,transcriber's ,notes ,boldface text is indicated by equals signs2 italic text is indicated by underscores4 ,to improve readability in the ,plain ,text version of this e,book1 shillings and pence in the ,catalog are shown as normal1 upright text1 even though they originally were printed in italics4 ,other ,notes will be found at the end of this e,book4 ,,the ,,tropical ,,world4 ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,spottiswoode ,,and ,,co41 ,,new-,,street ,,square ,,and ,,parliament ,,street ,illustration3 ,,primitive ,,forest4 ,,the ,,tropical ,,world3 ,,aspects ,,of ,,man ,,and ,,nature ,,in ,,the ,,equatorial ,,regions ,,of ,,the ,,globe4 ,,by ,,dr4 ,g4 ,,hartwig1 ,,author ,,of #8,,the ,,sea ,,and ,,its ,,living ,,wonders1' #8,,the ,,subterranean ,,world1' #8,,the ,,harmonies ,,of ,,nature1' ,,and #8,,the ,,polar ,,world4' ,,with ,,eight ,,chromoxylographic ,,plates ,,and ,,numerous ,,woodcuts4 ,,new ,,edition4 ,,london3 ,,longmans1 ,,green1 ,,and ,,co4 #ahgc4 ,all rights reserved4 ,,preface4 ,the numerous alterations ,i have made in this new edition of the #8,tropical ,world1' both by the attentive revision of its former contents1 and the addition of new chapters descriptive of the chief characteristics of the various tropical races of man2 as well as the care ,i have taken to condense as much information as possible within narrow limits1 will1 ,i hope1 justify my assertion that ,i have done my best to please indulgent readers1 and to merit the favourable verdict of severer critics4 ,dr4 ,,hartwig4 ,salon ,villas1 ,ludwigsburg 7,wrtemburg73 ,march #aj1 #ahgc4 ,,contents4 ,page ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,diversity ,,of ,,climates ,,within ,,the ,,tropics4 ,causes by which it is produced--,abundance and ,distribution of ,rain within the ,tropics--,the ,trade ,winds--,the ,belt of ,calms-- ,tropical ,rains--,the ,monsoons--,tornados--,cyclones--,typhoo ns-- ,storms in the ,pacific--,devastations caused by ,hurricanes on ,pitcairn ,island and ,rarotonga #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,llanos4 ,their ,aspect in the ,dry ,season--,vegetable ,sources--,sand ,spouts-- ,effects of the ,mirage--,a ,savannah on ,fire--,opening of the ,rainy ,season--,miraculous ,changes--,exuberance of ,animal and ,vegetable ,life--,conflict between ,horses and ,electrical ,eels--,beauty of the ,llanos at the ,termination of the ,rainy ,season--,the ,mauritia ,palm #aa ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,puna1 ,,or ,,the ,,high ,,table-,,lands ,,of ,,peru ,,and ,,bolivia4 ,striking ,contrast with the ,llanos--,northern ,character of their ,climate--,the ,chuu--,the ,surumpe--,the ,veta3 its ,influence upon ,man1 ,horses1 ,mules1 and ,cats--,the ,vegetation of the ,puna--,the ,maca--,the ,llama3 its invaluable ,services--,the ,huanacu--,the ,alpaca--,the ,vicuas3 ,mode of ,hunting ,them--,the ,chacu--,the ,bolas--,the ,chinchilla--,the ,condor--,wild ,bulls and ,wild ,dogs-- ,lovely ,mountain ,valleys #bj ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,peruvian ,,sand-,,coast4 ,its desolate ,character--,the ,mule is here the #8,ship of the ,desert4'--,a ,shipwreck and its ,consequences--,sand-,spouts-- ,medanos--,summer and ,winter--,the ,garuas--,the ,lomas--,change produced in their ,appearance during the ,season of ,mists--,azara's ,fox--,wild ,animals--,birds--,reptiles--,the ,chincha or ,guano ,islands #cj ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,amazons1 ,,the ,,giant ,,river ,,of ,,the ,,torrid ,,zone4 ,the ,course of the ,amazons and its ,tributaries--,the ,strait of ,obydos--,tide ,waves on the ,amazons--,the ,black-water rivers-- ,the ,rio ,negro--,the ,bay of the ,thousand ,isles--,the ,pororocca-- ,rise of the ,river--,the ,gapo--,magnificent ,scenery--,different ,character of the ,forests beyond and within the verge of ,inundation--,general ,character of the ,banks--,a ,sail on the ,amazons--,a ,night's ,encampment--,the #8,mother of the ,waters'-- ,the ,piranga--,dangers of ,navigating on the ,amazons--,terrific ,storms--,rapids and ,whirlpools--,the ,stream of the ,future-- ,travels of ,orellana--,madame ,godin #cf ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,primeval ,,forests ,,of ,,tropical ,,america4 ,their peculiar ,charms and ,terrors--,disappointments and ,difficulties of the ,botanist--,the ,bush-ropes--,variety of ,trees and ,plants--,trees with ,buttresses--,numberless parasites-- ,character of the ,primitive ,forest according to its ,site--,its ,aspect during the ,rainy ,season--,a ,hurricane in the ,forest-- ,beauty of the ,forest after the ,rainy ,season--,our ,home ,scenes equally beautiful--,bird ,life on the rivers of ,guiana--,morning ,concert--,repose of ,nature at ,noon--,nocturnal ,voices of the ,forest #ec ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,wild ,,indians ,,of ,,tropical ,,america4 ,the wild ,forest ,tribes--,their ,physical ,conformation and ,moral ,characteristics--,their ,powers of ,endurance not inferior to those of other ,races--,their stoical indifference--,their ,means of ,subsistence--,fishing--,hunting--,the ,wourali ,poison-- ,ornaments--,painting--,tattooing--,reli gion--,the ,moon1 a ,land of ,abundance--,the ,botuto--,the ,piaches--,the ,savage ,hordes of ,brazil and ,guiana--,the ,ottomacas--,dirt-eaters--,their ,vindictive ,ferocity and ,war ,stratagems--,the extinct ,tribe of the ,atures--,a ,parrot the last ,speaker of their ,language-- ,their ,burial-cavern--,the ,uaupes ,indians--,their large ,huts-- ,horrid ,custom of ,disinterment--,the ,macus--,the ,purupurus--,the #8,palheta'--,the ,mandrucus--,singular resemblance of some of the ,customs of the ,american ,indians to those of ,remote ,nations--,the ,caribs--,the ,botocudos--,monstrous distension of the ,ears and ,under-lip--,their ,bow and ,arrow--,their ,migrations--,bush-rope ,bridge--,botocudo ,funeral--#8,tanchon1' the ,evil ,spirit #fb ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,mexican ,,plateaus1 ,,and ,,the ,,slopes ,,of ,,sikkim4 ,geological ,formation of ,mexico--,the ,tierra ,caliente--,the ,tierra ,templada--,the ,tierra ,fria4 ,the ,sylvan ,wonders of ,sikkim--,changes of the ,forest on ascending-- ,the ,torrid ,zone of ,vegetation--,the ,temperate ,zone--,the ,coniferous ,belt--,limits of ,arboreal ,vegetation--,animal ,life #gi ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,kalahari ,,and ,,the ,,bushmen4 ,reasons why ,droughts are prevalent in ,south ,africa--,vegetation admirably suited to the ,character of the ,country--,number of ,tuberous ,roots--,the ,caffre ,water-,melon--,the ,mesembryanthemums-- ,the ,animal ,life of the ,kalahari--,the ,bushmen1 a ,nomadic ,race of ,hunters--,their ,skill in ,hunting--,their ,food--,acuteness of their ,sight and ,hearing--,their ,intelligence and ,perseverance-- ,their ,weapons and ,marauding ,expeditions--,their ,voracity--,their ,love of ,liberty--,the ,bakalahari--,their ,love for ,agriculture-- ,their ,ingenuity in procuring ,water--,trade in ,skins--,their timidity #he ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,sahara4 ,its uncertain ,limits--,caravan ,routes--,ephemeral ,streams--,oases-- ,inundations--,luxuriant ,vegetation of the ,oases contrasted with the surrounding ,desert--,harsh contrasts of ,light and ,shade-- ,sublimity of the ,desert--,feelings of the ,traveller while crossing the ,desert--,its charms and terrors--,sand-,spouts--,the ,simoom--,the #8,sea of the ,devil'--,the ,gazelle--,its chase--,the ,porcupine--,fluctuation of ,animal ,life according to the ,seasons-- ,the ,tibbos and the ,tuaregs--,their contempt of the sedentary ,berbers #ic ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,bedouins ,,of ,,arabia4 ,the ,deserts of ,arabia--,sedentary ,arabs and ,bedouins--,physical ,characteristics of the ,bedouins--,remarkable acuteness of their ,senses--,their ,manners--,their intense ,patriotism and ,contempt of the dwellers in ,cities--,the ,song of ,maysunah--,their ,wars-- ,their ,character softened by the ,influence of ,woman--,their chivalrous ,sentiments--,the ,arab horse--,the ,camel--,freedom of the ,arabs from a ,foreign and a ,domestic ,yoke--,the ,bedouin ,robber--,his ,hospitality--,mode of ,encamping--,death ,feuds-- ,blood-money--,amusements--,throwing the ,jereed--,dances-- ,poetry--,story-telling--,language--,the ,bedouin and the ,north ,american ,indian #ajd ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,giant ,,trees ,,and ,,characteristic ,,forms ,,of ,,tropical ,,vegetation4 ,general ,remarks--,the ,baobab--,used as a ,vegetable ,cistern-- ,arborescent ,euphorbias--,the ,dracna of ,orotava--,the ,sycamore-- ,the ,banyan--,the sacred ,bo-,tree of ,anarajapoora--,the ,teak ,tree-- ,the ,saul--,the ,sandal ,tree--,the ,satinwood ,tree--,the ,ceiba-- ,the ,mahogany ,tree--,the ,mora--,bamboos--,the ,guadua--,beauty and multifarious ,uses of these colossal ,grasses--,firing the ,jungle--,the ,aloes--,the ,agave americana--,the ,bromelias--,the ,cactuses--,the ,mimosas--,bush-ropes--,climbing ,trees--,emblems of ,ingratitude--,marriage of the ,fig ,tree and the ,palm--,epiphytes-- ,water ,plants--,singularly-shaped ,trees--,the ,barrigudo--,the ,bottle ,tree--,trees with ,buttresses and fantastical ,roots-- ,the ,mangroves--,their ,importance in ,furthering the ,growth of ,land-,animal ,life among the ,mangroves--#8,jumping ,johnny'-- ,insalubrity of the ,mangrove ,swamps--,the ,lum--,trees with formidable ,spines #abj ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,palms ,,and ,,ferns4 ,the ,cocoa-nut ,tree--,its hundred ,uses--,cocoa-nut ,oil--,coir-- ,porcupine ,wood--,enemies of the ,cocoa ,palm--,the ,sago ,palm-- ,the ,saguer--,the ,gumatty--,the ,areca ,palm--,the ,palmyra ,palm-- ,the ,talipot--,the ,cocoa de ,mer--,ratans--,a ,ratan bridge in ,ceylon--,the ,date ,tree--,the ,oil ,palms of ,africa--,the ,oil ,trade at ,bonny--,its vast and growing ,importance--,american ,palms-- ,the ,carnauba--,the ,ceroxylon andicola--,the ,cabbage ,palm--,the ,gulielma speciosa--,the ,piaava--,difficulties of the ,botanist in ascertaining the various species of ,palms--,their wide geographical range--,different ,physiognomy of the ,palms according to their height--,the ,position and ,form of their ,fronds--,their ,fruits--,their ,trunk--,the ,yriartea ventricosa--,arborescent ,ferns #adf ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,chief ,,esculent ,,plants ,,of ,,the ,,torrid ,,zone4 ,rice--,various ,aspect of the ,rice-fields at different ,seasons--,the ,rice-,bird--,maize--,first imported from ,america by ,columbus--,its enormous ,productiveness--,its wide zone of ,cultivation--,millet1 ,dhourra--,the ,bread-,fruit ,tree--,the ,bananas--,their ancient ,cultivation--,avaca or ,manilla ,hemp--,humboldt's ,remarks on the ,banana--,the ,traveller's ,tree of ,madagascar--,the ,cassava ,root-- ,tapioca--,yams--,batatas--,arrowroot--, taro--,tropical ,fruit ,trees--,the ,chirimoya--,the ,litchi--,the ,mangosteen--,the ,mango #afc ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,sugar1 ,,coffee1 ,,cacao1 ,,coca4 ,progress of the ,sugar ,cane throughout the ,tropical ,zone--,the ,tahitian ,sugar ,cane--,the enemies of the ,sugar ,cane--,the ,sugar-,harvest--,the ,coffee ,tree--,its cultivation and enemies-- ,the ,cacao ,tree and the ,vanilla--,the ,coca ,plant--,wonderful strengthening ,effects of ,coca1 and fatal consequences of its ,abuse #agd ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,tropical ,,plants ,,used ,,for ,,industrial ,,purposes4 ,cotton--,its ,cultivation in the ,united ,states--,caoutchouc and ,gutta ,percha--,manner in which these resins are collected-- ,indigo--,the ,british ,logwood cutters in ,honduras--,brazil ,wood-- ,arnatto #ahh ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,tropical ,,spices4 ,the ,cinnamon ,gardens of ,ceylon--,immense profits of the ,dutch-- ,decline of the ,trade--,neglected state of the ,gardens--,nutmegs and ,cloves--,cruel monopoly of the ,dutch--,a ,spice ,fire in ,amsterdam--,the ,clove ,tree--,beauty of an ,avenue of ,clove ,trees-- ,the ,nutmeg ,tree--,mace--,the ,pepper ,vine--,the ,pimento ,tree #aig ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,tropical ,,insects1 ,,spiders1 ,,and ,,scorpions4 ,gradual increase of ,insect life on advancing towards the ,line-- ,the ,hercules ,beetle--,the ,goliath--,the ,inca ,beetle--,the ,walking-leaf and ,walking-stick ,insects--,the ,soothsayer-- ,luminous ,beetles--,tropical ,spiders--,their gaudy colours-- ,trap-door ,spiders--,enemies of the ,spiders--,mortal ,combat between a ,spider and a ,cockroach--,tropical ,scorpions--,dreadful ,effects of their sting #bje ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,insect ,,plagues ,,and ,,insect ,,services4 ,the ,universal ,dominion of ,insects--,mosquitoes--,stinging ,flies--strus ,hominis--,the ,chegoe or ,jigger--,the ,filaria ,medinensis--,the ,bte-,rouge--,blood-sucking ,ticks--,garapatas-- ,the ,land-leeches in ,ceylon--,the ,tsets ,fly--,the ,tsalt-,salya-- ,the ,locust--,its dreadful ,devastations--,cockroaches--,the ,drummer--,the ,cucarachas and ,chilicabras--,tropical ,ants--,the ,saba--,the ,driver ,ants--,termites--,their wonderful ,buildings-- ,the ,silkworm--,the ,cochineal--,the ,gumlack ,insect--,insects used as ,food and ,ornaments #bba ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,the ,,malayan ,,race4 ,physical ,conformation of the ,malays--,betel ,chewing--,their ,moral ,character--,limited ,intelligence of the ,malays--,their ,maritime ,tastes--,piracy--,gambling--,cock-fight ing--,running ,a-,muck6--,fishing--,malayan ,superstitions--,the ,battas--,their ,cannibalism--,eating a ,man alive--,the ,begus--,arial ,huts-- ,funeral ,ceremonies--,the ,dyaks--,head-,hunting--,the ,sumpitan-- ,large ,houses #bec ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,tropical ,,ocean4 ,wanderings of an ,iceberg--,the ,tropical ,ocean--,the ,cachalot-- ,the ,frigate ,bird--,the ,tropic ,bird--,the ,esculent ,swallow--,the ,flying-fish--,the ,bonito--,the ,white ,shark--,tropical ,fishes-- ,crustaceans--,land ,crabs--,mollusks--,jelly ,fish--,coral ,islands #bff ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,papuans ,,and ,,polynesians4 ,the ,papuans--,their ,physical and ,moral ,characteristics--,their ,artistic ,tastes--,their ,dwellings--,their ,primitive ,political ,institutions--,their ,weapons and ,mode of ,fighting--,the ,polynesians--,their ,manners and ,customs when first visited by ,europeans--,tattooing--,the ,tapa ,cloth--,their ,canoes--,swimming ,feats--,aristocratic ,forms of ,government--,the ,tabu--,religion-- ,superstitious ,observances--,human ,sacrifices--,infanticide--,low ,condition of the ,coral ,islanders #bgf ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,snakes4 ,first ,impressions of a ,tropical ,forest--,exaggerated ,fears-- ,comparative rareness of ,venomous ,snakes--,their ,habits and ,external ,characters--,anecdote of the ,prince of ,neu ,wied--,the ,bite of the ,trigonocephalus--,antidotes--,fangs of the ,venomous ,snakes described--,the ,bush-,master--,the ,echidna ,ocellata-- ,the ,rattlesnakes--,extirpated by ,hogs--,the ,cobra de ,capello-- ,indian ,snake-,charmers--,maritime ,excursions of the ,cobra--,the ,egyptian ,haje--,the ,cerastes--,boas and ,pythons--,the ,jiboya-- ,the ,anaconda--,enemies of the ,serpents--,the ,secretary--,the ,adjutant--,the ,mungoos--,a ,serpent swallowed by another--,the ,locomotion of ,serpents--,anatomy of their ,jaws--,serpents feeding in the ,zoological ,gardens--,domestication of the ,rat-,snake-- ,water-,snakes #bib ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,lizards1 ,,frogs1 ,,and ,,toads4 ,their ,multitude within the ,tropics--,the ,geckoes--,anatomy of their ,feet--,the ,anolis--,their ,love of ,fight--,the ,chameleon-- ,its wonderful ,changes of ,colour--,its ,habits--,peculiarities of its ,organisation--,the ,iguana--,the ,teju--,the ,water-,lizards-- ,lizard ,worship on the ,coast of ,africa--,the ,flying ,dragon--,the ,basilisk--,frogs and ,toads--,the ,pipa--,the ,bahia ,toad--,the ,giant ,toad--,the ,musical ,toad--,brazilian and ,surinam ,tree-,frogs #caj ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,tortoises ,,and ,,turtles4 ,the ,galapagos--,the ,elephantine ,tortoise--,the ,marsh-,tortoises-- ,mantega--,river-,tortoises--,marine-,tu rtles--,on the ,brazilian ,coast--,their ,numerous ,enemies--,the ,island of ,ascension-- ,turtle-,catching at the ,bahama and ,keeling ,islands--,turtle caught by means of the ,sucking-,fish--,the ,green ,turtle--,the ,hawksbill ,turtle--,turtle ,scaling in the ,feejee ,islands--,barbarous mode of selling ,turtle-flesh in ,ceylon--,the ,coriaceous ,turtle--,its awful ,shrieks #cba ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,crocodiles ,,and ,,alligators4 ,their ,habits--,the ,gavial and the ,tiger--,mode of ,seizing their ,prey--,their ,voice--,their ,preference of ,human ,flesh--,alligator against ,alligator--,wonderful ,tenacity of ,life--,tenderness of the ,female ,cayman for her ,young--,the ,crocodile of the ,nile--,its ,longevity--,enemies of the ,crocodile--,torpidity of ,crocodiles during the ,dry ,season--,their ,awakening from their ,lethargy with the ,first ,rains--#8,tickling a ,crocodile' #ccb ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,tropical ,,bird ,,life4 ,the ,toucan--,its ,quarrelsome ,character--,the ,humming-birds--,their wide ,range over the ,new ,world--,their ,habits--,their ,enemies-- ,their ,courage--,the ,cotingas--,the ,campanero--,the ,tangaras--,the ,manakins--,the ,cock of the ,rock--,the ,troupials--,the ,baltimore-- ,the ,pendulous ,nests of the ,cassiques--,the ,mocking-bird-- ,strange ,voices of ,tropical ,birds--,the ,goat-,sucker's ,wail--,the ,organista--,the ,cilgero--,the ,flamingos--,the ,scarlet ,ibis--,the ,jabiru--,the ,roseate ,spoon-bill--,the ,jacana--,the ,calao--,the ,sun-birds--,the ,melithreptes--,the ,argus--,the ,peacock--,tropical ,waders of the ,old ,world--,the ,african ,ibis--,the ,numidian ,crane-- ,australian ,birds--,the ,lyre ,bird--,the ,birds of ,paradise-- ,african ,weaving ,birds--,the ,social ,grosbeak--,the ,baya--,the ,tailor-bird--,the ,honey ,eaters--,the ,bower-bird--,the ,talegalla-- ,the ,gualama #cdb ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,tropical ,,birds ,,of ,,prey4 ,the ,condor--,his ,marvellous ,flight--,his ,cowardice--,various ,modes of ,capturing ,condors--,ancient ,fables circulated about them--,comparison of the ,condor with the ,albatross--,the ,carrion ,vultures--,the ,king of the ,vultures--,domestication of the ,urubu--,its ,extraordinary ,memory--,the ,harpy ,eagle-- ,examples of his ,ferocity--,the ,oricou--,the ,bacha--,his ,cruelty to the ,klipdachs--,the ,fishing ,eagle of ,africa--,the ,musical ,sparrow-hawk--,the ,secretary ,eagle #cgf ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,the ,,ostrich ,,and ,,the ,,cassowary4 ,size of the ,ostrich--,its astonishing ,swiftness--,ostrich ,hunting-- ,stratagem of the ,ostrich for protecting its ,young--,points of ,resemblance with the ,camel--,its ,voracity--,ostrich ,feathers-- ,domestication of the ,ostrich in ,algeria--,poetical ,legend of the ,arabs--,the ,american ,rheas--,the ,cassowary--,the ,australian ,emu #chd ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,parrots4 ,their ,peculiar ,manner of ,climbing--,points of ,resemblance with ,monkeys--,their ,social habits--,their ,connubial ,felicity-- ,inseparables--,talent for ,mimicry--,wonderful ,powers of ,speech and ,memory--,their ,wide ,range within the ,temperate ,zones--,colour of ,parrots ,artificially ,changed by the ,south ,american ,indians-- ,the ,cockatoos--,cockatoo killing in ,australia--,the ,macaw--,the ,parakeets #cib ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,tropical ,,ruminants ,,and ,,equid4 ,the ,camel--,its ,paramount ,importance in the great ,tropical ,sandwastes--,its ,organisation admirably adapted to its mode of ,life--,beauty of the ,giraffe--,its ,wide ,range of ,vision-- ,pleasures of ,giraffe ,hunting--,the ,antelopes--,the ,springbok-- ,the ,reedbok--,the ,duiker--,the ,atro--,the ,gemsbok--,the ,klippspringer--,the ,koodoo--,the ,gnu--,the ,indian ,antelope-- ,the ,nylghau--,the ,caffrarian ,buffalo--,the ,indian ,buffalo and the ,tiger--,dr4 ,livingstone's ,escape from a solitary ,buffalo-- ,swimming ,feats of the ,bhain--,the ,zebra--,the ,quagga--,the ,douw #cii ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,the ,,hippopotamus4 ,behemoth--,its ,diminishing ,number and ,contracting ,empire--,its ,ugliness--,a ,rogue ,hippopotamus or ,solitaire--,dangerous ,meeting--,intelligence and ,memory of the ,hippopotamus--,methods employed for ,killing the ,hippopotamus--,hippopotamus-,hunting on the ,teoge--,the ,hippopotamus in ,regent's ,park--,a ,young ,hippo born in ,paris #dag ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,the ,,rhinoceros4 ,brutality of the ,rhinoceros--,the ,borelo--,the ,keitloa--,the ,monoho--,the ,kobaaba--,difference of ,food and ,disposition between the ,black and the ,white ,rhinoceros--,incarnation of ,ugliness-- ,acute ,smell and ,hearing--,defective ,vision--,the ,buphaga ,africana--,paroxysms of ,rage--,parental ,affection--,nocturnal ,habits--,rhinoceros ,hunting--,adventures of the ,chase--,narrow ,escapes of ,messrs4 ,oswell and ,andersson--,the ,indian ,rhinoceros-- ,the ,sumatran ,rhinoceros--,the ,javanese ,rhinoceros--,its involuntary ,suicide #dbc ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,,the ,,elephant4 ,love of ,solitude1 and ,pusillanimity--,miraculous ,escape of an ,english ,officer--,sagacity of the ,elephant in ascending ,hills-- ,organisation of the ,stomach--,the ,elephant's ,trunk--,use of the ,tusks still ,probmatical--,the ,rogue-,elephant--,sagacity of the ,elephant--,the ,african ,elephant--,tamed in ,ancient ,times--,south ,african ,elephant-,hunting--,hair-,breadth ,escapes--,abyssinian ,elephant-,hunters--,cutting up of an ,elephant--,the ,asiatic ,elephant--,vast ,numbers destroyed in ,ceylon--,major ,rogers-- ,elephant-,catchers--,their amazing ,dexterity--,the ,corral--,decoy ,elephants--,their astonishing ,sagacity--,great ,mortality among the ,captured ,elephants--,their ,services #dca ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,tropical ,,felid4 ,the ,lion--,conflicts with ,travellers on ,mount ,atlas--,the ,lion and the ,hottentat--,a ,lion taken in--,narrow ,escapes of ,andersson and ,dr4 ,livingstone--,lion-,hunting by the ,arabs of the ,atlas-- ,by the ,bushmen--,the ,asiatic ,lion--,the ,lion and the ,dog--,the ,tiger--,the ,javanese ,jungle--,the ,peacock--,wide ,northern ,range of the ,tiger--,tiger-,hunting in ,india--,miraculous ,escape of an ,english ,sportsman--,animals announcing the ,tiger's ,presence-- ,turtle-,hunting of the ,tiger on the ,coasts of ,java--,the ,panther and the ,leopard--,the ,leopard attracted by the ,smell of ,small-pox--,the ,cheetah--,the ,jaguar--,the ,puma--,the smaller ,american ,felid--,the ,hyna--,fables told of these abject ,animals--,the ,striped ,hyna--,the ,spotted ,hyna--,the ,brown ,hyna #ddf ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,,the ,,australian ,,race4 ,physical ,conformation of the ,australians--,their ,low ,state of ,civilisation--,their ,superstitions--,their ,wars--,singing and ,dancing--,the ,corrobory--,division of the ,nation into ,great ,families--,rules ,regulating the property of ,land and the ,distribution of ,food--,skill in ,hunting the ,kangaroo and the ,opossum--,feasting on a ,whale--,moral ,qualities and ,intelligence of the ,australians #dff ,,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,,the ,,sloth4 ,miserable ,aspect of the ,sloth--,his ,beautiful ,organisation for his ,peculiar ,mode of ,life--,his ,rapid ,movements in the ,trees--,his ,means of ,defence--,his ,tenacity of ,life--,fable about the ,sloth refuted--,the ,ai--,the ,unau--,the ,mylodon ,robustus #dgg ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,,ant-,,eaters4 ,the ,great ,ant-,bear--,his ,way of ,licking up ,termites--,his ,formidable ,weapons--,a ,perfect ,forest ,vagabond--,his ,peculiar ,manner of ,walking--,the ,smaller ,ant-,eaters--,the ,manides-- ,the ,african ,aard ,vark--,the ,armadillos--,the ,glyptodon--,the ,porcupine ,ant-,eater of ,australia--,the ,myrmecobius ,fasciatus #dhb ,,chapter ,,xxxix4 ,,tropical ,,bats4 ,wonderful ,organisation of the ,bats--,the ,fox-,bat--,the ,vampire-- ,its ,blood-,sucking ,propensities--,the ,horse-,shoe ,bats--,the ,flying ,squirrel--,the ,galeopithecus--,the ,anomalurus #dij ,,chapter ,,xl4 ,,apes ,,and ,,monkeys4 ,the ,forest ,life of the ,simi--,excellent ,climbers1 ,bad ,pedestrians--,similitude and ,difference between the ,human ,race and the ,ape--,the ,chimpanzee--,chim in ,paris--,the ,gorilla-- ,the ,uran--,the ,gibbons--,the ,proboscis ,monkey--,the ,huniman-- ,the ,wanderoo--,the ,cercopitheca--,a ,plundering ,party--,parental ,affection of a ,cercopitheca--,the ,maimon--#8,happy ,jerry'-- ,the ,pig-,faced ,baboon--,the ,derryat--,wide ,difference between the ,monkeys of both ,hemispheres--,distinctive ,characters of the ,american ,monkeys--,the ,stentor ,monkey--,the ,spider ,monkeys--,the ,lamirit--,friendships ,between ,various ,kinds of ,monkeys--,nocturnal ,monkeys--,squirrel ,monkeys--,their ,lively ,intelligence--,the ,loris and ,makis #dif ,,chapter ,,xli4 ,,the ,,african ,,negroes4 ,causes of the ,inferiority of ,negro ,civilisation--,natural ,capabilities of the ,negro--,geographical ,formation of ,africa-- ,its ,political ,condition--,physical ,conformation of the ,negro-- ,fetishism--,the ,rain-,doctor--,the ,medicine-,man--,religious ,observances--,gift-,offerings--,human ,sacrifices--,ornaments--,the ,pelle--,the ,bonnians--,their ,barbarous ,condition--,the ,town of ,okolloma--,negroes of the ,lake ,regions--,the ,iwanza--,slavery--,a ,miserable ,group #eah ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,page ,,chromoxylographs4 ,primitive ,forest ,frontispiece ,savannah on ,fire #aa ,cereus ,giganteus #ace ,lum ,tree #add ,termite ,hills #bdb ,flamingoes #cfj ,condor-catching #cgh ,tiger #ded ,,woodcuts4 ,african ,bushmen #he ,bedouin warriors #ajd ,birds3-- ,adjutant #cjc ,argus ,pheasant #cfj ,bird of ,paradise #cfd ,campanero #cej ,cardinal #hj ,cassowary #cia ,condor #cgg ,crested ,cassique and ,baltimore ,oriole #cec ,emu #cia ,fiery ,topaz and ,hermit #cdh ,frigate ,bird #bfh ,harpy ,eagle #chj ,honey ,eater1 lanceolate #cge ,hornbill1 ,rhinoceros #ceh ,humming-,birds #cdb1 #cdg1 #cgj ,ibis1 ,egyptian #cfa ,java ,sparrow #afd ,macaw1 ,blue #db ,mocking-bird #hj ,parrots #cib ,peacock1 ,javanese #cfj ,secretary ,bird #cjc ,sparrow1 ,baya #cfg ,swallow dicum #cga ,swallow1 ,esculent #bfi ,tailor ,birds #cfh ,talegalla1 ,lathami #cgb ,toucan #cdf ,turkey ,buzzard #cgh ,vulture1 ,sociable #cha ,weaver-bird1 ,sociable #cfe ,woodpecker1 ,ivory-billed #fj ,botocundo ,indians attacking a jaguar #fb ,caravan #cii ,ceylonese cocoa-nut oil mill #adf ,coral ,island #bff ,fishes3-- ,electrical ,eel 7,gymnotus electricus7 #ag ,sun ,fish #bga ,sword tail #bga ,guano ,island #cj ,general ,fraser's coffee estate at ,rangbodde1 ,ceylon #agh ,head-dresses of ,east ,african negroes 7from ,burton7 #eah ,high ,table-lands of ,peru #bj ,insects3-- ,ants and ,termites #bba ,beetle1 ,diamond #beb ,buprestis gigas #beb ,cochineal #bej ,cocujas #baj ,copris hamadryas #bjf ,cyclommatus tarandus 7,borneo7 #bbj ,foraging ants #bch ,fungus ant #bci ,leucopholis bimaculata #bjg ,locust #bca ,mantichora mygaloides #bje ,mantis #bji ,mormolyce1 ,javanese #baj ,odontolabris cuvera #bjf ,phyllium #bjh ,scorpion #bah ,termite #bdd ,soldier #bde ,tsetse #bbi ,land crabs #bgc ,malay pirates #bec ,mammalia3-- ,aard-vark #dhf ,aguti #ad ,alpaca #be ,camel1 ,bactrian #dja ,capybara #ccc ,chinchilla #bg ,coatimondi1 ,rufous #dii ,coffee ,rat #ahe ,dromedary #dja ,elephants #dca ,flying ,foxes #dij ,giraffes and ,zebras #djd ,gnu #daa ,hippopotamus #dag ,howling ,monkey #eaj ,jackal #def ,koodoo #hh1 #daa ,lemurs1 handed #eaj ,leopard and ,cheetah #ddf ,llama #bc ,malay ,bear #adg ,mandrill #eaj ,mongoos #cjb ,musk ,deer #hd ,nylghau #dab ,opossum #cd ,palm ,squirrel #adg ,pangolin1 the ,indian #dhb ,peccary #ad ,pichiciago #dhh ,pig-faced ,baboon #eaj ,porcupine echidna #dhh ,quagga #dad ,rhinoceros #dbc ,rhinolophus #dic ,sloth #dgg ,springbok #dji ,tarsius ,bancanus #eaj ,wanderoos #dif ,whale1 ,sperm #bfg ,zebra #dae ,plants3-- ,areca ,palm #afb ,banana and the ,plantain #afc ,banyan #abe ,baobab ,trees at ,manaar #abj ,bo-tree1 the ,sacred #abg ,bottle-tree #ach ,caoutchouc ,trees--,indians incising them #ahh ,cocoa-nut tree #adg ,cinnamon #aig ,clove #aig ,date-tree #aee ,dragon-tree at ,orotava #abc ,fig-tree at ,polanarrua #acf ,indigo ,plant #aic ,mangosteen #agc ,mangrove-tree #adj ,mimosa #ace ,nepenthes #ab ,nutmeg #bjb ,oil ,palm #aeg ,pepper ,plant #bjb ,snake-tree #aci ,sugar ,cane #agd ,sycamore #abd ,yriartea ventricosa #afa ,polynesian fishermen #bgf ,reptiles3-- ,alligator #ccc ,amblyrhyne #cba ,basilisk #cah ,chameleon #cac ,crocodiles and ,alligators #ccb ,flying ,dragon #cah ,gecko #caa ,iguana #cad ,monitor #cae ,rattlesnake #bih ,toad1 ,bahia #cai ,surinam #cah ,toad and ,anolis #caj ,tortoise1 ,marsh #cbd ,turtle1 ,green #cbi ,loggerhead #cca ,uropeltis ,philippinus #bib ,tower in ,agades #ic ,tropical ,tornado #a ,illustration3 ,,tropical ,,tornado4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,diversity ,,of ,,climates ,,within ,,the ,,tropics4 ,causes by which it is produced--,abundance and ,distribution of ,rain within the ,tropics--,the ,trade ,winds--,the ,belt of ,calms--,tropical ,rains--,the ,monsoons--,tornados--,cyclones--,typhoo ns--,storms in the ,pacific--,devastations caused by ,hurricanes on ,pitcairn ,island and ,rarotonga4 ,on surveying the various regions of the torrid zone1 we find that ,nature has made many wonderful provisions to mitigate the heat of the vertical sun1 to endow the equatorial lands with an amazing variety of climate1 and to extend the benefit of the warmth generated within the tropics to countries situated far beyond their bounds4 ,thus1 while the greater part of the northern temperate zone is occupied by land1 the floods of ocean roll over by far the greater portion of the equatorial regions--for both torrid ,america and ,africa appear as mere islands in a vast expanse of sea4 ,the conversion of water1 by evaporation1 into a gaseous form is accompanied by the abstraction of heat from surrounding bodies1 or1 in popular language1 by the production of cold2 and thus over the surface of the ocean the rays of the sun have a tendency to check their own warming influence1 and to impart a coolness to the atmosphere1 the refreshing effects of which are felt wherever the sea wind blows4 ,there can1 therefore1 be no doubt that1 if the greater part of the tropical ocean were converted into land1 the heat of the torrid zone would be far more intolerable than it is4 ,the restless breezes and currents1 the perpetual migrations of the air and waters1 perform a no less important part in cooling the equatorial and warming the temperate regions of the globe4 ,rarefied by the intense heat of a vertical sun1 the equatorial air-stream ascends in perpendicular columns high above the surface of the earth1 and thence flows off towards the poles2 while1 to fill up the void1 cold air-currents come rushing from the arctic and antarctic regions4 ,if caloric were the sole agent on which the direction of these antagonistic air-currents depended1 they would naturally flow to the north and south2 but the rotation of the earth gradually diverts them to the east and west1 and thus the cold air-currents1 or polar streams1 ultimately change into the trade winds which regularly blow over the greater part of the tropical ocean from east to west1 and materially contribute1 by their refreshing coolness1 to the health and comfort of the navigator whom they waft over the equatorial seas4 ,while the polar air-currents1 though gradually warming as they advance1 thus mitigate the heat of the torrid zone1 the opposite equatorial breezes1 which reach our coasts as moist south-westerly or westerly winds1 soften the cold of our winters1 and clothe our fields with a lively verdure during the greater part of the year4 ,how truly magnificent is this grand system of the winds1 which1 by the constant interchange of heat and cold which it produces1 thus imparts to one zone the beneficial influence of another1 and renders both far more fit to be inhabited by civilized man4 ,the ,greek navigators rendered homage to olus1 but they were far from having any idea of the admirable laws which govern the unstable1 ever-fluctuating domains of the #8,god of the ,winds4' ,the same unequal influence of solar warmth under the line and at the poles1 which sets the air in constant motion1 also compels the waters of the ocean to perpetual migrations1 and produces those wonderful marine currents which like the analogous atmospheric streams1 furrow in opposite directions the bosom of the sea4 ,thanks to this salutary interchange1 the ,gulf ,stream1 issuing from the ,mexican ,sea1 and thence flowing to the north and east1 conveys a portion of its original warmth as far as the west coast of ,spitzbergen and ,nowaja ,semlja2 while in the southern hemisphere we see the ,peruvian stream impart the refrigerating influence of the antarctic waters to the eastern coast of ,south ,america4 ,the geographical distribution of the land within the tropics likewise tends to counterbalance or to mitigate the excessive heat of a vertical sun2 for a glance over the map shows us at once that it is mostly either insular or extending its narrow length between two oceans1 thus multiplying the surface over which the sea is able to exert its influence4 ,the ,indian ,archipelago1 the peninsula of ,malacca1 the ,antilles1 and ,central ,america1 are all undoubtedly indebted to the waters which bathe their coasts for a more temperate climate than that which they would have had if grouped together in one vast continent4 ,the temperature of a country proportionally decreases with its elevation2 and thus the high situation of many tropical lands moderates the effects of equatorial heat1 and endows them with a climate similar to that of the temperate1 or even of the cold regions of the globe4 ,the ,andes and the ,himalaya1 the most stupendous mountain-chains of the world1 raise their snow-clad summits either within the tropics or immediately beyond their verge1 and must be considered as colossal refrigerators1 ordained by ,providence to counteract the effects of the vertical sunbeams over a vast extent of land4 ,in ,western ,tropical ,america1 in ,asia1 and in ,africa1 we find immense countries rising like terraces thousands of feet above the level of the ocean1 and reminding the ,european traveller of his distant northern home by their productions and their cooler temperature4 ,thus1 by means of a few simple physical and geological causes acting and reacting upon each other on a magnificent scale1 ,nature has bestowed a wonderful variety of climate upon the tropical regions1 producing a no less wonderful diversity of plants and animals4 ,but warmth alone is not sufficient to call forth a luxuriant vegetation3 it can only exert its powers when combined with a sufficient degree of moisture2 and it chiefly depends upon the presence or absence of water whether a tropical country appears as a naked waste or decked with the most gorgeous vegetation4 ,as the evaporation of the tropical ocean is far more considerable than that of the sea in higher latitudes1 the atmospherical precipitations 7dew1 rain7 caused by the cooling of the air are far more abundant in the torrid zone than in the temperate regions of the earth4 ,while the annual fall of rain within the tropics amounts1 on an average1 to about eight feet1 it attains in ,europe a height of only thirty inches2 and under the clear equatorial sky the dew is often so abundant as to equal in its effects a moderate shower of rain4 ,but this enormous mass of moisture is most unequally distributed2 for while the greater part of the ,sahara and the ,peruvian sand-coast are constantly arid1 and ,south ,africa and ,north ,australia suffer from long-continued droughts1 we find other tropical countries refreshed by almost daily showers4 ,the direction of the prevailing winds1 the condensing powers of high mountains and of forests1 the relative position of a country1 the nature of its soil1 are the chief causes which produce an abundance or want of rain1 and consequently determine the fertility or barrenness of the land4 ,of these causes1 the first-mentioned is by far the most general in its effects--so that a knowledge of the tropical winds is above all things necessary to give us an insight into the distribution of moisture over the equatorial world4 ,i have already mentioned the trade winds1 or cool reactionary currents called forth by the ascending equatorial air-stream2 but it will now be necessary to submit them to a closer examination1 and follow them in their circular course throughout the tropical regions4 ,in the ,northern ,atlantic1 their influence1 varying with the season1 extends to #bb ,n4 lat4 in winter1 and #ci ,n4 lat4 in summer2 while in the southern hemisphere they reach no farther than #ah ,s4 lat4 in winter1 and #bh or #cj ,s4 lat4 in summer4 ,in the ,pacific1 their limits vary between #ba and #ca ,n4 lat41 and between #bc and #cc ,s4 lat42 so that1 on the whole1 they have here a more southern position1 owing1 no doubt1 to the vast extent of open sea2 while in the ,atlantic the influence of the neighbouring continents forces them to the north1 and even causes the trade winds of the southern hemisphere to ascend beyond the equatorial line4 ,their character is that of a continual soft breeze--strongest in the morning1 remitting at noon1 and again increasing in the evening4 ,in the neighbourhood of the coasts1 except over very small islands1 they become weaker1 and generally cease to be felt at a distance of about fifteen or twenty miles from the sea1 though1 of course1 at greater heights they continue their course uninterruptedly over the land4 ,for obvious reasons the trade winds have been much more accurately investigated upon the ocean than on land1 particularly in the ,northern ,atlantic1 which is better known in its physical features than any other sea1 as being a highway for numberless vessels to which the study of the winds is a matter of the greatest importance2 yet1 in spite of so many disturbing influences1 their course1 even over the continents1 has been ascertained by travellers4 ,north-easterly winds almost constantly sweep over the ,sahara2 and in ,south ,africa1 ,dr4 ,livingstone informs us that north-easterly and south-easterly winds blow over the whole continent between #ab and #f ,s4 lat41 even as far as ,angola1 where they unite with the sea winds4 ,in ,brazil1 the presence of the trade winds has been determined with still greater accuracy4 ,thus easterly breezes almost perpetually sweep over the boundless plains up to the slopes of the ,andes1 and even in ,paraguay 7#be ,s4 lat47 a mild east wind constantly arises in summer after the setting of the sun4 ,as the trade winds originate in the coldest1 and thence pass onwards to the warmer regions1 they are1 of course1 constantly absorbing moisture as they advance over the seas4 ,saturated with vapours1 they reach the islands and continents1 where1 meeting with various refrigerating influences 7mountain-chains1 forests1 terrestrial radiation71 their condensing vapours give rise to an abundance both of rain and dew4 ,it is owing to their influence that in general1 within the tropics1 the eastern coasts1 or the eastern slopes of the mountains1 are better watered than the interior of the continents or lands with a western exposure4 ,an example on the grandest scale is afforded to us by ,south ,america1 where the ,andes of ,peru and ,bolivia so effectually drain the prevailing east winds of their moisture1 that while numberless rivulets1 the feeders of the gigantic ,maraon1 clothe their eastern gorges with a perpetual verdure1 their western slopes are almost constantly arid4 ,such is the influence of this colossal barrier in interrupting the course of the air-current1 that the trade wind only begins to be felt again on the ,pacific at a distance of one hundred or even one hundred and fifty miles from the shore4 ,in ,south ,africa1 also1 we find the eastern mountainous coast-lands covered with giant timber--in striking contrast with the parched savannas or dreary wastes of the interior2 and in the ,south ,sea the difference of verdure between the east and west coasts of the ,sandwich ,islands1 the ,feejees1 and many other groups1 never fails to arrest the attention of the mariner4 ,the trade winds of the northern and southern hemispheres do not1 however1 blow in one continuous stream over the whole breadth of the tropical ocean1 but are separated from each other by a zone or belt of calms1 occasioned by their mutually paralysing each other's influence on meeting from the north and the south-east1 and by the attraction of the sun1 which1 when in the zenith1 changes the easterly air-currents into an ascending stream4 ,from this dependence on the position of the sun1 it may easily be inferred that the zone of calms fluctuates1 like the trade winds themselves1 to the north or south1 according to the seasons2 and that it is far from invariably occupying the same degrees of latitude1 or the same width1 at all times of the year4 ,in the ,atlantic1 from the causes previously mentioned1 it constantly remains to the north of the line1 where its breadth averages five or six degrees2 in the ,pacific it more generally extends during the antarctic summer1 on both sides of the equator4 ,besides the intensity of its heat1 the zone of calms is characterised by heavy showers1 which regularly fall in the afternoon1 and are caused by the cooling of the saturated air-columns in the higher regions of the air4 ,daily1 towards noon1 dense clouds form in the sky1 and dissolve in torrents of rain under fearful electrical explosions1 now sooner1 now later1 of shorter or longer continuance1 with increasing or abating violence1 as the sun is more or less in his zenith4 ,towards evening the vapours disperse1 and the sun sets in a clear1 unclouded horizon4 ,thus towns or countries situated within the calms1 such as ,para1 ,quito1 ,bogota1 ,guayaquil1 the ,kingsmill ,islands1 may be said to have a perennial rainy season1 as showers fall at every season of the year4 ,to the north and south of the belt of calms1 we find in both hemispheres a broad zone1 characterised by two distinct rainy seasons1 separated by two equally distinct periods of dry weather4 ,the rainy seasons take place while the sun is crossing the zenith1 and more or less paralysing the power of the trade winds4 ,cayenne1 ,honduras1 ,jamaica1 ,pernambuco1 ,bahia1 afford us examples of these well-defined alterations4 ,in ,jamaica1 for instance 7#ah ,n4 lat471 the first rainy season begins in ,april1 the second in ,october2 the first dry season in ,june1 and the second in ,december4 ,towards the verge of the tropics follow the zones which are characterised by a single rainy season1 but of a longer continuance1 generally lasting six months1 throughout the summer1 or from one equinoctium to another4 ,in these parts1 the rainy season is also the warmest period of the year1 since here the different height of the sun in winter and summer is already so considerable1 that at the time of culmination the clouds and rain are not able to reduce the temperature below that of the clear and dry winter months2 while in the zones which are situated nearer to the equator1 the rainy season1 in spite of the sun's culmination1 is always the coolest4 ,to sum up the foregoing remarks in a few words3 the two rainy seasons1 which characterise the middle zone between each tropic and the line1 have a tendency to pass into one annual rainy season on advancing towards the tropics1 and to merge into a permanent rainy season on approaching the equator4 ,as the sun goes to the north or south1 he opens the sluices of heaven1 and closes them as he passes to another hemisphere4 ,such may be said to be the normal state which would everywhere obtain within the equatorial regions if one unbounded ocean covered their surface1 and none of the disturbing influences previously mentioned interfered2 but as we find the trade winds so frequently deflected from their course1 we must also naturally expect the general or theoretical order of the dry and rainy seasons to be liable to great modifications4 ,thus1 in the ,indian ,ocean and in the ,chinese ,sea1 terrestrial influences prevail during the summer which completely divert the trade wind1 there called the ,north-east ,monsoon1 from its regular path4 ,from the wide lands of south-eastern ,asia1 glowing1 during the summer months1 with a torrid heat1 the rarefied air1 as it rises into the higher regions1 completely overpowers the usual course of the trade wind1 and changes it into the south-western monsoon1 which blows from ,may to ,september4 ,hence1 during the summer months1 the saturated sea wind1 striking against the western ghauts1 brings rain to the coast of ,malabar1 while the opposite coast of ,coromandel remains dry2 but the inverse takes place when1 from the sun's declining to the south1 the north-east trade wind resumes its sway4 ,similar deflections from the ordinary course of the trade winds occur also on the coast of ,guinea 7#e ,n4 ,lat471 in the ,mexican ,gulf1 and in that part of the ,pacific which borders on ,central ,america1 through the influence of the heated plains of ,africa1 ,utah1 ,texas1 and ,new ,mexico1 and have a similar influence on the distribution of moisture4 ,thus the sea monsoon1 which prevails during the summer months on the coast of northern ,guinea1 carries a rainy season over the land as far as the eighteenth or nineteenth degree of northern latitude1 and fertilises a vast extent of country which1 from its position on the western side of an immense continent1 would otherwise have been as naked and barren as the ,sahara4 ,as the tropical rains1 though generally confined only to part of the year1 and then only to a few hours of the day1 fall in so much greater abundance than under our constantly drooping skies1 it may naturally be supposed that the single showers must be proportionally violent4 ,descending in streams so close and so dense that the level ground1 unable to absorb it sufficiently fast1 is covered with a sheet of water1 the rain rushes down the hill-sides in a volume that wears channels in the surface4 ,for hours together the noise of the torrent1 as it beats upon the trees and bursts upon the roofs1 occasions an uproar that drowns the ordinary voice and renders sleep impossible4 ,in ,bombay nearly nine inches of rain have been known to fall in one day1 and twelve inches in ,calcutta1 or nearly half the mean annual quantity of rain on the east coast of ,england4 ,during one single storm which ,castelnau witnessed at ,pebas1 on the ,amazon1 there fell not less than thirty inches of rain--nearly as much as the annual supply of our west coast4 ,the hollow trunk of an enormous tree in an exposed situation gave the ,french traveller the means of accurate measurement4 ,as in the equatorial regions the atmospherical precipitations are far more considerable than in the temperate zones1 so also their storms rage with a violence unknown in our climes4 ,in the ,indian and ,chinese ,seas these convulsions of nature generally take place at the change of the monsoons2 in the ,west ,indies1 at the beginning and at the end of the rainy seasons4 ,the tornado which devastated the ,island of ,guadeloupe on the #beth ,july1 #ahdf1 blew down buildings constructed of solid stone1 and tore the guns of a battery from their carriages2 another1 which raged some years back in the ,mauritius1 demolished a church and drove thirty-two vessels on the strand4 ,on the ,beagle's arrival in ,port ,louis1 after her long and arduous surveying voyage1 a fleet of crippled vessels1 the victims of a recent hurricane1 might have been seen making their way into the harbour--some dismasted1 others kept afloat with difficulty1 firing guns of distress or giving other signs of their helpless condition4 #8,on the now tranquil surface of the harbour lay a group of shattered vessels1 presenting the appearance of floating wrecks4 ,in almost all1 the bulwarks1 boats1 and everything on deck1 had been swept away2 some1 that were towed in1 had lost all their masts2 others1 more or less of their spars2 one had her poop and all its cabins swept away2 many had four or five feet of water in the hold1 and the clank of the pumps was still kept up by the weary crew4'#a ,such are the terrible effects of the tornados and cyclones of the ,atlantic and the ,indian ,oceans2 but the storms of the miscalled ,pacific are no less furious and destructive4 ,a hurricane1 which on the #aeth of ,april1 #ahde1 burst over ,pitcairn ,island1 washed all the fertile mould from the rocks1 and1 uprooting #cjj cocoa-nut trees1 cast them into the sea4 ,every fishing-boat on the island was destroyed1 and thousands of fruit-bearing bananas were swept away4 ,the celebrated missionary1 ,john ,williams1#b describes a similar catastrophe which befell the beautiful island of ,rarotonga on the #bcrd of ,december1 #ahca4 ,the chapels1 school-houses1 mission-houses1 and nearly all the dwellings of the natives1 no less than a thousand in number1 were levelled to the ground4 ,every particle of food on the island was destroyed4 ,of the thousands of banana or plantain trees which had covered and adorned the land1 scarcely one was left standing1 either on the plains1 in the valleys1 or upon the mountains4 ,stately trees1 that had withstood the storms of ages1 were laid prostrate on the ground1 and thrown upon each other in the wildest confusion2 while even of those that were still standing1 many were left without a branch1 and all perfectly leafless4 ,so great and so general was the destruction1 that no spot escaped2 for the gale1 veering gradually round the island1 did most effectually its devastating work4 ,though the tropical storms are thus frequently a scourge1 they are often productive of no less signal benefits4 ,many a murderous epidemic has suddenly ceased after one of these natural convulsions1 and myriads of insects1 the destroyers of the planter's hopes1 are swept away by the fierce tornado4 ,besides1 if the equatorial hurricanes are far more furious than our storms1 a more luxurious vegetation effaces their vestiges in a shorter time4 ,thus ,nature teaches us that a preponderance of good is frequently concealed behind the paroxysms of her apparently unbridled rage4 ,illustration3 ,,savannah ,,on ,,fire4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,llanos4 ,their ,aspect in the ,dry ,season--,vegetable ,sources--,land ,spouts-- ,effects of the ,mirage--,a ,savannah on ,fire--,opening of the ,rainy ,season--,miraculous ,changes--,exuberance of ,animal and ,vegetable ,life--,conflict between ,horses and ,electrical ,eels--,beauty of the ,llanos at the ,termination of the ,rainy ,season--,the ,mauritia ,palm4 ,in ,south ,america1 the features of ,nature are traced on a gigantic scale4 ,mountains1 forests1 rivers1 plains1 there appear in far more colossal dimensions than in our part of the world4 ,many a branch of the ,maraon surpasses the ,danube in size4 ,in the boundless primitive forests of ,guiana more than one ,great ,britain could find room4 ,the ,alps would seem but of moderate elevation if placed aside of the towering ,andes2 and the plains of ,northern ,germany and ,holland are utterly insignificant when compared with the ,llanos of ,venezuela and ,new ,grenada1 which1 stretching from the coast-chain of ,caraccas to the forests of ,guiana1 and from the snow-crowned mountains of ,merida to the ,delta of the ,orinoco1 cover a surface of more than #bej1jjj square miles4 ,nothing can be more remarkable than the contrast which these immeasurable plains present at various seasons of the year--now parched by a long-continued drought1 and now covered with the most luxuriant vegetation4 ,when1 day after day1 the sun1 rising and setting in a cloudless sky1 pours his vertical rays upon the thirsty ,llanos1 the calcined grass-plains present the monotonous aspect of an interminable waste4 ,like the ocean1 their limits melt in the hazy distance with those of the horizon2 but here the resemblance ceases1 for no refreshing breeze wafts coolness over the desert1 and comforts the drooping spirits of the wanderer4 ,in the wintry solitudes of ,siberia the skin of the reindeer affords protection to man against the extreme cold2 but in these sultry plains there is no refuge from the burning sun above and the heat reflected from the glowing soil below1 save where1 at vast intervals1 small clumps of the ,mauritia palm afford a scanty shade4 ,the water-pools which nourished this beneficent tree have long since disappeared2 and the marks of the previous rainy season1 still visible on the tall reeds that spring from the marshy ground1 serve only to mock the thirst of the exhausted traveller4 ,the long-legged jabiru and the scarlet ibis have forsaken the dried-up swamp which no longer affords them any subsistence1 and only here and there a solitary ,caracara falcon lingers on the spot1 as if meditating on the vicissitudes of the seasons4 ,illustration3 ,,nepenthes4 ,yet even now the parched savannah has some refreshment to bestow1 as ,nature--which in the ,east ,indian forests fills the pitchers of the ,nepenthes with a grateful liquid1--here also displays her bounty2 for the globular melon-cactus1 which flourishes on the driest soil1 and not seldom measures a foot in diameter1 conceals a juicy pulp under its tough and brickly skin4 ,guided by an admirable instinct1 the wary mule strikes off with his fore-feet the long1 sharp thorns of this remarkable plant1 the emblem of good-nature under a rough exterior1 and then cautiously approaches his lips to sip the refreshing juice4 ,yet1 drinking from these living sources is not unattended with danger1 and mules are often met with that have been lamed by the formidable prickles of the cactus4 ,the wild horse and ox of the savannah1 not gifted with the same sagacity1 roam about a prey to hunger and burning thirst--the latter hoarsely bellowing1 the former snuffing up the air with outstreched neck to discover by its moisture the neighbourhood of some pool that may have resisted the general drought4 ,besides their interminable extent1 the ,llanos have several other points of resemblance to the sea4 ,as here the water-spout1 raised by contending air-currents1 rises to the clouds and sweeps over the floods1 thus also the glowing dust of the savannah1 set in motion by conflicting winds1 ascends in mighty columns and glides over the desert plain4 ,then woe to the traveller who cannot escape by a timely flight2 for1 seizing him with irresistible violence the sand spout carries him along in its embrace1 and hurls him senseless to the ground4 ,as if #8on a painted ocean1' the becalmed ship rests on the glassy sea4 ,no breath of air ruffles the surface of the waters4 ,the pennant hangs lazily from the mast2 the water-casks are empty2 the torments of thirst1 aggravated by the heat of a vertical sun1 become intolerable4 ,but1 suddenly1 as if by magic1 a beautiful island rises from the floods2 waving palm-trees seem to welcome the mariner3 he fancies he hears the purling of the brook and the splashing of the waterfall4 ,yet still the vessel moves not from the spot1 and soon the fading phantom that mocked his misery leaves him the victim of increased despair4 ,similar delusions of the mirage1 produced by the refraction of the light as it passes through atmospherical strata of unequal warmth1 and consequently of unequal density1 likewise take place over the surface of the ,llanos1 which then assume the semblance of a sea1 heaving and rocking in wave-like motion4 ,in the ,lybian desert1 in the dread solitudes of the polar ocean1 in every zone1 we meet with the same phenomenon1 produced by the same cause4 ,as in the arctic regions the intense cold during winter retards the pulsations1 or even suspends the operations of life1 so in the ,llanos the long continuance of drought causes a similar stagnation in animated nature4 ,the thinly-scattered trees and shrubs do not indeed cast their foliage1 but the greyish-yellow of their leaves announces that vegetation is suspended4 ,buried in the clay of the dried-up pools1 the alligator and the water-boa lie plunged in a deep summer-sleep1 like the bear of the north in his long winter slumber2 and many animals which1 at other times1 are found roaming over the ,llanos1--such as the graceful aguti1 the hoggish peccary1 and the timid deer of the savannah1--have left the parched plains and migrated to the forest or the river4 ,the large maneless puma and the spotted jaguar1 following their prey to less arid regions1 are now no longer seen in their former hunting-grounds1 and the ,indian has also disappeared with the stag whom he pursued with his poisoned arrows4 ,in the ,siberian ,tundras the reindeer and the migratory birds are scared away by winter2 here life is banished or suspended by an intolerable aridity4 ,illustration3 ,,aguti4 ,illustration3 ,,peccary4 ,sometimes the ravages of fire complete the image of death on the parched savannah4 #8,we had not yet penetrated far into the plain1' says ,schomburgk1 #8when we saw to the south-east high columns of smoke ascending to the skies1 the sure signs of a savannah fire1 and at the same time the ,indians anxiously pressed us to speed on1 as the burning torrent would most likely roll in our direction4 ,although at first we were inclined to consider their fears as exaggerated1 yet the next half-hour served to convince us of the extreme peril of our situation4 ,in whatever direction we gazed1 we nowhere saw a darker patch in the grass-plain announcing the refuge of a water-pool2 we could already distinguish the flames of the advancing column1 already hear the bursting and crackling of the reeds1 when fortunately the sharp eye of the ,indians discovered some small eminences before us1 only sparingly covered with a low vegetation1 and to these we now careered as if ,death himself were behind us4 ,half a minute later1 and ,i should never have lived to relate our adventures4 ,with beating hearts we saw the sea of fire rolling its devouring billows towards us2 the suffocating smoke1 striking in our faces1 forced us to turn our backs upon the advancing conflagration1 and to await the dreadful decision with the resignation of helpless despair4 #8,and now we were in the midst of the blaze4 ,two arms of fire encircled the base of the little hillock on which we stood1 and united before us in a waving mass1 which1 rolling onwards1 receded farther and farther from our gaze4 ,the flames had devoured the short grass of the hillock1 but had not found sufficient nourishment for our destruction4 ,whole swarms of voracious vultures followed in circling flight the fiery column1 like so many hungry jackals1 and pounced upon the snakes and lizards which the blaze had stifled and half-calcined in its murderous embrace4 ,when1 with the rapidity of lightning1 they darted upon their prey and disappeared in the clouds of smoke1 it almost seemed as if they were voluntarily devoting themselves to a fiery death4 ,soon the deafening noise of the conflagration ceased1 and the dense black clouds in the distance were the only signs that the fire was still proceeding on its devastating path over the wide wastes of the savannah4' ,at length1 after a long drought1 when all ,nature seems about to expire under the want of moisture1 various signs announce the approach of the rainy season4 ,the sky1 instead of its brilliant blue1 assumes a leaden tint1 from the vapours which are beginning to condense4 ,the black spot of the #8,southern ,cross1' that most beautiful of constellations1 in which1 as the ,indians poetically fancy1 the ,spirit of the savannah resides1 becomes more indistinct as the transparency of the atmosphere diminishes4 ,the mild phosphoric gleam of the ,magellanic clouds expires4 ,the fixed stars1 which shone with a quiet planetary light1 now twinkle even in the zenith4 ,like distant mountain-chains1 banks of clouds begin to rise over the horizon1 and accumulating in masses of increasing density1 ascend higher and higher1 until at length the lightning flashes from their dark bosom1 and with the loud crash of thunder1 the first rains burst in torrents over the thirsty land4 ,scarce have the showers had time to moisten the earth1 when the dormant powers of vegetation begin to awaken with almost miraculous rapidity4 ,the dull1 tawny surface of the parched savannah changes as if by magic into a carpet of the liveliest green1 enamelled with thousands of flowers of every colour4 ,stimulated by the light of early day1 the mimosas expand their delicate foliage1 and the fronds of the beautiful mauritias sprout forth with all the luxuriance of youthful energy4 ,and now1 also1 the animal life of the savannah awakens to the full enjoyment of existence4 ,the horse and the ox rejoice in the grasses1 under whose covert the jaguar frequently lurks1 to pounce upon them with his fatal spring4 ,on the border of the swamps1 the moist clay1 slowly heaving1 bursts asunder1 and from the tomb in which he lay embedded rises a gigantic water-snake or a huge crocodile4 ,the new-formed pools and lakes swarm with life1 and a host of water-fowl-- ibises1 cranes1 flamingos1 mycterias--make their appearance1 to regale on the prodigal banquet4 ,a new creation of insects and other unbidden guests now seek the wretched hovels of the ,indians1 which are sparingly scattered over the higher parts of the savannah4 ,countless multitudes of ants1 sandflies1 and mosquitos2 rattlesnakes1 expelled by the cold and moisture from the lower grounds2 repulsive geckos1 which with incredible rapidity run along the overhanging rafters2 nauseous toads1 which1 concealing themselves by day in the dark corners of the huts1 crawl forth in the evening in quest of prey2 lizards1 scorpions1 centipedes2 in a word1 worms and vermin of all names and forms1-- emerge from the inundated plains1 for the tropical rains have gradually converted the savannah1 which erewhile exhibited a waste as dreary as that of the ,sahara1 into a boundless lake4 ,the swollen rivers of the steppe--the ,apure1 the ,arachuna1 the ,pajara1 the ,arauca--pour forth their mighty streams over the plains1 and boats are now able to sail for miles across the land from one river-bed into another4 ,on the same spot where1 erewhile1 the thirsty horse anxiously snuffed the air to discover by its moisture the presence of some pool1 the animal is now obliged to lead an amphibious life4 ,the mares retreat with their foals to the higher banks1 which rise like islands above the waters1 and as from day to day the land contracts within narrower limits1 the want of forage obliges them to swim about in quest of the grasses that raise their heads above the fermenting waters4 ,many foals are drowned2 many are surprised by the crocodiles1 that fell them by a stroke of their jagged tail1 and then crush them between their jaws4 ,horses and oxen are not seldom met with1 which1 having fortunately escaped these huge saurians1 bear on their limbs the marks of their sharp teeth4 #8,this sight1' says ,humboldt1 #8involuntarily reminds the observer of the great pliability with which nature has endowed several plants and animals4 ,along with the fruits of ,ceres1 the horse and the ox have followed man over the whole earth1 from the ,granges to the ,la ,plata1 and from the coast of ,africa to the mountain-plain of ,antisana1 which is more elevated than the lofty peak of ,teneriffe4 ,here the northern birch-tree1 there the date-palm1 protects the tired ox from the heat of the mid-day sun4 ,the same species of animal which contends in eastern ,europe with bears and wolves1 is attacked in another zone by the tiger and the crocodile4' ,illustration3 ,,electrical ,,eel4 7,,gymnotus ,,electricus47 ,but it is not the jaguar and the alligator alone which lie in wait for the ,south ,american horse1 for even among the fishes he has a dangerous enemy4 ,the rivers and marshes of the ,llanos are often filled with electrical eels1 which send forth at will from the under part of the tail a stunning shock4 ,these eels are from five to six feet long4 ,they are able1 when in full vigour1 to kill the largest animals1 when they suddenly unload their electrical organs in a favourable direction4 ,humboldt having accidentally set his foot on a gymnote which had just been taken out of the water felt the whole day severe pains in the knees and almost in every joint4 ,lizards1 turtles1 and frogs seek the morasses where they are safe from their discharges1 and all other fishes1 aware of their power1 fly at the sight of the formidable gymnotes4 ,they stun even the angler on the high river-bank1 the moist line serving as a conductor for the electric fluid4 ,the capture of these eels affords a highly entertaining and animated scene4 ,mules and horses are driven into the pond which the ,indians surround1 until the unwonted noise and splashing of the waters rouse the fishes to an attack4 ,gliding along1 they creep under the belly of the horses1 many of whom die from the shock of their strokes2 while others1 with mane erect1 and dilated nostrils1 endeavour to flee from the electric storm which they have roused4 ,but the ,indians1 armed with long poles1 drive them back again into the pool4 ,gradually the unequal contest subsides4 ,like spent thunderclouds1 the exhausted fishes disperse1 for they require a long rest and plentiful food to repair the loss of their galvanic powers4 ,their shocks grow weaker and weaker4 ,terrified by the noise of the horses1 they timidly approach the banks1 when1 wounded with harpoons1 they are dragged on shore with dry and nonconducting pieces of wood2 and thus the strange combat ends4 ,the ,llanos are never more beautiful than at the end of the rainy season1 before the sun has absorbed the moisture of the soil4 ,then every plant is robed with the freshest green2 an agreeable breeze1 cooled by the evaporating waters1 undulates over the sea of grasses1 and at night a host of stars shines mildly upon the fragrant savannah1 or the silvery moonbeam trembles on its surface4 ,where on the margin of the primitive forest1 girt with colossal cactuses and agaves1 groups of the mauritia rise majestically over the plain1 the stateliest park ever planted by man must yield in beauty to the charming picture of these natural gardens1 bordered here by impenetrable thickets1 and there by the blue mountain-chain1 behind which the fancy paints scenes of still more enchanting loveliness4 ,the mauritia1 the chief ornament of the park-like savannah1 and no less useful than the date-tree of the ,african oasis1 provides the ,indian with almost every necessary1 and fully deserves the name of #8tree of life1' bestowed upon it by the poetical fancy of the ,jesuit ,gumilla4 ,rising to the height of a hundred feet1 its slender trunk is surmounted by a magnificent tuft of large1 fan-shaped fronds1 of a brilliant green1 under whose canopy the scaly fruits1 resembling pine cones1 hang in large clusters4 ,like the banana1 they afford a food differing in taste according to the stages of ripeness in which they are plucked2 and before the blossoms of the male palm have expanded1 its trunk contains a nutritious pith like sago1 which1 dried in thin slices1 forms one of the chief articles of the ,indian's bill of fare4 ,like his brethren of the ,eastern world1 he also knows how to prepare an intoxicating #8toddy' from the juice of the flower-spathes2 the leaves serve to cover his hut2 out of the fibres of their petioles he manufactures twine and cordage2 and the sheaths at their base afford him material for his sandals4 ,at the mouth of the ,orinoco the very existence of the yet unsubdued ,guaranas depends on the mauritia1 which gives them both food and liberty4 ,formerly1 when this tribe was more numerous than at the present day1 they raised their huts on floorings stretched from trunk to trunk1 and formed of the leaf-stalks of their tutelary palm4 ,thus1 like the monkeys and parrots of their native wilds1 they lived in the trees during the inundations of the ,delta in the rainy season4 ,these platforms were partly covered with moist clay1 on which fire was made for household purposes2 and the flames afforded a strange sight to travellers sailing on the river at night4 ,even now the light-footed ,guaranas owe their independence to the marshy nature of their territory1 and to their arboreal life4 ,the fruits of the mauritia1 besides affording food to the ,indian1 are eagerly devoured by monkeys and parrots4 ,on approaching a group of palms at the time when the fruits are ripening1 the profound silence which within the tropics chiefly characterises the noon1 is interrupted by a scream of warning1 and soon after a numerous troop of birds wheels screeching about the grove4 ,when the ,spaniards first settled in the beautiful mountain valleys of ,caraccas and on the ,orinoco1 they found the ,llanos1 in spite of their abundant verdure1 almost entirely uninhabited by man1 for the ,indians were unacquainted with pastoral life2 and if the mauritia had not here and there tempted a few savages to settle on the open savannahs1 they would have been left entirely to the animal life which from time immemorial had thriven on their herbage4 ,but the ,spaniards introduced new quadrupeds into the new world1--the ox1 the horse1 the ass1 our faithful companions over the whole surface of the globe1--and the progeny of these domestic animals1 returning to their wild state1 has multiplied amazingly in the vast pastures of the ,llanos4 ,man has followed them into their new domain2 and small hamlets1 often situated whole days' journeys one from another1 and consisting only of a few wretched huts1 though generally dignified with the name of towns1 proclaim that he has at least made a beginning to establish his empire over these boundless plains4 ,illustration3 ,,high ,,table-,,lands ,,of ,,peru4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,puna1 ,,or ,,the ,,high ,,table-,,lands ,,of ,,peru ,,and ,,bolivia4 ,striking ,contrast with the ,llanos--,northern ,character of their ,climate--,the ,chuu--,the ,surumpe--,the ,veta3 its ,influence upon ,man1 ,horses1 ,mules1 and ,cats--,the ,vegetation of the ,puna--,the ,maca-- ,the ,llama3 its invaluable ,services--,the ,huanacu--,the ,alpaca-- ,the ,vicuas3 ,mode of ,hunting ,them--,the ,chacu--,the ,bolas--,the ,chinchilla--,the ,condor--,wild ,bulls and ,wild ,dogs--,lovely ,mountain ,valleys4 ,between the two mighty parallel mountain chains of the ,cordillera and the ,andes1#c the giant bulwarks of ,western ,south ,america1 we find1 extending throughout the whole length of ,peru and ,bolivia1 at a height of from ten to fourteen thousand feet above the level of the sea1 vast plateaus1 or table-lands1 which are named1 in the language of the country1 the ,puna1 or #8the ,uninhabited4' ,they present a striking contrast to the ,llanos of ,venezuela2 for though situated1 like these sultry plains1 within the torrid zone1 their great elevation paralyses the effects of a vertical sun1 and transfers the rigours of the north to the very centre of the tropical world4 ,their climate is hardly less bleak and winterly than that of the high snow-ridges which bound them on either side4 ,cold winds sweep almost constantly over their surface1 and during four months of the year they are daily visited by fearful storms4 ,the suddenly darkened sky discharges1 under terrific thunder and lightning1 enormous masses of snow1 until the sun breaks forth again4 ,but soon the clouds obscure its brilliancy2 and thus winter and summer1 here reign alternately1-- not1 as in our temperate climes1 during several months1 but within the short space of a single day4 ,in a few hours the change of temperature often amounts to forty or forty-five degrees1 and the sudden fall of the thermometer is rendered still more disagreeable to the traveller by biting winds1 which so violently irritate the skin of the hands and face1 that it springs open and bleeds from every fissure4 ,an intolerable burning and swelling accompany these wounds1 so as to prevent the use of the hands for several days4 ,on the lips it is also very disagreeable1 as the pain increases by eating and speaking2 and an incautious laugh produces deep rents1 which bleed for a long time and heal with difficulty4 ,this evil1 which is called ,chuu by the ,peruvian ,indians1 is also very painful on the eyelids2 but it becomes absolutely insupportable by the addition of the ,surumpe1 a very acute and violent inflammation of the eyes1 caused by the sun's reflection from the snow4 ,in consequence of the rarefied air and the biting winds1 the visual organs are constantly in a state of irritation1 which renders them far more sensitive to any strong light than would be the case in a more congenial atmosphere4 ,the rapid change from a clouded sky to the brilliancy of a sunny snow-field1 causes a painful stinging and burning1 which increases from minute to minute to such a degree1 that even the stoical ,indian1 when afflicted with this evil1 will sit down on the road-side and utter cries of anguish and despair4 ,chronical ophthalmia1 suppuration of the eyelids1 and total blindness1 are the frequent consequences of an intense surumpe1 against which the traveller over the high lands carefully guards himself by green spectacles or a dark veil4 ,a third plague of the wanderer in the ,puna is the ,veta1 which is occasioned by the great rarefaction of the air4 ,its first symptoms1 which generally appear at an elevation of #ab1jjj feet1 consist in giddiness1 buzzing in the ear1 headache1 and nausea4 ,their intensity increases with the elevation1 and is aggravated by a lassitude1 which augments to such a degree as to render walking impossible1 by a great difficulty of respiration1 and violent palpitation of the heart4 ,absolute rest mitigates these symptoms2 but on continuing the journey they reappear with increased violence1 and are then frequently accompanied by fainting and vomiting4 ,the capillary vessels of the eye1 nose1 and lips burst1 and emit drops of blood4 ,the same phenomenon appears also in the mucous membrane of the respiratory and digestive organs2 so that blood-spitting and bloody diarrha frequently accompany the ,veta1 and are sometimes so violent as to cause death4 ,the influence of diminished atmospheric pressure likewise shows itself in the horses that are unaccustomed to mountain travelling4 ,they begin to pace more slowly1 frequently stand still1 tremble all over1 and fall upon the ground4 ,if not allowed to rest1 they invariably die4 ,by way of a restorative their nostrils are slit open1 which seems to be of use by allowing a greater influx of air4 ,as the dry sand of the rainless coast prevents the putrefaction of animal substances which are buried in it1 the power of the dry ,puna-winds in a like manner arrests the progress of decomposition4 ,under their influence1 a dead mule changes in a few days into a mummy1 so that even the entrails do not exhibit the least sign of putrefaction4 ,it may easily be imagined that1 under these circumstances1 vegetation can only appear in stunted proportions1 and indeed the ,puna presents the monotonous aspect of a northern steppe1 its whole surface being covered with dun and meagre herbage1 which at all times gives it an autumnal or even wintry aspect4 ,a few arid composit and yellow echinocacti are quite unable to relieve the dreary landscape2 and even the large-flowered calceolarias1 the blue gentians1 the sweet-smelling verbenas1 and many other ,alpine plants1 the usual ornaments of the higher mountain regions1 are here almost suffocated by the dense grasses4 ,but rarely the eye meets with a solitary queua tree 7,polylepis racemosa7 of crippled growth1 or with large spaces covered with red-brown ratania shrubs1 which are carefully collected for fuel1 or for roofing the wretched huts of the scanty population of these desolate highlands4 ,the cold climate of the ,puna naturally confines agriculture to very narrow limits4 ,the only cultivated plant which grows to maturity is the ,maca 7a species of tropolum71 the tuberous roots of which are used like the potato1 and form in many parts the chief food of the inhabitants4 ,this plant grows best at an elevation of twelve or thirteen thousand feet1 and is not planted in the lower regions1 where its roots are said to be completely unpalatable4 ,barley is also cultivated in the ,puna1 but never ripens1 and is cut green for forage4 ,the animal kingdom is more amply represented2 for there is no want of food on the grass-covered plains1 and wherever this exists1 there is room for the development of animals appropriate to the climate4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,llama4 ,thus the ,llama and its near relations1 the ,alpaca1 the ,huanacu1 and the ,vicua1 the largest four-footed animals which ,peru possessed before the ,spaniards introduced the horse and the ox1 are all natives of the ,puna4 ,long before the invasion of ,pizarro1 the llama was used by the ancient ,peruvians as a beast of burthen1 and was not less serviceable to them than the camel to the ,arabs of the desert4 ,the wool served for the fabrication of a coarse cloth2 the milk and flesh1 as food2 the skin1 as a warm covering or mantle2 and without the assistance of the llama1 it would have been impossible for the ,indians to transport goods or provisions over the high table-lands of the ,andes1 or for the ,incas to have founded and maintained their vast empire4 ,the llama is also historically remarkable as being the only animal domesticated by the aboriginal ,americans4 ,the reindeer of the north#d and the bison of the prairies enjoyed then1 as they do now1 their savage independence3 the llama alone was obliged to submit to the yoke of man4 ,but the llama reminds us of the dromedary not only by a similar destiny and similar services1 but also by a strong resemblance in form and structure1 so as to be classed by naturalists in the same family4 ,the unsightly hump is wanting1 but the llama possesses the same callosities on the breast and on the knees1 the same divided hoof and a similar formation of the toes and stomach4 ,thus ,nature has formed in the llama a species of mountain camel1 admirably adapted to the exigencies of a totally different soil and climate2 and surely it is not one of the least wonders of creation to see animals so similar in many respects emerge1 without any connecting links1 at the opposite extremities of the globe4 ,the ordinary load of the llama is about one hundred pounds1 and its rate of travelling with this burthen over rugged mountain passes is from twelve to fifteen miles a-day4 ,when overloaded it lies down1 and will not rise until relieved of part of its burthen4 #8,the ,indians1' says ,tschudi1 #8often travel with large herds of llamas to the coast to fetch salt4 ,their journeys are very small1 rarely more than three or four leagues2 for the llamas never feed after sunset1 and are thus obliged to graze while journeying1 or to rest for several hours4 ,while reposing they utter a peculiar low tone1 which at a distance resembles the sound of an olian harp4 ,a loaded herd of llamas traversing the high table-lands affords an interesting spectacle4 ,slowly and stately they proceed1 casting inquisitive glances on every side4 ,on seeing any strange object which excites their fears1 they immediately scatter in every direction1 and their poor drivers have great difficulty to gather the herd4' ,the ,indians1 who are very fond of these animals1 decorate their ears with ribbons1 hang little bells about their necks1 and always caress them before placing the burthen on their back4 ,when one of them drops from fatigue1 they kneel at its side and strive to encourage it for further exertion by a profusion of flattering epithets and gentle warnings4 ,yet1 in spite of good treatment1 a number of llamas perish on the way to the coast or to the forests1 as they cannot stand the hot climate4 ,the ,huanacu is of a greater size than the llama1 and resembles it so much that it was supposed to be the wild variety until ,tschudi1 in his #8,fauna ,peruana1' pointed out the specific differences between both4 ,its fleece is shorter and less fine2 its colour brown1 the under parts being whitish--but varieties of colour are never observed1 as in the llama2 the face is blackish grey1 lighter and almost white about the lips4 ,the huanacus generally live in small troops of from five to seven4 ,they are very shy1 but when caught young are easily tamed1 though they always remain spiteful1 and can hardly ever be trained to carry burthens4 ,the ,alpaca is smaller than the llama1 and resembles the sheep2 but its neck is longer1 and it has a more elegantly formed head4 ,the wool which1 on account of its admirable qualities1 is extensively used in ,england1 is very long1 soft1 fine1 and of a silky lustre--sometimes quite white or black1 but often also variegated4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,alpaca4 ,shy1 like the chamois or the steinbock1 the ,vicua inhabits the most sequestered mountain-valleys of the ,andes4 ,it is of a more elegant shape than the alpaca1 with a longer and more graceful neck1 and a more curly wool of extreme fineness4 ,during the rainy season1 the vicuas retire to the crests of the ,cordillera1 where vegetation is reduced to the scantiest limits2 but they never venture on the bare summits1 as their hoof1 accustomed to tread only on the turf1 is very tender and sensitive4 ,when pursued1 they never fly to the ice-fields1 but only along the grass-grown slopes4 ,in the dry season1 when vegetation withers on the heights1 they descend to seek their food along the sources and swampy grounds4 ,from six to fifteen she-vicuas live under the protection and guidance of a single male1 who always remains a few paces apart from his harem1 and keeps watch with the most attentive care4 ,at the least approach of danger he immediately gives the alarm by a shrill cry1 and rapidly steps forward4 ,the herd1 immediately assembling1 turns inquisitively towards the side whence danger is apprehended1 and then1 suddenly wheeling1 flies1 at first slowly1 and constantly looking back1 but soon with unrivalled swiftness4 ,the male covers the retreat1 frequently standing still and watching the enemy4 ,the females reward the faithful care of their leader with an equally rare attachment2 for when he is wounded or killed1 they will keep running round him with shrill notes of sorrow1 and rather be shot than flee4 ,the cry of the vicua is a peculiar whistle1 which1 though greatly resembling the shrill neighing of the llama1 may easily be distinguished by a practised ear1 when it suddenly pierces the thin air of the ,puna1 even from a distance where the sharpest eye is no longer able to distinguish the form of the animal4 ,the hunting of the vicuas1 which is very singular and interesting1 takes place in ,april or ,may4 ,each family in the ,puna villages is obliged to furnish the contingent of one of its members at least2 and the widows accompany the hunters1 to serve as cooks4 ,the whole troop1 frequently consisting of seventy or eighty persons1 and carrying bundles of poles and large quantities of cordage1 sets out for the more elevated plateaus1 where the vicuas are grazing4 ,in an appropriate spot the poles are fixed into the earth1 at intervals of twelve or fifteen paces1 and united by the cordage1 about two feet from the ground4 ,in this manner a circular space1 called ,chacu1 of about half a league in circumference1 is enclosed1 leaving on one side an entrance several hundred paces wide4 ,the women attach to the cordage coloured rags1 which wave to and fro in the wind4 ,as soon as the ,chacu is ready1 the men disperse1 and forming a ring many miles in circumference1 drive all the intervening vicua herds through the entrance into the circle1 which is closed as soon as a sufficient number has been collected4 ,the shy animals do not venture to spring over the cord and its fluttering rags1 and are thus easily killed by the bolas of the ,indians4 ,these bolas consist of three balls of lead or stone1 two of which are heavy1 and one lighter1 each ball being attached to a long leather thong4 ,the thongs are knotted together at their free extremity4 ,when used1 the lighter ball is taken in the hand1 and the two others swung in a wide circle over the head4 ,at a certain distance from the mark1 about fifteen or twenty paces1 the hand-ball is let loose1 and then all three fly in hissing circles towards the object which they are intended to strike1 and encompass it in their formidable embrace4 ,the hindlegs of the vicuas are generally aimed at4 ,it is no easy matter to throw the bolas adroitly1 particularly when on horseback2 for the novice often wounds either himself or his horse mortally1 by not giving the balls the proper swing1 or letting them escape too soon from his hand4 ,the flesh of the vicuas is divided in equal portions among the hunters4 ,when dried in the air1 and then pounded and mixed with ,spanish pepper1 its taste is not unpleasing4 ,the ,church1 however1 manages to get the best part of the animal1 for the priest generally appropriates the skin4 ,as soon as all the entrapped vicuas are killed1 the chacu is taken to pieces1 and set up again ten or twelve miles further off4 ,the whole chase lasts a week1 and the number of the animals slaughtered frequently amounts to several hundreds4 ,in the times of the ,incas1 the ,puna chases were conducted on a much grander scale4 ,annually from #be1jjj to #cj1jjj ,indians assembled1 who were obliged to drive all the wild animals from a circuit of more than a hundred miles into an enormous chacu4 ,as the circle narrowed1 the ranks of the ,indians were doubled and trebled1 so that no animal could escape4 ,the pernicious quadrupeds1 such as bears1 cuguars1 and foxes1 were all killed1 but only a limited number of stags1 deer1 vicuas1 and huanacus2 for the provident ,incas did not lose sight of the wants of futurity1 and were more economical of the lives of animals than their brutal successors1 the ,christian ,spaniards1 were of the lives of men4 ,in spite of the persecutions to which they are subject1 not only from hunters but from the ravenous condor1 who frequently robs them of their young1 the vicuas do not seem to diminish1 and are often seen roaming about in large numbers--the inaccessible wilds to which they are able to retreat amply securing them against extermination4 ,illustration3 ,,chinchilla4 ,besides these four remarkable ,camelides1 we find among the animals peculiar to the ,puna the stag-like ,tarush 7,cervus antisiensis72 the timid deer1 who also descends from the high mountain-plains into the coast-valleys and the forest region2 the ,viscachas and the ,chinchillas4 ,the ,peruvian ,viscachas 7,lagidium peruanum and pallipes71 live at an elevation of from #aj1jjj to #ab1jjj feet1 between #cc and #ah ,s4 lat41 and resemble the rabbit in form and colour1 but have shorter ears and a long rough tail4 ,their far is soft1 but not nearly so fine as that of the near-related ,chinchilla 7,chinchilla lanigera74 ,this little creature1 which is somewhat larger than our squirrel1 has large and brilliant eyes1 an erect tail1 strong bristles on the upper lip1 and almost naked1 rounded ears4 ,it lives in burrows1 feeding chiefly upon roots1 and is found in such numbers in the ,chilian ,andes that its holes considerably increase the difficulty of travelling4 ,the fur is too well known to require any further description4 ,where ruminants and rodents abound it may easily be imagined that beasts of prey will not be wanting4 ,the cunning fox 7,canis ,azar7 waylays both the chinchillas and the water-birds2 and1 impelled by hunger1 the ,puma1 or ,american lion1 ascends even to the borders of eternal snow in quest of the vicua and the deer4 ,but the monarch of the ,puna is unquestionably the mighty condor1 who1 soaring over the highest peaks of the ,andes1 sees on one side the ,pacific rolling its heavy breakers against the coast1 and on the other the ,maraon vanishing in the hazy distance of the primitive forest4 ,the frequent showers and snow-falls of the ,puna naturally give rise to numerous swamps and lagunes1 which afford nourishment to an abundance of birds1--such as the beautiful snow-white ,huachua goose 7,chlophaga melanoptera71 with dark-green wings of a metallic lustre2 the licli1 a species of plover2 the ibis2 the long-legged flamingo2 the ,quiulla gull 7,larus serranus71 and the gigantic coot 7,fulica gigantea71 which1 unable to fly1 dives in the cold waters1 and builds its nest on the solitary stones which rise above the surface4 ,to the aboriginal animals of the ,puna man has added the horse1 the ox1 the dog1 and the sheep4 ,in the more sheltered valleys there are estates possessing from #fj1jjj to #hj1jjj sheep1 and from #djj to #ejj oxen4 ,during the wet season the herds are driven into the ,altos or highest regions1 often to a height of #ae1jjj feet2 but when the frosty nights of the dry period of the year parch the grass1 they are obliged to descend to the swampy valleys1 where they have much to suffer from hunger4 ,in many parts of the ,puna1 wild bulls render travelling very dangerous1 as they sometimes rush upon man without any previous notice1 though they generally announce their approach by a hoarse bellowing4 ,but even then it is almost impossible to escape them in the open plain1 and more than once ,tschudi was only able1 by a well-aimed shot1 to save himself from the attack of one of these formidable animals4 ,though not so dangerous1 the half-wild ,puna dogs 7,canis ,ing1 ,tschudi7 are extremely troublesome to the traveller1--false1 spiteful animals1 which ferociously attack enemies far stronger than themselves2 and1 like the bull-dog1 will rather suffer themselves to be cut to pieces than retreat4 ,they have a particular antipathy to the white race1 and it is rather a bold undertaking for the ,european traveller to approach the hut of an ,indian that is guarded by these animals4 ,the frosts of winter and an eternal spring are nowhere found in closer proximity than in the ,peruvian highlands1 for deep valleys cleave the windy ,puna2 and when the traveller1 benumbed by the cold blasts of the mountain-plains1 descends into these sheltered gorges he almost suddenly finds himself transported from a northern climate to a terrestrial paradise4 ,situated at a height where the enervating power of the tropical sun is not felt1 and where at the same time the air is not too rarefied1 these pleasant mountain vales1 protected by their rocky walls against the gusts of the ,puna1 enjoy all the advantages of a genial sky4 ,here the astonished ,european sees himself surrounded by the rich corn-fields1 the green lucerne meadows1 and the well-known fruit trees of his distant home1 so that he might almost fancy that some friendly enchanter had transported him to his native country1 if the cactuses and the agaves on the mountain-slopes by day1 and the constellations of another hemisphere by night1 did not remind him of the vast distance which separates him from the land of his birth4 ,there are regions in this remarkable country where the traveller may in the morning leave the snow-decked ,puna hut1 and before sunset pluck pine-apples and bananas on the cultivated margin of the primeval forest2 where in the morning the stunted grasses and arid lichens of the naked plain remind him of the arctic regions1 and where he may repose at night under the fronds of gigantic palms4 ,illustration3 ,,guano ,,island4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,peruvian ,,sand-,,coast4 ,its desolate ,character--,the ,mule is here the #8,ship of the ,desert4'--,a ,shipwreck and its ,consequences--,sand-,spouts--,medanos-- ,summer and ,winter--,the ,garuas--,the ,lomas--,change produced in their ,appearance during the ,season of ,mists--,azara's ,fox--,wild ,animals--,birds-- ,reptiles--,the ,chincha or ,guano ,islands4 ,between the ,cordilleras to the east and the ,pacific to the west extends1 from #c to #ba ,s4 lat41 #edj leagues long and from #c to #bj leagues broad1 a desert coast1 the picture of death and desolation4 ,traversed by spurs of the mighty mountain-chain1 which either gradually sink into the plain1 or form steep promontories washed by the ocean1 it rises and falls in alternate heights and valleys1 where the eye seldom sees anything but fine drift-sand or sterile heaps of stone4 ,only where1 at considerable intervals1 some rivulet1 fed by a glacier or a small mountain lake1 issues from the ravines of the ,andes to lose itself after a short course in the ,pacific1 green belts1 like the oases of the ,african desert1 break the general monotony1 and appear more charming from the contrast with the nakedness of the surrounding waste4 ,the planter carefully husbands the last drop of water from those scanty streams2 for1 as the tribes of the ,sahara can only1 by dint of constant industry1 preserve their date-palm islands against the waves of the surrounding sand-sea1 thus also the inhabitant of the ,peruvian coast can only by perpetual irrigation protect his plantations from the encroachments of the neighbouring desert6 ,but the fruits which he reaps and garners are very different from those which are produced by the ,african oasis2 for1 while none of the plants of the ,peruvian sand-coast has ever found its way to the ,sahara1 the sycamores and tamarinds of the latter are equally unknown on the eastern shores of the ,pacific4 ,cotton and sugar1 maize and batatas1 manioc and bananas1 here take the place of the date-palm of the ,arab1 and thrive only so far as the limits of irrigation extend4 ,in the surrounding wastes1 where for miles and miles the traveller meets no traces of vegetation1 and finds not one drop of water1 the mule performs the part of the ,african camel2 for1 satisfied with a scantier food than the horse1 it more easily supports the fatigues of a prolonged journey through the sand1 and in ,peru is fully entitled to be called the ship of the desert4 ,the horse cannot support hunger and thirst longer than forty-eight hours without becoming so weak as hardly to be able to carry its rider2 and if the latter is imprudent enough to urge it on to a more rapid pace1 it falls a victim to his obstinacy1 as it will obey the spur until it sinks never to rise again4 ,not so the mule1 which1 on feeling itself unable to advance1 stands still1 and will not move an inch until it has rested for a time2 after which it willingly continues its journey4 ,yet1 in spite of these excellent qualities1 many mules succumb to the fatigues and privations of the desert2 and as in the ,sahara the caravan-routes are marked by camel-skeletons1 so here long rows of mule-skulls and bones point out the road along the ,peruvian sand-coast4 ,woe to him whom a shipwreck casts on these desolate shores2 for he is almost inevitably doomed to destruction6 ,in general1 a healthy man can withstand hunger and thirst during four or five days1 but only in a temperate climate and when the body is at rest2 while in the burning deserts of ,peru1 the want of water during forty-eight hours1 combined with the fatigue of wading through the deep sands1 can only end in death4 ,thirst can1 undoubtedly1 be supported ten times longer in the moist sea-air than in the thoroughly desiccated atmosphere of a tropical waste4 ,the dangers of these solitudes are increased by the great mobility of the soil4 ,when a strong wind blows1 huge sand-columns1 rising like water-spouts to a height of eighty or a hundred feet1 advance whirling through the desert1 and suddenly encompass the traveller1 who can only save himself by a rapid flight4 ,such is the instability of the soil1 that in a few hours a plain will be covered with hillocks or ,medanos1 and recover after a few days its former level4 ,the most experienced muleteers are thus constantly deceived in their knowledge of the road1 and are the first to give way to despair1 while seeking to extricate themselves from a labyrinth of newly-formed medanos4 ,these constant transformations and shiftings in the desert1 which ,tschudi graphically calls #8a life in death1' take place more particularly in the hot season1 when the least pressure of the atmosphere suffices to disturb the dried-up sands1 whose weight increases during the winter by the absorption of moisture4 ,the single grains then unite to larger masses1 and more easily withstand the pressure of the wind4 ,the summer1 or dry season1 begins in ,november4 ,the rays of the vertical sun strike upon the light-coloured sands1 and are reflected with suffocating power4 ,no plant except the cactuses and tillandsias1 which manage to thrive where nothing else exists1 takes root in the glowing soil2 no animal finds food on the lifeless plain2 no bird1 no insect1 hovers or buzzes in the stifling atmosphere4 ,only in the highest regions the condor1 the monarch of the air1 is seen sailing along in lonely majesty4 ,in ,may1 which in these southern latitudes corresponds to our ,october1 the scene changes4 ,a thin1 misty veil extends over the sea and the coast1 and1 increasing in density during the following months1 only begins to diminish in ,october4 ,at the beginning and the end of this damp season the mist generally ascends between nine and ten in the morning1 and falls again at about three in the afternoon2 but in ,august and ,september1 when it is most dense1 it rests for weeks immovably over the earth1 never dissolving in rain1 but merely descending in a fine1 penetrating drizzle1 called #8garua' by the inhabitants4 ,in many parts rain has not been known to fall for centuries1 except only after very severe earthquakes1 and even then the phenomenon is not of constant occurrence4 ,the mist seldom ascends to a vertical height of more than #a1bjj feet1 when it is replaced by violent showers of rain2 and1 remarkably enough1 the limits between both can be determined with almost mathematical precision1 as there are plantations1 one half of whose surface is invariably moistened by garuas and the other by rain4 ,when the mists appear1 the ,lomas1 or chains of hills which bound the sand-coast towards the east1 begin to assume a new character2 and1 as if by magic1 a garden is seen where but a few days before a desert extended its dreary nakedness4 ,soon also1 animal life begins to animate the scene1 as the ,lomeros drive their cattle and horses to these newly-formed pasture-grounds1 where for several months they find an abundance of juicy food1 but no water4 ,this1 however1 they do not require1 as they always leave the ,lomas in the best condition4 ,in some of the northern coast-districts1 situated near the equatorial line1 where the garuas seldom appear1 the fertility of the land depends wholly upon the streams which issue from the mountains4 ,the dew1 which along the coasts of central and south ,peru hardly moistens the soil to the depth of half an inch1 is there so completely wanting1 that a piece of paper exposed to the air during the night shows no sign of moisture in the morning2 and so thoroughly does the dryness of the soil prevent putrefaction1 that after #cjj years the mummified corpses are still found unaltered1 which the ancient ,peruvians buried in a sitting posture4 ,thus the aridity of the ,sahara repeats itself in these ,american deserts1 and is in some measure owing to the same cause1 though their geographical position to the west of the ,andes1 whose eastern slopes absorb all the moisture of the prevailing trade-winds1 chiefly accounts for their nakedness4 ,rain is wanting1 as there is no vegetation of any great extent to condense the passing vapours2 and1 on the other hand1 the want of moisture prevents plants from rooting on the unstable soil4 ,a glance at the animal world of the ,peruvian coast shows us the same poverty of species as in the great ,african desert4 ,a fox 7,canis ,azar7 seems here to play the part of the hyna and the jackal2 and is found both in the cotton-plantations along the streams1 and in the ,lomas1 where he is destructive to the young lambs4 ,the large ,american felid1 the puma1 and the jaguar1 seldom appear on the coast1 where they attain a more considerable size than in the mountains4 ,the cowardly puma is afraid of man2 while the bloodthirsty jaguar penetrates into the plantations1 where he lies in wait for the oxen and horses1 and avoids with remarkable sagacity1 the manifold traps and pitfalls that are laid for him by the hacienderos4 ,in the cultivated districts ,opossums are found among the low bushes1 in deserted dwellings1 or in storerooms2 armadillos 7,dasypus tatuay7 are sometimes shot in the fields1 and wild hogs of an enormous size infest the thickets near some of the plantations4 ,illustration3 ,,opossum4 ,instead of the antelope and the gazelle of the ,african deserts1 the ,venado1 a species of deer1 makes its appearance on the ,peruvian coast4 ,it chiefly lives in the low bushes1 which are scattered here and there1 and after sunset visits the cultivated fields where it causes considerable damage4 ,besides the numerous sea- and strand-birds1 the carrion vultures and the condor1 often found in large numbers feasting upon the marine animals that have been cast ashore1 are the most conspicious among the feathered tribes of the coast4 ,a small falcon 7,falco sparverius7 is likewise often seen1 and a small burrowing owl 7,athene cunicularia7 haunts almost every ruinous building4 ,the pearl-owl 7,strix perlata71 performing the useful services of our own barn-owl1 is protected and encouraged in many plantations1 as it thins the ranks of the mice4 ,swallows are scarce2 nor do they build their nests on the houses1 but on solitary walls1 far from the habitations of man4 ,among the singing birds1 the beautiful crowned fly-catcher 7,myoarchus coronatus7 is one of the most remarkable4 ,its head1 breast and belly are of a burning red2 its wings and back blackish brown4 ,it always sits upon the highest top of the bushes1 flies vertically upwards1 whirls about a short time singing in the air1 and then again descends in a straight line upon its former resting-place4 ,some tanagras and parrots1 and two starling-like birds1 the red-breasted picho and the lustrous black chivillo1 that are frequently kept in cages on account of their agreeable song1 are found in the coast-valleys2 and various pigeons1 among others the neat little turtuli and the more stately cuculi1 frequent the neighbourhood of the plantations4 ,among the lizard tribes large and brilliantly green iguanas are found on the southern coast2 but much more frequently dull and sombre agamas lurk among the rocks and stones4 ,snakes1 both venomous and harmless1 are in general tolerably rare1 and occur both in the fruitful lands and the sand-plains4 ,the animated sea-shore forms a striking contrast to the death-like solitude of the interior4 ,troops of carrion vultures gather about the large marine animals cast ashore by the surf2 numerous strand-birds are greedily on the look-out for the shell-fish left by the retreating tide1 or for the crabs and sea-spiders that everywhere draw their furrows about the beach2 and sea-otters and seals sun themselves on the cliffs along the whole coast1 except in the neighbourhood of the seaports where they have been extirpated or driven away by incessant persecutions4 ,to the north of ,chancay1 steep sand-hills rise to the height of #cjj or #djj feet1 abruptly verging to the sea4 ,the road leading along the side of these hills1 would be extremely dangerous but for the unstable nature of the soil4 ,for though at each false step the mule slides with his rider towards the sea1 it is very easy for him to regain his footing on the yielding sand4 ,a large stone on one of these hills bears a striking resemblance to a sleeping sea-lion1 and almost perpendicularly beneath it lies a little cove1 inhabited by a number of seals4 ,at night the bark of these animals1 mixing with the hollow roar of the breakers1 fills the traveller with a kind of involuntary terror4 ,myriads of sea-birds breed on the small islands along the coast or swarm about the bays1 where the fish supply them with abundant food4 ,the number of these birds1 a matter formerly of only local interest1 is now a subject of general importance1 as to them are owing the deep guano beds which have converted the sterile ,chincha ,islands#e into mines of wealth4 ,the want of rain1 which renders the greatest part of the ,peruvian coast so utterly barren1 is of the utmost advantage for the production of the guano2 for if the ,chincha ,islands1 like the ,orkneys or the ,hebrides1 had been exposed to frequent storms1 or washed by unceasing showers1 they would have been mere naked rocks1 instead of affording the richest deposits of manure the world can boast of4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,amazons1 ,,the ,,giant ,,river ,,of ,,the ,,torrid ,,zone4 ,the ,course of the ,amazons and its ,tributaries--,the ,strait of ,obydos-- ,tide ,waves on the ,amazons--,the ,black-water rivers--,the ,rio ,negro-- ,the ,bay of the ,thousand ,isles--,the ,pororocca--,rise of the ,river-- ,the ,gapo--,magnificent ,scenery--,different ,character of the ,forests beyond and within the verge of ,inundation--,general ,character of the ,banks--,a ,sail on the ,amazons--,a ,night's ,encampment--,the #8,mother of the ,waters'--,the ,piranga--,dangers of ,navigating on the ,amazons-- ,terrific ,storms--,rapids and ,whirlpools--,the ,stream of the ,future-- ,travels of ,orellana--,madame ,godin4 ,the ,amazons1 the giant stream of the tropical world1 is of no less magnificent proportions than the ,andes1 where it takes its source4 ,from the small ,peruvian mountain-lake of ,lauricocha1 #ab1ejj feet above the sea1 the ,tunguragua1 which is generally considered as the chief branch1 rushes down the valleys4 ,at ,tomependa1 in the province of ,juan de ,bracamoros1 rafts first begin to burden its free waters2 but1 as if impatient of the yoke1 it still throws many an obstacle in the navigator's way2 for twenty-seven rapids and cataracts follow each other as far as the ,pongo de ,manseriche1 where1 at the height of #a1afd feet above the level of the sea1 it for ever bids adieu to the romance of mountain scenery4 ,its width1 which at ,tomependa exceeds that of the ,thames at ,westminster ,bridge1 narrows to #aej feet in the defile of the ,pongo1 which in some places is obscured by overhanging rocks and trees1 and where huge masses of drift-wood1 torn from the slopes by the mountain torrents1 are crushed and disappear in the vertex4 ,from the ,pongo to the ocean1 a distance of more than #b1jjj miles1 no rocky barrier impedes the further course of the monarch of streams2 and according to ,herndon 7,exploration of the ,valley of the ,amazons1 #ahea-ahec71 its depth constantly remains above eighteen feet1 so that it is navigable for large ships all the way from ,para to the foot of the ,andes6 ,no other river runs in so deep a channel at so great a distance from its mouth1 and the tropical rains1 spreading over a territory nearly equal in extent to one-half of ,europe1 are alone able to feed a stream of such colossal dimensions6 ,the first considerable tributary of the ,amazons is the ,huallaga1 which rises near the famous silver-mines of ,cerro de ,pasco1 #h1fjj feet above the level of the sea1 and is #b1ejj paces broad at the point where the rivers meet4 ,lower down at ,nauta1 the ,ucayale1 descending from the distant mountains of ,cuzco1 adds his waters to the growing stream1 after a course nearly #djj miles longer than that of the ,tunguragua itself4 ,where these mighty rivers meet1 ,lieutenant ,lister ,maw found a depth of thirty-five fathoms4 ,from the ,brazilian frontier1 where it still flows at an elevation of #fcj feet above the sea1 to the influx of the ,rio ,negro1 the ,amazons is called the ,solimoens1 as if one name were not sufficient for its grandeur4 ,during its progress between these two points it receives on the left1 the ,ia and the ,yapura1 on the right1 the ,xavari1 the ,jutay1 the ,jurua1 the ,teffe1 the ,coary1 and the ,purus1 streams which1 in ,europe1 would only be equalled by the ,danube1 but are here merely the obscure branches of a giant trunk4 ,the ,rio ,negro is the most considerable northern vassal of the ,amazons4 ,it rises in the ,sierra ,tunuhy1 an isolated mountain-group in the ,llanos1 and conveys part of the waters of the ,orinoco to the ,amazons1 as if the latter were not already sufficiently great4 ,after a course of #a1ejj miles it flows into the vast stream1 #c1fjj paces broad and #ai fathoms deep4 ,brigs of war have already ascended the ,amazons as far as the ,rio ,negro1 and frigates would find no obstacle in their way4 ,the ,madeira1 the next great tributary of the regal stream1 has thus been named from the vast quantities of drift-wood floating on its waters4 ,farther on1 after having with a side-arm embraced the island of ,tupinambaranas1 which almost equals ,yorkshire in extent1 the ,amazons now reaches the strait of ,obydos1 where it narrows to #b1abf paces1 and rolls along between low banks in a bed whose depth as yet no plummet hath sounded4 ,the mass of waters which1 during the rainy season1 rushes in one second through the strait1 is estimated by ,von ,martius at #ejj1jjj cubic feet1--enough to fill all the streams of ,europe with an exuberant current4 ,the tides extend as far as ,obydos1 though still #djj miles from the sea2 and according to ,la ,condamine1 they are even perceptible as far as the confluence of the ,madeira4 ,but so slow is their progress upwards1 that seven floods1 with their intervening ebbs1 roll simultaneously along upon the giant stream2 and thus1 four days after the tide-wave was first raised in the wide deserts of the ,south ,sea1 its last undulations expire in the solitudes of ,brazil4#f ,the next considerable vassal of the ,amazons is the shallow ,tapajos4 ,fancy six streams1 like the ,thames1 strung successively together1 and you have the length of this river2 take the ,rhine twice from its source in the glacier of ,mount ,adula to the sands of ,katwyck1 and you have the measure of the ,xingu4 ,before the confluence of this last of its great tributaries1--for the ,tocantines1 though considered by some geographers as a vassal1 is in reality an independent stream1-- the breadth of the ,amazons appeared to ,von ,martius equal to that of the ,lake of ,constance2 but soon even this enormous bed becomes too narrow for the vast volume of its waters1 for below ,gurupa it widens to an enormous gulf1 which might justly be called the #8,bay of the ,thousand ,isles4' ,nobody has ever counted their numbers2 no map gives us an idea of this labyrinth4 ,if we reckon the island of ,marajo1 which equals ,sicily in size1 to the delta of the ,amazons1 its extreme width on reaching the ocean is not inferior to that of the ,baltic in its greatest breadth4 ,dangerous sand-banks guard the giant's threshold2 and no less perilous to the navigator is the famous ,pororocca1 or the rapid rising of the spring-tide at the shallow mouths of the chief stream and of some of its embranchments1--a phenomenon which1 though taking place at the mouth of many other rivers1 such as the ,hooghly1 the ,indus1 the ,dordogne1 and the ,seine1#g nowhere assumes such dimensions as here1 where the colossal wave frequently rises suddenly along the whole width of the stream to a height of twelve or fifteen feet1 and then collapses with a roar so dreadful that it is heard at the distance of more than six miles4 ,then the advancing flood-wave glides almost imperceptibly over the deeper parts of the river-bed1 but again rises angrily as soon as a more shallow bottom arrests its triumphant career4 ,our knowledge of the courses of most of the tributaries of the ,amazons is very imperfect1 and science knows next to nothing of the natural history of their banks4 ,even a correct map of the main stream is still wanting1 for though its general course and the most important bends are tolerably well laid down1 the numerous islands and parallel channels1 the great lakes and offsets1 the deep bays and the varying widths of the stream are quite unknown4 ,the numerous tributary streams of the ,amazons differ remarkably in the colour of their waters and may be divided into three groups--the white or pale yellowish-water rivers1 the blue-water rivers and the black-water rivers4 ,the difference of colour between the white-water and blue-water rivers is evidently owing to the nature of the country they flow through2 a rocky and sandy district will always have clear-water rivers2 an alluvial or clayey one will have troubled streams4 ,the ,rio ,negro is the largest and most celebrated of the black-water rivers4 ,all its upper tributaries1 the smaller ones especially1 are very dark1 and1 when they run over white sand1 give it the appearance of gold1 from the rich colour of the water1 which1 when deep1 appears inky black4 ,in the rainy season1 when the dark clouds above cause the water to appear of a yet more funereal blackness and the rising waves break in white foam over the vast expanse1 the scene1 as may well be imagined1 is gloomy in the extreme4 ,the peculiar colour of the black-water rivers appears to be produced by the solution of decaying leaves1 roots and other vegetable matter4 ,in the virgin forests in which most of these streams have their source the little brooks and rivulets are half choked up with dead leaves and rotten branches giving various brown tinges to the water4 ,when these rivulets meet together and accumulate into a river1 they of course have a deep brown hue very similar to that of our bog or peat water1 if there are no other circumstances to modify it4 ,but if the stream flows through a district of soft alluvial clay1 the colour will of course be modified and the brown completely overpowered4 ,a peculiarity of the black waters is the absence of mosquitos along their banks1 which thus afford agreeable places of refuge to the persecuted traveller4 ,no inducement will make an ,indian boatman paddle so hard as the probability of reaching one of these privileged spots before midnight and being enabled to enjoy the comforts of sleep till morning4 ,the basin of the ,amazons extending over an area of #b1ccj1jjj ,english square miles surpasses in dimensions that of any other river in the world4 ,all western ,europe could be placed in it without touching its boundaries and it would even contain our whole ,indian empire4 ,it is entirely situated in the ,tropics1 on both sides of the ,equator1 and receives over its whole extent the most abundant rains4 ,the body of fresh water which it empties into the ocean is therefore far greater than that of any other river2 not only absolutely but probably also relatively to its area1 for as it is almost entirely covered by dense virgin forests1 the heavy rains which penetrate them do not suffer so much evaporation as when they fall on the scorched ,llanos of the ,orinoco or the treeless ,pampas of ,la ,plata4 ,some idea may be formed of the vastness of the territory drained by the ,amazons from the fact that at the sources of its northern and southern tributaries1 the rainy season takes place at opposite times of the year4 ,so wonderful is the length of the stream that1 while at the foot of the ,andes it begins to rise early in ,january1 the ,solimoens swells only in ,february3 and below the ,rio ,negro the ,amazons does not attain its full height before the end of ,march4 ,the swelling of the river is colossal as itself4 ,in the ,solimoens and farther westwards the water rises above forty feet2 and ,von ,martius even saw trees whose trunks bore marks of the previous inundation fifty feet above the height of the stream during the dry season4 ,then for miles and miles the swelling giant inundates his low banks1 and1 majestic at all times1 becomes terrible in his grandeur when rolling his angry torrents through the wilderness4 ,the largest forest-trees tremble under the pressure of the waters1 and trunks1 uprooted and carried away by the stream1 bear witness to its power4 ,fishes and alligators now swim where a short while ago the jaguar lay in wait for the tapir1 and only a few birds1 perching on the highest tree-tops1 remain to witness the tumult which disturbs the silence of the woods4 ,when at length the river retires within its usual limits1 new islands have been formed in its bed1 while others have been swept away2 and in many places the banks1 undermined by the floods1 threaten to crush the passing boat by their fall1--a misfortune which not seldom happens1 particularly when high trees come falling headlong down with the banks into the river4 ,the lands flooded to a great depth at every time of high water are called in the language of the country #8,gapo1' and are one of the most singular features of the ,amazons4 ,they extend hundreds of miles along the river's course1 and vary in width on each side from one to ten or twenty miles4 ,through the ,gapo a person may go by canoe in the wet season1 without once entering into the main river4 ,he will pass through small streams1 lakes1 and swamps1 and everywhere around him will stretch out an illimitable waste of waters1 but all covered with a lofty virgin forest4 ,for days he will travel through this forest scraping against the trunks of trees1 and stooping to pass beneath the leaves of prickly palms now level with the water though raised on stems forty feet high4 ,in this trackless maze the ,indian finds his way with unerring certainty1 and by slight indications of broken twigs or scraped bark goes on day by day as if travelling on a beaten road4 ,the magical beauty of tropical vegetation reveals itself in all its glory to the traveller who steers his boat through the solitudes of these aquatic mazes4 ,here the forest forms a canopy over his head2 there it opens1 allowing the sunshine to disclose the secrets of the wilderness2 while on either side the eye penetrates through beautiful vistas into the depths of the woods4 ,sometimes1 on a higher spot of ground1 a clump of trees forms an island worthy of ,eden4 ,a chaos of bushropes and creepers flings its garlands of gay flowers over the forest1 and fills the air with the sweetest odours4 ,numerous birds1 rivalling in beauty of colour the passifloras and bignonias of these hanging gardens1 animate the banks of the lagune1 while gaudy macaws perch on the loftiest trees2 and as if to remind one that death is not banished from this scene of paradise1 a dark-robed vulture screeches through the woods1 or an alligator rests1 like a black log of wood or a sombre rock1 on the dormant waters4 ,illustration3 ,,blue ,,macaw4 ,the inundations of the ,amazons essentially modify the character of the bordering forest2 for it is only beyond their verge that the enormous fig and laurel trees1 the ,lecythas and the ,bertholletias1 appear in all their grandeur4 ,as here the underwood is less dense and more dwarfish1 it is easy to measure the colossal trunks1 and to admire their proportions1 often towering to a height of #abj feet1 and measuring fifteen feet in diameter above the projecting roots4 ,enormous mushrooms spring from the decayed leaves1 and numberless parasites rest upon the trunks and branches4 ,the littoral forest1 on the contrary1 is of more humble growth4 ,the trunks1 branchless in their lower part1 clothed with a thinner and a smoother bark1 and covered with a coat of mud according to the height of the previous inundation1 stand close together1 and form above a mass of interlacing branches4 ,these are the sites of the cacao-tree and of the prickly sarsaparilla1 which is gathered in large quantities for the druggists of ,europe4 ,leafless bushropes wind in grotesque festoons among the trees1 between whose trunks a dense underwood shoots up1 to perish by the next overflowing of the stream4 ,instead of the larger parasites1 mosses and jungermannias weave their carpets over the drooping branches4 ,but few animals besides the numerous water-birds inhabit this damp forest zone1 in which1 as it is almost superfluous to add1 no plantation has been formed by man4 ,the many islands of the delta of the ,amazons are everywhere encircled by mangroves2 but sailing stream upwards1 the monotonous green of these monarchs of the shore is gradually replaced by flowers and foliage1 which1 in every variety of form and colour1 for hundreds and hundreds of miles characterise the banks of the river4 ,during the dry season prickly astricarias1 large musace1 enormous bamboo-like grasses1 white plumed ingas1 and scarlet poivreas1 are most frequently seen among the numberless plants growing along the margin of the stream4 ,above the shrubbery of the littoral forest numberless palms tower1 like stately columns1 to the height of a hundred feet2 while others of a lower stature are remarkable for the size of their trunks1 on which the foot-stalks of the fallen leaves serve as supports for ferns and other parasites4 ,it stands to reason that in a length of more than #c1jjj miles the species of plants must frequently change2 yet the low banks of the ,amazons1 and of its vassals1 as soon as they have emerged from the mountains where they rise1 have everywhere a similar character4 ,on sailing down the river for hundreds of miles1 the eye may at length grow weary of the uniformity of a landscape1 which remains constantly the same2 but the interest increases as the mind becomes more and more impressed by the grandeur of its dimensions4 ,a broad stream1 now dividing into numerous arms1 and now swelling into a lake2 a dark forest-border1 which on so flat a ground seems at a distance like an artificial but colossal hedge3 these are the only elements of which the landscape is composed4 ,no busy towns rise upon the banks1 and it is only at vast intervals that one finds a few wretched huts1 which are soon again lost in the forest2 but a sky so brilliant spreads over the whole scene1 and the rays of the sun beam upon a nature of such luxuriance1 that the traveller1 far from feeling the voyage monotonous1 proceeds on his journey with increasing interest1 and every morn salutes with new joy the majestic wilderness4 ,the boat floats along1 borne by the current of the river1 which1 in the dry season1 generally flows at the rate of four ,english miles in an hour4 ,even during the night the journey is usually continued1 when no special danger claims a greater caution1 and a landing only takes place when the desire becomes general to enjoy a perfectly quiet night's rest1 or when a broad sand bank happens to be invitingly near4 ,generally an island is selected1 as affording both greater security from beasts of prey and a clearer ground4 ,the ,indians are not obliged to fetch fire-wood from a distance1 for trees1 drifted by the floods1 are constantly found at the upper end of the river-islands1 where they remain until the next inundation once more raises them2 and thus many of them are ultimately drifted by the ocean currents to distant lands4 ,the ,indians sometimes set fire to the whole pile1 and then the flames1 taking an unexpected direction1 may force the company to flee as fast as possible to the raft1 and to settle in a safer place1 while they continue to blaze over the forest1 or to cast a lurid light over the waters4 ,fires are frequently lighted for a more useful purpose on the banks of the stream1 as they never fail to attract a number of large fishes1 which the dexterous ,indians know how to strike with their harpoons4 ,while some are thus engaged1 others are lurking for the tortoises that pay their nightly visits to the bank1 anxious to bury their numerous eggs in the sand4 ,thus almost every landing on one of these river-islands furnishes fresh provisions for the continuance of the journey2 for the captured tortoises are bound to the raft1 where1 in the enjoyment of water and shade1 they continue to live for a long time4 ,as soon as the supper is finished1 the ,indians1 after throwing an additional log upon the watch-fire1 all stretch themselves on the ground1 under their dark-coloured toldos1 or mosquito covers1 which on the white sand have the appearance of as many coffins4 ,their tranquil breathing soon tells that they are enjoying the deep repose peculiar to their race2 but sleep forsakes the ,european amid scenes so novel and so grand4 ,the soul is struck with impressions which compel it to reflection4 ,the ripple breaks lightly on the bank2 no noise1 save the crackling of the fire1 breaks the stillness of the night4 ,only from time to time the splashing of a fish is heard in the distant centre of the stream4 ,the same stillness reigns in the skies2 for not the slightest cloud dims the brightness of the stars4 ,but suddenly the waters begin to rustle at a distance1 as if wave were rolling after wave1 and as the strange sound draws nigh1 an unusual agitation becomes apparent in the water4 ,the awakening ,indians whisper anxiously1 for they imagine an enormous reptile to be the cause of the phenomenon4 ,they also believe the lagunes of the great stream to be the seat of a prodigious serpent1 equal in size and power to the fabulous sea-snake2 for the yacu-mama1 or #8mother of the waters1' as this imaginary monster is called1 attracts by a single inspiration every living creature-- man1 quadruped1 or bird--that passes within a hundred feet of its jaws4 ,as the maelstrom sucks down the helpless boat that comes within its vortex1 thus the mighty air-current forces its prey into the wide mouth of the monster lurking in the thicket4 ,for this reason an ,indian will never venture to enter an unknown lagune without blowing his horn1 as the yacu-mama is said to answer1 and thus to give him time for a speedy flight4 ,the #8mother of the waters' is said to be at least fifty paces long1 and to measure ten or twelve yards in circumference4 ,thus fancy is as busy in creating imaginary terrors in the lagunes of the ,maraon as on the rocky shores of ,scandinavia4 ,infinitely more dangerous than this fabulous serpent1 more dreadful even than the cayman or the anaconda1 are the pirangas1 a small species of salmon1 which in many places attack the unfortunate swimmer with their sharp teeth1 and taint the waters with his blood4 ,castelnau saw how a stag1 which threw itself in the river to avoid the hunter's pursuit1 was soon killed by the pirangas4 ,the ,roman knight that cast his slaves to the murnas1#h would1 no doubt1 have been rejoiced to people his ponds with fish like these2 and ,tiberius would have been delighted to have possessed them at ,capra6 ,a night encampment in the ,amazons is1 however1 not always so pleasant as the foregoing description might lead one to suppose2 for many islands are so infested with mosquitos that they are quite intolerable1 and the growl of a jaguar or the sight of a crocodile 7for this animal is by no means afraid of fire7 not unfrequently disturbs the company4 ,complete security from these persecutions and visits is only to be found in the centre of the stream2 for here a cayman is seldom seen1 and the wings of the insects are too weak to carry them to such a distance from the shore4 ,the most striking features of the ,amazons1 besides its vast expanse of smooth water1 generally from three to six miles wide1 are the great beds of aquatic grass which line its shores1 large masses of which are often detached and form floating islands2 the quantity of fruits and leaves and great trunks of trees which it carries down1 and its level banks clad with high unbroken masses of verdure4 ,in places the white stems and leaves of the ,cecropias give a peculiar aspect1 and in others the straight dark trunks of lofty forest trees form a living wall along the water's edge4 ,there is much animation1 too1 on this great stream4 ,numerous flocks of parrots and the great red and yellow macaws fly across every morning and evening1 uttering their hoarse cries4 ,many kinds of herons and rails frequent the marshes on its banks1 and a great handsome duck 7,chenalobex jubata7 is often seen swimming about the bays and inlets4 ,but perhaps the most characteristic birds of the ,amazons are the gulls and terns which are in great abundance4 ,all night long their cries are heard over the sand banks where they deposit their eggs1 and during the day they may constantly be seen1 sitting in a row on a floating log1 sometimes a dozen or twenty side by side1 and going for miles down the stream as grave and motionless as if they were on some very important business4 ,these birds deposit their eggs in little hollows in the sand1 and the ,indians say that during the heat of the day they carry water in their beaks to moisten them1 and prevent them being roasted by the scorching sun4 ,besides these there are divers and darters in abundance1 porpoises are constantly blowing in every direction1 and alligators are often seen slowly swimming across the river4 ,an amazing number of fishes peoples the waters of the ,amazons and its tributaries4 ,they supply the ,indians with the greater part of their animal food1 and are at all times more plentiful and easier to be obtained than birds or game from the forest4 ,mr4 ,wallace found #bje species in the ,rio ,negro alone1 and as most of those which inhabit the upper part of the river are not found near its mouth1 where there are many other kinds equally unknown in the clearer1 darker1 and probably colder waters of its higher branches1 he estimates that at least #ejj species exist in the ,rio ,negro and its tributary streams4 ,in fact1 in every small river and in different parts of the same river distinct kinds are found1 so that it is impossible to estimate the number in the whole valley of the ,amazons with any approach to accuracy4 ,to describe the countless tribes of insects that swarm in the dense forests of that vast basin would be equally vain4 ,in no country in the world is there more variety and beauty1 nowhere are there species of larger size and of more brilliant colours4 ,the great mass of the beetles are indeed inferior to those of tropical ,africa1 ,india1 and ,australia1 but it is in the lovely butterflies that the ,amazonian forests are unrivalled1 whether we consider the endless variety of the species1 their large size1 or their gorgeous colour4 ,south ,america is the richest part of the world in this group of insects1 and the ,amazons seems the richest part of ,south ,america4 ,in more than one respect the ,amazons reminds one of the ocean1 from whose bosom its waters originally arose4 ,like the sea1 it forms a barrier between various species of animals2 for the monkeys on its northern bank are different from those of the forests on its southern side1 and many an insect--nay1 even many a bird--finds an impassable barrier in the enormous width of the river4 ,like the sea1 it has a peculiar species of dolphin1 and hundreds of miles up the stream1 sea-mews and petrels1 deceived by its grandeur1 screech or shoot in arrowy flight over its fish-teeming waters4 ,as over the ocean1 or in the desert1 the illusions of the mirage are also produced over the surface of the ,maraon4 ,the distant banks1 not always clearly defined even in the morning1 disappear wholly at noon1 and the rays of the sun are then so refracted that the long rows of palms appear in an inverted position4 ,the dreadful storms which burst suddenly over the ,amazons1 likewise recall to memory the tornados of the ocean4 ,the howlings of the monkeys1 the shrill tones of the mews1 and the visible terror of all animals1 first announce the approaching conflict of the elements4 ,the crowns of the palms rustle and bend1 while as yet no breeze is perceptible on the surface of the stream2 but1 like a warning voice1 a hollow murmur in the air precedes the black clouds ascending from the horizon1 like grim warriors ready for battle4 ,and now the old forest groans under the shock of the hurricane2 a night-like darkness veils the face of nature2 and1 while torrents of rain descend amid uninterrupted sheets of lightning and terrific peals of thunder1 the river rises and falls in waves of a dangerous height4 ,then it requires a skilful hand to preserve the boat from sinking2 but the ,indian pilots steer with so masterly a hand1 and understand so well the first symptoms of the storm1 that it seldom takes them by surprise1 or renders them victims of its fury4 ,among the dangers of the ,amazons1 the rapids must not be forgotten that frequently arise where large tracts of the bank1 undermined by the floods1 have been cast into the river4 ,the boat is almost unavoidably lost when carried by the current among the branches of the trees1 which1 though submerged1 still remain attached to the ground1 and sweep furiously through the eddy1 overturning or smashing all that comes within their reach4 ,perhaps no country in the world contains such an amount of vegetable matter on its surface as the valley of the ,amazons4 ,its entire extent1 with the exception of some very small portions1 is covered with one dense and lofty primeval forest1 the most extensive and unbroken which exists upon the earth4 ,it is the great feature of the country1 that which at once stamps it as a unique and peculiar region4 ,it is not here1 as on the coasts of southern ,brazil1 or on the shores of the ,pacific1 where a few days' journey suffices to carry us beyond the forest district1 and into the parched plains and rocky sierras of the interior4 ,here one may travel for weeks and months inland in any direction1 and find scarcely an acre of ground unoccupied by trees4 ,it is far up in the interior where the great mass of this mighty forest is found2 not on the lower part of the river1 near the coast as is generally supposed4 ,bounded on one side by the ,andes1 on the other by the ,atlantic1 it extends from east to west for a distance of #b1fjj miles2 and from #g ,n4 latitude on the banks of the ,orinoco1 to #ah ,s4 latitude on the northern slope of the great mountain chain of ,bolivia1 a distance of more than #a1gjj miles4 ,from a point about sixty miles south-east of ,tabatinga1 on the ,upper ,amazons1 a circle may be drawn of #a1ajj miles in diameter1 the whole area of which will be virgin forest4 ,such are the magnificent proportions of these wonderful woods1 which speak to the imagination as forcibly as the ocean or the ,great ,sahara4 ,the forests of no other part of the world1 not even the immense fir-woods of ,siberia or of ,north ,america1 are so extensive and unbroken as this4 ,those of ,central ,europe are trifling in comparison1 nor in ,india are they very continuous or extensive4 ,africa contains some large forests situated on the east and west coasts1 and in the interior south of the ,equator1 but the whole of them would bear but a small proportion to that of the ,amazons4 ,in a general survey of the tropical world1 we may1 therefore1 look upon ,south ,america as pre-eminently the land of forests1 contrasting strongly with ,asia or ,africa1 where deserts are the most characteristic features4 ,if the ,nile--so remarkable for its historical recollections1 which carry us far back into the by-gone ages--and the ,thames1 unparalleled by the greatness of a commerce which far eclipses that of ancient ,carthage or ,tyre--may justly be called the rivers of the past and the present1 the ,amazons has equal claims to be called the stream of the future2 for a more splendid field nowhere lies open to the enterprise of man4 ,all the gifts of ,nature are scattered in profusion over the vast territory drained by the river4 ,the mountains1 where it rises1 teem with mineral treasures1 and the very ideal of fertility is realised in those well-watered plains1 where the equatorial sun developes life in boundless luxuriance4 ,the most useful and costly productions of the tropical world1--sugar1 cotton1 coffee1 indigo1 tobacco1 maize1 rice2 quinquina in the higher regions of the ,maraon1 where wheat and the vine find a congenial climate2 cacao and vanille1 sarsaparilla and caoutchouc1 various palms of the most manifold uses2 trees and shrubs1 some rivalling our oaks in the solidity of their timber1 others fit by the beauty of their grain to adorn palaces2 dyes1 resins1 gums1 spices1 drugs1--all1 in one word1 that is capable of satisfying the wants of the frugal or the fancies of the rich1 might there be raised in profusion over a space surpassing ,england at least forty times in extent4 ,the whole actual population of the globe could easily live in content and plenty in the almost uninhabited valleys of the ,maraon and its tributary streams4 ,with these magnificent prospects the present forms a melancholy contrast4 ,here and there some small town or wretched village rises on the banks of the mighty stream2 and a few ,indians roam over the forests1 through which it rolls along1 or enjoy the produce of its prolific waters4 ,the vast province of ,para1 the garden of ,brazil1 the paradise of unborn millions1 has scarcely four inhabitants on a geographical square mile2 while even the northern province of ,archangel1 the land of the stunted fir and the mossy tundra1 has a population four times as large4 ,but since the last few years1 steamboats regularly ascend the giant stream and some of its tributaries almost to the foot of the ,andes2 railroads are being made where navigation is impeded by rapids1 and ere long civilization and industry will have dawned over the vast woodlands of the ,amazon4 ,eight years after ,columbus had revealed the existence of a new world1 ,vincent ,yaez ,pinson1 the companion of his first voyage1 sailed with four ships from the port of ,palos 7#acth ,january1 #aejj71 steered boldly towards the south1 crossed the line1 and discovered the mouth of the ,amazons4 ,forty years later ,gonsalo ,pizarro1 governor of ,quito1 left his capital with #cdj ,spaniards and #d1jjj ,indian carriers to conquer the unknown countries to the east of the ,andes4 ,the march over the ,puna and the high mountain ridges proved fatal to the greater part of their wretched attendants2 and even the ,spaniards--accustomed to brave every climate and hardship wherever gold held forth its glittering promise-- had much to suffer from the excess of cold and fatigue4 ,but when they descended into the low country their distress increased4 ,during two months it rained incessantly1 without any interval of fair weather long enough to enable them to dry their clothes4 ,they could not advance a step1 unless they cut a road through woods1 or made it through marshes4 ,the land1 either altogether without inhabitants1 or occupied by the rudest and least industrious tribes in the ,new ,world1 yielded little food4 ,such incessant toil and continual scarcity were enough to shake the most stedfast hearts2 but the heroism and perseverance of the ,spaniards of the sixteenth century surmounted obstacles which to all others would have seemed insuperable4 ,allured by false accounts of rich countries before them1 they struggled on1 until they reached the banks of the ,napo1 one of the rivers whose waters add to the greatness of the ,maraon4 ,there1 with infinite labour1 they built a bark1 which they expected would prove of great use in conveying them over rivers1 in procuring provisions1 and in exploring the country4 ,this was manned with fifty soldiers1 under the command of ,francis ,orellana1 the officer next in rank to ,pizarro4 ,the stream carried them down so quickly that they were soon far ahead of their countrymen1 who followed slowly and with difficulty by land4 ,at first ,orellana may have had no intention to betray the trust bestowed upon him by his commander2 but on reaching the ,maraon1 the aspect of the stream rolling majestically to the east proved a temptation too strong for his ambition2 and1 forgetting his duty to his fellow-soldiers1 he resolved to follow the course of the river1 which seemed to beckon him onwards to riches and renown4 ,but one among his followers1 ,sanchez de ,vargas1 whose name well deserves a record1 had the courage to remonstrate against this breach of faith1 for which he was landed as a criminal1 without food or help of any kind4 ,after a dangerous and romantic navigation of seven months1 whose real adventures he afterwards embellished with fabulous tales of ,el ,dorados and warlike ,amazons1 ,orellana at length reached the mouth of the stream4 ,drifted by the current1 he thence safely steered for the ,spanish settlement in the island of ,cubagua1 and soon after embarked for ,spain4 ,the magnificence of his discovery threw a veil over his guilt2 and having been appointed governor of the territory whose grandeur he had been the first to reveal1 he once more crossed the ocean4 ,but he was not destined to reach the scene where his ambition dreamt of exploits worthy to eclipse the fame of ,cortes or ,pizarro2 a mortal disease befell him on the passage1 and in the sea he found a nameless grave4 ,but what had meanwhile become of the leader whom he had so basely abandoned in the wilderness8 ,the consternation of ,pizarro on not finding the bark at the confluence of the ,napo and the ,maraon1 where he had ordered ,orellana to wait for him1 may well be imagined4 ,but1 imputing his absence to some unknown accident1 he advanced above fifty leagues along the banks of the river1 expecting every moment to see the bark appear with abundant provisions and joyful tidings4 ,at length he met with the faithful ,vargas1 and now no doubt remained about the treachery of his lieutenant and his own desperate situation4 ,the spirit of his stoutest-hearted veterans sank within them2 all demanded to be led back instantly1 and ,pizarro1 though he assumed an appearance of tranquillity1 did not oppose their inclination4 ,but they were now #a1bjj miles from ,quito1 and a march of many months had to be made without the hopes which had soothed their previous sufferings4 ,hunger compelled them to sacrifice all their dogs and horses1 to devour the most loathsome reptiles1 to gnaw the leather of their saddles and sword-belts4 ,all the ,indians and #baj ,spaniards perished in this wild expedition1 which lasted nearly two years4 ,when at length the survivors arrived at ,quito1 they were naked like savages1 and so worn out with famine and fatigue that they looked more like spectres than men4 ,two hundred years after the adventures of ,pizarro and ,orellana1 the ,french naturalist1 ,la ,condamine1 performed his celebrated voyage from ,bracamoros to ,para4 ,he was accompanied by the learned ,m4 ,godin des ,odonnais1 who1 leaving his wife on the eastern slope of the ,andes1 returned alone to ,europe in the year #adgi4 ,after a separation of several years ,madame ,godin undertook to descend the ,amazons to ,para1 where her husband was waiting for her4 ,she embarked with her two brothers1 a doctor1 three female servants1 and some ,indians1 in a large open boat4 ,at the very first opportunity the doctor abandoned the party1 and was soon followed by the ,indians4 ,the unskilled travellers vainly attempted to steer their boat2 it foundered on a sand bank1 and ,madame ,godin with difficulty saved her life4 ,they then made a raft1 which met with the same misfortune4 ,undaunted by these repeated disasters1 but completely inexperienced1 they now resolved to proceed on foot through the forest2 but hunger and fatigue soon drove them to despair1 and they all perished1 except ,madame ,godin1 who1 though physically the weakest1 was morally the strongest of the party4 ,tattered1 emaciated1 exhausted1 she at length met some ,indians who treated her with the greatest kindness4 ,the long struggle for her life1 amid dangers and hardships without number1 had bleached her hair1 and stamped her with the marks of extreme old age4 ,the good-natured savages guided her to the next ,european settlement1 whence she continued her journey to ,para without any further adventures4 ,but the dreadful scenes she had witnessed1 and the loss of the dear relations and faithful companions who one after the other had dropped from her side1 had too severely shocked her nerves2 and1 though she escaped death in the wilderness1 it was only to fall a prey to hopeless insanity4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,primeval ,,forests ,,of ,,tropical ,,america4 ,their peculiar ,charms and ,terrors--,disappointments and ,difficulties of the ,botanist--,the ,bush-ropes--,variety of ,trees and ,plants--,trees with ,buttresses--,numberless parasites--,character of the ,primitive ,forest according to its ,site--,its ,aspect during the ,rainy ,season-- ,a ,hurricane in the ,forest--,beauty of the ,forest after the ,rainy ,season--,our ,home ,scenes equally beautiful--,bird ,life on the rivers of ,guiana--,morning ,concert--,repose of ,nature at ,noon--,nocturnal ,voices of the ,forest4 ,the peculiar charms of a tropical primeval forest are enhanced by the mystery of its impenetrable thickets2 for however grand its lofty vaults1 or lovely its ever-changing forms of leaf or blossom1 fancy paints scenes still more beautiful beyond1 where the eye cannot penetrate1 and where1 as yet1 no wanderer has ever strayed4 ,but imagination also peoples the forest with peculiar terrors2 for man feels himself here surrounded by an alien1 or even hostile1 nature3 the solitude and silence of the woods weigh heavily on his mind2 in every rustling of the falling leaves a venomous snake seems ready to dart forth2 and who knows what ravenous animal may not be lurking in the dense underwood that skirts the tangled path8 ,in ,europe there is no room for such feelings2 for in our part of the world there are no woods that may not be visited1 even in their deepest recesses3 no thorny bush-ropes stretch their intricate cordage before the wanderer2 no masses of matted shrubs block up his way4 ,but it is very different in the boundless forests of tropical ,america4 ,here the jaguar sometimes loses himself in such impenetrable thickets that1 unable to hunt upon the ground1 he lives for a long time on the trees1 a terror to the monkeys2 here the padres of the mission-stations1 which are not many miles apart in a direct line1 often require more than a day's navigation to visit each other1 following the windings of small rivulets in their courses1 as the forest renders communication by land impossible4 ,even the more open parts of the forest are full of mysteries4 ,in our woods the summits of the highest trees are accessible2 there is no blossom that we are not able to pluck--no plant that we are not able to examine1 from its root to its topmost branches2 but in the ,brazilian forest1 where the matted bush-ropes wind round the trunks like immense serpents waiting for their prey or stretch like the rigging of a ship from one tree to another1 and blossom at a giddy height1 it is frequently as impossible to reach their flowers as it is to distinguish to which of the many interlacing stems they may belong4 ,if any one should be inclined to tax this description with exaggeration1 let him try to pluck the flowers of the lianas1 or to ascend by climbing their flexible cordage4 ,the tiger-cat and the monkey1 perhaps also the agile ,indian1 may be able to accomplish the feat2 but it would be utterly hopeless for the ,european to undertake it4 ,nor is it possible to drag down these inaccessible creepers2 for1 owing to their strength and toughness1 it would be easier to pull down the tree to which they attach themselves than to force them from their hold4 ,here two or three together twisting spirally round each other form a complete living cable as if to bind securely the monarchs of the forest2 there they form tangled festoons1 and covered themselves with smaller creepers and parasitic plants1 hide the parent stem from sight4 ,no botanist ever entered a primitive forest without envying the bird to whom no blossom is inaccessible1 who1 high above the loftiest trees1 looks down upon the sea of verdure1 and enjoys prospects whose beauty can hardly be imagined by man4 ,a majestic uniformity is the character of our woods1 which often consist but of one species of tree1 while in the tropical forests an immense variety of families strive for existence1 and even in a small space one neighbour scarcely ever resembles the other4 ,even at a distance this difference becomes apparent in the irregular outlines of the forest1 as here a dome-shaped crown1 there a pointed pyramid1 rises above the broad flat masses of green1 in ever-varying succession4 ,on approaching1 the differences of colour are added to the irregularities of form2 for while our forests are deprived of the ornament of flowers1 many tropical trees have large blossoms1 mixing in thick bunches with the leaves1 and often entirely overpowering the verdure of the foliage by their gaudy tints4 ,thus splendid white1 yellow1 or red-coloured crowns are mingled with those of darker or more humble hue4 ,at length when1 on entering the forest1 the single leaves become distinguishable1 even the last traces of harmony disappear4 ,here they are delicately feathered1 there lobed--here narrow1 there broad-- here pointed1 there obtuse--here lustrous and fleshy1 as if in the full luxuriance of youth1 there dark and arid1 as if decayed with age4 ,in many the inferior surface is covered with hair2 and as the wind plays with the foliage1 it appears now silvery1 now dark green--now of a lively1 now of a sombre hue4 ,thus the foliage exhibits an endless variety of form and colour2 and where plants of the same species unite in a small group1 they are mostly shoots from the roots of an old stem4 ,this is chiefly the case with the palms2 but the species of the larger trees are generally so isolated in the wood1 that one rarely sees two alike on the same spot4 ,each is surrounded by strangers that begrudge it the necessary space and air2 and where so many thousand forms of equal pretensions vie for the possession of the soil1 none is able to expand its crown or extend its branches at full liberty4 ,hence there is a universal tendency upwards2 for it is only by overtopping its neighbours that each tree can attain the region of freedom and of light2 and hence also the crowns borne aloft on those high columnar trunks are comparatively small4 ,shooting up straight and tall in this general struggle1 they present no fantastic branches1 no projecting limbs1 like the sturdy oaks of our forests1 and each1 supported by the surrounding crowd1 loses depth and tenacity of root4 ,they may partly be compared to a body of military3 the storm may rage1 the lightning blast1 the earthquake shake1 and though many fall1 the body at large scarcely feels the loss4 ,separate them and they will be found far inferior in power to the wild warrior1 who1 accustomed to stand alone1 trusts to his own strength and dexterity to bear him through the worst storms of fate4 ,among the trees the various kinds that have buttresses projecting around their base are the most striking and peculiar4 ,some of these buttresses are much longer than they are high1 springing from a distance of eight or ten feet from the base1 and reaching only four or five feet high on the trunk2 while others rise to the height of twenty or thirty feet1 and can even be distinguished as ribs on the stem to forty or fifty4 ,they are complete wooden walls from six inches to a foot thick1 sometimes branching into two or three1 and extending straight out to such a distance as to afford room for a comfortable hut in the angle between them4 ,other trees again appear as if they were formed by a number of slender stems growing together4 ,they are deeply furrowed for their whole height1 like the pillars in a cathedral1 and in places these furrows reach quite through them1 like windows in a narrow tower1 yet they run up as high as their loftiest neighbours1 with a straight stem of uniform diameter4 ,another most curious form is presented by those which have many of their roots high above the ground1 appearing to stand on many legs1 and often forming archways large enough for a man to walk beneath4 ,the stems of all these trees1 and the climbers that wind or wave around them1 support a multitude of dependants4 ,tillandsias and other ,bromeliace1 resembling wild pine-apples1 large climbing ,arums1 with their dark green1 arrowhead-shaped leaves1 peppers in great variety1 and large-leaved ferns1 shoot out at intervals all up the stem to the very topmost branches4 ,between these1 creeping ferns and delicate little species like our ,hymenophyllum abound1 and in moist dark places the leaves of these are again covered with minute creeping mosses and ,jungermannias1 so that we have parasites on parasites1 and on these parasites again4 ,on looking upwards the infinite variety of foliage1 strongly defined against the clear sky1 is a striking characteristic of the tropical forest1 and the bright sunshine lighting up all above1 while a sombre gloom reigns below1 adds to the grandeur and solemnity of the scene4 ,as these vast woods occupy sites of a very different character1--here extending along low river-banks1 there climbing the slopes of gigantic mountains1--here under the equator1 there on the verge of the tropics1 where many of the trees1 annually casting their foliage1 remind one of the winter of the temperate zone--it is of course quite impossible to embrace all their varieties of form and aspect in one general description4 ,on descending from the heights of the ,andes to the plains of the ,maraon1 the eye is attracted1 in the more elevated forests 7the region of the quinquina trees71 by a variety of fantastically flowering orchids--and of arborescent ferns1 with their lacelike giant leaves-- by large dendritic urticeas--by wonderful bignonias1 banisterias1 passifloras1 and many other inextricably tangled bush-ropes and creepers4 ,farther downwards1 though the lianas still appear in large numbers1 the eye delights in palms of every variety of form1 in terebinthinaceas1 in leguminosas1 whose sap is rich with many a costly balsam2 in laurels1 bearing an abundance of aromatic fruit2 or it admires the broad-leaved heliconias1 the large blossoms of the solaneas1 and thousands of other flowers1 remarkable for the beauty of their colour1 the strangeness of their form1 or their exquisite aroma4 ,in the deep lowlands the forest assumes a severe and dismal character3 dense crowns of foliage form lofty vaults almost impenetrable to the light of day2 no underwood thrives on the swampy ground2 no parasite puts forth its delicate blossoms under the shade of the mighty trees and only mushrooms sprout abundantly from the humid soil4 ,nothing can equal the gloom of these forests during the rainy season4 ,thick fogs obscure the damp and sultry air1 and clouds of mosquitos whirl about in the mist4 ,the trees are dripping with moisture2 the flowers expand their petals only during the few dry hours of the day1 and every animal seeks shelter in the thicket4 ,no bird1 no butterfly comes forth2 the snorting of the capybaras1 and the monotonous croaking of frogs and toads1 are the only sounds that break the dull silence4 ,night darkens with increasing sadness over these dismal solitudes2 no star is visible2 the moon disappears behind thick clouds2 and the roar of the jaguar1 or the howling of the stentor-monkey1 issue like notes of distress from the depth of the melancholy woods4 ,a hurricane bursting over the primeval forest is one of the most terrific scenes of nature4 ,a hollow uproar in the higher regions of the air1 as if the wild huntsman of the ,german legends were sweeping along with his whole pack of phantom hounds1 precedes the explosion of the storm1 while the lower atmosphere still lies in deep repose4 ,the roaring and rushing descends lower and lower2 the higher branches of the trees strike wildly against each other2 the forked lightning flashes through the night-like darkness2 the thunder1 repeated by a hundred echoes1 rolls through the thicket2 and trees1 uprooted by the fury of the storm1 fall with a loud crash1 bearing down every stem of minor growth in their sweeping ruin4 ,the howlings and wailings of terrified animals accompany the wild sounds of the tempest4 ,after the wet season the woods appear in their full beauty4 ,before the first showers1 the long-continued drought had withered their leaves1 and dried up many of the more delicate parasites1 and during its continuance the torrents of rain despoiled them of all ornament2 but when the clouds disperse and the animals come forth from their retreats to stretch their stiffened limbs in the warm sunshine1 then also the vegetable world awakens to new life2 and where1 a few days before1 the eye met only with green in every variety of shade1 it now revels in the luxuriance of beautiful flowers1 which embalm the air with exquisite fragrance4 ,at this time of the year the banks of the rivers of ,guiana winding through the primitive woods are of magical beauty4 ,through the underwood which often overhangs wide spaces of the stream1 the large white blossoms of the inga shine forth1 along with the scarlet brushes of the magnificent combretia4 ,elegant palms1 armed with a panoply of thorns1 and bearing a profusion of red fruit1 rise above this lovely foreground2 and farther on1 noble forest trees are seen festooned with creepers and parasites covered with flowers4 ,these fairy bowers are enlivened by birds of splendid plumage1 particularly in the early morning1 when the luscious green of the high palm-fronds or the burning yellow of the lofty leopoldinias1 touched by the first rays of the sun1 suddenly shines forth4 ,then hundreds of gaudy parrots fly across the river2 numberless colibris dart like winged gems through the air2 whole herds of cotingas flutter among the blossoms2 ducks of brilliant plumage cackle on the branches of submerged trees2 on the highest tree-tops the toucan yelps his loud pia-po-ko6 while1 peeping from his nest1 the oriole endeavours to imitate the sound2 and the scarlet ibis flies in troops to the coast1 while the white egrette flutters along before the boat1 rests1 and then again rises for a new career4 ,yet pick out even the loveliest of these privileged spots where the most gorgeous flowers of the tropics expand their glowing petals1 and for every scene of this kind we may find another at home of equal beauty and with an equal amount of brilliant colour4 #8,look at a field of buttercups and daisies1' says ,mr4 ,wallace1 a very competent judge1 #8a hill-side covered with gorse and broom1 a mountain rich with purple heather1 or a forest glade azure with a carpet of wild hyacinths1 and they will bear a comparison with any scene the tropics can produce4 ,i have never seen anything more glorious than an old crab-tree in full blossom1 and the horse-chestnut1 lilac1 and laburnum will vie with the choicest tropical trees and shrubs4 ,in the tropical waters are no more beautiful plants than our white and yellow water lilies1 our irises and flowering rush1 for ,i cannot consider the flower of the ,victoria ,regia more beautiful than that of the ,nympha alba1 though it may be larger1 nor is it so abundant an ornament of the tropical waters as the latter is of ours4' ,let us1 therefore1 unseduced by the highly coloured statements of travellers1 learn to be contented with the beauties which ,nature has lavished on our woods and fields1 nor deem that ,england-- #8,where lawns extend that scorn ,arcadian pride1 ,and brighter streams than famed ,hydaspes glide'-- has received but a step-motherly share in the distribution of her gifts4 ,like the ocean1 the forest has its voices1 now swelling into uproar1 now subsiding into silence2 but while the wind and the breaker are the only musicians of the sea1 the woods resound with animal voices4 ,in general1 the morning hours are the loudest2 for the creatures that delight in daylight1 though not more numerous than the nocturnal species1 have generally a louder voice4 ,their full concert1 however1 does not begin immediately after sunrise2 for they are mostly so chilled by the colder night1 that they need to be warmed for some time before awakening to the complete use of their faculties4 ,first1 single tones ring from the higher tree-crowns1 and gradually thousands of voices join in various modulation--now approaching1 now melting into distance4 ,pre-eminent in loudness is the roar of the howling monkeys1 though without being able fully to stifle the discordant cries and chattering of the noisy parrots4 ,but the sun rapidly ascends towards the zenith1 and one musician after the other grows mute and seeks the cool forest shade1 until finally the whole morning concert ceases4 ,where the rays of light break through the foliage and play upon the underwood1 or on the damp ground1 gaudy butterflies flutter about1 beetles of metallic brilliancy warm themselves1 and richly-robed or dark-vested snakes creep forth2 for these indolent creatures are also fond of basking in the sun4 ,illustration3 ,,ivory-,,billed ,,woodpecker4 ,as the heat grows more intense1 the stillness of the forest is only interrupted at intervals by single animal voices4 ,sometimes it is the note of the ivory-billed woodpecker1 resounding like the distant axe of the forester1 or the wail of the sloth breaking forth from the dense thicket4 ,sometimes human voices seem to issue from the depth of the forest1 and the astonished huntsman fancies himself close to his comrades of the chase1 or in the more dangerous neighbourhood of a wild tribe of ,indians4 ,with deep attention he listens to the sounds1 until he discovers them to be the melancholy cry of the wood-pigeon4 ,the deepest silence reigns at noon1 when the sun becomes too powerful even for the children of the torrid zone2 and many creatures1 particularly the birds1 sink into a profound sleep4 ,then all the warm-blooded animals seek the shade1 and only the cold reptiles-- alligators1 lizards1 salamanders--stretch themselves upon the glowing rocks in the bed of the forest streams1 or on sunny slopes1 and1 with raised head and distended jaws1 seem to inhale with delight the sultry air4 ,as the evening approaches1 the noise of the morning begins to re-awaken4 ,with loud cries the parrots return from their distant feeding-grounds to the trees on which they are accustomed to rest at night2 and1 as the monkeys saluted the rising sun1 so1 chattering or howling1 they now watch him sinking in the west4 ,with twilight a new world of animals--which1 as long as the day lasted1 remained concealed in the recesses of the forest--awakens from its mid-day torpor1 and prepares to enjoy its nightly revels4 ,then bats of hideous size wing their noiseless flight through the wood1 chasing the giant hawk-moths and beetles1 which have also waited for the evening hour1 while the felid quit their lairs1 ready to spring on the red stag near some solitary pool1 or on the unwieldy tapir1 who1 having slept during the heat of the day1 seeks1 as soon as evening approaches1 the low-banked river1 where he loves to wallow in the mud4 ,then also the shy opossum quits his nest in hollow trees1 or under some arch-like vaulted root1 to search for insects or fruits1 and the cautious agouti sallies from the bush4 ,in our forests scarcely a single tone is heard after sunset2 but in the tropical zone many loud voices celebrate the night1 where for hours after the sun has disappeared1 the cicad1 toads1 frogs1 owls1 and goatsuckers chirrup1 cry1 croak1 howl1 and wail4 ,the quietest hours are from midnight until about three in the morning4 ,complete silence1 however1 occurs only during very short intervals2 for there is always some cause or other that prompts some animal to break the stillness4 ,sometimes the din grows so loud that one might fancy a legion of evil spirits were celebrating their orgies in the darkness of the forest4 ,the howling of the aluates1 the whine of the little sapajous1 the snarl of the duruculi1 the roaring of the jaguar1 the grunt of the pecari1 the cry of the sloth1 and the shrill voices of birds1 join in dreadful discord4 ,humboldt supposes the first cause of these tumults to be a conflict among animals1 which1 arising by chance1 gradually swells to larger dimensions4 ,the jaguar pursues a herd of pecaris or tapirs1 which break wildly through the bushes4 ,terrified by the noise1 the monkeys howl1 awakening parrots and toucans from their slumber2 and thus the din spreads through the wood4 ,a long time passes before the forest returns to its stillness4 ,towards the approach of day the owls1 the goatsuckers1 the toads1 the frogs1 howl1 groan1 and croak for the last time2 and as soon as the first beams of morning purple the sky1 the shrill notes of the cicad mix with their expiring cries4 ,illustration3 ,,botocudo ,,indians ,,attacking ,a ,,jaguar4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,wild ,,indians ,,of ,,tropical ,,america4 ,the wild ,forest ,tribes--,their ,physical ,conformation and ,moral ,characteristics--,their ,powers of ,endurance not inferior to those of other ,races--,their stoical indifference--,their ,means of ,subsistence--,fishing--,hunting--,the ,wourali ,poison--,ornaments-- ,painting--,tattooing--,religion--,the ,moon1 a ,land of ,abundance-- ,the ,botuto--,the ,piaches--,the ,savage ,hordes of ,brazil and ,guiana-- ,the ,ottomacas--,dirt-eaters--,their ,vindictive ,ferocity and ,war ,stratagems--,the extinct ,tribe of the ,atures--,a ,parrot the last ,speaker of their ,language--,their ,burial-cavern--,the ,uaupes ,indians--,their large ,huts--,horrid ,custom of ,disinterment--,the ,macus--,the ,purupurus--,the #8,palheta'--,the ,mandrucus--,singular resemblance of some of the ,customs of the ,american ,indians to those of ,remote ,nations--,the ,caribs--,the ,botocudos--,monstrous distension of the ,ears and ,under-lip--,their ,bow and ,arrow--,their ,migrations-- ,bush-rope ,bridge--,botocudo ,funeral--#8,tanchon1' the ,evil ,spirit4 ,though nominally under the dominion of the ,european race1 yet a considerable part of tropical ,america still remains in the undisturbed possession of its native tribes4 ,while the stranger has established his chief settlements along the coast or in those parts of the interior which before his arrival were already the seats of a certain degree of culture1 where before him the ,incas had founded cities and a large agricultural population occupied the fertile table-lands of ,anahuac1 the wild hunter1 unsubjected to the rules and trammels of civilised life1 still roams over the boundless woods or interminable savannahs through which the ,amazons1 the ,orinoco1 and a hundred other great streams wend their way from the ,andes to the ,ocean4 ,here the primitive ,american can still be studied2 here he exhibits the same traits of character and follows the same mode of life as his fathers before him1 in the times of ,cortez or ,pizarro4 ,many of the forest tribes1 indeed1 have been converted to ,christianity1 and live in missions or small settlements situated far apart on the banks of the great rivers2 others are willing to barter the drugs1 india-rubber1 or rare birds and insects1 they gather in the woods for articles of ,european manufacture2 but many desiring no more than what their native wilds supply1 never or but seldom cross the path of civilised man4 ,though divided into a large number of hostile tribes1 and scattered over an immense extent of country1 from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific1 and far beyond the bounds which separate one tropic from the other1 yet the ,american ,indians so nearly resemble each other1 both in their features and the qualities of their minds1 as evidently to be descended from one source4 ,their complexion is of a reddish-brown1 more or less resembling the colour of copper4 ,there is1 however1 a great diversity of shade among the several tribes1 which appears to be less dependent on the influence of climate than on an original disposition1 varying in the different branches of the ,american race4 ,the elevation above the sea1 or the vicinity of the equator1 seems to have no great influence1 for both ,ulloa and ,humboldt were astonished to find the ,indians as bronze-coloured or as brown in the cold regions of the ,cordilleras as in the hot plains of ,venezuela4 ,on the sultry banks of the ,orinoco there are even tribes characterised by a remarkable fairness of complexion1 living in the vicinity of others more than commonly brown4 ,d',orbigny makes this lightness of colour coincide with the woody and shady character of the quarters inhabited2 the ,maripas1 for instance1 who inhabit the most exposed countries1 being also the darkest in hue4 ,the hair of the ,american ,indians is always black1 long1 coarse1 and uncurled4 ,with rare exceptions they carefully eradicate their scanty beard4 ,their forehead is generally low1 their black and deep-seated eyes have their upper angles turned upwards1 and their cheek-bones are broad and high4 ,while they thus in some of their features resemble the ,mongol type1 they widely differ from it by the form of their nose1 which is as prominent as in the ,caucasian race4 ,the mouth is large1 the lips broad1 but not thick as those of the ,negro2 the chin short and round1 the jaws remarkably strong and broad4 ,the expression of the eye is in some tribes mild and serene1 in others it shows a forbidding mixture of melancholy and ferocity4 ,there is generally a remarkable rigidity in the features of the ,american1 very different from that lively play in a ,european countenance1 which often reflects as a mirror every emotion of the mind4 ,some tribes are of small stature1 others athletic2 the limbs are generally well-turned2 the feet small2 the body of just proportions4 ,the beardless countenance and smooth skin seem to indicate a defect of vigour which does not exist in reality4 ,in those parts of the continent where hardly any labour is requisite to procure subsistence1 and the powers of the body and mind are not called forth1 indolence indeed produces its usual effects1 weakness and languor2 but wherever the aboriginal ,american is accustomed to toil1 he is found capable of performing such tasks as equal any effort of the natives either of ,africa or of ,europe4 ,in many of the silver mines of ,mexico1 where the ore is conveyed to the surface by human labour1 the native ,indians will climb steep ladders with #bdj to #chj pounds1 and perform this hard work for six hours consecutively4 ,their muscular strength seemed truly astonishing to ,humboldt1 who1 though having no weight but his own to carry1 felt himself utterly exhausted after ascending from a deep mine4#i ,in propelling a boat against a rapid stream1 or in supporting the fatigues of a long march1 the ,indian evinces similar powers of endurance and exertion1 which prove him to be not inferior in this respect to the other races of man4 ,the uniformity which prevails in the features of the ,american aboriginals1 exists also in the qualities of their minds1 which generally exhibit an apparent indifference to pain or pleasure that would have done honour to a ,stoic4 ,insensible to the charms of beauty and the power of love1 they treat their women with coldness and indifference1 being at no pains to win their favour by the assiduity of courtship1 and still less solicitous to preserve it by indulgence and gentleness4 ,grave1 even unto sadness1 they have nothing of that giddy vivacity peculiar to many ,europeans4 ,frequently placed in situations of danger and distress1 depending on themselves alone1 and wrapped up in their own thoughts and schemes1 their minds are tinted with an habitual melancholy4 ,their attention to others is small1 the range of their own ideas narrow4 ,hence that taciturnity which is so disgusting to men accustomed to exchange their thoughts in social conversation4 ,when not engaged in some active pursuit1 the wild ,americans often sit whole days in one posture without opening their lips4 ,when they go forth to war or to the chase1 they usually march in a line at some distance from one another1 and without exchanging a word4 ,the same profound silence is observed when they row together in a canoe4 ,it is only when they are animated by intoxicating liquors1 or roused by the excitement of the dance1 that they relax from their usual insensibility and give some signs of sympathy with their kind4 ,all their thoughts intent upon self-preservation1 they live only in the present1 and seem alike indifferent to the past and the future4 ,gratitude1 friendship1 ambition1 are sentiments of which they have no idea2 and war or the pursuit of wild animals the only occupations which are able to rouse them from their stolid apathy4 ,many tribes depend entirely upon fishing or the chase for their subsistence2 others rear a few plants1 which in a rich soil and a warm climate are soon trained to maturity4 ,with a moderate exertion of industry and foresight the maize1 the manioc1 and the plantain would enable them to live in abundance1 but such is their improvident laziness that the provisions they obtain by cultivating the ground are but limited and scanty1 and thus when the woods and rivers withhold their usual gifts1 they are often reduced to extreme distress4 ,the streams and lagunes of ,south ,america abound with an infinite variety of the most delicate fish1 and ,nature seems to have indulged the indolence of the ,indian by the liberality with which she ministers in this way to his wants4 ,they swarm in such shoals that in some places they are caught without art or industry4 ,in others the natives have discovered a method of infecting the water with the juice of certain plants1 by which the fish are so intoxicated that they float on the surface1 and are taken with the hand4 ,in one of the shallow lagunes of the ,amazons1 the ,french traveller ,castelnau witnessed fish-catching by this means on a grand scale4 ,on the previous evening a quantity of branches of the ,barbasco 7,jacquinia armillaris71 after having been beaten with clubs1 and divided among the canoes that were to take part in the sport1 had been steeped in water1 and then flung with the infusion into the lagune4 ,at least five hundred ,indians stood on the banks among the high rushes or on the trunks of trees1 armed with arrows1 harpoons1 and clubs4 ,at first only small fishes appeared upon the surface1 and as if stunned1 and then1 suddenly awakening1 sought to leap upon the bank4 ,then the larger species were seen to float on the water1 or to make similar efforts to escape from the poisoned element4 ,during the whole day the canoes of the ,indians were passing on the lagune1 and the same bustle reigned along the banks4 ,the whistling of the arrows was incessantly heard1 together with the beating of the clubs upon the water1 while on land no less activity was displayed in cutting up1 smoking1 and salting the fish4 ,castelnau counted thirty-five different species1 and estimated the number caught at #ej1jjj or #fj1jjj1 many measuring a foot or more in length4 ,although the lagune was thus poisoned1 the ,indians drank the water with impunity1 and the river tortoises and alligators seemed to be equally untouched by the ,barbasco juice which proved so fatal to the fishes4 ,the prolific quality of the rivers in ,south ,america induces many of the natives to resort to their banks1 and to depend almost entirely for nourishment on what their waters so abundantly supply4 ,but this mode of life requires so little enterprise or ingenuity that the petty nations adjacent to the ,maraon and ,orinoco are far inferior1 in point of activity1 intelligence1 and courage1 to the tribes which principally depend upon hunting for their subsistence4 ,to form a just estimate of the intellectual capacities of the ,american1 he must be seen when following the exciting pursuits of the chase4 ,while engaged in this favourite exercise1 he shakes off his habitual indolence1 the latent powers and vigour of his mind are roused1 and he becomes active1 persevering1 and indefatigable4 ,his sagacity in finding his prey is only equalled by his address in killing it4 ,his reason and his senses being constantly directed to this one object1 the former displays such fertility of invention and the latter acquire such a degree of acuteness1 as appear almost incredible4 ,he discerns the footsteps of a wild beast1 or detects it among the dark foliage1 where its vestiges or presence would escape every other eye2 he follows it with certainty through the pathless forest1 and is able to subsist where the best ,european hunter would perish from want4 ,if he attacks his game openly1 his fatal arrow seldom errs from the mark2 if he endeavours to circumvent it by art1 it is almost impossible to avoid his toils4 ,among several tribes the young men are not permitted to marry until they have given such proofs of their skill in hunting as put it beyond doubt that they are capable of providing for a family4 ,their ingenuity1 always on the stretch and sharpened by emulation1 as well as necessity1 has struck out many inventions which greatly facilitate success in the chase4 ,slow1 and with noiseless step1 so as scarcely to disturb the fallen leaves beneath his feet1 the wily ,macusi ,indian approaches4 ,his weapons are strong1 and peculiar1 and of so slight an appearance as to form a strange contrast to their terrific power4 ,a colossal species of ,bamboo 7,arundinacea ,schomburgkii71 whose perfectly cylindrical culm often rises to the height of fifteen feet from the root before it forms its first knot1 furnishes him with his blow-pipe2 and the slender arrows which he sends forth with unerring certainty of aim1 are made of the leaf-stalks of a species of palm tree 7,maximiliana regia71 hard and brittle1 and sharp-pointed as a needle4 ,you would hardly suppose these fragile missiles capable of inflicting the slightest wound at any distance1 and yet they strike more surely and effectively than the rifleman's bullet1 for their point is dipped in the deadly juice of the ,strychnos ,urari1 whose venomous powers are not inferior to those of the bush-master's fang4 ,in vain1 suspended by his prehensile tail1 the ,miriki1 the largest of the ,brazilian monkeys1 retires to the highest forest trees2 in vain the sloth clings like a heap of moss to the bough2 touched by the fatal poison they both let go their arial hold1 and their lifeless bodies1 whizzing through the air as they drop down1 fall with a loud crash to the ground4 ,in a diluted form the wourali poison merely benumbs or stuns the faculties without killing1 and is thus made use of by the ,indians when they wish to catch an old monkey alive1 and tame him for sale4 ,on his falling down senseless1 they immediately suck the wound1 and wrapping him up in a strait jacket of palm leaves1 dose him for a few days with sugar-cane juice or a strong solution of saltpetre4 ,this method generally answers the purpose1 but should his stubborn temper not yet be subdued1 they hang him up in smoke4 ,then1 after a short time1 his useless rage gives way1 and his wild eye1 assuming a plaintive expression1 humbly sues for deliverance4 ,his bonds are now loosened1 and even the most unmanageable monkey seems to forget that he ever roamed at liberty in the boundless woods4 ,it is chiefly on the ,camuku mountains in ,guiana that the formidable ,urari plant is found1 whose sombre-coloured1 brown-haired leaves and rind seem by their sinister appearance to betray its deadly qualities4 ,the savage tribes of the ,south ,american woods know how to poison their arrows with the juices of various other plants1 but none equals this in virulence and certainty of execution1 and yearly the ,indians of the ,orinoco1 the ,rio ,negro1 and even of the ,amazons1 wander to the ,camuku mountains to purchase by barter the renowned ,urari or ,wourali poison of the ,macusis4 ,nature has vouchsafed to these sons of the wilderness an inestimable gift in these venomous juices1 which she has instilled in various plants of the forest1 for by no other means would they be able to kill the birds and monkeys on whose flesh they chiefly subsist4 ,how1 or at what time1 they made the discovery of their powers is unknown2 at all events the combination of so many means for the attainment of the end in view--the preparation of the poison1 the blow-pipe1 and the arrows--denotes a high degree of ingenuity4 ,the tropical ,indians are generally as free from the incumbrance of dress as it is possible to conceive1 paint seeming to be looked upon as a sufficient clothing4 ,red1 furnished by the pulp of the fruits of the ,arnatto1 or by the leaves of the ,bignonia ,chica1 is the favourite colour1 with which some tribes only besmear their faces1 while others1 who command a greater abundance of the material1 not only paint their whole bodies1 but even their canoes1 their stools1 and other articles of furniture4 ,red1 yellow1 and black are sometimes disposed in stripes1 or in regular patterns1 which it requires much time and patience to draw4 ,the labour bestowed upon these paintings is the more to be wondered at1 as a strong rain suffices to efface them4 ,some nations only paint when they are about to celebrate a festival1 others are thus decorated the whole year round1 and would be as ashamed to be seen unpainted as a ,european to appear unclothed4 ,the use of ornaments and trinkets of various kinds is almost confined to the men4 ,a circlet of parrot and other gaudily-coloured feathers is worn round the head1 but generally only on festive occasions4 ,tattooing is not so general or so elaborate as among the nations of the ,malayan race1 or the wild aboriginals of ,australia4 ,the religion of the ,american ,indians1 if such it may be called1 is of the lowest description4 ,some tribes1 indeed1 acknowledge a good principle1 called ,cachimana1 who rules the seasons and causes the fruits of the earth to ripen2 but1 thankless for the benefits they enjoy1 they pay far greater reverence to the evil principle1 ,tolokiamo1 who1 though not so powerful1 is more cunning and active4 ,the forest-,indians can hardly understand church and image worship4 #8,your ,god1' they say to the ,catholic missionaries1 #8shuts himself up in a house as if he were old and infirm2 ours is in the forest1 in the fields1 in the mountains whence comes the rain4' ,the moon is universally considered as the abode of the blessed1 as the land of abundance4 ,the ,esquimo1 for whom a plank thrown by the current on his treeless shore is a treasure1 sees in the moon extensive plains covered with forests1 while the ,indian of the ,orinoco perceives in its shining orb grassy savannahs1 exempt from all insect plagues4 #8,how pleasant it must be to live in the moon1' said a ,salina-,indian to ,father ,gumilla2 #8she is so beautiful and bright that surely no mosquitos can be there4' ,thus man is always disposed to transfer to some distant spot the seat of a felicity denied to him on earth4 ,on the banks of the ,orinoco and the ,amazons no idols are worshipped1 but the ,botuto1 the holy trumpet1 is the great object of veneration4 ,the ,piaches1 priests or medicine-men who have taken it under their care1 and who1 to be initiated in its mysteries are obliged to submit to fasts1 scourging1 and other painful or self-denying religious practices1 carry it under the palm trees where1 as they pretend1 its sound ensures a rich harvest for the following year4 ,sometimes the great spirit ,cachimana blows the trumpet himself1 at others he makes known his will through the guardians of the sacred instrument4 ,no woman is allowed to see it on pain of death1 but hurries away when the sound of it is heard approaching through the woods1 and remains invisible till after the ceremony is over1 when the instrument is taken away to its hiding-place1 and the women come out of their concealment4 ,some of these ,botutos are particularly renowned and venerated by more than one tribe4 ,sometimes offerings of fruits and palm-wine are deposited near them1 and prove1 no doubt1 very acceptable to the ,piaches4 ,the wild ,indians who people the vast forests and llanos of ,brazil and ,guaiana generally live in small hordes1 separated from each other by mutual distrust1 and often by open war4 ,their enmity is aggravated by the circumstance that even the neighbouring tribes speak totally different languages4 ,though when they first settled along the river-banks of tropical ,america they probably spoke one tongue2 yet1 lost in interminable woods1 where sometimes a single mountain or a few miles of forest are an almost impervious barrier between hordes which1 to communicate with each other1 would require a few days' navigation through a labyrinth of streams1 mere dialects in process of time became separate languages1 which from their dissimilarity perpetuate discord and hatred4 ,the ,indians avoid each other because they do not understand each other1 and a mutual distrust and fear is the cause of their mutual animosity4 ,some of the ,orinoco tribes1 as for instance the ,ottomacas and the ,yaruras1 are nomadic savages1 the outcasts of humanity2 others1 like the ,maquiritani and the ,macos1 are of milder manners1 and live in fixed settlements1 on the products of the soil4 ,the ,ottomacas1 of whom it is said by other ,indians1 #8that there is nothing so disgusting that they will not eat1' live the greater part of the year on fishes and turtles2 but when the ,orinoco and its tributaries swell during the periodical rains and render fishing next to impossible1 they become #8dirt-eaters' and assuage their hunger with an unctuous clay4 ,such is their predilection for this strange aliment1 in which chemistry detects no trace of organic matter1 that even in times of abundance they mix some of it with their more nutritious food4 ,the most remarkable fact is that during the two months of the year when they daily devour about three-quarters of a pound of clay1 and are restricted to a meagre supply of vegetable or animal provisions1 such as lizards1 ants1 and gum1 the ,ottomacas still remain healthy and strong1 and never complain of indigestion4 ,these barbarians are ugly1 wild1 vindictive2 and besides being passionately fond of palm-wine and maize-spirit1 use the powdered pods of a leguminous plant1 the ,acacia ,niopo1 as a means of intoxication4 ,the hollow bone of a bird serves as a kind of pipe1 through which they sniff up the powder1 which is so irritating that a small quantity produces a strong fit of sneezing in those who are not accustomed to it4 ,the effect of the ,niopo is to deprive them for a couple of hours of their senses1 and to render them furious in battle4 ,such is their malignant ingenuity that they poison their sharpened thumb-nails with the ,wourali1 so as to be able to inflict a death-wound with the slightest scratch1 and such their tiger-like ferocity that they suck with fiendish delight the blood of their slain enemies4 ,the country these wretches inhabit is described as romantically beautiful1 a mournful contrast to a state of society where man is eternally armed against man4 ,such is the miserable state of insecurity of the weaker tribes that1 when they approach a river's bank1 they carefully destroy with their hands the vestiges of their timid footsteps4 ,during the rainy season the swollen ,orinoco1 like the ,amazons and other great streams1 frequently undermines the trees on his banks1 and carries them along on his turbid waters4 ,these natural floats1 covered with a profusion of parasites and climbing plants1 form so many swimming islands1 pleasing to the eye1 but extremely dangerous to navigation2 for woe to the pirogue which at night is caught in their intricate network of roots and branches6 ,when the ,indians wish to surprise a hostile horde they bind several canoes together and1 concealing them under a covering of herbs and foliage1 thus imitate the natural floats of the ,orinoco4 ,lurking1 like murderous reptiles1 under a canopy of verdure1 the current carries them towards the unsuspecting objects of their stratagem1 and they send forth the poisoned dart ere the enemy is aware of their approach4 ,how happy might all these nations be if they would but apply to the arts of peace and improvement1 the intelligence they waste upon the purposes of war6 ,where the hordes are so small and the causes of destruction so great1 it cannot be wondered at that whole tribes die away like single families1 and come to be numbered among the beings of the past4 ,thus the ,atures1 who gave their name to the far-famed cataracts of the ,upper ,orinoco1 are now no more1 and1 strange to say1 the last words of their language were heard from the lips not of the last survivor of their race1 but from those of a parrot4 ,the ,atures are also interesting from their careful mode of sepulture1 in a burial cavern thus described by ,humboldt3 #8,the most remote part of the valley is covered by a thick forest4 ,in this shady and solitary spot1 on the declivity of a steep mountain1 the cavern of ,atariupe opens itself4 ,it is less a cavern than a jutting rock in which the waters have scooped a vast hollow2 when1 in the ancient revolutions of our planet1 they attained that height4 ,we soon reckoned in the tomb of a whole extinct tribe nearly six hundred skeletons1 well preserved1 and so regularly placed that it would have been difficult to make an error in their number4 ,every skeleton reposes in a sort of basket made of the petioles of the palm tree4 ,these baskets1 which the natives call mapurs1 have the form of a square bag2 their sizes are proportioned to the age of the dead2 there are some for infants cut off the moment of their birth3 we saw them from ten inches to three feet long1 the skeletons in them being bent together4 ,the bones1 not one of which is wanting1 have been prepared in three different manners1 either whitened in the air and the sun1 or dyed red with arnatto1 or1 like real mummies1 varnished with odoriferous resins1 and enveloped in leaves of the heliconia or plantain tree4 ,the ,indians related to us that the fresh corpse is placed in damp ground1 in order that the flesh remaining on the bone may be scraped off with sharp stones4 ,several hordes in ,guiana still observe this custom4 ,earthern vases1 half-baked1 are found near the mapurs or baskets2 they appear to contain the bones of the same family4 ,the largest of the vases1 or funeral urns1 are three feet high and five feet and a half long4 ,their colour is greenish-grey1 and their oval form is sufficiently pleasing to the eye1 ,the handles are made in the shape of crocodiles or serpents2 the edge is ornamented with meanders1 labyrinths1 and straight lines variously combined4' ,when the reverence paid to the dead thus called forth the first germs of art1 there surely must have been affectionate feelings of regret and sorrow1 which raised the ,atures above the level of mere callous savages1 and add a melancholy interest to their extinction4 ,the ,indians of the ,amazons valley appear to be much superior1 both physically and intellectually1 to those of ,south ,brazil and of most other parts of ,south ,america4 ,their superb figures generally equal the finest statues in beauty of outline2 their broad chests exhibit a splendid series of convex undulations without a hollow in any part of it4 ,the sons of a delicious climate1 their bodies1 invigorated by exercise1 and enjoying from infancy an unconstrained liberty of action1 show the perfection to which the human form may attain when circumstances favour its development4 ,such is the number of their tribes that ,mr4 ,wallace enumerates no less than thirty along the bank of the ,river ,uaupes1 one of the tributaries of the ,rio ,negro1 having almost all of them some peculiarities of language and custom1 but all going under the general name of ,uaupes1 and distinguishing themselves as a body from the inhabitants of other rivers4 ,all these tribes construct their dwellings after one plan1 which is peculiar to them4 ,their houses1 formed in the shape of a parallelogram with a semicircle at one end1 are the abode of numerous families1 sometimes of a whole tribe4 ,the roof is supported on the columnar trunks of palm trees4 ,in the centre a clear opening is left1 twenty feet wide1 and on the sides are little partitions of palm-leaf thatch1 dividing off rooms for the several families4 ,these houses are built with much labour and skill2 the main supports1 beams1 rafters1 and other parts1 are straight1 well-proportioned to the strength required1 and bound together with split creepers1 in a manner that a sailor would admire4 ,the thatch is of the leaf of some one of the numerous palms so well adapted to the purpose1 and is laid on with great compactness and regularity4 ,the walls1 which are very low1 are formed also of palm-thatch1 but so thick and so well bound together that neither arrow nor bullet will penetrate it4 ,at the gable end is a large doorway1 from the top of which hangs a palm mat1 supported by a pole during the day1 and let down at night4 ,a smaller door at the semicircular end is the private entrance of the chief1 to whom this part of the house exclusively belongs4 ,the furniture consists principally of hammocks1 made of string twisted from the fibres of the leaves of the ,mauritia flexuosa1 of pots and cooking utensils made of baked clay1 and of great quantities of small saucer-shaped baskets4 ,tattooing is very little practised by the ,uaupes2 they all1 however1 have a row of circular punctures along the arm1 and one tribe1 the ,tucanos1 are distinguished from the rest by three vertical blue lines on the chin4 ,they also pierce the lower lip1 through which they hang three little threads of white beads4 ,all the tribes bore their ears1 and wear in them little pieces of grass ornamented with feathers4 ,the ,cobeus alone expand the hole to so large a size that a bottle cork could be inserted4 ,the dead are almost always buried in the houses1 but several tribes have the horrid custom of disinterring the corpse about a month after the funeral1 and putting it in a great oven over the fire till all the volatile parts are driven off with an intolerable stench4 ,the black carbonaceous mass which remains is then pounded into a fine powder and mixed in several large vats of caxiri1 or maize-beer4 ,this is drunk by the assembled company till all is finished1 for they imagine that thus the virtues of the deceased will be transmitted to the drinkers4 ,the belief1 which is also common among the ,negroes1 that death in the prime of life does not proceed from a natural cause1 but is owing to the evil practices of some enemy1 leads to the same fatal consequences4 ,some poison given at a festival in a bowl of caxiri is generally used to avenge the dead2 this is of course again retaliated--on perhaps the wrong party--and thus a long succession of murders may result from what at first was a mere groundless suspicion4 ,the ,macus1 one of the lowest and most uncivilised tribes of ,indians in the ,amazons district1 lead a vagrant life similar to that of the ,african ,bushmen1 but with this advantage--that they have greater facility in procuring food1 and live in a country abounding in water4 ,they have no fixed place of abode1 but sleep at night on a bundle of palm leaves1 or stick up a few leaves to make a shed if it rains1 or sometimes with bush-ropes construct a rude hammock1 which1 however1 serves only once4 ,they eat all kinds of birds1 and fish1 roasted or boiled in palm spathes1 and all sorts of wild fruits4 ,they have little or no iron1 and use the tusks of the wild pig to scrape and form their bows and arrows1 which they anoint with poison4 ,as the ,bushmen do with their neighbours1 they often attack the houses of other ,indians1 situated in solitary places1 and are consequently equally detested by the surrounding tribes4 ,on the banks of the ,purus we find the ,purupurus1 who are almost all afflicted with a cutaneous disease1 consisting in the body being spotted and blotched with white1 brown1 or nearly black patches of irregular size and shape1 and having a very disagreeable appearance4 ,when young their skins are clear1 but as they grow up they invariably become more or less spotted4 ,their houses are of the rudest construction1 like those of our gipsies1 and so small as to be set up on the sandy beaches and carried away in their canoes whenever they wish to move4 ,these canoes are likewise extremely primitive1 having a flat bottom and upright sides--a mere square box1 and quite unlike those of all other ,indians4 ,but what distinguishes them yet more from their neighbours is that they use neither the blow-pipe nor bow and arrow1 but have an instrument called a #8palheta1' which is a piece of wood with a projection at the end1 to secure the base of the arrow1 the middle of which is held with the handle of the palheta in the hand1 and thus thrown as from a sling2 they have a surprising dexterity in the use of this weapon1 and with it readily kill game1 birds1 and fish4 ,they sleep in their houses1 on the sandy beaches1 making no hammocks nor clothing of any kind2 they make no fire in their houses1 which are too small1 but are kept warm in the night by the number of persons in them4 ,in the wet season1 when the banks of the river are all flooded1 they construct rafts of trunks of trees bound together with creepers1 and on them erect their huts1 and live there till the waters fall again1 when they guide their raft to the first sandy beach that appears4 ,in the country between the ,tapajoz and the ,madeira1 among the labyrinths of lakes and channels of the great island of the ,tupinambranos1 reside the ,mandrucus1 the most warlike ,indians of the ,amazons4 ,these are probably the only perfectly tattooed nation in ,south ,america4 ,the markings are extended all over the body2 they are produced by pricking with the spines of a palm1 and rubbing in the soot from burning pitch1 to produce an indelible bluish tinge4 ,they build their houses with mud walls in regular villages1 and1 though very agricultural1 make war every year with an adjoining tribe1 the ,parentintins1 taking the women and children for slaves1 and preserving the dried heads of the men in a large building or barrack1 where all the men sleep at night1 armed with their bows and arrows ready in case of alarm4 ,one of the singular facts connected with these ,indians of the ,amazons valley is the resemblance which exists between some of their customs and those of nations most remote from them4 ,the blow-pipe re-appears in the sumpitan of ,borneo2 the great houses of the ,uaupes closely resemble those of the ,dyaks of the same country1 while many small baskets and bamboo boxes from ,borneo and ,new ,guinea are so similar in their form and construction to those of the ,amazons that they would be supposed to belong to adjoining tribes4 ,then again the ,mandrucus1 like the ,dyaks1 take the heads of their enemies1 smoke-dry them with equal care1 preserving the skin and hair entire1 and hang them up around their houses4 ,in ,australia the throwing-stick is used1 and on a remote branch of the ,amazons we see a tribe of ,indians differing from all around them in substituting for the bow a weapon only found in such a remote portion of the earth1 among a people differing from them in almost every physical character4 ,how can such similarities be accounted for8 ,do they result from some remote and unknown connection between these nations1 or are they mere accidental coincidences produced by the same wants acting upon people subject to the same conditions of climate1 and in an equally low state of civilisation8 ,the ,caribs1 whom the cruelty of the ,spaniards extirpated in the ,lesser ,antilles1 still exist in a variety of tribes from the mouth of the ,amazons to ,lake ,maracaybo4 ,they are distinguished by an almost athletic stature1 by a stately demeanour1 and an intense national pride1 for1 remembering the times when they overran a considerable part of ,south ,america1 they still consider themselves as a superior race4 ,when a ,carib enters the hut of another ,indian he does not wait till food is offered him1 but1 looking round with a haughty mien1 seizes what pleases him best1 as if it were his own by right4 ,arrogant and tyrannical towards strangers1 he is equally so towards his wives1 and it would be difficult to find a ,carib woman who does not show in numerous scars and wounds the marks of her husband's brutality4 ,in point of intelligence1 the ,caribs are surpassed by no other ,indians4 ,they are excellent orators1 and the earnest dignified manner in which they deliver their speeches shows them to be capable of a high degree of civilisation4 ,among the tribes of ,southern ,brazil the ,botocudos1 who inhabit the primeval forests on the banks of the rivers ,pardo1 ,doce1 and ,belmonte1 are the most remarkable4 ,the custom of piercing the ears and underlip for the purpose of inserting some ornament is found among many other nations1 both of the ,old and the ,new ,world1 but nowhere is it carried to such an excess as among the ,botocudos4 ,at an early age pieces of round light wood1 first small and gradually larger1 are inserted into the apertures1 until at length the ears almost reach down to the shoulders1 and the lip1 distended into a narrow rim1 is made to project to a distance of seven or eight inches4 ,at a later age1 when the muscular fibres begin to lose their elasticity1 it hangs down1 and as1 in consequence of the pressure of the wood1 the front teeth soon fall out1 it is hardly possible to conceive anything more hideous than a face thus artificially deformed4 ,to add1 probably1 to their beauty1 these savages shave their hair so as to leave but a small crown or tuft on the top of the head4 ,the wourali is not in use among them1 but their enormous bows and long sharp arrows render them formidable to their neighbours4 ,a ,botocudo1 with his sharp eye and muscular arm1 accustomed from infancy to the use of these murderous weapons1 is indeed a greater object of terror in the gloomy impervious forest than the jaguar or the snake4 ,when a horde1 after having exhausted the neighbourhood of its game1 is obliged to migrate to some other quarter1 its removal is easily effected4 ,a few dried palm-leaves alone remain to indicate the spot where the savages had fixed their dwellings1 and soon even these slight vestiges disappear4 ,in the primitive forest man1 indeed1 passes away like a shadow1 #8,sicut navis1 quasi nubes1 velut umbra1' and leaves no more traces of his existence than the wild animals which he chased4 ,in these migratory journeys the heaviest burdens fall to the share of the women1 who1 besides a large heap of household articles1 tied up in a bag of network1 are often still obliged to carry a child on their back4 ,thus encumbered1 they manage to cross small rivers on bridges of a very primitive construction4 ,a cable made of bush-ropes is loosely suspended over the surface of the stream1 and on this they walk1 holding themselves by another cable similarly hung at a greater height4 ,the ,botocudos are cannibals1 like many other ,american tribes4 ,after a battle they feast upon the dead bodies of their enemies1 but more1 it seems1 from a spirit of vindictive rage than from a depraved taste for human flesh4 ,when a ,botocudo dies he is quickly buried in or near his hut1 and then the place is forsaken4 ,on the first day the tribe shows its grief by a wild howling1 but on the second it pursues its usual occupations4 ,no food1 or weapon1 or ornament is interred with the corpse1 but for some time a fire is kindled on each side of the grave1 to scare away the evil spirit #8,tanchon1' who would otherwise rob it of its contents4 ,from fear of this imaginary being the fierce ,botocudo1 who trembles at nothing that lives1 is afraid to sleep alone in the forest1 and anxiously seeks before night the society of his comrades4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,mexican ,,plateaus1 ,,and ,,the ,,slopes ,,of ,,sikkim4 ,geological ,formation of ,mexico--,the ,tierra ,caliente--,the ,tierra ,templada--,the ,tierra ,fria4 ,the ,sylvan ,wonders of ,sikkim--,changes of the ,forest on ascending--,the ,torrid ,zone of ,vegetation--,the ,temperate ,zone ,the ,coniferous ,belt-- ,limits of ,arboreal ,vegetation--,animal ,life4 ,the prodigious height attained in the torrid zone1 not only by single mountains1 but by vast tracts of land1 and the diminution of temperature which is the necessary consequence of their elevation above the level of the sea1 enable the inhabitants of many tropical countries1 without leaving their native land1 to view the vegetable forms of every zone1 and to pluck nearly every fruit that is found between the equator and the arctic circle4 ,in ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america1 in the islands of the ,indian ,archipelago1 and in the ,hawaiian group1 where the ,mauna ,loa towers to the height of ,mont ,blanc1 and girdles his foot with palms1 while snow rests for a great part of the year upon his summit1 we find numerous examples of a rapid transition from the torrid to the temperate or frigid zone1 often within the range of a single day's journey4 ,it would far exceed my limits were ,i to attempt to follow all these gradations of climate throughout the wide extent of the tropics2 but a short description of the ,mexican plateaus1 and of the slopes of ,sikkim1 which ,i have selected as remarkable instances of the wonderful change of vegetation resulting from the progressive elevation of the land1 will1 ,i hope1 prove not uninteresting to the reader4 ,after traversing ,south ,america and the ,isthmus of ,darien1 the giant chain of the ,andes spreads out1 as it enters ,mexico1 into a vast sheet of table-land1 which maintains an elevation of from #f1jjj to #i1jjj feet for the distance of #bjj leagues1 until it gradually declines in the higher latitudes of the north1 or descends in successive stages to the sea-board of the ,atlantic4 ,to this remarkable geological formation the land1 though warmed during a part of the year by the rays of a vertical sun1 owes that astonishing variety of climate and productions which would make it the envy of the earth1 if peopled by a race that knew better how to utilize the gifts of ,nature4 ,all along the ,mexican ,gulf stretches a broad zone of lowlands1 called the tierra caliente1 or hot region1 which has the usual high temperature of the tropics4 ,parched and sandy plains1 dotted with mimosas and prickly opuntias1 are intermingled with savannahs1 and woodlands of exuberant fertility4 ,the branches of the stately forest trees are festooned with clustering vines of the dark purple grape1 convolvuli1 and other flowering parasites of the most brilliant dyes4 ,the undergrowth of prickly aloe1 matted with wild rose and honeysuckle1 makes in many places an almost impervious thicket4 ,in this wilderness of sweet-smelling buds and blossoms flutter birds of the parrot tribe1 and clouds of butterflies1 whose colour1 nowhere so gorgeous as here1 rival those of the vegetable world2 while birds of exquisite song1--the scarlet cardinal1 and the mocking-bird that comprehends in his own notes the whole music of a forest1--fill the air with melody4 ,illustration3 ,,cardinal4 ,illustration3 ,,mocking-,,bird4 ,but1 like the genius of evil1 the malaria engendered by the decomposition of rank vegetable substances in the hot and humid soil1 poisons these enchanting retreats1 and from the spring to the autumnal equinox renders them dangerous or fatal to man4 ,hastening to escape from its influence1 the traveller1 after passing some twenty leagues across the dreaded region of the yellow-fever1 finds himself rising into a purer atmosphere4 ,his limbs recover their elasticity4 ,he breathes more freely1 for his senses are not now oppressed by the sultry heats and intoxicating perfumes of the lowlands4 ,the aspect of nature1 too1 has changed1 and his eye no longer rests on the gay variety of colours with which the landscape was painted there4 ,the vanilla1 the indigo1 the chocolate-tree disappear as he advances1 but the sugar-cane and the glossy-leaved banana still remain2 and when he has ascended about four thousand feet1 he sees1 in the unchanging green and the rich foliage of the liquidambar-tree1 that he has reached the height where clouds and mists settle in their passage from the ,mexican ,gulf1 and keep up a perpetual moisture4 ,he is now beyond the influence of the deadly vomito on the confines of the tierra templada1 or temperate region1 where evergreen oaks begin to remind him of the forests of central ,europe4 ,the features of the scenery become grand1 and even terrible4 ,his road sweeps along the base of mighty mountains1 once gleaming with volcanic fires1 and still glistening in their mantles of snow1 which serve as beacons to the mariner for many a league at sea4 ,all along he beholds traces of their ancient combustion as his road passes over vast tracts of lava1 bristling in the fantastic forms into which the fiery torrent has been thrown by obstacles in its career4 ,perhaps at the same moment1 as he casts his eyes down one of those unfathomable ravines or barrancas1 which often1 to a depth of more than #a1bjj feet1 rend the mountain-side1 he sees its sheltered and sultry recesses glowing with the rich vegetation of the tropics3 as if these wonderful regions were anxious to exhibit1 at one glance1 the boundless variety of their flora4 ,cactuses1 euphorbias1 and dracn1 with a multitude of minor plants1 cling to the rocky walls2 while in the depth of the gorge stand huge laurels1 fig-trees1 and bombace1 whose blossoms exhale almost overpowering odours1 and whose trunks are covered with magnificent creepers1 expanding their gay petals in the torpid air4 ,still pressing upwards1 he mounts into regions favourable to other kinds of cultivation4 ,he has traced the yellow maize growing from the lowest level2 but he now first sees fields of wheat and the other ,european cereals1 brought into the country by the ,spanish conquerors1 and with these1 plantations of the ,american agave1 which1 among other uses1 provides the ,mexican with his favourite beverage4 ,the oaks acquire a sturdier growth2 and at an elevation of about eight thousand feet1 the dark forests of pine announce that he has entered the tierra fria1 or cold region1--the third and last of the great natural terraces into which the country is divided4 99 99 99 99 99 ,loaded with vapours1 the prevailing southerly sea-winds1 after crossing the dead level occupied by the delta of the ,ganges and ,burrampooter1 strike against the mountain-spurs of ,sikkim1 the dampest region of that stupendous chain1 and expending their moisture on their flanks1 clothe them with a thick mantle of verdure to an enormous height4 ,the giant peaks of ,donkiah1 ,kinchinghow1 and ,kinchinginga1 the third great mountain of the world 7#bh1agh feet71 form the culminating points of this magnificently wooded region1 and look down upon the dense forests which1 varying as they rise1 extend between the plains of ,bengal and their own perpetual snows4 ,dark green woods1 of an exclusively tropical character1 cover the valleys and declivities to a height of from #d1jjj to #e1jjj feet4 ,mighty palms rise above the mass of the forest1 while innumerable shrubs cover the ground4 ,the prevalent timber is gigantic1 and scaled by climbing leguminos1 bauhinias1 and robinias1 which sometimes sheathe the trunks1 or span the forest with huge cables1 joining tree to tree4 ,large bamboos rather crest the hills than court the deeper shade1 of which there is abundance1 for the torrents cut a straight and steep course down the hill-flanks4 ,the gulleys which they traverse are choked by vegetation1 and bridged by fallen trees1 whose trunks are clothed with epiphytical orchids1 pendulous lycopodia1 ferns1 pothos1 peppers1 vines1 bignonias1 and similar types of the hottest and dampest climates4 ,the beauty of the drapery of the pothos leaves is pre-eminent1 whether for the graceful folds of the foliage or for the liveliness of its colour4 ,of the more conspicuous smaller trees the wild banana is the most abundant1 its broad crown contrasting with the smaller-leaved plants amongst which it nestles2 next comes a screw-pine1 with a straight stem and a tuft of leaves1 each eight or ten feet long1 waving on all sides4 ,at an elevation of about four thousand feet many plants of the temperate zone1 increasing in numbers as the traveller ascends1 begin to mingle with the tropical vegetation1 and to impart new charms to the forest2 oaks and walnuts are here seen thriving near palms and arborescent ferns2 mighty rhododendrons expand over thickets of tropical herbage2 parasitical orchids adorn the trunks of the oaks1 while thalictrons and geraniums blossom underneath4 ,at a height of about #g1jjj feet the forest1 assuming a decidedly temperate physiognomy1 is chiefly composed of oaks1 magnolias1 chestnuts1 laurels1 and walnuts4 ,in many parts arborescent rhododendrons prevail1 and ferns are generally very abundant4 ,about #aj1jjj feet above the level of the sea begins a zone or belt of conifer1 chiefly characterised by the silver fir 7,abies ,webbiana7 and the ,abies ,brunoniana1 a beautiful species1 forming a stately pyramid1 with branches spreading like the cedar1 but not so stiff1 and drooping gracefully on all sides4 ,only at intervals other trees1 such as willows1 magnolias1 ashes1 birches1 poplars1 apple and cherry trees1 appear among the thick pine-woods4 ,the shrubbery and herbaceous plants of this zone are representatives of the whole temperate flora of ,europe and ,america1 intermixed with many ,chinese1 ,japanese1 and ,malayan plants in the richest variety4 ,several epiphytic orchids grow to an elevation of #aj1jjj feet1 and large spaces are frequently occupied by rhododendrons1 which either ascend from the temperate zone into the coniferous belt1 or first appear in the latter4 ,but very few trees1 such as the willows1 birches1 maples1 and ashes1 rise above the coniferous forest1 which reaches an upper limit of about #ac1jjj feet4 ,most arboreal plants now appear only in a dwarfed condition2 but the willows still rise in powerful growth over the many ,alpine shrubs-- juniperus1 rosa1 lonicera1 potentilla1 rhododendron--which cover the ground2 and single specimens1 though low and stunted1 are even found at a height of #af1jjj feet4 ,the whole zone between the extreme limits of arboreal vegetation and the upper boundary of shrubs1 generally occupies an elevation of from #ac1ejj to #af1jjj feet1 and may justly be called the region of the ,alpine rhododendrons3 these plants are here by far the most numerous1 and frequently belt the mountains with a girdle of richly coloured blossoms1 even to the verge of the perennial snows4 ,a large number of herbs1 crucifer1 composit1 ranunculace1 grasses1 sedges1 grow and bloom beyond the limits of the shrubs1 frequently forming luxuriant pastures1 on which numerous herds of yacks or grunting-oxen1 graze during the summer4 ,many plants are even exclusively confined to these enormous heights2 such as the ,rhododendron nivale1 the most ,alpine of woody plants1 which ,dr4 ,hooker found at #ag1jjj feet elevation1 the ,delphinium glaciale1 and the ,arenaria rupifraga1 a curious species forming great hemispherical balls1 and altogether resembling in habit the curious balsam-bog of the ,falkland ,islands1 which thrives in similar scenes4 ,while on the summits of the ,swiss ,alps1 lichens but sparely cover the rocks1 wherever they are denuded of snow1 the wanderer in ,sikkim enjoys the sight of many a gay-coloured flower in regions #c1jjj or #d1jjj feet higher than the summit of ,mont ,blanc4 ,illustration3 ,,musk-,,deer4 ,while thus in ,sikkim a wonderful variety of vegetation rises in successive zones from the foot of the mountains to heights unparalleled in any other part of the world1 animal life abounds only in its lower classes2 for the higher orders appear only in few species1 and in very scanty numbers4 ,on ascending from the foot of the ,himalaya1 one is astonished at the silence of the woods1 broken at intervals only by the voice of a bird1 or the chirping of a cicada4 ,the solitude increases on penetrating into the interior of ,sikkim1 and is but rarely enlivened by a few monkeys in the valleys1 some musk deer on the spare grass of the mountains1 in heights of from #h1jjj to #ac1jjj feet1 or a few larks1 sparrows1 finches1 pigeons1 swallows1 falcons1 and other birds1 some of which ascend to a surprising height4 ,the insects1 however1 and other invertebrata1 make up1 by their numbers1 for the scarcity of warm-blooded animals1 and are often insupportable plagues to the wanderer4 ,beautiful butterflies sometimes ascend to heights of #aj1jjj feet1 along with the less agreeable mosquitoes and ticks1 and in all the streams up to an elevation of #g1jjj feet1 hill leeches infest the waters in such multitudes that bathing is almost impossible4 ,illustration3 ,,african ,,bushmen4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,kalahari ,,and ,,the ,,bushmen4 ,reasons why ,droughts are prevalent in ,south ,africa--,vegetation admirably suited to the ,character of the ,country--,number of ,tuberous ,roots--,the ,caffre ,water-,melon--,the ,mesembryanthemums--,the ,animal ,life of the ,kalahari--,the ,bushmen1 a ,nomadic ,race of ,hunters-- ,their ,skill in ,hunting--,their ,food--,acuteness of their ,sight and ,hearing--,their ,intelligence and ,perseverance--,their ,weapons and ,marauding ,expeditions--,their ,voracity--,their ,love of ,liberty-- ,the ,bakalahari--,their ,love for ,agriculture--,their ,ingenuity in procuring ,water--,trade in ,skins--,their timidity4 ,a geographical position1 not unlike that which condemns the plains along the western foot of the ,peruvian and ,bolivian ,andes to perpetual aridity1 renders also the greater part of tropical and sub-tropical ,southern ,africa subject to severe droughts1 and in general to great scarcity of rain4 ,for the emanations of the ,indian ,ocean1 which the easterly winds carry towards that continent1 and which1 if equally distributed over the whole surface1 would render it capable of bearing the richest productions of the torrid zone1 are mostly deposited on the eastern slopes of the mountain-chains1 which1 under various denominations1 traverse eastern ,south ,africa from north to south2 and when the moving mass of air1 having crossed their highest elevations1 reaches the great heated inland plains1 the ascending warmth of that hot dry surface gives it greater power of retaining its remaining moisture1 and few showers can be given to the central and western lands4 ,thus1 while the sea-board gorges of the eastern zone are clad with gigantic forests1 and an annual supply of rain there keeps a large number of streams perpetually flowing1 ,damara ,land1 the ,namaqua country1 and the ,kalahari1 are almost constantly deprived of moving water4 99 99 99 99 99 ,from these general remarks it might be imagined that regions so scantily supplied with one of the prime necessaries of life could be nothing but a dead and naked waste2 yet1 strange to say1 even the great ,kalahari1 extending from the ,orange river in the south1 lat4 #bi1 to ,lake ,ngami in the north1 lat4 #ba1 and from about #bd ,e4 long4 to near the west coast1 has been called a desert simply because it contains no flowing streams and very little water in wells2 as1 far from being destitute of vegetable or animal life1 it is covered with grass and a great variety of creeping plants1 interspersed with large patches of bushes and even trees4 ,in general1 the soil is a light-coloured1 soft sand2 but the beds of the ancient rivers contain much alluvial soil1 and1 as that is baked hard by the burning sun1 rain-water stands in pools in some of them for several months in the year4 ,the abundance of vegetation on so unpromising a soil may partly be explained by the geological formation of the country2 for as the basin-shape prevails over large tracks1 and as the strata on the slopes where most of the rain falls dip in towards the centre1 they probably guide water beneath the plains1 which are but ill-supplied with moisture from the clouds4 ,another cause1 which serves to counteract the want or scarcity of rain1 is the admirable foresight of ,nature in providing these arid lands with plants suited to their peculiar climate4 ,thus creepers abound which1 having their roots buried far beneath the soil1 feel but little the effects of the scorching sun4 ,the number of these which have tuberous roots is very great--a structure evidently intended to supply nutriment and moisture when1 during the long droughts1 they can be obtained nowhere else4 ,one of these blessings to the inhabitants of the desert is the ,leroshua1 a small plant with linear leaves1 and a stalk not thicker than a crow's quill2 but on digging down a foot or eighteen inches beneath1 the root enlarges to a tuber1 often as big as the head of a young child1 which1 on the rind being removed1 is found to be a mass of cellular tissue1 filled with fluid much like that in a young turnip4 ,owing to the depth beneath the surface at which it is found1 it is generally deliciously cool and refreshing4 ,another kind1 named mokuri1 is seen in other parts of the country1 where long-continued heat parches the soil4 ,this plant is an herbaceous creeper1 and deposits under ground a number of tubers1 some as large as a man's head1 often in a circle1 a yard or more horizontally from the stem4 ,the natives strike the ground on the circumference of the circle with stones1 till1 by hearing a difference of sound1 they know the water-bearing tuber to be beneath4 ,they then dig down a foot or so and find it4 ,but the most wonderful plant of the desert is the ,kengwe1 the water-melon of the ,caffres4 ,in years when more than the usual quantity of rain falls1 vast tracts of the country are literally covered with these juicy gourds1 and then animals of every sort and name1 including man1 rejoice in the rich supply4 ,the creeping plants of the desert serve1 moreover1 a double purpose2 for1 besides their use as food1 they fix1 by means of their extensive ramifications1 the constantly shifting sands--thus rendering similar services to those of the sand-reed 7,ammophila arundinacea7 on the dunes along the sandy coasts of the ,north ,sea4 ,the ,mesembryanthemums are another family of plants admirably adapted to the ,kalahari1 as their seed-vessels remain firmly shut while the soil is hot and dry1 and thus preserve the vegetative power intact during the highest heat of the torrid sun2 but when rain falls1 the seed-vessel opens and sheds its contents1 just when there is the greatest likelihood of their vegetating4 ,this is the more wonderful1 as in other plants heat and drought cause the seed-vessels to burst and shed their charge4 ,one of this family possesses a tuberous root1 which may be eaten raw2 and all are furnished with thick1 fleshy leaves1 with pores capable of imbibing and retaining moisture from a very dry atmosphere and soil2 so that if a leaf is broken during the greatest drought it shows abundant circulating sap4 ,the peculiar and comparatively abundant vegetation of the arid plains of ,south ,africa explains how these wastes are peopled by herds of herbivorous animals1 which in their turn are preyed upon by the lion1 the panther1 or the python4 ,hundreds of elands 7,boselaphus oreas7 gemsbucks1 koodoos1 7,strepsiceros capensis71 or duikers 7,cephalopus mergens71 may often be seen thirty or forty miles from the nearest water4 ,these1 having sharp-pointed hoofs well adapted for digging1 are able to subsist without water for many months at a time1 by living on moist bulbs and tubers2 while the presence of the rhinoceros1 of the buffalo and gnu 7,catoblepas ,gnu71 of the giraffe1 the zebra1 and pallah 7,antilope melampus71 is always a certain indication of water being within a distance of seven or eight miles4 ,illustration3 ,,koodoo4 ,the tribes of the ,kalahari consist of ,bushmen1 probably the aborigines of the southern part of the continent1 and of ,bakalahari1 the remnants of an ancient ,bechuana emigration4 ,the diminutive ,bushman occupies nearly the lowest degree in the scale of humanity4 ,equalled in size by the ,chimpanzee1 far surpassed by the ,gorilla1 and with as little prominence of the nasal bone as in those highest of the ,simi1 he nevertheless walks erect1 and by the equal and uninterrupted series of his comparatively small teeth1 by his well-developed great toe and the large opposable thumb1 by his plantigrade foot and prehensile hand1 vindicates his claim to the genus man4 ,inhabiting the arid deserts of ,south ,africa1 from the confines of the ,cape ,colony to the banks of the ,zambesi1 or possibly even as far north as the valley of the ,nile1 he is the only real nomad in ,south ,africa1 as the scanty means of subsistence the land affords compel him to a life of constant wandering4 ,he never cultivates the soil excepting perhaps for the sake of a little dacha or wild hemp for smoking1 nor rears any domestic animal save wretched dogs4 ,as a hunter he rivals the ,american ,indian in his intimate acquaintance with the habits of the game1 and the skill he evinces in their capture4 ,he follows them in their migrations from place to place1 and proves as complete a check upon their inordinate increase as the other carnivora4 ,when game is scarce1 he manages to live on bulbs1 snakes1 lizards1 termites1 ants' eggs1 locusts1 and any other garbage he can get4 ,inured to every privation1 he equals the camel in his endurance of hunger and thirst1 and will remain for days without tasting a drop of water1 except such as is contained in the pulp of succulent plants4 ,his refuge at night is some natural cave or self-made burrow1 or the shelter of a bush1 where1 covered with the skin of a sheep or antelope1 he rests like a wild animal in his lair4 ,it may naturally be supposed that a life like this must act unfavourably on his physical development2 but1 though apparently weak1 his meagre body is capable of great exertion4 ,his sight and hearing are remarkably acute1 as he is constantly practising them in the pursuits of the chase2 but it would almost seem as if he were devoid of taste1 smell1 and feeling1 for he expresses no disgust at the most loathsome food1 and is quite insensible to all changes of temperature4 ,when each individual only seeks the momentary gratification of his first animal wants1 without any thought of the future1 the ties of society must necessarily be very slack4 ,thus1 the whole nation is subdivided into small hordes or families1 and even these are frequently forced to separate as the same place does not afford sufficient nourishment for all4 ,there is no distinction of hereditary rank2 bodily strength is the only quality conferring superiority1 and enables its fortunate possessor to tyrannize over his weaker companions4 ,though occupying about the same rank in the human family as the ,fuegians1 and leading a mere brute existence1 the ,bushmen give many proofs of intelligence4 ,they are with difficulty roused to exertion1 but when they have once conquered their habitual laziness1 an uncommon perseverance characterises all their undertakings4 ,nothing will induce them to quit the spoor of an animal they have once pursued2 they will dig for days in places where they expect to find some water4 ,both in the fabrication and the use of their weapons1 they show great ingenuity and skill4 ,like the ,south ,american ,indians1 they understand the art of poisoning their arrows1 which scarcely ever miss the mark within a distance of eighty paces2 they also have recourse to pitfalls1 poisoned water1 and other stratagems4 ,in the art of surprising their game1 they can hardly be surpassed4 ,it is not an easy task1 in the midst of a naked plain1 to avoid the eye of the shy antelope or of the far-sighted ostrich1 so as to be able to approach them within a distance of fifty or sixty paces4 ,this1 however1 they perform1 by slowly creeping along almost on their bellies1 by strewing dust over their bodies1 so as not to be betrayed by any difference of colour1 and by remaining motionless as soon as the animal shows any marks of attention4 ,this tedious pursuit often lasts several hours1 without ever tiring their patience2 and the prey thus tracked1 however swift and wary1 but seldom escapes them4 ,in the marauding expeditions which they frequently undertake for the purpose of stealing the cattle of their neighbours1 the ,caffres1 ,bechuanas1 or ,boors--for1 having no property themselves1 they have little regard for the property of others--they show no less expertness and cunning1 never venturing an attack before having first carefully spied out every circumstance1 and taken every precaution to ensure success4 ,at the time of the last quarter of the moon1 their thefts are most to be feared1 for they then execute their robberies in the dark before midnight1 and afterwards profit by the moonlight for a more rapid flight4 ,their physiognomy has the characteristic traits of the ,hottentot race1 but their eye is infinitely more sharp and wild1 their countenance more expressive and intelligent1 and all their gestures more lively--a difference caused1 no doubt1 by the greater mental and bodily actions to which a life full of hardships and privations constrains them4 ,as may be imagined from the few ideas it has to express1 their language is very poor1 and1 on account of its peculiar and characteristic click and its harsh gutturals1 more resembles the screeching of an animal than a human idiom4 ,when a horde has been successful in some hunting or marauding expedition1 it keeps the fact as secret as possible1 for as soon as the intelligence spreads1 everyone hastens to the spot to come in for his share of the feast4 ,for fear of being obliged to divide with others1 the prey is devoured as fast as possible1 with inconceivable gluttony1 and what cannot be used is instantly destroyed1 merely from the dog-in-the-manger motive1 to keep others from its enjoyment4 ,when1 for instance1 the ,bushmen have found a nest of ostrich eggs1 and circumstances will not allow of their remaining on the spot1 they take away as many as they can carry1 and break the rest2 or1 when they meet with a great herd of springbocks1 they will wound as many as possible with their poisoned arrows1 though six or eight would suffice them with food for many days4 ,it is a state of society like that to which1 probably1 the communists would reduce civilized ,europe1 if their insane doctrines could ever be realized4 ,despite the many privations they have to endure1 the ,bushmen prefer the utter freedom of the desert to the constraint of an agricultural and pastoral life4 ,they live in the ,kalahari by choice1 the ,bakalahari from compulsion1 and both possess an intense love of liberty4 ,the ,bakalahari are traditionally reported to be the oldest of the ,bechuana tribes driven into the desert by a fresh migration of their own nation4 ,though living ever since on the same plains with the ,bushmen1 under the same influences of climate1 enduring the same thirst1 and limited to the same scanty food for centuries1 they still retain in undying vigour the ,bechuana love for agriculture and domestic animals1 hoeing their gardens annually1 though often all that they can hope for is a supply of melons and pumpkins1 and carefully rearing small herds of goats1 although to provide them with water is a task of no small difficulty1 since the dread of hostile visits from the adjacent ,bechuana tribes makes them choose their abode far from the nearest spring or pool1 and leads them not unfrequently to hide their supplies by filling the pits with sand and making a fire over the spot4 ,when they wish to draw water for use1 the women come with twenty or thirty of their water vessels in a bag or net on their backs4 ,these water vessels consist of ostrich egg-shells1 with a hole in the end of each1 such as would admit one's finger4 ,the women tie a bunch of grass to one end of a reed about two feet long1 which they insert in a hole dug as deep as the arm will reach1 and then ram down the wet sand firmly round it4 ,applying the mouth to the free end of the reed1 they form a vacuum in the grass beneath1 in which the water collects1 and in a short time rises into the mouth4 ,an egg-shell is placed on the ground alongside the reeds1 some inches below the mouth of the sucker4 ,a straw guides the water into the hole of the vessel as she draws mouthful after mouthful from below2 and thus the whole stock of water passes through her mouth as a pump1 and when taken home is carefully buried to prevent its loss by evaporation4 ,a short stay among the thirsty ,bakalaharis might teach us better to appreciate the blessings of an abundant supply of water4 ,these poor people generally attach themselves to influential men in the different ,bechuana tribes near to their desert home1 in order to obtain supplies of spears1 knives1 tobacco1 and dogs1 in exchange for the skins of animals which they kill4 ,these are small carnivora of the feline race1 including two species of jackal1 the dark and the golden1 the former of which has the warmest fur the country yields1 while the latter is very handsome when made into the skin-mantle called kaross4 ,next in value follow the small ocelot1 the lynx1 the wild and the spotted cat4 ,great numbers of duiker and steinbuck skins are also obtained1 besides those of lions1 panthers1 and hynas4 ,the ,bakalahari are a timid race1 and in bodily development frequently resemble the aborigines of ,australia4 ,they have thin legs and arms1 and large protruding abdomens1 caused by the coarse indigestible food they eat4 ,their children's eyes have no lustre1 and such is their want of the animation so natural at that age that ,dr4 ,livingstone never saw them at play4 ,a ,bechuana may meet a troop of ,bakalahari1 and domineer over the whole with impunity2 but when he meets a ,bushman he is fain to adopt a more humble tone1 well knowing that if the request for tobacco is refused1 the free son of the desert may endeavour to obtain it by a poisoned arrow4 ,illustration3 ,,tower ,,in ,,agades4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,sahara4 ,its uncertain ,limits--,caravan ,routes--,ephemeral ,streams--,oases-- ,inundations--,luxuriant ,vegetation of the ,oases contrasted with the surrounding ,desert--,harsh contrasts of ,light and ,shade--,sublimity of the ,desert--,feelings of the ,traveller while crossing the ,desert-- ,its charms and terrors--,sand-,spouts--,the ,simoom--,the #8,sea of the ,devil'--,the ,gazelle--,its chase--,the ,porcupine--,fluctuation of ,animal ,life according to the ,seasons--,the ,tibbos and the ,tuaregs-- ,their contempt of the sedentary ,berbers4 ,from the ,nile to the ,senegal1 and from the vicinity of ,agades or of ,timbuctoo to the southern slopes of the ,atlas1 extends the desert which above all others has been named the ,great4 ,surpassing the neighbouring ,mediterranean at least three times in extent1 and partly situated within the tropical zone1 partly bordering on its confines1 its limits are in many places as undetermined as the depths of its hidden solitudes4 ,no ,european has ever travelled along its southern boundary1 nor is its interior known1 except only along a few roads1 traced for many a century by the wandering caravans4 ,in general the desert may be said to extend in breadth from the thirty-ninth to the seventeenth degree of northern latitude2 but while in many parts it passes these bounds1 in others fruitful districts penetrate far into its bosom1 like large peninsulas or promontories jutting into the sea4 ,until within the last few years1 it was supposed to be a low plain1 partly situated even below the level of the ocean2 but the journeys of ,barth1 ,overweg1 and ,vogel have proved it1 on the contrary1 to be a high table-land1 rising #a1jjj or #b1jjj feet above the sea4 ,nor is it the uniform sand-plain which former descriptions led one to imagine2 for it is frequently traversed by chains of hills1 as desolate and wild as the expanse from which they emerge4 ,but the plains also have a different character in various parts3 sometimes over a vast extent of country the ground is strewed with blocks of stone or small boulders1 no less fatiguing to the traveller than the loose drift sand1 which1 particularly in its western part 7most likely in consequence of the prevailing east winds71 covers the dreary waste of the ,sahara4 ,often also the plain is rent by deep chasms1 or hollowed into vast basins4 ,in the former1 particularly on the northern limits of the desert1 the rain descending from the gulleys of the ,atlas1 sometimes forms streams1 which are soon swallowed up by the thirsty sands1 or dried by the burning sunbeams4 ,in spite of this short duration1 the sudden appearance of these streams is not unfrequently the cause of serious distress to the oases which border the northern limits of the desert4 ,for this reason1 as soon as the ,atlas veils itself with clouds1 horsemen from the oases of the ,beni-,mzab are sent at full speed into the mountains4 ,they form a chain as they proceed1 and announce1 by the firing of their rifles1 the approach of the waters4 ,the inhabitants of the oases instantly hurry to their gardens to convey their agricultural implements to a place of safety4 ,a rushing sound is heard2 in a short time the ground is inundated2 and the little village seems suddenly as if by magic transported to the banks of a lake1 from which the green tufts of the palm-trees emerge like islands4 ,but this singular spectacle soon passes away like the fantastic visions of the mirage4 ,the deeper basins of the ,sahara are frequently of great extent1 and sometimes contain large deposits of salt4 ,wherever perennial springs rise from the earth1 or wherever it has been possible to collect water in artificial wells1 green oases1 often many a day's journey apart from each other1 break the monotony of the desert4 ,they might be compared with the charming islands that stud the vast solitudes of the ,south ,sea2 but they do not appear1 like them1 as elevations over surrounding plains of sea1 but as depressions1 where animals and plants find a sufficient supply of water1 and a protection1 not less necessary1 against the terrific blasts of the desert4 ,a wonderful luxuriance of vegetation characterises these oases of the wilderness4 ,under and between the date-palms1 grow apricot and peach trees1 pomegranates and oranges1 the henna1 so indispensable to ,oriental beauty2 and even the apple-tree1 the pride of ,european orchards4 ,the vine twines from one date-palm to another1 and every spot susceptible of culture produces corn1 particularly dourrah or barley1 and also clover and tobacco4 ,with a prudent economy the villages are built on the borders of the oases on the unfruitful soil1 so that not a foot of ground susceptible of culture may be lost4 ,the vast tracts of sterile sand1 where not even the smallest plant takes root1 and which might be called the #8desert of the desert1' present the greatest conceivable contrast to its green oases4 ,with the vegetable world the animal kingdom likewise disappears1 and for days the traveller pursues his journey without meeting with a single quadruped1 bird1 or insect4 ,all is solitude and death in this awful wilderness1 where1 in the ,bedouins' poetical language1 #8nothing exists but ,allah6' ,nowhere are the transitions of light and shade more abrupt than in the desert1 for nowhere is the atmosphere more thoroughly free from all vapours4 ,the sun pours a dazzling light on the ground1 so that every object stands forth with wonderful clearness1 while all that remains in the shade is sharply defined1 and appears like a dark spot in the surrounding glare4 ,these harsh contrasts between light and shade deprive the landscape of all grace and harmony2 but this want is amply compensated by its singular grandeur4 ,the boundless horizon and the silence which reigns over the whole scene1 appeal with powerful effect to the imagination1 and thus constantly amuse the mind amid scenery that presents so few objects to occupy it4 ,but in such a country every slight modification of form or colour rivets observation3 the senses are sharpened1 and perceptive faculties prone to grow dull over a perpetual shifting of scenery1 act vigorously when excited by the capability of embracing each detail4 ,to the solitary wayfarer there is an interest in the wilderness unknown to the ,alpine glacier and even to the rolling prairie1 the effect of continued excitement on the mind1 stimulating its powers to their pitch4 ,above1 a sky1 terrible in its stainless beauty1 and the splendour of a pitiless blinding glare2 around you1 drifted sand-heaps upon which each puff of wind leaves its own trace in solid waves2 naked rocks1 the very skeletons of mountains1 and hard unbroken plains1 over which he who rides is spurred by the idea that the bursting of a water-bag or the pricking of a camel's hoof would be certain death of torture--a haggard land infested by wild beasts and wilder men--a region whose very fountains seem to murmur the warning words #8,drink and away4' ,what can apparently be more devoid of every charm1 and yet in none of her aspects is ,nature more fascinating and sublime4 ,man's heart bounds in his breast at the thought of measuring his puny force with the desert's might1 and of emerging triumphant from the trial--and this sense of danger never absent invests the scene of travel with an interest not its own4 ,thus1 in spite of all he may have endured1 the traveller that has once crossed the desert will ever after remember it with regret1 and long for the renewal of its deep emotions4 ,for the life of the ,sahara resembles that of the ocean4 ,during a continuance of bad weather or a calm the mariner may vow to forsake the sea for ever1 but he has scarcely landed when his affection revives and he longs for the sea again4 ,in summer when the sun pours his vertical rays over the arid waste the desert is one vast furnace2 but in the temperate season1 its pleasures well repay the wanderer for many a peril or hardship4 ,in this pure dry atmosphere his health improves1 and with his health the tone and vigour of his mind4 ,though his mouth glows and his skin is parched--yet he feels no languor1 the effect of humid heat2 his lungs are lightened1 his sight brightens1 his memory recovers its strength1 his spirits become exuberant1 his fancy and imagination are powerfully aroused-- and the wildness and sublimity of the scenes around him stir up all the energies of his soul--whether for exertion1 danger1 or strife4 ,his senses are quickened2 they require no stimulant but air and exercise-- in the desert spirituous liquors only excite disgust4 ,there is a keen enjoyment in a mere animal existence4 ,the vigorous appetite disposes of the most indigestible food2 the sand is softer than a bed of down1 and the purity of the air suddenly puts to flight a dire cohort of diseases4 ,hence it is that both sexes and every age1 the most material as well as the most imaginative of minds1 all feel their hearts dilate and their pulses beat strong1 as they look down from their dromedaries upon the glorious desert4 ,nothing can equal the beauty of the night in these arid wilds1 doubly grateful after the heat and glare of the day4 ,we1 the sons of a colder clime1 accustomed to see the starry firmament faintly glimmering through a misty haze1 can have no idea of the magnificence of its luminous worlds brightly sparkling through an atmosphere of incomparable clearness4 ,grazing at these isles of light the soul rises on the wings of adoration to ,him who made them4 ,the desert is the image of the ,infinite2 no place is more apt to awaken religious feelings1 and no time is fitter for devotion than its still and solitary night4 ,he1 who1 in the desert does not hear the voice of ,god1 knows not the ,almighty1 and ranks far below the wandering ,arab1 who1 after the toil of the sultry day1 reverentially bows down his forehead in prayer over the sand of the desert4 ,falling on his knees he exclaims3 #8,allah hu akbar6 ,god is greater3' greater than all created things1 which only bear witness to ,his greatness4 ,but it is not alone the sublime grandeur of the desert which raises the spirit of man to his ,maker2 its terrors also make him vividly feel the ,almighty presence1 for when the sense of his helplessness becomes overpoweringly acute1 he then instinctively looks for protection above4 ,as the conflicting air-currents of the ocean occasion water-spouts1 the terror of the mariner2 so also sandspouts or trombs arise in rotatory eddies from the midst of the desert1 and assume the form of mighty columns1 sometimes slowly moving along1 at others advancing with menacing swiftness4 ,as they rapidly scud with the wings of the whirlwind over the plain-- huge1 yellow shafts with lofty heads horizontally bent backwards in the form of clouds1 it requires but little stretch of fancy to enter into the ,bedouin's superstition1 and1 like the imaginative sons of the desert1 suppose them to be the genii of the waste which cannot be caught1 a notion arising from the fitful movements of the wind-eddy that raises them4 ,as they advance1 the pious ,moslem stretches out his finger1 exclaiming1 #8,avaunt1 ,o thou ill-omened one6' ,every moment the dread columns change their station1 their appearance1 their form4 ,onward they move1 with terrible rapidity2 the sun tints them with the brilliancy of fire2 the storm1 whirling in and around them1 cuts them into several branches1 reunites them1 now weakens and now again strengthens them2 and when1 the whirlwind having spent its force1 they suddenly collapse1 and relieve the traveller from the fear of immediate danger1 he yet must not exult too soon1 for generally these sandspouts are followed by the dreaded simoom4 ,the temperature of the air becomes intolerably oppressive2 it is sultry and enervating as before a thunder-storm4 ,the hitherto crystal transparency of the sky is veiled with a hazy dimness1 it is the sand of the desert whirling at a distance in the atmosphere1 but as yet no wind is felt4 ,the camels1 however1 are conscious of its approach4 ,they become restless and anxious1 and appear overcome by fatigue4 ,and now a light hot wind arises from the south1 or south-west1 blowing in intermittent gusts like the laborious breathing of a feverish patient4 ,gradually the convulsions of the storm grow more violent and frequent2 and although the sun is unable to pierce the thick dust-clouds1 and the shadow of the traveller is scarcely visible on the ground1 yet so suffocating is the heat that it seems to him as if the fiercest rays of the sun were scorching his brain4 ,the fiery purple of the atmosphere gradually changes to a leaden blackness2 the wind becomes constant2 the camels1 snorting and groaning1 stretch out their necks flat upon the ground1 and turn their backs to the raging sand-storm4 ,the ,arabs pile up the water-bags1 so as to screen them from the wind and diminish the surface exposed to the dry air1 and wrapping themselves up as closely as possible in their cloaks1 seek protection behind chests or bales of merchandise4 ,at night darkness is complete1 no light or fire burns in the tents1 which are hardly able to resist the gusts of the simoom4 ,a deep silence reigns throughout the whole caravan1 yet no one sleeps2 the bark of the jackal or the howl of the hyna alone sounds dismally from time to time through the loud roaring of the storm4 ,a prolonged simoom causes more fatigue to man and beast than all the other hardships of a desert journey1 and brings new and as yet unknown sufferings to the traveller4 ,under the desiccating influence of the dry air1 his lips spring open and begin to bleed1 his parched tongue vainly longs for a refreshing draught2 and1 together with a raging thirst1 an insupportable itching and burning invade the whole body2 for the skin bursts in a hundred places1 and the fine irritating dust penetrates into every wound4 ,sometimes a raving madness1 the symptoms of a fatal inflammation1 is the result of these complicated tortures2 in other cases the blood circulating with feverish haste through the veins1 produces congestion of the brain2 and1 senseless and motionless1 the wretch sinks down upon the ground1 never to rise again4 ,and the lot of him who still retains the full consciousness of his misery is not more enviable1 for death by thirst awaits him1 with slower but more dreadful pangs4 ,his camel drops1 his water-bag is nearly empty4 ,he tries to walk2 in a short time the glowing sand produces gangrenous sores in his feet1 and every step is accompanied by the most excruciating pain4 ,his companions are all too busy with themselves to pay the least attention to the unfortunate sufferer2 they have but one thought--self2 one aim--that of reaching the next well4 ,abandoned to his fate1 the deserted traveller stands alone1 waterless1 helpless in the dreadful waste4 ,he tears his beard1 he curses his destiny2 for him there is no hope4 ,and now1 when earth and heaven begin to reel around him1 the #8,sea of the ,devil' spreads out its delusive phantoms before his weakened vision4 ,he sees all his heart can wish for2 palm groves waving over a broad expanse of lake2 winding rivers covered with barges1 their streamers gaily floating in the breeze2 fairy gardens surrounded by rippling waters4 ,the glorious prospect stimulates him to one last exertion2 could he but reach that blessed shore the joys of paradise were his1 but his paralysed limbs mock the vain effort which exhausts the last remnant of his strength4 ,the crows1 wheeling with dismal cries over the dying wretch1 often hack out his eyes before death relieves him of all pain4 ,these corsairs of the air accompany the caravan as sharks accompany a vessel2 for they reckon1 like the tyrants of the seas1 upon the tribute of the journey4 ,in a short time the dry atmosphere changes the corpse into a natural mummy1 which1 #8grinning horribly a ghastly smile1' seems to defy the desert4 ,perchance some future caravan passing along throws some pious dust upon the shrivelled body1 but the wind soon uncovers it again1 for the shifting desert will not even grant a burial to its victims4 ,on every great caravan route such mummies protruding from the sand meet the eye of the traveller1 telling him1 in their mute but expressive language1 #8,such1 stranger1 may be thy fate to-morrow4' ,the arid desert produces only a few plants and animals1 but stamps them all with its own peculiar mark4 ,from the tawny ,bedouin to the worm scarcely distinguishable in the sand1 it gives all its creatures the same dress1 the same colour1 which might justly be called the colour of the desert4 ,it is the pale greyish-yellow tint which belongs as well to the gazelle as to the small lark of the sandy wastes4 ,among the birds there are no doubt many modifications of this general rule1 and the deviations increase as the desert gradually merges into the more fertile steppes1 but even here its characteristic mark is not to be mistaken4 ,a wandering desultory life is the lot of the children of the desert4 ,the nourishment afforded them by their sterile home is too scanty for sedentary habits1 and cannot be obtained without exertion4 ,but ,nature has endowed them with an activity and powers of endurance which distinguish them from many other animals1 and enable them to exist where less hardy or less spirited beings would perish4 ,even such of them as originally did not belong to the desert1 but since several generations have learnt to make it their home1 such as the noble horse of the ,bedouin1 acquire the spirit it engenders4 ,the same love of independence1 the same attachment to their native haunts1 animates all the inhabitants of the desert4 ,separated from their home they droop and pine away4 ,the richest food affords the captive gazelle no compensation for the meagre herbage of the sandy waste2 the widest space seems narrow when compared with its boundless extent4 ,nothing can be more elegant than the figure of this beautiful antelope in the full unfettered freedom of its native wilds4 ,its slender but vigorous limbs are in the highest degree elastic2 all its actions are animated and graceful4 ,when the approach of a caravan surprises it in its solitude1 it pricks up its ears1 stretches forth its neck1 and fixes an attentive gaze upon the strangers4 ,distrusting their intentions1 it vaults with a few bounds over large stones or bushes1 and then again stops1 playfully waving its horns to and fro4 ,when once it has been chased it becomes extremely wary1 and on account of its amazing fleetness can only be taken by dint of the utmost perseverance and cunning4 ,it is often seen in large groups1 bounding across the desert with such extraordinary swiftness that it seems bird-like to skim over the surface4 ,from time immemorial its elegant form and brilliant eye have played a conspicuous part in ,oriental poetry4 ,the ,arab loves to compare the eye of his mistress with that of the gazelle-- #8,her eyes' dark charm 'twere vain to tell1 ,but look on that of the gazelle1 ,it will assist thy fancy well'-- and #8,thou art as graceful and as beautifully-shaped as a gazelle1' is the highest compliment that can be paid to an ,oriental beauty4 ,the chase of the gazelle is a favourite amusement of the inhabitants of the ,saharian oases4 ,on seeing a herd at a distance1 they approach as cautiously as possible2 and when about a mile distant1 they unleash their greyhounds1 who dart off with the rapidity of arrows1 and are excited by loud cries to their utmost speed4 ,yet they only reach the flying herd after a long race2 and now the scene acquires the interest of a drama4 ,the best greyhound selects the finest gazelle for his prey1 which uses all its cunning to avoid its pursuer1 springing to the right1 to the left1 now forwards1 then backwards1 sometimes even right over the greyhound's head2 but all these zigzag evolutions fail to save it from its indefatigable enemy4 ,when seized it utters a piteous cry1 the signal of the greyhound's triumph1 who kills it with one bite in the neck4 ,when we consider the scanty vegetation of the ,sahara1 we cannot wonder that animal life is but sparingly scattered over its surface4 ,the lion1 so frequently misnamed #8the king of the desert1' only shows himself on its borders2 and on asking the nomads of the interior whether it is ever seen in their parts1 they gravely answer that in ,europe lions may perhaps feed on shrubs or drink the air1 but that in ,africa they cannot exist without flesh and water1 and therefore avoid the sandy desert4 ,in fact1 they never leave the wooded mountains of the ,atlas1 or the fruitful plains of the ,soudan1 to wander far away into the ,sahara1 where snakes and scorpions are the only dangerous animals to be met with4 ,the snakes1 which belong to the genus ,cerastes1 which is distinguished by two small horns upon the head1 have a deadly bite1 and are remarkable for their almost total abstinence from water4 ,among the animals which inhabit those parts of the desert which are covered with prickly shrubs1 we find hares and rabbits1 hynas and jackals1 the hedgehog and the porcupine4 ,well-beaten paths1 and here and there a scattered quill1 lead to the hole which this proverbially fretful animal burrows in the sand4 ,the hunters widen the entrance with their poniards or swords1 until a hoarse1 prolonged growl1 and the peculiar noise which the enraged porcupine makes on raising his quills1 warn them to be on their guard4 ,suddenly the creature rushes from its burrow to cast itself into the thicket2 but the well-aimed blow of a poniard stretches it upon the sand4 ,a fire being kindled1 the animal is buried under the embers2 and the quills then easily separate from the roasted and excellently-flavoured meat4 ,several lizards inhabit the desert2 among others1 a large grey monitor1 and a small white skink1 with very short legs1 called ,zelgague by the ,arabs4 ,its movements are so rapid that it seems to swim on the sand like a fish in the water1 and when one fancies one has caught it1 it suddenly dives under the surface4 ,its traces1 however1 betray its retreat1 and it is easily extracted from its hole1--a trouble which1 in spite of the meagre booty1 is not considered too great when provisions are scarce4 ,according to the seasons animal life fluctuates in the ,sahara from north to south4 ,in winter and spring1 when heavy rains1 falling on its northern borders1 provide wide districts1 thoroughly parched by the summer heat1 with the water and pasturage needed for the herds1 the nomadic tribes wander farther into the desert with their camels1 horses1 sheep1 and goats1 and retreat again to the coast-lands as the sun gains power4 ,at this time of the year the wild animals-- the lion1 the gazelle1 and the antelope--also wander farther to the south1 which at that time provides them1 each according to its taste1 with the nourishment which the dry summer is unable to bestow2 while the ostrich1 who during the summer ranged farther to the north1 then retreats to the south2 for hot and sandy plains are the paradise in which this singular bird delights to roam4 ,in the southern part of the ,sahara the tropical rains1 whose limits extend to #ai ,n4 lat41 and in some parts still farther to the north1 produce similar periodical fluctuations in the animal life of the desert4 ,under their influence the sandy plains are soon enlivened here and there with grasses1 and the parched shrubs clothe themselves with verdure4 ,in the dry season1 on the contrary1 the green carpet disappears1 and the country then changes into a dry waste4 ,frequently1 however1 the tropical rains fail to appear on their northern boundaries1 and disappoint the hopes of the thirsty desert4 ,two nomadic nations1 the ,tuaregs and the ,tibbos wander with their camels and sheep over the immense expanse of the ,sahara in quest of scanty forage and thorny shrubbery4 ,the abstinence and hardships they frequently endure1 the freedom of a roving life1 and their predatory habits1 give them an evident superiority over the sedentary ,berbers1 who inhabit the oases1 and repay the haughty demeanour of the nomads with hatred and contempt4 ,yet1 in spite of these feelings of ill-will1 the bonds of traffic and of a common interest connect the vagrant and the agricultural tribes4 ,condemned to perpetual migrations1 the nomad is forced to confide all the property he is unable to carry about with him to the inhabitants of the oases2 he may even possess a small piece of land1 the cultivation of which he entrusts to the latter1 who1 on his part1 as soon as he has saved something1 buys a sheep or a goat which he gives in charge to the nomad4 ,an unmitigated hatred1 on the contrary1 exists between the various erratic tribes1 as here no mediating self-interest softens the antipathies which are almost universally found to exist between neighbouring barbarians1 and their robber expeditions not merely attack the richly-laden caravan1 but also the oasis which may be connected by the bonds of intercourse with their hereditary enemies4 ,illustration3 ,,bedouin ,,warriors4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,bedouins ,,of ,,arabia4 ,the ,deserts of ,arabia--,sedentary ,arabs and ,bedouins--,physical ,characteristics of the ,bedouins--,remarkable acuteness of their ,senses--,their ,manners--,their intense ,patriotism and ,contempt of the dwellers in ,cities--,the ,song of ,maysunah--,their ,wars--,their ,character softened by the ,influence of ,woman--,their chivalrous ,sentiments--,the ,arab horse--,the ,camel--,freedom of the ,arabs from a ,foreign and a ,domestic ,yoke--,the ,bedouin ,robber--,his ,hospitality-- ,mode of ,encamping--,death ,feuds--,blood-money--,amusements--,thro wing the ,jereed--,dances--,poetry--,story-tellin g--,language--,the ,bedouin and the ,north ,american ,indian4 ,though ,arabia possesses some districts of remarkable fertility which enjoy a succession of almost perpetual verdure1 yet the greater part of that vast peninsula consists of burning deserts lying under a sky almost perpetually without clouds1 and stretching into immense and boundless plains where the eye meets nothing but the uniform horizon of a wild and dreary waste4 ,these naked deserts are encircled or sometimes intersected by barren mountains1 which run in almost continuous ridges and in different directions from the borders of ,palestine to the shores of the ,indian ,ocean4 ,their summits tower up into rugged and insulated peaks1 but their flinty bosoms supply no humidity to nourish the soil2 they concentrate no clouds to screen the parched earth from the withering influence of a tropical sky4 ,instead of the cooling breezes periodically enjoyed in other sultry climates1 hot winds frequently diffuse their noxious breath1 alike fatal to animal and vegetable life4 ,the steppes of ,russia and the wilds of ,tartary are decked by the hand of ,nature with luxuriant herbage1 but in the ,arabian deserts vegetation is nearly extinct4 ,the sandy plains give birth to a straggling and hardy brushwood1 while the tamarisk and the acacia strike their roots into the clefts of the rocks1 and draw a precarious nourishment from the nightly dews4 ,were it not for the wadys1 or verdant spots lying here and there among the hills1 and the various wells or watering stations supplied by periodical rains1 the greater portion of ,arabia must have remained unpeopled1 and for ever impervious to man4 ,in a country like this1 where whole years occasionally pass away without a refreshing shower1 the possession of a spring is not unfrequently the most valuable property of a tribe4 ,there are large tracts1 however1 where the luxury of water1 as it may well be called1 is unknown1 and where the desert extends for many a day's journey without affording the traveller the welcome sight of a single well4 ,this extraordinary land is inhabited by a no less extraordinary people1 divided into two great classes1 widely different in their pursuits3 the inhabitants of cities and towns1 who live by tillage and commerce1 and the natives of the desert1 who follow a pastoral and predatory life1 and consider the former as a separate and inferior race4 ,through all antiquity this characteristic distinction has remained inviolate1 and as it is founded in the nature of the soil is even now as strongly marked as it was in the times of ,abraham or ,isaac4 ,in personal appearance1 the wandering ,arabs or ,bedouins are of the middle size1 lean and athletic4 ,the legs though fleshless are well made1 the arms thin1 with muscles like whipcords4 ,deformity is checked among this nomadic race by the circumstance that no weakly infant can live through the hardships of a ,bedouin life4 ,the complexion varies from the deepest ,spanish to a chocolate hue1 and its varieties are attributed by the people to blood4 ,the black hair is either closely shaved1 or hanging down in ragged elf-locks to the breast4 ,most popular writers describe the ,arab eye as large1 ardent1 and black1 but1 according to ,captain ,burton1 who1 on his adventurous pilgrimage to ,meccah1 had full opportunity for observing many tribes1 it is generally dark brown or green-brown1 small1 round1 restless1 deep-set1 and fiery1 denoting keen inspection1 with an ardent temperament and an impassioned character4 ,the habit of pursing up the skin below the orbits1 and half-closing the lids to prevent dazzle1 plants the outer angles with premature crow's-feet4 ,another peculiarity is the sudden way in which the eye opens1 especially under excitement4 ,this1 combined with its fixity of glance1 forms an expression now of lively fierceness1 then of exceeding sternness4 ,the look of a chief is dignified and grave even to pensiveness1 yet there is not much difference in the expression of the eye between men of the same tribe1 who have similar pursuits which engender similar passions4 #8,expression1' as ,captain ,burton well remarks1 #8is the grand diversifier of appearance among civilised people2 in the desert it knows few varieties4' ,the bushy black eyebrows are crooked and bent in sign of thoughtfulness4 ,the forehead is high1 broad1 and retreating4 ,the temples are deep1 the cheek-bones salient1 which combined with the lantern-jaw often gives a death's-head appearance to the face4 ,the nose is pronounced1 generally aquiline1 the ears small and well-cut1 the mouth irregular1 the teeth1 as usual among ,orientals1 white1 even1 short1 and broad4 ,according to ,chateaubriand1 no sign would betray the savage in the ,arab's countenance1 if he constantly kept his mouth closed2 it is when he shows his teeth1 of a dazzling whiteness like those of the jackal1 that his wild nature shows itself4 ,in this he differs from the ,american ,indian1 whose ferocity appears in the eye1 while the mouth has a mild expression4 ,some tribes trim their moustaches according to the practice derived from the ,prophet2 others shave them1 or allow them to hang1 ,persian-like1 over the lips4 ,the beard is represented by two tangled tufts upon the chin1 and where the whiskers should be1 the place is either bare or thinly covered with straggling hair4 ,the temperament of the ,bedouins is either nervous or bilious1 rarely sanguine1 never phlegmatic4 ,they are not seldom subject to attacks of melancholy1 which make them dislike the sound of the human voice and long for solitude4 ,from living constantly in the open air1 the nomadic ,arabs acquire a remarkable acuteness in all their senses4 ,their powers of vision and of hearing improve by continual exercise1 and as their piercing eye sweeps over the desert it distinguishes objects at an incredible distance4 ,their sense of smelling1 too1 is extremely nice4 ,the true ,bedouin1 when in the tainted atmosphere of towns1 is always known by bits of cotton in his nostrils1 or his kerchief tightly drawn over his nose1 a heavy frown marking extreme disgust4 ,declining the shelter of a house when business calls him to visit crowded cities1 he passes the night in a garden or public square1 rather than breathe the confined air of an apartment4 ,one of his most singular faculties is the power of distinguishing the footsteps of men and beasts on the sand1 in the same manner as the ,american ,indians discover impressions made upon the grass4 ,from inspecting the footsteps1 an ,arab can tell whether the individual belonged to his own or some neighbouring tribe1 and is thus able to judge whether he be a stranger or a friend4 ,he likewise knows from the faintness or depth of the impression whether the person carried a load or not1 whether he passed the same day or several days before4 ,from examining the intervals between the steps1 he judges whether or not he was fatigued1 as the pace becomes then more irregular and the intervals unequal1 hence he calculates the chances of overtaking him4 ,every ,arab can distinguish the footmarks of his own camels from those of his neighbours2 he knows whether the animal was pasturing or loaded1 or mounted by one or more persons2 and can often discover from marks in the sand certain defects or peculiarities of formation that serve him as a clue to ascertain the owner4 ,this sagacity1 which enables the ,arab to read in the sands of the desert as in a printed volume1 becomes extremely useful in the pursuit of fugitives1 or in searching after stolen cattle4 ,instances occur of camels being traced by their masters to the residence of the thief at the distance of five or six days' journey2 and1 incredible as it may seen1 a ,bedouin shepherd can track his own camel in a sandy valley1 when thousands of other footsteps cross the road in all directions4 ,thus the proverbially unstable and fugitive sands reveal many a secret to the practised glance of the ,arab2 and every footstep becomes a witness recording the offender's guilt4 ,of their wonderful acuteness in hearing1 some well-attested anecdotes are told of those who act as pilots in the ,red ,sea4 ,they know very nearly the time when ships from ,india may be expected1 and going down to the water's edge every night and morning1 they lay their ear close to the surface for three or four minutes1 and if the ship is not more than #abj miles distant1 they can hear the report of the signal gun1 or feel the ground shake1 upon which they immediately set off in their pilot boat4 ,the manners of the ,bedouins are free and simple2 vulgarity and affectation1 awkwardness and embarrassment1 are weeds of civilised growth1 unknown to the people of the desert4 ,yet their manners are sometimes dashed with a strange ceremoniousness4 ,when two friends meet1 they either embrace or both extend the right hands1 clapping palm to palm2 their foreheads are either pressed together1 or their heads are moved from side to side1 whilst for minutes together mutual inquiries are made and answered4 ,it is a breach of decorum1 even when eating1 to turn the back upon a person2 and when a ,bedouin does it1 he intends an insult4 ,when a friend approaches an encampment1 those who catch sight of him shout out his name1 and gallop up1 saluting with their lances or firing matchlocks in the air4 ,the patriotism of the nomadic ,arab is intense4 ,as the ,scottish ,highlander wherever he roams turns with fond regret to his heath-clad hills1 or the exiled ,swiss pines for his snow-peaked ,alps1 thus his sterile sands are dearer to the wandering son of the desert than the fairest regions of the earth4 ,it is in the lonely wilderness that all his attachments centre1 for there alone he can enjoy the independence which in all ages has been his cherished possession4 ,the very wildness of this inhospitable scenery constitutes in his eyes its principal charm1 and were these features destroyed1 the spell would be broken that associates them in his mind with the romantic freedom of his condition4 ,disdaining the peaceful and mechanical arts1 he looks down with contempt upon all those who are fixed in local habitations1 or engaged in the pursuits of industry1 and proud of being a #8dweller in tents1' which he can pitch and transplant at pleasure1 stigmatises them as #8dwellers in houses made of clay4' ,his tent he regards as the nursery of every noble quality1 and the desert as the only residence worthy of a man who aspires to be the unfettered master of his actions4 ,vain of his birth and freedom1 he divides the world into two great bodies2 first1 the ,arabs1 and secondly1 #8,ajemi1' all that are not ,arabs2 and boasts of the four precious gifts that ,allah has bestowed on his nation3 #8turbans instead of diadems1 tents in place of walls and bulwarks1 swords instead of intrenchments1 and poems instead of written laws4' ,the deep attachment of the ,arab to his native wilds is well expressed in the celebrated song of ,maysunah1 the beautiful wife of the ,caliph ,muawijah4 ,the pomp and splendour of an ,imperial court could neither reconcile her to the luxuries of the harem nor make her forget the homely charms of her fatherland4 ,her solitary hours were consumed in melancholy musings1 and her greatest delight was in singing the simple pleasures she had enjoyed in the desert4 ,the following translation gives of course but a faint idea of the beauties of the original song1 the recital of which fills the ,bedouin with delight3 #8,oh take these purple robes away1 ,give back my cloak of camel's hair1 ,and bear me from this towering pile ,to where the ,black ,tents flap i' the air4 ,the camel's colt with faltering tread1 ,the dog that bays at all but me1 ,delight me more than ambling mules1 ,than every art of minstrelsy4' ,tradition reports that ,muawijah overhearing the song1 and perhaps tired of the singer1 sent her back to her beloved wilds2 but we are not told whether in the desert she did not after all sometimes regret the magnificence of ,damascus4 ,among the best traits of the ,bedouins' character1 we must cite their gentleness and generosity4 ,usually they are a mixture of worldly cunning and great simplicity2 fond of a jest1 yet solemn and dignified2 easily managed by a laugh and a soft word1 and pliable after passion1 though madly revengeful after injury4 ,though reckless when their passions are thoroughly roused1 their valour is tempered by cautiousness4 ,their wars are a succession of skirmishes1 in which #ejj men will retreat after losing a dozen of their number4 ,in this partisan fighting the first charge secures a victory1 and the vanquished fly till covered by the shades of night4 ,then passion or shame prompts them to reprisals1 which will probably end in the flight of the former victor4 ,gain and revenge draw the ,arab's sword2 yet1 unlike the ,irishman who fights for the mere fun of fighting1 he must have the all-powerful stimulants of honour and fanaticism to become desperate4 ,the habit of danger in raids and blood feuds1 the continual uncertainty of existence1 the desert1 the chase1 his hard life1 and the practice of martial exercises1 habituate him to look death in the face like a man1 and powerful motives will make him a hero4 ,the ferocity of ,bedouin life is softened by his intercourse with the #8dwellers in houses made of clay1' who frequently visit and entrust their children to the people of the ,black ,tents1 that they may be hardened by the discipline of the desert4 ,this laudable custom is generally followed by the ,sherifs or the descendants of the ,prophet residing in ,meccah1 and even the late ,pacha of ,egypt gave one of his sons in charge of the ,anijah tribe near ,akhba1 that he might receive a ,bedouin education and grow up into a man4 ,the mild influence of the fair sex likewise tends to soften the nomadic ,arab's character1 and to inspire him with chivalrous feelings4 ,in pastoral life tribes often meet for a time1 live together whilst pasturage lasts1 and then separate perhaps for a generation4 ,under such circumstances youths will become attached to maidens whom possibly by the laws of the clan they may not marry1 and then the lovers have recourse to flight4 ,the fugitives must brave every danger2 for revenge1 at all times the ,bedouin's idol1 now becomes the lode-star of his existence4 ,but the ,arab lover will dare all consequences1 and stake his life on the possession of her he loves4 ,women1 indeed1 are regarded as inferior beings by their lords and masters1 and to them exclusively all the labour and menial offices in the tent are assigned2 but in troublous times and in the hour of need1 they raise themselves to the level of the stronger sex by physical as well as moral courage4 ,in the early days of ,islam1 if history be credible1 ,arabia had many heroines1 and within the last century ,ghalujah1 the wife of a ,wahabi chief1 opposed ,mohammed ,ali himself in many a bloody field4 ,after a lost battle a retreating tribe has not unfrequently been again led on to victory by the taunts of its women1 and ,arab poets praise not only female beauty1 but also female faith1 purity1 and affection4 ,from ancient periods of the ,arab's history1 we find him practising knight-errantry1 the wildest but most exalted form of chivalry4 ,the fourth ,caliph is fabled to have travelled far1 redressing the injured1 punishing the injurer1 preaching to the infidel1 and especially protecting women--the chief end and aim of knighthood4 ,the ,caliph ,el ,mutasen heard1 in the assembly of his courtiers1 that a woman of the ,sayyid family had been taken prisoner by a #8,greek barbarian' of ,ammoria4 ,the man on one occasion struck her1 when she cried1 #8,help me1 ,o ,mutasen6' and the fellow said derisively1 #8,wait till he cometh upon his pied steed4' ,the chivalrous prince arose1 sealed up the wine cup which he held in his hand1 took oath to do his knightly duty1 and on the morrow started for ,ammoria with #gj1jjj men1 each mounted on a piebald charger4 ,having taken the place he entered it1 exclaiming1 #8,here am ,i at thy call6' ,he struck off the caitiff's head1 released the lady with his own hands1 ordered the cup-bearer to bring the sealed bowl1 and drank from it1 exclaiming1 #8,now1 indeed1 wine is good6' ,a ,knight of the ,round ,table could have done no better4 ,it is the existence of this noble spirit which makes the society of ,bedouins so delightful to the traveller1 who1 after enjoying it1 laments at finding himself in the #8loathsome company' of ,persians1 or among ,arab townpeople1 whose #8filthy and cowardly minds' he contrasts with the #8high and chivalrous spirit of the true ,sons of the ,desert4' ,while over the vast continent of ,america no effort has ever been made by the aboriginal tribes to establish a dominion over the useful animals1 with the single exception of the ,llama in the ,peruvian highlands1 we find the ,arab shepherd from time immemorial in the absolute possession of the horse and the camel--of a faithful friend1 and a laborious slave4 ,although the high steppes of ,central ,asia are probably the genuine and original country of the horse1 yet in ,arabia that generous animal attains the highest degree of spirit and swiftness4 ,such is the estimation in which it is held1 that the honours and the memory of the purest race are preserved with superstitious care1 the males are sold at a high price1 but the females are seldom alienated1 and the birth of a noble foal is esteemed among the tribes as a subject of joy and mutual congratulation4 ,a colt at the moment of birth is never allowed to drop upon the ground2 they receive it in their arms1 washing and stretching its tender limbs1 and caressing it as they would a baby4 ,the tender familiarity with which the horses are treated1 trains them in the habits of gentleness and attachment4 ,when not employed in war or travelling they loiter about the tents1 often going over heaps of children lying on the ground1 and carefully picking their steps lest they should hurt them4 ,they are accustomed only to walk and to gallop2 their sensations are not blunted by the incessant abuse of the spur and the whip2 their powers are reserved for the movement of flight and pursuit1 but no sooner do they feel the touch of the hand and the stirrup1 than they dart away with the swiftness of the wind1 and if their friend be dismounted in the rapid career they instantly stop till he has recovered his seat4 ,the noble steed of the desert pines and languishes in the crowded town4 ,its head droops mournfully1 it seems the very image of despondency and sloth4 ,and as the animal1 so its master4 ,he also appears1 not as the bold energetic nomad1 but as a listless apathetic wanderer2 and1 were it not for the glowing eye which restlessly rolls and flashes under its thick brow1 you might be inclined to prefer the servile fellah to the sullen child of the desert4 ,but now the ,bedouin mounts his horse1 and1 as if touched by an electric spark1 they both of them raise their heads and stretch their sinewy limbs4 ,slowly they leave the dusty streets1 and reach the confines of the desert4 ,now at length both are at home2 now rider and horse melt into one like the fabled ,centaurs of old2 now1 first1 the real ,bedouin and the real ,arabian horse stand before you4 ,like an arrow #8shot by an archer strong' the steed flies towards his master's tent1 his light hoof scarcely leaves a print on the sand2 the white burnous of the rider flies about in the wind2 with a firm hand he guides the noble animal1 and in a few minutes both are lost to sight in the desert4 ,though the ,arabs justly boast of their horses1 it is a common error to suppose them very abundant in that country4 ,in the sacred writings and down to the time of ,mohammed1 they are seldom mentioned1 camels being mostly used both in their predatory and warlike excursions4 ,the breed is limited to the fertile pasture grounds1 and it is there that they thrive1 while the ,bedouins who occupy arid districts rarely have any4 ,in the sands of ,arabia the camel is a sacred and precious gift4 ,that strong and patient beast of burthen not only supplies the wandering ,arab with the greater part of his simple wants3 it serves also to secure his immemorial independence by placing the desert between the enemy and himself4 ,thus the ,bedouin has ever been indomitable1 and while in other parts of the world we find that the fatal possession of an animal--the sable1 the sea-otter--has entailed the curse of slavery upon whole nations1 the dromedary in ,arabia appears as the instrument of lasting freedom4 ,with temporary or local exceptions1 the body of the nation has escaped the yoke of the most powerful monarchies2 the arms of ,sesostris and ,cyrus1 of ,pompey and ,trajan1 could never achieve the conquest of ,arabia1 and while the false glory of the scourges of mankind that have so often thrown the ,east into bondage has passed away like a fleeting shadow1 one century after another bears testimony to the noble independence of the ,arab4 ,the manly spirit of this energetic race renders them worthy of the freedom they enjoy under the protection of their arid wastes4 ,many ages before ,mohammed1 who1 stimulating their valour by fanaticism1 made them one of the great conquering nations of the earth1 their intrepidity had been severely felt by their neighbours4 #8,the patient and active virtues of a soldier1' says ,gibbon1 #8are insensibly nursed in the habits and discipline of pastoral life4 ,the care of the sheep and camels is abandoned to the women of the tribe1 but the martial youth1 under the banner of the emir1 is ever on horseback and in the field1 to practise the exercise of the bow1 the javelin1 and the scymetar4 ,the long memory of their independence is the firmest pledge of its perpetuity1 and succeeding generations are animated to prove their descent and to maintain their inheritance4 ,when they advance to battle1 the hope of victory is in the front2 in the rear1 the assurance of a retreat4 ,their horses and camels1 who in eight or ten days can perform a march of #ejj miles1 disappear before the conqueror2 the secret waters of the desert elude his search1 and his victorious troops are consumed with thirst1 hunger1 and fatigue1 in the pursuit of an invisible foe1 who scorns his efforts1 and safely reposes in the heart of the burning solitude4 #8,the slaves of a despotic rule may vainly boast of their national independence2 but the ,arab is as free from a domestic as from a foreign yoke4 ,in every tribe superstition or gratitude or traditional respect has exalted a particular family above the heads of their equals4 ,the dignities of sheik and emir invariably descend in this chosen race2 but the order of succession is loose and precarious1 and the most worthy or aged of the noble kinsmen are preferred to the simple though important office of composing disputes by their advice and guiding valour by their example4 ,if an emir abuses his power he is quickly punished by the desertion of his subjects4 ,their independent spirit disdains a base submission to the will of a master1 their steps are unconfined1 the desert is open and the tribes and families are held together by a mutual and voluntary compact4 ,accustomed to a life of danger and distress1 the breast of the wandering ,arab is fortified with the austere virtues of courage1 patience1 and sobriety2 the love of liberty prompts him to exercise the habits of self-command1 and the fear of dishonour guards him from the meaner apprehension of pain1 of danger1 and of death4 ,the self-respect which independence inspires shows itself in the dignity of his outward demeanour3 his speech is slow1 weighty1 and concise2 he is seldom provoked to laughter2 his only gesture is that of stroking his beard1 the venerable symbol of manhood4' ,unfortunately the ,bedouin too often tarnishes his liberty by crime1 and1 accustomed to confound the ideas of stranger and enemy1 endeavours to justify by casuistry the base pursuits of a robber4 ,he pretends that in the division of the earth the rich and fertile climates were assigned to the other branches of the human family1 and that the posterity of the outlaw ,ismael is entitled to recover by fraud or force the portion of inheritance of which he has been unjustly deprived4 ,equally addicted to theft and merchandise1 he ransoms or pillages the caravans that traverse his native desert1 and armed against mankind1 makes the inoffensive traveller the victim of his rapacious spirit4 ,and yet by one of those strange contradictions1 belonging to the mysterious nature of man1 this same ,arab1 the terror of the desert1 embraces without enquiry or hesitation1 the stranger who dares to confide in his honour and enter his tent4 ,his treatment is kind and respectful1 he shares the wealth or the poverty of his host1 and1 after a needful repose1 he is dismissed on his way with thanks1 with blessings1 and perhaps with gifts4 ,now here1 now there1 the ,bedouin's home is as wide as the desert1 and as movable as its drifting sands4 ,the mode of encamping differs according to circumstances4 ,when the tents are but few1 they are pitched in a circle2 if the number is considerable they extend in a straight line1 in rows three or four deep4 ,the sheik's is always on the side where danger is apprehended1 or where travellers are expected2-- it being his particular business to oppose the former and to honour the latter4 ,every chief sticks his lance into the ground in front of his tent1 to which he ties his horse or camel2 the pack-saddles forming the couch on which he and his guests recline4 ,when wandering in search of water or pasture1 they move in parties1 slowly over the sandy plain4 ,the armed horsemen ride foremost1 the flocks with their young follow1 and behind come the beasts of burden1 loaded with the women and children1 tents1 baggage and provisions4 ,among pastoral tribes the possession of a well1 of a few date-palms1 or of a piece of pasture ground1 easily leads to quarrels1 and1 as rude nations generally prefer settling their disputes by the right of the stronger1 to sanguinary feuds and wars4 ,besides the causes of hostility arising from disputed property1 the natural jealousy and fiery temperament of the ,arab have always proved a source of the most implacable enmity among themselves4 ,they betray the quickest sensibility to any affront or injury1 and instances might be multiplied where a contemptuous word1 an indecent action1 or even the most trifling violation of etiquette can only be expiated by the blood of the offender4 ,if one sheik say to another1 #8,thy bonnet is dirty1' or #8,the wrong side of thy turban is out1' it is considered a mortal offence4 ,to spit on the beard of another1 even accidentally1 is an insult scarcely to be forgiven1 and such is their patient inveteracy that they expect whole months and years the opportunity of revenge4 ,a fine or compensation for murder is familiar to the barbarians of every age1 but in ,arabia the kinsmen of the dead are at liberty to accept the atonement1 or to exercise with their own hands the law of retaliation4 ,if the offer is deemed unsatisfactory1 the homicide and all his kin comprised within the law of vengeance1 make their escape to some friendly tribe4 ,a sacred custom allows the fugitives three days and four hours during which their enemies abstain from the pursuit2 the exiles are permitted to return as soon as a reconciliation can be effected4 ,the fine for a murdered man varies among the different tribes4 ,among the ,beni-,harb in ,hedjaz the price of blood is rated at #hjj dollars1 or rather that sum imperfectly expressed by live stock4 ,all the blood relations of the slayer assist to make up the required amount1 rating each animal at three or four times its proper value4 ,on such occasions violent scenes arise from the conflict of the ,arab's two darling passions1 avarice and revenge4 ,he longs to cut the foe's throat1 but on the other hand he is equally desirous to increase his own possessions4 ,he has always a project of buying a new dromedary1 or of investing capital in some promising colt4 ,the consequence is that he is insatiable4 ,still he receives blood money with a feeling of shame1 as a man who has made some sacrifice of duty or fine feeling for the sake of filthy lucre4 ,hence this mode of arrangement is not common among the more wealthy tribes1 and most of the great sheiks would deem themselves dishonoured by compromising in any degree for the slaughter of their relations4 ,the matter being finally settled1 a she camel is brought to the tent of the adversary and there killed that blood may be expiated by blood4 ,the parties now reconciled feed upon the flesh of the animal1 and at parting the homicide flourishes a white handkerchief on his lance as a public notification that he is free from blood4 ,the simple unvaried life of the ,bedouin must often cause time to hang heavy on his hands4 ,to relieve this weariness and want of novelty he has recourse to various amusements which serve to fill up his vacant hours4 ,a rover or a warrior1 his favourite sports are those that imitate war4 ,throwing the jereed is a kind of rude tournament1 which he frequently practises4 ,this is a blunt spear1 made of heavy wood1 and about a yard long4 ,the object of the game1 in which the players evince the most astonishing dexterity1 is for one party to pursue1 and the other to fly1 and try to elude being struck by the weapon4 ,sometimes they amuse themselves with sham fights2 and nothing can be more picturesque1 than to see a group of these wild men huddled together in the greatest apparent confusion1 with drawn swords and couched lances4 ,the more domestic pastimes are chess1 draughts1 dancing1 singing1 the reciting of poetry and story-telling1 for which they have a singular passion4 ,captain ,burton1 who witnessed one of their war dances1 describes it as wild in the extreme1 resembling rather the hopping of bears than the inspirations of ,terpsichore4 ,the dancers raised both arms high above their heads1 brandishing a dagger or some other small weapon4 ,they followed each other by hops on one or both feet2 sometimes indulging in the most demented leaps1 whilst the by-standers accompanied them with clapping of hands and various motions of the body4 ,there is a species of song1 common all over the desert1 in which the youths of both sexes join in the chorus4 ,it is called the mesamer1 and is the only opportunity which the lover has of serenading his mistress2 the verses are often composed extempore1 and relate1 of course1 to the beauty and qualities of the beloved object1 who is sometimes apostrophized in epithets that sound rather oddly to ,european ears3 #8,o ,ghalia6 if my father were a jackass1 ,i would sell him to purchase ,ghalia4' ,during their long marches through the desert1 the ,bedouins likewise have recourse to singing1 both to enliven their camels1 for it is well known that that animal never moves with so much ease as when he hears his master sing1 and to while away the tediousness of the road4 ,monotonous and droning as it is1 their song has yet an artless plaintiveness which admirably suits the singer and the scenery4 ,if you listen to the words you will surely hear allusions to bright verdure1 cool shades1 bubbling rills1 or something which the son of the desert hath not1 and yet which his soul desires4 ,a common entertainment among the ,bedouins1 is the reciting of tales after the manner of the #8,arabian ,nights1' those enchanting fictions which rival even #8,robinson ,crusoe' in the affections of childhood4 ,assembled after a tedious march round the blazing fire which cooks their simple meal of dhourra or sour camel's milk and flour1 and quaffing the soothing fumes of tobacco1 they learn to forget their own hardships and fatigue in the captivating narrative of ideal adventures1 and become for a time the happiest of men4 ,next to the practice of hospitality and expertness in the use of arms1 the ,arabs value no accomplishments more highly than eloquence and poetry1 and in these the roving hordes of the desert1 living amidst the solitary grandeur of nature1 excel their more civilized brethren4 ,metrical orations are particularly esteemed1 for it is an old ,arab saying that fine sentiments delivered in prose are like gems scattered at random2 but when confined in verse they resemble strings of pearls4 ,in former times the poet ranked with the warrior among the noblest possessions a tribe could boast of1 and assemblies of different kinds were held where rival bards and orators disputed the palm of victory4 ,in loud and impassioned strains the contending poets addressed the multitude by turns1 extolling the superior glory of their own tribe1 recounting the names of their eminent warriors1 and challenging their opponents to produce their equals4 ,as from the fierce spirit of the ,bedouins1 and the well-known influence of songs over the martial virtues of a barbarous people1 these intellectual tournaments frequently ended in good earnest battles1 they were expressly abolished by the ,koran2 but the old spirit of poetry is still as alive as ever among the ,bedouins1 who1 though no longer equalling them1 are passionately fond of their ancient bards4 ,thus when ,burckhardt read portions of the famous romance of ,antar to a ,bedouin auditory they were in ecstasies of delight1 but at the same time so enraged at his bad pronunciation1 that they tore the book out of his hands4 ,to the advantages of a genius for poetry1 and a lively fancy1 the ,bedouins add the possession of a rich and harmonious language capable of expressing every shade of meaning and every variety in the aspects of nature4 ,its copiousness#aj may be inferred from the fact that it can boast of no less than eighty expressions for honey1 two hundred for a serpent1 five hundred for a lion1 and1 characteristic of a warlike race1 above a thousand for a sword4 ,fastidious critics have admitted the remarkable delicacy of the ,arabic tongue1 and its energetic sublimity1 equally adapted to the simple pathos of love and elegy1 the piquancy of satire or the loftiest efforts of popular oratory4 ,in casting a retrospective view over the manners and habits of the ,bedouins we are struck with the strange contradictions they exhibit both in their social and moral character4 ,the spirit of patriotism among them is strong and universal1 yet they have no home but the pathless waste and wretched tent4 ,they are a nation of brothers1 yet live continually at war1 jealous of their honour and yet stooping to the meanness of theft2 fierce and sanguinary in their temper1 and yet alive to the virtues of pity and gratitude2 covetous and by no means of good faith in pecuniary transactions1 yet true to their pledged word and charitable to the needy4 ,their religious character is marked by the same irreconcilable extremes4 ,their fanaticism is coupled with a lax observance of the precepts and ceremonies of ,islam4 ,in a pleasant indifference about the precepts of the ,koran1 they remark that the religion of ,mohammed never could have been intended for them4 #8,in the desert1' say they1 #8we have no water2 how1 then1 can we make the prescribed ablutions8 ,we have no money1 and how can we bestow alms8 ,why should we fast in the ,rhamadan since the whole year with us is one continual abstinence2 and if the world is the house of ,allah why should we go to ,meccah to adore him8' ,the almost absolute independence of the ,arabs and of that noble race1 the ,north ,american ,indians of a former generation1 has produced many similarities between them4 #8,both1' says ,captain ,burton1 #8have the same wild chivalry1 the same fiery sense of honour1 and the same boundless hospitality2 love elopements from tribe to tribe1 the blood feud and the vendetta4 ,both are grave and cautious in demeanour1 and formal in manner--princes in rags or paint4 ,the ,arabs plunder pilgrims1 the ,indians backwood settlers2 both glory in forays1 raids1 and cattle-lifting1 and both rob according to certain rules4 ,both are alternately brave to desperation and shy of danger4 ,both are remarkable for nervous and powerful oratory1 and for the use of figurative language4 ,both1 addicted to war and to the chase1 despise all sedentary occupations4 ,but the ,bedouin claims the superiority over the red ,indian by his treatment of women1 his greater development of intellect1 and the grand page of history which he has filled4' ,illustration3 ,,baobab ,,trees ,,at ,,manaar4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,giant ,,trees ,,and ,,characteristic ,,forms ,,of ,,tropical ,,vegetation4 ,general ,remarks--,the ,baobab--,used as a ,vegetable ,cistern-- ,arborescent ,euphorbias--,the ,dracna of ,orotava--,the ,sycamore-- ,the ,banyan--,the sacred ,bo-,tree of ,anarajapoora--,the ,teak ,tree-- ,the ,saul--,the ,sandal ,tree--,the ,satinwood ,tree--,the ,ceiba-- ,the ,mahogany ,tree--,the ,mora--,bamboos--,the ,guadua--,beauty and multifarious ,uses of these colossal ,grasses--,firing the ,jungle-- ,the ,aloes--,the ,agave americana--,the ,bromelias--,the ,cactuses--,the ,mimosas--,bush-ropes--,climbing ,trees--,emblems of ,ingratitude-- ,marriage of the ,fig ,tree and the ,palm--,epiphytes--,water ,plants-- ,singularly-shaped ,trees--,the ,barrigudo--,the ,bottle ,tree--,trees with ,buttresses and fantastical ,roots--,the ,mangroves--,their ,importance in ,furthering the ,growth of ,land-,animal ,life among the ,mangroves--#8,jumping ,johnny'--,insalubrity of the ,mangrove ,swamps-- ,the ,lum ,trees with formidable ,spines4 ,wherever in the tropical regions periodical rains saturate the earth1 vegetable life expands in a wonderful variety of forms4 ,in the higher latitudes of the frozen north1 a rapidly evanescent summer produces but few and rare flowers in sheltered situations1 soon again to disappear under the winter's snow2 in the temperate zones1 the number1 beauty1 and variety of plants increases with the warmth of a genial sky2 but it is only where the vertical rays of an equatorial sun awaken and foster life on humid grounds that ever-youthful ,flora appears in the full exuberance of her creative power4 ,it is only there we find the majestic palms1 the elegant mimosas1 the large-leafed bananas1 and so many other beautiful forms of vegetation alien to our cold and variable clime4 ,while our trees are but sparingly clad with scanty lichens and mosses1 they are there covered with stately bromelias and wondrous orchids4 ,sweet-smelling vanillas and passifloras wind round the giants of the forest1 and large flowers break forth from their rough bark1 or even from their very roots4 ,the number of known plants is estimated at about #bjj1jjj1 and the greater part of this vast multitude of species belongs to the torrid zone4 ,but if we consider how very imperfectly these sunny regions have as yet been explored--that in ,south ,america enormous forest lands and river basins have never yet been visited by a naturalist--that the vegetation of the greater part of ,central ,africa is still completely hidden in mystery--that no botanist has ever yet penetrated into the interior of ,madagascar1 ,borneo1 ,new ,guinea1 ,south-,western ,china1 and ,ultra-,gangetic ,india--and that1 moreover1 many of the countries visited by travellers have been but very superficially examined--we may well doubt whether even one fourth part of the tropical plants is actually known to science4 ,after these general remarks on the variety and exuberance of tropical vegetation1 ,i shall now briefly notice those plants which1 by their enormous size1 their singularity of form1 or their frequency in the landscape1 chiefly characterise the various regions of the torrid zone4 ,the ,african ,baobab1 or monkey-bread tree 7,adansonia digitata71 may justly be called the elephant of the vegetable world4 ,near the village ,gumer1 in ,fassokl1 ,russegger saw a baobab thirty feet in diameter and ninety-five in circumference2 the horizontally outstretched branches were so large that the negroes could comfortably sleep upon them4 ,the ,venetian traveller ,cadamosto 7#aded7 found1 near the mouths of the ,senegal1 baobabs measuring more than a hundred feet in circumference4 ,as these vegetable giants are generally hollow1 like our ancient willows1 they are frequently made use of as dwellings or stables2 and ,dr4 ,livingstone mentions one in which twenty or thirty men could lie down and sleep1 as in a hut4 ,in the village of ,grand ,galarques1 in ,senegambia1 the negroes have decorated the entrance into the cavity of a monstrous baobab with rude sculptures cut into the living wood1 and make use of the interior as a kind of assembly room1 where they meet to deliberate on the interests of their small community1 #8reminding one1' says ,humboldt1 #8of the celebrated plantain in ,lycia1 in whose hollow trunk the ,roman consul1 ,lucinius ,mutianus1 once dined with a party of twenty-one4' ,as the baobab begins to decay in the part where the trunk divides into the larger branches1 and the process of destruction thence continues downwards1 the hollow space fills1 during the rainy season1 with water1 which keeps a long time1 from its being protected against the rays of the sun4 ,the baobab thus forms a vegetable cistern1 whose water the neighbouring villagers sell to travellers4 ,in ,kordofan the ,arabs climb upon the tree1 fill the water in leathern buckets1 and let it down from above2 but the people in ,congo more ingeniously bore a hole in the trunk1 which they stop1 after having tapped as much as they require4#aa ,the height of the baobab does not correspond to its amazing bulk1 as it seldom exceeds sixty feet4 ,as it is of very rapid growth1 it acquires a diameter of three or four feet and its full altitude in about thirty years1 and then continues to grow in circumference4 ,the larger beam-like branches1 almost as thick at their extremity as at their origin1 are abruptly rounded1 and then send forth smaller branches1 with large1 light green1 palmated leaves4 ,the bark is smooth and greyish4 ,the oval fruits1 which are of the size of large cucumbers1 and brownish-yellow when ripe1 hang from long twisted spongy stalks1 and contain a white farinaceous substance1 of an agreeable acidulated taste1 enveloping the dark brown seeds4 ,they are a favourite food of the monkeys1 whence the tree has derived one of its names4 ,from the depth of the incrustations formed on the marks which the ,portuguese navigators of the fifteenth century used to cut in the large baobabs which they found growing on the ,african coast1 and by comparing the relative dimensions of several trunks of a known age1 ,adanson concluded that a baobab of thirty feet in diameter must have lived at least #e1jjj years2 but a more careful investigation of the rapid growth of the spongy wood has reduced the age of the giant tree to more moderate limits1 and proved that1 even in comparative youth1 it attains the hoary aspect of extreme senility4 ,the baobab1 which belongs to the same family as the mallow or the hollyhock1 and is1 like them1 emollient and mucilaginous in all its parts1 ranges over a wide extent of ,africa1 particularly in the parts where the summer rains fall in abundance1 as in ,senegambia1 in ,soudan1 and in ,nubia4 ,dr4 ,livingstone admired its colossal proportions on the banks of the ,zouga and the ,zambesi4 ,it forms a conspicuous feature in the landscape at ,manaar in ,ceylon1 where it has most likely been introduced by early mariners1 perhaps even by the ,phnicians1 as the prodigious dimensions of the trees are altogether inconsistent with the popular conjecture of a ,portuguese origin4 ,illustration3 ,,dragon-,,tree ,,of ,,orotava4 ,another tree very characteristic of ,africa1 and frequently seen along with the baobab1 is the large arborescent ,euphorbia 7,e4 arborescens71 surmounted at the top with stiff leaves1 branching out like the arms of a huge candelabra4 ,it adds greatly to the strange wildness of the landscape1 and seems quite in character with the aspect of the unwieldy rhinoceros and the long-necked giraffe4 ,dracnas1 or dragon-trees1 are found growing on the west coast of ,africa and in the ,cape ,colony1 in ,bourbon and in ,china2 but it is only in the ,canary ,islands1 in ,madeira1 and ,porto ,santo1 that they attain such gigantic dimensions as to entitle them to rank among the vegetable wonders of the world4 ,unfortunately1 the venerable dragon-tree of ,orotava1 in ,teneriffe1 which was already reverenced for its age by the extirpated nation of the ,guanches1 and which the adventurous ,bethencourts1 the conquerors of the ,canaries1 found hardly less colossal and cavernous in #adjb than ,humboldt1 who visited it in #agii1 was destroyed by a storm in #ahga4 ,above the roots the illustrious traveller measured a circumference of forty-five feet2 and according to ,sir ,george ,staunton1 the trunk had still a diameter of four yards1 at an elevation of ten feet above the ground4 ,the whole height of the tree was not much above sixty-five feet4 ,the trunk divided in numerous upright branches1 terminating in tufts of evergreen leaves1 resembling those of the pine-apple4 ,next to the baobab and the dracna1 the ,sycamore 7,ficus ,sycomorus7 holds a conspicuous rank among the giant trees of ,africa4 ,it attains a height of only forty or fifty feet1 but in the course of many centuries its trunk swells to a colossal size1 and its vast crown covers a large space of ground with an impenetrable shade4 ,its leaves are about four inches long and as many broad1 and its figs have an excellent flavour4 ,in ,egypt it is almost the only grove-forming tree2 and most of the mummy coffins are made of its incorruptible wood4 ,illustration3 ,,sycamore4 ,no baobab rears its monstrous trunk on the banks of the ,ganges2 no dragon-tree of patriarchal age here reminds the wanderer of centuries long past2 but the beautiful and stately ,banyan 7,ficus indica7 gives him but little reason to regret their absence4 ,each tree is in itself a grove1 and some of them are of an astonishing size1 as they are continually increasing1 and1 contrary to most other animal and vegetable productions1 seem to be exempted from decay2 for every branch from the main body throws out its own roots1 at first in small tender fibres1 several yards from the ground1 which continually grow thicker1 until1 by a gradual descent1 they reach its surface1 where1 striking in1 they increase to a large trunk and become a parent-tree1 throwing out new branches from the top4 ,these in time suspend their roots1 and1 receiving nourishment from the earth1 swell into trunks and send forth other branches1 thus continuing in a state of progression so long as the first parent of them all supplies her sustenance4 ,illustration3 ,,banyan4 ,the bended twigs take root1 and daughters grow ,about the mother-tree2 a pillar'd shade ,high overarch'd1 and echoing walks between4 ,there oft the ,indian herdsman1 shunning heat1 ,shelters in cool1 and tends his pasturing herds ,at loopholes cut through thickest shade4 ,these beautiful lines of ,milton are by no means overdrawn2 as a banyan tree1 with many trunks1 forms the most beautiful walks and cool recesses that can be imagined4 ,the leaves are large1 soft1 and of a lively green2 the fruit is a small fig 7when ripe of a bright scarlet71 affording sustenance to monkeys1 squirrels1 peacocks1 and birds of various kinds1 which dwell among the branches4 ,the ,hindoos are peculiarly fond of this tree2 they consider its long duration1 its outstretching arms and overshadowing beneficence1 as emblems of the ,deity2 they plant it near their dewals or temples2 and in those villages where there is no structure for public worship they place an image under a banyan1 and there perform a morning and evening sacrifice4 ,many of these beautiful trees have acquired an historic celebrity2 and the famous ,cubbeer-burr1 on the banks of the ,nerbuddah1 thus called by the ,hindoos in memory of a favourite saint1 is supposed to be the same as that described by ,nearchus1 the ,admiral of ,alexander the ,great1 as being able to shelter an army under its far-spreading shade4 #8,high floods have at various times swept away a considerable part of this extraordinary tree1 but what still remains is near #b1jjj feet in circumference1 measured round the principal stems2 the overhanging branches not yet struck down cover a much larger space2 and under it grow a number of custard-apple and other fruit trees4 ,the large trunks of this single colossus amount to a greater number than the days of the year1 and the smaller ones exceed #c1jjj1 each constantly sending forth branches and hanging roots to form other trunks and become the parents of a future progeny4 #8,about a century ago a neighbouring rajah1 who was extremely fond of field diversions1 used to encamp under it in a magnificent style1 having a saloon1 drawing-room1 dining-room1 bed-chamber1 bath1 kitchen1 and every other accommodation1 all in separate tents2 yet the noble tree not only covered the whole1 together with his carriages1 horses1 camels1 guards1 and attendants1 but also afforded with its spreading branches shady spots for the tents of his friends1 with their servants and cattle4 ,and in the march of an army it has been known to shelter #g1jjj men4'#ab ,such is the banyan--more wonderful than all the temples and palaces which the pride of the ,moguls has ever reared6 ,the nearly related ,pippul of ,india1 or ,bo-tree 7,ficus religiosa71 which differs from the banyan 7,f4 indica7 by sending down no roots from its branches1 is reverenced by the ,buddhists as the sacred plant1 under whose shade ,gautma1 the founder of their religion1 reclined when he underwent his divine transfiguration4 ,its heart-shaped leaves1 which1 like those of the aspen1 appear in the profoundest calm to be ever in motion1 are supposed to tremble in recollection of that mysterious scene4 ,the sacred ,pippul at ,anarajapoora1 the fallen capital of the ancient kings of ,ceylon1 is probably the oldest historical tree in the world2 as it was planted #bhh years before ,christ1 and hence is now #b1aej years old4 ,the enormous age of the baobabs of ,senegal1 and of the wondrous ,wellingtonias of ,california1 can only be conjectured2 but the antiquity of the ,bo-tree is matter of record1 as its preservation has been an object of solicitude to successive dynasties2 and the story of its fortunes has been preserved in a series of continuous chronicles amongst the most authentic that have been handed down by mankind4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,sacred ,,bo-,,tree ,,of ,,anarajapoora4 #8,compared with it1 the ,oak of ,ellerslie is but a sapling1 and the ,conqueror's ,oak in ,windsor ,forest barely numbers half its years4 ,the yew trees of ,fountains ,abbey are believed to have flourished there #a1bjj years ago2 the olives in the ,garden of ,gethsemane were full-grown when the ,saracens were expelled from ,jerusalem1 and the cypress of ,somma in ,lombardy is said to have been a tree in the time of ,julius ,csar4 ,yet the ,bo-tree is older than the oldest of these by a century1 and would almost seem to verify the prophecy pronounced when it was planted1 that it would #8flourish and be green for ever4'#ac ,although far inferior to these wonders of the vegetable world in amplitude of growth1 yet the ,teak tree1 or ,indian oak 7,tectona grandis71 far surpasses them in value1 as the ship-worm in the water1 and the termite on land1 equally refrain from attacking its close-grained strongly scented wood2 and no timber equals it for ship-building purposes4 ,it grows wild over a great part of ,british ,india2 in the mountainous districts along the ,malabar coast1 in ,guzerat1 the valley of the ,nerbuddah1 in ,tenasserim and ,pegu4 ,unlike the oak and fir forests of ,europe1 where large spaces of ground are covered by a single species1 the teak forests of ,india are composed of a great variety of trees1 among which the teak itself does not even predominate4 ,after a long neglect1 which1 in some parts1 had almost caused its total extirpation1 ,government has at length taken steps for its more effectual protection1 and appointed experienced foresters to watch over this invaluable tree4 ,since #ahdc1 millions of young plants have been raised from seeds1 but unfortunately the teak is of as slow growth as our oak1 and many years will still be necessary to repair the ruinous improvidence of the past4 ,on turning our attention to ,america we find that ,nature1 delighting in infinite varieties of development1 and disdaining a servile copy of what she had elsewhere formed1 covers the earth with new and no less remarkable forms of vegetation4 ,thus1 while in ,africa the baobab attracts the traveller's attention by its colossal size and peculiarity of growth1 the gigantic ,ceiba 7,bombax ,ceiba71 belonging to the same family of plants1 raises his astonishment in the forests of ,yucatan4 ,like the baobab1 this noble tree rises only to a moderate height of sixty feet1 but its trunk swells to such dimensions that fifteen men are hardly able to span it1 while a thousand may easily screen themselves under its canopy from the scorching sun4 ,the leaves fall off in ,january2 and then at the end of every branch bunches of large1 glossy1 purple-red flowers make their appearance1 affording1 as one may well imagine1 a magnificent sight4 ,in ,british ,honduras the ,mahogany-tree 7,swietenia ,mahagoni7 is found scattered in the forests1 attracting the woodman's attention from a distance by its light-coloured foliage1 and its magnificent growth4 ,such are its dimensions1 and such is the value of peculiarly fine specimens1 that in ,october #ahbc a tree was felled which weighed more than seven tons1 and at ,liverpool was sold for #ebel4 ,the expense of sawing amounted to #gejl4 more3 so that the wood of this single tree1 before passing into the hands of the cabinet-maker1 was worth as much as a moderately sized farm4 #8,heedless and bankrupt in all curiosity must he be1' says ,waterton1#ad #8who can journey through the forests of ,guiana without stopping to take a view of the towering ,mora 7,mora excelsa74 ,its topmast branch1 when naked with age1 or dried by accident1 is the favourite resort of the toucan4 ,many a time has this singular bird felt the shot faintly strike him from the gun of the fowler beneath1 and owed his life to the distance betwixt them4 ,the wild fig tree1 as large as a common ,english apple-tree1 often rears itself from one of the thick branches at the top of the mora2 and when its fruit is ripe1 to it the birds resort for nourishment4 ,it was to an indigested seed passing through the body of this bird1 which had perched on the mora1 that the fig tree first owed its elevated station there4 ,the sap of the mora raised it into full bearing2 but now1 in its turn1 it is doomed to contribute a portion of its own sap and juices towards the growth of different species of vines1 the seeds of which also the birds deposited on its branches4 ,these soon vegetate and bear fruit in great quantities2 so1 what with their usurpation of the resources of the fig-tree1 and the fig-tree of the mora1 the mora1 unable to support a charge which ,nature never intended it should1 languishes and dies under its burden2 and then the fig-tree and its usurping progeny of vines1 receiving no more succour from their late foster-parent1 droop and perish in their turn4' ,our stateliest oaks would look like pygmies near this chieftain of the forests1' who raises his dark green cupola over all the neighbouring trees1 and deceives the traveller1 who fancies that a verdant hill is rising before him4 ,its wood is much firmer than that of the fir1 and is1 or will be1 of great importance to the ship-builder4 ,on the ,upper ,barima alone1 a river of ,guiana hardly even known by name in ,europe1 ,schomburgk found the giant tree growing in such profusion that it could easily afford sufficient timber for the proudest fleet that ever rode the ocean4 ,the graceful tapering form of the ,gramine1 or grasses1 belongs to every zone2 but it is only in the warmer regions of the globe that we find the colossal ,bambusace1 rivalling in grandeur the loftiest trees of the primeval forest4 ,in ,new ,grenada and ,quito the ,guadua1 one of these giant grasses1 ranks next to the sugar-cane and maize as the plant most indispensable to man4 ,it forms dense jungles1 not only in the lower regions of the country1 but in the valleys of the ,andes1 #e1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,the culms attain a thickness of six inches1 the single joints are twenty inches long1 and the leaves are of indescribable beauty4 ,a whole hut can be built and thatched with the guadua1 while the single joints are extensively used as water-vessels and drinking-cups4 ,india1 ,south ,china1 and the ,eastern ,archipelago are the seats of the real bamboos1 which grow in a variety of genera and species1 as well on the banks of lakes and rivers in low marshy grounds1 as in the more elevated mountainous regions4 ,they chiefly form the impenetrable jungles1 the seat of the tiger and the python4 ,sometimes a hundred culms spring from a single root1 not seldom as thick as a man1 and towering to a height of eighty or a hundred feet4 ,fancy the grace of our meadow grasses1 united with the lordly growth of the ,italian poplar1 and you will have a faint idea of the beauty of a clump of bamboos4 ,the variety of purposes to which these colossal reeds can be applied almost rivals the multifarious uses of the cocoa-nut palm itself4 ,splitting the culm in its whole length into very thin pieces1 the industrious ,chinese then twist them together into strong ropes1 for tracking their vessels on their numerous rivers and canals4 ,the sails of their junks1 as well as their cables and rigging1 are made of bamboo2 and in the southern province of ,sechuen1 not only nearly every house is built solely of this strong cane1 but almost every article of furniture which it contains--mats1 screens1 chairs1 tables1 bedsteads1 bedding--is of the same material4 ,from the young shoots they also fabricate their fine writing-paper1 which is so superior to the produce of our own manufactories4 ,although the bamboo grows spontaneously and most profusely in nearly all the southern portion of their vast empire1 they do not entirely rely on the beneficence of ,nature1 but cultivate it with the greatest care4 ,they have treatises devoted solely to this subject1 laying down rules derived from experience1 and showing the proper soils1 the best kinds of water1 and the seasons for planting and transplanting the bamboos1 whose use is scarcely less extensive throughout the whole ,east ,indian world4 ,at one season of the year the bamboos are easily destroyed by fire2 and as the great stem-joints burst from the expansion of the air confined within1 the report almost rivals the roar of cannon4 ,in ,sikkim firing the jungle is a frequent practice1 and ,dr4 ,hooker1 who often witnessed the spectacle1 describes the effect by night as exceedingly grand4 #8,heavy clouds canopy the mountains above1 and1 stretching across the valleys1 shut out the sky2 the air is a dead calm1 as usual in the deep gorges2 and the fires1 invisible by day1 are seen raging all around1 appearing to an inexperienced eye in all but dangerous proximity4 ,the voices of birds and insects being hushed1 nothing is audible but the harsh roar of the rivers1 and occasionally rising far above it1 that of the forest fires4 ,at night we were literally surrounded by them2 some smouldering like the shale-heaps at a colliery1 others fitfully bursting forth1 whilst others again stalked along with a steadily increasing and enlarging flame1 shooting out great tongues of fire1 which spared nothing as they advanced with irresistible might4 ,at ,darjiling the blaze is visible1 and the deadened reports of the bamboos bursting is heard throughout the night2 but in the valley1 and within a mile of the scene of destruction1 the effect is the most grand1 being heightened by the glare reflected from the masses of mist which hover above4'#ae ,the aloes form the strongest contrast to the airy lightness of the grasses1 by the stately repose and strength of their thick1 fleshy1 and inflexible leaves4 ,they generally stand solitary in the parched plains1 and impart a peculiarly austere or melancholy character to the landscape4 ,the real aloes are chiefly ,african1 but the ,american yuccas and agaves have a similar physiognomical character4 ,the ,agave americana1 the usual ornament of our hot-houses1 bears on a short and massive stem a tuft of fleshy leaves1 sometimes no less than ten feet long1 fifteen inches wide1 and eight inches thick6 ,after many years a flower-stalk twenty feet high shoots forth in a few weeks from the heart of the plant1 expanding like a rich candelabrum1 and clustered with several thousands of greenish-yellow aromatic flowers4 ,but a rapid decline succeeds this brilliant efflorescence1 for it is soon followed by the death of the exhausted plant4 ,in ,mexico1 where the agave is indigenous1 and whence it has found its way to ,spain and ,italy1 it is reckoned one of the most valuable productions of ,nature4 ,at the time when the flower-stalk is beginning to sprout1 the heart of the plant is cut out1 and the juice1 which otherwise would have nourished the blossom1 collects in the hollow4 ,about three pounds exude daily1 during a period of two or three months4 ,after standing for a short time1 the sweet juice undergoes a vinous fermentation1 and the stranger1 when once accustomed to its disagreeable odour1 prefers the pulque to all other wines1 and joins in the enthusiastic praises of the ,mexican4 ,the ,american bromelias likewise resemble the aloes of torrid ,africa by the form and arrangement of their leaves4 ,to this useful family belongs the pine-apple 7,bromelia ,ananas71 which grows best and largest in ,brazil1 where it is so common that the pigs fatten on the fruit4 ,formerly confined in our country to the tables of the wealthier classes as long as it was only supplied by our hot-houses1 it can now be enjoyed at a very moderate expense1 since thousands are imported by every ,west ,indian steamer4 ,the leaves of several species of bromelia furnish excellent twine for ropes4 ,the inhabitants of the banks of the river ,san ,francisco1 in ,brazil1 weave their fishing-nets with the fibres of the ,caroa 7,b4 variegata71 and the filaments of the ,crauata de rede 7,b4 sagenaria7 furnish a cordage of amazing strength and durability4 ,the foliage of the screw-pines1 so widely extended over the ,east ,indian and ,south ,sea ,isles1 where they form a prominent feature in the landscape1 closely resembles that of the bromelias1 while the stem 7round which the serrated leaves ascend in spiral convolutions1 till they terminate in a pendulous crown72 the arial roots1 and the fruit1 remind one of the palms1 the mangroves1 and the conifer4 ,the ,pandanus odoratissimus1 or sweet-smelling screw-pine1 whose fruits1 when perfectly mature1 resemble large rich-coloured pine-apples1 plays an important part in the household economy of the coral-islanders of the ,south ,sea4 ,the inhabitants of the ,mulgrave ,archipelago1 where the cocoa-nut is rare1 live almost exclusively on the juicy pulp and the pleasant kernels of the fruit4 ,the dried leaves serve to thatch their cottages1 or are made use of as a material for mats and raiment4 ,the wood is hard and durable4 ,they string together the beautiful red and yellow-coloured nuts for ornaments1 and wear the flowers as garlands4 ,when the tree is in full blossom1 the air around is impregnated with a delicious odour4 ,the grotesque forms of the ,cactuses possess the stiff rigidity of the aloes4 ,their fleshy stems1 covered with a gray-green coriaceous rind1 generally exhibit bunches of hair and thorns instead of leaves4 ,the angular columns of the ,cerei1 or torch-cactuses1 rise to the height of sixty feet1--generally branchless1 sometimes strangely ramified1 as candelabras1 while others creep like ropes upon the ground1 or hang1 snake-like1 from the trees1 on which they are parasitically rooted4 ,the opuntias are unsymmetrically constructed of thick flat joints springing one from the other1 while the melon-shaped ,echinocacti and ,mammillari1 longitudinally ribbed or covered with warts1 remain attached to the soil4 ,the dimensions of these monstrous plants are exceedingly variable4 ,one of the ,mexican echinocacti 7,e4 ,visnaga7 measures four feet in height1 three in diameter1 and weighs about two hundred pounds2 while the dwarf cactus 7,e4 nana7 is so small that1 loosely rooted in the sand1 it frequently remains sticking between the toes of the dogs that pass over it4 ,the splendidly coloured flowers of the cactuses form a strange contrast to the deformity of their stems1 and the spectator stands astonished at the glowing life that springs forth from so unpromising a stock4 ,these strange compounds of ugliness and beauty are in many respects useful to man4 ,the pulp of the melocacti1 which remains juicy during the driest season of the year1 is one of the vegetable sources of the wilderness1 and refreshes the traveller after he has carefully removed the thorns4 ,almost all of them bear an agreeable acid fruit1 which1 under the name of the ,indian fig1 is consumed in large quantities in the ,west ,indies and ,mexico4 ,the light and incorruptible wood is admirably adapted for the construction of oars and many other implements4 ,the farmer fences his garden with the prickly opuntias2 but the services which they render1 as the plants on which the valuable cochineal insect feeds and multiplies1 are far more important4 ,the cactuses prefer the most arid situation1 naked plains1 or slopes1 where they are fully exposed to the burning rays of the sun1 and impart a peculiar physiognomy to a great part of tropical ,america4 ,none of the plants belonging to this family existed in the ,old ,world previously to the discovery of ,america2 but some species have since then rapidly spread over the warmer regions of our hemisphere4 ,the ,nopal 7,cactus ,opuntia7 skirts the ,mediterranean along with the ,american agave1 and from the coasts has even penetrated far into the interior of ,africa1 everywhere maintaining its ground1 and conspicuously figuring along with the primitive vegetation of the land4 ,although chiefly tropical1 the cactuses have a perpendicular range1 which but few other families enjoy4 ,from the low sand-coasts of ,peru and ,bolivia they ascend through vales and ravines to the highest ridges of the ,andes4 ,magnificent dark-brown ,peireskias 7the only cactus genus bearing leaves instead of prickles7 bloom on the banks of the ,lake of ,titicaca1 #ab1gjj feet above the level of the sea2 and in the bleak ,puna1#af even at the very limits of vegetation1 the traveller is astonished at meeting with low bushes of cactuses thickly beset with yellow prickles4 ,illustration3 ,,cereus ,,giganteus4 ,what a contrast between these deformities and the delicately feathered mimosas1 unrivalled among the loveliest children of ,flora in the matchless elegance of their foliage6 ,our common acacias give but a faint idea of the beauty which these plants attain under the fostering rays of a tropical sun4 ,in most species the branches extend horizontally1 or umbrella-shaped1 somewhat like those of the ,italian pine1 and the deep-blue sky shining through the light green foliage1 whose delicacy rivals the finest embroidery1 has an extremely picturesque effect4 ,endowed with a wonderful sensibility1 many of the mimosas seem1 as it were1 to have outstepped the bounds of vegetable life1 and to rival in acuteness of feeling the coral polyps and the sea anemones of the submarine gardens4 ,illustration3 ,,mimosa4 ,large tracts of country in ,brazil are almost entirely covered with sensitive plants4 ,the tramp of a horse sets the nearest ones in motion1 and1 as if by magic1 the contraction of the small grey-green leaflets spreads in quivering circles over the field1 making one almost believe1 with ,darwin and ,dutrochet1 that plants have feeling1 or tempting one to exclaim with ,wordsworth-- #8,it is my faith1 that every flower ,enjoys the air it breathes4' ,among the most remarkable forms of tropical vegetation1 the creeping plants1 bush-ropes1 or lianas 7cissus1 bauhinia1 bignonia1 banisteria1 passiflora71 that contribute so largely to the impenetrability of the forests1 hold a conspicuous rank4 ,often three or four bush-ropes1 like strands in a cable1 join tree to tree1 and branch to branch2 others1 descending from on high1 take root as soon as their extremity touches the ground1 and appear like shrouds and stays supporting the mainmast of a line-of-battle ship2 while others send out parallel1 oblique1 horizontal1 and perpendicular shoots in all directions4 ,no ,european is able to penetrate the intricate network of a forest thus matted together3 astonished and despairing1 he stands before the dense cordage that impedes his path1 and1 should he attempt to force his way through the maze1 the strong thorns and hooks with which the tropical creepers are generally armed would soon make him repent of his boldness4 ,the ,brazilian planter never thinks of entering the forest without a large knife1 or without being accompanied by slaves1 who with heavy scythe-like axes attached to long poles1 clear the way by severing the otherwise impenetrable cordage4 ,the enormous climbing trees1 that stifle the life of the mightiest giants of the forest1 offer a no less wonderful spectacle4 ,at first1 these emblems of ingratitude grow straight upwards like any feeble shrub1 but as soon as they have found a support in other trees1 they begin to extend over their surface2 for1 while the stems of other plants generally assume a cylindrical form1 these climbers have the peculiarity of divesting themselves of their rind when brought into contact with an extraneous body1 and of spreading over it1 until they at length enclose it in a tubular mass4 ,when1 during this process1 the powers of the original root are weakened1 the trunk sends forth new props to restore the equilibrium2 and thus the tough and hardy race continually acquires fresh strength for the ruin of its neighbours4 ,illustration3 ,,polanarrua4 ,several species of the fig-tree are peculiarly remarkable for this distinctive property1 and1 from the facility with which their seeds take root where there is a sufficiency of moisture to permit of germination1 are formidable assailants of ancient monuments4 ,sir ,emerson ,tennent mentions one which had fixed itself on the walls of a ruined edifice at ,polanarrua1 and formed one of the most remarkable objects of the place1 its roots streaming downwards over the walls as if their wood had once been fluid1 and following every sinuosity of the building and terraces till they reached the earth4 ,on the borders of the ,rio ,guama1 ,von ,martius saw whole groups of ,macauba palms encased in fig-trees that formed thick tubes round the shafts of the palms1 whose noble crowns rose high above them2 and a similar spectacle occurs in ,india and ,ceylon1 where the ,tamils look with increased veneration on their sacred pippul thus united in marriage with the palmyra4 ,after the incarcerated trunk has been stifled and destroyed1 the grotesque form of the parasite1 tubular1 cork-screw-like1 or otherwise fantastically contorted1 and frequently admitting the light through interstices like loopholes in a turret1 continues to maintain an independent existence among the straight-stemmed trees of the forest--the image of an eccentric genius in the midst of a group of sedate citizens4 ,like the mosses and lichens of our woods1 parasites of endless variety and almost inconceivable size and luxuriance 7ferns1 bromelias1 tillandsias1 orchids1 and pothos7 cover in the tropical zone the trunks and branches of the forest trees1 forming hanging gardens1 far more splendid than those of ancient ,babylon4 ,while the orchids are distinguished by the eccentric forms and splendid colouring of their flowers1 sometimes resembling winged insects or birds1 the pothos family 7caladium1 calla1 arum1 dracontium1 pothos7 attract attention by the beauty of their large1 thick-veined1 generally arrow-shaped1 digitated1 or elongated leaves1 and form a beautiful contrast to the stiff bromelias or the hairy tillandsias that conjointly adorn the knotty stems and branches of the ancient trees4 ,in size of leaf1 the ,pothos family is surpassed by the large tropical water-plants1 the ,nymphas and ,nelumbias1 among which the ,victoria regia1 discovered in #ahcg by ,robert ,schomburgk in the river ,berbice1 enjoys the greatest celebrity4 ,the round light-green leaves of this queen of water-plants measure no less than six feet in diameter1 and are surrounded by an elevated rim several inches high1 and exhibiting the pale1 carmine red of the under surface4 ,the odorous white blossoms1 deepening into roseate hues1 are composed of several hundred petals2 and1 measuring no less than fourteen inches in diameter1 rival the colossal proportions of the leaves4 ,the ,victoria is found all over the ,amazon district1 but rarely or never in the river itself4 ,it seems to delight in still waters1 growing in inlets1 lakes1 or very quiet branches of the river fully exposed to the sun4 ,illustration3 ,,bottle-,,tree4 ,the trunk of several tropical trees offers the remarkable peculiarity of bulging out in the middle like a barrel4 ,in the ,brazilian forests1 the ,pao ,barrigudo 7,chorisia ventricosa7 arrests the attention of every traveller by its odd ventricose shape1 nearly half as broad in the centre as long1 and gradually tapering towards the bottom and the top1 whence spring a few thin and scanty branches4 ,it is only by seeing great numbers of these trees all with their character more or less palpable1 that one can believe it is not an accidental circumstance in the individual tree1 instead of being truly characteristic of the species4 ,the ,delabechea1 or bottle-tree1 discovered by ,mr4 ,mitchell in tropical ,australia1 has the same lumpish mode of growth4 ,its wood is of so loose a texture that1 when boiling water is poured over its shavings1 a clear jelly is formed1 and becomes a thick viscid mass4 ,in other trees which1 struggling upwards to air and light1 attain a prodigious altitude1 or from their enormous girth and the colossal expansion of their branches require steadying from beneath1 we find buttresses projecting like rays from all sides of the trunk4 ,they are frequently from six to twelve inches thick1 and project from five to fifteen feet1 and1 as they ascend1 gradually sink into the bole and disappear at the height of from ten to twenty feet from the ground4 ,by the firm resistance which they offer below1 the trees are effectually protected from the leverage of the crown1 by which they would otherwise be uprooted4 ,some of these buttresses are so smooth and flat as almost to resemble sawn planks2 as1 for instance1 in the ,bombax ,ceiba1 one of the most remarkable examples of this wonderful device of ,nature4 ,illustration3 ,,snake-,,tree4 ,in other cases we find the roots fantastically spreading and revelling in a variety of grotesque shapes1 such as we nowhere find in the less exuberant vegetation of ,europe4 ,thus1 in the india-rubber tree 7,ficus elastica71 masses of the roots appear above ground1 extending on all sides from the base1 and writhing over the surface in serpentine undulations1 so that the ,indian villagers give it the name of the snake-tree4 ,sir ,emerson ,tennent mentions an avenue of these trees leading to the botanical garden of ,peradenia1 in ,ceylon1 the roots of which meet from either side of the road1 and have so covered the surface as to form a wooden framework1 the interstices of which retain the materials that form the roadway4 ,these tangled roots sometimes trail to such an extent that they have been found upwards of #adj feet in length1 whilst the tree itself was not thirty feet high4 ,the roots of the ,mangroves1 which in the tropical zone are found fringing the shores of the sea1 or the mouths of rivers1 wherever the reflux of the tide exposes a broad belt of alluvial soil1 are admirably adapted for securing a footing on the unstable brink of the ocean4 ,illustration3 ,,mangrove4 ,the growth of these salt-water-loving trees 7,rhizophora gymnorrhiza1 ,r4 ,mangle7 is equally peculiar and picturesque4 ,the seeds germinate on the branches1 and1 increasing to a considerable length1 finally fall down into the mud1 where they stick1 with their sharp point buried1 and soon take root4 ,as the young mangrove grows upwards1 pendulous roots issue from the trunk and low branches1 and ultimately strike into the muddy ground1 where they increase to the thickness of a man's leg2 so that the whole has the appearance of a complicated series of loops and arches1 from five to ten feet high1 supporting the body of the tree like so many artificial stakes4 ,it may easily be imagined what dense and inextricable thickets1 what incomparable breakwaters1 plants like these--through whose mazes even the light-footed ,indian can only penetrate by stepping from root to root--are capable of forming4 ,their influence in promoting the growth of land is very great1 and in course of time they advance over the shallow borders of the ocean4 ,their matted roots stem the flow of the waters1 and1 retaining the earthy particles that sink to the bottom between them1 gradually raise the level of the soil4 ,as the new formation progresses1 thousands of seeds begin to germinate upon its muddy foundation1 thousands of cables descend1 still farther to consolidate it2 and thus foot by foot1 year after year1 the mangroves extend their empire and encroach upon the maritime domains4 ,the enormous deltas of many tropical rivers partly owe their immense development to the unceasing expansion of these littoral woods2 and their influence should by no means be overlooked by the geologist when describing the ancient and eternal strife between land and ocean4 ,when the waters retire from under the tangled arcades of the mangroves1 the black mud1 which forms the congenial soil of these plants1 appears teeming with a boundless variety of life4 ,it absolutely swarms with the lower marine animals1 with myriads of holothurias1 annelides1 sea-urchins1 entomostraca1 paguri1 and crabs1 whose often brilliantly coloured carapaces form a strong contrast to the black ooze in which they are seen to crawl about4 ,life clings even to the roots and branches bathed by the rising floods2 for they are found covered with muscles1 barnacles1 and oysters1 which thus have the appearance of growing upon trees1 and pass one-half of their existence under water1 the other in the sultry atmosphere of a tropical shore4 ,the close-eyed ,gudgeon 7,periophthalmus71 or #8,jumping ,johnny1' as he is more familiarly named by the sailors1 plays a conspicuous part in the animal world of the mangrove swamps1 where the uncouth form of this strange amphibious fish may be seen jumping about in the mud like a frog1 or sliding awkwardly along on its belly with a gliding motion4 ,by means of its pectoral fins1 it is even enabled to climb with great facility among the roots of the mangroves1 where it finds a goodly harvest of minute crustaceans4 ,it must1 however1 not be supposed that #8,johnny' has all the swamp to himself2 for though he manages to swallow many a victim1 he is not seldom doomed to become the prey of creatures more wily or stronger than himself4 ,a large and powerful crab of the ,grapsus family may often be observed stealing1 with an almost imperceptible motion1 and in a cautious1 sidelong manner1 towards a gudgeon basking on the shore1 and1 before the fish has time to plunge into the sea1 the pincer of the crab secures it in a vice-like gripe1 from which it is perfectly hopeless to escape4 #8,johnny' is a pugnacious little fellow1 and rather prolonged fights may be observed between him and his brethren4 ,at the mouth of the ,zambesi1 ,dr4 ,livingstone saw one which1 in fleeing from an apparent danger1 jumped into a pool a foot square1 which another evidently regarded as his by prior discovery4 ,in a twinkling the owner1 with eyes flashing fury1 and with dorsal fin bristling up in a rage1 dashed at the intruding foe4 ,the fight waxed furious4 ,no tempest in a teapot ever equalled the storm of that miniature sea4 ,the warriors were now in the water and anon out of it1 for the battle raged on sea and shore4 ,they struck hard1 they bit each other1 until becoming exhausted1 they seized each other by the jaws like two bull-dogs4 ,they paused for breath1 and were at it again as fiercely as before1 until the combat ended by the precipitate retreat of the invader4 ,the vast multitude of marine animals which peoples the mangrove swamps naturally attracts a great number of strand1 lacustrine1 and sea birds2 for it would be strange1 indeed1 if guests were wanting where the table is so prodigally supplied4 ,the red ibis1 the snow-white egrette1 the rosy spoonbill1 the tall flamingo1 and an abundance of herons and other water-fowl1 love to frequent the mangrove thickets1 enhancing by their magnificent plumage the beauty of the scene4 ,for1 however repulsive may be the swampy ground on which these strange trees delight1 yet their bright green foliage1 growing in radiated tufts at the ends of the branches1 and frequently bespangled with large gaily-coloured flowers1 affords a most pleasing spectacle4 ,many an interesting discovery would here1 no doubt1 reward the naturalist's attention2 but the mangroves know well how to keep their secrets1 and to repel the curiosity of man4 ,should he attempt to invade their domains1 clouds of bloodthirsty insects would instantly make him repent of his temerity2 for the plague of the mosquitoes is nowhere more dreadful than in the thickets of the semi-aquatic ,rhizophor4 ,and supposing his scientific zeal intense enough to bid defiance to the torture of their stings1 and to scorn the attacks of every other visible foe--insect or serpent1 crocodile or beast of prey--that may be lurking among the mangroves1 yet the reflection may well bid him pause1 that poisonous vapours1 pregnant with cholera or yellow fever1 are constantly rising from that muddy soil4 ,even in the temperate regions of ,europe the emanations from marshy grounds are pregnant with disease1 but the malaria ascending from the sultry morasses of the torrid zone is absolutely deadly4 ,thus there cannot possibly be a better natural bulwark for a land than to be belted with mangroves2 and if ,borneo1 ,madagascar1 ,celebes1 and many other tropical islands and coasts1 have to the present day remained free from the ,european yoke1 they are principally indebted for their independence to the miasms and tangles of a ,rhizophora girdle1 bidding defiance alike to the sharp edge of the axe or the destructive agency of fire4 ,as the mangroves are found in places suited to their growth throughout the whole torrid zone1 it is not surprising that there are many species1 some rising to the height of stately trees1 while others are content with a shrub-like growth4 ,some are peculiar to ,america1 others to the ,old ,world2 some grow near the sea1 others prefer a brackish water and the low swampy banks of rivers4 ,the ,jriarteas and ,screw-pines are as singular as the mangroves in the formation of their roots2 but those of the ,lum1 a large tree which ,kittlitz found growing on the island of ,ualan1 are perhaps without a parallel in the vegetable world4 ,each of the roots1 running above-ground for a considerable distance1 is surmounted by a perfectly vertical crest1 gradually diminishing in size as the root recedes from the trunk1 but often three1 or even four1 feet high near its base4 ,these crests1 which are very thin but perfectly smooth1 regularly follow all the sinuosities of the root1 and thus form1 for a considerable distance round the tree1 a labyrinth of the strangest appearance4 ,large spaces of swampy ground are often covered with their windings1 and it is no easy matter to walk on the sharp edges of these vertical bands1 whose interstices are generally filled with deep mud4 ,on being struck1 the larger crests emit a deep sonorous sound1 like that of a kettledrum4 ,the thorns and spines with which many ,european plants are armed1 give but a faint idea of the size which these defensive weapons attain in the tropical zone4 ,the cactuses1 the acacias1 and many of the palm-trees1 bristle with sharp-pointed shafts1 affording ample protection against the attacks of hungry animals1 and might appropriately be called vegetable hedge-hogs1 or porcupines4 ,the ,toddalia aculeata1 a climbing plant1 very common in the hill-jungles of ,ceylon1 is thickly studded with knobs1 about half an inch high1 and from the extremity of each a thorn protrudes1 as large and sharp as the bill of a sparrow-hawk4 ,the black twigs of the buffalo-thorn 7,acacia latronm71 a low shrub abounding in northern ,ceylon1 are beset at every joint by a pair of thorns set opposite each other1 like the horns of an ox1 as sharp as a needle1 from two to three inches in length1 and thicker at the base than the stem they grow on2 and the ,acacia tomentosa1 another member of the same numerous genus1 has thorns so large as to be called the jungle-nail by ,europeans1 and the elephant-thorn by the natives4 ,in some of these thorny plants1 the spines grow1 not singly1 but in branching clusters1 each point presenting a spike as sharp as a lancet2 and where these shrubs abound1 they render the forest absolutely impassable1 even to animals of the greatest size and strength4 ,the formidable thorny plants of the torrid zone1 which are often made use of by man to protect his fields and plantations against wild beasts and robbers1 have sometimes even been made to serve as a bulwark against hostile invasions4 ,thus ,sir ,emerson ,tennent informs us1 that1 during the existence of the ,kandyan kingdom1 before its conquest by the ,british1 the frontier forests were so thickened and defended by dense plantations of thorny plants as to form a natural fortification impregnable to the feeble tribes on the other side2 and at each pass which led to the level country1 movable gates1 formed of the same thorny beams1 were suspended as an ample security against the incursions of the naked and timid lowlanders4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,lum ,,tree4 ,poets and moralists1 judging by what they see in ,england1 have concluded that fruits of a small size1 whose fall cannot be dangerous to man1 invariably grow on high trees1 while large fruits1 such as the pumpkin1 are only found trailing on the ground4 ,but a visit to the tropics would soon convince them of their error1 for two of the largest and heaviest fruits known1 the ,brazilian nut 7,bertholletia7 and the ,durian of the ,indian ,archipelago1 grow on high forest trees1 from which they fall down when ripe1 and frequently wound or kill the natives4 #8,from this1' says ,mr4 ,wallace1 #8we can learn two things--in the first place1 not to draw general conclusions from a locally very limited knowledge of nature1 and1 secondly1 that trees and fruits1 as well as the manifold productions of the animal kingdom1 have not been exclusively organised with a reference to man4' ,illustration3 ,a ,,ceylonese ,,cocoa-,,nut ,,oil-,,mill4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,palms ,,and ,,ferns4 ,the ,cocoa-nut ,tree--,its hundred ,uses--,cocoa-nut ,oil--,coir-- ,porcupine ,wood--,enemies of the ,cocoa ,palm--,the ,sago ,palm--,the ,saguer--,the ,gumatty--,the ,areca ,palm--,the ,palmyra ,palm--,the ,talipot--,the ,cocoa de ,mer--,ratans--,a ,ratan bridge in ,ceylon-- ,the ,date ,tree--,the ,oil ,palms of ,africa--,the ,oil ,trade at ,bonny-- ,its vast and growing ,importance--,american ,palms--,the ,carnauba-- ,the ,ceroxylon andicola--,the ,cabbage ,palm--,the ,gulielma speciosa-- ,the ,piaava--,difficulties of the ,botanist in ascertaining the various species of ,palms--,their wide geographical range--,different ,physiognomy of the ,palms according to their height--,the ,position and ,form of their ,fronds--,their ,fruits--,their ,trunk--,the ,yriartea ventricosa--,arborescent ,ferns4 ,the graceful acanthus gave the imaginative ,greeks the first idea of the ,corinthian capital2 but the shady canopy of the cocoa-nut tree would no doubt form a still more beautiful ornament of architecture1 were it possible for art to imitate its feathery fronds and carve their delicate tracery in stone4 ,essentially littoral1 this noble palm requires an atmosphere damp with the spray and moisture of the sea to acquire its full stateliness of growth1 and while along the bleak shores of the ,northern ,ocean the trees are generally bent landward by the rough sea breeze1 and send forth no branches to face its violence1 the cocoa1 on the contrary1 loves to bend over the rolling surf1 and to drop its fruits into the tidal wave4 ,wafted by the winds and currents over the sea1 the nuts float along without losing their germinating power1 like other seeds which migrate through the air2 and thus1 during the lapse of centuries1 the cocoa-palm has spread its wide domain from coast to coast throughout the whole extent of the tropical zone4 ,it waves its graceful fronds over the emerald islands of the ,pacific1 fringes the ,west ,indian shores1 and from the ,philippines to ,madagascar crowns the atolls1 or girds the sea-border of the ,indian ,ocean4 ,but nowhere is it met with in such abundance as on the coasts of ,ceylon1 where for miles and miles one continuous grove of palms1 pre-eminent for beauty1 encircles the #8,eden of the eastern wave4' ,multiplied by plantations and fostered with assiduous care1 the total number in the island cannot be less than twenty millions of full-grown trees2 and such is its luxuriance in those favoured districts1 where it meets with a rare combination of every advantage essential to its growth--a sandy and pervious soil1 a free and genial air1 unobstructed solar heat1 and abundance of water--that1 when in full bearing1 it will annually yield as much as a ton weight of nuts--an example of fruitfulness almost unrivalled even in the torrid zone4 ,illustration3 ,,cocoa-,,nut ,,tree4 ,no other tree in the world1 no other plant cultivated by man1 contributes in so many ways to his wants and comfort as this inestimable palm2 and it is a curious illustration of its innumerable uses1 that some years ago a ship from the ,maldive ,islands touched at ,galle1 which was entirely built1 rigged1 provisioned1 and laden with the produce of the cocoa-tree4 ,besides furnishing their chief food to many tribes on the coast within the torrid zone1 the nut contains a valuable oil1 which burns without smoke or smell1 and serves1 when fresh1 for culinary purposes4 ,consisting of a mixture of solid 7stearine7 and fluid 7elain7 fat1 it congeals at a temperature of #gb2 but both its component substances acquire additional value after having been separated by means of the hydraulic press2 for while the liquid part furnishes an excellent lamp-oil1 the solid fat is manufactured into candles rivalling wax1 and at the same time not much dearer than tallow4 ,this important product first became known in the ,european markets at the beginning of the present century1 and is now a considerable article of commerce1 so that1 to meet the constantly increasing demand1 new plantations are continually forming on the coasts of ,ceylon1 ,java1 and other islands of the ,indian ,ocean4 ,the fibrous rind or husk of the nut furnishes coir1 a scarcely less important article of trade than the oil itself4 ,it is prepared by being soaked for some months in water1 for the purpose of decomposing the interstitial pith1 after which it is beaten to pieces until the fibres have completely separated1 and ultimately dried in the sun4 ,ropes made of coir1 though not so neat in appearance as hempen cords1 are superior in lightness1 and exceed them in durability1 particularly if wetted frequently by salt water4 ,from their elasticity and strength they are exceedingly valuable for cables4 ,besides cordage of every calibre1 beds1 cushions1 carpets1 brushes1 and nets are manufactured from the filaments of the cocoa-nut husk1 while the hard shell is fashioned into drinking-cups1 spoons1 beads1 bottles1 and knife-handles4 ,from the spathes of the unopened flowers a delicious #8toddy' is drawn1 which1 drunk at sunrise before fermentation has taken place1 acts as a cooling gentle aperient1 but in a few hours changes into an intoxicating wine1 and may either be distilled into arrack--the only pernicious purpose to which the gifts of the bounteous tree are perverted--or soured into vinegar1 or inspissated by boiling into sugar4 ,the strong tough foot-stalks of the fronds1 which attain a length of from eighteen to twenty feet1 are used for fences1 for yokes1 for carrying burthens on the shoulders1 for fishing-rods2 the leaflets serve for roofing1 for mats1 for baskets1 for cattle-fodder2 and their midribs form good brooms for the decks of ships4 ,cooked or stewed1 the cabbage or cluster of unexpanded leaves is an excellent vegetable1 though rarely used1 as it necessarily involves the destruction of the tree2 and even the tough web or network1 which sustains the foot-stalks of the leaves1 may be stripped off in large pieces and used for straining4 ,after the cocoa-nut tree has ceased to bear1 its wood serves for many valuable purposes--for the building of ships1 bungalows1 and huts1 for furniture and farming implements of every description4 ,when we consider the numerous gifts conferred upon mankind by this inestimable tree1 we cannot wonder at the animation with which the islander of the ,indian ,ocean recounts its #8hundred uses1' or at the superstition which makes him believe that1 by some mysterious sympathy1 it pines when beyond the reach of the human voice4 ,but man is not the only being that profits by its gifts1 for wherever it grows1 its sweet and nutritious nuts are eagerly sought for by many animals4 ,the small black long-clawed cocoa-nut bear 7,ursus malayanus71 which inhabits ,sumatra and ,borneo1 and surpasses all other members of the ,ursine family by its surprising agility in climbing1 though far from despising other fruit1 yet shows by its name to which side its inclinations chiefly lean4 ,the ,east ,indian ,palm-martin 7,paradoxurus typus or ,pougouni7 and the sprightly ,palm-squirrel 7,sciurus palmarum7 likewise climb the cocoa-palms1 and1 perforating the soft and unripe nuts1 eagerly sip their juice4 ,the ubiquitous ,rat bites holes into the cocoa-nuts close to their stalk1 taking good care not to gnaw the shell where the juice would run out and defraud it of its meal4 ,illustration3 ,,malay ,,bear4 ,illustration3 ,,palm ,,squirrel4 ,even the birds diminish the produce of the cocoa-nut grove4 ,the ,noddy 7,sterna stolida7 builds his nest between the foot-stalks1 and picks so busily at the blossom1 when stormy weather prevents him making any long excursions1 that on many islands he is considered as a chief cause of the sterility of numerous palms4 ,in every zone we find nations in a low degree of civilisation living almost exclusively upon a single animal or plant4 ,the ,laplander has his reindeer1 the ,esquimaux his seal1 the ,sandwich ,islander his taro-root2 and thus also we find the natives of a great part of the ,indian ,archipelago depending for their subsistence upon the pith of the ,sago palm 7,sagus fariniferus74 ,this tree1 which is of such great importance to the indolent ,malay1 as it almost entirely relieves him of the necessity of labour1 grows at first very slowly1 and is covered with thorns4 ,as soon1 however1 as the stem is once formed1 it shoots upwards with such rapidity that it speedily attains its full height of ten yards1 with a girth of five or six feet1 losing in this stage its thorny accompaniments4 ,the crown is larger and thicker than that of the cocoa-nut tree2 the efflorescence colossal1 forming an immense bunch1 the branches of which spread out like the arms of a gigantic candelabrum4 ,the tree must1 however1 be felled before the fruit begins to form1 as otherwise the farina would be exhausted1 which man destines for his food4 ,when the trunk has been cut and split into convenient pieces1 the pith is scooped out1 kneaded with water1 and strained1 to separate the meal from the fibres4 ,one tree will produce from two to four hundredweight of flour1 which is mostly consumed on the spot4 ,the ,sago palm serves to feed several millions of men1 and a great quantity of its produce is exported to ,europe4 ,the ,sago palm forms large forests1 particularly on swampy ground in ,borneo and ,sumatra1 in the ,moluccas and ,new ,guinea4 ,mushrooms of an excellent flavour frequently cover the mouldering trunks1 and in the pith the fat grubs of the ,cossus saguarius1 a large lamellicorn beetle1 are found1 which the natives consider a great delicacy when roasted4 ,the ,gomuti 7,gomutus vulgaris71 which almost rivals the cocoa by the multiplicity of its uses1 is likewise a native of the ,indian ,archipelago4 ,on seeing its rough and swarthy rind1 and the dull dark-green colour of its fronds1 the stranger wonders how the unsightly tree is allowed to grow1 but when he has tasted its delicious wine he is astonished not to see it cultivated in greater numbers4 ,although the outer covering of the fruits has venomous qualities1 and is used by the ,malays to poison springs1 the nuts have a delicate flavour1 and the wounded spathe yields an excellent toddy1 which1 like that of the cocoa and palmyra palms changes by fermentation into an intoxicating wine1 and on being thickened by boiling furnishes a kind of black sugar1 much used by the natives of ,java and the adjacent isles4 ,the reticulum or fibrous net at the base of the petioles of the leaves constitutes the gumatty1 a substance admirably adapted to the manufacture of cables1 and extensively used for cordage of every description4 ,the small hard twigs found mixed up with this material are employed as pens1 besides forming the shafts of the sumpits or poisoned arrows of the ,malays1 and underneath the reticulum is a soft silky material1 used as tinder by the ,chinese1 and applied as oakum in caulking the seams of ships1 while from the interior of the trunk a kind of sago is prepared4 ,the ,areca palm 7,areca ,catechu7 bears a great resemblance to the cocoa-nut tree1 but is of a still more graceful form1 rising to the height of forty or fifty feet1 without any inequality on its thin polished stem1 which is dark green towards the top1 and sustains a crown of feathery foliage1 in the midst of which are clustered the astringent nuts1 for whose sake it is carefully tended4 ,in the gardens of ,ceylon the areca palm is invariably planted near the wells and watercourses1 and the betel plant1 which immemorial custom has associated to its use1 is frequently seen twining round its trunk4 ,the ,palmyra palm 7,borassus flabelliformis7 celebrated in verse and prose for the numerous benefits it confers upon mankind1 extends from the confines of ,arabia to the ,moluccas1 and is found in every region of ,hindostan from the ,indus to ,siam1 the cocoa and the date tree being probably the only palms that enjoy a still wider geographical range4 ,in northern ,ceylon1 and particularly in the peninsula of ,jaffna1 it forms extensive forests2 and such is its importance in the ,southern ,dekkan1 and along the ,coromandel coast1 that its fruits afford a compensating resource to seven millions of ,hindoos on every occasion of famine or failure of the rice crop4 ,unlike the cocoa1 which gracefully bends under its ponderous crown1 the palmyra rises vertically to its full height of seventy or eighty feet1 and presents a truly majestic sight when laden with its huge clusters of fruits1 each the size of an ostrich's egg1 and of a rich brown tint1 fading into bright golden at its base4 ,it is not till the tree has attained a mature age that its broad fan-like leaves begin to detach themselves from the stem2 they climb from the ground to its summit in spiral convolutions1 forming a dense cover for many animals--ichneumons1 squirrels1 and monkeys1 that resort to it for concealment4 ,in these hiding-places the latter might easily defy the sportsman2 but they frequently fall victims to a silly curiosity1 for when he is accompanied by his dog1 they cannot resist the temptation of watching the animal's movements1 and1 coming forth to peep1 expose themselves to a fatal shot4 ,the stalks of the decayed leaves remain partly attached to the trunk1 affording supports to a profusion of climbing and epiphytic plants1 which hide the stem under a brilliant tapestry of flower and verdure4 ,when the spathes of the fruit-bearing trees exhibit themselves1 the toddy-drawer forthwith commences his operations1 climbing by the assistance of a loop of flexible jungle-vine1 sufficiently wide to admit both his ancles and leave a space between them1 thus enabling him to grasp the trunk of the tree with his feet and support himself as he ascends4 ,having pruned off the stalks of fallen leaves1 and cleansed the crown from old fruit-stalks and other superfluous matter1 he binds the spathes tightly with thongs to prevent them from farther expansion1 and descends1 after having thoroughly bruised the embryo flowers within to facilitate the exit of the juice4 ,for several succeeding mornings the operation of crushing is repeated1 and each day a thin slice is taken off the end of the racemes1 to facilitate the exit of the sap and prevent its bursting the spathe4 ,about the eighth morning the sap begins to exude1 an event which is notified by the immediate appearance of birds1 especially of the #8toddy bird1' a species of shrike1 7,artamus fuscus71 attracted by the flies and other insects which come to feed on the luscious juice of the palm4 ,the crows1 ever on the alert when any unusual movement is in progress1 keep up a constant chattering and wrangling2 and about this time the palmyra becomes the resort of the palm-martin and the graceful genet1 which frequent the trees in quest of birds4 ,on ascertaining that the first flow of the sap has taken place1 the toddy-drawer again trims the wounded spathe1 and inserts its extremity in an earthen chatty to collect the juice4 ,morning and evening these vessels are emptied1 and for four or five months the palmyra will continue to pour forth its sap at the rate of three quarts a day4 ,but once in every three years the operation is omitted1 and the fruit is allowed to form1 without which the natives assert that the tree would pine and die4#ag ,the hard and durable wood of the palmyra1 which1 consisting like the other palms of straight horny fibres1 can easily be split into lengths1 is said to resist the attacks of the termites1 and is used universally in ,ceylon and ,india for roofing and similar purposes4 ,the leaves1 finally1 are employed for roofs1 fences1 mats1 baskets1 fans1 and paper4 ,the ,talpot or ,talipot of the ,singalese 7,corypha umbraculifera7 rises to the height of one hundred feet1 and expands into a crown of enormous fan-like leaves1 each of which when laid upon the ground will form a semicircle of sixteen feet in diameter1 and cover an area of nearly two hundred superficial feet4 ,these gigantic foliaceous expansions are employed by the ,singalese for many purposes4 ,they form excellent fans1 umbrellas1 or portable tents1 one leaf being sufficient to shelter seven or eight persons2 but their most interesting use is for the manufacture of a kind of paper1 so durable as to resist for many ages the ravages of time4 ,the leaves are taken1 whilst still tender1 cut into strips1 boiled in spring water1 dried1 and finally smoothed and polished1 so as to enable them to be written on with a style1 the furrow made by the pressure of the sharp point being rendered visible by the application of charcoal ground with a fragrant oil4 ,the leaves of the palmyra similarly prepared are used for ordinary purposes2 but the valuable documents are written to-day1 as they have been for ages past1 on strips of the talipot4 ,the currents of the sea sometimes drift to the shores of the ,maldives1 and even to the south and west coasts of ,java and ,sumatra1 a nut1 exceeding the ordinary cocoa-nut many times in size1 with the additional peculiarity of presenting a double1 or sometimes even a triple form1 as if two separate fruits had grown together4 ,these mysterious gifts of the ocean1 the product of an unknown tree were believed to be of submarine origin1 and to have the wonderful power of neutralising poisons4 ,on the ,maldive ,islands they were the exclusive property of the king1 who either sold them at an exorbitant price1 or made presents of them to other potentates4 ,at length1 about a hundred years ago1 the ,french traveller ,sonnerat discovered in the uninhabited ,seychelles the home of the ,lodoicea ,sechellarum1 which1 like the cocoa1 grows on the strand of that small and secluded group1 and drops its large nuts into the sea1 which then carries them along to the east4 ,the trunk of the ,lodoicea rises to the height of forty or fifty feet1 and bears a crown of immense fan-like leaves1 upwards of twenty feet long and fifteen broad1 with foot-stalks seven feet long4 ,as soon as the real origin of the wonderful drift nuts became known1 they of course immediately lost their imaginary value1 to the great vexation1 no doubt1 of the ,maldive potentate1 who thus found himself deprived of the best part of his scanty revenues4 ,the ,ratans1 a most singular genus of creeping plants1 luxuriate in the forests of tropical ,asia4 ,sometimes their slender stems1 armed with dreadful spines at every joint1 climb to the summit of the highest tree2 sometimes they trail along the ground2 and while it is impossible to find out their roots among the intricate tangles of the matted underwood1 their palm-like tops expand in the sunshine1 the emblems of successful parasitism4 ,they frequently render the forest so impervious1 that the distinguished naturalist ,junghuhn1 while exploring the woods of ,java1 was obliged to be accompanied by a vanguard of eight men1 one-half of whom were busy cutting the ratans with their hatchets1 while the others removed the stems4 ,these rope-like plants frequently grow to the incredible length of four or even six hundred feet1 often consisting of a couple of hundred joints two or three feet long1 and bearing at every knot a feathery leaf1 armed with thorns on its lower surface4 ,though often extremely disagreeable to the traveller1 yet they are far from being useless4 ,the natives of ,java and the other islands of the ,eastern ,archipelago cut the cane into fine slips1 which they plait into beautiful mats1 manufacture into strong and neat baskets1 or twist into cordage of such strength and durability that it is even used with success in the formation of bridges across the watercourses and ravines4 ,on turning from the ,indian ,ocean to ,arabia and ,africa1 we enter upon a new world of palms1 several of which are no less valuable than the cocoa-nut or the palmyra4 ,the date-tree 7,phnix dactylifera71 sung from time immemorial by the poets of the ,east1 is as indispensable as the camel to the inhabitants of the wastes of ,north ,africa and ,arabia1 and1 next to the #8ship of the desert1' the devout ,mussulman esteems it the chief gift of ,allah4 ,few palms have a wider range1 for it extends from the ,persian ,gulf to the borders of the ,atlantic1 and flourishes from the twelfth to the thirty-seventh degree of northern latitude4 ,groves of dates adorn the coasts of ,valencia in ,spain2 near ,genoa its plantations afford leaves for the celebration of ,palm ,sunday2 and in the gardens of southern ,france a date-tree is sometimes seen growing among the oranges and olives4 ,but it never bears fruit on these northern limits of its empire1 and thrives best in the oases on the borders of the sandy desert4 ,illustration3 ,,date ,,tree4 ,the date-palm is propagated by shoots1 and the female tree bears its first fruits after four or five years4 ,it is said to attain to an age of two centuries1 but is rarely left standing longer than eighty years1 when the trunk is tapped in spring1 producing a kind of toddy1 which is consumed in great quantities in #8,biledulgerid1' or the long line of oases situated to the south of the ,atlas1 and pre-eminently called the #8land of dates4' ,it is not to be wondered at that the tribes of the desert so highly value a tree which1 when in full growth1 bears as much as two hundredweight of dates1 and by enabling a family to live on the produce of a small spot of ground1 extends as it were the bounds of the green islands of the desert4 ,it is considered criminal to fell it while still in its vigour1 and both the ,bible and the ,koran forbid the warriors of the true ,god to apply the axe to the date-trees of an enemy4 ,in ,arabia the date palms of ,el ,medinah are celebrated above all others for the excellence of their fruit1 which were the favourite food of the ,prophet--a circumstance investing them in the eyes of all true believers with a certain degree of sanctity4 ,their stately columnar stems here seem higher than in other lands1 and their lower fronds1 which in ,egypt are lopped off about ,christmas time to increase the flavour of the fruit1 are allowed to remain unmutilated4 ,one of the reasons for the excellence of ,medinah dates is the quantity of water they obtain4 ,each garden or field has its well2 and1 even in the hottest weather1 the water-wheel floods the soil every third day4 ,the date-tree can live in dry and barren spots2 but it loves the beds of streams1 and places where moisture is procurable4 ,books enumerate #aci varieties of date trees4 ,of these between sixty and seventy are well known1 and each is distinguished as usual1 among ,arabs1 by its peculiar name4 ,the best kind1 ,el ,shelebi1 is packed in skins or in flat round boxes covered with paper1 and sent as gifts to the remotest parts of the ,moslem world1 for the pilgrim to the ,holy ,cities would be badly received by the women of his family if he did not present them on his return with a few boxes of this fruit4 ,imagination has also done its best to invest the better kinds of dates with a legendary interest4 ,thus1 the ,ajwah is eaten but not sold1 because a tradition of the ,prophet declares that whoso breaketh his fast every day with six or seven of the ,ajwah date need fear neither poison nor magic4 ,the third kind1 ,el ,hilwah1 also a large date1 derives its name from its exceeding sweetness4 ,of this tree the ,moslems relate that the ,prophet planted a stone1 which in a few minutes grew up and bore fruit4 ,the ,wahski on one occasion bent its head and salaamed to ,mahomet as he ate its fruit1 for which reason even now its lofty tuft turns earthwards4 ,the ,sayhani is so called because1 when the founder of ,el ,islam1 holding ,ali's hand1 happened to pass beneath it1 it cried1 #8,this is ,mahomet the ,prince of the ,prophets1 and this is ,ali the ,prince of the ,pious4' ,of course the descendants of this intelligent tree hold a high rank in the kingdom of palms4 ,the citizens of ,medinah delight in speaking of dates as an ,irishman does of potatoes--with a kind of familiar fondness3 they eat them for medicine as well as food4 ,the fruit is ripe about the middle of ,may1 and the gathering of it forms the ,arab's vintage4 ,the people make merry the more readily because their favourite fruit is liable to a variety of accidents2 droughts injure the tree1 locusts destroy the produce1 and thus the date crop1 like most productions which men are imprudent enough to adopt singly as the staff of life1 is subject to failure4 ,illustration3 ,,oil ,,palm4 ,towards the equator the date-tree disappears1 while the ,doum 7,hyphne thebaica71 distinguished from most other palms by its branching trunk1 each branch being surmounted by a tuft of large stiff flabelliform leaves1 assumes a conspicuous place in the landscape4 ,its fruits1 which are of the size of a small apple1 and covered with a tough yellow lustrous rind1 have a sugary taste1 and serve for the preparation of sherbet4 ,the old leaf-stalks with their thorns and sheathes1 which remain attached to the trunk1 render the task of climbing it next to impossible4 ,the chief seat of this beautiful palm are the banks of the ,nile1 in the region of the cataracts4 ,in ,kordofan the ,delebl palms form large clumps with tamarinds1 cassias1 adansonias1 and various mimosas4 ,straight as an arrow and perfectly smooth-rinded1 this magnificent tree rises to the height of a hundred feet1 bearing large fan-like leaves1 attached to foot-stalks ten feet long1 and armed with mighty thorns4 ,from ten to twenty large bunches of nuts1 as big as a man's head1 hang beneath the fronds1 but unfortunately these fine-looking fruits disappoint the taste4 ,thus various forms of palms flourish along the banks of the ,nile1 but in general ,africa has a smaller variety of these trees to boast of than either ,asia or ,america4 ,on the other hand1 the forests of ,brazil have no palms at all comparable in commercial importance to the ,cocos butyracea and the ,elis gumeensis1 the oil-teeming fruit trees of tropical ,west ,africa4 ,the productiveness of the ,elis may be inferred from its bearing clusters of from #fjj to #hjj nuts1 larger than a pigeon's egg1 and so full of oil that it may be pressed out with the fingers4 ,as long as the slave trade reigned along the coast of ,guinea1 these vegetable treasures remained unnoticed2 but since ,england began to raise her voice against this infamous traffic1 they have become the object of an immense and constantly increasing commerce4 ,the ,american palms are pre-eminent in beauty1 and many of them rank highly in the list of useful plants4 ,the leaves of the ,carnauba 7,corypha cerifera7 furnish an abundance of wax4 ,the lowlands of ,guiana1 between #c and #g ,n4 lat41 are frequently covered with this social fan-palm1 whose full-grown fronds1 when cut and dried in the shade1 cover themselves with light-coloured scales4 ,these melt in a warmth of #bjf ,f41 and then form a straw-coloured liquid1 which again concretes on cooling4 ,it burns with as clear and bright a flame as the best bees'-wax1 and will no doubt become a considerable article of trade1 when once the spirit of industry awakens in those rich but thinly-populated regions4 ,like many other palms1 the ,carnauba does not confine her gifts to one single product4 ,the boiled fruit is edible1 and the pith of the young stems affords a nutritious fecula4 ,roofs thatched with its leaves resist for many years the effects of the weather1 and its wood may be used for a variety of purposes4 ,a kind of wax1 exuding from the rings of its trunk1 is also produced by the beautiful ,ceroxylon andicola1 which grows on the slopes of the ,andes1 up to an elevation of eight thousand feet4 ,even the lofty vault of the ,crystal ,palace would be unable to span this majestic palm1 which1 according to ,humboldt's accurate measurement1 towers one hundred and eighty feet above the ground1 and bears a tuft of fronds each twenty-four feet long4 ,the cabbage-palm of the ,antilles 7,oreodoxa oleracea7 almost rivals the mountain ,ceroxylon in magnificence of growth1 as its stem1 which near to its base is about seven feet in circumference1 ascends straight and tapering to the height of #acj feet4 ,its lofty fronds1 moved by the gentlest breeze1 are an object of beauty which can hardly be conceived by those who are unused to the magnificent vegetation of a tropical sun4 ,within the leaves which surround the top of the trunk1 the cabbage1 composed of longitudinal flakes1 like ribands1 but so compact as to form a crisp and solid body1 lies concealed4 ,it is white1 about two or three feet long1 as thick as a man's arm1 and perfectly cylindrical4 ,when eaten raw1 it resembles the almond in flavour1 but is more tender and delicious4 ,it is usually cut into pieces1 boiled1 and served as an auxiliary vegetable with meat4 ,to obtain this small portion1 borne on the pinnacle of the tree1 and hidden from the eye of man1 the axe is applied to the stately trunk1 and its towering pride laid low4 ,besides its cabbage1 the ,oreodoxa furnishes another great delicacy to the table4 ,after the removal of the heart1 a kind of black-beetle deposits its egg in the cavity1 from which fat grubs are developed1 growing to the size and thickness of a man's thumb4 ,these1 though disgusting in appearance1 when fried in a pan1 with a very little butter and salt1 have a taste which savours of all the spices of ,india4 ,both the ,oreodoxa and the ,ceroxylon are far surpassed in height by the ,californian firs and the ,eucalypti of ,australia1 but no other trees rise so proudly in the air on shafts comparatively so slender4 ,while the enormous trunks of the ,sequoias and ,wellingtonias remind one of the massy pillars of our old gothic churches1 the graceful palms recall to our memory the slender ,ionic or ,corinthian columns which adorn the masterpieces of ,grecian architecture4 ,the oil of the ,corozo 7,elis oleifera7 is usually burnt in the houses and churches of ,carthagena and ,new ,granada2 and the ,oenocarpus disticha is cultivated in ,brazil1 as it furnishes an excellent oil for culinary purposes4 ,the ,pirijao 7,gulielma speciosa7 is planted round the huts of the ,indians1 and replaces in some districts the ,mauritia as the tree of life4 ,the ,piaava 7,attalia funifera71 whose stone-hard dark-brown nuts are manufactured into rosaries by the inhabitants of ,villa ,nova de ,olivenza1 is far more important1 on account of its fibres1 which1 unknown a few years ago1 are now imported into ,england in large quantities1 where they serve for making brooms2 and the amazingly hard nuts of the ,cabeza di ,negro 7,phytelephas71 rivalling ivory in whiteness1 solidity1 and beauty1 are extensively used by our turners for similar purposes4 ,though no trees are more characteristic of the tropics than the palms1 yet specimens are found far within the temperate regions4 ,along with the date-tree the ,chamrops humilis graces the environs of ,nizza1 and the ,areca sapida flourishes in the mild insular climate of ,new ,zealand 7#ch ,s4 lat74 ,in ,africa1 the ,hyphne coriacea grows at ,port ,natal 7#cj ,s4 lat471 and in ,america the palms extend to #ce ,s4 lat41 both in the ,pampas of ,buenos ,ayres1 and in ,chili1 where the ,choco indicates the extreme limits of the family4 ,as these species are able to exist under a mean annual temperature of #eh1 they might possibly be made to adorn the gardens of ,penzance2 most palms1 however1 require a mean temperature of from #gj to #gb1 and on advancing towards the equator increase in beauty1 stateliness of growth1 and variety of form4 ,their chief seats are the lower regions of the torrid zone2 but as some species range far to the north or south1 thus others ascend the mountain-slopes1 almost to the limits of perpetual snow4 ,in ,south ,america1 the ,ceroxylon andicola and the ,kunthia montana are found growing at an altitude of #f1jjj and #i1jjj feet1 and in the ,paramo de ,guanacos1 ,humboldt even saw palms #ac1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,besides the height of the shaft1 the position of the leaves serves chiefly to impart a more or less majestic character to the palms3 those with drooping leaves being far less stately than those whose fronds shoot more or less upwards to the skies4 ,nothing can exceed the elegance of the ,jagua palm1 which along with the splendid ,cucurito adorns the granite rocks in the rapids of the ,orinoco at ,atures4 ,the fronds1 which are but few in number1 rise almost perpendicularly sixteen feet high1 from the top of the lofty columnar shaft1 and their feathery leaflets of a thin and grass-like texture play lightly round the tall leaf-stalks1 slowly bending in the breeze4 ,in the palms with a feathery foliage1 the leaf-stalks rise either immediately from a brown ligneous trunk 7cocoa-nut1 date71 or1 as in the beautiful ,palma ,real of the ,havana1 from a smooth1 slender1 and grass-green shaft1 placed like an additional column upon the dark-coloured trunk4 ,in the fan-palms1 the crown frequently rests upon a layer of dried leaves1 which impart a severe character to the tree4 ,illustration3 ,,yriartea ,,ventricosa4 ,the form of the trunk also varies greatly2 sometimes it is extremely short1 as in ,chamropshumilis2 and sometimes1 as in the ratans1 assumes a bush-rope appearance4 ,in some species it is smooth and unarmed1 in others rugged or bristling with spines4 ,in the ,american ,yriarteas it rests upon a number of roots rising above the ground4 ,thus the ,y4 exorrhiza1 frequently stands upon a dozen or more supports1 embracing a circumference of twenty feet2 and the ,y4 ventricosa is still more curious1 as the spindle-shaped trunk1 which at both ends is scarce a foot thick1 swells in the middle to a threefold diameter1 and1 from its convenient form1 is frequently used by the ,indians for the construction of their canoes4 ,the form and colour of the fruits is also extremely various4 ,what a difference between the large double nuts of the ,lodoicea and the date-- between the egg-shaped fruits of the ,mauritia1 whose scaly rind gives them the appearance of fir-cones1 and the gold and purple peaches of the ,pirijao1 hanging in colossal clusters of sixty or eighty from the summit of the majestic trunk4 ,the family of the ferns is spread over the whole earth1 but chiefly abounds in the vicinity of the tropics4 ,most of these plants love the shady and damp ground of the primitive forest1 others attach themselves with their roots to rocks or trees4 ,in the equatorial regions several of their species attain arboreal dimensions1 with stems from twelve to thirty feet high and extensive crowns of large fronds1 imitating the stately tufts of palms4 ,but they do not possess the noble elegance of these kings of the vegetable world2 and their stems1 of a sombre brown colour1 are rather an image of decrepid old age than of the youthful vigour which we admire in the growth of the palms4 ,they do not seem to love the highest temperature of the equator1 but rather the milder climate of the mountainous regions near the tropics4 ,here they frequently stand singly in the thicket1 particularly where a waterfall impregnates the air with moisture1 or on the borders of sources and ponds4 ,no parasites settle upon them1 no bird constructs its nest among their fronds1 no quadruped burrows in the mouldy ground where they take root1 even the ants disdain to build on their sapless stems1 and thus they make the impression of friendless aliens in a convivial group4 ,illustration3 ,,areca ,,palm4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,banana ,,and ,,the ,,plantain4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,chief ,,esculent ,,plants ,,of ,,the ,,torrid ,,zone4 ,rice--,various ,aspect of the ,rice-fields at different ,seasons--,the ,rice-,bird--,maize--,first imported from ,america by ,columbus--,its enormous ,productiveness--,its wide zone of ,cultivation--,millet1 ,dhourra--,the ,bread-,fruit ,tree--,the ,bananas--,their ancient ,cultivation--,avaca or ,manilla ,hemp--,humboldt's ,remarks on the ,banana--,the ,traveller's ,tree of ,madagascar--,the ,cassava ,root-- ,tapioca--,yams--,batatas--,arrowroot--, taro--,tropical ,fruit ,trees-- ,the ,chirimoya--,the ,litchi--,the ,mangosteen--,the ,mango4 ,of all the cereals there is none that affords food to so vast a multitude as the rice-plant 7,oryza sativa71 on whose grains from time immemorial the countless millions of south-eastern ,asia chiefly subsist4 ,from its primitive seat1 on the ,ganges or the ,sikiang1 its cultivation has gradually spread not only over the whole tropical zone1 but even far beyond its bounds1 as it thrives both in the swamps of ,south ,carolina and in the rich alluvial plains of the ,danube and the ,po4 ,along the low river banks1 in the delta-lands which the rains of the tropics annually change into a boundless lake1 or where1 by artificial embankments1 the waters of the mountain streams have been collected into tanks for irrigation1 the rice-plant attains its utmost luxuriance of growth1 and but rarely deceives the hopes of the husbandmen4 ,the aspect of the lowland rice-fields of ,india and its isles is very different at various seasons of the year4 ,where1 in ,java1 for instance1 you see to-day long-legged herons gravely stalking over the inundated plain partitioned by small dykes1 or a yoke of indolent buffaloes slowly wading through the mud1 you will three or four months later be charmed by the view of a gracefully undulating corn-field1 bearing a great resemblance to our indigenous barley4 ,cords1 to which scare-crows are attached traverse the field in every direction1 and converge1 to a small watch-house1 erected on high poles4 ,here the attentive villager sits1 like a spider in the centre of its web1 and by pulling the cords1 puts them from time to time into motion1 whenever the wind is unwilling to undertake the office4 ,then the grotesque and noisy figures begin to rustle and to caper1 and whole flocks of the neat little rice-bird or ,java sparrow 7,loxia oryzivora71 rise on the wing1 and hurry off with all the haste of guilty fright4 ,after another month has elapsed1 and the waters have long since evaporated or been withdrawn1 the harvest takes place1 and the rice-fields are enlivened by a motley crowd1 for all the villagers1 old and young1 are busy reaping the golden ears4 ,illustration3 ,,java ,,sparrow4 ,the rice-fields offer a peculiarly charming picture when1 as in the mountain valleys of ,ceylon1 they rise in terraces along the slopes4 #8,selecting an angular recess where two hills converge1 the ,kandyans construct a series of terraces1 raised stage above stage1 and retiring as they ascend along the slope of the acclivity1 up which they are carried as high as the soil extends4 ,each terrace is furnished with a low ledge in front1 behind which the requisite depth of water is retained during the germination of the seed1 and what is superfluous is permitted to trickle down to the one below it4 ,in order to carry on this peculiar cultivation the streams are led along the level of the hills1 often from a distance of many miles1 with a skill and perseverance for which the natives of these mountains have attained a great renown4' ,maize is no less important to the rapidly-growing nations of ,america than the rice-plant to the followers of ,buddh or of ,brama4 ,the time when the cereals of the old world were first transplanted from their unknown ,asiatic homes is1 and ever will be1 hidden in legendary obscurity2 but the epoch when maize was for the first time seen and tasted by ,europeans lies before us in the broad daylight of authentic history4 ,for1 when ,columbus discovered ,cuba1 in the year #adib1 he found maize cultivated by the ,indians1 and was equally pleased with the taste of the roasted grains and astonished at their size4 ,in the following year1 when he made his triumphant entry into ,barcelona1 and presented his royal patrons--,ferdinand and ,isabella--with specimens of the various productions of the ,new ,world1 the maize-spikes he laid down before their throne1 though but little noticed1 were in reality of far greater importance than the heaps of gold which were so falsely deemed to be the richest prizes of his grand discovery4 ,in this manner maize was first conveyed from the ,new ,world to ,spain1 whence its cultivation gradually extended over the tropical and temperate zones of the eastern hemisphere4 ,round the whole basin of the ,mediterranean1 maize has found a new home1 and its grain now nourishes the ,lombard and the ,hungarian1 as it does the ,egyptian fellah or the ,syrian peasant4 ,while our northern cereals only produce a pleasing effect when covering extensive fields1 but are individually too insignificant to claim attention1 the maize-plant almost reminds the spectator of the lofty ,bambusace of the tropical world4 ,even in our gardens it rises above a man's height1 and in warmer countries not seldom attains the gigantic stature of fourteen feet4 ,ensiform1 dark green1 lustrous leaves1 somewhat resembling those of the large oarweeds of the northern seas1 spring alternately from every joint of this cereal1 streaming like pennants and sharply rustling in the wind4 ,the top produces a bunch of male flowers of various colours1 which is called the tassel4 ,each plant likewise bears three or more spikes or ears1 proceeding from the stem1 at various distances from the ground1 and closely enveloped by several thin leaves1 forming a sheath1 or husk4 ,they consist of a cylindrical substance of the nature of pith1 which is called the cobb1 and over the entire surface of which the seeds are ranged and fixed1 in eight or more straight rows4 ,each of these has generally as many as thirty or more seeds1 and each seed weighs at least as much as five or six grains of wheat or barley4 ,surely a cereal like this deserves beyond all others to symbolise abundance1 and1 had it been known to the ,greeks1 it would beyond all doubt have figured conspicuously in the teeming horn of ,amalthea4 ,in light sandy soils1 under the scorching rays of the sun1 and in situations where sufficient moisture cannot be obtained for the production of rice1 numerous varieties of millet 7,sorghum vulgare7 are successfully cultivated in many tropical countries--in ,india1 ,arabia1 the ,west ,indies1 in ,central ,africa1 and in ,nubia1 where it is grown almost to the exclusion of every other esculent plant4 ,though the seeds are by much the smallest of any of the cereal plants1 the number borne upon each stalk is so great as to counterbalance this disadvantage1 and to render the cultivation of millet as productive as that of any other grain4 ,the bread-fruit tree is the great gift of ,providence to the fairest isles of ,polynesia4 ,no fruit or forest tree in the north of ,europe1 with the exception of the oak or linden1 is its equal in regularity of growth and comeliness of shape2 it far surpasses the wild chestnut1 which somewhat resembles it in appearance4 ,its large oblong leaves are deeply lobed like those of the fig-tree1 which they resemble not only in colour and consistence1 but also in exuding a milky juice when broken4 ,about the time when the sun1 advancing towards the ,tropic of ,capricorn1 announces to the ,tahitians that summer is approaching1 it begins to produce new leaves and young fruits1 which commence ripening in ,october1 and may be plucked about eight months long in luxuriant succession4 ,the fruit is about the size and shape of a new-born infant's head1 with a thin skin1 and a core about as big as the handle of a small knife4 ,the edible part1 which lies between the skin and the core1 and is as white as snow1 must be roasted before it is eaten2 its taste is insipid1 with a slight sweetness1 somewhat resembling that of the crumb of wheaten bread mixed with boiled potatoes4 ,when the season draws to an end1 the last fruits are laid in heaps1 and closely covered with leaves4 ,in this state they undergo a fermentation and become disagreeably sweet2 the core is then taken out entire1 which is done by gently pulling out the stalk1 and the rest of the fruit is thrown into a hole1 where it undergoes a second fermentation1 and becomes sour1 after which it will suffer no change for many months4 ,it is taken out of the hole as it is wanted for use1 and1 being made into balls1 it is wrapped up in leaves and baked4 ,to procure this principal article of their food costs the fortunate ,south ,sea ,islanders no more trouble than plucking and preparing it in the manner above described2 for1 though the tree which produces it does not grow spontaneously1 yet1 if a man plants but ten of them in his lifetime1 which he may do in about an hour1 he will1 as ,cook remarks1 #8as completely fulfil his duty to his own and future generations1 as the native of our less genial climate by ploughing in the cold of winter and reaping in the summer's heat as often as the seasons return4' ,dampier 7#afhh7 is the first ,english writer that mentions the bread-fruit tree1 which he found growing in the ,ladrones1 and a few years later ,lord ,anson enjoyed its fruits at ,tinian1 where they contributed to save the lives of his emaciated and scurvy-stricken followers4 ,it continued1 however1 to remain unnoticed in ,europe1 until the voyages of ,wallis and ,cook attracted the attention of the whole civilized world to the fortunate islands1 whose inhabitants1 instead of gaining their bread by the sweat of their brow1 plucked it ready formed from the teeming branches of their groves4 ,but the wonderful luxuriance of tropical vegetation is perhaps nowhere more conspicuous and surprising than in the magnificent ,musace1 the banana 7,musa sapientum71 and the plantain 7,musa paradisiaca71 whose fruits most probably nourished mankind long before the gifts of ,ceres became known4 ,a succulent shaft or stem1 rising to the height of fifteen or twenty feet1 and frequently two feet in diameter1 is formed of the sheath-like leaf-stalks rolled one over the other1 and terminating in enormous light-green and glossy blades1 ten feet long and two feet broad1 of so delicate a tissue that the slightest wind suffices to tear them transversely as far as the middle rib4 ,a stout foot-stalk arising from the centre of the leaves1 and reclining over one side of the trunk1 supports numerous clusters of flowers1 and subsequently a great weight of several hundred fruits about the size and shape of full-grown cucumbers4 ,on seeing the stately plant1 one might suppose that many years had been required for its growth2 and yet only eight or ten months were necessary for its full development4 ,each shaft produces its fruit but once1 when it withers and dies2 but new shoots spring forth from the root1 and1 before the year has elapsed1 unfold themselves with the same luxuriance4 ,thus1 without any other labour than now and then weeding the field1 fruit follows upon fruit1 and harvest upon harvest4 ,a single bunch of bananas often weighs from sixty to seventy pounds1 and ,humboldt has calculated that thirty-three pounds of wheat and ninety-nine pounds of potatoes1 require the same space of ground to grow upon as will produce #d1jjj pounds of bananas4 ,this prodigality of ,nature1 seemingly so favourable to the human race1 is however attended with great disadvantages2 for where the life of man is rendered too easy1 his best powers remain dormant1 and he almost sinks to the level of the plant which affords him subsistence without labour4 ,exertion awakens our faculties as it increases our enjoyments1 and well may we rejoice that wheat and not the banana ripens in our fields4 ,as the seeds of the cultivated plantain and banana never or very rarely come to maturity1 they can only be propagated by suckers4 #8,in both hemispheres1' says ,humboldt1 #8as far as tradition or history reaches1 we find plantains cultivated in the tropical zone4 ,it is as certain that ,african slaves have introduced1 in the course of centuries1 varieties of the banana into ,america1 as that before the discovery of ,columbus the plantain was cultivated by the aboriginal ,indians4 #8,these plants are the ornaments of humid countries4 ,like the farinaceous cereals of the north1 they accompany man from the first infancy of his civilisation4 ,semitical traditions place their original home on the banks of the ,euphrates2 others1 with greater probability1 at the foot of the ,himalayas4 ,according to the ,greek mythology1 the plains of ,enna were the fortunate birthplace of the cereals2 but while the monotonous fields of the latter add but little to the beauty of the northern regions1 the tropical husbandman multiplies in the banana one of the noblest forms of vegetable life4' ,the ,musace are not only useful to man by their mealy1 wholesome1 and agreeable fruits1 but also by the fibres of their long leaf-stalks4 ,some species furnish filaments for the finest muslin1 and the coarse fibres of the ,musa textilis1 known in trade under the name of ,manilla hemp1 serve for the preparation of very durable cordage4 ,to the same family of plants belongs also the traveller-tree of ,madagascar 7,ravenala speciosa71 one of those wonderful sources of refreshment which ,nature has provided for the thirsty wanderer in the wilderness4 ,the foot-stalks of the elliptical1 alternate leaves embrace the trunk with broad sheathes1 in which the dew trickling from their surface is collected4 ,thus the ravenala1 the hollow baobab1 the pitcher-plant1 and the juicy cactuses1 all answer a similar purpose1 and it is impossible to say which of them is most to be admired4 ,life and death are strangely blended in the ,cassava or ,mandioca root 7,jatropha ,manihot72 the juice a rapidly destructive poison1 the meal a nutritious and agreeable food1 which1 in tropical ,america1 and chiefly in ,brazil1 forms a great part of the people's sustenance4 ,the height to which the cassava attains varies from four to six feet3 it rises by a slender1 woody1 knotted stalk1 furnished with alternate palmated leaves1 and springs from a woody root1 the slender collateral fibres of which swell into those farinaceous parsnip-like masses1 for which alone the plant is cultivated4 ,it requires a dry soil1 and is not found at a greater elevation than #b1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,it is propagated by cuttings1 which very quickly take root1 and in about eight months from the time of their being planted1 the tubers will generally be in a fit state to be collected2 they may1 however1 be left in the ground for many months without sustaining any injury4 ,the usual mode of preparing the cassava is to grind the roots after peeling off the dark-coloured rind1 to draw out the poisonous juice1 and finally to bake the meal into thin cakes on a hot iron hearth4 ,fortunately the deleterious principle is so volatile as to be entirely dissipated by exposure to heat2 for when the root has been cut into small pieces1 and exposed during some hours to the direct rays of the sun1 cattle may be fed on it with perfect safety4 ,if the recently extracted juice be drunk by cattle or poultry1 the animals soon die in convulsions2 but if this same liquid is boiled with meat and seasoned1 it forms a wholesome and nutritious soup4 ,the ,jatropha ,janipha1 or ,sweet ,cassava1 though very similar to the ,manihot or bitter variety1 and wholly innocuous1 is far less extensively cultivated4 ,the yam-roots1 so frequently mentioned in narratives of travel through the tropical regions1 are the produce of two climbing plants--the ,dioscorea sativa and alata--with tender stems of from eighteen to twenty feet in length1 and smooth sharp-pointed leaves on long foot-stalks1 from the base of which arise spikes of small flowers4 ,the roots of the ,d4 sativa are flat and palmated1 about a foot in breadth1 white within and externally of a dark brown colour1 those of the ,d4 alata1 are still larger1 being frequently about three feet long1 and weighing about thirty pounds4 ,both kinds are cultivated like the common potato1 which they resemble in taste1 though of a closer texture4 ,the ,dioscore are natives of ,south ,asia1 and are supposed to have been thence transplanted to the ,west ,indies1 as they have never been found growing wild in any part of ,america2 while in the island of ,ceylon1 and on the coast of ,malabar1 they flourish in the woods with spontaneous and luxurious growth4 ,the ,spanish or ,sweet ,potato 7,convolvulus ,batatas71 commonly cultivated in the tropical climates both of the eastern and the western hemispheres1 is an herbaceous perennial1 which sends out many trailing stalks1 extending six or eight feet every way1 and putting forth at each joint roots which in a genial climate grow to be very large tubers1 so that from a single plant forty or fifty large roots are produced4 ,the leaves are angular and stand on long petioles1 the flowers are purple4 ,the batata is propagated by laying down the young shoots in the spring2 indeed in its native climate it multiplies almost spontaneously1 for if the branches of roots that have been pulled up are suffered to remain on the ground1 and a shower of rain falls soon after1 their vegetation will recommence4 ,arrowroot is chiefly obtained from two different plants--the ,marantha arundinacea and the ,tacca pinnatifida4 ,the former a native of ,south ,america1 is an herbaceous perennial and is propagated by parting the roots4 ,it rises to the height of two or three feet1 has broad pointed leaves1 and is crowned by a spike of small white flowers4 ,it is much cultivated1 both for domestic use and for exportation in the ,west ,indies1 and in some parts of ,hindostan4 ,the arrowroot is obtained by first pounding the long stalky roots in a large wooden mortar1 and pouring a quantity of water over them4 ,after the whole has been agitated for some time1 the starch1 separated from the fibres1 collects at the bottom of the vessel1 and1 having been cleansed by repeated washing1 is dried in the sun4 ,the ,tacca pinnatifida1 likewise an herbaceous plant with pinnated leaves1 an umbelliform blossom1 and large potato-like roots1 is scattered over most of the ,south ,sea ,islands4 ,it is not cultivated in the ,hawaiian group1 but found growing wild in abundance in the more elevated districts1 where it is satisfied with the most meagre soil1 and sprouts forth among the lava blocks of those volcanic islands4 ,arrowroot is prepared from this plant in the same manner as from the ,west ,indian ,marantha1 but1 as the improvident ,polynesians only think of digging it out of the earth1 and never give themselves the trouble of replanting the small and useless tubers1 its quantity has very much diminished4 ,the ,caladium esculentum1 an aquatic plant1 furnishes the large ,taro roots which1 boiled to a thick paste1 form the chief food of the ,sandwich ,islanders1 and are extensively cultivated in many other groups of the ,south ,seas4 ,it grows like rice on a marshy ground1 the large sagittated leaves rise on high foot-stalks1 immediately springing from the root1 and are likewise very agreeable to the taste1 but are more seldom eaten1 as they are used for propagation4 ,severed from the root1 they merely require to be planted in the mud to produce after six months a new harvest of roots4 ,the growth is so abundant that #a1ejj persons can live upon the produce of a single square mile1 so that supposing the ,united ,kingdom to be one vast taro-field1 its surface would be able to nourish about two thousand millions of souls4 ,as there is a mountain-rice which thrives without artificial irrigation1 there is also a mountain-taro 7,caladium cristatum71 which resembles the former in general appearance1 but prefers a more dry and elevated soil4 ,although the plant grows wild both in the ,society and ,marquesas ,islands1 yet ,pitcairn's ,island was the only spot where ,mr4 ,bennett saw it cultivated4 ,but the possession of a plant which furnishes so much food with so little labour1 can hardly be considered as a benefit for the ,sandwich ,islanders1 whose natural indolence is too much encouraged by the abundance it creates4 ,the ,hawaiian constantly sees before his eyes the coffee-groves and sugar-plantations1 the cotton and indigo fields1 which1 cultivated by ,chinese coolies1 amply reward the enterprise of the ,european and ,american settlers in his native land1 and yet he saunters by1 too indolent even to stretch out his hand and gather the berries from the trees4 ,it may easily be imagined that the tropical sun1 which distils so many costly juices and fiery spices in indescribable multiplicity and abundance1 must also produce a variety of fruits4 ,but man has as yet done but little to improve by care and art these gifts of ,nature1 and1 with rare exceptions1 the delicious flavour for which our native fruits are indebted to centuries of cultivation1 is found wanting in those of the torrid zone4 ,in our gardens ,pomona appears in the refined garb of civilisation1 while in the tropics she still shows herself as a savage beauty1 requiring the aid of culture for the full development of her attractions4 ,yet there are exceptions to the rule1 and among others the ,peruvian ,chirimoya 7,anona tripetala7 is vaunted by travellers in such terms of admiration that it can hardly be inferior to and probably surpasses1 the most exquisite fruits of ,european growth4 ,hnke calls it1 in one of his letters1 a masterpiece of ,nature1 and ,tschudi says that its taste is quite incomparable4 ,it grows to perfection at ,huanuco1 where it attains a weight of from fourteen to sixteen pounds4 ,the fruit is generally heart-shaped1 with the broad base attached to the branch4 ,the rind is green1 covered with small tubercles and scales1 and encloses a snow-white1 juicy pulp1 with many black kernels4 ,both the fruit and the blossoms exhale a delightful odour4 ,the tree is about twenty feet high1 and has a broad dull green crown4 ,in the eastern hemisphere1 the litchi1 the mangosteen1 and the mango enjoy the highest reputation4 ,the ,litchi 7,nephelium ,litchi71 a small insignificant tree1 with lanceolate leaves1 and small greenish-white flowers1 is a native of ,china and ,cochin-,china1 but its cultivation has spread over the ,east and the ,west ,indies4 ,the plum-like scarlet fruit is generally eaten by the ,chinese to their tea1 but it is also dried in ovens and exported4 ,in order to obtain the fruit in perfection1 for the use of the ,imperial ,court1 the trees1 as soon as they blossom1 are conveyed from ,canton to ,pekin on rafts1 at a very great trouble and expense1 so that the plums may just be ripe on their arrival in the northern capital4 ,the beautiful ,mangosteen 7,garcinia ,mangostana71 a native of the ,moluccas1 and thence transplanted to ,java1 ,siam1 the ,philippines1 and ,ceylon1 resembles at a distance the citron-tree1 and bears large flowers like roses4 ,the dark brown capsular fruit1 about the size of a small apple1 is described as of unequalled flavour--juicy and aromatic1 like a mixture of strawberries1 raspberries1 grapes1 and oranges4 ,it is said that the patient who has lost an appetite for everything else still relishes the mangosteen1 and that the case is perfectly hopeless when he refuses even this4 ,the stately ,mango 7,mangifera indica7 bears beautiful girandoles of flowers1 followed by large plum-like fruits1 of which1 however1 but four or five ripen on each branch4 ,more than forty varieties are grown at ,kew1 the finest of which are reserved for the ,queen's table4 ,from ,ceylon1 its original seat1 the mango has been transplanted far and wide over the torrid zone4 ,illustration3 ,,mangosteen4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,sugar ,,cane4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,sugar1 ,,coffee1 ,,cacao1 ,,coca4 ,progress of the ,sugar ,cane throughout the ,tropical ,zone--,the ,tahitian ,sugar ,cane--,the enemies of the ,sugar ,cane--,the ,sugar-harvest--,the ,coffee ,tree--,its cultivation and enemies--,the ,cacao ,tree and the ,vanilla--,the ,coca ,plant--,wonderful strengthening ,effects of ,coca1 and fatal consequences of its ,abuse4 ,sugar is undoubtedly one of the most valuable products of the vegetable world1 and may be said with truth to be only surpassed in importance by the nourishing meal of the cereals1 or the textile fibres of the cotton-plant4 ,our garden fruit owes its agreeable taste to the sugar which the ripening sun developes in its juices4 ,the sap of many a plant--the palm1 the birch1 the maple1 the ,american agave--is rendered useful to man by the sugar it contains4 ,it is this substance which imparts sweetness to the honey gathered by bees from flowers1 and1 after undergoing fermentation1 changes the juice of the grape into delicious wine4 ,but although sugar is of almost universal occurrence throughout the vegetable world1 yet few plants contain it in such abundance as to render its extraction profitable2 and even the beet-root requires high protective duties to be able to compete with the tropical sugar-cane1 a member of the extensive family of the grasses4 ,the original home of this plant--for which1 doubtless1 the lively fancy of the ancient ,greeks1 had they been better acquainted with it1 would have invented a peculiar god1 as for the vine or the cereals--was most probably south-eastern ,asia1 where the ,chinese seem to have been the first people that learnt the art to multiply it by culture4 ,from ,china its cultivation spread westwards to ,india and ,arabia1 and the conquests of ,alexander the ,great1 first made ,europe acquainted with the sweet-juiced cane1 while sugar itself had long before been imported by the ,phnicians as a rare production of the ,eastern world4 ,during the dark ages which followed the fall of the ,roman ,empire1 all previous knowledge of the ,oriental sugar-plant became lost1 until the ,crusades1 and1 still more1 the revival of commerce in ,venice and ,genoa re-opened the ancient intercourse between the ,eastern and the ,western world4 ,from ,egypt1 where the cultivation of the sugar-cane had meanwhile been introduced1 it now extended to the ,morea1 to ,rhodes1 and ,malta2 and at the beginning of the twelfth century we find it growing in ,italy1 on the sultry plains at the foot of ,mount ,etna4 ,after the discovery of ,madeira by the ,portuguese1 in the year #adai1 the first colonists added the vine of ,cyprus and the ,sicilian sugar-cane to the indigenous productions of that lovely island2 and both succeeded so well as to become1 after a few years1 the objects of a lively trade with the mother country4 ,yet1 in spite of this extension of its culture1 the importance of sugar as an article of international trade continued to be very limited1 until the discovery of tropical ,america#ah by ,columbus opened a new world to commerce4 ,as early as the year #aejf the sugar-cane was transplanted from the ,canary ,islands to ,hispaniola1 where its culture1 favoured by the fertility of a virgin soil and the heat of a tropical sun1 was soon found to be so profitable that it became the chief occupation of the ,european settlers4 ,the ,portuguese1 in their turn1 conveyed the cane to ,brazil2 from ,hispaniola it spread over the other ,west ,indian ,islands2 thence wandered to the ,spanish main1 and followed ,pedrarias and ,pizarro to the shores of the ,pacific4 ,unfortunately1 a dark shade obscures its triumphal march1 as its cultivation was the chief cause which entailed the curse of negro slavery on some of the fairest regions of the globe4 ,towards the middle of the last century1 the ,chinese or ,oriental sugar-cane had thus multiplied to an amazing extent over both hemispheres1 when the introduction of the ,tahitian variety1 which was found to attain a statelier growth1 to contain more sugar1 and to ripen in a shorter time1 began to dispossess it of its old domains4 ,this new and superior plant is now universally cultivated in all the sugar-growing ,european colonies2 and if ,cook's voyages had produced no other benefit than making the world acquainted with the ,tahitian sugar-cane1 they would for this alone deserve to be reckoned by the political economist among the most successful and important ever performed by man4 ,the sugar-cane bears a great resemblance to the common reed1 but the blossom is different4 ,it has a knotty stalk1 frequently rising to the height of fourteen feet1 and produces at each joint a long1 pointed1 and sharply serrated leaf or blade4 ,the joints in one stalk are from forty to sixty in number1 and the stalks rising from one root are sometimes very numerous4 ,a field of canes1 when agitated by a light breeze1 affords one of the most pleasing sights1 particularly when1 towards the period of their maturity1 the golden plants appear crowned with plumes of silvery feathers1 delicately fringed with a lilac dye4 ,the sugar-cane is liable to be destroyed by many enemies4 ,sometimes herds of monkeys come down from the mountains by night1 and having posted sentinels to give the alarm if anything approaches1 destroy incredible quantities of the cane by their gambols as well as their greediness4 ,it is in vain to set traps for these creatures1 however baited2 and the only way to protect a plantation and destroy them1 is to set a numerous watch1 well armed with fowling-pieces1 and furnished with dogs4 ,the rat1 which the extension of commerce has gradually spread over the world1 is still more destructive to the sugar-cane1 and great pains are taken to keep it in check by poison or by its arch-enemy the cat4 ,the sugar-cane is also subject to the blast--a disease which no foresight can obviate1 and for which human wisdom has hitherto in vain attempted to find a remedy4 ,when this happens1 the fine broad green blades become sickly1 dry1 and withered2 soon after they appear stained in spots1 and if these are carefully examined1 they will be found to contain countless eggs of an insect like a bug1 which are soon quickened1 and cover the plants with vermin2 the juice of the canes thus affected becomes sour1 and no future shoot issues from the joints4 ,the ravages of the ants concur with those of the bugs in ruining the prospects of many a sugar-field1 and often a long continued drought or the fury of the tornado will destroy the hopes of the planter4 ,the land crabs are also very injurious to the sugar-fields1 some of the species being particularly fond of the cane1 the juice of which they suck and chiefly subsist on4 ,they are of course narrowly watched1 and no opportunity of catching them is lost sight of2 but such is their activity in running1 that they are almost always enabled to escape4 ,they seldom go far from their burrows in day-time2 and their watchfulness is such that they regain them in a moment1 and disappear as soon as a man or dog comes near enough to be seen4 ,harvest-time in the sugar-plantations is no less a season of gladness than in the corn-fields of ,england4 ,so palatable1 wholesome1 and nourishing is the fresh juice of the cane1 that every animal drinking freely of it derives health and vigour from its use4 ,the meagre and sickly among the negroes exhibit a surprising alteration in a few weeks after the mill is set in action4 ,the labouring oxen1 horses1 and mules1 though almost constantly at work during this season1 yet being indulged with plenty of the green tops and some of the scummings from the boiling-house1 improve more than at any other period of the year4 ,even the pigs and poultry fatten on the refuse1 and enjoy their share of the banquet4 ,the wholesome effects of the juice of the sugar-cane has not escaped the attention of ,english physicians1 and many a weak-breasted patient1 instead of coughing and freezing at home over what is ironically termed a comfortable fireside1 now spends his winter in the ,west ,indian ,islands1 chewing the sweet cane and enjoying in ,january a genial warmth of seventy-two degrees in the shade4 ,the mountain regions of ,enarea and ,caffa1 which the reader1 on consulting a map of ,africa1 will find situated to the south of ,abyssinia1 are most probably the countries where the coffee-tree was first planted by ,nature1 as it has here not only been cultivated from time immemorial1 but is everywhere found growing wild in the forests4 ,illustration3 ,,general ,,fraser',s ,,coffee ,,estate ,,at ,,rangbodde1 ,,ceylon4 ,here also the art of preparing a beverage from its berries seems to have been first discovered4 ,arabic authors inform us that about four hundred years ago1 a learned mufti of ,aden1 having become acquainted with its virtues on a journey to the opposite shore of ,africa1 recommended it on his return to the dervises of his convent as an excellent means for keeping awake during their devotional exercises4 ,the example of these holy men brought coffee into vogue1 and its use spreading from tribe to tribe1 and from town to town1 finally reached ,meccah about the end of the fifteenth century4 ,there fanaticism endeavoured to oppose its progress1 and in #aeaa a council of theologians condemned it as being contrary to the law of ,mahomet1 on account of its intoxicating like wine1 and sentenced the culprit who should be found indulging in his cup of coffee to be led about the town on the back of an ass4 ,the sultan of ,egypt1 however1 who happened to be a great coffee-drinker himself1 convoked a new assembly of the learned1 who declared its use to be not only innocent but healthy2 and thus coffee advanced rapidly from the ,red ,sea and the ,nile to ,syria1 and from ,asia ,minor to ,constantinople1 where the first coffee-house was opened in #aeed1 and soon called forth a number of rival establishments4 ,but here also the zealots began to murmur at the mosques being neglected for the attractions of the ungodly coffee divans1 and declaimed against it from the ,koran1 which positively says that coal is not of the number of things created by ,god for good4 ,accordingly the mufti ordered the coffee-houses to be closed2 but his successor declaring coffee not to be coal1 unless when over-roasted1 they were allowed to re-open1 and ever since the most pious mussulman drinks his coffee without any scruples of conscience4 ,the commercial intercourse with the ,levant could not fail to make ,europe acquainted with this new source of enjoyment4 ,in #afeb1 ,pasquia1 a ,greek1 opened the first coffee-house in ,london1 and twenty years later the first ,french cafs were established in ,paris and ,marseilles4 ,as the demand for coffee continually increased1 the small province of ,yemen1 the only country which at that time supplied the market1 could no longer produce a sufficient quantity1 and the high price of the article naturally prompted the ,european governments to introduce the cultivation of so valuable a plant into their colonies4 ,the islands of ,mauritius and ,bourbon took the lead in #agah1 and ,batavia followed in #agbc4 ,some years before1 a few plants had been sent to ,amsterdam1 one of which found its way to ,marly1 where it was multiplied by seeds4 ,captain ,descleux1 a ,french naval officer1 took some of these young coffee-plants with him to ,martinique1 desirous of adding a new source of wealth to the resources of the colony4 ,the passage was very tedious and stormy2 water began to fail1 and all the gods seemed to conspire against the introduction of the coffee-tree into the ,new ,world4 ,but ,descleux patiently endured the extremity of thirst that his tender shoots might not droop for want of water1 and succeeded in safely bringing over one single plant1 the parent stock whence all the vast coffee-plantations of ,america are said to have derived their origin4 ,on examining the present state of coffee-production throughout the world1 we find that the ,european markets obtain their chief supplies from ,brazil1 ,java1 ,ceylon1 and the ,west ,indies2 but with regard to quality1 ,mocha coffee1 though comparatively insignificant in point of quantity1 is still prominent in flavour and aroma4 ,when left to the free growth of nature1 the coffee-tree attains a height of from fifteen to twenty feet2 in the plantations1 however1 the tops are generally cut off in order to promote the growth of the lower branches1 and to facilitate the gathering of the crop4 ,its leaves are opposite1 evergreen1 and not unlike those of the bay-tree2 its blossoms are white1 sitting on short foot-stalks1 and resembling the flower of the jasmine4 ,the fruit which succeeds is a green berry1 ripening into red1 of the size and form of a large cherry1 and having a pale1 insipid1 and somewhat glutinous pulp1 enclosing two hard and oval seeds or beans1 which are too well known to require any further description4 ,the seeds are known to be ripe when the berries assume a dark red colour1 and if not then gathered1 will drop from the trees4 ,to be cultivated to advantage1 the coffee-tree requires a climate where the mean temperature of the year amounts to #fh1 and where the thermometer never falls below #ee4 ,it is by nature a forest tree requiring shade and moisture1 and thus it is necessary to screen it from the scorching rays of the sun by planting rows of umbrageous trees at certain intervals throughout the field4 ,these also serve to protect it from the sharp winds which would injure the blossoms4 ,it cannot bear either excessive heat or a long-continued drought1 and where rain does not fall in sufficient quantity1 artificial irrigation must supply it with the necessary moisture4 ,in ,java the zone of the coffee-plantations extends between #c1jjj and #d1jjj feet above the level of the sea2 and the primitive forest is constantly receding before them4 ,frequently1 on felling the woods1 a part of the original trees is left standing to shade the tender coffee-plants2 but oftener the rows are made to alternate with those of the sheltering dadab4 ,thus a new and luxuriant grove replaces the old thicket of nature's planting4 ,straight paths1 kept carefully clean1 lead through the dense1 dark green shrubbery1 under whose thick cover the wild cock hastily retreats when surprised by the wanderer4 ,when the trees are in flower1 the branches seem to bend under a weight of snow1 from the number of dazzling white blossoms1 which form a pleasing contrast to the dark and lustrous foliage1 while high above1 the dadabs extend their airy crowns1 whose light green leaves are agreeably interspersed with flowers of a brilliant red4 ,a few months later1 when the fruits are ripening into carmine a scene of the most bustling animation ensues1 for old and young are busily employed in plucking the swelling berries1 and hurrying with filled baskets to the nearest pulping mill4 ,in ,ceylon the native woodmen are singularly expert in felling forest trees preparatory to the cultivation of coffee4 ,turning to advantage the luxuriance of tropical vegetation1 which lashes together whole forests by a maze of interlacing climbers as firm and massy as the cables of a line-of-battle ship1 their practice in steep and mountainous places is to cut half-way through each stem in succession1 till an area of some acres in extent is prepared for the final overthrow4 ,they then sever some tall group on the eminence1 and allow it in its decent to precipitate itself on those below1 when the whole expanse is in one moment brought headlong to the ground1 the falling timber forcing down those beneath it by its weight1 and dragging those behind to which it is harnessed4 ,the crash occasioned by this startling operation is so loud that it is audible for two or three miles in the clear and still atmosphere of the hills4 ,like the sugar-cane1 or indeed any other plant cultivated by man1 the coffee-tree is exposed to the ravages of many enemies4 ,wild cats1 monkeys1 and squirrels prey upon the ripening berries1 and hosts of caterpillars feed upon the leaves4 ,since #ahdg the ,ceylon plantations have been several times invaded by swarms of the ,golunda1 a species of rat which inhabits the forests1 making its nest among the roots of the trees1 and1 like the lemmings of ,lapland1 migrating in vast numbers when the seeds of the nillo-shrub 7,strobilanthes71 its ordinary food1 are exhausted4 #8,in order to reach the buds and blossoms of the coffee1 the ,golunda eats such slender branches as would not sustain its weight1 and feeds as they fall to the ground2 and so delicate and sharp are its incisors1 that the twigs thus destroyed are detached by as clean a cut as if severed with a knife4'#ai ,another great enemy of the ,ceylon planters is the ,lecanium ,coffe1 a species of coccus1 which establishes itself on young shoots and buds1 covering them with a noisome incrustation of scales1 from the influence of which the fruit shrivels and drops off4 ,a great part of the crop is sometimes lost1 and on many trees not a single berry forms from the invasion of this insect plague4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,coffee ,,rat4 ,theobroma1--food for gods1--the ,greek name given by ,linnus to the cacao or chocolate tree1 sufficiently proves how highly he valued the flavour of its seeds4 ,indigenous in ,mexico1 it had long been in extensive cultivation before the arrival of the ,spaniards1 who found the beverage which the ,indians prepared from its beans so agreeable that they reckoned it among the most pleasing fruits of their conquest1 and lost no time in making their ,european friends acquainted with its use4 ,from ,mexico they transplanted it into their other dependencies1 so that in ,america its present range of cultivation extends from #bj ,n4 lat4 to ,guayaquil and ,bahia4 ,it has even been introduced into ,africa and ,asia1 in return for the many useful trees that have been imported from the ,old into the ,new ,world4 ,the cacao-tree seldom rises above the height of twenty feet2 its leaves are large1 oblong1 and pointed4 ,the flowers1 which are of a pale red colour1 grow on the stem and larger branches1 and spring even from the roots4 #8,never1' says ,humboldt1 #8shall ,i forget the deep impression made upon me by the luxuriance of tropical vegetation on first1 seeing a cacao-plantation4 ,after a damp night1 large blossoms of the theobroma issue from the root at a considerable distance from the trunk1 emerging from the deep black mould4 ,a more striking example of the expansive powers of life can hardly be met with in organic nature4' ,the fruits are large1 oval1 pointed pods1 about five or six inches long1 and containing in five compartments from twenty to forty beans4 ,the trees are raised from seed1 generally in places screened from the wind4 ,as they are incapable of bearing the scorching rays of the sun1 particularly when young1 bananas1 maize1 manioc1 and other broad-leaved plants are sown between their rows1 under whose shade they enjoy the damp and sultry heat which is indispensable to their growth1 for the ,theobroma ,cacao is essentially tropical1 and requires a warmer climate than the coffee-tree or the sugar-cane4 ,two years after having been sown1 the plant attains a height of three feet1 and sends forth many branches1 of which however but four or five are allowed to remain4 ,the first fruits appear in the third year1 but the tree does not come into full bearing before it is six or seven years old1 and from that time forward it continues to yield abundant crops of beans during more than twenty years4 ,when an ,indian can get a few thousand cacao-trees planted1 he passes an idle1 quiet1 contented life2 all he has to do is to weed under the trees two or three times in the year1 and to gather and dry the seeds in the sun4 ,cacao is chiefly used under the form of chocolate4 ,the beans are roasted1 finely ground1 so as to convert them into a perfectly smooth paste1 and improved in flavour by the addition of spices1 such as the sweet-scented vanilla1 a short notice of which will not be out of place4 ,like our parasitical ivy1 the ,vanilla aromatica1 a native of torrid ,america1 climbs the summits of the highest forest-trees1 or creeps along the moist rock crevices on the banks of rivulets4 ,the stalk1 which is about as thick as a finger1 bears at each joint a lanceolate and ribbed leaf1 twelve inches long and three inches broad4 ,the large flowers which fill the forest with their delicious odours1 are white intermixed with stripes of red and yellow1 and are succeeded by long and slender pods containing many seeds imbedded in a thick oily and balsamic pulp4 ,these pods seldom ripen in the wild state1 for the dainty monkey knows no greater delicacy1 and his agility in climbing almost always enables him to anticipate man4 ,at present the vanilla is cultivated not only in ,mexico1 but in ,java1 where the industrious ,dutch have acclimatised it since #ahai4 ,it is planted under shady trees on a damp ground1 and grows luxuriantly2 but as a thousand blossoms on an average produce but one pod1 it must always remain a rare and costly spice4 ,although but little known beyond the confines of its native country1 ,coca is beyond all doubt one of the most remarkable productions of the tropical zone4 ,the sultry valleys on the eastern slopes of the ,peruvian and ,bolivian ,andes are the seat of the ,erythroxylon ,coca1 which1 like the coffee-tree1 bears a lustrous green foliage1 and white blossoms ripening into small scarlet berries4 ,the leaves when brittle enough to break on being bent1 are stripped from the plant1 dried in the sun1 and closely packed in sacks4 ,the naked shrub soon gets covered with new foliage1 and after three or four months its leaves are ready for a second plucking1 though in some of the higher mountain-valleys it can only be stripped once a year4 ,like the coffee-tree1 the coca-shrub thrives only in a damp situation1 under shelter from the sun2 and for this reason maize1 which rapidly shoots up1 is generally sown between the rows of the young plants4 ,the local consumption of coca is immense1 as the ,peruvian ,indian reckons its habitual use among the prime necessaries of life1 and is never seen without a leathern pouch filled with a provision of the leaves1 and containing besides a small box of powdered unslaked lime4 ,at least three times a day he rests from his work to chew his indispensable coca4 ,carefully taking a few leaves out of the bag1 and removing their midribs1 he first masticates them in the shape of a small ball1 which is called an acullico2 then repeatedly inserting a thin piece of moistened wood like a toothpick into the box of unslaked lime1 he introduces the powder which remains attached to it into the acullico until the latter has acquired the requisite flavour4 ,the saliva1 which is abundantly secreted while chewing the pungent mixture1 is mostly swallowed along with the green juice of the plant4 ,when the acullico is exhausted1 another is immediately prepared1 for one seldom suffices4 ,the corrosive sharpness of the unslaked lime requires some caution1 and an unskilled coca-chewer runs the risk of burning his lips1 as1 for instance1 the celebrated traveller ,tschudi1 who1 by the advice of his muleteer1 while crossing the high mountain-passes of the ,andes1 attempted to make an acullico1 and instead of strengthening himself as he expected1 merely added excruciating pain to the fatigues of the journey4 ,the taste of coca is slightly bitter and aromatic1 like that of bad green tea1 but the addition of lime1 or of the sharp ashes of the quinoa1 renders it less disagreeable to the ,european palate4 ,it is a remarkable fact that the ,indians who regularly use coca require but little food1 and when the dose is augmented are able to undergo the greatest fatigues without tasting almost anything else4 ,professor ,pppig ascribes this astonishing increase of endurance to a momentary excitement1 which must necessarily be succeeded by a corresponding collapse1 and therefore considers the use of coca absolutely hurtful4 ,tschudi1 however1 is of opinion that its moderate consumption1 far from being injurious1 is1 on the contrary1 extremely wholesome1 and cites the examples of several ,indians who1 never allowing a day to pass without chewing their coca1 attained the truly patriarchal age of one hundred and thirty years4 ,the ordinary food of these people consists almost exclusively of roasted maize or barley1 which is eaten dry without any other addition3 and the obstinate obstructions caused by these mealy aliments are obviated by the tonic effects of the coca1 which thus removes the cause of many maladies4 ,tschudi often found coca the best preservative against the asthmatic symptoms which are produced by the rapid ascension of high mountains4 ,while hunting in the ,puna1 #ad1jjj feet above the level of the sea1 he always drank a strong infusion of coca before starting1 and was then able to climb among the rocks1 and to pursue his game1 without any greater difficulty in breathing than would have been the case upon the coast4 ,if the moderate use of coca is thus beneficial in many respects1 its abuse is attended with the same deplorable consequences as those which are observed in the oriental opium-eaters and smokers1 or in our own incorrigible drunkards4 ,the confirmed coca-chewer1 or coquero1 is known at once by his uncertain step1 his sallow complexion1 his hollow1 lack-lustre black-rimmed eyes1 deeply sunk in the head1 his trembling lips1 his incoherent speech1 and his stolid apathy4 ,his character is irresolute1 suspicious1 and false2 in the prime of life1 he has all the appearances of senility1 and in later years sinks into complete idiocy4 ,avoiding the society of man1 he seeks the dark forest1 or some solitary ruin1 and there1 for days together1 indulges in his pernicious habit4 ,while under the influence of coca1 his excited fancy riots in the strangest visions1 now revelling in pictures of ideal beauty1 and then haunted by dreadful apparitions4 ,secure from intrusion1 he crouches in an obscure corner1 his eyes immovably fixed upon one spot2 and the almost automatic motion of the hand raising the coca to the mouth1 and its mechanical chewing1 are the only signs of consciousness which he exhibits4 ,sometimes a deep groan escapes from his breast1 most likely when the dismal solitude around him inspires his imagination with some terrific vision1 which he is as little able to banish as voluntarily to dismiss his dreams of ideal felicity4 ,how the coquero finally awakens from his trance1 ,tschudi was never able to ascertain1 though most likely the complete exhaustion of his supply at length forces him to return to his miserable hut4 ,no historical record informs us when the use of the coca was introduced1 or who first discovered the hidden virtues of its leaves4 ,when ,pizarro destroyed the empire of ,atahualpa he found that it played an important part in the religious rites of the ,incas1 and that it was used in all public ceremonies1 either for fumigation or as an offering to the gods4 ,the priests chewed coca while performing their rites1 and the favour of the invisible powers was only to be obtained by a present of these highly valued leaves4 ,no work begun without coca could come to a happy termination1 and divine honours were paid to the shrub itself4 ,after a period of more than three centuries1 ,christianity has not yet been able to eradicate these deeply-rooted superstitious feelings1 and everywhere the traveller still meets with traces of the ancient belief in its mysterious powers4 ,to the present day1 the miners of ,cerro de ,pasco throw chewed coca against the hard veins of the ore1 and affirm that they can then be more easily worked1--a custom transmitted to them from their forefathers1 who were fully persuaded that the ,coyas or subterranean divinities rendered the mountains impenetrable unless previously propitiated by an offering of coca4 ,even now the ,indians put coca into the mouths of their dead1 to insure them a welcome on their passage to another world2 and whenever they find one of their ancestral mummies1 they never fail to offer it some of the leaves4 ,during the first period after the conquest of ,peru1 the ,spaniards endeavoured to extirpate by all possible means the use of coca1 from its being so closely interwoven with the ,indian superstitions2 but the proprietors of the mines soon became aware how necessary it was for the successful prosecution of their undertakings2 the planters also found after a time that the ,indians would not work without it2 private interest prevailed1 as it always does in the long run1 over religious zeal and despotic interdictions1 and in the last century we even find a ,jesuit1 ,don ,antonio ,julian1 regretting that the use of coca had not been introduced into ,europe as well as that of tea and coffee4 ,when we consider its remarkable properties1 it is indeed astonishing that it has so long remained unnoticed4 ,were it concealed in the interior of ,africa1 or extremely difficult to procure1 this neglect could be more easily accounted for2 but hundreds of our vessels annually frequent the harbours of ,peru and ,bolivia1 where it may be obtained in large quantities1 and yet its tonic and stimulating powers are but just beginning to attract the attention of the medical world4 ,illustration3 ,,caoutchouc ,,trees 7,,indians ,,incising ,,them74 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,tropical ,,plants ,,used ,,for ,,industrial ,,purposes4 ,cotton--,its ,cultivation in the ,united ,states--,caoutchouc and ,gutta ,percha--,manner in which these resins are collected--,indigo--,the ,british ,logwood cutters in ,honduras--,brazil ,wood--,arnatto4 ,under the ,plantagenets and the ,tudors1 wool formed the chief export of ,england4 ,the pastoral races that inhabited the ,british ,isles1 unskilled in weaving1 suffered the more industrious ,flemings to convert their fleeces into tissues2 and the dominions of the ,duke of ,burgundy1 enriched by manufactures and by the stimulus they gave to agriculture1 became the most prosperous part of ,europe4 ,at length the islanders began to discover the sources of the wealth which rendered ,ghent and ,bruges1 ,ypres and ,louvain1 the marvel and envy of the medival world2 and gradually learning to keep their wool at home1 invited the ,flemings to the shores of ,england4 ,the bigoted oppression of ,spain came in aid of this more enlightened policy3 our wool ceased to be sent abroad1 and ,english cloth eventually became the chief of our exports4 ,but1 like all human affairs1 trade is subject to eternal fluctuation1 new wants are constantly created1 new markets opened1 new articles introduced1 and thus1 almost within the memory of living man1 the wool-manufactory has ceased to be the great staple of our industry2 and1 thanks to the inventive genius of our ,arkwrights and ,cromptons1 a vegetable fibre furnished by a plant totally unknown to our forefathers1 now ranks as the first of all the world-wide importations of ,england4 ,there are many different species of the cotton-plant1 herbaceous1 shrubby1 and arboreal4 ,their original birthplace is the tropical zone1 where they are found growing wild in all parts of the world2 but the herbaceous species still thrive under a mean temperature of from #fj to #fd ,f41 and are capable of being cultivated with advantage as far as #dj or even #df ,n4 lat4 ,the five-lobed leaves have a dark green colour1 the flowers are yellow with a purple centre1 and produce a pod about the size of a walnut1 which1 when ripe1 bursts and exhibits to view the fleecy cotton in which the seeds are securely embedded4 ,it is almost superfluous to mention that the ,united ,states is the first cotton-producing country in the world4 ,the area suitable for cotton south of the thirty-sixth degree of latitude1 comprises more than #ci1jjj1jjj acres1 of which less than one-sixth part is now devoted to the plant4 ,the yield depends in part upon the length of the season4 ,seven months are required for an average crop1 and the average periods in which the last killing frost of spring and the first killing frost of autumn occur are ,march #bc1 and ,october #bf4 ,cotton is cultivated in large fields1 and when the soil is superior1 the plant rises to a height of six or eight feet1 although in the richest cane-brake soil1 exhausted by successive crops1 it dwindles down to a height of three or four feet only4 ,the aspect of a cotton field is most pleasing in the autumn1 when the dark-coloured foliage and bright yellow flowers1 intermingling with the snow-white down of the pods when burst1 produce a charming contrast4 ,at that time all hands are at work1 for it is important to pluck as much as possible during the first hours of morning1 since the heat of the sun injures the colour of the cotton1 and the over-ripe capsules shed their contents upon the ground1 or allow the wind to carry them away4 ,the collected produce is immediately carried to the steam-mill to be cleansed of the seeds1 and then closely packed in bales1 which in the seaports are further reduced by hydraulic presses to half of their previous volume1 thus causing a great saving in the freight4 ,large clippers frequently carry eight or ten thousand of these bales to ,liverpool1 whence1 perhaps on the day of their arrival1 they are conveyed by rail to the next manufacturing town1 which returns them in a few days to the port1 ready to clothe the ,australian gold-digger or the labourer on the banks of the ,ganges4 ,india1 which still in the last century provided ,europe with the finest cambrics and muslins1 now yearly receives from ,england cotton goods to a large amount4 ,thus the stream of trade may be said to have rolled backwards to its source1 for though the wants of the ,hindoo are easily satisfied1 and cotton grows at his very door1 yet his hand-loom is unable to compete with the machinery and the capital of ,england4 ,even in the exportation of the raw material he labours under great disadvantage when compared with ,america1 though railroads and a better system of culture have done much to improve the quality and facilitate the transport of ,indian cotton4 ,when we consider the luxuriance of vegetation in the tropical zone1 it is not to be wondered at that so many plants of those climes abound with juices of a variety and richness unknown to those of the temperate latitudes4 ,the resins and gums which our indigenous trees produce1 either in smaller quantities or fit only for common uses1 are there endowed with higher virtues1 and ennobled1 as it were1 by the rays of a more powerful sun4 ,sometimes they exude spontaneously through the rind and harden in the atmosphere2 more frequently a slight incision is required to make the sap gush forth in which they are dissolved1 but in every case they require but trifling labour for their collection4 ,many of them have medicinal qualities1 others are esteemed for their aromatic odour1 but none ranks higher in a commercial and technical point of view than caoutchouc or ,india-rubber1 which was first brought from ,south ,america to ,europe as a great curiosity at the beginning of the last century1 and is now absolutely indispensable for a thousand different uses4 ,nothing was known even of its origin until the year #agcf1 when the ,french naturalist ,la ,condamine1 while exploring the banks of the ,amazon1 discovered that it was chiefly produced by the ,siphonia elastica1 a large tree growing wild in the primitive forests along the borders of the rivers in ,guiana and ,north ,brazil4 ,the resin is collected by the ,indians in a very simple manner4 ,with a small hatchet they make deep and long incisions in the rind1 from which a milky sap abundantly exudes4 ,a small wooden peg is then fixed into each aperture to prevent its closing1 and a cup of moist clay fastened underneath1 which in about four or five hours is filled with as many table-spoonfuls of the juice4 ,the produce of a number of incisions having been gathered in a large earthen vessel1 is then spread in thin coatings upon moulds made of clay1 and dried1 layer after layer1 over a fire1 until the whole has acquired a certain thickness4 ,when perfectly dry1 the clay form within is broken into small fragments1 and the pieces are extracted through an aperture1 which is always left for the purpose4 ,besides the ,siphonia elastica1 many other ,american trees1 belonging to the families of the ,euphorbiace and ,urtice1 afford excellent kinds of caoutchouc2 and since it is become so valuable an article of commerce1 the ,east ,indies1 and ,java likewise1 yield considerable quantities1 chiefly from the ,urceola elastica and the ,ficus elastica4 ,the ,icosandra ,gutta1 which furnishes the gutta percha of commerce1 is a native of the ,eastern ,archipelago and the adjacent lands4 ,a few years since1 this substance1 now so celebrated and of such wide extended use1 was totally unknown in ,europe1 for though from time immemorial the ,malays employed it for making the handles of their hatchets and creeses1 it was only in the year #ahdc that ,mr4 ,montgomery1 an ,english surgeon1 having casually become acquainted with its valuable properties1 sent an account of it1 with samples1 to the ,royal ,society1 for which he was most justly rewarded with its gold medal4 ,the fame of the new article spread rapidly throughout the world2 science and speculation seized upon it with equal eagerness2 a thousand newspapers promulgated its praises2 it was immediately analysed1 studied1 and tried in every possible way1 so that it is now as well known and as extensively used as if it had been in our possession for centuries4 ,the ,icosandra ,gutta is a large high tree1 with a dense crown of rather small dark green leaves1 and a round smooth trunk4 ,the white blossoms change into a sweet fruit1 containing an oily substance fit for culinary use4 ,the wood is soft1 spongy1 and contains longitudinal cavities filled with brown stripes of gutta percha4 ,the original method of the ,malays for collecting the resin consisted in felling the tree1 which was then placed in a slanting position1 so as to enable the exuding fluid to be collected in banana leaves4 ,this barbarous proceeding1 which from the enormous demand which suddenly arose for the gutta would soon have brought the rapidly rising trade to a suicidal end1 fortunately became known before it was too late1 and the resin is now gathered in the same manner as caoutchouc1 by making incisions in the bark with a chopping knife1 collecting the thin1 white1 milky fluid which exudes in large vessels1 and allowing it to evaporate in the sun or over a fire4 ,the solid residuum1 which is the gutta percha of commerce1 is finally softened in hot water1 and pressed into the form of slabs4 ,grutta percha has many properties in common with caoutchouc1 being completely insoluble in water1 tenacious1 but not elastic1 and an extremely bad conductor of caloric and electricity4 ,the name of vegetable leather which has been applied to it1 gives a good idea both of its appearance and tenacity4 ,its uses are manifold4 ,it serves for water-pipes1 for vessels fit for the reception of alkaline or acid liquids which would corrode metal or wood1 for surgical implements1 for boxes1 baskets1 combs1 and a variety of other articles4 ,the wonder of the age1 submarine telegraphy1 could hardly have been realised without it1 as it is only by being cased in so isolating a substance1 and one so impermeable by water1 that the metallic wire is able to transmit the galvanic stream through the depths of ocean from land to land4 ,of all the dyeing substances which the tropical zone produces in such endless variety1 none is more important in a commercial point of view than indigo4 ,various species of plants producing this beautiful cerulean colour are found growing spontaneously in the warmer countries of both hemispheres1 but the ,indigofera tinctoria is most generally cultivated4 ,the knotty shrubby plant rises about two feet from the ground2 the leaves are winged like those of the acacia1 smooth and soft to the touch1 furrowed above1 and of a darker colour on the upper than the under side4 ,the small reddish flowers which grow in ears from the axill of the leaves have no smell1 and are succeeded by long crooked brown pods1 which contain small yellow seeds4 ,the plant requires a smooth rich soil1 well tilled1 and neither too dry nor too moist4 ,a child of the sun1 it cannot be advantageously cultivated anywhere except within the tropics1 a higher mean temperature than #fj being absolutely necessary for its vegetation4 ,the seed is sown in furrows a foot apart from each other1 and two or three inches in depth4 ,sufficient moisture causes it to shoot above the surface in three or four days1 and it is usually fit for gathering at the end of two months4 ,when it begins to flower it is cut with a sickle a few inches above the roots1 and furnishes1 after six or eight weeks1 a second crop4 ,the cultivation of indigo would thus seem to be extremely profitable1 but the sun1 which so rapidly improves and invigorates the plant1 calls forth at the same time a multitude of insects and caterpillars1 that prey upon the valuable leaves1 and frequently disappoint the planter's expectations4 ,illustration3 ,,cutting ,,the ,,indigo ,,plant4 ,all the intermediate shades of violet and purple may be obtained from the mixture of red and blue1 varying according to the different proportions wherein these colours are applied4 ,there are1 however1 some few vegetable substances which yield a violet or purple dye1 without being combined with another colour1 and of these logwood is the most important4 ,the stately tree which furnishes this valuable article of commerce is a native of the western world1 having been first discovered in the swampy forests of ,yucatan1 and in the low alluvial grounds that girdle the ,bays of ,campeachy and ,honduras4 ,about the year #affa1 logwood became in great request2 and as the indolent ,spaniards to whom the country at that time belonged failed to supply the market1 several ,english adventurers1 without first asking permission1 settled or squatted on the uninhabited coast of ,yucatan1 and made the woods near ,laguna de ,terminos ring with the sound of their industrious axe4 ,many years passed without the ,spaniards taking any notice of the intruders2 but as these1 growing bolder by sufferance1 began to penetrate farther into the country1 to build houses and form plantations1 as if they had been masters of the soil1 their jealousy was at length aroused1 and in #afhj the ,english settlers were forcibly ejected4 ,this triumph on the part of their adversaries was1 however1 but transitory2 and a few months after our sturdy countrymen were again cutting their logwood as busily as ever1 in spite of the enmity of man and the innumerable hardships of their laborious occupation4 ,their mode of life is thus quaintly described by ,dampier in his ,voyage to the ,bay of ,campeachy3--#8,the logwood-cutters inhabit the creeks of the lagunes in small companies1 building their huts by the creeks' sides for the benefit of the sea-breeze1 as near the logwood groves as they can1 and often removing to be near their business4 ,though they build their huts but slightly1 yet they take care to thatch them very well with palmetto leaves1 to prevent the rains1 which are there very violent1 from soaking in4 ,for their bedding1 they raise a wooden frame1 three feet and a half above ground on one side of the house1 and stick up four stakes at each corner1 to fasten their curtains1 out of which there is no sleeping for mosquitoes4 ,another frame they raise1 covered with earth1 for a hearth1 to dress their victuals2 and a third to sit at1 when they eat it4 ,during the wet season1 the land where the logwood grows is so overflowed that they step from their beds into the water1 perhaps two feet deep1 and continue standing in the wet all day till they go to bed again2 but1 nevertheless1 account it the best season for doing a good day's labour in4 ,some fell the trees1 others saw and cut them into convenient logs1 and one chips off the bark1 and he is commonly the principal man2 and when a tree is so thick that after it is logged it remains still too great a burden for one man1 it is blown up with gunpowder4 ,the logwood-cutters are generally sturdy strong fellows1 and will carry burthens of three or four hundredweight4 ,in some places they go a-hunting wild cattle every ,saturday to provide themselves with beef for the week following4 ,when they have killed a beef they cut it into quarters1 and taking out the bones1 each man makes a hole in the middle of his quarter1 just big enough for his head to go through1 then puts it on like a frock and trudgeth home2 and1 if he chanceth to tire1 he cuts off some of it and throws it away4' ,the entire freedom from all restraint which accompanied this wild and adventurous life had such charms for ,dampier's bold and roving spirit1 that he sojourned for about a year among the rude wood-cutters of ,campeachy1 and left them with the intention of again returning for a longer stay4 ,most of the red dye-woods are furnished by the ,csalpinias1 a genus of plants belonging to the widespread family of the ,leguminos1 and indigenous in both hemispheres4 ,the ,c4 crista1 which furnishes the best quality1 commonly known under the name of ,brazil wood1 grows profusely in the forests of that vast empire1 preferring dry places and a rocky ground4 ,its trunk is large1 crooked1 and full of knots2 at a short distance from the ground innumerable branches spring forth and extend in every direction in a straggling manner4 ,the branches are armed with short strong upright thorns1 the leaves are small1 and never appear in luxuriant foliage4 ,the flowers are of a beautiful red colour1 and emit a fragrant smell4 ,both the thick bark and the white pithy part of the trunk are useless1 the hard close-grained heart being the only portion impregnated with colouring matter4 ,the wood is sometimes used in turning1 and is susceptible of a good polish1 but its chief use is as a red dye4 ,by the addition of acids it produces a permanent orange or yellow colour1 while the crimson tints which it imparts are very fleeting4 ,the first ,europeans that settled on the banks of the ,amazons found that several of the ,indian tribes that roamed about in their vicinity painted their bodies with a showy orange-red colour4 ,their attention was by this means attracted to the ,arnatto 7,bixa orellana71 which attains about the size of our hazel-tree4 ,the heart-shaped leaves are about four inches long1 of a lighter green on the upper surface1 and divided by fibres of a reddish-brown colour2 the rosy flowers are succeeded by bristled pods somewhat resembling those of a chestnut1 which1 bursting open when ripe1 display a splendid crimson farina or pulp1 in which are contained thirty or forty seeds1 in shape similar to raisin stones4 ,as soon as they have arrived at maturity the pods are gathered1 divested of their husks1 bruised1 immersed in water1 and after a few weeks beaten with sticks to promote the separation of the pulp from the seeds4 ,the turbid liquor is then strained1 boiled to a consistent paste1 and finally formed into cakes1 which are left to dry in the sun4 ,in ,england arnatto is generally used by the dyer to give a deeper shade to the simple yellow4 ,being perfectly soluble in spirits of wine1 it is much used in this state for lacquering and for giving an orange tint to the yellow varnishes4 ,it is likewise employed in large quantities as a colouring ingredient for cheese1 to which it gives the required tinge without imparting any unpleasant flavour or unwholesome quality4 ,illustration3 ,,cinnamon4 ,illustration3 ,,clove4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,tropical ,,spices4 ,the ,cinnamon ,gardens of ,ceylon--,immense profits of the ,dutch--,decline of the ,trade--,neglected state of the ,gardens--,nutmegs and ,cloves-- ,cruel monopoly of the ,dutch--,a ,spice ,fire in ,amsterdam--,the ,clove ,tree--,beauty of an ,avenue of ,clove ,trees--,the ,nutmeg ,tree--,mace-- ,the ,pepper ,vine--,the ,pimento ,tree4 ,although the beautiful laurel whose bark furnishes the most exquisite of all the spices of the ,east1 is indigenous to the forests of ,ceylon1 yet1 as no author previous to the fourteenth century mentions its aromatic rind among the productions of the island1 there is every reason to believe that the cinnamon1 which in the earlier ages was imported into ,europe through ,arabia1 was obtained first from ,africa1 and afterwards from ,india4 ,that the ,portuguese1 who had been mainly attracted to the ,east by the fame of its spices1 were nearly twenty years in ,india before they took steps to obtain a footing at ,colombo1 proves that there can have been nothing very remarkable in the quality of the spice at the beginning of the sixteenth century1 and that the high reputation of the ,ceylon cinnamon is comparatively modern1 and attributable to the attention bestowed upon its preparation for market by the ,portuguese1 and afterwards on its cultivation by the ,dutch4 ,long after the appearance of ,europeans in ,ceylon1 cinnamon was only found in the forests of the interior1 where it was cut and brought away by the ,chalias1 an emigrant tribe which1 in consideration of its location in villages1 was bound to go into the woods to cut and deliver1 at certain prices1 a given quantity of cinnamon properly peeled and ready for exportation4 ,this system remained unchanged so long as ,portugal was master of the country1 but the forests in which the spice was found being exposed to constant incursions from the ,kandyans1 the ,dutch were compelled to form enclosed plantations of their own within range of their fortresses4 ,the native chieftains1 fearful of losing the profits derived from the labour of the ,chalias1 who were attached as serfs to their domains1 and whose work they let out to the ,dutch1 were at first extremely opposed to this innovation1 and endeavoured to persuade the ,hollanders that the cinnamon would degenerate as soon as it was artificially planted4 ,the withering of many of the young trees seemed to justify the assertion1 but on a closer examination it was found that boiling water had been poured upon the roots4 ,a law was now passed declaring the wilful injury of a cinnamon plant a crime punishable with death1 and by this severity the project was saved4 ,the extent of the trade during the time of the ,dutch may be inferred from the fact1 that the five principal cinnamon-gardens around ,nejombo1 ,colombo1 ,barberyn1 ,galle1 and ,maduro were each from fifteen to twenty miles in circumference4 ,although they were only first planted in the year #aggj1 yet before #agif1 when ,colombo was taken by the ,english1 their annual produce amounted to more than #djj1jjj lbs4 of cinnamon1 as much as the demands of the market required4 ,the profits must have been enormous1 for cinnamon was then at least ten times dearer than at present1 the trade being exclusively in the hands of the ,dutch ,east ,indian ,company1 which1 in order to keep up the price1 restricted the production to a certain quantity1 and watched over its monopoly with the most jealous tyranny4 ,no one was allowed to plant cinnamon or to peel it1 and the selling or importing of a single stick was punished as a capital offence4 ,since that time the cultivation of the cinnamon laurel having been introduced into many other tropical lands1 competition has reduced prices1 and the spice which was formerly the main product of ,ceylon is now of very inferior importance4 ,the cinnamon-gardens1 whose beauty and luxuriance has been so often vaunted by travellers1 have partly been sold1 partly leased to private individuals1 and though less than a century has elapsed since they were formed by the ,dutch1 they are already becoming a wilderness4 ,those which surround ,colombo on the land side exhibit the effects of a quarter of a century of neglect1 and produce a feeling of disappointment and melancholy4 ,the beautiful shrubs which furnish this spice have been left to the wild growth of nature1 and in some places are entirely supplanted by an undergrowth of jungle1 while in others a thick cover of climbing plants and other parasites conceals them under masses of verdure and blossom4 ,it would1 however1 be erroneous to suppose that the cinnamon-gardens have been universally doomed to the same neglect4 ,thus ,professor ,schmarda1 who visited ,mr4 ,stewart's plantation two miles to the south of ,colombo1 admired the beautiful order in which it was kept4 ,a reddish sandy clay and fine white quartz sand form the soil of the plantation4 ,white sand is considered as the best ground for the cinnamon tree to grow on1 but it requires an abundance of rain 7which is never wanting in the south-western part of the island71 much sun1 and many termites4 ,for these otherwise so destructive creatures do not injure the cinnamon trees1 but render themselves useful by destroying many other insects4 ,they consequently remain unmolested1 and everywhere raise their high conical mounds in the midst of the plantation4 ,the aspect of a well-conditioned cinnamon-garden is rather monotonous1 for though the trees when left to their full growth attain a height of forty or fifty feet1 yet1 as the best spice is furnished by the shoots that spring from the roots after the chief stem has been removed1 they are kept as a kind of coppice1 and not allowed to rise higher than ten feet4 ,nutmegs and cloves1 the costly productions of the remotest isles of the ,indian ,ocean1 were known in ,europe for centuries before the countries where they grow had ever been heard of4 ,arabian navigators brought them to ,egypt1 where they were purchased by the ,venetians1 and sold at an enormous profit to the nations of the ,west4 ,but1 as is well known1 the commercial grandeur of the ,city of the ,lagunes was suddenly eclipsed after ,vasco de ,grama discovered the new maritime road to the ,east ,indies1 round the ,cape of ,good ,hope 7#adih72 and when1 a few years later1 the countrymen of the great navigator conquered the ,moluccas 7#aeaa71 they for a short time monopolised the whole spice trade much more than their predecessors had ever done before4 ,but here also1 as in ,ceylon1 the ,portuguese were soon obliged to yield to a stronger rival2 for the ,dutch now appeared upon the scene1 and by dint of enterprise and courage soon made themselves masters of the ,indian ,ocean4 ,in #afje they drove the ,portuguese from ,amboyna1 and before #afba had elapsed the whole of the ,moluccas were in their possession4 ,five-and-twenty years later1 ,ceylon also fell into their hands1 and thus they became the sole purveyors of ,europe with cinnamon1 cloves1 and nutmegs4 ,unfortunately1 the scandalous manner in which they misused their power throws a dark shade over their exploits4 ,for the better to secure the monopoly of the spice trade1 they declared war against nature itself1 allowed the trees to grow only in particular places1 and extirpated them everywhere else4 ,thus the planting of the nutmeg tree was confined to the small islands of ,banda1 ,lonthoir1 and ,pulo ,aij1 and that of the clove to ,amboyna4 ,wherever the trees were seen to grow in a wild state they were unsparingly rooted up1 and the remainder of the ,moluccas were occupied and subjugated for no other reason4 ,the natives were treated with unmerciful cruelty1 and blood flowed in torrents to keep up the prices of cloves and nutmegs at an usurious height4 ,when the spices accumulated in too large a quantity for the market1 they were thrown into the sea or destroyed by fire4 ,thus ,m4 ,beaumare1 a ,french traveller1 relates that on ,june #aj1 #agfj1 he beheld near the ,admiralty at ,amsterdam a blazing pile of cinnamons and cloves1 valued at four millions of florins1 and an equal quantity was to be burnt the next day4 ,the air was perfumed with their delicious fragrance1 the essential oils freed from their confinement distilled over1 mixing in one spicy stream1 which flowed at the feet of the spectators2 but no one was suffered to collect any of this1 or1 on pain of heavy punishment1 to rescue the smallest quantity of the spice from the flames4 ,fortunately these distressing scenes--for it is painful to see man1 under the impulse of an insatiable greed1 thus wilfully destroying the gifts of ,nature--belong to the history of the past4 ,the reign of monopoly has ceased even in the remote ,moluccas1 and their ports are now1 at length1 thrown open to the commerce of all nations2 for the spice trees having been transplanted into countries beyond the control of the ,dutch1 the ancient system could not possibly be maintained any longer4 ,the clove tree belongs to the far-spread family of the myrtles2 the small lanceolate evergreen leaves resemble those of the laurel1 the flowers growing in bunches at the extremity of the branches4 ,when they first appear1 which is at the beginning of the rainy season1 they are in the form of elongated greenish buds1 from the extremity of which the corolla is expanded1 which is of a delicate peach-blossom colour4 ,the corolla having fallen off1 the calyx turns yellow1 and then red2 when it is beaten from the tree1 and dried in the sun4 ,if the fruit be allowed to remain longer on the tree the calyx or clove gradually swells1 the embryo seed enlarges1 and the pungent properties of the clove are in great part dissipated4 ,the whole tree is highly aromatic1 and the foot-stalks of the leaves have nearly the same pungent quality as the calyx of the flowers4 #8,clove trees1' says ,sir ,stamford ,raffles1 #8as an avenue to a residence1 are perhaps unrivalled--their noble height1 the beauty of their form1 the luxuriance of their foliage1 and1 above all1 the spicy fragrance with which they perfume the air1 produce1 on driving through a long line of them1 a degree of exquisite pleasure only to be enjoyed in the clear light atmosphere of the ,eastern ,archipelago4' ,in spite of the endeavours of the ,dutch to confine the nutmeg tree to the narrow precincts of ,banda1 it has likewise extended its range not only over ,sumatra1 ,mauritius1 ,bourbon1 and ,ceylon1 but even over the western hemisphere4 ,it is of a more majestic growth than the clove1 as it attains a height of fifty feet1 and the leaves of a fine green on the upper surface1 and grey beneath1 are more handsome in the outline1 and broader in proportion to the length4 ,when the trees are about nine years old1 they begin to bear4 ,they are dicious1 having male or barren flowers upon one tree1 and female or fertile upon another4 ,the flowers of both are small1 white1 and bell-shaped2 the embryo-fruit appearing at the bottom of the female flowers in the form of a little reddish knob4 ,when ripe1 it resembles in appearance and size a small peach1 and then the outer rind1 which is about half an inch thick1 bursts at the side1 and discloses a shining black nut1 which seems the darker from the contrast of the leafy network of a fine red colour with which it is enveloped4 ,the latter forms the ,mace of commerce1 and having been laid to dry in the shade for a short time1 is packed in bags and pressed together very tightly4 ,illustration3 ,,nutmeg4 ,the shell of the nut is larger and harder than that of the filbert1 and could not1 in the state in which it is gathered1 be broken without injuring the nut4 ,on that account the nuts are successively dried in the sun and then by fire-heat1 till the kernel shrinks so much as to rattle in the shell1 which is then easily broken4 ,although not so costly as cloves or cinnamon1 pepper is of a much greater commercial value1 as its consumption is at least a hundred times greater4 ,it grows on a beautiful vine1 which1 incapable of supporting itself1 twines round poles or mango and other trees of straight high stems4 ,as these are stripped of the lower branches1 the vine embraces the trunk1 covering it with elegant festoons and rich bunches of fruit in the style of the ,italian vineyards4 ,illustration3 ,,pepper ,,plant4 ,the leaf of the pepper plant is large1 resembling that of the ivy1 and of a bright green2 the blossoms appear in ,june1 soon after the commencement of the rains2 they are small1 of a greenish white1 and are followed by the pungent berries1 which hang in large bunches1 resembling in shape those of grapes1 but the fruit grows distinct on little stalks like currants4 ,this valuable spice grows chiefly on the ,malabar ,coast1 in ,sumatra1 ,borneo1 ,java1 ,singapore2 its cultivation has also been introduced in ,cayenne and the ,west ,indies4 ,the black and white sorts of pepper are both the produce of the same plant4 ,the best white peppers are supposed to be the finest berries1 which drop from the tree1 and1 lying under it1 become somewhat bleached by exposure to weather2 the greater part of the white pepper used as a condiment is1 however1 the black merely steeped in water1 and decorticated1 by which means the pungency and real value of the spice are diminished2 but having a fairer and more uniform appearance when thus prepared1 it fetches a higher price4 ,jamaica is the chief seat of the magnificent myrtle 7,myrtus pimenta71 which furnishes the pimento of commerce4 ,this beautiful tree grows to the height of about thirty feet1 with a smooth1 brown trunk1 and shining green leaves resembling those of the bay4 ,in ,july and ,august a profusion of white flowers1 filling the air with their delicious odours1 forms a very pleasing contrast to the dark foliage of its wide-spreading branches4 ,it grows spontaneously in many parts of the island1 particularly on the northern side1 in high spots near the coast4 ,when a new plantation is to be formed1 no regular planting or sowing takes place1 for1 as ,edwards 7#8,history of ,jamaica'7 observes1 #8the pimento tree is purely a child of ,nature1 and seems to mock all the labours of man in his endeavours to extend or improve its growth2 not one attempt in fifty to propagate the young plants1 or to raise them from the seeds in parts of the country where it is not found growing spontaneously1 having succeeded4 ,for this reason1 a piece of land is chosen1 either in the neighbourhood of a plantation already formed1 or in a part of the woodland where the pimento-myrtles are scattered in a native state4 ,the land is then cleared of all wood but these trees1 which are left standing1 and the felled timber is allowed to remain1 where it falls to decay1 and perishes4 ,in the course of a year1 young pimento plants are found springing up on all parts of the land1 produced1 it is supposed1 in consequence of the ripe berries having been scattered there by the birds1 while the prostrate trees protect and shade the tender seedlings4 ,at the end of two years the land is thoroughly cleared1 and none but the most vigorous plants1 which come to maturity in about seven years1 are left standing4' ,the berries are carefully picked while yet green1 since1 when suffered to ripen1 they lose their pungency4 ,one person on the tree gathers the small branches1 and three others1 usually women and children1 find full employment in picking the berries from them4 ,the produce is then exposed to the sun for about a week1 when the berries lose their green hue and become of a reddish brown4 ,when perfectly dry1 they are in a fit state for exportation4 ,in favourable seasons1 which1 however1 seldom occur above once in five years1 the pimento crop is enormous1 a single tree having been known to yield one hundredweight of the dried spice4 ,from its combining the flavour and properties of many of the oriental aromatics1 pimento has derived its popular name of allspice1 and1 from its being cheaper than black pepper1 its consumption is very great4 ,illustration3 ,,mantichora ,,mygaloides4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,tropical ,,insects1 ,,spiders1 ,,and ,,scorpions4 ,gradual increase of ,insect ,life on advancing towards the ,line--,the ,hercules ,beetle--,the ,goliath--,the ,inca ,beetle--,the ,walking-leaf1 and ,walking-stick ,insects--,the ,soothsayer--,luminous ,beetles-- ,tropical ,spiders--,their gaudy colours--,trap-door ,spiders--,enemies of the ,spiders--,mortal ,combat between a ,spider and a ,cockroach-- ,tropical ,scorpions--,dreadful effects of their sting4 ,on advancing from the temperate regions to the line1 we find the insects gradually increasing with the multiplicity of plants1 and at length attaining the greatest size1 brilliancy of colour1 and variety of form in those tropical lands where moisture combines with heat in covering the ground with a dense and everlasting vegetation4 ,our largest insects are indeed mere pygmies when compared with their tropical relatives4 ,we have no tiger-beetle to equal the ferocious ,mantichora of ,south ,africa1 which1 hiding beneath stones from the terrible glare of the sun1 darts quickly from its place of concealment upon its ill-fated prey2 nor a stag-beetle of the size of the ,odontolabris ,cuvera of ,china and ,northern ,india4 ,our largest dung-feeding ,lamellicorns look but small near the ,african ,copris ,hamadryas2 and our cockchafer1 though conspicuous among our native insects1 is a dwarf when confronted with the ,leucopholis bimaculata of ,india1 which1 if it be voracious in proportion to its size1 must destroy a vast amount of vegetation in the course of its long larval existence4 ,the ,goliath beetles of the coast of ,guinea1 are truly deserving of their name1 and in torrid ,america the colossal ,hercules beetle attains a length of five1 or even six inches4 ,though but little is yet known of its economy1 it most likely subsists upon putrescent wood1 and evidently leads a tree life1 like its relations--the ,elephant1 the ,neptune1 the ,typhon1 the ,hector1 and the ,mars beetles-- whose very names indicate that they are #8first-rate liners' in the insect world4 ,all these beetles excavate burrows in the earth1 where they conceal themselves during the day1 or live in the decomposed trunks of trees1 and are generally of a dark rich brown or chestnut colour4 ,on the approach of night they run about the footpaths in woods1 or fly around the trees to a great height with a loud humming noise4 ,resembling the large herbivorous quadrupeds by their comparative size and horn-like processes1 they are still further like them in their harmless nature1 and thus deserve in more than one respect to be called the elephants among the insect tribes4 ,illustration3 ,,odontolabris ,,cuvera4 ,illustration3 ,,copris ,,hamadryas4 ,illustration3 ,,leucopholis ,,bimaculata4 ,many of the tropical dragon-flies1 grasshoppers1 butterflies1 and moths are of no less colossal dimensions in their several orders than the giants among the beetles4 ,the ,libellula lucretia1 a ,south ,american dragon-fly1 measures five inches and a half in length1 and the cinnamon-eating ,atlas-moth of ,ceylon often reaches the dimensions of nearly a foot in the stretch of its superior wings4 ,the names of many other species conspicuous by their size might be added2 but these examples suffice to show the enormous proportions attained by insects in the warmer regions of the globe4 ,in the tropical zone1 where the prodigality of life multiplies the enemies which every creature has to encounter1 we may naturally expect to find the insects extremely well provided with both passive and active means of defence4 ,many so closely resemble in colour the soil or object on which they are generally found1 as to escape even the eye of a hungry enemy4 ,the wings of several ,brazilian moths appear like withered leaves that have been gnawed round their margins by insects2 and when these moths are disturbed1 instead of flying away1 they fall upon the ground like the leaf which they resemble1 so that it is difficult1 if not impossible1 on such occasions to know what they really are4 ,illustration3 ,,phyllium4 ,the illusion is still more complete when the likeness of form is joined to that of colour1 as in the walking-leaf and walking-stick insects4 ,some1 of an enormous length1 look so exactly like slender dead twigs covered with bark1 that their insect nature can only be discovered by mere accident--upon being handled they feign death1 and their legs are often knobbed1 like the withered buds of trees2 some resemble living twigs1 and are green2 others such as are decayed1 and are therefore coloured brown2 the wings of many put on the resemblance of dry and crumpled leaves1 while those of others are vivid green-- in exact accordance with the plants they respectively inhabit4 ,this highly remarkable family consists of the herbivorous ,phasmas and ,phylliums--the former of which have a thin twig-like shape1 while the latter have an enlarged body--and of the carniverous ,mantides1 or soothsayers4 ,as the ,mantis is slow and without much muscular energy1 and its organisation requires a large supply of food1 ,nature has disguised it under the form of a plant1 the better to deceive its victims4 ,like a cat approaching a mouse1 it moves almost imperceptibly along1 and steals towards its prey1 fearful of putting it to flight4 ,when sufficiently near1 the fore legs are suddenly darted out to their full length1 and seize the doomed insect1 which vainly endeavours to extricate itself2 the formation of the fore leg enabling the tibia to be so closed on the sharp edge of the thigh as to amputate any slender substance brought within its grasp1 and to make even an entomologist repent a too hasty seizure of his prize4 ,the ,mantis1 by the attitude it assumes when lurking for its prey or advancing upon it--which is done by the support of the four posterior legs only1 whilst the head and prothorax are raised perpendicularly from the body1 and the anterior legs are folded in front--greatly resembles a person praying4 ,hence1 in ,france it is called ,le ,prcheur1 or ,le ,prie ,dieu2 the ,turk says it points to ,mecca2 and several ,african tribes pay it religious observances4 ,in reality1 however1 its ferocity is great1 and the stronger preying on the weaker of their own species1 unmercifully cut them to pieces4 ,illustration3 ,,mantis4 ,within the space of a week1 ,professor ,burmeister saw a ,mantis devour daily some dozens of flies1 and occasionally large grasshoppers and young frogs1 consuming1 now and then1 lizards three times its own length1 as well as many large fat caterpillars4 ,hence it may be judged what ravages these strangely-formed creatures must cause among all weaker beings which incautiously approach them1 and that1 far from being the saints1 they are1 in reality1 the tigers of the insect world4 ,among the organic marvels of the innocent herbivorous ,phylliums1 their seed-like eggs must be mentioned2 for the wonderful provision of ,nature in giving the parents a plant-like form extends even to their progeny1 in order to secure them from similar dangers4 ,though generally tropical1 yet ,van ,diemen's ,land possesses a gigantic walking-stick1 or ,phasma1 the body of which is eight inches long2 and the ,mantis religiosa is found all over ,southern ,europe4 ,the leaf-like form which renders the ,phylliums one of the wonders of entomology1 appears likewise in other insects4 ,thus1 in the ,diactor bilineatus1 a native of ,brazil1 the hind legs have singular leaf-like appendages to their tibial joints2 and in the ,javanese ,mormolyce1 a beetle remarkable for its extreme flatness and the elongation of its head1 we find the upper wings spreading out in the form of broad leaves4 ,the long hairs1 stiff bristles1 sharp spines1 and hard tubercular prominences with which many caterpillars are bristled and studded1 are a most effectual means of defence1 and often prove a grievous annoyance to the entomologist1 from their poisonous or stinging properties4 ,mr4 ,swainson once finding in ,brazil a caterpillar of a beautiful black colour1 with yellow radiated spines1 and being anxious to secure the prize1 incautiously took hold of it with the naked hand2 but so instantaneous and so violent was the pain which followed1 that he was obliged to return home4 ,every device that could be thought of to allay the itching produced by the venomous hairs of this creature were in turn resorted to1 with little or no effect for several hours1 nor had it entirely ceased on the following morning4 ,illustration3 ,,javanese ,,mormolyce4 ,though the great majority of luminous animals are marine1 frequently lighting up the breaking wave with millions of moving atoms1 or spreading over the beach like a sheet of fire1#bj yet several insects are also endowed with the same wonderful property4 ,the ,european glow-worms and fire-flies1 sparkling on the hedge-rows1 or flying in the summer air1 afford a charming spectacle2 but their brilliancy is far surpassed by that of the phosphorescent beetles of the torrid zone4 ,thus the ,cocujas of ,south ,america1 which emits its light from two little transparent tubercles on the sides of the thorax1 glows with such intensity that a person may with great ease read the smallest print by the phosphorescence of one of these insects1 if held between the fingers and gradually moved along the lines with the luminous spots above the letters2 but if eight or ten of them are put into a phial the light will be sufficiently good to admit of writing by it4 ,illustration3 ,,cocujas4 ,the ,indian ,archipelago is equally rich in luminous insects4 ,the ,podada tree1 the ornament of most of the river banks of ,borneo1 has a remarkably elegant foliage of a light green colour4 ,rajah ,brooke#ba describes these trees illuminated by the fire-flies in countless numbers as a most enchanting sight1 and resembling a fire-work by the constant motion of the light4 ,on the ,samarahan he sometimes saw each side of the river lit by a blaze of these beautiful little insects4 ,in the woods of ,sarawak ,mr4 ,adams observed a splendid glow-worm 7,lampyris71 each segment of the body illuminated with three lines of tiny lamps1 the luminous spots on the back being situated at the posterior part of the segmentary rings on the median line1 while those along the sides of the animal were placed immediately below the stomates or spiracula1 each spiraculum having one bright spot4 ,this very beautiful insect was found shining as the darkness was coming on1 crawling on the narrow pathway1 and glowing among the dead damp wood and rotten leaves4 ,when placed around the finger1 it resembled in beauty and brilliancy a superb diamond ring4 ,the sparkling effulgence of the tropical ,elaters is frequently made use of by the fair sex1 as an equally singular and striking ornament4 ,the ladies of the ,havana attach them to their clothes on occasions of festivity1 and the ,indian dancing girls often wear them in their hair4 ,in ,prescott's #8,conquest of ,mexico' we are told that1 in #aebj1 when the ,spaniards visited that country1 the wandering sparks of the ,elater1 #8seen in the darkness of the night1 were converted by their excited imaginations into an army with matchlocks2' and on another occasion these phosphorescent insects caused ,british troops to retreat3 for when ,sir ,john ,cavendish and ,sir ,robert ,dudley first landed in the ,west ,indies1 and saw at night an innumerable quantity of lights moving about1 they fancied that the ,spaniards were approaching with an overwhelming force1 and hastily re-embarked before their imaginary foe4 ,a creature1 half of whose body is generally fixed to the other by a mere thread1 whose soft skin is unable to resist the least pressure1 and whose limbs are so loosely attached to the body as to be torn off by the slightest degree of force1 would seem utterly incapable of protecting its own life and securing that of its progeny4 ,such1 however1 is the physical condition of the spiders1 who would long since have been extirpated if ,nature had not provided them with the power of secreting two liquids1 the one a venom ejected by their mandibles1 the other of a glutinous nature1 transuded by papill at the end of their abdomen4 ,these two liquids amply supply the want of all other weapons of attack or defence1 and enable them to hold their own against a host of enemies4 ,with the former they instantly paralyse insects much stronger and much more formidable in appearance than themselves2 while with the latter they spin those threads which serve them in so many ways--to weave their wonderful webs1 to traverse the air1 to mount vertically1 to drop uninjured1 to construct the hard cocoons intended to protect their eggs against their numberless enemies1 or to produce the soft down which is to preserve them from the cold4 ,preying on other insect tribes1 which they attack with the ferocity of the tiger1 or await in their snares with the patient artifice of the lynx1 the spiders may naturally be expected to be most numerous in the torrid zone1 where ,nature has provided them with the greatest abundance and variety of food4 ,there also1 where so many beetles1 flies1 and moths attain a size unknown in temperate regions1 we find the spiders growing to similar gigantic dimensions1 and forming webs proportioned to the bulk of the victims which they are intended to ensnare4 ,in some parts of ,makalolo1 ,dr4 ,livingstone saw great numbers of a large beautiful yellow-spotted spider1 the webs of which were about a yard in diameter4 ,the lines on which these webs were spun1 extended from one tree to another1 and were as thick as coarse thread4 ,the fibres radiated from a central point1 where the insect waited for its prey4 ,the webs were placed perpendicularly1 and a common occurrence in walking was to get the face enveloped in them1 as a lady is in a veil4 ,by means of their monstrous webs many giant-spiders of the tropical zone are enabled to entangle not only the largest butterflies and moths1 but even small birds4 ,some ,mexican species extend such strong nets across the pathways1 that they strike off the hat of the passer-by2 in ,senegal spiders spin threads so strong as to be able to bear a weight of several ounces1 and in the forests of ,java1 ,sir ,george ,staunton saw spider-webs of so strong a texture that it required a sharp knife to cut one's way through them2 and many other similar examples might be mentioned4 ,these large spiders so temptingly suspended in mid-air in the forest glades1 seem very much exposed to the attacks of birds1 but in many cases it has pleased ,nature to invest them with large angular spines sticking out of their bodies in every kind of fashion4 ,some are so protected by these long prickles that their bodies resemble a miniature #8chevaux de frise1' and could not by any possibility be swallowed by a bird without producing a very unpleasant sensation in his throat4 ,one very remarkable species 7,gasteracantha arcuata7 has two enormous recurved conical spines1 proceeding upwards from the posterior part of the body1 and several times longer than the entire spider4 ,other ,arane1 to whom these means of defence have been denied1 are enabled by their colour to escape the attacks of many enemies1 or to deceive the vigilance of many of their victims4 ,thus1 those that spend their lives among the flowers and foliage of the trees are1 in general1 delicately and beautifully marked with green1 orange1 black1 and yellow1 while those which frequent gloomy places are clothed with a dark-coloured and dingy garb1 in accordance with their habits4 ,in the forests about ,calderas1 in the ,philippine ,archipelago1 ,mr4 ,adams saw handsomely coloured species of ,theridia crouching among the foliage of the trees3 while numbers of the same genus of a black colour were running actively about among the dry dead leaves that strewed the ground1 looking1 at a little distance1 like odd-shaped ants1 and no doubt deceiving many an antagonist by this appearance4 ,one species1 which knew it was being watched1 placed itself upon a diseased leaf1 where it remained quite stationary until after the departure of the naturalist1 who1 had he not seen the sidelong movement of the cunning little creature in the first instance1 would not have been able to distinguish its body from the surface of the leaf4 ,while1 in this case1 dulness of colour served as a defence1 the vividly-coloured spiders that live among the foliage and flowers no doubt attract many flies and insects by reason of their gaudily-tinted bodies4 ,one of the most remarkable instances of the harmony of colour between the ,arane and their usual haunts was noticed by ,mr4 ,adams among dense thickets formed by the ,abrus precatoria1 where he found a spider with a black abdomen marked on each side with scarlet1 thus resembling the colours of the seeds of the ,abrus1 so well known to children under the name of #8black-a-moor beauties4' ,an exception to the general rule is1 however1 found in those very large and powerful species which1 if not rendered somewhat conspicuous to the sight of other insects1 might do too much damage to the tribes which they keep in check4 ,most of these1 therefore1 have the thorax and abdomen margined with a light colour that contrasts strongly with that of their bodies1 and1 in many cases1 gives timely warning of their approach4 ,the ,european spiders have generally a very repulsive appearance1 while many of the tropical species are most splendidly ornamented1 or rather illuminated1 many of them by the vividness of their colours resembling the gaudy missals painted by monks in the ,middle ,ages4 ,thus1 among the ,epeiras of the ,philippine ,islands1 are found white figures on a red ground2 red1 yellow1 and black1 in alternate streaks2 orange marbled with brown1 light green with white occelli1 yellow with light brown festoons1 or ash-coloured and chestnut bodies with crescents1 horse-shoes1 ,chinese characters1 and grotesque hieroglyphics of every description4 ,unfortunately1 these colours1 lustrous and metallic as the feathers of the humming-bird1 are1 unlike the bright colours of the beetle1 totally dependent on the life of the insect which they beautify1 so that it is impossible to preserve them4 ,while most spiders obtain their food either by patiently waiting in ambush or by catching it with a bound1 the enormous mygales1 or trap-door spiders1 run about with great speed in and out1 behind and around every object1 searching for what they may devour1 and from their size and rapid motions exciting the horror of every stranger4 ,their body1 which sometimes attains a length of three inches1 while their legs embrace a circle of half a foot in diameter1 is covered all over with brown1 reddish brown1 or black hair1 which gives them a funereal appearance1 while their long fangs armed with sharp hooks proclaim at once what formidable antagonists they must be to every insect that comes within their reach4 ,though some species are found in ,southern ,europe1 in ,chili1 or at the ,cape1 yet they are chiefly inhabitants of the torrid zone1 both in the old and the new world4 ,some of them weave cells between the leaves1 in the hollows of trees or rocks1 while others dig deep tubular holes in the earth1 which they cover over with a lid1 or rather with a door formed of particles of earth cemented by silken fibres1 and closely resembling the surrounding ground4 ,this door or valve is united by a single hinge to the entrance at its upper side1 and is so balanced that1 when pushed up1 it shuts again by its own weight2 nay1 what is still more admirable1 on the interior side opposite to the hinge a series of little holes may be perceived1 into which the mygale introduces its claws to keep it shut1 should any enemy endeavour to open it by force4 ,the interior of the nest1 which is sometimes nine inches deep1 is lined with a double coat of tapestry1 the one nearest the wall1 which is of a coarser tissue1 being covered with a pure white silken substance like paper4 ,new-comers into the country which the trap-door spider inhabits1 are often as surprised as ,ali ,baba in the #8,forty ,thieves' by seeing the ground open1 a little lid lifted up1 and a grim black-haired spider peer about as if to reconnoitre the position before sallying out of its fortress4 ,at the least movement on the part of the spectator1 down drops the spider disappearing into its hole1 the door closes and the astonished observer1 unable to find its traces in the apparently unbroken soil doubts whether his eyes have not deceived him4 ,nothing short of actual violence will induce the trap-door spider to vacate the premises it has so admirably constructed4 ,it holds on with all its might and will permit the earth to be excavated around its burrow and the whole nest to be removed without deserting its home4 ,but all its energy vanishes as soon as it is removed from the burrow it so pertinaciously defended2 it then loses all its activity1 remains fixed to the spot as if stupified1 or at the best walks languidly about like one who has lost all that made existence valuable4 ,at ,caldera1 ,mr4 ,adams observed a dingy little species of spider of the genus ,clubiona1 concealing itself in very snug retreats formed out of a dead leaf1 rolled round in the shape of a cylinder1 lined with a soft silken tissue1 and closed at one end by means of a strong woven bolt-door4 ,when hunted1 it was amusing to see the frightened little creatures run for protection into their tiny castles1 where they would doubtless be safe from the attacks of birds1 owing to the leaves not being distinguishable from others that strew the ground4 ,all species of spiders are gifted with an admirable maternal instinct1 and resort to various methods for the purpose of securing their cocoons4 ,the ,theridion1 when a seizure of the precious burden is threatened1 tumbles together with it to the ground1 and remains motionless1 while the ,thorinsa covers it with its body1 and when robbed of it1 wanders about disconsolate4 ,in a forest of the ,sooloo ,islands1 ,mr4 ,adams found the ground literally overrun with a small black agile species of ,lycosa1 many of which had a white flattened globose cocoon affixed to the end of their abdomen4 ,it was most amusing to watch the care with which these jealous mothers protected the cradles of their little ones1 allowing themselves to fall into the hands of the enemy rather than be robbed of the silken nests that contained them4 ,if the spiders are at war with all other insects1 and contribute to keep them within bounds by the destruction they cause among their ranks1 they in their turn are sorely persecuted creatures4 ,monkeys1 squirrels1 lizards1 tortoises1 frogs1 and toads catch and devour them wherever they can4 ,in ,java and ,sumatra1 we even find a family of sparrows named ,arachnother1 from their living almost exclusively on spiders4 ,armed with a prodigiously long recurved and slender beak1 these birds know how to pursue them and drag them forth from the most obscure recesses4 ,it is amongst the insects1 however1 that the spiders have to fear their most numerous and formidable enemies4 ,independently of those which they find in their own class1 the centipedes seize them beyond the possibility of escape2 and several species of wasps1 more savage and poisonous than themselves1 will rush upon spiders eight times their size and weight1 and benumbing them with a sting1 bear them off to their nests1 to serve as food for their larv4 ,others attack the spiders in their progeny4 ,the ,pimpla ,arachnitor pierces with its invisible gimlet the tender skin of the spider's egg1 and1 without tearing it1 introduces its own eggs into the liquid4 ,the pimpla's egg soon comes to maturity1 and the larva devours the substance of that of the spider1 from whence a winged insect bursts forth--a phenomenon which made some naturalists1 too hasty to judge from appearances1 believe that spiders were able to procreate four winged flies4 ,notwithstanding the disgust or horror which they generally inspire1 the spiders are1 with very rare exceptions1 by no means injurious to man4 ,however promptly their venom may act upon insects1 even that of the largest species of ,northern ,europe produces1 on coming into contact with our skin1 no pain or inflammation equalling in virulence that of the wasp1 the bee1 the gnat1 or other insects of a still smaller size4 ,the giant spiders of a sunnier sky1 armed with more formidable weapons1 naturally produce a more painful sting2 but even here the effects have been much exaggerated4 ,in the country of the ,makalolo1 ,dr4 ,livingstone1 feeling something running across his forehead as he was falling asleep1 put up his hand to wipe it off1 and was sharply stung1 both on the hand and head2 the pain was very acute4 ,on obtaining a light1 he found that it had been inflicted by a light-coloured spider about half an inch in length2 but one of the negroes having crushed it with his fingers1 he had no opportunity of examining whether the pain had been produced by poison from a sting1 or from its mandibles4 ,no remedy was applied1 and the pain ceased in about two hours4 ,if thus1 among the many species of spiders1 hardly a single one may be said to be formidable to man1 the indirect services which they render him--by diminishing the number of noxious insects--are far from inconsiderable4 ,in several countries where insects cause great ravages1 the services of the spiders are duly appreciated4 ,thus in the ,west ,indies1 a large and formidable trap-door spider1 which would make a ,european start back with horror1 is looked upon with pleasure by the islanders of the torrid zone1 who respect it as a sacred animal1 by no means to be disturbed or harmed1 as it delivers them from the cockroaches1 which otherwise would overrun their dwellings4 ,those who do not possess these spiders take good care to purchase and transport them into their houses1 expecting from them similar services to those we derive from a good domestic cat4 ,the spectacle of a trap-door spider bounding on a cockroach1 with all the ferocity of a tiger springing on its prey1 would no doubt have all the interest of a bull-fight if the diminutive size of the combatants were swelled to more ample proportions4 ,mr4 ,e4 ,layard has described one of these encounters which he witnessed near a ruined temple in ,ceylon4 ,when about a yard apart1 each of the enemies discerned the other and stood still1 the spider with his legs slightly bent and his body raised1 the cockroach confronting him1 and directing his antenn with a restless undulation towards his enemy4 ,the spider1 by stealthy movements1 approached to within a few inches1 and paused1 both parties eyeing each other intently2 then suddenly a rush1 a scuffle1 and both fell to the ground1 when the blatta's wings closed2 the spider seized it under the throat with his claws1 and when he had dragged it into a corner1 the action of his jaws was distinctly audible4 ,next morning1 ,mr4 ,layard found the soft parts of the body had been eaten1 nothing but the head1 thorax1 and elytra remaining4 ,illustration3 ,,scorpion4 ,the scorpions1 which even in ,europe are reckoned among the most malignant insects1 are truly terrific in the torrid zone1 where they frequently attain a length of six or seven inches4 ,closely allied to the spiders1 their aspect is still more repulsive4 ,were one of the largest scorpions menacingly to creep up against you1 with extended claws and its long articulated sharply-pointed tail projecting over its head1 ,i think1 despite the strength of your nerves1 you would start back1 justly concluding that a creature of such an aspect must necessarily come with the worst intentions4 ,the poison of the scorpion is discharged like that of the snake4 ,near the tip of the crooked sting1 namely1 which terminates the tail1 we find two or three very small openings1 through which1 on pressure1 the venom of the gland with which they are connected immediately issues forth4 ,by means of this weapon1 even the small ,european scorpions are able to kill a dog1 while the tropical giants of the race inflict wounds that become fatal to man himself4 ,the sting of several ,south ,american scorpions produces fever1 numbness of the limbs1 tumours on the tongue1 weakness of the sight1 and other nervous symptoms1 lasting twenty-four or forty-eight hours2 but the ,african scorpions seem to be still more formidable4 ,mr4 ,swainson informs us that the only means of saving the lives of our soldiers who were stung by those of ,egypt1 was the amputation of the wounded limb2 and ,professor ,ehrenberg1 who1 while making his researches on the ,natural ,history of the ,red ,sea1 was stung five times by the ,androctonus quinquestriatus1 and funestus1 says he can well believe1 from the dreadful pains he suffered1 that the poison of these scorpions may become fatal to women and children4 ,scorpions1 being intolerant of light1 creep by day into every hole or corner that can shelter them from the unwelcome sunbeams1 and often cause very great annoyance by this custom4 ,no traveller in a scorpion-infested country who has learnt by experience the habits and dangerous character of these creatures will retire to rest before having carefully examined his bed1 especially taking up the pillow1 to ascertain that no enemy is lurking within the folds of the bedding4 ,shoes1 boots1 and gloves are also favourite resorts of the scorpion1 a circumstance which has caused many a serious accident4 ,the burrows of this formidable animal can always be detected by the semilunar form of the entrance1 exactly fitting the outline of the animal which digs it4 ,to force them to quit the premises nothing more is required than to pour in some water1 when the disturbed inmate rushes furiously out1 his pincers snapping wildly at the enemy4 ,the suicidal propensities of the scorpion1 when1 inclosed by a fiery circle1 it finds escape impossible1 have been often mentioned in prose and poetry1 and form among others the subject of a beautiful simile in ,byron's #8,giaour'3-- ,the ,mind1 that broods o'er guilty woes1 ,is like the scorpion girt by fire1 ,in circle narrowing as it glows1 ,the flames around their captive close1 ,till1 inly searched by thousand throes1 ,and maddening in her ire1 ,one sad and sole relief she knows1 ,the sting she nourish'd for her foes1 ,whose venom never yet was vain1 ,gives but one pang1 and cures all pain1 ,and darts into her desperate brain3 ,so do the dark in soul expire1 ,or live like scorpion girt by fire4 ,the voluntary death of the animal is doubted by many1 who maintain that the position of the sting when turned towards the head1 is merely a convulsive movement2 but the opinion of those who are inclined to bring in the verdict #8,felo de se' is corroborated by ,captain ,pasley1 ,r4,a41 who repeatedly tried the experiment of surrounding the scorpion with a ring of fire1 and invariably found that it had stung itself to death4 ,the fiery circle was about fifteen inches in diameter and composed of smouldering ashes4 ,in every instance the scorpion ran about for some minutes1 trying to escape1 and then deliberately bent its tail over its back1 inserted the point of its sting between two of the segments of his body and speedily died4 ,the heat given out by the ashes was very trifling and not equal to that which is caused by the noontide sun1 a temperature which the scorpion certainly does not like1 but which it can endure without suffering much inconvenience4 ,generally the scorpion was dead in a few minutes after the wound was inflicted4 ,of a ferocious cruel disposition1 the scorpions are not only the foes of all other animals1 but carry on a war of extermination among themselves1 and are even said to kill and devour their own progeny1 without pity1 as soon as they are born2 thus rendering good service to the community at large4 ,maupertuis once inclosed a hundred scorpions-- a select and delightful party--in a box4 ,immediately a furious battle ensued--one against all1 all against one--and in an hour's time scarcely one of the combatants survived the conflict4 ,illustration3 ,,cyclommatus ,,tarandus 7,,borneo74 ,illustration3 ,,ants ,,and ,,termites4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,insect ,,plagues ,,and ,,insect ,,services4 ,the ,universal ,dominion of ,insects--,mosquitoes--,stinging ,flies-- strus ,hominis--,the ,chegoe or ,jigger--,the ,filaria ,medinensis-- ,the ,bte-,rouge--,blood-sucking ,ticks--,garapatas--,the ,land-leeches in ,ceylon--,the ,tsets ,fly--,the ,tsalt-,salya--,the ,locust--,its dreadful ,devastations--,cockroaches--,the ,drummer--,the ,cucarachas and ,chilicabras--,tropical ,ants--,the ,saba--,the ,driver ,ants-- ,termites--,their wonderful ,buildings--,the ,silkworm--,the ,cochineal-- ,the ,gumlac ,insect--,insects used as ,food and ,ornaments4 ,the insect tribes may1 without exaggeration1 be affirmed to hold a kind of universal empire over the earth and its inhabitants1 for nothing that possesses1 or has possessed1 life is secure from their attacks4 ,they vanquish the cunning of the fox1 the bulk of the elephant1 the strength of the lion2 they plague the reindeer of the northern tundras1 and the antelope of the ,african wilds2 and all the weapons with which ,nature has furnished the higher orders of animals against their mightier foes prove ineffectual against these puny persecutors1 whose very smallness serves to render them invincible4 ,how numerous are the sufferings they entail on man6 ,how manifold the injuries they inflict on his person or his property6 ,to secure himself from their attacks1 a perpetual warfare1 an ever-wakeful vigilance1 is necessary2 for1 though destroyed by thousands1 new legions ever make their appearance1 and to repose after a victory is equivalent to a defeat4 ,in our temperate zone1 where a higher cultivation of the ground tends to keep down the number of the lower animals1 their persecutions1 though frequently annoying1 may still be borne with patience2 but in many of the tropical regions1 where man is either too indolent or not sufficiently numerous to set bounds to their increase1 the insects constitute one of the great plagues of life4 ,along the low river-banks1 near stagnant waters1 and everywhere on hot and swampy grounds1 the blood-thirsty ,mosquitoes appear periodically in countless multitudes1 the dread of all who are exposed to their attacks4 ,illustration3 ,,mosquito4 ,not satisfied with piercing the flesh with their sharp proboscis1 which at the same time forms a kind of syphon through which the blood flows1 these malignant gnats1 of which there are many species1 inject a poison into the wound1 which causes inflammation1 and prolongs the pain4 ,in ,angola1 ,dr4 ,livingstone found the banks of the river ,seuza infested by legions of the most ferocious mosquitoes he ever met with during the course of his long travels4 #8,not one of our party could get a snatch of sleep4 ,i was taken into the house of a ,portuguese1 but was soon glad to make my escape1 and lie across the path on the lee-side of the fire1 where the smoke blew over my body4 ,my host wondered at my want of taste1 and ,i at his want of feeling2 for1 to our astonishment1 he and the other inhabitants had actually become used to what was at least equal to a nail through the heel of one's boot1 or the tooth-ache4' #8,he who has never sailed on one of the great rivers of tropical ,america1 the ,orinoco1 or the ,magdalena1' says ,humboldt1 #8can form no idea of the torments inflicted by the mosquitoes4 ,however accustomed the naturalist may be to suffer pain without complaining1 however his attention may be riveted by the examination of some interesting object1 he is unavoidably disturbed when ,mosquitoes1 ,zancudos1 ,zejens1 and ,tempraneros cover his hands and face1 pierce his clothes1 or creep into his nose and mouth4 ,in the missions of the ,orinoco1 in these small villages1 situated on the river banks and surrounded by interminable woods1 this plague affords an inexhaustible subject for conversation4 ,when two people meet in the morning their first questions are--#8,how did the ,zancudos behave last night8' #8,how are the mosquitoes to-day8' ,at the mouth of the ,red ,river the unfortunate inhabitants lay down at night upon the ground1 and cover themselves with three or four inches of sand1 so that only the head remains free1 over which they spread a protecting cloth4 ,above the influx of the ,rio ,arauca into the ,orinoco1 at the cataracts of ,baragnon1 the atmosphere up to a height of #ae or #ba feet1 is filled with a dense mist of stinging insects4 ,placing oneself in some dark spot1 for instance in one of the deep hollows formed in the cataracts by mounds of granitic blocks and looking towards the opening illumined by the sun1 one sees whole clouds of mosquitoes1 increasing or diminishing in density as the creatures in their slow and rhythmic motions now draw more closely together1 and then again separate4 ,in ,esmeralda1 at the eastern extremity of the ,upper ,orinoco1 the mosquito clouds are almost as thick as at the cataracts4 ,when the superior of the monastic order to which the mission belongs1 wishes to punish a lay brother1 he sends him to ,esmeralda1 or1 as the monks facetiously remark1 #8condemns him to the mosquitoes4' ,it is a well-known fact that the various species of gnats or flies comprehended under this general name1 do not associate1 but appear at different times of the day4 ,as often as the scene changes or as #8other insects mount guard1' one enjoys a few minutes' rest2 for after the retreat of one host1 its successors are not immediately on the spot4 ,from half-past six in the morning till five in the afternoon the air is filled with mosquitoes of the genus ,simulium4 ,an hour before sunset1 these are replaced by a small species of ,culex called the ,tempraneros or early-risers1 as they also show themselves at sunrise4 ,their stay in the afternoon scarcely lasts an hour and a half1 and then one feels soon after the painful sting of a larger ,culex--the ,zancudo-- who1 plunging his blood-thirsty proboscis into the skin1 causes an excruciating pain4 ,the ,zancudo1 a #8child of the night1' disappears at sunrise1 and then makes place for the matutinal ,tempranero4 ,as all these winged tormentors spend the greater part of their lives in the water1 we cannot wonder that their numbers diminish as the distance from the banks of the rivers intersecting the forests increases4 ,their favourite resorts are the places where their transformation takes place1 and where they on their part are soon about to lay their eggs4 ,the mosquito clouds hover only above or near the waters1 and it would be a great error to suppose that the vast forests extending between the river valleys are all equally infested with this insect plague4 ,from time to time the mosquitoes migrate like the social stentor monkeys4 ,formerly no other ,culex was known at ,simiti on the ,magdalen river but the small species called ,zejen4 ,the people slept unmolested1 for the ,zejen is a diurnal insect4 ,but in #ahja the great blue-winged ,zancudo made his appearance in such numbers that the poor inhabitants of ,simiti could find no rest at night4 ,slight differences of climate or food seem to have an influence on the intensity of the poison which the same species discharges through its serrated proboscis4 ,one cannot refrain from smiling at the disputes of the missionaries about the size and voracity of the mosquitoes in different parts of the same river4 ,in a land so completely severed from the rest of the world1 this forms the favourite subject for conversation4 #8,how much ,i pity you1' said the missionary from the falls as he took leave of his colleague at the ,cassiquiare2 #8you are like me1 alone in this land of jaguars and monkeys1 but as to my mosquitoes ,i can boast that one of mine is a match for three of yours4' ,this unequal voracity of the insects in different places1 this various intensity of poison in the same species1 are very remarkable1 but similar phenomena are met with in the classes of the large animals4 ,in ,angostura the crocodile attacks man1 while in ,new ,barcelona people bathe in his presence without fear4 ,the jaguars on the isthmus of ,panama are cowardly when compared with those of the ,upper ,orinoco2 and the ,indians know very well that the monkeys from one part of the country can easily be tamed1 while individuals of the same species caught elsewhere will rather die of hunger than submit to captivity4 ,whoever has sojourned in a mosquito land knows that there is no radical remedy against them4 ,the ,indians who besmear their body with arnatto or turtle fat1 slap every moment with their flat hands on their shoulders1 back1 and legs as often as if they were not painted at all4 ,on the banks of the ,amazons the people use cow-dung burnt at their doors1 to keep away the praya or plague1 as they very justly term the mosquitoes4 ,in the evening every house and cottage has its pan of dung smouldering in the verandah and emitting rather an agreeable odour--but where the insects are very numerous and bloodthirsty this fumigation also is of no avail4 ,not content with a passing attack1 a ,south ,american gadfly 7strus hominis7 deposits its eggs under the human skin1 where the larv continue for six months4 ,if disturbed1 they penetrate deeper1 and produce troublesome ulcers1 which sometimes even prove fatal4 ,thus1 in tropical ,america1 we find the same insect tribe which plagues our oxen and horses1 and reduces the northern reindeer to desperation1 settle on man himself1 and render even the lord of creation subject to its power4 ,the ,chegoe1 ,pique1 or ,jigger of the ,west ,indies 7,pulex penetrans7 is another great torment of the hot countries of ,america4 ,it looks exactly like a small flea1 and a stranger would take it for one4 ,however1 in about four and twenty hours he would have several broad hints that he had made a mistake in his ideas of the animal4 ,without any respect for colour1 it attacks different parts of the body1 but chiefly the feet1 betwixt the toe-nails and the flesh4 ,there it buries itself and causes an itching1 which at first is not unpleasant1 but after a few days gradually increases to a violent pain4 ,at the same time a small white tumour1 about the size of a pea1 and with a dark spot in the centre1 rises under the skin4 ,the tumour is the rapidly growing nest of the chegoe1 the spot the little plague itself4 ,and now it is high time to think of its extirpation1 an operation in which the negro women are very expert4 ,gently removing with a pin the skin from the little round white ball or nest1 precisely as we should peel an orange1 and pressing the flesh all round1 they generally succeed in squeezing it out without breaking1 and then fill the cavity with snuff or tobacco1 to guard against the possibility of a fresh colony being formed by some of the eggs remaining in the wound4 ,new comers are particularly subject to these creatures4 ,waterton1 who by practice appears to have become very expert in eradicating chegoes' nests1 once took four out of his feet in the course of the day1 and a negress extracted no less than eighty-three out of ,richard ,schomburgk's toes in one sitting4 #8,every evening1' says the venerable naturalist of ,walton ,hall1 #8before sundown1 it was part of my toilet to examine my feet and see that they were clear of chegoes4 ,now and then a nest would escape the scrutiny1 and then ,i had to smart for it a day or two after4 ,a chegoe once lit upon the back of my hand3 wishful to see how he worked1 ,i allowed him to take possession4 ,he immediately set to work head foremost1 and in about half an hour he had completely buried himself in the skin4 ,i then let him feel the point of my knife1 and exterminated him4' ,if the prompt extraction of the chegoes' nests is neglected1 the worm-like larv creep out1 continue the mining operations of their parent1 and produce a violent inflammation1 which may end in the mortification of a limb4 ,it not unfrequently happens that negroes from sheer idleness or negligence in the first instance have been lamed for life and become loathsome to the sight4 ,in such a state1 these miserable objects are incurable1 and death only puts an end to their sufferings4 ,a still more dangerous plague1 peculiar to the coast of ,guinea and the interior of tropical ,africa1 to ,arabia1 and the adjacent countries1 is the ,filaria medinensis of ,linnus4 ,this dreaded worm comes to the herbage in the morning dew1 from whence it pierces the skin1 and enters the feet of such as walk without shoes1 causing the most painful irritation1 succeeded by violent inflammation and fever4 ,the natives extract it with the greatest caution by twisting a piece of silk round one extremity of the body and withdrawing it very gently4 ,when we consider that this insidious worm is frequently twelve feet long1 although not thicker than a horse-hair1 we can readily imagine the difficulty of the operation4 ,if unfortunately the animal should break1 the part remaining under the skin grows with redoubled vigour1 and frequently occasions a fatal inflammation4 ,one of these most unwelcome intruders once entered ,dampier's ankle4 #8,i was in great torment1' says this entertaining traveller1 #8before it came out4 ,my leg and ankle swelled1 and looked very angry1 and ,i kept on a plaster to bring it to a head4 ,at last1 drawing off my plaster1 out came three inches of the worm1 and my pain abated4 ,till that time ,i was ignorant of my malady1 and a gentleman at whose house ,i was took it for a nerve2 but ,i knew well what it was1 and presently rolled it up on a small stick4 ,after this ,i opened the place every morning and evening1 and strained the worm out gently1 about two inches at a time--not without some pain--till ,i had at length got it out4' ,among the plagues of ,guiana and the ,west ,indies we must not forget a little insect in the grass and on the shrubs1 which the ,french call bte-rouge4 ,it is of a beautiful scarlet colour1 and so minute that you must bring your eye close to it before you can perceive it4 ,it abounds most in the rainy season4 ,its bite causes an intolerable itching1 which1 according to ,richard ,schomburgk1 who writes from personal experience1 drives by day the perspiration of anguish from every pore1 and at night makes one's hammock resemble the gridiron on which ,saint ,lawrence was roasted4 ,the best way to get rid of the plague is to rub the part affected with lemon-juice or rum4 #8,you must be careful not to scratch it1' says ,waterton4 #8,if you do so and break the skin1 you expose yourself to a sore4 ,the first year ,i was in ,guiana the bte-rouge and my own want of knowledge1 and1 ,i may add1 the little attention ,i paid to it1 created an ulcer above the ankle which annoyed me for six months1 and if ,i hobbled out into the grass1 a number of bte-rouges would settle on the edges of the sore and increase the inflammation4' ,the blood-sucking ,ticks are also to be classed among the intolerable nuisances of many tropical regions4 ,a large ,american species called ,garapata 7,ixodes sanguisuga7 fixes on the legs of travellers1 and gradually buries its whole head in the skin1 which the body1 disgustingly distended with blood1 is unable to follow4 ,on being violently removed1 the former remains in the wound1 and often produces painful sores4 ,the ,indians returning in the evening from the forest or from their field labour generally bring some of these creatures along with them1 swollen to the size of hazel nuts4 ,though countless hosts of ticks infest the ,ceylonese jungle1 though mosquitoes without number swarm over the lower country1 yet the land-leeches which beset the traveller in the rising grounds are a still more detested plague4 #8,they are not frequent in the plains1' says ,sir ,e4 ,tennent1 #8which are too hot and dry for them2 but amongst the rank vegetation in the lower ranges of the hill-country1 which is kept damp by frequent showers1 they are found in tormenting profusion4 ,they are terrestrial1 never visiting ponds or streams4 ,in size they are about an inch in length1 and as fine as a common knitting needle1 but capable of distention till they equal a quill in thickness and attain a length of nearly two inches4 ,their structure is so flexible that they can insinuate themselves through the meshes of the finest stocking1 not only seizing on the feet and ankles1 but ascending to the back and throat1 and fastening on the tenderest parts of the body4 ,the coffee planters who live amongst these pests are obliged in order to exclude them1 to envelope their legs in 8leech gaiters10 made of closely woven cloth4 #8,in moving1 the land-leeches have the power of planting one extremity on the earth and raising the other perpendicularly to watch for their victim4 ,such is their vigilance and instinct that1 on the approach of a passer-by to a spot which they infest1 they may be seen amongst the grass and fallen leaves1 on the edge of a native path1 poised erect1 and preparing for their attack on man and horse4 ,on descrying their prey they advance rapidly by semicircular strides1 fixing one end firmly and arching the other forwards1 till by successive advances they can lay hold of the traveller's foot1 when they disengage themselves from the ground and ascend his dress in search of an aperture to enter4 ,in these encounters the individuals in the rear of a party of travellers in the jungle invariably fare worst1 as the leeches once warned of their approach congregate with singular celerity4 ,their size is so insignificant1 and the wound they make so skilfully punctured1 that the first intimation of their onslaught is the trickling of the blood1 or a chill feeling of the leech when it begins to hang heavily on the skin from being distended by its repast4 ,horses are driven wild by them1 and stamp the ground in fury to shake them from their fetlocks1 to which they hang in bloody tassels4 ,the bare legs of the palankin-bearers and coolies are a favourite resort1 and their hands being too much engaged to be spared to pull them off1 the leeches hang like bunches of grapes round their ankles2 and ,i have seen the blood literally flowing over the edge of a ,european's shoe from their innumerable bites4 ,in healthy constitutions the wounds1 if not irritated1 generally heal1 occasioning no other inconvenience than a slight inflammation and itching2 but in those with a bad state of body1 the punctures1 if rubbed1 are liable to degenerate into ulcers1 which may lead to the loss of limb or of life4 ,both ,marshall and ,davy mention that1 during the march of the troops in the mountains1 when the ,kandyans were in rebellion1 in #ahah1 the soldiers1 and especially the ,madras ,sepoys1 with the pioneers and coolies1 suffered so severely from this cause that numbers of them perished4' ,illustration3 ,,the ,,tsets4 ,among the many noxious insects destructive to the property of man1 there is1 perhaps none more remarkable than the ,south ,african ,tsets-fly 7,glossna morsitans71 whose peculiar buzz when once heard can never be forgotten by the traveller whose means of locomotion are domestic animals2 for it is well known that the bite of this poisonous insect is certain death to the ox1 horse1 and dog4 ,fortunately it is limited to particular districts1 frequently infesting one bank of a river while the other contains not a single specimen1 or else travelling in ,south ,africa would be utterly impossible1 and we should now know no more of ,lake ,ngami or the ,zambesi than we did thirty years since4 ,in one journey ,dr4 ,livingstone lost no less than forty-three fine oxen by the bite of the tsets4 ,a party of ,englishmen once attempted to reach ,libeb1 but they had only proceeded seven or eight days' journey to the north of the ,ngami1 when both horses and cattle were bitten by the fly1 and the party were in consequence compelled to make a hasty retreat4 ,one of the number was thus deprived of as many as thirty-six horses1 excellent hunters1 and all sustained heavy losses in cattle4 ,a most remarkable feature in the bite of the tsets is its perfect harmlessness in man and wild animals1 and even calves1 so long as they continue to suck the cow4 ,the mule1 ass1 and goat enjoy likewise the same immunity1 and many large tribes on the ,zambesi can keep no domestic animals except the latter1 in consequence of the scourge existing in their country4 ,dr4 ,livingstone's children were frequently bitten1 yet suffered no harm1 and he saw around him numbers of zebras1 buffaloes1 pigs1 pallahs and other antelopes1 feeding quietly in the very habitat of the tsets1 yet as undisturbed by its bite as oxen are when they first receive the fatal poison1 which acts in the following manner4 ,after a few days the eyes and nose begin to run1 the coat stares as if the animal were cold1 a swelling appears under the jaw1 and1 though the animal continues to graze1 emaciation commences1 accompanied with a peculiar flaccidity of the muscles2 and this proceeds unchecked until1 perhaps months afterwards1 purging comes on1 and the animal1 no longer able to graze1 perishes in a state of extreme exhaustion4 ,those which are in good condition often perish1 soon after the wound is inflicted1 with staggering and blindness1 as if the brain were affected by it4 ,sudden changes of temperature1 produced by falls of rain1 seem to hasten the progress of the complaint1 but in general the emaciation goes on uninterruptedly for months2 and do what one may1 the poor animals perish miserably1 as there is no cure yet known for the disease4 ,had any one of our indigenous flies similar poisonous qualities we should never have been able to escape from barbarism2 if1 by any fatal chance1 the tsets were to settle among us1 our prosperity would soon be at an end1 and our civilisation imperilled6 ,reflections such as these are well calculated to humble our pride and check our presumption6 ,the ,abyssinian ,tsalt-salya or ,zimb1 described by ,bruce1 seems identical with the tsets1 or produces at least similar symptoms4 ,at the season when this plague makes its appearance1 all the inhabitants along the sea-coast1 from ,melinde to ,cape ,gardafui1 and to the south of the ,red ,sea1 are obliged to retire with their cattle to the sandy plains to preserve them from destruction4 ,the ,french traveller1 ,d',escayrac1 tells us of a fly in ,soudan which leaves the ox uninjured but destroys the dromedary4 ,on account of this plague the camel is confined to the northern boundary of the ,soudan1 while the oxen graze in safety throughout the whole country4 ,this fly has caused more migrations among the ,arabs of the ,soudan than all their wars2 and in the dry season it even drives the elephant from ,lake ,tsad by flying into its ears4 ,illustration3 ,,locust4 ,though the locusts not seldom extend their ravages to the steppes of southern ,russia1 though they have been known to burst like a cloud of desolation over ,transylvania and ,hungary1 and stray stragglers now and then even find their way to ,england1 yet their chief habitat and birthplace is the torrid zone4 ,they wander forth in countless multitudes1 and at very irregular periods2 but how it comes that they are multiplied to such an excess in particular years and not in others1 has never yet been ascertained1 and perhaps never will be4 ,they are armed with two pairs of strong mandibles2 their stomach is of extraordinary capacity and power2 they make prodigious leaps by means of their muscular and long hind legs2 and their wings even carry them far across the sea4 ,on viewing a single locust1 one can hardly conceive how they can cause such devastation1 but the wonder ceases on hearing of their numbers4 ,mahomet--so say his followers--once read upon the wing of a locust3 #8,we are the army of ,god2 we lay ninety-nine eggs2 and if we laid a hundred1 we should devour the whole earth and all that grows upon its surface4' #8,o ,allah6' exclaimed the terrified prophet1 #8,thou who listenest patiently to the prayers of ,thy ,servant1 destroy their young1 kill their chieftains1 and stop their mouths1 to save the ,moslems' food from their teeth6' ,scarce had he spoken when the angel ,gabriel appeared1 saying1 #8,god grants thee part of thy wishes4' ,and1 indeed1 as all true believers know1 this prayer of their prophet1 written on a piece of paper1 and enclosed in a reed which is stuck in the ground1 is sure to preserve a field or an orchard from locust devastation4 ,as a locust host advances1 its columns are sometimes seen rising in compact bodies as if propelled by a strong gust of wind2 then1 suddenly sinking1 they disperse into smaller battalions1 not unlike vapours floating about a hill-side at early morn1 and when slightly agitated by a breeze2 or they resemble huge columns of sand or smoke1 changing their shape every minute4 ,onward they come--a dark continuous cloud ,of congregated myriads1 numberless2 ,the rushing of whose wings is as the sound ,of a broad river headlong in its course1 ,plunged from a mountain summit2 or the roar ,of a wild ocean in the autumn storm1 ,shattering its billows on a shore of rocks6--,,southey4 ,during their flight numbers are constantly alighting--an action which has not inaptly been compared to the falling of large snow-flakes4 ,it is1 however1 not until the approach of night that the locusts encamp4 ,woe to the spot they select as a resting-place6 ,the sun sets on a landscape green with all the luxuriance of tropical vegetation2 it rises in the morning over a region naked as the waste of the ,sahara6 ,the locust is fierce1 and strong1 and grim1 ,and an armd man is afraid of him2 ,he comes like a wingd shape of dread1 ,with his shielded back1 and his armd head2 ,and his double wings for hasty flight1 ,and a keen unwearying appetite4 ,he comes with famine and fear along2 ,an army a million1 million strong4 ,the ,goth and the ,vandal1 and the dwarfish ,hun ,with their swarming people1 wild and dun1 ,brought not the dread that the locust brings1 ,when is heard the rush of their myriad wings4 ,from the deserts of burning sand they speed1 ,where the lions roam1 and the serpents breed4 ,far over the sea1 away1 away6 ,and they darken the sun at noon of day4 ,like ,eden the land before they find1 ,but they leave it a desolate waste behind4 ,the peasant grows pale when he sees them come1 ,and standeth before them1 weak and dumb1 ,for they come like a raging fire in power1 ,and eat up a harvest in half an hour2 ,and the trees are bare1 and the land is brown1 ,as if trampled and trod by an army down4 ,there is terror in every monarch's eye1 ,when he hears that this terrible foe is nigh2 ,for he knows that the might of an armd host ,cannot drive the spoiler from out his coast3 ,that terror and famine his land await1 ,and from north to south #8twill be desolate4 ,thus the ravening locust is strong and grim1 ,and what were an armd man to him8 ,fire turneth him not1 nor sea prevents1 ,he is stronger by far than the elements4 ,the broad green earth is his prostrate prey1 ,and he darkens the sun at noon of day4--,,mary ,,howitt4 ,the tropical plague of the cockroaches has been introduced into ,england2 but1 fortunately1 the giant of the family1 the ,blatta gigantea1 a native of many of the warmer parts of ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,south ,america1 is a stranger to our land3 and the following truthful description of this disgusting insect gives us every reason to be thankful for its absence3--#8,they plunder and erode all kinds of victuals1 dressed and undressed1 and damage all sorts of clothes1 especially such as are touched with powder1 pomatum1 and similar substances2 everything made of leather2 books1 paper1 and various other articles1 which if they do not destroy1 at least they soil1 as they frequently deposit a drop of their excrement where they settle1 and1 some way or other1 by that means damage what they cannot devour4 ,they fly into the flame of candles1 and sometimes into the dishes2 are very fond of ink and of oil1 into which they are apt to fall and perish1 in which case they soon turn most offensively putrid--so that a man might as well sit over the cadaverous body of a large animal as write with the ink in which they have died4 ,they often fly into persons' faces or bosoms1 and their legs being armed with sharp spines1 the pricking excites a sudden horror not easily described4 ,in old houses they swarm by myriads1 making every part filthy beyond description wherever they harbour1 which in the daytime is in dark corners1 behind clothes--in trunks1 boxes1 and1 in short1 every place where they can lie concealed4 ,in old timber and deal houses1 when the family is retired at night to sleep1 this insect1 among other disagreeable properties1 has the power of making a noise which very much resembles a pretty smart knocking with the knuckle upon the wainscoting4 ,the ,blatta gigantea in the ,west ,indies is therefore frequently known by the name of the drummer4 ,three or four of these noisy creatures will sometimes be impelled to answer one another1 and cause such a drumming noise that none but those who are very good sleepers can rest for them4 ,what is most disagreeable1 those who have not gauze curtains are sometimes attacked by them in their sleep2 the sick and dying have their extremities attacked2 and the ends of the toes and fingers of the dead are frequently stripped both of the skin and flesh4' ,according to ,tschudi1 the cucaracha and chilicabra--two large species of the cockroach--infest ,peru in such numbers as almost to reduce the inhabitants to despair4 ,greedy1 bold1 cunning1 they force their way into every hut1 devour the stores1 destroy the clothes1 intrude into the beds and dishes1 and defy every means that is resorted to for their destruction4 ,fortunately1 they are held in check by many formidable enemies1 particularly by a small ant1 and a pretty little bird 7,troglodytes audax7 belonging to the wagtail family1 which has some difficulty in mastering the larger cockroaches4 ,it first of all bites off their head1 and then devours their body1 with the exception of their membranaceous wings4 ,after having finished his repast1 the bird hops upon the nearest bush1 and there begins his song of triumph4 ,many other insect plagues might be added to the list1 but those ,i have already enumerated suffice to reconcile us to our misty climate1 and to diminish our longing for the palm groves of the torrid zone4 ,rivalling the mosquitoes in the art of tormenting man1 and perhaps even surpassing them in numbers1 the equatorial ants may truly be said to hold a despotic sway over the forest and the savannah1 over the thicket and the field4 ,it is hardly possible to penetrate into a tropical wood without being reminded1 by their stings and bites1 that they consider the visit as an intrusion1 while they themselves unceremoniously invade the dwellings of man1 and lay ruinous contributions on his stores4 ,the inconceivable number of their species defies the memory of the naturalist1 to whom many are even still entirely unknown4 ,from almost microscopical size to an inch in length1 of all colours and shades between yellow1 red1 brown1 and black1 of the most varied habits and stations1 the ants of a single tropical land would furnish study for years to a zealous entomologist4 ,every family of plants has its peculiar species1 and many trees are even the exclusive dwelling-place of some ant nowhere else to be found4 ,in the scathes of leaves1 in the corollas of flowers1 in buds and blossoms1 over and under the earth1 in and out of doors1 one meets these ubiquitous little creatures1 which are undoubtedly one of the great plagues of the torrid zone4 ,while our indigenous ants cause a disagreeable burning on the skin1 by the secretion of a corrosive acid peculiar to the race1 the sting or bite of many tropical species causes the most excruciating tortures4 #8,i have no words1' says ,schomburgk1 #8to describe the pain inflicted upon me by the mandibles of the ,ponera clavata1 a large1 and1 fortunately1 not very common ant1 whose long black body is beset with single hairs4 ,like an electric shock the pain instantly shot through my whole body1 and soon after acquired the greatest intensity in the breast1 and over and under the armpits4 ,after a few minutes ,i felt almost completely paralysed1 so that ,i could only with the greatest difficulty1 and under the most excruciating tortures1 totter towards the plantation1 which1 however1 it was impossible for me to reach4 ,i was found senseless on the ground1 and the following day a violent wound fever ensued4' #8,having1 while in ,angola1 accidentally stepped upon a nest of red ants1' says ,livingstone1 #8not an instant seemed to elapse before a simultaneous attack was made on various unprotected parts1 up the trousers from below1 and on my neck and breast above4 ,the bites of these furies were like sparks of fire1 and there was no retreat4 ,i jumped about for a second or two1 then in desperation tore off all my clothing1 and rubbed and picked them off seriatim as quickly as possible6 ,fortunately1 no one observed this rencontre1 or word might have been taken back to the village that ,i had become mad4 ,it is really astonishing how such small bodies can contain so large an amount of ill nature4 ,they not only bite1 but twist themselves round after the mandibles are inserted1 to produce laceration and pain more than would be effected by the single wound4 ,frequently1 while sitting on the ox1 as he happened to tread near a band1 they would rush up his legs to the rider1 and soon let him know that he had disturbed their march4 ,they possess no fear1 attacking with equal ferocity the largest as well as the smallest animals4 ,when any person has leaped over the band1 numbers of them leave the ranks and rush along the path1 seemingly anxious for a fight4' ,but however formidable the weapons of the ants may be1 yet the injuries they inflict upon the property of man1 pouring over his plantations like a flood1 and sweeping away the fruits of his labours1 are of a much more lasting and serious nature than their painful bite or venomous sting4 ,in the ,west ,indies1 the brown-black ,viviagua1 about one-third of an inch long1 and with a prickly thorax1 is the greatest enemy of the coffee plantations4 ,in one day it will rob a full-grown tree of all its leaves4 ,it digs deep subterranean passages of considerable dimensions and irregular forms1 with a great number of hand-high galleries branching out from the sides1 and does even more harm to the coffee-plants by its mining operations than by robbing them of their foliage4 ,other species are no less destructive to the sugar plantations1 either by settling in the interior of the stalks or by undermining the roots so that the plant becomes sickly and dies4 ,the ,saba or ,coushie 7codoma cephalotes71 a species of ant distinguished by its large head1 is the most formidable enemy of the banana and cassava plantations4 ,such are its numbers that in a very short time it will strip off the leaves of an entire field4 ,even where their nest is a mile distant from a plantation1 these arch depredators know how to find it1 and soon form a highway1 about half a foot broad1 on which they keep up the most active communications with the object of their attack4 ,in masterly order1 side by side1 one army is seen to move onwards towards the field1 while another is returning to the nest4 ,in this last column each individual carries a round piece of leaf1 about the size of a sixpence1 which is held by one of its edges4 ,if the distance is too great1 a party meets the weary carriers half way1 and relieves them of their load4 ,although innumerable ants may thus be moving along1 yet none of them will ever be seen to be in the other's way2 and all goes on with the regularity of clock-work4 ,a third party is no less actively employed on the scene of destruction1 cutting out circular pieces of the leaves1 which1 as soon as they drop upon the ground1 are immediately seized by the attentive and indefatigable carriers4 ,neither fire nor water can prevent them from proceeding with their work4 ,though thousands may be killed1 yet in less than an hour all the bodies will have been removed4 ,should the highway be closed by an insurmountable obstacle1 another is soon laid out1 and after a few hours the operations1 momentarily disturbed1 resume their former activity4 ,the use of the leaves is to thatch the curious domelike edifices which these indefatigable builders raise over their burrows1 and to prevent the loose earth from falling in4 ,some of these domes are of gigantic dimensions1 measuring two feet in height and forty feet in diameter-- a prodigious size when compared with the puny proportions of the tiny architects that raise them4 ,division of labour is carried on to a wonderful extent in these buildings1 for the labourers who fetch the leaves do not place them1 but merely fling them down on the ground1 when they are picked up by a relay of workers who lay them in their proper order4 ,as soon as they have been properly arranged they are covered with small pellets of earth1 and in a very short time they are quite hidden by their earthy covering4 ,from these domes cylindrical shafts lead down into the mysterious recesses of the burrows1 whose subterranean galleries are so vast and complicated that they have never been fully investigated4 ,some idea of their extent may be formed from the fact that sulphur smoke having been blown into a nest1 one of the outlets was detected at a distance of seventy yards4 ,not satisfied with devouring his harvests1 the tropical ants leave man no rest even within doors1 and trespass upon his household comforts in a thousand various ways4 ,in ,mainas1 a province on the ,upper ,amazon1 ,professor ,pppig counted no less than seven different species of ants among the tormenting inmates of his hut4 ,the diminutive red ,amache was particularly fond of sweets4 ,favoured by its smallness1 it penetrates through the imperceptible openings of a cork1 and the traveller was often obliged to throw away the syrup which in that humid and sultry country replaces the use of crystallised sugar1 from its having been changed into an ant-comfit4 ,this troublesome lover of sweets lives under the corner-posts of the hut1 so that it is quite impossible to dislodge him4 ,the devastations of the house-ants are peculiarly hateful to the naturalist1 whose collections1 often gathered with so much danger and trouble1 they pitilessly destroy4 ,richard ,schomburgk suspended boxes with insects from the ceiling by threads strongly rubbed over with arsenic soap2 but when1 on the following morning1 he wished to examine his treasures1 instead of his rare and beautiful specimens he found nothing but a host of villanous red ants1 who crawling down the threads1 had found means to invade the boxes and utterly to destroy their valuable contents4 ,illustration3 ,,foraging ,,ants4 ,in countless multitudes the ,driver or ,foraging ants break forth from the primeval forest1 marching through the country in compact order1 like a well-drilled army4 ,every creature they meet in their way falls a victim to their dreadful onslaught--rats1 mice1 lizards1 and even the huge python1 when in a state of surfeit from recent feeding4 ,if a house obstructs their route1 they do not turn out of the way1 but go quite through it4 ,though they sting cruelly when molested1 the ,west ,indian planter is not sorry to see them in his house1 for it is but a passing visit1 and their appearance is the death-warrant for every spider1 scorpion1 cockroach1 or reptile that pollutes his dwelling4 ,unfortunately1 this thorough cleansing is but of short duration1 as in less than a week tropical life calls forth a new generation of vermin4 ,the wonderful societies of the ants1 their strength and perseverance1 their unwearied industry1 their astonishing intelligence1 are so well known1 and have been so often and so admirably described#bb1 that it would be trespassing on the patience of my readers were ,i to enter into any lengthened details on the subject4 ,and yet1 the observations of naturalists have chiefly been confined to the ,european species1 while the economy of the infinitely more numerous tropical ants1 confined to countries or places hardly ever visited1 or even unknown to civilised man1 remains an inexhaustible field for future inquiry4 ,illustration3 ,,fungus ,,ant4 ,the study of their various buildings alone1 from the little we know of them1 would occupy a zealous entomologist for years4 ,here we have an ,american species that forms its globular nest of the size of a large ,dutch cheese1 of small twigs artistically interlaced2 there another1 which 7,formica bispinosa7 uses cotton for its building material1 and through the chemical agency of its pungent secretion converts it into a spongy substance4 ,on the west coast of ,borneo1 ,mr4 ,adams noticed two kinds of ants' nests--one species of the size of a man's hand1 adhering to the trunk of trees resembling1 when cut through1 a section of the lungs2 the other was composed of small withered bits of sticks and leaves1 heaped up in the axils of branches1 somewhat in the form of flattened cylinders and compressed cones4 ,a third species1 still more ingenious1 constructs its domicile out of a large leaf1 bending the two halves by the weight of united millions till the opposite margins meet at the under surface of the mid-rib1 where they are secured by a gummy matter4 ,the stores and larv are conveyed into the nest so made by regular beaten tracks along the trunk and branches of the tree4 ,on the large plains near ,lake ,dilolo1 where water stands so long annually as to allow the lotus and other aqueous plants to come to maturity1 ,dr4 ,livingstone had occasion to admire the wonderful sagacity of the ants1 whom he declares to be wiser than some men1 as they learn by experience4 ,when all the land is submerged a foot deep1 they manage to exist by ascending to little houses1 built of black tenacious loam1 on stalks of grass1 and placed higher than the line of inundation4 ,this must have been the result of experience1 for if they had waited till the water actually invaded their habitations on the ground1 they would not have been able to procure materials for their higher quarters1 unless they dived down to the bottom for every mouthful of clay4 ,they must have been built in anticipation1 #8and if so1' says the celebrated traveller1 #8let us humbly hope that the sufferers by the late inundations in ,france may be possessed of as much common sense as the little black ants of the ,dilolo plains4' ,unable or unwilling to work themselves1 some species of ants make war upon others for the sole purpose of procuring bondsmen1 who literally and truly labour for them1 and perform all the domestic duties of the community2 but the ,mexican honey ants 7,myrmecocystus ,mexicanus7 are1 if possible1 still more remarkable1 for here we see an animal rearing others of the same species for the purpose of food4 ,some of these ants1 namely1 are distinguished by an enormous swelling of the abdomen1 which is converted into a mass like honey1 and being unable1 in their unwieldly condition1 to seek food themselves1 are fed by the labourers1 until they are doomed to die for the benefit of the community4 ,whether this vast distension is the result of an intestinal rupture1 caused by an excessive indulgence of the appetite1 or whether they are purposely selected1 confined1 and over-fed1 or wounded for the purpose1 has not yet been ascertained4 ,the termites1 or white ants1 as they are commonly called1 though they in reality belong to a totally different order of insects1 are spread in countless numbers over all the warmer regions of the earth1 emulating on the dry land the bore-worm in the sea2 for when they have once penetrated into a building1 no timber except ebony and iron-wood1 which are too hard1 or such as is strongly impregnated with camphor and aromatic oils1 which they dislike1 is capable of resisting their attacks4 ,their favourite food is wood1 and so great are their multitudes1 so admirable their tools1 that in a few days they devour the timberwork of a spacious apartment4 ,outwardly1 the beams and rafters may seem untouched1 while their core is completely consumed1 for these destructive miners work in the dark1 and seldom attack the outside until they have previously concealed themselves and their operations by a coat of clay4 ,scarcely any organic substance remains free from their attacks2 and forcing their resistless way into trunks1 chests1 and wardrobes1 they will often devour in one night all the shoes1 boots1 clothes1 and papers they may contain4 ,it is principally owing to their destructions1 says ,humboldt1 that it is so rare to find papers in tropical ,america of an older date than fifty or sixty years4 ,smeathman relates1 that a party of them once took a fancy to a pipe of fine old ,madeira1 not for the sake of the wine1 almost the whole of which they let out1 but of the staves1 which1 however1 may not have proved less tasteful from having imbibed some of the costly liquor4 ,on surveying a room which had been locked up during an absence of a few weeks1 ,forbes1 the author of the #8,oriental ,memoirs1' observed a number of advanced works in various directions towards some prints and drawings in ,english frames2 the glasses appeared to be uncommonly dull1 and the frames covered with dust4 ,on attempting to wipe it off1 he was astonished to find the glasses fixed to the wall1 not suspended in frames as he left them1 but completely surrounded by an incrustation cemented by the white ants1 who had actually eaten up the deal frames and backboards and the greater part of the paper1 and left the glasses upheld by the incrustation or covered way which they had formed during their depredations4 ,on the small island of ,goree1 near ,cape ,verde1 the ,french naturalist1 ,adanson1 lived in a straw hut1 which1 though quite new at the time he took up his residence in it1 became transparent in many places before the month was out4 ,this might have been endured1 but the villanous termites ravaged his trunk1 destroyed his books1 penetrated into his bed1 and at last attacked the naturalist himself4 ,neither sweet nor salt water1 neither vinegar nor corrosive liquids1 were able to drive them away1 and so ,adanson thought it best to abandon the premises1 and to look out for another lodging4 ,the ravages of the termites are1 however1 perhaps more than compensated by their services in removing decayed vegetable substances from the face of the earth1 and thus contributing to the purity of the air and the beauty of the landscape4 ,if the forests of the tropical world1 where thousands of gigantic trees succumb to the slow ravages of time1 or are suddenly prostrated by the hurricane1 still appear in all the verdure of perpetual youth1 it is chiefly to the unremitting labours of the termites that they are indebted for their freshness4 ,though belonging to a different order of the insect world1 the economy of the termites is very similar to that of the real ants4 ,they also form communities1 divided into distinct orders2 labourers 7larv71 soldiers 7neuters71 perfect insects--and they also erect buildings1 but of a far more astonishing structure4 ,several of their species 7,t4 atrox1 bellicosus ,smeathman7 erect high dome-like edifices1 rising from the plain1 so that at first sight they might be mistaken for the hamlets of the negroes2 others 7,t4 destructor arborum7 build on trees1 often at a considerable height above the ground4 ,these sylvan abodes are frequently the size of a hogshead1 and are more generally found in the ,new ,world4 ,illustration3 ,,termite ,,hills4 ,the clay-built citadels or domes of the ,termes bellicosus1 a common species on the ,west ,coast of ,africa1 attain a height of twelve feet1 and are constructed with such strength that the traveller often ascends them to have an uninterrupted view of the grassy plain around4 ,only the under part of the mound is inhabited by the white ants1 the upper portion serving principally as a defence from the weather1 and to keep up in the lower part the warmth and moisture necessary to the hatching of the eggs and cherishing of the young ones4 ,in the centre1 and almost on a level with the ground1 is placed the sanctuary of the whole community--the large cell1 where the queen resides with her consort1 and which she is doomed never to quit again1 after having been once enclosed in it1 since the portals soon prove too narrow for her rapidly-increasing bulk4 ,encircling the regal apartment1 extends a labyrinth of countless chambers1 in which a numerous army of attendants and soldiers is constantly in waiting4 ,the space between these chambers and the external wall of the citadel is filled with other cells1 partly destined for the eggs and young larv1 partly for store-rooms4 ,the subterranean passages which lead from the mound are hardly less remarkable than the building itself4 ,perfectly cylindrical1 and lined with a cement of clay1 similar to that of which the hill is formed1 they sometimes measure a foot in diameter4 ,they run in a sloping direction1 under the bottom of the hill1 to a depth of three or four feet1 and then ramifying horizontally into numerous branches1 ultimately rise near to the surface at a considerable distance4 ,at their entrance into the interior of the hill1 they are connected with a great number of smaller galleries1 which1 gradually winding round the whole building to the top1 intersect each other at different heights4 ,the necessity for the vast size of the main galleries underground1 evidently arises from the circumstance of their being the great thoroughfares for the inhabitants1 by which they fetch their clay1 wood1 water1 or provisions1 and their gradual ascent is requisite1 as the ,termites can only with great difficulty climb perpendicularly4 ,it may be imagined that such works require an enormous population for their construction2 and1 indeed1 the manner in which an infant colony of termites is formed and grows1 until becoming1 in its turn1 the parent of new migrations1 is not the least wonderful part of this wonderful insect's history4 ,at the end of the dry season1 as soon as the first rains have fallen1 the male and female perfect termites1 each about the size of two soldiers1 or thirty labourers1 and furnished with four long narrow wings folded on each other1 emerge from their retreats in myriads4 ,after a few hours their fragile wings fall off1 and on the following morning they are discovered covering the surface of the earth and waters1 where their enemies--birds1 reptiles1 ants--cause so sweeping a havoc that scarce one pair out of many thousands escapes destruction4 ,if by chance the labourers1 who are always busy prolonging their galleries1 happen to meet with one of these fortunate couples1 they immediately1 impelled by their instinct1 elect them sovereigns of a new community1 and1 conveying them to a place of safety1 begin to build them a small chamber of clay1 their palace and their prison--for beyond its walls they never again emerge4 ,illustration3 ,,termite4 ,soon after the male dies1 but1 far from pining and wasting over the loss of her consort1 the female increases so wonderfully in bulk that she ultimately weighs as much as #cj1jjj labourers1 and attains a length of three inches1 with a proportional width4 ,this increase of size naturally requires a corresponding enlargement of the cell1 which is constantly widened by the indefatigable workers4 ,having reached her full size1 the queen now begins to lay her eggs1 and as their extrusion goes on uninterruptedly1 night and day1 at the rate of fifty or sixty in a minute1 for about two years1 their total number may probably amount to more than fifty millions6 ,a wonderful fecundity1 which explains how a termite colony1 originally few in number1 increases in a few years to a population equalling or surpassing that of the ,british empire4 ,this incessant extrusion of eggs necessarily calls for the attention of a large number of the workers in the royal chamber1 to take them as they come forth1 and carry them to the nurseries1 in which1 when hatched1 they are provided with food1 and carefully attended till they are able to shift for themselves1 and become in their turn useful to the community4 ,in widening their buildings according to the necessities of their growing population1 from the size of small sugar-loaves to that of domes which might be mistaken for the hovels of ,indians or negroes1 as well as in repairing their damages1 the termite workers display an unceasing and wonderful activity1 while the soldiers1 or neuters1 which are in the proportion of about one to every hundred labourers1 and are at once distinguished by the enormous size of their heads armed with long and sharp jaws1 are no less remarkable for their courage and energy4 ,when anyone is bold enough to attack their nest and make a breach in its walls1 the labourers1 who are incapable of fighting1 immediately retire1 upon which a soldier makes his appearance1 obviously for the purpose of reconnoitring1 and then also withdraws to give the alarm4 ,two or three others next appear1 scrambling as fast as they can one after the other2 to these succeed a large body1 who rush forth with as much speed as the breach will permit1 their numbers continually increasing during the attack4 ,these little heroes present an astonishing1 and at the same time a most amusing spectacle4 ,in their haste they frequently miss their hold1 and tumble down the sides of their hill2 they soon1 however1 recover themselves1 and being blind1 bite everything they run against4 ,if the attack proceeds1 the bustle increases to a tenfold degree1 and their fury is raised to its highest pitch4 ,woe to him whose hands or legs come within their reach1 for they will make their fanged jaws meet at the very first stroke1 drawing their own weight in blood1 and never quitting their hold1 even though they are pulled limb from limb4 ,the courage of the bulldog is as nothing compared to the fierce obstinacy of the termite-soldier4 ,illustration3 ,,soldier4 ,so soon as the injury has ceased1 and no further interruption is given1 the soldiers retire1 and then you will see the labourers hastening in various directions towards the breach1 each carrying in his mouth a load of tempered mortar half as big as himself1 which he lays on the edge of the orifice1 and immediately hastens back for more4 ,not the space of the tenth part of an inch is left without labourers working upon it at the same moment2 crowds are constantly hurrying to and fro2 yet1 amid all this activity1 the greatest order reigns--no one impedes the other1 but each seems to thread the mazes of the multitude without trouble or inconvenience4 ,by the united labours of such an infinite host the ruined wall soon rises again2 and ,mr4 ,smeathman has ascertained that in a single night they will restore a gallery of three or four yards in length4 ,in numbers and architectural industry the ,american ,termites are not inferior to those of the ,old ,world4 ,in the savannahs of ,guiana their sugar-loaf or mushroom-shaped1 pyramidal or columnar hills are everywhere to be seen1 impenetrable to the rain1 and strong enough to resist even a tropical tornado4 ,on the summits of these artificial mounds a neat little falcon 7,falco sparverius7 often takes his station1 darting down1 from time to time1 like lightning upon some unfortunate lizard1 and then again speedily returning to his look-out4 ,the large caracara eagle 7,polyborus caracara7 likewise chooses these eminences as an observatory from whence he rushes robber-like on his prey2 there also an ugly black lizard 7,ecchymotes torquatus7 loves to sun itself1 but disappears immediately in the grass as soon as a traveller approaches4 ,in many parts of the ,brazilian campos or savannahs the termite-hills1 which are there generally of a more flattened form1 are so numerous that one is almost sure to meet with one of them at the distance of every ten or twenty paces4 ,the great ant-bear digs deep holes into their sides1 where afterwards small owls build their nests4 ,similar termite structures1 of a dark-brown colour1 and a round form1 are attached to the thick branches of the trees1 and you will scarcely meet with a single specimen of the tall candelabra-formed cactuses 7,cerei71 so common on those high grass-plains1 that is not loaded with their weight4 ,in spite of their working in the dark1 in spite of their subterranean tunnels1 their strongholds1 and the fecundity of their queens1 the termites1 even when their swarms do not expose themselves to the dangers already mentioned1 are subject to the attacks of innumerable foes--ant-eaters1 birds1 and a whole host of insects--that do man no little service by keeping them within bounds4 ,one of their most ferocious enemies is a species of black ant1 which1 on the principle of setting one thief to catch another1 is used by the negroes of ,mauritius for their destruction4 ,when they perceive that the covered ways of the termites are approaching a building1 they drop a train of syrup as far as the nearest encampment of the hostile army4 ,some of the black ants1 attracted by the smell and taste of their favourite food1 follow its traces and soon find out the termite habitations4 ,immediately part of them return to announce the welcome intelligence1 and after a few hours a black army1 in endless columns1 is seen to advance against the white-ant stronghold4 ,with irresistible fury 7for the poor termites are no match for their poisonous sting and mighty mandibles7 they rush into the galleries1 and only retreat after the extirpation of the colony4 ,mr4 ,baxter 7#8,eight ,years' ,wanderings in ,ceylon'7 once saw an army of black ants returning from one of these expeditions4 ,each little warrior bore a slaughtered termite in his mandibles1 rejoicing no doubt in the prospect of a quiet dinner-party at home4 ,even man is a great consumer of termites1 and they are esteemed a delicacy by the natives1 both in the old and in the new world4 ,in some parts of the ,east ,indies the people have an ingenious way of emptying a termite-hill1 by making two holes in it1 one to the windward and the other to the leeward1 placing at the latter opening a pot rubbed with an aromatic herb to receive the insects1 when driven out of their nest by the smoke of a fire made at the former breach4 ,in ,south ,africa the general way of catching them is to dig into the ant-hill1 and when the builders come forth to repair the damage1 to brush them off quickly into the vessel1 as the ant-eater does into his mouth4 ,they are then parched in iron pots over a gentle fire1 stirring them about as is done in roasting coffee1 and eaten by handfuls1 without sauce or any other addition1 as we do comfits4 ,according to ,smeathman1 they resemble in taste sugared cream1 or sweet almond paste1 and are1 at the same time1 so nutritious that the ,hindoos use them as a restorative for debilitated patients4 ,while most termites live and work entirely under covered galleries1 the marching white ant 7,t4 viarum7 exposes itself to the day4 ,smeathman1 on one occasion1 while passing through a dense forest1 suddenly heard a loud hiss like that of a serpent2 another followed1 and struck him with alarm2 but a moment's reflection led him to conclude that these sounds proceeded from white ants1 although he could not see any of their huts around4 ,on following this noise1 however1 he was struck with surprise and pleasure at perceiving an army of these creatures emerging from a hole in the ground1 and marching with the utmost swiftness4 ,having proceeded about a yard1 this immense host divided into two columns1 chiefly composed of labourers1 about fifteen abreast1 following each other in close order1 and going straight forward4 ,here and there was seen a soldier1 carrying his vast head with apparent difficulty1 at a distance of a foot or two from the columns2 many other soldiers were to be seen1 standing still or passing about1 as if upon the look-out lest some enemy should suddenly surprise their unwarlike comrades4 ,but the most extraordinary and amusing part of the scene was exhibited by some other soldiers1 who having mounted some plants1 ten or fifteen inches from the ground1 hung over the army marching below1 and by striking their jaws upon the leaves at certain intervals1 produced the noise above mentioned2 to this signal the whole army immediately returned a hiss and increased their pace4 ,the soldiers at these signal-stations sat quite still during these intervals of silence1 except now and then making a slight turn of the head1 and seemed as solicitous to keep their posts as regular sentinels4 ,after marching separately for twelve or fifteen paces1 the two columns of this army again united1 and then descended into the earth by two or three holes4 ,mr4 ,smeathman watched them for more than an hour1 without perceiving their numbers to increase or diminish4 ,both the labourers and soldiers of this species are furnished with eyes4 ,one of the many unsolved mysteries of termite life is whence they derive the large supplies of moisture with which they not only temper the clay for the construction of their long covered ways above ground1 but keep their passages uniformly damp and cool below the surface4 ,yet their habits in this particular are unvarying1 in the seasons of drought as well as after rain2 in the most arid positions2 in situations inaccessible to drainage from above1 and cut off by rocks and impervious strata from springs from below4 ,struck with this wonderful phenomenon1 ,dr4 ,livingstone raises the question whether the termites may not possess the power of combining the oxygen or hydrogen of their vegetable food by vital force1 so as to form water2 and indeed it is highly probable that they are endowed with some such faculty1 which1 however wonderful1 would still be far less astonishing than the miracles of their architectural instinct4 ,after having described the miseries which the tropical insects inflict upon man--how they suck his blood1 destroy his rest1 exterminate his cattle1 devour the fruits of his fields and orchards1 ransack his chests and wardrobes1 feast on his provisions1 and plague and worry him wherever they can--it is but justice to mention their services4 ,among the insects which are of direct use to us1 the silk-worm 7,bombyx mori7 is by far the most important4 ,originally a native of tropical or sub-tropical ,china1 where the art of making use of its filaments seems to have been discovered at a very early period1 it is now reared in countless numbers far and wide over the western world1 so as to form a most important feature in the industrial resources of ,europe4 ,thousands of skilful workmen are employed in spinning and weaving its lustrous threads1 and thousands upon thousands1 enjoying the fruits of their labours1 now clothe themselves1 at a moderate price1 in silken tissues which but a few centuries back were the exclusive luxury of the richest and noblest of the land4 ,besides the silk-worm1 we find many other moths in the tropical zone whose cocoons might advantageously be spun1 and only require to be better known to become considerable articles of commerce4 ,the tusseh-worm 7,bombyx mylitta7 of ,hindostan1 which lives upon the leaves of the ,rhamnus jujuba furnishes a dark-coloured1 coarse1 but durable silk2 while the ,arandi 7,b4 cynthia71 which feeds upon the foliage of the castor-oil plant 7,ricinus communis71 spins remarkably soft threads1 which serve the ,hindoos to weave tissues of uncommon strength4 ,in ,america1 there are also many indigenous moths whose filaments might be rendered serviceable to man1 and which seem destined to great future importance1 when trade1 quitting her usual routine1 shall have learnt to pry more closely into the resources of ,nature4 ,while the ,cocci1 or plant bugs1 are in our country deservedly detested as a nuisance1 destroying the beauty of many of our garden plants by their blighting presence1 two tropical members of the family1 as if to make up for the misdeeds of their relations1 furnish us--the one with the most splendid of all scarlet dyes1 and the other with gumlac1 a substance of hardly inferior value4 ,the ,english gardener spares no trouble to protect his hot- and greenhouse plants from the invasion of the ,coccus hesperidum2 but the ,mexican haciendero purposely lays out his ,nopal plantations that they may be preyed upon by the ,coccus cacti1 and rejoices when he sees the leaves of his opuntias thickly strewn with this valuable parasite4 ,the female1 who from her form and habits might not unaptly be called the tortoise of the insect world1 is much larger than the winged male1 and of a dark-brown colour1 with two light spots on the back1 covered with a white powder4 ,she uses her little legs only during her first youth1 but soon she sucks herself fast1 and henceforward remains immovably attached to the spot she has chosen1 while her mate continues to lead a wandering life4 ,while thus fixed like an oyster1 she swells or grows to such a size that she looks more like a seed or berry than an insect2 and her legs1 antenn1 and proboscis1 concealed by the expanding body1 can hardly be distinguished by the naked eye4 ,great care is taken to kill the insects before the young escape from the eggs1 as they have then the greatest weight1 and are most impregnated with colouring matter4 ,they are detached by a blunt knife dipped in boiling water to kill them1 and then dried in the sun1 when they have the appearance of small1 dry1 shrivelled berries1 of a deep-brown purple or mulberry colour1 with a white matter between the wrinkles4 ,the collecting takes place three times a year in the plantations1 where the insect1 improved by human care1 is nearly twice as large as the wild coccus1 which in ,mexico is gathered six times in the same period4 ,although the collecting of the cochineal is exceedingly tedious--about #gj1jjj insects going to a single pound--yet1 considering the high price of the article1 its rearing would be very lucrative1 if both the insect and the plant it feeds upon were not liable to the ravages of many diseases1 and the attacks of numerous enemies4 ,illustration3 ,,cochineal4 ,the conquest of ,mexico by ,cortez first made the ,spaniards acquainted with cochineal4 ,they soon learnt to value it as one of the most important products of their new empire1 and in order to secure its monopoly1 prohibited1 under pain of death1 the exportation of the insect1 and of the equally indigenous ,nopal1 or ,cactus cochinellifer1 supposing it not to be able to live upon any other plant4 ,in the year #afgg1 however1 ,thierry de ,meronville1 a ,frenchman1 made an effort to deprive them of the exclusive possession of the treasure they guarded with such jealous care4 ,under a thousand dangers1 and by means of lavish bribery1 he succeeded in transporting some of the plants1 along with their costly parasite1 to the ,french colony of ,san ,domingo2 but1 unfortunately1 his perseverance did not lead to any favourable results1 and more than a century elapsed after this first ineffectual attempt before the rearing of cochineal extended beyond its original limits4 ,in the year #ahbg1 ,m4 ,berthelot1 director of the botanical garden at ,orotava1 was more fortunate in introducing it into the ,canary ,islands1 where it thrives so well upon the ,opuntia ,ficus indica1 that ,teneriffe rivals ,mexico in its production4 ,at present ,cochineal is not only raised in many other parts of the tropical world1 but even in ,spain1 near ,valencia and ,malaga4 ,the ,coccus which produces lac1 or gumlac1 is a native of ,india1 and thrives and multiplies best on several species of the fig-tree4 ,a cheap method having been discovered within the last few years of separating the colouring matter which it contains from the resinous part1 it has greatly increased in commercial importance4 ,in the tropical zone we find that not only many birds and several four-footed animals live chiefly1 or even exclusively1 on insects1 but that they are even consumed in large quantities1 or eaten as delicacies1 by man himself4 ,the nomade of the ,sahara and the ,south ,african bushman hail the appearance of locust swarms as a season of plenty and good living1 and ants' eggs eke out the meagre bill of fare of the wild ,indians on the banks of the ,orinoco4 ,several of the large ,african caterpillars are edible1 and considered as a great delicacy by the natives4 ,on the leaves of the ,mopan tree1 in the ,bushman country1 the small larv of a winged insect1 a species of ,psylla1 appear covered over with a sweet gummy substance1 which is collected by the people in great quantities1 and used as food4 ,another species in ,new ,holland1 found on the leaves of the ,eucalyptus1 emits a similar secretion1 which1 along with its insect originator1 is scraped off the leaves and eaten by the aborigines as a saccharine dainty4 ,the chirping ,cicad1 or frog-hoppers1 which ,aristotle mentions as delicious food1 are still in high repute among the ,american ,indians2 and the ,chinese1 who allow nothing edible to go to waste1 after unravelling the cocoon of the silkworm1 make a dish of the pup1 which the ,europeans reject with scorn4 ,the ,goliath beetles of the coast of ,guinea are roasted and eaten by the natives1 who doubtless1 like many other savages1 not knowing the value of that which they are eating1 often make a bonne bouche of what an entomologist would most eagerly desire to preserve4 ,several of the more brilliant tropical beetles are made use of as ornaments1 not only by the savage tribes1 but among nations which are able to command the costliest gems of the ,east4 ,the golden elytra of the ,sternocera chrysis and ,sternocera sternicornis serve to enrich the embroidery of the ,indian zenana1 while the joints of the legs are strung on silken threads1 and form bracelets of singular brilliancy4 ,the ladies in ,brazil wear necklaces composed of the azure green and golden wings of lustrous ,chrysomelid and ,curculionid1 particularly of the ,diamond beetle 7,entimus nobilis72 and in ,jamaica1 the elytra of the ,buprestis gigas are set in ear-rings1 whose gold-green brilliancy rivals the rare and costly ,chrysopras in beauty4 ,illustration3 ,,diamond ,,beetle4 ,illustration3 ,,buprestis ,,gigas4 ,illustration3 ,,malay ,,pirates4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,the ,,malayan ,,race4 ,physical ,conformation of the ,malays--,betel ,chewing--,their ,moral ,character--,limited ,intelligence of the ,malays--,their ,maritime ,tastes--,piracy--,gambling--,cock-fight ing--,running ,a-muck6-- ,fishing--,malayan ,superstitions--,the ,battas--,their ,cannibalism-- ,eating a ,man alive--,the ,begus--,arial ,huts--,funeral ,ceremonies-- ,the ,dyaks--,head-hunting--,the ,sumpitan--,large ,houses4 ,unlike the apathetic ,indian hunter1 whose wishes are bounded by the forest or the savannah1 where the chase provides him with a scanty subsistence1 or the good-humoured ,negro who1 fond of agriculture1 and attached to the soil on which he was born1 never thinks of wandering of his own free will to distant countries1 the roving race of the ,malays has scattered its colonies far and wide over the ,indian ,archipelago4 ,the colour of the various tribes of this remarkable people is a yellowish-brown1 and varies but little throughout the numerous islands extending from ,sumatra and the peninsula of ,malacca to the ,moluccas4 ,the hair is black1 coarse and straight1 the beard scanty4 ,the stature is below the average ,european size1 the breast well developed1 the limbs meagre4 ,the face is broad and somewhat flat1 with high cheek-bones1 a small nose1 a large mouth with broad lips1 and black eyes with angular orbits4 ,the children and young people of both sexes are often really handsome in face and graceful in figure1 but as they advance in age their features become hard1 and frequently present a repulsive appearance4 ,like most nations in a rude state of society1 they are in the habit of permanently disfiguring parts of the body under the idea of ornament4 ,considering blackness a becoming colour for the teeth--for dogs1 they say1 have them white--they file the enamel so that the bone may be tinged by the juice of the pungent betel1 which1 wrapped round the nut of the areca palm1 and mixed with lime1 they are in the habit of chewing from morning till night4 ,this combination1 besides discolouring the teeth1 has the disgusting property of dyeing the saliva of so deep a red that the lips and gums appear as if coloured with blood2 yet it is in universal use throughout the whole ,indian ,archipelago1 and1 as excuses are never failing to justify bad habits1 is said to have tonic effects and to promote digestion4 ,the ,malays are not a demonstrative people2 their behaviour towards strangers is marked by a reserve1 a distrust1 or even a timidity which inclines the observer to tax with exaggeration the wild and bloodthirsty character which is generally ascribed to their race4 ,the feelings of astonishment1 admiration1 and fear are never openly expressed1 and their slow and considerate speech shows how careful they are not to give offence4 ,to indulge in a joke is quite contrary to their natural disposition1 and they deeply feel1 and are ever ready to resent1 a breach of etiquette or a personal affront4 ,the higher classes are extremely polite1 and have all the quiet manners and dignity of the best educated ,europeans4 ,but this external polish is united with a reckless cruelty and contempt for human life which forms the dark side of their character4 ,hence it is not to be wondered at that different authors give us such totally contradictory accounts of them4 ,an old traveller1 ,nicolo ,conti1 who wrote in #adcj1 says that #8the inhabitants of ,java and ,sumatra surpass all other people in cruelty1' while ,drake praises their love of truth and justice4 ,mr4 ,crawfurd describes the ,javanese as a peaceable and industrious people1 but ,barbosa1 who visited ,malacca about the year #affj1 informs us that they are extremely cunning and great cheats2 that they seldom speak the truth1 and are ever ready for a villanous deed4 ,their intelligence seems to be incapable of any higher flight4 ,they comprehend nothing which goes beyond the simplest combination of ideas1 and have little taste and energy to obtain an increase of knowledge4 ,the civilisation they possess shows no traces of original growth1 but is entirely confined to those nations or states which have adopted the ,mahometan religion1 or in still earlier times received their culture from ,india4 ,it must1 however1 be remarked in their favour that the curse both of domestic tyranny and of a foreign yoke weighs heavily upon them1 and that the extension of ,european domination in the ,indian ,ocean has been as fatal to their race as it has been in ,america and ,africa to the ,red-skin and the ,negro4 #8,the first voyagers from the west1' says ,rajah ,brooke1 #8found the natives rich and powerful1 with strong established governments1 a flourishing literature1 and a thriving trade with all parts of the eastern world4 ,the rapacious ,european has reduced them to their present abject condition4 ,their governments have been broken up2 the old states decomposed by treachery1 by bribery1 and intrigue2 their possessions wrested from them under flimsy pretences1 their trade restricted1 their vices encouraged1 and their virtues repressed4' #8,among the ,malays of the present day1' says ,newbold1 #8we look in vain for that desire of knowledge which excited their ancestors to transplant the flowers of ,arabian literature among their own forests4 ,works of science are now no longer translated from the ,arabic1 and creations of the imagination have almost ceased to appear4 ,the few children educated among them learn nothing but to mumble in an unknown tongue a few passages from the ,koran1 entirely neglecting arithmetic and the acquirement of any useful manual art or employment4 ,painting1 sculpture1 architecture1 mechanics1 geography1 are totally unknown to the ,malays4 ,their literature declined with the fall of their empire in the ,archipelago1 nor could it well be expected to flourish under the ,upas trees of ,portuguese intolerance1 ,dutch oppression1 and ,british apathy4' ,essentially maritime in their tastes1 the ,malays have been named the ,phnicians of the ,east2 but not satisfied with the peaceful pursuits of the fisherman or the merchant1 many of them infest the ,indian ,ocean as merciless pirates4 ,encouraged by the weakness and distraction of the old-established ,malay governments1 the facilities offered by natural situation1 and the total absence of all restraint from ,european nations1 except now and then the destruction of some mud fort or bamboo-village1 which is soon rebuilt1 the ,illanuns1 the ,balagnini1 and other sea-robbing tribes1 issue forth like beasts of prey1 enslave or murder the inhabitants on the coasts or at the entrance of rivers1 and attack ill-armed or stranded ,european vessels4 ,the ,illanuns of ,mindanao are particularly noted for their daring and long-protracted piratical excursions1 which they undertake in large junks with sails1 netting1 and heavy guns4 ,on one occasion the #8,rajah ,brooke' met eighteen ,illanun boats on neutral ground1 and learned from their two chiefs that they had been two years absent from home2 and from the ,papuan slaves on board it was evident that their cruise had extended from the most eastern islands of the ,archipelago to the north-western coast of ,borneo4 ,the ,balagnini inhabit a cluster of small islands in the vicinity of ,sooloo1 where they probably find encouragement and a slave market4 ,they cruise in large prahus1 and to each of these a fleet boat or #8sampan' is attached1 which on occasion can carry from ten to fifteen men4 ,they seldom have large guns like the ,illanuns1 but1 in addition to their other arms1 brass pieces1 carrying from a one- to a three-pound ball4 ,they use long poles with barbed iron points1 with which1 during an engagement or flight1 they hook their prey4 ,by means of their sampans they are able to capture all small boats2 and it is a favourite device with them to disguise one or two men1 whilst the rest lie concealed in the bottom of the boat1 and thus to surprise prahus at sea1 and fishermen or others at the mouths of rivers4 ,their cruising grounds are very extensive2 they frequently make the circuit of ,borneo2 ,gillolo and the ,moluccas lie within their range1 and it is probable that ,papua is occasionally visited by them4 ,the ,borneans1 from being so harassed by these freebooters1 who yearly take a considerable number of this unwarlike people into slavery1 call the easterly monsoon #8the pirate wind4' ,their own native governments are probably without exception participators in or victims to piracy1 and in many cases both--purchasing from one set of pirates and enslaved and plundered by another2 and whilst their dependencies are abandoned1 the unprotected trade goes to ruin4 ,thus piracy rests like a blighting curse upon lands pre-eminently blessed by ,nature1 and proves as ruinous to the welfare of the ,eastern ,archipelago as the black stain of the ,african slave trade to that of the ,negroes4 ,the ,malays are inveterate gamblers1 and1 perhaps for want of some nobler object on which to expend their mental energies1 carry the mania of betting at cock-fights to a ruinous excess4 ,passionately addicted to this favourite amusement1 they will lose all their property on a favourite bird1 and having lost that1 stake their families1 and after the loss of wife and children1 their own personal liberty1 being prepared to serve as slaves in case of losing4 ,whole poems are devoted to enthusiastic descriptions of cock-fighting1 which is regulated by universally acknowledged laws as minute as those of the ,hoyleian ,code4 ,the birds are not trimmed as in ,england1 but fight in full feather1 armed with straight or curved artificial spurs1 sharp as razors and about two and a half inches long4 ,large gashes are inflicted by these murderous instruments1 and it rarely happens that both cocks survive the battle4 ,one spur only is used1 and is generally fastened near the natural spur on the inside of the left leg4 ,cocks of the same colour are seldom matched4 ,the weight is adjusted by the setters-to1 passing them to and from each other's hands as they sit facing each other in the cock-pit4 ,should there be any difference1 it is brought down to an equality by the spur being fixed so many scales higher on the leg of the heavier cock1 or as deemed fair by both parties4 ,in adjusting these preliminaries the professional skill of the setters-to is called into action1 and much time is taken up in grave deliberation1 which often terminates in wrangling4 ,the birds1 after various methods of irritating them have been practised1 are then set to4 ,during the continuance of the battle the excitement and interest taken by the gambling spectators in the barbarous exhibition is vividly depicted in their animated looks and gestures4 ,the ,malays who are not slaves go always armed2 they would think themselves disgraced if they went abroad without their crees or poniards1 which1 to render them more formidable1 are often steeped in poison4 ,these weapons1 which thus afford them the ready means for avenging an affront1 are probably the chief cause which renders their outward deportment to each other remarkably punctilious and courteous1 but they sometimes become highly dangerous in the hands of a people whose nervous temperament is liable to sudden explosions of frantic rage4 ,like the old ,berserks of the heroic ages of ,scandinavia1 a ,malay is capable of so far working himself into fury1 of so far yielding to some spontaneous impulse1 or of so far exciting himself by stimulants1 as to become totally regardless of what danger he exposes himself to4 ,in this state1 which is called #8running a-muck1' he rushes forth as an infuriated animal and attacks all who fall in his way1 until he is either struck down like a wild beast1 or having expended his morbid rage he falls down exhausted4 ,the ,malays are bad agriculturists and artisans but excellent sportsmen4 ,from the small birds which they entangle in their snares to the large animals of the forest1 which they shoot or entrap in pit-falls1 or destroy by spring-guns1 nothing worth catching escapes their attention4 ,such is their delight in fishing1 that even women and children may be seen in numbers during the rains angling in the swampy rice grounds4 ,spearing excursions against the swordfish are undertaken during the dark of the moon by the light of torches4 ,a good eye1 a steady hand are necessary1 and a perfect knowledge of the places where the fish are to be found4 ,each canoe carries a steersman1 a man with a long pole to propel the vessel1 and a spearsman1 who1 armed with a long slender javelin having a head composed of the sharpened spikes of the ,nibong palm1 and holding in his left hand a large blazing torch1 takes his station at the stern of the canoe4 ,they thus glide slowly and noiselessly over the still surface of the clear water1 till the rays of the flambeau either attract the prey to the surface or discover it lying seemingly asleep at a little depth below4 ,the sudden splash of the swiftly descending spear is heard1 and the fish is the next moment seen glittering in the air1 either transfixed by the spikes or caught in the interstices as the weapon is withdrawn4 ,as a natural consequence of their extreme ignorance1 the ,malays1 even the best educated1 are inordinately superstitious1 and people the invisible world with a host of malignant spirits4 ,the ,pamburk roams the forest1 like the wild huntsman of the ,haruz1 with demon dogs1 and the storm fiend ,hantu ,ribut howls in the blast and revels in the whirlwind4 ,tigers are considered in many instances to be the receptacles of the souls of departed human beings1 and they believe that some men have the faculty of transforming themselves at pleasure into tigers1 and that others enjoy the privilege of invulnerability4 ,they rely firmly on the efficacy of charms1 spells1 amulets1 talismans1 lucky and unlucky moments1 magic1 and judicial astrology4 ,to pull down or repair a seriously damaged house is considered unlucky1 so that whenever a ,malay has occasion to build a new house he leaves the old one standing4 ,while the coasts of ,borneo and ,sumatra are occupied by the more civilised ,mahometan ,malays1 the interior of these vast islands is inhabited by nations1 probably of the same race1 who1 secluded from the rest of the world1 exhibit in their customs a strange and almost incredible mixture of good and evil1 of humane tendencies and diabolical barbarism4 ,thus the ,battas1 who next to the ,malays are the most numerous people of ,sumatra1 have the same polite and ceremonious manner1 they possess an ancient code of law1 they write books1 and are fond of music1 they build commodious houses1 which they ornament with tasteful carvings1 they wear handsome tissues and know the art of smelting and amalgamating metals2 they are extremely good-natured1 and yet they not only eat human flesh1 but eat it under circumstances of unexampled atrocity4 ,according to their own traditions1 their ancestors knew nothing of this horrid practice1 which was first instigated by the demon of war about the year #afcj1 and from being originally an act of vengeance or fury1 became at length one of their institutions in times of peace1 and is now legally sanctioned as a punishment for certain heavy crimes4 ,in some cases the delinquent is first killed and then eaten1 in others he is eaten alive1 an aggravated punishment which1 however1 is only reserved for traitors1 spies1 and enemies seized arms in hand4 ,before the day appointed for execution1 messengers are sent to all friends and allies1 and preparations made as for a great festival4 ,the victim1 tied to a stake1 awaits his horrible fate1 while the air resounds with music and the clamour of hundreds of spectators4 ,the rajah of the village steps forward1 draws his knife1 addresses the assembly1 relates the crimes which justify the sentence1 and says that now the moment is come for punishing the doomed wretch1 whom he describes as a hellish scoundrel1 as a ,satan in a human form4 ,at these words the actors in the shocking drama about to be performed feel1 as they say1 an invincible longing to swallow a piece of the villain's flesh1 as they then feel sure that he can do them no further harm1 and impatiently brandish their knives4 ,the rajah or the injured person1 such is his privilege1 now cuts off the first piece of flesh1 which he generally selects from the inner side of the forearm 7this being esteemed the most delicate morsel71 or from the cheek when sufficiently fat1 holds it up triumphantly1 and tastes some of the flowing blood1 his eyes at the same time sparkling with delight4 ,he then hurries to one of the fires that have been kindled close by to broil his piece of meat before swallowing it1 while the whole troop falls upon the miserable wretch1 who1 hacked to pieces1 and bleeding from a hundred wounds1 in a few moments expires4 ,the avidity with which they devour his quivering flesh1 untouched by his shrieks and supplications1 is the more to be wondered at as in other cases they show themselves susceptible of a tender pity for the sufferings of others4 ,as if scenes like these were not sufficiently horrible1 it has even been affirmed that the ,battas eat their aged parents alive1 but we hardly need the authority of ,dr4 ,junghuhn1 who1 during a residence of two years among the ,battas1 only heard of three cases of public cannibalism1 that this report has no foundation in truth4 ,so much1 however1 is certain1 that this singular people have a great liking for human flesh1 and in all cases where a simple execution takes place seize the opportunity of quietly carrying home some favourite joint4 ,the ,battas have no priests1 no temples1 no idols4#bc ,they believe in a number of evil spirits1 or ,begus1 who have their seat in the various diseases of the human body1 and in a few good spirits1 or ,sumongot1 the immortal souls of great forefathers1 who reside on the high mountain tops4 ,the souls only of such persons as die of a violent death ascend into the invisible land of immortality1 and this may be some consolation to the poor wretches whom they horribly cut up at their cannibal feasts1 while all persons dying of illness are considered as having fallen into the power of the ,begus1 and as totally annihilated4 ,they have no idea of a ,supreme ,being1 and their only religious ceremony1 if such it may be called1 is that on festival occasions they scatter rice to the four quarters of the wind1 in order to propitiate the ,begus4 ,in consequence of the general state of anarchy in which their unfortunate country is plunged1 they live in small fortified villages1 surrounded by palisades and deep ditches so as to leave but two gates for a passage4 ,as in the feudal times1 eminences strong by nature are frequently selected for the sites of these settlements1 where the ,batta1 though removed from the more fruitful plains1 cultivates his small field of mountain rice in greater security4 ,in some districts1 where hostile invasions are less to be feared1 he possesses1 besides his village residence1 a detached hut in a forest clearance near some river navigable by canoes4 ,to be out of the reach of wild animals or inundations1 these huts are frequently built on trees whose central branches have been lopped off1 while the outer ones have been left standing1 so as to afford a grateful shade to the little arial dwelling4 ,from this eminence1 which the proprietor reaches by a ladder from twenty-five to thirty feet high1 he looks down complacently upon his paddy field below1 and as he is no sportsman1 the undisturbed denizens of the forest afford him many a pastime4 ,monkeys gambol without fear on the trees around him2 long-tailed squirrels leap from bough to bough2 elephants bathe in the river2 lemurs and fox-bats fly about in the evening2 stags feed in the thicket beneath2 and the only enemy he seeks to destroy is the ,leguan lizard1 who1 intent on plundering his hen-roost1 lies concealed among the reeds on the river's bank4 ,the ,battas1 having frequently suffered by foreign invasions1 suspect all strangers of evil intentions1 and desire to be as little as possible disturbed by their visits4 ,for this reason1 as well as for additional security against hostile incursions1 they have no roads nor bridges1 and as the villages are generally many miles apart and separated from each other by jungles or woods1 this total want of the means of communication presents an almost insuperable obstacle to the traveller4 ,their distrust of strangers extends even to the members of their own nation1 so that ,battas of one province cannot enter another without running the risk of being seized as spies and eaten alive4 ,while two of the great events of human life--birth and marriage-- pass almost unnoticed among the ,battas1 the third and last act of this #8strange eventful history' gives rise to ceremonies which one would hardly expect to meet with among a nation of cannibals4 ,when the rajah of a large village dies1 his body is kept so long in the house1 until the rice which is sown on the day of his death by his son or his brother comes to maturity4 ,when the rice is about to ripen1 a buffalo is killed1 and its bones sent round to all friends and relations among the rajahs of the neighbourhood as an invitation to the burial1 which is to take place on the tenth day after the reception of these strange missives4 ,every rajah who accepts the invitation is obliged to bring with him a buffalo4 ,the coffin is placed on a bier before the house1 and on the arrival of the guests their buffaloes are tied to strong poles close by4 ,the wives1 sons1 and other near relations of the deceased1 now walk seven times with loud lamentations round the buffaloes1 after which the oldest or first wife breaks a pot of boiled rice grown from the seed sown on the dying day on the forehead of one of the buffaloes4 ,this is the signal for a frantic explosion of grief among the mourning women1 whose piercing cries are accompanied by the incessant beating of drums and brass kettles in the house4 ,after this lugubrious scene1 which soon terminates with the real or feigned exhaustion of the actors1 each of the rajahs now in his turn walks seven times round the buffalo which he brought with him1 and kills it with a stroke of his lance4 ,the coffin is then removed to the burial-place1 and placed on the side of the open grave1 amid the profound silence of the assembly4 ,its lid is opened1 and the eldest son of the deceased1 stepping forward1 looks at the corpse1 the face of which is turned towards the sun1 and1 raising his hand to the sky1 says1 #8,now1 father1 thou seest for the last time the sun1 which thou wilt never see again4' ,after this short but affecting allocution the lid is closed and the coffin lowered into the grave1 upon which the company returns to the village1 where meantime the slaughtered buffaloes have been made ready for the funeral feast4 ,their horns1 skulls1 and jaw-bones1 fastened to stakes1 are placed as ornaments round the grave1 which has no other monument or inscription4 ,on each of the two following days some food is carried to it1 a welcome treat for the dogs1 and then it is consigned to the neglect which is the ultimate fate of all4 ,the mystical sowing of rice1 and the touching words spoken at the grave1 prove that the ,battas1 though without any fixed religious worship1 have still religious feelings1 and may serve to confirm the truth of the remark1 that there is no nation1 however barbarous1 which does not show at least some traces of a belief in the ,divinity1 and reveal1 however obscurely1 that man has been born for something higher than a mere animal existence4 ,among the ,dyaks1 a name indiscriminately applied to all the wild people on the island of ,borneo1 we find no less revolting customs than among the ,battas of ,sumatra4 ,they are hunters of their kind1 not merely for the sake of an unnatural feast1 but simply for the sake of collecting heads4 ,skulls are the commonest ornaments of a ,dyak house1 and the possession of them is the best token of manly courage4 ,a ,dyak youth is despised by all the maidens of his village as long as he has not cut off the head of an enemy or waylaid a stranger2 returning from a successful chase with one of these ghastly trophies1 he is welcomed as a hero4 ,the head is stuck upon a pole1 and old and young dance around it1 singing and beating gongs4 ,murder of the most revolting atrocity1 which anywhere else would make its perpetrator be considered the enemy of his kind1 is thus by a horrible perversity one of the elements of courtship4 ,the same atrocious custom is found among the ,harafuras of ,celebes1 the ,nias ,islanders1 and some other ,malay nations of the ,indian ,archipelago4 ,when the ,harafuras go to war1 they first steal some heads1 boil them1 and drink the broth to render themselves invulnerable4 ,the ,minkokas of ,celebes limit the custom of taking heads to funeral or festive occasions1 more especially on the death of their rajah or chief4 ,when this occurs they sally forth1 with a white band across their forehead to notify their object1 and destroy alike their enemies and strangers4 ,from twenty to forty heads1 according to the rank of the deceased rajah1 being procured1 buffaloes are killed1 rice boiled1 and a solemn funeral feast is held1 and1 whatever time may elapse1 the body is not previously buried4 ,the heads1 on being cleaned1 are hung up in the houses of the three principal persons of the tribe1 and regarded with great veneration and respect4 ,the national weapon of the ,dyaks1 though not in use among all their tribes1 is the ,sumpitan1 a blow-pipe about five feet long1 with an arrow made of wood1 thin1 light1 sharp-pointed1 and dipped in the poison of the upas tree4 ,as this is fugacious1 the points are generally dipped afresh when wanted4 ,for about twenty yards the aim is so true that no two arrows shot at the same mark will be above an inch or two apart4 ,on a calm day the utmost range may be a hundred yards4 ,though impregnated with a poison less deadly than the ,wourali of the ,american ,indians1 yet the shafts of the sumpitan are formidable weapons from the frequency with which they can be discharged1 and the skill of those who use them4 ,the arrows are contained in a bamboo case1 hung at the side1 and at the bottom of this quiver is the poison of the upas4 ,when they face an enemy the box at the side is open1 and1 whether advancing or retreating1 they fire the poisoned missiles with great precision4 ,the style of building of the ,dyaks is very peculiar2 most of their villages consisting of a single house1 in which from fifteen to twenty families live together1 in separate compartments4 ,the floor of these long buildings1 which are thatched with palm leaves1 rests on piles about six or ten feet from the ground1 and the simple furniture consists of some mats1 baskets1 and a few knives1 pots1 a very primitive loom1 and some dried heads by way of ornament4 ,though habitual assassins from ignorance and superstitious motives1 the ,dyaks are said to be of a mild1 good-natured1 and by no means bloodthirsty character4 ,they are hospitable when well used1 grateful for kindness1 industrious and honest1 and so truthful that the word of one of them might safely be taken before the oath of half-a-dozen civilised ,malays4 ,the celebrated traveller1 ,mrs4 ,ida ,pfeiffer1 who had the courage to wander among the ,dyaks1 and the good fortune to return with her head on her shoulders1 speaks highly of their patriarchal life1 the love they have for their children1 and the respectful conduct of the children towards their parents4 ,as to their personal appearance1 she affirms that1 though some authors describe them as fine men1 they are only a little less ugly than the ,malays4 ,illustration3 ,,coral ,,island4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,tropical ,,ocean4 ,wanderings of an ,iceberg--,the ,tropical ,ocean--,the ,cachalot-- ,the ,frigate ,bird--,the ,tropic ,bird--,the ,esculent ,swallow--,the ,flying-fish--,the ,bonito--,the ,white ,shark--,tropical ,fishes-- ,crustaceans--,land ,crabs--,molluscs--,jelly ,fish--,coral ,islands4 ,day after day the glacier of the north protrudes its mass farther and farther into the sea1 until finally1 rent by the tides1 and with a crash louder than that of the avalanche1 the iceberg rolls into the abyss4 ,the frost-bound waters1 that have languished so many years in their ,greenland prison1 are now drifting to the south1 on their way to the tropical ocean2 but the sun must rise and set for many a day before they bid adieu to the fogs of the north4 ,see there yon dismal ice-blocked shore1 with the jagged mountains in the background1 their snowy peaks rising high into the sky4 ,screeching sea-birds--fulmars1 gulls1 guillemots1 auks--mix their hoarse voices with the melancholy tones of the breakers and the winds1 and between them all resounds1 from time to time1 the bellowing of the walrus or the roar of the polar bear4 ,the weak rays of the sun1 just dipping over the horizon1 have called forth these symptoms of life2 but as soon as the great luminary disappears1 animal creation becomes mute1 and the voices of the air and ocean are again the only sounds which break the silence of the arctic night4 ,the crystal mass floats along1 buried in deep darkness2 but soon a new and wondrous sight is seen1 for the flaming swords of the northern light flit through the heavens1 casting a magic gleam1 here on the desert shore1 there on the dark bosom of the sea4 ,advancing farther and farther to the south1 the iceberg loses one after another the witnesses of its first migrations1 and wasting more and more1 at length entirely merges in the tepid ,gulf ,stream4 ,the enthralled waters are now all liberated1 but many on their western passage are again diverted to the north1 and the others reach1 only after a long circuit1 the mighty equatorial stream1 which carries them along1 through the torrid ocean1 from one hemisphere to the other4 ,illustration3 ,,sperm ,,whale4 ,the animal life they meet with in these sunny regions is very different from that which witnessed their passage through the higher latitudes4 ,the large whalebone whale1 the rorqual and narwhal of the north1 have disappeared1 but pods of the mighty sperm whale rapidly traverse the equatorial seas4 ,the birds also exhibit new types of being4 ,the royal albatross avoids the torrid zone1 but the high-soaring frigate-bird hovers over the waters1 where it is seen darting upon the flying-fish1 and1 like the skua gull of the north1 attacking the weaker sea-birds in order to make them disgorge their prey4 ,illustration3 ,,frigate ,,bird4 #8,he is almost always a constant attendant upon our fishermen1' says ,dr4 ,chamberlain1#bd #8when pursuing their vocation on the sand-banks in ,kingston ,harbour1 or near the ,palisados4 ,over their heads it takes its arial stand1 and watches their motions with a patience and a perseverance the most exemplary4 ,it is upon these occasions that the pelicans1 the gulls1 and other sea-birds become its associates and companions4 ,these are also found watching with equal eagerness and anxiety the issue of the fishermen's progress1 attracted to the spot by the sea of living objects immediately beneath them4 ,and then it is1 when these men are making their last haul1 and the finny tribe are fluttering and panting for life1 that this voracious bird exhibits his fierce propensities4 ,his hungry companions have scarcely secured their prey by the side of the fishermen's canoes1 when1 with the lightning's dart1 they are pounced upon with such violence that1 to escape his rapacious assaults they readily1 in turn1 yield their hard-earned booty to this formidable opponent4 ,the lightness of its trunk1 the short torso and vast spread of wing1 together with its long slender and forked tail1 all conspire to give it a superiority over its tribe1 not only in length and rapidity of flight1 but also in the power of maintaining itself1 on outspread pinions1 in the regions of its arial habitations amidst the clouds2 where1 at times1 so lofty are its soarings1 that its figure becomes almost invisible to the spectator in this nether world4' ,the beautiful tropic birds1 whose name implies the limit of their abode--for they are seldom seen but a few degrees south or north of either tropic--hover at such a distance from the nearest land that it is still an enigma where they pass the night--whether they sleep upon the waters1 or whether their extraordinary length of wing bears them to some isolated rock4 ,nothing can be more graceful than their flight4 ,they glide along1 most frequently without any motion of their outstretched pinions1 but at times this smooth progression is interrupted by sudden jerks4 ,when they see a ship1 they never fail to sail round it1 and the mariner bound to the equatorial regions hails them as the harbingers of the tropics4 ,the two long straight narrow feathers of which their tail consists1 are employed by the natives of the greater part of the ,south ,sea ,islands as ornaments of dress1 and serve to distinguish the chieftains from the multitude4 ,the esculent swallow 7,colocalia esculenta7--whose edible nest1 formed by a secretion which hardens in the air1 is one of the greatest dainties of the ,chinese epicure--may almost be considered as a sea-bird1 as it chiefly inhabits marine caves in various islands of the ,indian ,archipelago1 and exclusively seeks its food in the teeming waters4 ,illustration3 ,,esculent ,,swallows' ,,nests4 ,the steep sea-walls along the south coast of ,java are clothed to the very brink with luxuriant woods1 and screw-pines strike everywhere their roots into their sides or look down from the margin of the rock upon the sea below4 ,the surf of ages has worn deep caves into the chalk cliffs1 and here the swallow builds her nest4 ,when the sea is most agitated1 whole swarms are seen flying about1 and purposely seeking the thickest wave-foam1 where no doubt they find their food4 ,from a projecting cape1 or looking down upon the play of waters1 may be seen the mouth of the cave of ,gua ,rongkop1 sometimes completely hidden under the waves1 and then again opening its black recesses1 into which the swallows vanish1 or from which they dart forth with the rapidity of lightning4 ,while at some distance from the coast the blue ocean sleeps in peace1 it never ceases to fret and foam against the foot of these mural rocks1 where the most beautiful rainbows glisten in the rising vapour4 ,who can explain the instinct which prompts the birds to glue their nests to the high dark vaults of those apparently inaccessible caverns8 ,did they expect to find them a safe retreat from the persecutions of man8 ,then surely their hopes were vain1 for where is the refuge to which his insatiable cupidity cannot find the way8 ,at the cavern of ,gua ,gede the brink of the coast lies eighty feet above the level of the sea at ebb-tide4 ,the wall first bends inwards1 and then at a height of twenty-five feet from the sea throws out a projecting ledge1 which is of great use to the nest-gatherers1 serving as a support for a rattan ladder let down from the cliff4 ,the roof of the cavern's mouth lies only ten feet above the sea1 which even at ebb-tide completely covers the floor of the cave1 while at flood-tide the opening of the vast grotto is entirely closed by every wave that rolls against it4 ,to penetrate into the interior is thus only possible at low water1 and during very tranquil weather1 and even then it could not be done if the roof were not perforated and jagged in every direction4 ,the boldest and strongest of the nest-gatherers wedges himself firmly in the hollows1 or clings to the projecting stones while he fastens rattan ropes to them1 which then hang four or five feet from the roof4 ,to the lower end of these ropes long rattan cables are attached1 so that the whole forms a kind of suspension bridge1 throughout the entire length of the cavern1 alternately rising and falling with its inequalities4 ,the cave is #ajj feet broad and #aej feet long1 as far as its deepest recesses4 ,if we justly admire the intrepidity of the ,st4 ,kildans1 who1 let down by a rope from the high level of their rocky birthplace1 remain suspended over a boisterous sea1 we needs must also pay a tribute of praise to the boldness of the ,javanese nest-gatherers1 who1 before preparing their ladders for the plucking of the birds' nests1 first offer solemn prayers to the goddess of the south coast1 and deposit gifts on the tomb where the first discoverer of the caves and their treasures is said to repose4 ,while traversing the tropical ocean1 the mariner often sees whole shoals of flying-fishes 7,exocoetus volitans1 ,pterois volitans7 dart out of the water to escape the jaws of the bonito and the coryphna4 ,but while avoiding the perils of the deep1 new dangers await them in the air2 for1 before they can drop into the sea1 the frigate-bird frequently pounces upon them1 and draws them head-foremost into his maw4 ,the bonito and coryphna in their turn are often transpierced by the lance of the sword-fish1 who1 like the saw-snouted pristis1 is said to engage even the sperm whale1 and to put this huge leviathan to flight4 ,but of all the monsters of the tropical seas1 there is none more dreaded by man than the white shark4 ,illustration3 ,,sun ,,fish4 ,illustration3 ,,sword ,,tail4 ,woe to the sailor that falls overboard while one of these tyrants of the ocean is prowling about the ship2 but woe also to the shark who1 caught by a baited hook1 is drawn on board1 for a slow and cruel death is sure to be his lot4 ,mutilated and hacked to pieces1 his torments are protracted by his uncommon tenacity of life4 ,such1 besides herds of playful dolphins1 are the members of the finny creation most commonly met with on the high seas1 but in general the waters at a greater distance from the land are poor in fishes4 ,the tropical fishes chiefly abound near the coasts1 in the sheltered lagoons1 and in the channels which wind through numberless reefs or islands4 ,as the colibris dart from flower to flower in the ,brazilian woods1 thus the gorgeous balistin and glyphodons sport about the submerged coral-gardens1 and enhance the brilliancy of their fairy bowers4 ,while these lustrous fishes belted with azure1 red1 and gold1 defy the imagination of the poet to describe their beauty1 others remind one by their deformity of the chimeras engendered by the diseased brain of a delirious patient4 ,here we see the hideous frog-fish creeping along like a toad upon his hand-like fin1 there the sun-fish swimming about like a vast head severed from its trunk4 ,cased like the armadillo in an inflexible coat of mail1 into which every movable part can be withdrawn1 the trunk-fish derides the attack of many an enemy2 and inflating its spiny body1 the diodon1 like the hedgehog of the land1 bids defiance to his foes4 ,on examining the crustacean world1 we find that it has established its head-quarters in the tropical zone4 ,there a multitude of wondrous types unknown to the colder regions of the globe attract the attention of the naturalist3 the transparent phyllosomas1 not thicker than the thinnest wafer1 and the strange sword-tails1 whose body is covered by a double shield1 and terminates in a long horny process1 used by the ,malays to point their arrows4 ,the crabs and lobsters of the tropical waters are not only more numerous than in our colder seas1 but they attain a far greater size than those of the temperate regions of the globe4 ,the decapod crustaceans 7cray-fish7 which inhabit our rivers and brooks1 are long-tailed like the lobster1 but in the torrid zone the river species all belong to the order of the short-tailed crabs1 the most perfect and highly developed of the class4 ,some species even entirely forsake the water and spend their days on shore1 not only on the beach1 but far inland on the hills4 ,when the season for spawning arrives1 large numbers of these land-crabs set out from their mountainous abodes1 marching in a direct line to the sea-shore1 for the purpose of depositing their eggs1 which are attached to the lower surface of the abdomen and are washed off by the surf4 ,this done1 they recommence their toilsome march towards their upland retreats1 setting out after nightfall and steadily advancing until the dawn warns them to seek concealment in the inequalities of the ground or among any kind of rubbish1 where they lie1 until the stars again invite them to pursue their course4 ,on their seaward journey1 which they prosecute so eagerly that they suffer no opposition to deter them from their purpose1 they are in full vigour and fine condition1 and this is the time when they are caught in great numbers for the table1 their flesh being held in high estimation2 but on returning from the coast they are exhausted and unfit for use4 ,illustration3 ,,land ,,crab4 ,wherever the ,west ,indian ,land ,crabs make their home1 their burrows are as thickly sown as those of a rabbit warren4 ,concealed during the greater part of the day in these subterranean abodes1 they come out at night to feed1 but are always ready to scuttle back at the least alarm4 ,should1 however1 their retreat be intercepted they show a bold front to the enemy1 seizing him with one of their long claws1 and then shaking off the limb at its junction with the body4 ,as the claw retains its tension for some little time after this voluntary separation1 the effect is the same as if the creature were still actively biting1 and while the enemy's attention is engaged with these troublesome pincers1 the crab takes the opportunity to conceal itself in some crevice4 ,as is the case with all crustaceans1 a new limb soon sprouts out and repairs the loss of the discarded member4 ,a singular species of land decapod1 called the ,fighting ,crab from its bellicose propensities1 possesses one large and one very little claw1 which gives it a very strange and ridiculous appearance1 particularly when1 running along at full speed1 it holds the large claw in the air1 and nods it continually1 as beckoning to its pursuer4 ,the molluscs are no less profusely scattered over the tropical seas and coasts than the higher organised crustaceans4 ,there we find those mighty cephalopods1 whose long fleshy processes1 as thick as a man's thigh1 are able1 it is said1 to seize the fisherman in his boat and drag him into the sea2 and there is the abode of the tridacna1 whose colossal valves1 measuring five feet across1 attain a weight of five hundred pounds1 and serve both as receptacles for holy water in ,catholic churches and to collect the rain in the ,south ,sea ,islands4 ,the rarest and most beautiful of shells1 the royal ,spondylus1 the ,carinaria vitrea1 the ,scalaria pretiosa1 the ,cypra aurora1 and a host of ,volutes1 ,harps1 ,marginelles1 ,cones1 c41 of the most exquisite colouring1 are all inhabitants of the warmer waters2 and the most costly gift of the sea1 the oriental pearl1 is the produce of a mollusc which is found scattered over many parts of the ,indian and ,pacific ,oceans4 ,on descending still lower in the scale of marine life1 we find the jelly-fish disporting in the tropical waves in hosts as brilliant as the skies4 ,some are formed like a mushroom1 others assume the shape of a belt or girdle2 others are globular1 while some are circular1 flat1 or bell-shaped2 and others again resemble a bunch of berries4 ,in colour1 perhaps the most delicate is the lovely ,velella1 with its pellucid crest1 its green transparent body and fringe of purple tentacles2 but it is surpassed in size and gorgeousness by the ,physalia1 or #8,portuguese man-of-war1' whose large air-sack1 with its splendid vertical comb1 shines in every shade of purple and azure4 ,the greatest marvels of the tropical ocean are1 however1 beyond comparison1 the wondrous buildings of the ,lithophytes1 or stone polyps1 the reefs and coral islands4 ,here we see them forming vast barriers which fringe the shores for hundreds and hundreds of miles2 there they rise in circular atolls over the blue waves1 like bridal rings dropped from the heavens upon the surface of the seas4 ,all is wonderful in these amazing constructions--their puny architects1 the lagoons they encircle1 the power with which they resist the most furious breakers1 the little world of plants drifted over the waters1 which ultimately covers them with a verdant crown1 and invites man to settle on these gardens of the ocean4 ,there the tall cocoa-palm rocks its feathered crest in the breeze1 affording both shade and fruit to the islander1 and there the sea-bird finds a resting-place after its wide flight over the deserts of the equatorial sea4 ,illustration3 ,,polynesian ,,fishermen4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,papuans ,,and ,,polynesians4 ,the ,papuans--,their ,physical and ,moral ,characteristics--,their ,artistic ,tastes--,their ,dwellings--,their ,primitive ,political ,institutions-- ,their ,weapons and ,mode of ,fighting--,the ,polynesians--,their ,manners and ,customs when first visited by ,europeans--,tattooing--,the ,tapa ,cloth--,their ,canoes--,swimming ,feats--,aristocratic ,forms of ,government--,the ,tabu--,religion--,superstitious ,observances--,human ,sacrifices--,infanticide--,low ,condition of the ,coral ,islanders4 ,two races of man1 widely differing from each other in character1 social condition1 and physical conformation--the ,papuans and the ,polynesians--are spread over the islands of the ,pacific and the archipelagoes of the ,coral ,sea4 ,the ,papuans who occupy the area comprising ,new ,guinea1 ,new ,ireland1 ,new ,britannia1 ,new ,caledonia1 the ,new ,hebrides1 the ,solomon ,group1 ,loyalty1 and many other islands of minor importance1 are in stature equal to if not surpassing the average ,european size4 ,their legs are long and thin1 and their hands and feet greater than those of the ,malays4 ,the face is somewhat elongated1 the forehead flat1 the brows very prominent1 the eyes sufficiently large and well formed1 not too deeply set1 nor with the overhanging brow of the ,australians2 the nose large1 slightly aquiline1 and broad at the base2 the mouth large with thick and pouting lips4 ,the colour of the skin is commonly of a deep black-brown or black1 sometimes approaching the coal-black of the genuine ,negro races4 ,the growth of the hair is very peculiar1 and at first sight might be confounded with the wool of the negro4 ,its distribution is most easily seen on the body and limbs1 when it may be observed to grow in small tufts or pencils1 separated one from the other1 and giving a blotchy or woolly aspect to the skin4 ,the hair of the head doubtless grows in the same way1 but here the tufts are close together1 and each forms a separate small curl1 very stiff1 and when suffered to grow long hangs down in a narrow pipe-like ringlet4 ,the fashion of dressing the hair varies in different localities1 but generally the greatest care is bestowed upon it4 ,the face of the ,papuans has upon the whole a more ,european expression than that of the ,malays1 and the prominent nose1 the strongly marked eyebrows1 and the character of the hair enable one at once to distinguish these two races from each other4 ,the difference in their moral characteristics is no less remarkable4 ,the ,papuan is impulsive and demonstrative in his language and actions4 ,his passions and emotions express themselves in screaming and laughing1 in howling and jumping4 ,the women and children take part in every conversation1 and show no fear at the sight of strangers and ,europeans4 ,the ,malay is timid1 cold1 quiet2 the ,papuan bold1 impetuous1 and noisy4 ,the former is serious1 and seldom laughs2 the latter is jovial1 and loves a joke3 the one hides his emotions1 the other shows them openly4 ,it is difficult to form an opinion of the intelligence of the ,papuans1 but ,mr4 ,wallace is inclined to place it on a somewhat higher level than that of the ,malays1 although the latter1 influenced for centuries by the immigration and intercourse with ,hindoos1 ,chinese1 and ,arabs1 have made some progress in civilisation1 while the former1 communicating but little with the rest of the world1 are still plunged in barbarism4 ,the ,papuan has much more vital energy1 which certainly would materially aid his intellectual development were he placed in more favourable circumstances4 ,he combines a remarkable taste and skill in the ornamenting of his furniture with an utter disregard of all order and convenience in his household arrangements4 ,he has no chair or bench to sit upon1 does not know the use of a brush1 and his dress1 such as it is1 consists of dirty bark or rags4 ,he never takes the trouble to clear the path which he daily treads1 of overhanging branches or prickly thorns4 ,in many parts his nourishment consists almost entirely of roots and vegetables2 fish and game being only occasional luxuries2 and in consequence both of his coarse food and his filthy habits1 he is very liable to various cutaneous diseases4 ,the children1 particularly1 have often a miserable look1 and are covered over their whole body with eruptions and sores4 ,if these people are not savages1 where are we to look for them8 ,and yet these same savages have a decided taste for the fine arts1 and employ their leisure hours in executing ornamental works1 the neatness and elegance of which would often do honour to our schools of design4 ,they cover the outside of their houses with rude but characteristic figures1 and their canoes1 and other implements and furniture are decorated with elaborate carvings in various patterns2 a custom very seldom met with among the ,malayan tribes4 ,but the most striking instance of ,papuan industry1 and the one which seems most at variance with their utter barbarism in almost every other respect1 is shown in the construction of the immense houses in ,new ,guinea which strike the stranger with astonishment4 ,they are upwards of #cjj feet long1 about #cj feet in width1 and #af or #ah feet high in the centre1 from which the roof slopes down on either hand to the floor2 their inside looks just like a great tunnel4 ,down each side are a row of cabins with walls of bamboo and neatly made doors4 ,inside these cabins are low frames covered with mats1 apparently bed-places1 and overhead are shelves and pegs for bows and arrows1 baskets1 stone axes1 and other utensils4 ,these immense structures rest on a number of posts1 like the ancient lacustrine habitations of ,switzerland1 so that their floor is raised from the muddy ground about six feet4 ,the roof1 formed of an arched framework of bamboo1 is covered with a perfectly waterproof thatch of sago-palm leaves4 ,the centre of the house for about a third of its width is kept quite clear1 forming a noble covered promenade1 though rather dark1 as the only light proceeds from the large doors at the end and the little side doors between the cabins4 ,most accounts describe the honesty of the ,papuans as superior to that of the ,polynesian race1 and they seem to be less eagerly addicted to pilfering2 they are1 however1 commonly much more hostile and ferocious1 sometimes waging open warfare1 sometimes having recourse to the grossest treachery4 ,travellers mention them honourably for the treatment of their women4 ,mr4 ,jukes never saw a woman beaten or abused among the ,torres ,straits ,islanders1 and in all the harder kinds of work the men appeared to take their fair share of labour4 ,their care and affection for their children seemed always great4 ,although wanting in the engaging liveliness and fascinating manners of some of the eastern ,polynesian nations1 they are of a cheerful disposition1 readily engaging in sports and amusements1 and their curiosity is easily excited by anything interesting or uncommon4 ,when bartering with ,europeans they show their good sense in preferring useful articles to mere ornaments4 ,the political institutions of the ,papuans are extremely primitive4 ,we do not hear of any division into ranks or of any hereditary chieftainship or authority among them4 ,they apparently live in small tribes1 hostile the one to the other4 ,they have never attained to any great skill in navigation4 ,their canoes are commonly small1 rudely fashioned1 and unfit to encounter the swell of the open sea4 ,their agriculture is very rude and they seem in no instance to cultivate rice or any other sort of grain4 ,no genuine ,papuan nation has been known to have invented or practised the art of making any kind of cloth4 ,their favourite weapons are the bow and arrow1 in the use of which they are very expert1 but they appear never to have acquired anything like discipline or skill in warfare1 although apparently more constantly engaged in it than the ,polynesians4 ,of their mode of fighting1 the following account of a skirmish witnessed by ,mr4 ,jukes gives us a good idea4 #8,the hostile parties approached each other at full speed to within about thirty or forty yards1 when they both halted1 sheltering themselves behind rocks and large stones2 and there was a pretty brisk interchange of arrows4 ,the sharp twanging or smacking of the bows1 the rattling of bundles of arrows and the hurtling of arrows through the air1 and their glancing from the rocks1 was heard above the shouts and cries of the combatants4 ,the fierce gestures1 quick and active movements1 and the animated attitudes of the black and naked warriors1 ornamented1 as many of them were1 with glittering pearl shells or red flowers and yellow leaves hanging from their hair1 and the crouching of the women1 known by their petticoats1 in the rear or skirts of the battle with fresh stores of ammunition1 formed for a short time an interesting and exciting spectacle4 ,after a minute or two's skirmishing they all rushed together1 hand to hand1 and formed a confused mob4 ,the shouting and noise was then redoubled1 and there was a short clatter of long poles1 sticks1 or canoe paddles1 which we could see waving above their heads1 and we thought some of them were using their arrows as spears or daggers4 ,still no execution seemed to be done1 as we saw none of them down1 and in a very short time the poles and paddles were all held erect1 the women closed up1 and the war of deeds seemed to end in one of words4 ,the fight being done1 both parties seemed very glad it was over4 ,several of the combatants were slightly scarred with arrow marks1 but in some cases had evidently had a very narrow escape4 ,it seemed as if they had seen the arrow coming and avoided it by twisting the body as the ,australians avoid spears4' ,as to the future prospects of the ,papuan race1 there can hardly be a doubt that as soon as they come within the range of ,european emigration or dominion1 their speedy extinction must be the result4 ,their very qualities will seal their doom1 for a warlike and energetic people will never quietly submit to the yoke of a foreign master1 and must as surely disappear before the white man as the wolf or the tiger4 ,with the single and remarkable exception of the ,feejee ,islanders1 who form a kind of intermediate race between the ,papuan and ,polynesian races1 all the archipelagoes and islands of the tropical ,pacific1 situated on the east and north of the above-mentioned groups1 are inhabited by nations distinguished from the ,papuan stock by a yellow1 olive-coloured1 or brown skin2 by smooth1 generally black1 hair2 by a finer proportioned body1 with well-rounded limbs and swelling muscles4 ,the nations belonging to this yellow or ,polynesian race have in general attained a much higher degree of civilisation than the black hordes of the western islands2 and though enormous distances intervene between them1 the inhabitants of the large groups of the ,sandwich1 ,society1 ,navigators1 and ,friendly ,islands1 are more similar to each other than the various nations crowded together in the comparatively narrow space of our continent4 ,their features are everywhere the same2 they speak dialects of the same language1 so nearly resembling each other that the people of ,tonga can freely converse with those of ,hawaii2 and when first visited by ,european navigators they showed a surprising similarity in their customs1 their religious observances1 and their political institutions1 as well as in the progress they had made in agriculture and the industrial arts4 ,not satisfied with the spontaneous bounty of ,nature1 they forced the willing soil to yield them a variety of productions4 ,the ,tahitians1 besides multiplying the bread-fruit tree and the cocoa palm1 chiefly cultivated the banana1 the sweet potato1 and the yam2 while the roots of the taro formed the principal nourishment of the ,sandwich ,islanders1 who by an admirable system of irrigation extended the plantations of this water-loving plant1 even high up the hills1 where it grew in artificial ponds4 ,these served likewise as basins for the reception of mullets1 which were taken when quite young out of the sea1 and placed in reservoirs into which some sweet water was made to flow4 ,they were then gradually accustomed to water less and less salt1 and ultimately1 after five or six weeks1 transferred to the submerged taro plantations1 where they grew to a large size1 and acquired a delicious flavour4 ,the food of the common people in all these islands consisted entirely of vegetables3 pork1 and the flesh of dogs1 which was particularly esteemed1 being exclusively reserved for the use of the great4 ,this taste seems strange1 but as the dogs destined for the table were fed wholly upon bread-fruit1 cocoa-nuts1 and other vegetables1 their flesh was but little inferior to ,english lamb1 and might well pass for a delicacy in a country where beef1 mutton1 and venison were unknown4 ,the general drink was water or the milk of the cocoa-nut1 but on festive occasions they prepared an intoxicating beverage called ,kava from the root of a species of pepper4 ,both men and women were dressed in ,tapa1 a kind of white cloth1 which was not woven1 but made like paper1 of the macerated fibres of the bark of the ,chinese mulberry and bread-fruit trees spread out and beaten together4 ,the lower classes wore but a scanty covering of this material1 while the nobles were amply attired in long and flowing garments1 stained with various colours4 ,when even the rude ,australian shows some desire to decorate his ugly person by sticking a bone through his nostrils1 or by bedaubing his filthy body with paint1 we cannot wonder at the taste for ornament displayed by the more polished ,south ,sea ,islanders4 ,elegant chaplets1 of gaily-coloured feathers1 adorned their raven hair1 and flowers in the ears gratified at once the eye by their lively hues1 and the smell by their delicious perfume4 ,the custom of tattooing so frequent among the ,malays1 and even among the ,negroes and ,american ,indians1 was nowhere so universally and so elaborately practised as among the ,south ,sea islanders4 ,each group had its particular patterns1 each rank was differently marked4 ,the instrument used for this painful operation was a kind of comb1 the teeth of which were struck just through the skin1 after which the punctures were rubbed with a kind of paste made of soot and oil which left an indelible stain4 ,the industrial dexterity of this ingenious people appeared in the manufacture of many other articles besides the ,tapa4 ,rushes1 grass1 the bark of trees1 and fibrous leaves furnished the material for finer mats than any made in ,europe4 ,the coarser kind of matting was employed for sleeping on in the night1 or sitting on through the day2 the finer sort was converted into garments in rainy weather1 the ,tapa being soon penetrated by wet4 ,they were also very expert in making basket and wicker work2 their baskets were of a vast number of different patterns1 many of them exceedingly neat1 and the making of them was an art practised by everyone1 both men and women4 ,essentially maritime in their tastes1 they excelled in the construction of their canoes1 which were the more to be admired as an adze made of stone1 a chisel or gouge made of bone1 a rasp of coral1 and the skin of a sting ray as a file and polisher1 were the only tools which they possessed4 ,with these rude implements they generally took up several days in felling a tree1 which was then split into planks4 ,the boards1 having been very dexterously smoothed1 were afterwards fitted to the boat with the same exactness that might be expected from an expert joiner4 ,to fasten them together1 holes were bored with a piece of bone fixed into a stick for that purpose1 and through these holes a kind of plaited cordage was passed1 so as to hold the planks strongly together4 ,the seams were caulked with dry rushes1 and the whole outside of the vessel was painted over with a kind of gummy juice which supplied the place of pitch4 ,considering the inferiority of their tools1 the building of one of their large war canoes1 which sometimes had the enormous length of #ajh feet and could hold forty men1 was undoubtedly a piece of workmanship not inferior to the huge vessels constructed in ,europe with the assistance of iron4 ,generally two of these war canoes were lashed together1 with two masts set up between them1 and a high platform raised above1 on which the warriors1 armed with spears and slings1 were stationed2 the rowers sat below1 ready to receive the wounded from above and to send reinforcements to take their place4 ,single boats had an outrigger on one side1 and only one mast in the middle2 and in these frail constructions1 they did not hesitate to sail far beyond the sight of land1 shaping their course in the daytime by the sun1 at night by the stars1 to which they gave their particular names4 ,a fleet of war canoes with its curved figures1 its waving pennants1 and its men gracefully clothed in flowing garments1 afforded a highly picturesque spectacle1 which might give some idea of the vessels in which the ,argonauts sailed to ,colchis1 or the ,homeric heroes embarked for the destruction of ,troy4 ,accustomed to bathe from infancy1 the half-amphibious ,south ,sea ,islanders are admirable swimmers4 ,captain ,cook was amazed at the natatorial expertness of the ,tahitians in a tremendously high surf1 in which the best ,european swimmer would have been drowned1 as the shore was covered with pebbles and large stones4 ,whenever a huge wave broke near them they dived under it and rose again on the other side4 ,the stern of an old canoe added much to their sport4 ,this they took out before them1 and swam as far as the outermost breach in the reef1 through which the sea came pouring in2 when two or three getting into it and turning the square end to the breaking waves1 were driven in towards the shore with incredible rapidity1 sometimes almost to the beach1 but generally the wave broke over them before they got half-way1 in which case they dived and rose to the other side with the canoe in their hands and swimming out with it again were again driven back4 ,on the border of the reef of the island of ,huaheini1 ,ellis frequently saw more than a hundred persons of all ages play like dolphins in the rolling breakers1 sometimes riding on the crest of a wave and nearly enveloped with foam1 and then again disappearing under the billows1 which rolled like mountains above them4 ,the dwellings of the ,south ,sea ,islanders were small huts built under the shade of bread-fruit trees or cocoa palms1 and open at the sides1 so as to allow a free entrance to the cooling breeze--a great enjoyment in a climate blessed with a perpetual spring4 ,a strong thatch of palm leaves effectually kept out the rain1 and the floor was covered with hay1 over which they spread mats to sleep on1 this being the chief use to which their simple constructions were devoted1 for1 unless it rained1 they ate and performed all their work in the open air4 ,the form of government in the large ,polynesian groups was monarchical and aristocratic4 ,when ,captain ,wallis first landed on ,tahiti1 a queen reigned over the beautiful island1 and when ,cook discovered the ,sandwich ,archipelago a succession of kings had long ruled over ,hawaii4 ,the genealogy of the great nobles was traced back as far as the remotest periods of their legendary history1 and in some islands the kings1 as in the old times of ,greece1 derived their origin in a direct line from the gods1 so that religion lent its aid to secure their authority by the prestige of birth4 ,their person was sacred1 none of the lower classes was allowed to touch them1 and he who should have ventured to cast his shadow over their path would have been punished with death4 ,whenever the king or queen appeared in public1 they were always carried on the shoulders of men1 whose honourable office exonerated them from all other labour4 ,in this manner they travelled full speed at the rate of more than five miles an hour4 ,other carriers1 with a considerable retinue1 ran alongside for the relief of their tired comrade1 and at each relay royalty never placed its foot upon the ground1 but vaulted over the head of the exhausted carrier upon the shoulders of his successor1 who instantly proceeded on his journey at a sharp trot4 ,in the ,friendly ,archipelago the ,tui ,tonga1 a sacred personage descending in a direct line from one of the chief ,polynesian gods1 enjoyed divine honours1 which were paid him not only by his countrymen1 but even by part of ,samoa and the ,feejee ,islands4 ,the highest nobles were obliged to sit down when he passed2 a mark of reverence which they themselves exacted from the meanest peasant4 ,an etiquette as severe and circumstantial as that which prescribes the courtly forms existing among the most civilised people of ,asia or ,europe1 served to maintain the wide line of demarcation which separated the lords of the land from the common artisans and cultivators of the soil3 and the strange superstition of the ,tabu1 one of the most effectual instruments of government ever invented by man1 still further secured the willing obedience of the people4 ,in general the ,tabu signified a prohibition4 ,it interdicted the visiting of certain spots1 the use of certain articles of food1 the touching of certain objects1 the use of certain words1 the performance of certain actions1 and he who1 for instance1 touched the dead body of a chieftain was subjected during several months to a tabu1 and was then not allowed to carry his victuals to his mouth with his own hands4 ,when hungry and no one near at hand to feed him1 he was obliged to creep on all fours and seize his victuals with his lips4 ,the ,tabu spread its influence over every occurrence of life4 ,it was political or religious1 general or individual1 of limited duration or perpetual4 ,sometimes it proceeded from the whim of a chieftain1 or the caprice of a priest2 sometimes it appeared as a measure of general utility1 and then again as a protection for individual property2 sometimes it extended over a whole people1 and in other cases was limited to a single individual4 ,its yoke lay particularly heavy on the women1 whom it deprived of many enjoyments1 and subjected to many irksome restrictions4 ,but1 though frequently tyrannical and oppressive1 it often performed the salutary part of our laws and police regulations1 with this difference1 however1 in its favour3 that whereas many of us are1 more or less1 inclined to infringe the law1 no ,polynesian would have ventured to disobey the ,tabu1 being perfectly convinced that this crime would immediately entail upon him the signal vengeance of his gods4 ,every chieftain had the right to subject his inferiors to a ,tabu1 and was in a like manner obliged to submit to the interdictions pronounced by his superior4 ,if by some chance he had infringed a ,tabu1 he could only be exonerated by a chieftain of higher rank4 ,thus the ,tabu placed an enormous power in the hands of the privileged castes1 and secured by the chains of superstition the eternal slavery of the people4 ,as among the ancient ,greeks an invisible world of gods ruled over the visible phenomena of nature1 thus also the fertile fancy of the ,polynesians peopled earth and heaven1 the ocean and the mountains with a mighty host of spirits4 ,they recognized their presence in the rising sun1 the mild moonlight1 the howling storm1 the roaring breaker1 and the soft evening breeze4 ,the peak of the mountain1 the fleecy vapours hanging on its side1 the foaming waterfall1 and above all the volcano and the earthquake1 were all palpable objects1 connected with a presiding divinity4 ,most of these gods were vindictive1 proud1 irascible beings1 ever ready to do mischief in a material or immaterial form2 and even the spirits of deceased relations were feared as malignant demons4 ,thus1 here as elsewhere1 superstition added its fantastical terrors to the real evils of existence4 ,the ,polynesian ,pantheon1 a strange mixture of poetry and absurdity1 was as richly peopled as that of the ancient ,greeks or ,scandinavians4 ,tangaloa was the creator of their little world1 which1 according to the ,tonga account1 he fished up from the sea4 ,tahiti was the first part that appeared4 ,just as its rock showed above water1 the line broke4 ,however1 the rock in which the hook stuck could still be seen on the island of ,hoonga1 and the family of ,tuitonga were in possession of the hook4 ,in ,tahiti and ,samoa the workman was the same1 but the work different4 ,the ,tahitian ,tangaloa formed the ocean from the sweat of his brow--so hard did he work in making the land4 ,the ,samoan sent down his daughter ,toli in the shape of a snipe to survey the world below4 ,as she saw nothing but sea1 her father rolled down a stone1 which became one island1 and another which became a second1 and so on4 ,the first growth of such islands was wild vine4 ,they were pulled out of the ground and heaped up to rot1 so that worms were produced4 ,out of these worms grew men and women4 ,oro1 the god of war1 was the mighty protector of ,tahiti4 ,his father1 ,taaroa1 was the son of night1 for here also1 as among the ,greeks1 all originally proceeded from darkness4 ,hiro1 the ,polynesian ,neptune1 likewise played a considerable part in legendary lore4 ,once the monsters of the deep had lulled him with a profound sleep while the god of winds raised a terrible storm to destroy a vessel in which his friends were embarked4 ,their destruction seemed inevitable1 but a good spirit penetrated into the sea-grot where the god was dozing1 awoke him from his slumbers1 and told him of the danger his followers were in4 ,instantly he rose to the surface1 where his presence scared away the weaker storm-god1 and his friends were saved4 ,in the ,sandwich ,islands1 the chief divinities resided in the burning craters of ,mauna ,loa1 for no phenomenon of nature was equal in terrific grandeur to these explosions of subterranean fire1 and the mysterious powers which caused them were necessarily prominent in power4 ,there dwelt ,pele the supreme goddess of fire1 with a whole train of subordinate deities1 such as ,kamoho #8the king of steam1' ,teoahitamatana #8the fire-spitting son of war1' ,hiatawawahilani #8the sky-rending cloud-compeller4' ,the roar of the volcano was the music to which their deities danced1 their delight was to swim in the waves of the fiery sea4 ,never did these dreadful beings leave their abodes for a beneficial purpose1 but only to receive offerings or to wreak vengeance3 the quaking of the earth1 the outpouring lava stream announced their coming4 ,this religion of dread placed of course an enormous power in the hands of the priests1 who profited largely by the terrors of a credulous people4 ,as in ,greece1 the divinities of the ,polynesian ,pantheon were worshipped under the palpable form of idols in large temples1 or inclosures2 but while ,apollo or ,jove fashioned by the hand of a ,phidias or ,scopas still command the admiration of a world which has long since ceased to believe in them1 the rude figures which the ,tahitian or the ,hawaiian adored were models of hideous deformity4 ,like the ancient ,greeks1 the ,polynesians had also their ,elysium4 ,the higher gods1 and the souls of kings1 chiefs and councillors1 resided in a happy island1 more beautiful than any on earth2 but the common people were excluded from this abode of felicity1 as they have been debarred from all political rights in life4 ,the idea of a retributive justice had no room in the ,polynesian mind1 and birth claimed its privileges even after death1 while merit was ignored4 ,to judge by their progress in the industrial arts1 their elaborate political institutions1 and the courtesy of their manners1 the ,south ,sea ,islander1 particularly the ,tahitians1 might claim a place among civilized nations1 but in many respects they were still deeply plunged in barbarism4 ,their wars were sanguinary and cruel1 their morals dissolute4 ,infanticide was extremely common among them1 and the cause of this horrible crime was not the want of food but a culpable laziness4 ,although the fertility of the soil and the mildness of a delicious climate rendered it easy to provide for a large family1 the general indolence was so great that a man with more than three children 7a rare case7 was looked upon as groaning under an intolerable burden1 and thus thousands of infants were immolated to the love of ease of their unnatural parents4 ,human sacrifices were frequently offered to propitiate the gods--in war time1 on the occasion of some great festival1 of the illness or coronation of a king1 or at the building of a temple4 ,each of the pillars which sustained the roof of one of these edifices was planted in the body of a wretch immolated in honour of the cruel divinity to whom the building was consecrated4 ,to the honour of ,polynesian humanity it must1 however1 be added1 that the victims--either prisoners of war or persons who had incurred the enmity of some priest or noble--were not made to suffer any additional torment1 but suddenly despatched by the unexpected blow of a club4 ,in all the larger ,polynesian groups the state of society briefly described in the foregoing pages has long since disappeared4 ,in ,hawaii1 ,tahiti1 ,tonga1 and ,samoa1 the ancient religion1 the ancient customs1 the ancient manufactures have more or less given way to ,european influences1 and now only exist in the more remote or more insignificant islands where the missionary has either not appeared or which are too poor to tempt our avarice4 ,the difference between the geological structure of the different islands of the ,pacific has a marked influence upon the condition of their inhabitants4 ,in the high and more extensive islands1 where the structure is primitive and volcanic1 the productions of the soil are more abundant and various1 and the conditions for social development more favourable1 than in the low small islands of a coralline structure1 where food is less abundant1 the sun more scorching1 and generally the complexion of the inhabitants darker4 ,while the ,tahitians1 ,sandwich ,islanders1 ,samoans1 and ,fijians cultivate the taro plant or pluck the fruits of the bread-fruit tree1 the coral islander is frequently restricted to the nuts of the cocoa palm1 or even to those of the screw pine1 and adds to his sparing vegetable meal only a few crabs or fishes which he gathers on the reef or catches in the lagoon4 ,on some of the low ,caroline ,islands1 whose inhabitants undertake long sea voyages1 the ideas of the people have naturally a somewhat wider range2 but in general the poverty of the language corresponds with the narrow circle of a life confined to so small a space and to so few objects of interest4 ,the inhabitants of ,hau or ,bow ,island1 situated in the centre of the extensive ,paumotu group1 give us a good idea of the dreary monotony of a coral islander's life4 ,captain ,beechey1 who visited them in #ahbf1 describes them as an ill-favoured1 indolent race1 above the middle size1 with strong bones but flaccid muscles4 ,the ugliness of the men was surpassed by that of the women1 who were obliged to work in the hot sun while their lazy lords and masters looked on1 reclining in the shade4 ,having obtained the chief's permission to fell some wood1 he endeavoured to procure the natives' assistance by liberal offers of tobacco and shirts1 but in spite of this tempting salary the chief was the only man among them who could be roused from his lethargy and induced to work1 and even he let the axe drop before the first tree was felled4 ,with the aid of an interpreter1 ,captain ,beechey learned many interesting particulars about these islanders during his four days' sojourn among them4 ,they had1 as they said1 given up cannibalism some time ago2 but1 to judge by the diabolical animation which spread over the chief's brutal countenance as he described the excellent flavour of human flesh1 there is every reason to believe that they were in great danger of a relapse4 ,these savages preferred eating their victuals raw1 and were thus in fact but one degree removed from that horrid custom4 ,a canoe full of fish having landed in the neighbourhood of the village1 they immediately devoured the whole cargo1 leaving nothing but the bones and fins4 ,their marriage ceremonies were as simple as possible3 a man had only to say to a woman #8,thou shalt be my wife6' and1 provided she was not pre-engaged1 no further ceremony was required4 ,the children seemed to be the only objects for which the men showed any affection2 the women at least came in for no share of it4 ,while the men stretched their lazy limbs in the shade1 these unfortunate creatures were obliged to gather shell-fish on the pointed coral reefs1 or to seek for pandanus nuts in the woods4 ,they went to this work at break of day1 and on returning from their morning's labour had no time to rest1 but were obliged to serve their hungry masters1 who first devoured the best part of the fleshy substance inclosed in the rind of the nuts and then threw the rest to the women as we should throw a bone to a dog4 ,after this1 the women cracked the nuts with a heavy stone in order to extract the four or five small kernels about the size of an almond which they contain1 and which1 were laid aside for the men4 ,as a great number of nuts was necessary to satisfy their voracious appetite1 the women were in fact occupied all day long in gathering mussels1 sea-urchins1 and pandanus nuts1 and cracking the latter4 ,the supremacy of the stronger sex was asserted with the utmost severity1 and nowhere did the tyranny of man show itself in a more contemptible light4 ,once a poor woman1 fancying herself unobserved1 ventured to eat a few kernels of the nuts she had fetched from a great distance1 but unfortunately did not escape the vigilant eye of her brutal husband1 who immediately rose and knocked her down4 ,thus overworked and debased by ill-treatment1 we cannot wonder if the females possess none of those qualities and graces which render women in ,europe so charming4 ,truly1 even in the wildest regions of the earth1 it would be difficult to find a spot still less adapted to the moral and intellectual improvement of its inhabitants than a coral island1 despite its cloudless sky1 its waving palm trees1 its azure lagoon1 and the magnificence of the sea hurling its snow-white breakers against the reef4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,uropeltis ,,philippinus4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,snakes4 ,first ,impression of a ,tropical ,forest--,exaggerated ,fears-- ,comparative rareness of ,venomous ,snakes--,their ,habits and ,external ,characters--,anecdote of the ,prince of ,neu ,wied--,the ,bite of the ,trigonocephalus--,antidotes--,fangs of the ,venomous ,snakes described--,the ,bush-master--,the ,echidna ,ocellata-- ,the ,rattlesnakes--,extirpated by ,hogs--,the ,cobra de ,capello-- ,indian ,snake-,charmers--,maritime ,excursions of the ,cobra--,the ,egyptian ,haje--,the ,cerastes--,boas and ,pythons--,the ,jiboya--,the ,anaconda--,enemies of the ,serpents--,the ,secretary--,the ,adjutant-- ,the ,mongoos--,a ,serpent swallowed by another--,the ,locomotion of ,serpents--,anatomy of their ,jaws--,serpents feeding in the ,zoological ,gardens--,domestication of the ,rat-,snake--,water-,snakes4 ,on penetrating for the first time into a tropical forest1 the traveller is moved by many conflicting emotions4 ,this luxuriance of vegetation revelling in ever-changing forms1 these giants of the woods clasped by the python-folds of enormous creepers1 and bearing whole hosts of parasites on their knotty arms2 this strange and unknown world of plants1 harbouring in its impenetrable recesses a no less strange and unknown world of animals1 all unite in filling the soul with pleasurable excitement2 and yet the heart is1 at the same time1 chilled with vague fears1 that mix like a discordant sound with the harmonies of this sylvan world4 ,for in the hollows of the tangled roots and in the dense underwood of the forest a brood of noxious reptiles loves to conceal itself1 and who knows whether a snake1 armed with poisonous fangs1 may not dart forth from the rustling foliage4 ,gradually1 however1 these reflections wear away1 and time and experience convince one that the snakes in the tropical woods are hardly more to be feared than in the forests of ,germany or ,france1 where also the viper will sometimes inflict a deadly wound4 ,these reptiles are1 indeed1 far from being of so frequent occurrence as is generally believed2 and on meeting with a snake1 there is every probability of its belonging to the harmless species1 which show themselves much more frequently by day1 and are far more numerous4 ,even in ,india and ,ceylon1 where serpents are said to abound1 they make their appearance so cautiously that the surprise of long residents is invariably expressed at their being so seldom seen4 ,sir ,e4 ,tennent1 who frequently performed journeys of two to five hundred miles through the jungle without seeing a single snake1 never heard1 during his long residence in ,ceylon1 of the death of a ,european being caused by the bite of one of these reptiles2 and in almost every instance accidents to the natives happened at night1 when the animal1 having been surprised or trodden on1 had inflicted the wound in self-defence4 ,thus1 to avoid danger1 the ,singhalese1 when obliged to leave their houses in the dark1 carry a stick with a loose ring1 the noise of which1 as they strike it on the ground1 is sufficient to warn the snakes to leave their path4 ,during his five years' travels through the whole breadth of tropical ,america1 from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific1 ,m4 de ,castelnau1 although ever on the search1 collected no more than ninety-one serpents1 of which only twenty-one were poisonous2 a proof that they are not more frequently met with in the primitive forests of ,brazil than in the jungles of ,india or ,ceylon4 ,the habits of the venomous snakes1 and the external characters by which they are distinguished from the harmless species1 likewise tend to diminish the danger to be apprehended from them4 ,thus1 their head is generally flat1 broad1 lanceolate2 they have an aperture or slit on each cheek1 behind the nostrils1 and an elongated vertical pupil like many other nocturnal animals4 ,they are also generally slower and more indolent in their motions1 and thus are more easily avoided4 ,no venomous snake will ever be found on a tree1 and on quietly approaching one in the forest or in the savannah1 it will most likely creep away without disputing the path1 as it is not very anxious uselessly to squander the venom which ,nature gave it as the only means for procuring itself food4 #8,there is not much danger in roving amongst snakes1' says ,waterton1 who1 from spending many a month in tropical wilds1 may justly be called an excellent authority1 #8provided only that you have self-command4 ,you must never approach them abruptly2 if so1 you are sure to pay for your rashness2 because the idea of self-defence is predominant in every animal1 and thus the snake1 to defend himself from what he considers an attack upon him1 makes the intruder feel the deadly effect of his envenomed fangs4 ,the labarri snake is very poisonous1 yet ,i have often approached within two yards of him without fear4 ,i took care to advance very softly and gently1 without moving my arms1 and he always allowed me to have a fine view of him1 without showing the least inclination to make a spring at me4 ,he would appear to keep his eye fixed on me1 as though suspicious1 but that was all4 ,sometimes ,i have taken a stick ten feet long and placed it on the labarri's back2 he would then glide away without offering resistance4 ,however1 when ,i put the end of the stick abruptly to his head1 he immediately opened his mouth1 flew at it1 and bit it4' ,but although accidents from venomous snakes are comparatively rare1 yet the consequences are dreadful when they do take place1 and the sight of a cobra or a trigonocephalus preparing for its fatal spring may well appal the stoutest heart4 ,prince ,maximilian of ,neu ,wied1 having wounded a tapir1 was following the traces of his game along with his ,indian hunter1 when suddenly his companion uttered a loud scream4 ,he had come too near a labarri snake1 and the dense thicket prevented his escape4 ,fortunately the first glance of the distinguished naturalist fell upon the reptile1 which with extended jaws and projecting fangs was ready to dart upon the ,indian1 but at the same moment1 struck by a ball from the prince's rifle1 lay writhing on the ground4 ,the ,indian1 though otherwise a strong-nerved man1 was so paralysed by fear1 that it was some time before he could recover his self-possession--a proof1 among others1 that it is superfluous to attribute a fascinating power to the venomous snakes1 as the effects of terror are quite sufficient to explain why smaller animals1 unable to flee the impending danger1 become their unresisting victims1 and even seem1 as it were1 wantonly to rush upon destruction4 ,thus ,pppig saw on the banks of the ,huallaga an unfortunate frog1 which1 after being for some time unable to move1 at length made a desperate leap towards a large snake that was all the time fixing its eye upon it1 and thus paid for the confusion of its senses with the loss of its life4 ,a poor ,indian girl that accompanied ,schomburgk on his travels through the forests of ,guiana was less fortunate than the ,prince of ,neu ,wied's companion4 ,she was bitten by a trigonocephalus1 and it was dreadful to see how soon the powers of life began to ebb under the fatal effects of the poison4 ,the wound was immediately sucked1 and spirits of ammonia1 the usual remedy1 profusely applied both externally and inwardly1 but all in vain4 ,in less than three minutes1 a convulsive trembling shook the whole body1 the face assumed a cadaverous aspect1 dreadful pains raged in the heart1 in the back1 less in the wound itself2 the dissolved blood flowed from the ears and nose1 or was spasmodically ejected by the stomach2 the pulse rose to #abj-acj in the minute2 the paralysis which first benumbed the bitten foot spread farther and farther1 and in less than eight minutes the unfortunate girl was no longer to be recognised4 ,the same day the foot swelled to shapeless dimensions1 and she lay senseless until1 after an agony of sixty-three hours1 death relieved her from her sufferings4 ,a great many antidotes have been recommended against serpentine poison1 but their very number proves their inefficacy4 ,one of the most famous is the juice of a ,peruvian climbing plant1 the vejuco de huaco 7,mikania ,huaco1 ,kunth71 the remarkable properties of which were first discovered by a negro1 who observed that when the huaco1 a kind of hawk which chiefly feeds on snakes1 has been bitten by one of them1 it immediately flies to the vejuco and eats some of its leaves4 ,it is a well-known fact that serpentine poison may be swallowed with impunity2 it shows its effects only on mixing directly with the blood4 ,a tight ligature above the wound1 along with sucking1 burning1 or cutting it out1 are thus very rational remedies for preventing the rapid propagation of the venom4 ,suction is1 however1 not always unattended with danger to the person who undertakes the friendly office4 ,thus ,schomburgk relates the misfortunes of a poor ,indian1 whose son had been bitten in the cheek4 ,the father instantly sucked the wound1 but a hollow tooth conveyed the poison into his own body4 ,his cheek swelled under excruciating pains1 and without being able to save his son1 his own health and vigour were for ever lost4 ,for such are the dreadful consequences of this poison1 that they incurably trouble the fountains of life4 ,the wound generally breaks open every year1 emitting a very offensive odour1 and causes dreadful pains at every change of the weather4 ,although all the venomous snakes produce morbid symptoms nearly similar1 yet the strength of the poison varies according to the species of the serpent1 and to the circumstances under which it is emitted4 ,it is said to be most virulent during very hot weather1 when the moon changes1 or when the animal is about to cast its skin4 ,the effects are naturally more powerful and rapid when a larger quantity of poison flows into the wound1 and a snake with exhausted supplies from repeated bitings will evidently strike less fatally than another whose glands are inflated with poison after a long repose4 ,before describing some of the most conspicuous of the venomous serpents1 a few words on the simple but admirable mechanism of their delicate but needle-like fangs will not be out of place4 ,towards the point of the fang1 which is invariably situated in the upper jaw1 there is a little oblong aperture on the convex side of it1 and through this there is a communication down the fang to the root1 at which lies a little bag containing the poison4 ,thus1 when the point of the fang is pressed1 the root of the fang also presses against the bag and sends up a portion of the poison it contains4 ,the fangs being extremely movable1 can be voluntarily depressed or elevated2 and as from their brittleness they are very liable to break1 ,nature1 to provide for a loss that would be fatal1 has added behind each of them smaller or subsidiary fangs ready to take their place in case of accident4 ,unrivalled in the display of every lovely colour of the rainbow1 and unmatched in the effects of his deadly poison1 the bush-master or counacutchi 7,lachesis rhombeata7 glides on1 sole monarch of the forests of ,guiana or ,brazil1 as both man and beast fly before him4 ,in size he surpasses most other venomous species1 as he sometimes grows to the length of fourteen feet4 ,generally concealed among the fallen leaves of the forest1 he lives on small birds1 reptiles1 and mammalians1 whom he is able to pursue with surprising activity4 ,thus1 ,schomburgk once saw an opossum rushing through the forest1 and closely followed by an enormous bush-master4 ,frightened to death and utterly exhausted1 the panting animal ascended the stump of an old tree1 and thence1 as if rooted to the spot1 looked with staring eyes on its enemy1 who1 rolled in a spiral coil1 from which his head rose higher and higher1 slowly and leisurely1 as if conscious that his prey could not possibly escape him1 prepared for his deadly spring4 ,this time1 however1 the bush-master was mistaken1 for a shot from ,schomburgk's rifle laid him writhing in the dust1 while the opossum1 saved by a miracle1 ran off as fast as he could4 ,fortunately for the planter and negroes1 the bush-master is a rare serpent1 frequenting only the deepest shades of the thicket1 where in the day-time he generally lies coiled upon the ground4 ,still rarer1 though if possible yet more formidable1 is a small brown viper 7,echidna ocellata71 which infests the ,peruvian forests4 ,its bite is said to be able to kill a strong man within two or three minutes4 ,the ,indian1 when bitten by it1 does not even attempt an antidote against the poison1 but stoically bids adieu to his comrades1 and lays himself down to die4 ,the ill-famed wide-extended race of the rattlesnakes1 which ranges from ,south ,brazil to ,canada1 belongs exclusively to the ,new ,world4 ,they prefer the more elevated1 dry1 and stony regions1 where they lie coiled up in the thorny bushes1 and only attack such animals as come too near their lair4 ,their bite is said to be able to kill a horse or an ox in ten or twelve minutes2 but1 fortunately1 they are afraid of man1 and will not venture to attack him unless provoked4 ,when roused to anger they are1 however1 very formidable1 as their fangs penetrate through the strongest boot4 ,one of the most remarkable features of their organisation is a kind of rattle terminating the tail1 and consisting of a number of pieces inserted into each other1 all alike in shape and size1 hollow1 and of a thin1 elastic1 brittle substance1 like that of which the scales are externally formed4 ,when provoked1 the strong and rapid vibratory motions imparted to the rattle produce a sound which has been compared to that of knife-grinding1 but is never loud enough to be heard at any distance1 and becomes almost inaudible in rainy weather4 ,illustration3 ,,rattlesnake4 ,naturalists distinguish at least a dozen different species of rattlesnakes1 the commonest of which are the ,boaquira 7,crotalus horridus71 which frequents the warmest regions of ,south ,america1 and the ,durissus 7,c4 durissus71 which has chosen the ,united ,states for its principal home4 ,the chief enemy of this serpent is the hog1 whom it dreads so much that on seeing one it immediately loses all its courage1 and instantly takes to flight4 ,but the hog1 who smells it from afar1 draws nearer and nearer1 his bristles erected with excitement1 seizes it by the neck1 and devours it with great complacency1 though without touching the head4 ,as the hog is the invariable companion of the settler in the backwoods1 the rattlesnake everywhere disappears before the advance of man1 and it is to be hoped that a century or two hence it will be ranked among the extinct animals4 ,the ,american ,indians often regale on the rattlesnake4 ,when they find it asleep1 they put a small forked stick over its neck1 which they keep immovably fixed to the ground1 giving the snake a stick to bite1 and this they pull back several times with great force1 until they perceive that the poison-fangs are torn out4 ,they then cut off the head1 skin the body1 and cook it as we do eels4 ,the flesh is said to be white and excellent4 ,none of the ,american snakes inhabit the old world1 but in the ,east ,indies and ,ceylon other no less dangerous species appear upon the scene1 among which the celebrated ,cobra de ,capello is one of the most deadly4 ,as long as it is in a quiet mood1 its neck is nowhere thicker than its head or other parts2 but as soon as it is excited1 it raises vertically the anterior part of its trunk1 and dilating the hood on each side of the neck1 which is curiously marked in the centre in black and white1 like a pair of spectacles1 advances against the aggressor by the undulating motion of the tail4 ,it is not only met with in the cultivated grounds and plantations1 but will creep into the houses and insinuate itself among the furniture4 ,bishop ,heber heard at ,patna of a lady who once lay a whole night with a cobra under her pillow4 ,she repeatedly thought during the night that she felt something move1 and in the morning when she snatched her pillow away1 she saw the thick black throat1 the square head1 and the green diamond-like eyes of the reptile advanced within two inches of her neck4 ,fortunately the snake was without malice2 but alas for her if she had during the night pressed him a little too roughly4 ,this is the snake so frequently exhibited by the ,indian jugglers1 who contrive by some unknown method to tame them so far as to perform certain movements in cadence1 and to dance to the sound of music1 with which the cobra seems much delighted1 keeping time by a graceful motion of the head1 erecting about half its length from the ground1 and following the few simple notes of the conjuror's flute with gentle curves like the undulating lines of a swan's neck4 ,it has been naturally supposed1 before this could be done1 that the poisonous fangs had been extracted2 but ,forbes1 the author of #8,oriental ,memoirs1' had nearly been taught at his cost that this is not always practised4 ,not doubting but that a cobra1 which danced for an hour on the table while he painted it1 had been disarmed of its fatal weapons1 he frequently handled it to observe the beauty of the spots1 and especially the spectacles on the hood4 ,but the next morning his upper servant1 who was a zealous ,mussulman1 came to him in great haste and desired he would instantly retire and praise the ,almighty for his good fortune4 ,not understanding his meaning1 ,forbes told him that he had already performed his devotions1 and had not so many stated prayers as the followers of his prophet4 ,mahomet then informed him that while purchasing some fruit in the bazaar1 he observed the man who had been with him on the preceding evening entertaining the country people with the dancing snakes2 they1 according to their usual custom1 sat on the ground around him1 when1 either from the music stopping too suddenly or from some other cause irritating the snake which he had so often handled1 it darted at the throat of a young woman1 and inflicted a wound of which she died in about half an hour4 ,that the snake-charmers control the cobra not by extracting its fangs1 but by courageously availing themselves of its timidity and reluctance to use them1 was also proved during ,sir ,e4 ,tennent's residence in ,ceylon by the death of one of these performers1 whom his audience had provoked to attempt some unaccustomed familiarity with the cobra2 it bit him on the wrist1 and he expired the same evening4 ,the deserted nests of the termites are the favourite retreat of the sluggish and spiritless cobra1 which watches from their apertures the toads and lizards on which it preys4 ,on coming upon it1 its only impulse is concealment2 and when it is unable to escape1 a few blows from a whip are sufficient to deprive it of life4 ,it is a curious fact that1 though not a water-snake1 the cobra sometimes takes considerable excursions by sea4 ,when the #8,wellington1' a ,government vessel employed in the inspection of the ,ceylonese pearl-banks1 was anchored about a quarter of a mile from land1 a cobra was seen1 about an hour before sunset1 swimming vigorously towards the ship4 ,it came within twelve yards1 when the sailors assailed it with billets of wood and other missiles1 and forced it to return to land4 ,the ,egyptian ,haje 7,naja ,haje71 a near relation of the ,indian cobra1 is probably the asp of ancient authors1 which ,queen ,cleopatra chose as the instrument of her death1 to avoid figuring in the triumph of ,augustus4 ,like the cobra1 it inflates its neck when in a state of excitement1 and as it raises its head on being approached1 as if watchful for its safety1 it was venerated by the ancient ,egyptians as a symbol of divinity1 and as the faithful guardian of their fields4 ,divine honours have1 however1 much more frequently been paid to the venomous snakes from the terror they inspire1 than from far-fetched notions of beneficence4 ,several ,indian tribes in ,north ,america adore the rattlesnake2 and in the kingdom of ,widah1 on the coast of ,guinea1 a viper has its temple and ministers1 and is no less carefully provided for than if it were an inmate of the ,zoological ,gardens4 ,the ,cerastes1 or horned viper1 one of the most deadly serpents of the ,african deserts1 is frequently exhibited by ,egyptian jugglers1 who handle and irritate it with impunity3 they are supposed to render themselves invulnerable by the chewing of a certain root1 but most likely1 as in the case of the cobra-charmers1 their secret consists in their courage and perfect knowledge of the animal's nature4 ,although the ,boas and ,pythons are unprovided with venomous fangs1 yet1 from their enormous size1 they may well be ranked among the deadly snakes2 for1 as ,waterton justly remarks1 #8it comes nearly to the same thing in the end whether the victim dies by poison from the fangs1 which corrupts his blood1 or whether his body be crushed to mummy and swallowed by a ,python4' ,the kingly ,jiboya 7,boa constrictor7 inhabits the dry and sultry localities of the ,brazilian forests1 where he generally conceals himself in crevices and hollows in parts but little frequented by man1 and sometimes attains a length of thirty feet4 ,to catch his prey he ascends the trees1 and lurks1 hidden in the foliage1 for the unfortunate agutis1 pacas1 and capybaras1 whom their unlucky star may lead within his reach4 ,when full-grown he seizes the passing deer2 but1 in spite of his large size1 he is but little feared by the natives1 as a single blow of a cudgel suffices to kill him4 ,prince ,maximilian of ,neu ,wied tells us that the experienced hunter laughs when asked whether the ,jiboya attacks and devours man4 ,the ,sucuriaba1 ,anaconda1 or ,water ,boa 7,eunectes murinus71 as it is variously named1 abounds in the swampy lowlands of tropical ,america1 where it attains so enormous a size that1 according to trustworthy witnesses1#be monsters more than sixty feet long are sometimes seen slowly crawling through the submerged groves of the ,buriti palm4 ,while lazily stretched out in the grass1 it might easily be mistaken for the prostrate trunk of one of these noble trees4 ,it passes most of its time1 however1 on the water1 now reposing on a sand-bank with only its head above the surface of the stream1 now rapidly swimming like an eel1 or abandoning itself to the current of the river4 ,often1 also1 it suns itself on the sandy margin of the stream1 or patiently awaits its prey1 stretched out upon some rock or fallen tree4 ,with sharp eye it observes all that swims in the waters1 as well as all that flies over them1 or all that comes to the banks to drink2 neither fish nor aquatic bird is secure from its rapid assault1 and woe to the capybara that comes within its grasp4 ,when preparing for an attack1 it attaches itself with its tail to a tree or rock1 and then suddenly darts its prodigious length upon its prey1 the bones of which it breaks in its resistless folds before slowly swallowing it4 ,a large snake will thus engulph a horse and its rider1 or a whole ox as far as the horns1 which eventually separate from the putrefying body4 ,even water-boas of a smaller size are able to swallow enormous masses2 a deer and two pecaris were found in the stomach of one forty feet long4 ,the chase of these hideous reptiles is not dangerous1 for they are slow and cowardly1 and a wound in the spine soon renders them stiff and unable to move4 ,their flesh is unfit to be eaten1 but their fat is considered a remedy for consumption1 and their tanned skin makes excellent coverings for saddles4 ,the boas principally inhabit ,america1 although some species are likewise met with in ,asia2 but the still more formidable pythons are confined to the hot regions of the ,old ,world4 ,they are said to enlace even the tiger or the lion in their fatal embrace1 and1 to judge by their size and strength1 this assertion seems by no means improbable4 ,illustration3 ,,secretary ,,bird4 ,the various serpent tribes are exposed to the attacks of many enemies1 who fortunately keep their numbers within salutary bounds1 and avenge the death of the countless insects1 worms1 toads1 frogs1 and lizards1 that fall a prey to their strength or their venom4 ,several species of rapacious and aquatic birds live upon snakes1 the ,american ostrich thins their ranks whenever he can1 and the ,african ,secretary is renowned for his prowess in serpentine warfare4 #8,the battle was obstinate1' says ,le ,vaillant1 describing one of these conflicts1 #8and conducted with equal address on both sides4 ,the serpent1 feeling the inferiority of his strength1 in his attempt to flee1 and regain his hole1 employed that cunning which is ascribed to him1 while the bird1 guessing his design1 suddenly stopped him1 and cut off his retreat by placing herself before him at a single leap4 ,on whatever side the reptile endeavoured to make its escape1 his enemy was still found before him4 ,then1 uniting at once bravery and cunning1 he erected himself boldly to intimidate the bird1 and hissing dreadfully1 displayed his menacing throat1 inflamed eyes1 and a head swelled with rage and venom4 ,sometimes this threatening appearance produced a momentary suspension of hostilities1 but the bird soon returned to the charge1 and covering her body with one of her wings as a buckler1 struck her enemy with the horny protuberances upon the other1 which1 like little clubs1 served the more effectually to knock him down as he raised himself to the blow2 at last he staggered and fell1 the conqueror then despatched him1 and with one stroke of her bill laid open his skull4' ,the secretary-eagle has now been successfully acclimatised in the ,west ,indies1 where he renders himself useful by the destruction of the venomous snakes with which the plantations are infested4 ,illustration3 ,,adjutant4 ,gravely1 #8with measured step and slow1' like a ,german philosopher cogitating over the nature of the absolute1 but1 as we shall presently see1 much more profitably engaged1 the adjutant wanders among the reeds on the banks of the muddy ,ganges4 ,the aspect of this colossal bird1 measuring six feet in height and nearly fifteen from tip to tip of the wings1 is far from being comely1 as his enormous bill1 his naked head and neck1 except a few straggling curled hairs1 his large craw hanging down the forepart of the neck like a pouch1 and his long naked legs1 are certainly no features of beauty4 ,suddenly he stops1 dips his bill among the aquatic plants1 and immediately raises it again triumphantly into the air1 for a long snake1 despairingly twisting and wriggling1 strives vainly to escape from the formidable pincers which hold it in carcere duro4 ,the bird throws back his head1 and the reptile appears notably diminished in size2 a few more gulps and it has entirely disappeared4 ,and now the sedate bird continues his stately promenade with the self-satisfied mien of a merchant who has just made a successful speculation1 and is engaged in the agreeable calculation of his gains4 ,but1 lo6 again the monstrous bill descends1 and the same scene is again repeated4 ,the good services of the giant heron in clearing the land of noxious reptiles1 and the havoc he is able to make among their ranks1 may be judged of by the simple fact1 that1 on opening the body of one of them1 a land-tortoise ten inches long and a large black cat were found entire within it1 the former in the pouch1 as a kind of stock in trade1 the latter in the stomach1 all ready for immediate consumption4 ,the ,marabou ,storks1 though so intensely ugly1 furnish in their superb white and downy plumes1 which grow under their wings1 a highly prized ornament of beauty4 ,to procure these valuable feathers1 of which each bird generally yields but four serviceable ones1 they are bred in some villages in the neighbourhood of ,calcutta1 but may also be seen stalking about the streets of the #8,city of ,palaces1' where1 on account of their scavenger utility1 a heavy fine is imposed upon their destruction4 ,brehin1 who chased the ,marabou on the banks of the ,white ,nile1 found him a most provoking game1 always regulating his steps after those of his pursuer and keeping at a safe distance of two or three hundred paces4 ,such is his caution that he places sentinels to give notice of approaching danger1 which is the more remarkable as he is one of the most voracious of birds4 ,trusting to his agility and the certainty of his eye1 the ,indian ichneumon or ,mongoos attacks without hesitation the most venomous serpents4 ,the cobra1 which drives even the leopard to flight1 rises before the little creature with swelling hood and fury in its eye2 but1 swift as thought1 the ichneumon1 avoiding the death-stroke of the projecting fangs1 leaps upon its back1 and fastening his sharp teeth in the head1 soon despatches the helpless reptile4 ,the serpents sometimes even feed upon their own brethren4 ,thus a rat-snake in the ,zoological ,gardens was once seen to devour a common ,coluber ,natrix1 but not having taken the measure of his victim1 he could not dispose of the last four inches of his tail1 which stuck out rather jauntily from the side of his mouth1 with very much the look of a cigar4 ,after a quarter of an hour the tail began to exhibit a retrograde motion1 and the swallowed snake was disgorged1 nothing the worse for his living sepulchre1 with the exception of the wound made by his partner when first he seized him4 ,a python in the same collection1 who had lived for years on friendly terms with a brother nearly as large as himself1 was found one morning sole tenant of his den4 ,as the cage was secure1 the keeper was puzzled to know how the serpent had escaped4 ,at last it was observed that the remaining inmate had swollen remarkably during the night1 when the truth came out4 ,illustration3 ,,mongoos4 ,when we consider that the snakes have neither legs1 wings1 nor fins1 and are indeed deprived of all the usual means of locomotion1 the rapidity of their progress is not a little surprising4 ,on examining the anatomical structure of their body1 however1 it will be remarked that while we have only twelve pairs of ribs united in front by the breast-bone and cartilage1 the snake has often more than three hundred1 unconnected in front1 and consequently much more free in their motions1 a faculty which is still further increased by the great mobility of the spondyli of the backbone4 ,between the ribs and the broad transverse scales or plates which exist on the belly of all such serpents as move rapidly1 we find numerous muscles connecting them one with another1 and thus1 amply provided with a whole system of strong pulleys and points of attachment1 the reptile1 bringing up the tail towards the head1 by bending the body into one or more curves1 and then again resting upon the tail and extending the body1 glides swiftly along1 not only upon even ground1 but even sometimes from branch to branch1 as the smallest hold suffices for its stretching out its body at a foot's length into the air1 and thus reaching another sallying point for further progress4 ,the anatomy of the serpent's jaws is no less remarkable than the mechanism of its movements4 ,in spite of their proverbial wisdom1 snakes would not be able to exist unless they were able to swallow large animal masses at a time4 ,for1 however rapid their motions may be1 those of their prey are in general still more active1 and thus they are obliged to wait in ambush till a fortunate chance provides them with a copious meal4 ,the victim is often much more bulky than the serpent itself1 but still1 without tearing it to pieces1 it is able to engulph it in its swelling maw4 ,for the two halves of its lower jaw do not coalesce like ours into one solid mass1 but are merely connected in front by a loose ligament1 so that each part can be moved separately4 ,the bones of the upper jaw and palate are also loosely attached or articulated one with the other1 and thus the whole mouth is capable of great distension4 ,by this mechanism1 aided by the numerous sharp teeth1 which are so many little hooks with the point curved backwards1 each side of the jaws and mouth being able to act as it were independently of the other1 alternately hooks itself fast to the morsel1 or advances to fasten itself farther on in a similar manner1 and thus the reptile draws itself over its prey1 somewhat in the same way as we draw a stocking over our leg1 after having first1 by breaking the bones1 fashioned it into a convenient mass1 and rendered its passage more easy by lubricating it with its saliva4 ,slowly the huge lump disappears behind the jaws1 descends lower and lower beneath the scales1 which seem ready to burst asunder with distension1 and then the satisfied monster coils himself up once more to digest his meal in quiet4 ,the time required for this purpose varies of course according to the size of the morsel2 but often weeks or even months will pass before a boa awakens from the lethargic repose in which--the image of disgusting gluttony--he lies plunged after a superabundant meal4 ,the reptiles in the ,zoological ,gardens are offered food once a week1 but even then their appetites are frequently not yet awakened1 though great care is taken never to spoil their stomachs by excess4 ,this is the time for visiting the ,reptile ,house1 which otherwise offers but little amusement1 as the great snakes have either retired from public life under their blankets1 or lie coiled upon the branches of the trees in their dens4 ,three o'clock is the feeding-time1 and the reptiles1 which are on the look-out1 seem to know full well the errand of the man who enters with the basket1 against the side of which they hear the fluttering wings of the feathered victims1 and the short stamp of the doomed rabbits4 ,the keeper opens the door at the back of the den of the huge pythons1 for these he need not fear1 takes off their blanket and drops a rabbit1 who hops from side to side1 curious to inspect his new habitation1 and probably finding it to his taste1 sits on his haunches and leisurely begins to wash his face4 ,silently the python glides over the stones1 uncurling his huge folds1 looks for an instant upon his unconscious victim1 and the next has seized him with his jaws4 ,his contracting folds are twisted as swiftly as a whiplash round his shrieking prey1 and for ten minutes the serpent lies still1 maintaining his mortal knot until his prey is dead1 when seizing it by the ears1 he draws it through his vice-like grip1 crushing every bone1 and elongating the body preparatory to devouring it4 ,the arrangement for feeding the venomous kinds1 is1 of course1 more cautious4 ,the door opens at the top instead of at the side of the dens1 and with good reason2 for no sooner does the keeper remove with a crooked iron rod1 the blanket from the cobra1 than the reptile springs with inflated hood into an ,s-like attitude and darts laterally at his prey1 whose sides have scarcely been pierced1 when it is seized with tetanic spasms1 and lies convulsed in a few seconds4 ,these instantaneous effects1 almost as rapid as those of a mortal shot or of lightning itself1 might at first sight seem to warrant the conclusion that the genius of evil had formed the venomous serpents to be his chosen agents of destruction2 but at a nearer view1 they afford but another proof of the beneficence of the ,creator in providing weak1 sober1 and by no means cruel creatures1 with a weapon which makes up to them for the want of speed1 and at the same times abridges the torments of their victims4 ,though generally the objects of abhorrence and fear1 yet serpents sometimes render themselves useful or agreeable to man4 ,thus the rat-snake of ,ceylon 7,coryphodon ,blumenbachii71 in consideration of its services in destroying vermin1 is often kept as a household pet1 and so domesticated by the natives as to feed at their table4 ,the agility of this serpent in seizing its nimble-footed prey is truly wonderful4 ,one day ,sir ,emerson ,tennent had an opportunity of surprising a coryphodon which had just seized on a rat1 and of covering it suddenly with a glass shade1 before it had time to swallow its prey4 ,the serpent1 which appeared stunned with its own capture1 allowed the rat to escape from its jaws1 which cowered at one side of the glass in an agony of terror4 ,on removing the shade1 the rat1 recovering its spirits1 instantly bounded towards the nearest fence1 but quick as lightning it was followed by its pursuer1 which seized it before it could gain the hedge1 through which the snake glided with its victim in its jaws4 ,the beautiful coral-snake 7,elaps corallinus7 is fondled by the ,brazilian ladies1 but the domestication of the dreaded cobras as protectors in the place of dogs1 mentioned by ,major ,skinner1 on undoubtedly good authority1#bf is still more remarkable4 ,they glide about the house1 going in and out at pleasure1 a terror to thieves1 but never attempting to harm the inmates4 ,the ,tree-snakes offer many beautiful examples of the adaptation of colour to the animal's pursuits1 which we have already had occasion to admire in our brief review of the tropical insect world4 ,they are frequently of an agreeable green or bluish hue1 so as hardly to be distinguishable from the foliage among which they seek their prey1 or where they themselves are liable to be seized upon by their enemies4 ,they are often able vertically to ascend the smoothest trunks and branches1 in search of squirrels and lizards1 or to rifle the nests of birds4 ,the ,water-snakes which infest some parts of the tropical seas1 though far from equalling in size the vast proportions of the fabulous sea-serpent1 are very formidable from their venomous bite4 ,they have the back part of the body and tail very much compressed and raised vertically1 so as to serve them as a paddle with which they rapidly cleave the waters4 ,illustration3 ,,toad ,,and ,,anolis4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,lizards1 ,,frogs ,,and ,,toads4 ,their ,multitude within the ,tropics--,the ,geckoes--,anatomy of their ,feet--,the ,anolis--,their ,love of ,fight--,the ,chameleon--,its wonderful ,changes of ,colour--,its ,habits--,peculiarities of its ,organisation--,the ,iguana--,the ,teju--,the ,water-,lizards--,lizard ,worship on the ,coast of ,africa--,the ,flying ,dragon--,the ,basilisk-- ,frogs and ,toads--,the ,pipa--,the ,bahia ,toad--,the ,giant ,toad--,the ,musical ,toad--,brazilian and ,surinam ,tree-,frogs4 ,the equatorial regions may well be called the head-quarters of the lizard race1 as these reptiles nowhere else appear in such a multitude of genera1 species1 and individuals4 ,the stranger is struck with their numbers as soon as he sets his foot on a tropical shore1 for on all sides1 on the sands and in the forests1 on banks and rocks1 on the trees and on the ground1 innumerable varieties of lizards are seen basking1 rustling1 crawling1 climbing1 or rapidly darting along4 ,the ,geckoes might even claim to be ranked among the domestic animals1 as they take up their abode in the dwellings of man1 where they make themselves useful by the destruction of flies1 spiders1 and other noxious or disagreeable insects1 which they almost always swallow entire1 their throat being as broad as the opening of their jaws4 ,during the day time they generally remain concealed in some dark crevice or chink1 but towards evening they may be seen running along the steepest walls with marvellous rapidity1 in keen pursuit of their prey1 frequently standing still1 nodding with their head1 and uttering shrill tones1 most likely by smacking their tongue against the palate4 ,their flattened flexible body seems to mould itself into the hollows1 in which they often remain motionless for hours1 and their generally dull colour harmonises so well with their resting-places1 as to render them hardly distinguishable1 a circumstance which answers the double purpose of masking their presence from the prey for which they lie in wait1 and from the enemies that might be inclined to feast upon them4 ,among these1 some of the smaller birds of prey--hawks and owls--are the most conspicuous1 not to mention man1 the arch-persecutor of almost every animal large enough to attract his notice4 ,illustration3 ,,gecko4 ,how comes it that these nocturnal lizards1 seemingly in defiance of the laws of gravitation1 are thus able to adhere to ceilings or any other overhanging surfaces8 ,an inspection of the soles of their broad feet will soon solve the enigma1 for all their toes are considerably dilated on their margins1 and divided beneath into a number of transverse lamell1 parallel to each other1 and generally without any longitudinal furrow4 ,from these a fluid exudes which serves to attach the animal to the surface4 ,they are also generally provided with sharp and crooked claws1 retractile and movable1 like those of a cat1 and which render them good service in climbing trees4 ,in spite of their harmless nature1 the ,geckoes1 their real utility being forgotten over imaginary grievances1 nowhere enjoy a good reputation1 probably in consequence of their ugliness and the wild expression of their large eyes4 ,they are accused of tainting with a virulent secretion every object they touch1 and of provoking an eruption on the skin merely by running over it--a popular prejudice which naturally causes many a poor inoffensive ,gecko's death4 ,they abound all over the torrid zone1 even in the remote islands of the ,pacific1 such as ,tahiti and ,vanikoro4 ,dumril1 enumerates fifty-five different species1 only two of which are indigenous in ,southern ,europe1 while ,india monopolises no less than thirteen for her share4 ,mr4 ,adams once witnessed in ,borneo a desperate struggle between a ,gecko and a large ,tarantula spider4 ,after a long and doubtful contest1 the ,gecko proved at length victorious1 and succeeded in swallowing the insect1 whose enormous legs1 protruding from the lizard's mouth1 gave the animal the look of some monstrous cuttle-fish4 ,the graceful ,anolis are peculiar to ,america4 ,by the structure of their feet1 provided with long unequal toes1 they are related to the ,geckoes1 but are distinguished from them by a more slender form of body1 by their extremely long thin tail1 and a large neck-pouch1 which dilates under the influence of excitement4 ,these small and nimble creatures1 the largest species seldom exceeding eight inches in length1 are as touchy as fighting-cocks4 ,on approaching them1 they instantly blow up their pouch1 open widely their diminutive jaws1 and spring upon the aggressor1 striving to bite him with their teeth1 which1 however1 are too tiny to do much harm4 ,among each other they live in a perpetual state of warfare4 ,as soon as one ,anolis sees another1 he makes a rapid advance1 while his adversary awaits him with all the courage of a gallant knight4 ,before beginning the conflict1 they make all sorts of menacing gestures1 convulsively nodding their heads and puffing up their pouches1 until finally they close in desperate struggle4 #8,the meeting of these champions proud ,seems like the bursting thunder-cloud4' ,if they are of equal strength1 the battle remains for some time undecided4 ,at length the vanquished ,anolis turns and runs away1 but he may think himself fortunate if he escapes with the loss of his tail4 ,many of them are thus deprived of this ornamental appendage1 which they voluntarily leave behind to avoid a still greater disaster1 and then they become timid1 melancholy1 and fond of retirement1 as if ashamed of being seen1 only regaining their spirits when1 by a wonderful power of reproduction1 the amputated tail has been replaced by another4 ,like many other lizards1 the ,anolis possesses the faculty of changing colour when under the influence of excitement1 but of all animals1 whether terrestrial or marine1 none is more famous or remarkable in this respect than the ,chameleon4 ,it frequently happens that man1 not satisfied with the wonders which ,nature everywhere exposes to his view1 adds to their marvels others of his own invention1 and thus many a fable has been told about the ,chameleon4 ,it has been said1 for instance1 that it could emulate all the colours of the rainbow1 but the more accurate observations of ,hasselquist and other naturalists have shown that the whole change1 which takes place most frequently when the ,chameleon is exposed to full sunshine or under the influence of emotion1 consists in its ordinary bluish-ash colour1 turning to a green or yellowish hue with irregular spots of a dull red4 ,like many other reptiles1 the ,chameleon has the power of inflating its lungs and retaining the air for a long time so as one moment to appear as fat and well-fed as an alderman1 and the next as lean and bony as a hungry disciple of the ,muses4 ,these alternating expansions and collapses seem to have a great influence on the change of colour1 which1 however1 according to ,milne-,edwards1 is principally owing to the skin of the animal consisting of two differently coloured layers1 placed one above the other1 and changing their relative position under the influence of excitement4 ,illustration3 ,,chameleon4 ,in our cold and northern regions the captive ,chameleon cuts but a sorry figure3 but in his own and sunny regions1 which extend from southern ,spain and ,sicily to the ,cape1 and eastwards from ,arabia and ,hindostan to ,australia1 it is said to be by no means deficient in beauty1 in spite of its strangely-formed carinated head1 its enormously projecting eyes1 and its granulated skin4 ,its manner of hunting for the little winged insects1 that form its principal food1 is very peculiar4 ,although the movements of its head are very limited1 on account of the shortness of its neck1 this deficiency is amply supplied by the wide range of its vision1 each eye being able to move about in all directions independently of the other4 ,thus1 while one of them attentively gazes upon the heavens1 the other minutely examines the ground1 or while one of them rolls in its orbit1 the other remains fixed2 nay1 their mobility is so great1 that without even moving its stiff head1 this wonderful lizard1 like ,janus1 the double-faced god of ancient ,rome1 can see at the same time all that goes on before and behind it4 ,when an insect comes flying along1 the ,chameleon1 perched on a branch1 and half concealed between the foliage1 follows it in all its movements by means of his powerful telescopes1 until the proper moment for action appears4 ,then1 quick as thought1 he darts forth1 even to a distance of five or six inches1 his long fleshy glutinous tongue1 which is moreover furnished with a dilated and somewhat tubular tip1 and drawing it back with the same lightning-like velocity1 engulphs his prey4 ,this independence of the eyes is owing to the imperfect sympathy which subsists between the two lobes of the brain and the two sets of nerves which ramify throughout the opposite sides of its frame4 ,hence also one side of the body may be asleep while the other is vigilant1 one may be green while the other is ash-blue1 and it is even said that the ,chameleon is utterly unable to swim1 because the muscles of both sides are incapable of acting in concert4 ,destined for an arboreal life1 he is provided with organs beautifully adapted for supporting himself on the flexible branches2 for1 besides the cylindrical tail nearly as long as his body which he coils round the boughs1 his five toes are united two and three by a common skin1 so as to form1 as it were1 a pair of pincers or a kind of hand1 admirably suited for a hold-fast4 ,illustration3 ,,iguana4 ,among the ,iguanas1 a huge lizard tribe1 characterised by a carinated back and tail1 and a large denticulated gular pouch1 the common or ,great ,american ,guana 7,iguana tuberculata7 deserves particular notice1 as its white flesh is considered a great delicacy in ,brazil and the ,west ,indies4 ,notwithstanding its large size1 for it not seldom attains a length of four or five feet1 and the formidable appearance of its serrated back1 it is in reality by no means of a warlike disposition1 and so stupid that1 instead of endeavouring to save itself by a timely flight1 it merely stares with its large eyes1 and inflates its pouch1 while the noose is passing round its neck to drag it from its hole4 ,the ,bahama ,islands abound with ,guanas1 which form a great part of the subsistence of the inhabitants4 ,they are caught by dogs1 trained for the purpose1 in the hollow rocks and trees where they nestle1 and either carried alive for sale to ,carolina1 or kept for home consumption4 ,they feed wholly on vegetables and food1 particularly on a kind of fungus1 growing at the roots of trees1 and on the fruits of the different kinds of pine apples1 whence their flesh most likely acquires its delicate flavour4 ,illustration3 ,,monitor4 ,the famous ,south ,american monitory lizard or ,teju 7,tejus monitor7 is one of the largest and most beautiful of the whole race1 as he measures no less than five feet from the snout to the tip of the tail1 which is nearly twice as long as the body1 while his black colour1 variegated with bright yellow bands and spots1 produces an agreeable and pleasing effect4 ,the head is small1 the snout gradually tapers1 the limbs are slender1 and the tail1 which is laterally compressed1 gradually decreases towards the extremity4 ,the ,teju lives in cavities and hollows1 frequently under the roots of trees4 ,when pursued1 he runs rapidly straight forward to his burrow2 but when his retreat is intercepted1 he defends himself valiantly1 and proves a by no means contemptible antagonist1 as he is able to bite through a thick boot1 and a stroke with his strong and muscular tail will completely disable a dog4 ,though the ,monitor generally lives on land1 he is an excellent swimmer1 and catches many a fish in its native element4 ,his chief food1 however1 consists in various fruits1 rats1 mice1 birds1 and he also devours a large number of the eggs and young of the alligator4 ,the attachment to man which is universally attributed to him in ,brazil1 and the warning which1 like his relation the ,monitor of the ,nile1 he is said to give to him of the approach of the cayman or the crocodile1 by emitting a peculiar and shrill sound1 are idle fables which hardly required the contradiction of ,prince ,maximilian of ,neu ,wied1 who in all his travels never once heard the ,teju's monitory cry1 although occasions were not wanting when it might have been of service4 ,the large ,water-lizards 7,hydrosauri7 frequent the low river banks or the margins of springs1 and although they may be seen basking on rocks or on the dead trunk of some prostrate tree in the heat of the sun1 yet they appear more partial to the damp weeds and undergrowth in the neighbourhood of water4 ,their gait has somewhat more of the awkward lateral motion of the crocodile than of the lively action of the smaller saurians4 ,when attacked1 they lash violently with their tail1 swaying it sideways with great force like the cayman4 ,these modern types of the ,ichthyosaurus have a graceful habit of extending the neck1 and raising the head to look about them1 and as you follow them leisurely over the rocks1 or through the jungle1 they frequently stop1 turn their heads round1 and take a deliberate survey of the intruder4 ,they are by no means vicious1 though they bite severely when provoked1 acting1 however1 always on the defensive4 ,on examining their stomachs1 crabs1 locusts1 beetles1 the remains of jumping fish1 the scales of snakes1 and bones of frogs and other small animals are discovered4 ,like that of the ,iguanas1 their flesh is delicate eating1 resembling that of a very young sucking-pig4 ,mr4 ,adams gives us an amusing description of his contests with a gigantic ,water-lizard 7,hydrosaura giganteus73 #8,throwing myself on him1 ,i wounded him with a clasp knife in the tail1 but he managed to elude my grasp1 and made for the woods4 ,i succeeded1 however1 in tracking his retreating form1 on hands and knees1 through a low covered labyrinth in the dense undergrowth1 until ,i saw him extended on a log2 when1 leaving the jungle1 ,i called my servant1 a marine1 who was shooting specimens for me1 and pointing out the couchant animal1 desired him to shoot him in the neck1 as ,i did not wish the head to be injured1 which he accordingly did4 ,entering the jungle1 ,i then closed with the wounded saurian1 and seizing him by the throat1 bore him in triumph to our quarters4 ,here he soon recovered2 and hoping to preserve him alive to study his habits1 ,i placed him in a ,malay wicker hen-coop4 ,as we were sitting1 however1 at dinner1 the black cook1 with great alarm depicted in his features1 reported that #8,alligator got out his cage6' ,seizing the carving knife1 ,i rushed down1 and was just in time to cut off his retreat into the adjoining swamp4 ,turning sharply round1 he made a snap at my leg1 and received in return a #8,rowland for his ,oliver' in the shape of an inch or so of cold steel4 ,after wrestling on the ground1 and struggling through the deserted fire of our sable cook1 ,i at length secured the runaway1 tied him up to a post1 and to prevent further mischief1 ended his career by dividing the jugular4 ,the length of this lizard from actual measurement was five feet ten inches and a half4' ,these semi-aquatic1 dingy-hued saurians are admirably adapted to the hot moist swamps and shallow lagoons that fringe the rivers of the tropical alluvial plains4 ,as we watch their dark forms1 plunging and wallowing in the water1 or sluggishly moving over the soft and slimy mud1 the imagination is carried back to the age of reptiles1 when the muddy shores of the primval ocean swarmed with their uncouth forms4 ,the huge lizard1 six or seven feet long1 to which divine honours are paid at ,bonny on the coast of ,guinea1 belongs most likely to this amphibious class4 ,undisturbed1 the lazy monsters crawl heavily through the streets1 and as they pass1 the negroes reverentially make way4 ,a white man is hardly allowed to look at them1 and hurried as fast as possible out of their presence4 ,an attempt was once made to kidnap one of these dull lizard-gods for the benefit of a profane museum1 but the consequences were such as to prevent a repetition of the offence1 for all trade and intercourse with the ships in harbour was immediately stopped1 and affairs assumed so hostile an aspect1 that the foreigners were but too glad to purchase peace with a considerable sacrifice of money and goods4 ,when one of these lizards crawls into a house1 it is considered a great piece of good fortune2 and when it chooses to take a bath1 the ,bonnians hurry after it in their canoes4 ,after having allowed it to swim a stretch1 and to plunge several times1 they seize it for fear of danger1 and carry it back again to the land1 well pleased at once more having the sacred reptile in their safe possession4 ,the formidable name of ,flying ,dragons has been given to a genus of small lizards1 remarkable for the expansible cutaneous processes with which the sides are furnished1 and by whose means they are enabled to spring with more facility from branch to branch1 and even to support themselves for some time in the air1 like the bat or flying-squirrel4 ,the tiny painted ,dragon of the ,east1 the ,flying ,lizard of the woods1 is fond of clinging with its wings to the smooth trunks of trees1 and there remaining immovable1 basking in the sun4 ,when disturbed1 it leaps and shuffles away in an awkward manner4 ,one ,mr4 ,adams had in his possession1 reminded him of a bat when placed on the ground4 ,sometimes the strange creature would feign death1 and remain perfectly motionless1 drooping its head1 and doubling its limbs1 until it fancied the danger over1 then cautiously raising its crouching form1 it would look stealthily around1 and be off in a moment4 ,the dragon consumes flies in a slow and deliberate manner1 swallowing them gradually2 its various species belong exclusively to ,india and the islands of the ,eastern ,archipelago4 ,illustration3 ,,flying ,,dragon4 ,who has not heard of the fatal glance of the basilisk1 which1 according to poetical fancy1 obliged all other poisonous animals to keep at a respectful distance #8from monster more abhorr'd than they'8 ,the truth is1 that the ugly lizards that bear this dreaded name1 which has been given them from the fanciful resemblance of their pointed occipital crest to a regal crown1 are quite as harmless and inoffensive as the flying dragon4 ,they are chiefly inhabitants of ,south ,america1 where they generally lead a sylvian life1 feeding on insects4 ,illustration3 ,,basilisk4 ,illustration3 ,,surinam ,,toad4 ,among the toads of the torrid zone there is none more curious than the large and hideous ,pipa ,surinamensis1 whose deformity is often aggravated by a phenomenon unexampled in the rest of the animal world1 namely1 the young in various stages of exclusion1 proceeding from cells dispersed over the back of the parent4 ,it was for a long time supposed that the ova of this extraordinary reptile were produced in the dorsal cells without having been first excluded in the form of spawn2 but it is now thoroughly ascertained that the female ,pipa deposits her eggs or spawn at the brink of some stagnant water1 and that the male collects or amasses the heap of ova1 and deposits them with great care on the back of the female1 where1 after impregnation1 they are pressed into the cellules1 which are at that period open for their reception1 and afterwards close over them2 thus retaining them till the period of their second birth1 which happens in somewhat less than three months1 when they emerge from the back of the parent in their complete state4 ,the ,pipa is fond of dark nooks and corners1 and avoids the light of day as if conscious of its unrivalled hideousness4 ,illustration3 ,,bahia ,,toad4 ,mr4 ,darwin thus describes a remarkable species of toad he noticed at ,bahia4 #8,amongst the ,batrachian reptiles1 ,i found only one little toad1 which was most singular from its colour4 ,if we imagine1 first1 that it had been steeped in the blackest ink1 and then1 when dry1 allowed to crawl over a board freshly painted with the brightest vermilion1 so as to colour the sides of its feet and parts of its stomach1 a good idea of its appearance will be gained4 ,if it is an unnamed species1 surely it ought to be called diabolicus1 for it is a fit toad to preach in the ear of ,eve4 ,instead of being nocturnal in its habits as other toads are1 and living in damp and obscure recesses1 it crawls during the heat of the day about the dry sand hillocks and arid plains1 where not a single drop of water can be found4 ,it must necessarily depend on the dew for its moisture1 and this probably is absorbed by the skin1 for it is known that these reptiles possess great powers of cutaneous absorption4 ,at ,maldonado ,i found one in a situation nearly as dry as at ,bahia ,blanca1 and1 thinking to give it a great treat1 carried it to a pool of water2 not only was the little animal unable to swim1 but ,i think without help would soon have been drowned4' ,the giant-toad 7,bufo gigas1 agua7 frequents the ,brazilian campos in such numbers that in the evening or after a shower of rain1 when they come forth from their hiding-places to regale on the damp and murky atmosphere1 the earth seems literally to swarm with them4 ,they are double the size of our common toad1 and are even said to attain1 with their outstretched hind legs1 a foot's length1 with a proportionate girth4 ,covered with unsightly warts1 and of a dull grey colour1 their aspect is repulsive1 and when excited1 they eject a liquid which is very much feared by the natives4 ,their voice is loud and disagreeable2 while ,guinea possesses1 in the ,breviceps gibbosus1 a small toad which is said to sing delightfully1 #8charming the swamps with its melodious note4' ,a ,brazilian tree-frog1 7,hyla crepitans7 which adheres to the large leaves1 not merely with its widened toes1 but with its constantly viscid body1 has a voice which sounds like the cracking of a large piece of wood1 and generally proceeds from many throats at a time4 ,on wandering through the forests of ,brazil1 ,prince ,maximilian of ,neu ,wied was often surprised by this singular concert issuing from the dark shades of the forest4 ,a ,surinam tree-frog 7,hyla micans7 has the singular property of secreting a luminous slime1 so as to look in the dark like a yellowish will-o'-the-wisp4 ,its voice is most disagreeable1 and is said at times completely to overpower the orchestra of the theatre in ,paramaribo1 thus emulating the stentorian achievements of the ,virginian bull-frog4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,tortoises ,,and ,,turtles4 ,the ,galapagos--,the ,elephantine ,tortoise--,the ,marsh-,tortoises-- ,mantega--,river-,tortoises--,marine-,tu rtles--,on the ,brazilian ,coast-- ,their ,numerous ,enemies--,the ,island of ,ascension--,turtle-,catching at the ,bahama and ,keeling ,islands--,turtle caught by means of the ,sucking-,fish--,the ,green ,turtle--,the ,hawksbill ,turtle-- ,turtle ,scaling in the ,feejee ,islands--,barbarous mode of selling ,turtle-flesh in ,ceylon--,the ,coriaceous ,turtle--,its awful ,shrieks4 ,in the ,south ,sea1 exposed to the vertical beams of the equatorial sun1 lies a large group of uninhabited islands1 on whose sterile shores you would look in vain for the palms1 bananas1 or bread-fruit trees of more favoured lands1 as rain falls only upon the heights1 and never descends to call forth plenty on the arid coasts4 ,illustration3 ,,amblyrhyne4 ,and yet1 this desolate group offers many points of interest to the naturalist1 for the ,galapagos or ,tortoise ,islands represent1 as it were1 a little world in themselves1 a peculiar creation of animals and plants1 reminding us1 more strongly than the productions of any other land1 of an earlier epoch of planetary life4 ,here are no less than twenty-six different species of land-birds1 which1 with one single exception1 are found nowhere else4 ,their plumage is homely1 like the flora of their native country2 their tameness so great that they may be killed with a stick4 ,a sea-mew1 likewise peculiar to this group1 mixes its shriek with the hoarse-resounding surge2 lizards1 existing in no other country1 swarm about the shore1 and the gigantic land-tortoise 7,testudo indica1 elephantina71 although now spread over many other countries1 is supposed by ,mr4 ,darwin to have had its original seat in the ,galapagos1 where it was formerly found in such vast numbers as to have given the group its ,spanish name4 ,if the seafarer visits these treeless shores1 which as yet produce nothing else worth gathering1 it is chiefly for the purpose of catching a few of these huge animals1 which1 in spite of frequent persecutions1 still amply reward a short sojourn with a rich supply of fresh meat4 ,their capture costs nothing but the trouble1 for man has not yet drawn the boundary marks of property over the tenantless land4 ,the elephantine tortoise inhabits as well the low and sterile country1 where it feeds on the fleshy leaves of the cactus1 as the mountainous regions where the moist trade-wind calls forth a richer vegetation of ferns1 grasses1 and various trees4 ,on this meagre food1 which seems hardly sufficient for a goat1 it thrives so well that three men are often scarcely able to lift it1 and it not seldom furnishes more than #bjj pounds of excellent meat4 #8,the tortoise1' says ,mr4 ,darwin1 #8is very fond of water1 drinking large quantities1 and wallowing in the mud4 ,the larger islands alone possess springs1 and these are always situated towards the central parts1 and at a considerable elevation4 ,the tortoises1 therefore1 which frequent the lower districts1 when thirsty1 are obliged to travel from a long distance4 ,their broad and well-beaten paths radiate off in every direction1 from the wells even down to the sea coast1 and the ,spaniards1 by following them up1 first discovered the watering places4 ,when ,i landed at ,chatham ,island1 ,i could not imagine what animal travelled so methodically along the well-chosen tracks4 ,near the springs it was a curious spectacle to behold many of these great monsters1 one set eagerly travelling onward with outstretched necks1 and another set returning after having drank their fill4 ,when the tortoise arrives at the spring1 quite regardless of any spectator1 it buries its head in the water above the eyes1 and greedily swallows great mouthfuls1 at the rate of about ten in a minute4 ,the inhabitants#bg say each animal stays three or four days in the neighbourhood of the water1 and then returns to the lower country2 but they differed in their accounts respecting the frequency of these visits4 ,the animal probably regulates them according to the nature of the food which it has consumed4 ,it is1 however1 certain that tortoises can subsist even on those islands where there is no other water than what falls during a few rainy days in the year4 ,i believe it is well ascertained that the bladder of the frog acts as a reservoir for the moisture necessary to its existence--such seems to be the case with the tortoise4 ,for some time after a visit to the springs1 the urinary bladder of these animals is distended with fluid1 which is said gradually to decrease in volume1 and to become less pure4 ,the inhabitants1 when walking in the lower districts and overcome with thirst1 often take advantage of this circumstance by killing a tortoise1 and if the bladder is full1 drinking its contents4 ,in one ,i saw killed1 the fluid was quite limpid1 and had only a very slightly bitter taste4 #8,the tortoises1 when moving towards any definite point1 travel by night and day1 and arrive at their journey's end much sooner than would be expected4 ,the inhabitants1 from observations on marked individuals1 consider that they can move a distance of about eight miles in two or three days4 ,one large tortoise1 which ,i watched1 ,i found walked at the rate of sixty yards in ten minutes1 that is1 three hundred and sixty in the hour1 or four miles a day1 allowing also a little time for it to eat on the road4 ,the flesh of this animal is largely employed1 both fresh and salted1 and a beautifully clear oil is prepared from the fat4 #8,when a tortoise is caught1 the man makes a slit in the skin near its tail1 so as to see inside its body1 whether the fat under the dorsal plate is thick4 ,if it is not1 the animal is liberated1 and it is said to recover soon from this strange operation4 ,in order to secure the tortoises1 it is not sufficient to turn them like turtle 7their upper buckler being highly arched1 while it is more flattened in the aquatic families1 for the better adaptation of their forms to motion in a liquid71 for they are often able to regain their upright position4' ,they are said to be completely deaf2 so much is certain1 that they do not perceive a person even when walking close behind them4 ,mr4 ,darwin often amused himself by overtaking the slow and monstrous creatures1 who1 as soon as he had passed them1 instantly withdrew their head and legs1 and fell flat down with a loud hiss and heavy noise as if touched by lightning4 ,he then mounted upon their back1 and on giving them a smart slap or two on the hind part of their carapace1 they rose and leisurely proceeded with their learned freight1 the author of #8,origin of ,species' finding it very difficult to maintain his equilibrium on this strange beast of burthen4 ,it is a remarkable fact1 that though the land-tortoises are scattered in many places over the warmer regions of the globe1 and even extend as far as ,patagonia and the south of ,europe1 yet not a single one has hitherto been found in ,australia1 where1 equally strange to say1 no indigenous monkey exists4 ,illustration3 ,,marsh ,,tortoise4 7,,emys ,,picta47 ,the marsh tortoises1 or ,emyd1 have their chief seat in tropical ,america and the ,indian ,archipelago1 where an abundance of swamps1 lagoons1 lakes1 pools1 and gently-flowing rivers favours the increase of their numbers4 ,in the month of ,september1 as soon as the sand-banks begin to be uncovered1 the females deposit their eggs1 scraping hollows of a considerable depth1 covering them over carefully1 smoothing and beating down the sand1 and then walking across and across the place in various directions1 for the purpose of concealment4 ,there are such numbers of them1 that some beaches are almost one mass of eggs beneath the surface1 and here the ,indians come to make oil4 ,a canoe is filled with the eggs1 which are all broken and mashed up together4 ,the oil rises to the top1 and is skimmed off and boiled1 when it will keep1 and is used both for light and for cooking4 ,during this operation1 the neighbouring strand swarms with carrion vultures1 and the smell of the offal attracts also a number of alligators1 eager to come in for their share of the feast4 ,millions of eggs are thus annually destroyed1 and of those that remain a very small portion only arrives at maturity4 ,when the young tortoises issue from the egg and run to the water1 many enemies are awaiting them4 ,great alligators open their jaws1 and swallow them by hundreds2 the jaguars and the smaller felid from the forest come to feed upon them2 eagles and buzzards and the great wood ibises attend the feast1 and when they have escaped all these1 there are many ravenous fishes which seize them in the stream4 ,the marsh-tortoises may be said to form the connecting link between the eminently aquatic marine and river chelonians and the land-tortoises1 as the formation of their feet1 armed with sharp claws or crooked nails1 and furnished with a kind of flexible web1 connecting their distinct and movable toes1 allows them both to advance much quicker on the dry land than the latter1 and to swim rapidly either on the surface or in the depth of the waters4 ,endowed with more rapid powers of locomotion1 they are not vegetarians1 like the land-tortoises1 but chiefly live on mollusks1 fishes1 frogs1 toads1 and annelides4 ,the river-tortoises differ in many respects from the sea-turtles1 although formed like them for a purely aquatic life4 ,in both families the extremities are complete fins1 serving as oars1 but the fore feet of the river-tortoises are not double the length of the hind feet1 as we find in the marine chelonians2 and while the latter have a short apoplectic neck1 that of the river-tortoise is generally very long1 and surmounted by a small and narrow head4 ,the river-tortoises are exclusively confined to the warmer countries of the globe1 and sometimes weigh as much as seventy pounds4 ,it seems that during the night1 and when they fancy themselves secure from danger1 they repose upon the small river islands1 or on rocks and trunks of trees that have fallen on the banks1 or are drifted along by the current1 and instantly plunge again into the water at the sight of man or at the least alarming noise4 ,they are extremely voracious1 and being very active swimmers1 kill numbers of fish and reptiles4 ,when they wish to seize their food or to defend themselves1 they dart forwards their head and long neck with the velocity of lightning1 and are said in this manner to surprise and seize even small birds that incautiously fly too near the surface of the water4 ,they bite lustily with their sharp beak1 never quitting their hold till they have fairly scooped out the morsel1 so that the fishermen stand in great awe of their powerful mandibles1 and generally cut off their head as soon as they are caught1 rightly judging this to be the most radical means to prevent any further mischief4 ,the ,indians of the ,amazons catch them either with the hook1 net1 or arrow4 ,the last is the most ingenious method1 and requires the most skill4 ,the tortoise never shows its back above water1 only rising to breathe1 which it does by protruding its nostrils almost imperceptibly above the surface4 ,the ,indian's keen eye perceives this1 even at a considerable distance1 but an arrow shot obliquely would glance off the smooth flat shell1 so he shoots up into the air with such accurate judgment that the arrow falls nearly vertically upon the shell1 which it penetrates1 and remains securely fixed in the tortoise's back4 ,the head of the arrow fits loosely on to the shaft1 and is connected with it by a long fine cord1 carefully wound round it2 as the tortoise dives they separate1 the light shaft forming a float or buoy which the ,indian secures1 and by the attached cord draws the prize up into his canoe4 ,in this manner almost all the tortoises sold in the small settlements on the ,amazons are procured1 and the little square vertical hole of the arrow-head may generally be seen in the shell4 ,the turtles1 which are likewise inhabitants of the warmer latitudes1 though sometimes a strange erratic propensity or mischance will carry them as far from their usual haunts as the ,north ,sea1 have1 as we all know1 a far greater commercial and gastronomic value than all the rest of the tortoise tribes4#bh ,during the ,brazilian summer 7,december1 ,january1 ,february71 colossal turtles are seen everywhere swimming about along the coast1 raising their thick round heads above the water1 and waiting for the approach of night to land4 ,the neighbouring ,indians are their bitterest enemies1 killing them whenever they can4 ,thus these dreary sand coasts1 bounded on one side by the ocean and on the other by gloomy primval forests1 offer on all sides pictures of destruction1 for the bones and shells of slaughtered turtles everywhere bestrew the ground4 ,two parallel grooves indicate the path of the turtle after landing2 they are the marks of the four large and long fin-shaped feet or paddles1 and between them may be seen a broad furrow where the heavy body trailed along the ground4 ,on following these traces about thirty or forty yards shore-upwards1 the huge animal may be found sitting in a flat excavation formed by its circular movements1 and in which one half of its body is imbedded4 ,it allows itself to be handled on all sides without making the least attempt to move away1 being probably taught by instinct how useless all endeavours to escape would be4 ,a blowing or snorting like that of a goose when any one approaches its nest1 at the same time inflating its neck a little1 are the sole signs of defence which it exhibits4 ,on the small islands of ,talong1 on the coast of ,borneo1 ,mr4 ,brooke had an opportunity of seeing a turtle deposit its eggs4 ,when on the sand it wandered from place to place1 and tried several by digging a little1 apparently rejecting them as unfit4 ,at length1 having made its choice1 it buried its nose1 and began scooping the sand with its hinder feet in a most deliberate and easy manner1 throwing the sand to a considerable distance4 ,it often stopped in its work and recommenced1 and so dug till the body was pretty well buried1 and the hole a depth of three or more feet4 ,it then took its station over the hole and began to lay its eggs1 which it did at intervals for a length of time1 to the number of two hundred and thirty1 and all the while was perfectly indifferent to the proximity of numerous spectators4 ,having deposited the eggs1 it filled the hole with its hinder fins1 and beat down the sand both on the spot and all around1 and then retired1 not directly 7for the track would have been a guide to the nest71 but in numerous tortuous courses1 round and round1 and finally took its departure for the sea at a point distant from its eggs4 ,the ,malays on watch have small sticks with flags on them1 and as each turtle deposits its eggs they mark the spot with one of these1 and the following morning take the eggs4 ,with all their vigilance1 however1 numbers escape their observation1 and some nests they purposely spare4 ,similar scenes take place during the dry season throughout the whole of the tropical zone1 on every sandy1 unfrequented coast3 for the same instinct which prompts the salmon to swim stream-upwards1 the cod to seek elevated submarine banks1 or the penguin to leave the high seas and settle for the summer on some dreary rock1 attracts also the turtles from distances of fifty or sixty leagues to the shores of desert islands or solitary bays4 ,the enemies of the marine chelonians are no less numerous than those of the terrestrial or fluviatile species4 ,while the full-grown turtles1 as soon as they leave the water1 are exposed to the attacks of many ravenous beasts1 from the wild dog to the tiger or jaguar2 storks1 herons1 and other strand- or sea-birds devour thousands upon thousands of the young before they reach the ocean1 where sharks and other greedy fishes still further thin their ranks1 so that but very few escape from the general massacre1 and the whole race can only maintain itself by its great fecundity4 ,of all the foes of the turtle-tribe there is1 however1 none more formidable than man1 as even on the most lonely islands the seafarer lies in wait for them1 eager to relieve the monotony of his coarse fare by an abundant supply of their luscious flesh4 ,on the isle of ,ascension1 the head-quarters of the finest turtle in the world1 all the movements of the poor creatures are carefully watched1 and when1 after having deposited their eggs in the sand1 they waddle again towards the sea1 their retreat is often intercepted1 for two stout hands running up to the unfortunate turtle after the completion of her task1 one seizes a fore-flipper and dexterously shoves it under her belly to serve as a purchase2 whilst the other1 avoiding a stroke which might lame him1 cants her over on her back1 where she lies helpless4 ,from fifteen to thirty are thus turned in a night4 ,in the bays1 when the surf or heavy rollers prevent the boats being beached to take on board the turtles when caught1 they are hauled out to them by ropes4 ,in former times1 as long as the island had neither master nor inhabitants1 every ship's crew that landed helped itself to as many turtles as it could catch2 but since ,england has taken possession of the island1 turtle-turning has been converted into a ,government monopoly4 ,they are kept in two large enclosures near the sea1 which flows in and out1 through a breakwater of large stones4 ,a gallows is erected between the two ponds1 where the turtles are slaughtered for shipping1 by suspending them by the hind-flippers and then cutting their throats4 ,often above #cjj turtles1 of #djj lbs4 and #ejj lbs4 each1 are lying on the sand or swimming about in the ponds--a fine sight for an alderman4 ,the way by which the turtles are most commonly taken at the ,bahama ,islands is by striking them with a small iron peg of two inches long1 put in a socket at the end of a staff of twelve feet long4 ,two men usually set out for this work in a canoe1 one to row and gently steer the boat1 while the other stands at the end of it with his weapon4 ,the turtles are sometimes discovered by their swimming with their head and back out of the water1 but they are more often seen lying at the bottom a fathom or more deep4 ,if a turtle perceives he is discovered1 he starts up to make his escape2 the men in the boat1 pursuing him1 endeavour to keep sight of him1 which they often lose and recover again by the turtle putting his nose out of the water to breathe4 ,on ,keeling ,island1 ,mr4 ,darwin witnessed another highly interesting method of catching turtle4 #8,i accompanied ,captain ,fitzroy to an island at the head of the lagoon1' says the eminent naturalist2 #8the channel was exceedingly intricate1 winding through fields of delicately-branched corals4 ,we saw several turtles1 and two boats were then employed in catching them4 ,the method is rather curious3 the water is so clear and shallow that1 although at first a turtle quickly dives out of sight1 yet in a canoe1 or boat under sail1 the pursuers1 after no very long chase1 come up to it4 ,a man1 standing ready in the bows1 at this moment dashes through the water upon the turtle's back2 then clinging with both hands by the shell of the neck1 he is carried away till the animal becomes exhausted and is secured4 ,it was quite an interesting chase to see the two boats thus doubling about1 and the men dashing into the water trying to seize their prey4' ,illustration3 ,,green ,,turtle4 ,the ,green turtle 7,chelonia midas71 which has been known to attain a length of seven feet1 and a weight of #ijj lbs41 is most prized for its flesh2 but the ,hawksbill 7,chelonia imbricata71 which hardly reaches one-third of the size1 is of far greater commercial value1 the plates of its shell being stronger1 thicker1 and clearer than those of any other species4 ,it is caught all over the tropical seas1 but principally near the ,moluccas1 the ,west ,indian1 and the ,feejee ,islands1 where it is preserved in pens by the chiefs1 who have a barbarous way of removing the valuable part of the shell from the living animal4 ,a burning brand is held close to the outer shell1 until it curls up and separates a little from that beneath4 ,into the gap thus formed a small wooden wedge is then inserted1 by which the whole is easily removed from the back4 ,when stripped1 the animal is again put into the pen1 where it has full time for the growth of a new shell--for though the operation appears to give great pain1 it is not fatal4 ,a similar cruel method of removing the tortoise's shell by heat is resorted to in ,ceylon2 but the mode in which the flesh of the edible turtle is sold piecemeal1 while it is still alive1 by the fishermen of that island1 is still more repulsive1 and a disgrace to the ,colonial ,government which allows it to be openly practised4 #8,the creatures1' says ,sir ,emerson ,tennent1 #8are to be seen in the market-place undergoing this frightful mutilation1 the plastron and its integuments having been previously removed1 and the animal thrown on its back1 so as to display all the motions of the heart1 viscera1 and lungs4 ,a broad knife1 from twelve to eighteen inches in length1 is first inserted at the left side1 and the women1 who are generally the operators1 introduce one hand to scoop out the blood1 which oozes slowly4 ,the blade is next passed round till the lower shell is detached and placed to one side1 and the internal organs exposed in full action4 ,each customer1 as he applies1 is served with any part selected1 which is cut off as ordered1 and sold by weight4 ,each of the fins is thus successively removed1 with portions of the fat and flesh1 the turtle showing by its contortions that each act of severance is productive of agony4 ,in this state it lies for hours writhing in the sun1 the heart and head being usually the last pieces selected2 and till the latter is cut off1 the snapping of the mouth1 and the opening and closing of the eyes1 show that life is still inherent1 even when the shell has been nearly divested of its contents4' ,the ,coriaceous turtle 7,sphargis coriacea71 of a more elongated form than the other species1 and whose outer covering1 marked along its whole length by seven distinct1 prominent1 and tuberculated ridges1 is not of a horny substance1 but resembles strong leather1 grows to the greatest size of all the marine chelonians1 some having been taken above eight feet in length1 and weighing no less than #a1fjj lbs41 so that even the crocodile can hardly be compared to it in bulk4 ,illustration3 ,,loggerhead4 ,while the land-tortoises can scarcely be said to have a voice1 merely hissing or blowing when irritated or seized1 the ,coriaceous turtle1 when taken in a net or seriously wounded1 utters loud shrieks1 or cries1 that may be heard at a considerable distance--a power which1 in an inferior degree1 seems to belong to most of the fluviatile and marine chelonians4 ,the turtles generally live on marine plants1 but the ,caouana1 or ,loggerhead 7,chelonia caouana71 and the ,hawksbill 7,c4 imbricata71 feed on crustaceans and cuttle-fish1 which they can easily crush in their strong1 horny beak4 ,the ,caouana and the ,coriaceous turtles are frequently found in the ,mediterranean1 and on the coasts of ,south ,america and ,africa4 ,both are of no commercial importance2 their shell is almost useless1 and their flesh1 which1 like that of the alligator1 exhales a strong smell of musk1 is extremely coarse and ill flavoured4 ,illustration3 ,,crocodiles ,,and ,,alligators4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,crocodiles ,,and ,,alligators4 ,their ,habits--,the ,gavial and the ,tiger--,mode of ,seizing their ,prey-- ,their ,voice--,their ,preference of ,human ,flesh--,alligator against ,alligator--,wonderful ,tenacity of ,life--,tenderness of the ,female ,cayman for her ,young--,the ,crocodile of the ,nile--,its ,longevity-- ,enemies of the ,crocodile--,torpidity of ,crocodiles during the ,dry ,season--,their ,awakening from their ,lethargy with the ,first ,rains-- #8,tickling a ,crocodile4' ,there was a time1 long before man appeared upon the scene1 when huge ,crocodiles swarmed in the rivers of ,england1 and1 for aught we know1 basked on the very spot where now their grim representatives can hardly be said to adorn the grounds of ,sydenham ,palace4 ,but the day when the ferocious1 bone-harnessed ,saurians lorded it in the ,european streams has passed1 never to return2 the diminished warmth of what are now the temperate regions of the globe having long since confined them to the large rivers and lagunes of the torrid zone4 ,the scourge and terror of all that lives in the waters which they frequent1 they may with full justice be called the very images of depravity1 as perhaps no animals in existence bear in their countenance more decided marks of cruelty and malice4 ,the depressed head1 so significant of a low cerebral development2 the vast maw1 garnished with formidable rows of conical teeth1 entirely made for snatch and swallow2 the elongated mud-coloured body1 with its long lizard-like tail1 resting on short legs1 stamp them with a peculiar frightfulness1 and proclaim the baseness of their instincts4 ,the short-snouted1 broad-headed ,alligators1 or ,caymen1 belong to the ,new ,world2 the ,gavials1 distinguished by their straight1 long1 and narrow jaw1 are exclusively ,indian2 while the oblong-headed ,crocodiles are not only found in ,africa and ,asia1 but likewise infest the swamps and rivers of ,america4 ,all these animals1 however1 though different in form and name1 have everywhere similar habits and manners2 so that1 in general1 what is remarked of the one may be applied to the others4 ,illustration3 ,,alligator4 ,illustration3 ,,capybara4 ,formed for an aquatic life they are very active in the water1 darting along with great rapidity by means of their strong muscular tail and their webbed hind feet4 ,they sometimes bask in the sunbeams on the banks of the rivers1 but oftener float on the surface1 where1 concealing their head and feet1 they appear like the rough trunk of a tree1 both in shape and colour1 and thus are enabled the more easily to deceive and catch their prey4 ,in ,america1 many a slow-paced ,capybara1 or water-pig1 coming in the dusk of evening to slake its thirst in the lagune1 has been suddenly seized by an insidious ,alligator2 and the ,gangetic ,gavial is said to make even the tiger his prey4 ,when the latter quits the thick cover of the jungle to drink at the stream1 the ,gavial1 concealed under water1 steals along the bank1 and1 suddenly emerging1 furiously attacks the tiger1 who never declines the combat2 and though in the struggle the ,gavial frequently loses his eyes and receives dreadful wounds on the head1 he at length drags his adversary into the water1 and there devours him4#bi ,in order to observe the manner in which the ,alligator seizes its prey1 ,richard ,schomburgk frequently tied a bird or some large fish to a piece of wood1 and then turned it adrift upon the stream4 ,scarcely had the ,cayman perceived his victim than he slowly and cautiously approached1 without even rippling the surface of the water1 and then curving his back1 hurled his prey1 by a stroke of his tail1 into his wide-extended jaws4 ,on the ,american streams1 the stillness of the night is often interrupted by the clacking of the ,cayman's teeth1 and the lashing of his tail upon the waters4 ,the singular and awful sound of his voice can also readily be distinguished from that of all the other beasts of the wilderness4 ,it is like a suppressed sigh1 bursting forth all of a sudden1 and so loud as to be heard above a mile off4 ,first1 one emits this horrible noise2 then another answers him2 and far and wide the repetition of the sound proclaims that the ,caymen are awake4 ,when these hideous creatures have once tasted the flesh of man1 they are said1 like the cannibals of the ,feejee ,islands1 to prefer it to that of any animal4 ,during ,humboldt's stay at ,angostura1 a monstrous ,cayman seized an ,indian by the leg while he was busy pushing his boat ashore in a shallow lagune1 and immediately dragged him down into the deeper water4 ,the cries of the unfortunate victim soon attracted a large number of spectators1 who witnessed the astonishing courage with which he searched in his pocket for a knife4 ,not finding a weapon1 he then seized the reptile by the head1 and pressed his fingers into its eyes-- a method which saved ,mungo ,park's negro from a similar fate4 ,in this case1 however1 the monster did not let go his hold1 but disappearing under the surface with the ,indian1 came up again with him as soon as he was drowned1 and dragged the body to a neighbouring island4 #8,one ,sunday evening1' says ,waterton1 #8some years ago1 as ,i was walking with ,don ,felipe de ,yriarte1 ,governor of ,angostura1 on the bank of the ,orinoco--8,stop here a minute or two1 ,don ,carlos10 said he to me1 8while ,i recount a sad accident4 ,one fine evening1 last year1 as the people of ,angostura were sauntering up and down in the ,alameda1 ,i was within twenty yards of this place1 when ,i saw a large ,cayman rush out of the river1 seize a man1 and carry him down1 before anybody had it in his power to assist him4 ,the screams of the poor fellow were terrible1 as the ,cayman was running off with him4 ,he plunged into the river with his prey2 we instantly lost sight of him1 and never saw or heard him more40' ,humboldt also relates that1 during the inundations of the ,orinoco1 alligators will sometimes make their appearance in the very streets of ,angostura1 where they have been known to attack and drag away a human prey4 ,even among each other1 these ferocious animals frequently engage in deadly conflict4 ,thus1 ,richard ,schomburgk once saw a prodigiously large ,cayman seize one of a smaller species 7,champsa vallifrons7 by the middle of the body1 so that the head and tail projected on both sides of its muzzle4 ,now both of them disappeared under the surface1 so that only the agitated waters of the otherwise calm river announced the death-struggle going on beneath2 and then again the monsters reappeared1 wildly beating the surface2 so that it was hardly possible to distinguish here a tail1 or there a monstrous head1 in the seething whirlpool4 ,at length1 however1 the tumult subsided1 and the large ,cayman was seen leisurely swimming to a sand-bank1 where he immediately began to feed upon his prey4 ,the same traveller relates an interesting example of the ,cayman's tenacity of life4 ,one of them having been wounded with a strong harpoon1 was dragged upon a sand-bank4 ,here the rays of the sun seemed to infuse new life into the monster1 for1 awakening from his death-like torpidity1 he suddenly snapped about him with such rage that ,schomburgk and his assistants thought it prudent to retreat to a safer distance4 ,seizing a long and mighty pole1 the bravest of the ,indians now went towards the ,cayman1 who awaited the attack with wide-extended jaws1 and plunged the stake deep into his maw--a morsel which the brute did not seem to relish4 ,meanwhile two other ,indians approached him from behind1 and kept striking him with thick clubs upon the extremity of the tail4 ,at every blow upon this sensitive part1 the monster bounded in the air and extended his frightful jaws1 which were each time immediately regaled with a fresh thrust of the pole4 ,after a long and furious battle1 the ,cayman1 who measured twelve feet in length1 was at last slain4 ,another remarkable instance of the vitality of the common crocodile is mentioned by ,sir ,e4 ,tennent4 ,a gentleman at ,galle having caught on a baited hook an unusually large one1 it was disembowelled by his coolies1 the aperture in the stomach being left expanded by a stick placed across it4 ,on returning1 in the afternoon1 with a view to secure the head1 they found that the creature had crawled for some distance1 and made its escape into the water4 ,we all know the intense hatred which sailors bear to the shark1 and with what savage delight they drag one on board1 and hack him to pieces with their knives before life is extinct2 but the ,american ,indian is a no less inveterate enemy of the ,cayman1 and1 when occasion offers1 lets him feel the full extent of his inventive cruelty4 ,among the ,javanese1 on the contrary1 we find the crocodile considered as a sacred animal1 on account of his clearing the rivers and lagunes of putrefying substances2 and the friendship even seems to be reciprocal1 as ,bennett saw ,javanese convicts busy working up to their middle in water1 quite near the monsters4 ,like the sea-turtles1 the crocodiles generally deposit their eggs1 which are about the size of those of a goose1 and covered with a calcareous shell1 in holes made in the sand1 leaving them to be hatched by the warm rays of the tropical sun4 ,in some parts of ,america1 however1 they have been observed to resort to a more ingenious method1 denoting a degree of provident instinct which could hardly have been expected in a cold-blooded reptile4 ,raising a small hillock on the banks of the river1 and hollowing it out in the middle1 they collect a quantity of leaves and other vegetable matters1 in which they deposit their eggs4 ,these are covered with the leaves1 and are hatched by the heat extricated during their putrefaction1 along with that of the atmosphere4 ,callous to every other generous sentiment1 the female ,cayman continues for some time after their birth to watch over her young with great care4 ,one day1 as ,richard ,schomburgk1 accompanied by an ,indian1 was busy fishing on the banks of the ,essequibo1 he suddenly heard in the water a strange noise1 resembling the mewing of young cats4 ,with eager curiosity he climbed along the trunk of a tree overhanging the river1 about three feet above the water1 and saw beneath him a brood of young alligators1 about a foot and a half long4 ,on his seizing and lifting one of them out of the water1 the mother1 a creature of prodigious size1 suddenly emerged with an appalling roar1 making desperate efforts to reach her wriggling and screeching offspring1 and increasing in rage every time ,schomburgk tantalised her by holding it out to her4 ,having been wounded with an arrow1 she retired for a few moments1 and then again returned with redoubled fury1 lashing the waters into foam by the repeated strokes of her tail4 ,schomburgk now cautiously retreated1 as in case of a fall into the water below1 he would have had but little reason to expect a friendly reception1 the monster pertinaciously following him to the bank1 but not deeming it advisable to land1 as here it seemed to feel its helplessness4 ,the scales of the captured young one were quite soft and pliable1 as it was only a few days old1 but it already had the peculiar musk-like smell which characterises the full-grown reptile4 ,the sight of the first crocodile he meets with1 lying on a flat sand-bank of the ,nile1 is a great event in the traveller's life in ,egypt4 ,with all the eagerness of curiosity he first seizes his telescope to have a look at the monster1 and then his gun1 to drive1 if possible1 a bullet through its harnessed skin4 ,but long before the enemy approaches1 the wary reptile creeps slowly into the river1 and plunging into the water1 mocks all further pursuit4 ,if the sportsman wishes to become better acquainted with the leviathan1 he must wander farther to the ,south4 ,the thousands of crocodile mummies piled up in the pits of ,monfaloot1 prove that in ancient times the dreaded reptile must have been common in the land of the ,pharaohs2 at present this can only be affirmed of the ,sudan1 where one may reckon with certainty upon finding a crocodile upon every sand-bank of the two ,niles4 ,the favourite resorts of the crocodile are quiet places in the rivers1 where it can bask undisturbed in the sun2 the cataracts it seems are not to its taste4 ,it is no lover of change1 for old men affirm that since their childhood they have seen the same crocodile invariably make its appearance upon the same island1 nor is there reason to doubt their word1 as the reptile attains an extreme old age4 ,a life of a hundred years is exceptional with man1 with the crocodile it is probably but a part of its existence4 ,at its birth the animal issues from an egg not bigger than that of a goose2 it grows very slowly like all amphibia1 and yet reaches the enormous length of twenty feet4 ,when bursting its shell it is scarce nine inches long2 after a year it attains the double1 sometimes the triple length1 and then grows slower4 ,on comparing the full-grown with the new-born crocodile1 one can hardly conceive how this neat little creature can ever expand to such a size4 ,in spite of its unwieldy appearance1 the crocodile is by no means awkward in its movements4 ,the web uniting the four toes of its hind feet1 and its long oar-like tail1 enable it to catch fish without difficulty1 but also on land it is far from being slow4 ,according to ,brehm1 an excellent observer1 it moves in every direction with the greatest ease1 and is able to turn in a circle1 the diameter of which is about equal to its length--so that running backwards and forwards1 so warmly recommended by the inventors of fables1 as the best means to escape the reptile1 would hardly be of use4 ,fortunately1 the crocodile on land never gives occasion to show the fallacy of this method1 as it invariably runs away at the approach of man4 ,during his journeys in ,fassokl1 ,dr4 ,penney disturbed a crocodile which had hidden itself in a heap of dried leaves4 ,the animal fled at the approach of the riders1 and ran bellowing in a direct line to the river1 which was several miles distant4 ,it was impossible to come up to it with the swiftest dromedaries4 ,the chief food of the gigantic reptile consists of fishes1 but nothing living1 which it can reach and master1 comes amiss to its voracity4 ,land animals it generally surprises while drinking4 ,slowly it approaches1 swimming under the surface of the water2 then suddenly darts its head forward1 seizes its prey1 drags it into the water1 and leisurely devours it1 though as some believe not before the carcass is in a certain state of putrefaction4 ,its human victims are generally those whom it seizes while wading into the river to fetch water4 ,the dogs in the neighbourhood of the ,nile hate and fear the crocodile4 ,while a dog born in the interior of the country will approach the stream without any signs of shyness1 the others are extremely cautious1 drink quickly1 having all the time an attentive eye upon the water4 ,their hatred shows itself in their rage at sight of a great lizard4 ,but the natives also testify on every occasion their but too well-founded fear of the harnessed monster1 for in all ,sudan there is not a village on the banks of the two rivers which has not to deplore the loss of more than one of its inhabitants from the insidious attack of the crocodile4 ,according to the natives1 the hideous reptile possesses a true friend in a small bird 7,hyas gyptiacus71 called by the ,arabs ,rhafihr-el-,timsach1 or the #8crocodile's guardian'--a not inappropriate name1 though the bird performs the part of a guardian not from any friendly feeling but accidentally4 ,it lives on the islands and flat banks of the ,nile and its tributaries1 and being extremely swift has no reason to fear the crocodile4 ,it runs without the least hesitation over the back of the sleeping monster1 feeds on the leeches and water-insects that may have settled there1 and seems to consider it as harmless as a log of wood4 ,its habit of uttering a piercing cry at the sight of man betrays his approach to the crocodile1 who generally awakes and creeps into the water4 ,the young of the crocodiles have no less numerous enemies than those of the snakes4 ,many an egg is destroyed in the hot sand by small carnivora1 or birds1 before it can be hatched2 and as soon as the young creep out of the broken shell1 and instinctively move to the waters1 the herons1 cranes and other long-legged wading birds gobble up many of them1 so that their span of life is short indeed4 ,in the water they are not only the prey of various sharp-toothed fishes1 but even of the males of their own species1 while the females do all they can to protect them4 ,even man not only kills the crocodile in self-defence1 or for the sake of sport1 but for the purpose of regaling upon its flesh4 ,in the ,siamese markets1 crocodiles1 large and small1 may be seen hanging in the butchers' stalls2 and ,captain ,stokes1#cj who more than once supped off alligators' steaks1 informs us that the meat is by no means bad4 ,according to one of those zoological fables which by frequent repetition usurp the authority of facts1 the ,ichneumon or ,pharaoh's ,rat1 a small animal closely resembling the weasel tribe1 is supposed to be the most dangerous enemy of the full grown crocodile4 ,it is said to creep into the maw of the unwieldy reptile when asleep1 to penetrate into its stomach1 to tear its heart1 and then with its sharp teeth to cut its way out of the dead ,leviathan's body4 ,in plain truth the ,ichneumon is a far more dangerous enemy to rats1 mice1 lizards1 snakes and little birds1 than to the huge crocodile1 and instead of being esteemed for his imaginary service as he is supposed to have been by the ancient ,egyptians1 is detested by the fellah as the active plunderer of his pigeon cots and hen roosts4 ,a similar fable relates that in the rivers of ,america1 a tortoise of the genus ,cinyxis1 after having been swallowed by the alligator1 and thanks to its shelly case arriving unharmed in its stomach1 eats its way out again with its sharp beak1 thus putting the monster to an excruciating death4 ,i have already mentioned1 in the chapter on the ,llanos1 that in many tropical countries the aridity of the dry season produces a similar torpidity in reptile life to that which is caused by the cold of winter in the higher latitudes4 ,in ,ceylon1 when the tanks become exhausted1 the marsh-crocodiles are sometimes encountered wandering in search of water in the jungle2 but generally1 during the extreme drought1 they bury themselves in the sand1 where they remain in a state of torpor1 till released by the recurrence of the rains4 ,sir ,emerson ,tennent1 whilst riding across the parched bed of a tank1 was shown the recess1 still bearing the form and impress of the crocodile1 out of which the animal had been seen to emerge the day before4 ,a story was also related to him of an officer who1 having pitched his tent in a similar position1 had been disturbed during the night by feeling a movement of the earth below his bed1 from which1 on the following day1 a crocodile emerged1 making its appearance from beneath the matting4 ,like the rattlesnake1 crocodiles seem to possess the power of fascinating their prey1 or rather of completely depriving their victims of all presence of mind1 by the terror which they inspire4 ,in ,sumatra1 ,marsden once saw a large crocodile in a river1 looking up to an overhanging tree1 on which a number of small monkeys were sitting4 ,the poor creatures were so beside themselves for fright1 that instead of escaping to the land1 which they might easily have done1 they hurried towards the extremities of the branches1 and at length fell into the water1 where the dreadful monster was awaiting them4 ,crocodiles sometimes indulge in strange wanderings4 ,chamisso mentions one having been drifted to ,eap1 one of the ,carolines1 where it was killed after having devoured a woman2 and about thirty years ago1 the inhabitants of one of the ,feejee ,islands were equally astonished and alarmed at seeing a large crocodile emerge from the lagune1 and lazily creep on shore4 ,at first they took it for some marine deity2 but it soon proved that its visit was not of a beneficent nature1 as it seized and devoured nine of them at various intervals4 ,after many unavailing attempts to destroy the monster1 it was at length caught with a sling passed over the bough of a large tree1 the other end of the rope being held at a distance by fourteen men who lay concealed1 while one of the party offered himself as a bait to entice the reptile to run into the snare4 ,captain ,fitzroy 7#8,voyage of the ,beagle'71 who relates the fact1 supposes that the animal must have been drifted all the way from the ,east ,indies--a voyage which1 in fact1 is not more surprising than to see a turtle land upon the shores of the ,north ,sea1 or a sperm whale flounder about in the ,thames4 ,like many other of the lower animals1 the crocodile1 when surprised1 endeavours to save himself by feigning death4 ,sir ,emerson ,tennent relates an amusing anecdote of one that was found sleeping several hundred yards from the water4 #8,the terror of the poor wretch was extreme when he awoke and found himself discovered and completely surrounded4 ,he was a hideous creature1 and evidently of prodigious strength1 had he been in a condition to exert it2 but consternation completely paralysed him4 ,he started to his feet1 and turned round in a circle1 hissing and clacking his bony jaws1 with his ugly green eye intently fixed upon us4 ,on being struck1 he lay perfectly quiet and apparently dead4 ,presently he looked round cunningly1 and made a rush towards the water2 but on a second blow he lay again motionless4 ,we tried to rouse him1 but without effect2 pulled his tail1 slapped his back1 struck his hard scales1 and teased him in every way1 but all in vain3 nothing would induce him to move1 till1 accidentally1 my son1 a boy of twelve years old1 tickled him gently under the arm1 and in an instant he drew it close to his side1 and turned to avoid a repetition of the experiment4 ,again he was touched under the other arm1 and the same emotion was exhibited1 the great monster twisting about like an infant to avoid being tickled4' ,illustration3 ,,humming-,,birds4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,tropical ,,bird ,,life4 ,the ,toucan--,its ,quarrelsome ,character--,the ,humming-birds--,their wide ,range over the ,new ,world--,their ,habits--,their ,enemies-- ,their ,courage--,the ,cotingas--,the ,campanero--,the ,tangaras--,the ,manakins--,the ,cock of the ,rock--,the ,troopials--,the ,baltimore-- ,the ,pendulous ,nests of the ,cassiques--,the ,mocking-bird--,strange ,voices of ,tropical ,birds--,the ,goat-,sucker's ,wail--,the ,organista-- ,the ,cilgero--,the ,flamingos--,the ,scarlet ,ibis--,the ,jabiru--,the ,roseate ,spoon-bill--,the ,jacana--,the ,calao--,the ,sun-birds--,the ,melithreptes--,the ,argus--,the ,peacock--,tropical ,waders of the ,old ,world--,the ,african ,ibis--,the ,numidian ,crane--,australian ,birds-- ,the ,lyre ,bird--,the ,birds of ,paradise--,african ,weaving-birds-- ,social ,grosbeak--,the ,baya--,the ,tailor-bird--,the ,honey ,eaters--,the ,rock ,warbler--,the ,dicum--,the ,bower-birds--,the ,talegalla--,birds of ,passage4 ,useful in many respects to man1 no class of animals is more interesting or agreeable to him than that of the ,birds1 whether we consider the beauty of their plumage1 the grace of their movements1 the melody of their voice1 or the instinct that regulates their migrations and prompts them to construct their nests2 so that their study forms1 without doubt1 one of the most attractive departments in the whole range of natural history4 ,but it is at the same time one of the most difficult1 particularly in countries where man has not yet mastered the powers of vegetation1 where numberless creepers and bush-ropes render the forest impenetrable1 and the pathless wilderness obstructs the observer at every step4 ,thus it is by no means surprising that so many secrets still veil the life of the tropical birds--that comparatively so little is known as yet of their economy and mode of existence4 ,many families of birds have a wide range over the whole earth3 falcons hover over the ,siberian fir-woods1 as over the forests of the ,amazons2 in every zone are found woodpeckers1 owls1 and long-beaked martin-fishers1 while thrushes enliven with their song both the shades of the beech-woods and the twilight of the cocoa-nut groves4 ,in the north and in the south1 fly-catchers carry destruction among the numerous insect-tribes2 in every latitude1 crows cleanse the fields of vermin2 and swallows1 pigeons1 ducks1 gulls1 petrels1 divers1 and plovers frequent the fields and lakes1 the banks and shores in all parts of the world4 ,thus the class of birds shows us a great similarity in the distribution of its various forms all over the earth2 and we find the same resemblance extending also to their mode of life1 their manners1 and their voice4 ,the woodpeckers make everywhere the forest resound with the same clear note1 and the birds of prey possess in every clime the same rough screech so consonant to their habits1 while a soft cooing everywhere characterises the pigeon-tribes4 ,but1 notwithstanding this general uniformity and this wide range of many families of birds1 each zone has at the same time its peculiar ornithological features1 that blend harmoniously with the surrounding world of plants and animals1 and1 taking a prominent part in the aspect of nature1 at once attract the attention of the stranger4 ,in this respect1 as in so many others1 the warmer regions of the globe have a great advantage over those of the temperate and glacial zones1 but nowhere do the feathered tribes find a richer or wider field for their development than in the forests and swamps of tropical ,america1 where the vegetable world revels in luxuriant growth1 and myriads of insects1 peopling the woods1 the waters and the fields1 furnish each kind according to its wants with an inexhaustible supply of food4 ,the circumstance that man but thinly inhabits these wilds is another reason which favours the multiplication of birds1 for in ,europe also they would no doubt be far more numerous1 if the farmer1 the sportsman1 and so many other enemies were not continually thinning their ranks4 ,to these elements of destruction they are far less exposed in tropical ,america1 and being comparatively but little disturbed1 they reign1 as it were1 over the forest and the field1 over the mountain and the plain1 over the river and the lake4 ,by their loud cry1 resembling the yelping of a puppy-dog1 and the enormous disproportion of their bill1 which might seem rather adapted to a bird of ostrich-like dimensions than to one not much larger than a crow1 the ,toucans make themselves very conspicuous in the ,american woods4 ,were it of a strong and solid texture1 their huge beak would infallibly weigh them to the ground2 but being of a light and cellular structure1 and in some places not thicker than writing paper1 they carry it easily1 and leap with such agility from bough to bough1 that it does not then appear preposterously large4 ,when flying1 it gives them1 indeed1 a very awkward appearance1 as their body always seems overweighted by the enormous beak1 which makes the head bow downwards as the bird passes through the air2 but the beauty of its colouring soon reconciles the eye to its disproportionate size3 for the brightest red1 variegated with black and yellow stripes on the upper mandible1 and a stripe of the liveliest sky-blue on the lower1 contribute to adorn the bill of the ,bouradi1 as one of the three ,toucan species of ,guiana is called by the ,indians4 ,unfortunately1 these brilliant tints fade after death1 and even the art of a ,waterton is unable to fix and preserve their evanescent hues4 ,the plumage of this strange bird rivals the beak in beauty of colouring1 and the feathers are frequently used as ornaments by the ,brazilian ladies4 ,a green-wood loving bird1 the ,toucan never wanders from the shady forests1 where he may generally be seen perched on the topmost boughs of the loftiest trees1 far beyond the reach of small shot1 and requiring a single bullet or the ,indian's poisoned arrow to bring him from his elevated situation4 ,few birds are more noisy or of a more quarrelsome and imperious temper4 ,in the rainy season his clamour is incessant1 and in fair weather the woods resound at morning and evening with his yelping cry4 ,schomburgk relates an anecdote of a tamed ,toucan who1 by dint of arrogance1 assisted by his enormous beak1 had made himself despot not only over the domestic fowls1 but even over the larger four-footed animals of an estate in ,guiana4 ,large and small willingly submitted to him1 so that when a dispute arose among the trumpeters and hoccos of the yard1 the combatants all dispersed as soon as he made his appearance1 and if by chance he had been overlooked in the heat of the fray1 his powerful beak soon reminded them that their lord and master was by no means inclined to tolerate disputes among his subjects4 ,on bread being thrown among them1 none of his two or four-legged subjects would have ventured to seize the smallest morsel before the ,toucan had liberally helped himself4 ,this domineering spirit even went so far that he inhospitably reminded every strange dog that came near the premises1 that none durst enter his domains without his permission4 ,there is no knowing to what lengths he might not have carried his despotism1 if a powerful mastiff1 one day entering the yard and taking several bones without leave1 had not put an end to his tyranny4 ,for scarcely had the ,toucan perceived the intruder1 when angrily rushing upon him1 he attacked him with his beak4 ,the dog at first only growled1 without suffering himself to be disturbed in his meal1 but as the bird continued to bite1 he finally lost his patience and1 snapping at the ,toucan1 wounded him so severely in the head that he soon after expired4 ,a bird with so strange a beak must naturally be expected to feed and drink in a strange manner4 ,when the ,toucan has seized a morsel1 he throws it into the air and lets it fall into his throat2 when drinking1 he dips the point of his mandibles into the water1 fills them by a powerful inspiration1 and then throws back the head by starts4 ,the tongue is also of a very singular form1 being narrow and elongated1 and laterally barbed like a feather4 ,the ,toucan builds its nest in hollow trees1 preferring those cavities which can only be entered by a small aperture4 ,according to some writers it makes the burrow for itself1 using the huge beak as its tool4 ,most probably1 however1 it only adapts and slightly alters the interior of the hollow so as to make it more convenient for its purpose4 ,illustration3 ,,toucan4 ,to paint the ,humming-bird with colours worthy of its beauty1 would be a task as difficult as to fix on canvas the glowing tints of the rainbow1 or the glories of the setting sun4 ,unrivalled in the metallic brilliancy of its plumage1 it may truly be called the bird of paradise2 and had it existed in the old world it would no doubt have claimed the title instead of the splendid bird which has now the honour to bear it4 ,see with what lightning speed it darts from flower to flower2 now hovering for an instant before you1 as if to give you an opportunity of admiring its surpassing beauty1 and now again vanishing with the rapidity of thought4 ,but do not fancy that these winged jewels of the air1 buzzing like bees round the blossoms less gorgeous than themselves1 live entirely on the honey-dew collected within their petals2 for on opening the stomach of a humming-bird1 dead insects are almost always found there1 which its long and slender beak1 and cloven extensile tongue1 like that of the woodpecker1 enable it to catch at the very bottom of the tubular corollas4 ,illustration3 ,,sawbill ,,humming-,,bird4 ,,brazilian ,,wood ,,nymph4 ,,white-,,sided ,,hill ,,star4 ,the torrid zone is the chief seat of the ,humming-birds1 but in summer they wander far beyond its bounds1 and follow the sun in his annual declensions to the poles4 ,thus1 in the north1 they appear as flying visitors on the borders of the ,canadian lakes1 and on the southern coast of the peninsula of ,aljaschka2 while in the southern hemisphere they roam as far as ,patagonia1 and even as ,tierra del ,fuego2 visiting in the northern hemisphere the confines of the walrus1 and reaching in the south the regions of the penguin and the lion-seal2 advancing towards the higher latitudes with the advance of summer1 and again retreating at the approach of autumn4 ,illustration3 ,,fiery ,,topaz ,,and ,,hermit4 ,the nests of the ,humming-birds are as elegant and neat as their tiny constructors2 true masterpieces of architectural instinct4 ,some are suspended from twigs or attached to a branch2 others enjoy the shelter of some overhanging rock1 and others again cling to a leaf4 ,spider webs are generally employed for fastening the nest to the support on which it hangs1 or for interweaving the moss or the vegetable fibres used in its construction1 so as to form a firm and wet-resisting mass4 ,soft cotton down or fine hairs line its interior1 and to screen it from the piercing eye of an enemy it is frequently covered with patches of lichen1 which render its external appearance as similar as possible to that of the branch on which it is placed4 ,the nest of the ,fiery ,topaz1 one of the most magnificent of the humming-birds1 glittering in scarlet1 crimson1 and emerald green1 is particularly curious4 ,it is formed of a kind of tough1 leathery1 thick and soft fungus1 like ,german tinder1 and this apparently intractable substance the bird contrives to mould into the shape of a nest so closely resembling in colour the branch to which it clings1 that it seems more like a natural excrescence than the artificial structure of a feathered architect4 ,the ,ruby-,throated ,humming-bird1 thus called from the feathers of its breast1 which glitter as if made of burnished metal1 and glow with alternate tints of ruby and orange1 constructs a nest which even the ,indian's eagle glance can hardly discover1 so closely does it resemble a knob upon a branch4 ,so fearful too is the female of detection that she does not fly straight to her home1 but first shoots up perpendicularly into the air until her tiny body is lost to sight1 and then darts down among the branches with such meteor swiftness that the eye cannot follow her movements1 and she is quietly seated in her nest before the spectator knows exactly in which direction she has gone4 ,nothing can exceed the tenderness which the male humming-bird evinces during breeding time for his lovely companion1 nor the courage which he displays for her protection4 ,on the approach of an intrusive bird1 though ten times bigger than himself1 he will not hesitate a moment to attack the disturber of his nest1 his bravery adds a tenfold increase to his powers1 the rapidity of his movements confounds his enemy1 and finally drives him to flight4 ,proud of his success1 the little champion returns to his partner1 and flaps triumphantly his tiny wings4 ,but with all his activity and courage1 he is not always able to avert disaster from his nest1 for an enormous bush spider1 covered all over with black hair 7,mygale71 too often lurks in the vicinity1 watching for the moment when the little birds shall creep out of the shell4 ,with sudden attack it then invades the nest1 and sucks their life-blood4 ,against this enemy neither courage nor despair are of any avail1 and if the poor humming-bird endeavours to avenge the slaughter of his young1 he only shares their fate4 ,when the dark long-legged monster entwines his brilliant prey1 one might almost fancy an angel of light bleeding under the talons of a demon4 ,from the chivalrous character of the ,humming-birds it is not surprising that the most violent passions agitate their little breasts2 so that in their desperate contests1 they will tilt against each other with such fury1 as if each meant to transfix his antagonist with his long bill4 ,it may indeed be truly said that these little creatures are sadly prone to quarrel over their cups1 not of wine1 but nectareous flowers4 ,frequently four or five of them may be seen engaged in a flying fight when disputing the possession of a blossoming tree in the forests of ,brazil1 and then they dart so swiftly through the air that the eye can scarcely follow them in their meteorlike evolutions4 ,as the smallest shot would blow the tiny humming-birds to pieces1 and inevitably destroy the beauty of their plumage1 they are taken by aspersing them with water from a syphon1 or by means of a butterfly net4 ,there are many species of ,humming-birds1 various in size and habit1 with straight or curved bills1 with a naked or a crested head1 with a short or a long tail3 some constantly concealing themselves in the solitudes of the forest2 while others hover round the habitations of man1 and frequently during their disputes pursue each other into the apartments whose windows are left open1 taking a turn round the room1 as flies do with us1 and then suddenly regaining the open air4 ,illustration3 ,,campanero4 ,next to the humming-birds the ,cotingas display the gayest plumage in the ,american woods4 ,they are1 however1 not often seen1 for they lead a solitary life in the moist and shadowy forests1 where they feed on the various seeds and fruits of the woods4 ,one species is attired in burning scarlet1 others in purple and blue1 but they are all so splendidly adorned that it would be difficult to say which of them deserves the prize for beauty4 ,most of the ,cotingas have no song2 the nearly related snow-white ,campanero or bell-bird1 however1 amply makes up for the deficient voice of his cousins1 by the singularity and sweetness of his note4 ,he is about the size of a jay4 ,on his forehead rises a singular spiral tube nearly three inches long4 ,it is jet black1 dotted all over with small white feathers4 ,it has a communication with the palate1 and when filled with air looks like a spire1 when empty it becomes pendulous4 ,his note is loud and clear1 like the sound of a bell4 #8,in the midst of the forests1' says ,waterton1 #8generally on the dried top of an aged mora1 almost out of gun reach1 you will see the ,campanero4 ,no sound or song from any of the winged inhabitants of the forest causes such astonishment as his toll4 ,with many of the feathered race he pays the common tribute of a song to early morn1 and even when the meridian sun has shut in silence the mouths of almost the whole of animated nature1 the ,campanero still cheers the forest2 you hear his toll1 and then a pause for a minute2 then another toll1 and then a pause again1 and then a toll and again a pause4 ,then he is silent for six or eight minutes1 and then another toll1 and so on4 ,acton would stop in mid-chase1 ,maria would defer her evening song1 and ,orpheus himself would drop his lute to listen to him1 so sweet1 so novel and romantic1 is the toll of the pretty snow-white ,campanero4' ,the ,tangaras resemble our finches1 though they are far more splendidly attired4 ,their plumage is very rich and diversified1 some of them boast six separate colours2 others have the blue1 purple1 green1 and black so finely blended into each other that it would be impossible to mark their boundaries2 while others again exhibit them strong1 distinct and abrupt4 ,the flight of the ,tangaras is rapid1 their manners lively4 ,they live upon insects1 seeds1 berries1 and many of them have a fine song4 ,among their numerous species1 spread over all the warmer regions of ,america1 the scarlet ,piranga is pre-eminent for beauty1 and when in the blooming thickets1 along the woody river's banks1 the meridian sun shows off his plumage in all its splendour1 the huntsman pauses to admire the magnificent bird1 and delays his murderous aim4 ,in the deep forests of ,guiana and ,brazil1 which they never quit for the open plains1 reside the ,manakins 7,pipra71 pretty little birds1 whose largest species scarcely attain the dimensions of the sparrow1 while the smallest are hardly equal to the wren4 ,the plumage of the full-grown male is always black1 enlivened by brilliant colours1 that of the female and of the young birds greenish4 ,their flight is rapid but short1 and they generally roost on the middle branches of the trees4 ,in the morning they unite in little troops1 and seek their food1 which consists of insects1 and small fruit1 uttering at the same time their weak but melodious notes4 ,as the day advances they separate and seek the deepest forest-shades1 where they live in solitude and silence4 ,the famous orange-coloured ,cock of the ,rock of ,guiana 7,rupicola aurantia71 which owes its name to its comb-like crest1 is nearly related to the ,manakins4 ,it is a great rarity1 even in its own country1 and as it dwells in the most secluded forests1 is but seldom seen by travellers4 ,richard ,schomburgk relates the following wonderful story of the bird1 which1 if not proceeding from so trustworthy a source1 might almost be considered fabulous4 #8,a troop of these beautiful birds was celebrating its dances on the smooth surface of a rock2 about a score of them were seated on the branches as spectators1 while one of the male birds1 with proud self-confidence1 and spreading tail and wings1 was dancing on the rock4 ,he scratched the ground or leaped vertically into the air1 continuing these saltatory movements until he was tired1 when another male took his place4 ,the females1 meanwhile1 looked on attentively1 and applauded the performance of the dancers with laudatory cries4 ,as the feathers are highly prized1 the ,indians lay in wait with their blow-pipes near the places where the ,rupicolas are known to dance4 ,when once the ball has begun1 the birds are so absorbed by their amusement1 that the hunter has full time to shoot down several of the spectators with his poisoned arrows1 before the rest take the alarm4' ,on penetrating into the wilds of ,guiana1 the pretty songsters called ,troopials1 7,icterus1 ,xanthornus7 pour forth a variety of sweet and plaintive notes4 ,resembling the starling by their habits1 they unite in troops1 and live on insects1 berries1 and seeds4 ,the variegated ,troopial 7,oriolus varius7 displays a wonderful instinct in the construction of his nest1 which he generally builds on fruit-trees2 but when circumstances force him to select a tree whose branches have far less solidity1 as1 for instance1 the weeping willow1 his instinct almost rises to a higher intelligence4 ,first1 he binds together1 by means of bits of straw1 the small and flexible branches of the willow1 and thus forms a kind of conical basket in which he places his nest1 and instead of the usual hemispherical form1 he gives it a more elongated shape1 and makes it of a looser tissue1 so as to render it more elastic and better able to conform to the movements of the branches when agitated by the wind4 ,illustration3 ,,crested ,,cassique4 ,,baltimore ,,oriole4 ,the neat little black and orange ,baltimore 7,icterus ,baltimore7 constructs a still more marvellous nest on the tulip trees1 on whose leaves and flowers he seeks the caterpillars and beetles which constitute his principal food4 ,when the time comes for preparing it1 the male picks up a filament of the ,tillandsia usneoides and attaches it by its two extremities to two neighbouring branches4 ,soon after1 the female comes1 inspects his work1 and places another fibre across that of her companion4 ,thus by their alternate labours a net is formed1 which soon assumes the shape of a nest1 and as it advances towards its completion1 the affection of the tender couple seems to increase4 ,the tissue is so loose as to allow the air to pass through its meshes1 and as the parents know that the excessive heat of summer would incommode their young1 they suspend their nest so as to catch the cooler breeze of the north-east when breeding in ,louisiana2 while in more temperate regions1 such as ,pennsylvania and ,new ,york1 they always give it a southern exposition1 and take care to line it with wool or cotton4 ,their movements are uncommonly graceful2 their song is sweet2 they migrate in winter towards more southerly regions1 ,mexico or ,brazil1 and return after the equinox to the ,united ,states4 ,the ,cassiques1 which are nearly related to the troopials or orioli1 are no less remarkable for their architectural skill4 ,they suspend their large pendulous nests1 which are often above four feet long1 at the extremities of branches of palm trees1 as far as possible from all enemies that might by climbing reach the brood1 often choosing1 for still further protection1 trees on which the wasps or maribondas have already built their nests1 as these are adversaries whose sharp stings no tiger-cat or reptile would desire to face4 ,the nest of the ,cassicus cristatus is artificially woven of lichens1 bark-fibres and the filaments of the tillandsias1 while that of the tupuba 7,cassions ruber71 which is always suspended over the water1 consists of dry grasses1 and has a slanting opening in the side1 so that no rain can penetrate it4 ,on passing under a tree1 which often contains hundreds of cassique nests1 one cannot help stopping to admire them1 as they wave to and fro1 the sport of every storm and breeze1 and yet so well constructed as rarely to be injured by the wind4 ,often numbers of one species may be seen weaving their nests on one side of a tree1 while numbers of another species are busy forming theirs on the opposite side of the same plant1 and what is1 perhaps1 even still more wonderful than their architectural skill1 though such near neighbours1 the females are never observed to quarrel6 ,the ,cassicus ,persicus1 a small black and yellow bird1 somewhat larger than the starling1 has been named the mocking-bird1 from his wonderful imitative powers4 ,he courts the society of man1 and generally takes his station on a tree close to his house1 where for hours together he pours forth a succession of ever-varying notes4 ,if a toucan be yelping in the neighbourhood1 he immediately drops his own sweet song1 and answers him in equal strain4 ,then he will amuse his audience with the cries of the different species of the woodpecker1 and when the sheep bleat he will distinctly answer them4 ,then comes his own song again1 and if a puppy dog or a guinea fowl interrupt him1 he takes them off admirably1 and by his different gestures during the time1 you would conclude that he enjoys the sport4 ,wild and strange are the voices of many of the ,american forest-birds4 ,in the ,peruvian woods the black ,toropishu 7,cephalopterus ornatus7 makes the thicket resound with his hoarse cry1 resembling the distant lowing of a bull2 and in the same regions the fiery-red and black-winged ,tunqui 7,rupicola ,peruviana7 sends forth a note1 which might readily be mistaken for the grunting of a hog1 and strangely contrasts with the brilliancy of his plumage4 ,but of all the startling cries that issue from the depths of the forest1 none is more remarkable than the ,goatsucker's lamentable wail4 #8,suppose yourself in hopeless sorrow1' says ,waterton1 #8begin with a high1 loud note1 and pronounce ha1 ha1 ha1 ha1 ha6 each note lower and lower till the last is scarcely heard1 pausing a moment or two between every note1 and you will have some idea of the mourning of the largest ,goatsucker in ,demerara4 ,four other species of goatsucker articulate some words so distinctly1 that they have received their names from the sentences they utter1 and absolutely bewilder the stranger on his arrival in these parts4 ,the most common one sits down close by your door1 and flies and alights three or four yards before you1 as you walk along the road1 crying1 #8,who are you1 who-who-who-who are you8' ,another bids you1 #8,work away1 work-work-work away4' ,a third cries mournfully1 #8,willy come go1 ,willy-,willy-,willy come go4' ,and high up in the country1 a fourth tells you to1 #8,whip-poor-,will1 whip-whip-whip-poor-,will4' ,you will never persuade the negro to destroy the birds1 or get the ,indian to let fly his arrow at them1 for they are held to be the receptacles for departed souls1 who came back again to earth1 unable to rest for crimes done in their days of nature1 or expressly sent to haunt cruel and hardhearted masters1 and retaliate injuries received from them4 ,if the largest goatsucker chance to cry near the white man's door1 sorrow and grief will soon be inside1 and they expect to see the master waste away with a slow consuming sickness4 ,if it be heard close to the negro's or ,indian's hut1 from that night misfortune sits brooding over it1 and they await the event in terrible suspense4 ,during the daytime1 the ,goatsucker1 whose eyes1 like those of the owl1 are too delicately formed to bear the light1 retires to the deepest recesses of the forest1 but when the sun has sunk behind the western woods1 he may1 on moonlight nights1 be seen silently hovering in the forest glades1 or hopping about among the herds4 ,this poor bird has the character of a nocturnal thief1 but never has a more unjust accusation been made1 as1 far from robbing the flocks of their milk1 he does all he can to free them from insects4 #8,see how the nocturnal flies are tormenting the herd1' says ,waterton1 #8and with what dexterity he springs up1 and catches them1 as fast as they alight on the belly1 legs1 and udder of the animals4 ,observe how quiet they stand1 and how sensible they seem of his good offices1 for they neither strike at him1 nor hit him with their tail1 nor tread on him2 nor try to drive him away as an uncivil intruder4 ,were you to dissect him1 and inspect his stomach1 you would find no milk there3 it is full of the flies which have been annoying the herd4' ,the large tropical nocturnal butterflies1 or moths1 form the chief food of the wide-beaked ,goatsucker1 and the number of their wings that may be seen lying about1 give proof of the ravages he commits among their ranks4 ,for as the bat with his hooked thumb cuts off the wings of the moths and cockchafers which he catches on his twilight excursions1 thus1 also1 the ,goatsucker refrains from swallowing these parts1 and his hooked and incurvated upper mandible seems purposely intended for clipping them4 ,while the ,goatsucker makes the forest resound with his funereal tones1 other birds of the forest pour forth the sweetest notes4 ,dressed in a sober cinnamon brown robe1 with blackish olive-coloured head and neck1 the ,organist 7,troglodytes leucophrys7 enlivens the solitude of the ,peruvian forests4 ,the astonished wanderer stops to listen to the strain1 and forgets the impending storm4 ,the ,cilgero1 a no less delightful songster1 frequents the mountain regions of ,cuba1 and the beauty of his notes may be inferred from the extravagant price of several hundred dollars1 which the rich ,havanese are ready to pay for a captive bird4 ,wagner 7#8,travels in ,costa ,rica1' #ahed7 tells us that our nightingale is far inferior to the ,cilgero1 who entertains his mate with the softest tones of the harmonica1 and in ,guiana the flute-bird 7,cyphorinus cantans7 delights the ear with his melodious song4 ,all these lovely musicians of the grove belong to the extensive finch tribe1 and1 like their ,european cousins1 appear in a simple unostentatious garb4 ,the same beauty of plumage which characterises so many of the ,american forest-birds1 adorns1 likewise1 the feathered tribes of the swamp and the morass1 of the river and the lake4 ,nothing can exceed in beauty a troop of scarlet ,ibises or deep red ,flamingoes 7,phnicopterus ruber7 on the green margin of a stream4 ,raised on enormous stilts1 and with an equally disproportionate length of neck1 the flamingoes would be reckoned among the most uncouth birds1 if their splendid robe did not entitle them to rank among the most beautiful4 ,they always live in troops1 and range themselves1 whether fishing or resting1 like soldiers1 in long lines4 ,one of the number acts as sentinel1 and on the approach of danger gives a warning scream1 like the sound of a trumpet1 when1 instantly1 the whole troop1 expanding their flaming wings1 rise loudly clamouring into the air4 ,these strange-formed birds build in the swamps high conical nests of mud1 in the shape of a hillock with a cavity at top1 in which the female generally lays two white eggs of the size of those of a goose1 but more elongated4 ,the rude construction is sufficiently high to admit of her sitting on it conveniently1 or rather riding1 as the legs are placed on each side at full length4 ,their mode of feeding is no less remarkable4 ,twisting their neck in such a manner that the upper part of their bill is applied to the ground1 they at the same time disturb the mud with one of their webbed feet1 thus raising up from the water insects and spawn1 on which they chiefly subsist4 ,six feet high1 and stately as a grenadier of the guards1 the ,american ,jabiru stalks along the banks of the morasses4 ,his plumage is white1 but his neck and head are black1 like his long legs2 his conical1 sharp1 and powerful black bill1 is a little recurved1 while that of the stork1 to whom he is closely related1 is straight4 ,he destroys an incredible number of reptiles and fishes2 and1 being very sly1 is difficult to kill4 ,the roseate ,american ,spoon-bill 7,platalea ,ajaja7 is particularly remarkable for his curious large beak1 dilating at the top into a broad spoon or spatula1 which1 though not possessed of great power1 renders him excellent service in disturbing the mud and seizing the little reptiles and worms he delights to feed on4 ,the ,jacana 7,parra jacana7 possesses enormously long and slender toes1 armed with equally long spine-like claws4 ,while pacing the ground they seem as inconvenient as the snow shoes of a ,laplander1 and yet nothing can be more suitable for a bird destined to stalk over the floating leaves of the ,nelumbos and ,nymphas1 and to seek for water insects on this unstable foundation4 ,the ,jacana is found all over tropical ,america1 and is also called the ,surgeon1 from the nail of his hinder toe being sharp and acuated like a lancet4 ,although in the torrid zone we hardly ever meet with a single aboriginal species of plant or animal common to both hemispheres1 yet the analogy of climate everywhere produces analogous organic forms1 and when on surveying the feathered tribes of ,america1 we are struck by any bird remarkable for its singularity of shape or mode of life1 we may expect to find its representative in ,asia1 ,africa1 or ,australia4 ,illustration3 ,,rhinoceros ,,hornbill4 ,thus the enormous beak of the toucan is emulated or surpassed by that of the ,indian ,calao1 or ,rhinoceros ,hornbill 7,buceros rhinoceros7 whose twelve-inch long1 curved1 and sharp-pointed bill1 is1 moreover1 surmounted with an immense appendage in the form of a reverted horn1 the use of which belongs as yet to the secrets of nature4 ,while the toucans are distinguished by a gaudy plumage1 the ,calaos are almost entirely decked with a robe black as that of the raven1 and enhancing the beautiful red and orange colours of their colossal beak4 ,generally congregating in small troops1 like the toucans1 they inhabit the dense forests1 where they chiefly live on fruits1 seeds1 and insects1 which they also swallow whole1 throwing them up into the air and catching them as they fall4 ,the clapping together of their mandibles causes a loud and peculiar noise1 which towards evening interrupts the silence of the forest4 ,the flight of a bird burdened with such a load must naturally be short3 they hop upon their thick clumsy feet1 and generally roost upon the highest trees4 ,like the toucans1 the ,indian ,hornbills make their nest in the hole of some decaying tree1 sometimes plastering up the entrance with mud1 so as to leave but a small aperture1 a practice which the ,korw1 a species of ,african ,hornbill1 seems invariably to follow4 ,the female having entered her breeding-place1 in one of the natural cavities of the mopane tree1 a species of ,bauhinia1 the male plasters up the entrance1 leaving only a narrow slit by which to feed his mate1 and which exactly suits the form of his beak4 ,the female makes a nest of her own feathers1 lays her eggs1 hatches them1 and remains with the young till they are fully fledged4 ,during all this time which is stated to be two or three months1 the male continues to feed her and the young family4 ,the prisoner generally becomes quite fat1 and is esteemed a very dainty morsel by the natives1 while the poor slave of a husband gets so lean and weak1 that on the sudden lowering of the temperature1 which sometimes happens after a fall of rain1 he is benumbed1 falls down1 and dies4 ,the first time ,dr4 ,livingstone saw this bird was at ,kolobeng1 where he had gone to the forest for some timber4 ,standing by a tree1 a native looked behind him and exclaimed1 #8,there is the nest of a korw4' ,seeing a slit only about half an inch wide and three or four inches long in a slight hollow of the tree1 and thinking the word korw denoted some small animal1 he waited with interest to see what the ,bechuana would extract4 ,the latter1 breaking the clay which surrounded the slit1 put his arm into the hole1 and brought out a tockus1 or red-beaked hornbill1 which he killed4 ,the brilliant ,sun-birds or ,suimangas 7,cinnyris7 of ,asia and ,africa1 are the ,colibris of the old world1 equally ethereal1 gay1 and sparkling in their motions1 flitting briskly from flower to flower1 and assuming a thousand lively and agreeable attitudes4 ,the sunbeams glittering on their bodies make them sparkle like so many gems4 ,as they hover about the honey-laden blossoms1 they vibrate rapidly their tiny pinions1 producing in the air a slight whirring sound1 but not so loud as the humming noise produced by the wings of the colibris4 ,thrusting their slender beaks into the deep-cupped flowers1 they probe them with their brushlike tongues for insects and nectar4 ,some are emerald green1 some vivid violet1 others yellow with a crimson wing1 and rivalling the colibris by the metallic lustre of their plumage1 they surpass them by their musical powers1 for the latter can only hum1 but the sun-birds accompany their movements with an agreeable chirp4 ,illustration3 ,,argus ,,pheasant4 ,illustration3 ,,javanese ,,peacock4 ,while the superb ocellated turkey of ,honduras 7,meleagris ocellata7 displays1 with all the pride of a peacock1 the eye-like marks of his tail and upper-coverts1 the no less beautifully spotted ,argus1 a bird nearly related to the gold and silver pheasants which have been introduced from ,china into the ,european aviaries1 conceals his splendour in the dense forests of ,java and ,sumatra4 ,the wings of this magnificent creature1 whose plumage is equally remarkable for variety and elegance1 consist of very large feathers1 nearly three feet long1 the outer webs being adorned with a row of large eyes1 arranged parallel to the shaft2 the tail is composed of twelve feathers1 the two middle ones being about four feet in length1 the next scarcely two1 and gradually shortening to the outer ones4 ,its voice is plaintive and not harsh1 as in the ,indian peacock1 which ,alexander the ,great is said to have first introduced into ,europe1 though its feathers had many centuries before been imported by the ,phnicians4 ,the ,peacock is still found wild in many parts of ,asia and ,africa1 but more particularly in the fertile plains of ,india4 ,another species1 nearly similar in size and proportions1 but distinguished by a much longer crest1 inhabits the ,javanese forests4 ,the tropical wading birds of the old world are no less remarkable for beauty or size than those of equatorial ,america4 ,the rose-coloured ,flamingo1 with red wings and black quills1 adorns the creeks and rivers of tropical ,africa and ,asia1 and in warm summers extends his migrations as far northward as ,strasburg or the ,rhine4 ,the sight of a troop of flamingoes approaching on the wing and describing a great fiery triangle in the air is singularly majestic4 ,when about to alight1 their flight becomes slower1 they hover for a moment1 then their evolutions trace a conical spire1 and finally descending1 they immediately arrange themselves in a long line1 place their sentinels1 and commence their fishing operations4 ,illustration3 ,,flamingoes4 ,on the borders of ,lake ,menzaleh1 in ,egypt1 thousands upon thousands of flamingoes may often be seen standing in scarlet array4 ,the ,arabs catch them in nets1 or endeavour to surprise the sentinels by cautiously creeping up to them under the water1 and suddenly breaking their necks before they have time to give the note of alarm4 ,it is then easy to catch a number of the unsuspecting troop4 ,the flamingoes are not only beautiful in appearance1 but their flesh also surpasses that of most other birds in delicacy of flavour4 ,at the renowned culinary feasts of ,lucullus1 their fleshy tongues1 interwoven with fat1 formed one of the rarest and most highly prized dishes4 ,many of the learned have doubted the truth of this tradition1 as the ,romans were unacquainted with the use of fire-arms1 but ,brehm1#ca who thinks it would have been impossible to collect so many flamingoes by means of the noisy gun1 is convinced that they were caught with nets in the swamps of ,pontus1 as they are now on ,lake ,menzaleh4 ,illustration3 ,,egyptian ,,ibis4 ,the white ,ibis1 who formerly made his appearance from the south1 along with the swelling waters of the ,nile1 was revered as a sacred bird by the ,egyptians1 as the herald of the abundance which the growing river was about to scatter over the inundated land4 ,they paid him divine honours1 they embalmed his remains with the same spices which served to preserve the corpses of princes from decay1 and the pyramid of ,sakarrah served as the mausoleum of countless thousands of ,ibises4 ,at present1 however1 the sacred bird1 as if resenting the deprivation of his ancient honours1 no longer makes his appearance in ,egypt1 for he is never met with beyond the northern boundary of the tropical rains4 ,when the ,blue and ,white ,nile begin to rise1 he builds his rude nest among the branches of the thorny bushes1 in an inundated part of the primitive forest1 and lays in ,september three or four snow-white or yellow-speckled eggs1 which are hatched in a few weeks1 and find abundant food in the countless worms and insects generated in the swampy grounds4 ,few wading birds are more remarkable for grace of form and elegance of deportment than the ,demoiselle1 or ,numidian ,crane1 so that ,linnus justly gave it the name of virgin 7,grus virgo74 ,like the ibis it is easily domesticated1 and daily gains upon the affections of its master by the numerous proofs of attachment and intelligence which it gives him4 ,with maidenish care it preserves its silken plumage from every spot or defilement1 and enhances its beauty by the arts of an amiable coquetry4 ,with our ,common ,cranes 7,grus cinerea7 it hibernates on the sand-banks of the tropical ,nile1 where it meets the crowned ,demoiselle 7,grus ,pavonia71 which1 in spite of its more gorgeous plumage1 is a far less attractive bird4 ,when sailing about the middle of ,october on one of the two chief rivers of ,east ,sudan1 the traveller sees day and night flocks of ,cranes fly past and settle for the winter on some appropriate spot4 ,they consist of common and ,numidian ,cranes4 ,the latter have been found breeding in summer on the banks of the ,wolga1 and very rarely in ,germany1 but no one knows where the thousands which assemble in the ,sudan spend their summer months4 ,the ,demoiselle1 a rare bird in most collections1 is there met with in such multitudes as literally to cover a large sand island4 ,all the cabinets of ,europe might be largely provided with specimens1 if the bird was not so extremely intelligent1 shy1 and cautious4 ,it evades every snare1 and constantly keeps at a respectful distance from the sportsman's gun4 ,brehm chose the night for its chase1 and found that when the moon shone1 it used to fly once as high again as when protected by darkness4 ,the ornithological wonders of ,australia and its neighbouring islands are inferior to those of no other part of the world4 ,though of less dazzling splendour than the peacock's tail1 that of the ,menura1 or ,lyre-bird1 is unrivalled for its elegance4 ,fancy two large1 broad1 black and brown striped feathers1 curved in the form of a ,grecian lyre1 and between both1 other feathers1 whose widely distanced silken barbs envelope and surmount them with a light and airy gauze4 ,no painter could possibly have imagined anything to equal this masterpiece of nature1 which its shy possessor conceals in the wild bushes of ,australia4 #8,of all the birds ,i have ever met with1' says ,mr4 ,gould1 #8the ,menura is by far the most difficult to procure4 ,while among the bushes1 on the coast or on the sides of the mountains in the interior1 ,i have been surrounded by those birds pouring forth their loud and liquid calls for days together1 without being able to get a sight of them1 and it was only by the most determined perseverance and extreme caution that ,i was enabled to effect the desired object4' ,the ,lyre-bird is constantly engaged in traversing the bush from mountain-top to the bottom of the gullies1 whose steep and rugged sides present no obstacle to its long legs and powerful muscular thighs4 ,when running quickly through the bush1 it carries the tail horizontally1 that being the only position in which it could be borne at such times4 ,besides its loud1 full cry1 which may be heard at a great distance1 it has an inward and varied song1 the lower notes of which can only be heard when you have stealthily approached to within a few yards of the bird when it is singing4 ,its habits appear to be solitary1 seldom more than a pair being seen together4 ,it constructs a large nest1 formed on the outside of sticks and twigs1 like that of a magpie1 and lined with the inner bark of trees and fibrous roots4 ,in the neighbouring regions of ,papua or ,new ,guinea1 and the small isles in their immediate vicinity1 extending only a few degrees on each side of the ,equator1 we find the seat of the wondrous ,birds of ,paradise1 thus named from that peculiar union of splendour and elegance which seems to render them more worthy of the gardens of ,eden than of a terrestrial home4 ,the great ,bird of ,paradise 7,p4 apoda7 may justly be said to surpass in beauty the whole of the feathered creation4 ,the throat is of the brightest emerald1 and the canary-coloured neck blends gradually into the fine chocolate of the other parts of the body4 ,from under the short chestnut-coloured wings project the long delicate and gold-coloured feathers whose beautiful and graceful tufts are equally valued by the princes of the ,east and the ladies of ,england4 ,the chocolate-coloured tail is short1 but two very long shafts of the same hue considerably exceed in length even the long1 loose plumes of the sides4 ,illustration3 ,,bird ,,of ,,paradise4 ,unable to fly with the wind1 which would destroy their loose plumage1 the ,birds of ,paradise take their flight constantly against it1 being careful not to venture out in hard blowing weather4 ,the ,papuas climb1 during the night1 upon the high forest trees1 where they have observed the birds to roost1 and patiently await the dawn to catch them in nooses1 or to shoot them with blunted arrows4 ,the ,portuguese first found these birds on the island of ,gilolo1 and as the ,papuas tear off their legs before bringing them to market1 it was for a long time supposed that they were destitute of these organs4 ,the most absurd fables were founded on this imaginary deficiency3 it was said that they passed their whole life sailing in the air1 dew being their only food2 that they never took rest1 except by suspending themselves from the branches of trees by the shafts of their two elongated tail feathers2 that they never touched the earth till the moment of their death2 and the ,malays still believe that they retire for breeding to the groves of ,paradise4 ,it is almost superfluous to add that the researches of modern travellers have fully proved the utter fallacy of these ridiculous tales4 ,the wondrous pendulous nests of the ,american ,cassiques and ,baltimores are equalled1 if not surpassed1 by those of the ,african ,weaving ,birds4 ,these tiny architects generally suspend their structures to the ends of slender twigs1 small branches1 leaves or reeds1 where they dangle freely in the air1 and dance about merrily at every breeze4 ,for greater security1 many species always hang their nests over water1 at no great distance above the surface1 so that1 however small the animal1 monkey1 or snake may be that would attempt to rob the bird of its young brood1 its weight is more than sufficient to cause its immersion in the water1 and thus put a stop to its burglarious intentions4 ,as a further annoyance1 the baffled invader may expect soon to have a troop of birds swarming about him like so many scolding beldames1 for the weavers never can see one of their enemies without flying up to it with hoarse screams1 shooting close to its body1 and1 when an opportunity offers1 indulging in a passing peck4 ,illustration3 ,,sociable ,,weaver ,,bird4 ,the nests of the various species of weavers are very dissimilar in shape and design2 some very long1 others very short2 some having their entrance from below1 others at the side1 and others again from near the top4 ,some are made of delicate fibres1 and others of coarse grass2 some are of so loose a texture that the eggs can plainly be seen through them1 while others are so strong and thick that they will bear the roughest handling without going to pieces4 ,that of the ,mahali ,weaver1 a pretty bird about as large as our common starling1 resembles in shape a ,florence oil-flask1 but instead of being smooth on the exterior1 the ends of the thick grass stalks of which it is made1 protrude like #8quills upon the fretful porcupine1' and pointing towards the mouth of the nest1 which hangs downwards1 serve as eaves whereby the rain is thrown off the nest4 ,if the dwellings made by the generality of ,weavers may be likened to detached villas1 each built apart from its neighbour1 those of the social ,grosbeak of ,south ,africa1 an allied species1 deserve the name of populous cities1 for here we find hundreds of feathered architects uniting their labours in the construction of one vast nest often large enough to shelter five or six men4 ,the material used is the tough and wiry ,bushman's grass2 the tree usually chosen for the suspension of the nest1 is a species of acacia1 the giraffe thorn1 which derives its name from its constituting the chief food of the beautiful camelopard1 and on account of its size and the umbrella-shaped disposition of its foliage is a great ornament to the arid wastes of ,caffraria4 ,the instinct of the birds seems to have pointed out to them that it is peculiarly adapted for the purpose1 as its smooth and polished bark keeps off many an enemy who1 if he could ascend the stem1 would be but too happy to give them a friendly call2 and besides1 the wood is extremely hard and tough1 so that the branches are able to bear the great weight of the nests4 ,when about to make a new construction1 the birds hang the ,bushman's grass over a suitable branch1 and by means of weaving and plaiting it1 form a roof of some little size4 ,under this cover are sheltered a quantity of nests1 increasing in number with each new brood1 for although the same nest-mass is occupied for several successive seasons1 the birds never breed in the same nests a second time4 ,in consequence of this custom1 when they have to provide for a new brood1 they enlarge the roof1 and build a second row of nests just like the combs of a hornet's habitation4 ,layer after layer is thus added1 until the mass1 spreading out like an extended umbrella1 attains so enormous a size as to be easily mistaken by the traveller for a thatched dwelling erected by the natives in arboreal elevation1 as a defence against wild beasts4 ,ultimately the branch1 however strong1 breaks under the accumulated weight1 and comes crashing to the ground2 an accident which fortunately leaves the breeding months undisturbed1 as it generally occurs during the rainy season after the dried grass has absorbed a vast quantity of moisture4 ,one of the wonders of these prodigious nests is that the birds should be able so easily to find their way to their own particular home4 ,of all the hundreds of holes with which these nest-cities are frequently pierced1 one is as like as possible to the other1 yet notwithstanding this similarity the inmates glide in and out without any hesitation4 ,illustration3 ,,baya ,,sparrow4 ,on turning to ,asia we likewise find many admirable nest-builders4 ,among these the ,baya1 or ,toddy ,bird1 is one of the most curious4 ,in shape it resembles the sparrow1 as also in the brown feathers of the back and wings2 the head and breast are of a bright yellow1 and in the rays of a tropical sun have a splendid appearance when the birds are flying by thousands in the same grove4 ,they make a chirping noise1 but have no song2 they associate in large communities1 and cover clumps of palmyras1 acacias1 and date-trees with their nests4 ,these are formed in a very ingenious manner by long grass woven together in the shape of a bottle1 and suspended by so slender a thread to the end of a flexible branch that even the squirrel dare not venture his body on so fragile a support1 however his mouth may water at the eggs and prey within4 ,these nests contain several apartments1 appropriated to different purposes3 in one the hen performs the office of incubation2 another1 consisting of a little thatched roof and covering a perch without a bottom1 is occupied by the male1 who cheers the female with his chirping note4 ,the ,hindoos are very fond of these birds for their docility and sagacity2 when young1 they teach them to fetch and carry1 and at the time the young women resort to the public fountains their lovers instruct the baya to pluck the tica or golden ornament from the forehead of their favourite and bring it to their master4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,tailor ,,birds4 ,the ,tailor-bird of ,hindostan 7,sylvia sutoria7 is equally curious in the structure of its nest1 and far superior in the elegance and variety of its plumage1 which in the male glows with the varied tints of the colibri4 ,selecting a suitable leaf1 generally one which hangs from the end of a slender twig1 the little artist pierces a row of holes along each edge1 using his beak as a shoemaker uses his awl4 ,when the holes are completed the feathered tailor next selects his thread1 which is a long fibre of some plant1 and passing it through the holes1 draws the sides of the leaf towards each other1 so as to form a kind of hollow cone1 the point downwards4 ,generally a single leaf answers the purpose1 but whenever the bird cannot find one sufficiently long1 it sews two together1 or even fetches another leaf and fastens it with the fibre4 ,the interior of the hollow is then lined with a quantity of soft white down1 and thus a warm1 light1 and elegant nest is constructed1 scarcely visible among the foliage1 and safe from the attacks of almost every foe but man4 ,who1 on witnessing these miracles of instinct1 would not exclaim with the poet3 ,behold a bird's nest6 ,mark it well1 within1 without6 ,no tool had he that wrought1 no knife to cut2 ,no nail to fix1 no bodkin to insert1 ,no glue to join3 his little beak was all6 ,and yet how neatly finish'd6 ,what nice hand1 ,with every implement and means of art1 ,could compass such another8 ,the ,honey ,eaters of ,australia and the neighbouring archipelagoes1 where they seem to occupy the position which is taken in ,america by the humming-birds1 and by the sun birds of ,asia and ,south ,africa1 have thus been named from their feeding largely on the sweet juices of many flowers1 although the staple of their diet consists of insects4 ,some are splendidly decorated1 others captivate the ear by their melodious song4 ,they are most lively and interesting birds1 affording an endless fund of amusement to the careful observer4 ,never still1 they traverse the branches of the trees with astonishing celerity1 skipping from one to another1 and probing every crevice with their needle-like tongue4 ,like the humming-birds they display great ingenuity in the building of their nests which the ,singing and ,painted ,honey ,eaters 7,ptilotus sonorus2 ,entomophila picta7 suspend from the long and slender branches of the pendulous ,acacia1 while the ,lanceolate ,honey ,eater1 thus named on account of the shape of its feathers1 slings its hammock just as a seaman slings his oscillating couch4 ,illustration3 ,,ptilotus ,,sonorus4 ,,sericornis ,,citreogularis4 ,,entomophila ,,picta4 ,,entomophila ,,albogularis4 ,,origma ,,rubricata4 ,the ,lanceolated ,honey ,eater chooses for the site of its pendulous dwelling the thinnest twigs which grow at the summit of the enormous gum trees2 where1 owing to the great height at which it is placed and the surrounding leaves1 even the eagle eye of the native ,australian can with difficulty detect it2 while the ,white ,throated ,honey ,eater 7,entomophila albogularis71 detesting the wind1 loves to frequent the dense mangrove thickets which edge the bays and creeks4 ,in these places1 often scarcely two feet from the water1 and invariably so placed as to be under the protection of a spray of leaves1 may be found its curious nest1 which is about as large as a breakfast cup1 and very much the same shape4 ,illustration3 ,,swallow ,,dic,,um4 ,besides the ,honey ,eaters1 ,australia has many other expert nest-builders1 such as the ,rock ,warbler 7,origma rubricata71 which suspends its nest from the rocks in sheltered places1 wherever an overhanging ledge affords protection from the elements2 the ,sericornis citreogularis1 which constructs its dwelling in the centre of the large masses of moss which in the ,australian forests often accumulate at the extremities of drooping branches1 and the brilliantly coloured ,swallow ,dicum 7,dicum hirundinaceum71 which hangs its pretty nest from the tops of the tallest ,casuarinas1 where its minute body can scarcely be seen without the assistance of glasses2 but nothing can be more extraordinary than the constructions of the ,bower ,birds1 which are built not for the useful purpose of containing the young1 but purely as a playing place or an assembly room4 #8,the structures of the spotted bower bird1' says ,mr4 ,gould1 #8are in many instances three feet in length4 ,they are outwardly built of twigs1 and beautifully lined with tall grasses1 so disposed that their heads nearly meet2 the decorations are very profuse1 and consist of bivalve shells1 crania of small mammalia1 and other birds4 ,evident and beautiful indications of design are manifest throughout the whole of the bower and decorations formed by this species1 particularly in the manner in which the stones are placed within the bower1 apparently to keep the grasses with which it is lined fixed firmly in their places4 ,these stones diverge from the mouth of the run on each side1 so as to form a little path1 while the immense collection of decorative materials1 bones1 shells1 c41 are placed in a heap before the entrance of the avenue1 this arrangement being the same at both ends4 ,i frequently found these structures at a considerable distance from the rivers1 from the borders of which they alone could have procured the shells and small round pebbly stones2 their collection and transportation must1 therefore1 be a task of great labour and difficulty4 ,as these birds feed almost entirely upon seeds and fruits1 the shells and bones cannot have been collected for any other purpose than ornament2 besides1 it is only those that have been bleached perfectly white in the sun1 or such as have been roasted by the natives1 and by this means whitened1 that attract their attention4' ,for what purpose these curious bowers are made is not yet1 perhaps1 fully understood2 they are certainly not used as a nest1 but as a place of resort1 where the assembled birds run through and about the bower in a playful manner1 and that so frequently that it is seldom entirely deserted4 ,illustration3 ,,lathami ,,talegalla4 ,the ,talegalla or ,brush-turkey is a no less interesting ,australian bird4 ,in appearance it is very like the common black turkey1 but is not quite so large3 the extraordinary manner in which its eggs are hatched constitutes its singularity4 ,it collects together a great heap of decaying vegetables as the place of deposit of its eggs1 thus making a hot-bed1 arising from the decomposition of the collected matter1 by the heat of which the young are hatched4 ,this mound varies in quantity from two to four cartloads1 and is of a perfectly pyramidical form3 it is not1 however1 the work of a single pair of birds1 but the result of the united labour of many1 and the same site appears to be resorted to for several years in succession4 #8,the mode1' says ,mr4 ,gould1 #8in which the materials composing these mounds are accumulated is equally singular1 the bird never using its bill1 but always grasping a quantity in its foot1 throwing it backwards to one common centre1 and thus clearing the surface of the ground to a considerable distance so completely that scarcely a leaf or blade of grass is left4' ,the heap being accumulated and time allowed for a sufficient heat to be engendered1 the eggs1 each measuring not less than four inches in length--an enormous size1 considering the bulk of the bird--are deposited1 not side by side1 as is ordinarily the case1 but planted at the distance of nine or twelve inches from each other1 and buried at nearly an arm's depth perfectly upright1 with the large end upwards2 they are covered up as they are laid1 and allowed to remain until hatched4 ,after six weeks of burial1 the eggs1 in succession and without any warning1 give up their chicks--not feeble1 but full-fledged and strong1 so that at night they scrape holes for themselves1 and lying down therein are covered over by the old birds and thus remain until morning4 ,the extraordinary strength of the newly-hatched birds is accounted for by the size of the shell1 since in so large a space it is reasonable to suppose that the young ones would be much more developed than is usually found in eggs of smaller dimensions4 ,other ,australian birds1 such as the ,jungle-fowl 7,megapodius tumulus71 ,duperrey's ,megapodius 7,m4 ,duperreyii71 which inhabits the forests of ,new ,guinea1 and the ,leipoas or native pheasants1 construct similar mound-like nests4 ,those of the jungle-fowl1 observed at ,port ,essington1 are described as fifteen feet high1 and sixty in circumference at the base1 and so enveloped in thickly foliaged trees as to preclude the possibility of the sun's rays reaching any part of it4 ,the tropical forests of the eastern hemisphere resound with bird-cries no less appalling1 wild1 or strange than those of the western world4 ,in the close jungles of ,ceylon one occasionally hears the call of the ,copper-smith 7,megalasara ,indica71 whose din resembles the blows of a smith hammering a cauldron1 or the strokes of the great orange-coloured ,woodpecker 7,brachypterus aurantius71 as it beats the decaying trees in search of insects2 but of all the yells that fancy can imagine there is none to equal that of the ,singhalese ,devil-bird or ,gualama4 #8,its ordinary cry1' says ,mr4 ,mitford1 #8is a magnificent clear shout like that of a human being1 which can be heard at a great distance1 and has a fine effect in the silence of the closing night4 ,it has another cry like that of a hen just caught1 but the sounds which have earned for it its bad name1 and which ,i have heard but once to perfection1 are indescribable2 the most appalling that can be imagined1 and scarcely to be heard without shuddering4 ,i can only compare it to a boy in torture1 whose screams are being stopped by being strangled4 ,on hearing this dreadful note the terrified ,singhalese hurries from the spot1 for should he chance to see the bird of ill omen he knows that his death is nigh4 ,a servant of ,mr4 ,baker's1#cb who had the misfortune of seeing the dreaded gualama1 from that moment took no food1 and thus fell a victim to his superstitious despair4 ,this horror of the natives explains the circumstance that it is not yet perfectly ascertained whether the devil-bird is an owl 7,syrnium7 or a night hawk4 ,as if to make amends for this screech1 the robin of ,nueraellia1 the long-tailed thrush1 the oriole1 the dayal-bird1 and some others equally charming1 make the forests and savannas of the ,kandyan country resound with the rich tones of their musical calls4 ,besides the vast number of birds which1 constantly attached to a sultry climate1 breed and live within the tropics1 there are others who at the approach of winter leave the uncongenial regions of the temperate or frigid zones1 and in search of food and warmth migrate towards the equatorial world4 ,thus our house swallow annually wanders as far as the unknown heart of ,africa1 resting neither in ,egypt nor in ,nubia1 nor even in the insect-teeming steppes and woods of ,eastern ,sudan1 and the stork1 who every spring appears as a welcome guest in the lowlands of ,northern ,germany1 has frequently spent the previous winter months in ,south ,nubia and ,darfur4 ,in ,kordofan 7#af #ce ,n4 ,lat47 the naturalist hears with astonishment the dactylic note of the quail1 which may have sounded in summer in ,great ,britain or ,sweden1 or meets with our charming songster the nightingale1 who1 likewise1 wings his flight towards unknown regions1 far beyond the tropics1 where however his voice is mute4 ,illustration3 ,,lanceolate ,,honey ,,eater4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,condor4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,tropical ,,birds ,,of ,,prey4 ,the ,condor--,his ,marvellous ,flight--,his ,cowardice--,various ,modes of ,capturing ,condors--,ancient ,fables circulated about them--,comparison of the ,condor with the ,albatross--,the ,carrion ,vultures--,the ,king of the ,vultures--,domestication of the ,urubu--,its ,extraordinary ,memory--,the ,harpy ,eagle--,examples of his ,ferocity--,the ,oricou-- ,the ,bacha--,his ,cruelty to the ,klipdachs--,the ,fishing ,eagle of ,africa--,the ,musical ,sparrow-hawk--,the ,secretary ,eagle4 ,the flight of the ,condor is truly wonderful4 ,from the mountain-plains of the ,andes1 the royal bird1 soaring aloft1 appears only like a small black speck on the sky1 and a few hours afterwards he descends to the coast and mixes his loud screech with the roar of the surf4 ,no living creature rises voluntarily so high1 none traverses in so short a time all the climates of the globe4 ,he rests at night in the crevices of the rocks1 or on some jutting ledge2 but as soon as the first rays of the sun light the high mountain peaks1 while the darkness of night still rests upon the deeper valleys1 he stretches forth his neck1 shakes his head as if fully to rouse himself1 stoops over the brink of the abyss1 and flapping his wings1 dives into the arial ocean4 ,at first his flight is by no means strong2 he sinks as if borne down by his weight2 but soon he ascends1 and sweeps through the rarefied atmosphere without any perceptible vibratory motion of his wings4 #8,near ,lima1' says ,mr ,darwin1 #8,i watched several condors for nearly half an hour without once taking off my eyes4 ,they moved in large curves1 sweeping in circles1 descending and ascending without once flapping4 ,as they glided close over my head1 ,i intently watched from an oblique position the outlines of the separate and terminal feathers of the wing2 if there had been the least vibratory movement these would have blended together1 but they were seen distinct against the blue sky4 ,the head and neck were moved frequently and apparently with force1 and it appeared that the extended wings formed the fulcrum on which the movements of the neck1 body1 and tail acted4 ,if the bird wished to descend1 the wings were for a moment collapsed1 and then1 when again expanded with an altered inclination1 the momentum gained by the rapid descent seemed to urge the bird upwards with the even and steady movement of a paper kite4' ,like other vultures1 the condor feeds only upon dead carcases1 or on new-born lambs and calves1 whom he tears from the side of their mothers4 ,he thus does so much damage to the herds1 that the shepherds pursue and kill him whenever they can4 ,as even a bullet frequently glances off from his thick feathery coat1 the natives never use fire-arms for his destruction1 but make use of various traps1 of the sling1 or of the bolas1 which they are able to throw with marvellous dexterity4 ,in the ,peruvian province of ,abacay1 an ,indian provided with cords conceals himself under a fresh cow's skin1 to which some pieces of flesh are left attached4 ,the condors soon pounce upon the prey1 but while they are feasting1 he fastens their legs to the skin4 ,this being accomplished1 he suddenly comes forth2 and the alarmed birds vainly flap their wings1 for other ,indians hurry towards them1 throw their mantles or their lassos over them1 and carry the condors to their village1 where they are reserved for the next bull fight4 ,for a full week before this spectacle is to take place1 the bird gets nothing to eat1 and is then bound upon the back of a bull which has previously been scarified with lances4 ,the bellowing of the poor animal1 lacerated by the famished vulture1 and vainly striving to cast off its tormentor1 amuses what may well be called the #8swinish multitude4' ,in the province of ,huarochirin there is a large natural funnel-shaped excavation1 about sixty feet deep1 with a diameter of about eighty feet at the top4 ,a dead mule is placed on the brink of the precipice4 ,the tugging of the condors at the dead carcase causes it to fall into the hole2 they follow it with greedy haste1 and having gorged themselves with food1 are unable again to rise from the narrow bottom of the funnel4 ,in a somewhat similar manner condors are caught in ,peru1 ,bolivia1 and ,chili1 and are frequently brought to ,valparaiso and ,callao1 where they are sold for a few dollars to the foreign ships1 and thence conveyed to ,europe4 ,the condor1 though a very large bird1 about four feet long and measuring at least three yards from tip to tip of his extended wings1 is far from attaining the dimensions assigned to him by the earlier writers and naturalists1 who1 emulating ,sinbad the ,sailor1 in his account of the fabulous roc1 described him as a giant whose bulk darkened the air4 ,the condor reminds us of the ,albatross4 ,as the former sweeps in majestic circles high above the ,andes1 the latter soars gracefully over the ocean1 #8and without ever touching the water with his wings1 rises with the rising billow and falls with the falling wave4'#cc ,if the wonderful power of wing which bears the condor1 often within the space of a few hours1 from the sea-shore into the highest regions of the air1 and the strength of breast which is able to support such changes of atmospheric pressure1 may well raise our wonder1 the indomitable pinions of the albatross are no less admirable4 ,both are unable to take wing from a narrow space1 and both finally1 so lordly in their movements1 feed in the same ignoble manner1 the condor pouncing from incredible distances upon the carcase of the mule or lama1 while the albatross gorges upon the fat of the stranded whale4 ,illustration3 ,,turkey ,,buzzard4 ,while the condor is considered an enemy to man1 the ,gallinazos1 turkey-buzzards1 or common ,american ,carrion ,vultures 7,vultur aura1 ,v4 urubu71 are very serviceable to him1 by consuming the animal offals which1 if left to putrefaction1 would produce a pestilence4 ,thus they generally1 in tropical ,america1 enjoy the protection of the law1 a heavy fine being imposed upon the offender who wantonly kills one of these scavengers4 ,it is consequently not to be wondered at that1 like domestic birds1 they congregate in flocks in the streets of ,lima1 and sleep upon the roofs of the houses4 ,according to ,mr4 ,wallace the ,carrion ,vultures1 though commonly supposed to have very acute olfactory nerves1 depend entirely on sight in seeking out their food4 ,while he was skinning a bird1 a dozen of them used to be always waiting attendance at a moderate distance4 ,the moment he threw away a piece of meat they would all run up to seize it2 but it frequently happened to fall in a little hollow of the ground or among some grass1 and then they would hop about1 searching within a foot of it1 and very often go away without finding it4 ,a piece of stick or paper would bring them down just as rapidly1 and after seeing what it was they would quietly go back to their former places4 ,they always choose elevated stations1 evidently to see what food they can discover1 and when soaring at an immense height in the air1 they will descend where some animal has died long before it emits any strong smell4 ,illustration3 ,,condor ,,catching4 ,it is a remarkable fact that1 though hundreds of gallinazos may be feeding upon a carcase1 they immediately retire when the ,king of the ,vultures 7,sarcoramphus papa7 makes his appearance1 who yet is not larger than themselves4 ,perching on the neighbouring trees1 they wait till his majesty--a beautiful bird1 with a gaudily coloured head and neck--has sufficiently gorged himself1 and then pounce down with increased voracity upon their disgusting meal4 ,the ,indians of ,guiana sometimes amuse themselves with catching a gallinazo by means of a piece of meat attached to a hook1 and decking him with a variety of strange feathers1 which they attach to him with soft wax4 ,thus travestied1 they turn him out again among his comrades1 who1 to their great delight1 fly in terror from the nondescript2 and it is only after wind and weather have stripped him of his finery that the outlaw is once more admitted into their society4 ,when full of food this vulture1 like the other members of his tribe1 appears an indolent bird4 ,he will stand for hours together on a branch of a tree1 or on the top of a house1 with his wings drooping1 or after rain1 spreading them to catch the rays of the sun4 ,but when in quest of prey1 he may be seen soaring aloft on pinions which never flutter1 and at the same time carry him with a rapidity equal to that of the golden eagle4 ,scarcely has he espied a piece of carrion below1 when1 folding his broad wings1 he descends with such speed as to produce a whistling sound1 resembling that of an arrow cleaving the air4 ,the gallinazos when taken young can be so easily tamed that they will follow the person who feeds them for many miles4 ,d',orbigny even mentions one of these birds that was so attached to its master that it accompanied him1 like a dog1 wherever he went4 ,during a serious illness of its patron1 the door of the bedroom having been left open1 the bird eagerly flew in1 and expressed a lively joy at seeing him again4 ,the ,harpy ,eagle 7,thrasatus harpyia7 is one of the finest of all the rapacious birds4 ,the enormous development of his beak and legs1 and his consequent strength and power in mastering his prey1 correspond with his bold and noble bearing and the fierce lustre of his eye4 ,his whole aspect is that of formidably organised power1 and even the crest adds much to his terrific appearance4 #8,among many singular birds and curiosities1' says ,mr4 ,edwards1 in his #8,voyage up the ,amazon1' #8that were brought to us1 was a young harpy eagle1 a most ferocious looking character1 with a high crest and a beak and talons in correspondence4 ,he was turned loose into the garden1 and before long gave us a sample of his powers4 ,with erected crest and flashing eyes1 uttering a frightful shriek1 he pounced upon a young ibis1 and quicker than thought had torn his reeking liver from his body4 ,the whole animal world there was wild with fear4' ,illustration3 ,,harpy ,,eagle4 ,the harpy attains a greater size than the common eagle4 ,he chiefly resides in the damp lowlands of tropical ,america1 where ,prince ,maximilian of ,neu ,wied met with him only in the dense forests1 perched on the high branches4 ,the monkey1 vaulting by means of his tail from tree to tree1 mocks the pursuit of the tiger-cat and boa1 but woe to him if the harpy spies him out1 for seizing him with lightning-like rapidity1 he cleaves his skull with one single stroke of his beak4 ,fear seems to be totally unknown to this noble bird1 and he defends himself to the last moment4 ,d',orbigny relates that one day1 while descending a ,bolivian river in a boat with some ,indians1 they severely wounded a harpy with their arrows1 so that it fell from the branch on which it had been struck4 ,stepping out of the canoe1 the savages now rushed to the spot where the bird lay1 knocked it on the head1 and tearing out the feathers of its wings1 brought it for dead to the boat4 ,yet the harpy awakened from his trance1 and furiously attacked his persecutors4 ,throwing himself upon ,d',orbigny he pierced his hand through and through with the only talon that had been left unhurt1 while the mangled remains of the other tore his arm1 which at the same time he lacerated with his beak4 ,two men were hardly able to release the naturalist from the attacks of the ferocious bird4 ,on turning from the ,new to the ,old ,world1 we find other but not less interesting raptorial birds sweep through the higher regions of the air in quest of prey4 ,the gigantic oricou1 or ,sociable ,vulture 7,vultur auricularis71 inhabits the greater part of ,africa1 and builds his nest in the fissures of rocks on the peaks of inaccessible mountains4 ,in size he equals the condor1 and his flight is not less bold2 leaving his lofty cavern at dawn1 he rises higher and higher1 till he is lost to sight2 but1 though beyond the sphere of human vision1 the telescopic eye of the bird is at work4 ,the moment any animal sinks to the earth in death1 the unseen vulture detects it4 ,does the hunter bring down some large quadruped1 beyond his powers to remove1 and leave it to obtain assistance8--on his return1 however speedy1 he finds it surrounded by a band of vultures1 where not one was to be seen a quarter of an hour before4 ,illustration3 ,,sociable ,,vulture4 ,le ,vaillant having once killed three zebras1 hastened to his camp1 at about a league's distance1 to fetch a wagon2 but on returning he found nothing but the bones1 at which hundreds of oricous were busy picking4 ,another time1 having killed a gazelle1 he left the carcase on the sand1 and retired into the bushes to observe what would happen4 ,first came crows1 who with loud croakings wheeled round the dead animal3 then after a few minutes kites and buzzards appeared1 and finally he saw the oricous descending from an enormous height4 ,they alighted upon the gazelle1 and soon hundreds of raptorial birds were assembled4 ,thus the small robbers had first pointed out the way to those of middle size1 who in their turn roused the attention of the bandits of a higher order2 and none of them came too short1 for after the powerful oricous had dismembered the carcase1 some very good morsels remained for the buzzards1 and the bones furnished excellent pickings for the crows4 ,the ,bacha 7,falco bacha1 ,daudin7 inhabits ,india and ,africa1 where he sits for days on the peak of precipitous cliffs1 on the look-out for rock-rabbits 7,hyrax ,capensis74 ,these poor animals1 who have good reason to be on their guard1 venture only with the greatest caution to peep out of the caves and crevices in which they take up their abode1 and to which they owe their ,dutch name of #8klipdachs4' ,meanwhile the bacha remains immovable1 as if he were part of the rock on which he perches1 his head muffled up in his shoulders1 but watching with a sharp eye every movement of his prey1 until1 finally1 some unfortunate klipdachs venturing forth1 he darts upon him like a thunderbolt4 ,if this rapid attack proves unsuccessful1 the bacha slinks away1 ashamed1 like a lion that has missed his spring1 and seeks some new observatory1 for he is well aware that no rock-rabbit in the neighbourhood will venture to stroll out during the remainder of the day4 ,but if he succeeds in seizing the klipdachs before it has time to leap away1 he carries it to a rocky ledge1 and slowly tears it to pieces4 ,the terrible cries of the animal appear to sound like music in his ears1 as if he were not only satisfying his hunger but rejoicing in the torments of an enemy4 ,this scene of cruelty spreads terror far and wide1 and for a long time no klipdachs will be seen where the bacha has held his bloody repast4 ,the ,fishing ,eagle of ,africa 7,halitus vocifer71 first noticed by ,le ,vaillant1 may be seen hovering about the coasts and river-mouths of that vast continent4 ,he is never found in the interior of the country1 as the ,african streams are but thinly stocked with fish1 which form his principal food4 #8,elastic and buoyant1 this agile dweller in the air mounts to soaring heights scanning with sharp and piercing eye the motions of his prey below4 ,energetic in his movements1 impetuous in his appetites1 he pounces with the velocity of a meteor on the object of his wishes1 and with a wild and savage joy tears it to pieces4 ,his whole sense of existence is the procuring of food1 and for this he is ever on the alert1 ever ready to combat1 to ravage1 and destroy4'#cd ,he generally devours his prey on the nearest rock1 and loves to return to the same spot where the bones of gazelles and lizards may be seen lying about1 a proof that his appetite is not solely confined to the finny tribes4 ,when these birds are sitting1 they call and answer each other with a variously-toned shriek which they utter under curious movements of the head and neck4 ,while all other raptorial birds croak or shriek1 the musical ,sparrow ,hawk of ,africa 7,melierca musicus1 ,gray7 pours forth his morning and evening notes to entertain his mate while she is performing the business of incubation4 ,every song lasts a minute1 and then the hunter may approach1 but during the pause he is obliged to remain perfectly quiet1 as then the bird hears the least noise and immediately flies away4 ,the prowess of the ,secretary ,eagle 7,serpentarius cristatus7 attacking the most venomous serpents has already been mentioned4 ,the long legs of this useful bird1 which owes its name of secretary to the crest on the back of its head1 reminding one of the pen stuck behind the ear1 according to the custom of writing-clerks1 might give one reason to reckon it1 at first sight1 among the cranes or storks1 but its curved beak and internal organisation prove it to belong to the falcon tribe4 ,its feet being incapable of grasping1 it keeps constantly on the ground in sandy and open places1 and runs with such speed as to be able to overtake the most agile reptiles4 ,the destruction it causes in their ranks must be as great as its own enviable powers of digestion1 for ,le ,vaillant mentions that having killed one of these birds he found in its crop eleven rather large lizards1 three serpents of an arm's length1 and eleven small tortoises1 besides a number of locusts1 beetles1 and other insects1 swallowed most likely by way of dessert4 ,illustration3 ,,ostrich ,,catching4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,the ,,ostrich ,,and ,,the ,,cassowary4 ,size of the ,ostrich--,its astonishing ,swiftness--,ostrich ,hunting-- ,stratagem of the ,ostrich for protecting its ,young--,points of ,resemblance with the ,camel--,its ,voracity--,ostrich ,feathers-- ,domestication of the ,ostrich in ,algeria--,poetical ,legend of the ,arabs--,the ,american ,rheas--,the ,cassowary--,the ,australian ,emu4 ,in the ,african plains and wildernesses1 where the lion seeks his prey1 where the pachyderms make the earth tremble under their weighty strides1 where the giraffe plucks the high branches of the acacia1 and the herds of the antelope bound along3 there also dwells the ,ostrich1 the king of birds1 if size alone gives right to so proud a title2 for neither the condor nor the albatross can be compared in this respect to the ostrich1 who raises his head seven or eight feet above the ground1 and attains a weight of from two to three hundred pounds4 ,his small and weak wings are incapable of carrying him through the air1 but their flapping materially assists the action of his legs1 and serves to increase his swiftness when1 flying over the plain1 he #8scorns the horse and its rider4' ,his feet appear hardly to touch the ground1 and the length between each stride is not unfrequently from twelve to fourteen feet1 so that for a time he might even outstrip a locomotive rushing along at full speed4 ,in ,senegal1 ,adanson saw a couple of ostriches so tame that two negro boys could sit upon the largest of them4 #8,scarce had he felt the weight1' says the venerable naturalist1 #8when he began to run with all his might1 and thus they rode upon him several times round the village4 ,i was so much amused with the sight1 that ,i wished to see it repeated2 and in order to ascertain how far the strength of the birds would reach1 ,i ordered two full-grown negroes to mount upon the smallest of them and two others upon the strongest4 ,at first they ran in a short gallop with very small strides1 but after a short time they extended their wings like sails1 and scampered away with such an amazing velocity that they scarcely seemed to touch the ground4 ,whoever has seen a partridge run knows that no man is able to keep up with him1 and were he able to make greater strides his rapidity would undoubtedly be still greater4 ,the ostrich1 who runs like a partridge1 possesses this advantage1 and ,i am convinced that these two birds would have distanced the best ,english horses4 ,to be sure they would not have been able to run for so long a time1 but in running a race to a moderate distance they would certainly have gained the prize4' ,not only by his speed is the ostrich able to baffle many an enemy1 the strength of his legs also serves him as an excellent means of defence2 and many a panther or wild dog coming within reach of his foot has had reason to repent of its temerity4 ,but in spite of the rapidity of his flight1 during which he frequently flings large stones backwards with his foot1 and in spite of his strength1 he is frequently obliged to succumb to man1 who knows how to hunt him in various ways4 ,unsuspicious of evil1 a troop of ostriches wanders through the plain1 the monotony of which is only relieved here and there by a clump of palms1 a patch of candelabra-shaped tree-euphorbias1 or a vast and solitary baobab4 ,some leisurely feed on the sprouts of the acacias1 or the hard leaves of the mimosas1 others agitate their wings and ventilate the delicate plumage1 the possession of which is soon to prove so fatal to them4 ,no other bird is seen in their company--for no other bird leads a life like theirs2 but the zebra and the antelope are fond of associating with the ostrich1 desirous perhaps of benefiting by the sharpness of his eye1 which is capable of discerning danger at the utmost verge of the horizon4 ,but in spite of its vigilance1 misfortunes are already gathering round the troop1 for the ,bedouin has spied them out1 and encircles them with a ring of his fleetest coursers4 ,in vain the ostrich seeks to escape4 ,one rider drives him along to the next1 the circle gradually grows narrower and narrower1 and1 finally1 the exhausted bird sinks upon the ground1 and receives the death-blow with stoical resignation4 ,to surprise the cautious seal the northern ,eskimo puts on a skin of the animal1 and imitating its motions mixes among the unsuspicious herd2 and1 in ,south ,africa1 we find the ,bushman resort to a similar stratagem to outwit the ostrich4 ,he forms a kind of saddle-shaped cushion1 and covers it over with feathers1 so as to resemble the bird4 ,the head and neck of an ostrich are stuffed1 and a small rod introduced4 ,preparing for the chase1 he whitens his black legs with any substance he can procure1 places the saddle on his shoulders1 takes the bottom part of the neck in his right hand1 and his bow and poisoned arrows in his left4 ,under this mask he mimics the ostrich to perfection1 picks away at the verdure1 turns his head as if keeping a sharp look out1 shakes his feathers1 now walks1 and then trots1 till he gets within bow-shot1 and when the flock runs1 from one receiving an arrow1 he runs too4 ,sometimes1 however1 it happens that some wary old bird suspects the cheat1 and endeavours to get near the intruder1 who then tries to get out of the way1 and to prevent the bird from catching his scent1 which would at once break the spell4 ,the ostrich generally passes for a very stupid animal1 yet to protect its young it has recourse to the same stratagems which we admire in the plover1 the oyster-catcher1#ce and several other strand-birds4 ,thus ,professor ,thunberg relates that riding past a place where a hen-ostrich sat on her nest1 the bird sprang up and pursued him1 in order to draw off his attention from her young ones or her eggs4 ,every time the traveller turned his horse toward her1 she retreated ten or twelve paces1 but as soon as he rode on1 pursued him again4 ,the instinct of the ostrich in providing food for its young is no less remarkable1 for it is now proved that this bird1 far from leaving its eggs1 like a cold-blooded reptile1 to be vivified by the sun1 as was formerly supposed1 not only hatches them with the greatest care1 but even reserves a certain portion of eggs to provide the young with nourishment when they first burst into life3 a wonderful provision1 when we consider how difficult it would be for the brood to find any other adequate food in its sterile haunts4 ,in ,senegal1 where the heat is extreme1 the ostrich1 it is said1 sits at night only upon those eggs which are to be rendered fertile1 but in extratropical ,africa1 where the sun has less power1 the mother remains constant in her attentions to the eggs both day and night4 ,the number of eggs which the ostrich usually sits upon is ten2 but the ,hottentots1 who are very fond of them1 upon discovering a nest1 seize fitting opportunities to remove one or two at a time2 this induces the bird to deposit more1 and in this manner she has been known1 like the domestic hen1 to lay between forty and fifty in a season4 ,almost as soon as the chicks of the ostrich 7which are about the size of pullets7 have escaped from the shell1 they are able to walk about and to follow the mother1 on whom they are dependent for a long time4 ,and here again we find a wonderful provision of nature in providing the young of the ostrich with a colour and a covering admirably suited to the localities they frequent4 ,the colour is a kind of pepper and salt1 agreeing well with the sand and gravel of the plains1 which they are in the habit of traversing1 so that you have the greatest difficulty in discerning the chicks even when crouching under your very eyes4 ,the covering is neither down nor feathers1 but a kind of prickly stubble1 which no doubt is an excellent protection against injury from the gravel and the stunted vegetation amongst which they dwell4 ,the ostrich resembles in many respects the quadrupeds1 and particularly the camel1 so that it may almost be said to fill up the chasm which separates the mammalia from the birds1 and to form a connecting link between them4 ,both the ostrich and the dromedary have warty excrescences on the breast upon which they lean whilst reposing1 an almost similarly formed foot1 the same muscular neck2 and when we consider that they both feed upon the most stunted herbage1 and are capable of supporting thirst for an incredibly long time1 being1 in fact1 both equally well formed for living on the arid plains1 it is certainly not to be wondered at that the ancients gave the ostrich a name betokening this similitude 7,struthio camelus71 and that the fancy of the ,arabs ascribes its original parentage to a bird and to a dromedary4 ,it is difficult to ascertain what the tastes of the ostrich may be while roaming the desert1 but when in captivity no other bird or animal shows less nicety in the choice of its food1 as it swallows with avidity stones1 pieces of wood and iron1 spoons1 knives1 and other articles of equally light digestion that may be presented to it4 #8,nothing1' says ,methuen1 speaking of a domesticated ostrich1 #8disturbed its digestion--dyspepsia 7happy thing7 was undreamt of in its philosophy4 ,one day a ,muscovy-duck brought a promising race of ducklings into the world1 and with maternal pride conducted them forth into the yard4 ,up with solemn and measured stride walked the ostrich1 and1 wearing the most mild and benignant cast of face1 swallowed them all1 one after the other1 like so many oysters1 regarding the indignant hissings and bristling plumage of the hapless mother with stoical indifference4' ,the costly white plumes of the ostrich1 which are chiefly obtained from the wings1 have been prized in all ages for the elegance of their long1 waving1 loose1 and flexible barbs4 ,from seventy to ninety feathers go to the pound2 but a single bird seldom furnishes more than a dozen1 as many of them are spoilt by trailing or some other accident4 ,the vagrant tribes of the ,sahara sell their ostrich plumes to the caravans which annually cross the desert1 and convey them to the ports of the ,mediterranean4 ,here they were purchased as far back as the twelfth or thirteenth century1 by the ,pisanese or ,genoese merchants1 through whose agency they ultimately crossed the ,alps to decorate the stately ,burggrfinnen of the ,rhine1 or the wives of the opulent traders of ,augsburg or ,nuremberg4 ,at a still more remote period the ,phnicians brought ostrich-feathers from ,ophir to ,tyre1 whence they were distributed among the princes of the ,eastern world4 ,in ,algeria1 the ostrich is often domesticated1 particularly on account of its eggs1 which weigh three pounds1 and are equivalent to twenty-four of the common fowl's eggs4 ,according to ,andersson they afford an excellent repast2 while ,dr4 ,livingstone tells us they have a strong disagreeable flavour1 which only the keen appetite of the desert can reconcile one to4 ,the flesh of the ostrich is decidedly coarse1 but as there is no accounting for tastes1 the ,romans seem to have prized it2 and ,firmus1 one of their pseudo-emperors1 most likely desirous of emulating the gormandising powers of the bird on which he fed1 is said to have devoured a whole ostrich at one meal4 ,a legend of the ,arabs gives the following poetical account of the origin of the crippled wings and ruffled coat of the ostrich4 #8,about a thousand years ago1' say the wandering tribes of ,kordofan1 #8the ostrich still resembled the ,hubahra or ,arabian bustard1 and both together inhabited the grassy plains4 ,then also he flew remarkably well1 nor was he so shy as at present1 when he avoids the approach of man with gigantic strides1 but lived in friendship and confidence both with him and the other animals of the desert4 ,one day the ,hubahra thus addressed him3 8,dear brother6 if thou art inclined we will1 inschalla6 7with ,god's permission7 fly to-morrow to the river1 bathe1 drink1 and then return to our young60 8,well10 replied the ostrich2 8we will do so30 but he did not add--8inschalla60 for he was arrogant1 and did not bow before the might of the all-merciful and eternal ,god1 8whose praise the angels in heaven proclaim1 and whose glory the thunder in the clouds celebrates10#cf as hitherto he only had known ,his inexhaustible goodness1 and prided himself upon his own strength and his strong wings4 ,on the following morning they prepared for their journey1 but the ,hubahra before starting said1 8,be issm lillahi60 7in the name of ,allah7 while the ostrich remained mute1 and then they both flew towards the eye of ,god 7the sun74 ,and the ostrich rose higher and higher1 and striking the air with his mighty wings left the ,hubahra far behind4 ,his heart was full of arrogance2 he forgot the blessings of ,him who is the fountain of all blessings1 and relied only upon himself4 ,but the measure of ,god's mercy was filled to overflowing1 and the anger of ,allah was roused against the offender4 ,higher and higher he rose1 as if he wanted to reach the sun4 ,but now the avenging angel of the ,lord approached1 and withdrew the veil which separated him from the flaming orb4 ,in an instant his wings were burnt1 and he fell miserably down upon the earth4 ,even now he cannot fly2 even now thou seest his singed feathers2 even now he fears ,god's vengeance1 and endeavours to escape it with gigantic strides4 ,therefore1 ,o man6 let the bird of the desert serve thee as a warning example3 humble thyself before the power of the ,almighty1 and never undertake anything without saying beforehand 8inschalla60 that the blessing of ,god may attend thy work4' ,there is evidently a great resemblance between this legend and the story of ,icarus1 but the ,arab tale gives an excellent moral lesson1 and is imbued with a deep religious feeling1 of which we find no traces in the ,greek4 ,the ,rheas1 from their size and similar habits1 have been styled the ostriches of the ,new ,world1 though differing in many essential characters4 ,one species1 the ,rhea ,darwinii1 inhabits ,patagonia1 while the ,emu or ,nandu 7,rhea ,americana7 is found throughout the whole eastern part of ,south ,america1 from ,buenos ,ayres to the ,orinoco1 wherever open plains or savannas invite it to take up its residence4 ,the nandu is not near so tall as the true ostrich1 scarcely rising above four feet1 and is of a uniform grey colour except on the back1 which has a brown tint4 ,the back and rump are furnished with long feathers1 but not of the same rich and costly kind as those which adorn the ,african ostrich4 ,its feeble wings merely serve to accelerate its flight1 serving it as oars or sails1 particularly when running with the wind4 #8,it is not easily caught1' says the ,prince of ,neu ,wied1 #8as it not only runs very fast1 but in zigzag lines1 so that the horse1 rendered giddy by so many evolutions1 at length drops down with its rider4' ,the ,indian ,archipelago and ,new ,holland have likewise their peculiar struthionidous birds4 ,the ,galeated ,cassowary 7,casuarius galeatus71 thus called from its head being surmounted by a kind of horny helmet1 is a native of ,java and the adjacent isles4 ,the skin of the head and upper part of the neck is naked1 of a deep blue and fiery red tint1 with pendant caruncles similar to those of the turkey-cock4 ,it is much inferior in size to the ostrich1 and its wings are reduced to so rudimentary a state1 consisting merely of five long bristles1 without any plumes1 that they are even unable to assist it in running4 ,it is1 however1 very swift1 and striking out alternately with one of its robust and powerful legs1 projects its body violently forward with a bounding motion far surpassing the speed of the horse4 ,illustration3 ,,cassowary4 ,illustration3 ,,emu4 ,the ,australian ,emu 7,dromaius ,nov ,hollandi7 is allied to the cassowary1 though differing in many external characters4 ,both the helmet1 and the long pens or quills observable in the wings of the latter1 are here wanting2 its neck and legs are longer1 its feathers1 for the most part grey and brown mixed1 are not so filiform1 and its beak also is differently shaped4 ,in size it more nearly approaches the ostrich1 rising to a height of seven feet1 and from its great muscular power is able to run so quickly as to distance the swiftest greyhound4 ,incessant persecutions have driven it far away from the colonised parts of the country2 but it has still a vast range in the wilds of the interior4 ,it lives on fruits1 eggs1 and even small animals1 which it swallows entire4 ,illustration3 ,,parrots4 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,parrots4 ,their ,peculiar ,manner of ,climbing--,points of ,resemblance with ,monkeys--,their ,social ,habits--,their ,connubial ,felicity-- ,inseparables--,talent for ,mimicry--,wonderful ,powers of ,speech and ,memory--,their ,wide ,range within the ,temperate ,zones--,colour of ,parrots ,artificially ,changed by the ,south ,american ,indians--,the ,cockatoos--,cockatoo ,killing in ,australia--,the ,macaw--,the ,parakeets4 ,the parrots have so many points of resemblance with the monkeys in their tastes and habits1 that1 notwithstanding their different appearance1 one might almost be tempted to call them near relations4 ,a constant restlessness is peculiar to both4 ,most animals love repose after meals1 but not so the monkeys and the parrots1 who1 contrary to the general rule1 only remain quiet while they are eating4 ,at other times the former are always in motion1 chattering or screaming1 hanging from the boughs1 or swinging to and fro like rope dancers1 or jumping from branch to branch1 or climbing to the top of the highest trees2 and the parrots behave exactly in the same manner4 ,they also are constantly screaming1 flying or climbing about1 when not eating a banana or cracking a nut2 they also are particularly noisy before going to sleep4 ,as the monkey seldom or never sets his foot on even ground1 but climbs or springs from branch to branch1 thus also the parrot will rarely be seen walking2 his flight is rapid1 but generally only of short duration1 so that evidently neither the ground nor the air were destined for his habitual abode4 ,in climbing1 however1 he shows an uncommon expertness and agility1 unlike that of any other quadruped or bird1 as the organ he chiefly uses for the purpose is his beak4 ,he first seizes with his powerful mandibles the branch he intends to ascend1 and then raises his body one foot after the other2 or if he happens to have a sweet nut in his bill which he is anxious to preserve1 he presses his lower mandible firmly upon the branch1 and raises himself by the contraction of the muscles of his neck4 ,on descending1 he first bends his head1 lays the back of his beak upon the branch1 and while the extended neck supports the weight of the body1 brings down one foot after the other4 ,while accidentally walking on even ground1 he also frequently uses his upper mandible as a kind of crutch1 by fixing its point or its back upon the ground2 for the formation of his toes is such1 that he can walk but very slowly1 and consequently requires the aid of that singular support4 ,thus monkeys and parrots are1 in the fullest sense of the word1 dendritic animals-- the free children of the primeval forest4 ,but if the toes of the parrot are but ill adapted for walking1 they render him valuable services in grasping his food4 ,they even form a kind of hand1 with which he conveys the morsel to his beak4 ,this easily cracks the hardest nutshell1 after which the broad and fleshy tongue adroitly extracts the kernel4 ,in his free state the parrot lives only upon nuts and seeds2 when captive1 however1 he becomes omnivorous1 like man his master1 eats bread and meat1 sugar and pastry1 and is very fond of wine1 which has a most exhilarating effect on his spirits4 ,like most monkeys1 the parrots are extremely social4 ,at break of day they generally rise in large bands1 and with loud screams fly away to seek their breakfast4 ,after having feasted together1 they retire to the shady parts of the forest as soon as the heat begins to be oppressive1 and a few hours before the setting of the sun reappear in large troops4 ,if the monkeys are distinguished by a strong affection for their young1 the parrots may be cited as models of connubial love1 for when once a pair has been united1 its attachment remains unaltered unto death4 ,far more than the turtle-dove1 the little passerine parrot of ,brazil1 and the love-parrot of ,guinea1 deserved to be celebrated by poets as patterns of conjugal affection4 ,never seen but in each other's company1 each delights to imitate the actions of the other2 and when one dies1 the other soon follows its partner4 ,a gentleman who had lost one of a pair of these inseparables1 attempted to preserve the other by hanging up a looking-glass in its cage4 ,at first the joy of the poor bird was boundless1 as he fancied his mate restored to his caresses2 but soon perceiving the deception1 he pined away and died4 ,another point of resemblance between the parrots and monkeys is their talent for mimicry2 but while the latter1 favoured by the similarity of their organisation to that of man1 strive to copy his gestures and actions2 the former endeavour to imitate his voice and to repeat his words1 an attempt facilitated by the extreme mobility of their tongue and upper mandible1 no less than by the peculiar construction of their larynx or windpipe4 ,these imitative instincts appear the more remarkable when we consider that both monkeys and parrots have no pursuits that necessarily bring them into closer connection with man4 ,they are comparatively useless to him1 live at a distance from his haunts1 in the depths of the forests1 and are so far from seeking his company1 that they retreat as fast as they can on seeing him approach4 ,how comes it1 then1 that they have been gifted with their wonderful ability to imitate his language and his actions1 and of what use is it to them or to us8 ,the talent of speech has not been given to all parrots alike4 ,the beautiful ,american aras1 for instance1 are in this respect remarkably stupid1 while the purple lory of the ,east ,indies1 and the grey ,african parrot 7,psittacus erithacus71 are remarkable for their linguistic attainments4 ,it is well known that they are often able to retain whole songs and sentences1 and to repeat them with astonishing exactness4 ,buffon mentions a parrot who1 having been taught to speak during the passage by an old sailor1 had so completely adopted his gruff voice as to be mistaken for the weather-beaten tarpaulin himself4 ,although the bird was afterwards presented to a young lady1 and no more heard the voice of its first instructor1 it did not forget his lessons1 and nothing could be more ludicrous than to hear it suddenly pass from the sweet tones of its fair mistress to the rough accents of its first teacher4 ,the grey parrot not only imitates the voice of man1 but has also a strong desire to do so1 which he manifests by his attention in listening1 and by the continuous efforts he makes to repeat the phrases he has heard4 ,he seems to impose upon himself a daily task1 which even occupies him during sleep1 as he speaks in his dreams4 ,his memory is astonishing1 so that a cardinal once gave a hundred gold crowns for one of these birds that correctly repeated a long prayer2 and ,m4 de la ,borde told ,buffon he had seen one that was fully able to perform the duties of a ship's chaplain4 ,all parrots are more or less susceptible of education1 and1 particularly when caught young1 grow very much attached to the master that feeds them4 ,those that are sent to ,europe are generally taken from the nest1 and have thus never experienced the sweets of freedom2 but they are also frequently caught full grown4 ,the ,american ,indians know how to strike them with small arrows1 whose points are blunted with cotton1 so as to stun without killing them2 or else1 under the trees on which they perch1 they light a fire of strong-smelling weeds1 whose vapours cause them to drop to the ground4 ,these captives are frequently extremely stubborn2 but blowing the fumes of tobacco into their face until they fall asleep is an infallible remedy to cure them of their obstinacy1 this operation being so little to their taste that it need hardly ever be repeated twice4 ,although pre-eminently tropical1 like the colibris1 several parrots range far within the temperate zone1 as they are found in the ,southern hemisphere at the ,straits of ,magellan and on the ,macquarie ,islands1 and in the ,northern1 in the neighbourhood of ,cairo and in ,kentucky1 where the ,carolina parrot is often seen in great numbers during the summer4 ,the parrots are subdivided into numerous groups and species1 chiefly according to the various forms of their bills and tails4 ,the short-tailed parrots of the ,old ,world mostly display bright or gaudy colours1 such as the ,lories1 which owe their name to the frequency with which they repeat this word1 while the ,american species are generally green4 ,the ,indians have1 however1 found out an ingenious method to adorn the plumage of the ,amazonian parrot 7,psittacus ,amazonicus71 which is in great request1 from its being easily tamed1 and learning to speak with facility4 ,they take a young bird from its nest1 pluck the feathers from its back and shoulders1 and then rub the naked parts with the blood of a small species of frog4 ,the feathers which grow again after this operation are no longer green1 but yellow1 or of a bright red colour4 ,many birds die in consequence of being plucked1 and thus these metamorphosed parrots are extremely rare1 notwithstanding the high prices which the savages obtain for them4 ,the ,cockatoos are distinguished from the other parrots by a crest of elegant feathers1 which they can raise and depress at pleasure4 ,they inhabit the ,east ,indies and ,australia1 and have generally a white or roseate plumage4 ,their chief resorts are dense and humid forests1 and they frequently cause great devastations in the rice plantations1 often pouncing to the number of six or eight hundred upon a single field1 and destroying even more than they devour4 ,the great white cockatoo 7,cacatua ,cristata71 who is able to raise his beautiful yellow crest five inches high1 as a cock does his comb1 is the species most frequently seen in ,europe4 ,this bird is half-domesticated in several parts of ,india1 as it builds its nest under the roofs of houses1 and this tameness results from its intelligence1 which seems superior to that of other parrots4 ,as ,australia1 the land of anomalies in natural history1 possesses a black swan1 it also gives birth to a splendid black cockatoo 7,cacatua ,banksii71 the finest and rarest of the whole genus4 ,captain ,grey gives us an animated description of the chasing of this bird4 #8,perhaps the finest sight that can be seen1 in the whole circle of native sports1 is the killing cockatoos with the kiley or boomerang4 ,a native perceives a large flight of cockatoos in a forest which encircles a lagoon3 the expanse of water affords an open clear space above it1 unencumbered with trees1 but which raise their gigantic forms all around1 more vigorous in their growth from the damp soil in which they flourish2 and in their leafy summits sit a boundless number of cockatoos1 screaming1 and flying from tree to tree1 as they make their arrangements for a night's sound sleep4 ,the native throws aside his cloak1 so that he may not even have this slight covering to impede his motions1 draws his kiley from his belt1 and with a noiseless1 elastic step1 approaches the lagoon1 creeping from tree to tree1 from bush to bush1 and disturbing the birds as little as possible4 ,their sentinels1 however1 take the alarm2 the cockatoos farthest from the water fly to the trees near its edge1 and thus they keep concentrating their forces as the native advances2 they are aware that danger is at hand1 but are ignorant of its nature4 ,at length the pursuer almost reaches the edge of the water1 and the scared cockatoos with wild cries spring into the air2 at the same instant the native raises his right hand high over his shoulder1 and bounding forwards with his utmost speed for a few paces to give impetus to his blow1 the kiley quits his hand as if it would strike the water1 but when it has almost touched the unruffled surface of the lake1 it spins upwards with inconceivable velocity1 and with the strangest contortions4 ,in vain the terrified cockatoos strive to avoid it2 it sweeps wildly and uncertainly through the air 7and so eccentric are its motions1 that it requires but a slight stretch of the imagination to fancy it endowed with life71 and with fell swoops is in rapid pursuit of the devoted birds1 some of whom are almost certain to be brought screaming to the earth4 ,but the wily savage has not yet done with them2 he avails himself of the extraordinary attachment which these birds have for one another1 and fastening a wounded one to a tree1 so that its cries may induce its companions to return1 he watches his opportunity1 by throwing his kiley or spear1 to add another bird or two to the booty he has already obtained4' ,the magnificent ,macaws1 or ,aras1 of ,south ,america are distinguished by having their cheeks destitute of feathers1 and their tail feathers long4 ,their size and splendid plumage render them fit ornaments of princely gardens1 but their loud and piercing screams would prove a great annoyance to the inmates of humbler dwellings4 #8,superior in size and beauty to every parrot of ,south ,america1' says ,waterton1 #8the ara 7,macrocercus ,macao7 will force you to take your eyes from the rest of animated nature1 and gaze at him3 his commanding strength2 the flaming scarlet of his body2 the lovely variety of red1 yellow1 blue1 and green in his wings2 the extraordinary length of his scarlet and blue tail1 seem all to form and demand for him the title of emperor of all the parrots4 ,he is scarce in ,demerara1 till you reach the confines of the ,macoushi country2 there he is in vast abundance3 he mostly feeds on trees of the palm species4 ,when the concourites have ripe fruit on them1 they are covered with this magnificent parrot3 he is not shy or wary2 you may take your blow-pipe and quiver of poisoned arrows and kill more than you are able to carry back to your hut4 ,they are very vociferous1 and1 like the common parrots1 rise up in bodies towards sunset1 and fly two and two to their place of rest4 ,it is a grand sight in ornithology to see thousands of aras flying over your head1 low enough to let you have a full view of their flaming mantle4' ,the ,paroquets1 or ,parakeets1 are smaller than the common parrots1 and have longer tails4 ,there are numerous species1 some distinguished by a very long pointed tail1 and collar-like mark round the neck1 which inhabit the ,asiatic continent and islands2 and others1 natives of ,australia1 which are distinguished by their colour being gorgeously variegated and peculiarly mottled on the back1 by their tail feathers not being pointed1 and by their being furnished with elongated tarsi adapted for running on the ground4 ,to the former belongs the beautiful ring paroquet1 which is supposed to have been the first bird of the parrot kind known to the ancient ,greeks1 having been brought from the island of ,ceylon1 after the ,indian expeditions of ,alexander the ,great2 to the latter1 the elegant green parakeet1 which in the hot seasons congregates about the pools in almost incredible numbers4 ,though capable of a rapid and even flight1 and frequently at great altitudes1 it is generally found running over the ground1 and treading its way among the grasses to feed on the seeds4 ,it can easily be domesticated1 and a more elegant or beautiful pet can scarely be conceived4 ,illustration3 ,,caravan4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,tropical ,,ruminants ,,and ,,equid4 ,the ,camel--,its ,paramount ,importance in the great ,tropical ,sandwastes-- ,its ,organisation admirably adapted to its mode of ,life--,beauty of the ,giraffe--,its ,wide ,range of ,vision--,pleasures of ,giraffe ,hunting--,the ,antelopes--,the ,springbok--,the ,reedbok--,the ,duiker-- ,the ,atro--,the ,gemsbok--,the ,klippspringer--,the ,koodoo--,the ,gnu-- ,the ,indian ,antelope--,the ,nylghau--,the ,caffrarian ,buffalo--,the ,indian ,buffalo and the ,tiger--,dr4 ,livingstone's ,escape from a solitary ,buffalo--,swimming ,feats of the ,bhain--,the ,zebra--,the ,quagga--,the ,douw4 ,there is a sea without water and refreshing breezes1 without ebb and flood1 without fishes and alg6 ,and there is a ship which safely travels from one shore to the other of that sea1 a ship without sails or masts1 without keel or rudder1 without screw or paddle1 without cabin or deck6 ,this ship1 so swift and sure1 is the ,dromedary1 and that sea is the desert2 which none but he1 or what he carries1 can pass4 ,in many respects the vast sandy deserts of ,africa and ,asia remind one of the ocean4 ,there is the same boundless horizon1 the same unstable surface1 now rising1 now falling with the play of the winds2 the same majestic monotony1 the same optical illusions1 for as the thirsty mariner sees phantom palm-groves rise from the ocean1 thus also the sandwaste transforms itself1 before the panting caravan1 into the semblance of a refreshing lake4 ,here we see islands1 verdant oases of the sea--there1 oases1 green islands of the desert2 here1 sand billows--there1 water waves1 separating widely different worlds of plants and animals2 here1 the ship1 the camel of the ocean--there1 the dromedary1 the ship of the desert6 ,but for this invaluable animal1 the desert itself would ever have remained impassable and unknown to man4 ,on it alone depends the existence of the nomadic tribes of the ,orient1 the whole commercial intercourse of ,north ,africa and ,southwest ,asia2 and no wonder that the ,bedouin prizes it1 along with the fruit-teeming date-palm1 as the most precious gift of ,allah4 ,other animals have been formed for the forest1 the water1 the savannah2 to be the guide1 the carrier1 the companion1 the purveyor of all man's wants in the desert1 is the camel's destiny4 ,wonderfully has he been shaped for this peculiar life1 formed to endure privations and fatigues under which all but he would sink4 ,on examining the camel's foot1 it will at once be seen how well it is adapted for walking on a loose soil1 as the full length of its two toes is provided with a broad1 expanded1 and elastic sole4 ,thus the camel treads securely and lightly over the unstable sands1 while he would either slip or sink on a muddy ground4 ,he can support hunger longer than any other mammiferous animal1 and is satisfied with the meanest food4 ,frugal1 like his lord the wiry ,bedouin1 the grinding power of his teeth and his cartilaginous palate enable him to derive nutriment from the coarsest shrubs1 from thorny mimosas and acacias1 or even from the stony date-kernels1 which his master throws to him after having eaten the sweet flesh in which they are imbedded4 ,for many days he can subsist without drinking1 as the pouchlike cavities of his stomach--a peculiarity which distinguishes him from all other quadrupeds1 perhaps1 with the sole exception of the elephant--form a natural cistern or reservoir1 whose contents can be forced upwards by muscular contraction1 to meet the exigencies of the journey4 ,it is frequently believed that this liquid remains constantly limpid and palatable1 and that in cases of extreme necessity camels are slaughtered to preserve the lives of the thirsty caravan2 but ,burckhardt never heard of the ,arabs resorting to this expedient1 nor did he think it likely they would do so1 as their own destruction must be involved in that of the beast on which they rode1 and the lukewarm liquid thus obtained1 besides affording a very poor supply1 would be sufficiently nauseous to make even a ,tantalus turn away disgusted4 ,but the #8ship of the desert' is not only provided with water for the voyage1 but also with liberal stores of fat1 which are chiefly accumulated in the hump2 so that this prominence1 which gives it so deformed an appearance1 is in reality of the highest utility-- for should food be scarce1 and this is almost always the case while journeying through the desert1 internal absorption makes up in some measure for the deficiency1 and enables the famished camel to brave for some time longer the fatigues of the naked waste4 ,this is so well known to the ,bedouin that the first thing he examines about his camel when preparing for a long journey is the hump3 should he find it large he knows that the animal will endure considerable fatigue even with a very moderate allowance of food1 for he believes in the proverb that the #8camel can subsist for an expedition on the fat of its own hump4' ,yet all mortal endurance has its limits1 and even the camel1 though so well provided against hunger and thirst1 must frequently succumb to the excess of his privations1 and the bleached skeletons of the much-enduring animal strewed along the road mark at once the path of the caravan and the dreadful sufferings of a desert-journey4 ,illustration3 ,,bactrian ,,camel4 ,illustration3 ,,dromedary4 ,while the ,bactrian ,camel with a double hump ranges from ,turkestan to ,china1 the single-hump camel or dromedary1 originally ,arabian1 has spread in opposite directions towards the ,east ,indies1 the ,mediterranean1 and the ,niger1 and is used in ,syria1 ,egypt1 ,persia1 and ,barbary1 as the commonest beast of burden4 ,it serves the robber1 but it serves also the peaceful merchant1 or the pilgrim1 as he wanders to ,mecca to perform his devotions at the prophet's tomb4 ,in long array1 winding like a snake1 the caravan traverses the desert4 ,each dromedary is loaded1 according to its strength1 with from six hundred to a thousand pounds1 and knows so well the limits of its endurance1 that it suffers no overweight1 and will not stir before it be removed4 ,thus1 with slow and measured pace1 the caravan proceeds at the rate of ten or twelve leagues a day1 often requiring many a week before attaining the end of its journey4 ,when we consider the deformity of the camel1 we cannot doubt that its nature has suffered considerable changes from the thraldom and unceasing labours of more than one millennium4 ,its servitude is of older date1 more complete1 and more irksome1 than that of any other domestic animal--of older date1 as it inhabits the countries which history points out to us as the cradle of mankind2 more complete1 as all other domestic animals still have their wild types roaming about in unrestrained liberty1 while the whole camel race is doomed to slavery2 more irksome1 finally1 as it is never kept for luxury or state like so many horses1 or for the table like the ox1 the pig1 or the sheep1 but is merely used as a beast of transport1 which its master does not even give himself the trouble to attach to a cart1 but whose body is loaded like a living waggon1 and frequently even remains burdened during sleep4 ,thus1 the camel bears all the marks of serfdom4 ,large naked callosities of horny hardness cover the lower part of the breast and the joints of the legs1 and although they are never wanting1 yet they themselves give proof that they are not natural1 but that they have been produced by an excess of misery and ill-treatment1 as they are frequently found filled with a purulent matter4 ,the back of the camel is still more deformed by its single or double hump than its breast or legs by their callosities2 and as the latter are evidently owing to the position in which the heavily burthened beast is forced to rest1 it may justly be inferred that the hump also1 which merely consists of an accumulation of fat1 did not belong to the primitive animal1 but has been produced by the pressure of its load4 ,even its evident use as a store-house for a desert journey may have contributed to its development1 as ,nature is ever ready to protect its creatures1 and to modify their forms according to circumstances2 and thus1 what at first was a mere casual occurrence1 became at length1 through successive generations1 the badge and heir-loom of the whole race4 ,even the stomach may1 in the course of many centuries1 have gradually provided itself with its water-cistern1 since the animal1 after a long and tormenting privation1 whenever an opportunity of satisfying its thirst occurred1 distended the coats of that organ by immoderate draughts1 and thus1 by degrees1 gave rise to its pouch-like cavities4 ,the hardships of long servitude1 which have thus gradually deformed the originally1 perhaps1 not ungraceful camel1 have no doubt also soured its temper1 and rendered its character as unamiable as its appearance is repulsive4 #8,it is an abominably ugly necessary animal1' says ,mr4 ,russell1 in a letter dated from the camp of ,lucknow2 #8ungainly1 morose1 quarrelsome1 with tee-totalling propensities2 unaccountably capricious in its friendships and enmities2 delighting to produce with its throat1 its jaws1 its tongue1 and its stomach1 the most abominable grunts and growls4 ,stupidly bowing to the yoke1 it willingly submits to the most atrocious cruelties1 and bites innocent1 well-meaning persons1 ready to take its part4 ,when its leader tears its nostril1 it will do no more than grunt2 but ten against one it will spit at you if you offer it a piece of bread4 ,for days it will march along1 its nose close to the tail of the beast that precedes it1 without ever making the least attempt to break from the chain2 and yet it will snort furiously at the poor ,european who amicably pats its ragged hide4' ,the camel seems to have been rather harshly dealt with in this description2 at any rate1 it may plead for its excuse that it would be too much to expect a mild and amiable temper in a toil-worn slave4 ,which of all four-footed animals raises its head to the most towering height8 ,is it the colossal elephant1 or the #8ship of the desert'8 ,no doubt the former reaches many a lofty branch with its flexible proboscis1 and the eye of the long-necked camel sweeps over a vast extent of desert2 but the ,giraffe embraces a still wider horizon1 and plucks the leaves of the mokaala at a still greater height4 ,a strange and most surprising animal1 almost all neck and leg1 seventeen feet high against a length of only seven from the breast to the beginning of the tail1 its comparatively small and slanting body resting on long stilts1 its diminutive head fixed at the summit of a column2 and yet1 in spite of these disproportions1 of so elegant and pleasing an appearance1 that it owes its ,arabic name1 ,xirapha1 to the graceful ease of its movements4 ,the beauty of the giraffe is enhanced by its magnificently spotted skin1 and by its soft and gentle eyes1 which eclipse even those of the gazelle1 and1 by their lateral projection1 take in a wider range of the horizon than is subject to the vision of any other quadruped1 so as even to be able to anticipate a threatened attack in the rear from the stealthy lion or any other foe of the desert4 ,illustration3 ,,giraffes ,,and ,,zebras4 ,the long tail1 adorned with a bushy tuft of flowing black hair1 no doubt renders it good service against many a stinging insect2 and the straight horns1 or rather excrescences of the frontal bone1 small as they are1 and muffled with skin and hair1 are by no means the insignificant weapons they have been supposed to be4 #8,we have seen them wielded by the males against each other with fearful and reckless force1' says ,maunder1 in his excellent #8,dictionary of ,animated ,nature1' #8and we know that they are the natural arms of the giraffe most dreaded by the keeper of the present living giraffes in the ,zoological ,gardens1 because they are most commonly and suddenly put in use4 ,the giraffe does not butt by depressing and suddenly elevating the head1 like the deer1 ox1 or sheep1 but strikes the callous obtuse extremity of the horns against the object of his attack with a sidelong sweep of the neck4 ,one blow thus directed at full swing against the head of an unlucky attendant would be fatal4' ,the projecting upper lip of the giraffe is remarkably flexible1 and its elongated prehensile tongue1 performing in miniature the part of the elephant's proboscis1 is of material assistance in browsing upon the foliage and young shoots of the prickly acacia1 which constitute the animal's chief food4 ,with feet terminating in a divided hoof1 and a ruminant like our ox1 the giraffe has four stomachs1 and an enormous intestinal length of #bhh feet1 a formation which bears testimony to the vast and prolonged powers of digestion necessary to extract nutrition from its hard and meagre diet4 ,ranging throughout the wide plains of ,central ,africa from ,caffraria to ,nubia1 the giraffe1 though a gregarious animal1 generally roams about only in small herds1 averaging sixteen in number1 from the young animal of nine or ten feet in height1 to the dark chestnut-coloured old male1 towering to a height of upwards of eighteen feet4 ,notwithstanding the rapidity with which it strides along1 the fore and hind leg on the same side moving together1 instead of diagonally as in most other quadrupeds1 yet a full gallop quite dissipates its strength2 and the hunters1 being aware of this1 always try to press the giraffes at once to it1 knowing that they have but a short space to run before the animals are in their power4 ,in doing this the old sportsmen are careful not to go too close to the giraffe's tail2 #8for this animal1' says ,dr4 ,livingstone1 #8can swing his hind foot round in a way which would leave little to choose between a kick with it and a clap from the arm of a windmill4' ,captain ,harris1 in his #8,wild ,sports of ,africa1' gives us an animated picture of a giraffe hunt1 breathing the full life and excitement of the chase4 #8,many days had now elapsed since we had even seen the camelopard1 and then only in small numbers1 and under the most unfavourable circumstances4 ,the blood coursed through my veins like quicksilver therefore as1 on the morning of the #aith1 from the back of ,breslar1 my most trusty steed1 with a firm-wooded plain before me1 ,i counted thirty-two of these animals industriously stretching their peacock-necks to crop the tiny leaves which fluttered above their heads in a mimosa grove that beautified the scenery4 ,they were within a hundred yards of me2 but having previously determined to try the boarding system1 ,i reserved my fire4 #8,although ,i had taken the field expressly to look for giraffes1 and had put four of the ,hottentots on horseback1 all excepting ,piet had as usual slipped off unperceived in pursuit of a troop of koodoos4 ,our stealthy approach was soon opposed by an ill-tempered rhinoceros1 which1 with her ugly calf1 stood directly in the path1 and the twinkling of her bright little eyes1 accompanied by a restless rolling of the body1 giving earnest of her intention to charge4 ,i directed ,piet to salute her with a broadside1 at the same moment putting spurs to my horse4 ,at the report of the gun1 and the sudden clattering of hoofs1 away bounded the giraffes in grotesque confusion1 clearing the ground by a succession of frog-like hops1 and soon leaving me far in the rear4 ,twice were their towering forms concealed from view by a park of trees1 which we entered almost at the same instant1 and twice1 in emerging from the labyrinth1 did ,i perceive them tilting over an eminence immeasurably in advance4 ,a white turban that ,i wore round my hunting cap1 being dragged off by a projecting bough1 was instantly charged by three rhinoceroses1 and1 looking over my shoulder1 ,i could see them long afterwards1 fagging themselves to overtake me4 ,in the course of five minutes the fugitives arrived at a small river1 the treacherous sands of which receiving their long legs1 their flight was greatly retarded2 and after floundering to the opposite side1 and scrambling to the top of the bank1 ,i perceived that their race was run4 ,patting the steaming neck of my good steed1 ,i urged him again to his utmost1 and instantly found myself by the side of the herd4 ,the stately bull being readily distinguishable from the rest by his dark chestnut robe and superior stature1 ,i applied the muzzle of my rifle behind his dappled shoulder with the right hand1 and drew both triggers2 but he still continued to shuffle along1 and being afraid of losing him1 should ,i dismount1 among the extensive mimosa groves with which the landscape was now obscured1 ,i sat in my saddle1 loading and firing behind the elbow1 and then1 placing myself across his path1 until the tears trickling from his full brilliant eye1 his lofty frame began to totter1 and at the seventeenth discharge from the deadly-grooved bore1 like a falling minaret bowing his graceful head from the skies1 his proud form was prostrate in the dust4 ,never shall ,i forget the tingling excitement of that moment4 ,at last then1 the summit of my hunting ambition was actually attained1 and the towering giraffe laid low4 ,tossing my turbanless cap into the air1 alone in the wild wood1 ,i hurraed with bursting exultation1 and1 unsaddling my steed1 sank exhausted beside the noble prize ,i had won4' ,in a similar strain of triumph ,gordon ,cumming describes his first giraffe hunt3 #8,galloping round a thick bushy tree under cover of which ,i had ridden1 ,i suddenly beheld a sight the most astounding that a sportsman's eye can encounter4 ,before me stood a troop of ten colossal giraffes1 the majority of which were from seventeen to eighteen feet high4 ,on beholding me they at once made off1 twisting their long tails over their backs1 making a loud switching noise with them1 and cantering along at an easy pace1 which1 however1 obliged my horse to put his best foot foremost to keep up with them4 ,the sensations which ,i felt on this occasion were different from anything that ,i had before experienced during a long sporting career4 ,my senses were so absorbed by the wondrous and beautiful sight before me1 that ,i rode along like one entranced4 ,at every stride ,i gained upon the giraffes1 and after a short burst at a swinging gallop1 ,i was in the middle of them1 and turned the finest cow out of the herd4 ,on finding herself driven from her comrades and hotly pursued1 she increased her pace and cantered along with tremendous strides1 clearing an amazing extent of ground at every bound1 while her neck and breast coming in contact with the dead old branches of the trees were continually strewing them in my path4 ,in a few minutes ,i was riding within five yards of her stern1 and firing at the gallop ,i sent a bullet into her back4 ,increasing my pace1 ,i next rode alongside1 and placing the muzzle of my rifle within a few feet of her1 ,i fired my second shot behind the shoulder2 the ball1 however1 seemed to have little effect4 ,once more ,i brought her to a stand1 and dismounted from my horse4 ,there we stood together alone in the wild wood4 ,i gazed in wonder at her extreme beauty1 while her soft dark eye1 with its silky fringe1 looked down imploringly at me1 and ,i really felt a pang of sorrow in this moment of triumph for the blood ,i was shedding4 ,pointing my rifle towards the skies1 ,i sent a bullet through her neck4 ,on receiving it she reared high on her hind legs and fell backwards with a heavy crash making the earth shake around her4 ,a thick stream of dark blood spouted out from the wound1 her colossal limbs quivered for a moment and she expired4 ,no pen nor words can convey to a sportsman what it is to ride in the midst of a troop of gigantic giraffes--it must be experienced to be understood4 ,they emitted a powerful perfume1 which in the chase came hot in my face1 reminding me of the smell of a hive of heather honey in ,september4' ,after man1 the giraffe's chief enemy is the lion1 who often waits for it in the thick brakes on the margin of the rivers or pools1 and darts upon it with a murderous spring while it is slaking its thirst4 ,andersson once saw five lions1 two of whom were in the act of pulling down a splendid giraffe1 while the other three were watching close at hand the issue of the deadly strife2 and ,captain ,harris relates that1 while he was encamped on the banks of a small stream1 a camelopard was killed by a lion whilst in the act of drinking1 at no great distance from the waggons4 ,it was a noisy affair2 but an inspection of the scene on which it occurred proved that the giant strength of the victim had been paralysed in an instant4 ,sometimes the giraffe saves itself from the attacks of its arch-enemy by a timely flight2 but when hemmed in1 it offers a desperate resistance1 and in spite of its naturally gentle and peaceable disposition1 gives such desperate kicks with its forefeet as to keep its antagonist at a respectful distance1 and finally to compel him to retreat4 ,there are many analogies between the giraffe and the ostrich2 both long-legged1 long-necked1 fit for cropping the tall mimosas1 or scouring rapidly the plain2 both1 finally1 defending themselves by striking their feet forwards1 the one against the jackal or hyna1 the other against the assaults of the formidable lion4 ,the great peculiarity of the zoology of ,south ,africa is the predominance of antelopes4 ,here no species of deer1 roe1 stag1 or elk greets the eyes of the sportsman3 their place in nature is taken by these hollow-horned ruminants1 which have been created in an unusual number and variety of specific forms1 constituting a series that fills up the wide hiatus between the goat and the ox4 ,as the traveller advances from the ,cape towards the ,sahara1 he constantly falls in with new antelopes1 and many unknown to the naturalist no doubt still roam in the undiscovered interior of the continent4 ,with the exception of the ox or cow-like species1 such as the ,eland1 whose clumsier proportions and heavier gait remind one of our domestic cattle1 the antelopes generally resemble the deer tribe by their elegant forms1 their restless and timid disposition1 and their proverbial swiftness4 ,their horns1 whatever shape they assume1 are round and annulated2 in some species straight1 in others curved and spiral2 in some the females have no horns1 in others they are common to both sexes4 ,they all possess a most delicate sense of smell1 and their eyes are proverbially bright and beaming4 ,their skin generally emits a delicious odour of the grass and wild herbs on which they feed1 and some have between their hoofs a gland from which issues a secretion of an agreeable perfume4 ,africa appears to be their great nursery1 but many kinds are natives of ,asia1 while ,europe has but two species1--the well-known ,chamois of the ,alps and the ,saiga of the ,russian steppes1--and the ,new ,world only one4 ,illustration3 ,,springbok4 ,few of the numerous ,african antelopes are more entitled to our notice than the graceful ,springbok 7,a4 enchora71 which has earned its name from the surprising and almost perpendicular leaps it makes when started4 ,it bounds to the height of ten or twelve feet with the elasticity of an ,india-rubber ball1 clearing at each spring from twelve to fifteen feet of ground1 without apparently the slightest exertion4 ,in performing this astonishing leap it appears for an instant as if suspended in the air1 when down come all four feet again together1 and striking the plain1 away it soars again1 as if about to take flight4 ,from the vast wilds in the interior of ,south ,africa1 when a prolonged drought has exhausted the last pools or watercourses1 the springboks migrate in such incredible multitudes towards the fertile cultivated districts1 that they have been well compared to the swarms of locusts4 ,like them1 they consume every green thing in their course1 and ruin in a single night the fruits of the farmer's toil4 ,the course they adopt is generally such as to bring them back to their own country by a route different from that by which they set out1 but this march is not effected with impunity4 ,the lion1 the hyna1 the panther1 and1 above all1 man1 make great havoc in their ranks2 many also perish from want of food1 the country to which they have migrated being unable to support them1 and comparatively few return to their native haunts4 ,while the springbok prefers the level plains with short grass1 where it may be able to watch the approach of an enemy1 the ,reedbok 7,eleotragos arundinaceus72 selects for its favourite haunts the low grounds covered with a dense growth of reeds4 ,it generally remains concealed until the hunter approaches1 then suddenly starts up and flies to a short distance1 when it stops and turns round to have a look at its pursuer4 ,at the same time it utters a peculiar sneezing cry1 evidently meant as a warning signal to its comrades1 but which frequently proves the cause of its own destruction by attracting the enemy's attention4 ,the dense bush-forests of ,africa harbour several kinds of antelopes1 among others the ,duiker 7,cephalophus mergens71 who at the approach of man plunges or dives1 as it were1 into the thicket1 and glides so quietly through the bushes that he seems to have vanished1 and the neat little ,atro or ,ben ,israel of ,abyssinia 7,cephalophus hemprichii71 which even the sharpest eye is scarce able to detect in its flight1 so nearly does its colour resemble that of the dim underwood through which it makes its escape4 ,in thickets which would be utterly impassable by the larger big-horned antelopes1 the ,atro finds an admirable refuge1 particularly in the green forest borders of the watercourses1 where it enjoys the shade under a thick canopy of leaves4 ,the ,gemsbok 7,a4 ,oryx7 is supposed to have given rise to the fable of the unicorn1 from its long straight horns when seen in profile1 so exactly covering one another as to give it the appearance of having but one4 ,this robust and noble antelope1 which when adult measures little less than four feet in height at the shoulder1 possesses the erect mane1 long sweeping black tail1 and general appearance of the horse1 with the head and hoofs of an antelope4 ,it thrives and attains a high condition in barren regions1 where it might be imagined that a locust would not find subsistence1 and is remarkably independent of water4 ,owing to the even nature of the ground which it frequents1 its shy and suspicious disposition1 and the extreme distance from water to which it must be followed1 it is never stalked or drawn to an ambush like other antelopes1 but is hunted down by a long tail-on-end chase1 a feat which only the fleetest coursers are able to perform4 ,among the mountain antelopes who1 like the goat1 love to browse among the rocks1 the ,klippspringer 7,oreotragus saltatrix7 is remarkable for the elastic agility with which he bounds along from crag to crag2 the deep chasm1 the yawning precipice1 have no terrors for this sure-footed1 sharp-eyed animal1 which in its rapid flight over the serrated ridge bids defiance to the hunter's pursuit4 ,the ,koodoo 7,a4 strepsiceros7 likewise prefers the craggy districts to the plains1 and loves to browse on hills covered with sharp angular rocks1 but with abundance of excellent grass and fine green bushes4 ,when seen on the brow of any eminence1 with its graceful form and fine spiral horns projected against the dark blue sky1 it is decidedly one of the grandest-looking antelopes in the world4 ,illustration3 ,,koodoo4 ,illustration3 ,,gnu4 ,the fantastic ,wildebeest1 or ,gnu1 of which there are two species1 the black and the brindled1 has the head and horns of the buffalo1 and the mane and tail of a horse1 supported on agile antelopine legs4 ,shy and suspicious at the night season1 when their carnivorous enemies are abroad1 the bearing of the ,gnus is bold in broad daylight1 when roaming over their native plains4 ,wheeling about in endless circles1 and performing the most extraordinary variety of intricate evolutions1 the shaggy herds of these fierce-looking animals are for ever capering and gambolling round the hunter on every side4 ,singly1 and in small troops of four or five individuals1 the old bull wildebeests may be seen stationed at intervals throughout the plains1 standing motionless during a whole forenoon coolly watching with a philosophic eye the movements of the other game1 eternally uttering a loud snorting noise1 and also a short sharp cry which is peculiar to them4 ,when the hunter approaches these old bulls they commence whisking their long white tails in a most eccentric manner1 then springing suddenly into the air1 they begin prancing and capering1 and pursue each other in circles at their utmost speed4 ,when wounded they will sometimes turn upon the hunter and pursue him in turn1 darting forwards on their assailant with amazing force and impetuosity1 so that it requires the utmost coolness on his part to evade their attack4 ,in ,india the ,antilopa cervicapra is consecrated to the moon1 and takes the place of the capricorn among the signs of the zodiac4 ,numberless poems praise the beauty of this graceful animal1 which resembles our fallow deer1 but is somewhat smaller1 and of a far more elegant shape4 ,such is its fleetness and activity that it often vaults over nets ten feet high1 and when pursued will pass over as many yards at a single bound4 ,illustration3 ,,nylghau4 ,the native haunts of the ,nylghau 7,a4 picta7 are the dense forests of ,india4 ,in the days of ,aurungzebe1 these large and fine antelopes abounded between ,delhi and ,lahore1 where they were frequently chased by that mighty monarch1 his army of hunters inclosing them within a limited space by means of nets4 ,the ,great ,mogul and his omrahs1 attended by their huntsmen1 then entered and1 somewhat after the manner of a modern battue1 dispatched them with their arrows and spears4 ,the wild ,caffrarian ,buffalo 7,bubalus ,caffer71 the strongest and most ferocious of the ruminant race1 roams in small herds over the woody districts of ,south and ,central ,africa1 where it is more feared by the natives than the lion and rhinoceros4 ,combining malice with brutality1 it not seldom remains concealed behind a tree1 till the innocent victim of its rage approaches1 when1 horribly bellowing1 it rushes forth and attacks him with its broad-based1 sharp-pointed horns4 ,not satisfied with goring him to death1 it stamps and tears him again and again1 and after having left the spot1 will even return to vent once more its blind fury on the mangled corpse4 ,its ponderous strength1 deadly weapons1 and ungovernable fury make it more than a match for the king of animals himself1 who never ventures to attack a full-grown buffalo1 as one toss from its horns would kill the strongest lion that ever breathed4 ,in ,india1 where the wild colossal ,arnee 7,bubalus ,arnee71 remarkable for its enormous horns1 inhabits the highlands1 even the tame ordinary buffaloes feel their superiority to the large felid1 for they have been seen to chase a tiger up the hills1 bellowing as if they enjoyed the sport4 ,the ,indian herdsman1 riding on a buffalo of their herd1 are therefore not in the least afraid of entering the jungles infested by tigers4 ,colonel ,rice once saw a troop of buffaloes1 excited by the blood of a tiger he had wounded1 throw themselves furiously into the thicket where the beast had sought refuge1 beat about the bushes and tear up the ground with their horns4 ,the solitary buffaloes1 or such as have been expelled from the herd by stronger competitors for female favour1 are particularly dangerous as they are apt to wreak their ill humour on whatever falls in their way4 ,dr ,livingstone1 among others1 made the experience that to meet one of these rogue buffaloes is about as bad as to face a hungry lion or an ill-disposed rhinoceros4 #8,as ,i walked slowly1' says the illustrious traveller1 #8on an extensive plain1 ,i observed that a solitary buffalo1 disturbed by others of my own party1 was coming to me at a gallop4 ,i glanced around1 but the only tree on the plain was a hundred yards off1 and there was no escape elsewhere4 ,i therefore cocked my rifle1 with the intention of giving him a steady shot in the forehead when he should come within three or four yards of me4 ,the thought flashed across my mind1 8,what if your gun misses fire80 ,i placed it to my shoulder as he came on at full speed1 and that is tremendous1 though generally he is a lumbering-looking animal in his paces4 ,a small bush and bunch of grass fifteen yards off1 made him swerve a little and exposed his shoulder4 ,i just heard the ball crack there1 and ,i fell flat on my face4 ,the pain must have made him renounce his purpose1 for he bounded close past me on to the water1 where he was found dead4' ,the buffaloes are generally fond of marshes or submerged river banks1 where they love to wallow in the mud1 or to remain plunged up to the muzzle in water4 ,they are admirable swimmers1 particularly the ,bhain 7,bubalus ,bhain71 a species inhabiting the sandy banks of the ,ganges4 ,abandoning themselves to the current1 these semi-aquatic ruminants often drift down the river in large herds1 and are said to plunge from time to time in order to detach with their horns the water-plants growing at the bottom1 which they then leisurely devour as they slowly float along4 ,as if to make up for the hideous deformity of the rhinoceros and hippopotamus1 the ,african wilds exclusively give birth to the beautifully striped ,zebras1 the most gorgeously attired members of the equine race4 ,the isabelle-coloured ,quagga1 irregularly banded and marked with dark brown stripes1 which1 stronger on the head and neck1 gradually become fainter1 until lost behind the shoulders1 has its high crest surmounted by a standing mane1 banded alternately brown and white4 ,it used formerly to be found in great numbers within the limits of the ,cape ,colony1 and still roams in large numbers in the open plain farther to the north1 where it may often be seen herding together with gnus and springboks4 ,illustration3 ,,quagga4 ,thus in the desert of the ,meritsane1 ,major ,harris1 after crossing a park of magnificent camelthorn trees1 soon perceived large herds of quaggas and brindled gnus1 which continued to join each other1 until the whole plain seemed alive4 ,the clatter of their hoofs was perfectly astounding1 and could be compared to nothing but to the din of a tremendous charge of cavalry1 or the rushing of a mighty tempest4 ,the accumulated numbers could not be estimated at less than #ae1jjj1 a great extent of country being actually chequered black and white with their congregated masses4 ,the ,douw1 or ,burchell's ,zebra1 differs little from the common quagga in point of shape or size2 but while the latter is faintly striped only on the head and neck1 the former is adorned over every part of the body with broad black bands1 beautifully contrasting with a pale yellow ground4 ,major ,harris1 who had so many opportunities of seeing this fine species in a state of nature1 remarks that--#8,beautifully clad by the hand of nature1 possessing much of the graceful symmetry of the horse1 with great bones and muscular power1 united to easy and stylish action1 thus combining comeliness of figure with solidity of form1 this species1 if subjugated and domesticated1 would assuredly make the best pony in the world4 ,although it admits of being tamed to a certain extent with the greatest facility--a half-domesticated specimen1 with a jockey on its brindled back1 being occasionally exposed in ,cape ,town for sale--it has hitherto contrived to evade the yoke of servitude4 ,the senses of sight1 hearing1 and smell are extremely delicate4 ,the slightest noise or motion1 no less than the appearance of any object that is unfamiliar1 at once rivets their gaze1 and causes them to stop and listen with the utmost attention2 any taint in the air equally attracting their olfactory organs4 #8,instinct having taught these beautiful animals that in union consists their strength1 they combine in a compact body when menaced by an attack1 either from man or beast2 and1 if overtaken by the foe1 they unite for mutual defence1 with their heads together in a close circular band presenting their heels to the enemy1 and dealing out kicks in equal force and abundance4 ,beset on all sides1 or partially crippled1 they rear on their hind legs1 fly at their adversary with jaws distended1 and use both teeth and heels with the greatest freedom4' ,illustration3 ,,zebra4 ,whilst the douw and the quagga roam over the plains1 the ,zebra inhabits mountainous regions only4 ,the beauty of its light symmetrical form is enhanced by the narrow black bands with which the whole of the white-coloured body is covered4 ,travellers through the ,african wilds have sometimes been startled by piteous wailings1 resembling the faint gasps and stifled groanings of a drowning man4 ,on approaching the spot where they supposed some ravenous beast was lacerating an unfortunate native1 they were surprised to find a zebra in its last agonies2 and well may the dying moans of the animal be sorrowful1 when we consider that its usual neighings1 when heard from a distance1 are of a very melancholy sound4 ,captain ,harris tells us that it seeks the wildest and most sequestered spots1 so that it is extremely difficult of approach1 not only from its watchful habits and very great agility of foot1 but also from the inaccessible nature of its abode4 ,the herds graze on the steep hill-side1 with a sentinel posted on some adjacent crag1 ready to sound the alarm in case of any suspicious approach to their feeding quarters1 and no sooner is the alarm given than away they scamper1 with pricked ears and whisking their tails aloft1 to places where few1 if any1 would venture to pursue them4 ,illustration3 ,,hippopotamus4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,the ,,hippopotamus4 ,behemoth--,its ,diminishing ,number and ,contracting ,empire--,its ,ugliness--,a ,rogue ,hippopotamus or ,solitaire--,dangerous ,meeting-- ,intelligence and ,memory of the ,hippopotamus--,methods employed for ,killing the ,hippopotamus--,hippopotamus-,hunting on the ,teoge4 #8,behold now ,behemoth1 which ,i made with thee2 he eateth grass as an ox2 his bones are as strong pieces of brass2 his bones are like bars of iron2 he lieth under the shady trees1 in the covert of the reeds and fens4 ,the shady trees cover him with their shadow2 the willows of the brook compass him about4 ,behold he drinketh up a river3 he trusteth that he can draw up ,jordan into his mouth4' ,thus1 in the book of ,job1 we find the ,hippopotamus portrayed with few words but incomparable power4 ,according to the inspired poet1 this huge animal seems anciently to have inhabited the waters of ,palestine1 but now it is nowhere to be found in ,asia2 and even in ,africa the limits of its domain are perpetually contracting before the persecutions of man4 ,it has entirely disappeared from ,egypt and ,cape ,colony1 where ,le ,vaillant found it in numbers during the last century4 ,in many respects a valuable prize2 of easy destruction1 in spite1 or rather on account of its size1 which betrays it to the attacks of its enemies2 a dangerous neighbour to plantations1 it is condemned to retreat before the waves of advancing civilisation1 and would long since have been extirpated in all ,africa1 if the lakes and rivers of the interior of that vast den of barbarism were as busily ploughed over as ours by boats and ships1 or their banks as thickly strewn with towns and villages4 ,for the hippopotamus is not able1 like so many other beasts of the wilderness1 to hide itself in the gloom of impenetrable forests1 or to plunge into the sandy desert2 it requires the neighbourhood of the stream1 the empire of which it divides with its amphibious neighbour the crocodile4 ,occasionally during the day it is to be seen basking on the shore amid ooze and mud1 but throughout the night the unwieldy monster may be heard snorting and blowing during its aquatic gambols2 it then sallies forth from its reed-grown coverts to graze by the light of the moon1 never1 however1 venturing to any distance from the river1 the stronghold to which it retreats on the smallest alarm4 ,it feeds on grass alone1 and where there is any danger only at night4 ,its enormous lips act like a mowing machine1 and form a path of short cropped grass as it goes on eating4 ,in point of ugliness the hippopotamus might compete with the rhinoceros itself4 ,its shapeless carcase rests upon short and disproportioned legs1 and1 with its vast belly almost trailing upon the ground1 it may not inaptly be likened to an overgrown #8prize-pig4' ,its immensely large head has each jaw armed with two formidable tusks1 those in the lower1 which are always the largest1 attaining at times two feet in length2 and the inside of the mouth resembles a mass of butcher's meat4 ,the eyes1 which are placed in prominences like the garret windows of a ,dutch house1 the nostrils1 and ears1 are all on the same plane1 on the upper level of the head1 so that the unwieldy monster1 when immersed in its favourite element1 is able to draw breath1 and to use three senses at once for hours together1 without exposing more than its snout4 ,the hide1 which is upwards of an inch and a half in thickness1 and of a pinkish-brown colour1 clouded and freckled with a darker tint1 is destitute of covering1 excepting a few scattered hairs on the muzzle1 the edges of the ears and tail4 ,though generally mild and inoffensive1 it is not to be wondered at that a creature like this1 which when full-grown attains a length of eleven or twelve feet1 and nearly the same colossal girth1 affords a truly appalling spectacle when enraged1 and that a nervous person may well lose his presence of mind when suddenly brought into contact with the gaping monster4 ,even ,andersson1 a man accustomed to all sorts of wild adventure1 felt rather discomposed when one night a hippopotamus1 without the slightest warning1 suddenly protruded its enormous head into his bivouac1 so that every man started to his feet with the greatest precipitation1 some of the party1 in the confusion1 rushing into the fire and upsetting the pots containing the evening meal4 ,as among the elephants and other animals1 elderly males are sometimes expelled the herd1 and1 for want of company1 become soured in their temper1 and so misanthropic as to attack every boat that comes near them4 ,the #8rogue-hippopotami' frequent certain localities well known to the inhabitants of the banks1 and1 like the outcast elephants1 are extremely dangerous4 ,dr4 ,livingstone1 passing a canoe which had been smashed to pieces by a blow from the hind foot of one of them1 was informed by his men that1 in case of a similar assault being made on his boat1 the proper way was to dive to the bottom of the river1 and hold on there for a few seconds1 because the hippopotamus1 after breaking a canoe1 always looks for the people on the surface1 and if he sees none1 soon moves off4 ,he saw some frightful gashes made on the legs of the people who1 having had the misfortune to be attacked1 were unable to dive4 ,in rivers where it is seldom disturbed1 such as the ,zambesi1 the hippopotamus puts up its head openly to blow1 and follows the traveller with an inquisitive glance1 as if asking him1 like the #8moping owl' in the elegy1 why he comes to molest its #8ancient solitary reign'8 but in other rivers1 such as those of ,londa1 where it is much in danger of being shot1 it takes good care to conceal its nose among water-plants1 and to breathe so quietly that one would not dream of its existence in the river1 except by footprints on the banks4 ,notwithstanding its stupid look--its prominent eyes and naked snout giving it more the appearance of a gigantic boiled calf's head than anything else--the huge creature is by no means deficient in intelligence1 knows how to avoid pitfalls1 and has so good a memory that1 when it has once heard a ball whiz about its ears1 it never after ceases to be wide-awake at the approach of danger4 ,being vulnerable only behind the ear1 however1 or in the eye1 it requires the perfection of rifle-practice to be hit2 and when once in the water1 is still more difficult to kill1 as it dives and swims with all the ease of a walrus1 its huge body being rendered buoyant by an abundance of fat4 ,its flesh is said to be delicious1 resembling the finest young pork1 and is considered as great a delicacy in ,africa as a bear's paw or a bison's hump in the prairies of ,north ,america4 ,the thick and almost inflexible hide may be dragged from the ribs in strips1 like the planks from a ship's side4 ,these serve for the manufacture of a superior description of sjambok1 the elastic whip with which the ,cape boor governs his team of twelve oxen or more1 while proceeding on a journey4 ,in ,northern ,africa it is used to chastise refractory dromedaries or servants2 and the ancient ,egyptians employed it largely in the manufacture of shields1 helmets1 and javelins4 ,but the most valuable part of the hippopotamus is its teeth 7canine and incisors71 which are considered greatly superior to elephant ivory1 and1 when perfect and weighty1 will fetch as much as one guinea per pound1 being chiefly used for artificial teeth1 since it does not readily turn yellow4 ,all these uses to which the hippopotamus may be applied are naturally as many prices set upon its head2 and the ravages it occasions in the fields are another motive for its destruction4 ,on the ,white ,nile the peasantry burn a number of fires1 to scare the huge animal from their plantations1 where every footstep ploughs deep furrows into the marshy ground4 ,at the same time1 they keep up a prodigious clamour of horns and drums1 to terrify the ruinous brute1 which1 as may well be imagined1 is by no means so great a favourite with them as with the visitors of the ,zoological ,gardens4 ,they have besides another1 and1 where it succeeds1 a far more efficacious method of freeing themselves from its depredations4 ,they remark the places it most frequents1 and there lay a large quantity of pease4 ,when it comes on shore1 hungry and voracious1 it falls to eating what is nearest1 and fills its vast stomach with the pease1 which soon occasion an insupportable thirst4 ,the river being close at hand1 it immediately drinks whole buckets of water1 which1 by swelling the pease1 cause it to blow up1 like an overloaded mortar4 ,the natives on the ,teoge1 and other rivers that empty themselves into ,lake ,ngami1 kill the hippopotamus with iron harpoons1 attached to long lines ending with a float4 ,a huge reed raft1 capable of carrying both the hunters and their canoes1 with all that is needful for the prosecution of the chase1 is pushed from the shore1 and afterwards abandoned to the stream1 which propels the unwieldy mass gently and noiselessly forward4 ,long before the hippopotami can be seen1 they make known their presence by awful snorts and grunts whilst splashing and blowing in the water4 ,on approaching the herd--for the gregarious animal likes to live in troops of from twenty-five to thirty--the most skilful and intrepid of the hunters stands prepared with the harpoons1 whilst the rest make ready to launch the canoes should the attack prove successful4 ,the bustle and noise caused by these preparations gradually subside3 at length not even a whisper is heard1 and in breathless silence the hunters wait for the decisive conflict4 ,the snorting and plunging become every moment more distinct2 a bend in the stream still hides the animals from view2 but now the point is passed1 and monstrous figures1 that might be mistaken for shapeless cliffs1 did not ever and anon one or the other of them plunge and reappear1 are seen dispersed over the troubled waters4 ,on glides the raft1 its crew worked up to the highest pitch of excitement1 and at length reaches the herd1 which1 perfectly unconscious of danger1 continue to enjoy their sports4 ,presently one of the animals is in immediate contact with the raft4 ,now is the critical moment2 the foremost harpooner raises himself to his full height to give the greater force to the blow1 and the next instant the iron is buried deep in the body of the bellowing hippopotamus4 ,the wounded animal plunges violently and dives to the bottom1 but all its efforts to escape are as ineffectual as those of the seal when pierced with the barbed iron of the ,greenlander4 ,as soon as it is struck1 one or more of the men launch a canoe from off the raft1 and hastening to the shore with the harpoon line1 take a round turn with it about a tree1 so that the animal may either be brought up at once1 or should there be too great a strain on the line1 #8played1' like a trout or salmon by the fisherman4 ,sometimes both line and buoy are cast into the water1 and all the canoes being launched from off the raft1 chase is given to the poor brute1 who whenever he comes to the surface is saluted with a shower of javelins4 ,a long trail of blood marks his progress1 his flight becomes slower and slower1 his breathing more oppressive1 until at last1 his strength ebbing away through fifty wounds1 he floats dead on the surface4 ,but as the whale will sometimes turn upon his assailants1 so also the hippopotamus not seldom makes a dash at his persecutors1 and either with his tusks1 or with a blow from his head1 staves in or capsizes the canoe4 ,sometimes even1 not satisfied with wreaking his vengeance on the craft1 he seizes one or other of the crew1 and with a single grasp of his jaws1 either terribly mutilates the poor wretch or even cuts his body fairly in two4 ,the natives of ,southern ,africa1 also resort to the ingenious but cruel plan of destroying the hippopotamus by means of a trap1 consisting of a beam1 four or five feet long1 armed with a spear-head or hard wood spike1 covered with poison1 and suspended to a forked pole by a cord1 which coming down to the path1 is held by a catch1 to be set free when the beasts tread on it4 ,on the banks of many rivers these traps are set over every track which the animals have made in going up out of the water to graze2 but the hippopotami1 being wary brutes1 are still very numerous4 ,while ,dr4 ,livingstone was on the ,river ,shine1 a hippopotamus got frightened by the ship1 as she was steaming close to the banks4 ,in its eager hurry to escape from an imaginary danger1 the poor animal fell into a very real one1 for rushing on shore1 it ran directly under a trap1 when down came the heavy beam on its back1 driving the poisoned spear-head a foot deep in its flesh4 ,in its agony1 it plunged back into the river1 where it soon after expired4 ,illustration3 ,,rhinoceros4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,the ,,rhinoceros4 ,brutality of the ,rhinoceros--,the ,borelo--,the ,keitloa--,the ,monoho-- ,the ,kobaaba--,difference of ,food and ,disposition between the ,black and the ,white ,rhinoceros--,incarnation of ,ugliness--,acute ,smell and ,hearing--,defective ,vision--,the ,buphaga ,africana--,paroxysms of ,rage--,parental ,affection--,nocturnal ,habits--,rhinoceros-,hunting-- ,adventures of the ,chase--,narrow ,escapes of ,messrs4 ,oswell and ,andersson--,the ,indian ,rhinoceros--,the ,sumatran ,rhinoceros--,the ,javanese ,rhinoceros--,its involuntary ,suicide4 ,the ,rhinoceros has about the same range as the elephant1 but is found also in the island of ,java1 where the latter is unknown4 ,although not possessed of the ferocity of carnivorous animals1 the rhinoceros is completely wild and untameable2 the image of a gigantic hog1 without intelligence1 feeling1 or docility1 and though emulating the elephant in size is infinitely inferior in point of sagacity4 ,the latter1 with his beautiful1 intelligent eye1 awakens the sympathy of man2 while the rhinoceros is the very image of brutal violence and stupidity4 ,it was formerly supposed that ,africa had but one rhinoceros1 but the researches of modern travellers have discovered no less than four different species1 two white and two black1 each of them with two horns4 ,the black species are the ,borelo and the ,keitloa1 which is longer1 with a larger neck and almost equal horns4 ,in both species the upper lip projects over the lower1 and is capable of being extended like that of the giraffe1 thus enabling the animal to grasp the branches on whose foliage he intends to feast4 ,both the ,borelo and the ,keitloa are extremely ill-natured1 and1 with the exception of the buffalo1 the most dangerous of all the wild animals of ,south ,africa4 ,the white species are the ,monoho and the ,kobaaba1 which is distinguished by one of its horns attaining the prodigious length of four feet4 ,although the black and white rhinoceroses are members of the same family1 their mode of living and disposition are totally different4 ,the food of the former consists almost entirely of roots1 which they dig up with their larger horn1 or of the branches and sprouts of the thorny acacia1 while the latter exclusively live on grasses4 ,perhaps in consequence of their milder food1 they are of a timid unsuspecting nature1 which renders them an easy prey1 so that they are fast melting away before the onward march of the ,european trader2 while the black species1 from their greater ferocity and wariness1 maintain their place much longer than their more timid relations4 ,the different nature of the black and white rhinoceroses shows itself even in their flesh1 for while that of the former1 living chiefly on arid branches1 has a bitter taste1 and but little recommends itself by its meagreness and toughness--these animals1 like the generality of ill-natured creatures1 being never found with an ounce of fat on their bones--that of the latter is juicy and well-flavoured4 ,the shape of the rhinoceros is unwieldy and massive2 its vast paunch hangs down nearly to the ground2 its short legs are of columnar strength1 and have three toes on each foot2 the misshapen head has long and erect ears1 and ludicrously small eyes2 the skin1 which is completely naked1 with the exception of some coarse bristles at the extremity of the tail1 and the upper end of the ears1 is comparatively smooth in the ,african species1 but extremely rough in the ,asiatic1 hanging in large folds about the animal like a mantle2 so that1 summing up all these characters1 the rhinoceros has no reason to complain of injustice1 if we style it the very incarnation of ugliness4 ,from the snout to the tip of the tail1 the ,african rhinoceros attains a length of from #ae to #af feet1 a girth of from #aj to #ab1 a weight of from #d1jjj to #e1jjj pounds2 but1 in spite of its ponderous and clumsy proportions1 it is able to speed like lightning1 particularly when pursued4 ,it then seeks the nearest wood1 and dashes with all its might through the thicket4 ,the trees that are dead or dry are broken down as with a cannon shot1 and fall behind it and on its sides in all directions2 others that are more pliable1 greener1 or full of sap are bent back by its weight and the velocity of its motions1 and restore themselves like a green branch to their natural position1 after the huge animal has passed4 ,they often sweep the incautious pursuer and his horse from the ground1 and dash them in pieces against the surrounding trees4 ,the rhinoceros is endowed with an extraordinary acuteness of smell and hearing2 he listens with attention to every sound1 and is able to scent from a great distance the approach of man2 but as the range of his small and deep-set eyes is impeded by his unwieldy horns1 he can only see what is immediately before him1 so that if one be to leeward of him1 it is not difficult to approach within a few paces4 ,the ,kobaaba1 however1 from its horn being projected downwards1 so as not to obstruct the line of vision1 is able to be much more wary than the other species4 ,to make up for the imperfection of its sight1 the rhinoceros is frequently accompanied by a bird 7,buphaga ,africana7 which warns the beast of approaching danger by its cry4 #8,many a time1' says ,gordon ,cumming1 #8have these watchful attendants disappointed me in my stalk4 ,they are the best friends the rhinoceros has1 and rarely fail to awaken him1 even in his soundest nap4 ,he perfectly understands their warning1 and springing to his feet1 he generally first looks about him in every direction1 after which he invariably makes off4 ,i have often hunted a rhinoceros on horseback which led me a chase of many miles1 and required a number of shots before he fell1 during which chase several of these birds remained by the rhinoceros to the last4 ,they reminded me of mariners on the deck of some bark sailing on the ocean1 for they perched along his back and sides2 and as each of my bullets told on the shoulder of the rhinoceros1 they ascended about six feet into the air1 uttering their harsh cry of alarm1 and then resumed their position4 ,it sometimes happened that the lower branches of trees1 under which the rhinoceros passed1 swept them from their living deck1 but they always recovered their former station2 they also adhere to the rhinoceros during the night4 ,i have often shot these animals at midnight when drinking at the fountains1 and the birds imagining they were asleep1 remained with them till morning1 and on my approaching1 before taking flight1 they exerted themselves to their utmost to awaken the rhinoceros from his deep sleep4' ,the black rhinoceroses are of a gloomy melancholy temper1 and not seldom fall into paroxysms of rage without any evident cause1 often ploughing up the ground for several yards with their horn1 and assaulting large bushes in the most violent manner4 ,on these they work for hours with their horns1 at the same time snorting and blowing loudly1 nor do they leave them in general until they have broken them into pieces4 ,seeing the creatures in their wild haunts1 cropping the bushes1 or quietly moving through the plains1 you might take them for the most inoffensive animals of all ,africa1 but when roused to passion there is nothing more terrific on earth4 ,all the beasts of the wilderness are afraid of the uncouth ,borelo4 ,the lion silently retires from its path1 and even the elephant is glad to get out of the way4 ,yet this brutal and stupidly hoggish animal is distinguished by its parental love1 and the tenderness which it bestows on its young is returned with equal affection4 ,although not gregarious1 and most generally solitary or grazing in pairs1 yet frequently as many as a dozen rhinoceroses are seen pasturing and browsing together4 ,as is the case with many other tropical animals1 the huge beast awakens to a more active life after sunset4 ,it then hastens to the lake or river to slake its thirst or to wallow in the mud1 thus covering its hide with a thick coat of clay1 against the attacks of flies2 or to relieve itself from the itching of their stings1 it rubs itself against some tree1 and testifies its inward satisfaction by a deep-drawn grunt4 ,during the night1 it rambles over a great extent of country1 but soon after sunrise seeks shelter against the heat under the shade of a tree or rock1 where it spends the greater part of the day in sleep1 either stretched at full length or in a standing position4 ,thus seen from a distance1 it might easily be mistaken for a huge block of stone4 ,the rhinoceros is hunted in various manners4 ,one of the most approved plans is to stalk the animal1 either when feeding or reposing4 ,if the sportsman keep well under the wind1 and there be the least cover1 he has no difficulty in approaching the beast within easy range1 when1 if the ball be well directed1 it is killed on the spot4 ,but by far the most convenient way of destroying the animal is to shoot it from a cover or a screen1 when it comes to the pool to slake its thirst4 ,occasionally it is also taken in pitfalls4 ,contrary to common belief1 a leaden ball 7though spelter is preferable7 will easily find its way through the hide of the ,african rhinoceros1 but it is necessary to be within thirty or forty paces of the brute1 and desirable to have a double charge of powder4 ,the most deadly part to aim at is just behind the shoulder2 a ball through the centre of the lobes of the lungs is certain to cause almost instantaneous death4 ,a shot in the head never or rarely proves fatal1 as the brain1 which1 in proportion to the bulk of the animal1 does not attain the three-hundredth part of the size of the human cerebrum1 is protected1 besides its smallness1 by a prodigious case of bone1 hide1 and horn4 ,however severely wounded the rhinoceros may be1 he seldom bleeds externally4 ,this is attributable in part1 no doubt1 to the great thickness of the hide and its elasticity1 which occasions the hole caused by the bullet nearly to close up1 as also from the hide not being firmly attached to the body1 but constantly moving4 ,from what has been related of the fury of the rhinoceros1 its pursuit must evidently be attended with considerable danger1 and thus the annals of the wild sports of ,southern ,africa are full of hair-breadth escapes from its terrific charge4 ,once ,mr4 ,oswell1 having lodged a ball in the body of a huge white rhinoceros1 was surprised to see the beast1 instead of seeking safety in flight1 as is generally the case with this inoffensive species1 suddenly stop short1 and having eyed him curiously for a second or two1 walk slowly towards him4 ,though never dreaming of danger1 he instinctively turned his horse's head away2 but strange to say1 this creature1 usually so docile1 now absolutely refused to give him his head4 ,when at last he did so1 it was too late1 for although the rhinoceros had only been walking1 the distance was now so small that contact was unavoidable4 ,in another moment the brute bent low his head1 and with a thrust upwards1 struck his horn into the ribs of the horse with such force as to penetrate to the very saddle on the opposite side1 where the rider felt its sharp point against his leg4 ,the violence of the blow was so tremendous as to cause the horse to make a complete somersault in the air1 coming heavily down on his back4 ,the rider was1 of course1 violently precipitated to the ground4 ,while thus prostrated1 he saw the horn of the monster alongside of him2 but without attempting to do any further mischief1 the brute started off at a canter from the scene of action4 ,if the rhinoceros imagined it had come off as victor1 it was1 however1 soon undeceived2 for ,mr4 ,oswell1 rushing upon one of his companions1 who by this time had come up1 and unceremoniously pulling him off his horse1 leapt into the saddle1 and without a hat1 and his face streaming with blood1 was quickly in pursuit of the beast1 which he soon had the satisfaction to see stretched lifeless at his feet4 ,mr4 ,andersson1 another well-known ,african ,nimrod1 having one day wounded a black rhinoceros1 and being in an unfavourable situation for renewing his shot with deadly effect1 the monster1 snorting horribly1 erecting its tail1 keeping its head close to the ground1 and raising clouds of dust by its feet1 rushed at him furiously4 #8,i had only just time to level my rifle and fire1' says this adventurous traveller1 #8before it was upon me1 and the next instant knocked me to the ground4 ,the shock was so violent as to send my rifle1 powder-flask1 and ball-pouch spinning ten feet high in the air4 ,on the beast charging me1 it crossed my mind that1 unless gored at once by its horn1 its impetus would be such as to carry it beyond me1 and ,i might thus be afforded a chance of escape1 and so1 indeed1 it happened1 for1 having been tumbled over and trampled on with great violence1 the fore-quarter of the enraged brute passed over my body4 ,struggling for life1 ,i seized my opportunity1 and as the animal was recovering itself for a renewal of the charge1 scrambled out from between its hind legs4 ,but the infuriated rhinoceros had not yet done with me1 for scarcely had ,i regained my feet1 before he struck me down a second time1 and with his horn ripped up my right thigh 7though not very deeply7 from near the knee to the hip3 with his fore-feet1 moreover1 he hit me a terrific blow on the left shoulder1 near the back of the neck4 ,my ribs bent under the enormous weight and pressure1 and for a moment ,i must1 as ,i believe1 have lost consciousness2 ,i have at least very indistinct notions of what afterwards took place4 ,all ,i remember is1 that when ,i raised my head1 ,i heard a furious snorting and plunging amongst the neighbouring bushes4 ,i now arose1 though with great difficulty1 and made my way in the best manner ,i was able towards a large tree near at hand for shelter2 but this precaution was needless2 the beast1 for the time at least1 showed no inclination further to molest me4 ,either in the mle1 or owing to the confusion caused by its wounds1 it had lost sight of me1 or felt satisfied with the revenge it had taken4 ,be that as it may1 ,i escaped with life1 though sadly wounded and severely bruised1 in which disabled state ,i had great difficulty in getting back to my screen4' ,the rhinoceros is hunted for its flesh1 its hide 7which is manufactured into the best and hardest leather that can be imagined71 and its horns1 which1 being capable of a high polish1 fetch at the ,cape a higher price than ordinary elephant ivory4 ,it is extensively used in the manufacture of sword-handles1 drinking-cups1 ramrods for rifles1 and a variety of other purposes4 ,among ,oriental princes1 goblets made of rhinoceros horn are in high esteem1 as they are supposed to have the virtue of detecting poison by causing the deadly liquid to ferment till it flows over the rim1 or1 as some say1 to split the cup4 ,the number of rhinoceroses destroyed annually in ,south ,africa is very considerable4 ,messrs4 ,oswell and ,varden killed in one year no less than eighty-nine1 and in one journey1 ,andersson shot1 single-handed1 nearly two-thirds of this number4 ,it is thus not to be wondered at that the rhinoceros1 which formerly ranged as far as the ,cape1 is now but seldom found to the south of the tropic4 ,the single-horned ,indian rhinoceros was already known to the ancients1 and not unfrequently doomed to bleed in the ,roman amphitheatres4 ,one which was sent to ,king ,emanuel of ,portugal in the year #aeac1 and presented by him to the ,pope1 had the honour to be pictured in a woodcut by no less an artist than ,albrecht ,drer himself4 ,latterly1 rhinoceroses have much more frequently been sent to ,europe1 particularly the ,asiatic species1 and all the chief zoological gardens possess specimens of the unwieldy creature4 ,in its native haunts1 the ,indian rhinoceros lends a tranquil indolent life1 wallowing on the marshy border of lakes and rivers1 and occasionally bathing itself in their waters4 ,its movements are usually slow1 and it carries its head low like the hog1 ploughing up the ground with its horn1 and making its way by sheer force through the jungle4 ,though naturally of a quiet and inoffensive disposition1 it is very dangerous when provoked1 charging with resistless impetuosity1 and trampling down or ripping up with its horn any animal which opposes it4 ,besides the single-horned species which inhabits the ,indian peninsula1 ,java1 and ,borneo1 ,sumatra possesses a rhinoceros with a double horn1 which is1 however1 distinguished from the analogous ,african species by the large folds of its skin1 and its smaller size4 ,it is even asserted that there exists in the same island a hornless species1 and another with three horns4 ,there surely can be no better proof of the difficulties which ,natural ,history has to contend with in the wilder regions of the tropical zone1 and of the vast field still open to future zoologists1 than that1 in spite of all investigations1 we do not yet even know with certainty all the species of so large a brute as the rhinoceros4 ,in ,java1 this huge pachyderm is met with in the jungles of the low country1 but its chief haunts are the higher forest-lands1 which contain many small lakes and pools1 whose banks are covered with high grasses4 ,in these solitudes1 which are seldom visited by man1 the rhinoceros finds all that it requires for food and enjoyment4 ,as it is uncommonly shy1 the traveller rarely meets it2 but sometimes1 while threading his way through the thicket1 he may chance to surprise wild steers and rhinoceroses grazing on the brink of a pool1 or quietly lying in the morass4 ,the grooved paths of the rhinoceros1 deeply worn into the solid rock1 are found even on the summits of mountains above the level of the sea4 ,they are frequently used for the destruction of the animal1 for in the steeper places1 where1 on climbing up or down1 it is obliged to stretch out its body1 so that the abdomen nearly reaches the ground1 the ,javanese fix large scythe-like knives into the rock1 which they cover with moss and herbage1 thus forcing the poor rhinoceros to commit an involuntary suicide1 and teaching him1 though too late to profit by his experience1 how difficult it is to escape the cunning of man4 ,illustration3 ,,elephants4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,,the ,,elephant4 ,love of ,solitude1 and ,pusillanimity--,miraculous ,escape of an ,english ,officer--,sagacity of the ,elephant in ascending ,hills-- ,organisation of the ,stomach--,the ,elephant's ,trunk--,use of the ,tusks still ,problematical--,the ,rogue-,elephant--,sagacity of the ,elephant--,the ,african ,elephant--,tamed in ,ancient ,times--,south ,african ,elephant-,hunting--,hair-breadth ,escapes--,abyssinian ,elephant-,hunters--,cutting-up of an ,elephant--,the ,asiatic ,elephant-- ,vast ,numbers destroyed in ,ceylon--,major ,rogers--,elephant-,catchers-- ,their amazing ,dexterity--,the ,corral--,decoy ,elephants--,their astonishing ,sagacity--,great ,mortality among the ,captured ,elephants-- ,their ,services4 ,of a mild and peaceful disposition1 the image of strength tempered by good nature1 the ,elephant loves the shady forest and the secluded lake4 ,disliking the glare of the midday sun1 he spends the day in the thickest woods1 devoting the night to excursions and to the luxury of the bath1 his great and innocent delight4 ,though the earth trembles under his strides1 yet1 like the whale1 he is timid2 but this timidity is accounted for by his small range of vision4 ,anything unusual strikes him with terror1 and the most trivial objects and incidents1 from being imperfectly discerned1 excite his suspicions4 ,to this peculiarity an ,english officer1 chased and seized by an elephant which he had slightly wounded1 owed his almost miraculous escape4 ,the animal had already raised its fore-foot to trample him to death1 when1 its forehead being caught at the instant by the tendrils of a climbing plant which had suspended itself from the branches above1 it suddenly turned and fled4#cg ,an instinctive consciousness that his superior bulk exposes him to danger from sources that might be harmless in the case of lighter animals1 is probably the reason why the elephant displays a remarkable reluctance to face the slightest artificial obstruction on his passage4 ,even when enraged by a wound1 he will hesitate to charge his assailant across an intervening hedge1 suspecting it may conceal a snare4 ,unlike the horse1 he never gets accustomed to the report of fire-arms1 and thus no longer plays an active part in battle as in the times of ,pyrrhus and ,hannibal1 but serves in a modern campaign merely as a common beast of burden1 or for the transport of heavy artillery4 ,to make up for his restricted vision1 his neck being so formed as to render him incapable of directing the range of his eye much above the level of his head1 he is endowed with a remarkable power of smell1 and a delicate sense of hearing1 which serve to apprise him of the approach of danger4 ,although1 from their huge bulk1 the elephants might be supposed to prefer a level country1 yet1 in ,asia at least1 the regions where they most abound are all hilly and mountainous4 ,in ,ceylon1 particularly1 there is not a range so high as to be inaccessible to them1 and so sure-footed are they that1 provided there be solidity to sustain their weight1 they will climb rocks1 and traverse ledges where even a mule dare not venture4 ,dr4 ,hooker admired the judicious winding of the elephant's path in the ,himalayas1 and ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,tennent describes the sagacity which he displays in laying out roads1 or descending abrupt banks1 as almost incredible4 #8,his first manuvre is to kneel down close to the edge of the declivity1 placing his chest to the ground1 one fore-leg is then cautiously passed a short way down the slope1 and if there is no natural protection to afford a firm footing1 he speedily forms one by stamping into the soil if moist1 or kicking out a footing if dry4 ,this point gained1 the other fore-leg is brought down in the same way1 and performs the same work1 a little in advance of the first1 which is thus at liberty to move lower still4 ,then1 first one and then the second of the hind-legs is carefully drawn over the side1 and the hind-feet in turn occupy the resting-places previously used and left by the fore ones4 ,the course1 however1 in such precipitous ground is not straight from top to bottom1 but slopes along the face of the bank1 descending till the animal gains the level below4' ,the stomach of the elephant1 like that of the camel or the llama1 is provided with a cavity1 serving most probably as a reservoir for water against the emergencies of thirst2 but the most remarkable feature in the organisation of the #8,leviathan of the land' is his wonderful trunk1 which1 uniting the flexibility of the serpent with a giant's power1 almost rivals the human hand by its manifold uses and exquisite delicacy of touch4 #8,nearly eight feet in length1 and stout in proportion to the massive size of the whole animal1 this miracle of nature1' as it is well expressed by ,mr4 ,broderip1 #8at the volition of the elephant will uproot trees or gather grass2 raise a piece of artillery or pick up a comfit2 kill a man or brush off a fly4 ,it conveys the food to the mouth1 and pumps up the enormous draughts of water1 which1 by its recurvature1 are turned into and driven down the capacious throat1 or showered over the body4 ,its length supplies the place of a long neck1 which would have been incompatible with the support of the large head and weighty tusks4' ,a glance at the head of the elephant will show the thickness and strength of the trunk at its insertion2 and the massy arched bones of the face and thick muscular neck are admirably adapted for supporting and working this incomparable instrument1 which is at the same time the elephant's most formidable defensive weapon1 for1 first prostrating any minor assailant by means of his trunk1 he then crushes him by the pressure of his enormous weight4 ,the use of the elephant's tusks is less clearly defined4 ,though they are frequently described as warding off the attacks of the tiger and rhinoceros1 often securing the victory by one blow1 which transfixes the assailant to the earth1 it is perfectly obvious1 both from their almost vertical position and the difficulty of raising the head above the level of the shoulder1 that they were never designed for weapons of attack4 ,no doubt they may prove of great assistance in digging up roots1 but that they are far from indispensable is proved by their being but rarely seen in the females1 and by their almost constant absence in the ,ceylon elephant1 where they are generally found reduced to mere stunted processes4 ,the elephants live in herds1 usually consisting of from ten to twenty individuals1 and each herd is a family1 not brought together by accident or attachment1 but owning a common lineage and relationship4 ,in the forest several herds will browse in close contiguity1 and in their expeditions in search of water they may form a body of possibly one or two hundred1 but on the slightest disturbance1 each distinct herd hastens to re-form within its own particular circle1 and to take measures on its own behalf for retreat or defence4 ,generally the most vigorous and courageous of the herd assumes the leadership3 his orders are observed with the most implicit obedience1 and the devotion and loyalty evinced by his followers are very remarkable4 ,in ,ceylon this is more readily seen in the case of a tusker than in any other1 because in a herd he is generally the object of the keenest pursuit by the hunters4 ,on such occasions the elephants do their utmost to protect him from danger2 when driven to extremity1 they place the leader in the centre1 and crowd so eagerly in front of him that the sportsmen have to shoot a number which they might otherwise have spared4 ,when individuals have been expelled from a herd1 or by some accident have lost their former associates1 they are not permitted to attach themselves to any other family1 and ever after wander about the woods as outcasts from their kind4 ,rendered morose and savage from rage and solitude1 they not only commit great injuries in the plantations1 trampling down the rice-grounds1 and tearing up the trees1 but even travellers are exposed to the utmost risk from their unprovoked assaults4 ,as the elephant surpasses all other land animals in strength and weight1 his mental faculties also assign to him one of the first places in the animal creation4 ,his docility1 his attachment to his master1 his ready obedience1 are qualities in which he is scarcely inferior to the dog1 and it is astonishing how easily he suffers himself to be led by his puny guide4 ,the dog has been the companion of man through an endless series of generations1 a servitude of many centuries has modified his physical and moral type2 but the elephant1 whom1 in spite of his prodigious powers1 we train to an equal obedience1 is always originally the free-born son of the forest 7for he never propagates in a state of captivity71 and is often advanced in years before being obliged to change the independence of the woods for the yoke of thraldom4 ,what services might not be expected from so gifted an animal were we able to educate the species as we do the individual8 ,the elephant inhabits both ,asia and ,africa1 but each of these two parts of the world has its peculiar species4 ,the ,african elephant is distinguished by the lozenge-shaped prominences of ivory and enamel on the surface of his grinders1 which in the ,indian elephant are narrow transverse parts of uniform breadth2 his skull has a more rounded form1 and is deficient in the double lateral bump conspicuous in the former2 and he has only fifty-four vertebr1 while the ,indian has sixty-one4 ,on the other hand1 he possesses twenty-one ribs1 while the latter has only nineteen4 ,his tusks are also much larger1 and his body is of much greater bulk1 as the female attains the stature of the full-grown ,indian male4 ,the ear is at least three times the size1 being not seldom above four feet long and broad1 so that ,dr4 ,livingstone mentions having seen a negro who under cover of one of these prodigious flaps effectually screened himself from the rain4 ,the ,african elephant has a very wide range1 from ,caffraria to ,nubia1 and from the ,zambesi to ,cape ,verde1 and the impenetrable deserts of the ,sahara alone prevent him from wandering to the shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,although in ,south ,africa the persecutions of the natives1 and of his still more formidable enemies--the colonists and ,english huntsmen1 have considerably thinned his numbers1 and driven him farther and farther to the north1 yet in the interior of the country he is still met with in prodigious numbers4 ,dr4 ,barth frequently saw large herds winding through the open plains1 and swimming in majestic lines through the rivers with elevated trunks1 or bathing in the shallow lakes for coolness or protection against insects4 ,dr4 ,livingstone gives us many interesting accounts of ,south ,african elephant-hunting4 ,the ,banijai on the south bank of the ,zambesi erect stages on high trees overhanging the paths by which the elephants come1 and then use a heavy spear four or five feet long4 ,when the unfortunate animal comes beneath1 they throw this formidable weapon1 and if it enters between the ribs above1 as the blade is at least twenty inches long by two broad1 the motion of the handle1 as it is aided by knocking against the trees1 makes frightful gashes within1 and soon causes death4 ,they kill them also by means of a spear inserted in a beam of wood1 which being suspended on the branch of a tree by a cord attached to a latch1 fastened in the path and intended to be struck by the animal's foot1 leads to the fall of the beam1 and the spear being poisoned1 causes death in a few hours4 ,on the sloping banks of the ,zouga the ,bayeiye dig deep pitfalls to entrap the animals as they come to drink1 but though these traps are constructed with the greatest ingenuity1 old elephants have been known to precede the herd and whisk off their coverings all the way down to the water1 or1 giving proof of a still more astonishing sagacity1 to have actually lifted the young out of the pits into which they had stumbled4 ,the ,bushmen select full-moon nights for the chase1 on account of the coolness1 and choose the moment succeeding a charge1 when the elephant is out of breath1 to run in and give him a stab with their long-bladed spears4 ,the huge creature is often bristling with missile weapons like a porcupine1 and though singly none of the wounds may be mortal1 yet their number overpowers him by loss of blood4 ,in the ,lake ,districts discovered by ,captain ,burton1 the elephant is hunted in a somewhat similar manner4 ,a tusker having been artfully separated from the herd without exciting suspicion1 the hunting party1 consisting of from fifteen to twenty individuals1 close in a deadly circle round the victim4 ,the headman then rising with a shout1 hurls the first spear1 and his example is followed by the rest4 ,the weapons are not poisoned--they are fatal by a succession of small wounds4 ,the baited beast rarely breaks1 as might be expected1 through the frail circle of assailants2 its proverbial obstinacy is excited1 it charges one man1 who slips away1 when another with a scream thrusts the long stiff spear into its hind-quarters1 which makes it change its intention and turn fiercely from the fugitive to the fresh assailant4 ,this continues till the elephant1 losing breath and heart1 attempts to escape2 its enemies then redouble their efforts1 and at length the huge prey1 overpowered by pain and loss of blood1 trickling from a hundred wounds1 bites the dust4 ,the victors1 after certain preliminaries of singing and dancing1 carefully cut out the tusks1 and devour the rich marrow upon the spot4 ,the chase concludes with a grand feast of fat and garbage1 and the hunters return home in triumph1 laden with ivory1 with ovals of hide for shields1 and with festoons of raw meat spitted upon long poles4 ,the cutting-up of an elephant by a negro tribe is quite a unique spectacle4 ,the men stand round the animal in dead silence1 while the chief of the party declares that1 according to ancient law1 the head and right hind-leg belong to him who inflicted the first wound2 the left leg to him who delivered the second1 or first touched the animal after it fell1 and different parts to the headmen of the different groups of which the camp is composed1 not forgetting to enjoin the preservation of the fat and bowels for a second distribution4 ,this oration finished1 the natives soon become excited1 and scream wildly as they cut away at the carcase with a score of spears1 whose long handles quiver in the air above their heads4 ,their excitement becomes momentarily more and more intense1 and reaches the culminating point when1 as denoted by a roar of gas1 the huge mass is laid fairly open4 ,some jump inside and roll about there in their eagerness to seize some precious morsel1 while others run off screaming with pieces of the bloody meat1 throw it on the grass1 and run back for more2 all keep talking and shouting at the utmost pitch of their voices4 ,sometimes two or three1 regardless of all laws1 seize the same piece of meat1 and have a brief fight of words over it4 ,occasionally an agonized yell bursts forth1 and a native emerges out of the huge carcase with his hand badly cut by the spear of his excited friend and neighbour4 ,a much more formidable enemy of this noble animal than the spears or pitfalls of the ,african barbarians is the rifle1 particularly in the hands of a ,european marksman2 for while the natives generally stand at the distance of a hundred yards or more1 and of course spend all the force of their bullets on the air1 the ,english hunters1 relying on their steadiness of aim1 approach to within thirty yards of the animal1 where they are sure not to waste their powder4 ,the consequence is1 that when the ,griquas kill one elephant1 such marksmen as ,gordon ,cumming and ,andersson will bring at least twenty to the ground1 and this difference is the more remarkable as the natives employ dogs to assist them1 while the ,english trust to themselves alone4 ,it requires no little nerve to brave the charge of the elephant1 the scream or trumpeting of the brute1 when infuriated1 being more like what the shriek of a steam-whistle would be to a man standing on the dangerous part of a railroad1 than any other earthly sound1 so that a horse unused to it will sometimes stand shivering instead of taking his rider out of danger1 or fall paralysed by fear4 ,even the most experienced hunters have many dangers to encounter while facing their gigantic adversary4 ,thus1 on the banks of the ,zouga1 ,mr4 ,oswell had one of the most extraordinary escapes from a wounded elephant perhaps ever recorded in the annals of the chase4 ,pursuing the brute into the dense thorny bushes met with on the margin of that river1 and to which the elephant usually flees for safety1 he followed it through a narrow pathway by lifting up some of the branches and forcing his way through the rest2 but when he had just got over this difficulty1 he saw the elephant1 whose tail he had but got glimpses of before1 now rushing full speed towards him4 ,there was then no time to lift up branches1 so he tried to force his horse through them4 ,he could not effect a passage1 and as there was but an instant between the attempt and failure1 the hunter tried to dismount1 but in doing this one foot was caught by a branch1 and the spur drawn along the animal's flank2 this made him spring away1 and throw the rider on the ground with his face to the elephant1 which1 being in full chase1 still went on4 ,mr4 ,oswell saw the huge fore-foot about to descend on his legs1 parted them1 and drew in his breath1 as if to resist the pressure of the other foot1 which he expected would next descend on his body4 ,his relief may be imagined1 when he saw the whole length of the under part of the enormous brute pass over him1 leaving him perfectly unhurt4 ,in ,abyssinia the elephant is hunted in an original manner4 ,the men who make this their chief occupation dwell constantly in the woods1 and live entirely upon the flesh of the animals they kill4 ,they are exceedingly dexterous1 both on horseback and on foot2 indispensable qualities1 partly inherited and partly acquired by practice4 ,completely naked to render their movements more easy1 and to prevent their being laid hold of by the bushes1 two of these bold huntsmen get on horseback2 one of them bestrides the back of the steed1 a short stick in one hand1 the reins in the other1 while behind him sits his companion1 armed with a sharp broadsword4 ,as soon as they perceive a grazing elephant1 they instantly ride up to him1 or cross him in all directions if he flies1 uttering at the same time a torrent of abuse1 for the purpose1 as they fancy1 of raising his anger4 ,with outstretched trunk the elephant attempts to seize the noisy intruders1 and following the perfectly trained horse1 which1 springing from side to side1 leads him along in vain pursuit1 neglects flight into the woods1 his sole chance of safety2 for while his whole attention is fixed on the rapid movements of the horse1 the swordsman1 who has sprung unperceived from its back1 approaches stealthily from behind1 and1 with one stroke of his weapon1 severs the tendon just above the heel4 ,the disabled monster falls shrieking to the ground1 and incapable of advancing a step1 is soon despatched4 ,the whole flesh is then cut off his bones into thongs1 and hung upon the branches of trees till perfectly dry1 when it is taken down and laid by for the rainy season4 ,african ivory is a not unimportant article of trade4 ,the annual importation into ,great ,britain alone1 for the last few years1 has been about #aa1jjj cwts41 which1 taking the average weight of a tusk at thirty pounds1 would imply an annual slaughter of about #bj1jjj elephants1 doomed to destruction in order to provide us with umbrella1 stick1 or knife-handles1 card-marks1 fancy boxes1 or buttons4 ,the ,asiatic elephant inhabits ,hindostan1 the ultra-,gangetic peninsula1 ,sumatra1 ,borneo1 and ,ceylon4 ,in the latter island especially1 he was formerly found in incredible numbers1 so that thirty years ago1 an ,english sportsman killed no less than #ajd elephants in three days4 ,a reward of a few shillings per head offered by the ,government for taking elephants was claimed for #c1ejj destroyed in part of the northern provinces alone1 in less than three years prior to #ahdh1 and between #ahea and #ahef a similar reward was paid for #b1jjj in the southern provinces4 ,in consequence of this wholesale slaughter1 it cannot be wondered at that the ,ceylon elephant has entirely disappeared from districts in which he was formerly numerous1 and that the peasantry in some parts of the island have even suspended the ancient practice of keeping watchers and fires by night to drive away the elephants from the growing crops4 ,the opening of roads1 and the clearing of the mountain-forests of ,kandy for the cultivation of coffee1 have forced the animals to retire to the low country1 where again they have been followed by large parties of ,european sportsmen1 and the ,singhalese themselves1 being more freely provided with arms than in former times1 have assisted in the work of extermination4 ,the practice in ,ceylon is to aim invariably at the head1 and1 generally speaking1 a single ball planted in the forehead ends the existence of the noble creature instantaneously4 ,thus1 while ,prince ,waldemar of ,prussia1 during his visit to the island1 was hunting in the forests in company with ,major ,rogers1 a celebrated ,nimrod1 they were charged by two elephants1 the one furiously trumpeting in their rear1 while the other pushed its enormous head through the bushes in front4 ,the major1 however1 soon put an end to their offensive demonstrations1 for springing between them1 he instantly lodged one bullet behind the ear of the one1 and a second in the temple of the other4 ,as if struck by lightning1 they sank to the earth with a deep hollow groan1 and the remainder of the herd1 terrified by their fall1 hurried away into the depth of the woods4 ,in ,india and ,ceylon1 elephants have been caught and tamed from time immemorial1 and when we compare their colossal strength with the physical weakness of man1 it must surely be considered a signal triumph of his intelligence and courage1 that he is able to bend such gigantic creatures to his will4 ,the professional elephant-catchers of ,ceylon1 or ,panickeas1 as they are called1 are particularly remarkable for their daring and adroitness4 ,their ability in tracing their huge game1 rivalling that of the ,american ,indian in following the enemy's trail1 has almost the certainty of instinct1 and hence their services are eagerly sought by the ,european elephant-hunters4 #8,so keen is their glance1 that almost at the top of their speed1 like hounds running breast-high1 they will follow the course of an elephant over glades covered with stunted grass1 where the eye of a stranger would fail to discover a trace of its passage1 and on through forests strewn with dry leaves1 where it seems impossible to perceive a footstep4 ,here they are guided by a bent or broken twig1 or by a leaf dropped from the animal's mouth on which they can detect the pressure of a tooth4 ,if at fault1 they fetch a circuit like a setter1 till lighting on some fresh marks1 they go ahead again with renewed vigour4 ,so delicate is the sense of smell in the elephant1 and so indispensable is it to go against the wind in approaching him1 that the ,panickeas1 on those occasions when the wind is so still that its direction cannot be otherwise discerned1 will suspend the film of a gossamer to determine it1 and shape their course accordingly4 ,on overtaking the game1 their courage is as conspicuous as their sagacity4 ,if they have confidence in the sportsman for whom they are finding1 they will advance to the very heel of the elephant1 slap him on the quarter1 and then convert his timidity into anger1 till he turns upon his tormentor1 and exposes his heavy front to receive the bullet which is awaiting him4 ,so fearless and confident are they1 that two men without aid or attendants will boldly attempt to capture the largest-sized elephant4 ,their only weapon is a flexible rope made of buffalo's hide1 with which it is their object to secure one of the hind-legs4 ,this they effect either by following in his footsteps when in motion1 or by stealing close up to him when at rest1 and availing themselves of the propensity of the elephant at such moments to sling his feet backwards and forwards1 they contrive to slip a noose over his hind-leg4 #8,at other times1 this is achieved by spreading the noose on the ground1 partially concealed by roots and leaves1 beneath a tree on which one of the party is stationed1 whose business it is to lift it suddenly by means of a cord1 raising it on the elephant's leg at the moment when his companion has succeeded in provoking him to place his foot within the circle1 the other end having been previously made fast to the stem of a tree4 ,should the noosing be effected in open ground1 and no tree of sufficient strength at hand round which to wind the rope1 one of them allowing himself to be pursued by the enraged elephant1 entices him towards the nearest grove1 when his companion1 dexterously laying hold of the rope as it trails along the ground1 suddenly coils it round a suitable stem1 and brings the fugitive to a stand-still4 ,on finding himself thus arrested1 the natural impulse of the captive is to turn on the man who is engaged in making fast the rope1 a movement which it is the duty of his colleague to prevent by running up close to the elephant's head1 and provoking him to confront him by irritating gesticulations and incessant shouts of dah6 dah6 a monosyllable the sound of which the elephant peculiarly dislikes4 ,meanwhile the first assailant having secured one noose1 comes up from behind with another1 with which1 amidst the vain rage and struggles of the victim1 he entraps a fore-leg1 the rope being as before secured to another tree in front1 and the whole four feet having been thus entangled1 the capture is completed4 #8,a shelter is then run up with branches to protect him from the sun1 and the hunters proceed to build a wigwam for themselves in front of their prisoner1 kindling their fires for cooking1 and making all the necessary arrangements for remaining day and night on the spot1 to await the process of subduing and taming his rage4 ,picketed to the ground like ,gulliver by the ,lilliputians1 the elephant soon ceases to struggle1 and what with the exhaustion of ineffectual resistance1 the constant annoyance of smoke1 and the liberal supply of food and water with which he is indulged1 a few weeks generally suffice to subdue his spirit1 when his keepers at length venture to remove him to their own village1 or to the seaside for shipment to ,india4 #8,no part of the hunter's performances exhibits greater skill and audacity than this first forced march of the recently captured elephant4 ,as he is still too morose to submit to be ridden1 and it would be equally impossible to lead or to drive him by force1 the ingenuity of the captors is displayed in alternately irritating and eluding his attacks1 but always so attracting his attention1 as to allure him along in the direction in which they want him to go4 #8,in ,ceylon1 the principal place for exporting these animals to ,india is ,manaar on the western coast1 to which the ,arabs from the continent resort1 bringing horses to be bartered for elephants4 ,in order to reach the sea1 open plains must be traversed1 across which it requires the utmost patience of the ,panickeas to coax their reluctant charge4 ,at ,manaar the elephants are usually detained till any wound on the leg caused by the rope has been healed1 when the shipment is effected in the most primitive manner1 it being next to impossible to induce the still untamed creature to walk on board1 and no mechanical contrivances being provided to ship him4 ,a native boat1 of about forty tons burthen1 is brought alongside the quay1 and being about three parts filled with the strong-ribbed leaves of the ,palmyra palm1 it is lashed so that the gunwale may be as nearly as possible on a line with the level of the wharf4 ,the elephant1 being placed with his back to the water1 is forced by goads to retreat till his hind-legs go over the side of the quay2 but the main contest commences when it is attempted to disengage his fore-feet from the shore1 and force him to entrust himself on board4 ,the scene becomes exciting from the screams and trumpetings of the elephants1 the shouts of the ,arabs1 and the rushing of the crowd4 ,meanwhile the huge creature strains every nerve to regain the land2 and the day is often consumed before his efforts are overcome1 and he finds himself fairly afloat4 ,the same boat will take from four to five elephants1 who place themselves athwart it1 and exhibit amusing adroitness in accommodating their own movements to the rolling of the little vessel1 and in this way they are ferried across the narrow strait which separates the continent of ,india from ,ceylon4'#ch ,unfortunately1 my limits forbid me entering upon a detailed account of the great elephant hunts of ,india and ,ceylon1 where whole herds are driven into an enclosure and entrapped in one vast decoy4 ,this may truly be called the sublime of sport1 for nowhere is it conducted on a grander scale1 or so replete with thrilling emotions4 ,the keddah or corral1 as the enclosure is called1 is constructed in the depth of the forest1 several hundred paces long1 and half as broad1 and of a strength commensurate to the power of the animals it is intended to secure4 ,slowly and cautiously the doomed herds are driven onwards from a vast circuit by thousands of beaters in narrowing circles to the fatal gate1 which is instantly closed behind them1 and then the hunters1 rushing with wild clamour and blazing torches to the stockade1 complete the terror of the bewildered animals4 ,trumpeting and screaming with rage and fear1 they rush round the corral at a rapid pace1 but all their attempts to force the powerful fence are vain1 for wherever they assail the palisade1 they are met with glaring flambeaux and bristling spears1 and on whichever side they approach1 they are repulsed with shouts and discharges of musketry4 ,for upwards of an hour their frantic efforts are continued with unabated energy1 till at length1 stupified1 exhausted1 and subdued by apprehension and amazement1 they form themselves into a circle1 and stand motionless under the dark shade of the trees in the middle of the corral4 ,to secure the entrapped animals1 the assistance of tame elephants or decoys is necessary1 who1 by occupying their attention and masking the movements of the nooser1 give him an opportunity of slipping one by one a rope round their feet until their capture is completed4 ,the quickness of eye displayed by the men in watching the slightest movement of an elephant1 and their expertness in flinging the noose over its foot1 and attaching it firmly before the animal can tear it off with its trunk1 are less admirable than the rare sagacity of the decoys1 who display the most perfect conception of the object to be attained1 and the means of accomplishing it4 ,thus ,sir ,emerson ,tennent saw more than once1 during a great elephant hunt which he witnessed in #ahdg1 that when one of the wild elephants was extending his trunk1 and would have intercepted the rope about to be placed over his leg1 the decoy1 by a sudden motion of her own trunk1 pushed his aside and prevented him2 and on one occasion1 when successive efforts had failed to put the noose over the leg of an elephant who was already secured by one foot1 but who wisely put the other to the ground as often as it was attempted to pass the noose under it1 he saw the decoy watch her opportunity1 and when his foot was again raised1 suddenly push in her own leg beneath it1 and hold it up till the noose was attached and drawn tight4 ,it may easily be imagined that the passage from a life of unfettered liberty in the cool and sequestered forest to one of obedience and labour1 must necessarily put the health of the captured animals to a severe trial4 ,many perish in consequence of the fearful wounds on the legs occasioned by their struggling against the ropes1 and it has frequently happened that a valuable animal has lain down and died the first time it was tried in harness from what the natives designate a #8broken heart4' ,official records prove that more than half of the elephants employed in the public departments of the ,ceylon government die in one year's servitude1 and even when fully trained and inured to captivity1 the working elephant is always a delicate animal1 subject to a great variety of diseases1 and consequently often incapacitated from labour4 ,thus1 in spite of his colossal strength1 which cannot even be employed to its full extent1 as it is difficult to pack him without chafing the skin1 and waggons of corresponding dimension to his muscular powers would utterly ruin the best constructed roads1 it is very doubtful whether his services are in proportion to his cost1 and ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,tennent is of opinion that two vigorous dray horses would1 at less expense1 do more effectual work than any elephant4 ,in no kind of labour does the elephant display a greater ingenuity than in dragging and piling felled timber1 going on for hours disposing of log after log1 almost without a hint or a direction from his attendant4 ,in this manner two elephants1 employed in piling ebony and satin wood in the yards attached to the ,commissariat stores at ,colombo1 were so accustomed to the work that they were enabled to accomplish it with equal precision and with greater rapidity than if it had been done by dock-labourers4 ,when the pile attained a certain height which baffled their conjoint efforts to raise one of the heavy logs of ebony to the summit1 they had been taught to lean two pieces against the heap1 up the inclined plane of which they gently rolled the remaining logs1 and placed them trimly on the top4 ,such is the earnestness and perseverance displayed by the sagacious creatures while accomplishing their task1 that supervision might almost be thought superfluous2 but as soon as the eye of the keeper is withdrawn1 their innate love of ease displays itself1 and away they stroll lazily to browse1 or to enjoy the luxury of fanning themselves and blowing dust over their backs4 ,illustration3 ,,leopard ,,and ,,cheetah4 ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,tropical ,,felid4 ,the ,lion--,conflicts with ,travellers on ,mount ,atlas--,the ,lion and the ,hottentot--,a ,lion taken in--,narrow ,escapes of ,andersson and ,dr4 ,livingstone--,lion-,hunting by the ,arabs of the ,atlas--,by the ,bushmen--,the ,asiatic ,lion--,the ,lion and the ,dog--,the ,tiger--,the ,javanese ,jungle--,the ,peacock--,wide ,northern ,range of the ,tiger-- ,tiger-,hunting in ,india--,miraculous ,escape of an ,english ,sportsman-- ,animals announcing the ,tiger's ,presence--,turtle-,hunting of the ,tiger on the ,coasts of ,java--,the ,panther and the ,leopard--,the ,cheetah-- ,the ,jaguar--,the ,puma--,the smaller ,american ,felid--,the ,hyna-- ,fables told of these abject ,animals--,the ,striped ,hyna--,the ,spotted ,hyna--,the ,brown ,hyna4 ,the majestic form1 the noble bearing1 the stately stride1 the fine proportions1 the piercing eye1 and the dreadful roar of the ,lion1 striking terror into the heart of every other animal1 all combine to mark him with the stamp of royalty4 ,all nerve1 all muscle1 his enormous strength shows itself in the tremendous bound with which he rushes upon his prey1 in the rapid motions of his tail1 one stroke of which is able to fell the strongest man to the ground1 and in the expressive wrinkling of his brow4 ,no wonder that1 ever inclined to judge from outward appearances1 and to attribute to external beauty analogous qualities of mind1 man has endowed the lion with a nobility of character which he in reality does not possess4 ,for modern travellers1 who have had occasion to observe him in his native wilds1 far from awarding him the praise of chivalrous generosity and noble daring1 rather describe him as a mean-spirited robber1 prowling about at night-time in order to surprise a weaker prey4 ,the lion is distinguished from all other members of the feline tribe by the uniform colour of his tawny skin1 by the black tuft at the end of his tail1 and particularly by the long and sometimes blackish mane1 which he is able to bristle when under the influence of passion1 and which contributes so much to the beauty of the male1 while it is wanting in the lioness1 who1 as everyone knows1 is very inferior in size and comeliness to her stately mate4 ,his chief food consists of the flesh of the larger herbivorous animals1 very few of which he is unable to master4 ,concealed in the high rushes on the river's bank1 he lies in ambush for the timorous herd of antelopes which at nightfall approach the water to quench their thirst4 ,slowly and cautiously the children of the waste advance2 they listen with ears erect1 they strain their eyes to penetrate the thicket's gloom1 but nothing suspicious appears or moves along the bank4 ,long and deeply they quaff the delicious draught1 when suddenly1 with a giant spring1 like lightning bursting from a cloud1 the lion bounds upon the unsuspecting revellers1 and the leader of the herd lies prostrate at his feet4 ,during the daytime the lion seldom attacks man1 and sometimes even when meeting a traveller he is said to pass him by unnoticed2 but when the shades of evening descend1 his mood undergoes a change4 ,after sunset it is dangerous to venture into the woody and wild regions of ,mount ,atlas1 for there the lion lies in wait1 and there one finds him stretched across the narrow path4 ,it is then that dramatic scenes of absorbing interest not unfrequently take place4 ,when1 so say the ,bedouins1 a single man thus meeting with a lion is possessed of an undaunted heart1 he advances towards the monster brandishing his sword or flourishing his rifle high in the air1 and1 taking good care not to strike or to shoot1 contents himself with pouring forth a torrent of abuse3--#8,oh1 thou mean-spirited thief6 thou pitiful waylayer6 thou son of one that never ventured to say no6 think'st thou ,i fear thee8 ,knowest thou whose son ,i am8 ,arise1 and let me pass6' ,the lion waits till the man approaches quite near to him2 then he retires1 but soon stretches himself once more across the path2 and thus by many a repeated trial puts the courage of the wanderer to the test4 ,all the time the movements of the lion are attended with a dreadful noise1 he breaks numberless branches with his tail1 he roars1 he growls2 like the cat with the mouse1 he plays with the object of his repeated and singular attacks1 keeping him perpetually suspended between hope and fear4 ,if the man engaged in this combat keeps up his courage1--if1 as the ,arabs express themselves1 #8he holds fast his soul1' then the brute at last quits him and seeks some other prey4 ,but if the lion perceives that he has to do with an opponent whose courage falters1 whose voice trembles1 who does not venture to utter a menace1 then to terrify him still more he redoubles the described manuvres4 ,he approaches his victim1 pushes him from the path1 then leaves him and approaches again1 and enjoys the agony of the wretch1 until at last he tears him to pieces4 ,the lion is said to have a particular liking for the flesh of the ,hottentots1 and it is surprising with what obstinacy he will follow one of these unfortunate savages4 ,thus ,mr4 ,barrow relates the adventure of a ,namaqua ,hottentot1 who1 endeavouring to drive his master's cattle into a pool of water enclosed between two ridges of rocks1 espied a huge lion couching in the midst of the pool4 ,terrified at the unexpected sight of such a beast1 that seemed to have his eyes fixed upon him1 he instantly took to his heels4 ,in doing this he had presence of mind enough to run through the herd1 concluding that if the lion should pursue he would take up with the first beast that presented itself4 ,in this1 however1 he was mistaken4 ,the lion broke through the herd1 making directly after the ,hottentot1 who1 on turning round and perceiving that the monster had singled him out1 breathless and half dead with fear1 scrambled up one of the tree-aloes1 in the trunk of which a few steps had luckily been cut out to come at some birds' nests that the branches contained4 ,at the same moment the lion made a spring at him1 but missing his aim1 fell upon the ground4 ,in surly silence he walked round the tree1 casting at times a dreadful look towards the poor ,hottentot1 who screened himself from his sight behind the branches4 ,having remained silent and motionless for a length of time1 he at length ventured to peep1 hoping that the lion had taken his departure1 when to his great terror and astonishment1 his eyes met those of the animal1 which1 as the poor fellow afterwards expressed himself1 flashed fire at him4 ,in short1 the lion laid himself down at the foot of the tree1 and did not remove from the place for twenty-four hours4 ,at the end of this time1 becoming parched with thirst1 he went to a spring at some distance in order to drink4 ,the ,hottentot now1 with trepidation1 ventured to descend1 and scampered off home as fast as his feet could carry him4 ,on account as well of the devastation which he causes among the herds as of the pleasure of the chase1 the lion is pursued and killed in ,north and in ,south ,africa wherever he appears3 a state of war which1 as may well be supposed1 is not without danger for the aggressive party4 ,thus1 ,andersson once fired upon a black-maned lion1 one of the largest he ever encountered in ,africa4 ,roused to fury by the slight wound he had received1 the brute rapidly wheeled1 rushed upon him with a dreadful roar1 and at the distance of a few paces1 couched as if about to spring1 having his head imbedded1 so to say1 between his fore paws4 ,drawing a large hunting-knife1 and slipping it over the wrist of his right hand1 ,andersson dropped on one knee1 and thus prepared1 awaited the onset of the lion4 ,it was an awful moment of suspense1 and his situation was critical in the extreme4 ,still his presence of mind 7a most indispensable quality in a ,south ,african hunter7 never for a moment forsook him2 indeed1 he felt that nothing but the most perfect coolness and absolute self-command would be of any avail4 ,he would now have become the assailant2 but as1 owing to the intervening bushes and clouds of dust raised by the lion's lashing his tail against the ground1 he was unable to see his head1 while to aim at any other part would have been madness1 he refrained from firing4 ,whilst intently watching every motion of the lion1 the animal suddenly made a prodigious bound2 but whether it was owing to his not perceiving his intended victim1 who was partially concealed in the long grass1 and instinctively threw his body on one side1 or to his miscalculating the distance1 he went clear over him1 and alighted on the ground three or four paces beyond4 ,quick as thought ,andersson now seized his advantage1 and wheeling round on his knee1 discharged his second barrel2 and as the lion's broadside was then towards him1 lodged a ball in his shoulder1 which it completely smashed4 ,the infuriated animal now made a second and more determined rush2 but owing to his disabled state was happily avoided1 though only within a hair's breadth1 and giving up the contest1 he retreated into a neighbouring wood1 where his carcase was found a few days after4 ,dr4 ,livingstone once had a still more narrow escape1 for he was actually under the paws of a lion1 whose fury he had roused by firing two bullets into him4 #8,i was upon a little height2 he caught my shoulder as he sprang1 and we both came to the ground below together4 ,growling horribly close to my ear1 he shook me as a terrier-dog does a rat4 ,the shock produced a stupor1 similar to that which seems to be felt by a mouse after the first shake of the cat4 ,it caused a sort of drowsiness in which there was no sense of pain nor feeling of terror1 though quite conscious of all that was happening4 ,it was like what patients partially under the influence of chloroform describe1 who see all the operation1 but feel not the knife4 ,this singular condition was not the result of any mental process2 the shake annihilated fear1 and allowed no sense of horror in looking round at the beast4 ,this peculiar state' 7a fine remark7 #8is probably produced in all animals killed by the carnivora2 and if so1 is a merciful provision by our benevolent ,creator for lessening the pain of death4 ,turning round to relieve myself of the weight1 as he had one paw on the back of my head1 ,i saw his eyes directed to ,mebalw1 who was trying to shoot him at a distance of ten or fifteen yards4 ,his gun1 a flint one1 missed fire in both barrels2 the lion immediately left me1 and attacking ,mebalw1 bit his thigh4 ,another man attempted to spear the lion while he was biting ,mebalw4 ,he left ,mebalw1 and caught this man by the shoulder1 but at that moment the bullets he had received took effect and he fell down dead4 ,the whole was the work of a few moments1 and must have been his paroxysm of dying rage4 ,a wound from this animal's tooth resembles a gun-shot wound2 it is generally followed by a great deal of sloughing and discharge1 and pains are felt in the part periodically ever afterwards4 ,i had on a tartan jacket on the occasion1 and ,i believe that it wiped off all the virus from the teeth that pierced the flesh1 for my two companions in this affray have both suffered from the peculiar pains1 while ,i have escaped with only the inconvenience of a false joint in my limb4 ,the man whose shoulder was wounded showed me his wound actually burst forth afresh on the same month of the following year4 ,this curious point deserves the attention of inquirers4' ,in the ,atlas1 the lion is hunted in various ways4 ,when he prowls about the neighbourhood of a ,bedouin encampment1 his presence is announced by various signs3 at night1 his dreadful roar resounds2 now an ox1 now a foal is missing from the herd2 at length even a member of the tribe disappears4 ,terror spreads among all the tents1 the women tremble for their children1 everywhere complaints are heard4 ,the warriors decree the death of the obnoxious neighbour1 and congregate on horse and on foot at the appointed hour and place4 ,the thicket in which the lion conceals himself during the daytime has already been discovered1 and the troop advances1 the horsemen bringing up the rear4 ,about fifty paces from the bush they halt1 and draw up in three rows1 the second ready to assist the first in case of need1 the third an invincible reserve of excellent marksmen4 ,then commences a strange and animated scene4 ,the first row abusing the lion1 and at the same time sending a few balls into his covert to induce him to come out1 utter loud exclamations of defiance3 #8,where is he who fancies himself so brave1 and ventures not to show himself before men8 ,surely it is not the lion1 but a cowardly thief1 a son of ,scheitan1 on whom ,allah's curse may rest6' ,at length1 the roused lion breaks forth4 ,a momentary silence ensues4 ,the lion roars1 rolls his flaming eyes1 retreats a few paces1 stretches himself upon the ground1 rises1 smashes the branches with his tail4 ,the front row give fire1 the lion springs forward1 if untouched1 and generally falls under the balls of the second row1 which immediately advance towards him4 ,this moment1 so critical for the lion1 whose fury is fully excited1 does not end the combat till he is hit in the head or in the heart4 ,often his hide has been pierced by a dozen balls before the mortal wound is given1 so that sometimes1 in case of a prolonged contest1 several of the hunters are either killed or wounded4 ,the horsemen remain as passive spectators of the fray so long as the lion keeps upon hilly ground1 but when driven into the plain1 their part begins1 and a new combat of a no less original and dramatic character commences2 as every rider1 according to his zeal or courage1 spurs his horse upon the monster1 fires upon him at a short distance1 then rapidly wheels as soon as the shot is made1 and reloads again1 to prepare for a new onset4 ,the lion1 attacked on all sides1 and covered with wounds1 fronts everywhere the enemy1 springs forward1 retreats1 returns1 and only falls after a glorious resistance1 which must necessarily end in his defeat and death1 as he is no match for a troop of well-mounted ,arabs4 ,after he has spent his power on a few monstrous springs1 even an ordinary horse easily overtakes him4 ,one must have been the witness of such a fight to form an idea of its animation4 ,every rider utters loud imprecations1 the white mantles that give so spectral an appearance to their dusky owners1 fly in the air like #8streamers long and gay1' the carbines glisten1 the shots resound1 the lion roars2 pursuit and flight alternate in rapid succession4 ,yet1 in spite of the tumult1 accidents are rare1 and the horsemen have generally nothing to fear but a fall from their steed1 which might bring them under the claws of their enemy1 or1 what is oftener the case1 the ball of an incautious comrade4 ,the ,arabs have noticed that the day after the lion has carried away a piece of cattle1 he generally remains in a state of drowsy inactivity1 incapable of moving from his lair4 ,when the neighbourhood1 which usually resounds with his evening roar1 remains quiet1 there is every reason to believe that the animal is gorged with his gluttonous repast4 ,then some huntsman1 more courageous than his comrades1 follows his trail into the thicket1 levels his gun at the lethargic monster1 and sends a ball into his head4 ,sometimes even1 a hunter1 relying on the deadly certainty of his aim1 and desirous of acquiring fame by a display of chivalrous courage1 rides forth alone into the thicket1 on a moonlight night1 challenges the lion with repeated shouts and imprecations1 and lays him prostrate before he can make his fatal bound4 ,dr4 ,livingstone informs us that the ,bushmen likewise avail themselves of the torpidity consequent upon a full meal1 to surprise the lion in his slumbers1 and shoot him with their poisoned arrows4 ,in ancient times1 the lion was an inhabitant of south-eastern ,europe4 ,herodotus relates that troops of lions came down the ,macedonian mountains1 to seize upon the baggage camels of ,xerxes' army1 and even in the time of ,alexander the ,great1 the animal1 though rare1 was not yet completely extirpated4 ,in ,asia also1 where the lion is at present confined to ,mesopotamia1 the northern coast of the ,persian ,gulf1 and the north-western part of ,hindostan1 he formerly roamed over far more extensive domains4 ,the ,asiatic lion differs from the ,african1 by a more compressed form of body1 a shorter mane1 which sometimes is almost entirely wanting1 and a much larger tuft of hair at the end of the tail4 ,africa is the chief seat of the lion1 the part of the world where he appears to perfection with all the attributes of his peculiar strength and beauty4 ,there he is found in the wilds of the ,atlas1 as in the high mountain-lands of ,abyssinia1 from the ,cape to ,senegal1 and from ,mozambique to ,congo1 and probably more than one species of the royal animal1 not yet accurately distinguished by the naturalist1 roams over this vast expanse4 ,while the lion reigns in ,africa1 the ,tiger is lord and master of the ,indian jungles4 ,a splendid animal--elegantly striped with black on a white and golden ground2 graceful in every movement1 but of a most sanguinary and cruel nature4 ,the lengthened body resting on short legs1 wants the proud bearing of the lion1 while the naked head1 the wildly rolling eye1 the scarlet tongue constantly lolling from the jaws1 and the whole expression of the tiger's physiognomy1 indicate an insatiable thirst for blood1 a pitiless ferocity1 which he wreaks indiscriminately on every living thing that comes within his grasp4 ,in the bamboo jungle on the banks of pools and rivers1 he waits for the approaching herd2 there he seeks his prey1 or rather multiplies his murders1 for he often leaves the carcase of the axis or the nylghau still writhing in the agony of death1 to throw himself upon new victims1 whose bodies he rends with his claws1 and then plunges his head into the gaping wound to absorb with deep and luxurious draughts the blood whose fountains he has just laid open4 ,nothing can be more delightful than the aspect of a ,javanese savannah1 to which clumps of noble trees1 planted by ,nature's hand1 impart a park-like character2 yet even during the daytime1 the traveller rarely ventures to cross these beautiful wilds without being accompanied by a numerous retinue4 ,the horses frequently stand still1 trembling all over1 when their road leads them along some denser patch of the jungle1 rising like an island from the grassy plain1 for their acute scent informs them that a tiger lies concealed in the thicket1 but a few paces from their path4 ,it is a remarkable fact that the peacock and the tiger are so frequently seen together4 ,the voice of the bird is seldom heard during the daytime1 but as soon as the shades of evening begin to veil the landscape1 his loud and disagreeable screams awaken the echoes1 announcing1 as the ,javanese say1 that the tiger is setting forth on his murderous excursions4 ,then the traveller carefully bolts the door of his hut1 and the solitary ,javanese retreats to his palisadoed dwelling1 for the tyrant of the wilderness is abroad4 ,at night his dreadful roar is heard1 sometimes accompanied by the peacock's discordant voice4 ,even in the villages1 thinly scattered among the grass or alang-wilds of ,java1 there is no security against his attacks1 in spite of the strong fences with which they are enclosed1 and the watch-fires carefully kept burning between these and the huts4 ,illustration3 ,,tiger4 ,india1 ,south ,china1 ,sumatra1 and ,java are the chief seats of the tiger1 who is unknown both in ,ceylon and ,borneo1 while to the north he ranges as far as ,mandschuria and the ,upper ,obi1 and ,jennisei 7#ee--ef ,n4 lat474 ,a species of tiger identical with that of ,bengal is common in the neighbourhood of ,lake ,aral1 near ,sussac 7#de ,n4 lat471 and ,tennent mentions that he is found among the snows of ,mount ,ararat in ,armenia4 ,as ,hindostan is separated from these northern tiger haunts by the great mountain chains of ,kuen-,lun 7#ce ,n471 and of ,mouztagh 7#db ,n4 lat471 each covered with perpetual snows1 mere summer excursions are quite out of the question1 and it is evident that the animal is able to live in a much more rigorous climate than is commonly imagined4 ,even in ,india the tiger is by no means confined to the sultry jungle1 for we learn from ,mr4 ,hodgson's account of the mammalia of ,nepaul1 that in the ,himalayas he is sometimes found at the very edge of perpetual snow4 ,tiger-hunting is a chief pleasure of the ,indian rajahs and zemindars1 who1 anxious that their favourite amusement may suffer no diminution1 forbid anyone else to chase on their domains1 however much their poor vassals may have to suffer in consequence4 ,but the delight they take in tiger-shooting never leads these cautious ,nimrods so far as to endanger their precious persons4 ,on some trees of the jungle a scaffolding is prepared1 at a ludicrous height1 for his ,highness1 who1 at the appointed hour1 makes his appearance with all the pomp of a petty ,asiatic despot4 ,the beating now begins1 and is executed by a troop of miserable peasants1 who most unwillingly submit to this forced and unpaid labour1 which is the more dangerous for them as they are dispersed on a long line1 instead of forming a troop1 the only way to secure them against the attacks of the tiger4 ,thus they advance with a dreadful noise of drums1 horns1 and pistol-firing1 driving the wild beasts of the jungle towards the scaffolding of their lord and master4 ,at first the tigers1 startled from their slumbers1 retreat before them1 but generally on approaching the scaffolding they guess the danger that awaits them and turn with a formidable growl upon the drivers4 ,sometimes1 however1 they summon resolution to rush with a few tremendous bounds through the perilous pass1 and their flight is but rarely impeded by the ill-aimed shots of the ambuscade4 ,nevertheless1 great compliments are paid to the noble sportsman for his ability and courage1 and nobody says a word about the poor low-born wretches that may have been killed or mutilated by the infuriated brutes4 ,our ,english tiger-hunters generally proceed on a very different plan4 ,provided with very excellent double-barrelled rifles1 and accompanied by a troop of well-armed1 well-paid drivers1 and a number of courageous dogs1 they boldly enter the jungle to rouse the tiger from his lair4 ,in front of the party generally marches the shikarree1 or chief driver1 who attentively reconnoitring the traces of the animal1 points out the direction that is to be followed4 ,on his right and left hand walk the ,english sportsmen1 fully prepared for action1 and behind them the most trustworthy of their followers1 with loaded rifles ready for an exchange with those that have been discharged4 ,then follows the music1 consisting of four or five tambourins1 a great drum1 cymbals1 horns1 a bell1 and the repeated firing of pistols1 and convoyed by men armed with swords and long halberds4 ,a few slingsmen make up the rear1 who are constantly throwing stones into the jungle over the heads of the foremost of the party1 and even more effectually than the noise of the music drive the tiger from his lair4 ,from time to time1 one of the men climbs upon the summit of a tree1 to observe the movements of the grass4 ,the whole troop constantly forms a close body4 ,the tiger in cold blood is never able to attack a company that announces itself in so turbulent a manner4 ,if he ventures1 it is only with half a heart2 he hesitates1 stops at a short distance1 and gives the hunter time to salute him with a bullet4 ,the tiger is particularly fond of dense willow or bamboo bushes on swampy ground1 as he there finds the cool shade he requires for his rest during the heat of the day1 after his nocturnal excursions4 ,it is then very difficult to detect him1 but the other inhabitants of the jungle1 particularly the peacock and the monkey1 betray his presence4 ,the scream of the former is an infallible sign that the tiger is rising from his lair2 and the monkeys1 who during the night are frequently surprised by the panther or the boa1 never allow their watchfulness to be at fault during the day4 ,they are never deceived in the animal which slinks into the thicket4 ,if it is a deer or a wild boar1 they remain perfectly quiet1 but if it is a tiger or a panther1 they utter a cry designed to warn their comrades of the approach of danger4 ,when1 on examining a jungle1 the traveller sees a monkey quietly seated on the branches1 he may be perfectly sure that no dangerous animal is lurking in the thicket4 ,illustration3 ,,jackal4 ,during the night the cry of the jackal frequently announces the tiger's presence4 ,when one of these vile animals is no longer able to hunt from age1 or when he has been expelled from his troop1 he is said to become the provider of the tiger1 who1 after having satiated himself on the spoil1 leaves the remains to his famished scout4 ,the tiger1 who on the declivities of the ,himalayas tears to pieces the swift-footed antelope1 lacerates on the desert sand coasts of ,java the tardy tortoise1 when at nightfall it leaves the sea to lay its eggs in the drift-sand at the foot of the dunes4 #8,hundreds of tortoise skeletons lie scattered about the strand1 many of them five feet long and three feet broad2 some bleached by time1 others still fresh and bleeding4 ,high in the air a number of birds of prey wheel about1 scared by the traveller's approach4 ,here is the place where the turtles are attacked by the wild dogs4 ,in packs of from twenty to fifty1 the growling rabble assail the poor sea animal at every accessible point1 gnaw and tug at the feet and at the head1 and succeed by united efforts in turning the huge creature upon its back4 ,then the abdominal scales are torn off1 and the ravenous dogs hold a bloody meal on the flesh1 intestines1 and eggs of their defenceless prey4 ,sometimes1 however1 the turtle escapes their rage1 and dragging its lacerating tormentors along with it1 succeeds in regaining the friendly sea4 ,nor do the dogs always enjoy an undisturbed repast2 often during the night1 the 8lord of the wilderness10 the royal tiger1 bursts out of the forest1 pauses for a moment1 casts a glance over the strand1 approaches slowly1 and then with one bound1 accompanied by a terrific roar1 springs among the dogs1 scattering the howling band like chaff before the wind4 ,and now it is the tiger's turn to feast2 but even he1 though rarely1 is sometimes disturbed by man4 ,thus on this lonely1 melancholy coast1 wild dogs and tigers wage an unequal war with the inhabitants of the ocean4'#ci ,after the tiger and the lion1 the ,panther and the ,leopard are the mightiest felid of the ,old ,world4 ,although differently spotted1 the ocelli or rounded marks on the panther being larger and more distinctly formed1 they are probably only varieties of one and the same species1 as many intermediate individuals have been observed4 ,both animals are widely diffused through the tropical regions of the ,old ,world1 being natives of ,africa1 ,persia1 ,china1 ,india1 and many of the ,indian islands2 so that they have a much more extensive range than either the tiger or the lion4 ,the manner in which they seize their prey1 lurking near the sides of woods1 and darting forward with a sudden spring1 resembles that of the tiger2 and the chase of the panther is said to be more dangerous than that of the lion1 as it easily climbs the trees and pursues its enemy upon the branches4 ,the ,cheetah1 or hunting leopard 7,gueparda jubata1 guttata71 which inhabits the greater part both of ,asia and ,africa1 exhibits in its form and habits a mixture of the feline and canine tribes4 ,resembling the panther by its spotted skin1 it is more elevated on its legs and less flattened on the fore part of its head4 ,its brain is more ample1 and its claws touch the ground while walking1 like those of the dog1 which it resembles still further by its mild and docile nature4 ,in ,india and ,persia1 where the ,cheetahs are employed in the chase1 they are carried1 chained and hoodwinked1 to the field in low cars4 ,when the hunters come within view of a herd of antelopes1 the ,cheetah is liberated1 and the game is pointed out to him3 he does not1 however1 immediately dash forward in pursuit1 but steals along cautiously till he has nearly approached the herd unseen1 when1 with a few rapid and vigorous bounds1 he darts on the timid game and strangles it almost instantaneously4 ,should he1 however1 fail in his first efforts and miss his prey1 he attempts no pursuit1 but returns to the call of his master1 evidently disappointed1 and generally almost breathless4 ,the same radical differences which draw so wide a line of demarcation between the monkeys of the ,old and the ,new ,world are found also to distinguish the feline races of both hemispheres1 so that it would be as vain to search in the ,american forests and savannahs for the ,numidian lion1 or the striped tiger1 as on the banks of the ,ganges or the ,senegal for the tawny puma1 or the spotted jaguar4 ,while in the ,african plains the swift-footed springbok falls under the impetuous bound of the panther--or while the tiger and the buffalo engage in mortal combat in the ,indian jungle--the bloodthirsty ,jaguar1 concealed in the high grass of the ,american llanos1 lies in wait for the wild horse or the passing steer4 ,the arrival of the ,spaniards in the ,new ,world1 so destructive to most of the ,indian tribes with whom they came into contact1 was beneficial at least to the large felid of tropical ,america1 for they first introduced the horse and the ox into the western hemisphere1 where these useful animals1 finding a new and congenial home in the boundless savannahs and pampas which extend almost uninterruptedly from the ,apure to ,patagonia1 have multiplied to an incredible extent4 ,since then the jaguar no longer considers the deer of the woods1 the graceful agouti1 or the slow capybara as his chief prey1 but rejoices in the blood of the steed or ox1 and is much more commonly met with in the herd-teeming savannahs than in the comparatively meagre hunting-grounds of the forest4 ,of all the carnivora of the ,new ,world1 perhaps with the sole exception of the grisly and the polar bears1 the tyrants of the ,north ,american solitudes1 the ,jaguar is the most formidable1 resembling the panther by his spotted skin1 but almost equalling the ,bengal tiger in size and power4 ,he roams about at all times of the day1 swims over broad rivers1 and even in the water proves a most dangerous foe1 for when driven to extremities he frequently turns against the boat1 and forces his assailants to seek their safety by jumping overboard4 ,many an ,indian1 while wandering through thinly populated districts1 where swampy thickets alternate with open grass plains1 has been torn to pieces by the jaguar1 and in many a lonely plantation the inhabitants hardly venture to leave their enclosures after sunset1 for fear of his attacks4 ,during ,tschudi's sojourn in ,northern ,peru1 a jaguar penetrated into the hut of an ,englishman who had settled in those parts1 and dragging a boy of ten years out of his hammock1 tore him to pieces and devoured him4 ,far from being afraid of man1 this ferocious animal springs upon him when alone1 and when pressed by hunger will even venture during the daytime into the mountain villages to seek its prey4 ,the chase of the jaguar requires great caution1 yet keen sportsmen will venture1 single-handed1 to seek the jaguar in his lair1 armed with a blow-pipe and poisoned arrows1 or merely with a long and powerful lance4 ,the praise which is due to the bold adventurers for their courage is1 however1 too often tarnished by their cruelty4 ,thus1 a famous jaguar-hunter once showed ,pppig a large cavity under the tangled roots of a giant bombax-tree1 where he had some time back discovered a female jaguar with her young4 ,dexterously rolling down a large stone1 he closed the entrance1 and then with fiendish delight slowly smoked the animals to death1 by applying fire from time to time to their dungeon4 ,having lost one-half of his scalp in a previous conflict with a jaguar1 he pleaded his sufferings as an excuse for his barbarity4 ,to attack these creatures with a lance1 a sure arm1 a cool determined courage1 and great bodily strength and dexterity are required2 but even these qualities do not always ensure success if the hunter is unacquainted with the artifices of the animal4 ,the jaguar generally waits for the attack in a sitting posture1 turning one side towards the assailant1 and1 as if unconcerned1 moves his long tail to and fro4 ,the hunter1 carefully observing the eye of his adversary1 repeatedly menaces him with slight thrusts of his lance1 which a gentle stroke of the paw playfully wards off2 then seizing a favourable moment1 he suddenly steps forward and plunges his weapon into his side4 ,if the thrust be well aimed1 a second is not necessary1 for pressing with his full weight on the lance1 the huntsman enlarges and deepens the mortal wound4 ,but if the stroke is parried or glances off1 the jaguar1 roused to fury1 bounds on his aggressor1 and fells him to the ground with a stroke of his paw4 ,having his enemy now fully in his power1 the jaguar looks at him quietly for a few moments as if enjoying his pangs1 like a cat playing with a mouse1 and this short delay has not seldom enabled the companion of the unfortunate hunter to save his life by a timely shot4 ,all those that have escaped from one of these death-struggles affirm that the breath of the enraged animal is of a suffocating heat1 with a smell like that of burning capsicum1 and that its pestilential contact produces an inflammation of the throat1 which lasts for several days4 ,those who are less inclined to desperate conflicts destroy the jaguar by poisoned pieces of meat1 or else they lay pitfalls for him1 when they kill him without running any personal risk4 ,like the cayman1 the jaguar1 after having once tasted the flesh of man1 is said to prefer it to anything else4 ,during his first solitary journeys through the ,american wilds1 the traveller's sensations1 on meeting with the fresh footmarks of the monster1 are like those of ,robinson ,crusoe when he discovered the vestiges of the savage on the beach of his lonely island2 but as the animal itself very rarely crosses the wanderer's path1 he at length becomes completely indifferent1 and roams about the wilderness as unconcernedly as if no beasts of prey existed under the forest shade1 or among the high grasses of the savannah4 ,during his long residence in ,yuarmangua1 ,pppig met but one jaguar1 who1 not deeming it advisable to engage in hostilities1 slowly retreated into the woods4 ,in the ,brazilian campos great devastations are caused among the herds by the jaguar1 who has strength enough to drag an ox to some distance4 ,he frequently kills several bullocks in one night1 and sucks their blood1 leaving their flesh for a future repast4 ,when1 after having satiated himself1 he retires to a neighbouring thicket1 the vaqueros or herdsmen follow his bloody trail with their hounds2 and as soon as the jaguar sees the pack approach1 he seeks to climb the inclined trunk of a tree1 and is then shot down from his insecure station4 ,but the chase does not always terminate without accident or loss of life1 as very strong jaguars will face the dogs1 kill several of them1 and frequently carry them away and devour them4 ,while ,prince ,maximilian of ,neu ,wied was travelling through the campos1 he heard of the heroic conflict of three vaqueros with a monstrous jaguar that had never been known to retreat4 ,one day1 while following their herds through the woods1 their dogs discovered the fresh foot-prints of the beast1 and following the scent1 soon brought it to a stand4 ,armed merely with their long lance-like varas1 the bold men did not long deliberate1 but resolutely advanced towards the jaguar1 who stood confronting the dogs1 and immediately bounding upon his new antagonists1 wounded them one after the other1 though not without receiving repeated thrusts of their lances and knives4 ,the least determined of the three1 appalled by his wounds1 at first retreated1 but seeing the boldest of his companions lying prostrate under the paws of the monster1 his courage revived1 and the attack being vigorously renewed1 the jaguar was at length killed4 ,the bleeding and exhausted heroes were hardly able to crawl home in the evening4 ,they pointed out the spot where they had fought1 and where the jaguar was found swimming in his blood1 surrounded by the dogs which he had torn to pieces4 ,it is a general belief among the ,indians and the white inhabitants of ,bengal that the jaguar has the power of fascination4 ,many accounts are given to prove this2 among others1 a person informed ,mr4 ,wallace that he had seen a jaguar standing at the foot of a high tree looking up into it4 ,on the top was a howling monkey looking down at the jaguar1 and jumping about from side to side1 crying piteously4 ,the jaguar stood still1 the monkey continued descending lower and lower on the branches1 still uttering its cries1 till at length it fell down at the very feet of the jaguar1 who seized and devoured it4 ,there is a black variety of the jaguar1 on whose dark skin the ring-formed spots are still visible1 and which is said to surpass the common species in size and ferocity4 ,the ,couguar1 or the ,puma1 as he is called by the ,indians1 is far inferior to the jaguar in courage1 and consequently far less dangerous to man4 ,on account of his brownish-red colour and great size1 being the largest felis of the new world1 he has also been named the ,american lion1 but he has neither the mane nor the noble bearing of the #8king of animals4' ,in spite of his strength he is of so cowardly a disposition that he invariably takes to flight at the approach of man1 and consequently inspires no fear on being met with in the wilderness2 while even the boldest hunter instinctively starts back when1 winding through the forest1 he suddenly sees the sparkling eye of the jaguar intently fixed upon him4 ,the puma has a much wider range than the jaguar1 for while the latter reaches in ,south ,america only to the forty-fifth degree of latitude1 and does not rove northwards beyond ,sonora and ,new ,mexico1 the former roams from the ,straits of ,magellan to the ,canadian lakes4 ,the jaguar seldom ascends the mountains to a greater height than #c1jjj feet1 while in the warmer lateral valleys of the ,andes the puma frequently lies in ambush for the vicuas at an elevation of #aj1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,he can climb trees with great facility1 ascending even vertical trunks1 and1 like the lynx1 will watch the opportunity of springing on such animals as happen to pass beneath4 ,no less cruel than cowardly1 he will destroy without necessity forty or fifty sheep when the occasion offers1 and content himself with licking the blood of his victims4 ,when caught young1 he is easily tamed1 and1 like the common cat1 shows his fondness at being caressed by the same kind of gentle purrings4 ,tschudi informs us that the ,indians of the northern provinces frequently bring pumas to ,lima1 to show them for money4 ,they either lead them by a rope1 or carry them in a sack upon their back1 until the sight-seers have assembled in sufficient number4 ,besides the puma or the jaguar1 tropical ,america possesses the beautifully variegated ,ocelot 7,felis pardalis72 the ,oscollo 7,f4 celidogaster72 the spotless1 black-grey ,jaguarundi 7,f4 jaguarundi71 which is not much larger than the ,european wild cat2 the long-tailed1 striped1 and spotted ,margay or ,tiger-cat1 and several other felid4 ,all these smaller species hardly ever become dangerous to man1 but they cause the death of many an agouti and cavy2 and1 with prodigious leaps1 the affrighted monkey flies from their approach into the deepest recesses of the forest4 ,while the sanguinary felid may justly be called the eagles1 the carrion-feeding ,hynas are the vultures1 among the four-footed animals4 ,averse to the light of day1 like the owl and the bat1 they conceal themselves in dark caverns1 ruins1 or burrows1 as long as the sun stands above the horizon1 but at nightfall they come forth from their gloomy retreats with a lamentable howl or a satanic laugh1 to seek their disgusting food on the fields1 in churchyards1 or on the borders of the sea4 ,from the prodigious strength of their jaws and their teeth1 they are not only able to masticate tendons1 but to crush cartilages and bones2 so that carcases almost entirely deprived of flesh still provide them with a plentiful banquet4 ,though their nocturnal habits and savage aspect have rendered them an object of hatred and disgust to man1 they seem destined to fill up an important station in the economy of ,nature1 by cleansing the earth of the remains of dead animals1 which might otherwise infect the atmosphere with pestilential effluvia4 ,among other fabulous qualities1 a courage has been attributed to the hyna which is completely alien to his base and grovelling nature4 ,far from venturing to attack the panther1 or putting even the lion to flight1 as ,kmpfer pretended to have seen1 he is in reality a most pusillanimous creature1 and cautiously avoids a contest with animals much weaker than himself4 ,although his jaws are strong1 he has not the sharp retractile claws of the felid1 nor their formidable spring1 his hind legs being comparatively feeble1 and thus he can hardly become dangerous to the herds1 though ,bruce assures us that the hynas destroyed many of his mules and asses4 ,in ,barbary1 the ,arabs pursue the hynas on horseback1 and run them down with their greyhounds1 never thinking of wasting their powder on so abject a game4 ,they are held in such contempt that huntsmen will fearlessly penetrate into the caverns where they are known to sojourn1 first carefully stopping the opening with their burnous1 to keep out the light of day4 ,they then advance towards the snarling brute1 address it in menacing language1 seize and gag it1 without its venturing upon the least resistance1 and cudgel the animal out of the den4 ,the rough and ugly hide of the hyna is but of little value1 and in many tents its sight is not even tolerated1 as if so unworthy a spoil could only bring misfortune to its owner4 ,the intractability of the hyna is as fabulous as his courage or his cruelty4 ,on the contrary1 he is very easily tamed1 and may be rendered as docile as the dog himself4 ,the striped hyna is a native of ,asiatic ,turkey1 ,syria1 and ,north ,africa as far as the ,senegal1 while the spotted hyna ranges over ,south ,africa1 from the ,cape to ,abyssinia4 ,both species attain the size of the wolf1 and have similar habits4 ,as the shark follows the ship1 or the crow the caravan1 they are said to hover about the march of armies1 as if taught by instinct that they have to expect the richest feast from the insanity of man4 ,the moonlight falling on the dark cypresses and snow-white tombs of the ,oriental churchyards not seldom shines upon hungry hynas busily employed in tearing the newly-buried corpses from their graves4 ,a remarkable peculiarity of the spotted hyna is that when he first begins to run he appears lame1 so that one might almost fancy one of his legs was broken2 but after a time this halting disappears1 and he proceeds on his course very swiftly4 #8,one night1 in ,maitsha1' says ,bruce1 #8being very intent on observation1 ,i heard something pass behind me towards the bed1 but upon looking round could perceive nothing4 ,having finished what ,i was then about1 ,i went out of my tent1 intending directly to return1 which ,i immediately did1 when ,i perceived large blue eyes glaring at me in the dark4 ,i called upon my servant for a light1 and there was a hyna standing nigh the head of the bed1 with two or three large bunches of candles in his mouth4 ,to have fired at him1 ,i was in danger of breaking my quadrant or other furniture2 and he seemed1 by keeping the candles steadily in his mouth1 to wish for no other prey at that time4 ,as his mouth was full1 and he had no claws to tear with1 ,i was not afraid of him1 but with a pike struck him as near the heart as ,i could judge4 ,it was not till then he showed any sign of fierceness1 but upon feeling his wound he let drop the candles and endeavoured to run up the shaft of the spear to arrive at me1 so that in self-defence ,i was obliged to draw a pistol from my girdle and shoot him1 and nearly at the same time my servant cleft his skull with a battle-axe4' ,the brown hyna1 which is found in ,south ,africa1 from the ,cape to ,mozambique and ,senegambia1 and has a more shaggy fur than the preceding species1 has very different habits4 ,he is particularly fond of the crustacea which the ebbing flood leaves behind upon the beach1 or which the storm casts ashore in great quantities1 and exclusively inhabits the coasts1 where he is known under the name of the sea-shore wolf4 ,his traces are everywhere to be met with on the strand1 and night after night he prowls along the margin of the water1 carefully examining the refuse of the retreating ocean4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,,the ,,australian ,,race4 ,physical ,conformation of the ,australians--,their ,low ,state of ,civilisation--,their ,superstitions--,their ,wars--,singing and ,dancing--,the ,corribory--,division of the ,nation into ,great ,families--,rules regulating the ,property of ,land and the ,distribution of ,food--,skill in ,hunting the ,kangaroo and the ,opossum--,feasting on a ,whale--,moral ,qualities and ,intelligence of the ,australians4 ,on turning from the ,malayan ,archipelago and ,new ,guinea1 to the wilds of northern ,australia1 new aspects of savage life rise before our view4 ,with new plants and new animals1 a new variety of the human race makes its appearance1 differing in figure1 in physiognomy1 in language1 and in many of its customs and manners both from the ,malay and the ,papuan3 a race which1 though occupying one of the lowest grades in the scale of humanity1 still offers many points of interest to the observer1 and claims our attention both by its qualities and its defects4 ,the figure of the ,australians is remarkable for spareness and lankness about the lower extremities1 the hips and thighs as well as the calves of the legs1 observable in the females as well as in the men4 ,their heads are in general large1 with very projecting eyebrows and deep-set eyes1 the nose broad1 the mouth wide2 and there is very often a ferocious look which is not in accordance with the character of the individual4 ,the hair is often matted and twisted with filth and grease into different fashions2 when clean1 however1 it is frequently as fine and glossy as that of the ,european4 ,its colour is in some of the children of a sunburnt brown1 but invariably black among the adults4 ,in their skins they vary from a dark chocolate-brown to an almost perfect black4 ,their hands and feet are usually small and well-shaped2 the shoulders and chests of the men broad1 and sufficiently muscular4 ,such is the physical character of the race from one end of the continent to the other1 and though there are deviations from the usual slim and under-fed condition of the body1 and from the usual straight character of the hair1 the face1 figure1 and expression of an ,australian is so peculiar as to distinguish him at once from the inhabitants even of the immediately adjacent islands4 ,in all the industrial arts these people are extremely deficient4 ,they are utterly destitute of agriculture1 and of all manufacture of any kind of material1 or tool1 or implement1 beyond their few weapons and a rude stone hammer1 and some simple nets and baskets4 ,over the largest part of the coast they were utterly ignorant of any kind of canoe until they were visited by ,europeans2 and where most advanced in navigation1 knew no other method of crossing the water than in rude boats formed of a sheet of bark tied at the ends1 or on rafts consisting of bundles of rushes or sticks4 ,they have no huts worthy of the name1 nor permanent habitations of any kind4 ,men and women are alike naked1 except that in the southern parts of ,australia they wear a kind of rug of opossum skins over their shoulders during the cold weather4 ,many tribes strike out one or two front teeth1 and raise great scars and cicatrices on the skin4 ,they also paint themselves with various colours1 like most other savages1 and sometimes also ornament themselves with beads and shells1 but make no use of the beautiful feathers procurable from the birds of the country4 ,their languages1 although showing evident traces of a common origin1 yet vary so much and so frequently that a native of one tribe can rarely understand the tongue of another fifty miles distant4 ,their religious notions are limited to a feeling of vague superstition4 ,they are in great dread of an evil being whom they describe as going about under the form of a black man1 of superhuman stature and strength4 ,he prowls at night through the woods around the encampments of the natives1 seeking to entrap some unwary wanderer1 whom he will seize upon1 and having dragged him to his fire1 will there roast and devour him4 ,he may1 however1 be frightened away1 by throwing fire at him1 and no native will go out at night without a firebrand to protect him from this demon4 ,they have also a superstitious horror of approaching the graves of the dead1 of whom they never like to speak1 and when induced to do so1 always whisper4 ,the supposed powers of the ,boylyas1 or native sorcerers1 have a mighty influence upon their minds and actions4 ,it is supposed that these privileged personages can transport themselves through the air at pleasure1 and render themselves invisible to all but other ,boylyas4 ,if they have a dislike to a native1 they can kill him by stealing on him at night and consuming his flesh4 ,another ,boylya has1 however1 the power of drawing them out1 and curing the affected person by certain processes of disenchantment4 ,the absurd idea that no adult person dies a natural death reigns among the ,australians as it does among many of the ,american1 ,malayan1 and ,negro tribes1 and leads to the same baneful consequences4 ,if a man perishes of disease his death is generally supposed to have been caused by some sorcerer of another tribe1 and must be avenged on his murderer1 or on some near relation of his4 ,this senseless belief1 inspired by the demon of discord1 is of course the source of frequent wars1 and one of the causes which serve to maintain the native ,australians in their state of barbarism4 ,the aggrieved party1 anxious for revenge1 assembles its neighbours1 to consult with them concerning the proper course to be pursued4 ,the general opinion having been declared for war1 a messenger is sent to announce their intention to the opposite party4 ,these immediately assemble their friends and neighbours1 and all prepare for the approaching battle4 ,the two armies 7usually from fifty to two hundred each7 meet1 and after a great deal of mutual vituperation1 the combat commences4 ,from their singular dexterity in avoiding or parrying the missiles of their adversaries1 the engagement usually continues a long time without any fatal result4 ,when a man is killed 7and sometimes before7 a cessation takes place2 another scene of recrimination1 abuse1 and explanation ensues1 and the affair commonly terminates4 ,all hostility is now at an end1 the two parties mix amicably together1 bury the dead1 and join in a general dance1 for1 like all other savage races1 the ,australians are very fond of singing and saltatorial displays4 ,their songs are short1 containing generally only one or two ideas repeated over and over again4 ,is a native in a towering passion1 he sings to himself some such words as #8,i'll spear his liver1 ,i'll spear his lights1 ,i'll spear his heart1' c41 c4 while he sharpens the weapon intended to execute his menace1 and waxing more and more excited as he sings1 quivers his spear in the air1 and1 furiously gesticulating1 imitates the various incidents of a fight4 ,his wives chime in from time to time with a line or two expressive of their contempt for the offender3 #8,the bone-rumped1 ,long-shinned1 ,thin-thighed fellow4' the bystanders applaud1 and the savage1 having fairly sung the wrath out of himself1 assists in getting up a dance4 ,is a native afraid1 he sings himself full of courage2 is he hungry1 he sings2 if he is full 7provided he is not so full as to be in a state of stupor71 he sings more lustily than ever2 in fact1 under all circumstances he finds aid and comfort from singing4 ,the ,australian songs are therefore naturally varied in their forms1 but their concision conveys in the simplest manner the impulsive idea4 ,by a song or wild chant the women irritate the men to acts of vengeance1 and four or five mischievously-inclined old women can soon stir up forty or fifty men to any deed of blood by means of their chants1 which are accompanied by tears and groans1 until the men are worked into a perfect state of frenzy4 ,among the native dances1 the ,corribory is the most remarkable4 ,it is always performed at night1 by the light of blazing boughs1 to time beaten on a stretched skin4 ,the dancers are all painted white1 and in such remarkably varied ways that not two are alike4 ,darkness seems essential to the performance of a corribory1 and the white figures coming forward in mystic order from an obscure background1 while the singers and the beaters of drums are invisible1 produce a highly theatrical effect4 ,at first1 two persons make their appearance1 slowly moving their arms and legs2 then others one by one join in1 each imperceptibly warming into the truly savage attitude of the corribory jump2 the legs then stride to the utmost1 the head is turned over one shoulder1 the eyes glare and are fixed with savage energy all in one direction1 the arms also are raised and inclined towards the head1 and the hands usually grasp the boomerang or some other warlike weapon4 ,the jump now keeps time with each beat1 the dancers at every movement taking six inches to one side1 all being in a connected line led by the first4 ,the line is sometimes doubled and trebled1 according to the space and to the number of the performers1 and this produces a great effect1 for when the front line jumps to the left the second jumps to the right1 and thus this strange savage dance goes on with increasing intensity1 until it suddenly and instantaneously stops1 having attained the highest pitch of vivacity4 ,one of the most remarkable facts connected with the ,australians is their division into certain great families1 such as the ,ballaroke1 the ,tolondarup1 the ,ngotock1 c41 all the members of which bear the same names4 ,these family names are perpetuated and spread through the country by the operation of two remarkable laws--that a man cannot marry a woman of his own family name1 and that children of either sex always take the family name of their mother4 ,each family adopts some animal or plant as its ,kobong1 or badge1 and none of its members will kill an animal or pluck any plant of the species to which its ,kobong belongs1 except under particular circumstances4 ,the ceremony of marriage1 which among most nations is considered so important and interesting1 is with this people one of the least regarded4 ,the woman is looked upon as an article of property1 and is sold or given away by her relatives without the slightest consideration of her own pleasure4 ,when a native dies1 his brother inherits his wives and children1 but his brother must be of the same family name as himself4 ,the old men manage to keep the females a good deal among themselves1 giving their daughters to one another2 and the more female children they have1 the greater is their chance of getting another wife by this sort of exchange4 ,a most remarkable law is that which obliges families connected by blood upon the female side to join for the purpose of avenging crimes1 and as the father marries several wives1 and very often all of different families1 his children are all repeatedly divided among themselves1 no common bond of union exists between them1 and this custom alone would suffice to perpetuate their savage state4 ,though they in no instance cultivate the soil1 but subsist entirely by hunting and fishing1 and on the wild roots they find in certain localities1 with occasionally a little wild honey1 every tribe has its own district1 beyond whose well-defined limits it seldom passes except for purposes of war or festivity2 and within that district all the wild animals are considered the property of the tribe inhabiting or rather ranging on its whole extent4 ,should any other tribe venture to intrude upon that district this is at once resisted as a violation of the rights of property1 and is1 indeed1 a frequent cause of the wars which decimate the population1 for the ,australian aboriginal is as jealous of his rights and as pugnacious in their defence as any ,european can be4 ,but particular districts are not merely the property of particular tribes1 particular sections or portions of these districts are universally recognised by the natives as belonging to individual members of these tribes2 and as in ,england a man disposes of his property by will1 thus among these savages a #8lord of the manor' divides his land during his lifetime1 fairly apportioning it among his several sons1 and at as early an age as fourteen or fifteen they can point out the portion which they are eventually to inherit4 ,the punishment of #8trespass for the purpose of hunting' is invariably death if taken in the fact1 and at the very least an obstinate contest ensues4 ,if the trespasser is not taken in the fact1 but is recognised from his footmarks1 or from any other circumstance1 and is ever caught in a defenceless state1 he is probably killed2 but frequently he appears1 attended by his friends1 and atones for his trespass by quietly holding out his leg for the injured party to thrust his spear through the thigh4 ,sometimes he undergoes the ordeal of having spears thrown at him4 ,at the appointed time1 young and old repair to the place appointed for the trial1 and the wild beauty of the scenery1 the fantastically-painted forms of the natives1 the savage yells and shouts of exultation which are raised as the culprit dexterously parries or by rapid leaps and contortions of his body avoids the clouds of spears which are hurled at him1 all combine to form a scene full of dramatic interest4 ,if the criminal is wounded in a degree judged sufficient for the crime he has committed1 his guilt is wiped away1 or if none of the spears thrown at him 7only a limited number being allowed to each7 take effect1 he is equally pardoned4 ,there are other laws intended for the preservation and distribution of food1 such as that which forbids all vegetable productions used as such by the natives1 to be plucked or gathered when bearing seed1 and the restriction of youth to certain articles of diet4 ,they are not allowed to eat fish or eggs1 or the emu1 or any of the finer kinds of opossum or kangaroo4 ,in short1 their fare is required to be of the coarsest and most meagre description4 ,as they grow older the restrictions are removed one after another2 but it is not till they have passed the period of middle age that they are entirely unrestrained in the choice of food4 ,the result of this regulation is to prevent the young men from possessing themselves by their superior strength and agility of all the more desirable articles of food1 and leaving only the refuse to the elders1 to whom another rule requires them to pay implicit obedience4 ,thus1 while among most other savage nations old age is a period of privation and neglect1 aged men are always treated by the ,australians with great respect1 and as they rarely take part in any fray1 and seldom appear to suffer much from the infirmities and diseases to which the aged are generally subject amongst us1 it is probably the happiest time of their life4 ,it is commonly supposed that the natives of ,australia are about as badly off for food as the ,african ,bushmen or the ,fuegoans1 but according to ,captain ,grey1 this is a great mistake1 for every native knows exactly what his district produces1 the proper time at which the several articles are in season1 and the readiest means of procuring them4 ,besides1 he is pre-eminently omnivorous1 including frogs1 mice1 grubs1 and lizards in his bill of fare1 and making the roots of the earth1 the fishes of the water1 the birds of the air1 and the animals of the bush contribute to his support4 ,in order to obtain all the different articles of food1 he displays a wonderful ingenuity1 and never appears to greater advantage than while busily engaged in the pursuits of the chase4 ,when hunting the kangaroo1 he rivals in energy and perseverance1 in skill and keenness of eye1 the ,red ,indian tracking the wild animals of the ,brazilian forest4 ,the moment he commences his day's hunting1 his whole manner and appearance undergo a remarkable change2 his eyes1 before heavy and listless1 are now full of animation2 his movements are rapid but noiseless1 all his soul is intent upon detecting signs of game4 ,his glance roves from side to side in a vigilant1 uneasy manner2 no circumstance1 however insignificant1 escapes his attention--suddenly1 he checks his pace1 and stands immovable1 like one transfixed1 whilst all his faculties are concentrated in the sense of sight and hearing4 ,his wives1 who are at some distance behind him1 the moment they see him assume this attitude1 know that a kangaroo is near1 and fall to the ground as if they had been shot1 their children cowering by them and their little faces expressing an earnestness and anxiousness far beyond their years4 #8,looking about a hundred yards to the right of the native1 you will see a kangaroo erect upon its hind legs and supported by its tail2 it is reared to its utmost height1 so that its head is between five and six feet above the ground2 its short fore-paws hang by its side1 its ears are pointed3 it is listening as carefully as the native1 and you see a little head peering out from its pouch1 to inquire what has alarmed its mother2 but the native moves not1 you cannot tell whether it is a human being or the charred trunk of a burnt tree which is before you1 and for several minutes the whole group preserve their relative position2 at length the kangaroo becomes reassured1 drops upon its fore paws1 gives an awkward leap or two1 and goes on feeding4 ,meantime the native moves not until the kangaroo having two or three times resumed the attitude of listening1 at length once more abandons itself in perfect security to its feed1 and playfully smells and rubs its little one4 ,now the watchful savage1 keeping his body unmoved1 fixes the spear first in the throwing-stick and then raises his arms in the attitude of throwing1 from which they are never again moved until the kangaroo dies or runs away2 his spear being properly secured he advances slowly and stealthily towards his prey1 no part moving but his legs2 whenever the kangaroo looks round1 he stands motionless1 in the position he is in when it first raises its head1 until the animal1 again assured of its safety1 gives a skip or two and goes on feeding again2 the native advances1 and this scene is repeated many times1 until the whistling spear penetrates the devoted animal2 then the wood rings with shouts1 women and children all join pell-mell in the chase2 the kangaroo1 weak from the loss of blood1 and embarrassed by the long spear1 which catches in the brush wood as it flies1 at length turns on its pursuers1 and to secure its rear1 places its back against a tree1 preparing at the same time to rend open the breast and entrails of its pursuer1 by seizing him in its fore-paws and kicking with its hind legs and claws2 but the wily native keeps clear of so murderous an embrace1 and from the distance of a few yards throws spears into its breast1 until the exhausted animal drops down4' ,there are several other modes of taking kangaroos1 such as catching them in nets or pit-falls1 or lying in wait near their watering places until they come to drink2 or else a party surrounds and incloses them in a narrowing circle2 but the mode of tracking a kangaroo until it is wearied out is the one which pre-eminently requires every qualification prized by savages1--skill in tracking1 endurance of hunger and thirst1 unwearied bodily exertion1 and lasting perseverance4 ,to perform this feat1 a native starts upon the track of a kangaroo1 which he follows until he sights it1 when it flies timidly before him2 again he pursues the track1 and again the animal bounds from him1 and this is repeated until nightfall1 when the native lights his fire1 and sleeps upon the track2 with the first light of day the hunt is resumed1 and towards the close of the second day1 or in the course of the third1 the kangaroo falls a victim to its pursuer4 ,none but a skilful huntsman1 in the pride of youth and vigour1 can execute this feat1 which beyond all others excites the admiration of the natives4 ,unfortunately1 my limits do not allow me to describe their dexterity in fishing1 or in entrapping the various kinds of wild fowl with which the rivers and lagoons of ,australia abound1 but the skill and acuteness of perception they display in hunting the opossum are too interesting to be passed over in silence4 ,the savage carelessly walks up to some narrow trunk which he thinks bears a suspicious appearance2 his hands are placed thoughtlessly behind his back1 whilst his dark eye glances over the bark2 suddenly it is for one moment stationary1 and he looks eagerly at the tree1 for he has detected the holes made by the nails of the opossum in its ascent2 he now seeks for one of these footmarks which has a little sand attached to it1 and gently blows the sand4 ,if this is still damp1 and holds together1 it is a sign that the animal has climbed the tree the same morning1 for otherwise the sand1 dried by the heat of the sun1 would have been readily swept away before his breath4 ,having1 by this examination of signs which an unskilled ,european would vainly strive to detect1 convinced himself that the opossum is in some hole of the tree1 the native pulls his hatchet from his girdle1 and cutting a small notch in the bark about four feet from the ground1 he places the great toe of his right foot in it1 throws his right arm round the tree1 and with his left hand sticks the point handle of the hatchet into the bark1 as high up as he can reach1 and thus forms a stay to drag himself up with2 having made good this step1 he cuts another for his left foot1 and thus proceeds until he has ascended to the hole where the opossum is hid1 which is then compelled by smoke1 or by being poked out1 to quit its hiding-place1 when the native catching hold of its tail1 dashes it down on the ground1 and quietly descends to pick it up4 ,the stranding of a whale is a great event in an ,australian's life1 for here without any trouble on his part the bountiful sea presents him with a whole mountain of flesh4 ,it is impossible for civilised man to enter into the feelings of the savage under these circumstances1 for he has never been similarly situated1 he never has had such a prodigal repast placed at once before him4 ,on finding a whale cast ashore upon his property1 the native #8lord of the manor1' seeing the impossibility of his own family consuming this enormous mass of food1 whatever zeal it may bring to the task1 feels his breast glow with unwonted hospitality1 and anxious to see his friends about him1 falls to work with his wives1 and kindles large fires to give notice of the joyful event4 ,this duty being performed1 he rubs himself all over with the blubber1 then anoints his favourite wives1 and thus prepared1 begins cutting his way through the blubber into the flesh1 the grain of which is about as firm as a goose-quill4 ,by-and-by other natives come gaily trooping in from all quarters2 by night they dance and sing1 by day they eat and sleep1 and continue gormandising and merry-making until they at last fairly eat their way into the whale4 ,thus they remain by the carcase for many days1 rubbed from head to foot with stinking blubber1 gorged to repletion with putrid meat1 out of temper from indigestion1 and therefore constantly quarrelling1 suffering from a cutaneous disorder by high feeding1 and presenting altogether a most disgusting spectacle4 ,a native girl stepping out of the carcase of a putrid whale is indeed a sight very different from that of a sea-born ,venus emerging from her shell4 ,when they at last quit their feast1 they carry off as much as they can stagger under1 to eat upon the way1 and to take as a rare treat to their distant friends4 ,though in many respects so utterly barbarous1 the ,australians are not guilty of the cannibalism so prevalent among the islanders of the ,papuan race and in many parts of the ,indian ,archipelago1 where1 by a strange anomaly1 we find it practised by nations standing much higher in the scale of civilisation4 ,the inventions of the throwing-stick for darting the spear1 and of the well-known weapon called the boomerang2 the sound policy of many of their laws and regulations1 and the fact that ,australian children educated in ,england have shown the same aptitude in learning as white children of the same age1 sufficiently prove that these savages are by no means deficient in intelligence4 ,as to their moral qualities1 their apparent honesty results in a great measure from there being few ,european articles for which they have any use2 articles of food1 or a knife1 or a hatchet are by no means safe where they can get at them4 ,their behaviour to their women is often very bad2 they beat and even spear them on the most trifling occasions4 ,different tribes vary in the most extraordinary way in their friendliness or hostility to strangers4 ,they appear to be very capricious1 and always act on the whim or the impulse of the moment1 so that the same people1 who to-day may be kind assistants in the hour of need1 will to-morrow be guilty of the grossest acts of treachery4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,,the ,,sloth4 ,miserable ,aspect of the ,sloth--,his ,beautiful ,organisation for his ,peculiar ,mode of ,life--,his ,rapid ,movements in the ,trees--,his ,means of ,defence--,his ,tenacity of ,life--,fable about the ,sloth refuted-- ,the ,ai--,the ,unau--,the ,mylodon ,robustus4 #8,the piteous aspect1 the sorrowful gestures1 the lamentable cry of the ,sloth1 all combine to excite commiseration4 ,while other animals assemble in herds1 or roam in pairs through the boundless forest1 the sloth leads a lonely life in those immeasurable solitudes1 where the slowness of his movements exposes him to every attack4 ,harmless and frugal1 like a pious anchorite1 a few coarse leaves are all he asks for his support4 ,on comparing him with other animals1 you would say that his deformed organisation was a strange mixture of deficiency and superabundance4 ,he has no cutting teeth1 and though possessed of four stomachs1 he still wants the long intestines of ruminating animals4 ,his feet are without soles1 nor can he move his toes separately4 ,his hair is coarse and wiry1 and its dull colour reminds one of grass withered by the blasts of surly winter4 ,his legs appear deformed by the manner in which they are attached to the body1 and his claws seem disproportionably long4 ,surely a creature so wretched and ill-formed stands last on the list of all the four-footed animals1 and may justly accuse ,nature of step-motherly neglect6' ,illustration3 ,,the ,,sloth4 ,when seeing a captured sloth painfully creeping along on even ground1 sighing and moaning1 and scarcely advancing a few steps after hours of awkward toil1 the observer might well be disposed to acquiesce in the foregoing remarks1 and to fancy he had discovered a flaw among the general beauty of the ,creator's works2 but let him view the animal in the situation for which it was ordained1 and he will soon retract his hasty judgment1 and discover it to be no less perfect in its kind1 and no less admirably fitted for its sphere of existence1 than the most highly organised of the mammalian tribes4 ,for the sloth1 in his wild state1 spends his whole life in the trees1 and never once touches the earth but through force or by accident4 ,like the monkey1 he has been formed for an exclusively sylvan life1 high above the ground1 in the green canopy of the woods2 but while the nimble simi constantly live upon the branches1 the sloth is doomed to spend his whole life under them4 ,he moves1 he rests1 he sleeps suspended from the boughs of trees1 a wonderfully strange way of life1 for which no other four-footed animal of the ,old or the ,new ,world has been destined4 ,and now examine his organisation with reference to this peculiar mode of existence1 and all his seeming deficiencies and deformities will appear most admirably adapted to his wants1 for these strong1 muscular1 preposterously long fore-feet1 while the hinder extremities are comparatively short and weak1 these slender toes armed with enormous claws1 are evidently as well suited for clasping the rugged branch as the enormous hind-legs of the kangaroo for bounding over the arid plain4 ,indeed1 in every case1 we shall find the fundamental type or idea of the four extremities belonging to the vertebrated animals most admirably modified according to their wants3 here shortened1 there prolonged2 here armed with claws1 there terminating in a hoof2 here coalescing to a tail1 there assuming the shape of a fin2 here clothed with feathers to cleave the air1 there raised to the perfection of the human hand1 the wonderful instrument of a still more wonderful intelligence2 and who1 seeing all this1 can possibly believe that the world is ruled by chance1 and not by an all-pervading and almighty power8 ,thus the sloth1 so helpless when removed from his native haunts1 is far from exhibiting the same torpidity in his movements when seen in the place for which ,nature fitted him4 #8,one day1 as we were crossing the ,essequibo1' says ,mr4 ,waterton1 #8,i saw a large sloth on the ground upon the bank2 how he had got there nobody could tell2 the ,indian said he had never surprised a sloth in such a situation before3 he would hardly have come there to drink1 for both above and below the place the branches of the trees touched the water1 and afforded him an easy and safe access to it4 ,be this as it may1 though the trees were not above twenty yards from him1 he could not make his way through the sand time enough to escape before we landed4 ,as soon as we came up to him1 he threw himself upon his back1 and defended himself in gallant style with his fore-legs4 8,come1 poor fellow60 said ,i to him1 8if thou hast got into a hobble to-day1 thou shalt not suffer for it2 ,i'll take no advantage of thee in misfortune2 the forest is large enough both for thee and me to rove in4 ,go thy ways up above1 and enjoy thyself in these endless wilds2 it is more than probable thou wilt never have another interview with man4 ,so fare thee well40 ,on saying this ,i took up a long stick which was lying there1 held it for him to hook on1 and then conveyed him to a high and stately mora4 ,he ascended with wonderful rapidity1 and in about a minute he was almost at the top of the tree4 ,he now went off in a side direction1 and caught hold of the branch of a neighbouring tree2 he then proceeded towards the heart of the forest4 ,i stood looking on1 lost in amazement at his singular mode of progress4 ,i followed him with my eye till the intervening branches closed in betwixt us1 and then lost sight for ever of the sloth4 ,i was going to add that ,i never saw a sloth take to his heels in such earnest1 but the expression will not do1 for the sloth has no heels4' ,the ,indians1 to whom no one will deny the credit of being acute observers of animal life1 say that the sloth wanders principally when the wind blows4 ,in calm weather he remains still1 probably not liking to cling to the brittle extremity of the branches1 lest they should break under his weight in passing from one tree to another2 but as soon as the breeze rises1 the branches of the neighbouring trees become interwoven1 and then he seizes hold of them and pursues his journey in safety4 ,there is seldom an entire day of calm in the forests of ,guiana4 ,the trade-wind generally sets in about ten o'clock in the morning1 and since the sloth1 as we have just seen1 is able to travel at a good-round pace when he has branches to cling to1 there is nothing to prevent him making a considerable way before the sun sinks1 and the wind goes down4 ,during night1 and while reposing in the daytime1 the sloth constantly remains suspended by his feet1 for his anatomy is such that he can feel comfortable in no other position4 ,in this manner he will rest for hours together1 expressing his satisfaction by a kind of purring1 and from time to time his dismal voice may be heard resounding through the forest1 and awakening at a distance a similar melancholy cry4 ,the colour of the sloth's hair so strongly resembles the hue of the moss which grows on the trees1 that the ,european finds it very difficult to make him out when he is at rest1 and even the falcon-eyed ,indian1 accustomed from his earliest infancy to note the slightest signs of forest life1 is hardly able to distinguish him from the branches to which he clings4 ,this no doubt serves him as a protection against the attacks of many enemies2 but1 far from being helpless1 his powerful claws and the peculiarly enduring strength of his long arms1 make very efficient weapons of defence against the large tree snakes that may be tempted to make a meal of him4 ,the sloth possesses a remarkable tenacity of life1 and withstands the dreadful effects of the wourali poison of the ,macushi ,indians longer than any other animal4 ,schomburgk slightly scratched a sloth in the upper lip1 and rubbed a minimum of the venom in the wound1 which did not even emit a drop of blood2 he then carried the animal to a tree1 which it began to climb1 but after having reached a height of about twelve feet1 it suddenly stopped1 and swinging its head about from side to side1 as if uncertain which way to go1 tried to continue its ascent1 which1 however1 it was unable to accomplish4 ,first it let go one of its fore-feet1 then the other1 and remained attached with its hind-legs to the tree until1 these also losing their power1 it fell to the ground1 where1 without any of the convulsive motions or the oppressive breathing which generally mark the effect of the wourali1 it expired in the thirteenth minute after the poison had been administered4 ,the sloths attain a length of about two feet and a half1 and form two genera--the ,unaus1 with two-toed fore-feet and three-toed hinder extremities1 and the ,as1 with three toes on each foot4 ,their way of living is the same1 and their range is limited to the forests of ,guiana and the ,brazils4 ,they bring forth and suckle their young like ordinary quadrupeds1 and the young sloth1 from the moment of its birth1 adheres to the body of its parent till it acquires sufficient size and strength to shift for itself4 ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,pangolin4 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,,ant-,,eaters4 ,the ,great ,ant-,bear--,his ,way of ,licking up ,termites--,his ,formidable ,weapons--,a ,perfect ,forest ,vagabond--,his ,peculiar ,manner of ,walking--,the ,smaller ,ant-,eaters--,the ,manides--,the ,african ,aard ,vark--,the ,armadillos--,the ,porcupine ,ant-,eater of ,australia4 ,the great ,ant-bear is undoubtedly one of the most extraordinary denizens of the wilds of ,south ,america1 for that a powerful animal1 measuring above six feet from the snout to the end of the tail1 should live exclusively on ants1 seems scarcely less remarkable than that the whale nourishes his enormous body with minute pteropods and medus4 ,the vast mouth of the leviathan of the seas has been most admirably adapted to his peculiar food1 and it was not in vain that ,nature gave such colossal dimensions to his head1 as it was necessary to find room for a gigantic straining apparatus1 in which1 on rejecting the engulphed water1 thousands upon thousands of his tiny prey might remain entangled2 but the ant-bear has been no less wonderfully armed for the capture of the minute animals on which he feeds1 and if1 on considering the use for which it was ordained1 we become reconciled to the seeming disproportion of the whale's jaws1 the small and elongated1 snout-like head of the ant-bear will also appear less uncouthly formed when we reflect that it is in exact accordance with the wants of the animal4 ,for here no deep cavity was required for the reception of two rows of powerful teeth1 as in most other quadrupeds1 but a convenient furrow for a long and extensile tongue--the use of which will immediately become apparent on following the animal into the ,brazilian campos1 where1 as we have seen in a former chapter1 the wonderful cities of the white ant are dispersed over the plains in such incalculable numbers4 ,approaching one of these structures1 the ant-bear strikes a hole through its wall of clay1 with his powerful crooked claws1 and as the ants issue forth by thousands to resent the insult1 stretches out his tongue for their reception4 ,their furious legions1 eager for revenge1 immediately rush upon it1 and vainly endeavouring to pierce its thick skin with their mandibles1 remain sticking to the glutinous liquid with which it is lubricated from two very large glands situated below its root4 ,when sufficiently charged with prey1 the ant-bear suddenly withdraws his tongue and swallows all the insects4 ,without swiftness to enable him to escape from his enemies1 for man is superior to him in speed2 without teeth1 the possession of which would assist him in self-defence2 without the power of burrowing in the ground1 by which he might conceal himself from his pursuers2 without a cave to retire to1 the ant-bear still ranges through the wilderness in perfect safety1 and fears neither the boa nor the jaguar1 for he has full reliance on his powerful fore-legs and their tremendous claws4 ,richard ,schomburgh had an opportunity of witnessing a young ant-bear make use of these formidable weapons4 ,on the enemy's approach it assumed the defensive1 but in such a manner as to make the boldest aggressor pause1 for1 resting on its left fore-foot1 it struck out so desperately with its right paw as would undoubtedly have torn off the flesh of any one that came in contact with its claws4 ,attacked from behind1 it wheeled with the rapidity of lightning1 and on being assailed from several quarters at once1 threw itself on its back1 and desperately fighting with its fore-legs1 uttered at the same time an angry growl of defiance4 ,in fact the ant-bear is so formidable an opponent that he is said not unfrequently to vanquish even the jaguar1 the lord of the ,american forests1 for the latter is often found swimming in his blood1 with ripped-up bowels1 a wound which1 of all the beasts of the wilderness1 the claws of the ant-bear are alone able to inflict4 ,on seizing an animal with these powerful weapons1 he hugs it close to his body1 and keeps it there till it dies through pressure or hunger4 ,nor does the ant-bear1 in the meantime1 suffer much from want of aliment1 as it is a well known fact that he can remain longer without food than perhaps any other quadruped1 so that there is very little chance indeed of a weaker animal's escaping from his clutches4 ,peaceable and harmless1 the ant-bear when unprovoked never thinks of attacking any other creature2 and as his interests and pursuits do not interfere with those of the more formidable denizens of the wilderness1 he would1 without doubt1 attain a good old age1 and be allowed to die in peace1 if1 unfortunately for him1 his delicate flesh did not provoke the attacks of the large carnivora and man4 ,to be sure1 the ,indian fears his claws1 and never ventures to approach the wounded ant-bear until he has breathed his last2 nor can he be hunted with dogs1 as his skin is of a texture that perfectly resists a bite1 and his hinder parts are effectually protected by thick and shaggy hair2 yet1 armed with the wourali poison1 the wild hunters know how to paralyse in a few minutes his muscular powers1 and to stretch him dead upon the earth4 ,they have also recourse to stratagem for the animal's destruction1 for during rain it turns its long bushy tail up over its back and stands still4 ,knowing this1 the ,indians when they meet with one1 rustle the leaves1 and it thinks rain is falling1 and turning up its tail1 they take the opportunity of killing it by a blow on the head with a stick4 ,a perfect forest vagabond1 the ant-bear has no den to retire to1 nor any fixed abode2 his immense tail is large enough to cover his whole body1 and serves him as a tent during the night1 or as a waterproof mantle against the rains of the wet season1 so that he might boast1 like ,diogenes1 of carrying all he required about him4 ,the peculiar position of his paws1 when he walks or stands1 is worthy of notice4 ,he goes entirely on the outer side of his fore-feet1 which are quite bent inwards1 the claws collected into a point and going under the foot4 ,in this position he is quite at ease1 while his long claws are disposed of in a manner to render them harmless to him1 and are prevented from becoming dull and worn1 which would inevitably be the case did their points come in actual contact with the ground1 for they have not that retractile power which is given to animals of the feline race1 enabling them to preserve the sharpness of their claws on the most flinty path4 ,in consequence of its resting perpetually on the ground1 the whole outer side of the foot is hard and callous1 while1 on the contrary1 the inner side of the bottom of the foot is soft and hairy4 ,besides the great ant-bear1 there are two other species of ,american ant-eaters1 one nearly the size of a fox1 and the smallest not much larger than a rat4 ,being provided with prehensile tails1 they are essentially arboreal1 while the great ant-bear1 incapable of climbing1 always remains on the ground1 where1 thanks to the abundance of his prey1 he is always sure of obtaining a sufficient supply of food1 with very little trouble4 ,the ,manides1 and ,pangolins1 of ,south ,africa and ,asia1 resemble the ant-eaters of ,america in having a very long extensile tongue1 furnished with a glutinous mucus for securing their insect food1 and in being destitute of teeth2 but completely differ from them in having the whole body covered with a panoply of large imbricated scales1 overlapping each other like those of the lizard tribes1 and also in being able to roll themselves up when in danger1 by which their trenchant scales become erect1 and present a formidable defensive armour of wonderful hardness1 so that even the tiger would vainly attempt to overcome the ,indian ,pangolin4 ,the manides are inoffensive animals1 living wholly on ants and termites1 and chiefly inhabit the most obscure parts of the forest1 burrowing in the ground to a great depth1 for which purpose1 as also for extracting their food from ant-hills and decaying wood1 their feet are armed with powerful claws1 which they double up in walking1 like the ant-bear of ,brazil4 ,illustration3 ,,aard ,,vark4 ,besides several species of manides1 ,africa possesses a peculiar class of ant-eaters in the ,aard varks1 or ,earth-hogs 7,orycteropi71 thus called from their extraordinary powers of excavation and their fancied resemblance to small short-legged pigs4 ,such is the strength of their prodigious claws that they easily tear to pieces the clay-built domes of the termites2 which1 though so solid as to be capable of bearing the weight of many men on their summits1 are unable to resist the destructive labours of the ,aard vark4 ,towards evening the animal issues from its burrow1 and roaming over the plains1 searches for an ant-hill in full operation4 ,a breach is soon made in the strong walls of the citadel1 and as the unfortunate termites run hither and thither in consternation1 like the inmates of a beleaguered city whose ramparts are crumbling under the enemy's artillery1 the author of this confusion flings his glutinous tongue among them and sweeps them into his mouth by hundreds4 ,the ,aard varks abound all over the sultry plains of torrid ,africa1 but owing to their great burrowing powers the capture of a living specimen is attended with the greatest difficulty2 the claws being instruments of excavation with which the spade is unable to compete4 ,unless disturbed1 however1 and forced to dig deeper through fear of capture1 the ,aard vark1 being averse to unnecessary trouble1 makes but a shallow burrow--sufficiently deep1 however1 not seldom to cause the wheels of a waggon to sink into it1 or to prove a treacherous pitfall to a hunter in full chase4 ,the ,american ,armadillos have many points in common with the ,manides4 ,they have neither fore nor canine teeth1 but a number of conical grinders1 and are distinguished by having the upper parts of their bodies defended by a complete suit of armour1 divided into joints or bands1 folding one over the other like the parts of a lobster's tail1 so as to accommodate themselves to all the motions of the animal4 ,in life1 this shell is very limber1 so that the armadillo is able to go at full stretch1 or to roll himself up into a ball as occasion may require4 ,these animals are very common both in the forests and in the open plains of ,south ,america1 where they reside in subterranean homes which they have dug with their powerful fore-limbs4 ,they are seldom seen abroad during the day1 and when surprised are sure to be near the mouth of their holes2 but after sunset they sally forth in search of roots1 grain1 worms1 insects1 and other small animals1 and when disturbed1 coil themselves up in their armour like the hedgehog1 or squat close to the ground1 or escape by digging into the earth1 a work which they perform with masterly dexterity4 ,so fast indeed do they excavate that if a horseman sees one of these animals1 he must almost tumble from his steed if he wishes to capture the active creature4 ,and when he has seized it he must be cautious not to come into contact with its feet1 or he will suffer severe wounds from the powerful claws with which they are armed4 ,the family of the armadillos has been subdivided into numerous genera and species1 distinguished from each other by the number of their shelly bands1 their teeth1 and their toes4 ,they might also be conveniently divided into two tribes1 the one with a long and conical tail1 the other with a short caudal appendage1 formed like a club4 ,they differ greatly in size1 for while the giant armadillo 7,priodontes gigas7 is at least four feet long from the tip of the snout to the tip of the tail1 the ,pichiciago 7,chlamyphorus truncatus71 which inhabits the province of ,mendoza in the ,andes1 and is remarkable for its mole-like propensities1 passing the greatest part of its life underground1 scarcely measures six inches in length4 ,illustration3 ,,pichiciago4 ,illustration3 ,,porcupine ,,echidna4 ,the curious ,echidna1 or ,porcupine ,ant-eater 7,echidna hystrix7 of ,australia1 is a striking instance of those beautiful gradations so frequently observed in the animal kingdom1 by which creatures of various tribes or genera are blended as it were1 or linked together1 and of the wonderful diversity which ,nature has introduced into the forms of creatures destined to a similar mode of life4 ,it has the general appearance and external coating of the porcupine1 with the mouth and peculiar generic characters of the ant-eaters4 ,it is about a foot in length1 and burrows with wonderful facility by means of its short muscular fore-feet and its sharp-pointed claws4 ,when attacked1 it rolls itself into a ball like the hedgehog1 erecting the short1 strong1 and very sharp spines with which the upper parts of the body and tail are thickly coated1 and thus presenting a formidable defensive armour to its assailant4 ,illustration3 ,,flying ,,foxes4 ,,chapter ,,xxxix4 ,,tropical ,,bats4 ,wonderful ,organisation of the ,bats--,the ,fox-,bat--,the ,vampire-- ,its ,blood-sucking ,propensities--,the ,horse-,shoe ,bats--,the ,flying ,squirrel--,the ,galeopithecus--,the ,anomalurus4 ,when the sun has disappeared below the horizon1 and night falls on the landscape1 which a little while ago was bathed in light1 then from hollow trees1 and creviced rocks1 and ruined buildings1 a strange and dismal race comes forth4 ,silently hovering through the glades of the wood1 or skimming along the surface of the streams1 it catches the crepuscular or nocturnal moths1 and serves like the swallow by day to check the exuberant multiplication of the insect tribes4 ,but while man loves the swallow1 and suffers him to build his nest under the eaves of his dwelling1 he abhors the bat1 which like an evil spirit avoids the light of day1 and seems to feel happy only in darkness4 ,the painter1 expressing this general feeling1 gives to his angels the white pinions of the swan1 while his demons are made to bear the black wings of the bat4 ,and yet the bat1 in ,europe at least1 is a most inoffensive creature1 which may well claim the gratitude of the farmer1 from the vast numbers of cockchafers and other noxious insects which it destroys2 while a closer inspection of its wonderful organisation proves it to be far more deserving of admiration than of repugnance4 ,can anything be better adapted to its wants than the delicate membrane which1 extending over the long slim fingers1 can be spread and folded like an umbrella1 so as to form a wing when the animal wishes to fly1 and to collapse into a small space when it is at rest8 ,how slight the bones1 how light the body1 how beautifully formed for flight6 ,though temperate ,europe possesses many bats1 yet they are most numerous and various in the woody regions of the tropical zone1 where the vast numbers of the insect tribes and forest fruits afford them a never-failing supply of food4 ,there also they attain a size unknown in our latitudes1 so that both from their dimensions and their physiognomy1 many of the larger species have obtained the name of flying-dogs or flying-foxes4 ,on approaching a ,javanese village1 you will sometimes see a stately tree1 from whose branches hundreds of large black fruits seem to be suspended4 ,a strong smell of ammonia and a piping noise soon1 however1 convince you of your mistake1 and a closer inspection proves them to be a large troop of ,kalongs1 or ,flying-,foxes 7,pteropus71 attached head downwards to the tree1 where they rest or sleep during the daytime1 and which they generally quit at sunset1 though some of them differ so much from the usual habits of the family as to fly about in the broad light of day4 ,many species of fox-bats are found all over the torrid zone in the ,old ,world1 but they abound particularly in the ,east ,indian ,archipelago4 ,they belong to the rare quadrupeds indigenous in some of the ,south ,sea ,islands1 such as ,tonga or ,samoa1 and extend northwards as far as ,japan1 and southwards to ,van ,diemen's ,land4 ,they occasion incalculable mischief in the plantations1 devouring indiscriminately every kind of fruit2 but1 on the other hand1 the gigantic kalong of ,java 7,pteropus edulis71 whose body attains a length of a foot and a half1 and whose outstretched wings measure no less than four feet and a half from tip to tip1 is eaten as a delicacy by the natives4 ,the same essential differences which we observe between the monkeys of both hemispheres1 are also found to exist between the large bats of the ,old and the ,new ,world4 ,not a single fox-bat is to be found in all ,america1 while the ,phyllostomid1 distinguished by the orifices of their nostrils being placed in a kind of membranous scutcheon1 surmounted by a leaf-like expansion1 like the head of a lance1 and supposed to extend in an extraordinary degree the sense of smelling1 are exclusively confined to the western continent4 ,these large bats of which there are many species1 some measuring above two feet from wing to wing1 are remarkable for their blood-sucking propensities1 and under the name of vampires have brought the whole race of the large tropical bats into evil repute4 ,the ,phyllostomahastatum1 a common species on the ,amazons1 chiefly feeds on vespertine and nocturnal moths1 but does also much injury to horses and cattle1 and even attacks man when it has an opportunity4 ,the ,prince of ,neu ,wied often saw it by moonlight hovering about his horses while grazing after their day's journey4 ,the animals did not seem incommoded by its attacks1 but on the following morning he generally found them covered with blood from the shoulders to the hoofs4 ,there is still some uncertainty as to the way in which it inflicts its wound1 which is a small round hole1 the bleeding of which it is very difficult to stop4 ,it can hardly be a bite1 as that would awake the sleeper2 it seems most probable that it is either a succession of gentle scratches with the sharp edge of the teeth1 gradually wearing away the skin1 or a triturating with the point of the tongue till the same effect is produced4 ,after the wound is made the muscular underlip of the vampire1 which can be completely folded together in the shape of a sucking-tube1 continues to pump forth the blood1 the wings of the bat serving at the same time to fan the patient into a deeper slumber4 ,many persons are particularly annoyed by the ,phyllostoma1 while others are free from their attacks4 ,mr4 ,wallace1 who was himself twice bitten1 once on the top of the great toe1 the usual locality1 and the other time on the top of the nose1 mentions an old mulatto on the ,upper ,rio ,negro1 who was attacked almost every night1 and though there were frequently half a dozen other persons in the room1 would be the favoured party4 ,an ,indian girl at ,manaquery1 on the ,upper ,amazon1 who was likewise frequently annoyed by the bats1 was at length so much weakened by loss of blood1 that fears were entertained of her life if they continued their attacks1 and it was found necessary to send her to a distance1 where her bloodthirsty persecutors did not abound4 ,in the province of ,minas ,geraes innumerable troops of large bats issue from the limestone caverns on the banks of the ,rio ,francisco1 or from the crevices of the granite walls of the ,parime ,mountains1 and not seldom attack the cattle with such bloodthirsty obstinacy as to oblige the planters to drive their herds to some other part of the country4 ,to keep them in check1 tobacco and sulphur are from time to time ignited under the rocks where they abound1 when the stunned bats drop down1 and are killed by thousands4 ,the vampires may sometimes be seen in the forest1 hanging in clusters1 head downwards1 from the branch of a tree1 a circumstance of which ,goldsmith seems to have been aware1 for in the #8,deserted ,village1' speaking of ,america1 he says-- #8,and matted woods1 where birds forget to sing1 ,but silent bats in drowsy clusters cling4' ,some of the phyllostomid have a tongue once as long again as the head1 and armed at the extremity with recurved bristles1 like that of the woodpecker1 no doubt a very serviceable instrument for extracting insects from the narrow hollows and crevices of trees and rocks4 ,illustration3 ,,rhinolophus4 ,the ,rhinolophi1 or ,horse-shoe ,bats1 of the old continent1 have also a more or less complicated nasal appendage1 or foliaceous membrane at the end of the nose but differing in its conformation from that of the phyllostomid4 ,they are insectivorous1 like most of their order1 and none of them seem to indulge in the blood-sucking propensities of the large ,american vampires4 ,they chiefly inhabit the tropical regions of ,africa and ,asia1 and more particularly the ,indian ,archipelago1 but the ,rhinolophus unihastatus ranges in ,europe as far as ,england4 ,numerous genera and species of tropical bats1 distinguished from each other by the formation of their teeth1 lips1 nostrils1 heads1 wings1 and tails1 have already been classified by naturalists1 but many1 no doubt1 still live unknown in their gloomy retreats1 for who is able to follow them into the obscure nooks of the forest1 or into intricate caverns1 and accurately to observe them during their nocturnal rambles8 ,it may give an idea of their vast numbers throughout the torrid zone1 when we hear that in ,ceylon alone about sixteen species have been identified1 and of these1 two varieties are peculiar to the island4 ,unlike the sombre bats of the northern climates1 the colours of some of them are as brilliant as the plumage of a bird1 bright yellow1 deep orange1 or of a rich ferruginous brown1 thus contradicting the general belief which attires nocturnal animals in vestures as dark as their pursuits4 ,the torrid zone1 which produces the largest bats1 also gives birth to the tiniest representatives of the order1 such as the minute ,singhalese variety of ,scotophilus ,coromandelicus1 which is not much larger than the humble bee1 and of a glossy black colour4 #8,it is so familiar and gentle1' says ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,tennent1 #8that it will alight on the cloth during dinner1 and manifests so little alarm that it seldom makes any effort to escape before a wine-glass can be inverted to secure it4' ,though incapable of a prolonged flight like the bats1 several other tropical quadrupeds have been provided with extensions of the skin1 which give them the power of supporting themselves for some time in the air1 and of making prodigious leaps4 ,thus1 by means of an expansile furry membrane1 reaching from the fore-feet to the hind1 the ,flying ,squirrels 7,pteromys7 bound1 or rather swiftly sail1 to the distance of twenty fathoms or more1 and thus pass from one tree to another1 always directing their flight obliquely downwards4 ,they very rarely descend to the ground1 and when taken or placed on it1 run or spring somewhat awkwardly with their tail elevated1 beginning to climb with great activity as soon as they reach a tree4 ,the ,galeopitheci1 of the ,indian ,archipelago1 and the ,anomaluri of the west coast of ,africa1 are in like manner enabled to take long sweeping leaps from tree to tree1 and no doubt the investigations of travellers will bring to light other animals endowed with similar powers1 for when we consider how large a portion of the tropical zone has never yet been scientifically investigated1 we have every reason to believe that many still remain unknown4 ,illustration3 ,,wanderoos4 ,,chapter ,,xl4 ,,apes ,,and ,,monkeys4 ,the ,forest ,life of the ,simi--,excellent ,climbers1 ,bad ,pedestrians-- ,similitude and ,difference between the ,human ,race and the ,ape-- ,the ,chimpanzee--,chim in ,paris--,the ,gorilla--,the ,uran--,the ,gibbons--,the ,proboscis ,monkey--,the ,huniman--,the ,wanderoo-- ,the ,cercopithecus--,a ,plundering ,party--,parental ,affection of a ,cercopithecus--,the ,maimon--#8,happy ,jerry'--,the ,pig-faced ,baboon--,the ,derryas--,wide ,difference between the ,monkeys of both ,hemispheres--,distinctive ,characters of the ,american ,monkeys--,the ,stentor ,monkey--,the ,spider ,monkeys--,the ,samiri--,friendships between various kinds of ,monkeys--,nocturnal ,monkeys--,squirrel ,monkeys--,their ,lively ,intelligence--,the ,loris and ,makis4 ,in the midst of tropical vegetation1 the ,simi lead a free forest-life1 for which they might well be envied4 ,the green canopy of the woods protects them at every season of the year from the burning rays of a vertical sun1 flowers of delicious fragrance embalm the air they breathe1 and an endless supply of fruits and nuts never allows them to know want1 for should the stores near at hand be exhausted1 an easy migration to some other district soon restores them to abundance4 ,with an agility far surpassing that with which the sailor ascends the rigging1 and climbs even to the giddy top of the highest mast1 they leap from bush-rope to bush-rope1 and from bough to bough1 mocking the tiger-cat and the boa1 which are unable to follow them in their rapid evolutions4 ,formed to live on trees1 and not upon the ground1 they are as excellent climbers as they are bad pedestrians4 ,both their fore and hind-feet are shaped as hands1 generally with four fingers and a thumb1 so that they can seize or grasp a bough with all alike4 ,buffon erroneously remarks of the chimpanzee1 that he always walks erect1 even when carrying a weight2 but this ape1 as well as the other anthropomorphous simi1 proves by the slowness and awkwardness of his movements1 when by chance he walks upon even ground1 that this position is by no means natural to him1 or congenial to his organisation4 ,man alone of all creatures1 possesses an upright walk2 the ape1 on the contrary1 always stoops1 and not to lose his equilibrium when walking1 is obliged to place his hands upon the back of his head1 or on his loins4 ,thus1 in his native wilds1 he rarely has recourse to this inconvenient mode of progression1 and when forced by some chance or other to quit the trees1 he leans while walking upon the finger-knuckles of his anterior extremities1 a position which in fact1 very much resembles walking on all-fours4 ,it is1 indeed1 only necessary to compare the long1 robust1 and muscular arms of the chimpanzee with his weaker and shorter hind-feet1 to be at once convinced that he was never intended for walking4 ,but see with1 what rapidity1 with what power and grace1 he moves from branch to branch1 his hind-legs serving him only as hold-fasts1 while his chief strength is in his arms4 ,the tree is1 without all doubt1 for him what the earth is for us1 the air for the bird1 or the water for the fish4 ,the simi of the ,old ,world are all distinguished by the common character of a narrow partition of the nose like that of man1 and by the same number of teeth1 each jaw being provided with ten grinders1 two canine teeth1 and four incisors1 as in the human race4 ,the large apes1 or tailless monkeys1 resemble us besides in many other respects1 as well in their external appearance as in their anatomical structure2 and form1 as it were1 the caricature of man1 both by their gestures and by glimpses of a higher intelligence4 ,creatures so remarkably endowed have naturally at all times attracted a great share of attention1 for if even the lowest links in the chain of animated beings lay claim to our interest1 how much more must this be the case with beings whose faculties seem almost to raise them to the rank of our relations4 ,the question how far this similarity extends has naturally given rise to many acute investigations and been differently answered1 according as naturalists were more or less inclined to depress man to the level of the ape1 or to widen the gulf between them4 ,the former1 pointing to the brutality of the lowest savages1 would willingly make us believe that we are nothing but an improved edition of the ,uran1 while the latter cite in favour of their opinion1 the incommensurable distance which exists between even the most degraded specimens of humanity and the most perfect quadrumana4 ,man alone is capable of continually progressive improvement2 in him alone each generation inherits the acquirements of its fathers1 and transmits the growing treasure to its sons1 while the ape1 like all other animals1 constantly remains at the same point4 ,the lowest savage knows how to make fire2 the ape1 though he may have seen the operation performed a thousand times1 and have enjoyed the genial warmth of the glowing embers1 will never learn the simple art4 ,his hairy skin is a sufficient proof of his low intellect1 an infallible sign that as he never would be able to provide himself with an artificial clothing1 ,nature was obliged to protect him against the inclemencies of the cold nights and the pouring rain4 ,as man advances in age1 his mind acquires a greater depth and a wider range4 ,in the ape1 on the contrary1 signs of a livelier intelligence are only exhibited during youth1 and as the animal waxes in years1 its physiognomy acquires a more brutal expression2 its forehead recedes1 its jaws project1 and instead of expanding to a higher perfection1 its mental faculties are evidently clouded by a premature decline4 ,both in ,africa and ,asia1 we find large anthropomorphous apes1 but while the ,chimpanzee and the ,gorilla exclusively belong to the ,african wilds1 the ,uran and the ,gibbons are confined to the torrid regions of ,south ,asia4 ,the ,chimpanzee 7,simia troglodytes7 attains a height of about five feet1 but seems much smaller from his stooping attitude4 ,he inhabits the dense forests on the west coast of ,africa1 particularly near the river ,gaboon1 and as his travels are facilitated by his fatherland not being too far distant from ,europe1 there is hardly a ,zoological ,garden of any note that does not exhibit a chimpanzee among its lions4 ,one of the finest specimens ever seen was kept a few years since in the ,jardin des ,plantes in ,paris1 where the mild climate1 agreeable diet 7he drank his pint of ,bordeaux daily71 and lively society of the ,french maintained him in wonderful health and spirits4 #8,the last time ,i saw him' 7,may #ahed71 says an accomplished naturalist1#dj #8he came out to inhale the morning air in the large circular inclosure in front of the monkey palace1 which was built for our poor relations by ,m4 ,thiers4 ,here ,chim began his day by a leisurely promenade1 casting pleased and thankful glances towards the sun1 the beautiful sun of early summer4 ,illustration3 ,,rufous ,,coatimondi #8,he had three satellites1 ,coatimondis1 either by chance or to amuse him1 and while making all manner of eyes at a young lady1 who supplied the ,singerie with pastry and cakes1 one of the coatimondis came up stealthily behind1 and dealt him a small but malicious bite4 ,chim looked round with astonishment at this audacious outrage on his person1 and put his hand hastily upon the wound1 but without losing his temper in the least4 ,he walked deliberately to the other side of the circle1 and fetched a cane which he had dropped in his promenade4 ,he returned with majestic wrath upon his brow1 mingled1 ,i thought1 with contempt1 and taking coati by the tail1 commenced punishment with his cane1 administering such blows as his victim could bear without permanent injury1 and applied with equal justice on the ribs at either side4 ,when he thought enough had been done1 he disposed of coati1 without moving a muscle of his countenance1 by a left-handed jerk1 which threw the delinquent high in air1 head over heels4 #8,he came down a sadder and a better coati1 and retired with shame and fear to a distant corner4 ,having executed this act of justice1 ,chim betook himself to a tree4 ,a large baboon1 who had in the meantime made his appearance in the circle1 thought this was a good opportunity of doing a civil thing1 and accordingly mounted the tree1 and sat down smilingly1 as baboons smile1 upon the next fork4 ,chim slowly turned his head at this attempt at familiarity1 measured the distance1 raised his hind foot1 and as composedly as he had caned the coati1 kicked the big baboon off his perch into the arena below4 ,this abasement seemed to do the baboon good1 for he also retired like the coati1 and took up his station on the other side4' ,the body of the chimpanzee is covered with long hair on the head1 shoulders1 and back1 but much thinner on the breast and belly4 ,the arms and legs are not so disproportionate as those of the uran1 the fore-fingers not quite touching the knees when the animal stands upright4 ,the upper part of the head is very flat1 with a retiring forehead1 and a prominent bony ridge over the eye-brows1 the mouth is wide1 the ears large1 the nose flat1 and the face of a blackish-brown colour4 ,from this short notice it will be seen at once that friend ,chim has not the least claim to beauty1 but yet he is far from equalling the hideous deformity of the ,gorilla1 whom ,m4 ,du ,chaillu has so prominently introduced to public notice4 ,this savage animal1 which is covered with black hair like the chimpanzee1 and resembles it in the proportion of its body and limbs1 though its form is much more robust1 unites a most ferocious and undaunted temper with an herculean bodily strength1 and is said to hold undisputed dominion of the hill-forests in the interior of ,lower ,guinea1 forcing even the panther to ignominious flight4 ,to kill a gorilla is considered by the negroes as a most courageous exploit2 and ,dr4 ,savage1 an ,american missionary on the coast of ,guinea1 who1 in a memoir published at ,boston in the year #ahdg1 was the first to point out the generic differences between this formidable ape and the chimpanzee1 tells us that a slave having shot a male and female gorilla1 whose skeletons afterwards came into his possession1 was immediately set at liberty and proclaimed the prince of hunters4 ,m4 ,du ,chaillu's description of his first encounter with an adult gorilla1 shows that this distinction was by no means unmerited1 and that it requires all the coolness and determination of an accomplished sportsman to face an animal of such appalling ferocity and power4 #8,the under-bush swayed rapidly just ahead1 and presently before us stood an immense male gorilla4 ,he had gone through the jungle on his all-fours1 but when he saw our party he erected himself1 and looked us boldly in the face4 ,he stood about a dozen yards from us1 and was a sight ,i think ,i shall never forget4 ,nearly six feet high 7he proved four inches shorter71 with immense body1 huge chest1 and great muscular arms1 with fiercely glaring1 large deep-grey eyes1 and a hellish expression of face1 which seemed to me like some night-mare vision2 thus stood before us the king of the ,african forest4 ,he was not afraid of us4 ,he stood there and beat his breast with his huge fists1 till it resounded like an immense bass-drum1 which is their mode of offering defiance1 meantime giving vent to roar after roar4 ,the roar of the gorilla is the most singular and awful noise heard in these ,african woods4 ,it begins with a sharp bark like an angry dog1 then glides into a deep bass roll which literally and closely resembles the roll of distant thunder along the sky1 for which ,i have been sometimes tempted to take it when ,i did not see the animal4 ,so deep is it that it seems to proceed less from the mouth and throat than from the deep chest and vast paunch4 ,his eyes began to flash deeper fire as we stood motionless on the defensive1 and the crest of short hair which stands on his forehead began to twitch rapidly up and down1 while his powerful fangs were shown as he again sent forth a thunderous roar4 #8,and now truly he reminded me of nothing but some hellish dream-creature2 a being of that hideous order1 half-man1 half-beast1 which we find pictured by old artists in some representations of the infernal regions4 ,he advanced a few steps1 then stopped to utter that hideous roar again1 advanced again1 and finally stopped when at a distance of about six yards from us4 ,and here1 just as he began another of his roars1 beating his breast in rage1 we fired and killed him4 ,with a groan which had something terribly human in it1 and yet was full of brutishness1 he fell forward on his face4 ,the body shook convulsively for a few minutes1 the limbs moved about in a struggling way1 and then all was quiet--death had done its work1 and ,i had leisure to examine the huge body4 ,it proved to be five feet eight inches high1 and the muscular development of the arms and breast showed what immense strength he had possessed4' ,deep in the swampy forests of ,sumatra and ,borneo1 lives the famous ,uran1 or #8,mias' as he is called by the ,malays4 ,he is less human in his shape than the chimpanzee1 as his hind-legs are shorter and his arms so long that they reach to his ankles1 but in intelligence he is supposed to be his superior4 ,the jaws are more projecting1 and the thick pouting lips add to the brutal expression of his physiognomy4 ,while in a well-proportioned human face the distance from the chin to the nose forms but a third of the total length1 it amounts to one-half in the uran4 ,but little of the restlessness of the monkey is to be seen in him4 ,he loves an indolent repose1 and the necessity for procuring food seems alone capable of rousing him from his laziness4 ,when satiated1 he immediately resumes his favourite position1 sitting for hours together upon a branch1 with bent back1 with eyes immovably staring upon the ground1 and uttering from time to time a melancholy growl4 ,he generally spends the night on the crown of a nibong-palm or of a screw pine3 he often also seeks a refuge against the wind and cold among the orchids and ferns which cover the branches of the giant trees4 ,there he spreads his couch of small twigs and leaves1 for he distinguishes himself from all other apes by his not sleeping in a sitting position1 but on the back or on one side1 and in inclement weather he is even said to cover his body with a layer of foliage4 ,the ,dyaks affirm that the ,mias is never attacked by other animals1 except by the crocodile and the tiger-snake4 ,when there are no fruits in the jungle1 he goes to the river banks1 where he finds many young shoots which he likes to eat1 and fruits which grow near to the water4 ,then the crocodile sometimes tries to seize him1 but the ,mias springs upon it1 lacerates and kills it4 ,an old ,dyak chieftain told ,mr4 ,wallace that he had once witnessed a combat of this kind1 in which the ,mias is invariably the conqueror4 ,when attacked by a tiger-snake1 he seizes the reptile with his hands and kills it with a vigorous bite4 ,the ,mias is very strong1 stronger than any other animal of the jungle4 ,rajah ,brooke1 who observed the sluggish ,urans in their wild state1 relates that even when chased and alarmed by the shouts of men and the firing1 they never went from tree to tree faster than a man might easily follow through the jungle below4 ,in general they sought the very summit of a lofty tree1 and often remained seated without changing their position whilst several shots were discharged at them4 ,the ,dyaks catch them in the following manner4 ,having discovered the animal in a tree1 they approach without disturbing him1 and as quickly as possible cut down all the trees around the one he is in4 ,being previously provided with poles1 some with nooses attached to the ends and others forked1 they fell the isolated tree1 and noosing and forking down the uran1 soon make him their captive4 ,the series of the large anthropomorphous apes closes with the ,gibbons4 ,their arms1 which reach to the ankle joints when the animal is standing erect1 are longer than those of the uran2 their brain1 and consequently their intelligence1 is less developed2 and moreover1 like all the following simi of the ,old ,world1 they possess callosities on each side of the tail4 ,their size is inferior to that of the uran1 and their body is covered with thicker hair1 grey1 brown1 black1 or white--according to the species--but never party-coloured1 as is the case with many of the long-tailed monkeys4 ,to the gibbons belong the black ,siamang of ,sumatra--who1 assembled in large troops1 hails the first blush of early morn1 and bids farewell to the setting sun with dreadful clamours--the black1 white-bearded ,lar of ,siam and ,malacca1 and the ,wou-,wou 7,hylobates leuciscus71 who1 hanging suspended by his long arms1 and swinging to and fro in the air1 allows one to approach within fifty yards1 and then1 suddenly dropping upon a lower branch1 climbs again leisurely to the top of the tree4 ,he is a quiet1 solitary creature of a melancholy peaceful nature1 pursuing a harmless life1 feeding upon fruits in the vast untrodden recesses of the forest2 and his peculiar noise is in harmony with the sombre stillness of these dim regions1 commencing like the gurgling of water when a bottle is being filled1 and ending with a long loud wailing cry1 which resounds throughout the leafy solitude to a great distance1 and is sometimes responded to from the depths of the forest by another note as wild and melancholy4 ,besides the uran and the gibbons1 ,asia exclusively possesses the ,semnopitheci and the ,macaques1 while ,africa1 besides the chimpanzee and the gorilla1 enjoys the undivided honour of giving birth to the families of the ,cercopitheci1 ,mangabeys1 ,colobi1 ,magots1 and ,baboons4 ,the ,semnopitheci are characterised by a short face1 rounded ears1 a slender body1 short thumbs1 and a strong muscular tail1 terminated by a close tuft of hair1 and surpassing in length that of all the other quadrumana of the ,old ,world4 ,to this genus belongs the celebrated ,proboscis ,monkey 7,semnopithecus nasicus7 of ,borneo1 who is distinguished from all other simi by the possession of a prominent nasal organ1 which lends a highly ludicrous expression to the melancholy aspect of his physiognomy4 #8,when excited and angry1' says ,mr4 ,adams1 who had many opportunities of examining this singular creature in its native woods1 #8the female resembles some tanned and peevish1 hag1 snarling and shrewish4 ,they progress on all-fours1 and sometimes1 while on the ground1 raise themselves upright and look about them4 ,when they sleep1 they squat on their hams1 and bow their heads upon the breast4 ,when disturbed1 they utter a short impatient cry1 between a sneeze and a scream1 like that of a spoilt and passionate child2 and in the selection of their food they appear very dainty1 frequently destroying a fruit1 and hardly tasting it4 ,when they emit their peculiar wheezing or hissing sound1 they avert and wrinkle the nose1 and open the mouth wide4 ,in the male1 the nose is a curved1 tubular trunk1 large1 pendulous1 and fleshy2 but in the female it is smaller1 recurved1 and not caruncular4' ,under the ugly form of the ,huniman 7,semnopithecus ,entellus71 the ,hindoos venerate the transformed hero who abstracted the sweet fruit of the mango from the garden of a giant in ,ceylon1 and enriched ,india with the costly gift4 ,out of gratitude for this service1 the ,hindoos allow him the free use of their gardens1 and take great care to protect him from sacrilegious ,europeans4 ,while the ,french naturalist ,duvaucel was at ,chandernagor1 a guard of pious ,brahmins was busy scaring away the sacred animals with cymbals and drums1 lest the stranger1 to whom they very justly attributed evil intentions1 might be tempted to add their skins to his collection4 ,the ,semnopitheci are scattered over ,asia in so great a multiplicity of forms1 that ,ceylon alone possesses four different species1 each of which has appropriated to itself a different district of the wooded country1 and seldom encroaches on the domain of its neighbours4 #8,when observed in their native wilds1' says ,sir ,j4 ,e4 ,tennent1 #8a party of twenty or thirty of the ,wanderoos of the low country1 the species best known in ,europe 7,presbytes cephalopterus71 is generally busily engaged in the search for berries and buds4 ,they are seldom to be seen on the ground1 and then only when they have descended to recover seeds or fruit that have fallen at the foot of their favourite trees4 ,in their alarm1 when disturbed1 their leaps are prodigious1 but generally speaking their progress is made not so much by leaping as by swinging from branch to branch1 using their powerful arms alternately1 and when baffled by distance1 flinging themselves obliquely so as to catch the lower bough of an opposite tree2 the momentum acquired by their descent being sufficient to cause a rebound1 that carries them again upwards till they can grasp a higher branch1 and thus continue their headlong flight4 ,in these perilous achievements wonder is excited less by the surpassing agility of these little creatures1 frequently encumbered as they are by their young1 which cling to them in their career1 than by the quickness of their eye and the unerring accuracy with which they seem to calculate almost the angle at which a descent would enable them to cover a given distance1 and the recoil to elevate themselves again to a higher altitude4' ,the ,african ,colobi greatly resemble the ,asiatic ,semnopitheci1 but differ by the remarkable circumstance of having no thumb on the hands of their anterior extremities4 ,the ,cercopitheci likewise possess a large tail1 which is1 however1 not more or less pendulous1 as in the semnopitheci1 but generally carried erect over the back4 ,they have also a longer face1 and their cheeks are furnished with pouches1 in which1 like the pelican or the hamster1 they are capable of stowing part of their food2 an organisation which seems to denote that they are inhabitants of a country where the forests are less extensive4 ,they are not devoid of intelligence1 but extremely restless and noisy4 ,many that were mild and amiable while young1 undergo at a later period a complete change of character4 ,the only way1 according to ,m4 ,isidore ,geoffroy1 to curb the temper of one of these full-grown monkeys is to extract the sharp and formidable canine teeth1 with which it is capable of inflicting the most dangerous wounds4 ,when disarmed1 it immediately alters its manners1 as it now feels its impotence4 ,several of the monkeys belonging to this group are distinguished by the lively colours of their fur2 that of the ,diana ,monkey 7,cercopithecus diana7 among others1 which is a native of ,congo and ,guinea1 sells for a considerable price4 ,nothing can be more amusing to the disinterested spectator or more provoking to the proprietor than to witness the operations of a troop of ,cercopitheci while plundering a dhourra or maize field4 ,under the guidance of an old and experienced male1 the impudent robbers set out on their foraging expedition4 ,the female monkeys carry with them their young ones1 who1 clasping their mother's neck with their fore-feet1 sometimes also wind their little caudal appendages as an additional support round her tail4 ,at first the band approaches with great caution1 the leader constantly at its head1 and the others following from branch to branch4 ,sometimes he climbs to the top of a high tree for the purpose of reconnoitring1 and finding all safe1 a few tranquillising guttural sounds make known to his followers the satisfactory results of his inspection4 ,alighting from the tree nearest to the field1 a few leaps bring them to the scene of action1 where their first care is to stuff their wide cheek pouches with provender as fast as they can4 ,this done1 they allow themselves more leisure and at the same time become more choice in the selection of their food4 ,every ear of maize or dhourra after having been plucked from the plant is now carefully examined1 and if not approved of1 thrown away4 ,when a monkey has an abundance of food at his disposal1 he will spoil at least ten times more than he eats4 ,the troop now feeling itself thoroughly secure1 the mothers allow their young1 who are generally kept under strict control1 to leave them and amuse themselves with their play-fellows4 ,the little creatures1 who by the bye are intensely ugly1 have been so well brought up that at the first sound of alarm they immediately return to their mothers1 who1 like all other members of the band1 implicitly rely upon the watchfulness of the leader4 ,from time to time this cautious #8old gentleman' will interrupt the most savoury repast1 raise himself on his hind-legs1 stand upright like a man1 and look about him4 ,a single inimitable gurgling tone of alarm gathers in a moment the troop of his followers2 the mothers recall their young ones1 and all are instantly ready for flight2 each carrying with him as much provender as he can4 ,the nearest tree is ascended in a trice1 and from this starting point the hurried flight goes on from branch to branch4 ,the expertness of the monkeys in climbing and springing is indeed wonderful1 and surpasses that of all other animals4 ,for them there is no impediment3 the sharpest thorns1 the thickest hedges--nothing retards them4 ,the most daring leaps are executed with an admirable ease4 ,seizing a high branch with its outstretched hand1 a monkey will swing himself upon it1 a feat which no cat or squirrel can imitate2 or he will throw himself from the summit of a tree upon a branch far below1 which bends under the sudden shock of his weight1 and then makes use of the recoil to perform a mighty horizontal bound4 ,while this precipitate flight is going on1 the leader still directs the movements of the band1 which only relaxes in its haste when he thinks proper4 ,all this time they show not the least signs of confusion1 and such is their presence of mind that it preserves them from all danger4 ,in fact they have no enemies to fear but other monkeys and the serpents2 for they easily get out of the reach of the larger beasts of prey1 and no bird will attack them1 as it well knows that it would be at once assailed by a whole band4 ,thus a life as void of care as life can be1 has fallen to the lot of these free denizens of the forest4 ,brehm relates an affecting instance of parental friendship in a tame male ,cercopithecus4 ,koko 7as the monkey was called7 had adopted a young one of the same species1 still very much in want of his mother's assistance4 ,he treated it with all the affection of a parent1 watched over it while eating1 and warmed it at night in his arms4 ,he was constantly anxious about its welfare1 got uneasy when it strayed away only a few paces1 and called it immediately back again at the least apprehension of danger4 ,when ,brehm tried to remove it1 he got furious and defended his adopted child with all his might4 ,thus both monkeys lived together several months1 when the young one fell ill and soon after died4 ,the sorrow of the bereaved foster-father was excessive1 not like that of an animal1 but similar to the grief of a deeply-feeling man4 ,at first he took the stiffening body in his arms1 caressed it in all possible manners1 and attended upon it as before1 with the tenderest care4 ,he then placed it in a sitting posture before him1 looked at it attentively1 and uttered a plaintive cry when he saw it collapse4 ,again and again he tried to recall it to life2 and every time he uttered a loud cry when he saw that his favourite remained dead4 ,the whole day he took no food1 the dead little monkey occupied him constantly4 ,at length ,brehm took away the body by force and threw it over the high wall of the courtyard into the garden4 ,but in a few minutes the monkey had bitten the strong rope through to which he was fastened1 sprang over the wall and returned with the body in his arms4 ,brehm now again bound him fast1 took the dead body away and threw it into a deep well4 ,the monkey immediately freed himself once more from his bonds1 remained for hours searching for the body1 and then left the house for ever4 ,in the evening of the same day he was seen on his way to the woods4 #8,to call such and similar actions instinct1' says ,brehm1 #8would be ridiculous4 ,they are proofs of intellect and deep feeling4 ,there are apes who surpass many obtuse members of the human race in sense1 and their intelligence grows by experience1 as ,i have frequently observed in tame monkeys4 ,without hesitation we may rank the simi next to man as the most highly developed animals1 not only in their physical organisation1 but also in intelligence4' ,the tribes of the ,mangabeys1 ,macaques1 ,magots1 and ,cynopitheci form the links between the cercopitheci and the baboons4 ,their shape is less slender than that of the former1 their frontal bone is more developed1 particularly above the eyebrows1 and their face is longer4 ,they are all of them provided with cheek-pouches4 ,several of the macaques have a very short tail1 and the magots1 or ,barbary apes1 and the cynopithecus of the ,philippine ,islands1 have none1 thus resembling the large anthropomorphous apes1 but widely differing from them in other respects4 ,the ,magot is the only ,european species1 and seems exclusively confined in our part of the world to the rock of ,gibraltar1 though some authors affirm that it is found in other parts of ,andalusia1 and even in the province of ,grenada4 ,it would no doubt long since have been extirpated1 if the ,british ,government had not taken it under its especial protection1 and imposed the penalty of a heavy fine upon its wanton destruction4 ,the ,cynocephali 7,baboons and ,mandrills7 show at once by their ,greek name that a dog-like snout gives them a more bestial expression than belongs to the rest of the monkey tribes1 and that of all the simi of the ,old ,world they are most widely distant from man4 ,in size they are only surpassed by the gorilla and the uran1 and if in the latter the physiognomy becomes more brutal in its expression with advancing age1 this degradation is much greater in the baboons4 ,their canine teeth in particular acquire a greater sharpness than those of almost every other carnivorous animal1 so that these malignant and cruel animals1 armed with such powerful weapons1 may well be reckoned among the most formidable of the wild beasts of ,africa4 ,as if to render them complete pictures of depravity1 their manners also are so shamelessly filthy1 that the curiosity they excite soon changes into horror and disgust4 ,the short-tailed mandrills inhabit the west coast of ,africa4 ,the ,maimon is the most remarkable of the whole genus for brilliancy and variety of colour2 its furrowed cheeks are magnificently striped with violet1 blue1 purple1 and scarlet1 so as more to resemble an artificial tattooing than a natural carnation4 ,as the creature increases in age1 the nose also becomes blood-red4 ,on the loins the skin is almost bare1 and of a violet-blue colour1 gradually altering into a bright blood-red1 which is more conspicuous on the hinder parts1 where it surrounds the tail1 which is generally carried erect4 ,even among the base mandrills there are some which maintain in confinement the milder character of their youth1 and on whom education has had such influence as to allow them to be introduced into company without fear of a too flagitious breach of decorum4 ,one of these pattern animals was #8,happy ,jerry1' long kept in a ,london menagerie1 and who gained such fame by his good manners as to be honoured by a special invitation to ,windsor4 ,jerry knew how to sit upon a chair1 and worthily to fill it1 as he was nearly five feet long4 ,he relished his pot of porter1 which he used to drink out of a pewter can1 and smoked his pipe with all the gravity of a ,german philosopher4 ,but even ,jerry was not to be trusted out of the sight of his keepers4 ,illustration3 ,,mandrill 7,,cynocephalus ,,maimon74 ,illustration3 ,,pig-,,faced ,,baboon4 ,the real baboons are distinguished from the mandrills by a long tail1 terminated by a tuft of hair4 ,the great baboon of ,senegal 7,cynocephalus ,sphinx7 is by no means devoid of intelligence1 and learns many tricks when taught from early youth4 ,his temper1 however1 is brutal and choleric1 though less so than the ,chacma 7,cynocephalus porcarius71 or pig-faced baboon1 which is found in the vicinity of ,cape ,town1 among others on the celebrated ,table ,mountain4 ,young chacmas are often kept as domestic animals1 performing the offices of a mastiff1 whom they greatly surpass in strength4 ,thus they immediately announce by their growling the approach of a stranger1 and are even employed for a variety of useful purposes which no dog would be able to perform4 ,here one is trained to blow the bellows of a smith2 there another to guide a team of oxen4 ,when a stream is to be crossed1 the chacma immediately jumps upon the back of one of the oxen1 and remains sitting till he has no longer to fear the wet1 which he loves as little as the cat4 ,in ,abyssinia1 ,nubia1 and ,south ,arabia we find the ,derryas 7,c4 ,hamadryas71 which enjoyed divine honours among the ancient ,egyptians4 ,the general colour of the hair is a mixture of light-grey and cinnamon1 and in the male that of the head and neck forms a long mane1 falling back over the shoulders4 ,the face is extremely long1 naked1 and of a dirty flesh-colour4 ,this ugly monkey was revered as the symbol of ,thoth1 the divine father of literature and the judge of man after death4 ,formerly temples were erected to his honour1 and numerous priests ministered to his wants1 but now1 by a sad change of baboon-fortune1 he is shot without ceremony1 and his skin pulled over his ears to be stuffed and exhibited in profane museums4 ,the monkeys of the ,new ,world differ still more widely from those of the ,old than the copper-coloured ,indian from the woolly ,negro4 ,one sees at once on comparing them that whole oceans roll between them1 that they have not migrated from one hemisphere to another1 but belong to two different phases of creation4 ,while the nasal partition of the ,old ,world simi is narrow as in man1 it is broad without exception in all the ,american monkeys1 so that the nostrils are widely separated and open sideways4 ,the dental apparatus is also different1 for while the monkeys of our hemisphere have thirty-two teeth1 those of the western world generally possess thirty-six4 ,the tailless monkeys or apes1 and the short-tailed baboons1 are peculiar to our hemisphere1 and it is only here that we find almost voiceless simi1 while the ,american quadrumana are all of them tailed1 short-snouted1 and generally endowed with stentorian powers4 ,finally1 it would be as useless to look among the western monkeys for cheek-pouches and sessile callosities1 as among those of the ,old ,world for prehensile tails4 ,in the boundless forests of tropical ,south ,america1 the monkeys form by far the greater part of the mammalian inhabitants1 for each species1 though often confined within narrow limits1 generally consists of a large number of individuals4 ,the various arboreal fruits which the savage population of these immeasurable wilds is unable to turn to advantage1 fall chiefly to their share2 many of them also live upon insects4 ,they are never seen in the open savannahs1 as they never touch the ground unless compelled by the greatest necessity4 ,the trees of the forests furnish them with all the food they require2 it is only in the woods that they feel #8at home' and secure against the attacks of mightier animals2 why then should they quit them for less congenial haunts8 ,for their perpetual wanderings from branch to branch1 ,nature has bountifully endowed many of them1 not only with robust and muscular limbs and large hands1 whose moist palms facilitate the seizure of a bough1 but in many cases also with a prehensile tail1 which may deservedly be called a fifth hand1 and is hardly less wonderful in its structure than the proboscis of the elephant4 ,covered with short hair1 and completely bare underneath towards the end1 this admirable organ rolls round the boughs as though it were a supple finger1 and is at the same time so muscular that the monkey frequently swings with it from a branch like the pendulum of a clock4 ,scarce has he grasped a bough with his long arms1 when immediately coiling his fifth hand round the branch1 he springs on to the next1 and secure from a fall1 hurries so rapidly through the crowns of the highest trees that the sportsman's ball has scarce time to reach him in his flight4 ,when the ,miriki 7,ateles hypoxanthus71 the largest of the ,brazilian monkeys1 sitting or stretched out at full length1 suns himself on a high branch1 his tail suffices to support him in his arial resting-place1 and even when mortally wounded1 he remains a long time suspended by it1 until life being quite extinct1 his heavy body1 whizzing through the air1 and breaking many a bough as it descends1 falls with a loud crash to the ground4 ,in general the ,american monkeys are distinguished by a much milder disposition than those of the eastern hemisphere1 and retain at an advanced age the playful manners of their youth4 ,they are commonly more easy to tame1 and learn many little tricks which are taught with much greater difficulty to their restless ,asiatic or ,african cousins4 ,their weakness1 their short canine teeth1 their good temper1 render them harmless play-fellows1 and thus they are generally preferred in ,europe to the ,old ,world monkeys1 though they are not so lively1 and constantly have a more or less dejected mien1 as if they still regretted the primitive freedom of the forest4 ,the ,american monkeys may be conveniently divided into two large groups2 with or without a prehensile tail4 ,to the first great subdivision belong the ,howling ,monkeys or ,aluates 7,mycetes71 the ,spider ,monkeys 7,ateles71 the ,sajous1 and several other intermediate genera4 ,the ,aluates are chiefly remarkable for their stentorian powers1 which no other animal can equal or approach4 ,when the nocturnal howl of the ,large ,red ,howling ,monkey 7,mycetes ursinus7 bursts forth from the woods1 you would suppose that all the beasts of the forest were collecting for the work of carnage4 ,now it is the tremendous roar of the jaguar as he springs on his prey2 now it changes to his terrible and deep-toned growlings as he is pressed on all sides by superior force2 and now you hear his last dying moan1 beneath a mortal wound4 ,some naturalists have supposed that these awful sounds can only proceed from a number of the red monkeys howling in concert1 but one of them alone is equal to the task4 ,in dark and cloudy weather1 and just before a squall of rain1 the ,aluate often howls in the day-time2 and on advancing cautiously to the high and tufted tree where he is sitting1 one may then have a good opportunity of seeing the large lump in his throat1 the sounding-board which gives such volume to his voice1 move up and down as he exerts his stentorian lungs4 ,illustration3 ,,howling ,,monkey4 ,the howling monkeys are the most robust of the ,american simi1 and in spite of their long tail have a certain analogy with the urans1 whom they may be said to represent in the ,new ,world4 ,their various species range from ,paraguay to ,honduras1 while the ,ateles or ,spider ,monkeys1 thus named from their long slender limbs and sprawling movements1 extend over the whole surface of tropical ,america4 ,the marimonda 7,ateles ,belzebub7 is even found on the eastern slopes of the ,andes at a height of #aj1jjj feet above the level of the sea1 an elevation attained by him alone of all the quadrumanous tribes4 ,like the ,african ,colobi1 the spider monkeys have no thumb on their fore-hands2 their voice is a soft and flute-like whistling1 resembling the piping of a bird4 ,it is said that when a mother burthened with her young hesitates to take too wide a leap1 paterfamilias seizes the branch she intends to reach1 and swings himself to and fro with it1 until his companion is able to attain it by a spring4 ,the second group of ,american monkeys1 consisting of those with a non-prehensile tail1 comprises the ,sakis1 the ,samiris1 the ,ouistitis1 c4 ,the ,sakis1 or ,fox-tailed ,monkeys1 are distinguished by their bushy tail1 which1 however1 in some species1 is very short4 ,they usually live in the outskirts of forests1 in small societies of ten or twelve4 ,upon the slightest provocation1 they display a morose and savage temper1 and1 like the howling-monkeys1 utter loud cries before sunrise and after sunset4 ,the elegant ease of their movements1 their soft fur1 the large size of their brilliant eyes1 and their little round face1 entitle the ,samiris to be called the most graceful of monkeys4 ,on speaking to them for some time1 they listen with great attention1 and soon lay their tiny hand upon the speaker's mouth1 as if to catch the words as they pass through his lips4 ,they recognise the objects represented in an engraving even when not coloured1 and endeavour to seize the pictured fruits or insects4 ,the latter1 and particularly spiders1 which they catch most dexterously with their lips or hands1 seem to be their favourite food4 ,the weak little creatures are very fond of being carried about by larger monkeys1 and cling fast to their back4 ,at first the animal to which they thus attach themselves endeavours to get rid of its burden1 but finding it impossible1 it soon becomes reconciled to its fate1 and after a short time an intimate affection arises between them1 so that when the samiri is busy chasing insects1 his friend1 before leaving the spot1 first gives him notice by a gentle cry4 ,the habits of the ,nyctopitheci1 or nocturnal monkeys1 bear a great resemblance to those of the bats or flying foxes4 ,the shy and quiet little animals sleep by day1 concealed in the dense thickets of the forest4 ,their eye and motions are completely feline4 ,those which ,von ,martius observed in his collection1 crept by day into a corner of the cage1 but after sunset their agility made up for their diurnal torpor4 ,in ,guiana1 ,schomburgk met with the ,nyctipithecus trivirgatus as a domestic animal4 #8,a very neat little monkey1 shy of light as the owl or the bat4 ,a small round head1 extremely large yellow eyes1 shining in the dark stronger than those of the cat1 and tiny short ears1 give it a peculiarly comical appearance4 ,when disturbed in its diurnal sleep and dragged forth to the light1 its helpless movements excite compassion2 it gropes about as if blind1 and lays hold of the first object that comes within its reach1 often pressing its face against it to escape the intolerable glare4 ,the darkest corner of the hut is its seat of predilection1 where it lies during day in a perfect asphyxia1 from which it can only be roused by blows4 ,but soon after sunset it leaves its retreat1 and then it is impossible to see a more lively1 active1 and merry creature4 ,from hammock it springs to hammock1 generally licking the faces of the sleepers1 and from the floor to the rafters of the roof1 overturning all that is not sufficiently fastened to resist its curiosity4' ,its hair1 which is grey on the back and orange-coloured on the belly1 is much thicker than that of the other monkeys1 and somewhat woolly1 thus being admirably suited to the colder temperature of its nocturnal rambles4 ,it ranges over a great part of ,south ,america1 but on account of its retirement during the day is very rarely caught4 ,its voice is remarkably strong1 and1 according to ,humboldt1 is said to resemble the jaguar's roar1 for which reason it is called the ,tiger ,monkey in the missions along the ,orinoco4 ,it lives chiefly on nocturnal insects1 thinning their ranks like the bat1 but is also said to prey upon small birds like the owl4 ,in the ,andes of ,new ,granada1 in the large forests of ,quindiu1 the ,n4 lemurinus lives at an elevation of from four to five thousand feet above the level of the sea1 and makes the woods resound during the night with his clamorous cry of #8drcli4' ,the ,ouistitis1 or ,squirrel ,monkeys1 are distinguished from all the other ,american quadrumana by the claws with which all their fingers1 except the thumbs of their hands1 are provided1 and which render them excellent service in climbing4 ,they have a very soft fur1 and are extremely light and graceful in their movements1 as well as elegant in their forms4 ,the young are often not bigger than a mouse1 and even a full-grown ouistiti is hardly larger than a squirrel1 whom it resembles both in its mode of life1 and by its restless activity1 as its little head is never quiet4 ,they use their tail1 which in many species is handsomely marked by transverse bars1 as a protection against the cold1 to which they are acutely sensitive4 ,their numerous species are dispersed over all the forests of tropical ,america1 where they live as well upon fruits and nuts as upon insects and eggs2 and when they can catch a little bird1 they suck its brain with all the satisfaction of an epicure4 ,they are easily tamed1 but very suspicious and irritable4 ,the learned ,french naturalist1 ,audouin1 made some interesting observations on a pair of tame ouistitis1 which prove their intelligence to be far superior to that of the squirrels1 to whom they are often compared4 ,one of them1 while regaling on a bunch of grapes1 squirted some of the juice into its eye1 and never failed from that time to close its eyes while eating of the fruit4 ,in a drawing they recognised not only their own likeness1 but that of other animals4 ,thus the sight of a cat1 and what is still more remarkable1 that of a wasp1 frightened them very much1 while at the aspect of any other insect1 such as a cricket or a cockchafer1 they at once rushed upon the engraving1 as if anxious to make a meal of the object that deluded them with the semblance of life4 ,illustration3 ,,handed ,,lemur4 ,in the forests of tropical ,africa and ,asia we find a remarkable group of animals1 which1 though quadrumanous like the monkeys1 essentially differs from them by possessing long curved claws on the index1 and also on the middle finger of the hinder extremities2 by a sharp1 projecting muzzle1 and by a different dentition4 ,the ,loris1 remarkable for the slowness of their gait and their large glaring eyes1 are exclusively natives of the ,east ,indies2 the ,galagos1 which unite the organisation of the monkeys with the graceful sprightliness of the squirrels1 are confined solely to ,africa1 where they are chiefly found in the gum-forests of ,senegal2 the ,tarsii1 with hinder limbs of a disproportionate length1 are restricted to a part of the ,indian ,archipelago2 but the large island of ,madagascar1 where1 strange to say1 not a single monkey is found1 is the chief seat of the family1 being the exclusive dwelling-place of the short-tailed ,indri 7whom1 from his black thick fur and anthropomorphous shape1 one would be inclined to reckon among the gibbons71 and of the long-tailed ,lemurs or ,makis4 ,all these gentle and harmless animals are arboreal in their habits1 avoid the glaring light of day under the dense covert of the forest1 and awaken to a more active existence as soon as night descends upon the earth4 ,then the loris1 who during the day have slept clinging to a branch1 prowl among the forest-boughs in quest of food4 ,nothing can escape the scrutiny of their large glaring eyes2 and when they have marked their victim1 they cautiously and noiselessly approach till it is within their grasp4 ,the ,galagos have at night all the activity of birds1 hopping from bough to bough on their hind limbs only4 ,they watch the insects flitting among the leaves1 listen to the fluttering of the moth as it darts through the air1 lie in wait for it1 and then spring like lightning upon their prize4 ,the long-legged ,tarsii leap about two feet at a spring1 and feed chiefly on small lizards1 holding1 squirrel-like1 their prey in their fore-hands1 while they rest on their haunches4 ,illustration3 ,,tarsius ,,bancanus4 ,illustration3 ,,head ,,dresses ,,of ,,east ,,african ,,negroes4 ,,chapter ,,xli4 ,,the ,,african ,,negroes4 ,causes of the ,inferiority of ,negro ,civilisation--,natural ,capabilities of the ,negro--,geographical ,formation of ,africa--,its ,political ,condition--,physical ,conformation of the ,negro--,fetishism-- ,the ,rain-,doctor--,the ,medicine-,man--,religious ,observances-- ,gift-,offerings--,human ,sacrifices--,ornaments--,the ,pell--,the ,bonnians--,their ,barbarous ,condition--,the ,town of ,okolloma--,negroes of the ,lake ,regions--,the ,iwanza--,slavery--,a ,miserable ,group4 ,with the exception of the narrow strip of territory fertilized by the annual inundations of the ,nile1 where stately pyramids and the ruins of vast palaces and temples proclaim the ancient glories of ,egypt2 or of the coast-lands of the ,mediterranean1 where once ,carthage reigned and ,utica flourished1 ,africa has ever been a region without influence on the progressive march of mankind4 ,from the vast and still partly unknown countries inhabited by the ,negro or the ,kaffer no gleam of genius has ever shone forth to enlighten the world2 no invention has ever proceeded for the benefit of the human race2 no individual has ever risen to eminence in science or in art2 but all1 from generation to generation1 has ever been one dull monotonous scene of ignorance1 barbarism1 and stagnation4 ,as to the causes of this stationary unprogressive state opinions are greatly divided1 for while some authorities consider the ,african as decidedly inferior in intellect to the more favoured races of ,europe1 he is according to others merely the victim of unfortunate circumstances1 which have never allowed the latent germs of improvement to quicken into life8 ,that there is no defect in his organisation to account for his low condition1 is sufficiently proved by the celebrated physiologist1 ,tiedemann1 who found1 as the result of numerous measurements and examinations1 that his brain is by no means smaller than that of the ,european1 and that its form and structure are identical4 ,travellers and missionaries who have had the best opportunities of forming a just estimate of the character and capacities of the ,negroes1 describe them as social1 generous1 and confiding4 ,no one1 such is their opinion1 can live among them without being impressed with their natural energy of character1 their shrewdness and close observation1 the cunning with which they can drive a bargain1 and the perfect adroitness with which they practise upon the unsuspecting credulity of white men4 ,they have long since risen above the hunter life1 have fixed habitations1 cultivate the soil for the means of subsistence1 have herds of domestic animals1 construct for themselves houses sufficient to protect them alike from the scorching heat of the sun and the chilly damps of night1 show a taste for the mechanical arts1 a surprising skill in the fabrication of implements of warfare and articles of ornament1 and at the same time a decided taste and aptitude for commercial pursuits4 ,the ,southern ,kaffers gradually pass through the transition of intermediate tribes into the pure typical equatorial ,negroes1 and travellers have been astonished at the acuteness of intellect displayed by the ,zulus1 ,betchuanas1 and other ,kaffer nations4 ,of the ,mandingoes1 a pure ,negro race1 inhabiting parts of ,senegambia and ,upper ,guinea1 shrewd observers assure us that no one who has had personal intercourse with them1 can have the least doubt as to their intellectual equality with ,europeans4 ,these few examples1 to which many others might be added1 sufficiently prove that there is no wide impassable gulf between the negro and the white races4 ,the aboriginal ,africans are indeed averse to all abstract discussions1 but they have excellent memories1 lively imaginations1 much instinctiveness1 and very close observation4 ,with the exception of the ,veys1 who have recently invented an alphabet for themselves 7a circumstance in itself sufficient to establish their claims to a high degree of intelligence71 none of the nations along the sea coast regions have any written literature1 but this is not to be set down as a mark of mental imbecility4 ,their thoughts1 as a matter of necessity1 must operate in a comparatively narrow circle2 but it does not follow that they are less active on that account4 ,they have abundant stores of unwritten lore1 allegories1 legends1 traditionary stores1 fables--and many of their proverbs bear testimony to their sound good sense4 ,men of remarkable ability have risen up among the ,africans from time to time1 as well as amongst other portions of the human family4 ,some have excited the admiration of large districts by their wisdom1 others have been the wonder of their generation by their personal prowess and deeds of arms1 but the total absence of literature leads to the loss of all former experience and the lessons of the sage and the feats of the hero have been alike forgotten4 ,the detractors of the ,negroes have generally formed their opinion upon the most unfavourable specimens of the race1 upon tribes living in a pestilential climate along the sultry coasts of ,guinea1 upon the victims of oppression1 upon slaves or the descendants of slaves4 ,but everywhere we find physical and moral inferiority resulting from conditions which cramp the natural energies of man1 and among the most highly civilised nations a considerable part of the population shows the fatal stigmas of ignorance and want in a stunted growth and a blighted intellect4 ,it is evidently as erroneous to judge of the whole ,negro race by its inferior representatives1 as it would be to measure the ,english nation by the low standard of the refuse of our cities4 ,the reasons for the torpid state of ,africa1 when compared with the ancient civilisation of ,asia or the progressive march of ,europe1 must therefore be sought for1 not in an organic and consequently incurable incapacity for higher attainments1 but in unfavourable external circumstances1 and these are quite sufficient to account for its existence4 ,among the causes which have contributed to retard the march of improvement in ,africa1 one of the most important is its compact geographical formation and the natural obstacles which render the access to its interior so extremely difficult4 ,while ,europe possesses a vast extent of coast line1 numerous harbours1 large peninsulas1 deep gulfs and bays1 and broad navigable rivers1 ,africa is deprived of these physical advantages4 ,though more than three times larger than ,europe1 its coasts are not only less extensive by one-fourth1 but are also frequently bounded1 particularly within the tropics1 by sandy deserts or unhealthy swamps1 which render them in a great measure inaccessible or useless to man4 ,we there see no such peninsulas as ,italy or ,portugal and ,spain1 stretching far out into the ocean1 and affording a seat to a numerous maritime population2 no such great mediterranean seas as the ,baltic1 the ,adriatic1 or the gan2 and while in ,europe many rivers carry the tides far into the interior of the land1 and extend as it were the domains of ocean into the bosom of the continent1 a great number of the streams of ,africa are often rendered unnavigable by long-continued droughts1 or even cease to flow altogether during a considerable part of the year4 ,but the sea is not only the great highway of commerce1 it also enlarges the sphere of man's ideas1 by bringing him into easier contact with other nations2 it not only conveys the productions of every zone from coast to coast1 but civilisation is also wafted upon its waves from shore to shore4 ,thus the vicinity of the sea has been as favourable to the development of a great part of ,europe as the confinement or isolation of the ,negro within the bounds of his native continent has tended to retard his improvement4 ,even in the interior of ,africa itself1 communications are rendered difficult by many natural obstacles4 ,the fertile regions of the ,soudan are separated from the coast lands of the ,mediterranean by the vast deserts of the ,sahara1 which have always opposed an insurmountable barrier to the spread of ,european civilisation4 ,here enormous tracts of arid land1 there immense marshes and swampy lake districts1 or high mountain ranges covered with impervious woods1 impede the progress of the traveller1 and separate one nation from the other4 ,along with its unfavourable geographical formation1 the political condition of ,africa has likewise tended to maintain its ancient barbarism4 ,as far as history reaches into the past1 slavery has been its curse1 nor has it ever enjoyed the advantages of a strong and permanent government4 ,thus1 to cite but one example1 the ,manganja were all formerly united under the government of their great chief ,undi1 whose rule extended from ,lake ,shirwa to the river ,loangwa1 but after ,undi's death it fell to pieces4 ,this has been the inevitable fate of every ,african empire from time immemorial4 ,a chief of more than ordinary ability arises1 and subduing all his less powerful neighbours1 founds a kingdom which he governs more or less wisely1 till he dies4 ,his successor not having the talents of the conqueror cannot retain the dominion1 and some of the abler or more ambitious under-chiefs set up for themselves1 and in a few years the remembrance only of the empire remains4 ,this1 which may be considered as the normal state of ,african society1 gives rise to frequent and desolating wars1 and perpetuates a state of general insecurity which paralyses improvement and prevents the accumulation of wealth1 that great lever of civilisation4 ,ignorance1 superstition1 intolerance are the natural consequences of the misgovernment under which ,africa suffers1 and contribute in their turn to maintain it4 ,even the most gifted nations must eventually sink under such a load of adverse circumstances1 and when we recollect for how many centuries the genius of ,europe languished after the fall of the ,roman empire1 we must not be too hasty in depreciating the natural abilities of the ,negro4 ,a black1 soft1 and unctuous skin1 woolly hair1 thick lips1 a flat nose1 a retiring forehead1 and a projecting maxilla1 are his well-known physical characters2 but both his colour and his features are considerably modified both by the climate of the land which he inhabits and the degree of civilisation he has attained4 ,considerable elevations of surface1 as they produce a cooler temperature of the air1 are also productive of a lighter-coloured skin4 ,thus1 in the high parts of ,senegambia1 which fronting the ,atlantic ,ocean are cooled by westerly winds1 we find the light copper-coloured ,felatas surrounded on every side by the darker-coloured ,negro tribes inhabiting the surrounding lower countries4 ,in the interior of ,africa1 the ,bornui1 the occupants of the low basin of ,lake ,tsad1 are also the most like the typical ,negroes of the coast4 ,their moral and social condition1 or the degree of barbarism and civilisation in which they live1 has likewise a considerable influence on the physical conformation of the ,negroes4 ,the tribes in which the distinctive marks of the race are developed in the highest degree invariably occupy the lowest grade in the scale of ,african humanity3 they are either ferocious1 barbarous1 or sunk in stupidity and sloth--as1 for instance1 the ,papels1 ,balloms1 and other savage hordes on the coast of ,guinea1 where the slave trade was formerly carried on to a great extent1 and exerted1 as usual1 its baneful influence4 ,on the other hand1 where we hear of a ,negro state whose inhabitants have made some progress in the social arts1 we constantly find their physical character considerably deviating from the strongly pronounced ,negro type4 ,the ,ashantees and the ,sulimas may be cited as examples4 ,the ,negroes of ,guber and ,haussa1 where a considerable degree of civilisation was a long time dominant1 are perhaps the finest race of true ,negroes in all ,africa4 ,the ,joloff1 who1 since the time of their first discovery by the ,portuguese1 have enjoyed a certain degree of culture1 are also tall1 well-made ,negroes1 with the nasal profile less depressed1 and the lips less prominent than is the case with the more typical tribes4 ,the religion of ,mahomet has spread over many ,north ,african countries1 but ,fetissism1 or the adoration of natural objects1 animate or inanimate1 to which certain mysterious powers are attributed1 is still the superstitious creed of the greater part of that continent4 ,anything which chances to catch hold of the fancy of a ,negro may be a fetish4 ,one selects the tooth of a dog1 of a tiger1 or of a cat1 or the bone of a bird2 while another fixes on the head of a goat1 or monkey1 or parrot1 or even upon a piece of red or yellow wood1 or a thorn branch4 ,the fetish thus chosen becomes to its owner a kind of divinity1 which he worships1 and from which he expects assistance on all occasions4 ,in honour of his fetish1 it is common for a ,negro to deprive himself of some pleasure1 by abstaining from a particular kind of meat or drink4 ,thus one man eats no goat's flesh1 another tastes no beef1 and a third no brandy or palm wine4 ,by a continual attention to his fetish1 the ,negro so far imposes upon himself as to represent it to his imagination as an intelligent being or ruling power1 inspecting his actions and ready to reward or punish4 ,hence1 like the ,russian with his image of ,st4 ,nicholas1 or the ancient ,roman with his household gods1 he covers it up carefully whenever he performs any action that he accounts improper4 ,the importance or value of a fetish is always estimated according to the success of its owner whose good fortune induces others to adopt it4 ,on the contrary1 when a ,negro suffers any great misfortunes1 he infallibly attributes it to the weakness of his fetish1 which he relinquishes1 and adopts another that he hopes will prove more powerful4 ,sometimes a whole tribe or a large district has its fetish1 which is regarded as a kind of palladium upon which the safety of their country depends4 ,thus1 at ,whidah1 on the coast of ,ashantee1 they worship as their national fetish a kind of serpent of monstrous size1 which they call the grandfather of the snakes4 ,they say that it formerly deserted some other country on account of its wickedness1 and came to them1 bringing good fortune and prosperity along with it4 ,the national fetish of the ,kanga is an elephant's tooth1 and that of the tribe of ,wawa a tiger4 ,at ,bonny divine honours are paid to huge water-lizards4 ,undisturbed1 the lazy monsters crawl heavily through the streets1 and as they pass the ,negroes reverentially make way4 ,a white man is hardly allowed to look at them1 and hurried as fast as possible out of their presence4 ,an attempt was once made to kidnap one of these dull lizard gods for the benefit of a profane museum1 but the consequences were such as to prevent a repetition of the offence1 for the palm oil trade was immediately stopped1 and affairs assumed so hostile an aspect that the foreigners were but too glad to purchase peace with a considerable sacrifice of money and goods4 ,when one of the lizards crawls into a house1 it is considered a great piece of good fortune1 and when it chooses to take a bath1 the ,bonnians hurry after it in their canoes4 ,after having allowed it to swim and plunge several times1 they seize it for fear of danger1 and carry it back again to the land1 well pleased at once more having the sacred reptile in their safe possession4 ,from this account of the fetishes of the ,negroes1 it is evident that the rudeness of their idolatry is on a level with the low state of their social condition4 ,a victim to evil passions and to a vague and nameless awe engendered by the fantastical and monstrous character of the animal and vegetable productions around him1 the ,fetissist peoples with malevolent beings the invisible world1 and animates material nature with evil influences4 ,the rites of his dark and deadly superstition are all intended to avert evils from himself by transfering them to others2 hence the witchcraft and magic which flow naturally from the system of demonology4 ,like the ,schaman of the ,polar ,world1 the ,negro priest1 or professional holy man1 is supposed to have the power of controlling evil spirits1 and founds his influence on the gross superstition and baseless fears of those who trust in his agency4 ,his office includes many duties4 ,he is a physician or medicine man1 a detecter of sorcery by means of the ordeal1 a vase maker1 a conjuror or augur1 and a prophet4 ,as all diseases are attributed by the ,fetissist to #8possession1' the medicine man is expected to heal the patient by casting out the devil who has entered his body and disturbs its functions4 ,the unwelcome visitant must be charmed away by the sound of drums and dancing1 and when the auspicious moment for his expulsion arrives1 is enticed from the body of the possessed into some inanimate article1 which he will condescend to inhabit4 ,this may be a certain kind of bead1 two or more bits of wood bound together by a strip of snake's skin1 a lion's or a leopard's claw1 and other similar articles1 worn round the head1 the arm1 the wrist1 or the ankle4 ,hence also the habit of driving nails into and hanging rags upon trees1 which are considered apt places for the laying of evil spirits4 ,the second and perhaps the most profitable occupation of the medicine man is1 the detection of sorcery4 ,the unfortunate wretches1 accused of practising the black art1 are generally required to prove their innocence by submitting to various ordeals1 similar to the fire tests of medival ,europe4 ,the commonest trial consists in the administration of some poisonous liquid1 such as the red water of the ,ashantees1 which is extremely apt to find the accused person guilty4 ,if he escape unhurt1 however1 and without vomiting1 he is judged innocent4 ,much dancing and singing takes place on account of his escape1 and he is allowed to demand that some punishment be inflicted on his accusers1 on account of the defamation4 ,among the ,eastern ,africans visited by ,captain ,burton1 a heated iron spike driven into some tender part of the person accused is twice struck with a log of wood4 ,the ,wazaramo dip the hand into boiling water1 the ,waganda into seething oil1 and the ,wazegura prick the ear with the stiff bristles of a gnu's tail4 ,the crime of sorcery is usually punished by the stake2 and in some parts of ,eastern ,africa1 the roadside shows at every few miles1 a heap or two of ashes with a few calcined and blackened human bones1 telling the shocking tragedy that has been enacted there4 ,the prospect cannot be contemplated without horror3 here and there1 close to the larger circle where the father and mother have been burnt1 a smaller heap shows that some wretched child has shared its parents' terrible fate1 lest growing up he should follow in their path4 ,in countries where a season of drought causes dearth1 disease1 and desolation1 the rain maker or rain doctor1 is necessarily a person of great consequence1 and he does not fail to turn the hopes and fears of the people to his own advantage4 ,the enemy has medicines for dispersing the clouds which the doctor is expected to attract by his more potent charms4 ,his spells are those of fetissists in general1 the mystic use of something foul1 poisonous1 or difficult to procure4 ,as he is a weatherwise man1 and rains in tropical lands are easily foreseen1 his trickery sometimes proves successful4 ,not unfrequently1 however1 he proves himself a false prophet1 and when all the resources of cunning fail he must fly for his life1 from the exasperated victims of his delusion4 ,the holy man is also a predictor and a soothsayer4 ,he foretells the success or failure of commercial or warlike expeditions1 prevents their being undertaken1 or fixes the proper time for their commencement4 ,in one word1 his influence extends over almost all the occurrences of life1 and is all the greater for being based on the abject superstition of his votaries4 ,prayers and sacrifices are the chief religious observances of the ,pagan negroes4 ,like most people all over the world1 they pray for health1 good weather1 rich harvests1 or victory over their enemies4 ,after a long continuance of dearth1 the ,wawas assemble in a mourning procession before the house in which a panther is adored as a god4 ,howling and lamenting they represent to him their distress1 and beg him to send them rain1 as otherwise they must all die of hunger4 ,the ,watjas pray to the new moon to give them strength for labouring1 and the ,aminas go even so far as to implore their god to pay their debts4 ,the sacrifices or gift offerings of the ,negroes generally consist of various kinds of household animals1 or fruits of the earth2 but in the kingdoms of ,ashantee and ,dahomey1 human sacrifices are prevalent to a frightful extent4 ,as the kings and black nobility ascend1 after death1 to the upper gods1 with whom they are to enjoy eternally the state and luxury which was their portion on earth1 a certain number of slaves1 proportionate to their dignity1 is sacrificed for the purpose of serving them in their new condition4 ,bowdich#da relates that the king of ,ashantee1 on the death of his mother1 butchered no less than #c1jjj victims1 and on his own death this number would probably be doubled4 ,the funeral rites of a great captain were repeated weekly for three months1 and #bjj persons were slaughtered each time1 or #b1djj in all4 ,these wholesale executions1 the details of which are too horrible to relate1 still subsist to the present day1 for the negroes cling with remarkable tenacity to their ancient customs1 and this is perhaps the principal obstacle to their civilization or improvement4 ,the belief1 so common among barbarous nations1 that after death the spirit of the deceased still feels the same wants as during life1 and the same pleasure in their gratification1 leads to similar atrocious murders in other ,african countries1 though probably nowhere on so gigantic a scale as in ,ashantee4 ,thus the chiefs of ,unyamwesi are generally interred with cruel rites4 ,a deep pit is sunk1 with a kind of vault projecting from it2 in this the corpse1 clothed with skin and hide1 is placed sitting1 with a pot of malt liquor1 whilst sometimes one1 but more generally three1 female slaves1 one on each side and the third in front1 are buried alive to preserve their lord from the horrors of solitude4 ,the great headmen of the ,wadoe are interred almost naked1 but retaining their head ornaments1 sitting in a shallow pit so that the forefinger can project above the ground4 ,with each man is buried alive a male and a female slave1 the former holding a bill-hook wherewith to cut fuel for his master in the cold death-world1 and the latter1 who is seated upon a little stool1 supports his head in her lap4 ,among the negroes of ,bonny1 on the coast of ,guinea1 the wants of the dead are provided for in a less inhuman manner4 ,the wealthy oil-merchant is interred under the threshold of his door1 and a small round opening left in the ground leads to the head of the corpse4 ,on feast days large quantities of rum are poured into this opening to gratify the thirst of the deceased and give him his share of the good things of this earth1 for it is supposed that in the land of spirits he still retains the same predilection for spirituous enjoyments which he frequently testified during life4 ,the medicine men invariably attend at these interesting ceremonies1 and largely participate in the libations offered to the dead4 ,throughout all ,negro land we find1 more or less1 the custom so prevalent among other barbarous nations1 of painting or tattooing the body1 of distending the ears1 of dressing the hair in a ridiculous manner1 or of wearing an extravagant quantity of worthless trinkets2 but the ,manganja1 a negro tribe inhabiting the banks of the ,shire1 have adopted the same wonderful ornament1 if such it may be called1 which so hideously distorts the ,botocude physiognomy4 ,the middle of the upper lip of the girls is pierced close to the septum of the nose1 and a small pin inserted to prevent the puncture closing up4 ,after it has healed1 the pin is taken out and a larger one is pressed into its place1 and so on successively for weeks and months and years4 ,the process of increasing the size of the lip goes on till its capacity becomes so great that a ring of two inches in diameter can be introduced with ease4 ,the poorer classes make the pell--as this absurd instrument of disfigurement is called--of hollow or of solid bamboo1 but the wealthier of ivory or tin4 ,the tin pell is often made in the form of a small dish2 the ivory one is not unlike a napkin ring4 ,no woman ever appears in public without the pell1 except in times of mourning for the dead4 ,the ,manganjas no doubt see beauty in the upper lip projecting two inches beyond the tip of the nose1 but to the rest of the world it is frightfully ugly4 ,when an old wearer of a hollow bamboo-ring smiles1 by the action of the muscles of the cheek1 the ring and lip outside it are dragged back and thrown above the eyebrows4 ,the nose is seen through the middle of the ring1 and the exposed teeth show how carefully they have been chipped to look like those of a cat or crocodile4 ,when told it makes them ugly1 they had better throw it away1 the ,manganja ladies return the same answer as their ,european sisters1 when fault is found with a monstrous chignon or an extravagant crinoline3 #8,really1 it is the fashion4' ,on the coast of ,guinea1 in the low delta of the ,niger1 we find the ,negro inhabiting a country very different from the arid wastes in which the ,bushman roams1 more like a wild animal than a human creature4 ,here1 instead of vast plains thirsting for water1 numerous canals and creeks intersect the swampy soil and render the canoe as necessary to the existence of the people as the camel is to that of the ,bedouins of the desert4 ,the canoe furnishes the ,bonnian with provisions from the interior of the country1 it also serves to transport the palm oil which he exchanges for the commodities of ,europe4 ,this traffic1 which has supplanted the old slave trade1 has now lasted many years1 but as yet the humanizing influence of commerce has made itself but little felt among the ,bonnians whose intercourse with the white customers has only served to engraft some of the worst vices of civilized man on the brutality of the savage4 ,trade has indeed awakened in them the spirit of speculation1 it has sharpened their intellect and rendered their manners less barbarous than those of their neighbours2 but it has also taught them all the arts of deception and rendered them accomplished cheats1 thieves1 and liars4 ,of a passionate character1 a trifle will provoke the most violent explosions of rage1 which often lead to the use of the knife or the gun4 ,king ,peppel1 one of the last sovereigns of this miserable little realm1 would1 without ceremony1 send a bullet1 the fatal messenger of his wrath1 among the native crew of a canoe that was in his way or somewhat tardy in paying him the respect due to royalty4 ,the priest1 conjurer1 or medicine man still preserves an unshaken authority over the superstitious minds of the ,bonnians1 and appears most despicable in the character of a judge1 for his verdict always inclines to the side of the party which offers him the largest bribe1 and a cruel punishment awaits the wretch who has nothing but his innocence to plead in his favour4 ,the accused is either obliged to undergo the ordeal of swimming across a creek1 where he becomes the sure prey of the alligator or the shark2 or he is led to execution on a sandpit at its mouth1 where he is bound at ebb tide to two poles fastened in the sand4 ,one limb after another1 proceeding from the hands and feet to the shoulders and hip joints1 is now separated from the bleeding trunk which is finally hewn down from the stake4 ,while this horrid scene is performing1 the impatient alligators already protrude their monstrous jaws out of the water1 and the sharks are also in attendance waiting till the returning flood brings them their share of the feast4 ,at the next ebb the sea has washed away every trace of the disgusting spectacle4 ,sometimes a cruel sacrifice is offered to the sea4 ,as the ,bonnians chiefly subsist by their trade with the ,europeans1 which enables them to procure provisions from the interior1 the arrival of the foreign ships is to them of the greatest importance4 ,but large vessels are in the dry season often prevented for weeks together from passing the bar by low water1 fogs1 calms1 or contrary winds4 ,a sufficient depth of water across the bar is therefore the great desideratum of the traders or #8gentlemen1' as they call themselves1 of ,bonny4 ,to obtain this they sail with several large canoes down the river close to the bar1 where they throw several of their best male and female slaves into the water as a propitiatory offering to the sea1 so as to induce it to rise1 or1 as they call it1 to make #8big water4' ,the aspect of the capital town of ,bonny1 or ,okolloma1 which may contain about #e1jjj souls1 corresponds with the barbarous state of its inhabitants4 ,on account of its low situation1 scarcely elevated above high-water mark1 the streets are constantly muddy1 so that a stranger visiting the place is obliged to be carried over the worst places on the unctuous back of a negro1 the only vehicle in ,okolloma4 ,the streets or rather lanes form a complete labyrinth1 as every man erects his hut where he thinks proper1 without any regard to regularity4 ,the clay floor of these dwellings1 which1 though varying in size1 are all built on the same plan1 is raised about a foot above the level of the streets1 and is undermined in all directions by a multitude of burrowing crabs4 ,the walls are generally only six or seven feet high1 but the roof1 thatched with palm leaves1 rises without any partition twenty feet or more above the floor4 ,generally the hut is without any window1 so that in the obscurity which reigns within1 it is difficult for the stranger to find his way to the smaller rooms or compartments into which the interior is subdivided4 ,some gourds and water-jugs1 a few cases filled with clothes1 arms1 and other valuables1 and low wooden stools for the master and his chief attendants1 form the only furniture4 ,the dwellings of the #8gentlemen' have no more pretension to architectural beauty than those of the humblest #8freeman1' consisting merely of several of the huts above described clustered together in the strangest confusion and communicating with each other through door openings in the interior4 ,if idleness were bliss the tribes inhabiting the fertile ,lake ,regions of ,central ,africa must be reckoned among the happiest of mankind4 ,rising with the dawn from his couch of cow's hide1 the negro usually kindles a fire to keep out the chill of the morning from his hay-stack hut1 and addresses himself to his constant companion the pipe4 ,when the sun becomes sufficiently powerful he removes the reed screen which forms the entrance to his dwelling1 and issues forth to bask in the morning beams4 ,after breaking his fast with a dish of porridge or curded milk1 he now repairs to the ,iwanza1 or village #8public1' where in the society of his own sex he will spend the greater part of the day talking and laughing1 smoking or indulging in copious draughts of a beer without hops1 called pombe1 the use of which among the negro and negroid races dates back as far as the age of ,osiris4 ,to while away the time he sits down to play at heads and tails2 gambling being as violent a passion in him as with the ,malay or the ,americian ,indian4 ,many of the ,wanyamwesi have been compelled by this indulgence to sell themselves into slavery1 and1 after playing away their property1 they even stake their aged mothers against the equivalent of an old lady in these lands--a cow or a pair of goats4 ,others1 instead of gambling1 indulge in some less dangerous employment1 which occupying the hands1 leaves the rest of the body and the mind at ease2 such as whittling wood1 piercing and airing their pipe-sticks1 plucking out their beards1 eyebrows1 and eye-lashes1 or preparing and polishing their weapons4 ,at noon the ,african returns to his hut to eat the most substantial and the last meal of the day1 which has been cooked by his women4 ,eminently gregarious1 however1 he often prefers the ,iwanza as a dining-room1 where the company of relatives and friends adds the pleasure of society to the enjoyment of beef or mutton4 ,with him food is the all-in-all of life--his thought by day1 his dream by night4 ,the civilised ,european can hardly comprehend the intense delight with which his wild brother satisfies the wants of his stomach1 or the envious eye which he casts on all those who live better than himself4 ,after eating1 the ,east ,african invariably indulges in a long fit of torpidity1 using the back1 breast1 or stomach1 of his neighbour as a pillow1 and awakening from his siesta1 passes the afternoon as he did the forenoon1 chatting1 playing1 smoking1 and where tobacco fails1 chewing sweet earth1 or the clay of ant-hills4 ,this probably contains some animal matter1 but the chief reason for using it is apparently the necessity to barbarians of whiling away the time when not sleeping1 by exercising their jaws4 ,towards sunset all issue forth to enjoy the coolness2 the men sit outside the ,iwanza1 whilst the women and the girls1 after fetching water for the household wants from the well1 collect in a group upon their little stools1 and indulge in the pleasures of gossip and the pipe4 ,this delightful hour in the more favoured parts of the country is replete with enjoyment1 felt by the barbarian as much as by civilised man4 ,as the hours of darkness draw nigh1 the village doors are carefully closed1 and after milking his cows1 each peasant retires to his hut1 or passes his time squatting round the fire with his friends in the ,iwanza4 ,he has not yet learned the art of making a wick1 and of filling a bit of pottery with oil4 ,an ignited stick of some oleaginous wood1 which will keep burning for a quarter of an hour with a brilliant flame1 serves to light him home4 ,such is the ,african's idle day1 and thus every summer is spent2 but as the wintry rains draw nigh1 and provisions become scarce1 the necessity of providing for his daily bread suggests itself1 and labour in the fields occupies a great part of the day1 which would otherwise have been spent in the ,iwanza4 ,when the moon shines bright1 the spirits of the ,east ,african rise to their highest pitch1 and a furious drumming1 a loud clapping of hands1 and a drowsy chorus summon the lads and lasses of the neighbouring villages to come out and dance4 ,the style of saltation usual in these parts is remarkable only for the excessive gravity which it induces1 for at no other time does the ,east ,african look so serious1 so full of earnest purpose1 as when about to practise the art of ,terpsichore4 ,at first the dancers tramping to the measure with alternate feet1 and simultaneously performing a kind of treadmill exercise1 with a heavier stamp at the end of every period1 sway their bodies slowly from side to side2 but as excitement increases1 #8,the mirth and fun grows fast and furious1' till the assembly1 with arms waving like windmills1 assumes the semblance of a set of maniacs4 ,the performance often closes with a grand promenade1 all the dancers being jammed in a rushing mass1 with the features of satyrs and fiendish gestures4 ,the performance having reached this highest pitch1 the song dies1 and the dancers with loud shouts of laughter1 throw themselves on the ground to recover strength and breath4 ,what a contrast to this life of easy indolence when the ,negro villager1 violently torn from home1 is led away into hopeless slavery6 ,this1 however1 is but too often his lot1 for throughout the whole length and breadth of torrid ,africa1 from the coast of ,guinea to the borders of the ,nile1 we almost universally find man armed against man and the stronger tribes ever ready to kidnap and capture the weaker wretches within their reach4 ,every year sees new gangs of slaves driven to the great mart of ,zanzibar1 or on their melancholy way across the desert to ,chartum2 every year witnesses the renewal of atrocities1 which1 to the disgrace of man1 date back as far as the time of the ,phnicians1 and may possibly outlast the nineteenth century4#db ,an ,egyptian ,razzai1 or slave-hunting expedition1 after long toilsome marches across the desert or through the primeval forest1 at length succeeds in surprising a ,negro village4 ,the soldiers1 in whom their own sufferings have long since extinguished every spark of humanity1 rush with tiger-like ferocity upon their prey2 their fury spares neither age nor infancy2 all who are deemed unfit for a life of bondage are mercilessly butchered4 ,the ,scheba1 a heavy wooden collar1 shaped like a fork1 rests upon the neck of the adult captives1 and prevents their escape or their desperate attempts at suicide4 ,being neither planed nor covered with soft rags1 it wears deep wounds into the skin1 and causes painful ulcers which last as long as the journey1 for the ,scheba is not removed before the place of destination is reached4 ,more goaded and more brutally treated than a herd of cattle1 the miserable pilgrims now set forth on their eternal separation from all that rendered life of any value in their eyes4 ,before the burning village fades for ever from their sight1 the commander orders the caravan to halt4 ,little cares he1 if1 under those smoking ruins some wounded wretch unable to move1 sees the flames advance nearer and nearer to consume him2 if some infant left in a conflagrated hut utters its piercing cries for help4 ,this is the fate of more than one village until a sufficient number of slaves has been collected1 or the expedition is unable any longer to withstand the climate1 or the attacks of an exasperated foe4 ,burning1 plundering1 and destroying1 the soldiers return to ,chartum4 ,the caravan moves slowly4 ,the men wounded in battle or with necks chafed by the ,scheba1 the poor women half-dead from thirst and hunger1 the weak children cannot possibly walk fast4 ,brehm witnessed the arrival of a transport of ,dinkh negroes at ,chartum and was for weeks after haunted by the dreadful sight1 the horrors of which no pen could describe1 no words express4 ,it was on ,january #ab1 #ahdh4 ,before the government house1 about sixty men and women sat in a circle on the ground4 ,all the men were shackled1 the women free4 ,children were creeping on all fours between them4 ,the wretches lay exposed without the least protection to the rays of the burning sun1 too exhausted1 too dispirited to murmur or to complain1 their dull glassy eyes immovably fixed on one spot1 and yet full of an indescribably mournful expression4 ,blood and matter issued from the wounds of the men1 but no word of pity1 no helping hand was there to alleviate their sufferings4 ,involuntarily the eye of the spectator sought out the most miserable objects of the miserable group1 and found them in a mother worn down to a skeleton by despair1 hunger1 and fatigue1 and vainly pressing her famished infant to her dried-up breast4 ,it seemed to him as if he saw the ,angel of ,death hovering over the wretched pair1 as if he heard the rustling of his wings1 and from the bottom of his heart he prayed that ,god might soon send the deliverer to release them from their sufferings4 ,,footnotes #a ,captain ,stokes's #8,discoveries in ,australia4' #b #8,narrative of ,missionary ,enterprise in the ,south ,sea ,islands1' p4 #cij4 #c ,though frequently confounded1 even by the ,peruvian ,creoles1 the western chain1 running parallel with the coast of the ,pacific1 is properly the ,cordillera1 while the eastern chain1 which generally runs in the same direction as the former1 has always been named the ,andes by the ,indian natives4 #d ,it is only in the ,old ,world that the reindeer has ever been domesticated4 #e ,for a more detailed account of the ,peruvian ,guano ,islands1 see #8,the ,sea and its ,living ,wonders4' ,second ,edition1 pp4 #add1 #adg4 #f #8,the ,sea and its ,living ,wonders4' ,second ,edition1 p4 #da4 #g ,ibid1 p4 #dj4 #h #8,the ,sea and its ,living ,wonders1' p4 #aie4 #i #8,the ,subterranean ,world4' ,second ,edition1 p4 #cjf4 #aj ,whoever has read ,rckert's wonderful translation of #8,the ,makamas of ,hariri' will be able to form some opinion of the richness of the ,arabic and at the same time admire the exuberant treasures of the ,german tongue4 #aa ,d',escayrac1 #8,le ,dsert et le ,soudan4' #ab ,forbes's #8,oriental ,memoirs4' #ac ,tennent's #8,ceylon1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #fad1 #fah4 #ad #8,wanderings1' p4 #e4 #ae #8,himalayan ,journals1' vol4 i4 p4 #adf4 #af ,see ,chapter ,,iii4 #ag ,tennent's #8,ceylon1' vol4 ii4 p4 #ebc4 #ah ,the northern part of the new continent had been visited and colonized centuries before by the mariners of ,iceland4 ,for an account of this discovery1 see #8,the ,sea and its ,living ,wonders1' second edition1 p4 #cfb4 #ai ,tennant's #8,ceylon1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bcd4 #bj #8,the ,sea and its ,living ,wonders1' ch4 xx4 #ba #8,narrative of ,events in ,borneo and ,celebes1' ,london #ahdh1 vol4 i4 p4 #bad4 #bb ,kirby and ,spence's #8,introduction to ,entomology2' ,swainson's #8,habits and ,instincts of ,animals4' #bc ,junghuhn1 #8,die ,battalnder4' ,berlin1 #ahdg4 #bd #8,jamaica ,almanac1' #ahdc4 #be ,spix and ,martius1 #8,reisen in ,brasilien4' #bf ,sir ,e4 ,tennent's #8,ceylon1' vol4 i4 p4 #aic4 #bg ,at the time of ,mr4 ,darwin's visit an attempt1 since given up1 had been made to colonise the islands1 which are once more only tenanted by casual adventurers1 and may be well called uninhabited4 #bh ,for more ample details on the ,marine ,chelonians1 see chap4 ix4 of #8,the ,sea and its ,living ,wonders4' #bi ,forbes' #8,oriental ,memories1' vol4 i4 p4 #ceg4 #cj #8,discoveries in ,australia4' #ca #8,reiseskizzen aus ,nord-st-,afrika4' #cb ,baker's #8,eight ,years' ,wanderings in ,ceylon1' vol i4 p4 #afg4 #cc #8,the ,sea and its ,living ,wonders1' p4 #aci4 #cd ,a4 ,adams4 #8,notes of the ,natural ,history of the ,islands of the ,eastern ,archipelago4 ,narrative of the ,voyage of ,h4,m4,s4 ,samarang4' #ce #8,the ,sea and its ,living ,wonders1' p4 #aai4 #cf ,words of the #8,koran4' #cg ,sir ,james ,emerson ,tennent3 #8,ceylon1' vol4 ii4 p4 #bhh4 ,fourth ,edition4 #ch ,tennent's #8,ceylon1' vol4 ii4 pp4 #ccf-cdj4 #ci #8,the ,sea and its ,living ,wonders1' p4 #aed4 #dj ,quarterly ,review1 #ahee1 p4 #bb4 #da ,mission from ,cape ,coast ,castle to ,ashantee1 #ahai4 #db ,sir ,bartle ,frere's mission gives us reason to hope that better days are in store for the unfortunate ,east ,africans4 ,,index4 ,aard-varks1 or earth hogs 7,orycteropi71 #dhh ,abies ,brunoniana of the slopes of ,sikkim1 #hc ---- ,webbiana of the slopes of ,sikkim1 #hc ,abrus precatoria1 spider called the1 #bac ,abyssinia1 the tsalt-salya or zimb of1 #bcj ,acacia latronm1 thorns of the1 #add ,aden1 coffee first introduced into1 #agj ,adjutant bird1 #cjc ---- his destruction of reptiles1 #cjc ,africa1 timber of the eastern coast-lands of1 #f ---- influence of the heated plains of1 in deflecting the trade-winds1 #h ---- gigantic trees of1 #abj et seq4 ---- reason why droughts are prevalent in1 #he ---- bushmen of1 #he ---- animals of1 #hh ,african mode of life1 #eca ,agades1 tower in1 #ic ,agave ,americana1 #ha1 #acb ---- its uses1 #acc ,air-currents1 their effects in the equatorial regions1 #d ---- the trade-winds1 #d1 #e ---- polar and equatorial air-currents1 #a ,as1 the1 #dig ,albatross1 the1 compared with the condor1 #cgh ---- avoids the torrid zone1 #bfg ,alexander the ,great1 said to have introduced the peacock into ,europe1 #cfj ,algeria1 domestication of the ostrich in1 #chh ,alligators1 torpor of1 of the ,amazons river1 #df ---- the caymen1 of the ,new ,world1 #ccc ---- mode of seizing their prey1 #ccd ---- their voice1 #ccd ---- their conflicts among themselves1 #cce ---- their preference for human flesh1 #ccd ,alligators1 their tenacity of life1 #cce ---- their tenderness for their young1 #ccf ---- their friends and enemies1 #cci ,allspice1 #bjd4 ,see ,pimento ,aloes1 the1 of the torrid zone1 #acb ,alpaca1 value of its wool1 #bc ---- herds of1 in the high table-lands of ,peru and ,bolivia1 #be ,altos of the ,puna1 #bh ,aluate1 or howling monkey1 #eab ,amazonian parrot 7,psittacus ,amazonicus71 #cif ,amazons1 or ,maraon1 river ---- ---- ---- source of1 #cf ---- ---- ---- its length1 width1 and course1 #cf ---- ---- ---- its tributaries1 #cg ---- ---- ---- rapids and cataracts of the1 #cf ---- ---- called the ,solimoens from the ,brazilian frontier to the influx of the ,rio ,negro1 #cg ---- ---- ---- its unfathomable depth at the ,strait of ,obydos1 #cg ---- ---- ---- its tide-waves1 #ch ---- ---- ---- its width below ,gurupa1 #ch ---- ---- ---- and when it reaches the ocean1 #ch ---- ---- ---- imperfect knowledge of the river1 #ci ---- ---- ---- extent of territory drained by the ,amazons1 #dj ---- ---- ---- its colossal rise1 #dj ---- ---- ---- lagunes of the1 and their beautiful scenery1 #da ---- ---- ---- different character of the forests beyond and within the verge of the inundation of the river1 #db ---- ---- ---- a sail on the river1 and a night's encampment1 #dc ---- ---- ---- the yacu-mama1 or #8mother of the waters1' #dd ,amazons1 the voracious pirangas1 #de ---- ---- ---- mosquitoes of the1 #de ---- ---- ---- beds of aquatic grass on the1 #de ---- ---- ---- birds on the1 #df ---- ---- ---- insects of the1 #df ---- ---- ---- storms on the river1 #dg ---- ---- ---- rapids and whirlpool1 #dg ---- ---- ---- the ,amazons regarded as the stream of the future1 #di ---- ---- ---- discovery of the ,amazons by ,vincent ,yaez ,pinson1 #ej ---- ---- ---- adventures of ,pizarro and ,madame ,godin on the1 #ej-eb ---- ---- ---- primitive forests of the banks of the ,amazons1 #ec ---- ---- ---- the mosquito plagues of1 #bbb ---- ---- ---- orange-red colouring matter used by the ,indians of the1 #aie ,america1 growth of cotton in1 #ahi1 #aij ---- insect plagues of1 #bba ---- snakes of the ,united ,states of1 #caf ---- ,south1 influence of the ,maraon on the climate of the1 #e ---- ,central1 deflections from the ordinary course of the trade-winds in1 #h ---- savannahs of1 #ab ---- a savannah on fire1 #ad ---- cultivation of maize in1 #afe ---- primitive forests of1 #ed ,amsterdam1 a spice-fire in1 #bjj ,anaconda1 or water-boa 7,eunectes murinus71 #cja ,anarajapoora1 sacred ,bo tree of1 #abg ,anderson1 ,mr41 his adventure with a rhinoceros1 #dbh ---- and with a lion1 #ddi ,angola1 red ant of1 #bce ,anolis1 the1 #caj1 #cab ---- battles of the1 #cab ---- faculty of changing colour1 #cac ,anomaluri1 the1 of the west coast of ,africa1 #die ,ant-eaters1 #dhb ---- the great ant-bear1 #dhb ---- his mode of licking up termites1 #dhc ---- his characteristics1 #dhc ---- ,indian mode of killing him1 #dhd ---- the manides1 or pangolins1 #dhe ---- the ,aard-varks1 or orycteropi1 #dhf ---- the porcupine ant-eater1 #dhh ,antelopes of ,south ,africa1 #djh ---- cervicapra1 #dab ,antonio ,julian1 ,don1 regrets that the use of coca had not been introduced into ,europe1 #ahg ,ants1 their ravages in sugar plantations1 #agg ,ants1 vast numbers of1 in tropical countries1 #bcd ---- excruciating pain caused by the bite of the ,ponera clavata1 #bce ---- the red ant of ,angola1 #bce ---- the sugar ants1 #bcf ---- house ants1 #bcg ---- driver or foraging ants1 #bch ---- societies of ants1 #bci ---- fungus ants1 #bci ---- ,formica bispinosa1 #bci ---- ant-hills1 #bdj ---- sagacity of ants1 #bdj ---- slave-making expeditions of some kinds of ants1 #bdj ---- the honey ant of ,mexico1 #bdj ---- termites1 or white ants1 #bda4 ,see ,termites ---- black ants1 #bdf ---- wars between black and white ants1 #bdf ,apes1 anthropomorphous1 compared and contrasted with man1 #dih ,arabia1 coffee first introduced into1 #agh ---- mode of cultivating coffee in1 #agi ,arabic tongue1 delicacy of the1 #aah ,arandi 7,bombyx ,cynthia71 soft threads spun by the1 #bdi ,arane of the tropics1 #baa ,aras of ,america 7,macrocerus ,macao71 the1 #cih ,arauca1 ,rio1 mosquitoes of1 #bcc ,archipelago1 the ,eastern1 bamboos of #acj ---- ---- screw pine of the1 #acc ---- the ,mulgrave1 importance of the screw pine to the inhabitants of1 #acc ,areca palm 7,areca ,catechu71 the1 #aea1 #afb ---- ,singhalese habit of chewing the nuts with lime and betel-pepper leaves1 #aea ,areca sapida of ,new ,zealand1 #afj ,armadillos1 the1 #dhg ---- of the sand-coast of ,peru1 #cd ---- genera of the ,armadillos1 #dhg ,arnatto 7,bixa orellana71 used as a dye1 #aie ,arnee 7,bubalus arnee71 #dac ---- uses of1 #aif ,arrack made from the cocoa-nut tree1 #adh ,arrowroot1 from what obtained1 #agj ---- mode of obtaining it1 #agj1 #aga ,artocarpus incisa1 or bread-fruit tree1 #aff ,ascension1 turtles of the island of1 #cbh ,ashantee1 human sacrifices at1 #ebf ,asp of ancient authors1 #cjj ,atlantic1 limits of the trade-winds in the ,northern1 #d1 #e ,atlas mountains1 ephemeral streams of the1 #gj ---- ---- the lions of the1 #dgg ,atlas-moth1 cinnamon-eating1 of ,ceylon1 #bjg ,atro1 or ,ben ,israel of ,abyssinia 7,cephalopus hemprichii71 #daj ,aturas1 extinct tribe of the1 #gb ---- their graves1 #gb ,australians1 physical conformation of the1 #dff ---- their low state of civilisation1 #dfg ---- their languages1 #dfg ---- their superstitions1 #dfg1 #dfh ---- their dances1 #dfi ---- their family names and family kobongs1 or badges1 #dgj ---- their ceremony of marriage1 #dgj ---- their blood feuds1 #dgj ---- their savage customs1 #dgj ---- their food1 #dgj ---- their division of property1 #dga ---- their punishments1 #dga ---- laws for the preservation and distribution of food1 #dgb ---- their respect for age1 #dgb ---- their hunts1 #dgc ---- their dexterity in fishing1 #dgd ---- their hospitality and feasts1 #dge ---- not guilty of cannibalism1 #dgf ---- their throwing-stick and boomerang1 #dgf ---- their moral qualities1 #dgf ,baboons1 #eaj ,baboon1 the great1 of ,senegal1 #eaj ,bacha1 the 7,falco bacha71 #chb ,bactrian camel1 #dja ,bahama ,islands1 mode of catching turtles on the1 #cbh ,bahia toad1 #cai ,bakalahari1 the1 of the ,kalahari1 #hf-ia ---- their love for agriculture and domestic animals1 #ia ---- their timidity1 #ib ---- fur of their animals1 #ib ,balagnini of the vicinity of ,sooloo1 #bef ,balistin1 #bgb ,baltimore bird 7,icterus ,baltimore71 #ceb ---- ---- nest of the1 #cec ,bamboos 7,bambusace7 of the tropics1 #acj ---- variety of uses to which they are applied1 #acj ,bambusace1 the1 of the tropics1 #acj ---- rapidity of their growth1 #acj ,banana 7,musa sapientum71 its importance as food1 #afg1 #afh ,banana 7,musa sapientum71 and of the ,saba ant1 #bcf ,banda1 nutmeg trees of1 #aii1 #bjj ,banyan tree 7,ficus indica71 #abd1 #abe ---- ---- fondness of the ,hindoos for it1 #abe ,baobab1 ,african1 or monkey-bread tree 7,adansonia digitata71 #abj1 #aba ---- ---- immense specimens of1 #aba ---- ---- used as a vegetable cistern1 #abb ---- ---- its age1 #abb ,barbasco 7,jacquinia armillaris71 used for catching fish1 #ff ,barima river1 the ,upper1 gigantic trees of1 #acj ,basilisk1 the1 #cah ,bats of tropical forests1 #dij1 #dia ---- organisation of1 #dia ---- the kalongs1 or fox-bats1 of ,java1 #dia ---- the vampire1 #dib ---- the ,rhinolophi1 or horse-shoe bats1 #dic ---- the ,scotophilis ,coromandelicus of ,ceylon1 #did ,battas1 a ,malay tribe1 #bei #8,bay of the ,thousand ,isles1' #ch ,baya birds of ,hindostan1 their nests1 #cfg ,bear1 the cocoa-nut 7,ursus malayanus71 #adi ,bechuanas1 their love for agriculture and domestic animals1 #ia ---- their mode of drawing water1 #ia ,bedouins1 personal appearance of the1 #aje ---- their love of solitude1 #ajg ---- acuteness of their senses1 #ajg ---- their manners1 #ajh ---- their patriotism1 #ajh ---- song of ,maysunah1 #aji ---- traits of their character1 #aji ---- ferocity of their life1 #aaj ---- their women1 #aaj ---- their chivalrous spirit1 #aaa ---- story of the ,caliph ,el ,mutasen1 #aaa ---- horses of the ,arabs1 #aaa1 #aab ---- camels of the1 #aac ---- ---- the instrument of lasting freedom1 #aac ---- encampments of the ,bedouins1 #aae ---- quarrels among them1 #aae ---- murders among them1 #aaf ---- their amusements1 #aaf1 #aag ---- their hospitality and accomplishments1 #aah ---- delicacy of the ,arabic tongue1 #aah ---- manners and habits of the ,bedouins1 #aai ---- their religious character1 #aai ---- their similarity to the ,north ,american ,indians1 #aai ,beetles of the ,amazons1 #df ---- of the tropical forests1 #df ---- edible1 of the ,oreodoxa oleracea1 #aei ---- peculiarity of beetle-life in the torrid zone1 #bjf ---- the ,hercules beetle 7,megasomina ,hercules71 #bjf ---- ,goliath1 of the tropics1 #bjf ---- the ,goliaths of the coast of ,guinea1 #bjf ---- luminous beetles1 #baj ---- ---- cocujas of ,south ,america1 #baj ,begus1 or evil spirits1 of the ,malays1 #bfj ,behemoth of the ,bible1 #dag ,bell-bird1 or campanero1 #cej ,bengal1 indigo of1 #aib1 #aic ,berbice river1 the ,victoria ,regia discovered in the1 #acg ,bte rouge1 the1 of ,guiana and the ,west ,indies1 #bbg ,bhain 7,bubalus ,bhain71 #dad ,biledulgerid1 or oases south of the ,atlas1 toddy drunk in1 #aee ,birds of the ,puna1 or high table-lands of tropical ,america1 #bh1 #cd ---- of the tropical seas1 #bfg1 #bfh ---- of prey of the tropics1 #cgf ,birds'-nests1 edible1 #bfi ,black ants1 #bdf ,blast1 a sugar-cane disease1 #agg ,blatt1 #bcc ,blatta gigantea1 or the drummer1 #bcc ,bo tree1 or pippul1 of ,india 7,ficus religiosa71 #abf ---- ---- antiquity of one at ,anarajapoora1 in ,ceylon1 #abf ---- ---- veneration of the ,buddhists for it1 #abg ---- ---- union of the ,bo tree with the ,palmyra palm1 #acg ,boa constrictor1 #cja ---- ---- his habitat1 #cja ---- ---- the water1 #cja ---- ---- his habitat1 #cjb ,boaquira 7,crotalus horridus71 #bih ,bogota1 perennial rainy seasons of1 #f ,bombax ,ceiba1 #aci ,bombay1 heavy fall of rain at1 #h ,bombyx cynthia1 #bdi ---- mori1 #bdi ---- mylitta1 #bdi ,bonny1 mode of providing for the wants of the dead at1 #ebg ---- the town of1 #ebi1 #ecj ,boomerang of the ,australian savage1#dgf ,botocudo ,indians1 #fb ,botocudos ,indians1 #gg ,bottle tree of tropical ,australia1 #aci ,botuto1 or holy trumpet1 of the ,south ,american ,indians1 #gj ,bourbon1 nutmegs of1 #bja ,bow ,island4 ,see ,hau ,brazil1 impenetrable forests of1 #ee ---- sensitive plants of1 #ace ---- the bushropes or lianas of1 #ace ---- immense number of beetles found in1 #baj ---- the bush-master of1 #big ---- the giant-toad of1 #cbj ---- tree-frog of1 #cbj ---- birds of1 #cdg ---- humming-birds of1 #cdg ---- wood 7,csalpina crista71 description of the tree producing1 #aie ,brazilian nut 7,bertholletia71 #ade ,bread-fruit tree 7,artocarpus incisa7 of ,polynesia1 #aff ---- ---- ---- the harvest1 #aff ---- ---- ---- the sour paste1 #afg ,bromelids1 ,american1 #acb ---- uses of the1 #acb ,buddhists1 their veneration for the sacred ,bo tree at ,anarajapoora1 #abg ,buffalo1 the ,african 7,bubalus ,caffer71 his guardian bird1 #ddb ---- ferocity of the1 #dac ,buffalo-thorn 7,acacia latronm71 thorns of the1 #add ,buffaloes1 ferocity of the male solitaires of the1 #dac ,bulls1 wild1 of the ,puna mountain valleys1 #bh ,buprestis gigas1 elytra of the1 worn as an ornament1 #beb ,bushmen1 ,african1 #hh ---- their habitat1 #hh ---- their weapons1 #hi ---- their treatment of the ,bakalahari1 #ib ,bush-master snake 7,lachesis rhombeata71 #big ,bushropes1 or lianas1 of tropical vegetation1 #ace ,cabbage-palm of the ,antilles 7,oreodoxa oleracea71 its magnificence1 #aei ---- ---- grub of the1 #aei ,cabeza di ,negro 7,phytelephas71 hard white nuts of the1 #afj ,cacao tree 7,cacao theobroma71 #ahb ---- ---- origin of the name of theobroma1 #ahb ---- ---- indigenous in ,mexico1 #ahb ---- ---- ,humboldt's description of a cacao plantation1 #ahb ---- ---- mode of cultivation1 #ahc ---- ---- management of the beans1 #ahc ---- ---- used in the form of chocolate1 #ahc ,cactuses1 description of the1 #acc ---- their usefulness to man1 #acc ,cactuses did not exist in the ,old ,world previous to the discovery of ,america1 #acd ---- range of their growth1 #acd ---- of ,peru and ,bolivia1 #acd ---- of the ,puna1 #acd ,csalpina crista1 #aie ,caffa and ,enarea1 the original home of the coffee plant1 #agh ,calabar1 ,new and ,old1 palm-oil trade of1 #adf ,calao1 or rhinoceros horn-bill 7,buceros rhinoceros71 #ceh ,calcutta1 heavy fall of rain in1 #ah ,californian firs1 size of the1 #aei ,calms1 zone of1 #f ---- intense heat of the1 #f ---- heavy afternoon rains of the1 #f ,camel1 its resemblance to the ostrich1 #chg ---- the dromedary the ship of the desert1 #cii ---- adaptation of its organisation to its mode of life1 #djj ---- ,bedouin mode of training it1 #djj ---- the ,bactrian camel1 #dja ---- immemorial slavery of the camel1 #dja ---- its unamiable character1 #djb ,camelopard4 ,see ,giraffe ,campanero1 or bell-bird1 #cej ,canary ,islands1 gigantic dragon-trees of the1 #abc ,canis ,ing of the ,punas1 #bh ,caoutchouc tree 7,siphonia elastica71 ,indians incising some of them1 #ahh ---- ---- description of the tree1 #aij ---- ---- introduction of caoutchouc into ,europe1 #aij ---- ---- mode of collecting the resin1 #aij ---- ---- other trees yielding caoutchouc1 #aia ---- ---- various uses of ,india-rubber1 #aia ,caouana1 or loggerhead turtle 7,chelonia caouana71 #cca ,capybara1 or water-pig1 eaten by the alligator1 #ccc ,caribs1 #gf ,caracara eagle 7,polyborus caracara71 his station1 #bdf ,cardinal bird of ,mexico1 #hj ,carinaria vitrea1 the1 #bgd ,carnauba palm 7,corypha cerifera71 wax obtained from the1 #aeh ---- ---- other uses of the tree1 #aeh ,caroa 7,bromelia variegata71 fishing-nets made from the fibres of the1 #acb ,caroline ,islanders1 #bhi ,cassava1 or ,mandioca root 7,jatropha ,manihot71 how prepared as food1 #afi ,cassava1 the sweet cassava 7,jatropha janipha71 #agj ,cassicus cristatus1 #ced ---- ruber1 #ced ---- persicus1 #ced ,cassiques1 the1 #ced ---- their pendulous nests1 #ced ,cassowary1 the galeated 7,casuarius galeatus71 #cij1 #cia ,caterpillars1 eaten by man in ,africa1 #bea ---- their means of defence1 #bji ,cayman4 ,see ,alligator ,cecropias1 of the ,amazons river1 #de ,ceiba 7,bombax ceiba71 the1 of the forests of ,yucatan1 #abh ,cephalopods1 gigantic1 #bgd ,cerastes1 or horned viper1 of the ,egyptian jugglers1 #cja ,cercopitheci1 their characteristics1 #eje ---- parental affection of one1 #ejg ,ceroxylon andicola1 wax obtained from the1 #aei ---- height at which it will grow1 #aei1 #afj ,ceylon1 abundance of the cocoa-nut tree in1 #adf1 #adg ---- its love of the sea1 #adf ---- the tree1 and its fruit and flowers1 #adg ---- cocoa-nut oil trade of1 #adh ---- coir of the1 #adh ---- palmyra toddy of1 #adh ---- wood of the cocoa-nut tree1 uses for it1 #adi ---- enemies of the1 #adi ---- cultivation of rice in1 #afd ---- the coffee cultivation of1 #ahj ---- cinnamon gardens of1 #aih ---- ---- taken by the ,dutch1 who save the plants1 #aih ---- former profits of the ,dutch1 #aih ---- dimensions of the atlas moth of1 #bjg ---- ,mr4 ,stewart's plantation at ,ceylon1 #aii ---- nutmegs of1 #bjb ---- snakes of1 #bji ---- comparative rareness of venomous snakes in1 #bji ---- the rat-snake and cobra domesticated in1 #cjh ---- barbarous mode of selling turtle-flesh in1 #ccj ---- birds of1 #cgd ---- elephants of1 #ddj ---- elephant-catchers of1 #ddj ,chacma1 or pig-faced baboon 7,cynocephalus porcarius71 #eaj ,chalias1 the1 of ,ceylon1 and their supply of cinnamon1 #aih ,chamrops humilis1 of ,nizza1 #afj ,chameleon1 the1 #cac ---- its habitat1 #cac ---- its manner of hunting for its food1 #cac ---- peculiarities of its organisation1 #cad ,chancay1 sand-hills of1 #ce ,cheetah1 or hunting leopard1 #ddf ,chegoe1 ,pique1 or ,jigger1 of the ,west ,indies 7,pulex penetrans71 #bbe ---- its mode of working1 #bbe ---- native method of extirpating it1 #bbe ,chelonia imbricata1 #cbi1 #cca ---- midas1 #cbi ---- caouana1 #cca ,chelonians1 #cba ,chimpanzee1 the 7,simia troglodytes71 #dii ---- chim in ,paris1 #dii ,chincha1 or ,guano ,islands1 #ce ,chinchilla lanigera1 the1 of the high table-lands of ,peru1 #bg ---- ---- its appearance and habits1 #bg ,chirimoya 7,anona tripetala71 a ,peruvian fruit1 #agb ,choco of ,chili1 #afj ,chocolate1 #ahc ,chuu1 or chaps1 caused by the biting winds of the ,puna1 #ba ,cicad1 or frog-hoppers1 eaten by man1 #beb ,cilgero bird of ,cuba1 his song1 #cef ,cinnamon plant1 #aih ---- gardens of ,ceylon1 #aih ---- immense profits of the ,dutch1 #aih ---- decline of the trade1 #aih ---- mode of cultivating the plant and procuring the rind1 #aii ---- the ,ceylon chalias1 #aih ,cleopatra1 her death1 #cjj ,climates1 diversity of1 within the tropics1 #a ---- causes by which the diversity of1 is produced1 #b ---- varieties of the tropical1 #c ---- climate of the ,llanos of ,venezuela and ,new ,granada1 #aa ---- of the ,puna or high table-lands of ,peru and ,bolivia1 #bj ,cloves1 history of the cruel monopoly of the ,dutch in1 #bjj ---- clove-tree groves1 #bja ,coary river1 a tributary of the ,amazons1 #cg ,coatimondi1 the1 #dii ,cobra di ,capello1 the1 #bih1 #bii ---- tamed by the ,indian jugglers1 #bii ---- its habitat1 #cjj ---- its sea voyages1 #cjj ,coca 7,erythroxylon coca71 #ahd ,coca1 its immense consumption in ,peru and ,bolivia1 #ahd ---- mode of preparing it by the ,indians1 #ahe ---- its wonderfully strengthening effects1 #ahf ---- use of1 in ascending mountains1 #ahf ---- fatal consequences of its abuse1 #ahf ---- the coquero1 or confirmed coca-chewer1 #ahf ---- divine honours paid to the shrub by the ,peruvians1 #ahg ---- its use interdicted by the ,spanish conquerors1 but finally allowed and encouraged1 #ahg ---- its remarkable properties long remained unnoticed1 #ahg ,cocci1 the cochineal coccus of ,mexico1 #bdi1 #bej ,coccus cacti1 #bej ---- hesperidum of ,mexico1 #bdi ---- lacca1 or lac-insect1 #bdi1 #bea ---- of the coffee tree1 #ahb ,cochineal insect1 exportation of1 forbidden by the ,spaniards in ,mexico1 #bej ---- ---- introduced into the ,canary ,islands1 ,spain1 and other places1 #bea ---- ---- cultivation of the1 #bej ---- ---- history of cochineal1 #bej ,cock of the ,rock of ,guiana 7,rupicola aurantia71 #cea ,cockatoo1 the1 #cif ---- the great white1 #cif ---- the black of ,australia1 #cif ---- cockatoo-killing in ,australia1 #cif ,cockroaches 7,blatt71 tropical plague of1 introduced into ,england1 #bcc ---- the giant cockroach of the tropics 7,blatta gigantea71 #bcc ---- encounter between a spider and a cockroach1 #bah ,cocoa-nut tree 7,cocos nucifera71 the #adf ---- ---- ---- its abundance in ,ceylon1 #adf ---- ---- ---- its many uses to man1 #adg ---- ---- ---- cocoa-nut oil and the oil trade1 #adh ---- ---- ---- toddy made from the1 #adh ---- ---- ---- timber of the1 #adh1 #adi ---- ---- ---- cultivation of the1 #adi ---- ---- ---- enemies of the1 #adi ,cocos nucifera1 the1 #adf4 ,see ,cocoa-nut tree ---- butyracea1 or oil palm-tree of ,west ,africa1 #aeh ,cocujas beetle of ,south ,america1 its luminous qualities1 #baj ,coffee1 original home of the plant1 #agh ,coffee1 the use of1 introduced into ,arabia1 #agh ---- history of coffee-drinking1 #agi ---- the first coffee-houses in ,london and ,paris1 #agi ---- present state of coffee production throughout the world1 #agi1 #ahj ---- ,brazil1 ,java1 ,ceylon1 ,hayti1 and ,venezuela1 #ahj ---- ,mocha coffee1 its quality1 #ahj ---- mode of cultivation of the coffee-tree1 #ahj ---- coffee plantations1 #ahj ---- felling trees for coffee plantations in ,ceylon1 #aha ---- enemies of the coffee-tree1 #ahj ,coir1 or cocoa-nut fibre1 uses to which it is applied1 #adh ,colobi1 the ,african1 #eje ,colombo1 cinnamon gardens of1 #aih ,condamine1 ,m4 ,la1 his voyage from ,brancamoros to ,para1 #eb ---- introduces caoutchouc into ,europe1 #aij ,condor1 the1 of the high table-lands of tropical ,america1 #bh1 #cgg ---- his marvellous flight1 #cgg ---- his food1 #cgg ---- modes of capturing him1 #cgg1 #cgh ---- compared with the albatross1 #cgh ,conifer of the slopes of the ,sikkim mountains1 #hc ,copris hamadryas1 size of the1 #bje1 #bjf ,convolvulus batatas1 or sweet potato1 #agj ,coot1 the gigantic 7,fulica gigantea71 of tropical ,america1 #bh ,coppersmith bird of ,ceylon 7,megalasara ,indica71 #cgc ,coral islands1 #bff ---- formation of1 #bge ---- dreary monotony of a coral islander's life1 #bhi ,coral-snake 7,elaps corallinus71 domesticated in ,brazil1 #cjh ,coriaceous turtle 7,sphargis coriacea71 #ccj ,corozo palm 7,elis oleifera71 oil of the1 #aei ,corribory of the ,australians1 #dfi ,cotingas1 the1 #cej ,cotton1 #ahi ---- cultivation of1 #ahi ---- amazing rise of the cotton manufacture1 #ahi ---- the cotton harvest1 #aij ---- the cotton trade of ,india1 present and prospective1 #aij et seq4 ,couguar1 or puma1 the1 #dfb ---- shown by the ,peruvian ,indians1 #dfc ,counacutchi1 or bush-master snake 7,lachesis rhombeata71 #big ,crab1 land1 #bgb1 #bgc ---- their burrows1 #bgc ---- their mode of defence1 #bgd ,crabs1 fighting1 #bgd ---- injuries done by1 to the sugar-cane1 #agg ---- short-tailed1 #bgb ---- of the tropical seas1 #bgb ,crauata de rede 7,bromelia sagenaria71 cordage made from the1 #acb ,cray-fish1 #bgb ,creeping plants1 their importance in the deserts of ,south ,africa1 #fd ,crocodiles of the banks of the ,amazons1 #de ---- their torpidity1 #ccb1 #cdj ---- food of the1 #cch ---- their friend1 the ,hyas gyptiacus1 #cci ---- fables as to the ichneumon1 #cci ---- their power of fascinating their prey1 #cdj ---- their wanderings1 #cdj ---- anecdote of one in ,ceylon1 #cda ---- their habitat1 #ccg ,crotalus horridus1 #bih ---- durissus1 #bih ,crustaceans of the tropics1 #bgb ---- decapod1 #bgb ,cucurito palm1 splendour of the1 #afa ,cynocephali1 #eji ,cynocephalus porcarius1 #eaj ---- sphinx1 #eaj ,cypra aurora1 #bgd ,dahomey1 human sacrifices at1 #ebf ,damara ,land1 reason why droughts are prevalent in1 #hf ,dampier1 the bread-fruit first mentioned by1 #afg ---- his account of logwood-cutting and logwood-cutters1 #aid1 #aie ---- his love for the free life of wood-cutters1 #aie ---- attacked by a ,guinea worm1 #bej ,date-palm 7,phnix dactylifera71 #aed ---- ---- range of its cultivation1 #aee ---- ---- introduced into ,spain and ,italy1 #aee ---- ---- mode of propagation1 #aee ---- ---- sanctity of the tree1 #aee ---- ---- toddy of the1 #aee ---- ---- varieties of dates1 #aef ,decomposition arrested by sand and the winds of the ,punas1 #be ,delabechea1 or bottle-tree1 of tropical ,australia1 #ach1 #aci ,delebl palms of ,kordofan1 #aeh ,demerara1 the goatsucker of1 #cee ,demoiselle1 or ,numidian crane 7,grus virgo71 #cfb ---- the crowned1 #cfb ,derryas1 the 7,cynocephalus hamadryas71 formerly regarded with divine honours1 #eaj ,desert1 the ship of the4 ,see ,camel ,dew1 causes of1 #e ,diactor bilineatus1 #bji ,diamond-beetle 7,entimus nobilis71 used as an ornament1 #beb ,diana monkey 7,cercopithecus diana71 #ejf ,diodon1 the1 #bgb ,dioscore1 habitat of the1 #agj ,diseases to which the traveller is liable in the ,punas1 or high table-lands of ,peru and ,bolivia1 #bb ,dogs1 half wild 7,canis ,ing71 of the ,punas1 #bh ---- eaten by the ,polynesians1 #bha ,dolphins1 #bga ,doum-palm 7,hyphne thebaica71 #aeg ---- used for the preparation of sherbet1 #aeg ,douw1 or ,burchell's zebra1 #dae ,dracnas1 or dragon-trees1 #abc ---- gigantic ones of the ,canary ,islands1 ,madeira1 and ,porto ,santo1 #abc ---- celebrated specimen at ,orotava1 in ,teneriffe1 #abc ,dragons1 flying1 #cag ,dragon-trees4 ,see ,dracnas ,dromedary4 ,see ,camel ,drummer cockroach 7,blatta gigantea71 #bcc ,du ,chaillu1 ,m41 his description of the gorilla1 #eja ,duck 7,chenalobex jubata7 of the ,amazons1 #df ,duiker 7,cephalopus mergens71 the1 of ,south ,africa1 #hh1 #daj ,durian of the ,indian ,archipelago1 #ade ,durissus 7,crotalus durissus71 #bih ,dutch1 their progress in the ,indian ,ocean and cruel monopolies1 #bjj ---- their cultivation of nutmegs and cloves1 #aii-bjb ,dyaks of ,borneo1 #bfc ,dyes1 tropical vegetable1 #aib ---- indigo1 #aib1 #aic ---- logwood1 #aic ---- ,brazil wood1 #aie ---- arnatto1 #aie ,eagle1 the harpy1 #chj ---- his habitat1 #chj ---- his ferocity1 #cha ,eagle1 the fishing1 of ,africa 7,halitus vocifer71 #chb ,earth-hogs of the ,cape1 #dhh ,echidna1 the1 or porcupine ant-eater1 #dhh ,echinocacti1 the1 #acc ,echinocactus nana1 or dwarf-cactus1 #acc ---- visnaga1 its immense size1 #acc ,elis gumeensis1 or oil palm-tree of ,west ,africa1 #aeh ,elands 7,boselaphus oreas7 of ,south ,africa1 #hh1 #dji ,electrical eel 7,gymnotus electricus71 #ag ---- ---- ,indian mode of capturing them1 #ag ,elephant1 plague of the ,soudan fly to the1 #bca ---- his love of solitude1 #dca ---- his senses of smell and of hearing1 #dcb ---- his mode of ascending and descending abrupt banks1 #dcb ---- his stomach1 #dcc ---- his trunk1 #dcc ---- uses of his tusks1 #dcc ---- his discipline1 #dcd ---- his sagacity and devotion1 #dcd ---- rogues1 #dce ---- value of the elephant to man1 #dce ---- species of the1 #dce ---- wide range of the ,african elephant1 #dce ---- mode of hunting him in various countries1 #dce ---- ivory of the ,african elephant1 #dcf1 #dci ---- cutting up by a negro tribe1 #dcg ---- escape of ,mr4 ,oswell1 #dch ---- the ,asiatic1 #dci ---- catchers1 of ,ceylon1 #ddj ---- corrals1 #dda-ddc ,emu of ,australia 7,dromaius ,nov ,hollandi71 #cia ,enarea and ,caffa1 the original home of the coffee plant1 #agh ,entomo phila picta1 #cgj ---- albogularis1 #cgj ,esmeralda1 mosquitoes of1 #bcc ,eucalypti of ,australia1 size of the1 #aei ,euphorbia arborescens of ,africa1 #abb ,exocoetus volitans1 #bga ,eyes1 acute inflammation of the1 in the ,puna1 #ba ,falcon 7,falco sparverius7 of the ,peruvian sand-coast1 #cd1 #bdf ,fan palms1 crown of the1 #afa ,feejee ,islands1 verdure of1 #f ---- ---- barbarous mode of treating turtles in the1 #cbi ,felid of the tropical forests1 #ddf ---- of the ,old ,world1 #ddf ,ferns of the tropics1 #afa ,fetissism of the negroes1 #ebb ,ficus elastica1 singular formation of the roots of the1 #acf1 #aci ---- ---- caoutchouc of the1 #aia ,fiery topaz1 nest of the1 #cdh ,fig1 the ,indian1 the fruit of the melocacti1 #acd ,fig trees1 climbing1 of ,polanarrua1 #acf ---- ---- marriage of the fig tree and palm1 #acg ,filaria medinensis1 or ,guinea worm1 #bbf ---- ---- its mode of working1 #bbf ---- ---- method of extracting it1 #bbf ,finches of the tropics1 #ceg ,fire-ant1 the black1 of ,guiana1 #bgd ,fire-flies of the ,indian ,archipelago1 #baj ,fishes1 tropical1 #fe1 #bga ,fish-catching on a grand scale1 #ff ,fishing-eagle of ,africa 7,halitus vocifer71 #chb ,flamingo 7,phnicopterus ruber71 #ceg ---- long-legged1 of the ,puna1 #bh ---- its habits1 #ceg1 #cfa ---- its nests1 #ceg ,flute-bird of ,guiana 7,cyphorinus cantans71 #ceg ,fly-catcher1 crowned 7,myoarchus coronatus71 of the ,peruvian sand-coast1 #cd ,flying-dragons1 #cag ,flying-fishes 7,exoctus volitans1 ,pterois volitans71 #bga ,flying-foxes 7,pteropus71 #dja ,flying-squirrels 7,pteromys71 #did ,forbes1 ,mr41 his narrow escape from a ,cobra di ,capello1 #bii ,forest1 primitive tropical1 #ec ---- its peculiar charms and terrors1 #ec ---- troubles of the botanist in the1 #ed ---- endless varieties of trees in tropical forests1 #ee ---- and of their sites1 #ef ---- lowland forests during the rainy seasons1 #eg ---- a hurricane in1 #eg ---- beauty of the forests after the rainy seasons1 #eh ---- birds of the tropical1 #eh1 #ei ---- morning1 noon1 and night in the forests1 #ei1 #fj ---- first impression of a tropical forest1 #bib ---- exaggerated fears1 #bic ---- few tropical snakes to be seen1 #bic ---- habits and appearance of venomous snakes1 #bic ---- anecdote of the ,prince of ,neu ,wied1 #bid ,forest snakes1 death caused by the bite of a ,trigonocephalus1 #bie ---- antidotes recommended against serpentine poison1 #bie ---- vipers and rattlesnakes1 #big1 #bih ---- the ,cobra di ,capello1 #bih ---- the asp and viper1 #cjj ---- boas and pythons1 #cja ---- enemies of snakes1 #cjb ,fox 7,canis azar71 the1 of the high table-lands of ,peru and ,bolivia1 #bh ,fox-tailed monkeys1 #eac ,francisco1 ,san1 cordage used on the banks of the river of1 #acb ,frigate-bird1 #bfg ---- ---- its mode of operation1 #bfg1 #bfh ,frog1 the ,brazilian and ,surinam tree1 #cbj ,frog-fish1 the1 #bgb ,fruit trees of the tropics1 #ade ---- ---- the chirimoya of ,peru1 #agb ---- ---- the litchi1 #agb ---- ---- the mangosteen1 #agc ---- ---- the mango1 #agc ,fungus ant1 #bci ,gad-fly of ,south ,america 7strus hominis71 ulcers produced by the1 #bbe ,galapagos1 or ,tortoise ,islands1 #cba ---- singular animal and vegetable life of the1 #cba ,galagos1 the1 #eaf ,galeopitheci1 the1 #die ,gallinazos1 or turkey-buzzards1 #cgh ,garapata 7,ixodes sanguisuga71 a kind of blood-sucking tick1 #bbg ,garua1 or drizzling mists1 of the ,peruvian sand-coasts1 #cb ,gasteracantha arcuata1 #bib ,gavials of the ,ganges1 #ccc ---- their attack of the tiger1 #ccc ,gecko1 the1 #caj1 #caa ---- its usefulness to man1 #caj ---- anatomy of its feet1 #caa ---- different species of1 #caa ---- defeats a ,tarantula spider1 #cab ,gemsbuck of ,south ,africa 7,a4 ,oryx71 #hh1 #daj ,gibbon1 the1 described1 #ejc ,giraffe1 or camelopard1 its beauty1 #djc ---- its wide range of vision1 #djc ---- use of its horns1 #djd ---- its gregarious habits1 #dje ---- hunting1 #dje-djh ---- his enemies in the forest1 #djh ---- known to the ancients1 #djh ---- analogies between the giraffe and ostrich1 #djh ,glow-worms of ,europe1 #baj ---- ---- of ,sarawak1 #baa ---- ---- worn as ornaments1 #baa ---- ---- soldiers forced to retreat before them1 #baa ,glyphodons1 #bgb ,gnu 7,catoblepas gnu71 always found near water1 #hh1 #daa ---- the1 of ,south ,africa1 #daa ,goatsucker of ,demerara1 singular voice of the1 #cee ---- his usefulness1 #cee ---- his food1 #cef ,godin des ,odonnais1 ,m41 accompanies ,la ,condamine on his voyage1 #eb ,godin1 ,madame1 her adventures1 #eb ,goliath beetles of the coast of ,guinea1 #bjf ---- ---- eaten1 #beb ,golunda coffee-rat1 the1 #ahb ,gomuti palm 7,gomutus vulgaris71 wine of the1 #aej ,gorilla1 the1 #ejj ---- encounter with a1 #eja ,grass1 aquatic1 on the shores of the ,amazons1 #de ,green turtle 7,chelonia midas71 #cbi ,grosbeak1 the social1 #cff ,gua ,gede1 cavern of1 #bgj ,gua ,rongkop1 cave of1 and its esculent swallows' nests1 #bgj ,guadeloupe1 tornado in1 #i ,guadua bamboo1 its importance in ,new ,grenada and ,quito1 #acj ,guama1 ,rio1 singular vegetation on the banks of the1 #acg ,guana1 great ,american1 #cad ,guanas of the ,bahama ,islands1 #cae ---- used as food1 #cae ,guano beds of sea-birds1 #ce ,guano ,island1 a1 #cj ,guano or ,chincha ,islands1 #ce ,guarana ,indians1 importance of the ,mauritia palm to the1 #ah ---- ---- their singular habitations1 #ah ,gudgeon1 close-eyed 7,periophthalmus1 or ,jumping ,johnny1 of the mangrove swamps71 #ada ,guiana1 beauty of the vegetation of the banks of the rivers of1 after the rainy season1 #eh ---- birds of1 #eh1 #cej1 #ceb ---- ,goliath beetles of1 #bjf ---- musical toad of1 #cbj ,guinea worm 7,filaria medinensis71 #bbf ,gull1 ,quiulla 7,larus serranus7 of the ,puna1 #bh ,gumatty1 or fibres of the saguer palm1 #aea ,gutta percha1 or gutta tuban 7,icosandra gutta71 its native country1 #aia ,gutta percha1 its introduction into ,europe1 #aia ---- ---- ,malay mode of collecting the gum1 #aia ---- ---- properties of gutta percha1 #aib ---- ---- uses of gutta percha1 #aib ---- ---- supply of gutta percha1 #aib ,guayaquil1 perennial rainy season of1 #f ,gymnotus electricus1 #ag ,haje 7,naja ,haje71 of ,egypt1 #cjj ---- probably the asp of the ancients1 #cjj ,harpy eagle 7,thrasates harpya71 #chj ,hau1 or ,bow ,island1 #bhi ---- ---- ---- dreary monotony of a life at1 #bhi ---- ---- ---- laziness of the natives of1 #bhi ---- ---- ---- their customs1 #bij ,hawk1 the sparrow1 of ,africa 7,melierca musicus71 #chc ,hawksbill turtle 7,chelonia imbricata71 #cbi ,hercules beetles 7,megasomina ,hercules7 of torrid ,america1 #bjf ,hill-star1 white-sided1 #cdg ,hippopotamus1 the ,behemoth of the ,book of ,job1 #dag ---- its diminishing numbers1 #dag ---- its ugliness1 #dah ---- description of it1 #dah ---- #8rogue hippopotami1' or #8bachelors1' #dai ---- intelligence and memory of the hippopotamus1 #dai ---- uses of its skin and teeth1 #dbj ---- methods of killing it1 #dbb ,hog1 the chief enemy of the rattlesnake1 #bij ,honduras1 mahogany trees of1 #abi ,honey-ants of ,mexico 7,myrmecocystus ,mexicanus71 their singular habits1 #bdj ,honey-eaters of ,australia 7,melithreptes71 #cfi1 #cge ---- their nests1 #cfi ,hottentots1 fondness of the lion for the flesh of1 #ddh ,howling monkey1 or aluates1 #eab ,huachua goose 7,chlophaga melanoptera71 #bh ,huallaga river1 a tributary of the ,amazons1 #cg ,huanacu1 the1 of ,peru1 #bd ,humming-birds1 #cdb1 #cdf ---- ---- their wide range over the ,new ,world1 #cdc ---- ---- their habits1 #cdi ---- ---- their courage1 #cdi ---- ---- their enemies1 #cfc ,huniman1 the 7,semnopithecus entellus71 #ejd ,hurricanes1 #i ,hyna1 the1 #dfc ---- hunting1 #dfc1 #dfd ---- varieties of the1 #dfe ,hyphne coriacea of ,port ,natal1 #afj ---- ,thebaica1 or doum palm1 #aeg ,ibises1 #ceg ---- of ,egypt1 #cfa ,ia river1 a tributary of the ,amazons1 #cg ,icebergs1 wanderings of1 #bff ,ichneumon1 or mongoos1 his destruction of venomous serpents1 #cjd1 #cje ,icosandra ,gutta1 furnishes the gutta percha of commerce1 #aia ,iguana tuberculata1 #cad ,illanuns of ,mindanao1 #bef ,india1 bamboos of1 #acj ---- the indigo of1 #aib1 #aic ,india-rubber tree 7,ficus elastica71 singular formation of the roots of the1 #aci4 ,see ,caoutchouc ,indian forests1 the ,nepenthes of the1 #ab ,indians1 wild1 of tropical ,america1 #fb ---- ,botocudo ,indians attacking a jaguar1 #fb ---- physical conformation and moral characteristics of the ,indians of tropical ,america1 #fc1 #fd ---- their powers of endurance1 #fc ---- their stoical indifference and taciturnity1 #fe ---- their means of subsistence1 #fe ---- not permitted to marry till they prove their ability in the chase1 #fg ---- their clothing1 #fh ---- their painting1 tattooing1 and religion1 #fi ---- the moon as the abode of abundance1 #fi ---- the ,botuto1 or holy trumpet1 #gj ---- the ,indians of ,brazil and ,guiana1 #gj ---- vindictive ferocity of the ,ottomachas1 #ga ---- the extinct tribes of the ,atures1 #gb ---- dwellings of the ,indians1 #gc ---- tattooing1 #gd ---- horrid custom of disinterment1 #gd ---- the ,purupurus and their skin disease1 #ge ---- their palhetas1 #ge ---- the ,mandrucus and ,parentintins1 #gf ---- the ,caribs and ,botocudos1 #gf1 #gg ---- work of the women in their migrations1 #gh ---- the evil spirit ,tanchon1 #gh ---- similarity of the ,north ,american ,indians to the ,bedouin ,arabs1 #aai ,indigo plant 7,indigofera tinctoria71 ,bengalese cutting the plant1 #aib1 #aic ---- ---- mode of cultivation1 #aib ---- ---- and of preparing the colour1 #aic ,insects1 tropical1 size of the1 #bje ---- of the ,sikkim mountains1 #hd ---- of the tropical world1 #bje ---- insect plagues1 #bba ---- the universal dominion of1 #bba ---- mosquitoes1 #bbb ---- the strus hominis1 #bbe ---- the chegoe1 pique1 or jigger1 #bbe ---- ,filaria medinensis1 #bbf ---- the bte rouge1 #bbg ---- blood-sucking ticks1 #bbg ---- land-leeches of ,ceylon1 #bbh ---- the tsetse-fly1 #bbi ---- the ,tsalt-salya1 or zimb1 #bcj ---- the ,soudan fly1 #bcj ---- the locust1 #bca ---- cockroaches1 #bcc ---- tropical insects directly useful to man1 #bcd ---- ants of the tropics1 #bcd ---- silk-worms1 #bdi ---- cochineal1 #bej1 #bea ---- the gum-lac insect1 #bea ---- eaten by man1 #bea ---- worn as ornaments1 #beb ---- similarity of some to the soil or object on which they are found2 the walking-leaf and walking-stick insects1 #bjh ---- luminous1 #baj ---- ants and termites1 #bcd1 #bda ---- spiders and scorpions1 #baa1 #bah ,island of ,ascension1 #cbh ---- ,banda1 #aii1 #bjj ---- ,ceylon1 #adf ---- ,madeira1 #abc ,islands3-- ---- ,bahamas1 #cbh ---- ,coral1 #bff1 #bge ---- ,feejee1 #cbi ---- ,galapagos or ,tortoise1 #cba ---- ,keeling1 #cbi ---- ,kingsmill1 #f ---- ,sandwich1 #bha ---- ,tortoise or ,galapagos1 #cba ,jacana 7,parra jacana71 the1 or surgeon-bird1 #ceh ,jackal1 the1 of the ,sahara1 #def ,jagua ,palm1 elegance of the1 #afj ,jaguar 7,gueparda jubata1 guttata71 #deh ---- his habits in the impenetrable forests of ,south ,america1 #dei ---- his boldness1 #deh ---- hunting1 #dei ,jaguar said to possess the power of fascination1 #dfb ,jamaica1 pimento of1 #bjc ,jaguarundi 7,felis jaguarundi71 #dfc ,java sparrow1 or rice-bird 7,loxia oryzivora71 #afd ---- extent of the coffee culture in1 #aha ---- the mormolyce of1 #baj ,javanese mormolyce1 #bji ,jelly-fish of the tropics1 #bgd ,jiboya1 or boa constrictor1 #cja ,jigger of the ,west ,indies 7,pulex penetrans71 #bbe ,job1 his description of ,behemoth1 #dag ,jriarteas1 roots of the1 #adc ,junghuhn1 his explorations in ,java1 #aed ,jungle-fowl 7,megapodius tumulus71 mound-like nest of the1 #cgc ,jurua river1 a tributary of the ,amazons1 #cg ,jutay river1 a tributary of the ,amazons1 #cg ,kaffirs1 their acuteness1 #eai ,kalahari1 causes of drought in the1 #he1 #hf ---- abundance of vegetation in the1 #hf ---- singular and useful plants of the1 #hg ---- ,bushmen and ,bakalahari of the1 #hh1 #hi ,kalongs1 or fox-bats1 of ,java1 #dia ,kangaroo1 ,australians hunting the1 #dgc1 #dgd ,kaross1 or skin dress of the deserts of ,south ,africa1 #ib ,keeling ,island1 method of catching turtles on1 #cbi ,kengwe 7,cucumis ,caffer71 of the ,kalahari1 #hg ,kilda1 ,st41 intrepidity of the natives of1 #bgj ,kingsmill ,islands1 perennial rainy season of the1 #f ,klippspringer 7,oreofragus saltatrix71 #daa ,klipdachs1 the1 #chb ,koodoo 7,a4 ,strepsiceros71 of ,south ,africa1 #hh1 #daa ,kordofan1 baobab trees of1 #ajc ---- delebl palms of1 #aeh ,kunthia montana1 height at which it will grow1 #afj ---- sent on rafts from ,canton to ,pekin1 for the ,emperor1 #agc ,lac1 or gum-lac1 #bea ---- insect1 the1 #bea ,lamellicorns1 tropical1 #bje ,land-crabs1 #bgb ,land leeches of ,ceylon1 #bbh ,lar1 the1 of ,siam and ,malacca1 #ejc ,lauricocha1 mountain lake of1 #cf ,leaf-like insects1 #bjh1 #bji ,lecaniun coffe1 or coccus of the coffee tree1 #ahb ,leeches1 land1 of ,ceylon1 the plague of1 #bbh ,leguminosas of tropical forests1 #ha ,lemur1 slow-paced1 #eaf ---- handed1 #eaf ,leopard1 the1 #deg ---- the hunting leopard1 or cheetah1 #deh ,leucopholis bimaculata1 #bjg ,libellula lucretia1 a ,south ,american dragon-fly1 #bfg ,licli1 the1 a bird of the ,puna1 #bh ,lion1 not a noble animal1 #ddh ---- his conflicts with travellers on ,mount ,atlas1 #ddg ---- his fondness for the flesh of the ,hottentot1 #ddh ---- hunting1 #ddi ---- different species of the1 #dec ,litchi 7,nephelium litchi71 of ,china and ,cochin ,china1 #agb ,lithophytes1 or stone polyps1 #bge ,livingstone1 ,dr41 his adventure with a lion1 #dej ,lizards of the ,peruvian sand-coast1 #ce ---- their vast numbers in the tropics1 #caj ---- the gecko1 #caa ---- the anolis1 #caj1 #cab ---- chameleons1 #cac ---- iguanas1 #cad ---- guanas1 #cad ---- monitor-lizard1 #cae ---- water-lizards1 #caf ---- flying-dragons1 #cag1 #cah ---- the basilisk1 #cah ---- peculiar1 of the ,galapagos ,islands1 #cba ,llama1 its use to the ancient ,peruvians1 #bc ---- the only animal domesticated by the aboriginal ,americans1 #bc ---- its similarity to the dromedary of the ,old ,world1 #bc ,llanos1 the1 of ,venezuela and ,new ,grenada1 their extent1 #aa ---- their aspect in the dry season1 #aa ---- torpor of animal life in the1 #ac ---- and in the rainy season1 #ag ---- their appearance at the end of the rainy period1 #ah ,locust 7,gryllus migratorius71 description of the1 #bca ,locusts1 vast numbers of them1 #bca ---- superstition of the ,moslems respecting them1 #bca ---- ,southey's description of them1 #bcb ---- eaten by man in the ,sahara and ,south ,africa1 #bea ,lodoicea ,sechellarum1 nuts of the1 #aed ,loggerhead turtle 7,chelonia caouana71 #cca ,logwood1 value of1 #aic ---- a native of ,america1 #aic ---- logwood cutters1 their mode of life1 #aid ---- disputes with the ,spaniards1 #aid ,lomas1 or chains of hills1 which bound the east of the sand-coast of ,peru1 #cc ---- the pasture-grounds of the ,lomeros1 #cc ---- beasts of prey in the ,lomas1 #cc ,lonthoir1 nutmeg trees of1 #bbh ,loris1 the1 #eaf ,luminous beetles1 #baj ,lum tree of ,ualan1 singular formation of the roots of the1 #adc ,lybian desert1 mirage of the1 #ac ,lyre-bird1 #cfb ,maca1 a tuberous plant1 cultivated by the ,indians in the high table-lands of ,peru and ,bolivia1 #bc ,macauba palm trees1 encased by parasitic fig trees1 #acg ,macaw1 or ,ara 7,macrocercus macao71 #cig ,mace of commerce1 #bjb ,maco ,indians1 #gj ,macus ,indians1 urari or wourali poison prepared by the1 #fh ,madagascar1 traveller-tree of 7,ravenala speciosa71 uses of the1 #afi ,madeira river1 a tributary of the ,amazons1 #cg ,mahogany tree 7,swietenia mahagoni7 of ,british ,honduras and ,balize1 #abi ---- ---- value of the wood of the1 #abi ,maimon monkey1 #eji ,maize1 cultivation of1 #afe ---- imported from ,america by ,columbus1 #afe ---- its present cultivation in the eastern hemisphere1 #afe ---- its magnificent growth1 #afe ---- its enormous productiveness1 #afe ---- the harvest of1 #aff ---- its wide zone of cultivation1 #aff ,maldive ,isles1 mysterious nuts of the #aed ,malayan race1 the1 #bec ,malayan race1 physical conformation of1 #bec ---- their betel-chewing1 #bed ---- their manners and customs1 #bed ---- accounts of them by travellers1 #bed ---- their intelligence and civilisation1 #bee ---- ,rajah ,brooke's account of them1 #bee ---- their daring piratical excursions1 #bef ---- inveterate gamblers1 #beg ---- the ,illanuns of ,mindanao and the ,balagnini of the vicinity of ,sooloo1 #bef ---- their fondness for cock-fighting1 #beg ---- running a-muck1 #beh ---- bad agriculturists and artisans1 but excellent sportsmen1 #beh ---- their ignorance1 and its results1 #bei ---- knowledge and civilization of the ,battas1 #bei ---- their cannibalism1 and its origin1 #bei ---- men eaten alive1 #bfj ---- the ,begus1 or evil spirits1 #bfj ---- the religious feelings of the people1 #bfa ---- their arial dwellings1 #bfa ---- funeral ceremonies of the ,battas1 #bfb ---- the ,dyaks of ,borneo1 and their customs1 #bfc ---- their head houses and atrocious murders1 #bfc ---- the same atrocities of other islanders1 #bfc ---- customs of the ,minkokas of ,celebes1 #bfc ---- their sumpitans1 or blow-pipes1 #bfd ---- their houses and villages1 #bfd ---- their hospitality and truthfulness1 #bfd ---- ,mrs4 ,ida ,pfeiffer's account of them1 #bfe ,malay bear 7,ursus malayanus71 its love of cocoa-nuts1 #adi ,manakins 7,pipra7 of ,guiana and ,brazil1 #cea ,mandrill1 the1 #eji1 #eaj ,mandioca root1 #afi ,mandrucu ,indians1 #gf ,mango 7,mangifera indica71 fruit of the1 #agc ---- varieties grown at ,kew gardens1 #agc ,mangosteen 7,garcinia mangostana71 #agc ---- its flowers and delicious fruit1 #agc ,mangrove tree 7,rhizophora gymnorrhiza1 ,r4 ,mangle71 #adj ,mangrove tree1 its peculiarities of growth and adaptation to its site1 #adj ---- ---- its importance in furthering the growth of land1 #adj1 #ada ---- ---- animal life in the mangrove forests1 #ada-adc ,manis pentadactyla1 #dhb1 #dhe ,mantichora mygaloides1 #bje ,mantis1 or soothsayer1 its habits1 #bjh1 #bji ---- names by which it is known1 #bji ,mantides1 #bjh ,mantis religiosa1 #bji ,maquiritani ,indians1 #gj ,marajo ,island1 size of the1 #ch ,maraon river4 ,see ,amazons ,marantea arundinacea1 arrowroot made from the1 #agj ,marimonda1 the 7,ateles ,belzebub71 #eac ,mauritia palm1 #ah1 #ai ---- ---- its importance to the ,south ,american ,indian1 #ai ,mauritius1 tornado in1 #i ---- cultivation of nutmegs in1 #bja ,maysunah1 song of1 #aji ,medanos1 or sand hillocks1 of the coast of ,peru1 #cb ,mediterranean1 the ,cactus ,opuntia of the1 #acd ,melocacti1 the pulp of the1 #acd ,menura1 or lyre-bird1 #cfb ,menzaleh1 ,lake1 flamingoes caught in nets on the banks of1 #cfa ,mesembryanthemum1 its admirable adaptation to the deserts of ,africa1 #hg ---- various kinds of1 #hg ,mexico1 ,gulf of1 influence of the heated plains of1 in deflecting the trade-winds1 #h ---- geological formation of1 #gi ---- the tierra caliente1 or lowlands of1 #hj ---- vegetable and animal life of1 #ha ---- the tierra templada1 #ha ---- the tierra fria1 #hb ---- the ,agave ,americana of1 #acb ---- the pulque of1 #acb ---- cultivation of vanilla in1 #ahd ---- the honey ant of1 #bdj ,millet 7,sorghum vulgare71 cultivation of1 #aff ,mimosas of the tropics1 their beauty1 #acd ,minkokas of ,celebes1 customs of the1 #bfc ,mirage in the llanos in the dry season1 #ac ---- causes of the1 #ac ,miriki monkey 7,ateles hypoxanthus7 of ,brazil1 #fg ,mocking-bird of ,mexico 7,cassicus persicus71 #ced ,mokuri plant1 its importance to the inhabitants of the ,kalahari1 #hg ,molluscs of the tropics1 #bgd ,mongoos1 or ichneumon1 #cjd1 #cje ,monitor-lizard 7,tejus monitor71 #ajb1 #cae ,monkey-bread tree4 ,see ,baobab ,monkeys and apes of the primitive forests1 #dif ---- their destruction of the sugar-cane1 #agf ---- of the ,old ,world1 #dif ---- their climbing powers1 #dig ---- bad pedestrians1 #dig ---- contrasted and compared with man1 #dih ---- the chimpanzee1 #dii ---- the gorilla1 #ejj-ejb ---- the uran1 or wild man of the woods1 #ejb ---- gibbons1 #ejc ---- the semnopitheci1 #ejd ---- the proboscis monkey1 #ejd ---- the huniman1 #ejd ---- the wanderoos of ,ceylon1 #eje ---- the colobi and cercopitheci1 #eje ---- the magots of ,gibraltar1 #ejh ---- the baboon1 #ejh1 #eji ---- the maimon1 #eji ---- the mandrill and drill1 #eji ---- wide difference between the monkeys of the ,new and ,old ,world1 #eaa ---- the aluate1 or howling monkey1 #eab ---- the spider monkey1 #eab1 #eac ---- sakis1 or fox-tailed monkeys1 #eac ,monsoon1 the north-east1 #ag ---- the south-west1 #h ---- effects of the sea monsoon on the ordinary course of the trade-winds1 #h ,montgomery1 ,mr41 his introduction of gutta percha into ,europe1 #aia ,mora excelsa of the forests of ,guiana1 description of the1 #abi ---- nest of the toucan in the1 #abi ,mormolyce1 the ,javanese1 #baj ,mountain-taro1 its habitat1 #aga ,mosquitoes1 #bbb ---- of the ,amazons1 #de ---- ferocious1 of the river ,seuza1 #bbb ---- and of tropical ,america1 #bbb ---- migration of1 #bbd ,moth1 ,atlas1 of ,ceylon1 #bjg ,mule1 the #8ship of the desert' in ,peru1 #ca ,mulgrave ,archipelago1 importance of the screw pine of the1 #acc ,musa paradisaica1 #afg ,musa sapientum1 #afg ---- textilis1 #afi ,musace1 the1 #afg1 #afi ---- various uses of1 #afi ,musk-deer on the slopes of the ,sikkim mountains1 #hd ,mutasen1 the ,caliph ,el1 story of1 #aaa ,mygales1 or trap-door spiders1 #bah ,myrtus pimenta1 #bjc ,naja ,haje of ,egypt1 #cjj ,namaqua country1 reason why droughts are prevalent in the1 #hf ,negro1 ,rio1 a tributary of the ,amazons1 #cg ---- ---- cause of its name1 #ci ,negroes1 causes of the inferiority of their civilisation1 #eah ---- natural capabilities of the negroes1 #eai ---- difficulty arising from the geographical position of ,africa1 #ebj ---- and from the political position of it1 #eba ---- ,mahometanism and fetissism1 #ebc ---- their diseases attributed by the fetissist to #8possession1' #ebe ---- their belief in sorcery1 #ebe ---- their chief religious observances1 #ebf ---- human sacrifices in ,ashantee and ,dahomey1 #ebf1 #ebg ---- provision for the wants of the dead1 #ebg ---- painting or tattooing the body1 #ebh ---- the disfigurement of the pell1 #ebh ---- authority of the priest1 conjuror1 or medicine man among them1 #ebi ---- offerings to the sea at ,bonny1 #ecj ---- idleness of the negroes1 #eca ---- style of saltation in ,east ,africa1 #ecb ---- ,african slavery1 and a slave-hunting expedition1 #ecc ---- a slave caravan at ,chartum1 #ecd ---- belief of1 respecting death1 #gd ,nelumbias of the tropics1 #acg ,nepenthes1 the1 of the ,east ,indian forests1 #ab ,noddy bird 7,sterna stolida71 its attacks on the cocoa-nut tree1 #adi ,nopal 7,cactus opuntia71 the1 of the shores of the ,mediterranean1 #acd ,nutmegs1 cultivation of1 confined by the ,dutch to ,banda1 ,lonthoir1 and ,pulo ,aij1 #aii1 #bjj ---- their present extended range1 in ,sumatra1 ,mauritius1 ,bourbon1 and ,ceylon1 #bja ---- description of the tree1 #bja ,nutmegs1 mode of cultivation1 #bjb ,nyctopitheci1 or nocturnal monkeys1 #ead ,nylghau1 the 7,a4 picta71 #dab ,nymphas of the tropics1 #acg ,obydos1 ,strait of1 #cg ,ocelot 7,felis pardalis71 the1 #dfc ,odontolabris ,cuvera1 of ,china1 #bje1 #bjf nocarpus disticha1 oil of the1 #aei strus hominis1 #bbe ,oil made from palm trees of ,west ,africa1 #aeg1 #aeh ---- of the ,corozo palm1 #aei ---- of the nocarpus disticha1 #afj ,opossum of the sand-coast of ,peru1 #cd ,orchids1 flowering1 of the slopes of ,sikkim1 #hc ,orellana1 ,francis1 his voyage and treachery to ,pizarro1 on the ,amazons #ea ,organist bird 7,troglodytes leucophrys71 #cef ---- his song1 #cef ,oricou1 or sociable vulture 7,vultur auricularis71 #cha ,origma rubricata1 #cgj ,orinoco river1 #cg ,oriolus varius1 #ceb ---- nest of the1 #cec ,orotava1 in ,teneriffe1 gigantic dragon tree near1 #abc ,oscollo 7,felis celigaster71 the1 #dfc ,ostrich1 its endurance of thirst1 #ge ---- mode of hunting it1 #cfh ---- its speed1 #che ---- mode of catching it1 #chf ---- its stratagem for protecting its young1 #chf ---- its enemies1 #chf ---- its young1 #chg ---- its resemblance to the camel1 #chg ---- its voracity1 #chh ---- its feathers1 #chh ---- domesticated in ,algeria1 #chh ---- analogies between the giraffe and ostrich1 #djh ---- an ,arab ,legend respecting it1 #chi1cij ,ottomacas ,indians1 #gj ---- become #8dirt-eaters1' #ga ---- the country they inhabit1 #ga ,ouistitis1 or squirrel monkeys1 #eae ,owl1 burrowing 7,athene cunicularia71 of the ,peruvian sand-coast1 #cd ---- the pearl1 of the same region1 #cd ,pacific ,ocean1 limits of the trade-winds in the1 #d ,pacific ,ocean1 causes of the distribution of rain on the ,pacific off ,central ,america1 #h ---- ---- violent tropical storms of1 #i ,palhetas of the ,purupurus1 #ge ,pallah 7,antilope melampus71 always found near water1 #hh ,palm-martin 7,paradoxus typus or ,pougouni71 its fondness for cocoa-nuts1 #adg ---- stalks of1 used as arrows1 #fg ,palm-squirrel 7,sciurus palmarum71 its fondness for cocoa-nuts1 #adi ,palm trees1 #adf ---- the cocoa-nut tree1 #adf ---- the sago palm1 #aej ---- the saguer or gomuti1 #aej ---- the areca palm1 #aea ---- the palmyra palm1 #aea ---- the talpot or talipot palm1 #aec ---- cocoa de mer1 #aec ---- date palms1 #aed ---- doum palms1 #aeg ---- oil palms1 #aeg1 #aeh ---- the ,carnauba 7,corypha cerifera71 #aeh ---- the ,ceroxylon andicola1 #aei ---- the cabbage palm1 #aei ---- the corozo1 #aei ---- the pirijao and piaava palms1 #afj ---- cabeza di negro1 #afj ---- different physiognomy of palms according to their heights1 #afj ---- position and form of their fronds1 #afj ,palma ,real of the ,havana1 beauty of the1 #afa ,palmyra palm 7,borassus flabelliformis71 extent of its range1 #aea ---- ---- its uses to man1 #aea1 #aeb ---- treatment of the toddy-drawer1 #aeb ,pangolin1 the ,indian 7,manis pentadactyla71 #dhb1 #dhe ,panther1 the1 #deg ,pao ,barrigudo 7,chorisia ventricosa71 singular shape of the1 #acd ,paper1 ,chinese1 material of which it is made1 #aca ---- made from the talipot tree of ,ceylon1 #aec ,papuans1 their dwelling-places1 #bgf ---- their physical and moral characteristics1 #bgf1 #bgg ---- compared with the ,malays1 #bgg ---- their food and clothing1 #bgg1 #bgh ---- their immense houses in ,new ,guinea1 #bgh ---- their political institutions1 #bgi ---- their agriculture and weapons1 #bgi ---- their mode of fighting1 #bgi ---- future prospects of the race1 #bhj ,para1 perennial rainy season of1 #f ,para1 population of1 #di ,paradise1 great bird of 7,p4 apoda71 #cfc1 #cfd ---- fables respecting1 #cfd ,paradoxus typus or ,pougouni1 #acd ,paraguay1 constant east winds of1 #e ,parentintin ,indians1 #gf ,paroquets1 or parakeets1 #cih ---- ring and green1 #cih ,parrots of the ,peruvian sand-coasts1 #cd ---- their peculiar manner of climbing1 #cib ---- their resemblance to monkeys1 #cib ---- their food1 #cic ---- their sociability1 #cic ---- their connubial love1 #cid ---- their powers of mimicry1 #cid ---- ,african 7,psittacus erithacus71 #cid ---- his dreams and memory1 #cie ---- ,american ,indian mode of catching them1 #cie ---- various species of them1 #cie1 #cif ---- the colours of1 artificially changed1 #cif ,parsley1 a deadly poison to parrots1 #daf ,pasco1 ,cerro de1 #cg ,peacock1 ,javanese1 the1 #cfj ,pebas1 heavy fall of rain at1 #h ,peireskia of the ,lake of ,titicaca1 #acd ,pepper1 #bjb ---- description of the vine1 #bjb ---- mode of cultivation1 #bjb ---- its habitat1 #bjb ---- the black and white sorts1 #bjb ,peradenia1 india-rubber trees of the garden of1 #aci ,peru1 the ,puna1 or high table-lands of1 #bj ---- ,puna chases in the times of the ,incas1 #bg ---- the ,lomas of1 #cc ---- the sand-coast of1 #bi ---- extreme dryness of the soil in the northern coast districts of1 #cc ---- animal world of the coast1 #cc ---- the ,guano or ,chincha ,islands1 #ce ,peruvian stream1 influence of the1 on climate1 #cf4 ,see ,amazons ,pfeiffer1 ,mrs4 ,ida1 her account of the ,malays1 #bfe ,phasmas1 the herbivorous1 #bjh1 #bji ,pheasant1 ,argus1 #cfj ,phnix dactylifera1 or date palm1 #aec ,phylliums1 the herbivorous1 #bjh1 #bji ,phyllosomas1 #bgb ,phyllostomid1 #dib ---- their food1 #dib ,physalia1 or #8,portuguese man-of-war1' #bgd1 #bge ,phytelephas 7,cabeza di ,negro71 hard white nuts of the1 #afj ,piaava palm 7,attalia funifera71 uses of the nuts and fibres of the1 #afj ,pichiciago 7,chlamyphorus truncatus71 of the ,andes1 #dhh ,pig-faced baboon1 #eaj ,pimento1 or allspice 7,myrtus pimenta71 #bjc ---- cultivation of the plant1 #bjc ---- its habitat1 #bjc ,pine-apple 7,bromelia ananas71 its abundance in ,brazil1 #acb ,pines1 the screw1 of the ,east ,indian and ,south ,sea ,isles1 #acc ---- their importance to the inhabitants of the ,mulgrave ,archipelago1 #acc ,pippul tree of ,india4 ,see ,bo tree ,pipra1 the1 #cff ,pique1 or ,jigger1 of the ,west ,indies1 7,pulex penetrans71 #bbe ,pitcairn ,island1 storm and famine in1 #i ,plantain 7,musapara disiaca71 its importance as food1 #afg ---- luxuriance of the plant1 #afh ,podada tree of the river banks of ,borneo1 #baj ,polanarrua1 climbing fig trees of1 #acf1 #acg ,polynesian fishermen1 #bgf ---- race1 the1 #bhj ---- their degree of civilisation1 #bha ---- their physical characteristics1 #bha ---- their languages1 #bha ---- their cultivation of the taro1 #bha ---- food of the various classes1 #bha ---- their intoxicating beverage1 kava1 #bhb ---- their dresses of tapa1 #bhb ---- their desire for adornment1 #bhb ---- their canoes and basket-work1 #bhb ---- their joiners' work1 #bhc ---- admirable swimmers1 #bhc ---- their dwellings1 #bhd ---- their form of government1 #bhd ---- the ,tabu1 #bhe ---- the ,polynesian gods1 #bhf1 #bhg ---- their infanticide1 #bhf ---- influence of ,european customs1 #bhh1 #bhi ,pongo de ,manseriche1 defile of1 #cf ,porcupine ant-eater 7,echidna hystrix71 #dhh ,pororocca1 or spring-tide wave of the ,amazons1 #ch #8,portuguese man-of-war1' #bge ,potato1 the ,spanish or sweet 7,convolvulus batatas71 #agj ---- its spontaneous multiplication1 #agj ---- propagation of1 #agj ,pothos family of epiphytes of the tropical forests1 #acg ---- beauty of the leaves1 #acg ,prcheur insect1 #bji ,prie ,dieu1 ,le1 insect1 #bji ,priest1 conjuror1 or medicine man of the negroes1 #ebi ,proboscis monkey1 the 7,semnopithecus nasicus71 #ejd ,pterois volitans1 #bga ,ptilotus sonorus1 #cgj ,pulex penetrans of the ,west ,indies1 #bbe ,pulque1 or ,mexican agave wine1 #acb ,puma1 or couguar1 in the high table-lands of tropical ,america1 #bh1 #dfb ,puna1 or #8,uninhabited' high table-lands of ,peru and ,bolivia1 #bj ---- their contrast with the ,llanos1 #bj ---- violent changes in their temperature1 #ba ---- plagues of the ,puna1 #ba ---- vegetable life of the1 #bb ---- animal life1 #bc-bh ---- chases in the times of the ,incas1 #bg ---- beasts of prey of the1 #bh ---- birds of the1 #bh ---- flocks and herds of the ,puna valleys1 #bh ---- the mountain valleys1 #bh ,purus1 river1 a tributary of the ,amazons1 #cg ,quagga1 the1 of ,south ,africa1 #dad ,queua tree 7,polylepis racemosa7 in the ,puna1 #bc ,quito1 perennial rainy season of1 #f ,rain1 abundance and distribution of1 within the torrid zone1 #d ---- causes which produce an abundance or want of1 #d ---- heavy afternoon showers of the zone of calms1 #f ---- zone of two distinct rainy seasons1 #g ---- and of one rainy season1 #g ---- immense quantity of1 in the tropics1 #h ---- no rain in the northern coast-districts of ,peru1 #ce ---- the garua or drizzling rain of ,peru1 #cb ,rarotonga ,island1 devastation of1 by a tropical storm1 #i ,rat1 its attacks on the cocoa-nut tree1 #adi ---- its destructive ravages in sugar plantations1 #agg ---- the ,golunda1 or coffee rat1 #ahb ,ratans1 their immense length1 #aed ---- uses of1 #aed ,rat-snake of ,ceylon 7,coryphodon ,blumenbachii71 domesticated1 #cjh ---- its agility in seizing its prey1 #cjh ,rattlesnakes1 #big1 #bih ---- their rattle1 #bih ---- different species1 #bih ---- their chief enemy1 #bih ---- eaten by ,indians1 #bih ,reedbok 7,electragos arundinaceus71 #daj ,red ,river1 mosquitoes of1 #bcc ,rehoboth1 larv of locusts in myriads at1 #bee ,reptiles of the ,peruvian sand-coast1 #da ---- of the tropics1 #caj ,rhamphastid1 #cfj ,rhea ,americana1 #cij ---- ,darwinii1 #cij ,rhinoceros1 the1 its brutality and stupidity1 #dbc ---- different species of1 #dbc ---- food and dispositions of the black and white kinds1 #dbd ---- their ugliness1 #dbd ---- their size1 #dbd ---- their acuteness of smell and hearing1 #dbe ---- defective vision1 #dbe ---- their friend the ,buphaga ,africana1 #dbe ---- their paroxysms of rage1 #dbf ---- their nocturnal habits1 #dbf ---- rhinoceros-hunting and its perils1 #dbg ---- the ,indian rhinoceros1 #dbi ---- the ,sumatran kind1 #dcj ---- the ,javanese rhinoceros1 #dcj ---- mode of killing it1 #dcj ,rhinolophi1 or horse-shoe bats1 #dic ,rhododendron nivale1 great elevation at which it grows1 #hd ,rhododendrons1 region of the ,alpine1 in the ,sikkim mountains1 #hc ,rice 7,oryza sativa71 #afe ---- original seat of its cultivation1 #afe ---- various aspects of the rice-fields at different seasons1 #afd ,rice-bird or ,java sparrow 7,loxia oryzivora71 #afd ,rivers of the tropics3-- ---- ,amazons1 #e et seq4 ---- ,barima1 ,upper1 #acj ---- ,berbice1 #acg ---- ,coary1 #cg ---- ,guama1 #acg ---- ,huallaga1 #cg ---- ,ia1 #cg ---- ,jurua1 #cg ---- ,jutay1 #cg ---- ,madeira1 #cg ---- ,maraon1 #e et seq4 ---- ,negro1 #cg1 #df ,rivers of the tropics1 continued3-- ---- ,orinoco1 #cg ---- ,purus1 #cg ---- ,tapajos1 #ch ---- ,teffee1 #cg ---- ,tunguragua1 #cf ---- ,ucayale1 #cg ---- ,xanavi1 #cg ---- ,xingu1 #ch ---- ,yapura1 #cg ---- prolific quality of the rivers of ,south ,america1 #ff ,rock-warbler of ,australia1 #cga ,roots of trees1 singular formation of the1 #adc ,ruby-throated humming-bird1 #cdi ,ruminants1 tropical1 #cii ,sacrifices1 human1 of the negroes1 #ebg ,sago-palm 7,sagus farmiferus71 the1 of the ,indian ,archipelago1 #aej ---- ---- treatment of the1 #aej ---- ---- mushrooms growing on the1 #aej ,saguer1 or ,gomuti palm 7,gomutus vulgaris71 uses to which it is put1 #aej ,sahara1 the1 #d1 #ic ---- constant drought of the1 #d ---- north-easterly winds of1 #e ---- its uncertain limits1 #ic ---- its desolate appearance1 #id ---- chasms and mountain streams1 #id ---- deposits of salt1 #id ---- the oases of the wilderness1 #id ---- tribes of the ,sahara1 #id ---- contrast between the sterile desert and the oases1 #ie ---- grandeur of the desert scene1 #ie ---- its fascination for the traveller1 #if ---- sandspouts1 or trombs1 in it1 #ig ---- the simoom1 #ih ---- sandspouts1 #ig1 #ih ---- the chase of the gazelle in the1 #aja ---- animals of1 #aja1 #ajb ---- periodical rains of the1 #ajc ---- the ,tuaregs and ,tibbos of the1 #ajc ---- caravans of the1 #ajc ---- barrier caused by the desert to civilisation1 #eba ,samiris monkey1 the1 #ead ,sakis1 or fox-tailed monkeys1 #eac ,sand-reed 7,ammophila arundinacea71 of the coasts of the ,kalapari1 #hg ,sandwich ,islands1 verdure of1 #f ---- ,islanders1 food of the1 #bha ,saba1 or ,coushie ant 7,oecodoma cephalotes71 #bcf ---- ---- ---- the enemy of the banana and cassava plantations1 #bcf ,savannahs of ,south ,america during the dry season1 #ac ---- a savannah on fire1 #ad ---- their aspect during the rainy season1 #ae ---- and at the end of the rainy period1 #ae ,saw-bill humming-bird1 #cag ,scalaria pretiosa1 #bgd ,schomburgk1 ,richard1 his discovery of the ,victoria ,regia1 #acg ,scorpions1 immense size of1 in the torrid zone1 #bah ---- fatal effects of their bite1 #bai ---- their habitat1 #bai ---- their suicidal propensities1 #bai ---- their ferocity and cruelty1 #bbj ,scotophilus ,coromandelicus1 the1 #did ,screw-pines4 ,see ,pines ,sea-birds1 tropical1 #bfg ---- of the ,peruvian sand-coast1 #ce ---- arctic1 #bff ,seals of the ,peruvian sand-coast1 #ce ,secretary-bird1 his destruction of snakes1 #cjb ,secretary-eagle 7,serpentarius cristatus71 his destruction of snakes1 #cjb ,semnopitheci1 the1 #ejd ,senegambia1 light-coloured races at1 #ebb ,sensitive plants of ,brazil1 #ace ,sericornis citreogularis1 #cgj1 #cga ,serpents4 ,see ,snakes ,shark1 the white1 his ferocity1 #bga ,sherbet1 the doum palm used for the preparation of1 #aeg ,ship of the desert4 ,see ,camel ,siamang of ,sumatra1 the1 #ejc ,sikkim mountains1 slopes of the1 #hb ---- ---- sylvan wonders of the1 #hb ---- ---- changes of the forests on ascending1 #hc ---- ---- the torrid zone of vegetation1 #hc ---- ---- the temperate zone1 #hd ---- ---- the coniferous belt1 #hd ---- ---- limits of arboreal vegetation1 #hd ---- ---- animal life1 #hd ---- ---- firing the jungle in1 #aca ,silk-worm 7,bombyx mori71 its importance to man1 #bdi ---- antiquity of silk in ,china1 #bdi ---- silk of other worms1 #bdi ,simoom1 the1 of the ,sahara1 #ih1 #ii ,sloth1 the1 #dgg ---- his miserable appearance1 #dgg ---- adaptation of his organisation to his peculiar mode of life1 #dgh ---- his means of defence1 #dgh ---- his tenacity of life1 #dhj ---- genera of the sloth1 #dhj ,snake-tree 7,ficus elastica71 the1 #aci ,snakes of the ,peruvian sand-coast1 #ce ---- of the tropical forests1 #bic ---- comparative rareness of venomous1 #bic ---- habits of venomous1 and their external characteristics1 #bid ---- bite of the trigonocephalus1 #bie ---- antidotes1 #bie ---- fangs of venomous serpents1 #bif ---- the enormous bush-master1 #big ---- the brown viper 7,echidna ocellata71 #big ---- the rattlesnake1 #big ---- the ,cobra di ,capello1 #bih ---- the asp and viper1 #cjj ---- boas and pythons1 #cja ---- enemies of1 #cjb ---- sometimes feed on one another1 #cjd ---- their means of locomotion1 #cje ---- anatomy of their jaws1 #cjf ---- feeding-time at the ,zoological ,gardens1 #cjg ---- useful and agreeable to man1 #cjh ---- adaptability of their colour to their pursuits1 #cji ---- water1 #cji ,sorcery of the negroes1 #ebf ,soudan1 destructive fly of1 #bcj ,south ,sea ,islands1 verdure of1 #f ---- ---- ---- screw pine of the1 #acc ,sparrow-hawk of ,africa 7,melierca musicus71 #chc ,sparrow1 ,baya1 #cfg ,sperm whales1 #bfg ,spices of the tropics1 #aig ---- cinnamon1 #aih ---- nutmegs and cloves1 #aii ---- pepper1 #bjb ---- pimento1 #bjc ,spiders1 tropical1 formation of1 #baa ---- their means of attack and defence1 #baa1 #bab ---- spotted spider of ,makololo1 #bab ---- giant webs of several tropical species1 #bab ---- harmony of colour between the ,aran and their usual haunts1 #bab ---- beautiful colouring of the epeiras1 #bac ---- splendid colours of the spiders of the tropics1 #bad ---- the mygales1 or trap-door1 #bae ---- retreats of the genus ,clubiona1 #bae ---- maternal instincts of1 #baf ---- enemies of1 #baf ---- venom of the1 #bag ---- services rendered by spiders to man1 #bag ---- eaten by several savage nations1 #bag ---- encounter between a spider and a cockroach1 #bah ,spiders1 encounter between a mygale and a humming-bird1 #cdi ,spider monkeys1 #ecf ,spondylus1 the royal1 #bgd ,spoonbill of ,america 7,platalea ajaja71 #ceg ,springbok 7,a4 enchora71 #dji ---- migrations of multitudes of1 #dji ,spring-tide waves of several rivers1 #ch ,squirrels1 flying1 #did ,squirrel monkeys1 or ouistitis1 #eae ,stag-beetle 7,odontolabris ,cuvera7 of ,china and ,northern ,india1 #bjf ,sternocera chrysis and sternicornis1 elytra of1 worn as ornaments1 #beb ,storks1 ,marabou1 use of the1 #cjd ,storms1 tropical1 violence of1 #i ---- tornados and cyclones1 #i ,sucuriaba1 or water-boa 7,eunectes murinus71 #cja ,sugar1 commercial importance of1 #agd ---- original home of the sugar-cane1 #age ---- progress of its cultivation throughout the tropical zone1 #age1 #agf ---- mentioned by several classical authors1 #age ---- known to the ,greeks and ,phnicians1 #age ---- introduced into ,europe by the conquests of ,alexander the ,great1 #age ---- and into ,madeira by the ,portuguese1 #age ---- its importance as an article of international trade1 #age ---- introduced into the ,canary ,islands and thence to ,hispaniola1 #agf ---- the ,chinese species supplanted by the ,tahitian kind1 #agf ---- description of the cane1 #agf ---- manufacture of sugar1 #agf ---- destruction of many enemies1 #agf ---- the enemies of the sugar-cane1 #agf ---- diseases of the sugar-cane1 #agg ---- nutritive qualities of its juice1 #agg ---- uses of the sugar plantation to the invalid1 #agh ---- ants1 ravages of the1 #agg1 #bcf ,sumatra1 cultivation of nutmegs in1 #bja ---- rhinoceros of1 #ddg ,sumpitans1 ,malay1 #bfd ,sun-birds1 or suimangas 7,cinnyris71 #cei ,sun-fish1 the1 #bga1 #bgb ,surumpe1 or acute inflammation of the eyes in the ,puna1 #ba ,swallow1 the esculent 7,colocalia esculenta71 #bfi ---- mode of getting the nests1 #bfi1 #bgj ---- the dicum 7,dicum hirundinaceum71 #cga ,sword-fishes1 #bga ,sword-tail fishes1 #bga1 #bgb ,sycamore tree 7,ficus sycomorus71 gigantic specimens of the1 in ,africa1 #abd ,tacca pinnatifida1 arrowroot made from the1 #aga ---- ---- in ,polynesia1 #aga ,tahitians1 civilisation of1 #bhh ,tailor-bird of ,hindostan 7,sylvia sutoria71 #cfh ,talegalla1 or brush-turkey of ,australia1 #cgb ,talpot1 or talipot1 tree of ,ceylon1 uses to which it is applied1 #aec ,tanchon1 the ,indian evil spirit1 #gh ,tangaras1 the1 of the ,peruvian sand-coast1 #cd1 #cea ---- their flight and song1 #cea ,tapajos river1 a tributary of the ,amazons1 #ch ,taro roots 7,caladium esculentum7 of the ,sandwich ,islanders1 #aga1 #bha ---- ---- its abundant growth1 #aga ---- ---- mode of cooking it1 #aga ---- ---- mountain taro 7,caladium cristatum71 #aga ,tarsii1 their habitat1 #eaf ,tarsius bancanus1 #eag ,tarush 7,cervus antisiensis71 an animal peculiar to the ,puna1 #bg ,teak tree1 or ,indian oak 7,tectona grandis71 #abh ---- ---- its excellent timber1 #abh ,tectona grandis1 or ,indian oak1 #abh ,teffe river1 a tributary of the ,amazons1 #cg ,teju1 or monitory lizard 7,tejus monitor71 of ,south ,america1 #cae ---- food of1 #cae ,termites1 or white ants1 #bda ---- their devastations1 #bda ---- their services and uses1 #bdb ---- their communities and astonishing buildings1 #bdb ---- the termites of the ,west ,coast of ,africa1 #bdb ---- formation of a termite colony1 #bdd ---- wonderful fecundity of the queen1 #bdd ---- courage and obstinacy of the termite soldier1 #bde ---- foes of the termites1 #bdf ---- ,east ,indian mode of emptying a termite-hill1 #bdf ---- their wars with the black ants1 #bdg ---- termites used as food1 #bdg ---- marching termites1 #bdg1 #bdh ---- mysteries of termite life1 #bdh ,termes atrox and bellicosus1 their clay-built citadels or domes1 #bdb ,termes destructor arborum1 their dwellings in trees1 #bdb ,texas1 influence of the heated plains of1 in deflecting the trade-winds1 #h ,thierry de ,meronville1 his attempts to introduce cochineal into ,san ,domingo1 #bea ,tierra caliente1 the1 of ,mexico1 #hj ---- templada1 #ha ---- fria1 #hb ,tiger1 the time for his bloodthirsty excursions1 #dec ---- his chief seats1 #dec ---- tiger-hunting1 #dec1 #dee ---- his companionship with the peacock1 #ded ---- destroyed by the gavial of the ,ganges1 #ccc ---- his mode of attack1 #dee ---- his destruction of the tortoise1 #deg ---- beetle of ,south ,africa1 #bje ,toads of the tropics1 #caj ---- the ,pipa ,surinamensis1 #cah ---- the ,bahia toad1 #cai ---- the ,surinam toad1 #cah ---- the giant toad1 #cbj ---- the musical toad of ,guinea1 #cbj ,toddy-bird of ,ceylon 7,artamus fuscus71 #aeb1 #cfg ,toddy made from the cocoa-nut palm1 #adh ---- and from the palmyra palm1 #aeb ---- and from the date palm1 #aee ,tomependa1 rafts on the ,amazons river first appear at1 #cf ,tornados1 #i ,toropishu 7,cephalopterus ornatus71 #cee ,tortoises of the tropics1 #cba ---- the gigantic land-tortoise 7,testudo indica1 elephantina71 #cba ---- their fondness for water1 #cbb ---- their locomotion1 #cbc ---- ,mr4 ,darwin's ride on one1 #cbd ---- tortoises not indigenous in ,australia1 #cbd ---- marsh 7,emyd71 of ,america and the ,indian ,archipelago1 #cbd ---- river1 #cbe ---- attacked by wild dogs and tigers1 #deg ,toucans 7,ramphastid71 #cde1 #cdf ---- their quarrelsome habits1 #cde ---- their nests1 #abi ---- anecdote of the arrogance of one1 #cde ,trade-winds1 the1 #d1 #e ---- their limits in the ,northern ,atlantic1 #d ---- ---- and in the ,pacific1 #d ,trap-door spiders1 #bae ,traveller tree of ,madagascar 7,ravenala speciosa71 uses of the1 #afi ,tree-snakes1 #bic ,troglodytes audax of ,peru1 #bcd ,troopials 7,icterus ,xanthornus7 of ,guiana1 #ceb ---- the variegated tropical 7,oriolus varius71 #ceb ,trunk-fish1 the1 #bgb ,tsalt-salya1 or zimb1 of ,abyssinia1 #bcj ,tsets-fly of ,south ,africa 7,glossina morsitans71 #bbi ---- its destruction to cattle and horses1 #bbi1 #bcj ---- range of its pestiferous influence1 #bbi ---- action of the poison1 #bcj ,tucanos1 tattooing of the1 #gd ,tunguragua river1 #cf ,tunqui bird 7,rupicola ,peruviana71 #cee ,tunuhy1 the ,sierra1 rise of the ,rio ,negro in1 #cg ,tupinambaranas1 ,island of1 #cg ,tumeric or ,indian saffron1 #bdb ,turkey of ,honduras 7,meleagrisocellata71 #cfj ---- the brush or tallegalla1 #cgb ,turkey-buzzards1 #cgh ,turtles of the tropics1 #cbf ---- colossal1 of the ,brazilian coast1 #cbf ---- foes of the turtle tribe1 #cbg ---- of the island of ,ascension1 #cbh ---- mode of taking them at ,ascension1 the ,bahamas1 and at ,keeling ,island1 #cbh1 #cbi ---- green turtle1 #cbi ---- barbarous treatment of1 at ,feejee and ,ceylon1 #cbi1 #ccj ---- food of1 #cca ,tusseh-worm 7,bombyx mylitta71 silk filaments of the1 #bdi ,ualan1 island of1 singular roots of the ,lum tree on the1 #adc ,uaupes ,indians1 #gc ---- ---- their tattooing1 #gd ,ucayale river1 a tributary of the ,amazons1 #cg ,unaus1 the1 #dif ,uran or ,mias1 or wild man of the woods1 #ejb ---- how they are caught by ,dyaks1 #ejc ,urari1 or wourali1 poison1 #fg1 #fh ,urceola elastica1 caoutchouc of the1 #aia ,uropeltis ,philippinus1 #bib ,ursus malayanus1 its fondness for cocoa-nuts1 #adi ,utah1 influence of the heated plains of1 in deflecting the trade-winds1 #h ,vampires1 #dib ,vanilla 7,vanilla aromatica71 growth and uses of1 #ahd ,vanilla1 cultivation of1 in ,mexico and ,java1 #ahd ---- a rare and costly spice1 #ahd ,vargas1 ,sanchez1 his fate1 #ea ,vejuco de huaco 7,mikania ,huaco71 an antidote against snake-bites1 #bie ,velella1 the1 #bgd ,venado1 a species of deer1 of the sand-coast of ,peru1 #cd ,veta1 a disease caused by the rarefaction of the air in the high table-lands of ,peru and ,bolivia1 #ba1 #bb ---- effect of1 in arresting putrefaction1 #bb ,veys1 their recently invented alphabet1 #eai ,victoria ,regia1 discovery of the1 #acg ,vicua1 its solitary habits1 #be ---- value of its wool1 #be ---- its appearance1 #be ---- ,indian mode of hunting it1 #bf ---- mode of preparing its flesh1 #bf ---- its enemies1 #bg ,viper1 small brown 7,echidna ocellata71 of ,peru1 its fatal bite1 #big ,viscachas1 the1 of ,peru1 #bg ---- of the ,pampas1 #bg ,vomito1 the1 #ha ,vultures1 ,carrion1 of the ,peruvian sand-coast1 #ce1 #cgi ---- of ,america1 #cgh1 #cgi ---- king of the 7,sarcoramphus papa71 #cgi ---- of the ,old ,world1 #cha ---- sociable1 #cha ,wading-birds1 tropical1 #cfj ,walking-leaf insect1 #bjh ,walking-stick insect1 #bjh ,wanderoos of ,ceylon 7,presbytes cephalopterus71 #dif1 #eje ,water-lizards 7,hydrosauri71 #caf ---- ---- ,mr4 ,adams' contest with one1 #caf ---- ---- their habitat1 #cag ---- ---- worshipped at ,bonny1 #cag ,water-plants of the tropics1 #acg ,water-snakes1 #cja1 #cji ,wax obtained from the ,carnauba palm1 #aeh ,wax obtained from the ,ceroxylon andicola1 #aei ,weaving-birds1 ,african1 #cfd ---- their nests1 #cfe ,west ,indies1 invalids from ,europe residing in the1 #agh ,winds1 the system of1 and its importance1 #d1 #e ---- trade-winds1 and polar and equatorial air-currents1 #d1 #e ---- constant east-winds of ,paraguay1 #e ---- deflections from the ordinary course of the trade-winds1 #h ,wine of the ,agave ,americana1 #acb ---- of the gomuti palm1 #aej ,woodpecker1 #fj ---- orange-coloured of ,ceylon 7,brachypterus aurantius71 #cgd ,wood-nymph1 a humming-bird of ,brazil1 #cdg ,wourali1 or urari1 poison1 #fg1 #fh ,wou-wou 7,hylobates leuciscus71 the #ejc ,xavari river1 a tributary of the ,amazons1 #cg ,xingu river1 a tributary of the ,amazons1 #ch ,yacu-mama of the ,amazons1 #de ,yams 7,dioscorea sativa and alata71 #agj ,yapura river1 a tributary of the ,amazons1 #cg ,yaruras ,indians1 #gj ,yriartea exorrhiza1 #afa ---- ventricosa1 #afa ,zancudo1 bite of the1 #bcc ---- on the ,magdalen river1 #bbd ,zebra1 ,burchell's1 or douw1 #dae ---- its piteous wailings1 #daf ---- its inaccessible retreats1 #daf ,zelgague1 the1 or skink1 of the ,sahara1 #ajb ,zimb1 or tsalt-salya of ,abyssinia1 #bcj ,,london3 ,,printed ,,by ,,spottiswoode ,,and ,,co41 ,,new-,,street ,,square ,,and ,,parliament ,,street #ci ,,paternoster ,,row1 ,e4,c4 ,,london3 ,november #ahgb4 ,,general ,,list ,,of ,,works ,,published ,,by ,messrs4 ,,longmans1 ,,green1 ,,reader1 and ,,dyer4 ,,arts1 ,,manufactures1 ,c4 #fac ,,astronomy1 ,,meteorology1 ,,popular ,,geography1 ,c4 #fjh ,,biographical ,,works #fjd ,,chemistry1 ,,medicine1 ,,surgery1 ,,and ,,the ,,allied ,,sciences #faa ,,criticism1 ,,philosophy1 ,,polity1 ,c4 #fje ,,fine ,,arts ,,and ,,illustrated ,,editions #fab ,,history1 ,,politics1 ,,and ,,historical ,,memoirs #fja ,,index #fba-bd ,,knowledge ,,for ,,the ,,young #fbj ,,miscellaneous ,,works ,,and ,,popular ,,metaphysics #fjf ,,natural ,,history ,,popular ,,science #fji ,,periodical ,,publications #fbj ,,poetry ,,and ,,the ,,drama #fah ,,religious ,,and ,,moral ,,works #fad ,,rural ,,sports1 ,c4 #fai ,,travels1 ,,voyages1 ,c4 #faf ,,works ,,of ,,fiction #fag ,,works ,,of ,,utility ,,and ,,general ,,information #fai ,history1 ,politics1 ,historical ,memoirs1 c4 ,estimates of the ,english ,kings from ,william the ,conqueror to ,george ,,iii4 ,by ,j4 ,,langton ,,sanford1 ,author of #8,studies and ,illustrations of the ,great ,rebellion' c4 ,crown #hvo4 price #abs4 #f;d4 ,the ,history of ,england from the ,fall of ,wolsey to the ,defeat of the ,spanish ,armada4 ,by ,,james ,,anthony ,,froude1 ,m4,a4 ,,cabinet ,,edition1 #ab vols4 cr4 #hvo4 #c #abs4 ,,library ,,edition1 #ab vols4 #hvo4 #h #ahs4 ,the ,english in ,ireland in the ,eighteenth ,century4 ,by ,,james ,,anthony ,,froude1 ,m4,a4 late ,fellow of ,exeter ,college1 ,oxford4 ,in ,two ,volumes4 ,,vol4 ,i41 #hvo4 price #afs4 ,the ,history of ,england from the ,accession of ,james ,,ii4 ,by ,lord ,,macaulay3-- ,,student',s ,,edition1 #b vols4 crown #hvo4 #abs4 ,,people',s ,,edition1 #d vols4 crown #hvo4 #afs4 ,,cabinet ,,edition1 #h vols4 post #hvo4 #dhs4 ,,library ,,edition1 #e vols4 #hvo4 #d4 ,lord ,macaulay's ,works4 ,complete and uniform ,library ,edition4 ,edited by his ,sister1 ,lady ,,trevelyan4 #h vols4 #hvo4 with ,portrait1 price #e #es4 cloth1 or #h #hs4 bound in tree-calf by ,rivire4 ,memoirs of ,baron ,stockmar4 ,by his ,son1 ,baron ,e4 ,,von ,,stockmar4 ,translated from the ,german by ,g4,a4,m4 ,edited by ,,max ,m,,ller1 ,m4,a4 #b vols4 crown #hvo4 price #bas4 ,varieties of ,vice-,regal ,life4 ,by ,major-,general ,sir ,,william ,,denison1 ,k4,c4,b4 late ,governor-,general of the ,australian ,colonies1 and ,governor of ,madras4 ,with ,two ,maps4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #bhs4 ,on ,parliamentary ,government in ,england3 its ,origin1 ,development1 and ,practical ,operation4 ,by ,,alpheus ,,todd1 ,librarian of the ,legislative ,assembly of ,canada4 #b vols4 #hvo4 price #a #ags4 ,the ,constitutional ,history of ,england since the ,accession of ,george ,,iii4 #agfj--ahfj4 ,by ,sir ,,thomas ,,erskine ,,may1 ,k4,c4,b4 ,cabinet ,edition 7the ,third71 thoroughly revised4 #c vols4 crown #hvo4 price #ahs4 ,a ,historical ,account of the ,neutrality of ,great ,britain during the ,american ,civil ,war4 ,by ,,mountague ,,bernard1 ,m4,a4 ,royal #hvo4 price #afs4 ,the ,history of ,england1 from the ,earliest ,times to the ,year #ahfe4 ,by ,c4 ,d4 ,,yonge1 ,regius ,professor of ,modern ,history in ,queen's ,college1 ,belfast4 ,new ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,lectures on the ,history of ,england1 from the ,earliest ,times to the ,death of ,king ,edward ,,ii4 ,by ,,william ,,longman4 ,with ,maps and ,illustrations4 #hvo4 #aes4 ,the ,history of the ,life and ,times of ,edward the ,third4 ,by ,,william ,,longman4 ,with #i ,maps1 #h ,plates1 and #af ,woodcuts4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #bhs4 ,history of ,civilization in ,england and ,france1 ,spain and ,scotland4 ,by ,,henry ,,thomas ,,buckle4 ,new ,edition of the entire work1 with a complete ,,index4 #c vols4 crown #hvo4 #bds4 ,realities of ,irish ,life4 ,by ,w4 ,,steuart ,,trench1 ,land ,agent in ,ireland to the ,marquess of ,lansdowne1 the ,marquess of ,bath1 and ,lord ,digby4 ,fifth ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,the ,student's ,manual of the ,history of ,ireland4 ,by ,m4 ,f4 ,,cusack1 ,authoress of #8,the ,illustrated ,history of ,ireland4' ,crown #hvo4 price #fs4 ,a ,student's ,manual of the ,history of ,india1 from the ,earliest ,period to the ,present4 ,by ,colonel ,,meadows ,,taylor1 ,m4,r4,a4,s4 ,m4,r4,i4,a4 ,crown #hvo4 with ,maps1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,the ,history of ,india1 from the ,earliest ,period to the close of ,lord ,dalhousie's ,administration4 ,by ,,john ,,clark ,,marshman4 #c vols4 crown #hvo4 #bbs4 #f;d4 ,indian ,polity2 a ,view of the ,system of ,administration in ,india4 ,by ,lieut4-,col4 ,,george ,,chesney4 ,second ,edition1 revised1 with ,map4 #hvo4 #bas4 ,a ,colonist on the ,colonial ,question4 ,by ,,jehu ,,mathews1 of ,toronto1 ,canada4 ,post #hvo4 price #fs4 ,an ,historical ,view of ,literature and ,art in ,great ,britain from the ,accession of the ,house of ,hanover to the ,reign of ,queen ,victoria4 ,by ,j4 ,,murray ,,graham1 ,m4,a4 #hvo4 price #ads4 ,waterloo ,lectures3 a ,study of the ,campaign of #ahae4 ,by ,colonel ,,charles ,c4 ,,chesney1 ,r4,e4 late ,professor of ,military ,art and ,history in the ,staff ,college4 ,second ,edition4 #hvo4 with ,map1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,memoir and ,correspondence relating to ,political ,occurrences in ,june and ,july #ahcd4 ,by ,,edward ,,john ,,littleton1 ,first ,lord ,hatherton4 ,edited1 from the ,original ,manuscript1 by ,,henry ,,reeve1 ,c4,b4 ,d4,c4,l4 #hvo4 price #gs4 #f;d4 ,chapters from ,french ,history2 ,st4 ,louis1 ,joan of ,arc1 ,henri ,,iv4 with ,sketches of the ,intermediate ,periods4 ,by ,j4 ,h4 ,,gurney1 ,m4,a4 ,new ,edition4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #fs4 #f;d4 ,history of the ,reformation in ,europe in the ,time of ,calvin4 ,by ,j4 ,h4 ,,merle ,d',,aubign1 ,d4,d4 ,,vols4 ,i4 and ,,ii4 #hvo4 #bhs4 ,,vol4 ,,iii4 #abs4 ,,vol4 ,,iv4 price #afs4 and ,,vol4 ,v4 price #afs4 ,royal and ,republican ,france4 ,a ,series of ,essays reprinted from the #8,edinburgh1' #8,quarterly1' and #8,british and ,foreign' ,reviews4 ,by ,,henry ,,reeve1 ,c4,b4 ,d4,c4,l4 #b vols4 #hvo4 price #bas4 ,the ,imperial and ,colonial ,constitutions of the ,britannic ,empire1 including ,indian ,institutions4 ,by ,sir ,,edward ,,creasy1 ,m4,a4 c4 ,with ,six ,maps4 #hvo4 price #aes4 ,home ,politics3 being a ,consideration of the ,causes of the ,growth of ,trade in relation to ,labour1 ,pauperism1 and ,emigration4 ,by ,,daniel ,,grant4 #hvo4 #gs4 ,the ,oxford ,reformers--,john ,colet1 ,erasmus1 and ,thomas ,more2 being a ,history of their ,fellow-,work4 ,by ,,frederic ,,seebohm4 ,second ,edition4 #hvo4 #ads4 ,the ,history of ,greece4 ,by ,c4 ,,thirlwall1 ,d4,d4 ,lord ,bishop of ,st4 ,david's4 #h vols4 fcp4 #bhs4 ,the ,tale of the ,great ,persian ,war1 from the ,histories of ,herodotus4 ,by ,,george ,w4 ,,cox1 ,m4,a4 late ,scholar of ,trin4 ,coll4 ,oxon4 ,fcp4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,the ,sixth ,oriental ,monarchy2 or1 the ,history1 ,geography1 and ,antiquities of ,parthia4 ,collected and ,illustrated from ,ancient and ,modern sources4 ,by ,,george ,,rawlinson1 ,m4,a4 ,camden ,professor of ,ancient ,history in the ,university of ,oxford1 and ,canon of ,canterbury4 #hvo4 with ,maps and ,illustrations4 ,nearly ready4 ,greek ,history from ,themistocles to ,alexander1 in a ,series of ,lives from ,plutarch4 ,revised and arranged by ,a4 ,h4 ,,clough4 ,fcp4 with #dd ,woodcuts1 #fs4 ,critical ,history of the ,language and ,literature of ,ancient ,greece4 ,by ,,william ,,mure1 of ,caldwell4 #e vols4 #hvo4 #c #is4 ,history of the ,literature of ,ancient ,greece4 ,by ,professor ,k4 ,o4 ,m,,ller4 ,translated by ,,lewis and ,,donaldson4 #c vols4 #hvo4 #bas4 ,the ,history of ,rome4 ,by ,,wilhelm ,,ihne4 ,english ,edition1 translated and revised by the ,author4 ,,vols4 ,i4 and ,,ii4 #hvo4 #cjs4 ,history of the ,city of ,rome from its ,foundation to the ,sixteenth ,century of the ,christian ,era4 ,by ,,thomas ,h4 ,,dyer1 ,,ll4,d4#hvo4 with #b ,maps1 #aes4 ,history of the ,romans under the ,empire4 ,by ,very ,rev4 ,,charles ,,merivale1 ,d4,c4,l4 ,dean of ,ely4 #h vols4 post #hvo4 price #dhs4 ,the ,fall of the ,roman ,republic2 a ,short ,history of the ,last ,century of the ,commonwealth4 ,by the same ,author4 #abmo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,encyclopdia of ,chronology1 ,historical and ,biographical3 comprising the ,dates of all the ,great ,events of ,history1 including ,treaties1 ,alliances1 ,wars1 ,battles1 c42 ,incidents in the ,lives of ,eminent ,men1 ,scientific and ,geographical ,discoveries1 ,mechanical ,inventions1 and ,social1 ,domestic1 and ,economical ,improvements4 ,by ,b4 ,b4 ,,woodward1 ,b4,a4 and ,w4 ,l4 ,r4 ,,cates4#hvo4 price #dbs4 ,history of ,european ,morals from ,augustus to ,charlemagne4 ,by ,w4 ,e4 ,h4 ,,lecky1 ,m4,a4#b vols4 #hvo4 price #bhs4 ,history of the ,rise and ,influence of the ,spirit of ,rationalism in ,europe4 ,by the same ,author4 ,cabinet ,edition 7the ,fourth74#b vols4 crown #hvo4 price #afs4 ,god in ,history2 or1 the ,progress of ,man's ,faith in the ,moral ,order of the ,world4 ,by the late ,baron ,,bunsen4 ,translated from the ,german by ,,susanna ,,winkworth2 with a ,preface by ,dean ,,stanley4 #c vols4 #hvo4 #dbs4 ,socrates and the ,socratic ,schools4 ,translated from the ,german of ,dr4 ,e4 ,,zeller1 with the ,author's approval1 by the ,rev4 ,,oswald ,j4 ,,reichel1 ,b4,c4,l4 and ,m4,a4 ,crown #hvo4 #hs4 #f;d4 ,the ,stoics1 ,epicureans1 and ,sceptics4 ,translated from the ,german of ,dr4 ,e4 ,,zeller1 with the ,author's approval1 by ,,oswald ,j4 ,,reichel1 ,b4,c4,l4 and ,m4,a4 ,crown #hvo4 #ads4 ,the ,english ,reformation4 ,by ,f4 ,c4 ,,massingberd1 ,m4,a4 ,chancellor of ,lincoln4 #dth ,edition1 revised4 ,fcp4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,three ,centuries of ,modern ,history4 ,by ,,charles ,,duke ,,yonge1 ,regius ,professor of ,modern ,history and ,english ,literature in ,queen's ,college1 ,belfast4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,saint-,simon and ,saint-,simonism2 a ,chapter in the ,history of ,socialism in ,france4 ,by ,,arthur ,j4 ,,booth1 ,m4,a4 ,crown #hvo4 price #gs4 #f;d4 ,the ,history of ,philosophy1 from ,thales to ,comte4 ,by ,,george ,,henry ,,lewes4 ,fourth ,edition1 corrected1 and partly rewritten4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #cbs4 ,the ,mythology of the ,aryan ,nations4 ,by ,,george ,w4 ,,cox1 ,m4,a4 late ,scholar of ,trinity ,college1 ,oxford4 #b vols4 #hvo4 price #bhs4 ,maunder's ,historical ,treasury2 comprising a ,general ,introductory ,outline of ,universal ,history1 and a ,series of ,separate ,histories4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 price #fs4 ,critical and ,historical ,essays contributed to the ,edinburgh ,review by the ,right ,hon4 ,lord ,,macaulay3-- ,,student',s ,,edition1 crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,,people',s ,,edition1 #b vols4 crown #hvo4 #hs4 ,,cabinet ,,edition1 #d vols4 #bds4 ,,library ,,edition1 #c vols4 #hvo4 #cfs4 ,history of the ,early ,church1 from the ,first ,preaching of the ,gospel to the ,council of ,nica1 ,a4,d4 #cbe4 ,by the ,author of #8,amy ,herbert4' ,new ,edition4 ,fcp4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,sketch of the ,history of the ,church of ,england to the ,revolution of #afhh4 ,by the ,right ,rev4 ,t4 ,v4 ,,short1 ,d4,d4 ,lord ,bishop of ,st4 ,asaph4 ,eighth ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,history of the ,christian ,church1 from the ,ascension of ,christ to the ,conversion of ,constantine4 ,by ,e4 ,,burton1 ,d4,d4 late ,regius ,prof4 of ,divinity in the ,university of ,oxford4 ,fcp4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,history of the ,christian ,church1 from the ,death of ,st4 ,john to the ,middle of the ,second ,century2 comprising a full ,account of the ,primitive ,organisation of ,church ,government1 and the ,growth of ,episcopacy4 ,by ,t4 ,w4 ,,mossman1 ,b4,a4 ,rector of ,east and ,vicar of ,west ,torrington1 ,lincolnshire4 #hvo4 ,in the press4 ,biographical ,works4 ,life of ,alexander von ,humboldt4 ,compiled1 in ,commemoration of the ,centenary of his ,birth1 by ,,julius ,l,,wenberg1 ,,robert ,,av-,,lallemant1 and ,,alfred ,,dove4 ,edited by ,professor ,,karl ,,bruhns1 ,director of the ,observatory at ,leipzig4 ,translated from the ,german by ,,jane and ,,caroline ,,lassell4 #b vols4 #hvo4 with ,three ,portraits4 ,nearly ready4 ,autobiography of ,john ,milton2 or1 ,milton's ,life in his own ,words4 ,by the ,,rev4 ,,james ,j4 ,g4 ,,graham1 ,m4,a4 ,crown #hvo4 with ,vignette-,portrait1 price #es4 ,recollections of ,past ,life4 ,by ,sir ,,henry ,,holland1 ,bart4 ,m4,d4 ,f4,r4,s41 c4 ,physician-in-,ordinary to the ,queen4 ,second ,edition4 ,post #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,biographical and ,critical ,essays4 ,by ,a4 ,,hayward1 ,esq41 ,q4,c4 ,a ,new ,series4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,in the press4 ,the ,life of ,isambard ,kingdom ,brunel1 ,civil ,engineer4 ,by ,,isambard ,,brunel1 ,b4,c4,l4 of ,lincoln's ,inn1 ,chancellor of the ,diocese of ,ely4 ,with ,portrait1 ,plates1 and ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #bas4 ,lord ,george ,bentinck2 a ,political ,biography4 ,by the ,right ,hon4 ,b4 ,,disraeli1 ,m4,p4 ,eighth ,edition1 revised1 with a new ,preface4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,the ,life and ,letters of the ,rev4 ,sydney ,smith4 ,edited by his ,daughter1 ,lady ,,holland1 and ,mrs4 ,,austin4 ,new ,edition1 complete in ,one ,volume4 ,crown #hvo4 price #fs4 ,memoir of ,george ,edward ,lynch ,cotton1 ,d4,d4 ,bishop of ,calcutta1 and ,metropolitan4 ,with ,selections from his ,journals and ,correspondence4 ,edited by ,mrs4 ,cotton4 ,new ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 ,just ready4 ,the ,life and ,travels of ,george ,whitefield1 ,m4,a4 ,by ,,james ,,paterson ,,gledstone4 #hvo4 price #ads4 ,the ,life and ,times of ,sixtus the ,fifth4 ,by ,baron ,h,,bner4 ,translated from the ,original ,french1 with the ,author's sanction1 by ,,hubert ,e4 ,h4 ,,jerningham4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #bds4 ,essays in ,ecclesiastical ,biography4 ,by the ,right ,hon4 ,sir ,j4 ,,stephen1 ,,ll4,d4 ,cabinet ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,father ,mathew2 a ,biography4 ,by ,,john ,,francis ,,maguire1 ,m4,p4 ,popular ,edition1 with ,portrait4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,the ,life and ,letters of ,faraday4 ,by ,dr4 ,,bence ,,jones1 ,secretary of the ,royal ,institution4 ,second ,edition1 with ,portrait and ,woodcuts4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #bhs4 ,faraday as a ,discoverer4 ,by ,,john ,,tyndall1 ,,ll4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,new and ,cheaper ,edition1 with ,two ,portraits4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 price #cs4 #f;d4 ,the ,royal ,institution3 its ,founder and its ,first ,professors4 ,by ,dr4 ,,bence ,,jones1 ,honorary ,secretary4 ,post #hvo4 price #abs4 #f;d4 ,leaders of ,public ,opinion in ,ireland2 ,swift1 ,flood1 ,grattan1 ,o',connell4 ,by ,w4 ,e4 ,h4 ,,lecky1 ,m4,a4 ,new ,edition1 revised and enlarged4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,a ,group of ,englishmen 7#agie to #ahae72 ,records of the ,younger ,wedgwoods and their ,friends1 embracing the ,history of the ,discovery of ,photography4 ,by ,,eliza ,,meteyard4 #hvo4 #afs4 ,life of the ,duke of ,wellington4 ,by the ,rev4 ,g4 ,r4 ,,gleig1 ,m4,a4 ,popular ,edition1 carefully revised2 with copious ,additions4 ,crown #hvo4 with ,portrait1 #es4 ,dictionary of ,general ,biography2 containing ,concise ,memoirs and ,notices of the most ,eminent ,persons of all ,countries1 from the ,earliest ,ages to the ,present ,time4 ,edited by ,,william ,l4 ,r4 ,,cates4 #hvo4 price #bas4 ,letters and ,life of ,francis ,bacon1 including all his ,occasional ,works4 ,collected and edited1 with a ,commentary1 by ,j4 ,,spedding4 ,,vols4 ,i4 to ,,vi4 #hvo4 price #c #abs4 ,to be completed in ,one more ,volume4 ,felix ,mendelssohn's ,letters from ,italy and ,switzerland1 and ,letters from #ahcc to #ahdg1 translated by ,lady ,,wallace4 ,with ,portrait4 #b vols4 crown #hvo4 #es4 each4 ,musical ,criticism and ,biography4 ,selected from the ,published and ,unpublished ,writings of ,,thomas ,,damant ,,eaton1 late ,president of the ,norwich ,choral ,society4 ,edited by his ,,sons4 ,crown #hvo4 ,lives of the ,queens of ,england4 ,by ,,agnes ,,strickland4 ,library ,edition1 newly revised2 with ,portraits of every ,queen1 ,autographs1 and ,vignettes4 #h vols4 post #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 each4 ,history of my ,religious ,opinions4 ,by ,j4 ,h4 ,,newman1 ,d4,d4 ,being the ,substance of ,apologia pro ,vit ,su4 ,post #hvo4 price #fs4 ,memoirs of ,sir ,henry ,havelock1 ,k4,c4,b4 ,by ,,john ,,clark ,,marshman4 ,people's ,edition1 with ,portrait4 ,crown #hvo4 price #cs4 #f;d4 ,vicissitudes of ,families4 ,by ,sir ,j4 ,,bernard ,,burke1 ,c4,b4 ,ulster ,king of ,arms4 ,new ,edition1 remodelled and enlarged4 #b vols4 crown #hvo4 #bas4 ,maunder's ,biographical ,treasury4 ,thirteenth ,edition1 reconstructed and partly re-written1 with above #a1jjj additional ,memoirs1 by ,w4 ,l4 ,r4 ,,cates4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,criticism1 ,philosophy1 ,polity1 c4 ,on ,representative ,government4 ,by ,,john ,,stuart ,,mill4 ,third ,edition4 #hvo4 #is4 crown #hvo4 #bs4 ,on ,liberty4 ,by the same ,author4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,post #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,crown #hvo4 #as4 #d;d4 ,principles of ,political ,economy4 ,by the same4 ,seventh ,edition4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #cjs4 or in #a vol4 crown #hvo4 #es4 ,utilitarianism4 ,by the same4 #dth ,edit4 #hvo4 #es4 ,dissertations and ,discussions4 ,by the same ,author4 ,second ,edition4 #c vols4 #hvo4 price #cfs4 ,examination of ,sir ,w4 ,hamilton's ,philosophy1 and of the principal ,philosophical ,questions discussed in his ,writings4 ,by the same4 ,third ,edition4 #hvo4 #afs4 ,the ,subjection of ,women4 ,by ,,john ,,stuart ,,mill4 ,new ,edition4 ,post #hvo4 #es4 ,analysis of the ,phenomena of the ,human ,mind4 ,by ,,james ,,mill4 ,a ,new ,edition1 with ,notes1 ,illustrative and ,critical1 by ,,alexander ,,bain1 ,,andrew ,,findlater1 and ,,george ,,grote4 ,edited1 with additional ,notes1 by ,,john ,,stuart ,,mill4 #b vols4 #hvo4 price #bhs4 ,principles of ,political ,philosophy2 being the ,second ,edition1 revised and extended1 of #8,the ,elements of ,political ,economy4' ,by ,h4 ,d4 ,,macleod1 ,m4,a41 ,barrister-at-,law4 ,in ,two ,volumes4 ,,vol4 ,i4 #hvo4 price #aes4 ,a ,dictionary of ,political ,economy2 ,biographical1 ,bibliographical1 ,historical1 and ,practical4 ,by the same ,author4 ,,vol4 ,i4 royal #hvo4 #cjs4 ,a ,systematic ,view of the ,science of ,jurisprudence4 ,by ,,sheldon ,,amos1 ,m4,a4 ,professor of ,jurisprudence1 ,university ,college1 ,london4 #hvo4 price #ahs4 ,the ,institutes of ,justinian2 with ,english ,introduction1 ,translation1 and ,notes4 ,by ,t4 ,c4 ,,sandars1 ,m4,a4 ,barrister-at-,law4 ,new ,edition4 #hvo4 #aes4 ,lord ,bacon's ,works1 collected and edited by ,r4 ,l4 ,,ellis1 ,m4,a41 ,j4 ,,spedding1 ,m4,a4 and ,d4 ,d4 ,,heath4 ,new and ,cheaper ,edition4 #g vols4 #hvo4 price #c #acs4 #f;d4 ,a ,system of ,logic1 ,ratiocinative and ,inductive4 ,by ,,john ,,stuart ,,mill4 ,eighth ,edition4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #bes4 ,the ,ethics of ,aristotle2 with ,essays and ,notes4 ,by ,sir ,a4 ,,grant1 ,bart4 ,m4,a4 ,,ll4,d4 ,third ,edition1 revised and partly re-written4 ,in the press4 ,the ,nicomachean ,ethics of ,aristotle4 ,newly translated into ,english4 ,by ,r4 ,,williams1 ,b4,a4 ,fellow and late ,lecturer ,merton ,college1 ,oxford4 #hvo4 #abs4 ,bacon's ,essays1 with ,annotations4 ,by ,r4 ,,whately1 ,d4,d4 late ,archbishop of ,dublin4 ,sixth ,edition4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,elements ,of ,logic4 ,by ,r4 ,,whately1 ,d4,d4 late ,archbishop of ,dublin4 ,new ,edition4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 crown #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,elements of ,rhetoric4 ,by the same ,author4 ,new ,edition4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,crown #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,english ,synonymes4 ,by ,e4 ,,jane ,,whately4 ,edited by ,archbishop ,,whately4 #eth ,edition4 ,fcp4 #cs4 ,an ,outline of the ,necessary ,laws of ,thought3 a ,treatise on ,pure and ,applied ,logic4 ,by the ,most ,rev4 ,w4 ,,thomson1 ,d4,d4 ,archbishop of ,york4 ,ninth ,thousand4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 #f;d4 ,causality2 or1 the ,philosophy of ,law ,investigated4 ,by ,,george ,,jamieson1 ,b4,d4 of ,old ,machar4 ,second ,edition1 greatly enlarged4 #hvo4 price #abs4 ,speeches of the ,right ,hon4 ,lord ,,macaulay1 corrected by ,himself4 ,people's ,edition1 crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,lord ,macaulay's ,speeches on ,parliamentary ,reform in #ahca and #ahcb4 #afmo4 price ,,one ,,shilling4 ,a ,dictionary of the ,english ,language4 ,by ,r4 ,g4 ,,latham1 ,m4,a4 ,m4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,founded on the ,dictionary of ,dr4 ,s4 ,,johnson1 as edited by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,j4 ,,todd1 with numerous ,emendations and ,additions4 #d vols4 #dto4 price #g4 ,thesaurus of ,english ,words and ,phrases1 classified and arranged so as to facilitate the expression of ,ideas1 and assist in ,literary ,composition4 ,by ,p4 ,m4 ,,roget1 ,m4,d4 ,new ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,three ,centuries of ,english ,literature4 ,by ,,charles ,,duke ,,yonge1 ,regius ,professor of ,modern ,history and ,english ,literature in ,queen's ,college1 ,belfast4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,lectures on the ,science of ,language4 ,by ,f4 ,,max ,m,,ller1 ,m4,a4 c4 ,foreign ,member of the ,french ,institute4 ,sixth ,edition4 #b vols4 crown #hvo4 price #afs4 ,chapters on ,language4 ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,,farrar1 ,m4,a4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,head ,master of ,marlborough ,college4 ,crown #hvo4 #hs4 #f;d4 ,southey's ,doctor1 complete in ,one ,volume1 edited by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,w4 ,,warter1 ,b4,d4 ,square crown #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,manual of ,english ,literature1 ,historical and ,critical1 with a ,chapter on ,english ,metres4 ,by ,,thomas ,,arnold1 ,m4,a4 ,second ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,a ,latin-,english ,dictionary4 ,by ,,john ,t4 ,,white1 ,d4,d4 ,oxon4 and ,j4 ,e4 ,,riddle1 ,m4,a4 ,oxon4 ,third ,edition1 revised4 #b vols4 #dto4 pp4 #b1abh1 price #dbs4 ,white's ,college ,latin-,english ,dictionary 7,intermediate ,size71 abridged from the ,parent ,work for the use of ,university ,students4 ,medium #hvo4 pp4 #a1jdh1 price #ahs4 ,white's ,junior ,student's ,complete ,latin-,english and ,english-,latin ,dictionary4 ,revised ,edition4 ,square #abmo4 pp4 #a1jeh1 price #abs4 ,separately ,,english-,,latin1 #es4 #f;d4 ,,latin-,,english1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,an ,english-,greek ,lexicon1 containing all the ,greek ,words used by ,writers of good authority4 ,by ,c4 ,d4 ,,yonge1 ,b4,a4 ,new ,edition4 #dto4 #bas4 ,mr4 ,yonge's ,new ,lexicon1 ,english and ,greek1 abridged from his larger work 7as above74 ,square #abmo4 #hs4 #f;d4 ,a ,greek-,english ,lexicon4 ,compiled by ,h4 ,g4 ,,liddell1 ,d4,d4 ,dean of ,christ ,church1 and ,r4 ,,scott1 ,d4,d4 ,dean of ,rochester4 ,sixth ,edition4 ,crown #dto4 price #cfs4 ,a ,lexicon1 ,greek and ,english1 abridged for ,schools from ,,liddell and ,,scott',s ,greek-,english ,lexicon4 ,fourteenth ,edition4 ,square #abmo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,the ,mastery of ,languages2 or1 the ,art of ,speaking ,foreign ,tongues ,idiomatically4 ,by ,,thomas ,,prendergast1 late of the ,civil ,service at ,madras4 ,second ,edition4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,practical ,dictionary of the ,french and ,english ,languages4 ,by ,professor ,l,,on ,,contanseau1 many years ,french ,examiner for ,military and ,civil ,appointments1 c4 ,new ,edition1 carefully revised4 ,post #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,contanseau's ,pocket ,dictionary1 ,french and ,english1 abridged from the ,practical ,dictionary1 by the ,author4 ,new ,edition4 #ahmo4 price #cs4 #f;d4 ,a ,sanskrit-,english ,dictionary4 ,the ,sanskrit words printed both in the original ,devanagari and in ,roman letters2 with ,references to the ,best ,editions of ,sanskrit ,authors1 and with ,etymologies and comparisons of ,cognate ,words chiefly in ,greek1 ,latin1 ,gothic1 and ,anglo-,saxon4 ,compiled by ,t4 ,,benfey4 #hvo4 #ebs4 #f;d4 ,new ,practical ,dictionary of the ,german ,language2 ,german-,english1 and ,english-,german4 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,l4 ,,blackley1 ,m4,a4 and ,dr4 ,,carl ,,martin ,,friedl,,nder4 ,post #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,historical and ,critical ,commentary on the ,old ,testament2 with a ,new ,translation4 ,by ,m4 ,m4 ,,kalisch2 ,ph4,d4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,genesis1 #hvo4 #ahs4 or adapted for the ,general ,reader1 #abs4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,exodus1 #aes4 or adapted for the ,general ,reader1 #abs4 ,vol ,,iii4 ,leviticus1 ,part ,i4 #aes4 or adapted for the ,general ,reader1 #hs4 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,leviticus1 ,part ,,ii4 #aes4 or adapted for the ,general ,reader1 #hs4 ,a ,hebrew ,grammar1 with ,exercises4 ,by the same4 ,part ,i4 ,outlines with ,exercises1 #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,,key1 #es4 ,part ,,ii4 ,exceptional ,forms and ,constructions1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,miscellaneous ,works and ,popular ,metaphysics4 ,an ,introduction to ,mental ,philosophy1 on the ,inductive ,method4 ,by ,j4 ,d4 ,,morell1 ,m4,a4 ,,ll4,d4 #hvo4 #abs4 ,elements of ,psychology1 containing the ,analysis of the ,intellectual ,powers4 ,by ,j4 ,d4 ,,morell1 ,,ll4,d4 ,post #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,recreations of a ,country ,parson4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,two ,series1 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,seaside ,musings on ,sundays and ,weekdays4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,crown #hvo4 price #cs4 #f;d4 ,present-,day ,thoughts4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,changed ,aspects of ,unchanged ,truths2 ,memorials of ,st4 ,andrews ,sundays4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,counsel and ,comfort from a ,city ,pulpit4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,lessons of ,middle ,age1 with some ,account of various ,cities and ,men4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,leisure ,hours in ,town2 ,essays ,consolatory1 sthetical1 ,moral1 ,social1 and ,domestic4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,sunday ,afternoons at the ,parish ,church of a ,scottish ,university ,city4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,the ,commonplace ,philosopher in ,town and ,country4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,the ,autumn ,holidays of a ,country ,parson4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,critical ,essays of a ,country ,parson4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,the ,graver ,thoughts of a ,country ,parson4 ,by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 ,two ,series1 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,miscellaneous and ,posthumous ,works of the late ,henry ,thomas ,buckle4 ,edited1 with a ,biographical ,notice by ,,helen ,,taylor4 #c vols4 #hvo4 price #bl4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,short ,studies on ,great ,subjects4 ,by ,,james ,,anthony ,,froude1 ,m4,a4 late ,fellow of ,exeter ,college1 ,oxford4 #b vols4 crown #hvo4 price #abs4 ,miscellaneous ,writings of ,john ,conington1 ,m4,a4 late ,corpus ,professor of ,latin in the ,university of ,oxford4 ,edited by ,j4 ,a4 ,,symonds1 ,m4,a4 ,with a ,memoir by ,h4 ,j4 ,s4 ,,smith1 ,m4,a4 ,,ll4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 #b vols4 #hvo4 price #bhs4 ,the ,rev4 ,sydney ,smith's ,miscellaneous ,works4 #a vol4 crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,the ,wit and ,wisdom of the ,rev4 ,,sydney ,,smith2 a ,selection of the most memorable ,passages in his ,writings and ,conversation4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,the ,eclipse of ,faith2 or1 a ,visit to a ,religious ,sceptic4 ,by ,,henry ,,rogers4 ,twelfth ,edition4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #es4 ,defence of the ,eclipse of ,faith1 by its ,author4 ,third ,edition4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,lord ,macaulay's ,miscellaneous ,writings3-- ,,library ,,edition1 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,portrait1 #bas4 ,,people',s ,,edition1 #a vol4 crown #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,lord ,macaulay's ,miscellaneous ,writings and ,,speeches4 ,student's ,edition1 in ,one ,volume1 crown #hvo4 price #fs4 ,families of ,speech1 ,four ,lectures delivered at the ,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain4 ,by the ,rev4 ,f4 ,w4 ,,farrar1 ,m4,a4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,post #hvo4 with #b ,maps1 #es4 #f;d4 ,chips from a ,german ,workshop2 being ,essays on the ,science of ,religion1 and on ,mythology1 ,traditions1 and ,customs4 ,by ,f4 ,,max ,m,,ller1 ,m4,a4 c4 ,foreign ,member of the ,french ,institute4 #c vols4 #hvo4 #b4 ,a ,budget of ,paradoxes4 ,by ,,augustus ,,de ,,morgan1 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 and ,c4,p4,s4 of ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge4 ,reprinted1 with the ,author's ,additions1 from the ,athenum4 #hvo4 price #aes4 ,the ,secret of ,hegel3 being the ,hegelian ,system in ,origin1 ,principle1 ,form1 and ,matter4 ,by ,,james ,,hutchison ,,stirling4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #bhs4 ,sir ,william ,hamilton2 being the ,philosophy of ,perception3 an ,analysis4 ,by ,,james ,,hutchison ,,stirling4 #hvo4 #es4 ,as ,regards ,protoplasm4 ,by ,j4 ,h4 ,,stirling1 ,,ll4,d4 ,second ,edition1 with ,additions1 in reference to ,mr4 ,huxley's ,second ,issue and a new ,,preface in reply to ,mr4 ,huxley in #8,yeast4' #hvo4 price #bs4 ,ueberweg's ,system of ,logic1 and ,history of ,logical ,doctrines4 ,translated1 with ,notes and ,appendices1 by ,t4 ,m4 ,,lindsay1 ,m4,a4 ,f4,r4,s4,e4 #hvo4 price #afs4 ,the ,philosophy of ,necessity2 or1 ,natural ,law as applicable to ,mental1 ,moral1 and ,social ,science4 ,by ,,charles ,,bray4 ,second ,edition4 #hvo4 #is4 ,a ,manual of ,anthropology1 or ,science of ,man1 based on ,modern ,research4 ,by the same ,author4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,on ,force1 its ,mental and ,moral ,correlates4 ,by the same ,author4 #hvo4 #es4 ,the ,discovery of a ,new ,world of ,being4 ,by ,,george ,,thomson4 ,post #hvo4 #fs4 ,time and ,space2 a ,metaphysical ,essay4 ,by ,,shadworth ,h4 ,,hodgson4 #hvo4 price #afs4 ,the ,theory of ,practice2 an ,ethical ,inquiry4 ,by ,,shadworth ,h4 ,,hodgson4 #b vols4 #hvo4 price #bds4 ,the ,senses and the ,intellect4 ,by ,,alexander ,,bain1 ,,ll4,d4 ,prof4 of ,logic in the ,univ4 of ,aberdeen4 ,third ,edition4 #hvo4 #aes4 ,mental and ,moral ,science3 a ,compendium of ,psychology and ,ethics4 ,by ,,alexander ,,bain1 ,,ll4,d4 ,third ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,or separately3 ,,part ,i4 ,mental ,science1 #fs4 #f;d4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,moral ,science1 #ds4 #f;d4 ,a ,treatise on ,human ,nature2 being an ,attempt to ,introduce the ,experimental ,method of ,reasoning into ,moral ,subjects4 ,by ,,david ,,hume4 ,edited1 with ,notes1 c4 by ,t4 ,h4 ,,green1 ,fellow1 and ,t4 ,h4 ,,grose1 late ,scholar1 of ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,in the press4 ,essays ,moral1 ,political1 and ,literary4 ,by ,,david ,,hume4 ,by the same ,editors4 #b vols4 #hvo4 ,in the press4 ,astronomy1 ,meteorology1 ,popular ,geography1 c4 ,outlines of ,astronomy4 ,by ,sir ,j4 ,f4 ,w4 ,,herschel1 ,bart4 ,m4,a4 ,eleventh ,edition1 with #i ,plates and numerous ,diagrams4 ,square crown #hvo4 #abs4 ,essays on ,astronomy4 ,a ,series of ,papers on ,planets and ,meteors1 the ,sun and sun-surrounding ,space1 ,stars and ,star ,cloudlets2 and a ,dissertation on the approaching ,transit of ,venus3 preceded by a ,sketch of the ,life and ,work of ,sir ,j4 ,herschel4 ,by ,r4 ,a4 ,,proctor1 ,b4,a4 ,with #aj ,plates and #bd ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 price #abs4 ,schellen's ,spectrum ,analysis1 in its ,application to ,terrestrial ,substances and the ,physical ,constitution of the ,heavenly ,bodies4 ,translated by ,,jane and ,c4 ,,lassell2 edited1 with ,notes1 by ,w4 ,,huggins1 ,,ll4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,with #ac ,plates 7#f coloured7 and #bbc ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #bhs4 ,the ,sun2 ,ruler1 ,light1 ,fire1 and ,life of the ,planetary ,system4 ,by ,,richard ,a4 ,,proctor1 ,b4,a4 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,second ,edition2 with #aj ,plates 7#g coloured7 and #ajg ,woodcuts4 ,crown #hvo4 price #ads4 ,saturn and its ,system4 ,by the same ,author4 #hvo4 with #ad ,plates1 #ads4 ,magnetism and ,deviation of the ,compass4 ,for the use of ,students in ,navigation and ,science ,schools4 ,by ,,john ,,merrifield1 ,,ll4,d4 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,with ,diagrams4 #ahmo4 price #as4 #f;d4 ,navigation and ,nautical ,astronomy 7,practical1 ,theoretical1 ,scientific7 for the use of ,students and ,practical ,men4 ,by ,j4 ,,merrifield1 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 and ,h4 ,,evers4 #hvo4 #ads4 ,air and ,rain2 the ,beginnings of a ,chemical ,climatology4 ,by ,,robert ,,angus ,,smith1 ,ph4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,f4,c4,s4 ,government ,inspector of ,alkali ,works1 with #h ,illustrations4 #hvo4 price #bds4 ,the ,star ,depths2 or1 other ,suns than ,ours2 a ,treatise on ,stars1 ,star-,systems1 and ,star-,cloudlets4 ,by ,r4 ,a4 ,,proctor1 ,b4,a4 ,crown #hvo4 with numerous ,illustrations4 ,nearly ready4 ,the ,orbs ,around ,us2 a ,series of ,familiar ,essays on the ,moon and ,planets1 ,meteors and ,comets1 the ,sun and ,coloured ,pairs of ,suns4 ,by ,r4 ,a4 ,,proctor1 ,b4,a4 ,crown #hvo4 price #gs4 #f;d4 ,other ,worlds than ,ours2 the ,plurality of ,worlds ,studied under the ,light of ,recent ,scientific ,researches4 ,by ,r4 ,a4 ,,proctor1 ,b4,a4 ,third ,edition1 revised and corrected2 with #ad ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,celestial ,objects for ,common ,telescopes4 ,by ,t4 ,w4 ,,webb1 ,m4,a4 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,new ,edition1 revised1 with ,map of the ,moon and ,woodcuts4 ,in the press4 ,a ,general ,dictionary of ,geography1 ,descriptive1 ,physical1 ,statistical1 and ,historical2 forming a complete ,gazetteer of the ,world4 ,by ,a4 ,,keith ,,johnston1 ,f4,r4,s4,e4 ,new ,edition4 #hvo4 price #cas4 #f;d4 ,the ,public ,schools ,atlas of ,modern ,geography4 ,in ,thirty-one ,maps1 exhibiting clearly the more important ,physical ,features of the ,countries delineated1 and ,noting all the ,chief ,places of ,historical1 ,commercial1 and ,social ,interest4 ,edited1 with an ,introduction1 by the ,rev4 ,g4 ,,butler1 ,m4,a4 ,imperial quarto1 price #cs4 #f;d4 sewed2 #es4 cloth4 ,a ,new ,star ,atlas1 for the ,library1 the ,school1 and the ,observatory1 in ,twelve ,circular ,maps 7with ,two ,index ,plates74 ,intended as a ,companion to #8,webb's ,celestial ,objects for ,common ,telescopes4' ,with a ,letterpress ,introduction on the ,study of the ,stars1 illustrated by #i ,diagrams4 ,by ,,richard ,a4 ,,proctor1 ,b4,a4 ,hon4 ,sec4 ,r4,a4,s4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,nautical ,surveying1 an ,introduction to the ,practical and ,theoretical ,study of4 ,by ,,john ,,knox ,,laughton1 ,m4,a4 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,small #hvo4 price #fs4 ,maunder's ,treasury of ,geography1 ,physical1 ,historical1 ,descriptive1 and ,political4 ,edited by ,w4 ,,hughes1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,with #g ,maps and #af ,plates4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,natural ,history and ,popular ,science4 ,natural ,philosophy for ,general ,readers and ,young ,persons2 a ,course of ,physics divested of ,mathematical ,formul and expressed in the language of daily life4 ,translated from ,ganot's ,cours de ,physique1 by ,e4 ,,atkinson1 ,ph4,d4 ,f4,c4,s4 ,crown #hvo4 with #djd ,woodcuts1 price #gs4 #f;d4 ,mrs4 ,marcet's ,conversations on ,natural ,philosophy4 ,revised by the ,author's ,,son1 and augmented by ,conversations on ,spectrum ,analysis and ,solar ,chemistry4 ,with #cf ,plates4 ,crown #hvo4 price #gs4 #f;d4 ,ganot's ,elementary ,treatise on ,physics1 ,experimental and ,applied1 for the use of ,colleges and ,schools4 ,translated and ,edited with the ,author's sanction by ,e4 ,,atkinson1 ,ph4,d4 ,f4,c4,s4 ,new ,edition1 revised and enlarged2 with a ,coloured ,plate and #gbf ,woodcuts4 ,post #hvo4 #aes4 ,text-,books of ,science1 ,mechanical and ,physical4 ,the following may now be had1 price #cs4 #f;d4 each3-- #a4 ,,goodeve',s ,mechanism4 #b4 ,,bloxam',s ,metals4 #c4 ,,miller',s ,inorganic ,chemistry4 #d4 ,,griffin',s ,algebra and ,trigonometry4 #e4 ,,watson',s ,plane and ,solid ,geometry4 #f4 ,,maxwell',s ,theory of ,heat4 #g4 ,,merrifield',s ,technical ,arithmetic and ,mensuration4 #h4 ,,anderson',s ,strength of ,materials4 ,dove's ,law of ,storms1 considered in connexion with the ordinary ,movements of the ,atmosphere4 ,translated by ,r4 ,h4 ,,scott1 ,m4,a4 ,t4,c4,d4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,the ,correlation of ,physical ,forces4 ,by ,w4 ,r4 ,,grove1 ,q4,c4 ,v4,p4,r4,s4 ,fifth ,edition1 revised1 and ,augmented by a ,discourse on ,continuity4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,the ,discourse1 separately1 price #bs4 #f;d4 ,fragments of ,science4 ,by ,,john ,,tyndall1 ,,ll4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,third ,edition4 #hvo4 price #ads4 ,heat a ,mode of ,motion4 ,by ,,john ,,tyndall1 ,,ll4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 with ,woodcuts1 price #ajs4 #f;d4 ,sound2 a ,course of ,eight ,lectures delivered at the ,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain4 ,by ,,john ,,tyndall1 ,,ll4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,new ,edition1 with ,portrait and ,woodcuts4 ,crown #hvo4 #is4 ,researches on ,diamagnetism and ,magne-,crystallic ,action2 including the ,question of ,diamagnetic ,polarity4 ,by ,,john ,,tyndall1 ,,ll4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,with #f ,plates and many ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #ads4 ,notes of a ,course of ,nine ,lectures on ,light1 delivered at the ,royal ,institution1 ,a4,d4 #ahfi4 ,by ,j4 ,,tyndall1 ,,ll4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,crown #hvo4 #as4 sewed1 or #as4 #f;d4 cloth4 ,notes of a ,course of ,seven ,lectures on ,electrical ,phenomena and ,theories1 delivered at the ,royal ,institution1 ,a4,d4 #ahgj4 ,by ,,john ,,tyndall1 ,,ll4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,crown #hvo4 #as4 sewed1 or #as4 #f;d4 cloth4 ,a ,treatise on ,electricity1 in ,theory and ,practice4 ,by ,a4 ,,de ,,la ,,rive1 ,prof4 in the ,academy of ,geneva4 ,translated by ,c4 ,v4 ,,walker1 ,f4,r4,s4 #c vols4 #hvo4 with ,woodcuts1 #c #acs4 ,light ,science for ,leisure ,hours2 a ,series of ,familiar ,essays on ,scientific ,subjects1 ,natural ,phenomena1 c4 ,by ,r4 ,a4 ,,proctor1 ,b4,a4 ,crown #hvo4 price #gs4 #f;d4 ,light3 its ,influence on ,life and ,health4 ,by ,,forbes ,,winslow1 ,m4,d4 ,d4,c4,l4 ,oxon4 7,hon47 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,professor ,owen's ,lectures on the ,comparative ,anatomy and ,physiology of the ,invertebrate ,animals4 ,second ,edition1 with #bce ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #bas4 ,the ,comparative ,anatomy and ,physiology of the ,vertebrate ,animals4 ,by ,,richard ,,owen1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,d4,c4,l4 ,with #a1dgb ,woodcuts4 #c vols4 #hvo4 #c #acs4 #f;d4 ,kirby and ,spence's ,introduction to ,entomology1 or ,elements of the ,natural ,history of ,insects4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,homes ,without ,hands2 a ,description of the ,habitations of ,animals1 classed according to their ,principle of ,construction4 ,by ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,,wood1 ,m4,a4 ,f4,l4,s4 ,with about #adj ,vignettes on ,wood4 #hvo4 #bas4 ,strange ,dwellings2 a ,description of the ,habitations of ,animals1 abridged from #8,homes without ,hands4' ,by ,j4 ,g4 ,,wood1 ,m4,a4 ,f4,l4,s4 ,with a ,new ,frontispiece and about #fj other ,woodcut ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo4 price #gs4 #f;d4 ,van ,der ,hoeven's ,handbook of ,,zoology4 ,translated from the ,second ,dutch ,edition by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,,clark1 ,m4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 #b vols4 #hvo4 with #bd ,plates of ,figures1 #fjs4 ,the ,harmonies of ,nature and ,unity of ,creation4 ,by ,dr4 ,g4 ,,hartwig4 #hvo4 with numerous ,illustrations1 #ahs4 ,the ,sea and its ,living ,wonders4 ,by the same ,author4 ,third ,edition1 enlarged4 #hvo4 with many ,illustrations1 #bas4 ,the ,subterranean ,world4 ,by the same ,author4 ,with #c ,maps and about #hj ,woodcut ,illustrations1 including #h full size of page4 #hvo4 price #bas4 ,the ,polar ,world3 a ,popular ,description of ,man and ,nature in the ,arctic and ,antarctic ,regions of the ,globe4 ,by the same ,author4 ,with #h ,chromoxylographs1 #c ,maps1 and #he ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #bas4 ,a ,familiar ,history of ,birds4 ,by ,e4 ,,stanley1 ,d4,d4 late ,lord ,bishop of ,norwich4 ,fcp4 with ,woodcuts1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,insects at ,home2 a ,popular ,account of ,british ,insects1 their ,structure1 ,habits1 and ,transformations4 ,by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,,wood1 ,m4,a4 ,f4,l4,s4 ,with upwards of #gjj ,illustrations engraved on ,wood4 #hvo4 price #bas4 ,insects ,abroad2 being a ,popular ,account of ,foreign ,insects1 their ,structure1 ,habits1 and ,transformations4 ,by ,j4 ,g4 ,,wood1 ,m4,a4 ,f4,l4,s4 ,author of #8,homes without ,hands' c4 ,in ,one ,volume1 printed and illustrated uniformly with #8,insects at ,home1' to which it will form a ,sequel and ,companion4 ,in the press4 ,the ,primitive ,inhabitants of ,scandinavia4 ,containing a ,description of the ,implements1 ,dwellings1 ,tombs1 and ,mode of ,living of the ,savages in the ,north of ,europe during the ,stone ,age4 ,by ,,sven ,,nilsson4 #hvo4 ,plates and ,woodcuts1 #ahs4 ,the ,origin of ,civilisation1 and the ,primitive ,condition of ,man2 ,mental and ,social ,condition of ,savages4 ,by ,sir ,,john ,,lubbock1 ,bart4 ,m4,p4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,second ,edition1 with #be ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #afs4 ,the ,ancient ,stone ,implements1 ,weapons1 and ,ornaments1 of ,great ,britain4 ,by ,,john ,,evans1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,f4,s4,a4 #hvo4 with #b ,plates and #dgf ,woodcuts1 price #bhs4 ,mankind1 their ,origin and ,destiny4 ,by an ,m4,a4 of ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford4 ,containing a ,new ,translation of the ,first ,three ,chapters of ,genesis2 a ,critical ,examination of the ,first ,two ,gospels2 an ,explanation of the ,apocalypse2 and the ,origin and ,secret ,meaning of the ,mythological and ,mystical ,teaching of the ,ancients4 ,with #ca ,illustrations4 #hvo4 price #cas4 #f;d4 ,an ,exposition of ,fallacies in the ,hypothesis of ,mr4 ,darwin4 ,by ,c4 ,r4 ,,bree1 ,m4,d4 ,f4,z4,s4 ,author of #8,birds of ,europe not ,observed in the ,british ,isles' c4 ,with #cf ,woodcuts4 ,crown #hvo4 price #ads4 ,bible ,animals2 a ,description of every ,living ,creature mentioned in the ,scriptures1 from the ,ape to the ,coral4 ,by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,,wood1 ,m4,a4 ,f4,l4,s4 ,with about #ajj ,vignettes on ,wood4 #hvo4 #bas4 ,maunder's ,treasury of ,natural ,history1 or ,popular ,dictionary of ,zoology4 ,revised and corrected by ,t4 ,s4 ,,cobbold1 ,m4,d4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 with #ijj ,woodcuts1 #fs4 ,the ,elements of ,botany for ,families and ,schools4 ,tenth ,edition1 revised by ,,thomas ,,moore1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,fcp4 with #aed ,woodcuts1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,the ,treasury of ,botany1 or ,popular ,dictionary of the ,vegetable ,kingdom2 with which is incorporated a ,glossary of ,botanical ,terms4 ,edited by ,j4 ,,lindley1 ,f4,r4,s4 and ,t4 ,,moore1 ,f4,l4,s4 ,pp4 #a1bgd1 with #bgd ,woodcuts and #bj ,steel ,plates4 ,,two ,,parts1 fcp4 #hvo4 #abs4 ,the ,rose ,amateur's ,guide4 ,by ,,thomas ,,rivers4 ,new ,edition4 ,fcp4 #ds4 ,loudon's ,encyclopdia of ,plants2 comprising the ,specific ,character1 ,description1 ,culture1 ,history1 c4 of all the ,plants found in ,great ,britain4 ,with upwards of #ab1jjj ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #dbs4 ,maunder's ,scientific and ,literary ,treasury2 a ,popular ,encyclopdia of ,science1 ,literature1 and ,art4 ,new ,edition1 in part rewritten1 with above #a1jjj new articles1 by ,j4 ,y4 ,,johnson4 ,fcp4 #fs4 ,a ,dictionary of ,science1 ,literature1 and ,art4 ,fourth ,edition1 re-edited by the late ,w4 ,t4 ,,brande 7the ,author7 and ,,george ,w4 ,,cox1 ,m4,a4 #c vols4 medium #hvo4 price #fcs4 cloth4 ,chemistry1 ,medicine1 ,surgery1 and the ,allied ,sciences4 ,a ,dictionary of ,chemistry and the ,allied ,branches of other ,sciences4 ,by ,,henry ,,watts1 ,f4,c4,s4 assisted by eminent ,scientific and ,practical ,chemists4 #e vols4 medium #hvo4 price #g #cs4 ,supplement1 completing the ,record of ,discovery to the end of #ahfi4 #hvo4 #cas4 #f;d4 ,contributions to ,molecular ,physics in the domain of ,radiant ,heat2 a ,series of ,memoirs published in the ,philosophical ,transactions1 c4 ,by ,,john ,,tyndall1 ,,ll4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,with #b ,plates and #ca ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 price #afs4 ,elements of ,chemistry1 ,theoretical and ,practical4 ,by ,,william ,a4 ,,miller1 ,m4,d4 ,,ll4,d4 ,professor of ,chemistry1 ,king's ,college1 ,london4 ,new ,edition4 #c vols4 #hvo4 #c4 ,,part ,i4 ,,chemical ,,physics1 #aes4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,inorganic ,,chemistry1 #bas4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,organic ,,chemistry1 #bds4 ,a ,course of ,practical ,chemistry1 for the use of ,medical ,students4 ,by ,w4 ,,odling1 ,m4,b4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,new ,edition1 with #gj new ,woodcuts4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,outlines of ,chemistry2 or1 ,brief ,notes of ,chemical ,facts4 ,by the same ,author4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,a ,manual of ,chemical ,physiology1 including its ,points of ,contact with ,pathology4 ,by ,j4 ,l4 ,w4 ,,thudichum1 ,m4,d4 #hvo4 with ,woodcuts1 price #gs4 #f;d4 ,select ,methods in ,chemical ,analysis1 chiefly ,inorganic4 ,by ,,william ,,crookes1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,with #bb ,woodcuts4 ,crown #hvo4 price #abs4 #f;d4 ,chemical ,notes for the ,lecture ,room4 ,by ,,thomas ,,wood1 ,f4,c4,s4 #b vols4 crown #hvo4 ,i4 on ,heat1 c4 price #es4 ,,ii4 on the ,metals1 price #es4 ,the ,diagnosis1 ,pathology1 and ,treatment of ,diseases of ,women2 including the ,diagnosis of ,pregnancy4 ,by ,,graily ,,hewitt1 ,m4,d4 c4 ,third ,edition1 revised and for the most part re-written2 with #acb ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #bds4 ,lectures on the ,diseases of ,infancy and ,childhood4 ,by ,,charles ,,west1 ,m4,d4 c4 ,fifth ,edition4 #hvo4 #afs4 ,on ,some ,disorders of the ,nervous ,system in ,childhood4 ,being the ,lumleian ,lectures delivered before the ,royal ,college of ,physicians in ,march #ahga4 ,by ,,charles ,,west1 ,m4,d4 ,crown #hvo4 #es4 ,on the ,surgical ,treatment of ,children's ,diseases4 ,by ,t4 ,,holmes1 ,m4,a4 c4 late ,surgeon to the ,hospital for ,sick ,children4 ,second ,edition1 with #i ,plates and #aab ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #bas4 ,lectures on the ,principles and ,practice of ,physic4 ,by ,sir ,,thomas ,,watson1 ,bart4 ,m4,d4 ,physician-in-,ordinary to the ,queen4 ,fifth ,edition1 thoroughly revised4 #b vols4 #hvo4 price #cfs4 ,lectures on ,surgical ,pathology4 ,by ,sir ,,james ,,paget1 ,bart4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,third ,edition1 revised and re-edited by the ,author and ,professor ,w4 ,,turner1 ,m4,b4 #hvo4 with #aca ,woodcuts1 #bas4 ,cooper's ,dictionary of ,practical ,surgery and ,encyclopdia of ,surgical ,science4 ,new ,edition1 brought down to the present time4 ,by ,s4 ,a4 ,,lane1 ,surgeon to ,st4 ,mary's ,hospital1 c4 assisted by various ,eminent ,surgeons4 #b vols4 #hvo4 price #bes4 each4 ,pulmonary ,consumption2 its ,nature1 ,varieties1 and ,treatment3 with an ,analysis of ,one ,thousand ,cases to exemplify its ,duration4 ,by ,c4 ,j4 ,b4 ,,williams1 ,m4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 and ,c4 ,t4 ,,williams1 ,m4,a4 ,m4,d4 ,oxon4 ,post #hvo4 price #ajs4 #f;d4 ,anatomy1 ,descriptive and ,surgical4 ,by ,,henry ,,gray1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,with about #daj ,woodcuts from ,dissections4 ,sixth ,edition1 by ,t4 ,,holmes1 ,m4,a4 ,cantab4 ,with a ,new ,introduction by the ,editor4 ,royal #hvo4 #bhs4 ,the ,house ,i ,live in2 or1 ,popular ,illustrations of the ,structure and ,functions of the ,human ,body4 ,edited by ,t4 ,g4 ,,girtin4 ,new ,edition1 with #be ,woodcuts1 l#fmo4 price #bs4 #f;d4 ,the ,science and ,art of ,surgery2 being a ,treatise on ,surgical ,injuries1 ,diseases1 and ,operations4 ,by ,,john ,,eric ,,erichsen1 ,senior ,surgeon to ,university ,college ,hospital1 and ,holme ,professor of ,clinical ,surgery in ,university ,college1 ,london4 ,a ,new ,edition1 being the ,sixth1 revised and enlarged2 with #gab ,woodcuts4 #b vols4 #hvo4 price #cbs4 ,a ,system of ,surgery1 ,theoretical and ,practical1 in ,treatises by ,various ,authors4 ,edited by ,t4 ,,holmes1 ,m4,a4 c4 ,surgeon and ,lecturer on ,surgery at ,st4 ,george's ,hospital1 and ,surgeon-in-,chief to the ,metropolitan ,police4 ,second ,edition1 thoroughly revised1 with numerous ,illustrations4 #e vols4 #hvo4 #e #es4 ,clinical ,lectures on ,diseases of the ,liver1 ,jaundice1 and ,abdominal ,dropsy4 ,by ,c4 ,,murchison1 ,m4,d4 ,physician to the ,middlesex ,hospital4 ,post #hvo4 with #be ,woodcuts1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,todd and ,bowman's ,physiological ,anatomy and ,physiology of ,man4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,,vol4 ,,ii4 #hvo4 price #bes4 ,,vol4 ,i4 ,new ,edition by ,dr4 ,,lionel ,s4 ,,beale1 ,f4,r4,s4 in course of publication1 with numerous ,illustrations4 ,,parts ,i4 and ,,ii4 price #gs4 #f;d4 each4 ,outlines of ,physiology1 ,human and ,comparative4 ,by ,,john ,,marshall1 ,f4,r4,c4,s4 ,surgeon to the ,university ,college ,hospital4 #b vols4 crown #hvo4 with #abb ,woodcuts1 #cbs4 ,copland's ,dictionary of ,practical ,medicine1 abridged from the larger work1 and throughout brought down to the present state of ,medical ,science4 #hvo4 #cfs4 ,dr4 ,pereira's ,elements of ,materia ,medica and ,therapeutics1 abridged and adapted for the use of ,medical and ,pharmaceutical ,practitioners and ,students4 ,edited by ,professor ,,bentley1 ,f4,l4,s4 c4 and by ,dr4 ,,redwood1 ,f4,c4,s4 c4 ,with #abe ,woodcut ,illustrations4 #hvo4 price #bes4 ,the ,essentials of ,materia ,medica and ,therapeutics4 ,by ,,alfred ,,baring ,,garrod1 ,m4,d4 ,f4,r4,s4 c4 ,physician to ,king's ,college ,hospital4 ,third ,edition1 ,sixth ,impression1 brought up to #ahgj4 ,crown #hvo4 price #abs4 #f;d4 ,the ,fine ,arts1 and ,illustrated ,editions4 ,grotesque ,animals1 invented1 described1 and portrayed by ,e4 ,w4 ,,cooke1 ,r4,a4 ,f4,r4,s4 in ,twenty-,four ,plates1 with ,elucidatory ,comments4 ,royal #dto4 price #bas4 ,in ,fairyland2 ,pictures from the ,elf-,world4 ,by ,,richard ,,doyle4 ,with a ,poem by ,w4 ,,allingham4 ,with ,sixteen ,plates1 containing ,thirty-six ,designs printed in ,colours4 ,folio1 #cas4 #f;d4 ,albert ,drer1 his ,life and ,works2 including ,autobiographical ,papers and ,complete ,catalogues4 ,by ,,william ,b4 ,,scott4 ,with ,six ,etchings by the ,author and other ,illustrations4 #hvo4 #afs4 ,half-,hour ,lectures on the ,history and ,practice of the ,fine and ,ornamental ,arts4 ,by ,w4 ,b4 ,,scott4 ,second ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 with #ej ,woodcut ,illustrations1 #hs4 #f;d4 ,the ,chorale ,book for ,england3 the ,hymns ,translated by ,miss ,c4 ,,winkworth2 the ,tunes arranged by ,prof4 ,w4 ,s4 ,,bennett and ,,otto ,,goldschmidt4 ,fcp4 #dto4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,the ,new ,testament1 illustrated with ,wood ,engravings after the ,early ,masters1 chiefly of the ,italian ,school4 ,crown #dto4 #fcs4 cloth1 gilt top2 or #e #es4 morocco4 ,the ,life of ,man ,symbolised by the ,months of the ,year in their ,seasons and ,phases4 ,text selected by ,,richard ,,pigot4 #be ,illustrations on ,wood from ,original ,designs by ,,john ,,leighton1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,quarto1 #dbs4 ,cats and ,farlie's ,moral ,emblems2 with ,aphorisms1 ,adages1 and ,proverbs of all ,nations3 comprising #aba ,illustrations on ,wood by ,j4 ,,leighton1 ,f4,s4,a4 with an appropriate ,text by ,r4 ,,pigot4 ,imperial #hvo4 #cas4 #f;d4 ,sacred and ,legendary ,art4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,jameson4 #f vols4 square crown #hvo4 price #e #aes4 #f;d4 as follows3-- ,legends of the ,saints and ,martyrs4 ,new ,edition1 with #ai ,etchings and #ahg ,woodcuts4 #b vols4 price #cas4 #f;d4 ,legends of the ,monastic ,orders4 ,new ,edition1 with #aa ,etchings and #hh ,woodcuts4 #a vol4 price #bas4 ,legends of the ,madonna4 ,new ,edition1 with #bg ,etchings and #afe ,woodcuts4 #a vol4 price #bas4 ,the ,history of ,our ,lord1 with that of ,his ,types and ,precursors4 ,completed by ,lady ,,eastlake4 ,revised ,edition1 with #ac ,etchings and #bha ,woodcuts4 #b vols4 price #dbs4 ,lyra ,germanica1 the ,christian ,year4 ,translated by ,,catherine ,,winkworth1 with #abe ,illustrations on ,wood drawn by ,j4 ,,leighton1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,quarto1 #bas4 ,lyra ,germanica1 the ,christian ,life4 ,translated by ,,catherine ,,winkworth2 with about #bjj ,woodcut ,illustrations by ,j4 ,,leighton1 ,f4,s4,a4 and other ,artists4 ,quarto1 #bas4 ,the ,useful ,arts1 ,manufactures1 c4 ,gwilt's ,encyclopdia of ,architecture1 with above #a1fjj ,woodcuts4 ,fifth ,edition1 with ,alterations and considerable ,additions1 by ,,wyatt ,,papworth4 #hvo4 price #ebs4 #f;d4 ,a ,manual of ,architecture3 being a ,concise ,history and ,explanation of the principal ,styles of ,european ,architecture1 ,ancient1 ,medival1 and ,renaissance2 with their ,chief ,variations and a ,glossary of ,technical ,terms4 ,by ,,thomas ,,mitchell4 ,with #aej ,woodcuts4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,history of the ,gothic ,revival2 an ,attempt to shew how far the taste for ,medival ,architecture was retained in ,england during the last two centuries1 and has been re-developed in the present4 ,by ,c4 ,l4 ,,eastlake1 ,architect4 ,with #dh ,illustrations 7#cf full size of page74 ,imperial #hvo4 price #cas4 #f;d4 ,hints on ,household ,taste in ,furniture1 ,upholstery1 and other ,details4 ,by ,,charles ,l4 ,,eastlake1 ,architect4 ,new ,edition1 with about #ij ,illustrations4 ,square crown #hvo4 #ahs4 ,lathes and ,turning1 ,simple1 ,mechanical1 and ,ornamental4 ,by ,w4 ,,henry ,,northcott4 ,with about #bdj ,illustrations on ,steel and ,wood4 #hvo4 #ahs4 ,perspective2 or1 the ,art of ,drawing what one ,sees4 ,explained and adapted to the use of those ,sketching from ,nature4 ,by ,lieut4 ,w4 ,h4 ,,collins1 ,r4,e4 ,f4,r4,a4,s4 ,with #cg ,woodcuts4 ,crown #hvo4 price #es4 ,principles of ,mechanism1 designed for the use of ,students in the ,universities1 and for ,engineering ,students generally4 ,by ,r4 ,,willis1 ,m4,a4 ,f4,r4,s4 c4 ,jacksonian ,professor in the ,univ4 of ,cambridge4 ,second ,edition2 with #cgd ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #ahs4 ,handbook of ,practical ,telegraphy4 ,by ,r4 ,s4 ,,culley1 ,memb4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 ,engineer-in-,chief of ,telegraphs to the ,post-,office4 ,fifth ,edition1 revised and enlarged2 with #aah ,woodcuts and #i ,plates4 #hvo4 price #ads4 ,ure's ,dictionary of ,arts1 ,manufactures1 and ,mines4 ,sixth ,edition1 rewritten and greatly enlarged by ,,robert ,,hunt1 ,f4,r4,s4 assisted by numerous ,contributors4 ,with #b1jjj ,woodcuts4 #c vols4 medium #hvo4 #d #ads4 #f;d4 ,encyclopdia of ,civil ,engineering1 ,historical1 ,theoretical1 and ,practical4 ,by ,e4 ,,cresy1 ,c4,e4 ,with above #c1jjj ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #dbs4 ,catechism of the ,steam ,engine1 in its various ,applications to ,mines1 ,mills1 ,steam ,navigation1 ,railways1 and ,agriculture4 ,by ,,john ,,bourne1 ,c4,e4 ,new ,edition1 with #hi ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,handbook of the ,steam ,engine4 ,by ,,john ,,bourne1 ,c4,e4 forming a ,,key to the ,author's ,catechism of the ,steam ,engine4 ,with #fg ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 price #is4 ,recent ,improvements in the ,steam-,engine4 ,by ,,john ,,bourne1 ,c4,e4 ,new ,edition1 including many ,new ,examples1 with #abd ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,a ,treatise on the ,steam ,engine1 in its various ,applications to ,mines1 ,mills1 ,steam ,navigation1 ,railways1 and ,agriculture4 ,by ,j4 ,,bourne1 ,c4,e4 ,new ,edition2 with ,portrait1 #cg ,plates1 and #edf ,woodcuts4 #dto4 #dbs4 ,a ,treatise on the ,screw ,propeller1 ,screw ,vessels1 and ,screw ,engines1 as adapted for purposes of ,peace and ,war4 ,by ,,john ,,bourne1 ,c4,e4 ,third ,edition1 with #ed ,plates and #bhg ,woodcuts4 ,quarto1 price #fcs4 ,bourne's ,examples of ,modern ,steam1 ,air1 and ,gas ,engines of the most ,approved ,types1 as employed for ,pumping1 for ,driving ,machinery1 for ,locomotion1 and for ,agriculture1 minutely and practically described4 ,in course of publication1 to be completed in ,twenty-four ,parts1 price #bs4 #f;d4 each1 forming ,one ,volume1 with about #ej ,plates and #djj ,woodcuts4 ,treatise on ,mills and ,millwork4 ,by ,sir ,w4 ,,fairbairn1 ,bart4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,new ,edition1 with #ah ,plates and #cbb ,woodcuts4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #cbs4 ,useful ,information for ,engineers4 ,by the same ,author4 ,,first1 ,,second1 and ,,third ,,series1 with many ,plates and ,woodcuts4 #c vols4 crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 each4 ,the ,application of ,cast and ,wrought ,iron to ,building ,purposes4 ,by the same ,author4 ,fourth ,edition1 with #f ,plates and #aah ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #afs4 ,iron ,ship ,building1 its ,history and ,progress1 as comprised in a ,series of ,experimental ,researches4 ,by ,sir ,w4 ,,fairbairn1 ,bart4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,with #d ,plates and #acj ,woodcuts1 #hvo4 #ahs4 ,the ,strains in ,trusses ,computed by means of ,diagrams2 with #bj ,examples drawn to ,scale4 ,by ,f4 ,a4 ,,ranken1 ,m4,a4 ,c4,e4 ,lecturer at the ,hartley ,institution1 ,southampton4 ,with #ce ,diagrams4 ,square crown #hvo4 price #f,s4 #f;d4 ,mitchell's ,manual of ,practical ,assaying4 ,third ,edition for the most part re-written1 with all the recent ,discoveries incorporated4 ,by ,w4 ,,crookes1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,with #ahh ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #bhs4 ,the ,art of ,perfumery2 the ,history and ,theory of ,odours1 and the ,methods of ,extracting the ,aromas of ,plants4 ,by ,dr4 ,,piesse1 ,f4,c4,s4 ,third ,edition1 with #ec ,woodcuts4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,bayldon's ,art of ,valuing ,rents and ,tillages1 and ,claims of ,tenants upon ,quitting ,farms1 both at ,michaelmas and ,lady-,day4 ,eighth ,edition1 revised by ,j4 ,c4 ,,morton4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,on the ,manufacture of ,beet-,root ,sugar in ,england and ,ireland4 ,by ,,william ,,crookes1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,with #aa ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #hs4 #f;d4 ,practical ,treatise on ,metallurgy1 adapted from the last ,german ,edition of ,professor ,,kerl',s ,metallurgy by ,w4 ,,crookes1 ,f4,r4,s4 c4 and ,e4 ,r,,hrig1 ,ph4,d4 ,m4,e4 #c vols4 #hvo4 with #fbe ,woodcuts1 price #d #ais4 ,loudon's ,encyclopdia of ,agriculture3 comprising the ,laying-out1 ,improvement1 and ,management of ,landed ,property1 and the ,cultivation and ,economy of the ,productions of ,agriculture4 ,with #a1ajj ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #bas4 ,loudon's ,encyclopdia of ,gardening3 comprising the ,theory and ,practice of ,horticulture1 ,floriculture1 ,arboriculture1 and ,landscape ,gardening4 ,with #a1jjj ,woodcuts4 #hvo4 #bas4 ,religious and ,moral ,works4 ,the ,outlines of the ,christian ,ministry ,delineated1 and brought to the ,test of ,reason1 ,holy ,scripture1 ,history1 and ,experience1 with a view to the ,reconciliation of ,existing ,differences concerning it1 especially between ,presbyterians and ,episcopalians4 ,by ,,christopher ,,wordsworth1 ,d4,c4,l4 c4 ,bishop of ,st4 ,andrew's1 and ,fellow of ,winchester ,college4 ,crown #hvo4 price #gs4 #f;d4 ,christian ,counsels1 selected from the ,devotional ,works of ,fnelon1 ,archbishop of ,cambrai4 ,translated by ,a4 ,m4 ,,james4 ,crown #hvo4 price #es4 ,ecclesiastical ,reform4 ,nine ,essays by various ,writers4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,,orby ,,shipley1 ,m4,a4 ,crown #hvo4 ,nearly ready4 ,authority and ,conscience2 a ,free ,debate on the ,tendency of ,dogmatic ,theology and on the ,characteristics of ,faith4 ,edited by ,,conway ,,morel4 ,post #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,reasons of ,faith2 or1 the ,order of the ,christian ,argument ,developed and ,explained4 ,by the ,rev4 ,g4 ,s4 ,,drew1 ,m4,a4 ,second ,edition1 revised and enlarged4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,christ the ,consoler2 a ,book of ,comfort for the ,sick4 ,with a ,preface by the ,right ,rev4 the ,lord ,bishop of ,carlisle4 ,small #hvo4 #fs4 ,the ,true ,doctrine of the ,eucharist4 ,by ,,thomas ,s4 ,l4 ,,vogan1 ,d4,d4 ,canon and ,prebendary of ,chichester and ,rural ,dean4 #hvo4 #ahs4 ,the ,student's ,compendium of the ,book of ,common ,prayer2 being ,notes ,historical and ,explanatory of the ,liturgy of the ,church of ,england4 ,by the ,rev4 ,h4 ,,allden ,,nash4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 price #bs4 #f;d4 ,synonyms of the ,old ,testament1 their ,bearing on ,christian ,faith and ,practice4 ,by the ,rev4 ,,robert ,b4 ,,girdlestone1 ,m4,a4 #hvo4 price #aes4 ,fundamentals2 or1 ,bases of ,belief concerning ,man and ,god3 a ,handbook of ,mental1 ,moral1 and ,religious ,philosophy4 ,by the ,rev4 ,t4 ,,griffith1 ,m4,a4 #hvo4 price #ajs4 #f;d4 ,an ,introduction to the ,theology of the ,church of ,england1 in an ,exposition of the ,thirty-nine ,articles4 ,by the ,rev4 ,t4 ,p4 ,,boultbee1 ,,ll4,d4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 price #fs4 ,christian ,sacerdotalism1 viewed from a ,layman's standpoint or tried by ,holy ,scripture and the ,early ,fathers2 with a short ,sketch of the ,state of the ,church from the end of the ,third to the ,reformation in the beginning of the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,by ,,john ,,jardine1 ,m4,a4 ,,ll4,d4 #hvo4 #hs4 #f;d4 ,prayers for the ,family and for ,private ,use1 selected from the ,collection of the late ,baron ,,bunsen1 and ,translated by ,,catherine ,,winkworth4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 price #cs4 #f;,d4 ,churches and their ,creeds4 ,by the ,rev4 ,sir ,,philip ,,perring1 ,bart4 late ,scholar of ,trin4 ,coll4 ,cambridge1 and ,university ,medallist4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,the ,truth of the ,bible2 ,evidence from the ,mosaic and other ,records of ,creation2 the ,origin and ,antiquity of ,man2 the ,science of ,scripture2 and from the ,archology of ,different ,nations of the ,earth4 ,by the ,rev4 ,b4 ,w4 ,,savile1 ,m4,a4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,considerations on the ,revision of the ,english ,new ,testament4 ,by ,c4 ,j4 ,,ellicott1 ,d4,d4 ,lord ,bishop of ,gloucester and ,bristol4 ,post #hvo4 price #es4 #f;d4 ,an ,exposition of the #ci ,articles1 ,historical and ,doctrinal4 ,by ,e4 ,,harold ,,browne1 ,d4,d4 ,lord ,bishop of ,ely4 ,ninth ,edition4 #hvo4 #afs4 ,the ,voyage and ,shipwreck of ,st4 ,paul2 with ,dissertations on the ,ships and ,navigation of the ,ancients4 ,by ,,james ,,smith1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,crown #hvo4 ,charts1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,the ,life and ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul4 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,j4 ,,conybeare1 ,m4,a4 and the ,very ,rev4 ,j4 ,s4 ,,howson1 ,d4,d4 ,dean of ,chester4 ,three ,editions3-- ,,library ,,edition1 with all the ,original ,illustrations1 ,maps1 ,landscapes on ,steel1 ,woodcuts1 c4 #b vols4 #dto4 #dhs4 ,,intermediate ,,edition1 with a ,selection of ,maps1 ,plates1 and ,woodcuts4 #b vols4 square crown #hvo4 #bas4 ,,student',s ,,edition1 revised and condensed1 with #df ,illustrations and ,maps4 #a vol4 crown #hvo4 #is4 ,evidence of the ,truth of the ,christian ,religion derived from the ,literal ,fulfilment of ,prophecy4 ,by ,,alexander ,,keith1 ,d4,d4 #cgth ,edition1 with numerous ,plates1 in square #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d42 also the #cith ,edition1 in post #hvo4 with #e ,plates1 #fs4 ,the ,history and ,destiny of the ,world and of the ,church1 according to ,scripture4 ,by the same ,author4 ,square #hvo4 with #dj ,illustrations1 #ajs4 ,the ,history and ,literature of the ,israelites1 according to the ,old ,testament and the ,apocrypha4 ,by ,c4 ,,de ,,rothschild and ,a4 ,,de ,,rothschild4 ,second ,edition4 #b vols4 crown #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,abridged ,edition1 in #a vol4 fcp4 #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,ewald's ,history of ,israel to the ,death of ,moses4 ,translated from the ,german4 ,edited1 with a ,preface and an ,appendix1 by ,,russell ,,martineau1 ,m4,a4 ,second ,edition4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #bds4 ,vols4 ,,iii4 and ,,iv4 edited by ,j4 ,e4 ,,carpenter1 ,m4,a4 price #bas4 ,england and ,christendom4 ,by ,,archbishop ,,manning1 ,d4,d4 ,post #hvo4 price #ajs4 #f;d4 ,the ,pontificate of ,pius the ,ninth2 being the ,third ,edition1 enlarged and continued1 of #8,rome and its ,ruler4' ,by ,j4 ,f4 ,,maguire1 ,m4,p4 ,post #hvo4 ,portrait1 price #abs4 #f;d4 ,ignatius ,loyola and the ,early ,jesuits4 ,by ,,stewart ,,rose4 ,new ,edition1 revised4 #hvo4 with ,portrait1 #af,s4 ,an ,introduction to the ,study of the ,new ,testament1 ,critical1 ,exegetical1 and ,theological4 ,by the ,rev4 ,s4 ,,davidson1 ,d4,d4 ,,ll4,d4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #cjs4 ,a ,critical and ,grammatical ,commentary on ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles4 ,by ,c4 ,j4 ,,ellicott1 ,d4,d4 ,lord ,bishop of ,gloucester and ,bristol4 #hvo4 ,galatians1 ,fourth ,edition1 #hs4 #f;d4 ,ephesians1 ,fourth ,edition1 #hs4 #f;d4 ,pastoral ,epistles1 ,fourth ,edition1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,philippians1 ,colossians1 and ,philemon1 ,third ,edition1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,thessalonians1 ,third ,edition1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,historical ,lectures on the ,life of ,our ,lord ,jesus ,christ3 being the ,hulsean ,lectures for #ahei4 ,by ,c4 ,j4 ,,ellicott1 ,d4,d4 ,fifth ,edition4 #hvo4 #abs4 ,the ,greek ,testament2 with ,notes1 ,grammatical and ,exegetical4 ,by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,,webster1 ,m4,a4 and the ,rev4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,wilkinson1 ,m4,a4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #b #ds4 ,horne's ,introduction to the ,critical ,study and ,knowledge of the ,holy ,scriptures4 ,twelfth ,edition2 with #d ,maps and #bb ,woodcuts4 #d vols4 #hvo4 #dbs4 ,the ,treasury of ,bible ,knowledge2 being a ,dictionary of the ,books1 ,persons1 ,places1 ,events1 and other ,matters of which mention is made in ,holy ,scripture4 ,by ,rev4 ,j4 ,,ayre1 ,m4,a4 ,with ,maps1 #ae ,plates1 and numerous ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 price #fs4 ,every-day ,scripture ,difficulties explained and illustrated4 ,by ,j4 ,e4 ,,prescott1 ,m4,a4 ,i4 ,matthew and ,mark2 ,,ii4 ,luke and ,john4 #b vols4 #hvo4 price #is4 each4 ,the ,pentateuch and ,book of ,joshua ,critically ,examined4 ,by the ,right ,rev4 ,j4 ,w4 ,,colenso1 ,d4,d4 ,lord ,bishop of ,natal4 ,crown #hvo4 price #fs4 ,,part ,v4 ,genesis ,analysed and ,separated1 and the ,ages of its ,writers determined4 #hvo4 #ahs4 ,,part ,,vi4 ,the ,later ,legislation of the ,pentateuch4 #hvo4 #bds4 ,the ,formation of ,christendom4 ,by ,t4 ,w4 ,,allies4 ,,parts ,i4 and ,,ii4 #hvo4 price #abs4 each4 ,four ,discourses of ,chrysostom1 chiefly on the parable of the ,rich ,man and ,lazarus4 ,translated by ,f4 ,,allen1 ,b4,a4 ,crown #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,thoughts for the ,age4 ,by ,,elizabeth ,m4 ,,sewell1 ,author of #8,amy ,herbert4' ,new ,edition4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 price #es4 ,passing ,thoughts on ,religion4 ,by the same ,author4 ,fcp4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,self-examination before ,confirmation4 ,by the same ,author4 #cbmo4 #as4 #f;d4 ,thoughts for the ,holy ,week1 for ,young ,persons4 ,by the same ,author4 ,new ,edition4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #bs4 ,readings for a ,month ,preparatory to ,confirmation from ,writers of the ,early and ,english ,church4 ,by the same4 ,fcp4 #ds4 ,readings for ,every ,day in ,lent1 compiled from the ,writings of ,bishop ,,jeremy ,,taylor4 ,by the same ,author4 ,fcp4 #es4 ,preparation for the ,holy ,communion2 the ,devotions chiefly from the works of ,,jeremy ,,taylor4 ,by the same4 #cbmo4 #cs4 ,bishop ,jeremy ,taylor's ,entire ,works2 with ,life by ,,bishop ,,heber4 ,revised and corrected by the ,rev4 ,c4 ,p4 ,,eden4 #aj vols4 #e #es4 #8,spiritual ,songs' for the ,sundays and ,holidays throughout the ,year4 ,by ,j4 ,s4 ,b4 ,,monsell1 ,,ll4,d4 ,vicar of ,egham and ,rural ,dean4 ,fourth ,edition1 ,sixth ,thousand4 ,fcp4 price #ds4 #f;d4 ,the ,beatitudes4 ,by the same ,author4 ,third ,edition1 revised4 ,fcp4 #cs4 #f;,d4 ,his ,presence not his ,memory1 #ahee4 ,by the same ,author1 in memory of his ,,son4 ,sixth ,edition4 #afmo4 #as4 ,lyra ,germanica1 translated from the ,german by ,miss ,c4 ,,winkworth4 ,,first ,,series1 the ,christian ,year1 ,hymns for the ,sundays and ,chief ,festivals of the ,church2 ,,second ,,series1 the ,christian ,life4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 price #cs4 #f;d4 each ,,series4 ,endeavours after the ,christian ,life2 ,discourses4 ,by ,,james ,,martineau4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,post #hvo4 price #gs4 #f;d4 ,travels1 ,voyages1 c4 ,six ,months in ,california4 ,by ,j4 ,g4 ,,player-,,frowd4 ,post #hvo4 price #fs4 ,the ,japanese in ,america4 ,by ,,charles ,,lanman1 ,american ,secretary1 ,japanese ,legation1 ,washington1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,post #hvo4 price #ajs4 #f;d4 ,my ,wife and ,i in ,queensland2 ,eight ,years' ,experience in the ,colony1 with some account of ,polynesian ,labour4 ,by ,,charles ,h4 ,,eden4 ,with ,map and ,frontispiece4 ,crown #hvo4 price #is4 ,life in ,india2 a ,series of ,sketches shewing something of the ,anglo-,indian1 the ,land he lives in1 and the ,people among whom he lives4 ,by ,,edward ,,braddon4 ,post #hvo4 price #is4 ,how to ,see ,norway4 ,by ,captain ,j4 ,r4 ,,campbell4 ,with ,map and #e ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 price #es4 ,pau and the ,pyrenees4 ,by ,count ,,henry ,,russell1 ,member of the ,alpine ,club4 ,with #b ,maps4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 price #es4 ,hours of ,exercise in the ,alps4 ,by ,,john ,,tyndall1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,second ,edition1 with ,seven ,woodcuts by ,e4 ,whymper4 ,crown #hvo4 price #abs4 #f;d4 ,westward by ,rail2 the ,new ,route to the ,east4 ,by ,w4 ,f4 ,,rae4 ,second ,edition4 ,post #hvo4 with ,map1 price #ajs4 #f;d4 ,travels in the ,central ,caucasus and ,bashan1 including ,visits to ,ararat and ,tabreez and ,ascents of ,kazbek and ,elbruz4 ,by ,,douglas ,w4 ,,freshfield4 ,square crown #hvo4 with ,maps1 c41 #ahs4 ,cadore or ,titian's ,country4 ,by ,,josiah ,,gilbert1 one of the ,authors of the #8,dolomite ,mountains4' ,with ,map1 ,facsimile1 and #dj ,illustrations4 ,imp4 #hvo4 #cas4 #f;d4 ,the ,playground of ,europe4 ,by ,,leslie ,,stephen1 late ,president of the ,alpine ,club4 ,with #d ,illustrations on ,wood by ,e4 ,whymper4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,zigzagging amongst ,dolomites2 with more than #cjj ,illustrations by the ,author4 ,by the ,author of #8,how we ,spent the ,summer4' ,oblong #dto4 price #aes4 ,the ,dolomite ,mountains4 ,excursions through ,tyrol1 ,carinthia1 ,carniola1 and ,friuli4 ,by ,j4 ,,gilbert and ,g4 ,c4 ,,churchill1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,square crown #hvo4 #bas4 ,how we ,spent the ,summer2 or1 a ,voyage en ,zigzag in ,switzerland and ,tyrol with some ,members of the ,,alpine ,,club4 ,third ,edition1 re-drawn4 ,in oblong #dto4 with about #cjj ,illustrations1 #aes4 ,pictures in ,tyrol and ,elsewhere4 ,from a ,family ,sketch-,book4 ,by the same ,author4 ,second ,edition4 #dto4 with many ,illustrations1 #bas4 ,beaten ,tracks2 or1 ,pen and ,pencil ,sketches in ,italy4 ,by the ,author of #8,how we spent the ,summer4' ,with #db ,plates of ,sketches4 #hvo4 #afs4 ,the ,alpine ,club ,map of the ,chain of ,mont ,blanc1 from an actual ,survey in #ahfc--ahfd4 ,by ,a4 ,,adams-,,reilly1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,m4,a4,c4 ,in ,chromolithography on extra stout drawing paper #bh;in4 #ag;in4 price #ajs4 or mounted on canvas in a folding case1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,history of ,discovery in our ,australasian ,colonies1 ,australia1 ,tasmania1 and ,new ,zealand1 from the ,earliest ,date to the ,present ,day4 ,by ,,william ,,howitt4 #b vols4 #hvo4 with #c ,maps1 #bjs4 ,visits to ,remarkable ,places3 ,old ,halls1 ,battle-,fields1 and ,scenes illustrative of striking ,passages in ,english ,history and ,poetry4 ,by the same ,author4 #b vols4 square crown #hvo4 with ,wood ,engravings1 #bes4 ,guide to the ,pyrenees1 for the use of ,mountaineers4 ,by ,,charles ,,packe4 ,second ,edition1 with ,maps1 c4 and ,appendix4 ,crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,the ,alpine ,guide4 ,by ,,john ,,ball ,m4,r4,i4,a4 late ,president of the ,alpine ,club4 ,post #hvo4 with ,maps and other ,illustrations4 ,guide to the ,eastern ,alps1 price #ajs4 #f;d4 ,guide to the ,western ,alps1 including ,mont ,blanc1 ,monte ,rosa1 ,zermatt1 c4 price #fs4 #f;d4 ,guide to the ,central ,alps1 including all the ,oberland ,district1 price #gs4 #f;d4 ,introduction on ,alpine ,travelling in general1 and on the ,geology of the ,alps1 price #as4 ,either of the ,three ,volumes or ,parts of the ,alpine ,guide may be had with this ,,introduction prefixed1 price #as4 extra4 ,the ,rural ,life of ,england4 ,by ,,william ,,howitt4 ,woodcuts by ,bewick and ,williams4 ,medium #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,works of ,fiction4 ,yarndale2 a ,story of ,lancashire ,life4 ,by a ,lancashire ,man4 #c vols4 post #hvo4 price #bas4 ,the ,burgomaster's ,family2 or1 ,weal and ,woe in a ,little ,world4 ,by ,,christine ,m,,ller4 ,translated from the ,dutch by ,sir ,j4 ,g4 ,,shaw ,,lefevre1 ,k4,c4,b4 ,f4,r4,s4 ,crown #hvo4 price #fs4 ,popular ,romances of the ,middle ,ages4 ,by the ,rev4 ,,george ,w4 ,,cox1 ,m4,a4 ,author of #8,the ,mythology of the ,aryan ,nations' c4 and ,,eustace ,,hinton ,,jones4 ,crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,tales of the ,teutonic ,lands2 a ,sequel to #8,popular ,romances of the ,middle ,ages4' ,by ,,george ,w4 ,,cox1 ,m4,a4 late ,scholar of ,trinity ,college1 ,oxford2 and ,,eustace ,,hinton ,,jones4 ,crown #hvo4 price #ajs4 #f;d4 ,hartland ,forest2 a ,legend of ,north ,devon4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,bray1 ,author of #8,the ,white ,hoods1' #8,life of ,stothard1' c4 ,post #hvo4 with ,frontispiece1 #ds4 #f;d4 ,novels and ,tales4 ,by the ,right ,hon4 ,,benjamin ,,disraeli1 ,m4,p4 ,cabinet ,editions1 complete in ,ten ,volumes1 crown #hvo4 price #fs4 each1 as follows3-- ,,lothair1 #fs4 ,,coningsby1 #fs4 ,,sybil1 #fs4 ,,tancred1 #fs4 ,,venetia1 #fs4 ,,alroy1 ,,ixion1 c4 #fs4 ,,young ,,duke1 c4 #fs4 ,,vivian ,,grey1 #fs4 ,,contarini ,,fleming1 c4 #fs4 ,,henrietta ,,temple1 #fs4 ,stories and ,tales4 ,by ,e4 ,m4 ,,sewell4 ,comprising ,amy ,herbert2 ,gertrude2 the ,earl's ,daughter2 the ,experience of ,life2 ,cleve ,hall2 ,ivors2 ,katharine ,ashton2 ,margaret ,percival2 ,laneton ,parsonage2 and ,ursula4 ,the ,ten ,works complete in ,eight ,volumes1 crown #hvo4 bound in leather and contained in a ,box1 price ,,two ,,guineas4 ,cabinet ,edition1 in crown #hvo4 of ,stories and ,tales by ,miss ,,sewell3-- ,,amy ,,herbert1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,gertrude1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,earl',s ,,daughter1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,experience ,,of ,,life1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,cleve ,,hall1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,ivors1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,katharine ,,ashton1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,margaret ,,percival1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,laneton ,,parsonage1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,ursula1 #cs4 #f;d4 ,a ,glimpse of the ,world4 ,fcp4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,journal of a ,home ,life4 ,post #hvo4 #is4 #f;d4 ,after ,life2 a ,sequel to the #8,journal of a ,home ,life4' ,post #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,the ,giant2 a ,witch's ,story for ,english ,boys4 ,edited by ,miss ,,sewell1 ,author of #8,amy ,herbert1' c4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 price #es4 ,wonderful ,stories from ,norway1 ,sweden1 and ,iceland4 ,adapted and arranged by ,,julia ,,goddard4 ,with an ,introductory ,essay by the ,rev4 ,g4 ,w4 ,,cox1 ,m4,a4 and ,six ,illustrations4 ,square post #hvo4 #fs4 ,the ,modern ,novelist's ,library4 ,each ,work1 in crown #hvo4 complete in a ,single ,volume3-- ,,melville',s ,,digby ,,grand1 #bs4 boards2 #bs4 #f;d4 cloth4 ---- ,,gladiators1 #bs4 boards2 #bs4 #f;d4 cloth4 ---- ,,good ,,for ,,nothing1 #bs4 boards2 #bs4 #f;d4 cloth4 ---- ,,holmby ,,house1 #bs4 boards2 #bs4 #f;d4 cloth4 ---- ,,interpreter1 #bs4 boards2 #bs4 #f;d4 cloth4 ---- ,,kate ,,coventry1 #bs4 boards2 #bs4 #f;d4 cloth4 ---- ,,queen',s ,,maries1 #bs4 boards2 #bs4 #f;d4 cloth4 ,,trollope',s ,,warden #as4 #f;d4 boards2 #bs4 cloth4 ---- ,,barchester ,,towers1 #bs4 boards2 #bs4 #f;d4 cloth4 ,,bramley-,,moore',s ,,six ,,sisters ,,of ,,the ,,valleys1 #bs4 boards2 #bs4 #f;d4 cloth4 ,becker's ,gallus2 or1 ,roman ,scenes of the ,time of ,augustus4 ,post #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,becker's ,charicles3 ,illustrative of ,private ,life of the ,ancient ,greeks4 ,post #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,tales of ,ancient ,greece4 ,by the ,rev4 ,g4 ,w4 ,,cox1 ,m4,a4 late ,scholar of ,trin4 ,coll4 ,oxford4 ,crown #hvo4 price #fs4 #f;d4 ,poetry and ,the ,drama4 ,ballads and ,lyrics of ,old ,france2 with other ,poems4 ,by ,a4 ,,lang1 ,fellow of ,merton ,college1 ,oxford4 ,square fcp4 #hvo4 price #es4 ,thomas ,moore's ,poetical ,works1 with the ,author's last ,copyright ,additions3-- ,shamrock ,edition1 price #cs4 #f;d4 ,people's ,edition1 square cr4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,library ,edition1 ,portrait ,vignette1 #ads4 ,moore's ,lalla ,rookh1 ,tenniel's ,edition1 with #fh ,wood ,engravings from ,original ,drawings and other ,illustrations4 ,fcp4 #dto4 #bas4 ,moore's ,irish ,melodies1 ,maclise's ,edition1 with #afa ,steel ,plates from ,original ,drawings4 ,super-royal #hvo4 #cas4 #f;d4 ,miniature ,edition of ,moore's ,irish ,melodies1 with ,maclise's ,illustrations 7as above71 reduced in ,lithography4 ,imp4 #afmo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,lays of ,ancient ,rome2 with ,ivry and the ,armada4 ,by the ,right ,hon4 ,,lord ,,macaulay4 #afmo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,lord ,macaulay's ,lays of ,ancient ,rome4 ,with #ij ,illustrations on ,wood1 ,original and from the ,antique1 from ,drawings by ,g4 ,,scharf4 ,fcp4 #dto4 #bas4 ,miniature ,edition of ,lord ,macaulay's ,lays of ,ancient ,rome1 with ,scharf's ,illustrations 7as above7 reduced in ,lithography4 ,imp4 #afmo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,southey's ,poetical ,works1 with the ,author's last ,corrections and copyright ,additions4 ,library ,edition4 ,medium #hvo4 with ,portrait and ,vignette1 #ads4 ,goldsmith's ,poetical ,works1 ,illustrated with ,wood ,engravings from ,designs by ,members of the ,,etching ,,club4 ,imp4 #afmo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,poems4 ,by ,,jean ,,ingelow4 ,fifteenth ,edition4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #es4 ,poems by ,jean ,ingelow4 ,with nearly #ajj ,illustrations by ,eminent ,artists1 engraved on ,wood by ,,dalziel ,brothers4 ,fcp4 #dto4 #bas4 ,a ,story of ,doom1 and other ,poems4 ,by ,,jean ,,ingelow4 ,third ,edition4 ,fcp4 price #es4 ,bowdler's ,family ,shakspeare1 cheaper ,genuine ,edition1 complete in #a vol4 large type1 with #cf ,woodcut ,illustrations1 price #ads4 or in #f pocket vols4 #cs4 #f;d4 each4 ,horatii ,opera1 ,library ,edition1 with ,copious ,english ,notes1 ,marginal ,references and ,various ,readings4 ,edited by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,e4 ,,yonge1 ,m4,a4 #hvo4 #bas4 ,the ,odes and ,epodes of ,horace2 a ,metrical ,translation into ,english1 with ,introduction and ,commentaries4 ,by ,lord ,,lytton4 ,with ,latin ,text4 ,new ,edition4 ,post #hvo4 price #ajs4 #f;d4 ,the neid of ,virgil4 ,translated into ,english ,verse4 ,by ,,john ,,conington1 ,m4,a4 ,corpus ,professor of ,latin in the ,university of ,oxford4 ,new ,edition4 ,crown #hvo4 #is4 ,rural ,sports c4 ,encyclopdia of ,rural ,sports2 a ,complete ,account1 ,historical1 ,practical1 and ,descriptive1 of ,hunting1 ,shooting1 ,fishing1 ,racing1 c4 ,by ,d4 ,p4 ,,blaine4 ,with above #fjj ,woodcuts 7#bj from ,designs by ,,john ,,leech74 #hvo4 #bas4 ,the ,dead ,shot1 or ,sportsman's ,complete ,guide2 a ,treatise on the ,use of the ,gun1 ,dog-breaking1 ,pigeon-shooting1 c4 ,by ,,marksman4 ,fcp4 with ,plates1 #es4 ,a ,book on ,angling3 being a ,complete ,treatise on the ,art of ,angling in every branch1 including full ,illustrated ,lists of ,salmon ,flies4 ,by ,,francis ,,francis4 ,new ,edition1 with ,portrait and #ae other ,plates1 plain and coloured4 ,post #hvo4 #aes4 ,wilcocks's ,sea-,fisherman3 comprising the ,chief ,methods of ,hook and ,line ,fishing in the ,british and other ,seas1 a glance at ,nets1 and remarks on ,boats and ,boating4 ,second ,edition1 enlarged1 with #hj ,woodcuts4 ,post #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,the ,fly-,fisher's ,entomology4 ,by ,,alfred ,,ronalds4 ,with coloured ,representations of the ,natural and ,artificial ,insect4 ,sixth ,edition1 with #bj coloured ,plates4 #hvo4 #ads4 ,the ,ox1 his ,diseases and their ,treatment2 with an ,essay on ,parturition in the ,cow4 ,by ,j4 ,r4 ,,dobson1 ,m4,r4,c4,v4,s4 ,crown #hvo4 with ,illustrations1 #gs4 #f;d4 ,a ,treatise on ,horse-shoeing and ,lameness4 ,by ,,joseph ,,gamgee1 ,veterinary ,surgeon1 formerly ,lecturer on the ,principles and ,practice of ,farriery in the ,new ,veterinary ,college1 ,edinburgh4 #hvo4 with #ee ,woodcuts1 #aes4 ,blaine's ,veterinary ,art3 a ,treatise on the ,anatomy1 ,physiology1 and ,curative ,treatment of the ,diseases of the ,horse1 ,neat ,cattle1 and ,sheep4 ,seventh ,edition1 revised and enlarged by ,c4 ,,steel4 #hvo4 with ,plates and ,woodcuts1 #ahs4 ,youatt on the ,horse4 ,revised and enlarged by ,w4 ,,watson1 ,m4,r4,c4,v4,s4 #hvo4 with numerous ,woodcuts1 #abs4 #f;d4 ,youatt on the ,dog4 7,by the same ,author47 #hvo4 with numerous ,woodcuts1 #fs4 ,the ,dog in ,health and ,disease4 ,by ,,stonehenge4 ,with #gc ,wood ,engravings4 ,new ,edition1 revised4 ,square crown #hvo4 price #gs4 #f;d4 ,the ,greyhound4 ,by the same ,author4 ,revised ,edition1 with #bd ,portraits of ,greyhounds4 ,square crown #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d ,the ,setter2 with ,notices of the most ,eminent ,breeds now extant1 ,instructions how to ,breed1 ,rear1 and ,break2 ,dog ,shows1 ,field ,trials1 and ,general ,management1 c4 ,by ,,edward ,,laverack4 ,with ,two ,portraits of ,setters in ,chromolithography4 ,crown #dto4 price #gs4 #f;d4 ,horses and ,stables4 ,by ,colonel ,f4 ,,fitzwygram1 ,,xv4 the ,king's ,hussars4 ,with #bd ,plates of ,woodcut ,illustrations1 containing very numerous ,figures4 #hvo4 #aes4 ,the ,horse's ,foot1 and how to keep it ,sound4 ,by ,w4 ,,miles1 ,esq4 ,ninth ,edition1 with ,illustrations4 ,imp4 #hvo4 #abs4 #f;d4 ,a ,plain ,treatise on ,horse-shoeing4 ,by the same ,author4 ,sixth ,edition1 post #hvo4 with ,illustrations1 #bs4 #f;d4 ,stables and ,stable ,fittings4 ,by the same4 ,imp4 #hvo4 with #ac ,plates1 #aes4 ,remarks on ,horses' ,teeth1 addressed to ,purchasers4 ,by the same4 ,post #hvo4 #as4 #f;d4 ,works of ,utility and ,general ,information4 ,modern ,cookery for ,private ,families1 reduced to a ,system of ,easy ,practice in a ,series of carefully-tested ,receipts4 ,by ,,eliza ,,acton4 ,newly revised and enlarged2 with #h ,plates1 ,figures1 and #aej ,woodcuts4 ,fcp4 #fs4 ,maunder's ,treasury of ,knowledge and ,library of ,reference3 comprising an ,english ,dictionary and ,grammar1 ,universal ,gazetteer1 ,classical ,dictionary1 ,chronology1 ,law ,dictionary1 ,synopsis of the ,peerage1 ,useful ,tables1 c4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #fs4 ,collieries and ,colliers3 a ,handbook of the ,law and ,leading ,cases relating thereto4 ,by ,j4 ,c4 ,,fowler1 ,barrister4 ,second ,edition4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,the ,theory and ,practice of ,banking4 ,by ,,henry ,,dunning ,,macleod1 ,m4,a4 ,barrister-at-,law4 ,second ,edition1 entirely remodelled4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #cjs4 ,m',culloch's ,dictionary1 ,practical1 ,theoretical1 and ,historical1 of ,commerce and ,commercial ,navigation4 ,new ,edition1 revised throughout and corrected to the ,present ,time2 with a ,biographical ,notice of the ,author4 ,edited by ,h4 ,g4 ,,reid1 ,secretary to ,mr4 ,m',culloch for many years4 #hvo4 price #fcs4 cloth4 ,a ,practical ,treatise on ,brewing2 with ,formul for ,public ,brewers1 and ,instructions for ,private ,families4 ,by ,w4 ,,black4 ,fifth ,edition4 #hvo4 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,chess ,openings4 ,by ,f4 ,w4 ,,longman1 ,balliol ,college1 ,oxford4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,the ,law of ,nations ,considered as ,independent ,political ,communities4 ,by ,,sir ,,travers ,,twiss1 ,d4,c4,l4 #b vols4 #hvo4 #cjs4 or separately1 ,,part ,i4 ,peace1 #abs4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,war1 #ahs4 ,hints to ,mothers on the ,management of their ,health during the ,period of ,pregnancy and in the ,lying-in ,room4 ,by ,,thomas ,,bull1 ,m4,d4 ,fcp4 #es4 ,the ,maternal ,management of ,children in ,health and ,disease4 ,by ,,thomas ,,bull1 ,m4,d4 ,fcp4 #es4 ,how to ,nurse ,sick ,children2 containing ,directions which may be found of service to all who have charge of the ,young4 ,by ,,charles ,,west1 ,m4,d4 ,second ,edition4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 #as4 #f;d4 ,notes on ,hospitals4 ,by ,,florence ,,nightingale4 ,third ,edition1 enlarged2 with #ac ,plans4 ,post #dto4 #ahs4 ,notes on ,lying-in ,institutions2 with a ,proposal for ,organising an ,institution for ,training ,midwives and ,midwifery ,nurses4 ,by ,,florence ,,nightingale4 ,with #e ,plans4 ,square crown #hvo4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,the ,cabinet ,lawyer2 a ,popular ,digest of the ,laws of ,england1 ,civil1 ,criminal1 and ,constitutional4 ,twenty-third ,edition1 corrected and brought up to the ,present ,date4 ,fcp4 #hvo4 price #gs4 #f;d4 ,willich's ,popular ,tables for ,ascertaining the ,value of ,lifehold1 ,leasehold1 and ,church ,property1 ,renewal ,fines1 c42 the ,public ,funds2 ,annual ,average ,price and ,interest on ,consols from #agca to #ahfg2 ,chemical1 ,geographical1 ,astronomical1 ,trigonometrical ,tables1 c4 ,post #hvo4 #ajs4 ,pewtner's ,comprehensive ,specifier2 a ,guide to the ,practical ,specification of every kind of ,building-,artificer's ,work3 with ,forms of ,building ,conditions and ,agreements1 an ,appendix1 ,foot-,notes1 and ,index4 ,edited by ,w4 ,,young1 ,architect4 ,crown #hvo4 #fs4 ,periodical ,publications4 ,the ,edinburgh ,review1 or ,critical ,journal1 published ,quarterly in ,january1 ,april1 ,july1 and ,october4 #hvo4 price #fs4 each ,number4 ,notes on ,books3 ,an ,analysis of the ,works published during each ,quarter by ,messrs4 ,,longmans ,,co4 ,the object is to enable ,bookbuyers to obtain such information regarding the various works as is usually afforded by tables of contents and explanatory prefaces4 #dto4 ,quarterly4 ,gratis4 ,fraser's ,magazine4 ,edited by ,,james ,,anthony ,,froude1 ,m4,a4 ,new ,series1 published on the #ast of each ,month4 #hvo4 price #bs4 #f;d4 each ,number4 ,the ,alpine ,journal2 ,a ,record of ,mountain ,adventure and ,scientific ,observation4 ,by ,members of the ,alpine ,club4 ,edited by ,,leslie ,,stephen4 ,published ,quarterly1 ,may #ca1 ,aug4 #ca1 ,nov4 #cj1 ,feb4 #bh4 #hvo4 price #as4 #f;d4 each ,number4 ,knowledge for the ,young4 ,the ,stepping ,stone to ,knowledge3 ,containing upwards of ,seven ,hundred ,questions and ,answers on ,miscellaneous ,subjects1 adapted to the capacity of ,infant ,minds4 ,by a ,,mother4 ,new ,edition1 enlarged and improved4 #ahmo4 price #as4 ,the ,stepping ,stone to ,geography3 ,containing several ,hundred ,questions and ,answers on ,geographical ,subjects4 #ahmo4 #as4 ,the ,stepping ,stone to ,english ,history3 ,containing several ,hundred ,questions and ,answers on the ,history of ,england4 #as4 ,the ,stepping ,stone to ,bible ,knowledge3 ,containing several ,hundred ,questions and ,answers on the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 #ahmo4 #as4 ,the ,stepping ,stone to ,biography3 ,containing several ,hundred ,questions and ,answers on the ,lives of ,eminent ,men and ,women4 #ahmo4 #as4 ,second ,series of the ,stepping ,stone to ,knowledge3 containing upwards of ,eight ,hundred ,questions and ,answers on ,miscellaneous ,subjects not contained in the ,,first ,,series4 #ahmo4 #as4 ,the ,stepping ,stone to ,french ,pronunciation and ,conversation3 ,containing several ,hundred ,questions and ,answers4 ,by ,mr4 ,p4 ,,sadler4 #ahmo4 #as4 ,the ,stepping ,stone to ,english ,grammar3 ,containing several ,hundred ,questions and ,answers on ,english ,grammar4 ,by ,mr4 ,p4 ,,sadler4 #ahmo4 #as4 ,the ,stepping ,stone to ,natural ,history3 ,,vertebrate or ,,backboned ,,animals4 ,,part ,i4 ,mammalia2 ,,part ,,ii4 ,birds1 ,reptiles1 ,fishes4 #ahmo4 #as4 each ,part4 ,,catalog ,,index4 ,,acton',s ,modern ,cookery #fai ,,allies on ,formation of ,christendom #fae ,,allen',s ,discourses of ,chrysostom #faf ,alpine ,guide 7,the7 #fag ---- ,journal #fbj ,,amos',s ,jurisprudence #fje ,,anderson',s ,strength of ,materials #fji ,,arnold',s ,manual of ,english ,literature #fjf ,authority and ,conscience #fad ,autumn ,holidays of a ,country ,parson #fjg ,,ayre',s ,treasury of ,bible ,knowledge #fae ,,bacon',s ,essays by ,,whately #fje ---- ,life and ,letters1 by ,,spedding #fjd ---- ,works #fje ,,bain',s ,mental and ,moral ,science #fjh ---- on the ,senses and ,intellect #fjh ,,ball',s ,guide to the ,central ,alps #fag ---- ,guide to the ,western ,alps #fag ---- ,guide to the ,eastern ,alps #fag ,,bayldon',s ,rents and ,tillages #fad ,beaten ,tracks #fag ,,becker',s ,charicles and ,gallus #fah ,,benfey',s ,sanskrit-,english ,dictionary #fjf ,,bernard on ,british ,neutrality #fja ,,black',s ,treatise on ,brewing #fai ,,blackley',s ,german-,english ,dictionary #fjf ,,blaine',s ,rural ,sports #fai ---- ,veterinary ,art #fai ,,bloxam',s ,metals #fji ,,booth',s ,saint-,simon #fjc ,,boultbee on #ci ,articles #fad ,,bourne on ,screw ,propeller #fac ----'s ,catechism of the ,steam ,engine #fac ---- ,examples of ,modern ,engines #fac ---- ,handbook of ,steam ,engine #fac ---- ,treatise on the ,steam ,engine #fac ---- ,improvements in the same #fac ,,bowdler',s ,family ,,shakspeare #fah ,,braddon',s ,life in ,india #faf ,,bramley-,,moore',s ,six ,sisters of the ,valley #fah ,,brande',s ,dictionary of ,science1 ,literature1 and ,art #faj ,,bray',s ,manual of ,anthropology #fjg ---- ,philosophy of ,necessity #fjg ---- ,on ,force #fjg ---- 7,mrs47 ,hartland ,forest #fag ,,bree',s ,fallacies of ,darwinism #faj ,,browne',s ,exposition of the #ci ,articles #fae ,,brunel',s ,life of ,,brunel #fjd ,,buckle',s ,history of ,civilisation #fjb ---- ,posthumous ,remains #fjg ,,bull',s ,hints to ,mothers #fbj ---- ,maternal ,management of ,children #fbj ,,bunsen',s ,god in ,history #fjc ---- ,prayers #fad ,burgomaster's ,family 7,the7 #fag ,,burke',s ,vicissitudes of ,families #fje ,,burton',s ,christian ,church #fjc ,cabinet ,lawyer #fbj ,,campbell',s ,norway #faf ,,cates',s ,biographical ,dictionary #fjd ---- and ,,woodward',s ,encyclopdia #fjc ,,cats and ,,farlie',s ,moral ,emblems #fab ,changed ,aspects of ,unchanged ,truths #fjg ,,chesney',s ,indian ,polity #fjb ---- ,waterloo ,campaign #fjb ,chorale ,book for ,england #fab ,christ the ,consoler #fad ,,clough',s ,lives from ,plutarch #fjb ,,colenso on ,pentateuch and ,book of ,joshua #fae ,,collins',s ,perspective #fac ,commonplace ,philosopher in ,town and ,country1 by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 #fjg ,,conington',s ,translation of ,virgil's neid #fah ---- ,miscellaneous ,writings #fjg ,,contanseau',s ,two ,french ,dictionaries #fjf ,,conybeare and ,,howson',s ,life and ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul #fad ,,cooke',s ,grotesque ,animals #fab ,,cooper',s ,surgical ,dictionary #faa ,,copland',s ,dictionary of ,practical ,medicine #fab ,,cotton',s ,memoir and ,correspondence #fjd ,counsel and ,comfort from a ,city ,pulpit #fjg ,,cox',s 7,g4,w47 ,aryan ,mythology #fjc ---- ---- ,tale of the ,great ,persian ,war #fjb ---- ---- ,tales of ,ancient ,greece #fag ---- ---- and ,,jones',s ,romances #fag ---- ---- ---- ---- ,teutonic ,tales #fag ,,creasy on ,british ,constitution #fjb ,,cresy',s ,encyclopdia of ,civil ,engineering #fac ,critical ,essays of a ,country ,parson #fjg ,,crookes on ,beet-,root ,sugar #fad ----'s ,chemical ,analysis #faa ,,culley',s ,handbook of ,telegraphy #fac ,,cusack',s ,student's ,history of ,ireland #fjb ,d',,aubign',s ,history of the ,reformation in the time of ,,calvin #fjb ,,davidson',s ,introduction to ,new ,testament #fae ,dead ,shot 7,the71 by ,,marksman #fai ,,de ,,la ,,rive',s ,treatise on ,electricity #fji ,,de ,,morgan',s ,paradoxes #fjg ,,denison',s ,vice-,regal ,life #fja ,,disraeli',s ,lord ,george ,bentinck #fjd ---- ,novels and ,tales #fag ,,dobson on the ,ox #fai ,,dove',s ,law of ,storms #fji ,,doyle',s ,fairyland #fab ,,drew',s ,reasons for ,faith #fad ,,dyer',s ,city of ,rome #fjc ,,eastlake',s ,gothic ,revival #fac ---- ,hints on ,household ,taste #fac ,,eaton',s ,musical ,criticism and ,biography #fjd ,,eden',s ,queensland #faf ,edinburgh ,review #fbj ,elements of ,botany #faj ,,ellicott on ,new ,testament ,revision #fae ----'s ,commentary on ,ephesians #fae ---- ---- ---- ,galatians #fae ---- ---- ---- ,pastoral ,epist4 #fae ---- ---- ---- ,philippians1 c4 #fae ---- ---- ---- ,thessalonians #fae ----'s ,lectures on ,life of ,christ #fae ,,erichsen',s ,surgery #faa ,,evans',s ,ancient ,stone ,implements #faj ,,ewald',s ,history of ,israel #fae ,,fairbairn',s ,application of ,cast and ,wrought ,iron to ,building #fac ---- ,information for ,engineers #fac ---- ,treatise on ,mills and ,millwork #fac ---- ,iron ,shipbuilding #fac ,,faraday',s ,life and ,letters #fjd ,,farrar',s ,chapters on ,language #fjf ---- ,families of ,speech #fjg ,,fitzwygram on ,horses and ,stables #fai ,,fowler',s ,collieries and ,colliers #fai ,,francis',s ,fishing ,book #fai ,,fraser',s ,magazine #fbj ,,freshfield',s ,travels in the ,caucasus #faf ,,froude',s ,english in ,ireland #fja ---- ,history of ,england #fja ---- ,short ,studies #fjg ,,gamgee on ,horse-,shoeing #fai ,,ganot',s ,elementary ,physics #fji ---- ,natural ,philosophy #fji ,,garrod',s ,materia ,medica #fab ,,giant 7,the7 #fag ,,gilbert',s ,cadore #faf ---- and ,,churchill',s ,dolomites #faf ,,girdlestone',s ,bible ,synonyms #fad ,,girtin',s ,house ,i ,live ,in #faa ,,gledstone',s ,life of ,,whitefield #fjd ,,goddard',s ,wonderful ,stories #fag ,,goldsmith',s ,poems1 ,illustrated #fah ,,goodeve',s ,mechanism #fji ,,graham',s ,autobiography of ,,milton #fjd ---- ,view of ,literature and ,art #fjb ,,grant',s ,ethics of ,aristotle #fje ---- ,home ,politics #fjb ,graver ,thoughts of a ,country ,parson #fjg ,gray's ,anatomy #faa ,,griffin',s ,algebra and ,trigonometry #fji ,,griffith',s ,fundamentals #fad ,,grove on ,correlation of ,physical ,forces #fji ,,gurney',s ,chapters of ,french ,history #fjb ,,gwilt',s ,encyclopdia of ,architecture #fac ,,hartwig',s ,harmonies of ,nature #faj ---- ,polar ,world #faj ---- ,sea and its ,living ,wonders #faj ---- ,subterranean ,world #faj ,,hatherton',s ,memoir and ,correspondence #fjb ,,hayward',s ,biographical and ,critical ,essays #fjd ,,herschel',s ,outlines of ,astronomy #fjg ,,hewitt on the ,diseases of ,women #faa ,,hodgson',s ,time and ,space #fjg ---- ,theory of ,practice #fjg ,,holland',s ,recollections #fjd ,,holmes',s ,surgical ,treatment of ,children #faa ---- ,system of ,surgery #faa ,,horne',s ,introduction to the ,scriptures #fae ,how we ,spent the ,summer #faf ,,howitt',s ,australian ,discovery #fag ---- ,rural ,life of ,england #fag ---- ,visits to ,remarkable ,places #fag ,h,,bner',s ,pope ,sixtus the ,fifth #fjd ,,humboldt',s ,life #fjd ,,hume',s ,essays #fjh ---- ,treatise on ,human ,nature #fjh ,,ihne',s ,history of ,rome #fjc ,,ingelow',s ,poems #fah ---- ,story of ,doom #fah ,,james',s ,christian ,counsels #fad ,,jameson',s ,legends of ,saints and ,martyrs #fab ---- ,legends of the ,madonna #fab ---- ,legends of the ,monastic ,orders #fab ---- ,legends of the ,saviour #fab ,,jamieson on ,causality #fje ,,jardine',s ,christian ,sacerdotalism #fad ,,johnston',s ,geographical ,dictionary #fjh ,,jones',s ,royal ,institution #fjd ,,kalisch',s ,commentary on the ,bible #fjf ---- ,hebrew ,grammar #fjf ,,keith on ,destiny of the ,world #fae ---- ,fulfilment of ,prophecy #fae ,,kerl',s ,metallurgy1 by ,,crookes and ,r,,hrig #fad ,,kirby and ,,spence',s ,entomology #fji ,,lang',s ,ballads and ,lyrics #fah ,,lanman',s ,japanese in ,america #faf ,,latham',s ,english ,dictionary #fjf ,,laughton',s ,nautical ,surveying #fji ,,laverack',s ,setters #fai ,,lecky',s ,history of ,european ,morals #fjc ---- ---- ---- ,rationalism #fjc ---- ,leaders of ,public ,opinion #fjd ,leisure ,hours in ,town1 by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 #fjg ,lessons of ,middle ,age1 by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 #fjg ,,lewes',s ,biographical ,history of ,philosophy #fjc ,,liddell ,,scott',s ,greek-,english ,lexicons #fjf ,life of ,man ,symbolised #fab ,,lindley and ,,moore',s ,treasury of ,botany #faj ,,longman',s ,edward the ,third #fjb ---- ,lectures on ,history of ,england #fjb ---- ,chess ,openings #fbj ,,loudon',s ,encyclopdia of ,agriculture #fad ---- ---- ---- ,gardening #fad ---- ---- ---- ,plants #faj ,,lubbock',s ,origin of ,civilisation #faj ,,lytton',s ,odes of ,horace #fah ,lyra ,germanica #ab #faf ,,macaulay',s 7,lord7 ,essays #fjc ---- ---- ,history of ,england #fja ---- ---- ,lays of ,ancient ,rome #fah ---- ---- ,miscellaneous ,writings #fjg ,,macaulay',s 7,lord7 ,speeches #fje ---- ---- ,works #fja ,,macleod',s ,principles of ,political ,philosophy #fje ---- ,dictionary of ,political ,economy #fje ---- ,theory and ,practice of ,banking #fai ,,mcculloch',s ,dictionary of ,commerce #fai ,,maguire',s ,life of ,father ,mathew #fjd ---- ,,pius ,,ix4 #fae ,mankind1 their ,origin and ,destiny #faj ,,manning',s ,england and ,christendom #fae ,,marcet',s ,natural ,philosophy #fji ,,marshall',s ,physiology #fab ,,marshman',s ,history of ,india #fjb ---- ,life of ,havelock #fje ,,martineau',s ,endeavours after the ,christian ,life #faf ,,massingberd',s ,history of the ,reformation #fjc ,,mathews on ,colonial ,question #fjb ,,maunder',s ,biographical ,treasury #fje ---- ,geographical ,treasury #fji ---- ,historical ,treasury #fjc ---- ,scientific and ,literary ,treasury #faj ---- ,treasury of ,knowledge #fai ---- ,treasury of ,natural ,history #faj ,,maxwell',s ,theory of ,heat #fji ,,may',s ,constitutional ,history of ,england #fja ,,melville',s ,digby ,grand #fah ---- ,general ,bounce #fah ---- ,gladiators #fah ---- ,good for ,nothing #fah ---- ,holmby ,house #fah ---- ,interpreter #fah ---- ,kate ,coventry #fah ---- ,queen's ,maries #fah ,,mendelssohn',s ,letters #fjd ,,merivale',s ,fall of the ,roman ,republic #fjc ---- ,romans under the ,empire #fjc ,,merrifield',s ,arithmetic and ,mensuration #fji ---- ,magnetism #fjh ---- and ,,evers',s ,navigation #fjh ,,meteyard',s ,group of ,englishmen #fjd ,,miles on ,horse's ,foot and ,horse ,shoeing #fai ---- on ,horses' ,teeth and ,stables #fai ,,mill 7,j47 on the ,mind #fje ,,mill 7,j4 ,s47 on ,liberty #fje ---- ---- ,subjection of ,women #fje ---- ---- on ,representative ,government #fje ---- ---- on ,utilitarianism #fje ----'s ,dissertations and ,discussions #fje ---- ,political ,economy #fje ---- ,system of ,logic #fje ---- ,hamilton's ,philosophy #fje ,,miller',s ,elements of ,chemistry #faa ---- ,inorganic ,chemistry #fji ,,mitchell',s ,manual of ,architecture #fac ---- ,manual of ,assaying #fad ,,monsell',s ,beatitudes #faf ---- ,his ,presence not his ,memory #faf ---- #8,spiritual ,songs' #faf ,,moore',s ,irish ,melodies #fah ---- ,lalla ,rookh #fah ---- ,poetical ,works #fah ,,morell',s ,elements of ,psychology #fjf ---- ,mental ,philosophy #fjf ,,mossman',s ,christian ,church #fjc ,m,,ller',s 7,max7 ,chips from a ,german ,workshop #fjg ---- ,lectures on the ,science of ,language #fje ---- 7,k4 ,o47 ,literature of ,ancient ,greece #fjb ,,murchison on ,liver ,complaints #fab ,,mure',s ,language and ,literature of ,greece #fjb ,,nash',s ,compendium of the ,prayer-,book #fad ,new ,testament ,illustrated with ,wood ,engravings from the ,old ,masters #fab ,,newman',s ,history of his ,religious ,opinions #fje ,,nightingale on ,hospitals #fbj ---- ---- ,lying-in ,institutions #fbj ,,nilsson',s ,scandinavia #faj ,,northcott on ,lathes and ,turning #fac ,notes on ,books #fbj ,,odling',s ,course of ,practical ,chemistry #faa ---- ,outlines of ,chemistry #faa ,,owen',s ,comparative ,anatomy and ,physiology of ,vertebrate ,animals #fji ---- ,lectures on the ,invertebrata #fji ,,packe',s ,guide to the ,pyrenees #fag ,,paget',s ,lectures on ,surgical ,pathology #faj ,,pereira',s ,elements of ,materia ,medica #fab ,,perring',s ,churches and ,creeds #fad ,,pewtner',s ,comprehensive ,specifier #fbj ,pictures in ,tyrol #faf ,,piesse',s ,art of ,perfumery #fad ,,player-,,frowd',s ,california #faf ,,prendergast',s ,mastery of ,languages #fjf ,,prescott',s ,scripture ,difficulties #fae ,present-,day ,thoughts1 by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 #fjg ,,proctor',s ,astronomical ,essays #fjh ---- ,orbs around ,us #fjh ---- ,plurality of ,worlds #fjh ---- ,saturn #fjh ---- ,scientific ,essays #fji ---- ,star ,atlas #fjh ---- ,star ,depths #fjh ---- ,sun #fjh ,public ,schools ,atlas #fjh ,,rae',s ,westward by ,rail #faf ,,ranken on ,strains in ,trusses #fac ,,rawlinson',s ,parthia #fjb ,recreations of a ,country ,parson1 by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 #fjg ,,reeve',s ,royal and ,republican ,france #fjb ,,reichel',s ,see of ,rome #fad ,,reilly',s ,map of ,mont ,blanc #fag ,,rivers',s ,rose ,amateur's ,guide #faj ,,rogers',s ,eclipse of ,faith #fjg ---- ,defence of ,faith #fjg ,,roget',s ,thesaurus of ,english ,words and ,phrases #fjf ,,ronalds',s ,fly-,fisher's ,entomology #fai ,,rose',s ,loyola #fae ,,rothschild',s ,israelites #fae ,,russell',s ,pau and the ,pyrenees #faf ,,sandars',s ,justinian's ,institutes #fje ,,sanford',s ,english ,kings #fja ,,savile on ,truth of the ,bible #fae ,,schellen',s ,spectrum ,analysis #fjh ,,scott',s ,lectures on the ,fine ,arts #fab ---- ,albert ,drer #fab ,seaside ,musing1 by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 #fjg ,,seebohm',s ,oxford ,reformers of #adih #fjb ,,sewell',s ,after ,life #fag ---- ,glimpse of the ,world #fag ---- ,history of the ,early ,church #fjc ---- ,journal of a ,home ,life #faf ---- ,passing ,thoughts on ,religion #faf ---- ,preparation for ,communion #faf ---- ,readings for ,confirmation #faf ---- ,readings for ,lent #faf ---- ,examination for ,confirmation #faf ---- ,stories and ,tales #fag ---- ,thoughts for the ,age #faf ---- ,thoughts for the ,holy ,week #faf ,,shipley',s ,essays on ,ecclesiastical ,reform #fad ,,short',s ,church ,history #fjc ,,smith',s ,paul's ,voyage and ,shipwreck #fad ---- 7,,sydney7 ,life and ,letters #fjd ---- ---- ,miscellaneous ,works #fjg ---- ---- ,wit and ,wisdom #fjg ---- 7,dr4 ,r4 ,a47 ,air and ,rain #fjh ,,southey',s ,doctor #fjf ---- ,poetical ,works #fah ,,stanley',s ,history of ,british ,birds #fji ,,stephen',s ,ecclesiastical ,biography #fjd ---- ,playground of ,europe #faf ,stepping-,stone to ,knowledge1 c4 #fbj ,,stirling',s ,protoplasm #fjg ---- ,secret of ,hegel #fjg ---- ,sir ,,william ,,hamilton #fjg ,,stockmar',s ,memoirs #fja ,,stonehenge on the ,dog #fai ---- on the ,greyhound #fai ,,strickland',s ,queens of ,england #fjd ,sunday ,afternoons at the ,parish ,church of a ,university ,city1 by ,a4 ,k4 ,h4 ,b4 #fjg ,,taylor',s ,history of ,india #fjb ---- 7,jeremy7 ,works1 edited by ,,eden #faf ---- ,text-,books of ,science #fjh ,,text-,,books ,,of ,,science #fji ,,thirlwall',s ,history of ,greece #fjb ,,thomson',s ,laws of ,thought #fje ---- ,new ,world of ,being #fjg ,,thudichum',s ,chemical ,physiology #faa ,,todd 7,a47 on ,parliamentary ,government #fja ---- and ,,bowman',s ,anatomy and ,physiology of ,man #fab ,,trench',s ,realities of ,irish ,life #fjb ,,trollope',s ,barchester ,towers #fah ---- ,warden #fah ,,twiss',s ,law of ,nations #fbj ,,tyndall',s ,diamagnetism #fji ---- ,faraday as a ,discoverer #fjd ---- ,fragments of ,science #fji ---- ,hours of ,exercise in the ,alps #faf ,,tyndall',s ,lectures on ,electricity #fji ---- ,lectures on ,light #fji ---- ,lectures on ,sound #fji ---- ,heat a ,mode of ,motion #fji ---- ,molecular ,physics #faa ,,ueberweg',s ,system of ,logic #fjg ,,ure',s ,dictionary of ,arts1 ,manufactures1 and ,mines #fac ,,van ,,der ,,hoeven',s ,handbook of ,zoology #faj ,,vogan',s ,doctrine of the ,euchrist #fad ,,watson',s ,geometry #fji ---- ,principles and ,practice of ,physic #faa ,,watts',s ,dictionary of ,chemistry #faa ,,webb',s ,objects for ,common ,telescopes #fjh ,,webster ,,wilkinson',s ,greek ,testament #fae ,,wellington',s ,,life1 by ,,gleig #fjd ,,west on ,children's ,diseases #faa ---- on ,children's ,nervous ,disorders #faa ---- on ,nursing ,sick ,children #fbj ,,whately',s ,english ,synonymes #fje ---- ,logic #fje ---- ,rhetoric #fje ,,white and ,,riddle',s ,latin ,dictionaries #fjf ,,wilcocks',s ,sea ,fisherman #fai ,,williams',s ,aristotle's ,ethics #fje ,,williams on ,consumption #faa ,,willich',s ,popular ,tables #fbj ,,willis',s ,principles of ,mechanism #fac ,,winslow on ,light #fji ,,wood',s 7,j4,g47 ,bible ,animals #faj ---- ---- ,homes without ,hands #fji ---- ---- ,insects at ,home #faj ---- ---- ,insects ,abroad #faj ---- ---- ,strange ,dwellings #fji ---- 7,t47 ,chemical ,notes #faa ,,wordsworth',s ,christian ,ministry #fad ,yarndale #fag ,,yonge',s ,history of ,england #fja ---- ,english-,greek ,lexicons #fjf ---- ,horace #fah ---- ,english ,literature #fje ---- ,modern ,history #fjc ,,youatt on the ,dog #fai ---- on the ,horse #fai ,,zeller',s ,socrates #fjc ---- ,stoics1 ,epicureans1 and ,sceptics #fjc ,zigzagging amongst ,dolomites #fae ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation1 hyphenation1 and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in the original book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected2 unbalanced quotation marks were remedied when the change was obvious1 and otherwise left unbalanced4 ,illustrations in this e,book have been positioned between paragraphs and outside quotations4 ,in versions of this e,book that support hyperlinks1 the page references in the ,list of ,illustrations lead to the corresponding illustrations4 ,the indexes were not systematically checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references4 ,footnotes1 originally at the bottoms of pages1 have been collected1 renumbered sequentially1 and placed just before the first ,index4 ,the ,catalog 78,general ,list of ,works07 pages at the end of the book have been renumbered to begin at #fja1 the title of its index has been changed from 8,index0 to 8,catalog ,index01 and the page references in that index have been renumbered accordingly4 ,in the original book1 only the parts of titles that fit on the first line were printed in boldface2 this e,book attempts to include more or all of those titles in boldface4