,,trubn]',s ,,ori5tal ,,s]ies ,,popul> ,,re-,,issue ,,at ,a ,,uni=m ,,price ,demy #hvo1 d>k gre5 clo?1 gilt4 ,,alb]uni3 ,india4 ,an ,acc\nt ( ! ,religion1 ,philosophy1 ,lit]ature1 ,geography1 ,*ronology1 ,a/ronomy1 ,cu/oms1 ,laws1 & ,a/rology ( ,india1 ab\t ,a4,d4 #ajcj4 ,by ,dr4 ,edw>d ,c4 ,sa*au4 ,,arnold 7,sir ,e473 ,indian ,poetry & ,indian ,idylls4 ,conta9+ #8,! ,indian ,song ( ,songs1' f ! ,sanskrit ( ! ,gita ,gov9da ( ,jayadeva2 ,two ,books f #8,! ,iliad ( ,india' 7,mahabh>ata72 #8,prov]bial ,wisdom1' f ! ,%lokas ( ! ,hitopadesa1 & o!r ,ori5tal ,poems4 ,,b>? 7,dr4 ,a473 ,! ,religions ( ,india4 ,au?oris$ ,translation by ,rev4 ,j4 ,wood4 ,,big&et 7,b4 ,p473 ,life or ,leg5d ( ,gaudama1 ! ,buddha ( ! ,burmese2 ,) ,annotations1 ! ,ways to ,neibban1 & ,notice on ! ,phongyies or ,burmese ,monks4 ,,beal 7,pr(4 ,s473 ,life ( ,hiu5-,tsiang4 ,by ! ,%amans ,hwui ,li & ,y5-,tsung4 ,) a ,preface conta9+ an ,acc\nt ( ! ,works ( ,i-,ts+4 ,,beal 7,pr(4 ,s473 ,si-,yu-,ki3 ,buddhi/ ,records ( ! ,we/]n ,_w4 ,translat$ f ! ,*9ese ( ,hiu5-,tsiang4 ,,b\lt+ 7,dr4 ,w473 ,f\r ,pilgrims4 ,i41 ,hiu5 ,tsiang2 ,,ii41 ,swulf2 ,,iii41 ,mohamm$ ibn abd ,allah2 ,,iv41 ,ludovico ,v>!ma ( ,bologna4 ,,c[ell 7,pr(4 ,e4 ,b473 ,s>va-,d>sana-,samgraha3 or1 ,review ( ! ,diff]5t ,sy/ems ( ,h9du ,philosophy4 ,by ,madhava ,a*>ya4 ,translat$ by ,pr(4 ,e4 ,b4 ,c[ell1 ,m4,a41 & ,pr(4 ,a4 ,e4 ,g\gh1 ,m4,a4 ,,d[son 7,pr(4 ,j473 ,classical ,diction>y ( ,h9du ,my?ology & ,religion1 ,geography1 ,hi/ory1 & ,lit]ature4 ,,edk9s 7,dr4 ,j473 ,*9ese ,buddhism3 ,a ,volume ( ,sket*es1 ,hi/orical & ,critical4 ,new & ,revis$ ,edition4 ,,rockhill 7,w4 ,w473 ,! ,life ( ! ,buddha & ! ,e>ly ,hi/ory ( 8 ,ord]4 ,d]iv$ f ,tibetan works 9 ! ,bkah-hgyur & ,b/an-hgyur4 ,foll[$ by notices on ! e>ly hi/ory ( ,tibet & ,khot54 ,,haug 7,dr4 ,m473 ,essays on ! ,sacr$ ,language1 ,writ+s1 & ,religion ( ! ,p>sis4 ,,web] 7,dr4 ,a473 ,hi/ory ( ,indian ,lit]ature4 ,translat$ by ,john ,mann1 ,m4,a41 & ,!odore ,za*>iae1 ,ph4,d4 ,f\r? ,edition4 ,o!r ,volumes to foll[4 ,,london ,,kegan ,,paul1 ,,tr5*1 ,,trubn] ,,co41 ,ltd4 ,,arabic ,,?\ght ,,& ,,its ,,place ,,9 ,,hi/ory ,,by ,,de ,,lacy ,o',,le>y1 ,d4,d4 ,lectur] 9 ,aramaic & ,syriac1 ,bri/ol ,univ]sity ,london3 ,,kegan ,,paul1 ,,tr5*1 ,,trubn] ,,co41 ,,ltd4 ,,new ,,york3 ,e4 ,p4 ,,dutton ,,co4 #aibb ,,=eword ,hi/ory traces ! evolution ( ! social /ructure 9 :i* ! community exi/s to-day4 ,!re are ?ree *ief factors at "w 9 ?is evolution2 racial desc5t1 culture drift1 & transmission ( language3 ! fir/ ( ^! physiological & n necess>ily connect$ ) ! o!r two1 :il/ ^? two are n always associat$ ) ea* o!r4 ,9 ! evolution ( ! social /ructure ! factor ( fir/ importance is ! transmission ( culture1 :i* is n a matt] ( h]$ity b due to contact1 = culture is le>n$ & reproduc$ by imitation & n inh]it$4 ,culture mu/ be tak5 9 ! wide/ s5se to include political1 social1 & legal in/itutions1 ! arts & crafts1 religion1 & ! v>i\s =ms ( intellectual life :i* %[ _! pres5ce 9 lit]ature1 philosophy1 & o!rwise1 all m or less connect$1 & all hav+ ! common *>act]i/ic t !y _c be pass$ on by physical desc5t b mu/ be le>n$ 9 aft] life4 ,b race1 culture1 & language resemble "o ano!r 9 s f> z x is true t all are multiplex & p]petually int]wov51 s t 9 ea* ! l9es ( transmission seem r l a tangl$ ske9 ?an an ord]$ patt]n2 results proce$ f a conflict+ gr\p ( causes among/ :i* x is (t5 difficult to apportion ! relative influ5ces4 ,! culture ( mod]n ,europe d]ives f t ( ! ,roman ,empire1 itself ! multiple resultant ( _m =ces1 among/ :i* ! intellectual life ( ,hell5ism 0 mo/ effective1 b work$ into a coh]5t sy/em by ! wond]ful p[] ( organization1 :i* 0 "o ( ! mo/ sali5t *>act]i/ics ( t ,empire4 ,! :ole cultural life ( m$ival ,europe %[s ?is ,hell5i/ic-,roman culture pass$ on1 develop$1 & modifi$ by circum/ances4 ,z ! ,empire fell to pieces ! body ( culture became subject to v>y+ conditions 9 diff]5t localities1 ( :i* ! div]g5ce betwe5 ! ,greek-speak+ ,ea/ & ! ,lat9-speak+ ,we/ is ! mo/ /rik+ example4 ,! introduction ( ,muslim influ5ce ?r\gh ,spa9 is ! "o in/ance 9 :i* we seem to get an ali5 culture ent]+ into ?is ,roman tradition & ex]cis+ a di/urb+ influ5ce4 ,9 fact1 ?is ,muslim culture 0 at bottom ess5tially a "p ( ! ,hell5i/ic-,roman mat]ial1 ev5 ! !ology ( ,islam be+ =mulat$ & develop$ f ,hell5i/ic s\rces1 b ,islam _h s long liv$ ap>t f ,*ri/5dom & its developm5t _h tak5 place 9 surr\nd+s s diff]5t t x seems a /range & ali5 ?+4 ,its greate/ p[] lay 9 ! fact t x pres5t$ ! old mat]ial 9 an entirely fre% =m4 99 99 99 99 99 ,x is ! ef=t ( ! foll[+ pages to trace ! transmission ( ,hell5i/ic ?\ght ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ,muslim philosoph]s & ,jewi% ?9k]s :o liv$ 9 ,muslim surr\nd+s1 to %[ h[ ?is ?\ght1 modifi$ z x pass$ ?r\gh a p]iod ( developm5t 9 ! ,muslim community & itself modify+ ,islamic ideas1 0 br\ght to be> ^u ! culture ( m$ival ,lat9 ,*ri/5dom4 ,s greatly _h x alt]$ 9 ext]nal =m dur+ ! c5turies ( its life ap>t1 t x seem$ a new type ( intellectual life & became a di/urb+ factor :i* div]t$ ,*ri/ian philosophy into new l9es & t5d$ to dis9tegrate ! traditional !ology ( ! ,*ur*1 directly lead+ up to ! ,r5asc5ce :i* gave ! dea?-bl[ to m$ival culture3 s little _h x alt]$ 9 real sub/ance t x us$ ! same text-books & treat$ v mu* ! same problems already curr5t 9 ! e>li] s*ola/icism :i* _h develop$ indep5d5tly 9 ,lat9 ,*ri/5dom4 ,x w be our ef=t s to trace ! hi/ory ( m$ival ,muslim ?\ght z to %[ ! elem5ts :i* x _h 9 common ) ,*ri/ian tea*+ & to acc\nt = ! po9ts ( div]g5ce4 ,de ,l4 ,o',l4 ,,cont5ts ,,*ap4 ,,page ,i ,,! ,,syriac ,,v]sion ,,( ,,hell5ism #a ,,ii ,,! ,,arab ,,p]iod #ef ,,iii ,,! ,,com+ ,,( ,,! ,,abbasids #hi ,,iv ,,! ,,translators #aje ,v ,,! ,,mu,,tazilites #abc ,,vi ,,! ,,ea/]n ,,philosoph]s #ace ,,vii ,,sufism #aha ,,viii ,,or?odox ,,s*ola/icism #bjh ,,ix ,,! ,,we/]n ,,philosophy #bbf ,x ,,! ,,jewi% ,,transmittors #bfa ,,xi ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,! ,,arabic ,,philosoph]s ,,on ,,lat9 ,,s*ola/icism #bge ,,conclud+ ,,p>agraph #bie ,,*ronological ,,table #bif ,,transcrib]',s ,,note ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,syriac ,,v]sion ,,( ,,hell5ism ,! subject propos$ 9 ! foll[+ pages is ! hi/ory ( ! cultural transmission by :i* ,greek philosophy & sci5ce 7 pass$ f ,hell5i/ic surr\nd+s to ! ,syriac speak+ community1 !nce to ! ,arabic speak+ _w ( ,islam1 & s f9ally to ! ,lat9 ,s*oolm5 ( ,we/]n ,europe4 ,t su* a transmission did take place is kn[n ev5 to ! beg9n] 9 m$ival hi/ory1 b h[ x happ5$1 & ! influ5ces :i* promot$ x1 & ! modifications :i* took place en r\te1 appe> to be less g5]ally kn[n1 & x does n seem t ! details1 scatt]$ ?r\gh works ( v div]se types1 are easily accessible to ! ,engli% read]4 ,_m hi/orians seem cont5t to give only a casual ref]5ce to its c\rse1 sometimes ev5 ) /range *ronological confusions :i* %[ t ! s\rces us$ are /ill ! m$ival writ]s :o _h v imp]fect in=mation ab\t ! developm5t ( intellectual life among/ ! ,muslims4 ,foll[+ m$ival usage we sometimes f9d ! ,arabic writ]s ref]r$ to z 8,arabs0 or 8,moors10 al?\gh 9 fact !re 0 only "o philosoph] ( any importance :o 0 an ,arab by race1 & comp>atively little is kn[n ab\t 8 "w4 ,^! writ]s belong$ to an ,arabic speak+ community1 b v few ( !m 7 actually ,arabs4 ,aft] ! lat] ,hell5i/ic developm5t ,greek culture spread outw>d into ! ori5tal fr+e ( p :o us$ ,syriac1 ,coptic1 ,aramaic1 or ,p]sian z _! v]nacul> spee*1 & 9 ^! ali5 surr\nd+s x took a some:at n>r[] developm5t & ev5 :at we may describe z a prov9cial tone4 ,!re is no "q ( race 9 ?is4 ,culture is n inh]it$ z a "p ( ! physiological h]itage transmitt$ f p>5t to *ild2 x is le>n$ by contact due to int]c\rse1 imitation1 education1 & su* l ?+s1 & su* contact betwe5 social gr\ps z well z betwe5 individuals is mu* help$ by ! use ( a common language & h9d]$ by diff]5ce ( language4 ,z soon z ,hell5ism ov]fl[$ into ! v]nacul> speak+ communities outside ! ,greek speak+ _w x began to suff] "s modification4 ,x s happ5$ also t ^! v]nacul> speak+ communities want$ to be cut (f f close contact ) ! ,greek _w because v bitt] !ological divisions _h aris5 & _h produc$ feel+s ( great ho/ility on ! "p ( ^? :o 7 (ficially describ$ z h]etics aga9/ ! /ate *ur* 9 ! ,byzant9e ,empire4 ,9 ?is pres5t *apt] we h to consid] ?ree po9ts2 9 ! fir/ place ! p>ticul> /age ( developm5t rea*$ by ,greek ?\ght at ! "t :5 ^! divisions took place2 secondly ! cause ( ^! divisions & _! t5d5cies2 & ?irdly ! p>ticul> l9e ( developm5t tak5 by ,hell5i/ic culture 9 its ori5tal atmosph]e4 ,fir/ /&s ! "q ( ! /age ( developm5t rea*$ by ,hell5ism1 & we may te/ ?is by its intellectual life z repres5t$ by sci5ce & philosophy1 at ! "t :5 ! ori5tal (f-%oot %[s a def9ite l9e ( sep>ation4 ,engli% education1 l>gely dom9at$ by ! pr9ciples le>n$ at ! r5asc5ce1 is incl9$ to treat philosophy z com+ to an end ) ,ari/otle & beg9n+ aga9 ) ,desc>tes aft] a long blank dur+ :i* !re liv$ & work$ "s deg5]ate desc5dants ( ! anci5ts :o h>dly ne$ s]i\s consid]ation4 ,b ?is position violates ! prim>y canon ( hi/ory :i* po/ulates t all life is cont9u\s1 ! life ( ! social community z well z ! physical life ( an organic body3 & life mu/ be a p]petual s]ies ( causes & results1 s t ea* ev5t c only be expla9$ by ! cause :i* w5t be=e1 & c only be fully und]/ood 9 ! light ( ! result :i* foll[s aft]4 ,:at we call ! 8middle ages0 _h an important place 9 ! evolution ( our own cultural condition1 & ow$ mu* to ! transmitt$ culture :i* came r\nd f anci5t ,hell5ism ?r\gh ,syriac1 ,arabic1 & ,hebrew m$ia4 ,b ?is culture came z a liv+ ?+ ) an unbrok5 & cont9u\s developm5t f :at we call ! 8classic0 age4 ,z ! philosophy ( ! great classic s*ools passes d[n to ^! lat] p]iods x %[s great modifications1 b ?is alt]ation is itself a pro( ( life4 ,philosophy1 l religion1 9 s f> z x has a real vitality1 mu/ *ange & adapt itself to alt]$ conditions & new requirem5ts3 x c rema9 pure & true to its pa/ only 9 s f> z its life is artificial & unreal1 liv$ 9 an academic atmosph]e f> remov$ f ! life ( ! community at l>ge4 ,9 su* an unnatural atmosph]e no d\bt1 x is possible = a religion or a philosophy to live p]fectly pure & uncorrupt1 b x is c]ta9ly n an ideal life3 9 real life !re are b\nd to be introduc$ _m unwor?y elem5ts & "s :i* c only be describ$ z actually corrupt4 ,s x is inevitable t z a religion or a philosophy lives & really fulfils its prop] functions x has to pass ?r\gh _m *anges4 ,( c\rse ! same holds good = all o!r =ms ( culture3 x may be true t a c\ntry is happy if x has no hi/ory1 b x is ! placid happ9ess ( vegetable life1 n ! enjoym5t ( ! high] functions ( rational be+4 ,9 consid]+ ! transmission ( ,greek philosophy to ! ,arabs we see t philosophy /ill z a liv+ =ce1 adapt+ itself to *ang$ conditions b )\t a break 9 ! cont9uity ( its life4 ,x 0 n1 z n[1 an academic /udy s\ght only by a gr\p ( speciali/s1 b a liv+ influ5ce :i* guid$ m5 9 _! ideas ab\t ! univ]se 9 :i* !y liv$ & dom9at$ all !ology1 law1 & social ideas4 ,= _m c5turies x p]vad$ ! atmosph]e 9 :i* ,we/]n ,asia 0 educat$ & 9 :i* x liv$4 ,m5 became ,*ri/ians1 = a "t ! new religi\s int]e/ fill$ _! m9ds1 b lat] on x 0 inevitable t philosophy %\ld re-ass]t its p[]1 & !n ,*ri/ian doctr9e _h to be re-ca/ to con=m to x3 ! desc5dants ( ^! p became ,muslims & !n aga91 aft] an int]val1 religion _h to con=m itself to curr5t philosophy4 ,we h no su* dom9ant philosophical sy/em 9 =ce to-day1 b we h a c]ta9 mass ( sci5tific facts & !ories :i* =m an intellectual backgr\nd to mod]n ,european life & ! def5d]s ( traditional religion f9d x necess>y to adju/ _! tea*+ to ! pr9ciples impli$ 9 ^? facts & !ories4 ,b ! important po9t is t !n ,*ri/ian tea*]s began to put !mselves into t\* ) curr5t philosophy1 & s :5 ! ,muslims lat] on did ! same1 !y _h to reckon ) philosophy z !y f\nd x actually liv+ 9 _! own days3 !y did n become ,platoni/s or ,ari/otelians 9 ! s5se 9 :i* we %\ld und]/& ! t]ms4 ,! curr5t philosophy _h *ang$ f ! old] /&>ds1 n because ! deg5]ate p ( ^? days c\ld n und]/& ! pure doctr9es ( ,plato & ,ari/otle1 b because !y took philosophy s s]i\sly & e>ne/ly z an explanation ( ! univ]se & ( man's place 9 x t !y 7 b\nd to re-adju/ _! views 9 ! light ( :at !y reg>d$ z lat] in=mation1 & ! views _h alt]$ to adju/ !mselves ) ! c\rse ( human exp]i5ce4 ,f ,plato onw>ds philosophy _h be5 v l>gely conc]n$ ) !ories :i* m or less directly conc]n$ ! /ructure ( society3 x 0 p]ceiv$ t a v l>ge "p ( man's life1 duties1 & g5]al welf>e1 0 intimately conc]n$ ) 8 relations to ! community 9 :i* he liv$4 ,b soon aft] ! "t ( ,ari/otle ! g5]al conditions ( ! social ord] 7 se5 to be und]go+ a pr(\nd modification3 great empires ) highly organis$ adm9i/rations replac$ ! self-gov]n+ city /ates ( ! old] p]iod1 & social life _h to adju/ itself to ! new conditions4 ,a man :o 0 a citiz5 ( ! ,roman ,empire 0 a citiz5 9 q a diff]5t s5se f t 9 :i* "o 0 a citiz5 ( ! ,a!nian ,republic4 ,! ,/oic philosophy1 :i* is ( ?is lat] age1 already presupposes ^! new conditions & 9 c\rse ( "t ! o!r s*ools ori5tat$ !mselves simil>ly4 ,"o ( ! fir/ results is a t5d5cy to eclecticism & to comb9ation ( ! t5ets ( sev]al s*ools4 ,! new outlook1 broad] 9 its horizon1 p]haps %all[] 9 o!r respects1 impell$ m5 to take :at 0 an imp]iali/ attitude in/ead ( a local or national "o4 ,precisely simil> *anges 7 =c$ ^u ! ,jewi% religion4 ,hell5i/ic ,judaism1 at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,*ri/ian era1 is conc]n$ ) ! human species & ! race ( ,israel is consid]$ *iefly z a means ( br++ illum9ation to mank9d at l>ge4 ,x 0 ?is ,hell5i/ic ,judaism :i* culm9at$ 9 ,/4 ,paul & ! expansion ( ! ,*ri/ian ,*ur*1 :il/ or?odox ,judaism1 t is to say ! prov9cial ,jew]y ( ,pale/9e rev]t$ to its racial attitude "u ! pressure ( circum/ances p>tly reaction>y aga9/ ! too rapid progress ( ,hell5ism & p>tly political 9 "*4 ,! old pagan religions %[$ _m local v>ieties1 & f ^? a _w-wide religion c\ld only be evolv$ by "s speculative doctr9es :i* reconcil$ _! div]g5ces4 ,nev] has a religion ( any ext5sion be5 =m$ f local cults o!rwise ?an by ! m9i/ry ( "s k9d ( speculative !ology3 sometimes ! fusion ( cults has spontane\sly provid$ su* a !ology1 z 0 ! case 9 ! ,nile valley & 9 ,mesopotamia 9 e>ly times1 & :5 ! !ology 0 produc$ x br\ght its solv5t p[] to be> rapidly & effectively on o!r surr\nd+ cults4 ,z _m races & /ates 7 associat$ toge!r 9 ! ,greek ,empire :i*1 ?\gh app>5tly sep>at$ into sev]al k+doms1 yet _h an intellectual coh]5ce & a common civilization1 & ?is 0 /ill m def9itely ! case :5 ! clos] f$]ation ( ! ,roman ,empire foll[$1 philosophy 0 =c$ m & m 9 ! direction ( speculative !ology3 x assum$ ^? e?ical & doctr9al functions :i* we g5]ally associate ) religion1 ! contempor>y local cults conc]n+ !mselves only ) ritual duties4 ,?us 9 ! e>ly c5turies ( ! ,*ri/ian era ,hell5i/ic philosophy 0 evolv+ a k9d ( religion1 ( a high moral tone & def9itely mono!i/ic 9 doctr9e4 ,?is !ological philosophy 0 eclectic1 b re/$ ^u a basis ( ,platonism4 ,:il/ ! philosoph]s 7 develop+ a mono!i/ic & moral sy/em :i* !y hop$ to make a _w religion1 ! ,*ri/ians 7 attempt+ a simil> task on some:at diff]5t l9es4 ,! e>li] conv]ts to ! ,*ri/ian religion 7 n z a rule drawn f ! educat$ classes & %ew$ a m>k$ suspicion & dislike t[>ds ^? sup]ior p]sons1 su* z ! ,gno/ics1 or at lea/ ! pre-,m>cionite ,gno/ics1 :o 7 dispos$ to patronise !m4 ,gradually h[ev] ?is attitude *ang$ & we beg9 to f9d m5 l ,ju/9 ,m>tyr :o _h receiv$ a philosophical education & yet f\nd x q possible to co-ord9ate contempor>y sci5ce & ,*ri/ian doctr9e4 ,9 ,rome1 9 ,africa1 & 9 ,greece ! ,*ri/ians 7 a despis$ m9ority1 *iefly drawn f ! unlett]$ class1 & o/5tati\sly ignor$ by ! writ]s ( ! day4 ,l ! ,jew ( ! ,ghetto !y 7 =c$ to live an isolat$ life & ?r[n back ^u _! int]nal res\rces4 ,b 9 ,alex&ria &1 to a less] degree 9 ,syria1 !y 7 m 9 ! position ( ! mod]n ,jew 9 ,anglo ,saxon l&s1 ?\gh bitt]ly hat$ & occasionally p]secut$1 & 7 br\ght "u ! intellectual influ5ces ( ! surr\nd+ community & ?us exp]i5c$ a solv5t =ce 9 _! own ideas4 ,:5 at la/ ,*ri/ianity appe>s 9 ! asc5dant x has be5 l>gely re-ca/ by ,hell5i/ic influ5ces1 its !ology is re-/at$ 9 philosophical t]ms1 & ?us 9 ! guise ( !ology a l>ge am\nt ( philosophical mat]ial 0 transmitt$ to ! v]nacul> speak+ h9t]l& ( ,we/]n ,asia4 ,! ,arabic writ] ,masdi in=ms u t ,greek philosophy orig9ally fl\ri%$ at ,a!ns1 b ! ,emp]or ,augu/us transf]r$ x f ,a!ns to ,alex&ria & ,rome1 & ,!odosius aft]w>ds clos$ ! s*ools at ,rome & made ,alex&ria ! educational c5tre ( ! ,greek _w 7,masdi3 ,livre de l'av]tissem5t1 trad4 ,b4 ,c>ra de ,vaux1 ,p>is1 #ahif1 p4 #agj74 ,al?\gh grotesquely express$ ?is /atem5t conta9s an elem5t ( tru? 9 s f> z x repres5ts ,alex&ria z gradually becom+ ! pr9cipal home ( ,greek philosophy4 ,x _h begun to take a lead+ place ev5 9 ! days ( ! ,ptolemies1 & 9 sci5tific1 z di/+ui%$ f purely lit]>y "w1 x _h assum$ a position ( prim>y importance e>ly 9 ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,! s*ools ( ,a!ns rema9$ op5 until ,a4,d4 #ebi1 b _h long be5 out ( t\* ) progressive s*ol>%ip4 ,rome also %[s great philosoph]s1 mo/ (t5 ( ori5tal bir?1 d[n to a late age1 b al?\gh ^! 7 giv5 a k9dly welcome & a he>+1 ,roman education 0 m int]e/$ 9 jurisprud5ce1 inde$ ! purely ,roman philosophical speculation is t emb$d$ 9 ,ju/9ian's code4 ,antio* also _h its philosophy1 b ?is 0 nev] ( m ?an second>y importance4 ,9 ! c\rse ( :at we may t]m ! ,alex&rian p]iod ! ,platonic s*ool _h /eadily tak5 ! fir/ place4 ,x 0 inde$ consid]ably *ang$ f ! anci5t ,academic /&>ds1 *iefly by ! introduction ( semi-my/ical elem5ts :i* 7 attribut$ to ,py?agoras1 & lat] by fusion ) ! neo-,ari/otelian s*ool4 ,! ,py?agorean elem5ts probably c be trac$ ultimately to an ,indian s\rce1 at lea/ 9 su* in/ances z ! doctr9e ( ! unreality ( matt] & ph5om5a :i* appe>s 9 ,indian philosophy z my1 & ! re-inc>nation ( s\ls :i* is avat>4 ,! t5d5cy ( native ,greek ?\ght1 z se5 9 ,democritus & o!r g5u9ely ,greek ?9k]s1 0 di/9ctly mat]iali/ic1 b ,plato app>5tly incorporates "s ali5 matt]1 probably ,indian1 p]haps "s ,egyptian ideas z well4 ,we "k !re 0 a transmission ( ori5tal ?\ght influ5c+ ,hell5ism1 b v little is kn[n ( ! details4 ,c]ta9ly ,plot9us & ! neo-,platoni/s 7 eclectic ?9k]s & drew freely f ori5tal s\rces1 "s disguis$ z ,py?agorean1 by a long soj\rn 9 ,greek l&s4 ,9 ! #crd c5tury ,a4,d4 we f9d ! beg9n+s ( :at is kn[n z neo-,platonism4 ,a v typical passage 9 ,gibbon's ,decl9e & ,fall 7*4 xiii47 ref]s to ! neo-,platoni/s z 8m5 ( pr(\nd ?\ght & int5se application2 b1 by mi/ak+ ! true object ( philosophy1 _! lab\rs contribut$ mu* less to improve ?an to corrupt ! human und]/&+4 ,! k t is suit$ to our situation & p[]s1 ! :ole compass ( moral1 natural1 & ma!matical sci5ce1 0 neglect$ by ! new ,platoni/s2 :il/ !y exhau/$ _! /r5g? 9 ! v]bal disputes ( metaphysics1 attempt$ to explore ! secrets ( ! invisible _w1 & /udi$ to reconcile ,ari/otle ) ,plato1 on subjects ( :i* bo? ^! philosoph]s 7 z ignorant z ! re/ ( mank9d40 ,al?\gh ?is passage is col\r$ by "s ( ! peculi> prejudices ( ,gibbon x fairly repres5ts a common attitude t[>ds neo-,platonism & might equally apply to e religi\s movem5t ! _w has ev] se54 ,! neo-,platoni/s 7 ! result1 we may say ! inevitable result1 ( t5d5cies :i* _h be5 at "w ev] s9ce ! age ( ,alex&] & ! wid5+ ( ! m5tal horizon & ! decay ( int]e/ 9 ! old civic life4 ,! old] philosoph]s _h endeav\r$ to produce effici5t citiz5s2 b "u imp]iali/ conditions effici5t citiz5s 7 n s mu* want$ z ob$i5t subjects4 ,?r\gh all ?is p]iod !re are v cle> indications ( ! new tr5d ( ?\ght :i* assumes a m !ological & philan?ropic "*1 aim+ at produc+ good m5 r ?an useful citiz5s4 ,! speculations ( ,philo ! ,jewi% ,platoni/ give v pla9 indications ( ^! new t5d5cies z !y appe>$ 9 ,alex&ria4 ,he %[s ! mono!i/ic t5d5cy :i* 0 inde$ pres5t 9 ! old] philosoph]s b n[ beg9s to be m /rongly emphasiz$ z philosophy becomes m !ological 9 its speculations1 ?\gh no d\bt 9 8 case ?is 0 l>gely due to ! religion he pr(ess$4 ,he express$ ! doctr9e ( a ,"o ,god1 et]nal1 un*ang+1 & passionless1 f> remov$ above ! _w ( ph5om5a1 z ! ,fir/ ,cause ( all t exi/s1 a philosophical mono!ism :i* c be fitt$ 9 ) ! ,old ,te/am5t b does n naturally proce$ f x4 ,! doctr9e ( an ,absolute ,reality z ! necess>y cause ( all t is v>iable1 some?+ l ! fulcrum :i* ,ar*im$es ne$$ to move ! _w1 0 "o to :i* all philosophy1 & especially ! ,platonic s*ool1 0 t5d+4 ,b1 z causation to "s ext5t implies *ange1 ?is ,fir/ ,cause c\ld n be reg>d$ z directly creat+ ! _w1 b only z ! et]nal s\rce ( an et]nally proce$+ emanation by means ( :i* ! p[] ( ! ,fir/ ,cause is project$ s z to produce ! univ]se & all x conta9s4 ,! ess5tial features ( ?is tea*+ are1 ! absolute unity ( ! ,fir/ ,cause1 its absolute reality1 its et]nity1 & its inv>iability1 all ( :i* necess>ily removes x above ! plane ( ?+s kn[able to man2 & ! op]ative emanation ceaselessly issu+ =?1 et]nal l its s\rce1 yet act+ 9 "t & space1 an emanation :i* ,philo t]ms ! ,logos or 8,^w40 ,al?\gh ^! !ories are to a l>ge ext5t only an expression ( logical conclusions t[>ds :i* ! ,platoni/s 7 !n advanc+1 ,philo _h curi\sly little influ5ce4 ,no d\bt !re 0 a t5d5cy to reg>d 8 tea*+ z ma9ly an attempt to read a ,platonic mean+ into ,jewi% doctr9e1 & c]ta9ly ! l>ge am\nt ( att5tion he devot$ to exegesis ( ! ,old ,te/am5t & to ,jewi% apologetics w\ld prev5t 8 works f receiv+ s]i\s att5tion f non-,jewi% read]s4 ,aga91 al?\gh 8 ideas ab\t mono!ism & ! nature ( ,god 7 ^? to :i* ,platonism 0 t5d+1 !y repres5t also a ,jewi% attitude :i*1 />t+ f a mono!i/ic /&-po9t 0 !n1 "u ,hell5i/ic influ5ce1 mak+ t[>ds a supra-s5sual idea ( ,god1 expla9+ away ! an?ropomorphisms ( ! ,old ,te/am5t & po/ulat+ an emanation1 ! ,ho*ma or 8wisdom0 ( ,god z ! int]m$i>y 9 creation & revelation4 ,und\bt$ly ,philo1 or ! ,philonic s*ool ( ,hell5i/ic ,judaism1 0 responsible = ! ,logos doctr9e :i* appe>s 9 ! portions ( ! ,new ,te/am5t be>+ ! "n ( ,/4 ,john4 ,he _h an influ5ce also on ,jewi% ?\ght z appe>s 9 ! ,t>gums :]e ! op]ative emanation :i* proce$s f ! ,fir/ ,cause is no long] ! 8wisdom0 ( ,god b ! 8,^w40 ,he seems to h _h no influ5ce at all on ! c\rse ( ,alex&rian philosophy g5]ally4 ,! t5d5cies :i* 7 at "w 9 ,philo 7 also leav5+ ,greek ?\ght outside ,jewi% circles & all s*ools ( philosophy %[ a gr[+ def9it5ess 9 _! ass]tion ( ,"o ,god et]nal & inv>iable1 z ! s\rce & ,fir/ ,cause ( ! univ]se4 ,x is a recognition ( ! pr9cipal ( uni=mity 9 nature & ( ! necessity ( acc\nt+ = ! cause ( ?is uni=mity4 ,! ,gno/ic sects1 :i* 7 ( philosophical orig91 simply %[ ! def9ite acceptance ( ?is ,fir/ ,cause &1 hav+ accept$ x z on a plane f> remov$ above imp]fection & v>iation1 sugge/ int]m$i>y emanations z expla9+ ! production ( an imp]fect & v>iable univ]se f a prim>y s\rce :i* is itself p]fect & un*ang+4 ,! descriptive acc\nts ( ! successive emanations1 ea* less p]fect ?an t f :i* x proce$s1 :i* ultimately produc$ ! _w 9 :i* we p]ceive ph5om5a1 are diff]5t 9 diff]5t ,gno/ic sy/ems1 (t5 crude en\gh & grotesque 9 our eyes1 & frequ5tly draw+ f ,*ri/ianity or ,judaism or "s o!r ( ! ori5tal religions :i* 7 !n attract+ ! att5tion ( ! ,roman _w4 ,b ^! details are ( m9or importance4 ,all ,gno/ic !ories be> witness to ! belief t !re is a ,fir/ ,cause1 absolutely real1 p]fect1 et]nal1 & f> remov$ above ?is _w ( "t & space1 & t "s emanation or emanations mu/ h int]v5$ to connect ! resultant _w1 su* z we "k x1 ) ?is sublime ,cause3 & su* belief indicates 9 crude =m a g5]al conviction :i* 0 gett+ hold ( all curr5t ?\ght 9 ! e>ly c5turies ( ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,complem5t>y to ?is 0 ! psy*ological tea*+ repres5t$ by ! ,ari/otelian comm5tator ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias :o taught at ,a!ns1 ,a4,d4 #aih-baa4 ,8 extant works include comm5t>ies on ! fir/ book ( ! ,analytica ,priora1 on ! ,topica1 ,meteorology1 de s5su1 ! fir/ five books ( ! ,metaphysics & an abridgm5t ( ! o!r books ( ! ,metaphysics1 z well z treatises on ! s\l1 etc4 ,ov] & ov] aga9 8 treatise on ! s\l & 8 comm5t>ies are translat$ into ,arabic1 p>aphras$1 & made ! subject ( fur!r comm5t>ies1 until x seems t 8 psy*ology is ! v nucleus ( all ,arabic philosophy1 & x is ?is :i* =ms ! ma9 po9t ( ! ,arabic influ5ce on ,lat9 s*ola/icism4 ,x becomes inde$ absolutely ess5tial t we und]/& ! ,alex&rian int]pretation ( ! ,ari/otelian psy*ology if we are to foll[ ! ori5tal developm5t ( ,greek sci5ce4 ,! fir/ po9t is to und]/& :at is to be impli$ 9 ! t]m 8s\l40 ,plato 0 really a duali/ 9 t he reg>ds ! s\l z a sep>ate entity :i* animates ! body & comp>es x to a rid] direct+ & controll+ ! horse he rides4 ,b ,ari/otle makes a m c>eful analysis ( psy*ological ph5om5a4 ,9 ! treatise de anima he says 8!re is no ne$ to enquire :e!r s\l & body are "o1 any m ?an :e!r ! wax & ! impr9t are "o2 or1 9 g5]al1 :e!r ! matt] ( a ?+ is ! same ) t ( :i* x is ! matt]40 7,ari/ot3 de anima4 ,,ii4 i4 #dab4 b4 #f47 ,ari/otle def9es ! s\l z 8! fir/ actuality ( a natural body hav+ 9 x ! capacity ( life0 7id4 #dab4 b4 #e71 9 :i* 8fir/0 d5otes t ! s\l is ! prim>y =m by :i* ! sub/ance ( ! body is actualiz$1 & 8actuality0 ref]s to ! actualiz+ pr9ciple by :i* =m is giv5 to ! body :i* o!rwise w\ld be only a collection ( sep>ate p>ts ea* hav+ its own =m b ! aggregate be+ )\t corporate unity until ! s\l gives x =m2 9 ?is s5se ! s\l is ! realization ( ! body 7cf4 ,ari/ot3 ,metaph4 iii4 #ajdc4 a4 #ce74 ,a dead body lacks ?is actualiz+ & c5traliz+ =ce & is only a collection ( limbs & organs1 yet ev5 s x is n an artificial collection su* z a man might put toge!r1 b 8a natural body hav+ 9 x ! capacity ( life10 t is to say1 an organic /ructure design$ = a s\l :i* is ! cause or reason ( its exi/5ce & :i* alone enables ! body to realize its object4 ,! s\l conta9s f\r diff]5t faculties or p[]s :i* are n /rictly to be tak5 z 8p>ts0 ?\gh 9 ! passage cit$ above ,ari/otle uses ! t]m 8p>ts40 ,^! are1 7i7 ! nutritive1 ! p[] ( life :]eby ! body p]=ms su* functions z absorb+ n\ri%m5t1 propagat+ its species1 & o!r functions common to all liv+ be+s1 :e!r animal or vegetable3 7ii7 ! s5sible1 by :i* ! body obta9s k ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! special s5ses ( sight1 he>+1 t\*1 etc41 & also ! 8common s5se0 by means ( :i* ^! p]ceptions are comb9$1 comp>$1 & contra/$ s t g5]al ideas are obta9$ :i* ultimately re/ on ! s5se p]ceptions3 7iii7 ! locomotive1 :i* prompts to action1 z desire1 appetite1 w1 etc41 also bas$1 ?\gh indirectly1 on s5se p]ception1 be+ sugge/$ by memories ( s5ses already 9 action3 7iv7 ! intellect or pure reason1 :i* is conc]n$ ) ab/ract ?\ght & is n bas$ on s5se p]ception4 ,all ^!1 embrac+ life 9 its wide/ application1 are class$ toge!r z s\l1 b ! la/1 ! intellect1 n\s1 or rational s\l1 is peculi> to man alone4 ,x does n dep5d on ! s5ses1 directly or indirectly1 & s1 :il/ ! o!r ?ree faculties necess>ily cease to function :5 ! bodily organs ( s5se cease1 x does n necess>ily foll[ t ?is rational s\l w cease z x is app>5tly indep5d5t ( ! organ s5se4 ,?is n\s or 8_s0 is r$uc$ by ,ari/otle to a mu* m re/rict$ range ?an is usual 9 ! old] philosoph]s & is tak5 to mean t :i* has ! capacity ( ab/ract k1 indep5d5t ( ! in=mation due1 directly or indirectly1 to s5se p]ception4 ,x w\ld seem1 h[ev]1 to be a di/9ct species ( faculty = ,ari/otle says3 8,z reg>ds intellect & ! speculative faculty ! case is n yet cle>4 ,x w\ld seem1 h[ev]1 to be a di/9ct species ( s\l1 & x alone is capable ( sep>ation f ! body1 z t :i* is et]nal f t :i* is p]i%able4 ,! rema9+ p>ts ( ! s\l are1 z ! =ego+ consid]ation %[s1 n sep>able 9 ! way t "s allege !m to be3 at ! same "t x is cle> t !y are logically di/9ct40 7,ari/4 de anima4 ,,ii4 ii4 #dac4 b4 #i74 ,x is sugge/$ t 7i7 ! rational s\l is ( a di/9ct species & s presumably d]iv$ f a diff]5t s\rce ?an ! o!r faculties ( ! s\l1 b no?+ is said z to :5ce x is d]iv$3 7ii7 x is capable ( exi/5ce indep5d5tly ( ! body1 t is to say its activity does n dep5d on ! op]ation ( ! bodily organs1 b x is n /at$ t x does s exi/2 7iii7 x is et]nal on ! gr\nd t x c exi/ ap>t f ! p]i%able4 ,! obscurity ( ?is /atem5t has l$ to a great div]g5ce 9 its treatm5t by comm5tators4 ,!ophra/us (f]s cauti\s sugge/ions & evid5tly reg>ds ! rational s\l z diff]+ only 9 degree ( evolution f ! l[] =ms ( s\l faculty4 ,x 0 ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias :o op5$ up new fields ( speculation1 di/+ui%+ betwe5 a mat]ial intellect & an active intellect4 ,! =m] is a faculty ( ! individual s\l & ?is x is :i* is ! =m ( ! body1 b x means no m ?an ! capacity = ?9k+ & is ( ! same s\rce z ! o!r faculties ( ! human s\l4 ,! active intellect is n a "p ( ! s\l b is a p[] :i* ent]s x f outside & ar\ses ! mat]ial intellect to activity2 x is n only diff]5t 9 s\rce f ! mat]ial s\l1 b diff]5t 9 "* 9 t x is et]nal & s always has be5 & always w be1 its rational p[] exi/+ q ap>t f ! s\l 9 :i* ! ?9k+ takes place2 !re is b "o su* sub/ance & ?is mu/ be id5tifi$ ) ! deity :o is ! ,fir/ ,cause ( all motion & activity1 s t ! active intellect is pictur$ z an emanation f ! deity ent]+ ! human s\l1 ar\s+ x to ! ex]cise ( its high] functions1 & !n return+ to its div9e s\rce4 ,?is !i/ic int]pretation ( ,ari/otle 0 /rongly oppos$ by ! comm5tator ,!mi/ius :o consid]s t ,alex&] =ces ! /atem5t ( ! text out ( its natural mean+ & draws an unw>rantable d$uction f ! two s5t5ces 8^! diff]5ces mu/ be pres5t 9 ! s\l10 & 8?is alone is immortal & et]nal40 ,x seems1 h[ev]1 t ,alex&]'s int]pretation play$ an important "p 9 ! =mation ( neo-,platonic !ory1 & x c]ta9ly is ! key to ! hi/ory ( ,muslim philosophy1 & is n )\t its importance 9 ! developm5t ( ,*ri/ian my/icism4 ,! neo-,platonic s*ool 0 f\nd$ by ,ammonius ,saccas1 b really takes its def9ite =m "u ,plot9us 7d4 #bfi ,a4,d474 ,9 sket*+ 9 brief outl9e ! lead+ pr9ciples ( ?is sy/em we %all conf9e ourselves to ! la/ ?ree books ( ! ,enneads 7iv-vi7 z ^!1 9 ! abridg$ =m kn[n z ! 8,!ology ( ,ari/otle0 =m$ ! ma9 /atem5t ( neo-,platonic doctr9e kn[n to ! ,muslim _w4 ,9 ! tea*+ ( ,plot9us ,god is ! ,absolute1 ! ,fir/ ,pot5cy 7,enn4 #e4 #d4 #a471 beyond ! sph]e ( exi/5ce 7id4 #e4 #d4 #b471 & beyond reality1 t is to say1 all t we "k z exi/5ce & be+ is inapplicable to him1 & he is !re=e unkn[able1 because on a plane :i* is altoge!r beyond our ?\ght4 ,he is unlimit$ & inf9ite 7id4 #f4 #e4 #i47 & consequ5tly ,"o1 z inf9ity excludes ! possibility ( any o!r ?an himself on ! same plane ( be+4 ,yet ,plot9us does n all[ ! num]al 8"o0 to be appli$ to ,god z num]als are und]/&able & ref] to ! plane ( exi/5ce 9 :i* we h our be+1 s t 8"o0 z a m]e numb] is n attribut$ to ,god1 b r s+ul>ity 9 ! s5se ( an exclusion ( all comp>ison or ( any o!r ?an himself4 ,z ,absolute ,god implies a compell+ necessity s t all :i* proce$s f him is n en=c$ b is necess>ily s 9 ! s5se t no?+ else is possible2 ?us1 = example1 x results f him t two sides ( a triangle are great] ?an ! ?ird side1 !y are n =c$ into great] l5g?1 b 9 ! nature ( ?+s mu/ be s1 & ?is necess>y nature has its compell+ s\rce 9 ! ,fir/ ,cause4 ,yet ,plot9us w n all[ u to say t ,god 8wills0 any?+1 = w implies a desire = :at is n possess$ or is n yet pres5t 7id4 #e4 #c4 #ab72 w op]ates 9 "t & space1 b necessity has = ev] proce$$ f ! ,et]nal ,"o :o does n act 9 "t4 ,nor c we conceive ,god z kn[+1 consci\s1 or ?9k+1 all t]ms :i* describe our m5tal activities 9 ! _w ( v>iable ph5om5a2 he is all-kn[+ by imm$iate appreh5sion 7,greek3 a?roa epibol 7 :i* 9 no way resembles ! op]ation ( ?\ght b is sup]consci\s1 a condition :i* ,plot9us describes z 8wakefulness0 7,greek3 egrgorsis 71 a p]petual be+ aw>e )\t ! ne$ ( obta9+ in=mation4 ,f ! true ,god1 ! et]nal ,absolute1 proce$s ! n\s1 a t]m :i* has be5 v>i\sly r5d]$ z ,reason1 ,intellect1 ,intellig5ce1 or ,_s1 ?is la/ be+ ! t]m :i* ,dr4 ,+e reg>ds z ! be/ expression 7,+e3 ,plot9us4 ii4 p4 #ch71 & ?is n\s is fairly equival5t to ! ,philonic & ,*ri/ian ,logos4 ,an ext]nal emanation is necessitat$ 9 ord] t ! ,fir/ ,cause may rema9 un*ang$ :i* w\ld n be ! case if x _h once n be5 a s\rce & !n _h become ! s\rce ( emanation2 !re c be no 8becom+0 9 ! ,fir/ ,cause4 ,! emanation is ( ! same nature z its cause1 b is project$ into ! _w ( ph5om5a4 ,x is self-exi/5t1 et]nal1 & p]fect1 & compreh5ds )9 itself ! 8_s _w10 ! objects ( ab/ract reason1 ! :ole ( ! reality :i* lies beh9d ! _w ( ph5om5a2 ! ?+s p]ceiv$ are only ! %ad[s ( ^! real ones4 ,x p]ceives1 n z seek+ & f9d+1 b z already possess+ 7id4 #e4 #a4 #d471 & ! ?+s p]ceiv$ are n sep>ate or ext]nal b z includ$ & appreh5d$ by imm$iate intuition 7id4 #e4 #b4 #b47 ,f ! n\s proce$s ! psy*e1 ! pr9ciple ( life & motion1 ! _w s\l :i* is 9 ! univ]se & :i* is %>$ by e liv+ creature4 ,x also kn[s1 b only ?r\gh ! processes ( reason+1 by means ( sep>at+1 di/ribut+1 & comb9+ ! data obta9$ by s5se p]ception1 s t x corresponds 9 function to ! 8common s5se0 ( ,ari/otle1 :il/ ! n\s %[s ! functions :i* are attribut$ to x by ,ari/otle & has ! "* :i* ,alex&] reads into ,ari/otle4 ,! "w ( ,plot9us 0 cont9u$ by 8 pupil ,porphyry 7d4 #cjj ,a4,d47 :o taught at ,rome1 & is *iefly notewor?y z ! "o :o complet$ ! fusion ( ,platonic & ,ari/otelian elem5ts 9 ! neo-,platonic sy/em1 & especially z introduc+ ! sci5tific me?ods ( ,ari/otle4 ,plot9us _h criticiz$ adv]sely ! ,ari/otelian categories 7,enn4 vi471 b ,porphyry & all ! lat] neo-,platoni/s return$ to ,ari/otle4 ,inde$1 he is be/ kn[n to po/]ity z ! au?or ( ! ,isagoge1 long curr5t z ! regul> introduction to ! logical ,organon ( ,ari/otle4 ,!n came ,jambli*us 7d4 #ccj71 ! pupil ( ,porphyry :o us$ neo-,platonism z ! basis ( a pagan !ology2 & f9ally ,proklus 7d4 #dhe7 its la/ great pagan adh]5t :o 0 ev5 m def9itely a !ologian4 ,neo-,platonism 0 ! sy/em j com+ to ! =efront :5 ! ,*ri/ians ( ,alex&ria began to be 9 contact ) philosophy4 ,! fir/ prom95t ,alex&rian ,*ri/ian :o endeav\r$ to reconcile philosophy & ,*ri/ian !ology 0 ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria :o1 l ,ju/9 ,m>tyr1 0 a ,platoni/ ( ! old] type4 ,clem5t's ,/romateis is a v /rik+ "w :i* %[s ! g5]al body ( ,*ri/ian doctr9e adapt$ to ! !ories ( ,platonic philosophy4 ,x does n tamp] ) ! traditional ,*ri/ian doctr9e1 b x is evid5tly ! "w ( "o :o s9c]ely believ$ t ,plato _h p>tially =ese5 :at ! ,gospels taught1 & t he _h us$ a cle> & effici5t t]m9ology :i* 0 9 all respects suitable = ! expression ( pr(\nd tru?s1 & s ,clem5t uses ?is t]m9ology1 incid5tally assum+ ! ,platonic metaphysics1 & s unconsci\sly modifies ! cont5ts ( ,*ri/ianity4 ,if we ask :e!r ?is results 9 a fair pres5tation ( ,*ri/ian tea*+ we %all p]haps be incl9$ to admit t1 9 spite ( modification & 9 view ( ! sci5tific attitude ( ! times x sub/antially does s3 :5 tru?s already express$ by ^? :o h n receiv$ a sci5tific tra9+ are repeat$ by ^? :o h & :o are c>eful to ca/ _! expression into logical & consi/5t =m1 "s modification is inevitable4 ,:e!r ! sci5tific assumptions & philosophy g5]ally ( ,clem5t 7 correct is1 ( c\rse1 ano!r matt]2 mod]n op9ion w\ld say x 0 incorrect4 ,b1 s f> z contempor>y sci5ce w5t1 x 0 obvi\sly an hone/ ef=t4 ,x has n be5 appreciat$ by all ,clem5t's successors & he is "o ( ! few ,*ri/ian lead]s :o has be5 =mally depriv$ ( ! honorific title ( 8sa9t0 :i* 0 at "o "t prefix$ to 8 "n4 ,)9 ! next few c5turies ! re-=mulation ( ,*ri/ianity proce$$ /eadily until at la/ x appe>s z ess5tially ,hell5i/ic1 b ) ! ,platonic elem5t n[ modifi$ by ! m spirituali/ic influ5ces ( neo-,platonism4 ,und\bt$ly ?is 0 a ga9 = ,*ri/ianity1 = :5 we read ! ,dida*e & o!r e>ly non-,hell5i/ic ,*ri/ian mat]ial we _c help feel+ t x %[s a n>r[] & m cramp$ outlook & "o f> less suit$ to satisfy ! ne$s & aspirations ( humanity at l>ge4 ,x is curi\s to comp>e ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria ) ,t]tullian1 "o ( ! greate/1 if n ! greate/1 ( ! lit]>y lights ( ,lat9 ,*ri/ianity1 b sev]e1 puritanically rigid1 & suspici\s & ho/ile 9 8 attitude t[>ds philosophy :i* he reg>ds z ess5tially pagan4 ,! next great lead] ( ,alex&rian ,*ri/ian ?\ght 0 ,orig5 himself a pupil ( ,plot9us1 & "o :o f\nd little difficulty 9 adapt+ contempor>y philosophy to ,*ri/ian doctr9e1 al?\gh ?is adaptation 0 by no means receiv$ ) approval 9 all p>ts ( ! ,*ri/ian community4 ,"u ,clem5t & ,orig5 ! cate*etical in/ruction :i* 0 regul>ly giv5 9 all *ur*es to c&idates = baptism 0 exp&$ & develop$ on ! l9es ( ! lectures giv5 by ! philosoph]s 9 ! ,museum1 & s a ,*ri/ian s*ool ( philosophical !ology 0 =m$4 ,?is developm5t 0 n reg>d$ fav\rably by ! old] fa%ion$ *ur*es nor by ! philosoph]s ( ! ,museum1 & ev5 among/ ! ,alex&rian ,*ri/ians !re 0 a section :i* view$ x ) disapproval1 especially evid5t :5 ! s*ool became s prom95t t x t5d$ to ov]%ad[ ! ord9>y diocesan organization4 ,?is is n ! place to consid] ! v>i\s intrigues :i* ultimately compell$ ,orig5 to leave ,alex&ria & retire to ,pale/9e4 ,!re1 at ,caes>ea1 he f\nd$ a s*ool on ! model ( t at ,alex&ria4 ,?is second f\ndation did n atta9 ! same em95ce z its proto-type1 p]haps because ,orig5's influ5ce turn$ its activities into a direction too highly specialis$ 9 textual criticism1 b x prompt$ a developm5t :i* ultimately play$ an important "p 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,syrian *ur* :]e1 = "s "t to come1 !ological activity ma9ly c5t]$ 9 ^! s*ools :i* _h _! imitators among/ ! ,zoroa/rians & ! ,muslims4 ,! fir/ su* s*ool 9 ,syria 0 f\nd$ at ,antio* by ,mal*ion ab\t #bgj ,a4,d4 & delib]ately copi$ ! patt]n set at ,alex&ria & ultimately became its rival4 ,ab\t fifty ye>s lat] a s*ool 0 e/abli%$ at ,nisibis1 ! mod]n ,nasib9 on ! ,mygdonius riv]1 9 ! mid/ ( a ,syriac speak+ community4 ,! *ur* _h spread inl& f ! ,m$it]ranean %ores & _h by ?is "t _m conv]ts 9 ! h9t]l& :o 7 accu/om$ to use ,syriac & n ,greek4 ,= ! b5efit ( ^! ! "w at ,nisibis 0 done 9 ,syriac1 ,syriac v]sions 7 prep>$ ( ! !ological works /udi$ at ,antio*1 & ! ,greek language 0 taught s t ! ,syriac speak+ ,*ri/ians 7 br\ght into clos] t\* ) ! life ( ! ,*ur* at l>ge4 ,! acquiesc5ce ( ! ,*ur* 9 ! ,alex&rian philosophy _h f>-rea*+ consequ5ces4 ,! ,*ur* did n (ficially adopt ! neo-,platonic philosophy 9 its entirety1 b x _h to adju/ itself to an atmosph]e 9 :i* ! neo-,platonic sy/em 0 accept$ z ! la/ ^w 9 sci5tific enquiry & :]e ! ,ari/otelian metaphysics & psy*ology 7 assum$ z an e/abli%$ & unque/ionable basis ( k4 ,x 0 impossible = *ur*m51 educat$ 9 ?is atmosph]e1 to d o!rwise ?an accept ^! pr9ciples1 j z x is impossible = u to admit t ! body ( a sa9t c be 9 two places at once1 our :ole education tra9+ u to assume c]ta9 limitations ( "t & space1 al?\gh a dev\t ,muslim ( ,morocco c believe x & hon\rs two %r9es z ea* conta9+ ! body ( ! same sa9t :o1 he believes1 9 8 life "t _h p[] ( ov]-pass+ ! limitations ( space4 ,! g5]al po/ulates ( ! lat] ,platonic & ,ari/otelian philosophy 7 firmly e/abli%$ 9 ! f\r? c5tury 9 ,alex&ria & its circle1 & 7 no m op5 to "q ?an ! law ( gravity or ! rotundity ( ! e>? w\ld be to u4 ,x 0 kn[n t !re 7 p :o que/ion$ ^! ?+s1 b x c\ld only be acc\nt$ = by bl9d ignorance 9 ^? :o _h n receiv$ ! b5efits ( an enlight5$ education4 ,! ,*ri/ians 7 no m able to dispute ^! pr9ciples ?an anyone else4 ,!y 7 p]fectly s9c]e 9 _! religion1 _m articles ( fai? :i* pres5t consid]able difficulty to ! mod]n m9d pres5t$ no difficulty to !m2 b x 0 p]fectly obvi\s t ! /atem5ts ( ,*ri/ian doctr9e mu/ be br\ght into l9e ) ! curr5t !ory ( philosophy1 or ) self evid5t tru? z !y w\ld h t]m$ x4 ,x %[s a /range lack ( hi/orical imag9ation :5 we talk slight+ly ab\t h[ ,*ri/ians qu>rell$ ov] words1 =gett+ :at ^! words repres5t$ & h[ !y /ood = ! e/abli%$ conclusions ( philosophy z !n und]/ood4 ,?is comes out v pla9ly 9 ! ,arian controv]sy4 ,bo? sides agre$ t ,*ri/ 0 ! ,son ( ,god1 ! relation ( ,fa!r & ,son be+1 ( c\rse1 n t ( human p>5tage b r by way ( emanation3 bo? agre$ t ,*ri/ 0 ,god1 z ! emanation necess>ily _h ! same nature z ! s\rce f :i* x proce$$3 bo? agre$ t ! ,son proce$$ f ! ,fa!r 9 et]nity & be=e ! worlds 7 creat$1 ! ,son or ,logos be+ ! int]m$i>y ( creation4 ,b "s1 & ^!1 x w\ld seem1 ma9ly associat$ ) ! s*ool ( ,antio*1 s spoke ( ! ,son proce$+ f ! ,fa!r z an ev5t :i* _h tak5 place f> be=e all "t 9 ! remot5ess ( et]nity1 x is true1 b s t !re 0 :5 ! ,fa!r _h n yet begott5 ! ,son1 =1 !y argu$1 ! ,fa!r mu/ h prec$$ ! ,son z ! cause prec$es ! effect1 & s ! ,son 01 z x 71 less et]nal ?an ! ,fa!r4 ,at once ! ,alex&rians correct$ !m4 ,to beg9 ) !re are no degrees 9 et]nity3 b1 mo/ s]i\s error ( all1 ?is idea made ,god liable to v>iation1 at "o p]iod ( et]nity he _h be5 alone1 & !n he _h become a fa!r3 philosophy taught t ! ,fir/ ,cause1 ! ,true ,god1 is liable to no *ange1 if he is ,fa!r n[1 he mu/ h be5 s f all et]nity3 we mu/ und]/& ! ,son z ! ,logos = ev] et]nally issu+ =? f ! ,fa!r z s\rce4 ,! actual m]its ( ! controv]sy d n at pres5t conc]n u3 we simply notice ! fact t ! curr5t ,greek philosophy entirely dom9at$ ! !ology ( ! ,*ur* & x 0 imp]ative = t !ology to be express$ 9 t]ms :i* fitt$ 9 ) ! philosophy4 ,! result ( ! ,arian /ruggle 0 t ! ,ea/]n *ur* came to recognise ! ,alex&rian philosophy z ! expon5t ( or?odoxy1 & 9 ?is x 0 foll[$ by ! great] "p ( ! ,we/]n ,*ur*1 ?\gh ! ,we/ ,go?s /ill rema9$ atta*$ to ! ,arian views :i* !y _h le>n$ f _! fir/ tea*]s4 ,by ! fif? c5tury ,arian doctr9e _h be5 completely elim9at$ f ! /ate *ur* & ,alex&rian philosophy :i* _h be5 ! *ief means ( br++ ab\t ?is result1 0 dom9ant1 al?\gh !re are indications t x 0 view$ ) suspicion 9 "s qu>t]s4 ,among/ ! controv]sies :i* took place 9 ! po/-,nic5e age ! mo/ prom95t are ^? :i* conc]n$ ! p]son ( ! inc>nate ,*ri/1 & ^! are l>gely que/ions ( psy*ology4 ,x 0 g5]ally admitt$ t man has a psy*e or animal s\l :i* he %>es ) ! re/ ( ! s5ti5t creatures1 & 9 addition to ?is a _s or rational s\l :i*1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! neo-,platoni/s or ( ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias1 0 reg>d$ z an emanation f ! creative _s1 ! ,logos or 8,ag5t ,intellect10 a belief :i* ,*ri/ian !ologians support$ by ! /atem5t 9 ,g5esis t ,god brea!d into man ! brea? ( life & s man became a liv+ s\l4 ,9 fact ,/4 ,paul _h already di/+ui%$ betwe5 ! two elem5ts1 ! animal s\l & ! immortal _s1 9 accordance ) ! psy*ology :i* _h be5 develop$ 9 8 "t4 ,b ,*ri/ian !ology suppos$ t 9 ,*ri/ 0 also pres5t ! et]nal ,logos :i* _h be5 ! creative ,_s & ( :i* ! _s or rational s\l 0 itself an emanation4 ,:at1 !re=e1 w\ld be ! relation betwe5 ! ,logos & its own emanation :5 !y came toge!r 9 ! same p]son8 ,if ! ,alex&rian philosophy & ! ,*ri/ian religion 7 bo? true ! problem 0 capable ( reasonable solution3 if its only answ] 0 a manife/ absurdity !n ei!r ! psy*ology or ,*ri/ianity 0 9 error1 & !n1 z always1 x 0 assum$ t contempor>y sci5ce 0 sure & religion _h to be te/$ by its /&>d4 ,to ?is p>ticul> problem two solutions 7 propos$4 ,! "o1 especially ma9ta9$ at ,alex&ria1 0 t ! ,logos & ! rational s\l or _s1 be+ 9 ! relation ( s\rce & emanation1 necess>ily fus$ toge!r :5 simultane\sly pres5t 9 ! same body1 ! po9t be+ ( c\rse t ! ,logos 0 ! ag5t ( creation1 ! ,true ,god n act+ !re9 z x 0 an activity 9 "t1 b ?r\gh ! int]m$i>y ( ! ,logos1 :il/ ! animal s\l disp]s$ ?r\gh creation 0 ultimately d]iv$ f ! ,logos1 b ! _s 0 directly proce$+ f x1 all ( :i* repres5ts ! philosophical !ory =mulat$ by ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias & ! neo-,platoni/s & !n accept$ z unassailable4 ,! o!r solution1 :i* f\nd its *ief advocates at ,antio*1 laid /ress on ! complet5ess ( ! humanity ( ,*ri/ s t ! body1 animal s\l1 & _s 7 necess>ily complete 9 ! humanity & ! ,logos dwelt 9 ! human frame )\t subtract+ ! _s :i* 0 "o ( ! ess5tials ( humanity1 & s !re c\ld h be5 no fusion because ?is w\ld h impli$ ! return ( ! _s to its s\rce & consequ5tly its subtraction f ! humanity ( ,*ri/4 ,?is solution1 x w be obs]v$1 po/ulates ! same psy*ology z ! o!r1 & :i*ev] view prevail$ ! ,*ur* w\ld be irrevocably committ$ to ! curr5t psy*ology by ?is def9ition ( its doctr9e4 ,bo? solutions (f]$ p]fectly logical d$uctions f ! po/ulates assum$ & x only want$ ! advocates ( "o or ! o!r to ov]-/ate ! case s z to transgress aga9/ ! tea*+s ( philosophy or ( traditional religion4 ,! fir/ false move came f ,antio*4 ,lay+ great /ress on ! complet5ess ( ! humanity ( ,*ri/ s t body1 s\l1 & _s 7 necess>ily connect$ 9 ! human frame1 ! view 0 s express$ z to describe ! ,virg9 ,m>y z ! "m ( ! human ,*ri/1 body1 s\l1 & _s alone1 :i* impli$1 or seem$ to imply1 t at bir? ,*ri/ 0 man only & aft]w>ds became ,god by ! ,logos ent]+ into ! human body1 a conclusion possibly n int5d$ by ^? :o express$ _! views b press$ by _! oppon5ts4 ,?is _h be5 ! tea*+ ( ,diodorus & ( ,!odore ( ,mopseu/ia bo? associat$ ) ! s*ool ( ,antio*1 & def5d$ 9 its extrem] =m by ,ne/orius1 a monk ( ,antio*1 :o 0 made bi%op ( ,con/ant9ople 9 ,a4,d4 #dbh4 ,viol5t controv]sies ensu$ :i* result$ 9 a g5]al c\ncil at ,ephesus 9 #dca1 :]e ! ,alex&rian p>ty succe$$ 9 gett+ ,ne/orius & 8 foll[]s condemn$ z h]etics4 ,two ye>s lat] ! ,ne/orians1 absolutely confid5t t _! oppon5ts 7 utt]ly illogical 9 suppos+ t ! rational s\l & ! ,logos 9 ,*ri/ 7 fus$ or unit$ toge!r1 repudiat$ ! (ficial *ur* & organis$ !mselves z ! ,*ur* :i* _h no "p ) ! h]etics ( ,ephesus4 ,! /ate ,*ur*1 h[ev]1 _h ! weight ( ! temporal au?ority beh9d x1 & ! heavy h& ( p]secution fell sev]ely ^u ! ,ne/orians4 ,9 ,antio* & ,greek speak+ ,syria p]secution did its "w effectually & ! ,ne/orians 7 r$uc$ to ! position ( a fugitive sect1 9 ,egypt1 z might be expect$1 !y _h no foot+1 & ! we/]ns z usual agre$ ) ! dom9ant /ate *ur*3 only among/ ! ,syriac speak+ ,*ri/ians ! ,ne/orian tea*+ _h a free c\rse1 & t section = ! mo/ "p adh]$ to x4 ,"s "t be=e ?is ! s*ool at ,nisibis _h be5 clos$1 or r remov$ to ,edessa4 ,9 ,a4,d4 #cfc ! city ( ,nisibis _h be5 h&$ ov] to ! ,p]sians z "o ( ! conditions ( ! peace :i* clos$ ! un=tunate w> comm5c$ by ,julian1 & ! memb]s ( ! s*ool1 retir+ into ,*ri/ian t]ritory1 _h re-assembl$ at ,edessa1 :]e a s*ool 0 op5$ 9 #cgc1 & ?us ,edessa 9 a ,syriac speak+ di/rict b )9 ! ,byzant9e ,empire1 became ! c5tre ( ! v]nacul> speak+ ,syriac *ur*4 ,at ! ,ne/orian s*ism ! s*ool at ,edessa 0 ! rally+ place ( ^? :o did n accept ! decisions ( ,ephesus1 b 9 #dci x 0 clos$ by ! ,emp]or ,z5o on acc\nt ( its /rong ,ne/orian "*1 & ! eject$ memb]s l$ by ,b>suma1 a pupil ( ,ibas 7d4 #deg71 :o _h be5 ! great lum9>y ( ,edessa1 migrat$ across ! ,p]sian bord]4 ,b>suma 0 able to p]suade ! ,p]sian k+ ,piruz t ! or?odox1 t is to say ! /ate1 ,*ur* 0 pro-,greek1 b t ! ,ne/orians 7 entirely ali5at$ f ! ,byzant9e ,empire by ! h>% treatm5t !y _h receiv$4 ,on ?is und]/&+ !y 7 fav\rably receiv$ & rema9$ loyal to ! ,p]sian mon>*y 9 ! subsequ5t w>s ) ! ,empire4 ,! ,ne/orians re-op5$ ! s*ool at ,nisibis & ?is became ! focus ( ,ne/orian activity by :i* an ori5talis$ phase ( ,*ri/ianity 0 produc$4 ,gradually ! ,ne/orian mission>ies spread ?r\gh all c5tral ,asia & d[n into ,arabia s t ! races outside ! ,greek ,empire came to "k ,*ri/ianity fir/ 9 a ,ne/orian =m4 ,x seems probable t ,muhammad _h contact ) ,ne/orian tea*]s 7,hirs*feld3 ,new ,rese>*es4 p4 #bc71 & c]ta9ly ,ne/orian monks & mission>ies _h mu* int]c\rse ) ! e>li] ,muslims4 ,^! ,ne/orians 7 n only anxi\s to tea* ,*ri/ianity b v naturally atta*$ ! utmo/ importance to _! own explanations ( ! p]son ( ,*ri/4 ,?is c\ld only be made cle> by ! help ( !ories drawn f ,greek philosophy1 & s e ,ne/orian mission>y became to "s ext5t a propag&i/ ( t philosophy3 !y translat$ into ,syriac n only ! great !ologians su* z ,!odore ( ,mopseu/ia :o expla9$ _! views1 b also ,greek au?orities su* z ,ari/otle & 8 comm5tators because "s k ( ^! 0 necess>y to und]/& ! !ology4 ,mu* ( ?is "w ( translation %[s a real desire to expla9 _! tea*+1 b x %[s also a /rong res5tm5t aga9/ ! ,emp]or & 8 /ate *ur*2 z t *ur* us$ ! ,greek language 9 its liturgy & tea*+1 ! ,ne/orians 7 anxi\s to disc>d ,greek1 !y celebrat$ ! sacram5ts only 9 ,syriac & set !mselves to promote a di/9ctly native !ology & philosophy by means ( translat$ mat]ial & ,syriac comm5t>ies4 ,^! became ! m$ium by :i* ,ari/otle & ! neo-,platonic comm5tators 7 transmitt$ to ,asia outside ! ,empire1 & s lat] on z we %all see x 0 a gr\p ( ,ne/orian translators :o1 by mak+ ,arabic v]sions f ! ,syriac1 fir/ br\ght ,hell5i/ic philosophy to ! ,arabic _w4 ,b !re 0 also a weak side1 = ! ,ne/orian ,*ur*1 cut (f f ! wid] life ( ,hell5ism1 became di/9ctly prov9cial4 ,its philosophy plays r\nd & r\nd t preval5t at ! s*ism1 x spreads ?is philosophy to new c\ntries1 x produces an ext5sive educational sy/em1 & elaborates its mat]ial1 b x %[s no developm5t4 ,if we reg>d ! ma9 te/ ( educational effici5cy z be+ 9 its rese>* product & n simply ! promulgation ( mat]ial already atta9$1 !n ,ne/orianism 0 n an educational success3 & x seems t ?is %\ld be ! supreme te/1 = k is progressive1 & s ! smalle/ contribution t[>ds fur!r progress mu/ be ( m real value ?an ! mo/ effici5t tea*+ ( results already a*iev$4 ,yet x w\ld be difficult to ov]-e/imate ! importance ( ,ne/orianism 9 prep>+ an ori5tal v]sion ( ,hell5i/ic culture 9 ! pre-,muslim _w4 ,its ma9 importance lies 9 its be+ prep>atory to ,islam :i* br\ght =w>d ,arabic z a cosmopolitan m$ium = ! int]*ange ( ?\ght & s enabl$ ! ,syriac mat]ial to be us$ 9 a wid] & m fruitful field4 ,al?\gh ,ne/orius _h be5 condemn$1 ! ,*ur* 0 left ) a problem4 ,! objection 0 true t1 if ! ,logos & ! rational s\l 9 ,*ri/ 7 fus$ toge!r s t ! rational s\l or _s lo/ itself 9 its s\rce1 ! ,logos dwelt 9 an animal body & ! full humanity ( ,*ri/ disappe>$4 ,! ,ne/orian view ( a tempor>y 8connection0 0 n[ condemn$ z h]etical1 b 0 x necess>y to g to ! o!r extreme ( 8fusion0 :i* 0 ! logical result ( ! ,alex&rian tea*+8 ,! ,*ur* wi%$ to be philosophically correct & yet to avoid ! conclusions :i* might be drawn f ei!r view 9 its extreme =m4 ,9 fact philosophy ru?lessly press$ home 0 ! dang] ( :i* ! ,*ur* 0 mo/ afraid1 feel+ 9 "s dim realm ( sub-consci\sness t ! deposit ( fai? did n q fall into l9e ) sci5ce1 or at lea/ ) ! sci5ce !n 9 fa%ion2 & ! ,*ur*'s real enemies 7 ! en?usia/s :o 7 confid5t t doctr9e & philosophy 7 bo? absolutely true4 ,nor h we1 ev5 9 ^! days1 altoge!r le>n$ ! lesson t bo? are /ill p>tial & progressive4 ,islam _h to g ?r\gh exactly ! same exp]i5ce 9 h] day & came out ( x ) v simil> results1 t is to say bo? ! ,*ri/ian & ,muslim *ur*es f9ally *ose ! via m$ia adopt+ ! philosophical /atem5t ( doctr9e b condemn+ z h]etical ! logical conclusions :i* might be d$uc$4 ,! ,alex&rian s*ool1 elat$ p]haps at its victory ov] ,ne/orius1 became r intemp]ate 9 ! /atem5t ( its views & press$ !m home to an extreme conclusion4 ,at once ! w>n+ pr$iction ( ! ,ne/orians 0 ju/ifi$3 ! tea*+ ( a 8fusion0 betwe5 ! ,logos & ! rational s\l 9 ,*ri/ entirely und]m9$ 8 humanity4 ,ano!r controv]sy ensu$ & 9 ?is1 z 9 ! =m] "o1 nei!r side sugge/$ any d\bt z to ! psy*ology or metaphysics borr[$ f ! ,ari/otelian & neo-,platonic philosophies1 t 0 ?r\gh\t assum$ z c]ta91 ! problem 0 to make ,*ri/ian doctr9e fit 9 ) x4 ,n[ ^? :o oppos$ ! ,alex&rian conclusions ma9ta9$ ! !ory ( a 8union0 betwe5 ! ,logos & ! rational s\l 9 ,*ri/1 s t ! complete humanity 0 pres]v$ z well z ! deity1 & ! union 0 su* z to be insep>able & s safegu>d$ f ! ,ne/orian !ory4 ,9 fact ?is 0 simply admitt+ ! philosophical /atem5t & =bidd+ its be+ press$ home to its possible conclusions4 ,?is is describ$ z 8or?odox0 doctr9e & rightly s 9 ! s5se t x expresses1 ?\gh 9 philosophical t]ms1 a doctr9e z x 0 held be=e ! ,*ur* _h le>n$ any philosophy1 & exclud$ possible d$uctions :i* came )9 range z soon z a philosophical /atem5t 0 made4 ,?is is ! normal result :5 doctr9e orig9ally express$ by ^? ignorant ( philosophy has to be put into logical & sci5tific t]ms3 ! only or?odox repres5tation ( ! traditional belief mu/ be a compromise4 99 99 99 99 99 ,?is second controv]sy result$ 9 ! ,c\ncil ( ,*alc$on 9 ,a4,d4 #ddh1 at :i* ! advocates ( ! !ory ( 8fusion0 7 expell$ f ! /ate *ur*1 & ?us a ?ird body 0 =m$1 ea* ( ! ?ree claim+ to repres5t ! true fai?4 ,practically ! :ole ( ! ,egyptian ,*ur* foll[$ ! 8fusioni/s0 or ,monophysites or ,jacobites1 z !y 7 call$ aft] ,jacob ( ,s]ugh1 :o 0 ma9ly in/rum5tal 9 organiz+ !m z a *ur*3 9 ,syria also !y _h a /rong foll[+4 ,l ! ,ne/orians !y 7 p]secut$ by ! ,emp]or & ! /ate *ur*1 b unlike !m !y did n migrate outside ! ,byzant9e ,empire1 b rema9$ an important ?\gh /rongly disaffect$ body )9 its limits1 ?\gh lat] on !y s5t out (f-%oots into o!r l&s4 ,l ! ,ne/orians !y t5d$ to disc>d ! language ( _! p]secutors & to use ! v]nacul> ,coptic & ,syriac3 x is rightly claim$ t ! gold5 age ( ,syriac lit]ature & philosophy beg9s ) ! ,monophysite s*ism4 ,a curi\s l9e ( dem>cation h[ev]1 is obs]v$ 9 ,syriac betwe5 ! ,jacobites 9 ! ,we/ & ! ,ne/orians 9 ! ,ea/3 !y us$ diff]5t dialects1 :i* is probably ! result ( _! geographical di/ribution1 & !y us$ diff]5t scripts 9 writ+ :i* 0 p>tly due to delib]ate int5sion1 ?\gh p>tly also to ! use ( slightly diff]5t implem5ts = writ+4 ,:5 we consid] ! results ( ! ,monophysite & ,ne/orian s*isms we beg9 to und]/& :y s mu* ,greek philosophical mat]ial 0 translat$ into ,syriac1 :il/ ! ,ne/orian movem5t 0 ! effective reason :y ,syriac gradually became ! m$ium = transmitt+ ,hell5i/ic culture into ! p>ts ( ,asia :i* lay beyond ! conf9es ( ! ,byzant9e ,empire dur+ ! c5turies imm$iately prec$+ ! outspread ( ,islam4 ,x is obvi\s t ! late ,ari/otelian & neo-,platonic philosoph]s 7 ( vital importance to ev]yone engag$ 9 ! !ological controv]sies ( ! day1 & ! ,ari/otelian logic 0 ( equal importance z on x dep5d$ ! way 9 :i* t]ms 7 us$4 ,aft] _! sep>ation f ! ,greek ,*ur* ! ,ne/orians & ,monophysites turn$ to ! v]nacul> speak+ ,*ri/ians1 & s a l>ge body ( philosophical z well z !ological matt] 0 translat$ into ,syriac2 v mu* less into ,coptic1 = ! ,egyptian ,monophysites 7 n call$ ^u to face s mu* controv]sy z _! bre?r5 9 ,syria4 ,! p]iod betwe5 ! s*isms & ! beg9n+ ( ,muslim int]e/ 9 philosophy 0 "o ( prolific translation1 comm5t+1 & exposition4 ,:il/ !re is mu* int]e/ 9 trac+ ! lit]>y hi/ory ( a nation1 !re is comp>atively little 9 foll[+ ! hi/ory ( a lit]ature :i* is conf9$ to activities ( ?is sort1 = x _c be mu* m ?an a li/ ( names4 ,comm5t>y & essay might inde$ op5 up a field ( orig9ality1 b no?+ ( ! sort appe>s 9 ?is type ( ,syriac "w3 x seems z ?\gh ! prov9cialism :i* foll[$ sev]ance f ! ,greek _w br\ght 9 n>r[+ re/rictions s t1 al?\gh we get able & dilig5t work]s1 !y nev] seem able to advance beyond re-/atem5t1 m or less accurate1 ( results already a*iev$4 ,besides philosophy & !ology we f9d a consid]able int]e/ 9 m$ic9e & ! two sci5ces ( *emi/ry & a/ronomy :i* 7 treat$ z alli$ to x1 = a/ronomy1 reg>d$ f ! a/rological po9t ( view1 0 suppos$ to be closely associat$ ) ! conditions ( life & dea?1 ( heal? & disease4 ,m$ical /udies 7 especially atta*$ to ! s*ool ( ,alex&ria4 ,philosophy prop] _h be5 s l>gely tak5 ov] by !ology t ! secul> inve/igators 7 r impell$ to turn to ! natural sci5ces & z a c5tre ( m$ical & alli$ /udies ! anci5t s*ool ( ,alex&ria cont9u$ its developm5t )\t loss ( cont9uity1 b "u *ang$ conditions4 ,john ,philoponus1 or ,john ! ,gramm>ian1 z he 0 call$1 0 "o ( ! lat] comm5tators on ,ari/otle & also "o ( ! e>ly lights ( ?is m$ical s*ool4 ,! date ( 8 dea? is n kn[n1 b he 0 tea*+ at ,alex&ria at ! "t :5 ,ju/9ian clos$ ! s*ools at ,a!ns 9 ,a4,d4 #ebi4 ,! next great lead] ( ?is s*ool 0 ,paul ( ,aeg9a :o fl\ri%$ at ! "t ( ! ,muslim conque/1 & ^: works long s]v$ z popul> manuals ( m$ic9e4 ,! f\nd]s ( ! m$ical s*ool at ,alex&ria e/abli%$ a regul> c\rse ( education = ! tra9+ ( m$ical practition]s1 & = ?is purpose select$ sixte5 works ( ,gal51 "s ( :i* 7 re-edit$ 9 an abridg$ =m1 & 7 made ! subject ( regul> explanatory lectures4 ,at ! same "t ! s*ool became a c5tre ( orig9al rese>*1 n only 9 m$ic9e1 b also 9 *emi/ry & o!r bran*es ( natural sci5ce4 ,?us1 on ! eve ( ! ,muslim conque/ ,alex&ria _h become a great home ( sci5tific enquiry4 ,to "s ext5t ?is 0 un=tunate z ! exi/+ traditions 9 ,egypt direct$ ^? inve/igations v mu* into obscuranti/ l9es & t5d$ to ! use ( magical =ms1 talismans1 etc41 & to introduce an a/rological bias4 ,?is aft]w>ds became ! great defect ( ,arabic m$ic9e z appe>s lat] ev5 9 m$ival ,padua1 b x 0 n ! fault ( ,islam1 x 0 an inh]itance f ,alex&ria4 ,su* mat]ial z rema9s ( ,syriac rese>* %[s u a san] & s\nd] me?od 9 vogue !re1 b ,alex&ria _h eclips$ ! ,syrian sci5ti/s at ! "t ( ! ,muslim invasion1 at lea/ 9 popul> e/eem1 & ?is 0 a det]m9+ factor 9 direct+ ,arabic rese>* into ^! a/rological by-pa?s4 ,among/ ! fam\s products ( ?is s*ool 0 ,paul ( ,aeg9a1 ^: m$ical works =m$ ! basis ( mu* ( ! m$ival ,arabic & ,lat9 tea*+1 & ! prie/ ,ahrun 7,a>on7 :o compos$ a manual ( m$ic9e :i* 0 aft]w>ds translat$ into ,syriac & became a popul> au?ority4 ,alex&ria 0 ! c5tre also ( *emical sci5ce1 & z su* 0 ! p>5t ( lat] ,arabic al*emy4 ,x appe>s f ,m4 ,b]!lot's exhau/ive /udy ( ,arabic *emi/ry 7,la *imie au moy5 age3 ,p>is1 #ahic7 t ! ,arabic mat]ial may be divid$ into two classes1 ! "o bas$ ^u1 & ma9ly translat$ f1 ! ,greek writ]s curr5t 9 ,alex&ria1 ! o!r repres5t+ a lat] s*ool ( indep5d5t inve/igation4 ,( ! =m] class ,b]!lot gives ?ree specim5s1 ! ,books ( ,crates1 ( al-,habid1 & ( ,o/anes1 all repres5t+ ! ,greek tradition :i* fl\ri%$ at ,alex&ria on ! eve ( ! ,muslim invasion4 ,:il/ ! ,alex&rians kept alive an int]e/ 9 m$ical & ! alli$ sci5ces ! sep>at$ bran*es ( ! v]nacul> speak+ *ur*es ( ,asia 7 m int]e/$ 9 logic & speculative philosophy4 ,x 0 p]haps natural t ! ,monophysites ) _! /rong ,egyptian connection %\ld adopt ! comm5t>ies ( ,john ,philoponus1 himself a ,monophysite ( a type1 b bo? !y & ! ,ne/orians inv>iably us$ ,porphyry's ,isagoge z an introductory manual4 ,9 ! g5]al treatm5t ( metaphysics & psy*ology z appli$ to !ology1 & 9 ! treatm5t ( !ology itself1 ! ,monophysites incl9$ m t[>ds neo-,platonism & my/icism ?an ! ,ne/orians1 & _! life c5t]$ m 9 ! mona/]ies1 :il/ ! ,ne/orians adh]$ r to ! old] sy/em ( local s*ools1 al?\gh !y too _h mona/]ies1 & 9 c\rse ( "t ! s*ools adopt$ ! discipl9e & me?ods ( ! conv5t4 ,! olde/ & greate/ ( ! ,ne/orian s*ools 0 t ( ,nisibis1 b 9 ,a4,d4 #eej ,m> ,ahba1 a conv]t f ,zoroa/rianism1 :o _h become ca?olicos or patri>* ( ! ,ne/orians1 e/abli%$ a s*ool at ,seleucia on ! model ( ,nisibis4 ,a little lat] ! ,p]sian k+1 ,kusraw ,anu%irwan 7,nu%irwan1 flor4 #eca-egh ,a4,d47 :o _h be5 greatly impress$ by ! view ( ,hell5i/ic culture :i* he _h obta9$ dur+ 8 w> ) ,syria1 & _h (f]$ hospitality to ! eject$ ,greek philosoph]s :5 ,ju/9ian clos$ ! s*ools at ,a!ns1 f\nd$ a ,zoroa/rian s*ool at ,junde-,%apur1 9 ,khuzi/an1 :]e n only ,greek & ,syriac works1 b also philosophical & sci5tific writ+s br\ght f ,india1 7 translat$ into ,pahlawi1 or ,old ,p]sian1 & !re ! /udy ( m$ic9e taught by ,greek & ,indian physicians 0 develop$ m fully ?an 9 ! !ological atmosph]e ( ! ,*ri/ian s*ools1 al?\gh "s ( ! mo/ di/+ui%$ m$ical tea*]s 9 ?is s*ool 7 !mselves ,ne/orian ,*ri/ians4 ,among/ ! alumni ( ,junde-,%apur 7 ! ,arab ,h>es b4 ,kalada1 :o aft]w>ds became fam\s z a practition]1 & 8 son ,ennadr1 cit$ 9 ! #e? canon ( ,ibn ,s9a 7,avic5na71 an enemy ( ! ,prophet ,muhammad :o 0 among/ ^? defeat$ at ! battle ( ,badr & 0 put to dea? by ,ali4 ,sev]al ,indian m$ical writ]s are cit$ by ,razes & o!rs1 notably ,%>ak & ,qolhoman1 :il/ ! treatise on poisons by ! ,indian ,%anak 01 at a lat] date1 translat$ into ,p]sian by ,manka = ,yahya b4 ,khalid ! ,b>mecide & aft]w>ds into ,arabic = ! ,abbasid ,khalif al-,mamun4 ,manka1 :o 0 m$ical att5dant to ,h>unu r-,ra%id1 translat$ f ,sanskrit v>i\s m$ical & o!r works4 ,besides ! ,*ri/ian & ,zoroa/rian s*ools !re 0 also a pagan s*ool at ,h>ran1 ( ^: f\ndation we h no fur!r in=mation4 ,h>ran _h be5 a c5tre ( ,hell5ic influ5ce f ! "t ( ,alex&] ! ,great & rema9$ a refuge = ! old ,greek religion :5 ! ,greek _w at l>ge _h become ,*ri/ian4 ,al?\gh x w\ld appe> t ,h>ran _h an inh]itance f ! anci5t ,babylonian religion1 :i* _h a late revival dur+ ! fir/ c5turies ( ! ,*ri/ian era1 ?is _h be5 entirely ov]laid ) ! developm5ts ( paganism z revis$ by ! neo-,platoni/s4 ,inde$ ,h>ran %[s ! la/ /& ( ,greek paganism & neo-,platonism z ! two _h be5 =mulat$ by ,porphyry & !y cont9u$ !re to live out a vigor\s ?\gh seclud$ life4 ,!re 7 ?us sev]al ag5cies at "w develop+ & ext5d+ ,hell5i/ic influ5ce 9 ,p]sia & ,mesopotamia :i* lat] on became a ,p]sian prov9ce1 & besides ^! e/abli%$ s*ools !re 7 _m second>y =ces4 ,! ,p]sian armies return+ f ! invasion ( ,syria br\ght back _m items ( ,hell5ic culture1 among/ !m ! ,greek sy/em ( ba?s :i* 0 copi$ 9 ,p]sia & cont9u$ by ! ,muslims :o spread ?is ref9em5t ?r\gh\t ! ,islamic _w1 s t :at we call ! ,turki% ba? is a l9eal desc5dant ( ! old ,greek ba? pass$ ?r\gh ! ,p]sians ( pre-,muslim times1 & !n spread m widely by ! ,muslims4 ,^! armies br\ght home also a great admiration = ,greek ar*itecture & eng9e]+1 & ,greek ar*itects1 eng9e]s1 & craftsm5 be+ among/ ! mo/ valu$ plund] br\ght back f ,syria1 by _! help ,p]sia endeav\r$ to />t build+ 9 ! ,greek /yle4 ,?us ! c5turies imm$iately be=e ! outspread ( ,islam %[ a wide & /eady ext5sion ( ,hell5i/ic influ5ces 9 all ! diff]5t =ms ( culture1 9 sci5ce1 philosophy1 art1 ar*itecture1 & 9 ! luxuries ( life3 & ev5 be=e ?is1 ev] s9ce ! days ( ,alex&] ! ,great1 !re _h be5 a p]colation ( ,greek influ5ce1 s t ,we/]n ,asia 0 /eep$ 9 ,hell5i/ic art1 9 _m cases v crudely repres5t$ & comb9$ ) native elem5ts4 ,:5 ! oppressive control ( ! ,umayyads 0 lift$ & ! native population came aga9 to its own1 we c h>dly wond] t ?is meant a revival ( ,hell5ism4 ,we h already m5tion$ ,ibas 7d4 #deg7 z ! tea*] ( ,b>suma :o l$ ! ,ne/orian migration into ,p]sia & re-op5$ ! s*ool ( ,nisibis4 ,?is ,ibas _h be5 ! great lum9>y ( ! s*ool ( ,edessa 9 its la/ days & seems to h be5 ! fir/ to make a ,syriac translation ( ,porphyry's ,isagoge1 ! recognis$ manual ( logic prep>atory to ,ari/otle's ,organon4 ,?is %[s t logic _h be5 tak5 z ! *ief mat]ial ( education among/ ! ,ne/orians & v mu* ! same seems to h be5 ! case among/ ! ,monophysites4 ,ab\t ! same "t fl\ri%$ ,probus1 :o is said to h be5 a presbyt] ( ,antio*1 & produc$ comm5t>ies ^u ,porphyry's ,isagoge1 & on ,ari/otle's ,h]m5eutica1 ,soph4 ,el5*41 & ,analytica ,priora1 ^! comm5t>ies becom+ fav\rite manuals among/ ! ,syriac speak+ /ud5ts ( logic4 ,h(fman's ,de ,h]m5euticis apud ,syros 7,leipzic1 #ahgc7 gives ! text ( ! comm5t>y on ! ,h]m5eutica foll[$ by a ,lat9 translation4 ,! me?od employ$ "h & 9 all ,syriac comm5t>ies is to take a %ort passage1 (t5 no m ?an a few words1 ( ! ,text ( ,ari/otle translat$ into ,syriac & !n give an explanation ( ! mean+ sometimes ext5d+ to sev]al pages1 sometimes only a brief rem>k1 accord+ to ! difficulty ( ! text1 v mu* z if a tea*] 7 read+ al\d & expla9+ passages by passage z he read4 ,?is became ! usual me?od ( comm5t+ & 0 aft]w>ds copi$ by ! ,muslims 9 _! comm5t>ies on ! ,quran4 ,! comm5t>y on ! ,isagoge has be5 publi%$ by ,baum/>k 7,ari/otles bei d5 ,syr]n1 ,leipzic1 #aijj71 & t on ! ,analytica ,priora by ! great ,l\va9 s*ol> ,pr(4 ,hoonack] 9 ! ,j\rnal ,asiatique = ,july-,augu/1 #aijj4 ,! greate/ ( ! ,monophysite s*ol>s 0 ,s]gius ( ,ras al-,ayn 7d4 #ecf71 :o 0 bo? a translator & ! au?or ( orig9al treatises on philosophy1 m$ic9e1 & a/ronomy4 ,8 m$ical "w 0 8 *ief int]e/ & he left a p]man5t m>k z a translator into ,syriac ( a consid]able "p ( ,gal54 ,he sp5t "s "t 9 ,alex&ria :]e he p]fect$ himself 9 a k ( ,greek & le>n$ *emi/ry & m$ic9e 9 ! ,alex&rian m$ical s*ool !n j beg9n+ its c>e]4 ,"s ( 8 translation ( ,gal5 is pres]v$ 9 ! ,briti% ,mus4 ,,mss4 ,addit4 #adffa & #agaef3 9 ! latt] are fragm5ts ( ! 8,m$ical art0 & 8,faculties ( ! alim5ts0 :i* h be5 edit$ by ,sa*au 7,in$ita ,syriaca1 ,vi5na1 #ahgj74 ,( 8 philosophical "w ,sa*au has giv5 u ! v]sions :i* he made ( ! ,isagoge & ,table ( ,porphyry1 & ,ari/otle's ,categories & ! dubi\s de mundo1 z well z a treatise on 8! s\l0 :i* is n ! de anima ( ,ari/otle4 ,he wrote orig9al treatises on logic 9 sev5 books 7incomplete--,brit4 ,mus4 ,add4 #adffj conta9s t on ! categories71 on 8negation & affirmation10 on 8g5us1 species1 & individual10 on 8! causes ( ! univ]se accord+ to ,ari/otle0 & m9or essays4 ,9 a/ronomy he has left a tract 8on ! influ5ce ( ! moon0 :i* is bas$ on ! "w ( ,gal5 7cf4 ,sa*au1 op4 cit47 ,! writ+s ( ,s]gius circulat$ among/ bo? ,ne/orians & ,monophysites1 all reg>d+ him z a lead+ au?ority on m$ic9e & logic1 & 9 m$ic9e x seems t he 0 ! f\nd] ( a ,syriac s*ool :i* became ! p>5t ( ,arabic m$ic9e1 c]ta9ly t s*ool ow$ its impetus to him4 ,b> ,hebraeus ref]s to him z 8a man eloqu5t & greatly skill$ 9 ! books ( ! ,greeks & ,syrians & a mo/ le>n$ physician ( m5's bodies4 ,he 0 inde$ or?odox 9 8 op9ions1 z ! #8,prologue' be>s witness1 b 9 morals corrupt1 deprav$1 & /a9$ ) lu/ & av>ice0 7,b> ,hebraeus4 ed4 ,abbeloos et ,lamy4 i4 #bje-g74 ,9 ! same c5tury liv$ ,ahudemmeh :o became bi%op ( ,tagrit 9 ,a4,d4 #eei1 & introduc$ ! comm5t>y ( ,john ,philoponus z ! regul> manual ( in/ruction among/ ! ,syriac speak+ ,monophysites4 ,he is said to h compos$ treatises on ! def9itions ( logic1 on ! fre$om ( ! w1 on ! s\l1 on man consid]$ z a microcosm1 & on ! composition ( man z ( s\l & body1 ?is la/ 9 "p pres]v$ 9 ,,ms4 ,brit4 ,mus4 ,addit4 #adfbj4 ,among/ ! ,ne/orian s*ol>s ( ! six? c5tury 0 ,paul ! ,p]sian :o produc$ a treatise on logic :i* he d$icat$ to ,k+ ,khusraw & has be5 publi%$ 9 ,m4 ,l&'s ,analecta ,syriaca 7iv74 ,?is has br\ght u to ! p]iod ( ! ,muslim invasion4 ,9 #fch ,syria 0 conqu]$1 & ! conque/ ( ,mesopotamia foll[$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! same ye>1 t ( ,p]sia f\r ye>s lat]4 ,9 #ffa ! ,umayyad dyna/y ( ,arab rul]s 0 e/abli%$ 9 ,damascus2 b all ?is did n greatly affect ! int]nal life ( ! ,*ri/ian communities :o liv$ on 9 p]fect lib]ty1 subject only to ! paym5t ( ! poll tax4 ,ab\t #fej ! ,ne/orian ,h5anie%u wrote a treatise on logic 7cf4 ,budge3 ,?omas ( ,m>ga4 i4 #gi7 & comm5t$ on ,john ,philoponus4 ,! ,monophysites _h no great s*ools l ! ,ne/orians1 b _! conv5t at ,q5%]91 on ! left bank ( ! ,euphrates1 0 a great c5tre ( ,greek /udies4 ,its mo/ fam\s product 0 ,sev]us ,sebokt :o fl\ri%$ on ! eve ( ! ,muslim conque/4 ,he 0 ! au?or ( a comm5t>y on ,ari/otle's ,h]m5eutica ( :i* only fragm5ts survive1 ( a treatise on ! syllogisms ( ! ,analytica ,priora1 & ( epi/les deal+ ) t]ms us$ 9 ! ,h]m5eutica & on ! difficult po9ts 9 ,ari/otle's ,rhetoric 7cf4 ,brit4 ,mus4 ,add4 #adffj1 #agaef74 ,9 a/ronomy he wrote on 8! ,figures ( ! ,zodiac0 & on 8! ,a/rolabe10 ! =m] ( ^! is pres]v$ 9 ,br4 ,mus4 ,add4 #adech & has be5 publi%$ by ,sa*au 7op4 cit471 ! latt] 9 ,b]l9 ,,ms4 ,sa*au #ahf & publi%$ by ,nau 9 ! ,j\rnal ,asiatique ( #ahii4 ,a?anasius ( ,balad :o became ,monophysite patri>* 9 #fhd 0 a pupil ( ,sev]us ,sebokt1 & is *iefly kn[n z ! translator ( a new ,syriac v]sion ( ,porphyry's ,isagoge 7,vatican ,ms4 ,syr4 #aeh4 cf4 ,b> ,hebraeus ,*ron4 ,eccles4 ed4 ,abbeloos et ,lamy4 i4 #bhg74 ,james ( ,edessa 7d4 #gjh ,a4,d47 also 0 a pupil ( ,sev]us ,sebokt at ! same conv5t1 0 made bi%op ( ,edessa ab\t #fhd & ab&on$ ?is see 9 #fhh z ! result ( 8 failure to c>ry out ! re=mation ( ! mona/]ies 9 8 diocese3 he retir$ to ! mona/]y ( ,/4 ,james at ,kai%un1 betwe5 ,aleppo & ,edessa1 b left ?is to become lectur] at ! mona/]y ( ,eusebona1 9 ! diocese ( ,antio* :]e 8= elev5 ye>s he taught ! psalms & ! read+ ( ! scriptures 9 ,greek & reviv$ ! ,greek language :i* _h fall5 into disuse0 7,b> ,hebr4 ,*ron4 ,eccles4 i4 #bia74 ,attack$ by ! bre?r5 :o disapprov$ ( ! /udy ( ,greek1 he migrat$ to ! mona/]y ( ,teleda :]e he prep>$ a revis$ v]sion ( ! ,pe%itta or ,syriac ,vulgate ( ! ,old ,te/am5t1 f9ally return+ to ,edessa ab\t f\r mon?s be=e 8 dea?4 ,8 ,en*iridion1 a treatise on ! t]ms us$ 9 philosophy1 is pres]v$ 9 ! ,brit4 ,mus4 ,,ms4 ,addit4 #abaed4 ,george1 :o became 8bi%op ( ! ,arabs0 9 #fhf1 0 himself a pupil ( ,a?anasius ( ,balad & translat$ ! :ole logical ,organon ( ,ari/otle1 ( :i* 8 v]sions ( ! ,catagories1 ,h]m5eutica1 & ,analytica ,priora appe> 9 ,brit4 ,mus4 ,addit4 #adfei1 ea* furni%$ ) an introduction & comm5t>y4 ,^! names cov] ! :ole p]iod betwe5 ! two s*isms & ! ,muslim invasion & suffice to %[ t ! ,syriac speak+ community cont9u$ dilig5t 9 ! /udy ( ! ,ari/otelian logic & metaphysics1 & also gave att5tion to m$ical & sci5tific /udies4 ,x is n exactly a brilliant or orig9al =m ( cultural activity1 = ! mo/ "p x 0 only ! transmission ( receiv$ texts ) ! prep>ation ( new translations1 comm5t>ies1 & explanatory treatises1 b ?is itself fulfill$ an important function4 ,! ,muslim invasion made no *ange 9 ! c\rse ( ^! /udies3 ! ,umayyads did n int]f]e ) ! s*ools & ! ,syriac /ud5ts w5t _! own way liv+ a life q ap>t f t ( _! ,arab rul]s4 ,n[ & !n unscrupul\s or angry cl]gy appeal$ to ! ,khalif aga9/ _! fell[ cl]gy & ?is 0 ! commone/ cause ( int]f]5ce :i* ! hi/orians describe z p]secution4 ,su* 0 ! exp]i5ce ( ,h5anie%u :o became ,ne/orian ,ca?olicos 9 ,a4,d4 #fhf4 ,! bi%op ( ,nisibis made compla9ts aga9/ him to ! ,khalif ,abdul-,malik 9 consequ5ce ( :i* he 0 depos$1 imprison$1 & !n ?r[n ov] a cliff4 ,he 0 n kill$ by 8 fall1 ?\gh sev]ely lam$2 by ! k9dness ( "s %eph]ds he 0 %elt]$ & nurs$ back to heal?1 & !n retir$ to ! mona/]y ( ,yannan ne> ,mosul1 resum+ 8 patri>*al (fice aft] ! dea? ( ! bi%op ( ,nisibis1 & hold+ x until 8 own dea? 9 #gja 7,b> ,heb4 ,*ron4 ,eccles4 ,abbeloos et ,lamy4 ii4 #ace-adj74 ,besides s]mons1 lett]s1 & a biography ( ,dewada1 he wrote an educational treatise on 8! tw(old duty ( ! s*ool0 z a place ( religi\s & moral influ5ce on ! "o h&1 & ( an academy ( ! humanities on ! o!r 7cf4 ,asseman ,,bo47 iii4 "p ,i4 #aed & also an 8,explanation ( ! ,analytica0 7id74 ,m> ,abha ,,iii4 became ,ne/orian ,ca?olicos some:]e ab\t #gdj 7#acc ,a4,h47 & produc$ a comm5t>y on ,ari/otle's logic 7cf4 ,b> ,heb4 ii4 #aec74 ,?is br+s u d[n to ! p]iod :5 ! ,muslim _w began to take an int]e/ 9 ^! philosophical & sci5tific /udies1 & translations & comm5t>ies began to appe> 9 ,arabic4 ,b ,syriac /udies did n at once disappe> & x w be conv5i5t to enum]ate briefly "s ( ^? :o appe>$ 9 lat] times d[n to ! age ( ,b> ,hebraeus 7d4 ,a4,d4 #abhf71 ) :om ! lit]>y hi/ory ( ,syriac comes to an end4 ,9 ! latt] "p ( ! eigh? c5tury we f9d ,je%ud5a bi%op ( ,basra writ+ an 8introduction to logic40 ,%ortly aft]w>ds ,je%ubokt metropolitan ( ,p]sia wrote on ! ,categories 7cf4 ,j\rn4 ,asiat4 ,may-,june4 #aijf74 ,hunayn b4 ,i%aq1 8 son ,i%aq1 & 8 nephew ,hubay%1 ) "s o!r companions1 =m$ ! college ( translators e/abli%$ at ,baghdad by ! ,khalif al-,mamun to r5d] ! ,greek & o!r philosophical & sci5tific texts into ,arabic1 a "w to :i* we %all ref] aga92 b ,hunayn1 :o 0 a ,ne/orian ,*ri/ian1 0 also occupi$ 9 mak+ translations f ! ,greek into ,syriac3 he prep>$1 or revis$1 ,syriac v]sions ( ,porphyry's ,isagoge1 ,ari/otle's ,h]m5eutica1 "p ( ! ,analytica1 ! de g5]atione et corruptione1 ! de anima1 "p ( ! ,metaphysics1 ! ,summa ( ,nicolas ( ,damascus1 ! ,comm5t>y ( ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias1 & ! great] "p ( ! works ( ,gal51 ,dioscorus1 ,paul ( ,aeg9a1 & ,hippocrates4 ,8 son ,i%aq also made a translation ( ,ari/otle's de anima1 & x is significant t ?is treatise & ! comm5t>y ( ,alex&] ,aphr4 n[ beg9s to take ! mo/ prom95t place 9 philosophical /udy2 ! c5tre ( int]e/ is mov+ f logic to psy*ology4 ,ab\t ! same "t ! physician ,john ,b> ,maswai 7d4 ,a4,d4 #heg7 compos$ v>i\s m$ical works 9 ,syriac & ,arabic4 ,he1 l ,hunayn1 0 "o ( ! intellectual gr\p :i* ! ,abbasids ga!r$ toge!r 9 _! new capital city ( ,baghdad4 ,contempor>y also 7 ! ,syriac writ]s ,d5ha 7or ,ibas7 :o compil$ a comm5t>y on ! ,ari/otelian logical ,organon3 ,abzud1 ! au?or ( a poetical essay on ! divisions ( philosophy1 & !n1 aft] a s]ies ( m9or writ]s on logic1 ,dionysius ,b> ,salibi 9 ! twelf? c5tury ,a4,d41 :o compos$ comm5t>ies on ! ,isagoge1 ! ,categories1 ,h]m5eutica1 & ,analytica2 & 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! foll[+ c5tury ,yaqub ,b> ,%akako1 au?or ( a collection ( 8,dialogues0 ( :i* ! second book deals ) philosophical que/ions ( logic1 physics1 ma!matics1 & metaphysics4 ,! s]ies ( ,syriac philosophical writ]s closes ) ,gregory ,b> ,hebraeus1 or ,abu l-,f>aj 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury ,a4,d4 ^: 8,book ( ! ,pupils ( ! ,eyes0 is a comp5dium ( logic summ>is+ & expla9+ ! ,isagoge1 & ,ari/otle's ,categories1 ,h]m5eutica1 ,analytica1 ,topica1 & ,sophi/ica ,el5*i2 8 8,book ( ! ,uphold+ ( ,wisdom0 be+ a summ>y introduction to logic1 physics1 metaphysics1 & !ology4 ,a ?ird "w 8,! ,cream ( ,sci5ce0 is an encyclopdia ( ! ,ari/otelian philosophy1 & ?is "w appe>s also 9 an abridg$ =m z ! 8,bus9ess ( ,bus9esses40 ,he 0 also ! translator into ,syriac ( ,dioscorus on simples1 & au?or ( a treatise on ! m$ical ,que/ions ( ,hunayn b4 ,i%aq1 & ( a "w on geography call$ 8! ,asc5t ( ! ,_s40 ,al?\gh e/eem$ z "o ( ! greate/ ,syriac au?orities & = c5turies hold+ a place ( prim>y importance1 he 0 9 reality no m ?an a compil] :o produc$ encyclopdic works deal+ ) ! rese>*es ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,! great importance ( ! ,syriac speak+ ,*ri/ian communities 0 z ! m$ium :]eby ,hell5i/ic philosophy & sci5ce 0 transmitt$ to ! ,arabic _w4 ,!re 0 no indep5d5t developm5t 9 its ,syriac atmosph]e1 & ev5 ! *oice ( mat]ial _h already be5 made by ! ,hell5i/s be=e x pass$ into ,syriac h&s4 ,x 0 n[ def9itely e/abli%$ t ! basis ( ! 8humanities0 0 ! ,ari/otelian logic1 & t ?is z well z all o!r /udies 9 ! "w ( ,ari/otle 0 to be int]pret$ accord+ to ! neo-,platonic comm5tators4 ,9 m$ic9e & *emi/ry ! curriculum ( ! s*ool ( ,alex&ria 0 recognis$ z au?oritative & ?is1 9 s f> z x 0 bas$ ^u ,gal5 & ,hippocrates1 & ^u ! tea*+ ( ,paul ( ,aeg9a 9 ob/etrical m$ic9e1 0 to ! good3 b !re 0 a my/ical side ( ,alex&rian sci5ce mix$ up ) a/rology1 s t p>ticul> drugs _h to be tak5 :]e c]ta9 planets 7 9 ! asc5dant1 & su* l ideas1 :i* gave a magical tone to ,alex&rian & ,arabic m$ic9e :i* 0 n = its advantage1 al?\gh x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! ready contempt =m]ly p\r$ ^u ,arabic sci5ce z m]e *>latanism is n[ express$ m cauti\sly3 we are prep>$ to admit t v mu* real & valuable "w 0 done 9 m$ic9e & *emi/ry1 al?\gh x is probable t ! ,egyptian obscurantism did r t5d to h9d] ! /eady developm5t ( ! s\nd] tradition d]iv$ f ,gal5 & ! ,greek physicians4 ,we are ?us able to und]/& t 8,muslim !ology1 philosophy1 & sci5ce put =? _! fir/ luxuriant %oots on a soil :i* 0 saturat$ ) ,hell5i/ic culture40 7,ni*olson3 ,my/ics ( ,islam4 ,london1 #aiad p4 #i47 ,! passage ( ,hell5ism took place ?r\gh five *annels3-- 7i7 ,! ,ne/orians :o hold ! fir/ place z ! e>lie/ tea*]s ( ! ,muslims & ! mo/ important transmitt]s ( m$ic9e4 7ii7 ,! ,jacobites or ,monophysites :o 7 ! *ief influ5ces 9 introduc+ neo-,platonic speculations & my/icism4 7iii7 ,! ,zoroa/rians ( ,p]sia & especially ! s*ool ( ,junde-,%apur1 al?\gh ?is _h a /rong ,ne/orian elem5t4 7iv7 ,! ,pagans ( ,h>ran :o came =w>d at a lat] /age4 7v7 ,! ,jews :o1 9 ?is connection1 occupy a some:at peculi> position3 !y _h no contact ) ! tradition ( ,ari/otelian philosophy1 _! academies at ,sora & ,pumbadi?a 7 conc]n$ ) _! own traditional law & ,bible exegesis only4 ,jewi% philosophical /udies began lat] & 7 !mselves d]iv$ f ! ,arabic philosoph]s4 ,b !y %>$ ) ! ,ne/orians an incl9ation t[>ds m$ical /udies s t ,jewi% physicians appe> 9 ! e>ly days ( ,baghdad4 ,yet !y come di/9ctly second to ! ,ne/orians4 ,?us among/ ! m$ical writ]s m5tion$ by ,dr4 ,lecl]c 9 8 ,hi/oire de la mdec9e arabe 7,p>is1 #ahgf7 we f9d among/ ! names cit$ = ! t5? c5t4 ,a4,d4 t !re are #bi ,*ri/ians1 #c ,jews1 & #d pagans ( ,h>ran1 ?\gh 9 ! next c5tury only #c ,*ri/ians appe>1 z aga9/ #g ,jews1 ! "w !n pass+ v l>gely into ,muslim h&s4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,arab ,,p]iod ,islam 9 its e>li] =m 0 entirely an ,arab religion4 ,! temporal side ( ! ,prophet ,muhammad's mission %[s him engag$ 9 an ef=t to unite ! tribes ( ! ,hijaz 9 a frat]nal union1 to limit ! cu/om ( ! razzia 7ghazza7 or m>aud+ =ay1 & to =m an ord]ly community4 ,^! temporal aims 7 due to ! influ5ce ( ,mad9a on ! ,prophet & to ! conviction t x 0 only 9 su* a community t 8 religi\s tea*+ c\ld obta9 a s]i\s att5tion4 ,9 ,mecca he _h be5 fac$ ) con/ant opposition *iefly due to ! tribal jeal\sies & /rife :i* =m$ ! normal condition ( a ,b$w9 community4 ,mad9a 0 a city 9 a s5se q diff]5t f t 9 :i* ! t]m c\ld be appli$ to ,mecca4 ,x _h develop$ a civic life1 rudim5t>y no d\bt b v f> 9 advance ( ! ,meccan conditions1 & _h inh]it$ a con/itutional tradition f ,aramaean & ,jewi% coloni/s4 ,at ,mad9a ! ,prophet began to p]ceive ! diff]5ce produc$ by ! association ( m5 9 an ord]$ communal life z contra/$ ) ! incoh]5ce ( ! old] tribal conditions1 & ! accompany+ diff]5ce ( attitude t[>ds religion4 ,?is la/ 0 n really due to civic life b m directly to ,jewi% influ5ce1 al?\gh no d\bt ! conditions ( city life 7 m fav\rable to ! evolution ( speculative !ology ?an ^? ( ! wild] tribes4 ,! old] ,arabs seem to h accept$ ! idea ( "o supreme ,god1 b speculat$ little ab\t him3 !y did n reg>d ! supreme deity z at all ent]+ into _! p]sonal int]e/s1 :i* 7 conc]n$ only ) ! m9or tribal deities :o 7 expect$ to att5d dilig5tly to tribal affairs & 7 %>ply c5sur$ :5 !y appe>$ to be neglig5t ab\t ! int]e/s ( _! cli5ts4 ,! des]t man _h no t5d5cy to ! sublime ?\ghts ab\t ,god ) :i* he is sometimes cr$it$1 nor _h he any great rev]5ce t[>ds ! m9or memb]s ( 8 pan!on4 ,! ,prophet f\nd x "o ( 8 mo/ difficult tasks to introduce ! obs]vance ( pray] among/ ! ,arabs1 & !y d n appe> v mu* atta*$ to x at ! pres5t day4 ,9 ,mad9a ! ,prophet 0 9 contact ) m5 ^: attitude t[>ds religion 0 v diff]5t & :o 7 m 9 sympa?y ) ! pr9ciples :i* he _h le>n$ f v mu* ! same s\rces z !mselves4 ,9 ,mad9a1 !re=e1 ! ,prophet add$ a temporal side to ! spiritual "w 9 :i* he _h be5 previ\sly engag$4 ,x 0 n consci\sly a *ange ( attitude1 b simply ! adoption ( a subsidi>y task :i* seem$ to provide a mo/ useful accessory to ! "w :i* he _h already be5 do+4 ,its keynote is giv5 9 ! ,mad9ian ,sura #di4aj1 8,only ! fai?ful are bre?r51 :]e=e make peace betwe5 y\r bre?r540 ,x 0 a call to 8 fell[ ,arabs ( ! ,hijaz to cease _! /rife & to unite 9 ! bonds ( bro!rhood4 ,su* a union on ! "p ( ^? ^: habits & ideals 7 w>like & :o 7 dis9cl9$ to ! arts ( peace1 necess>ily produc$ an attitude ( ho/ility t[>ds p]sons outside _! community4 ,0 ?is militant attitude any "p ( ,muhammad's plans8 ,! answ] mu/ c]ta9ly be 9 ! negative4 ,! milit>y ent]prises ( e>ly ,islam 7 no "p ( its orig9al programme4 ,9 ^? ent]prises ! ,prophet & 8 imm$iate successors %[ a hesitat+ & dubi\s attitude2 obvi\sly _! h&s 7 =c$ & !y take ! lead reluctantly4 ,z ,fr4 ,lamm5s says3-- ,le ,qoran travailla runir les tribus du ,higaz4 ,la prdication de ,mahomet russit mettre sur pi$ une arme1 la plus nombreuse1 la plus discipl9e qu'on ut vue jusque-l dans la ,pn9sule4 ,cette =ce ne p\vait longtemps demeur] sans emploi4 ,p> ailleurs l-islam1 en imposant la paix entre les tribus1 rallies la n\velle religion ou simplem5t l'tat md9ois en =mation1--le talf al-qolob p\rsuivait ce d]ni] objectif--l'islam allait f]m] t\t issue l'inquite activit des nomades4 ,il prt5dait supprim] t\t le mo9s limit]1 le droit de razzia1 plac la base de cette socit patri>calem5t an>*ique4 ,il fallait s'att5dre voir le torr5t2 mom5tanm5t endigu1 dbord] sur les rgions frontires4 8,que ,mahomet ait assign ce b leurs ef=ts8 ,il devi5t difficile de df5dre cette ?se1 trop facilem5t accepte jusqu'ici40 7,lamm5s3 ,le b]ceau de l'islam4 ,rome1 #aiad1 i4 p4 #age47 ,9 ! exp$ition aga9/ ,mecca a militant attitude 0 ! inevitable result ( compell+ circum/ances4 ,! ,meccans 7 actively ho/ile & _h adopt$ a p]secut+ attitude t[>ds ^? :o accept$ ! new religion4 ,at ! "t ! ,quray% tribe1 to :i* ,muhammad belong$1 0 s f> 9 ! asc5dant t its adhesion 0 necess>y = ! progress ( ,islam 9 ! ,hijaz3 ! *ampion%ip ( "s prom95t tribe 0 ess5tial1 & ,muhammad himself 0 deeply atta*$ to ! traditional 8,h\se ( ,god0 at ,mecca1 to :i* 8 own family 0 b\nd by _m associations2 besides he desir$ ! adh]5ce ( 8 own tribe z 8 mission 0 to x 9 ! fir/ place4 ,_h ! ,meccan opposition n be5 brok5 d[n ! ,muslim religion c\ld h be5 no m ?an ! local cult ( ,mad9a1 & ev5 z su* w\ld h _h to be p]petually on ! def5sive4 ,no d\bt ! 8holy w>0 z an in/itution 0 bas$ on ! traditions ( ?is exp$ition1 b su* a w> is relat$ to ! lat] ent]prises = ! conque/ ( non-,arab nations by a l9e ( developm5t :i* ! ,prophet himself c\ld h>dly h anticipat$4 ,! *all5ge to ,h]aclius is on a simil> foot+4 ,al?\gh we may n be dispos$ to accept ! traditional acc\nt giv5 by ,bukh>i1 !re no d\bt 0 "s su* *all5ge4 ,b ,h]aclius _h only rec5tly re-conqu]$ ,syria = ! ,byzant9e ,empire1 ! l& he _h acquir$ includ$ a consid]able portion ( ! ,syrian des]t :i* =m$ a geographical unity ) ,arabia1 & among/ 8 subjects 7 ,arab tribes closely ak9 to ^? ( ! ,hijaz4 ,islam became a militant religion because x spread among/ ! ,arabs at a "t :5 !y 7 beg9n+ to ent] ^u a c>e] ( expansion & conque/1 & ?is c>e] _h already comm5c$ be=e ,muhammad _h got beyond ! fir/--! purely spiritual--/age ( 8 "w4 ,! only reason :y ! e>li] ,arab ef=ts 7 n foll[$ up imm$iately seems to h be5 t ! ,arabs 7 s surpris$ at _! success t !y 7 unprep>$ to take advantage ( x4 ,= "s "t previ\sly ,arab settlem5ts _h be5 =m$ 9 ! debateable l& :]e ! ,p]sian & ,byzant9e ,empires met1 b ?is encroa*m5t _h be5 m or less veil$ by ! nom9al suz]a9ty ( "o or o!r ( ! great /ates4 ,! ,quda1 a tribe ( ,himy>itic ,arabs1 _h settl$ 9 ,syria & become ,*ri/ian1 & 0 *>g$ by ! ,byzant9e ,emp]or ) ! g5]al control ( ! ,arabs ( ,syria 7,masudi3 iii41 #bad-e72 t tribe 0 sup]s$$ by ! tribe ( ,salih 7id4 #baf71 & t by ! ,arab k+dom ( ,ghasan :i* ackn[l$g$ ! ,emp]or ( ,byzantium z its ov]lord1 :il/ ! ,arab k+dom ( ,hira ackn[l$g$ ! ,p]sian k+4 ,some:]e betwe5 ,a4,d4 #fjd & #faj1 :5 ! fir/ beg9n+s ( p]secution 7 fall+ on ! ,prophet 9 ,mecca1 ! ,arabs l$ by al-,mondir inflict$ a cru%+ defeat ^u ! ,p]sian army "u ,k+ ,khusraw ,p>wiz1 :o1 a few ye>s be=e1 _h l$ a victori\s =ce to ! invasion ( ! ,byzant9e prov9ce ( ,syria4 ,?is victory %[$ ! ,arabs t1 9 spite ( its impos+ appe>ance1 ! ,p]sian ,empire1 & presumably ! ,byzant9e also1 7 vuln]able1 & a det]m9$ ef=t might easily place ! weal? ( bo? at ! disposal ( ! ,arabs4 ,! ,muslim conque/s ( ! #g? c5tury ,a4,d4 =m ! la/ ( a s]ies ( great ,semitic outspreads ( :i* ! e>lie/ record$ 9 hi/ory result$ 9 ! =mation ( ! empire ( ,babylon "s #bbbe ye>s be=e ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,9 all ^! ! motive p[] lay 9 ! ,arabs :o repres5t ! p>5t ,semitic /ock1 ! m or less nomadic inhabitants ( ! b>r5 highl&s ( ,we/]n ,asia1 :o h always t5d$ to prey ^u ! m cultur$ & settl$ dwell]s 9 ! riv] valleys & on ! l[] slopes ( ! hills4 8,! belts betwe5 m\nta9 & des]t1 ! banks ( ! great riv]s1 ! l[] hills ne> ! sea1 ^! are ! l9es ( civilization 7actual or pot5tial7 9 ,we/]n ,asia4 ,! consequ5ce ( ^! conditions is t ?r\gh all ! hi/ory ( ,we/]n ,asia !re runs ! et]nal di/9ction betwe5 ! civiliz$ cultivators ( ! pla9s & l[] hills & ! wild peoples ( m\nta9 & des]t4 ,! great mon>*ies :i* h aris5 "h h r>ely be5 effective beyond ! limits ( cultivation2 m\nta9 & des]t are ano!r _w 9 :i* !y c get1 at be/1 only prec>i\s foot+4 ,& to ! mon>*ical settl$ peoples ! ne> neighb\rhood ( ?is unsubjugat$ _w has be5 a cont9ual m5ace4 ,x is a *aotic region out ( :i* may p\r ^u !m at any weak5+ ( ! dam hordes ( deva/ators4 ,at ! be/ ( times x hamp]s ! gov]nm5t by (f]+ a refuge & recruit+ gr\nd to all ! enemies ( ord]40 7,bevan3 ,h\se ( ,seleucus1 i41 p4 #bb47 ,scornful ( agriculture & ) a /rong di/a/e = settl$ & especially = urban life1 ! ,b$w9 are ^? :o h rema9$ nomads by pref]5ce1 & l all races at t /age ( evolution1 f9d ! mo/ cong5ial outlet = _! vig\r 9 tribal w>f>e & plund]+ exp$itions4 ,f ! e>lie/ dawn ( hi/ory !y h always be5 /rongly tempt$ by ! weal? ( ! settl$ communities )9 rea*1 & appe> 9 ! olde/ records z robb] b&s4 ,sometimes pr$atory excursions 7 foll[$ by settlem5t1 & ! invad+ tribes le>n$ ! culture ( ^? among/ :om !y settl$3 all ! ,semitic gr\ps o!r ?an ! ,arabs _h =m$ su* settlem5ts be=e ! #g? c5tury ,a4,d41 & ^! gr\ps are di/+ui%$ "o f ano!r1 & all f ! p>5t /ock1 simply by ! cultural influ5ces due to ! e>li] inhabitants ( ! l&s !y ent]$2 ! ,arab /ock itself rema9$ high & dry1 ! /r&$ relic ( m primitive conditions1 ?\gh itself n absolutely free f a react+ influ5ce4 ,! only ?+ t ev] has re/ra9$ ! incursions ( ^! nomadic tribes into su* neighb\r+ l&s z (f] hope ( plund] is ! milit>y p[] ( ^? :o endeav\r to place a b>ri] = ! protection ( ! settl$ community ( ! cultivat$ area1 & e ,arab outspread has be5 due1 n to ! pressure ( hung] result+ f ! desiccation ( ,arabia1 nor to religi\s en?usiasm1 b simply to ! weakness ( ! p[] :i* tri$ to ma9ta9 a dam aga9/ !m4 ,9 ! #g? c5tury ,a4,d4 ! two p[]s bord]+ on ! ,arab area 7 ! ,byzant9e & ,p]sian empires4 ,bo? ( ^! 71 to all appe>ance1 fl\ri%+ & /able1 b bo? alike 7 9 reality greatly weak5$ by ext]nal & int]nal causes :i* 7 closely p>allel 9 ! two4 ,ext]nally1 bo? _h be5 sev]ely %ak5 by "s c5turies ( w>f>e 9 :i* !y _h disput$ ! supremacy ( ,we/]n ,asia1 & bo? _h suff]$ f re> attacks by m b>b>\s foes4 ,int]nally1 bo? alike _h a ?or\ghly unsatisfactory social /ructure1 ?\gh ! details diff]3 9 ! ,byzant9e ,empire almo/ ! :ole burd5 ( a v heavy taxation fell ^u ! middle classes1 ! curiales1 & ! armies 7 ma9ly compos$ ( =eign m]c5>ies1 :il/ 9 ! ,p]sian ,empire a rigid ca/e sy/em /ifl$ natural developm5t4 ,9 bo? we see a /ate *ur* engag$ 9 active p]secution & !reby ali5at+ a l>ge section ( ! subject population4 ,! c>e] ( ,muslim conque/ came ) great sudd5ness4 ,betwe5 ! ye>s #ad & #ba ,a4,h4 7,a4,d4 #fce-fda7 ! ,arabs obta9$ possession ( ,syria1 ,iraq1 ,egypt1 & ,p]sia4 ,!y ow$ to ,islam ! unit$ action :i* made ^! conque/s possible1 b ! old] ,muslims :o _h %>$ ! ideals & lab\rs ( ! ,prophet1 ?\gh put at ! head1 7 c>ri$ =w>d reluctantly & yet irresi/ibly by ! exp&+ =ce beh9d !m4 ,_m ( !m view$ ^! l>ge accessions ) v real anxiety4 ,:5 ! second ,khalif ,um> saw ! l>ge numb] ( prison]s & captives f ,jall 7,p]sia7 flock+ into ,arabia1 he exclaim$1 8,o1 ,god1 ,i take refuge ) !e f ! *ildr5 ( ^! captives ( ,jall40 ,already ! community ( ,islam conta9$ ?ree di/9ct /rata4 7i7 ,! 8old believ]s10 i4e41 ! sahibs or companions ( ! ,prophet & ! e>ly conv]ts :o plac$ ! religion ( ,islam fir/ & desir$ t religion to produce a real bro!rhood ( all believ]s1 :e!r ,arab or n4 ,important by _! pre/ige !y 7 num]ically 9 ! m9ority4 7ii7 ,! ,arab p>ty1 consi/+ ( ^? :o _h embrac$ ,islam only :5 ,muhammad _h %[n 8 p[] by ! capture ( ,mecca4 ,!y accept$ ,muslim lead]%ip because ,muhammad & ! fir/ two ,khalifs 7 at ! mom5t 9 ! asc5dancy1 b !y _h no atta*m5t to ! religion ( ,islam4 ,!y 7 ^? :o w\ld h gone =w>d to conque/ "u any effici5t lead] z soon z x 0 cle> t ,p]sia & ! ,greek ,empire 7 vuln]able1 & to !m x 0 a detrim5t t union "u a lead] incid5tally involv$ adh]5ce to a new religion4 ,at ! head ( ^! purely secul> ,arabs 0 ! ,umayyad clan ( ! tribe ( ,quray%1 & ! ma9 ?+ :i* ga9$ _! cont9u$ adh]5ce to ,islam 0 t ! ,prophet himself _h belong$ to t tribe & s ! pre/ige ( ,islam involv$ t ( ! ,quray% :o !reby became a k9d ( ari/ocracy4 ,al?\gh ! ,umayyads 7 ?us able to gratify _! p]sonal pride1 always a /rong factor 9 semi-civilis$ psy*ology1 & ev5 to obta9 a consid]able measure ( control ov] ! o!r tribes1 ?is only s]v$ to p]petuate ! pre-,islamic conditions ( tribal jeal\sy1 = ! primacy ( ! ,quray% 0 bitt]ly res5t$ by _m rivals4 ,= ! mo/ "p ! true ,arab p>ty 01 & /ill is1 indiff]5t t[>ds religion4 8,! g5u9e ,arab ( ! des]t is1 & rema9s at he>t1 a sceptic & a mat]iali/2 8 h>d1 cle>1 ke51 b some:at n>r[ intellig5ce1 ev] al]t 9 its own doma91 0 nei!r curi\s nor cr$ul\s 9 respect to immat]ial & supra-s5sual ?+s2 8 egoti/ical & self-reliant nature f\nd no place & felt no ne$ = a ,god :o1 if p[]ful to protect1 0 exact+ ( s]vice & self-d5ial40 7,br[ne3 ,lit]>y ,hi/4 ( ,p]sia1 i41 pp4 #ahi-aij47 ,! ,arab c]ta9ly 0 n dispos$ to reg>d ! conqu]$ ali51 ev5 if he embrac$ ,islam1 z a bro!r4 ,to him ! conque/ ( =eign l&s meant only ! acquisition ( va/ e/ates1 ( great weal? & unlimit$ p[]3 to him ! conqu]$ 7 simply s]fs to be us$ z a means ( r5d]+ ! conqu]$ l&s m productive4 ,! conqu]$ 7 all[$ ! *oice ei!r to embrace ,islam or to pay ! poll tax1 b ! ,umayyads disc\rag$ conv]sion z damag+ to ! rev5ue1 al?\gh ! cruel & hat$ ,hajjaj b4 ,yusuf 7d4 #ie7 =c$ ev5 conv]ts to pay ! tax f :i* !y 7 legally exempt4 7iii7 ,! ?ird /ratum consi/$ ( ! 8cli5ts0 7mawla1 plur4 mawl71 ! non-,arab conv]ts1 !oretically receiv$ z bre?r5 & actually s treat$ by ! 8old believ]s10 b reg>d$ z s]fs by ,arabs ( ! ,umayyad type4 ,ow+ to ! wide expansion ( ,islam ^! rapidly increas$ 9 numb] until1 9 ! #bnd c5tury ( ! ,hijra1 !y =m$ ! va/ majority ( ! ,muslim _w4 ,! two fir/ ,khalifs 7 8old believ]s0 :o _h be5 companions ( ! ,prophet 9 8 flight f ,mecca4 ,! ?ird1 ,u?man1 _h also be5 "o ( ! ,prophet's companions1 b he 0 a weak man & moreov]1 belong$ to ! ,umayyad clan1 :i*1 z ! ari/ocratic elem5t 9 ,mecca1 0 !n 9 ! asc5dant &1 unable to free himself f ! nepotism :i* is an ,arab fail+1 all[$ ! ri* conque/s ( ,syria1 ,egypt1 ,iraq1 & ,p]sia to become ! prey ( ambiti\s memb]s ( ! clan & ?us suff]$ ! complete secul>is+ ( ! ,islamic /ate4 ,:51 9 #ce ,a4,h41 he fell a victim to ! assass91 he 0 succe$$ by ,ali1 "o ( ! old] ,muslims & ! ,prophet's c\s9 & son-9-law4 ,b at ,ali's accession ! int]nal division appe>s z an accompli%$ fact4 ,! purely secul> ,arabs1 l$ by ! ,umayyad ,muawiya1 :o 0 gov]nor ( ,syria1 entirely refus$ to recognise ,ali1 affect+ to reg>d him z implicat$ 9 ! murd] ( ,u?man1 or at lea/ z protect+ 8 murd]]s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! ,kh>ijite sect1 claim+ to repres5t ! old] ,muslim type1 b 9 reality ma9ly compos$ ( ! ,arabs ( ,arabia & ( ! milit>y colonies1 :o 7 envi\s ( ! p[] & weal? ( ! ,umayyad faction1 at fir/ support$ him1 !n turn$ aga9/ him1 & 9 #da 7 responsible = 8 assass9ation4 ,at ,ali's dea? ,muawiya became ,khalif & f\nd$ ! ,umayyad dyna/y :i* rul$ f #da to #acb ,a4,h4 ,dur+ ! :ole ( ?is p]iod ! (ficial ,khalifate 0 ,arab fir/ & ,muslim only 9 ! second place4 ,?is =ms ! second p]iod ( ! hi/ory ( ,islam :5 ! religion ( ! ,prophet 0 all[$ to s9k into ! backgr\nd & ! ,arab reg>d$ himself z ! conqu]or rul+ ov] a subject population4 ,!re 0 no =cible conv]sion ( a subject population1 inde$1 save 9 ! reign ( ,um> ,,ii 7,a4,h4 #ii-aja7 conv]sions 7 r disc\rag$ z detrim5tal to ! poll tax levi$ on non-,muslims4 ,!re 0 no attempt to =ce ! ,arabic language3 until ! reign ( ,abdu l-,mlik 7#fe-hf71 :o />t$ an ,arabic co9age1 ! public records 7 kept & (ficial bus9ess transact$ 9 ,greek1 ,p]sian1 or ,coptic1 z local requirem5ts dem&$1 & ! *ange to ,arabic seems to h be5 sugge/$ by ! non-,muslim cl]ks4 ,:5 ,arabic became ! (ficial m$ium ( public bus9ess !n1 ( c\rse1 motives ( conv5i5ce & self-int]e/ caus$ its g5]al adoption4 ,hi!rto x _h be5 us$ 9 pray] by ^? :o _h become ,muslim1 b n[ x _h to be le>n$ m accurately by all :o _h to d ) ! collection ( ! rev5ue or ! adm9i/ration ( ju/ice4 ,incid5tally ?is became a matt] ( great importance1 z x provid$ a common m$ium = ! ex*ange ( ?\ght ?r\gh\t ! :ole ,muslim _w4 ,z rul]s 9 ,syria1 ! ,arabs 7 9 contact ) a fully develop$ culture :i* 0 br\ght to be> ^u !m 9 v>i\s ways1 9 ! /ructure ( society & 9 social ord] g5]ally1 9 ! arts & crafts1 & 9 intellectual life4 ,! ,greek influ5ce 0 ne>e/ at h&1 b !re 0 also a v /rong ,p]sian elem5t 9 close contact ) !m4 ,! prov9cial (ficials ( ,syria1 all tra9$ 9 ! me?ods ( ! ,byzant9e ,empire1 cont9u$ 9 _! employ1 &1 z ,syria 0 ! seat ( ! ,umayyad gov]nm5t1 ! /ate came "u ,greek influ5ce4 ,yet1 = all ?is1 ev5 9 ,umayyad times1 ! ,p]sian influ5ce seems to h be5 v /rong 9 political organization4 ,! gov]nm5ts already exi/+ 9 ,egypt & ,syria 7 prov9cial1 dep5d5t ^u & subord9ate to1 ! c5tral gov]nm5t at ,byzantium1 & con/antly recruit$ by ,byzant9e (ficials1 at lea/ 9 _! upp] grades4 ,! ,p]sian gov]nm5t1 on ! o!r h&1 0 a self-conta9$ "o1 fully organis$ ?r\gh\t & includ+ ! supreme & c5tral au?ority4 ,until ! fall ( ! ,umayyads1 aft] :i* ,p]sian influ5ce became supreme1 ! political /ructure ( ! ,muslim /ate 0 some:at exp]im5tal2 app>5tly ! rul]s left ! details altoge!r to ! subord9ate (ficials :o adapt$ to ! ne$s ( ! /ate su* elem5ts z !y c\ld use f ! old prov9cial adm9i/ration4 ,9 ! matt] ( taxation ! e>ly ,khalifate cont9u$ ! sy/em already 9 vogue & employ$ exi/+ me?ods = ! collection ( ! newly impos$ poll tax4 ,x 0 on ?is side t ! ,umayyad rule 0 mo/ unsatisfactory4 ,l _m :o h be5 br$ 9 pov]ty & h aft]w>ds sudd5ly come into great weal?1 ! ,arabs behav$ z ?\gh _! weal? 0 inexhau/ible3 ea* gov]nor b\ght 8 appo9tm5t f ! /ate & x became a recognis$ cu/om = him to exact a ca% paym5t f ! outgo+ gov]nor1 & !n he 0 free to raise :at he c\ld f 8 def5celess subjects to prep>e = ! day :5 8 opportunities ( exaction came to an end4 ,! ?or\ghly unsatisfactory condition ( ! ,umayyad f9ancial sy/em 0 "o ( ! lead+ causes ( _! fall4 ,"o ( ! ,umayyad %eikhs1 nam$ ,m9k>i1 :5 ask$ ! reason ( _! fall1 repli$3-- 8,we gave to pleasure ! "t :i* %\ld h be5 devot$ to bus9ess4 ,our subjects1 h>%ly treat$ by u & despair+ ( obta9+ ju/ice1 long$ to be deliv]$ f u3 ! tax pay]s1 ov]burd5$ ) exactions1 7 e/rang$ f u3 our l&s 7 neglect$1 our res\rces wa/$4 ,we left bus9ess to our m9i/]s :o sacrific$ our int]e/s to _! own advantage1 & transact$ our affairs z !y pleas$ & )\t our k4 ,! army1 ) its pay always 9 arre>1 ceas$ to obey u4 ,& s ! small numb] ( our support]s left u )\t def5ce aga9/ our enemies1 & ! ignorance ( h[ we /ood 0 "o ( ! *ief causes ( our fall40 7,masudi3 vi41 #ce-cf47 ,x w n be unfair to say1 !re=e1 t dur+ ! ,umayyad p]iod ! ,arabs le>n$ practically no?+ ( ! art ( gov]nm5t & ( ! "w ( adm9i/ration4 ,!y 7 9 ! position ( prodigal "y heirs :o leave all details to _! m5 ( bus9ess & cont5t !mselves ) squ&]+ ! proce$s4 ,9 ! case ( civil law matt]s 7 r diff]5t4 ,! civil law is necess>ily bas$ on ! social & economic /ructure ( ! community1 & 9 ! acquir$ prov9ces ?is 0 s diff]5t f t prevail+ 9 ,arabia t x 0 necess>ily =c$ on ! att5tion ( ! ,arabs4 ,moreov]1 9 primitive ,islam1 ! l9e 0 n cle>ly drawn betwe5 ! canon law & ! civil law4 ,inh]itance1 ! tak+ ( pl$ges1 & su* l matt]s1 7 to ! ,arabs subject to ! direction & sanction ( ! law ( ,god z reveal$ by 8 ,prophet4 ,?us1 = example1 ,sura #d1 "o ( ! lat] ,mad9ian revelations1 conta9s a /atem5t ( ! law relat+ to gu>dian%ip1 inh]itance1 m>riage1 & k9dr$ topics1 accord+ to ! social conditions prevail+ at ,mad9a4 ,b 9 ! ,greek & ,p]sian dom9ions ! conqu]+ ,arab _h to deal ) m complex conditions = :i* ! reveal$ law made no provision1 al?\gh :at x did conta9 s f> t\*$ ! subject t x c\ld n be treat$ reg>dless ( revelation4 ,x seem$ impossible to disreg>d ! reveal$ precepts & sub/itute an ali5 legislation1 al?\gh ?is has be5 done 9 ! mod]n ,ottoman ,empire1 b n )\t _m & grave prote/s2 9 ! fir/ c5tury x w\ld h be5 intol]able1 = e disaffect$ faction w\ld h us$ x to break up ! ,muslim /ate :i* 0 only held toge!r by ! pre/ige ( ! ,prophetical tradition4 ,we may well suppose t ! ,umayyads w\ld h _h no reluctance to try ! exp]im5t1 b x 0 too dang]\s4 ,! only alt]native 0 to exp& ! sacr$ law s z to include new requirem5ts1 & 9 ! ,umayyad p]iod ?is 0 done by ! addition ( a va/ numb] ( fictiti\s traditions pr(ess+ to relate :at ! ,prophet _h said & done 9 conditions 9 :i* he _h nev] be5 plac$4 ,9 describ+ ^! traditions z 8fictiti\s10 x is n necess>ily impli$ t !y 7 fraudul5t1 al?\gh _m 7 s1 %[+ an obvi\s motive 9 increas+ ! privileges & rights ( ! dom9ant faction or ass]t+ ! tribal pre-em95ce ( ! ,quray%1 etc4 ,b m (t5 !y are 8fictiti\s0 9 ! s5se ( legal fictions rightly correct+ ! actual law 9 ! int]e/s ( equity4 ,:5 entirely new conditions arose1 ! "q w\ld be ask$1 8,h[ w\ld ! ,prophet h act$ 9 ?is case80 ,! e>ly companions ( ! ,prophet1 educat$ 9 ! same environm5t z he _h be5 educat$1 & confid5t t _! outlook 0 ess5tially ! same z 81 _h no hesitation 9 /at+ :at he w\ld h done or said1 & _! /atem5t 0 almo/ c]ta9ly correct3 b !y word$ _! evid5ce1 or x 0 aft]w>ds word$ = !m1 z a /atem5t ( :at ! ,prophet actually _h done or said4 ,&1 lat] aga91 9 a subsequ5t g5]ation1 :5 new problems arose1 no difficulty 0 felt 9 accept+ ! supposition t ! ,prophet w\ld h admitt$ ! reasonable & j solution :i* ! ,roman juri/s propos$4 ,?us x f9ally came to pass t a consid]able portion ( ! ,roman civil law 0 embodi$ 9 ! traditions ( ,islam 7cf4 ,santillana3 ,code civil et comm]ciel tunisi54 ,tunis1 #ahii1 etc47 ,x is n to be suppos$ t ,arab gov]nors & judges /udi$ ! ,roman code1 !y simply accept$ its provisions z !y f\nd !m 9 =ce 9 ,syria & ,egypt1 & ?us le>n$ its g5]al pr9ciples f ! usage ( ! civil c\rts already exi/+4 ,9 _m places mat]ial is f\nd 9 ! traditions :i* c be trac$ to ,zoroa/rian1 ,jewi%1 & ev5 ,buddhi/ s\rces1 ?\gh ^! deal r ) ritual & ! description ( ! unse5 _w & s]ve to %[ h[ readily ,islam absorb$ elem5ts ) :i* x 0 9 contact4 ,s f> z ! actual ne$s ( ! civil law are conc]n$1 ! *ief s\rce 0 ! ,roman law1 & ^! ne$s fill a v l>ge "p ( ! traditions4 ,x 0 n until ! close ( ! ,umayyad p]iod t ! ,muslims began to develop a sci5tific jurisprud5ce & to make a critical exam9ation & codification ( ! traditions4 ,9 ! case ( jurisprud5ce !re 7 at fir/ two s*ools1 a ,syrian & a ,p]sian4 ,! ,syrian s*ool =mulat$ its sy/em "u ! lead]%ip ( al-,awzai 7d4 #aeg71 & = "s "t x prevail$ ov] all p>ts ( ! ,muslim _w :i* _h be5 p>ts ( ! ,byzant9e ,empire4 ,! ,p]sian s*ool ow$ its orig9 to ,abu ,hanifa 7d4 #aej7 &1 z ! seat ( gov]nm5t 0 remov$ to ,iraq by ! ,abbasids & ,abu ,hanifa's sy/em 0 en=c$ by 8 pupil ,abu ,yusuf 7d4 #ahb7 :o 0 *ief ,qadi "u ! ,khalif ,h>unu r-,ra%id1 x _h a trem5d\s advantage ov] ! ,syrian s*ool4 ,x became ! (ficial sy/em ( ! ,abbasid c\rts & /ill holds its own ?r\gh ,c5tral ,asia1 ,nor? ,india1 & :]ev] ! ,turki% elem5t prevails1 :il/ ! ,syrian sy/em has become ext9ct4 ,abu ,hanifa's sy/em repres5ts a s]i\s & mod]ate revision ( ! me?ods :i* _h already come into use z ext5d+ ! discipl9e ( ,islam to ! ne$s ( a complex & advanc$ civilization4 ,"u ! ,umayyads ! juri/s _h supplem5t$ any defici5cies 9 ! law by _! own op9ion 7ray7 :i* meant ! application ( ! judgm5t ( a man tra9$ "u ! ,roman law z to :at 0 j & fair4 ,9 t e>ly p]iod no d]ogatory s5se 0 atta*$ to 8op9ion0 :i* re/$ on ! !ory t ! intellect c\ld intuitively p]ceive :at is "r & j1 ?us assum+ t !re is an objective /&>d ( "r & wrong capable ( appreh5sion by philosophical enquiry1 a !ory :i* %[s ! influ5ce ( ,greek ideas embodi$ 9 ! ,civil ,code4 ,b ! ,abbasid p]iod exp]i5c$ an or?odox reaction :i* t5d$ to limit fre$om 9 us+ speculative op9ion1 & ,abu ,hanifa %[s ?is limitation4 ,9 8 sy/em weight 0 atta*$ to e positive /atem5t ( ! ,quran :i* c\ld be tak5 z be>+ ^u ! civil law1 only to a slight ext5t did he avail himself ( ! evid5ce ( tradition1 to a mu* l>g] ext5t he employs qiyas or 8analogy10 :i* means t a new condition is judg$ by comp>ison ) "s old] "o already treat$ 9 ! ,quran1 & he also employ$ :at he call$ i/ihsan1 8! pref]able10 t is to say1 :at seem$ to be equitable & "r ev5 :5 x div]g$ f ! logical conclusion :i* c\ld be d$uc$ f ! reveal$ law4 ,only 9 ?is latt] case did he admit :at c be describ$ z 8op9ion10 & ?is is /rictly limit$ to ! adoption ( a c\rse necess>y to avoid an obvi\s inju/ice4 ,z ?us /at$1 ,abu ,hanifa's sy/em 0 broad]1 mild]1 & m reasonable ?an any o!r treatm5t ( ! ,islamic law3 b x is a mi/ake to suppose t x /ill is mild & reasonable1 = 9 ! c\rse ( "t ! decisions pron\nc$ z to 8! pref]able0 h become h>d5$ into prec$5ts & ! ,hanifite code expresses only ^? fix$ decisions ( e>ly m$ival ,islam )\t flexibility4 ,! case is p>allel ) ! ,engli% treatm5t ( equity4 ,9 old] times equity %[s u ! philosophical pr9ciples ( ju/ice correct+ ! defects ( common law2 b mod]n practice displays ^! pr9ciples fossiliz$ z prec$5ts & z rigid & =mal 9 _! application z ! common law itself4 ,z fir/ conceiv$1 8! pref]able0 %[s ! influ5ce ( ,roman law & ,greek philosophy1 bo? ( :i* contemplat$ an objective /&>d ( "r & wrong :i* c\ld be discov]$ by inve/igation1 ! ,/oic tea*+1 pr$om9ant 9 ,roman law1 t5d+ to treat ?is discov]y z intuitive4 ,unsupport$ by o!r evid5ce1 we might hesitate to sugge/ t i/ihsan necess>ily _h a ,hell5i/ic basis1 b :5 we comp>e ! ideas ( ,abu ,hanifa ) ! contempor>y tea*+ ( ,wasil b4 ,ata 7d4 #aca7 9 !ology1 we are =c$ to ! conclusion t ! same influ5ces are at "w 9 bo?1 & 9 ,wasil ^! are c]ta9ly d]iv$ f ,greek philosophy4 ,we are n ju/ifi$ 9 suppos+ t ,abu ,hanifa ev] read ! ,greek philosoph]s or ! ,roman law1 b he liv$ at a p]iod :5 ! g5]al pr9ciples d$uc$ f ^! s\rces 7 beg9n+ to p]meate ,muslim ?\ght1 ?\gh 9 fact 8 tea*+ t5ds to limit & def9e ! application ( ! g5]al pr9ciples accord+ to a sy/em4 ,! old] ,muslims suppos$ t good & evil dep5d simply on ! arbitr>y w ( ,god1 :o comm&s & =bids z he sees fit3 x 0 ! influ5ce ( ! ,greek philosophy :i* br\ght 9 ! idea t ^! di/9ctions are n arbitr>y b due to "s natural diff]5ce exi/+ 9 nature betwe5 good & evil & t ,god is j 9 t 8 decrees con=m to ?is /&>d4 ,9 or?odox ,islam !re are n[ f\r s*ools ( jurisprud5ce %[+ all[able diff]5ces 9 ! treatm5t ( ! canon law4 ,mo/ absurdly !y are sometimes describ$ z 8sects03 ?is !y are n z ! diff]5ces ( op9ion are fully recognis$ z all equally or?odox4 ,! foll[]s ( ,abu ,hanifa =m ! mo/ num]\s ( ^! s*ools1 ! o!r ?ree be+ all m or less reaction>y z comp>$ ) x4 ,! contempor>y ,malik b4 ,anas 7d4 #agi7 0 op5ly actuat$ by dislike ( ! admission ( i/ihsan & ! recognition !reby giv5 to 8op9ion0 = ?is he sub/itut$ :at he call$ i/islah or 8public exp$i5cy10 all[+ analogy to be set aside only :5 its logical conclusion w\ld be detrim5tal to ! community4 ,! diff]5ce seems to be m a v]bal correction ?an a mat]ial *ange1 b ! und]ly+ motive is cle> & indicates an or?odox reaction4 ,at ! same "t he atta*$ mu* great] weight to ! evid5ce ( tradition1 add+ to x also ! pr9ciple ( ijma or 8cons5sus10 :i* 9 8 sy/em meant ! common usage ( ,mad9a4 ,und\bt$ly ,ibn ,malik's position 0 !oretically s\nd3 ! ,islamic /ate _h tak5 =m at ,mad9a & no?+ c\ld give s cle> light on ! policy ( ! ,prophet & 8 companions z ! local cu/om>y law ( ! "m city4 ,at ! same "t ,ibn ,malik took tradition q s]i\sly1 inde$1 ! critical & sci5tific treatm5t ( tradition beg9s ) 8 manual kn[n z ! ,muwatta4 ,to-day ,ibn ,malik's s*ool prevails 9 ,upp] ,egypt & ,nor? ,africa we/ ( ,egypt4 ,! ?ird au?ority a%-,%afii 7d4 #bjd7 takes an int]m$iate position betwe5 ,abu ,hanifa & ,ibn ,malik1 int]pret+ ijma z ! g5]al usage ( ,islam1 & n ( ! city ( ,mad9a alone4 ,! f\r? au?ority1 ,ahmad b4 ,hanbal 7d4 #bda71 %[s an entirely reaction>y position :i* rev]t$ to a close adh]5ce to ,quran & tradition2 x c>ri$ great weight among/ ! or?odox1 especially 9 ,baghdad1 b n[ survives only 9 remote p>ts ( ,arabia4 ,9 ! sph]e ( ! arts & crafts1 our be/ evid5ce lies 9 ar*itecture & eng9e]+4 ,9 ^! ! ,arabs _h no skill & 7 consci\s ( _! incapacity4 ,! e>lie/ mosques 7 simply enclosures surr\nd$ by a pla9 wall1 b a new type 0 develop$ "u ! fir/ ,umayyad ,khalif ,muawiya1 :o employ$ ,p]sian non-,muslim build]s 9 ! con/ruction ( ! mosque at ,kufa1 & !y work$ on ! l9es ( ! ar*itecture already us$ by ! ,sasanid k+s4 ,9 ?is mosque ! traditional squ>e enclosure 0 reta9$1 b ! quadrangle 0 surr\nd$ by a cloi/] 9 ! =m ( a collonade ) pill>s #cj cubits high ( /one drums held toge!r by iron clamps & lead b$d+s4 ,f ?is ! cloi/]$ quadrangle became ! g5]al type ( ! congregational mosque & rema9$ s until late ,turki% times1 :5 x 0 p>tly sup]s$$ by ! ,byzant9e dom$ *ur*4 ,! dome _h be5 us$ 9 e>li] times only z ! cov]+ ( a tomb1 /&+ alone or atta*$ to a mosque4 ,! same ,khalif ,muawiya employ$ bricks & mort> 9 re/orations :i* he made at ,mecca1 & introduc$ ,p]sian workm5 to execute ! repairs4 ,9 #abd ,a4,h4 7,a4,d4 #gjj7 ! fif? ,umayyad ,khalif f\nd x necess>y to repair ! damage caus$ at ,mecca by flood1 & = ?is purpose employ$ a ,*ri/ian ar*itect f ,syria4 ,9 ! "t ( ! next ,khalif al-,walid1 ! 8,old ,mosque0 ( ,fu/at 7,cairo71 t is n[ kn[n z ! 8,mosque ( ,amr10 0 rebuilt by ! ar*itect ,yahya b4 ,hanzala1 :o probably 0 a ,p]sian4 ,! e>li] mosque _h be5 a simple enclosure4 ,! next olde/ mosque ( ,cairo1 t ( ,ibn ,tulun 7,a4,h4 #bhc7 also _h a non-,muslim ar*itect1 ! ,*ri/ian ,ibn ,katib al-,f>gani4 ,n only 9 ! e>li] p]iod1 b also 9 ! days ( ! ,abbasids1 ! ,muslims reli$ exclusively ^u ,greek & ,p]sian1 to a less degree on ,coptic1 ar*itects1 eng9e]s1 & craftsm5 = build+ & decoration4 ,9 ,spa9 ( ! #bnd c5tury 7#h? c5tury ,a4,d47 we f9d ! ,byzant9e ,emp]or s5d+ a mosaic work] & #cbj qu9tals ( tess>ae = ! adorn+ ( ! great mosque at ,cordova4 ,9 orig9 all ,muslim art _h a ,byzant9e beg9n+1 b ! traditions ( ,byzant9e art receiv$ a peculi> direction by pass+ ?r\gh a ,p]sian m$ium1 & ?is m$ium col\rs all "w done aft] ! close ( ! ,umayyad p]iod4 ,only 9 ! we/1 9 ,spa91 & to a less degree 9 ,nor? ,africa1 d we f9d traces ( direct ,byzant9e influ5ce 9 lat] times4 ,b ,p]sian art1 z develop$ "u ! lat] ,sasanids1 0 itself d]iv$ f ,byzant9e models1 & ma9ly f models & by craftsm5 introduc$ by ,khusraw ,i4 7circ4 ,a4,d4 #ebh72 b ev5 at t e>ly /age !re 7 also "s ,indian influ5ces app>5t 9 ,p]sian & ,ea/-,byzant9e "w1 z1 = example1 9 ! use ( ! horse %oe ar* :i* fir/ appe>s 9 ,we/]n ,asia 9 ! *ur* ( ,dana on ! ,euphrates1 circ4 ,a4,d4 #edj4 ,b ! horse %oe ar* 9 pre-,muslim times1 z 9 ,india1 is purely decorative & is n employ$ 9 con/ruction4 ,?us x appe>s t ! real "w ( ,islam 9 art & ar*itecture lay 9 connect+ ! v>i\s portions ( ! ,muslim _w 9 "o common life1 s t ,syria1 ,p]sia1 ,iraq1 ,nor? ,africa1 & ,spa9 %>$ ! same influ5ces1 :i* 7 ultimately ,greek or ,graeco-,p]sian1 ! ,indian elem5t1 ( q second>y importance1 ent]+ directly ?r\gh ,p]sia4 ,already be=e ! outspread ( ,islam1 ,byzant9e art _h entirely replac$ native models 9 ,egypt1 & ?is 0 l>gely ! case 9 ,p]sia z well4 ,at mo/ we c say t ,islam evolv$ a quasi-,byzant9e /yle :i* ow$ its di/9ctive features to ! limitations ( ! ,p]sian arti/s1 b :i* occasionally atta9$ a bett] level by ! importation ( ,byzant9e craftsm54 ,exactly ! same g5]al conclusions hold good 9 ! hi/ory ( ! c]amic arts & 9 ! illum9ation ( manuscripts1 ?\gh "h ! obs]vance ( ! ,quranic prohibition ( ! portrayal ( animal figures1 /rictly obs]v$ only 9 "s qu>t]s & lea/ reg>d$ 9 ,p]sia & ,spa91 caus$ a great] emphasis to be laid on vegetable =ms 9 decoration1 & on geometrical patt]ns4 ,9 ! field ( sci5ce & philosophy1 :]e we get su* abundant evid5ce 9 ! ,abbasid p]iod1 we are left ) v little mat]ial "u ! ,umayyads4 ,we "k t ! m$ical s*ool at ,alex&ria cont9u$ to fl\ri%1 & we read ( "o ,adf>1 a ,*ri/ian1 :o 0 di/+ui%$ z a /ud5t ( ! books ( ,h]mes1 ! occult au?ority :i* did mo/ to div]t ,egyptian sci5ce into a magical direction1 & we are in=m$ t he 0 s\ght out by a "y ,roman nam$ ,mori5us 7,m>ianos7 :o became 8 pupil & at 8 ma/]'s dea? retir$ to a h]mitage ne> ,j]usalem4 ,lat] on ! pr9ce ,khalid b4 ,yazid1 ( ! ,umayyad family 7d4 #he ,a4,h4--#gjd ,a4,d47 is said to h become ! pupil ( ,m>ianos & to h /udi$ ) him *emi/ry1 m$ic9e1 & a/ronomy4 ,he 0 ! au?or ( ?ree epi/les1 9 "o ( :i* he n>rat$ 8 conv]sations ) ,m>ianos1 ano!r relates ! mann] 9 :i* he /udi$ *emi/ry1 & a ?ird expla9s ! enigmatical allusions employ$ by 8 tea*]s4 ,long be=e ?is m$ical & sci5tific /udies _h pass$ ov] to ,p]sia1 b ,alex&ria reta9$ its reputation z ! *ief c5tre ( su* "w ?r\gh\t ! ,umayyad p]iod4 ,t[>ds ! end ( ! ,umayyad age ! influ5ce ( ,hell5i/ic ?\ght beg9s to appe> 9 ! nature ( criticism ^u accept$ views ( ,muslim !ology4 ,z 9 jurisprud5ce1 we h no gr\nd = suppos+ t ,muslims at ?is /age 7 directly acqua9t$ ) ,greek mat]ial1 b g5]al ideas 7 obta9$ by int]c\rse ) ^? :o _h be5 long "u ,hell5i/ic influ5ces1 & especially by int]c\rse ) ,*ri/ians among/ :om ! premises ( psy*ology1 metaphysics1 & logic _h encroa*$ v l>gely ^u ! field ( !ology by ! nature ( ! subjects debat$ 9 ! ,arian1 ,ne/orian1 & ,monophysite controv]sies :i* turn$ ma9ly ^u psy*ological & metaphysical problems4 ,! ideas ) :i* ! ,muslims 7 br\ght into contact sugge/$ difficulties 9 _! own !ology1 z yet only p>tially =mulat$1 & 9 religi\s !ories :i* _h tak5 =m 9 a community entirely ignorant ( philosophy4 ,"s ( ! old] fa%ion$ believ]s met ^! que/ions ) a pla9 negative1 simply refus+ to admit t !re 0 a difficulty or any "q = consid]ation3 reason 7aql71 !y said1 c\ld n be appli$ to ! revelation ( ,god1 & x 0 alike an innovation to dispute t revelation or to def5d x4 ,b o!rs felt ! pressure ( ! que/ions propos$ &1 :il/ /rictly fai?ful to ! /atem5ts ( ! ,quran1 endeav\r$ to br+ _! expression into con=mity ) ! pr9ciples ( philosophy4 ,! que/ions fir/ propos$ 7 conc]n$ ) 7a7 ! revelation ( ! ,^w ( ,god1 & 7b7 ! problem ( free w4 7a7 ,! ,prophet speaks ( revelation z 8com+ d[n0 7nazala7 f ,god & ref]s to ! 8"m ( ! book0 :i* seems to designate ! unreveal$ s\rce f :i* ! reveal$ words are d]iv$4 ,x may be t ?is ref]s to ! idea ( :i* ! ^w is ! expression1 & t 9 ?is ! ,prophet 0 influ5c$ by ,*ri/ian or ,jewi% !ories :i* _h orig9ally a ,platonic col\r+1 b x seems probable t he _h no v cle> !ory z to ! 8"m ( ! book40 ,at an e>ly date ! view arose t ! ,quran _h exi/$1 ?\gh n express$ 9 words1 t ! sub/ance & mean+ 7 et]nal z "p ( ! wisdom ( ,god1 ?\gh x _h be5 put into words 9 "t & !n communicat$ to ! ,prophet1 :i* is n[ ! or?odox tea*+ on ! basis ( ,qur4 #hj4 #ae4 t x 0 writt5 8by ! h&s ( scribes hon\r$ & righte\s10 ?is be+ tak5 to mean t x 0 writt5 at ,god's dictation by sup]natural be+s 9 p>adise & aft]w>ds s5t d[n to ! ,prophet4 ,t is n ! necess>y mean+ ( ! v]se1 :i* may ref] to ! previ\s revelations made to ! ,jews & ,*ri/ians :i* ! ,prophet reg>d$ z true b aft]w>ds corrupt$1 s t ! ,quran is simply ! pure transcription ( ,div9e ,tru? imp]fectly repres5t$ by ^? e>li] revelations4 ,"u ! ,umayyads1 :5 a rigid or?odoxy 0 tak+ =m 9 qu>t]s n sympa!tic t[>ds ! (ficial ,khalif1 a view arose t ! actual words express$ 9 ! ,quran 7 co-et]nal ) ,god1 & x 0 only ! writ+ d[n ( ^! words :i* _h tak5 place 9 "t4 ,x seems probable t ?is !ory ( an et]nal 8^w0 0 sugge/$ by ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e ( ! 8,logos40 ,x c be trac$ prim>ily to ! tea*+ ( ,/4 ,john ,damasc5e 7d4 circ4 #afj ,a4,h4 ,a4,d4 #ggf7 :o s]v$ z secret>y ( /ate "u "o ( ! ,umayyads1 ei!r ,yazid ,,ii4 or ,hijam1 & 8 pupil ,!odore ,abuc>a 7d4 #bag #hcb71 :o express ! relation ( ! ,*ri/ian ,logos to ! ,et]nal ,fa!r 9 t]ms v closely resembl+ ^? employ$ 9 ,muslim !ology to d5ote ! relation betwe5 ! ,quran or reveal$ ^w & ,god4 7cf4 ,von ,krem]3 ,/reifzuege4 pp4 #g-i74 ,we "k f ! extant works ( ^! two ,*ri/ian writ]s t !ological discussions betwe5 ,muslims & ,*ri/ians 7 by no means uncommon at ! "t4 ,! ,mutazilites ( :om ,wasil b4 ,ata 7d4 #aca7 is g5]ally reg>d$ z ! f\nd]1 7 a sect ( rationali/ic t5d5cies1 & !y 7 oppos$ to ! doctr9e ( ! et]nity ( ! ,quran & ! claim t x 0 uncreat$ because ! conclusions to be drawn seem$ to !m to introduce di/9ct p]sonalities correspond+ to ! p]sons ( ! ,*ri/ian ,tr9ity1 & 9 ^! views !y 7 und\bt$ly influ5c$ by ! =m 9 :i* ,/4 ,john ,damasc5e pres5t$ ! doctr9e ( ! ,tr9ity4 ,z x 0 impli$ t !re 0 an attribute ( wisdom possess$ by ,god :i* 0 n a ?+ creat$ by ,god b et]nally ) him1 & ?is wisdom may be conceiv$ z n absolutely id5tical ) ,god b possess$ by him1 ! ,mutazilites argu$ t x 0 some?+ co-et]nal ) ,god b o!r ?an ,god1 & s an et]nal ,quran 0 a second p]son ( ! ,godhead & ,god 0 n absolutely "o4 ,al-,muzd>1 a ,mutazilite greatly rev]$ z an ascetic1 expressly d5\nces ^? :o believe 9 an et]nal ,quran z di!i/s4 ,! ,mutazilites call$ !mselves ,ahlu t-,ta:id wa-l-,adl 8! p ( unity & ju/ice10 ! fir/ "p ( ?is title imply+ t !y alone 7 consi/5t def5d]s ( ! doctr9e ( ! ,div9e ,unity4 7b7 ,z to ! fre$om or o!rwise ( ! human w1 ! ,quran is p]fectly def9ite 9 its ass]tion ( ,god's omnipot5ce & omnisci5ce3 all ?+s are kn[n to him & rul$ by him1 & s human acts & ! rew>ds & puni%m5ts due to m5 mu/ be includ$3 8no mis=tune happ5s ei!r on e>? or 9 y\rselves b we made x1--x 0 9 ! book0 7,qur4 #eg4 #bb72 8ev]y?+ h ,we set d[n 9 ! cle> book ( our decrees0 7,qur4 #cf72 8_h ,we pleas$ ,we _h c]ta9ly giv5 to e s\l its guidance1 b true is ! ^w :i* ha? gone =? f me1--,i %all surely fill hell ) j9n & m5 toge!r40 7,qur4 #cb4 #ac74 ,yet ! appeal = moral conduct implies a c]ta9 responsibility1 & consequ5tly fre$om1 on man's "p4 ,9 ! m9d ( ! ,prophet1 no d\bt1 ! inconsi/5cy betwe5 moral obligations & responsibility on ! "o h&1 & ! unlimit$ p[] ( ,god on ! o!r1 _h n be5 p]ceiv$1 b t[>ds ! end ( ! ,umayyad p]iod ^! 7 press$ to _! logical conclusions4 ,on ! "o side 7 ! ,qad>ites 7qadr 8p[]071 ! advocates ( free w4 ,?is doctr9e fir/ appe>s 9 ! tea*+ ( ,mabad al-,yuhani 7d4 #hj ,a4,h47 :o is said to h be5 ! pupil ( ! ,p]sian ,s9buya & taught 9 ,damascus4 ,v little is kn[n ( ! e>ly ,qad>ites1 b x is /at$ t ,s9buya 0 put to dea? by ! ,khalif ,abdu l-,malik1 & t ! ,khalif ,yazid ,,ii4 7#ajb-ajf ,a4,h47 fav\r$ _! views4 ,on ! o!r side 7 ! ,jab>ites 7jabr1 8compulsion07 :o prea*$ /rict det]m9ism & 7 f\nd$ by ! ,p]sian ,jahm b4 ,safwan 7d4 circ4 #acj74 ,x is baseless to argue t ei!r free w or det]m9ism 7 necess>ily due to ,p]sian pre-,islamic beliefs1 x is evid5t t ! logical d$uction ( doctr9al !ology 9 ei!r direction 0 done by ,p]sians2 !y 71 inde$1 ! !ologians ( e>ly ,islam4 ,x mu/ be not$ t ! full developm5t ( fatalism 0 n rea*$ until a full c5tury aft] ! f\ndation ( ,islam & t its fir/ expon5t 0 put to dea? z a h]etic4 ,! e>li] ,qad>ites _h a ,p]sian orig91 b ! reaction aga9/ ! ,jab>ites 0 l$ by ,wasil b4 ,ata ^: tea*+ cle>ly %[s ! solv5t =ce ( ,hell5i/ic philosophy act+ on ,muslim !ology4 ,wasil 0 ! pupil ( ! ,qad>ite ,hasan ibn ,abi l-,hasan 7d4 #aaj7 b he 8sec$$0 f 8 tea*] & ?is is giv5 z ! traditional reason = call+ him & 8 foll[]s ! ,mutazila or 8secession10 & did s on ! gr\nd ( ! app>5t inju/ice imput$ to ,god 9 8 apportionm5t ( rew>ds & p5alties4 ,! details ( ! controv]sy are q second>y1 ! important po9t is t ! ,mutazilites claim$ to be 8! p ( ,unity & ,ju/ice10 ?is latt] mean+ t ,god con=m$ to an objective /&>d ( j & "r action s t he c\ld n be conceiv$ z act+ arbitr>ily & 9 disreg>d ( ju/ice1 an idea borr[$ f ,hell5i/ic philosophy = ! old] ,muslim conception reg>d$ ,god z act+ z he will$ & ! /&>d ( "r & wrong m]ely a dep5d5t on 8 w4 ,?r\gh\t ! :ole ,umayyad p]iod we see ! conqu]+ ,arabs1 s f> ! rul]s ( ! ,muslim _w1 9 contact ) ^? :o1 ?\gh treat$ ) arrogant contempt z s]fs1 7 really 9 possession ( a mu* full] culture ?an _! rul]s4 ,9 spite ( ! haughty attitude ( ! ,arab !re 0 a consid]able ex*ange ( ?\ght1 & ! community ( ,islam began to absorb ,hell5i/ic influ5ces 9 sev]al directions1 & s ! canon law & !ology ( ! ,muslims 0 beg9n+1 at ! end ( ! ,umayyad p]iod1 to be leav5$ by ,greek ?\ght4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 a p]iod ( indirect influ5ce2 !re is no indication1 save 9 a few in/ances 9 ! /udy ( natural sci5ce & m$ic9e1 ( ,muslim tea*]s or /ud5ts avail+ !mselves directly ( ,greek mat]ial1 b only t !y 7 9 contact ) ^? :o 7 famili> ) ! "w ( ,greek philosoph]s & juri/s4 ,x 0 a p]iod ( susp5d$ animation1 to "s ext5t1 dur+ :i* a new language & a new religion 7 be+ assimilat$ by ! v div]se elem5ts n[ compris$ 9 ! ,khalifate1 & ^? elem5ts 7 be+ weld$ toge!r 9 a common life4 ,h[ev] great 7 ! sect>ian & political diff]5ces ( lat] times1 ! *ur* ( ,islam long rema9$1 & to a great ext5t /ill rema9s1 possess$ ) a common life 9 ! s5se t !re is a mutual und]/&+ betwe5 ! sev]al p>ts & t ?us an intellectual or religi\s influ5ce has be5 able to pass rapidly f "o extreme to ! o!r1 & ! religi\s duty ( pilgrimage to ,mecca has done mu* to fo/] ?is community ( life & to promote int]c\rse betwe5 ! sev]al p>ts4 ,su* an und]/&+ has by no means always produc$ sympa?y or fri5dl9ess1 & ! v>i\s movem5ts z !y h pass$ f "o "p to ! o!r h (t5 be5 consid]ably modifi$ 9 ! passage2 b ! motive p[] beh9d a movem5t 9 ,p]sia has be5 intelligible 9 ,muslim ,spa9--?\gh p]haps int5sely dislik$ !re--& mo/ (t5 a movem5t beg9n+ 9 any "o di/rict has soon] or lat] _h "s contact ) e o!r di/rict4 ,!re is no su* division 9 ,islam z t :i* prev5ts ! av]age ,engli% *ur*man f kn[+ ab\t & appreciat+ a religi\s movem5t at "w 9 ! ,coptic or ,s]bian *ur*4 ,! common life ( ,islam is l>gely bas$ on ! use ( ! ,arabic language z ! m$ium ( daily life1 or at lea/ ( pray] & ! m$ium ( s*ol>%ip1 & ?is 0 extremely effective be=e ! inclusion ( l>ge ,turki% & ,indian elem5ts :i* h nev] really become ,arabic speak+4 ,x 0 ?is :i* made ! ,arabic speak+ community ( ,islam s fav\rable a m$ium ( cultural transmission4 ,! ,umayyad p]iod 0 a m>k+ "t dur+ :i* ?is common life 0 be+ evolv$1 & ) x 0 evolv$ necess>ily ! bitt]ness ( sect>ian & faction divisions :i* always result :5 div]g5t types are 9 too close contact ) "o ano!r4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,com+ ,,( ,,! ,,abbasids ,! rule ( ! ,umayyads _h be5 a p]iod ( tyrannical oppression on ! "p ( ! ,arab rul]s ^u _! non-,arab subjects & especially ^u ! mawali or conv]ts drawn f ! native population ( ! conqu]$ prov9ces :o n only 7 n admitt$ to equality1 z 0 ! pr(ess$ pr9ciple ( ! religion ( ,islam1 b 7 treat$ simply z s]fs4 ,?is 0 9 no s5se due to religi\s p]secution1 = x 0 ! conv]ts :o 7 ! mo/ aggriev$1 nor 0 x due to a racial antipa?y z betwe5 a ,semitic & an ,aryan p1 nor yet to any?+ t c\ld be describ$ z a 8national0 feel+ on ! "p ( ! ,p]sians & o!r conqu]$ races1 b simply a species ( 8class0 feel+ due to ! contempt felt by ! ,arabs = ^? :om !y _h conqu]$ & hatr$ on ! "p ( ! conqu]$ t[>ds _! arrogant ma/]s1 a hatr$ int5sifi$ by disgu/ at _! misgov]nm5t & ignorance ( ! traditions ( civilization4 ,!re 7 o!r causes also :i* help$ to int5sify ?is feel+ ( hatr$ especially 9 ! case ( ! ,p]sians4 ,among/ ^! 0 a semi-religi\s feel+1 ev5 among/ ^? :o _h become conv]ts to ,islam4 ,x _h be5 ! old usage ( ! ,p]sians to reg>d ! ,sasanid k+s1 ! desc5dants ( ! leg5d>y kayani dyna/y ( h]oes :o _h fir/ e/abli%$ a settl$ community 9 ,p]sia1 z bagh n q p]haps :at we %\ld und]/& z 8gods10 b r z inc>nations ( deity1 ! div9e _s pass+ on by transmigration f "o rul] to ano!r1 & s !y ascrib$ to ! k+ miracul\s p[]s & wor%ipp$ him z ! %r9e ( a div9e pres5ce4 ,at ! ,muslim conque/ ! ,sasanid k+s _h n only ceas$ to rule1 b ! dyna/y _h become ext9ct4 ,_m ( ! ,p]sians :o1 9 spite ( adopt+ ,islam1 /ill clung to _! old ideas1 7 q ready to treat ! ,khalif ) ! same adoration z _! k+s1 b felt a di/9ct di/a/e = ! !ory ( ! ,khalifate accord+ to :i* ! ,khalif 0 no m ?an a *iefta9 elect$ 9 ! democratic fa%ion ( ! des]t tribes1 a ?+ :i* seem$ to !m l rev]sion to primitive b>b>ism4 ,our own exp]i5ce 9 deal+ ) ori5tal races has %[n u t !re is a great deal :i* mu/ be tak5 s]i\sly 9 ideas ( ?is k9d4 ,( c\rse ^? :o _h be5 subjects ( ! ,roman ,empire _h no incl9ation t[>ds deify+ _! rul]s1 unless p]haps "s :o _h be5 only rec5tly incorporat$ f m ori5tal elem5ts3 b ^? :o _h be5 "u ,p]sian rule crav$ a deifi$ pr9ce4 ,9 ,a4,h4 #ada-adb ?is took ! =m ( an attempt to deify ! ,khalif by a fanatical sect ( ,p]sian orig9 kn[n z ! ,raw&iyya :i* broke out into op5 revolt :5 ! ,khalif refus$ to be treat$ z a god & ca/ _! lead]s into prison3 ! memb]s ( ! sect1 & _m o!r ( _! fell[-c\ntrym51 consid]$ t a ,khalif 0 no valid sov]eign :o refus$ to be recognis$ z a deity4 ,f ! second c5tury ( ! ,hijra d[n to mod]n times !re has be5 a cont9u\s /ream ( pseudo-prophets :o h claim$ to be gods1 or successful lead]s :o h be5 deifi$ by _! foll[]s4 ,! late/ ( ^! appe>s 9 ! e>li] phases ( ! ,babi movem5t1 ,a4,d4 #ahdd-aheb1 ?\gh ! doctr9es ( re-inc>nation & ( ! pres5ce ( ! div9e _s 9 ! lead] seem to be less emphasiz$ 9 pres5t day ,babism1 at lea/ 9 ?is c\ntry & ,am]ica4 ,! mo/ preval5t =m ( ^! ideas occurs 9 ! ess5tially ,p]sian movem5t kn[n z ! ,%ia or 8s*ismatics40 ,^! are divid$ into two types1 bo? alike hold+ t ! succession ( ! ,prophet is conf9$ to ! h]$it>y desc5dants ( ,ali ! c\s9 & son-9-law ( ! ,prophet to :om alone 0 giv5 ! div9e "r ( ! ,imamate or lead]%ip4 ,! two types diff] 9 ! mean+ ( ?is ,imamate1 ! "o gr\p cont5t+ itself ) ma9ta9+ t ,ali & 8 desc5dants h a div9e au?ority :]eby ! ,imams are ! only legitimate rul]s ( ,islam & its infallible guides2 ( ?is mod]ate type ( ,%ia is ! religion ( ,morocco & ! =m preval5t ab\t ,sana 9 ,s\? ,arabia4 ,! o!r gr\p presses ! claim t ! ,imam is ! inc>nation ( a div9e _s1 sometimes ass]t+ t x 0 only by fraud t ! prophet ,muhammad int]pos$ & act$ z spokesman = ! div9e ,imam ,ali4 ,( ?is type is ! ,%ia :i* =ms ! /ate religion ( mod]n ,p]sia1 spread+ we/w>ds into ,mesopotamia & ea/w>ds into ,india4 ,! commone/ belief1 preval5t 9 ! mod]n ,%ia1 is t !re 7 twelve ,imams ( :om ,ali 0 ! fir/1 & ,muhammad al-,muntaz>1 :o succe$$ at ! dea? ( 8 fa!r ! elev5? ,imam al-,hasan al-,ask>i 9 #bfj ,a4,h4 7 ,a4,d4 #hgc7 0 ! la/4 ,soon aft] 8 accession ,muhammad ,al-,muntaz> 8vani%$0 at ,samrr1 ! t[n :i* s]v$ z ! ,abbasid capital f ,a4,h4 #bbb to #bgi4 ,! mosque at ,samrr is said to cov] an und]gr\nd vault into :i* he disappe>$ & f :i* he w em]ge aga9 to resume 8 (fice :5 ! propiti\s "t has arriv$1 & ! place :5ce he is to issue =? is "o ( ! sacr$ spots visit$ by ,%iite pilgrims4 ,mean:ile ! ,%ahs & pr9ces are rul+ ! fai?ful only z deputies ( ! conceal$ ,imam4 ,! disappe>ance ( ,muhammad al-,muntaz> took place m ?an a c5tury aft] ! fall ( ! ,umayyads b we h anticipat$ 9 ord] to %[ ! g5]al t5d5cy ( ! ,%iite ideas :i* 7 preval5t ev5 9 ,umayyad times1 especially 9 ,nor!rn ,p]sia1 & did mu* to promote ! revolt aga9/ ! secul>is$ ,umayyad rule4 ,a curi\s importance also is atta*$ to ! date4 ,! disaffection ( ! mawali came to a head t[>ds ! end ( ! fir/ c5tury ( ! ,muslim era4 ,!re 0 a g5]al belief t ! completion ( ! c5tury w\ld see ! end ( exi/+ conditions1 j z 9 ,we/]n ,europe ! ye> #ajjj ,a4,d4 0 expect$ to m>k ! dawn ( a new _w4 ,dissatisfaction 0 at its height1 especially 9 ,khurasan1 & ! disaffect$ = ! mo/ "p ralli$ r\nd ! ,alids4 ,! ,alid claims :i* did s mu* to ov]?r[ ! ,umayyad dyna/y & indirectly l$ to ! br++ =w>d ( ! ,p]sian elem5t by :i* ! transmission ( ,hell5i/ic culture 0 mo/ fur!r$1 are be/ und]/ood by ! help ( a g5ealogical table4 al-,hanafiya 7#a7 ,ali ,fatima ,muhammad 7#b7 ,hasan 7#c7 ,husayn ,abu ,ha%im 7#d7 ,ali ,zayn ,zayd 7#e7 ,muhammad al-,bakir 7#f7 ,jaf> z-,sadiq ,ismail 7#g7 ,musa al-,qazam ,muhammad 7#h7 ,ali ar-,rida 7#i7 ,muham4 al-,jawad 7#aj7 ,ali al-,hadi 7#aa7 ,hasan al-,ask>i 7#ab7 ,muham4 al-,muntaz> ,ali _h two wives1 7i7 al-,hanafiya1 by :om he _h a son ,muhammad1 & 7ii7 ,fatima1 ! daught] ( ! ,prophet ,muhammad1 by :om he _h two sons1 ,hasan & ,husayn4 ,all ! ,alid p>ty believ$ t ,ali %\ld h succe$$ ! ,prophet by div9e "r & reg>d$ ! fir/ ?ree ,khalifs z usurp]s4 ,already "u ! ?ird ,khalif ,u?man ! dissatisfi$ mawla elem5t _h begun to look to ,ali z _! *ampion1 & he 9 ! true _s ( e>ly ,islam support$ _! claim to ! rights ( bro!rhood z fell[ ,muslims4 ,?is p>tisan%ip receiv$ its extreme expression 9 ! prea*+ ( ! ,jewi% conv]t ,abdu b4 ,saba1 :o decl>$ ! div9e "r ( ,ali to ! ,khalifate z e>ly z ,a4,h4 #cb4 ,ali himself app>5tly did n take s pron\nc$ a view1 b c]ta9ly reg>d$ himself z 9 "s degree injur$ by 8 exclusion4 ,9 #ce ,ali 0 appo9t$ ,khalif & ,ibn ,saba !n decl>$ t he 0 n only ,khalif by div9e "r1 b t a div9e _s _h pass$ f ! ,prophet to him1 s t he 0 rais$ to a sup]natural level4 ,?is !ory ,ali himself repudiat$4 ,:5 he 0 assass9at$ 9 #dj ,abdu decl>$ t 8 m>tyr$ s\l _h pass$ to heav5 & w\ld 9 due c\rse desc5d to e>? aga93 8 _s 0 9 ! cl\ds1 8 voice 0 he>d 9 ! ?und]1 ! lightn+ 0 8 rod4 ,! ,umayyad p>ty l$ by ,muawiya nev] submitt$ to ,ali1 al?\gh !y did n "q ! legitimacy ( 8 appo9tm5t4 ,at 8 dea? ,muawiya became ! fif? ,khalif1 b _h to face ! claims ( al-,hasan1 ,ali's son4 ,al-,hasan made t]ms ) ,muawiya & di$ 9 #di1 poison$1 x 0 commonly /at$4 ,! o!r son1 al-,husayn1 tri$ to en=ce 8 claim1 b met a tragic dea? at ,k]bela4 ,aft] al-,husayn's dea? "s ( ! ,alid p>tisans recognis$ ,muhammad ! son ( ,ali & al-,hanafiya z ! f\r? ,imam2 he1 x is true1 dis[n$ ^! support]s1 b t 0 a detail to :i* !y paid no att5tion4 ,8 support]s 7 kn[n z ,kaysanites1 & ow$ _! orig9 to ,kaysan1 a fre$man ( ,ali1 :o =m$ a society = ! purpose ( av5g+ ! dea?s ( al-,hasan & al-,husayn4 ,:5 ?is ,muhammad di$ 9 #ha 8 foll[]s divid$ into two sections1 "s accept+ ! fact ( 8 dea?1 o!rs suppos+ t he _h simply pass$ into concealm5t to appe> aga9 9 due c\rse4 ,?is idea ( a 8conceal$0 ,imam 0 a h]itage f ! old] religi\s !ories ( ,p]sia & recurs aga9 & aga9 9 ,%ia hi/ory4 ,! important po9t is t bo? sections ( ?is p>ty cont9u$ to exi/ all ?r\gh ! ,umayyad p]iod1 /eadily refus+ to recognise ! (ficial ,khalifa z m ?an usurp]s1 & look+ =w>d to ! day :5 !y c\ld av5ge ! m>tyrdom ( ,ali & 8 sons4 ,we ne$ n l+] ov] ! family ( al-,hasan & 8 desc5dants4 ,!y 7 involv$ 9 ,alid ris+s at ,mad9a1 & aft] ! suppression ( "o ( ^! 9 #afi1 long aft] ! fall ( ! ,umayyads1 ,idris ! great-gr&son ( al-,hasan escap$ to ! f> ,we/ & e/abli%$ a 8mod]ate0 ,%iite ,dyna/y 9 :at is n[ ,morocco1 s t ! subsequ5t hi/ory ( t h\se conc]ns ! hi/ory ( ! ,we/4 ,mo/ ( ! ,%iites reg>d ! ?ird ,imam1 al-,husayn z be+ succe$$ by 8 son ,ali ,zayn4 ,al-,husayn1 l al-,hasan1 0 n only ! son ( ,ali1 b also ( ! ,prophet's daught]1 ,fatima4 ,9 al-,husayn's case moreov] !re 0 ano!r h]itage :i* ultimately prov$ m important ?an desc5t f ei!r ,ali or ,fatima3 he 0 g5]ally suppos$ to h m>ri$ ! daught] ( ! la/ ( ! ,p]sian k+s1 ! 8"m ( ! ,imams10 & ?is traditional m>riage ) ! ,p]sian pr9cess1--its hi/orical evid5ce is v dubi\s--has be5 reg>d$ by ! ,p]sian ,%iites z ! mo/ important factor 9 ! ,imamate1 al?\gh ?is1 ( c\rse1 has no?+ :atev] to d ) ! religion ( ,islam4 ,t s great weight c\ld be atta*$ to su* a consid]ation s]ves to %[ h[ really =eign & non-,muslim a ?+ ! ,%ia is4 ,ali ,zayn _h two sons1 ,zayd & ,muhammad al-,bakir4 ,( ^! ,zayd 0 a pupil ( ,wasil b4 ,ata & associat$ ) ! ,mutazilite movem5t3 he is g5]ally reg>d$ z a rationali/4 ,inde$1 z we %all n[ see frequ5tly1 ! h]etical ,%iite p>ty 0 v g5]ally mix$ up ) free ?\ght & frequ5tly %[s adh]5ce to ,greek philosophy3 x seems z ?\gh its inspir+ _s 0 ho/ility t[>ds or?odox ,islam1 & a read9ess to ally itself ) any?+ :i* t5d$ to criticize unfav\rably ! or?odox doctr9es4 ,zayd _h a body ( foll[]s :o e/abli%$ !mselves 9 ,nor? ,p]sia :]e !y held _! own = "s "t1 & a bran* ( _! p>ty /ill exi/s 9 ,s\? ,arabia1 /ill suspect$ ( rationali/ proclivities4 ,mo/ ( ! ,%iites1 h[ev]1 recognis$ ,muhammad al-,bakir z ! fif? ,imam1 & ,jaf> z-,sadiq z ! six?4 ,?is latt] also 0 a devot$ foll[] ( ! 8new le>n+10 t is to say1 ( ,hell5i/ic philosophy1 & is g5]ally reg>d$ z ! f\nd]1 or at lea/ ! *ief expon5t1 ( :at are kn[n z bat9ite views1 t is to say ! allegorical int]pretation ( ! ,quran1 s t revelation is made to mean1 n ! lit]al /atem5t1 b an inn] mean+1 & ?is inn] mean+ g5]ally %[s a /rong influ5ce ( ,hell5i/ic philosophy4 ,x is only ! div9ely direct$ ,imam :o c exp\nd ! true mean+ ( ! ,quran :i* rema9s a seal$ book to ! un9itiat$4 ,jaf> 01 x w\ld appe>1 ! fir/ ( ! ,alids :o op5ly ass]t$ t he 0 a div9e inc>nation z well z an inspir$ tea*]3 8 pr$ecessors _h done no m ?an acquiesce 9 su* claims :5 made by _! foll[]s1 & v (t5 _h repudiat$ !m4 ,abu ,ha%im1 ! son ( ,muhammad b4 al-,hanafiya1 di$ 9 #ih ,a4,h4 poison$1 x 0 g5]ally believ$1 by ! ,khalif ,sulayman1 & bequea!d 8 rights to ,muhammad b4 ,ali b4 ,abdullah1 a desc5dant ( ! h\se ( ,ha%im1 to :i* ! ,prophet & ,ali _h belong$1 ! rival clan ( ! ,quray% tribe oppos$ to ! clan ( ! ,umayyads4 ,abu ,ha%im assum$ t ! ,imamate 0 8 to be pass$ on to :om he saw fit1 a view ( ! ,imamate :i* 0 n accept$ by ! /rict] ,%iites :o 7 legitimi/s1 b ! p>tisans ( ,abu ,ha%im d n seem to h be5 extremi/s 9 spite ( _! ,kaysanite orig94 ,9 #ii ! ,khalifate pass$ to ,um> ,,ii4 ! "o ,umayyad :o %[$ ,alid sympa?ies1 putt+ an end to ! public curs+ ( ,ali :i* _h =m$ "p ( ! public ritual 9 ! mosques ( ,damascus s9ce ! days ( ,muawiya & :o repres5t$ a type ( p]sonal piety to :i* ! ,umayyad ,khalifs _h hi!rto be5 /rang]s4 ,8 brief reign ( less ?an ?ree ye>s did n1 h[ev]1 remove ! evils ( tyranny & misgov]nm5t1 & he 0 foll[$ by o!r rul]s m 9 con=mity ) ! old bad type4 ,ab\t ! "t ( ,um>'s dea? a deputation ( ,%iites wait$ ^u ,muhammad b4 ,ali ! ,ha%imite1 a man ( not$ piety & ! "o :o _h n[ become1 z legatee ( ,abu ,ha%im ! son ( ,muhammad b4 al-,hanafiya1 ! recognis$ head ( an important w+ ( ! ,%iites1 & swore to support him 9 an endeav\r to obta9 ! ,khalifate 8t ,god may quick5 ju/ice & de/roy oppression0 7,d9w>i3 ,akhb>u t-,tiwal4 ed4 ,guirgass1 ,leid54 p4 #ccd73 & ,muhammad _h answ]$ t 8?is is ! season ( :at we hope & desire1 because "o hundr$ ye>s ( ! cal5d> are complet$40 7id47 ,! support]s ( ! family ( ,muhammad b4 al-,hanafiya1 :o _h n[ transf]r$ _! allegiance to ,muhammad b4 ,ali1 7 extremely important1 n s mu* by reason ( _! numb]s z by _! excell5t organisation4 ,!y _h develop$ a regul> sy/em ( mission>ies 7dai1 plur4 duat7 :o travell$ "u ! guise ( m]*ants & conf9$ _! tea*+ to private in/ructions & in=mal int]c\rse1 a me?od :i* has become ! /&>d type ( ,muslim mission>y propag&a4 ,by ,abu ,ha%im's dea? & legacy ,muhammad b4 ,ali f\nd ?is v fully organis$ mission>y "w at 8 s]vice1 & its emiss>ies 7 fully confid5t t 8 acceptance ( ! ov]tures ( ! ,%iite deputation meant t he /ood z ! *ampion ( ,%iite claims4 ,! /rict] ,%iites :o foll[$ ! h\se ( al-,husayn did n admit ! claims ( ,muhammad b4 al-,hanafiya or 8 desc5dants1 b !y support$ ,muhammad b4 ,ali's ef=ts "u ! impression t he 0 a ,%iite *ampion4 ,! propag&a 9 fav\r ( ,muhammad b4 ,ali is sometimes ref]r$ to z ,abbasid because he 0 desc5d$ f al-,abbas1 "o ( ! ?ree sons ( ,abdu l-,muttalib1 & s bro!r ( ,abu ,talib ! fa!r ( ! ,imam ,ali & ( ,abdullah :o 0 gr&fa!r ( ! ,prophet ,muhammad4 ,at ! "t1 h[ev]1 ! mission>ies claim$ r to be ! support]s ( ! ,ha%imites1 a t]m :i* 0 ambigu\s1 p]haps int5tionally s4 ,x 0 aft]w>ds expla9$ z ref]r+ to ! h\se ( ,ha%im :i* 0 ! rival clan ( ! ,quray% oppos$ to ! ,umayyads & t to :i* ! ,prophet1 & ,ali1 & al-,abbas belong$3 b 9 ! m9ds ( _m ( ! ,%iites x 0 tak5 to mean ! foll[]s ( ,abu ,ha%im1 ! gr&son ( ,al-,hanafiya4 ,muhammad b4 ,ali di$ 9 #abf ,a4,h4 leav+ ?ree sons1 ,ibrahim1 ,abu l-,abbas1 & ,abu ,jaf>1 ! fir/ ( ^! be+ recognis$ z 8 successor4 ,ab\t ! same "t ,abu ,muslim1 :o became gov]nor ( ,khurasan 9 #abi comes into prom95ce4 ,x is dubi\s :e!r he 0 an ,arab or a native ( ,iraq 7cf4 ,masudi4 vi4 #ei71 inde$1 ! claim 0 made t he 0 a desc5dant ( ,g&>z1 "o ( ! anci5t k+s ( ,p]sia 7id47 ,n[ ,khurasan 0 ! area mo/ disaffect$ t[>ds ! ,umayyads1 & !re ! ,ha%imite mission>ies _h be5 mo/ active & successful4 ,abu ,muslim ?rew himself into ?is "w he>tily & began ga!r+ toge!r an arm$ body ( m5 :o be=e long numb]$ #bjj1jjj4 ,in=mation & w>n+ 0 s5t to ! ,khalif ,m>wan ,,ii4 b 0 ignor$3 inde$ ! c\rt at ,damascus took no notice until #acj4 ,abu ,muslim at l5g? op5ly rais$ ! black /&>d z ! signal ( revolt aga9/ ! ,umayyads ^: (ficial col\r 0 :ite4 ,!n all ! ,khalif did 0 to seize ,muhammad b4 ,ali's son ,ibrahim & put him to dea?4 ,! o!r two sons escap$ & fl$ to ,kufa :]e !y 7 %elt]$ & conceal$ by "s ,%iites1 ! second son ,abu l-,abbas1 kn[n to hi/ory z z-,saffah 8! but*]0 be+ recognis$ z ! ,ha%imite lead]4 ,abu ,muslim's success 0 rapid & complete1 & 9 #acb ! ,umayyad dyna/y 0 ov]?r[n & p>tly ext]m9at$1 & s 8! but*]0 became ! fir/ ( ! ,abbasid ,khalifs1 s call$ z be+ ( ! family ( al-,abbas ! son ( ,abdu l-,muttalib4 ,z soon z ! ,khalif ,abu l-,abbas 0 seat$ on ! ?rone 8 *ief aim 0 to secure ! e/abli%m5t ( 8 dyna/y by gett+ rid ( all possible rivals1 & x 0 ! vig\r he %[$ 9 do+ ?is :i* e>n$ = him ! title ( 8! ,but*]40 ,fir/ ( all he hunt$ d[n & slew all ! repres5tatives he c\ld f9d ( ! ,umayyad family4 ,"o ( ^! escap$1 ,abdu r-,rahman1 & w5t to ,africa :]e he endeav\r$ to =m a body ( support]s )\t success1 & !n cross$ ov] to ,spa9 :]e 9 #ach he e/abli%$ himself at ,cordova1 & !re he & 8 desc5dants rul$ until #dbb ,a4,h4 ,^! ,spani% ,umayyads claim$ to be legitimi/ rul]s1 b nev] assum$ ! div9e claims ( ! ,alid section4 ,abu ,muslim1 :o _h done mo/ to e/abli% ! ,umayyad dyna/y1 next provok$ ! ,khalif's jeal\sy1 probably ) good cause = he 0 indignant to f9d t 8! ,but*]0 0 no soon] on ! ?rone ?an he entirely disc>d$ ! ,%iites :o _h help$ to place him !re1 & s )9 ! fir/ ye> ( ! ,abbasid rule ,abu ,muslim 0 put to dea?4 ,! fall ( ! ,umayyads br\ght an end to ! tyranny ( ! ,arab m9ority1 z x n[ 01 & plac$ ! prepond]ance = a cle> c5tury 7,a4,h4 #acb-bcb7 9 ,p]sian h&s4 ,! gov]nm5t 0 remodell$ on ,p]sian l9es1 & to ,p]sian influ5ce 0 due ! in/itution ( ! wazir or responsible m9i/] at ! head ( ! executive4 ,! title is probably id5tical ) ! ,old ,p]sian vi-*ir or 8ov]se]0 7?us ,d>me/et]3 ,etudes ,irani5nes i4 p4 #eh4 note #c472 be=e ?is ! *ief m9i/] 0 simply cl]k 7ktib7 or advis] 7mu%ir7 & 0 simply "o ( ! ,khalif's att5dants :o 0 employ$ to conduct correspond5ce1 or to give advice :5 occasion requir$4 ,9 #ace ! noble ,p]sian family ( ,b>mecides began to supply wazirs1 & ^! controll$ ! policy ( ! ,khalifate until #ahi4 ,f ! "t ( al-,mansur 7,a4,h4 #acf-aeh7 onw>ds ! ,p]sians began to ass]t _! pre-em95ce & a p>ty 0 =m$ kn[n z ! ,%uubiyya or 8anti-,arab p>ty0 ( ^? :o held1 n only t ! ali5 conv]ts 7 equal to ! ,arabs1 b t ! ,arabs 7 a half savage & inf]ior race 9 all respects1 contra/+ unfav\rably ) ! ,p]sians1 ,syrians1 & ,copts4 ,?is p>ty produc$ consid]able mass ( controv]sial lit]ature 9 :i* free c\rse 0 giv5 to ! g5]al dislike felt t[>ds ! ,arabs & :i* reveals ! int5sity ( ! contempt & hatr$ felt t[>ds ^! p>v5us4 ,! ,arabs _h boa/$ ( _! racial desc5t & _h devot$ mu* att5tion to ! keep+ ( _! g5ealogies1 at lea/ 9 ! c5tury imm$iately prec$+ ! rise ( ,islam2 z !y _h !n only j comm5c$ to c\nt desc5t 9 ! fa!r's l9e ^! g5ealogies 7 purely fictiti\s 9 s f> z !y dealt ) pre-,islamic ance/ors4 ,! ,arabs 7 9 fact a p>v5u p only j em]g+ out ( b>b>ism 7cf4 ,lamm5s3 ,le b]ceau de l'islam4 p4 #aag74 ,b ! ,p]sians1 no less c>eful ab\t g5ealogical records1 to :i* _! ca/e sy/em _h caus$ !m to pay consid]able att5tion1 boa/$ au!ntic g5ealogies ( mu* great] antiquity4 ,9 lit]ature1 9 sci5ce1 9 ,muslim canon law1 9 !ology1 & ev5 9 ! sci5tific treatm5t ( ,arabic gramm>1 ! ,p]sians v rapidly surpass$ ! ,arabs1 s t we mu/ be c>eful always to ref] to ,arabic philosophy1 ,arabic sci5ce1 etc41 9 ! hi/ory ( ,muslim culture1 r ?an to ,arab philosophy1 etc41 rememb]+ t1 ?\gh express$ 9 ! ,arabic language1 ! common m$ium ( all ! ,muslim _w1 only 9 a v few cases 0 x ! "w ( ,arabs3 = ! mo/ "p ! ,arabic philosoph]s & sci5ti/s1 hi/orians1 gramm>ians1 !ologians1 & juri/s 7 ,p]sians1 ,turks1 or ,b]b]s by bir?1 ?\gh us+ ! ,arabic language4 ,! fall ( ! ,umayyads & ! replac+ ( ! ,arabs by ! ,p]sians comm5ces ! gold5 age ( ,arabic lit]ature & s*ol>%ip4 ,! old] ,arabic lit]ature1 t namely :i* 0 writt5 by ,arabs z yet unt\*$ by ext]nal influ5ces1 consi/s entirely ( poetry1 ! "w ( pr(essional b>ds :o s+ ( des]t life & w>f>e1 lam5t ov] ! des]t$ camp+ gr\nds1 boa/ ( _! tribe1 & abuse _! enemies4 ,x =ms a di/9ct class ( poetic composition1 :i* has develop$ its own lit]>y /&>ds1 & atta9$ a high /&>d ( excell5ce 9 its way4 ,9 _m respects ?is old] ,arab poetry makes a special appeal to u1 x %[s an obs]vation ( nature :i* is v /rik+1 x has an und]curr5t ( melan*oly :i* seems an e*o ( ! des]t1 & an emotional side :i* seems conv9c+ 9 its reality4 ,at ! same "t x has v di/9ct limitations 9 its range ( int]e/ & subject matt]4 ,und\bt$ly a c>eful /udy ( ?is e>ly ,arab poetry is a necess>y prep>ation = a prop] appreciation ( ! lit]>y =ms ( ,arabic & ( its olde/ vocabul>y & syntax1 & ( rec5t ye>s mu* att5tion has be5 giv5 to x4 ,b ?is old] ,arabic poetry1 app>5tly a native production1 b possibly influ5c$ 9 pre-,islamic times by "s ext]nal contacts z yet undef9$1 comes to an end soon aft] ! fall ( ! ,umayyads1 save 9 ,spa91 :]e1 "u ! exil$ & fugitive remnant ( ! ,umayyad dyna/y1 ! production ( su* poetry surviv$4 ,b ?is type ( poetry is really outside our pres5t enquiry1 save to note t x 0 a ,p]sian s*ol>1 ,hammad b4 ,sabur ar-,rawiya 7d4 circ4 #aef-aei7 :o collect$ & edit$ ! sev5 anci5t ,arabic poems kn[n z ! ,muallaqat or 8susp5d$10 i4e41 ! cat5a or s]ies1 & ?us set :at may be call$ ! classical /&>d ( ! anci5t poetry & vocabul>y4 ,at ! accession ( ! ,abbasids ! old ,arab type passes away & ! intellectual guidance ( ! ,muslim community passes into ! h&s ( ! ,p]sians4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,translators ,"o ( ! fir/ & mo/ significant indications ( ! new ori5tation ( ,muslim ?\ght 0 ! ext5sive production ( ,arabic translations ( works deal+ ) philosophical & sci5tific subjects1 ) ! result t eighty ye>s aft] ! fall ( ! ,umayyads ! ,arabic speak+ _w possess$ ,arabic translations ( ! great] "p ( ! works ( ,ari/otle1 ( ! lead+ neo-,platonic comm5tators1 ( "s ( ! works ( ,plato1 ( ! great] "p ( ! works ( ,gal51 & portions ( o!r m$ical writ]s & _! comm5tators1 z well z ( o!r ,greek sci5tific works & ( v>i\s ,indian & ,p]sian writ+s4 ,?is p]iod ( activity 9 translat+ falls into two /ages1 ! fir/ f ! accession ( ! ,abbasids to ! accession ( al-,mamun 7,a4,h4 #acb-aih71 :5 a l>ge am\nt ( "w 0 done by v>i\s indep5d5t translators1 l>gely ,*ri/ians1 ,jews1 & rec5t conv]ts f non-,islamic religions2 ! second "u al-,mamun & 8 imm$iate successors1 :5 ! "w ( translation ma9ly c5t]$ 9 ! academy newly f\nd$ at ,baghdad1 & a consi/5t ef=t 0 made to r5d] ! mat]ial necess>y = philosophical & sci5tific rese>* available = ! ,arabic speak+ /ud5t4 ,! e>li] translation "w is especially associat$ ) ,abdullah b4 al-,muqaffa1 a native ( ,f>s & orig9ally a ,zoroa/rian1 :o made 8 pr(ession ( fai? be=e a bro!r ( ,muhammad b4 ,ali1 ! fa!r ( z-,saffah1 & became 8 secret>y4 ,presum+ on 8 employ]'s protection he v5tur$ to make d]isive & imp]t95t rem>ks to ,arab dignit>ies & especially to ,sufyan1 ! gov]nor ( ,basra1 :om he us$ to salute ) a lewd je/ aga9/ 8 "m's *a/ity4 ,x seems t m5 ( ,arab bir? :o held political (fice "u ! e>ly ,abbasids (t5 _h to put up ) su* insults f ! ex-s]fs4 ,aft] an unsuccessful attempt at revolt by ano!r ( ! ,khalif's uncles ,ibn al-,muqaffa 0 direct$ to prep>e a draft lett] ( p>don to be pres5t$ to ! ,khalif al-,mansur1 :o succe$$ 8 bro!r z-,saffah1 = 8 (ficial seal1 b he drew up ! lett] 9 su* t]ms z to ar\se ! ,khalif's indignation2 among/ o!r ?+s ! lett] said1 8if at any "t ! ,comm&] ( ! ,fai?ful act p]fidi\sly t[>ds 8 uncle ,abdullah b4 ,ali1 8 wives %all be divorc$ f him1 8 horses %all be confiscat$ = ! s]vice ( ,god 79 w>71 8 slaves %all become free1 & ! ,muslims loos$ f _! allegiance to him40 ,! ,khalif enquir$ :o _h prep>$ ?is lett] & on be+ in=m$ direct$ ,sufyan to put him to dea?4 ,pleas$ ?us to gratify 8 p]sonal ranc\r ! gov]nor ( ,basra execut$ ,ibn al-,muqaffa ) great cruelty1 ?\gh ! details diff] 9 diff]5t acc\nts1 9 ,a4,h4 #adb or #adc4 ,al?\gh con=m+ to ,islam1 ,ibn al-,muqaffa 0 g5]ally reg>d$ z a ,z9diq1 a t]m prop]ly signify+ a ,mani*an b us$ loosely by ! ,arabic writ]s to d5ote a memb] ( "o ( ! ,p]sian religions :o pr(ess$ outw>d con=mity to ,islam1 b secretly adh]$ to 8 own cre$1 or z a t]m ( abuse to d5ote a h]etic ( any sort4 ,! ^w itself is a ,p]sian r5d]+ ( siddiq or 8initiate10 a title assum$ by full memb]s ( ! ,mani*an sect4 ,x implies ! possession ( esot]ic k & f ?is idea rose ! practice common among/ ! ,%iite sects ( conceal+ _! real beliefs f g5]al pr(ession & assum+ ! ext]nal appe>ance ( or?odoxy4 ,masudi 7viii4 #bic7 /ates t 8_m h]esies arose aft] ! publication ( ! works ( ,mani1 ,ibn ,daysan1 & ,m>cion translat$ f ,p]sian & ,pahlawi into ,arabic by ,abdullah b4 al-,muqaffa & o!rs40 ,"u al-,mansur & by 8 ord]s1 translations 7 made f ,greek1 ,syriac1 & ,p]sian1 ! ,syriac & ,p]sian books be+ !mselves translations f ,greek or ,sanskrit4 ,! be/ kn[n "w ( ,ibn ,muqaffa1 0 ! translation ( ! ,kalila wa-,dimna or 8,fables ( ,bidpai0 f ! ,old ,p]sian :i* 0 itself a translation f ! ,sanskrit4 ,ibn al-,muqaffa's translation into ,arabic is g5]ally reg>d$ z a /&>d model ( ,arabic prose4 ,! ,p]sian orig9al is lo/1 b a v]sion 9 ,syriac made f x by ! ,ne/orian mission>y ,budh1 ab\t ,a4,d4 #egj1 is extant & has be5 publi%$ 7ed4 ,bickell & ,b5fey4 #ahgf72 ! ,sanskrit orig9al also is lo/ 9 :at 0 presumably its e>li] =m1 b we f9d its mat]ial 9 a mu* exp&$ =m 9 two ,sanskrit books1 7i7 9 ! ,pan*atantra1 :i* conta9s ! /ories :i* appe> z #e1 #g1 #h1 #i1 #aj1 #ag1 ( de ,sacy's ,arabic text1 & 7ii7 ! ,mahabh>ata1 :i* conta9s *apt]s #aa1 #ab1 #ac4 ,evid5tly ! old ,syriac ( ,budh1 a translation ( ! ,p]sian translation ( ! orig9al1 is ! be/ repres5tative ( ! old] =m ( ! text4 ,! ,arabic v]sion ( ,ibn al-,muqaffa %[s a numb] ( int]polations & additions :i* all1 ( c\rse1 appe> 9 ! d]iv$ v]sions1 9 ! lat] ,syriac1 ! sev]al m$ival ,p]sian translations :i* are made f ! ,arabic & n f ! old ,p]sian1 & 9 ! num]\s ,lat91 ,hebrew1 ,spani%1 ,p]sian1 & ,greek v]sions4 ,x 0 ?is ,arabic translation :i* gave to ! book a wid] circulation ?an possess$ be=e or ?an x c\ld ev] h _h1 & introduc$ x to ! we/]n _w4 ,! case 0 exactly p>allel ) ,ari/otle & simil> mat]ial3 ,arabic became a m$ium ( extremely wide transmission & ! additions made z mat]ial pass$ ?r\gh ,arabic receiv$ a wide circulation also4 ,ibn ,muqaffa liv$ 9 ! reign ( al-,mansur & dur+ t same p]iod we are told 7,masudi4 viii4 #bia-b7 t ,arabic v]sions 7 made ( sev]al treatises ( ,ari/otle1 ( ! ,almage/a ( ,ptolemy1 ( ! book ( ,euclid1 & o!r mat]ial f ! ,greek4 ,ab\t #aef ,a4,h4 an ,indian travell] br\ght to ,baghdad a treatise on ari?metic & ano!r on a/ronomy3 ! a/ronomical treatise 0 ! ,siddhanta :i* came to be kn[n to ! ,arabic writ]s z ! ,s9dh9d1 x 0 translat$ by ,ibrahim al-,faz>i & op5$ up a new int]e/ 9 a/ronomical /udies3 "s little "t aft]w>ds ,muhammad b4 ,musa al-,kh>izmi comb9$ ! ,greek & ,indian sy/ems ( a/ronomy1 & f ?is "t =? ! subject takes a prom95t place 9 ,arabic /udies4 ,! great ,arabic a/ronom]s belong to a lat] g5]ation1 su* z ,abu ,ma%> ( ,baghdad1 ! pupil ( al-,k9di1 :o di$ 9 ,a4,h4 #bgb 7 ,a4,d4 #hhe71 kn[n to ! ,lat9 m$ival writ]s z 8,abumaz>10 & ,muhammad b4 ,jabir b4 ,s9an al-,battani 7d4 #cag ,a4,h4 ,a4,d4 #ibi7 :o 0 kn[n z 8,albategnius40 ,! ,indian "w on ari?metic 0 ev5 m important z by its means ! ,indian num]als 7 introduc$1 to be pass$ on 9 due c\rse z 8,arabic0 num]als1 & ?is decimal sy/em ( numb]+ has made possible an ext5sion ( ari?metical processes & inde$ ( ma!matics g5]ally :i* w\ld h be5 difficult ) any ( ! old] & m cumb]some sy/ems4 ,al-,mansur1 aft] f\nd+ ,baghdad 9 ,a4,h4 #adh 7 ,a4,d4 #gfe7 summon$ a ,ne/orian physician1 ,george ,bokti%u1 f ! s*ool at ,junde-,%apur & e/abli%$ him a c\rt physician1 & f ?is "t !re 0 a s]ies ( ,ne/orian physicians connect$ ) ! c\rt & =m+ a m$ical s*ool at ,baghdad4 ,george fell ill 9 ,baghdad & 0 all[$ to retire to ,junde-,%apur1 8 place be+ tak5 by 8 pupil ,issa b4 ,?ak]bokht1 :o 0 ! au?or ( a book on !rapeutics4 ,lat] came ,bokhti%u son ( ,george :o 0 physician to ,h>unu r-,ra%id 9 #aga 7 ,a4,d4 #ghg71 & !n ,gabriel1 ano!r son ( ,george1 :o 0 s5t to att5d ,jaf> ! ,b>mecide 9 #age & /ood high 9 ,h>un's fav\r3 he wrote an introduction to logic1 a lett] to al-,mamun on foods & dr9ks1 a manual ( m$ic9e bas$ on ,dioscorus1 ,gal51 & ,paul ( ,aeg9a1 m$ical p&ects1 a treatise on p]fumes1 & o!r works4 ,9 m$ic9e1 z w be rememb]$1 ! ,indian sy/em _h be5 introduc$ at ,junde-,%apur & comb9$ ) ! ,greek1 b ! latt] cle>ly pr$om9at$4 ,ano!r important settl] 9 ,baghdad 0 ! ,jewi% ,syrian physician ,john b> ,mas]joye1 :o translat$ ! ,syntagma ( ,a>on into ,syriac & presid$ ov] ! m$ical s*ool ga!r$ 9 ! ,muslim capital4 ,= a long "t ! ,arabic "w 9 m$ic9e 0 limit$ to translation ( ! great ,greek au?orities & practice on ! l9es le>n$ 9 ,alex&ria4 ,we h already ref]r$ to ! un=tunate influ5ce d]iv$ f ! ,egyptian s*ool :i* div]t$ bo? m$ic9e & *emi/ry into semi-magical l9es1 an evil t5d5cy f :i* ! ,arabic s*ool nev] q fre$ itself4 ,a consid]able "t elaps$ be=e ! ,arabic speak+ community produc$ any orig9al writ]s on m$ic9e4 ,ab\t ! end ( ! ?ird c5tury we f9d ,abu l-,abbas ,ahmad b4 ,?ayib z-,s>akhsi1 a pupil ( al-,k9di1 :o is /at$ to h writt5 a treatise on ! s\l1 an abridgm5t ( ,porphyry's ,isagoge1 & an introductory manual ( m$ic9e 7,masudi4 ii4 #gb74 ,at t "t m$ical /udies 7 /ill v l>gely 9 ,*ri/ian & ,jewi% h&s1 & we f9d ! ,syriac physician ,john b5 ,s]apion 7end ( #i? c5t4 ,a4,d47 writ+ 9 ,syriac m$ical p&ects :i* 7 circulat$ 9 two editions1 ! latt] ( :i* 0 translat$ into ,arabic by sev]al writ]s indep5d5tly & long aft]w>ds into ,lat9 by ,g]>d ( ,cremona4 ,! fa!r ( ,arabic m$ic9e prop] 0 ,abu ,bakr ,muhammad b4 ,zak>iyya ar-,razi 7d4 ,a4,h4 #caa-cbj ,a4,d4 #ibc-icb7 :o 0 kn[n to ,lat9 m$ival writ]s z 8,razes10 a /ud5t ( music1 philosophy1 lit]ature1 & f9ally m$ic9e4 ,9 8 m$ical p&ects he uses bo? ,greek & ,indian au?orities1 & ! introduction ( ^! latt] 9 subord9ation to ! classic au?orities us$ at ,alex&ria 0 ! really important contribution made by ! ,arabic /ud5ts to ! progress ( sci5ce4 ,un=tunately ar-,razi's "w suff]$ f ! defect t x greatly lacks ord] & arrangem5t1 x is a collection ( m or less sep>ate treatises1 & s n at all conv5i5t to use4 ,= ?is reason m p]haps ?an any o!r he 0 replac$ by ,ibn ,s9a 7,avic5na7 ^: "w1 if any?+1 errs 9 ! opposite direction & suff]s f an extremely elaborate arrangem5t & sy/ematization4 ,x w be notic$ t ) ! ,arabic writ]s1 z ) _! ,syriac pr$ecessors1 ! lead+ m$ical writ]s 7 usually also expon5ts ( logic & comm5tators on ,ari/otle z well z ,gal54 ,! ,khalif al-,mansur 0 ! patron :o did mo/ to attract ! ,ne/orian physicians to ! city ( ,baghdad :i* he _h f\nd$1 & he 0 also a pr9ce :o did mu* to enc\rage ^? :o set !mselves to prep>e ,arabic translations ( ,greek1 ,syriac1 & ,p]sian works4 ,/ill m important 0 ! patronage giv5 by ! ,khalif al-,mamun :o 9 ,a4,h4 #bag 7 ,a4,d4 #hcb7 f\nd$ a s*ool at ,baghdad1 sugge/$ no d\bt by ! ,ne/orians & ,zoroa/rian s*ools already exi/+1 & ?is he call$ ! ,bayt al-,hikma or 8,h\se ( ,wisdom10 & ?is he plac$ "u ! guidance ( ,yahya b4 ,masawaih 7d4 ,a4,h4 #bdc ,a4,d4 #heg71 :o 0 an au?or bo? 9 ,syriac & ,arabic1 & le>n$ also 9 ! use ( ,greek4 ,8 m$ical treatise on 8,fev]s0 0 long 9 repute & 0 aft]w>ds translat$ into ,lat9 & into ,hebrew4 ,! mo/ important "w ( ! academy h[ev] 0 done by ,yahya's pupils & successors1 especially ,abu ,zayd ,hunayn b4 ,i%aq al-,ibadi 7d4 #bfc ,a4,h4 ,a4,d4 #hgf71 ! ,ne/orian physician to :om we h already ref]r$ z translat+ into ,syriac ! *ief m$ical au?orities z well z p>ts ( ,ari/otle's ,organon4 ,aft] /udy+ at ,baghdad "u ,yahya he visit$ ,alex&ria & return$1 n only ) ! tra9+ giv5 at :at 0 !n ! fir/ m$ical s*ool1 b ) a good k ( ,greek :i* he employ$ 9 mak+ translations 9 ,syriac & ,arabic4 ,) him 7 associat$ 8 son ,i%aq & 8 nephew ,hubay%4 ,hunayn prep>$ ,arabic translations ( ,euclid2 ( v>i\s portions ( ,gal51 ,hippocrates1 ,ar*im$es1 ,apollonius1 & o!rs1 z well z ( ! ,republic1 ,laws1 & ,timu ( ,plato1 ! ,categories1 ,physics1 & ,magna ,moralia ( ,ari/otle1 & ! comm5t>y ( ,!mi/ius on book #cj ( ! ,metaphysics1 z well z an ,arabic translation ( ! ,bible4 ,he also translat$ ! spuri\s ,m9]alogy ( ,ari/otle1 :i* long s]v$ z "o ( ! lead+ au?orities on *emi/ry1 & ! m$ical p&ects ( ,paul ( ,aeg9a4 ,8 son1 besides orig9al works on m$ic9e1 produc$ ,arabic v]sions ( ! ,sophi/ ( ,plato1 ! ,metaphysics1 de anima1 de g5]atione et de corruptione1 & ! ,h]m5eutica ( ,ari/otle :i* ,hunayn _h translat$ into ,syriac1 z well z "s ( ! comm5t>ies ( ,porphyry1 ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias1 & ,ammonius4 ,a little lat] we f9d ! ,syrian ,*ri/ian ,que/a b4 ,luqa1 a native ( ,baalbek1 :o _h /udi$ 9 ,greece1 prom95t z a translator4 ,! f\r? c5tury ,a4,h4 0 ! gold5 p]iod ( ! ,arabic translators1 & x is wor? not+ t1 al?\gh ! "w 0 done *iefly by ,syriac speak+ ,*ri/ians1 & inspir$ by ,syriac tradition a v l>ge numb] ( ! translations 7 made directly f ! ,greek1 by m5 :o _h /udi$ ! language 9 ,alex&ria or ,greece2 v (t5 ! same s*ol> made ,syriac & ,arabic translations f ! ,greek text4 ,!re 7 also translators f ! ,syriac1 b ^! usually come aft] ! translators f ! ,greek4 ,among/ ! ,ne/orian translators f ,syriac 0 ,abu ,bi%r ,matta b4 ,yunus 7d4 #cbh ,a4,h4 ,a4,d4 #ici71 :o r5d]$ into ,arabic ! ,analytica ,po/]iora & ! poetics ( ,ari/otle1 ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias' comm5t>y on ! de g5]atione et de corruptione1 & ,!mi/ius' comm5t>y on book #cj ( ! ,metaphysics1 all f ! exi/+ ,syriac v]sions4 ,he 0 also ! au?or ( orig9al comm5t>ies on ,ari/otle's ,categories & ! ,isagoge ( ,porphyry4 ,! ,jacobite translators come on ! sc5e aft] ! ,ne/orians4 ,among/ ! ,jacobites translat+ f ,syriac to ,arabic we f9d ,yahya b4 ,adi ( ,takrit 7d4 #cfd71 a pupil ( ,hunayn1 :o revis$ _m ( ! exi/+ v]sions & prep>$ translations ( ,ari/otle's ,categories1 ,sophi/4 ,el5*41 ,poetics1 & ,metaphysics1 ,plato's ,laws & ,timu1 z well z ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias' comm5t>y on ! ,categories & ,!ophra/us on ! ,moralia4 ,! ,jacobite ,abu ,ali ,isa b4 ,z>aah 7d4 #cih7 translat$ ! ,categories1 ! ,natural ,hi/ory1 & ! de p>tibus animalium1 ) ! comm5t>y ( ,john ,philoponus4 ,?is is a conv5i5t place to summ>ize briefly ! range ( ,ari/otelian mat]ial available to ,arabic /ud5ts ( philosophy4 ,! :ole ( ! logical ,organon 0 accessible 9 ,arabic1 & 9 ?is 7 includ$ ! ,rhetoric & ,poetics1 z well z ,porphyry's ,isagoge4 ,( ! works on natural sci5ce !y _h ! ,physica1 de coelo1 de g5]atione et corruptione1 de s5su1 ! ,hi/oria animalium1 ! spuri\s ,meteorologia1 & ! de anima4 ,on m5tal & moral sci5ce !y _h ! ,metaphysics1 ! ,nicoma*an ,e?ics & ! ,magna ,moralia4 ,/rangely en\gh ! ,politics 0 n includ$ 9 ! ,ari/otelian canon1 its place be+ tak5 by ,plato's ,laws or ,republic4 ,besides ^! ! ,arabic /ud5ts accept$ z ,ari/otelian a ,m9]alogy1 ( :i* we h no k1 & a ,me*anics4 ,( ^! ! logical ,organon always rema9$ ! basis ( a humane education1 side by side ) ! indig5\s /udy ( gramm>1 & ?is ess5tially logical basis ( education seems to h be5 influ5c$ by ! example ( ! exi/+ sy/em develop$ among/ ! ,syrians1 al?\gh x mu/ be rememb]$ a simil> sy/em 0 develop$ q indep5d5tly 9 ,lat9 s*ola/icism prior to ! e>lie/ contact ) ! ,arabic writ]s4 ,! ,ari/otelian logic has always rema9$ an or?odox & g5]ally accept$ sci5ce4 ,! philosophical & !ological controv]sies & ! developm5ts produc$ by ! ,arabic philosoph]s c5tr$ ma9ly 9 que/ions ( metaphysics & psy*ology1 & s 7 p>ticul>ly conc]n$ ) ! #ab? book ( ,metaphysics & ! treatise de anima1 m especially ! #crd book4 ,z we h already not$ ! psy*ology ( ,ari/otle 0 int]pret$ 9 ! light ( ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias' comm5t>y1 & ?us receiv$ a !i/ic & sup]natural col\r+ :i* receives its full] developm5t 9 neo-,platonic tea*+4 ,mo/ important 9 ! full] developm5t ( ?is neo-,platonic doctr9e 0 ! s-call$ ,!ology ( ,ari/otle :i* appe>$ 9 ,arabic ab\t #bbf ,a4,h4 ,x 0 9 fact an abridg$ p>aphrase ( ! la/ ?ree books 7iv-vi7 ( ! ,enneads ( ,plot9us made by ,naymah ( ,emessa1 boldly circulat$ & g5]ally receiv$ z a g5u9e "w ( ,ari/otle4 ,x might be reg>d$ z a lit]>y fraud1 b x is q possible t ,plot9us 0 confus$ ) ,plato ^: "n appe>s 9 ,arabic z ,aflatun1 x seems inde$ t ?is p>ticul> confusion 0 made by "s o!r writ]s1 & ! translators accept$ ! curr5t belief1 ma9ta9$ by all ! neo-,platonic comm5tators1 t ! tea*+ ( ,ari/otle & t ( ,plato 7 sub/antially ! same1 ! sup]ficial appe>ances ( diff]5ce be+ su* z c\ld be easily expla9$ away4 ,by means ( ?is ,!ology ! fully develop$ doctr9e ( ! neo-,platoni/s 0 put into g5]al circulation & comb9$ ) ! tea*+ ( ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias & ?us ex]cis$ an enorm\s influ5ce on ! philosophy ( ,islam 9 sev]al directions4 ,9 ! h&s ( ! philosoph]s prop]ly s call$ x develop$ an ,islamic neo-,platonism :i* receiv$ its f9al =m at ! h&s ( ,ibn ,s9a 7,avic5na7 & ,ibn ,ru%d 7,av]roes71 & 9 ?is =m ex]cis$ a p[]ful influ5ce ov] ,lat9 s*ola/icism4 ,transmitt$ 9 ano!r atmosph]e x affect$ ,sufism or ,muslim my/icism1 & 0 ma9ly responsible = ! speculative !ology :i* t my/icism develop$4 ,9 a modifi$ =m "s ( ! resultant pr9ciples ga!r$ f ^! two s\rces f9ally ent]$ into or?odox ,muslim s*ola/ic !ology4 ,! ma9 po9ts ( ?is neo-,platonic doctr9e z x figures 9 ,muslim !ology pres5t ! tea*+ ( ! active intellect ( aql faal1 ! ,ag5t ,intellect ( ,alex&] ,aph4 z an emanation f ,god1 & ! aql hayyulani or passive intellect 9 man only ar\s$ to activity by ! op]ation ( ?is ,ag5t ,intellect1 :i* is sub/antially ! doctr9e ( ,alex&] ,aph43 ! aim ( man is to atta9 a union or ittisal 9 :i* 8 intellect becomes "o ) ! ,ag5t ,intellect1 al?\gh ! means ( atta9+ ?is union & ! nature ( ! union diff] 9 ! doctr9es ( ! philosoph]s & ! my/ics1 z we %all see 9 due c\rse4 ,next to philosophy prop] m$ical sci5ce is ! mo/ important h]itage receiv$ by ! ,arabic _w f ,hell5ism4 ,b ?is sci5ce d]iv$ ?r\gh an ,alex&rian m$ium _h a s]i\s defect 9 ! accretions :i* ! lat] ,egyptian s*ool _h add$ to ! pure tea*+ ( ,gal5 & ,hippocrates4 ,z we h already not$ ?is accretion is ( a quasi magical "* & %[s itself 9 talismans1 etc41 & !ories :i* are bas$ on ideas :i* are n[ class$ z 8sympa!tic magic40 ,! real impetus came ultimately f transmitt$ ,hell5ism1 b ?is influ5ce 0 d]iv$ imm$iately f ! ,ne/orians 9 philosophy prop]1 & f ! ,ne/orians & ! ,zoroa/rian s*ool at ,junde-,%apur 9 m$ic9e4 ,a good deal lat] comes ! influ5ce ( ! pagan s*ool at ,h>ran1 :i* also _h a neo-,platonic t5d5cy4 ,:5 ! second ,abbasid ,khalif al-,mansur pass$ by ,h>ran on 8 way to fight aga9/ ! ,byzant9e ,emp]or he 0 a/oni%$ to obs]ve ! /range appe>ance ( "s ( ! citiz5s :o came out to meet him1 we>+ _! hair long & hav+ close fitt+ tunics4 ,:5 ! ,khalif ask$ :e!r !y 7 ,*ri/ians1 ,jews1 or ,zoroa/rians1 !y repli$ t !y 7 nei!r4 ,he !n enquir$ if !y 7 8p ( a book10 = x 0 only ^? :o possess$ writt5 scriptures :o c\ld be tol]at$ 9 ,muslim dom9ions2 b to ?is !y return$ su* hesitat+ & ambigu\s replies t ! ,khalif at l5g? felt conv9c$ t he _h discov]$ a colony ( pagans1 z 0 ! case1 & he ord]$ !m to adopt "s "o or o!r ( ! 8religions ( ! book0 be=e 8 return f ! w>1 or to suff] ! p5alty ( dea?4 ,at ?is !y 7 greatly al>m$3 "s ( !m became ,muslims1 o!rs ,*ri/ians or ,zoroa/rians1 b "s decl9$ to des]t _! traditional beliefs4 ,^! latt] naturally _h ! mo/ anxi\s "t1 wond]+ h[ !y c\ld contrive to evade ! ,khalif's dem&s4 ,at l5g? a ,muslim lawy] (f]$ to %[ !m a way out ( ! difficulty if !y paid him a sub/antial fee = do+ s4 ,! fee 0 paid & he advis$ !m to claim to be ,sabians1 because ,sabians are m5tion$ 9 ! ,quran z belong+ to a religion 8( ! book10 b no "o knew :o ! ,sabians 74 ,!re is a sect kn[n z ,sabiyun or ,sabaean1 ^: religion is a /range mixture ( anci5t ,babylonian /ate wor%ip1 ,*ri/ian ,gno/icism1 & ,zoroa/rianism1 liv+ 9 ! ma%e l&s ne> ,basra1 b !y _h always be5 c>eful to keep _! religi\s beliefs secret f all outsid]s1 & al?\gh !y 7 no d\bt ! sect m5tion$ 9 ! ,quran "u ! "n ( ,sabiyun or ,sabians1 none c\ld prove t ! pagans ( ,h>ran 7 n also compris$ "u ?is t]m4 ,! ,khalif nev] did pass back by ,h>ran1 ! pagans :o _h assum$ ! "n ( ,sabian cont9u$ to use x1 ^? :o _h become ,*ri/ians or ,zoroa/rians rev]t$ to _! old fai? & submitt$ to its new "n2 ^? :o _h become ,muslims 7 oblig$ to rema9 s z ! p5alty ( dea? lay ^u any :o became r5egades f t religion4 ,! mo/ di/+ui%$ ( ! alumni ( ,h>ran 0 ,?abit b4 ,qurra 7d4 #bhi ,a4,h471 a s*ol> famili> ) ,greek1 ,syriac1 & ,arabic1 :o produc$ _m works on logic1 ma!matics1 a/rology1 & m$ic9e1 z well z on ! ritual & beliefs ( ! paganism to :i* he rema9$ fai?ful4 ,foll[+ 9 8 foot/eps 7 8 son ,abu ,said ,s9an1 8 gr&sons ,ibrahim & ,abu l-,hasan ,?abit1 & 8 great gr&sons ,i%aq & ,abu l-,f>aj4 ,all ^! specializ$ 9 ma!matics & a/ronomy4 ,x seems t we ought to associate ) ,h>ran ,jabir b4 ,hayyan a p]fectly hi/orical "* b ( some:at unc]ta9 date1 b believ$ to h be5 a pupil ( ! ,umayyad pr9ce ,khalid1 :o di/+ui%$ himself by 8 rese>*es 9 *emi/ry4 ,_m *emical treatises be> ! "n ( ,jabir & a great proportion ( ^! are probably q au!ntic4 ,m4 ,b]!lot 9 ! #crd volume ( 8 ,la *imie au moy5 age 7,p>is1 #ahic7 has made a c>eful analysis ( ! ,arabic *emi/s & reg>ds ! :ole mat]ial capable ( division into two classes1 ! "o a reproduction ( ! inve/igations ( ! ,greek *emi/s ( ,alex&ria1 ! o!r z repres5t+ orig9al inve/igations1 ?\gh bas$ ^u ! ,alex&rian /udies 9 ! fir/ place1 & all ?is orig9al mat]ial he reg>ds z due to ! initiative ( ,jabir :o ?us becomes 9 *emi/ry v mu* :at ,ari/otle 0 9 logic4 ,b]!lot publi%es 9 ?is book six treatises claim+ to be by ,jabir1 & ^! he reg>ds z repres5tative ( all ,arabic *emical mat]ial1 ! lat] inve/igators cont9u+ 9 ! l9es laid d[n by ?is fir/ inve/igator4 ,= a long "t ! ma9 object 9 view 0 ! transmutation ( metals1 b at a lat] p]iod *emi/ry ent]s into clos] connection ) m$ical "w ?\gh nev] los+ ! metallurgical "* :i* we imply :5 we speak ( 8al*emy40 ,! object 9 view ( ! ,arabic /ud5ts ( al*emy does n appeal to ! mod]n sci5ti/1 al?\gh ! possibility ( transmut+ elem5ts is no long] reg>d$ z ! impossible dream :i* x appe>$ to ! *emi/s ( ! n9ete5? c5tury3 &1 at ! same "t1 x is p]fectly cle> t ) admitt$ limitations1 ! ,arabic *emi/s 7 bona fide inve/igators1 ?\gh n und]/&+ correctly ! results ( ! exp]im5ts !y made4 ,all ! texts publi%$ by ,m4 ,b]!lot beg9 ) ! w>n+ t ! cont5ts are to be kept /rictly secret1 & (t5 conta9 a /atem5t t "s ess5tial process is omitt$ 9 ord] t ! un5light5$ /ud5t may n be able to p]=m ! exp]im5ts successfully1 le/ ! :olesale production ( gold %\ld be a means ( corrupt+ ! :ole human race4 ,und\bt$ly ! ,arabic *emi/s did claim to h atta9$ a k ( ! means ( transmut+ ! bas] metals into gold b ! hi/ories conta9 v>i\s ref]5ces :i* %[ t ^! claims 7 adv]sely criticis$ by _m contempor>y ?9k]s1 & t a great _m ( ! ,arabic writ]s reg>d$ *emi/ry1 z x 0 !n und]/ood1 z a m]e impo/ure4 ,m ?an once x 0 not$ t ! philosoph] al-,f>abi1 :o fully believ$ t x 0 possible to *ange o!r metals into gold & wrote a treatise on h[ x might be done1 himself liv$ & di$ 9 great pov]ty1 :il/ ,ibn ,s9a1 :o did n believe 9 al*emy1 enjoy$ mode/ com=t & c\ld h comm&$ weal? _h he be5 will+ to accept x4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! middle ages v>i\s treatises by ,jabir 7 translat$ into ,lat91 :]e 8 "n appe>s z ,geb]1 & ex]cis$ a consid]able influ5ce 9 produc+ a we/]n s*ool ( al*emy4 ,be=e long _m orig9al al*emical works 7 produc$ 9 ,we/]n ,europe & a consid]able proportion ( ^! 7 publi%$ "u ! "n ( ,geb] b are pure =g]ies4 ,z a result ! p]sonality ( ,geb] took a semi my?ical "* & attempts h be5 made to acc\nt = ! div]se & contradictory /atem5ts ab\t 8 life & dea?1 & ab\t ! c\ntry & c5tury 9 :i* he liv$ by suppos+ t !re 7 sev]al p]sons :o bore ! "n2 b ! fact seems to be t he e>ly atta9$ a position ( great prom95ce z a *emical writ]1 & t lat] ages fa!r$ on him a numb] ( apocryphal productions4 ,b]!lot consid]s t ! be/ evid5ce associates him ) ,h>ran 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! second c5tury ( ! ,hijra4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,mu,,tazilites ,:5 ! ,ari/otelian philosophy 0 fir/ made kn[n to ! ,muslim _w x 0 receiv$ almo/ z a revelation supplem5t+ ! ,quran4 ,at t "t x 0 v imp]fectly und]/ood & ! discrepancies betwe5 x & or?odox !ology 7 n p]ceiv$4 ,?us ! ,quran & ,ari/otle 7 read toge!r & reg>d$ z supplem5t+ "o ano!r 9 p]fect good fai?1 b inevitably ! conclusions1 & /ill m p]haps ! me?ods1 ( ,greek philosophy began to act z a p[]ful solv5t on ! traditional beliefs4 ,maqrizi ref]s to ! ,mutazilites z seiz+ ) avidity on ! books ( ! philosoph]s1 & c]ta9ly n[ new difficulties beg9 to appe> z well z ! two great problems :i* _h be5 prom95t at ! beg9n+ ( ! second c5tury--! et]nity ( ! ,quran & ! "q ( free w4 ,! new difficulties 7 especially conc]n$ ) ! qualities ( ,god &1 lat]1 ) ! ,quranic promise ( ! beatific vision4 ,! problem ( ! qualities ( ,god is v closely p>allel to ! e>li] difficulty z to ! et]nity ( ! ,quran1 inde$ x appe>s z an enl>gem5t ( x4 ,*ri/ian !ologians educat$ 9 ! me?ods ( ,greek philosophy _h already debat$ ?is matt]1 & 9 _! h&s x _h tak5 ! =m ( ! "q1 8h[ _m1 & :at1 attributes are compatible ) ! unity ( ,god80 ,if ,god's wisdom1 :e!r express$ 9 ! ,quran or n express$1 7 et]nal !re 0 some?+ :i* ,god possess$1 & consequ5tly some?+ o!r ?an ,god :i* 0 equal to him 9 et]nity & 0 n creat$ by him1 s t x c\ld n be said t ,god 0 alone & t all o!r ?+s proce$$ f him z _! cause z ! et]nal quality always 0 side by side ) ,god1 & s ,wasil b4 ,ata decl>$ 8he :o affirms an et]nal quality beside ,god1 affirms two gods40 ,b ?is applies equally to all qualities1 ju/ice1 m]cy1 etc41 &1 z 0 sugge/$ by ! /udy ( ,ari/otle1 all ! categories1 all t c\ld be pr$icat$ ( ,god z subject1 7 ei!r creat$ by ,god & s 7 n ess5tial & et]nal attributes1 or else 7 ext]nal ?+s equal ) ,god4 ,! second g5]ation ( ,mutazilites1 ( ^? :o beg9 to %[ direct acqua9tance ) ,greek philosophy1 beg9s ) ,abu l-,hudayl al-,allaf ( ,basra 7d4 #bbf ,a4,h471 :o liv$ at ! "t :5 ,greek philosophy 0 beg9n+ to be /udi$ ) great ard\r & 0 receiv$ )\t "q4 ,he admits ! attributes ( ,god & reg>ds !m z et]nal1 b treats !m on l9es v simil> to ^? employ$ by ! ,*ri/ians 9 deal+ ) ! div9e hypo/ases1 t is to say1 !y are n ext]nal ?+s possess$ by ,god b modes or phases ( ! div9e ess5ce4 ,! w ( ,god = example1 he treats z a mode ( k1 t is to say t ,god wills :at is good is equival5t to say+ t ,god kn[s x to be good4 ,b 9 deal+ ) ! w we mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 7a7 t :i* exi/s 9 place1 z ! moral rules 9 ,god's comm&m5ts to m51 = !re c\ld be no w aga9/ !ft until ! creation ( ?+s :i* c\ld be /ol52 9 su* case ! w exi/s 9 "t & is creat$1 = x dep5ds ^u a creat$ ?+3 & 7b7 t :i* exi/s n 9 place & )\t an object to :i* ! w ref]s1 z :5 ,god will$ to create be=e ! ?+ to be creat$ exi/$4 ,9 man ! inn] volition is free1 b ! out] acts are n free2 sometimes !y are controll$ by ext]nal =ces 9 ! body1 or ev5 outside ! body1 & sometimes !y are controll$ by ! inn] volition4 ,ari/otle speaks ( ! univ]se z exi/+ f et]nity1 b ! ,quran ref]s to its creation1 yet ^! are n inconsi/5t3 we mu/ suppose t x exi/$ et]nally1 b 9 p]fect quiesc5ce & /illness1 z x 7 lat5t & pot5tial r ?an actual1 & )\t ^? qualities :i* appe> 9 ! categories ( logic & are to u ! only kn[n t]ms ( exi/5ce4 ,creation meant t ,god br\ght 9 movem5t s t ?+s began to exi/ 9 "t & space1 & ! univ]se comes to an end :5 x returns aga9 to ! /ate ( absolute re/ 9 :i* x 0 at ! beg9n+4 ,m5 c di/+ui% betwe5 good & evil by ! light ( reason1 = good & evil h objective *>act]s :i* c be recognis$ s t our k ( ?is diff]5ce does n dep5d only on ,god's revelation3 b no man c "k any?+ ab\t ,god b by ! m$ium ( revelation :i* is giv5 pr9cipally = ?is purpose4 ,ibrahim b4 ,say> an-,nazzam 7d4 #bca71 ! next great ,mutazilite lead] 0 a devot$ /ud5t ( ! ,greek philosoph]s & an encyclopdic writ]4 ,9 ?is he 0 typical ( ! e>li] ,arabic philosoph]s ^: endeav\r 0 to apply ,greek sci5ce to ! int]pretation ( life & nature g5]ally1 an aim :i* necess>ily t5d$ to produce encyclopdic compilations r ?an orig9al /udies 9 any "o field ( k4 ,already ! ,mutazilites _h rea*$ ! position t good & evil repres5t objective realities & t ,god1 kn[+ ! good1 does n w t :i* is contr>y to x2 b an-,nazzam presses ?is fur!r & ass]ts t ,god c d no?+ 9 ! creature save :at is = its good & is 9 itself j4 ,to ?is ! objection 0 rais$ t 9 su* case ,god's own acts are det]m9$ & are n free4 ,an-,nazzam repli$ t he admitt$ ?is det]m9ation1 n 9 action b 9 pot5tiality z ,god is re/rict$ by 8 own nature4 ,he attempt$ to reproduce ! anci5t doctr9e t ! s\l is ! =m ( ! body1 z _h already be5 ass]t$ by ,ari/otle1 b he misund]/ood ! t]m9ology employ$ & repres5ts ! s\l z ( ! same %ape z ! body4 ,?is implies t ! s\l is a v subtile k9d ( sub/ance p]meat+ ! :ole body 9 ! same way z butt] p]meates milk1 or z oil p]meates ! sesame3 bo? s\l & body are equal 9 size & alike 9 %ape4 ,fre$om ( ! w is peculi> to ,god & man1 all o!r creat$ ?+s are subject to necessity4 ,god creat$ all ?+s at once 9 remote et]nity1 b res]v$ !m 9 a /ate ( quiesc5ce s t !y may be describ$ z 8conceal$10 & !n project$ !m into active exi/5ce at successive int]vals4 ,! next great ,mutazilite lead] 0 ,bi%r b4 ,mutamir 7d4 #bbf circ47 9 ^: "w we f9d a m def9ite attempt to apply philosophical speculation to ! practical ne$s ( ,islam4 ,9 ! case ( free w he ent]s directly into ! "q ( h[ f> ext]nal influ5ces limit fre$om ( ! w & s dim9i% responsibility4 ,infants _c be condemn$ to et]nal puni%m5t because !y h no responsibility1 hav+ nev] ex]cis$ free w4 ,unbeliev]s1 h[ev]1 are condemn$ to puni%m5t because1 al?\gh !y h n ! help ( revelation1 x is possible = !m to "k t !re mu/ be a ,god1 & only "o ,god1 by ! light ( reason4 ,9 deal+ ) actions & _! moral values we h to consid] n only "o ag5t & "o object1 b (t5 a s]ies1 ! act be+ transmitt$ f "o to ! o!r s t ea* ( ! int]v5+ objects becomes ! ag5t to ! next object4 ,?is s]ial connection he t]m$ 8begett+0 7tawullud74 ,mam> b4 ,abbad z-,sulami 7d4 #bbj7 describes ,god z creat+ sub/ances b n accid5ts1 s t he produc$ a k9d ( univ]sal matt] common to all exi/+ ?+s & to ?is matt] or ess5ce ! accid5ts are add$1 "s produc$ by a =ce inh]5t 9 ! ess5ce creat$1 o!rs by free w on ! "p ( ! creature4 ,foll[+ ! neo-,platonic comm5tators on ,ari/otle he treats ! attributes ( ,god z purely negative1 s t ,god is unkn[able by man4 ,9 ! case ( wisdom or k1 t :i* is kn[n mu/ ei!r be id5tical ) ,god1 or ext]nal to him3 if ,god is ! ag5t :o kn[s & t :i* is kn[n z object is also himself1 !re is a di/9ction betwe5 ,god ! ag5t & ,god ! object :i* implies two p]sons1 & ?is is subv]sive ( ! div9e unity3 b if ,god is ! ag5t & kn[s some?+ ext]nal to himself1 t k dep5ds on ! ext]nal object1 & ,god !re=e is n absolute b 9 "s s5se dep5d5t on some?+ o!r ?an himself4 ,h5ce ! attributes ( ,god _c be su* z ! positive qualities :i* exi/ 9 man1 b only ! negation ( ^? :i* are di/9ctively human & dep5d5t3 we c only say t he is inf9ite1 mean+ unlimit$ 9 space1 or et]nal z unlimit$ 9 "t1 or o!r l t]ms negative ( ! kn[n ?+s :i* c be pr$icat$ ( man4 ,! g5]al t5d5cy ( ,mam>'s tea*+ is di/9ctly pan!i/ic3 p>tly ?is is due to ! logical developm5t ( a t5d5cy already inh]5t 9 ! neo-,platonic doctr9e ) :i* all ,arabic ?\ght 0 n[ becom+ saturat$1 & p>tly x 0 due to ori5tal influ5ces :i* 7 n[ beg9n+ to appe> 9 ,islam4 ,mam>'s pan!ism 0 m fully develop$ by ,tumameh b4 al-,a%ras 7d4 #bac7 :o treats ! _w z inde$ creat$ by ,god1 b creat$ accord+ to a law ( nature s t x is ! expression ( a =ce lat5t 9 ,god & n due to an act ( volition4 ,tumameh entirely des]ts al-,allaf's attempt to reconcile ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e ( ! et]nity ( matt] ) ! tea*+ ( ! ,quran1 & q frankly /ates t ! univ]se is et]nal l ,god4 ,?is is by no means ! la/ ^w 9 ,islamic pan!ism1 b its subsequ5t developm5t r belongs to ! doctr9es ( ! extrem] ,%iite sects & to ,sufism4 ,rev]t+ to an-,nazzam1 ! great lead] ( ! middle age ( ! ,mutazilites1 we f9d 8 tea*+ cont9u$ by 8 pupils ,ahmad b4 ,habit1 ,fadl al-,hudabi1 & ,amr b4 ,bahr al-,jahiz4 ,on ! !ological side all ! ,mutazilites admitt$ ! et]nal salvation ( good ,muslims1 & mo/ agre$ t unbeliev]s w\ld receive et]nal puni%m5t3 b !re 7 diff]5ces ( view z to ^? :o 7 believ]s b di$ unrep5tant 9 s94 ,= ! mo/ "p ! ,mutazilites took ! lax view t ^! w\ld be fav\rably treat$ z aga9/ ! rigori/ op9ion :i* res]v$ et]nal salvation to good ,muslims1 an op9ion :i* appe>$ among/ ! /rict] believ]s dur+ ! ,umayyad p]iod4 ,! two fir/ nam$ ( an-,nazzam's pupils1 h[ev]1 introduc$ a new !ory entirely repugnant to or?odox ,islam1 ?\gh famili> to ! extrem] ,%iite sects1 t ^? nei!r decisively good nor absolutely bad1 pass by transmigration into o!r bodies until !y f9ally des]ve ei!r salvation or damnation4 ,) ^! two ?9k]s also we are br\ght into contact ) ano!r problem :i* n[ began to pres5t itself to ,islam1 ! doctr9e ( ! 8beatific vision40 ,islam g5]ally _h expect$ ! vision ( ,god to be ! *ief ( ! rew>ds enjoy$ 9 p>adise1 b ! treatm5t ( ! attributes ( ,god _h be5 s def9itely aga9/ ! an?ropomorphic ideas express$ 9 ! ,quran t x became difficult to expla9 :at c\ld be meant by 8see+ ,god40 ,ahmad & ,fadl deal+ ) ?is subject d5y t m5 ev] w or c see ,god2 ! beatific vision c at mo/ mean t !y are br\ght face to face ) ! 8,ag5t ,intellect0 :i* is an emanation f ! ,fir/ ,cause1 & 8see+0 9 su* a connection mu/ ( c\rse mean some?+ q diff]5t f :at we und]/& z vision4 ,amr b4 ,bahr al-,jahiz 7d4 #bee71 ! ?ird ( an-,nazzam's pupils m5tion$ above1 may be reg>d$ z ! la/ ( ! middle p]iod ( ! ,mutazilites4 ,he 0 an encyclopdic writ] accord+ to ! fa%ion ( ! "t & wrote on lit]ature1 !ology1 logic1 philosophy1 geography1 natural hi/ory1 & o!r subjects 7cf4 ,masudi viii4 #cc1 etc47 ,to free w he gives r a new be>+4 ,! w he reg>ds z simply a mann] ( kn[+ & s z an accid5t ( k2 a volunt>y act he def9es z "o kn[n to its ag5t4 ,^? :o are condemn$ to ! fire ( hell d n suff] et]nally by x1 b are *ang$ by its purification4 ,! t]m 8,muslim0 mu/ be tak5 to include all :o believe t ,god has nei!r =m or body1 s9ce ! attribution ( a human =m to ,god is ! ess5tial m>k ( ! idolat]1 t he is j & wills no evil1 & t ,muhammad is 8 prophet4 ,sub/ance he treats z et]nal1 accid5ts are creat$ & v>iable4 ,we h n[ rea*$ ! ?ird /age ( ! hi/ory ( ! ,mutazilites1 t :i* m>ks _! decl9e4 ,dur+ ?is latt] p]iod !y divide into two s*ools1 t ( ,basra giv+ its att5tion ma9ly to ! attributes ( ,god1 t ( ,baghdad be+ *iefly occupi$ ) ! m purely philosophical discussion ( :at is meant by an exi/+ ?+4 ,! ,basrite discussions receiv$ _! f9al =m 9 ! dispute betwe5 al-,jubbay 7d4 #cjc7 & 8 son ,abu ,ha%im 7d4 #cba74 ,! latt] held t ! attributes ( ,god are di/9ct modes ( be+1 we "k ! ess5ce "u su* v>y+ modes or conditions1 b !y are n /ates1 nor are !y ?9kable ap>t f ! ess5ce1 ?\gh !y are di/9ct f x b d n exi/ ap>t f x4 ,aga9/ ?is 8 fa!r object$ t ^! subjective attributes are only names & convey no concept4 ,! attributes are ?us ass]t$ to be nei!r qualities nor /ates s z to imply subject or ag5t1 b !y are insep>ably unit$ ) ! ess5ce4 ,aga9/ all views ( ?is sort ! or?odox adh]$1 & /ill adh]e to ! op9ion t ,god has real qualities4 ,^? :o laid emphasis on ?is 9 opposition to ! ,mutazilite speculations are commonly kn[n z ,sifatites 7sifat1 qualities71 b !y admit t1 z ,god is n l a man1 ! qualities attribut$ to him 9 ! ,quran are n ! same z ^? qualities be>+ ! same names :i* are ref]r$ to m51 & x is n possible = u to "k ! real import ( ! qualities attribut$ to ,god4 ,a m pron\nc$ recoil aga9/ ! ,mutazilite speculations appe>s 9 ,abu ,abdullah b4 ,k>ram 7d4 #bef7 & 8 foll[]s :o 7 kn[n z ,k>ramites4 ,^! return$ to a crude an?ropomorphism & held t ,god n only has qualities ( precisely ! same k9d z a man may h1 b t he actually sits on a ?rone1 etc41 tak+ 9 pla9 lit]al s5se all ! /atem5ts made 9 ! ,quran4 ,! ,mutazilite s*ool ( ,baghdad conc]n$ itself ma9ly ) ! metaphysical "q--8:at is a ?+80 ,x 0 admitt$ t 8?+0 d5otes a concept :i* c\ld be kn[n & c\ld s]ve z subject to a pr$icate4 ,x does n necess>ily exi/1 = exi/5ce is a quality add$ to ! ess5ce3 ) ?is addition ! ess5ce becomes an entity 7mawjud71 )\t ?is addition x is a non-entity 7madum7 b /ill has sub/ance & accid5t1 s t ,god creates by add+ ! s+le attribute ( exi/5ce4 ,! :ole c\rse ( ,mutazilite speculation %[s ! influ5ce ( ,greek philosophy z appli$ to ,muslim !ology1 b ! influ5ce is = ! mo/ "p indirect4 ,! ideas ( ,ari/otle1 z ! c\rse ( speculation project$ to ! =efront ! problems ) :i* he _h dealt 9 times pa/1 7 receiv$ ?r\gh a ,syriac ,*ri/ian m$ium1 = ! mo/ "p imp]fectly und]/ood & some:at modifi$ by ! emphasis :i* ,*ri/ian controv]sy _h giv5 to c]ta9 p>ticul> aspects4 ,m or less directly prompt$ by ! ,mutazilite controv]sy we h ?ree o!r l9es ( developm5t3 9 ! fir/ place we h ! 8philosoph]s0 z ! "n is us$ by ! ,arabic writ]s1 mean+ ^? /ud5ts & comm5tators :o bas$ _! "w directly on ! ,greek text or at lea/ on ! lat] & bett] v]sions4 ,9 _! h&s philosophical enquiry took a some:at *ang$ direction z !y began to und]/& bett] ! real mean+ ( :at ,ari/otle _h taught4 ,9 ! second place we h ! or?odox !ology ( al-,a%ari1 al-,ghazali1 & o!rs1 :i* repres5ts ,muslim !ological sci5ce z modifi$ & p>tly direct$ by ,ari/otelian philosophy1 consci\sly endeav\r+ to make a work+ compromise betwe5 t philosophy & ,muslim !ology4 ,! old] ,mutazilite tradition came to an end 9 ! "t ( al-,a%ari3 m5 :o felt ! =ce ( philosophical que/ions ei!r adopt$ ! or?odox s*ola/icism ( al-,a%ari & ^? :o came aft] him1 or foll[$ ! c\rse ( ! philosoph]s & drift away f ! traditional beliefs ( ,islam altoge!r4 ,9 ! ?ird place we h ! ,sufi movem5t1 9 :i* we f9d neo-,platonic elem5ts m+l$ ) o!rs f ! ea/1 f ,india & ,p]sia4 ,! ,mutazilites prop] come to an end ) ! f\r? c5tury ,a4,h4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,! ,,ea/]n ,,philosoph]s ,! ,ari/otelian philosophy 0 fir/ made kn[n to ! ,muslim _w ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ,syriac translations & comm5t>ies1 & ! p>ticul> comm5t>ies us$ among/ ! ,syrians nev] ceas$ to control ! direction ( ,arabic ?\ght4 ,f ! "t ( al-,mamun ! text ( ,ari/otle began to be bett] kn[n1 z translations 7 made directly f ! ,greek1 & ?is result$ 9 a m accurate appreciation ( 8 tea*+1 al?\gh /ill l>gely controll$ by ! sugge/ions ( ! comm5t>ies circulat$ among/ ! ,syrians4 ,! ,arabic writ]s give ! "n ( failasuf 7plur4 falasifa71 a translit]ation ( ! ,greek ,greek3 philosophos 1 to ^? :o bas$ _! /udy directly on ! ,greek text1 ei!r z translators or z /ud5ts ( philosophy1 or z ! pupils ( ^? :o us$ ! ,greek text4 ,! ^w is us$ to d5ote a p>ticul> s]ies ( ,arabic s*ol>s :o arose 9 ! ?ird c5tury ,a4,h4 & came to an end 9 ! sev5? c5tury1 & :o _h _! orig9 9 ! m accurate /udy ( ,ari/otle bas$ on an exam9ation ( ! ,greek text & ! ,greek comm5tators ^: "w 0 circulat$ 9 ,syria1 & is employ$ z ?\gh ^! falasifa =m$ a p>ticul> sect or s*ool ( ?\ght4 ,o!r philosophical /ud5ts 7 t]m$ hakim or nazir4 ,! l9e ( ^! falasifa =ms ! mo/ important gr\p 9 ! hi/ory ( ,islamic culture4 ,x 0 !y :o 7 l>gely responsible = awak5+ ,ari/otelian /udies 9 ,lat9 ,*ri/5dom1 & x 0 !y :o develop$ ! ,ari/otelian tradition :i* ,islam _h receiv$ f ! ,syriac community1 correct+ & revis+ its cont5ts by a direct /udy ( ! ,greek text & work+ out _! conclusions on l9es indicat$ by ! neo-,platonic comm5tators4 ,! fir/ ( ! s]ies is ,yaqub b4 ,i%aq al-,k9di 7d4 circ4 #bfj ,a4,h4 #hgc ,a4,d471 :o began v mu* z a ,mutazilite int]e/$ 9 ! !ological problems discuss$ by ! memb]s ( t s*ool ( ?\ght1 b desir\s ( te/+ & exam9+ ^! m accurately1 made use ( ! translations tak5 directly f ! ,greek & !n only rec5tly publi%$4 ,by ?is means he br\ght a mu* /rict] me?od to be>1 & ?us op5$ ! way to an ,ari/otelian s*ol>%ip mu* 9 advance ( any?+ :i* _h be5 contemplat$ s f>4 ,z a result 8 pupils & ^? :o came aft] !m rais$ new que/ions & ceas$ to conf9e !mselves to ,mutazilite problems1 & al-,k9di 0 _! intellectual ance/or 9 ^? new enquiries :i* 8 me?ods & 8 use ( ! ,greek text alone made possible4 ,x is a /range fact t al-,k9di1 ! p>5t ( ,arabic philosophy1 0 himself "o ( ! v few lead]s ( ,arabic ?\ght :o 0 a true ,arab by race4 ,= ! mo/ "p ! sci5ti/s & philosoph]s ( ! ,muslim _w 7 ( ,p]sian1 ,turki%1 or ,b]b] blood1 b al-,k9di 0 desc5d$ f ! ,yem5ite k+s ( ,k9da 7cf4 g5ealogy quot$ f ! ,t>ikh al-,hakama cit$ 9 note 7#bb7 ( ,de ,slane's trans4 ( ,ibn ,khallikan1 vol4 i4 p4 #cee74 ,v little is kn[n ab\t 8 life1 save t 8 fa!r 0 gov]nor ( ,kufa1 t he himself /udi$ at ,baghdad1 "u :at tea*]s is n kn[n1 & /ood high 9 fav\r ) ! ,khalif ,mutasim 7,a4,h4 #bah-bbg74 ,8 real tra9+ & equipm5t lay 9 a k ( ,greek1 :i* he us$ 9 prep>+ translations ( ,ari/otle's ,metaphysics1 ,ptolemy's ,geography1 & a revis$ edition ( ! ,arabic v]sion ( ,euclid4 ,besides ?is he made ,arabic abridgm5ts ( ,ari/otle's ,poetica & ,h]m5eutica1 & ,porphyry's ,isagoge1 & wrote comm5t>ies on ,ari/otle's ,analytica ,po/]iora1 ,sophi/ica ,el5*i1 ! ,categories1 ! apocryphal ,apology2 on ,ptolemy's ,almage/a & ,euclid's ,elem5ts1 & orig9al treatises1 ( :i* ! essay 8,on ! ,intellect0 & ano!r 8,on ! five ess5ces0 are ! mo/ notewor?y 7,lat9 tr4 by ,a4 ,nagy 9 ,baeumk] & ,h]tl+'s ,beitrge zur ,ges*i*te d] ,philosophie des ,,ma4 ,,ii4 #e4 ,mn/]1 #ahig74 ,he accept$ z g5u9e ! ,!ology ( ,ari/otle :i* _h be5 put into circulation by ,naymah ( ,emessa1 &1 we are told1 revis$ ! ,arabic translation4 ,! ,!ology 0 an abridgm5t ( ! la/ ?ree books ( ,plot9us' ,enneads1 & presumably al-,k9di comp>$ ?is ) ! text ( ! ,enneads1 correct$ ! t]m9ology & g5]al s5se 9 accordance ) ! orig9al1 & evid5tly did s )\t any suspicion t x 0 n a g5u9e "w ( ,ari/otle4 ,! ,!ology _h n be5 long introduc$ to ! ,muslim _w1 & x is c]ta9 t ! use ( x made by al-,k9di 0 a ma9 cause ( its subsequ5t importance4 ,endors$ by him x n only took an assur$ place 9 ! ,ari/otelian canon1 b became ! v k]nel ( ! tea*+ develop$ by ! :ole s]ies ( falasifa1 emphasiz+ ! t5d5cies already m>k$ 9 ! comm5t>y ( ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias4 ,! influ5ce ( ! ,!ology & ( ,alex&] appe> mo/ cle>ly 9 ! treatise 8,on ! ,intellect0 :i* is bas$ on ! doctr9e ( ! faculties ( ! s\l z describ$ 9 ,ari/otle's de anima ,,ii4 ii4 ,al-,k9di1 develop+ ! doctr9e z pres5t$ by ! neo-,platonic comm5tators1 describes ! faculties or degrees ( intellig5ce 9 ! s\l z f\r1 ( :i* ?ree are actually & necess>ily 9 ! human s\l1 b "o ent]s f outside & is indep5d5t ( ! s\l4 ,( ! ?ree =m] "o is lat5t or pot5tial1 z ! k ( ! art ( writ+ is lat5t 9 ! m9d ( "o :o has le>n$ to write2 ! second is active1 z :5 ! scribe evokes f ! lat5t /ate ?is k ( writ+ :i* he desires to put into practice2 ! ?ird is ! degree ( intellig5ce actually involv$ 9 ! op]ation ( writ+1 :]e ! k n[ quick5$ into activity guides & directs ! act4 ,! ext]nal faculty is ! 8,ag5t ,intellect0 7aql faal7 :i* proce$s f ,god by way ( emanation & :i*1 ?\gh act+ on ! faculties 9 ! body1 is indep5d5t ( ! body1 z its k is n bas$ ^u p]ceptions obta9$ ?r\gh ! s5ses4 ,x is futile to ma9ta9 t ! hi/ory ( ,arabic philosophy %[s a lack ( orig9ality 9 ! ,semitic m9d2 = "o ?+ n "o ( ! philosoph]s ( fir/ rank aft] al-,k9di 0 ( ,arab bir?1 v few c\ld be describ$ z ,semitic4 ,x w\ld be m correct to say t ! ,greek philosoph]s /ood alone1 until q mod]n times1 9 attempt+ any?+ :i* c\ld be describ$ z a sci5tific psy*ology4 ,until ! me?ods & mat]ial ( mod]n natural sci5ce came to be appli$ to psy*ological rese>* !re 0 little1 if any1 advance on ! psy*ological !ories ( ! anci5t ,greek inve/igators1 & ! only po9t ( diff]5ce 9 lat] s*ools 0 z to :i* p>ticul> aspect ( anci5t rese>* w\ld be select$ z ! />t+-place4 ,"h lies ! great importance ( al-,k9di1 = x 0 he :o select$ & indicat$ ! />t+-po9t :i* all ! lat] ,arabic philosoph]s began f1 & select$ ! mat]ial :i* !y develop$4 ,! p>ticul> basis ?us select$ by al-,k9di 0 ! psy*ology ( ,ari/otle's de ,anima z exp\nd$ by ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias4 ,?is 0 sugge/$ b n 9 all respects cle>ly indicat$ by ! ,syriac philosoph]s1 & x seems c]ta9 t al-,k9di's developm5t 0 v l>gely influ5c$ by ! ,!ology ( ,ari/otle1 a "w :i* he evid5tly e/eem$ v greatly4 ,! relation betwe5 ,alex&] ,aphr4 & ,plot9us1 ^: tea*+ appe>$ 9 ! ,!ology1 may be describ$ z be+ t ,alex&]'s tea*+ conta9$ all ! g]ms ( neo-,platonism1 :il/ ,plot9us %[s ! neo-,platonic sy/em fully work$ out4 ,z fir/ pres5t$ ?is sy/em mu/ h seem$ fully consi/5t ) ! tea*+ ( ! ,quran1 inde$ x w\ld appe> z complem5t>y to x4 ,9 man 0 an animal s\l :i* he %>$ ) ! l[] creation1 b add$ to x 0 a rational s\l or _s :i* proce$$ directly f ,god & 0 immortal because x 0 n dep5d5t on ! body4 ,! possible conclusions :i* prov$ to be inconsi/5t ) ! tea*+s ( revelation 7 n z yet fully work$ out4 ,we ne$ n l+] ov] al-,k9di's logical tea*+ :i* c>ri$ on & correct$ ,arabic /udy ( ! ,ari/otelian logic4 ,?is 0 n a m]e side issue1 x is true1 al?\gh logic did n play s important a "p 9 ,arabic education z x did 9 ,syriac4 ,9 ,syriac x 0 ! basis ( all t we %\ld reg>d z ! humanities1 b 9 ,arabic ?is position 0 tak5 by ! /udy ( gramm>1 :i* 0 develop$ on r fre% & indep5d5t l9es1 ?\gh slightly modifi$ by ! /udy ( logic 9 lat] times4 ,/ill1 s long z ! ,muslim _w _h any claim to be reg>d$ z fo/]+ philosophical /udies1 & to a less degree ev5 9 lat] times1 ! ,ari/otelian logic has be5 only second to gramm> z ! basis ( a humane education4 ,al-,k9di's real influ5ce is %[n 9 ! introduction ( ! problems ( psy*ology & ( metaphysics1 & ! "w ( ! falasifa c5tres 9 ^! two /udies on ! l9es indicat$ by al-,k9di4 ,9 psy*ology1 z we h se51 al-,k9di introduc$ a sy/em already fully develop$ by ,alex&] & ! neo-,platonic comm5tators on ,ari/otle1 kept alive among/ ! ,syriac /ud5ts ( philosophy1 & !n fur!r develop$ f ?is po9t by 8 successors4 ,9 metaphysics ! circum/ances 7 diff]5t4 ,al-,k9di app>5tly 0 ! "o :o introduc$ ! problems ( metaphysics to ! ,muslim _w1 b x is obvi\s t he did n cle>ly und]/& ,ari/otle's treatm5t ( ^! problems4 ,! problems involv$ 9 ! ideas ( movem5t1 "t1 & place are treat$ by ,ari/otle 9 books iv41 v4 & vii4 ( ! ,physics1 :i* _h be5 translat$ by al-,k9di's contempor>y1 ,hunayn4 b4 ,i%aq1 & 9 ! ,metaphysics1 ( :i* at ! "t no ,arabic translation exi/$1 s t1 s f> z x 0 us$1 al-,k9di mu/ h consult$ ! ,greek text4 ,! essay 8,on ! ,five ,ess5ces0 treats ! ideas ( ! five conditions ( matt]1 =m1 movem5t1 "t1 & place4 ,( ^! he def9es 7a7 matt] z t :i* receives ! o!r ess5ces b _c itself be receiv$ z an attribute1 & s if ! matt] is tak5 away ! o!r f\r ess5ces are necess>ily remov$ also4 7b7 ,=m is ( two k9ds1 t :i* is ! ess5tial ( ! g5ius1 be+ insep>able f ! matt]1 & t :i* s]ves to describe ! ?+ itself1 i4e41 ! t5 ,ari/otelian categories--sub/ance1 quantity1 quality1 relation1 place1 "t1 situation1 condition1 action1 & passion2 & ?is =m is ! faculty :]eby a ?+ 7%ay7 is produc$ f =mless matt]1 z fire is produc$ f ! co9cid5ce ( dryness & heat1 ! matt] be+ ! dryness & heat1 ! =m be+ ! fire2 )\t =m ! matt] is ab/ract b real1 becom+ a ?+ :5 x takes =m4 ,z ,de ,vaux po9ts out 7,avic5ne1 p4 #he7 ?is illu/ration %[s t al-,k9di does n grasp ,ari/otle's mean+ correctly4 7c7 ,movem5t is ( six k9ds3 two are v>iations 9 sub/ance1 z ei!r g5]ation or corruption1 i4e41 production or de/ruction2 two are v>iations 9 quantity by increase or decrease2 "o is v>iation 9 quality1 & "o is *ange ( position4 7d7 ,"t is itself ak9 to movem5t1 b proce$s always & only 9 "o direction2 x is n movem5t1 ?\gh ak91 = movem5t %[s div]sities ( direction4 ,"t is kn[n only 9 relation to a 8be=e0 or 8aft]10 l movem5t 9 a /raight l9e & at a uni=m rate1 & s c only be express$ z a s]ies ( cont9u\s numb]s4 7e7 ,place is by "s suppos$ to be a body1 b ?is is refut$ by ,ari/otle3 x is r ! surface :i* surr\nds ! body4 ,:5 ! body is tak5 away ! place does n cease to exi/1 = ! vacant space is in/antly fill$ by "s o!r body1 air1 wat]1 etc41 :i* has ! same surr\nd+ surface4 ,admitt$ly al-,k9di %[s a crude treatm5t ( ^! ideas1 b he 0 ! fir/ to direct ,arabic ?\ght 9 ?is direction1 & f ^! arose a new attitude t[>ds ! reveal$ doctr9e ( creation on ! "p ( ^? :o came aft] him4 ,al-,k9di1 ! 8,philosoph] ( ! ,arabs10 z he 0 call$ 7circ4 #cfe71 conta9s our be/ acc\nt ( ! v>i\s sects exi/+ 9 ,islam t[>ds ! end ( ! #crd c5tury ,a4,h4 z he met !m 9 ! c\rse ( 8 travels4 ,x has be5 publi%$ z ! second volume ( ,de ,goeje's ,biblio!ca ,geographorum ,arab4 7,leid541 #ahgc74 ,! next great philosoph] 0 ,muhammad b4 ,muhammad b4 ,t>khan ,abu ,nasr al-,f>abi 7d4 #cci71 ( ,turki% desc5t4 ,he 0 8a celebrat$ philosoph]1 ! greate/ inde$ t ! ,muslims ev] _h2 he compos$ a numb] ( works on logic1 music1 & o!r sci5ces4 ,no ,musulman ev] rea*$ 9 ! philosophical sci5ces ! same rank z he1 & x 0 by ! /udy ( 8 writ+s & ! imitation ( 8 /yle t ,avic5na atta9$ pr(ici5cy & r5d]$ 8 own works s useful40 7,ibn ,khallikan1 iii4 #cjg74 ,he 0 born at ,f>ab or ,otr> ne> ,balasaghum1 b travell$ widely4 ,9 ! c\rse ( 8 w&]+s he came to ,baghdad b1 z at ! "t he knew no ,arabic1 he 0 unable to ent] into ! intellectual life ( ! city4 ,he set himself fir/ to acquire a k ( ! ,arabic language1 & !n became a pupil ( ! ,*ri/ian physician ,matta b4 ,yunus1 :o 0 at t "t a v old man1 & "u him he /udi$ logic4 ,to increase 8 /udies he remov$ to ,h>ran1 :]e he met ! ,*ri/ian philosoph] ,yuhanna b4 ,khailan1 & cont9u$ to "w at logic "u 8 direction4 ,he !n return$ to ,baghdad1 :]e he set to "w at ! ,ari/otelian philosophy1 9 ! c\rse ( 8 /udies read+ ! de anima #bjj times1 ! ,physics #dj times4 ,8 *ief int]e/1 h[ev]1 0 9 logic1 & x is on 8 logical "w t 8 fame *iefly re/s4 ,f ,baghdad he w5t to ,damascus1 & !nce to ,egypt1 b return$ to ,damascus1 :]e he settl$ = ! re/ ( 8 life4 ,at t "t ! empire ( ! ,khalifa ( ,baghdad 0 beg9n+ to split up into _m /ates1 j l ! ,roman ,empire "u ! lat] ,k>l+s1 & ! (ficials ( ! ,khalifate 7 =m+ semi-indep5d5t pr9cipalities "u ! nom9al suz]a9ty ( ! ,khalif & e/abli%+ h]$it>y dyna/ies4 ,! ,hamdanids ,%iites1 :o began to rule 9 ,mosul 9 #bic1 e/abli%$ !mselves at ,aleppo 9 #ccc & a*iev$ great fame & p[] z successful lead]s aga9/ ! ,byzant9e emp]ors4 ,9 #ccd 7 #idf ,a4,d47 ! ,hamdanid ,pr9ce ,sayf ad-,dawla took ,damascus1 & al-,f>abi liv$ "u 8 protection4 ,at t p]iod ! or?odox 7 di/9ctly reaction>y1 & x 0 ! v>i\s ,%iite rul]s :o %[$ !mselves ! patrons ( sci5ce & philosophy4 ,at ,damascus al-,f>abi l$ a seclud$ life4 ,mo/ ( 8 "t he sp5t by ! bord]s ( "o ( ! _m /reams :i* are s *>act]i/ic a feature ( ,damascus1 or 9 a %ady g>d51 & "h he met & talk$ ) 8 fri5ds & pupils4 ,he 0 accu/om$ to write 8 compositions on loose leaves1 8= :i* reason ne>ly all 8 productions assume ! =m ( deta*$ *apt]s & notes2 "s ( !m exi/ only 9 fragm5ts & unf9i%$4 ,he 0 ! mo/ indiff]5t ( m5 = ! ?+s ( ?is _w2 he nev] gave himself ! lea/ tr\ble to acquire a livelihood or possess a habitation4 ,sayf al-,dawla settl$ on him a daily p5sion ( f\r dirhams out ( ! public treasury1 ?is mod]ate sum be+ ! am\nt to :i* al-,f>abi _h limit$ 8 dem&40 7,ibn ,khallikan1 iii4 #cji-caj47 ,al-,f>abi 0 ! au?or ( a s]ies ( comm5t>ies on ! logical ,organon1 :i* conta9$ n9e books accord+ to ! ,arabic reckon+1 namely3 7i47 ,! ,isagoge ( ,porphyry4 7ii47 ,! ,categories or al-,maqulat4 7iii47 ,! ,h]m5eutica or al-,ib>a or al-,tafsir4 7iv47 ,! ,analytica ,priora or al-,qiyas ,i4 7v47 ,! ,analytica ,po/]iora or al-,burhan4 7vi47 ,! ,topica or al-,jadl4 7vii47 ,! ,sophi/ica ,el5*i or al-,maghalit4 7viii47 ,! ,rhetoric or al-,khataba4 7ix47 ,! ,poetics or a%-,%ir4 ,he also wrote an 8,introduction to ,logic0 & an 8,abridgm5t ( ,logic02 inde$1 z we h already not$1 8 ma9 "w lay 9 ! exposition ( logic4 ,he took "s int]e/ 9 political sci5ce & edit$ a summ>y ( ! laws ( ,plato1 :i* v (t5 replaces ! ,politics 9 ! ,arabic ,ari/otelian canon4 ,9 ,e?ics he wrote a comm5t>y on ! ,nicoma*an ,e?ics ( ,ari/otle1 b e?ical !ory did n1 z a rule1 appeal greatly to ,arabic /ud5ts4 ,9 natural sci5ce he 0 ! au?or ( comm5t>ies on ! ,physics1 ,meteorology1 de coelo et de mundo ( ,ari/otle1 z well z ( an essay 8,on ! movem5t ( ! heav5ly sph]es40 ,8 "w 9 psy*ology is repres5t$ by a comm5t>y on ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias' comm5t>y on ! ,de ,anima1 & by treatises 8,on ! s\l10 8,on ! p[] ( ! s\l10 8,on ! unity & ! "o10 & 8,on ! intellig5ce & ! intelligible10 "s ( :i* aft]w>ds circulat$ 9 m$ival ,lat9 translations1 :i* cont9u$ to be repr9t$ well into ! #ag? c5tury 7e4g41 ,de intellig5tia et de intelligibili4 ,p>is1 #afch74 ,9 metaphysics he wrote essays on 8,sub/ance10 8,"t10 8,space & ,measure10 & 8,vacuum40 ,9 ma!matics he wrote a comm5t>y on ! ,almage/a ( ,ptolemy1 & a treatise on v>i\s problems 9 ,euclid4 ,he 0 a /aun* uphold] ( ! neo-,platonic !ory t ! tea*+ ( ,ari/otle & t ( ,plato are ess5tially 9 accord & diff] only 9 sup]ficial details & modes ( expression2 he wrote treatises 8,on ! agreem5t betwe5 ,plato & ,ari/otle0 & on 8,! object be=e ,plato & ,ari/otle40 ,9 essays 8,aga9/ ,gal50 & 8,aga9/ ,john ,philoponus0 he criticis$ ! views ( ^? comm5tators1 & endeav\r$ to def5d ! or?odoxy ( ,ari/otle by mak+ !m responsible = app>5t discrepancies ) ! tea*+ ( revelation4 ,he 0 int]e/$ also 9 ! occult sci5ces1 z appe>s f 8 treatises 8,on geomancy10 8,on ! ,j9n10 & 8,on dreams40 ,8 *emical treatise call$ kimiya t-,tabi%1 8! *emi/ry ( ?+s heat$10 has be5 class$ z a "w on natural sci5ce & also z a treatise on magic2 ?is 0 ! un=tunate direction :i* ,arabic *emi/ry 0 tak+4 ,he also wrote sev]al works on music4 7,cf4 ,s*mld]s3 ,docum5ta ,philos4 ,arab4 ,bonn41 #ahcf1 = ,lat9 v]sions ( select treatises74 ,z we h already not$1 8 prim>y importance 0 z a tea*] ( logic4 ,a great deal ( :at he has writt5 is simply a reproduction ( ! outl9es ( ! ,ari/otelian logic & an exposition ( its pr9ciples1 b ,de ,vaux 7,avic5ne1 pp4 #id-ig7 has drawn att5tion to evid5ces ( orig9al ?\ght 9 8 8,lett] 9 reply to c]ta9 que/ions40 ,l al-,k9di he accept$ ! ,!ology z a g5u9e "w ( ,ari/otle1 & %[s v cle> traces ( its influ5ces4 ,9 8 treatise 8,on ! intellig5ce0 he makes a c>eful analysis ( ! way 9 :i* ! t]m aql 7reason1 intellig5ce1 _s7 is employ$ 9 g5]al spee* & 9 philosophical enquiry4 ,9 common language 8a man ( intellig5ce0 d5otes a man ( reliable judgm5t1 :o uses 8 judgm5t 9 an upright way to disc]n betwe5 good & evil1 & ?us is di/+ui%$ f a crafty man :o employs 8 m9d 9 devis+ evil exp$i5ts4 ,!ologians use ! t]m aql to d5ote ! faculty :i* te/s ! validity ( /atem5ts1 ei!r approv+ !m z true or reject+ !m z false4 ,9 ! ,analytica ,ari/otle uses 8intellig5ce0 = ! faculty by :i* man atta9s directly to ! c]ta9 k ( axioms & g5]al ab/ract tru?s )\t ! ne$ ( pro(2 ?is faculty al-,f>abi expla9s z be+ ! "p ( ! s\l 9 :i* intuition exi/s1 & :i* is !reby able to lay hold ( ! premises ( speculative sci5ce1 i4e41 ! reason ( intellig5ce prop] z ! t]m is employ$ 9 ! de anima1 ! rational s\l :i* ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias takes z an emanation f ,god4 ,foll[+ al-,k9di1 al-,f>abi speaks ( f\r faculties or p>ts ( ! s\l3 ! pot5tial or lat5t intellig5ce1 intellig5ce 9 action1 acquir$ intellig5ce1 & ! ag5t intellig5ce4 ,! fir/ is ! aql hayyulani1 ! passive intellig5ce1 ! capacity :i* man has = und]/&+ ! ess5ce ( mat]ial ?+s by ab/ract+ m5tally t ess5ce f ! v>i\s accid5ts ) :i* x is associat$ 9 p]ception1 m or less equival5t to ! 8common s5se0 ( ,ari/otle4 ,! intellig5ce 9 action or aql bi-l-fil is ! pot5tial faculty ar\s$ to activity & mak+ ?is ab/raction4 ,! ag5t intellig5ce or aql faal is ! ext]nal p[]1 ! emanation f ,god :i* is able to awak5 ! lat5t p[] 9 man & ar\se x to activity1 & ! acquir$ intellig5ce or aql mu/afad is ! intellig5ce ar\s$ to activity & develop$ "u ! inspiration ( ! ag5t intellig5ce4 ,?us ! intellig5ce 9 action is relat$ to ! pot5tial intellect z =m is to matt]1 b ! ag5t intellig5ce ent]s f outside1 & by its op]ation ! intellig5ce receives new p[]s1 s t its highe/ activity is 8acquir$40 ,al-,f>abi appe>s ?r\gh\t z a dev\t ,muslim1 & evid5tly does n appreciate ! be>+ ( ! ,ari/otelian psy*ology on ! doctr9e ( ! ,quran4 ,! e>li] belief ( ,islam1 z ( mo/ religions1 0 a h]itage f primitive animism1 :i* reg>d$ life z due to ! pres5ce ( a p]fectly sub/antial1 ?\gh invisible1 ?+ call$ ! s\l3 a ?+ is alive s long z ! s\l is pres5t1 x dies :5 ! s\l goes away4 ,9 ! e>li] =ms ( animism ?is is ! explanation ( all movem5t3 ! fly+ arr[ has a 8s\l0 9 x s long z x moves1 x ceases to move :5 ?is s\l goes away or desires to re/4 ,?is involves no belief 9 ! immortality ( ! s\l1 nor is ! s\l inve/$ ) any di/9ct p]sonality1 all t comes lat]2 x is simply t life is reg>d$ z a k9d ( sub/ance1 v light & impalpable b p]fectly self-exi/5t4 ,:at may be describ$ z ! 8gho/0 !ory m>ks a lat] /age ( evolution1 :5 ! dep>t$ s\l is believ$ to reta9 a di/9ct p]sonality & /ill to possess ! =m & "s at lea/ ( ! s5sations associat$ ) ! be+ 9 :i* x =m]ly dwelt4 ,su* 0 ! /age rea*$ by ,arab psy*ology at ! "t ( ! prea*+ ( ,islam4 ,! ,ari/otelian doctr9e repres5t$ ! s\l z conta9+ diff]5t en]gies or p>ts1 su* z x _h 9 common ) ! vegetable _w & su* o!rs z x possess$ 9 common ) ! l[] k9ds ( animals3 t is to say ! faculties ( nutrition1 reproduction1 & all ! p]ceptions obta9$ f ! use ( ! organs ( s5se1 z well z ! intellectual g5]alisations d]iv$ f ! use ( ^? s5ses1 are simply laid on "o side z =ms ( en]gy d]iv$ f ! pot5tialities lat5t 9 ! mat]ial body1 v ne>ly ! position inde$ ( mod]n mat]ialism1 z ! t]m is us$ 9 psy*ology4 ,?is does n oppose a belief 9 ,god1 :o is ! prime s\rce ( ! p[]s :i* exi/1 al?\gh t is br\ght out m by ! comm5tators ?an by ,ari/otle himself2 nor does x infr+e ! doctr9e ( an immortal & sep>able s\l or _s :i* exi/s 9 man 9 addition to :at we may describe z ! vegetative & animal s\l4 ,x is ?is _s1 ! rational s\l :i* has ent]$ f outside & exi/s 9 man alone1 :i* is immortal4 ,su* a doctr9e sets an impassible gulf betwe5 man & ! re/ ( creation1 & expla9s :y x is impossible = ^? ^: ?\ght is =m$ on ,ari/otelian l9es1 :e!r 9 or?odox ,islam or 9 ! ,ca?olic ,*ur*1 to admit ! 8rights0 ( animals1 al?\gh ready to reg>d b5evol5t action t[>ds !m z a duty4 ,b m1 ! highly ab/ract rational s\l or _s ( ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e1 void ( all t c\ld be %>$ ) ! l[] creatures1 & ev5 ( all t c\ld be develop$ f any?+ t an animal is capable ( possess+1 is ! only "p ( man :i* is capable ( immortality1 & su* a _s sep>at$ f its body & ! l[] functions ( ! animal s\l c h>dly fit 9 ) ! picture ( ! future life z portray$ 9 ! ,quran4 ,fur!r1 ! ,quran reg>ds t future life z incomplete until ! _s is re-unit$ ) ! body1 a possibility :i* ! ,ari/otelians c\ld h>dly contemplate4 ,! ,ari/otelian doctr9e %[$ ! animal s\l n z an invisible be+ b m]ely z a =m ( en]gy 9 ! body3 s f> z x 0 conc]n$1 dea? did n mean ! go+ away ( ?is s\l1 b ! cessation ( ! functions ( ! bodily faculties1 j z combu/ion ceases :5 a c&le is bl[n out1 ! flame n go+ away & cont9u+ to exi/ ap>t2 or z ! impression ( a seal on wax :i* disappe>s :5 ! wax is melt$ & does n cont9ue a gho/ly exi/5ce on its own acc\nt4 ,! only immortal "p ( man1 !re=e1 0 ! "p :i* came to him z an emanation f ! ,ag5t ,intellect1 & :5 ?is emanation 0 set free f its association ) ! human body & l[] s\l x became inevitable to sugge/ its reabsorption 9 ! omnipres5t s\rce f :i* x _h be5 d]iv$4 ,! logical conclusion 0 ?us a d5ial1 n ( a future life1 nor ( its et]nity1 b ( ! sep>ate exi/5ce ( an individual s\l1 & ?is1 z we %all see1 0 actually work$ out z a result ( ,arabic ,ari/otelianism4 ,?us ! s*ola/ic !ologians1 bo? ( ,islam & ( ,lat9 ,*ri/ianity1 attack ! philosoph]s z und]m9+ belief 9 individual p]sonality & 9 oppos+ ! doctr9e ( ! resurrection1 & 9 ?is latt]1 x mu/ be rememb]$1 ,muslim doctr9e is committ$ to crud] details ?an prevail 9 ,*ri/ianity4 ,b al-,f>abi did n see :]e ! ,ari/otelian tea*+ w\ld lead him3 to him ,ari/otle seem$ or?odox because 8 doctr9es seem$ to prove ! immortality ( ! s\l4 ,al-,f>abi expresses 8 !ory ( causality 9 ! treatise call$ 8! gems ( wisdom40 ,ev]y?+ :i* exi/s aft] hav+ n exi/$1 he says1 mu/ be br\ght into be+ by a cause :i* itself may be ! result ( "s prec$+ cause1 & s on1 until we rea* a ,fir/ ,cause1 :i* is & always has be51 its et]nity be+ necess>y because !re is no o!r cause to prec$e x1 & ,ari/otle has %[n t ! *a9 ( causes _c be inf9ite4 ,! ,fir/ ,cause is "o & et]nal1 & is ,god 7cf4 ,ari/ot4 ,metaph4 #ab4 #g1 & simil>ly ,plato1 ,timu #bh74 ,be+ un*ang$ ?is ,fir/ ,cause is p]fect1 & to "k x is ! aim ( all philosophy1 = obvi\sly ev]y?+ w\ld be intelligible if ! cause ( all 7 kn[n4 ,?is ,fir/ ,cause is ! 8necess>y be+0 ^: exi/5ce is necess>y to acc\nt = all o!r exi/5ce2 x has nei!r g5us1 species1 nor diff]5tia2 x is bo? ext]nal & int]nal1 at once app>5t & conceal$2 x _c be p]ceiv$ by any faculty b is kn[able by its attributes1 & ! be/ approa* to k is to "k t x is inaccessible4 ,9 ?is treatm5t al-,f>abi is m+l+ ! tea*+ ( philosophy prop] ) my/icism1 9 8 days rapidly develop+ 9 ,asiatic ,islam1 & especially 9 ! ,%iite community ) :i* he 0 9 contact4 ,f ! philosophical po9t ( view ,god is unkn[able b necess>y1 j z et]nity & inf9ity are unkn[able b necess>y1 because ,god is above all k3 b 9 ano!r s5se ,god is b5ea? all k1 z ! ultimate reality mu/ und]l9e all exi/+ ?+s1 & e result is a manife/+ ( ! cause4 ,! pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god is f\nd$ ^u ! argum5t 9 ,plato1 ,timu #bh1 & ,ari/otle1 ,metaphysics #ab4 #g1 & 0 lat] on us$ by ,alb]tus ,magnus & o!rs4 ,9 ! fir/ place a di/9ction is made betwe5 ! possible1 :i* may be only pot5tial1 & ! real4 ,= ! possible to become real x is necess>y t !re %\ld be an effective cause4 ,! _w is evid5tly composite1 & s _c itself be ! fir/ cause1 = ! fir/ cause mu/ be s+le & n multiple3 !re=e ! _w evid5tly proce$s f a cause o!r ?an itself4 ,! imm$iate cause may itself be ! result ( ano!r prec$+ cause1 b ! s]ies ( causes _c be inf9ite1 nor c !y return z a circle ^u !mselves1 !re=e if we trace back we mu/ ultimately rea* an ens primum1 itself uncaus$1 :i* is ! cause ( all1 & ?is fir/ cause exi/s ( necessity1 b n by a necessity caus$ by any?+ o!r ?an itself4 ,x mu/ be s+le & un*angeable1 free f all accid5ts1 absolute1 p]fect1 & good1 & ! absolute intellig5tia1 intelligibile1 & intellig5s4 ,9 itself x possesses wisdom1 life1 insight1 w1 p[]1 beauty & goodness1 n z acquir$ or ext]nal qualities1 b z aspects ( its own ess5ce4 ,x is ! fir/ w & ! fir/ will+1 & also ! fir/ object ( w4 ,x is ! end ( all philosophy to "k ?is fir/ ,cause1 :i* is ,god1 because z ,he is ! cause ( all1 all c be und]/ood & expla9$ by und]/&+ & kn[+ ,him4 ,t ! fir/ ,cause is s+le & "o & ! cause ( all agrees ) ! tea*+ ( ! ,quran1 & al-,f>abi freely uses ,quranic phraseology 9 p]fect good fai?1 suppos+ t ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e corroborates ! doctr9e ( ! ,quran4 ,! mo/ curi\s "p ( al-,f>abi's "w is ! way 9 :i* he employs ! t]m9ology ( ! ,quran z correspond+ to t ( ! neo-,platoni/s1 s t ! ,quranic p51 tablet1 etc41 repres5t ! neo-,platonic1 etc4 ,x may be que/ion$ :e!r1 ev5 9 al-,f>abi1 philosophy really does fit 9 ) ,quranic doctr9e1 b ! div]g5ce 0 n yet suffici5tly m>k$ to compel att5tion4 ,assur$ ( ! con=mity ( ! tea*+ ( ,ari/otle ) ! tea*+ ( revelation al-,f>abi d5ies t ,ari/otle tea*es ! et]nity ( matt]1 & s is inconsi/5t ) ! dogma ( creation4 ,! :ole "q dep5ds on :at is meant by 8creation40 ,god1 he supposes1 creat$ all ?+s 9 an in/ant 9 unmeasur$ et]nity1 n directly1 b by ! int]m$i>y op]ation ( ! aql or ,ag5t ,intellig5ce4 ,9 ?is s5se ,ari/otle held t ! univ]se exi/$ 9 et]nity1 b x s exi/$ z a creat$ ?+4 ,creation 0 !re=e complete be=e ,god1 act+ ?r\gh ! aql1 introduc$ movem5t1 at :i* "t comm5c$2 z movem5t & "t came into exi/5ce simultane\sly1 =?) creation already exi/+ 9 ! timeless came out ( its concealm5t & ent]$ into reality4 ,! t]m 8creation0 is sometimes us$ z apply+ to ?is em]g5ce f timeless quies5ce1 b m prop]ly may be tak5 z d5ot+ ! causation1 :i*1 z x prec$$ "t1 came into unmeasur$ et]nity1 :i* is :at ,ari/otle means :5 he speaks ( ! _w z et]nal4 ,?us bo? ,quran & ,ari/otle are "r1 b ea* uses 8creation0 to d5ote a diff]5t ?+4 ,x is difficult to ov]-e/imate ! importance ( al-,f>abi4 ,practically all we aft]w>ds meet 9 ,ibn ,s9a & ,ibn ,ru%d is already to be f\nd 9 sub/ance 9 8 tea*+1 only t ^! lat] philosoph]s h realiz$ t ! ,ari/otelian sy/em _c be reconcil$ ) ! traditional !ology1 & s1 hav+ giv5 up all attempt at =mal reconciliation1 are able to express !mselves m cle>ly & to press home _! t5ets to _! logical conclusions4 ,:5 consid]+ ! reconciliation betwe5 philosophy & ,quran attempt$ by al-,f>abi x is important to comp>e & contra/ ! reconciliation attempt$ on q o!r l9es by al-,a%ari & o!r f\nd]s ( or?odox s*ola/icism4 ,x mu/ be not$ t ! beg9n+ ( s*ola/icism 0 contempor>y ) al-,f>abi4 ,z has be5 not$1 al-,f>abi 0 mix$ up ) ! ,%iite gr\p2 ! support]s ( ,alid claims :o held alo( f ! (ficial ,khalifate at ,baghdad4 ,ab\t ! "t ( al-,k9di's dea? 7circ4 #bfj71 ! twelf? ,imam ( ! ,i?na a%>iya or or?odox ,%iite sect1 ,muhammad al-,muntaz>1 8disappe>$40 ,9 ! ye> #cbj1 )9 ! p]iod ( al-,f>abi's activity1 ! ,buwayhid pr9ces became ! lead+ p[] 9 ,iraq1 & 9 #ccd1 five ye>s be=e 8 dea?1 !y obta9$ possession ( ,baghdad1 s t = ! next #acc ye>s ! ,khalifs 7 9 v mu* ! same position z ! ,franki% k+s :5 !y1 surr\nd$ ) great c]emony & treat$ ) ! utmo/ rev]5ce1 7 no m ?an puppets 9 ! h&s ( ! ,mayors ( ! ,palace4 ,9 exactly ! same way ! ,khalifs1 half popes & half emp]ors1 ^: sign manual 0 s\ght z giv+ a %[ ( legitimacy to sov]eigns ev5 9 f>-(f ,india1 possess$ 9 ,baghdad only c]emonial functions1 & 7 treat$ z hon\r$ prison]s by ! ,buwayhid ,emirs1 :o !mselves 7 ,%iites ( ! ,i?na a%>iya sect1 & :o1 consequ5tly1 reg>d$ ! ,khalifs z m]e usurp]s4 ,at ?is p]iod ! ,%iites 7 ! patrons ( philosophy1 & ! or?odox ,sunnis g5]ally took a reaction>y attitude4 ,besides ! ,i?na a%>iya1 ! comp>atively or?odox ,%iites1 !re 0 ano!r bran* ( extrem] type kn[n z ! ,sabiya or 8sev5]s40 ,! six? ,imam ,jaf> z-,sadiq _h nom9at$ 8 son ,ismail z 8 successor1 b z ,ismail 0 "o day f\nd drunk1 ,jaf> dis9h]it$ him & appo9t$ 8 second son ,musa al-,qazam 7d4 #ahc74 ,b "s did n admit t ! ,imamate1 ^: div9e "r pass$ by h]$it>y desc5t1 c\ld be transf]r$ at w1 b rema9$ loyal to ,ismail1 & ^! pref]r$1 :5 ,ismail di$ 9 ,jaf>'s lifetime1 to transf] _! allegiance to 8 son ,muhamm$1 reckon+ him z ! sev5? ,imam4 ,^! 8sev5]s0 cont9u$ to exi/ z an obscure sect until1 x w\ld appe>1 some:]e ab\t ! ye> #bbj1 :5 ,abdullah1 ! son ( a ,p]sian oculi/ nam$ ,maymun1 ei!r 0 made _! head or l$ a secession f !m1 & organis$ 8 foll[]s ) a k9d ( freemasonry 9 sev5 7aft]w>ds n9e7 grades ( initiation & a v admirably organis$ sy/em ( propag&a on ! l9es already laid d[n by ! ,ha%imites 7cf4 supra74 ,9 ! e>li] grades ! doctr9e ( batn or allegorical int]pretation ( ! ,quran 0 laid d[n z ess5tial to a "r und]/&+ ( its mean+1 = ! lit]al s5se is (t5 obscure1 & sometimes ref]s to ?+s incompreh5sible1 a doctr9e commonly attribut$ to ,jaf> z-,sadiq4 ,! initiate 0 !n taught t ! true mean+ c\ld n be discov]$ by private int]pretation b ne$$ an au?oritative tea*]1 ! ,imam1 or1 z he _h disappe>$1 8 accr$it$ repres5tative1 ! ,mahdi ,abdullah1 son ( ,maymun4 ,9 ! high] grades ! disciple _h ?is inn] mean+ ( ! ,quran disclos$ to him1 & ?is prov$ to be sub/antially ! ,ari/otelian & neo-,platonic doctr9e 9 g5]al outl9e1 toge!r ) c]ta9 ori5tal elem5ts d]iv$ f ,zoroa/rianism & ,masdekism4 ,^! ori5tal elem5ts figur$ *iefly 9 ! doctr9es taught to ! int]m$iate grades1 ! high] ones atta9+ a pure agno/icism ) an ,ari/otelian backgr\nd4 ,! sect ?us =m$ spread1 develop$1 & f9ally divid$4 ,x _h a successful c>e] 9 ! ,bahrayn or di/rict ne> ! junction ( ! two riv]s1 ! ,tigris & ,euphrates1 & !re its foll[]s 7 kn[n z ,q>matians1 aft] ! "n ( a lead+ mission>y4 ,x met ) success also 9 & ar\nd ,ad51 b we h no acc\nt ( its subsequ5t hi/ory !re4 ,f ,ad5 mission>ies pass$ ov] to ,nor? ,africa1 :]e x _h its *ief success1 & :5 ,ubayd ,allah1 a desc5dant ( ,abdullah1 pass$ ov] !re an indep5d5t /ate 0 f\nd$1 ) its capital at ,kairawan 7#big ,a4,h474 ,f ,kairawan a mission>y propag&a 0 conduct$ 9 ,egypt1 !n suff]+ f almo/ p]5nial misgov]nm5t1 & 9 ! days ( ! deputy ,kafur a def9ite invitation 0 s5t by ! ,egyptian (ficials ask+ = ! ,khalif ( ,kairawan to ent] ,egypt4 ,at l5g? ,ubayd ,allah's great-gr&son al-,moizz did invade ,egypt 9 #cef1 & e/abli%$ !re ! ,fatimite ,khalifate1 :i* la/$ until ! c\ntry 0 conqu]$ by ,salad9 9 #efg4 ,! ,sabiya sect 0 ?us geographically divid$ into two bran*es1 "o 9 ,asia repres5t$ by ! ,q>matians1 ! o!r 9 ,africa "u ! ,fatimite ,khalifs4 ,9 ! ,asiatic bran* ! memb]s 7 *iefly drawn f ! ,nabatan peasantry1 & ! sect took ! =m ( a revolution>y gr\p ) communi/ tea*+1 & viol5tly oppos$ to ! ,muslim religion4 ,9 _! contemptu\s ho/ility !y f9ally attack$ ,mecca1 slew _m ( ! dignit>ies ( ! city & a numb] ( pilgrims :o 7 !re1 & c>ri$ (f ! sacr$ black /one1 :i* !y reta9$ = sev]al ye>s4 ,9 ! h&s ( ! ,q>matians ! sect ceas$ to be a propag&a ( philosophical doctr9e1 x became simply anti-religi\s & revolution>y4 ,! hi/ory ( ! ,african bran* took a diff]5t turn4 ,possession ( an important /ate br\ght ) x a position ( respectability1 & political ambition replac$ religi\s en?usiasm4 ,z ! majority ( ! subject population 0 /rictly or?odox1 ! peculi> t5ets ( ! sect 71 to a l>ge ext5t1 all[$ to drop into ! backgr\nd2 c&idates 7 /ill admitt$ to initiation & in/ruct$1 b1 al?\gh ! ,fatimite rul]s 9 ,egypt 7 lib]al patrons ( s*ol>%ip1 & g5]ally %[$ a m tol]ant attitude ?an o!r contempor>y ,muslim rul]s1 !y c]ta9ly did n c>ry out a :olesale ,ari/otelian propag&a2 inde$1 ! l9e ( 8philosoph]s0 prop] simply misses ov] ,fatimite ,egypt1 al?\gh !re 7 sev]al di/+ui%$ m$ical work]s !re4 ,f ! ,ismailians or ,sabiya ( ,egypt !re came two int]e/+ (f-%oots4 ,t[>ds ! end ( ! reign ( ! six? ,fatimite ,khalif1 al-,hakim1 :o may h be5 a religi\s fanatic1 p]haps insane1 or possibly an enlight5$ religi\s re=m] ( views f> ahead ( 8 age--8 real "* is "o ( ! problems ( hi/ory--!re arriv$ 9 ,egypt c]ta9 ,p]sian tea*]s hold+ doctr9es ( transmigration & ( !ophanies1 :i* seem to be endemic 9 ,p]sia1 & ^! p]suad$ al-,hakim t he 0 an inc>nation ( ! ,deity4 ,a riot foll[$ ! op5 prea*+ ( ?is claim1 & ! prea*]s fl$ to ,syria1 !n a "p ( ! ,fatimite dom9ions1 & !re f\nd$ a sect :i* /ill exi/s 9 ! ,lebanon "u ! "n ( ! ,druzes4 ,soon aft] ?is al-,hakim himself disappe>$2 "s said he 0 murd]$1 o!rs said he _h retir$ to a ,*ri/ian mona/]y1 & 0 recognis$ !re aft]w>ds z a monk2 o!rs believ$ he _h gone up to heav51 & m ?an "o claimant appe>$ ass]t+ t he 0 al-,hakim return$ f concealm5t4 ,! o!r (f-%oot %[s a m def9itely philosophical be>+4 ,9 ! days ( al-,mu/ansir1 al-,hakim's gr&son1 "o ( ! ,ismailian mission>ies1 a ,p]sian nam$ ,nasir-i-,khusraw1 came f ,khurasan to ,egypt1 & aft] a /ay ( sev5 ye>s return$ home4 ,?is seems to h co9cid$ ) a k9d ( revival 9 ! ,ismailian sect1 :i* n[ reg>d$ ,cairo z its headqu>t]s4 ,! ,q>matians _h q pass$ away2 al-,hakim1 :atev] 8 lat] ecc5tricities1 _h be5 a patron ( s*ol>%ip1 ! f\nd] ( an academy1 ! ,d>u l-,hikma1 or 8,h\se ( ,wisdom10 at ,cairo1 & _h enri*$ x ) a l>ge libr>y1 & 0 himself di/+ui%$ z a /ud5t ( a/ronomy4 ,! reign ( 8 gr&son 0 ! gold5 age ( ,fatimid sci5ce1 & app>5tly ,%iites f all p>ts ( ,asia f\nd _! way to ,egypt4 ,9 #dga ano!r dai or mission>y1 ,hasan-i-,sabbah1 a pupil ( ,nasir-i-,khusraw1 visit$ ,cairo & 0 receiv$ by ! ,*ief ,dai1 b n all[$ to see ! ,khalif1 & eighte5 mon?s lat] 0 compell$ to leave ! c\ntry & return to ,asia4 ,!re 7 two factions 9 ,cairo1 ! adh]5ts respectively ( ! ,khalif's two sons1 ,niz> & ,mu/ali2 ,nasir-i-,khusraw & ,hasan-i-,sabbah _h already made !mselves kn[n z support]s ( ! eld] son ,niz>1 b ! c\rt (ficials 9 ,egypt adh]$ to ! y\ng] son ,mu/ali4 ,:5 ! ,khalif al-,mu/ansir di$ 9 #dhg ! ,ismailian sect divid$ into two new bran*es1 ! ,egyptians & ,africans g5]ally recognis+ ,mu/ali1 ! ,asiatics adh]+ to ,niz>4 ,?is latt] gr\p _h already be5 well organis$ by ,nasir-i-,khusraw & ,hasan-i-,sabbah1 :o = sev]al ye>s previ\sly _h be5 prea*+ ! rights ( ,niz>4 ,on 8 return home1 ab\t #dgc1 ,hasan-i-,sabbah _h secur$ possession ( a /ronghold kn[n z ,alamut1 8! eagle's tea*+0 7cf4 ,br[ne3 ,lit4 ,hi/ory ( ,p]sia1 ii4 #bjc1 espec4 note #ac71 & ?is became ! headqu>t]s ( ! sect ( ,niz>is or ,assass9s1 :o figure s prom95tly 9 ! hi/ory ( ! ,crusades4 ,!y _h _m m\nta9 /rongholds1 b all 7 "u ! control ( ! ,%eikh or 8,old ,man ( ! ,m\nta910 z ! ,crusad]s & ,m>co ,polo call$ him1 at ,alamut4 ,^! ,%eikhs or ,gr& ,ma/]s ( ! ord] cont9u$ = eight g5]ations1 until ,alamut 0 captur$ by ! ,mongols 9 #fah ,a4,h4 7 #abba ,a4,d471 & ! la/ 0 put to dea?4 ,z ! ord] grew x spread into ,syria1 & x 0 ! ,syrian bran* ) :i* ! ,crusad]s f ,europe came mo/ into contact4 ,9 ?is ord] we f9d ! old sy/em ( successive grades ( initiation4 ,! ,lasiqs1 or 8adh]5ts10 _h b little k ( ! real doctr9es ( ! sect1 & atta*$ to !m 7 ! ,fidais or 8self-devot$10 b\nd to bl9d ob$i5ce & ready to execute v5geance at ! bidd+ ( _! sup]iors2 ^! 7 ! m5 to :om ! ,crusad]s especially appli$ ! t]m ,assass9s1 t is ,ha%i%9 or 8us]s ( ha%i%10 ref]r+ to ! ha%i% or ,indian hemp :i* !y commonly us$ z a means ( exaltation4 ,above ^! 7 ! ,rafiqs or 8companions10 & above ^! 0 an ord]$ hi]>*y ( dais or mission>ies1 ,*ief ,mission>ies 7dai i-,kabir71 & ,supreme ,mission>y 7dai d-,duat74 ,9 ! eyes ( outsid]s ! :ole sect _h a s9i/] appe>ance2 ! crimes ( ! ,fidais1 usually committ$ "u /rik+ & dramatic circum/ances1 & ! reput$ h]esies ( ! sup]ior grades 7 suffici5t to secure ?is1 & ! g5]al dread ) :i* !y 7 reg>d$ 0 increas$ by incid5ts :i* %[$ t !y _h spies & sympa?iz]s 9 all directions4 ,! sup]ior grades1 h[ev]1 7 true heirs ( ! old ,ismailian pr9ciples & ard5t /ud5ts ( philosophy & sci5ce4 ,:5 ! ,mongols "u ,hulagu seiz$ ,alamut 9 #fed 7 ,a4,d4 #abef7 !y f\nd an ext5sive libr>y & an obs]vatory ) a collection ( valuable a/ronomical in/rum5ts4 ,! ,mongol capture meant ! d[nfall ( ! ,assass9s1 al?\gh ! ,syrian bran* /ill cont9u$ 9 humbl] fa%ion1 & ! sect has adh]5ts ev5 at ! pres5t day4 ,scatt]$ relics survive also 9 c5tral ,asia1 9 ,p]sia1 & 9 ,india2 ! ,agha ,khan is a l9eal desc5dant ( ,ruknu d-,d9 ,khur%ah1 ! la/ ,%eikh at ,alamut4 ,?us ! movem5t />t$ by ,abdullah1 ! son ( ,maymun1 ^: orig9al purpose seems to h be5 to ma9ta9 a highly philosophical religion z reveal$ by ,ari/otle & ! neo-,platoni/s1 b to safegu>d ?is z an esot]ic fai? disclos$ only to initiates1 ! rank & file be+ app>5tly ,%iite sect>ies1 produc$ a gr\p ( v curi\s sects4 ,9 ! ,q>matians ! esot]ic t5ets 7 compell$ to take a debas$ =m because ^? :o pr(ess$ !m1 & into ^: h&s ?is bran* fell altoge!r1 7 illit]ate peasants4 ,9 ! ,fatimid /ate ( ,egypt !y 7 m9imis$ because political consid]ations r5d]$ x exp$i5t to conciliate or?odox ,muslim op9ion4 ,& 9 ! ,assass9s1 conf9$1 x seems1 to ! high] grades ( ! initiates1 !y produc$ a ri* intellectual developm5t1 ?\gh alli$ to a sy/em :i* %[s fanaticism unscrupul\sly us$ by ! lead]s t !y might live out _! lives 9 a philosophical seclusion1 protect$ f ! dang]s :i* surr\nd$ !m4 ,be=e leav+ ?is p>ticul> subject1 :i* %[s ! promulgation ( philosophy z an esot]ic cre$1 we mu/ ref] to a society kn[n z ! ,ikhwanu s-,safa or 8! bro!rhood ( purity40 ,we d n "k :at its connection ) ,abdullah b4 ,maymun's sect may h be5 beyond ! fact t !y 7 contempor>y & ( k9dr$ aims1 b x c]ta9ly seems t !re 0 "s connection3 x has be5 sugge/$ t ?is bro!rhood repres5ts ! orig9al tea*+ ( ,abdullah's sect4 ,x 0 divid$ into f\r grades1 b its doctr9es 7 promulgat$ freely at an e>ly date1 ?\gh we d n "k :e!r ?is g5]al divulg+ ( its tea*+ 0 "p ( ! orig9al plan or =c$ ^u x by circum/ances4 ,x appe>s op5ly ab\t #cfj1 "s hundr$ ye>s aft] ,abdullah f\nd$ 8 sect1 %ortly aft] ! ,fatimites _h conqu]$ ,egypt & "s "t aft] ! ,q>matians _h return$ ! sacr$ black /one :i* !y _h /ol5 f ! 8,h\se ( ,god0 at ,mecca4 ,x seems tempt+ to sugge/ t x may h be5 a re=mation ( ! ,ismailians on ! "p ( ^? :o wi%$ to return to ! orig9al aims ( ! movem5t4 ,! publi%$ "w ( ! bro!rhood appe>s 9 a s]ies ( #ea epi/les1 ! ,rasail ikhwani s-,safa1 :i* =m an encyclopdia ( philosophy & sci5ce z kn[n to ! ,arabic-speak+ _w 9 ! #d? c5t4 ,a4,h4 ,!y d n propose any new !ories b simply furni% a manual ( curr5t mat]ial4 ,! :ole text ( ^! epi/les has be5 pr9t$ at ,calcutta1 :il/ portions ( ! volum9\s :ole h be5 edit$ by ,pr(4 ,diet]ici betwe5 #aheh & #ahgb1 & ^! 7 foll[$ 9 #ahgf & #ahgi by two volumes call$ ,makrokosmos & ,mikrokosmos1 9 :i* an epitome is pres5t$ ( ! :ole "w4 ,x appe>s t ! lead+ _s 9 ! prep>ation ( ?is encyclopdia 0 ,zayd b4 ,rifaa1 & ) him 7 associat$ ,abu ,sulayman ,muhammad al-,bu/i1 ,abu l-,hasan ,ali az-,zanjani1 ,abu ,ahmad al-,mahrajani1 & al-,awfi1 b x does n foll[ t ^! 7 ! f\nd]s ( ! bro!rhood1 z "s h suppos$4 ,a great "p ( ! ,epi/les ( ! ,bro!rhood deals ) logic & ! natural sci5ces1 b :5 ! writ]s turn to metaphysics1 psy*ology1 or !ology1 we f9d v cle> traces ( ! neo-,platonic doctr9es z conta9$ 9 ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias & matur$ by ,plot9us4 ,god1 we read1 is above all k & above all ! categories ( human ?\ght4 ,f ,god proce$s ! aql or intellig5ce1 a complete spiritual emanation :i* conta9s 9 itself ! =ms ( all ?+s1 & f ! aql proce$s ! ,univ]sal ,s\l1 & f t ,s\l comes primal matt]3 :5 ?is primal matt] becomes capable ( receiv+ dim5sions x becomes second>y matt]1 & f t ! univ]se proce$s4 ,! ,univ]sal ,s\l p]meates all matt] & is itself su/a9$ by ! p]petual emanation ( itself f ! aql4 ,?is ,univ]sal ,s\l p]meat+ all ?+s yet rema9s "o2 b ea* individual ?+ has a "p-s\l1 :i* is ! s\rce ( its =ce & en]gy1 ?is "p-s\l hav+ a v>y+ degree ( intellectual capacity4 ,! union ( s\l & matt] is tempor>y2 by wisdom & fai? ! s\l t5ds to be set free f its mat]ial fett]s1 & s to approa* ne>] to ! pres5t _s or aql4 ,! "r aim ( life is ! emancipation ( ! s\l f matt]1 s t x may be absorb$ 9 ! p>5t _s & ?us approa* ne>] to ! ,deity4 ,all ?is is b a repetition ( ! tea*+ ( al-,f>abi & ! neo-,platoni/s1 slightly col\r$1 p]haps1 by ,sufism1 & express$ less logically & lucidly ?an 9 ! tea*+ ( ! philosoph]s4 ,9 g5]al "* x %[s a t5d5cy t[>ds pan!ism1 ak9 to ! t5d5cy we h already obs]v$ 9 c]ta9 ( ! ,mutazilites4 ,god1 prop]ly s call$1 is outside1 or r on su* a plane t man does n "k1 & nev] c "k1 any?+ ab\t ,him4 ,ev5 ! aql is on a plane o!r ?an t on :i* ! human s\l lives4 ,b ! ,univ]sal ,s\l :i* p]meates all ?+s is an emanation f ?is ,_s1 & ! ,_s emanates f ! unkn[able ,god4 ,comp>+ ?is ) ! tea*+ ( al-,k9di & al-,f>abi x is cle> t x is bas$ ^u ! same mat]ial1 b x is 9 ! h&s ( ^? :o h made x a religion1 & ?is religion has entirely brok5 away f ! or?odox doctr9e ( ! ,quran4 ,9 al-,f>abi ?is brea* is n consci\s1 al?\gh really q complete2 9 8 successors we see a full realization ( ! cleavage4 ,comp>+ x ) ,sufism ! sup]ficial resemblances are v close1 ! m s z ,sufism borr[s a great deal ( philosophical1 i4e41 neo-,platonic t]m9ology1 b 9 fact !re is an ess5tial div]g5ce3 ! ,epi/les ( ! bre?r5 repres5t ! emancipation ( ! s\l f matt] z ! aim ( life1 & ! f9al result is reabsorption 9 ! ,univ]sal ,s\l1 b !y repres5t ?is emancipation z due to an intellectual =ce1 s t ! s\l's salvation lies 9 wisdom & k2 x is a cult ( intellect4 ,b ,sufism is spiritual 9 ano!r s5se3 x has ! same aim 9 view1 b x reg>ds ! means z wisdom 9 ! s5se ( religi\s tru? z f\nd by ! dev\t s\l 9 piety1 n z ! wisdom obta9$ by intellectual le>n+4 ,we seem1 h[ev]1 ju/ifi$ 9 say+ t ,sufism is ! heir ( ! philosophical tea*+ ( al-,f>abi & ! ,bre?r5 ( ,purity1 at lea/ 9 ,asia4 ,aft] ! fir/ qu>t] ( ! fif? c5tury philosophical tea*+ seems to h disappe>$ altoge!r 9 ,asia1 b ?is is only app>5t4 ,9 sub/ance x rema9s 9 ,sufism1 & we may say t ! ess5tial *ange lies 9 ! new mean+ giv5 to 8wisdom10 :i* ceases to signify sci5tific facts & speculations acquir$ intellectually1 & is tak5 to mean a supra-intellectual k ( ,god4 ,?is1 p]haps1 repres5ts ! ,indian contribution work+ ^u elem5ts ( ,hell5i/ic orig94 ,! doctr9es ( ! ,bre?r5 ( ,purity 7 introduc$ to ! ,we/ by a ,spani% doctor1 ,muslim b4 ,muhammad ,abu l-,qasim al-,majriti al-,&alusi 7d4 #cie-f71 & 7 l>gely influ5tial 9 produc+ ! falasifa ( ,spa91 :o ultimately ex]cis$ s great an influ5ce on m$ival ,lat9 s*ola/icism4 ,be=e leav+ ?is p>ticul> section ( our subject x w be well to note t all ^! sects & gr\ps we h m5tion$ aft] al-,f>abi1 f ! sect f\nd$ by ,abdullah b4 ,maymun to ! ,bre?r5 ( ,purity1 agre$ 9 treat+ philosophy1 at lea/ 9 s f> z x _h any be>+ on !ological topics1 z esot]ic1 & n to be disclos$ to any save ! elect4 ,?is g5]al attitude w appe> aga91 9 a slightly diff]5t =m1 9 ! works ( ! ,spani% philosoph]s1 & to "s ext5t recurs 9 all ,islamic ?\ght4 ,! greate/ product 9 ,asia ( ! f]m5t ( ?\ght produc$ by ! g5]al /udy ( ! ,ari/otelian & neo-,platonic philosophies appe>s 9 ,abu ,ali al-,husayn b4 ,abdullah b4 ,s9a 7d4 #dbh ,a4,d4 #ajbg71 commonly kn[n z ,ibn ,s9a1 :i* is ,lat9iz$ z ,avic5na4 ,8 life is kn[n to u f an autobiography complet$ by 8 pupil1 ,abu ,ubayd al-,juzjani1 f 8 ma/]'s recollections4 ,we le>n t 8 fa!r 0 gov]nor ( ,kh>mayta1 b1 aft] 8 son's bir?1 he return$ to ,bukh>a1 :i* _h be5 ! orig9al home ( 8 family1 & x 0 !re t ,ibn ,s9a receiv$ 8 education4 ,dur+ 8 y\? "s ,ismailian mission>ies arriv$ f ,egypt1 & 8 fa!r became "o ( _! conv]ts4 ,f !m ! son le>n$ ,greek1 philosophy1 geometry1 & ari?metic4 ,?is helps to rem9d u h[ ! :ole ,ismailian propag&a 0 associat$ ) ,hell5i/ic le>n+4 ,x is sometimes /at$ t ! ,egypt ( ! ,fatimite age 0 isolat$ f ! intellectual life ( ,islam at l>ge3 b ?is is h>dly accurate2 f fir/ to la/ ! :ole ( ! ,ismailian movem5t 0 connect$ ) ! intellectual revival due to ! reproduction ( ,greek philosophy 9 ,arabic =m1 less s1 ( c\rse1 :5 ! ,ismailian conv]ts 7 drawn f ! illit]ate classes1 z 0 ! case ) ! ,q>matians1 & :5 ! att5tion ( ! memb]s 0 engross$ ) political ambitions1 z 0 ! case ) ! ,fatimids :il/ !y 7 build+ up _! p[] 9 ,africa be=e ! invasion ( ,egypt4 ,b ev5 "u ! mo/ unfav\rable conditions x seems t ! dais or mission>ies reg>d$ ! spread ( sci5ce & philosophy z a lead+ "p ( _! duties1 q z mu* s z ! prea*+ ( ! ,alid claims ( ! ,fatimite ,khalif4 ,le>n+ ,greek & ,greek philosophy f ^! mission>ies ,ibn ,s9a made rapid progress1 & !n turn$ to ! /udy ( jurisprud5ce & my/ic !ology4 ,jurisprud5ce1 t is to say1 ! canon law bas$ on "o ( ! or?odox sy/ems laid d[n by ,abu ,hanifa & ! o!r recognis$ juri/s1 or by _! ,%iite rivals1 has always be5 ! backbone ( ,islamic s*ol>%ip1 & 0 ?us p>allel ) ! /udy ( canon law 9 m$ival ,europe3 9 ea* case x turn$ m5's att5tion to ! developm5t ( ! social /ructure t[>ds an ideal1 & ?is _h an educative influ5ce ( ! highe/ value4 ,we1 hold+ v diff]5t pr9ciples1 may be tempt$ to "u-e/imate ?is influ5ce1 b x is wor? not+ t1 :il/ our aims are opportuni/ 9 "*1 ! canoni/ ( ,islam or ( ,*ri/5dom _h a m def9itely con/ruct$ ideal1 ) a m complete & sci5tific f9ality1 :i*1 9 s f> z x 0 an ideal1 0 an uplift+ p[]4 ,9 ,muslim l&s ! canoni/s 7 ! "o p[] :i* _h ! c\rage & ability to resi/ ! caprices ( an autocratic gov]nm5t1 & to compel ev5 ! mo/ arbitr>y pr9ces to submit to pr9ciples :i*1 h[ev] n>r[ & defective !y may seem to u1 yet made ! rul] admit t he 0 subord9ate to a sy/em1 & def9$ ! limits all[$ by t sy/em 9 con=mity ) ideals ( equity & ju/ice4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t 9 ,ibn ,s9a's "t my/ic !ology _h already tak5 its place z a subject ( s]i\s /udy4 ,a %ort "t aft]w>ds a philosoph] nam$ an-,natali arriv$ at ,bukh>a & became a gue/ ( ,ibn ,s9a's fa!r4 ,be>+ 9 m9d ! te*nical mean+ ( failasuf1 we recognise ?is gue/ z a pr(ess$ ,ari/otelian1 & presumably "o able to obta9 8 liv+ z a tea*] ( ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e4 ,f him ,ibn ,s9a le>n$ logic & _h 8 m9d direct$ t[>ds ! ,ari/otelian tea*+1 :i* 0 !n prea*$ l a religion4 ,aft] ?is he /udi$ ,euclid1 ! ,almage/a1 & ! 8,aphorisms ( ! ,philosoph]s40 ,8 next /udy 0 m$ic9e1 9 :i* he made s great progress t he adopt$ ! practice ( m$ic9e z 8 pr(ession4 ,he attempt$ to /udy ,ari/otle's ,metaphysics1 b f\nd himself entirely incapable ( und]/&+ its mean+1 until "o day he casually pur*as$ "o ( al-,f>abi's books1 & by its help he 0 able to grasp ! mean+ & purport ( :at _h s f> elud$ him4 ,x is on ?is gr\nd t we are entitl$ to describe ,ibn ,s9a z a pupil ( al-,f>abi3 x 0 al-,f>abi's "w :i* really =m$ 8 m9d & guid$ him to ! int]pretation ( ,ari/otle2 al-,f>abi 01 9 ! true/ s5se1 ! p>5t ( all subsequ5t ,arabic philosoph]s2 great z 0 ,ibn ,s9a he does n ent] into ! tradition 9 ! same way z al-,f>abi1 & does n ex]cise ! same influ5ce on 8 successors1 al?\gh al-,ghazali classes him ) al-,f>abi1 & calls !m ! lead+ int]pret]s ( ,ari/otle4 ,emphasis is sometimes laid ^u ! fact t ,ibn ,s9a treats philosophy z q ap>t f revelation z giv5 9 ! ,quran2 b 9 ?is he 0 n orig9al3 x 0 ! g5]al t5d5cy ( all :o came aft] al-,f>abi2 we c only say t ,ibn ,s9a 0 ! fir/ important writ] :o illu/rates ?is t5d5cy4 ,call$ to ex]cise 8 m$ical skill at ! c\rt ( ,nuh b4 ,mansur1 ! ,samanid gov]nor ( ,khurasan1 he enjoy$ t pr9ce's fav\r1 & 9 8 libr>y /udi$ _m works ( ,ari/otle hi!rto unkn[n to 8 contempor>ies1 & :5 t libr>y 0 burn$ he 0 reg>d$ z ! sole transmitt] ( ! doctr9es conta9$ 9 ^? books4 ,?is repres5ts contempor>y ,arabic op9ion ab\t him3 !re is no evid5ce 9 8 exi/+ writ+s t he _h access to ,ari/otelian mat]ial o!r ?an t g5]ally kn[n to ! ,syriac & ,arabic writ]s4 ,:5 ! affairs ( ! ,samanid dyna/y fell into disord] ,ibn ,s9a remov$ to ,khw>azan1 :]e he1 ) sev]al o!r s*ol>s1 enjoy$ ! enlight5$ patronage ( ! ,mamuni ,emir4 ,b ?is ,emir 0 liv+ a some:at prec>i\s exi/5ce 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! ,turki% ,sultan ,mahmud ( ,ghazna1 ! /]n *ampion ( or?odoxy & ! conqu]or ( ,india4 ,x 0 obvi\s t ! ,sultan covet$ ! ,emir's dom9ions1 & t :5 he *ose to seize !m x w\ld be impossible to resi/2 he actually did take !m 9 #djh4 ,mean:ile ! ,sultan 0 treat$ ) ! utmo/ def]5ce by ! ,emir & su* ( 8 neighb\rs z 7 all[$ to live on suff]ance4 ,mahmud wi%$ to be di/+ui%$ z a patron ( le>n+1 & 8invit$0 s*ol>s to 8 c\rt--9 pla9 words1 he kidnapp$ s*ol>s & took c>e t !y nev] aft]w>ds transgress$ ! /ricte/ limits ( or?odoxy4 ,among/ o!rs ! ,emir receiv$ a lett] invit+ su* m5 ( le>n+ z 7 to be f\nd 9 ,khw>azan to 8 c\rt4 ,! ,emir read out ! lett] to ! five mo/ di/+ui%$ s*ol>s :o 7 8 gue/s1 leav+ !m to act z !y ?\ght fit4 ,?ree ( ! gue/s 7 attract$ by ! ,sultan's reputation = g5]osity & accept$ ! invitation1 b two1 ,ibn ,s9a & ,masihi1 7 afraid to v5ture1 s !y escap$ privately & fl$2 ov]tak5 by a s&/orm 9 ! des]t ,masihi p]i%$1 b ,ibn ,s9a1 aft] long w&]+s1 f9ally f\nd a refuge 9 ,isfahan1 :]e ! ,buwayhid ,alau d-,dawla ,muhammad held 8 c\rt4 ,8 exp]i5ces %[ pla9ly t x 0 ! ,%iites :o 7 ! support]s ( philosophy1 & t ! gr[+ ,turki% p[] ( ,mahmud ( ,ghazna & ( ! ,seljuks :o succe$$ him 0 reaction>y & unfav\rably dispos$ t[>ds philosophical rese>*4 ,x 0 ! ,turki% p[] :i* f9ally *eck$ ! progress ( ,arabic philosophy 9 ! ,ea/4 ,ibn ,s9a wrote _m works 9 ,arabic & ,p]sian1 & a numb] ( ^! are /ill extant4 ,among/ 8 productions 7 z-,%afa1 an encyclopdia ( physics1 metaphysics1 & ma!matics 9 eighte5 volumes 7ed4 ,=get1 ,leid51 #ahib71 a treatise on logic & philosophy1 & ! m$ical works on :i* 8 fame s l>gely re/s4 ,! be/ kn[n ( ^! are ! ,najat abridg$ f ! z-,%afa1 & ! m$ical ,canon1 9 :i* he reproduc$ ! tea*+ ( ,gal5 & ,hippocrates ) illu/rative mat]ial f ! lat] m$ical writ]s4 ,! ,canon is m me?odical 9 its arrangem5t ?an ! al-,hawi ( ,razes1 hi!rto ! popul> manual ( m$ic9e 9 ,arabic2 inde$1 its *ief defect is an excessively elaborate classification4 ,x became ! lead+ m$ical au?ority1 &1 aft] translation into ,lat9 by ,g]>d ( ,cremona1 s]v$ = _m c5turies z ! *ief repres5tative ( ! ,arabic s*ool ( m$ic9e 9 we/]n ,europe1 hold+ its place 9 ! univ]sities ( ,montpeli] & ,l\va9 d[n to ,a4,d4 #afej4 ,ibn ,s9a treats logic z ( use r 9 a negative ?an 9 a positive way3 8! end ( logic is to give a man a /&>d rule1 by obs]v+ :i* he is pres]v$ f error 9 reason+0 7,i%>at ed4 ,=get1 p4 #b74 ,8 treatise on ?is subject 9 ,tis ,rasail fi-l-,hikma wa-l-,tabiyat 7p4 #gi1 pub4 ,/amb\l1 #abih71 is divid$ into n9e p>ts correspond+ to ! ,arabic canon ( ,ari/otle1 :i* includes ! ,isagoge z well z ! ,rhetoric & ,poetics4 ,he makes special note to ! logical be>+ ( p>ticul> grammatical con/ructions :i* 9 ,arabic diff] f ! =ms us$ 9 ,greek1 z1 = example1 :]e ! ,greek expresses ! univ]sal negative by 8all ,a is n ,b10 b ,arabic r5d]s ?is 8no?+ ( ,a 7is7 ,b40 ,he lays great emphasis ^u accurate def9ition1 :i* he describes z ! ess5tial basis ( all s\nd reason+1 & to ?is he devotes mu* att5tion4 ,def9ition prop] mu/ /ate ! quiddity ( a ?+1 its g5us1 diff]5tia1 & all its ess5tial *>act]i/ics1 & is ?us di/9ct f m]e description1 :i* ne$ only give ! propria & accid5ts 9 su* a way t ! ?+ may be recognis$ correctly4 ,9 deal+ ) ! univ]sal & ! p>ticul> he consid]s t ! univ]sal exi/s only 9 ! human m9d3 ! ab/ract idea ( ! g5us is =m$ 9 ! m9d ( ! obs]v] :5 he comp>es individuals & makes note ( _! po9ts ( simil>ity1 b ?is ab/ract idea exi/s only z a m5tal concept & has no objective reality4 ,! univ]sal prec$es ! individual 7g5us ante res7 only 9 ! way t ! g5]al idea exi/$ 9 ! m9d ( ! ,creator be=e ! individual 0 =m$1 j z ! idea ( an object to be made exi/s 9 ! m9d ( ! artific] be=e ! "w is execut$4 ,! g5]al idea is realis$ 9 matt] 7g5us 9 rebus71 b only :5 accompani$ by accid5ts3 ap>t f ^! accid5ts x exi/s only z a m5tal ab/raction4 ,aft] ! g5]al idea is realis$ 9 matt] 7g5us po/ res7 x is possible = ! intellect to make a m5tal ab/raction & to use ?is z a /&>d ( comp>ison ) o!r individuals4 ,! g5]ic belongs only to ! realm ( ?\ght1 & su* ab/ract ideas h no objective exi/5ce1 al?\gh !y may be us$ z real 9 logic4 ,! s\l is treat$ z a collection ( faculties 7k[a7 or =ces act+ on ! body3 all activity ( any sort1 9 bodies animal or vegetable1 z well z human1 proce$s ei!r f su* =ces add$ to ! body or f ! mixture ( elem5ts f :i* ! body is =m$4 ,! simple/ s\l condition is t ( ! vegetable ^: activity is limit$ to nutrition & g5]ation & accretion by gr[? 7,najat1 p4 #dc74 ,! animal s\l possesses ! vegetable faculties b adds to !m o!rs1 & ! human s\l adds yet o!rs to ^!1 & ! addition made to ! human s\l enables x to be describ$ z a rational s\l4 ,! faculties pres5t 9 ! s\l may be divid$ into two classes1 ! faculties ( p]ception & ! faculties ( action4 ,! faculties ( p]ception are p>tly ext]nal & p>tly int]nal3 ( ^! ! ext]nal faculties exi/ 9 ! body :]e9 ! s\l dwells & are ! eight s5ses1 sight1 he>+1 ta/e1 smell1 p]ception ( heat & cold1 p]ception ( dry & moi/1 p]ception ( resi/ance z by h>d & s(t1 & p]ception ( r\gh & smoo?4 ,by means ( ^! s5ses ! =m ( ! ext]nal object is reproduc$ 9 ! s\l ( ! p]cipi5t4 ,!re are f\r int]nal faculties ( p]ception3 7i47 al-musawira1 8! =mative10 :]eby ! s\l p]ceives ! object )\t ! aid ( ! s5ses z by an act ( imag9ation2 7ii47 al-mufakkira1 8! cogitative10 by :i* ! s\l p]ceiv+ a numb] ( qualities associat$ toge!r ab/racts "o or m ( !m f ! o!rs ) :i* !y are associat$1 or gr\ps toge!r ^? :i* are n se5 z connect$2 ?is is ! faculty ( ab/raction :i* is employ$ 9 =m+ g5]al ideas2 7iii47 al wahm1 or 8op9ion10 by means ( :i* a g5]al conclusion is drawn f a numb] ( ideas gr\p$ toge!r2 & 7iv47 al-hafiza or az-zakira1 8memory10 :i* pres]ves & records ! judgm5ts =m$4 ,m5 & animals p]ceive p>ticul>s by means ( s5se2 man atta9s ! k ( univ]sals by means ( reason4 ,! aql or rational s\l ( man is consci\s ( its own faculties1 n by means ( an ext]nal1 i4e41 bodily s5se1 b imm$iately by ! ex]cise ( its own reason+ p[]4 ,?is proves to be an indep5d5t entity1 ev5 ?\gh accid5tally connect$ ) a body & dep5d5t on t body = s5se p]ception3 ! possibility ( direct k )\t s5se p]ception %[s t x is n ess5tially dep5d5t on ! body1 & ! possibility ( its exi/5ce )\t ! body1 :i* foll[s logically f its indep5d5ce1 is ! pro( ( its immortality4 ,e liv+ creature p]ceives t x has only "o ego or s\l 9 itself1 & ?is s\l1 says ,ibn ,s9a1 did n exi/ prior to ! body b 0 creat$1 t is to say1 proce$$ by emanation f ! ,ag5t ,intellect at ! "t :5 ! body 0 g5]at$4 7,najat1 p4 #ea74 ,"u ! head ( ,physics ,ibn ,s9a consid]s ! =ces obs]v$ 9 nature1 includ+ all t are 9 ! s\l1 save only t :i* is peculi> to ! rational s\l ( man4 ,^! =ces are ( ?ree k9ds3 "s1 su* z weight1 are an ess5tial "p ( ! body 9 :i* !y occur2 o!rs are ext]nal to ! body on :i* !y act1 & are su* z cause movem5t or re/2 & o!rs1 aga91 are su* z ! faculties possess$ by ! non-rational s\ls ( ! sph]es1 :i* produce movem5t directly )\t ext]nal impulse4 ,no =ce is inf9ite2 x may be increas$ or dim9i%$1 & always produces a f9ite result4 ,"t is reg>d$ z ess5tially dep5d5t on movem5t2 al?\gh x is n itself a =m ( movem5t1 s f> z ! idea ( "t is conc]n$1 x is measur$ & made kn[n by ! movem5ts ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,foll[+ al-,k9di place is def9$ z 8! limit ( ! conta9] :i* t\*es ! conta9$40 ,vacuum is 8only a "n01 9 fact x is impossible1 = all space c be increas$1 dim9i%$1 or divid$ into p>ts1 & s mu/ conta9 some?+ capable ( increase1 etc4 ,god alone is 8necess>y be+10 & s ! supreme reality4 ,space1 "t1 etc41 belong to 8actual be+10 & :atev] necessity !y possess is d]iv$ f ,god4 ,! objects /udi$ 9 physical sci5ce are only 8possible be+10 :i* may or may n become 8actual be+40 ,god alone is necess>ily exi/5t ?r\gh all et]nity3 ,he is ! tru? 9 ! s5se t ,he alone is true absolutely1 all o!r reality is s only 9 s f> z x is d]iv$ f ,god4 ,f ,god by emanation comes ! aql or 8,ag5t ,intellect10 & f ?is proce$s ! intellect or reason :i* diff]5tiates ! rational s\l 9 man f ! s\l 9 o!r creatures4 ,to e man ?is intellect is giv51 & 9 due c\rse x returns to ! 8,ag5t ,intellect0 :i* 0 its s\rce4 ,! s\l's possible activity1 indep5d5t ( ! body ) :i* x is associat$1 proves its immortality1 b ?is immortality does n imply sep>ate exi/5ce1 b r reabsorption 9 ! s\rce4 ,f ! aql also proce$s ! univ]se1 b n l ! reason ( man by direct emanation1 b by ! m$ium ( successive emanations4 ,ibn ,s9a 0 ! la/ ( ! great philosoph]s ( ! ,ea/4 ,two causes comb9$ to t]m9ate philosophy prop] 9 ,asiatic ,islam4 ,9 ! fir/ place x _h become closely id5tifi$ ) ! ,%iite h]esies1 & 0 ?us 9 bad repute 9 ! eyes ( ! or?odox2 :il/ ! ,%iite sects !mselves1 all ( ! extrem] k9d 7ghulat71 :i* _h devot$ !mselves mo/ to philosophical /udies1 _h also tak5 up a numb] ( pre-,islamic religi\s !ories1 su* z transmigration ( s\ls1 etc41 :i* 7 detrim5tal to sci5tific rese>*4 ,neo-,platonism _h %[n itself at an e>li] p]iod prone to simil> t5d5cies4 ,z a result ! ,%iites t5d$ t[>ds my/ic & (t5 fanta/ic !ories1 :i* 7 disc\rag+ to ! /udy ( ,ari/otelian doctr9es4 ,! second cause lay 9 ! rise ( dom9ant ,turki% elem5ts1 ,mahmud ( ,ghazna1 !n ! ,saljuk ,turks1 :i* 7 ( uncompromis+ or?odoxy1 & abhorr$ ev]y?+ :i* 0 associat$ ) ! ,%iites or t5d$ to rationalism4 ,= all t x left p]man5t m>ks 9 ,asiatic ,islam 9 two directions3 9 or?odox s*ola/icism & 9 my/icism4 ,we h already not$ t ,muslim b4 ,muhammad ,abu l-,qasim al-,majriti al-,&alusi 7d4 #cie-f71 z 8 "n d5otes1 a native ( ,madrid1 br\ght ! tea*+s ( ! ,bre?r5 ( ,purity to ,spa91 & s incid5tally ar\s$ an int]e/ !re 9 ! philosophy :i* _h be5 /udi$ 9 ! ,ea/4 ,= "s "t no important results appe>$1 !n foll[$ a s]ies ( brilliant philosophical writ]s & tea*]s1 d]iv+ _! inspiration p>tly f ! ,bre?r51 & p>tly f ! ,jewi% /ud5ts4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,sufism ,sufism or ,islamic my/icism1 :i* becomes prom95t 9 ! c\rse ( ! #crd c5t4 ,a4,h41 0 p>tly a product ( ,hell5i/ic influ5ces1 & ex]cis$ a consid]able influ5ce on ! philosoph]s ( ! "t ( ,ibn ,s9a & aft]w>ds4 ,! "n ,sufi is d]iv$ f suf 8wool10 & s means 8wool-clad10 ?us d5ot+ a p]son :o f *oice us$ clo?+ ( ! simple/ k9d & avoid$ e =m ( luxury or o/5tation4 ,t ?is is ! true mean+ is prov$ by ! fact t ,p]sian employs z its equival5t ! t]m pa%m9a-pu%1 :i* also means 8wool-clad40 ,by a popul> error ! ,arabic writ]s on ,sufism (t5 treat ! ^w z d]iv$ f safa1 8purity10 & s make x some?+ ak9 to 8puritan02 & /ill m incorrectly c]ta9 ,we/]n writ]s h suppos$ t x is a translit]ation ( ! ,greek ,greek3 sophos 4 ,! emphasis is laid ^u ! ascetic avoidance ( luxury & ! volunt>y adoption ( simplicity 9 clo?+ on ! "p ( ^? to :om ! t]m is appli$4 ,if we reg>d ?is z a =m ( asceticism x w be at once object$ t asceticism has no place 9 ! tea*+ ( ! ,quran & is ali5 to ! "* ( e>ly ,islam4 ,9 a s5se ?is is true1 & 9 a s5se untrue accord+ to ! mean+ we atta* to ! t]m 8asceticism40 ,z x is us$ 9 ! hi/ory ( ,*ri/ian mona/icism1 or ( ! devotees ( sev]al ,indian religions1 or ev5 ( ! latt] ,sufis1 x implies a delib]ate avoidance ( ! normal pleasures & indulg5ces ( human life1 & especially ( m>riage1 z ?+s :i* entangle ! s\l & prev5t its spiritual progress4 ,9 ?is s5se asceticism is ali5 to ! _s ( ,islam1 & appe>s among/ ,muslims only z an exotic4 ,b ! t]m may be us$1 n v accurately p]haps1 ( ! puritanical re/ra9t & simplicity :i* avoids all luxury & display1 & delib]ately tries to reta9 a primitively simple & self-d5y+ mann] ( life4 ,9 ?is latt] s5se asceticism or puritanism 0 a di/+ui%+ m>k ( ! 8old believ]0 z contra/$ ) ! secul>is$ ,arab ( ! ,umayyad type1 & ?is attitude always _h its admir]s4 ,! hi/orians con/antly ref] ) comm5dation to ! ab/emi\s lives ( ! e>ly ,khalifs & ! 8,companions0 ( ! ,prophet1 & describe h[ !y 7 ab/95t n f pov]ty b 9 ord] to put !mselves on an equality ) _! subjects1 & to pres]ve ! traditional mode ( life ( ! ,prophet & 8 fir/ foll[]s1 & v (t5 9 ! recognis$ ,traditions we f9d m5tion ( ! b>e & simple mode ( life ( ! fir/ ,muslims4 ,q e>ly ?is simplicity appe>s z ! di/9ctive m>k ( ! /rict ,muslim1 & emphasizes ! diff]5ce betwe5 him & ! worldly foll[]s ( ! ,umayyads1 & simil> in/ances appe> among/ ! dev\t ,muslims ( ! pres5t day4 ,su* 7 n ,sufis1 b !y may be reg>d$ z ! precursors ( ! ,sufis4 ,! hi/orian al-,fakhri1 describ+ ! ab/emi\s life ( ! fir/ ,khalifs1 says t !y endeav\r$ by ?is self-re/ra9t to wean !mselves f ! lu/s ( ! fle%4 ,?is is read+ a lat] idea into a mu* e>li] practice1 :i* 0 orig9ally design$ simply z a m accurate foll[+ ( ! ,prophet1 :o 0 unable to enjoy any luxury or spl5d\r2 b x %[s t lat] g5]ations 7 incl9$ to ascribe a m def9itely ascetic motive to ! affect$ly simple life ( ! e>li] ,muslims1 & no d\bt t e>ly puritanism1 misund]/ood by lat] ages1 contribut$ to spread asceticism4 ,al-,qu%ayri 7cit$ ,br[ne3 ,lit4 ,hi/4 ( ,p]sia1 i4 pp4 #big-h71 aft] ref]r+ to ! 8,companions0 & 8,foll[]s0 ( ! fir/ age ( ,islam1 !n m5tions ! 8ascetes0 or 8devotees0 z ! elect ( a lat] age1 ^? :o 7 mo/ deeply conc]n$ ) matt]s ( religion1 & f9ally ! ,sufis z ^? elect ( /ill lat] times1 8^: s\ls 7 set on ,god1 & :o gu>d$ _! he>ts f ! disa/]s ( he$lessness40 ,hi/orically ?is is an error1 = ! sa9ts ( e>ly ,islam 7 inspir$ by a _s ( /rict adh]5ce to ! traditional life ( _! des]t ance/ors & reject$ luxury z an 8innovation10 v mu* ! same _s z t obs]v$ 9 ! anci5t ,hebrew prophets2 :il/ ! ,sufis 7 no en?usia/s = tradition1 b es*ew$ bodily indulg5ce z an entanglem5t ( ! fle% :i* h9d]$ ! progress ( ! _s1 s t !y 7 9 no s5se ! successors ( ! 8,companions10 b 7 influ5c$ by new ideas unkn[n to e>ly ,islam4 ,yet sup]ficially ! results 7 v mu* alike1 & ?is caus$ ! two to be connect$1 & help$ ! lat] cu/om ( connect+ ! e>ly puritans ) ! ascetics ( a subsequ5t age4 ,9 its e>lie/ =m1 also1 ,islam made a /rong appeal to ! motive ( fe>1 an appeal n bas$ on div9e sev]ity s mu* z on div9e ju/ice & on man's consci\sness ( 8 own s9fulness & unwor?9ess1 & on ! fleet+ passage ( ! life liv$ 9 ?is pres5t _w4 ,!re 0 an int5se conc5tration on ! ,day ( ,judgm5t & on ! p]ils ( ! s9n]1 a tea*+ :i* is p]ceiv$ 9 ! ,quran ev5 by ! mo/ casual read]3 b all ?is 0 n altoge!r cong5ial to ! ,arab1 al?\gh he 9 poetry c]ta9ly incl9$ t[>ds a tone ( sadness4 ,! inevitable result ( ?is tea*+ 0 asceticism 9 ! puritanical s5se1 or1 p]haps we %\ld say1 a tone ( sev]ity 9 religion4 ,jami1 "o ( ! greate/ ,p]sian au?orities on ,sufism1 tells u t ! "n 8,sufi0 0 fir/ appli$ to ,abu ,ha%im 7d4 #afb71 an ,arab ( ,kufa :o sp5t ! great] "p ( 8 life 9 ,syria1 & is typical ( ! e>ly ,islamic devotee :o foll[$ ! simplicity ( ! ,prophet's life & 0 deeply influ5c$ by ! ,quranic tea*+ ab\t s91 judgm5t1 & ! brief passage ( e>?ly life4 ,simil> devotees1 claim$ z ,sufis by lat] ,sufi writ]s1 b m prop]ly devotees :o 7 _! precursors1 appe> 9 ! c\rse ( ! #bnd c5tury1 su* z ,ibrahim b4 ,adham 7d4 #afb71 ,daud ( ,tayy 7d4 #afe71 ,fadayl ( ,iyad 7d4 #ahh71 ,maruf ( ,k>kh 7d4 #bjj71 & o!rs1 bo? m5 & wom54 ,among/ ^! !re 0 gradually evolv$ ! beg9n+s ( an ascetic !ology 9 traditional say+s & n>ratives ( _! lives & conduct1 a hagiology :i* lays great emphasis ^u _! p5ances & self mortification4 ,( ?is mat]ial ! mo/ important is ! record$ tea*+ ( ,maruf ( ,k>kh1 f :i* we may quote ! def9ition ( ,sufism z 8! appreh5sion ( div9e realities10 :i*1 9 a slightly alt]$ s5se p]haps1 becomes ! keynote ( lat] ,sufism4 ,c we trace ! orig9 ( ^! e>ly recluses8 ,von ,krem] 7,h]rs*1 p4 #fg7 consid]s ?is type z a native ,arab gr[? develop$ f pre-,islamic ,*ri/ian influ5ces4 ,*ri/ian mona/icism we "k 0 famili> to ! ,arabs 9 ! c\ntry fr++ ! ,syrian des]t & 9 ! des]t ( ,s9ai3 ( ?is we h evid5ce bo? 9 ,*ri/ian writ]s l ,nilus & 9 ! pre-,islamic poets1 z 9 ! words ( ,imru l-,qays3-- 8,fri5d1 see ! lightn+--x fla%$ & is gone1 l ! fla%+ ( two h&s on a cr[n$ pill>3 ,did its blaze fla% =?8 or 0 x ! lamp ( a monk :o p\r$ oil on ! twi/$ wick80 ,! h]mit's life 0 kn[n ev5 9 ,arabia itself1 & tradition relates t ,muhammad receiv$ 8 fir/ call :5 he _h retir$ to ! cave ( ,hira & 0 liv+ z a recluse !re1 return+ p]iodically to 8 home & tak+ back food ) him to ! cave 7cf4 ,bukh>i3 ,sahih1 i474 ,x seems likely1 inde$1 t ! e>ly recluses ( ,islam 7 inspir$ by ! example ( ,*ri/ian mona/icism1 ei!r directly or ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ,muhammad's traditional retirem5t4 ,b ^! recluses 7 n num]\s1 & admitt$ly neglect ! ,quranic comm& to m>ry 7,qur4 #bd1 #cb74 ,?us ! e>li] asceticism %[s ! "* ( dev\t quietism1 ( a puritanical ab/95ce f display ( weal? & f self-indulg5ce1 ( a /rict simplicity ( life r ?an ( a volunt>y pov]ty & mortification1 ( occasional retirem5t f ! _w1 & only 9 r>e in/ances ( ! p]man5t adoption ( ! h]mit life4 ,an in/ance ( ?is type occurs 9 ,abu l-,abbas z-,sabti 7d4 #ahd71 son ( ! ,khalif ,h>unu r-,ra%id1 :o r5\nc$ rank & =tune = a life ( m$itation & retirem5t4 ,9 ! latt] "p ( ! #crd c5t4 we beg9 to f9d evid5ces ( a 8new ,sufism10 :i* 0 inspir$ by religi\s ideals o!r ?an ^? :i* _h be5 dom9ant 9 e>ly ,islam1 & :i* develop$ f ^? ideals a !ology ( its own1 :i* = a long "t 0 n admitt$ z or?odox4 ,asceticism /ill occurs1 b :il/1 on ! "o h&1 x beg9s to take a m def9ite "* 9 ! delib]ate seek+ ( pov]ty & mortification1 x is1 on ! o!r h&1 relegat$ to a subord9ate place z a m]ely prep>atory /age 9 ! ,sufi life1 :i* is te*nically describ$ z a 8j\rney40 ,pov]ty1 :i* among/ ! e>ly ,muslims 0 e/eem$ simply 9 s f> z x reproduc$ ! mode/ life ( ! ,prophet & 8 companions1 & 0 a /&+ prote/ aga9/ ! secul>isation ( ! ,umayyads1 n[ assum$ great] prom95ce z a devotional ex]cise1 a *ange :i* appe>s def9itely 9 ,daud at-,tai 7d4 #afe71 :o limit$ 8 possessions to a ru% mat1 a brick :i* he us$ z a pill[1 & a lea!r wat] bottle4 ,9 lat] ,sufism pov]ty takes a position ( great prom95ce3 ! t]ms faqir1 8poor man10 & d>wi%1 8m5dicant10 become synonyms = 8,sufi40 ,b 9 ,sufi tea*+ religi\s pov]ty does n mean abs5ce ( possessions only3 x implies ! abs5ce ( all int]e/ 9 e>?ly ?+s1 ! giv+ up ( all p>ticipation 9 e>?ly possessions1 & desir+ ,god z ! only aim ( desire4 ,s mortification is ! subjugation ( ! evil "p ( ! animal s\l1 ! nafs :i* is ! seat ( ! lu/ & passions1 & s ! wean+ ( ! s\l f mat]ial int]e/s1 a 8dy+ to self & to ! _w0 z a beg9n+ ( a liv+ to ,god4 ,:at 0 ! s\rce ( ! !ology develop$ 9 ! new] ,sufism8 ,und\bt$ly ?is 0 neo-,platonic1 z has be5 prov$ by ,dr4 ,ni*olson 7,select$ ,poems f ! ,diwan ( ,%ams-i-,tabriz1 ,camb41 #ahih1 & ,! ,my/ics ( ,islam1 ,lond4 #aiad71 & by ,pr(4 ,br[ne 7,lit]>y ,hi/4 ( ,p]sia1 ,lond41 #aijb1 *ap4 xiii471 & =ms "p ( ! influ5ce :i* came into ,islam at ! introduction ( ,greek philosophy "u ! ,abbasids4 ,b z 9 philosophy & o!r cultural transmissions direct ,greek influ5ce 0 prec$$ by an indirect influ5ce br\ght to be> ?r\gh ,syriac & ,p]sian1 s x 0 also 9 neo-platonic !ology1 = neo-,platonic influ5ces _h already be5 br\ght to be> ^u ! ,syrians & ,p]sians 9 ! pre-,islamic p]iod4 ,9 ! =efront ( ! lat] direct influ5ce mu/ be plac$ ! s-call$ ,!ology ( ,ari/otle1 :i* x is no exagg]ation to describe z ! mo/ prom95t & ! wide/ circulat$ manual ( neo-,platonism :i* has ev] appe>$4 ,x is1 z we h already /at$1 an abridg$ translation ( ! la/ ?ree books ( ,plot9us' ,enneads4 ,n[ ! my/icism ( ,plot9us is philosophical & n religi\s1 b x l5ds itself to a !ological int]pretation v easily1 j z neo-,platonism z a :ole v readily became a !ological sy/em 9 ! h&s ( ,jambli*us1 ( ! pagans ( ,h>ran1 & su* l2 & ! ,sufis 7 incl9$ to make ?is application1 :il/ ! falasifa conf9$ !mselves to its philosophical side4 ,x seems probable t ! influ5ce ( ! ,pseudo-,dionysius 0 br\ght to be> ^u ,islam ab\t ! same "t4 ,! ,pseudo-,dionysian writ+s consi/ ( f\r treatises1 ( :i* two1 a treatise 8,on ,my/ical ,!ology0 9 five *apt]s1 & a treatise 8,on ! ,names ( ,god0 9 ?irte5 *apt]s1 h be5 ! *ief s\rce ( ,*ri/ian my/ical !ology4 ,! fir/ ref]5ce to ^! writ+s occurs 9 ,a4,d4 #ecb1 :5 ! claim 0 made t !y 7 ! "w ( ,dionysius1 ! ,areopagite1 a pupil ( ,/4 ,paul1 or at lea/ repres5t 8 tea*+4 ,9 sev]al places ! writ] cites ,hi]o!us z 8 tea*]1 & ?is enables u to id5tify ! s\rce z a ,syrian monk nam$ ,/eph5 ,b> ,sudaili1 :o wrote "u ! "n ( ,hi]o!us 7cf4 ,asseman1 ,bibl4 ,ori5t4 ii4 #bij-bia74 ,?is ,b> ,sudaili 0 abbot ( a conv5t at ,edessa1 & 0 involv$ 9 controv]sy ) ,james ( ,s>ugh1 s t we may ref] ! writ+s to ! latt] "p ( ! #e? c5tury ,a4,d4 ,!y 7 translat$ into ,syriac v soon aft] _! fir/ appe>ance 9 ,greek1 &1 z famili> to ,syriac ,*ri/ians1 mu/ h become indirectly kn[n to ! ,muslims4 ,we h no direct evid5ce z to _! translation into ,arabic1 b ,mai gives fragm5ts ( o!r works ( ,b> ,sudaili :i* appe> 9 ,arabic ,,mss4 9 8 ,spicilegium ,romanum 7iii4 #gjg74 ,! traditional view ( ! relations betwe5 ,sufism & philosophy is describ$ 9 ! anecdote cit$ by ,pr(4 ,br[ne 7,lit4 ,hi/4 ( ,p]sia1 ii4 #bfa1 f ,akhlag-i-,jalali7 ( ! ,sufi ,abu ,said b4 ,abi l-,khayr 7d4 #dda ,a4,h4 #ajdi ,a4,d471 :o is said to h met & conv]s$ ) ,ibn ,s9a2 :5 !y p>t$ ,abu ,said said ( ,ibn ,s9a1 8,:at ,i see1 he kn[s10 :il/ ,ibn ,s9a said1 8,:at ,i "k1 he sees40 ,b !re 7 o!r influ5ces ( a second>y "* at "w 9 ,iraq & ,p]sia :i* become important :5 we rememb] t x 0 ! subject population ( ^? p>ts :i* _h1 to a l>ge ext5t1 replac$ ! ,arabs z ! lead]s ( ,islam dur+ ! ,abbasid p]iod4 ,9 connection ) ! ,sufis probably we _c ref] any influ5ce to ! ,zoroa/rian religion prop]1 :i* _h a non-ascetic & national "*2 b ! ,mani*an & ,masdekite religions1 ! two 8free *ur*es0 ( ,p]sia1 %[ a def9itely ascetic tone1 & :5 we f9d1 z is ! case1 t _m ( ! e>ly ,sufis 7 conv]ts f ,zoroa/rianism1 or ! sons ( su* conv]ts1 we are incl9$ to suspect t1 ?\gh pr(ess+ t recognis$ religion1 !y 7 9 all probability actually ,z9diqs1 t is to say secretly h]etics & initiates ( ! ,mani*an or ,masdekite sect mak+ ext]nal pr(ession ( ! m recognis$ cult1 z 0 ! common practice ( ^! ,z9diqs4 ,note mu/ also be made ( ! ,gno/ic influ5ces transmitt$ ?r\gh ! ,saniya ( ! f5 c\ntry betwe5 ,wasit & ,basra1 ! ,m&ans1 z !y are call$ to di/+ui% !m f ! s-call$ ,sabians ( ,h>ran4 ,! ,sufi ,maruf ( ,k>kh 0 himself ! son ( ,sabian p>5ts4 ,& aga9 we mu/ n ignore ! probability ( ,buddhi/ influ5ces1 = ,buddhi/ propag&a _h be5 active 9 pre-,islamic times 9 ,ea/]n ,p]sia & ,transoxiana4 ,buddhi/ mona/]ies exi/$ 9 ,balkh1 & x is notewor?y t ! ascete ,ibrahim b4 ,adham 7d4 #afb--;cf4 supra7 is traditionally describ$ z a pr9ce ( ,balkh :o left 8 ?rone to become a d>wi%4 ,on clos] exam9ation1 h[ev]1 x does n appe> t ,buddhi/ influ5ce c h be5 v /rong1 z !re are ess5tial diff]5ces betwe5 ,sufi & ,buddhi/ !ories4 ,a sup]ficial resemblance exi/s betwe5 ! ,buddhi/ nirvana & ! fana or reabsorption ( ! s\l 9 ! ,div9e ,_s ( ,sufism4 ,b ! ,buddhi/ doctr9e repres5ts ! s\l z los+ its individuality 9 ! passionless placidity ( absolute quiesc5ce1 :il/ ! ,sufi doctr9e1 ?\gh also tea*+ a loss ( individuality1 reg>ds ev]la/+ life z consi/+ 9 ! ec/atic contemplation ( ! ,div9e ,beauty4 ,!re is an ,indian p>allel to fana1 b x is n 9 ,buddhism1 b 9 ! ,v$antic pan!ism4 ,x is g5]ally accept$ t ! fir/ expon5t ( ,sufi doctr9e 0 ! ,egyptian1 or ,nubian1 ,dhu n-,nun 7d4 #bde-bdf71 a pupil ( ! juri/ ,malik b4 ,anas1 :o liv$ at ! "t :5 !re 0 mu* p]colation ( ,hell5i/ic influ5ce into ! ,islamic _w4 ,he 0 inde$ ne>ly contempor>y ) ,abdullah1 ! son ( ,maymum1 ^: "w we h already notic$4 ,dhu n-,nun's tea*+ 0 record$ & sy/ematiz$ by al-,junayd ( ,baghdad 7d4 #big71 & 9 x appe>s ess5tial doctr9e ( ,sufism1 z ( all my/icism1 9 ! tea*+ ( ta:id1 ! f9al union ( ! s\l ) ,god1 a doctr9e :i* is express$ 9 a way closely resembl+ ! neo-,platonic tea*+1 save t 9 ,sufism ! means :]eby ?is union is to be atta9$ is n by ! ex]cise ( ! intuitive faculty ( reason b by piety & devotion4 ,/ill ! two come v close :5 we f9d 9 ! tea*+s ( ! lat] philosoph]s t ! highe/ ex]cise ( reason consi/s 9 ! intuitive appreh5sion ( ! et]nal v]ities r ?an 9 any o!r activity ( ! intellect4 ,al-,junayd is /at$ by ,jami to h be5 a ,p]sian1 & x is *iefly 9 ,p]sian h&s t ! doctr9es ( ,sufism develop & turn t[>ds pan!ism4 ,bo? agno/icism & pan!ism are pres5t practically 9 ! lat] neo-,platonism2 agno/icism z reg>ds ! unkn[able ,fir/ ,cause1 ! ,god f ! ,ag5t ,intellect is an emanation1 a doctr9e :i* develops 9 ! tea*+ ( ! philosoph]s & ( ! ,ismailians & k9dr$ sects2 b ,sufi tea*+ c5tres its att5tion ^u ! kn[able ,god1 :i* ! philosoph] w\ld describe z ! ,ag5t ,intellect or ,logos1 & ?is develops m usually 9 a pan!i/ic direction4 ,! doctr9es ?us develop$ & express$ by al-,junayd 7 boldly prea*$ by 8 pupil1 a%-,%ibli ( ,kurasan 7d4 #cce74 ,al-,husayn b4 ,mansur al-,hallaj 7d4 #cji7 0 a fell[-/ud5t ( a%-,%ibli1 & %[s ,sufism z alli$ ) extremely unor?odox elem5ts4 ,he 0 ( ,zoroa/rian desc5t & closely 9 t\* ) ! ,q>matians1 & seems to h held ^? doctr9es :i* are usually associat$ ) ! ghulat or extreme ,%iites1 su* z transmigration1 inc>nation1 etc4 ,he 0 put to dea? z a h]etic = decl>+ 8,i am ! tru?01 ?us id5tify+ himself ) ,god4 ,! acc\nts giv5 ( him %[ great diff]5ces ( op9ion3 = ! mo/ "p ! e>li] hi/orians1 approa*+ ! subject f an or?odox /&-po9t1 repres5t him z a wily conjur] :o by pret5d$ miracles ga9$ a numb] ( adh]5ts1 b lat] ,sufi writ]s reg>d him z a sa9t & m>tyr :o suff]$ because he disclos$ ! great secret ( ! union betwe5 ! s\l & ,god4 ,! doctr9e ( hulul1 or ! inc>nation ( ,god 9 ! human body1 0 "o ( ! c>d9al t5ets ( ! ghulat4 ,accord+ to al-,hallaj1 man is ess5tially div9e because he 0 creat$ by ,god 9 8 own image1 & t is :y1 9 ,qur4 #b1 #cb1 ,god bids ! angels wor%ip ,adam4 ,9 hulul1 :i* is treat$ z ta:id tak+ place 9 ?is pres5t life1 ! deity ( ,god ent]s ! human s\l 9 ! same way t ! s\l at bir? ent]s ! body4 ,?is tea*+ is a fusion ( ! old pre-,islamic ,p]sian beliefs z to inc>nation & ! philosophical !ories ( neo-,platonism1 ( ! ,intellect or rational s\l or _s1 z x is m commonly call$ by ,engli% writ]s1 ! "p add$ to ! animal s\l is an emanation f ! ,ag5t ,intellect1 to :i* x w ultimately return & ) :i* x w be unit$ 7cf4 ,massignon3 ,kitab al-,tawas91 ,p>is1 #aiac74 ,?is is an extremely int]e/+ illu/ration ( ! fusion ( ori5tal & ,hell5i/ic elem5ts 9 ,sufism1 & %[s t ! !oretical doctr9es ( ,sufism1 :atev] !y may h borr[$ f ,p]sia & ,india1 receive _! int]pretative hypo!ses f neo-,platonism4 ,x is int]e/+ also z %ew+ 9 ! p]son ( al-,hallaj a meet+-po9t betwe5 ! ,sufi & ! philosoph] ( ! ,ismailian s*ool4 ,v simil> 0 ! tea*+ ( ,abu ,yazid or ,bayazid ( ,bi/am 7d4 #bfj71 :o 0 also ( ,zoroa/rian desc5t4 ,! pan!i/ic elem5t is v cle>ly def9$3 8,god10 he said1 8is an unfa?omable ocean02 he himself 0 ! ?rone ( ,god1 ! pres]v$ ,tablet1 ! ,p51 ! ,^w--all images tak5 f ! ,quran--,abraham1 ,moses1 ,jesus1 & ,gabriel1 = all :o obta9 true be+ are absorb$ into ,god & become "o ) ,god4 ,pan!i/ic views & ! doctr9e ( hulul occur frequ5tly 9 ,sufi tea*+1 b !y are by no means univ]sal4 ,inde$1 we _c make any accurate /atem5t ( ,sufi doctr9e 9 detail1 b only ( g5]al pr9ciples & t5d5cies4 ,! ,sufis d n =m a sect1 b are simply devotees ( my/ical t5d5cies spread ?r\gh all ! bran*es ( ! ,muslim community4 ,9 ! #crd c5t4 !y are mo/ prom95t among/ ! ,%iites1 & s ,%iite views seem to be incorporat$ 9 ,sufism1 b !y =m no integral "p ( x4 ,precisely simil> conditions occur 9 ,*ri/ianity :]e my/icism has fl\ri%$ 9 ! extrem] ,prote/ant sects z well z 9 ! contemplative ord]s ( ! ,ca?olic ,*ur*1 &1 9 spite ( !ological diff]5ces1 has a v consid]able am\nt ( common mat]ial4 ,only x mu/ be not$ t no basis ( my/icism exi/s unless "s su* relations betwe5 ! human s\l & ,god are pre-suppos$1 z are sugge/$ by neo-,platonism4 ,*ri/ian my/icism1 9 ! true s5se1 does n beg9 9 ! ,we/ until ! works ( ! ,pseudo-,dionysius 7 translat$ into ,lat9 9 ! #i? c5t4 ,a4,d41 & ,muslim my/icism dates f ! translation ( ! ,!ology ( ,ari/otle4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x mu/ also be not$ t my/icism ex]cises a /rong modify+ influ5ce on !ology g5]ally4 ,! t5d5cy ( my/icism is t[>ds a latitud9>ian type3 x is consequ5tly oppos$1 consci\sly or unconsci\sly1 to def9ite dogmatic tea*+ & s to speculative !ology & philosophy4 ,sup]ficially ,muslim my/icism seems to be organis$ l a sect4 ,ref]5ce is (t5 made to ! v>i\s 8grades0 ( ,sufis4 ,b ^! are n (ficial grades l ^? ( ! ,ismailians & simil> bodies1 b d5ote successive /ages on ! pa? ( p]sonal hol9ess3 x is no m ?an a fanciful t]m9ology1 p]haps borr[$ f "s ( ! sects because x seems t ,sufism fl\ri%$ e>lie/ & mo/ freely 9 "s ( ! extrem] ,%iite gr\ps4 ,x 01 & is1 mo/ usual = ! beg9n] 9 ! pa? ( hol9ess to put himself "u ! direction ( "s exp]i5c$ spiritual guide1 :o acts z 8 tea*]1 & is kn[n z %eikh1 mur%id1 or pir4 ,9 _m cases ?is pupilage involves absolute & bl9d ob$i5ce to ! tea*]1 because ! r5unciation ( p]sonal wi%es & incl9ations & all t c be describ$ z self-w is "o ( ! =ms ( abnegation requir$ ( ^? :o seek to be wean$ f e>?ly int]e/s4 ,f ! gr\p+ ( devotees ar\nd "s prom95t tea*] has aris5 ! f\ndation ( d>wi% confrat]nities1 sometimes z sodalities ( laym51 :o pursue _! secul> occupations & meet f "t to "t = religi\s ex]cises & in/ruction1 & sometimes z p]man5t communities liv+ 9 /rict ob$i5ce "u a %eikh4 ,traces ( su* mona/ic in/itutions appe> 9 ,damascus ab\t #aej ,a4,h41 & 9 ,khurasan "s fifty ye>s lat]4 ,none ( ! exi/+ ord]s ( ,islam1 h[ev]1 seem to be ( s e>ly a date4 ,we he> ( a %eikh ,alwan 7circ4 #adi71 ^: %r9e is at ,j$da1 & :o is ! reput$ f\nd] ( ! ,alwaniya community1 a body n[ exi/+ only z a subdivision ( ! ,rifaite ord]4 ,!re are also ord]s kn[n z ! ,adhamiya1 ,ba/amiya1 & ,saqatiya1 :i* trace _! orig9 to ,ibrahim b4 ,adham 7cf4 above71 to ,bayazid ,ba/ami1 & to ,s>i z-,saqati respectively1 b ^: real orig9 is unc]ta94 ,9 ! #f? c5tury we are on sur] gr\nd4 ,!re is no reason to "q ! claim ( ! ,rifaite ord] to trace its f\ndation to ,abu l-,abbas ,ahmad b4 ,ali l-,hasan ,ali ibn ,abi l-,abbas ,ahmad ,rifai 7d4 #egh71 a native ( ! village ( ,umm ,abida1 ne> ! junction ( ! ,tigris & ,euphrates4 ,9 8 lifetime he ga!r$ a l>ge body ( disciples1 :om he incorporat$ 9 an ord] 9 #egf1 ! memb]s liv+ 9 community "u a %eikh1 to :om !y ow$ unque/ion+ ob$i5ce1 b hav+ also1 l o!r ord]s1 a numb] ( lay adh]5ts4 ,dy+ )\t issue ! head%ip ( 8 ord] pass$ to 8 bro!r's family4 ,x exi/s to-day 9 two ma9 bran*es 7i47 ! ,alwaniya1 already m5tion$1 & 7ii47 ! ,gibawi1 :o are be/ kn[n f _! association ) ! c]emony ( ! dawsa1 at :i* ! %eikh us$ to ride ov] ! pro/rate bodies ( 8 foll[]s4 ,( all ! ord]s n[ fl\ri%+ 9 ,egypt x is ! "o mo/ incl9$ to fanatical obs]vances at its zikr or pray]-meet+1 ! memb]s cutt+ !mselves1 driv+ %>p skew]s & knives into _! bodies1 swall[+ snakes1 etc41 & 9 pray] all[+ ! "n ( ,god (t-repeat$ to become at la/ no m ?an a half articulate groan4 ,!y are usually di/+ui%$ by black-turbans4 ,! ,qad>iya claim ,abdu l-,qadir ,jilani 7d4 #efa7 z _! f\nd]4 ,at _! zikr !re is none ( ! fire-eat+1 s]p5t-swall[+1 or self-mutilation ( ! ,rifaites1 b only ! "n ( ,god is repeat$1 always cle>ly enunciat$ & foll[$ by a pause4 ,! ,badawiya 7 f\nd$ by ,abu l-,fita ,ahmad 7d4 #fge71 ^: %r9e is at ,tanta1 9 ,l[] ,egypt4 ,! zikr is ( a sob] k9d1 ! ,div9e "n be+ repeat$ 9 a l\d voice )\t cutt+1 fire-eat+1 etc4 ,! ,mawlawiya or danc+ d>wi%es 7 f\nd$ by ! ,p]sian my/ical poet ,jalalu d-,d9 ,rumi1 ! au?or ( ! poem kn[n z ! ,masnawi4 ,! ,suhrw>diya trace _! orig9 to ,%ihabu d-,d91 a pan!i/ic ,sufi ( ,baghdad1 :o 0 put to dea? by ,salad9 9 #ehg4 ,9 ea* ( ^! ord]s a special c\rse ( in/ruction has tak5 a m or less conv5tional =m1 & !re h be5 c]ta9 great tea*]s ^: writ+s h come into use z manuals1 & s h impress$ _! views ^u ,sufism g5]ally4 ,yet ! fact rema9s t ,sufi tea*+ is ess5tially eclectic1 & c be =mulat$ only 9 broad pr9ciples & t5d5cies4 ,( ^! ! foll[+ seem to be ( mo/ g5]al application3-- 7i47 ,god alone exi/s2 ,god is ! only reality1 all else is illusive4 ,?is is ! ,sufi r5d]+ ( ! doctr9e ( ! unity ( ,god4 ,/rictly speak+ 8,god0 "h signifies ! ,ag5t ,intellect1 t is to say1 ! revelation ( ,god :o 9 ,himself is unkn[able1 b ! ,sufi does n make ?is philosophical di/9ction cle>1 or else delib]ately reg>ds ! revelation ( ,god z ,god4 ,b 9 man !re is a rational s\l1 :i* is to ,god z a mirror$ image is to ! object :i* x reflects1 & is capable ( approa*+ ! ,div9e reality4 ,z o!r ?an ,god is m]ely illusive x is obvi\s t a k ( ,god ! ,reality _c be atta9$ by ! m$ium ( creat$ ?+s1 & ?us ! ,sufis 7 l$1 l ! neo-,platoni/s1 to atta* great] value to imm$iate intuition by ! rational s\l ?an to ! use ( argum5ts1 & s to place direct revelation above :at is ord9>ily describ$ z reason4 ,?is is a l9e ( developm5t common to all =ms ( my/icism1 & results 9 a pref]5ce = ec/asy or simil> spiritual exp]i5ce above ! record ( pa/ revelation z giv5 9 ! ,quran4 ,! doctr9e ( ec/asy 7hal or maqama7 0 fir/ =mulat$ by ,dhu n-,nun1 & implies fana or 8pass+ away10 i4e41 ins5sibility to ! ?+s ( ?is _w1 & f9ally baqa or 8cont9uance0 9 ,god4 ,usually ?is exp]i5ce is accompani$ by loss ( s5sation1 ?\gh ?is is n always ! case1 & !re are _m leg5ds ( ,sufi sa9ts :i* repres5t !m z totally unconsci\s ( viol5ce ( w\nds2 & ?is is n conf9$ to leg5d1 = mo/ extraord9>y suff]+s are endur$1 app>5tly ) p]fect placidity1 by d>wi%es at ! pres5t day1 p]haps 9 accordance ) psy*ological laws :i* are imp]fectly und]/ood1 & ?is is ! und]ly+ idea 9 ! ex]cises und]gone by ! ,rifai d>wi%es & o!rs4 ,! ex]cise kn[n z zikr 7dhikr7 or 8rememb]+10 9 accordance ) ! comm& 9 ,qur4 #cc1 #da1 8rememb] ,god (t510 is an attempt to make an advance t[>ds ! ec/atic /ate4 ,x 0 p]haps "u ,sufi influ5ce t we f9d philosophy incl9+ to pref] k obta9$ by imm$iate intuition2 x 0 c]ta9ly "u su* influ5ce t ec/asy is treat$ z a means ( obta9+ su* direct appreh5sion ( tru? 9 ! lat] philosoph]s4 7ii47 ,! ,sufi doctr9e ( ,god z ! only reality has a direct be>+ n only on creation b also on ! problem ( good & evil4 ,z a ?+ c only be kn[n by its opposite1 light by d>kness1 heal? by sickness1 be+ by non-be+1 s ,god c\ld only be made kn[n to man z reality contra/$ ) non-reality1 & ! m+l+ ( ^! two opposites produces ! _w ( ph5om5a 9 :i* light is made kn[n by a backgr\nd ( d>kness1 :i* d>kness is itself only ! abs5ce ( light3 or1 z be+ proce$s by successive emanations f ! ,fir/ ,cause1 & becomes weak] or less real 9 ea* emanation z x rec$es fur!r f ! great ,reality1 x incid5tally becomes m p]ceptible z x becomes less real4 ,?us evil1 :i* is m]ely ! negation ( ! moral beauty ( ! ,reality1 appe>s 9 ! late/ emanation z ! unreal backgr\nd :i* is ! inevitable result ( a projection ( ! emanation f ! ,fir/ ,cause1 :o is entirely good1 into a _w ( ph5om5a4 ,evil is !re=e n real1 x is m]ely ! result1 ! inevitable result1 ( ! m+l+ ( reality ) unreality4 ,9 fact1 ?is is impli$ 9 ! doctr9e t all o!r ?an ,god is unreal4 7iii47 ,! aim ( ! s\l is union ) ,god4 ,?is doctr9e ( ta:id1 z we h se51 receiv$ e>ly expression 9 ,muslim my/ic !ology4 ,dr4 ,ni*olson is ( op9ion t 8! ,sufi conception ( ! pass+ away 7fana7 ( individual self 9 univ]sal be+ is c]ta9ly ( ,indian orig94 ,its fir/ great expon5t 0 ! ,p]sian my/ic ,byazd ( ,bi/m1 :o may h receiv$ x ( 8 tea*]1 ,ab ,al ( ,s9d 7,sc9de470 7,ni*olson3 ,my/ics ( ,islam1 p4 #ag47 ,b ?is is only "o p>ticul> way ( pres5t+ a doctr9e :i* has a mu* wid] range & is pres5t 9 all my/ical tea*+1 includ+ t ( ! neo-,platoni/s4 ,9 ! highe/ s5se x is ! basis ( ,sufi e?ics1 = ! summum bonum is def9$ z ! union ( ! individual s\l ) ,god1 & all is good :i* helps t[>ds ?is1 all is evil :i* ret>ds x1 & ?is is true ( ,*ri/ian & all o!r =ms ( my/icism equally4 ,we _c say def9itely t ! doctr9e ( ! unitive /ate is borr[$ f neo-,platonism1 f ,buddhism1 or f ,gno/icism2 x is ! common prop]ty ( all1 & is ! natural conclusion f ! my/ics premises z to ! nature ( ,god & ( ! human s\l4 ,x may well be t c]ta9 pres5tations ( ?is doctr9e %[ ,indian details1 b 9 ?is z 9 all o!r p>ts ( ,sufi speculation x seems t ! con/ructive !ory employ$ 9 =m+ a !ological sy/em 0 neo-,platonic3 ev5 9 my/icism ! ,greek m9d ex]cis$ its influ5ce 9 analys+ & con/ruct+ hypo!ses4 ,at q an e>ly age ! s\l's desire = union ) its ,div9e s\rce began to be clo!d 9 t]ms borr[$ f ! expression ( human love4 ,) "s hesitation we may say1 p]haps1 t ?is is di/9ctly ori5tal1 al?\gh x 0 s only z a means ( express+ a desire :i* is *>act]i/ic ( all my/icism4 ,we f9d ! same1 at a lat] p]iod1 ?\gh 9 a mu* m re/ra9$ fa%ion1 9 ,*ri/ian my/icism1 & x is n easy to see ! actual l9e ( contact1 if any4 ,p]haps we mu/ be cont5t to reg>d x z indep5d5tly develop$ z a means ( express+ ! s\l's long+4 ,! rise ( ,sufi tea*+ 0 n )\t opposition1 & ?is 0 ma9ly on ?ree gr\nds 7i47 ! ,sufis advocat$ con/ant pray] 9 ! =m ( unceas+ sil5t int]c\rse ) ,god1 & by ?is t5d$ to disc>d ! fix$ salawat or five obligatory pray]s at appo9t$ h\rs1 "o ( ! compulsory duties ( ,islam & "o ( its di/9ctive m>ks4 ,ultimately ! ,sufi position 0 t ^! fix$ ritual obs]vances 7 = ! p at l>ge :o _h n made any advance 9 ! deep] spiritual k1 b might be disreg>d$ by ^? :o 7 m mature 9 grace1 a position :i* is closely p>allel to t atta9$ by ! philosoph]s4 7ii47 ,!y introduc$ zikirs or religi\s ex]cises1 consi/+ 9 a cont9u\s repetition ( ! "n ( ,god1 a =m ( devotion unkn[n to old] ,islam1 & consequ5tly an innovation4 ,& 7iii47 _m ( !m adopt$ ! practice ( tawakkul1 or complete dep5d5ce on ,god1 neglect+ all k9ds ( lab\r or trade1 refus+ m$ical aid 9 sickness1 & liv+ on alms begg$ f ! fai?ful4 ,all ^! 7 8innovations10 & z su* met ) v def9ite opposition1 mo/ly1 no d\bt1 because !y 7 repugnant to ! sob] tone ( traditional ,islam1 :i* has always be5 suspici\s ( ori5tal fanaticism4 ,! m s]i\s objection1 t x really disp5s$ ) ! religion ( ! ,quran is impli$ if n express$2 x introduc$ an entirely new concept ( ,god & a new /&>d ( religi\s values2 if ,sufi ideas prevail$ ! practices ( ! ,muslim religion w\ld be at be/ ! tol]able & h>mless usages ( ^? :o 7 n initiat$ into vital religion4 ,9 fact1 h[ev]1 ! philosophical pr9ciples br\ght =w>d by ! neo-,platonic ,ari/otelian works 9 g5]al circulation 7 s f> influ5tial & reg>d$ z reconcileable ) ! ,quran t ,sufism1 9 s f> z x 0 neo-,platonic1 did n appe> to be de/ructive ( ,islam1 b only at v>iance ) cu/om>y usage4 ,nev]!less1 ,sufism 0 g5]ally look$ ^u z h]etical1 n only f ! 8innovations0 we h m5tion$1 b because ( ! close alliance betwe5 ! doctr9es ( its extrem] advocates & ^? ( ! m advanc$ ,%iites4 ,x is inde$ mo/ significant t x develop$ *iefly among/ ! same elem5ts :i* gave ! readie/ he>+ to philosophy & /ill adh]$ to ,zoroa/rian & ,masdekite ideas4 ,no d\bt ! ill repute ( ,sufism 0 l>gely due to ! bad company x kept4 ,x 0 n until ! "t ( al-,ghazali 7d4 #eje7 t ,sufism began to take its place 9 or?odox ,islam4 ,al-,ghazali1 left an orphan at an e>ly age1 _h be5 educat$ by a ,sufi fri5d1 &1 aft] becom+ an ,a%arite & z su* act+ z presid5t ( ! ,nazimite academy at ,baghdad1 f\nd himself 9 spiritual difficulties1 & sp5t elev5 ye>s 9 retirem5t & 9 ! practices ( devotion1 ) ! result t :5 he return$ to "w z a tea*] 9 #ddi 8 in/ruction 0 /rongly leav5$ by my/icism1 practically a return to ! pr9ciples he _h be5 taught 9 8 e>ly ye>s4 ,z al-,ghazali became 9 c\rse ( "t ! dom9ant influ5ce 9 ,muslim s*ola/icism1 a modifi$ & or?odox ,sufism 0 introduc$ into ,sunni !ology & has s9ce held its own4 ,at ! same "t he r$uc$ ,sufism to a sci5tific =m1 & gave1 or r support$1 a t]m9ology d]iv$ f ,plot9us4 ,su* a ,sufism may be describ$ z ,muslim my/ic !ology purg$ ( its ,%iite accretions4 ,?is admission ( a modifi$ ,sufism into ! or?odox *ur* ( ,islam took place 9 ! six? c5tury ,a4,h4 ,9 ! foll[+ c5tury ,sufism appe>$ 9 ,spa91 b !re x arriv$ z transmitt$ ?r\gh an or?odox m$ium1 & h5ce diff]s f ,asiatic my/icism4 ,! fir/ ,spani% ,sufi seems to h be5 ,muhyi d-,d9 ibn ,arabi 7d4 #fch71 :o travell$ 9 ,asia & di$ at ,damascus4 ,he 0 a foll[] ( ,ibn ,hazm1 :o1 z we %all see lat]1 repres5ts a sy/em ( jurisprud5ce ( a type m reaction>y ev5 ?an t ( ,ibn ,hanbal4 ,9 ,spa9 itself ! lead+ ,sufi 0 ,abdu l-,haqq ibn ,sab9 7d4 #ffg71 :o %[s ! m *>act]i/ic ,spani% attitude ( a ,sufi :o 0 also a philosoph]1 = ,spani% ,sufism 0 ess5tially speculative4 ,l _m o!r philosoph]s ( ! ,muwahhid p]iod he adh]$ outw>dly to ! ,zahirites1 ! mo/ reaction>y p>ty ( ! n>r[e/ or?odoxy4 ,9 ! #g? c5tury1 also1 we h ,jalalu d-,d9 ,rumi 7d4 #fgb71 :o practically completes ! gold5 age ( ,sufism4 ,al?\gh a ,p]sian he 0 an or?odox ,sunni4 ,he 0 a native ( ,balkh1 b 8 fa!r 0 compell$ to leave t city & migrate we/w>d1 & f9ally settl$ at ,qonya 7,iconium71 :]e he di$4 ,jalalu d-,d9 _h be5 educat$ by 8 fa!r1 & aft] 8 dea? he s\ght fur!r in/ruction at ,aleppo & ,damascus1 :]e he came "u ! influ5ce ( ,burhanu d-,d9 ( ,tirmidh1 :o _h be5 "o ( 8 fa!r's pupils1 & cont9u$ 8 tra9+ 9 ,sufi doctr9es4 ,aft] ?is tea*]'s dea? he came 9 t\* ) ! ecc5tric b sa9tly ,%ams-i-,tabriz1 a man ( great spiritual p[] b illit]ate1 :o left a great impress on 8 age by 8 trem5d\s spiritual en?usiasm & ! /range crudity ( 8 conduct & "*4 ,x 0 aft] ! dea? ( ,%ams-i-,tabriz t ,jalalu d-,d9 comm5c$ 8 great my/ical poem1 ! ,masnawi1 a "w :i* has atta9$ an extraord9>y em95ce & rev]5ce ?r\gh\t ! :ole ( ,turki% ,islam4 ,z already m5tion$1 ,jalalu d-,d9 f\nd$ an ord] ( ,d>wi%es kn[n z ! ,mawlawi ord]1 or 8danc+ d>wi%es10 z !y are call$ by ,europeans4 ,! :ole c\rse ( doctr9al ,sufism beg9s ) ,dhu n-,nun & ends ) ,jalalu d-,d92 lat] writ]s d little m ?an repeat _! tea*+ 9 new lit]>y =m1 & x w be suffici5t to select a few typical examples4 ,9 ! #h? c5t4 we h ,abdu r-,razzaq 7d4 #gcj71 a pan!i/ic ,sufi :o wrote a comm5t>y on & def5d$ ! tea*+ ( ,muhiyyu d-,d9 ibnu l-,arabi4 ,he advocat$ ! doctr9e ( free w on ! gr\nd t ! human s\l is an emanation f ,god1 & s %>es ! ,div9e "*4 ,?is _w1 he holds1 is ! be/ possible _w3 diff]5ces 9 condition exi/ & ju/ice consi/s 9 accept+ ^! & adapt+ ?+s to _! situation2 ultimately all ?+s w cease to exi/ z !y are reabsorb$ 9 ,god1 ! only reality4 ,m5 are divid$ into ?ree classes3 ! fir/ conta9s ! m5 ( ! _w1 ^: life c5tres 9 self & :o are indiff]5t t[>ds religion2 a second class conta9s ! m5 ( ! reason1 :o disc]n ,god intellectually by 8 ext]nal attributes & manife/ations2 & z a ?ird class are ! m5 ( ! _s1 :o p]ceive ,god intuitively4 ,al?\gh ,sufism has n[ tak5 a recognis$ place 9 ! life ( ,islam1 x 0 n all[$ to pass )\t occasional *all5ge4 ,! lead+ oppon5t 0 ! ,hanbalite re=m]1 ,ibn ,taymiya 7d4 #gbh71 :o repres5t$ ! reaction>y b popul> !ology4 ,he reject$ =mal adh]5ce to any s*ool1 dismiss$ all importance atta*$ to ,ijma or 8cons5sus0 save t bas$ on ! agreem5t ( ! ,prophet's ,companions2 he d5\nc$ ! s*ola/ic !ology ( al-,a%ari & al-,ghazali1 & def9$ ! ,div9e attributes on ! l9es laid d[n by ,ibn ,hazm4 ,at t "t ! ,sufi an-,nasr al-,manbiji 0 prom95t 9 ,cairo1 & to him ,ibn ,taymiya wrote a lett] d5\nc+ ! ,sufi doctr9e ( ittihad z h]esy4 ,f ?is arose a qu>rel betwe5 ! two rival =ces ( ,islam1 traditional or?odoxy & my/icism1 9 ! c\rse ( :i* ,ibn ,taymiya suff]$ p]secution & imprisonm5t4 ,t[>ds ! end ( 8 life1 9 #gbf1 he issu$ a fatwa or decl>ation ( op9ion aga9/ ! lawfulness ( ! rev]5ce paid to ! tombs ( sa9ts & ( ! invocation ( sa9ts1 ! ,prophet himself includ$4 ,9 ?is he 0 ! precursor ( ! ,wahibi re=mation ( ! #ah? c5t4 ,a4,d4 ,,mss4 exi/ 9 :i* ! works ( ,ibn ,taymiya are copi$ out by ! h& ( ,abdu l-,wahhab1 :o 0 evid5tly a close /ud5t ( t re=m]1 all ( ^: !ories he reproduces4 ,a%-,%arani ( ,cairo 7d4 #igc7 is typical ( ! lat] or?odox ,sufi4 ,he 0 a foll[] ( ,ibn ,arabi on g5]al l9es b )\t 8 pan!ism4 ,8 writ+s are a /range mixture ( l(ty speculation & l[ly sup]/ition1 8 life 0 full ( int]c\rse ) j9ns & o!r sup]natural be+s4 ,! tru?1 he /ates1 is n to be rea*$ by ! aid ( reason1 b only by ec/atic vision4 ,! wali is ! man :o possesses ! gift ( illum9ation 7ilham71 or direct appreh5sion ( ! spiritual1 b t grace diff]s f ! inspiration 7wahy7 be/[$ ^u ! prophets1 & ! wali mu/ submit to ! guidance ( prophetic revelations4 ,all walis are ess5tially "u ! qutb1 b ! qutb is inf]ior to ! companions ( ,muhammad4 ,:atev] rule 7t>iqa7 a d>wi% foll[s he is guid$ by ,god1 b a%-,%arani himself pref]r$ ! rule ( al-,junayd4 ,! v>y+ op9ions ( ! canoni/s are adapt$ to ! diff]5t ne$s ( m54 ,a%-,%arani 0 ! f\nd] ( a d>wi% ord] :i* =ms a subdivision ( ! ,badawiya 7cf4 above74 ,8 writ+s h consid]able influ5ce 9 mod]n ,islam1 & =m ! programme ( ^? :o advocate a neo-,sufi re=mation4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,or?odox ,,s*ola/icism ,! =mation ( an or?odox s*ola/icism )9 ! ,muslim *ur* appe>s z a developm5t spread ov] ! #d?-#e? c5turies ( ! ,hijra 7#aj-aa c5t4 ,a4,d471 & is 9 ?ree /rata associat$ ) ! ?ree lead]s1 al-,a%ari1 al-,baqilani1 & al-,ghazali4 ,su* a developm5t1 ( c\rse1 is pr9cipally ( int]e/ = ! int]nal hi/ory ( ,islam & ! evolution ( ,muslim !ology1 b x _h its influ5ce also on ! transmission ( ,arabic ?\ght to ,lat9 ,*ri/5dom 9 two ways3 7i47 directly1 9 t al-,ghazali 0 e/abli%$ z "o ( ! great ,arabic au?orities :5 ! ,lat9s began to /udy ! int]pret]s ( ,ari/otle1 & 8 tea*+ is quot$ by ,/4 ,?omas ,aqu9as & o!r s*ola/ic writ]s2 & 7ii47 indirectly1 because a consid]able "p ( ! "w ( ,ibn ,ru%d 7,av]roes7 takes ! =m ( controv]sy aga9/ ! foll[]s ( al-,ghazali2 8 ,de/ruction ( ! ,de/ruction1 = example1 is a refutation ( al-,ghazali's ,de/ruction ( ! ,philosoph]s4 ,x ?us becomes imp]ative to "k some?+ ab\t ! position & tea*+ ( al-,ghazali & ! influ5ces :i* prep>$ ! way = 8 "w4 ,su* a movem5t z or?odox s*ola/icism 0 inevitable4 ,! position at ! end ( ! ?ird c5tury 0 q impossible4 ,! or?odox ,muslim adh]$ /rictly to tradition1 & entirely refus$ to admit 8innovation0 7bida73 he _h be5 =c$ into ?is position z a reaction aga9/ 8 e>li] ready acceptance ( ,plato & ,ari/otle z inspir$ tea*]s1 = ! lat] errors ( ! ,mutazilites %[$ :at extremely dang]\s conclusions c\ld be drawn by ^? :o came "u ,hell5i/ic influ5ce1 & ! m accurately ! ,greek philosoph]s 7 /udi$ ! worse ! h]esies ga!r$ f !m4 ,or?odox ?\ght held itself c>efully alo( f ! ,mutazilites & philosoph]s on ! "o side1 & f ! ,%iites & ,sufis on ! o!r1 conf9+ itself to ! safe /udies ( ,quran exegesis1 tradition1 & ! canon law 9 :i* at ,baghdad ! reaction>y influ5ce ( ,ibn ,hanbal 0 pr$om9ant4 ,! :ole ( ! ?ird c5tury _h be5 a "t ( reaction on ! "p ( ! or?odox1 v l>gely due to ! un=tunate attempt ( al-,mamun to =ce rationalism on 8 subjects4 ,al-,ghazali tells u 9 8 8,confessions0 t "s s9c]e ,muslims felt !mselves b\nd to reject all ! exact sci5ces z ( dang]\s t5d5cy1 & s repudiat$ sci5tific !ories z to eclipses ( ! sun & moon4 ,all speculation lay "u a ban1 because x l$ to 8innovation0 9 belief or 9 practice2 x 0 contr>y to or?odoxy to use ! me?ods ( ,greek philosophy to prove reveal$ doctr9e z mu* z x 0 to impugn x1 = bo? alike 7 innovations on ! traditional usage2 no?+ 0 kn[n ( spiritual matt]s save :at is actually /at$ 9 ! ,quran & tradition1 & f ?is no?+ c\ld be d$uc$ by ! use ( argum5t1 = logic itself 0 a ,greek innovation1 at lea/ z appli$ to !ology3 only t 0 kn[n :i* 0 actually /at$1 & no explanation ( ! /atem5t 0 lawful4 ,?us1 :5 ,ahmad ibn ,hanbal 0 exam9$ by ! inquisitors ( al-,mamun he repli$ only by quot+ ! words ( ! ,quran or tradition1 refus+ to draw any conclusions f ^! /atem5ts & admitt+ no conclusions drawn1 keep+ sil5ce :5 argum5ts 7 propos$ to him1 & prote/+ t su* exam9ation z to religi\s belief 0 itself an innovation4 ,?is position 0 h>dly satisfactory to ^? :o _h inh]it$ any "p ( ! ,hell5ic tradition1 & x ultimately became impossible4 ,an organic body :i* _c adapt itself to its surr\nd+s is doom$ to decay4 ,! ,islamic /ate _h suffici5t vitality to meet ! new conditions introduc$ by its expansion to ,syria & ,p]sia1 & n[ ! "t _h come = ,islamic !ology to adapt itself to ! new ?\ght t 0 invad+ x4 ,z we h se51 ! philosoph]s al-,k9di & al-,f>abi 7 loyal ,muslims1 & _h no suspicion t _! inve/igations 7 lead+ to h]etical conclusions1 & su* 0 und\bt$ly ! case ) ! e>li] ,mutazilites also1 b results _h ju/ifi$ ! or?odox 9 a suspici\s attitude t[>ds 8argum5t0 7kalam74 ,n[1 t[>ds ! close ( ! ?ird c5tury ! attempt to f9d an or?odox kalam appe>s z a movem5t :i* orig9ates ) ! ,mutazilites1 ( :om a section ( ! m cons]vative s\ght to return to an or?odox /&-po9t1 & to use kalam 9 !ology 9 def5ce ( ! traditional beliefs z aga9/ ! h]etical conclusions :i* 7 9 circulation4 ,foll[+ a some:at lat] usage we may employ ?is t]m kalam to d5ote an or?odox philosophical !ology1 t is to say1 "o 9 :i* ! me?ods ( philosophy 7 us$1 b ! prim>y mat]ial 0 obta9$ f revelation1 & ?us "o :i* 0 closely p>allel ) ! s*ola/ic !ology ( ,lat9 ,*ri/5dom4 ,we h cit$ ! "n ( al-,a%ari z repres5tative ( ! fir/ /age ( ?is movem5t1 b x is equally repres5t$ by ! contempor>y al-,mat>adi 9 ,sam>q& & by at-,tahawi 9 ,egypt4 ,( ^!1 h[ev]1 at-,tahawi has q pass$ into oblivion4 ,= long ! ,a%arites & ! ,mat>idites =m$ rival or?odox s*ools ( kalam1 & al-,mat>idi's sy/em /ill has a c]ta9 vogue among/ ,turki% ,muslims1 b ! ,a%arite sy/em is t :i* comm&s ! wide/ ass5t4 ,!ologians reckon ?irte5 po9ts ( diff]5ce betwe5 ! two s*ools1 all ( purely !oretical importance4 ,al-,a%ari 0 born at ,basra 9 #bfj or #bgj1 & di$ at ,baghdad ab\t #ccj or #cdj4 ,at fir/ he 0 an adh]5t ( ! ,mutazilites1 b "o ,friday 9 ,a4,h4 #cjj he made a public r5unciation ( ! views ( t p>ty1 & took up a def9itely or?odox position2 9 ! pulpit ( ! great mosque at ,basra he said1 8,!y :o "k me "k :o ,i am2 z = ^? :o d n "k me1 ,i am ,ali b4 ,ismail al-,a%ari1 & ,i us$ to hold t ! ,quran 0 creat$1 t ! eyes ( m5 %all n see ,god1 & t we ourselves are ! au?ors ( our evil de$s2 n[ ,i h return$ to ! tru?2 ,i r5\nce ^! op9ions1 & ,i take ! engagem5t to refute ! ,mutazilites & expose _! infamy & turpitude0 7,ibn ,khallikan1 ii4 #bbh74 ,f ?is x w be p]ceiv$ t ! doctr9es !n reg>d$ z *>act]i/ic ( ! ,mutazilites 7 7i47 t ! ,quran 0 creat$1 7ii47 ! d5ial ( ! possibility ( ! beatific vision1 & 7iii47 ! fre$om ( ! w4 ,9 ! p]iod aft] ?is *ange al-,a%ari wrote a controv]sial "w aga9/ ! ,mutazilites1 :i* be>s ! "n ,kitab a%-,%>h wa-t-,tafsil1 8! book ( explanation & exposition02 he 0 ! au?or also ( religi\s treatises call$ ,luma 8fla%es10 ,mujaz 8abridgm5t10 ,idah al-,burhan 8elucidation ( ! ,burhan10 & ,tabiy9 8illu/rations40 ,8 real importance1 h[ev]1 lay 9 f\nd+ a s*ool ( or?odox s*ola/icism1 aft]w>ds m fully develop$ by al-,baqilani1 & gradually spread+ ?r\gh ! ,muslim _w1 al?\gh /rongly oppos$ on ! "o side by ! falasifah1 :o saw 9 its tea*+ ! introduction ( traditional beliefs limit+ & re/rict+ ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e1 & on ! o!r side by ! m reaction>y or?odox1 :o disapprov$ ! use ( philosophical me?ods z appli$ to !ological subjects4 ,?is use ( philosophy 9 ! explanation & def5ce ( religion came to be kn[n z kalam1 & ^? :o employ$ x 7 call$ mutakallam94 ,9 deal+ ) ! old problems ( ,muslim !ology1 su* z ! et]nity ( ! ,quran1 ! fre$om ( ! w1 etc41 ! ,a%arites d seem to h produc$ a reasonable /atem5t ( doctr9e1 :i* yet safegu>d$ ! ma9 dem&s ( or?odoxy4 7a7 ,z to ! ,quran !y held t x 0 et]nal 9 ,god1 b its expression 9 words & syllables 0 creat$ 9 "t4 ,?is does n ( c\rse mean t ! expression 0 due to ! ,prophet to :om x 0 reveal$1 b to ,god1 s t ! doctr9e ( lit]al inspiration 0 ass]t$ 9 ! /ricte/ =m4 ,nor 0 x ?us creat$ :5 x 0 reveal$1 b long be=e 9 remote ages :5 x 0 fir/ utt]$ to ! angels & 8augu/ be+s10 & 0 aft]w>ds disclos$ by ! angel ,gabriel to ! ,prophet ,muhammad4 ,?is1 :i* is n[ ! or?odox belief1 has furni%$ an opportunity = controv]sy to ,*ri/ians & mod]n rationali/s1 :o h fix$ ^u ! use ( p>ticul> words1 introduc$ into ,arabic z loan words f ,syriac1 ,p]sian1 & ,greek1 & appe> 9 ! ,quran3 h[1 !y ask1 c x be expla9$ t words reveal$ at a remote p]iod ( pa/ et]nity1 long be=e ! creation ( ! _w1 z x is commonly ass]t$1 %[ ! influ5ce ( =eign languages :i* 7 br\ght to be> ^u ,arabic 9 ! #g? c5t4 ,a4,d48 & ,muslim apologi/s1 :o h always ma9ta9$ ! absolute purity ( ,quranic ,arabic z "o ( ! evid5ces ( ,div9e orig91 seem to reg>d ?is z a s]i\s difficulty4 ,! view t ! ,quran is et]nal 9 sub/ance1 & ?us 9 sub/ance reveal$ to ! ,prophet1 :o 0 left to express x 9 8 own words1 :i* w\ld !reby %[ ! limitations ( 8 "t1 is n admitt$ by ! or?odox4 ,x w be not$ also t ! ,a%arite tea*+ evades & does n answ] an old difficulty3 if ! sub/ance ( ! ,quran is ! wisdom ( ,god & is co-et]nal ) ,him1 ev5 ?\gh emanat+ f ,him1 we h some?+ o!r ?an ,god1 namely1 ,8 wisdom1 et]nally exi/+ ) ,him1 & ?is c be repres5t$ z p>allel ) ! p]sons ( ! ,*ri/ian ,tr9ity1 s z to be inconsi/5t ) ! absolute unity ( ,god4 7b7 ,?is br+s u to ! attributes ( ,god g5]ally4 ,! ,a%arites 9 ?is controv]sy side ) ! traditional s*ool aga9/ ! philosoph]s4 ,( ! t5 ,ari/otelian categories !y reg>d only two--exi/5ce1 i4e41 ens1 & quality z objectively real2 ! o!r eight are m]ely relative *>act]i/ics 7itib>7 subjective 9 ! m9d ( ! kn[]1 & hav+ no objective reality4 ,god has qualities--inde$1 no less ?an tw5ty are enum]at$1 b among/ ^! is mukhalafa1 :i* is ! quality ( uniqu5ess 9 qualification1 s t ! qualities & attributes ascrib$ to ,god mu/ ei!r be su* z _c be appli$ to m51 or else1 if ! t]ms c be us$ ( creat$ be+s1 !y mu/ h q diff]5t mean+s :5 appli$ to ,god1 & ^! qualities ?us signifi$ mu/ be su* z c\ld n be pr$icat$ ( m5 or ( any o!r creat$ be+4 ,?us1 t ,god has p[] & wisdom means t ,he is almighty & omnisci5t 9 a way :i* c\ld n possibly be /at$ ( any m54 ,9 practice ?is works s t no attribute c be appli$ to ,god unless x is expressly s appli$ 9 ! text ( ! ,quran2 if x occurs !re x may be us$1 b mu/ be und]/ood z hav+ a mean+ o!r ?an su* a t]m w\ld h :5 us$ 9 ! normal way ( m54 ,x _c be t ,god's attributes diff] f ^? ( m5 only 9 degree1 z t ,he is wis] & m p[]ful ?an man1 b !y diff] 9 _! :ole nature4 ,x is not$ also t ,god is qiyam bi-n-nafs1 or 8subsi/+ 9 ,himself10 t is to say1 indep5d5t ( any o!r ?an ,himself1 & s ,god's k does n dep5d on ! exi/5ce or nature ( ! ?+ kn[n4 7c7 ,z to fre$om ( ! w4 ,god creates p[] 9 ! man & creates also ! *oice1 & ,he !n creates ! act correspond+ to ?is p[] & *oice4 ,?us ! action is 8acquir$0 by ! creature4 ,( ! categories exi/5ce is ! fir/ sub/ratum1 & to ?is ! o!r pr$icables are add$3 none ( ^! o!rs are sep>able or p] se1 !y c only exi/ 9 ! ess5ce4 ,x is admitt$ t su* qualities exi/ 9 ! ens1 b !y are only adjuncts :i* come into be+ ) ! ens & g out ( exi/5ce ) x4 ,!re=e ! _w consi/s ( entia or sub/ances on :i* ! m9d reflects ! qualities :i* are n 9 ! ?+ itself b only 9 ! m9d4 ,aga9/ ! ,ari/otelian !ory t matt] suff]s ! impress ( =m1 he argues t all impress is subjective 9 ! m9d3 if all qualities fall out sub/ance itself ceases to exi/1 & s sub/ance is n p]man5t b transitory1 :i* opposes ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e ( ! et]nity ( matt]4 ,! sub/ances p]ceiv$ by u are atoms :i* come into exi/5ce f vacuity & drop out ( exi/5ce aga94 ,?us1 :5 a body moves f "o position to ano!r ! atoms 9 ! fir/ position cease to be1 & a gr\p ( new simil> atoms come into exi/5ce 9 ! second position1 s t movem5t involves a s]ies ( annihilations & creations4 ,! cause ( ^! *anges is ,god1 ! only p]man5t & absolute reality4 ,!re is no second>y cause1 z !re are no laws ( nature2 9 e case ,god acts directly ^u ea* atom4 ,?us1 fire does n cause burn+1 b ,god creates a be+ burn$ :5 fire t\*es a body1 & ! burn+ is directly ,8 "w4 ,s 9 ! fre$om ( ! w1 z1 = example1 :5 a man writes1 ,god gives ! w to write & causes ! app>5t motion ( ! p5 & ( ! h&1 & also directly creates ! writ+ :i* seems to proce$ f ! p54 ,exi/5ce is ! v self ( ! ?+4 ,?is is peculi> to al-,a%ari & 8 foll[]s3 all o!rs hold exi/5ce to be ! /ate 7hl7 necess>y to ! ess5ce1 b 9 al-,a%ari x is ! ess5ce4 ,s ,god exi/s1 & ,8 exi/5ce is ! self 7ayn7 ( ,8 ess5ce4 ,su* a sy/em involves e?ical difficulties2 x appe>s t !re c be no responsibility if !re is no connection betwe5 action & ! act done4 ,al-,a%ari repli$ t !re is a unity 9 ! w ( ,god1 s t cause & effect are n isolat$ z ?\gh indep5d5t atoms1 b all is dispos$ accord+ to a ,div9e plan4 ,?is answ]1 h[ev]1 c h>dly be reg>d$ z adequate4 ,?is sy/em is an attempt to deal ) ! difficulties rais$ by philosophy1 b al-,a%ari consid]s x pref]able t ! difficulties %\ld nev] be rais$1 & s /rongly urges t ! my/]ies ( philosophy %\ld nev] be discuss$ ) ! multitude4 ,we %all see ! same conclusion set =? by ! lat] philosoph] ( ! ,we/1 b on a some:at diff]5t gr\nd2 !y reg>d$ ! my/]ies ( philosophy z conta9+ ! supreme tru?1 = :i* ! multitude 0 n ripe1 & s !y %\ld n be discuss$ publicly1 z ! p 7 n able to und]/&2 b al-,a%ari seems r to reg>d ^! my/]ies z likely to be n edify+1 z introduc+ que/ions :i* are ( small importance comp>$ ) ! great tru?s ( revelation4 ,! ,a%arite sy/em ?us describ$ 0 complet$ by al-,baqilani 7d4 #djc71 b x did n become g5]al until x 0 popul>is$ by al-,ghazali 9 ! ,ea/ & by ,ibn ,tum>t 9 ! ,we/4 ,al-,mat>idi1 ( ,sam>q& 0 a contempor>y ( al-,a%ari1 & rea*$ v simil> results4 ,among/ ! po9ts peculi> to al-,mat>idi we may note 7a7 ! attribute ( creat+ has be5 an attribute ( ,god f all et]nity1 b ?is attribute is di/9ct f ! ?+ creat$2 7b7 ,creatures h c]ta9 *oice ( action1 & = ! ?+s done by ?is *oice !y are rew>d$ or puni%$2 good actions are only done by ! pleasure 7rida7 ( ,god1 b bad actions are n always by ,8 pleasure2 7c7 ,ability to d ! action goes ) ! w & ! act1 s t ! creature _c h an action impos$ on him z a task :i* is n 9 8 p[]4 ,he agrees ) al-,a%ari 9 hold+ t ! _w & all x conta9s h be5 creat$ by ,god f no?+3 x consi/s ( sub/ances & attributes4 ,! sub/ances exi/ 9 !mselves1 ei!r z comp\nds1 su* z bodies1 or z non-comp\nds1 z ess5ces :i* are indivisible4 ,attributes h no sep>ate exi/5ce1 b dep5d = _! exi/5ce on bodies or ess5ces4 ,god is n ess5ce1 nor attribute1 nor body1 nor any?+ =m$1 b\nd$1 numb]$1 limit$1 nor comp\nd$4 ,he _c be describ$ by mahiya 7quiddity71 nor kayfiya 7modality72 ,he does n exi/ 9 "t or place1 & no?+ resembles ,him or is outside ,8 k or p[]4 ,he has qualities f all et]nity exi/+ 9 ,8 ess5ce2 !y are n ,he nor is ,he o!r ?an !y4 ,= "s "t ! ,a%arites _h to meet ke5 opposition & ev5 p]secution1 & x 0 n until ! middle ( ! #e? c5t4 t !y came to be admitt$ g5]ally z or?odox ,muslims4 ,_! triumph 0 assur$ 9 #dei ,a4,h41 :5 ,nizam al-,mulk1 ! wazir ( ,alp ,arslan1 f\nd$ at ,baghdad ! ,nizamite academy z a !ological college ( ,a%arite tea*+4 ,/ill ! ,hanbalites rais$ occasional riots1 & demon/rat$ aga9/ ^? :om !y reg>d$ z free ?9k]s2 b ^! 7 put d[n by au?ority1 & 9 #eaf ! ,khalif himself att5d$ ! ,a%arite lectures4 ,! ,mutazilites 7 n[ m]ely a survival2 z broad *ur* !ologians !y _h fall5 into g5]al disrepute 9 ! eyes ( ! or?odox1 & !y 7 equally dislik$ by ! philosoph]s z defective 9 _! adh]5ce to ! ,ari/otelian sy/em4 ,! educat$ fell n[ into ?ree broad gr\ps3 on ! "o h& 7 ! or?odox1 :o came "u ! influ5ce ( al-,a%ari or al-,mat>idi2 on ! o!r 7 ^? :o accept$ ! doctr9es ( ! philosoph]s1 & 9 ! ?ird place 7 ^? :o reject$ all philosophy1 & conf9$ _! att5tion solely to ,quran tradition & ! canon law1 & :o %\ld n be exclud$ f ! ranks ( ! educat$1 al?\gh _! /udies ran 9 some:at n>r[ l9es4 ,! f9al triumph ( ! ,a%arite !ology 0 ! "w ( al-,ghazali 7d4 #eje74 ,he 0 born at ,tus 9 #dej 7 #ajeh ,a4,d472 e>ly left an orphan he 0 educat$ by a ,sufi fri5d1 & !n att5d$ ! s*ool at ,naisabur4 ,z 8 education progress$ he cut loose f ,sufi influ5ce & became an ,a%arite1 & 9 #dhd he 0 appo9t$ presid5t ( ! ,nazimite ,academy at ,baghdad4 ,gradually1 h[ev]1 he became a prey to spiritual unre/1 & 9 #dhh resign$ 8 po/ & retir$ to ,syria1 :]e he sp5t "s ye>s 9 /udy & ! practices ( devotion4 ,9 #dii he return$ to active "w z a tea*] 9 ! ,nazimite ,academy at ,naisabur1 :]e he became ! lead] ( a modifi$ ,a%arite sy/em /rongly leav5$ by my/icism1 :i* we may reg>d z ! f9al evolution ( or?odox ,muslim !ology4 ,al-,ghazali1 foll[+ al-,a%ari1 taught t philosophical !ory _c =m ! basis ( religi\s ?\ght1 ?us oppos+ ! position ( ! philosoph]s4 ,by revelation only c ! prim>y ess5tials ( tru? be atta9$4 ,philosophy itself is no equal or rival ( revelation3 x is no m ?an common s5se & regulat$ ?9k+1 :i* may be employ$ by m5 ab\t religion or any o!r subject2 at be/ x acts z a pres]vative aga9/ error 9 d$uction & argum5t1 ! prim>y mat]ial = :i*1 s f> z religion is conc]n$1 c be furni%$ only by revelation4 ,b aga9/ ?is he appe>s also z ! transmitt] ( ! tea*+ already giv51 by al-,qu%ayri1 :i* introduc$ ! my/icism ( ! ,sufis into or?odox ,islam4 ,revelation inde$ is giv5 by means ( ! ,quran & tradition1 & x is suffici5t to accept :at is ?us reveal$1 b ! ultimate tru? ( revelation c be te/$ & prov$ only by ! exp]i5ce ( ! individual4 ,s f> z m5 are conc]n$ ?is is possible by means ( ec/asy :]eby "o becomes a kn[] 7arif71 & receives assurance & enlight5m5t by direct communication f ,god4 ,! s\l ( man diff]s f all o!r creat$ ?+s2 x is ess5tially spiritual1 & s outside ! categories :i* are applicable only to mat]ial ?+s4 ,! s\l has be5 brea!d into man by ,god 7,qur4 #ae1 #bi2 #ch1 #gb71 & ?is is comp>able to ! way 9 :i* ! sun s5ds out its rays & gives w>m? to ^? ?+s on :i* its rays re/4 ,! s\l1 :i* has no dim5sion1 %ape1 or locus1 rules ! body 9 ! same way z ,god rules ! _w1 s t ! body is a microcosm reproduc+ ! conditions ( ! _w4 ,! ess5tial elem5t ( ?is s\l is n ! intellig5ce :i* is conc]n$ ) ! bodily frame1 b ! w3 j z ,god is prim>ily kn[n n z ?\ght or intellig5ce1 b z ! volition :i* is ! cause ( creation4 ,?us ,god _c be consid]$ z ! _s animat+ ! _w1 :i* is ! pan!i/ic position1 b z volition outside ! _w :i* has will$ x to be4 ,! aim ( s*ola/ic !ology is to pres]ve ! purity ( or?odox belief f h]etical innovation3 8,god rais$ up a s*ool ( !ologians & inspir$ !m ) ! desire to def5d or?odoxy by means ( a sy/em ( pro(s adapt$ to unveil ! devices ( ! h]etics & to foil ! attacks :i* !y made on ! doctr9es e/abli%$ by tradition0 7,al-,ghazali3 ,confessions74 ,ari/otle himself 0 an unbeliev] us+ argum5ts he %\ld n1 b1 9 spite ( 8 errors1 8 tea*+ z exp\nd$ by al-,f>abi & ,ibn ,s9a is ! sy/em ( ?\ght :i* comes ne>e/ to ,islam 7id474 ,because ( its unavoidable difficulties & ! grave errors conta9$ 9 ,ari/otle & 8 ,arabic comm5tators m5 are n to be enc\rag$ to read philosophy 7id474 ,!re are ?ree diff]5t worlds or planes ( exi/5ce 7i47 ! alam al-mulk is t 9 :i* exi/5ce is app>5t to ! s5ses1 ! _w made kn[n by p]ception1 & ?is is 9 a /ate ( con/ant *ange2 7ii47 ! alam al-malakut1 ! *angeless & et]nal _w ( reality e/abli%$ by ,god's decree1 ( :i* ! _w ( p]ception is b ! reflexion2 7iii47 & ! alam al-j>abut or int]m$iate /ate1 :i* prop]ly belongs to ! _w ( reality1 b seems to be 9 ! plane ( p]ception4 ,9 ?is int]m$iate /ate is ! human s\l1 :i* belongs to ! plane ( reality1 ?\gh app>5tly project$ into ! p]ceptible plane to :i* x does n belong1 & !n returns to reality4 ,! p51 tablet1 etc41 m5tion$ 9 ! ,quran are n m]e allegories2 !y belong to ! _w ( reality1 & s are some?+ o!r ?an :at we see 9 ?is _w ( p]ception4 ,^! ?ree worlds or planes are n sep>ate 9 "t or space1 !y are r to be consid]$ z modes ( exi/5ce4 ,! !ories ( ! a/ronom]s z to movem5ts ( ! heav5ly bodies are to be accept$--al-,ghazali adh]$1 ( c\rse1 to ! ,ptolemaic sy/em--b ^! deal only ) ! l[e/ plane1 ! _w ( s5se4 ,beh9d all nature is ,god1 :o is on ! plane ( reality4 ,?is high] plane _c be rea*$ by reason or intellect1 ^: op]ations mu/ rely on ! evid5ce ( s5se p]ception4 ,to rea* ! plane ( reality man mu/ be rais$ by a spiritual faculty1 8by :i* he p]ceives invisible ?+s1 ! secrets ( ! future & o!r concepts z inaccessible to reason z ! concepts ( reason are inaccessible to m]e discrim9ation & :at is p]ceiv$ by discrim9ation ( ! s5ses0 7op4 cit474 ,inspiration means ! disclos+ ( realities to ! prophets or sa9ts1 & ^! realities c only be kn[n by su* revelation or by ! p]sonal exp]i5ce ( ec/asy by :i* ! s\l is rais$ to ! plane ( reality4 ,n only are ! religi\s tru?s 9 ! ,quran reveal$1 b all ideas ( good & evil are simil>ly reveal$1 & c\ld n be atta9$ by ! unaid$ use ( reason1 a view :i* is obvi\sly int5d$ to refute ! ,mutazilite claim t moral diff]5ces c be p]ceiv$ by reason4 ,! philosoph]s also h atta9$ tru?s by revelation1 & ! ma9 sub/ance ( m$ic9e & a/ronomy is bas$ on su* revelation 7op4 cit474 ,unlike ,ibn ,ru%d1 al-,ghazali ?us emphasizes supra-rational intuition atta9$ 9 a /ate ( ec/asy1 :]eby ! s\l is rais$ above ! _w ( %ad[ & reflection to ! plane ( reality4 ,?is 0 pure my/icism1 & ?us al-,ghazali introduces a ,sufi elem5t into or?odox ,islam4 ,at ! same "t he r$uc$ ,sufism to a sci5tific =m1 & endors$ ! ,plot9ian t]m9ology4 ,macdonald summ>ises 8 "w "u f\r heads3 7i47 he e/abli%$ an or?odox my/icism2 7ii47 he popul>is$ ! use ( philosophy2 7iii47 he r5d]$ philosophy subord9ate to !ology1 & 7iv47 he re/or$ ! fe> ( ,god :5 ! elem5t ( fe> 0 t5d+ to be ?ru/ into ! backgr\nd1 at lea/ by ! educat$4 ,f ?is "t on ! t]m kalam 0 usually appli$ to philosophy adapt$ to ! use ( !ologians4 ,! *ief works left by al-,ghazali are ! ,ihya ,ulum ad-,d91 ( :i* x is und]/ood t a translation by ,h4 ,bau] is 9 prep>ation1 & ! ,miy> al-,ilm1 a treatise on logic4 ,to po/]ity1 h[ev]1 he is be/ kn[n by 8 ,confessions1 an autobiographical acc\nt ( 8 spiritual life & developm5t1 :i* may n unfitly be plac$ beside ! ,confessions ( ,/4 ,augu/9e4 ,al-,ghazali completes ! developm5t ( or?odox ,muslim !ology4 ,f ?is "t =? x ceas$ to h any orig9ality1 & = ! mo/ "p %[$ signs ( decad5ce4 ,"h & !re we f9d ,sufi revivals2 inde$1 ,sufism is ! only phase ( ,islam :i* kept free f ! rigid cons]vatism :i* has laid its iron h& ( repression ^u ,muslim life & ?\ght g5]ally4 ,9 ,yem5 ! sy/em ( al-,ghazali 0 kept alive by g5]ations ( ,sufis1 b = ! mo/ "p ,sufism pref]r$ less or?odox pa?s4 ,aga9/ ^! ,sufi movem5ts we see f "t to "t o!rs ( a di/9ctly reaction>y "*1 su* z t ( ! ,wahabis1 :o oppos$ ! !ology ( al-,ghazali :5 x 0 g5]ally recognis$ z ! or?odox tea*+ at ,mecca1 & 9 ?is !y 7 foll[$ by ! ,sanusi4 ,sayyid ,murtada 7d4 #abje ,a4,h4 #aghh ,a4,d471 a native ( ,zabid 9 ,yihama1 wrote a comm5t>y on al-,ghazali's ,ihya ,ulum ad-,d91 & ?us reviv$ ! /udy ( ! great s*ola/ic !ologian4 ,f t "t ! ,islamic community has n lack$ neo-,ghazalian /ud5ts1 & _m consid] t t s*ool conta9s ! be/ promise = mod]n ,islam4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,we/]n ,,philosophy ,muslim rule 9 ,nor? ,africa we/ ( ! ,nile valley 0 comm5c$ "u conditions v diff]5t f ^? prevail+ 9 ,egypt & ,syria4 ,! ,arabs f\nd ?is l& occupi$ by ! ,b]b]s or ,libyans1 ! same race :i* f ! "t ( ! e>lie/ ,ph>aohs _h be5 a p]petual m5ace to ,egypt1 & :i*1 on ! ,m$it]ranean seabo>d1 _h (f]$ a s]i\s problem to ,phnician1 ,greek1 ,roman & ,go?ic coloni/s4 ,= "s ?\s&s ( ye>s ^! ,b]b]s _h rema9$ v mu* ! same z :5 !y _h em]g$ f ! neoli?ic /age1 & 7 h>dy des]t m5 l ! ,arabs 9 pre-,islamic times4 ,_! language 0 n ,semitic1 b %[s v m>k$ ,semitic aff9ities1 &1 al?\gh language transmission is (t5 q di/9ct f racial desc5t1 x seems probable t 9 ?is case !re 0 a p>allel1 & ?is is be/ expla9$ by suppos+ t bo? 7 d]iv$ f ! neoli?ic race :i* at "o "t spread along ! :ole ( ! s\? coa/ ( ! ,m$it]ranean & across into ,arabia1 b t "s cause1 p]haps ! e>ly developm5t ( civilization 9 ! ,nile valley1 _h cut (f ! ea/]n w+ f ! re/1 & ?is segregat$ portion develop$ ! peculi> *>act]i/ics :i* we describe z ,semitic4 ,! s]ies ( ,greek1 ,punic1 ,roman1 & ,go?ic settlem5ts _h left no p]man5t m>k on ! ,b]b] population1 on _! language1 or on _! culture4 ,at ! "t ( ! ,arab invasion ! c\ntry 0 !oretically "u ! ,byzant9e ,empire1 & ! invad+ ,arabs _h to meet ! resi/ance ( a ,greek army2 b ?is 0 n a v s]i\s ob/acle1 & ! invad]s 7 soon left face to face ) ! ,b]b] tribes4 ,! ,muslim invasion ( ,nor? ,africa foll[$ imm$iately aft] ! invasion ( ,egypt1 b ! int]nal disputes ( ! ,muslim community prev5t$ a regul> conque/4 ,x 0 n until a second invasion took place 9 ,a4,h4 #de 7 ,a4,d4 #ffe7 t we c reg>d ! ,arabs z comm5c+ ! regul> conque/ & settlem5t ( ! c\ntry4 ,= c5turies aft]w>ds ! ,arab control 0 prec>i\s 9 ! extreme1 revolts 7 con/antly tak+ place1 & _m ,b]b] /ates 7 f\nd$1 "s ( :i* _h an exi/5ce ( consid]able duration4 ,z a rule !re 0 a pron\nc$ racial feel+ betwe5 ,b]b]s & ,arabs1 b !re 7 also tribal feuds1 & ,arab policy g5]ally aim$ at play+ (f "o p[]ful tribe aga9/ ano!r4 ,gradually ! ,arabs spread all along ,nor? ,africa & d[n to ! des]t edge1 _! tribes z a rule occupy+ ! l[] gr\nd1 :il/ ! old] population _h its *ief c5tres 9 ! m\nta9\s di/ricts4 ,dur+ ! invasion ( #de ! city ( ,kairawan 0 f\nd$ "s di/ance s\? ( ,tunis4 ,! site 0 badly *os51 & is n[ m>k$ only by ru9s & a scanty village1 b = "s c5turies x s]v$ z ! capital city ( ,ifrikiya1 :i* 0 ! "n giv5 to ! prov9ce ly+ next to ,egypt1 embrac+ ! mod]n /ates ( ,tripoli1 ,tunis1 & ! ea/]n "p ( ,alg]ia up to ! m]idian ( ,b\gie4 ,we/ ( ?is lay ,maghrab1 or ! 8we/]n l&10 :i* 0 divid$ into two di/ricts1 ,c5tral ,maghrab ext5d+ f ! bord]s ( ,ifrikiya across ! great] "p ( ,alg]ia & ! ea/]n ?ird ( ,morocco1 & ,fur!r ,maghrab1 :i* spread beyond to ! ,atlantic coa/4 ,9 ^! prov9ces ,arabs & ,b]b]s liv$ side by side1 b 9 di/9ct tribes1 ! int]c\rse betwe5 ! two v>y+ 9 diff]5t localities & at diff]5t times4 ,= ! mo/ "p ea* race pres]v$ its own language1 ! sev]al ,arabic dialects be+ di/+ui%$ by ar*aic =ms & a phonology some:at modifi$ by ,b]b] influ5ces2 b !re are in/ances ( ,b]b] tribes :i* h adopt$ ,arabic1 & "s ( ! ,arab & mix$ gr\ps h pref]r$ ! ,b]b] language4 ,! religion ( ,islam spread rapidly among/ ! ,b]b]s1 b x took a p>ticul> developm5t1 :i* %[s a survival ( _m pre-,islamic religi\s ideas4 ,! wor%ip ( sa9ts & ! devotion paid at _! tombs is a corruption :i* appe>s else:]e1 on l9es q di/9ct f ! ,asiatic beliefs z to inc>nation or transmigration1 & 9 ! we/ ?is sa9t wor%ip takes an extreme =m1 al?\gh "h & !re are tribes :i* reject x altoge!r1 z is ! case ) ! ,b4 ,mess>a1 ! ,ida ( ,s\? ,morocco1 etc4 ,pilgrimages 7zi>a7 are made to sa9ts' tombs1 commemorative banquets are held !re 7wada or taan71 & acts ( wor%ip1 (t5 tak+ a revolt+ =m1 are paid to liv+ sa9ts1 :o are kn[n z murabits or m>ab\ts1 a ^w :i* lit]ally means 8^? :o s]ve 9 fronti] =ts 7ribat710 :]e ! soldi]s 7 accu/om$ to devote !mselves to practices ( piety4 ,^! sa9ts are also kn[n z sidi 7lords71 or mulaye 7tea*]s71 & 9 ! ,b]b] language ( ! ,tw>egs z aneslem1 or 8,islamic40 ,v (t5 !y are insane p]sons1 & are all[$ to indulge e passion & to disreg>d ! ord9>y laws ( morality4 ,ev5 ^? liv+ at ! pres5t day are cr$it$ ) miracul\s p[]s1 n only ) gifts ( heal+1 b ) exemption f ! limitations ( space & f ! laws ( gravity 7cf4 ,trumelet3 ,les sa9ts de l'islam1 ,p>is1 #ahha72 9 _m cases ! same sa9t has two or m tombs1 & is believ$ to be buri$ 9 ea*1 = x is argu$ t1 z he 0 able to be 9 two or m places at once dur+ life1 s 8 body c be 9 sev]al tombs aft] dea?4 ,all ?is1 ( c\rse1 is no normal developm5t ( ,islam1 to :i* x is pla9ly repugnant4 ,h[ ?9 a v5e] ( ,muslim usages cov]s ov] a mass ( primitive animism may be se5 f ,dr4 ,we/]m>ck's essay on 8,belief 9 spirits 9 ,morocco10 ! fir/fruits ( ! newly e/abli%$ ,academy at ,abo 9 ,f9l& 7,humaniora4 ,i4 i4 ,abo1 ,f9l&1 #aibj71 & f ,dr4 ,montet's ,le culte des sa9ts musulmans dans l',afrique du nord 7,g5eva1 #aije74 ,among/ ! ,b]b] tribes 9 p]petual conflict ) ! ,arab g>risons !re 0 always a refuge & a welcome = ! lo/ causes ( ,islam1 & s almo/ e h]etical sect & e defeat$ dyna/y made its la/ /& !re1 s t ev5 n[ ^? p>ts %[ ! /range/ survivals ( o!rwise =gott5 movem5ts4 ,no d\bt ?is 0 ma9ly due to a p]5nial tone ( disaffection t[>ds ! ,arab rul]s1 & anyone 9 revolt aga9/ ! ,khalif 0 welcom$ = t v fact4 ,! conque/ ( ,spa9 t[>ds ! end ( ! #a/ c5t4 ,a4,h4 7e>ly #h? c5t4 ,a4,d47 0 jo9tly an ,arab & ,b]b] und]tak+1 ! ,b]b]s be+ 9 ! great majority 9 ! invad+ army1 & mo/ ( ! lead]s be+ ,b]b]4 ,?us 9 ,&alusia ! old rivalries betwe5 ,arab & ,b]b] figure l>gely 9 ! next few c5turies4 ,at fir/ ,&alusia 0 reg>d$ m]ely z a di/rict atta*$ to ! prov9ce ( ,nor? ,africa1 & 0 rul$ f ,ifrikiya4 ,9 ,a4,h4 #ach1 aft] ! fall ( ! ,umayyads 9 ,asia1 a fugitive memb] ( ! fall5 dyna/y1 ,abdu r-,rahman1 fail+ 9 an attempt to re/ore 8 family 9 ,africa1 cross$ ov] to ,spa91 & !re e/abli%$ a new & indep5d5t p[]1 ) its seat ( gov]nm5t at ,cordova1 & 9 ,a4,h4 #cag "o ( 8 desc5dants =mally assum$ ! title ( 8,comm&] ( ! ,fai?ful40 ,! ,umayyads ( ,spa9 v closely reproduc$ ! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( _! rule 9 ,syria4 ,!y 7 tol]ant1 & made free use ( ,*ri/ian & ,jewi% (ficials2 !y enc\rag$ ! old] lit]>y arts1 & especially poetry1 & employ$ ,greek arti/s & ar*itects2 b ?\gh do+ mu* = ! m mat]ial elem5ts ( culture1 !re is no evid5ce "u _! rule ( any int]e/ 9 ,greek le>n+ or philosophy4 ,yet1 ?\gh 9 a s5se old-fa%ion$1 ! c\ntry 0 by no means isolat$1 & we f9d frequ5t int]c\rse betwe5 ,spa9 & ! ea/4 ,! religi\s duty ( ! pilgrimage has always be5 an important factor 9 promot+ ! common life ( ,islam1 & !re is abundant evid5ce t ! ,spani% ,muslims look$ /eadily ea/w>ds = religi\s guidance1 accept+ ! hadi?1 ! canon law1 & ! developm5t ( a sci5tific jurisprud5ce z x took %ape 9 ! ea/4 ,bo? ,muslims & ,jews travell$ to ,mesopotamia 9 ord] to complete _! education1 & ?us kept 9 contact ) ! m cultur$ life ( ,asia4 ,b ,spani% ,islam _h no feel+ ( sympa?y ) ! philosophical speculation popul> 9 ! ea/1 & c]ta9ly disapprov$ ! latitud9>ian developm5ts :i* 7 tak+ place "u ! ,abbasids ( ! ?ird c5tury3 its t5d5cy 0 to a rigid or?odoxy & /rict cons]vatism1 its int]e/s 7 conf9$ to ! canon law1 ,quranic exegesis1 & ! /udy ( tradition4 ,! reaction>y "* ( ,spani% ,islam is well illu/rat$ by ,ibn ,hazm 7d4 #def ,a4,h471 ! fir/ important !ologian :i* x produc$4 ,reject+ ! f\r recognis$ & or?odox s*ools ( canon law1 & disc>d+ ev5 ! rigid sy/em ( ,ibn ,hanbal z n /rict en\gh1 he became an adh]5t ( ! s*ool f\nd$ by ,daud az-,zahiri 7d4 #bgj71 :i* has nev] be5 admitt$ z on ! same foot+ z ! o!r f\r1 & n[ is totally ext9ct4 ,9 ! tea*+ ( t s*ool ,quran & tradition 7 tak5 9 _! /ricte/ & mo/ lit]al s5se2 any sort ( d$uction by analogy 0 =bidd52 8x is evid5t t "h we h to d ) an impossible man & s*ool1 & s ! ,muslim _w f\nd4 ,mo/ said r\ndly t x 0 illegal to appo9t a ,zahirite to act z judge1 on mu* ! same gr\nds t objection to circum/antial evid5ce w ?r[ out a man n[ z juror4 ,if !y _h be5 us+ mod]n language1 !y w\ld h said t x 0 because he 0 a hopeless crank40 7,macdonald3 ,muslim ,!ology1 p4 #aaj74 ,?is 0 ! sy/em :i* ,ibn ,hazm n[ introduc$ into ,spa91 & x 0 "o calculat$ to appeal to ! /]n puritan /ra9 :i* und\bt$ly exi/s 9 ! ,ib]ian "*4 ,! novel po9t 0 t ,ibn ,hazm appli$ ! pr9ciples & me?ods ( jurisprud5ce to !ology prop]4 ,l ,daud he entirely reject$ ! pr9ciples ( analogy & taqlid1 t is1 ! foll[+ ( au?ority 9 ! s5se ( accept+ ! dictum ( a kn[n tea*]4 ,z ?is und]m9$ all exi/+ sy/ems1 & requir$ e man to /udy ,quran & tradition = himself1 x did n receive ! approval ( ! canoni/s1 :o1 9 ,spa9 z else:]e1 7 ! foll[]s ( recognis$ s*ools1 su* z t ( ,abu ,hanifa & ! o!r or?odox sy/ems1 & x 0 n until a full c5tury aft]w>ds t he ga9$ any numb] ( adh]5ts4 ,9 !ology he admitt$ ! ,a%arite doctr9e ( mukhalafa1 ! diff]5ce ( ,god f all creat$ be+s1 s t human attributes c\ld n be appli$ to him 9 ! same s5se z !y 7 us$ ( m52 b he c>ri$ ?is a /age fur!r1 & oppos$ ! ,a%arites1 :o1 ?\gh admitt+ ! diff]5ce1 _h !n argu$ ab\t ! attributes ( ,god z ?\gh !y describ$ ,god's nature1 :5 ! v fact ( diff]5ce deprives !m ( any mean+ intelligible to u4 ,z 9 ! ,quran n9ety-n9e descriptive titles are appli$ to ,god we may lawfully employ !m1 b we nei!r "k :at !y imply nor c we argue any?+ f !m4 ,! same me?od is appli$ to ! treatm5t ( ! an?ropomorphical expressions :i* are appli$ to ,god 9 ! ,quran2 we may use ^? expressions1 b we h n ! slighte/ idea ( :at !y may indicate1 save t we "k !y d n mean :at !y w\ld mean z us$ ( m54 ,9 e?ics ! only di/9ction betwe5 good & evil is bas$ on ,god's w1 & our only k ( t di/9ction is obta9$ f revelation4 ,if ,god =bids !ft x is wrong only because ,god =bids x2 !re is no /&>d o!r ?an ! arbitr>y approval or disapproval ( ,god4 ,al?\gh x took a c5tury = ^! views to obta9 any numb] ( adh]5ts1 ,ibn ,hazm 0 no obscure figure dur+ 8 lifetime4 ,he became prom95t z a viol5t & abusive controv]siali/1 an oppon5t ( ! ,a%arite p>ty & ( ! ,mutazilites1 curi\sly en\gh treat+ ! latt] m g5tly z hav+ limit$ ,god's qualities4 ,ibn ,hazm liv$ at a "t :5 ! ,umayyads ( ,cordova 7 already 9 _! decay1 & 9 #dbb ! dyna/y fell4 ,v soon ! :ole ( ,&alusia 0 split into a numb] ( indep5d5t pr9cipalities1 & ?is 0 foll[$ by a p]iod ( an>*y1 dur+ :i* ! c\ntry 0 expos$ m & m to ,*ri/ian attacks1 until at l5g? ,mutamid1 ,k+ ( ,seville1 fe>+ t ! ,muslim /ates w\ld disappe> altoge!r "u ! tide ( ,*ri/ian conque/1 advis$ 8 co-religioni/s to appeal = help to ! ,murabit p[] 9 ,morocco1 :i*1 ) mu* misgiv+1 !y did4 ,! ,murabits1 ! "n is t commonly appli$ to sa9ts 9 ,morocco1 7 ! product ( a religi\s revival l$ by ,yahya b4 ,ibrahim ( ! clan ( ! ,jidala1 a bran* ( ! great ,b]b] tribe ( ,latuna1 "o ( ^? light-complexion$ ,b]b] races su* z c /ill be se5 9 ,alg]ia1 & are app>5tly ne>e/ ak9 to ! ,lebu z !y are repres5t$ 9 anci5t ,egyptian pa9t+s4 ,9 #dbh 7 #ajcf ,a4,d47 ,yahya p]=m$ ! pilgrimage to ,mecca1 & 0 a/oni%$ & delight$ at ! evid5ces ( culture & prosp]ity :i* he saw 9 ! l&s ?r\gh :i* he travell$1 s f> exce$+ any?+ :i* _h previ\sly ent]$ 8 exp]i5ce4 ,on 8 return j\rney he /opp$ at ,kairawan & became a he>] at ! lectures giv5 !re by ,abu ,amran4 ,! lectur] 0 greatly /ruck by ! dilig5ce & att5tion ( 8 pupil1 & greatly surpris$ :5 he discov]$ t he 0 a product ( "o ( ! wild & b>b>\s tribes ( ! f> we/4 ,b :5 ,yahya ask$ t "o ( ! alumni ( ,kairawan might be s5t home ) him to tea* 8 fell[-tribesm5 no "o 0 f\nd will+ to v5ture among/ a p :o 7 g5]ally reg>d$ z fi]ce & savage1 until at la/ ! task 0 und]tak5 by ,abdullah ibn ,jahsim4 ,help$ by 8 companion ,yahya comm5c$ a religi\s revival among/ ! ,b]b]s ( ! ,we/1 & seems to h modell$ 8 "w on ! example ( ! ,prophet1 by =ce ( arms urg+ 8 re=ms ^u ! neighb\r+ tribes & lay+ ! f\ndation ( a unit$ k+dom1 a "w :i* 0 cont9u$ by 8 successor1 ,yusuf b4 ,ta%f91 & s at l5g? a p[]ful k+dom 0 e/abli%$1 :i* ext5d$ f ! ,m$it]ranean to ! ,s5egal4 ,_m su* ,b]b] /ates 7 e/abli%$ at v>i\s times1 b1 z a rule1 !y fell into decay aft] a c\ple ( g5]ations4 ,yusuf b4 ,ta%f9 0 ! *ampion n[ invit$ by ! ,muslims ( ,spa91 n )\t misgiv+s 9 _m qu>t]s1 b ! *oice seem$ to lie only betwe5 ,*ri/ian or ,b]b]1 & ! ,b]b]s 7 at lea/ ( _! own religion & ( ! same race z ! majority ( ! ,spani% ,muslims4 ,yusuf came z a help]1 b a second "t invit$ he /ay$ on & e/abli%$ 8 au?ority ov] ! c\ntry1 & ?us ,spa9 became a prov9ce "u ! rule ( ! ,murabit pr9ces ( ,morocco4 ,yusuf 0 succe$$ by ,ali1 :o 0 successful 9 re/ra9+ ! ,*ri/ians1 & at "o "t ev5 =m$ plans to drive !m out ( ,spa9 altoge!r4 ,murabit rule1 :i* la/$ #ce ye>s1 br\ght _m *anges & itself exp]i5c$ _m *anges4 ,! rul]s 7 r\gh m5 ( unc\? mann]s & fanatical outlook4 ,n _m ye>s be=e1 x w be rememb]$1 ! ,arabs ( ,kairawan 7 reluctant to v5ture into _! l&1 su* 0 _! ill repute4 ,!y 7 p>tially humanis$ by a religi\s movem5t1 & ?us naturally %[ a religi\s "* :i* bord]$ on fanaticism4 ,ali himself 0 entirely 9 ! h&s ( ! faqirs or m5dicant devotees & qadis1 & ! gov]nm5t 0 liable to int]f]5ce f ^! irresponsible fanatics at e turn4 ,x 0 a /ate ( affairs :i* awak5$ ! impati5ce ( ! cultur$ ,muslims ( ,spa91 :o express$ _! feel+s 9 _m cau/ic epigrams & satirical poems4 ,b v soon a *ange began to "w4 ,! ,murabits & _! foll[]s did n become less atta*$ to ! devotees1 :o sw>m$ un*eck$ on e side & receiv$ idolatr\s att5tions f ! multitude1 b !y le>n$ ! luxuries & ref9em5ts ( ! cultur$ life !n prevail+ 9 ,spa9 & %[$ !mselves apt pupils4 ,inde$1 _! d[nfall may be expla9$ ei!r z due to effete luxury or to faqir-ridd5 sup]/ition1 z we %all see lat] on4 ,! intellectual life ( ,muslim ,spa9 up to ! ,murabit p]iod 0 cons]vative r ?an backw>d4 ,its lit]>y m5 7 ne>] ! old traditional ,arab type ?an 0 ! case 9 ! ea/]n ,khalifate1 :]e ,p]sian influ5ces _h pu%$ ! ,arab s mu* into ! backgr\nd2 its s*ol>s 7 /ill occupi$ exclusively ) ! traditional sci5ces1 exegesis1 canon law1 & traditions4 ,! ,murabit invasion (f]$ a /imulus to satirical v]se1 b o!rwise did no?+ to promote ei!r lit]ature or sci5ce4 ,yet x is "u ,murabit rule t we f9d ! fir/ beg9n+s ( we/]n philosophy1 & ! l9e ( transmission is f ! ,mutazilites ( ,baghdad ?r\gh ! ,jews & !nce to ! ,muslims ( ,spa94 ,! ,jews act z int]m$i>ies :o br+ ! ,muslim philosophy ( ,asia into contact ) ! ,muslims ( ,spa94 ,= a long "t ! ,jews _h tak5 no "p 9 ! developm5t ( ,hell5i/ic philosophy1 al?\gh 9 ! latt] ,syriac p]iod !y _h p>ticipat$ 9 m$ical /udies & 9 natural sci5ce1 ( :i* we h se5 evid5ce 9 ! important "w ( ,jewi% physicians & sci5ti/s at ,baghdad "u al-,mamun & ! e>ly ,abbasids4 ,outside m$ic9e & natural sci5ce ,jewi% int]e/ seems to h be5 ma9ly conf9$ to ,biblical exegesis1 tradition1 & canon law4 ,"o ( ! few exceptions to ?is re/riction ( int]e/s 0 ,said al-,fayyumi or ,saadya b5 ,joseph 7d4 #cca ,a4,h4 #idb ,a4,d471 a native ( ,upp] ,egypt1 :o became "o ( ! ,geonim ( ! academy at ,sora on ! ,euphrates1 & is be/ kn[n z ! translator ( ! ,old ,te/am5t into ,arabic1 :i* _h n[ replac$ ,aramaic z ! spee* ( ! ,jews bo? 9 ,asia & 9 ,spa94 ,z an au?or 8 mo/ important "w 0 ! ,kitab al-,amanat wa-l-,itiqadat1 or 8,book ( ! articles ( fai? & dogmatics10 :i* 0 f9i%$ 9 #cba-b 7 ,a4,d4 #icc71 & 0 aft]w>ds translat$ into ,hebrew z ,sef] ,emunot we-,deot by ,judah b4 ,tibbon4 ,he 0 ! au?or also ( a comm5t>y on ! ,p5tateu*1 ( :i* only a portion 7on ,exod4 #cj1 #aa-af7 survives1 z well z o!r works2 b x is 9 ! fir/-nam$ & 9 ! comm5t>y t 8 views appe> mo/ cle>ly4 ,= ! fir/ "t a ,jewi% writ] %[s famili>ity ) ! problems rais$ by ! ,mutazilites1 & gives ^! a s]i\s att5tion f ! ,jewi% /&-po9t4 ,x does n seem1 h[ev]1 t we %\ld class ,said z a ,mutazilite2 he m prop]ly repres5ts ! movem5t :i* produc$ 8 ,muslim contempor>ies1 al-,a%ari & al-,mat>idi1 t is to say1 he is "o ( ^? :o use or?odox kalam & adapt philosophy to apologetic purposes4 ,8 position is %[n mo/ cle>ly 9 ! 8,book ( ! articles ( fai? & dogmatics0 9 deal+ ) ! ?ree problems ( 7a7 creation1 7b7 ! ,div9e ,unity1 & 7c7 free w4 ,9 ! fir/ ( ^! he def5ds ! doctr9e ( a creation ex nihilo1 b 9 giv+ pro(s ( ! necessity ( a creator he %[s 9 ?ree out ( ! f\r argum5ts employ$ di/9ct traces ( ,ari/otelian influ5ces4 ,9 treat+ ! doctr9e ( ! ,div9e ,unity he is *iefly conc]n$ ) oppos+ ! ,*ri/ian tea*+ ( ! ,tr9ity1 b incid5tally is compell$ to deal ) ! idea ( ,god & ! ,div9e attributes1 & 9 do+ s ma9ta9s t none ( ! ,ari/otelian categories c be appli$ to ,god4 ,z to ! human w he def5ds its fre$om1 & 8 task is ma9ly an ef=t to reconcile ?is ) ! omnipot5ce & omnisci5ce ( ,god4 ,9 ! fragm5t on ,exodus he ref]s to ! comm&s ( revelation & ! comm&s ( reason1 ^! latt]1 he ass]ts1 be+ bas$ on philosophical speculation4 ,evid5tly ! ,mutakallam9 movem5t1 pr(ess$ly an or?odox reaction f ! ,mutazilites1 repres5ts a great wid5+ ( philosophical influ5ces4 ,philosophy 0 no long] a subject conf9$ to "o gr\p ( s*ol>s :o 7 int]e/$ 9 ,greek writ+s1 b _h spread out until x rea*$ ! mosques1 & c\ld no long] be ?ru/ aside z an h]etical ab]ration1 & 9 its outspread x _h p5etrat$ ! ,jewi% s*ools z well4 ,b ,said produc$ no imm$iate disciples1 & ^? :o foll[$ him 9 ! ,jewi% academies ( ,mesopotamia %[$ no int]e/ 9 8 me?ods4 ,yet 8 "w1 app>5tly b>r51 0 de/9$ to h results ( ! wide/ importance aft] a c5tury's int]val4 ,9 spite ( di/ance & ! difficulties ( travel !re 0 a v close & frequ5t int]c\rse ma9ta9$ betwe5 all ! ,jews ( ! ,sef>di gr\p1 ^?1 namely1 :o _h adopt$ ,arabic z _! ord9>y spee* & :o 7 liv+ "u ,muslim rule4 ,! ,a%k5azi ,jews 9 ! nor? & c5tre ( ,europe :o liv$ 9 ,*ri/ian l&s & did n use ,arabic 7 def9itely sep>at$ f ^! o!rs by ! b>ri] ( language1 & ?us 9 diff]5t surr\nd+s ! two gr\ps develop$ m>k$ diff]5ces 9 _! use ( ,hebrew1 9 _! liturgical =mul>ies1 & 9 _! popul> beliefs & folk-lore4 ,?us we mu/ be> 9 m9d t a synagogue 9 ,spa9 w\ld naturally be 9 close t\* ) synagogues 9 ,mesopotamia1 b x 0 n likely to h any contact ) "o 9 ! ,rh9e valley4 ,al?\gh ! e>li] ,jewi% settl]s 9 ,spa9 & ,prov5ce _h enjoy$ consid]able fre$om1 re/rictions _h be5 impos$ by ! c\ncil ( ,elvira 7,a4,d4 #cjc-d71 & !y _h to suff] consid]able sev]ity "u ! lat] ,we/ ,go?s4 ,! com+ ( ! ,muslims _h greatly eas$ _! position1 *iefly because ! ,jews _h tak5 a lead+ "p 9 assi/+ & probably 9 invit+ ! invad]s2 !y (t5 furni%$ g>risons to occupy t[ns :i* ! ,muslims _h conqu]$1 & 7 ! means ( supply+ !m ) in=mation z to ! enemy's movem5ts4 ,x seems probable t !y _h be5 9 correspond5ce ) ! ,muslims be=eh&1 s t !y %>$ ) ,witiza's p>tisans ! responsibility ( invit+ ! invasion4 ,"u ,umayyad rule _! prosp]ity cont9u$ & increas$4 ,v (t5 we f9d ,jews occupy+ high positions at c\rt & 9 ! civil s]vice1 & ^! favorable conditions seem to h prevail$ until ! "t ( ! ,muwahhids1 = x does n appe> t ! ,murabits1 = all _! fanaticism1 took any measures aga9/ ,*ri/ians or ,jews4 ,important among/ ! ,jews ( ! ,umayyad p]iod 0 ,hasdai b5 ,%abrut 7d4 #cfj or #chj ,a4,h471 a physician "u ,abdu r-,rahman1 :o s5t pres5ts to ,sora & ,pumbadi?a1 & c>ri$ on a correspond5ce ) ,dosa1 son ( ! ,gaon ,said al-,fayyumi4 ,hi!rto x _h be5 ! cu/om = ! we/]n ,jews to ref] all difficult problems ( ! canon law to ! le>n$ ( ! academies 9 ,mesopotamia1 j z _! ,muslim neighb\rs ref]r$ to ! ,ea/ = guidance 9 jurisprud5ce & !ology4 ,b ,hasdai took advantage ( ! accid5tal pres5ce ( ,moses ,b5 ,eno* 9 ,cordova to f\nd a native ,spani% academy = rabb9ical /udies !re1 & appo9t$ ,moses its presid5t1 a /ep :i* receiv$ ! w>m approval ( ! ,umayyad pr9ce4 ,?is turn$ out to be m important ?an its f\nd] _h anticipat$2 x 0 n m]ely a prov9cial s*ool reproduc+ ! "w ( ! ea/]n academies1 b result$ 9 ! transf]5ce ( ,jewi% s*ol>%ip to ,spa94 ,at t "t ,asiatic ,islam 0 beg9n+ to feel ! re/rict+ p[] ( ! or?odox reaction1 :il/ ,spa91 on ! o!r h&1 saw ! op5+ ( a gold5 age4 ,%ortly be=e ?is date ! ,umayyad ,hakim ,,ii4 _h be5 work+ to enc\rage ,muslim s*ol>%ip 9 ! we/1 & _h s5t 8 ag5ts to pur*ase books 9 ,cairo1 ,damascus1 ,baghdad1 & ,alex&ria4 ,9 ! reaction>y age ( ,mahmud ( ,ghazna 7#chh-dba7 ,muslim b4 ,muhammad al-,&alusi _h be5 in/rum5tal 9 introduc+ ! tea*+s ( ! 8,bre?r5 ( ,purity0 to ! ,muslims ( ,spa94 ,we _c say t ! ,jews anticipat$ ! ,muslims ( ,spa9 9 _! /udy ( philosophy1 b x is cle> t ! ,jews 7 associat$ ) ! fir/ dawn ( ! new le>n+ 9 ,spa91 & ?us z ! sun 0 sett+ 9 ! ,ea/ a new day 0 beg9n+ to break 9 ! ,we/4 ,! fir/ lead] ( ,spani% philosophy 0 ! ,jew ,abu ,ayyub ,sulayman b4 ,yahya b4 ,jabirul 7d4 #dej ,a4,h4 #ajeh ,a4,d471 commonly kn[n z ,ibn ,gabirol 7,jabirul71 & h5ce 8,av5cebrol0 9 ! ,lat9 s*ola/ic writ]s4 ,he is *iefly kn[n z ! au?or ( ,maqor ,*ayim1 8,! ,f\nta9 ( ,life10 a title bas$ on ! words ( ,psalm #cf1 #aj1 :i* 0 "o ( ! works translat$ into ,lat9 at ! college ( ,tol$o & s well kn[n to ! s*ola/ic writ]s z ! ,fons ,vitae 7ed4 ,baum]3 ,av5cebrolis ,fons ,vitae1 ,mn/]1 #ahie74 ,x 0 ?is "w :i* really introduc$ neo-,platonism to ! ,we/4 ,ibn ,jabirul tea*es t ,god alone is pure reality1 & ,he is ! only actual sub/ance2 ,he has no attributes1 b 9 ,him are w & wisdom1 n z possess$ attributes b z aspects ( ,8 nature4 ,! _w is produc$ by ! impress ( =m ^u pre-exi/+ univ]sal matt]4 8,sep>ate sub/ances0 9 ! s5se ( ideas ab/ract$ f ! ?+s 9 :i* !y exi/ 7cf4 ,ari/ot4 de anima4 iii4 #g1 #h1 8& s ! m9d :5 x ?9ks ( ma!matical =ms ?9ks ( !m z sep>at$1 ?\gh !y are n sep>at$07 d n exi/ ap>t 9 reality2 ! ab/ract+ is only a m5tal process1 s ! g5]al idea exi/s only z a concept1 n z a reality4 ,b betwe5 ! purely spiritual be+ ( ,god & ! crudely mat]ial obs]v$ 9 ! bodies exi/+ 9 ?is _w are int]m$iate =ms ( exi/5ce1 su* z angels1 s\ls1 etc41 :]e9 ! =m is n impress$ ^u matt]4 ,besides ?is 8,f\nta9 ( ,life0 ,ibn ,gabirol 0 ! au?or ( two e?ical treatises1 ! ,tikkun ,midwo? han-,nefe%1 8! correction ( ! mann]s ( ! s\l10 9 :i* man is treat$ z a microcosm aft] ! kabbali/ic fa%ion2 & ,mib*> hap-,p59im1 a collection ( e?ical maxims collect$ f ! ,greek & ,arabic philosoph]s4 ,! =m] has be5 publi%$ at ,luneville 9 #ahjd1 ! latt] at ,hamburg 9 #ahdd4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! six? c5tury ,a4,h41 a y\ng] contempor>y ( al-,ghazali1 we h ,abu ,bakr ibn ,bajja 7d4 #ecc ,a4,h4 #aach ,a4,d471 ! fir/ ( ! ,muslim philosoph]s ( ,spa94 ,by ?is "t1 "s ?ree-qu>t]s ( a c5tury aft] ! dea? ( ,ibn ,s9a1 ,arabic philosophy 0 almo/ ext9ct 9 ,asia & 0 treat$ z a dang]\s h]esy4 ,9 ,egypt1 x is true1 !re 0 a great] degree ( tol]ation1 ?\gh less ?an 9 ! gold5 age ( ! ,fatimids1 b ,egypt 0 reg>d$ ) suspicion z ! home ( h]esy & ( =ms ( sup]/ition :i* 7 uncong5ial to ! philosoph]4 ,spa9 ?us becomes ! place ( refuge = ,muslim philosophy z x _h already become ! nurs]y ( ,jewi% speculation4 ,ibn ,bajja1 kn[n to ! ,lat9 s*oolm5 z 8,avempace10 f\nd 9 ,murabit ,spa9 ! fre$om & tol]ation :i* ,asia no long] af=d$4 ,he cont9ues ! "w ( al-,f>abi1 n1 x w be not$1 ( ,ibn ,s9a1 & develops ! neo-,platonic int]pretation ( ,ari/otle on sob] & cons]vative l9es4 ,he wrote comm5t>ies on ,ari/otle's ,physics1 de g5]atione et corruptione1 & ! ,meteora2 he produc$ orig9al works on ma!matics1 on 8! s\l10 & a treatise :i* he call$ 8,! ,h]mit's ,guide10 :i* 0 us$ by ,ibn ,ru%d 7,av]roes7 & by ! ,jewi% writ] ,moses ( ,n>bonne 9 ! #ad? c5t4 ,a4,d4 ,9 ?is la/ "w he makes a di/9ction betwe5 8animal activity10 9 :i* action is due to ! prompt+ ( ! emotions1 passions1 etc41 & 8human activity10 :i* is sugge/$ & direct$ by ab/ract reason1 & f ?is di/9ction draws a rule ( life & conduct4 ,he is *iefly cit$ by ! ,lat9 s*oolm5 ) ref]5ce to ! doctr9e ( 8sep>ate sub/ances40 8,avempace held t1 by ! /udy ( ! speculative sci5ces1 we are able by means ( ! images :i* we "k f ^! ideas to atta9 to ! k ( sep>ate sub/ances0 7,/4 ,?omas ,aq4 c4 ,g5tiles1 #c1 #da74 ,?is "q z to ! possibility ( kn[+ sub/ances sep>at$1 i4e4 ab/ract$1 f ! concrete bodies 9 :i* !y exi/ 9 comb9ation--& ! 8sep>ate sub/ances0 7 reg>d$ z spiritual ?+s--0 prom95t 9 m$ival s*ola/icism1 :i* inh]it$ x f ! ,arabic philosoph]s1 & f x came ! fur!r "q :e!r ! contemplation ( su* ab/ract ideas gives u a bett] k ( realities ?an obs]vation ( ! concrete bodies4 ,bo? ,alb]tus ,magnus & ,/4 ,?omas ,aqu9as associate ,avempace especially ) ?is "q & ) ! doctr9e ( ! 8acquir$ intellect10 to :i* we h already ref]r$ 9 our notes on ,ibn ,s9a1 & :i* completes ! !ory ( 8sep>ate sub/ances0 by suppos+ t intelligible =ms /ream into our s\ls f an outside ,ag5t ,intellect by way ( emanation z sub/antial =ms desc5d on corporeal matt]4 ,/4 ,?omas ,aqu9as %[s direct k ( ,avempace's treatm5t ( ^! subjects1 b ?is is n s evid5t 9 ,alb]tus4 ,avempace1 l all o!r ,arabic philosoph]s1 describes ittisal or union ( ! human intellect ) ! ,ag5t ,intellect1 ( :i* x is an emanation1 z ! supreme beatitude & f9al end ( human life4 ,by ! op]ation ( ! ,ag5t ,intellect on ! lat5t intellect 9 man ?is is awak5$ to life1 b et]nal life consi/s 9 ! complete union ( ! intellect ) ! ,ag5t ,intellect4 ,9 ,avempace ! ,sufi /ra9 is mu* weak] ?an 9 al-,f>abi2 ! means ( atta9+ ?is union is n by ec/asy1 b by a /eady dis5tangl+ ( ! s\l ( ^? mat]ial ?+s :i* h9d] its pure intellectual life & consequ5t union4 ,?is leads u to ! tea*+ ( asceticism z ! discipl9e ( ! s\l = its spiritual progress1 & ! ascetic & solit>y life is ! ideal propos$ by ,avempace4 ,?is ascetic & contemplative h]mit life is n1 h[ev]1 9 any s5se a religi\s life1 = 9 ?is respect ,avempace has advanc$ f> beyond al-,f>abi2 he is fully consci\s t pure philosophy _c be reconcil$ ) ! tea*+s ( revelation1 a conviction :i* n[ m>ks ! def9ite sep>ation ( ! 8philosoph]s0 f ! or?odox s*ola/ics ( ,islam1 su* z al-,ghazali & 8 s*ool2 he reg>ds ! tea*+s ( revelation z an imp]fect pres5tation ( ! tru?s :i* are m completely & correctly le>n$ f ,ari/otle1 & only admits ! ,quran & its religion z a discipl9e = ! multitude ^: intellig5ce nei!r desires nor is capable ( philosophical reason+4 ,/rangely en\gh he liv$ 9 security1 protect$ f ! attacks ( ho/ile !ologians1 "u ! protection ( ! ,murabit pr9ces4 ,)9 a few ye>s aft] ! dea? ( ,avempace ! ,murabit dyna/y came to an end4 ,! succe$+ dyna/y1 ! ,muwahhids1 7 ( ,b]b] orig9 l ! ,murabits1 &1 l !m1 _h _! orig9 9 a religi\s revival4 ,! f\ndation ( ! ,muwahhids is associat$ ) ,ibn ,tum>t 7d4 #ebd ,a4,h4 #aabi ,a4,d474 ,he 0 a native ( ,morocco1 & a /range comb9ation ( fanatic & s*ola/ic4 ,he claim$ to be a desc5dant ( ,ali1 & pos$ z ! 8,mahdi0 possess+ ! sup]natural grace ( isma or 8security f error10 & ?us introduc$ ,%iite ideas into ,morocco2 & at ! same "t x 0 he :o introduc$ to ! ,we/ ! or?odox s*ola/icism ( al-,ghazali1 al?\gh at ! same "t he pr(ess$ to be a foll[] ( ,ibn ,hazm4 ,he travell$ 9 ,asia1 :]e1 no d\bt1 he le>n$ ( al-,ghazali & 8 doctr9es4 ,r\ghly treat$ at ,mecca he remov$ to ,egypt1 :]e he r5d]$ himself prom95t & objectionable by 8 puritanical criticisms on ! mann]s ( ! p4 ,sett+ out f ,alex&ria 9 a %ip travell+ we/w>ds he occupi$ himself ) a re=mation ( ! morals ( ! crew1 compell+ !m to obs]ve ! correct h\rs ( pray] & ! o!r duties ( religion4 ,9 #eje he appe>$ at ,mahdiya1 :]e he took up 8 abode 9 a wayside mosque4 ,!re he us$ to sit at ! w9d[ wat*+ ! pass]s-by1 &1 :5ev] he saw any ( !m c>ry+ a j> ( w9e or a musical in/rum5t1 he us$ to sally out & seize ! (f5sive article & break x4 ,! common p rev]5c$ him z a sa9t1 b _m ( ! weal?i] citiz5s res5t$ 8 activities1 & at l5g? br\ght a compla9t aga9/ him be=e ! ,emir ,yahya4 ,! ,emir he>d _! compla9ts & obs]v$ ,ibn ,tum>t & took note ( ! impression he _h made ^u ! populace4 ,) *>act]i/ic craft ! ,emir treat$ ! re=m] ) all possible respect1 b advis$1 nay r urg$1 him to be/[ ! fav\r ( 8 pres5ce ^u "s o!r t[n z soon z conv5i5t to him1 & s he remov$ to ,bijaiya 7,b\gie 9 ,alg]ia74 ,"h 8 ways 7 extremely unpopul>1 & he 0 driv5 away4 ,he next settl$ at ,mellala1 :]e he met a boy nam$ ,abdu l-,mum9 al-,kumi 7d4 #eeh71 a pott]'s son1 :om he made 8 disciple & decl>$ to be 8 successor4 ,at ?is "t ! ,murabit dyna/y _h fall5 f its orig9al puritanism & 0 di/+ui%$ = ! weal? & luxury :i* _h be5 made possible by ! conque/ ( ,spa91 & ! spl5d\r & o/5tation ( ! royal family at ,morocco laid x op5 to criticism4 ,"o ,friday a faqir ent]$ ! public squ>e :]e a ?rone 0 made ready = ! ,emir1 &1 pu%+ 8 way ?r\gh ! gu>ds :o /ood r\nd1 boldly took 8 seat ^u ! ?rone & refus$ to leave4 ,x 0 ! ,mahdi ,ibn ,tum>t1 &1 s great 0 ! sup]/iti\s rev]5ce accord$ to all faqirs1 & to him above all1 t none ( ! gu>ds /&+ r\nd v5tur$ to remove him by =ce4 ,at l5g? ! ,emir himself appe>$ &1 f9d+ :o _h occupi$ 8 (ficial seat1 decl9$ to int]f]e ) ! r$\btable faqir's w1 b x 0 privately made pla9 to ,ibn ,tum>t t x w\ld be wise = him to leave ! city = a :ile4 ,! ,mahdi !re=e retir$ to ,fez1 b soon aft]w>ds return$ to ,morocco4 ,"o day he met 9 ! /reets ! ,emir's si/]1 :o _h adopt$ ! %ameless =eign cu/om ( rid+ 9 public )\t a veil4 ,! ,mahdi /opp$ h] & p\r$ out a /ream ( abuse at h] = ?is neglect ( e/abli%$ cu/om1 !n1 ov]come by 8 indignation1 he pull$ h] (f ! bea/ %e 0 rid+4 ,he seems1 h[ev]1 to h felt "s al>m at 8 own tem]ity & fl$ =?) to ,t9amel1 :]e he op5ly rais$ ! /&>d ( revolt aga9/ a corrupt & unfai?ful dyna/y4 ,at fir/ ?is rebellion did n meet ) mu* success1 b1 aft] ! ,mahdi's dea?1 ! lead]%ip fell to 8 pupil1 ,abdu l-,mum91 :o took ,oran1 ,tlems51 ,fez1 ,sale1 ,ceuta1 & 9 #edb became ma/] ( ,morocco1 & 9 due c\rse seiz$ all ! empire ( ! ,murabits4 ,! new dyna/y e/abli%$ by ,abdu l-,mum9 is kn[n by ! "n ( ! ,muwahhids or 8,unit>ians10 a title :i* ! ,spani% hi/orians r5d] by 8,almohades10 & _! rule endur$ until #ffg ,a4,h4 7 #abfh ,a4,d474 ,ibn ,tum>t pr(ess$ to be a foll[] ( al-,ghazali1 & introduc$ 8 sy/em ( or?odox s*ola/icism to ! ,we/4 ,9 canon law he foll[$ ! reaction>y s*ool ( ,daud az-,zahiri & ,ibn ,hazm1 l ! ,murabits :o prec$$ him4 ,to ! multitude he 0 ! *ampion ( ,b]b] nationality2 he translat$ ! ,quran into ! ,b]b] language1 & caus$ ! call to pray] to be made 9 ,b]b] in/ead ( ,arabic4 ,muwahhid rule introduc$ a p]iod ( bigotry & ( religi\s p]secution4 ,x 0 "u ! rule ( ?is dyna/y t we f9d ! ,jews leav+ ! c\ntry 9 l>ge numb]s & migrat+ to ,africa or to ,prov5ce1 & _m ,*ri/ians also fl$ to jo9 ! ,ca/ilian =ces 9 ! nor?4 ,mod]n hi/orians t5d to condemn ! lat] sev]ities ( ,*ri/ian rul]s t[>ds _! ,muslim subjects1 & (t5 seem to speak ( ^? subjects z ! peaceable & cultur$ population :i* _h liv$ "u ! ,umayyads & ! ,murabits4 ,b ,spa9's la/ exp]i5ce ( ! ,muslims 0 ( ! fi]ce1 bigot$1 & p]secut+ ,muwahhids1 ^: tone 0 v diff]5t4 ,/rangely1 h[ev]1 x 0 "u ^! intol]ant rul]s t ,spani% ,islam pass$ ?r\gh its gold5 age ( philosophical speculation1 & n only s1 b ! philosoph]s 7 protect$ & fav\r$ by ! ,muwahhid c\rt4 ,q e>ly 9 ?is p]iod ! position seems to h be5 tacitly arrang$ t ! philosoph]s 7 absolutely free 9 _! "w & tea*+1 provid$ t tea*+ 0 n spread abroad among/ ! populace3 x 0 to be reg>d$ z a species ( esot]ic tru? res]v$ = ! enlight5$4 ,x seems almo/ c]ta9 t ?is attitude 0 delib]ately arrang$ by ! philosoph]s !mselves2 x _h already be5 sket*$ out by "s ( ! ,asiatic writ]s1 & def9itely laid d[n by al-,a%ari & al-,ghazali1 & ! ,muwahhids1 x mu/ be rememb]$1 pr(ess$ to be ,ghazalians4 ,b :il/ ! philosoph]s enjoy$ ?is exceptional fre$om ( speculation1 s diff]5t f ! repressive or?odoxy ( ! ,turki% dyna/ies 9 ,asia1 & def5d$ ! sy/em 9 _! writ+s1 ! rul]s (ficially 7 en=c+ among/ ! multitude ( _! subjects ! sev]e/ or?odoxy & ! mo/ reaction>y sy/em ( jurisprud5ce1 s reaction>y t x 0 nev] admitt$ by ! ,asiatic sultans4 ,! fir/ great lead] ( philosophical ?\ght 9 ,muwahhid ,spa9 0 ,ibn ,tufayl 7d4 #eha #aahe71 :o 0 wazir & c\rt physician "u ! ,muwahhid ,abu ,yaqub 7,a4,h4 #eeh-ehj74 ,8 tea*+ 0 9 g5]al con=mity ) t ( ,ibn ,bajja 7,avempace71 b ! my/ic elem5t is mu* m /rongly m>k$4 ,he admits ec/asy z a means ( atta9+ ! highe/ k & ( approa*+ ,god4 ,b 9 ,ibn ,tufayl's tea*+ ?is k diff]s v mu* f t aim$ at by ! ,sufis3 x is my/ic philosophy r ?an my/ic !ology4 ,! beatific vision reveals ! ,ag5t ,intellect & ! *a9 ( causation rea*+ d[n to man & !n back aga9 to itself4 ,9 8 views z to ! ne$ ( remov+ ! doctr9es ( philosophy f ! multitude he %[s ! same pr9ciples z ,ibn ,bajja1 :i* are ^? :i* came to be recognis$ z ! prop] (ficial attitude "u ! ,muwahhids1 & def5ds !m 9 a romance call$ ,hayy b4 ,yaqzan1 8! ,liv+ ,"o son ( ! ,wakeful10 ! "w by :i* 8 "n is be/ rememb]$4 ,9 ?is /ory we h ! picture ( two isl&s1 "o inhabit$ by a solit>y recluse :o sp5ds 8 "t 9 contemplation & !reby raises 8 intellect until he f9ds t he is able to appreh5d ! et]nal v]ities :i* are 9 ! ,"o ,active intellect4 ,! o!r isl& is inhabit$ by ord9>y p :o are occupi$ 9 ! commonplace incid5ts ( life & foll[ ! practices ( religion 9 ! =m kn[n to !m4 ,9 ?is way !y are cont5t & happy1 b fall f> %ort ( ! complete & p]fect happ9ess ( ! recluse on ! o!r isl&4 ,9 c\rse ( "t ! recluse1 :o is p]fectly well aw>e ( ! neighb\r+ isl& & its inhabitants1 beg9s to feel great pity = !m 9 t !y are exclud$ f ! m p]fect felicity :i* he enjoys1 & 9 an hone/ desire = _! welf>e1 goes ov] to !m & prea*es ! tru? z he has f\nd x4 ,= ! mo/ "p he is q un9telligible to !m1 & ! only result is t he produces confusion1 d\bt1 & controv]sial /rife among/ ^? :om he desir$ to b5efit1 b :o are incapable ( ! intellectual life :i* he has l$4 ,9 ! end he returns to 8 isl& conv9c$ t x is a mi/ake to int]f]e ) ! conv5tional religion ( ! multitude4 ,ibn ,ru%d 7,a4,h4 #ebj-eie71 kn[n to ! ,we/ z ,av]roes1 0 ! greate/ ( ! ,arabic philosoph]s1 & 0 practically _! la/4 ,he 0 a native ( ,cordova & ! fri5d & protg ( ,ibn ,tufayl1 by :om he 0 introduc$ to ,abu ,yaqub 9 #edh4 ,he 01 h[ev]1 m outspok5 ?an ,ibn ,tufayl1 & wrote sev]al controv]sial works aga9/ al-,ghazali & 8 foll[]s4 ,! family to :i* he belong$ 0 "o ^: memb]s usually became juri/s1 & ,ibn ,ru%d act$ z ,qadi 9 v>i\s ,spani% t[ns2 l mo/ ( ! ,arabic philosoph]s he /udi$ m$ic9e1 & 9 #egh 0 appo9t$ c\rt physician to ,abu ,yaqub4 ,by ?is "t he _h f9i%$ 8 c>e] z an au?or4 ,"u ! ,muwahhid ,abu ,yusuf al-,mansur he 0 c5sur$ z a h]etic & bani%$ f ,cordova4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! ,muwahhids1 l ! ,murabits1 7 really ,moroccan rul]s1 to :om ,spa9 0 a =eign prov9ce4 ,x 0 :il/ ! ,emir 0 9 ,spa9 & at ,cordova1 mak+ ready = an attack ^u ! ,*ri/ians1 t ,ibn ,ru%d 0 disgrac$1 & x seems probable t ?is 0 ma9ly a matt] ( policy1 z ! ,emir1 on ! eve ( a religi\s w>1 0 desir\s ( prov+ 8 own /rict or?odoxy by ! public disapproval ( "o :o _h be5 r too outspok5 9 8 speculative !ories4 ,z soon z ! ,emir return$ to ,morocco ! ord] ( exile 0 revok$1 & lat] on ,ibn ,ru%d appe>s at ! c\rt ( ,morocco1 :]e he di$ 9 #eie4 ,among/ ! ,muslims ,ibn ,ru%d has n ex]cis$ great influ5ce2 x 0 ! ,jews :o suppli$ ! bulk ( 8 admir]s1 & !y1 scatt]$ 9 ,prov5ce & ,sicily by ,muwahhid p]secution1 seem to h be5 *iefly in/rum5tal 9 introduc+ him to ,lat9 ,*ri/5dom4 ,8 *ief m$ical "w 0 kn[n z ! ,kulliyat1 8! univ]sal10 :i*1 "u ! ,lat9iz$ "n ( 8colliget10 became popul> z a manual 9 ! m$ival univ]sities :]e ! ,arabic sy/em ( m$ic9e 0 9 use4 ,he wrote also on jurisprud5ce a text-book ( ! law ( inh]itance1 :i* is /ill extant 9 ,,ms41 & also produc$ works on a/ronomy & gramm>4 ,he ma9ta9$ t ! task ( philosophy 0 "o approv$ & comm5d$ by religion1 = ! ,quran %[s t ,god comm&s m5 to se>* = ! tru?4 ,x is only ! prejudice ( ! un5light5$ :i* fe>s fre$om ( ?\ght1 because = ^? ^: k is imp]fect ! tru?s ( philosophy seem to be contr>y to religion4 ,on ?is topic he compos$ two !ological treatises--8,on ! ,agreem5t ( ,religion ) ,philosophy0 & 8,on ! ,demon/ration ( ,religi\s ,dogmas10 bo? ( :i* h be5 edit$ by ,m4 ,j4 ,muell]4 ,! popul> beliefs he does n accept1 b he reg>ds !m z wisely design$ to tea* morality & to develop piety among/ ! p at l>ge2 ! true philosoph] all[s no ^w to be utt]$ aga9/ e/abli%$ religion1 :i* is a ?+ necess>y = ! welf>e ( ! p4 ,ari/otle he reg>ds z ! supreme revelation ( ,god to man3 ) x religion is 9 total agreem5t1 b z religion is kn[n to ! multitude x only p>tially discloses ,div9e tru? & adapts x to ! practical ne$s ( ! _m2 9 religion !re is a lit]al mean+1 :i* is all ! un$ucat$ are able to atta91 & !re is an 8int]pretation10 :i* is ! disclos+ ( deep] tru?s b5ea? ! surface :i* x is n exp$i5t to communicate to ! multitude4 ,he opposes ! position ( ,ibn ,bajja1 :o incl9$ to solit>y m$itation & avoid$ ! discussion ( philosophical problems2 he admits & desires su* discussion provid$ x is conf9$ to ! educat$ :o are able to und]/& its be>+1 & n br\ght be=e ! multitude :o are !reby 9 dang] ( hav+ _! simple fai? und]m9$4 ,he agrees ) ,ibn ,bajja1 h[ev]1 z aga9/ ,ibn ,tufayl 9 disapproval ( ec/asy2 su* a ?+ may be1 b x is too r>e to ne$ s]i\s consid]ation4 ,!re are diff]5t classes ( m5 :o fall r\ghly into ?ree gr\ps4 ,! highe/ ( ^! are ^? ^: religi\s belief is bas$ on demon/ration 7burhan71 ! result ( reason+ f syllogisms :i* are priori c]ta92 ^! are ! m5 to :om ! philosoph] makes 8 appeal4 ,! l[e/ /ratum conta9s ^? ^: fai? is bas$ on ! au?ority ( a tea*] or on presumptions :i* _c be argu$ out & are n due to ! ex]cise ( pure reason2 x is mis*iev\s to put 8demon/ration0 or reason or controv]sy be=e p ( ?is type1 = x c only cause !m d\bt & difficulty4 ,int]m$iate betwe5 ^! two /rata are ^? :o h n atta9$ ! use ( pure reason--:i*1 ) ,ibn ,ru%d1 seems to be simply intuition--b are capable ( argum5t & controv]sy by means ( :i* _! fai? c be def5d$ & prov$2 8demon/ration0 prop] is n to be laid be=e ^!1 b x is "r to ent] into argum5t ) !m & to assi/ !m to rise above ! level ( ^? ^: belief is bas$ only ^u au?ority4 ,mo/ ( all1 ,ibn ,ru%d oppos$ ! tea*+ ( ! mutakallim9 or or?odox s*ola/ic !ologians1 :om he reg>d$ z subv]t+ ! pure pr9ciples ( ! ,ari/otelian philosophy1 & ( ^! he consid]$ ! wor/ to be al-,ghazali1 8t r5egade ( philosophy40 ,8 lead+ controv]sial "w is ! ,de/ruction ( ! ,de/ruction 7,tahafat at-,tahafat71 :i* he design$ z a refutation ( al-,ghazali's ,de/ruction ( ! ,philosoph]s4 ,b x 0 z a comm5tator on ! text ( ,ari/otle t he became be/ kn[n to subsequ5t g5]ations among/ ! ,jews & ! lat] ,lat9 s*ola/ics2 he 0 ! great & f9al comm5tator4 ,/rangely1 h[ev]1 ,ibn ,ru%d nev] p]ceiv$ ! importance ( read+ ,ari/otle 9 ! orig9al2 he _h no k ( ,greek1 & gives no sign ( suppos+ t a /udy ( ! ,greek text w\ld at all assi/ a /ud5t ( ! philosoph]4 ,! me?od ( 8 comm5t>ies is ! "t-hon\r$ =m d]iv$ f ! ,syriac comm5tators3 a s5t5ce ( ! text is giv5 & ! explanatory comm5ts foll[4 ,9 ma9 sub/ance ,ibn ,ru%d reproduces ! psy*ology ( ,ari/otle z int]pret$ by al-,f>abi & ,ibn ,s9a1 b ) "s important modifications4 ,9 man is a passive & an active intellect3 ! active intellect is r\s$ to action by ! op]ation ( ! ,ag5t ,intellect1 & ?us becomes an acquir$ intellect2 ! individual intellects are _m1 b ! ,ag5t ,intellect is b "o1 ?\gh pres5t 9 ea*1 j z ! sun is "o1 b !re are 9 action z _m suns z !re are bodies :i* x illum9ates4 ,?is is ! =m ( ! ,ari/otelian doctr9e z x _h be5 transmitt$ ?r\gh ,ibn ,s9a2 ! ,ag5t ,intellect is "o1 b x is z by emanation pres5t 9 ea*1 s t ! quick5+ p[] 9 ea* "o is "p ( ! univ]sal ,ag5t ,intellect4 ,b ,ibn ,ru%d diff]s f 8 pr$ecessors 9 8 treatm5t ( ! passive intellect1 ! aql hayyulani1 :i* is ! seat ( lat5t & pot5tial faculties ^u :i* ! ,ag5t op]ates4 ,9 all ! e>li] sy/ems ?is passive intellect 0 reg>d$ z purely individual & z op]at$ on by ! emanation ( ! univ]sal ,ag5t1 b ,ibn ,ru%d reg>d$ ! passive intellect also z b a portion ( a univ]sal s\l & z individual only 9 s f> z tempor>ily occupy+ an individual body4 ,ev5 ! passive p[]s are "p ( a univ]sal =ce animat+ ! :ole ( nature4 ,?is is ! doctr9e ( pampsy*ism1 :i* ex]cis$ s /rong an attraction = _m ( ! m$ival s*ola/ics1 & has its adh]5ts at ! pres5t day2 ?us ,james 7,pr9ciples ( ,psy*ology1 p4 #cdf7 says3 8,i confess t ! mom5t ,i become metaphysical & try to def9e ! m1 ,i f9d ! notion ( "s sort ( an anima mundi ?9k+ 9 all ( u to be a m promis+ hypo!sis1 9 spite ( all its difficulties1 ?an t ( a lot ( absolutely individual s\ls40 ,ibn ,ru%d reg>ds ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias z mi/ak5 9 suppos+ t ! passive intellect is a m]e disposition2 x is 9 u1 b belongs to some?+ outside2 x is n eng5d]$1 x is incorruptible1 & s 9 a s5se resembles ! ,ag5t ,intellect4 ,?is doctr9e is ! v opposite to :at is commonly describ$ z mat]ialism1 :i* repres5ts ! m9d z m]ely a =m ( en]gy produc$ by ! activity ( ! neural functions4 ,! activity ( bra9 & n]ves1 accord+ to ,ibn ,ru%d1 are due to ! pres5ce ( an ext]nal =ce2 n only1 z ,ari/otle tea*es1 at lea/ accord+ to ,alex&] ,aph4's int]pretation1 is ! highe/ faculty ( ! reason due to ! op]ation ( ! ext]nal "o ,ag5t ,intellect1 b ! passive intellect on :i* ?is ag5t acts is itself "p ( a great univ]sal s\l1 :i* is ! "o s\rce ( all life & ! res]voir to :i* ! s\l returns :5 ! transitory exp]i5ce ( :at we call life is f9i%$4 ,ibn ,ru%d's views d n receive mu* att5tion or criticism f ,muslim s*ol>s1 b ! ,*ri/ian s*ola/ics br\ght two ma9 argum5ts aga9/ ?is !ory1 "o psy*ological1 ! o!r !ological4 ,! psy*ological objection is t x is entirely subv]sive ( individuality3 if ! consci\s life ( ea* is only "p ( ! consci\s life ( a univ]sal s\l !re c be no real ego 9 any "o ( u2 b !re is no fact to :i* consci\sness be>s cle>] witness ?an ! reality & individuality ( ! ego4 ,?is did n t\* ! possibility t ! individual s\l might be drawn f a univ]sal s\l z its s\rce1 nor did x disprove t ! individual s\l might be reabsorb$ aga9 9 ! univ]sal s\l1 b 9 s f> z ,ibn ,ru%d's view repres5t$ ! s\l z ?r\gh\t a "p ( ! univ]sal s\l x 0 argu$ t ?is is contr>y to exp]i5ce1 :i* makes x cle> t 9 ?is pres5t life ! ego is v di/9ctly individual4 ,! !ological argum5t 0 t ,ibn ,ru%d's view d5i$ ! immortality ( ! s\l1 & s 0 contr>y to ! ,*ri/ian fai?4 ,?is objection deals m specifically ) ! reabsorption ( ! s\l ( ! individual 9 ! univ]sal s\l2 su* cessation ( sep>ate & individual exi/5ce1 x 0 argu$1 meant t ! s\l z su* no long] exi/$4 ,z we h already not$1 ,ari/otle gives a r n>r[ range to ! highe/ faculty ( reason1 conf9+ its activity to ! p]ception ( ab/ract ideas2 8z to ! ?+s spok5 ( z ab/ract 7! m9d7 ?9ks ( !m z x w\ld ( ! be+ snub-nos$1 if by an ef=t ( ?\ght x ?9ks ( x qua snub-nos$1 n sep>ately1 b qua holl[1 )\t ! fle% 9 :i* ! holl[ness is adh]5t3 s :5 x ?9ks ( ma!matical =ms1 x ?9ks ( !m z sep>at$1 ?\gh !y are n sep>at$0 7,ari/ot4 de anima4 iii4 #g1 #g-h74 ,^? :o foll[$ ,alex&] ,aph4 & ! neo-,platoni/s took ?is 8ab/ract0 9 a v n>r[ s5se1 & 9 ! ,arabic comm5tators ^! ab/ractions ev5 become non-sub/antial be+s1 z x 7 disembodi$1 or r bodiless1 spirits3 89 quibusdam libris de ,arabico translatis sub/antiae sep>atae1 quae nos angelos dicimus1 intellig5tiae vocantur0 7,s4 ,?os4 ,aqu94 ,quae/4 ,disp4 de anima4 #af74 ,c man "k ^! sub/antiae sep>atae by 8 natural faculties8 ,ibn ,ru%d says he c3 if o!rwise nature has act$ 9 va91 = !re w\ld be an intelligibile )\t an intellig5s to und]/& x2 b ,ari/otle has %ewn 7,polit4 #a1 #h1 #ab7 t nature does no?+ 9 va91 s t if !re be an intelligibile !re mu/ be an intellig5s capable ( p]ceiv+ x4 8,! comm5tator 7i4e4 ,ibn ,ru%d7 says 9 #b ,met4 comm4 i4 79 f9e7 t if ab/ract sub/ances _c be und]/ood by u !n nature has act$ 9 va91 because x made t :i* is by nature und]/&able 9 itself to be n und]/ood by anyone4 ,b no?+ is sup]flu\s or 9 va9 9 nature4 ,!re=e immat]ial sub/ances c be und]/ood by u40 7,s4 ,?os4 ,aqu94 ,summa4 #a1 #hh47 ,z ! ,ag5t ,intellect ent]s into communication ) relative be+ x has to suff] ! conditions ( relativity1 & s is n equally effici5t 9 all2 x acts on s5sible images z =m acts on matt]1 yet ! ,ag5t ,intellect nev] becomes corruptible z t on :i* x acts4 ,^! are 9 outl9e ! po9ts 9 ! tea*+ ( ,ibn ,ru%d1 :i* %[ ! mo/ m>k$ diff]5ces f t ( 8 pr$ecessors1 & :i* aft]w>ds provok$ mo/ controv]sy among/ ! ,lat9 s*ola/ics4 ,ibn ,ru%d really ends ! illu/ri\s l9e ( ,arabic ,ari/otelians4 ,a few ,ari/otelian s*ol>s foll[$ 9 ,spa91 b ) ! decay ( ! ,muwahhid p[] ^! came to an end4 ,( ^? lat] s*ol>s we may m5tion ,muhyi ad-,d9 b4 ,arabi 7d4 #fch7 & ,abdu l-,haqq b4 ,sab9 7d4 #ffg74 ,! =m] ( ^! 0 prim>ily a ,sufi1 & %[s a /rong incl9ation t[>ds pan!ism4 ,abdu l-,haqq1 ! la/ ( ! ,muwahhid circle1 0 also a ,sufi1 b at ! same "t an accurate /ud5t ( ,ari/otle4 ,9 mod]n ,islam !re is no ,ari/otelian s*ol>%ip1 save only 9 logic1 :]e ,ari/otle has always held 8 own4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,! ,,jewi% ,,transmittors ,we h already se5 t ! ,jews took a prom95t "p 9 br++ a k ( philosophical rese>* f ,asia to ,spa91 & ,ibn ,jabirul 7,av5cebrol7 takes 8 place 9 ! l9e ( transmission by :i* ,spani% ,islam 0 br\ght into contact ) ^! /udies4 ,?is did n end ! p>ticipation ( ! ,jews 9 philosophical "w1 b _! subsequ5t writ]s d n =m "p ( ! regul> s]ies ( ,ari/otelian /ud5ts influ5c+ ! ,muslim _w1 b are r conf9$ to ,jewi% circles4 ,yet !y are ( an importance wid] ?an m]ely sect>ian int]e/s1 = x 0 by means ( ,jewi% disciples ( ,ibn ,ru%d t he 0 rais$ to a position ( mu* great] importance ?an he has ev] enjoy$ 9 ! ,muslim _w4 ,among/ ! ,jews1 inde$1 !re arose a /rong ,av]roi/ s*ool1 :i* lat] on 0 ! *ief means ( introduc+ ,ibn ,ru%d's !ories to ,lat9 s*ola/icism4 ,z we %all see lat] ! transmission ( philosophy f ,arabic to ,lat9 surr\nd+s falls into two /ages3 9 ! e>li] ! ,arabic mat]ial passes directly1 & ! works us$ are ^? :i* _h atta9$ a lead+ importance 9 ,islam1 b 9 ! lat] /age ! ,jews 7 ! int]m$i>ies1 & ?us ! *oice ( text-books & au?orities 0 l>gely influ5c$ by an exi/+ ,jewi% s*ola/icism4 ,ibn ,jabirul %[s ! ,ari/otelian philosophy introduc$ to ,jewi% surr\nd+s1 j z ,said al-,fayyumi 9 ,mesopotamia %[s ! entrance ( ,mutazilite discussions among/ ! ,jews4 ,9 fact1 all ! intellectual exp]i5ces ( ! ,muslim community 7 repeat$ among/ ! ,jews4 ,9 ,islam ! ,mutazilites & ! philosoph]s 7 foll[$ by ! s*ola/ics1 :o took _! f9al =m "u al-,ghazali1 & s 9 ,judaism also al-,ghazali has 8 p>allel4 ,! f\nd] ( an or?odox ,jewi% s*ola/icism 0 ! ,spani% ,jew1 ,jehuda hal-,levi 7d4 #edj ,a4,h4 #aade ,a4,d471 :o liv$ dur+ ! ,murabit rule & ! com+ ( ! ,muwahhids4 ,8 tea*+ is kn[n by a "w entitl$ ,sef] ha-,kuz>i1 :i* consi/s ( five essays1 suppos$ to be dialogues betwe5 ! ,k+ ( ! ,*az>s & a ,jewi% visitor to 8 c\rt4 ,^! dialogues discuss v>i\s topics ( a philosophical & political "*4 ,! /udy ( philosophy is comm5d$1 b x is po9t$ out t good conduct is n atta9$ by philosophy1 :i* is occupi$ ) sci5tific inve/igations1 & _m ( ^! h no direct be>+ ^u ! duties ( practical life2 ! be/ means ( promot+ "r conduct is religion1 :i* is ! e/abli%$ tradition ( wisdom reveal$ to m5 ( anci5t times4 ,ev5 9 speculative matt]s a sur] guidance is (t5 furni%$ by religi\s tradition ?an by ! speculations ( philosoph]s4 ,god creat$ all ?+s f no?+2 ! attempt to expla9 ! pres5ce ( imp]fection & evil 9 ! _w by ! !ory ( ! et]nity ( matt]1 or by ! op]ation ( laws ( nature is futile2 ^? laws !mselves mu/ ref] back to ,god4 ,! difficulty aris+ f ! m+l+ ( evil ) good 9 creation is admitt$2 ! real solution is unkn[n1 b x mu/ be ma9ta9$ t creation 0 ! "w ( ,god 9 spite ( ! difficulties :i* ?is pres5ts4 ,z to ! nature & attributes ( ,god1 ! di/9ction :i* ,said al-,fayyumi tri$ to make betwe5 ! ess5tial & o!r attributes is unt5able4 ,! attributes /at$ 9 ! ,old ,te/am5t may be appli$ to ,god because !y are reveal$1 :i* is exactly ! same tea*+ z t ( al-,a%ari & al-,ghazali4 ,^! attributes are ei!r ref]r+ to active qualities1 or to relative1 or to negative4 ,^? :i* are active & ^? :i* are relative are us$ metaphorically2 we d n "k _! real significance4 ,! fif? essay is m especially direct$ aga9/ ! philosoph]s z tea*+ doctr9es subv]sive ( revelation4 ,9 ! fir/ place he disapproves ! !ory ( emanations2 ! "w ( creation 0 directly p]=m$ by ,god )\t any int]m$i>y2 if !re 7 emanations1 :y did !y /op %ort at ! lun> sph]e8 ,?is ref]s to ! descriptions giv5 by ! ,arabic writ]s :o endeav\r to expla9 ! successive emanations f ! ,fir/ ,cause z rea*+ d[n to diff]5t sph]es4 ,he opposes also ! attempt ( ! ,mutakallim9 to reconcile philosophy & !ology z t5d+ to und]m9e ! tru?s ( reveal$ religion1 s t he takes a m reaction>y position ?an al-,ghazali4 ,?is 0 inevitable1 = ,jewi% ?\ght _h z yet be5 mu* less influ5c$ by philosophy ?an 0 ! case ) ! ,muslims4 ,he objects also to ! description ( ! s\l z intellect1 m x w\ld appe> because common usage conf9$ 8intellectual activity0 too mu* to philosophical speculation1 & especially he prote/$ aga9/ ! implication t only s\ls ( philosoph]s 7 f9ally unit$ to ! ,ag5t ,intellect4 ,! s\l ( man is a spiritual sub/ance & imp]i%able2 x does n w9 immortality by intellectual activity b is necess>ily immortal by its own nature4 ,he admits1 h[ev]1 t ! passive s\l 9 man is influ5c$ by ! ,ag5t ,intellect1 :i* he seems to reg>d z ! wisdom ( ,god p]sonifi$4 ,g5]ally1 !re=e1 ,hal-,levi def9$ ,jewi% or?odoxy z aga9/ ! tea*+s ( ! philosoph]s3 he recognises ! =ce ( philosophical speculation1 b is himself di/9ctly cons]vative4 ,god 0 lit]ally ! creator1 & no philosophical def9ition ( creation :i* t5d$ to expla9 x o!rwise ?an accord+ to traditional belief 0 p]missible4 ,b ,hal-,levi does n seem to h _h any great influ5ce outside ,judaism1 & 8 "w r t5ds to %[ h[ f> ,jewi% ?\ght ( ! #f? c5t4 ( ! ,hijra 0 out ( sympa?y ) curr5t philosophical speculation1 ?\gh no long] ignorant ( x4 ,x 0 9 ,spa9 t ! ,jews especially di/+ui%$ !mselves z physicians1 reproduc+ & ext5d+ ! inve/igations ( ! ,arabic au?orities1 :o 7 pupils ( ! ,ne/orians & ,jews 9 ! fir/ place4 ,! mo/ di/+ui%$ ( ^! ,spani% ,jews :o became lead]s 9 m$ical sci5ce 0 ,ibn ,zuhr 7d4 #eie ,a4,h4 #aaii ,a4,d471 commonly kn[n to ! m$ival ,we/ z 8,av5zo>40 ,he 0 a native ( ,seville & memb] ( a family ( physicians4 ,jewi% philosophy does n take a lead+ place until ! appe>ance ( ,abu ,imran ,moses b4 ,maymun b4 ,abdullah 7d4 #fja ,a4,h4 #abjd ,a4,d471 a contempor>y & foll[] ( ,ibn ,ru%d & ! "o :o did mo/ to e/abli% an ,av]roi/ s*ool1 & s pass$ on 8 "w & influ5ce to ,lat9 ,*ri/5dom4 ,he 0 ! son ( a pupil ( ,hal-,levi1 &1 x is said1 a pupil ( "o ( ,ibn ,bajja's pupils4 ,8 family retir$ to ,africa to avoid ! p]secution ( ! ,muwahhids & settl$ = a "t 9 ,fez1 !n remov$ to ,egypt4 ,x 0 :il/ he 0 at ,cairo t ,ibn ,maymun1 or ,maimonides z he is m commonly call$ by ,european writ]s1 fir/ he>d ( ,ibn ,ru%d4 ,8 *ief "w is kn[n z ,dalalat al-,hair91 8! ,guide ( ! ,p]plex$10 :i*1 l all 8 o!r books1 0 produc$ 9 ,arabic2 ab\t ! "t ( 8 dea? ?is "w 0 translat$ into ,hebrew by ,samuel b4 ,tibbon z ,moreh ,nebuk94 ,! ,arabic text1 edit$ by ,munk1 0 publi%$ at ,p>is 7#c vols47 9 #ahef-ff1 & 9 #ahhd an ,engli% translation by ,fri$lnd] 0 publi%$ 9 ,london4 ,next to ?is 9 importance is ! treatise ,maqalah fi-t-,ta:id1 a treatise on ! unity ( ,god1 ( :i* a ,hebrew translation 0 made 9 ! #ad? c5t4 ,a4,d4 ,8 o!r works 7 ma9ly m$ical1 & include treatises 8on poisons & _! antidotes10 8on hmorrhoids10 8on a/hma10 & a comm5t>y on ,hippocrates4 ,maimonides' tea*+ reproduces ! sub/ance ( t already associat$ ) al-,f>abi & ,ibn ,s9a put into a ,jewi% =m4 ,god is ! ,intellect1 ! ens intellig5s1 & ! intelligibile3 ,he is ! necess>y ,fir/ ,cause & ! p]man5t s\rce4 ,he is ess5tially & necess>ily "o1 & attributes _c be s us$ z to imply plurality3 only ^? attributes :i* describe activity are admissible1 n ^? :i* imply relations betwe5 ,god & ! creature4 ,l ,ibn ,ru%d he disapproves ( ! ,mutakallim91 :om he reg>ds z m]e opportuni/s 9 _! philosophy & )\t any /aple pr9ciples1 besides :i* _! me?od ( compromise does n face fairly ! law ( causality4 ,! ,ari/otelian doctr9e ( ! et]nity ( matt] _c1 h[ev]1 be admitt$2 creation mu/ h be5 f no?+1 z foll[s f ! law ( causality2 t su* 0 ! case _c be prov$1 b e contr>y supposition is unt5able4 ,all ! prop]ties ( matt]1 ! laws ( nature1 etc41 _h _! beg9n+ at creation4 ,on ! fir/ day ,god creat$ ! beg9n+s 7re%it71 t is to say ! intellig5ces1 f :i* proce$$ ! sev]al sph]es1 & introduc$ movem5t1 s t on ?is day ! :ole univ]se & all its cont5ts came into exi/5ce4 ,on ! succe$+ days ^! cont5ts 7 dispos$ 9 ord] & develop$2 !n on ! sev5? day ,god re/$1 :i* means t ,he ceas$ f active op]ation & laid ! univ]se "u ! control ( natural laws1 :i* guid$ x h5ce=?4 ,! tea*+ ( ,maimonides %[s a some:at modifi$ =m ( ! sy/em already develop$ by al-,f>abi & ,ibn ,s9a adapt$ to ,jewi% beliefs4 ,x _h a rapid & wide success1 spread+ ?r\gh ! great] "p ( ! ,jewi% community 9 8 own lifetime4 ,b ?is success 0 n )\t "s opposition--! synagogues ( ,aragon1 ,catalonga1 & ( ,prov5ce1 :]e a v l>ge numb] ( ,jews _h s\ght refuge f ! ,muwahhids2 ! synagogue at ,n>bonne1 on ! o!r h&1 def5d$ him4 ,x 0 n until ! foll[+ c5tury1 & *iefly by ! ef=ts ( ,david ,kim*i1 t ,maimonides 0 at l5g? g5]ally accept$ z ! lead+ doctor ( ! ,jewi% *ur*4 ,al?\gh ,maimonides 0 kn[n to ! ,lat9 s*ola/ics1 x 0 n 8 "w nor t ( any o!r ,jewi% tea*] :i* really made ! ,jews important to m$ival we/]n ?\ght s mu* z ! "w !y did 9 popul>is+ ,ibn ,ru%d1 :om !y call$ 8! s\l & intellig5ce ( ,ari/otle40 ,jewi% ,,mss4 ( ,ari/otle are r>ely f\nd )\t ,ibn ,ru%d's comm5t>y1 & 8 p>aphrases v commonly be> ! "n ( ,ari/otle at _! head4 ,x 0 z ! comm5tator t he held s high a position 9 ,jewi% ?\ght1 & x 0 z ! f9al & au?oritative comm5tator t he f9ally took 8 place 9 ,lat9 s*ola/icism introduc$ by ,jewi% tea*]s4 ,! ,muwahhid p]secution scatt]$ _m ( ! ,spani% ,jews to ,africa & to ,prov5ce & ,langu$oc4 ,^? :o took refuge 9 ,africa1 l ,maimonides1 reta9$ ! use ( ! ,arabic language1 b ,arabic quickly became obsolete among/ ^? :o _h fl$ nor?4 ,no d\bt ! refugees 9 ,prov5ce f\nd x necess>y to use ! ,prov5cal dialect = communication ) _! ,*ri/ian neighb\rs1 b t dialect _h nev] yet be5 us$ = sci5tific or philosophical purposes2 9 ,we/]n ,*ri/5dom ,lat9 0 inv>iably us$ = all educational & s*ol>ly purposes1 b ! refugee ,jews did n feel dispos$ to adopt a language :i* _h no traditional associations = !m & 0 altoge!r a =eign tongue nev] z yet employ$ = ,jewi% purposes4 ,"u ^! circum/ances ! ,jewi% lead]s delib]ately copi$ ! actual condition prevail+ among/ _! ,jewi% neighb\rs :]e ! anci5t ,lat9 0 9 use z a le>n$ language1 :il/ its d]iv$ dialects 7 ! spee* 9 ev]yday use1 & s !y reviv$ ! use ( ,hebrew z ! m$ium ( tea*+ & lit]ature4 ,?r\gh\t ,hebrew _h reta9$ its place z a liturgical language2 !re _h be5 synagogue liturgies 9 ,greek1 b ^? belong$ to a mu* e>li] p]iod4 ,! revival ( ,hebrew produc$ a neo-,hebrew :i* does n pres]ve a l9e ( hi/orical cont9uity ) ! anci5t ,hebrew4 ,= "s "t ,hebrew _h be5 a dead language 9 ! ,ea/1 & x _h nev] spread z a liv+ spee* to ! ,we/4 ,b ?is artificial revival1 :i* has m ?an "o p>allel 9 hi/ory1 0 n s difficult a feat z x s\nds at fir/4 ,! v]nacul> spee* ( ! ,spani% ,jew 0 ,arabic1 & philologically ,arabic is v ne>ly a dialect if n ( ,arabic1 yet at lea/ ( a proto-,arabic1 :i* %[s _m close p>allels ) ,hebrew4 ,( c\rse at t "t ! true philological relations 7 n und]/ood3 influ5c$ by !ological prepossessions ! ,jew r t5d$ to reg>d ,arabic z a d]ivative ( ,hebrew2 yet ! k9%ip 0 obvi\s1 & 9 ! e>ly translations made f ,arabic to ,hebrew x is n uncommon to f9d t mo/ ( ! words are translat$ 9 su* a way t ! same root-=m is us$ z 9 ! orig9al4 ,secondly1 x 0 n only ! case t ,hebrew 8came easily0 to ^? :o knew ,arabic1 b !re _h be5 s]i\s philological /udies by ,jehudh ,*ayyug1 ,david ,kim*i1 & o!rs :i* _h emphasiz$ ?is close k9%ip1 & _h inde$ adapt$ all ! rules ( ,arabic gramm> to ! use ( ,hebrew2 x 0 !re=e possible to compose & ev5 to speak a tol]able ,hebrew by ! consci\s r5d]+ ( ! ,arabic vocabul>y into ,hebrew4 ,x is n sugge/$ t ! inaugurators ( neo-,hebrew ignor$ ! *>act]i/ics ( ! classical spee*2 9 fact !y did n d s1 b !y 7 9 a position to use ,hebrew z ?\gh a dialect diff]+ f ,arabic only 9 detail1 & 9 ?is attitude !y 7 m /rictly correct ?an !y suppos$4 ,be=e long ,arabic began to be entirely disc>d$1 & ,hebrew1 ^: revival flatt]$ ,jewi% susceptibilities1 0 tak5 up ) vig\r z a language ( ! s*ools2 h[ f> x came into use 9 ! home we d n "k4 ,?is *ange necessitat$ ! translation ( ! lat] !ological & philosophical writ]s f ,arabic into ,hebrew4 ,tradition puts ! beg9n+ ( ?is "w ( translation 9 ! #ab? c5tury1 b ?is is n possibly true4 ,x 0 n until well into ! #ac? c5tury t ,hebrew translations beg9 to appe>4 ,! mo/ fam\s translators 7 ( ! family ( ,jehuda b5 ,tibbon1 :o _c himself be accept$ z a translator4 ,! fir/ "w 0 done by ,samuel b5 ,tibbon1 :o compil$ a ,hebrew 8,op9ions ( ! ,philosoph]s10 :i* is a cat5a ( passages f ,ibn ,ru%d & o!r ,muslim falasifah4 ,?is production 0 9 g5]al use z a popul> manual until x 0 replac$ by complete translations ( ! actual texts1 :51 ( c\rse1 su* compilations w5t out ( use4 ,! pr9cipal "p ( ! "w 0 done by ,moses b5 ,tibbon 7circ4 #abfj ,a4,d471 :o translat$ mo/ ( ! comm5t>ies ( ,ibn ,ru%d1 "s portions ( 8 m$ical works1 & ,maimonides' 8,guide ( ! ,p]plex$40 ,ab\t ?is "t ,fr$]ick ,,ii4 0 /rongly desir\s ( introduc+ ! ,arabic writ]s to ! k ( ! ,we/1 a matt] to :i* we %all ref] aga9 :5 we come to consid] ! translation ( ! ,arabic philosophical works into ,lat91 & s we f9d him protect+ & p5sion+ ,yaqub b5 ,abba ,m>i1 a son-9-law ( ,samuel b5 ,tibbon1 at ,naples1 & ?is ,yaqub employ$ 9 prep>+ a ,hebrew translation ( ,ibn ,ru%d's comm5t>ies on ! ,ari/otelian ,organon4 ,! ?irte5? c5tury ,a4,d4 %[s u a cont9u\s s]ies ( ,hebrew s*ol>s ei!r prep>+ compilations & abridgm5ts or actually translat+ ! full text ( ! lead+ ,arabic philosoph]s1 & especially ( ,ibn ,ru%d4 ,ab\t #abdg ,jehuda b5 ,salomo ,coh51 ( ,tol$o1 publi%$ 8 ,hebrew 8,se>* = ,wisdom10 an encyclopdia ( ,ari/otelian doctr9es ma9ly bas$ ^u ! tea*+s ( ,ibn ,ru%d4 ,a little lat] ,%em-,tov b4 ,yusuf b4 ,falaqu]a also reproduc$ ! doctr9es ( ,ibn ,ru%d 9 8 essays1 & lat] aga9 9 ! #ac? c5tury ,g]son b4 ,salomo compil$ 8,! ,door ( ,heav510 :i* %[s ! same influ5ce4 ,ab\t #abeg ,solomon b4 ,yusuf b4 ,aiyub1 a refugee :o _h come f ,granada to ,bzi]s1 translat$ ! text ( ,ibn ,ru%d's comm5t>y on ! de coelo & de mundo1 & 9 ! latt] "p ( ?is c5tury complete translations beg9 to take ! place ( abridgm5ts & collections ( extracts4 ,ab\t #abhd ,z]a*ia b5 ,isaac f ,b>celona translat$ ,ibn ,ru%d's comm5t>ies on ! ,physics1 ! ,metaphysics1 & ! treatises de coelo & de mundo4 ,rnan has drawn att5tion to ! fact t ! same works are translat$ aga9 & aga91 sometimes by translators :o 7 v ne>ly contempor>y & liv$ 9 ! same neighb\rhood4 ,evid5tly ^! translations did n quickly ent] into wide circulation1 & x does n seem t ! task ( ! translator 0 held 9 any great e/eem2 x 0 reg>d$ z a purely me*anical "w1 & n cr$it$ ) any lit]>y possibilities4 ,e>ly 9 ! #ad? c5tury ,kalonymos b4 ,kalonymos b4 ,meir translat$ ,ibn ,ru%d's comm5t>ies on ! ,topica1 ,sophi/ica1 & ,analytica ,po/]iora 7complet$ #acad72 !n 8 comm5t>ies on ! ,physica1 ,metaphysics1 de coelo & de mundo1 de g5]atione & de corruptione1 & ! ,meteora 7complet$ #acag71 & foll[$ ^! by a translation ( ! ,de/ruction ( ! ,de/ruction4 ,an indep5d5t ,hebrew translation ( ?is latt] "w 0 made ab\t ! same "t by ,kalonymos b4 ,david b4 ,todros4 ,ab\t #acba ,rabbi ,samuel b5 ,jehuda b5 ,me%ullam at ,m>seilles prep>$ ,hebrew v]sions ( ,ibn ,ru%d's comm5t>ies on ! ,nicoma*an ,e?ics & 8 p>aphrase ( ! ,republic ( ,plato1 :i* 0 reg>d$ by ! ,arabic writ]s z "p ( ! ,ari/otelian canon4 ,x is r int]e/+ to note t some:]e ab\t ! same "t ,juda b5 ,moses b5 ,daniel ( ,rome prep>$ a ,hebrew translation ( de sub/antia orbis f ! ,lat9 translation :i* 0 itself d]iv$ f ! ,arabic4 ,to a great ext5t ! ,hebrew & ,lat9 translations 7 be+ made contemporane\sly b q indep5d5tly2 x 0 n until well into ! #ad? c5tury t !y beg9 to influ5ce "o ano!r4 ,x 0 dur+ ?is lat] /age t s _m ( ! ,arabic philosophical works 7 translat$ into ,lat9 via ,hebrew1 & ?is gave a m>k$ prepond]ance to ,ibn ,ru%d1 ! result ( ! ,jewi% vogue ( 8 writ+s2 ! e>li] translations into ,lat9 f ! ,arabic r t5d to lay weight on ,ibn ,s9a4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! #ad? c5tury ,a4,d4 ! ,hebrew comm5tators on ,ibn ,ru%d beg94 ,*ief among/ ^! 0 ,lavi b5 ,g]son1 ( ,bagnols1 :o wrote a comm5t>y on ,ibn ,ru%d's ,ittisal on ! doctr9e ( ! union ( ! s\l ) ! ,ag5t ,intellig5ce1 & on ,ibn ,ru%d's treatise 8on ! sub/ance ( ! _w40 ,levi's tea*+ reproduces ! ,arabic ,ari/otelianism mu* m freely & frankly ?an 0 v5tur$ by ,maimonides2 he admits ! et]nity ( ! _w1 ! primal matt] he describes z sub/ance )\t =m1 & creation meant only ! impress ( =m on ?is =mless sub/ance4 ,contempor>y ) ,levi 0 ,moses ( ,n>bonne1 :o1 betwe5 #acdj & #acej1 produc$ comm5t>ies on ! same works ( ,ibn ,ru%d z _h already be5 treat$ by ,levi1 z well z o!r ( ! treatises on physical sci5ce4 ,! f\rte5? c5tury 0 ! gold5 age ( ,jewi% s*ola/icism & ! foll[+ c5tury sees x 9 its decay4 ,ibn ,ru%d 0 /ill /udi$ & comm5t>ies 7 /ill compil$4 ,ab\t #adee ,joseph b5 ,%em-,tob ( ,segovia produc$ a comm5t>y on ,ari/otle's ,e?ics :i* he int5d$ to supplem5t ,ibn ,ru%d1 :o _h n writt5 a comm5t>y on ?is portion ( ,ari/otle4 ,elias del ,m$igo1 :o taught at ,padua t[>ds ! end ( ! #ae? c5tury1 is reg>d$ by ,rnan z ! la/ great ,jewi% ,av]roi/4 ,he wrote a comm5t>y on ! de sub/antia orbis 9 #adhe1 & also publi%$ annotations on ,av]roes4 ,! #af? c5tury %[s ! f9al decay ( ,jewi% ,av]roism4 ,9 #aefj an abridgm5t ( ! logic ( ,av]roes 0 publi%$ at ,riva di ,tr5to1 & ?is has rema9$ a /&>d "w among/ ,jews1 b outside logic ,av]roes 0 beg9n+ to fall into disrepute4 ,rabbi ,moses ,almosn9o 7circ4 #aech7 uses al-,ghazali's "w aga9/ ! philosoph]s to oppose ,ibn ,ru%d1 & evid5ces occur ( an int]e/ 9 ,plato by ^? :o despis$ ,ari/otle z a relic ( ! d>k ages4 ,! lat] ,jewi% philosoph]s su* z ,sp9oza are n 9 t\* ) ! m$ival tradition1 ^: cont9uity is sev]$ t[>ds ! end ( ! #af? c5tury2 lat] "w %[s ! influ5ce ( po/-r5asc5ce non-,jewi% ?\ght4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,! ,,arabic ,,philosoph]s ,,on ,,lat9 ,,s*ola/icism ,we h n[ foll[$ ! way 9 :i* ,hell5i/ic philosophy 0 pass$ f ! ,greeks to ! ,syrians1 f ! ,syrians to ! ,arabic-speak+ ,muslims1 & 0 by ! ,muslims c>ri$ f ,asia to ! f> ,we/4 ,we h n[ to consid] ! way 9 :i* x 0 h&$ on f ^! ,arabic-speak+ p to ! ,lat9s4 ,! fir/ contact ( ! ,lat9s ) ! philosophy ( ! ,muslims 0 9 ,spa91 z might be expect$4 ,at t "t1 t is to say dur+ ! ,middle ,ages1 we c rightly describe ! ,we/]n p>ts ( ,europe z 8,lat910 s9ce ,lat9 0 us$ n only 9 ! s]vices ( ! *ur* b z a means ( tea*+ & z a means ( int]c\rse betwe5 ! educat$2 x does n imply t ! v]nacul> spee* 9 all ! we/]n l&s 0 ( ,lat9 orig91 & ( c\rse makes no sugge/ion ( a 8,lat9 race02 x ref]s only to a cultural gr\p1 & we are employ+ ! t]m 8,lat90 only to d5ote ^? :o %>$ a civilization :i* may fairly be describ$ z ( ,lat9 orig94 ,9 ,spa9 ?is ,lat9 culture 0 9 contact ) ! ,arabic culture ( ! ,muslims4 ,! transmission ( ,arabic mat]ial to ,lat9 is especially associat$ ) ,raymund1 :o 0 ,ar*bi%op ( ,tol$o f #aacj to #aaej ,a4,d4 ,tol$o _h become "p ( ! k+dom ( ,ca/ile 9 #ajhe1 dur+ ! disord]$ p]iod j be=e ! ,murabit invasion4 ,x _h be5 captur$ by ,alfonso ,,vi41 & he _h made x ! capital city ( 8 k+dom1 & ! ,ar*bi%op ( ,tol$o became ! ,primate ( ,spa94 ,:5 ! t[n 0 tak5 x 0 agre$ t ! citiz5s %\ld h fre$om to foll[ _! own religion1 b ! ye> aft] its capture ! ,*ri/ians =cibly seiz$ ! great *ur*1 :i* _h be5 conv]t$ into a congregational mosque ab\t #cgj ye>s be=e1 & re/or$ x to ,*ri/ian use4 ,= ! mo/ "p1 h[ev]1 ! ,muslims liv$ side by side ) ! ,*ri/ians 9 ,tol$o1 & _! pres5ce 9 ! same city z ! k+1 ! royal c\rt1 & ! ,primate made a consid]able impression on _! neighb\rs1 :o began to take "s int]e/ 9 ! intellectual life ( ,islam dur+ ! foll[+ ye>s4 ,! ,ar*bi%op ,raymund desir$ to make ! ,arabic philosophy available = ,*ri/ian use4 ,at ! mom5t1 x w be rememb]$1 ! ,muwahhids 7 e/abli%$ 9 ,spa91 & _! bigotry caus$ a numb] ( ! ,jews & ,*ri/ians to take refuge 9 ! surr\nd+ c\ntries4 ,raymund f\nd$ a college ( translators at ,tol$o1 :i* he put 9 ! *>ge ( ! ar*deacon ,dom9ic ,gondisalvi1 & entru/$ x ) ! duty ( prep>+ ,lat9 translations ( ! mo/ important ,arabic works on philosophy & sci5ce1 & ?us _m translations ( ! ,arabic v]sions ( ,ari/otle & ( ! comm5t>ies z well z ( ! abridgm5ts ( al-,f>abi & ,ibn ,s9a 7 produc$4 ,! me?od employ$ 9 ?is college & ! me?od commonly foll[$ 9 ! ,middle ,ages 0 to use ! s]vices ( an int]pret]1 :o simply plac$ ! ,lat9 ^w ov] ! ,arabic words ( ! orig9al1 & f9ally ! ,lat9ity 0 revis$ by ! presid+ cl]k1 ! f9i%$ translation usually be>+ ! "n ( ! revisor4 ,x 0 an extremely me*anical me?od2 & ! int]pret] 0 treat$ z ( m9or importance4 ,x seems t ! prep>ation ( a translation 0 done to ord] 9 v mu* ! same way z ! copy+ ( a text1 & 0 n reg>d$ z m intellectual ?an ! "w ( transcription4 ,! revisor did no m ?an see t ! s5t5ces 7 grammatical 9 =m3 ! /ructure & syntax 0 /ill ,arabic1 & 0 (t5 extremely difficult = ! ,lat9 read] to und]/&1 ! m s z ! m tr\blesome words 7 simply translit]at$ f ! ,arabic4 ,! int]pret]s employ$ 9 ?is college c]ta9ly includ$ "s ,jews2 x is kn[n t "o ( !m bore ! "n ( ,john ( ,seville4 ,we h v little in=mation z to ! circulation ( ! translations made at ,tol$o1 b x is c]ta9 t ab\t ?irty ye>s aft]w>ds ! :ole text ( ,ari/otle's logical ,organon 0 9 use 9 ,p>is1 & ?is 0 n possible s long z ! ,lat9 translations 7 limit$ to ^? :i* _h be5 transmitt$ by ,boe?ius1 ,john ,scotus1 & ! fragm5ts ( ,plato d]iv$ ?r\gh ,/4 ,augu/9e4 ,b ?is mat]ial already 9 ! possession ( ! ,we/ 0 ! f\ndation ( s*ola/icism1 & 0 develop$ z f> z x w\ld g4 ,boe?ius transmitt$ a ,lat9 v]sion ( ,porphyry's ,isagoge & ( ! ,categories & ,h]m5eutics ( ,ari/otle1 :il/ ,john ,scotus translat$ ! ,pseudo-,dionysius4 ,! fur!r developm5t ( ,lat9 s*ola/icism came 9 ?ree /ages3 fir/1 ! introduction ( ! re/ ( ! text ( ,ari/otle1 z well z ! sci5tific works ( ! :ole logical canon1 by translation f ! ,arabic2 !n came translations f ! ,greek foll[+ ! capture ( ,con/ant9ople 9 #abjd2 & ?irdly1 ! introduction ( ! ,arabic comm5tators4 ,! fir/ ,lat9 s*ola/ic writ] :o %[s a k ( ! complete logical ,organon 0 ,john ( ,salisbury 7d4 #aahb ,a4,d471 :o 0 a lectur] at ,p>is1 b x does n appe> t ! metaphysical & psy*ological works ( ,ari/otle 7 9 circulation z yet4 ,by ?is "t ,p>is _h become ! c5tre ( s*ola/ic philosophy1 :i* 0 n[ beg9n+ to pr$om9ate !ology4 ,?is takes its =m1 z yet unt\*$ by ,arabic me?ods1 9 ! "w ( ,pet] ,lomb>d 7d4 #aafj ,a4,d471 ^: 8,s5t5ces10 an encyclopdia ( ! controv]sies ( ! "t b a m]e compilation1 rema9$ a popul> book d[n to ! #ag? c5tury4 ,! me?ods & =m us$ 9 ! 8,s5t5ces0 %[s ! influ5ce ( ,abel>d1 & /ill m ( ! ,decretals ( ,gratian4 ,x is int]e/+ to note t ,pet] ,lomb>d possess$ & us$ a newly f9i%$ translation ( ,/4 ,john ,damasc5e4 ,e>ly 9 ! #ac? c5tury we f9d v>i\s controv]sies at ,p>is on subjects v l ^? debat$ by ! ,arabic philosoph]s1 b 9 reality d]iv$ f q indep5d5t s\rces4 ,no?+ w\ld seem m sugge/ive ( ,arabic influ5ce ?an discussion ( ! ess5tial unity ( s\ls1 :i* seems z ?\gh x 7 an e*o ( ,ibn ,ru%d2 b ?is doctr9e _h be5 develop$ indep5d5tly f neo-,platonic mat]ial 9 ! ,celtic *ur*1 &1 9 its ma9 features n at all unlike ! tea*+ ( ,ibn ,ru%d1 0 fairly common 9 ,irel& 7cf4 ,rnan3 ,av]roes1 #acb-acc74 ,s we f9d ,ratramnus ( ,corbey 9 ! #i? c5tury writ+ aga9/ "o ,mac>ius 9 refutation ( simil> views4 ,"h ,arabic influ5ce is out ( ! "q2 at ! "t1 inde$1 ,ibn ,ru%d 0 n yet born4 ,s ( ,simon ( ,t\rnay1 :o 0 a tea*] ( !ology at ,p>is ab\t #abjj ,a4,d41 we read t 8:il/ he foll[s ,ari/otle too closely1 he is by "s rec5t writ]s accus$ ( h]esy0 7,h5ry ( ,g&3 ,lib4 de script4 eccles4 c4 #bd 9 ,fabrisius ,biblio!ca1 #b1 p4 #aba71 b ?is simply means t he c>ri$ to an extreme ! application ( ! dialectical me?od to !ology4 ,m int]e/ atta*es to ! decrees pass$ at a synod held at ,p>is 9 #abji & endors$ by ! decisions ( ! ,papal ,legate 9 #abae4 ,^! measures 7 provok$ by ! pan!i/ic tea*+ ( ,david ( ,d9ant & ,amalric ( ,b5a1 :o reviv$ ! semipan!i/ic doctr9es ( ,john ,scotus' ,p]iphysis1 & ! prohibitions deal+ ) !m cite passages f ,scotus v]batim4 ,! ,p]iphysis itself 0 condemn$ by ,honorius ,,iii4 9 #abbe4 ,b ! decrees ( #abji also =bade ! use ( ,ari/otle's ,natural ,philosophy & ! 8comm5ta10 :il/ ! ,legate's ord]s ( #abae all[$ ! logical works ( ! old & new translations :]e p]haps ! 8new translations0 ref]s to ! 8new0 translations made f ! ,arabic z contra/$ ) ! 8old0 v]sions ( ,boe?ius1 ?\gh x is j possible t "s v]sion direct f ! ,greek 0 9 circulation & kn[n z ! 8new translations10 & also =bade ! read+ ( ! ,metaphysics1 ,natural ,philosophy1 etc41 all mat]ial :i* _h become accessible ?r\gh ! ,arabic4 ,9 #abae ,fr$]ick ,,ii4 became ,emp]or1 & 9 #abca he began to reorganize ! k+dom ( ,sicily4 ,bo? 9 ,sicily & 9 ! c\rse ( 8 crusad+ exp$itions 9 ! ,ea/ ,fr$]ick _h be5 br\ght into close contact ) ! ,muslims & 0 greatly attract$ to !m4 ,he adopt$ ori5tal co/ume & _m ,arabic cu/oms & mann]s1 b1 mo/ important ( all1 he 0 a great admir] ( ! ,arabic philosoph]s1 ^: works he 0 able to read 9 ! orig9al1 z he 0 famili> ) ,g]man1 ,fr5*1 ,italian1 ,lat91 ,greek1 & ,arabic4 ,contempor>y hi/orians repres5t him z a free-?9k]1 :o reg>d$ all religions z equally wor?less1 & attribut$ to him ! /atem5t t ! _w _h suff]$ f ?ree great impo/]s1 ,moses1 ,*ri/1 & ,muhammad4 ,?is op9ion ( ,fr$]ick is express$ 9 passionate words by ,gregory ,,ix4 9 ! encyclical lett] 8ad omnes pr9cipes et prelatos t]rae0 79 ,mansi4 xxiii4 #gi71 :]e he comp>es ! ,emp]or to ! blasphem+ bea/ ( ,apocalypse xiii41 b ,fr$]ick 9 reply lik5$ ! ,pope to ! bea/ describ$ 9 ,apoc4 vi41 8! great dragon :i* r$uc$ ! :ole _w10 & pr(ess$ a p]fectly or?odox attitude t[>ds ,moses1 ,*ri/1 & ,muhammad4 ,x is q probable1 z ,rnan 7,av]roes1 p4 #bic7 supposes1 t ! views ascrib$ to ,fr$]ick really are bas$ on a pr(ess$ sympa?y t[>ds ! ,arabic philosoph]s1 :o reg>d$ all religions z equally tol]able = ! un9/ruct$ multitude1 & commonly illu/rat$ _! rem>ks by cit+ ! 8?ree laws0 :i* 7 be/ kn[n to !m4 ,9 #abbd ,fr$]ick f\nd$ a univ]sity at ,naples1 & made x an academy = ! purpose ( introduc+ ,arabic sci5ce to ! we/]n _w1 & !re v>i\s translations 7 made f ,arabic into ,lat9 & into ,hebrew4 ,by 8 enc\ragem5t ,mi*ael ,scot visit$ ,tol$o ab\t #abag & translat$ ,ibn ,ru%d's comm5t>ies on ,ari/otle's de coelo et de mundo1 z well z ! fir/ "p ( ! de anima4 ,x seems probable also t he 0 ! translator ( comm5t>ies on ! ,meteora1 ,p>va ,naturalia1 de sub/antia orbis1 ,physics1 & de g5]atione et de corruptione4 ,ibn ,s9a's comm5t>ies 7 9 g5]al circulation be=e ?is1 s t !y 7 v probably ! 8comm5t>ies0 ref]r$ to 9 ! ,p>is decree ( #abji1 b we d n "k :o 0 responsible = _! r5d]+ into ,lat91 save t !y almo/ c]ta9ly proce$$ f ! college at ,tol$o4 ,! introduction ( ,ibn ,ru%d1 n ( great repute among/ ! ,muslims1 be>s evid5ce to ! weight ( ,jewi% influ5ce 9 ,sicily & 9 ! new academy at ,naples4 ,we "k t ,mi*ael ,scot 0 assi/$ by a ,jew nam$ ,&rew4 ,ano!r translator ( ?is p]iod 0 a ,g]man ,h]mann :o 0 9 ,tol$o ab\t #abef1 aft] ,fr$]ick's dea?4 ,he translat$ ! abridgm5t ( ! ,rhetoric made by al-,f>abi1 ,ibn ,ru%d's abridgm5t ( ! ,poetics1 & o!r less kn[n works ( ,ari/otle4 ,h]mann's translations 7 describ$ by ,rog] ,bacon z b>b>\s & h>dly intelligible2 he translit]at$ ! names s z to %[ ev5 ! tanw9 9 ,ibn ,rosd91 abi ,nasr91 etc4 ,by ! middle ( ! #ac? c5tury ne>ly all ! philosophical works ( ,ibn ,ru%d 7 translat$ into ,lat91 except ! comm5t>y on ! ,organon1 :i* came a little lat]1 & ! ,de/ruction ( ! ,de/ruction1 :i* 0 n r5d]$ into ,lat9 until ! ,jew ,kalonymos did s 9 #acbh4 ,"s ( 8 m$ical works also 7 translat$ 9 ! #ac? c5tury1 namely1 ! ,colliget1 z x 0 call$1 & ! treatise de =matione2 o!rs 7 translat$ f ! ,hebrew into ,lat9 e>ly 9 ! foll[+ c5tury4 ,! fir/ evid5ce ( ! g5]al circulation ( ideas tak5 f ,av]roes 7,ibn ,ru%d7 is associat$ ) ,william ( ,auv]gne1 :o 0 ,bi%op ( ,p>is1 & ^! %[ a consid]able am\nt ( inaccuracy 9 detail4 ,9 #abdj ,william publi%$ c5sures aga9/ c]ta9 op9ions1 :i* he /ates to be d]iv$ f ! ,arabic philosoph]s2 among/ ^! he expresses 8 disapproval ( ! doctr9e ( ! ,fir/ ,intellig5ce1 an emanation f ,god1 z be+ ! ag5t ( creation1 a doctr9e common to all ! philosoph]s1 b :i* he attributes specifically to al-,ghazali2 he objects also to ! tea*+ t ! _w is et]nal1 :i* he attributes correctly to ,ari/otle & ,ibn ,s9a1 b m5tions ,av]roes z an or?odox def5d] ( ! tru?2 he fur!r condemns ! doctr9e ( ! unity ( intellects1 :i* mo/ incorrectly he attributes to ,ari/otle1 & also ref]s to al-,f>abi z ma9ta9+ ?is h]esy2 ?r\gh\t he cites ,av]roes z a s\nd] tea*] :o t5ds to correct ^! ideas1 b 8 description ( ! doctr9e ( ! unity ( intellects reproduces ! features :i* are di/9ctive ( ,av]roes4 ,! argum5ts he uses aga9/ ?is latt] doctr9e are1 on ! :ole1 v mu* ! same z ^? employ$ a little lat] by ,alb]tus ,magnus & ,/4 ,?omas1 viz41 t ! doctr9e und]m9es ! reality ( ! individual p]sonality1 & is inconsi/5t ) ! obs]v$ facts ( div]sity ( intellig5ce 9 diff]5t p]sons4 ,he cites ,abubac] 7,ibn ,bajja7 z a comm5tator on ,ari/otle's ,physics1 b 9 fact ?is 0 a book on :i* ,ibn ,bajja did n write a comm5t>y1 & ! sub/ance ( ! citation agrees ) ! tea*+ ( ,av]roes4 ,at t "t evid5tly ! position 0 t ,ari/otle & ! ,arabic comm5tators g5]ally 7 reg>d$ ) suspicion save 9 ! treatm5t ( logic1 ! "o exception be+ ,av]roes1 :o 0 consid]$ to be p]fectly or?odox4 ,s /range a p]v]sion ( ! facts c\ld only be due to ,jewi% influ5ce1 = ! ,jews at t "t 7 devot$ adh]5ts ( ,av]roes4 ,:5 ! fri>s began to take _! place 9 ! "w ( ! univ]sities we note two /rik+ *anges3 7i47 ! fri>s cut loose entirely f ! timid policy ( cons]vatism & beg9 to make free use ( all ! works ( ,ari/otle & ( ! ,arabic comm5tators1 & also make ef=ts to procure new] & m correct translations ( ! ,ari/otelian text f ! orig9al ,greek2 "u ?is lead]%ip ! univ]sities gradually became m mod]n & ent]pris+ 9 _! sci5tific "w1 ?\gh n )\t evid5ce ( /rong opposition 9 c]ta9 qu>t]s4 7ii47 ,z a natural coroll>y a m correct appreciation 0 made ( ! t5d5cies ( ! sev]al comm5tators4 ,! lead] 9 ^! new] /udies 0 ! ,franciscan ,alex&] ,hales 7d4 #abde71 :o 0 ! fir/ to make free use ( ,ari/otle outside ! logical ,organon4 ,8 ,summa1 :i* 0 left unf9i%$ & cont9u$ by ! ,franciscan ,william ( ,melitona1 0 bas$ on ! ,s5t5ces ( ,pet] ,lomb>d1 & s]ves z a comm5t>y to x4 ,pet] ,lomb>d1 h[ev]1 _h n quot$ ,ari/otle at all1 :il/ ,alex&] uses ! metaphysical & sci5tific works z well z ! logic4 ,f ?is "t =? ! ,franciscans beg9 to use ! ,arabic comm5tators4 ,! m accurate /udy ( ,ari/otle 9 m$ival s*ola/icism beg9s ) ,alb]tus ,magnus 7#abjf-abhj71 ! ,dom9ican fri> :o fir/ really p]ceiv$ ! importance ( c>eful & critical v]sions ( ! text1 & ?us introduc$ a /rictly sci5tific /&>d ( me?od4 ,he /udi$ at ,padua1 a daught] univ]sity ( ,bologna1 b became a ,dom9ican 9 #abbc4 ,8 me?ods 7 foll[$ & develop$ by 8 pupil1 ,/4 ,?omas ,aqu9as 7d4 #abgd71 :o arrang$ 8 "w on ! l9es already indicat$ 9 ,alb]tus' comm5t>y on ,ari/otle's ,politics1 l9es :i* became ! regulation me?od 9 ,lat9 s*ola/ic writ]s1 & he 0 at pa9s to get new translations made directly f ! ,greek1 :i* 0 n[ freely accessible2 a new translation direct f ! ,greek 0 made by ,william de ,mo]beka at ! reque/ ( ,/4 ,?omas4 ,b !re is a significant *ange f ! "t :5 ,alb]tus deliv]$ 8 lectures3 9 ! "w ( ,alb]tus ! comm5tator *iefly us$ 0 ,ibn ,s9a1 b 9 t ( ,/4 ,?omas !re is a free use ( ,av]roes 7,ibn ,ru%d71 al?\gh ,/4 ,?omas %[s t he is p]fectly well aw>e ( ! peculi> doctr9es held by ?is latt] philosoph]1 & gu>ds himself c>efully f !m4 ,/4 ,?omas frequ5tly ent]s into controv]sy ) ! ,arabic comm5tators1 & especially attacks ! doctr9es 7i47 t !re 0 a primal indef9ite matt] to :i* =m 0 giv5 at creation 7cf4 ,summa4 lae quaes4 #ff1 art4 #b72 7ii47 t !re 7 successive s]ies ( emanations1 a doctr9e :i* _h n[ assum$ an a/rological "*2 7iii47 t ! ,ag5t ,intellect 0 ! int]m$i>y 9 creation 7cf4 ,summa4 #a1 #de1 #e2 #dg1 #a2 #ij1 #a72 7iv47 t creation ex nihilo is impossible2 7v47 t !re is n a special provid5ce rul+ & direct+ ! _w2 & 7vi47 mo/ ( all1 ! doctr9e ( ! unity ( intellects1 a doctr9e :i*1 z he %[s1 is n to be f\nd 9 ,ari/otle1 ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias1 ,avic5na1 or ,ghazali1 b is a speculative !ory ( ,av]roes alone1 at lea/ 9 ! =m !n becom+ popul> z pampsy*ism4 ,all ^! objections 7 ess5tially ! same z _h be5 already br\ght =w>d by ! or?odox s*ola/ics ( ,islam1 & und\bt$ly al-,ghazali is us$ 9 refut+ !m4 ,accord+ to ,/4 ,?omas1 ! doctr9e ( pampsy*ism is entirely subv]sive ( human p]sonality & ( ! sep>ate individuality ( ! ego1 to :i* our own consci\sness be>s witness4 ,god creates ! s\l = ea* *ild z x is born2 x is no emanation1 b has a sep>ate & di/9ct p]sonality4 ,z a coroll>y he d5ies ! ittisal or f9al 8union10 :i* involves ! reabsorption ( ! s\l 9 its s\rce4 ,x is wor? not+ t ,/4 ,?omas receiv$ 8 education be=e jo9+ ! ,dom9ican ord] 9 ! univ]sity ( ,naples1 :i* _h be5 f\nd$ by ,fr$]ick ,,ii4 & 0 a c5tre ( int]e/ 9 ! ,arabic philosoph]s1 & ?is probably goes f> to acc\nt = 8 m accurate appreciation ( _! tea*+4 ,unque/ionably ,/4 ,?omas ,aqu9as mu/ be reg>d$ z ! pr9ce ( ! ,lat9 s*ola/ics1 = x is he :o fir/ draws freely ^u metaphysics & psy*ology & co-ord9ates !m ) !ology--! psy*ological analysis giv5 9 ! ,secunda secundae ( ! ,summa is "o ( ! be/ products ( ! ,lat9 s*ola/ics--& also he 0 ! fir/ to appreciate correctly ! difficulties ( translation & insi/ on an accurate r5d]+ z ess5tial to an und]/&+ ( ,ari/otle4 ,= ! mo/ "p1 z we h not$1 ! m$ival s*ol>s und]valu$ ! translator's task & 7 cont5t ) a hack int]pret]1 & saw no reason = apply+ !mselves to ! /udy ( ! orig9al text1 a view 9 :i* ! ,arabic philosoph]s %>$4 ,incid5tally ,/4 ,?omas 0 ! fir/ :o makes free use ( all ! ,arabic comm5tators & %[s t he is fully aw>e ( _! defects4 ,und\bt$ly he reg>d$ ,av]roes z ! be/ expon5t ( ! ,ari/otelian text1 & ! supreme ma/] 9 logic1 b h]etical 9 8 metaphysics & psy*ology4 ,ab\t #abef ,av]roes' tea*+ ab\t ! unity ( intellig5ces 0 suffici5tly widespread at ,p>is to induce ,alb]tus to write 8 treatise 8,on ! unity ( ! intellect aga9/ ! ,av]roi/s10 a treatise :i* he aft]w>ds ins]t$ 9 8 ,summa4 ,9 #abfi c]ta9 propositions f ,av]roes 7 =mally condemn$4 ,at ?is "t 8 works 7 well kn[n1 & !re 0 a di/9ct p>ty at ,p>is :i* _h adopt$ 8 views & :i* we may describe z a semi-,judai/ic p>ty4 ,?is "t bo? ,alb]tus & ,/4 ,?omas publi%$ treatises aga9/ ! doctr9e ( ! unity ( intellig5ces4 ,aga9 9 #abgg v>i\s ,av]roi/ !ses 7 condemn$ at ,p>is1 = ! mo/ "p emanat+ f ! ,franciscans1 :o1 z ,bacon notes 7opus ,t]t4 #bc71 7 /rongly incl9$ t[>ds ,av]roes bo? at ,p>is & 9 ,engl&1 a condition :i* prevail$ until ! great ,franciscan doctor ,duns ,scotus 7d4 #acjh7 took a def9itely anti-,av]roi/ l9e4 ,/ill1 ev5 9 ! #ad? c5tury1 :5 ,av]roism 0 practically dead at ,p>is1 x /ill reta9$ its hold among/ ! ,franciscans 9 ! ,engli% 8nation40 ,! ,dom9icans 7 less fav\rably dispos$ t[>ds ! ,arabic writ]s1 at lea/ aft] ! "t ( ,alb]tus1 & %[ a mu* m c>eful e/imate ( _! "w4 ,?is 0 no d\bt due to ! fact t !y _h a h\se ( ,arabic /udies 9 ,spa91 & 7 actually engag$ 9 controv]sy ) ! ,muslims4 ,z a rule a c>eful di/9ction is drawn betwe5 ,av]roes ! comm5tator1 :o is treat$ ) great respect z an expon5t ( ! text ( ,ari/otle1 & ,av]roes ! philosoph]1 :o is reg>d$ z h]etical4 ,x seems z ?\gh !re 0 a delib]ate policy to secure ,ari/otle by sacrific+ ! ,arabic comm5tators4 ,v *>act]i/ic ( ! "w ( ! ,dom9icans 0 ! ,pugio ,fidei adv]sum ,mauros et ,judaeos ( ,raymund ,m>t9i1 :o liv$ 9 ,aragon & ,prov5ce2 he 0 famili> ) ,hebrew1 & freely uses ! ,hebrew translations ( ! ,arabic philosoph]s4 ,8 argum5ts are l>gely borr[$ f al-,ghazali's ,de/ruction ( ! ,philosoph]s4 ,x is curi\s to note t1 9 8 anxiety to def5d ,ari/otle1 he accuses ,av]roes ( borr[+ ! doctr9e ( ! unity ( intellig5ces f ,plato1 & 9 a s5se !re 0 an elem5t ( tru? 9 ?is1 = ! ,av]roi/ doctr9e 0 ultimately d]iv$ f neo-,platonic s\rces4 ,raymund also cites ! m$ical tea*+ ( ,av]roes at a date e>li] ?an any ,lat9 v]sion1 & "h aga9 %[s famili>ity ) ! ,hebrew translations4 ,john ,bacon?orp 7d4 #acdf71 ! prov9cial ( ! ,engli% ,c>melites & 8doctor0 ( ! ,c>melite ord]1 t5ds to palliate ! h]etical t5d5cies ( ,av]roes' tea*+1 & 0 call$ by 8 contempor>ies 8! pr9ce ( ,av]roi/s10 a title :i* 0 app>5tly reg>d$ z a complim5t4 ,among/ ! ,augu/9ian fri>s ,giles ( ,rome 9 8 de ,erroribus ,philosophorum 0 an oppon5t ( ! tea*+ ( ,av]roes1 especially attack+ ! doctr9e ( ! unity ( s\ls & ! union or ittisal1 b ,paul ( ,v5ice 7d4 #adbi71 ( ! same ord]1 %[s a t5d5cy fav\rable to ,av]roism 9 8 ,summa4 ,! #ac? c5tury _h g5]ally us$ ,ibn ,s9a 7,avic5na7 z a comm5tator on ,ari/otle1 b 9 ! #ad? c5tury ! g5]al t5d5cy 0 to pref] ,av]roes1 :o 0 reg>d$ z ! lead+ expon5t ( ! ,ari/otelian text ev5 by ^? :o disapprov$ 8 tea*+4 ,! ,univ]sity ( ,montpeli] z a c5tre ( m$ical /udies might be expect$ to use ! ,arabic au?orities1 b ?is univ]sity1 ?\gh traditionally f\nd$ by ,arabic physicians driv5 out ( ,spa91 0 re-f\nd$ z a di/9ctly ecclesia/ical in/itution 9 ! #ac? c5tury1 & became ! home ( ,greek m$ical /udies bas$ on ,gal5 & ,hippocrates1 ?\gh probably ! e>li] texts 9 use 7 translat$ f ! ,arabic v]sions4 ,to ?is m :olesome ,greek "* ! univ]sity rema9$ fai?ful1 & !re 0 always a t5d5cy at ,montpeli] to reg>d ! ,arabic use ( talismans & a/rology 9 m$ic9e z h]etical4 ,x 0 n until ! beg9n+ ( ! #ad? c5tury t ! ,arabic m$ical writ]s began to be us$ !re at all1 & !y rema9$ 9 q a second>y rank4 ,9 #acjd ,av]roes' ,canones de m$ic9is laxativis 0 translat$ f ! ,hebrew1 & 9 #acdj we f9d t i4 & iv4 ( ! ,canons ( ,avic5na are includ$ 9 ! (ficial syllabus set = c&idates = m$ical degrees1 & f ?is "t =w>d ! lectures include c\rses on ! ,arabic physicians4 ,9 #aefg ! ,arabic m$ical works 7 def9itely /ruck (f ! li/ ( books requir$ = exam9ation 9 ! s*ools at ! petition ( ! /ud5ts1 b occasional lectures on ! ,canons ( ,avic5na 7 giv5 d[n to #afjg4 ,! real home ( ,av]roism 0 ! ,univ]sity ( ,bologna1 ) its si/] ,univ]sity ( ,padua1 & f ^! two c5tres an ,av]roi/ influ5ce spread ov] all ,n4,e4 ,italy1 includ+ ,v5ice & ,f]r>a1 & s cont9u$ until ! #ag? c5tury4 ,x 0 a precursor ( ! rationalism & anti-*ur* feel+ ( ! r5asc5ce1 p]haps assi/$ by ,v5etian contact ) ! ,ea/4 ,at ,bologna ,arabic influ5ce 0 pr$om9ant 9 m$ic9e2 already 9 ! lat] #ac? c5tury ! m$ical c\rse c5tres 9 ! ,canon ( ,avic5na & ! m$ical treatises ( ,av]roes1 ) ! result t a/rology became a regul> subject ( /udy1 & degrees 7 grant$ 9 x4 ,mo/ ( ! physicians ( ,bologna & ,padua 7 a/rolog]s1 & 7 g5]ally reg>d$ z free-?9k]s & h]etics4 ,bologna _h at "o "t enjoy$ ! fav\r ( ,fr$]ick ,,ii41 & he _h pres5t$ ! ,univ]sity ) copies ( ! ,lat9 translations prep>$ by 8 ord] f ,arabic & ,greek4 ,! 8,great ,comm5t>y0 0 firmly e/abli%$ at ,padua1 & 9 #accd ! ,s]vite fri> ,urbano de ,bologna publi%$ a comm5t>y on ! comm5t>y ( ,av]roes1 :i* 0 pr9t$ 9 #adib by ord] ( ! g5]al ( ! ,s]vites4 ,b x is ,gaetano ( ,ti5a 7d4 #adfe71 a canon ( ! ca!dral at ,padua1 :o is g5]ally reg>d$ z ! f\nd] ( ,paduan ,av]roism4 ,he 0 less bold 9 8 /atem5ts ?an ! ,augu/9ian ,paul ( ,v5ice1 b /ill q def9itely an ,av]roi/ 9 8 tea*+ z to ! ,ag5t ,intellect & ! unity ( s\ls1 etc4 ,he seems to h _h a great popul>ity1 z _m copies ( 8 lectures survive4 ,?is ,av]roi/ cult 9 ,padua held good ?r\gh ! great] "p ( ! #ae? c5tury4 ,t[>ds ! end ( ! c5tury1 h[ev]1 ! reaction beg9s1 & comes f two di/9ct s\rces4 ,on "o side ,pomponat lectur$ at ,padua on ! de anima1 b int]prets x by ! aid ( ,alex&] ( ,aphrodisias & disc>ds ,av]roes1 sett+ =? 8 doctr9es 9 ! =m ( essays in/ead ( ! "t-hon\r$ comm5t>y on ! ,ari/otelian text4 ,f ?is "t 7circ4 #adie7 ! univ]sity ( ,padua 0 divid$ into two factions1 ! ,av]roi/s & ! ,alex&rians4 ,pomponat 0 at ! same "t a repres5tative ( m di/9ctly rationali/ !ories1 t[>ds :i* ! ,italian m9d 0 !n t5d+4 ,x 0 n t ,alex&] 0 m difficult to reconcile ) ! ,*ri/ian fai? ?an ,av]roes1 b t ^? ^: scepticism 0 incl9$ to be m freely express$ took advantage ( ^! new me?ods ( int]pretation to give free v5t to _! own op9ions4 ,q indep5d5t ( ^! ,alex&rians 7 ! humani/s prop]1 :o object$ mo/ to ! b>b>\s ,lat9ity ( ! text-books 9 g5]al use1 & especially to ! t]m9ology employ$ 9 ! translations made f ! ,arabic comm5tators4 ,repres5tative ( ^! 0 ,?omu1 :o ab\t #adig began to lecture at ,padua on ! ,greek text ( ,ari/otle1 & to treat x v l>gely z a /udy ( ! ,greek language & lit]ature4 ,philosophical controv]sy at ?is "t 0 c5tr$ *iefly 9 ! psy*ological problems connect$ ) ! nature ( ! s\l1 & especially ) its sep>ate exi/5ce & ! prospects ( immortality4 ,?is inde$ 0 p]ceiv$ to be a crucial problem ( religion & 0 v ke5ly debat$4 ,9 ! e>ly ye>s ( ! #af? c5tury ! controv]sy became ev5 m prom95t1 until ! ,lat]an ,c\ncil ( #aeab tri$ to *eck su* discussions & pass$ a a =mal condemnation1 :i*1 h[ev]1 0 p[]less to re/ra9 ! debates4 ,x is to be notic$ t ^! discussions did n arise f any philo-pagan attitude ( ! r5asc5ce1 al?\gh !y fav\r$ t attitude1 b f ! topics sugge/$ by ! /udy ( ! ,arabic philosoph]s 9 ,n4,e4 ,italy1 & _h _! beg9n+ 9 ! problem z to :e!r ! s\l at dea? c\ld cont9ue an individual exi/5ce or 0 reabsorb$ 9 ! s\rce1 ! res]voir ( life1 :e!r ,ag5t ,intellect or univ]sal s\l4 ,(ficially ! ,univ]sity ( ,padua cont9u$ to ma9ta9 a mod]ate ,av]roism4 ,9 #adgb ! editio pr9ceps ( ,av]roes' comm5t>ies 0 publi%$ at ,padua4 ,!n 9 #adie-g ,niphus produc$ a full] & m complete edition4 ,?r\gh ! next half-c5tury a s]ies ( essays1 discussions1 & analyses ( ,av]roes 7 produc$ almo/ cont9u\sly1 & 9 #aeeb-c appe>$ ! great edition ( ,av]roes' comm5t>ies1 ) m>g9al notes by ,zim>a4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! #af? c5tury1 also1 ,padua produc$ a new translation ( ,av]roes f ! ,hebrew4 ,! la/ ( ! ,av]roi/ succession 0 ,cs> ,cremon9i 7d4 #afca71 :o1 h[ev]1 %[s /rong lean+s t[>ds ,alex&rianism4 ,by ?is "t ! /udy ( ! ,arabic philosoph]s 9 ,europe 0 conf9$ to ! m$ical writ]s & to ! comm5t>ies ( ,av]roes4 ,outside ,padua & ,bologna ,av]roes reta9$ 8 position z ! pr9cipal expon5t ( ,ari/otle to ! end ( ! #ae? c5tury4 ,9 ! ord9ances ( ,l\is ,,xi4 7#adgc7 x is laid d[n t ! ma/]s at ,p>is are to tea* ,ari/otle1 & to use z comm5t>ies ,av]roes1 ,alb]tus ,magnus1 ,?omas ,aqu9as1 & simil> writ]s in/ead ( ,william ( ,ockham & o!rs ( 8 s*ool1 :i* is no m ?an say+ t ! (ficial attitude is to be reali/ & n nom9ali/4 ,) ! #af? c5tury ! /udy ( ! ,arabic comm5tators on ,ari/otle fell into disrepute outside ,padua & its circle1 b = a c5tury m ! ,arabic m$ical writ]s _h a limit$ range ( influ5ce 9 ! ,european univ]sities4 ,! actual l9e ( transmission 9 & aft] ! #ae? c5tury lay 9 ! passage ( ! anti-ecclesia/ical _s develop$ 9 ,nor? ,ea/ ,italy "u ! influ5ce ( ! ,arabic philosoph]s to ! ,italian r5asc5ce4 ,! arrival ( ,greek s*ol>s aft] ! fall ( ,con/ant9ople & ! resultant int]e/ develop$ 9 ar*ological rese>* div]t$ att5tion into a new direction1 b ?is %\ld n disguise ! fact t ! pro-,arabic elem5t 9 s*ola/ic days 0 ! direct p>5t ( ! philo-pagan elem5t 9 ! r5asc5ce1 at lea/ 9 ,s\!rn ,europe4 ,9 nor!rn l&s x 0 ! ar*ological side :i* assum$ great] importance & 0 br\ght to be> ^u !ological subjects4 ,,conclud+ ,,p>agraph ,we h n[ trac$ ! transmission ( a p>ticul> type ( ,hell5i/ic culture ?r\gh ! ,syrian ,*ur*1 ! ,zoroa/rians ( ,p]sia1 & ! pagans ( ,h>ran to ! ,islamic community1 :]e x 0 r compromis$ by ! patronage ( ^? :om ! (ficial ,muslim tea*]s decid$ to reg>d z h]etics4 ,9 spite ( ?is c5sure x has left a v di/9ct & endur+ impression on ,muslim !ology & on popul> beliefs4 ,aft] a *equ]$ c>e] 9 ! ,ea/ x pass$ ov] to ! ,we/]n ,muslim community 9 ,spa91 :]e x _h a v specialis$ developm5t1 :i* f9ally made a deep] impression on ,*ri/ian & ,jewi% ?\ght ?an on t ( ! ,muslims !mselves1 & atta9$ its f9al evolution 9 ,nor?-,ea/ ,italy1 :]e1 z an anti-ecclesia/ical influ5ce1 x prep>$ ! way = ! ,r5asc5ce4 ,b ?is ma9 l9e ( developm5t is n really ! mo/ important2 all along t l9e x 0 bran*+ (f on "o side or ano!r1 & its ri*e/ fruits mu/ be s\ght 9 ^! side issues1 9 ! s*ola/icism :i*1 9 ,islam1 9 ,judaism1 & 9 ,*ri/ianity1 0 a reaction f its tea*+1 & 9 ! m$ical1 *emical1 & o!r sci5tific /udies ( ! ,middle ,ages1 :i* l>gely ow$ _! inspiration to its influ5ce4 ,x is ! mo/ romantic hi/ory ( culture drift :i* is kn[n to u 9 detail4 ,,*ronological ,,table ,ye>s f ! dea? 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,khalif at ,kairawan4 #bih #iaj #i #bii #iaa ,aug4 #bh #cjj #iab #ai ,al-,a%ari pr(esses or?odoxy4 #cja #iac #g #cjb #iad ,july #bg #cjc #iae #ag #cjd #iaf #e #cje #iag ,june #bd #cjf #iah #ad #cjg #iai #c #cjh #ibj ,may #bc #cji #iba #ab #caj #ibb #a #caa #ibc ,apr4 #ba #cab #ibd #i #cac #ibe ,m>4 #bi #cad #ibf #aj #cae #ibg #h #caf #ibh ,feb4 #be #cag #ibi #ad #cah #icj #c #cai #ica ,jan4 #bd #cbj #icb #ac ,al-,qahir ,khalif4 #cba #icc #a #cbb #icc ,dec4 #bb ar-,razi ,khalif4 #cbc #icd #aa al-,mat>idi d4 #cbd #ice ,nov4 #cj ,buwayhids seize ,baghdad4 #cbe #icf #aj #cbf #icg #h #cbg #ich ,oct4 #bh #cbh #ici #ah #cbi #idj #f al-,muttaqi ,khalif4 #ccj #ida ,sept4 #bf #cca #idb #ae #ccb #idc #d #ccc #idd ,aug4 #bd al-,mu/akfi ,khalif4 #ccd #ide #ac ,al-,muti ,khalif4 #cce #ide #b #ccf #idg ,july #bc #ccg #idh #aa #cch #idi #a #cci #iej ,june #bj al-,f>abi d4 #cdj #iea #i #cda #ieb ,may #bi #cdb #iec #ah #cdc #ied #g #cdd #iee ,apr4 #bg #cde #ief #ae #cdf #ieg #d #cdg #ieh ,m>4 #be #cdh #iei #ad #cdi #ifj #c #cej #ifa ,feb4 #bj #cea #ifb #i #ceb #ifc ,jan4 #cj #cec #ifd #ai #ced #ife #g #cee #ife ,dec4 #bh #cef #iff #ag ,fatimites 9 ,egypt3 ,cairo f\nd$4 #ceg #ifg #g #ceh #ifh ,nov4 #be #cei #ifi #ad #cfj #igj #d #cfa #iga ,oct4 #bd #cfb #igb #ab #cfc #igc #b ,at-,tai ,khalif4 #cfd #igd ,sept4 #ba #cfe #ige #aj #cff #igf ,aug4 #cj #cfg #igg #ai #cfh #igh #i #cfi #igi ,july #bi #cgj #ihj #ag #cga #iha #g #cgb #ihb ,june #bf #cgc #ihc #ae #cgd #ihd #d #cge #ihe ,may #bd #cgf #ihf #ac #cgg #ihg #c #cgh #ihh ,apr4 #ba #cgi #ihi #aa #chj #iij ,m>4 #ca ,al-,qadir ,khalif4 #cha #iia #bj #chb #iib #i #chc #iic ,feb4 #bf #chd #iid #ae #che #iie #e #chf #iif ,jan4 #be #chg #iig #ad #chh #iih #c ,rise ( ,mahmud ( ,ghazna4 #chi #iih ,dec4 #bc #cij #iii #ac #cia #ajjj #a #cib #ajja ,nov4 #bj #cic #ajjb #aj #cid #ajjc ,oct4 #cj #cie #ajjd #ah #cif #ajje #h #cig #ajjf ,sept4 #bg #cih #ajjg #ag #cii #ajjh #e #djj #ajji ,aug4 #be #dja #ajaj #ae #djb #ajaa #d #djc #ajab ,july #bc #djd 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