,! =m ( ! practical problem ( ?is "t 01 ,:at is ! highe/ wisdom = practical life8 ,?is is consonant ) ! skeptical attitude ( ! ,greek z indicat$ by ^! two facts3 7#a7 he _h no long] an int]e/ 9 speculation except z x af=d$ a basis = practical wisdom1 & 7#b7 he _h no long] an int]e/ 9 special sci5ces except z !y yield$ practical results4 ,to be sure1 x w be f\nd t !ories took to !mselves airs ( great importance dur+ ?is p]iod & t empirical sci5ces made rapid advances2 b x w also be f\nd t !y 7 always 9 ! s]vice ( practical liv+4 ,! ,wise ,man ( ?is age is he :o has a sci5tific doctr9e ( ! purposes & ends ( human life4 ,= ) 8 entrance into _w-wide relations 9 ! ,e?ical ,p]iod ! ,a!nian f\nd himself confront$ ) a v diff]5t situation f t :i* _h engag$ him dur+ ! age ( ,p]icles4 ,8 national exi/5ce _h gone & c\ld no long] ar\se 8 devotion1 & ) x 8 ideal ( a national life _h crumbl$ to pieces4 ,8 epic poly!ism _h become a dim ?+ ( ! di/ant pa/1 & !re 0 no long] any ext]nal ,greek in/itution to awak5 8 slumb]+ en]gies4 ,he might1 ( c\rse1 g into retirem5t & engage 9 speculative inquiry1 except t ?is 0 an age ( press+ ne$4 ,he 0 =c$ to be awake & to adju/ himself z an individual to ! _m o!r peoples mix+ & m+l+ 9 "o common civilization4 ,8 relations 7 enl>g$1 b 8 int]e/s 7 circumscrib$4 ,8 philosophy 0 focus$ to "o fundam5tal problem1 ,:at1 aft] all1 is ! object ( human life1 & :at c give happ9ess to ! individual amid ! turmoil ( ! "t8 ,philosophic /udies 7 n>r[$ to e?ics1 logic1 & physics 9 _! practical be>+4 ,h[ mu* n>r[]1 !n1 ! scope ( ! intellectual life ( ?is "t ?an t ( ^? m5 ( retir$ leisure1 ,plato & ,ari/otle6 ,nor is ! fundam5tal problem diff]5t :5 9 ! second "p ( ?is p]iod we ent] ! great sweep ( ! religi\s curr5t4 ,! rise ( religi\s ideals & ! %ift f e?ics to religion 0 only ! pres5tation ( ! practical problem ( liv+ ) a diff]5t emphasis4 ,man 0 n[ 9 ! dazzl+ glory ( ! empire1 b t empire 0 unable to comp5sate ! individual = ! loss ( 8 political importance4 ,rome _h giv5 to its conqu]$ peoples an organiz$ legal unity1 b no spiritual ideal4 ,x _h none to (f]4 ,! individual 0 ! lea/ important factor 9 ! organization4 ,! pres5t life (f]$ little hope to ! individual1 except 9 ! light ( a future life4 ,practical wisdom ?us became t :i* took acc\nt ( ! rew>ds & puni%m5ts t w\ld come 9 ! life beyond4 ,! ,hell5ic-,roman ,p]iod is kaleidoscopic & bewild]+ 9 its %ift+s2 b amid !m all is ?is "o consci\s problem3 8,%[ u ! man :o is sure ( 8 happ9ess1 :atev] ! accid5ts ( ! _w may br+ to him40 ,! ,c5tres ( ,hell5ism4 #a4 ,a!ns4 ,) ! ov]fl[ ( ,hell5ism to ! ea/ & we/ ! active hi/ory ( ,a!ns _h ceas$1 b %e became v5]at$ = :at %e _h be54 ,greece became hall[$ & ,a!ns became ! %r9e ( ,greece 9 ! imag9ations ( m54 ,al?\gh ! city 0 brutally ravi%$1 %e ex]cis$ a *>m ov] ! human m9d = eight hundr$ ye>s aft] ,alex&]4 ,a!ns rema9$ ! intellectual c5tre ?r\gh ! entire p]iod4 ,x became ! cons]vative univ]sity t[n1 :]e philosophy & rhetoric 7 taught4 ,x is rem>kable h[ _m ,ori5tal philosoph]s came to ,a!ns to tea*1 h[ _m y\?s f ! :ole _w came to be taught4 ,! rhetorical s*ools1 su* z t ( ,isocrates1 did mu* t[>d mak+ ,a!ns ! c5tre ( culture1 & !y (f]$ = _m ye>s ! highe/ practical tra9+ to ,greek1 ,roman1 & ,ori5tal4 ,besides ! rhetorical 7 ! philosophical or dialectical s*ools1 :i* debat$ privately que/ions ( speculative metaphysics4 ,^! did n (f] public tra9+1 b gr\ps ( /ud5ts 7 taught 9 ! gr\nds atta*$ to gymnasia4 ,f\r pr9cipal philosophical s*ools 7 ?us =m$1! ,academy ( ,plato1 ! ,lyceum ( ,ari/otle1 ! ,por* ( ! ,/oics1 & ! ,g>d5s ( ,epicurus4 ,9 ! fir/ two we h _h especial int]e/ 9 ! previ\s p]iod4 ,all f\r1 & especially ! ,/oic & ,epicurean s*ools1 w engage our att5tion 9 ?is p]iod4 ,!y are kn[n 9 hi/ory z 8! ,s*ools40 7,see map = _! location 9 ,a!ns47 ,!re 7 _m m9or s*ools 9 ,a!ns :i* lat] became religi\s cults4 ,^! ,s*ools lo/ _! orig9al int]e/ 9 speculative inquiry1 & 9 ?is p]iod devot$ !mselves to ! exposition ( ! tea*+ ( _! respective f\nd]s on e?ical l9es4 ,! ,univ]sity ( ,a!ns 0 built ^u ! f\r ,s*ools4 ,its *airs 7 end[$ by ,hadrian & ! ,anton9es 9 ! second c5tury ,a4 ,d4 ,x grew to h an elaborate organization4 ,x 0 aboli%$ by ,ju/9ian 9 #ebi ,a4 ,d4 #b4 ,alex&ria4 ,!re 7 _m o!r c5tres ( ,hell5ism & ( o!r le>n+ at ?is "t1,rhodes1 ,antio*1 ,alex&ria1 ,p]gamos1 ,t>sus1b none ( ^! c\ld be said to rival ,a!ns 9 ! v5]ation ( m54 ,"s 7 mu* m active & creative ?an ,a!ns4 ,alex&ria surpass$ ,a!ns & all o!r cities z ! c5tre ( ! natural sci5ces 9 ! ,e?ical ,p]iod & ( religions 9 ! ,religi\s ,p]iod4 ,"h1 too1 r ?an at ,a!ns1 7 to be f\nd ! real int]pret]s ( ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,no?+ 9 anci5t times c be comp>$ to ! wond]s ( ! museum ( ,alex&ria1 :i* 0 its univ]sity4 ,s*ol>s ( e nation 7 ent]ta9$ "h at ! public exp5se4 ,a va/ botanical g>d51 a zological collection1 an anatomical museum1 an a/ronomical obs]vatory1 a libr>y ( sev5 hundr$ ?\s& volumes 7 "h4 ,"h ,euclid 7#bij ,b4 ,c47 wrote 8 geometry1 ,erato/h5es pursu$ 8 a/ronomical1 geographical1 & hi/orical labors1 ,apollonius wrote 8 treatise on conic sections2 & "h 7 made ! obs]vations t l$ to ! discov]y ( ! precession ( ! equ9oxes4 ,"h ,ptolemy & 8 s*ool =mulat$ ! sy/em ( a/ronomy :i* 0 au?oritative = fifte5 hundr$ ye>s4 ,"h ! ,*ri/ian !ologians 7 educat$1 & f ?is city neo-,platonism sprang4 ,lit]ature & art1 hi/ory1 philology & criticism fl\ri%$4 ,! ,hebrew ,bible 0 translat$ into ,greek4 ,all religions 7 welcom$4 ,buddhi/1 ,jew1 ,greek1 & ,egyptian m+l$1 & comp>ative !ology rose to be a sci5ce4 ,g5]al ,*>act]i/ics ( ! ,e?ical ,p]iod 7#cbb ,b4 ,c4-#a ,a4 ,d47,on ! dea? ( ,ari/otle ! hi!rto compact body ( ,greek ?\ght dis9tegrat$ into its sev]al elem5ts4 ,!oretical & practical k1 :i* _h be5 s successfully fus$ 9 ! great sy/ems ( ,democritus1 ,plato1 & ,ari/otle1 became sep>at$4 ,! :ole t5d5cy ( ! "t 0 t[>d segregation4 #a4 ,! ,ab&onm5t ( ,metaphysical ,speculation4 ,! !oretical side ( philosophy1 :i* _h be5 s successfully complet$ by ! great ,greek ma/]s1 n[ became subord9at$ & almo/ completely lo/ to view4 ,metaphysical speculation 0 neglect$ except z x ?rew light on ! practical sci5ceson e?ics & ! natural sci5ces4 ,k 0 no long] lov$ = its own sake4 #b4 ,! ,gr[? ( ,sci5ce4 ,s9ce !ory 0 reg>d$ z complet$1 att5tion 0 naturally turn$ ^u ! details ( erudition & ! specializ+ ( sci5ce4 ,! natural sci5ces surviv$ ! sy/ems ( philosophy because ( _! usefulness4 ,!re 0 great int]e/ 9 inve/igations 9 ma!matics1 natural sci5ce1 gramm>1 philology1 lit]>y hi/ory & g5]al hi/ory& all ) v ri* results4 ,x 0 ! "t ( comm5t>ies1 criticism1 collaboration ( ! "w ( ! pa/ & completion ( ! special "w begun by ! pa/4 ,by f> ! great] numb] ( ! s-call$ 8philosoph]s0 ( ?is "t are connect$ ) special sci5ce & lit]ature1 & n ) metaphysics4 ,x 0 9 ! ,greek ,isl&s & ,egypt 7,alex&ria7 t ?is advance 0 made4 ,nev]!less1 x mu/ be said t ! advance 9 sci5ce 0 a good deal re/rict$4 ,! empirical sci5ces are dep5d5t on obs]vation & exp]im5t1 & ^! opportunities 7 want+ at ?is "t4 ,good progress 01 h[ev]1 made 9 ma!matics & ! sci5ces dep5d5t on reason+4 ,reason+ alone is incapable ( advanc+ a sci5ce l physics1 = physics dep5ds on inve/igation4 ,b ev5 ! preval5t skepticism ( ! "t c\ld n d\bt ! tru?s ( ma!matics4 #c4 ,e?ics became ! ,c5tral ,int]e/4 ,= ! fir/ "t 9 ! hi/ory ( ,european ?\ght e?ics 0 no long] a "p ( politics4 ,9 ! "t ( ! autonom\s ,greek /ates e?ics & politics 7 two sides ( ! same "q bo? 9 !ory & practice4 ,e?ics & politics 7 n disjo9$ ev5 by ! ,sophi/s1 :o nev]!less pav$ ! way = ! divorce ( ! two4 ,n[ = ! fir/ "t e?ical que/ions h become su* t ! individual mu/ disreg>d ! iron-b\nd political situation & answ] !m entirely ) ref]5ce to himself4 ,! decad5t ,greek /ate 0 no long] a moral entity 9 ! eyes ( ! p1 nor c\ld ! conc5tration ( gov]nm5t 9 ,rome raise ! /ate to moral dignity4 ,moreov]1 life _h become cosmopolitan4 ,! nations 7 comm+l+4 ,e?ics mu/ meet ! ne$s ( m5 z human be+s1 & n z ,a!nians1 ,sp>tans1 or ,romans4 ,vices _h become cosmopolitan & virtues mu/ ne$s be cosmopolitan also4 ,b cosmopolitanism is 9 ! la/ analysis only individualism4 ,! man :o conceives 8 duty s l>ge t x embraces ! :ole _w is usually cold to any special int]e/s except 8 own4 ,! ,roman dictators & aft]w>ds ! emp]or 7 ! p]sonification ( ?is cosmopolitan individualism :i* ! subjects imitat$ s f> z !y c\ld4 ,?us ! public life 0 9 dang] ( be+ swamp$ by private int]e/s & m]e enjoym5t1 by ga9 & ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,! old belief 9 ! gods1 ! vigor\s political activity = great ends1 ! pleasure 9 free sci5tific inquiry _h disappe>$4 ,! only refuge = ! reflective m9d 0 )9 itself & ! /udy ( its own moral problems4 ,yet = ?is a def9ite sci5ce ( e?ics 0 necess>y1 if ! individual 0 to be sy/ematically indep5d5t ( ext]nal ?+s4 ,plato & ,ari/otle _h prep>$ ! way = su* retirem5t1 & ! t5d5cy t[>d e?ical sep>ation f ! _w ( political ev5ts 0 an aspect ( ! cosmopolitanism ( ! "t4 ,e?ical individuality & cosmopolitanism g toge!r4 ,! developm5t ( ! inn] life belongs to ^? individuals :o dwell toge!r 9 spiritual community4 ,! same cosmopolitanism 0 s\ght by ! skeptics ( ! p]iod ?r\gh ! ab&onm5t ( all k4 ,! ,s*ools4 ,! beg9n+ ( ! ,e?ical ,p]iod is m>k$ by ! rise ( ! ,s*ools into prom95ce1 ! end ( t p]iod by ! fusion ( ! ,s*ools ) "o ano!r ?r\gh ei!r eclecticism or skepticism4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! p]iod ea* ,s*ool _h its di/9ctive doctr9e & 0 9 op5 controv]sy ) ! o!rs2 at ! end _! doctr9es 7 mu* alike4 ,! ,epicurean ,s*ool 0 an exception1 = x always rema9$ isolat$ f ! o!r ,s*ools4 ,:ile ea* ,s*ool _h a ho/ ( notable repres5tatives1 x w\ld be difficult to f9d a creative ?9k] among !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,map ,,( ,,a!ns1 ,,%[+ ,,! ,,location ,,( ,,! ,,f\r ,,s*ools 7,! ,academy 0 ?ree qu>t]s ( a mile f ! city1 ! ,lyceum j outside ! city1 :ile ! ,por* 0 a colonnade on ! m>ket place 7,agora74 ,! location ( ! ,g>d5s is n precisely kn[n1 b x 0 on ! road to ! ,academy1 j inside ! walls47 ,we h already giv5 ! names ( ! f\r ,s*ools3 ! ,/oic or ! ,por*1 ! ,epicurean or ! ,g>d5s1 ! ,ari/otelian 7,p]ipatetic7 or ! ,lyceum1 ! ,platonic or ! ,academy4 ,! ,/oic & ,epicurean are call$ ! ,new ,s*ools 9 contra/ ) ! ,lyceum & ! ,academy1 :i* are call$ ! ,old ,s*ools4 ,! ,new ,s*ools 7 ( ,asiatic r ?an ,greek orig91 & ! ,old ,s*ools dep>t$ v mu* f ! tea*+ ( _! f\nd]s2 s t we f9d a v diff]5t k9d ( philosophy taught 9 all f\r ,s*ools f t taught by ! great ,greek ,sy/ematiz]s4 ,all ! ,s*ools 7 ,sophi/ic r ?an ,socratic1 & may be *>act]iz$ z ! revival ( ,greek ,sophi/ry4 ,besides ^! ,s*ools !re 0 ! gr\p ( ,skeptics1 :i* _c be prop]ly call$ a ,s*ool1 = f ! nature ( its doctr9e x c\ld n =m an organization4 ,9 influ5ce ^u ! p]iod1 ! ,/oics1 ,epicureans1 & ,skeptics are ! mo/ important4 ,!y eclips$ ! ,academy & ,lyceum because ) p>tisan cle>ness !y c\ld =mulate ! attitude ( ! age4 ,! ,/oic ,s*ool made ! mo/ important contribution to succe$+ hi/ory4 ,! ,epicurean ,s*ool _h ! mo/ num]\s foll[+4 ,al?\gh ! f\r ,s*ools 7 n end[$ until ! ,empire1 _! life 0 mo/ vigor\s be=e ! ,empire dur+ ! ,e?ical ,p]iod4 ,succession 9 lead]%ip ( ! ,s*ools _c be completely trac$ev5 t ( ! ,academy %[s great gaps4 ,all record ( lead]%ip 9 ! ,ari/otelian1 ,/oic1 & ,epicurean ,s*ools /ops at ! close ( ?is p]iod4 ,! ,old ,s*ools,! ,academy & ! ,lyceum4 ,! ,academy & ,lyceum h a hi/ory :i* 9 ^! respects is ! same3 7#a7 bo? ab&on$ ! ideal ( an e?ical society & turn$ to t ( individual happ9ess2 7#b7 bo? deviat$ to ,skepticism2 7#c7 bo? aft]w>d _h a reaction f ,skepticism2 7#d7 bo? develop$ ! ,sophi/ic tea*+ r ?an t ( _! f\nd]s2 7#e7 bo? 7 9 common opposition to ! ,new ,s*ools4 #a4 ,! ,academy4 ,!re 7 ?ree ,academies aft] ,platocall$ ?ree1 because ( ! diff]5ce 9 _! doctr9es4 ,p]haps x is bett] to say t !re 7 ?ree successive epo*s ( ! ,academy4 7a7 ,! ,old] ,academy1 la/+ ab\t sev5ty ye>s1 f #cdg ,b4 ,c4 to #bhj ,b4 ,c4 ,! successive lead]s ( ?is 7 ,speusippus1 ! nephew ( ,plato 7d4 #cci ,b4 ,c471 ,h]acleides ( ,pontus1 ,x5ocrates 7d4 #cad ,b4 ,c471 ,polemo1 & ,crates4 ,?is ,academy emphasiz$ at fir/ ! t5d5cy begun by ,plato 9 ! ,laws t[>d ! ,py?agorean numb]s1 & lat] yield$ to ! contempor>y int]e/ 9 morals4 7b7 ,! ,middle ,academy1 la/+ ab\t "o hundr$ & fifty ye>s1 f #bhj ,b4 ,c4 to #abi ,b4 ,c4 ,( ?is epo* ,arcesilaus & ,c>neades 7 ! mo/ prom95t lead]s4 ,?is ,academy 0 a =m ( ,skepticism4 7c7 ,! ,new ,academy1 la/+ ?ree hundr$ ye>s f #abj ,b4 ,c4 to #bjj ,a4 ,d4 ,among its lead]s 7 ,philo ( ,l>issa1 :o 0 at ,rome 9 #hg ,b4 ,c41 & ,antio*us ( ,ascalon1 :o _h ,cic]o z a pupil 9 ,a!ns 9 #gi & #gh ,b4 ,c4 ,?is epo* ( ! ,academy repres5t$ a return to ! dogmatism ( ,plato1 b x %[s ! contempor>y eclectic t5d5cy by its includ+ elem5ts ( ,/oic & neo-,platonic tea*+s4 ,on ! :ole1 ! sev]al epo*s ( ! ,academy fail$ to repres5t ,plato's !ory ( ! ,ideas4 ,! ,academy 0 at fir/ a ,s*ool ( practical e?ics1 !n a ,skepticism1 !n an eclecticism4 ,x 0 relat$ to ,plato z ! less]-,socratic s*ools 7 to ,socrates4 ,! true develop] ( ,plato 0 ,ari/otle & n ! ,academies4 #b4 ,! ,lyceum4 ,f ! dea? ( ,ari/otle to #bjj ,a4 ,d4 ! ,lyceum 0 repres5t$ by individuals4 ,! pupils ( ,ari/otle 7 di/+ui%$ f ! ma/] himself 9 be+ sci5tific speciali/s4 ,!ophra/us 7#cgj-bhg ,b4 ,c471 :o foll[$ ,ari/otle z lead] ( ! ,lyceum1 0 ! mo/ complete repres5tative ( ,ari/otle1 & an attempt to drive out ! ,s*ools 9 ,a!ns 9 #cjf ,b4 ,c4 fail$ solely by reason ( ! respect 9 :i* he 0 held4 ,8 significance lay 9 natural sci5ce1 & 8 two pres]v$ botanical works are ( great importance4 ,eudemus ( ,rhodes /udi$ hi/ory1 ma!matics1 & a/ronomy4 ,ari/ox5es /udi$ music1 e?ics1 psy*ology1 & hi/ory4 ,dicar*us %[$ ! fir/ yield+ to ! contempor>y e?ical int]e/ by writ+ hi/ory on its practical side4 ,sci5ce 0 cont9u$ by ! ,ari/otelians 9 ,sicily1 ,alex&ria1 & ! ,m$it]ranean isl&s4 ,at ,a!ns ! ,s*ool 0 mo/ int]e/$ 9 logic1 dialectics1 & eri/ics4 ,! hi/ory ( ! ,lyceum 0 simil> to t ( ! ,academy4 ,at fir/ x 0 c5tr$ 9 ,!ophra/us1 ! brilliant disciple ( ! f\nd]1an adm9i/rator :o knew h[ to give an em95t position to ! ,lyceum 9 ! intellectual life ( ,a!ns4 ,?is 0 foll[$ by ! naturalism & pan!ism ( ,/rato4 ,! foll[+ g5]ations ( s*ol>*s 7 absorb$ 9 empirical inve/igations4 ,!n1 z 9 ! ,academy1 came ! reaction back to ! orig9al purpose ( ! f\nd] ( ! ,lyceum4 ,?is occurr$ "u ,&ronicus 7ab\t #gj ,b4 ,c471 ! elev5? head ( ! ,s*ool1 & "u him ! orig9al tea*+s ( ,ari/otle 7 reproduc$ & def5d$4 ,?is w5t on = sev]al c5turies1 until ! ,s*ool 0 m]g$ 9 neo-,platonism4 ,! ,new ,s*ools,! ,epicureans & ! ,/oics4 ,! ,/oics1 ,epicureans1 & ,skeptics repres5t ! dogmatic side ( ?is p]iod m truly ?an ! ,platoni/s & ,ari/otelians1 = !y give a radical expression to its social aspects4 ,! ,epicureans _h less philosophical orig9ality2 b _! doctr9e _h be5 born mature 9 _! f\nd]1 & _h 9 consequ5ce a unity & compactness4 ,/oicism1 on ! o!r h&1 0 an eclecticism compos$ ( ! successive philosophiz+s ( its *ampions ?r\gh _m c5turies4 ,/oicism 0 repres5t$ by _m indep5d5t & notable ?9k]s1 :ile ,epicureanism _h only "o orig9al ?9k]1its f\nd]1 ,epicurus4 ,/oicism develop$ by *ang+ its ess5tials1 :ile ,epicureanism c\ld *ange only 9 its uness5tials4 ,/oicism may be said to h be5 ! *>act]i/ic philosophy ( ?is p]iod1 f ! fact t x 0 creat$ & develop$ 9 ,a!ns on ! pr9ciples ( ,attic philosophy by m5 :o _h orig9at$ 9 ! mix$ races ( ! ,ea/1 & by ! fact t x 0 easily accept$ & develop$ by ! ,romans4 ,consi/5t ) ! _s ( ! ,hell5ic-,roman ,p]iod1 x 0 by nature an eclecticism t became m eclectic2 & z "t w5t on its tea*+ approa*$ t ( ! ,academy & ,lyceum 7second c5tury ,b4 ,c474 ,epicureanism1 h[ev]1 always rema9$ ,epicureanism4 ,bo? ,/oicism & ,epicureanism 7 c5tr$ at ,a!ns4 ,epicurus op5$ 8 ,s*ool 9 ! ,g>d5s 9 #cjg ,b4 ,c41 & ,z5o began 8 lectures 9 ! ,por* 9 #bid ,b4 ,c4 ,bo? s*ools 7 introduc$ into ,rome 9 ! middle ( ! second c5tury ,b4 ,c41 or j be=e ! end ( ! ,e?ical ,p]iod4 ,epicureanism 9 ,rome c\ld easily be p]v]t$ into an excuse = ! luxuri\s t5d5cies ( ! "t1 & s9ce x advocat$ absolute gov]nm5t x voic$ ! feel+ ( ! new ,empire( ! ,emp]or & ! p4 ,z a philosophy x 0 opportune & popul> & at ! same "t easily misund]/ood4 ,x made no dem&s ^u its disciples4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,/oicism 0 a discipl9e & dem&$ intellectual acum54 ,its ins5sibility to art & culture 0 an insup]able ob/acle to its progress 9 ,greece1 b on ?is acc\nt x f\nd cong5ial soil 9 ,roman society4 ,x made rapid progress among ! noble families1 & 0 especially id5tifi$ ) ^? patrician reaction>ies :o /ood = ! old rgime ( ! ,republic4 ,we are n surpris$ to f9d t ! ,/oics & ,epicureans 7 viol5tly oppos$ to ea* o!r4 ,!y 7 ! ,new ,s*ools & conte/+ ! same gr\nd = favor4 ,!y _h ! same aim &1 ) s mu* 9 common1 _! diff]5ces 7 naturally acc5tuat$4 ,9 an age :i* ,adam ,smi? has lik5$ to ! ,?irty ,ye>s' ,w> 9 ,g]many1 !y s\ght z rivals to (f] z an ideal ! individual indep5d5t ( 8 surr\nd+s4 ,! ,/oic pres5t$ "o means ( atta9+ ?is ideal & ! ,epicurean ano!r4 ,bo? tri$ to sub/itute a philosophic cre$ = ! old religion4 ,& ! cr[ds t /ill w5t to ! ,academy & ,lyceum1 & 7 taught ! old dogmatism1 mu/ h look$ askance at ^! new dogmatic ,s*ools4 ,^? cr[ds _h become second-rate m54 ,! ,new ,s*ools _h at fir/ few] numb]s1 b deep] ?9k]s4 ,! ,greek pupils 9 ! ,new ,s*ools li/5$ to =eign]s tea*+ /range cre$s 9 /range tongues4 ,b ^! new rivals made _! way4 ,n only at ,a!ns1 b at ,cor9?1 ,elis1 ,colophon1 & ,h]aclea 9 ,pontus ! elegant ,platonic /yle 0 be+ sup]s$$ by ! crude aphorisms ( ,epicurus & ! clumsy argum5ts ( ,z5o4 ,x w be ask$1 ,h[ f> did ^! doctr9es dur+ ^! eight hundr$ ye>s p]meate ! p8 ,did ! ,new ,s*ools rea* ! rank & file ( ! p to ! same degree t ! ,sophi/ic tea*+s rea*$ ! ,greeks8 ,are we to suppose t ,/oicism & ,epicureanism 7 common & popul> philosophies8 ,by no means4 ,^! philosophies rea*$ ! p ( ! ,roman _w no f>!r ?an ,greek culture p]meat$ ,roman society4 ,/oicism 0 consci\sly tak5 up by ! l>ge patrician class4 ,! patricians 7 ! cultivat$ ,romans2 & ,/oicism has s mu* 9 x l ! ,roman gravitas t x =mulat$ = ! patricians _! attitude 9 ?is hopeless "t4 ,epicureanism1 on ! o!r h&1 9 its pure =m z ,epicurus taught x1 or lat] z ,lucretius poetically express$ x1 c\ld f9d less favor 9 ,rome4 ,b ,epicureanism 0 easily p]v]t$1 & no d\bt ! educat$ voluptu>ies ( ,rome w\ld f9d 9 ! vitiat$ doctr9e a support & excuse = _! excesses4 ,a ,summ>y ( ! ,agreem5ts & ,diff]5ces ( ! ,/oics & ,epicureans4 ,_! ,agreem5ts4 #a4 ,bo? subord9at$ !ory to practice4 #b4 ,bo? _h ! same purpose 9 _! practical philosophy3 7a7 to ga9 peace ( m9d = ! individual1 7b7 to ga9 indep5d5ce ( ! _w = ! individual4 ,_! ,diff]5ces4 ,! ,/oics4 ,! ,epicureans4 #a4 ,univ]sal law is supreme4 ,! individual is supreme4 #b4 ,man is a ?9k+ be+4 ,man is a feel+ be+4 #c4 ,indep5d5ce is obta9$ ,indep5d5ce is obta9$ by by suppress+ ! p]sonal idealiz+ ! feel+s ?r\gh feel+s4 s]5ity4 #d4 ,! ,/oics 7 religi\s1 ,! ,epicureans 7 anti-religi\s1 yet bo? s*ools accept$ ! popul> gods4 #e4 ,! _w is a moral ord]4 ,! _w is a me*anical ord]4 #f4 ,! univ]sal det]m9es ,! univ]sal is ! result ( ! ! individual4 function+ ( ! individual4 #g4 ,! _w is ! expression ,! _w is ! comb9ation ( ( an imman5t reason4 atoms4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,epicureanism ,! ,life ( ,epicurus 7#cda-bgj ,b4 ,c474 ,epicurus 0 born 9 ,samos 9 ,asia ,m9or4 ,he 0 a s*ool-tea*] 9 ,mityl5e & ,lampsacus1 & 9 #cjg ,b4 ,c4 he e/abli%$ 9 ,a!ns 8 ,philosophical ,s*ool1 9 a g>d5 )9 ! walls on ! road to ! ,academy 7see map74 ,8 ,s*ool 0 !reaft] call$ ! ,g>d5s4 ,he claim$ to h be5 self-taught1 & he probably did n h a ?or\gh education4 ,he did1 h[ev]1 possess great p]sonal *>m &1 z 8 doctr9e made few dem&s ^u its disciples & express$ ! ref9$ & delicate h$onism ( ! "t1 x spread v wide4 ,8 disciples held him 9 great rev]5ce1 & long aft] 8 dea? ! image ( 8 p]sonality 0 a liv+ influ5ce ) !m4 ,inde$1 x 0 ! p]sonal "w ( ,epicurus t 0 ! supreme influ5ce ) ! sect4 ,8 =mulas pass$ on f g5]ation to g5]ation & 7 call$ 8,gold5 ,maxims40#cd ,he wrote ?ree hundr$ sep>ate treatises1 & 9 ! am\nt ( 8 writ+s 0 exce$$ 9 antiquity only by ! ,/oic1 ,*rysippus4 ,8 great "w1 ,on ,nature1 consi/$ ( ?irty-sev5 books4 ,! o!r ,s*ools jo9$ 9 a bitt] attack ^u him1 & 9 mod]n times he has be5 call$ ,socrate d\bl d'un ,voltaire4 ,s9ce nei!r poly!ism nor ,*ri/ianity _h any reason = pres]v+ 8 writ+s1 !y h be5 almo/ entirely lo/4 ,"s h be5 f\nd 9 ,h]culaneum1 & _m m are ?\ght to be /ill 9 t buri$ city4 ,! "m ( ,epicurus 0 a prie/ess1 & h] sup]/itions probably set him aga9/ ! sup]/itions ( 8 age4 ,8 lat] acqua9tance ) ! philosophy ( ,democritus gave him a sci5tific basis = 8 aggression aga9/ all religions4 ,! ,epicureans4 ,! ,epicurean body 0 a guild or sect t seem$ to h be5 little affect$ by ! vicissitudes ( "t4 ,! ,epicureans proselyt$ vigor\sly1 closely organiz$ _! society1 & ext5d$ x ?r\gh\t ,greece4 ,x 0 a /ate )9 a /ate4 ,) a fix$ con/itution x 0 held toge!r by it9]ant prea*+1 correspond5ce1 & mat]ial assi/ance4 ,x _h an esprit de corps1 & l religi\s communities x br\ght toge!r into "o organization ! individuals t _h be5 scatt]$ by ! break+ up ( political in/itutions4 ,! ,s*ool _h special protection f ! ,roman emp]ors & exi/$ z late z ! f\r? c5tury ,a4 ,d41 hav+ outliv$ all ! o!r sy/ems4 ,x _h "s fam\s lit]>y repres5tatives1,metrodorus1 ,colotes1 ,philodemus1b especially ! ,roman poet ,lucretius1 :o popul>iz$ ! doctr9e = ! ,romans4 ,amaf9ius introduc$ ,epicureanism into ,rome dur+ ! middle ( ! second c5tury ,b4 ,c41 & ! tea*+ 0 receiv$ ) great favor4 ,its num]\s disciples 9 all antiquity *ang$ ! doctr9e only 9 its uness5tials4 ,! *>ges ( immorality & lic5ti\sness are n true ( ! tea*+ or ( ! practices ( ! f\nd] or ( ! e>ly memb]s ( ! ,s*ool4 ,"s ,types ( ,h$onism1,ari/ippus1 ,epicurus1 & ,r\sseau4 ,epicureanism 0 n a philosophy ( pleasure = p )\t ideals or :o 7 m]ely seek+ indulg5ce4 ,! "q t ,epicurus ask$ 0 ?is3 ,:at endur+ pleasure is possible to a man 9 ^! days ( turmoil8 ,he tri$ to give a rational answ] to ^? ( 8 day :o wi%$ to live & enjoy4 ,8 aim 0 to free man f responsibility 9 8 %>e ( ! _w's "w & to provide = him a life ( s]5ity4 ,! pleasure !ory ( ,ari/ippus1 ! ,cyr5aic1 0 v diff]5t4 ,ari/ippus1 a voluptu>y 9 a luxuri\s city1 pres5t$ a pleasure !ory = ! few :o h =tunes4 ,x is h>dly m ?an a grad+ ( pleasures & ! sett+ up ( a crit]ion ( _! selection4 ,epicurus goes deep] ?an t4 ,8 pleasure !ory is = ! few1 n because !y are =tunate1 b because !y are wise2 n because !y h =tunes to gratify _! passions1 b because !y are indep5d5t ( all =tune4 ,! ,cyr5aic 0 a man ( ! _w2 ! ,epicurean 0 9 ! _w1 b n ( x4 ,!re is a sup]ficial resemblance betwe5 ! tea*+ ( ,epicurus & ! message ( ,r\sseau to ! ,fr5* p ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,bo? s\ght an ideal ( endur+ pleasure4 ,bo? w\ld disc>d ! artificialities ( society4 ,b ,r\sseau 0 a political re=m] & attempt$ to f9d 8 ideal 9 a newly con/ruct$ society4 ,epicurus1 on ! o!r h&1 0 no political re=m]1 b w\ld f9d 8 ideal 9 society z x exi/$4 ,r\sseau appeal$ to ! primitive feel+s4 ,he felt 8! call ( ! wild40 ,epicurus appeal$ to ! ref9$ & d]ivative feel+s4 ,he _h no aggressive propag&a4 ,he aim$ at no ext]nal re=m4 ,8 ideal 0 peace1 & n ! sword4 ,! ,epicurean ,ideal4 ,! c5tral pr9ciple ( ,epicurus is t pleasure is a good & pa9 an evil4 ,9 ?is he 0 9 agreem5t ) ,ari/ippus1 & f ?is position he nev] rec$$4 ,he (f]$ no pro( ( ?is1 b re/$ 8 c5tral pr9ciple ^u ! conviction t m5 pursue pleasure & avoid pa94 ,he 0 conv9c$ ( ! biological fact4 ,b he 0 n unobs]vant f ! beg9n+ t ! subject 0 complex4 ,he saw t ! individual has to make a selection ( pleasure & (t5 has to *oose pa9 = ! sake ( a great] pleasure4 ,pleasure is ! only good1 b ,epicurus asks fur!r1 ,:at is pleasure8 ,he f9ds t he mu/ give a cont5t to pleasure & evaluate ! pleasures 9 ! int]e/s ( pleasure itself4 ,?is 0 to ,epicurus no moral appraisal1 b ) ref]5ce to ! pleasante/ possible life4 ,( ! two qualities ( pleasure ,epicurus valu$ its duration & %[$ 8 advance ov] ! ,cyr5aics1 :o _h valu$ its int5sity4 ,x 0 on ?is acc\nt t ! ,epicureans disclaim$ all relation%ip ) ! ,cyr5aics1 ! e>li] s*ool4 ,! diff]5ce is c]ta9ly a radical "o betwe5 !m3 to ,epicurus true pleasure is t :i* endures2 to ,ari/ippus x is t :i* is mo/ int5se1 h[ev] fleet+4 ,!re is ?is to be said ( ! ,cyr5aic !ory3 x c\ld be easily und]/ood4 ,ari/ippus c\ld tell exactly :at he meant by pleasure4 ,x is ?is or t gratification ( s5se4 ,x includes e positive pleasure1 & t :i* is int5se/ is be/4 ,"o always kn[s :5 he is enjoy+1 & 9 flitt+ f pleasure to pleasure he kn[s :5 he is int5sely enjoy+4 ,b ! ,cyr5aic pres5t$ no ideal4 ,:ile ! ,epicurean !ory is m difficult to und]/&1 x is m mature & m pr(\nd because x pres5ts a well-conceiv$ ideal4 ,inde$1 ! f>!r we foll[ ,epicurus along ?is l9e ( 8 pursuit ( ! ideal ( la/+ pleasure1 ! m are we impress$ ) 8 contribution to our k ( ! nature ( pleasure4 ,9 ?is connection ,epicurus %[s 8 compreh5sive grasp ( ! subject 9 det]m9+ :at are ! la/+ pleasures4 ,al?\gh he 0 a mat]iali/ he reg>d$ ! pleasures ( ! m9d z sup]ior to ^? ( ! body4 ,! inn] pleasures1 ! spiritual joys1 ! control ( ! m9d s t x c\ld enjoy )\t indulg5ce^! 7 to ,epicurus ! endur+ pleasures4 ,! pleasures ( s5se are prim>y1 =1 9 ! la/ analysis1 ! m5tal life is a comb9ation ( s5sations1 & s5sations are only mat]ial motions2 nev]!less ! second>y & d]ivative pleasures ( ! m9d 7 sup]ior1 accord+ to ,epicurus1 because !y _h duration4 ,?is e/imate ( ! sup]iority ( ! m5tal pleasures 0 probably re9=c$ by two o!r reasons3 su* pleasures 7 possess$ by ,epicurus2 & su* a doctr9e 0 9 accord ) ! ,greek /hetic ideal ( self-enjoym5t ( ! ref9$ egoi/4 ,! mo/ p]man5t /ate ( m9d is call$ by ,epicurus indep5d5ce ( ! _w1 on ! "o h&1 & emotionlessness1 on ! o!r4 ,^! are ! positive & negative sides ( "o & ! same ?+! ,epicurean ideal ( pleasure4 ,9 anci5t times ! conception ( ! 8affections10 8passions10 or 8emotions0 includ$ all /ates ( feel+ & w 9 :i* man is dep5d5t on ! out] _w4 ,to be emotionless is to be indep5d5t ( ! _w4 ,! ,epicurean ^w is at>axia1 :i* is v>i\sly translat$ z s]5ity1 peace1 repose1 imp]turbability4 ,s9ce man has no control ov] ! _w )\t him1 he mu/ control its effects )9 himself4 ,^! effects are ! feel+s & desires :i* are by nature only m5tal di/urbances4 ,9 ma/]+ ^! he becomes indep5d5t ( ! _w4 ,if "o w scrut9ize 8 life1 he w f9d1 accord+ to ,epicurus1 t 8 exp]i5ces =m a /ream ( m5tal di/urbances4 ,^! may be divid$ into two classes1desires & positive pleasures4 ,desires are wants & want is pa94 ,pa9 is !re=e excit+4 ,positive pleasure presupposes desire & want1 & su* pleasure is also an excitem5t1! excitem5t t accompanies ! removal ( want4 ,! positive pleasures are n1 !re=e1 ! goal ( indep5d5ce ( ! out] _w4 ,!re is ano!r k9d ( pleasure! pleasure ( repose4 ,epicurus recognizes !re=e bo? ! pleasure ( motion & ! pleasure ( repose1 b !y d n h ! same importance 9 8 sy/em4 ,repose is ! goal ( all our exp]i5ces4 ,x is a neutral /ate1 a /ate ( fre$om f bodily pa9 & m5tal excitem5t4 ,!re is no?+ high] ?an su* a neutral /ate4 ,we _c advance beyond x4 ,if we seek new pleasures by gratify+ new desires1 we are only return+ to ! old r\nd ( want1 desire1 & ! pleasurable excitem5t ( remov+ ! want4 ,! pleasure ( repose is ! only escape f ?is r\nd ( exp]i5ces4 ,emotionlessness is ! maximum pleasurex is ! repose 9 indep5d5ce ( ! _w4 ,any deviation f x may v>y b x w n increase our pleasure4 ,?is ideal ( ,epicurus looks v mu* l ! ,cynic doctr9e ( abs5ce ( wants z con/itut+ virtue & happ9ess4 ,b ,epicurus is f> f r5\nc+ pleasure4 ,he is no ascetic4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! repose ( ! ,epicurean w be ! great] 9 proportion to ! compass ( 8 ne$s t are satisfi$4 ,b he ne$s insight into any giv5 situation to tell him :at positive pleasures %\ld be enc\rag$4 ,epicurus ?us di/+ui%es ?ree k9ds ( wants & _! att5dant positive pleasures3 7#a7 wants natural & indisp5sable)\t ! satisfaction ( :i* we _c exi/2 7#b7 wants artificial & disp5sable1 :i* ought always to be disreg>d$2 7#c7 wants natural & disp5sable! great mass ( wants :i* lie betwe5 ! two o!r classes4 ,insight is necess>y to decide ab\t ?is ?ird class4 ,9 case ( necessity !y c be r5\nc$1 b s9ce !y give happ9ess1 ! ,wise ,man w seek to satisfy !m z f> z possible4 ,!re are ?ree /eps lead+ to ,epicurean happ9ess3 7#a7 ! desire or ! pa9 ( unsatisfi$ crav+2 7#b7 ! positive pleasure t removes ! pa9 ( unsatisfi$ desire2 7#c7 at>axia1 ! repose ( ! s\l or true happ9ess4 ,! ,place ( ,virtue 9 ,epicureanism4 ,epicurus agre$ ) ! /ricte/ ,greek morali/s t virtue & happ9ess g toge!r4 ,8 oppon5ts _h to te/ify to ! b5eficial effects ( 8 tea*+ ^u ! "* ( 8 disciples4 ,yet 8 conception ( ! place ( virtue 9 life is 9 direct conflict ) ,/oicism4 ,he felt t ! ,/oic conception ( virtue = its own sake is an ideal s imag9>y t x lacks all inc5tive to action4 ,pleasure1 on ! o!r h&1 seem$ to him to be a concrete & real object4 ,x c be giv5 a def9ite cont5t4 ,virtue _h = ,epicurus a value only z a means to happ9ess4 ,moreov]1 virtue by itself is n necess>ily accompani$ by happ9ess1 b only :5 x is employ$ z a condition to happ9ess4 ,?us wisdom may be employ$ to ga9 ! pleasure ( lib]ation f ! fe> ( ! gods2 self-control may be employ$ 9 ord] to get ! maximum ( happ9ess4 ,! ,epicurean ,wise ,man4 ,to :at classes ( p c\ld ?is ,epicurean ideal appeal8 ,is x an ideal possible only to ! favorites ( =tune1 weal?1 & rank8 ,z pres5t$ by ,epicurus x 0 n condition$ by ext]nal circum/ances ( any sort & its aim 0 to transc5d all conditions4 ,nev]!less1 x is obvi\s t ! !ory 0 re/rict$ to ^? :o _h ! desire to adopt x4 ,on ! :ole1 ! unreflect+ common p ( t "t 7 n z a matt] ( fact influ5c$ by ! ,epicurean philosophy4 ,! pro( ( ?is is ! ease ) :i* x 0 degrad$ into a simple pleasure !ory )\t an ideal4 ,epicureanism z pres5t$ by its au?or 0 n an excuse = ! voluptu>y or ! prodigal1 al?\gh x 0 easily corrupt$ into t4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 a philosophy ( ! individual4 ,! individual mu/ rely ^u 8 own common s5se z to :at among ! p>ticul> satisfactions w give him indep5d5ce ( ! _w4 ,sometimes repose is atta9$ by ! satisfaction ( all wants2 sometimes ! satisfactions ne$$ are few because ! wants are few4 ,true pleasure is possible to all reflective s\ls4 8,:5 y come10 says ,s5eca1 8to ! g>d5s :]e ! words are inscrib$3 ,fri5d1 "h x w be well = y to abide2 "h pleasure is ! highe/ good2!re w meet y ! keep] ( ! place1 a hospitable k9dly man :o w set be=e y a di% ( b>ley porridge & pl5ty ( wat] & say1 ,h y n be5 well ent]ta9$8 ,^! g>d5s d n provoke hung]1 b qu5* x2 !y d n cause a great] ?ir/ by ! dr9ks !y af=d4444 ,9 ?is pleasure ,i h gr[n old40 ,man c use mu*1 b he does n ne$ mu*4 ,ev5 life itself "u extreme circum/ances is n necess>y4 ,! pleasures to be s\ght are ! p]man5t & g5tle4 ,9 "o place ,epicurus says ) a some:at =c$ s5tim5t t ! ,wise ,man on ! rack w smile 9 ! mid/ ( torture & say1 8,h[ sweet60 ,! ,wise ,man accepts ! e/abli%$ ord] & accommodates himself to x4 ,he is n l ! ,/oic ,wise ,man1 indiff]5t to all pleasures1 b he is nev]!less indep5d5t ( !m4 ,he is sup]ior to ! _w1 a k+ & a god4 ,accid5ts _c di/urb him1 = 8 virtu\s happ9ess lies )9 himself4 ,he _c control ! _w )\t1 b he c control ! _w )9 himself4 ,he c be happy ) few or _m satisfactions1 & he is ma/] ov] ! _w if he is ma/] ( ! effects ( ! _w ^u himself4 ,to re/ unmov$ 9 "o's inn] selft is ! ,epicurean ideal ( ! ,wise ,man4 ,9 contra/ to ! ,cyr5aic happ9ess1 ! ,epicurean happ9ess seems passive2 9 contra/ to ! ,/oic happ9ess x is satisfaction4 ,! ,epicurean ,wise ,man 9 ,society4 ,nev]!less ! ,wise ,man is only a spectator ( ! _w4 ,he does n ent] ! _w's "w nor does he enli/ z a soldi] to fight its moral battles4 ,8 individual indep5d5ce gives a peculi> "* to 8 social relations4 ,he w h no ties on acc\nt ( _! complications4 ,moreov]1 8 inn] _w (f]s him no comp5sation = 8 loss ( social relation%ip1 except t ! good )9 is /rong & ! evil weak4 ,he looks ^u political gov]nm5t z a matt] ( selfi% conv5i5ce4 ,he is oppos$ to civic life1 & !re=e a support] ( absolute gov]nm5t4 ,he refuses ! responsibility ( m>riage1 b accepts fri5d%ip z ! only wor?y social relation%ip1 & only because fri5d%ip is ( mutual advantage4 ,fri5d%ip means intellectual int]c\rse1 compassion1 & =giv5ess4 ,:ile !re 7 _m fam\s ,epicurean fri5d%ips1 "o mu/ admit t ! ,epicurean took an unfair advantage ( ! /ate4 ,8 happ9ess presuppos$ a highly develop$ civilization ( ref9$ ta/es & noble s5tim5ts4 ,he is a p>asite ^u ! community & appropriates ! labor ( o!rs4 ,! ,epicurean ideal (f]s mu* to ! individual1 b no?+ to society z a means ( spiritual productivity4 ,! ,great ,ob/acles to ,happ9ess4 ,to univ]salize pleasure1 h[ev] p>adoxical x may seem1 is to set up an individualism4 ,x is to ab&on all ! claims ( ! society ( o!r be+s ^u u4 ,! logic ( any pleasure !ory is an>*ism4 ,b ,epicurus is no an>*i/1 = an>*ism w\ld be too di/urb+ to repose4 ,epicurus /opp$ f> %ort ( int]f]+ ) political conditions4 ,8 tea*+ did n h z its end a logical !ory1 b a practical accompli%m5t4 ,he !re=e accommodat$ 8 !ory to ! practical circum/ances ( 8 "t4 ,he po9t$ out t 9 ! see?+ times ( ! ?ird c5tury ,b4 ,c4 ! individual c\ld be happy if he bani%$ f 8 _w two ob/acles4 ,^! 7 religion & culture4 ,to ,epicurus ! sorr[ 9 man's he>t & ! evil 9 8 practices are ma9ly due to religion4 ,! *ief s\rce ( ! wret*$ness ( ! _w is to be f\nd 9 ! cru%+ fe>s ( religi\s belief4 ,epicurus has 9 m9d ! exagg]at$ c]emonies & my/ical beliefs ( ! ,ori5t1 :]e 8 "m _h be5 a prie/ess4 ,f ?is memory he 0 react+4 ,religion pollutes m5's fancies1 cl\ds ! future ) sup]/iti\s fe>s1 & puts repose & happ9ess beyond our rea*4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 religion c>ries ) x ! fe> ( dea?4 ,9 mod]n times ! idea ( life aft] dea? is an add$ consolation4 ,9 ! "t ( ,epicurus dea? meant ! giv+ up ( ! pres5t life = a dim1 sunless region ( flitt+ %ades bord]+ on ! edge ( ,t>t>us4 ,no philosophical m9d c be happy1 accord+ to ,epicurus1 if x conta9s ! religi\s conception ( dea? & ! future life4 ,aga91 religion conceives ! _w ( nature z creat$ & op]at$ by ! gods4 ,x is =ev] expla9+ nature-ph5om5a z miracul\s & sup]natural4 ,! tranquil m9d mu/ believe 9 a nature _w t is sep>at$ f miracul\s int]v5tion1 & fre$ f ov]sight4 ,! _w mu/ be a dep5dable _w4 ,la/ly1 religion conceives ( ! gods z always busy+ !mselves ) ! affairs ( m54 ,m5 mu/ secure _! favor & av]t _! wra? by con/ant (f]+s4 ,! religi\s man wa/es 8 "t & consumes 8 peace 9 ! fe> t ! gods are n propitiat$4 ,! ,epicurean seeks to build up ! life ( ! individual4 ,he seeks a tranquillity t is indep5d5t ( ev]y?+4 ,religi\s belief ) its int]f]+ gods w\ld ?w>t 8 ideal4 ,h5ce ! *ief conc]n ( ! ,epicurean 0 to bani% f life e conception ( div9e gov]nm5t4 ,! gods exi/1 b !y live q ap>t f m54 ,_! dwell+ is 9 int]-/ell> space amid ! numb]less worlds4 ,!y h no?+ to d ) ! ev5ts ( ?is _w1 b are only glorifi$ actualizations ( ! philosophic ideal ( s\l-satisfy+ peace4 ,! m ! teleological conception ( nature became ! common gr\nd ( ! ,academy1 ! ,lyceum1 & ! ,por*1 ! m did ! ,epicureans isolate !mselves by oppos+ ! conception4 ,! o!r ob/acle to ! imp]turbability ( ! s\l is culture4 ,! ,/oics subord9at$ !ory to practice b ,epicurus w5t s f> z to deprecate all culture4 ,x 0 ! philosophical prote/ ( an ,ori5tal aga9/ all = :i* ,greece _h /ood4 ,all k is sup]flu\s :i* does n promote happ9ess4 ,k may indirectly promote happ9ess1 & t is ! be/ y c say ( x4 ,epicurus !re=e despis$ ! rese>*es ( ! gramm>ians1 ! lore ( hi/ory1 ! sci5ce ( ma!matics1 ! !ory ( music1 poetry1 rhetoric1 oratory1 logic4 ,al?\gh he set great] /ore by ! intellectual ?an ! physical pleasures1 he plac$ z little value on k = its own sake z ^u virtue = its own sake4 ,?is tea*+ ( ,epicurus 9 ,a!ns betrays ! *ange t _h come ov] ,a!nian society4 ,plato1 :o _h be5 ! imp]sonation ( ,a!nian culture1 _h be5 dead n m ?an ?irty ye>s4 ,epicurus' ,conception ( ! ,physical ,_w4,qualifi$ ,atomism4 ,to ! cursory read] ! sci5ce ( physics seems to occupy a l>ge place 9 ! philosophy ( ,epicurus1 & its pres5ce appe>s inconsi/5t ) 8 polemic aga9/ culture4 ,^u fur!r read+ "o f9ds t physics1 too1 %\ld be m]ely a s]vant ( ! happ9ess ( ! individual4 ,we ne$ k ( physics because ! k ( natural causes w free u f ! fe>s att5d+ religion4 ,physics has no indep5d5t importance4 ,epicurus und]took to support 8 doctr9e ( individualism by ! sci5tific !ory ( ,democritus4 ,! mat]iali/ic !ory ( ! great ,abd]ite seems to loom l>ge 9 ! exposition ( ,epicurus4 ,b ,epicurus 0 n int]e/$ 9 ! sci5ce ( physicsn ev5 9 ! physics ( ,democritus4 ,he did n build 8 !ory on ! tea*+ ( ,democritus1 b on ! contr>y he us$ ! ,democritan doctr9e to support 8 !ory ( moral conduct4 ,epicurus ne$$ a well-au!nticat$ !ory4 ,on acc\nt ( ! influ5ce ( ,lucretius' poem1 ,epicurus has be5 call$ 9 mod]n times ! sci5ti/ ( antiquity4 ,b 8 only contribution to sci5ce 0 t1 f9d+ ! atomism ( ,democritus ready at h& al?\gh unpopul>1 he made x popul> by adju/+ x to 8 own purposes4 ,! ,democritan conception t ,be+ is matt] consi/+ ( innum]able uncreat$ & inde/ructible atoms furni%$ ,epicurus ?is support = 8 moral atomism4 ,he foll[$ ,democritus 9 8 analysis ( psy*ological1 physiological1 & a/ronomical ph5om5aall are atoms 9 comb9ations4 ,b he lack$ sci5tific insight & ! ,democritan doctr9e 0 emasculat$ 9 8 h&s4 ,! c5tral & fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ,democritus' !ory 0 ! univ]sal reign ( law4 ,?is ! ,/oics adopt$ & ?is ,epicurus neglect$4 ,epicurus 0 impress$ by ! *anges ( ! atoms 9 ! ,democritan !ory2 ! ,/oics by ! law ( su* *ange4 ,?is appe>s 9 ! tea*+ ( ,epicurus 9 two ways4 ,! fir/ example is 9 8 explanation ( ! orig9 ( ! cosmos4 ,democritus _h conceiv$ t irregul> motion 0 an inh]5t quality ( ! atoms & t ! univ]se 0 produc$ by _! comb9ations 9 a purely me*anical way4 ,epicurus conceiv$ t ! orig9al movem5t ( ! atoms 0 9 a /raight l9e f above d[nw>ds4 ,?is he call$ ! 8ra9 ( atoms40 ,to expla9 _! int]m+l+ he conceiv$ !m to be end[$ ) volition by :i* !y arbitr>ily deviat$ f ! direct fall4 ,secondly1 ?is physical !ory ( ,epicurus w\ld be unimportant except t x af=d$ him a basis = 8 !ory ( ! individual z possess+ free w4 ,! doctr9e ( fre$om ( ! w _h be5 s9ce ,ari/otle a presupposition indisp5sable to ! doctr9e ( moral acc\ntability among ! ,greeks4 ,! ,/oic doctr9e ( fate is an exception4 ,b det]m9ism 0 oppos$ to ,epicurus' conception ( ! ,wise ,man z an indep5d5t individual4 ,! human w is self-det]m9$1 & ,epicurus ev5 said t he pref]r$ ! illusions ( religion to a belief 9 our slav]y to fate4 ,he class$ fre$om & *ance toge!r z uncaus$ occurr5ce1 & out ( ! comb9ation built 8 conception ( fre$om4 ,! uncaus$ function+ ( ! w 9 man is ! same z ! causeless deviation ( ! atoms4 ,fre$om is ! *oice betwe5 diff]5t possibilities & is det]m9$ by no cause4 ,! ,/oics alone among ! philosoph]s ( ?is "t are ! =]unn]s ( ! /udy ( physics4 ,epicurus introduc$ ! conception ( volition ( ! atoms to acc\nt = ! orig9 ( ! cosmos4 ,f t po9t he conceiv$ ! _w to develop 9 a me*anical way4 ,teleology 9 ! nature _w 0 repugnant to him4 ,by modify+ ! ,democritan physics1 he ?us succe$$ 9 e/abli%+ ! indep5d5ce ( ! individual 9 ! social _w &1 on ! o!r h&1 remov+ ! gods f int]f]+ 9 ! physical _w4 ,?is seem$ to ,epicurus to af=d an absolute deliv]ance f sup]/ition4 ,! important po9ts ( ! physical !ory ( ,epicurus are ^!3 7#a7 ! fre$om ( ! atoms 9 motion2 7#b7 & yet _! me*anical developm5t2 7#c7 ! atomic "* ( ! gods2 7#d7 ! scatt]+ ( ! atoms ( ! s\l at dea?1 :i* frees u f ! fe> ( ,hades4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,/oicism ,! ,position ( ,/oicism 9 ,antiquity4 ,! ,/oic ,s*ool _h a long hi/ory1 & = five hundr$ ye>s x 0 well-nigh ! dom9at+ sy/em ( ?\ght4 ,its importance is %[n 9 ! attacks on all sides by :i* x 0 honor$4 ,x 0 subject$ to a cont9u$ critical te/+ by ! ,p]ipatetics1 ,epicureans1 ,skeptics1 & ! ,academy4 ,x 0 )\t d\bt ! mo/ compreh5sive ,s*ool ( ! ,hell5ic-,roman ,p]iod1 & numb]$ z its adh]5ts ! mo/ brilliant p]sonalities ( ! "t4 ,9 its importance to hi/ory its only rival 0 neo-,platonism1 :i* came aft] x4 ,/oicism accompli%$ mu* t[>d solv+ ! problem ( life1 = x is "o ( ! great inn]1 spiritual movem5ts ( humanity4 ,x 0 a sy/em ( philosophy rais$ ^u ! ru9s ( poly!isma religion = ! educat$ classes1 :o tri$ to h>monize ! old religion ) ! new philosophic ne$s4 ,9 ! e>ly ,*ri/ian c5turies x l$ ! moral re=m by reviv+ ! classic ideals4 ,x became a retreat into ! invisible ord]1 a solace amid unre/4 ,p>ticul>ly at t "t ! ,/oic felt ! empt9ess ( human life1 = 8 possession ( et]nity made e>?ly exi/5ce seem z no?+4 ,yet x 0 a movem5t ( subjective reflection & individual motive2 b z su* x c\ld n prove itself adequate :5 ! /ructure ( ,roman society broke d[n4 ,b we mu/ n take ! ,roman ,/oics z ! repres5tatives ( ! sect4 ,! ,/oics /ood = m ?an moral reflection4 ,! great a*ievem5t came f ! fir/ ?ree lead]s! a*ievem5t ( giv+ a sci5tific basis to morals4 ,! ,/oics made e?ics an indep5d5t sci5ce4 ,su* an elaborate sy/em ( morals z t ( ! ,/oics _h nev] be=e exi/$4 ,/oicism 0 morality ) a !oretical f\ndation1 & ! f\ndation 0 ! mo/ impos+ "p ( ! edifice4 ,?is appe>$ 9 ,roman jurisprud5ce1 & 9 lat] times 9 ,grotius1 ,desc>tes1 ,sp9oza1 ! ,calv9i/s & ,puritans1 & 9 ,kant & ,fi*te4 ,! writ+s ( ! individual ,/oics h become a "p ( ! _w's lit]ature1 & ! ,/oic view ( life has ma9ta9$ itself z a dignifi$ & indep5d5t type4 ,! ,?ree ,p]iods ( ,/oicism4 ,! five hundr$ ye>s ( ! hi/ory ( ! ,/oic ,s*ool are usually divid$ into ?ree p]iods4 ,! fir/ is ab\t #ij ye>s long1 9 :i* ! doctr9e 0 =mulat$2 ! second is #bjj ye>s long1 :5 ! doctr9e 0 modifi$2 ! ?ird 0 #bjj ye>s long1 :5 x became a popul> moral philosophy4 ,! fir/ two p]iods 7 !oretical1 ! ?ird 0 practical4 #a4 ,p]iod ( ,=mulation ( ! ,doctr9e 7#bid ,b4 ,c4-#bjf ,b4 ,c471 sometimes call$ ! p]iod ( ,cynical ,/oicism4 ,?is p]iod conta9s ! ?ree great lead]s3 ,z5o 7#cdj-bfe ,b4 ,c471 ,clean!s1 lead] ( ! ,s*ool f #bfd to #bcb ,b4 ,c41 & ,*rysippus 7#bhj-bjf ,b4 ,c474 ,z5o ( ,t>sus1 ,diog5es ( ,seleucia1 & ,antipat] ( ,t>sus 7 o!r important repres5tatives4 #b4 ,p]iod ( ,modifi$ ,/oicism 7#bjf ,b4 ,c4-#a ,a4 ,d474 ,?is 0 ! p]iod ( transition4 ,?is p]iod %[s a modification ( ! orig9al sev]e ,cynical "* ( ! doctr9e & also ! spread ( ,/oicism to ,rome4 ,?is modification %[s an approa* to ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,! mo/ important repres5tative ( ?is p]iod is ,pantius 7#ahj-aaj ,b4 ,c471 :o introduc$ ! doctr9e into ,rome ?r\gh 8 fri5d%ip ) ,scipio ,africanus4 ,o!r em95t ,/oics ( ?is p]iod 7 ,posidonius & ,bo?us ( ,sidon4 #c4 ,p]iod ( ,roman ,/oicism 7#a-bjj ,a4 ,d474 ,dur+ ?is p]iod ,/oicism became a popul> moral philosophy4 ,! !oretic tea*+s ( ! fir/ two p]iods 7 successfully translat$ by ! ,roman ,/oics 9 an impressive way into practical obs]vations4 ,fur!rmore1 ,/oicism 0 be+ inspir$ ) ! ris+ religi\s feel+ s t x express$ ! noble/ moral s5tim5ts ( antiquity4 ,! *ief repres5tatives 7 ,s5eca 7#d-fe ,a4 ,d471 ,epictetus 7liv+ #ij ,a4 ,d47 ! philosophic slave1 & ! emp]or ,m>cus ,aurelius 7#aba-ahj ,a4 ,d474 ,o!r ,/oics ( ?is p]iod 7 ,l4 ,annu ,cornutus1 ,m4 ,annu ,lucanus1 ,p]sius1 & ,m4 ,musonius ,rufus4 ,! ,/oic ,lead]s4 ,"o ( ! /rik+ features ( ! ,/oic ,s*ool is t its lead]s 7 n pure ,greeks4 ,ne>ly all ! memb]s be=e ! ,*ri/ian era belong by bir? to ! mix$ races ( ,asia ,m9or & ! ea/]n ar*ipelago4 ,moreov]1 ! lat] ,/oics 7 ma9ly ,romans1 l$ by ! ,phrygian1 ,epictetus4 ,! ,/oics :o 7 ,greeks 7 ?ird or f\r? rate m54 ,! ,/oic ,s*ool conta9$ s _m em95t ?9k]s t its doctr9e 0 n fram$ once & = all1 l ! ,epicurean doctr9e4 ,dur+ ! five hundr$ ye>s f ,z5o to ,m>cus ,aurelius1 !oretic *anges w5t on )9 ! ,s*ool1 & ! *anges 7 r modifications ?an developm5t4 ,fundam5tally1 ,/oicism rema9$ ! same1 = x 0 a religi\s attitude ( m9d4 ,a!ns 0 ! abid+-place ( ! ,/oic ,s*ool1 b ,a!ns ( t day _h little to say to x except to receive x4 ,! great ,/oic lead]s1 ! fir/ ?ree ,/oics1 l ! ?ree tragic poets1 =m$ a gr\p t is r>ely equal$4 ,!y 7 ,z5o1 ,clean!s1 & ,*rysippus4 ,z5o & ,*rysippus came f ,cyprus1 & ,clean!s came f ,assos1 n f> f ,troy4 ,cyprus1 ,lycia1 & ,pisidia %[$ a /rong incl9ation = ! ,/oic tea*+4 ,t>sus1 :i* is 9 ,cilicia1 _h a /rong ,/oic ,s*ool1 & its influ5ce on ! tra9+ ( ,/4 ,paul is se5 9 8 !ology4 ,! f\nd+ ( ! ,/oic ,s*ool 0 ! result ( ! exp]i5ces ( ,z5o ( ,citium4 ,hav+ lo/ mu* ( 8 weal? 9 comm]ce1 he turn$ to philosophy at ,a!ns4 ,impress$ ) ! "* ( ,socrates1 he atta*$ himself successively to ! ,cynic1 ,meg>ian1 & ,platonic ,s*ools1 b )\t mu* satisfaction4 ,he made himself ma/] ( ! tea*+s ( ^! ,s*ools1 & !n f\nd$ a ,s*ool ( 8 own4 ,x is said t :5 he ask$ = admittance to ! ,academy1 ,polemo1 ! lead]1 repli$1 8,i am no /rang] to y\r ,phnician art1 ,z5o4 ,i p]ceive y\r design is to creep slyly into my g>d5 & /eal away my fruit40 ,9 #bid ,b4 ,c4 he began to tea* 9 ! ,pa9t$ ,por* 7see map1 p4 #bai71 a pa9t$ colonnade 9 ! ,a!nian m>ket-place4 ,! ,s*ool !reaft] w5t by ! "n ( ,/oa1 or ! ,por*4 ,8 contempor>y antagoni/s 7 ,arcesilaus 9 ! ,academy1 & ,epicurus4 ,z5o's reputation ?r\gh\t ,greece 0 v high & well des]v$4 ,he 0 a p>simoni\s man1 simple & rude spok54 ,he us$ a bad dialect1 =eign words1 & taught a /range doctr9e4 ,he suff]$ a slight w\nd &1 tak+ x z a h9t ( de/9y1 committ$ suicide1 say+1 8,i am com+1 ,e>?1 :y d y call me80 ,/oicism did n fl\ri% "u ,clean!s 7:o 0 lead] ( ! ,s*ool = ?irty-two ye>s71 al?\gh to-day he is ! be/ kn[n ( ^! ?ree lead]s on acc\nt ( 8 ,hymn to ,zeus4 ,he 0 orig9ally a pugili/1 & 0 s poor t he _h to "w z a wat]-c>ri] by night 9 ord] to att5d ! lectures ( ,z5o by day4 ,he is said to h _h a heavy m9d1 b x 0 nev]!less ! m9d ( an inspir$ prophet & a ?\ghtful man ( sci5ce4 ,:5 ,clean!s receiv$ ! ,/oic doctr9es f ,z5o1 !y 7 /ill pla/ic4 ,he made !m moni/ic & pan!i/ic1 & introduc$ ! doctr9e ( 8t5sion40 ,"u ,*rysippus 7#bhj-bjf ,b4 ,c47 ,/oicism 0 reviv$ & he sav$ x f ext9ction4 ,*rysippus 0 ! sy/ematiz] ( ! ,s*ool & its lit]>y repres5tative4 ,he wrote five hundr$ & five sep>ate treatises1 ?ree hundr$ ( :i* 7 on logical subjects4 ,he is said to h seldom let a day pass )\t writ+ five hundr$ l9es4 ,he 0 ! mod]at+ influ5ce ( ! ,s*ool1 m$iat+ betwe5 extremes & remov+ objections4 ,he re/at$ ,z5o's doctr9es1 b 8 disc\rses ab\nd 9 curi\s subtleties r ?an argum5t4 ,he 0 a mu* m s*ol>ly man ?an 8 pr$ecessors1 & pass$ = ! mo/ le>n$ man 9 antiquity4 8,give me doctr9es10 he said to ,clean!s1 8& ,i w f9d argum5ts = !m40 ,8 haught9ess creat$ _m adv]s>ies1 bo? 9 ! ,academy & among ! ,epicureans1 & he _h great contempt = m5 ( rank4 ,he said1 8,if ,i ?\ght any philosoph] excell$ me1 ,i w\ld myself become 8 pupil40 ,x 0 a common say+ 9 ^? days1 8,no ,*rysippus1 no ,/oa40 ,9 ! h&s ( ,*rysippus ! ,/oic tea*+ became a well-r\nd$ sy/em4 ,! ,/oic ,writ+s4 ,ne>ly all ! writ+s ( ! e>ly ,/oics h be5 lo/4 ,only fragm5ts h be5 pres]v$ f ! writ+s ( o!r m5 l ,cic]o1 ,plut>*1 ,sextus ,empiricus1 & ,diog5es ,la]tius1 & ^! m5 d n always di/+ui% betwe5 e>ly & lat] ,/oicism4 ,! pr9cipal s\rce ( our k ( e>ly ,/oicism is ,diog5es ,la]tius4 ,! ,hymn to ,zeus ( ,clean!s is ! mo/ notewor?y fragm5t extant ( ! e>ly p]iod4 ,( ! lat] ,/oics ( ! ,empire _m writ+s h be5 sav$3 ! e?ical treatises & epi/les ( ,s5eca1 ! ,diatribes & ,en*eiridion ( ,epictetus1 & ! ,m$itations ( ,m>cus ,aurelius4 ,! lat] ,/oic writ+s transmit ! tea*+ ( ! e>li] lead]s modifi$ by _m =eign influ5ces4 ,su* second-h& au?orities z ,cic]o1 ,plut>*1 ,diog5es ,la]tius & ,sextus ,empiricus1 & ! ,ari/otelian comm5tators give reports s vitiat$ t x is d\btful if !y report any elem5t belong+ to ! e>li] tea*+4 ,! doctr9e ( ! ,/oics1 s9ce ! "t ( ,*rysippus1 h[ev]1 is kn[n beyond p]adv5ture4 ,! ,/oics & ,cynics4 ,! ,/oics tri$ to build up ! life ( ! s\l aft] ! patt]n ( ! virtu\s ,wise ,man1 ^: outl9es !y borr[$ f ! transfigur$ & l(ty =m ( ,socrates4 7,noack47 ,_! tea*+ is n m]ely a ref9em5t & advance ov] ! ,cynic ,s*ool z ,epicureanism _h be5 to ! ,cyr5aic ,s*ool4 ,/oicism & ,epicureanism us$ _! s\rces 9 diff]5t ways4 ,! ,/oic w\ld give up m ?an ! ,epicurean1 & ! negative side ( 8 tea*+ is !re=e great]2 b 9 recomp5se he (f]s m 9 ! %ape ( a compreh5sive metaphysics4 ,! ,cyr5aic doctr9e ( pleasure became ! corn] /one ( ,epicureanism4 ,! ,cynic s5suali/ic rigorism became 9 ! ,/oic tea*+ a negative & relatively unimportant doctr9e4 ,:ile ! ,/oic di/9ction ( virtue 0 n unproductive1 ! mo/ influ5tial aspect ( ,/oicism 0 its dissem9ation ( humane culture4 ,?us1 9 contra/ ) ! ,cynics1 ! ,/oics _h a deep int]e/ 9 sci5tific !ory4 ,! ,/oic1 less ?an ! ,cynic1 contra/$ ! individual ) ! _w4 ,! ,/oics h a m intellig5t1 fre]1 & mild] morality4 ,to ! ,cynics1 ext]nal ?+s h no value2 to ! ,/oics1 !y h bo? a positive & a negative value4 ,b5ea? ^! diff]5ces !re is ! same self-suffici5cy 9 virtue1 ! same )drawal )91 ! same moral /r5g? ( w1 ! same anti!sis betwe5 good & evil4 ,/oicism 0 orig9al1 b n en\gh s to m>k ! beg9n+ ( a new epo*4 ,! ,two ,prom95t ,/oic ,conceptions4 ,!re are two ,/oic conceptions t rise prom95tly above all ! re/ ( _! tea*+4 ,"o is ! conception ( p]sonality1 ! o!r is ! conception ( ,nature4 ,epicureanism built up ! conception ( p]sonality1 b x _h no ne$ ( an objective pr9ciple ( ,nature2 & inde$ ! ,epicurean conception ( p]sonality seems to be only a clev] adju/m5t & an avoidance ( ! problems ( life1 comp>$ to ! cle>-cut1 h]oic1 & vigor\s ,/oic conception ( p]sonality4 ,?us 9 ,epicureanism !re is "o prom95t conception1 9 ,/oicism !re are two4 ,^! two ,/oic pr9ciples /& side by side4 ,! ,/oic builds !m up toge!r1 ev5 ?\gh he fails to make !m entirely compatible4 ,all ! ess5tial difficulties & all ! excell5cies ( ,/oicism lie 9 ! juxtaposition ( ! conceptions ( p]sonality & ,nature4 ,9 e>ly ,/oicism ea* conception is /at$ ) great vigor4 ,9 lat] ,/oicism _! h>mony is approximat$ by ! modification ( ea*4 ,! result 0 an e?ical dualism & a metaphysical monism4 ,! ,conception ( ,p]sonality4 ,aga9/ ,epicureanism ! ,/oic f\ght = ! dignity ( ! s\l4 ,! ideal p]sonality ( ! ,wise ,man is ! c5tral po9t 9 ,/oicism4 ,ev5 m ?an ,ari/otle did ! ,/oic emphasize ! unity & indep5d5ce ( ! individual s\l z contra/$ to its p>ticul> /ates4 ,= ! fir/ "t 9 ,european ?\ght does ! s\l become an indep5d5t factor to be reckon$ )4 ,! ,/oic picture ( ! ideal p]sonality is ( a life completely sund]$ f outw>d conditions1 free f e>?ly trammels1 b at ! same "t ! organ ( univ]sal law4 ,contempor>ies ask$ ! ,/oics1 ,h[ c su* an ideal be a p]son8 ,h[ c he live among 8 fell[ m58 ,h[ c he reconcile himself to human want8 ,aft] sett+ =? ?is ideal dur+ ! #age ye>s ( _! fir/ p]iod1 x is n /range t !y 7 f9ally =c$ to modify x 9 response to practical dem&s4 ,at ?is po9t we %all consid] ! orig9al portrayal ( ! ,wise ,man4 #a4 ,! ,/oic ,psy*ology4 ,! ,/oic built 8 conception ( p]sonality ^u a deep psy*ological analysis4 ,! s\l 9 ! body is l ! pneuma 9 ! _w 7see p4 #bee74 ,n only does ! s\l trans=m ! excitations ( ! sev]al s5se organs into p]ceptions1 b its di/+ui%+ faculty is its p[] ( trans=m+ ! excitations ( ! feel+s into acts ( w4 ,?is 0 call$ by ! ,/oics ! ass5t ( ! reason1 & is ! di/+ui%+ feature ( ! ,/oic conception ( p]sonality4 ,x e/abli%$ = ! fir/ "t 9 hi/ory ! indep5d5ce ( ! p]sonal s\l4 ,! ,/oic felt ke5ly ! antagonism betwe5 ! reason & ! s5ses1 & he also felt t by e/imat+ ! s5ses z m]ely relative 9 value !y w\ld s mu* ! m dignify ! reason z ! fundam5tal feature ( ! p]sonality4 ,:ile1 !re=e1 all k comes f ! s5ses1 ! ,/oic ma9ta9$ t no k exi/s 9 ! s5ses by !mselves4 ,! ass5t ( ! reason is necess>y to trans=m ! s5sations into true k4 ,! reason is n an aggregate ( s5sations1 b an indep5d5t function ( ! p]sonality4 ,x trans=ms ! s5sations into p]ceptions1 ! p]ceptions into acts ( w4 ,! reason is !re=e a k9d ( g5]at+ p[] ( consci\sness & is free f ev]y?+ ext]nal4 ,b 9 contra/ to ?is free rational side is ! irrational nature ( man2 = ! reason is liable to suff] failure1 :5 x all[s itself to be hurri$ along to give ass5t to excit+ causes4 ,!n emotions arise1 & emotions are failures1 m5tal di/urbances1 & 9 *ronic cases diseases4 ,man is n always able to def5d himself aga9/ ! excitations ( 8 environm5t1 b he c refuse to give ! excitations 8 ass5t4 ,he c refuse to all[ ! excitations to become emotions & to p\r =? 8 life 9 passion4 ,man may be 9 ! _w & n ( x4 ,he may gov]n ! _w by controll+ himself4 ,! ,wise ,man is free f ! emotions1 & virtue consi/s 9 _! abs5ce4 ,! virtu\s man is self-suffici5t 9 ! pr\d consci\sness t he c look ^u pleasure z n a good & pa9 z n an evil4 ,:at guide does ! reason h 9 grant+ or refus+ its ass5t to its p]ceptions f )\t8 ,:at is ! crit]ion ( ! tru?8 ,! cle>ness ( ! p]ception! cle>ness 9 ! s5se t ! pres5tation lays hold ( ! m9d & extorts its ass5t4 ,! tru? is ! 8irresi/ible pres5tation0 or ! 8appreh5d+ pres5tation40 ,:o c "k ! tru?8 ,! ,wise ,man4 ,by :at means8 ,by s5sation & preconception4 ,by :at sign8 ,by ! sign ( its irresi/ible p[]4 ,! ,wise ,man is p]fectly free & p]fectly necessitat$he nev] gives ass5t except to :at con/ra9s ass5t4 #b4 ,! ,highe/ ,good4 ,:at is !n ! ,highe/ ,good or happ9ess = su* a p]sonality8 ,aft] su* an analysis1 :at w\ld ! ,/oic be likely to conceive to be ! true ends ( life8 ,! v nature ( ! p]sonality gives ! answ]4 ,p]sonality is fundam5tally rational activity :i* seeks to pres]ve itself & to gratify its own nature4 ,! ,highe/ ,good is ! law ( its own rationality1 & virtue consi/s 9 be+ rational4 ,9 rea*+ = ! ,highe/ ,good man c transc5d 8 p>ticul> faculties 9 8 free ob$i5ce to 8 own reason2 & ! :ol5ess ( 8 exi/5ce dep5ds ^u ! :ol5ess ( 8 de$4 ,?us is ! inn] activity :ole 9 contra/ to ! p>tial out] activities4 ,inw>dness atta9s complete indep5d5ce & f9ds ! dep? ( ! s\l4 ,we are free & we are happy if ! :ole be+ goes out 9 contemplation ( ! _w reason :i* is our reason1 & if all ! feel+s t make u dep5d5t on ! _w are exclud$4 ,s9ce ! emotions place a false value on ?+s1 happ9ess dem&s a :ole ef=t & ceaseless activity4 ,we mu/ n m]ely !orize1 b ?\ght mu/ become conduct4 ,?\ght-action yields happ9ess4 ,x does n matt] :e!r man acts ) ref]5ce to ?is or t1 = ext]nal objects are nei!r good nor bad4 ,! :ole "q is :e!r ! reason controls ! passions or n4 ,if ! reason controls1 ! end is good2 if ! passions control1 ! end is evil2 all o!r ends are indiff]5t4 ,! reason ei!r does or does n rule1 & an act is ei!r good or n4 ,good is n relative1 b absolute2 & su* relative matt]s z weal?1 honor1 & ri*es are matt]s ( indiff]5ce4 ,ev5 life itself is "o ( ! indiff]5t ?+s & may be tak5 :5 x does n s]ve ! ends ( reason4 ,! ,highe/ ,good is t inn] unityt disposition:i* is gov]n$ by a s+le pr9ciple4 ,! ,/oic ^w = ?is ideal ,good is apa?y1 j z ! ,epicurean ^w 0 at>axy or imp]turbability4 ,positively def9$1 x is virtue4 ,negatively def9$1 c we say x 0 passionlessness8 ,?is w\ld n be q correct4 ,by apa?y ! ,/oic means n abs5ce ( all feel+1 b abs5ce ( control by ! feel+s4 ,! ,/oic 0 fill$ ) joy1 gratitude1 s]5e confid5ce1 & unwav]+ submission 9 reg>d to rational law4 ,apa?y is n dull ins5sibility1 b immovable firmness4 ,x is abs5ce ( ! emotions t r5d] ! man dep5d5t on ! _w1 b x is n abs5ce ( ! rea*+ out ( ! s\l = ! div9e4 ,! ,highe/ ,good or ,apa?y is 7#a7 intellectual resignation to ! univ]se1 7#b7 practical inn] h>mony1 & 7#c7 self-control4 ,9 seek+ to be rational1 man is foll[+ an impulse1! impulse ( self-pres]vation4 ,! ,conception ( ,nature4 ,9 comp>ison ) ! ,epicurean ! position ( ! ,/oic 0 peculi>ly involv$4 ,! ideal imp]turbability ( ! ,epicurean 0 simple 9 s f> t x requir$ no?+ beyond itself4 ,x 0 an individual matt] & v>i$ ) ! individual4 ,b ! ,/oic ideal p]sonality is bas$ ^u ! reason1 t is et]nally "o & ! same4 ,:at is ?is absolute pr9ciple t gives to ! human reason its absolut5ess8 ,:at is ! ext5t ( ! law ( ! reason t ! human reason itself implies8 ,?us ! ,/oic ne$$ to supplem5t 8 conception ( p]sonality & ! ,epicurean did n4 ,because 8 individualism 0 m rigor\s1 x ne$$ ! m to be support$4 ,! ,/oic pr9ciple ( morality _h to h its f\ndation 9 ! absolute nature ( ?+s4 ,?is f\ndation c\ld n be ! politico-moral pr9ciple ( ,greek national life1 = t exi/$ no long]4 ,x c\ld n be a transc5d5t1 sup]s5su\s1 or incorporeal pr9ciple1 = 8 ,cynic inh]itance w\ld =bid 8 look+ beyond exp]i5ce4 ,! supplem5t>y absolute pr9ciple ( ! ,/oics mu/ be an imman5t pr9ciple1 a liv+ p[] 9 ! _w4 ,a pan!i/ic conception ( ,nature took its place side by side ) ! ,/oic conception ( p]sonality1 & ?is conception ( ,nature became ! c5tral po9t ( ! ,/oic metaphysics4 ,= ?is ! ,/oics adopt$ ! ,logos doctr9e ( ,h]acleitus1 :i* w be recall$ z ! doctr9e ( primal matt] z rational1 j1 & fateful *ang+ness4 ,! ,/oics 7 re9=c$ 9 ?is by ,ari/otle's teleological philosophy ( nature4 ,yet !y tri$ to ov]come ! dualism ( matt] & ,=m z x exi/$ 9 ,ari/otle's tea*+1 & "o feels t ! ,/oic pan!ism 0 a consci\s & av[$ pan!ism4 ,! ,/oic conception ( ,nature is t ( a unit>y1 rational1 & liv+ :ole1 hav+ no p>ts1 b only det]m9ate =ms4 ,yet x _c be call$ a hylozoism1 l ! doctr9e ( ,h]acleitus1 = !re ,=m & matt] _h n be5 di/+ui%$4 ,9 ! int]v5+ ye>s ,=m & matt] _h be5 sep>at$1 & ! ,/oic s\ght to put !m toge!r aga94 ,9 comp>ison ) ! doctr9e ( ! ,old ,s*ools1 ! ,/oic tea*+ 0 7#a7 moni/ic1 z aga9/ _! dualism1 7#b7 mat]iali/ic1 z aga9/ _! idealism1 b 7#c7 l !m1 x 0 teleological4 #a4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ,nature is an all-p]vad+ ,_w-,be+4 ,x is ,god1 89 :om we live & move & h our be+40 ,x conta9s 9 itself all cosmic ph5om5a1 & processes1 pa/1 pres5t1 & future4 ,x is ! ,_w-gr\nd & ! ,_w-m9d1 & yet x is all-9-all4 ,x is ! productive & =mative p[]1 ! vitaliz+ pr9ciple4 ,9 g5]al1 x is ! creative & guid+ reason2 9 p>ticul>1 x is ,provid5ce or div9e gov]nm5t4 ,x is ! unsw]v+ :ole 9 :i* ! s+le ev5ts ( hi/ory take place4 ,to ! ,/oics ! cosmic ,reason 0 s app>5t 9 ,nature t purpose appe>$ to !m 9 ev]y?+4 ,9 _! h&s ! great teleological conception ( ,ari/otle's imman5t purposiv5ess sank to ! petty purposiv5ess = human be+s & = ! gods4 ,yet x is no wond] t ?is conception ( an all-p]vasive deity became a religion to ! ,/oics & rais$ _! moral code to ! region ( ! sublime4 ,! _w is ,fate s f> z ! m9ute/ movem5ts are det]m9$4 ,nature is ,provid5ce s f> z ^? det]m9ations are full ( purpose4 ,nature is 9 e "p p]fect & )\t blemi%4 #b4 ,9 ! second place1 ,nature is an all-compell+ law4 ,nature is an inviolable necessity1 an inevitable de/9y1 t holds all ph5om5a 9 complete causal connection4 ,yet ?is de/9y only proves ! complete purpose ( ! :ole4 ,! ,/oic seiz$ ^u ! c5tral pr9ciple ( ,democritus1:i* ! ,epicureans _h ov]look$1! supremacy ( law4 8,! doctr9e ( ,democritus pass$ ov] to ! ,epicureans only s f> z x 0 atomism & me*anism2 ) reg>d to ! deep] & m valuable pr9ciple ( ! univ]sal reign ( law 9 ,nature1 8 legacy pass$ to ! ,/oics40#ce ,!re is no su* ?+ z *ance2 ev]y?+ is caus$4 ,9 ,epicureanism "o f9ds ! doctr9e ( necessity1 b ! necessity comes f ! atoms !mselves4 ,9 ,/oicism ! necessity resides 9 ! liv+ activity ( ! :ole4 ,a liv+ activity6 ,h]e9 ! ,/oic conception diff]s f ! ,democritan tea*+4 ,! necessity is a liv+ necessity1 ! de/9y a liv+ de/9y4 #c4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 ,nature is matt]4 ,on ! !oretical side ,/oicism agrees ) ,epicureanism only at "o po9t1bo? 7 mat]iali/ic4 ,! mat]ialism ( bo? ^! ,new ,s*ools got a disproportionate prom95ce because x _h to be def5d$ aga9/ ! attacks ( ! ,academy & ! ,lyceum4 ,! mat]ialism ( ! ,epicureans 0 a m]e adoption ( a !ory2 ! mat]ialism ( ! ,/oics 0 only "o aspect ( its supplem5t>y basis4 ,nev]!less1 to ! ,/oic matt] alone is real1 because x alone acts & is act$ ^u4 ,ev]y?+ is matt]1nature-objects1 ,god & ! s\l1 & ev5 ! qualities1 =ces1 & relations betwe5 mat]ial bodies4 ,! ,/oics reg>d$ ! pres5ce & int]*ange ( ! qualities ( ?+s z ! appe>ance & int]m+l+ ( bodies 9 ^! ?+s4 ,!re c be no d\bt ab\t ! mat]ialism ( ! ,/oic tea*+1 al?\gh bo? mat]ial & spiritual attributes are ascrib$ to ,god 9 a way t is />tl+4 ,! ,h]acleitan conception ( fire z ! prim>y sub/ance is ! ,/oic conception ( ,god4 ,god is fire1 air1 e!r1 & mo/ commonly ! atmosph]ic curr5ts :i* p]vade all ?+s4 ,b ,god is also ! ,_w-s\l1 ! ,_w-m9d1 ! ,cosmic-reason1 ! univ]sal ,law1 ,nature1 ,de/9y1 ,provid5ce4 ,he is a p]fect1 happy1 & k9d ,be+4 ,9 s+le /atem5ts ^! aspects are (t5 comb9$ & ,god is describ$ z ! ,fi]y ,reason ( ! _w1 ! ,m9d 9 matt]1 ! reasonable ,air-curr5ts4 ,! ,/oic equation is ,nature ,matt] ,fire ,reason ,fate ,provid5ce ,god4 ,! ,/oics foll[$ ,h]acleitus also 9 _! conception ( ! developm5t ( ! pres5t _w f ! cosmic fire4 8,9 all po9ts ( detail _! views on :at we call physical sci5ce are contemptible4 ,!y conta9$ n "o iota ( sci5tific ?9k+40#cf ,!y foll[$ ,ari/otle1 h[ev]1 9 _! description ( ! elem5ts & _! teleological arrangem5ts4 ,! primitive sub/ance *anges by its own inn] rational law into =ce & matt]4 ,=ce is ! ,_w-s\l1 ! pneuma or w>m brea?1 :i* p]vades all ?+s4 ,matt] is ! ,_w-body1 & is wat] & e>?4 ,9 cosmic p]iods ! primitive fire is de/9$ to re-absorb ! _w ( v>iety into itself & !n consume x 9 a univ]sal cata/rophe4 ,! mo/ important feature 9 ! ,/oic mat]ialism is ! conception ( pneuma1 or ! =ce into :i* ! orig9al sub/ance is diff]5tiat$4 ,?is is ! ,_w-s\l4 ,nature is ?us conceiv$ z dynamical4 ,! ,/oic ^w = ! ,_w-s\l is translat$ by v>i\s expressions1 z 8creative reason10 8g5]ative p[]s10 8=mative fire-m9d40 ,x p5etrates all ?+s & dom9ates all z _! active pr9ciple4 ,?r\gh x ! univ]se is "o1 n a plurality ( p>ts4 ,! pneuma is ! life ( ! univ]se4 ,its motion is spontane\s2 its developm5t is teleological4 ,! pneuma is an extraord9>ily cond5s$ conception1 conta9+ z x does sugge/ions f ,h]acleitus' ,logos1 ,anaxagoras' ,n\s1 ,democritus' fire-atoms1 & ,ari/otle's ,en]geia4 ,! human be+ has a con/itution analog\s to ! univ]se4 ,man is ! microcosm & ! univ]se ! macrocosm4 ,! s\l ( man is ! pneuma :i* holds 8 body toge!r1 & x is an emanation f ! div9e pneuma4 ,m5tal /ates?\ght & emotionsare air curr5ts4 ,virtue is ! t5sion ( ! atmosph]ic sub/ance ( ! s\l4 ,! mat]ial1 yet div9e1 pneuma con/itutes man's reason1 causes 8 activities1 is seat$ 9 8 brea/4 ,s9ce ! pneuma is a body1 x disconnects itself f ! human corpse at dea?1 has a limit$ immortality1 & returns to ! cosmic pneuma at ! conflagration ( ! _w4 ,! ,conceptions ( ,nature & ,p]sonality supplem5t ea* o!r4 ,?us fundam5tally ! p]sonality is id5tical ) ! cosmosx is reason4 ,to turn ! matt] ab\t1 by reason or 8nature0 ! ,/oic means two ?+s t are ess5tially "o4 ,he means ! reason ( man1 or ! reason ( ! _w2 to 8live accord+ to nature0 is to live accord+ to ! nature ( man or accord+ to ! nature ( ! _w4 ,! life ( ! ,wise ,man z a h>mony ) physical nature is a h>mony ) itself z well4 ,! anti!sis to 8nature0 or 8reason0 is s5su\s nature4 ,:at we speak ( z ! natural impulses 7 n 8natural0 at all 9 ! ,/oic tea*+4 8,nature0 z univ]sal is ! creative cosmic p[] act+ = ends4 ,cord9ation ) ?is con/itutes morality4 ,x is a will+ ob$i5ce to et]nal necessity4 ,! 8fool0 acts accord+ to 8 s5sations & impulses1 & !re=e aga9/ 8nature40 ,b ! ,wise ,man1 by )draw+ )9 himself1 is 8 own indep5d5t ma/] because he is act+ univ]sally4 8,nature0 is ! life-unity ( ! human s\l ) ! _w reason4 ,true individual morality is !re=e univ]sal morality1 complete humanity1 univ]sal rationality4 ,to obey 8nature0 is to develop ! ess5tial g]m 9 "o's self4 ,?us ^! two po9ts ( view 7 obta9$ ( life-unity3 a univ]se rationally guid+ 9 all its *anges2 ! human individual epitomiz+ ?is univ]se 9 himself z a rule = 8 conduct amid 8 vicissitudes4 ,! ,/oic & ,society4 ,m5 are divid$ into two classes1! entirely wise & virtu\s1 or ! entirely fooli% & vici\s4 ,!re is no middle gr\nd4 ,if a man possesses a s\nd reason1 he has all ! virtues2 if he lacks ?is reason1 he lacks all4 ,!re are only a few ,sages2 ! mass ( m5 are fools4 ,! ,/oics 7 cont9ually lam5t+ ) ,ph>isaical pessimism ! great bas5ess ( m54 ,f _! sublime height !y look$ ^u ! ,wise ,man z incapable ( s91 ^u ! fool z incapable ( virtue4 ,9 ?us d5y+ ! ord9>y di/9ctions betwe5 good & evil1 !y 7 dang]\s 9 politics4 ,_! political p]spective 0 n reliable4 ,9 g5]al1 !y did n ent] ! politics ( ! democracies :]e !y liv$4 ,!y 71 h[ev]1 (t5 ! advis]s ( tyrants1 & (t5 assi/$ 9 remov+ !m 7z 9 ! case ( ,julius ,cs>74 ,! ,/oic ,s*ool ( ,musonius ,rufus made a spl5did ,puritan prote/ aga9/ ,n]o & ,domitian1 & f9ally 8 disciples & fri5ds controll$ ! empire = a c5tury 7second c5tury ,a4 ,d474#cg ,! ,/oic reg>d$ 8 ,wise ,man z atta9+ ! same indep5d5ce t ! ,epicurean claim$ = 8 ,wise ,man4 ,he is "l & k+4 ,he is inf]ior to no o!r rational be+1 n ev5 to ,zeus himself4 ,! ,/oic diff]s f ! ,epicurean 9 8 attitude t[>d ! political /ate4 ,! two ,s*ools agree t ! suffici5t ,wise ,man ne$s ! /ate b little4 ,! ,epicurean tea*es t society is n natural & n inh]5t 9 human nature4 ,! ,/oic1 h[ev]1 ma9ta9$ t society is a div9e in/itution1 :i* gives way only occasionally to man's individual p]fect+4 ,s9ce man & ! cosmic reason are id5tical1 all m5 are ess5tially id5tical4 ,:5 m5 !re=e lead a life ( reason1 !y lead a social life4 ,?is realm ( reason includes n ,romans alone1 b all m51 gods1 & slaves4 ,b ! political gov]nm5t is only second>y1 = ! ,/oic's ideal is a univ]sal empire4 ,! ,/oic's int]e/ 9 practical politics 0 z weak z 8 ideal ( a rational society 0 transc5d5t4 ,8 tea*+ ( ju/ice & love = man 01 h[ev]1 a =eca/+ ( ! com+ religi\s emancipation4 ,!re are two antagoni/ic t5d5cies runn+ ?r\gh ,/oicism4 ,! fir/ is to seek society ) its virtues1ju/ice1 love ( m51 sociability or cosmopolitanism4 ,! second disp5ses ) society to ga9 an inn] fre$om4 ,yet ^! two t5d5cies (t5 co9cide4 ,!y may be pres5t$ z foll[s3 ,to seek society4 ,to disp5se ) society4 #a4 ,exaltation ( ju/ice & ,exaltation ( inn] fre$om love4 & happ9ess4 #b4 ,_w citiz5%ip4 ,! ,wise ,man4 #c4 ,relations & degrees ( ,absolute virtue & absolute virtue4 vice4 #d4 ,virtue dep5ds some:at on ,k alone is virtue4 conditions4 #e4 ,individual %\ld submit to ,individual %\ld make fate4 fate4 ,duty & ,responsibility4 ,! ,/oic's id5tity ( human & cosmic reason elevat$ ! law ( human conduct into a /rict1 univ]sal law ( duty4 ,x embodies1 on ! "o h&1 ! ,cynic's prote/ aga9/ ext]nal law1 & on ! o!r ! con/ruction ( ! inn] moral law4 ,! backbone ( ,/oicism is s5se ( responsibility4 ,! ,/oics br\ght out z nev] be=e ! contra/ betwe5 :at is & :at ought to be4 ,!y 7 ! mo/ outspok5 doctr9aires ( antiquity1 & =m$ a s*ool ( "* build+ 9 /ubbornness4 ,z "t w5t on !y sub/itut$ human nature = cosmic nature1 & !n acc5tuat$ human nature z consci5ce4 ,! individual c\ld !n def9e ! "r = himself1 & ?is sort ( individualism 0 develop$ ) s mu* skill t x admitt$ great laxity ( morals4 ,duty comm&s "s ?+s & =bids o!rs1 b !re are left a great mass ( activities t are e?ically indiff]5t4 ,^! indiff]5t matt]s (f]$ opportunity = ^! m5 ( consci5ce to p]=m :at 9 ! eyes ( o!rs 7 crimes 7= example1 ,brutus74 ,bas5ess is only :at is unconditionally =bidd54 ,yet x mu/ n be suppos$ t ! ,/oics g5]ally employ$ ! indiff]5t z an excuse = moral lic5se4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! concept ( life z a /ruggle orig9at$ ) ! ,/oics1 & f !m x pass$ into ! common consci\sness ( man4 ,!re 0 be=e !m 7#a7 ! /ruggle ) environm5t dom9at$ by a false evaluation1 7#b7 ! /ruggle ) effete civilization1 7#c7 ! /ruggle p>ticul>ly ) "o's self4 ,! ,/oic h]o ( inn] c\rage & greatness ( s\l rises above 8 fell[s1 n because he ga9s dom9ion ov] ! _w1 b because 9 indiff]5ce to x he isolates himself4 ,he exi/s 9 prem$itation ( do+ r ?an 9 ! actual do+ 9 :i* 8 p[] w\ld be sp5t4 ,/ill1 9 ! absolute contra/ betwe5 ! good & ! evil1 9 mak+ life a disjunctive1 an 8,ei!r,or10 duty got a def9ite & di/9ct mean+4 ,duty1 accord+ to ! ,/oics' conception1 _h n s mu* ! nature ( an imp]ative z ( :at is suitable1an act adapt$ to nature1 a consi/5t & ju/ifiable act4 ,9 a mann] unkn[n to antiquity ! e?ical nature ( conduct 0 ?us univ]saliz$ 9 ! new conceptions ( philan?ropy1 ( ! univ]sality ( ,god & man1 9 ! t5d5cy to suppress slav]y & c>e = ! poor & sick4 ,nev]!less1 z a moral =ce ,/oicism accept$ ! _w z x f\nd ! _w1 & did n attempt to make x ov]4 ,! ,problem ( ,evil & ! ,problem ( ,fre$om4 ,on ! que/ions ( moral fre$om & evil1 ! ,/oics suff]$ sev]e attacks f ! ,academy & ! ,epicureans4 ,alone among ! ,s*ools ( antiquity ! ,/oics prea*$ ! doctr9e ( ,fate4 ,! dem&s ( e?ical responsibility1 h[ev]1 requir$ t ! individual %\ld det]m9e 8 own conduct4 ,to suit ^! dem&s ! ,/oic did n modify 8 fundam5tal conception ( ,nature1 b he tri$ to ju/ify 8 position on ! gr\nd t ! individual express$ ! law ( nature4 ,8 argum5t may be /at$ ?us3 ,man is l ,god2 ,man is "o ) ,god2 ,man is free4 ,x 0 also /at$ on psy*ological gr\nds4 ,man c h "o ( two attitudes t[>d ! _w-law3 7#a7 8 p]=mance may be ?r\gh bl9d compulsion2 7#b7 8 p]=mance may be ?r\gh an intellig5t und]/&+ ( ! law1 9 :i* case he is free4 ,! occurr5ce ( 8 act is fateful1 b x makes great diff]5ce to ! man :e!r ! occurr5ce is 9 spite ( him or ) 8 intellig5t acquiesc5ce4 ,! occurr5ce is n an evil 9 itself2 = physical evils are no evils1 & ?+s t appe> to be moral evils are 7#a7 subs]vi5t to ! good2 7#b7 m]ely relative to good2 or 7#c7 %[ t ,god's ways are n our ways4 ,my w is m9e ?\gh necess>y2 my w is m9e ?\gh x be law4 ,! s\l is free :5 x fulfills its own de/9y4 ,god works ?r\gh man's w4 ,out] circum/ances are only accessory causes1 b ! ma9 cause is ! ass5t ( ! w4 ,at ! same "t ! ,/oics did n %r9k f ! logic ( _! own fatalism4 ,*rysippus said t only on ! basis ( det]m9ism c\ld correct judgm5ts ( ! future be made4 ,only on ?is gr\nd c\ld ! gods =ekn[4 ,only ! necess>y c be kn[n4 ,! ,modifications ( ! ,/oic ,doctr9e aft] ! ,fir/ ,p]iod4 ,! inh]5t difficulties 9 ! ,/oic doctr9e & ! attacks ^u x gave rise to lat] concession t only fur!r complicat$ x4 7#a7 ,! moral ideal 0 l[]$ to make a set ( rules = ! m$iocre man1 & !reby ! ,/oics became ! orig9ators ( ! dang]\s doctr9e ( a tw(old morals4 7#b7 ,by admitt+ any supposition in/ead ( /rict sci5tific d$uction into _! !ory !y introduc$ probabilism4 ,an absolute p]sonality6 ,an absolute ,nature6 ,9 ord] to make ei!r practical ! ,/oics _h to modify bo?4 ,9 ! c\rse ( "t1 :5 new lead]s repres5t$ ! ,s*ool1 !re came compromises accord+ to practical exig5cies4 ,! tea*+ ( ! ,wise ,man 0 sup]s$$ by in/ruction h[ to become wise4 ,! moral idealism 0 n r5\nc$ b ! idea ( progress 0 introduc$4 7#c7 ,! doctr9e ( ,goods 0 modifi$4 ,f out ! ,goods1 e/eem$ z indiff]5t1 !re appe> ,goods z desirable4 ,yet ^! 7 nev] ?\ght to be ,goods 9 !mselves1 b 7 only adapt$ to fur!r ! ,good 9 itself4 ,su* 71 = example1 ! physical ,good ( heal?1 enjoym5t ( ! s5ses1 etc4 ,on ! side ( its ideals ,/oicism ?us 0 br\ght into t\* ) practical life4 7#d7 ,a di/9ction 0 made conc]n+ ^? :o 7 n ,wise ,m54 ,x 0 recogniz$ t all 8fools0 are n ! same di/ance f virtue4 ,!re are !n recogniz$ progressive m51m5 :o are improv+4 ,apa?y is ?us modifi$ by a /ate ( progress4 ,ev5 ! ,wise ,man has 9 common ) o!rs ! affections ( 8 s5ses1 su* z pa94 ,! ,/oic e?ical ari/ocracy became m humane4 ,nev]!less1 ! ,/oic nev] yield$ ?is po9t1 viz41 t !re is no gradual gr[? 9 virtue4 ,virtue is n atta9$ ?r\gh a transition4 ,x is a sudd5 turn+ ab\t4 7#e7 ,dur+ ! empire ,/oicism became m]ely a moral philosophy1 b ev5 9 ?is =m x 0 an impressive pres5tation ( ! noble/ convictions ( antiquity4 ,x prep>$ moral feel+ = ,*ri/ianity4 ,! m ,/oicism became m]e moraliz+1 ! m ! ,cynic elem5t 9 x dom9at$ x4 ,9 ! fir/ & second c5turies ,cynicism 0 reviv$ by w&]+1 g>b$ prea*]s1 :o w5t ab\t affect+ begg>y & tea*+ morals4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,skepticism ,,& ,,eclecticism ,! ,appe>ances ( ,philosophic ,skepticism4 ,we h n[ trac$ ! hi/ory ( ! positive & dogmatic aspect ( ! ,hell5ic-,roman ,p]iod ?r\gh its ,e?ical ,division & f> into ! ,religi\s ,division ( ! ,p]iod4 ,! influ5ce ( ! e?ical movem5t did n disappe> until at lea/ two c5turies aft] ! beg9n+ ( ?is era1 & ! ,s*ools !mselves did n disappe> until !y 7 aboli%$ by ,ju/9ian 9 #ebi ,a4 ,d4 ,b ! ,e?ical ,p]iod may be said to close at ! beg9n+ ( ?is era1 & ev5 a c5tury & a half be=e tab\t #aej ,b4 ,c4its positive & dogmatic "* _h be5 lo/4 ,eclecticism appe>$ 9 ! ,s*ools1 & ! la/ "o hundr$ & fifty ye>s ( ! ,e?ical ,p]iod 0 9 "* transitional & eclectic4 ,?is 0 caus$ by ! gr[? & p[] ( ,skepticism1 :i* we h already po9t$ out z ! und]curr5t ( ! entire p]iod4 ,skepticism 0 ! fundam5tal frame ( m9d ( ! eight hundr$ ye>s ( ?is "t4 ,x 0 ! negative side ( ! p]iod 9 contra/ ) ! ,s*ools4 ,philosophic ,skepticism appe>$ contemporane\sly ) ! rise ( ! ,new ,s*ools at ! v beg9n+ ( ! ,p]iod1 & ! controv]sy betwe5 ! ,s*ools & ,skepticism rea*$ its height ab\t #aej ,b4 ,c4 ,:at 0 ! result8 ,did philosophy turn1 z 9 ! ,age ( ,p]icles1 back to great] triumphs 9 speculation8 ,no2 ! _w 0 no long] virile & no long] possess$ ! creative impulse4 ,on acc\nt ( ! attacks ( ,skepticism ^u ! ,s*ools1 philosophy dissolv$ itself fir/ into eclecticism1 & !n lat] by ! introduction ( new elem5ts f ! ,ea/ 0 sup]s$$ by religion4 ,9 ! philosophical s5se1 religion & eclecticism are bo? skepticalbo? h d\bts ( ! ability ( ! reason to rea* tru?4 ,eclecticism %[s its ,skepticism by d\bt+ any "o dogmatic s*eme1 & !re=e x con/ructs a compromise ( all2 religion cr[ns fai? 9 place ( reason4 ,philosophic ,skepticism 9 ^! times did n appe> except ) ref]5ce to ! doctr9es ( ! ,s*ools4 ,x arose z m]ely polemical & antagoni/ic to ! ,s*ools' tea*+4 ,:ile ! ,skepticism ( antiquity busi$ itself ) ! problem ( k1 x 0 sup]ficial comp>$ ) mod]n ,skepticism4 ,anci5t ,skepticism did n d\bt t ! object ( k exi/$2 x did n d\bt t ! object ( k is ext]nal & ev5 mat]ial4 ,x assum$ t ?+s exi/ :i*1 to ! mod]n ,skeptic1 is ! problem at issue4 ,we %all look n[ at ! appe>ances ( philosophic ,skepticism1 & ! effect ( ?is ,skepticism ^u ! ,s*ools 9 _! turn+ to eclecticism4 ,! ,?ree ,phases ( ,philosophic ,skepticism4 ,^! are ?ree some:at loosely connect$ appe>ances ( ,skepticism1 & are det]m9$ 9 _! "* 9 l>ge measure by ! doctr9es :i* !y attack$4 #a4 ,! ,fir/ ,phase ( ,philosophic ,skepticism is call$ ,pyrrhonism 7f ab\t #cjj to #bcj ,b4 ,c474 ,?is 0 a ,skepticism direct$ aga9/ ! assumptions ( ! philosophy ( ,ari/otle4 ,f ! dates above x w be se5 to be contempor>y ) ! f\nd+ ( ! ,/oic & ,epicurean ,s*ools1 at ! v beg9n+ ( ! p]iod4 ,! two repres5tatives 7 ,pyrrho 7#cfe-bge ,b4 ,c47 ( ,elis & 8 pupil ,timon 7#cbj-bcj ,b4 ,c47 ( ,phlius4 ,:5 ,z5o _h begun to tea* 9 ! ,pa9t$ ,por* & ,epicurus 9 ! ,g>d5s1 :5 ,!ophra/us _h succe$$ 8 ma/] 9 ! ,lyceum & ,polemo l$ ! ,academy1 ! ,skeptic ,pyrrho began 8 p]sonal in/ruction 9 ! city ( ,elis4 ,pyrrho _h b little influ5ce4 ,he left no writ+s1 & 8 doctr9e became kn[n to ! anci5ts ?r\gh 8 pupil1 ,timon1 :o 0 ! lit]>y expon5t ( ?is ,skepticism4 ,! tea*+ may be /at$ 9 ! ?ree foll[+ s5t5ces3 7#a7 ,we c "k no?+ ( ! nature ( ?+s1 b only ( ! /ates ( feel+ into :i* !y put u2 7#b7 ,! only correct attitude ( m9d is to )hold all judgm5t & re/ra9 all action2 7#c7 ,! result ( ?is susp5se ( judgm5t is at>axia or imp]turbability4 ,! ,skeptic !re=e s\ght ! same int]nal peace = :i* ,/oic & ,epicurean 7 seek+1 b he 0 skeptical ( ! ,ari/otelian metaphysics z an in/rum5t to ga9 x4 ,! opposite ( any conclusion be+ equally plausible1 susp5se ( judgm5t is ! only peace ( m9d4 ,pyrrhonism rem9d$ ! age aft] ,ari/otle t ! problem ( ! c]titude ( k is fundam5tal & mu/ be settl$ be=e any philosophy c be con/ruct$4 ,! ,s*ool 0 %ort liv$1 & p dispos$ to be skeptical jo9$ ! ,academy4 #b4 ,! ,second ,p]iod ( ,philosophic ,skepticism,! ,skepticism ( ! ,academy 7#bhj-abi ,b4 ,c474 ,! ,middle ,academy & its ,skepticism 0 direct$ p>ticul>ly aga9/ ! ,/oic tea*+ t an 8appreh5sive pres5tation0 gu>ante$ its own tru? by ! conviction ( imm$iate c]ta9ty4 ,! two mo/ di/+ui%$ repres5tatives ( ?is ,skeptical p]iod ( ! ,academy 7 ,arcesilaus 7#cae-bda ,b4 ,c47 & ,c>neades 7#bad-abi ,b4 ,c474 ,c>neades mu/ be m5tion$ p>ticul>ly z a g5ius & a philosoph] ( great p]sonal influ5ce4 8,he 0 ! greate/ philosoph] ( ,greece 9 ! f\r c5turies f ,*rysippus to ,plot9us2 inde$1 9 ability & dep? ( ?\ght he surpass$ ,*rysippus40#ch ,c>neades 0 ! mo/ =midable oppon5t ( ! ,/oics4 ,he _h li/5$ to ! ,/oic lectur]s1 _h /udi$ _! writ+s1 & _h refut$ !m on _! own gr\nds 9 brilliant lectures ( 8 own4 ,! ,skepticism ( ! ,academy arose some:at 9 ?is way4 ,! rivalry ( ! ,por* & ! ,old] ,academy _h gr[n apace & _h be5 a battle betwe5 two dogmatic ,s*ools4 ,! ,academy 0 be+ wor/$1 its anci5t _s 0 wan+1 & x _h gradually des]t$ speculation = e?ics4 ,"u ,arcesilaus x 0 provok$ to new life by ! aggressive dogmatism ( ! ,/oics4 ,speculation1 :i* x _h ignor$1 x n[ began to antagonize op5ly4 ,arcesilaus1 9 direct+ 8 attack aga9/ ! doctr9e ( 8appreh5sive pres5tation0 ( ! ,/oics1 came to conclusions b slightly diff]5t f ,pyrrho4 ,c>neades laid out = himself a tw(old task3 7#a7 to refute all exi/+ dogmas1 & 7#b7 to evolve a !ory ( probability z ! basis = practical activity4 ,he appli$ 8 ,skepticism n only to speculation1 l ,arcesilaus1 b also to e?ics & religion4#ci ,! ,academy did n fully adopt ,skepticism1 b us$ x z a weapon aga9/ ! ,/oics4 ,! ,platonic tradition 0 kept alive )9 ! ,s*ool1 & ,skepticism made no advance 9 ! ,academy aft] ,c>neades4 ,x did n ev5 cont9ue 9 ! pa? m>k$ out by him4 ,9 ! next g5]ation ! ,academy became eclectic4 #c4 ,! ,?ird ,p]iod ( ,philosophic ,skepticism,s5sationali/ic ,skepticism 7dur+ two c5turies or m ( ! ,*ri/ian era74 ,! *ief repres5tatives 7 nesidemus ( ,cnossus 7fir/ c5tury ,a4 ,d471 ,agrippa 7ab\t #bjj ,a4 ,d471 & ,sextus ,empiricus 7ab\t #bjj ,a4 ,d474 ,?is phase ( ,skepticism 0 repres5t$ ma9ly by physicians1 ) argum5ts bas$ ^u empirical physiological gr\nds4 ,:5 ! ,academy pass$ f ,skepticism to eclecticism1 ,skepticism became c5tr$ 9 ,alex&ria4 ,= two c5turies be=e ,gal5 7#aca-bja ,a4 ,d47 great discov]ies _h be5 made 9 m$ic9e1 b ! mean+ ( ! discov]ies _h n be5 appreh5d$4 ,!re 0 a g5]al feel+ among physicians ( t "t t !re is no su* ?+ z sci5tific c]ta9ty2 & skeptical argum5ts 7 con/ruct$2 bas$ on ! empirical discov]ies ( ! sci5tific circle ( ,alex&ria4 ,:ile ! argum5ts ( ! ,academy 7 mo/ly =mal attacks aga9/ ! ,/oics1 ?is ,skeptical ,s*ool ( physicians return$ to ,pyrrhonism1 imm5sely re9=c$ ) sci5tific mat]ial4 ,x /rove 9 va9 to disassociate itself f ! ,academy1 = x us$ 9 "o way or ano!r ! =mal argum5ts ( ! ,skeptics ( ! ,academy4 ,9 8 eight books on ,pyrrhonism1 nesidemus develop$ ! reasons :i* induc$ ,pyrrho to call 9 "q ! possibility ( k4 ,^! are kn[n 9 philosophy z ! t5 8tropes10 or t5 ways ( ju/ify+ d\bt4#dj ,!y 7 badly arrang$ by nesidemus & r$uc$ to five by ,agrippa4#da ,! ,la/ ,c5tury & a ,half ( ! ,e?ical ,p]iod4 7#aej ,b4 ,c4-#a ,a4 ,d474 ,eclecticism4,ab\t #aej ,b4 ,c4 ! ,e?ical ,p]iod became eclectic4 ,aft] #aej ye>s ( passionate controv]sy ! ,s*ools began to compromise _! diff]5ces & fuse into "o ano!r4 ,!y no long] emphasiz$ _! diff]5ces1 b began to po9t to _! common gr\nd ( unity4 ,?is t5d5cy to fusion applies only to ! ,lyceum1 ! ,academy1 & ! ,por*4 ,! ,epicurean ,s*ool 0 nev] a p>ty to ?is eclecticism & always rema9$ relatively /ation>y4 ,! fusion occurr$ only 9 ! tea*+ ( ! ,s*ools & n 9 _! organization4 ,ext]nally ! ,s*ools rema9$ sep>ate bodies = six hundr$ ye>s long]4 ,9 ! second c5tury ,hadrian & ! ,anton9es end[$ sep>ate *airs = !m 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,a!ns4 ,!y 7 n aboli%$ z ,s*ools until #ebi ,a4 ,d41 by ,ju/9ian4 ,int]nally _! indep5d5t gr[? la/$ only dur+ ! two c5turies d[n to ! ye> #aej ,b4 ,c4 ,at ?is "t _! !oretic mission _h be5 complet$4 ,_! int]nal hi/ory f #ajj ,b4 ,c4 to #ebi ,a4 ,d4 0 "o ( compromise & adju/m5t4 ,! ye> #aej ,b4 ,c4 is !re=e important4 ,at ?is "t ! records ( ! ,s*ools /op1 controv]sy abates1 ,/oicism & ,epicureanism are introduc$ into ,rome1 & fusion ( doctr9es beg9s4 ,! ,/oic ,s*ool 0 ! fir/ to incl9e to eclecticism4 ,its own doctr9e 0 a k9d ( fusion ( incoh]5t p>ts1 & among ! ,s*ools x c\ld mo/ easily welcome new doctr9es4 ,ab\t #aej ,b4 ,c41 "u ! lead ( ,pantius & ,posidonius1 x adopt$ _m ( ! ,platonic & ,ari/otelian tea*+s1 temp]$ its own e?ical rigorism1 & ext5d$ its sci5tific int]e/s4 ,at ! same "t ! ,p]ipatetics ( ! ,lyceum unit$ ! pan!ism ( ! ,/oics to _! own !ism4 ,aft] ! dea? ( ,c>neades 9 #abi ,b4 ,c4 ! ,academy turn$ f ,skepticism back to ! ,platonic tradition1 b x 0 a meagre ,platonism adult]at$ ) _m =eign elem5ts4 ,= example1 ,antio*us ( ,ascalon taught ,cic]o f ! ,academy at ,a!ns 9 ! w9t] ( #gi-gh ,b4 ,c4 t ,platonism & ,ari/otelianism 7 only diff]5t aspects ( ! same doctr9e4 ,!re 7 two factors t prep>$ an easy way = ! rapid spread ( eclecticism4 ,"o 0 ! gr[+ ,skepticism t 0 s fundam5tal 9 ,hell5ism1 & ! o!r 0 ! adoption ( ,hell5ic culture by ! ,romans4 ,eclecticism is1 aft] all1 only ano!r =m ( ,skepticism4 ,bo? exhibit ! _s ( undecid$ conviction4 ,nei!r has reg>d = ! bonds ( tradition1 = bo? reg>d ! individual sup]ior to e tradition or sy/em4 ,eclecticism1 inde$1 attempts to reconcile diff]+ sy/ems2 b 9 do+ ?is x ca/s a d\bt ^u ! infallibility ( !m all only to a less] degree ?an ,skepticism4 ,! spread ( eclecticism 0 !re=e only an ext5sion f ,greece ( ! skeptical _s ^u ! _w1 & ! ,roman _w gave a glad welcome to su* a _s4 ,! ,roman "* 0 naturally eclectic4 ,aft] 8 fir/ av]sion ! ,roman 0 hospitable to all philosophies & religions4 ,9 8 practical way1 undi/urb$ by philosophical hair-splitt+s1 he select$ f ! diff]5t sy/ems :at 0 suit$ to 8 practical ne$s4 ,eclecticism f\nd f]tile gr\nd 9 ,roman civilization4 ,9 ! ,s*ools aft] ! ye> #aej ,b4 ,c4 !re appe> _m notable namesnotable n because !y contribut$ to ! !oretic advance ( philosophy1 b = "s o!r reason4 ,9 ! ,/oic ,s*ool 7 ,pantius1 ,posidonius1 & ,bo?us2 & lat] ,s5eca1 ,epictetus1 & ,m>cus ,aurelius4 ,among ! ,academicians are ,philo ( ,l>issa & ,antio*us2 among ! ,p]ipatetics ( ! same c5tury is ,&ronicus2 & among ! eclectic ,platoni/s ,plut>* is especially to be nam$2 ^! 7 all eclectics4 ,! only "o 9 ?is gr\p ( eclectics :om we %all h "t = a pass+ exam9ation ( is ,cic]o4 ,m4 ,tullius ,cic]o 7#ajf-dc ,b4 ,c47 li/5$ to ,greek philosophy 9 all ! ,s*ools 9 ,a!ns & ,rhodes4 ,he read a good deal ( ,greek lit]ature1 s t he _h mu* philosophical mat]ial at 8 comm&4 ,he did n %[ mu* discretion 9 8 selection ( 8 mat]ial1 b he display$ a good deal ( tact 9 us+ :at ! ,roman p w\ld receive4 ,! ,greek m9d spoke to ! ,roman ?r\gh ,cic]o's voice almo/ z ?\gh ! ,roman 7 speak+ = himself4 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t ,cic]o's acqua9tance ) ,greek philosophy 0 on ! :ole sup]ficial1 yet he 0 able to express c]ta9 aspects ( ,greek philosophy ) cle>ness = contempor>y ,lat9 read]s & = _m g5]ations succe$+ !m4 ,he prid$ himself 9 8 ability to discuss bo? sides ( a "q )\t himself arriv+ at a decisionaft] ! mann] ( ! ,middle ,academy1 ( :i* he inscrib$ himself z a memb]4 ,8 books appe>$ 9 r rapid succession4 ,cic]o does n !re=e owe 8 prom95ce z a philosoph] s mu* to 8 own pr(\nd indep5d5ce ( ?\ght z to 8 skill 9 translat+ ,greek ?\ght to ! ,roman p4 ,8 metaphysics is an eclecticism t is at bottom a skepticism4 ,9 view ( ! exi/+ philosophical w>f>e1 he despair$ ( metaphysical or absolutely complete k4 ,yet ^u e?ical & religi\s que/ions he spoke 9 no undecid$ mann]1 = 9 ^! realms he felt t we h m ?an m]ely probable evid5ce4 ,s9ce he 0 unable to refute ,skepticism 9 a sci5tific way1 he took refuge 9 ! imm$iate c]ta9ty ( consci\sness 9 all matt]s t p]ta9 to morals & religion4 ,!re are c]ta9 ideas common to all m54 ,^! h n s mu* be5 taught to all m5 by nature z !y are inborn 9 all4 ,!y are convictions implant$ 9 u2 !re is a common human consci\sness f :i* !y are d]iv$1 & !y are confirm$ by univ]sal op9ion4 ,e?ical & religi\s consci\sness ?us re/s on imm$iate c]ta9ty4 ,man has ! innate ideas ( duty1 immortality1 & ,god4 ,our belief 9 ,god's exi/5ce is support$ by ! teleological argum5t = ,provid5ce & div9e gov]nm5t4 ,! high dignity ( man re/s ^u ?is innate conviction ( fre$om & immortality4 ,cic]o %[s 8 eclecticism by mod]at+ ! ,/oic doctr9e ( virtue3 virtue 9 itself is vita beata1 b virtue plus happ9ess is vita beatissima4 ,unorig9al & eclectic z ,cic]o's philosophical position may be1 x is ( great importance to ! /ud5t ( ,roman hi/ory4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,! ,,religi\s ,,p]iod 7#ajj ,b4 ,c4-#dgf ,a4 ,d47 ,! ,two ,causes ( ! ,rise ( ,religi\s ,feel+4 ,!re 7 two causes = ! turn ( ! "t f its int]e/ 9 individual practical e?ics to religion4 ,! fir/ 0 an inn] cause )9 ! nature ( ! e?ical philosophy ( ! ,s*ools4 ,! rise ( ! religi\s & ! sup]natural 0 ! culm9ation ( ! und]curr5t ( skepticism 9 ! validity ( reason1 :i* we f\nd gr[+ rapidly 9 ! ,e?ical ,p]iod4 ,! m ! ,s*ools grew alike 9 _! tea*+1 ! less 7 !y able to assure _! disciples ( any c]ta9 insight into virtue & happ9ess4 ,! ,e?ical ,p]iod end$ 9 eclecticism1 & ?is 0 ! impea*m5t ( ! au?ority ( ea* ,s*ool4 ,! ,s*ools exam9$ _! dogmatic assumptions4 ,! fundam5tal inn] conviction grew /rong] t ! intellect ( man is self-inconsi/5t3 s inconsi/5t z to be undep5dable2 s inconsi/5t z n to v\*safe man ! virtue & happ9ess :i* ! ,s*ools _h promis$4 ,z ,skepticism became m /rongly intr5*$1 ! imp]turbable self-c]ta9ty ( ! ,wise ,man became %ak51 ! ,e?ical ,p]iod disappe>$1 & ! ,religi\s ,p]iod 0 born4 ,belief 9 ! au?ority ( ! sup]natural sup]s$$ belief 9 ! au?ority ( ! reason4 ,! second cause may be call$ ext]nal1 & 0 ! introduction ( _m ea/]n religions into ! empire4 ,x has be5 common to exagg]ate ! vices ( ! ,romans ( ! fir/ ,*ri/ian c5turies1 & to po9t to ! corruption ( ! times z ! cause ( ! great rise ( religions4#db ,no d\bt1 9 ! city ( ,rome & o!r l>ge cities ! populations 7 v lic5ti\s & corrupt4 ,b ?is 0 n ! case ) ! p 9 ! small municipalities & ! c\ntry4 ,! p 7 unit$ 9 peace "u "o gov]nm5t4 ,!re 0 great comm]cial prosp]ity & widespread travel4 ,education prosp]$4 ,! religion ( ! ,romans1 h[ev]1 long s9ce decad5t1 _h become an object ( d]ision4 ,all fai? 9 x _h be5 lo/1 & magicians & romanc]s _h a l>ge patronage4 ,! inn] life ( man dem&$ "s ext]nal spiritual au?ority to satisfy x1 &1 f9d+ x c\ld n be satisfi$ 9 ! realm ( s5se1 turn$ to ! sup]s5su\s4 ,x 0 an age ( univ]sal sup]/itions1 report$ miracles1 & ! multiply+ ( my?s4 ,9 ! realm ( ! religi\s emotions ev]y?+ 0 9 flux4 ,ev5 ! ,greek philosophies! ,/oic1 ! ,platonic1 ! ,cynic1 & ! neo-,py?agorean%[ x 9 _! emphasis ^u r5unciation 9 practical life4 ,9 place ( ! ,grecian love = e>?ly exi/5ce1 a long+ = ! my/]i\s 0 gr[+ into a fev]i% desire = /range & my/]i\s cults4 ,a great religi\s movem5t possess$ ! nations ( ! empire1 & into ,roman civilization ( ! fir/ c5tury ,a4 ,d4 !re /ream$ _m new religions4 ,f ! ,ori5t came ! ,mi?ra1 ,magna ,mat]1 ,/> ,wor%ip1 ,isis & ,osiris1 & _m o!rs4 ,^! m+l$ ) ! we/]n religions1 & _! rivalry 0 en]getic = ! possession ( m5's spirits4 ,! ,roman p 7 hospitable to all religions1 & ,rome became a religi\s battlegr\nd4 ,) ! int]e/ turn$ f e>?ly to heav5ly ?+s1 salvation f tr\ble seem$ to lie 9 ! sup]natural4 ,! ,ne$ ( ,spiritual ,au?ority4 ,?us ! complac5t ,e?ical ,p]iod gave way to ! cry = "s au?ority 9 morals & sci5ce4 ,man 0 no long] confid5t t he c\ld atta9 pres5t happ9ess or 8 s\l's salvation by 8 own /r5g?4 ,he turn$ = help bo? to ! religi\s tradition ( ! pa/ & to ! revelation t might come to him 9 ! pres5t4 ,! au?ority 9 ei!r 0 practically ! same2 = ! pa/ 0 only ! cry/allization ( an ev]-pres5t div9e _s4 ,yet pres5t & pa/ revelations diff] 9 _! cr$5tials3 ! pres5t revelation is an imm$iate illum9ation ( ! _s2 ! pa/ is pres5t$ 9 hi/oric records4 ,! ,alex&rian s*ool accept$ bo? =ms ( revelation z ! highe/ s\rce ( k4 ,! dem& = sup]natural au?ority f\nd expression 9 _m curi\s ways4 ,x is notori\s t at ?is "t ! writ+s & oral traditions ( ! pa/ 7 greatly int]polat$4 ,! philosoph]s ( ! fir/ c5tury ?\ght t !y !mselves c\ld get a he>+ only by ins]t+ _! own doctr9es into ! writ+s ( ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 & o!r h]oes ( ! pa/4 ,?us ! neo-,py?agoreans inv5t$ a halo ( wisdom = ,py?agoras 9 ord] to give _! own sect its cr$5tials4 ,! dem& = au?ority culm9at$ 9 ! attempt to trace ! entire civilization ( ! "t to "s religi\s s\rce4 ,philo on ! "o side1 & ! ,gno/ics on ! o!r1 f\nd t ,greek & ,hebrew hi/ory h a common religi\s orig94 ,greek ?\ght 0 f\nd 9 ! ,ori5tal writ+s4 ,! ,greek sages 7 plac$ by ! side ( ! ,old ,te/am5t h]oes4 ,! canon ( ! ,*ri/ians is full ( cross-ref]5ces! ,old ,te/am5t giv+ hi/orical au?ority to ! ,new ,te/am5t1 ! ,new ,te/am5t giv+ to ! ,old ,te/am5t ! support ( imm$iate revelation4 ,!re came into vogue :at 0 call$ 8allegorical int]pretation10 accord+ to :i* an hi/orical docum5t c\ld be giv5 two int]pretations 7or m7a lit]al int]pretation & a spiritual int]pretation4 ,! docum5ts 7 suppos$ to h a body & a s\l4 ,! lit]al int]pretation 0 ( ! body ( ! docum5ts & suitable = ! p2 ! spiritual int]pretation 0 ! m lib]al int]pretation ( ! s\l ( ! docum5t & suitable = philosoph]s4 ,at ! same "t a va/ numb] ( writ+s appe>$ z hi/orical revelations4 ,x 0 necess>y to sep>ate ! true f ! false1 b ?is c\ld n be done by ! individual )\t injur+ ! v pr9ciple ^u :i* revelation 0 suppos$ to re/4 ,consequ5tly all k 0 g5]ally reg>d$ z revelation4 ,= example1 ,plut>* & ! ,/oics divid$ revelation into ?ree classes3 poetry1 law1 & philosophy4 ,al?\gh ,plut>* disclaim$ op5 sup]/itions1 he nev]!less accept$ z true all sorts ( miracles & prophecies4 ,! lat] neo-,platoni/s are also examples ( ! great body ( ^? :o made no discrim9ation z to :at revelation is true4 ,! ,*ri/ian *ur* may be said to h be5 alone 9 mak+ a criticism ( ! records1 & 9 sett+ up z crit]ia tradition & hi/orically accr$it$ au?ority4 ,z a result ( its criticism ! ,*ri/ian canon 0 f9ally decid$ ^u1 & ! ,old & ,new ,te/am5ts 7 accept$ z alone inspir$4 ,! rivals ( ! *ur*! ,alex&rian philosophies1 especially neo-,platonism_h no organization t c\ld decide ^u a canon4 ,!y 7 consequ5tly at a disadvantage1 b !y felt no ne$ ( an infallible hi/orical au?ority or ( hi/orical criticism4 ,revelation to !m 0 any imm$iate illum9ation ( ! individual4 ,! individual man :o comes 9 contact ) ! ,deity has possession ( ! div9e tru?4 ,al?\gh only few atta9 ! tru?1 & ^! only at r>e mom5ts1 !re is nev]!less no way ( det]m9+ :at is fictiti\s & :at is true4 ,?is diff]5ce 9 ! conception ( inspiration betwe5 ! neo-,platoni/s & ! ,*ri/ians is important to note1 = x m>ks an important diff]5ce 9 ! two greate/ intellectual movem5ts ( ! next ?\s& ye>s4 ,! *ur* fix$ revelation on ! basis ( hi/orical au?ority1 & ?is revelation became ! s\rce ( ! s*ola/icism ( ! ,middle ,ages2 neo-,platonism left ! individual man free to get revelation f any s\rce ?r\gh 8 own p]sonal contact ) ! div9e1 & ?is 0 ! basis ( ! my/icism ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,! ,rise ( ! ,conception ( ,spirituality4 ,we h se5 t out ( ! widespread cry = spiritual help came ! dem& = spiritual au?ority4 ,!re is also ano!r result1! increas$ importance 9 hi/ory ( ! spiritual p]sonality4 ,! m5 ( ! pa/ became h]oes1 ! great m5 sanctifi$ & surr\nd$ ) my?s4 ,h]o wor%ip1 ance/or wor%ip1 ! wor%ip ( ! g5ius ( ! emp]or inaugurat$ by ,augu/us1 7 "p ( ?is movem5t4 ,disciples began to h unconditional tru/ 9 _! ma/]s1 & 9 neo-,platonism ?is wor%ip culm9at$ 9 v5]ation = ! lead]s ( ! ,s*ool4 ,?is movem5t appe>s 9 ! gr&e/ =m 9 hi/ory 9 ! impression ( ! wond]ful p]sonality ( ,jesus ,*ri/4 ,! next /ep 0 to reg>d p]sonality z ! revelation ( ! div9e ,logos4 ,p]sonality is ! cosmic reason4 ,nature & hi/ory are k9ds ( g5]al revelations1 b special revelations require great p]sonalities,moses1 ! prophets1 ! ,greek sci5ti/s1 & especially ,jesus :o 0 ! ,messiah1 ! ,son ( ,god4 ,! p[] t ^! p]sonalities exhibit mu/ be a revelation1 & n ! work+ ( ! human reason1 = ! human unaid$ reason deals only ) s5sations1 & is incapable ( ga9+ div9e tru?4 ,! reason ne$s ! div9e to illum9ate x4 ,! great p]sonalities are !re=e ! repositories ( p[]s t make !m diff]5t f ord9>y m54 ,_! revelations are above1 & sometimes oppos$ to1 ! conclusions ( ord9>y reason4 ,?us p]sonalities !mselves are divid$ by religi\s dualism1 & 9 !m ! human & div9e are f> ap>t4 ,moreov]1 ! m great p]sonalities 7 apo!osiz$1 ! m ! common run ( humanity 0 depreciat$4 ,!n di/9ction 0 made betwe5 great p]sonalities4 ,at fir/1 :5 au?ority 0 s\ght ev]y:]e1 all great p]sonalities 7 suppos$ to h div9e revelation2 lat]1 :5 ! l9es 7 drawn betwe5 ! ,*ri/ian & o!r beliefs1 only ! ,*ri/ian lead]s 7 consid]$ by ! ,*ri/ians to be in/rum5ts ( ! div9e4 ,?is spiritualiz+ ( hi/orical p]sonalities laid ! emphasis m ?an ev] be=e ^u ! dualism 9 all human be+s4 ,all m5 are ensn>$ 9 ! _w ( s5se1 & !y c atta9 k ( ! high] _w only ?r\gh ! illum9ation ( _! high] natures4 ,ari/otle alone among ! ,greeks _h _h a cle> conception ( spirituality1 b he _h conceiv$ spirituality z appli$ solely to ,god4 ,he _h n conceiv$ ,god to be a p]son4 ,b ! ,/oic anti!sis ( reason & :at is contr>y to reason1 & ! ,platonic anti!sis ( ! sup]s5su\s & ! s5su\s1 _h m>k$ (f 9 man ! inn] p]sonal nature ( man z )drawn into itself & set ov] aga9/ 8 s5su\s nature4 ,! m ?is e?ical dualism became a religi\s dualism1 ! m ! conception ( spiritual p]sonality 0 ext5d$ to all human be+s4 ,its mo/ ref9$ expression 0 9 ! ,*ri/ian conception ( ! s\l4 ,! ,revival ( ,platonism4 ,! ,platonism ( ! ,academy _h _h little influ5ce 9 ! ,e?ical ,p]iod & its tradition _h be5 b>ely kept alive4 ,! ,middle ,academy _h be5 skeptical & ! ,new ,academy eclectic4 ,! ,religi\s ,p]iod1 on ! o!r h&1 0 ?or\ghly ,platonic1 & ,plato f ?is "t until ! ,crusades became ! rul+ philosophical p[]4 ,= ?ree hundr$ ye>s 8 influ5ce _h be5 no?+2 = ! next twelve hundr$ he dom9at$ m5's m9ds1 s f> z any philosoph] c\ld 9 religi\s times4 ,:5 ! ,wise ,man vani%$ f philosophy1 & ! expectation ( spiritual bless$ness took its place1 :5 ,skepticism drove m5 f e?ics1 fir/ to eclecticism & !n to !ology1 :5 philosophy pass$ to my/icism!n did ,platonism1 ) its anti!sis betwe5 ! s5sible & ! sup]s5sible1 come to its own4 ,( all ! hi/orical philosophies x c\ld be/ amalgamate all religions4 ,platonism 7#a7 absorb$ ,ori5tal religions1 7#b7 furni%$ a didactic =m = ,*ri/ianity1 7#c7 recreat$ itself into ! my/ic neo-,platonism4 ,! _w-long+ = ! sup]natural f\nd its be/ m$ium 9 ,platonism4 ,:5 ! ,wise ,man vani%$1 ! my/ic prie/ appe>$4 ,! ,divisions ( ! ,religi\s ,p]iod4 ,out ( ! see?+ religi\s times at ! beg9n+ ( ?is era1 !re em]g$ two di/9ct curr5ts ( ?\ght t ext5d$ ?r\gh ! entire l5g? ( ! ,religi\s ,p]iod1 & c>ri$ d[n into ! ,middle ,ages all ! culture t ! m$ival possess$4 ,! two movem5ts 7 7#a7 ! religi\s philosophies ( ! /ill p]si/5t ,hell5ic civilization1 & 7#b7 ! new-born ,*ri/ian religion1 :i* 0 de/9$ to det]m9e ! future ( ! we/]n p4 ,if we scrut9ize ^! two movem5ts we %all f9d t ea* has its introductory & its developm5t /ages1 & at ! po9t ( division 9 ea* /&s a great lead] :o 0 in/rum5tal 9 br++ ab\t ! transition4 ,! great neo-,platoni/1 ,plot9us 7#bjd-bfi71 m>ks ! division l9e 9 ! ,hell5ic movem5t2 ! ,*ri/ian1 ,orig5 7#ahe-bed71 m>ks ! division l9e 9 !ological ,*ri/ianity4 ,:ile ^! m5 7 contempor>ies1 we %all take1 = v>i\s reasons1 ! ye> #bjj z ! date ( division ( ! ,*ri/ian movem5t1 & ! ye> #bej z ! date ( division ( ! ,hell5ic movem5t4 ,! fir/ /age ( ea* movem5t we %all call its ,introductory ,p]iod1 & ! second its ,developm5t ,p]iod4 ,dur+ _! ,introductory ,p]iods ! two movem5ts tri$ to draw toge!r "u ! influ5ce ( ! philosophical eclecticism :i* colors ?is "t4 ,9 _! ,developm5t ,p]iods ! two movem5ts draw ap>t1 become clos$ & mutually repell5t4 ,! hi/orical developm5ts ( ! two movem5ts f beg9n+ to end are v diff]5t4 ,! tide ( ,hell5ism floods ) ,plot9us1 its greate/ repres5tative1 & aft] him !re is a gradual ebb4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,*ri/ianity %[s a cont9u\s gr[?1 bo? int]nally & ext]nally1 & ! mighty ,orig5 only po9ts to ! mighti] ,augu/9e4 ,bo? movem5ts f9ally m]ge 9 ,augu/9e4 ,i4 ,hell5ic ,religi\s ,,ii4 ,*ri/ianity4 ,philosophy4 #a4 ,introductory ,p]iod ,introductory ,p]iod 7#ajj ,b4 ,c4-#bej ,a4 ,d474 7#ca ,a4 ,d4-#bjj ,a4 ,d474 7#a7 ,greek-,jewi% philosophy 7#a7 ,p]iod ( simple fai? 7until ( ,alex&ria4 ! #b;d c5tury ,a4 ,d474 ,philo 7#be ,b4 ,c4-#ej ,a4 ,d474 7#b7 ,neo-,py?agoreanism 7#b7 ,p]iod ( ,e>li] ,=mulation 7#ajj ,b4 ,c4-#aej ,a4 ,d474 ( ,doctr9e4 ,apologi/s 7#b;d c5tury74 ,gno/ics 7#b;d c5tury74 ,old ,ca?olic ,!ologians 7#b;d & #c;d c5turies74 #b4 ,developm5t ,p]iod ,developm5t ,p]iod 7#bjj-dgf74 7#bej-dgf74 ,neo-,platonism4 7#a7 ,p]iod ( ,actual ,=mulation ,plot9us 7#bjd-bfi74 ( ,doctr9e4 ,jambli*us 7d4 #ccj ab\t74 ,! ,s*ool ( ,cate*i/s4 ,proclus 7#daj-dhe74 ,orig5 7#ahe-bed74 7#b7 ,! cum5ical ,c\ncils & ! e/abli%m5t ( dogma4 ,! ,hell5ic ,religi\s ,philosophies4 ,alex&ria & n ,a!ns 0 n[ ! intellectual c5tre ( ,hell5ism4 ,! position & hi/ory ( ! city1 z well z ! "* ( its population1 7 mo/ favorable = ! m+l+ ( religions & philosophies4 ,9 ! 8univ]sity0 ( ?is great comm]cial metropolis ! treasures ( ,greek culture 7 conc5trat$ & s*ola/ic "w 0 vigor\sly pursu$4 ,"h all philosophies met1 & all religions & cults 7 tol]at$4 ,exhau/$ ,greek philosophy "h came 9 contact ) ^? fre% ,ori5tal ideas :i* previ\sly1 at a di/ance1 _h excit$ ! imag9ation ( ! ,greeks z some?+ my/]i\s4 ,! result 0 a new phase ( philosophy1!osophy1 comp>ative religion1 or eclecticism ( philosophy & religion4 ,9 no in/ance 7 ! au?ors ( ^! religi\s philosophies ,greeks4 ,! philosophy ( ,philo 0 a ,hell5ism1 b ! ,hell5ism ( a ,jew4 ,neo-,py?agoreanism seems to h _h repres5tatives f e c\ntry except ! mo!rl& ( ,greece4 ,! au?or ( neo-,platonism 0 born 9 ,egypt4 ,( ! two introductory movem5ts1 ! ,greek-,jewi% philosophy accord$ m ) ,ori5tal life1 neo-,py?agoreanism ) ,greek life4 ,bo? g back to ! pr9ciples t 7 fundam5tal 9 ! ,py?agorean my/]ies4 ,! ,introductory ,p]iod ( ,hell5ic ,religi\s ,philosophy 7#ajj ,b4 ,c4-#bej ,a4 ,d474 ,! ,turn+ to ! ,pa/ = ,spiritual ,au?ority4 #a4 ,! ,greek-,jewi% ,philosophy ( ,philo4 ,! ,jews liv$ 9 great numb]s 9 ,alex&ria1 & _m ( !m 7 weal?y & influ5tial4 ,9 ,alex&ria ! ,old ,te/am5t _h be5 translat$ into ,greek1 & ?r\gh x ! ,greeks _h become acqua9t$ ) ! religion ( ! ,jews4 ,:ile ! ,old ,te/am5t conta9$ ! philosophy ( ! ,jews1 ^! ,alex&rian ,jews _h le>n$ 9 ,alex&ria to admire greatly ! philosophy ( ! ,greeks4 ,s great 0 _! admiration t !y soon conceiv$ ,plato to be 9 _! ,law & _! ,law 9 ,plato4 ,!y argu$ t s9ce ! ,old ,te/am5t 0 _! revelation1 all ! be/ ,greek philosophy mu/ be 9 ! ,old ,te/am5t4 ,! ,alex&rian ,jews us$ ,greek conceptions :]ev] !y f\nd !m2 & ?is t5d5cy t[>d eclecticism appe>$ z e>ly z #afj ,b4 ,c4 9 ,ari/obulus & ,ari/eas4 ,at t "t ^! ,jews us$ ,greek philosophy 9 int]pret+ ! ,old ,te/am5t & employ$ ! 8allegorical me?od ( int]pretation40 ,?is eclectic t5d5cy 0 br\ght to completion by ,philo 7#be ,b4 ,c4-#ej ,a4 ,d471 :o 0 ! mo/ notable philosoph] ( ?is "t4 ,philo 0 guid$ 9 8 eclecticism by "s su* rules z ^!3 7#a7 ,revelation is ! highe/ possible au?ority & includes ! be/ ( ,greek ?\ght2 7#b7 ,greek philosophy is d]iv$ f ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( ! ,old ,te/am5t2 7#c7 ,jewi% revelation is express$ 9 symbols1 :ile ,greek philosophy is express$ 9 concepts4 ,philo's tea*+ conta9s1 9 unsymmetrical =m1 bo? ,/oicism & ,platonism1 & 9 x c be f\nd ! se$s ( all t grew up 9 ,*ri/ian soil4 ,8 philosophy 0 a bridge f ! philosophy ( ,judaism to ,*ri/ian !ology4 ,x has be5 call$ a 8buff]0 philosophy4 ,god is ! ultimate cause ( ! _w1 b ,he is s transc5d5t t ,he c be describ$ only 9 negative t]ms4 ,?is me?od ( def9+ ,god got ! "n 9 lat] times ( 8negative !ology40 ,x 0 ! common me?od 9 ^! ,alex&rian days4 ,god is absolutely inconceivable & inexpressible to man2 to ,himself ,he is 8,i am :o am40 ,! goodness ( ,god impell$ ,him1 & ,8 p[] enabl$ ,him1 to create ! _w4 ,f ?is po9t ( view ,philo is a moni/4 ,b 9 man reason & s5se meet4 ,man's s\l is f ,god1 b 8 s5se-body is f matt]1 & f ?is po9t ( view ,philo is a duali/4 ,matt] is outside ,god4 ,god is s transc5d5t t ,he _c come 9 contact ) matt]1 & s ,he creat$ ! _w & rules ! _w ?r\gh m$iators or 8pot5cies40 ,^! 8pot5cies0 are ! same z ! ,ideas ( ,plato1 ! 8reasons0 ( ! ,/oics1 ! numb]s ( ! ,py?agoreans1 ! angels ( ! ,old ,te/am5t1 or ! dmons ( popul> my?ology4 ,! sum-total ( ,god's activity 9 ! _w 0 call$ by ,philo ! ,logos4 ,philo speaks ( ! ,logos 9 two ways3 sometimes z ! plural numb] ( teleological =ces 9 ! _w2 sometimes z ! unity ( ^! =ces1 8! fir/ begott5 ( ,god10 8! second ,god10 8! son ( ,god40 ,! ,logos repres5ts ! fir/ attempt to ov]come ! dualism betwe5 matt] & ,god4 ,! ,logos is ! high prie/ /&+ betwe5 ,god & ! _w4 ,x is ! ev]la/+ revelation ( ,god's pres5ce4 ,philo's _w is made by ,god & n by o!rs1 & is ! expression ( ,god's ?\ght 9 inf9ite =ms & =ces4 ,god is n defil$ by com+ into contact ) matt]4 ,god gives ord]s1 ! ,logos obeys4 ,philo believ$ 9 transmigration ( s\ls1 & to him ! mo/ important problem is1 ,h[ ! _s c become l ,god4 ,! answ] is 7#a7 by ! acquirem5t ( ! ,/oic apa?y1 7#b7 by possess+ ! ,ari/otelian dianoetic virtues1 7#c7 by complete absorption 9 ,god4 #b4 ,neo-,py?agoreanism4 ,! hi/ory ( ,py?agoreanism is extremely v>i$4 ,its body ( doctr9e f epo* to epo* 0 cont9ually *ang+4 ,! only *>act]i/ic common to its entire hi/ory 0 its practical t5d5cy t[>d asceticism & its affiliation ) ! ,my/]ies4 ,let u review ! hi/ory ( ,py?agoreanism d[n to ! "t ( neo-,py?agoreanism4 ,9 #eaj ,b4 ,c41 at ! battle ( ,crotona1 ! e>ly b& ( ,py?agoreans 0 disp]s$1 & ab\t #ejd ,b4 ,c4 ,py?agoras di$4 ,8 scatt]$ foll[]s =m$ a s*ool c5tr+ at ,!bes ar\nd ! philosophy ( numb]s1 & ?is s*ool la/$ until #cej ,b4 ,c4 ,9 #cej ,b4 ,c4 ,py?agoreanism no long] exi/$ z a s*ool1 = its memb]s _h ei!r jo9$ ! ,academy or =m$ "o ( ! ,my/]ies4 ,9 #ajj ,b4 ,c4 ,py?agoreanism aga9 em]g$ "u ! "n ( neo-,py?agoreanism1 & ?is is ! body :i* we meet 9 ! introductory /age ( ! ,religi\s ,p]iod4 ,alex&ria 0 its c5tre1 b x drew its disciples f e "p ( ! e>?4 ,among !m ,apollonius alone rises z a di/9ct figure4 ,he 0 widely kn[n1 = he travel$ ev]y:]e z a religi\s tea*] & wond]-work]4 ,o!r neo-,py?agoreans 7 ,p4 ,nigidius ,figulus1 a fri5d ( ,cic]o1 ,sotion1 a fri5d ( ! ,sextians1 ,mod]atus ( ,gades1 & 9 lat] times ,nicoma*us ( ,g]asa & ,num5ius ( ,apamea4 ,ano!r1 & r num]\s gr\p1 alli$ to ! neo-,py?agoreans1 %\ld be m5tion$ "h4 ,^! 7 ! s-call$ ,eclectic ,platoni/s1 ! repres5tatives ( :om 7 ,plut>* 7#ej-abe ,a4 ,d471 & ,celsus 7ab\t #bjj ,a4 ,d471 ! oppon5t ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,! only important diff]5ce betwe5 ! neo-,py?agoreans & ! ,eclectic ,platoni/s 0 t ! =m] ref]r$ to ,py?agoras z _! religi\s model1 & ! latt] to ,plato4 ,bo? 7 my/ical1 ascetic1 & eclectic4 ,neo-,py?agoreanism fir/ became noticeable 9 ! fir/ c5tury ,b4 ,c41 on acc\nt ( ! great numb] ( writ+s appe>+ "u ! names ( ,py?agoras & ,philolaus4 ,ab\t ^! !re arose a l>ge neo-,py?agorean lit]ature1ab\t n9ety treatises by fifty au?ors4 ,! writ+s "u ! "n ( ,py?agoras 71 = _m c5turies1 ! cause ( ! misconception ( ! true tea*+ ( ! orig9al ,py?agoras4 ,! adv5t ( ! neo-,py?agorean lit]ature m>ks ! return at ,alex&ria to ! old] sy/ems ( ?\ght1 & is co9cid5t ) ! le>n$ lit]>y inve/igations 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,alex&ria4 ,! p>ticul> revival ( ,py?agoreanism 9 ! =m ( neo-,py?agoreanism came at ! same "t ) ! r5ewal ( ! ,hom]ic =m ( poetry4 ,neo-,py?agoreanism1 z its hi/ory %[s1 is ! philosophy ( a half-religi\s sect ) ascetic t5d5cies4 ,its transc5d5tal philosophy 0 bett] suit$ to a p "u an autocratic gov]nm5t1 & rul$ by ,ori5tal traditions1 ?an 0 ! e?ical tea*+ ( ! f\r ,s*ools4 ,! sy/em ( ! e?ical ,s*ools arose out ( ! ne$s ( ! individual2 b at ?is "t ! cry 0 = an absolute object :i* transc5ds bo? ! individual & nature4 ,! dem& 0 = a god :o c\ld be s]v$ n by sacrifice1 b by sil5t pray]1 wisdom1 & virtue4 ,!re are _m po9ts ( simil>ity betwe5 ! doctr9e ( ,philo & neo-,py?agoreanism4 ,! neo-,py?agoreans 7 mono!i/ic1 b at ! same "t !y accept$ )9 _! mono!ism ! hi]>*y ( ! gods4 ,!y held to ! commonly accept$ doctr9es ( _! "t1 viz41 ! transmigration ( ! s\l1 ! dualism ( ! m9d & body1 ! m$iation ( a grad$ s]ies ( cele/ial be+s betwe5 man & ,god4 ,!y int]pret$ ,god 9 a spiritual way1 b !y conceiv$ ! ideas 9 ,god's m9d to be ! ,py?agorean numb]sj z ,philo conceiv$ !m to be ! ,old ,te/am5t angels4 ,! ,developm5t ,p]iod ( ,hell5ic ,religi\s ,philosophy 7#bej-dgf ,a4 ,d474 ,! ,turn+ to ! ,pres5t = ,spiritual ,au?ority4 ,platonism & ,neo-,platonism4 ,neo-,platonism is ! f9al /atem5t ( ,hell5ic culture1 & ! "q may be ask$1 ,9 :at =m did x pres5t ,hell5ism8 ,! answ] is1 ,x sets =? ! ,hell5ic feel+ z my/icism4 ,! contribution ( ,plot9us 0 ! de/ruction ( ! classic ,greek ideal ) its def9it5ess ( =m1 & 0 ! sub/itution ( a new ideal ( so>+ spiritual exaltation4 ,"o has only to look back to ! art1 sci5ce1 & philosophy ( ! ,p]iclean ,age to appreciate h[ f> ?is la/ survival ( ,greek culture _h drift$ f its orig9al moor+s4 ,nev]!less1 neo-,platonism is n s v f> di/ant f t p[]ful ascetic pr9ciple 9 ! ,greek my/]ies :i* is "o aspect ( ! doctr9e ( ,plato himself4 ,neo-,platonism 0 ,platonism exagg]at$ on ?is my/ic & ascetic side4 ,plot9us said t he 0 a%am$ t he _h a body2 t ! s\l looks on & weeps at ! s9fulness ( ! body2 t x is n en\gh to regulate ! body1 b t ! body mu/ be ext]m9at$4 ,z ! voice ( ,hell5ism1 neo-,platonism is speak+ 9 an age :5 consci\sness is weigh$ d[n ) ! s5se ( ! enormity ( evil & ! ne$ ( salvation4 ,neo-,platonism feels t ! moral conflict 9 ! human s\l is repeat$ 9 ! univ]se2 t ! et]nal /ruggle betwe5 matt] & _s goes on 9 ! macrocosm z well z ! microcosm4 ,plot9us held to ! anci5t ,greek conception ( ! p]sonification ( ! p[]s ( nature1 ( ! d]ivation ( happ9ess f activity1 ( ! supremacy ( ! intellect ov] ! o!r faculties4 ,b 9 accept+ ! anci5t ,greek doctr9e ( ! subord9ation ( man to ! univ]se1 he conceiv$ man to be absorb$ by ! univ]se4 ,neo-,platonism & ! ,two ,introductory ,philosophies4 ,neo-,platonism1 !re=e1 %>es 9 ! my/icism ( ! philosophies ( ,philo & ! neo-,py?agoreans4 ,all ?ree tea* ! transc5d5ce ( ,god2 all ?ree 7 metaphysically moni/ic & e?ically duali/ic2 all ?ree conceive ! exi/5ce ( int]m$i>ies betwe5 ,god & man4 ,! introductory philosophies s\ght to build eclectic doctr9es1 :ile neo-,platonism became eclectic only 9 its la/ phases4 ,plot9us con/ruct$ a positive & orig9al philosophy1 & among ! ?ree sy/ems ! tea*+ ( ,plot9us is c>efully work$ out4 ,inde$1 ,plot9us is by f> ! greate/ ?9k] ( ?is religi\s p]iod4 ,9 ! philosophy ( ,plot9us ! relations betwe5 man & ,god are giv5 a m /hetic "*1 & ! doctr9e ( imm$iate exp]i5ce is m c>efully discuss$ & has great] importance ?an 9 neo-,py?agoreanism & ! tea*+ ( ,philo4 ,neo-,platonism & ,*ri/ianity4 ,neo-,platonism & ,*ri/ianity h "o ?+ at lea/ 9 common4 ,!y h ! same problem1h[ to spiritualize ! univ]se4 ,?is 0 ! problem t bo? ,plot9us & ,orig5 attempt$ to "w out4 ,) ! developm5t ( ! consci\sness ( spiritual p]sonality & ! ne$ ( a revelation1 ! ,div9e seem$ to bo? to be correspond+ly f>!r away4 ,god is unkn[n & incompreh5sible1 & s pure t ,he _c come 9 contact ) e>?ly exi/5ce4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! bond betwe5 ! heav5ly & ! e>?ly8 ,f ! po9t ( view ( cosmology & ( e?ics1 nei!r succe$$ 9 ov]com+ ! dualism4 ,! s5su\s 0 reg>d$ z ali5 to ,god1 & z a ?+ f :i* ! _s mu/ free itself4 ,metaphysically _! ef=ts to con/ruct a spiritual monism 7 m successful1 b _! ef=ts 7 along diff]5t l9es4 ,! ,*ri/ian conceiv$ ! univ]se ( ,god & matt] to be b\nd toge!r by ! pr9ciple ( love2 ! neo-,platoni/1 by a s]ies ( c\ntless grades ( be+s 9 dim9i%+ p]fections f ! ,all-p]fect4 ,!n aga91 to ! neo-,platoni/ ! "q ( ! return ( man to ,god 0 a "q ( ! p]sonal inn] exp]i5ce ( ! individual2 to ! ,*ri/ian !ologian x 0 includ$ 9 ! l>g] problem ( ! hi/orical process by :i* ! :ole human race is r$eem$4 ,?us ! metaphysical solution ( ea* works out diff]5tly & ) diff]5t factors4 ,bo? neo-,platonic & ,*ri/ian !ology tri$ to prove t _! respective religi\s convictions 7 ! only true s\rce ( salvation4 ,bo? orig9at$ 9 ! ,alex&rian ,s*ool4 ,*ri/ian !ology 0 prec$$ by ! fanta/ic sy/em ( ! ,gno/ics1 z ,plot9us 0 prec$$ by ! ,py?agoreans & ,philo4 ,9 _! developm5t ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! two appe>4 ,*ri/ianity 0 support$ by a *ur* organization :i* _h an int]nal vitality & a regulative p[]2 neo-,platonism 0 support$ & regulat$ by individuals1 )\t organization1 :o _h assimilat$ e fai?4 ,*ri/ian !ology 0 f\nd$ on a fai? t _h already exp&$1 :ile neo-,platonism 0 at ! beg9n+ an erudite religion t tri$ to develop an ext5d$ fai? &1 incid5tally1 lat] to assimilate o!r cults4 ,outw>dly neo-,platonism1 z ! f9al /& ( ! pagan _w to save itself f de/ruction1 0 unsuccessful 9 t x fail$ to p]petuate itself z an organization4 ,really x a*iev$ a m>k$ success4 ,n only did x live a long life ( two hundr$ & fifty ye>s1 b x also liv$ 9 ! developm5t ( its antagoni/1 ,*ri/ianity4 ,= neo-,platonism1 by ! irony ( fate1 0 "o ( ! important factors t ent]$ into ! build+ up & /r5g!n+ ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,9 its l+]+ dea?-/ruggle ,hell5ism 0 creat+ ! conceptions t ! ,*ri/ian1 ,augu/9e1 lat] employ$ 9 %ap+ ,*ri/ian !ology = ! ,middle ,ages4 ,! ,p]iods ( ,neo-,platonism4 7#a7 ,! ,alex&rian ,s*oolab\t #bdj4 ,neo-,platonism pres5t$ z a ,sci5tific ,!ory4 ,! lead] 0 ,plot9us 7#bjd-bfi74 7#b7 ,! ,syrian ,s*oolab\t #caj4 ,! ,attempt to ,sy/ematize all ,poly!isms4 ,! lead] 0 ,jambli*us 7d4 ab\t #ccj74 7#c7 ,! ,a!nian ,s*oolab\t #dej4 ,! ,recapitulation ( ,greek ,philosophy4 ,! lead] 0 ,proclus 7#daj-dhe74 ,! ,alex&rian ,s*ool4 ,! ,sci5tific ,!ory ( ,neo-,platonism4 ,! ,life & ,writ+s ( ,plot9us 7#bjd-bfi ,a4 ,d474 ,plot9us 0 born 9 ,lycopolis 9 ,egypt1 & receiv$ 8 education 9 ,alex&ria1 "u ,ammonius ,saccas1 :o 0 ,orig5's tea*]4 ,he campaign$ ) ! emp]or1 ,gordian1 aga9/ ! ,p]sians1 9 ord] to pursue sci5tific /udies 9 ! ,ea/4 ,he 0 especially int]e/$ 9 ! ,p]sian religion4 ,9 ?is way ,plot9us became acqua9t$ at fir/ h& ) ! my/icism ( ! ,ori5t4 ,9 #bdd he appe>$ at ,rome z a tea*]1 & 0 receiv$ ) great clat by ! p1 & 9 ! highe/ circles he ga9$ ! mo/ rev]5t recognition4 ,8 s*ool conta9$ repres5tatives f all nations & f almo/ e call+1physicians1 rhetoricians1 poets1 s5ators1 an emp]or & empress4 ,plot9us liv$ 9 a c\ntry e/ate 9 ,campania1 & he almo/ succe$$ 9 induc+ ! emp]or to f\nd a city ( philosoph]s 9 ,campania4 ,x 0 to be call$ ,platonopolis &1 ) ,plato's ,republic z a model1 x 0 to be an ,hell5ic cloi/] = religi\s contemplation4 ,! lit]>y activity ( ,plot9us occurr$ 9 8 old age1 & he wrote no?+ until aft] he 0 fifty4 ,8 works consi/$ ( fifty-f\r ,corpuscles :i* 8 pupil1 ,porphyry1 comb9$ into six ,enneads4 ,= ! next ?ree hundr$ ye>s 8 s*ool became ! c5tre ( ! ,hell5ic movem5t! c5tre ( sci5ce1 philosophy1 & lit]ature4 ,! lit]ature ( neo-,platonism 0 enorm\s1 on acc\nt ( ! _m comm5t>ies on ! philosophy ( ,plato )9 ! neo-,platonic circle4 ,! ,g5]al ,"* ( ! ,tea*+ ( ,plot9us4 ,!re is a great division ( op9ion ab\t ! value ( ! tea*+ ( ,plot9us1 = he drew 8 philosophy only 9 ! broade/ outl9es1 & he made no attempt to advance f a g5]al view ( ! _w to exact k ( x4 ,intellectually 8 philosophy is an ab/raction2 & yet emotionally1 9 an intimate way1 x t\*$ deeply an age we>y ) culture4 ,?us "o c see h[ ! actual a*ievem5t ( ,plot9us 0 small1 b h[ at ! same "t its =ce & influ5ce 0 v great4 ,x 0 a religi\s tea*+ :i* rose to magnific5t heights ( contemplation f mis]able intellectual surr\nd+s4 ,nev]!less1 ! philosophy ( ,plot9us 0 an extreme =m ( intellectualismx 0 an intellectual ennobl+ & trans=m+ ( religion4 ,! e>li] philosophy _h support$ ! happ9ess ( ! individual by (f]s ( inf9itude2 b ,plot9us ?\ght ( ! individual z nev] isolat$ f ! ,inf9ite1 b z always long+ = ! ,inf9ite4 ,fell[%ip ) ,god is k ( ,him1 b x is k ( a peculi> k9d4 ,x is en?usiasm1 intuition1 ec/asy4 ,!re is a *asm betwe5 man & ,god1 :i* ,plot9us w\ld bridge by plac+ reality s deeply )9 consci\sness z to annihilate all anti!ses & contradictions4 ,?us ?is deep reality bel[ consci\sness is cosmic & n human2 & ! religion ( ,plot9us is cosmoc5tric & n an?ropoc5tric4 ,plot9us int5sifies & summ>izes ,greek culture 9 ord] to consolidate & def5d x4 ,b 9 ?us ?9k+ out ! ,greek conceptions to _! logical complet5ess1 ^? conceptions collapse4 ,! ,my/ic ,god4 ,!re are two *>act]i/ics t di/+ui% ! my/ic ,god ( ,plot9us4 #a4 ,! fir/ *>act]i/ic is ! supra-consci\sness ( ,god4 ,god is ! indef9able1 orig9al ,be+ :o is above all anti!ses4 ,he is supra-ev]y?+1 ev5 supra-consci\s4 ,no?+ c be attribut$ to ,him1 n ev5 ?\ght or w1 = ^! imply two elem5ts & ,god is a unity4 ,any description ( ,him mu/ be 9 negative t]ms 78negative !ology074 ,if we speak ( ,him z ! ,"o1 ! ,fir/1 ! ,cosmic ,cause1 ,goodness1 or z ,light1 we are only relatively & n really describ+ ,him4 ,god is pres5t 9 all1 yet ,he is n divid$2 ,he is ! s\rce ( all1 & yet ,he himself is p]fectly f9i%$4 ,9 8 conception ( ,god z comp>$ to ! _w1 ,plot9us add$ ! realm ( ! supra-consci\s & ! sub-consci\s to ! consci\s4 #b4 ,9 ! second place ,plot9us conceiv$ ,god 9 ,8 relation to ! _w 9 ! t]ms ( dynamic pan!ism4 ,?is is a pan!ism ( a peculi> type4 ,god does n create ! _w2 ! _w is n ! act ( ,8 w2 nor is ! _w ! result ( a transf]5ce ( "p ( ,8 nature4 ,9 ord9>y pan!ism ! _w is a diffusion ( ! sub/ance ( ,god & ! :ole is /atic4 ,n s 9 ! tea*+ ( ,plot9us6 ,god p]meates ! _w by ,8 activity1 & ! _w is dynamic ?r\gh & ?r\gh4 ,b ?is dynamic activity ( ,god mu/ n be conceiv$ z an hi/orical or "t process4 ,! process is timeless4 ,x is a process ( ess5ce or wor?4 ,! grades 9 ! process are ^? ( significance or value4 ,all are )9 ! all-embrac+ unity ( ,god & ea* p>ticul> draws its life f ,him4 ,?is is call$ ! !ory ( emanations4 ,plot9us us$ ! figure :i* my/ics h always employ$ 9 ?is connection1! figure ( ! sun & its rays ( light 9 ! d>kness4 ,! rays become less & less int5se ) ! increas+ di/ance f ! ,godhead1 until !y end 9 d>kness4 ,! process is an ov]fl[+ f ! ,godhead 9 :i* ! ,godhead rema9s un*ang$4 ,! ,two ,problems ( ,plot9us4 ,/>t+ ) ?is conception ( ! ,godhead z a dynamic cont5tless ,be+1 ,plot9us is b\nd to expla9 ! _w ( s5se-ph5om5a4 ,8 problem is tw(old3 he mu/ expla9 ! sequ5ce ( ph5om5a f ! ,godhead1 :i* is ! metaphysical problem2 he mu/ expla9 h[ man1 liv+ 9 ! _w ( s5se1 c rise to communion ) ! ,godhead1 :i* is ! e?ical problem4 ,metaphysics & e?ics are to ,plot9us 9 inv]t$ p>allelism4 ,! ,_w ( ,emanations4,! ,metaphysical ,problem ( ,plot9us4 ,! aim ( ,plot9us 9 ?is is to con/ruct a metaphysical monism out ( ! duali/ic factors :i* _h s long be5 pres5t 9 ,greek ?\ght4 ,! two fundam5tal pr9ciples ^u :i* he rais$ 8 /ructure 7 7#a7 8 dynamic s]ies ( emanations1 & 7#b7 8 conception ( matt] z entirely negative4 ,! highe/ ,be+1 ,god1 by an excess ( en]gy or goodness1 has ! natural impulse to create some?+ simil> to himself4 ,?is creative impulse exi/s 9 ea* creature 9 turn & ! movem5t propagates itself4 ,/age is add$ to /age 9 a desc5d+ s]ies1 until ! impulse dies out 9 non-,be+ z ! limit4 ,! ord9>y pan!ism ( co-exi/5ce ( ph5om5a is trans=m$ into a succession ( /ages ( values1 & all make up a h>mony ( m or less di/9ct copies ( ,god4 ,!re are ?ree /eps 9 :i* ! process ( emanation proce$s1_s1 s\l1 & matt]4 ,! ,_s or ,n\s is ! fir/ emanation f ! ,"o 9 po9t ( significance4 ,x is ! image ( ! ,"o s5t =? by its ov]fl[ ( en]gy4 ,?is image involunt>ily turns t[>d its orig9al1 ! ,"o1 & 9 behold+ x becomes ,_s1 ,n\s1 or intellectual consci\sness4 ,x turns to ! ,"o & recognizes itself z ! image ( ! ,"o4 ,?us1 9 ! fir/ degree away f ,god1 ! duality ( ?9k] z subject1 & ( ! ?+ ?\ght z object1 appe>s4 ,! unconsci\sness ( ! ,"o is ?us contra/$ ) consci\sness1 & ! dual nature ( consci\sness is ?us br\ght out2 & = ! fir/ "t an exact =mulation ( ! psy*ological conception ( consci\sness is giv54 ,! ,n\s is a unit>y function ( ! ,"o1 l ! ,logos ( ,philo4 ,at ! same "t ! ,n\s conta9s )9 itself1 z cont5t1 ! ,platonic ,ideas or ar*-types ( individuals4 ,^! ,ideas are n m]e ?\ghts1 b h _! own exi/5ce4 ,! ,n\s is _! unity1 h[ev]1 j z a unity exi/s = ! !orems ( a sci5ce4 ,^! ,ideas are pure intellectual pot5cies & ! f9al causes ( ! _w ( nature4 ,! ,s\l is ! second degree remov$ f ! ,"o4 ,x /&s 9 ! same relation to ! ,n\s z ! ,n\s to ! ,godhead4 ,! ,s\l belongs to ! _w ( light1 b x /&s j on ! b\nd>ies ( ! _w ( d>kness4 ,x is ! image ( an image & !re=e d\bly dual1x consi/s ( a high] or _w-s\l & ! less] s\ls4 ,! _w-s\l is divid$ into two =ces1! =mative p[] ( ! _w1 & ! body ( ! _w4 ,individual s\ls are divid$ into ! sup]s5sible or intellectual s\l 7! "p t has pre-exi/5ce & und]goes metamorphosis71 & ! s5sible "p :i* has built up ! body z an in/rum5t ( its work+ p[]4 ,! s\l is pres5t 9 all p>ts ( its body4 ,! individual s\ls are call$ pla/ic =ces4 ,matt] is ! emanation :i* is mo/ di/ant f ! ,"o4 ,! ,n\s is ! emanation ( ! ,"o1 ! _w-s\l is ! emanation f ! ,n\s1 individual s\ls are a k9d ( int]m$iate emanation f ! _w-s\l1 & matt] is ! emanation ( ! individual s\ls4 ,t is to say1 ! _w-s\l1 ) ! =ces t are native to x1 g5]ates matt] & !n1 by unit+ itself ?r\gh its =ces ) matt]1 produces ! _w ( corporeal ?+s4 ,:at is ! "* ( matt] ) :i* ! _w-s\l =ms ?is union8 ,x is space4 ,space conditions all e>?ly exi/5ce4 ,x is ! same z ,plato's conception ( ! absolutely negative non-,be+ & ! m]ely possible4 ,x is absolute /]ility1 entirely evil & devoid ( good4 ,matt] has no duali/ic indep5d5ce ( ! ,"o4 ,:at is ! "* ( ! nature _w8 ,x has ! same "* & quality z ! =mative =ces t unite ) ?is negative matt]x is no m & no less et]nal4 ,! _w ( nature to ,plot9us is "o ( magic1 & n m]ely teleological4 ,he says t ! heav5s are ! union ( a p]fect s\l ) matt]2 ! />s are ! visible gods unit$ ) matt]2 ! p[]s ( ! air & sky are dmons1 :i* m$iate betwe5 ! />s & ! s\ls ( m51 unit$ ) matt]2 ! body ( man is ! human s\l unit$ ) matt]2 inorganic nature is ! l[e/ ( ! pla/ic =ces unit$ ) matt]4 ,:]ev] !re is matt] 7space71 !re is f\nd imp]fection & limitation & evil4 ,man z an individual is sympa!tically & my/]i\sly b\nd to all p>ts ( ! univ]se4 ,sci5tific inve/igation ( nature is entirely rul$ out by ?is neo-,platonic tea*+4 ,x nev] c\ld be ! in/rum5t = p5etrat+ a magical univ]se4 ,fai? & sup]/ition take ! place ( sci5ce1 & prophecy alone und]takes to solve nature's riddle4 ,! _w ( nature is ?us brok5 9 two4 ,9 "o s5se x is bad1 ugly1 & irrational4 ,9 ano!r s5se x is good1 beautiful1 & rational1 because x is =m$ by ! s\ls t ent] into x4 ,9 opposition to ! ,gno/ics ,plot9us prais$ ! h>mony & beauty ( ! _w1 & promulgat$ 8 metaphysics ( ! beautiful z a la/ f>ewell ( ,hell5ic civilization4 ,beauty is n composite1 b ! simple ,idea ( wor? %9+ ?r\gh ! _w ( s5se4 ,beauty is f ! inn] & = ! inn]4 ,art does n imitate nature1 b expresses ! reason2 x supplem5ts ! defects ( nature & creates some?+ new4 ,yet ! _w ( nature is beautiful1 because d[n to ! l[e/ deeps x is p]meat$ by ! div9e4 ,! ,return ( ! ,s\l to ,god4,! ,e?ical ,problem ( ,plot9us4 ,9 8 discussion ( moral conduct ,plot9us />t$ f ! po9t opposite to t ( 8 metaphysics4 ,he look$ f ! po9t ( view ( man up ! s]ies :i* desc5d$ f ! ,godhead4 ,m5 imm]s$ 9 matt] h nev]!less a %>e 9 ! div9e life1 & _! goal is indep5d5ce ( ! _w4 ,!y mu/ free !mselves f s5se4 ,man's e?ical task is to sep>ate ! two worlds & to turn away f ! mat]ial1 n only 9 its abnormalities b 9 e way4 ,! practical virtues h little value 9 su* a sublimation ( ! s\l1 = ^! only b9d ! s\l m closely to ! _w ( matt]4 ,! political virtues are only a prep>ation by :i* ! s\l le>ns h[ to be free f s5se4 ,! intellectual virtues are necess>y1 b ! goal ( salvation is n rea*$ by k alone4 8,! wiz>d k+ builds 8 t[] ( speculation by ! h&s ( human workm5 till he rea*es ! top /ory1 & !n he summons 8 g5ii to fa%ion ! battlem5ts ( adamant & cr[n !m ) />ry fire40 ,out ( ! m5tal condition ( contemplation ! s\l w rise on ! w+s ( ec/asy to ! ,god f :om x came4 ,! call ( ,plot9us is to ! ascetic life4 ,! developm5t requir$ is t ( spirituality4 ,e?ically ,plot9us' doctr9e is duali/ic1 because x requires ! rejection ( matt] z evil4 ,! return is n an evolution nor an innovation 9 :i* re=m ( ! old _w is dem&$4 ,!re is no individual progress1 b a p5etration into ! f\ndation ( ?+s4 ,b :at inc5tive has man to und]take ?is return8 ,:at ar\ses him f 8 sleep8 ,n s5se-p]ception nor reflection1 b 8 love = ! beautiful4 ,! innate impulse ( ,platonic love turns ! s\l away f matt] to ! illum9at+ ,idea4 ,he :o has an imm$iate recognition ( ! pure ,idea is ga9+ ! high] p]fection4 ,only :5 man is 9 ec/asyan ec/asy :i* transc5ds e subjective /atedoes he get complete contact & union ) ,god4 ,9 su* a mom5t ( consecration he =gets himself & becomes ,god4 ,?is f9al /ep nev] comes unless ,god himself illum9ates ! s\l by a special light s t x c see ,god4 ,?is f9al /ate comes only to few s\ls1 & to ^? b seldom4 ,! ,syrian ,s*ool4,! ,sy/ematiz+ ( ,poly!isms4,jambli*us4 ,?is s*ool exi/$ ab\t a g5]ation aft] ! dea? ( ,plot9us4 ,its f\nd] 0 ,jambli*us 7d4 ab\t #ccj71 ^: tea*] 0 ,porphyry1 ! pupil ( ,plot9us4 ,jambli*us 0 a ,syrian1 :o got 8 in/ruction f ,porphyry at ,rome1 & !n w5t back to 8 native c\ntry to set up = himself a s*ool ( neo-,platonism4 ,he soon became rev]5c$ z tea*]1 religi\s re=m]1 & work] ( miracles4 ,he wrote comm5t>ies on ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 & ! !ological works ( ! ,orphics1 ,*aldeans1 & ! ,py?agoreans4 ,among ! cr[d ( 8 en?usia/ic disciples1 "o notes ! names ( ! ,emp]or ,julian & ,hypatia4#dc ,! neo-,platonism ( ,jambli*us conta9$ no new po9t ( view4 ,metaphysically & e?ically 8 tea*+ 0 id5tical ) t ( ,plot9us4 ,he tri$ to complete ! religi\s movem5t by cord9at+ all cults1 except+ ,*ri/ianity1 into a unity4 ,?is 0 an eclecticism by :i* ,jambli*us came naturally1 = ,syria 0 a l& :]e eclecticism ?riv$4 ,x 0 "h t ,gno/icism _h its /ronghold4 ,) free eclectic h& ,jambli*us fill$ 9 all ! int]m$i>y grades betwe5 ! ,godhead & man ) ! multitude ( gods ( all religions4 ,9 8 sy/em he plac$ #aj supra-t]re/rial gods1 #cfe cele/ial be+s1 #gb ord]s ( sub-cele/ial be+s1 & #db ord]s ( natural gods4 ,to f9d places = !m all1 he _h to increase ! numb] ( int]m$i>ies2 & to sy/ematize ?is complex poly!ism1 he employ$ ! ,py?agorean numb]s4 ,8 !ory %[s h[ p]si/5t 0 ! ,hell5ic civilization4 ,! ,a!nian ,s*ool4,recapitulation4,proclus4 ,! ,syrian s*ool fail$ to re/ore ! old religions1 & we f9d neo-,platonism1 aft] revivals "h & !re1 aga9 at ,a!ns4 ,! city t _h be5 ! orig9al sanctu>y ( ,greek culture 0 ! la/ /ronghold ( ,hell5ism4 ,! ,a!nian s*ool made its appe>ance ab\t #daj1 & its lead+ repres5tatives 7 ,plut>*1 ,syrianus1 & ,proclus4 ,proclus 7#daj-dhe71 ! pupil ( ,syrianus1 0 ! mo/ important repres5tative ( ! ,a!nian s*ool1 & he may be said to h utt]$ ! la/ ^w ( dy+ ,hell5ism4 ,born at ,con/ant9ople1 ( a ,lycian family1 he receiv$ 8 education at ,alex&ria2 & :5 he became lead] ( ! s*ool at ,a!ns1 he receiv$ ! extravagant wor%ip ( 8 pupils4 ,connect$ ) ! ,a!nian s*ool 7 ! great comm5tators1 ,philoponus & ,simplicius1 ^: works on ,ari/otle became ( great value to lat] times4 ,_! erudite compilations /& out %>ply aga9/ ! imag9ative speculations ( _! age4 ,9 connection ) ?is s*ool ,bo?ius mu/ n be ov]look$4 ,he 0 a neo-,platoni/ :o call$ himself a ,*ri/ian1 & he 0 an important figure 9 ! hi/ory ( education4 ,8 translations & expositions ( ,ari/otle's logic & ( ! ,isagoge ( ,porphyry 7 v influ5tial 9 ! ,middle ,ages4 ,proclus 0 a !ologian l ,jambli*us1 except+ t he tri$ to put !ology ^u a philosophical basis4 ,by means ( ! dialectic he s\ght to sy/ematize ! entire philosophical ?\ght ( ! ,greeks4 ,8 insatiable desire = fai? 0 accompani$ by wond]ful dialectical ability1 ) ! result t 8 tea*+ 0 an intricate =malism unit$ ) my?ology4 ,he c>ri$ out 8 dialectical plans to ! m9ute/ detail4 ,he drew ! mat]ials ( 8 sy/em f bo? b>b>ians & ,greeks1 & he himself _h be5 initiat$ into all ! ,my/]ies4 ,e sup]/ition ( ! pa/ & pres5t influ5c$ him1 & 9 fram+ a univ]sal sy/em he did n feel satisfi$ until e transmitt$ doctr9e _h f\nd a place 9 t sy/em4 ,he 0 ! sy/ematiz] ( paganism & its s*ola/ic4 ,he conceiv$ t ! fundam5tal problem 0 t ( ! ,"o & ! ,_m1 & t ! ,"o is relat$ to ! ,_m 9 ?ree /ages1p]man5ce1 go+-=?1 & return4 ,! ,_m z a manifold effect is simil> to ! unity ( ! orig9al cause & yet diff]5t f x4 ,developm5t is ! /riv+ ( ! effect to return to ! orig9al cause1 & ?is /rife = a return to ,god 0 illu/rat$ by ,proclus 9 e realm ( life1 & he repeat$ x aga9 & aga9 9 application to e detail4 ,he conceiv$ t ! developm5t ( ! _w f ! ,godhead 0 cont9ually go+ ?r\gh ?is triad sy/em ( *ange4 ,8 philosophy1 h[ev]1 %[s no orig9ality o!r ?an be+ an +5i\s =mal classification 9 :i* e poly!ism f\nd a place4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,patri/ics4,,! ,,hell5iz+ ,,( ,,! ,,gospel ,! ,e>ly ,situation ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,! ,ori5t 0 ! s\rce ( ! ,gospel1 z ( ! o!r religions ( ?is "t4 ,! p[] ( ,*ri/ianity lay 9 ! spontane\s =ce ( its pure religi\s feel+1 ) :i* x ent]$ ! li/s = ! conque/ ( ! _w4 ,*ri/ianity 0 n a philosophy1 b a religion4 ,x appeal$ to a diff]5t class ?an did ! ,alex&rian s*ools4 ,! l[] class receiv$ x fir/1 & s ! que/ions ( sci5ce & philosophy occupi$ ! e>ly ,*ri/ians b little4 ,!y 7 nei!r ! fri5ds nor ! foes ( ,hell5ism1 & !y took no int]e/ 9 political !ories4 ,! ,*ri/ian society 0 a spiritual cosmopolitanism1 :i* 0 inspir$ & unit$ by belief 9 ,god1 fai? 9 ,*ri/1 & 9 imm$iate communion ) ,*ri/4 ,conviction ( ! ,second ,com+ ( ! ,"l det]m9$ ! conduct ( ! e>ly ,*ri/ians4 ,inde$1 t moral re=mation & moral conduct 7 ! dom9at+ aims ( ! ,*ri/ian communities is prov$ by ! foll[+ facts3 ! docum5ts deal+ ) ,*ri/ian life ( t "t are almo/ :olly moral2 ! discipl9e ^u ! memb]s 0 = moral & n doctr9al reasons4 ,/ill ^! e>ly ,*ri/ians _h "s simple doctr9es1 :i* 7 seem+ly tak5 = grant$2 & ! dang] is1 to conceive ! e>ly ,*ri/ians z ei!r 7#a7 too simple or 7#b7 too ignorant4 ,!y believ$ t !re is "o ,god1 t man has p]sonal relations to ,god1 t hi/ory has a dramatic c\rse1 t "r 0 ,god's comm& & absolutely diff]5t f wrong1 t ! ,la/ ,judgm5t w\ld surely come4 ,b ab\t ! middle ( ! second c5tury ,*ri/ianity 0 oblig$ to *ange its attitude t[>ds bo? sci5ce & ! ,/ate4 ,betwe5 #aej & #bej a great *ange took place among ! ,*ri/ians4 ,! docum5t>y records are full ( doctr9al /ruggles1 s t little room 0 left = record+ ! /ruggles = moral purity4 ,morality became subord9at$ to belief1 & ! intellectual side ( ,*ri/ianity 0 emphasiz$ at ! exp5se ( ! e?ical4 ,! ,second ,com+ ( our ,"l 0 less emphasiz$4 ,?is doctr9e 0 ei!r pu%$ into ! backgr\nd or its realization 0 look$ ^u z n imm$iate4 ,fur!rmore1 ! ,*ri/ian sect _h spread ov] ! empire & _h come into positive relations bo? ) circles ( culture & ) political affairs4 ,v>i\s /ati/ics ( ! num]ical gr[? ( ! ,*ri/ians are giv52 among !m is ! foll[+ /atem5t3 9 #cj ,a4 ,d4 !y numb]$ #ejj1 9 #ajj ,a4 ,d4 #ejj1jjj1 9 #caa ,a4 ,d4 #cj1jjj1jjj4 ,9 ! second c5tury ! self-ju/ification ( ,*ri/ianity c\ld no long] be put ^u ! basis ( ! feel+s & inn] convictions4 ,x mu/ ju/ify itself to ! _w )\t1 & to its own cultur$ communicants z well4 ,x 0 be+ attack$ by philosophy1 &1 unless its own fur!r gr[? 7 to be ?w>t$1 x f\nd t x mu/ use ! weapons ( philosophy4 ,its increase ( p[] antagoniz$ bo? ! ,roman /ate & ,hell5i/ic culture1 & f #aej to #cjj ! fight betwe5 ,*ri/ianity & ! old _w ( ?+s 0 to ! dea?4 ,*ri/ianity ev5tually conqu]$ ,rome & ,hell5ism2 b ?is w\ld h be5 impossible if x _h ma9ta9$ its orig9al attitude ( indiff]5ce to culture4 ,its success 0 due to ! wisdom t x has s9ce s (t5 %[n4 ,x adapt$ itself to its new situation by tak+ ov] & mak+ its own ! culture ( ! old _w1 & by fight+ ! old _w ) t culture4 ,*ri/ianity !reby %ap$ its own con/itution into su* /r5g? t x c\ld obta9 possession ( ! /ate ) ,con/ant9e 9 #cjj4 ,f ?is impregnable political position1 x 0 able to deal ) its rivals on an entirely diff]5t foot+4 ,:5 old ,rome fell 9 #dgf1 ! *ur* did n fall ) x1 b on ! contr>y x came into possession ( ! city4 ,b ?is political success 0 ! result & n ! cause ( ! gr[? ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,x c\ld nev] h conqu]$ s intr5*$ a gov]nm5t z ,rome1 if x _h n fir/ be5 victori\s ov] ! m p]si/5t civilization ( ,greece4 ,x made itself inh]5tly /rong by ,hell5iz+ itself/rong bo? = polemical & = con/ructive purposes4 ,b x is obvi\s t little philosophical orig9ality may be expect$ dur+ ?is p]iod4 ,:5 ! *ur* fa!rs began to employ ,hell5i/ic philosophy1 !y took x on ! :ole z !y f\nd x4 ,!y v>i$ x only to suit _! own legitimate purposes4 ,*ri/ianity ent]$ ! religi\s controv]sies ( ! "t :5 victory w\ld belong to ! sect :i* c\ld use ,greek civilization mo/ effectively 9 def5d+ itself aga9/ ! ho/ility ( o!r religions1 & 9 con/antly r5ew+ ! confid5ce ( its devotees4 ,b 9 ! adoption ( ,hell5i/ic culture ! *ur* creat$ a new dang] to itself4 ,x mu/ gu>d its own conceptions le/ !y be smo!r$ by ?is same ,hell5ism4 ,x mu/ keep its fundam5tal beliefs 9 _! integrity4 ,greek philosophy mu/ be a s]vant s con/ra9$ z to br+ out only ! implicit mean+ ( ! fundam5tal ,*ri/ian doctr9es4 ,philosophy mu/ n corrupt ^! doctr9es & transmute !m into ,hell5ism4 ,! simple fai? ( ! fir/ c5tury & its doctr9es mu/ be s =mulat$ by ,hell5ic wisdom t x w\ld be /at$ = all "t4 ,! *ur* ne$$ a dogmatic sy/em1 a cre$ t c\ld =e/all any future innovations4 ,! long s]ies ( cum5ical c\ncils ( ! *ur*1 beg9n+ ) ! ,c\ncil ( ,nica 9 #cbe1 7 unit$ ef=ts 9 ?is direction4 ,aft] t fir/ c\ncil1 dogma became m gradually fix$ &1 f "t to "t1 ?is & t gr\p ( m5 7 sep>at$ f ! *ur* z h]etical4 ,patri/ics is ?is philosophical secul>iz+ ( ! ,gospel :i* accompani$ ! int]nal & ext]nal developm5t ( ! *ur* body dur+ ! two or ?ree c5turies aft] ! ye> #aej ,a4 ,d4 ,! ,philosophies influ5c+ ,*ri/ian ,?\ght4 ,! ,greek philosophies mo/ influ5tial ^u ! developm5t ( ,*ri/ian doctr9e 7 ,/oicism & neo-,platonism4 ,! philosophy ( ,philo 0 also influ5tial1 b x 0 really only a bridge f philosophical ,judaism to ,*ri/ian !ology4 ,x conta9$ bo? ,/oicism & ,platonism 9 an unsymmetrical =m1 & ,philo's writ+s 8conta9 ! se$s ( ne>ly all t aft]w>ds grew up on ,*ri/ian soil40#dd ,greek philosophical influ5ce ^u ! e>ly ,*ri/ian _w 0 felt 9 two ways3 9 e?ical !ory & practice2 9 ! con/ruction ( !ology4 ,dur+ ! f\r? c5tury ,/oic e?ics ( a ,cynic type replac$ ! e>ly ,*ri/ian e?ics4 ,! basis ( ,*ri/ian society 0 no long] ! e?ics ( ! ,s]mon on ! ,m\nt1 b r t ( ,roman ,/oicism4 ,?is is %[n by ! "* ( t book on morals 7,de ,(ficiis ,m9i/rorum7 by ,/4 ,ambrose1 ,bi%op ( ,milan 7#cdj-cig74 ,9 !ology ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e _h no ne$ to borr[ f ! ,greeks ! conception ( ! unity ( ,god or t ( ! creation ( ! _w by ,god4 ,b ! ,greek influ5ce is se5 9 ! doctr9es on subjects alli$ to ^!3 ma9ly on ! que/ions ( ! mode ( creation & ! relation ( ,god to ! mat]ial _w4 ,9 ! discussion ( ^! que/ions ! influ5ce ( ! ,/oic monism1 t5d+ t[>d dualism1 & ! influ5ce ( ,platonic dualism1 t5d+ t[>d a ?reefold conception ( ,god1 ,matt]1 & ,=m1 w appe> 9 ! examples :i* subsequ5tly foll[4 ,! mo/ =midable oppon5t ( ,*ri/ianity dur+ ?is "t 0 neo-,platonism1 b neo-,platonism & ,*ri/ianity 7 n1 h[ev]1 long sep>at$4 ,al?\gh neo-,platonism met its fate at ! h&s ( s*ola/icism1 x influ5c$ 9 a ?\s& ways bo? or?odox & h]etical ,*ri/ianity4 ,! rivalry ( ^! two bodies end$& ) x came ! end+ ( ! ,hell5ic-,roman p]iod ( philosophy9 a complete & orig9al !ology4 ,?is 0 ! !ology ( ,/4 ,augu/9e1 :o m>ks ! end ( antiquity & ! beg9n+ ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,! ,p]iods ( ,e>ly ,*ri/ianity 7#cj ,a4 ,d4-#dgf ,a4 ,d474 #a4 ,introductory ,p]iod1 #cj-bjj4 7#a7 ,p]iod ( ,primitive ,fai? 7dur+ ! #a/ c5tury ,a4 ,d474 ,) great simplicity ( doctr9e & c]emonies ! ,*ri/ians 7 prep>+ ?r\gh fai? & ! practice ( virtue = ! ,second ,com+ ( our ,"l4 7#b7 ,p]iod ( ! ,e>li] ,=mulation & ,def5se ( ,*ri/ian ,doctr9e 7dur+ ! #b;d c5tury ,a4 ,d474 7a7 ,! ,apologi/s 7#b;d c5tury74 7b7 ,! ,gno/ics 7#b;d c5tury74 7c7 ,! ,old ,ca?olic ,!ologians 7#b;d & #c;d c5turies74 #b4 ,developm5t ,p]iod 7#bjj-dgf74 7#a7 ,! ,p]iod ( ,actual ,=mulation ( ,doctr9e 7#bjj-cbe74 ,! ,cate*etical ,s*ool ( ,alex&ria,orig5 7#c;d c5tury74 7#b7 ,! ,p]iod ( ! ,e/abli%m5t ( ,dogma 7#cbe-mod]n times7 z se5 9 ! ,c\ncil ( ,nica & o!r cum5ical c\ncils4 ,x 0 a p]iod 9 :i* *ur* dogma 0 develop$ on ! basis ( doctr9e already e/abli%$4 ,:ile ! orig9 & developm5t ( ! ,*ri/ian *ur* is an int]e/+ /ory 9 itself1 only "o aspect ( x is g]mane to ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,t is ! influ5ce ( ,hell5ism ^u ! =mation ( ! !ology ( ! *ur*4 ,! orig9 & developm5t ( ! *ur* organization lies beyond our field4 ,also ! p]iods be=e ! influ5ce ( ,hell5ism! ,p]iod ( ,primitive ,fai? dur+ ! fir/ c5tury1 & ! p]iod aft] dogma _h become well e/abli%$1 ! "t aft] ! ,c\ncil ( ,nica 9 #cbew be omitt$ f our discussion "h4 ,only ! p]iod ( ! ,e>li] ,=mulation & t ( ! ,actual ,=mulation ( ,doctr9e1 t is1 ! "o hundr$ & sev5ty-five ye>s 7#aej-cbe71 are ( int]e/ to u4 ,?is "t is kn[n 9 hi/ory by ! "n ( ! p]iod ( ,patri/ics4 ,! ,apologi/s4 ,only su* ,*ri/ians z 7 tra9$ 9 ,greek philosophy c\ld rally to ! fir/ def5se ( ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e4 ,! new fai? 01 on ! "o h&1 on ! def5sive aga9/ ! mock]y ( ,greek wisdom1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 x 0 oblig$ to take a positive /& to %[ t x 0 ! fulfillm5t ( ! human ne$ ( salvation4 ,! ,apologi/s tri$ to make ! ,*ri/ian tea*+ z consi/5t z possible ) ! results ( ,greek philosophy &1 at ! same "t1 to read into ,greek philosophy ,*ri/ian mean+s4 ,!y did n at all int5d to ,hell5ize ! ,gospel1 b !y want$ to make x seem a rational "o to ! cultur$ _w4 8,*ri/ianity is philosophy & revelation4 ,?is is ! !sis ( e ,apologi/ f ,ari/ides to ,m9ucius ,felix40#de ,_! v act ( def5se 0 un9t5tionally ! fir/ /ep t[>d ! incorporation ( ,greek philosophy z a "p ( ,*ri/ian tea*+4 ,! mo/ important ,apologi/s 7 ,ju/9 ,m>tyr 7#ajj-aff71 ,a!nagoras 7d4 #ahj71 & among ! ,romans ,m9ucius ,felix 7ab\t #bjj7 & ,lactantius 7d4 #cbj74 ,! life ( ,ju/9 ,m>tyr is *>act]i/ic4 ,he 0 born 9 ,si*em1 ,sam>ia1 b 0 ,greek 9 orig9 & education4 ,hav+ inve/igat$ sev]al sy/ems ( philosophy & religion1 he came to ! conclusion t ! ,*ri/ian religion 0 ! only true philosophy1 & he di$ 9 def5se ( x at ,rome4 ,to prove t ,*ri/ianity is ! only true philosophy1 ! ,apologi/s ass]t$ t x alone gu>ante$ correct k & true hol9ess "h & h]eaft]4 ,!y proclaim$ its prem95ce because x is a p]fect revelation ( ,god ?r\gh ,jesus ,*ri/4 ,s9ce man is imprison$ 9 ! _w ( ! s5ses & rul$ by dmons1 he c nev] be sav$ except ?r\gh a p]fect revelation4 ,to be sav$ is to become rational1 & man c become rational only by div9e aid4 ,revelation has n be5 re/rict$ to ,*ri/ianity1 b ,god's inspiration has be5 at "w 9 all mank9d4 ,! tru? 9 ,socrates1 ,plato1 & ,py?agoras has n be5 _! own1 b has sprung f ?is same div9e inspiration1 = tru? nev] is ! product ( man's unaid$ reason4 ,socrates & ,plato got _! tru? 9 "p f ,god's direct revelation to !m1 9 "p indirectly f read+ ! works ( ,moses & ! prophets4 ,b revelation outside ( ,*ri/ianity has n be5 complete nor cont9u\s4 ,! fir/ p]fect revelation 0 9 ,jesus ,*ri/1 = ,he is ! fir/ to reveal ! div9e ,logos completely4 ,he is ! fir/ 9 :om ! ,logos has become man4 ,he is ! ,son ( ,god because ! complete ess5ce ( ! inexpressible ,deity is unfold$ 9 ,him4 ,! ,apologi/s ?us id5tifi$ reason & revelation4 ,! ,logos is ! same 9 revelation1 nature1 or hi/ory4 ,! ,/oic conception ( ! ,logos1 :i* ,philo _h /ripp$ ( its mat]iali/ic "*1 0 id5tifi$ ) ,*ri/ & revelation4 ,ju/9 c\ld reg>d z inspir$ :at ! ,greeks _h look$ ^u z natural 9 _! own doctr9es4 ,*ri/ is ! _w-reason1 9 :om ! div9e has be5 inc>nat$1 & ! ,apologi/s _h ! enorm\s advantage ov] ! neo-,platoni/s ( be+ able to po9t to ,jesus z ! def9ite & hi/orical inc>nation ( ,god4 ,! ,apologi/s c\ld summon ! prevail+ ,platonic dualism ( ,god & matt] to _! aid 9 %[+ ! ne$ ( su* a revelation2 = matt] is altoge!r )\t reason & goodness4 ,?us a summ>y ( _! doctr9e is z foll[s3 ! _w is bad & ne$s a revelation2 ! ,logos ( ,god has always be5 pres5t 9 hi/ory1 b has especially appe>$ 9 ,jesus ,*ri/1 ! man1 9 ord] to r$eem m5 f _! s9 & e/abli% ! k+dom ( ,god4 ,! ,gno/ics4 ,gno/icism is ! "n appli$ to a movem5t ( ho/ile recon/ruction ( ,old ,te/am5t tradition in/ead ( a spiritual int]pretation ( x4 ,x 0 a great syncretic movem5t 9 ! second & ?ird c5turies1 :i* s\ght to =m a _w religion 9 :i* m5 %\ld be rat$ on ! basis ( :at !y intellectually & morally knew4 ,! ,gno/ics tri$ to trans=m ! ,*ri/ian fai? 9 a l>ge way into k t w\ld /ill be ,*ri/ian2 & _! ef=ts %[ h[ /rong ! philosophical int]e/ among ! ,*ri/ians 0 beg9n+ to be4 ,! conditions = ! developm5t ( su* a doctr9e z ,gno/icism 7 ev]y:]e pres5t 9 ! empire1 yet two pr9cipal c5tres are po9t$ out3 "o at ,alex&ria & ! o!r 9 ,syria4 ,gno/icism 0 a mo/ fanciful mixture ( ,ori5tal & ,occid5tal cults & my?ologies1 v mu* m fanta/ic ?an ei!r neo-,py?agoreanism or neo-,platonism4 ,x 0 a philosophy 9 :i* ! ess5tial ,*ri/ian pr9ciples 7 lo/ "u ! weight ( esot]ic k4 ,! ,gno/ics !mselves 7 /eep$ 9 ,hell5ic culture1 & 9 _m localities =m$ only b&s ( ,my/]ies4 ,!y f9ally lo/ all sympa?y ) ! ,*ri/ians1 & 7 class$ z h]etics by ! *ur*4 ,! lead+ ,gno/ics 7 ,saturn9us1 ,c>pocrates 7ab\t #acj71 ,basilides1 ,val5t9us 7ab\t #afj71 & ,b>desanes 7#aee-bbe74 ,only a few fragm5ts ( _! _m writ+s rema91 & ab\t all t we "k ( _! doctr9es is :at _! oppon5ts say ( !m4 ,val5t9us1 ! mo/ notable1 0 born at ,rome & di$ at ,cyprus4 ,b>desanes 0 born 9 ,mesopotamia4 ,c>pocrates liv$ at ,alex&ria & 0 a contempor>y ( ,basilides1 :o 0 a ,syrian4 ,! records ( _! c>e]s are v meagre4 ,! ,gno/ics 7 ! fir/ philosoph]s ( hi/ory4#df ,!y und]took to make ,*ri/ianity a _w religion by conqu]+ ,hell5ic culture = ,*ri/ianity & ,*ri/ianity = ,hell5ic culture4 ,! only way !y c\ld d ?is 0 by dislodg+ ,*ri/ianity f its hi/orical an*orage 9 ! ,old ,te/am5t4 ,! ,gno/ics 7 9 op5 ho/ility to ,judaism4 ,!y trans=m$ e e?ical problem into a cosmological problem1 !y reg>d$ human hi/ory z ! cont9uation ( natural hi/ory1 !y view$ ! ,r$emption z ! la/ act 9 ! cosmic drama4 ,?is %[s h[ closely relat$ _! tea*+ 0 to t ( ,philo & ,plot9us & h[ consi/5t ) ! !oretic _s ( ! "t4 ,s9ce ! salvation ( ! _w by ,*ri/ /&s z ! c5tral po9t ( _! philosophy ( hi/ory1 _! philosophy ( hi/ory am\nt$ to a philosophy ( ,*ri/ian hi/ory4 ,! victory ( ,*ri/ianity ov] paganism & ,judaism 0 conceiv$ allegorically by ! ,gno/ics z ! battle ( ! gods ( ^! religions4 ,! ,r$eem] 0 !n conceiv$ to appe> at ! psy*ological mom5t & to w9 ! victory2 & ?is appe>ance ( ,*ri/ z ,r$eem] is n only ! highe/ po9t 9 ! developm5t ( ! human race1 b x is ! dn\em5t 9 ! drama ( ! univ]se4 ,nature 0 !re=e conceiv$ by !m to be a battle-gr\nd ( ! gods & ! /rife to be wag$ betwe5 ! =ces ( good & evil4 ,! good gets ! victory by means ( ,*ri/4 ,! battle 0 conceiv$ 9 ! neo-,py?agorean =m ( ! dualism ( matt] & _s1 b 0 express$ 9 my?ical t]ms4 ,! hea!n gods & ! god ( ! ,old ,te/am5t1 :o took ! =m ( ! ,platonic demiurge1 7 ! p[]s 9 ! _w :i* ! highe/ ,god _h to ov]come4 ,! dualism ( good & evil 0 conceiv$ to be ! same z betwe5 _s & matt]1 & 0 elaborat$ 9 a fa%ion true to ! ,alex&rian s*ool4 ,! space betwe5 ,god & matt] 0 conceiv$ to be fill$ 9 by a :ole race ( dmons & angels1 arrang$ accord+ to ! ,py?agorean numb]s4 ,! l[e/ 0 s f> f ! div9e p]fectness z to be 9 t\* ) matt]1 & he is ! demiurge :o =m$ ! _w4 ,! battle !n 0 betwe5 good & evil1 light & d>kness1 until ! ,logos1 ! ,n\s1 ,*ri/1 ! mo/ p]fect ( ! int]m$i>y be+s1 came d[n & by inc>nation releas$ f matt] ! imprison$ spirits ( m5 & ev5 ( ! fall5 angels1 l ! demiurge4 ,?is is1 9 brief1 ! ,gno/ic explanation ( hi/ory4 ,?is dualism 0 q consi/5t ) contempor>y ,*ri/ian e?ics1 :i* _h !n become ,/oic4 ,b ?is dualism 0 n consi/5t ) mono!ism1 ! fundam5tal ,*ri/ian pr9ciple4 ,! int]nal dang] 9 ,patri/ics( swamp+ ! fundam5tals ( ,*ri/ianity ?r\gh ,hell5iz+ !mappe>s ?us e>ly4 ,! e>ly ,*ri/ian f\nd at ! beg9n+ an antagonism betwe5 8 fundam5tal mono!i/ic metaphysics & ,greek duali/ic e?ics4 ,! ,reaction aga9/ ,gno/icism4,! ,old ,ca?olic ,!ologians4 ,we h se5 t ! orig9al position ( ! ,*ri/ians 0 "o ( indiff]5ce to bo? politics & philosophy2 t !n came ! employm5t ( ,hell5ism 9 ! def5se ( ! ,gospel4 ,?is result$ 9 ! extreme attempt ( ! ,gno/ics to trans=m ,*ri/ianity into a factor 9 a cosmic !osophy4 ,gno/icism _h tri$ to capture ! new religion by =ce & make x subs]ve ! int]e/s ( ,hell5ic & ,ori5tal philosophy4 ,?is dang] 0 av]t$ only aft] ye>s ( controv]sy4 ,gno/icism 0 ! grave/ dang] t ! e>ly *ur* _h to meet1 & ! ,gno/ics left _! m>k ^u ! *ur*1 al?\gh !y 7 expell$2 = ! *ur* nev] return$ to its orig9al simplicity ( doctr9e4 ,gno/icism1 h[ev]1 produc$ an extreme reaction1 = a "t1 aga9/ ! use ( philosophy1 & 0 repres5t$ by ! 8,old ,ca?olic ,!ologians10,ir5u 7#adj-bjj71 ,t]tullian 7#afj-bbj71 & ,hippolytus4 ,^! !ologians /ood aga9/ turn+ fai? into a sci5ce & tri$ to limit dogma to ! articles ( ! baptismal confession int]pret$ z a rule ( fai?4 ,tatian 7#agj7 saw 9 ,hell5ism ! "w ( ! devil4 ,ir5u conceiv$ a unity 9 ! process ( creation & r$emption1creation z a div9e me?od ( br++ humanity up into ! *ur* by way ( r$emption4 ,t]tullian w5t s f> z to affirm t ! ,gospel is confirm$ by its be+ 9 a c]ta9 s5se contradictory to reason4 ,cr$o quia absurdum4 ,by ?is he means1 n t fai? re/s 9 ?+s absurd1 b t fai? re/s 9 ?+s s f> above reason z to make reason absurd4 ,?is reaction 0 aga9/ ,gno/icism & n aga9/ rationalism1 = ^! m5 us$ bo? philosophy & tradition to support _! argum5ts4 ,! reaction aga9/ a sy/ematic !ology fail$ to e/abli% itself1 = ! ne$ ( ,greek philosophy 0 f\nd to be necess>y4 ,! result 0 t a m$ian position 0 tak5 by ! help ( ,greek philosophy 9 ! =mulation ( ! dogma ( ! *ur*4 ,?is 0 sci5tifically /at$ by ! ,alex&rian ,s*ool ( ,cate*i/s1 ( :i* ,clem5t & ,orig5 7 ! lead]s4 ,orig5 7#ahe-bed7 & ! ,s*ool ( ,cate*i/s4 ,orig51 ^: surname 0 ,adamant9e1 0 an e>ly tea*] 9 ! ,s*ool ( ,cate*i/s1 :i* _h be5 "u ! direction ( ,clem5t4 ,l ,plot9us1 ,orig5 _h be5 a pupil ( ,ammonius ,saccas4 ,orig5 endur$ mu* p]secution on acc\nt ( 8 tea*+1 & _h to flee f ,alex&ria to ,cs>ea & ,tyre1 :]e he sp5t 8 old age4 ,he 0 ! mo/ influ5tial !ologian ( ! ,ea/]n *ur*1 & he 0 ! fa!r ( ,*ri/ian !ological sci5ce4 ,9 mann] ( life ,orig5 0 a ,*ri/ian2 9 8 ?\ght he 0 a ,greek4 ,he 0 ! ,*ri/ian ,philo1 al?\gh he 0 a rival to ! neo-,platonic philosoph]s4 ,8 ,*ri/ian !ology compet$ ) ! philosophical sy/ems ( 8 "t4 ,x 0 f\nd$ on bo? ,te/am5ts1 & x also unit$ 9 a peculi> way t[>d a practical end ! !ology ( bo? ! ,apologi/s & ! ,gno/ics4 ,he 0 conv9c$ t ,*ri/ianity c\ld be express$ only z a sci5ce1 & t any =m ( ,*ri/ianity )\t sci5tific expression is n cle> to itself4 ,al?\gh ! *ur* 0 (f5d$ at "s ( 8 doctr9es1 x made 8 philosophical pr9ciple & 8 !ory ( developm5t its own4 ,9 try+ to /ate ,*ri/ianity 9 t]ms ( intellectual k1 ,orig5 did n make ! mi/ake ( bury+ its pr9ciples "u philosophy or my?ology1 z 0 ! case ) ! ,gno/ics4 ,! ,gno/ics _h creat$ a new ,*ri/ianity2 ,orig5 develop$ ,*ri/ianity f )9 itself4 ,he 0 an or?odox traditionali/1 a /rong ,biblical !ologian & ideali/ic philosoph]4 ,he ma9ta9$ t !re 7 sev]al ways ( int]pret+ ! ,scriptures 7allegorical int]pretation74 ,! masses see only ! somatic or outw>d mean+ z x has be5 develop$ 9 hi/ory4 ,a deep] or moral int]pretation gives a psy*ical mean+ to ! ,gospel tru?4 ,m pr(\nd /ill is ! spiritual int]pretation1 :i* gives to ! ,gospels a pneumatic or spiritually esot]ic mean+4 ,*ri/ianity is sup]ior to all o!r religions because x is a religion = all classes1 ev5 = ! common man4 ,*ri/ianity is ! only religion :i*1 )\t be+ poly!i/ic1 c h its tru? 9 my?ical dress4 ,! aim ( ,orig5 0 less to %[ h[ ! _w came to be1 ?an to ju/ify ! ways ( ,god to m5 9 ! _w's creation & hi/ory4 ,! c5tral pr9ciple 9 8 tea*+ is spiritual mono!ism4 ,god is an un*ang+ _s1 ! au?or ( all ?+s1 & ,he transc5ds human k4 ,:at di/+ui%es ,him mo/ is ! absolute causality ( ,8 w4 ,he is ess5tially creative1 & ?is creative activity is co-et]nal ) ,himself4 ,god c h no deal+s ) *ang+ individuals directly1 s9ce al?\gh creative ,he is un*ang+4 ,he has direct connection only ) ! et]nal revelation ( ,8 own image1 ! ,logos4 ,! ,logos is a p]son1 a special hypo/asis1 ! p]fect lik5ess ( ,god ) no?+ corporeal ab\t him4 ,he is n ! ,god1 b /ill ,god1 yet a second ,god1 ) no %>+ ( div9ity4#dg ,! ,holy ,_s be>s ! same relation to ! ,logos z ! ,logos to ! ,fa!r4 ,9 8 relation to ! _w ! ,logos is ! ,idea ( ,ideas1 ! norm accord+ to :i* ?+s are creat$4 ,orig5 foll[$ ,philo 9 believ+ t ! orig9al creation consi/s ( a _w ( be+s t are pure intellig5ces1 & t ! cause ( creation is ,god's goodness4 ,he fur!r believ$ t ! ,logos or ,wisdom ( ,god is ,god's ,son4 ,bo? ! creation ( ! ideal _w ( intellig5ces & ! exi/5ce ( ! ,son is f et]nity4 ,! orig9 ( ! visible _w is to be contra/$ ) ?is et]nal creation4 ,! visible _w _h its beg9n+ 9 "t & is only "o ( a s]ies ( worlds4 ,x w f9ally return to ,god1 & has 9 ,god its beg9n+ & end4 ,?us man lives 9 a visible _w ( "t ) et]nities on ei!r side4 ,creation1 view$ z a :ole1 is ev]la/+1 & consi/s ( an endless numb] ( be+s :o are de/9$ to become a "p ( ! div9e hol9ess & to p>ticipate 9 ! div9e bless$ness4 ,^! be+s are end[$ ) fre$om ( w1 & !y fall away f ,god4 ,! visible _w ( matt] has be5 creat$ to purify ! fall5 spirits1 & 9 consequ5ce we f9d mat]ializ$ spirits grad$ into angels1 />s1 mank9d1 & evil dmons4 ,9 8 emphasis on ! w z ! fundam5tal m5tal "p ( man1 ,orig5 is di/9ctly ,*ri/ian & oppos$ to ,greek intellectualism4 ,! w ( ,god & ! w ( man =m ! corn] /one 9 8 sy/em4 ,! w ( ,god is ! et]nal developm5t ( ,8 be+1 b ! w ( spirits is _! temporal free *oice4 ,! w ( ,god is reality itself2 ! w ( spirits is ph5om5al & *ang+4 ,fre$om ( ! w ( ! spirits is ! gr\nd ( _! s91 & consequ5tly ( _! mat]iality4 ,?us x is by ! fre$om ( ! spirits t ,orig5 expla9s evil & ! exi/5ce ( imp]fect matt] )\t impea*+ ! et]nal purity ( ,god4 ,orig5 ?us reconcil$ ! e?ical transc5d5ce ( ,god z creator ) 8 imman5ce 9 ! mat]ial _w4 ,god is ! creator )\t be+ ! creator ( s94 ,?r\gh ! conception ( free-w ,orig5 reconcil$ ! two anti!tical pr9ciples ( ,*ri/ian metaphysics3 fai? 9 div9e omnipot5ce & consci\sness ( s94 ,! function ( ! *ur* is ?us an important "o 9 ! div9e plan4 ,= ! fall5 spirits try to rise by _! own wills f ! matt] to :i* !y are condemn$ = purification4 ,!y nev] lose _! div9e ess5ce1 h[ev] l[ !y may fall4 ,!y _c rise alone1 nor are !y compell$ to1 b !y always h ! help ( div9e grace1 :i* is always active )9 man & has also be5 p]fectly reveal$ 9 ,jesus ,*ri/4 ,aft] ! mann] ( ! ,apologi/s1 ,orig5 makes use ( ! ,/oic & ,platonic conceptions1 = ! et]nal ,logos takes =m 9 ! div9e-human unity ( ,jesus4 ,?r\gh ,8 physical suff]+ r$emption is made possible to all believ]s1 & ?r\gh ,8 ess5ce illum9ation has be5 br\ght to ^? especially inspir$4 ,!re are diff]5t grades ( r$emption3 fai?1 or a religi\s und]/&+ ( ! p]ceptual _w2 k ( ! ,logos2 f9al absorption 9 ,god4 ,all %all f9ally be sav$ ?r\gh ! comb9$ =ces ( fre$om & ,grace1 & !n %all all mat]ial exi/5ce disappe>4 ,! controv]sies )9 ! *ur* dur+ ! succe$+ c5turies ov] ! !ory ( ,orig5 are !ological r ?an philosophical1 & s our acc\nt ( ! relation ( ,greek philosophy to ,*ri/ianity 9 ! ,hell5ic-,roman p]iod closes "h4 ,orig5's und]tak+ 0 a private "o1 approv$ at fir/ 9 only limit$ circles & on ! :ole disapprov$ by ! *ur*4 ,9 8 sci5tific dogmatics ! p>ticul> *anges :i* he plann$ p]ta9 especially to ! conception ( salvation & ! place ( ,*ri/ 9 ! univ]se4 ,9 8 tea*+ ab\t ,*ri/ he emphasiz$ m ! cosmological ?an ! sot]iological aspect1 b nei!r 0 fully develop$4 ,! hi/ory ( ! e>ly *ur* %[s t ,*ri/ianity seiz$ ! ideas ( anci5t philosophy & insi/$ on revis+ !m ) its own religi\s pr9ciple be=e x us$ !m4 ,we %all f9d t ! next p]iod is introduc$ by a great] ?an ,orig51 9 :om aga9 ! ,*ri/ian & ! anci5t worlds w meet 9 new & ri*] comb9ation1,/4 ,augu/9e4 ,,book ,,ii ,,! ,,middle ,,ages 7#dgf-adec7 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,*>act]i/ics ,,& ,,conditions ,,( ,,! ,,middle ,,ages ,comp>ison ( ! ,hell5ic-,roman ,p]iod & ! ,middle ,ages4 ,! ,middle ,ages c be conv5i5tly rememb]$ z approximately ! #ajjj ye>s betwe5 ! fall ( old ,rome1 9 #dgf1 & ! fall ( new ,rome 7,con/ant9ople7 9 #adec4 ,toge!r ^! two p]iods make a long & a philosophically unproductive /ret* ( #ahjj ye>s4 ,! intellectual mat]ials :i* ! two p]iods possess$1 diff] b little1 al?\gh dur+ ! fir/ half ( ! ,middle ,ages su* mat]ials 7 v few4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a decid$ diff]5ce 9 ! way ! two p]iods look at ?+s4 ,! anci5t _h />t$ ) ,ari/otle's int]e/ 9 k = its own sake2 ! anci5t _h pass$ f t to ! ne$ ( k 9 e?ical conduct2 he _h f9ally made use ( k only 9 =mulat+ religion4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! hi/ory ( ?\ght 9 ! ,middle ,ages 0 exactly ! rev]se4 ,! m$ival man />ts satisfi$ ) religion z ?us =mulat$ by ! prec$+ p]iod1 & seeks to rega9 pure k4 ,! p]spective 9 ! two p]iods is !re=e diff]5t4 ,hell5ic ?\ght began 9 fre$om & end$ 9 tradition2 m$ival ?\ght beg9s 9 tradition &1 borne by ! y\?ful ,g]man1 :o br+s ) him few orig9al ideas1 pu%es =w>d t[>d fre$om4 ,no d\bt "o c discov] 9 m$ival times _m fre% trans=mations ( anci5t ?\ght & a new ,lat9 t]m9ology1 b1 on ! :ole1 all ! problems ( ! ,middle ,ages1 z well z _! solutions1 c be f\nd 9 antiquity4 ,"o may f9d1 too1 ! g]ms ( mod]n ?\ght 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 b !y come f m$ival pupils & n f m$ival ma/]s4 ,9 ! ,middle ,ages humanity is aga9 at s*ool2 its problems appe> 9 succession1 b !y always are express$ 9 ! conceptions ( ! anci5ts4 ,! ,m$ival ,man4 ,antiquity _h br\ght toge!r ?ree civilizations1^? ( ,greece1 ( ,rome1 & ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,greek civilization 9 ! =m ( an intellectual culture1 call$ ,hell5ism1 _h be5 sup]impos$ ^u ,roman political society4 ,! result 0 a society ) a tw(old /ratum1 & 9 su* a society ! ,*ri/ian *ur* _h gr[n z an organization ( controll+ cultural & political influ5ce4 ,x 0 into ?is society t ! ,g]man b>b>ians1 by a s]ies ( invasions1 ent]$ dur+ ! fir/ ?ree c5turies ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,! ,middle ,ages began & antiquity end$ :5 ^! ,g]man tribes f9ally broke d[n ! b>ri]s ( ! ,roman empire4 ,x 0 a new p]iod2 = a new race _h tak5 ^u itself ! responsibility ( be>+ ! burd5 ( ! future ( we/]n ,europe4 ,! ,g]man 0 ( c\rse unconsci\s ( ! magnitude ( 8 self-impos$ burd51 = ! ,g]man 0 "y1 vigor\s1 & mov$ by primitive in/9cts4 ,he _h leap$ into ! _w's fields z a conqu]or2 he rema9$ z a labor]4 ,at ! beg9n+ ! ,g]man seem$ likely to de/roy ! entire product :i* antiquity _h bequea!d4 ,he 0 q unprep>$ to assimilate ! ri* fruits ( t anci5t civilization4 ,he _h1 inde$1 less m9d = ! elaborate =ms ( ,greek philosophy ?an = ! light] =ms ( ,greek art4 ,9 8 fir/ contact he c\ld und]/& nei!r4 ,moreov] anci5t society 0 s weak t x c\ld n educate him1 :o 0 its conqu]or1 into its culture4 ,nev]!less1 !re 0 "o elem5t 9 t anci5t society t did appeal to ! ,g]man4 ,t 0 ! spiritual p[] ( ! ,*ri/ian *ur*4 ,alone amid ! ru9s ( antiquity ! p[] ( ! *ur* _h gr[n s /rong t ! m5 ( ! nor? b[$ be=e x1 & religion accompli%$ ?r\gh ! emotions ( ! ,g]mans :at art1 philosophy1 & /atecraft fail$ to a*ieve4 ,! prea*+ ( ! ,gospel laid hold ( ! feel+s ( ^! primitive p1 = ! *ur* 9 its pret5sions1 & sometimes 9 fact1 repres5t$ ! old ,roman political unity4 ,moreov] ! *ur* 0 also ! repository ( :at 0 left ( ,greek sci5ce4 ,! *ur* express$ = ! ,g]man 8 own ideal ( ! p]sonal inn] life4 ,! ,g]mans became ! support]s ( ! *ur*1 & 9 ?is way ! protectors ( anci5t culture4 ,m$ival hi/ory 9 we/]n ,europe is !re=e ! record ( ! developm5t ( ! ,g]mans "u ! influ5ce ( ! ,*ri/ian *ur*4 ,9 contra/ ) ! developm5t ( ! ,ea/]n *ur*1 :i* 0 ! developm5t ( a /ate *ur*1 ! ,we/]n *ur* 0 ! developm5t ( an ecclesia/ical /ate4 ,! ,we/]n *ur*1 & n ! lat] empire1 0 ! true successor ( ! ,roman empire4 ,?us ! e>ly beg9n+s ( ! ,middle ,ages re/$ ) ! *ur*1 b ! lat] developm5t ( ! ,middle ,ages re/$ ) ! ,g]man p4 ,h[ ! ,univ]se appe>$ to ! ,m$ival ,man4 ,! m$ival man _h v indi/9ct ideas ab\t ! _w ar\nd him1 s9ce 8 int]e/ did n lie 9 ! e>?ly realm1 b 9 ! _s t controll$ x4 ,he 0 cont5t 9 8 sci5ces ) conclusions )\t _! demon/rations4 ,al?\gh x is said t relations ( space & numb] are nev] indi/9ct 9 ! m9d ( ! civiliz$ man1 ! man ( ! ,middle ,ages c]ta9ly did n possess su* conceptions 9 s vigor\s a mann] z to enable him to discov] new tru?s4 ,we mu/1 fur!rmore1 make a %>p] di/9ction betwe5 m$ival popul> op9ion & m$ival sci5tific op9ion ?an we %\ld ab\t popul> & sci5tific op9ion ( mod]n times2 = ! results ( sci5ce did n rea* ! p !n z n[4 ,to ! ord9>y m$ival man ! _w 9 :i* he liv$ 0 :at x appe>$ to be to 8 eye4 ,! e>? 0 flat2 ! sky 0 a mat]ial dome1 :i* su/a9$ ! wat]s ( ! _w above x4 ,?r\gh ?is sky-floor ! wat] sometimes breaks & ! e>? receives %[]s ( ra94 ,^! popul> notions sometimes appe>$ 9 ! v]se ( ! "t4 ,! m$ival sci5tific op9ion 0 bas$ on ! !ory ( ,ptolemy & 8 s*ool ( ,alex&rian a/ronom]s1 :o liv$ 9 ! second c5tury ,a4 ,d41 "s details to ! !ory hav+ be5 add$ by ! ,arabians4 ,ptolemy says1 8,! _w is divid$ into two va/ regions2 ! "o e!real1 ! o!r elem5t>y4 ,! e!real region beg9s ) ! fir/ mov]1 :i* accompli%es its j\rney f ea/ to we/ 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs2 t5 skies p>ticipate 9 ?is motion1 & _! totality comprises ! d\ble cry/all9e heav51 ! firmam5t & ! sev5 planets40 7,see diagram47 ,! m$ival man ( sci5ce ?\ght t1 inasmu* z he 0 ^u ! e>?1 he 0 !re=e /&+ at ! c5tre ( ?+s4 ,directly above him 0 ! cavity ( ! sky1 rul$ by ! moon2 & bel[ ! moon 7 ! f\r elem5ts1fire1 air1 wat]1 & e>?4 ,?is region 0 ! realm ( imp]fection4 ,b above ! moon ! sci5ti/ saw a s]ies ( n9e o!r heav5s1 ea* ) an ord]ly revolution ( its own2 & beyond all is ,god4 ,! univ]se 0 !re=e to ,ptolemy a great b a limit$ sph]e1 consi/+ ( t5 sph]es "o inside ano!r 7l ! r+s ( an onion74 ,ea* planet mov$ ) ! motion ( its own heav5 7or sph]e71 :i* 0 sometimes call$ 8cry/all9e0 because x 0 transp>5t4 ,! movem5ts ( ! heav5ly bodies1 ea* 9 its own revolv+ heav51 7 conta9$ 9 ! :ole sph]e1 :i* revolv$ ) a motion ( its own4 ,by ascrib+ o!r movem5ts to ! planets )9 _! respective heav5s1 ! m$ival a/ronom]s 7 able to pr$ict e conjunction & eclipse to ! m9ute4 ,^! sep>ate movem5ts ( ! planets 7 call$ epicycles1 ! =m ( :i* is %[n 9 ! diagram on ! opposite page4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ptolemaic ,,cosmography ,a diagram %[+ ! division ( ! univ]se into ! t5 sph]es or heav5s 7,f ! private libr>y ( ,pr(essor ,r4 ,w4 ,willson ( ,h>v>d ,univ]sity7 ,su* a sci5tific a/ronomy w\ld easily l5d itself to ! !ological conceptions ( ! "t4 ,! realm ( p]fection above ! moon 0 suppos$ to be "u ! direct sup]vision ( ,god & to be inhabit$ by spirits4 ,?us ! conjunction & relation ( ! heav5ly bodies 7 ?\ght to h influ5ce ^u human life1 & !y furni%$ ! basis ( ! a/rology1 necromancy1 & spiritism s common 9 ! ,middle ,ages4 ,! n9? heav5 embrac$ all ! o!rs4 ,x swept ar\nd !m all1 )\t int]f]+ ) _! own special motions1 & complet$ its revolution 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,! n9? heav5 0 bo? ! s\rce & ! limit ( all motion & all *ange4 ,beyond x lies ! et]nal peace ( ,god1 :i* ! ,*ri/ian a/ronom] reg>d$ z 8! abode ( ! bless$40 ,?is 0 call$ ! t5? heav5 or ! ,empyrean4 ,?is1 9 ,dante's words1 is 8! heav5 t is pure light2 light intellectual full ( love1 love ( ! good full ( joy1 joy t transc5ds all sweetness40 ,! t5? heav5 is ,p>adise & is )9 ! life ( ,god4 ,x is important to note t ! ,ptolemaic conception ( ! univ]se is ! backgr\nd ^u :i* ,dante con/ructs 8 ,div9e ,com$y 7see diagram1 p4 #cgf71dh & appe>s 9 "p at lea/ z ! cosmological basis ( ! ,p>adise ,lo/ ( ,milton4 ,= ?irte5 c5turiesf #bjj to #aejj;conviction rema9$ un%ak5 9 ! ,ptolemaic sy/em ( a/ronomy z an adequate explanation ( ! univ]se4 ,illu/ration3 ,,ptolemaic ,,cosmography 7,%[+ ! ,epicyclic ,movem5ts ( ,saturn1 ,jupit]1 & ,m>s 9 respect to ! ,e>?7 ,! ,m$ival ,man at ,s*ool4 ,9 ! elev5? & twelf? c5turies !re 0 a revival 9 intellectual int]e/s t 0 deep & broad1 & ! *>act]i/ics ( ?is revival w be discuss$ subsequ5tly 7see ,transitional ,p]iod1 p4 #cbi74 ,our curiosity1 h[ev]1 is ar\s$ ^u our entrance into ! ,middle ,ages1 z to :at ! man ( ! e>ly ,middle ,ages /udi$ & h[ mu* he le>n$4 ,we mu/ rem9d ourselves at ! outset ( ! (t-repeat$ fact t1 on ! :ole1 9 we/]n ,europe1 = ! fir/ five hundr$ ye>s ( ! ,middle ,ages1 ! only p :o _h any book-le>n+ 7 ! *ur*m54 ,fur!rmore1 ) !m ! le>n+ 0 v meagre4 ,_! purpose 9 /udy w %[ ?is1 = x 0 to enable !m 8to und]/& & exp\nd ! ,canonical ,scriptures1 ! ,fa!rs1 & o!r ecclesia/ical writ+s40 ,! tra9+ 0 z foll[s3 #a4 ,!ological4 ,elem5t>y in/ruction 9 ! ,psalms & *ur* music1 b no sy/ematic tra9+ 9 !ology1j en\gh tra9+ to enable ! prie/ to und]/& ! ,bible & ! ,*ur* ,fa!rs4 #b4 ,secul> tra9+4 ,k 9 ! 8,sev5 ,lib]al ,arts10 i4 e4 ! triviumgramm>1 rhetoric1 & dialectic2 & ! m advanc$ quadrivium1music1 ari?metic1 geometry1 & a/ronomy4 ,^! names are sugge/ive ( a va/ am\nt ( k1 :ile1 9 tru?1 v little 0 kn[n or taught 9 ^! subjects4 ,a/ronomy & ari?metic 7 employ$ to f9d ! "t ( ,ea/]4 ,geometry includ$ "s propositions ( ,euclid )\t demon/rations4 ,music includ$ pla9 song & a my/ic doctr9e ( numb]4 ,m 0 made ( gramm>1 ! /udy ( rhetoric f ,lat9 classics1 & dialectics4 ,dialectics 0 logic 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 & its my/]ies fasc9at$ ! m$ival man4 ,b ev5 9 logic !re 7 only "s remnants ( ! ,ari/otelian logic kn[n4 ,a ,m$ival ,libr>y4 ,"h aga9 is an int]e/+ "q3 ,:at did ?is m$ival *ur*man read8 ,b we mu/ make a di/9ction betwe5 books mo/ commonly read1 books t ! s*ol>s might use1 & books mo/ influ5tial ^u ?\ght4 #a4 ,books mo/ commonly read4 ,^! w\ld be ! text-books us$ 9 in/ruction4 ,!y are z foll[s3 ,! ,psalms4 ,! ,gramm> ( ,donatus4 ,! ,*ri/ian poets3 ,prud5tius1 ,psy*oma*ia2 ,juv5cus1 ,gospels 9 ,v]se2 ,s$ulius1 ,ea/] ,hymn4 ,dionysius ,cato1 ,di/i*a de ,moribus1 a collection ( prov]bs 7moral maxims7 9 rhym+ c\plets4 ,virgil1 ,ovid1 & ! rhetorical works ( ,cic]o4 sop's ,fables 79 ,lat974 #b4 ,books t ! s*ol>s might use4 ,x is difficult to say :at any p>ticul> s*ol> actually did read1 = ! libr>ies ( mona/]ies diff]$ enorm\sly 9 ! "* & numb] ( _! books2 "s mona/]ies _h sev]al hundr$ books1 "s none at all4 ,"s libr>ies 7 compos$ almo/ entirely ( works ( ! ,fa!rs2 "s possess$ a good _m works ( anci5t classical writ]s4 ,"o might expect to f9d any "o or m ( ! foll[+ works 9 a s*ol>'s libr>y3 ,ari/otle1 ,de ,int]pretatione & ! ,categories 9 ,bo?ius' translation4 ,?is expla9s :y ! logical problems occupi$ ! almo/ exclusive att5tion ( ! fir/ s*oolm54 ,plato1 ! ,timu4 ,?is 0 kn[n to ! ,iri% monks p]haps 9 ,greek1 b on ! cont95t 9 a translation by ,*alcidius4 ,! only o!r s\rces ( k ( ,plato 7 9 ! works ( ,augu/9e & ! neo-,platoni/s4 ,comm5t>ies on ,ari/otle1,! ,isagoge by ,porphyry1 9 a translation into ,lat9 by ,bo?ius1 & "s comm5t>ies by ,bo?ius himself on ,ari/otle's ,de ,int]pretatione & ,categories4 ,cic]o1 ! rhetorical & dialectical treatises1 su* z ! ,topica1 ,de ,(ficiis4 ,s5eca1 ,de ,b5eficiis4 ,lucretius1 ,de ,r]um ,natura4 ,augu/9e's works & "s pseudo-,augu/9ian writ+s4 ,! works ( ! ,*ur* ,fa!rs1 ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria & ,orig54 ,! ,pseudo-,dionysius1 translat$ f ! ,greek by ,erig5a4 ,! encyclop$ic collections ( "s ( ! la/ ( ! s*ol>s ( antiquity1 l ,cassiodorus1 ,capella1 ,bo?ius1 & ! ,etymologies ( ,isidore ( ,seville4 #c4 ,! ,books mo/ influ5tial philosophically ^u ! "t4 ,^! 7 n necess>ily ! books mo/ widely read1 b ! epo*-mak+ books1 s to speak4 ,!y 7 z foll[s3 ,augu/9e1 ,city ( ,god4 ,bo?ius1 ,consolation ( ,philosophy4 ,ari/otle1 ,de ,int]pretatione & ! ,categories 9 translation by ,bo?ius4 ,pseudo-,dionysius1 translat$ by ,erig5a4 ,porphyry1 ,isagoge translat$ by ,bo?ius1 an introduction to ,ari/otle's ,categories4 ,! ,?ree ,p]iods ( ! ,middle ,ages4 #a4 ,e>ly ,p]iod1 #dgf-ajjj4 #b4 ,transitional ,p]iod1 #ajjj-abjj4 #c4 ,p]iod ( ,classic ,s*ola/icism1 #abjj-adec4 ,!re is "o great natural division l9e ( ! ,middle ,ages1 ! ye> #abjj4 ,at ?is "t ! surg+ ( ! we/]n peoples ea/w>d 9 ! ,crusades 0 at its height1 & ! works ( ,ari/otle 7 com+ into we/]n ,europe f ! ,ea/4 ,^! ev5ts m>k a *ange 9 ! political & intellectual situation 9 ,europe4 ,b ?is *ange did n take place sudd5ly4 ,!re are int]v5+ two c5turies t are inde$ transitional1 b at ! same "t are animat$ by a di/9ct & indep5d5t philosophical motive4 ,^! two c5turies may be set ap>t z a p]iod1 diff]5t f ! e>li] & ! lat] p]iods4 ,we %all call ^! ?ree p]iods ! ,e>ly ,p]iod1 ! ,transitional ,p]iod1 & ! ,p]iod ( ,classic ,s*ola/icism4 ,! ,e>ly ,p]iod takes u f ! fall ( old ,rome 7#dgf7 to ! bir? ( mod]n political ,europe 7#ajjj74 ,x is a p]iod ( religi\s fai? gov]n$ by ! !ology ( ,augu/9e4 ,my/icism has no indep5d5t foll[+1 b on ! contr>y rules )9 ! *ur*4 ,! ,*ri/ian pr9ciple ( individual p]sonality & ! ,greek ,platonic conception ( univ]sal realities are n fus$1 b !y are held )\t ar\s+ controv]sy4 ,?is is because ! human reason has no /&>d code1 nor does x yet feel ! ne$ ( "o4 ,! only two philosoph]s1 ,augu/9e & ,erig5a1 ( ! p]iod are animat$ by neo-,platonism4 ,! ,transitional ,p]iod ext5ds f ! bir? ( political ,europe 7#ajjj7 to ! arrival ( ! works ( ,ari/otle 7ab\t #abjj74 ,?is epo* is "o ( logical controv]sy1 9 :i* ! ,*ri/ian & ! ,greek motives conflict4 ,?is controv]sy gives rise to ! fir/ gr\p ( great s*oolm51 :o discuss ! reality ( g5]al ideas 9 _! application to dogma4 ,my/icism /ill rules ! *ur*man1 b n[ 9 a modifi$ =m4 ,plato has become ! /&>d ( ! reason 9 or?odox circles & ,ari/otle 9 ^? incl9$ to h]esy1 b z yet only fragm5ts ( ! works ( ei!r are kn[n4 ,! ,p]iod ( ,classic ,s*ola/icism ext5ds f #abjj to ! end ( ! ,middle ,ages 7#adec74 ,x is a p]iod :5 a !ological metaphysics arises by ! side ( ! logical controv]sy & pr$om9ates ov] t controv]sy4 ,! problem n[ conc]ns ! respective scopes ( ! reason & fai?4 ,! p]iod is ,ari/otelian1 & ,ari/otle's philosophy is made ! /&>d code = ! *ur*man = all "t4 ,my/icism has n[ no place ( au?ority 9 ! *ur*1 b has an indep5d5ce4 ,! p]iod conta9s ! greate/ s*oolm5 ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,summ>y ( ! ,political & ,educational ,worlds ( ! ,m$ival ,man4 ,i4 ,e>ly ,p]iod1 #dgf-ajjj4 #cie ,! ,roman empire divid$ into 7,augu/9e1 #ced-dcj7 ,ea/]n & ,we/]n empires4 #dgf ,fall ( ! ,we/]n empire1 #dgf-hjj ,disappe>ance ( ! ,ea/]n empire la/+ municipal & imp]ial ab\t #ajjj ye>s long]4 s*ools & rise ( episcopal & mona/ic #cge-fjj ,nor!rn b>b>ians ov]run s*ools4 ! ,we/]n empire 9 s]ies ( invasions4 #ebe ,bo?ius di$1 ! la/ notable ,roman s*ol> :o knew ,greek4 #ebi ,clos+ ( philosophical ,s*ools at ,a!ns2 f\nd+ ( mona/ic s*ool by ,/4 ,b5$ict4 #fjj ,roman p[] almo/ entirely 9 h&s ( b>b>ians4 #fbb-gcb ,mohamm$ans conqu] ,arabia1 ,nor!rn ,africa1 & ,spa94 #dgf-hjj ,d>k ,ages4 #gcb ,mohamm$ans repuls$ at ! battle ( ,t\rs4 #fjj-hjj ,fusion took place among ,g]man & ,roman peoples4 #hjj ,empire ( ,*>lemagne f\nd$4 #hjj-ajjj ,b5$ict9e ,age3 only ,civilization high] ?an ! p]iod 9 ,we/]n ,europe ,g]man1 l[] ?an ! ,roman4 :5 education is entirely 9 h&s ( monks4 ,! ,palace s*ool2 episcopal1 ca!dral1 & mona/]y s*ools4 7,erig5a1 #haj-hhj1 ! =]unn] ( ,s*ola/icism47 #ijj-ajjj ,empire ( ,*>lemagne #ijj-ajjj ,d>k c5tury ) brok5 up4 ,demoralization4 decl9e ( le>n+4 ,invasions by ,danes & ,nor?m5 f ! nor?2 ,s>ac5s ,,9 ,,! ,,e>ly ,,p]iod ,,& ,,! f s\? by sea2 ,slavs1 ,,transitional ,,p]iod ,,little ,hung>ians1 ,russians1 & ,poles ,,( ,,plato ,,0 ,,kn[n ,,except by l&4 ,! *ur* demoraliz$1 ,,9 ,,! ,,=m ,,( ,,neo-,,platonism ,papacy tempor>ily disappe>s1 ,,& ,,little ,,( ,,ari/otle feudalism replaces empire4 ,,except ,,( ,,fragm5ts ,,( ,,8 ,,logic4 ,,ii4 ,transitional ,p]iod1 #ajjj-abjj4 #ajjj ,france & ,g]many get _! ,fir/ ,s*ola/icism4 fir/ =m z nations j 7,anselm1 #ajcc-aaji7 be=e ?is ye>2 ,engl& j 7,roscell9us1 d4 #aaaj7 aft]4 ,beg9n+ ( new bir? 7,abel>d1 #ajgi-aadb7 ( ,europe1 caus$ by conv]sions ( nor!rn nations1 #ajjj ,passion = inquiry takes by enlight5$ rule ( ! ! place ( ! old r\t9e4 ,ottos1 by reg5]ation ( ,papacy1 by developm5t ( civic #aafj-abjj ,traces ( ! life4 orig9ation ( ! e>lie/ ,beg9n+ ( political ord]1 univ]sities4 ecclesia/ical discipl9e1 & social tranquillity4 #aaej-abej ,translation into ,revival ( ar*itecture ,lat9 directly f ,greek foll[$ by r5ewal ( art4 ,! ( ! works ( ,ari/otle1 ,romanesque appe>$ ab\t #ajjj1 previ\sly unkn[n 9 ,we/]n ! ,go?ic ab\t #aaej4 ,poetry ,europe4 ( ,tr\vres 9 nor? & ( ,tr\bad\rs 9 s\?4 ,,iii4 ,p]iod ( ,classic ,s*ola/icism1 #abjj-adec4 #abjj ,crusades at _! height4 #abjj ,! ,m5dicant ,fri>s4 ,classic ,s*ola/icism4 #abjj-adec ,comm]ce ( ,europe ) 7,?omas ,aqu9as1 #abbd-abgd47 ,asia beg9s to gr[ to l>ge 7,duns ,scotus1 #abgj-acjh47 proportions 9 c\ntries on ! 7,william ( ,ockam1 ,m$it]ranean4 ,! ,?ird ,e/ate #abhj-acdi47 gr[s 9 /r5g?1 national gov]nm5ts prevail ov] ! #acjj-adec ,! p]iod is well feudal sy/em4 suppli$ ) s*ools4 #acej-adec ,det]ioration ( ,s*ola/icism4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,! ,,e>ly ,,p]iod ,,( ,,! ,,middle ,,ages 7#dgf-ajjj7 ,! ,g5]al ,"* ( ! ,e>ly ,p]iod4 ,x is no accid5t t ^! five hundr$ ye>s ( ! ,middle ,ages 7 spirituali/ic4 ,bo? ! political di/urbances & ! intellectual inh]itance f ! ,hell5ic-,roman p]iod made ! p]iod su*4 ,! tr\bles dur+ ! long dea? agony ( ! ,roman empire _h depriv$ ! p ( _! int]e/ 9 ?is _w4 ,! _w ( k+doms & mat]ial ?+s pres5t$ no ideals2 & ! age w\ld h be5 pessimi/ic _h n ! ,*ur* ?r\gh ,augu/9e pres5t$ a heav5ly ideal & ! means to w9 t ideal4 ,bo? :at ! mat]ial _w _h tak5 away f man & :at ! spiritual seem$ to (f] him1 made ! age an age ( fai?4 ,! pr9ciple ( inn] spirituality 0 mov$ to a c5tral position4 ,all ?+s po9t$ to ! sup]natural & ! transc5d5t4 ,m5 dwelt ^u ! nature ( ,god1 ! numb] & rank ( ! angels1 ! salvation ( ! s\l4 ,9 ?is1 z 9 ! ,transitional ,p]iod foll[+1 little 0 kn[n ( ,ari/otle except "s fragm5ts ( 8 logic2 & little 0 kn[n ( ,plato except 9 ! =m ( neo-,platonism4 ,b 9 ?is p]iod 7be=e ! ye> #ajjj7 ! pupil 0 in/ruct$ 9 bo? ,ari/otle & ,plato1 & held !m bo? toge!r )\t controv]sy4 ,my/icism _h little indep5d5ce ( *ur* doctr9e1 z appe>s 9 ! case ( ,erig5a1 ! consequ5ces ( ^: doctr9e 7 n at fir/ se54 ,! mona/]y became ! fundam5tal social organization & ! c5tral social =ce4 ,organiz$ ascetic life p]mitt$ an absorb+ contemplation ( heav54 ,pray] sup]s$$ ?\ght2 fai? prescrib$ k4 ,! intellectual _w 0 dom9at$ by neo-,platonic idealism1 & ! all-important topic 9 m5's m9ds 0 t ( ,god's grace4 ,augu/9e /ood at ! beg9n+ ( ! p]iod & organiz$ its conception ( grace = x4 ,erig5a /ood ne> ! end & /at$ ! neo-,platonism ( ! p]iod 9 extreme =m1 pres5t+ ! issue = ! s*ola/icism ( ! _m ye>s to come4 ,! pres5tation ( ! doctr9e ( ^! two m5 w !re=e be ! philosophical exemplification ( ! attitude ( ! "t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,m$i,,val ,,geography4 ,,! ,,cosmas ,,map1 ,a4 ,d4 #edg ,f ,j4 ,keane's ,evolution ( ,geography 7,cosmas 0 an ,egyptian monk :o _h once be5 a m]*ant & travel]4 ,he did n use ! records ( 8 own travels to supplem5t ! ,greek & ,roman plans1 b he laid d[n z a fact t ! e>? is flat4 ,!n he pi\sly adduc$ evid5ce f ! ,scriptures to support 8 view4 ,! maps drawn by ,cosmas are ! e>lie/ ,*ri/ian maps t h surviv$4 ,_! crud5ess1 comp>$ ) ! maps ( ! ,romans & ,arabs1 reveals ! l[ /ate ( k among ! ,*ri/ians47 ,! ,hi/orical ,position ( ,augu/9e4 ,! ,middle ,ages 7 inaugurat$ by a m9d ( ! highe/ ord]1,augu/9e4#di ,if "o 7 to select ! mo/ influ5tial figures 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 ,augu/9e might be *os5 to /& ) ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 ,sp9oza1 & ,kant4 8,9 "s respects ,augu/9e /&s ne>] to u ?an ,hegel & ,s*op5hau]40#ej ,= ! *ur*1 b no less = ! p]iod1 x 0 a =tunate circum/ance t ,augu/9e %\ld h liv$ j z antiquity 0 clos+ & ! m$ival p]iod beg9n+4 ,?r\gh him ! v>i\s influ5ces ( ! pa/ 7 ga!r$ up & pres5t$ 9 a sci5tific /atem5t = ! ,middle ,ages4 8,! hi/ory ( piety & ( dogma 9 ! ,we/ 0 s ?or\ghly dom9at$ by ,augu/9e f ! beg9n+ ( ! fif? c5tury to ! era ( ! ,re=mation1 t we mu/ take ?is :ole "t z =m+ "o p]iod40#ea ,9 8 relation to antiquity ,augu/9e drew especially ^u ! fundam5tal tea*+s ( ,/4 ,paul1 ! neo-,platoni/s1 & ! ,patri/ics = ! pres5tation ( 8 own doctr9e4 ,he 0 famili> ) a great numb] ( ! doctr9es ( antiquity1 & 0 ! m$ium ( _! transmission to ! ,middle ,ages4 ,he does n seem to h kn[n ! sy/em ( ,ari/otle1 b ! importance :i* he atta*$ to ! dialectic 9 ! explanation ( ! ,scriptures contribut$ a good deal to ! use ( ! logic ( ,ari/otle by ! s*ola/ics ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,he _h "s k ( ! ,py?agoreans1 ! ,/oics1 & ! ,epicureans ?r\gh ! writ+s ( ,cic]o4 ,b ! mo/ important philosophical influ5ce ^u ,augu/9e 0 ! neo-,platonic tea*+ ( ,plot9us & ,porphyry4 ,neo-,platonism1 ! ,paul9e !ology1 & ! ,patri/ic are ! l>ge factors 9 ! doctr9e ( ,augu/9e4 ,9 8 relation to ! ,middle ,ages1 :at 9 brief 0 ! position ( ,augu/9e8 ,by means ( neo-,platonism & a discrim9at+ psy*ological analysis he trans=m$ ! previ\s belief 9 ,god z a judge into a belief 9 ! p]sonal relations betwe5 ,god & man4 ,t is to say1 he c>ri$ out mono!ism spiritually1 & 9 do+ ?is ! influ5ce ( neo-,platonism is v /rong 9 him4 ,augu/9e made "o ( ! c5tres ( 8 tea*+ ! liv+ relation ( ! s\l to ,god4 ,he took religion out ( ! sph]e ( cosmological sci5ce1 :]e x _h be5 plac$ by ,orig5 & ! ,gno/ics1 & made x p]sonal4 ,fur!rmore1 he (f]$ ) ?is new ideal a plan ( salvation2 = ,augu/9e made x 8 task to %[ 7#a7 :at ,god is1 & 7#b7 :at ! salvation ( ! s\l requires4 ,:]eas be=e ,augu/9e ! only dogmatic s*eme _h pres5t$ ! place & function ( ,*ri/ 9 salvation1 ,augu/9e 0 int]e/$ 9 ! place ( man 9 salvation4 ,?us he elaborat$ mono!ism into spiritual mono!ism & del9eat$ ! inw>d processes ( ! ,*ri/ian life1 i4 e4 ( s9 & grace4 ,?is important advance made by ,augu/9e mu/ be attribut$ to ! influ5ce ( philosophyneo-,platonism^u him4 ,b x mu/ n be suppos$ t ! total tea*+ ( ,augu/9e & ! total influ5ce ( 8 ?\ght is conta9$ 9 ?is s+le *ange 9 ,*ri/ian piety1 z we h /at$ x4 ,! v>i\s ,pagan & ,*ri/ian elem5ts1 z !y lie 9 8 sy/em1 h little coh]5ce2 & ,augu/9e does n settle ! rival claims betwe5 !m4 ,z ! m$ival p]iod advanc$1 :at 9 8 tea*+ _h be5 a m]e incoh]5ce became 9 ! h&s ( o!rs positive discord4 ,he gave ! *ur* impulses ( ! highe/ spiritual quality1 b he left no well-organiz$ capital4 ,^! impulses t[>d spiritual piety h nev] be5 lo/1 b ! pr(usion ( ideas & views 9 ,augu/9e1 unh>moniz$ by himself1 7 also a p]man5t beque/ to po/]ity t produc$ bo? vital movem5ts & viol5t controv]sies4 ,! legal & moral p>ty ( ! *ur* resi/$ 8 tea*+ at ! beg9n+1 & 9 ! six? c5tury1 "u ! influ5ce ( ,gregory ! ,great1 ton$ d[n ,augu/9e's tea*+ 9 ! direction ( a conception ( ! *ur* z a juri/ic organization4 ,augu/9e 0 ?us ! beg9n] ( a new l9e ( developm5t by 8 incorporation ( neo-,platonism into ,*ri/ian doctr9e & by 8 use ( ! dialectic to pres5t1 def5d1 & develop ! doctr9e ( ! *ur*4 ,al?\gh ! ye>s ( 8 life fall 9 antiquity1 al?\gh he is ! collector ( all ! ?reads ( ! neo-,platonic & ,*ri/ian religions1 he belongs 9 ! ,middle ,ages z ! tea*] ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,8 doctr9e act$ z an au?oritative spiritual guide = ! new ,g]man peoples4 ,!y took up ! problems ( antiquity f ! new po9t ( view ( individual spirituality1 & creat$ out ( !m ! philosophy ( ! future4 ,b philosophically ,augu/9e 0 f> 9 advance ( 8 age1 & 9 ! intellectually torpid times t foll[$ him little philosophical developm5t c\ld be expect$4 ,n until aft] ,*>lemagne does philosophical developm5t spr++ f ,augu/9e appe>4 ,lat] ,lu!r & ! ,re=mation rev]t$ to him1 & our mod]n philosophy is f\nd$ on ! pr9ciple :i* he made c5tral 9 8 conception ( piety4 ,! ,secul> ,sci5ce4 ,at ! same "t x mu/ n be suppos$ t ! tea*+ ( ,augu/9e 0 by any means ! only s\rce f :i* ?is fir/ p]iod ( ! ,middle ,ages drew its mat]ials ( k4 ,a glance at ! li/ ( books 9 a m$ival libr>y 7see p4 #cbg7 w n confirm su* a supposition4 ,augu/9e does n include 9 8 doctr9emassive z x isall ! factors t f9ally made up m$ival civilization4 ,ev5 at ! beg9n+ !re 0 a t5d5cy t[>d secul> sci5ce d]iv$ f ,plato & ,ari/otle4 ,noticeable z ?is 0 at fir/ x became prom95t lat]4 ,secul> sci5ce tri$ at fir/ to modify s*ola/icism1 & !n lat] to ga9 an indep5d5ce = itself4 ,! doctr9e ( ,augu/9e did n conta9 ! g]ms ( sci5ce4 ,b at ! />t ! ,middle ,ages _h writ+s on sci5ce 9 ! inadequate comp5diums ( ,capella1 ,cassiodorus1 & ,bo?ius1 & 9 ! fragm5ts ( ! logic ( ,ari/otle4 ,! ,life ( ,augu/9e 7#ced-dcj74 ,aurelius ,augu/9e1 (t5 call$ 8! ,plato ( ,*ri/ianity10 0 born 9 ,?aga/e1 ,numidia4 ,8 fa!r 0 a ,pagan1 8 "m a ,*ri/ian2 & x 0 8 "m :o contribut$ *iefly to ! =mation ( 8 "*4 ,he 0 a boy ( brilliant gifts1 & 0 educat$ 9 ! s*ools ( ,madaura & ,c>?age4 ,at ,c>?age 8 life 0 full ( dissipation1 :i* he has describ$ 9 8 ,confessions4 ,he took up 9 succession all ! sci5tific & religi\s problems ( 8 "t4 ,he gave up ! tea*+ ( rhetoric1 :i* he _h practic$ 9 sev]al t[ns 9 ,asia ,m9or & ,italy1 & began to /udy !ology4 ,he 0 tr\bl$ by 8 religi\s d\bts & tri$ to f9d relief fir/ 9 ,mani*ism1 !n 9 ! skepticism ( ! ,academy1 & !n 9 neo-,platonism4 ,he 0 conv]t$ to ,*ri/ianity ?r\gh ?ree influ5ces3 8 /udy ( ,plato1 ! eloqu5ce ( ,/4 ,ambrose1 & ! unremitt+ moral influ5ce ( 8 "m4 ,he became a prie/1 !n a bi%op1 & 0 untir+ 9 8 activity bo? 9 ! practical organization ( ! *ur* & 9 ! !oretical con/ruction ( its doctr9es4 ,he 0 especially active 9 8 lit]>y attempts to refute ! ,pelagian & ,mani*an h]esies1 ^: doctr9es he _h previ\sly pr(ess$4 ,8 life falls at ! "t :5 ! b>b>ian invasions 7 beg9n+ & :5 ,rome 0 crumbl+4 ,mov$ by 8 ,platonic idealism1 he wrote 8 ,city ( ,god1 :i*1 9 an elaborate philosophy ( hi/ory1 %[s t ,god's city is n on e>?1 b 9 heav54 ,! ,two ,elem5ts 9 ,augu/9e's ,tea*+4 ,! great masses ( ?\ght 9 ,augu/9e's m9d reveal motion 9 two directions4 ,on ! "o h&1 he is ! !ologian :o holds on high ! conception ( ! au?ority ( ! *ur*4 ,on ! o!r h&1 he is ! philosoph] :o speaks = ! pr9ciple ( imm$iate c]ta9ty = ! individual4 ,^! are two foci ab\t :i* 8 ?\ght is 9 con/ant flux & (t5 9 contradiction4 ,augu/9e has1 !re=e1 two crit]ia = tru?3 ! tru? t comes f an au?ority )\t1 & ! tru? t comes f consci\sness itself4 ,! au?ority ( ! *ur* & ! au?ority ( ! imm$iate consci\sness ( ! individual^! are ! two c5tral ?\ghts 9 ,augu/9ianism4 ,augu/9e's conception ( ! au?ority ( ! *ur* act$ ^u him z a l(ty ideal :i* bo? inspir$ & at ! same "t con/ra9$ 8 speculations4 ,z he grew old] he gravitat$ m & m t[>d x1 & !reby became m cons]vative4 ,b x 0 ! o!r c5tral ?\ght! au?ority ( imm$iate consci\sness:i* he made ! basis ( a philosophy ( orig9al p[]4 ,?r\gh ?is he transc5d$ 8 own "t & became himself a mod]n1 lead+ ! ,middle ,ages up to him4 ,augu/9e did n def9e accurately ! sph]es ( philosophy & !ology4 ,he did n %[ :e!r reason or revelation _h ! high] au?ority4 ,he did n try to decide betwe5 ! intelligo ut cr$am & cr$o ut intelligam1 t is1 betwe5 ! respective au?orities ( reason & fai?4 ,t became1 9 consequ5ce1 a c5tral philosophical problem = ! s*oolm54 ,nev]!less1 ! great inh]itance :i* ,augu/9e left ! _w 0 along ! philosophical l9e ( intelligo ut cr$am 7( k z ! basis ( fai? in/ead ( fai? z ! basis ( k74 ,! ,neo-,platonic ,elem5t3 ! ,inn] ,c]ta9ties ( ,consci\sness4 ,augu/9e 0 n orig9al 9 mak+ ! />t+-po9t ( 8 philosophy ! inn] c]ta9ties ( consci\sness4 ,t 0 ! po9t ( view ( 8 "t1 & ! />t+-po9t ( ! ascetic t5d5cy bo? ( ,*ri/ianity & ( neo-,platonism4 ,he 0 dissatisfi$ ) ! _w )\t1 & turn$ away f x to ! _w )9 to f9d reality4 ,b ?is _h be5 a gr[+ t5d5cy ev] s9ce ! "t ( ,plato4 ,augu/9e's orig9ality lies 9 8 psy*ological description ( ^! c]ta9ties4 ,he is ! ma/] ( self-obs]vation & introspection4 ,he c describe inn] exp]i5ces z well z analyze !m4 ,he puts 8 philosophy ^u a solid an?ropological basis by develop+ a psy*ology ( ! c]ta9ties ( consci\sness4 ,9 do+ ?is he plac$ ! inn] exp]i5ce 9 ! c5tral position ( control4 ,?us he rea*$ a well-def9$ position ( 8int]nality0 = :i* ! ,/oics1 ,epicureans1 neo-,platoni/s1 & ! prec$+ ,*ri/ian !ologians _h be5 grop+2 ?us he anticipat$ ,desc>tes & mod]n philosophy4 ,man cl+s to life 9 spite ( all its evils4 ,?is %[s t !re is a reality = ! s\l4 ,! mat]ial _w may pass away1 b ! reality ( s\l-life is assur$4 ,man's inn] life is ev] pres5t & _c be imag9>y4 ,! fact t !re is su* a ?+ z probability implies ! exi/5ce ( c]ta9ty4 ,:]e %all ,i look = c]ta9ty8 ,9 myself4 ,c]ta9ty is !re z a fact ( inn] obs]vation4 ,!re are my inn] m5tal /atesmy s5sations1 feel+s1 etc41 ^: exi/5ce _c be d\bt$ ev5 if ! exi/5ce ( ! objects to :i* !y correspond is d\bt$4 ,i am c]ta9 also ( my own consci\sness at t mom5t4 ,to d\bt my exi/5ce is to ass]t my exi/5ce4 ,to d\bt also implies t ,i w rememb]1 live= d\bt re/s ^u ^! =m] ideas4 ,! tempor>y "* ( ! mat]ial _w only /r5g!ns ! reality ( ?is inn] _w4 ,! exi/5ce ( ! mat]ial _w _c be demon/rat$1 & s man is driv5 inw>d to f9d a basis = its reality4 ,?us by a deep insight1 al?\gh )\t mu* logical reason+1 ,augu/9e transc5ds ,ari/otle1 & anticipates mod]n ?\ght by f9d+ reality 9 ! unit>y p]sonality1 ^: exi/5ce is an inn] c]ta9ty4 ,b ,augu/9e is driv5 f>!r inw>d2 = ! c]ta9ty ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god is involv$ 9 ?is inn] c]ta9ty4 ,my d\bt ab\t ! "* ( ! _w ( mat]ial ?+s implies t _! tru? exi/s & t ,i h ! capacity = measur+ x4 ,su* tru?s are univ]sal4 ,!y transc5d ! individual consci\sness1 & _! mutual agreem5t unites all rational be+s 9 a common /&>d4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ?is unity ( tru?s implies ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,tru?s are ! ,ideas 7,platonic7 9 ,god's m9d4#eb ,full k ( ,god is d5i$ to man 9 ?is life1 b1 nev]!less1 all morality consi/s 9 love = ,god2 all sci5ce is only an int]e/ 9 ! work+ ( ,god 9 nature2 all ! beauty 9 ! _w ar\nd u po9ts to ! h>moni\s ord]+ ( ,god2 ! hi/ory ( ! _w is only ! free act ( ,god4 ,?us1 9 brief1 does ,augu/9e c5tralize ! pr9ciple ( inn] spirituality( 8int]nality40 ,?us does he put into control ! c]ta9ty ( consci\sness4 ,?is 0 ,augu/9e's great contribution to ! _w bo? 9 ! sph]e ( philosophy & religion4 ,we %all see h[ important ?is pr9ciple is 9 our trac+ ( mod]n philosophy4 ,its importance ^u ! gr[? ( religion 0 s v great t we _c pass x by )\t rem>k4 8,augu/9e 0 ! re=m] ( ,*ri/ian piety40 ,9 ! mid/ ( religion he discov]$ religion4 ,he look$ into ! human he>t & f\nd x to be ! l[] good2 he look$ to ,god & f\nd ,him to be ! high] good4 ,9 love = ,god1 man becomes exalt$ to ano!r be+4 ,?is is ! 8new bir?40 ,by ?is p]sonal religion nature & grace are sep>at$1 b morality & religion are unit$4 ,s9 is ! disposition to be indep5d5t by liv+ 9 a /ate ( unre/ 9 ! desires4 ,s9 is a /ate ( lu/ & fe>4 ,all is s9 9 ! he>t ( ! natural man9 ! he>t ap>t f ,god4 ,! pre-,augu/9ian religion ( morality & baptism1 animat$ by hope & fe>1 0 supplant$ by him ) ! conception ( ! desire to be happy by %>+ 9 ! bliss ( ,god4 ,augu/9e pass$ f ,*ri/ian pessimism to ,*ri/ian optimism1 to a confid5ce 9 p>don+ grace4 ,by fai? & love ,god calls u back to himself & ! s\l acquires :at ,god requires4 ,religion is p]sonal & a ?+ ( ! he>t4 8,love1 unfeign$ humility1 & /r5g? to ov]come ! _w1 ^! are ! elem5ts ( religion & its bless$ness2 !y spr+ f ! actual possession ( ! lov+ ,god4 ,?is message ,augu/9e prea*$ to ! ,*ri/ianity ( 8 "t & ( all times40#ec ,b ,augu/9e philosophically breaks ) 8 own ,platonism at "o po9t1 & f9ds n 9 ! intellect1 b 9 ! w1 ! prim>y *>act]i/ic ( ?is consci\sness ( inn] c]ta9ty4 ,! w is ! inmo/ core ( our be+4 ,all our m5tal /ates are =m$ "u ! direction ( ! purposes ( ! w4 ,! /rik+ exception to ?is is ! cognition ( ! high] div9e tru?1 9 ! pres5ce ( :i* ! m9d c be only passive4 ,revelation _c be ! production ( ! f9ite activity1 b x is an act ( grace be=e :i* ! w is expectant & passive4 ,k ( ! div9e tru?s ( ! reason is ! bless$ness t results f ! w ( ,god & n ( man4 ,! w ( man is trans=m$ into fai?1 & yet ev5 !n an elem5t ( ! human w is pres5t1 al?\gh passive1 = ! appropriation ( ! tru? is an act ( w4 ,?us1 9 reg>d to ?is difficult subject ( ! nature ( ! w1 !re are two obs]vations to be made3 7#a7 ,augu/9e conceives ! w1 memory1 & intellect z s intimately relat$ z n to be faculties ( ! p]sonality l ! prop]ties ( a sub/ance4 ,!y r =m an indissoluble unity ( ! sub/ance ( ! s\l4 7#b7 ,! w is !oretically free1 & ,augu/9e is "o ( ! mo/ =cible def5d]s ( free-w because he is also a def5d] ( e?ical responsibility & ! ju/ice ( ,god4 ,!oretically ! w is a =ce exi/+ above s5su\s nature & =mally possesses ! capacity ( foll[+ or resi/+ incl9ation4 ,actually x is nev] free to *oose1 b x has ! high] function ( be+ det]m9$ by ! ,good4 ,only ! good w is free4#ed ,! ,au?ority ( ! ,*ur* accord+ to ,augu/9e4 ,) ! fall ( anci5t ,rome1 ! *ur* 0 h>d press$1 = ! "y peoples :o came into ! *ur* 7 ,arian & ! only ,g]man ,ca?olic nation 0 ! ,franks4 ,augu/9e 0 a man ( vigor1 b he seem$ to lack ! peculi> p[] ( =c+ ! *ur* to adopt z dogma ! tru?s = :i* he /ood4 ,he always submitt$ himself absolutely to ! tradition ( ! *ur*1 & yet 9 a g5]al way he accompli%$ two ?+s = ! *ur* at l>ge3 7#a7 ,he e/abli%$ tradition z ! au?ority & law ( ! *ur*2 7#b7 ,he (f]$ ! *ur* a sci5tifically con/ruct$ plan ( salvation4 ,!re n[ appe>s 9 ,augu/9e's tea*+ ! second c5tre ar\nd :i* ! masses ( 8 ?\ght gr\p !mselves4 ,?is is 8 conception ( ! *ur* 9 its au?ority & law4 ,"h is ! pr9ciple ( univ]sality& hi/orical univ]sality& x runs c\nt] to ! pr9ciple ( spiritual individualism :i* 8 psy*ological analysis _h built up4 ,augu/9e is j z vigor\s a *ampion ( ! idea ( ! *ur* z ! means to salvation z he is *ampion ( ! individual c]ta9ty ( tru?4 ,! two anti!tical propositions lie toge!r 9 8 m9d4 ,z a pieti/1 he 0 an individuali/2 z a prie/1 he 0 a loyal subject to dogma4 ,we h discuss$ 8 tea*+ z x c5tr$ ab\t man2 n[ ! discussion c5tres ab\t ,god z repres5t$ by ,8 *ur*4 ,9 practical life ! w ( man is important1 b 9 ! et]nal life ! c5tral influ5ce is ! grace ( ,god4 ,betwe5 ! w ( man & ! grace ( ,god !re is a *asm4 ,?is is felt ! m by ,augu/9e1 & ! necessity ( a ,god-c5tr$ doctr9e seems ! great]1 :5 he beholds ! contra/ betwe5 ! p]fectness ( ,god & ! evil _w ( m54 ,evil n[ appe>s to him z a great /ream fl[+ ?r\gh ! _w4 ,humanity is by nature void ( ,god4 ,!oretically man is free1 b 9 ! actual _w he is *a9$ to 8 s5ses & to s94 ,adam1 ! fir/ man1 alone c\ld h possess$ fre$om2 b ,adam 9 8 fre$om s9n$1 & 8 s9 0 t ( ! :ole human race4 ,s9 is !re=e orig9al to all m5 n[ liv+1 & no man p]sonally des]ves salvation1 h[ev] m]itori\s 8 conduct4 ,moreov]1 z ! result ( ,adam's s91 all m5 w\ld be damn$ 7 x n = ! grace ( ,god4 ,! ,god-man by dea? br\ght p[] to repl5i% empty humanity ) div9e love4 ,div9e love is ! beg9n+1 middle1 & end ( salvation4 ,out ( ?is love ,god has s5t ,8 ,son & f\nd$ ,8 *ur*4 ,univ]sal man di$1 & only univ]sal man c save4 ,belief 9 ,*ri/ is ! only means ( salvation1 yet belief 9 ,*ri/ comes only by ,god's grace1 & div9e grace is n condition$ on human wor?9ess4 ,?us x is only by grace ev5 n[ t man is sav$2 & no inju/ice w\ld be done to m5 7 all damn$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 div9e ju/ice dem&s t "s m5 at lea/ %\ld be exclud$ f salvation 9 ord] t ! puni%m5t = ,adam's s9 be p]man5tly ma9ta9$4 ,! *oice ( ! favor$ ones dep5ds entirely ^u ! unse>*able decree ( ,god4 ,^! are elect$ z monum5ts ( ,8 lov+ grace1 :ile ! o!rs are elect$ to be damn$ z monum5ts ( ,8 ju/ice4 ,! app>5t calamity to ! majority ( mank9d only %[s ! goodness ( ,god ! m4 ,=1 9 ! fir/ place1 evil is n positive l ! good4 ,x is only negative & primitive! abs5ce ( ! good4 ,! condemnation ( ! wick$ is !re=e no defect 9 ?is !ocratic sy/em4 ,9 ! second place1 ! wick$ only receive ju/ice1 = ! salvation ( only a few is a gratuit\s act ( love1 :i* te/ifies to ,god's m]cy4 ,b1 aft] all1 x is ! integrity ( ! :ole spiritual imp]ial gov]nm5t ( ,god t is ! important ?+ to consid]4 ,! ,k+ is law & goodness1 & all ,8 subjects are te/imonies ( ,8 magnific5t p[]4 ,! ,d>k ,ages 7#dgf-hjj74 ,! traditional e/imate ( ! ,middle ,ages z altoge!r 8d>k0 has be5 revis$ by mod]n s*ol>s4 ,! p]iod n[ call$ ! ,d>k ,ages has be5 re/rict$ to ! ?ree hundr$ ye>s betwe5 ! fall ( old ,rome 7#dgf7 & ! f\nd+ ( ! empire by ,*>lemagne 7#hjj74 ,moreov]1 x is n[ ?\ght t ev5 9 t p]iod ! intellectual conditions 7 bett] 9 ,italy ?an nor? ( ! ,alps4 ,9 nor!rn ,italy ! lay tea*] seems always to h exi/$2 & education nev] to h fall5 entirely into ! h&s ( ! mona/]y z x did 9 nor!rn ,europe betwe5 #hjj & #ajjj4 ,aft] #hjj ! cont5t ( education nor? & s\? ( ! ,alps seems to h be5 diff]5t4 ,ev]y:]e1 to be sure1 education 0 compris$ by ! 8sev5 lib]al arts10 b ! emphasis 9 ! two regions 0 diff]5t4 ,nor? ( ! ,alps ! dialectic 0 made important1 & !ology & logic fl\ri%$4 ,9 ,italy ! emphasis 0 ^u gramm> & rhetoric1 & 8lit]>y ,paganism0 0 always kept alive4 ,?us1 :5 ! revival came 9 #abjj1 x appe>$ 9 ! =m ( !ological controv]sy nor? ( ! ,alps1 :ile 9 ,italy 9 ! =m ( legal sci5ce4 ,! analysis 9 ! summ>y ( ! ,middle ,ages giv5 above 7see p4 #ccj7 applies m tru?fully to ! nor!rn c\ntries ?an to ,italy4 ,at ! same "t x is m p]t95t to ! hi/ory ( ?\ght1 = 9 ^! nor!rn regions1 especially at ,p>is1 m$ival philosophy 0 develop$4 ,nev]!less1 x is easy = ! mod]n s*ol> to g too f> 9 try+ to play fair ) ! ,middle ,ages4 ,! fir/ ?ree c5turies ( ?is "t 7 a ,d>k ,age ev]y:]e 9 ,europe4 ,wave aft] wave ( b>b>ian invasion swept ov] ! l&4 ,x is n s mu* a matt] ( surprise t f\r hundr$ ye>s lie betwe5 ! fir/ two philosoph]s1b ! matt] ( surprise is t !re 7 any philosophical fruits :atev]4 ,9 ?is respect ! ye> #ebi is significantsignificant bo? 9 po9t+ backw>d to anci5t culture & also 9 po9t+ =w>d to ! feeble ef=t to reta9 "s ( t culture4 ,9 #ebi ,ju/9ian aboli%$ ! philosophical ,s*ools at ,a!ns2 9 #ebi also1 ,/4 ,b5$ict f\nd$ 8 mona/ic s*ool at ,monte ,cass9o 7ne> ,naples74 ,^! two ev5ts /& = ! dea? ( antiquity & ! bir? ( m$ival life4 ,9 ?is beg9n+ ( ! mona/ic movem5t by ,/4 ,b5$ict 9 we/]n ,europe 0 lodg$1 z x turn$ out1 ! hope ( education = ! m$ival man4 ,dur+ ! two hundr$ ye>s betwe5 ! ye> #hjj & ! ye> #ajjj m$ival education 0 entirely 9 ! h&s ( ! monks4 ,! ,revival ( ,*>lemagne 7#hjj-ijj74 ,! d>kness ( ! ,e>ly ,p]iod ( ! ,middle ,ages is brok5 by ! some:at abortive r5aissance ( ,*>lemagne4 ,connect$ ) ?is revival is ! "n ( ,john ,scotus ,erig5a 7#haj-hhj74 ,note t dur+ ^! five hundr$ ye>s !re are only two notable philosoph]s1 ,augu/9e & ,erig5a4 ,note t a span ( f\r hundr$ ye>s lies betwe5 !m4 ,also note t ! fir/ philosoph]1 ,augu/9e1 0 a ,roman & ! second1 ,erig5a1 0 an ,iri%man4 ,!reby hangs a tale4 ,dur+ all ^? long c5turies ( ! ,d>k ,ages aft] ,augu/9e & until ,*>lemagne1 ! light ( sci5ce %one sc>cely 9 nor?we/]n ,europe4 ,9 ! :ole we/]n hemisph]e !re 7 only ?ree places :]e le>n+ prosp]$3 "o 0 9 ! f> ea/1 among ! ,arabians2 ano!r 0 at ,con/ant9ople2 ! ?ird 0 9 ! f> we/1 9 ,brita94 ,?us x 0 f ,brita9 t ,*>lemagne _h to call 8 educators1 ,alcu9 & ,clem5t1 to promote le>n+ among ! ,franks2 & x 0 f ,brita91 too1 t 8 successor1 ,*>les ! ,bald1 call$ ! ,iri%man1 ,erig5a1 = ! same purpose4 ,dur+ ! r5aissance ( ! great ,*>les & 8 successors1 ,iri% s*ol>s c\ld be f\nd 9 e mona/]y & ca!dral 9 ! empire4 ,! tea*+ 0 soon call$ ! 8,iri% le>n+40 ,/ill x mu/ be said 9 qualification t ! r5aissance at ! c\rt ( ,*>lemagne 0 a r *ildi% attempt to unite antiquity ) !ology4 ,except+ 9 ! case ( ,scotus ,erig5a1 ! revival 0 v feeble4 ,x consi/$ ( a new ef=t to und]/& ,augu/9e1 to ma/] ! simple/ rules ( logic1 & to ?9k out dogma by means ( ,hell5ism4 ,! p]iod f #hjj to #ajjj is call$ ! ,b5$ict9e ,age1 because le>n+ 0 entirely 9 ! h&s ( ! ,b5$ict9e monks4 ,f ! impulse giv5 by ! ,iri% s*ol>s _m celebrat$ mona/ic & ca!dral s*ools orig9at$1 l ^? ( ,t\rs1 ,fulda1 ,rheims1 ,*>tres1 & ! s*ool at ,p>is4 ,f ! _m mona/ic s*ools em]ge ! names ( ,alcu9 ( ,york1 ,rhabanus ,maurus ( ,fulda1 & ,g]b]t at ,rheims4 ,b among ^! s*ol>s ! only "o ( philosophical importance is ,john ,scotus ,erig5a4 ,john ,scotus ,erig5a 7#haj-hhj73 ,life & ,tea*+4 ,:5 8 contempor>ies 7 only lisp+ at philosophy & 8 imm$iate successors 7 absorb$ 9 disconnect$ problems1 ,erig5a work$ out a connect$ sy/em4 ,l ,augu/9e1 ,erig5a /ood f> 9 advance ( 8 age4 ,he 0 n only ! "o great ?9k] ( ! revival ( ,*>lemagne1 b he 0 "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable p]sonalities ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,born 9 ,irel&1 he _h ! b5efit ( an education 9 ! s*ools ( t c5tre ( le>n+1 :i* he c\ld n h obta9$ on ! cont95t ( ,europe4 ,9 #hec he 0 call$ by ,*>les ! ,bald to c>ry on ! "w begun by ,alcu9 "u ,*>lemagne4 ,?ree c5turies aft] 8 dea? ! *ur* condemn$ him z a h]etic 7#abji7 on acc\nt ( 8 writ+s on pr$e/9ation & transub/antiation4 ,8 le>n+ 0 s great t he has be5 call$ 8! ,orig5 ( ! ,nor?40 ,he read ,greek1 & ?is 0 a r>e accompli%m5t 9 ^? days1 = ev5 ,alcu9 sc>cely knew ! ,greek alphabet4 ,8 mo/ notable orig9al "w is ,de ,divisione ,naturae1 :i* 0 neo-,platonism 9 ,*ri/ian dress4 ,8 mo/ influ5tial "w 0 8 translation ( ! pseudo-,dionysius1 ! ,areopagite4 ,x prov$1 9 fact1 to be "o ( ! mo/ influ5tial books ( ?is p]iod1 & 0 in/rum5tal on acc\nt ( its l>ge circulation 9 propagat+ neo-,platonism 9 ! ,middle ,ages4 ,erig5a 0 nei!r a s*ola/ic nor a dialectical !ologian4 ,he nei!r assail$ nor def5d$ *ur* doctr9e4 ,he calmly pu%$ neo-,platonism to ! bord]s ( pan!ism4 ,he 0 an ,iri%man ) a ,greek m9d1 a neo-,platoni/ "u ! veil ( a ,*ri/ian my/ic4 ,no *ur*man ev] express$ neo-,platonism s frankly4 ,! writ+s f :i* ,erig5a got 8 doctr9e are call$ ! ,pseudo-,dionysius writ+s because ! au?or%ip 0 falsely attribut$ to a companion ( ,/4 ,paul1 ,dionysius ! ,areopagite4 ,!y 71 h[ev]1 probably writt5 9 ! fif? c5tury1 = !y are ess5tially neo-,platonic & bord] on pan!ism4 ,erig5a translat$ !m at ! reque/ ( ,*>les ! ,bald1 & _! appe>ance produc$ great a/oni%m5t 9 ,europe 7#heh-hfj74 ,erig5a's own "w1 ,de ,divisione ,naturae1 is an extreme pan!i/ic /atem5t ( ! doctr9e 9 ! ,pseudo-,dionysius4 ,briefly /at$ ,erig5a's tea*+ is z foll[s4 ,god is an incompreh5sible be+ & c be describ$ only 9 negative t]ms 7negative !ology74 7,see *apt] on ,philo47 ,god is ! same z ,be+ or ,nature1 & ,he unfolds ,himself z a f\rfold s]ies4 ,^! are3 ,god1 ! _w 9 ,god1 ! _w outside ,god1 ,god aft] ! _w has return$ to ,him4 ,god conta9s 9 ,himself ?r\gh ! ,logos all ! primordial types ( ?+s =m$ be=e creation4 ,creation is ! logical unfold+ ( p>ticul>s f ! univ]sal4 ,immortality consi/s 9 ! p>ticul>s aga9 becom+ univ]sal4 ,9 ! types ( ?+s ,god is creat+ ,himself1 & !y are grad$ f ,god d[n to concrete objects4 ,b all w f9ally return to ,god1 & ,erig5a ?\ght he f\nd analogies ( ?is return ev]y:]e 9 nature4 ,! ,greek ,pr9ciple :i* ,erig5a =mulat$ = ! ,middle ,ages4 ,^! details ( ! tea*+ ( ,erig5a are unimportant except z !y ?r[ light ^u t ,greek und]ly+ pr9ciple :i* he =mulat$ = ! ,middle ,ages4 ,! ,real is ! ,univ]sal4 ,! m univ]sal a ?+ is1 ! m real & !re=e ! m p]fect x is4 ,if we h an idea ( a univ]sal1 t univ]sal has exi/5ce because x is univ]sal4 ,! idea ( ,god is univ]sal1 !re=e ,god exi/s4 ,! idea ( ! _w is a univ]sal1 b n s univ]sal z ! idea ( ,god1 & !re=e n s surely exi/5t4 ,b ! idea ( ! _w has m reality ?an ! idea ( a tree4 ,m$ival philosophy becomes f ?is "t on a logical !ism4 ,9 ! case ( ,erig5a x is a logical pan!ism4 ,! _w is a logical mosaic4 ,real dep5d5ce is logical dep5d5ce1 & :at we 9 mod]n times call ! causes & effects betwe5 natural objects are reg>d$ by ! ,middle ,ages z suffici5tly expla9$ if put 9 logical arrangem5t4 ,?is is ! core ( m$ival ?9k+1 & ! /ud5t w fail to und]/& ! civilization ( ! ,middle ,ages unless he grasps ?is c5tral pr9ciple4 ,b ?is realiz+ ( ! logical univ]sal is ,greek & betrays ! fundam5tally ,greek "* ( m$ival civilization4 ,! objective spiritual *ur* has m]ely tak5 ! place ( objective nature4 ,m$ival hi/ory is a conflict betwe5 ,greek univ]salism & ! ,*ri/ian conception ( ! individual4 ,9 ,erig5a ! ,greek elem5t appe>$ 9 ov]:elm+ dom9ance4 ,erig5a is a small] ,augu/9e,augu/9e uncontroll$ by great masses ( ?\ght & un9spir$ by practical ideals ( build+ up ! *ur*4 ,erig5a is a 8belat$ ,gno/ic40 ,:y 0 x t 8 neo-,platonic pan!ism did n ov]come entirely ! individuali/ic elem5t 9 ,*ri/ian dogma8 ,:y1 on ! contr>y1 did x br+ out f>-rea*+ issues ( conflict :5 a c5tury lat] ! significance ( 8 tea*+ 0 und]/ood8 ,because inh]5tly & fundam5tally 9 ! nature ( ! ,g]man peoples1 z appe>+ 9 _! cu/oms & laws1 0 ! conviction ( ! rights ( ! individual p]sonality4 ,9 ! tea*+ ( ! ,*ri/ian fa!rs ! elem5t ( ! spiritual p]sonality f\nd a deep e*o 9 ! ,g]man nature4 ,! ,g]man c\ld tol]ate & did actually live "u ! lat] *ur* doctr9e ( a mod]ate realism2 b ! measur$ calm ( ! ,greek pan!i/ic conception ( ,erig5a depriv$ ! ,g]man ( all 8 inh]it$ ideals4 ,?us :5 intellectual activity 0 ar\s$ a c5tury lat]1 ! conflict became hot ov] ! issue 9 ,erig5a's doctr9e4 ,erig5a 0 ! =]unn] ( ! s*ola/ics4 ,x 0 he :o toss$ ! apple ( discord among ! ?9k]s ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,! ,la/ ,c5tury ( ! ,e>ly ,p]iod 7#ijj-ajjj74 ,! c5tury foll[+ ,erig5a 0 "o ( demoralization4 ,all le>n+ decl9$ ) ! r5ew$ invasions f ! nor?1 ea/1 & we/4 ,! empire ( ,*>lemagne 0 brok5 up & ! ,papacy tempor>ily disappe>$4 ,!re is a p]si/5t tradition t ! ,*ri/ians at ?is "t believ$ ! end ( ! _w to be ne>4 ,?is has be5 prov$ to be a leg5d1 b back ( x lies ! tru? t !re 0 a fre% rise ( piety :i* la/$ until #acjj4 ,) ?is movem5t we ent] ^u ! next p]iod ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,! ,,transitional ,,p]iod 7#ajjj-abjj7 ,! ,g5]al ,"* ( ! ,transitional ,p]iod4 ,! fir/ c5tury ( ! ,transitional ,p]iod 0 z diff]5t f ! la/ c5tury ( ! ,e>ly ,p]iod 9 its intellectual attitude & emotional tone z c be imag9$4 ,x 0 ! c5tury ( ! new bir? ( ,europea c5tury :5 ! beg9n+ ( political ord] 0 accompani$ by a passion = inquiry4 ,! _s ( pietism took possession ( all in/itutions& 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury ! m$ival sy/em seem$ to h rea*$ its p]fect =m4 ,! ,transitional ,p]iod gives mean+ to ! ,crusades4 8,if ev] ideals 7 c>ri$ out 9 ! _w & ga9$ dom9ion ov] s\ls1 x happ5$ !n40#ee 8,x 0 z if ! _w _h ca/ aside its old g>m5t & clo!d itself 9 ! :ite robe ( ! *ur*40#ef ,! ardor ( ! ,crusades 0 ! specific expression ( ?is religi\s revival4 ,all ! p5t-up en]gies ( ! previ\s m$ival life 7 pass+ ?r\gh a rapid p]iod ( gr[?4 ,philosophically ?is p]iod is ! "t :5 neo-,platonic my/icism1 z elaborat$ by ,erig5a1 came into conflict ) ! ,*ri/ian conception ( ! individual4 ,^! two motives _h be5 held toge!r )\t controv]sy 9 ! ,e>ly ,p]iod2 n[ !y develop into controv]sy4 ,! philosophical !ories evolv$ by ?is controv]sy g by ! "n ( s*ola/icism4 ,:ile !oretically secul> /udies 7 suppos$ to be disc>d$ & anci5t lit]ature 0 consid]$ to be ! temptation ( ! devil1 yet practically "o is surpris$ to f9d a tra9$ skill 9 ! use ( dialectic1 & ! employm5t ( _m ( ! mat]ials ( antiquity z a means ( culture & ! refutation ( h]esies4 ,!re 0 a k ( ! classics1 ( dialectic1 ( neo-,platonism1 & ( ,augu/9e4 ,! _s ( ,platonic realism prevail$ among ! gr\p ( s*oolm5 ( ^! two c5turies4 ,! problem be=e ?is gr\p is diff]5t f t pres5t$ to ! s*oolm5 ( ! next p]iod4 ,! s*ola/ics or s*oolm5 ( ?is p]iod :om we %all consid] 9 "s detail are1 ,anselm1 #ajcc-aaji4 ,roscell9us1 d4 #aajj ab\t4 ,abel>d1 #ajgi-aadb4 ,:at is ,s*ola/icism8 ,9 a g5]al s5se s*ola/icism is philosophic ?\ght1 b hi/orically ! t]m is usually re/rict$ to ! philosophic ?9k+ ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,x has be5 po9t$ out t s*ola/ic philosophy does n diff] f any o!r philosophy4 ,x _h its prejudices1 its dep5d5ce on au?ority1 its employm5t ( d$uction1 its use ( obs]vationl all philosophy4 ,! s*ola/icism ( ?is "t1 h[ev]1 is di/+ui%$ by its g5]al ref]5ce to *ur* dogma z au?ority & its imp]fect use ( exp]i5ce4 ,! s*ola/icism ( ! ,middle ,ages may !re=e be def9$ z ! application ( dialectic or logical me?ods to ! discussion ( !ological problems4 ,x 0 ! attempt to pres5t ! doctr9e ( ! *ur* 9 a sci5tific sy/em ( philosophy4 ,sometimes su* an attempt result$ 9 h]esy :5 ! result 0 a *ang+ ( dogma4 ,g5]ally1 h[ev]1 ! s*ola/ic 0 n s ambiti\s1 = he usually s\ght to keep )9 ! au?oritative doctr9es ( ! *ur*4 ,he fe>$ ! ana!ma ( ! *ur*4 ,s*ola/icism !re=e1 9 g5]al1 _h two *>act]i/ics3 7#a7 ,x assum$ t *ur* dogma 0 unque/ionable & infallible2 7#b7 ,x tri$ to cl>ify dogma by rational explanation1 or to %[ t dogma 0 at lea/ n contr>y to reason4 ,dogma may 9 "s cases be expla9$ by ! reason4 ,9 "s cases x may be s f> above reason t ! only ?+ ! reason c say is1 8,! doctr9e does n contradict me40 ,9 ! words ( an em95t *ur*man1 8,dogma says1 ,deus homo 7,god became man74 ,s*ola/icism asks1 ,cur deus homo8 7,:y did ,god become man870 ,revelation is assum$2 s*ola/ic philosophy is p]mitt$2 indep5d5t rational sci5ce is d5i$4 ,! rema9d] ( ! hi/ory ( ! ,middle ,ages %[s no consci\s attempt to =m a new body ( doctr9e = ! *ur*2 & only "h & !re does !re appe> an ef=t to modify ! exi/+ doctr9e4 ,! ?9k]s are employ$ 9 ?is s*ola/ic cl>ify+ ( ! doctr9e4 ,9 ?is p]iod s*ola/icism takes ! =m ( ! logical problem ( ! relation ( univ]sals & p>ticul>s4 ,9 ! p]iod ( ,classic ,s*ola/icism ?is logical problem *anges into ! metaphysical "o ( ! respective scopes ( reason & fai?4 ,! problem ( ! relation ( univ]sal conceptions to p>ticul> exp]i5ces _h become a c5tral "o to ! ,greeks aft] ,socrates4 7,see summ>y1 p4 #ajc47 ,x 0 natural t ! same problem %\ld arise ) ! new m$ival man & %\ld delight him z an enigmatical "q4 ,b conditions 7 less favorable = ! m$ival s*ola/ic ?an = ! ,greek4 ,! m$ival _h scanty lit]>y mat]ials1 no opportunity ( te/+ 8 discussions by empirical obs]vations1 & 8 m9d 0 untra9$4 ,9 ! ,e>ly ,p]iod s*ola/icism _h ! "* ( a m5tal game 9 logic4 ,x consi/$1 on ! :ole1 9 ! subtle sp9n+ out ( logical que/ions ) ! few fragm5ts ( ,ari/otle z a guide4 ,?is 0 dang]\s to fai?1 b ! *ur* c\ld n prev5t x1 = x 0 ! only m5tal div]sion op5 to monks ( ! s*ools ( ,*>lemagne4 ,! argum5ts (t5 reveal great m5tal acut5ess1 al?\gh !y h ! appe>ance ( triviality4 ,! s*ools ( ! n9? c5tury 7 giv5 ov] to b>r5 =malism1 & ?is ?reat5$ to subm]ge ! vigor\s movem5t inaugurat$ by ,erig5a4 8,c a pro/itute become a virg9 aga9 ?r\gh div9e omnipot5ce80 8,does a m\se t eats ! sacram5t eat ! body ( ,god80 8,h[ _m angels c /& on ! po9t ( a ne$le80 ,^! are examples ( ! prevail+ v]bal gymna/ics ( t "t1 & su* problems c be f\nd ev5 9 ! works ( ,pet] ,lomb>d1 ,?omas ,aqu9as1 & ,duns ,scotus4 ,logically /at$ ! problem is t ( ! relation ( p>ticul>s to univ]sals4 ,x is usually call$ ! problem ( ! reality ( g5]al ideas4 ,! "q 0 />t$ by a passage 9 t univ]sally us$ text-book ( ! "t! ,isagoge ( ,porphyry1 :i* 0 an introduction to ,ari/otle's ,categories4 7,see p4 #ajb47 ,porphyry divides ! problem into ?ree p>ts3 7#a7 ,d g5]a & species exi/ 9 nature1 or d !y exi/ z m]e products ( ! intellect8 7#b7 ,if !y are ?+s ap>t f ! m9d1 are !y corporeal or incorporeal ?+s8 7#c7 ,d !y exi/ outside ! individual ?+s ( s5se1 or are !y realiz$ 9 ! latt]8 ,^u ! problem involv$ "h ! ?9k]s ( ! ,middle ,ages 7 divid$ into ?ree s*ools1reali/s1 conceptuali/s1 & nom9ali/s4#eg ,! reali/ ma9ta9$ t ! g5]al idea _h reality1 :ile ! p>ticul> 0 only a defective imitation ( x4 ,! nom9ali/1 on ! contr>y1 held t ! univ]sal is only a "n 7nom57 or an ab/raction d]iv$ f ! real p>ticul> ?+4 ,! conceptuali/ tri$ to m$iate betwe5 ! two by %[+ t reality exi/s only 9 ! p>ticul>4 ,to use ! m$ival phrases1 realism is univ]salia ante rem2 nom9alism is univ]salia po/ rem2 conceptualism is univ]salia 9 re4 7,see p4 #ajc = table ( comp>ison ) ,protagoras1 ,plato1 & ,ari/otle47 ,! "q 0 ( great practical importance to ! *ur*4 ,is ! univ]sal *ur* real & !re=e all its dogma au?oritative1 or are ! p>ticul> *ur*es real & au?oritative8 ,?is 0 a vital matt] to ! *ur*man ( t day :o 0 try+ to e/abli% ! primacy ( ,rome among ! sep>ate *ur*es4 ,fur!rmore1 to %[ t humanity 0 less real ?an ! p>ticul> human be+s w\ld de/roy ! *ur* doctr9e ( s9 & r$emption1 = ^! dogmas dep5d$ on ! assumption ( ! solid>ity ( ! human race4 ,! *ur* univ]sal & its univ]sal dogma 7 n m]e names to ! s*oolm51 & t is :y ! or?odox *ur*m5 7 ne>ly always reali/s4 ,religi\s pr9ciples 7 univ]sals1 :ile p>ticul>s 7 secul>4 ,dogma _h become fix$1 ) :i* traditionally ! *ur* _h become id5tifi$4 ,to emphasize p>ticul> exp]i5ces w\ld mean ! cont9ual correct+ ( tradition & a sub/itution ( private judgm5t = *ur* decrees4 ,:5 nom9alism is completely work$ out1 x w be f\nd to conflict ) *ur* dogma at e po9t4 ,! result is skepticism4 ,/ill ! *ur*man lat] saw t !re is great dang] also 9 a ?or\gh-go+ realism l t ( ,erig5a's4 ,x became pan!ism4 ,bo? realism & nom9alism 7 dang]\s doctr9es = ! *ur* if !y 7 driv5 to _! logical conclusions4 ,anselm 7#ajcc-aaji73 ,life & ,position 9 ,m$ival ,philosophy4 ,anselm liv$ dur+ ! mona/ic revival :i* _h begun 9 ! t5? c5tury4 ,he 0 9 fact ! la/ ( ! mona/ic tea*]s1 = dur+ 8 decl9+ ye>s occurr$ ! fir/ ( ! ,crusades1 & ! epo* foll[+ him witness$ ! transf]5ce ( le>n+ f ! mona/]ies to ! univ]sities4 ,he 0 born ( a noble family 9 ,ao/a1 ,lomb>dy1 & ent]$ 9 e>ly life ! mona/]y ( ,bec4 ,"h he succe$$ ,lanfranc z abbot1 & aga9 he succe$$ ,lanfranc 9 ! ar*bi%opric ( ,cant]bury4 ,he 0 a man ( g5u9e piety1 ( speculative b5t1 & ( unsw]v+ fai? 9 ! dogma ( ! *ur*4 ,z primate ( ,engl& he resi/$ ) mu* sagacity ! encroa*m5ts ( ! secul> p[]4 ,8 ,cur ,deus ,homo 0 a treatise on ! doctr9e ( ! r$emption & atonem5t1 & 0 "o ( ! mo/ important books ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,anselm br\ght ab\t a great *ange 9 !ological tea*+4 ,b]5g> ( ,t\rs _h b rec5tly made an attack ^u ! doctr9e ( ! real pres5ce ( ,*ri/ 9 ! ,eu*>i/1 & 0 ! imm$iate cause ( ! 8/orm & /ress0 p]iod ( s*ola/icism t foll[$4 ,anselm's tea*] & pr$ecessor1 ,lanfranc1 _h def5d$ ! doctr9e4 ,! doctr9e _h n yet be5 settl$1 & ea* side claim$ ! basis ( au?ority4 ,anselm 0 !re=e a witness ( ! fir/ attempt to apply philosophy to dogma1 & he 0 ! fir/ to use dialectics ) ! s]i\s purpose ( def5d+ dogma4 ,f ?is "t on1 dialectics 0 no long] an intellectual div]sion4 ,he1 ! la/ ( ! mona/ic tea*]s1 0 ! fir/ to employ dialectics ) ! new purpose ( in/ruct+ ! believ]4 ,8 entire life 0 animat$ by ! desire to add k to fai? by ! means ( philosophy4 ,anselm's s*ola/icism !re=e circulates ab\t ! ,patri/ic !ology z a c5tre2 & 8 _s & me?od is s simil> to t ( ,augu/9e & ! ,apologi/s1 t he has be5 ju/ly call$ 8! second ,augu/9e0 & 8! la/ ( ! ,fa!rs40 ,beside ! safe & traditionally c5traliz$ tea*+ ( ,anselm1 ! imag9ative pan!ism ( ,erig5a seems l a body t _h be5 loos5$ f its natural place & 0 float+ away beyond control4 ,bo? ,erig5a & ,anselm 7 inspir$ by ! ,platonism t until ! ye> #abjj dom9at$ ! ,middle ,ages4 ,t is1 bo? 7 reali/s4 ,! realism ( ,erig5a1 h[ev]1 express$ 9 full ! my/ic elem5t ( ,platonism4 ,x de/roy$ all grades ( reality bel[ ,god1 & made unnecess>y ! *ur* & its (fices4 ,erig5a 0 an extreme reali/2 ,anselm 0 consi/5t ) ! attitude ( ! *ur* 9 be+ a mod]ate reali/4 ,! cr$o ut intelligam 7fai? z ! basis ( intellectual belief7 0 ! an*or :i* sav$ him & became ! safegu>d ( all future or?odox s*ola/ics4 ,! _w to ,anselm is a hi]>*y ( univ]sal reals1 su* z ! sacram5ts1 ! *ur*1 & ! ,tr9ity4 ,to su* dogmas ( ! *ur* he appli$ philosophy1 n because !y ne$$ support1 b 9 ord] to make !m cle> by analysis4 ,philosophy %all only cl>ify dogma4 ,anselm's ,argum5ts = ! ,exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,! s-call$ 8,anselmic ,argum5ts = ! ,exi/5ce ( ,god0 are ! be/ kn[n p>ts ( ,anselm's tea*+1 & 9 ! eyes ( ! *ur*man place 8 !odicy 9 ! 8/atus ( a f9i%$ sci5ce40 ,to get _! cog5cy we mu/ rememb] ! und]ly+ ?\ght ( m$ival realism2 ! m univ]sal a ?+ is1 ! m real x is! m x exi/s & ! m p]fect x is4 7,see p4 #ceb47 ,9 8 ,monologium he develop$ ! s-call$ cosmological argum5t3 ,a s+le p]fect & univ]sal be+ mu/ be assum$ z ! cause ( all less] be+s4 ,god's ess5ce mu/ involve 8 exi/5ce4 ,e o!r be+ c be ?\ght z com+ into exi/5ce f "s ext]nal cause1 :ile ,god alone exi/s f ! necessity ( 8 own nature4 ,9 8 ,proslogium he elaborat$ 8 m fam\s ontological argum5t3 ,man has ! idea ( a p]fect be+2 ,p]fection involves among o!r qualities t ( exi/5ce1 o!rwise we c\ld ?9k ( a m p]fect be+ or "o :o did possess exi/5ce2 ,!re=e ,god exi/s4 ,roscell9us 7d4 #aajj ab\t73 ,life & ,tea*+4 ,roscell9us1 a canon ( ,compigne1 0 ! fir/ s*ola/ic to attempt to modify dogma by ! dialectic1n t !re _h n occurr$ ?r\gh\t ! hi/ory ( ! *ur* _m !ological controv]sies4 ,be=e ?is "t su* controv]sies _h on ! :ole aris5 ov] doctr9es t _h n yet become dogma4 ,! p>ticul> object ( ! attack ( ,roscell9us 0 ! dogma ( ! ,tr9ity1 & ! base ( 8 attack 0 none o!r ?an philosophy4 ,roscell9us completely fail$ 9 gett+ ! *ur* to modify ?is p>ticul> doctr9e1 b he succe$$ 9 a l>g] way ?an he c\ld h imag9$4 ,he br\ght out into di/9ctness ! issue betwe5 reason & revelation4 ,! fundam5tal "q !reaft] 0 z to ! rights ( ! human reason & ! rights ( div9e revelation4 ,roscell9us suppli$ a p[]ful %ock to fai? & awak5$ ! s*ools to ! consequ5ces ( que/ions :i* _h seem$ be=e to be m]ely logical problems4 ,roscell9us 0 a nom9ali/1 & x 0 f ! po9t ( view ( nom9alism t he attempt$ to *ange ! dogma ( ! ,tr9ity4 ,he made a life-long def5se ( ! doctr9e t ! ,godhead 0 ?ree diff]5t sub/ances1 agree+ only 9 c]ta9 qualities4 ,?is is tri!ism & n a ,tr9ity4 ,b ?is 0 only ! mo/ /rik+ example ( 8 application ( ! g5]al pr9ciple ( nom9alism4 ,9 g5]al1 univ]sals are only names & h an exi/5ce only 9 ! human m9d4 ,univ]salia po/ rem4 ,individuals alone exi/4 ,! gr\ps =m$ out ( _m individuals by addition1 or ! p>ts ( an individual =m$ by division1 are m5tal affairs & h no reality4 ,roscell9us 0 oppos$ by ,anselm1 condemn$ by ! *ur*1 & oblig$ to recant4 ,he fl$ to ,engl&1 return$ to ,france1 & aga9 prea*$ 8 doctr9e4 ,/orm & ,/ress4 ,aft] ! issue 0 br\ght to a head by ! nom9alism ( ,roscell9us1 ! twelf? c5tury 0 torn 9 battle ov] ! reality ( g5]al ideas4 ,! reali/s1 on ! "o h&1 tri$ to grade univ]sals & to %[ h[ univ]sals are relat$ to p>ticul>sall ( :i* ,anselm _h left to fai?4 ,h[ d univ]sals1 su* z ! p]sons 9 ! ,tr9ity1 ! *ur*1 ! sacram5ts1 exi/ 9 "o univ]sal ,god8 ,grotesque explanations 7 (f]$1 l ! imag9ative "w ( ,b]n>d ( ,*>tres & ! symbolic numb] !ory ( 8 bro!r1 ,!odoric4 ,william ( ,*ampeaux1 a tea*] ( ,abel>d1 almo/ r$uc$ realism to a pan!ism4 ,no?+ exi/s b ! univ]sal2 all individuals are accid5tal modifications ( ! univ]sal4 ,pan!ism 0 s inh]5t 9 ! blood ( realism t x 0 always appe>+ "h & !re4 ,su* pan!i/ic d$uctions by ! reali/s br\ght out nom9alism 9 opposition1 9 spite ( ! repression ( nom9alism by ! au?orities ( ! *ur*4 ,! nom9ali/s s\ght protection & au?ority "u ! "n ( ,ari/otle1 = 8 conceptuali/ doctr9e 0 n kn[n at ?is "t4 ,! few writ+s ( ,ari/otle !n kn[n 7 v imp]fectly int]pret$4 ,"o ( ! mo/ ironical situations 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,middle ,ages is t1 up to ! ,p]iod ( ,classic ,s*ola/icism1 ,plato 0 ! au?ority ( ! or?odox & ,ari/otle ( ! het]odox4 ,! ,life ( ,abel>d 7#ajgi-aadb74 ,abel>d _h bo? ,roscell9us & ,william ( ,*ampeaux z tea*]s4 ,he qu>rel$ ) !m bo? & set up a rival s*ool ( 8 own4 ,he taught 9 v>i\s places & 01 ) "s int]ruptions1 9 ,p>is f #aajh to #aacf4 ,! univ]sity did n exi/ until a g5]ation aft] him1 b he 0 its true f\nd]1 = he inaugurat$ ! movem5t out ( :i* ! e>ly univ]sities sprang4 ,8 me?od 0 transf]r$ f philosophy to !ology & !nce to all /udies4 ,x 0 a didactic me?od ( draw+ conclusions aft] an empirical enum]ation ( ! pros & cons4 ,abel>d 0 acqua9t$ ) no ,greek writ+s except 9 ,lat9 translations4 ,8 great tal5t z a tea*] & 8 ke5 ,fr5* intellect1 t 0 impati5t ( all re/ra9t1 made him1 h[ev]1 ! mo/ brilliant ( ! s*oolm54 ,two synods condemn$ 8 tea*+4 ,probably 8 mod]n popul> reputation re/s ^u 8 un=tunate love-relations ) ,heloise4 ,abel>d's ,conceptualism4 ,univ]sals exi/ 9 ! ,p>ticul>s4 ,abel>d =m$ ! /orm-c5tre ( ! /rife ov] ! te*nical relations betwe5 p>ticul>s & univ]sals4 ,8 position has be5 misund]/ood because he1 ! pupil & oppon5t bo? ( ,roscell9us & ( ,william ( ,*ampeaux1 f\ght ea* ) ! weapons ( ! o!r4 ,he 0 repell$ f pan!ism1 :i* appe>s to him to be ! logic ( realism1 & he recoil$ equally f ! s5suali/ic outcome ( nom9alism4 ,univ]sals are ! indisp5sable =ms ( k1 & !y mu/ !re=e h "s exi/5ce 9 ! nature ( ! ?+s :i* we "k4 ,?is exi/5ce consi/s ( ! simil>ity ( ! ess5tial *>act]i/ic ( ?+s4 ,?is lik5ess is n a num]ical id5tity1 b a unity :i* makes our k ( ! p>ticul> ?+s possible4 ,?is lik5ess or simil>ity betwe5 ?+s is ! same z ! types creat$ by ,god4 ,?us ! univ]sal has no indep5d5t objective exi/5ce1 & on ! o!r h& x is n a m]e ^w out ( all relation to ?+s4 ,! univ]sals exi/ 9 ?ree ways3 7#a7 !y exi/ be=e ! ?+s only z ,ideas 9 ! m9d ( ,god2 7#b7 !y coexi/ ) ! ?+s z ! ess5tial lik5esses ( ?+s2 7#c7 !y exi/ aft] ! ?+s 9 ! human m9d1 :5 x has k ( ?+s4 ,abel>d develop$ 8 !ory only polemically & nev] work$ x out sy/ematically4 ,on ! te*nical side ( ?is "q ! prec$+ l9es ( ?\ght come into an unsy/ematic unity4 ,8 !ory 0 accept$ by ! ,arabian philosoph]s & is practically t ( ,aqu9as & ,duns ,scotus4 ,) ,abel>d ! problem 0 n solv$ inde$1 b x came to a prelim9>y /op 9 ?is /atem5tuniv]sals h an equal significance1 ante rem 9 ! m9d ( ,god1 9 re 9 nature1 po/ rem 9 human k4 ,abel>d's ,rationalism4,! ,relation betwe5 ,reason & ,dogma4 ,! pr\d1 self-reliant1 self-consci\s ,abel>d c\ld be no?+ else ?an a rationali/4 ,he 0 ! type ( ! controv]sial metaphysician4 ,he 0 ! fight+ dialectician1intol]ant ( re/ra9t1 devoid ( respect = au?ority1 seek+ ! prize ( victory at any co/4 ,erig5a1 z a my/ic1 h>moniz$ reason & dogma because !y are equal2 ,anselm1 z an or?odox s*ola/ic1 h>moniz$ !m because reason is subord9ate to dogma & con=ms to x2 ,abel>d1 z a rationali/1 h>moniz$ reason & dogma because dogma is subord9ate to reason & con=ms to reason4 ,to ,anselm reason m]ely cl>ifies dogma2 to ,abel>d 8dogma is only a provisional sub/itute = reason40 ,anselm nev] que/ions dogma1 :ile ,abel>d calls dogma be=e ! b> ( ! reason & !n acts z dogma's advocate4 ,we mu/ try all dogma 9 c\rt1 &1 contr>y to mod]n legal practice1 we mu/ d\bt x until x proves its innoc5ce4 ,= 8x is ?r\gh d\bt we come to inve/igation1 & ?r\gh inve/igation to ! tru?40 ,a good example ( ,abel>d's attitude appe>s 9 8 ,sic et ,non1 a treatise 9 :i* he sets ! views ( ! ,fa!rs ov] aga9/ "o ano!r s t ! reason may decide ^u ! tru?4 ,ano!r example ( 8 me?od appe>s 9 8 exam9ation ( ! doctr9e ( ! ,tr9ity1 & 9 ! ?ird book ( ,*ri/ian ,!ology he cites tw5ty-?ree objections & 9 ! f\r? book answ]s !m4 ,?is rationaliz+ _s l$ him to advocate ! doctr9e ( free-w1 to place ! responsibility ( moral conduct & !oretical belief ^u ! individual1 to reg>d ,*ri/ianity z ! consummation ( all religions & n z ! pres5tation ( any?+ new4 ,if 9 ^! discussions he 0 m brilliant ?an pr(\nd1 if he wrote ^u _m que/ions )\t solv+ any1 if ! weight ( 8 p]sonality c\ld n prevail 9 8 controv]sies1 x 0 because ! sci5ce ( ! twelf? c5tury (f]$ him little empirical support aga9/ ! actual p[] ( ! *ur* & ! mighty inw>d /r5g? ( fai? ( ! p4 ,:at means _h ,abel>d to support 8 position t rational sci5ce %\ld det]m9e fai?8 ,no?+ b ! holl[ me?ods ( s*ola/ic logic & ! traditions ( ! *ur*! v ?+s aga9/ :i* he 0 rebell+4 ,abel>d set = himself a problem1 b he lack$ ! means ( its solution4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 a problem t has nev] vani%$ f ! memory ( ! ,european peoples4 ,! unre/ 9 ,abel>d's tea*+ is repres5tative ( ! la/ c5tury ( ?is p]iod1 :i* he br\ght to a close4 ,!re 0 gr[+ a g5]al revolt f ! unfruitful me?ods ( ! s*ola/ic dialectic1 c\pl$ ) fev]i% desire = k4 ,!re 01 on ! "o h&1 a great reaction t[>d my/icism ) ! ,victor9es1 ,b]n>d ( ,clairvaux & ,b]n>d ( ,t\rs1 & t[>d eclecticism ) ,john ( ,salisbury & ,pet] ! ,lomb>d4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re 0 an int]e/+ gr[? 9 empirical sci5ce4 ,b ^! !oretical int]e/s 7 b eddies 9 ! great curr5t ( ev5ts4 ,= ,j]usalem & ! ,holy ,l&1 ! memorials 9 e>?ly =m ( all ! ideals sacr$ to ! m$ival m9d1 _h fall5 into ! h&s ( ! infidel6 ,! we/]n _w 0 prep>+ = ! rescue1 & ! ,crusades 7 ! la/ & ! fr5zi$ expression ( ! ,platonic idealism ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,!y br+ ! fir/ two p]iods to a spectacul> climax4 ,is x a m]e co9cid5ce t ,abel>d br+s to a close ! dom9ance ( idealism on ! !oretic side at ! "t :5 e>?ly symbols ( t idealism 7 be+ de/roy$8 ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,! ,,p]iod ,,( ,,classic ,,s*ola/icism 7#abjj-adec7 ,! ,g5]al ,"* ( ?is ,la/ ,p]iod4 ,! fir/ "o hundr$ & fifty ye>s ( ?is p]iod 0 ! gold5 age ( s*ola/icism2 ! rema9+ "o hundr$ ye>s 0 a p]iod ( decl9e4 ,! p]iod ( ,classic ,s*ola/icism 0 a natural gr[? f ! ,transitional ,p]iod4 ,at ! end ( ! ,transitional ,p]iod ! *ur*1 9 spite ( ,mohamm$ans1 ,jews1 h]etics1 & ! classics1 out%one all else1 & its life & dogma 7 ! mo/ wor? :ile4 ,9 ?is p]iod appe>$ a !ology1 adequate to its life & dogma1a !ology :i* 0 float$ by ! wave ( piety ( ! ,m5dicant ,ord]s4 ,acqua9tance ) ! true ,ari/otle 0 ! ne$$ /imulus4 ,! favorable conditions = t /imulus 7 7#a7 ! triumph ( ! *ur* & papacy1 7#b7 ! int5se piety ( ! ,m5dicants1 7#c7 ! g5]al culture d]iv$ f an inn] developm5t ( ! *ur* & f contact ) ! ,ea/ 9 ,con/ant9ople1 ,pale/9e1 & ,spa94 ,ari/otle & ! ,m5dicants 7 ! new =ces1 & !y a*iev$ _! position aga9/ ! ho/ility ( ! old ,ord]s1 ! univ]sities1 & ! tea*]s4 ,! triumph 0 possible because ! new =ces contribut$ no?+ really new1 b m]ely complet$ ! old s*eme ( ?+s4 ,! new ,ari/otle1 z x 0 und]/ood1 taught metaphysics1 epi/emology1 & politics 9 a way to v9dicate dogma z aga9/ ! opposition ( ,william ( ,*ampeaux & ,roscell9us4 ,! ,m5dicants on _! "p v9dicat$ all dogma by bl5d+ x ) fai? on ! "o h&1 & ) reason on ! o!r4 ,! s*ola/icism ( ! ,transitional ,p]iod 0 pr$om9antly controv]sial1 :ile ! "* ( ?is p]iod1 :i* we are n[ ent]+1 is syn!tic & con/ructive4 ,! infusion ( fre% blood into culture1 f n only ! logical b ! physical works ( ,ari/otle1 result$ 9 ! r5ewal ( int]e/ 9 ! dialectic & 9 ! con/ruction ( sy/ems ( metaphysics & psy*ology4 ,! c5tral problem n[ conc]ns ! respective scopes ( reason & fai?1 & to its solution logic & psy*ology are appli$4 ,a complete solution seem$ to be made by ,?omas ,aqu9as1 :i* _h its lit]>y expression 9 ,dante4 ,)\t ! introduction ( any new philosophical pr9ciple ! _w ( nature1 z int]pret$ by ,ari/otle1 0 app>5tly br\ght by ,?omas into !oretical h>mony ) ! ,augu/9ian conception ( ! _w ( grace4 ,b no soon] did ,?omas seem to h =mulat$ s*ola/ic philosophy = all "t1 ?an controv]sy broke out afre%4 ,= pan!i/ic my/icism ga9$ its indep5d5ce ?r\gh "o ( ,?omas's own bro!r ,dom9icans1 ,eckh>t2 !n ,duns ,scotus1 a ,franciscan1 drew up a metaphysical programme bas$ ^u ! ,augu/9ian !ory ( ! w1 & gave a new direction to philosophy2 & fur!rmore nom9alism grew great ^u ,ari/otle's logic & ! new empirical psy*ology4 ,= ! *ur*man1 philosophy rea*$ its complet5ess 9 ,?omas ,aqu9as4 ,! lat] t5d5cies are reg>d$ by ! *ur*man z det]iorations1 & ev5 mod]n philosophy is look$ ^u z b temporiz+ ) ! classic sy/em ( ,?omas4 ,illu/ration3 ,,gr[? ,,( ,,mohamm$anism ,,dur+ ,,! ,,middle ,,ages1 ,,%[+ ,,its ,,contact ,,) ,,*ri/ian ,,civilization ,! ,conque/s ( ! ,mohamm$ans dur+ ! diff]5t epo*s are %[n by ! diff]5t %ad+ & ! dates plac$ on ! map4 ,! ,two ,civilizations4 ,?is is "o ( ! p]iods ( ?\ght result+ f ! %ift+s ( di/9ct civilizations4 ,we h already not$ ! influ5ce ( ! /ruggles ( ! ,ori5t & ! ,occid5t 9 ! ,p]sian w>s & 9 ! campaigns ( ,alex&]2 & we h lately se5 an entirely new epo* u%]$ 9 by ! invasions ( ! nor!rn tribes into ,rome4 ,) ! new epo* be=e u1 we f9d ourselves confront$ ) ano!r new e?nic situation4 ,! civilization ( ! ,mohamm$an _h gr[n 9 mighty /r5g? 9 ! ,ea/1 _h possess$ itself ( ,asia ,m9or1 nor!rn ,africa1 & ,spa91 & 0 n[ fac+ ,europe f ! ea/1 we/1 & s\?4 ,all ?r\gh ! ,fir/ ,p]iod ( ! ,middle ,ages ! ,*ri/ian & ,mohamm$an civilizations _h be5 conte/ants = supremacy4 ,only z late z #gcb ! ,mohamm$an claim ^u ,europe _h be5 defeat$ at ! battle ( ,t\rs4 ,mohamm$ 7#egj-fcb7 conv]t$ ! :ole ( ,arabia to ,islam dur+ ! t5 ye>s betwe5 8 ,hegira 7#fbb7 & 8 dea?4 ,8 successors took ,pale/9e 7#fcg71 ,syria 7#fch71 ,egypt 7#fdg71 ,p]sia 7#gaj71 all nor? ,africa 7by #gjg71 invad$ ,spa9 7#gaa71 & 7 repuls$ at ,t\rs 7#gcb74 ,all ?is occurr$ )9 a c5tury1 & = ! next two hundr$ ye>s 7#hjj-ajjj7 ! ,mohamm$ans h>ass$ ,rome & ! isl&s ( ! ,m$it]ranean4 ,) ! two civilizations fac+ ea* o!r on ! ,m$it]ranean1 only mutual religi\s fanaticism c\ld /& 9 ! way ( _! mutual cultural influ5ce4 ,9 po9t ( fact1 because ( fanaticism ! cultures ( ! two civilizations dur+ ! fir/ c5turies ( ! ,middle ,ages t\*$ ea* o!r b little4 ,9 ^? fir/ c5turies ( ! ,middle ,ages1 :5 we/]n ,europe 0 %r\d$ 9 d>kness1 ! s*ools ( ! ,arabs at ,bagdad1 ,basra1 ,kufa1 & o!r cities 7 enjoy+ a spl5did intellectual life4 ,f #hej to #aajj ! c5tre ( le>n+ ( ! _w 0 9 ! ,arabian cities ( ! ,ea/4#eh ,9 #aajj ! fanatical faction ( ! ,arabians cru%$ ?is intellectual movem5t 9 ! ,ea/1 ! s*ol>s fl$ to ,spa91 & = a c5tury long] ,s>ac5 le>n+ fl\ri%$ 9 ,spa91 especially 9 ,cordova4 ,9 #abjj ! ,arabian or?odoxy made itself felt 9 ,spa91 & ! ,arabian s*ol>s !re _h to f9d refuge among ! ,jews or ,*ri/ians4 ,! ,fir/ ,contact ( ! ,two ,civilizations4 ,f ! beg9n+ ( ! ,middle ,ages ! po9t ( contact betwe5 ! two civilizations 0 ei!r w> or comm]ce4 ,! ,jew 0 ! globe-trott] ( t day1 & 0 con/antly br++ into ,europe reports ( ,arabian civilization4 ,he 0 a philosoph]1 a mono!i/1 a ,semite1 l ! ,arab1 & he _h an int]e/ 9 m ?an comm]cial matt]s4 ,ab\t ! end ( ! ,e>ly ,p]iod ( ! ,middle ,ages he f\nd x pr(itable to make fir/ ,hebrew & !n ,lat9 translations ( ,arabian le>n+1 & to sell !m 9 ,europe4 ,9 ?is =m1 betwe5 #ajjj & #aajj1 m$ical & a/ronomical k ent]$ ,europe4 ,greek philosophical writ+s came next 9 translations f ! ,arabic1 :i* _h previ\sly be5 translat$ f ! ,syriac4 ,?us = ! two hundr$ ye>s1 betwe5 #ajjj & #abjj1 ! ,*ri/ian s*ools 7 beg9n+ to read portions ( ,greek philosophy 9 ,lat91 :i* _h previ\sly pass$ ?r\gh ,syriac & ,arabian 7& sometimes ,hebrew7 translations4 ,be=e #abjj1 !re 7 none b ^! ,arabic v]sions4 ,a p]t95t example ( ^! 0 ! works ( ,ari/otle4 ,be=e #abjj all ( ,ari/otle's writ+s1 except ! ,organon1 appe>$ 9 ,europe 9 ?is =m1 & ! ,organon z a :ole 0 n kn[n until #aaej4 ,9 #aabe "s ( ,ari/otle's physics 0 kn[n by ! s*ool ( ,*>tres2 9 #abjj all ! physics1 metaphysics1 & e?ics 7 kn[n 9 translations f ! ,lat9 & ,hebrew4 ,^! 7 accompani$ by ,arabian comm5t>ies1 :i* int]pret$ ,ari/otle z if he 7 a neo-,platonic pan!i/4 ,!re 7 _m *ur*m5 int]e/$ 9 ! "w ( translation1 z1 = example1 ,g]b]t1 & ,raymond ( ,tol$o4 ,rog] ,,ii ( ,sicily 7d4 #aaed7 & ,fr$]ick ,,ii 7d4 #abej7 _h _! c\rts fill$ ) ,arabian philosoph]s4 ,fr$]ick _h _m translations made & pres5t$ to ! ,univ]sities ( ,ox=d1 ,p>is1 & ,bologna4 ,?us ! influ5ce ( ! ,arabian ^u ! ,*ri/ian culture be=e ! ,classic ,p]iod ( ! ,middle ,ages 0 n inconsid]able4 ,b ?is mu/ be said ( ,arabian culturex 0 ma9ly borr[$4 ,arabia#ei act$ m]ely z a transmitt] ( ! mat]ials ( k f ! ,greeks & ,h9doos2 & s f> z philosophy 0 conc]n$1 ! ,arab 0 return+ to ,europe1 9 a p]v]t$ =m1 ! ,ari/otle :i* _h be5 deposit$ ) him c5turies be=e4 ,! ,mohamm$ans 7 ! _w's c>ri]s ( a consid]able body ( sci5ce & ( _m new agricultural products2 & ( ! am\nt :i* !y introduc$ into ,europe only a small portion 0 _! own4 ,at ! end ( ! twelf? c5tury ! ,*ri/ian at ,rome & ,york 0 ri*] 9 ! pr9ciples ( discov]y1 b poor] 9 ! am\nt ( traditional le>n+ & ( sci5tific weal?1 ?an ! ,mohamm$an at ,bagdad & ,cordova4 ,! ,conflict betwe5 ! ,two ,civilizations4,! ,crusades4#fj ,! rivalry betwe5 ! two civilizations became int5sifi$ into an op5 conflict ab\t ! ye> #aajj4 ,up to ! ye> #ajjj ! ,mohamm$an lead]s 7 ,arabians1 b 9 ! elev5? c5tury ^! ,arabians 7 conqu]$ by tribes ( ,turks or ,mongolians f ! nor? ( ,asia4 ,^! became conv]t$ to ,mohamm$anism1 b !y _h no love = culture nor rev]5ce = ! places 9 ,pale/9e1 :i* 7 sacr$ alike to ! ,*ri/ian & ! ,arab4 ,f ! f\r? to ! twelf? c5tury ! pilgrimages ( ! ,*ri/ians1 individually or 9 multitudes1 l>gely increas$1 b 9 ! elev5? c5tury ! new race ( ,mohamm$an ,turks made ! access to ,j]usalem m difficult4 ,!y began to subject ! pilgrims to cruelties1 s t ! ,*ri/ian 0 beg9n+ to f9d ! door ( 8 ,holy ,l& clos$ to him4 ,!n did ,platonic ,*ri/ianity ru% to ! rescue ( ^? sacr$ places t symboliz$ its ideals4 ,?is onslaught ^u ! ,mohamm$ans came 9 a s]ies ( surges1 traditionally spok5 ( z ! eight ,crusades4#fa ,! ,crusades result$ q contr>y to ! expectations ( ! *ur*1 = ! ,crusad]s fail$ 9 p]man5tly recaptur+ ,j]usalem4 ,b ! ,crusades accompli%$ ! unexpect$ ?+!y awak5$ ,europe4 ,! effect ( ! ,crusades ^u ,europe 0 f> great] ?an ^u ! ,ori5t4 ,! results may be enum]at$ z foll[s3 #a4 ,! dormant ,european intellect 0 %ak5 up by contact ) ! hea!n1 :om ! ,europeans _h previ\sly despis$1 b :om !y f\nd to be _! sup]iors4 #b4 ,a new national rivalry 0 ar\s$ among ! ,*ri/ian soldi]s4 ,?is national _s 0 help$ negatively by ! losses among ! feudal lords4 #c4 ,comm]cial activity 0 giv5 an imm5se impulse4 ,a new social class 0 =m$1 :i* alli$ itself ) ! k+s aga9/ ! feudal lords4 ,trade 0 op5$ ) ! ,ea/1 reveal+ new luxuries & new ne$s4 ,v5ice1 ,pisa1 & ,g5oa1 & 9 a second>y way also ! ,g]man1 ,fr5*1 & ,engli% t[ns1 became prosp]\s comm]cial c5tres4 #d4 ,! p[] ( ! ,lat9 *ur* 0 ext5d$4 #e4 ,! works ( ,ari/otle 7 introduc$ 9 translations direct f ! orig9al ,greek4 ,9 ! f\r? ,crusade ,con/ant9ople 0 captur$ by ! ,crusad]s 7#abjd71 & 9 ?is way ! treasures ( ! ,greeks 7 op5$ to ! we/]n s*ol>s4 ,! complete works ( ,ari/otle 7 introduc$ into we/]n ,europe at a "t :5 ,ari/otle 0 be+ int]pret$ z a pan!i/ by ! ,arabian comm5tators4 ,! ,revival ( ,le>n+4 ,! ne$ ( le>n+1 t _h be5 felt 9 ! twelf? c5tury1 0 n[ be+ satisfi$4 ,! entire logic ( ,ari/otle & 8 entire natural sci5ce gave ! new mat]ials = k4 ,^! came into ,europe )9 ! c5tury betwe5 #aaej & #abej1 7#a7 ?r\gh translations f ! ,arabic1 & !n 7#b7 directly ?r\gh translations f ! ,greek4 ,ari/otle's logic reviv$ s*ola/icism & 8 sci5ce became ! f\ndation ( metaphysics4 ,m$ival ?\ght 0 ready = ?is & !re 0 a complete readju/m5t )\t ! introduction ( a new philosophical pr9ciple4 ,! side ( ,augu/9e's tea*+ t emphasiz$ ! intellect r ?an ! w1 ga9$ by be+ confirm$ by ! sy/ematic intellectualism ( ,ari/otle4 ,! f\nd] ( ?is 0 ,alb]t ( ,boll/a$t2 ! organiz] & lit]>y codifi] 0 ,?omas ,aqu9as2 ! poetic expression 0 ,dante4 ,! new c5tres ( le>n+ 7 ,p>is & ,con/ant9ople4 ,! c5tres ( tea*+ 7 transf]r$ f ! mona/]ies to ! new ,univ]sities 7#aajj-acjj74 ,sal]no _h its beg9n+s 9 ! latt] "p ( ! elev5? c5tury4 ,bologna 9 law1 ,ox=d 9 g5]al culture & !ology1 ,p>is 9 ! same /udies1 %[ traces ( g5]al organization betwe5 #aafj & #abjj4 ,!re 7 e/abli%$ sev5ty-n9e ( ^! univ]sities betwe5 #aaej & #aejj4 ,!y 7 n 8f\nd$10 b grew up z "p ( ?is movem5t4#fb ,illu/ration3 ,,diagram ,,( ,,dante',s ,,poetic ,,conception ,,( ,,! ,,univ]se ,f ,rossetti's ,%ad[ ( ,dante 7,%[+ its divisions ( ,hell 7at c5tre ( ! e>?71 ,purgatory1 & ! n9e heav5s4 ,! evid5t plan b5ea? ?is is ! ,ptolemaic cosmography47 ,nev]!less1 ! /ruggle 0 a full c5tury long be=e (ficial recognition ( ,ari/otle came4 ,! "n ( ,ari/otle _h be5 associat$ ) pan!ism = _m ye>s1 on acc\nt ( ! ,arabian v]sions ( 8 tea*+4 ,! neo-,platonic doctr9e ( emanations1 ) its pan!ism 9 ! ,arabian v]sions1 0 a t5d5cy ( :i* ! *ur* _h be5 %y s9ce ! days ( ,erig5a4 ,until ! !i/ic "* ( ,ari/otle's tea*+ became assur$ by ! direct ,lat9 translations f ! ,greek1 !re 0 a p[]ful reaction aga9/ ! :ole ( ! new le>n+4 ,! *ur* _h condemn$ ! ,physics 9 #abji & ! ,metaphysics 9 #abae4 ,b 9 #abed ,ari/otle 0 (ficially recogniz$1 & fifty ye>s lat] he became ! guide ( ! *ur*1 :om no "o c\ld contradict )\t be+ accus$ ( h]esy4 ,! ,ca?olic *ur* nev] %[$ its ability to great] advantage ?an 9 its deal+s ) ! new problems ( ?is p]iod4 ,! p ( a purely religi\s epo* n[ came into possession ( ,ari/otelianism4 ,= c5turies ! intellect _h be5 />v+ on =mal logic4 ,an intellectual revolution 0 imm95t4 ,"h 9 ,ari/otle 0 pres5t$ a ri* !ory ( nature t ! *ur* _h nev] consid]$4 ,yet x is d\btful if ,ari/otle w\ld h be5 accept$1 _h ! ,m5dicant ,fri>s! ,dom9icans & ,franciscansn succe$$ 9 e/abli%+ *airs 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is4 ,^! monks did n love philosophy 9 itself4 ,!y saw1 h[ev]1 t philosophy mu/ be able to def5d itself aga9/ infidel philosophy by ! weapons ( philosophy4 ,b curi\sly en\gh1 ,ari/otelianism1 :i* 0 ! spr+ ( ?is r5aissance1 became1 by its incorporation into ! *ur*1 ! great ob/acle to ! real ,r5aissance two hundr$ & fifty ye>s lat]4 ,! ,/r5g? & ,burd5 ( ,ari/otle to ! ,*ur*4 #a4 ,! ,/r5g? ( ,ari/otle to ! ,*ur*3 7#a7 ,ari/otle elaborat$ = ! *ur*1 ) great cle>ness1 ! conception ( a transc5d5t ,god4 ,?is 0 a weapon = ! *ur* aga9/ neo-,platonism & my/icism4 7#b7 ,ari/otle gave to ! *ur* a !ory ( nature t supplem5t$ its !ory ( grace4 7#c7 ,ari/otle e/abli%$ a philosophical /&>d = ! tru? ( ?+s4 ,?is prov$ ( great value to ! *ur* because x 0 "u ! control ( ! *ur*4 ,9 ! fir/ two p]iods ( ! ,middle ,ages philosophical ?\ght _h a relative indep5d5ce because x 0 )\t a recogniz$ /&>d2 n[ philosophy c\ld be controll$ by ! /&>d ( ,ari/otle4 ,= example1 ) ! com+ ( ,ari/otle !re came c]ta9 /&>d def9itions ( sub/ance1 p]son1 nature1 accid5t1 mode1 pot5cy1 & act4 #b4 ,! ,burd5 ( ,ari/otle to ! ,*ur*3 7#a7 ,ari/otle enc\rag$ a ta/e = sci5ce & analysis4 ,at fir/ ! ,ari/otelian influ5ce 9 ?is direction 0 v small1 b its gr[? 0 only a "q ( "t4 7#b7 ,ari/otle became = ! *ur* a second /&>d4 ,! problem = ! *ur*man n[ became a d\ble "o3 7a7 ,is my tea*+ consi/5t ) *ur* dogma8 7b7 ,is my tea*+ consi/5t ) ,ari/otle8 8,my son10 0 ! reply to a y\? :o ?\ght he _h discov]$ spots on ! sun1 8,i h read ,ari/otle _m times & ,i assure y !re is no?+ ( ! k9d 9 him40 ,dogma1 n n[ ! only /&>d1 is n infallible4 ,! reason ne$ n foll[ dogma1 b its own /&>d4 ,revelation became a realm ( my/]y :i* ! reason c\ld n rea*1 b to :i* x po9t$4 ,a doctr9e ?us might be ( su* a nature t x might be philosophically true1 b !ologically n true4 ,! ,pr$ecessors ( ,aqu9as4 ,_m di/+ui%$ names /& at ! close ( ! ,transitional ,p]iod & ! beg9n+ ( ! ,classic ,p]iod4 ,^! express ! transitional "* ( ! ?\ght ( ! ?re%old ( ?is "t4 ,!y %[1 l ,abel>d1 ! t5d5cy t[>d rationalism4 ,alex&] ( ,hales 7d4 #abfd71 ,william ( ,aub]gne 7d4 #abdi71 ,v9c5t ( ,beauvais 7d4 #abdf71 ,alb]t ( ,boll/a$t1 call$ ,alb]tus ,magnus 7d4 #abhj71 %[ ! influ5ce ( ! new ,ari/otelian sci5ce4 ,alb]t 0 ! tea*] ( ,?omas ,aqu9as4 ,! attempt ( ,?omas to =m a !ological sy/em = ! *ur* 0 anticipat$ by ! s-call$ ,sums ( ! twelf? c5tury1 ( :i* ! "w ( ,pet] ! ,lomb>d 0 ! model4 ,! f\r books ( ,sums ( ,pet] 7 collections ( op9ions ( ! ,fa!rs on que/ions ( dogma4 ,!y %[ ! influ5ce ( ,ari/otle & ! me?od ( ,abel>d4 ,! ,sums ( ,pet] became = sev]al c5turies ! text-book ( ! s*ools & ! subject ( innum]able comm5t>ies4 ,x 0 ! core ( ,classic s*ola/ic lit]ature1 & ar\nd x grew up ! problems ( metaphysics & psy*ology4 ,! ,life ( ,?omas ,aqu9as 7#abbd-abgd74,! ,f\nd] ( ! ,dom9ican ,tradition4 ,?omas belong$ to a noble h\se :i* 0 relat$ to ! royal family4 ,he /udi$ 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,naples1 b at ! age ( n9ete51 ^u resolv+ to ent] ! ,dom9ican ord]1 he 0 captur$ & kept a prison] by 8 bro!rs4 ,aft] two ye>s he made 8 escape1 &1 8 family hav+ cons5t$ to 8 tak+ ord]s1 he w5t to ,cologne "u ! in/ruction ( ,alb]t4 ,he 0 !n s5t to ,p>is1 :]e he obta9$ 8 degree 9 #abeg4 ,he 0 a successful lectur] at ,p>is until #abfa1 :5 he 0 call$ by ! ,pope to tea* philosophy 9 ,rome1 ,bologna1 & ,pisa4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod he compos$ 8 greate/ "w1 ,summa ,!ologiae4 ,he decl9$ pref]m5t & f9ally resid$ at ,naples4 ,he always enjoy$ ! highe/ consid]ation ( ! *ur* au?orities4 ,?omas1 ! f\nd] ( ! 8,dom9ican tradition10 0 ! fir/ to =mulate ,*ri/ian ,ari/otelianism & to draw = ! *ur* ! l9e betwe5 ! realms ( reason & fai?4 ,he did n s mu* create doctr9e z he trans=m$ & assimilat$ x4 ,! s\rces f :i* he drew 7 _m3 ! ,scriptures1 ! ,fa!rs1 ,greek philosophy1 & ! tea*+ ( contempor>y ,arabians & ,jews4 ,if1 z "s hi/orians ma9ta91 he 0 n a ?9k] ( ! fir/ rank1 he at lea/ reliev$ ! *ur* f a delicate situation by means ( a conciliat+ !ology4 ,c]ta9ly 8 pr$ecessors & contempor>ies /& eclips$ by him4 ,he satisfi$ ! m$ival dem& = ord] & he prev5t$ det]ioration 9 ! *ur* doctr9e4 ,he did n rise above 8 age1 al?\gh he /ood at ! head ( its intellectual movem5t4 ,he 01 on ! contr>y1 ! mo/ p]fect expression ( s*ola/icism1 & he 0 affectionately reg>d$ z doctor angelicus & aga9 z doctor univ]salis4 ,! ,c5tral ,pr9ciple ( ,?omas's ,doctr9e,! ,tw(old ,tru?4 ,! life-purpose ( ,?omas 0 to br+ ,*ri/ianity into clos] relation ) civilization & sci5ce4 ,he s\ght to give all dep>tm5ts ( k _! rights & at ! same "t to protect ! asc5d5cy ( religion4 ,?is 0 to him ! same z br++ ,*ri/ianity & ,ari/otle toge!r1 = ,ari/otle meant to him ! entire product ( anci5t civilization4 ,to ! m$ival _w ( grace he add$ a _w ( nature1 &1 fully dom9at$ by ! m$ival love ( ord]1 he unfold$ s compreh5sive a view ( life t he includ$ all its problems4 ,he felt t ! natural & ! reveal$ mu/ n become a contradiction4 ,to accompli% ?is ,?omas f\nd 9 ,ari/otle 8 own ideal e/imate ( ?+s4 ,look+ at ,ari/otle ?r\gh 8 own neo-,platonism1 he naturally f\nd 9 ,ari/otle m ( ! inn] & religi\s e/imate ( nature ?an ! facts w all[4 ,yet x 0 evid5t to ,?omas t !re 0 9 ,ari/otle a great int]e/ 9 nature & a great res]ve on ultimate que/ions4 ,nature 01 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 an ess5ce unfold+ 9 a sy/em ( grades4 ,?is became ! c5tral pr9ciple ( ,aqu9as 9 ?is =m3 ,nature is a sket* 9 outl9e ( ! _w ( grace4 ,be=e ! eye ( ! religi\s m9d ^! two tru?s %\ld appe>3 7#a7 ! _w ( fai? & ! _w ( nature are two prop]ly di/9ct worlds2 7#b7 ! _w ( fai? is a cont9uation ( ! _w ( nature4 ,! _w ( grace & ! _w ( nature are two grades ( ! :ole ( exi/5ce4 ,nature is ! l[] /age ( developm5t1 & ! po9t ( contact betwe5 x & ! _w ( grace is ! s\l ( man4 ,religion & philosophy ?us h diff]5t sph]es1 b !y are n contradictory4 ,grace does n de/roy1 b x p]fects nature4 ,nature is subord9ate to grace z man is subord9ate to ! ,*ri/ian1 ! /ate to ! *ur*1 ! ,emp]or to ! ,pope4#fc ,! diff]5ce betwe5 philosophy & !ology is n t !ology treats ( ,god & div9e tru?s1 & philosophy does n4 ,philosophy discusses div9e tru?s4 ,b ! diff]5ce lies "h1 t !ology views tru?s 9 ! light ( revelation1 :ile philosophy views !m 9 ! light ( reason4 ,yet !re are tru?s t belong to philosophy1 tru?s t belong to !ology1 & tru?s t belong to bo?4 ,! problems ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 ! immortality ( ! s\l1 & ! relation ( ! _w to ,god are !ological problems1 yet !y c also be demon/rat$ by ! reason ( philosophy2 b ! my/]ies ( ! ,tr9ity1 ! ,inc>nation1 & ! temporal creation are beyond ! scope ( ! reason & belong to !ology4 ,philosophy & !ology are di/9ct1 yet !y are 9 h>mony4 ,!ology supplem5ts philosophy ) fai?2 philosophy supplem5ts !ology by 7#a7 e/abli%+ prelim9>y motives1 7#b7 supply+ analogies1 7#c7 answ]+ objections4 ,?omas accepts bo? propositions :i* _h divid$ 8 pr$ecessors3 cr$o ut intelligam & intelligo ut cr$am4 ,above hi/orical revelation !re is some?+ ev5 high]1 :i* c\ld be call$ ano!r realm1 7 x n m ( a hope ?an a possession ( man4 ,its appe>ance 9 ! doctr9e ( ,?omas %[s ! influ5ce ( ,plato ^u him4 ,x is ! imm$iate union ( ! individual ) ,god 9 my/ic ec/asy4#fd ,x is ! dome ( ! religi\s temple t ,?omas has built4 ,b ,?omas 0 c>eful to insi/ t ?is heav5ly glory c\ld n be ga9$ except ?r\gh ! (fices ( ! *ur*4 ,! individual _c rea* ,god ?r\gh 8 own unaid$ ef=ts1 b ! sacram5ts ( ! *ur* =m ! my/]i\s backgr\nd ( ! religi\s life4 ,! ,problem ( ,individuality,! ,relation ( ,p>ticul>s & ,univ]sals4 ,! all-absorb+ "q ( ! ,transitional ,p]iod1 ( ! relation ( p>ticul>s & univ]sals1 became = ,?omas & 8 successors ! problem ( individuality4 ,= ! s*oolman 0 oblig$ to def9e ! individual & fix 8 place 9 8 ,ari/otelian _w1 if he 0 to be successful aga9/ ! pan!ism ( ! ,arabian ,ari/otelianism4 ,:at is ! nature & /&+ ( ! individual8 ,:at con/itutes ! diff]5ce betwe5 individuals8 ,! :ole !ological edifice ( ,?omas w\ld collapse 9 my/ic unity1 ! immortality ( ! s\l w\ld be lo/ & ! (fices ( ! *ur* w\ld be nullifi$1 unless ,?omas %[$ ! positive nature ( ! individual4 ,9 ?is connection we mu/ rememb] t on ! :ole ! ,middle ,ages _h accept$ ,abel>d's analysis ( ! problem ( ! relation ( univ]sals & p>ticul>s3 ! univ]sals exi/ 9 ?ree ways1 ante rem or 9 ,god's m9d2 po/ rem or 9 man's m9d2 9 re or 9 nature4 ,to ,?omas ! univ]sals z ab/ractions 7univ]salia po/ rem7 9 ! human m9d _c be individuals1 = !y h no real exi/5ce4 ,to h real exi/5ce ! univ]sal mu/ exi/ 9 re1 9 ! _m1 z ! ess5ce ( ?+s2 n z ab/raction beside ! _m4 ,! "q ( individuality !re=e to ,?omas conc]ns prop]ly only objects 9 re1 or objects 9 ! corporeal _w4#fe ,^! are objects ( ,=m & ,matt]4 ,! "q is1 :e!r ! ,=m or ! matt] ( corporeal ?+s is ! pr9ciple ( its individuality4 ,?omas says t matt] is ?is pr9ciple1n indet]m9ate matt]1 b matt] ) quantitative det]m9ations4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 e>?ly individuals is num]icala diff]5ce ( "t & space relations4 ,! ,=ms ( nature objects *ange cont9ually accord+ to _! mat]ial conditions1 b ^! conditions d n *ange4 ,nev]!less ! quantitative det]m9ations ( individuals are n ! cause1 b ! condition1 ( _! exi/5ce4 ,b ! "q ab\t ! /atus ( be+s 9 ! spiritual _w1 8sep>ate ,=ms10 is a m difficult "o = ,?omas4 ,?is is ! problem ab\t ,god1 ! angels1 & ! s\ls ( m54 ,!y are evid5tly n individualiz$ by matt]4 ,:at is ! pr9ciple t di/+ui%es !m f "o ano!r8 ,!y are ,=ms )\t matt] & !y are individualiz$ ?r\gh !mselves1 s9ce !y h no ne$ ( mat]ial det]m9ations4 ,?us ,god is di/+ui%$ f ev]y?+ else z pure ,=m or pure actuality4 ,he is ! unique individual 9 :om all diff]5ces m]ge4 ,b s also are ! angels actualiz$ ?r\gh !mselves4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ,god & ! angels8 ,god is an absolute g5us2 ! angel is a relative g5us1 i4 e4 x is ! only "o ( its k9d4 ,b :at is ! condition ( ! s\ls ( m58 ,are !y all alike or d !y h a pr9ciple ( di/9ction8 ,yes1 !y are di/+ui%able1 = ea* s\l ^u sep>ation f its body c>ries ) x a love = its =m] body1 & t di/+ui%es x f o!r s\ls4 ,! ,primacy ( ! ,w or ! ,intellect4 ,up to ?is "t !re _h be5 no psy*ological dispute z to :i* ( ! faculties 0 fundam5tal4 ,n[ ! "q appe>s 9 full =ce4 ,mu* ( ! lit]ature ( ?is p]iod is ^u ! "q ( ! primacy ( ! w or ! intellect1 & x appe>s to be almo/ ! lead+ motive ( ! "t4 ,augu/9e _h plac$ ! w 9 ! =egr\nd ( 8 tea*+4 ,8 successors _h nev] disput$ ! subject1 b _h be5 engag$ 9 discuss+ :at products ( ! intellect are real! p>ticul>s or ! univ]sals4 ,) ! introduction ( ! intellectualism ( ,ari/otle1 !re almo/ imm$iately arose def5d]s ( ,augu/9e4 ,to !m ,ari/otelianism 0 too rationali/ic4 ,?omas foll[s ,ari/otle unconditionally1 & ) him /& ! ,g]man my/ics4 ,intellectualism becomes ! c5tral pr9ciple ( :at is kn[n z ! 8,dom9ican tradition40 ,duns ,scotus 0 a ,franciscan monk4 ,he took up arms = ! primacy ( ! w1 & ?is became ! c5tral pr9ciple ( ! 8,franciscan tradition40 ,on ?is po9t ! nom9ali/s 7 8 allies4 ,! problem ( ! w arose fir/ ) ref]5ce to ! human w4 ,?omas cont5d$ aga9/ ,duns ,scotus t man is free s f> z he foll[s 8 k ( ! good4 ,! intellect is !re=e primal1 = x det]m9es ! w by %[+ ! w :at ! good is4 ,! "q next arose z to ! priority ( ! faculties 9 ,god4 ,does ,god's w dom9ate ,8 intellect or ,8 intellect dom9ate ,8 w8 ,?is 0 a vital po9t 9 ! ,augu/9ian !odicy4 ,does ,god w ! good to be good1 or does ,8 w act accord+ to :at ,he kn[s to be good8 ,"h lies ! po9t at issue betwe5 ! ,dom9ican ,?omas & ! ,franciscan ,scotus4 ,?omas ma9ta9$ t ! intellect ( ,god det]m9es ,8 w4 ,! intellect is det]m9$ by ! tru? s long z ! intellect is true to itself4 ,:y %\ld n ! w be det]m9$ by ! tru? 9 ! same way8 ,) ,god ?is fre$om = ! tru? is ,god himself4 ,! _w is ! be/ possible _w1 = ,god has will$ x out ( himself4 ,! _w is det]m9$ by goodness & man's w is det]m9$ by ! same goodness4 ,:5 ! s5se conqu]s ! morally det]m9$ w1 !re is s94 ,! s5ses1 & n ! w1 are ! cause ( s94 ,duns ,scotus 7#abgj-acjh71 ! ,f\nd] ( ! ,franciscan ,tradition,life & ,philosophical ,position4 ,?us ! ,middle ,ages did n come to a /&/ill ) ,?omas4 ,a great] movem5t exi/$ aft] him ?an is (t5 ?\ght4 ,! lead+ m9ds :o succe$$ ,?omas refus$ to foll[ ! middle c\rse :i* he _h mapp$ out4 ,new attempts 7 made to relate ! _w ( grace & ! _w ( nature4 ,"o 0 my/icism1 repres5t$ by ,eckh>t 7d4 #acgb74 ,! o!r 0 ! reaction ( ! ,augu/9ians aga9/ ! intellectualism ( ! new ,ari/otelianism z repres5t$ by ,?omas4 ,! lead] 9 ?is 0 ,duns ,scotus4 ,! seat ( ?is movem5t 0 ,ox=d4#ff ,duns ,scotus 0 born 9 ,irel& & at an e>ly age he jo9$ ! ,franciscan ord]4 ,he graduat$ f ,ox=d1 :i* at t "t 0 anti-,?omi/ic4 ,he !n taught !ology & philosophy at ,ox=d = t5 ye>s4 ,8 lectures 7 l>gely att5d$ & 8 fame spread ov] ,europe4 ,he w5t to ,p>is 9 #acjd1 :]e he taught = f\r ye>s4 ,he 0 !n transf]r$ to ,cologne1 :]e he di$4 ,scotus 0 ! ,kant ( s*ola/icism4 ,! "t ( con/ruction ( s*ola/icism _h pass$1 & ! "t ( criticism & analysis _h come4 ,scotus 0 ! intellectual knight-errant :o refus$ to accept any !ory )\t subject+ x to criticism4 ,he 0 ! acute/ m9d ( ! ,middle ,ages & 0 call$ ! doctor subtilis4 ,duns ,scotus's ,conception ( ! ,tw(old ,tru?4,! ,sep>ation ( ,sci5ce & ,religion4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 revelation1 !ology1 & philosophy1 t appe>s 9 ?is p]iod ( ,classic ,s*ola/icism1 0 %>ply drawn by ,scotus4 ,9 ,?omas's conception ( a grad$ _w ( developm5t ! di/9ction betwe5 !ology & philosophy 0 n emphasiz$4 ,philosophy n[ 9 ! h&s ( ,scotus becomes sci5ce1 hav+ ! m>ks ( exactness t compel belief1 b is1 h[ev]1 re/rict$ to its own realm4 ,by philosophy ,scotus means logic4 ,9 matt]s ( fai? logic has no?+ :atev] to say1 = at t extreme /&s revelation possess+ ! absolute tru? t compels fai?4 ,betwe5 revelation & philosophy ,scotus squeezes !ology! sci5ce t 8 pr$ecessors _h us$ to cl>ify revelation4 ,) ,scotus x becomes a doma9 t is poor inde$4 ,its objects are ! highe/1 b x c nev] rea* !m4 ,x has n ! div9e assurance ( revelation nor ! exactness ( logical sci5ce4 ,its highe/ conclusions are only probable1 & x c help revelation only 9 a negative way4 ,x _c prove ! doctr9e ( ! ,tr9ity1 inc>nation1 creation1 immortality1 & ev5 its pro(s = ! exi/5ce ( ,god h no cog5cy4 ,philosophy & revelation bo? pr(it at ! exp5se ( s*ola/ic !ology4 ,aft] ,scotus sci5tific h]esy frequ5tly %ield$ itself on ! gr\nd t its conclusions apply only to ! realm ( sci5ce1 :ile ! opposite may be true 9 revelation4 ,! ,inscrutable ,w ( ,god4 ,revelation is ?us plac$ beyond ! rea* ( ! human reason because x re/s on ! inscrutable w ( ,god4 ,revelation is ,god's free act4 ,god mu/ be free4 ,if ,?omas's conception ( ,god's w z det]m9$ by 8 intellect 7 true1 ,god w\ld n be free4 ,! intellect 9 man or ,god mu/ be ! s]vant ( ! w1 if ! w be free4 ,9 man consci\sness produces at fir/ a numb] ( indi/9ct & imp]fect ideas4 ,^? ideas become di/9ct ^u :i* ! w fixes its att5tion1 :ile ! o!rs cease to exi/ because !y are unsupport$ by ! w4 ,god's w is m fundam5tal ?an ! good4 ,god makes ! good to be good4 ,bo? ,?omas & ,scotus say t ! moral law is ! comm& ( ,god4 ,?omas conceives x to be ,god's comm& because x is 9 accord ) ! good2 ,scotus1 = no o!r reason ?an t x is ,god's comm&4 ,! good might be diff]5t if ,god s creat$ x4 ,9 opposition to ,?omas1 ,scotus ma9ta9$ t ,god does n h to create :at ,he does create1 & t ?is is n ! be/ possible _w4 ,god creates :at ,he wills2 ,he c1 !re=e1 grant disp5sation1 & s c ! *ur*4 ,if ,god's w 7 det]m9$ by ,8 intellect1 ,he w\ld h no indep5d5ce1 ,he w\ld n ev5 exi/1 ,he w\ld be only nature or "o ( its causes1 !re c\ld be no evil nor accid5t4 ,he c sup]s$e ! moral law by a new law1 j z ,he sup]s$$ ! ,mosaic law by ! ,gospel4 ,individuality1 revelation1 salvation1 & all objects ( fai? h _! exi/5ce only 9 ! gr\ndless & inscrutable w ( ,god4 ,= ?is reason !re c be no rational !ology4 ,?is f\nd] ( ! 8,franciscan tradition0 ( practical piety & m]itori\s action c\ld n h o!r ?an ! fre$om ( ! w z 8 c5tral pr9ciple4 ,an ,augu/9ian he refus$1 h[ev]1 to foll[ ,augu/9e 9 c5traliz+ fre$om 9 ,god4 ,! object ( fai? is ! w ( ,god1 ! subject ( fai? is ! w ( man4 ,human fre$om consi/s 9 cop]ation ) div9e grace4 ,man c help 9 ! "w ( ,god4 ,8 fre$om is p>tly =mal3 he c w or n w4 ,x is p>tly mat]ial3 he c w ,a or ,b4 ,!re is no ult]ior gr\nd to det]m9e ! human w1 & ?is undet]m9$ fre$om is ! gr\nd = m]it1 provid$ ! human w co9cides ) ! div9e4 ,! ,problem ( ,individuality4 ,! problem ( individuation 0 a favorite "o ) ,scotus4 ,:ile ,scotus agrees ) ,?omas z to ! ?reefold exi/5ce ( ! univ]sal1 ! individual & n ! univ]sal is ! ultimate fact4 ,! individual _c be d$uc$ f ! univ]sal1 nor c x be con/itut$ by ! quantitative det]m9ations ( matt]4 ,x is already individualiz$ & sub/antializ$4 ,=m1 n matt]1 individualizes4 ,! def9ite individual =m1 ! 8?isness0 7hcceitas71 is ! ultimate fact4 ,! individual c only be v]ifi$ z actual fact4 ,! individual is irr$ucible1 & no fur!r explanation c be made ?an to say t x is an individual4 ,?us ! inquiry into ! ,pr9cipium individuationis has no mean+4 ,aft] ,duns ,scotus4 ,! *ur* fail$ to canonize ,scotus2 = ?\gh he claim$ to be its mo/ fai?ful son1 he taught ! dang]\s doctr9e ( fre$om ( ! individual w4 ,8 doctr9e also m>ks ! beg9n+ ( empirical inve/igation ( nature & ! decad5ce ( =mal logic4 ,al?\gh a mo/ fai?ful foll[] ( ! *ur*1 he br\ght s*ola/icism to ! po9t :]e x no long] s]v$ ! *ur*4 ,! result 0 ultr>ationalismn :at ,scotus int5d$4 ,b :5 revelation no long] re/s ^u rational gr\nd1 & :5 !re exi/s by its side a philosophical sci5ce ^: basis is rational1 x is only a "q ( "t :5 revelation %all lose its au?ority = m54 ,:5 philosophy pass$ f ,scotus to ,ockam1 ,ockam's conception ( ! individual z ! ultimately real & ( ! unrationality ( revelation gave him ! old "n ( nom9ali/4 ,?is is a misnom]1 = ! doctr9e ( ,ockam is q diff]5t f ! nom9alism ( ,roscell9us4 ,! temp] ( ! "t 0 diff]5t f ^? days :5 ,roscell9us foll[$ ^u ,anselm1 = ! sup]ior m9ds 7 n[ turn+ away f or?odoxy4 ,disciples ( bo? ,?omas & ,scotus 7 becom+ nom9ali/s4 ,x 0 an epo* :5 s*ola/icism 0 be+ discr$it$ by ! univ]sities1 :5 !ology 0 less a /udy 9 ! curricula1 :5 religion 0 be+ sup]s$$ by magic1 :5 !re 7 rival claimants = ! ,pope's *air1 :5 !re 0 /rife betwe5 ! *ur* & ! /ate4 ,! _s ( ! age 0 t[>d nom9alism 9 e =m4 ,! comm&1 9 #acci1 to ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is n to use ,ockam's works %[s h[ p[]ful _h become 8 foll[+ dur+ 8 lifetime4 ,dom9icans & ,augu/9ians w5t ov] 9 cr[ds to nom9alism4 ,?is beg9n+ ( nom9alism betrays ! gr[? ( ,european national life1 mod]n languages1 art1 & ! sci5ces4 ,x %[s ! beg9n+ ( ,prote/antism 9 all dep>tm5ts4 ,! *ur* attempt$ to cru% x 9 ! way t x _h cru%$ ,roscell9us4 ,b ?is nom9alism _h too deep root4 ,william ( ,ockam 7#abhj-acdi73 ,life & ,tea*+4 ,ockam 0 call$ ,doctor ,inv9cibilis4 ,he 0 born 9 ,ockam1 ,engl&1 & /udi$ at ,ox=d1 :]e he probably _h ,scotus z a tea*]4 ,aft] tea*+ 9 ,p>is 7#acbj-acbe71 he left ,p>is & jo9$ ! oppon5ts ( ! temporal p[] ( ! ,pope4 ,he 0 imprison$ at ,avignon1 b escap$ to ! c\rt ( ,l\is ( ,bav>ia1 :]e he di$4 ,to ,l\is he made 8 celebrat$ promise1 8,if y w def5d me ) y\r sword1 ,i w def5d y ) my p540 ,he has be5 call$ 8! fir/ ,prote/ant40 ,! nom9alism ( ,ockam 0 m complex ?an t ( ,roscell9us1 & yet x 0 ess5tially a t5d5cy to simplification by disc>d+ all metaphysics & psy*ology z useless4 8,ockam's razor0 0 ! nickname ( 8 philosophy4 ,he reg>d$ concepts z subjective signs or 8t]ms0 ( actual facts4 ,h5ce 8 philosophy 0 also call$ t]m9ism4 ,!re 0 also 9 x a naturali/ic t5d5cy :i* 0 ! result ( ! sci5tific /udies ( ! ,ari/otelian ,arabians4 ,) ^! logical & naturali/ic motives 7 unit$ ! ,augu/9ian doctr9e ( ! w4 ,^! 7 ! ?ree factors ( a nom9alism t felt ! conviction ( ! importance ( ! inn] life z well z ! ne$ ( an ext5d$ inve/igation ( nature4 ,x is1 moreov]1 no accid5t t ,ockam 0 cons]vative1 = he belong$ to ! ,franciscans1 ! mo/ cons]vative ( ! mona/ic bodies4 ,?is nom9alism 0 a reaction aga9/ s*ola/icism1 9 ord] to /r5g!n ! sup]natural "* ( dogma4 ,ockam felt t s*ola/icism _h wax$ too greatt "u ! guise ( s]v+ religion x _h virtually subord9at$ religion4 ,! reaction>y ,franciscans proclaim$ ! entire sep>ation ( religion & philosophy 9 ord] to make room = fai?4 ,fai? c\ld be purifi$ only by r5\nc+ s*ola/icism4 ,! temporal p[] mu/ be giv5 up by ! *ur*1 ! /ate & ! *ur* mu/ be sep>at$4 ,no new k ab\t fai? c be obta9$4 ,! dogma mu/ be left impregnable1 ev5 ?\gh sci5tifically m5 become skeptics4 ,consi/5t1 !re=e1 0 x = ?is movem5t to disjo9 entirely ! p>ts ( ! tw(old tru?4 ,scotus _h almo/ cr[d$ out natural !ology2 ,ockam complet$ ! "w ( ,scotus4 ,s*ola/icism or natural !ology is a rubbi%-heap ( hypo!ses4 ,! *ur* %\ld ab&on speculation & emphasize fai?4 ,x %\ld return to ! simplicity & hol9ess ( ! ,apo/olic *ur*4 ,ockam 0 devot$ to ! true upbuild+ ( ! *ur* & 0 a foll[] ( ,/4 ,francis4 ,x 0 8 love = ! *ur* t made him take sides aga9/ h] pret5sions to temporal p[]4 ,ockam 0 ! natural precursor ( 8 fell[ c\ntryman ,john ,locke1 & ! ,engli% empirical s*ool4 ,individual ?+s h ! reality ( orig9al ,=ms1 = !y come to u intuitively4 ,our ideas are only signs ( !m4 ,?is is a relation ( ! 8fir/ int5tion40 ,z individual ideas are relat$ to individual ?+s1 s g5]al ideas are relat$ to individual ideas4 ,?is is ! relation ( ! 8second int5tion40 ,! g5]al idea ref]r+ ?us indirectly to an individual ?+ is !re=e arbitr>y & caprici\s4 ,real sci5ce deals ) ?+s intuitively obs]v$2 rational sci5ce only ) ! relations betwe5 ideas4 ,nev]!less real sci5ce deals only ) an inn] _w1 ev5 if its mat]ial is intuitively kn[n4 ,intuitions are only repres5tatives ( ! real _w4 ,h[ mu* less real mu/ ! _w ( rational sci5ce !n be1 s9ce x presupposes ^! inn] intuitions ( real sci5ce4 ,! univ]sal1 !re=e1 has no reality4 ,x is a "n1 a sign ( _m ?+s1 a t]m4 ,only ! individual is real4 ,aft] ,ockam4 ,william ( ,ockam 0 ! la/ s*oolman4 ,:5 8 doctr9e ( t]m9ism 0 unit$ ) ,augu/9e's p[]ful doctr9e ( ! w1=m+ an extreme individualism1! glimm]+ ( ! dawn ( mod]n times appe>s4 ,! movem5t 0 made /ill /rong] by ! /udy ( ! hi/ory ( developm5t psy*ologically1 & x became a k9d ( idealism ( ! inn] life4 ,already1 too1 !re 7 beg9n+ inve/igations 9 natural sci5ce1 bas$ ^u empirical /udy4 ,mod]n subjectivism 0 at h&2 s*ola/icism _h run its c\rse4 ,! repres5tatives ( ! s*ola/ic philosophy ( ! fifte5? & sixte5? c5turies =got ! pr9ciple ( ! ,classic ,s*oolm5 & became m]e comm5tators ( ! lead]s ( ! tradition to :i* !y belong$4 ,_! v]bal subtleties 7 too ref9$ to be und]/ood4 ,! ef=ts ( ,nicolas ,cusanus to br+ secul> sci5ce "u a sy/em ( s*ola/ic my/icism only promot$ ! mod]n movem5t4 ,cusanus !re=e belongs to ! next p]iod1 & ( him we %all subsequ5tly he>4 ,,index ,abd]a #ajg1 #aai4 ,see ,atomi/s4 ,abel>d life (1 #cfc2 8 conceptualism1 #cfd2 8 rationalism1 #cfe-cfg4 ,academy1 ! :at x 01 #abd2 aft] ! dea? ( ,plato1 #aff2 & ,ari/otle1 #afi-aga2 ,old]1 ,middle1 & ,new1 #bbj1 #bba2 ! skepticism (1 #bff-bfh2 eclecticism 91 #bgj4 ,adams1 ,g4 ,b4 ,civilization dur+ ! ,middle ,ages1 #cgd n4 ,adamson1 ,rob]t ,! ,developm5t ( ,greek ,philosophy quot$1 #bee4 nesidemus ,skeptic1 #bfh4 ,agrippa ,skeptic1 #bfh1 #bfi4 ,alb]tus ,magnus ,see ,boll/a$t4 ,alcidamus ,sophi/1 #fh4 ,alcu9 #cdi1 #cej4 ,alex&] ( ,hales #cgi4 ,alex&ria a c5tre ( ,hell5ism1 #bae2 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 #bhb4 ,alex&rian ,s*ool ( neo-,platonism #bij-bih4 ,ammonius ,saccas #bij1 #cad4 ,anamnesis #adg-adi4 ,anaxagoras 8 life1 #dc2 8 philosophy1 #de-dg4 ,anaxim&] #bd1 #be4 ,anaxim5es #be4 ,anci5t ,philosophy l5g? (1 #a2 und]ly+ "* (1 #b2 divisions (1 #d1 #e2 lit]>y s\rces (1 #f4 ,animism #ai4 ,anselm life & position 9 m$ival philosophy1 #cei-cfa2 8 argum5ts = ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 #cfa2 on reason & dogma1 #cfe4 ,an?ropological p]iod ( ,greek philosophy #ab1 #ac2 discussion (1 #ee-ig2 hi/orical summ>y (1 #ee4 ,an?ropologi/s #ajc4 ,an?ropology def9$1 #ac4 ,antio*us ( ,ascalon #bgj1 #bga4 ,anti/h5es f\nd] ( ! ,cynic s*ool1 #ic1 #ie4 ,apa?y ,/oic1 #bea4 ,apollonius neo-,py?agorean1 #bhe4 ,apologi/s1 ! #cjg-cji4 ,aqu9as1 ,?omas on ! problem ( reason & fai?1 #cfi1 #cgg2 ! pr$ecessors (1 #cgi1 #chj2 life ( 7f\nd] ( ! ,dom9ican tradition71 #chj1 #cha2 ! c5tral pr9ciple ( 8 doctr9e1 #cha-chc2 ! problem ( individuality accord+ to1 #chc-che2 on ! w & ! intellect1 #che1 #chf4 ,arabian s*ools1 #cga1 #cgb2 translations ( ,greek works1 #cgb1 #cgc4 ,arcesilaus #bfg4 mean+ (1 #hd4 ,ari/ippus f\nd] ( ! ,cyr5aic s*ool1 #ic1 #if2 & ,epicurus1 #bbi1 #bcj4 ,ari/ophanes oppos$ ! ,sophi/s1 #gd4 ,ari/otle 8 place 9 ,greek hi/ory1 #ih-ajj1 #ajc2 conceptuali/1 #ajd2 advanc$ age at :i* he f9i%$ 8 education1 #abe2 9 ! ,academy & ,lyceum1 #aff-afh2 *ronological sket* ( 8 life1 #afh1 #afi2 8 biography 9 detail1 #afi-agc2 ! writ+s (1 #agc-agf2 8 />t+-po9t1 #agf1 #agg2 ! fundam5tal pr9ciple 9 8 philosophy1 #agg-ahj2 8 logic1 #ahj-ahe2 8 metaphysics1 #ahe-aid2 developm5t is purposeful1 #ahe-ahg2 8 two diff]5t conceptions ( purpose1 #ahg-aij2 8 conception ( ,god1 #aij1 #aia2 8 conception ( matt]1 #aia1 #aib2 8 conception ( nature1 #aib-aid2 8 !ory ( physics1 #aid-aif2 8 psy*ology1 #aif-aii2 8 e?ics1 #aii-bjb2 8 political philosophy1 #bjb1 #bjc2 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 #ccb1 #cfc1 #cfh1 #cfi2 ,arabic v]sions ( 8 works1 #cgb1 #cgc2 works (1 introduc$ into ,we/]n ,europe1 #cge-cgh2 ! /r5g? & burd5 (1 to ! *ur*1 #cgh1 #cgi2 & ,?omas ,aqu9as1 #chj1 #cha4 ,arnold1 ,mat!w #dc n4 ,a/ronomy ( ! ,py?agoreans1 #di-eb1 #ec2 ,ptolemaic1 #cbb-cbe4 ,at>axia ( ,epicurus1 #bca1 #bcc2 ( ! ,skeptics1 #bff4 ,a!nian s*ool ( neo-,platonism #bij1 #bii-cja4 ,a!ns rise (1 #eg1 #eh2 & ,socrates1 #ia2 & ,abd]a1 #aai2 a c5tre ( ,hell5ism1 #bac-bae4 ,atomism ( ,epicurus1 ! #bch-bdj4 ,atomi/ic s*ool1 ! #ajg4 ,atomi/s1 ! philosophy (1 #dg1 #dh4 ,atoms ( ,democritus1 ! #aji-aad1 #aaf1 #aag4 ,augu/9e ! hi/orical position (1 #cjf1 #cah1 #cce-cch2 ! life (1 #cci1 #cdj2 ! two elem5ts 9 8 tea*+1 #cdj1 #cda2 ! neo-,platonic elem5t3 ! inn] c]ta9ties ( consci\sness1 #cda-cde2 ! au?ority ( ! *ur* accord+ to1 #cde-cdg4 ,aurelius1 ,m>cus #bdc1 #bdf4 ,bacon1 ,francis ,essay on ,love1 #aec n4 ,bacon1 ,rog] #chg n4 ,b>desanes ,gno/ic1 #caj4 ,basilides ,gno/ic1 #caj4 ,becom+ ^w h[ us$1 #bb2 9 ,h]acleitus's doctr9e1 #bi2 accord+ to ,plato1 #acc1 #acf1 #aci4 ,be+ ^w h[ us$1 #bb2 9 ,p>m5ides' doctr9e1 #cc-ce2 ,py?agorean conception (1 #di-ea2 aspects "u :i* x 0 conceiv$ (1 9 ,greek philosophy1 #ajc1 #ajd2 accord+ to ,plato1 #acc1 #acf1 #aci4 ,b5$ict9e ,age1 ! #cej4 ,b]5g> ( ,t\rs #cei4 ,bo?ius #cjj4 ,boll/a$t1 ,alb]t #cgg1 #cgi4 ,bologna ,univ]sity (1 #cgg4 ,burnet1 ,john ,e>ly ,greek ,philosoph]s cit$1 #ag n4 ,bury1 ,j4 ,b4 ,hi/ory ( ,greece cit$1 #ab n42 quot$1 #af4 ,c>neades #bfg4 ,c>pocrates ,gno/ic1 #caj4 ,c>?age #ae1 #af4 ,cate*i/s ! ,s*ool (1 #cad-cah4 ,ca?olic !ologians ! old1 #cab-cad4 ,cause teleological1 f9al1 me*anical1 & effici5t1 #aje n4 ,see ,f9al cause1 ,effici5t cause4 ,causes ,ari/otle's1 #ahg4 ,*ange ,h]acleitus's doctr9e (1 #bh1 #bi2 has no exi/5ce 9 ,p>m5ides' philosophy1 #cd1 #ce2 z conceiv$ by ! ,plurali/s1 #dj4 ,*>lemagne ! revival (1 #cdi1 #cej4 ,*ri/ianity & neo-,platonism1 diff]5ce 9 _! conception ( inspiration1 #bgf1 #bgg2 rise (1 #bgi1 #bhj2 summ>y ( its hi/ory1 #bha2 & neo-,platonism1 #bhh-bij2 ! ,hell5iz+ (1 #cjb-cah2 ! e>ly situation (1 #cjb-cje2 ! philosophies influ5c+1 #cje1 #cjf2 e>ly1 ! p]iods (1 #cjf1 #cjg2 ! ,apologi/s1 #cjg-cji2 ! ,gno/ics1 #caj-cab2 ! reaction aga9/ ,gno/icism 7! old ,ca?olic !ologians71 #cab-cad2 ,orig5 & ! ,s*ool ( ,cate*i/s1 #cad-cah2 & ,mohamm$anism1 #cga-cge4 ,*rysippus #bdb1 #bdd1 #bde4 ,*ur* au?ority (1 accord+ to ,augu/9e1 #cde-cdg2 /r5g? & burd5 ( ,ari/otle to1 #cgh1 #cgi2 & /ate1 ,aqu9as's & ,dante's views (1 #chb4 ,cic]o on ,ari/otle1 #afg2 8 "w1 #bga1 #bgb4 ,civilizations ,*ri/ian & ,mohamm$an1 #cfi-cgb2 ! fir/ contact (1 #cgb1 #cgc2 ! conflict betwe51 #cgd1 #cge4 ,classic ,s*ola/icism p]iod (1 #ccc1 #cfh-cid4 ,clean!s #bdb1 #bdd-bdf4 ,clem5t #cad4 ,conception & p]ception1 #hc n42 importance (1 to ,socrates1 #hc2 accord+ to ,plato1 #acd1 #ace2 9 ,ari/otle1 #agg-agi4 ,conceptualism ( ,ari/otle1 #ajd2 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 #ceh1 #cfd1 #cfe4 ,consci\sness =mulation ( ! psy*ological conception (1 #bid2 ! inn] c]ta9ties (1 accord+ to ,augu/9e1 #cda-cde4 ,con/ant9ople an intellectual c5tre1 #cgb n4 ,cosmas map1 ! #cce4 ,cosmological p]iod ( ,greek philosophy #ab1 #ac2 treat$1 #ae-ed4 ,cosmologi/ *>act]i/ics ( !1 #ah-bj2 table (1 #bj2 _! philosophical "q1 #bj1 #ba2 :]e !y liv$1 #ba2 results ( _! philosophy1 #ec1 #ed4 ,cosmology def9$1 #ac4 ,crates ( ,!bes #ie4 ,critical attitude ( m9d among ! ,greeks1 #fa-fd2 ( ,socrates1 #hj4 ,crusades1 ! #cgd1 #cge4 ,cusanus1 ,nicolas #cid4 ,cynic s*ool1 ! #ic-ig4 ,cynics & ,/oics #bdf1 #bdg4 ,cyr5aic s*ool1 ! #ic-ig4 ,cyr5aics _! tea*+1 & ,epicureanism1 #bbi1 #bcj4 ,dante on ,ari/otle1 #afg2 us$ ,ptolemaic conception ( ! univ]se1 #cbd1 #cbe2 diagram ( 8 poetic conception ( ! univ]se1 #cgf2 8 view ( ! /ate & ! *ur*1 #chb n42 plac$ ! intellectual virtues above ! practical1 #chc n4 ,d>k ,ages1 ! #cdg-cdi4 ,d$uction #ahb4 ,def9ition ,socrates "o ( ! fir/ to use x correctly1 #ib4 ,democritus 8 place 9 ,greek hi/ory1 #ih-ajj1 #ajc2 & ,plato1 _! simil>ities & diff]5ces1 #ajd-ajf2 life (1 #ajf-ajh2 compreh5siv5ess ( 8 aim1 #ajh2 ! enri*$ physics (1 #aji-aaa2 ! mat]iali/ic psy*ology (1 #aaa-aad2 8 !ory ( k1 #aad-aaf2 ! e?ical !ory (1 #aaf-aah2 a wide travel]1 #abc2 advanc$ age at :i* he f9i%$ 8 education1 #abe4 ,developm5t accord+ to ,ari/otle1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahe-ahg4 ,de ,wulf ,hi/ory ( ,m$ival ,philosophy1 #ccf n41 #chd4 ,dialectic def9$1 #fj1 #aca4 ,dill1 ,samuel ,roman ,society cit$1 #bgd n4 ,diog5es #ie4 ,dionysiodorus #fh4 ,dogma ,see ,reason4 ,dom9ican tradition ,?omas ,aqu9as ! f\nd] (1 #chj1 #cha2 intellectualism ! c5tral pr9ciple 91 #che4 ,doxography #f4 ,drama ! ,greek1 #fj1 #fa4 ,dualism def9$1 #ea n42 ! ,py?agorean1 #ea1 #eb2 ( ! ,sy/ematic p]iod ( ,greek philosophy1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,dynamic pan!ism ( ,plot9us #bic4 ,eckh>t #cfi1 #chf4 ,eclectic ,platoni/s1 ! #bhe4 ,eclecticism #bfd1 #bfe1 #bfi-bgb4 ,effici5t cause introduction ( conception (1 by ! ,plurali/s1 #da2 def9$1 #aje n42 ,ari/otle's conception (1 #ahg4 ,elean-,eretrian s*ool1 ! #ic4 ,eleatic s*ool & ,milesian s*ool1 ,x5ophanes ! connect+ l9k betwe51 #bf2 lives ( ,p>m5ides & ,z5o1 #cb1 #ce2 tea*+ (1 comp>$ ) t ( ! ,milesians & ,h]acleitus1 #bb f42 ! philosophy (1 #cc-cg2 & ,h]acleitus1 results ( ! conflict betwe51 #cg1 #ch4 ,elem5t1 ! z conceiv$ by ! ,plurali/s1 #dj1 #da4 ,eleus9ian ,see ,my/]ies4 ,emanations ! _w (1 accord+ to ,plot9us1 #bid-big4 ,em]son1 ,r4 ,w4 ,essay on ,love1 #aec n42 ,initial1 ,dmonic1 & ,cele/ial ,love1 #aec n4 ,em]ton1 ,ephraim ,m$ival ,europe1 #cgd n4 ,emp$ocles 8 conception ( *ange1 #dj2 8 conception ( ! elem5t1 #dj2 8 doctr9e ( ! effici5t cause1 #da2 8 life1 #dc2 ! philosophy (1 #dd1 #de4 ,empiricism #ajd n4 ,end def9$1 #aje n4 ,entele*y #ahf4 ,epic1 ,greek importance ( !1 #h-aj4 ,epictetus #bdc1 #bdf4 ,epicureanism "o ( ! ,new ,s*ools1 #bbb-bbe2 & ,/oicism1 summ>y ( agreem5ts & diff]5ces1 #bbe1 #bbf2 & ! tea*+ ( ,ari/ippus1 #bbi2 ideal (1 #bcj-bcc2 ! place ( virtue 91 #bcc2 ! ,wise ,man (1 #bcd-bcf4 ,see ,epicurus4 ,epicureans1 ! #bbh4 ,epicurus life (1 #bbg1 #bbh2 & ,ari/ippus1 #bbi2 8 ideal1 #bcj-bcc2 8 conception ( ! physical _w1 #bch-bdj4 ,see ,epicureanism4 ,epi/emology ,democritus' contribution to1 #aad-aaf4 ,erig5a1 ,john ,scotus #cdi1 #cej2 life & tea*+ (1 #cej-ceb2 ! ,greek pr9ciple :i* he =mulat$ = ! ,middle ,ages1 #ceb1 #cec4 ,eri/ic def9$1 #fj4 ,e?ical p]iod ( ! ,hell5ic-,roman p]iod #bjh2 g5]al *>act]i/ics (1 #bae-bah4 ,e?ics t5d5cy t[>d1 among e>ly ,greeks1 #aa1 #ab2 ( ! ,sophi/s1 #ga-gc2 ( ,democritus1 #aaf-aah2 ,plato's !ory (1 #aec-aeh2 ( ,ari/otle1 #aii-bjb2 ( ,plot9us1 #big1 #bih4 ,euck51 ,rudolf ,problem ( ,human ,life1 #ccf n4 ,euclid f\nd] ( ! s*ool at ,meg>a1 #ic4 ,eudmonism #hg4 ,euhem]ism #if4 ,eusebius on ,ari/otle1 #afg4 ,eu?ydemus #fh4 ,evil ! problem (1 accord+ to ,/oicism1 #bfj1 #bfa4 ,fairbanks1 ,ar?ur ,fir/ ,philosoph]s ( ,greece1 #f n4 ,falck5b]g1 ,ri*>d ,hi/ory ( ,mod]n ,philosophy1 #c n4 ,f9al cause def9$1 #aje n42 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 #ahg4 ,fire ,h]acleitus's doctr9e (1 #cj-cb4 ,=m & ,matt] 9 ,ari/otle1 #ahf-aib1 #aig-aii2 9 ,?omas ,aqu9as1 #chd4 ,=mal cause #ahg4 ,franciscan tradition1 ! #che-chg4 ,fre$om ! problem (1 accord+ to ,epicurus1 #bdj2 accord+ to ,/oicism1 #bfj1 #bfa2 accord+ to ,orig51 #caf1 #cag2 accord+ to ,augu/9e1 #cde2 accord+ to ,duns ,scotus1 #chi4 ,g]b]t #cej4 ,glab] quot$1 #ced4 ,gnomic poets ,greek1 #aj-ab4 ,gno/icism #caj-cab2 ! reaction aga9/1 #cab-cad4 ,god ,plato's conception (1 #ada1 #adb2 ,ari/otle's conception (1 #aij1 #aia2 ,8 w & ,8 intellect1 #chf1 #chh1 #chi4 ,goe! quot$1 #abi1 #afg4 ,good ,plato's ,idea ( !1 #adj-adb1 #add2 ,plato's !ory ( !1 developm5t (1 #aec1 #aed2 !1 ( ! ,/oics1 #bej1 #bea4 ,gorgias #ff1 #fg2 ! nihilism (1 #gj1 #ga4 ,gospel ! ,hell5iz+ (1 #cjb-cah4 ,see ,*ri/ianity4 ,greece aft] ! ,p]sian ,w>s1 #eg-fd4 ,greek ,enlight5m5t1 ! #eh-fd1 #hb4 ,greek-,jewi% philosophy ( ,philo #bha-bhd2 & neo-,platonism1 #bhh4 ,greek nation ! fall (1 & ! p]si/5ce ( its civilization1 #bjd-bjh4 ,greek national _s wan+ (1 #ih4 ,greek philosophy ?ree p]iods (1 #ab-ad2 summ>y (1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,greek ?\ght 0 objective1 #b1 #ajj1 #aja4 ,greeks1 e>ly geographical environm5t (1 #g2 political environm5t (1 #h1 #i1 #ae1 #af2 native t5d5cies (1 #i-ab2 p]ils to1 9 ! new religion1 #af-ah2 moni/ic philosophies1 #bb f4 ,grote1 ,george ,hi/ory ( ,greece1 #fa n42 ,plato1 #bfg n4 ,happ9ess accord+ to ,socrates1 #hf2 accord+ to ! ,cynics & ! ,cyr5aics1 #id-ig2 accord+ to ,democritus1 #aag1 #aah2 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 #bjj2 accord+ to ,epicurus1 #bcc-bch4 ,h>nack1 ,adolf ,outl9es ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,dogma quot$1 #cjh1 #ccf1 #cdd1 #ced2 cit$1 #cae n41 #cde n4 ,hat*1 ,edw9 ,hibb]t ,lectures quot$1 #cje4 ,h$onism & eudmonism1 #hg2 "s types (1 #bbh1 #bbi4 ,hell5ic-,roman p]iod #bjd-cah2 its "t l5g?1 #bjd2 ! fall ( ! ,greek nation & ! p]si/5ce ( its civilization1 #bjd-bjh2 ! two p>ts (1 #bjh1 #bji2 ! und]curr5t ( skepticism 91 #bji-baa2 ! fundam5tal problem (1 #baa-bac4 ,hell5ism #bje-bjh2 ! c5tres (1 #bac-bae4 ,hell5iz+ ( ! ,gospel #cjb-cah4 ,h]acleitus life1 #bh2 8 tea*+ comp>$ ) t ( ! ,milesians & ,eleatics1 #bb1 #bc2 8 philosophy1 #bh-ca2 & ,p>m5ides1 results ( ! conflict betwe51 #cg1 #ch2 practical philosophy (1 #ca4 ,hesiod #aa4 ,hicks1 ,r4 ,d4 ,/oic & ,epicurean1 #bbg n42 cit$1 #bfg n4 ,hipp>*ia #ie4 ,hippias #ff1 #fh4 ,hippodamus #fh4 ,hippolytus #cac4 ,homoiom]iai #df4 ,human nature value set ^u1 by ,socrates1 #ha4 ,hylozoism def9$1 #ai2 & ,pluralism1 #da2 ! break+ up ( pre-,socratic1 #dg2 becomes mat]ialism ) ,democritus1 #aji-aaa4 ,hylozoi/s ! ,cosmologi/s 71 #ai4 ,hypatia #bih4 ,idea developm5t ( ! mean+ ( 7,democritus & ,plato71 #aje4 ,ideal ( ,socrates1 ! #hc-he2 :at x involves1 #he-hh4 ,idealism ( ! ,greeks1 #ajj2 objective1 #ajd4 ,ideas ( ,plato1 #acc1 #ace2 ! developm5t (1 9 ! two drafts1 #acf1 #acg2 brief comp>ison ( ! two drafts ( #acg2 full] comp>ison ( ! two drafts (1 #acg-ada2 9 ! doctr9e ( anamnesis1 #adg1 #adh4 ,immortality ,plato's doctr9e (1 #adf-aej4 ,individuality ! problem (1 accord+ to ,?omas ,aqu9as1 #chc-che2 ! problem (1 9 ,duns ,scotus1 #chi1 #cij4 ,induction #ib1 #ahc4 ,intellect or w ! "q ( ! primacy (1 #che1 #chf1 #chh1 #chi4 ,ionic ,s*ool ,see ,milesian s*ool4 ,ir5u #cac4 ,iri% le>n+1 ! #cdi4 ,irony ,socratic1 #ij4 ,jackson1 ,h4 article 8,sophi/s10 9 ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 #fh n4 ,jambli*us #bih1 #bii4 ,jewi% 7,greek-7 philosophy ( ,philo #bha-bhd2 & neo-,platonism1 #bhh4 ,julian1 ,emp]or #bih4 ,ju/9 ,m>tyr #cjh4 ,k+sley1 ,*>les ,hypatia1 #bih n4 ,knight1 ,william ,a4 ,life & ,tea*+ ( ,hume1 #c n4 ,k 9 ,socrates' ideal1 #hc-hf1 #hh2 accord+ to ! ,cynics1 #ie2 ,democritus' !ory (1 #aad-aaf4 ,lanfranc #cei4 ,law positive & natural1 #gb4 ,le>n+ ! impulse =1 among ! ,greeks1 #eh1 #ei2 ! ,revival (1 #cge-cgh4 ,leucippus 8 life1 #dc1 #dd2 8 philosophy1 #dg1 #dh1 #aji1 #aaj2 f\nd] ( ! ,atomi/ic s*ool1 #ajg4 ,logic ,ari/otle's1 #ahj-ahe4 ,love ,platonic1 #aea-aec4 ,love & ,hate ,emp$ocles' doctr9e (1 #dd4 ,lucretius #bbh4 ,lyceum1 ! ,ari/otle 91 #aff1 #afg1 #agb1 #agc2 aft] ,ari/otle1 #bbj-bbb2 eclecticism 91 #bgj4 ,lycophron #fh4 ,ma9e1 ,sir ,h5ry cit$1 #gb4 ,man ! philosophy (1 #ac1 #ee-ig2 ,plato's conception (1 #add-adf4 ,mat]ial cause #ahg4 ,mat]ialism hylozoism becomes1 ) ,democritus1 #ajc1 #aji-aaa2 ,/oic1 #bed1 #bee4 ,mat]iali/ic psy*ology ( ,democritus #aaa-aad4 ,matt] & ,=m1 9 ,ari/otle1 #ahf-aib1 #aig-aii1 #chd2 ( ,plot9us1 #bie1 #bif4 ,mean1 ! ,ari/otle's doctr9e (1 #bja1 #bjb4 ,me*anical s]ies ( ,ari/otle #aid-aif4 ,m$ival geography #cce4 ,m$ival libr>y1 a #cbf-cbh4 ,m$ival ,man1 ! #cbj1 #cba2 h[ ! univ]se appe>$ to1 #cbb-cbe2 at s*ool1 #cbe1 #cbf2 summ>y ( ! political & educational worlds (1 #ccj-ccc4 ,m$ival philosophy l5g? (1 #a2 und]ly+ "* (1 #c2 divisions (1 #d2 treat$1 #cai-cid4 ,meg>ian s*ool #ic4 ,m5dicants1 ! #cfh4 ,metaphysical problem1 ! e>ly =mulation (1 #bb1 #bc4 ,metaphysics ,plato's1 ! =mation (1 #acb-acf2 ,plato's1 ! developm5t (1 #acf-ada2 ,ari/otle's1 #ahe-aid2 ab&onm5t (1 9 ,hell5ic-,roman p]iod1 #baf2 ( ,plot9us1 #bid-big4 ,metrocles #ie4 ,middle ,ages *>act]i/ics & conditions (1 #cai-ccc2 & ! ,hell5ic-,roman p]iod1 comp>ison (1 #cai1 #cbj2 ! m$ival man1 #cbj1 #cba2 h[ ! univ]se appe>$ to ! m$ival man1 #cbb-cbe2 ! m$ival man at s*ool1 #cbe1 #cbf2 a m$ival libr>y1 #cbf-cbh2 ! ?ree p]iods (1 #cbh-ccj2 summ>y ( ! political & educational worlds ( ! m$ival man1 #ccj-ccc2 ! e>ly p]iod (1 #ccj-ccb1 #ccd-cec2 ! transitional p]iod (1 #ccb1 #ced-cfg2 ! p]iod ( classic s*ola/icism1 #ccc1 #cfh-cid4 ,milesian s*ool #bd2 ! memb]s (1 #bd1 #be2 ! philosophy (1 #be1 #bf ! tea*+ (1 comp>$ ) t ( ,h]acleitus & ! ,eleatics1 #bb1 #bc4 ,milton1 ,john #cbe4 ,mod]n philosophy l5g? (1 #a2 und]ly+ "* (1 #c2 divisions (1 #d4 ,mohamm$anism gr[? (1 dur+ ! ,middle ,ages1 #cgj-cgb2 fir/ contact ) ,*ri/ianity1 #cgb1 #cgc2 conflict ) ,*ri/ianity1 #cgd1 #cge4 ,monism def9$1 #aj n42 ( ! e>ly ,greeks1 #aj2 displac$ by pluralism 9 ,greek philosophy1 #ci4 ,moni/s li/ ( e>ly ,cosmologi/s :o 71 #bj2 discussion ( !1 #bb-ch4 ,mono!ism def9$1 #aj n42 = ! fir/ "t conceptually fram$1 #aia4 ,monte ,cass9o f\nd+ ( ! mona/ic s*ool at1 #cdh4 ,moral po/ulate philosophy = ! fir/ "t f\nd$ ^u1 #he2 ( ,socrates1 #he-hh4 ,motion accord+ to ,ari/otle1 #aie1 #aif4 ,my/]ies ,orphic & ,eleus9ian1 #af-ah1 #ch2 ,orphic1 dang]s (1 av]t$ by ,cosmologi/s1 #ed4 ,my/icism 9 neo-,platonism1 #bhg4 ,natural ,sci5ce ,see ,physics4 ,nature ! philosophy (1 #ae-ch2 ! ^w z us$ by ! ,sophi/s1 #gb1 #gc2 a logical1 ,socrates' attempt to f9d1 #ib2 physical1 ,plato's conception (1 #adb-add2 ,ari/otle's conception (1 #aib-aid2 ,/oic conception (1 #bea-beg4 ,neo-,platonism & ,*ri/ianity1 diff]5ce 9 _! conception ( inspiration1 #bgf1 #bgg2 rise (1 #bgi1 #bhj2 summ>y ( its hi/ory1 #bha2 & ,platonism1 #bhg1 #bhh2 & ! philosophies ( ,philo & ! neo-,py?agoreans1 #bhh2 & ,*ri/ianity1 #bhh-bij2 ! p]iods (1 #bij2 ! ,alex&rian s*ool 7sci5tific !ory ( neo-,platonism1 life & writ+s ( ,plot9us71 #bij-bih2 ! ,syrian s*ool 7! sy/ematiz+ ( poly!ism1 ,jambli*us71 #bij1 #bih1 #bii2 ! ,a!nian s*ool 7,proclus71 #bij1 #bii-cja2 its influ5ce on ,*ri/ianity1 #cjf4 ,neo-,py?agoreanism #bha1 #bhe-bhg2 & neo-,platonism1 #bhh4 ,nom9alism #ajc1 #ceh1 #cfb-cfe1 #cia1 #cib4 ,norton1 ,ar?ur ,o4 ,read+s 9 ! ,hi/ory ( ,education1 #cgg n4 ,n\s ,anaxagoras' conception (1 #dg2 ( ,plot9us1 #bid4 ,numb]s ,py?agorean conception (1 #di-ea4 ,objective "* ( ,greek philosophy #b1 #ajj1 #aja4 ,objective ,idealism #ajd4 ,objective ,realism #ajd4 ,ockam1 ,william ( #chg n41 #cij2 ! c\rse ( philosophy aft]1 #cic1 #cid4 ,ord] ?\ght (1 develop$ into cle>ness by ,cosmologi/s1 #ed4 ,orig5 #bhj1 #bha1 #cad-cah4 ,orphic ,see ,my/]ies4 ,ox=d1 ,univ]sity ( #cgg4 ,palm]1 ,g4 ,h4 on ,socrates1 #gi4 ,pantius #bgj1 #bga4 ,pan!ism def9$1 #aj n42 dynamic1 ( ,plot9us1 #bic2 ( ,erig5a1 #cea-cec2 ( ! reali/s1 #cfc4 ,p>is1 ,univ]sity ( #cgg4 ,p>k]1 ,c4 ,p4 cit$1 #beh n4 ,p>m5ides life1 #cb2 develops ! doctr9e ( ,x5ophanes1 #cb f42 8 philosophy1 #cc-ce2 & ,h]acleitus1 results ( ! conflict betwe51 #cg1 #ch4 ,see ,eleatic ,s*ool4 ,p>ticul>s & ,univ]sals accord+ to ,?omas ,aqu9as1 #chc-che4 ,pat]1 ,walt] ,m>ius ! ,epicurean1 #bbg n4 ,patmore1 ,cov5try ,angel 9 ! ,h\se1 #aec n4 ,patri/ics #cjb-cah4 ,p]ception & conception1 #hc n42 accord+ to ,plato1 #acd2 9 ,ari/otle1 #agg-agi4 ,p]icles #eh4 ,p]iods ( philosophy1 ! ?ree g5]al1 #a-d2 ( ,greek philosophy1 #ab-ad4 ,p]ipatetics ,see ,lyceum4 ,p]sia #ae1 #af4 ,p]sian ,w>s _! importance1 #ee-eg1 #fb4 ,p]sonality spiritual1 increas$ importance (1 9 hi/ory1 #bgg-bgi4 ,pessimism result ( !ory ( ,cyr5aics1 #ig4 ,pet] ! ,lomb>d #cgi1 #chj4 ,phd f\nd] ( ! ,elean-,eretrian s*ool1 #ic4 ,philo ,greek-,jewi% philosophy (1 #bha-bhd2 & neo-,platonism1 #bhh4 ,philoponus #bii4 ,philosophic skepticism ,see ,skepticism4 ,physical univ]se e>ly ,greek t5d5cy t[>d sci5tific explanation (1 #aj1 #aa4 ,physics ,socrates' view (1 #hj2 enri*m5t (1 "u ,democritus1 #aji-aaa2 ,plato's conception (1 #adb-add2 ,ari/otle's !ory (1 #aid-aif2 ( ,epicurus1 #bch-bdj4 ,plato #ajd2 p>ts ( works to be read1 #ge n42 8 place 9 ,greek hi/ory1 #ic1 #ih-ajj1 #ajc1 #ajd2 & ,democritus1 _! simil>ities & diff]5ces1 #ajd-ajf2 ! p]iod ( 8 life1 #aai1 #abj2 ! difficulties 9 und]/&+ ! tea*+ (1 #abj1 #aba2 ! *ronology ( 8 dialogues1 #aai1 #abj2 ! life & writ+s (1 #aba1 #abf2 8 /ud5t life1 #aba1 #abb2 z travel]1 #abb-abd2 z tea*] ( ! ,academy1 #abd-abf2 conc]n+ 8 dialogues1 #abf-abh2 ! factors 9 ! con/ruction ( 8 doctr9e1 #abh-aca2 8 inh]it$ t5d5cies1 #abh-acj2 8 philosophical s\rces1 #acj1 #aca2 ! divisions ( 8 philosophy1 #aca1 #acb2 summ>y ( 8 doctr9e1 #acb2 ! =mation ( 8 metaphysics1 #acb-acf2 ! developm5t ( 8 metaphysics 7! developm5t ( 8 ideas 9 ! two drafts71 #acf-ada2 8 conception ( ,god1 #ada1 #adb2 8 conception ( physical nature1 #adb-add2 8 conception ( man1 #add-adf2 8 doctr9e ( immortality1 #adf-aej2 ! two t5d5cies 91 #aej1 #aea2 ,platonic love1 #aea-aec2 8 !ory ( e?ics1 #aec-aeh2 developm5t ( 8 !ory ( ! ,good1 #aec1 #aed2 ! f\r c>d9al virtues1 #aed1 #aee2 8 !ory ( political society1 #aee-aeh2 a selection ( passages f1 = ,engli% read]s1 #aeh-afe2 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 #cca1 #ccg1 #cch1 #cfj1 #cfc4 ,platonism ! revival (1 #bgi2 & neo-,platonism1 #bhg1 #bhh4 ,platoni/s ,eclectic1 #bhe4 ,pleasure ( ,epicurus1 #bcj-bcc4 ,see ,happ9ess4 ,plot9us #bhj1 #bhg1 #bhh2 life & writ+s (1 #bij1 #bia2 g5]al "* ( 8 tea*+1 #bia1 #bib2 ! my/ic ,god (1 #bib1 #bic2 ! two problems (1 #bic2 ! metaphysical problem (1 #bid-big2 ! e?ical problem (1 #big1 #bih4 ,pluralism tri$ to reconcile extremes ( ,milesian s*ool1 #ci1 #dj2 & hylozoism1 #da4 ,plurali/s li/ ( lat] ,cosmologi/s :o 71 #bj2 _! new conception ( *ange1 #dj2 _! new conception ( ! un*ang+1 #dj1 #da2 introduction ( conception ( effici5t cause by1 #da2 summ>y ( simil>ities & diff]5ces 9 !ories (1 #da1 #db2 _! lives span ! fif? c5tury1 #db4 ,see ,emp$ocles1 etc4 ,plut>* neo-,platoni/1 #bii4 ,political philosophy ( ,ari/otle #bjb1 #bjc4 ,political society ,plato's !ory (1 #aee-aeh4 ,poly!ism ,hom]ic1 #ai4 ,poly!isms ! sy/ematiz+ (1 #bih1 #bii4 ,porphyry #bia1 #bih1 #ceg4 ,posidonius #bgj1 #bga4 ,prim>y & second>y qualities #aaf4 ,probabilism 9 ,/oicism #bfb4 ,proclus #bii-cja4 ,prodicus #ff1 #fh4 ,protagoras #ff1 #fg2 ! relativism (1 #fi1 #gj2 8 po9t ( view comp>$ ) t ( ,socrates1 #ha4 ,psy*ology mat]iali/ic1 ( ,democritus1 #aaa-aad2 ,plato's1 #add-adf2 ( ,ari/otle1 #aif-aii2 ! ,/oic1 #bdh-bej4 ,ptolemy 8 cosmography1 #cbb-cbe4 ,purpose ,ari/otle's conceptions (1 #ahf-aij4 ,pyrrho #bff4 ,pyrrhonism #bfe1 #bff4 ,py?agoras #ag4 ,py?agoreanism neo-1 #bha1 #bhe-bhg2 & neo-,platonism1 #bhh4 ,py?agoreans ! e>ly1 #ag2 ! lat]1 #dd1 #dh1 #di2 _! conception ( ,be+1 #di-ea2 _! a/ronomy1 #di1 #eb1 #ec2 _! dualism1 #ea1 #eb4 ,qualitative *anges ( ph5om5a #aif-bjb4 ,rationalism def9$1 #ajd n42 ( ,plato & ,democritus1 #ajd2 ( ,abel>d1 #cfe-cfg4 ,realism #ajj1 #ajd1 #ceh1 #cfb-cfe2 objective1 #ajd4 ,reason & dogma ! relation betwe51 #cee1 #cef1 #cfj-cfb1 #cfe-cfg4 ,reconcil]s ,see ,plurali/s4 ,relativism ( ,protagoras1 #fi1 #gj2 repres5t$ by ! an?ropologi/s1 #ajc4 ,religion ( ! ,greeks1 organization (1 #h1 #i1 #aj2 ! new1 p]ils (1 #af-ah2 9 ,epicurus's sy/em1 #bcf1 #bcg2 & sci5ce1 ! sep>ation (1 "u ,duns ,scotus1 #chg1 #chh4 ,religi\s feel+ two causes ( ! rise (1 #bgb-bgd4 ,religi\s p]iod ( ! ,hell5ic-,roman p]iod #bjh1 #bji2 treat$1 #bgc-cja2 ! divisions (1 #bhj1 #bha4 ,religi\s philosophies ,hell5ic1 rise (1 #bhj1 #bhb2 summ>y ( hi/ory (1 #bha2 introductory p]iod (1 #bha-bhg2 developm5t p]iod (1 #bha1 #bhg1 #bhh4 ,revival ( ,le>n+1 ! #cge-cgh4 ,rhabanus ,maurus #cej4 ,rhetoric among ! ,greeks #fj4 ,romans _! conque/ ( ,greece1 #bje-bjh4 ,roscell9us life & tea*+1 #cfa1 #cfb4 ,rossetti1 ,*ri/9a ,%ad[ ( ,dante cit$1 #cbe n4 ,r\sseau & ,epicurus #bbi4 ,/4 ,ambrose #cjf4 ,sal]no1 ,univ]sity ( #cgg4 ,s*ola/icism :at x is1 #cee-cei2 ( ,anselm1 #cei-cfa2 ( ,roscell9us1 #cfa1 #cfb2 ( ,abel>d1 #cfc-cfg2 classic1 p]iod (1 #ccc1 #cfh-cid4 ,s*ool 9 e>ly ,greek philosophy1 mean+ (1 #ai4 ,s*ools1 ! #bad1 #bah-bbf2 fusion ( doctr9es 91 #bfi2 aft] #aej ,b4 ,c41 notable names 91 #bga4 ,see ,academy1 ,lyceum1 etc4 ,sci5ce e>ly t5d5cies t[>d1 among ! ,greeks1 #aj1 #aa2 gr[? (1 9 ,hell5ic-,roman p]iod1 #baf1 #bag2 secul>1 ( ! age ( ,augu/9e1 #cci2 & religion1 ! sep>ation (1 "u ,duns ,scotus1 #chg1 #chh4 ,scotus1 ,duns gave a new direction to philosophy1 #cfi2 upheld ! primacy ( ! ,w1 #che1 #chf2 ! f\nd] ( ! ,franciscan tradition 7life & philosophical position (71 #chf1 #chg2 8 conception ( ! tw(old tru?1 #chg2 ! inscrutable w ( ,god1 accord+ to1 #chh1 #chi2 ! problem ( individuality1 accord+ to1 #chi1 #cij2 ! c\rse ( philosophy aft]1 #cij1 #cia4 ,second>y & prim>y qualities #aaf4 ,secul> sci5ce ( ! age ( ,augu/9e #cci4 ,seignobos1 ,*>les ,hi/ory ( ,m$ival ,civilization1 #cgc n4 ,s5eca quot$1 #bcd4 ,s5sationalism def9$1 #ajd n4 ,s5sationali/ic skepticism #bfh1 #bfi4 ,sextus ,empiricus #bfh4 ,sill ,! ,two ,aphrodites1 #aec n4 ,simplicius #bii4 ,skepticism :at x is1 #fi2 ! und]curr5t (1 9 ! ,hell5ic-,roman p]iod1 #bji-baa2 philosophic1 ! appe>ances (1 #bfd1 #bfe2 ! ?ree phases (1 #bfe-bfi2 ( ! ,academy1 #bff-bfh2 s5sationali/ic1 #bfh1 #bfi4 ,socrates1 & ,ari/ophanes oppos$ ! ,sophi/s1 #gd2 works on1 = read+1 #ge2 p]sonality & life (1 #ge-hj2 8 dmon1 #gg1 #hc2 & ! ,sophi/s1 #hj-hb2 unsy/ematic "* ( 8 philosophy1 #hb1 #hc2 ! ideal (1 #hc-he2 :at 8 ideal involves1 #he-hh2 ! two /eps ( 8 me?od1 #hh-ia2 & ,a!ns1 #ia2 ! logical exp$i5ts (1 #ib1 #ic2 & ! ,less] ,socratics1 #ic-ie4 ,socratics ! ,less]1 & ,socrates1 #ic-ie4 ,sophi/s significance (1 #fd-fg2 ! prom95t1 #fg1 #fh2 ! philosophy (1 #fh-ga2 ! e?ics (1 #ga-gc2 summ>y ( _! "w1 #gc2 met 9 two ways by ,socrates & ,ari/ophanes1 #gd2 & ,socrates1 #hj-hb4 ,s\l ,plato's doctr9e (1 #ade-aej2 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 #aif1 #aig2 ( ,plot9us1 #bie1 #big1 #bih4 ,sp5s]1 ,edmund ,hymn 9 ,honor ( ,beauty1 #aec n4 ,spiritual au?ority ! ne$ (1 #bge-bgg2 ! turn+ to ! pres5t =1 #bhg1 #bhh4 ,spirituality rise ( ! conception (1 #bgg-bgi4 ,/ate ,plato's doctr9e (1 #aee-aeh2 & *ur*1 ,aqu9as's & ,dante's views (1 #chb4 ,/oic s*ool1 ! #bbb-bbe2 incl9es to eclecticism1 #bfi1 #bgj4 ,/oicism & ,epicureanism1 summ>y ( agreem5ts & diff]5ces1 #bbe1 #bbf2 position (1 9 antiquity1 #bda1 #bdb2 ! ?ree p]iods (1 #bdb1 #bdc2 lead]s (1 #bdc-bdf2 writ+s (1 #bdf2 ! two prom95t conceptions (1 #bdg1 #bdh2 ! conception ( p]sonality1 #bdh2 ! psy*ology (1 #bdh-bej2 ! highe/ good1 #bej1 #bea2 ! conception ( nature1 #bea-bef2 conceptions ( nature & p]sonality supplem5t ea* o!r1 #bef1 #beg2 & society1 #beg-bei2 duty & responsibility1 #bei1 #bfj2 ! problem ( evil & ! problem ( fre$om1 #bfj1 #bfa2 modifications (1 aft] ! fir/ p]iod1 #bfa-bfc2 its influ5ce on ,*ri/ianity1 #cje4 ,/oics & ,cynics #bdf1 #bdg4 ,/orm & ,/ress #cfb1 #cfc4 ,sums ( ,pet] ! ,lomb>d1 #cgi1 #chj4 ,syllogism1 ! #ahb4 ,syrian s*ool ( neo-,platonism #bij1 #bih1 #bii4 ,syrianus #bii4 ,sy/ematic p]iod ( ,greek philosophy #ab-ad2 treat$1 #ih-bjc2 ! ?ree philosoph]s (1 _! place 9 ,greek hi/ory1 #ih-ajj2 ! fundam5tal pr9ciple (1 #ajj-ajb4 ,tatian #cac4 ,teleology def9$1 #aje n4 ,t]m9ism #cib4 ,t]tullian #cac4 ,teuffel1 ,w4 ,s4 ,hi/ory ( ,roman ,lit]ature1 #bbg n4 ,?ales #bd1 #be4 ,!ological s]ies ( ,ari/otle #aif-bjb4 ,?rasyma*us #fh4 ,timon #bff4 ,transitional p]iod ( ,middle ,ages #ccb1 #ced-ceg4 ,turn]1 ,william ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 #ccf n4 ,tw(old reality _w (1 ,democritus' !ory (1 #aad-aaf4 ,ueb]weg ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 quot$1 #f2 cit$1 #bfi n4 ,un*ang+1 ! z conceiv$ by ! ,plurali/s1 #dj1 #da4 ,univ]salia ante rem #ajd1 #ceh1 #cfb-cfe1 #chd4 ,univ]salia 9 re #ajd1 #ceh1 #cfd1 #cfe1 #chd4 ,univ]salia po/ rem #ajc1 #ceh1 #cfb-cfe1 #chd4 ,univ]sals & p>ticul>s accord+ to ,?omas ,aqu9as1 #chc-che4 ,univ]se diagram ( ,dante's conception (1 #cgf4 ,univ]sities ! e/abli%m5t (1 #cgg4 ,useful1 ! accord+ to ,socrates1 #hg1 #hh4 ,val5t9us ,gno/ic1 #caj4 ,v9c5t ( ,beauvais #cgi4 ,virtue mean+ (1 #hd2 accord+ to ,socrates1 #hd-hh2 accord+ to ! ,cynics1 #ie2 accord+ to ,ari/otle1 #aii-bjb2 place (1 9 ,epicureanism1 #bcc4 ,virtues ! f\r c>d9al1 9 ,plato1 #aed1 #aee4 ,web] ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy cit$1 #bfi n4 ,:eel]1 ,b4 ,i4 ,life ( ,alex&] ! ,great1 cit$1 #ef n42 quot$1 #agb4 ,w fre$om (4 ,see ,fre$om4 ,w or intellect ! "q ( ! primacy (1 #che1 #chf1 #chh1 #chi4 ,william ( ,aub]gne #cgi4 ,william ( ,*ampeaux #cfc4 ,w9delb& ,hi/ory ( ,anci5t ,philosophy1 #cg n42 cit$1 #aba n41 #caa n42 quot$1 #bed4 ,witte1 ,k>l ,essays on ,dante1 #cbe n4 ,wordswor?1 ,william ,dion1 #abc n42 ,ode on ,intimations ( ,immortality quot$1 #adh4 ,x5ophanes religi\s philosoph]1 #bf f42 philosophy (1 #bg f4 ,x5ophon p>ts ( works to be read1 #ge n42 on ,socrates1 #gf1 #ic4 ,zell]1 ,edw>d ,pre-,socratic ,philosophy1 #c n41 #ajj n42 quot$1 #aja1 #ajb2 ,greek ,philosophy1 #cg n4 ,z5o ,eleatic1 8 life1 #ce f42 8 philosophy1 #cf1 #cg4 ,see ,eleatic s*ool4 ,z5o ,/oic1 #bdb1 #bdd1 #bde4 ,footnotes4 #a - ,read ,knight1 ,life & ,tea*+ ( ,hume1 pp4 #ajb f4 7,blackwood ,s]ies72 ,falck5b]g1 ,hi/4 ,mod]n ,phil41 p4 #aj2 ,zell]1 ,pre-,socratic ,phil41 vol4 i1 pp4 #afa f4 #b - ,read ,fairbanks1 ,fir/ ,philosoph]s ( ,greece1 pp4 #bfc ff41 especially ! rsum4 #c - ,ueb]weg1 ,hi/4 ( ,phil41 vol4 i1 p4 #g4 #d - ,monism is ! belief t reality is a on5ess )\t any necess>y implication z to ! "* ( t on5ess4 ,mono!ism is a k9d ( monism1 9 :i* "s def9ite "* is ascrib$ to ! on5ess1 l ! active pr9ciple 9 ! _w or ! cause ( ! _w4 ,pan!ism1 on ! o!r h&1 is a k9d ( monism 9 :i* ! emphasis is ^u ! all-inclusive "* ( reality4 ,9 pan!ism ,god & nature are two insep>able aspects ( reality4 #e - ,bury1 ,hi/4 ( ,greece1 p4 #cba1 calls ! tradition ( ! ,wise ,m5 a leg5d4 #f - ,bury1 ,hi/ory ( ,greece1 p4 #caa4 #g - ,burnet1 ,e>ly ,greek ,philosoph]s1 p4 #ajd1 = injunctions ^u ! private life ( ! e>ly ,py?agoreans4 #h - ,note fur!r t 9 future philosophical discussions ( ?is problem1 ! te*nical ^w 8,be+0 is us$ = ! ,un*ang+ or ! sub/ance t rema9s =ev] l itself1 & ! te*nical ^w 8,becom+0 is us$ = ! *ang+ processes ( ,nature4 #i - 8,j z our s\l1 be+ air1 holds u toge!r1 s d brea? & air encompass ! :ole _w40 #aj - ,read ,w9delb&1 ,hi/4 ( ,anci5t ,phil41 pp4 #fg ff42 ,zell]1 ,greek ,philosophy1 pp4 #fc ff4 #aa - ,read ,mat!w ,arnold1 ,emp$ocles 7a poem74 #ab - ,read ,plato1 ,pha$o1 #ig1 ,b4 #ac - ,dualism3 ! belief t ! _w is to be expla9$ by two indep5d5t & coexi/5t pr9ciples4 #ad - ,:eel]1 ,hi/ory ( ,alex&] ! ,great4 #ae - ,read ,grote1 ,hi/ory ( ,greece1 vol4 viii1 pp4 #ccd-cdg4 #af - ,read ,h4 ,jackson 9 ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 article 8,sophi/s04 #ag - ,! /ud5t %\ld read ! foll[+ ref]5ces 9 ,plato's dialogues & ,x5ophon's ,symposium & ,memorabilia4 ,! translations ref]r$ to "h are ,j[ett's ,plato & ,coop]1 ,spelman1 etc41 translation1 ,:ole ,works ( ,x5ophon4 7#ahea47 ,= ! me?od ( ,socrates1 read ,*>mides1 ,lysis1 & ,la*es4 ,= ! p]sonal appe>ance ( ,socrates1 read ,plato1 ,symposium1 pp4 #ehf ff4 & ,x5ophon1 ,symposium1 p4 #fae4 ,= ! physical endurance ( ,socrates1 read ,plato1 ,symposium1 p4 #eia4 ,= ,socrates' dislike ( nature1 read ,plato1 ,phdrus1 p4 #dce1 & ,x5ophon1 ,memorabilia1 p4 #eba4 ,= ! *>ges1 def5se1 & trial ( ,socrates1 read ,plato1 ,apology1 pp4 #aaf & #abi4 ,= ! conf9em5t ( ,socrates 9 prison1 read ,crito1 beg9n+ & end ( ! dialogue4 ,= description ( ! dea? sc5e ( ,socrates1 read ,plato1 ,phd1 beg9n+ & end ( ! dialogue4 ,= description ( ! dmoniacal sign1 read ,plato1 ,apology1 pp4 #abe-abf1 & ,x5ophon1 ,memorabilia1 pp4 #eca ff41 #ehe ff4 ,= ! oracle's /atem5t t ,socrates is ! wise/ ( m51 read ,plato1 ,apology1 p4 #aad4 #ah - ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 p]ception & conception8 ,we h he>d a good deal ab\t p]ceptions 9 ! doctr9e ( ,protagoras4 ,we h n[ rea*$ a po9t :]e _m ( ! !ories w involve a comp>ison ( p]ception ) conception4 ,an und]/&+ ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 p]ception & conception w be necess>y = an und]/&+ ( ! doctr9es1 especially ( ,democritus1 ,plato1 & ,ari/otle4 ,9 g5]al1 p]ception is ! consci\sness ( an object 9 :i* "s actual s5sation ( x is pres5t2 a conception is ! consci\sness ( an object 9 :i* no actual s5sation ( x is pres5t4 ,?us ,i p]ceive a tree1 :5 my ret9a is actually /imulat$2 ,i conceive a tree1 :5 ,i turn my head away & no s5se organ is actually /imulat$1 i4 e4 ,i d n t\*1 see1 he> ! tree4 ,to ! ,greek ! p]ception 0 p>ticul> & transi5t2 ! conception 01 on ! o!r h&1 univ]sal or g5]al & p]man5t4 #ai - ,read ,zell]1 ,pre-,socratic ,phil41 vol4 i1 pp4 #ach-adi1 conc]n+ ! objective "* ( ,greek morality1 art1 & philosophy4 #bj - ,zell]1 ,pre-,socratic ,phil41 vol4 i1 p4 #afb4 #ba - ,zell]1 ,pre-,socratic ,phil41 vol4 i1 p4 #afb4 #bb - ,rationalism & s5sationalism ref] to ! s\rces f :i* k is obta9$4 ,rationalism is to be contra/$ ) s5sationalism4 ,rationalism is ! belief t ! reason is an indep5d5t s\rce ( k & has a high] au?ority ?an s5se-p]ception4 ,s5sationalism is ! belief t all our k orig9ates 9 s5sations4 ,empiricism is (t5 us$ = s5sationalism4 #bc - ,teleology is ! doctr9e t ?+s exi/ = "s purpose4 ,a teleological cause1 :i* is ! same z 8f9al cause0 or 8end10 is ! purpose involv$ 9 an action4 ,x is contra/$ ) me*anical or effici5t cause4 ,a trolley c> is mov+ & a man runs to cat* x4 ,electricity is ! me*anical cause ( ! movem5t ( ! c>4 ,! purpose ( ! man is ! teleological cause ( 8 runn+2 ! /r5g? 9 8 legs is ! me*anical or effici5t cause ( 8 runn+4 #bd - ,atoms diff] prim>ily 9 =m 772 size is ref]r$ 9 "p to =m4 #be - ,^! all r$uce to =m1see above4 #bf - ,w9delb&1 ,hi/4 ( ,anci5t ,phil41 pp4 #ahc-ahi4 #bg - ,read ,wordswor?1 ,dion4 #bh - ,b4 ,j[ett1 ,dialogues ( ,plato1 trans4 into ,engli% ) analyses & introductions1 #d vols4 ,see p4 #aeh = selections f ! dialogues made by ,j[ett = ,engli% read]s4 #bi - ,goe!4 #cj - ,= ! di/9ction betwe5 p]ception & conception1 see p4 #hc4 #ca - ,read ,wordswor?'s ,ode on ,intimations ( ,immortality4 #cb - ,read ,edmund ,sp5s]1 ,hymn 9 ,honor ( ,beauty2 ,em]son1 ,essay on ,love1 also ! poem on ,initial1 ,dmonic1 & ,cele/ial ,love2 ,bacon1 ,essay on ,love2 ,patmore1 ,angel 9 ! ,h\se2 ,sill1 ,! ,two ,aphrodites4 #cc - ,b4 ,i4 ,:eel]1 ,life ( ,alex&] ! ,great4 #cd - ,read ,walt] ,pat]1 ,m>ius ! ,epicurean2 ,hicks1 ,/oic & ,epicurean1 p4 #ahd1 = ! ,gold5 ,maxims ( ,epicurus2 ,teuffel1 ,hi/ory ( ,roman ,lit]ature1 pp4 #hc-hf4 #ce - ,w9delb&1 ,hi/4 ( ,phil41 p4 #ahc4 #cf - ,adamson1 ,! ,developm5t ( ,greek ,philosophy1 p4 #bfg4 #cg - ,pr(essor ,c4 ,p4 ,p>k]4 #ch - ,a4 ,hicks1 ,/oic & ,epicurean1 pp4 #cbb ff4 #ci - ,read ,grote1 ,plato1 vol4 iii1 pp4 #dhb-dij1 = ! int]e/+ sophi/ical problems ( ! ,li>1 ! ,p]son ,disguis$ "u a ,veil1 ,electra1 ,sorites1 ,cornutus1 & ! ,bald ,man4 #dj - ,= a /atem5t ( ^! tropes1 see ,web]1 ,hi/4 ( ,phil41 p4 #aec4 #da - ,ueb]weg1 ,hi/4 ( ,phil41 vol4 i1 p4 #baf4 #db - ,read ,dill1 ,roman ,society1 fir/ ?ree *apt]s4 #dc - ,read ,*>les ,k+sley1 ,hypatia1 a novel4 #dd - ,hat*1 ,hibb]t ,lectures1 #ahhh1 p4 #ahb4 #de - ,h>nack1 ,outl9es ( ! ,hi/4 ( ,dogma1 p4 #abj4 #df - ,w9delb&1 ,hi/4 ( ,anci5t ,phil41 p4 #ceg4 #dg - ,h>nack1 ,outl9es ( ! ,hi/ory ( ,dogma1 p4 #aei4 #dh - ,read ,rossetti1 ,%ad[ ( ,dante1 pp4 #i-ad2 ,k>l ,witte1 ,essays on ,dante1 pp4 #ii ff4 #di - ,read ,euck51 ,problem ( ,human ,life1 pp4 #bai-bba1 #bcb1 #bcf1 #bde-bdh2 ,turn]1 ,hi/4 ( ,philosophy1 p4 #bbf2 ,de ,wulf1 ,hi/4 ( ,m$ival ,phil41 pp4 #ij-ih2 ,h>nack1 ,hi/4 ( ,dogma1 vol4 v1 pp4 #c-f4 #ej - ,euck51 ,problem ( ,human ,life1 p4 #bdg4 #ea - ,h>nack1 ,hi/4 ( ,dogma1 vol4 v1 p4 #c4 #eb - ,!re is ?is diff]5ce betwe5 ,augu/9e's position & t ( ,desc>tes4 ,augu/9e's ,quod si fallor1 sum is a refutation ( ! doctr9e ( probability ( ! ,academy1 n a demon/ration2 ,desc>tes' ,cogito1 ergo sum is positive1a subtle b an important diff]5ce betwe5 ! two ?9k]s4 #ec - ,h>nack1 ,hi/4 ( ,dogma1 vol4 v1 p4 #ccg4 #ed - ,h>nack1 ,hi/4 ( ,dogma1 vol4 v1 p4 #aab1 n4 #d4 #ee - ,h>nack1 vol4 vi1 p4 #g4 #ef - ,glab]1 ,hi/41 lib4 ,,iii1 #d4 #eg - ,9 ?is p]iod ! conceptuali/s 7 confus$ ) nom9ali/s & call$ nom9ali/s4 #eh - ,hi/orians are atta*+ m importance ?an =m]ly to ,con/ant9ople z an intellectual c5tre ( t "t4 #ei - ,read on ?is po9t ,seignobos1 ,hi/4 ( ,m$ival ,civilization1 pp4 #aag f4 #fj - ,read ,em]ton1 ,m$ival ,europe1 pp4 #ceh-cig2 ,adams1 ,civilization dur+ ! ,middle ,ages1 pp4 #beh-bgh4 #fa - ,,! ,,crusades ,major ,crusades ,fir/ ,crusade1 #ajif-ajii ,second ,crusade1 #aadg-aadi ,?ird ,crusade1 #aahi-aaib ,f\r? ,crusade1 #abjb-abjd ,*ildr5's ,crusade1 #abab ,m9or ,crusades ,fif? ,crusade1 #abaf-abbj ,six? ,crusade1 #abbh-abbi ,sev5? ,crusade1 #abdh-abed ,eigh? ,crusade1 #abgj-abgb ,x w be not$ t five ( ^! n9e ,crusades occurr$ )9 ?irty ye>s ( ! ye> #abjj4 ,! ,fir/ ,crusade result$ 9 ! capture ( ,j]usalem & ! f\nd+ ( a k+dom4 ,! o!r ,crusades 7 directly or indirectly conc]n$ ) ! def5se or recapture ( t k+dom4 #fb - ,read ,norton1 ,read+s 9 ! ,hi/4 ( ,education1 pp4 #ajb-ajc4 #fc - ,dante 9 ,de ,mon>*ia did n %>e 9 ,?omas's subord9ation ( ! /ate to ! *ur*4 ,bo? ,dante & ,?omas believ$ t de/9y lies 9 ! race1 b ! great poet reg>d$ man z de/9$ equally = e>?ly & heav5ly happ9ess4 ,to ,dante ! *ur* & ! /ate are p[]s ( l au?ority4 #fd - ,dante foll[s ,?omas 9 plac+ ! intellectual virtues above ! practical1 & 9 po9t+ to ! intellectual intuition ( ,god z ! goal ( human atta9m5t4 ,beatrice is ,dante's expression ( ?is ideal4 #fe - ,de ,wulf1 ,hi/4 ( ,m$ival ,phil41 p4 #cbc4 #ff - ,rog] ,bacon 7#abad-abib7 liv$ at ,ox=d two g5]ations be=e ,scotus4 ,he 0 s v]satile t he 0 n able to dogmatize 9 any "o field4 ,he believ$ t !ology 0 bas$ on ! w ( ,god1 all o!r sci5ce on ! reason4 ,he influ5c$ bo? ,scotus & ,ockam to turn f au?ority to exp]i5ce4 ,morality 0 to him ! cont5t ( univ]sal religion4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes4 ,! foll[+ corrections h be5 made 9 ! text3 ,page #i3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,! passionate p>ty /rife4444 - #8familes' replac$ ) #8families' 7old1 rul+ families ( nobles7 ,page #aic3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,on ! o!r h&1444 - #8evolulution' replac$ ) #8evolution' 7,d>w9's !ory ( evolution47 ,page #aif3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,/udy+ ! organic realm1444 - #8organism' replac$ ) #8organisms' 7we f9d organisms to consi/ (7 ,page #bae3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,!re 7 _m o!r4444 - #8,p]gamus' replac$ ) #8,p]gamos' 7,rhodes1 ,antio*1 ,alex&ria1 ,p]gamos1 ,t>sus17 ,page #ccg3 ,s5t5ce />t+3 ,by means ( neo-,platonism4444 - #8judye' replac$ ) #8judge' 7,god z a judge 7