,a ,,beginner',s ,,history ,,of ,,philosophy ,illustration3 ,,socrates ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation has been standardized4 ,characters in small caps have been replaced by all caps4 ,non-printable characteristics have been given the following ,italic text3 -- text bold text3 -- text4 ,this book was written in a period when many words had not become standardized in their spelling4 ,words may have multiple spelling variations or inconsistent hyphenation in the text4 ,these have been left unchanged unless indicated with a ,transcriber's ,note4 ,the symbol #8' indicates the description in parenthesis has been added to an illustration4 ,this may be needed if there is no caption or if the caption does not describe the image adequately4 ,index references have not been checked for accuracy4 ,footnotes are identified in the text with a number in brackets #b and have been accumulated in a single section at the end of the text4 ,transcriber's ,notes are used when making corrections to the text or to provide additional information for the modern reader4 ,these notes are identified in the text by a symbol1 and are accumulated in a single section at the end of the book4 ,a ,,beginner',s ,,history ,,of ,,philosophy ,,by ,,herbert ,,ernest ,,cushman1 ,,ll4,d41 ,,ph4,d4 ,sometime ,professor of ,philosophy in ,tufts ,college ,lecturer of ,philosophy in ,harvard ,college ,lecturer of ,philosophy in ,dartmouth ,college ,,vol4 ,i ,,ancient ,,and ,,medi,,val ,,philosophy ,revised ,edition ,illustration3 7 ,colophon7 ,,houghton ,,mifflin ,,company ,,boston ,,new ,,york ,,chicago ,,dallas ,,san ,,francisco ,the ,riverside ,press ,cambridge ,,copyright1 #aiaj ,,and #aiah1 ,,by ,,herbert ,,ernest ,,cushman ,,all ,,rights ,,reserved1 ,,including ,,the ,,right ,,to ,,reproduce ,,this ,,book ,,or ,,parts ,,thereof ,,in ,,any ,,form ,the ,riverside ,press ,,cambridge ,,massachusetts ,,printed ,,in ,,the ,u4,s4,a4 ,,to ,,george ,,herbert ,,palmer1 ,,litt4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,,alford ,,professor ,,of ,,philosophy ,,in ,,harvard ,,university ,,who ,,has ,,interpreted ,,life ,,to ,,many ,,young ,,men ,,by ,,making ,,philosophy ,a ,,living ,,subject ,,to ,,them ,,preface ,this book is intended as a text-book for sketch-courses in the history of philosophy4 ,it is written for the student rather than for the teacher4 ,it is a history of philosophy upon the background of geography and of literary and political history4 ,as a text-book for sketch-courses it employs summaries1 tables1 and other generalizations as helps to the memory4 ,the philosophical teaching is presented as simply as possible1 so as to bring into prominence only the leading doctrines4 ,my own personal criticism and interpretation on the one hand1 and explanations in technical language on the other1 have been avoided as far as possible4 ,sometimes ,i have had to choose between interpretation and technicality1 in which case the limitations of space have determined my choice4 ,since the book is intended for the student rather than for the teacher1 it makes the teacher all the more necessary2 for it puts into the hands of the student an outline and into the hands of the teacher the class-room time for inspiring the student with his own interpretations4 ,in making use of geographical maps1 contemporary literature1 and political history1 this book is merely utilizing for pedagogical reasons the stock of information with which the college student is furnished when he begins the history of philosophy4 ,a good many years of experience in teaching the history of philosophy to beginners have convinced me that students come to the subject with four classes of ideas1 with which they can correlate philosophic doctrines3 good geographical knowledge1 some historical and some literary knowledge1 and many undefined personal philosophical opinions4 ,of course1 their personal philosophical opinions form the most important group1 but more as something to be clarified by the civilizing influence of the subject than as an approach to the subject itself4 ,the only 8memory-hooks0 upon which the teacher may expect to hang philosophic doctrines are the student's ideas of history1 literature1 and geography4 ,if the history of philosophy is treated only as a series of doctrines1 the student beginning the subject feels not only that the land is strange1 but that he is a stranger in it4 ,besides1 to isolate the historical philosophical doctrines is to give the student a wrong historical perspective1 since philosophic thought and contemporary events are two inseparable aspects of history4 ,each interprets the other1 and neither can be correctly understood without the other4 ,if the history of philosophy is to have any significance for the beginner1 it must be shown to give a meaning to history4 ,so far as the materials that form any history of philosophy are concerned1 ,i have merely tried to arrange and organize them with reference to the student and with reference to the history of which they form an integral part4 ,i am therefore overwhelmingly indebted to every good authority to whom ,i have had access1 but in the main ,i have followed the inspiring direction of the great ,windelband4 ,many willing friends have read parts of the manuscript and offered suggestions and criticisms4 ,i am particularly indebted to ,professors ,c4 ,p4 ,parker1 ,ephraim ,emerton1 ,a4 ,o4 ,norton1 and ,j4 ,h4 ,ropes1 and ,dr4 ,b4 ,a4 ,g4 ,fuller of ,harvard ,university2 to ,professor ,mary ,w4 ,calkins of ,wellesley ,college2 to ,professors ,c4 ,s4 ,wade and ,d4 ,l4 ,maulsby of ,tufts ,college2 and to my wife1 ,abby ,b4 ,cushman4 ,however1 for all the faults of the book1 which has been many years in preparation1 ,i am alone responsible4 ,instead of lists of books for collateral reading1 placed at the end of chapters or of the book1 the student will find references in the footnotes to the exact pages of many helpful books4 ,i should like to call the student's attention to an appendix to the discussion of ,plato4 ,this is a complete selection of passages from ,plato made by the late ,professor ,jowett for ,english readers4 ,this selection ,professor ,jowett was accustomed to distribute to his ,oxford class1 of which ,i was once fortunate to be a member4 ,philosophical terms have been defined either in the text or in the footnotes4 ,such definitions must necessarily have as their aim their usefulness to the student1 rather than their completeness4 ,,tufts ,,college1 ,june1 #aiaj4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,revised ,,edition ,the only change which the reader will find in the revision of this volume is in the form of presentation of the philosophies of the earlier cosmologists 7,chapter ,,ii74 ,,herbert ,e4 ,,cushman4 ,,west ,,newton1 ,february1 #aiah4 ,,contents ,,introduction,,the ,,three ,,general ,,periods ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,philosophy1 #a ,,the ,,comparative ,,lengths ,,of ,,the ,,three ,,general ,,periods1 #a ,,the ,,real ,,differences ,,of ,,the ,,three ,,general ,,periods1 #a ,,table ,,of ,,the ,,subdivisions ,,of ,,the ,,three ,,general ,,periods1 #d ,,book ,i4 ,,ancient ,,philosophy 7#fbe ,b4 ,c4-#dgf ,a4 ,d47 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,early ,,greek ,,in ,,ancient ,,philosophy1 #e ,,the ,,divisions ,,of ,,ancient ,,philosophy1 #e ,,the ,,literary ,,sources ,,of ,,ancient ,,philosophy1 #f ,,the ,,environment ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,greek1 #g #a4 ,his ,geographical ,environment #g #b4 ,his ,political ,environment #g ,,the ,,native ,,tendencies ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,greek1 ,,as ,,seen 7#a7 ,in the ,development of his ,religion1 7#b7 in his ,reflections upon ,physical ,events1 and 7#c7 in his ,interest in ,human ,conduct1 #i-aa ,,the ,,three ,,periods ,,of ,,greek ,,philosophy1 #ab ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,cosmological ,,period3 ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,nature1 #ae ,,the ,,peril ,,in ,,the ,,greek ,,political ,,situation3 ,,persia ,,and ,,carthage1 #ae ,,the ,,peril ,,in ,,the ,,new ,,religion3 ,,the ,,mysteries ,,and ,,pythagoras1 #af ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,cosmologists1 #ah ,,table ,,of ,,cosmologists1 #bj ,,how ,,the ,,philosophical ,,question ,,arose1 #bj ,,map ,,showing ,,the ,,cities ,,where ,,the ,,cosmologists ,,lived1 #ba ,,summary ,,comparison ,,of ,,the ,,monistic ,,philosophies1 #bb #a4 ,,the ,,milesian ,,school1 #bd ,,the ,,milesian ,,philosophy1 #be #b4 ,,xenophanes1 ,,the ,,religious ,,philosopher1 #bf ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,xenophanes1 #bg #c4 ,,heracleitus1 8,,the ,,misanthropist0 ,,and 8,,the ,,obscure10 #bh a4 ,heracleitus' ,doctrine of ,absolute and ,universal ,change1 #bh b4 ,fire is the ,cosmic ,substance1 #bi c4 ,the ,definite ,changes of ,fire1 #cj d4 ,the ,practical ,philosophy of ,heracleitus1 #ca #d4 ,,the ,,eleatic ,,school1 #cb a4 ,,parmenides1 #cb 7#a7 ,the ,cosmic ,substance is ,being1 #cc 7#b7 ,other ,things than the ,cosmic ,substance 7,being7 have no ,real ,existence1 #cd b4 ,,zeno1 #ce ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,zeno1 #cf ,,the ,,results ,,of ,,the ,,conflict ,,between ,,heracleitus ,,and ,,parmenides1 #cg ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,pluralism1 #ci ,,efforts ,,toward ,,reconciliation1 #ci ,,the ,,new ,,conception ,,of ,,change ,,of ,,the ,,pluralists1 #dj ,,the ,,new ,,conception ,,of ,,the ,,unchanging ,,of ,,the ,,pluralists,,the ,,element1 #dj ,,the ,,introduction ,,of ,,the ,,conception ,,of ,,the ,,efficient ,,cause1 #da ,,summary ,,of ,,similarities ,,and ,,differences ,,in ,,the ,,theories ,,of ,,the ,,reconcilers1 #da ,,the ,,pluralistic ,,philosophers3 ,,empedocles1 ,,anaxagoras1 ,,leucippus1 ,,and ,,the ,,later ,,pythagoreans1 #db ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,empedocles1 #dd ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,anaxagoras1 #de ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,the ,,atomists,,leucippus ,,and ,,the ,,school ,,at ,,abdera1 #dg ,,the ,,later ,,pythagoreans1 #dh #a4 ,the ,pythagorean ,conception of ,being1 #di #b4 ,the ,pythagorean ,dualistic ,world1 #ea #c4 ,pythagorean ,astronomy1 #eb ,,historical ,,retrospect1 #ec ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,anthropological ,,period3 ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,man1 #ee ,,an ,,historical ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,anthropological ,,period1 #ee ,,the ,,persian ,,wars ,,and ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,athens1 #ef ,,the ,,greek ,,enlightenment1 #eh #a4 ,the ,impulse for ,learning1 #eh #b4 ,the ,practical ,need of ,knowledge1 #ei #c4 ,the ,critical ,attitude of ,mind1 #fa ,,the ,,significance ,,of ,,the ,,sophists1 #fd ,,the ,,prominent ,,sophists1 #fg ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,the ,,sophists1 #fh #a4 ,the ,relativism of ,protagoras1 #fi #b4 ,the ,nihilism of ,gorgias1 #gj ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,the ,,sophists4,,the ,,application ,,of ,,their ,,critical ,,theory ,,to ,,political ,,life1 #ga ,,summary1 #gc ,,chapter ,v4 ,,socrates1 #gd ,,socrates ,,and ,,aristophanes1 #gd ,,the ,,personality ,,and ,,life ,,of ,,socrates1 #ge ,,socrates ,,and ,,the ,,sophists1 #hj ,,the ,,unsystematic ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,socratic ,,philosophy1 #hb ,,the ,,ideal ,,of ,,socrates1 #hc ,,what ,,the ,,socratic ,,ideal ,,involves1 #he ,,the ,,two ,,steps ,,of ,,the ,,method ,,of ,,socrates1 #hh ,,socrates ,,and ,,athens1 #ia ,,the ,,logical ,,expedients ,,of ,,socrates1 #ib ,,socrates ,,and ,,the ,,lesser ,,socratics1 #ic ,,the ,,cynic ,,school1 #ie ,,the ,,cyrenaic ,,school1 #if ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,systematic ,,period1 #ih ,,the ,,waning ,,of ,,the ,,greek ,,national ,,spirit1 #ih ,,the ,,place ,,of ,,the ,,three ,,systematic ,,philosophers ,,in ,,greek ,,history1 #ih ,,the ,,fundamental ,,principle ,,of ,,the ,,systematic ,,period1 #ajj ,a ,,summary ,,of ,,greek ,,philosophy1 #ajb ,,greek ,,philosophy 7,,objective71 #ajc ,,democritus ,,and ,,plato,,their ,,similarities ,,and ,,differences1 #ajd ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,democritus1 #ajf ,,the ,,comprehensiveness ,,of ,,the ,,aim ,,of ,,democritus1 #ajh ,,the ,,enriched ,,physics ,,of ,,democritus,,hylozoism ,,becomes ,,materialism1 #aji ,,the ,,materialistic ,,psychology ,,of ,,democritus1 #aaa ,,democritus' ,,theory ,,of ,,knowledge,,the ,,world ,,of ,,twofold ,,reality1 #aad ,,the ,,ethical ,,theory ,,of ,,democritus1 #aaf ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,plato1 #aai ,,abdera ,,and ,,athens1 #aai ,,the ,,difficulties ,,in ,,understanding ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,plato1 #abj ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,writings ,,of ,,plato1 #aba #a4 ,plato's ,student ,life1 #aba #b4 ,plato as ,traveler1 #abb #c4 ,plato as ,teacher of the ,academy1 #abd ,,concerning ,,the ,,dialogues ,,of ,,plato1 #abf ,,the ,,factors ,,in ,,the ,,construction ,,of ,,plato',s ,,doctrine1 #abh #a4 ,his ,inherited ,tendencies1 #abh #b4 ,his ,philosophical ,sources1 #acj ,,the ,,divisions ,,of ,,plato',s ,,philosophy1 #aca ,,summary ,,of ,,plato',s ,,doctrine1 #acb ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,plato',s ,,metaphysics1 #acb ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,plato',s ,,metaphysics,,the ,,development ,,of ,,plato',s ,,ideas ,,in ,,the ,,two ,,drafts1 #acf ,,brief ,,comparison ,,of ,,the ,,two ,,drafts ,,of ,,the ,,ideas1 #acg ,,comparison ,,of ,,the ,,two ,,drafts ,,of ,,ideas ,,in ,,more ,,detail1 #acg #a4 ,the ,number of ,ideas in the ,earlier and ,later ,drafts compared1 #acg #b4 ,the ,relation of the ,ideas and the ,world of ,nature in the ,two ,drafts compared1 #ach #c4 ,the ,relation among the ,ideas in the ,two ,drafts compared1 #adj ,,plato',s ,,conception ,,of ,,god1 #ada ,,plato',s ,,conception ,,of ,,physical ,,nature1 #adb ,,plato',s ,,conception ,,of ,,man1 #add ,,plato',s ,,doctrine ,,of ,,immortality1 #adf #a4 ,the ,immortality of ,pre-,existence1 #adf #b4 ,the ,immortality of ,post-,existence1 #adi ,,the ,,two ,,tendencies ,,in ,,plato1 #aej ,,platonic ,,love1 #aea ,,plato',s ,,theory ,,of ,,ethics1 #aec #a4 ,development of ,plato's ,theory of the ,good1 #aec #b4 ,the ,four ,cardinal ,virtues1 #aed #c4 ,plato's ,theory of ,political ,society1 #aee ,,appendix,,jowett',s ,,selection ,,of ,,passages ,,from ,,plato ,,for ,,english ,,readers1 #aeh ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,aristotle1 #aff ,,aristotle ,,in ,,the ,,academy ,,and ,,lyceum1 #aff ,,biography ,,of ,,aristotle1 #afh ,,brief ,,chronological ,,sketch ,,of ,,aristotle',s ,,life1 #afh ,,aristotle',s ,,biography ,,in ,,detail1 #afi #a4 ,first ,period,early ,influences1 #afi #b4 ,second ,period,traveler and ,collector1 #aga #c4 ,third ,period,administrator of the ,lyceum1 #agb ,,the ,,writings ,,of ,,aristotle1 #agc #a4 ,the ,popular ,writings1 published by ,aristotle himself1 #agd #b4 ,the ,compilations1 #age #c4 ,the ,didactic ,writings1 #age ,,aristotle',s ,,starting-,,point1 #agf ,,the ,,fundamental ,,principle ,,in ,,aristotle',s ,,philosophy1 #agg ,,aristotle',s ,,logic1 #ahj ,,aristotle',s ,,metaphysics1 #ahe #a4 ,development is ,purposeful1 #ahe #b4 ,aristotle's ,two ,different ,conceptions of ,purpose1 #ahg #c4 ,aristotle's ,conception of ,god1 #aij #d4 ,aristotle's ,conception of ,matter1 #aia #e4 ,aristotle's ,conception of ,nature1 #aib ,,the ,,mechanical ,,series1,,aristotle',s ,,theory ,,of ,,physics1 #aid ,,the ,,teleological ,,series3 ,,the ,,qualitative ,,changes ,,of ,,phenomena1 #aif #a4 ,the ,psychology of ,aristotle1 #aif #b4 ,the ,ethics of ,aristotle1 #aii 7a7 ,the ,practical ,virtues1 #bjj 7b7 ,the ,dianoetic ,virtues1 #bja ,,the ,,political ,,philosophy ,,of ,,aristotle1 #bjb ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,hellenic-,,roman ,,period1 #bjd ,,its ,,time ,,length1 #bjd ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,greek ,,nation ,,and ,,the ,,persistence ,,of ,,its ,,civilization1 #bjd ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,empire ,,of ,,alexander1 ,,showing ,,the ,,extension ,,of ,,hellenism1 #bje ,,the ,,two ,,parts ,,of ,,the ,,hellenic-,,roman ,,period1 #bjh #a4 ,the ,ethical ,period1 #bjh #b4 ,the ,religious ,period1 #bjh ,,the ,,undercurrent ,,of ,,skepticism ,,in ,,the ,,hellenic-,,roman ,,period1 #bji ,,the ,,fundamental ,,problem ,,of ,,the ,,hellenic-,,roman ,,period1 #baa ,,the ,,centres ,,of ,,hellenism1 #bac #a4 ,athens1 #bac #b4 ,alexandria1 #bae ,,general ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,ethical ,,period1 #bae #a4 ,the ,abandonment of ,metaphysical ,speculation1 #baf #b4 ,the ,growth of ,science1 #baf #c4 ,ethics became the ,central ,interest1 #bag ,,the ,,schools1 #bah ,,map ,,of ,,athens1 ,,showing ,,the ,,location ,,of ,,the ,,four ,,schools1 #bai ,,the ,,old ,,schools,,the ,,academy ,,and ,,the ,,lyceum1 #bbj #a4 ,the ,academy1 #bbj #b4 ,the ,lyceum1 #bba ,,the ,,new ,,schools,,the ,,epicureans ,,and ,,the ,,stoics1 #bbb ,a ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,agreements ,,and ,,differences ,,of ,,the ,,stoics ,,and ,,epicureans1 #bbe ,,chapter ,x4 ,,epicureanism1 #bbg ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,epicurus1 #bbg ,,the ,,epicureans1 #bbh ,,some ,,types ,,of ,,hedonism1,,aristippus1 ,,epicurus1 ,,and ,,rousseau1 #bbh ,,the ,,epicurean ,,ideal1 #bcj ,,the ,,place ,,of ,,virtue ,,in ,,epicureanism1 #bcc ,,the ,,epicurean ,,wise ,,man1 #bcd ,,the ,,epicurean ,,wise ,,man ,,in ,,society1 #bce ,,the ,,great ,,obstacles ,,to ,,happiness1 #bcf ,,epicurus' ,,conception ,,of ,,the ,,physical ,,world4,,qualified ,,atomism1 #bch ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,stoicism1 #bda ,,the ,,position ,,of ,,stoicism ,,in ,,antiquity1 #bda ,,the ,,three ,,periods ,,of ,,stoicism1 #bdb #a4 ,period of ,formulation of the ,doctrine1 #bdb #b4 ,period of ,modified ,stoicism1 #bdb #c4 ,period of ,roman ,stoicism1 #bdc ,,the ,,stoic ,,leaders1 #bdc ,,the ,,stoic ,,writings1 #bdf ,,the ,,stoics ,,and ,,cynics1 #bdf ,,the ,,two ,,prominent ,,stoic ,,conceptions1 #bdg ,,the ,,conception ,,of ,,personality1 #bdh #a4 ,the ,stoic ,psychology1 #bdh #b4 ,the ,highest ,good1 #bej ,,the ,,conception ,,of ,,nature1 #bea #a4 ,nature is an ,all-pervading ,world-,being1 #bec #b4 ,nature is an ,all-compelling ,law1 #bec #c4 ,nature is ,matter1 #bed ,,the ,,conceptions ,,of ,,nature ,,and ,,personality ,,supplement ,,each ,,other1 #bef ,,the ,,stoic ,,and ,,society1 #beg ,,duty ,,and ,,responsibility1 #bei ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,evil ,,and ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,freedom1 #bfj ,,the ,,modifications ,,of ,,the ,,stoic ,,doctrine ,,after ,,the ,,first ,,period1 #bfa ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,skepticism ,,and ,,eclecticism1 #bfd ,,the ,,appearances ,,of ,,philosophic ,,skepticism1 #bfd ,,the ,,three ,,phases ,,of ,,philosophic ,,skepticism1 #bfe #a4 ,the ,first ,phase of ,philosophic ,skepticism is called ,pyrrhonism1 #bfe #b4 ,the ,second ,period of ,philosophic ,skepticism,the ,skepticism of the ,academy1 #bff #c4 ,the ,third ,period of ,philosophic ,skepticism,sensationalistic ,skepticism1 #bfh ,,the ,,last ,,century ,,and ,a ,,half ,,of ,,the ,,ethical ,,period1 ,,eclecticism1 #bfi ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,religious ,,period1 #bgc ,,the ,,two ,,causes ,,of ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,religious ,,feeling1 #bgc ,,the ,,need ,,of ,,spiritual ,,authority1 #bge ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,conception ,,of ,,spirituality1 #bgg ,,the ,,revival ,,of ,,platonism1 #bgi ,,the ,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,religious ,,period1 #bhj ,,the ,,hellenic ,,religious ,,philosophies1 #bhb ,,the ,,introductory ,,period ,,of ,,hellenic ,,religious ,,philosophy4 ,,the ,,turning ,,to ,,the ,,past ,,for ,,spiritual ,,authority1 #bhb #a4 ,the ,greek-,jewish ,philosophy of ,philo1 #bhb #b4 ,neo-,pythagoreanism1 #bhe ,,the ,,development ,,period ,,of ,,hellenic ,,religious ,,philosophy4 ,,the ,,turning ,,to ,,the ,,present ,,for ,,spiritual ,,authority4 ,,platonism ,,and ,,neo-,,platonism1 #bhg ,,neo-,,platonism ,,and ,,the ,,two ,,introductory ,,philosophies1 #bhh ,,neo-,,platonism ,,and ,,christianity1 #bhh ,,the ,,periods ,,of ,,neo-,,platonism1 #bij ,,the ,,alexandrian ,,school4 ,,the ,,scientific ,,theory ,,of ,,neo-,,platonism4 ,,the ,,life ,,and ,,writings ,,of ,,plotinus1 #bij ,,the ,,general ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,teaching ,,of ,,plotinus1 #bia ,,the ,,mystic ,,god1 #bib #a4 ,the ,supra-,consciousness of ,god1 #bib #b4 ,the ,conception of ,dynamic ,pantheism1 #bic ,,the ,,two ,,problems ,,of ,,plotinus1 #bic ,,the ,,world ,,of ,,emanations4,,the ,,metaphysical ,,problem ,,of ,,plotinus1 #bid ,,the ,,spirit1 #bid ,,the ,,soul1 #bie ,,matter1 #bie ,,the ,,return ,,of ,,the ,,soul ,,to ,,god4,,the ,,ethical ,,problem ,,of ,,plotinus1 #big ,,the ,,syrian ,,school4,,the ,,systematizing ,,of ,,polytheisms4,,jamblichus1 #bih ,,the ,,athenian ,,school4,,recapitulation4,,proclus1 #bii ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,patristics4,,the ,,hellenizing ,,of ,,the ,,gospel1 #cjb ,,the ,,early ,,situation ,,of ,,christianity1 #cjb ,,the ,,philosophies ,,influencing ,,christian ,,thought1 #cje ,,the ,,periods ,,of ,,early ,,christianity1 #cjf ,,the ,,apologists1 #cjg ,,the ,,gnostics1 #caj ,,the ,,reaction ,,against ,,gnosticism4,,the ,,old ,,catholic ,,theologians1 #cab ,,origen ,,and ,,the ,,school ,,of ,,catechists1 #cad ,,book ,,ii4 ,,the ,,middle ,,ages 7#dgf-adec7 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,characteristics ,,and ,,conditions ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages1 #cai ,,comparison ,,of ,,the ,,hellenic-,,roman ,,period ,,and ,,the ,,middle ,,ages1 #cai ,,the ,,medi,,val ,,man1 #cbj ,,how ,,the ,,universe ,,appeared ,,to ,,the ,,medi,,val ,,man1 #cbb ,,maps ,,of ,,the ,,ptolemaic ,,cosmography1 #cbc1 #cbe ,,the ,,medi,,val ,,man ,,at ,,school1 #cbe ,a ,,medi,,val ,,library1 #cbf #a4 ,books most commonly read1 #cbg #b4 ,books that the scholars might use1 #cbg #c4 ,the ,books most influential philosophically upon the time1 #cbh ,,the ,,three ,,periods ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages1 #cbh ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,political ,,and ,,educational ,,worlds ,,of ,,the ,,medi,,val ,,man1 #ccj ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,early ,,period ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages1 #ccd ,,the ,,general ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,period1 #ccd ,,an ,,early ,,medi,,val ,,geographical ,,map1 #cce ,,the ,,historical ,,position ,,of ,,augustine1 #cce ,,the ,,secular ,,science1 #cci ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,augustine1 #cci ,,the ,,two ,,elements ,,in ,,augustine',s ,,teaching1 #cdj ,,the ,,neo-,,platonic ,,element3 ,,the ,,inner ,,certainties ,,of ,,consciousness1 #cda ,,the ,,authority ,,of ,,the ,,church ,,according ,,to ,,augustine1 #cde ,,the ,,dark ,,ages1 #cdg ,,the ,,revival ,,of ,,charlemagne1 #cdi ,,john ,,scotus ,,erigena3 ,,life ,,and ,,teaching1 #cej ,,the ,,greek ,,principle ,,which ,,erigena ,,formulated ,,for ,,the ,,middle ,,ages1 #ceb ,,the ,,last ,,century ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,period1 #cec ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,transitional ,,period1 #ced ,,the ,,general ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,transitional ,,period1 #ced ,,what ,,is ,,scholasticism8 #cee ,,anselm3 ,,life ,,and ,,position ,,in ,,medi,,val ,,philosophy1 #cei ,,anselm',s ,,arguments ,,for ,,the ,,existence ,,of ,,god1 #cfa ,,roscellinus3 ,,life ,,and ,,teaching1 #cfa ,,storm ,,and ,,stress1 #cfb ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,abelard1 #cfc ,,abelard',s ,,conceptualism4 ,,universals ,,exist ,,in ,,the ,,particulars1 #cfd ,,abelard',s ,,rationalism4,,the ,,relation ,,between ,,reason ,,and ,,dogma1 #cfe ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,classic ,,scholasticism1 #cfh ,,the ,,general ,,character ,,of ,,this ,,last ,,period1 #cfh ,,the ,,two ,,civilizations1 #cfi ,,map ,,showing ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,mohammedan ,,civilization ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages1 #cgj ,,the ,,first ,,contact ,,of ,,the ,,two ,,civilizations1 #cgb ,,the ,,conflict ,,between ,,the ,,two ,,civilizations4,,the ,,crusades1 #cgd ,,the ,,revival ,,of ,,learning1 #cge ,,diagram ,,of ,,dante',s ,,poetic ,,conception ,,of ,,the ,,universe1 #cgf ,,the ,,strength ,,and ,,burden ,,of ,,aristotle ,,to ,,the ,,church1 #cgh #a4 ,the ,strength of ,aristotle to the ,church1 #cgh #b4 ,the ,burden of ,aristotle to the ,church1 #cgi ,,the ,,predecessors ,,of ,,aquinas1 #cgi ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,thomas ,,aquinas4,,the ,,founder ,,of ,,the ,,dominican ,,tradition1 #chj ,,the ,,central ,,principle ,,of ,,thomas',s ,,doctrine,,the ,,twofold ,,truth1 #cha ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,individuality,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,particulars ,,and ,,universals1 #chc ,,the ,,primacy ,,of ,,the ,,will ,,or ,,the ,,intellect1 #che ,,duns ,,scotus1 ,,the ,,founder ,,of ,,the ,,franciscan ,,tradition,,life ,,and ,,philosophical ,,position1 #chf ,,duns ,,scotus',s ,,conception ,,of ,,the ,,twofold ,,truth4,,the ,,separation ,,of ,,science ,,and ,,religion1 #chg ,,the ,,inscrutable ,,will ,,of ,,god1 #chh ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,individuality1 #chi ,,after ,,duns ,,scotus1 #cij ,,william ,,of ,,ockam3 ,,life ,,and ,,teaching1 #cia ,,after ,,ockam1 #cic ,,index1 #cie ,,illustrations ,,socrates1 ,frontispiece ,,map ,,showing ,,where ,,the ,,cosmologists ,,lived1 #ba ,,the ,,empire ,,of ,,alexander1 #bje ,,map ,,of ,,athens ,,showing ,,the ,,location ,,of ,,the ,,four ,,schools1 #bai ,,ptolemaic ,,cosmography ,,showing ,,the ,,division ,,of ,,the ,,universe ,,into ,,spheres1 #cbc ,,ptolemaic ,,cosmography ,,showing ,,the ,,epicyclic ,,movements ,,of ,,the ,,planets1 #cbe ,,medi,,val ,,geography4 ,,the ,,cosmas ,,map1 ,a4 ,d4 #edg1 #cce ,,growth ,,of ,,mohammedanism ,,during ,,the ,,middle ,,ages1 ,,showing ,,its ,,contact ,,with ,,christian ,,civilization1 #cgj ,,diagram ,,of ,,dante',s ,,poetic ,,conception ,,of ,,the ,,universe1 #cgf ,a ,,beginner',s ,,history ,,of ,,philosophy ,,introduction ,,the ,,three ,,general ,,periods ,,of ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,philosophy ,the ,comparative ,lengths of the ,three ,general ,periods3 ,ancient ,philosophy1 #fbe ,b4 ,c4-#dgf ,a4 ,d4 ,medival ,philosophy1 #dgf ,a4 ,d4-#adec ,a4 ,d4 ,modern ,philosophy1 #adec ,a4 ,d4-the present time4 ,these are the three general periods into which the history of philosophy naturally falls4 ,the two dates that form the dividing lines between these three periods are #dgf1 the fall of old ,rome1 and #adec1 the fall of new ,rome 7,constantinople74 ,from this it will be seen that #ajjj years of medival life lie between antiquity on the one side and #dej years of modern times on the other4 ,whatever value may be put upon the respective intellectual products of these three periods1 it is important to note the great difference in their time-lengths4 ,it is #bejj years since philosophical reflection began in ,europe4 ,only #dej of these years belong to modern times4 ,in other words1 after the ,european man grew to reflective manhood1 two fifths of his life belong to what is known as ancient civilization1 two fifths to medival1 and only one fifth to modern civilization4 ,the ,real ,differences of the ,three ,general ,periods4 ,the differences between these three periods of the reflective life of the ,european have been very real4 ,they are not to be explained by merely political shiftings or economic changes2 nor are they fully expressed as differences in literary or artistic productions4 ,their differences lie deeper1 for they are differences of mental attitude4 ,the history of philosophy is more profound1 more difficult1 and more human than any other history1 because it is the record of human points of view4 ,a good deal of sympathetic appreciation is demanded if the student takes on the attitude of mind of ancient and medival times4 ,one cannot expect to be possessed of such appreciation until one has traversed the history of thought through its entire length4 ,the history of philosophy is an organic development from an objective to a subjective view of life1 with a traditional middle period in which subjective and objective mingle4 ,ancient thought is properly called objective1 the medival traditional1 the modern subjective4 ,can we briefly suggest what these abstract terms mean8 ,by the objectivity of ancient thought is meant that the ancient1 in making his reflections upon life1 starts from the universe as a whole4 ,from this outer point of view he tries to see the interconnections between things4 ,nature is reality2 men and gods are a part of nature4 ,man's mental processes even are a part of the totality of things4 ,even ethically man is not an independent individual1 but the member of a state4 ,when the ancient came to make distinctions between mind and matter1 he did not think of man as the knower in antithesis to matter as the object known1 but he thought of mind and matter as parts of one cosmos4 ,the antithesis in ancient thought is rather between appearances and essence1 between non-realities and realities with differing emphasis4 ,the ancient attempts speculatively to reconstruct his world1 but it is always from the point of view of the world4 ,by the traditionalism of medival thought is meant that men are controlled in their thinking by a set of authoritative doctrines from the past4 ,in the ,middle ,ages1 as the medival period is called1 the independent thinking of antiquity had ceased4 ,men reflected and reflected deeply1 but they were constrained by a set of religious traditions4 ,authority was placed above them and censored their thinking4 ,the objective ,christian church and its authority took the place of the objective ,greek cosmos4 ,that church had certain infallible dogma1 and thinking was allowed only in so far as it clarified dogma4 ,on the other hand1 when we say that modern thought is subjective1 we refer to an entire change in the centre of intellectual gravity4 ,the starting-point is not the world1 but the individual4 ,the universe is set over against mind 7dualism71 or is the creation of mind 7idealism74 ,in any case the modern man looks upon the universe as his servant1 the standard of truth to be found in himself and not in something external4 ,the subject as knower is now placed in antithesis to the object as known1 and the object is not independent of the human thinking process4 ,reality is man rather than the cosmos4 ,the political state is justifiable so long as it enforces the rights of the individual2 religious authority is the expression of the individual conscience2 physical nature is a human interpretation4#a ,plato1 ,dante1 and ,goethe are good representatives of these three different historical periods of the human mind4 ,how can they be understood without a philosophical appreciation of the periods in which they lived8 ,table of the ,subdivisions of the ,three ,general ,periods of ,philosophy ,cosmological1 #fbe-dhj 7to ,greek1 #fbe-cbb ,persian ,wars74 ,b4 ,c4 7to death of ,anthropological1 #dhj-cii 7to ,aristotle74 death of ,socrates74 ,systematic1 #cii-cbb 7to death of ,aristotle74 #a4 ,ancient #fbe ,b4 ,c4-#dgf ,a4 ,d4 ,hellenic-,roman #cbb ,b4 ,c4-#dgf ,ethical1 #cbb ,b4 ,c4-#a ,a4 ,d4 ,a4 ,d4 7from 7to beginning of ,christian death of era74 ,aristotle to fall of old ,religious1 #ajj ,b4 ,c4-#dgf ,a4 ,d4 ,rome74 ,early ,medival1 #dgf-ajjj 7from the fall of old ,rome to the beginnings of modern ,europe74 #b4 ,medival ,transitional ,medival 7#ajjj-abjj71 7from #dgf-adec beginnings of modern ,europe to ,crusades74 ,classic ,medival1 #abjj-adec 7from the ,crusades to the fall of new ,rome or ,constantinople74 ,renaissance1 #adec-afij ,humanistic1 #adec-afjj4 7to ,locke's ,essay and the ,english ,natural ,science1 #afjj-afij4 ,revolution74 #c4 ,modern #adec-modern times ,enlightenment1 #afij-agha 7from ,locke's ,essay to ,kant's ,critique74 ,german ,idealism1 #agha-ahca 7from ,kant's ,critique to the death of ,hegel74 ,evolution1 #ahbj to the present time4 ,,book ,i ,,ancient ,,philosophy 7#fbe ,b4 ,c4-#dgf ,a4 ,d47 ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,early ,,greek ,,in ,,ancient ,,philosophy ,the ,divisions of ,ancient ,philosophy4 ,the history of ancient philosophy falls naturally into two large divisions3 pure ,greek philosophy and ,hellenic-,roman philosophy 7or ,greek philosophy in the ,roman world74 ,the date1 #cbb ,b4 ,c41 the death of ,aristotle1 which marks the line between these two periods1 is one of the milestones of history4 ,alexander the ,great had died in #cbc ,b4 ,c4 ,the coincidence of the deaths of ,aristotle and ,alexander not only suggests their intimate relations as teacher and pupil during their lives1 but it throws into contrast ,greek civilization before and after them4 ,before ,aristotle and ,alexander culture was the product entirely of the pure ,greek spirit2 after them ancient culture was the complex product of many factorsof ,greek and ,roman civilizations1 and many ,oriental religions1 including ,christianity4 ,before ,aristotle and ,alexander1 ancient culture was characterized by a love of knowledge for its own sake1 by freedom from ulterior ends either of service or of use2 after these great makers of history1 culture became attenuated to work in the special sciences and enslaved to practical questions4 ,before ,aristotle and ,alexander1 the ,greek city-states had arisen to political power2 after ,aristotle and ,alexander1 ,greece declined politically and was absorbed into the ,roman empire4 ,the ,literary ,sources of ,ancient ,philosophy4#b ,the literary sources of ancient philosophy are three3 7#a7 the primary sources1 or original writings2 7#b7 the secondary sources1 or reports of the original writers obtained indirectly1 or through other writers2 7#c7 the interpretations of reliable modern historians of philosophy4 ,the specialist in philosophy will1 of course1 go to the first two sources for his information4 ,other students will find many accurate modern histories of ancient philosophy4 ,the student should have at hand the translations of the histories of ,zeller1 ,windelband1 ,weber1 ,eucken1 ,ueberweg2 those of the ,englishmen1 ,burnet and ,fairbanks2 of the ,americans1 ,rogers and ,turner4 8,the writings of the early ,greek philosophers of the pre-,socratic period exist now only in fragments4 ,the complete works of ,plato are still extant2 so also are the most important works of ,aristotle1 and certain others which belong to the ,stoic1 ,epicurean1 ,skeptic1 and neo-,platonic schools4 ,we possess the principal works of most of the philosophers of the ,christian period in sufficient completeness40#c ,the secondary sources include quotations and comments upon earlier philosophers found in the writings of ,plato1 ,aristotle1 the ,stoics1 ,skeptics1 neo-,platonists1 and the so-called doxographers4 ,doxographythe commentating upon and collating of the works of former timesdeveloped enormously in ,alexandria1 ,pergamos1 and ,rhodes just after ,aristotle4 ,the founder of this work was ,theophrastus1 who was a disciple of ,aristotle and his successor in the ,lyceum4 ,among the important doxographers were ,plutarch1 ,stobus1 and ,aetios4 ,the ,environment of the ,early ,greek4 ,the biologist seeks to explain a living creature by its previous environment and inherited instincts4 ,so if we know the environment and inherited instincts of the early ,greek1 we shall be able to understand better firstly1 why ,european philosophy began with the ,greeks and not with some other people2 and secondly1 why ,greek philosophy took certain lines that it did take4 7#a74 ,his ,geographical ,environment4 ,the ,greece into which philosophy was born was much larger than the ,greece of to-day4 ,ancient ,greece consisted of all the coasts and islands which were washed by the ,mediterranean ,sea from ,asia ,minor to ,sicily and southern ,italy1 and from ,cyrene to ,thrace4 ,the motherland1 the peninsula of ,greece1 at first played an insignificant rle4 ,the leadership was in the hands of the ,ionians1 who had colonized the coasts of ,asia ,minor4 ,in the seventh century ,b4 ,c41 when the first ,greek philosophy appears1 these ,ionians commanded the world's commerce among the three continents4 ,over the coasts of the entire ,mediterranean they had extended their trade and established their colonies4 ,miletus became the wealthiest of these colonies and the cradle of ,greek science4 ,its wealth afforded leisure to its people and therefore the opportunity for reflection4 7#b74 ,his ,political ,environment4 ,an understanding of the ,greek political world1 in which its first philosophy appeared1 requires an historical explanation of its rise4 ,it takes us back four centuries to the age of the ,epic 7#ajjj-gej ,b4 ,c474 ,during more than two centuries of the age of the ,epic two changes occurred which were to influence future ,greek civilization3 7#a7 ,the oligarchy which had supplanted the ancient patriarchal monarchy became firmly established2 and 7#b7 the ,epic was formed4 ,the importance of the ,epic of ,homer lies not so much in the fact that a great poem was constructed1 as that it was the formulation of the ,greek religion1 the ,greek sthetic polytheism4 ,its writing indicates that the earlier unorganized1 primitive1 and savage forms of religion had given way1 among the ruling classes at least1 to an sthetic polytheism1 which in a general way was fixed by the ,epic itself4 ,the period of more than a century1 from #gej to #fbe ,b4 ,c41 lying between the age of the ,epic and ,greek philosophy1 may be called an age of political disturbances4 ,the oligarchy had become oppressive to the rich and poor alike4 ,there had grown up in ,greece1 especially in the colonies1 a class of citizens who had become wealthy through commerce4 ,the result of the misgovernment by the oligarchy was that 7#a7 migrations took place1 and 7#b7 many revolutions occurred4 ,this was particularly true of the colonies where the proletariat was powerful and the cities were full of adventurers4 ,plutocracy was at war with aristocracy1 and this was the opportunity for bold men4 ,these political troubles took form from #fej ,b4 ,c4 on1 and the history of the ,greek cities consists of the endeavor to establish popular government4 ,about the time of the first ,greek philosophers there arose here and there from the ruins of these civil struggles the so-called tyrants1 of whom ,thrasybulus at ,miletus1 ,pittacus at ,lesbos1 ,periander at ,corinth1 and ,pisistratus at ,athens are examples4 ,the courts of these tyrants became centres of intellectual life4 ,they patronized poets1 writers1 and artists4 ,the universalism of the ,epic had vanished1 and in its place came the individualism of the lyric and the satire4 ,in many places the aristocrat went into gloomy retirement1 and often cultivated poetry1 science1 and philosophy4 ,the ,native ,tendencies of the ,early ,greek4 ,why were the ,greeks the first philosophers of ,europe8 ,their geographical surroundings of sea and land had something to do with it4 ,the passionate party strife between the old1 ruling families of nobles and the newly rich trading-class1 which took place during the seventh century ,b4 ,c41 no doubt cultivated an early independence of opinion and strength of personality4 ,but1 after all1 genius was in the blood of the race1 and who can say that the true cause was not in the mixing of the blood of the virile ,aryan invaders with that of the aboriginal inhabitants8 ,whatever may be the answer to that question1 the ,greek race in the seventh century ,b4 ,c4 had an extraordinary curiosity about the world of nature4 ,it loved the concrete fact as no other race of the time loved it1 and it loved to give a clear and articulate expression to the concrete fact that it saw4 ,it had an artistic nature that was hostile to all confusion4 ,let us point out three ways in which the ,greek was even in this early time organizing his experiences1 reflecting upon the workings of social and nature forces1 and thus preparing the way for consideration of the more ultimate questions of philosophy4 7#a7 ,this can be seen first in the development of his religion4 ,the first step in the organization of his religion we have already seen1 for the ,homeric epic was the expression of a well-defined1 poetic1 and sthetic polytheism developed out of a primitive savage naturalism4 ,the ,greek's sense of measure was shown in the way both gods and men were placed as a part of the world of nature4 ,he could accomplish this the more freely because he had no hierarchy of priests and no dogma of belief to cramp his imagination4 ,the ,greek priests did not penetrate into the private life nor teach religion4 8,they were not theologians but sacristans and liturgical functionaries40 ,in the fifty years before philosophy appeared1 this tendency toward scientific religious organizing showed the beginning of another advance4 ,monistic belief1 of which signs may be found even in the earlier ,greek writings1 came to the surface4 ,this monism#d was expressed or implied by the ,gnomic poets1 8wise poets10 so called1 because they made sententious utterances upon the principles of morality4 7#b7 ,the early genius of the ,greek is shown in his reflections upon physical events4 ,the ,greek had been accumulating for a long time many kinds of information1 but1 what is more important1 he had been reflecting upon this information4 ,the ,ionian was a sea-faring man4 ,he had had much practical experience and had made many true observations about the things he had seen4 ,in his travels he had come in contact with the ,orientals and the ,egyptians1 and although his scientific conceptions were probably in the main his own1 his knowledge was undoubtedly increased by his travels4 ,in the seventh century ,b4 ,c41 the ,greeks had a respectable body of physical science4 ,it was mostly inorganic science1 however1astronomy1 geography1 and meteorology4 ,the early ,greek knowledge of organic phenomena was very meagre1 as1 for example1 medical and physiological knowledge4 ,they also showed little genuine research in the field of mathematics1 although they had picked up mathematical information here and there4 ,many of the first philosophers were scientists4 7#c7 ,not only did the ,greek early bring a religious system out of the chaos of his naturalism1 not only did he early throw his physical information into scientific form2 but also early did he show an especial interest in human conduct4 ,this can be seen first in ,homer 7#hjj ,b4 ,c471 in a more developed form in ,hesiod 7#gjj ,b4 ,c471 and with still deeper reflection in the ,gnomic poets4 ,although the ,iliad is a descriptive poem1 it abounds in ethical observations4 ,for example1 ,hector says1 8,the best omen is to fight for one's country02 and ,nestor in council says1 8,a wretch without the tie of kin1 a lawless man without a home1 is he who delights in civil strife40 ,the poem by ,hesiod 7,works and ,days7 is intended to teach morals4 ,it is distinctly a didactic poem4 ,hesiod stands at the beginning of a long line of ,greek ethical teachers4 ,his moral observations are1 however1 incoherently expressed4 ,they are not wide generalizations1 but are only comments upon single experiences4 ,the ,gnomic poets appeared at the end of the seventh century ,b4 ,c41 as the moral reformers in the age of political disturbances4 ,this period was called by the ,greeks the age of the ,seven ,wise ,men2 for among the men who were then exhorting the age to come back to its senses1 tradition early selected seven of the most notable4#e ,the spirit of ,gnomic poetry was prominent in their reported sayings4 ,they were fearful because of the common disregard of the conventions of the previous age1 and because of the present excesses4 ,their watchword was 8moderation10 and they were ever repeating 8nothing too much40 ,by apothegm1 riddle1 epigram1 and catchwords they tried to reform society4 ,the names of all seven are not certain1 and only four of them are known1,thales1 ,solon1 ,pittacus1 and ,bias4 ,their ethical reflections are not concerned1 as in ,hesiod1 with the home1 the village1 and the rules of convention1 but with the individual's general relation to society4 ,their knowledge of ethical matters is remarkable for their time4 ,some of their sayings are as follows3 8,no man is happy2 all are full of trouble40 8,each thinks to do the right1 yet no one knows what will be the result of his doings1 and no one can escape his destiny40 8,the people by their own injustice destroy the city1 which the gods would have protected40 8,as opposed to these evils the first necessity is law and order for the state1 contentment and moderation for the individual40 8,not wealth1 but moderation1 is the highest good40 8,superfluity of possessions begets self-exaltation40 ,the ,three ,periods of ,greek ,philosophy1 #fbe-cbb ,b4 ,c4 ,these are #a4 ,the ,cosmological ,period1 #fbe-dhj ,b4 ,c4 #b4 ,the ,anthropological ,period1 #dhj-cii ,b4 ,c4 #c4 ,the ,systematic ,period1 #cii-cbb ,b4 ,c4 #a4 ,the ,cosmological ,period begins with the birth of ,greek philosophical reflection 7#fbe ,b4 ,c47 and has a nominal ending with the ,persian wars 7#dhj ,b4 ,c474 ,this does not mean that the interest of the ,greeks in cosmology stopped in #dhj ,b4 ,c41 but that it was no longer their prominent interest4 ,cosmology is the study of the reality of the physical universe 7the cosmos74 ,the particular cosmological question occupying the minds of the ,greeks in this period may be stated thus3 ,what1 amid the changes of the physical world1 is permanent8 ,this will be seen to be a philosophical question and not the same as a question in natural science4 ,the theatre of philosophical activity was the colonies and not the motherland4 ,two important aspects of this period must be considered besides the philosophical1the political situation and the religious mysteries4 #b4 ,the ,anthropological ,period begins in the motherland before the cosmological movement ended in the colonies4 ,it starts with a great social impulse just after the victories of the ,persian wars 7#dhj ,b4 ,c47 and ends with the death of ,socrates 7#cii ,b4 ,c474 ,athens is the centre4 ,this period includes the most productive intellectual epoch of ,greece as a whole1 although not its greatest philosophers4 ,socrates is the most striking personality in the period4 ,the period is called anthropological1 because its interest is in the study of man and not of the physical universe4 ,the word anthropology means the study of man4 #c4 ,the ,systematic ,period begins with the death of ,socrates 7#cii ,b4 ,c47 and ends with the death of ,aristotle 7#cbb ,b4 ,c474 ,alexander the ,great died #cbc ,b4 ,c4 ,the period is called systematic because it contains the three great organizers or systematizers of ,greek philosophy4 ,these were ,democritus1 ,plato1 and ,aristotle4 ,the spread of ,greek culture beyond its own limits through the conquests of ,alexander is of great importance for the history of thought in the ,hellenic-,roman ,period1 which follows this period4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,cosmological ,,period 7#fbe-dhj ,b4 ,c473 ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,nature ,when we enter upon the one hundred and fifty years of philosophical beginnings of ,greece1 which are called the ,cosmological ,period1 we find ourselves confronted with an extremely interesting social situation1 which has been brought about partly by the political and geographical environment of the ,greek1 partly by his inherited genius4 ,on the one hand1 during this century and a half1 the political troubles of the ,greeks became increasingly aggravated by the growth of ,persia on the east and of ,carthage on the west4 ,on the other hand1 we find that the ,greek religion took a sudden turn to mysticism1 and by its side a slow but increasing interest in philosophical questions4 ,all through this period ,greek politics and ,greek religion were a constant peril to ,greek life4 ,greek philosophy proved to be its safety4 ,the ,peril in the ,greek ,political ,situation3 ,persia and ,carthage4 ,it must be remembered that the ,greek cities never united into a nation4 ,they were always fighting among themselves4 ,we have already pointed out the civil disturbances between the oligarchy and the democracy throughout the land4 ,these internal troubles continued to the end of ,greek history4 ,in this period there was added to these internal troubles a critical external situation which threatened the existence of ,greece itself4 ,the sixth century was a momentous one for ,greece4 ,in both the east and the west there arose mighty empires that threatened to wipe out its civilization4 8,the expansion of the ,persian power 7on the one hand7 had suspended a stone of ,tantalus over ,hellas1 and it seemed likely that ,greek civilization might be submerged in an ,oriental monarchy40#f ,cyrus had laid the foundation of ,persia by taking ,media in #eej ,b4 ,c41 ,lydia in #edf ,b4 ,c41 ,babylonia in #ech ,b4 ,c42 ,egypt was added by ,cambyses in #ebh ,b4 ,c42 and ,darius organized the great ,persian possessions in his long reign from #ebh to #dhf ,b4 ,c4 ,on the west1 ,carthage was threatening the ,greek cities of ,sicily1 and at the close of this period was acting in conjunction with ,persia to obtain possession of the ,mediterranean4 ,the ,peril in the ,new ,religion3 ,the ,mysteries and ,pythagoras4 ,already in the seventh century ,b4 ,c4 the political society of ,greece felt that it was under the wrath of the gods because of some unatoned guilt4 8,the earth is full of ills1 of ills the sea10 sang the poet4 ,religious depression became universal4 ,dissatisfied with the old polytheism1 especially as expressed in the theogony of ,hesiod1 the ,greek in the sixth century ,b4 ,c4 began to interpret it according to his present need4 ,among the masses there appeared the craving for immortality and for personal knowledge of the supernatural4 ,the desire to solve the mystery of life by a short road became universal4 ,men looked to rites to purify them from the guilt of the world and for gaining personal contact with the world of shades4 ,this new religion became pan-,hellenic4 ,it is called the ,mysteries or the ,orgia4 ,by ,mysteries is not meant societies founded on some occult intellectual belief1 as the name might suggest4 ,the ,mysteries were based on cult 7ceremony71 and not on dogma4 ,the special ceremonies were those of initiation and purification4 ,they were supposed to purify the participant and put him in a new frame of mind4 ,the soul would then be protected from the malicious spirits to which it was constantly exposed4 ,the ceremonies are reported to have been attended sometimes by more than thirty thousand people4 ,they consisted of processions1 songs1 dances1 and dramatic spectacles4 ,the most important of the ,mysteries were the ,orphic and the ,eleusinian4 ,the ,mysteries were the basis of the society of ,pythagoreans4 ,pythagoras of ,samos was a remarkable man1 who went to ,italy and settled at ,crotona4 ,his sect is of double importance to us because in later times it developed a philosophy on its mathematical and astronomical sides4 ,pythagoras and his immediate following must be distinguished from the later ,pythagoreans4 ,pythagoras and the early ,pythagoreans were not philosophers1 but a sect like the ,orphic society of ,mysteries1 yet the sect of ,pythagoreans embraced much more in its scope4 ,it tried to control the public and private life of its members and to evolve a common method of education4#g ,pythagoras was an exiled aristocrat1 and his sect was an aristocratic religious body in reaction against the democratic excesses4 ,the only doctrine upon which ,pythagoras placed any emphasis was that of immortality in the form of metempsychosis 7transmigration of the soul from one bodily form into another74 ,the sect was dispersed as a religious body about #dej ,b4 ,c4 ,the scattered members formed a school of philosophy at ,thebes until about #cej ,b4 ,c4 ,of these later philosophical ,pythagoreans and their number theory1 we shall speak in the proper place4 ,at the time of the dispersion of the ,pythagoreans there existed no longer any peril from the new religion4 ,the craze of the new religion was passing away4 ,during the sixth century ,b4 ,c4 it was a great peril to the future intellectual life of ,greece4 ,had it then gained a little more power it would probably have been admitted by the priesthood to the temples4 ,in the exercise of such enormous sacerdotal power1 the priests would have enslaved the ,greek mind to superstition1 and the priesthood in turn would have become an easy tool for tyrants4 ,there would then have been no ,socrates1 no ,plato1 and no ,aristotle4 ,the ,mysteries were a reaction toward asceticism as a religious salvation from the political peril1 but they were1 however1 equally as great a peril to ,greece4 ,the medium course along the line of a rational philosophy1 which the ,greek genius actually took1 proved its salvation4 ,characteristics of the ,cosmologists4 ,there are certain characteristics of this early philosophy that should be noted at the beginning4 7#a7 ,all the ,cosmologists were physical scientists1 and with few exceptions their scientific views were noteworthy4 ,aristotle calls them physicists in distinction from their predecessors1 whom he calls theologians4 7#b7 ,they often worked together in schools4 ,tradition has been common since ,bacon that philosophy centres in individuals2 but history shows that frequently the ,greeks worked in corporate bodies4 ,these philosophical scientists worked in schools2 just as the ,homerid developed the epic2 the ,ddalid1 a group of the earliest artists1 the secret of art2 the ,mysteries1 religion4 ,philosophy now is in the cloister1 and the intellect of the time speaks from its retreat from public life4 ,while the ,milesian school was undisturbed1 owing to the long peace that ,miletus enjoyed1 we shall find that most of the philosophers of the ,cosmological period were in retirement on account of political persecution4 ,we must remember that by 8school0 is not necessarily meant a group of pupils under the established instruction of a teacher4 ,a school at this early period is a group of learned men at work on the same problems4 ,later on in history we shall find that one of the group more learned than the others stands in the position of teacher3 for example1 ,plato in the ,academy4 7#c7 ,all the ,cosmologists were hylozoists4 ,the etymological meaning of hylozoism is its true onematter is alive4 ,this is the fundamental characteristic of these pre-,socratics from ,thales down to ,anaxagoras1 although some authorities contend that those from the time of ,empedocles were not hylozoists4 ,the meaning of hylozoism is simple enough1 but the conception is a difficult one for the modern mind2 for to-day we are accustomed to think of an impersonal nature under mechanical laws4 ,to the ,greek of the ,cosmological period the substantial constitution of the universe is impersonal living matter2 to us it is impersonal dead matter4 ,both these views are to be contrasted with the religious belief involved in ,greek polytheism1 in which the cosmos is conceived to be living personal spirits2 this ,homeric polytheism is again to be contrasted with the animism of the tribal period1 in that it had organized into an sthetic unity the early savage animism4 ,these hylozoistic philosophers did not1 however1 give up the ,homeric gods1 but they treated their existence in a poetic way4 ,they usually believed in their existence1 but they always subordinated them to the one living world-ground4 7#d7 ,in common with all ancient peoples these ,greek philosophers did not believe that the universe had unlimited space4 ,on the contrary1 they believed that it was limited and in the shape of an egg4 ,table of ,cosmologists4 ,the ,cosmologists are divided into two classes3 7#a7 the earlier were moniststhose who believe that the reality of the universe is a simple1 undifferentiated unity2 7#b7 the later were pluraliststhose who believe that the reality of the universe consists of several elements equally real4 ,they are enumerated as follows3 ,,the ,,monists ,thales #a4 ,the ,milesian school ,anaximander at ,miletus4 ,anaximenes #b4 ,xenophanes at ,colophon and ,elea4 ,parmenides #c4 ,the ,eleatic school ,zeno at ,elea4 #d4 ,heracleitus at ,ephesus4 ,,the ,,pluralists #e4 ,empedocles at ,agrigentum4 #f4 ,anaxagoras at ,clazomen4 #g4 ,the later ,pythagoreans mainly at ,thebes4 #h4 ,leucippus at ,abdera4 ,how the ,philosophical ,question ,arose4 ,the interests of these philosophical scientists sharply differentiate them from the preceding theogonists1 like ,hesiod and ,epimenides1 as well as from the masses who were absorbed in the religion of the ,mysteries4 ,they were1 moreover1 the men of ,greece to whom the emotional excitement of a religious revival would not appeal as a refuge from the troubles of the time4 ,their own experience in the political troubles had made paramount the question as to the permanence of things4 ,nevertheless1 its answer must be found in nature and in an intellectual way4 ,when they turned to the traditional theogonies they found no answer to their question1 for there was only a mythical chronicle of a succession of gods beginning with the unknown4 ,the question of the ,cosmologists was not1 therefore1 what was the original form of this changing world1 but what is fundamental in the world always4 ,the time factor is no longer important4 ,not the temporal prius but the real prius is what they seek4 ,the idea of a temporal origin of things gives place to that of eternal being1 and the question finally emerges1 ,what is the real substance that constitutes the universe8 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,showing ,,where ,,the ,,cosmologists ,,lived 7,none of the ,cosmologists1 except the later ,pythagoreans1 lived in the motherland of ,greece4 ,philosophical activity during this period took place in the colonies4 ,the map shows the cities which were the centres of philosophy and the homes of the philosophers as indicated47 ,the ,greek ,monistic ,philosophies4 ,turning back to our classification on page #bj1 we see that the earliest ,greek philosophers emphasized the monistic tendency1 which had become so prominent in ,greek religion4 ,this group of monists was composed of the ,milesians1 ,xenophanes1 the ,eleatic ,school1 and ,heracleitus4 ,the course of reasoning of these early thinkers is navely simple1 and like all nave thought1 it contains such contradictions that the modern reader is likely to become impatient with it4 ,the value of the study of the philosophy of these early ,greeks is entirely historical4 ,its historical value1 however1 is very great1 for it is a revelation of the culture of the ,greece of that time1 it throws light on many of the teachings of ,plato and ,aristotle1 and most of all it contains the germs of modern metaphysical problems4 ,these first ,greek philosophers raised the question1 ,what is the constitution of the substance of the universe8 ,their answers are nave solutions to the historical metaphysical 8riddle40 ,the ,milesians1 who form the earliest philosophical school in ,european history1 seem to have assumed two facts as self-evident about the substance of the universe3 7#a7 ,there is a single cosmic substance identical with itself1 which is the basis of all the changes in nature2 7#b7 ,moving matter is the same as life4 ,the ,milesians were quite unconscious that these two assumptions were contradictory1 but the contradiction impressed their successors,xenophanes1 ,heracleitus1 and the ,eleatics2 and divided them in their development of philosophy4 ,matter which keeps identical with itself is the ,unchanging#h and is brought into opposition with ,life1 the ,changing1 or matter which moves4 ,the question for ,xenophanes1 ,heracleitus1 and the ,eleaticsand indeed for all future philosophywas3 ,how can the changing processes of life be explained by an unchanging substance8 ,xenophanes1 who was more of a religious reformer than a philosopher1 was so absorbed in the first of these assumptions that he developed it for his purpose in his practical social reformation to the entire neglect of the second assumption4 ,the ,eleatics1 however1 to whose city ,xenophanes had come1 could not leave his doctrine in its one-sided and undeveloped form4 ,they accepted his teaching of the divine ,unchangingness of the universe1 but this compelled these profounder thinkers to offer some explanation of the natural processes of change4 ,change to them cannot really exist4 ,heracleitus1 on the other hand1 was impressed with the aspect of life that is expressed in the second assumption of the ,milesiansliving matter is moving matter4 ,he therefore maintained in direct opposition to the ,eleatics1 that the changing1 living processes of nature alone are real4 ,the two contradictory assumptions that lay so mutually indifferent in the ,milesian doctrine thus became the basis of a sharp metaphysical controversy between ,heracleitus and the ,eleatics4 ,the substance of the world is permanent1 change is an illusion1 said the ,eleatics4 ,the substance of the world changes1 permanence is an illusion1 said ,heracleitus4 ,either all things are permanent or all things change4 ,these early philosophers had no wealth of empirical knowledge nor of psychological reflection upon which to draw1 and it is not strange that they should take extreme positions and be blind to their practical consequences4 #a4 ,the ,milesian ,school4 ,of all the ,greek cities in the sixth century ,b4 ,c4 ,miletus was the wealthiest and most prosperous4 ,it was one of the ,ionian colonies and was situated on the coast of ,asia ,minor1 and it alone was able to preserve its autonomy as neighbor of the warring eastern empires4 ,not until the battle of ,lade was it captured and destroyed 7#did ,b4 ,c474 ,from two generations of philosophers history has preserved three names1,thales1 ,anaximander1 and ,anaximenes4 ,the school is called indifferently the ,milesian or the ,ionic school4 ,the proximity of ,miletus to ,ephesus1 ,colophon1 and ,clazomen 7as a glance at the map will show7 explains the influence of the ,milesian school upon the doctrines of ,heracleitus1 ,xenophanes1 and ,anaxagoras4 ,undoubtedly the contact of the ,milesians with the ,orient and ,egypt had brought to them knowledge and correct scientific observations of many sorts1 especially astronomical4 ,thales 7b4 #fdj ,b4 ,c47 was a member of one of the leading families of ,miletus1 and lived during the flourishing period of the city under the tyranny of ,thrasybulus4 ,he is counted among the seven ,wise ,men1 and belonged to the rich commercial class4 ,he probably engaged in commerce and traveled in ,egypt4 ,he was versed in the current learning1 predicted an eclipse1 and was acute in mathematics and physics4 ,probably he never committed anything to writing4 ,aristotle's comments are the only data about him4 ,anaximander 7#faa-ede ,b4 ,c487 was an astronomer and geographer2 he made an astronomical globe1 a sundial1 and a geographical map4 ,he was an intimate disciple of ,thales and wrote ,concerning ,nature1 which is referred to as the first ,greek philosophical treatise4 ,nothing is known of his life4 ,anaximenes 7#efj-ejj ,b4 ,c487 was the disciple of ,anaximander4 ,one sentence is preserved of his writings4#i ,the ,milesian ,philosophy4 ,the ,milesians lived upon the seacoast1 and the changes of the sea and air must have deeply impressed them4 ,they had an intellectual curiosity to find the cosmic matter which remained identical with itself and at the same time moved4 7,see p4 #bb47 ,they were not1 therefore1 interested to discover the chemical composition of matter1 but to find what matter was most moving and therefore most alive4 ,thales said that it was water2 ,anaximenes1 air2 and ,anaximander1 the ,apeiron1 or the ,unlimited4 ,their respective choices were determined by what seemed to possess the most mobility and the greatest inner vitality4 ,thales thought water possessed this quality4 ,water is always moving4 ,thales saw it moving4 ,it therefore has life in itself4 ,anaximander felt that no object in our perceptual experience would fully explain the ceaseless mobility of nature1 and he called it the ,unlimited or the ,indeterminatethe ,apeiron4 ,it is a mixture in which all qualities are lost4 ,the changes in nature are endless1 and therefore the single cosmic substance1 from which they come1 must be endless as well1 for 8from whatever source things come1 in that they have their end40 ,we learn that this is just the reason for ,anaximenes choosing the air for the single underlying cosmic substance4 ,the air is the most changeable thing and is ,unlimited4#i ,both ,thales and ,anaximenes still held to the traditional polytheism of the ,greek ,epic4 ,anaximander rises above them in this respect4 ,this conception of the ,unlimited1 to which his scientific search led him1 is regarded by him as ,deity4 ,he calls it 8the divine0 7 72 although he speaks of it in the neuter gender it is1 nevertheless1 the first ,european philosophical conception of ,god4 ,it is the first attempt to conceive of ,god as purely physical and yet without any mythical dress4 ,in ,anaximander the ,milesian monism has a religious aspect4 #b4 ,xenophanes1 the ,religious ,philosopher 7#egj ,b4 ,c474 ,the scientific monism of ,anaximander was after all only expressive of that religious dissatisfaction1 first voiced by the ,wise ,men1 against the ,hesiod cosmogony and the immorality of the ,homeric myths4 ,now for the first time a positive conflict between religion and philosophy arose through ,xenophanes1 the rhapsodist of ,colophon4 ,colophon1 an ,ionian city near ,miletus1 was noted for its obscene and cruel religious practices1 and when his native city capitulated to the ,persians1 ,xenophanes charged its feebleness to its immoral religion4 ,he went to ,magna ,grcia1 and1 disguised as a musician1 he wandered about for sixty-seven years through its length and breadth declaiming in song against the anthropomorphism1 the mystic ecstasies1 and the general social practices of the ,greeks4 ,he finally settled in ,elea1 southern ,italy 7see map71 and on this account he is sometimes called the founder of the ,eleatic school4 ,xenophanes' influence upon the thought of ,greece was threefold3 7#a7 ,he preached the ,milesian philosophical monism to the people of ,greece in the form of a religious monism2 7#b7 ,he carried this doctrine from eastern ,greece 7,asia ,minor7 to ,western ,greece 7,magna ,grcia72 7#c7 ,he was the connecting link between the ,milesian and the following ,eleatic school4 ,the ,philosophy of ,xenophanes4 ,based on one of the ,milesian assumptions1 viz41 a single cosmic substance remains identical with itself in nature1 ,xenophanes felt that he had a right to set down two principles about nature4 #a4 ,the single primordial substance below the changes of nature is ,god4 ,the reality below nature which ,thales conceived to be water1 ,anaximander to be unlimited substance without a name1 ,anaximenes to be air1 was said by ,xenophanes to be ,god4 ,the important point here is that ,xenophanes has not given the ,greeks a spiritualistic conception of ,god2 but that he has positively stated that the substance of the universe is an object of religious devotion4 ,he calls the cosmic substance ,god instead of calling it water1 ,apeiron1 or air4 ,it is a material thing1 and yet it is an object of reverence4 ,he ascribes to this ,god a spherical form1 and yet also mental power of omniscience4 ,god is 8one and all0 1 and yet he is 8one god1 the greatest among gods and men1 neither in form and thought like unto mortals40 ,the positive conception of ,god hangs confused in the mind of ,xenophanes4 ,he is scarcely a monotheist1 nor yet a pantheist4 ,he is a hylozoist1 who conceives the underlying cosmic substance to be an object of religious reverence4 #b4 ,the single cosmic substance below the changes of nature is unchangeable4 ,to the ,milesians the more moving is matter1 the more alive is it4 ,life and activity are the same thing4 ,to ,xenophanes this is not the case1 but1 on the contrary1 the opposite is true4 ,he conceives ,god to be a definite sphere that is unchangeable and homogeneous4 ,the material substance1 ,god1 always remains the same4 8,he has no need of going about1 now hither1 now thither1 in order to carry out his wishes2 but he governs all men without toil40 ,xenophanes thus becomes the forerunner of the ,eleatic school4 #c4 ,heracleitus1 8the ,misanthropist0 and 8the ,obscure0 7about #efc-dgj ,b4 ,c474 ,heracleitus was a native of ,ephesus1 belonged to the aristocracy1 and suffered at the hands of the democracy4 ,he wrote a treatise that was difficult to understand even by the ancients1 some fragments of which are preserved4 ,he was called the 8weeping philosopher0 because of his misanthropy1 and also the 8dark philosopher0 because of the obscurity of his writings4 ,he was a theorist rather than a physicist1 and his doctrines foreshadow our modern physical theories4 ,his name is coupled with that of ,parmenides in the deep impression he made upon ,greek thought4 ,from his complacent and gloomy retirement he looked forth upon the world around him with profound contempt1 as did the ,stoics after him4 a4 ,heracleitus' ,doctrine of ,absolute and ,universal ,change4 ,the wonder which the ,ionians felt1 that nature phenomena change into one another1 found its liveliest expression in ,heracleitus4 ,he not only found that mutability was the primal aspect of nature phenomena1 but he also pointed out that human experiences also had their rapid and complete transitions4 ,especially was he fond of citing the changes of opposites into each other4 ,but what shows his development over the early ,milesian doctrine was his isolation of the aspect of change from the ,milesian conception of the cosmic matter1 thereby affirming that abiding permanence is an illusion4 ,it is one thing to affirm that reality is essentially change2 it is another to universalize change by affirming that the permanent has no existence4 ,the ,milesian doctrine was too nave to go as far as that4 ,heracleitus piles up figures of speech to show that there is no permanence whatever4 ,all existing things are only 8becoming0-things1 passing-away things4 ,being is always becoming1 about-to-be4 ,the only unchanging thing is change4 8,you cannot step into the same rivers1 for fresh waters are ever flowing in upon you40 8,god is day and night1 winter and summer1 war and peace1 satiety and hunger40 8,all things flow0 7 74 ,what abides and deserves the name of ,deity is not thing1 but motion,becoming4 b4 ,fire is the ,cosmic ,substance4 ,here we come to a difficulty in explaining the doctrine of ,heracleitus because of the confusion in his own mind4 ,he evidently goes a long way toward conceiving the cosmic substance as an abstractionas the process of change4 ,but he could not be wholly abstract4 ,he stops and tells us that the cosmic substance is fire1 and he probably means by fire just the same sort of thing as ,anaximenes meant by air4 ,fire is the cosmic substance4 ,it is the essence of all material things because it is the most mobile4 ,but1 after all1 the fire of which ,heracleitus is thinking is not a localized thing1 like the fire on the hearth4 ,for the hearth fire in a sense is ever identical with itself4 ,the fire which ,heracleitus means is ever darting1 ever transforming material4 ,to sum up3 ,heracleitus does not mean by fire an abstraction like the law of change2 he does not mean1 on the other hand1 a material ever remaining like itself3 he does mean a material1 but a transforming material4 c4 ,the ,definite ,changes of ,fire4 ,heracleitus makes some acute observations about the characteristics of the changing fire4 ,the ,milesians had been content to observe atmospheric changes and to name condensation and rarefaction as the forms of cosmic change4 ,heracleitus goes farther and emphasizes definite relations of change4 ,the succession of changes always remains the same4 ,their definite relation is the only permanence in the world1 and ,heracleitus' conception foreshadows the modern conception of the uniformity of the law of nature4 ,the changes are 7#a7 fateful1 7#b7 rational1 and 7#c7 just4 ,they show that the world is a destiny1 a reason1 and a justice4 ,this identification of ethical and logical qualities with the physical betrays the undeveloped condition of the thought of ,heracleitus4 ,in general1 there are two characteristics to be noted with reference to ,heracleitus' conception of a definite succession of changes3 7#a7 the changes are always a harmony of opposites2 7#b7 and the changes are in a closed circuit4 ,the process of change is not a flow in one direction like a river over its bed1 but it is a movement in two opposite directions4 ,by change ,heracleitus means not only a passing into something else but a passing into the opposite4 ,everything is the union of opposites1 and everything is the transition point of opposites about to separate4 ,the flux of things is thus poetically conceived as a war of things1 and this war is 8the father of all things40 ,this unity of opposites has an equilibrium that illudes us into thinking it is permanent4 ,the universe is an invisible harmony1 divided into itself and again united4 ,investigate life and there are antitheses everywhere4 ,war is life4 ,the second general characteristic of the succession of changes is their closed circuit4 ,fire changes into all things1 and all things are changing back into fire4 ,these two movements are called the 8,upward ,way0 and the 8,downward ,way40 ,downward1 fire changes through air and water into earth4 ,upward1 earth changes back to water1 air1 and fire4 ,with every change1 there is counter-change1 action is accompanied by a reaction4 8,men do not know how that which is drawn in opposite directions harmonizes with itself4 ,the harmonious structure of the world depends upon opposite tension1 like that of the bow and the lyre40 d4 ,the ,practical ,philosophy of ,heracleitus4 ,heracleitus was more of a metaphysician than a physicist1 and his chief concern was in the formation and the practical application of his theory of change4 ,he looked upon man as a bit of cosmic fire struck off and imprisoned in a body of earth1 water1 and air4 ,after death this fiery soul is released and absorbed in the cosmic fire4 ,in his present state man has a divided existence3 the life of the soul1 or the fire of the reason2 and the life of the senses of the imprisoning body4 ,the reason retires from the illusions of sense1 and sees in its aristocratic isolation how illusory the sensations are4 ,for the senses tell us that their objects are permanent1 while the reason sees through this deception to the changingness of the world4 ,thus the beginning is made by ,heracleitus in distinguishing the reflections of the reason from sensations4 ,truth is for the first time systematically set over against opinion4 ,the reasonable ,wise ,man resigns himself to whatever happens because he knows that it is fateful1 wise1 and just4 ,the ,wise ,man recognizes that all is change1 and he is happy because he sees providence in the vicissitudes of his own life4 ,thus in the aristocratic hate1 which ,heracleitus holds against democracies1 he makes conformity to law the only way to happiness4 ,the reason of ,wise ,men1 and not the senses of the multitude1 must be the true guide of society4 ,heracleitus was a profound observer and theorist4 ,his physical theory foreshadowed the modern theories of natural law and of relativity2 his practical theories reappear in the psychology of ,protagoras and the ethics of the ,stoics4 #d4 ,the ,eleatic ,school4 ,the town of ,elea to which ,xenophanes came in the course of his wanderings had been recently settled by the ,ionian refugees from ,phoca1 a great maritime city in ,asia ,minor1 which had been conquered by the ,persians 7#edc ,b4 ,c474 ,elea is now ,castellamare on the west coast of ,italy4 ,it is celebrated as the birthplace of ,parmenides and ,zeno1 who founded the so-called ,eleatic school4 a4 ,parmenides 7b4 #eae ,b4 ,c474 ,parmenides wrote about #dgj ,b4 ,c4 ,he is represented as a serious and influential man1 with a high moral character4 ,he exercised strong influence upon such philosophers as ,plato and ,democritus1 and was a political power in the city of ,elea1 of which he was a native4 ,he was not a stranger to the ,pythagoreans4 ,the large fragment of his poem is the most ancient monument extant of metaphysical speculation among the ,greeks4 ,parmenides takes the doctrine of ,xenophanes with great seriousness1 and what ,xenophanes says about the ,godhead1 ,parmenides says about all things4 ,xenophanes' religious weapon of an unchanging cosmic substance becomes in the hands of ,parmenides an academic doctrine of science and the basis of logical controversy4 ,parmenides used the conception of ,xenophanes in his great didactic poem1 ,the ,way of ,truth and the ,way of ,opinion1 with the evident purpose of refuting the theory of ,heracleitus4 ,the fragment of the poem reveals the driest abstractions dressed in rich poetry4 ,as a thinker ,parmenides is the most important in this period4 ,zeno was the friend and pupil of ,parmenides4 7#a7 ,the ,cosmic ,substance is ,being4 ,the first assumption in the ,milesian doctrinethat there is a single matter that ever remains identical with itselfwas so self-evident to ,parmenides that he does not attempt to prove it4 ,he assumes it1 as if it were cogent to everybody4 ,however1 he explains what he means by ,being in a negative statement3 ,not-,being1 or what is not1 cannot be thought4 ,being and thought are so correlated that they are the same4 ,thinking always has ,being as its content1 and there is no ,being that is not thought4 ,being ,thought4 ,this explanation of ,parmenides' identification of thought and ,being may be put in this logical form3 ,all thinking refers to something thought1 and therefore has ,being for its content2 ,thinking that refers to nothing1 and is therefore contentless1 cannot be2 ,therefore1 not-,being cannot be thought1 much less can it be4 ,these propositions look very abstract1 and make us believe that we are to plunge immediately into a kind of ,german idealism4 ,but ,parmenides leaves us in no doubt that he is one of the hylozoists of his time4 ,being is indeed thought1 but ,being is also matter4 ,we may therefore amend our equation to ,being ,thought ,matter4 ,being is what fills space1 and all ,being has this and only this property4 ,all ,being is therefore exactly alike1 and there is only one1 single ,being4 ,there are no distinctions in ,being4 ,by not-,being ,parmenides means empty space or that which is not material4 ,so that ,parmenides' assumption of ,being as the cosmic substance means this3 all that exists1 including thought1 fills space2 and all that does not exist does not fill space4 ,being1 the cosmic substance1 is one1 eternal1 imperishable1 homogeneous1 unchangeable1 and material4 ,when men see the world as it really is1 when they see its cosmic substance1 they see it to be one continuous material block4 ,the world is not made up of parts with intervals of nothing between them1 but it is a solid1 homogeneous whole4 ,the cosmic ,being is a timeless1 spaceless ,being with no distinctions4 ,the form of ,being is spherical4 ,it is cosmic-body and cosmic-thought4 ,this is the assumption of ,parmenides1 which is so self-evident and so cogent to him that he does not attempt to prove but only to explain it4 7#b7 ,other ,things than the ,cosmic ,substance 7,being7 have no ,real ,existence4 ,if ,being is space that is filled1 not-,being is empty space4 ,however1 empty space has no existence4 ,but the existence of a plural number of things depends upon the existence of empty spaces between them4 ,furthermore1 the motion of things and the change of things depend upon the existence of empty spaces in which they can move and change4 ,since empty space is not-,being and has no existence1 the plurality of things and the motion and change of things have also no existence4 ,they are illusions4 ,the nature-world1 with its richness of qualities and variety of motions1 before the logic of ,parmenides 8folds up its tents like the ,arabs and silently steals away40 ,this logical drawing out of one of the aspects of the ,milesian conception of the cosmic matter has a curious result4 ,the ,milesians and ,xenophanes sought to explain by the cosmic substance the many nature changes4 ,but when in the hands of ,parmenides the cosmic substance is all of reality1 then there is no reality to the changes4 ,consequently the concept formed for the explanation of change has so developed as to deny the existence of change4 ,the cosmic substance excludes all origination and decay1 all space and time differences1 all divisibility1 diversity1 and movement4 ,there is only one real1 all else is illusion4 ,but what can we say of the varied world of nature as it appears to us8 ,do we see1 hear1 and touch many things and motions8 ,in ,part ,,ii of his poem he raises the question1 ,suppose man takes the world of change as real how must he explain it8 ,he answers by using the explanation of ,heracleitus4 ,but these changes of eye and ear belong to the world of sense1 and ,parmenides is talking1 in ,part ,i of his poem1 about the real world or that world known to thought4 ,parmenides insists as strongly as did ,heracleitus that the reason and not the sense shall be our guide to what is real4 ,yet he arrives at exactly the opposite conclusion from ,heracleitus as to what the reason sees as real4 ,the senses show us only the many and the changing4 ,the reason shows us nothing of the sort1 but only permanence and unchangingness4 b4 ,zeno 7b4 #dij-dcj ,b4 ,c474 ,zeno was born in ,elea4 ,he was contemporary with those who tried to reconcile the two sides of the metaphysical controversy1,empedocles1 ,anaxagoras1 and the ,atomists4 ,he wrote in prose in the form of question and answer4 ,this is the beginning of the dialogue literature1 which in the time of the ,sophists1 ,socrates and ,plato1 was richly developed and became known as dialectic4 ,on the ,greek stage during the time of ,pericles it came forth in dramatic form through schylus1 ,sophocles1 and ,euripides4 ,the ,philosophy of ,zeno4 ,zeno was the active controversialist of the school of ,elea1 and he was not a constructive philosopher4 ,he offered no contribution to advance the thought of ,parmenides4 ,he appeared rather as the master of logical argument in defense of his predecessor1 by tearing to pieces the arguments of his opponents4 ,the opponents that ,zeno is attacking are the ,atomists of ,abdera1 who were his contemporaries1 rather than ,heracleitus4 ,his contribution was negative and formal1 but it was nevertheless effective and searching4 ,his arguments and paradoxes will1 however1 lose their cogency unless it be kept in mind that he is trying to show how absurd magnitude1 multiplicity1 and change would be in discontinuous space such as the ,atomists describe4 ,while his paradoxes have been attacked again and again1 they still have effectiveness against atomic theories4 ,his arguments are against magnitude1 multiplicity1 and motion4 ,there can be no magnitude1 because a thing would then be both infinitely small and infinitely great4 ,there can be no multiplicity of things1 since they would be both limited and unlimited in number4 ,there can be no motion1 because 7#a7 it is impossible to go through a fixed space2 7#b7 it is impossible to go though a space that has movable limits2 and 7#c7 because of the relativity of motion4 ,the dilemmas which he proposed of ,achilles and the tortoise1 the flying arrow at rest1 and the bushel of corn are classic4#aj ,the ,results of the ,conflict between ,heracleitus and ,parmenides4 #a4 ,one important result of this final conflict between the inconsistent motives in the ,milesian teaching was that reason was contrasted with sense1 reflection with experience4 ,the more fully the philosophers developed their doctrines1 the more their doctrines became contrasted with the opinions of unreflecting people4 ,at first the contrast appeared in this nave form3 that what they thought was right1 and what others thought must be wrong1 if others differed from them4 ,then the contrast came in this form3 that reflection gives the true and sensations the false4 ,thus reflection came to have such conclusiveness that it gained independence4 ,the philosopher began to feel the supremacy of reason1 to assert that he has truth1 to call unreasoned belief by the opprobrious name of 8opinion40 ,this is curiously illustrated in the case of ,heracleitus and ,parmenides4 ,their opposing conceptions of the cosmic substance are claimed to be the result of reason1 while each calls the other's theory 8opinion40 #b4 ,another result was that in the ,greek thought the monistic theory was found to be useless in the study of nature4 ,these early monistic views led up as necessary steps to pluralism1 but they were not in themselves serviceable4 ,the imperfection in the ,milesian teaching appeared in the impassable gulf between ,heracleitus and ,parmenides4 ,it now remained for the last ,cosmologists to see if1 on the basis of pluralism1 they could not reconcile the preceding views and at the same time obtain a satisfactory metaphysics of nature4 #c4 ,the third result of the controversy between the ,eleatics and ,heracleitus was that the peril from the ,orphic ,mysteries was averted1not immediately1 nor in a year's time1 but after many years4 ,philosophy became established4 ,the ,greek reason now had an object of interest1 in a sharp scientific issue4 ,mystery was not crushed1 but subdued4 ,the mental life of the future ,greek had a topic for its reflection which supplanted1 when the time came1 its emotional interest in the supernatural4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,pluralism ,efforts toward ,reconciliation4 ,the theories of ,heracleitus and ,parmenides were in part fantastic and in part abstract4 ,they were the two motives of the ,milesian school that had been developed so far as to reveal their inherent inconsistencies4 ,physical theories now began to spring up which modified the metaphysical theories2 and these produced results which while not so logical1 were less distant from the facts of life4 ,the ,eleatics had so conceived ,being as to deny the existence of changing phenomena perceived in the world of nature4 ,on the other hand1 ,heracleitus had so emphasized the universality of change that there was little reality left in the particular changes4 ,the later ,heracleitans were ,heracleitus gone mad4 8,we not only cannot step into the same river twice1 but we cannot do it once40 ,all the preceding philosophers had been monists4 ,the time had therefore come for thinkers to abandon monism if thought were to have any usefulness4 ,monism1 whether in the form of ,heracleitus' doctrine of universal change or of ,parmenides' doctrine of universal permanence1 had merely set aside the problem about the ,many4 ,of course1 a more satisfactory solution of this problem could come only when human life had become riper and had more experiences upon which to draw4 ,it was natural for the ,greek philosopher to look now to pluralism for his solution1 when he turned away from monism4 ,at the outset pluralism tried to reconcile the two extremes to which the ,milesian motifs had gone4 ,its later development in the doctrine of ,protagoras was as extreme as that of the monists4 ,the ,new ,conception of ,change of the ,pluralists4 ,facing the fact that change has to be explained and cannot be denied1 change is conceived by the pluralists to be not a transformation but a transposition4 ,it is an alteration in position of the parts of a mass4 ,birth1 growth1 death1 are only such changes of transposition4 ,empedocles1 to whom the origin of the doctrine is attributed1 says1 8,there is no coming into ,being of aught that perishes1 nor any end for it in baneful death1 but only a mingling and a separation of what has been mingled4 ,just as when painters are elaborating temple offerings1they1 when they have taken the pigments of many colors in their hands1 mix them in a harmony1so let not the error prevail in thy mind that there is any other source of all the perishable creatures that appear in countless numbers40 ,all origination1 then1 is a new combination1 and every destruction only a separation of the original parts4 ,the ,pluralists thus make ,heracleitus' conception useful in the explanation of nature4 ,the ,new ,conception of the ,unchanging of the ,pluralists,the ,element4 ,but there must be a permanence in order that there be change4 ,this can only be conceived by assuming that there are many original units that in themselves do not change4 ,the mass of the world is ever the same2 there is no new creation4 ,being consists in many elements1 and not in a single block4 ,so to ,empedocles in particular is accredited the priority of forming the conception of the element1 which has occupied an important place in science4 ,the element is conceived by the ,pluralists as unoriginated1 imperishable1 and unchanging4 ,it has all the qualities that ,parmenides attributed to his single ,being1 only the elements may change their place and suffer mechanical division4 ,the ,pluralists thus make the ,eleatic conception useful in the explanation of nature4 ,the ,introduction of the ,conception of the ,efficient ,cause4 ,the ,eleatics had detached the quality of motion from ,being4 ,the ,pluralists1 in reintroducing it1 were obliged to make it a separate force in order to get movement into their universe4 ,the elements are changeless4 ,how can they move8 ,they cannot move themselves4 ,they are moved from without4 ,here in ,empedocles is made a differentiation of great importancethe concept of the moving or efficient cause4 ,however1 this does not appear in this early time in conceptual but in mythical-poetic and undefined form4 ,with this differentiated efficient cause1 can ,pluralism be considered to be hylozoism8 ,authorities differ4 ,certainly this new concept shows the beginning of the breaking up of hylozoism and the beginning of the formation of a mechanistic conception of the universe4 ,but probably the ,pluralists were as much hylozoists as their predecessors1 the monists4 ,their efficient causes are material like the elements1 and they are poetically and indefinitely described4 ,they are in every case conceived as the material which has a lively or an originating motion4 ,we must keep in mind that all the ,cosmologists except the ,eleatics believed movement to be life4 ,summary of ,similarities and ,differences in the ,theories of the ,reconcilers4 ,the general common characteristics of the theories of the ,reconcilers3 #a4 ,a plurality of the elements4 #b4 ,an efficient cause which explains the shifting of the elements in causing the origin1 growth1 and decay of the world of nature4 ,the general differences between the theories of the ,reconcilers3 #a4 ,in the number and quality of the elements4 #b4 ,in the number and quality of the causes4 ,the ,pluralistic ,philosophers3 ,empedocles1 ,anaxagoras1 ,leucippus1 and the ,later ,pythagoreans4 ,with the ,pluralists we pass completely out of the sixth century ,b4 ,c4 ,the lives of the hylozoistic ,pluralists span the fifth century1 and cosmological interest extends later4 ,even the ,eleatic ,zeno lived from #dij to #dcj ,b4 ,c4 ,empedocles lived from #dij to #dcj ,b4 ,c41 ,anaxagoras from #ejj to #dbe ,b4 ,c41 and the ,pythagoreans and ,leucippus later4 ,when the cosmological movement was still virile in the ,grecian colonies1 and even before it had reached its systematic form in ,democritus of ,abdera1 the anthropological movement had begun in the motherland1 in ,athens4 ,the ,persian ,wars are the dividing line between the two periods1 but only because they denote the beginning of the new movement in ,athens1 not the end of the old movement in ,asia ,minor and ,magna ,grcia4 ,contemporaneous with the ,pluralists was the brilliant ,age of ,pericles1 when the ,sophists were carrying education to the people and ,socrates was teaching in the ,athenian market-place4 ,by the middle of the fifth century ,b4 ,c4 there was the liveliest interchange of scientific ideas throughout ,greek society1 and the contemporaneousness of the ,pluralists with one another and with the ,athenian philosophers shows this in many similarities in their doctrines and in many polemical references4 ,there are four schools of ,reconcilers1 of which ,empedocles1 ,anaxagoras1 ,leucippus1 and the later ,pythagoreans are the representatives4 ,empedocles#aa 7#dij to #dcj ,b4 ,c47 was the first ,dorian philosopher1 a partisan of the democracy1 and belonged to a rich family of ,agrigentum4 ,he became a distinguished statesman1 but he later fell from popular favor4 ,then1 in the garb of a magician1 he traveled as physician and priest through ,magna ,grcia4 ,his political affiliations would prevent his direct connection with the ,pythagoreans1 but he showed that the ,pythagoreans influenced him1 and his career is an imitation of that of ,pythagoras4 ,he was acquainted with the theory of ,heracleitus1 and he knew ,parmenides personally4 ,he was one of the first rhetoricians1 and was probably connected with a large literary circle4 ,he is the first and most imperfect representative of the reconciliation4 ,the story of his suicide by leaping into ,mt4 tna is supposed to be a myth4 ,anaxagoras 7#ejj-dbe ,b4 ,c471 a man of wealthy antecedents1 was much esteemed1 was born in ,clazomen in a circle rich in ,ionian culture1 but was isolated from practical life4 ,he declared the heaven to be his fatherland and the study of the heavenly bodies to be his life's task4 ,he went to ,athens about #dej ,b4 ,c41 where he formed one of a circle of notable men of culture4 ,he lived in ,athens under the patronage of ,pericles1 but in #dcd ,b4 ,c4 he was expelled4 ,in ,athens he was intimate with such men as ,euripides1 ,thucydides1 and ,protagoras4 ,he represents the first appearance of philosophy in ,athens4 ,the life of ,leucippus is almost unknown4 ,he was probably born in ,miletus1 visited ,elea1 and settled in ,abdera4 ,the ,later ,pythagoreans4 ,after the ,pythagoreans as a religious and political body had been defeated at ,crotona1 they lost their prestige and were scattered to the four winds4 ,they were beaten in the battle of ,crotona 7#eaj ,b4 ,c47 and dispersed about #dej ,b4 ,c4 ,pythagoras died #ejd ,b4 ,c4 ,his scattered followers1 these later ,pythagoreans1 formed a school of philosophy which had its centre at ,thebes4 ,destroyed as a religious body the members lost their superstitions and turned their attention to philosophy1 astronomy1 mathematics1 medicine1 and physics4 ,as mathematicians and as astronomers they are the most notable among the ancients4 ,philolaus is the probable originator of their philosophy of numbers4 ,this school disappeared about #cej ,b4 ,c4 ,pythagoreanism reappeared later under the name of neo-,pythagoreanism4 ,the ,philosophy of ,empedocles4 ,empedocles conceived the number of elements to be four1earth1 air1 fire1 and water1an arbitrary enumeration1 which nevertheless persisted in the popular imagination throughout the ,middle ,ages4 ,he chose this number of elements because they included all the elements in his predecessors' theories4 ,by the transposition and new arrangement of these elements he could account for the variety of the world4 ,the efficient causes that make these different separations and mixtures are ,love and ,hate1 two mythical and sensuous entities4 ,love is the cause of the union of things1 ,hate of their separation4 ,this is the general metaphysical theory that ,empedocles uses to explain the physical world and especially physiological phenomena2 and he is probably best known as the author of the aphorism1 8,like attracts ,like40 ,for example1 he conceives the physical world as continuously repeating itself through four cosmic stages1 each centuries long4 ,the world moves therefore in cyclical evolution1 in which ,love is bringing like elements together only to be followed by stages of the separation of the like elements by ,hate1an endless cosmic procession4 ,but ,empedocles' interest in cosmology was only a part of his dominating interest in the organic world4 ,he held some interesting evolution theories4 ,his special interest in human physiology led him to frame the first theory of perception4 ,man is composed of the four elements1 and he can know the universe around himself because ,like in him attracts ,like in the external world4 ,the earth forms our solid parts1 water the liquid parts1 air is the vital breath1 and fire is the soul4 ,the blood contains the four elements1 and is therefore the real carrier of life4 ,if we perceive anything1 it is because we have qualities similar to that thing4 ,the element in us attracts the like element outside4 ,he fancifully explained how parts of each element pressed upon parts of like elementsearth upon earth1 air upon air2 and how these clung together until sundered by ,hate4 ,the senses have only a partial number of elements1 while the reason has them all2 therefore sense knowledge is partial when compared with rational knowledge4 ,the ,philosophy of ,anaxagoras4 ,the pluralistic conception of the nature-substance1 that was originated by ,empedocles in this crude form1 got a more complete character in the hands of ,anaxagoras4 ,for ,anaxagoras took exception to the arbitrary assumption of ,empedocles that the elements were only four in number4 ,how could this world of infinite variety be derived from only four elements8 ,we must postulate as many elements as there are qualities1 if by merely shuffling themby various combinings and separatings of themtheir infinite number is to be explained4 ,there are a plural number of elements qualitatively distinct4 ,every perceptual thing is composed of these heterogeneous parts or qualities or elements4 ,but how do you know an element when you find one8 ,always by the fact that when you divide it1 its parts are homogeneous4 ,the elements are1 therefore1 those substances that divide into parts that are like one another2 while the perceptual objects of nature can be divided into parts that are unlike one another4 ,they are called 8seeds0 by ,anaxagoras1 and designated as 8homoiomeriai0 by ,aristotle and later philosophy4 ,this was a time1 it must be remembered1 when chemical analysis had not developed1 and when mechanical division and change of temperature were the only means of investigation4 ,form1 color1 and taste were the characteristics that differentiated elements4 ,so ,anaxagoras was content to name as elements such things as bones1 muscles1 flesh1 marrow1 metals1 etc4 ,the countless elements or qualities are present in a finely divided state throughout the universe4 ,every perceptual object has present in it all elements1 even opposite elements4 ,it is1 however1 known and named by the element that prevails in it at any particular instant4 ,for example1 fire contains an element of cold but the fire element prevails4 ,opposites attract1 and the qualitative change in a thing consists in the predominance of some other quality already present in it4 ,for the efficient cause of the combining and separating of the elements ,anaxagoras selected one of the elements4 ,he called it the ,nous1 the ,greek word for mind or reason4 ,many historians have therefore concluded that ,anaxagoras is the author of an idealistic philosophy4 ,aristotle says of ,anaxagoras that he 8stood out like a sober man among the random talkers that had preceded him40 ,but both ,plato#ab and ,aristotle are disappointed with the way in which ,anaxagoras handles the conception of ,nous and1 as a matter of fact1 the ,nous1 as ,anaxagoras uses it1 is not less hylozoistic than the ,love and ,hate of ,empedocles4 ,in the ,nous ,anaxagoras threw out a thought that was too big for him4 ,its introduction1 however1 marks the breaking up of pre-,socratic hylozoism4 ,anaxagoras wrote down the word1 ,nous1 from which comes the contrast with matter4 ,he stripped the mythical dress from the efficient cause of ,empedocles and substituted ,nous1 because he wished to emphasize the unity of the cosmic process4 ,the ,nous is one of the elements2 it is 8thought-stuff10 it is a corporeal substance4 ,it differs from all the other elements in that it is the finest1 the most mobile1 and has the power of self-motion4 ,if among the early schools motion is life1 here we find the new conception of self-motion as most alive4 ,instead of a departure from hylozoism1 this is a rehabilitation of hylozoism in more perfect form4 ,the ,nous is the cause of the harmony and order of the cosmos4 ,the ,philosophy of the ,atomists,leucippus and the ,school at ,abdera4 ,only circumstantial evidence is left to testify to the early beginnings of the school of atomists at ,abdera4 ,about #dej ,b4 ,c41 owing to the rise of ,athens and the great victory of ,cimon over the ,persians1 the ,ionian civilization on the coasts of ,asia ,minor had a new lease of life1 and there was a renewal of scientific activity in the cities4 ,the influence of the ,milesians appeared and ,anaxagoras' doctrine1 which had been widely disseminated1 began to have great vigor4 ,among the philosophers of this section was one about whom we know very little1 except that his name was ,leucippus and that he was the father of atomism4 ,miletus was probably his native place1 and after visiting ,elea he settled in ,abdera in ,thrace4 ,we know that the polemic of ,zeno was directed against contemporary atomism2 and we know the theories of the pupils of ,leucippus1 of ,protagoras1 and of ,democritus1 in whom the doctrine of atomism culminated4 ,probably the theory of ,leucippus was that the cosmic substance is composed of an infinite number of elements quantitatively distinct1 in opposition to ,empedocles' theory of a fourfold division as well as against ,anaxagoras' theory of an infinite number of qualities4 ,atomism in this early form represents one of the ways that ,greek thought took in reconciling the conflicting claims of ,heracleitus and ,parmenides4 ,the doctrine of atomism will be presented fully in its greatest representative1 ,democritus4 ,the ,later ,pythagoreans4 ,had the ,pythagorean band remained what ,pythagoras had designed it1 had it not had its political aspirations crushed at the battle of ,crotona and the members scattered far and wide1 it would probably have for the historian of to-day only the importance of a local band of political and religious reformers4 ,the adversity at ,crotona was1 however1 a blessing in disguise for the ,pythagoreans and for ,greece1 for it turned the ,pythagoreans from religious politics to science and metaphysics4 ,in the first place1 they became the authors of an important metaphysical theory4 ,this was the theory of numbers1 which influenced ,plato1 became the foundation of a vigorous school in ,alexandria in the ,hellenic-,roman ,period1 flourished during the ,middle ,ages1 and united with the doctrines of the ,jews in what is called the ,cabala4 ,to-day the magic numbers persist in our superstitions4 ,in the second place1 the ,pythagoreans turned to science1especially to mathematics and astronomy1and in these two branches became very celebrated in ancient times4 ,their astronomical theory had a most extraordinary history4 ,with modifications it was preserved by ,plato and ,aristotle1 and later became the basis of the ,ptolemaic system of astronomy4 ,this system was the scientifically accepted system for fifteen hundred years1 when it was supplanted by the ,newtonian theory4 ,it is a most singular fact that the cosmological background of the ,epics of ,dante and ,milton is the astronomical system of the ,pythagoreans as expressed in the ,ptolemaic system4 ,the ,pythagoreans1 be it remarked1 were 8,reconcilers10 but they were more4 ,the original ethical motive of ,pythagoras influenced them as scientists4 ,they did not attempt to formulate a science of ethics1 but the ethical motive was always back of their mathematics and astronomy4 #a4 ,the ,pythagorean ,conception of ,being4 ,the ,pythagorean conception of reality is the most advanced of any cosmological theory in this period4 ,the ,pythagoreans were hylozoists1 but they come the nearest to transcending the hylozoism of their time4 ,the influence of the later ,pythagoreans1 whom ,plato met in ,italy1 upon ,plato shows that ,pythagorean philosophy forms a link between the cosmology of the colonies and the following comprehensive systems of thought4 ,the important position in the evolution of ,greek thought occupied by the ,pythagoreans depends upon their conception of that ,being that abides amid all change4 ,pythagoreanism is usually spoken of as 8the number theory40 ,this is1 however1 only a suggestion of its import4 ,for numbers are not to the ,pythagoreans what the different kinds of cosmic matter were to the early monists1 or what the several elements were to the pluralists1,empedocles1 ,anaxagoras1 and the atomists4 ,neither are they abstractions merely1 such as we use in scientific reckoning4 ,the ,pythagoreans were pluralists and hylozoists whose plural numbers look beyond hylozoism4 ,there are two kinds of reality in the ,pythagorean teaching3 7#a7 numbers1 and 7#b7 unlimited space4 ,the essential nature of things1 the ,being that abides1 consists in the shaping of this unlimited space into mathematical forms4 ,the numbers or the forms are the limited aspect of ,being2 space is the unlimited aspect of ,being4 ,actual ,being consists in the union of the two aspects4 ,being therefore has two roots1 each being necessary to the other4 ,the later ,pythagoreans1 indeed1 called attention to the fact that their numbers were not the same as the different kinds of matter out of which the other ,cosmologists conceived the world to be fashioned4 ,numbers are not the stuff out of which the world of nature-objects have arisen1 but rather are forms of nature-objects4 ,numbers are the patterns or models of things2 things are the copies or imitations of numbers4 ,unlimited space furnishes the material2 numbers or mathematical forms furnish the mould2 the result is a material thing4 ,here we find the early basis of ,plato's doctrine of ,ideas1 and the correlation in ,aristotle of ,form and matter4 ,if we were to draw an analogy between the ,pythagorean conception of numbers and any part of the preceding cosmological teaching1 we should find the similarity between the numbers and the earlier efficient causes and not between the numbers and the elements4 ,for example1 ,pythagorean numbers have a function more nearly like ,love and ,hate than like the four elements in ,empedocles' teaching4 ,on the other hand1 ,pythagorean unlimited space is analogous to the ,empedoclean elements4 #b4 ,the ,pythagorean ,dualistic ,world4#ac ,the ,pythagoreans carried out their conception of this twofold reality both in their mathematical studies and in their conceptions of natural objects4 ,it was from such investigations that they were impressed by the dualism in everything and so reached their principle4 ,they observed in mathematics that the number-series consists of alternate odd and even numbers4 ,the odd numbers are limited and the even unlimited 7because they could be divided74 ,they explained the elements as determined by mathematical forms3 fire has the form of a tetrahedron2 earth1 of the cube2 air1 of the octohedron2 water1 of the icosahedron2 and an additional fifth element1 the ther1 of the dodecahedron4 ,they carried this dualism further by identifying the limited form with the odd1 with the perfect1 and with the good2 while the unlimited was identified with the even1 the imperfect1 and the bad4 ,some of the ,pythagoreans even sought to trace out this dualism in the many realms of experience1 and they originated a table of ten pairs of opposites3 limited and unlimited2 odd and even2 one and many2 right and left2 male and female2 rest and motion2 straight and crooked2 light and dark2 good and bad2 square and oblong4 ,there is a system in the ,pythagorean theory not to be found in the teaching of the other reconcilers4 ,although all the numbers1 and with them all the world1 are divided into two opposing classes1 these are1 nevertheless1 united in a harmony4 ,the harmony of a dualism reminds us of ,heracleitus' harmony of antitheses4 ,all series of numbers have their unity and harmony in the odd-even number1 ,one4 ,to the ,pythagorean the opposites of lifethe good and the bad1 the limited and unlimited1 the perfect and imperfect1 the odd and evenexist in an harmonious whole4 ,as the ,pythagorean school grew in years1 the realms to which it applied its theory increased4 ,while we have stated its metaphysical theory first in order to give it prominence1 the school came to the formulation of its theory through its investigations in mathematics1 music1 and astronomy4 ,then it applied the theory to geometrical structures and to other fields with a procedure that was arbitrary and unmethodical4 ,yet so universal was the application of the theory that it lived to have superstitious authority for the human mind in the ,middle ,ages4 #c4 ,pythagorean ,astronomy4 ,the formation of the world-all began from the ,one1 or central fire1 which attracted and limited the nearest portions of the unlimited4 ,this fire became the centre of the world-all1 which had the shape of a hollow globe4 ,around the central fire the celestial bodies move in globular transparent shells4 ,their movements are concentric to the fire4 ,this is the beginning of the astronomical theory of the crystalline spheres4 ,the world-all is divided into three concentric portions4 ,the periphery or outer rim is ,olympus1 where all is perfection and where the gods dwell4 ,between ,olympus and the moon is ,cosmos1 where all is orderly and all movements are in circles4 ,between the moon and the central fire is the region called ,uranus1 where all is disorderly and the movements are up and down4 ,the earth is in this lower section of disorder1 and moves in a transparent globular shell like the celestial bodies around the central fire4 ,the number of the heavenly bodies is the perfect number1 ten4 ,the world-all is conceived as a heavenly heptachord1 with the orbits of the seven planets as the sounding strings4 ,upon this notion was founded the harmony of the spheres1 which harmony is not heard by man because it is constant4 ,in modifying this astronomical theory and then accepting it1 the most important change that ,aristotle made was to conceive the earth as at the centre of the world-all with the sun revolving about it4 ,this was the form in which the ,ptolemaic astronomers received it4 ,historical ,retrospect4 ,in these many searchings of the ,cosmologists for a reality amid the changes of nature1 what result can be found significant for the ,cosmological ,period and valuable as a bequest for the following periods8 ,are these crude scientific speculations of the early ,greeks to be looked upon as out of connection with their own age and the age to come8 ,the ,cosmological philosophy had two definite results4 ,in the first place1 with reference to its own century and a half1 it saved the intellectual world of ,greece from the slavery of a mystic religion4 ,when we started with ,thales in #fbe ,b4 ,c41 we saw ,greece confronted with two perils4 ,one was political1 and consisted of internecine troubles and of danger from its warlike neighbors4 ,this peril grew still greater1 until at the very end of the period it was averted at the battle of ,salamis4 ,greek arms banished this political peril4 ,but the other peril was subjective and therefore more menacing4 ,the mysteries of the ,orphic religion would have quenched the ,greek genius had not its rational philosophy given the ,greek intellectual life new conceptions4 ,in the next place1 it bequeathed to the succeeding period a fairly well-drawn contrast between a world of intellectual order and a world of sensuous disorder4 ,the thought of an order in nature in conformity to law was developed into clearness in the ,cosmological ,period4 ,the order was obtained from the astronomical studies of these scientists4 ,reasoning from the order that they saw1 to an ordering principle1 ,anaxagoras and the ,pythagoreans almost1 but not quite1 gave to that principle a teleological meaning4 ,the principle of permanence that these nature scientists sought was found in the great and simple relations of the stars1 whose revolutions are the expression of order and constancy4 ,impregnated as they were with their elemental hylozoism1 the ,greek ,cosmologists were as yet not quite able to find an orderly permanence in the terrestrial world with its manifold and intersecting motions4 ,yet ,greek thought was looking forward4 ,the ,cosmologist had already contrasted the terrestrial as the imperfect with the celestial as the perfect peace and permanence4 ,the step was but a short one from the contrast of the two realms to the effort to bring them into a unity4 ,thus in this astronomical and concrete form a distinction of value was obtained that had lasting ethical and sthetical significance1 not only upon ,plato and ,aristotle1 but upon modern thought4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,anthropological ,,period 7#dij-cii ,b4 ,c473 ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,man ,an ,historical ,summary of the ,anthropological ,period4 ,the ,anthropological ,period begins with the ,persian ,wars1 #dij and #dhj ,b4 ,c4 ,after the battle of ,marathon there sprang up a distinct impulse toward knowledge all over ,greece2 and detailed investigations were begun in mathematics1 astronomy1 biology1 medicine1 history1 and physics4 ,science1 which had up to this time been unorganized and undifferentiated1 now became sharply divided into the special sciences4 ,but what makes the ,persian ,wars of particular importance is that they are the starting-point in the motherland of the movement in the study of man and human relations4 ,the battle of ,marathon does not therefore mark the end of the ,cosmological movement and the waning of the ,greeks' interest in science2 but it marks rather the beginning in ,athens of the ,anthropological movement4 ,the ,cosmological and the ,anthropological ,periods overlap4 ,the ,anthropological ,period easily divides itself into three epochs from the point of view of its political affairs3 #a4 ,the ,persian ,wars1 #dij and #dhj ,b4 ,c4 #b4 ,the ,age of ,pericles1 #dfg-dbh ,b4 ,c4 #c4 ,the ,peloponnesian ,wars1 #dcb-djc ,b4 ,c4 ,the first epoch is the birth and the last epoch the decadence of pure ,greek civilization1 while the thirty-nine years of the supremacy of ,pericles cover the ripest period of ,greek life4 ,in this connection it is well to mention ,hegel's thought that nations do not ripen intellectually until they begin to decay politically 78,the owl of ,minerva does not start upon its flight until the evening twilight has begun to fall074 ,plato and ,aristotle do not come until after this period1 when ,greek political life had begun to wane4 ,the following table is a partial list of the notable men of the period1 with the date of their birth3 schylus1 #ebe 7dramatist before ,pericles74 ,sophocles1 #die 7dramatist during ,age of ,pericles74 ,phidias1 #dij4 ,euripides1 #dhj 7dramatist of the ,sophistic and the new learning74 ,herodotus1 #dge4 ,thucydides1 #dga4 ,xenophon1 #dcj8 ,aristophanes1 #ddd4 ,anaxagoras1 #ejj4 ,empedocles1 #die4 ,protagoras1 #dhj4 ,democritus1 #dgj4 ,sophists 7many71 #dej-cej4 ,socrates1 #dfi4 ,antisthenes1 #ddj4 ,aristippus1 #dce4 ,plato1 #dbg4 ,the ,persian ,wars and the ,rise of ,athens4 ,the blow that had been impending over ,greece during the sixth century had been struck1 but had been averted in the ,persian ,wars of #dij ,b4 ,c4 and #dhj ,b4 ,c4 ,the powerful and splendidly organized 8barbaric neighbor10 who had threatened the civilization of the ,greek cities of ,asia ,minor for so many years1 had swept over the ,hellespont into ,greece and had been turned back4 ,it has been pointed out#ad that the ,persian ,wars were only one of a series of conflicts between ,oriental and ,occidental civilizations2 and that the strip of ,asia ,minor along the ,mediterranean has always been a disputed borderland between irreconcilable hemispheres4 ,first was the mythical invasion of ,troy2 then the ,persian ,wars2 then came the arms of ,alexander conquering ,persia2 then the invasion of the ,mohammedans to the very walls of ,tours2 then the ,crusades2 and to-day we still have the eternal ,eastern question with us4 ,while each of these conflicts was momentous for ,europe1 none was more important in its issues for the world than the ,persian ,wars4 ,for through those wars did ,greece first come to a consciousness of herself4 ,never before did she realize her united strength1the greatness of her inherited instincts4 ,the fifth century ,b4 ,c4 was the most clearly conscious moment of ,greece1 if not of the world4 ,classic ,greecethe ,greece whose thought became fundamental to western civilizationwas born from the ,persian ,wars4 ,the centre of gravity of the ,greek world was shifted after the ,persian ,wars from ,miletus to ,athens1 from the colonies to the motherland4 ,indeed1 the history of classic ,greece is almost entirely the history of ,athens4 ,of the large cities of ,greece1,corinth1 gina1 ,sparta1 and ,thebes1,athens was naturally the locality where ,grecian civilization would centre when the commercial and maritime colonies fell4 ,the ,ionian race1 by whom it had been settled1 was a mixed race1 and by nature very versatile4 ,before the ,persian ,wars it had been under the wise tyranny of ,pisistratus1 who took the first steps toward the founding of an ,athenian empire4 ,in the period between the two wars1 ,themistocles had built the ,athenian fleet and thereby made ,athens the great maritime and naval centre of ,greece4 ,there was1 indeed1 every reason why ,athens and not some other ,grecian city should become the new centre of classic ,greece4 ,the ,spartans were oligarchical1 stern1 unintellectual1 and offensive to strangers2 the people of ,thebes were held under a strict aristocratic government1 the people of ,thessaly were aristocratic1 luxurious1 and stagnant2 but the ,athenians were democratic1 social to strangers1 literary1 liberal1 frugal1 and alert4 ,after the ,persian ,wars the power of the ,delian confederacy became more and more centralized in the city of ,athens4 ,controlling the fleet of the ,confederacy for her own defense and using the rich treasury of the ,confederacy for her own municipal improvements1 ,athens under the brilliant rule of ,pericles1 who summoned scholars and artists from all ,greece1 was the only city of ,greece where the ,renaissance of ,greece was possible4 ,athens had become the eye of ,greece1 and the following description of the ,greek ,renaissance is especially significant in regard to her4 ,the ,greek ,enlightenment4 ,following the ,persian ,wars there arose throughout ,greece a great national intellectual movement4 ,the years mark the ,greek ,renaissance1 the ,age of ,pericles1 and the time when the ,greek masterpieces in literature and plastic art were produced4 ,perhaps the greatest ,greek production was ,athens itself1 whose cultural influence was personified in the scholar-politician1 ,pericles4 #a4 ,the ,impulse for ,learning4 ,in the first place there was a general impulse throughout ,greece for education4 ,everybody seemed to want to know what the schools of ,cosmologists had had to say about science4 ,the ,greeks now had wealth and therefore leisure2 they had come into contact with the ,oriental peoples and therefore they had their curiosity excited4 ,learning1 which had been confined in the ,cosmological ,period to a few scholars in the schools1 now came forth into the market place4 ,learning in the fifth century ,b4 ,c4 was drawn from the schools into publicity4 ,the objects of interest had greatly widened and the learning of the scholars began to filter into the general consciousness4 ,whereas in the sixth century philosophy was a matter between learned men1 in the fifth century we find ,socrates and the ,sophists teaching whosoever would listen4 #b4 ,the ,practical ,need of ,knowledge4 ,but mere curiosity will not entirely explain the ,greek intellectual movement4 ,there had grown up an imperative practical need for knowledge4 ,in ,athens and other ,greek cities the democracy of the fifth century ,b4 ,c4 had supplanted the tyranny of the sixth century4 ,duty and inclination together forced the citizen into active participation in public affairs4 ,in these democratic cities family tradition and character were no longer sufficient for success2 but it became generally recognized that the most useful and successful man was the educated man4 ,the complex relations existing between states and between the citizens in the states made education absolutely necessary for the politician4 ,nowhere was the need of an education more imperative than in ,athens2 nowhere was the need more easily filled4 ,in a very short time after the ,persian ,wars the social position of science changed to one of power2 and the inner character of science changed from the study of nature to the study of ethical and political problems4 ,scientists became teachers of eloquence1 for the citizen now needed to be an orator and a rhetorician4 ,statesmen and generals must know how to persuade4 ,courts of law were public1 their proceeding oral1 and personal attendance was therefore required4 ,there was no man in ,athens who might not be condemned1 if he could not personally in court refute falsehoods and disentangle sophistries4 ,besides1 to be beaten in debate was as disgraceful in the eyes of the public as to lose one's cause4 ,two classes of men1 with an importance hitherto unknown1 appear in ,greek history1the rhetoricians and the dialecticians4 ,rhetoric was public oratory1 necessary for the public defense of one's rights1 or for the maintenance of one's dignity1 or for the gratification of one's ambition4 ,the dialectic was1 on the other hand1 argument employed in private between two persons1 usually friends1 to unravel an obscurity1 to reduce an opponent to silence1 to exercise one's self in the mastery of a subject1 or to sift evidence4 ,the dialectic1 therefore1 became a distinct mental pursuit for men who had a natural defect in public speaking or rhetoric4 ,besides rhetoric and dialectic1 there grew up somewhat later what was called the eristic4 ,eristic was polemical argument consisting of catch-phrases and logical subtleties4 ,it was taught as an art of adroit argument4 ,the great ,greek tragedies occupy a place in the development of the dialectic and the satisfying of the need of knowledge4 ,science1 through the drama1 transformed the old religious views and brought its new interpretation to the common people4 ,the development of the fifth-century drama out of the epic of the sixth century was not merely a change in architectonic1 but a transformation of its ethical and religious spirit4 ,the germ was in the previous ethics1 lyrics1 and gnomics1 yet it was fully amplified in the drama4 ,instead of a summary of deeds the tragic poet makes his characters talk1 defend1 refute1 accuse1 lament1 etc4 ,this gives rise to exigencies that require the dialectic4 ,in the conflicting duties and in the justification of the wrong done by the wrong suffered1 dialectical skill is called for in the drama to weigh the ethical motives in a manner that the epic does not demand4 ,thus the drama of schylus1 ,sophocles1 and ,euripides was a link between the lyric and gnomic poetry of the sixth century ,b4 ,c4 and the dialogue literature of ,plato4#ae #c4 ,the ,critical ,attitude of ,mind4 ,the most important characteristic of this period is neither the intensified social curiosity nor the increased social needs4 ,it is rather ethical in its character4 ,it is the 8critical0 or 8individualistic0 attitude of mind4 ,this began with the 8free city feeling0the consciousness of the free man in a free statein the first half of the fifth century ,b4 ,c41 and developed rapidly into individualism and critical skepticism toward the end of that century4 ,if one were to compare in a single word the history of ,greece before the ,persian ,wars with that after the ,persian ,wars1 he would say that the former was traditional and the latter was critical4 ,nevertheless1 at the beginning of the ,cosmological ,period ,greek traditional customs were being weakened by attacks upon them4 ,religious ideas were threatened by the ,cosmologists4 ,the subordination of the gods to the cosmic substance was an attack upon the established polytheism of the ,epic1 and the attack became direct in the hands of ,xenophanes4 ,it was 8the divestiture of ,nature of its gods by science40 ,the ,mysteries were a part of this departure from the traditional religion4 ,but the new and more critical scientific attitude toward traditional religion was only incidental to the growing criticism of law4 ,in the days of the oligarchy there were two self-evident political assumptions3 7#a7 that law has validity because it is law2 7#b7 that obedience to law is for one's advantage4 ,when1 however1 the political disturbances began1 a self-conscious individualism developed among the ,greeks4 ,the ,gnomic ,poets had been the first to appeal to the individual consciousness of the people4 ,all through the sixth century ,b4 ,c4 ,greece had stern experiences1 and the individual found himself questioning the sanctity of tradition and of time-honored laws4 ,there was no longer a tacit acquiescence in established order1 and the claims of authority were no longer1 as formerly1 unchallenged4 ,confidence in political assumptions began to waver1 and a critical attitude was taken toward laws which changed from year to year4 ,the appearance everywhere of the tyrant1 the vigorous personality who could set up his will against the will of a traditional aristocracy1 impressed the age with the power of individual egoism4 ,the seat of authority was shifted from tradition to the individual reason1 and all institutions were brought under individual criticism4 ,the ,persian ,wars mark the point of transition from the traditional attitude to the critical attitude of the ,greek mind4 ,in themselves the ,persian ,wars were a great moral uplift1 and were a return for a time to the traditional institutions4 ,the changes long since begun were suspended for a time in the united effort of the ,greek nation4 ,but the tendencies became more insistent when the danger was past4 ,the ,persian ,wars had cleared the atmosphere of its pessimism and had given freedom to the intellectual movement4 ,then later1 in the heat of that intellectual movement1 individualism and criticism came to fullest fruitage4 ,doubt grew into positive skepticism4 ,in the last part of the fifth century ,b4 ,c41 critical skepticism became universal4 ,in religion the anthropomorphism of the ,epic passes under ridicule4 ,critias declares that the gods are the invention of shrewd statecraft4 ,in literature the ,epic1 in which the gods interfere in all human details1 yields to the naturalistic descriptions of ,herodotus and ,thucydides1 and to the personal note of lyric and satirical poetry4 ,more important than all was the change of attitude toward the laws4 ,instead of the law having a divine authority1 the individual placed himself above it and sat in judgment upon it4 ,the tribal conception of guilt1 that when a member of a tribe sinned the whole tribe would suffer at the hands of the gods1 had given way at the time of the ,persian ,wars to that of personal responsibility and retribution4 ,it was noted that laws change in the same state1 that they differ in different states1 and that moral customs have a great variety4 ,all laws seem therefore to be made by man1 and the question then arose1 ,is there any law which has universal validity8 ,is there any real prius or 8,nature0 of laws8 ,in the ,anthropological ,period1 the important question was about the real prius or 8,nature0 of human institutions1 just as in the ,cosmological ,period the question was about the real prius or 8,nature0 of the world of physical phenomena4 ,yet the question of the ,anthropologists was a part of the ,cosmological problem4 ,the ,cosmologists had called the real prius or 8,nature0 771 that which ever remains like itself1 and it is now asked if 8,nature0 in itself contains any unchanging and eternal politico-moral law4 ,the contrast is thus drawn for all time between natural law and statute law1 and the distinction dominates this period4 ,human legal institutions were regarded as only makeshifts1 and often even as contradicting the divine law4 ,the conflict between natural or divine law and human law appears worked out in the ,antigone of ,sophocles4 ,the same interest in the foundations of morality and moral relations opened up the whole subject of the power of human consciousness to discern such relations4 ,it was a logical necessity that turned thought from a review of man's relations with his fellows to a criticism of his own constitution4 ,what is man8 ,what are his faculties8 ,has he any that give him the truth and the reality8 ,or do they all deceive him so that he cannot detect the real from the sham of life8 ,what are the mental faculties used in disputation1 and how are they to be trained so that man may rise to an eminence of culture among his fellows8 ,the ,greek thus turned to a criticism of his knowing faculties1 and the positive social and moral demands made such a criticism necessary to his well-being4 ,greek science took a strong anthropological direction1 and logic1 ethics1 psychology1 rhetoric1 etc41 took the place of natural science subjects4 ,the ,greek in the fifth century ,b4 ,c4 was interested in manin his inner activities1 his ideations and volitions4 ,of this critical and individualistic attitude ,euripides is the literary exponent2 ,pericles is the political personification2 ,socrates and the ,sophists are its philosophical expression4 ,the ,significance of the ,sophists4 ,the ,sophists were the direct means of bringing this intellectual change into ,greek life4 ,they were the bearers of this ,greek ,enlightenment1 and they were the missionaries that spread its influence far and wide4 ,this significance of the ,sophists to the culture of ,greece was never understood by the historian until ,hegel set them in their true light4 ,the dark side of their character has been painted in blackest colors1 so that the word 8,sophist0 has carried an opprobrium with it4 ,they were1 however1 the exponents of the ,greek illumination1 and not the cause of it4 ,they therefore share all its weaknesses and its excellencies2 and any judgment upon them is a judgment upon the time itself4 ,the most accurate description of them is that they were the exponents of ,greek culture in the age of ,pericles2 the worst that can be said of them is that they stimulated the ,greek spirit in directions in which it should have been controlled4 ,their true work was to carry the gospel of ,greek individualism everywhere2 their fault lay in the fact that too frequently they confused individualism with hypocrisy1 and led their hearers to believe that appearance knowledge is the same as true knowledge4 ,the word 8,sophist0 had a development among the ,greeks4 ,it first meant a wise man 7the ,cosmologists1 from ,thales to ,anaxagoras1 were ,sophists72 then a teacher of wisdom2 then a paid teacher of wisdom4 ,moreover1 among the ,sophists there is a difference between the early ,sophists1 who were inspired by a distinct desire to spread culture1 and the later ,sophists1 who were mercenary teachers1 and had on that account degenerated into mere quibblers4 ,in general1 the ground of the contemporary hostility to the ,sophists was the hatred of the conservative and reactionary party1 to which belonged ,aristophanes the satirist1 schylus 8the father of tragedy10 and the exponent of institutional morals1 and ,xenophon1 who stood for a complete return to a patriarchal state4 ,this party was very bitter against the exponents of the new and radical spirit springing up in ,greece4 ,all the philosophers of the new learning1 including ,socrates1 suffered at the hands of those who would conserve the old traditions4 ,in particular1 the accusations against the ,sophists of this period were3 they were cavilers2 they taught for pay2 they represented the universalizing of education against the old aristocracy2 they menaced institutions4 ,the ,sophists were then primarily and1 on the whole1 the transmitters to the people of the culture of the time4 ,they were the teachers of the humanities to that age4 ,they were not technically philosophers1 but were interested in philosophical questions4 ,protagoras was the only ,sophist who was the author of any fruitful philosophical conceptions4 ,gorgias made occasional essays into philosophy4 ,but besides ,protagoras and ,gorgias no other ,sophists can be classed as philosophers1 except possibly ,hippias and ,prodicus4 ,the ,sophists introduced a profusion of knowledge among the people4 ,they made investigations in language1 logic1 and the theory of cognition4 ,they taught literature1 history1 grammar1 the principles of the dialectic1 the eristic1 and rhetoricall subjects concerned with the art of human expression4 ,they studied and taught the special subjects concerned with human relations1 like ethics1 the theory of knowledge1 psychology1 and politics4 ,anything that had a place in ,greek culture was systematically and skillfully presented by such men as ,protagoras1 ,gorgias1 ,hippias1 and ,prodicus1 who were men of encyclopdic erudition4 ,the ,sophist took the education of the ,greek child at the age of sixteen1 after he had received his elementary training1 first at home and then at the hands of the teacher at school4 ,the ,greek boy's education was naturally divided into two parts3 gymnastics for the body and music for the soul4 ,under music was included geometry1 performance on the lyre1 pronunciation1 the chorus and poetry1 astronomy1 physics1 and geography4 ,at the age of sixteen he got his instruction by meeting public men1 such as the ,sophists1 in the street1 in the ,agora1 and other public places4 ,it was at this period of his life that the ,sophist took his education into those higher branches which were necessary for his success in politics1 society1 and law4 ,thus the instruction of the ,sophist was usually for a specific purpose1 and thus rhetoric1 dialectic1 and the mental sciences were in great demand4 ,the ,prominent ,sophists4 ,the list of ,sophists is a long one4 ,the first to call himself a ,sophist and a teacher of public virtue was1 according to ,plato1 ,protagoras of ,abdera4 ,he was also probably the most eminent of the number4 ,he was born about #dhj ,b4 ,c4 ,polus and ,thrasymachus were the last2 and ,aristotle mentions the ,sophists as in the past4 ,so that we may conclude that as a band they existed only one hundred years 7#dej-cej ,b4 ,c474 ,already at the beginning of the fourth century 7#djj ,b4 ,c47 their importance had greatly diminished4 ,in this hundred years we find some fourteen or fifteen prominent ,sophists4 ,there is1 first1 ,protagoras1 whose theory of knowledge is not only in itself a contribution to thought1 but also of importance as a factor in forming the materialist atomistic doctrine of the school of ,abdera1the school of ,leucippus and ,democritus2 ,gorgias of ,leontini1 the head of an embassy to ,athens1 a man of eloquence1 whose style was imitated by ,thucydides and whom we might have studied in connection with the ,eleatic school1 for he carried out still further the doctrines of ,zeno2 ,prodicus1 the pupil of ,protagoras and ,gorgias1 a brilliant man and a traveler1 whose method of instruction was used by ,socrates2 ,hippias1 contemporary of ,prodicus1 remarkable for his mathematical1 physical1 and historical erudition1 and a man full of vanity2 the brothers1 ,euthydemus and ,dionysiodorus1 teachers of eristic2 the rhetorician ,thrasymachus and the rhetoricians of the school of ,gorgias1 viz41 ,polus1 ,lycophron1 ,protarchus1 and ,alcidamus2 ,evenus1 rhetorician1 moralist1 and poet2 ,critias1 the leader of the thirty2 ,callicles and ,hippodamus4 ,many of these men were reformers4 ,some 7as ,alcidamus7 were opposed to the institution of slavery in ,greece2 some to marriage2 some 7as ,lycophron7 to the nobility2 some to the inequality of property2 while ,hippodamus was the first to propose an ideal state4 ,the method of argumentation employed by the ,sophists was first to perplex and confuse their opponents as to what had been taken in the past as valid4 ,then they made their opponents ridiculous by drawing out consequences from their statements4 ,their conclusions were often verbal and their witticisms vulgar4#af ,the ,philosophy of the ,sophists4 ,the philosophy of the ,sophists was only the logical following out of the general attitude of the time toward all traditions4 ,the more the old physical theories fell into disrepute1 the more the changes of the world of politics seemed to indicate instability everywhere1 the more opinions differed on the same subject1so much the more did the possibility present itself to the ,sophists of taking two contradictories as equally true1 and so much the faster did the whole ,greek world lose faith in any valid truth and in any certain knowledge4 ,the dogmatism of the ,cosmological ,period is thus naturally followed by the skepticism of the ,anthropological4 ,beginning with the cautious and enlightened relativism of ,protagoras1 there grew up a volume of criticism1 until the later ,sophists applied destructive doctrines to everything4 ,the best representatives of the philosophical aspect of the ,sophistic movement were ,protagoras and ,gorgias4 #a4 ,the ,relativism of ,protagoras4 ,although theoretically skepticism is the centre and logical result of the ,sophistic movement1 the teaching of the greatest ,sophist1 ,protagoras1 cannot be strictly called skepticism4 ,philosophically1 skepticism is not the denial of this or that particular belief as true1 but the denial of the existence of any truth whatever4 ,protagoras refused to make any positive statementseither in denial or affirmationabout ultimate truth1 because1 as he said1 we have no insight whatever into the nature of absolute truth4 ,our knowledge is confined to motions and the phenomena of motion4 ,his teaching would be called in modern times relativism or phenomenalism4 ,the fundamental principle beneath such a doctrine is that knowledge is humannever absolute1 but always relative4 ,the relativism of ,protagoras was based on two principles3 the first is that of universal change1 which he borrowed from ,heracleitus2 the second is1 so far as we know1 original with ,protagoras1that sense-perception is the only source and only kind of knowledge4 ,in ,heracleitus' doctrine change is universal1 each term of a series of changes passing into another4 ,the senses are a part of this flux1 and since they are1 according to ,protagoras1 the only source of knowledge1 knowledge is ephemeral and unreal4 ,reason is extended and continued sensation4 ,a movement external to the organism stimulates an organ of the body and is met by a reacting movement of the organ4 ,the result is perception4 ,perception being itself a process1 each present moment of perception is the only knowledge4 ,we cannot know things as they are in themselves2 there is no insight into the ,being of things over and above our perceptions4 ,on the contrary1 reality is not only what it perceptually appears for each individual1 but also what it appears at each individual momentary perception4 ,what is the result of such a theory of knowledge8 ,protagoras expresses it well in his famous words1 8,man is the measure of all things40 ,it is absolute sensationalism4 ,there is no truth except that of the present moment4 ,each man sees the truth for himself at the moment of his perception4 ,it does not matter if another has a different perception4 ,it does not matter if at the next moment his perception differs4 ,each perception exists at the moment1 is true1 and at that moment is the only perception4 ,there are as many truths as there are individuals1 as many as there are moments in an individual's life4 ,each individual is the measure of the true1 the beautiful1 and the good2 for a thing that is good or true to one man may be harmful or false to another4 ,metaphysical discussions are vain1 for the only reality to prove is the content of the present moment4 ,all causes and ultimate criteria are impossible to be known4 #b4 ,the ,nihilism of ,gorgias4 ,as the philosophy of ,protagoras teaches that everything is equally true1 that of ,gorgias teaches that everything is equally false4 ,gorgias declared that ,being1 knowledge1 and the communication of knowledge are impossible4 ,starting from the dialectic of the ,eleatic1 ,zeno 7as ,protagoras started from that of ,heracleitus71 ,gorgias maintained3 7#a7 ,nothing is2 7#b7 ,if anything is1 it cannot be thought2 7#c7 ,even if it can be thought1 it cannot be communicated4 ,the knowledge of the thing is different from the thing2 the expression of the thought in words is different from the thought itself4 ,the ,ethics of the ,sophists4,the ,application of their ,critical ,theory to ,political ,life4 ,the ethical-political life was of paramount importance to the ,greek4 ,when the later ,sophists began to scrutinize it from the point of view of the individual1 their skepticism became a direct menace to ,greek political institutions4 ,the individual became a law unto himself1 and the citizen set himself up as superior to society4 ,since the time of the ,gnomic poets the content of both moral and political laws had become more and more a subject of reflection2 and at the time of the ,sophists the whole foundation of law was called in question4 ,when the individual man is declared to be the measure of all things1 all legal and moral institutions hang in the balance4 ,all rules of conduct and all laws become then artificial and merely conventional products2 and just as there is no standard of truth or error in knowledge1 so there is no standard of good citizenship or morality4 ,the good man is the prudent man2 the good citizen is the successful and powerful man4 ,might is right4 ,thus the ,sophists came to teach such doctrines as these3 ,laws are made by the strongest1 represent their will1 and must be obeyed if they cannot be disobeyed2 it takes a strong man to make a law1 but a stronger to break it2 the laws are only conventions invented either by the many to restrain the powerful few1 or by the few to enslave the many4 ,even religions are devices of the crafty to enchain the people4 ,obedience to law is therefore a matter of personal interest4 ,happiness is the most important consideration of the individual4 ,sometimes personal interest conflicts with law and law does not then bring happiness1 for criminals are often the most happy4 ,it is not obedience to law that brings happiness but 7,polus7 a shrewd calculation of ends with no regard to right or law4 ,the ,sophists made no attempt to put their theories into execution4 ,they expressed the sentiments of the ,greek people1 and ,greek public opinion then pointed to segregation and individualism4 ,plato said that1 after all1 the ,greek public was the great ,sophist4 ,it was thus that the distinction arose between positive law and natural law4 ,reflecting upon the differences among the constitutions of the ,greek states and upon the constant alterations in these constitutions1 the ,sophist concluded that the greater part of them were of human invention4 ,they were positive laws and were to be contrasted with natural law1 which was such law as is binding on all men equally4 ,natural law is therefore of greater worth than positive law1 and is set in antithesis to it4 ,sir ,henry ,maine says in his ,ancient ,law that the ,greeks did not found any system of jurisprudence1 because natural law was always referred to by them in arguing any question4 ,the only way to find natural law is to strip it of the mass of conventional laws4 ,the word 8nature0 has been in its history one of the most ambiguous of words2 and ,protagoras' teaching that 8nature0 consists of primary ethical feelings is hardly a complete and satisfactory definition4 ,the more the theory of the ,sophists limited 8nature0 to human nature1 and to human nature in its capricious and individual aspects1 so much the more did statute laws appear antagonistic to natural law and seem to be detrimental to it4 ,summary4 #a4 ,although a skepticism and a criticism1 ,sophistry was a relative advance over the traditionalism and dogmatism of the ,cosmologists4 #b4 ,sophistry turned the attention to man and his interests as the principal object of inquiry4 #c4 ,the ,sophists stood for freedom of thought by pointing to individual consciousness as the final court of appeal4 #d4 ,although the ,sophists differed very much in their teaching1 they had a mutual dependence and common presuppositions4 #e4 ,the ,sophists disregarded the likenesses and emphasized the differences among men4 #f4 ,the ,sophists built up their doctrines upon the basis of a sensationalist psychology4 ,,chapter ,v ,,socrates 7#dfi-cii ,b4 ,c474 ,socrates and ,aristophanes4 ,there were two ways in which the other elements in ,greek society tried to meet the ,sophists4 ,one was led by ,aristophanes1 the other by ,socrates4 ,aristophanes was a rich nobleman who looked back with pride upon the good old times4 ,he would have a government of the best rather than of the many4 ,he would destroy the ,sophistic movement1 and he wrote many satires upon ,greek life with that end in view4 ,his satire1 ,the ,clouds1 is of especial interest in this connection4 ,socrates represents the other way in which the ,sophistic movement was met4 ,he accepted the ,sophistic movement1 but he read more deeply into it than the ,sophists themselves1 and he tried to find its truth4 ,the extraordinary personality of ,socrates is the central figure in this age of critical inquiry4 ,for the first time do we find philosophy centred in a great personality1 and there is no more picturesque figure in history4 ,the exposition of his doctrines is essentially a biography4 ,he wrote nothing himself1 and the literary sources of his life and teaching are found in ,xenophon's ,memorabilia and ,symposium1 in the writings of ,plato1 and in those of ,aristotle4 ,they throw different lights upon his character1 and together give a fairly complete picture4 ,xenophon records the sober1 practical1 and popular side of ,socrates1 caught in casual conversation4 ,plato idealizes ,socrates1 especially in his later writings1 and he reveals ,socrates' character on its imaginative and spiritual sides4 ,aristotle is more discriminating and less sympathetic1 but always reliable because he is a generation removed4#ag ,the ,personality and ,life of ,socrates4 ,alcibiades described ,socrates as like the little cases sold upon the streets of ,athens1 which were made in the shape of ,silenus and contained a carved image4 ,the description was apt1 for ,socrates had a fine spiritual nature within an astonishing shell4 ,he was short1 stout1 and thick-set1 with his head set upon his shoulders4 ,his eyes were bulging1 his nose flat with upturned nostrils1 his mouth big and grinning1 and his beard disordered4 ,his protruding belly was set upon slender legs1 and his dress was slovenly4 ,nevertheless his geniality1 his fine humor1 the unselfishness which he manifested unstintedly toward his friends1 exercised an irresistible charm upon all the remarkable personalities of his time4 ,over the ,athenian youth his influence was very great1 and he surrounded himself with a large circle of admirers1 to the neglect of his home cares and his wife ,xantippe4 ,while the habit of the ,sophists was to talk in private and for pay1 ,socrates was distinguished from all his contemporaries by the fact that he would talk in the public places with any one1 rich or poor1 and without remuneration4 ,his life had its ascetic side4 ,he was frugal in his needs4 ,he went barefoot1 summer and winter1 and his clothing was the scantiest4 ,he was abstemious in food and drink4 ,while on occasion at the feast he would drink more wine than any one else1 yet he never was seen intoxicated4 ,the ascetic side of his nature is seen in his refusal to cultivate gymnastics1 because such training required much food4 ,he tried to limit his wants4 ,he was a model of hardiness1 self-denial1 and self-mastery1 as many an anecdote will show4 8,no one ever saw or heard anything wicked in ,socrates10 said ,xenophon4 8,so pious was he that he never did anything without first consulting the ,gods1 so master of himself as never to prefer pleasure to goodness1 so sensible as never to err in the choice between the better and the worse4 ,in a word1 he was the best and the most happy of men40 ,at times ,socrates seems intellectually stiff and prosaic4 ,this may have been incidental to his asceticism1 or the result of it4 ,he was indifferent to the sensuous1 and he explained the beautiful in terms of the useful4 ,he refused to walk out because trees and flowers could teach him nothing4 ,art offered no suggestions to him1 for it is useless even if it is inspired4 ,his unpoetic and prosy nature was perhaps not due so much to his lack of taste as to his original mind overflowing with ideas4 ,he was not perceptive1 but reflective4 ,he said that astronomy is a mystery1 geometry is land measuring1 which any man can do1 arithmetic is merely permissible1 and physics something to be neglected4 8,ye may judge how unprofitable these studies are by seeing how men differ among themselves40 ,he was once found dancing at home by himself when he was expected to be at a dance with others1 and his practical nature is also revealed in the fact that at the feast he was reminded of its utility4 ,the influence of ,socrates' dmon or divine voice upon him is very interesting4 ,he felt himself divinely called by his dmon 7,apology1 #bi1 #cc f47 to unremitting labor in the moral perfecting of society through an examination of himself and his fellows4 ,socrates was moved by a deep religious feeling in all that he undertook4 ,this divine leading is what he designates as his dmon4 ,he speaks of it as 8the ,god0 or 8the gods0 which speaks to other men through the oracles4 ,this divine voice was ever with him1 but as to specific actions it only warned him against the injudicious action1 never incited him to the correct action4 ,specifically it did not tell him what to do so much as what not to do4 ,when he was about to prepare a defense beforehand that he should make to the judges1 his dmon interposed1 and so he relied upon the inspiration of the moment4 ,on one of his campaigns he was observed to stand in communion with the dmon the whole day1 unmindful of the weather4 ,as to the education and intellectual training of ,socrates1 one must say that it formed a factor of less importance in his life4 ,the uniqueness of ,socrates' character is only in small measure to be accounted for by his environment4 ,he was one of those men who would have been great in any time4 ,he got but little from his father1 who was a sculptor1 or from his mother1 who was a midwife4 ,he was not strictly an educated man1 although he had the early education of an ,athenian youth1 and of course no one could grow up a citizen of ,athens in the time of ,pericles without absorbing its culture4 ,his formal education probably consisted of music and gymnastics1 and he was certainly familiar with the preceding schools of philosophy4 ,socrates lived a long life of contented poverty1 and he dedicated his life to the public4 ,two inherited instincts were strong within him1 which alone will account for his career3 7#a7 his strong religious persuasion that he was acting under a mission from the gods2 7#b7 his great intellectual originality1 as shown in his teaching and in his power over others4 ,there are few striking events in ,socrates' career1 except his death4 ,he was born in ,athens in #dfi ,b4 ,c4 ,he began his divinely appointed work of redeeming ,athens from the dangerous tendencies of the ,sophists at the commencement of the ,peloponnesian ,war4 ,he served in three campaigns as a soldier4 ,he also acted1 when called upon1 as prytanis1 or lawgiver1 although he stood aloof from political activity4 ,at the advanced age of seventy he was accused of corrupting the youth and denying the gods4 ,his life thus far would have seemed to be one of unimpeachable moral and brilliant intellectual monotony4 ,but his death illuminates his life and makes it heroic1 because his death shows what in reality his life was1the tragic epitome of the ,athenian social situation4 ,his death was not due to himself1 although he could have escaped1 nor to his judges1 although they could have acquitted him4 ,it represents the inevitable conflict between the ,greek ideal of universalism and ,greek individualism4 ,its value is therefore historic4 ,his particular accusers were actuated by personal animosity4 ,behind them were many others whom his efforts at reform and his bitter irony had made hostile4 ,behind all was the voice of ,athenian conservatism against the ,athenian culture movement4 ,the charges against ,socrates were in part true1 and besides as a moral reformer he had been a public nuisance4 ,yet his death was a judicial murder4 ,he was found guilty by his judges4 ,to the sentence of death proposed by ,meletus1 one of his accusers1 ,socrates had the right to propose an alternative sentence1 and the judges must choose between the two4 ,had ,socrates proposed a small fine1 it would probably have been accepted by the judges4 ,he proposed1 however1 that ,athens provide for him at the public expense1 arrogant as he was in his complacent sense of virtue4 ,the judges then could do nothing else than pronounce the sentence of death4 ,this was delayed thirty days on account of the sacrifice at ,delos4 ,even then ,socrates could have easily escaped from jail4 ,but he refused to do the law a wrong1 and drank the hemlock in ,may1 #cii ,b4 ,c4 ,professor ,g4 ,h4 ,palmer points out the irony that characterizes the life and death of ,socrates4 ,he stands for the harmony of opposite qualities4 ,he devoted himself to the good of ,athens1 and yet ,athens put him to death4 ,in the service of the eternal was he sacrificed4 ,his own personality is an exemplification of this irony4 ,in appearance his un-,greek physical ugliness is in contrast with his beautiful ,greek soul2 he was the most austere and yet the most sensitive of men2 he was always a serious moralist and yet always a jester2 he was scarcely out of ,athens and yet he was a world's man2 he was the world's philosopher and yet he had no system of thought and left no writings4 ,socrates and the ,sophists4 ,in his point of departure ,socrates is in entire agreement with the ,sophists4 ,he is a critical philosopher4 ,criticism is the starting-point of his philosophy as a whole1 and he begins each particular argument afresh with a critical examination of its grounds4 ,this means that he1 like the ,sophists1 turns to the individual reason as the final court of appeal4 ,like them he refused to accept any traditional dogma unexamined1 and he commenced a critical inquiry into all kinds of conceptions4 ,socrates and the ,sophists are one in the spirit of the ,greek illumination in their critical attack upon intellectual problems4 ,socrates' famous saying that 8virtue is knowledge0 could equally well be put into the mouth of ,protagoras2 and the doctrine of ,protagoras that 8man is the measure of all things0 could be ascribed to ,socrates without inconsistency4 ,in his conclusions in one respect ,socrates arrives at the same point as the ,sophists1but in only one respect4 ,he agrees with them as to the worthlessness of the results of natural science4 ,natural science cannot be worth while1 because it does not lead to moral excellence4 ,the meagre results of the ,cosmologists show the worthlessness of natural science to man4 ,in this one respect ,socrates' criticism leads him to skepticism like the ,sophists1to a skepticism of natural science4 ,but in his conclusions as to the value of human nature1 ,socrates set himself entirely against the outcome of the reflections of the ,sophists1 and indeed of his time4 ,in the absorbing anthropological topics of his time1 he laid the foundations of a constructive philosophy against the skeptical conclusions of the ,sophists4 ,in human matters he maintained that there is a validity to truth and a possibility of absolute knowledge4 ,he admitted with the ,sophists that there are obscurities in human thought1 and that obviously the standard of truth does not belong to any one man4 ,but while the ,sophists emphasized these contradictions and reasoned therefore that no valid truth existed1 ,socrates cut his way through such contradictions and obscurities1 emphasized the identity in men1 and maintained that the truth is in all men together1in humanity4 ,it exists as an ideal to be striven for by men together4 ,when ,protagoras says that 8man is the measure of all things10 he means by 8man0 the individual man2 while ,socrates1 if he had used that expression1 would have meant 8humanity40 ,and ,socrates means by his principle 8virtue is knowledge0 that the knowledge of that same humanity 7i4 e4 insight1 reason7 is virtue2 while ,protagoras1 agreeing as he did formally with the maxim that 8virtue is knowledge10 would always define 8knowledge0 as the individual feelings4 8,the individual man is the measure of all things10 ,protagoras would say2 8,humanity is the measure of all things10 ,socrates would reply4 8,virtue is knowledge gained by the feelings10 ,protagoras would say2 8,virtue is knowledge gained by the reason10 ,socrates would reply4 ,beneath the changing capricious individual1 beneath the variety of men1 ,socrates believed that there was a common humanity1 one unchanging man1 who contained the ultimate truth4 ,there are many opinions1 ideas1 and feelings1 but only one knowledge4 ,this knowledge is rational2 and human nature is a unity in the possession of this knowledge4 ,this is the principle that distinguishes ,socrates from the other leaders of the ,greek ,illumination4 ,while he was imbued with the motives of the ,greek culture of his time1curious about its results1 feeling its usefulness1 and critical of all tradition1he nevertheless withheld himself from its skeptical conclusions4 ,any culture illumination runs the danger of defeating itself and becoming skeptical of its own powers4 ,this is what actually happened in the ,sophistic philosophy4 ,but when ,socrates set himself against this superficial and self-destructive outcome of his age1 he became in his constructive philosophy the clearest and most comprehensive expression of that age4 ,because he grasped the principle of the ,greek ,enlightenment deeply and formulated it constructively1 his intellectual reign became historically established4 ,the fundamental principle of the philosophy of ,socrates was therefore the real principle of classic ,greek civilization1 and by saving that principle he saved ,greek civilization for modern ,europe4 ,the ,unsystematic ,character of the ,socratic ,philosophy4 ,the casual reader is often troubled to know for what precisely ,socrates is searching4 ,the vagueness of the ,socratic quest is partly due to the fact that he had no system4 ,indeed1 he had no groundwork for a system of thought4 ,his psychology or theory of the human mind was undefined4 ,he speaks of sensations and perceptions1 but they1 with the feelings and the will1 are considered by him to be unimportant factors in the conscious life4 ,on the whole1 the mind was thought by him to be an aggregation of conceptions or ideas4 ,the feelings cloud the activity of these conceptions1 and the only feeling to which ,socrates attached any importance was his dmon or divine voice4 ,this grew to be his mentor as he grew older4 ,socrates never made a scientific psychological analysis4 ,he began rather with three assumptions which amounted to convictions4 ,they were these3 that only by acquiring conceptions is true knowledge to be found2 that virtue consists in acting according to conceptions2 that the world has been designed according to conceptions4 ,conceptions were1 so to speak1 an obsession with ,socrates4#ah ,they were his postulates1 his instruments1 and his goal4 ,the other factors of the mind were neglected by him4 ,the ,ideal of ,socrates4 ,the goal of the quest of ,socrates is an ideal1 and in the nature of things had the vagueness of any ideal4 ,the content of an ideal has to remain undefined until it has been gained by experience1 and then of course it is no longer an ideal4 ,any ideal1 however1 can be stated formally1 and the formal and deductive side of knowledge has had an important place both in practical conduct and in the history of science4 ,socrates could state his ideal formally and to some extent he could give it content2 but it always remained for him an object to be sought4 ,he believed that the ideal lay in conceptions and could be found if he got the truth of any one conception4 ,so he undertook to define such conceptions as friendship1 courage1 prudence1 etc41 but his search was never satisfied4 ,nevertheless1 the search itself was scarcely less important to him than its accomplishment4 ,the ideal of ,socrates was ,knowledge or ,wisdom1 and his formal statement of the ideal was ,knowledge is ,virtue4 ,the primal end to be striven for is wisdom1 that is1 in conceptions and by conceptions4 ,but where are these conceptions to be found but in one's own mind8 ,therefore the region of the quest of ,socrates was his own mind1 and his motto was1 8,know thyself40 ,and what is this ,virtue of which knowledge or wisdom is the equivalent8 ,it does not mean virtue in the narrow modern meaning of the term1 nor yet in the narrow original meaning1 of warlike prowess or valor4 ,the ,greek word which ,socrates used was 1 and is best translated excellence or ability4 ,in the history of the word it had a variety of meanings1 like the ,latin word virtus1 whose equivalent it is4 ,it is derived from the same root as the word 1 ,ares 7or ,mars71 the name of the god of war4 ,while therefore originally it meant military valor1 it came to mean any kind of excellence4 ,in modern times there appeared a book called ,the ,greatest ,thing in the ,world1 which had as its aim to show that ,christian love is the 8greatest thing in the world40 ,to ,socrates not 8,love0 but 8,wisdom0 is the 8greatest thing in the world10 and ,greek civilization is thus contrasted with that of ,christianity4 ,but now the question comes1 ,what kind of knowledge or wisdom does ,socrates mean as the greatest excellence8 ,in contrast to the ,sophists1 who relied upon the sensations and impulses as wisdom1 ,socrates turned to that element which had been the decisive factor of the culture of the time4 ,this was insight4 ,the greatest excellence is insight4 ,he who acts according to his feelings is not sure of his knowledge1 but he who acts according to insight has the greatest excellence in the world4 ,but ,socrates restricts the meaning of knowledge still further4 ,not only is knowledge to ,socrates insight1 but it is moral insight4 ,for the problems in which he was interested were the problems of human life and principally the problem of self-examination4 ,thus we can translate the conventional formal statement of ,socrates1 viz41 ,knowledge is virtue1 into this rather longer sentence1 ,moral insight is the most excellent thing in the world4 ,for the first time in the history of thought philosophy is founded upon a moral postulate4 ,what the ,socratic ,ideal involves4 ,we have now examined the meaning of the formal statement of the ,socratic ideal4 ,a further question along this same line concerns what that ideal involves4 #a4 ,in the first place1 to possess knowledge is to act righteously4 ,knowledge righteous conduct4 ,socrates does not mean that knowledge is merely the condition of right conduct2 he means that knowledge actually constitutes moral conduct4 ,the development of the reason is actually the same as the development of the will4 ,knowledge is virtue and virtue is knowledge4 ,vice is ignorance and ignorance is vice4 ,to have an insight into the truth is the principle of living4 ,not only is deficient insight the cause of evil1 but it is itself the greatest evil4 ,not only does a man act wrongly because he does not know the good1 but not to know the good is the greatest wrong that can happen to him4 #b4 ,not only is moral insight the same as virtuous activity1 but this insight is always accompanied by happiness4 ,the will follows the recognition of the good1 and the appropriate action makes man happy4 ,happiness is the necessary result of moral excellence4 ,the ,wise ,man knows what is good for him and does it2 thus in his performance he becomes happy4 ,socrates would subscribe to the proverb 8,be good and you will be happy40 ,such teaching on the part of ,socrates implies that he believed two things3 7#a7 that man by unremitting earnest examination of himself and others could gain such perfect happiness2 and 7#b7 that the world is under providential guidance4 ,socrates never expressly denied the existence of the ,homeric gods and never expressly declared himself a monotheist4 ,he is1 however1 always referring to one over-ruling wisdom4 ,he had a personal conviction of immortality1 but he never attempted its proof4 ,although ,socrates had little confidence in human knowledge about the world of physical nature1 he was animated by a belief that amounted to a conviction in the providential arrangement of the world4 ,in such a divinely ordered world the good must be happy4 ,only a perfect wisdom can1 however1 be certain that always the results of his actions will gain happiness in the environment in which he lives2 but still man can be sure that happiness increases proportionately with knowledge4 ,greek philosophy did go beyond this point in ethics1 and this is called1 in technical language1 eudmonism4 ,eudmonism and hedonism are pleasure theories that are similar4 ,eudmonism is the theory that active well-being is the highest good in life and that that good is always accompanied by pleasure4 ,in hedonism pleasure is the good to be aimed at4 ,in history eudmonism has easily degenerated into hedonism4 #c4 ,socrates makes moral insight the same as virtuous activity1 and he says that its inevitable accompaniment is happiness4 ,does he also make moral insight the same as utility8 ,according to ,xenophon1 ,socrates regards moral excellence as that which is most useful4 ,indeed1 in some of the ,platonic dialogues ,socrates seems to define insight as the art of measuring or prudence1 and it is pointed out that ,socrates developed no virtue so fully as self-control4 ,in the exigencies of the argument ,socrates also often resorted to the useful to define the good4 ,the question1 ,what is the good8 often resolves itself into the other question1 ,what is the thing good for8 ,indeed1 the form of the argument often assumes the vicious circle3 ,why is the act just8 ,because it is useful8 ,why is it useful8 ,because it is just4 ,for the purposes of disputation1 in which ,socrates was always shrewd and not always scrupulous1 he so frequently refers the good to what is suitable to men's happiness and profit that his philosophy does not seem to rise above the relativism of the ,sophists4 ,but it is certain that ,socrates strove to transcend this relativism1 although not with full success and although his formulated teaching does not always go beyond it4 ,however1 that he believed in an absolute rather than a relative good appears in many ways3 in his doctrine that it is better to suffer wrong than to do it2 in his strict conformity to law rather than to save himself from death by breaking the law2 in his constant interpretation of life as right-doing1 ethical improvement1 and participation in the good4 ,the utility that is always in the background of his thought is the usefulness for the soul4 ,we may conclude1 therefore1 that it was only superficially for the purposes of argumentation that ,socrates made the useful an equivalent of moral insight4 ,the purpose of ,socrates was1 after all1 not to teach men to think correctly nor to become cultured but to become happy and useful ,athenians4 ,moral excellence is the ,socratic goal2 and knowledge1 happiness1 and usefulness are only aspects of that goal4 ,knowledge is the essential means1 happiness the essential result1 and usefulness the essential sign of moral excellence4 ,it follows as a corollary from ,socrates' philosophical ideal that he should also teach3 7#a7 that virtue is teachable1 and 7#b7 that the virtues are one4 ,virtue is obviously teachable if it is knowledge4 ,it follows also1 although not so obviously1 that all the virtues are fundamentally the same1 and that a man cannot be virtuous in one thing without being virtuous in all4 ,the really temperate man is also courageous1 wise1 and just4 ,the ,two ,steps of the ,method of ,socrates4 ,the external form of the method of ,socrates was conversation4 ,thinking was to him an inner conversation4 ,the result of a conversation1 external or internal1 was evolvement1the implicit in thought made explicit4 ,this was quite opposed to the method of the ,sophists1 which was the supplying of knowledge4 ,socrates did not propose to start from any kind of knowledge except the ideal to be striven for4 ,starting with the presupposition that man contained knowledge1 the end which ,socrates attempted to reach by his method was a practical one4 ,with so much in summary1 let us examine the two steps of the method of ,socrates4 ,the first step that ,socrates deems necessary for man in attaining this ideal of moral excellence is negative4 ,indeed1 it is more1it is complete abnegation on the part of the seeker for truth4 ,one must confess that he himself knows nothing1 and come to a realization that his untested individual opinions are not the truth4 ,he must approach the subject as a seeker and not as a teacher4 ,this attitude of mind is the beginning of wisdom4 ,plato relates how the ,delphic oracle amazed ,socrates by announcing that he was the wisest of the ,greeks4 ,in reflecting upon the statement of the oracle he came to agree with the oracle because1 as he said1 he was ignorant and he knew it1 while the other ,greeks were ignorant and did not know it4 ,before ,socrates began to examine any conception1 he professed or assumed to profess absolute ignorance of it4 ,he is the modest inquirer4 ,he is always described in the rle of the questioner who is seeking information and light4 ,he laid the same requirement upon others that he did upon himself4 ,the dialectic conversation could not be successfully carried on unless his interlocutors had the same recognition of self-ignorance1the same measure of self-knowledge4 ,the ,sophists with whom he often carried on his discussions laid claim to knowledge on every known subject under the ,greek sun and were ready to teach anything to the ,greek youth4 ,to ,socrates' mind nothing could more impede his undertakings than such an affectation of wisdom2 to the ,sophists nothing could be more repugnant than such a confession which ,socrates always obliged them to make4 ,although professing to be only a seeker for knowledge1 he tried first by his questions to scrutinize and to break down with his exasperating logic the half-formed conceptions of the egotist4 ,this clear-cut analysis for purely destructive purposes1 which he used in preparation for his later constructive conversation1 is called the ,socratic irony4 ,as he proved himself superior to any of his companions in the use of the dialectic1 he could begin his conversations in the most destructive fashion4 ,his method was destructive of all prejudice and preconceived opinion that would in any way stand athwart perfectly free inquiry into the truth4 ,his wish was to begin de novo with every one1 so that all traditional beliefs having been given up and the investigators having confessed their ignorance1 constructive study of the concept in hand could be begun4 ,the second step in ,socrates' method of dialectical inquiry follows upon the initial destructive criticism4 ,it is in this part of the conversation that we find his own constructive theory4 ,the dialogue is1 of course1 its necessary condition2 for the truth is not in me nor in thee1 but in us all4 ,it is latent in the mind and not on the surface of any opinion4 ,let us rub our minds together4 ,let us sift our varied concepts1 unfold our real selves1 and bring the unborn truth to the light4 ,our ideas supplement one another and have a common ground4 ,intellectual intercourse is an intellectual and a personal need1 for it reveals common sympathies and a oneness of life4 ,common love of knowledge makes friends1 and this mutual intellectual helpfulness he calls by the mythical term ,eros4 ,inquiry is indefinite in duration2 the quest of truth is endless2 and ,socrates acknowledges by his fresh beginnings again and again his failure to reach the ideal4 ,thus the theoretical self-abnegation of ,socrates had a twofold significance in his constructive philosophy4 ,on the one hand1 it was an invitation to his countrymen to help him in his search for the universal truth2 on the other1 it was an acknowledgment that he had failed to attain that universal truth4 ,socrates and ,athens4 ,socrates had a religious reverence for his own mission in the ,athenian community4 ,he was the 8gad-fly of the ,athenian public02 he was the educator of the time2 he was divinely appointed to the ,athenian people4 ,he felt himself so necessary to the ,athenian ,state that at his trial he proudly suggested that instead of punishing him the ,state keep him at the public expense in the ,prytaneum4 ,but the educator creates nothing2 he only awakens and develops the germs of knowledge that lie latent4 ,the human ,athenian nature is big with truth2 ,socrates was divinely appointed to bring it forth4 ,he called his method1 after the profession of midwifery of his mother1 the maieutic method4 ,it was intellectual midwifery1 and he was the intellectual midwife of ,athens4 ,although he failed to find any concrete form of ultimate truth1 he never had any doubt about the correctness of his method and of undertaking the problem afresh4 ,he believed that his failure was due to the inherent weakness of human discernment2 and so far as man's discernment or insight is clear1 so far will he know the true significance of things4 ,socrates believed in man1 and he believed that in man were contained all those elements that make up a firm1 rational1 and moral society4 ,since he failed to justify this belief in a theoretical way1 his belief became largely a matter of faith4 ,humanity is something to be won1 something to be developed4 ,he was personally the embodiment of his faith1 and his large influence was due to his unswerving confidence in ethical ideals that did not allow the least paltering4 ,the ,logical ,expedients of ,socrates4 ,the examination of concepts by ,socrates was an attempt to find a logical 8,nature10 just as the ,cosmologists had searched physical phenomena to find a physical 8,nature40 ,this makes ,socrates the first to teach by induction and one of the first to use definition effectively4 ,in contrast to the ,sophists1 he tried to give words exact meanings2 for the ,sophists fixed artificial meanings to words with reference to particular objects4 ,in seeking for the exact meaning1 ,socrates was looking below the changing particulars to the 8,nature0 of the fact and the universal principle4 ,thus he was making his hearers conscious of the logical dependence of the particular upon the universal4 ,the universal is that which is common to all particular conceptions or opinions4 ,it lies beneath them and binds them together4 ,thus1 by logical analysis1 ,socrates is taking steps in the educational process of gaining the universal4 ,provisional definition would be given by him in some dialogue2 this definition would be tried by many facts2 thus an advance would be made toward a true definition and a universal principle4 ,this process is that of induction4 ,it leads to generic concepts by comparison of particular views and individual perceptions1 by bringing together analogous cases and allied relations4 ,the subordination of the particular under the universal thus became a principle of science4 ,however imperfect and childlike was ,socrates' method of procedure1 whatever lack of caution in generalization and in the collection of material1 however hasty oftentimes his judgments1 he nevertheless made the subordination of the particular to the universal a principle of logical procedure4 ,xenophon says that ,socrates was untiring in his efforts to examine and define goodness and wickedness1 justice and injustice1 wisdom and folly1 courage and cowardice1 the state and the citizen4 ,socrates and the ,lesser ,socratics4 ,the death of ,socrates proved to be his transfiguration4 ,his influence1 widespread and profound1 came more from his personality than from his formulated theory4 ,he was a revelator without a revelation4 ,an absolutely true end of life1 the ,good1 he firmly believed to exist2 but it was an ideal to be won by each and all4 ,after him1 therefore1 there was opportunity for various interpretations of his doctrine1 and several schools were founded by his disciples4 ,his truest and most discriminating pupil was ,plato1 who is in a class by himself as developing the philosophy of ,socrates to a systematic perfectness4 ,the philosophy of ,plato stands with that of ,democritus and ,aristotle as one of the three systematic philosophies that ,greek civilization produced4 ,besides ,plato there were the ,lesser ,socratics3 ,euclid 7not the mathematician71 ,phdo1 ,aristippus1 and ,antisthenes4 ,each of these was respectively the founder of a school4 ,these four ,lesser-,socratic schools were that at ,megara founded by ,euclid1 the ,elean-,eretrian founded by ,phdo1 the ,cynic founded by ,antisthenes1 and the ,cyrenaic founded by ,aristippus4 ,the influence of the ,megarian and ,elean-,eretrian schools was unimportant4 ,it may suffice to dismiss them by saying that ,phdo was the favorite pupil of ,socrates1 and that ,plato was a member of the ,megarian school for a short time after the death of ,socrates4 ,the two other ,lesser-,socratic schools had an important influence upon contemporary and later civilization and will be mentioned here4 ,these are the ,cynic and ,cyrenaic schools4 ,in these two schools two great types of ethical theory that have since existed were formulated4 ,all four of the ,lesser ,socratics pretended to be the true development of the teaching of ,socrates2 and these two1 as well as the other two1 differ in the accentuation that they place on some phase of the master's doctrine4 ,socrates' own definition of ideal excellence being incomplete1 the ,cynics and ,cyrenaics tried to define it1 to give it content and to show a practical way of reaching it4 ,they attempted 7#a7 to answer affirmatively that there is a universal validity2 7#b7 to show in what it consists2 7#c7 to show how man must prepare himself in order to reach it4 ,both schools are individualistic and eudmonistic4 ,they maintained that to affirm that the ,good is good for its own sake is to leave the ,good contentless2 and to affirm that the ,good is insight into the ,good is to go in a circle4 ,the one unambiguous answer to the question of ,socrates1 ,what is ideal excellence or the ,good8 is this3 ,goodness is happiness4 ,this gives a content to the otherwise contentless ideal of ,socrates4 ,the difference between the two schools consists in the ethical way in which this happiness may be obtained4 ,it will appear1 therefore1 that the ,lesser ,socratics were more ,sophistic than ,socratic4 ,they were diametrically opposed to ,socrates' theory of the universality of truth4 ,the excellent ,good must be sought by each in his own way4 ,this is individualistic virtue1 and not that of humanity4 ,civilization was valued by them only as it satisfied individual needs4 ,the common problem of individualistic happiness limited the efforts of both schools1 while the results that they reached in solving it were quite different4 ,there are two ways of achieving happiness2 one is by satisfying the desires1 the other is by cutting off the desires4 ,for happiness is the perfect proportion of desire and satisfaction4 ,a living creature is happy if his desires are satisfied1 whether those desires be few or many4 ,in the theory of the ,cyrenaic school1 happiness is gained by increasing the satisfactions2 in the theory of the ,cynic school1 happiness is gained by decreasing the desires4 ,the ,cynic ,school was founded by ,antisthenes1 and numbered among its adherents ,diogenes1 about whom so many curious stories have been told1 ,crates of ,thebes1 his wife ,hipparchia1 and her brother1 ,metrocles4 ,virtue in the eudmonistic sense is the only end1 and this school agreed with ,socrates that this end is to be attained by knowledge4 ,that is to say1 virtue or knowledge is only a means of gaining happiness1 and all other possessions the ,cynics affected to despise4 ,virtue as knowledge is therefore to be sought2 ignorance is to be shunned2 all else is a matter of indifference4 ,riches1 luxury1 fame1 honor1 sense-pleasure and pain1 and later with logical consistency all shame1 convention1 family1 and country were objects of contempt4 ,man must make himself independent by cutting off the desires which he cannot satisfy or the desires that seem superfluous4 ,he should keep alive only such desires as are necessary to existence4 ,in independence of all outward circumstance the ,cynic conceives himself to be the ,wise ,man1 in contrast to whom the mass of men are fools4 ,the ,cynic is1 therefore1 the equal of the undesiring gods4 ,he has independent lordship and does not need the artificialities of civilization4 ,natural law was contrasted by him in a ,sophistic way with statutory law1 and in the midst of the refinements of society he preached a return to a state of nature4 ,the ,cyrenaic ,school was founded by ,aristippus1 who lived in ,cyrene1 a luxurious city of northern ,africa4 ,aristippus was a man of the world4 ,he was first a ,sophist and later a disciple of ,socrates4 ,after ,socrates' death he returned to ,cyrene4 ,here he founded his school1 which included three generations of his own family4 ,the prominent members of it were ,arete1 his daughter2 ,aristippus1 his grandson2 ,theodorus1 ,hegesias1 ,anniceris1 and ,euhemerus1 the author of so-called ,euhemerism1 which taught that the gods were originally only great men4 ,in opposition to the brutal bareness of the ,cynic school1 the ,cyrenaics saw the true end of life in the pleasures of sense4 ,following ,protagoras1 ,aristippus said that the sensations are always true and can be defined in terms of motion4 ,the school developed an elaborate psychology of sensation which summarizes its doctrine4 ,it is as follows3 7#a7 ,the intensity and not the duration of a sensation determines its value2 7#b7 ,bodily pleasures are of greater value than mental because they are more intense2 7#c7 ,i can know only my own sensations1 and therefore they are of greater value than another's2 7#d7 ,man has a reasonable insight which determines him in the choice of his sensations4 ,the practical problem of life for this1 as it was for the ,cynic school1 was how to become individually independent of the world4 ,but the ,cyrenaic taught independence by enjoyment1 in opposition to the ,cynic's independence by renunciation4 ,the ,cyrenaic ,wise ,man knows all the pleasures of life thoroughly1 from animal satisfactions to spiritual ecstasies4 ,he uses them all1 but never forgets himself4 ,he is lord of his appetites1 never wishes the impossible1 and has perfect and serene peace4 ,it is an interesting fact that this pleasure-loving school drew pessimism as the consequence of its theory4 ,if life fails to give enjoyment1 it is a failure4 ,that life alone is reprehensible that has more pain than pleasure4 ,it is on this ground that man should submit to law and custom rather than give up his pleasures4 ,yet some members of the school maintained that man is bound to be unhappy4 ,while he should have pleasure1 he is so constituted that he cannot gain it4 ,the body of man is an inevitable sufferer4 ,the highest that we can hope is painlessness4 ,the ,cynic and ,cyrenaic schools occupy an important position in the history of philosophy4 ,the ,cynic doctrine was the basis of the teaching of the ,stoic school1 and the ,cyrenaic was the legitimate predecessor of the ,epicurean school4 ,these great schools were founded in ,athens seventy-five years later1 and will be discussed under the ,hellenic-,roman ,period4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,systematic ,,period 7#cii ,b4 ,c4-#cbb ,b4 ,c47 ,the ,waning of the ,greek ,national ,spirit4 ,the ,systematic ,period extends from the death of ,socrates to the death of ,aristotle4 ,it is only seventy-seven years longabout the same length as the ,anthropological and half as long as the ,cosmological ,period4 ,it begins with those sorry days after the ,peloponnesian ,war and ends with the supremacy of ,macedonian power4 ,the period was filled with ferocious wars among the ,grecian cities4 ,first came the supremacy of ,sparta1 then of ,thebes 7#cga-cfb ,b4 ,c471 then the invasion by ,philip of ,macedon and the battle of ,chronea1 #cch ,b4 ,c4 ,in #ccd ,b4 ,c4 ,alexander the ,great began the conquest of the ,orient1 which he accomplished in two years4 ,he thought by this that he could reunite the ,greeks in a common cause4 ,he failed for two reasons4 ,in the first place1 as a ,macedonian the ,greeks would not take him as a national representative4 ,in the second place1 the ,greek spirit was waning4 ,the people had lost their glorious ideals4 ,decay had set in4 ,the worm was at the root of ,greek life4 ,greek art1 literature1 and statesmanship had passed4 ,the ,place of the ,three ,systematic ,philosophers in ,greek ,history4 ,nevertheless1 when ,greek national life was approaching dissolution1 science ripened its richest fruits and created its most comprehensive systems of philosophy4 ,these are connected with the names of ,democritus1 ,plato1 and ,aristotle4 ,these great systems evidently cannot be accounted for by the social conditions in which they appear4 ,neither the need nor the demand of the disrupted ,greece of these years would be a sufficient cause to explain the appearance of a ,plato or an ,aristotle4 ,the interests of the ,greek people became narrower as the interests of the ,greek philosophers became more broadly human4 ,the intellectual tendency of this short period was utilitarian and practical4 ,the problems that now interested the ,athenians were the details of mechanics1 physiology1 rhetoric1 and politics4 ,the field of science was now for the first time systematized to logic1 ethics1 and physicsa classification which1 we shall find1 will exist for many centuries4 ,sparta and ,macedonia1 not ,athens and ,abdera1 represent the spirit of the period4 ,if then ,democritus1 ,plato1 and ,aristotle do not reflect the time in which they live1 what relation do they bear to ,greek civilization8 ,they are not isolated and out of all relation to the life of the ,greek people4 ,on the contrary1 they are the most comprehensive and the most profound expression of ,greek life4 ,one turns to them as the most perfect representation of ,greek culture4 ,they are the intimate expression of ,greek thought1 even if not of contemporaneous ,greek thought4 ,they are the final statements of the two preceding periods1 projected into a time that had other interests4 ,democritus brought the ,cosmological movement to a close1 was its final expression1 and gave it systematic form4 ,plato did the same for the ,anthropological ,period4 ,in ,aristotle the systematic cosmology of ,democritus and the systematic ethics of ,plato find a new meaning1 in a closer union1 under a more cordinating principle4 ,aristotle was the last possible word of ,greek philosophy1 for he systematized every branch known to the ,greeks4 ,he not only evolved a speculative theory of the whole1 but he organized the special sciences4 ,it must be further said that no one of these three great ,greeks could have produced the results each did produce1 if each had not been the leader of a school of many workers4 ,within each school there must have been vigorous coperation along lines according to the inclination of the individual members4 ,thus each school collected a vast amount of material which was worked over according to the method and purpose of the leader4 ,the ,fundamental ,principle of the ,systematic ,period4 ,at the beginning of this book attention was called to the difference between ,greek1 ,medival1 and ,modern thought4 ,greek thought was characterized as objective4 ,it is important to reiterate this objective significance of ,greek thought at this point1 when we are about to discuss the teachings of ,democritus1 ,plato1 and ,aristotle4 ,plato's theory is often called an idealism and ,democritus' theory materialism1 but they are not the idealism and materialism of modern times4 ,no terms have fluctuated in their meanings more than such philosophical terms as these1 as can be judged from the fact that in the ,middle ,ages ,plato's doctrine was called realism4 ,the ,greeks were not idealists in the sense that ,berkeley and ,hegel were idealists4 ,in general1 it should be remembered that when we speak of ,greek art1 ,greek politics1 ,greek philosophy as idealistic1 they are not idealistic in the modern sense4#ai ,the open-minded ,greek sought to picture1 to ascertain1 to present4 ,he was not dominated by the wish to show how things should be4 ,to know and to understand1 to explain by understanding the abiding reason in things1 to find out the fundamental principle in things rather than to adjust it to the personal desiresthis was the objective attitude of mind of the ,greeks4 ,the ,greek saw before he reasoned2 he visualized his thought in form before he subjected the form to rational analysis4 ,the cosmos was a harmony and an art before which he stood in contemplation rather than in criticism4 ,human elements were found in it everywhere1 but only as parts of that cosmos4 8,the unity of the spiritual and the natural1 which ,greek thought demands and presupposes1 is the direct unbroken unity of the classic theory of the world40#bj ,by whatever names the great theories of the ,systematic ,period are called1 we must remember that they did not depart from this objective ,greek point of view4 ,at certain times the moorings of ,greek thought seem about to be shifted1 as when ,plato passes beyond the ancient ,greek attitude and anticipates ,christian morality by flight from the world of sense1 and when ,aristotle elaborates his doctrine of a transcendent god4 ,but the tie never breaks1 and the ,systematic philosophers remain ,greek and not modern4 ,they have the ,greek objective attitude of mind4 ,the inner consciousness does not stand with its attestations over against all other things4 ,the greatest of these philosophers never thought of himself but as 8bone of the bone and flesh of the flesh0 of the world surrounding him4 ,in art the classic ,greek 8could obey but not surpass nature02 in religion he worshiped beings that were only superior human beings2 in politics he was a member of a social whole4 ,to schylus1 ,pericles1 ,socrates1 ,protagoras1 ,aristophanes1 ,democritus1 ,plato1 and ,aristotle alike1 human nature is a part of the world and not vice versa4 ,the ,greek mind interpreted nature rather than recreated it4 ,what1 then1 is the nature of the development of ,greek thought1 and in what respect does the ,greek ,systematic philosophy differ from the philosophy of the ,greek ,cosmologists8 ,greek philosophy in the ,cosmological ,period starts with a conception of an objective harmony of nature and spirit which is called hylozoism4 ,step by step in the ,anthropological and ,systematic ,periods that harmony becomes broken into a dualism of mind and matter4 ,the philosophy of this ,systematic ,period is a dualism of the parts of one objective world1 not a subjective-objective antithesis4 ,the realm of spirit lies side by side with that of nature1 and the separation and alienation never reached the complete form that it did in the ,middle ,ages4 ,the great ,greek ,systematizers in part represent this dualistic tendency1 in part are a scientific effort to overcome it4 8,in spite of this tendency to a dualism the original presupposition a harmony between nature and spirit asserts itself in decisive traits2 and we shall find that the true cause of its incapacity to reconcile these contradictions satisfactorily lies in its refusal to abandon that presupposition4 ,when that unity is canceled1 there remains to it no possible way of filling up a chasm which1 according to its own standpoint1 cannot exist40#ba ,a ,summary of ,greek ,philosophy4 ,at this point a summary of ,greek objective philosophy will be helpful4 ,the philosophical problem that had been working itself out since ,thales had been this3 ,how may we think the ,being that abides amid the changes of phenomena8 ,the ,cosmologists scrutinized physical nature and1 without differentiating nature and spirit1 conceived abiding ,being to be living matter4 ,the ,anthropologists 7except ,socrates7 doubted if there is any abiding ,being4 ,among the ,systematic ,philosophers a dualism for the first time appears4 ,nature and spirit are differentiated1 but both remain entirely objective4 ,democritus regarded the material universe as abiding ,being1 but in so large a way as to be able to construct upon it a psychology and an ethics4 ,plato found abiding ,being in the realm of the spirit1 in a group of moral and sthetic entities4 ,aristotle attempts to overcome the opposition between materialism and ,platonism4 ,to him abiding ,being is neither physical nature nor the spirit apart from physical nature4 ,abiding ,being to ,aristotle is the spirit in nature4 ,greek ,philosophy 7objective74 #a4 ,the ,cosmologists,hylozoism4 ,abiding ,being is living naturesome form of living matter4 #b4 ,the ,anthropologists,relativism 7except ,socrates74 ,being is not abiding1 but consists of transitory mental states4 ,this is a form of what was called by the schoolmen ,nominalism1 and summed up by the phrase ,universalia post rem4 #c4 ,the ,systematic ,philosophers4 ,democritus,materialism4 ,being consists in material atoms1 but regarded in so large a way as to furnish a basis for a psychology and an ethics4 ,plato,objective ,idealism4 ,being consists of permanent moral and sthetic concepts or types4 ,in medival philosophy ,platonism was called realism and was summed up by the phrase ,universalia ante rem4 ,aristotle,conceptualism4 ,the abiding ,being does not consist of material atoms nor in spiritual types apart from matter1 but is an unfolding essence in matter4 ,this was usually called conceptualism by the ,schoolmen1 and was summed up by the phrase ,universalia in re4 ,aristotle's conception was as difficult as it was important4 ,he was not always clearly a conceptualist1 but sometimes appeared in the rle of an 8objective realist40 ,democritus and ,plato,their ,similarities and ,differences4 ,the materialism of ,democritus and the idealism of ,plato were as opposed as was possible within the realm of ,greek thought4 ,we must not exaggerate their similarities1 but they had at least four common characteristics4 ,their ,similarities4 #a4 ,both develop an outspoken rationalism1#bb which starts as a reaction from the perception theory of ,protagoras4 ,they agree with ,protagoras that perception cannot yield truth1 and so they turn away from perception to the reason to find true knowledge4 #b4 ,both develop a world of twofold reality4 ,perceptions are not regarded by them as illusions1 although perceptions are transitory4 ,both make a new estimate of perceptions1 and give to the world of perceptions a relative value4 ,there are therefore two kinds of reality3 the relative reality of the world of perceptions and the absolute reality of the world of reason4 ,the result in both is a broad theory of knowledge4 #c4 ,in both1 reality consists in a plural number of objective norms4 ,both reach their conception of these norms in the same way4 ,the changing qualities of things are stripped away and the true reality is discovered beneath4 ,both designate this true form by the same word1 idea 774 ,to both1 the forms are objective entities4 #d4 ,both are attempts to overcome scientifically the dualism which had emerged from the former hylozoism of ,greek thought4 ,their ,differences,the ,development of the ,meaning of ,idea4 #a4 ,but the forms or ideas are so vitally different in the doctrines of these two philosophers that they have nothing in common save the name4 ,on the one hand1 ,democritus took the word 8idea0 just as he found it in popular speech4 ,it is the shape of a visible thing1 the geometrical form of physical objects4 ,it gets no new content in his hands1 but is merely the physical atom4 ,with ,plato1 however1 the word gets a new meaning4 ,he fills the form or idea with an ethical content4 ,the idea as a quantity becomes now a quality4 ,the idea becomes an ,idea4 ,the forms of ,plato are logical species and teleological causes1 while the forms of ,democritus are atom-complexes4#bc ,in both philosophers they are the norms of reality4 ,but while ,democritus still keeps his forms as the realities of physical nature1 ,plato conceives his forms to be true realities of objective human nature4 #b4 ,this vital difference between the two philosophers may get some explanation from the difference in the philosophical inheritance of each4 ,to be sure1 they were contemporaries1 both being born in the ,anthropological ,period and both doing their most mature work in the ,systematic ,period4 ,both1 too1 were acquainted with the philosophy of the preceding time4 ,but the ethical teaching of ,socrates dominated ,plato1 and through it he became the legitimate perfecter of the ,greek enlightenment and the anthropological movement4 ,but what was the influence of ,socrates upon ,democritus8 ,it seems to have been nothing4 ,why is ,plato absolutely silent about ,democritus when he mentions other ,greek philosophers8 ,no one has yet been able to say4 ,democritus stands at ,abdera isolated from the ethical movement at ,athens4 ,the only influence upon him from that movement came from ,protagoras1 who was a member of the school at ,abdera4 ,democritus is the finisher of the ,cosmological movement4 ,the ,life of ,democritus 7#dfj-cgj ,b4 ,c474 ,democritus was twenty years younger than ,protagoras1 about ten years younger than ,socrates1 and a generation older than ,plato4 ,he was outlived by ,plato2 and ,aristotle was a young man when ,democritus died4 ,he was therefore contemporary with the intellectual movement going on in ,greece1 with ,athens as a centre4 ,while he does not appear to have come under the influence of ,socrates1 he was well acquainted with the destructive epistemology of the ,sophists4 ,abdera1 where he lived1 is in ,thrace1 and seems to have been outside the ,anthropological movement at ,athens4 ,the school of ,leucippus was at ,abdera2 and ,democritus was instructed in the ,sophistic doctrine directly from ,protagoras1 who was a member of the ,atomistic school before going to ,athens4 ,the three ,systematic philosophers were wide travelers1 ,democritus not less than ,plato and ,aristotle4 ,he traveled extensively through ,greece1 ,egypt1 and the ,orient4 ,he then returned to ,abdera and began his scientific activity4 ,he remained five years in ,egypt1 and came to know the greater part of western ,asia4 ,he returned to ,abdera about #dbj ,b4 ,c41 and therefore did not begin his teaching before he was forty years old4 ,the length of time that ,democritus1 ,plato1 and ,aristotle took for their apprenticeship1 and the advanced age before they began their mastership1 is remarkable4 ,democritus was the greatest investigator of nature in antiquity1 and ,aristotle used much of ,democritus' work for his own scientific writings4 ,the ancients admired the writings of ,democritus1 and the loss of them in the fourth century after ,christ is one of the most lamentable that has happened to the literary documents of antiquity4 ,his works were extraordinary in number1 and upon every known subject4 ,democritus was the real exponent of the ,atomistic school4 ,the founder1 ,leucippus1 belonged to the ,cosmological ,period2 ,protagoras1 the ,sophist1 belonged to the ,anthropological ,period1 and had great influence in the development of the school at ,abdera2 but ,democritus1 in systematizing the doctrines of ,leucippus and in accepting the perception theory of ,protagoras1 became its most notable representative4 ,he was the great systematizer of the ,cosmologists1 and yet he differed from all the ,cosmologists in embodying in his theory the results of the ,sophistic movement4 ,the ,comprehensiveness of the ,aim of ,democritus4 ,the reconstruction of the philosophy of ,democritus has always been difficult for the historian because1 from the originally great mass of his writings1 only fragments remain4 ,the fragments show1 however1 many interesting things3 that he covered the entire range of experience in his investigations2 that he was quite as much interested in psychical as in physical problems2 that his contribution to epistemology was even greater than to physics2 and that he was interested in the atomic theory because he believed that it was a working hypothesis for the explanation of experience of every kind4 ,this last characteristic shows the systematic nature of his work and his right to stand with ,plato and ,aristotle4 ,democritus fully realized that the task of science was to explain experiences through a conception of reality4 ,so he constructed his conception of the atom in order that he might explain phenomena intelligibly4 ,he saw that no conception strange to experience or against experience1 like the ,eleatic ,being1 would answer scientific demands4 ,a rational conception of absolute reality will have value only as experience testifies to it and1 on the other hand1 as it explains experience4 ,democritus valued his theory of the atoms because it seemed to explain all phenomena4 ,this construction of a single fundamental rational principle for all kinds of phenomena shows how much more of a systematic scientist he was than the ,cosmologists4 ,the ,enriched ,physics of ,democritus,hylozoism becomes ,materialism4 ,there is so great enrichment in elaboration and generalization in the physical doctrine of ,democritus over that of ,leucippus that it amounts to a change in principle4 ,in all probability ,leucippus1 like other ,cosmologists1 was a hylozoist1 and did not differentiate matter and life4 ,he is to be grouped with the ,reconcilers1 or even with the ,eleatics1 rather than with ,democritus4 ,democritus was a materialist4 ,the period of forty years between himself and ,leucippus had been the rich period of the introduction of psychological investigation and of the discrimination of psychical from physical processes4 ,materialism or spiritualism is not possible in the historical development of the human mind until it passes through just such a period of differentiation as the ,sophistic ,enlightenment4 ,before such a period there is animism and hylozoism2 after such a period there is materialism and spiritualism of various sorts4 ,matter must be discriminated from spirit before one of the terms can be reduced to the other4 ,so the hylozoistic pluralism of ,leucippus became in the hands of ,democritus a realistic materialism1 pluralistic as well4 ,the reduction of all phenomena by ,democritus to a mechanics of atoms was theoretically an enrichment of physics1 for it anticipated the underlying principle of modern physics4 ,the apparent qualities of things and the qualitative changes of things are conceived by ,democritus to be in truth only a quantitative relation of atoms4 ,he set before himself the task of explaining in detail how this or that quality consists of atoms in mechanical motion4 ,the mental life of man must be explained in the same way4 ,so too1 wherever he could1 he emphasized more sharply than his predecessors the mechanical necessity of the movement of atoms4 ,impact caused by contact of the atoms was the cause of every occurrence and change4 ,no event is to be explained as the manifestation of some spirit1 or referred to some spiritual agency4 ,mechanical cause is behind every event2 mechanical cause is the unifying principle of the doctrine of ,democritus2 mechanical cause is the reason for the chasm between the philosophy of ,plato1 of ,aristotle1 and that of ,democritus4 ,it is the reason1 too1 why the theory of ,democritus was obscured until modern times4 ,all teleological conceptions and all hylozoistic and animistic ideas are expelled from the theory of ,democritus1 on the assumption that spatial form and motion are simpler and more comprehensible terms of explanation4 ,thus for the first time we have a conscious outspoken materialism1 and for the first time the world is conceived to be a universal reign of mechanical law4 ,the physical theory of ,democritus also yielded a rich scientific explanation of the historical evolution of the universe4 ,the universe1 according to ,democritus1following the teaching of ,leucippus1consists of two parts3 the ,plenum or self-moving1 qualitatively similar atoms2 and the ,void or empty space1 in which the atoms move4 ,the ,plenum1 or the atoms1 is ,being2 the ,void is not-,being4 ,the atoms differ only in form and size2#bd they are infinite in number and therefore are of an infinite number of forms and sizes2 they are imperceptibly small4 ,the perceptible qualities do not belong to them1 but to their motions4 ,motion is an irreducible function of atoms1 and each atom1 lawless in itself1 is in flight through space4 ,an aggregation of atoms arises when the atoms meet in their cosmic flight4 ,the shock causes a vortex which draws more atoms into itself4 ,like atoms are drawn together1 and the heavy atoms press the fine fire-atoms to the periphery4 ,thus innumerable worlds are formed1 for any place of the meeting of several atoms can be the beginning of a new world4 ,sometimes small worlds are drawn into the vortices of large worlds1 and sometimes large worlds disintegrate in fatal collisions4 ,the worlds are therefore endless and in endless succession4 ,the whole swings in space like a ball2 the rim of the whole consists of compact atoms2 the centre is filled with air4 ,to much further length than we can go here ,democritus developed a theoretical description of cosmic evolution upon the principle of mechanical necessityand the description is almost modern4 ,the ,materialistic ,psychology of ,democritus4 ,it is easy to understand an explanation of the physical universe as atoms in motion2 for our modern scientific theories of nature are set in these terms1 even if we have transformed the ,democritan static atom into a dynamic entity4 ,it is rather more interesting to follow such a materialist as ,democritus in his extension of the materialistic principle over upon the realm of the mental life4 ,in the first place1 ,democritus conceives man to be part and parcel of the world of atoms4 ,man is composed of all kinds of atoms4 ,his body consists of earth1 water1 and air atoms4 ,his mind is made up of fire atoms1 which differ from the others in being the finest1 smoothest1 and most mobile4 ,on this account the fire atoms are the most perfect of all4 ,psychical activity is the motion of fire atoms4 ,they are scattered throughout the universe1 and wherever they are1 there is life4 ,they are in plants and animals as well as in man4 ,there is a larger collection of them in man1 and this shows his superiority over other living things4 ,in man there is a fire atom between every two other atoms1 and the whole is held together by breathing4 ,the different forms of mental activity are simply different forms of atomic motion4 ,in the next place1 our atomic make-up involves the presence of other atomic complexes1 if we are to have any psychical activity4 ,external things must stimulate us4 ,but these external things are atoms in action4 ,they can1 however1 influence us only by coming into contact with our bodies4 ,only by impact on our bodies can they set in motion the fire atoms which are scattered through our bodies4 ,every kind of knowledge or mental life involves the participation of the fire atoms in us4 ,thus mental activity involves two factors2 the fire atoms within us and an external group of atoms without us4 ,how did ,democritus explain the varied mental life as the resultant of these two factors8 ,he employed the theory of effluxes1 belief in which he shared with his time4 ,this is a purely physiological assumption1 originated by such ,cosmologists as ,empedocles1 that somehow external bodies send off emanations from themselves which strike upon our bodies4 ,most objects in the world influence us at a distance and only through the emission of these effluxes4 ,democritus conceived these emanations to be little copies or 8eidola0 of the thing that sends them off4 ,to illustrate ,democritus' meaning3 a tree is seen by me because little trees1 thrown off by it1 hit my eye4 ,this theory retained its position in philosophical circles until after ,locke4 ,it persists in the popular mind to-day4 ,it is a general belief that a thought is a copy1 photograph1 or image of the thing4 ,the words 8image0 and 8imagination0 betray their origin4 ,it was believed by ,democritus that such copies set in motion the sense organs and through them the fire atoms4 ,the effluxes can1 however1 affect only those organs of the body that have similar formation and similar atomic motions4 ,but the effluxes vary very much in the degree of fineness of their atomic structure4 ,there are all sorts1 from very fine to very coarse4 ,since the efflux must correspond to a particular sense if that sense is to be affected by it1 the effluxes that can affect the senses vary respectively as to their fineness4 ,democritus was particularly interested in the sensations of sight and hearing as examples of this4 ,none of the effluxes affecting the senses are as fine as those that stimulate the reason4 ,unless they were the finest of all the effluxes1 they could not affect the fine motions of the fire atoms of the reason4 ,these finest 8eidola0 or effluxes are the true copies of things1 and the reason therefore alone knows things truly4 ,thought1 on the one hand1 is precisely the atomic motion of the direct impact of the finest effluxes upon the fine fire-atoms of the soul4 ,sensation1 on the other hand1 is atomic motion from the indirect impact of the coarser grades of effluxes upon the fire atoms4 ,the reason knows reality directly4 ,sensations are aroused in a roundabout way by the coarse effluxes setting in motion the corresponding sense organ1 which in turn sets in motion the fire atoms4 ,thus does ,democritus make the distinction between thought and sensation in quantitative terms4 ,thus does he reduce his psychology to a consistency with his metaphysical principle of materialism4 ,democritus' ,theory of ,knowledge,the ,world of ,twofold ,reality4 ,democritus would have been only one of the great ,cosmologists1 and he would not have his place by the side of ,plato and ,aristotle1 if his materialism had illuminated no other subject than physics4 ,indeed1 it is doubtful if his physics would have been so grandly comprehensive and unqualified had it not been strengthened by his discriminating theory of twofold knowledge4 ,he might have extended and systematized his materialism so that it explained to the satisfaction of his time both physical and psychical phenomena1 and still have been a hylozoist1 like ,leucippus1 the founder of the ,atomistic school4 ,the problem of knowledgethe problem of estimating our mental stateswas as incomprehensible to ,leucippus as to the ,eleatics4 ,democritus1 however1 was a rationalist and realist like ,plato and ,aristotle4 ,he recognized1 as did they1 that there is a difference in epistemological values4 ,his universalized materialism did not prevent him from evaluating our experiences from the same general point of view as the leader of the ,academy and the ,stagirite4 ,he felt that a twofold reality is as consistent with materialistic principles as with idealism4 ,so he reduced all qualities to quantities1 and then as quantities re-valued and classified them4 ,his chief contribution was to the subject of epistemology and not to physics1 and that is why he is treated among the ,greek ,systematizers and not among the ,cosmologists4 ,probably his chief interest lay where he did his chief work4 ,the perception theory of ,protagoras was the starting-point of both ,democritus and ,plato4 ,both adopted it in order to transcend it and make it of real significance4 ,democritus1 upon the basis of his materialistic psychology1 admitted that sense-perception is only a transitory process1 and its knowledge must be as transitory4 ,but he did not agree with ,protagoras that all knowledge is perceptual4 ,sense-perception does yield only relative knowledge2 but there is another kind of knowledge that is not relative but absolute4 ,this is knowledge of the reason4 ,human beings have reason as well as sense-perception4 ,thus is ,democritus a rationalist1 although a materialist4 ,the contribution of ,democritus to the theory of knowledge consists in just this turn which he gave to ,protagoras' doctrine of perception4 ,the relativity of perception becomes in the ,democritan theory a different thing from what it was in the doctrine of the great ,sophist4 ,to ,protagoras perceptual knowledge is relative1 and therefore of no value in determining what is real4 ,to ,democritus perceptual knowledge is relative1 but it has a value1a relative value4 ,it gets this relative value from the fact that the reason can determine absolute reality4 ,perception is the contributor to the reason1 and also in turn is illuminated by the reason4 ,in the same breath we may say that ,protagoras was a contributor to the theory of ,democritus1 and in turn that the ,protagorean relativism was illuminated by the ,democritan rationalism4 ,the result was a twofold knowledgein the language of ,democritus1 8genuine knowledge0 and 8obscure insight40 ,the objects corresponding to these two kinds of knowledge must be of two kinds4 ,on the one hand1 the objects of the reason1 or 8genuine knowledge10 are the genuine1 primary1 or real properties of the atomsfor the atoms are reality to ,democritus4 ,these are form1 size1 inertia1 density1 and hardness4#be ,a study of these properties of things is1 therefore1 a study of real objects4 ,on the other hand1 the objects of perception or 8obscure insight0 are the properties of atoms as perceived obscurely by the senses4 ,these are color1 sound1 taste1 smell4 ,they are the qualities or relative properties of things4 ,a study of these is a study of only what is relatively real4 ,when materialism was revived by the ,renaissance1 the former group of objects were called 8primary qualities0 and the latter 8secondary qualities40 ,these terms have become classic1 and have rendered permanent ,democritus' evaluation of the objects of the two kinds of knowledge4 ,out of the fragments of the teaching of the ,cosmologists and the one-sided epistemology of the ,sophists1 ,democritus constructed contemporaneously with ,plato1 perhaps antecedently to him1 a theory of twofold knowledge4 ,the ,ethical ,theory of ,democritus4 ,the ethics of ,democritus is another example of his general principle of a mechanism of atoms4 ,his attempt to reduce all qualitative to quantitative relations1 which gives his theory a unique place in ,greek thought1 reaches its highest distinction in his ethics4 ,the influence of his ethical doctrine upon the ,epicureans1 and possibly upon the ,cyrenaics1 shows its importance in history4 ,furthermore1 its high quality proves that a materialism can offer inspiring ethical doctrines4 ,some have placed the ethics of ,democritus upon a level with the ethics of ,socrates because1 as it is pointed out1 he placed it upon an intellectual basis4 ,the basal ethical principle of ,democritus may be stated thus3 ,as true knowledge is the ideal object of the intellect1 so true happiness is the ideal object of our conduct4 ,the ethics of ,democritus is eudmonistic1 like that of ,socrates4 ,pleasures have fundamental differences4 ,they are in every case the results of atomic motions2 but the atomic motions of the intellect differ from those of the senses1 and those of the senses differ from one another4 ,the fire atoms of the intellect are small1 and have a gentle1 peaceful motion2 the atomic motions of the senses are coarse and violent1 caused by the coarse effluxes of the objects that excite them4 ,sense-pleasures are relative1 like the perceptions4 ,as perception is obscure insight and gains the appearance and not the true reality1 so the pleasures of sense are transitory1 uncertain1 violent1 and deceitful4 ,intellectual pleasures are1 like the intellect1 real1 true1 permanent1 gentle1 and peaceful4 ,true happiness1 the goal of human activity1 attends upon that right insightupon the gentle atomic motions of the intellectual life4 ,on the other hand1 the coarse atomic motions of the senses disturb the intellectual calm1 and are often violent explosions4 ,democritus believed that knowledge of the atoms1 as the true explanation of the world1 will give to the soul a measure and a harmony1 will guard it from excitement and make it possessor of a peace whichto use his happy simileis like the ocean calm4 ,two ideals seem to stand before ,democritus1 which he did not try to reconcile4 ,sometimes before his mind's eye the ideal happiness is purely intellectual pleasure and points toward asceticism4 ,sometimes he speaks of happiness as the life of perfect self-control and temperance4 ,he never positively denies all value to sense-pleasure1 but he gives to sense-pleasure the relative value that he gives to the senses themselves4 ,in every case the ground of happiness is intellectual refinement1 and the ground of unhappiness the lack of it4 ,the majority of men are sensualists and are to be contrasted with the ,wise ,man1 who finds his happiness either in his individual life or in his friendship with other ,wise ,men4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,plato 7#dbg-cdg ,b4 ,c47 ,abdera and ,athens4 ,the materialism of ,democritus was the natural consummation of the thought of the ,cosmological ,period4 ,the influence of the ,sophistic psychology only enriched it1 widened it1 and brought its materialism into a systematic formulation4 ,the ,democritan system from the isolated centre of ,abdera points only to the past4 ,upon the death of ,democritus the school quickly disappeared4 ,its materialistic doctrine reappeared from time to time in one form and another1in the ,skeptics1 the ,epicureans1 and the ,stoics4 ,it was reintroduced as a system into ,europe during the ,renaissance4 ,so far as ,greece was concerned1 the school of ,abdera was an early ripening and an early dying branch4 ,the school of ,athenian immaterialism1 the principal tendency of ,greek thought1 arose from the centre of ,attic civilization and pointed to the future4 ,it drew its materials from practically the same sources as the philosophy of ,abdera1 but the materials were polarized about the ethical teaching of ,socrates4 ,the life of ,plato coincides with the unhappy history of ,athens after the death of ,pericles 7#dbi ,b4 ,c474 ,the ,peloponnesian ,war began in #dca ,b4 ,c41 two years before the death of ,pericles and four years before the birth of ,plato2 and it did not end until #djc ,b4 ,c4 ,the event most disastrous to the ,athenians during this war was the ,sicilian expedition in #dac ,b4 ,c4 ,athens was captured by the ,spartans in #djc ,b4 ,c41 and the great walls of the city were destroyed4 ,the remainder of ,plato's life was contemporaneous with the devastating wars among the ,greek cities1 for there was no city strong enough to hold the balance of power after it left the hands of the ,athenians4 ,in #cei ,b4 ,c4 ,macedon began to loom up as a power in the north4 ,the life of ,plato1 the formulator of ,athenian immaterialism1 may be easily remembered as covering that period between the rise of ,sparta and the rise of ,macedon4 ,the ,difficulties in ,understanding the ,teaching of ,plato4 ,the theory of ,plato is one of the most involved and one of the most difficult to understand in the whole history of philosophy4 ,this difficulty of interpreting ,plato as a philosopher depends upon many factors3 upon the artistic literary form of the dialogue in which his philosophy is presented2 upon the conflicting tendencies of thought in ,plato himself2 upon the fact that the composition of his dialogues extended over a period of more than half a century2 upon the constant reshaping of the content as well as the form of his thought2 and upon the uncertainty of the chronological order of his writings4 ,this chronological order of ,plato's dialogues is an important factor in determining his teaching4 ,since the beginning of the nineteenth century a vast amount of literature has been published on the subject1 and many theories of the dialogue-chronology have been proposed4 ,there are three principal groups of theories3 7#a7 those based upon purely a priori hypotheses1 as1 for example1 that of ,hermann1 that each dialogue is a stage in the development of ,plato's thought2 or that of ,schleiermacher1 that ,plato had a systematic plan from the beginning2 7#b7 those based upon an empirical study of the historical allusions in the dialogues themselves 7,zeller1 ,windelband1 et als472 7#c7 those recent theories based upon the 8stylometric test10 i4 e4 by an examination of the peculiarities of the style of ,plato4 ,lutoslawski is a prominent representative of this method4 ,the result to the student is bewildering1 on account of the differing conclusions4 ,but since some choice must be made1 we shall follow the order laid down by ,windelband1#bf because it is fairly orthodox and conservative4 ,for convenience to the memory1 the writings will be grouped in the periods of ,plato's life4 ,our interpretation will therefore follow ,windelband in respect to the character of ,plato's theory itself4 ,the ,life and ,writings of ,plato4 ,two important events divide ,plato's long life of eighty years into three periods4 ,these events were the death of his master1 ,socrates1 in #cii ,b4 ,c41 and ,plato's return from ,sicily in #chg ,b4 ,c41 after having there come under the influence of the ,pythagoreans4 ,his first period may be called his student life1 and was twenty-eight years long2 the second period was that of the traveler1 and was twelve years long2 the third period was that of teacher of the ,academy1 and was forty years long4 ,the first half of his life therefore covers the first two periods1 and the second half covers his period as teacher4 ,probably he was engaged in the composition of the dialogues during all these periods1 and ,cicero reports him to have died 8pen in hand0 7scribens est mortuus74 #a4 ,plato's ,student ,life 7#dbg-cii ,b4 ,c474 ,this period closes with the death of ,socrates4 ,his acquaintance with ,socrates began when he was twenty years old1 and therefore lasted eight years4 ,the dialogues written during this period are presentations of the doctrine of ,socrates and do not contain the constructive theory of ,plato4 ,they are concerned either with ,socratic subjects or with ,socrates personally1 and were written in part during ,socrates' life1 in part directly after his death4 7a7 ,dialogues written under the influence of ,socrates3 ,lysis1 concerning friendship2 ,laches1 concerning courage2 ,charmides1 concerning moderation4 7b7 ,dialogues written in defense of ,socrates3 ,crito1 concerning ,socrates' fidelity to law2 ,apology1 a general defense of ,socrates2 ,euthryphro1 concerning ,socrates' true piety4 #b4 ,plato as ,traveler 7#cii-chg ,b4 ,c474 ,during this period ,plato made one short and two long journeys1 and after each he returned to ,athens4 ,upon the death of ,socrates he went to ,megara1 where a former pupil of ,socrates had a school4 ,upon this journey he was accompanied by other pupils of ,socrates1 who1 as tradition has it1 feared violence to themselves after the death of their master4 ,plato remained in ,megara but a short time1 and soon returned to ,athens4 ,immediately upon his return to ,athens he went to ,cyrene and ,egypt1 and was away from ,athens about four years 7until #cie ,b4 ,c474 ,the ,egyptian journey had little influence upon his thought1 but must have stimulated his imagination4 ,he then remained at ,athens four years 7#cie-cia ,b4 ,c471 and during this time he taught a small circle and wrote his polemics against the ,sophists4 ,in #cia ,b4 ,c4 ,plato made his first ,italian journeyto ,sicily and southern ,italy4 ,this marks the second critical point in his mental development4 ,for at this time 7#a7 he came under the influence of the ,italian ,pythagoreans1 and 7#b7 he attempted and failed in connection with ,dion#bg and ,dionysius to erect his ideal state in ,syracuse4 ,he was sold as a slave by ,dionysius1 redeemed by a friend1 and returned to ,athens in #chg ,b4 ,c41 having been away about four years4 ,it is to be noted that ,democritus and ,plato were wide travelers1 considering the difficulties of locomotion of the time4 ,both ,democritus and ,plato went to ,egypt1 and ,democritus spent several years in ,asia ,minor 7see p4 #ajg74 ,the dialogues written during this period may be divided into 7a7 the group of polemics against the ,sophists1 and 7b7 the ,meno4 7a7 ,the polemics against the ,sophists 7written between his return from ,egypt in #cie ,b4 ,c4 and his first ,italian journey in #cia ,b4 ,c474 ,they are an attempt to present a solid front against the ,sophists1 and to show the weakness of the ,sophistic doctrines4 ,these polemical dialogues are3 ,protagoras1 a criticism of the ,sophistic assumption that virtue is teachable1 because that assumption is incompatible with the ,sophistic fundamental principle2 ,gorgias1 showing how superficial the ,sophistic rhetoric is when compared with true culture1 which is the foundation of real statecraft2 ,euthydemus1 an exposition of the fallacies in the ,sophistic eristic2 ,cratylus1 a criticism of the philological attempts of the ,sophists2 ,thetetus1 a criticism of the ,sophistic theories of knowledge2 ,the ,first ,book of the ,republic 7the 8,dialogue concerning ,justice071 a criticism of the ,sophistic naturalistic theory of the state4 7b7 ,meno1 which contains the first positive statement by ,plato of his own constructive theory4 ,it is the first intimation of development beyond the simple ,socratic theory of knowledge4 ,plato states this1 however1 rather timidly1 by suggestions and after the manner of a mathematician4 #c4 ,plato as ,teacher of the ,academy 7#chg-cdg ,b4 ,c474 ,these forty years were spent by ,plato in ,athens as master and teacher of his school1 the ,academy1 with the exception of two journeys to ,italy4 ,he undertook these journeys in the hope of realizing in a practical way his political ideals4 ,he made his second ,italian journey upon the invitation of ,dion1 in the hope of influencing the younger ,dionysius1 and the third ,italian journey in order to reconcile ,dion and ,dionysius4 ,this last journey brought him again into great personal danger4 ,what was the ,academy8 ,it was a public grove or garden in the suburbs of ,athens 7see map1 p4 #bai7 that had been left to the city for gymnastics by a public-spirited man named ,academus4 ,it had been surrounded by a wall and had been adorned by olive trees1 statues1 and temples4 ,near this inclosure ,plato possessed by inheritance a small estate4 ,it was here that he opened his school1 and few places could be more favorable for the study of philosophy4 ,plato bequeathed this estate to the school1 which held the property in a corporate capacity for several centuries4 ,the leader of the school was called scholarch1 and he appointed his own successor4 ,the school was a kind of religious brotherhood based upon the worship of the ,muses4 ,note that ,democritus1 ,plato1 and ,aristotle finished their education at an age much beyond what is supposed to be the limit in modern time4 ,they were1 in fact1 mature men before they began their life work4 ,plato was #cb before he began to teach in ,athens and #dj before he set himself about his real life task in the founding of the ,academy4 ,democritus was #dj before he returned to ,abdera from his travels in ,asia ,minor4 ,aristotle was #da when he undertook to act as tutor of ,alexander1 and #di when he began his administration of the ,lyceum4 ,the dialogues of the third period of ,plato's life contain his constructive theory1 and are his masterpieces of art4 ,the topics with which they deal show the advance of his thought over the dialogues of his first period4 ,the purely ,socratic dialogues were ethical discussions2 these are ethical1 metaphysical1 and physical4 ,phdrus1 ,plato's delivery of his programme upon his entrance into active teaching in the ,academy1 in #chf ,b4 ,c4 ,symposium1 an exposition of his entire doctrine in 8love speeches40 ,it is the most artistic of his writings1 and represents the climax of his intellectual power 7#che or #chd ,b4 ,c474 ,republic 7major portion74 ,the composition of the ,republic extended over a long period4 ,it is a discussion3 7#a7 concerning justice 7written in the second period1 see above72 7#b7 concerning the ideal state which shall realize justice2 7#c7 concerning the ,idea of the ,good and in criticism of the constitutions of states4 ,it is ,plato's masterpiece and his life work4 ,parmenides and ,sophist1 written to express the objections to the theory of ,ideas1 and to discuss such objections4 7,windelband holds these dialogues were not written by ,plato1 but by some member of his school4 ,this is1 however1 not the consensus of opinion47 ,politicus1 a discussion of the field of knowledge and of action for a statesman4 ,phdo1 ,plato's final will and testament to the school1 written shortly before his third ,sicilian journey1 in #cfa ,b4 ,c4 ,it is his completed conception of the ,idea of the ,good and of the relation of other ,ideas to it4 ,it contains ,anaxagorean and ,pythagorean elements4 ,philebus1 concerning the ingredients of the ,idea of the ,good4 ,timus1 ,plato's conception of physical nature1 expressed in mythical form4 ,laws1 the work of ,plato's old age1 his revision of the ideal ,state4 ,concerning the ,dialogues#bh of ,plato4 ,the early philosophers presented their philosophy in metrical form as poems 8concerning nature02 ,socrates perpetuated his teachings through conversations with men2 ,plato made his influence permanent by written dialogues2 ,aristotle's philosophy1 in the works that have been preserved1 stands in the form of treatises whose sole purpose is that of exposition4 ,plato's dialogues therefore have a twofold place in the history of literature4 ,on the one hand1 in the history of literature proper we have already mentioned them as standing after the ,greek drama in the development of ,greek dialectics2 on the other hand1 in the development of philosophical instruction they stand between the conversations of ,socrates and the scientific expositions of ,aristotle4 ,plato was the first child of ,fortune1 and the complete preservation of his works was the most remarkable proof of it4 schylus was the author of at least #gj writings1 of which #g are preserved2 ,euripides was the author of #ie writings1 of which #ah are preserved2 ,sophocles had #abc writings1 aside from his lyric works1 of which #g are preserved4 ,shakespeare wrote #cf plays1 ,plato wrote #ce dialogues that are genuine4 ,all of ,plato's writings have come down to us4 ,why were the writings of ,plato preserved from the destroying hand of time8 ,there are at least three causes of their preservation3 7#a7 they had intrinsic beauty2 7#b7 there was contemporary public interest in them2 7#c7 the chief cause1 ,plato's school kept close guard over them4 ,by the dialogue ,plato could employ the ,socratic method1 give dramatic effect1 and idealize ,socrates4 ,the ,republic is his crowning literary effort1 and the most complete statement of his mature political views4 ,perhaps the ,philebus is the best expression of his idea of goodness1 and presents his most complete organization of the sciences4 ,all ,plato's dialogues have a transparent beauty and a purity of diction2 and they may be taken as a revelation of himself4 ,all are dialogues save the ,apology1 but the dialogue element grows less and less in his later works4 ,socrates is usually the spokesman in them1 and to him is usually given the deciding word4 ,only a few have a fixed plan of argument4 ,one thread and then another is followed1 and in many no decision whatever is reached2 for the dialogues must always be taken as artistic products in which philosophical experiences are idealized4 ,plato often employs myths or parables to illuminate his arguments4 ,the situations and the literary adornments show the human touch1 and the conversation often moves to a dramatic close4 ,in the ,republic ,plato sought to formulate theoretically certain political conceptions of the ideal ,state that were then in the air4 ,it is interesting to note that his conception influenced the political idealism of later time1 as1 for example1 ,cicero's ,de ,republica1 ,augustine's ,city of ,god1 ,more's ,utopia1 ,campanella's ,state of the ,sun1 ,bacon's ,new ,atlantis1 ,macchiavelli's ,il ,principe4 ,the ,factors in the ,construction of ,plato's ,doctrine4 #a4 ,his ,inherited ,tendencies4 7a7 ,in the first place ,plato was by instinct an aristocrat4 ,his family was one of the most distinguished in ,athens1 and traced its descent from ,solon and ,codrus4 ,in making an estimate of his philosophy one must take account of the caste of society in which he was born4 ,his metaphysical theory of ,ideas is aristocratic1 and in it he turns from all that is of the earth earthy to what is above the life of 8opinion40 ,his four cardinal virtues are possible only to the few4 ,his political attitude was peculiar4 ,he was hostile to the democracy1 and yet his political idealism diverged so far from the practical politics of ,athenian aristocracy that he completely abstained from public life4 ,with ,plato1 philosophy once more retires to the school4 ,here we have the strange juxtaposition of ,socrates1 the teacher1 who had been engaged in a practical reformation1 whose father was an artisan and whose mother a midwife1 and ,plato1 his adoring pupil and truest interpreter1,plato1 the idealist1 8whose speculation is not like the ,philistine1 whose life is spent in the market place or the workshop1 and whose world is measured by the narrow boundaries of his native town2 it is the lord of the manor1 who retires to his mansion1 after having seen the world1 and turns his gaze towards the distant horizon2 disdaining the noise of the cross-roads1 he mingles only in the best society1 where is heard the most elegant1 the noblest1 and the loftiest language that has ever been spoken in the home of the ,muses40#bi 7b7 ,in the next place ,plato had an instinctive love for the beautiful1 and in this he was great1 even in his time4 ,every ,periclean ,greek was artistic1 but ,plato was more than this4 ,he is to be ranked among the great creators of the art of his day1with ,phidias and ,sophocles4 ,he represented in his person everything ideally ,greek4 ,he was a man of great beauty1 a human ,apollo1 a man endowed with every physical and mental talent1 and his moral character was almost ideal in its purposes4 ,his real name was ,aristocles1 and he got his name ,plato from his broad frame4 ,the artistic development of the time appealed to him in his youth1 and he was early interested in the writing of epic and dramatic poetry4 ,this artistic instinct determined in no small measure not only the form of the presentation of his thought1 but also the content of the thought itself4 ,it determined his principle of conceiving the ,ideas1 the constitution of his ,state1 his theory of pleasure1 and his conception of the highest ,good4 ,the artistic form of the presentation of his writings was as important to him as the matter presented4 #b4 ,his ,philosophical ,sources4 ,plato had received a careful education that made him familiar with all the scientific theories of current interest to the ,athenians4 ,the elements of the earlier philosophies1 that were fundamental to the mechanical atomism of ,democritus1 were recombined in a different way by ,plato under the influence of ,socrates' ethical principle4 ,even ,plato's political and artistic ideals are subordinate to his entire absorption in the personality and teaching of ,socrates4 ,heracleitus1 ,protagoras1 ,parmenides1 and1 later1 ,anaxagoras and the ,pythagoreans1 furnished him with his philosophical materials4 ,we may point out three of the preceding philosophies that had an especially powerful influence upon him3 those of 7#a7 ,socrates2 7#b7 ,parmenides2 and 7#c7 the ,pythagoreans4 ,his revered master1 ,socrates1 furnished ,plato throughout with the conceptual principle1 by which he worked over all his material into his daring system4 ,the influence of ,parmenides upon him was also very great4 ,he speaks of the ,eleatic as 8,parmenides1 my father40 ,plato betook himself to the ,eleatic school at ,megara upon the death of ,socrates1 and this shows that he must already have been hospitable to the philosophy which taught the conception of an absolute and eternal essence of things known by the human reason4 ,the influence of the ,pythagoreans was felt by ,plato on his first visit to ,italy4 ,this influence grew with him1 and seems to dominate the dialogue of his old age1 the ,laws4 ,the ,eleatic ,oneness was a single1 immutable block4 ,in the ,pythagorean doctrine of numbers he found the conceptual divisions of that ,oneness1 and he also found that such conceptions would give a content to ,socrates' conception of the ,good4 ,indeed1 the numbers seemed to be the conceptual models for which ,socrates was searching4 ,mathematical truths are independent of perception4 ,they are innate ideas4 ,they are eternal and immutable ,forms4 ,they were the weapons needed against the ,protagorean doctrine of perception4 ,while ,plato agreed with ,heracleitus that the visible world is a changing world1 and with ,protagoras that our sense-perceptions of that world can yield only relative truth1 he developed his philosophy almost entirely on its conceptual side2 and this is due to the influence first of ,socrates1 second of ,parmenides1 and third of the ,pythagoreans4 ,plato's completed philosophy was the theory of ,ideas1 worked over in his mind a half-century or more1 and is in itself a history of the development of pure concepts4 ,the ,divisions of ,plato's ,philosophy4 ,plato himself had no clear conception of an exact division of science1 and did not confine himself in a single dialogue to a single science4 ,aristotle1 however1 distinguished in the philosophy of his master dialectic1 ethics1 and physics1 and these divisions of ,plato's teaching have been traditionally adopted4 ,the dialectic1 as commonly used in his time1 meant 8the dialogue or conversation employed as a means of scientific investigation40 ,it was transformed by ,plato to mean not logical but metaphysical discussion4 ,plato was concerned with the laws of ,being rather than the laws of logic1 and1 as ,being to him consisted of ,ideas1 his dialectic interest was to reduce experience by division and induction to some unity4 ,plato's dialectic was not logical but methodological1logical operations taken as a whole1by means of which the ,ideas and their relations to one another were to be found4 ,the physics of ,plato is of little value4 ,it was an afterthought to satisfy the demands of his school4 ,the world of nature phenomena could never be for ,plato the object of true knowledge4 ,unfortunately1 the teleological physics of ,plato was regarded by the ,hellenistic time and the ,middle ,ages as ,plato's most important achievement4 ,plato wrote entirely in the spirit of the ,enlightenment1 and his works show a great interest in man as a moral being1 but little interest in physical nature4 ,summary of ,plato's ,doctrine4 ,the interpretation of ,plato as set forth in what follows may be thus summarized3 ,plato began with the conceptual form of idealism1 suggested by the logical method of ,socrates1 with the purpose of solving logical and ethical problems4 ,he advanced to a teleological idealism1 conditioned by the doctrines of ,anaxagoras and the ,pythagoreans1 with the purpose of applying his doctrine to physical problems4 ,the ,formation of ,plato's ,metaphysics4 ,in his earliest period ,plato made these very clear statements3 7#a7 virtue is knowledge2 7#b7 by knowledge is not meant sense-perceptions4 ,in his final statement of his philosophy1 as he bequeathed it to posterity1 he only gave a new evaluation of these two early principles1 although he expressed them in a highly complex form4 8,virtue is knowledge0 is the basis of agreement between ,socrates and the ,sophists2 and 8by knowledge is not meant sense-perceptions0 is the basis of their opposition4 ,during ,plato's early period he was acting as a faithful transcriber of ,socrates in the presentation of this first principle3 virtue is knowledge1 is teachable1 is one4 ,during ,plato's second period he was called on to defend the second statement against the ,sophists4 ,plato's formation of his own theory begins at this point1at the point where his defense of his master was keenest4 ,from this time1 for a full half-century1 ,plato developed the ,socratic principles in a theory that went far beyond ,socrates1 but that was never untrue to him4 ,the simplest way of stating ,plato's formation of his own doctrine is this3 he accepted the ,protagorean doctrine of a perceptual world of relative knowledge2 he placed it beside the ,socratic theory of conceptual reality2 and as a result he conceived the world to be twofold4 ,both ,being and ,becoming share in reality4 ,there are1 on the one side1 the immutable concepts that compose true reality2 there are1 on the other side1 the changing perceptions that come and go4 ,the world of true reality is1 but never becomes2 the world of relative reality becomes1 but never is4 ,these two worlds are by nature separate2 one is the object of the reason1 the other is the object of the senses2 one is incorporeal1 the other is corporeal4 ,the first world is the immutable ,one of the ,eleatics presented by ,plato as a plural number of ,socratic concepts2 the other world is the ,heracleitan flux presented as perceivable things4 ,there is true knowledge1 but ,protagoras is right in saying that it cannot be found in the perception of the material world4 ,it is knowledge of an incorporeal world1 and that is precisely the world of ,socratic concepts which now in ,plato's hands become ,ideas4 ,it would1 however1 be a mistake to suppose that ,plato's conception of the world was an artificial eclecticism1 obtained by putting two worlds side by side4 ,to be sure1 he never was able to bring them into an organic unity1 and the dualism between them is often very marked4 ,but they do not lie like two drawers in a desk1 each having no vital influence on the character of the other4 ,in the juxtaposition of the two worlds each gets a new meaning1 and the value of each becomes greater4 ,in the first place1 perception#cj gets a new value4 ,the logic of the ,sophistic doctrine of perception was that perceptions are the only form of knowledge1 and even perceptions have no share of truthfulness4 ,protagoras himself did not go so far as this absolute skepticism1 but this is the logic of his position4 ,perceptions can have no value1 because each is a standard to itself4 ,plato incorporates the perception theory into his own1 and immediately gives it a new value4 ,perceptions do not1 to be sure1 yield true knowledge1 but they have a relative value4 ,they have a value for the practical world1 although the highest they can give is ,right ,opinion4 ,when we remember that the world of that day was weary of its own speculations leading to nihilism1 it is remarkable that ,plato did not turn away entirely from the doctrine of the ,sophists4 ,on the contrary1 he took up the ,sophistic doctrine into his own and gave to it a value which it had not possessed by itself4 ,in the second place1 conception gets a new value4 ,what was conception to ,socrates8 ,it was the common content of opinions and perceptions2 it was the universal that was developed inductively out of many particulars4 ,socrates brought many particulars together in order to reveal their common qualities4 ,the abode of conceptions was to ,socrates the half-formed individual opinions and experiences in which conception lay1 as in an envelope2 and the conversation was needed to bring it forth4 ,the concept to ,socrates was the logical 8nature0 of perceptions4 ,but now since ,plato admitted the relative reality of all perceptions1 he was obliged to look elsewhere to account for conceptions4 ,if the conceptions are true reality1 they cannot be the common quality in opinions1 nor the logical 8nature0 of changing perceptions4 ,the true conception cannot be contained in the perception4 ,accordingly the conception must exist in an incorporeal world and possess an independent reality4 ,the concepts are hypostasized by ,plato4 ,they become ,ideas4 ,thus the ,socratic concept became the ,platonic ,idea1 and for the first time in ,european thought1 reality is conceived as immaterial4 ,the conceptual world grows under ,plato's hands to be 8other than0 the perceptual world1 and this was his first step beyond ,socrates4 ,the conceptual world is the perfect reality that cannot be contained in any material thing nor in the sum of all material things4 ,the immaterial ,ideas are the object of thought1 as nature phenomena are the objects of perception4 ,ideas are not the abstractions of perceptions1 for the process of thought is not an analysis nor an abstraction1 but an intuition of reality presented in single instances4 ,ideas are the reality of which perceptions are the copies or shadows4 ,perceptions do not contain the truth4 ,they are only the suggestions or promptings by which the soul bethinks itself of the ,ideas4 ,material things merely hint to the soul of the existence of the ,ideas4 ,it is important in this connection to point out that ,plato's conception of immateriality is not to be taken as what we mean in modern times by the spiritual or psychical2 for1 according to ,plato1 our psychical functions belong to the world of ,becoming1 just as the functions of our body and other perceptual things belong to it4 ,besides1 even the ,ideas of sense qualities have reality4 ,plato does not identify the human mind with the incorporeal world of ,ideas1 nor does he make the modern dualistic division of the world into mind and matter4 ,the immaterial world is 8other than0 the world of perception1 and bears the relation to the material world of the unchanging to the changing1 of the simple to the manifold1 of ,being to ,becoming4 ,the ,development of ,plato's ,metaphysics,the ,development of ,plato's ,ideas in the ,two ,drafts4 ,the twofold world with its new evaluation of the ,socratic conception and of the ,protagorean perception was1 after all1 only ,plato's point of departure for his constructive work4 ,it was his first and undeveloped apprehension of a theory of ,ideas4 ,it appeared first in the ,meno in his doctrine of recollection and immortality1 which was written in his second period just after his series of splendid polemics against the ,sophists4 ,from this time for a full half-century ,plato developed the conception of a twofold world into a ,theory of ,ideas4 ,in the course of time he found himself confronted with three problems3 7#a7 ,how many ,ideas are there8 7#b7 ,what is the relation between ,ideas and physical things8 7#c7 ,what is the relation of the ,ideas to one another8 ,plato's answers to these three questions compose what is known as his ,theory of ,ideas4 ,however1 he answers these three questions differently when he first considered them than later1 when his grasp upon the significance of his problem became more mature4 ,plato's ,theory of ,ideas1 therefore1 may be said to have had a development in two stages4 ,these two stages are called his 8two drafts0 7,windelband7 of the ,ideas4 ,we shall now present1 first in summary form and then in more detail1 his answers to these three questions in the two drafts1 and thereby show how his theory developed to its final formulation4 ,brief ,comparison of the ,two ,drafts of the ,ideas4 #a4 ,the ,earlier ,draft of ,ideas4 7a7 ,the ,number of ,ideas is infinite4 7b7 ,the ,relation of ,ideas to ,physical ,things is similarity4 ,the ,ideas on their side are spoken of as having a 8presence0 in physical things1 but never fully appearing in them2 the physical phenomena on their side are spoken of as 8participating0 in the ,ideas4 7c7 ,the ,ideas are ,related to ,one ,another logically1 as genera to species1 but they are only roughly classified by ,plato4 #b4 ,the ,later ,draft of ,ideas,plato's ,final ,statement4 7a7 ,the ,number of ,ideas is limited to those of worth1 mathematical relations1 and nature-products1 but ,plato never arrived at any definite selection4 7b7 ,the ,relation of ,ideas to ,physical ,things is teleological4 ,the ,ideas are the ideal or purposeful ends of physical objects4 7c7 ,the ,ideas are ,related to ,one ,another teleologically4 ,the ,idea of the ,good stands at the head1 and is the purposeful end of all the other ,ideas4 ,comparison of the ,two ,drafts of ,ideas in ,more ,detail4 #a4 ,the ,number of ,ideas in the ,earlier and ,later ,drafts compared4 ,when ,plato first presented the ,theory of ,ideas to himself1 he conceived their number to be infinite4 ,there are ,ideas of everything that is thinkable4 ,there are as many as there are class concepts1 as there are qualities of things in the universe1 as there are common nouns in the language4 ,but it was pointed out to ,plato that he had only reproduced and paralleled in the immaterial world what exists in the material world2 that such a theory did not solve1 but only doubled our difficulties4 ,then there were technical difficulties in the conception of the ,ideas of everythingof things1 qualities1 relations1good1 bad1 and indifferent4 ,but what probably appealed to him most cogently was the raillery to which he found his theory subjected 7see ,parmenides71 that he as a ,greek could think of ugly ,ideas1 like hair and filth1 as real4 ,the result was that in the later drafting of his theory the number of qualities worthy to be called ,ideas becomes very much limited4 ,plato makes the elimination from no avowed principle except that of worth1 because as a ,greek it was absolutely repellent to him to regard anything as real except worth4 ,consequently in his later dialogues he speaks of 7#a7 ,ideas having an inherent value1 like the ,good and the ,beautiful1 7#b7 ,ideas corresponding to nature products1 7#c7 ,ideas of mathematical relations4 ,norms of value thus take the place of class-concepts1 and in his selection of ,ideas his choice is determined more and more by their moral worth4 #b4 ,the ,relation of ,ideas and the ,world of ,nature in the ,two ,drafts compared4 ,plato did not construct his world of ,ideas in order to explain the world of physical nature4 ,his original purpose was to find an object for knowledge2 and his ,ideas were born out of his striving to give a reality to the conceptions of ,socrates4 ,in his evaluation of the doctrine of his master he had drawn a distinction between the two worlds1 but he had not thought of explaining one by the other4 ,they were related and distinguished1 but one threw no light upon the other4 ,in ,plato's first draft of the ,ideas he speaks of this relation as imitation4 ,the phenomena are an imitation of reality4 ,the ,ideas are the originals and physical objects are copies4 ,to state the relation in modern terms1 the laws of the growth of a tree are permanent1 while the tree changes4 ,the lower world of ,becoming has a similarity to the higher world of ,being4 ,as the ,pythagoreans had conceived things as imitations of numbers1 ,plato1 strongly influenced by the ,pythagoreans1 thought that concrete things correspond to their class concepts only in a degree4 ,on the one hand1 the individual thing partakes of the universal of the ,idea1 and this is called 8participation0 in the ,idea4 ,on the other hand1 the word 8presence0 describes the way the ,idea exists in the thing1 which means that the ,idea is present in the thing so long as the thing possesses the quality of the ,idea4 ,the ,ideas are present and then withdraw1 and thus the perception changes4 ,in the second drafting of the ,ideas1 ,plato has become conscious of the need of explaining physical nature by the ,ideas4 ,he did not at first think of explaining the nature of the physical world by his metaphysical reality4 ,it was an afterthought1 and arose out of the compulsion of having a systematic theory4 ,his conception of the world of ,ideas as the world of true ,being ultimately demanded that the world of physical nature should be not merely 8other than0 but dependent upon the ,ideas4 ,the ,ideas are unchanging2 the phenomena are changing4 ,if the ,ideas are the reality of the changing world1 in what other sense can they be its reality than as its cause8 ,the ,meno1 ,thetetus1 ,symposium1 and ,phdrus do not discuss this problem4 ,the ,sophist proposes it1 and in the ,phdo the thought is first expressed that the ,ideas are the causes of physical phenomena appearing as they do appear4 ,but how can the ,ideas be causes1 when the very conception of them as pure and immaterial realities denies to them all qualities of motion and change8 ,the ,platonic theory reached its zenith in its solution of this problem4 ,the ,ideas must be conceived as the causes of nature phenomena1 and still as not moving nor suffering change4 ,they are teleological causes4 ,they are the realized ends of the phenomenal world4 ,the world of ,ideas is the actual goal of perfection for physical nature4 ,the world of ,ideas is not only the truth of all knowledge2 it is also the perfect teleological cause of all actual change4 ,this thought is developed in the ,philebus and the ,republic1 where the ,ideas as a whole1 and in particular the ,idea of the ,good1to which all the other ,ideas are means1stand as the final cause of all occurrence4 ,the physical phenomena stand therefore in a teleological relation to the ,idea of the ,good4 ,from the ,good all things get their meaning4 ,it permeates and explains all4 #c4 ,the ,relation among the ,ideas in the ,two ,drafts compared4 ,it was natural that the conception of a pluralism of ,ideas should lead ,plato to a consideration of the law of their relationship4 ,a systematic theory of a multiplicity of reals involves their orderly relationship4 ,they cannot exist independently in the same world4 ,what is the relationship among the ,ideas8 ,in the earlier drafting of his theory ,plato was principally attentive to the relations of cordination and subordination among the ,ideas2 in the possibility of the division of class concepts into genera and species4 ,the relationship that he sought was logical relationship1 the relationship that the scientist seeks to find in the classification of plants or rocks4 ,just what result ,plato tried to reach by such a logical classification of his realities1 it is difficult to say4 ,he was not successful4 ,his attempt to erect a logically arranged pyramid of conceptions with the most abstract at the apex was not carried out4 ,in his second drafting of the ,ideas1 ,plato felt the inadequacy of a mere logical relationship among them1 and conceived them to be teleologically related4 ,his reduction of the number of ,ideas had naturally brought about a new conception of their relationship4 ,there must be some principle for their elimination1 for the rejecting of some and the keeping of others4 ,that principle was the principle of their ethical worth4 ,that is to say1 the ,idea of the ,good1 which had been the standard for eliminating some concepts from the list of ,ideas and for retaining others1 now became for him the principle of the relationship of the ,ideas among themselves4 ,plato turned from the logical to the teleological relation among ,ideas4 ,the ,idea of the ,good embraces and realizes all the others4 ,it is therefore the absolute end of all the other ,ideas1 and they bear the relation to it1 not of particulars to a general term1 but of means to an end4 ,the principle in their selection becomes the principle of their arrangement4 ,plato's ,conception of ,god4 ,the above sketch of the formation and development of ,plato's theory of ,ideas shows how difficult it would be to frame a short definition of them that would at the same time be adequate4 ,as he finally defined them1 they are immaterial archetypes or ideals1 dominated by a moral purpose4 ,this dominating moral purpose in the ,ideas is the highest ,idea of all1 the ,idea of the ,good1 which stands above all the others and gives to them and to everything else their value and indeed their actuality4 ,is this ,idea of the ,good the same as ,god8 ,plato calls the ,good 8,deity0 and the 8,world ,reason10 and ascribes to it the name of ,nous4 ,nevertheless the ,idea of the ,good is not the same as the ,christian ,god1 and ,plato is only showing here the influence of ,anaxagoras' conception upon him4 7,see p4 #dg47 ,the ,idea of the ,good is not a person or a spiritual being4 ,it is merely the absolute ethical end and purpose of the world4 ,plato did not attempt to give it a content1 any more than did his master1 ,socrates2 but ,plato presupposed it1 because it was in itself the simplest and most comprehensible thing in the world4 ,plato's ,conception of ,physical ,nature4 ,plato constructed a rough sketch of the philosophy of nature in his later years1 in compliance with the needs of his ,school1 and perhaps with the urging of his pupil1 ,aristotle4 ,in his earlier period1 he would have nothing of physics1 and was in this respect quite in accord with the spirit of ,socrates4 ,to the end of his life he maintained that there can be no true knowledge of the physical world2 for it is a world of change1 and therefore all scientific conclusions about it could be only probable4 ,in a mythical account in the ,timus he drew a picture of the constitution of the world4 ,he conceived a ,demiurge or world-forming ,god to exist1 and he thought that this ,god made the world out of not-,being or empty space 8with regard to the ,ideas40 ,the world thus constructed is conceived by ,plato as a huge living thing1 composed of a visible body and an invisible soul4 ,the world-soul sets the world-body in a circular motion1 which motion was considered by antiquity to be the most perfect of all motions4 ,in sharp opposition to the mechanical theory of the world1 ,plato conceived the world to be endowed with knowledge1 of which the spherical motion in its return upon itself is the symbol4 ,the world is unitary and unique1 the most perfect and most beautiful world1 and its origin can be traced only to a reason working toward ends4 ,plato's physics1 of which the above is an abbreviated account1 will be seen to be of little importance2 but it was unfortunately1 as we have said1 this side of his doctrine that was emphasized in the ,middle ,ages4 ,this mythical account shows1 however1 the inherent dualism in ,plato's doctrine4 ,the ,idea never fully realizes itself in corporeal things1 and ,plato was called on to explain the cause of the evil and imperfection of the physical world4 ,moreover1 the imperfection of the physical world got new emphasis in the influence upon him of the ,pythagorean doctrine1 which had set the perfect and imperfect worlds in opposition4 ,what prevents the ,idea from fully appearing in phenomena8 ,the more ,plato conceived the world of ,ideas as ethical ,ideals and a kingdom of pure worth1 and the more teleological the ,ideas became1 the less could he regard the ,ideas as the cause of imperfection in nature4 ,ideas are ,being1 and the essence of perfection4 ,the cause of imperfection must therefore be that which has no being whatsoever4 ,the physical world as 8becoming0 has participation1 not only in that which has ,being 7,ideas71 but in that which has no ,being 7empty space74 ,the physical world has a composite character4 ,it has sprung from the union of the ,ideas and an absolutely negative factor1 which ,plato calls empty space4 ,this eternal negative is formless and unfashioned1 but it is capable of taking on all possible forms4 ,the physical universe is therefore neither ,ideas simply1 nor matter simply1 but a composition of the two4 ,this non-,being is not like the matter1 8unformed stuff10 of ,aristotle1 from which all sensible things are made2 but it is that in which ,ideas have to appear4 ,the ,ideas are plunged into this empty non-,being1 which they take on as a veil4 ,and just this is the origin of imperfection2 non-,being withholds the ,ideas from perfect expression4 ,non-,being1 or empty space1 is an indispensable auxiliary to the ,ideas1 for without it no physical universe would be possible4 ,but at the same time it is the eternal foe and obstruction of the ,ideas4 ,its coperation with the ,ideas is at the same time a resistance to them4 ,it is the perpetual negation of ,being1 and the primary cause of imperfection1 change1 and instability4 ,on this account the universe can never be like the ,ideas1 but it can approximate them4 ,the soul of the world1 for example1which was regarded by ,plato in ,pythagorean fashion as number subjecting chaotic space to harmony1is the most perfect reproduction of the ,idea of the ,good4 ,the existence of matter detracts from the perfection of the world1 but it does not detract from the majesty of the ,ideas4 ,plato's ,conception of ,man4 ,plato needed a psychology of another sort from that developed by the ,cosmologists4 ,his analysis of the mental life of man stands or falls with his metaphysical theory of ,ideas1 but it has this importance3 it is the first attempt to understand the psychical life from within4 ,the dualism of the two worlds appears in sharp outlines in the narrower field of the life of man4 ,the soul of man belongs to both worlds4 ,on the one hand1 it belongs to the world of ,becoming and partakes of that world through its sense-perceptions1 desires1 and their pleasures4 ,in this lower world it is the principle of life and motion2 it is that which moves itself and other things4 ,on the other hand1 it shares in the world of ,being through its intuitive reason or knowledge4 ,it shares in the instability and change of psychical phenomena2 it also possesses the immutability of reality4 ,through its perceptions it constructs its 8opinions0 or inferences of changing phenomena2 through its reason it has true knowledge of the eternal ,ideas4 ,therefore the soul must bear in itself traits that correspond to the two worlds4 ,plato conceives man to have an irrational and a rational nature2 and he divides the irrational nature into two parts1the noble irrational part and the ignoble irrational part4 ,the rational part of man is the reason1 the noble irrational part is the will1 the ignoble irrational part is the sensuous appetites4 ,rational nature reason ,man ,irrational nature ,noble will ,ignoble sensuous appetites ,this is the celebrated doctrine of the 8three parts0 of the soul4 ,are they three parts or three functions of the soul8 ,plato is not clear as to this point4 ,he sometimes speaks of them as three divisions1 and treats them as separable in such a way that only the reason is immortal and the other two parts are mortal4 ,again1 he speaks of the soul as a unity1 which carries with it in the next life all three functions4 ,in this latter meaning the three parts are three natures or three different degrees of worth of the unitary soul4 ,plato's ,doctrine of ,immortality4 ,beginning with this conception of the dual nature of the human soul1 ,plato reasons both backward and forward from it3 backward to its pre-existence1 and forward from its post-existence1its existence after death4 ,in the ,phdo1 ,plato has put into the mouth of what has become his ,platonized ,socrates his final thought concerning the relation of this present life to its past and its future4 ,it is plainly the doctrine of the transmigration of souls1 which he got from the ,pythagoreans4 ,the soul has a reality that is imperishable1 and the soul is rewarded or punished for its conduct in one existence by the kind of existence into which it is metamorphosed4 ,in prison1 on that fatal day when he drank the poison1 ,socrates explained to those around him why he was so cheerful at the thought of death4 ,is not our present existence a kind of death8 ,is not the soul in the present life deterred from true knowledge by the trammels of the bodily desires8 ,the true philosopher is he who turns away from his body's passions1dies to them1 and tries to live the reality of the world of ,ideas4 ,we shall have full knowledge when we pass beyond the grave and then we shall be rewarded1 if we have striven truly4 ,but at present our body hampers and misleads us with its perceptions of changing mortality around us1 and with its transitory desires4 ,this life itself is the reward or punishment for our conduct in our preceding state4 #a4 ,the ,immortality of ,pre-existence4 ,what proof does ,plato offer for our existence before this life8 ,the ,ideas1 these testimonies of reality1 form a part of the human soul4 ,they are eternal1 and have not been created by the soul4 ,knowledge is not the origination of a new truth1 but is the recognition of ,ideas1 whose presence the mind merely records4 ,greek psychology never got much farther than this4 ,the modern psychological conception of the soul as a dynamic something1 which creates its own content1 was quite foreign to the ,greeks4 ,to ,plato1 as to all other ,greeks1 the soul is as passive as the wax that receives the impress of the seal4 ,all ,greek psychology was under this general limitation3 all ideas must be 8given0 to the soul4 ,therefore if the ,ideas are not 8given0 by perception1 because perception is of the changing2 if nevertheless the soul finds itself in possession of the ,ideas on the occasion of perception2 if the soul did not create the ,ideas1 because the soul is by nature passive2 the logical and only conclusion is that the soul was already in possession of the ,ideas in a pre-existent state4 ,pre-existence is the only way of accounting for the full-born knowledge of the soul1 and it is interesting to note how important was the pre-existent state to the imagination of the ancient world4 ,plato therefore advanced the doctrine of reminiscence1 or as he called it1 ,anamnesis1 as proof of our pre-existence4 ,knowledge is recollection4 ,the ,ideas have always been present in the mind1 and when we recognize them we have knowledge4 ,the ,ideas have no past or future1 but they always exist4 ,it is the mind that undergoes awakeningan awakening to their existence in itself4 ,when the mind sees the objects of physical nature1 it awakens in painful astonishment at the contrast between the sense world and the ,ideas of its native world of immateriality4 ,in a mythical representation in the ,phdrus1 ,plato supposes that before the present life our souls have beheld the pure ,ideas in their full reality1 that the ,ideas had been forgotten in our birth into the present life1 but that the perception of similar corporeal things calls the soul back to the ,ideas themselves4 ,then the 8,eros0 is awakenedthe native philosophical impulse or inborn love for the ,ideas1 by which the soul is raised again to the knowledge of that true reality4 ,only the pure ,ideas themselves will satisfy this longing2 the embodiment of the ,ideas in art or personalities is not adequate4 ,the ,eros ties us to the ,ideas4 ,god does not have this longing1 for ,he fully knows the ,good4 ,the ignorant man does not have this longing1 for he does not suspect the existence of the ,ideas in himself4 ,the ,eros is the homesickness that the lover of the truth feels4 ,our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting1 ,the soul that rises in us1 our life's star1 ,hath had elsewhere its setting1 ,and cometh from afar2 ,not in entire forgetfulness1 ,and not in utter nakedness1 ,but trailing clouds of glory do we come ,from ,god1 who is our home4#ca ,when1 in the ,meno1 the ,sophistic dilemma was proposed to ,socrates1 8,how can inquiry be made into what we know or into what we don't know80 ,socrates pointed out that the only escape from the dilemma was the process of recollecting1 and that knowledge is the thing recalled4 ,socrates then called a slave to him1 and by skillfully questioning him found that the slave recognized the mathematical relationship between the square on the hypothenuse of a right triangle and the sums of the squares on the other two sides4 8,the ignorant slave can only have been recollecting10 says ,socrates4 ,mathematical knowledge is extracted from the sense-perception of the slave only because the slave has through such perception the opportunity of recollecting ,ideas present in himself and not hitherto suspected by himself4 ,in ,plato's system1 mathematical forms have an important place4 ,they are the links by means of which the ,idea shapes space teleologically into the sense world4 #b4 ,the ,immortality of ,post-,existence4 ,plato's ground for belief in the existence of soul after death is practically the same as that for its previous existence4 ,its destiny hereafter depends upon how far it has freed itself in this earthly life from the sensuous appetite4 ,as proofs for future existence ,plato mentions the soul's possession of the ,ideas1 the simplicity and unity of the soul1 the soul as the principle of life1 and the goodness of ,god4 ,however weak ,plato's arguments may be for the existence of future immortality1 his absolute belief in it is one of the chief points in his teaching4 ,it is interesting to note that the modern western world seems to have no concern in the previous state of the soul1 but through the influence of the ,christian religion has focused its attention upon the future life4 ,oriental religions contain the doctrine of pre-existence and the transmigration of souls1 but not in the same sense as ,plato4 ,in ,plato the soul possesses an identity that persists4 ,it has all the qualities of the ,ideas1 but is also an entity possessing these qualities4 ,it has non-origination1 indestructibility1 unity1 and changelessness4 ,the doctrine of the immortality of post-existence had appeared in the ,greek religion1 but this is the first time that we have found it as a part of philosophic teaching4 ,the student will1 of course1 feel the difficulties in ,plato's conception as he has presented it4 ,for how can the soul preserve its individuality as a unity1 when the soul belongs in part to a world which is temporal8 ,the ,two ,tendencies in ,plato4 ,from the doctrine of the two worlds there are two distinct tendencies running through the entire teaching of ,plato4 ,these are 7#a7 the tendency to glorify nature1 and 7#b7 the tendency to turn away from nature to ascetic contemplation4 ,on the one hand1 ,plato felt within himself the light heart-beat of the artist1 and the ,hellenic love of life was strong within him4 ,he felt that the ,idea of the ,good was realized even in the world of sense1 that there was pleasure in the sensuous imitation of the ,idea1 in practical artistic skill1 and in an intelligent understanding of mathematical orderings4 ,these were at least preparations for the highest ,good1 which consisted in knowledge of the ,ideas4 ,on the other hand1 one finds beside this the ascetic tendency to be repelled by nature1 a negative ethics that would leave the world of sense and would spiritualize the life4 ,the ,thetetus sets up an ideal of retirement for the philosopher1 and points out that he should find refuge as soon as possible from the evils of the world in the divine presence4 ,the ,phdo pictures the whole life of the philosopher as a dying1 a purification of the soul1 an existence in prison1 from which escape is only by virtue and knowledge4 ,this ascetic tendency seems very anti-,greek2 and yet is it foreign to ,greek life8 ,in ,greek history do we not find1 by the side of the ,epic and the glorification of nature1 the ,mysteries and the withdrawal of the individual from the world8 ,both these historic tendencies appear in ,plato1 and on the whole the ascetic tendency is stronger4 ,the ,ideas are contrasted with the nature world more often than they transfigure it4 ,the dualism of ,heaven and earth is emphasized1 and the contrast is strongly drawn between the reality of the ,ideas and the temporality of sense4 ,platonic ,love4 ,described in technical terms1 in both ,socrates and ,plato1 ,love 7,eros7 is the philosophic and not a purely intellectual impulse4 ,its rather more didactic character in ,socrates of an attempt to engender knowledge and virtue in others appears in ,plato in a larger way as the personal and practical realization of the truth4 ,reduced to its simplest terms1 ,platonic ,love is the longing of the human being in his imperfectness for perfectness and completeness4 ,it is the innate desire for immortality4 ,true love1 according to ,plato1 takes its beginning in the astonishment or pain at the presentment of the ,ideas through remembrance1 and the starting-point of ,love in an individual is the principle fundamental in pre-existence4 ,the philosophic impulse for the ,ideas takes the form of ,love1 because visible beauty has a special brightness and makes a strong impression on the mind4 ,love belongs only to mortal natures2 for they1 since they do not possess the divine unchangeableness1 have to propagate themselves continually4 ,love may be described therefore as the propagative impulse4 ,on the one side it may be viewed as an inspiration from above1 springing from the higher1 divinely-related nature in man2 on the other hand it may be viewed as an aspiration from below of the sensuous and human in man4 ,on this side it is a yearning and not a possession2 and it presupposes a want4 ,analyzed in this way1 ,love is the middle term between having and not having4 ,it is the union of the higher and lower natures in man1 and throughout the universe there stirs this longing for the eternal and imperishable4 ,what is the object of this ,love1of this desire of the finite to fill itself with the eternal and to generate something enduring8 ,that object is the possession of the ,good1 which is happiness4 ,the possession of the ,good is immortality4 ,what is the external condition of ,love's existence8 ,the presence of ,beauty2 for this alone1 by its harmonious form1 corresponds to our desire and awakens it4 ,does this ,love appear first in its complete realization8 ,no2 there are many kinds of beauty1 and ,love is as various in degree and kind as beautiful objects4 ,love rises step by step1 and is realized in a graduated series of forms4 ,there is ,love for beautiful shapes1 sexual love2 ,love for beautiful souls1 and this appears in works of art1 education1 and legislation2 ,love for beautiful sciences1 the seeking of beauty wherever found2 and finally ,love for the pure1 shapeless1 eternal1 and unchangeablethe ,idea1 which is immortality4 ,all else is preliminary to the dialectical knowledge of the ,ideas4 ,in all this1 man is reaching out from his sense of want for satisfaction1 from his poverty to the completed riches of life4 ,love bears him on from height to height until1 in religion and ,love of the ,good1 man gains his immortality4 ,in ,platonic ,love all kinds of ,love have place in pointing the soul onward to the divinely perfect4 ,yet this ,love for the divinely perfect is the soul's aspiration from the beginning1 and all the preliminary stages are only the uncertain attempts to seize the ,idea in the copies4 ,love1 therefore1 is this universal struggle of the finite to inform itself with the ,idea2 and delight in any one object of beauty is a stage in the development of this impulse4#cb ,plato's ,theory of ,ethics4 ,plato's ,theory of ,ideas is1 after all1 fundamentally only an outspoken ethical metaphysics1 and his ,ethics is his most fruitful accomplishment4 ,plato's ethical teaching is therefore involved in all that we have said about him up to this point4 ,an understanding of his ethics includes an understanding of the formation and growth of his dialectic1 an insight into his physical theory1 knowledge of the two tendencies which run through his teaching1 and especially an understanding of his doctrine of ,love4 ,if some of the previous exposition is repeated1 it will be only to bring out more fully his ethical teaching as a special science4 ,we shall speak of three topics under this general subject of his ethics3 7#a7 his development of his theory of the ,good2 7#b7 the four cardinal virtues2 7#c7 his theory of political society4 #a4 ,development of ,plato's ,theory of the ,good4 ,plato betrays his ascetic tendency in his first drafting of the ,ideas and1 as we have said1 the double-world theory is the cause of this4 ,only one of the two worlds is real and will appeal to the ,wise ,man4 ,the soul belongs to the supersensible world1 and the knowledge1 of which virtue consists1 takes man away from the sensible world4 ,since earthly life is full of evil1 the soul should die to it and turn away as soon as possible to the divine presence4 ,this ascetic aspect of morality is set forth in the ,phdo and the ,thetetus4 ,in the general development of his metaphysics in the second drafting of his ,ideas1 ,plato's ethical theory developed also4 ,he not only went beyond the abstract statement of ,socrates1 but beyond his own original asceticism4 ,when he brought his two worlds into teleological relationship1 he was logically compelled to abandon his conception of ascetic morals4 ,the physical world has now a relative reality1 and by the same sign sense-life has a relative moral value4 ,it was ,plato's firm conviction that moral conduct makes man truly blessed1 in this and another world4 ,he still held1 too1 that this blessedness1 this complete perfection of the soul1 this sharing in the divine world of the ,ideas1 is the ,highest ,good4 ,yet he now came to recognize other kinds of happiness as steps toward the ideal ,good4 ,there are varieties of ,goods1 as appeared in his doctrine of ,love4 ,besides the intuition of knowledge and its pleasures1 there are physical ,goods and their pleasures4 ,intellectual pleasure may be unmixed with pain1 but there are also sensuous pleasures unmixed with pain4 ,here is indeed ,plato1 the ,greek1 speaking2 ,plato1 the ,greek artist1 impelled by the charm of the ,greek world around him4 ,strongly as he combated the ,cyrenaic hedonism1 and closely as he was allied to ,socrates1 his ,greek nature gave way before the manifestations of the ,idea of the ,good in the physical world4 ,the pleasure in nature objects1 in educational development1 in the practical and plastic arts1 in mathematical sciences1 and in the orderliness of lifeall these became for him preliminary stages in the full participation in the ethical ,good4 ,they came to have for him a relative value1 as expressed in the ,philebus1 ,republic1 and ,symposium4 #b4 ,the ,four ,cardinal ,virtues4 ,but ,plato went farther1 and was not content merely to point out the place of human conduct in the twofold world4 ,he developed his theory of ethics systematically4 ,he classified the virtues on the basis of his threefold division of the soul4 ,naturally enough1 in his first draft of his theory1 ,plato followed ,socrates in reducing the single virtues to one1 viz41 the virtue of knowledge4 ,in his second drafting1 however1 in the later dialogues1 he assumed their distinct independence1 and he reflected upon their respective spheres4 ,a virtue corresponds to each part of the soul4 ,each part has its own perfection1 which is its virtue4 ,moreover1 in so far as one or another part of the soul preponderates in different men1 so far are they suited to developing the corresponding virtue4 ,rational naturein brain 7,wisdom7 ,soul 7,justice7 ,irrational ,noble partin heart 7,courage7 nature ,ignoble partin liver 7,temperance7 ,from the above scheme it will be observed that the rational nature has the brain as its organ and reaches its perfection or virtue in ,wisdom2 that the ignoble irrational nature has the liver as its organ1 and reaches its virtue in self-control or ,temperance4 ,finally1 since the perfection of the whole soul consists in the orderly relation of its single parts1 so subordinated and regulated that the soul can reach its highest perfection1 the fourth and highest virtue is ,justice4 ,the four cardinal virtues are ,temperance1 ,courage1 ,wisdom1 and ,justice4 #c4 ,plato's ,theory of ,political ,society4 ,the virtue1 ,justice1 has little meaning in individual ethics1 and as an ethical perfection can only be attained in society4 ,there is no ,english word that is quite the equivalent for the ,greek term1 but ,justice is the usual translation4 ,justice1 however1 does not contain the moral spirit of the ,greek word4 ,consistent with his conception of the ,ideas in his metaphysics1 ,plato's ideal of moral perfection is to be found1 not in the individual1 but in the species4 ,plato pictures less the perfect man than the perfect society4 ,perfect happiness is rather that of the social whole than of the individual1 and this ideal of happiness can be reached only in the ideal ,state4 ,that is why the dialogue1 the ,republic1 occupies so important a place in ,plato's writings4 ,it is an attempt to show how the fourth and last virtue1 ,justice1 can be attained4 ,the first book was written in ,plato's early period1 and was perhaps called a 8dialogue concerning ,justice40 ,justice is distinctly the social virtue found only in a perfect society1 and it will make possible the fulfillment of ,wisdom1 ,courage1 and ,temperance4 ,the individual man is a vital being whose heart is the central organ1 whose characteristic virtue is courage4 ,his courage is indeed a combination of wisdom and temperance4 ,the picture is of the individual man1 not amenable to society1 but in 8a state of warfare40 ,in such isolation ,justice would not exist as a virtue4 ,the political state is necessary if the ,idea of the ,good is to be manifested in human life4 ,the state is the true educator in ,justice1 and at the same time the ideal state will be the realization of ,justice4 ,the task of the state everywhere is the same1 to wit1 to direct the common life of man so that every one may be happy through virtue4 ,the result may be attained only by so ordering the relations of society that ,justice may prevail4 ,plato's ,republic is a carefully worked-out plan of such an ideal society4 ,the author made several attempts at ,syracuse with the aid of ,dion to get first the elder and then the younger ,dionysius to transform the tyranny into an ideal state4 ,these attempts resulted disastrously4 ,in the disappointment of his old age that his ideal scheme had never succeeded1 he wrote the ,laws1 which is a revised version of the ,republic with the ,pythagorean number theory as a basis4 ,the ,spartan state is his model4 ,the ,platonic ,republic is aristocratic4 ,there is paternal government in everything1 censorship of everything4 ,each individual's course is marked out for him4 ,when ,greek political life was undergoing dissolution1 ,plato raised the ideal of political unity as necessary to individual happiness as against the anarchism of segregation4 ,yet even in this he was reflecting the current distrust of political institutions4 ,the comparison of existing political conditions with his own political ideal reinforced his aristocratic leanings1 and made him the more distrustful of the political possibilities of a democracy4 ,he believed that an intelligently worked out scheme of government was practicable1 and should be forced upon people1 if necessary4 ,in no other way was political salvation possible4 ,since the ,state is the man 8writ large10 it has three parts1 corresponding to the three parts of the human soul4 ,there is 7#a7 the working or peasant class1 which corresponds to the appetitive part of man2 the only object of such a class is to furnish food for the ,state1 and the highest virtue of this class is temperance4 ,the peasant can only work1 eat1 and drink1 and the highest praise of him is that he controls his appetites4 7#b7 ,the warrior class guards the ,state within and without2 and its characteristic virtue is courage4 ,the will must show its highest efficiency in guidance of the emotions4 7#c7 ,highest of all is the cultured class of philosophers or rulers1 who determine by their insight the laws that should rule the ,state4 ,the virtue of this class is wisdom1 for is this class not the brain of the ,state8 ,the perfection of the entire ,state exists when the three classes have their proper distribution of power4 ,then does justice exist4 ,the duty of the rulers is therefore to have the highest wisdom possible1 of the warriors to be unflinching in their devotion to duty1 of the peasants to exercise self-control4 ,thus ,plato's ,republic is an aristocracy in the hands of the carefully cultured1 which consists of the two upper classes4 ,by means of community of wives1 the exposure of deformed infants1 and the ,state's education of the children of the two upper classes1 a continuous selection can be made1 the two upper classes can be renewed1 and all private ends can be renounced in favor of the ,state4 ,thus the sole end of a community is moral education1 and ,plato arranges his ideal community with reference to that4 ,the two upper classes are a great family1 to whom this is intrusted4 ,they have dedicated their lives to the furthering of science and to its administration4 ,a ,,selection ,,of ,,passages ,,from ,,plato ,,for ,,english ,,readers4 ,by ,professor ,benjamin ,jowett1 late ,principal of ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford4 ,the figures refer to the pages in the margin of ,professor ,jowett's translation of ,plato's ,dialogues2 the letters 7,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e7 to the subdivisions of these pages4 ,,first ,,volume4 ,,charmides4 ,socrates prescribes for ,charmides' headache4 #aef ,d 7444 #8,such1 ,charmides1 is the nature of the charm'44447 -#aeg ,c 7444 #8my dear ,charmides4'7 ,,lysis4 ,we only trust those who appear to know more than ourselves4 #bjf ,d 7#8,upon entering' 4447 -#baj ,b 7#8,he assented4'7 ,,laches4 7#a7 ,the art of fighting in armour is useless to the soldier4 #ahb ,e 7#8,i should not like to maintain' 4447 -#ahd ,c 7444 #8his opinion of the matter4'7 7#b7 ,the harmony of words and deeds4 #ahh ,c 7#8,i have but one feeling' 4447 -#ahi ,b 7444 #8the difference of our ages4'7 ,,protagoras4 7#a7 ,the ,sophists at the house of ,callias4 #cad ,b 7444 #8,and now let us go' 4447 -#caf ,a 7444 #8rendered his words inaudible4'7 7#b7 ,protagoras tells the story of ,prometheus and ,epimetheus4 #cbj ,d 7#8,once upon a time' 4447 -#cbb ,d 7444 #8a plague of the state4'7 7#c7 ,the education of a ,greek child4 #cbe ,d 7#8,education and admonition' 4447 -#cbf ,e 7444 #8would be far more surprising4'7 ,,euthydemus4 ,the doctrinaire politician and the true philosopher4 #cjd ,b 7#8,such was the discussion1 ,crito' 4447 -to end 7444 #8and be of good cheer4'7 ,,cratylus4 ,the significations of the various letters4 #dbf ,b 7#8,my first notions' 4447 -#dbg ,c 7444 #8and out of them by imitation compounding other signs4' 4447 ,,phaedrus4 7#a7 ,the philosopher must study the nature of man4 #bbi ,a 7#8,let us turn aside1' 4447 -#bcj ,a 7444 #8a diviner and lowlier destiny8' 4447 7#b7 ,the banks of the ,ilissus4 #bcj ,b 7444 #8,but let me ask you1 friend1' 4447 -,e 7444 #8in which you can read best4'7 7#c7 ,the soul in a figure and her transmigrations4 #bde ,c 7#8,the soul through all her being' 4447 -#beg ,a 7444 #8leave you a fool in the world below4'7 7#d7 ,the true orator4 #bfi ,e 7#8,i conceive ,pericles' 4447 -#bgb ,c 7444 #8and yet the creation of such an art is not easy4'7 7#e7 ,the tale of ,thamus and ,theuth4 #bgd ,c 7#8,i have heard a tradition of the ancients' 4447 -#bge ,c 7444 #8that the ,theban is right in his view about letters4'7 7#f7 ,speech better than writing4 #bge ,c 7#8,i cannot help feeling' 4447 -#bgg ,a 7444 #8to the utmost extent of human happiness4'7 7#g7 ,the true art of composition4 #bgg ,b 7#8,until a man knows the truth' 4447 -#bgh ,d 7444 #8poet or speech-maker or law-maker4'7 ,,ion4 ,the inspiration of the poet4 #ecc ,c 7#8,i perceive1 ,ion1' 4447 -#ecf ,c 7444 #8not by art1 but by divine inspiration4'7 ,,symposium4 ,the ,character of ,socrates4 7#a7 ,his fit of abstraction in the porch4 #agd ,a 7#8,he said that he met ,socrates' 4447 -#age ,c 7444 #8,socrates entered4' 4447 7#b7 ,his strange appearance and marvellous power of influencing others4 #bae ,a 7#8,and now1 my boys1' 4447 -#baf ,g 7444 #8so that ,i am at my wit's end4'7 7#c7 ,his endurance1 eccentricity1 and bravery4 #bai ,e 7444 #8,all this happened' 4447 -#bbb ,a 7444 #8a good and honourable man4'7 ,,second ,,volume4 ,,meno4 ,learning is only ,recollection 773 ,the ,immortality of the ,soul proved out of ,pindar4 #ha ,a 7#8,i will tell you why' 4447 -,e 7444 #8active and inquisitive4' 4447 ,,apology1 ,,or ,,the ,,defence ,,of ,,socrates4 ,the whole4 ,,crito1 ,,or ,,socrates ,,in ,,prison4 ,the whole4 ,,phaedo1 ,,or ,,the ,,last ,,day ,,of ,,socrates' ,,life4 7#a7 ,socrates in prison4 #eg-fj ,c 7444 #8pleasure appears to succeed4'7 7#b7 ,why the philosopher is willing to die1 although he will not take his own life4 #fj ,c 7#8,upon this ,cebes said' 4447 -#fi ,e 7444 #8it will be well4'7 7#c7 ,the ,description of the ,other ,life4 #ajg ,c 7#8,but then1 ,o my friends1' 4447 -#aae ,a 7444 #8after ,i am dead4'7 7#d7 ,the ,death of ,socrates4 #aae ,a 7#8,when he had done speaking' 4447 -to end4 ,,gorgias4 7#a7 ,the good man desires1 not a long1 but a virtuous1 life4 #eaa ,a 7#8,you always contrive' 4447 -#eac ,a 7444 #8their own perdition4' 4447 7#b7 ,the ,judgment of the ,dead4 #ebc ,a 7#8,listen1 then1' 4447 -#ebg ,a 7444 #8any sort of insult4'7 7#c7 ,the ,moral of the ,tale4 #ebg ,a 7#8,perhaps this may appear' 4447 -to end4 ,appendix4 ,i ,alcibiades4 ,socrates humiliates ,alcibiades by shewing him his inferiority to the ,kings of ,lacedaemon and of ,persia4 #abj ,a 7#8,why1 you surely know' 4447 -#abd ,b 7444 #8ever desired anything4'7 ,,ii ,alcibiades4 ,the ,gods approve of simple worship4 #adh ,c 7#8,the ,lacedaemonians1 too1' 4447 -#aej ,b 7444 #8for me to oppose4'7 ,eryxias4 ,the nature of money4 #cii ,e 7#8,then now we have to consider' 4447 -#djj ,e 7444 #8of no use to us 444 ,true4'7 ,,third ,,volume4 ,,republic4 ,book i4 ,the commencement of the ,dialogue3 ,cephalus on ,old ,age4 #cbg-cca ,b 7444 #8is1 in my opinion1 the greatest4'7 ,book ii4 7#a7 ,the argument of ,adeimantus4 #cfb ,e 7444 #8,but let me add something more' 4447 -#cfg ,e 7444 #8seen or unseen by ,gods and men4'7 7#b7 ,the true nature of ,god4 #cgf ,d 7#8,come1 then1 and let us pass' 4447 -#chc ,a 7#8,your thoughts 444 my own4'7 ,book iii4 7#a7 ,grace and beauty in art and education4 #djj ,d 7#8,but there is no difficulty' 4447 -#djb ,a 7444 #8made him long familiar4'7 7#b7 ,the good physician and the good judge4 #djh ,c 7#8,all that1 ,socrates1 is excellent1' 4447 -#dji ,e 7#8,and in mine also4'7 7#c7 ,the true use of music and gymnastic4 #dji ,e 7#8,this is the sort of medicine' 4447 -#dab ,a 7#8,you are quite right1 ,socrates4'7 ,book iv4 ,virtue the health1 ,vice the disease1 of the ,soul4 #ddc ,c 7#8,then our dream has been realized' 4447 -#ddd ,e 7#8,assuredly4'7 ,book v4 7#a7 ,the right treatment of enemies4 #dfi ,a 7#8,next1 how shall our soldiers' 4447 -#dga ,c 7444 #8like all our previous enactments1 are very good4'7 7#b7 ,the last wave3,the ,government of ,philosophers4 #dga ,c 7#8,but still ,i must say1 ,socrates4' 4447 -#dgc ,e 7444 #8is indeed a hard thing4'7 ,book vi4 7#a7 ,the ,parable of the ,pilot4 #dhg ,a 7#8,here ,adeimantus interposed' 4447 -#dhi ,d 7#8,precisely so1 he said4'7 7#b7 ,the low estimation in which ,philosophy is held by the ,world4 #dic ,e 7#8,you recognize the truth of what ,i have been saying8' 4447 -#dig ,a 7444 #8as well as of himself4'7 ,book vii4 ,the ,allegory of the ,cave4 #ead ,a-#ebj ,e 7444 #8present rulers of the ,state4'7 ,book viii4 ,democracy and the ,democratic ,man4 #eee ,b 7#8,next comes democracy' 4447 -#efb ,a 7 444 #8the democratic man4'7 ,book ix4 ,the ,many-headed ,monster4 ,the ,city of which the ,pattern is laid up in ,heaven4 #ehh ,a 7#8,well1 ,i said1 and now' 4447 -to the end of the book4 ,book x4 ,the ,vision of ,er4 #fad ,b 7#8,well1 ,i said1 ,i will tell you a tale2' 4447 -to the end of the book4 ,,timaeus4 7#a7 ,the ,tale of ,solon4 #bj ,e 7#8,then listen1 ,socrates' 4447 -#bf ,d 7 444 #8these ancient ,athenians4' 4447 7#b7 ,the ,balance of ,mind and ,body4 #hg ,c 7#8,there is a corresponding enquiry' 4447 -#ij ,d 7 444 #8the present and the future4'7 ,,critias1 ,,or ,,the ,,island ,,of ,,atlantis4 ,the entire ,dialogue4 ,,fourth ,,volume4 ,,parmenides4 ,the meeting of ,socrates and ,parmenides at ,athens4 ,criticism of the ,ideas4 #abf ,a 7#8,we had come from our home' 4447 -#acf ,c 7 444 #8and see the real truth4'7 ,,theaetetus4 7#a7 ,socrates1 a midwife1 and the son of a midwife4 #adh ,e 7#8,these are the pangs of labour' 4447 -#aea ,e 7 444 #8by the help of ,god you will be able to tell4'7 7#b7 ,the ,lawyer and the ,philosopher4 #agb ,b 7 444 #8,here arises a new question' 4447 -#agg ,c 7 444 #8,let us go back to the argument4'7 ,,sophist4 ,the ,pre-,socratic ,philosophers and their puzzles4 #bda ,d 7#8,will you then forgive me' 4447 -#bdf ,d 7 444 #8but seekers after truth4'7 ,,statesman4 ,the ,reign of ,cronos4 #bfi ,a 7#8,again1 we have been often told' 4447 -#bgd ,e 7444 #8and at another time in another4' 4447 ,,philebus4 ,the first ,taste of ,logic4 ,the ,art of ,dialectic4 #ae ,c 7#8,good2 and where shall we begin' 4447 -#ag ,a 7444 #8and true dialectic4'7 ,,fifth ,,volume4 ,,laws4 ,book i4 7#a7 ,the true nature of ,education4 #fdc ,a 7#8,you seem to be quite ready to listen' 4447 -#fdd ,b 7444 #8of every man while he lives4'7 7#b7 ,man a puppet of the ,gods4 #fdd ,e 7#8,let us look at the matter thus' 4447 -#fde ,b 7444 #8more clearly distinguished by us4' 4447 ,book iii4 ,the ,origin of ,government4 #fgf ,a 7#8,enough of this' 4447 -#fgi ,e 7#8,very true4'7 ,book iv4 7#a7 ,the virtuous ,tyrant4 #gji ,c 7#8,and does not a like principle' 4447 -#gab ,a 7444 #8granting our supposition4'7 7#b7 ,the life of ,virtue4 #gae ,e 7#8,and now what is to be the next step8' 4447 -#gah ,a 7444 #8for the most part in good hope4' 4447 ,book v4 7#a7 ,the honour of the ,soul4 ,precepts for a virtuous life4 #gbf ,a-#gcb ,d 7444 #8both in jest and earnest4'7 7#b7 ,the best and second-best state4 #gci ,a 7#8,the next move' 4447 -#gda ,a 7444 #8to fight against necessity4'7 7#c7 ,riches and ,godliness4 #gdb ,d 7444 #8,the intention1 as we affirm' 4447 -#gdd ,a 7444 #8the work of legislation4'7 ,book vii4 7#a7 ,the good citizen must not lead an inactive life4 #hjf ,d 7#8,what will be the manner of life' 4447 -#hjh ,c 7444 #8to the whole state4'7 7#b7 ,the education of the young4 #hjh ,d 7444 #8,when the day breaks' 4447 -#hji ,a 7444 #8according to the law4'7 #haj ,a 7444 #8,a fair time'4447 -#hab ,a 7444 #8come to an end4'7 ,book viii4 ,the evils of licentiousness4 #hce ,c 7444 #8,there is1 however1 another matter' 4447 -#hda ,e 7444 #8wrongly indulged4'7 ,book x4 7#a7 ,the three classes of unbelievers4 ,advice to the young4 #hhe ,b 7444 #8,for we have already said' 4447 -#hhh ,d 7444 #8the truth of these matters4'7 7#b7 ,god is not an idle ruler of the ,universe2 but orders all1 even the smallest things1 for our good4 #hii ,d 7444 #8,and now we are to address him' 4447 -#ije ,d 7444 #8any understanding whatsoever' 4447 7#c7 ,god cannot be propitiated by the gifts of the wicked4 #ije ,d 7444 #8,for ,i think that we have sufficiently proved' 4447 -#ijg ,d 7444 #8will not discredit the lawgiver4'7 ,book xi4 7#a7 ,the evils of retail trade1 and the cure of them4 #iah ,a 7#8,after the practices of adulteration' 4447 -#iai ,c 7444 #8shamelessness and meanness4'7 7#b7 ,the honour of parents4 #icj ,e 7#8,neither ,god1 nor a man' 4447 -#icb ,a 7444 #8to what has now been said4'4447 ,book xii4 7#a7 ,the good state in its intercourse with the world4 #idi ,e 7#8,now a state' 4447 -#iea ,c 7444 #8is ill-conducted4'7 7#b7 ,the ,burial of the ,dead4 #ieh ,c 7#8,thus a man is born' 4447 -#ifj ,a 7444 #8a fitting penalty4'4447 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,aristotle 7#chd-cbb ,b4 ,c47 ,aristotle in the ,academy and ,lyceum4 ,many notable pupils gathered around ,plato during his mastership of more than forty years4 ,plato's nephew1 ,speusippus1 succeeded him as leader of the ,academy1 and for the next three hundred and fifty years the ,academy is called by various names4 ,it is the ,older ,academy under ,speusippus and later2 then it is known as the ,middle ,academy2 and then1 about #abj ,b4 ,c41 it is known as the ,new ,academy4 ,the history of the ,academy is1 however1 a part of the ,hellenic-,roman ,period4 ,it is sufficient to say here that the leaders succeeding ,plato in the ,academy added but little to philosophical speculation1 although much to empirical research4 ,the important fact is that the sceptre in philosophy passed from the ,academy when ,plato died and his greatest pupil ,aristotle left it4 ,just as ,plato stood among the pupils of ,socrates as ,socrates' most discriminating interpreter1 so among the pupils of ,plato there was one preminent pupil1,aristotle4 ,aristotle was too great a man to be subordinated to the leadership of ,speusippus4 ,upon the death of ,plato he left the ,academy1 and fourteen years later he returned to ,athens and founded the ,lyceum1 which became under his mastership the most influential ,athenian school4 ,the ,lyceum was an inclosed space of ground1 like the ,academy4 ,it was situated just outside the walls of ,athens1 on the right bank of the ,ilissus4 ,it was dedicated to ,apollo1 decorated with fountains1 gardens1 and buildings1 and contained one of the great gymnasia of ,athens4 ,it was frequented by philosophers1 and is known to have been the favorite walk of ,aristotle and his pupils1 whence they got their name of ,peripatetics4 ,theophrastus1 the most eminent pupil of ,aristotle1 bought a property near the grove and bequeathed it to the school4 ,it was a religious foundation1 like the ,academy4 ,the method of choosing the scholarchs varied at different times4 ,the name ,lyceum is from the same root as ,lycian1 and was given to ,aristotle's school from the fact that the grove was dedicated to the ,lycian ,apollo4 ,here1 in the ,lyceum1 ,greek philosophy was brought to its most complete expression4 ,here all the threads of ,greek cosmological and anthropological undertakings were finally woven together4 ,here an adjustment was accomplished between ,aristotle's two great predecessors1 ,plato and ,democritus2 and materialistic and idealistic realism crystallized in a theory of development4 ,the great form of ,aristotle rises to speak the final word of pure ,greek civilization1 at a time when the custody of ,greece had passed from the hands of the ,athenians1 the ,spartans1 the ,thebans in succession to the ,macedonians4 ,he was the most influential thinker that history had seen4 ,in his formative power upon human thought he has scarcely a peer4 ,dante called him 8the master of those who know40 8,in my opinion10 said ,cicero1 8,aristotle stands almost alone in philosophy40 ,eusebius said of him1 8,aristotle1 nature's private secretary1 dipped his pen in thought40 ,goethe remarked1 8,if now in my quiet days ,i had youthful faculties at my command1 ,i should devote myself to ,greek1 in spite of all the difficulties ,i know4 ,nature and ,aristotle should be my sole study4 ,it is beyond all conception what that man espied1 saw1 beheld1 remarked1 observed40 ,the portrait that we draw of ,aristotle is very different from that of ,plato4 ,instead of the deeply poetic temper1 the man who sees all things in an ideal unity of infiniteness and vastness1 we have before us now the scientist in search of facts1 the accurate man of good sense1 whose imagination does not soar above the clouds1 but at the same time has extraordinary fertility in historical and scientific theoretical explanations4 ,his was a life filled with the love of truth4 ,his learning took up into itself the entire range of human knowledge in such a way as to include its earlier development4 ,and what is more1 he showed an equal interest in all departments4 ,aristotle was more of a scientist than ,plato1 for the theoretical rather than the ethical interest was fundamental in his work4 ,he is the personification and completion of pure ,greek learning4 ,biography of ,aristotle1 #chd-cbb ,b4 ,c4 ,brief ,chronological ,sketch of ,aristotle's ,life4 ,first ,period,aristotle the ,student#cg years4 #chd-cdg ,b4 ,c4 #chd ,born in ,stagira in ,macedonia4 #cfg ,entered the ,academy4 ,remained #ai years4 #cdg ,left the ,academy upon the death of ,plato4 ,second ,period,aristotle the ,traveler#ab years4 #cdg-cce ,b4 ,c4 #cdg ,went to the courts at ,atarneus and ,mytilene in ,asia ,minor4 #cdc ,returned to the court of ,macedon at ,pella1 in response to the summons of ,king ,philip1 to teach the young prince ,alexander4 ,remained #d years4 #cdj ,went from ,pella to ,stagira to engage in scientific work4 ,remained #e years4 ,third ,period,aristotle the ,leader of the ,lyceum#ac years4 #cce-cbb ,b4 ,c4 #cce ,founded the ,lyceum in ,athens4 ,taught and administered the school #ab years4 #cbc ,fled to ,chalcis4 #cbb ,died in ,chalcis4 ,aristotle's ,biography in ,detail4 #a4 ,first ,period1 #chd-cdg ,b4 ,c4,early ,influences4 ,aristotle was born in ,stagira in ,macedonia4 ,his father was court physician to ,king ,amyntas1 the founder of the ,macedonian power and the father of ,king ,philip4 ,he came from a long line of physicians 7the caste1 ,asclepiad7 who traced their origin to ,asclepius4 ,little is known about the early years of ,aristotle except that his father and mother died1 leaving him in the guardianship of ,proxenus of ,atarneus4 7,atarneus is the state in ,asia ,minor which he later visited47 ,it can scarcely be doubted that he was destined by his family to be a physician1 and that the empirical works of ,hippocrates and ,democritus were the first elements of his early education4 ,aristotle grew up in this atmosphere of medicine of ,macedonia1 which explains his respect for the results of experience and his accuracy in details1all of which contrasts him with the ,attic philosophers4 ,he was sent by ,proxenus to the ,academy in #cfg ,b4 ,c41 at the age of eighteen1 and he remained there for nineteen years1 or until he was thirty-seven4 ,he was not merely a pupil in the school1 but his brilliancy won for him immediately a prominent position there4 ,he became a teacher1 an attractive writer1 and champion of the literary spirit of the school4 ,even while he was a member of the ,academy he became a famous man4 ,it is difficult to say just how much influence the ,academy had upon the casting of his thought4 ,his scientific inclinations were formed before he went to the ,academy2 he got his immense scientific erudition in ,asia ,minor and in ,stagira later1 after he left the ,academy4 ,probably the spirit of the ,platonic school turned his attention to ethical and metaphysical theories1 and probably it was due to his stay in the ,academy that he became interested in rhetorical and purely cultural studies4 ,at the same time his own influence must have been very great in forming the policy of the ,academy1 and he was probably responsible for its turning its attention to scientific matters4 ,the sources from which ,aristotle drew the material of his philosophical science were therefore 7#a7 his inherited taste for medicine and empirical science2 and 7#b7 the influence of the ,academy in ethical1 metaphysical1 and cultural subjects4 ,both these factors appear throughout the philosophical development of ,aristotle4 ,on the other hand1 it must not be forgotten that probably ,aristotle's influence upon the ,academy was as great as that of the ,academy upon him4 ,his own persistence along the line of empirical science shows itself in his period at ,atarneus1 ,mitylene1 and on his return to ,stagira4 ,much has been said about an estrangement between ,aristotle and his teacher1 ,plato4 ,this is probably idle gossip4 ,aristotle held his master in great esteem1 as he himself testifies in his ,ethics4 ,aristotle was an independent and original mind1 and probably even in the school he would point out defects in ,plato's thought1 when his aged teacher would lead his theories upon mistaken lines4 ,plato said that his pupil ,xenocrates needed the spur1 while ,aristotle needed the bridle4 ,aristotle was called the brain of the ,academy4 #b4 ,second ,period1 #cdg-cce ,b4 ,c4,traveler and ,collector4 ,when ,plato died1 and his nephew ,speusippus became scholarch of the ,academy1 ,aristotle1 in company with ,xenocrates1 went to the court of ,hermeias1 ruler of ,atarneus and ,mitylene4 ,hermeias was another pupil of ,plato at the ,academy4 ,here ,aristotle married twice1 and here he resided for six years4 ,in #cdc ,b4 ,c4 he obeyed the summons of ,king ,philip to come to ,pella and become the tutor of ,alexander4 ,he acted in this capacity for four years1 and seems to have been more fortunate than ,plato as instructor of a king4 ,his influence upon ,alexander was very great4 ,without losing himself in the impracticable1 ,aristotle seems to have impressed high philosophical ideals upon the noble spirit of his kingly ward4 ,alexander says of ,aristotle1 8,to my father ,i owe my life1 to ,aristotle the knowledge how to live worthily40 ,during the tedium of the protracted campaign in ,bactria1 ,alexander sent for the tragedies of ,euripides1 ,sophocles1 and schylus4 ,the ,ethics of his teacher was always with him4 ,the ideals of statesmanship1 the wide purposes in political control1 the greatness of the aims of the young conqueror1 as well as his self-control1 his aversion to meanness and petty things1 and his sublime moderation were due in part to the teachings of ,aristotle4 ,never was there a more fortunate conjunction of two great minds than here4 ,in #cdj ,b4 ,c41 when ,alexander entered upon his administrative and military duties1 ,aristotle became independent of the ,macedonian court4 ,he spent the most of these four years 7#cdj-cce ,b4 ,c47 in scientific work at ,stagira1 in intimate companionship with his young friend ,theophrastus1 who later succeeded him as scholarch of the ,lyceum4 8,among the special subjects of study in the school of ,mieza and ,stagira1 natural history formed a part4444 ,alexander at one time contributed eight hundred talents to forward his former teacher's investigations in zology1 placed at his disposal a thousand men throughout ,asia and ,greece1 with instructions to follow out ,aristotle's directions in collecting and reporting details concerning the life1 conditions1 and habits of animals1 and in every way made his campaigns serve the purpose of scientific investigation40#cc ,the reports of the ancients concerning the vast sums placed at ,aristotle's disposal for use in scientific investigation are of course exaggerated4 ,that he made large collections during this period1 as well as later1 is certain4 ,this was possible to him1 first1 because he was a rich man himself1 and second1 because of his relations to the courts at ,atarneus and ,macedonia4 #c4 ,third ,period1 #cce-cbb ,b4 ,c4,administrator of the ,lyceum4 ,when ,alexander entered upon his campaigns in ,asia1 and ,aristotle felt himself free from immediate duty to him1 he went to ,athens and founded the ,lyceum4 ,this school very soon arose above the ,academy1 and became the model of later societies of scholars of antiquity4 ,its greatness partook of the greatness of ,aristotle1in the universality of its interests1 in the orderliness of its administration1 and in methodical coperation4 ,for twelve years he was the executive1 teacher1 administrator1 and inspiration of this schooldeveloping his philosophy1 accumulating materials1 and instructing his pupils4 ,the enormous product of the school could not have been the work of one pair of hands4 ,nevertheless the writings1 the immense collections1 the ethical and political treatises1 show a unity that speaks of one master-mind that had them under direction4 ,when the ,athenians began to rise against the ,macedonian rule1 ,aristotle's position in ,athens as a friend of ,alexander became unsafe4 ,he fled to ,chalcis1 excusing himself1 so the tradition goes1 because he wished to spare the ,athenians a second crime against philosophy4 ,he died in ,chalcis the next year 7#cbb ,b4 ,c474 ,a comparison of these three periods of ,aristotle's life discloses the uniformity of that life1 from beginning to end4 ,he was1 from the time he entered the ,academy to the founding of the ,lyceum1 a teacher4 ,even as pupil of ,plato his original mind was influencing the ,platonic teaching into new channels4 ,during his second period he was a traveler1 to be sure2 but he was more1a collector and a king's tutor4 ,he was always ,aristotle1 the philosophical teacher4 ,hence the periods of his life cannot be so sharply marked as ,plato's1 and the lines that are drawn point only to phases of a life that had unity1 like his doctrine4 ,his life is a regular development from sources in his first period1 and with no later deviating influence4 ,the ,writings of ,aristotle4 ,on every page of ,plato's dialogues you meet ,plato2 in ,aristotle's writings the personality of the author is subordinated to his science4 ,the collections of writings transmitted under the name of ,aristotle do not give even an approximately complete picture of the immense activity of the man4 ,they form1 indeed1 a stately memorial1 even after the spurious writings have been omitted1 but their bulk is small compared with what we know was the product of his literary workshop4 ,forty treatises have been preserved4 ,a catalogue of the library of ,alexandria in #bbj ,b4 ,c4 includes a list of one hundred and forty-six others1 which have since been lost4 ,aristotle was writer1 lecturer1 teacher1 and the administrator of the ,lyceum4 ,his leadership of that school1 his careful direction of his coperators in research and study1 was not only an instruction but an impulsion to independent scientific study for all time4 ,his great collections of scientific data can be explained only by their being the combined efforts of many different forces1 guided and schooled by a common master4 ,the world was ready to take an account of stock1 and ,aristotle was the first encyclopdic philosopher4 #a4 ,the ,popular ,writings1 published by ,aristotle himself4 ,these were intended for a circle of readers wider than his own school4 ,no one of these works is extant in complete form4 ,they were written by ,aristotle during his life in the ,academy4 ,they were dialogues in form2 in content they were discussions of justice1 wealth1 wisdom1 rhetoric1 politics1 love1 conduct1 prayer1 generosity1 education1 government1 etc4 ,they were less artistic than ,plato's dialogues1 but more original and striking2 and they were full of happy inventions and rich thought1 expressed in florid diction4 ,the ancients spoke often of ,aristotle's 8golden flow of thought10 but this cannot truthfully apply to any save these lost writings4 #b4 ,the ,compilations4 ,these were excerpts from scientific works1 collections of zological1 literary1 historical1 and antiquarian data1 which ,aristotle and his pupils had gathered together4 ,only a few fragments of the total remain4 ,there were critical notes upon the ,pythagoreans1 reports of extracts of ,plato's dialogues1 a descriptive basis for zology with illustrations1 collections of previous rhetorical theories and models1 histories of tragedies and comedies1 discussions about ,homer1 ,hesiod1 ,archilochus1 ,euripides1 and other poets2 there were historical miscellanies and reports concerning one hundred fifty-eight ,greek state constitutions4 #c4 ,the ,didactic ,writings4 ,these have in part been preserved1 and they make up the collection of what we have of ,aristotle's writings4 ,they have a consistently developed terminology1 but they are wanting in grace and beauty of presentation4 ,the plan of the books is generally the same3 the problem is precisely stated2 then follows a criticism of various attempted solutions2 then a discussion of the salient points of the problem2 then a marshaling of the facts2 and1 finally1 an attempt to get a conclusive result4 ,the method is modern in its scientific procedure and the contrast with ,plato is striking4 ,yet it must not be inferred that these books of ,aristotle are orderly4 ,there are repetitions1 haste1 unequal development of parts1 and unfulfilled promises4 ,these books were nothing else than the written notes which he had made the basis of his lectures and had intended to form into text-books in some future time4 ,only parts of the ,logic seem to have been completed for text-book purposes4 ,these didactic writings are simply arranged as follows 7,wallace73 #a4 ,the treatise on ,logic called ,organon4 #b4 ,speculative ,philosophy4 ,first ,philosophy or ,theology or ,metaphysics4 ,mathematics 7writings not extant74 ,physics 7including the history of animals and the psychology74 #c4 ,practical ,philosophy4 ,ethics4 ,economics4 ,politics4 #d4 ,poetic ,philosophy4 ,art4 ,poetry4 ,rhetoric4 ,aristotle's ,starting-,point4 ,the two early influences in ,aristotle's mental development offer an explanation for his philosophical point of view4 ,these influences were his empirical training in medicine and his conceptual training in the moral ideals of the ,academy4 ,plato had convinced him that if there were to be any true science1 it must be founded on concepts that are unchanging4 ,his own scientific training1 however1 reinforced by the influence of ,democritus1 made him respect the value of empirical facts4 ,while the philosophical problem for ,aristotle was the same as that for ,plato1 the difference between them was in the main a matter of emphasis due to their different starting-points4 ,plato started with the refutation of the ,protagorean theory of perception1 and consequently he emphasized the value of the conceptual world2 ,aristotle1 however1 felt that ,plato had overestimated the conceptual world1 and he emphasized the importance of empirical facts4 ,both when a member of the ,academy and later1 he strongly contended against ,plato's evaluation of the world of ,ideas1 because they so transcended the sense world that they neither explained nor illuminated it4 ,aristotle's reaction against ,plato's theory furthermore gives us a more correct notion of what ,plato really taught4 ,if conceptions are to enter into knowledge1 they must not exist in the clouds of abstraction4 ,he maintained that ,plato had increased the difficulty of the problem by adding a second world of entities quite distinct from the world of nature4 ,the same problem that ,plato confronted still exists unanswered1 said ,aristotle4 ,it is the problem of the twofold world4 ,if ,ideas are apart from things1 we could not know that they existed1 we should not be able to know anything about them1 nor should we be able to explain the world through them4 ,it is true that ,plato1 in his later draft1 had conceived ,ideas to be teleologically related to the physical things1 but how could this be if they were apart from things8 ,thus in his reaction from ,plato's theory of ,ideas1 ,aristotle restablished the world of perceptual fact4 ,this is the starting-point of ,aristotle4 ,the ,fundamental ,principle in ,aristotle's ,philosophy4 ,the first question then is1 ,how did ,aristotle restablish the perceptual fact8 ,what means did he employ to give the perceptual fact a reality8 ,the answer to this question will be the statement of ,aristotle's fundamental principle4 ,it will show his advance over ,plato by showing his new estimate of the perceptual world4 ,plato accepted the ,protagorean doctrine of perception1 but also gave it a new value by placing perceptions beside conceptions in the world of reality2 ,aristotle developed ,plato's teaching about perceptions by linking them inseparably with conceptions4 ,aristotle felt that ,plato's difficulties arose from the lack of close relationship between conceptual ,being and perceptual fact4 ,what is that linkage8 ,what binds abiding reality and changing phenomena so closely8 ,the linkage is development4 ,development is the relation between conception and perception4 ,it is the fundamental principle in the philosophy of ,aristotle throughout and places a new estimate upon the value of perception4 ,perceptual facts apart from conceptions have no reality2 conceptions apart from perceptions are mere abstractions4 ,in the world of reality conceptual ,being resides in the perceptual facts1 and the perceptual facts express conceptions4 ,they always exist together in a linkage or relationship that is teleological1 purposefulthe linkage of development4 ,an abstract statement of this relationship is1 8,aristotle felt the conceptual necessity of the empirically actual40 ,perhaps the clearest statement of this fundamental principle can be made in the terms of evolution4 ,it is this3 true reality is the essence which unfolds in phenomena4 ,notice that this sentence has two parts equally freighted3 reality is an unfolding essence2 reality is in phenomena4 ,the true universal must be thought as realizing itself through its development in particulars2 the true concept as realizing itself through its development in percepts2 the true abiding ,being as realizing itself in its development through change4 ,on the one hand1 reality is the essence of things2 on the other1 reality has existence only in things4 ,true reality is the individual4 ,the individual consists of two aspects3 7#a7 conceptual being1 and 7#b7 perceptual change4 ,these two aspects always stand in a relationship4 ,that relationship is developing purpose4 ,here is the key to the teaching of ,aristotle that seems to open the doors of its many chambers4 ,in his metaphysics reality is the individual developing from possibility to actuality4 ,in physics individual phenomena get a reality through their development from lower to higher types4 ,in psychology the individual person is real when the particulars1 the physiological and psychological states1 develop toward the soul1 which is their truth4 ,so1 too1 in the great system of logic in which ,aristotle was pioneer1 he is simply trying to give the particular judgment a meaning by showing its linkage to the universal judgment4 ,everywhere the starting-point of ,aristotle is the perceptual fact4 ,everywhere his purpose is to restablish it by showing its relation to abiding conception in the individual4 ,it may be well to remark1 however1 that ,aristotle does not altogether succeed in constructing a consistent theory4 ,in spite of his criticism of ,plato's transcendent ,ideas1 in many places ,aristotle does not overcome ,plato's dualism4 ,frequently he differs from ,plato more in words than in meaning4 ,we shall observe some of his inconsistencies in their place4 ,we shall see that ,aristotle as he meant to be was different from ,aristotle as he was4 ,aristotle as he meant to be,aristotle as the opponent of ,plato's dualismdevelops a philosophy from a single fundamental principle4 ,aristotle as he was1 reverts at many critical points to ,plato's dualism4 ,aristotle's principle of development may appear at first blush very much like the modern principle of evolution4 ,as a matter of fact it was very different4 ,in all ,greek philosophy after ,socrates the study of morals was fundamental4 ,the ideal of ,socrates1 ,democritus1 ,plato1 ,aristotle1 and the later ,schools was a moral ideal4 ,being moral it was fixed1 and it fixed all the changes of life to it as a centre4 ,nature was to the ,greek a museum of types oscillating around a perfect form4 ,there was no evolution in the sense of progress4 ,there was development within the individualthe boy becomes a man1 the seed becomes a flower2 but there was no evolution from genus to genus4 ,indeed1 any variation of the individual from its type was considered a defect4 ,aristotle's ,logic4 ,aristotle felt that there must be a science of the methods of science2 and so successful was he in its formulation that it has practically remained as he transmitted it4 ,we are struck by the way in which he divided science into the special sciences1 each with its well-defined field4 ,it was perfectly natural that he should also1 with his great power of abstract reasoning1 discuss the body of rules for legitimate thinking4 ,in science there must be an art of investigation1 just as in rhetoric there is an art of persuasion4 ,at an early period these logical writings were collected under the name ,organon1 because the ,lyceum regarded them so intimately connected with scientific procedure as to be the instrument or 8organ0 of all knowledge4 ,certain parts of ,aristotle's ,organon are of doubtful genuineness4 ,the important sections are the ,analytics1 a masterly logical groundwork of the conclusion and proof1 and the ,topics1 which treats of the inductive methods of probability4 ,aristotle therefore made logic a preliminary and separate study1 as it should be4 ,it became the preface to his scientific work4 ,we shall briefly discuss ,aristotle's logic1 because it is an exemplification of his general philosophical principle4 ,among the subjects in the history of philosophy1 logic is perhaps the only one that has had no internal history4 ,aristotle was the pioneer in the subject4 ,he left it so finished that scarcely any changes of consequence could be made in it4 ,the external history of the ,aristotelian logic has1 however1 been notable4 ,a portion of the ,categories and ,de ,interpretatione was most influential in the history of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the ,logic had been misunderstood and misapplied by ,aristotle's own ,school1 so that when it came into the hands of the ,schoolmen it had acquired the reputation of being only an abstract formal logic4 ,as thus interpreted it was used by the ,schoolmen and attacked by the philosophers of the ,renaissance4 ,such a view of ,aristotle's logic is unjust to the author4 ,he had conceived logic in its wholeness to be the true method to be used in investigating practical scientific problems4 ,the ,sophists had proposed rules of practical value in the study of individual cases2 ,socrates had tried to fix upon some universal principle as the basis of knowledge2 ,aristotle made a comprehensive study of the regular forms of thought and the rules that govern the arrangement of these forms in right thinking4 ,in true ,platonic fashion he conceived physical events in nature to be due to some universal cause4 ,if1 therefore1 logical procedure be scientific1 it must follow the ways of nature3 logic must deduce particular perceptions from some universal idea4 ,the necessary thought-relations in which the particular stands will then appear4 ,deduction of the particular from the universal is the true scientific method1 used in the explanation of nature-phenomena2 so in proof the same deductive reasoning should be used4 ,in scientific study we are trying to show the conceptual necessity of an empirical fact2 in proof we are showing the conceptual necessity of the particular term4 ,whether we are explaining an event or proving a conclusion1 we are employing the same logical process4 ,aristotle thus regarded his logic as the true scientific method for practical service1 not as a merely abstract discipline in verbal hair-splitting4 ,socrates and ,plato confined themselves to the study of the concept or simple term4 ,aristotle also studied the concept4 ,indeed1 he tried to find out what concepts are fundamental in our thinking1 so fundamental that they are our thought reduced to its lowest terms4 ,he names ten of these fundamental concepts and calls them categories4 ,but ,aristotle goes farther than ,socrates and ,plato1 and makes his real point of departure the judgment4 ,a single term does not express truth4 ,for truth we must have two terms connected by the verb 8is10 i4 e4 some relation must be shown between them4 ,this is a judgment4 ,reasoning is still more complex4 ,it is the putting together or showing the relation between two judgments4 ,this process takes the form of the syllogism4 ,the first task of deduction is to present the laws of the syllogism4 ,these will then be the laws of scientific investigation4 ,according to these1 particulars can be derived with certainty from universal propositions1 provided such universals are established4 ,the syllogism is in the form of two premises and a derived conclusion4 ,it contains three terms4 ,the problem is to infer1 from the relation that one of these terms bears to the two other terms1 what the two bear to each other4 ,the principle employed is that of subordination2 and the differentiations of the syllogism can be many1 depending on the quality and quantity of the premises and the distribution of the middle term4 ,the working of the syllogism in inference has a certainty so great that ,aristotle called it apodictic4 ,but there is another side to the syllogistic besides the deduction of proof or the explanation of empirical fact4 ,this is the establishment of the premises4 ,all deduction presupposes absolute premises4 ,all deduction is grounded on something not deduced2 all proof on something not proved2 all explanation on something that has not been explained4 ,these presuppositions are universal propositions that can be known only immediately through intuitions4 ,aristotle is not altogether clear as to what these intuitions are4 ,he names such axioms as the law of contradiction and the law of the excluded middle1 and some special propositions which apply only to particular sciences4 ,since the premises which we actually use are not open to proof1 but only strengthened as to the validity of their application1 we must use the method of induction in our search for them4 ,we accumulate data from opinions and varied experiences1 and then we ascend to a generalization which we take as a premise4 ,the results of induction cannot therefore be in themselves certain4 ,the results are only probable1 and can have the character of knowledge only as they explain phenomena4 ,aristotle means by induction something different from the present use of the term4 ,induction in modern times means a kind of proof2 ,aristotle means a method of discovery of relatively universal terms where the absolutely universal cannot be obtained4 ,there is an ideal involved in this conception of logic that is interesting4 ,in a perfectly intellectual society there would be a perfect science in which all particular facts could be derived with absolute certainty from premises absolutely known4 ,life and logic would be identical4 ,we should then be certain not only as to our proof but as to our premises4 ,logic has sometimes been used very effectively in this way4 ,when the medival church conceived its dogmas to be the ultimate premises of truth1 it could deduce from them complete rules for living4 ,to the medival mind the perfect science was formulated by deducing it from the dogma of the church4 ,the dogmas were the absolute premises4 ,the ,renaissance did not doubt the infallibility of the traditional dogmas so much as the logical method1 and ,aristotle1 who had been so long artificially identified with the proof of ecclesiastical dogma1 was set aside4 ,aristotle1 moreover1 showed great insight into the present relation of thought and reality4 ,the sequence of facts in our experience1 he pointed out1 is exactly the reverse of what it is in reality4 ,what is first in reality comes last in our experience1 and what is first in our experience is last in reality4 ,to illustrate3 the mission of the ,athenian ,state in the eternity of things did not appear until every event in its history had occurred4 ,a perfect being would see the universal ground before the historical particulars derived from it1 while we look from the particulars to their universal causes4 ,logic and metaphysics agree2 but they stand in inverted parallelism to historical and psychological processes4 ,knowledge is a development from the senses into the ,ideas1 and yet1 on the other hand1 ,aristotle never fails to remind us that this development is the expression of an idea which has been present from the beginning4 ,aristotle's ,metaphysics4 #a4 ,development is ,purposeful4 ,the conception of relation is1 of course1 quite as fundamental in ,aristotle's theory of metaphysics as in his logic4 ,in logic knowledge of the particular is possible through its relationship to the universal2 in metaphysics the relationship is the relationship of developmentthe particular has significance and value through the universal essence that unfolds from within it4 ,if ,aristotle shows genius for abstract thinking by becoming the 8,father of ,logic10 he shows equal genius for abstract thinking in his metaphysical conception of development4 ,he believed that metaphysics applies the same conditions to things that logic discovers in thought4 ,but in metaphysics the relationship is not the abstract relationship that ,aristotle saw in ,plato1 but the vital relation of development in the life and change of nature4 ,we have already stated the fundamental principle in ,aristotle's teaching as an unfolding essence in phenomena4 ,the unfolding is the relationship of development4 ,reality does not consist in the particular things of nature1 nor in something outside nature1 but in this essential linkage of the perceptual and conceptual in nature4 ,as the world is spread out before us1 it presents objects that are dynamic1 however much they may appear to be static4 ,everywhere matter is in the process of forming4 ,the world is a forming1 not a formed nor a formless world4 ,so1 also1 if you undertook to describe any individual object in the world1 you would have to define it as a forming or developing thing4 ,a tree1 for example1 would not be adequately defined or described by enumerating its parts at any one moment2 but you must describe it as a unitary organism developing from a seed4 ,the reality of the world is the development of its meaning in its history2 the same is true of the reality of any individual thing in the world4 ,the world and the things therein have an unfolding essence4 ,the next point to be observed about ,aristotle's conception is that the relationship of development is between two terms4 ,the individual must have two aspects3 there must be that out of which the development is passing1 and that into which it is passing4 ,aristotle calls these two aspects of development respectively ,matter and ,form4 ,every object of nature consists of ,form and ,matter1 and these two terms have passed into history4 ,to ,aristotle everything is ,matter becoming ,form1 or1 in other words1 ,form realizing itself in ,matter4 ,the tree has its ,matter which is becoming ,formed1 and its ,form into which the ,matter is growing4 ,the principle which unites the two is development1the principle of the individual4 ,matter1 then1 is the possibility or potentiality of an individual thingit is the thing given potentially2 ,form is its actuality or reality4 ,if you emphasize merely the stages in the development1 you are regarding merely the occurrences2 if1 however1 you emphasize the stages of development as aspects of a unity1 you see its essence4 ,the relationship of development between two terms thus becomes under ,aristotle's hands the relation of purpose4 ,aristotle calls this self-realization of the essence in phenomena by the technical word entelechy1 i4 e4 in opposition to the earlier conceptions of nature ,aristotle conceived nature teleologically4 ,teleology or purpose we found ,plato using in his second draft of the ,ideas1 but more as a postulate than as an efficient means of explanation4 ,aristotle uses teleology as his positive fundamental principle of nature4 #b4 ,aristotle's ,two ,different ,conceptions of ,purpose4 ,aristotle illustrated his conception of the purposeful relation in nature from two very different types3 7#a7 the development of organisms2 7#b7 the development that takes place when an artisan moulds plastic material4 ,manifestly here are two different kinds of teleological activities4 ,in organic growth the ,form that realizes itself in ,matter is immanent in the organism2 the artist1 on the other hand1 superimposes the ,form upon the plastic material4 ,in the case of organisms ,matter and ,form are separable only by abstraction1 and are only two aspects of a development which is identical from the beginning to the end2 in the case of artistic construction the ,matter is first a possibility existing by itself1 and the purpose of the artist is later added unto it4 ,in the case of organisms ,aristotle speaks of two causes1the material and the formal2 in the case of artistic construction he employs four causes1the material1 the efficient1 the formal1 and the final4 ,aristotle did not expressly formulate these two different conceptions of purpose1 but he completely applied them in practice4 ,on the one hand he regarded individual things as self-realizing1 and on the other he looked upon them as realized in other things4 ,this seemingly harmless difference is really very fundamental1 for it is the difference between ,aristotle as he meant to be,aristotle as the critic of ,plato's dualismand ,aristotle who reverts to ,plato's teaching4 ,we find therefore two ,aristotles2 one a dynamic monist1 the other a transcendent dualist4 ,we cannot say that ,aristotle as he meant to be is the true ,aristotle1 for he is a dualist in very many important doctrines4 ,aristotle's conception of purpose as exemplified by organisms is his original conception1 and is what he intended to be the basis of his philosophy4 ,here the truly real is the individual determined by its own ,form4 ,it is the dynamic and not the artistic view of life4 ,activity is directed to an end not without but within itself4 ,the individual is a complete organic unity at rest within itself4 ,the individual is primarily the essence or substance4 ,of the ten categories which he enumerates1 substance from this point of view is to ,aristotle the most important4 ,the nine other categories only describe the states or relations of the substance4 ,the essence of the individual is the substance2 and ,aristotle conceives the substance as the species or universal in the thing4 ,it is pointed out that even here ,aristotle is guilty of a dualism in the double meaning in which he uses substance4 ,but the conception of ,aristotle here is of an immanent1 dynamic reality4 ,he has in mind the self-contained unity of the individual1 whether that be a tree1 a man1 or the universe4 ,aristotle's conception of purpose as exemplified by artistic products preponderates over his original conception of purpose4 ,when he regards the individual objects in the world1 not as self-contained but as relative to one another1 he has a different conception of the world4 ,in this case the individuals are not realities but have reference to a reality transcending them4 ,the world is still a developing world1 but the essence that unfolds itself is not in phenomena4 ,it is a goal for which phenomena strive4 ,the fulfillment of the purpose is beyond4 ,individual things are only a scale of values relative to some transcendent standard4 ,to illustrate3 the bud1 the blossom1 the fruit1 have not their realization in themselves1 but as food2 again1 the growing tree1 the timber lying on the ground1 the timber in the house1 have their realization in the completed house2 again1 in the world at large1 the original nebulous matter of the universe1 the first-formed worlds1 the early years of this earth1 the succeeding centuries1 the #bjth century of this world1 are only a scale of values for something in the future4 ,in facing such facts1 ,aristotle had to depart from his original conceptualistic standard of the world as an organic unity and of individual things having their meaning in themselves4 ,view a thing by itself1 and it seems to be a self-contained reality which unfolds for itself alone4 ,view a thing with reference to other things1 and its reality is in something else4 ,here is ,aristotle no longer as he meant to be1 but as he really was4 ,he is now ,plato's pupil4 ,each thing now is to be regarded1 not as containing in itself the two aspects of ,form and ,matter1 but as the possibility of something and the actuality of something else4 ,the blossom is the possibility or ,matter of the fruit and the ,form or actuality of the bud4 ,the nineteenth century is the ,form of the eighteenth and the ,matter of the twentieth4 ,but development has a limit above and below1 according to ,aristotle3 below1 in ,matter that is without ,form2 above1 in ,form that is without ,matter4 ,pure ,form is ,god1 who excludes from ,himself all ,matter or possibility1 because ,he is perfect4 ,pure ,matter is the lower limit1 which is entire possibility1 and exists only to be formed4 ,here is a dualism as distinct as ,plato's1 which ,aristotle not only did not overcome but which he developed4 ,in the same way that ,plato contrasted ,ideas and empty space1 ,aristotle contrasted ,god as pure ,form and ,matter as pure possibility4 ,in this final dualistic form in which ,aristotle left his teaching1 there are three specific doctrines which the student must consider carefully4 ,they are important because they had great influence in later orthodox theology and in theories of nature4 ,these special doctrines are 7#a7 ,aristotle's conception of ,god2 7#b7 his conception of matter2 7#c7 his conception of nature4 #c4 ,aristotle's ,conception of ,god4 ,in the ,aristotelian system the assumption of an upper final term of pure ,form was necessary1 because ,matter as the possible and potential is not endowed with the power of motion and generation4 ,to ,aristotle development is not a process with temporal beginning and ending1 but is a kind of closed circuit4 ,since reality is in itself a developing essence1 motion is as eternal as reality4 ,we should not ask1 therefore1 ,when did the world begin1 and when will it end8 but we can legitimately ask1 ,what is the nature of reality that keeps motion alive8 ,when we examine individual things1 we find1 according to ,aristotle's explanation1 that motion is the result of the influence of ,form upon ,matter4 ,there is inherent in matter an impulse to be formed1 and there is inherent in ,form an active forming purpose4 ,but we may search individual things in vain for the causal explanation of motion1 since every ,form is in turn the ,matter for a higher ,form4 ,the chain would be endless and not intelligible if there did not exist a pure ,form1 which is unmoved4 ,god as the unmoved mover is the cause of the world-motion1 but ,god must be the cause in a different sense from the physical causes1 which are themselves moved4 ,god operates as a cause upon ,matter1 not as a mechanical cause but as pure ,form1as a final or teleological cause4 ,god is the cause in the sense that ,god excites in ,matter the impulse to be actual1 like ,god4 ,this prime mover is similar to ,plato's ,idea of the ,good4 ,as to its form it is eternal1 unmovable1 unchangeable1 wholly independent and incorporeal1 and yet the cause of all generation and change4 ,god is the perfect ,being in whom all possibility is actuality4 ,as to its content ,god is pure thought4 ,but in respect to his thought ,god is not like human thought1 which is concerned with external phenomena and changing things4 ,god is thought that has nothing else for its object than itself and its own unchanging content4 ,god is 8thought of thought40 ,god's contemplation of himself is his own blessed life4 ,here in ,aristotle is a momentous conception formed for the first time in the history of thought4 ,monotheism is for the first time conceptually framed and scientifically grounded4 ,the monism of ,aristotle's predecessors passes over into a theism4 ,god is not only immaterial in the sense that ,plato defined the ,ideas1 but he is spiritual4 ,in ,aristotle's transcendent ,god1 conceived as pure self-consciousness1 we have the ripest fruit of ,greek philosophy4 #d4 ,aristotle's ,conception of ,matter4 ,the other and lower limit of ,aristotle's dualism is ,matter1 8first ,matter10 as ,aristotle called it4 ,in itself it is wholly unformed and mere possibility4 ,but it is unlike pure ,form in this respect1it never exists in itself4 ,god exists apart from ,matter1 but since ,matter is mere possibility1 ,matter never exists apart from ,form4 ,matter has a double character4 ,on the one hand ,matter is that which as an accessory cause makes the world of phenomena possible2 on the other hand it is the source of the lawless and purposeless in nature4 ,through its seeking to be formed it makes the presentation of the ,idea possible1 and yet it stands as a deterrent principle to the full presentation of the ,form4 ,on the one hand it is the sine qua non of physical nature1 shows itself in real physical effects1 and is the basis of mechanical causation1 motion1 and impact4 ,on the other hand it stands in the way of the ,forms actualizing themselves fully1 and it prevents the universe from perfecting itself as ,god is perfect4 ,while ,matter is not an indifferent negative 7as in ,plato's teaching71 but the necessary substratum of corporeal things1 it is however the indeterminate1 and the ground of the accidental and purposeless in nature4 ,matter is the infinite and unlimited1 and is the source of unusual phenomena1 like monstrosities and abortions4 ,both fate and accident are due to the retarding influence of ,matter1 because it obstructs the successful working out of ,form4 ,quite in accord with ,greek thought1 ,aristotle conceived necessity and chance to be fundamentally the same1 and the ,greek custom of drawing lots shows the universality of the notion4 #e4 ,aristotle's ,conception of ,nature4 ,nature is therefore to ,aristotle a far more complex world than ,plato had conceived it4 ,nature has a double character to ,aristotle1 as his twofold conception of causation shows4 ,nature is composed of mechanical and teleological causes4 ,purpose and necessity are the two principles of motion in the world1 and in this twofold conception of causation did ,aristotle reconcile ,plato and ,democritus4 ,however much ,aristotle concedes to the ,democritan idea of mechanical necessity1 it is evident that in his conception of nature the principle of teleology predominates over the mechanical4 ,the highest actuality is ,god1 and he is a final or teleological cause2 and all results of value in nature come through final causes4 ,final causes are primary causes2 mechanical causes are secondary causes4 ,there would be no motion whatever in the universe but for the highest final cause1 ,god4 ,yet ,god is the unmoved mover1 and matter cannot move itself4 ,motion occurs because matter feels the impulse to form itself like ,god4 ,how different this ,aristotelian conception of nature from our modern scientific conception of an impersonal nature under a mechanical causation that is universal6 ,the teleological conception of nature and natural events was very strongly intrenched in the human mind during the ,middle ,ages1 and was not dislodged easily by modern investigation4 ,nature was a living thing to ,aristotle4 ,it was at once intrinsically spontaneous1 and self-determined and uniform4 ,its spontaneity was not that of capricious chance4 ,its uniformity was that of purpose and end4 ,on the other hand1 the ,aristotelian conception of nature is not the same as either the ,christian doctrine of created nature or ,darwin's theory of evolution4 ,the world of ,aristotle had always existed2 it is a limited world in space1 but not in time4 ,also the divine reason always existed in it4 ,yet its evolution is not a progressive climbing sort1 like the ,darwinian1 in which new species evolve4 ,it means only that there is a relationship of rank and value among nature objects4 ,nature is a unity4 ,teleological change occurs within it4 ,nature is therefore a connected system of living beings in the process of development from ,form to ,form1 approximating the ,deity and existing as the potentiality of the ,deity4 ,there is a graded scale of things of relative worth4 ,but the double standard of estimating the worth of nature-objectsthat of mechanical necessity and that of teleological causemakes two different series1 which find their union only at the end in ,god4 ,from our foregoing description of the nature of ,god1 it will be seen that he has two essential characteristics3 he is ,being who ever rests within himself and remains like himself2 and he is a pure reason4 ,he therefore combines in himself the two nature series in their most ideal character4 ,nature-objects in the series of mechanical necessity have as their ideal character just that uniformity1 regularity1 and order that we find in the abiding ,being of ,god4 ,the greater the uniformity1 the more nearly like ,god4 ,nature-objects1 in the teleological series1 have as their ideal characteristic the reason of ,god4 ,the more nearly rational such a living being is1 the more nearly is it like ,god4 ,in the one line the series of phenomena ascends from the disorder of the terrestrial universe to the absolute uniformity of the stars1 which are close to ,god4 ,in the other line the series ascends in teleological values from the mechanical and vegetative characteristics of organisms to their rational activity4 ,both series terminate in ,god4 ,the stars have rational intelligence and the most uniform motions4 ,aristotle conceived ,physics as the science that includes the first series1 and the second series he conceived to be included by ,psychology1 ,ethics1 and ,politics4 ,the ,mechanical ,series1,aristotle's ,theory of ,physics4 ,the general astronomical assumptions of the time determined ,aristotle's theory of the physical world4 ,he adopted the old ,pythagorean conception of the limited world-all3 a hollow sphere made up of concentric crystalline spheres4 ,in opposition to the ,pythagoreans1 he conceived the earth at the centre4 ,it is spherical and stationary4 ,around it the crystalline spheres revolve1 in which the moon1 sun1 five planets1 and fixed stars are placed4 ,the fixed stars are in the rim of the great sphere1 are outside all1 and are nearest therefore to ,god1 who animates all4 ,god as it were holds the world-all in the hollow of his hand4 ,he moves the whole1 which in turn moves the fifty-five concentric crystal spheres within4 ,the principle of the movement of fixed stars is that of the ,deity1 while the principle of the other spheres is that of the spirits which reside in them4 ,the movement of the planets have an influence upon terrestrial life4 ,aristotle made the usual ,pythagorean division between the celestial and the terrestrial parts of the world-all1 which has had so much influence upon theology4 ,the motion of the world-all is most perfect1 being a circle2 its form is most perfect1 being a sphere4 ,the celestial part of this world-all1 which is the region lying near the periphery1 is most like ,god4 ,the motion of this heaven is circular1 and it is the place of uniformity1 perfectness1 and changeableness4 ,the stars do not change nor pass away4 ,they are superhuman beings1 who in their regularity are like the blessed gods4 ,the terrestrial part of the world-all below the moon has motions in straight lines4 ,this is the theatre of imperfection and irregularity1 of increase and diminution4 ,there are many interesting discussions by ,aristotle upon particular physical matters1 such as space1 time1 the elements4 ,his conception of motion shows how the series of uniform nature-motions lead up to the second series of teleological values4 ,in nature there are three kinds of motion3 change of place 7mechanical72 change in quality 7chemical72 change in substance 7organic74 ,while change of place is the lowest kind of motion1 it is necessary to chemical and organic changes4 ,yet ,aristotle refuses to allow that qualitative changes can be reduced to quantitative changes1 but maintains that quality is self-subsistent4 ,organic change1 or change in substance1 on the contrary1 has a higher ,form of reality than the lower changes4 ,this stand taken by ,aristotle1 in refusing to reduce qualitative to quantitative determinations1 shows how comprehensive and sane a scientist he was4 ,it introduces us to a psychology and an ethics that are intimately linked to physics1 and at the same time have realms of their own4 ,let us now turn to the series of qualitative nature changes1 or to psychology1 ethics1 and politics4 ,the ,teleological ,series3 ,the ,qualitative ,changes of ,phenomena4 #a4 ,the ,psychology of ,aristotle4 ,as the first experimental psychologist1 ,aristotle intimately connected his studies in psychology with his studies in biology and medicine4 ,man is a part of the world of nature1 and psychology is in part a comparative study4 ,as we pass upward from the mechanical changes1 we find chemical changes of quality1 and then changes of organic life4 ,studying the organic realm1 we find organisms to consist of souls of relative ranking4 ,there are vegetative souls1 sensitive souls1 and rational souls4 ,plants have vegetative souls with the powers of assimilation and propagation2 besides vegetative souls animals have sensitive souls1 with the powers of appetition and locomotion2 man possesses1 besides both these souls1 the rational soul4 ,here is a series of teleological relationships1 where the purpose of the organism is explained only by the activity of its soul4 ,the soul builds up its body as a system of organs1 and as an organology the theory of ,aristotle has great significance4 ,nature strives ever upward1 even in the inorganic processes1 through an unbroken series of creations to its highest ,form in man4 ,each step in the upward progress is the realization of an entelechy1 or purpose1 and constitutes for the moment the goal of the impulse to strive4 ,the whole world is striving to realize the perfect ,form4 ,the lower ends1 the mechanical and vegetable and appetitive ,forms1 are not lost but are utilized in the process2 for they are the ,matter upon which the ,forms higher than themselves are built4 ,every member is both ,form and ,matter in the whole series4 ,the psychology has therefore two parts3 7#a7 the general theory of animal souls1 which possesses rich suggestions2 7#b7 the doctrine of the ,nous as the distinctive characteristic of man4 ,these are the empirical and speculative sides to ,aristotle's psychology4 ,man is an epitome of all the changes in the universe4 ,he has vegetative1 appetitive1 and rational souls4 ,yet there is unity in man1 for the lower souls are subservient to the reason and exist for it4 ,the appetitive soul is the ,form of the vegetative soul1 the ,matter of the ,rational soul1 etc4 ,accordingly1 ,aristotle defines the soul as the entelechy of the body1 because bodily human activity is enlisted in the service of the reason4 ,reality in man is an unfolding purpose1 just as it is in nature4 ,the real self is this unfolding rational self1 whose possibility is the body2 whose actuality is pure reason4 ,the mind is actualized body1 the body is potential mind4 ,aristotle made many contributions to psychology about the origin and value of the several sensations1 about the feelings of pleasure and pain and the desires4 ,he shows his remarkable genius in pointing to the necessity of a unity of consciousness1 which he calls the 8common-sensibility40 ,his discussion of the ,nous1 or reason1 is of importance for two reasons3 first1 because it leads to and illuminates his ethical theory2 and second1 because it is an example of his deviation from his original conceptual position4 ,the reason1 according to his first intention1 is the unfolding purpose of the body1it is the immanent essence of the body4 ,as ,aristotle finally left his discussion of the ,reason1 it is as transcendent as his ,god1 or as any ,idea of ,plato4 ,the ,nous1 or ,reason1 is not a ,form of the body1 but a ,form of the soul4 ,it is purely immaterial1 simple1 unchangeable1 and incapable of suffering4 ,it does not originate with the body as a function4 ,it comes from without as a godlike activity1 and will remain after the body passes away4 ,its fundamental activity is thought1 and its object is those ultimate principles of ,being which are the ultimate premises of logical thinking4 ,aristotle's theory of the ,reason is considerably complicated by his division of it into two parts1the active and the passive ,reason4 ,within itself1 the ,reason is to be distinguished as ,form and ,matter4 ,the passive ,reason is the ,matter for the active ,reason1 and the active ,reason is the ,form for the passive ,reason4 ,by the passive ,reason ,aristotle evidently means the individual and developing man4 ,the active ,reason can alone persist after death1 but whether absorbed in the ,deity or not he does not say4 ,immortality to ,aristotle in any case is not a perpetuation of the individuality4 #b4 ,the ,ethics of ,aristotle4 ,we have seen that nature phenomena are of two classes1those mechanically related1 and those related as to their purposes or ends4 ,physics is concerned with the first class2 psychology is concerned with the second class4 ,but in a special way are ethics and politics sciences of the phenomena of the second classsciences of teleologically related phenomena4 ,moral life is an unfolding essence having a possibility and an actuality4 ,the ,possibility or ,matter of the ethical life is our feelings1 temperament1 disposition1 impulses1 and perceptionsjust those psychological factors that make up the endowment of the human personality4 ,the ultimate ,form or actuality of the ethical life is the reason4 ,the reason as the goal of the moral being determines its character4 ,man is distinctly a rational being4 ,virtue is the process of the ethical life from its possibilities to its actuality2 it is the essence of the ethical life4 ,virtue is that continuous state of mind that makes rational activity possible4 ,so much for the factors that make the ethical situation2 the natural endowments of the mind are its material1 the reason is its goal1 while the means of developing the natural endowments into rational activity is virtue4 ,the situation would be simple enough for us as moral beings if1 in our striving1 each had only himself and his own development to consider4 ,but man lives in a world of men1 and his highest good is determined somewhat by his environment1by riches1 bodily comforts1 success4 ,these are not essentials but only accessories1 and the lack of them is only a limitation4 ,the essential factor is the rational activity4 ,nevertheless1 these modify the definition of what we mean when we define rational activity as the highest ,good or ,form of the moral life4 ,for the question which ,aristotle proposes in his notable treatise of ,ethics is1 ,what is the end or supreme good of human action8 ,the highest ,good for a man among men is ,happiness1 or well-being2 that includes not only rational activity1 but also the pleasures that accrue to such activity4 ,but what is happiness8 ,it is an end in itself1 and not the means to anything else2 it is the result of functioning1 a state of conscious vitality2 it accords with the law of excellence of that functioning4 ,perfect happiness is1 therefore1 partly the result of one's own individual effort1 partly dependent on circumstance4 ,while virtue is the measure of the worth of different pleasures1 yet pleasures do not always attend our acts in our present society4 ,the greatest ,good is happiness1 but since this depends in part on external goods1 the goal to which we should directly attendthe factor within our controlis rational activity4 ,there are two classes of virtues based on the two kinds of rational life1the practical virtues and the dianoetic virtues4 ,the practical virtues are those of conduct based upon the rational control of the impulses2 the dianoetic virtues are those of intellectual activity based upon the development of the perceptions4 ,the perfect moral development of human nature will consist 7#a7 in the perfect development and true regulation of the feelings and desires in moral excellence2 and 7#b7 a perfect development of the intellectual faculties for rational culture4 7a7 ,the ,practical ,virtues4 ,the essential thing for the individual to regard1 therefore1 is the training of his will by right rational insight4 ,he should seek to direct his impulses by reason1 and not only once but so many times that the impulses will become rational habits4 ,this is what ,aristotle means by training in virtue4 ,it is continuity in rational activity2 it is a permanent development toward reason2 it is the unfolding of the real ,self4 ,aristotle had regard for the facts of life when he differed from ,socrates1 who said that virtue is knowledge4 ,aristotle did not conceive the will as psychological power independent of the reason4 ,he doubted if rational insight was more powerful than the impulses1 when the test comes4 ,experience often shows that although we may know what is right1 an impulse will often drive us into habits not guided by reason4 ,this presupposes for ,aristotle a will that is free to choose among the desires that one which will lead him along the path that reason points out4 ,it is impossible to formulate a rule for the acquirement of the particular virtues4 ,each virtue must be treated by itself4 ,the only principle for guidance is that the reason should always seek the mean between two extremes4 ,thus courage is the mean between cowardice and rashness2 temperance between intemperance and insensibility2 friendliness between obsequiousness and brusqueness1 etc4 ,moderation is the watchword in the cultivation of the practical virtues4 7b7 ,the ,dianoetic ,virtues are the means toward the attainment of pure rationality for one's self4 ,the dianoetic virtues are higher than the practical4 ,they unfold the pure formal activity of the ,nous1 and give the most noble and perfect pleasure4 ,man finds through them his possible participation in the divine happiness4 ,these intellectual virtues may be either theoretical or practical insight2 in the latter case1 ,aristotle means knowledge of the right in art1 and knowledge of justice4 ,but the purest is ,wisdom 771 which is knowledge for its own sake4 ,it is the knowledge that ,god has of himself4 ,man may approximate this4 ,in ,aristotle's ethical theory there appear three features that are distinctly ,greek4 7#a7 ,the leading question that he asks at the beginning of the ,ethics1 ,what is the end or ,supreme ,good of human action8 is ,greek4 ,the modern writer asks1 ,what is the nature of duty8 7#b7 ,the emphasis on the 8mean0 is ,greek4 ,the idea of the 8mean0 was the fundamental principle in ,greek life1 and appeared in such literature as ,gnomic poetry and ,plato4 7#c7 ,the subordination of individual ethical conduct to the conception of the state is ,greek4 ,aristotle says that politics will have to settle the question of the ,supreme ,good1 for the ,good of the state and that of the individual are identical4 ,the ,political ,philosophy of ,aristotle4 ,in the present real world rational activity rather than happiness is the chief concern of man4 ,happiness is1 however1 his highest ,good1 which he can attain if his environment favors him4 ,the political environment is a moral factor to be considered4 ,the state should be the fulfillment of the morals of the individual1 and should also be his ethical trainer4 ,that ,state is fulfilling its own possibilities most completely which brings to the full its natural endowments4 ,every ,constitution is right that has the weal of the people at heart1 so that we find ,aristotle holding this extraordinarily liberal position1 that the external structure of the ,state is not so much of consequence as that the ,state should be the educator of its people and the actualization of its own inherent possibilities4 ,aristotle did not construct an ideal state1 like ,plato4 ,he merely pointed out some essentials necessary to the well-being of a state1 like education and providence for the future life of the ,state4 ,although the ,state is the offspring of necessity1 and arises out of the needs of utility1 it is the ,form or actuality of the inner self-realization of man from his savagery4 ,race1 blood1 soil1 and geographical position are all the ,matter of the ,state2 the rational perfection of these is the ,form2 the civic virtue is the permanent means of the social development4 ,the individual in ,aristotle's ,state is subordinated1 but not absorbed1 in the ,state4 ,he can participate in the intellectual virtues4 ,since his own enjoyment in wisdom approximates ,god's1 he himself has distinction4 ,aristotle was a stanch supporter of marriage and the family relations4 ,no philosopher in ancient times so elevated the position of woman4 ,he reluctantly consented to the institution of slavery because it seemed to him a necessity4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,hellenic-,,roman ,,period 7#cbb ,b4 ,c4-#dgf ,a4 ,d47 ,its ,time ,length4 ,greek ,period1 #cjj years4 ,hellenic-,roman ,period1 #hjj years4 ,middle ,ages1 #ajjj years4 ,modern ,period1 #dej years4 ,we ought to appreciate at the beginning the enormous time length of this period4 ,it seems long since modern thought began1 but it was only about #dej years ago4 ,the ,hellenic-,roman ,period was #hjj years long1 or nearly twice as long as modern times4 ,it is1 furthermore1 two and a half times as long as the period which we have just been discussing1the pure ,greek period4 ,now the ,hellenic-,roman ,period and the ,middle ,ages together form the epoch of human history that is relatively uncreative4 ,this is an extent of #ahjj years1 a long interval when compared with the #gej years of creative history1 which represents the combined length of the pure ,greek ,period and modern times4 ,in ,european history the periods of productive thought have been less than half as long as those of the unproductive4 ,yet we must not be misled by such statistics4 ,history is an organic growth4 ,its seedtime and growth are long2 its harvest is short4 ,the ,fall of the ,greek ,nation and the ,persistence of its ,civilization4 ,the #hjj years after the death of ,aristotle are named the ,hellenic-,roman ,period1 because ,greek civilization burst its own national boundaries and became a part of ,roman civilization4 ,the ,greek nation died2 its culture remained4 ,it is no longer pure ,greek1 but ,greek in the environment of the ,roman worldit becomes ,hellenism4 ,with the death of ,alexander in #cbc ,b4 ,c4 the motherland of ,greece became a prey to revolutions for #bjj years4 ,it was often the battleground of foreigners and the object of their contentions4 ,its government and population sank into hopeless decay4 ,it was incorporated into the ,roman empire in #adf ,b4 ,c4 and shared in the depressing times of the ,civil ,wars of the first century ,b4 ,c4 ,by becoming a part of ,rome ,greece lost its uniqueness but the world gained its culture as a common heritage4 ,its autonomy was forever gone1 but its people became the teachers of mankind4 ,in political power ,greece reached its height with ,alexander1 in creative thought with ,aristotle2 then by its own momentum its civilization persisted as a missionary force to the whole world4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,empire ,,of ,,alexander 7,showing the spread of ,hellenism eastward1 beginning #ccd ,b4 ,c4 with ,alexander's ,campaign7 ,the overflow of ,greek civilization was first eastward1 to the nations of ,asia4 ,alexander1 with his military and administrative genius1 had only made a preliminary conquest of these ,oriental peoples4 ,the conquest became permanent through ,greek art1 learning1 and institutions4 ,in the century after ,alexander the habits and customs of the ,east had been ,hellenized4 ,greek schools1 theatres1 and baths were to be found in almost every city of the ,east4 ,in the ,east and ,egypt an inexhaustible field was opened for the founding of new centres of culture4 ,in the kingdoms partitioned off from the old ,alexandrian domain1 the kings were ,greek1 spoke ,greek1 adored ,greek gods1 and preserved ,greek fashions4 ,amid ,asiatics they sought to maintain ,greek courts1 have ,greek administrative officers1 and be surrounded with ,greek scholars4 ,greek colonists1 soldiers1 and merchants were attracted to these kingdoms in such numbers that the natives adopted the costumes1 religions1 manners1 and even the language of the ,greeks4 ,the ,orient ceased to be ,asiatic and became ,hellenic4 ,the ,romans found there in the first century ,b4 ,c4 peoples like the ,greeks who spoke ,greek4 ,greek civilization began to overflow upon the western world when1 in the second century1 ,greece with all the other countries upon the ,mediterranean was absorbed by ,rome4 ,the conquest of ,greece by ,rome in #adf ,b4 ,c4 gave currency to ,greek art1 letters1 and morals in ,roman life4 ,that ,greek civilization was not lost in this great amalgamation shows how deep and fundamental it was4 ,the secondary nations disappeared and none remained to compete with the ,greek and ,latin4 ,the result was the superimposition of ,greek culture upon ,roman society4 ,at the time of the conquest of ,greece1 ,greek scholars went to ,rome in great numbers and opened schools of eloquence and literature4 ,later the ,roman youths went to ,athens to study4 ,art and science were gradually introduced into ,rome4 ,the old ,roman house got a ,greek addition4 ,statues and paintings were transported from ,greece to ,rome4 ,greek artists were commissioned4 ,by #ajj ,b4 ,c4 the great ,romans were living in ,greek or ,oriental style4 ,the coarsest ,greeks1 too1 came into ,italy and mingled with the ,roman proletariat4 ,thus1 with the complete ,latinizing of the peninsula of ,italy in the second century1 an increasing ,hellenism went hand in hand4 ,but the two civilizations never completely united4 ,roman adoption of ,greek culture was never more than a veneer4 ,greek art and learning were rarely studied by the ,roman except as a parade and luxury4 ,as time went on the ,roman resorted less to the classic and more to the frivolous modern products of the ,greeks4 ,for it must be remembered that when ,greece was conquered by ,rome1 the ,romans were still only peasants1 soldiers1 and merchants1 without science1 art1 or philosophy4 ,before #aej ,b4 ,c4 the ,roman children were taught nothing higher than reading1 writing1 etc4 ,but the ,roman found a culture in ,greece that he liked and imitated4 ,he kept his costume1 language1 and political laws1 but he adopted ,greek letters1 art1 morals1 and incorporated many elements of the ,greek religion into his own4 ,two results came from this superimposition of ,greek culture upon ,roman society4 ,on the one hand the ,greek sought to create a philosophy which would make him a citizen of the world1 since it was no longer an honor to be a citizen of a ,greek city4 ,on the other hand1 to the ,roman there came a mixed good4 ,there was a gain to ,roman literature and perhaps to jurisprudence1 but a fatal loss to ,roman faith and morals4 ,on the whole ,roman vulgarity was only concealed by ,greek culture1 except in such spirits as ,scipio1 ,paulus1 and the ,gracchi1 in whom culture was genuine4 ,the ,roman felt the need of rich intellectual life1 and he sought it in the rich treasures and the filth of later ,greek culture4 ,the ,greek culture that he found was no longer pure ,greek1 but ,hellenism1 sometimes tinged with ,orientalism4 ,it acted as a poison on the ,roman and often was bitterly opposed4 ,the ,two ,parts of the ,hellenic-,roman ,period4 ,we must not forget that1 excepting the first #age years of this period1 ,rome is the background upon which all philosophical movements of the time are to be traced4 ,upon this background two general movements are prominent1 which divide the period into two parts3 7#a7 the ,ethical ,period1 and 7#b7 the ,religious ,period4 #a4 ,the ,ethical ,period1 #cbb ,b4 ,c4-#a ,a4 ,d41 had its origin in the ,greek culture that was superimposed upon ,roman civilization4 ,this epoch is notable for the rise and controversies of the four celebrated philosophical ,schools of ,athens2 the introduction of the teaching of these ,schools into ,roman society2 and the final merging and reconciliation of these ,schools in ,eclecticism and ,skepticism4 #b4 ,the ,religious ,period1 #ajj ,b4 ,c4-#dgf ,a4 ,d41 arose out of the ,oriental religions that swept into ,rome before the beginning of this era4 ,they were modified by their ,roman environment1 and intellectualized and systematized by ,hellenic culture4 ,neo-,pythagoreanism1 the ,alexandrian-,judaic theosophies in the first part1 ,christianity and neo-,platonism in the second part of this period1 are the most important philosophical results4 ,note three things4 7#a7 ,the spiritual life of ,rome during these #hjj years has its origin in imported foreign movements4 ,the source of the ethical movement is ,greek1 that of the religious movement is ,oriental4 7#b7 ,the two movements overlap4 ,indeed1 each from its beginning to its end covers about #fjj years4 ,more precisely the ethical movement did not disappear until about #bjj ,a4 ,d42 the religious movement began about #bjj ,b4 ,c4 ,ethical considerations dominate the first and religious impulses the second period4 7#c7 ,the century and a half from #aej ,b4 ,c4 to #a ,a4 ,d4 is a period of transition4 ,it is the time when the emphasis changes from ethics to religion4 ,it is a period of unsettled conditions both politically and intellectually4 ,politically it is the time of the ,civil wars and the formation of the empire4 ,intellectually it is the time of ,eclecticism and ,skepticism4 ,the ,undercurrent of ,skepticism in the ,hellenic-,roman ,period4 ,if we go beneath the surface of the chronological divisions of this period1 which have been given above1 we shall find their significance in the undercurrent of ,skepticism1 which runs from the beginning to the end of the period1 and includes both its ethical and religious phases4 8,skepticism0 is a word with a history of its own1 but1 as philosophically used1 it means the disbelief in the possibility of true knowledge4 ,skepticism was the fundamental frame of mind that gradually grew to conscious expression in the entire ancient world1 although it was entirely at variance with the spirit of the ,greek culture that had been superimposed upon that world4 ,as an undercurrenta widespread feeling,skepticism pervaded the whole period1 while at different times and places it appeared distinctly on the surface4 ,these were #hjj years of lack of confidence in the power of the human reason1 but the really negative character of the time is often concealed by dogmatic teachings of the philosophical ,schools4 ,dogmatic ,skepticism does not appear except with reference to the positive teachings of the ,schools1 and then it appears conspicuously4 ,the successive stages of ,skepticism can have their clear outline1 therefore1 only after the positive philosophical teachings1 contemporary with it and opposed by it1 have been understood4 ,this is the reason for treating the ,skeptics after and not before the ,schools4 ,the reader will1 however1 lose the whole meaning of the ,hellenic-,roman ,period if he does not see that it is fundamentally ,skeptical2 that in the ,ethical ,division the ,schools furnished the occasion of its appearance1 and that in the ,religious ,division religious faith rose because ,skepticism had taken possession of the field of knowledge4 ,the ethical ,schools stood as the last representatives of the old ,greek rationalism of the ,systematic ,period1 but even they yielded to the ,skeptical spirit of the time4 ,stoicism1 ,epicureanism1 and ,skepticism seek the same end1the withdrawal of the individual from the world and his exaltation above his environment4 ,all three valued science only so far as it would help ethical conduct4 ,skepticism alone was avowedly antagonistic to intellectual ideals4 ,the strength of ,skepticism appears more evident when we look at its growth during this period4 ,at the end of the ,ethical ,period the ,schools weakened and we find a century and a half 7#aej ,b4 ,c4-#a ,a4 ,d47 of ,skepticism and ,eclecticism4 ,there then followed at the beginning of this era the ,religious ,period4 ,man then turned to religion because he was profoundly skeptical of the trustworthiness of the reasonhe felt that it was so untrustworthy as to be unable to furnish him even a true theory of moral conduct4 ,the ,skeptical undercurrent of the ,hellenic-,roman ,period was the concentration of all the negative results of the ,greek ,sophists4 ,it therefore had more than one point of departure1the philosophies of ,protagoras1 of the ,megarian1 ,cynic1 and ,cyrenaic ,schools4 ,this ,sophistic undercurrent fed popular thought during the days of ,plato and ,aristotle4 ,it took its formal beginning contemporary with the rise of the ,stoic and ,epicurean ,schools2 and in ,athens1 ,alexandria1 and ,rome there rose to the surface the problem of the possibility of human knowledge4 ,formally it modified its sweeping negations1 when it came in contact with the pressing needs of morality and of spiritual retirement1 but it was ever present as the significant attitude of the time4 ,while the nature of the ,skeptical teaching stood in the way of its formation into a ,school1 the doctrine itself1 nevertheless1 developed into a system and had its historical growth and culmination4 ,weber points out that the first appearance of ,skepticism marks in ,greece the inauguration of the age of reason and its reappearance marks the decline of the age of reason4 ,the ,fundamental ,problem of the ,hellenic-,roman ,period4 ,the fundamental attitude of this period being ,skepticism1 the fundamental problem presented to it was therefore a practical one4 ,while at heart the age doubted the validity of the human reason1 it was consciously engaged in solving a very practical problem4 ,the period had an external side that was positive4 ,no age can be merely skeptical1 especially for so long a time as #hjj years4 ,to doubt the power of the human reason is usually the occasion of shunting human energies along other lines4 ,the form of the practical problem of this time was1 ,what is the highest wisdom for practical life8 ,this is consonant with the skeptical attitude of the ,greek as indicated by these two facts3 7#a7 he had no longer an interest in speculation except as it afforded a basis for practical wisdom1 and 7#b7 he had no longer an interest in special sciences except as they yielded practical results4 ,to be sure1 it will be found that theories took to themselves airs of great importance during this period and that empirical sciences made rapid advances2 but it will also be found that they were always in the service of practical living4 ,the ,wise ,man of this age is he who has a scientific doctrine of the purposes and ends of human life4 ,for with his entrance into world-wide relations in the ,ethical ,period the ,athenian found himself confronted with a very different situation from that which had engaged him during the age of ,pericles4 ,his national existence had gone and could no longer arouse his devotion1 and with it his ideal of a national life had crumbled to pieces4 ,his epic polytheism had become a dim thing of the distant past1 and there was no longer any external ,greek institution to awaken his slumbering energies4 ,he might1 of course1 go into retirement and engage in speculative inquiry1 except that this was an age of pressing need4 ,he was forced to be awake and to adjust himself as an individual to the many other peoples mixing and mingling in one common civilization4 ,his relations were enlarged1 but his interests were circumscribed4 ,his philosophy was focused to one fundamental problem1 ,what1 after all1 is the object of human life1 and what can give happiness to the individual amid the turmoil of the time8 ,philosophic studies were narrowed to ethics1 logic1 and physics in their practical bearing4 ,how much narrower1 then1 the scope of the intellectual life of this time than that of those men of retired leisure1 ,plato and ,aristotle6 ,nor is the fundamental problem different when in the second part of this period we enter the great sweep of the religious current4 ,the rise of religious ideals and the shift from ethics to religion was only the presentation of the practical problem of living with a different emphasis4 ,man was now in the dazzling glory of the empire1 but that empire was unable to compensate the individual for the loss of his political importance4 ,rome had given to its conquered peoples an organized legal unity1 but no spiritual ideal4 ,it had none to offer4 ,the individual was the least important factor in the organization4 ,the present life offered little hope to the individual1 except in the light of a future life4 ,practical wisdom thus became that which took account of the rewards and punishments that would come in the life beyond4 ,the ,hellenic-,roman ,period is kaleidoscopic and bewildering in its shiftings2 but amid them all is this one conscious problem3 8,show us the man who is sure of his happiness1 whatever the accidents of the world may bring to him40 ,the ,centres of ,hellenism4 #a4 ,athens4 ,with the overflow of ,hellenism to the east and west the active history of ,athens had ceased1 but she became venerated for what she had been4 ,greece became hallowed and ,athens became the shrine of ,greece in the imaginations of men4 ,although the city was brutally ravished1 she exercised a charm over the human mind for eight hundred years after ,alexander4 ,athens remained the intellectual centre through the entire period4 ,it became the conservative university town1 where philosophy and rhetoric were taught4 ,it is remarkable how many ,oriental philosophers came to ,athens to teach1 how many youths from the whole world came to be taught4 ,the rhetorical schools1 such as that of ,isocrates1 did much toward making ,athens the centre of culture1 and they offered for many years the highest practical training to ,greek1 ,roman1 and ,oriental4 ,besides the rhetorical were the philosophical or dialectical schools1 which debated privately questions of speculative metaphysics4 ,these did not offer public training1 but groups of students were taught in the grounds attached to gymnasia4 ,four principal philosophical schools were thus formed1the ,academy of ,plato1 the ,lyceum of ,aristotle1 the ,porch of the ,stoics1 and the ,gardens of ,epicurus4 ,in the first two we have had especial interest in the previous period4 ,all four1 and especially the ,stoic and ,epicurean schools1 will engage our attention in this period4 ,they are known in history as 8the ,schools40 7,see map for their location in ,athens47 ,there were many minor schools in ,athens which later became religious cults4 ,these ,schools lost their original interest in speculative inquiry1 and in this period devoted themselves to the exposition of the teaching of their respective founders on ethical lines4 ,the ,university of ,athens was built upon the four ,schools4 ,its chairs were endowed by ,hadrian and the ,antonines in the second century ,a4 ,d4 ,it grew to have an elaborate organization4 ,it was abolished by ,justinian in #ebi ,a4 ,d4 #b4 ,alexandria4 ,there were many other centres of ,hellenism and of other learning at this time1,rhodes1 ,antioch1 ,alexandria1 ,pergamos1 ,tarsus1but none of these could be said to rival ,athens in the veneration of men4 ,some were much more active and creative than ,athens4 ,alexandria surpassed ,athens and all other cities as the centre of the natural sciences in the ,ethical ,period and of religions in the ,religious ,period4 ,here1 too1 rather than at ,athens1 were to be found the real interpreters of ,plato and ,aristotle4 ,nothing in ancient times can be compared to the wonders of the museum of ,alexandria1 which was its university4 ,scholars of every nation were entertained here at the public expense4 ,a vast botanical garden1 a zological collection1 an anatomical museum1 an astronomical observatory1 a library of seven hundred thousand volumes were here4 ,here ,euclid 7#bij ,b4 ,c47 wrote his geometry1 ,eratosthenes pursued his astronomical1 geographical1 and historical labors1 ,apollonius wrote his treatise on conic sections2 and here were made the observations that led to the discovery of the precession of the equinoxes4 ,here ,ptolemy and his school formulated the system of astronomy which was authoritative for fifteen hundred years4 ,here the ,christian theologians were educated1 and from this city neo-,platonism sprang4 ,literature and art1 history1 philology and criticism flourished4 ,the ,hebrew ,bible was translated into ,greek4 ,all religions were welcomed4 ,buddhist1 ,jew1 ,greek1 and ,egyptian mingled1 and comparative theology rose to be a science4 ,general ,characteristics of the ,ethical ,period 7#cbb ,b4 ,c4-#a ,a4 ,d47,on the death of ,aristotle the hitherto compact body of ,greek thought disintegrated into its several elements4 ,theoretical and practical knowledge1 which had been so successfully fused in the great systems of ,democritus1 ,plato1 and ,aristotle1 became separated4 ,the whole tendency of the time was toward segregation4 #a4 ,the ,abandonment of ,metaphysical ,speculation4 ,the theoretical side of philosophy1 which had been so successfully completed by the great ,greek masters1 now became subordinated and almost completely lost to view4 ,metaphysical speculation was neglected except as it threw light on the practical scienceson ethics and the natural sciences4 ,knowledge was no longer loved for its own sake4 #b4 ,the ,growth of ,science4 ,since theory was regarded as completed1 attention was naturally turned upon the details of erudition and the specializing of science4 ,the natural sciences survived the systems of philosophy because of their usefulness4 ,there was great interest in investigations in mathematics1 natural science1 grammar1 philology1 literary history and general historyand all with very rich results4 ,it was the time of commentaries1 criticism1 collaboration of the work of the past and completion of the special work begun by the past4 ,by far the greater number of the so-called 8philosophers0 of this time are connected with special science and literature1 and not with metaphysics4 ,it was in the ,greek ,islands and ,egypt 7,alexandria7 that this advance was made4 ,nevertheless1 it must be said that the advance in science was a good deal restricted4 ,the empirical sciences are dependent on observation and experiment1 and these opportunities were wanting at this time4 ,good progress was1 however1 made in mathematics and the sciences dependent on reasoning4 ,reasoning alone is incapable of advancing a science like physics1 for physics depends on investigation4 ,but even the prevalent skepticism of the time could not doubt the truths of mathematics4 #c4 ,ethics became the ,central ,interest4 ,for the first time in the history of ,european thought ethics was no longer a part of politics4 ,in the time of the autonomous ,greek states ethics and politics were two sides of the same question both in theory and practice4 ,ethics and politics were not disjoined even by the ,sophists1 who nevertheless paved the way for the divorce of the two4 ,now for the first time ethical questions have become such that the individual must disregard the iron-bound political situation and answer them entirely with reference to himself4 ,the decadent ,greek state was no longer a moral entity in the eyes of the people1 nor could the concentration of government in ,rome raise the state to moral dignity4 ,moreover1 life had become cosmopolitan4 ,the nations were commingling4 ,ethics must meet the needs of men as human beings1 and not as ,athenians1 ,spartans1 or ,romans4 ,vices had become cosmopolitan and virtues must needs be cosmopolitan also4 ,but cosmopolitanism is in the last analysis only individualism4 ,the man who conceives his duty so large that it embraces the whole world is usually cold to any special interests except his own4 ,the ,roman dictators and afterwards the emperor were the personification of this cosmopolitan individualism which the subjects imitated so far as they could4 ,thus the public life was in danger of being swamped by private interests and mere enjoyment1 by gain and the struggle for existence4 ,the old belief in the gods1 the vigorous political activity for great ends1 the pleasure in free scientific inquiry had disappeared4 ,the only refuge for the reflective mind was within itself and the study of its own moral problems4 ,yet for this a definite science of ethics was necessary1 if the individual was to be systematically independent of external things4 ,plato and ,aristotle had prepared the way for such retirement1 and the tendency toward ethical separation from the world of political events was an aspect of the cosmopolitanism of the time4 ,ethical individuality and cosmopolitanism go together4 ,the development of the inner life belongs to those individuals who dwell together in spiritual community4 ,the same cosmopolitanism was sought by the skeptics of the period through the abandonment of all knowledge4 ,the ,schools4 ,the beginning of the ,ethical ,period is marked by the rise of the ,schools into prominence1 the end of that period by the fusion of the ,schools with one another through either eclecticism or skepticism4 ,at the beginning of the period each ,school had its distinctive doctrine and was in open controversy with the others2 at the end their doctrines were much alike4 ,the ,epicurean ,school was an exception1 for it always remained isolated from the other ,schools4 ,while each ,school had a host of notable representatives1 it would be difficult to find a creative thinker among them4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,athens1 ,,showing ,,the ,,location ,,of ,,the ,,four ,,schools 7,the ,academy was three quarters of a mile from the city1 the ,lyceum just outside the city1 while the ,porch was a colonnade on the market place 7,agora74 ,the location of the ,gardens is not precisely known1 but it was on the road to the ,academy1 just inside the walls47 ,we have already given the names of the four ,schools3 the ,stoic or the ,porch1 the ,epicurean or the ,gardens1 the ,aristotelian 7,peripatetic7 or the ,lyceum1 the ,platonic or the ,academy4 ,the ,stoic and ,epicurean are called the ,new ,schools in contrast with the ,lyceum and the ,academy1 which are called the ,old ,schools4 ,the ,new ,schools were of ,asiatic rather than ,greek origin1 and the ,old ,schools departed very much from the teaching of their founders2 so that we find a very different kind of philosophy taught in all four ,schools from that taught by the great ,greek ,systematizers4 ,all the ,schools were ,sophistic rather than ,socratic1 and may be characterized as the revival of ,greek ,sophistry4 ,besides these ,schools there was the group of ,skeptics1 which cannot be properly called a ,school1 for from the nature of its doctrine it could not form an organization4 ,in influence upon the period1 the ,stoics1 ,epicureans1 and ,skeptics are the most important4 ,they eclipsed the ,academy and ,lyceum because with partisan clearness they could formulate the attitude of the age4 ,the ,stoic ,school made the most important contribution to succeeding history4 ,the ,epicurean ,school had the most numerous following4 ,although the four ,schools were not endowed until the ,empire1 their life was most vigorous before the ,empire during the ,ethical ,period4 ,succession in leadership of the ,schools cannot be completely tracedeven that of the ,academy shows great gaps4 ,all record of leadership in the ,aristotelian1 ,stoic1 and ,epicurean ,schools stops at the close of this period4 ,the ,old ,schools,the ,academy and the ,lyceum4 ,the ,academy and ,lyceum have a history which in these respects is the same3 7#a7 both abandoned the ideal of an ethical society and turned to that of individual happiness2 7#b7 both deviated to ,skepticism2 7#c7 both afterward had a reaction from ,skepticism2 7#d7 both developed the ,sophistic teaching rather than that of their founders2 7#e7 both were in common opposition to the ,new ,schools4 #a4 ,the ,academy4 ,there were three ,academies after ,platocalled three1 because of the difference in their doctrines4 ,perhaps it is better to say that there were three successive epochs of the ,academy4 7a7 ,the ,older ,academy1 lasting about seventy years1 from #cdg ,b4 ,c4 to #bhj ,b4 ,c4 ,the successive leaders of this were ,speusippus1 the nephew of ,plato 7d4 #cci ,b4 ,c471 ,heracleides of ,pontus1 ,xenocrates 7d4 #cad ,b4 ,c471 ,polemo1 and ,crates4 ,this ,academy emphasized at first the tendency begun by ,plato in the ,laws toward the ,pythagorean numbers1 and later yielded to the contemporary interest in morals4 7b7 ,the ,middle ,academy1 lasting about one hundred and fifty years1 from #bhj ,b4 ,c4 to #abi ,b4 ,c4 ,of this epoch ,arcesilaus and ,carneades were the most prominent leaders4 ,this ,academy was a form of ,skepticism4 7c7 ,the ,new ,academy1 lasting three hundred years from #abj ,b4 ,c4 to #bjj ,a4 ,d4 ,among its leaders were ,philo of ,larissa1 who was at ,rome in #hg ,b4 ,c41 and ,antiochus of ,ascalon1 who had ,cicero as a pupil in ,athens in #gi and #gh ,b4 ,c4 ,this epoch of the ,academy represented a return to the dogmatism of ,plato1 but it shows the contemporary eclectic tendency by its including elements of ,stoic and neo-,platonic teachings4 ,on the whole1 the several epochs of the ,academy failed to represent ,plato's theory of the ,ideas4 ,the ,academy was at first a ,school of practical ethics1 then a ,skepticism1 then an eclecticism4 ,it was related to ,plato as the lesser-,socratic schools were to ,socrates4 ,the true developer of ,plato was ,aristotle and not the ,academies4 #b4 ,the ,lyceum4 ,from the death of ,aristotle to #bjj ,a4 ,d4 the ,lyceum was represented by individuals4 ,the pupils of ,aristotle were distinguished from the master himself in being scientific specialists4 ,theophrastus 7#cgj-bhg ,b4 ,c471 who followed ,aristotle as leader of the ,lyceum1 was the most complete representative of ,aristotle1 and an attempt to drive out the ,schools in ,athens in #cjf ,b4 ,c4 failed solely by reason of the respect in which he was held4 ,his significance lay in natural science1 and his two preserved botanical works are of great importance4 ,eudemus of ,rhodes studied history1 mathematics1 and astronomy4 ,aristoxenes studied music1 ethics1 psychology1 and history4 ,dicarchus showed the first yielding to the contemporary ethical interest by writing history on its practical side4 ,science was continued by the ,aristotelians in ,sicily1 ,alexandria1 and the ,mediterranean islands4 ,at ,athens the ,school was most interested in logic1 dialectics1 and eristics4 ,the history of the ,lyceum was similar to that of the ,academy4 ,at first it was centred in ,theophrastus1 the brilliant disciple of the founder1an administrator who knew how to give an eminent position to the ,lyceum in the intellectual life of ,athens4 ,this was followed by the naturalism and pantheism of ,strato4 ,the following generations of scholarchs were absorbed in empirical investigations4 ,then1 as in the ,academy1 came the reaction back to the original purpose of the founder of the ,lyceum4 ,this occurred under ,andronicus 7about #gj ,b4 ,c471 the eleventh head of the ,school1 and under him the original teachings of ,aristotle were reproduced and defended4 ,this went on for several centuries1 until the ,school was merged in neo-,platonism4 ,the ,new ,schools,the ,epicureans and the ,stoics4 ,the ,stoics1 ,epicureans1 and ,skeptics represent the dogmatic side of this period more truly than the ,platonists and ,aristotelians1 for they give a radical expression to its social aspects4 ,the ,epicureans had less philosophical originality2 but their doctrine had been born mature in their founder1 and had in consequence a unity and compactness4 ,stoicism1 on the other hand1 was an eclecticism composed of the successive philosophizings of its champions through many centuries4 ,stoicism was represented by many independent and notable thinkers1 while ,epicureanism had only one original thinker1its founder1 ,epicurus4 ,stoicism developed by changing its essentials1 while ,epicureanism could change only in its unessentials4 ,stoicism may be said to have been the characteristic philosophy of this period1 from the fact that it was created and developed in ,athens on the principles of ,attic philosophy by men who had originated in the mixed races of the ,east1 and by the fact that it was easily accepted and developed by the ,romans4 ,consistent with the spirit of the ,hellenic-,roman ,period1 it was by nature an eclecticism that became more eclectic2 and as time went on its teaching approached that of the ,academy and ,lyceum 7second century ,b4 ,c474 ,epicureanism1 however1 always remained ,epicureanism4 ,both ,stoicism and ,epicureanism were centred at ,athens4 ,epicurus opened his ,school in the ,gardens in #cjg ,b4 ,c41 and ,zeno began his lectures in the ,porch in #bid ,b4 ,c4 ,both schools were introduced into ,rome in the middle of the second century ,b4 ,c41 or just before the end of the ,ethical ,period4 ,epicureanism in ,rome could easily be perverted into an excuse for the luxurious tendencies of the time1 and since it advocated absolute government it voiced the feeling of the new ,empireof the ,emperor and the people4 ,as a philosophy it was opportune and popular and at the same time easily misunderstood4 ,it made no demands upon its disciples4 ,on the other hand1 ,stoicism was a discipline and demanded intellectual acumen4 ,its insensibility to art and culture was an insuperable obstacle to its progress in ,greece1 but on this account it found congenial soil in ,roman society4 ,it made rapid progress among the noble families1 and was especially identified with those patrician reactionaries who stood for the old rgime of the ,republic4 ,we are not surprised to find that the ,stoics and ,epicureans were violently opposed to each other4 ,they were the ,new ,schools and contesting the same ground for favor4 ,they had the same aim and1 with so much in common1 their differences were naturally accentuated4 ,in an age which ,adam ,smith has likened to the ,thirty ,years' ,war in ,germany1 they sought as rivals to offer as an ideal the individual independent of his surroundings4 ,the ,stoic presented one means of attaining this ideal and the ,epicurean another4 ,both tried to substitute a philosophic creed for the old religion4 ,and the crowds that still went to the ,academy and ,lyceum1 and were taught the old dogmatism1 must have looked askance at these new dogmatic ,schools4 ,those crowds had become second-rate men4 ,the ,new ,schools had at first fewer numbers1 but deeper thinkers4 ,the ,greek pupils in the ,new ,schools listened to foreigners teaching strange creeds in strange tongues4 ,but these new rivals made their way4 ,not only at ,athens1 but at ,corinth1 ,elis1 ,colophon1 and ,heraclea in ,pontus the elegant ,platonic style was being superseded by the crude aphorisms of ,epicurus and the clumsy arguments of ,zeno4 ,it will be asked1 ,how far did these doctrines during these eight hundred years permeate the people8 ,did the ,new ,schools reach the rank and file of the people to the same degree that the ,sophistic teachings reached the ,greeks8 ,are we to suppose that ,stoicism and ,epicureanism were common and popular philosophies8 ,by no means4 ,these philosophies reached the people of the ,roman world no farther than ,greek culture permeated ,roman society4 ,stoicism was consciously taken up by the large patrician class4 ,the patricians were the cultivated ,romans2 and ,stoicism has so much in it like the ,roman gravitas that it formulated for the patricians their attitude in this hopeless time4 ,epicureanism1 on the other hand1 in its pure form as ,epicurus taught it1 or later as ,lucretius poetically expressed it1 could find less favor in ,rome4 ,but ,epicureanism was easily perverted1 and no doubt the educated voluptuaries of ,rome would find in the vitiated doctrine a support and excuse for their excesses4 ,a ,summary of the ,agreements and ,differences of the ,stoics and ,epicureans4 ,their ,agreements4 #a4 ,both subordinated theory to practice4 #b4 ,both had the same purpose in their practical philosophy3 7a7 to gain peace of mind for the individual1 7b7 to gain independence of the world for the individual4 ,their ,differences4 ,the ,stoics4 ,the ,epicureans4 #a4 ,universal law is supreme4 ,the individual is supreme4 #b4 ,man is a thinking being4 ,man is a feeling being4 #c4 ,independence is obtained ,independence is obtained by by suppressing the personal idealizing the feelings through feelings4 serenity4 #d4 ,the ,stoics were religious1 ,the ,epicureans were anti-religious1 yet both schools accepted the popular gods4 #e4 ,the world is a moral order4 ,the world is a mechanical order4 #f4 ,the universal determines ,the universal is the result of the the individual4 functioning of the individual4 #g4 ,the world is the expression ,the world is the combination of of an immanent reason4 atoms4 ,,chapter ,x ,,epicureanism ,the ,life of ,epicurus 7#cda-bgj ,b4 ,c474 ,epicurus was born in ,samos in ,asia ,minor4 ,he was a school-teacher in ,mitylene and ,lampsacus1 and in #cjg ,b4 ,c4 he established in ,athens his ,philosophical ,school1 in a garden within the walls on the road to the ,academy 7see map74 ,his ,school was thereafter called the ,gardens4 ,he claimed to have been self-taught1 and he probably did not have a thorough education4 ,he did1 however1 possess great personal charm and1 as his doctrine made few demands upon its disciples and expressed the refined and delicate hedonism of the time1 it spread very wide4 ,his disciples held him in great reverence1 and long after his death the image of his personality was a living influence with them4 ,indeed1 it was the personal work of ,epicurus that was the supreme influence with the sect4 ,his formulas passed on from generation to generation and were called 8,golden ,maxims40#cd ,he wrote three hundred separate treatises1 and in the amount of his writings was exceeded in antiquity only by the ,stoic1 ,chrysippus4 ,his great work1 ,on ,nature1 consisted of thirty-seven books4 ,the other ,schools joined in a bitter attack upon him1 and in modern times he has been called ,socrate doubl d'un ,voltaire4 ,since neither polytheism nor ,christianity had any reason for preserving his writings1 they have been almost entirely lost4 ,some have been found in ,herculaneum1 and many more are thought to be still in that buried city4 ,the mother of ,epicurus was a priestess1 and her superstitions probably set him against the superstitions of his age4 ,his later acquaintance with the philosophy of ,democritus gave him a scientific basis for his aggression against all religions4 ,the ,epicureans4 ,the ,epicurean body was a guild or sect that seemed to have been little affected by the vicissitudes of time4 ,the ,epicureans proselyted vigorously1 closely organized their society1 and extended it throughout ,greece4 ,it was a state within a state4 ,with a fixed constitution it was held together by itinerant preaching1 correspondence1 and material assistance4 ,it had an esprit de corps1 and like religious communities it brought together into one organization the individuals that had been scattered by the breaking up of political institutions4 ,the ,school had special protection from the ,roman emperors and existed as late as the fourth century ,a4 ,d41 having outlived all the other systems4 ,it had some famous literary representatives1,metrodorus1 ,colotes1 ,philodemus1but especially the ,roman poet ,lucretius1 who popularized the doctrine for the ,romans4 ,amafinius introduced ,epicureanism into ,rome during the middle of the second century ,b4 ,c41 and the teaching was received with great favor4 ,its numerous disciples in all antiquity changed the doctrine only in its unessentials4 ,the charges of immorality and licentiousness are not true of the teaching or of the practices of the founder or of the early members of the ,school4 ,some ,types of ,hedonism1,aristippus1 ,epicurus1 and ,rousseau4 ,epicureanism was not a philosophy of pleasure for people without ideals or who were merely seeking indulgence4 ,the question that ,epicurus asked was this3 ,what enduring pleasure is possible to a man in these days of turmoil8 ,he tried to give a rational answer to those of his day who wished to live and enjoy4 ,his aim was to free man from responsibility in his share of the world's work and to provide for him a life of serenity4 ,the pleasure theory of ,aristippus1 the ,cyrenaic1 was very different4 ,aristippus1 a voluptuary in a luxurious city1 presented a pleasure theory for the few who have fortunes4 ,it is hardly more than a grading of pleasures and the setting up of a criterion of their selection4 ,epicurus goes deeper than that4 ,his pleasure theory is for the few1 not because they are fortunate1 but because they are wise2 not because they have fortunes to gratify their passions1 but because they are independent of all fortune4 ,the ,cyrenaic was a man of the world2 the ,epicurean was in the world1 but not of it4 ,there is a superficial resemblance between the teaching of ,epicurus and the message of ,rousseau to the ,french people of the eighteenth century4 ,both sought an ideal of enduring pleasure4 ,both would discard the artificialities of society4 ,but ,rousseau was a political reformer and attempted to find his ideal in a newly constructed society4 ,epicurus1 on the other hand1 was no political reformer1 but would find his ideal in society as it existed4 ,rousseau appealed to the primitive feelings4 ,he felt 8the call of the wild40 ,epicurus appealed to the refined and derivative feelings4 ,he had no aggressive propaganda4 ,he aimed at no external reform4 ,his ideal was peace1 and not the sword4 ,the ,epicurean ,ideal4 ,the central principle of ,epicurus is that pleasure is a good and pain an evil4 ,in this he was in agreement with ,aristippus1 and from this position he never receded4 ,he offered no proof of this1 but rested his central principle upon the conviction that men pursue pleasure and avoid pain4 ,he was convinced of the biological fact4 ,but he was not unobservant from the beginning that the subject was complex4 ,he saw that the individual has to make a selection of pleasure and often has to choose pain for the sake of a greater pleasure4 ,pleasure is the only good1 but ,epicurus asks further1 ,what is pleasure8 ,he finds that he must give a content to pleasure and evaluate the pleasures in the interests of pleasure itself4 ,this was to ,epicurus no moral appraisal1 but with reference to the pleasantest possible life4 ,of the two qualities of pleasure ,epicurus valued its duration and showed his advance over the ,cyrenaics1 who had valued its intensity4 ,it was on this account that the ,epicureans disclaimed all relationship with the ,cyrenaics1 the earlier school4 ,the difference is certainly a radical one between them3 to ,epicurus true pleasure is that which endures2 to ,aristippus it is that which is most intense1 however fleeting4 ,there is this to be said of the ,cyrenaic theory3 it could be easily understood4 ,aristippus could tell exactly what he meant by pleasure4 ,it is this or that gratification of sense4 ,it includes every positive pleasure1 and that which is intensest is best4 ,one always knows when he is enjoying1 and in flitting from pleasure to pleasure he knows when he is intensely enjoying4 ,but the ,cyrenaic presented no ideal4 ,while the ,epicurean theory is more difficult to understand1 it is more mature and more profound because it presents a well-conceived ideal4 ,indeed1 the farther we follow ,epicurus along this line of his pursuit of the ideal of lasting pleasure1 the more are we impressed with his contribution to our knowledge of the nature of pleasure4 ,in this connection ,epicurus shows his comprehensive grasp of the subject in determining what are the lasting pleasures4 ,although he was a materialist he regarded the pleasures of the mind as superior to those of the body4 ,the inner pleasures1 the spiritual joys1 the control of the mind so that it could enjoy without indulgencethese were to ,epicurus the enduring pleasures4 ,the pleasures of sense are primary1 for1 in the last analysis1 the mental life is a combination of sensations1 and sensations are only material motions2 nevertheless the secondary and derivative pleasures of the mind were superior1 according to ,epicurus1 because they had duration4 ,this estimate of the superiority of the mental pleasures was probably reinforced by two other reasons3 such pleasures were possessed by ,epicurus2 and such a doctrine was in accord with the ,greek sthetic ideal of self-enjoyment of the refined egoist4 ,the most permanent state of mind is called by ,epicurus independence of the world1 on the one hand1 and emotionlessness1 on the other4 ,these are the positive and negative sides of one and the same thingthe ,epicurean ideal of pleasure4 ,in ancient times the conception of the 8affections10 8passions10 or 8emotions0 included all states of feeling and will in which man is dependent on the outer world4 ,to be emotionless is to be independent of the world4 ,the ,epicurean word is ataraxia1 which is variously translated as serenity1 peace1 repose1 imperturbability4 ,since man has no control over the world without him1 he must control its effects within himself4 ,these effects are the feelings and desires which are by nature only mental disturbances4 ,in mastering these he becomes independent of the world4 ,if one will scrutinize his life1 he will find1 according to ,epicurus1 that his experiences form a stream of mental disturbances4 ,these may be divided into two classes1desires and positive pleasures4 ,desires are wants and want is pain4 ,pain is therefore exciting4 ,positive pleasure presupposes desire and want1 and such pleasure is also an excitement1the excitement that accompanies the removal of want4 ,the positive pleasures are not1 therefore1 the goal of independence of the outer world4 ,there is another kind of pleasurethe pleasure of repose4 ,epicurus recognizes therefore both the pleasure of motion and the pleasure of repose1 but they do not have the same importance in his system4 ,repose is the goal of all our experiences4 ,it is a neutral state1 a state of freedom from bodily pain and mental excitement4 ,there is nothing higher than such a neutral state4 ,we cannot advance beyond it4 ,if we seek new pleasures by gratifying new desires1 we are only returning to the old round of want1 desire1 and the pleasurable excitement of removing the want4 ,the pleasure of repose is the only escape from this round of experiences4 ,emotionlessness is the maximum pleasureit is the repose in independence of the world4 ,any deviation from it may vary but it will not increase our pleasure4 ,this ideal of ,epicurus looks very much like the ,cynic doctrine of absence of wants as constituting virtue and happiness4 ,but ,epicurus is far from renouncing pleasure4 ,he is no ascetic4 ,on the contrary1 the repose of the ,epicurean will be the greater in proportion to the compass of his needs that are satisfied4 ,but he needs insight into any given situation to tell him what positive pleasures should be encouraged4 ,epicurus thus distinguishes three kinds of wants and their attendant positive pleasures3 7#a7 wants natural and indispensablewithout the satisfaction of which we cannot exist2 7#b7 wants artificial and dispensable1 which ought always to be disregarded2 7#c7 wants natural and dispensablethe great mass of wants which lie between the two other classes4 ,insight is necessary to decide about this third class4 ,in case of necessity they can be renounced1 but since they give happiness1 the ,wise ,man will seek to satisfy them as far as possible4 ,there are three steps leading to ,epicurean happiness3 7#a7 the desire or the pain of unsatisfied craving2 7#b7 the positive pleasure that removes the pain of unsatisfied desire2 7#c7 ataraxia1 the repose of the soul or true happiness4 ,the ,place of ,virtue in ,epicureanism4 ,epicurus agreed with the strictest ,greek moralists that virtue and happiness go together4 ,his opponents had to testify to the beneficial effects of his teaching upon the character of his disciples4 ,yet his conception of the place of virtue in life is in direct conflict with ,stoicism4 ,he felt that the ,stoic conception of virtue for its own sake is an ideal so imaginary that it lacks all incentive to action4 ,pleasure1 on the other hand1 seemed to him to be a concrete and real object4 ,it can be given a definite content4 ,virtue had for ,epicurus a value only as a means to happiness4 ,moreover1 virtue by itself is not necessarily accompanied by happiness1 but only when it is employed as a condition to happiness4 ,thus wisdom may be employed to gain the pleasure of liberation from the fear of the gods2 self-control may be employed in order to get the maximum of happiness4 ,the ,epicurean ,wise ,man4 ,to what classes of people could this ,epicurean ideal appeal8 ,is it an ideal possible only to the favorites of fortune1 wealth1 and rank8 ,as presented by ,epicurus it was not conditioned by external circumstances of any sort and its aim was to transcend all conditions4 ,nevertheless1 it is obvious that the theory was restricted to those who had the desire to adopt it4 ,on the whole1 the unreflecting common people of that time were not as a matter of fact influenced by the ,epicurean philosophy4 ,the proof of this is the ease with which it was degraded into a simple pleasure theory without an ideal4 ,epicureanism as presented by its author was not an excuse for the voluptuary or the prodigal1 although it was easily corrupted into that4 ,it was1 however1 a philosophy of the individual4 ,the individual must rely upon his own common sense as to what among the particular satisfactions will give him independence of the world4 ,sometimes repose is attained by the satisfaction of all wants2 sometimes the satisfactions needed are few because the wants are few4 ,true pleasure is possible to all reflective souls4 8,when you come10 says ,seneca1 8to the gardens where the words are inscribed3 ,friend1 here it will be well for you to abide2 here pleasure is the highest good2there will meet you the keeper of the place1 a hospitable kindly man who will set before you a dish of barley porridge and plenty of water and say1 ,have you not been well entertained8 ,these gardens do not provoke hunger1 but quench it2 they do not cause a greater thirst by the drinks they afford4444 ,in this pleasure ,i have grown old40 ,man can use much1 but he does not need much4 ,even life itself under extreme circumstances is not necessary4 ,the pleasures to be sought are the permanent and gentle4 ,in one place ,epicurus says with a somewhat forced sentiment that the ,wise ,man on the rack will smile in the midst of torture and say1 8,how sweet60 ,the ,wise ,man accepts the established order and accommodates himself to it4 ,he is not like the ,stoic ,wise ,man1 indifferent to all pleasures1 but he is nevertheless independent of them4 ,he is superior to the world1 a king and a god4 ,accidents cannot disturb him1 for his virtuous happiness lies within himself4 ,he cannot control the world without1 but he can control the world within himself4 ,he can be happy with few or many satisfactions1 and he is master over the world if he is master of the effects of the world upon himself4 ,to rest unmoved in one's inner selfthat is the ,epicurean ideal of the ,wise ,man4 ,in contrast to the ,cyrenaic happiness1 the ,epicurean happiness seems passive2 in contrast to the ,stoic happiness it is satisfaction4 ,the ,epicurean ,wise ,man in ,society4 ,nevertheless the ,wise ,man is only a spectator of the world4 ,he does not enter the world's work nor does he enlist as a soldier to fight its moral battles4 ,his individual independence gives a peculiar character to his social relations4 ,he will have no ties on account of their complications4 ,moreover1 his inner world offers him no compensation for his loss of social relationship1 except that the good within is strong and the evil weak4 ,he looks upon political government as a matter of selfish convenience4 ,he is opposed to civic life1 and therefore a supporter of absolute government4 ,he refuses the responsibility of marriage1 but accepts friendship as the only worthy social relationship1 and only because friendship is of mutual advantage4 ,friendship means intellectual intercourse1 compassion1 and forgiveness4 ,while there were many famous ,epicurean friendships1 one must admit that the ,epicurean took an unfair advantage of the state4 ,his happiness presupposed a highly developed civilization of refined tastes and noble sentiments4 ,he is a parasite upon the community and appropriates the labor of others4 ,the ,epicurean ideal offers much to the individual1 but nothing to society as a means of spiritual productivity4 ,the ,great ,obstacles to ,happiness4 ,to universalize pleasure1 however paradoxical it may seem1 is to set up an individualism4 ,it is to abandon all the claims of the society of other beings upon us4 ,the logic of any pleasure theory is anarchism4 ,but ,epicurus is no anarchist1 for anarchism would be too disturbing to repose4 ,epicurus stopped far short of interfering with political conditions4 ,his teaching did not have as its end a logical theory1 but a practical accomplishment4 ,he therefore accommodated his theory to the practical circumstances of his time4 ,he pointed out that in the seething times of the third century ,b4 ,c4 the individual could be happy if he banished from his world two obstacles4 ,these were religion and culture4 ,to ,epicurus the sorrow in man's heart and the evil in his practices are mainly due to religion4 ,the chief source of the wretchedness of the world is to be found in the crushing fears of religious belief4 ,epicurus has in mind the exaggerated ceremonies and mystical beliefs of the ,orient1 where his mother had been a priestess4 ,from this memory he was reacting4 ,religion pollutes men's fancies1 clouds the future with superstitious fears1 and puts repose and happiness beyond our reach4 ,in the first place1 religion carries with it the fear of death4 ,in modern times the idea of life after death is an added consolation4 ,in the time of ,epicurus death meant the giving up of the present life for a dim1 sunless region of flitting shades bordering on the edge of ,tartarus4 ,no philosophical mind can be happy1 according to ,epicurus1 if it contains the religious conception of death and the future life4 ,again1 religion conceives the world of nature as created and operated by the gods4 ,it is forever explaining nature-phenomena as miraculous and supernatural4 ,the tranquil mind must believe in a nature world that is separated from miraculous intervention1 and freed from oversight4 ,the world must be a dependable world4 ,lastly1 religion conceives of the gods as always busying themselves with the affairs of men4 ,men must secure their favor and avert their wrath by constant offerings4 ,the religious man wastes his time and consumes his peace in the fear that the gods are not propitiated4 ,the ,epicurean seeks to build up the life of the individual4 ,he seeks a tranquillity that is independent of everything4 ,religious belief with its interfering gods would thwart his ideal4 ,hence the chief concern of the ,epicurean was to banish from life every conception of divine government4 ,the gods exist1 but they live quite apart from men4 ,their dwelling is in inter-stellar space amid the numberless worlds4 ,they have nothing to do with the events of this world1 but are only glorified actualizations of the philosophic ideal of soul-satisfying peace4 ,the more the teleological conception of nature became the common ground of the ,academy1 the ,lyceum1 and the ,porch1 the more did the ,epicureans isolate themselves by opposing the conception4 ,the other obstacle to the imperturbability of the soul is culture4 ,the ,stoics subordinated theory to practice but ,epicurus went so far as to deprecate all culture4 ,it was the philosophical protest of an ,oriental against all for which ,greece had stood4 ,all knowledge is superfluous which does not promote happiness4 ,knowledge may indirectly promote happiness1 and that is the best you can say of it4 ,epicurus therefore despised the researches of the grammarians1 the lore of history1 the science of mathematics1 the theory of music1 poetry1 rhetoric1 oratory1 logic4 ,although he set greater store by the intellectual than the physical pleasures1 he placed as little value on knowledge for its own sake as upon virtue for its own sake4 ,this teaching of ,epicurus in ,athens betrays the change that had come over ,athenian society4 ,plato1 who had been the impersonation of ,athenian culture1 had been dead not more than thirty years4 ,epicurus' ,conception of the ,physical ,world4,qualified ,atomism4 ,to the cursory reader the science of physics seems to occupy a large place in the philosophy of ,epicurus1 and its presence appears inconsistent with his polemic against culture4 ,upon further reading one finds that physics1 too1 should be merely a servant of the happiness of the individual4 ,we need knowledge of physics because the knowledge of natural causes will free us from the fears attending religion4 ,physics has no independent importance4 ,epicurus undertook to support his doctrine of individualism by the scientific theory of ,democritus4 ,the materialistic theory of the great ,abderite seems to loom large in the exposition of ,epicurus4 ,but ,epicurus was not interested in the science of physicsnot even in the physics of ,democritus4 ,he did not build his theory on the teaching of ,democritus1 but on the contrary he used the ,democritan doctrine to support his theory of moral conduct4 ,epicurus needed a well-authenticated theory4 ,on account of the influence of ,lucretius' poem1 ,epicurus has been called in modern times the scientist of antiquity4 ,but his only contribution to science was that1 finding the atomism of ,democritus ready at hand although unpopular1 he made it popular by adjusting it to his own purposes4 ,the ,democritan conception that ,being is matter consisting of innumerable uncreated and indestructible atoms furnished ,epicurus this support for his moral atomism4 ,he followed ,democritus in his analysis of psychological1 physiological1 and astronomical phenomenaall are atoms in combinations4 ,but he lacked scientific insight and the ,democritan doctrine was emasculated in his hands4 ,the central and fundamental principle of ,democritus' theory was the universal reign of law4 ,this the ,stoics adopted and this ,epicurus neglected4 ,epicurus was impressed by the changes of the atoms in the ,democritan theory2 the ,stoics by the law of such change4 ,this appears in the teaching of ,epicurus in two ways4 ,the first example is in his explanation of the origin of the cosmos4 ,democritus had conceived that irregular motion was an inherent quality of the atoms and that the universe was produced by their combinations in a purely mechanical way4 ,epicurus conceived that the original movement of the atoms was in a straight line from above downwards4 ,this he called the 8rain of atoms40 ,to explain their intermingling he conceived them to be endowed with volition by which they arbitrarily deviated from the direct fall4 ,secondly1 this physical theory of ,epicurus would be unimportant except that it afforded him a basis for his theory of the individual as possessing free will4 ,the doctrine of freedom of the will had been since ,aristotle a presupposition indispensable to the doctrine of moral accountability among the ,greeks4 ,the ,stoic doctrine of fate is an exception4 ,but determinism was opposed to ,epicurus' conception of the ,wise ,man as an independent individual4 ,the human will is self-determined1 and ,epicurus even said that he preferred the illusions of religion to a belief in our slavery to fate4 ,he classed freedom and chance together as uncaused occurrence1 and out of the combination built his conception of freedom4 ,the uncaused functioning of the will in man is the same as the causeless deviation of the atoms4 ,freedom is the choice between different possibilities and is determined by no cause4 ,the ,stoics alone among the philosophers of this time are the forerunners of the study of physics4 ,epicurus introduced the conception of volition of the atoms to account for the origin of the cosmos4 ,from that point he conceived the world to develop in a mechanical way4 ,teleology in the nature world was repugnant to him4 ,by modifying the ,democritan physics1 he thus succeeded in establishing the independence of the individual in the social world and1 on the other hand1 removing the gods from interfering in the physical world4 ,this seemed to ,epicurus to afford an absolute deliverance from superstition4 ,the important points of the physical theory of ,epicurus are these3 7#a7 the freedom of the atoms in motion2 7#b7 and yet their mechanical development2 7#c7 the atomic character of the gods2 7#d7 the scattering of the atoms of the soul at death1 which frees us from the fear of ,hades4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,stoicism ,the ,position of ,stoicism in ,antiquity4 ,the ,stoic ,school had a long history1 and for five hundred years it was well-nigh the dominating system of thought4 ,its importance is shown in the attacks on all sides by which it was honored4 ,it was subjected to a continued critical testing by the ,peripatetics1 ,epicureans1 ,skeptics1 and the ,academy4 ,it was without doubt the most comprehensive ,school of the ,hellenic-,roman ,period1 and numbered as its adherents the most brilliant personalities of the time4 ,in its importance to history its only rival was neo-,platonism1 which came after it4 ,stoicism accomplished much toward solving the problem of life1 for it is one of the great inner1 spiritual movements of humanity4 ,it was a system of philosophy raised upon the ruins of polytheisma religion for the educated classes1 who tried to harmonize the old religion with the new philosophic needs4 ,in the early ,christian centuries it led the moral reform by reviving the classic ideals4 ,it became a retreat into the invisible order1 a solace amid unrest4 ,particularly at that time the ,stoic felt the emptiness of human life1 for his possession of eternity made earthly existence seem as nothing4 ,yet it was a movement of subjective reflection and individual motive2 but as such it could not prove itself adequate when the structure of ,roman society broke down4 ,but we must not take the ,roman ,stoics as the representatives of the sect4 ,the ,stoics stood for more than moral reflection4 ,the great achievement came from the first three leadersthe achievement of giving a scientific basis to morals4 ,the ,stoics made ethics an independent science4 ,such an elaborate system of morals as that of the ,stoics had never before existed4 ,stoicism was morality with a theoretical foundation1 and the foundation was the most imposing part of the edifice4 ,this appeared in ,roman jurisprudence1 and in later times in ,grotius1 ,descartes1 ,spinoza1 the ,calvinists and ,puritans1 and in ,kant and ,fichte4 ,the writings of the individual ,stoics have become a part of the world's literature1 and the ,stoic view of life has maintained itself as a dignified and independent type4 ,the ,three ,periods of ,stoicism4 ,the five hundred years of the history of the ,stoic ,school are usually divided into three periods4 ,the first is about #ij years long1 in which the doctrine was formulated2 the second is #bjj years long1 when the doctrine was modified2 the third was #bjj years long1 when it became a popular moral philosophy4 ,the first two periods were theoretical1 the third was practical4 #a4 ,period of ,formulation of the ,doctrine 7#bid ,b4 ,c4-#bjf ,b4 ,c471 sometimes called the period of ,cynical ,stoicism4 ,this period contains the three great leaders3 ,zeno 7#cdj-bfe ,b4 ,c471 ,cleanthes1 leader of the ,school from #bfd to #bcb ,b4 ,c41 and ,chrysippus 7#bhj-bjf ,b4 ,c474 ,zeno of ,tarsus1 ,diogenes of ,seleucia1 and ,antipater of ,tarsus were other important representatives4 #b4 ,period of ,modified ,stoicism 7#bjf ,b4 ,c4-#a ,a4 ,d474 ,this was the period of transition4 ,this period shows a modification of the original severe ,cynical character of the doctrine and also the spread of ,stoicism to ,rome4 ,this modification shows an approach to ,plato and ,aristotle4 ,the most important representative of this period is ,pantius 7#ahj-aaj ,b4 ,c471 who introduced the doctrine into ,rome through his friendship with ,scipio ,africanus4 ,other eminent ,stoics of this period were ,posidonius and ,bothus of ,sidon4 #c4 ,period of ,roman ,stoicism 7#a-bjj ,a4 ,d474 ,during this period ,stoicism became a popular moral philosophy4 ,the theoretic teachings of the first two periods were successfully translated by the ,roman ,stoics in an impressive way into practical observations4 ,furthermore1 ,stoicism was being inspired with the rising religious feeling so that it expressed the noblest moral sentiments of antiquity4 ,the chief representatives were ,seneca 7#d-fe ,a4 ,d471 ,epictetus 7living #ij ,a4 ,d47 the philosophic slave1 and the emperor ,marcus ,aurelius 7#aba-ahj ,a4 ,d474 ,other ,stoics of this period were ,l4 ,annus ,cornutus1 ,m4 ,annus ,lucanus1 ,persius1 and ,m4 ,musonius ,rufus4 ,the ,stoic ,leaders4 ,one of the striking features of the ,stoic ,school is that its leaders were not pure ,greeks4 ,nearly all the members before the ,christian era belong by birth to the mixed races of ,asia ,minor and the eastern archipelago4 ,moreover1 the later ,stoics were mainly ,romans1 led by the ,phrygian1 ,epictetus4 ,the ,stoics who were ,greeks were third or fourth rate men4 ,the ,stoic ,school contained so many eminent thinkers that its doctrine was not framed once and for all1 like the ,epicurean doctrine4 ,during the five hundred years from ,zeno to ,marcus ,aurelius1 theoretic changes went on within the ,school1 and the changes were rather modifications than development4 ,fundamentally1 ,stoicism remained the same1 for it was a religious attitude of mind4 ,athens was the abiding-place of the ,stoic ,school1 but ,athens of that day had little to say to it except to receive it4 ,the great ,stoic leaders1 the first three ,stoics1 like the three tragic poets1 formed a group that is rarely equaled4 ,they were ,zeno1 ,cleanthes1 and ,chrysippus4 ,zeno and ,chrysippus came from ,cyprus1 and ,cleanthes came from ,assos1 not far from ,troy4 ,cyprus1 ,lycia1 and ,pisidia showed a strong inclination for the ,stoic teaching4 ,tarsus1 which is in ,cilicia1 had a strong ,stoic ,school1 and its influence on the training of ,st4 ,paul is seen in his theology4 ,the founding of the ,stoic ,school was the result of the experiences of ,zeno of ,citium4 ,having lost much of his wealth in commerce1 he turned to philosophy at ,athens4 ,impressed with the character of ,socrates1 he attached himself successively to the ,cynic1 ,megarian1 and ,platonic ,schools1 but without much satisfaction4 ,he made himself master of the teachings of these ,schools1 and then founded a ,school of his own4 ,it is said that when he asked for admittance to the ,academy1 ,polemo1 the leader1 replied1 8,i am no stranger to your ,phnician art1 ,zeno4 ,i perceive your design is to creep slyly into my garden and steal away my fruit40 ,in #bid ,b4 ,c4 he began to teach in the ,painted ,porch 7see map1 p4 #bai71 a painted colonnade in the ,athenian market-place4 ,the ,school thereafter went by the name of ,stoa1 or the ,porch4 ,his contemporary antagonists were ,arcesilaus in the ,academy1 and ,epicurus4 ,zeno's reputation throughout ,greece was very high and well deserved4 ,he was a parsimonious man1 simple and rude spoken4 ,he used a bad dialect1 foreign words1 and taught a strange doctrine4 ,he suffered a slight wound and1 taking it as a hint of destiny1 committed suicide1 saying1 8,i am coming1 ,earth1 why do you call me80 ,stoicism did not flourish under ,cleanthes 7who was leader of the ,school for thirty-two years71 although to-day he is the best known of these three leaders on account of his ,hymn to ,zeus4 ,he was originally a pugilist1 and was so poor that he had to work as a water-carrier by night in order to attend the lectures of ,zeno by day4 ,he is said to have had a heavy mind1 but it was nevertheless the mind of an inspired prophet and a thoughtful man of science4 ,when ,cleanthes received the ,stoic doctrines from ,zeno1 they were still plastic4 ,he made them monistic and pantheistic1 and introduced the doctrine of 8tension40 ,under ,chrysippus 7#bhj-bjf ,b4 ,c47 ,stoicism was revived and he saved it from extinction4 ,chrysippus was the systematizer of the ,school and its literary representative4 ,he wrote five hundred and five separate treatises1 three hundred of which were on logical subjects4 ,he is said to have seldom let a day pass without writing five hundred lines4 ,he was the moderating influence of the ,school1 mediating between extremes and removing objections4 ,he restated ,zeno's doctrines1 but his discourses abound in curious subtleties rather than argument4 ,he was a much more scholarly man than his predecessors1 and passed for the most learned man in antiquity4 8,give me doctrines10 he said to ,cleanthes1 8and ,i will find arguments for them40 ,his haughtiness created many adversaries1 both in the ,academy and among the ,epicureans1 and he had great contempt for men of rank4 ,he said1 8,if ,i thought any philosopher excelled me1 ,i would myself become his pupil40 ,it was a common saying in those days1 8,no ,chrysippus1 no ,stoa40 ,in the hands of ,chrysippus the ,stoic teaching became a well-rounded system4 ,the ,stoic ,writings4 ,nearly all the writings of the early ,stoics have been lost4 ,only fragments have been preserved from the writings of other men like ,cicero1 ,plutarch1 ,sextus ,empiricus1 and ,diogenes ,laertius1 and these men do not always distinguish between early and later ,stoicism4 ,the principal source of our knowledge of early ,stoicism is ,diogenes ,laertius4 ,the ,hymn to ,zeus of ,cleanthes is the most noteworthy fragment extant of the early period4 ,of the later ,stoics of the ,empire many writings have been saved3 the ethical treatises and epistles of ,seneca1 the ,diatribes and ,encheiridion of ,epictetus1 and the ,meditations of ,marcus ,aurelius4 ,the later ,stoic writings transmit the teaching of the earlier leaders modified by many foreign influences4 ,such second-hand authorities as ,cicero1 ,plutarch1 ,diogenes ,laertius and ,sextus ,empiricus1 and the ,aristotelian commentators give reports so vitiated that it is doubtful if they report any element belonging to the earlier teaching4 ,the doctrine of the ,stoics1 since the time of ,chrysippus1 however1 is known beyond peradventure4 ,the ,stoics and ,cynics4 ,the ,stoics tried to build up the life of the soul after the pattern of the virtuous ,wise ,man1 whose outlines they borrowed from the transfigured and lofty form of ,socrates4 7,noack47 ,their teaching is not merely a refinement and advance over the ,cynic ,school as ,epicureanism had been to the ,cyrenaic ,school4 ,stoicism and ,epicureanism used their sources in different ways4 ,the ,stoic would give up more than the ,epicurean1 and the negative side of his teaching is therefore greater2 but in recompense he offers more in the shape of a comprehensive metaphysics4 ,the ,cyrenaic doctrine of pleasure became the corner stone of ,epicureanism4 ,the ,cynic sensualistic rigorism became in the ,stoic teaching a negative and relatively unimportant doctrine4 ,while the ,stoic distinction of virtue was not unproductive1 the most influential aspect of ,stoicism was its dissemination of humane culture4 ,thus1 in contrast with the ,cynics1 the ,stoics had a deep interest in scientific theory4 ,the ,stoic1 less than the ,cynic1 contrasted the individual with the world4 ,the ,stoics have a more intelligent1 freer1 and milder morality4 ,to the ,cynics1 external things have no value2 to the ,stoics1 they have both a positive and a negative value4 ,beneath these differences there is the same self-sufficiency in virtue1 the same withdrawal within1 the same moral strength of will1 the same antithesis between good and evil4 ,stoicism was original1 but not enough so to mark the beginning of a new epoch4 ,the ,two ,prominent ,stoic ,conceptions4 ,there are two ,stoic conceptions that rise prominently above all the rest of their teaching4 ,one is the conception of personality1 the other is the conception of ,nature4 ,epicureanism built up the conception of personality1 but it had no need of an objective principle of ,nature2 and indeed the ,epicurean conception of personality seems to be only a clever adjustment and an avoidance of the problems of life1 compared to the clear-cut1 heroic1 and vigorous ,stoic conception of personality4 ,thus in ,epicureanism there is one prominent conception1 in ,stoicism there are two4 ,these two ,stoic principles stand side by side4 ,the ,stoic builds them up together1 even though he fails to make them entirely compatible4 ,all the essential difficulties and all the excellencies of ,stoicism lie in the juxtaposition of the conceptions of personality and ,nature4 ,in early ,stoicism each conception is stated with great vigor4 ,in later ,stoicism their harmony is approximated by the modification of each4 ,the result was an ethical dualism and a metaphysical monism4 ,the ,conception of ,personality4 ,against ,epicureanism the ,stoic fought for the dignity of the soul4 ,the ideal personality of the ,wise ,man is the central point in ,stoicism4 ,even more than ,aristotle did the ,stoic emphasize the unity and independence of the individual soul as contrasted to its particular states4 ,for the first time in ,european thought does the soul become an independent factor to be reckoned with4 ,the ,stoic picture of the ideal personality is of a life completely sundered from outward conditions1 free from earthly trammels1 but at the same time the organ of universal law4 ,contemporaries asked the ,stoics1 ,how can such an ideal be a person8 ,how can he live among his fellow men8 ,how can he reconcile himself to human want8 ,after setting forth this ideal during the #age years of their first period1 it is not strange that they were finally forced to modify it in response to practical demands4 ,at this point we shall consider the original portrayal of the ,wise ,man4 #a4 ,the ,stoic ,psychology4 ,the ,stoic built his conception of personality upon a deep psychological analysis4 ,the soul in the body is like the pneuma in the world 7see p4 #bee74 ,not only does the soul transform the excitations of the several sense organs into perceptions1 but its distinguishing faculty is its power of transforming the excitations of the feelings into acts of will4 ,this was called by the ,stoics the assent of the reason1 and is the distinguishing feature of the ,stoic conception of personality4 ,it established for the first time in history the independence of the personal soul4 ,the ,stoic felt keenly the antagonism between the reason and the senses1 and he also felt that by estimating the senses as merely relative in value they would so much the more dignify the reason as the fundamental feature of the personality4 ,while1 therefore1 all knowledge comes from the senses1 the ,stoic maintained that no knowledge exists in the senses by themselves4 ,the assent of the reason is necessary to transform the sensations into true knowledge4 ,the reason is not an aggregate of sensations1 but an independent function of the personality4 ,it transforms the sensations into perceptions1 the perceptions into acts of will4 ,the reason is therefore a kind of generating power of consciousness and is free from everything external4 ,but in contrast to this free rational side is the irrational nature of man2 for the reason is liable to suffer failure1 when it allows itself to be hurried along to give assent to exciting causes4 ,then emotions arise1 and emotions are failures1 mental disturbances1 and in chronic cases diseases4 ,man is not always able to defend himself against the excitations of his environment1 but he can refuse to give the excitations his assent4 ,he can refuse to allow the excitations to become emotions and to pour forth his life in passion4 ,man may be in the world and not of it4 ,he may govern the world by controlling himself4 ,the ,wise ,man is free from the emotions1 and virtue consists in their absence4 ,the virtuous man is self-sufficient in the proud consciousness that he can look upon pleasure as not a good and pain as not an evil4 ,what guide does the reason have in granting or refusing its assent to its perceptions from without8 ,what is the criterion of the truth8 ,the clearness of the perceptionthe clearness in the sense that the presentation lays hold of the mind and extorts its assent4 ,the truth is the 8irresistible presentation0 or the 8apprehending presentation40 ,who can know the truth8 ,the ,wise ,man4 ,by what means8 ,by sensation and preconception4 ,by what sign8 ,by the sign of its irresistible power4 ,the ,wise ,man is perfectly free and perfectly necessitatedhe never gives assent except to what constrains assent4 #b4 ,the ,highest ,good4 ,what is then the ,highest ,good or happiness for such a personality8 ,after such an analysis1 what would the ,stoic be likely to conceive to be the true ends of life8 ,the very nature of the personality gives the answer4 ,personality is fundamentally rational activity which seeks to preserve itself and to gratify its own nature4 ,the ,highest ,good is the law of its own rationality1 and virtue consists in being rational4 ,in reaching for the ,highest ,good man can transcend his particular faculties in his free obedience to his own reason2 and the wholeness of his existence depends upon the wholeness of his deed4 ,thus is the inner activity whole in contrast to the partial outer activities4 ,inwardness attains complete independence and finds the depth of the soul4 ,we are free and we are happy if the whole being goes out in contemplation of the world reason which is our reason1 and if all the feelings that make us dependent on the world are excluded4 ,since the emotions place a false value on things1 happiness demands a whole effort and ceaseless activity4 ,we must not merely theorize1 but thought must become conduct4 ,thought-action yields happiness4 ,it does not matter whether man acts with reference to this or that1 for external objects are neither good nor bad4 ,the whole question is whether the reason controls the passions or not4 ,if the reason controls1 the end is good2 if the passions control1 the end is evil2 all other ends are indifferent4 ,the reason either does or does not rule1 and an act is either good or not4 ,good is not relative1 but absolute2 and such relative matters as wealth1 honor1 and riches are matters of indifference4 ,even life itself is one of the indifferent things and may be taken when it does not serve the ends of reason4 ,the ,highest ,good is that inner unitythat dispositionwhich is governed by a single principle4 ,the ,stoic word for this ideal ,good is apathy1 just as the ,epicurean word was ataraxy or imperturbability4 ,positively defined1 it is virtue4 ,negatively defined1 can we say it was passionlessness8 ,this would not be quite correct4 ,by apathy the ,stoic means not absence of all feeling1 but absence of control by the feelings4 ,the ,stoic was filled with joy1 gratitude1 serene confidence1 and unwavering submission in regard to rational law4 ,apathy is not dull insensibility1 but immovable firmness4 ,it is absence of the emotions that render the man dependent on the world1 but it is not absence of the reaching out of the soul for the divine4 ,the ,highest ,good or ,apathy is 7#a7 intellectual resignation to the universe1 7#b7 practical inner harmony1 and 7#c7 self-control4 ,in seeking to be rational1 man is following an impulse1the impulse of self-preservation4 ,the ,conception of ,nature4 ,in comparison with the ,epicurean the position of the ,stoic was peculiarly involved4 ,the ideal imperturbability of the ,epicurean was simple in so far that it required nothing beyond itself4 ,it was an individual matter and varied with the individual4 ,but the ,stoic ideal personality is based upon the reason1 that is eternally one and the same4 ,what is this absolute principle that gives to the human reason its absoluteness8 ,what is the extent of the law of the reason that the human reason itself implies8 ,thus the ,stoic needed to supplement his conception of personality and the ,epicurean did not4 ,because his individualism was more rigorous1 it needed the more to be supported4 ,the ,stoic principle of morality had to have its foundation in the absolute nature of things4 ,this foundation could not be the politico-moral principle of ,greek national life1 for that existed no longer4 ,it could not be a transcendent1 supersensuous1 or incorporeal principle1 for his ,cynic inheritance would forbid his looking beyond experience4 ,the supplementary absolute principle of the ,stoics must be an immanent principle1 a living power in the world4 ,a pantheistic conception of ,nature took its place side by side with the ,stoic conception of personality1 and this conception of ,nature became the central point of the ,stoic metaphysics4 ,for this the ,stoics adopted the ,logos doctrine of ,heracleitus1 which will be recalled as the doctrine of primal matter as rational1 just1 and fateful changingness4 ,the ,stoics were reinforced in this by ,aristotle's teleological philosophy of nature4 ,yet they tried to overcome the dualism of matter and ,form as it existed in ,aristotle's teaching1 and one feels that the ,stoic pantheism was a conscious and avowed pantheism4 ,the ,stoic conception of ,nature is that of a unitary1 rational1 and living whole1 having no parts1 but only determinate forms4 ,yet it cannot be called a hylozoism1 like the doctrine of ,heracleitus1 for there ,form and matter had not been distinguished4 ,in the intervening years ,form and matter had been separated1 and the ,stoic sought to put them together again4 ,in comparison with the doctrine of the ,old ,schools1 the ,stoic teaching was 7#a7 monistic1 as against their dualism1 7#b7 materialistic1 as against their idealism1 but 7#c7 like them1 it was teleological4 #a4 ,in the first place1 ,nature is an all-pervading ,world-,being4 ,it is ,god1 8in whom we live and move and have our being40 ,it contains in itself all cosmic phenomena1 and processes1 past1 present1 and future4 ,it is the ,world-ground and the ,world-mind1 and yet it is all-in-all4 ,it is the productive and formative power1 the vitalizing principle4 ,in general1 it is the creative and guiding reason2 in particular1 it is ,providence or divine government4 ,it is the unswerving whole in which the single events of history take place4 ,to the ,stoics the cosmic ,reason was so apparent in ,nature that purpose appeared to them in everything4 ,in their hands the great teleological conception of ,aristotle's immanent purposiveness sank to the petty purposiveness for human beings and for the gods4 ,yet it is no wonder that this conception of an all-pervasive deity became a religion to the ,stoics and raised their moral code to the region of the sublime4 ,the world is ,fate so far as the minutest movements are determined4 ,nature is ,providence so far as those determinations are full of purpose4 ,nature is in every part perfect and without blemish4 #b4 ,in the second place1 ,nature is an all-compelling law4 ,nature is an inviolable necessity1 an inevitable destiny1 that holds all phenomena in complete causal connection4 ,yet this destiny only proves the complete purpose of the whole4 ,the ,stoic seized upon the central principle of ,democritus1which the ,epicureans had overlooked1the supremacy of law4 8,the doctrine of ,democritus passed over to the ,epicureans only so far as it was atomism and mechanism2 with regard to the deeper and more valuable principle of the universal reign of law in ,nature1 his legacy passed to the ,stoics40#ce ,there is no such thing as chance2 everything is caused4 ,in ,epicureanism one finds the doctrine of necessity1 but the necessity comes from the atoms themselves4 ,in ,stoicism the necessity resides in the living activity of the whole4 ,a living activity6 ,herein the ,stoic conception differs from the ,democritan teaching4 ,the necessity is a living necessity1 the destiny a living destiny4 #c4 ,in the third place1 ,nature is matter4 ,on the theoretical side ,stoicism agrees with ,epicureanism only at one point1both were materialistic4 ,the materialism of both these ,new ,schools got a disproportionate prominence because it had to be defended against the attacks of the ,academy and the ,lyceum4 ,the materialism of the ,epicureans was a mere adoption of a theory2 the materialism of the ,stoics was only one aspect of its supplementary basis4 ,nevertheless1 to the ,stoic matter alone is real1 because it alone acts and is acted upon4 ,everything is matter1nature-objects1 ,god and the soul1 and even the qualities1 forces1 and relations between material bodies4 ,the ,stoics regarded the presence and interchange of the qualities of things as the appearance and intermingling of bodies in these things4 ,there can be no doubt about the materialism of the ,stoic teaching1 although both material and spiritual attributes are ascribed to ,god in a way that is startling4 ,the ,heracleitan conception of fire as the primary substance is the ,stoic conception of ,god4 ,god is fire1 air1 ether1 and most commonly the atmospheric currents which pervade all things4 ,but ,god is also the ,world-soul1 the ,world-mind1 the ,cosmic-reason1 the universal ,law1 ,nature1 ,destiny1 ,providence4 ,he is a perfect1 happy1 and kind ,being4 ,in single statements these aspects are often combined and ,god is described as the ,fiery ,reason of the world1 the ,mind in matter1 the reasonable ,air-currents4 ,the ,stoic equation is ,nature ,matter ,fire ,reason ,fate ,providence ,god4 ,the ,stoics followed ,heracleitus also in their conception of the development of the present world from the cosmic fire4 8,in all points of detail their views on what we call physical science are contemptible4 ,they contained not one iota of scientific thinking40#cf ,they followed ,aristotle1 however1 in their description of the elements and their teleological arrangements4 ,the primitive substance changes by its own inner rational law into force and matter4 ,force is the ,world-soul1 the pneuma or warm breath1 which pervades all things4 ,matter is the ,world-body1 and is water and earth4 ,in cosmic periods the primitive fire is destined to re-absorb the world of variety into itself and then consume it in a universal catastrophe4 ,the most important feature in the ,stoic materialism is the conception of pneuma1 or the force into which the original substance is differentiated4 ,this is the ,world-soul4 ,nature is thus conceived as dynamical4 ,the ,stoic word for the ,world-soul is translated by various expressions1 as 8creative reason10 8generative powers10 8formative fire-mind40 ,it penetrates all things and dominates all as their active principle4 ,through it the universe is one1 not a plurality of parts4 ,the pneuma is the life of the universe4 ,its motion is spontaneous2 its development is teleological4 ,the pneuma is an extraordinarily condensed conception1 containing as it does suggestions from ,heracleitus' ,logos1 ,anaxagoras' ,nous1 ,democritus' fire-atoms1 and ,aristotle's ,energeia4 ,the human being has a constitution analogous to the universe4 ,man is the microcosm and the universe the macrocosm4 ,the soul of man is the pneuma which holds his body together1 and it is an emanation from the divine pneuma4 ,mental statesthought and emotionsare air currents4 ,virtue is the tension of the atmospheric substance of the soul4 ,the material1 yet divine1 pneuma constitutes man's reason1 causes his activities1 is seated in his breast4 ,since the pneuma is a body1 it disconnects itself from the human corpse at death1 has a limited immortality1 and returns to the cosmic pneuma at the conflagration of the world4 ,the ,conceptions of ,nature and ,personality supplement each other4 ,thus fundamentally the personality is identical with the cosmosit is reason4 ,to turn the matter about1 by reason or 8nature0 the ,stoic means two things that are essentially one4 ,he means the reason of man1 or the reason of the world2 to 8live according to nature0 is to live according to the nature of man or according to the nature of the world4 ,the life of the ,wise ,man as a harmony with physical nature is a harmony with itself as well4 ,the antithesis to 8nature0 or 8reason0 is sensuous nature4 ,what we speak of as the natural impulses were not 8natural0 at all in the ,stoic teaching4 8,nature0 as universal is the creative cosmic power acting for ends4 ,cordination with this constitutes morality4 ,it is a willing obedience to eternal necessity4 ,the 8fool0 acts according to his sensations and impulses1 and therefore against 8nature40 ,but the ,wise ,man1 by withdrawing within himself1 is his own independent master because he is acting universally4 8,nature0 is the life-unity of the human soul with the world reason4 ,true individual morality is therefore universal morality1 complete humanity1 universal rationality4 ,to obey 8nature0 is to develop the essential germ in one's self4 ,thus these two points of view were obtained of life-unity3 a universe rationally guiding in all its changes2 the human individual epitomizing this universe in himself as a rule for his conduct amid his vicissitudes4 ,the ,stoic and ,society4 ,men are divided into two classes1the entirely wise and virtuous1 or the entirely foolish and vicious4 ,there is no middle ground4 ,if a man possesses a sound reason1 he has all the virtues2 if he lacks this reason1 he lacks all4 ,there are only a few ,sages2 the mass of men are fools4 ,the ,stoics were continually lamenting with ,pharisaical pessimism the great baseness of men4 ,from their sublime height they looked upon the ,wise ,man as incapable of sin1 upon the fool as incapable of virtue4 ,in thus denying the ordinary distinctions between good and evil1 they were dangerous in politics4 ,their political perspective was not reliable4 ,in general1 they did not enter the politics of the democracies where they lived4 ,they were1 however1 often the advisers of tyrants1 and often assisted in removing them 7as in the case of ,julius ,csar74 ,the ,stoic ,school of ,musonius ,rufus made a splendid ,puritan protest against ,nero and ,domitian1 and finally his disciples and friends controlled the empire for a century 7second century ,a4 ,d474#cg ,the ,stoic regarded his ,wise ,man as attaining the same independence that the ,epicurean claimed for his ,wise ,man4 ,he is lord and king4 ,he is inferior to no other rational being1 not even to ,zeus himself4 ,the ,stoic differs from the ,epicurean in his attitude toward the political state4 ,the two ,schools agree that the sufficient ,wise ,man needs the state but little4 ,the ,epicurean teaches that society is not natural and not inherent in human nature4 ,the ,stoic1 however1 maintained that society is a divine institution1 which gives way only occasionally to man's individual perfecting4 ,since man and the cosmic reason are identical1 all men are essentially identical4 ,when men therefore lead a life of reason1 they lead a social life4 ,this realm of reason includes not ,romans alone1 but all men1 gods1 and slaves4 ,but the political government is only secondary1 for the ,stoic's ideal is a universal empire4 ,the ,stoic's interest in practical politics was as weak as his ideal of a rational society was transcendent4 ,his teaching of justice and love for man was1 however1 a forecasting of the coming religious emancipation4 ,there are two antagonistic tendencies running through ,stoicism4 ,the first is to seek society with its virtues1justice1 love of men1 sociability or cosmopolitanism4 ,the second dispenses with society to gain an inner freedom4 ,yet these two tendencies often coincide4 ,they may be presented as follows3 ,to seek society4 ,to dispense with society4 #a4 ,exaltation of justice and ,exaltation of inner freedom love4 and happiness4 #b4 ,world citizenship4 ,the ,wise ,man4 #c4 ,relations and degrees of ,absolute virtue and absolute virtue4 vice4 #d4 ,virtue depends somewhat on ,knowledge alone is virtue4 conditions4 #e4 ,individual should submit to ,individual should make fate4 fate4 ,duty and ,responsibility4 ,the ,stoic's identity of human and cosmic reason elevated the law of human conduct into a strict1 universal law of duty4 ,it embodies1 on the one hand1 the ,cynic's protest against external law1 and on the other the construction of the inner moral law4 ,the backbone of ,stoicism is sense of responsibility4 ,the ,stoics brought out as never before the contrast between what is and what ought to be4 ,they were the most outspoken doctrinaires of antiquity1 and formed a school of character building in stubbornness4 ,as time went on they substituted human nature for cosmic nature1 and then accentuated human nature as conscience4 ,the individual could then define the right for himself1 and this sort of individualism was developed with so much skill that it admitted great laxity of morals4 ,duty commands some things and forbids others1 but there are left a great mass of activities that are ethically indifferent4 ,these indifferent matters offered opportunity for these men of conscience to perform what in the eyes of others were crimes 7for example1 ,brutus74 ,baseness is only what is unconditionally forbidden4 ,yet it must not be supposed that the ,stoics generally employed the indifferent as an excuse for moral license4 ,on the contrary1 the concept of life as a struggle originated with the ,stoics1 and from them it passed into the common consciousness of man4 ,there was before them 7#a7 the struggle with environment dominated by a false evaluation1 7#b7 the struggle with effete civilization1 7#c7 the struggle particularly with one's self4 ,the ,stoic hero of inner courage and greatness of soul rises above his fellows1 not because he gains dominion over the world1 but because in indifference to it he isolates himself4 ,he exists in premeditation of doing rather than in the actual doing in which his power would be spent4 ,still1 in the absolute contrast between the good and the evil1 in making life a disjunctive1 an 8,either,or10 duty got a definite and distinct meaning4 ,duty1 according to the ,stoics' conception1 had not so much the nature of an imperative as of what is suitable1an act adapted to nature1 a consistent and justifiable act4 ,in a manner unknown to antiquity the ethical nature of conduct was thus universalized in the new conceptions of philanthropy1 of the universality of ,god and man1 in the tendency to suppress slavery and care for the poor and sick4 ,nevertheless1 as a moral force ,stoicism accepted the world as it found the world1 and did not attempt to make it over4 ,the ,problem of ,evil and the ,problem of ,freedom4 ,on the questions of moral freedom and evil1 the ,stoics suffered severe attacks from the ,academy and the ,epicureans4 ,alone among the ,schools of antiquity the ,stoics preached the doctrine of ,fate4 ,the demands of ethical responsibility1 however1 required that the individual should determine his own conduct4 ,to suit these demands the ,stoic did not modify his fundamental conception of ,nature1 but he tried to justify his position on the ground that the individual expressed the law of nature4 ,his argument may be stated thus3 ,man is like ,god2 ,man is one with ,god2 ,man is free4 ,it was also stated on psychological grounds4 ,man can have one of two attitudes toward the world-law3 7#a7 his performance may be through blind compulsion2 7#b7 his performance may be through an intelligent understanding of the law1 in which case he is free4 ,the occurrence of his act is fateful1 but it makes great difference to the man whether the occurrence is in spite of him or with his intelligent acquiescence4 ,the occurrence is not an evil in itself2 for physical evils are no evils1 and things that appear to be moral evils are 7#a7 subservient to the good2 7#b7 merely relative to good2 or 7#c7 show that ,god's ways are not our ways4 ,my will is mine though necessary2 my will is mine though it be law4 ,the soul is free when it fulfills its own destiny4 ,god works through man's will4 ,outer circumstances are only accessory causes1 but the main cause is the assent of the will4 ,at the same time the ,stoics did not shrink from the logic of their own fatalism4 ,chrysippus said that only on the basis of determinism could correct judgments of the future be made4 ,only on this ground could the gods foreknow4 ,only the necessary can be known4 ,the ,modifications of the ,stoic ,doctrine after the ,first ,period4 ,the inherent difficulties in the ,stoic doctrine and the attacks upon it gave rise to later concession that only further complicated it4 7#a7 ,the moral ideal was lowered to make a set of rules for the mediocre man1 and thereby the ,stoics became the originators of the dangerous doctrine of a twofold morals4 7#b7 ,by admitting any supposition instead of strict scientific deduction into their theory they introduced probabilism4 ,an absolute personality6 ,an absolute ,nature6 ,in order to make either practical the ,stoics had to modify both4 ,in the course of time1 when new leaders represented the ,school1 there came compromises according to practical exigencies4 ,the teaching of the ,wise ,man was superseded by instruction how to become wise4 ,the moral idealism was not renounced but the idea of progress was introduced4 7#c7 ,the doctrine of ,goods was modified4 ,from out the ,goods1 esteemed as indifferent1 there appear ,goods as desirable4 ,yet these were never thought to be ,goods in themselves1 but were only adapted to further the ,good in itself4 ,such were1 for example1 the physical ,good of health1 enjoyment of the senses1 etc4 ,on the side of its ideals ,stoicism thus was brought into touch with practical life4 7#d7 ,a distinction was made concerning those who were not ,wise ,men4 ,it was recognized that all 8fools0 are not the same distance from virtue4 ,there are then recognized progressive men1men who are improving4 ,apathy is thus modified by a state of progress4 ,even the ,wise ,man has in common with others the affections of his senses1 such as pain4 ,the ,stoic ethical aristocracy became more humane4 ,nevertheless1 the ,stoic never yielded this point1 viz41 that there is no gradual growth in virtue4 ,virtue is not attained through a transition4 ,it is a sudden turning about4 7#e7 ,during the empire ,stoicism became merely a moral philosophy1 but even in this form it was an impressive presentation of the noblest convictions of antiquity4 ,it prepared moral feeling for ,christianity4 ,the more ,stoicism became mere moralizing1 the more the ,cynic element in it dominated it4 ,in the first and second centuries ,cynicism was revived by wandering1 garbed preachers1 who went about affecting beggary and teaching morals4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,skepticism ,,and ,,eclecticism ,the ,appearances of ,philosophic ,skepticism4 ,we have now traced the history of the positive and dogmatic aspect of the ,hellenic-,roman ,period through its ,ethical ,division and far into the ,religious ,division of the ,period4 ,the influence of the ethical movement did not disappear until at least two centuries after the beginning of this era1 and the ,schools themselves did not disappear until they were abolished by ,justinian in #ebi ,a4 ,d4 ,but the ,ethical ,period may be said to close at the beginning of this era1 and even a century and a half before thatabout #aej ,b4 ,c4its positive and dogmatic character had been lost4 ,eclecticism appeared in the ,schools1 and the last one hundred and fifty years of the ,ethical ,period was in character transitional and eclectic4 ,this was caused by the growth and power of ,skepticism1 which we have already pointed out as the undercurrent of the entire period4 ,skepticism was the fundamental frame of mind of the eight hundred years of this time4 ,it was the negative side of the period in contrast with the ,schools4 ,philosophic ,skepticism appeared contemporaneously with the rise of the ,new ,schools at the very beginning of the ,period1 and the controversy between the ,schools and ,skepticism reached its height about #aej ,b4 ,c4 ,what was the result8 ,did philosophy turn1 as in the ,age of ,pericles1 back to greater triumphs in speculation8 ,no2 the world was no longer virile and no longer possessed the creative impulse4 ,on account of the attacks of ,skepticism upon the ,schools1 philosophy dissolved itself first into eclecticism1 and then later by the introduction of new elements from the ,east was superseded by religion4 ,in the philosophical sense1 religion and eclecticism are both skepticalboth have doubts of the ability of the reason to reach truth4 ,eclecticism shows its ,skepticism by doubting any one dogmatic scheme1 and therefore it constructs a compromise of all2 religion crowns faith in place of reason4 ,philosophic ,skepticism in these times did not appear except with reference to the doctrines of the ,schools4 ,it arose as merely polemical and antagonistic to the ,schools' teaching4 ,while the ,skepticism of antiquity busied itself with the problem of knowledge1 it was superficial compared with modern ,skepticism4 ,ancient ,skepticism did not doubt that the object of knowledge existed2 it did not doubt that the object of knowledge is external and even material4 ,it assumed that things exist which1 to the modern ,skeptic1 is the problem at issue4 ,we shall look now at the appearances of philosophic ,skepticism1 and the effect of this ,skepticism upon the ,schools in their turning to eclecticism4 ,the ,three ,phases of ,philosophic ,skepticism4 ,these are three somewhat loosely connected appearances of ,skepticism1 and are determined in their character in large measure by the doctrines which they attacked4 #a4 ,the ,first ,phase of ,philosophic ,skepticism is called ,pyrrhonism 7from about #cjj to #bcj ,b4 ,c474 ,this was a ,skepticism directed against the assumptions of the philosophy of ,aristotle4 ,from the dates above it will be seen to be contemporary with the founding of the ,stoic and ,epicurean ,schools1 at the very beginning of the period4 ,the two representatives were ,pyrrho 7#cfe-bge ,b4 ,c47 of ,elis and his pupil ,timon 7#cbj-bcj ,b4 ,c47 of ,phlius4 ,when ,zeno had begun to teach in the ,painted ,porch and ,epicurus in the ,gardens1 when ,theophrastus had succeeded his master in the ,lyceum and ,polemo led the ,academy1 the ,skeptic ,pyrrho began his personal instruction in the city of ,elis4 ,pyrrho had but little influence4 ,he left no writings1 and his doctrine became known to the ancients through his pupil1 ,timon1 who was the literary exponent of this ,skepticism4 ,the teaching may be stated in the three following sentences3 7#a7 ,we can know nothing of the nature of things1 but only of the states of feeling into which they put us2 7#b7 ,the only correct attitude of mind is to withhold all judgment and restrain all action2 7#c7 ,the result of this suspense of judgment is ataraxia or imperturbability4 ,the ,skeptic therefore sought the same internal peace for which ,stoic and ,epicurean were seeking1 but he was skeptical of the ,aristotelian metaphysics as an instrument to gain it4 ,the opposite of any conclusion being equally plausible1 suspense of judgment is the only peace of mind4 ,pyrrhonism reminded the age after ,aristotle that the problem of the certitude of knowledge is fundamental and must be settled before any philosophy can be constructed4 ,the ,school was short lived1 and people disposed to be skeptical joined the ,academy4 #b4 ,the ,second ,period of ,philosophic ,skepticism,the ,skepticism of the ,academy 7#bhj-abi ,b4 ,c474 ,the ,middle ,academy and its ,skepticism was directed particularly against the ,stoic teaching that an 8apprehensive presentation0 guaranteed its own truth by the conviction of immediate certainty4 ,the two most distinguished representatives of this ,skeptical period of the ,academy were ,arcesilaus 7#cae-bda ,b4 ,c47 and ,carneades 7#bad-abi ,b4 ,c474 ,carneades must be mentioned particularly as a genius and a philosopher of great personal influence4 8,he was the greatest philosopher of ,greece in the four centuries from ,chrysippus to ,plotinus2 indeed1 in ability and depth of thought he surpassed ,chrysippus40#ch ,carneades was the most formidable opponent of the ,stoics4 ,he had listened to the ,stoic lecturers1 had studied their writings1 and had refuted them on their own grounds in brilliant lectures of his own4 ,the ,skepticism of the ,academy arose somewhat in this way4 ,the rivalry of the ,porch and the ,older ,academy had grown apace and had been a battle between two dogmatic ,schools4 ,the ,academy was being worsted1 its ancient spirit was waning1 and it had gradually deserted speculation for ethics4 ,under ,arcesilaus it was provoked to new life by the aggressive dogmatism of the ,stoics4 ,speculation1 which it had ignored1 it now began to antagonize openly4 ,arcesilaus1 in directing his attack against the doctrine of 8apprehensive presentation0 of the ,stoics1 came to conclusions but slightly different from ,pyrrho4 ,carneades laid out for himself a twofold task3 7#a7 to refute all existing dogmas1 and 7#b7 to evolve a theory of probability as the basis for practical activity4 ,he applied his ,skepticism not only to speculation1 like ,arcesilaus1 but also to ethics and religion4#ci ,the ,academy did not fully adopt ,skepticism1 but used it as a weapon against the ,stoics4 ,the ,platonic tradition was kept alive within the ,school1 and ,skepticism made no advance in the ,academy after ,carneades4 ,it did not even continue in the path marked out by him4 ,in the next generation the ,academy became eclectic4 #c4 ,the ,third ,period of ,philosophic ,skepticism,sensationalistic ,skepticism 7during two centuries or more of the ,christian era74 ,the chief representatives were nesidemus of ,cnossus 7first century ,a4 ,d471 ,agrippa 7about #bjj ,a4 ,d471 and ,sextus ,empiricus 7about #bjj ,a4 ,d474 ,this phase of ,skepticism was represented mainly by physicians1 with arguments based upon empirical physiological grounds4 ,when the ,academy passed from ,skepticism to eclecticism1 ,skepticism became centred in ,alexandria4 ,for two centuries before ,galen 7#aca-bja ,a4 ,d47 great discoveries had been made in medicine1 but the meaning of the discoveries had not been apprehended4 ,there was a general feeling among physicians of that time that there is no such thing as scientific certainty2 and skeptical arguments were constructed2 based on the empirical discoveries of the scientific circle of ,alexandria4 ,while the arguments of the ,academy were mostly formal attacks against the ,stoics1 this ,skeptical ,school of physicians returned to ,pyrrhonism1 immensely reinforced with scientific material4 ,it strove in vain to disassociate itself from the ,academy1 for it used in one way or another the formal arguments of the ,skeptics of the ,academy4 ,in his eight books on ,pyrrhonism1 nesidemus developed the reasons which induced ,pyrrho to call in question the possibility of knowledge4 ,these are known in philosophy as the ten 8tropes10 or ten ways of justifying doubt4#dj ,they were badly arranged by nesidemus and reduced to five by ,agrippa4#da ,the ,last ,century and a ,half of the ,ethical ,period4 7#aej ,b4 ,c4-#a ,a4 ,d474 ,eclecticism4,about #aej ,b4 ,c4 the ,ethical ,period became eclectic4 ,after #aej years of passionate controversy the ,schools began to compromise their differences and fuse into one another4 ,they no longer emphasized their differences1 but began to point to their common ground of unity4 ,this tendency to fusion applies only to the ,lyceum1 the ,academy1 and the ,porch4 ,the ,epicurean ,school was never a party to this eclecticism and always remained relatively stationary4 ,the fusion occurred only in the teaching of the ,schools and not in their organization4 ,externally the ,schools remained separate bodies for six hundred years longer4 ,in the second century ,hadrian and the ,antonines endowed separate chairs for them in the ,university of ,athens4 ,they were not abolished as ,schools until #ebi ,a4 ,d41 by ,justinian4 ,internally their independent growth lasted only during the two centuries down to the year #aej ,b4 ,c4 ,at this time their theoretic mission had been completed4 ,their internal history from #ajj ,b4 ,c4 to #ebi ,a4 ,d4 was one of compromise and adjustment4 ,the year #aej ,b4 ,c4 is therefore important4 ,at this time the records of the ,schools stop1 controversy abates1 ,stoicism and ,epicureanism are introduced into ,rome1 and fusion of doctrines begins4 ,the ,stoic ,school was the first to incline to eclecticism4 ,its own doctrine was a kind of fusion of incoherent parts1 and among the ,schools it could most easily welcome new doctrines4 ,about #aej ,b4 ,c41 under the lead of ,pantius and ,posidonius1 it adopted many of the ,platonic and ,aristotelian teachings1 tempered its own ethical rigorism1 and extended its scientific interests4 ,at the same time the ,peripatetics of the ,lyceum united the pantheism of the ,stoics to their own theism4 ,after the death of ,carneades in #abi ,b4 ,c4 the ,academy turned from ,skepticism back to the ,platonic tradition1 but it was a meagre ,platonism adulterated with many foreign elements4 ,for example1 ,antiochus of ,ascalon taught ,cicero from the ,academy at ,athens in the winter of #gi-gh ,b4 ,c4 that ,platonism and ,aristotelianism were only different aspects of the same doctrine4 ,there were two factors that prepared an easy way for the rapid spread of eclecticism4 ,one was the growing ,skepticism that was so fundamental in ,hellenism1 and the other was the adoption of ,hellenic culture by the ,romans4 ,eclecticism is1 after all1 only another form of ,skepticism4 ,both exhibit the spirit of undecided conviction4 ,neither has regard for the bonds of tradition1 for both regard the individual superior to every tradition or system4 ,eclecticism1 indeed1 attempts to reconcile differing systems2 but in doing this it casts a doubt upon the infallibility of them all only to a lesser degree than ,skepticism4 ,the spread of eclecticism was therefore only an extension from ,greece of the skeptical spirit upon the world1 and the ,roman world gave a glad welcome to such a spirit4 ,the ,roman character was naturally eclectic4 ,after his first aversion the ,roman was hospitable to all philosophies and religions4 ,in his practical way1 undisturbed by philosophical hair-splittings1 he selected from the different systems what was suited to his practical needs4 ,eclecticism found fertile ground in ,roman civilization4 ,in the ,schools after the year #aej ,b4 ,c4 there appear many notable namesnotable not because they contributed to the theoretic advance of philosophy1 but for some other reason4 ,in the ,stoic ,school were ,pantius1 ,posidonius1 and ,bothus2 and later ,seneca1 ,epictetus1 and ,marcus ,aurelius4 ,among the ,academicians are ,philo of ,larissa and ,antiochus2 among the ,peripatetics of the same century is ,andronicus2 and among the eclectic ,platonists ,plutarch is especially to be named2 these were all eclectics4 ,the only one in this group of eclectics whom we shall have time for a passing examination of is ,cicero4 ,m4 ,tullius ,cicero 7#ajf-dc ,b4 ,c47 listened to ,greek philosophy in all the ,schools in ,athens and ,rhodes4 ,he read a good deal of ,greek literature1 so that he had much philosophical material at his command4 ,he did not show much discretion in his selection of his material1 but he displayed a good deal of tact in using what the ,roman people would receive4 ,the ,greek mind spoke to the ,roman through ,cicero's voice almost as though the ,roman were speaking for himself4 ,it must be admitted that ,cicero's acquaintance with ,greek philosophy was on the whole superficial1 yet he was able to express certain aspects of ,greek philosophy with clearness for contemporary ,latin readers and for many generations succeeding them4 ,he prided himself in his ability to discuss both sides of a question without himself arriving at a decisionafter the manner of the ,middle ,academy1 of which he inscribed himself as a member4 ,his books appeared in rather rapid succession4 ,cicero does not therefore owe his prominence as a philosopher so much to his own profound independence of thought as to his skill in translating ,greek thought to the ,roman people4 ,his metaphysics is an eclecticism that is at bottom a skepticism4 ,in view of the existing philosophical warfare1 he despaired of metaphysical or absolutely complete knowledge4 ,yet upon ethical and religious questions he spoke in no undecided manner1 for in these realms he felt that we have more than merely probable evidence4 ,since he was unable to refute ,skepticism in a scientific way1 he took refuge in the immediate certainty of consciousness in all matters that pertain to morals and religion4 ,there are certain ideas common to all men4 ,these have not so much been taught to all men by nature as they are inborn in all4 ,they are convictions implanted in us2 there is a common human consciousness from which they are derived1 and they are confirmed by universal opinion4 ,ethical and religious consciousness thus rests on immediate certainty4 ,man has the innate ideas of duty1 immortality1 and ,god4 ,our belief in ,god's existence is supported by the teleological argument for ,providence and divine government4 ,the high dignity of man rests upon this innate conviction of freedom and immortality4 ,cicero shows his eclecticism by moderating the ,stoic doctrine of virtue3 virtue in itself is vita beata1 but virtue plus happiness is vita beatissima4 ,unoriginal and eclectic as ,cicero's philosophical position may be1 it is of great importance to the student of ,roman history4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,religious ,,period 7#ajj ,b4 ,c4-#dgf ,a4 ,d47 ,the ,two ,causes of the ,rise of ,religious ,feeling4 ,there were two causes for the turn of the time from its interest in individual practical ethics to religion4 ,the first was an inner cause within the nature of the ethical philosophy of the ,schools4 ,the rise of the religious and the supernatural was the culmination of the undercurrent of skepticism in the validity of reason1 which we found growing rapidly in the ,ethical ,period4 ,the more the ,schools grew alike in their teaching1 the less were they able to assure their disciples of any certain insight into virtue and happiness4 ,the ,ethical ,period ended in eclecticism1 and this was the impeachment of the authority of each ,school4 ,the ,schools examined their dogmatic assumptions4 ,the fundamental inner conviction grew stronger that the intellect of man is self-inconsistent3 so inconsistent as to be undependable2 so inconsistent as not to vouchsafe man the virtue and happiness which the ,schools had promised4 ,as ,skepticism became more strongly intrenched1 the imperturbable self-certainty of the ,wise ,man became shaken1 the ,ethical ,period disappeared1 and the ,religious ,period was born4 ,belief in the authority of the supernatural superseded belief in the authority of the reason4 ,the second cause may be called external1 and was the introduction of many eastern religions into the empire4 ,it has been common to exaggerate the vices of the ,romans of the first ,christian centuries1 and to point to the corruption of the times as the cause of the great rise of religions4#db ,no doubt1 in the city of ,rome and other large cities the populations were very licentious and corrupt4 ,but this was not the case with the people in the small municipalities and the country4 ,the people were united in peace under one government4 ,there was great commercial prosperity and widespread travel4 ,education prospered4 ,the religion of the ,romans1 however1 long since decadent1 had become an object of derision4 ,all faith in it had been lost1 and magicians and romancers had a large patronage4 ,the inner life of man demanded some external spiritual authority to satisfy it1 and1 finding it could not be satisfied in the realm of sense1 turned to the supersensuous4 ,it was an age of universal superstitions1 reported miracles1 and the multiplying of myths4 ,in the realm of the religious emotions everything was in flux4 ,even the ,greek philosophiesthe ,stoic1 the ,platonic1 the ,cynic1 and the neo-,pythagoreanshow it in their emphasis upon renunciation in practical life4 ,in place of the ,grecian love for earthly existence1 a longing for the mysterious was growing into a feverish desire for strange and mysterious cults4 ,a great religious movement possessed the nations of the empire1 and into ,roman civilization of the first century ,a4 ,d4 there streamed many new religions4 ,from the ,orient came the ,mithra1 ,magna ,mater1 ,star ,worship1 ,isis and ,osiris1 and many others4 ,these mingled with the western religions1 and their rivalry was energetic for the possession of men's spirits4 ,the ,roman people were hospitable to all religions1 and ,rome became a religious battleground4 ,with the interest turned from earthly to heavenly things1 salvation from trouble seemed to lie in the supernatural4 ,the ,need of ,spiritual ,authority4 ,thus the complacent ,ethical ,period gave way to the cry for some authority in morals and science4 ,man was no longer confident that he could attain present happiness or his soul's salvation by his own strength4 ,he turned for help both to the religious tradition of the past and to the revelation that might come to him in the present4 ,the authority in either was practically the same2 for the past was only the crystallization of an ever-present divine spirit4 ,yet present and past revelations differ in their credentials3 the present revelation is an immediate illumination of the spirit2 the past is presented in historic records4 ,the ,alexandrian school accepted both forms of revelation as the highest source of knowledge4 ,the demand for supernatural authority found expression in many curious ways4 ,it is notorious that at this time the writings and oral traditions of the past were greatly interpolated4 ,the philosophers of the first century thought that they themselves could get a hearing only by inserting their own doctrines into the writings of ,plato1 ,aristotle1 and other heroes of the past4 ,thus the neo-,pythagoreans invented a halo of wisdom for ,pythagoras in order to give their own sect its credentials4 ,the demand for authority culminated in the attempt to trace the entire civilization of the time to some religious source4 ,philo on the one side1 and the ,gnostics on the other1 found that ,greek and ,hebrew history have a common religious origin4 ,greek thought was found in the ,oriental writings4 ,the ,greek sages were placed by the side of the ,old ,testament heroes4 ,the canon of the ,christians is full of cross-referencesthe ,old ,testament giving historical authority to the ,new ,testament1 the ,new ,testament giving to the ,old ,testament the support of immediate revelation4 ,there came into vogue what was called 8allegorical interpretation10 according to which an historical document could be given two interpretations 7or more7a literal interpretation and a spiritual interpretation4 ,the documents were supposed to have a body and a soul4 ,the literal interpretation was of the body of the documents and suitable for the people2 the spiritual interpretation was the more liberal interpretation of the soul of the document and suitable for philosophers4 ,at the same time a vast number of writings appeared as historical revelations4 ,it was necessary to separate the true from the false1 but this could not be done by the individual without injuring the very principle upon which revelation was supposed to rest4 ,consequently all knowledge was generally regarded as revelation4 ,for example1 ,plutarch and the ,stoics divided revelation into three classes3 poetry1 law1 and philosophy4 ,although ,plutarch disclaimed open superstitions1 he nevertheless accepted as true all sorts of miracles and prophecies4 ,the later neo-,platonists are also examples of the great body of those who made no discrimination as to what revelation is true4 ,the ,christian church may be said to have been alone in making a criticism of the records1 and in setting up as criteria tradition and historically accredited authority4 ,as a result of its criticism the ,christian canon was finally decided upon1 and the ,old and ,new ,testaments were accepted as alone inspired4 ,the rivals of the churchthe ,alexandrian philosophies1 especially neo-,platonismhad no organization that could decide upon a canon4 ,they were consequently at a disadvantage1 but they felt no need of an infallible historical authority or of historical criticism4 ,revelation to them was any immediate illumination of the individual4 ,the individual man who comes in contact with the ,deity has possession of the divine truth4 ,although only few attain the truth1 and these only at rare moments1 there is nevertheless no way of determining what is fictitious and what is true4 ,this difference in the conception of inspiration between the neo-,platonists and the ,christians is important to note1 for it marks an important difference in the two greatest intellectual movements of the next thousand years4 ,the church fixed revelation on the basis of historical authority1 and this revelation became the source of the scholasticism of the ,middle ,ages2 neo-,platonism left the individual man free to get revelation from any source through his own personal contact with the divine1 and this was the basis of the mysticism of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the ,rise of the ,conception of ,spirituality4 ,we have seen that out of the widespread cry for spiritual help came the demand for spiritual authority4 ,there is also another result1the increased importance in history of the spiritual personality4 ,the men of the past became heroes1 the great men sanctified and surrounded with myths4 ,hero worship1 ancestor worship1 the worship of the genius of the emperor inaugurated by ,augustus1 were part of this movement4 ,disciples began to have unconditional trust in their masters1 and in neo-,platonism this worship culminated in veneration for the leaders of the ,school4 ,this movement appears in the grandest form in history in the impression of the wonderful personality of ,jesus ,christ4 ,the next step was to regard personality as the revelation of the divine ,logos4 ,personality is the cosmic reason4 ,nature and history are kinds of general revelations1 but special revelations require great personalities,moses1 the prophets1 the ,greek scientists1 and especially ,jesus who was the ,messiah1 the ,son of ,god4 ,the power that these personalities exhibit must be a revelation1 and not the working of the human reason1 for the human unaided reason deals only with sensations1 and is incapable of gaining divine truth4 ,the reason needs the divine to illuminate it4 ,the great personalities are therefore the repositories of powers that make them different from ordinary men4 ,their revelations are above1 and sometimes opposed to1 the conclusions of ordinary reason4 ,thus personalities themselves are divided by religious dualism1 and in them the human and divine are far apart4 ,moreover1 the more great personalities were apotheosized1 the more the common run of humanity was depreciated4 ,then distinction was made between great personalities4 ,at first1 when authority was sought everywhere1 all great personalities were supposed to have divine revelation2 later1 when the lines were drawn between the ,christian and other beliefs1 only the ,christian leaders were considered by the ,christians to be instruments of the divine4 ,this spiritualizing of historical personalities laid the emphasis more than ever before upon the dualism in all human beings4 ,all men are ensnared in the world of sense1 and they can attain knowledge of the higher world only through the illumination of their higher natures4 ,aristotle alone among the ,greeks had had a clear conception of spirituality1 but he had conceived spirituality as applied solely to ,god4 ,he had not conceived ,god to be a person4 ,but the ,stoic antithesis of reason and what is contrary to reason1 and the ,platonic antithesis of the supersensuous and the sensuous1 had marked off in man the inner personal nature of man as withdrawn into itself and set over against his sensuous nature4 ,the more this ethical dualism became a religious dualism1 the more the conception of spiritual personality was extended to all human beings4 ,its most refined expression was in the ,christian conception of the soul4 ,the ,revival of ,platonism4 ,the ,platonism of the ,academy had had little influence in the ,ethical ,period and its tradition had been barely kept alive4 ,the ,middle ,academy had been skeptical and the ,new ,academy eclectic4 ,the ,religious ,period1 on the other hand1 was thoroughly ,platonic1 and ,plato from this time until the ,crusades became the ruling philosophical power4 ,for three hundred years his influence had been nothing2 for the next twelve hundred he dominated men's minds1 so far as any philosopher could in religious times4 ,when the ,wise ,man vanished from philosophy1 and the expectation of spiritual blessedness took its place1 when ,skepticism drove men from ethics1 first to eclecticism and then to theology1 when philosophy passed to mysticismthen did ,platonism1 with its antithesis between the sensible and the supersensible1 come to its own4 ,of all the historical philosophies it could best amalgamate all religions4 ,platonism 7#a7 absorbed ,oriental religions1 7#b7 furnished a didactic form for ,christianity1 7#c7 recreated itself into the mystic neo-,platonism4 ,the world-longing for the supernatural found its best medium in ,platonism4 ,when the ,wise ,man vanished1 the mystic priest appeared4 ,the ,divisions of the ,religious ,period4 ,out of the seething religious times at the beginning of this era1 there emerged two distinct currents of thought that extended through the entire length of the ,religious ,period1 and carried down into the ,middle ,ages all the culture that the medival possessed4 ,the two movements were 7#a7 the religious philosophies of the still persistent ,hellenic civilization1 and 7#b7 the new-born ,christian religion1 which was destined to determine the future of the western people4 ,if we scrutinize these two movements we shall find that each has its introductory and its development stages1 and at the point of division in each stands a great leader who was instrumental in bringing about the transition4 ,the great neo-,platonist1 ,plotinus 7#bjd-bfi71 marks the division line in the ,hellenic movement2 the ,christian1 ,origen 7#ahe-bed71 marks the division line in theological ,christianity4 ,while these men were contemporaries1 we shall take1 for various reasons1 the year #bjj as the date of division of the ,christian movement1 and the year #bej as the date of division of the ,hellenic movement4 ,the first stage of each movement we shall call its ,introductory ,period1 and the second its ,development ,period4 ,during their ,introductory ,periods the two movements tried to draw together under the influence of the philosophical eclecticism which colors this time4 ,in their ,development ,periods the two movements draw apart1 become closed and mutually repellent4 ,the historical developments of the two movements from beginning to end are very different4 ,the tide of ,hellenism floods with ,plotinus1 its greatest representative1 and after him there is a gradual ebb4 ,on the other hand1 ,christianity shows a continuous growth1 both internally and externally1 and the mighty ,origen only points to the mightier ,augustine4 ,both movements finally merge in ,augustine4 ,i4 ,hellenic ,religious ,,ii4 ,christianity4 ,philosophy4 #a4 ,introductory ,period ,introductory ,period 7#ajj ,b4 ,c4-#bej ,a4 ,d474 7#ca ,a4 ,d4-#bjj ,a4 ,d474 7#a7 ,greek-,jewish philosophy 7#a7 ,period of simple faith 7until of ,alexandria4 the #b;d century ,a4 ,d474 ,philo 7#be ,b4 ,c4-#ej ,a4 ,d474 7#b7 ,neo-,pythagoreanism 7#b7 ,period of ,earlier ,formulation 7#ajj ,b4 ,c4-#aej ,a4 ,d474 of ,doctrine4 ,apologists 7#b;d century74 ,gnostics 7#b;d century74 ,old ,catholic ,theologians 7#b;d and #c;d centuries74 #b4 ,development ,period ,development ,period 7#bjj-dgf74 7#bej-dgf74 ,neo-,platonism4 7#a7 ,period of ,actual ,formulation ,plotinus 7#bjd-bfi74 of ,doctrine4 ,jamblichus 7d4 #ccj about74 ,the ,school of ,catechists4 ,proclus 7#daj-dhe74 ,origen 7#ahe-bed74 7#b7 ,the cumenical ,councils and the establishment of dogma4 ,the ,hellenic ,religious ,philosophies4 ,alexandria and not ,athens was now the intellectual centre of ,hellenism4 ,the position and history of the city1 as well as the character of its population1 were most favorable for the mingling of religions and philosophies4 ,in the 8university0 of this great commercial metropolis the treasures of ,greek culture were concentrated and scholastic work was vigorously pursued4 ,here all philosophies met1 and all religions and cults were tolerated4 ,exhausted ,greek philosophy here came in contact with those fresh ,oriental ideas which previously1 at a distance1 had excited the imagination of the ,greeks as something mysterious4 ,the result was a new phase of philosophy1theosophy1 comparative religion1 or eclecticism of philosophy and religion4 ,in no instance were the authors of these religious philosophies ,greeks4 ,the philosophy of ,philo was a ,hellenism1 but the ,hellenism of a ,jew4 ,neo-,pythagoreanism seems to have had representatives from every country except the motherland of ,greece4 ,the author of neo-,platonism was born in ,egypt4 ,of the two introductory movements1 the ,greek-,jewish philosophy accorded more with ,oriental life1 neo-,pythagoreanism with ,greek life4 ,both go back to the principles that were fundamental in the ,pythagorean mysteries4 ,the ,introductory ,period of ,hellenic ,religious ,philosophy 7#ajj ,b4 ,c4-#bej ,a4 ,d474 ,the ,turning to the ,past for ,spiritual ,authority4 #a4 ,the ,greek-,jewish ,philosophy of ,philo4 ,the ,jews lived in great numbers in ,alexandria1 and many of them were wealthy and influential4 ,in ,alexandria the ,old ,testament had been translated into ,greek1 and through it the ,greeks had become acquainted with the religion of the ,jews4 ,while the ,old ,testament contained the philosophy of the ,jews1 these ,alexandrian ,jews had learned in ,alexandria to admire greatly the philosophy of the ,greeks4 ,so great was their admiration that they soon conceived ,plato to be in their ,law and their ,law in ,plato4 ,they argued that since the ,old ,testament was their revelation1 all the best ,greek philosophy must be in the ,old ,testament4 ,the ,alexandrian ,jews used ,greek conceptions wherever they found them2 and this tendency toward eclecticism appeared as early as #afj ,b4 ,c4 in ,aristobulus and ,aristeas4 ,at that time these ,jews used ,greek philosophy in interpreting the ,old ,testament and employed the 8allegorical method of interpretation40 ,this eclectic tendency was brought to completion by ,philo 7#be ,b4 ,c4-#ej ,a4 ,d471 who was the most notable philosopher of this time4 ,philo was guided in his eclecticism by some such rules as these3 7#a7 ,revelation is the highest possible authority and includes the best of ,greek thought2 7#b7 ,greek philosophy is derived from the fundamental principles of the ,old ,testament2 7#c7 ,jewish revelation is expressed in symbols1 while ,greek philosophy is expressed in concepts4 ,philo's teaching contains1 in unsymmetrical form1 both ,stoicism and ,platonism1 and in it can be found the seeds of all that grew up in ,christian soil4 ,his philosophy was a bridge from the philosophy of ,judaism to ,christian theology4 ,it has been called a 8buffer0 philosophy4 ,god is the ultimate cause of the world1 but ,he is so transcendent that ,he can be described only in negative terms4 ,this method of defining ,god got the name in later times of 8negative theology40 ,it was the common method in these ,alexandrian days4 ,god is absolutely inconceivable and inexpressible to man2 to ,himself ,he is 8,i am who am40 ,the goodness of ,god impelled ,him1 and ,his power enabled ,him1 to create the world4 ,from this point of view ,philo is a monist4 ,but in man reason and sense meet4 ,man's soul is from ,god1 but his sense-body is from matter1 and from this point of view ,philo is a dualist4 ,matter is outside ,god4 ,god is so transcendent that ,he cannot come in contact with matter1 and so ,he created the world and rules the world through mediators or 8potencies40 ,these 8potencies0 are the same as the ,ideas of ,plato1 the 8reasons0 of the ,stoics1 the numbers of the ,pythagoreans1 the angels of the ,old ,testament1 or the dmons of popular mythology4 ,the sum-total of ,god's activity in the world was called by ,philo the ,logos4 ,philo speaks of the ,logos in two ways3 sometimes as the plural number of teleological forces in the world2 sometimes as the unity of these forces1 8the first begotten of ,god10 8the second ,god10 8the son of ,god40 ,the ,logos represents the first attempt to overcome the dualism between matter and ,god4 ,the ,logos is the high priest standing between ,god and the world4 ,it is the everlasting revelation of ,god's presence4 ,philo's world is made by ,god and not by others1 and is the expression of ,god's thought in infinite forms and forces4 ,god is not defiled by coming into contact with matter4 ,god gives orders1 the ,logos obeys4 ,philo believed in transmigration of souls1 and to him the most important problem is1 ,how the spirit can become like ,god4 ,the answer is 7#a7 by the acquirement of the ,stoic apathy1 7#b7 by possessing the ,aristotelian dianoetic virtues1 7#c7 by complete absorption in ,god4 #b4 ,neo-,pythagoreanism4 ,the history of ,pythagoreanism is extremely varied4 ,its body of doctrine from epoch to epoch was continually changing4 ,the only characteristic common to its entire history was its practical tendency toward asceticism and its affiliation with the ,mysteries4 ,let us review the history of ,pythagoreanism down to the time of neo-,pythagoreanism4 ,in #eaj ,b4 ,c41 at the battle of ,crotona1 the early band of ,pythagoreans was dispersed1 and about #ejd ,b4 ,c4 ,pythagoras died4 ,his scattered followers formed a school centring at ,thebes around the philosophy of numbers1 and this school lasted until #cej ,b4 ,c4 ,in #cej ,b4 ,c4 ,pythagoreanism no longer existed as a school1 for its members had either joined the ,academy or formed one of the ,mysteries4 ,in #ajj ,b4 ,c4 ,pythagoreanism again emerged under the name of neo-,pythagoreanism1 and this is the body which we meet in the introductory stage of the ,religious ,period4 ,alexandria was its centre1 but it drew its disciples from every part of the earth4 ,among them ,apollonius alone rises as a distinct figure4 ,he was widely known1 for he traveled everywhere as a religious teacher and wonder-worker4 ,other neo-,pythagoreans were ,p4 ,nigidius ,figulus1 a friend of ,cicero1 ,sotion1 a friend of the ,sextians1 ,moderatus of ,gades1 and in later times ,nicomachus of ,gerasa and ,numenius of ,apamea4 ,another1 and rather numerous group1 allied to the neo-,pythagoreans1 should be mentioned here4 ,these were the so-called ,eclectic ,platonists1 the representatives of whom were ,plutarch 7#ej-abe ,a4 ,d471 and ,celsus 7about #bjj ,a4 ,d471 the opponent of ,christianity4 ,the only important difference between the neo-,pythagoreans and the ,eclectic ,platonists was that the former referred to ,pythagoras as their religious model1 and the latter to ,plato4 ,both were mystical1 ascetic1 and eclectic4 ,neo-,pythagoreanism first became noticeable in the first century ,b4 ,c41 on account of the great number of writings appearing under the names of ,pythagoras and ,philolaus4 ,about these there arose a large neo-,pythagorean literature1about ninety treatises by fifty authors4 ,the writings under the name of ,pythagoras were1 for many centuries1 the cause of the misconception of the true teaching of the original ,pythagoras4 ,the advent of the neo-,pythagorean literature marks the return at ,alexandria to the older systems of thought1 and is coincident with the learned literary investigations in the ,university of ,alexandria4 ,the particular revival of ,pythagoreanism in the form of neo-,pythagoreanism came at the same time with the renewal of the ,homeric form of poetry4 ,neo-,pythagoreanism1 as its history shows1 is the philosophy of a half-religious sect with ascetic tendencies4 ,its transcendental philosophy was better suited to a people under an autocratic government1 and ruled by ,oriental traditions1 than was the ethical teaching of the four ,schools4 ,the system of the ethical ,schools arose out of the needs of the individual2 but at this time the cry was for an absolute object which transcends both the individual and nature4 ,the demand was for a god who could be served not by sacrifice1 but by silent prayer1 wisdom1 and virtue4 ,there are many points of similarity between the doctrine of ,philo and neo-,pythagoreanism4 ,the neo-,pythagoreans were monotheistic1 but at the same time they accepted within their monotheism the hierarchy of the gods4 ,they held to the commonly accepted doctrines of their time1 viz41 the transmigration of the soul1 the dualism of the mind and body1 the mediation of a graded series of celestial beings between man and ,god4 ,they interpreted ,god in a spiritual way1 but they conceived the ideas in ,god's mind to be the ,pythagorean numbersjust as ,philo conceived them to be the ,old ,testament angels4 ,the ,development ,period of ,hellenic ,religious ,philosophy 7#bej-dgf ,a4 ,d474 ,the ,turning to the ,present for ,spiritual ,authority4 ,platonism and ,neo-,platonism4 ,neo-,platonism is the final statement of ,hellenic culture1 and the question may be asked1 ,in what form did it present ,hellenism8 ,the answer is1 ,it sets forth the ,hellenic feeling as mysticism4 ,the contribution of ,plotinus was the destruction of the classic ,greek ideal with its definiteness of form1 and was the substitution of a new ideal of soaring spiritual exaltation4 ,one has only to look back to the art1 science1 and philosophy of the ,periclean ,age to appreciate how far this last survival of ,greek culture had drifted from its original moorings4 ,nevertheless1 neo-,platonism is not so very far distant from that powerful ascetic principle in the ,greek mysteries which is one aspect of the doctrine of ,plato himself4 ,neo-,platonism was ,platonism exaggerated on this mystic and ascetic side4 ,plotinus said that he was ashamed that he had a body2 that the soul looks on and weeps at the sinfulness of the body2 that it is not enough to regulate the body1 but that the body must be exterminated4 ,as the voice of ,hellenism1 neo-,platonism is speaking in an age when consciousness is weighed down with the sense of the enormity of evil and the need of salvation4 ,neo-,platonism feels that the moral conflict in the human soul is repeated in the universe2 that the eternal struggle between matter and spirit goes on in the macrocosm as well as the microcosm4 ,plotinus held to the ancient ,greek conception of the personification of the powers of nature1 of the derivation of happiness from activity1 of the supremacy of the intellect over the other faculties4 ,but in accepting the ancient ,greek doctrine of the subordination of man to the universe1 he conceived man to be absorbed by the universe4 ,neo-,platonism and the ,two ,introductory ,philosophies4 ,neo-,platonism1 therefore1 shares in the mysticism of the philosophies of ,philo and the neo-,pythagoreans4 ,all three teach the transcendence of ,god2 all three were metaphysically monistic and ethically dualistic2 all three conceive the existence of intermediaries between ,god and man4 ,the introductory philosophies sought to build eclectic doctrines1 while neo-,platonism became eclectic only in its last phases4 ,plotinus constructed a positive and original philosophy1 and among the three systems the teaching of ,plotinus is carefully worked out4 ,indeed1 ,plotinus is by far the greatest thinker of this religious period4 ,in the philosophy of ,plotinus the relations between man and ,god are given a more sthetic character1 and the doctrine of immediate experience is more carefully discussed and has greater importance than in neo-,pythagoreanism and the teaching of ,philo4 ,neo-,platonism and ,christianity4 ,neo-,platonism and ,christianity have one thing at least in common4 ,they have the same problem1how to spiritualize the universe4 ,this was the problem that both ,plotinus and ,origen attempted to work out4 ,with the development of the consciousness of spiritual personality and the need of a revelation1 the ,divine seemed to both to be correspondingly farther away4 ,god is unknown and incomprehensible1 and so pure that ,he cannot come in contact with earthly existence4 ,what1 then1 is the bond between the heavenly and the earthly8 ,from the point of view of cosmology and of ethics1 neither succeeded in overcoming the dualism4 ,the sensuous was regarded as alien to ,god1 and as a thing from which the spirit must free itself4 ,metaphysically their efforts to construct a spiritual monism were more successful1 but their efforts were along different lines4 ,the ,christian conceived the universe of ,god and matter to be bound together by the principle of love2 the neo-,platonist1 by a series of countless grades of beings in diminishing perfections from the ,all-perfect4 ,then again1 to the neo-,platonist the question of the return of man to ,god was a question of the personal inner experience of the individual2 to the ,christian theologian it was included in the larger problem of the historical process by which the whole human race is redeemed4 ,thus the metaphysical solution of each works out differently and with different factors4 ,both neo-,platonic and ,christian theology tried to prove that their respective religious convictions were the only true source of salvation4 ,both originated in the ,alexandrian ,school4 ,christian theology was preceded by the fantastic system of the ,gnostics1 as ,plotinus was preceded by the ,pythagoreans and ,philo4 ,in their development the differences between the two appear4 ,christianity was supported by a church organization which had an internal vitality and a regulative power2 neo-,platonism was supported and regulated by individuals1 without organization1 who had assimilated every faith4 ,christian theology was founded on a faith that had already expanded1 while neo-,platonism was at the beginning an erudite religion that tried to develop an extended faith and1 incidentally1 later to assimilate other cults4 ,outwardly neo-,platonism1 as the final stand of the pagan world to save itself from destruction1 was unsuccessful in that it failed to perpetuate itself as an organization4 ,really it achieved a marked success4 ,not only did it live a long life of two hundred and fifty years1 but it also lived in the development of its antagonist1 ,christianity4 ,for neo-,platonism1 by the irony of fate1 was one of the important factors that entered into the building up and strengthening of ,christianity4 ,in its lingering death-struggle ,hellenism was creating the conceptions that the ,christian1 ,augustine1 later employed in shaping ,christian theology for the ,middle ,ages4 ,the ,periods of ,neo-,platonism4 7#a7 ,the ,alexandrian ,schoolabout #bdj4 ,neo-,platonism presented as a ,scientific ,theory4 ,the leader was ,plotinus 7#bjd-bfi74 7#b7 ,the ,syrian ,schoolabout #caj4 ,the ,attempt to ,systematize all ,polytheisms4 ,the leader was ,jamblichus 7d4 about #ccj74 7#c7 ,the ,athenian ,schoolabout #dej4 ,the ,recapitulation of ,greek ,philosophy4 ,the leader was ,proclus 7#daj-dhe74 ,the ,alexandrian ,school4 ,the ,scientific ,theory of ,neo-,platonism4 ,the ,life and ,writings of ,plotinus 7#bjd-bfi ,a4 ,d474 ,plotinus was born in ,lycopolis in ,egypt1 and received his education in ,alexandria1 under ,ammonius ,saccas1 who was ,origen's teacher4 ,he campaigned with the emperor1 ,gordian1 against the ,persians1 in order to pursue scientific studies in the ,east4 ,he was especially interested in the ,persian religion4 ,in this way ,plotinus became acquainted at first hand with the mysticism of the ,orient4 ,in #bdd he appeared at ,rome as a teacher1 and was received with great clat by the people1 and in the highest circles he gained the most reverent recognition4 ,his school contained representatives from all nations and from almost every calling1physicians1 rhetoricians1 poets1 senators1 an emperor and empress4 ,plotinus lived in a country estate in ,campania1 and he almost succeeded in inducing the emperor to found a city of philosophers in ,campania4 ,it was to be called ,platonopolis and1 with ,plato's ,republic as a model1 it was to be an ,hellenic cloister for religious contemplation4 ,the literary activity of ,plotinus occurred in his old age1 and he wrote nothing until after he was fifty4 ,his works consisted of fifty-four ,corpuscles which his pupil1 ,porphyry1 combined into six ,enneads4 ,for the next three hundred years his school became the centre of the ,hellenic movementthe centre of science1 philosophy1 and literature4 ,the literature of neo-,platonism was enormous1 on account of the many commentaries on the philosophy of ,plato within the neo-,platonic circle4 ,the ,general ,character of the ,teaching of ,plotinus4 ,there is a great division of opinion about the value of the teaching of ,plotinus1 for he drew his philosophy only in the broadest outlines1 and he made no attempt to advance from a general view of the world to exact knowledge of it4 ,intellectually his philosophy is an abstraction2 and yet emotionally1 in an intimate way1 it touched deeply an age weary with culture4 ,thus one can see how the actual achievement of ,plotinus was small1 but how at the same time its force and influence was very great4 ,it was a religious teaching which rose to magnificent heights of contemplation from miserable intellectual surroundings4 ,nevertheless1 the philosophy of ,plotinus was an extreme form of intellectualismit was an intellectual ennobling and transforming of religion4 ,the earlier philosophy had supported the happiness of the individual by offers of infinitude2 but ,plotinus thought of the individual as never isolated from the ,infinite1 but as always longing for the ,infinite4 ,fellowship with ,god is knowledge of ,him1 but it is knowledge of a peculiar kind4 ,it is enthusiasm1 intuition1 ecstasy4 ,there is a chasm between man and ,god1 which ,plotinus would bridge by placing reality so deeply within consciousness as to annihilate all antitheses and contradictions4 ,thus this deep reality below consciousness is cosmic and not human2 and the religion of ,plotinus is cosmocentric and not anthropocentric4 ,plotinus intensifies and summarizes ,greek culture in order to consolidate and defend it4 ,but in thus thinking out the ,greek conceptions to their logical completeness1 those conceptions collapse4 ,the ,mystic ,god4 ,there are two characteristics that distinguish the mystic ,god of ,plotinus4 #a4 ,the first characteristic is the supra-consciousness of ,god4 ,god is the indefinable1 original ,being who is above all antitheses4 ,he is supra-everything1 even supra-conscious4 ,nothing can be attributed to ,him1 not even thought or will1 for these imply two elements and ,god is a unity4 ,any description of ,him must be in negative terms 78negative theology074 ,if we speak of ,him as the ,one1 the ,first1 the ,cosmic ,cause1 ,goodness1 or as ,light1 we are only relatively and not really describing ,him4 ,god is present in all1 yet ,he is not divided2 ,he is the source of all1 and yet ,he himself is perfectly finished4 ,in his conception of ,god as compared to the world1 ,plotinus added the realm of the supra-conscious and the sub-conscious to the conscious4 #b4 ,in the second place ,plotinus conceived ,god in ,his relation to the world in the terms of dynamic pantheism4 ,this is a pantheism of a peculiar type4 ,god does not create the world2 the world is not the act of ,his will2 nor is the world the result of a transference of part of ,his nature4 ,in ordinary pantheism the world is a diffusion of the substance of ,god and the whole is static4 ,not so in the teaching of ,plotinus6 ,god permeates the world by ,his activity1 and the world is dynamic through and through4 ,but this dynamic activity of ,god must not be conceived as an historical or time process4 ,the process is timeless4 ,it is a process of essence or worth4 ,the grades in the process are those of significance or value4 ,all are within the all-embracing unity of ,god and each particular draws its life from ,him4 ,this is called the theory of emanations4 ,plotinus used the figure which mystics have always employed in this connection1the figure of the sun and its rays of light in the darkness4 ,the rays become less and less intense with the increasing distance from the ,godhead1 until they end in darkness4 ,the process is an overflowing from the ,godhead in which the ,godhead remains unchanged4 ,the ,two ,problems of ,plotinus4 ,starting with this conception of the ,godhead as a dynamic contentless ,being1 ,plotinus is bound to explain the world of sense-phenomena4 ,his problem is twofold3 he must explain the sequence of phenomena from the ,godhead1 which is the metaphysical problem2 he must explain how man1 living in the world of sense1 can rise to communion with the ,godhead1 which is the ethical problem4 ,metaphysics and ethics are to ,plotinus in inverted parallelism4 ,the ,world of ,emanations4,the ,metaphysical ,problem of ,plotinus4 ,the aim of ,plotinus in this is to construct a metaphysical monism out of the dualistic factors which had so long been present in ,greek thought4 ,the two fundamental principles upon which he raised his structure were 7#a7 his dynamic series of emanations1 and 7#b7 his conception of matter as entirely negative4 ,the highest ,being1 ,god1 by an excess of energy or goodness1 has the natural impulse to create something similar to himself4 ,this creative impulse exists in each creature in turn and the movement propagates itself4 ,stage is added to stage in a descending series1 until the impulse dies out in non-,being as the limit4 ,the ordinary pantheism of co-existence of phenomena is transformed into a succession of stages of values1 and all make up a harmony of more or less distinct copies of ,god4 ,there are three steps in which the process of emanation proceeds1spirit1 soul1 and matter4 ,the ,spirit or ,nous is the first emanation from the ,one in point of significance4 ,it is the image of the ,one sent forth by its overflow of energy4 ,this image involuntarily turns toward its original1 the ,one1 and in beholding it becomes ,spirit1 ,nous1 or intellectual consciousness4 ,it turns to the ,one and recognizes itself as the image of the ,one4 ,thus1 in the first degree away from ,god1 the duality of thinker as subject1 and of the thing thought as object1 appears4 ,the unconsciousness of the ,one is thus contrasted with consciousness1 and the dual nature of consciousness is thus brought out2 and for the first time an exact formulation of the psychological conception of consciousness is given4 ,the ,nous is a unitary function of the ,one1 like the ,logos of ,philo4 ,at the same time the ,nous contains within itself1 as content1 the ,platonic ,ideas or arch-types of individuals4 ,these ,ideas are not mere thoughts1 but have their own existence4 ,the ,nous is their unity1 however1 just as a unity exists for the theorems of a science4 ,these ,ideas are pure intellectual potencies and the final causes of the world of nature4 ,the ,soul is the second degree removed from the ,one4 ,it stands in the same relation to the ,nous as the ,nous to the ,godhead4 ,the ,soul belongs to the world of light1 but it stands just on the boundaries of the world of darkness4 ,it is the image of an image and therefore doubly dual1it consists of a higher or world-soul and the lesser souls4 ,the world-soul is divided into two forces1the formative power of the world1 and the body of the world4 ,individual souls are divided into the supersensible or intellectual soul 7the part that has pre-existence and undergoes metamorphosis71 and the sensible part which has built up the body as an instrument of its working power4 ,the soul is present in all parts of its body4 ,the individual souls are called plastic forces4 ,matter is the emanation which is most distant from the ,one4 ,the ,nous is the emanation of the ,one1 the world-soul is the emanation from the ,nous1 individual souls are a kind of intermediate emanation from the world-soul1 and matter is the emanation of the individual souls4 ,that is to say1 the world-soul1 with the forces that are native to it1 generates matter and then1 by uniting itself through its forces with matter1 produces the world of corporeal things4 ,what is the character of matter with which the world-soul forms this union8 ,it is space4 ,space conditions all earthly existence4 ,it is the same as ,plato's conception of the absolutely negative non-,being and the merely possible4 ,it is absolute sterility1 entirely evil and devoid of good4 ,matter has no dualistic independence of the ,one4 ,what is the character of the nature world8 ,it has the same character and quality as the formative forces that unite with this negative matterit is no more and no less eternal4 ,the world of nature to ,plotinus is one of magic1 and not merely teleological4 ,he says that the heavens are the union of a perfect soul with matter2 the stars are the visible gods united with matter2 the powers of the air and sky are dmons1 which mediate between the stars and the souls of men1 united with matter2 the body of man is the human soul united with matter2 inorganic nature is the lowest of the plastic forces united with matter4 ,wherever there is matter 7space71 there is found imperfection and limitation and evil4 ,man as an individual is sympathetically and mysteriously bound to all parts of the universe4 ,scientific investigation of nature is entirely ruled out by this neo-,platonic teaching4 ,it never could be the instrument for penetrating a magical universe4 ,faith and superstition take the place of science1 and prophecy alone undertakes to solve nature's riddle4 ,the world of nature is thus broken in two4 ,in one sense it is bad1 ugly1 and irrational4 ,in another sense it is good1 beautiful1 and rational1 because it is formed by the souls that enter into it4 ,in opposition to the ,gnostics ,plotinus praised the harmony and beauty of the world1 and promulgated his metaphysics of the beautiful as a last farewell of ,hellenic civilization4 ,beauty is not composite1 but the simple ,idea of worth shining through the world of sense4 ,beauty is from the inner and for the inner4 ,art does not imitate nature1 but expresses the reason2 it supplements the defects of nature and creates something new4 ,yet the world of nature is beautiful1 because down to the lowest deeps it is permeated by the divine4 ,the ,return of the ,soul to ,god4,the ,ethical ,problem of ,plotinus4 ,in his discussion of moral conduct ,plotinus started from the point opposite to that of his metaphysics4 ,he looked from the point of view of man up the series which descended from the ,godhead4 ,men immersed in matter have nevertheless a share in the divine life1 and their goal is independence of the world4 ,they must free themselves from sense4 ,man's ethical task is to separate the two worlds and to turn away from the material1 not only in its abnormalities but in every way4 ,the practical virtues have little value in such a sublimation of the soul1 for these only bind the soul more closely to the world of matter4 ,the political virtues are only a preparation by which the soul learns how to be free from sense4 ,the intellectual virtues are necessary1 but the goal of salvation is not reached by knowledge alone4 8,the wizard king builds his tower of speculation by the hands of human workmen till he reaches the top story1 and then he summons his genii to fashion the battlements of adamant and crown them with starry fire40 ,out of the mental condition of contemplation the soul will rise on the wings of ecstasy to the ,god from whom it came4 ,the call of ,plotinus is to the ascetic life4 ,the development required is that of spirituality4 ,ethically ,plotinus' doctrine is dualistic1 because it requires the rejection of matter as evil4 ,the return is not an evolution nor an innovation in which reform of the old world is demanded4 ,there is no individual progress1 but a penetration into the foundation of things4 ,but what incentive has man to undertake this return8 ,what arouses him from his sleep8 ,not sense-perception nor reflection1 but his love for the beautiful4 ,the innate impulse of ,platonic love turns the soul away from matter to the illuminating ,idea4 ,he who has an immediate recognition of the pure ,idea is gaining the higher perfection4 ,only when man is in ecstasyan ecstasy which transcends every subjective statedoes he get complete contact and union with ,god4 ,in such a moment of consecration he forgets himself and becomes ,god4 ,this final step never comes unless ,god himself illuminates the soul by a special light so that it can see ,god4 ,this final state comes only to few souls1 and to those but seldom4 ,the ,syrian ,school4,the ,systematizing of ,polytheisms4,jamblichus4 ,this school existed about a generation after the death of ,plotinus4 ,its founder was ,jamblichus 7d4 about #ccj71 whose teacher was ,porphyry1 the pupil of ,plotinus4 ,jamblichus was a ,syrian1 who got his instruction from ,porphyry at ,rome1 and then went back to his native country to set up for himself a school of neo-,platonism4 ,he soon became reverenced as teacher1 religious reformer1 and worker of miracles4 ,he wrote commentaries on ,plato1 ,aristotle1 and the theological works of the ,orphics1 ,chaldeans1 and the ,pythagoreans4 ,among the crowd of his enthusiastic disciples1 one notes the names of the ,emperor ,julian and ,hypatia4#dc ,the neo-,platonism of ,jamblichus contained no new point of view4 ,metaphysically and ethically his teaching was identical with that of ,plotinus4 ,he tried to complete the religious movement by cordinating all cults1 excepting ,christianity1 into a unity4 ,this was an eclecticism by which ,jamblichus came naturally1 for ,syria was a land where eclecticism thrived4 ,it was here that ,gnosticism had its stronghold4 ,with free eclectic hand ,jamblichus filled in all the intermediary grades between the ,godhead and man with the multitude of gods of all religions4 ,in his system he placed #aj supra-terrestrial gods1 #cfe celestial beings1 #gb orders of sub-celestial beings1 and #db orders of natural gods4 ,to find places for them all1 he had to increase the number of intermediaries2 and to systematize this complex polytheism1 he employed the ,pythagorean numbers4 ,his theory shows how persistent was the ,hellenic civilization4 ,the ,athenian ,school4,recapitulation4,proclus4 ,the ,syrian school failed to restore the old religions1 and we find neo-,platonism1 after revivals here and there1 again at ,athens4 ,the city that had been the original sanctuary of ,greek culture was the last stronghold of ,hellenism4 ,the ,athenian school made its appearance about #daj1 and its leading representatives were ,plutarch1 ,syrianus1 and ,proclus4 ,proclus 7#daj-dhe71 the pupil of ,syrianus1 was the most important representative of the ,athenian school1 and he may be said to have uttered the last word of dying ,hellenism4 ,born at ,constantinople1 of a ,lycian family1 he received his education at ,alexandria2 and when he became leader of the school at ,athens1 he received the extravagant worship of his pupils4 ,connected with the ,athenian school were the great commentators1 ,philoponus and ,simplicius1 whose works on ,aristotle became of great value to later times4 ,their erudite compilations stand out sharply against the imaginative speculations of their age4 ,in connection with this school ,bothius must not be overlooked4 ,he was a neo-,platonist who called himself a ,christian1 and he was an important figure in the history of education4 ,his translations and expositions of ,aristotle's logic and of the ,isagoge of ,porphyry were very influential in the ,middle ,ages4 ,proclus was a theologian like ,jamblichus1 excepting that he tried to put theology upon a philosophical basis4 ,by means of the dialectic he sought to systematize the entire philosophical thought of the ,greeks4 ,his insatiable desire for faith was accompanied by wonderful dialectical ability1 with the result that his teaching was an intricate formalism united with mythology4 ,he carried out his dialectical plans to the minutest detail4 ,he drew the materials of his system from both barbarians and ,greeks1 and he himself had been initiated into all the ,mysteries4 ,every superstition of the past and present influenced him1 and in framing a universal system he did not feel satisfied until every transmitted doctrine had found a place in that system4 ,he was the systematizer of paganism and its scholastic4 ,he conceived that the fundamental problem was that of the ,one and the ,many1 and that the ,one is related to the ,many in three stages1permanence1 going-forth1 and return4 ,the ,many as a manifold effect is similar to the unity of the original cause and yet different from it4 ,development is the striving of the effect to return to the original cause1 and this strife for a return to ,god was illustrated by ,proclus in every realm of life1 and he repeated it again and again in application to every detail4 ,he conceived that the development of the world from the ,godhead was continually going through this triad system of change4 ,his philosophy1 however1 shows no originality other than being an ingenious formal classification in which every polytheism found a place4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,patristics4,,the ,,hellenizing ,,of ,,the ,,gospel ,the ,early ,situation of ,christianity4 ,the ,orient was the source of the ,gospel1 as of the other religions of this time4 ,the power of ,christianity lay in the spontaneous force of its pure religious feeling1 with which it entered the lists for the conquest of the world4 ,christianity was not a philosophy1 but a religion4 ,it appealed to a different class than did the ,alexandrian schools4 ,the lower class received it first1 and so the questions of science and philosophy occupied the early ,christians but little4 ,they were neither the friends nor the foes of ,hellenism1 and they took no interest in political theories4 ,the ,christian society was a spiritual cosmopolitanism1 which was inspired and united by belief in ,god1 faith in ,christ1 and in immediate communion with ,christ4 ,conviction of the ,second ,coming of the ,lord determined the conduct of the early ,christians4 ,indeed1 that moral reformation and moral conduct were the dominating aims of the ,christian communities is proved by the following facts3 the documents dealing with ,christian life of that time are almost wholly moral2 the discipline upon the members was for moral and not doctrinal reasons4 ,still these early ,christians had some simple doctrines1 which were seemingly taken for granted2 and the danger is1 to conceive the early ,christians as either 7#a7 too simple or 7#b7 too ignorant4 ,they believed that there is one ,god1 that man has personal relations to ,god1 that history has a dramatic course1 that right was ,god's command and absolutely different from wrong1 that the ,last ,judgment would surely come4 ,but about the middle of the second century ,christianity was obliged to change its attitude towards both science and the ,state4 ,between #aej and #bej a great change took place among the ,christians4 ,the documentary records are full of doctrinal struggles1 so that little room was left for recording the struggles for moral purity4 ,morality became subordinated to belief1 and the intellectual side of ,christianity was emphasized at the expense of the ethical4 ,the ,second ,coming of our ,lord was less emphasized4 ,this doctrine was either pushed into the background or its realization was looked upon as not immediate4 ,furthermore1 the ,christian sect had spread over the empire and had come into positive relations both with circles of culture and with political affairs4 ,various statistics of the numerical growth of the ,christians are given2 among them is the following statement3 in #cj ,a4 ,d4 they numbered #ejj1 in #ajj ,a4 ,d4 #ejj1jjj1 in #caa ,a4 ,d4 #cj1jjj1jjj4 ,in the second century the self-justification of ,christianity could no longer be put upon the basis of the feelings and inner convictions4 ,it must justify itself to the world without1 and to its own cultured communicants as well4 ,it was being attacked by philosophy1 and1 unless its own further growth were to be thwarted1 it found that it must use the weapons of philosophy4 ,its increase of power antagonized both the ,roman state and ,hellenistic culture1 and from #aej to #cjj the fight between ,christianity and the old world of things was to the death4 ,christianity eventually conquered ,rome and ,hellenism2 but this would have been impossible if it had maintained its original attitude of indifference to culture4 ,its success was due to the wisdom that it has since so often shown4 ,it adapted itself to its new situation by taking over and making its own the culture of the old world1 and by fighting the old world with that culture4 ,christianity thereby shaped its own constitution into such strength that it could obtain possession of the state with ,constantine in #cjj4 ,from this impregnable political position1 it was able to deal with its rivals on an entirely different footing4 ,when old ,rome fell in #dgf1 the church did not fall with it1 but on the contrary it came into possession of the city4 ,but this political success was the result and not the cause of the growth of ,christianity4 ,it could never have conquered so intrenched a government as ,rome1 if it had not first been victorious over the more persistent civilization of ,greece4 ,it made itself inherently strong by ,hellenizing itselfstrong both for polemical and for constructive purposes4 ,but it is obvious that little philosophical originality may be expected during this period4 ,when the church fathers began to employ ,hellenistic philosophy1 they took it on the whole as they found it4 ,they varied it only to suit their own legitimate purposes4 ,christianity entered the religious controversies of the time when victory would belong to the sect which could use ,greek civilization most effectively in defending itself against the hostility of other religions1 and in constantly renewing the confidence of its devotees4 ,but in the adoption of ,hellenistic culture the church created a new danger to itself4 ,it must guard its own conceptions lest they be smothered by this same ,hellenism4 ,it must keep its fundamental beliefs in their integrity4 ,greek philosophy must be a servant so constrained as to bring out only the implicit meaning of the fundamental ,christian doctrines4 ,philosophy must not corrupt these doctrines and transmute them into ,hellenism4 ,the simple faith of the first century and its doctrines must be so formulated by ,hellenic wisdom that it would be stated for all time4 ,the church needed a dogmatic system1 a creed that could forestall any future innovations4 ,the long series of cumenical councils of the church1 beginning with the ,council of ,nica in #cbe1 were united efforts in this direction4 ,after that first council1 dogma became more gradually fixed and1 from time to time1 this and that group of men were separated from the church as heretical4 ,patristics is this philosophical secularizing of the ,gospel which accompanied the internal and external development of the church body during the two or three centuries after the year #aej ,a4 ,d4 ,the ,philosophies influencing ,christian ,thought4 ,the ,greek philosophies most influential upon the development of ,christian doctrine were ,stoicism and neo-,platonism4 ,the philosophy of ,philo was also influential1 but it was really only a bridge from philosophical ,judaism to ,christian theology4 ,it contained both ,stoicism and ,platonism in an unsymmetrical form1 and ,philo's writings 8contain the seeds of nearly all that afterwards grew up on ,christian soil40#dd ,greek philosophical influence upon the early ,christian world was felt in two ways3 in ethical theory and practice2 in the construction of theology4 ,during the fourth century ,stoic ethics of a ,cynic type replaced the early ,christian ethics4 ,the basis of ,christian society was no longer the ethics of the ,sermon on the ,mount1 but rather that of ,roman ,stoicism4 ,this is shown by the character of that book on morals 7,de ,officiis ,ministrorum7 by ,st4 ,ambrose1 ,bishop of ,milan 7#cdj-cig74 ,in theology the ,christian doctrine had no need to borrow from the ,greeks the conception of the unity of ,god or that of the creation of the world by ,god4 ,but the ,greek influence is seen in the doctrines on subjects allied to these3 mainly on the questions of the mode of creation and the relation of ,god to the material world4 ,in the discussion of these questions the influence of the ,stoic monism1 tending toward dualism1 and the influence of ,platonic dualism1 tending toward a threefold conception of ,god1 ,matter1 and ,form1 will appear in the examples which subsequently follow4 ,the most formidable opponent of ,christianity during this time was neo-,platonism1 but neo-,platonism and ,christianity were not1 however1 long separated4 ,although neo-,platonism met its fate at the hands of scholasticism1 it influenced in a thousand ways both orthodox and heretical ,christianity4 ,the rivalry of these two bodies endedand with it came the ending of the ,hellenic-,roman period of philosophyin a complete and original theology4 ,this was the theology of ,st4 ,augustine1 who marks the end of antiquity and the beginning of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the ,periods of ,early ,christianity 7#cj ,a4 ,d4-#dgf ,a4 ,d474 #a4 ,introductory ,period1 #cj-bjj4 7#a7 ,period of ,primitive ,faith 7during the #ast century ,a4 ,d474 ,with great simplicity of doctrine and ceremonies the ,christians were preparing through faith and the practice of virtue for the ,second ,coming of our ,lord4 7#b7 ,period of the ,earlier ,formulation and ,defense of ,christian ,doctrine 7during the #b;d century ,a4 ,d474 7a7 ,the ,apologists 7#b;d century74 7b7 ,the ,gnostics 7#b;d century74 7c7 ,the ,old ,catholic ,theologians 7#b;d and #c;d centuries74 #b4 ,development ,period 7#bjj-dgf74 7#a7 ,the ,period of ,actual ,formulation of ,doctrine 7#bjj-cbe74 ,the ,catechetical ,school of ,alexandria,origen 7#c;d century74 7#b7 ,the ,period of the ,establishment of ,dogma 7#cbe-modern times7 as seen in the ,council of ,nica and other cumenical councils4 ,it was a period in which church dogma was developed on the basis of doctrine already established4 ,while the origin and development of the ,christian church is an interesting story in itself1 only one aspect of it is germane to the history of philosophy4 ,that is the influence of ,hellenism upon the formation of the theology of the church4 ,the origin and development of the church organization lies beyond our field4 ,also the periods before the influence of ,hellenismthe ,period of ,primitive ,faith during the first century1 and the period after dogma had become well established1 the time after the ,council of ,nica in #cbewill be omitted from our discussion here4 ,only the period of the ,earlier ,formulation and that of the ,actual ,formulation of ,doctrine1 that is1 the one hundred and seventy-five years 7#aej-cbe71 are of interest to us4 ,this time is known in history by the name of the period of ,patristics4 ,the ,apologists4 ,only such ,christians as were trained in ,greek philosophy could rally to the first defense of the ,christian doctrine4 ,the new faith was1 on the one hand1 on the defensive against the mockery of ,greek wisdom1 and1 on the other hand1 it was obliged to take a positive stand to show that it was the fulfillment of the human need of salvation4 ,the ,apologists tried to make the ,christian teaching as consistent as possible with the results of ,greek philosophy and1 at the same time1 to read into ,greek philosophy ,christian meanings4 ,they did not at all intend to ,hellenize the ,gospel1 but they wanted to make it seem a rational one to the cultured world4 8,christianity is philosophy and revelation4 ,this is the thesis of every ,apologist from ,aristides to ,minucius ,felix40#de ,their very act of defense was unintentionally the first step toward the incorporation of ,greek philosophy as a part of ,christian teaching4 ,the most important ,apologists were ,justin ,martyr 7#ajj-aff71 ,athenagoras 7d4 #ahj71 and among the ,romans ,minucius ,felix 7about #bjj7 and ,lactantius 7d4 #cbj74 ,the life of ,justin ,martyr is characteristic4 ,he was born in ,sichem1 ,samaria1 but was ,greek in origin and education4 ,having investigated several systems of philosophy and religion1 he came to the conclusion that the ,christian religion was the only true philosophy1 and he died in defense of it at ,rome4 ,to prove that ,christianity is the only true philosophy1 the ,apologists asserted that it alone guaranteed correct knowledge and true holiness here and hereafter4 ,they proclaimed its preminence because it is a perfect revelation of ,god through ,jesus ,christ4 ,since man is imprisoned in the world of the senses and ruled by dmons1 he can never be saved except through a perfect revelation4 ,to be saved is to become rational1 and man can become rational only by divine aid4 ,revelation has not been restricted to ,christianity1 but ,god's inspiration has been at work in all mankind4 ,the truth in ,socrates1 ,plato1 and ,pythagoras has not been their own1 but has sprung from this same divine inspiration1 for truth never is the product of man's unaided reason4 ,socrates and ,plato got their truth in part from ,god's direct revelation to them1 in part indirectly from reading the works of ,moses and the prophets4 ,but revelation outside of ,christianity has not been complete nor continuous4 ,the first perfect revelation was in ,jesus ,christ1 for ,he is the first to reveal the divine ,logos completely4 ,he is the first in whom the ,logos has become man4 ,he is the ,son of ,god because the complete essence of the inexpressible ,deity is unfolded in ,him4 ,the ,apologists thus identified reason and revelation4 ,the ,logos is the same in revelation1 nature1 or history4 ,the ,stoic conception of the ,logos1 which ,philo had stripped of its materialistic character1 was identified with ,christ and revelation4 ,justin could regard as inspired what the ,greeks had looked upon as natural in their own doctrines4 ,christ is the world-reason1 in whom the divine has been incarnated1 and the ,apologists had the enormous advantage over the neo-,platonists of being able to point to ,jesus as the definite and historical incarnation of ,god4 ,the ,apologists could summon the prevailing ,platonic dualism of ,god and matter to their aid in showing the need of such a revelation2 for matter is altogether without reason and goodness4 ,thus a summary of their doctrine is as follows3 the world is bad and needs a revelation2 the ,logos of ,god has always been present in history1 but has especially appeared in ,jesus ,christ1 the man1 in order to redeem men from their sin and establish the kingdom of ,god4 ,the ,gnostics4 ,gnosticism is the name applied to a movement of hostile reconstruction of ,old ,testament tradition instead of a spiritual interpretation of it4 ,it was a great syncretic movement in the second and third centuries1 which sought to form a world religion in which men should be rated on the basis of what they intellectually and morally knew4 ,the ,gnostics tried to transform the ,christian faith in a large way into knowledge that would still be ,christian2 and their efforts show how strong the philosophical interest among the ,christians was beginning to be4 ,the conditions for the development of such a doctrine as ,gnosticism were everywhere present in the empire1 yet two principal centres are pointed out3 one at ,alexandria and the other in ,syria4 ,gnosticism was a most fanciful mixture of ,oriental and ,occidental cults and mythologies1 very much more fantastic than either neo-,pythagoreanism or neo-,platonism4 ,it was a philosophy in which the essential ,christian principles were lost under the weight of esoteric knowledge4 ,the ,gnostics themselves were steeped in ,hellenic culture1 and in many localities formed only bands of ,mysteries4 ,they finally lost all sympathy with the ,christians1 and were classed as heretics by the church4 ,the leading ,gnostics were ,saturninus1 ,carpocrates 7about #acj71 ,basilides1 ,valentinus 7about #afj71 and ,bardesanes 7#aee-bbe74 ,only a few fragments of their many writings remain1 and about all that we know of their doctrines is what their opponents say of them4 ,valentinus1 the most notable1 was born at ,rome and died at ,cyprus4 ,bardesanes was born in ,mesopotamia4 ,carpocrates lived at ,alexandria and was a contemporary of ,basilides1 who was a ,syrian4 ,the records of their careers are very meagre4 ,the ,gnostics were the first philosophers of history4#df ,they undertook to make ,christianity a world religion by conquering ,hellenic culture for ,christianity and ,christianity for ,hellenic culture4 ,the only way they could do this was by dislodging ,christianity from its historical anchorage in the ,old ,testament4 ,the ,gnostics were in open hostility to ,judaism4 ,they transformed every ethical problem into a cosmological problem1 they regarded human history as the continuation of natural history1 they viewed the ,redemption as the last act in the cosmic drama4 ,this shows how closely related their teaching was to that of ,philo and ,plotinus and how consistent with the theoretic spirit of the time4 ,since the salvation of the world by ,christ stands as the central point of their philosophy of history1 their philosophy of history amounted to a philosophy of ,christian history4 ,the victory of ,christianity over paganism and ,judaism was conceived allegorically by the ,gnostics as the battle of the gods of these religions4 ,the ,redeemer was then conceived to appear at the psychological moment and to win the victory2 and this appearance of ,christ as ,redeemer is not only the highest point in the development of the human race1 but it is the dnouement in the drama of the universe4 ,nature was therefore conceived by them to be a battle-ground of the gods and the strife to be waged between the forces of good and evil4 ,the good gets the victory by means of ,christ4 ,the battle was conceived in the neo-,pythagorean form of the dualism of matter and spirit1 but was expressed in mythical terms4 ,the heathen gods and the god of the ,old ,testament1 who took the form of the ,platonic demiurge1 were the powers in the world which the highest ,god had to overcome4 ,the dualism of good and evil was conceived to be the same as between spirit and matter1 and was elaborated in a fashion true to the ,alexandrian school4 ,the space between ,god and matter was conceived to be filled in by a whole race of dmons and angels1 arranged according to the ,pythagorean numbers4 ,the lowest was so far from the divine perfectness as to be in touch with matter1 and he is the demiurge who formed the world4 ,the battle then was between good and evil1 light and darkness1 until the ,logos1 the ,nous1 ,christ1 the most perfect of the intermediary beings1 came down and by incarnation released from matter the imprisoned spirits of men and even of the fallen angels1 like the demiurge4 ,this is1 in brief1 the ,gnostic explanation of history4 ,this dualism was quite consistent with contemporary ,christian ethics1 which had then become ,stoic4 ,but this dualism was not consistent with monotheism1 the fundamental ,christian principle4 ,the internal danger in ,patristicsof swamping the fundamentals of ,christianity through ,hellenizing themappears thus early4 ,the early ,christian found at the beginning an antagonism between his fundamental monotheistic metaphysics and ,greek dualistic ethics4 ,the ,reaction against ,gnosticism4,the ,old ,catholic ,theologians4 ,we have seen that the original position of the ,christians was one of indifference to both politics and philosophy2 that then came the employment of ,hellenism in the defense of the ,gospel4 ,this resulted in the extreme attempt of the ,gnostics to transform ,christianity into a factor in a cosmic theosophy4 ,gnosticism had tried to capture the new religion by force and make it subserve the interests of ,hellenic and ,oriental philosophy4 ,this danger was averted only after years of controversy4 ,gnosticism was the gravest danger that the early church had to meet1 and the ,gnostics left their mark upon the church1 although they were expelled2 for the church never returned to its original simplicity of doctrine4 ,gnosticism1 however1 produced an extreme reaction1 for a time1 against the use of philosophy1 and was represented by the 8,old ,catholic ,theologians10,irenus 7#adj-bjj71 ,tertullian 7#afj-bbj71 and ,hippolytus4 ,these theologians stood against turning faith into a science and tried to limit dogma to the articles of the baptismal confession interpreted as a rule of faith4 ,tatian 7#agj7 saw in ,hellenism the work of the devil4 ,irenus conceived a unity in the process of creation and redemption1creation as a divine method of bringing humanity up into the church by way of redemption4 ,tertullian went so far as to affirm that the ,gospel is confirmed by its being in a certain sense contradictory to reason4 ,credo quia absurdum4 ,by this he means1 not that faith rests in things absurd1 but that faith rests in things so far above reason as to make reason absurd4 ,this reaction was against ,gnosticism and not against rationalism1 for these men used both philosophy and tradition to support their arguments4 ,the reaction against a systematic theology failed to establish itself1 for the need of ,greek philosophy was found to be necessary4 ,the result was that a median position was taken by the help of ,greek philosophy in the formulation of the dogma of the church4 ,this was scientifically stated by the ,alexandrian ,school of ,catechists1 of which ,clement and ,origen were the leaders4 ,origen 7#ahe-bed7 and the ,school of ,catechists4 ,origen1 whose surname was ,adamantine1 was an early teacher in the ,school of ,catechists1 which had been under the direction of ,clement4 ,like ,plotinus1 ,origen had been a pupil of ,ammonius ,saccas4 ,origen endured much persecution on account of his teaching1 and had to flee from ,alexandria to ,csarea and ,tyre1 where he spent his old age4 ,he was the most influential theologian of the ,eastern church1 and he was the father of ,christian theological science4 ,in manner of life ,origen was a ,christian2 in his thought he was a ,greek4 ,he was the ,christian ,philo1 although he was a rival to the neo-,platonic philosophers4 ,his ,christian theology competed with the philosophical systems of his time4 ,it was founded on both ,testaments1 and it also united in a peculiar way toward a practical end the theology of both the ,apologists and the ,gnostics4 ,he was convinced that ,christianity could be expressed only as a science1 and that any form of ,christianity without scientific expression is not clear to itself4 ,although the church was offended at some of his doctrines1 it made his philosophical principle and his theory of development its own4 ,in trying to state ,christianity in terms of intellectual knowledge1 ,origen did not make the mistake of burying its principles under philosophy or mythology1 as was the case with the ,gnostics4 ,the ,gnostics had created a new ,christianity2 ,origen developed ,christianity from within itself4 ,he was an orthodox traditionalist1 a strong ,biblical theologian and idealistic philosopher4 ,he maintained that there were several ways of interpreting the ,scriptures 7allegorical interpretation74 ,the masses see only the somatic or outward meaning as it has been developed in history4 ,a deeper or moral interpretation gives a psychical meaning to the ,gospel truth4 ,more profound still is the spiritual interpretation1 which gives to the ,gospels a pneumatic or spiritually esoteric meaning4 ,christianity is superior to all other religions because it is a religion for all classes1 even for the common man4 ,christianity is the only religion which1 without being polytheistic1 can have its truth in mythical dress4 ,the aim of ,origen was less to show how the world came to be1 than to justify the ways of ,god to men in the world's creation and history4 ,the central principle in his teaching is spiritual monotheism4 ,god is an unchanging spirit1 the author of all things1 and ,he transcends human knowledge4 ,what distinguishes ,him most is the absolute causality of ,his will4 ,he is essentially creative1 and this creative activity is co-eternal with ,himself4 ,god can have no dealings with changing individuals directly1 since although creative ,he is unchanging4 ,he has direct connection only with the eternal revelation of ,his own image1 the ,logos4 ,the ,logos is a person1 a special hypostasis1 the perfect likeness of ,god with nothing corporeal about him4 ,he is not the ,god1 but still ,god1 yet a second ,god1 with no sharing of divinity4#dg ,the ,holy ,spirit bears the same relation to the ,logos as the ,logos to the ,father4 ,in his relation to the world the ,logos is the ,idea of ,ideas1 the norm according to which things are created4 ,origen followed ,philo in believing that the original creation consists of a world of beings that are pure intelligences1 and that the cause of creation is ,god's goodness4 ,he further believed that the ,logos or ,wisdom of ,god is ,god's ,son4 ,both the creation of the ideal world of intelligences and the existence of the ,son is from eternity4 ,the origin of the visible world is to be contrasted with this eternal creation4 ,the visible world had its beginning in time and is only one of a series of worlds4 ,it will finally return to ,god1 and has in ,god its beginning and end4 ,thus man lives in a visible world of time with eternities on either side4 ,creation1 viewed as a whole1 is everlasting1 and consists of an endless number of beings who are destined to become a part of the divine holiness and to participate in the divine blessedness4 ,these beings are endowed with freedom of will1 and they fall away from ,god4 ,the visible world of matter has been created to purify the fallen spirits1 and in consequence we find materialized spirits graded into angels1 stars1 mankind1 and evil dmons4 ,in his emphasis on the will as the fundamental mental part of man1 ,origen is distinctly ,christian and opposed to ,greek intellectualism4 ,the will of ,god and the will of man form the corner stone in his system4 ,the will of ,god is the eternal development of ,his being1 but the will of spirits is their temporal free choice4 ,the will of ,god is reality itself2 the will of spirits is phenomenal and changing4 ,freedom of the will of the spirits is the ground of their sin1 and consequently of their materiality4 ,thus it is by the freedom of the spirits that ,origen explains evil and the existence of imperfect matter without impeaching the eternal purity of ,god4 ,origen thus reconciled the ethical transcendence of ,god as creator with his immanence in the material world4 ,god is the creator without being the creator of sin4 ,through the conception of free-will ,origen reconciled the two antithetical principles of ,christian metaphysics3 faith in divine omnipotence and consciousness of sin4 ,the function of the church is thus an important one in the divine plan4 ,for the fallen spirits try to rise by their own wills from the matter to which they are condemned for purification4 ,they never lose their divine essence1 however low they may fall4 ,they cannot rise alone1 nor are they compelled to1 but they always have the help of divine grace1 which is always active within man and has also been perfectly revealed in ,jesus ,christ4 ,after the manner of the ,apologists1 ,origen makes use of the ,stoic and ,platonic conceptions1 for the eternal ,logos takes form in the divine-human unity of ,jesus4 ,through ,his physical suffering redemption is made possible to all believers1 and through ,his essence illumination has been brought to those especially inspired4 ,there are different grades of redemption3 faith1 or a religious understanding of the perceptual world2 knowledge of the ,logos2 final absorption in ,god4 ,all shall finally be saved through the combined forces of freedom and ,grace1 and then shall all material existence disappear4 ,the controversies within the church during the succeeding centuries over the theory of ,origen are theological rather than philosophical1 and so our account of the relation of ,greek philosophy to ,christianity in the ,hellenic-,roman period closes here4 ,origen's undertaking was a private one1 approved at first in only limited circles and on the whole disapproved by the church4 ,in his scientific dogmatics the particular changes which he planned pertain especially to the conception of salvation and the place of ,christ in the universe4 ,in his teaching about ,christ he emphasized more the cosmological than the soteriological aspect1 but neither was fully developed4 ,the history of the early church shows that ,christianity seized the ideas of ancient philosophy and insisted on revising them with its own religious principle before it used them4 ,we shall find that the next period is introduced by a greater than ,origen1 in whom again the ,christian and the ancient worlds will meet in new and richer combination1,st4 ,augustine4 ,,book ,,ii ,,the ,,middle ,,ages 7#dgf-adec7 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,characteristics ,,and ,,conditions ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages ,comparison of the ,hellenic-,roman ,period and the ,middle ,ages4 ,the ,middle ,ages can be conveniently remembered as approximately the #ajjj years between the fall of old ,rome1 in #dgf1 and the fall of new ,rome 7,constantinople7 in #adec4 ,together these two periods make a long and a philosophically unproductive stretch of #ahjj years4 ,the intellectual materials which the two periods possessed1 differ but little1 although during the first half of the ,middle ,ages such materials were very few4 ,there is1 however1 a decided difference in the way the two periods look at things4 ,the ancient had started with ,aristotle's interest in knowledge for its own sake2 the ancient had passed from that to the need of knowledge in ethical conduct2 he had finally made use of knowledge only in formulating religion4 ,on the other hand1 the history of thought in the ,middle ,ages was exactly the reverse4 ,the medival man starts satisfied with religion as thus formulated by the preceding period1 and seeks to regain pure knowledge4 ,the perspective in the two periods is therefore different4 ,hellenic thought began in freedom and ended in tradition2 medival thought begins in tradition and1 borne by the youthful ,german1 who brings with him few original ideas1 pushes forward toward freedom4 ,no doubt one can discover in medival times many fresh transformations of ancient thought and a new ,latin terminology1 but1 on the whole1 all the problems of the ,middle ,ages1 as well as their solutions1 can be found in antiquity4 ,one may find1 too1 the germs of modern thought in the ,middle ,ages1 but they come from medival pupils and not from medival masters4 ,in the ,middle ,ages humanity is again at school2 its problems appear in succession1 but they always are expressed in the conceptions of the ancients4 ,the ,medival ,man4 ,antiquity had brought together three civilizations1those of ,greece1 of ,rome1 and of ,christianity4 ,greek civilization in the form of an intellectual culture1 called ,hellenism1 had been superimposed upon ,roman political society4 ,the result was a society with a twofold stratum1 and in such a society the ,christian church had grown as an organization of controlling cultural and political influence4 ,it was into this society that the ,german barbarians1 by a series of invasions1 entered during the first three centuries of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the ,middle ,ages began and antiquity ended when these ,german tribes finally broke down the barriers of the ,roman empire4 ,it was a new period2 for a new race had taken upon itself the responsibility of bearing the burden of the future of western ,europe4 ,the ,german was of course unconscious of the magnitude of his self-imposed burden1 for the ,german was young1 vigorous1 and moved by primitive instincts4 ,he had leaped into the world's fields as a conqueror2 he remained as a laborer4 ,at the beginning the ,german seemed likely to destroy the entire product which antiquity had bequeathed4 ,he was quite unprepared to assimilate the rich fruits of that ancient civilization4 ,he had1 indeed1 less mind for the elaborate forms of ,greek philosophy than for the lighter forms of ,greek art4 ,in his first contact he could understand neither4 ,moreover ancient society was so weak that it could not educate him1 who was its conqueror1 into its culture4 ,nevertheless1 there was one element in that ancient society that did appeal to the ,german4 ,that was the spiritual power of the ,christian church4 ,alone amid the ruins of antiquity the power of the church had grown so strong that the men of the north bowed before it1 and religion accomplished through the emotions of the ,germans what art1 philosophy1 and statecraft failed to achieve4 ,the preaching of the ,gospel laid hold of the feelings of these primitive people1 for the church in its pretensions1 and sometimes in fact1 represented the old ,roman political unity4 ,moreover the church was also the repository of what was left of ,greek science4 ,the church expressed for the ,german his own ideal of the personal inner life4 ,the ,germans became the supporters of the church1 and in this way the protectors of ancient culture4 ,medival history in western ,europe is therefore the record of the development of the ,germans under the influence of the ,christian church4 ,in contrast with the development of the ,eastern church1 which was the development of a state church1 the ,western church was the development of an ecclesiastical state4 ,the ,western church1 and not the later empire1 was the true successor of the ,roman empire4 ,thus the early beginnings of the ,middle ,ages rested with the church1 but the later development of the ,middle ,ages rested with the ,german people4 ,how the ,universe appeared to the ,medival ,man4 ,the medival man had very indistinct ideas about the world around him1 since his interest did not lie in the earthly realm1 but in the spirit that controlled it4 ,he was content in his sciences with conclusions without their demonstrations4 ,although it is said that relations of space and number are never indistinct in the mind of the civilized man1 the man of the ,middle ,ages certainly did not possess such conceptions in so vigorous a manner as to enable him to discover new truths4 ,we must1 furthermore1 make a sharper distinction between medival popular opinion and medival scientific opinion than we should about popular and scientific opinion of modern times2 for the results of science did not reach the people then as now4 ,to the ordinary medival man the world in which he lived was what it appeared to be to his eye4 ,the earth was flat2 the sky was a material dome1 which sustained the waters of the world above it4 ,through this sky-floor the water sometimes breaks and the earth receives showers of rain4 ,these popular notions sometimes appeared in the verse of the time4 ,the medival scientific opinion was based on the theory of ,ptolemy and his school of ,alexandrian astronomers1 who lived in the second century ,a4 ,d41 some details to the theory having been added by the ,arabians4 ,ptolemy says1 8,the world is divided into two vast regions2 the one ethereal1 the other elementary4 ,the ethereal region begins with the first mover1 which accomplishes its journey from east to west in twenty-four hours2 ten skies participate in this motion1 and their totality comprises the double crystalline heaven1 the firmament and the seven planets40 7,see diagram47 ,the medival man of science thought that1 inasmuch as he was upon the earth1 he was therefore standing at the centre of things4 ,directly above him was the cavity of the sky1 ruled by the moon2 and below the moon were the four elements1fire1 air1 water1 and earth4 ,this region was the realm of imperfection4 ,but above the moon the scientist saw a series of nine other heavens1 each with an orderly revolution of its own2 and beyond all is ,god4 ,the universe was therefore to ,ptolemy a great but a limited sphere1 consisting of ten spheres one inside another 7like the rings of an onion74 ,each planet moved with the motion of its own heaven 7or sphere71 which was sometimes called 8crystalline0 because it was transparent4 ,the movements of the heavenly bodies1 each in its own revolving heaven1 were contained in the whole sphere1 which revolved with a motion of its own4 ,by ascribing other movements to the planets within their respective heavens1 the medival astronomers were able to predict every conjunction and eclipse to the minute4 ,these separate movements of the planets were called epicycles1 the form of which is shown in the diagram on the opposite page4 ,illustration3 ,,ptolemaic ,,cosmography ,a diagram showing the division of the universe into the ten spheres or heavens 7,from the private library of ,professor ,r4 ,w4 ,willson of ,harvard ,university7 ,such a scientific astronomy would easily lend itself to the theological conceptions of the time4 ,the realm of perfection above the moon was supposed to be under the direct supervision of ,god and to be inhabited by spirits4 ,thus the conjunction and relation of the heavenly bodies were thought to have influence upon human life1 and they furnished the basis of the astrology1 necromancy1 and spiritism so common in the ,middle ,ages4 ,the ninth heaven embraced all the others4 ,it swept around them all1 without interfering with their own special motions1 and completed its revolution in twenty-four hours4 ,the ninth heaven was both the source and the limit of all motion and all change4 ,beyond it lies the eternal peace of ,god1 which the ,christian astronomer regarded as 8the abode of the blessed40 ,this was called the tenth heaven or the ,empyrean4 ,this1 in ,dante's words1 is 8the heaven that is pure light2 light intellectual full of love1 love of the good full of joy1 joy that transcends all sweetness40 ,the tenth heaven is ,paradise and is within the life of ,god4 ,it is important to note that the ,ptolemaic conception of the universe is the background upon which ,dante constructs his ,divine ,comedy 7see diagram1 p4 #cgf71dh and appears in part at least as the cosmological basis of the ,paradise ,lost of ,milton4 ,for thirteen centuriesfrom #bjj to #aejj;conviction remained unshaken in the ,ptolemaic system of astronomy as an adequate explanation of the universe4 ,illustration3 ,,ptolemaic ,,cosmography 7,showing the ,epicyclic ,movements of ,saturn1 ,jupiter1 and ,mars in respect to the ,earth7 ,the ,medival ,man at ,school4 ,in the eleventh and twelfth centuries there was a revival in intellectual interests that was deep and broad1 and the characteristics of this revival will be discussed subsequently 7see ,transitional ,period1 p4 #cbi74 ,our curiosity1 however1 is aroused upon our entrance into the ,middle ,ages1 as to what the man of the early ,middle ,ages studied and how much he learned4 ,we must remind ourselves at the outset of the oft-repeated fact that1 on the whole1 in western ,europe1 for the first five hundred years of the ,middle ,ages1 the only people who had any book-learning were the churchmen4 ,furthermore1 with them the learning was very meagre4 ,their purpose in study will show this1 for it was to enable them 8to understand and expound the ,canonical ,scriptures1 the ,fathers1 and other ecclesiastical writings40 ,the training was as follows3 #a4 ,theological4 ,elementary instruction in the ,psalms and church music1 but no systematic training in theology1just enough training to enable the priest to understand the ,bible and the ,church ,fathers4 #b4 ,secular training4 ,knowledge in the 8,seven ,liberal ,arts10 i4 e4 the triviumgrammar1 rhetoric1 and dialectic2 and the more advanced quadrivium1music1 arithmetic1 geometry1 and astronomy4 ,these names are suggestive of a vast amount of knowledge1 while1 in truth1 very little was known or taught in these subjects4 ,astronomy and arithmetic were employed to find the time of ,easter4 ,geometry included some propositions of ,euclid without demonstrations4 ,music included plain song and a mystic doctrine of number4 ,more was made of grammar1 the study of rhetoric from ,latin classics1 and dialectics4 ,dialectics was logic in the ,middle ,ages1 and its mysteries fascinated the medival man4 ,but even in logic there were only some remnants of the ,aristotelian logic known4 ,a ,medival ,library4 ,here again is an interesting question3 ,what did this medival churchman read8 ,but we must make a distinction between books most commonly read1 books that the scholars might use1 and books most influential upon thought4 #a4 ,books most commonly read4 ,these would be the text-books used in instruction4 ,they are as follows3 ,the ,psalms4 ,the ,grammar of ,donatus4 ,the ,christian poets3 ,prudentius1 ,psychomachia2 ,juvencus1 ,gospels in ,verse2 ,sedulius1 ,easter ,hymn4 ,dionysius ,cato1 ,disticha de ,moribus1 a collection of proverbs 7moral maxims7 in rhyming couplets4 ,virgil1 ,ovid1 and the rhetorical works of ,cicero4 sop's ,fables 7in ,latin74 #b4 ,books that the scholars might use4 ,it is difficult to say what any particular scholar actually did read1 for the libraries of monasteries differed enormously in the character and number of their books2 some monasteries had several hundred books1 some none at all4 ,some libraries were composed almost entirely of works of the ,fathers2 some possessed a good many works of ancient classical writers4 ,one might expect to find any one or more of the following works in a scholar's library3 ,aristotle1 ,de ,interpretatione and the ,categories in ,bothius' translation4 ,this explains why the logical problems occupied the almost exclusive attention of the first schoolmen4 ,plato1 the ,timus4 ,this was known to the ,irish monks perhaps in ,greek1 but on the continent in a translation by ,chalcidius4 ,the only other sources of knowledge of ,plato were in the works of ,augustine and the neo-,platonists4 ,commentaries on ,aristotle1,the ,isagoge by ,porphyry1 in a translation into ,latin by ,bothius1 and some commentaries by ,bothius himself on ,aristotle's ,de ,interpretatione and ,categories4 ,cicero1 the rhetorical and dialectical treatises1 such as the ,topica1 ,de ,officiis4 ,seneca1 ,de ,beneficiis4 ,lucretius1 ,de ,rerum ,natura4 ,augustine's works and some pseudo-,augustinian writings4 ,the works of the ,church ,fathers1 ,clement of ,alexandria and ,origen4 ,the ,pseudo-,dionysius1 translated from the ,greek by ,erigena4 ,the encyclopedic collections of some of the last of the scholars of antiquity1 like ,cassiodorus1 ,capella1 ,bothius1 and the ,etymologies of ,isidore of ,seville4 #c4 ,the ,books most influential philosophically upon the time4 ,these were not necessarily the books most widely read1 but the epoch-making books1 so to speak4 ,they were as follows3 ,augustine1 ,city of ,god4 ,bothius1 ,consolation of ,philosophy4 ,aristotle1 ,de ,interpretatione and the ,categories in translation by ,bothius4 ,pseudo-,dionysius1 translated by ,erigena4 ,porphyry1 ,isagoge translated by ,bothius1 an introduction to ,aristotle's ,categories4 ,the ,three ,periods of the ,middle ,ages4 #a4 ,early ,period1 #dgf-ajjj4 #b4 ,transitional ,period1 #ajjj-abjj4 #c4 ,period of ,classic ,scholasticism1 #abjj-adec4 ,there is one great natural division line of the ,middle ,ages1 the year #abjj4 ,at this time the surging of the western peoples eastward in the ,crusades was at its height1 and the works of ,aristotle were coming into western ,europe from the ,east4 ,these events mark a change in the political and intellectual situation in ,europe4 ,but this change did not take place suddenly4 ,there are intervening two centuries that are indeed transitional1 but at the same time are animated by a distinct and independent philosophical motive4 ,these two centuries may be set apart as a period1 different from the earlier and the later periods4 ,we shall call these three periods the ,early ,period1 the ,transitional ,period1 and the ,period of ,classic ,scholasticism4 ,the ,early ,period takes us from the fall of old ,rome 7#dgf7 to the birth of modern political ,europe 7#ajjj74 ,it is a period of religious faith governed by the theology of ,augustine4 ,mysticism has no independent following1 but on the contrary rules within the church4 ,the ,christian principle of individual personality and the ,greek ,platonic conception of universal realities are not fused1 but they are held without arousing controversy4 ,this is because the human reason has no standard code1 nor does it yet feel the need of one4 ,the only two philosophers1 ,augustine and ,erigena1 of the period are animated by neo-,platonism4 ,the ,transitional ,period extends from the birth of political ,europe 7#ajjj7 to the arrival of the works of ,aristotle 7about #abjj74 ,this epoch is one of logical controversy1 in which the ,christian and the ,greek motives conflict4 ,this controversy gives rise to the first group of great schoolmen1 who discuss the reality of general ideas in their application to dogma4 ,mysticism still rules the churchman1 but now in a modified form4 ,plato has become the standard of the reason in orthodox circles and ,aristotle in those inclined to heresy1 but as yet only fragments of the works of either are known4 ,the ,period of ,classic ,scholasticism extends from #abjj to the end of the ,middle ,ages 7#adec74 ,it is a period when a theological metaphysics arises by the side of the logical controversy and predominates over that controversy4 ,the problem now concerns the respective scopes of the reason and faith4 ,the period is ,aristotelian1 and ,aristotle's philosophy is made the standard code for the churchman for all time4 ,mysticism has now no place of authority in the church1 but has an independence4 ,the period contains the greatest schoolmen of the ,middle ,ages4 ,summary of the ,political and ,educational ,worlds of the ,medival ,man4 ,i4 ,early ,period1 #dgf-ajjj4 #cie ,the ,roman empire divided into 7,augustine1 #ced-dcj7 ,eastern and ,western empires4 #dgf ,fall of the ,western empire1 #dgf-hjj ,disappearance of the ,eastern empire lasting municipal and imperial about #ajjj years longer4 schools and rise of episcopal and monastic #cge-fjj ,northern barbarians overrun schools4 the ,western empire in series of invasions4 #ebe ,bothius died1 the last notable ,roman scholar who knew ,greek4 #ebi ,closing of philosophical ,schools at ,athens2 founding of monastic school by ,st4 ,benedict4 #fjj ,roman power almost entirely in hands of barbarians4 #fbb-gcb ,mohammedans conquer ,arabia1 ,northern ,africa1 and ,spain4 #dgf-hjj ,dark ,ages4 #gcb ,mohammedans repulsed at the battle of ,tours4 #fjj-hjj ,fusion took place among ,german and ,roman peoples4 #hjj ,empire of ,charlemagne founded4 #hjj-ajjj ,benedictine ,age3 only ,civilization higher than the period in ,western ,europe ,german1 lower than the ,roman4 when education is entirely in hands of monks4 ,the ,palace school2 episcopal1 cathedral1 and monastery schools4 7,erigena1 #haj-hhj1 the forerunner of ,scholasticism47 #ijj-ajjj ,empire of ,charlemagne #ijj-ajjj ,dark century with broken up4 ,demoralization4 decline of learning4 ,invasions by ,danes and ,northmen from the north2 ,saracens ,,in ,,the ,,early ,,period ,,and ,,the from south by sea2 ,slavs1 ,,transitional ,,period ,,little ,hungarians1 ,russians1 and ,poles ,,of ,,plato ,,was ,,known ,,except by land4 ,the church demoralized1 ,,in ,,the ,,form ,,of ,,neo-,,platonism ,papacy temporarily disappears1 ,,and ,,little ,,of ,,aristotle feudalism replaces empire4 ,,except ,,of ,,fragments ,,of ,,his ,,logic4 ,,ii4 ,transitional ,period1 #ajjj-abjj4 #ajjj ,france and ,germany get their ,first ,scholasticism4 first form as nations just 7,anselm1 #ajcc-aaji7 before this year2 ,england just 7,roscellinus1 d4 #aaaj7 after4 ,beginning of new birth 7,abelard1 #ajgi-aadb7 of ,europe1 caused by conversions of northern nations1 #ajjj ,passion for inquiry takes by enlightened rule of the the place of the old routine4 ,ottos1 by regeneration of ,papacy1 by development of civic #aafj-abjj ,traces of the life4 origination of the earliest ,beginning of political order1 universities4 ecclesiastical discipline1 and social tranquillity4 #aaej-abej ,translation into ,revival of architecture ,latin directly from ,greek followed by renewal of art4 ,the of the works of ,aristotle1 ,romanesque appeared about #ajjj1 previously unknown in ,western the ,gothic about #aaej4 ,poetry ,europe4 of ,trouvres in north and of ,troubadours in south4 ,,iii4 ,period of ,classic ,scholasticism1 #abjj-adec4 #abjj ,crusades at their height4 #abjj ,the ,mendicant ,friars4 ,classic ,scholasticism4 #abjj-adec ,commerce of ,europe with 7,thomas ,aquinas1 #abbd-abgd47 ,asia begins to grow to large 7,duns ,scotus1 #abgj-acjh47 proportions in countries on the 7,william of ,ockam1 ,mediterranean4 ,the ,third ,estate #abhj-acdi47 grows in strength1 national governments prevail over the #acjj-adec ,the period is well feudal system4 supplied with schools4 #acej-adec ,deterioration of ,scholasticism4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,early ,,period ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages 7#dgf-ajjj7 ,the ,general ,character of the ,early ,period4 ,it is no accident that these five hundred years of the ,middle ,ages were spiritualistic4 ,both the political disturbances and the intellectual inheritance from the ,hellenic-,roman period made the period such4 ,the troubles during the long death agony of the ,roman empire had deprived the people of their interest in this world4 ,the world of kingdoms and material things presented no ideals2 and the age would have been pessimistic had not the ,church through ,augustine presented a heavenly ideal and the means to win that ideal4 ,both what the material world had taken away from man and what the spiritual seemed to offer him1 made the age an age of faith4 ,the principle of inner spirituality was moved to a central position4 ,all things pointed to the supernatural and the transcendent4 ,men dwelt upon the nature of ,god1 the number and rank of the angels1 the salvation of the soul4 ,in this1 as in the ,transitional ,period following1 little was known of ,aristotle except some fragments of his logic2 and little was known of ,plato except in the form of neo-,platonism4 ,but in this period 7before the year #ajjj7 the pupil was instructed in both ,aristotle and ,plato1 and held them both together without controversy4 ,mysticism had little independence of church doctrine1 as appears in the case of ,erigena1 the consequences of whose doctrine were not at first seen4 ,the monastery became the fundamental social organization and the central social force4 ,organized ascetic life permitted an absorbing contemplation of heaven4 ,prayer superseded thought2 faith prescribed knowledge4 ,the intellectual world was dominated by neo-,platonic idealism1 and the all-important topic in men's minds was that of ,god's grace4 ,augustine stood at the beginning of the period and organized its conception of grace for it4 ,erigena stood near the end and stated the neo-,platonism of the period in extreme form1 presenting the issue for the scholasticism of the many years to come4 ,the presentation of the doctrine of these two men will therefore be the philosophical exemplification of the attitude of the time4 ,illustration3 ,,medi,,val ,,geography4 ,,the ,,cosmas ,,map1 ,a4 ,d4 #edg ,from ,j4 ,keane's ,evolution of ,geography 7,cosmas was an ,egyptian monk who had once been a merchant and traveler4 ,he did not use the records of his own travels to supplement the ,greek and ,roman plans1 but he laid down as a fact that the earth is flat4 ,then he piously adduced evidence from the ,scriptures to support his view4 ,the maps drawn by ,cosmas are the earliest ,christian maps that have survived4 ,their crudeness1 compared with the maps of the ,romans and ,arabs1 reveals the low state of knowledge among the ,christians47 ,the ,historical ,position of ,augustine4 ,the ,middle ,ages were inaugurated by a mind of the highest order1,augustine4#di ,if one were to select the most influential figures in the history of philosophy1 ,augustine might be chosen to stand with ,plato1 ,aristotle1 ,spinoza1 and ,kant4 8,in some respects ,augustine stands nearer to us than ,hegel and ,schopenhauer40#ej ,for the church1 but no less for the period1 it was a fortunate circumstance that ,augustine should have lived just as antiquity was closing and the medival period beginning4 ,through him the various influences of the past were gathered up and presented in a scientific statement for the ,middle ,ages4 8,the history of piety and of dogma in the ,west was so thoroughly dominated by ,augustine from the beginning of the fifth century to the era of the ,reformation1 that we must take this whole time as forming one period40#ea ,in his relation to antiquity ,augustine drew especially upon the fundamental teachings of ,st4 ,paul1 the neo-,platonists1 and the ,patristics for the presentation of his own doctrine4 ,he was familiar with a great number of the doctrines of antiquity1 and was the medium of their transmission to the ,middle ,ages4 ,he does not seem to have known the system of ,aristotle1 but the importance which he attached to the dialectic in the explanation of the ,scriptures contributed a good deal to the use of the logic of ,aristotle by the scholastics of the ,middle ,ages4 ,he had some knowledge of the ,pythagoreans1 the ,stoics1 and the ,epicureans through the writings of ,cicero4 ,but the most important philosophical influence upon ,augustine was the neo-,platonic teaching of ,plotinus and ,porphyry4 ,neo-,platonism1 the ,pauline theology1 and the ,patristic are the large factors in the doctrine of ,augustine4 ,in his relation to the ,middle ,ages1 what in brief was the position of ,augustine8 ,by means of neo-,platonism and a discriminating psychological analysis he transformed the previous belief in ,god as a judge into a belief in the personal relations between ,god and man4 ,that is to say1 he carried out monotheism spiritually1 and in doing this the influence of neo-,platonism is very strong in him4 ,augustine made one of the centres of his teaching the living relation of the soul to ,god4 ,he took religion out of the sphere of cosmological science1 where it had been placed by ,origen and the ,gnostics1 and made it personal4 ,furthermore1 he offered with this new ideal a plan of salvation2 for ,augustine made it his task to show 7#a7 what ,god is1 and 7#b7 what the salvation of the soul requires4 ,whereas before ,augustine the only dogmatic scheme had presented the place and function of ,christ in salvation1 ,augustine was interested in the place of man in salvation4 ,thus he elaborated monotheism into spiritual monotheism and delineated the inward processes of the ,christian life1 i4 e4 of sin and grace4 ,this important advance made by ,augustine must be attributed to the influence of philosophyneo-,platonismupon him4 ,but it must not be supposed that the total teaching of ,augustine and the total influence of his thought is contained in this single change in ,christian piety1 as we have stated it4 ,the various ,pagan and ,christian elements1 as they lie in his system1 have little coherence2 and ,augustine does not settle the rival claims between them4 ,as the medival period advanced1 what in his teaching had been a mere incoherence became in the hands of others positive discord4 ,he gave the church impulses of the highest spiritual quality1 but he left no well-organized capital4 ,these impulses toward spiritual piety have never been lost1 but the profusion of ideas and views in ,augustine1 unharmonized by himself1 were also a permanent bequest to posterity that produced both vital movements and violent controversies4 ,the legal and moral party of the church resisted his teaching at the beginning1 and in the sixth century1 under the influence of ,gregory the ,great1 toned down ,augustine's teaching in the direction of a conception of the church as a juristic organization4 ,augustine was thus the beginner of a new line of development by his incorporation of neo-,platonism into ,christian doctrine and by his use of the dialectic to present1 defend1 and develop the doctrine of the church4 ,although the years of his life fall in antiquity1 although he is the collector of all the threads of the neo-,platonic and ,christian religions1 he belongs in the ,middle ,ages as the teacher of the ,middle ,ages4 ,his doctrine acted as an authoritative spiritual guide for the new ,german peoples4 ,they took up the problems of antiquity from the new point of view of individual spirituality1 and created out of them the philosophy of the future4 ,but philosophically ,augustine was far in advance of his age1 and in the intellectually torpid times that followed him little philosophical development could be expected4 ,not until after ,charlemagne does philosophical development springing from ,augustine appear4 ,later ,luther and the ,reformation reverted to him1 and our modern philosophy is founded on the principle which he made central in his conception of piety4 ,the ,secular ,science4 ,at the same time it must not be supposed that the teaching of ,augustine was by any means the only source from which this first period of the ,middle ,ages drew its materials of knowledge4 ,a glance at the list of books in a medival library 7see p4 #cbg7 will not confirm such a supposition4 ,augustine does not include in his doctrinemassive as it isall the factors that finally made up medival civilization4 ,even at the beginning there was a tendency toward secular science derived from ,plato and ,aristotle4 ,noticeable as this was at first it became prominent later4 ,secular science tried at first to modify scholasticism1 and then later to gain an independence for itself4 ,the doctrine of ,augustine did not contain the germs of science4 ,but at the start the ,middle ,ages had writings on science in the inadequate compendiums of ,capella1 ,cassiodorus1 and ,bothius1 and in the fragments of the logic of ,aristotle4 ,the ,life of ,augustine 7#ced-dcj74 ,aurelius ,augustine1 often called 8the ,plato of ,christianity10 was born in ,thagaste1 ,numidia4 ,his father was a ,pagan1 his mother a ,christian2 and it was his mother who contributed chiefly to the formation of his character4 ,he was a boy of brilliant gifts1 and was educated in the schools of ,madaura and ,carthage4 ,at ,carthage his life was full of dissipation1 which he has described in his ,confessions4 ,he took up in succession all the scientific and religious problems of his time4 ,he gave up the teaching of rhetoric1 which he had practiced in several towns in ,asia ,minor and ,italy1 and began to study theology4 ,he was troubled by his religious doubts and tried to find relief first in ,manichism1 then in the skepticism of the ,academy1 and then in neo-,platonism4 ,he was converted to ,christianity through three influences3 his study of ,plato1 the eloquence of ,st4 ,ambrose1 and the unremitting moral influence of his mother4 ,he became a priest1 then a bishop1 and was untiring in his activity both in the practical organization of the church and in the theoretical construction of its doctrines4 ,he was especially active in his literary attempts to refute the ,pelagian and ,manichan heresies1 whose doctrines he had previously professed4 ,his life falls at the time when the barbarian invasions were beginning and when ,rome was crumbling4 ,moved by his ,platonic idealism1 he wrote his ,city of ,god1 which1 in an elaborate philosophy of history1 shows that ,god's city is not on earth1 but in heaven4 ,the ,two ,elements in ,augustine's ,teaching4 ,the great masses of thought in ,augustine's mind reveal motion in two directions4 ,on the one hand1 he is the theologian who holds on high the conception of the authority of the church4 ,on the other hand1 he is the philosopher who speaks for the principle of immediate certainty for the individual4 ,these are two foci about which his thought is in constant flux and often in contradiction4 ,augustine has1 therefore1 two criteria for truth3 the truth that comes from an authority without1 and the truth that comes from consciousness itself4 ,the authority of the church and the authority of the immediate consciousness of the individualthese are the two central thoughts in ,augustinianism4 ,augustine's conception of the authority of the church acted upon him as a lofty ideal which both inspired and at the same time constrained his speculations4 ,as he grew older he gravitated more and more toward it1 and thereby became more conservative4 ,but it was the other central thoughtthe authority of immediate consciousnesswhich he made the basis of a philosophy of original power4 ,through this he transcended his own time and became himself a modern1 leading the ,middle ,ages up to him4 ,augustine did not define accurately the spheres of philosophy and theology4 ,he did not show whether reason or revelation had the higher authority4 ,he did not try to decide between the intelligo ut credam and credo ut intelligam1 that is1 between the respective authorities of reason and faith4 ,that became1 in consequence1 a central philosophical problem for the schoolmen4 ,nevertheless1 the great inheritance which ,augustine left the world was along the philosophical line of intelligo ut credam 7of knowledge as the basis of faith instead of faith as the basis of knowledge74 ,the ,neo-,platonic ,element3 the ,inner ,certainties of ,consciousness4 ,augustine was not original in making the starting-point of his philosophy the inner certainties of consciousness4 ,that was the point of view of his time1 and the starting-point of the ascetic tendency both of ,christianity and of neo-,platonism4 ,he was dissatisfied with the world without1 and turned away from it to the world within to find reality4 ,but this had been a growing tendency ever since the time of ,plato4 ,augustine's originality lies in his psychological description of these certainties4 ,he is the master of self-observation and introspection4 ,he can describe inner experiences as well as analyze them4 ,he puts his philosophy upon a solid anthropological basis by developing a psychology of the certainties of consciousness4 ,in doing this he placed the inner experience in the central position of control4 ,thus he reached a well-defined position of 8internality0 for which the ,stoics1 ,epicureans1 neo-,platonists1 and the preceding ,christian theologians had been groping2 thus he anticipated ,descartes and modern philosophy4 ,man clings to life in spite of all its evils4 ,this shows that there is a reality for the soul4 ,the material world may pass away1 but the reality of soul-life is assured4 ,man's inner life is ever present and cannot be imaginary4 ,the fact that there is such a thing as probability implies the existence of certainty4 ,where shall ,i look for certainty8 ,in myself4 ,certainty is there as a fact of inner observation4 ,there are my inner mental statesmy sensations1 feelings1 etc41 whose existence cannot be doubted even if the existence of the objects to which they correspond is doubted4 ,i am certain also of my own consciousness at that moment4 ,to doubt my existence is to assert my existence4 ,to doubt also implies that ,i will remember1 livefor doubt rests upon these former ideas4 ,the temporary character of the material world only strengthens the reality of this inner world4 ,the existence of the material world cannot be demonstrated1 and so man is driven inward to find a basis for its reality4 ,thus by a deep insight1 although without much logical reasoning1 ,augustine transcends ,aristotle1 and anticipates modern thought by finding reality in the unitary personality1 whose existence is an inner certainty4 ,but ,augustine is driven farther inward2 for the certainty of the existence of ,god is involved in this inner certainty4 ,my doubt about the character of the world of material things implies that their truth exists and that ,i have the capacity for measuring it4 ,such truths are universal4 ,they transcend the individual consciousness1 and their mutual agreement unites all rational beings in a common standard4 ,on the other hand1 this unity of truths implies the existence of ,god4 ,truths are the ,ideas 7,platonic7 in ,god's mind4#eb ,full knowledge of ,god is denied to man in this life1 but1 nevertheless1 all morality consists in love for ,god2 all science is only an interest in the working of ,god in nature2 all the beauty in the world around us points to the harmonious ordering of ,god2 the history of the world is only the free act of ,god4 ,thus1 in brief1 does ,augustine centralize the principle of inner spiritualityof 8internality40 ,thus does he put into control the certainty of consciousness4 ,this was ,augustine's great contribution to the world both in the sphere of philosophy and religion4 ,we shall see how important this principle is in our tracing of modern philosophy4 ,its importance upon the growth of religion was so very great that we cannot pass it by without remark4 8,augustine was the reformer of ,christian piety40 ,in the midst of religion he discovered religion4 ,he looked into the human heart and found it to be the lower good2 he looked to ,god and found ,him to be the higher good4 ,in love for ,god1 man becomes exalted to another being4 ,this is the 8new birth40 ,by this personal religion nature and grace are separated1 but morality and religion are united4 ,sin is the disposition to be independent by living in a state of unrest in the desires4 ,sin is a state of lust and fear4 ,all is sin in the heart of the natural manin the heart apart from ,god4 ,the pre-,augustinian religion of morality and baptism1 animated by hope and fear1 was supplanted by him with the conception of the desire to be happy by sharing in the bliss of ,god4 ,augustine passed from ,christian pessimism to ,christian optimism1 to a confidence in pardoning grace4 ,by faith and love ,god calls us back to himself and the soul acquires what ,god requires4 ,religion is personal and a thing of the heart4 8,love1 unfeigned humility1 and strength to overcome the world1 these are the elements of religion and its blessedness2 they spring from the actual possession of the loving ,god4 ,this message ,augustine preached to the ,christianity of his time and of all times40#ec ,but ,augustine philosophically breaks with his own ,platonism at one point1 and finds not in the intellect1 but in the will1 the primary characteristic of this consciousness of inner certainty4 ,the will is the inmost core of our being4 ,all our mental states are formed under the direction of the purposes of the will4 ,the striking exception to this is the cognition of the higher divine truth1 in the presence of which the mind can be only passive4 ,revelation cannot be the production of the finite activity1 but it is an act of grace before which the will is expectant and passive4 ,knowledge of the divine truths of the reason is the blessedness that results from the will of ,god and not of man4 ,the will of man is transformed into faith1 and yet even then an element of the human will is present1 although passive1 for the appropriation of the truth is an act of will4 ,thus1 in regard to this difficult subject of the nature of the will1 there are two observations to be made3 7#a7 ,augustine conceives the will1 memory1 and intellect as so intimately related as not to be faculties of the personality like the properties of a substance4 ,they rather form an indissoluble unity of the substance of the soul4 7#b7 ,the will is theoretically free1 and ,augustine is one of the most forcible defenders of free-will because he is also a defender of ethical responsibility and the justice of ,god4 ,theoretically the will is a force existing above sensuous nature and formally possesses the capacity of following or resisting inclination4 ,actually it is never free to choose1 but it has the higher function of being determined by the ,good4 ,only the good will is free4#ed ,the ,authority of the ,church according to ,augustine4 ,with the fall of ancient ,rome1 the church was hard pressed1 for the young peoples who came into the church were ,arian and the only ,german ,catholic nation was the ,franks4 ,augustine was a man of vigor1 but he seemed to lack the peculiar power of forcing the church to adopt as dogma the truths for which he stood4 ,he always submitted himself absolutely to the tradition of the church1 and yet in a general way he accomplished two things for the church at large3 7#a7 ,he established tradition as the authority and law of the church2 7#b7 ,he offered the church a scientifically constructed plan of salvation4 ,there now appears in ,augustine's teaching the second centre around which the masses of his thought group themselves4 ,this is his conception of the church in its authority and law4 ,here is the principle of universalityand historical universalityand it runs counter to the principle of spiritual individualism which his psychological analysis had built up4 ,augustine is just as vigorous a champion of the idea of the church as the means to salvation as he is champion of the individual certainty of truth4 ,the two antithetical propositions lie together in his mind4 ,as a pietist1 he was an individualist2 as a priest1 he was a loyal subject to dogma4 ,we have discussed his teaching as it centred about man2 now the discussion centres about ,god as represented by ,his church4 ,in practical life the will of man is important1 but in the eternal life the central influence is the grace of ,god4 ,between the will of man and the grace of ,god there is a chasm4 ,this is felt the more by ,augustine1 and the necessity of a ,god-centred doctrine seems the greater1 when he beholds the contrast between the perfectness of ,god and the evil world of men4 ,evil now appears to him as a great stream flowing through the world4 ,humanity is by nature void of ,god4 ,theoretically man is free1 but in the actual world he is chained to his senses and to sin4 ,adam1 the first man1 alone could have possessed freedom2 but ,adam in his freedom sinned1 and his sin was that of the whole human race4 ,sin is therefore original to all men now living1 and no man personally deserves salvation1 however meritorious his conduct4 ,moreover1 as the result of ,adam's sin1 all men would be damned were it not for the grace of ,god4 ,the ,god-man by death brought power to replenish empty humanity with divine love4 ,divine love is the beginning1 middle1 and end of salvation4 ,out of this love ,god has sent ,his ,son and founded ,his church4 ,universal man died1 and only universal man can save4 ,belief in ,christ is the only means of salvation1 yet belief in ,christ comes only by ,god's grace1 and divine grace is not conditioned on human worthiness4 ,thus it is only by grace even now that man is saved2 and no injustice would be done to men were all damned4 ,on the other hand1 divine justice demands that some men at least should be excluded from salvation in order that the punishment for ,adam's sin be permanently maintained4 ,the choice of the favored ones depends entirely upon the unsearchable decree of ,god4 ,these are elected as monuments of ,his loving grace1 while the others are elected to be damned as monuments of ,his justice4 ,the apparent calamity to the majority of mankind only shows the goodness of ,god the more4 ,for1 in the first place1 evil is not positive like the good4 ,it is only negative and primitivethe absence of the good4 ,the condemnation of the wicked is therefore no defect in this theocratic system4 ,in the second place1 the wicked only receive justice1 for the salvation of only a few is a gratuitous act of love1 which testifies to ,god's mercy4 ,but1 after all1 it is the integrity of the whole spiritual imperial government of ,god that is the important thing to consider4 ,the ,king is law and goodness1 and all ,his subjects are testimonies of ,his magnificent power4 ,the ,dark ,ages 7#dgf-hjj74 ,the traditional estimate of the ,middle ,ages as altogether 8dark0 has been revised by modern scholars4 ,the period now called the ,dark ,ages has been restricted to the three hundred years between the fall of old ,rome 7#dgf7 and the founding of the empire by ,charlemagne 7#hjj74 ,moreover1 it is now thought that even in that period the intellectual conditions were better in ,italy than north of the ,alps4 ,in northern ,italy the lay teacher seems always to have existed2 and education never to have fallen entirely into the hands of the monastery as it did in northern ,europe between #hjj and #ajjj4 ,after #hjj the content of education north and south of the ,alps seems to have been different4 ,everywhere1 to be sure1 education was comprised by the 8seven liberal arts10 but the emphasis in the two regions was different4 ,north of the ,alps the dialectic was made important1 and theology and logic flourished4 ,in ,italy the emphasis was upon grammar and rhetoric1 and 8literary ,paganism0 was always kept alive4 ,thus1 when the revival came in #abjj1 it appeared in the form of theological controversy north of the ,alps1 while in ,italy in the form of legal science4 ,the analysis in the summary of the ,middle ,ages given above 7see p4 #ccj7 applies more truthfully to the northern countries than to ,italy4 ,at the same time it is more pertinent to the history of thought1 for in these northern regions1 especially at ,paris1 medival philosophy was developed4 ,nevertheless1 it is easy for the modern scholar to go too far in trying to play fair with the ,middle ,ages4 ,the first three centuries of this time were a ,dark ,age everywhere in ,europe4 ,wave after wave of barbarian invasion swept over the land4 ,it is not so much a matter of surprise that four hundred years lie between the first two philosophers1but the matter of surprise is that there were any philosophical fruits whatever4 ,in this respect the year #ebi is significantsignificant both in pointing backward to ancient culture and also in pointing forward to the feeble effort to retain some of that culture4 ,in #ebi ,justinian abolished the philosophical ,schools at ,athens2 in #ebi also1 ,st4 ,benedict founded his monastic school at ,monte ,cassino 7near ,naples74 ,these two events stand for the death of antiquity and the birth of medival life4 ,in this beginning of the monastic movement by ,st4 ,benedict in western ,europe was lodged1 as it turned out1 the hope of education for the medival man4 ,during the two hundred years between the year #hjj and the year #ajjj medival education was entirely in the hands of the monks4 ,the ,revival of ,charlemagne 7#hjj-ijj74 ,the darkness of the ,early ,period of the ,middle ,ages is broken by the somewhat abortive renaissance of ,charlemagne4 ,connected with this revival is the name of ,john ,scotus ,erigena 7#haj-hhj74 ,note that during these five hundred years there are only two notable philosophers1 ,augustine and ,erigena4 ,note that a span of four hundred years lies between them4 ,also note that the first philosopher1 ,augustine1 was a ,roman and the second1 ,erigena1 was an ,irishman4 ,thereby hangs a tale4 ,during all those long centuries of the ,dark ,ages after ,augustine and until ,charlemagne1 the light of science shone scarcely in northwestern ,europe4 ,in the whole western hemisphere there were only three places where learning prospered3 one was in the far east1 among the ,arabians2 another was at ,constantinople2 the third was in the far west1 in ,britain4 ,thus it was from ,britain that ,charlemagne had to call his educators1 ,alcuin and ,clement1 to promote learning among the ,franks2 and it was from ,britain1 too1 that his successor1 ,charles the ,bald1 called the ,irishman1 ,erigena1 for the same purpose4 ,during the renaissance of the great ,charles and his successors1 ,irish scholars could be found in every monastery and cathedral in the empire4 ,the teaching was soon called the 8,irish learning40 ,still it must be said in qualification that the renaissance at the court of ,charlemagne was a rather childish attempt to unite antiquity with theology4 ,excepting in the case of ,scotus ,erigena1 the revival was very feeble4 ,it consisted of a new effort to understand ,augustine1 to master the simplest rules of logic1 and to think out dogma by means of ,hellenism4 ,the period from #hjj to #ajjj is called the ,benedictine ,age1 because learning was entirely in the hands of the ,benedictine monks4 ,from the impulse given by the ,irish scholars many celebrated monastic and cathedral schools originated1 like those of ,tours1 ,fulda1 ,rheims1 ,chartres1 and the school at ,paris4 ,from the many monastic schools emerge the names of ,alcuin of ,york1 ,rhabanus ,maurus of ,fulda1 and ,gerbert at ,rheims4 ,but among these scholars the only one of philosophical importance is ,john ,scotus ,erigena4 ,john ,scotus ,erigena 7#haj-hhj73 ,life and ,teaching4 ,when his contemporaries were only lisping at philosophy and his immediate successors were absorbed in disconnected problems1 ,erigena worked out a connected system4 ,like ,augustine1 ,erigena stood far in advance of his age4 ,he was not only the one great thinker of the revival of ,charlemagne1 but he was one of the most remarkable personalities of the ,middle ,ages4 ,born in ,ireland1 he had the benefit of an education in the schools of that centre of learning1 which he could not have obtained on the continent of ,europe4 ,in #hec he was called by ,charles the ,bald to carry on the work begun by ,alcuin under ,charlemagne4 ,three centuries after his death the church condemned him as a heretic 7#abji7 on account of his writings on predestination and transubstantiation4 ,his learning was so great that he has been called 8the ,origen of the ,north40 ,he read ,greek1 and this was a rare accomplishment in those days1 for even ,alcuin scarcely knew the ,greek alphabet4 ,his most notable original work is ,de ,divisione ,naturae1 which was neo-,platonism in ,christian dress4 ,his most influential work was his translation of the pseudo-,dionysius1 the ,areopagite4 ,it proved1 in fact1 to be one of the most influential books of this period1 and was instrumental on account of its large circulation in propagating neo-,platonism in the ,middle ,ages4 ,erigena was neither a scholastic nor a dialectical theologian4 ,he neither assailed nor defended church doctrine4 ,he calmly pushed neo-,platonism to the borders of pantheism4 ,he was an ,irishman with a ,greek mind1 a neo-,platonist under the veil of a ,christian mystic4 ,no churchman ever expressed neo-,platonism so frankly4 ,the writings from which ,erigena got his doctrine are called the ,pseudo-,dionysius writings because the authorship was falsely attributed to a companion of ,st4 ,paul1 ,dionysius the ,areopagite4 ,they were1 however1 probably written in the fifth century1 for they are essentially neo-,platonic and border on pantheism4 ,erigena translated them at the request of ,charles the ,bald1 and their appearance produced great astonishment in ,europe 7#heh-hfj74 ,erigena's own work1 ,de ,divisione ,naturae1 is an extreme pantheistic statement of the doctrine in the ,pseudo-,dionysius4 ,briefly stated ,erigena's teaching is as follows4 ,god is an incomprehensible being and can be described only in negative terms 7negative theology74 7,see chapter on ,philo47 ,god is the same as ,being or ,nature1 and ,he unfolds ,himself as a fourfold series4 ,these are3 ,god1 the world in ,god1 the world outside ,god1 ,god after the world has returned to ,him4 ,god contains in ,himself through the ,logos all the primordial types of things formed before creation4 ,creation is the logical unfolding of particulars from the universal4 ,immortality consists in the particulars again becoming universal4 ,in the types of things ,god is creating ,himself1 and they are graded from ,god down to concrete objects4 ,but all will finally return to ,god1 and ,erigena thought he found analogies of this return everywhere in nature4 ,the ,greek ,principle which ,erigena formulated for the ,middle ,ages4 ,these details of the teaching of ,erigena are unimportant except as they throw light upon that ,greek underlying principle which he formulated for the ,middle ,ages4 ,the ,real is the ,universal4 ,the more universal a thing is1 the more real and therefore the more perfect it is4 ,if we have an idea of a universal1 that universal has existence because it is universal4 ,the idea of ,god is universal1 therefore ,god exists4 ,the idea of the world is a universal1 but not so universal as the idea of ,god1 and therefore not so surely existent4 ,but the idea of the world has more reality than the idea of a tree4 ,medival philosophy becomes from this time on a logical theism4 ,in the case of ,erigena it is a logical pantheism4 ,the world is a logical mosaic4 ,real dependence is logical dependence1 and what we in modern times call the causes and effects between natural objects are regarded by the ,middle ,ages as sufficiently explained if put in logical arrangement4 ,this is the core of medival thinking1 and the student will fail to understand the civilization of the ,middle ,ages unless he grasps this central principle4 ,but this realizing of the logical universal is ,greek and betrays the fundamentally ,greek character of medival civilization4 ,the objective spiritual church has merely taken the place of objective nature4 ,medival history is a conflict between ,greek universalism and the ,christian conception of the individual4 ,in ,erigena the ,greek element appeared in overwhelming dominance4 ,erigena is a smaller ,augustine,augustine uncontrolled by great masses of thought and uninspired by practical ideals of building up the church4 ,erigena is a 8belated ,gnostic40 ,why was it that his neo-,platonic pantheism did not overcome entirely the individualistic element in ,christian dogma8 ,why1 on the contrary1 did it bring out far-reaching issues of conflict when a century later the significance of his teaching was understood8 ,because inherently and fundamentally in the nature of the ,german peoples1 as appearing in their customs and laws1 was the conviction of the rights of the individual personality4 ,in the teaching of the ,christian fathers the element of the spiritual personality found a deep echo in the ,german nature4 ,the ,german could tolerate and did actually live under the later church doctrine of a moderate realism2 but the measured calm of the ,greek pantheistic conception of ,erigena deprived the ,german of all his inherited ideals4 ,thus when intellectual activity was aroused a century later1 the conflict became hot over the issue in ,erigena's doctrine4 ,erigena was the forerunner of the scholastics4 ,it was he who tossed the apple of discord among the thinkers of the ,middle ,ages4 ,the ,last ,century of the ,early ,period 7#ijj-ajjj74 ,the century following ,erigena was one of demoralization4 ,all learning declined with the renewed invasions from the north1 east1 and west4 ,the empire of ,charlemagne was broken up and the ,papacy temporarily disappeared4 ,there is a persistent tradition that the ,christians at this time believed the end of the world to be near4 ,this has been proved to be a legend1 but back of it lies the truth that there was a fresh rise of piety which lasted until #acjj4 ,with this movement we enter upon the next period of the ,middle ,ages4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,transitional ,,period 7#ajjj-abjj7 ,the ,general ,character of the ,transitional ,period4 ,the first century of the ,transitional ,period was as different from the last century of the ,early ,period in its intellectual attitude and emotional tone as can be imagined4 ,it was the century of the new birth of ,europea century when the beginning of political order was accompanied by a passion for inquiry4 ,the spirit of pietism took possession of all institutionsand in the thirteenth century the medival system seemed to have reached its perfect form4 ,the ,transitional ,period gives meaning to the ,crusades4 8,if ever ideals were carried out in the world and gained dominion over souls1 it happened then40#ee 8,it was as if the world had cast aside its old garment and clothed itself in the white robe of the church40#ef ,the ardor of the ,crusades was the specific expression of this religious revival4 ,all the pent-up energies of the previous medival life were passing through a rapid period of growth4 ,philosophically this period is the time when neo-,platonic mysticism1 as elaborated by ,erigena1 came into conflict with the ,christian conception of the individual4 ,these two motives had been held together without controversy in the ,early ,period2 now they develop into controversy4 ,the philosophical theories evolved by this controversy go by the name of scholasticism4 ,while theoretically secular studies were supposed to be discarded and ancient literature was considered to be the temptation of the devil1 yet practically one is surprised to find a trained skill in the use of dialectic1 and the employment of many of the materials of antiquity as a means of culture and the refutation of heresies4 ,there was a knowledge of the classics1 of dialectic1 of neo-,platonism1 and of ,augustine4 ,the spirit of ,platonic realism prevailed among the group of schoolmen of these two centuries4 ,the problem before this group is different from that presented to the schoolmen of the next period4 ,the scholastics or schoolmen of this period whom we shall consider in some detail are1 ,anselm1 #ajcc-aaji4 ,roscellinus1 d4 #aajj about4 ,abelard1 #ajgi-aadb4 ,what is ,scholasticism8 ,in a general sense scholasticism is philosophic thought1 but historically the term is usually restricted to the philosophic thinking of the ,middle ,ages4 ,it has been pointed out that scholastic philosophy does not differ from any other philosophy4 ,it had its prejudices1 its dependence on authority1 its employment of deduction1 its use of observationlike all philosophy4 ,the scholasticism of this time1 however1 is distinguished by its general reference to church dogma as authority and its imperfect use of experience4 ,the scholasticism of the ,middle ,ages may therefore be defined as the application of dialectic or logical methods to the discussion of theological problems4 ,it was the attempt to present the doctrine of the church in a scientific system of philosophy4 ,sometimes such an attempt resulted in heresy when the result was a changing of dogma4 ,generally1 however1 the scholastic was not so ambitious1 for he usually sought to keep within the authoritative doctrines of the church4 ,he feared the anathema of the church4 ,scholasticism therefore1 in general1 had two characteristics3 7#a7 ,it assumed that church dogma was unquestionable and infallible2 7#b7 ,it tried to clarify dogma by rational explanation1 or to show that dogma was at least not contrary to reason4 ,dogma may in some cases be explained by the reason4 ,in some cases it may be so far above reason that the only thing the reason can say is1 8,the doctrine does not contradict me40 ,in the words of an eminent churchman1 8,dogma says1 ,deus homo 7,god became man74 ,scholasticism asks1 ,cur deus homo8 7,why did ,god become man870 ,revelation is assumed2 scholastic philosophy is permitted2 independent rational science is denied4 ,the remainder of the history of the ,middle ,ages shows no conscious attempt to form a new body of doctrine for the church2 and only here and there does there appear an effort to modify the existing doctrine4 ,the thinkers are employed in this scholastic clarifying of the doctrine4 ,in this period scholasticism takes the form of the logical problem of the relation of universals and particulars4 ,in the period of ,classic ,scholasticism this logical problem changes into the metaphysical one of the respective scopes of reason and faith4 ,the problem of the relation of universal conceptions to particular experiences had become a central one to the ,greeks after ,socrates4 7,see summary1 p4 #ajc47 ,it was natural that the same problem should arise with the new medival man and should delight him as an enigmatical question4 ,but conditions were less favorable for the medival scholastic than for the ,greek4 ,the medival had scanty literary materials1 no opportunity of testing his discussions by empirical observations1 and his mind was untrained4 ,in the ,early ,period scholasticism had the character of a mental game in logic4 ,it consisted1 on the whole1 in the subtle spinning out of logical questions with the few fragments of ,aristotle as a guide4 ,this was dangerous to faith1 but the church could not prevent it1 for it was the only mental diversion open to monks of the schools of ,charlemagne4 ,the arguments often reveal great mental acuteness1 although they have the appearance of triviality4 ,the schools of the ninth century were given over to barren formalism1 and this threatened to submerge the vigorous movement inaugurated by ,erigena4 8,can a prostitute become a virgin again through divine omnipotence80 8,does a mouse that eats the sacrament eat the body of ,god80 8,how many angels can stand on the point of a needle80 ,these are examples of the prevailing verbal gymnastics of that time1 and such problems can be found even in the works of ,peter ,lombard1 ,thomas ,aquinas1 and ,duns ,scotus4 ,logically stated the problem is that of the relation of particulars to universals4 ,it is usually called the problem of the reality of general ideas4 ,the question was started by a passage in that universally used text-book of the timethe ,isagoge of ,porphyry1 which was an introduction to ,aristotle's ,categories4 7,see p4 #ajb47 ,porphyry divides the problem into three parts3 7#a7 ,do genera and species exist in nature1 or do they exist as mere products of the intellect8 7#b7 ,if they are things apart from the mind1 are they corporeal or incorporeal things8 7#c7 ,do they exist outside the individual things of sense1 or are they realized in the latter8 ,upon the problem involved here the thinkers of the ,middle ,ages were divided into three schools1realists1 conceptualists1 and nominalists4#eg ,the realist maintained that the general idea had reality1 while the particular was only a defective imitation of it4 ,the nominalist1 on the contrary1 held that the universal is only a name 7nomen7 or an abstraction derived from the real particular thing4 ,the conceptualist tried to mediate between the two by showing that reality exists only in the particular4 ,to use the medival phrases1 realism is universalia ante rem2 nominalism is universalia post rem2 conceptualism is universalia in re4 7,see p4 #ajc for table of comparison with ,protagoras1 ,plato1 and ,aristotle47 ,the question was of great practical importance to the church4 ,is the universal church real and therefore all its dogma authoritative1 or are the particular churches real and authoritative8 ,this was a vital matter to the churchman of that day who was trying to establish the primacy of ,rome among the separate churches4 ,furthermore1 to show that humanity was less real than the particular human beings would destroy the church doctrine of sin and redemption1 for these dogmas depended on the assumption of the solidarity of the human race4 ,the church universal and its universal dogma were not mere names to the schoolmen1 and that is why the orthodox churchmen were nearly always realists4 ,religious principles were universals1 while particulars were secular4 ,dogma had become fixed1 with which traditionally the church had become identified4 ,to emphasize particular experiences would mean the continual correcting of tradition and a substitution of private judgment for church decrees4 ,when nominalism is completely worked out1 it will be found to conflict with church dogma at every point4 ,the result is skepticism4 ,still the churchman later saw that there is great danger also in a thorough-going realism like that of ,erigena's4 ,it became pantheism4 ,both realism and nominalism were dangerous doctrines for the church if they were driven to their logical conclusions4 ,anselm 7#ajcc-aaji73 ,life and ,position in ,medival ,philosophy4 ,anselm lived during the monastic revival which had begun in the tenth century4 ,he was in fact the last of the monastic teachers1 for during his declining years occurred the first of the ,crusades1 and the epoch following him witnessed the transference of learning from the monasteries to the universities4 ,he was born of a noble family in ,aosta1 ,lombardy1 and entered in early life the monastery of ,bec4 ,here he succeeded ,lanfranc as abbot1 and again he succeeded ,lanfranc in the archbishopric of ,canterbury4 ,he was a man of genuine piety1 of speculative bent1 and of unswerving faith in the dogma of the church4 ,as primate of ,england he resisted with much sagacity the encroachments of the secular power4 ,his ,cur ,deus ,homo was a treatise on the doctrine of the redemption and atonement1 and was one of the most important books of the ,middle ,ages4 ,anselm brought about a great change in theological teaching4 ,berengar of ,tours had but recently made an attack upon the doctrine of the real presence of ,christ in the ,eucharist1 and was the immediate cause of the 8storm and stress0 period of scholasticism that followed4 ,anselm's teacher and predecessor1 ,lanfranc1 had defended the doctrine4 ,the doctrine had not yet been settled1 and each side claimed the basis of authority4 ,anselm was therefore a witness of the first attempt to apply philosophy to dogma1 and he was the first to use dialectics with the serious purpose of defending dogma4 ,from this time on1 dialectics was no longer an intellectual diversion4 ,he1 the last of the monastic teachers1 was the first to employ dialectics with the new purpose of instructing the believer4 ,his entire life was animated by the desire to add knowledge to faith by the means of philosophy4 ,anselm's scholasticism therefore circulates about the ,patristic theology as a centre2 and his spirit and method is so similar to that of ,augustine and the ,apologists1 that he has been justly called 8the second ,augustine0 and 8the last of the ,fathers40 ,beside the safe and traditionally centralized teaching of ,anselm1 the imaginative pantheism of ,erigena seems like a body that had been loosened from its natural place and was floating away beyond control4 ,both ,erigena and ,anselm were inspired by the ,platonism that until the year #abjj dominated the ,middle ,ages4 ,that is1 both were realists4 ,the realism of ,erigena1 however1 expressed in full the mystic element of ,platonism4 ,it destroyed all grades of reality below ,god1 and made unnecessary the church and its offices4 ,erigena was an extreme realist2 ,anselm was consistent with the attitude of the church in being a moderate realist4 ,the credo ut intelligam 7faith as the basis of intellectual belief7 was the anchor which saved him and became the safeguard of all future orthodox scholastics4 ,the world to ,anselm is a hierarchy of universal reals1 such as the sacraments1 the church1 and the ,trinity4 ,to such dogmas of the church he applied philosophy1 not because they needed support1 but in order to make them clear by analysis4 ,philosophy shall only clarify dogma4 ,anselm's ,arguments for the ,existence of ,god4 ,the so-called 8,anselmic ,arguments for the ,existence of ,god0 are the best known parts of ,anselm's teaching1 and in the eyes of the churchman place his theodicy in the 8status of a finished science40 ,to get their cogency we must remember the underlying thought of medival realism2 the more universal a thing is1 the more real it isthe more it exists and the more perfect it is4 7,see p4 #ceb47 ,in his ,monologium he developed the so-called cosmological argument3 ,a single perfect and universal being must be assumed as the cause of all lesser beings4 ,god's essence must involve his existence4 ,every other being can be thought as coming into existence from some external cause1 while ,god alone exists from the necessity of his own nature4 ,in his ,proslogium he elaborated his more famous ontological argument3 ,man has the idea of a perfect being2 ,perfection involves among other qualities that of existence1 otherwise we could think of a more perfect being or one who did possess existence2 ,therefore ,god exists4 ,roscellinus 7d4 #aajj about73 ,life and ,teaching4 ,roscellinus1 a canon of ,compigne1 was the first scholastic to attempt to modify dogma by the dialectic1not that there had not occurred throughout the history of the church many theological controversies4 ,before this time such controversies had on the whole arisen over doctrines that had not yet become dogma4 ,the particular object of the attack of ,roscellinus was the dogma of the ,trinity1 and the base of his attack was none other than philosophy4 ,roscellinus completely failed in getting the church to modify this particular doctrine1 but he succeeded in a larger way than he could have imagined4 ,he brought out into distinctness the issue between reason and revelation4 ,the fundamental question thereafter was as to the rights of the human reason and the rights of divine revelation4 ,roscellinus supplied a powerful shock to faith and awakened the schools to the consequences of questions which had seemed before to be merely logical problems4 ,roscellinus was a nominalist1 and it was from the point of view of nominalism that he attempted to change the dogma of the ,trinity4 ,he made a life-long defense of the doctrine that the ,godhead was three different substances1 agreeing only in certain qualities4 ,this is tritheism and not a ,trinity4 ,but this was only the most striking example of his application of the general principle of nominalism4 ,in general1 universals are only names and have an existence only in the human mind4 ,universalia post rem4 ,individuals alone exist4 ,the groups formed out of many individuals by addition1 or the parts of an individual formed by division1 are mental affairs and have no reality4 ,roscellinus was opposed by ,anselm1 condemned by the church1 and obliged to recant4 ,he fled to ,england1 returned to ,france1 and again preached his doctrine4 ,storm and ,stress4 ,after the issue was brought to a head by the nominalism of ,roscellinus1 the twelfth century was torn in battle over the reality of general ideas4 ,the realists1 on the one hand1 tried to grade universals and to show how universals are related to particularsall of which ,anselm had left to faith4 ,how do universals1 such as the persons in the ,trinity1 the church1 the sacraments1 exist in one universal ,god8 ,grotesque explanations were offered1 like the imaginative work of ,bernard of ,chartres and the symbolic number theory of his brother1 ,theodoric4 ,william of ,champeaux1 a teacher of ,abelard1 almost reduced realism to a pantheism4 ,nothing exists but the universal2 all individuals are accidental modifications of the universal4 ,pantheism was so inherent in the blood of realism that it was always appearing here and there4 ,such pantheistic deductions by the realists brought out nominalism in opposition1 in spite of the repression of nominalism by the authorities of the church4 ,the nominalists sought protection and authority under the name of ,aristotle1 for his conceptualist doctrine was not known at this time4 ,the few writings of ,aristotle then known were very imperfectly interpreted4 ,one of the most ironical situations in the history of the ,middle ,ages is that1 up to the ,period of ,classic ,scholasticism1 ,plato was the authority of the orthodox and ,aristotle of the heterodox4 ,the ,life of ,abelard 7#ajgi-aadb74 ,abelard had both ,roscellinus and ,william of ,champeaux as teachers4 ,he quarreled with them both and set up a rival school of his own4 ,he taught in various places and was1 with some interruptions1 in ,paris from #aajh to #aacf4 ,the university did not exist until a generation after him1 but he was its true founder1 for he inaugurated the movement out of which the early universities sprang4 ,his method was transferred from philosophy to theology and thence to all studies4 ,it was a didactic method of drawing conclusions after an empirical enumeration of the pros and cons4 ,abelard was acquainted with no ,greek writings except in ,latin translations4 ,his great talent as a teacher and his keen ,french intellect1 that was impatient of all restraint1 made him1 however1 the most brilliant of the schoolmen4 ,two synods condemned his teaching4 ,probably his modern popular reputation rests upon his unfortunate love-relations with ,heloise4 ,abelard's ,conceptualism4 ,universals exist in the ,particulars4 ,abelard formed the storm-centre of the strife over the technical relations between particulars and universals4 ,his position has been misunderstood because he1 the pupil and opponent both of ,roscellinus and of ,william of ,champeaux1 fought each with the weapons of the other4 ,he was repelled from pantheism1 which appears to him to be the logic of realism1 and he recoiled equally from the sensualistic outcome of nominalism4 ,universals are the indispensable forms of knowledge1 and they must therefore have some existence in the nature of the things which we know4 ,this existence consists of the similarity of the essential characteristic of things4 ,this likeness is not a numerical identity1 but a unity which makes our knowledge of the particular things possible4 ,this likeness or similarity between things is the same as the types created by ,god4 ,thus the universal has no independent objective existence1 and on the other hand it is not a mere word out of all relation to things4 ,the universals exist in three ways3 7#a7 they exist before the things only as ,ideas in the mind of ,god2 7#b7 they coexist with the things as the essential likenesses of things2 7#c7 they exist after the things in the human mind1 when it has knowledge of things4 ,abelard developed his theory only polemically and never worked it out systematically4 ,on the technical side of this question the preceding lines of thought come into an unsystematic unity4 ,his theory was accepted by the ,arabian philosophers and is practically that of ,aquinas and ,duns ,scotus4 ,with ,abelard the problem was not solved indeed1 but it came to a preliminary stop in this statementuniversals have an equal significance1 ante rem in the mind of ,god1 in re in nature1 post rem in human knowledge4 ,abelard's ,rationalism4,the ,relation between ,reason and ,dogma4 ,the proud1 self-reliant1 self-conscious ,abelard could be nothing else than a rationalist4 ,he was the type of the controversial metaphysician4 ,he was the fighting dialectician1intolerant of restraint1 devoid of respect for authority1 seeking the prize of victory at any cost4 ,erigena1 as a mystic1 harmonized reason and dogma because they are equal2 ,anselm1 as an orthodox scholastic1 harmonized them because reason is subordinate to dogma and conforms to it2 ,abelard1 as a rationalist1 harmonized reason and dogma because dogma is subordinate to reason and conforms to reason4 ,to ,anselm reason merely clarifies dogma2 to ,abelard 8dogma is only a provisional substitute for reason40 ,anselm never questions dogma1 while ,abelard calls dogma before the bar of the reason and then acts as dogma's advocate4 ,we must try all dogma in court1 and1 contrary to modern legal practice1 we must doubt it until it proves its innocence4 ,for 8it is through doubt we come to investigation1 and through investigation to the truth40 ,a good example of ,abelard's attitude appears in his ,sic et ,non1 a treatise in which he sets the views of the ,fathers over against one another so that the reason may decide upon the truth4 ,another example of his method appears in his examination of the doctrine of the ,trinity1 and in the third book of ,christian ,theology he cites twenty-three objections and in the fourth book answers them4 ,this rationalizing spirit led him to advocate the doctrine of free-will1 to place the responsibility of moral conduct and theoretical belief upon the individual1 to regard ,christianity as the consummation of all religions and not as the presentation of anything new4 ,if in these discussions he was more brilliant than profound1 if he wrote upon many questions without solving any1 if the weight of his personality could not prevail in his controversies1 it was because the science of the twelfth century offered him little empirical support against the actual power of the church and the mighty inward strength of faith of the people4 ,what means had ,abelard to support his position that rational science should determine faith8 ,nothing but the hollow methods of scholastic logic and the traditions of the churchthe very things against which he was rebelling4 ,abelard set for himself a problem1 but he lacked the means of its solution4 ,it was1 however1 a problem that has never vanished from the memory of the ,european peoples4 ,the unrest in ,abelard's teaching is representative of the last century of this period1 which he brought to a close4 ,there was growing a general revolt from the unfruitful methods of the scholastic dialectic1 coupled with feverish desire for knowledge4 ,there was1 on the one hand1 a great reaction toward mysticism with the ,victorines1 ,bernard of ,clairvaux and ,bernard of ,tours1 and toward eclecticism with ,john of ,salisbury and ,peter the ,lombard4 ,on the other hand1 there was an interesting growth in empirical science4 ,but these theoretical interests were but eddies in the great current of events4 ,for ,jerusalem and the ,holy ,land1 the memorials in earthly form of all the ideals sacred to the medival mind1 had fallen into the hands of the infidel6 ,the western world was preparing for the rescue1 and the ,crusades were the last and the frenzied expression of the ,platonic idealism of the ,middle ,ages4 ,they bring the first two periods to a spectacular climax4 ,is it a mere coincidence that ,abelard brings to a close the dominance of idealism on the theoretic side at the time when earthly symbols of that idealism were being destroyed8 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,classic ,,scholasticism 7#abjj-adec7 ,the ,general ,character of this ,last ,period4 ,the first one hundred and fifty years of this period was the golden age of scholasticism2 the remaining one hundred years was a period of decline4 ,the period of ,classic ,scholasticism was a natural growth from the ,transitional ,period4 ,at the end of the ,transitional ,period the church1 in spite of ,mohammedans1 ,jews1 heretics1 and the classics1 outshone all else1 and its life and dogma were the most worth while4 ,in this period appeared a theology1 adequate to its life and dogma1a theology which was floated by the wave of piety of the ,mendicant ,orders4 ,acquaintance with the true ,aristotle was the needed stimulus4 ,the favorable conditions for that stimulus were 7#a7 the triumph of the church and papacy1 7#b7 the intense piety of the ,mendicants1 7#c7 the general culture derived from an inner development of the church and from contact with the ,east in ,constantinople1 ,palestine1 and ,spain4 ,aristotle and the ,mendicants were the new forces1 and they achieved their position against the hostility of the old ,orders1 the universities1 and the teachers4 ,the triumph was possible because the new forces contributed nothing really new1 but merely completed the old scheme of things4 ,the new ,aristotle1 as it was understood1 taught metaphysics1 epistemology1 and politics in a way to vindicate dogma as against the opposition of ,william of ,champeaux and ,roscellinus4 ,the ,mendicants on their part vindicated all dogma by blending it with faith on the one hand1 and with reason on the other4 ,the scholasticism of the ,transitional ,period was predominantly controversial1 while the character of this period1 which we are now entering1 is synthetic and constructive4 ,the infusion of fresh blood into culture1 from not only the logical but the physical works of ,aristotle1 resulted in the renewal of interest in the dialectic and in the construction of systems of metaphysics and psychology4 ,the central problem now concerns the respective scopes of reason and faith1 and to its solution logic and psychology are applied4 ,a complete solution seemed to be made by ,thomas ,aquinas1 which had its literary expression in ,dante4 ,without the introduction of any new philosophical principle the world of nature1 as interpreted by ,aristotle1 was apparently brought by ,thomas into theoretical harmony with the ,augustinian conception of the world of grace4 ,but no sooner did ,thomas seem to have formulated scholastic philosophy for all time1 than controversy broke out afresh4 ,for pantheistic mysticism gained its independence through one of ,thomas's own brother ,dominicans1 ,eckhart2 then ,duns ,scotus1 a ,franciscan1 drew up a metaphysical programme based upon the ,augustinian theory of the will1 and gave a new direction to philosophy2 and furthermore nominalism grew great upon ,aristotle's logic and the new empirical psychology4 ,for the churchman1 philosophy reached its completeness in ,thomas ,aquinas4 ,the later tendencies are regarded by the churchman as deteriorations1 and even modern philosophy is looked upon as but temporizing with the classic system of ,thomas4 ,illustration3 ,,growth ,,of ,,mohammedanism ,,during ,,the ,,middle ,,ages1 ,,showing ,,its ,,contact ,,with ,,christian ,,civilization ,the ,conquests of the ,mohammedans during the different epochs are shown by the different shading and the dates placed on the map4 ,the ,two ,civilizations4 ,this is one of the periods of thought resulting from the shiftings of distinct civilizations4 ,we have already noted the influence of the struggles of the ,orient and the ,occident in the ,persian wars and in the campaigns of ,alexander2 and we have lately seen an entirely new epoch ushered in by the invasions of the northern tribes into ,rome4 ,with the new epoch before us1 we find ourselves confronted with another new ethnic situation4 ,the civilization of the ,mohammedan had grown in mighty strength in the ,east1 had possessed itself of ,asia ,minor1 northern ,africa1 and ,spain1 and was now facing ,europe from the east1 west1 and south4 ,all through the ,first ,period of the ,middle ,ages the ,christian and ,mohammedan civilizations had been contestants for supremacy4 ,only as late as #gcb the ,mohammedan claim upon ,europe had been defeated at the battle of ,tours4 ,mohammed 7#egj-fcb7 converted the whole of ,arabia to ,islam during the ten years between his ,hegira 7#fbb7 and his death4 ,his successors took ,palestine 7#fcg71 ,syria 7#fch71 ,egypt 7#fdg71 ,persia 7#gaj71 all north ,africa 7by #gjg71 invaded ,spain 7#gaa71 and were repulsed at ,tours 7#gcb74 ,all this occurred within a century1 and for the next two hundred years 7#hjj-ajjj7 the ,mohammedans harassed ,rome and the islands of the ,mediterranean4 ,with the two civilizations facing each other on the ,mediterranean1 only mutual religious fanaticism could stand in the way of their mutual cultural influence4 ,in point of fact1 because of fanaticism the cultures of the two civilizations during the first centuries of the ,middle ,ages touched each other but little4 ,in those first centuries of the ,middle ,ages1 when western ,europe was shrouded in darkness1 the schools of the ,arabs at ,bagdad1 ,basra1 ,kufa1 and other cities were enjoying a splendid intellectual life4 ,from #hej to #aajj the centre of learning of the world was in the ,arabian cities of the ,east4#eh ,in #aajj the fanatical faction of the ,arabians crushed this intellectual movement in the ,east1 the scholars fled to ,spain1 and for a century longer ,saracen learning flourished in ,spain1 especially in ,cordova4 ,in #abjj the ,arabian orthodoxy made itself felt in ,spain1 and the ,arabian scholars there had to find refuge among the ,jews or ,christians4 ,the ,first ,contact of the ,two ,civilizations4 ,from the beginning of the ,middle ,ages the point of contact between the two civilizations was either war or commerce4 ,the ,jew was the globe-trotter of that day1 and was constantly bringing into ,europe reports of ,arabian civilization4 ,he was a philosopher1 a monotheist1 a ,semite1 like the ,arab1 and he had an interest in more than commercial matters4 ,about the end of the ,early ,period of the ,middle ,ages he found it profitable to make first ,hebrew and then ,latin translations of ,arabian learning1 and to sell them in ,europe4 ,in this form1 between #ajjj and #aajj1 medical and astronomical knowledge entered ,europe4 ,greek philosophical writings came next in translations from the ,arabic1 which had previously been translated from the ,syriac4 ,thus for the two hundred years1 between #ajjj and #abjj1 the ,christian schools were beginning to read portions of ,greek philosophy in ,latin1 which had previously passed through ,syriac and ,arabian 7and sometimes ,hebrew7 translations4 ,before #abjj1 there were none but these ,arabic versions4 ,a pertinent example of these was the works of ,aristotle4 ,before #abjj all of ,aristotle's writings1 except the ,organon1 appeared in ,europe in this form1 and the ,organon as a whole was not known until #aaej4 ,in #aabe some of ,aristotle's physics was known by the school of ,chartres2 in #abjj all the physics1 metaphysics1 and ethics were known in translations from the ,latin and ,hebrew4 ,these were accompanied by ,arabian commentaries1 which interpreted ,aristotle as if he were a neo-,platonic pantheist4 ,there were many churchmen interested in the work of translation1 as1 for example1 ,gerbert1 and ,raymond of ,toledo4 ,roger ,,ii of ,sicily 7d4 #aaed7 and ,frederick ,,ii 7d4 #abej7 had their courts filled with ,arabian philosophers4 ,frederick had many translations made and presented to the ,universities of ,oxford1 ,paris1 and ,bologna4 ,thus the influence of the ,arabian upon the ,christian culture before the ,classic ,period of the ,middle ,ages was not inconsiderable4 ,but this must be said of ,arabian cultureit was mainly borrowed4 ,arabia#ei acted merely as a transmitter of the materials of knowledge from the ,greeks and ,hindoos2 and so far as philosophy was concerned1 the ,arab was returning to ,europe1 in a perverted form1 the ,aristotle which had been deposited with him centuries before4 ,the ,mohammedans were the world's carriers of a considerable body of science and of many new agricultural products2 and of the amount which they introduced into ,europe only a small portion was their own4 ,at the end of the twelfth century the ,christian at ,rome and ,york was richer in the principles of discovery1 but poorer in the amount of traditional learning and of scientific wealth1 than the ,mohammedan at ,bagdad and ,cordova4 ,the ,conflict between the ,two ,civilizations4,the ,crusades4#fj ,the rivalry between the two civilizations became intensified into an open conflict about the year #aajj4 ,up to the year #ajjj the ,mohammedan leaders were ,arabians1 but in the eleventh century these ,arabians were conquered by tribes of ,turks or ,mongolians from the north of ,asia4 ,these became converted to ,mohammedanism1 but they had no love for culture nor reverence for the places in ,palestine1 which were sacred alike to the ,christian and the ,arab4 ,from the fourth to the twelfth century the pilgrimages of the ,christians1 individually or in multitudes1 largely increased1 but in the eleventh century the new race of ,mohammedan ,turks made the access to ,jerusalem more difficult4 ,they began to subject the pilgrims to cruelties1 so that the ,christian was beginning to find the door of his ,holy ,land closed to him4 ,then did ,platonic ,christianity rush to the rescue of those sacred places that symbolized its ideals4 ,this onslaught upon the ,mohammedans came in a series of surges1 traditionally spoken of as the eight ,crusades4#fa ,the ,crusades resulted quite contrary to the expectations of the church1 for the ,crusaders failed in permanently recapturing ,jerusalem4 ,but the ,crusades accomplished the unexpected thingthey awakened ,europe4 ,the effect of the ,crusades upon ,europe was far greater than upon the ,orient4 ,the results may be enumerated as follows3 #a4 ,the dormant ,european intellect was shaken up by contact with the heathen1 whom the ,europeans had previously despised1 but whom they found to be their superiors4 #b4 ,a new national rivalry was aroused among the ,christian soldiers4 ,this national spirit was helped negatively by the losses among the feudal lords4 #c4 ,commercial activity was given an immense impulse4 ,a new social class was formed1 which allied itself with the kings against the feudal lords4 ,trade was opened with the ,east1 revealing new luxuries and new needs4 ,venice1 ,pisa1 and ,genoa1 and in a secondary way also the ,german1 ,french1 and ,english towns1 became prosperous commercial centres4 #d4 ,the power of the ,latin church was extended4 #e4 ,the works of ,aristotle were introduced in translations direct from the original ,greek4 ,in the fourth ,crusade ,constantinople was captured by the ,crusaders 7#abjd71 and in this way the treasures of the ,greeks were opened to the western scholars4 ,the complete works of ,aristotle were introduced into western ,europe at a time when ,aristotle was being interpreted as a pantheist by the ,arabian commentators4 ,the ,revival of ,learning4 ,the need of learning1 that had been felt in the twelfth century1 was now being satisfied4 ,the entire logic of ,aristotle and his entire natural science gave the new materials for knowledge4 ,these came into ,europe within the century between #aaej and #abej1 7#a7 through translations from the ,arabic1 and then 7#b7 directly through translations from the ,greek4 ,aristotle's logic revived scholasticism and his science became the foundation of metaphysics4 ,medival thought was ready for this and there was a complete readjustment without the introduction of a new philosophical principle4 ,the side of ,augustine's teaching that emphasized the intellect rather than the will1 gained by being confirmed by the systematic intellectualism of ,aristotle4 ,the founder of this was ,albert of ,bollstaedt2 the organizer and literary codifier was ,thomas ,aquinas2 the poetic expression was ,dante4 ,the new centres of learning were ,paris and ,constantinople4 ,the centres of teaching were transferred from the monasteries to the new ,universities 7#aajj-acjj74 ,salerno had its beginnings in the latter part of the eleventh century4 ,bologna in law1 ,oxford in general culture and theology1 ,paris in the same studies1 show traces of general organization between #aafj and #abjj4 ,there were established seventy-nine of these universities between #aaej and #aejj4 ,they were not 8founded10 but grew up as part of this movement4#fb ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,of ,,dante',s ,,poetic ,,conception ,,of ,,the ,,universe ,from ,rossetti's ,shadow of ,dante 7,showing its divisions of ,hell 7at centre of the earth71 ,purgatory1 and the nine heavens4 ,the evident plan beneath this is the ,ptolemaic cosmography47 ,nevertheless1 the struggle was a full century long before official recognition of ,aristotle came4 ,the name of ,aristotle had been associated with pantheism for many years1 on account of the ,arabian versions of his teaching4 ,the neo-,platonic doctrine of emanations1 with its pantheism in the ,arabian versions1 was a tendency of which the church had been shy since the days of ,erigena4 ,until the theistic character of ,aristotle's teaching became assured by the direct ,latin translations from the ,greek1 there was a powerful reaction against the whole of the new learning4 ,the church had condemned the ,physics in #abji and the ,metaphysics in #abae4 ,but in #abed ,aristotle was officially recognized1 and fifty years later he became the guide of the church1 whom no one could contradict without being accused of heresy4 ,the ,catholic church never showed its ability to greater advantage than in its dealings with the new problems of this period4 ,the people of a purely religious epoch now came into possession of ,aristotelianism4 ,for centuries the intellect had been starving on formal logic4 ,an intellectual revolution was imminent4 ,here in ,aristotle was presented a rich theory of nature that the church had never considered4 ,yet it is doubtful if ,aristotle would have been accepted1 had the ,mendicant ,friarsthe ,dominicans and ,franciscansnot succeeded in establishing chairs in the ,university of ,paris4 ,these monks did not love philosophy in itself4 ,they saw1 however1 that philosophy must be able to defend itself against infidel philosophy by the weapons of philosophy4 ,but curiously enough1 ,aristotelianism1 which was the spring of this renaissance1 became1 by its incorporation into the church1 the great obstacle to the real ,renaissance two hundred and fifty years later4 ,the ,strength and ,burden of ,aristotle to the ,church4 #a4 ,the ,strength of ,aristotle to the ,church3 7#a7 ,aristotle elaborated for the church1 with great clearness1 the conception of a transcendent ,god4 ,this was a weapon for the church against neo-,platonism and mysticism4 7#b7 ,aristotle gave to the church a theory of nature that supplemented its theory of grace4 7#c7 ,aristotle established a philosophical standard for the truth of things4 ,this proved of great value to the church because it was under the control of the church4 ,in the first two periods of the ,middle ,ages philosophical thought had a relative independence because it was without a recognized standard2 now philosophy could be controlled by the standard of ,aristotle4 ,for example1 with the coming of ,aristotle there came certain standard definitions of substance1 person1 nature1 accident1 mode1 potency1 and act4 #b4 ,the ,burden of ,aristotle to the ,church3 7#a7 ,aristotle encouraged a taste for science and analysis4 ,at first the ,aristotelian influence in this direction was very small1 but its growth was only a question of time4 7#b7 ,aristotle became for the church a second standard4 ,the problem for the churchman now became a double one3 7a7 ,is my teaching consistent with church dogma8 7b7 ,is my teaching consistent with ,aristotle8 8,my son10 was the reply to a youth who thought he had discovered spots on the sun1 8,i have read ,aristotle many times and ,i assure you there is nothing of the kind in him40 ,dogma1 not now the only standard1 is not infallible4 ,the reason need not follow dogma1 but its own standard4 ,revelation became a realm of mystery which the reason could not reach1 but to which it pointed4 ,a doctrine thus might be of such a nature that it might be philosophically true1 but theologically not true4 ,the ,predecessors of ,aquinas4 ,many distinguished names stand at the close of the ,transitional ,period and the beginning of the ,classic ,period4 ,these express the transitional character of the thought of the threshold of this time4 ,they show1 like ,abelard1 the tendency toward rationalism4 ,alexander of ,hales 7d4 #abfd71 ,william of ,aubergne 7d4 #abdi71 ,vincent of ,beauvais 7d4 #abdf71 ,albert of ,bollstaedt1 called ,albertus ,magnus 7d4 #abhj71 show the influence of the new ,aristotelian science4 ,albert was the teacher of ,thomas ,aquinas4 ,the attempt of ,thomas to form a theological system for the church was anticipated by the so-called ,sums of the twelfth century1 of which the work of ,peter the ,lombard was the model4 ,the four books of ,sums of ,peter were collections of opinions of the ,fathers on questions of dogma4 ,they show the influence of ,aristotle and the method of ,abelard4 ,the ,sums of ,peter became for several centuries the text-book of the schools and the subject of innumerable commentaries4 ,it was the core of ,classic scholastic literature1 and around it grew up the problems of metaphysics and psychology4 ,the ,life of ,thomas ,aquinas 7#abbd-abgd74,the ,founder of the ,dominican ,tradition4 ,thomas belonged to a noble house which was related to the royal family4 ,he studied in the ,university of ,naples1 but at the age of nineteen1 upon resolving to enter the ,dominican order1 he was captured and kept a prisoner by his brothers4 ,after two years he made his escape1 and1 his family having consented to his taking orders1 he went to ,cologne under the instruction of ,albert4 ,he was then sent to ,paris1 where he obtained his degree in #abeg4 ,he was a successful lecturer at ,paris until #abfa1 when he was called by the ,pope to teach philosophy in ,rome1 ,bologna1 and ,pisa4 ,during this period he composed his greatest work1 ,summa ,theologiae4 ,he declined preferment and finally resided at ,naples4 ,he always enjoyed the highest consideration of the church authorities4 ,thomas1 the founder of the 8,dominican tradition10 was the first to formulate ,christian ,aristotelianism and to draw for the church the line between the realms of reason and faith4 ,he did not so much create doctrine as he transformed and assimilated it4 ,the sources from which he drew were many3 the ,scriptures1 the ,fathers1 ,greek philosophy1 and the teaching of contemporary ,arabians and ,jews4 ,if1 as some historians maintain1 he was not a thinker of the first rank1 he at least relieved the church from a delicate situation by means of a conciliating theology4 ,certainly his predecessors and contemporaries stand eclipsed by him4 ,he satisfied the medival demand for order and he prevented deterioration in the church doctrine4 ,he did not rise above his age1 although he stood at the head of its intellectual movement4 ,he was1 on the contrary1 the most perfect expression of scholasticism1 and he was affectionately regarded as doctor angelicus and again as doctor universalis4 ,the ,central ,principle of ,thomas's ,doctrine,the ,twofold ,truth4 ,the life-purpose of ,thomas was to bring ,christianity into closer relation with civilization and science4 ,he sought to give all departments of knowledge their rights and at the same time to protect the ascendency of religion4 ,this was to him the same as bringing ,christianity and ,aristotle together1 for ,aristotle meant to him the entire product of ancient civilization4 ,to the medival world of grace he added a world of nature1 and1 fully dominated by the medival love of order1 he unfolded so comprehensive a view of life that he included all its problems4 ,he felt that the natural and the revealed must not become a contradiction4 ,to accomplish this ,thomas found in ,aristotle his own ideal estimate of things4 ,looking at ,aristotle through his own neo-,platonism1 he naturally found in ,aristotle more of the inner and religious estimate of nature than the facts will allow4 ,yet it was evident to ,thomas that there was in ,aristotle a great interest in nature and a great reserve on ultimate questions4 ,nature was1 according to ,aristotle1 an essence unfolding in a system of grades4 ,this became the central principle of ,aquinas in this form3 ,nature is a sketch in outline of the world of grace4 ,before the eye of the religious mind these two truths should appear3 7#a7 the world of faith and the world of nature are two properly distinct worlds2 7#b7 the world of faith is a continuation of the world of nature4 ,the world of grace and the world of nature are two grades of the whole of existence4 ,nature is the lower stage of development1 and the point of contact between it and the world of grace is the soul of man4 ,religion and philosophy thus have different spheres1 but they are not contradictory4 ,grace does not destroy1 but it perfects nature4 ,nature is subordinate to grace as man is subordinate to the ,christian1 the state to the church1 the ,emperor to the ,pope4#fc ,the difference between philosophy and theology is not that theology treats of ,god and divine truths1 and philosophy does not4 ,philosophy discusses divine truths4 ,but the difference lies here1 that theology views truths in the light of revelation1 while philosophy views them in the light of reason4 ,yet there are truths that belong to philosophy1 truths that belong to theology1 and truths that belong to both4 ,the problems of the existence of ,god1 the immortality of the soul1 and the relation of the world to ,god are theological problems1 yet they can also be demonstrated by the reason of philosophy2 but the mysteries of the ,trinity1 the ,incarnation1 and the temporal creation are beyond the scope of the reason and belong to theology4 ,philosophy and theology are distinct1 yet they are in harmony4 ,theology supplements philosophy with faith2 philosophy supplements theology by 7#a7 establishing preliminary motives1 7#b7 supplying analogies1 7#c7 answering objections4 ,thomas accepts both propositions which had divided his predecessors3 credo ut intelligam and intelligo ut credam4 ,above historical revelation there is something even higher1 which could be called another realm1 were it not more of a hope than a possession of man4 ,its appearance in the doctrine of ,thomas shows the influence of ,plato upon him4 ,it is the immediate union of the individual with ,god in mystic ecstasy4#fd ,it is the dome of the religious temple that ,thomas has built4 ,but ,thomas was careful to insist that this heavenly glory could not be gained except through the offices of the church4 ,the individual cannot reach ,god through his own unaided efforts1 but the sacraments of the church form the mysterious background of the religious life4 ,the ,problem of ,individuality,the ,relation of ,particulars and ,universals4 ,the all-absorbing question of the ,transitional ,period1 of the relation of particulars and universals1 became for ,thomas and his successors the problem of individuality4 ,for the schoolman was obliged to define the individual and fix his place in his ,aristotelian world1 if he was to be successful against the pantheism of the ,arabian ,aristotelianism4 ,what is the nature and standing of the individual8 ,what constitutes the difference between individuals8 ,the whole theological edifice of ,thomas would collapse in mystic unity1 the immortality of the soul would be lost and the offices of the church would be nullified1 unless ,thomas showed the positive nature of the individual4 ,in this connection we must remember that on the whole the ,middle ,ages had accepted ,abelard's analysis of the problem of the relation of universals and particulars3 the universals exist in three ways1 ante rem or in ,god's mind2 post rem or in man's mind2 in re or in nature4 ,to ,thomas the universals as abstractions 7universalia post rem7 in the human mind cannot be individuals1 for they have no real existence4 ,to have real existence the universal must exist in re1 in the many1 as the essence of things2 not as abstraction beside the many4 ,the question of individuality therefore to ,thomas concerns properly only objects in re1 or objects in the corporeal world4#fe ,these are objects of ,form and ,matter4 ,the question is1 whether the ,form or the matter of corporeal things is the principle of its individuality4 ,thomas says that matter is this principle1not indeterminate matter1 but matter with quantitative determinations4 ,the difference between earthly individuals is numericala difference of time and space relations4 ,the ,forms of nature objects change continually according to their material conditions1 but these conditions do not change4 ,nevertheless the quantitative determinations of individuals are not the cause1 but the condition1 of their existence4 ,but the question about the status of beings in the spiritual world1 8separate ,forms10 is a more difficult one for ,thomas4 ,this is the problem about ,god1 the angels1 and the souls of men4 ,they are evidently not individualized by matter4 ,what is the principle that distinguishes them from one another8 ,they are ,forms without matter and they are individualized through themselves1 since they have no need of material determinations4 ,thus ,god is distinguished from everything else as pure ,form or pure actuality4 ,he is the unique individual in whom all differences merge4 ,but so also are the angels actualized through themselves4 ,what is the difference between ,god and the angels8 ,god is an absolute genus2 the angel is a relative genus1 i4 e4 it is the only one of its kind4 ,but what is the condition of the souls of men8 ,are they all alike or do they have a principle of distinction8 ,yes1 they are distinguishable1 for each soul upon separation from its body carries with it a love for its former body1 and that distinguishes it from other souls4 ,the ,primacy of the ,will or the ,intellect4 ,up to this time there had been no psychological dispute as to which of the faculties was fundamental4 ,now the question appears in full force4 ,much of the literature of this period is upon the question of the primacy of the will or the intellect1 and it appears to be almost the leading motive of the time4 ,augustine had placed the will in the foreground of his teaching4 ,his successors had never disputed the subject1 but had been engaged in discussing what products of the intellect are realthe particulars or the universals4 ,with the introduction of the intellectualism of ,aristotle1 there almost immediately arose defenders of ,augustine4 ,to them ,aristotelianism was too rationalistic4 ,thomas follows ,aristotle unconditionally1 and with him stand the ,german mystics4 ,intellectualism becomes the central principle of what is known as the 8,dominican tradition40 ,duns ,scotus was a ,franciscan monk4 ,he took up arms for the primacy of the will1 and this became the central principle of the 8,franciscan tradition40 ,on this point the nominalists were his allies4 ,the problem of the will arose first with reference to the human will4 ,thomas contended against ,duns ,scotus that man is free so far as he follows his knowledge of the good4 ,the intellect is therefore primal1 for it determines the will by showing the will what the good is4 ,the question next arose as to the priority of the faculties in ,god4 ,does ,god's will dominate ,his intellect or ,his intellect dominate ,his will8 ,this was a vital point in the ,augustinian theodicy4 ,does ,god will the good to be good1 or does ,his will act according to what ,he knows to be good8 ,here lies the point at issue between the ,dominican ,thomas and the ,franciscan ,scotus4 ,thomas maintained that the intellect of ,god determines ,his will4 ,the intellect is determined by the truth so long as the intellect is true to itself4 ,why should not the will be determined by the truth in the same way8 ,with ,god this freedom for the truth is ,god himself4 ,the world is the best possible world1 for ,god has willed it out of himself4 ,the world is determined by goodness and man's will is determined by the same goodness4 ,when the sense conquers the morally determined will1 there is sin4 ,the senses1 and not the will1 are the cause of sin4 ,duns ,scotus 7#abgj-acjh71 the ,founder of the ,franciscan ,tradition,life and ,philosophical ,position4 ,thus the ,middle ,ages did not come to a standstill with ,thomas4 ,a greater movement existed after him than is often thought4 ,the leading minds who succeeded ,thomas refused to follow the middle course which he had mapped out4 ,new attempts were made to relate the world of grace and the world of nature4 ,one was mysticism1 represented by ,eckhart 7d4 #acgb74 ,the other was the reaction of the ,augustinians against the intellectualism of the new ,aristotelianism as represented by ,thomas4 ,the leader in this was ,duns ,scotus4 ,the seat of this movement was ,oxford4#ff ,duns ,scotus was born in ,ireland and at an early age he joined the ,franciscan order4 ,he graduated from ,oxford1 which at that time was anti-,thomistic4 ,he then taught theology and philosophy at ,oxford for ten years4 ,his lectures were largely attended and his fame spread over ,europe4 ,he went to ,paris in #acjd1 where he taught for four years4 ,he was then transferred to ,cologne1 where he died4 ,scotus was the ,kant of scholasticism4 ,the time of construction of scholasticism had passed1 and the time of criticism and analysis had come4 ,scotus was the intellectual knight-errant who refused to accept any theory without subjecting it to criticism4 ,he was the acutest mind of the ,middle ,ages and was called the doctor subtilis4 ,duns ,scotus's ,conception of the ,twofold ,truth4,the ,separation of ,science and ,religion4 ,the distinction between revelation1 theology1 and philosophy1 that appears in this period of ,classic ,scholasticism1 was sharply drawn by ,scotus4 ,in ,thomas's conception of a graded world of development the distinction between theology and philosophy was not emphasized4 ,philosophy now in the hands of ,scotus becomes science1 having the marks of exactness that compel belief1 but is1 however1 restricted to its own realm4 ,by philosophy ,scotus means logic4 ,in matters of faith logic has nothing whatever to say1 for at that extreme stands revelation possessing the absolute truth that compels faith4 ,between revelation and philosophy ,scotus squeezes theologythe science that his predecessors had used to clarify revelation4 ,with ,scotus it becomes a domain that is poor indeed4 ,its objects are the highest1 but it can never reach them4 ,it has not the divine assurance of revelation nor the exactness of logical science4 ,its highest conclusions are only probable1 and it can help revelation only in a negative way4 ,it cannot prove the doctrine of the ,trinity1 incarnation1 creation1 immortality1 and even its proofs for the existence of ,god have no cogency4 ,philosophy and revelation both profit at the expense of scholastic theology4 ,after ,scotus scientific heresy frequently shielded itself on the ground that its conclusions apply only to the realm of science1 while the opposite may be true in revelation4 ,the ,inscrutable ,will of ,god4 ,revelation is thus placed beyond the reach of the human reason because it rests on the inscrutable will of ,god4 ,revelation is ,god's free act4 ,god must be free4 ,if ,thomas's conception of ,god's will as determined by his intellect were true1 ,god would not be free4 ,the intellect in man or ,god must be the servant of the will1 if the will be free4 ,in man consciousness produces at first a number of indistinct and imperfect ideas4 ,those ideas become distinct upon which the will fixes its attention1 while the others cease to exist because they are unsupported by the will4 ,god's will is more fundamental than the good4 ,god makes the good to be good4 ,both ,thomas and ,scotus say that the moral law is the command of ,god4 ,thomas conceives it to be ,god's command because it is in accord with the good2 ,scotus1 for no other reason than that it is ,god's command4 ,the good might be different if ,god so created it4 ,in opposition to ,thomas1 ,scotus maintained that ,god does not have to create what ,he does create1 and that this is not the best possible world4 ,god creates what ,he wills2 ,he can1 therefore1 grant dispensation1 and so can the church4 ,if ,god's will were determined by ,his intellect1 ,he would have no independence1 ,he would not even exist1 ,he would be only nature or one of its causes1 there could be no evil nor accident4 ,he can supersede the moral law by a new law1 just as ,he superseded the ,mosaic law by the ,gospel4 ,individuality1 revelation1 salvation1 and all objects of faith have their existence only in the groundless and inscrutable will of ,god4 ,for this reason there can be no rational theology4 ,this founder of the 8,franciscan tradition0 of practical piety and meritorious action could not have other than the freedom of the will as his central principle4 ,an ,augustinian he refused1 however1 to follow ,augustine in centralizing freedom in ,god4 ,the object of faith is the will of ,god1 the subject of faith is the will of man4 ,human freedom consists in coperation with divine grace4 ,man can help in the work of ,god4 ,his freedom is partly formal3 he can will or not will4 ,it is partly material3 he can will ,a or ,b4 ,there is no ulterior ground to determine the human will1 and this undetermined freedom is the ground for merit1 provided the human will coincides with the divine4 ,the ,problem of ,individuality4 ,the problem of individuation was a favorite one with ,scotus4 ,while ,scotus agrees with ,thomas as to the threefold existence of the universal1 the individual and not the universal is the ultimate fact4 ,the individual cannot be deduced from the universal1 nor can it be constituted by the quantitative determinations of matter4 ,it is already individualized and substantialized4 ,form1 not matter1 individualizes4 ,the definite individual form1 the 8thisness0 7hcceitas71 is the ultimate fact4 ,the individual can only be verified as actual fact4 ,the individual is irreducible1 and no further explanation can be made than to say that it is an individual4 ,thus the inquiry into the ,principium individuationis has no meaning4 ,after ,duns ,scotus4 ,the church failed to canonize ,scotus2 for though he claimed to be its most faithful son1 he taught the dangerous doctrine of freedom of the individual will4 ,his doctrine also marks the beginning of empirical investigation of nature and the decadence of formal logic4 ,although a most faithful follower of the church1 he brought scholasticism to the point where it no longer served the church4 ,the result was ultrarationalismnot what ,scotus intended4 ,but when revelation no longer rests upon rational ground1 and when there exists by its side a philosophical science whose basis is rational1 it is only a question of time when revelation shall lose its authority for men4 ,when philosophy passed from ,scotus to ,ockam1 ,ockam's conception of the individual as the ultimately real and of the unrationality of revelation gave him the old name of nominalist4 ,this is a misnomer1 for the doctrine of ,ockam is quite different from the nominalism of ,roscellinus4 ,the temper of the time was different from those days when ,roscellinus followed upon ,anselm1 for the superior minds were now turning away from orthodoxy4 ,disciples of both ,thomas and ,scotus were becoming nominalists4 ,it was an epoch when scholasticism was being discredited by the universities1 when theology was less a study in the curricula1 when religion was being superseded by magic1 when there were rival claimants for the ,pope's chair1 when there was strife between the church and the state4 ,the spirit of the age was toward nominalism in every form4 ,the command1 in #acci1 to the ,university of ,paris not to use ,ockam's works shows how powerful had become his following during his lifetime4 ,dominicans and ,augustinians went over in crowds to nominalism4 ,this beginning of nominalism betrays the growth of ,european national life1 modern languages1 art1 and the sciences4 ,it shows the beginning of ,protestantism in all departments4 ,the church attempted to crush it in the way that it had crushed ,roscellinus4 ,but this nominalism had too deep root4 ,william of ,ockam 7#abhj-acdi73 ,life and ,teaching4 ,ockam was called ,doctor ,invincibilis4 ,he was born in ,ockam1 ,england1 and studied at ,oxford1 where he probably had ,scotus as a teacher4 ,after teaching in ,paris 7#acbj-acbe71 he left ,paris and joined the opponents of the temporal power of the ,pope4 ,he was imprisoned at ,avignon1 but escaped to the court of ,louis of ,bavaria1 where he died4 ,to ,louis he made his celebrated promise1 8,if you will defend me with your sword1 ,i will defend you with my pen40 ,he has been called 8the first ,protestant40 ,the nominalism of ,ockam was more complex than that of ,roscellinus1 and yet it was essentially a tendency to simplification by discarding all metaphysics and psychology as useless4 8,ockam's razor0 was the nickname of his philosophy4 ,he regarded concepts as subjective signs or 8terms0 of actual facts4 ,hence his philosophy was also called terminism4 ,there was also in it a naturalistic tendency which was the result of the scientific studies of the ,aristotelian ,arabians4 ,with these logical and naturalistic motives were united the ,augustinian doctrine of the will4 ,these were the three factors of a nominalism that felt the conviction of the importance of the inner life as well as the need of an extended investigation of nature4 ,it is1 moreover1 no accident that ,ockam was conservative1 for he belonged to the ,franciscans1 the most conservative of the monastic bodies4 ,this nominalism was a reaction against scholasticism1 in order to strengthen the supernatural character of dogma4 ,ockam felt that scholasticism had waxed too greatthat under the guise of serving religion it had virtually subordinated religion4 ,the reactionary ,franciscans proclaimed the entire separation of religion and philosophy in order to make room for faith4 ,faith could be purified only by renouncing scholasticism4 ,the temporal power must be given up by the church1 the state and the church must be separated4 ,no new knowledge about faith can be obtained4 ,the dogma must be left impregnable1 even though scientifically men become skeptics4 ,consistent1 therefore1 was it for this movement to disjoin entirely the parts of the twofold truth4 ,scotus had almost crowded out natural theology2 ,ockam completed the work of ,scotus4 ,scholasticism or natural theology is a rubbish-heap of hypotheses4 ,the church should abandon speculation and emphasize faith4 ,it should return to the simplicity and holiness of the ,apostolic church4 ,ockam was devoted to the true upbuilding of the church and was a follower of ,st4 ,francis4 ,it was his love for the church that made him take sides against her pretensions to temporal power4 ,ockam was the natural precursor of his fellow countryman ,john ,locke1 and the ,english empirical school4 ,individual things have the reality of original ,forms1 for they come to us intuitively4 ,our ideas are only signs of them4 ,this is a relation of the 8first intention40 ,as individual ideas are related to individual things1 so general ideas are related to individual ideas4 ,this is the relation of the 8second intention40 ,the general idea referring thus indirectly to an individual thing is therefore arbitrary and capricious4 ,real science deals with things intuitively observed2 rational science only with the relations between ideas4 ,nevertheless real science deals only with an inner world1 even if its material is intuitively known4 ,intuitions are only representatives of the real world4 ,how much less real must the world of rational science then be1 since it presupposes these inner intuitions of real science4 ,the universal1 therefore1 has no reality4 ,it is a name1 a sign of many things1 a term4 ,only the individual is real4 ,after ,ockam4 ,william of ,ockam was the last schoolman4 ,when his doctrine of terminism was united with ,augustine's powerful doctrine of the will1forming an extreme individualism1the glimmering of the dawn of modern times appears4 ,the movement was made still stronger by the study of the history of development psychologically1 and it became a kind of idealism of the inner life4 ,already1 too1 there were beginning investigations in natural science1 based upon empirical study4 ,modern subjectivism was at hand2 scholasticism had run its course4 ,the representatives of the scholastic philosophy of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries forgot the principle of the ,classic ,schoolmen and became mere commentators of the leaders of the tradition to which they belonged4 ,their verbal subtleties were too refined to be understood4 ,the efforts of ,nicolas ,cusanus to bring secular science under a system of scholastic mysticism only promoted the modern movement4 ,cusanus therefore belongs to the next period1 and of him we shall subsequently hear4 ,,index ,abdera #ajg1 #aai4 ,see ,atomists4 ,abelard life of1 #cfc2 his conceptualism1 #cfd2 his rationalism1 #cfe-cfg4 ,academy1 the what it was1 #abd2 after the death of ,plato1 #aff2 and ,aristotle1 #afi-aga2 ,older1 ,middle1 and ,new1 #bbj1 #bba2 the skepticism of1 #bff-bfh2 eclecticism in1 #bgj4 ,adams1 ,g4 ,b4 ,civilization during the ,middle ,ages1 #cgd n4 ,adamson1 ,robert ,the ,development of ,greek ,philosophy quoted1 #bee4 nesidemus ,skeptic1 #bfh4 ,agrippa ,skeptic1 #bfh1 #bfi4 ,albertus ,magnus ,see ,bollstaedt4 ,alcidamus ,sophist1 #fh4 ,alcuin #cdi1 #cej4 ,alexander of ,hales #cgi4 ,alexandria a centre of ,hellenism1 #bae2 in the ,middle ,ages1 #bhb4 ,alexandrian ,school of neo-,platonism #bij-bih4 ,ammonius ,saccas #bij1 #cad4 ,anamnesis #adg-adi4 ,anaxagoras his life1 #dc2 his philosophy1 #de-dg4 ,anaximander #bd1 #be4 ,anaximenes #be4 ,ancient ,philosophy length of1 #a2 underlying character of1 #b2 divisions of1 #d1 #e2 literary sources of1 #f4 ,animism #ai4 ,anselm life and position in medival philosophy1 #cei-cfa2 his arguments for the existence of ,god1 #cfa2 on reason and dogma1 #cfe4 ,anthropological period of ,greek philosophy #ab1 #ac2 discussion of1 #ee-ig2 historical summary of1 #ee4 ,anthropologists #ajc4 ,anthropology defined1 #ac4 ,antiochus of ,ascalon #bgj1 #bga4 ,antisthenes founder of the ,cynic school1 #ic1 #ie4 ,apathy ,stoic1 #bea4 ,apollonius neo-,pythagorean1 #bhe4 ,apologists1 the #cjg-cji4 ,aquinas1 ,thomas on the problem of reason and faith1 #cfi1 #cgg2 the predecessors of1 #cgi1 #chj2 life of 7founder of the ,dominican tradition71 #chj1 #cha2 the central principle of his doctrine1 #cha-chc2 the problem of individuality according to1 #chc-che2 on the will and the intellect1 #che1 #chf4 ,arabian schools1 #cga1 #cgb2 translations of ,greek works1 #cgb1 #cgc4 ,arcesilaus #bfg4 meaning of1 #hd4 ,aristippus founder of the ,cyrenaic school1 #ic1 #if2 and ,epicurus1 #bbi1 #bcj4 ,aristophanes opposed the ,sophists1 #gd4 ,aristotle his place in ,greek history1 #ih-ajj1 #ajc2 conceptualist1 #ajd2 advanced age at which he finished his education1 #abe2 in the ,academy and ,lyceum1 #aff-afh2 chronological sketch of his life1 #afh1 #afi2 his biography in detail1 #afi-agc2 the writings of1 #agc-agf2 his starting-point1 #agf1 #agg2 the fundamental principle in his philosophy1 #agg-ahj2 his logic1 #ahj-ahe2 his metaphysics1 #ahe-aid2 development is purposeful1 #ahe-ahg2 his two different conceptions of purpose1 #ahg-aij2 his conception of ,god1 #aij1 #aia2 his conception of matter1 #aia1 #aib2 his conception of nature1 #aib-aid2 his theory of physics1 #aid-aif2 his psychology1 #aif-aii2 his ethics1 #aii-bjb2 his political philosophy1 #bjb1 #bjc2 in the ,middle ,ages1 #ccb1 #cfc1 #cfh1 #cfi2 ,arabic versions of his works1 #cgb1 #cgc2 works of1 introduced into ,western ,europe1 #cge-cgh2 the strength and burden of1 to the church1 #cgh1 #cgi2 and ,thomas ,aquinas1 #chj1 #cha4 ,arnold1 ,matthew #dc n4 ,astronomy of the ,pythagoreans1 #di-eb1 #ec2 ,ptolemaic1 #cbb-cbe4 ,ataraxia of ,epicurus1 #bca1 #bcc2 of the ,skeptics1 #bff4 ,athenian school of neo-,platonism #bij1 #bii-cja4 ,athens rise of1 #eg1 #eh2 and ,socrates1 #ia2 and ,abdera1 #aai2 a centre of ,hellenism1 #bac-bae4 ,atomism of ,epicurus1 the #bch-bdj4 ,atomistic school1 the #ajg4 ,atomists1 the philosophy of1 #dg1 #dh4 ,atoms of ,democritus1 the #aji-aad1 #aaf1 #aag4 ,augustine the historical position of1 #cjf1 #cah1 #cce-cch2 the life of1 #cci1 #cdj2 the two elements in his teaching1 #cdj1 #cda2 the neo-,platonic element3 the inner certainties of consciousness1 #cda-cde2 the authority of the church according to1 #cde-cdg4 ,aurelius1 ,marcus #bdc1 #bdf4 ,bacon1 ,francis ,essay on ,love1 #aec n4 ,bacon1 ,roger #chg n4 ,bardesanes ,gnostic1 #caj4 ,basilides ,gnostic1 #caj4 ,becoming word how used1 #bb2 in ,heracleitus's doctrine1 #bi2 according to ,plato1 #acc1 #acf1 #aci4 ,being word how used1 #bb2 in ,parmenides' doctrine1 #cc-ce2 ,pythagorean conception of1 #di-ea2 aspects under which it was conceived of1 in ,greek philosophy1 #ajc1 #ajd2 according to ,plato1 #acc1 #acf1 #aci4 ,benedictine ,age1 the #cej4 ,berengar of ,tours #cei4 ,bothius #cjj4 ,bollstaedt1 ,albert #cgg1 #cgi4 ,bologna ,university of1 #cgg4 ,burnet1 ,john ,early ,greek ,philosophers cited1 #ag n4 ,bury1 ,j4 ,b4 ,history of ,greece cited1 #ab n42 quoted1 #af4 ,carneades #bfg4 ,carpocrates ,gnostic1 #caj4 ,carthage #ae1 #af4 ,catechists the ,school of1 #cad-cah4 ,catholic theologians the old1 #cab-cad4 ,cause teleological1 final1 mechanical1 and efficient1 #aje n4 ,see ,final cause1 ,efficient cause4 ,causes ,aristotle's1 #ahg4 ,change ,heracleitus's doctrine of1 #bh1 #bi2 has no existence in ,parmenides' philosophy1 #cd1 #ce2 as conceived by the ,pluralists1 #dj4 ,charlemagne the revival of1 #cdi1 #cej4 ,christianity and neo-,platonism1 difference in their conception of inspiration1 #bgf1 #bgg2 rise of1 #bgi1 #bhj2 summary of its history1 #bha2 and neo-,platonism1 #bhh-bij2 the ,hellenizing of1 #cjb-cah2 the early situation of1 #cjb-cje2 the philosophies influencing1 #cje1 #cjf2 early1 the periods of1 #cjf1 #cjg2 the ,apologists1 #cjg-cji2 the ,gnostics1 #caj-cab2 the reaction against ,gnosticism 7the old ,catholic theologians71 #cab-cad2 ,origen and the ,school of ,catechists1 #cad-cah2 and ,mohammedanism1 #cga-cge4 ,chrysippus #bdb1 #bdd1 #bde4 ,church authority of1 according to ,augustine1 #cde-cdg2 strength and burden of ,aristotle to1 #cgh1 #cgi2 and state1 ,aquinas's and ,dante's views of1 #chb4 ,cicero on ,aristotle1 #afg2 his work1 #bga1 #bgb4 ,civilizations ,christian and ,mohammedan1 #cfi-cgb2 the first contact of1 #cgb1 #cgc2 the conflict between1 #cgd1 #cge4 ,classic ,scholasticism period of1 #ccc1 #cfh-cid4 ,cleanthes #bdb1 #bdd-bdf4 ,clement #cad4 ,conception and perception1 #hc n42 importance of1 to ,socrates1 #hc2 according to ,plato1 #acd1 #ace2 in ,aristotle1 #agg-agi4 ,conceptualism of ,aristotle1 #ajd2 in the ,middle ,ages1 #ceh1 #cfd1 #cfe4 ,consciousness formulation of the psychological conception of1 #bid2 the inner certainties of1 according to ,augustine1 #cda-cde4 ,constantinople an intellectual centre1 #cgb n4 ,cosmas map1 the #cce4 ,cosmological period of ,greek philosophy #ab1 #ac2 treated1 #ae-ed4 ,cosmologist characteristics of the1 #ah-bj2 table of1 #bj2 their philosophical question1 #bj1 #ba2 where they lived1 #ba2 results of their philosophy1 #ec1 #ed4 ,cosmology defined1 #ac4 ,crates of ,thebes #ie4 ,critical attitude of mind among the ,greeks1 #fa-fd2 of ,socrates1 #hj4 ,crusades1 the #cgd1 #cge4 ,cusanus1 ,nicolas #cid4 ,cynic school1 the #ic-ig4 ,cynics and ,stoics #bdf1 #bdg4 ,cyrenaic school1 the #ic-ig4 ,cyrenaics their teaching1 and ,epicureanism1 #bbi1 #bcj4 ,dante on ,aristotle1 #afg2 used ,ptolemaic conception of the universe1 #cbd1 #cbe2 diagram of his poetic conception of the universe1 #cgf2 his view of the state and the church1 #chb n42 placed the intellectual virtues above the practical1 #chc n4 ,dark ,ages1 the #cdg-cdi4 ,deduction #ahb4 ,definition ,socrates one of the first to use it correctly1 #ib4 ,democritus his place in ,greek history1 #ih-ajj1 #ajc2 and ,plato1 their similarities and differences1 #ajd-ajf2 life of1 #ajf-ajh2 comprehensiveness of his aim1 #ajh2 the enriched physics of1 #aji-aaa2 the materialistic psychology of1 #aaa-aad2 his theory of knowledge1 #aad-aaf2 the ethical theory of1 #aaf-aah2 a wide traveler1 #abc2 advanced age at which he finished his education1 #abe4 ,development according to ,aristotle1 #agh1 #agi1 #ahe-ahg4 ,de ,wulf ,history of ,medival ,philosophy1 #ccf n41 #chd4 ,dialectic defined1 #fj1 #aca4 ,dill1 ,samuel ,roman ,society cited1 #bgd n4 ,diogenes #ie4 ,dionysiodorus #fh4 ,dogma ,see ,reason4 ,dominican tradition ,thomas ,aquinas the founder of1 #chj1 #cha2 intellectualism the central principle in1 #che4 ,doxography #f4 ,drama the ,greek1 #fj1 #fa4 ,dualism defined1 #ea n42 the ,pythagorean1 #ea1 #eb2 of the ,systematic period of ,greek philosophy1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,dynamic pantheism of ,plotinus #bic4 ,eckhart #cfi1 #chf4 ,eclectic ,platonists1 the #bhe4 ,eclecticism #bfd1 #bfe1 #bfi-bgb4 ,efficient cause introduction of conception of1 by the ,pluralists1 #da2 defined1 #aje n42 ,aristotle's conception of1 #ahg4 ,elean-,eretrian school1 the #ic4 ,eleatic school and ,milesian school1 ,xenophanes the connecting link between1 #bf2 lives of ,parmenides and ,zeno1 #cb1 #ce2 teaching of1 compared with that of the ,milesians and ,heracleitus1 #bb f42 the philosophy of1 #cc-cg2 and ,heracleitus1 results of the conflict between1 #cg1 #ch4 ,element1 the as conceived by the ,pluralists1 #dj1 #da4 ,eleusinian ,see ,mysteries4 ,emanations the world of1 according to ,plotinus1 #bid-big4 ,emerson1 ,r4 ,w4 ,essay on ,love1 #aec n42 ,initial1 ,dmonic1 and ,celestial ,love1 #aec n4 ,emerton1 ,ephraim ,medival ,europe1 #cgd n4 ,empedocles his conception of change1 #dj2 his conception of the element1 #dj2 his doctrine of the efficient cause1 #da2 his life1 #dc2 the philosophy of1 #dd1 #de4 ,empiricism #ajd n4 ,end defined1 #aje n4 ,entelechy #ahf4 ,epic1 ,greek importance of the1 #h-aj4 ,epictetus #bdc1 #bdf4 ,epicureanism one of the ,new ,schools1 #bbb-bbe2 and ,stoicism1 summary of agreements and differences1 #bbe1 #bbf2 and the teaching of ,aristippus1 #bbi2 ideal of1 #bcj-bcc2 the place of virtue in1 #bcc2 the ,wise ,man of1 #bcd-bcf4 ,see ,epicurus4 ,epicureans1 the #bbh4 ,epicurus life of1 #bbg1 #bbh2 and ,aristippus1 #bbi2 his ideal1 #bcj-bcc2 his conception of the physical world1 #bch-bdj4 ,see ,epicureanism4 ,epistemology ,democritus' contribution to1 #aad-aaf4 ,erigena1 ,john ,scotus #cdi1 #cej2 life and teaching of1 #cej-ceb2 the ,greek principle which he formulated for the ,middle ,ages1 #ceb1 #cec4 ,eristic defined1 #fj4 ,ethical period of the ,hellenic-,roman period #bjh2 general characteristics of1 #bae-bah4 ,ethics tendency toward1 among early ,greeks1 #aa1 #ab2 of the ,sophists1 #ga-gc2 of ,democritus1 #aaf-aah2 ,plato's theory of1 #aec-aeh2 of ,aristotle1 #aii-bjb2 of ,plotinus1 #big1 #bih4 ,eucken1 ,rudolf ,problem of ,human ,life1 #ccf n4 ,euclid founder of the school at ,megara1 #ic4 ,eudmonism #hg4 ,euhemerism #if4 ,eusebius on ,aristotle1 #afg4 ,euthydemus #fh4 ,evil the problem of1 according to ,stoicism1 #bfj1 #bfa4 ,fairbanks1 ,arthur ,first ,philosophers of ,greece1 #f n4 ,falckenberg1 ,richard ,history of ,modern ,philosophy1 #c n4 ,final cause defined1 #aje n42 according to ,aristotle1 #ahg4 ,fire ,heracleitus's doctrine of1 #cj-cb4 ,form and ,matter in ,aristotle1 #ahf-aib1 #aig-aii2 in ,thomas ,aquinas1 #chd4 ,formal cause #ahg4 ,franciscan tradition1 the #che-chg4 ,freedom the problem of1 according to ,epicurus1 #bdj2 according to ,stoicism1 #bfj1 #bfa2 according to ,origen1 #caf1 #cag2 according to ,augustine1 #cde2 according to ,duns ,scotus1 #chi4 ,gerbert #cej4 ,glaber quoted1 #ced4 ,gnomic poets ,greek1 #aj-ab4 ,gnosticism #caj-cab2 the reaction against1 #cab-cad4 ,god ,plato's conception of1 #ada1 #adb2 ,aristotle's conception of1 #aij1 #aia2 ,his will and ,his intellect1 #chf1 #chh1 #chi4 ,goethe quoted1 #abi1 #afg4 ,good ,plato's ,idea of the1 #adj-adb1 #add2 ,plato's theory of the1 development of1 #aec1 #aed2 the1 of the ,stoics1 #bej1 #bea4 ,gorgias #ff1 #fg2 the nihilism of1 #gj1 #ga4 ,gospel the ,hellenizing of1 #cjb-cah4 ,see ,christianity4 ,greece after the ,persian ,wars1 #eg-fd4 ,greek ,enlightenment1 the #eh-fd1 #hb4 ,greek-,jewish philosophy of ,philo #bha-bhd2 and neo-,platonism1 #bhh4 ,greek nation the fall of1 and the persistence of its civilization1 #bjd-bjh4 ,greek national spirit waning of1 #ih4 ,greek philosophy three periods of1 #ab-ad2 summary of1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ,greek thought was objective1 #b1 #ajj1 #aja4 ,greeks1 early geographical environment of1 #g2 political environment of1 #h1 #i1 #ae1 #af2 native tendencies of1 #i-ab2 perils to1 in the new religion1 #af-ah2 monistic philosophies1 #bb f4 ,grote1 ,george ,history of ,greece1 #fa n42 ,plato1 #bfg n4 ,happiness according to ,socrates1 #hf2 according to the ,cynics and the ,cyrenaics1 #id-ig2 according to ,democritus1 #aag1 #aah2 according to ,aristotle1 #bjj2 according to ,epicurus1 #bcc-bch4 ,harnack1 ,adolf ,outlines of the ,history of ,dogma quoted1 #cjh1 #ccf1 #cdd1 #ced2 cited1 #cae n41 #cde n4 ,hatch1 ,edwin ,hibbert ,lectures quoted1 #cje4 ,hedonism and eudmonism1 #hg2 some types of1 #bbh1 #bbi4 ,hellenic-,roman period #bjd-cah2 its time length1 #bjd2 the fall of the ,greek nation and the persistence of its civilization1 #bjd-bjh2 the two parts of1 #bjh1 #bji2 the undercurrent of skepticism in1 #bji-baa2 the fundamental problem of1 #baa-bac4 ,hellenism #bje-bjh2 the centres of1 #bac-bae4 ,hellenizing of the ,gospel #cjb-cah4 ,heracleitus life1 #bh2 his teaching compared with that of the ,milesians and ,eleatics1 #bb1 #bc2 his philosophy1 #bh-ca2 and ,parmenides1 results of the conflict between1 #cg1 #ch2 practical philosophy of1 #ca4 ,hesiod #aa4 ,hicks1 ,r4 ,d4 ,stoic and ,epicurean1 #bbg n42 cited1 #bfg n4 ,hipparchia #ie4 ,hippias #ff1 #fh4 ,hippodamus #fh4 ,hippolytus #cac4 ,homoiomeriai #df4 ,human nature value set upon1 by ,socrates1 #ha4 ,hylozoism defined1 #ai2 and ,pluralism1 #da2 the breaking up of pre-,socratic1 #dg2 becomes materialism with ,democritus1 #aji-aaa4 ,hylozoists the ,cosmologists were1 #ai4 ,hypatia #bih4 ,idea development of the meaning of 7,democritus and ,plato71 #aje4 ,ideal of ,socrates1 the #hc-he2 what it involves1 #he-hh4 ,idealism of the ,greeks1 #ajj2 objective1 #ajd4 ,ideas of ,plato1 #acc1 #ace2 the development of1 in the two drafts1 #acf1 #acg2 brief comparison of the two drafts of #acg2 fuller comparison of the two drafts of1 #acg-ada2 in the doctrine of anamnesis1 #adg1 #adh4 ,immortality ,plato's doctrine of1 #adf-aej4 ,individuality the problem of1 according to ,thomas ,aquinas1 #chc-che2 the problem of1 in ,duns ,scotus1 #chi1 #cij4 ,induction #ib1 #ahc4 ,intellect or will the question of the primacy of1 #che1 #chf1 #chh1 #chi4 ,ionic ,school ,see ,milesian school4 ,irenus #cac4 ,irish learning1 the #cdi4 ,irony ,socratic1 #ij4 ,jackson1 ,h4 article 8,sophists10 in ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 #fh n4 ,jamblichus #bih1 #bii4 ,jewish 7,greek-7 philosophy of ,philo #bha-bhd2 and neo-,platonism1 #bhh4 ,julian1 ,emperor #bih4 ,justin ,martyr #cjh4 ,kingsley1 ,charles ,hypatia1 #bih n4 ,knight1 ,william ,a4 ,life and ,teaching of ,hume1 #c n4 ,knowledge in ,socrates' ideal1 #hc-hf1 #hh2 according to the ,cynics1 #ie2 ,democritus' theory of1 #aad-aaf4 ,lanfranc #cei4 ,law positive and natural1 #gb4 ,learning the impulse for1 among the ,greeks1 #eh1 #ei2 the ,revival of1 #cge-cgh4 ,leucippus his life1 #dc1 #dd2 his philosophy1 #dg1 #dh1 #aji1 #aaj2 founder of the ,atomistic school1 #ajg4 ,logic ,aristotle's1 #ahj-ahe4 ,love ,platonic1 #aea-aec4 ,love and ,hate ,empedocles' doctrine of1 #dd4 ,lucretius #bbh4 ,lyceum1 the ,aristotle in1 #aff1 #afg1 #agb1 #agc2 after ,aristotle1 #bbj-bbb2 eclecticism in1 #bgj4 ,lycophron #fh4 ,maine1 ,sir ,henry cited1 #gb4 ,man the philosophy of1 #ac1 #ee-ig2 ,plato's conception of1 #add-adf4 ,material cause #ahg4 ,materialism hylozoism becomes1 with ,democritus1 #ajc1 #aji-aaa2 ,stoic1 #bed1 #bee4 ,materialistic psychology of ,democritus #aaa-aad4 ,matter and ,form1 in ,aristotle1 #ahf-aib1 #aig-aii1 #chd2 of ,plotinus1 #bie1 #bif4 ,mean1 the ,aristotle's doctrine of1 #bja1 #bjb4 ,mechanical series of ,aristotle #aid-aif4 ,medival geography #cce4 ,medival library1 a #cbf-cbh4 ,medival ,man1 the #cbj1 #cba2 how the universe appeared to1 #cbb-cbe2 at school1 #cbe1 #cbf2 summary of the political and educational worlds of1 #ccj-ccc4 ,medival philosophy length of1 #a2 underlying character of1 #c2 divisions of1 #d2 treated1 #cai-cid4 ,megarian school #ic4 ,mendicants1 the #cfh4 ,metaphysical problem1 the early formulation of1 #bb1 #bc4 ,metaphysics ,plato's1 the formation of1 #acb-acf2 ,plato's1 the development of1 #acf-ada2 ,aristotle's1 #ahe-aid2 abandonment of1 in ,hellenic-,roman period1 #baf2 of ,plotinus1 #bid-big4 ,metrocles #ie4 ,middle ,ages characteristics and conditions of1 #cai-ccc2 and the ,hellenic-,roman period1 comparison of1 #cai1 #cbj2 the medival man1 #cbj1 #cba2 how the universe appeared to the medival man1 #cbb-cbe2 the medival man at school1 #cbe1 #cbf2 a medival library1 #cbf-cbh2 the three periods of1 #cbh-ccj2 summary of the political and educational worlds of the medival man1 #ccj-ccc2 the early period of1 #ccj-ccb1 #ccd-cec2 the transitional period of1 #ccb1 #ced-cfg2 the period of classic scholasticism1 #ccc1 #cfh-cid4 ,milesian school #bd2 the members of1 #bd1 #be2 the philosophy of1 #be1 #bf the teaching of1 compared with that of ,heracleitus and the ,eleatics1 #bb1 #bc4 ,milton1 ,john #cbe4 ,modern philosophy length of1 #a2 underlying character of1 #c2 divisions of1 #d4 ,mohammedanism growth of1 during the ,middle ,ages1 #cgj-cgb2 first contact with ,christianity1 #cgb1 #cgc2 conflict with ,christianity1 #cgd1 #cge4 ,monism defined1 #aj n42 of the early ,greeks1 #aj2 displaced by pluralism in ,greek philosophy1 #ci4 ,monists list of early ,cosmologists who were1 #bj2 discussion of the1 #bb-ch4 ,monotheism defined1 #aj n42 for the first time conceptually framed1 #aia4 ,monte ,cassino founding of the monastic school at1 #cdh4 ,moral postulate philosophy for the first time founded upon1 #he2 of ,socrates1 #he-hh4 ,motion according to ,aristotle1 #aie1 #aif4 ,mysteries ,orphic and ,eleusinian1 #af-ah1 #ch2 ,orphic1 dangers of1 averted by ,cosmologists1 #ed4 ,mysticism in neo-,platonism1 #bhg4 ,natural ,science ,see ,physics4 ,nature the philosophy of1 #ae-ch2 the word as used by the ,sophists1 #gb1 #gc2 a logical1 ,socrates' attempt to find1 #ib2 physical1 ,plato's conception of1 #adb-add2 ,aristotle's conception of1 #aib-aid2 ,stoic conception of1 #bea-beg4 ,neo-,platonism and ,christianity1 difference in their conception of inspiration1 #bgf1 #bgg2 rise of1 #bgi1 #bhj2 summary of its history1 #bha2 and ,platonism1 #bhg1 #bhh2 and the philosophies of ,philo and the neo-,pythagoreans1 #bhh2 and ,christianity1 #bhh-bij2 the periods of1 #bij2 the ,alexandrian school 7scientific theory of neo-,platonism1 life and writings of ,plotinus71 #bij-bih2 the ,syrian school 7the systematizing of polytheism1 ,jamblichus71 #bij1 #bih1 #bii2 the ,athenian school 7,proclus71 #bij1 #bii-cja2 its influence on ,christianity1 #cjf4 ,neo-,pythagoreanism #bha1 #bhe-bhg2 and neo-,platonism1 #bhh4 ,nominalism #ajc1 #ceh1 #cfb-cfe1 #cia1 #cib4 ,norton1 ,arthur ,o4 ,readings in the ,history of ,education1 #cgg n4 ,nous ,anaxagoras' conception of1 #dg2 of ,plotinus1 #bid4 ,numbers ,pythagorean conception of1 #di-ea4 ,objective character of ,greek philosophy #b1 #ajj1 #aja4 ,objective ,idealism #ajd4 ,objective ,realism #ajd4 ,ockam1 ,william of #chg n41 #cij2 the course of philosophy after1 #cic1 #cid4 ,order thought of1 developed into clearness by ,cosmologists1 #ed4 ,origen #bhj1 #bha1 #cad-cah4 ,orphic ,see ,mysteries4 ,oxford1 ,university of #cgg4 ,palmer1 ,g4 ,h4 on ,socrates1 #gi4 ,pantius #bgj1 #bga4 ,pantheism defined1 #aj n42 dynamic1 of ,plotinus1 #bic2 of ,erigena1 #cea-cec2 of the realists1 #cfc4 ,paris1 ,university of #cgg4 ,parker1 ,c4 ,p4 cited1 #beh n4 ,parmenides life1 #cb2 develops the doctrine of ,xenophanes1 #cb f42 his philosophy1 #cc-ce2 and ,heracleitus1 results of the conflict between1 #cg1 #ch4 ,see ,eleatic ,school4 ,particulars and ,universals according to ,thomas ,aquinas1 #chc-che4 ,pater1 ,walter ,marius the ,epicurean1 #bbg n4 ,patmore1 ,coventry ,angel in the ,house1 #aec n4 ,patristics #cjb-cah4 ,perception and conception1 #hc n42 according to ,plato1 #acd2 in ,aristotle1 #agg-agi4 ,pericles #eh4 ,periods of philosophy1 the three general1 #a-d2 of ,greek philosophy1 #ab-ad4 ,peripatetics ,see ,lyceum4 ,persia #ae1 #af4 ,persian ,wars their importance1 #ee-eg1 #fb4 ,personality spiritual1 increased importance of1 in history1 #bgg-bgi4 ,pessimism result of theory of ,cyrenaics1 #ig4 ,peter the ,lombard #cgi1 #chj4 ,phdo founder of the ,elean-,eretrian school1 #ic4 ,philo ,greek-,jewish philosophy of1 #bha-bhd2 and neo-,platonism1 #bhh4 ,philoponus #bii4 ,philosophic skepticism ,see ,skepticism4 ,physical universe early ,greek tendency toward scientific explanation of1 #aj1 #aa4 ,physics ,socrates' view of1 #hj2 enrichment of1 under ,democritus1 #aji-aaa2 ,plato's conception of1 #adb-add2 ,aristotle's theory of1 #aid-aif2 of ,epicurus1 #bch-bdj4 ,plato #ajd2 parts of works to be read1 #ge n42 his place in ,greek history1 #ic1 #ih-ajj1 #ajc1 #ajd2 and ,democritus1 their similarities and differences1 #ajd-ajf2 the period of his life1 #aai1 #abj2 the difficulties in understanding the teaching of1 #abj1 #aba2 the chronology of his dialogues1 #aai1 #abj2 the life and writings of1 #aba1 #abf2 his student life1 #aba1 #abb2 as traveler1 #abb-abd2 as teacher of the ,academy1 #abd-abf2 concerning his dialogues1 #abf-abh2 the factors in the construction of his doctrine1 #abh-aca2 his inherited tendencies1 #abh-acj2 his philosophical sources1 #acj1 #aca2 the divisions of his philosophy1 #aca1 #acb2 summary of his doctrine1 #acb2 the formation of his metaphysics1 #acb-acf2 the development of his metaphysics 7the development of his ideas in the two drafts71 #acf-ada2 his conception of ,god1 #ada1 #adb2 his conception of physical nature1 #adb-add2 his conception of man1 #add-adf2 his doctrine of immortality1 #adf-aej2 the two tendencies in1 #aej1 #aea2 ,platonic love1 #aea-aec2 his theory of ethics1 #aec-aeh2 development of his theory of the ,good1 #aec1 #aed2 the four cardinal virtues1 #aed1 #aee2 his theory of political society1 #aee-aeh2 a selection of passages from1 for ,english readers1 #aeh-afe2 in the ,middle ,ages1 #cca1 #ccg1 #cch1 #cfj1 #cfc4 ,platonism the revival of1 #bgi2 and neo-,platonism1 #bhg1 #bhh4 ,platonists ,eclectic1 #bhe4 ,pleasure of ,epicurus1 #bcj-bcc4 ,see ,happiness4 ,plotinus #bhj1 #bhg1 #bhh2 life and writings of1 #bij1 #bia2 general character of his teaching1 #bia1 #bib2 the mystic ,god of1 #bib1 #bic2 the two problems of1 #bic2 the metaphysical problem of1 #bid-big2 the ethical problem of1 #big1 #bih4 ,pluralism tried to reconcile extremes of ,milesian school1 #ci1 #dj2 and hylozoism1 #da4 ,pluralists list of later ,cosmologists who were1 #bj2 their new conception of change1 #dj2 their new conception of the unchanging1 #dj1 #da2 introduction of conception of efficient cause by1 #da2 summary of similarities and differences in theories of1 #da1 #db2 their lives span the fifth century1 #db4 ,see ,empedocles1 etc4 ,plutarch neo-,platonist1 #bii4 ,political philosophy of ,aristotle #bjb1 #bjc4 ,political society ,plato's theory of1 #aee-aeh4 ,polytheism ,homeric1 #ai4 ,polytheisms the systematizing of1 #bih1 #bii4 ,porphyry #bia1 #bih1 #ceg4 ,posidonius #bgj1 #bga4 ,primary and secondary qualities #aaf4 ,probabilism in ,stoicism #bfb4 ,proclus #bii-cja4 ,prodicus #ff1 #fh4 ,protagoras #ff1 #fg2 the relativism of1 #fi1 #gj2 his point of view compared with that of ,socrates1 #ha4 ,psychology materialistic1 of ,democritus1 #aaa-aad2 ,plato's1 #add-adf2 of ,aristotle1 #aif-aii2 the ,stoic1 #bdh-bej4 ,ptolemy his cosmography1 #cbb-cbe4 ,purpose ,aristotle's conceptions of1 #ahf-aij4 ,pyrrho #bff4 ,pyrrhonism #bfe1 #bff4 ,pythagoras #ag4 ,pythagoreanism neo-1 #bha1 #bhe-bhg2 and neo-,platonism1 #bhh4 ,pythagoreans the early1 #ag2 the later1 #dd1 #dh1 #di2 their conception of ,being1 #di-ea2 their astronomy1 #di1 #eb1 #ec2 their dualism1 #ea1 #eb4 ,qualitative changes of phenomena #aif-bjb4 ,rationalism defined1 #ajd n42 of ,plato and ,democritus1 #ajd2 of ,abelard1 #cfe-cfg4 ,realism #ajj1 #ajd1 #ceh1 #cfb-cfe2 objective1 #ajd4 ,reason and dogma the relation between1 #cee1 #cef1 #cfj-cfb1 #cfe-cfg4 ,reconcilers ,see ,pluralists4 ,relativism of ,protagoras1 #fi1 #gj2 represented by the anthropologists1 #ajc4 ,religion of the ,greeks1 organization of1 #h1 #i1 #aj2 the new1 perils of1 #af-ah2 in ,epicurus's system1 #bcf1 #bcg2 and science1 the separation of1 under ,duns ,scotus1 #chg1 #chh4 ,religious feeling two causes of the rise of1 #bgb-bgd4 ,religious period of the ,hellenic-,roman period #bjh1 #bji2 treated1 #bgc-cja2 the divisions of1 #bhj1 #bha4 ,religious philosophies ,hellenic1 rise of1 #bhj1 #bhb2 summary of history of1 #bha2 introductory period of1 #bha-bhg2 development period of1 #bha1 #bhg1 #bhh4 ,revival of ,learning1 the #cge-cgh4 ,rhabanus ,maurus #cej4 ,rhetoric among the ,greeks #fj4 ,romans their conquest of ,greece1 #bje-bjh4 ,roscellinus life and teaching1 #cfa1 #cfb4 ,rossetti1 ,christina ,shadow of ,dante cited1 #cbe n4 ,rousseau and ,epicurus #bbi4 ,st4 ,ambrose #cjf4 ,salerno1 ,university of #cgg4 ,scholasticism what it is1 #cee-cei2 of ,anselm1 #cei-cfa2 of ,roscellinus1 #cfa1 #cfb2 of ,abelard1 #cfc-cfg2 classic1 period of1 #ccc1 #cfh-cid4 ,school in early ,greek philosophy1 meaning of1 #ai4 ,schools1 the #bad1 #bah-bbf2 fusion of doctrines in1 #bfi2 after #aej ,b4 ,c41 notable names in1 #bga4 ,see ,academy1 ,lyceum1 etc4 ,science early tendencies toward1 among the ,greeks1 #aj1 #aa2 growth of1 in ,hellenic-,roman period1 #baf1 #bag2 secular1 of the age of ,augustine1 #cci2 and religion1 the separation of1 under ,duns ,scotus1 #chg1 #chh4 ,scotus1 ,duns gave a new direction to philosophy1 #cfi2 upheld the primacy of the ,will1 #che1 #chf2 the founder of the ,franciscan tradition 7life and philosophical position of71 #chf1 #chg2 his conception of the twofold truth1 #chg2 the inscrutable will of ,god1 according to1 #chh1 #chi2 the problem of individuality1 according to1 #chi1 #cij2 the course of philosophy after1 #cij1 #cia4 ,secondary and primary qualities #aaf4 ,secular science of the age of ,augustine #cci4 ,seignobos1 ,charles ,history of ,medival ,civilization1 #cgc n4 ,seneca quoted1 #bcd4 ,sensationalism defined1 #ajd n4 ,sensationalistic skepticism #bfh1 #bfi4 ,sextus ,empiricus #bfh4 ,sill ,the ,two ,aphrodites1 #aec n4 ,simplicius #bii4 ,skepticism what it is1 #fi2 the undercurrent of1 in the ,hellenic-,roman period1 #bji-baa2 philosophic1 the appearances of1 #bfd1 #bfe2 the three phases of1 #bfe-bfi2 of the ,academy1 #bff-bfh2 sensationalistic1 #bfh1 #bfi4 ,socrates1 and ,aristophanes opposed the ,sophists1 #gd2 works on1 for reading1 #ge2 personality and life of1 #ge-hj2 his dmon1 #gg1 #hc2 and the ,sophists1 #hj-hb2 unsystematic character of his philosophy1 #hb1 #hc2 the ideal of1 #hc-he2 what his ideal involves1 #he-hh2 the two steps of his method1 #hh-ia2 and ,athens1 #ia2 the logical expedients of1 #ib1 #ic2 and the ,lesser ,socratics1 #ic-ie4 ,socratics the ,lesser1 and ,socrates1 #ic-ie4 ,sophists significance of1 #fd-fg2 the prominent1 #fg1 #fh2 the philosophy of1 #fh-ga2 the ethics of1 #ga-gc2 summary of their work1 #gc2 met in two ways by ,socrates and ,aristophanes1 #gd2 and ,socrates1 #hj-hb4 ,soul ,plato's doctrine of1 #ade-aej2 according to ,aristotle1 #aif1 #aig2 of ,plotinus1 #bie1 #big1 #bih4 ,spenser1 ,edmund ,hymn in ,honor of ,beauty1 #aec n4 ,spiritual authority the need of1 #bge-bgg2 the turning to the present for1 #bhg1 #bhh4 ,spirituality rise of the conception of1 #bgg-bgi4 ,state ,plato's doctrine of1 #aee-aeh2 and church1 ,aquinas's and ,dante's views of1 #chb4 ,stoic school1 the #bbb-bbe2 inclines to eclecticism1 #bfi1 #bgj4 ,stoicism and ,epicureanism1 summary of agreements and differences1 #bbe1 #bbf2 position of1 in antiquity1 #bda1 #bdb2 the three periods of1 #bdb1 #bdc2 leaders of1 #bdc-bdf2 writings of1 #bdf2 the two prominent conceptions of1 #bdg1 #bdh2 the conception of personality1 #bdh2 the psychology of1 #bdh-bej2 the highest good1 #bej1 #bea2 the conception of nature1 #bea-bef2 conceptions of nature and personality supplement each other1 #bef1 #beg2 and society1 #beg-bei2 duty and responsibility1 #bei1 #bfj2 the problem of evil and the problem of freedom1 #bfj1 #bfa2 modifications of1 after the first period1 #bfa-bfc2 its influence on ,christianity1 #cje4 ,stoics and ,cynics #bdf1 #bdg4 ,storm and ,stress #cfb1 #cfc4 ,sums of ,peter the ,lombard1 #cgi1 #chj4 ,syllogism1 the #ahb4 ,syrian school of neo-,platonism #bij1 #bih1 #bii4 ,syrianus #bii4 ,systematic period of ,greek philosophy #ab-ad2 treated1 #ih-bjc2 the three philosophers of1 their place in ,greek history1 #ih-ajj2 the fundamental principle of1 #ajj-ajb4 ,tatian #cac4 ,teleology defined1 #aje n4 ,terminism #cib4 ,tertullian #cac4 ,teuffel1 ,w4 ,s4 ,history of ,roman ,literature1 #bbg n4 ,thales #bd1 #be4 ,theological series of ,aristotle #aif-bjb4 ,thrasymachus #fh4 ,timon #bff4 ,transitional period of ,middle ,ages #ccb1 #ced-ceg4 ,turner1 ,william ,history of ,philosophy1 #ccf n4 ,twofold reality world of1 ,democritus' theory of1 #aad-aaf4 ,ueberweg ,history of ,philosophy1 quoted1 #f2 cited1 #bfi n4 ,unchanging1 the as conceived by the ,pluralists1 #dj1 #da4 ,universalia ante rem #ajd1 #ceh1 #cfb-cfe1 #chd4 ,universalia in re #ajd1 #ceh1 #cfd1 #cfe1 #chd4 ,universalia post rem #ajc1 #ceh1 #cfb-cfe1 #chd4 ,universals and particulars according to ,thomas ,aquinas1 #chc-che4 ,universe diagram of ,dante's conception of1 #cgf4 ,universities the establishment of1 #cgg4 ,useful1 the according to ,socrates1 #hg1 #hh4 ,valentinus ,gnostic1 #caj4 ,vincent of ,beauvais #cgi4 ,virtue meaning of1 #hd2 according to ,socrates1 #hd-hh2 according to the ,cynics1 #ie2 according to ,aristotle1 #aii-bjb2 place of1 in ,epicureanism1 #bcc4 ,virtues the four cardinal1 in ,plato1 #aed1 #aee4 ,weber ,history of ,philosophy cited1 #bfi n4 ,wheeler1 ,b4 ,i4 ,life of ,alexander the ,great1 cited1 #ef n42 quoted1 #agb4 ,will freedom of4 ,see ,freedom4 ,will or intellect the question of the primacy of1 #che1 #chf1 #chh1 #chi4 ,william of ,aubergne #cgi4 ,william of ,champeaux #cfc4 ,windelband ,history of ,ancient ,philosophy1 #cg n42 cited1 #aba n41 #caa n42 quoted1 #bed4 ,witte1 ,karl ,essays on ,dante1 #cbe n4 ,wordsworth1 ,william ,dion1 #abc n42 ,ode on ,intimations of ,immortality quoted1 #adh4 ,xenophanes religious philosopher1 #bf f42 philosophy of1 #bg f4 ,xenophon parts of works to be read1 #ge n42 on ,socrates1 #gf1 #ic4 ,zeller1 ,edward ,pre-,socratic ,philosophy1 #c n41 #ajj n42 quoted1 #aja1 #ajb2 ,greek ,philosophy1 #cg n4 ,zeno ,eleatic1 his life1 #ce f42 his philosophy1 #cf1 #cg4 ,see ,eleatic school4 ,zeno ,stoic1 #bdb1 #bdd1 #bde4 ,footnotes4 #a - ,read ,knight1 ,life and ,teaching of ,hume1 pp4 #ajb f4 7,blackwood ,series72 ,falckenberg1 ,hist4 ,modern ,phil41 p4 #aj2 ,zeller1 ,pre-,socratic ,phil41 vol4 i1 pp4 #afa f4 #b - ,read ,fairbanks1 ,first ,philosophers of ,greece1 pp4 #bfc ff41 especially the rsum4 #c - ,ueberweg1 ,hist4 of ,phil41 vol4 i1 p4 #g4 #d - ,monism is the belief that reality is a oneness without any necessary implication as to the character of that oneness4 ,monotheism is a kind of monism1 in which some definite character is ascribed to the oneness1 like the active principle in the world or the cause of the world4 ,pantheism1 on the other hand1 is a kind of monism in which the emphasis is upon the all-inclusive character of reality4 ,in pantheism ,god and nature are two inseparable aspects of reality4 #e - ,bury1 ,hist4 of ,greece1 p4 #cba1 calls the tradition of the ,wise ,men a legend4 #f - ,bury1 ,history of ,greece1 p4 #caa4 #g - ,burnet1 ,early ,greek ,philosophers1 p4 #ajd1 for injunctions upon the private life of the early ,pythagoreans4 #h - ,note further that in future philosophical discussions of this problem1 the technical word 8,being0 is used for the ,unchanging or the substance that remains forever like itself1 and the technical word 8,becoming0 is used for the changing processes of ,nature4 #i - 8,just as our soul1 being air1 holds us together1 so do breath and air encompass the whole world40 #aj - ,read ,windelband1 ,hist4 of ,ancient ,phil41 pp4 #fg ff42 ,zeller1 ,greek ,philosophy1 pp4 #fc ff4 #aa - ,read ,matthew ,arnold1 ,empedocles 7a poem74 #ab - ,read ,plato1 ,phaedo1 #ig1 ,b4 #ac - ,dualism3 the belief that the world is to be explained by two independent and coexistent principles4 #ad - ,wheeler1 ,history of ,alexander the ,great4 #ae - ,read ,grote1 ,history of ,greece1 vol4 viii1 pp4 #ccd-cdg4 #af - ,read ,h4 ,jackson in ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 article 8,sophists04 #ag - ,the student should read the following references in ,plato's dialogues and ,xenophon's ,symposium and ,memorabilia4 ,the translations referred to here are ,jowett's ,plato and ,cooper1 ,spelman1 etc41 translation1 ,whole ,works of ,xenophon4 7#ahea47 ,for the method of ,socrates1 read ,charmides1 ,lysis1 and ,laches4 ,for the personal appearance of ,socrates1 read ,plato1 ,symposium1 pp4 #ehf ff4 and ,xenophon1 ,symposium1 p4 #fae4 ,for the physical endurance of ,socrates1 read ,plato1 ,symposium1 p4 #eia4 ,for ,socrates' dislike of nature1 read ,plato1 ,phdrus1 p4 #dce1 and ,xenophon1 ,memorabilia1 p4 #eba4 ,for the charges1 defense1 and trial of ,socrates1 read ,plato1 ,apology1 pp4 #aaf and #abi4 ,for the confinement of ,socrates in prison1 read ,crito1 beginning and end of the dialogue4 ,for description of the death scene of ,socrates1 read ,plato1 ,phdo1 beginning and end of the dialogue4 ,for description of the dmoniacal sign1 read ,plato1 ,apology1 pp4 #abe-abf1 and ,xenophon1 ,memorabilia1 pp4 #eca ff41 #ehe ff4 ,for the oracle's statement that ,socrates is the wisest of men1 read ,plato1 ,apology1 p4 #aad4 #ah - ,what is the difference between perception and conception8 ,we have heard a good deal about perceptions in the doctrine of ,protagoras4 ,we have now reached a point where many of the theories will involve a comparison of perception with conception4 ,an understanding of the difference between perception and conception will be necessary for an understanding of the doctrines1 especially of ,democritus1 ,plato1 and ,aristotle4 ,in general1 perception is the consciousness of an object in which some actual sensation of it is present2 a conception is the consciousness of an object in which no actual sensation of it is present4 ,thus ,i perceive a tree1 when my retina is actually stimulated2 ,i conceive a tree1 when ,i turn my head away and no sense organ is actually stimulated1 i4 e4 ,i do not touch1 see1 hear the tree4 ,to the ,greek the perception was particular and transient2 the conception was1 on the other hand1 universal or general and permanent4 #ai - ,read ,zeller1 ,pre-,socratic ,phil41 vol4 i1 pp4 #ach-adi1 concerning the objective character of ,greek morality1 art1 and philosophy4 #bj - ,zeller1 ,pre-,socratic ,phil41 vol4 i1 p4 #afb4 #ba - ,zeller1 ,pre-,socratic ,phil41 vol4 i1 p4 #afb4 #bb - ,rationalism and sensationalism refer to the sources from which knowledge is obtained4 ,rationalism is to be contrasted with sensationalism4 ,rationalism is the belief that the reason is an independent source of knowledge and has a higher authority than sense-perception4 ,sensationalism is the belief that all our knowledge originates in sensations4 ,empiricism is often used for sensationalism4 #bc - ,teleology is the doctrine that things exist for some purpose4 ,a teleological cause1 which is the same as 8final cause0 or 8end10 is the purpose involved in an action4 ,it is contrasted with mechanical or efficient cause4 ,a trolley car is moving and a man runs to catch it4 ,electricity is the mechanical cause of the movement of the car4 ,the purpose of the man is the teleological cause of his running2 the strength in his legs is the mechanical or efficient cause of his running4 #bd - ,atoms differ primarily in form 772 size is referred in part to form4 #be - ,these all reduce to form1see above4 #bf - ,windelband1 ,hist4 of ,ancient ,phil41 pp4 #ahc-ahi4 #bg - ,read ,wordsworth1 ,dion4 #bh - ,b4 ,jowett1 ,dialogues of ,plato1 trans4 into ,english with analyses and introductions1 #d vols4 ,see p4 #aeh for selections from the dialogues made by ,jowett for ,english readers4 #bi - ,goethe4 #cj - ,for the distinction between perception and conception1 see p4 #hc4 #ca - ,read ,wordsworth's ,ode on ,intimations of ,immortality4 #cb - ,read ,edmund ,spenser1 ,hymn in ,honor of ,beauty2 ,emerson1 ,essay on ,love1 also the poem on ,initial1 ,dmonic1 and ,celestial ,love2 ,bacon1 ,essay on ,love2 ,patmore1 ,angel in the ,house2 ,sill1 ,the ,two ,aphrodites4 #cc - ,b4 ,i4 ,wheeler1 ,life of ,alexander the ,great4 #cd - ,read ,walter ,pater1 ,marius the ,epicurean2 ,hicks1 ,stoic and ,epicurean1 p4 #ahd1 for the ,golden ,maxims of ,epicurus2 ,teuffel1 ,history of ,roman ,literature1 pp4 #hc-hf4 #ce - ,windelband1 ,hist4 of ,phil41 p4 #ahc4 #cf - ,adamson1 ,the ,development of ,greek ,philosophy1 p4 #bfg4 #cg - ,professor ,c4 ,p4 ,parker4 #ch - ,a4 ,hicks1 ,stoic and ,epicurean1 pp4 #cbb ff4 #ci - ,read ,grote1 ,plato1 vol4 iii1 pp4 #dhb-dij1 for the interesting sophistical problems of the ,liar1 the ,person ,disguised under a ,veil1 ,electra1 ,sorites1 ,cornutus1 and the ,bald ,man4 #dj - ,for a statement of these tropes1 see ,weber1 ,hist4 of ,phil41 p4 #aec4 #da - ,ueberweg1 ,hist4 of ,phil41 vol4 i1 p4 #baf4 #db - ,read ,dill1 ,roman ,society1 first three chapters4 #dc - ,read ,charles ,kingsley1 ,hypatia1 a novel4 #dd - ,hatch1 ,hibbert ,lectures1 #ahhh1 p4 #ahb4 #de - ,harnack1 ,outlines of the ,hist4 of ,dogma1 p4 #abj4 #df - ,windelband1 ,hist4 of ,ancient ,phil41 p4 #ceg4 #dg - ,harnack1 ,outlines of the ,history of ,dogma1 p4 #aei4 #dh - ,read ,rossetti1 ,shadow of ,dante1 pp4 #i-ad2 ,karl ,witte1 ,essays on ,dante1 pp4 #ii ff4 #di - ,read ,eucken1 ,problem of ,human ,life1 pp4 #bai-bba1 #bcb1 #bcf1 #bde-bdh2 ,turner1 ,hist4 of ,philosophy1 p4 #bbf2 ,de ,wulf1 ,hist4 of ,medival ,phil41 pp4 #ij-ih2 ,harnack1 ,hist4 of ,dogma1 vol4 v1 pp4 #c-f4 #ej - ,eucken1 ,problem of ,human ,life1 p4 #bdg4 #ea - ,harnack1 ,hist4 of ,dogma1 vol4 v1 p4 #c4 #eb - ,there is this difference between ,augustine's position and that of ,descartes4 ,augustine's ,quod si fallor1 sum is a refutation of the doctrine of probability of the ,academy1 not a demonstration2 ,descartes' ,cogito1 ergo sum is positive1a subtle but an important difference between the two thinkers4 #ec - ,harnack1 ,hist4 of ,dogma1 vol4 v1 p4 #ccg4 #ed - ,harnack1 ,hist4 of ,dogma1 vol4 v1 p4 #aab1 n4 #d4 #ee - ,harnack1 vol4 vi1 p4 #g4 #ef - ,glaber1 ,hist41 lib4 ,,iii1 #d4 #eg - ,in this period the conceptualists were confused with nominalists and called nominalists4 #eh - ,historians are attaching more importance than formerly to ,constantinople as an intellectual centre of that time4 #ei - ,read on this point ,seignobos1 ,hist4 of ,medival ,civilization1 pp4 #aag f4 #fj - ,read ,emerton1 ,medival ,europe1 pp4 #ceh-cig2 ,adams1 ,civilization during the ,middle ,ages1 pp4 #beh-bgh4 #fa - ,,the ,,crusades ,major ,crusades ,first ,crusade1 #ajif-ajii ,second ,crusade1 #aadg-aadi ,third ,crusade1 #aahi-aaib ,fourth ,crusade1 #abjb-abjd ,children's ,crusade1 #abab ,minor ,crusades ,fifth ,crusade1 #abaf-abbj ,sixth ,crusade1 #abbh-abbi ,seventh ,crusade1 #abdh-abed ,eighth ,crusade1 #abgj-abgb ,it will be noted that five of these nine ,crusades occurred within thirty years of the year #abjj4 ,the ,first ,crusade resulted in the capture of ,jerusalem and the founding of a kingdom4 ,the other ,crusades were directly or indirectly concerned with the defense or recapture of that kingdom4 #fb - ,read ,norton1 ,readings in the ,hist4 of ,education1 pp4 #ajb-ajc4 #fc - ,dante in ,de ,monarchia did not share in ,thomas's subordination of the state to the church4 ,both ,dante and ,thomas believed that destiny lies in the race1 but the great poet regarded man as destined equally for earthly and heavenly happiness4 ,to ,dante the church and the state are powers of like authority4 #fd - ,dante follows ,thomas in placing the intellectual virtues above the practical1 and in pointing to the intellectual intuition of ,god as the goal of human attainment4 ,beatrice is ,dante's expression of this ideal4 #fe - ,de ,wulf1 ,hist4 of ,medival ,phil41 p4 #cbc4 #ff - ,roger ,bacon 7#abad-abib7 lived at ,oxford two generations before ,scotus4 ,he was so versatile that he was not able to dogmatize in any one field4 ,he believed that theology was based on the will of ,god1 all other science on the reason4 ,he influenced both ,scotus and ,ockam to turn from authority to experience4 ,morality was to him the content of universal religion4 ,transcriber's ,notes4 ,the following corrections have been made in the text3 ,page #i3 ,sentence starting3 ,the passionate party strife4444 - #8familes' replaced with #8families' 7old1 ruling families of nobles7 ,page #aic3 ,sentence starting3 ,on the other hand1444 - #8evolulution' replaced with #8evolution' 7,darwin's theory of evolution47 ,page #aif3 ,sentence starting3 ,studying the organic realm1444 - #8organism' replaced with #8organisms' 7we find organisms to consist of7 ,page #bae3 ,sentence starting3 ,there were many other4444 - #8,pergamus' replaced with #8,pergamos' 7,rhodes1 ,antioch1 ,alexandria1 ,pergamos1 ,tarsus17 ,page #ccg3 ,sentence starting3 ,by means of neo-,platonism4444 - #8judye' replaced with #8judge' 7,god as a judge 7