,,trench ,,warfare ,,trench ,,warfare ,a ,,manual ,,for ,,officers ,,and ,,men ,,by ,j4 ,s4 ,,smith ,,second ,,lieutenant ,,with ,,the ,,british ,,expeditionary ,,force ,illustration ,,new ,,york ,e4 ,p4 ,,dutton ,,co4 #fha ,,fifth ,,avenue ,,copyright1 #aiag1 ,,by ,e4 ,p4 ,,dutton ,,co4 ,printed in the ,united ,states of ,america ,,to ,,the ,,american ,,officers ,,and ,,men ,,who ,,served ,,and ,,are ,,serving ,,their ,,country ,,under ,,alien ,,flags ,,introduction ,it is a safe bet that when the ,german army started for ,paris they had plans for use in the event of disaster4 ,the disaster occurred1 and a new type of warfare requiring the highest courage1 skill and endurance was born4 ,i say born because although trench warfare was known before1 it died in birth compared to this war1 for the amount of science1 energy and variety of weapons used4 ,more earth has been removed by a combination of man1 pick and shovel in making these trenches than was excavated to make the ,panama ,canal possible1 and in less time4 ,it is my object in this book to give a faint idea and knowledge of the trenches1 and to approximately explain the way warfare is carried on1 and ,i offer the information contained herein as a basic foundation on which to use the further knowledge you will gain as an officer1 and which1 for obvious reasons1 ,i will not and cannot give here4 ,the notes are all taken from different courses of instruction1 and observations made during thirty-one months of service1 fifteen of which was spent on the ,belgian and ,french fronts1 both as private and officer in the infantry service4 ,i do not lay down my information as expert and final by any means1 but as trench warfare changes from day to day1 improvements are made1 old ideas discarded1 new ones tried1 it can be seen that nothing can be laid down as a cut and dried rule1 but the principles of trench building1 generally speaking1 remain the same4 ,this ,i have endeavored to give1 along with a few other notes which will give an idea of the many and varied tasks that a second lieutenant must know before he is fit to take hold of men in a place such as the ,western ,front1 where there is very seldom a chance to rectify mistakes1 or to experiment more than once4 ,when the ,british and ,french armies started their retreat from ,mons1 as far as the ,british army was concerned they were hampered by their want of knowledge of trench warfare as used in the ,south ,african war4 ,the men retired day by day1 hardly staying in one place long enough to dig themselves in4 ,at that time for digging a trench system1 one valuable lesson was learned1 and that was1 that the hole such as they had been taught to make in just such circumstances as they were up against then was no good1 as it offered them no protection from overhead shrapnel1 and at the best of times made a very poor shelter4 ,this hole used to be dug a little more than the width of a man and straight back his full length1 he naturally throwing the dirt in front of him and thus making a little parapet4 ,when the battle of the ,marne commenced and the ,british and the ,french drove forward1 this valuable lesson and many others had been learned1 so that when the armies had reached the limits of their endurance1 instead of digging themselves in in the old style1 a new system was used1 greatly assisted by shell fire4 ,a round hole was dug by each man to fit his individual size and made to suit himself4 ,here he squatted and fought1 if necessary1 and got what rest was possible during that day1 with the enemies' line at distances varying from #ajj to #ejj yards from him4 ,during the night1 these men when not fighting or bothered by counter-attacks1 or trying to obtain rations1 water and the many necessaries that a fighting man requires1 deepened their shelters and joined them together by little narrow ditches4 ,during the next day there might be bitter fighting1 so it would be even possible that other troops would come up and relieve during the early dusk4 ,the relieved troops would retire a short distance and dig themselves another row of little holes where they might act as supports in case the temporary front line gave4 ,during that night the holes on the front line would be enlarged until they finally joined and gradually without deliberate intention the trench became a permanent feature4 ,then the line slightly in the rear became connected with the front line system by what were then nothing more or less than ditches and this was the birth of the present system which now stretches from the sea to ,switzerland4 ,the trench systems now generally consist of three complete lines or systems of trenches1 each system being self-supporting and independent of the other4 ,the second and third systems are generally laid with due consideration to protection1 fields of fire1 and all the other tactical requirements that are necessary to such a system2 it being impossible in the majority of cases to keep these points in mind during the building of the first or original line4 ,these systems generally run to a depth of six to eight miles from the front firing line4 ,they are so constructed that when a firing line has been broken through to any great extent1 what was formerly a communication trench at once becomes a fire trench1 and serves to bring a heavy enfilade fire on the troops occupying the captured area4 ,it must be remembered that the considerations1 arguments1 and notes laid down in this book cannot1 under stress of circumstances1 always be acted on4 ,it will be found1 however1 that a certain amount of training and of study as to the conditions governing the sighting1 building1 and living in these trenches1 will cause a man1 even under great stress of excitement1 to look for and try to obtain the ideal as a matter of habit and without giving much time and thought to the question4 ,the ,art of ,war is 8the greatest amount of common sense used in the shortest possible time40 ,j4 ,s4 ,s4 ,,editor',s ,,note ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,smith1 the author of this book1 is an ,american1 born in ,philadelphia1 who enlisted in the #bith ,vancouver ,battalion in the fall of #aiad4 ,he saw service along the ,belgian front1 and in ,august #aiaf was given a commission in the ,british ,army4 ,he is now 7,june1 #aiag7 serving with the ,british ,expeditionary ,force on the ,french front4 ,,contents ,,page ,,introduction vii ,,location ,,and ,,construction ,,of ,,trenches #a ,,dugouts #ai ,,resistance ,,of ,,roofing ,,materials #bd ,,dumps #be ,,latrines #bg ,,revetments #bh ,sand ,bags #bi ,corrugated ,iron #cb ,fire ,platforms #cd ,,traverses #cf ,,listening ,,posts #ch ,,observation ,,posts #dc ,loopholes for firing #dc ,,support ,,trenches ,,and ,,support ,,dugouts #de ,,support ,,points #df ,,reserve ,,dugouts #dg ,,second ,,line #dg ,,communication ,,trenches #dh ,,sketch ,,of ,,trench ,,system #ef ,section ,i #ef ,section ,,ii #eh ,section ,,iii #fc ,section ,,iv #fg ,,telephone ,,lines #fh ,,recesses #fi ,,notice ,,boards #gj ,,trench ,,drainage #gb ,,floorboards #gg ,,brushwood ,,and ,,straw #gi ,,working ,,parties #hj ,,reliefs #ha ,,traversed ,,fire ,,trenches #hc ,,obstacles ,,and ,,entanglements #hd ,,low ,,wire ,,entanglements #he ,,high ,,wire ,,entanglements #hf ,,abatis #hh ,,barricades #hh ,,inundations #hi ,,fougasses #hi ,,organization ,,of ,,bombing ,,squads #ij ,,training #ia ,,explosives #aja ,,bombs #ajc ,,percussion ,,bombs ,hand ,grenade ,no4 #a #ajc ,hand ,grenade ,no4 #b #aje ,rifle ,grenade ,no4 #c #aje ,,ignition ,,bombs ,hand ,grenade ,nos4 #f and #g #ajg ,hand ,grenade ,nos4 #h and #i #ajh ,pitcher ,hand ,grenade #ajh ,oval ,hand ,grenade #aaj ,ball ,hand ,grenade #aaj ,jam-pot ,bombs #aaj ,,mechanical ,,bombs ,hand ,grenade ,no4 #e or ,mills' ,grenade #aaa ,,gas ,,warfare #aac ,tear ,shells #aaf ,,gas ,,masks ,,or ,,respirators #aai ,,duties ,,of ,a ,,platoon ,,commander ,,at ,,the ,,front #aba ,,going ,,into ,,the ,,trenches #abb ,,in ,,the ,,firing ,,line #abc ,,observation #abe ,inspection #abf ,,sentries #abg ,,rifles #abh ,,preparatory ,,to ,,entering ,,trenches #acj ,,taking ,,over ,,trenches #aca ,,sniping #aca ,,patrols #acb ,,duties ,,of ,,an ,,officer #acd ,,how ,,to ,,fire ,a ,,machine ,,gun ,,in ,,case ,,of ,,emergency #adj ,lewis ,gun #ada ,vicker's ,automatic #ada ,stoppages #adb ,,prevention ,,of ,,frost ,,bites ,,and ,,trench ,,feet #adb ,,trench ,,warfare ,,location ,,and ,,construction ,,of ,,trenches ,in locating the site for a defensive firing line1 it must be divided into three sections3--firing line1 immediate support and reserves4 ,in doing this several opposing factors should be taken into consideration and their relative importance judged according to the special circumstances and objects in view1 keeping in mind the probable lines and manner of defense of the enemy1 and whether the trenches are for permanent or for temporary use4 ,this may be summarized under two heads3 first1 with the object of attaining the greatest field that can be covered by defensive fire2 and1 second1 the greatest security from offensive fire4 ,it will even be found that these two constructions will be in conflict4 ,trenches placed behind the crest of a hill1 say fifty to one hundred and fifty yards from the top1 will hamper the accuracy of the enemy's artillery fire4 ,shooting1 to be effective1 calls for a high rate of accuracy1 and here the only observations possible are from aircraft and balloons2 but the enemy side of the hill will be raised ground to the occupants of the trench4 ,at night large numbers of the enemy could collect there1 and the dangerous space to them would merely be the distance from your fire trench to the crest of the hill4 ,the enemy could and would entrench themselves on their side of the crest and by raising their parapet enjoy the advantage of a higher front1 which would eventually lead to their entirely controlling the area behind your trenches1 which are continually used by the relief and fatigue parties4 ,it is a principle that grazing rifle fire upon a defensive enemy is more effective than plunging fire1 but any entrenched position higher than your own held by an enemy gives them a tremendous advantage4 ,regardless of what opinion may be held as to the maximum depth of a field of fire required to meet or repel attacks1 whether in masse or open order1 it should be obvious that the greater the depth of the field of fire and the more extensive the view of the enemy's operations1 the better it will be for the defending forces4 ,protection from and localization of artillery fire must be provided by the internal construction of the trench rather than by a position that protects but also restricts the field of fire4 ,there are frequently found in front of a firing line small areas of ground which are not covered by direct fire from your trench4 ,a flanking fire frequently can cover these areas1 but in spite of this1 they must be watched constantly by means of listening posts or concealed observation posts1 which may be hidden by the banks of rivers1 hedges1 ruined houses1 or whatever natural existing concealment renders observation possible4 ,at night1 it is a safe principle to support listening posts by automatic rifles1 trip wires with noise making arrangements attached to them as common sense under the circumstances dictates4 ,great care and caution must always be taken to prevent the discovery of these listening posts by the enemy1 and when discovered1 alternative posts should be made or greater care taken for the protection of the men occupying these posts1 such as overhead protection by mesh wire against bombing1 and the upkeep of a small supply of bombs and close-range weapons in the post4 ,the important trenches on the front having been located with a view of protecting the immediate front and with due regard to their relation1 tactically1 to the other trenches already located1 the connecting trenches obviously must be subservient to the more important ones4 ,every endeavor must be made to avoid enfilade fires in the flanks1 to give and to receive mutual support1 and in particular to support those flanks which are not protected otherwise4 ,it is an essential consideration in the location of all these trenches that lateral communications can be established1 and that supplies1 supports1 reserves1 ammunition1 etc41 together with the means of retiring if necessary be taken into account4 ,the distance from the water supplies and the possibility of concealing approaches is a further governing factor1 although in many cases an ideal condition cannot be realized4 ,then there is the counter attack1 in case the fire trench should be taken1 and the kind of soil which is so essential to its relation to bad weather and water seepage--these also require thought and study4 ,these things are main considerations to be kept in mind after a line has been settled on1 whether during attack or whether siting trenches under common circumstances4 ,it is not expected and is not necessary1 when trying to obtain a position during attack1 to keep all of these conditions in mind1 but it is essential that when the attack has been finished and things return to slightly more normal circumstances1 that these things be given instant consideration and proper action taken4 ,were such a thing as concealment possible1 it should be the first thing of importance to be kept in mind4 ,listening posts1 machine gun positions1 reserve dugouts1 company1 battalion and regimental headquarters1 and similar things1 at some distance behind or on fire lines1 may be concealed1 but fire-trenches are sure to be observed sooner or later 7mostly sooner7 by aeroplane and other means of observation1 and it is best that one should admit the impracticability of concealment at once and take the proper protective measures4 ,if opportunity for concealment offers itself1 as it may do1 according to the lay of the land1 it should be taken always4 ,it should always be kept in mind that one should try to place himself in the position of having the enemy's point of view1 both from his trenches and his aerial observations4 ,advantage should be taken and even care given along trenches to the extensive cultivation of the weeds1 grasses1 etc41 that may grow rapidly in the excavated soil4 ,it is1 and always will be1 a matter of much argument that trenches should not be dug near hedges1 ditches1 roads or rows of trees1 on account of easy ranging mark given to the enemy artillery4 ,in a country where such things are scarce1 the idea may have a leg to stand on1 but certainly to the ,western ,front it does not apply4 ,it does not take artillery a moment to approximate by ranging shot1 check by deduction or addition the range of trenches in any area1 even if lying along a hedge or road4 ,the ditch or hedge in some cases will provide the starting of a trench and offer fair amount of cover from fire to the troops working4 ,a ditch immediately in front or behind the trench greatly helps to solve the many and varied difficulties of drainage1 and when in front of a trench1 can be made into a formidable obstacle1 generally by throwing in varied lengths of barbed wire4 ,trenches under the cover of a hedge are very often safe from aerial observation1 and even when located1 sniping and observation can be carried on from them if the contours of the ground are favorable4 ,it is always possible to do a certain amount of repairing and moving of troops only when unobserved from the enemy's trenches4 ,if advantage is not taken of these natural protections1 such as hedges and trees1 then they must be destroyed4 ,it is obvious that a great deal of labor can be lost and work thrown away if a policy is not adopted and continued4 ,battalions relieving one another up and down the line may waste a tremendous amount of labor unless the relieved officer's policy is explained4 ,if each commanding officer of a relieving battalion is permitted to air his own theories1 duplication of work and lack of continuity will exist4 ,therefore1 it is essential that the officers relieving the trench be thoroughly informed of work going on4 ,with this object in view some of the officers of the relieving battalion should do a tour of duty 7about #bd hours7 before their troops take over the trench4 ,an ,officer and ,non-,commissioned ,officer are detailed from each relieving company for this duty4 ,in the trench this officer is instructed by the senior officer present1 and the non-commissioned officer by the ranking non-commissioned officer1 in the policy to be continued4 ,the commanding officer of the occupying company should have a sketch map of his sector of trench which he turns over to the relieving officer4 ,this map should show the work under construction2 proposed work2 wire defenses2 and if possible1 the enemies machine gun emplacements1 observation posts1 snipers and work in progress4 ,the notes accompanying the map should give the general conditions concerning the work--depth to which it is safe to dig1 nature of soil1 conditions regarding drainage1 and all information in regard to the enemies' activities during the period of occupancy4 ,in addition1 the relieving officer has the trench diary showing all the information covering every minute detail of the happenings during that company's stay in the trenches4 ,this diary is a continuous record of that particular sector and remains with the occupying company until it is relieved and then passes into the possession of the relieving half company1 and so on1 forming a continuous running record of the policy applying to the upkeep and methods employed therein4 ,this diary1 unless it is buried to avoid falling into the hands of the enemy1 will continue until the end of the war4 ,so every half company inherits one from his predecessor in the line upon its assuming the obligations previously assumed by its fore-runner1 thus preventing a duplication of work and assuring continuity of endeavor4 ,there are certain obvious requirements that have to become rules4 ,when required to fill sandbags1 always look for the nearest excavation being made and fill from there1 if distance permits4 ,as a matter of fact1 in every trench there is a continuous revetting1 widening of communications or control trenches1 or driving of a tunnel to a listening post4 ,illustration3 ,a--,parapet ,traverse ,b--,parados ,traverse ,,traversed ,,recessed ,,trench4 ,inasmuch as the time for filling sandbags is never ending1 if work is being done and the earth is not absolutely needed for parapet or parados1 the earth1 if dry1 should be put in sandbags1 and1 if necessary1 stored until it is needed4 ,the repair work that is most necessary takes precedent and is about as follows3 ,any damage to parados or traverses should be immediately attended to4 ,during the night any damage to the wire entanglements must be repaired4 ,drainage comes next in order of importance1 and this involves the digging of sumps and deepening of the drainage bottom4 ,these are the repairs1 but improvements must continually be made in the dugouts and communication trenches4 ,the ultimate design of a fire-trench depends upon its closeness to the enemy4 ,when the latter are within #aej yards1 the traversed fire-trench shown in sketch should be employed1 as it provides adequate accommodation and protection for men who may at any moment be called upon to make use of bomb1 bayonet and bullet2 but if the enemy trenches are more than #aej yards distant1 the ultimate design would depend upon the number of machine guns and automatic rifles available4 ,each of these guns has a firing capacity of about #be rifles4 ,each gun therefore gives a reduction in the number of men required to hold the line1 and in consequence reduces the amount of trench needed to protect these men4 ,a design1 known as the 8,t0 shaped fire-trench1 makes an adaptable basis for entrenching under these conditions4 ,many lengths of a continuous traversed trench have no great field of fire1 and yet1 having been dug1 they must be held1 and unless properly held and kept in repair1 they naturally become a source of danger4 ,as shown in the sketch1 a traversed trench consists of a series of fire-bays interrupted by a series of traverses4 ,the object of these being to localize the effect of shells or bombs landing in a fire-bay1 and preventing enfilade fire down the length of the trench1 as well as localizing any entry of the enemy into your line4 ,dimensions vary up and down the line4 ,sometimes according to the lay of the land1 sometimes according to the opinions1 whims or fancies of the regiments making them1 but the following dimensions should be kept in mind1 and it will be found that they show the average of the whole general line on the ,western ,front4 ,fire-bays generally are from #ab to #ah feet long 7defendable by #d to #f men1 but accommodating #h to #ab1 when necessary7 plus a #b-;ft4 covered sentry box recessed into the traverse and giving room for one more man2 this depending entirely on the energy and initiative of the men occupying the section4 ,every traverse averages #i x #i which includes a fairly liberal allowance for wear and tear1 and is the minimum allowance for stopping enfilade fire and localizing fire4 ,as the width from front to rear varies1 depending on the amount of shell fire1 it should be wide enough to allow a certain amount of lateral traffic without interfering with those who may be firing4 ,three feet may be taken as the maximum width at the bottom of the trench1 that is1 #a for traffic and #a for those firing1 with a slope to the sides of from #aj to #ae degrees from perpendicular1 thus lessening the tendency of the walls1 whether revetted or otherwise1 to slide in4 ,the depth of the trenches varies also1 for the same reasons that cause the width to vary4 ,recesses should also be dug at various and favorable places for the storing of ammunition and bombs4 ,when digging entrenchments without regard to concealment1 the excavated soil is first of all thrown to the front or enemy's side of the trench1 thus temporary cover is obtained4 ,when the entrenchment has reached the proper depth the artificial raising of the ground is leveled4 ,the artificially raised portion is known as the parapet4 ,on the completion of the parapet1 the soil is thrown to the rear side of the trench1 thus forming the parados which gives a protection from the rear4 ,it is not a good policy to excavate in front of the parapet1 but to get additional height and thickness as quickly as possible this is often done4 ,unless carefully watched1 men will dig this dirt from places as near the parapet as possible1 resulting in the weakening or total undermining of the parapet or trench wall4 ,the more gradual the forward slope of the parapet1 the more does it approximate as it should to the glacis of a fort1 consequently giving less cover to an attacking enemy4 ,make use of the ditch or holes from which the dirt was obtained1 as a strong obstacle immediately in front of your trench1 where the enemy at the last moment may be held up to go under a very severe rifle and bombing effort4 ,in normal circumstances1 by which ,i mean when not exposed to an unduly vigorous machine gun or artillery fire1 the soil should not be taken from in front of the trench in the manner described above1 closer than #aj to #ae feet from the actual parapet1 unless the holes are adequately protected by trip wire1 as well as barbed wire4 ,cases have occurred when valuable information has been obtained by the enemy lying in holes thus dug and not properly protected4 ,the parapet should be kept as low as possible and made to blend with its surroundings as much as possible4 ,this is done by taking great care to cover any signs which show that fresh work has been done1 even to the extent of actually planting grasses1 weeds and roots1 such as grow in the immediate neighborhood1 and giving every encouragement to those that already grow4 ,this greatly hinders the enemy's artillery1 as it changes positions up and down the line2 interfering with and hindering the observations and accurate ranging by their forward observing officers1 checking charts turned over by relieved batteries4 ,bullet-proof nature of a parapet naturally depends on the soil of which it is composed4 ,although it is not necessary to memorize the minimum of safety1 you should keep a general rule in your head4 ,the parapet should not be less than five feet1 regardless of the kind of soil4 ,when the trench has been carefully sited for the actual field of fire from a ground level1 this thickness is best obtained by raising the ground level artificially as little as possible and getting the necessary depth by digging1 unless prevented by moisture4 ,unnecessary casualties are caused by the practice of putting a single row of sand bags along the top of a parapet for temporary purposes of concealment1 as it gives a faulty idea to the men in the trench as to the real height of the parapet4 ,the parados gives protection from the effect of shell fire bursting behind the trench1 and should be made fire-proof as soon as possible1 although it is not necessary unless concealment is possible to level it down in a similar manner to the parapet4 ,as a matter of fact1 it should be at least a foot higher than the parapet1 thus providing a background for the parapet4 ,it has been known to happen that when the occupants of a trench have been reached by the enemy they have vacated their trench and used the parados as a parapet1 much to the surprise and disgust of the enemy4 ,in a high and irregular parados1 places could even be found which when not used steadily provide unexpected and safe observation and sniping posts1 but care must be taken that they are not used too often4 ,if a trench were used merely for firing1 #d feet from bottom of trench to top of parapet would be a sufficient depth4 ,during attack1 however1 when fire from loopholes is too restricted1 exposure of head and shoulders over the parapet becomes necessary1 but it is not necessary to expose men moving along the trench and not actually firing4 ,if the trench should be #g or #h deep1 you must provide a platform at the bottom of the front wall #a wide and #d from the top of the parapet4 ,this is called a fire-step4 ,the rest of the trench can be deepened to any desired depth1 depending on the energy displayed4 ,if of an extraordinary depth1 steps must be cut to the fire platform4 ,in a great many different parts of the ,western ,front1 especially ,belgium1 it was found that after digging to a depth of one to three feet water was encountered to such an extent that it became impossible to dig any sort of a trench which would give adequate protection to the men involved4 ,illustration3 ,,fire ,,trench4 ,,link ,,trench4 ,,supervision ,,trench4 ,when these conditions are run into1 breast work parapets must be artificially built up above ground level with soil1 sods and sandbags1 supported by sandbags1 hurdles or close wire netting1 revetment and stakes4 ,the same principles of thickness1 depth1 width1 slopes1 and in fact everything that applies to a dug-in trench1 applies to breast works4 ,illustration3 ,a--,link ,trench1 minimum length #e ft4 8,s0 8,t0 ,,trench4 ,the 8,t0 trench has many more advantages than the few mentioned in the opening of this chapter4 ,t fire-bays may be single1 double or treble 7that is with one1 two or three bays74 ,fire-bays in any length up to #ae feet with #h feet traverses are for firing purposes only1 and the control trench1 sometimes known as the lateral communication trench1 as its name implies1 giving lateral communications1 is used for that purpose only4 ,therefore1 the fire-bays and control trenches can be narrower than trenches which have to be used for both purposes1 thus lessening the amount of repair and revetment work required4 ,and the intervening ground between these fire-bays gives the same result as a traverse used in a traversed trench system1 and saves the labor of digging a more intricate system4 ,the control trench gives an officer or ,n4 ,c4 ,o4 in charge of the ,t bays a chance to handle his men and fire in these bays without struggling around innumerable traverses and wasting time very often when a minute lost or gained means lives lost1 or part of a trench system in the hands of the enemy4 ,t bays may be sited with due and careful consideration while facing the enemy in an existing trench system4 ,thus it gives you the advantage of being able to take into consideration all the requirements of the field of fire1 control of isolated areas1 and the obtaining of maximum results from enfilade fire4 ,these ,t trenches may be dug out from the old system without undue exposure of your men and if distance between the lines permits1 and it is entirely possible to construct a new and generally more favorable line of trenches within #ajj to #bjj yards of the enemy's trenches4 ,intervening ground between these ,t bays must be completely controlled by entanglements and mobile machine guns1 or automatic rifles1 able to operate from different alternating recesses in the control trench4 ,fire platforms should be placed in recesses at intervals in the control trench from which covering fire can be given4 ,artillery fire1 to damage a ,t trench1 must be very accurate4 ,in a traversed trench a shell destroys not only lateral communication1 but the defenders as well1 whereas with a ,t shape1 both fire-bays and control trench have to be ranged and hit4 ,the success of the enemy is entirely local when capturing one of these ,t-bays1 and he may be shelled by your own artillery without any danger or risks to those defending their ,t-bays4 ,control trenches should be dug first and zigzagged with the longer stretches facing the enemy4 ,this gives you another fire-trench as well as a communication trench1 and is also ready for use at any time needed before the ,t-bay is completed4 ,on the completion of the ,t-bay1 the corners of the zigzagged trench must be rounded off to make it easier and quicker for the movement of troops and carrying of stretchers4 ,,dugouts ,it is only under very exceptional circumstances that under-cutting a trench wall is allowed1 and then the shelter should be cut in the rear wall only4 ,these shelters must be carefully supervised and watched by the officer1 as men are very often careless1 with the result that the shelters are dug in a hurry and poorly4 ,then it rains1 the shelter falls in1 and the men are no more4 ,it should be high enough for a man to sit up straight1 and long enough for him to lie down in1 and deep enough for two men to lie side by side4 ,it should be raised at least a foot above the floor level in the trench to prevent water from the trench floor coming in4 ,a shelter smaller than these dimensions is useless4 ,it has a demoralizing effect1 destroying all activity1 mental and physical4 ,these shelters can only be properly made by cutting into the rear trench wall the necessary depth and length and right to the top4 ,then1 with any material which is convenient1 such as corrugated iron1 brushwood1 old rubber sheets1 revet the sides and back4 ,a corrugated iron roof is supported on posts at a depth of about a foot to a foot and a half below the normal level of the ground4 ,then1 when possible1 cover this with rubber sheets4 ,if not possible to procure rubber sheets1 simply cover with dirt excavated from shelter1 taking care that it does not rise higher than your parados4 ,illustration3 ,,fire ,,trench1 ,,showing ,,entrance ,,to ,,shelter ,the shelter is of use only in a narrow or deep trench4 ,note that the floor is above the bottom of the trench4 ,a fire-trench1 however1 is not a proper place for shelters1 and they are generally better as a weather protection than a shell-proof shelter4 ,even this should not be favored too much1 as it tends to cause obstruction1 delay and inconvenience in the passing of troops4 ,the real dugouts for the accommodation of men holding a line are generally behind the fire-trenches in an immediate support line1 or as in the case of ,t-bays1 in the control trench and communication trenches leading to and from them4 ,these are large dugouts1 having a depth of #cj and #dj feet1 and in some cases capable of holding #ajj to #bej men1 generally having from #e to #aj exits and entrances4 ,here the men stay during bombardments and are generally safe from any caliber shell which may light on top1 unless a half dozen should light in the same particular spot4 ,this work is generally of a very skilled and technical kind4 ,plans1 drawings and labor are supervised by the engineers1 expert tunnelers being used in constructing work1 although the infantry supplies working parties to dispose of the dirt1 etc41 resulting from these excavations and to carry the materials and tools needed and required in the construction4 ,the design and general scheme of a small dugout which can be made by the infantry under the supervision of an officer1 without the aid of an engineer1 are here given4 ,the dugout should be approximately #f feet from floor to roof and about #h feet wide1 with an approximate length of #ab feet1 thus allowing men to lie down and yet leave room for passage through4 ,the width depends upon the number you intend to have occupy it4 ,each man requires #ah4 ,depth to be dug below ground depends entirely to what extent you may raise the roof upon the ground without making an unduly exposed hump which will at once tell the enemy a dugout is there4 ,the thickness of the roof should be approximately #f feet1 constructed with side posts1 cross beams1 corrugated iron1 waterproof oilcloth1 sandbags and soil4 ,sandbag revetments should be used in the strengthening of side posts4 ,when possible1 although hardly ever so1 walls should be lined with waterproof oilcloth and entrances so placed that they get as much sun as possible4 ,illustration3 ,,dug-,,out ,,with ,,roof ,,removed4 ,dimensions variable4 ,note the wide berms permitting the use of strong roof supports4 ,a layer of large stones to cause early shell burst should form part of the roofing4 ,great care and attention must be given to these dugouts1 and even though taking a little longer than seems necessary1 care must be taken to see that they are substantially constructed1 otherwise they are in a constant source of danger of cave-ins during heavy shelling and bad weather4 ,not more than #aj men should occupy one of these dugouts4 ,then1 if accidents happen1 your casualties are not so great4 ,the roof of these dugouts should be prepared in a manner tending to withstand as high shell shock as possible1 and for this purpose the following table would be of some use1 any part of which1 or a combination of all1 will give some idea of what is required4 ,,resistance ,,of ,,roofing ,,materials 7a7 ,shrapnel bullets--,stout planks suitably supported and covered with corrugated iron and #ab of earth or #c of shingle4 7b7 ,ordinary guns of #c caliber--,strong timber supporting #d ft4 of earth with a top layer of heavy stones or broken bricks to cause early shell burst4 7c7 ,field howitzers 7of less than #f caliber7--#ab logs1 supporting #h ft4 of earth with top layer of heavy stones or broken brick and lightly covered over with some earth4 7d7 8,jack ,johnsons0--#bj ft4 of earth or #aj ft4 of cement concrete1 renforced with steel and covered over with a covering of heavy stone or broken brick4 ,it is very often the case that there is a line of trenches with very few dugouts4 ,those that exist are mainly occupied by first aid stations with a medical officer in charge1 and officers' headquarters4 ,when such is the case1 very narrow1 deep trenches1 known as retirement trenches1 are dug roughly from #bj to #ej yards behind the firing line1 so that every one1 except those on sentry duty1 may retire there during the heavy shelling4 ,it is very obvious that excellent communication must be kept up between this trench and the firing line4 ,,dumps ,sandbags1 corrugated iron1 floor boards1 ladders1 pails1 brushes1 rubber boots1 periscopes1 barbed wire1 etc41 are what are known as 8trench stores40 ,these are generally brought up by carrying parties during the night and taken to some convenient spot picked out by whosoever may be commanding that particular section of trench1 ready for distribution in the morning4 ,this place is known as a 8trench dump40 ,here every morning each junior officer goes to his company commander with a request for his stores for the day4 ,when this has been handed in and approved by his company commander1 he then has a party detailed to go and collect his stores4 ,these are again placed in his particular little sector of the lines and he receipts for their care and proper use2 all stores not used are turned over to the relieving troops and a receipt taken for same4 ,these dumps must be made in a central location1 both as regards the company dump and the platoon4 ,the company dump is not a permanent home for the stores or utensils brought up1 but is merely what might be called the distributing center4 ,when a company commander turns over his trench stores and utensils to the relieving commander1 the fact that he has all his stores and utensils in the company dump does not show merit1 but merely inefficiency1 that the distribution1 which should have taken place1 has not been carried out1 and1 therefore1 that some of the men under his command probably have not the required tools to work with or the material that is necessary to the small units to carry on their daily lives4 ,stores should not remain in their center dumps4 ,but each platoon commander should know exactly how much he has in hand1 and how much he needs4 ,it is also plainly evident that in a scattering of dumps in this manner1 any captured by the enemy do not constitute a 8knock out0 as far as the trench stores are concerned4 ,,latrines ,the cleanliness of the trenches and latrines requires the closest supervision of all officers and non-commissioned officers4 ,the bucket system of latrines is entirely unsatisfactory4 ,the ground where the buckets are in use becomes unsanitary1 and so does the ground in which the contents are buried4 ,double labor and carriage is involved1 and as often as not a polluted soil is sooner or later to be found in the line of a proposed communication trench4 ,the method used in the ,french armies is very good and by far the cleanest4 ,it involves no unpleasant labor and is satisfactory4 ,a pit about #ab feet deep1 #c feet wide and #ab feet long is dug in some place which is fairly easy to get at by those who are to use it4 ,generally thirty to forty feet behind the fire-trenches and off one of the communication trenches4 ,the pit is boarded over1 the boards being laid across the width1 that is from front to rear2 every other board space being omitted4 ,a pail of disinfectant is kept standing nearby1 and the deeper the pit is1 the better and longer it will remain in use1 but should be filled in when contents are within #f feet of the top4 ,this makes subsequent unpleasantness very unlikely4 ,care must be taken that men using these places have some protection from stray shells1 and are out of sight of the enemy4 ,when possible1 there should be a refuse pail for every section of men1 and care should be taken to impress on the men that they must throw in all tea leaves1 dregs1 all scraps of food1 and refuse in general1 and should be covered over with disinfectant4 ,if this is not done1 thousands of flies and insects are attracted1 with the inevitable rats1 and disease and unsanitary conditions will follow4 ,tin cans1 etc41 should under no circumstances be thrown over the parapets as the same results will occur there4 ,,revetments ,when fire trenches are to be occupied for any length of time it is necessary to revet them4 ,by that ,i mean the walls1 and especially front walls1 have to be faced or strengthened by sand bags1 boards1 corrugated iron or other material that is needed4 ,this work to be of any use at all must have solid foundations and be thorough from top to bottom4 ,careless revetment work is of no use and a source of endless labor and trouble4 ,all such work should be supervised by officers or ,n4 ,c4 ,o4's who have a thorough understanding of such things1 and they will be amply repaid if they take an active part in the work with their own hands4 ,there are several forms of revetment1 according to the materials available and the conditions of the walls to be revetted1 but the usual materials are the sandbags1 corrugated iron1 stakes1 boards1 wire netting1 etc41 and these can be used either separately or in a combination4 ,all these materials are generally kept in engineer dumps1 some little way behind the firing line4 ,requisitions are made during the day by the officer commanding the sector of trench which requires revetting1 and at night the men are detailed in carrying parties to go down to the engineer dumps and carry these things up for work the next day4 ,,sandbags4 ,sandbags are usually available in large quantities1 but it is well to remember that generally only half the number indented for reach the indentor4 ,the rest generally go around the men's feet and legs to keep them warm at night1 and very often are used as a sort of mattress in the dugouts4 ,this should not be allowed as it creates a tremendous wastage4 ,the sandbags should only be about three-quarters filled1 thus allowing for the choke or neck end1 after tied1 being turned under the back when laid in position4 ,this also gives something to catch hold of when laying and brings the weight to something manageable1 about sixty pounds4 ,a bag three-quarters filled measures approximately #bj x #aj x #e4 ,laid sand bags are called headers1 when laid with bottom of the bag facing the center of the trench1 and stretchers1 if laid with the side facing the trench as per sketch4 ,the neck end should always be tucked well in the bag in the case of the stretcher2 the side seam1 which is a weak spot in the sandbag1 should be kept from exposure1 that is1 should be turned from the center of the trench4 ,when the front wall of a trench is to be revetted and only sandbags are available1 the wall should first be cut to a slope of from #aj to #ae degrees from the perpendicular1 and the loose soil obtained1 if dry1 placed in the sandbags4 ,when there is an unrevetted fire platform1 this should be also cut away and put1 if dry1 in the sand bags4 ,a bed should then be dug about #f inches into the solid bottom of the trench 7disregarding the soft mud which for foundation purposes is of no use7 and sloping down into the parapet at right angles to the slope of the front wall4 ,into this bed place a row of headers4 ,on this row place a double row of stretchers4 ,joints must always be the same manner as brick-laying2 that is1 care taken that the joint where the ends of the stretchers meet does not come immediately over the joint between the headers and the lower row4 ,sand bags should now be beaten down flat1 generally with a wooden mallet provided for this purpose2 then alternate rows of headers and stretchers laid2 each layer being flattened out with the mallet until the top of the parapet is reached4 ,the top layer should always come out as headers4 ,illustration3 ,headers1 ,stretchers1 ,headers ,twenty-five headers or twelve stretchers1 or sixteen mixed1 is the average required for revetting every superficial yard of trench4 ,the slope of a front trench wall1 even when from #aj to #ae degrees from perpendicular1 is apt gradually to assume the perpendicular1 and then fall in1 owing to the sinking of the trench bottom or the actual thrust of the earth in front4 ,this can1 however1 be checked by using #f to #h stakes driven well into the front wall foundation1 and at the same angle as the front wall4 ,then1 wiring the head of these stakes to what is known as an anchor-stake driven about #aj into the ground in front of the trench4 ,sandbags come in bales of #bej1 which are again divided into bundles of #ej each4 ,on a carrying party it is an average rule that each man carry #ajj sand bags4 ,,corrugated ,,iron4 ,generally1 when lengths of corrugated iron and plenty of floor boards and stakes are available1 this material is used for revetting the lower half of a trench wall1 as it removes a great many difficulties1 such as looking over substantial foundations for sandbag revetments4 ,it makes it unnecessary to fill sandbags1 etc41 thus saving a great amount of time and labor4 ,in revetting with corrugated iron and stakes or hurdles1 cut the slope or wall from #aj to #ae degrees from the perpendicular1 putting the soil in the sandbags and leaving it in some handy place for any future use4 ,then1 drive #f to #h stakes well into the trench foundation and approximately #d apart1 thus giving adequate protection to each piece of corrugated1 having the stakes at an angle of #ae degrees at least1 from the perpendicular1 and #f or #h away from the trench wall4 ,then1 slide the corrugated1 hurdles1 or boards on their sides down behind the stakes1 overlapping slightly the ends and ramming them well down into the mud or soil in the bottom1 and filling in the space behind with soil4 ,the bottom third or half of the front wall is thus substantially1 easily and quickly revetted1 and the upper half or remainder is generally revetted with the sandbags1 a bed being dug so that the first layer of headers is about half its depth below the top of the corrugated4 ,if stakes shorter than #f or #h have been used in the revetting1 half should be cut off to where the sandbag revetting commences and wired to anchor stakes1 driven into the parapet end of the bed1 and not wired over the top of the parapet1 as it tends to gradually pull them upwards4 ,then cover this wiring with your first layer of headers4 ,when hurdles or floorboards are used instead of corrugated iron1 empty sandbags or similar material must be hung behind them to prevent the soil crumbling through and thus weakening the foundation of the sandbag revetments4 ,corrugated should not be used for revetting the front wall higher than #b1 which is the width of one sheet1 as the supply is generally limited and can be put to more valuable use as dealt with later4 ,corrugated iron comes in bundles of about #bd sheets to the bundle1 averaging #f by #c4 ,two sheets is the average load for any one man in a carrying party4 ,a front wall constructed in the manner shown1 if prompt and immediate attention always be given to repair if damage is done1 will give very little bother4 ,it is the usual custom to construct your fire platform after this revetting work has been done4 ,a trench should be dug no deeper than will afford protection to the firer1 a deeper passageway necessitating a fire platform1 a subsequent work1 and by first revetting the whole front wall from bottom to top then adding the fire platform1 each gets the benefit of the foundation of the other4 ,until this fire platform is constructed1 emergency methods may be used and improvised in a moment with ammunition boxes1 loose sandbags and the various other junk which accumulates in a trench4 ,,fire ,,platforms4 ,now that the front wall has been revetted1 either with corrugated or sandbags1 the construction of the fire platform should be at once started4 ,to start this1 short stakes should be driven well into the trench bottom about #cf from the front wall and parallel to the slope of the front wall1 averaging from #b to #c apart and generally as substantial as the large revetment stakes1 although this is not of absolute necessity4 ,when brushwood is procurable1 it should be used as a foundation1 putting it in after the short stakes are driven and ramming it down behind them4 ,this gives you as nearly as possible a dry and compact foundation for your first row of headers4 ,then this may be covered with another lot of brushwood1 and that again by a row of headers1 and from then the layer should be alternate headers and stretchers4 ,sand bags do not offer a good platform after a heavy rain1 as they become wet and slippery and the material quickly rots1 then they break open and the top of your fire platform is gone4 ,to avoid this1 it is necessary to use whatever material may be at hand in the covering of the top layer4 ,one good way of providing this top covering when the material is procurable1 is a wire netting used in a double thickness4 ,it should be placed behind and up against the stakes before the foundation is laid4 ,then when the fire platform is built to its proper height1 bend the wire from the top of the fire platform and fasten it down on the sides by whatever means are handy4 ,using this double wire netting makes it possible to use brick and all sorts of general trash in the construction of the fire platform and gives a very good dry footing4 ,when doing that the face of your platform should be either corrugated sheets or boards4 ,very often what are known as sentry-boards1 or small floor boards about #cf square and with additional cross pieces underneath1 giving them a height of about a foot1 thus raising them well out of the mud1 are used1 and are very handy before a fire platform is made1 and in some cases have to be used for small men after the fire platform is made4 ,,traverses ,all the walls of the traverses must also be revetted1 generally with the sandbags and in exactly the same manner as the front walls of a fire-bay1 care being taken to keep it well sloped4 ,this leads to a lessening of protection afforded the occupants by making a greater width at the top of the trench1 but it is absolutely necessary unless you wish your whole traverse to gradually fall in1 when you are in a position of having no protection at all4 ,the top of the traverse may be and is often several feet higher than the parapet1 if the fire-bay it protects is exposed to enfilade fire from the enemy trench at a higher level4 ,but when this is not the case1 the traverse should not be higher than the parapet or parados1 and should slope down towards the enemy to give the appearance of being merely a continuation of the parapet4 ,the traverse should never be less than #i wide1 allowing #b for a sentry box1 although this sentry box is no longer generally in use4 ,what are known as overhead traverses are made generally in a communication trench leading up to the front line1 and which in certain parts the enemy are able to look into4 ,these overhead traverses give to this particular place the protection which is necessary4 ,they are quickly and easily made by placing corrugated iron1 logs or strong branches1 or floor boards1 across the top of the trench and putting sand bags on the top of these4 ,when the trench walls are weak1 or even on general principles1 the sides supporting this overhead traverse should be revetted with sandbags4 ,the sentry boxes1 although not in general use now1 are described1 more for general information than anything else4 ,they are dug or recessed in the traverse at either end of the fire-bay and must have an observation slit in the parapet for use by day1 but no loophole facing the enemy1 as regardless of the care and caution used in the construction of these loopholes1 they will sooner or later1 generally sooner1 be observed by the enemy and the sentry box made useless4 ,during an attack this sentry box is never used1 except for stores or the placing of wounded1 as there will always be plenty of room for the late occupant in the fire-bay itself4 ,sometimes1 when energy and time permit1 an enfilade fire loophole is made through the traverse and facing the next fire-bay1 but this has as much value for making easy verbal communication from one fire-bay to another as it has to the checking of attacking forces4 ,,listening ,,posts ,as before mentioned1 in the space between the front lines of the opposing armies1 which is known as ,no ,man's ,land1 there are sometimes large and sometimes small areas of ground1 ditches1 streams1 etc41 which cannot be satisfactorily watched from a fire trench immediately facing them1 owing to the lay of the land1 hedges1 old excavations1 buildings1 etc4 ,this is the case in a great many instances regardless of the careful thought and the amount of time spent in siting a fire-trench1 as the siting of all trenches is largely subsidized by the tactical position of the flank trenches4 ,very often a line of trenches is taken up under stress of circumstances that do not permit of the obeying of the rules and standards set for an ideal fire-trench4 ,the control of these areas is essential to prevent small surprise attacks1 cutting-out parties and raids4 ,during the day they are very often observable from a flank trench or higher observation ground in the rear1 but at night this is not possible2 so that listening or observation posts are gradually sited in front of the fire trench with due consideration to the situation in that immediate vicinity4 ,a ruined shed1 shack1 cart1 or any other thing of a similar character lying in ,no ,man's ,land is very useful for these purposes if it can be reached before the enemy reach it with the same purpose in mind4 ,this cannot be used very long1 as its purpose is too obvious and peace and quietness will not last long1 but it will do until a more satisfactory arrangement can be made4 ,the listening post is often dug just inside the outer fringe of your own barbed wire entanglements1 and is just large enough to allow two men to stand in unobserved4 ,it should be reached by a very narrow1 irregular trench running out from a fire-bay1 where it is fairly easy to secure the maximum amount of concealment necessary to give protection4 ,the soil excavated from these places must not be thrown out1 but placed in sand bags and taken into the trench and used there4 ,it is always best and requires very little more labor1 and gives the maximum amount of protection to your listening post if communication to it be made through a tunnel4 ,these things are bound to be discovered within a certain amount of time1 and when you know the position of your listening post has been found by the enemy1 which you will know very quickly1 owing to the amount of bombs and rifle fire it will receive for one or two nights1 until you can dig another one1 it is a safe thing to build up a small parapet1 taking it down every morning before dawn4 ,it then becomes necessary to dig a new post1 and this can be generally done by leading off from your old communication trench to some more favorable spot4 ,when the new post is ready for occupancy1 the old one should be filled in with barbed wire1 or completely filled in again with dirt1 and the sandbag parapet left to mislead as long as possible4 ,the first duty of a listening post is to listen and report4 ,most of the work is done at night1 and no firing or sniping must be allowed from it during the day4 ,patrols generally come out via one listening post and return by another1 so that all listening posts must be warned of the trench by which the patrol will come out and the approximate hour of departure and return4 ,patrols should never be sent out without definite orders as to what is required1 and especially as to the listening post they leave and return by4 ,listening posts should fire without challenge at any one who approaches within sight1 whether friend or enemy1 unless it has been warned that a friendly patrol is out1 in which event signals should be pre-arranged4 ,then the listening post will use the greatest caution and should challenge audibly when the patrol is close1 and unless immediately satisfied1 fire4 ,listening posts are connected with the fire trench by a cord or wire1 and a simple code of tugs is arranged1 or a bell fastened to the fire trench end for alarm in case of emergency1 and here a sentry always stands to get any signals that may come from the listening post4 ,if a listening post has not been warned that a friendly patrol is out and fires on it without challenge1 the ,l4 ,p4 is absolved from all blame4 ,when a hedge or ditch1 which might easily provide cover to the enemy1 is running parallel with the firing trench1 it must be controlled at night by a machine or ,lewis gun which is able to enfilade a frontal advance over open ground leading to it4 ,if1 as is often the case1 the parallel hedge or ditch is easily approached along either hedges or ditches running at right angles to it1 these angles must be protected by machine or ,lewis gun firing down them4 ,when hedges or ditches running at right angles from the firing line and leading towards the enemy are in a sector of line1 they should be protected from dusk to dawn by one or two men1 generally only armed with bombs to protect against surprise1 and great care must be taken that no more signs than possible are left to the occupancy of this position over night4 ,,observation ,,posts ,,loopholes ,,for ,,firing4 ,during an attack1 firing is never possible through loopholes as it is too restricted to be of any value4 ,all the firing then is done over the parapet4 ,the difficulty of constructing new observation posts which are effectual and inconspicuous for any length of time has resulted in their not being made in a parapet1 where1 when located by the enemy1 they are as often as not a source of danger4 ,moreover1 promiscuous firing through loopholes by inefficient riflemen is of no value4 ,sniping is under the control and supervision of a sniping officer1 and loopholes should only be used by men appointed by that officer4 ,they are not used at night and should be only used during the day for enfilade fire1 and be placed in the parapet as low down as is consistent with line of site4 ,a piece of cloth or empty sandbag should be hung from the rear of the loophole1 so that when the hole is not obstructed by the fire1 no light can show through4 ,no shots should be fired from those loopholes1 except at a definite target1 and ranges of targets or spots where targets may possibly appear1 should be ascertained in advance1 and necessary exposed movement1 such as withdrawal of rifle1 must be very slow and gradual4 ,with care1 and when only used by a skilled rifleman1 a loophole will be of value for probably two weeks and good results obtained1 but by a careless man the value of a loophole will not last a day and very likely result in casualties not only to the man shooting1 but to others as well4 ,in the area from #bj to #ajj yards behind the fire trench1 there sometimes is1 although very seldom1 ground much higher than the actual fire trench1 so that it is safe to allow even hastily trained men to use it for firing over the heads of the main front line trench1 although it has happened that men in such a position have fired into their front line1 thinking it the enemy line4 ,this ground is generally used by building what are known as covering fire trenches4 ,these to be of any value1 should not be more than #bj yards behind the front line1 as farther forward than #bj yards they become affected by artillery fire directed at the fire trenches2 and farther back than #ajj yards the covering fire1 unless in the hands of very skilled and efficient riflemen1 becomes very dangerous to the men in the front line4 ,,support ,,trenches ,,and ,,support ,,dugouts ,a support trench is usually within #cj to #cjj yards of a fire trench1 and may serve the purposes of covering fire trenches by skilled riflemen or an indirect machine gun fire1 but their main purpose is to shelter troops from observation and shell fire1 and thus their main characteristics become the size and strength of ample dugouts4 ,troops in the support dugouts are at hand for three purposes3 ,firstly1 replacing of casualties occurring in the fire trenches during normal times or a hostile attack4 ,secondly1 holding the support trenches in case the fire trenches are taken by the enemy4 ,thirdly1 in the event of an attack on the enemy's trenches1 leading the attack by moving forward over the heads of the occupants of the fire trench1 or if the latter are leading the attack1 to occupy at once the fire trench when vacated4 ,for this reason it is of vast importance that there are accessible and commodious support dugouts and communications between the immediate support trenches and front line4 ,if this is so there will be less chance of disasters to supports and reserves coming up to make good a successful attack4 ,there must be support dugouts even in the event of there being no support trenches1 and this is very often possible owing to the lay of the land4 ,the strength and size of these dugouts entirely depend on tactical considerations and local conditions1 which are generally decided by the staff4 ,,support ,,points ,these forts or strong points1 as they are sometimes called1 usually round or square1 but which may be any shape best suited to the condition of the country in which they are placed1 are generally from #ajj to #cjj yards behind the fire-trenches and supplementary to the support trenches4 ,each of these strong points contains a permanent garrison of firing troops1 strongly protected with barbed wiring and sandbag revetments1 and well supplied with ammunition1 food and water1 to enable them to withstand heavy attacks4 ,during an attack they are used to give overhead covering fire1 and for the control of ammunition and other supplies to be sent on to the firing line4 ,it is a general rule that if the enemy take a fire line the garrison of these supporting points must hold out and remain a thorn in the enemy's side until the last man of the garrison is killed4 ,,reserve ,,dugouts ,these dugouts protect the local reserves from which supports are supplied and are used for purposes similar to those for which the immediate support dugouts are employed1 but on a great deal larger scale4 ,these dugouts are generally near battalion headquarters and from #ejj to #a1ejj yards behind the firing line4 ,the chief considerations in siting the positions of these dugouts are three3 ,first3 facilities for rapid and easy transit to the support and fire-trenches2 second3 concealment2 third3 comfort4 ,comfort should be secondary to the other conditions affecting the siting of the system4 ,,second ,,line ,this comprises the line of fire-trenches1 with covering fire-trenches1 support trenches1 support dugouts and reserve dugouts 7in other words1 it is an exact duplication of the front line system71 far enough behind the front line that in the event of the first system being taken1 the second line is ready to be taken up by the troops driven out of the front line1 and receive the support of troops lying in brigade or divisional reserve4 ,the distance of the second line behind the first is roughly a mile1 and while the first line is held1 operations of the second often provide useful accommodation for the machine guns and artillery1 both for firing purposes1 observation and shelter4 ,the time available for siting and constructing second line system1 and the freedom from all disturbances which bother the front line system1 should result in its being impregnable4 ,it is an ideal system provided those responsible for its siting and construction are thoroughly and practically experienced with first line conditions and profit by that experience and former mistakes4 ,,communication ,,trenches ,when siting communication trenches1 two considerations come into conflict with one another2 the desire for protection1 and the necessity of rapid and easy transit4 ,it is obvious that a ,c4 ,t4 is of vital importance to the firing line in the getting up of supporting troops1 ammunition and stores rapidly and without undue fatigue4 ,it is also obvious that it must give as much protection as possible to the troops using the ,c4 ,t41 but it must be recognized that the protection given must not interfere with rapid transit by making the ,c4 ,t4 too narrow4 ,it must also be kept in mind that rapid transit in itself gives a certain amount of protection for the simple reason that the easier and quicker the transit1 the less time are troops delayed in the ,c4 ,t4's in which protection is required1 and if troops can cover the danger area in #aj minutes1 they are plainly in danger for a less period than if it took #cj minutes to struggle over that same area4 ,this rapid transit1 only obtained by a dangerously wide communication trench from support or reserve lines and from dugouts1 also makes it possible for less troops to be regularly on duty in the fire-trenches1 which are always uncomfortable and dangerous1 especially during a bombardment1 and it also enables supports and reserves to be rushed up quickly when the occasion demands4 ,it can be plainly seen now that a compromise must be effected between claims of protection and rapid transit1 so that the size and shape of the ,c4 ,t4's will vary according to their distance from a danger area4 ,generally speaking1 the nearer to danger1 the more must the claims of rapid transit give way to those of protection4 ,disregarding for the time being the claims of protection and only considering rapid transit1 there are these things to be considered3 ,first1 that a ,c4 ,t4 be as short as possible1 making use of contours1 sunken roads and other natural features to avoid digging as much as possible4 ,second1 that a ,c4 ,t4 be as straight as possible1 which not only shortens the distance but avoids turns and corners which interfere with speed and which require renewed effort at every turn4 ,these sharp corners and turns must always be avoided4 ,this can be done without weakening a trench or increasing the risk1 and every effort should be made to save troops carrying full equipment1 stores1 ammunition1 or rations from unnecessary tiring1 hindrances1 and difficulties1 such as sharp corners and turns4 ,third1 the ,c4 ,t4 ,j4's must be as level as possible1 as they are generally slippery1 and inclines or declines should be avoided as they very often cause accidents4 ,a longer ,c4 ,t4 following around natural contours is frequently more advantageous for this reason than a straight one over a hill1 which it is only possible to make level by an amount of digging out of proportion to the result gained4 ,the ,c4 ,t4 must be wide enough for requirements4 ,these differ according 7a7 to the proximity of ,c4 ,t4 to the fire-trenches1 7b7 to the number of ,c4 ,t4's available1 and 7c7 to the use for which a ,c4 ,t4 is required1 i4 e41 whether a double ,c4 ,t4 7for both up and down traffic7 or a single ,c4 ,t4 7for traffic in one direction only74 ,when a ,c4 ,t4 is close to the fire-trench1 troops moving into it are practically themselves in the fire-trench and as each group has probably to get to a different part of that fire-trench1 all necessary traffic up and down the fire-trench and disturbance of the men occupying it must be avoided4 ,rapid transit can advantageously be obtained by other means than the width of the ,c4 ,t42 by dividing the single ,c4 ,t4 at some point from #cj to #fj yards in rear of the actual fire-trench into a number of small narrow ,c4 ,t4's1 each leading to a group of #c to #f fire-bays1 and these may again be divided into those for up and those for down traffic4 ,this system requires a fair amount of thinking out and all the trenches should be plainly marked and named4 ,these names are placed on notice boards at the different junctions having the proper indications and rules directing the use of up and down traffic4 ,this is and should be rigidly enforced during both quiet and active periods1 but takes on a much greater importance during active periods4 ,the width of these single ,c4 ,t4's running close to the fire-trenches should be enough to allow a man carrying full equipment1 stores1 or rations to pass along easily and without bumping the sides with his equipment or burden2 approximately two feet at the bottom with ample room at all corners4 ,the width of a single ,c4 ,t4 for down traffic only should be wide enough to allow for passage of a laden stretcher1 especially at the corners1 as a stretcher is a very clumsy thing to get around these corners and often the delay caused has very serious consequences4 ,as a ,c4 ,t4 leaving a fire-trench gets farther away1 the width should be as soon as possible such as will allow two men to pass one another fully equipped without jostling or scraping the sides of the trench1 or approximately #d ft4 at the bottom4 ,this width with recesses described later allows rapid transit for troops passing each other in quiet parties and allowing a much greater safety in an emergency when there is no down traffic4 ,the front is always referred to as 8up40 ,another advantage to be gained in the width of the ,c4 ,t4 is in the fact that it is much easier to keep dry and usable4 ,it permits laying of regulation floor boards1 allowing enough room on each side of them for the purpose of drainage1 and is a means of preventing falling soil from covering the floor boards4 ,water will not drain off or through soil which is continually trampled on and has become sodden or irregular1 and unless the floor boards are kept free from soil1 they soon become useless1 crooked and immovable4 ,the width of these trenches allows the wind and sun to reach the bottom of the trench1 thus helping a great deal in keeping it dry4 ,there is no such thing as a communication trench #ah inches wide at the bottom and #bd inches wide at the top2 diggings of these dimensions are nothing more than drains which in an emergency only are struggled through when passing in the open is still more impossible1 and they should not be given any consideration whatever as a ,c4 ,t4 ,the features required in a communication trench1 regardless of the claims of rapid transit and only considering protection1 are3 7,first7 ,frequent traverses or turnings to avoid the effect of enfilade fire1 to localize the effect of a bursting shell or bomb1 to make difficult a hostile advance down the ,c4 ,t4 and to enable bomb parties to resist more easily their advance4 7,second7 ,a trench that is sufficiently narrow will localize the effect of a bursting shell or bomb and minimize the effectiveness of hostile fire1 which must have a high degree of accuracy to be effective4 ,but the quicker over the ground the shorter the period of danger1 and shell fire of any degree of accuracy will substantially narrow one of these narrower trenches1 damaging the walls and causing casualties and other obstructions which will render passage impossible with either one or two results4 ,delay caused at a critical moment1 or the occupants trying to obtain a passage up the trench in order to take any part in the fighting1 would have to come out into the open sooner than necessary4 ,the shelling of the ,c4 ,t4's usually is heavier for perfectly obvious reasons during an attack and when rapid transit through them is of the utmost importance4 ,a narrow trench generally takes as long to dig as one of the wider type1 owing to the restricted area in which to work4 7,third7 ,if invisibility be possible1 it is an excellent feature1 but in nine hundred and ninety-nine cases out of a thousand it is hardly possible4 ,an observed ,c4 ,t4 indicates the position and direction of supports1 stores1 reserves1 dugouts1 etc4 ,this fault can be corrected to a certain extent by the careful use of the contours1 dead ground1 sunken roads1 and all natural features1 such as woods and hedges4 ,artificial cover may and does assist concealment1 but sooner or later hostile aerial observation and photographs disclose the position of more easily concealed things than an excavated ,c4 ,t4 ,it is frequently the shadow at the bottom of a trench which gives its position away to aircraft1 and the narrower the trench1 the more prominent is the shadow4 ,the soil1 which is generally a different color from the surface soil1 must be thrown up on either side as time does not allow it being carried away4 ,unless in a place of artificial cover through the length of the ,c4 ,t41 it is usually necessary to admit the impossibility of concealment and utilize time more profitably by taking protective measures4 ,rapid transit to a fire-trench is of greater importance than rapid transit from a fire-trench1 and the importance of protection is greater as the fire-trench and its dangers are approached4 ,methods of construction should be based on this idea and the arguments given above4 ,,sketch ,,of ,,trench ,,system ,this sketch shows a double-traffic communication trench leading 7#e ft4 wide7 from reserves and ,h4 ,q4 to a loopholed island-traverse about #cj yards behind the support line4 ,at this island-traverse1 single-traffic ,c4 ,t4 branches off to various sectors of the support line2 the main ,c4 ,t4 leading on 7from #c to #d feet wide7 uninterrupted through the support line to loopholed island-traverse 8,e10 about #cj yards behind the firing line4 ,at this island-traverse the main ,c4 ,t4 breaks off into single-traffic ,c4 ,t4 #c feet wide4 ,each leads to various sectors of the firing line4 ,illustration3 ,,section ,i ,,sketch ,,of ,,trench ,,system ,,section ,i4 ,c4 ,t4 should start behind one of the fire-trench traverses and not from a fire-bay4 ,every yard should be contestable for approximately the first #ae to #bj yards4 ,this can be effected1 and at the same time the effect of hostile artillery and rifle fire and bombs localized1 by a series of traverses #i feet square1 the trench being approximately #g feet deep and #b feet wide at the bottom4 ,cut into the rear of a few of these traverses is a narrow recess through which one of the defending bombing party may take up a position in the center of the traverse and fire1 kneeling or standing1 through a loophole at the advancing enemy4 ,the recess gives him ample protection1 including head cover1 and is so cut that the entrance is out of alignment with the trench behind him and he will be unaffected by a bomb exploding there4 ,at the same time he may work with1 and direct1 the bombers behind him who are bombing over the traverse1 and if it becomes necessary1 they can also take cover in the entrance to the recess4 ,the loophole should not be placed so high that it becomes possible for the enemy to come forward under it4 ,the most dutiable arms for the members of the defending bombing party detailed for this traverse work are what are known as 8close-contact weapons10 generally including revolvers1 bombs1 trench knives1 and very often a bayonet carried by pushing it down in the puttee4 ,illustration3 ,,section ,,ii ,,sketch ,,of ,,trench ,,system ,,section ,,ii4 ,the time and claims of rapid transit will not allow the traverse system as employed in ,section ,i to be continued1 the narrow single-traffic ,c4 ,t4's1 from wear and tear and shell fire1 soon become wider1 and as the width would allow rapid transit to friend and foe alike1 it is of the utmost importance that some means be adopted to deprive the enemy of this advantage4 ,moreover1 the enemy may have successfully advanced down on traversed ,c4 ,t41 say1 at 8,c10 and our own bombers might still be fighting in another traversed ,c4 ,t41 say1 at 8,d10 and their needs demand protection4 ,this may be obtained if1 before the single ,c4 ,t4's merge into the double1 each of them be quite straight for approximately #ae yards1 and island-traverse1 8,e10 be placed at the junction4 ,in the rear of this island1 8,e10 is a large and substantial recess1 into which one or two ,lewis guns or automatic rifles can be placed1 firing through loopholes and rendering hostile advance down both 8,c0 and 8,d0 communication trenches almost impossible4 ,the recess in 8,e0 must allow ample room in which to operate4 ,overhead cover is provided1 and one rifle would require one long loophole1 so that it could fire along either ,c4 ,t4 without more than a moment's interruption4 ,in the case of two rifles being available1 there could be two such long loopholes1 each covering both ,c4 ,t4's1 one for kneeling and one for standing4 ,the lower loophole gives the advantage of it being impossible for any of the enemy to get out of danger beneath it4 ,the fact that the traverse is an island one1 with passageway either side1 would allow friends to advance round the traverse and up 8,d0 to the support of friends still fighting there1 and without obstructing the fire directed from the traverse at enemy advancing down 8,c40 ,illustration3 ,,island ,,traverse ,a type used to control long1 straight stretches of trench4 ,an island-traverse so constructed and manned should be unapproachable along either trench 8,c0 or 8,d10 but precautions must be taken to prevent the enemy avoiding it by coming out into the open1 as in active moments ,c4 ,t4's become as mutilated as fire trenches and the enemy may leave the ,c4 ,t4 before reaching the #ae-yard stretch and approach the traverse from above or flank4 ,in anticipation of this1 the position 8,h0 is selected slightly in rear and to flank of the traverse1 and in this position one of the automatic rifles may take up1 either originally or by retirement from 8,e10 and deliver the required traversing covering fire across the front of 8,e0 and giving adequate protection to the garrison manning the island-traverse4 ,barbed wire is also generally placed in open ground such as this described1 say1 for instance1 between 8,k0 or 8,l0 on either side of the #ae-yard stretches to impede hostile exit and advance4 ,the overhead traverse just in front of the island gives protection against bombs thrown down on ,c4 ,t4 ,when covering fire is not required1 the position 8,h0 will form an alternative position should the island-traverse be destroyed by shell fire or taken by the enemy2 but the latter will be of little use to the enemy as their progress passed it is blocked by a loophole placed at 8,h0 and covering the trench 8,m0 down which they must advance4 ,it also covers a dummy trench1 shown as 8,n10 down which there is a fair chance that the enemy would naturally go if a misleading notice were placed at the junction of 8,m0 and 8,n40 ,the slight turn at the end1 8,o10 will prevent premature knowledge as to the real nature of this trench4 ,the enemy's progress may also be blocked for a short time by having rolls of looped wire1 sometimes known as concertina wire1 so placed in recesses in the side of the trench1 and so arranged that when a man retiring down a trench can catch hold of the roll as he passes a recess1 uncoils it as he runs1 leaving it in the trench in a badly tangled mass4 ,illustration3 ,section ,,iii ,,sketch ,,of ,,trench ,,system ,,section ,,iii4 ,supporting trenches may be at any distance from #cj to #cjj yards behind the firing trenches4 ,the ,c4 ,t4 in this section is constructed on the same lines1 or may be constructed on the same lines1 as ,sections ,i and ,,ii1 into whatever proportions local conditions and practical considerations1 and particularly dangerous places1 may dictate4 ,the zigzag plan shown in the sketch is generally safe to adopt1 as it allows rapid transit with a certain amount of concession to the claims of protection1 more so as it approaches the fire trenches4 ,these ,c4 ,t4's generally should be a series of straight stretches1 zigzagging at acute or obtuse angles1 the length and angles governed by local conditions1 the extent and direction from which each stretch might be enfiladed1 and the gradient and distance from danger4 ,it has been shown before that the shorter the stretches and the more acute the angle at the turn1 the less is the danger from enfilade fire1 but the ,c4 ,t4 with this advantage requires a greater length of time and labor in digging1 as well as taking a great deal more time and effort to pass through it4 ,in order to lessen these things as much as possible1 it is always considered best to adopt longer stretches and more obtuse angles as soon as possible4 ,the excavated soil is naturally thrown up on the side facing the enemy1 and thus forming a parapet4 ,it can at times be used as an actual fire trench4 ,the parapet should fulfill the same conditions as the parapet of a fire trench1 and where necessary1 overhead traverses should be placed4 ,the more of these overhead traverses used1 the longer can the straight run of trench be4 ,when running up-hill1 facing the enemy1 it is clearly obvious that acute turns and short stretches are necessary1 or1 if it is not found advisable to use these and more time can be gained by digging the straight runs1 then they should be dug deeper and a great deal of care taken in placing the overhead traverses4 ,generally1 the farther the ,c4 ,t4 from the enemy1 the less necessity to take measures for stopping hostile advance down it1 but it is a safe thing when time permits to loophole the traverses facing the long straight stretches either in an ordinary traverse or when time permits the building of island-traverses1 especially at junctions4 ,such loopholes command the straight stretch in front and are reached by narrow trenches very similar to a drainage trench1 as indicated at 8,h40 ,here again1 as well1 the loopholes for at least one or two should be for kneeling fire4 ,hostile attacks may also be hampered here by using the rolls of looped wire previously mentioned1 or by frames of barbed wire placed at the side of the trench just behind the parapet1 so that a man retiring down the trench can easily pull them down into the trench after him4 ,great care must be taken that ,c4 ,t4's running from firing line to support trenches do not obstruct the fire from the supporting trenches4 ,illustration3 ,,section ,,iv ,,sketch ,,of ,,trench ,,system ,,section ,,iv4 ,behind the support trenches the ,c4 ,t4 should be constructed on the traverse principle of ,section ,i1 so that the same defensive features existing for the support trenches as should exist for the firing line4 ,in doing this1 however1 it should be kept in mind to provide rapid transit for troops behind these supporting lines4 ,this is best done by continuing the zigzag system right through support trenches as shown4 ,when necessary1 this ,c4 ,t4 can be blocked4 ,it is always a possibility that support trenches may be lost1 but not a probability4 ,therefore1 undue weight should not be given against the convenience of adopting as soon as possible again the zigzag ,c4 ,t4 of ,section ,,ii1 the latter supplying all requirements of rapid transit and allowing the introduction of straight stretches in loophole traverses wherever required4 ,,telephone ,,lines ,it is generally found that artillery telephone lines are laid on the north and west side of a ,c4 ,t42 infantry lines on the south and east4 ,lines are generally laid about two feet from the bottom of the trench1 picketed inter-grooves being cut into the side of the trench4 ,these lines must be given absolutely every protection possible by the infantry and by any one using the trenches4 ,far too much carelessness has at times existed which destroyed communication with artillery and infantry when it was of vital importance that it should be open4 ,infantry in the trenches depend for immediate support upon their artillery1 and if1 through lack of supervision on the part of the officers in charge1 these lines are destroyed or temporarily torn down by careless men not understanding their significance and importance1 then that officer or officers is guilty of a very serious crime4 ,,recesses ,these are usually made in ,c4 ,t4 to allow for the passing of troops or bearers of stretchers1 or parties passing up and down to the line carrying the many things that are necessary for the upkeep of that line4 ,it is advisable that these should always be placed in the same corresponding place in each stretch1 as shown in ,,section ,,iii1 just before the turn1 so that men know where they are to be found4 ,the first man of a party coming up having arrived at a turn1 and seen or heard others coming down1 can give necessary protection to his party1 and a great deal of unnecessary and very exasperating and fatiguing movements1 and sometimes retracing of steps1 is avoided4 ,it is also often the cause of a great many casualties in a trench where these recesses are not made1 as parties of men coming and going very often1 while struggling to get past one another with their loads1 are caught by heavy shell fire4 ,the recesses should be about #h feet long and at least #b feet wide1 and the soil excavated from these recesses could be used for strengthening the parapets of the ,c4 ,t4's at these turns4 ,generally1 when time allows and energy permits1 close to the firing line these recesses are made longer and deeper1 oftentimes running to #ab and #ah feet long by #f and #aj feet deep1 although it is not advisable to crowd them too much4 ,recesses of this kind may also be heavily roofed and used as a very temporary shelter for stretcher cases1 stores of bombs1 ammunition1 etc4 ,at every second or third stretch in these ,c4 ,t4's1 either steps or an easy runway to the top of the trench should be made4 ,this saves time on a great many occasions when parties coming over the top for speed and comfort find themselves stopped and have to take to the trench on short notice4 ,it is also good when a serious obstruction occurs1 and it is necessary to leave a ,c4 ,t4 and enter it again farther on4 ,,notice ,,boards ,these boards should be fixed at every entrance and junction in a trench system1 stating the name of the trench and the places to which it leads1 and where there are trenches expressly for up and down traffic1 these boards should state it4 ,some people argue that such notices assist the enemy when they get into our trenches1 but the argument does not hold as it is very often the case they do not know the names used in the sectors1 as they vary up and down the line1 and generally they have a very good idea of the system they will find themselves in anyway1 and there is a very small chance that a majority of them will be able to read them anyway4 ,care must be taken that these notice boards are not used for what is known as 8boiling up10 building fires1 in braziers1 etc41 as the absence of these boards causes a tremendous amount of confusion when new troops are coming into the line4 ,all officers must know the shortest routes from their own headquarters to those of companies on their flanks1 as well as their own battalion headquarters1 and every officer1 ,n4 ,c4 ,o4 and man must know the position of his immediate commander's dugout1 as well as his company headquarters1 and every man must know the name of the trench that he is in and helping to hold1 and this is not possible when these notice boards are destroyed4 ,,trench ,,drainage ,efforts at drainage1 which is the greatest trouble during the winter months to troops occupying the line1 must be as systematic and thorough as possible4 ,tinkering is of very little use and brings no results but causes a great and tiring expenditure of labor as far as the men are concerned1 with no end of work in sight4 ,when taking over a sector of line1 the drainage system must be thoroughly studied and a line of campaign mapped out and strictly adhered to4 ,thorough work in the initial stages will save any amount of subsequent unnecessary fatigue and labor4 ,the system to be applied depends entirely on local conditions1 but full advantage must be taken of the assistance which nature affords4 ,water running down hill is a marvelous fact2 nevertheless it is often overlooked4 ,field drains and natural streams anywhere near the trench must be kept clear of obstructions4 ,these are usually attended to by the overworked farmers in peace times1 but as they do not work near a trench system1 it must be looked after by the army4 ,neglect of the natural watercourses has been the cause of much of the difficulty of draining the trenches themselves4 ,during the winter months a trench is never really drained4 ,a mixture in the trenches which is neither water nor good1 sticky mud1 but a beautiful liquid combination of water and dirt1 which is thick enough not to run1 is formed4 ,sometimes it becomes sufficiently like water to be pushed or assisted to run down hill with scrapers1 boards1 and anything else that is handy4 ,sometimes it becomes sufficiently heavy enough to be shoveled over the parapet or put into sand bags4 ,in either of these cases it is only overcome by persistent labor1 but when the mud is in its true clayed self it is a waste of time and labor to attempt to move it1 and the only way1 without a large amount of cursing1 is to sit tight and pray for the sun to dry it4 ,when a valley or dip is close to the side of a ,c4 ,t4 a few narrow gullies through the side1 of about #ah inches in width1 should be made so that liquid mud can be swept along the trench and on through the gulley to a natural fall4 ,these little gullies or ditches should start at a place or places where there are dips in the level of the trench and must be dug straight through the side1 as it then becomes easier to keep clear and gives no obstruction to the flow of mud2 but if facing the enemy1 it should not be in a straight line1 as it then allows rifle fire into the trenches4 ,if no other way is possible1 then overhead traverse or other means of protection should be taken at that point4 ,sometimes1 when it is not possible to complete these gullies1 they should be dug out as far as circumstances will permit and a block of soil or very large sods be put at the junction of the gulley to the trench and the liquid mud dipped out of the trench and dumped into the gulley1 where it will be prevented from running into the trench again by these collections of sods4 ,this process is very slow1 but conditions frequently make it the easiest and most convenient way of ridding the trenches of some of the mud4 ,this work can be carried on by what is sometimes known as a 8trench patrol0 or maintenance squad1 which is generally detailed from the company in the support line and which patrols the system of trenches held by their battalion during the day4 ,the ,n4 ,c4 ,o4 in charge generally reports serious collapses to his company officer1 who in turn reports it to the engineers1 who immediately take steps to have it repaired4 ,the width of drainage gullies should not be less than #ah inches1 thus allowing easy use of brushes issued4 ,with these brushes and adequate gullies1 very long stretches of trench can be kept in excellent condition when the trench is wide enough to allow the drying effect of wind and sun to reach the bottom4 ,the time spent in making these gullies is saved over and over again4 ,if there be no natural valley or dip1 a sump-pit is generally dug1 the size depending on the energy of the troops digging it1 but generally it is about #aj feet below the level of the trench it drains1 and anything from #h feet on in diameter4 ,it is dug some fair distance from the trenches and in a position that will allow the maximum amount of gullies to be led to it from that particular section of the trench4 ,after having this system worked out1 the next thing is to ascertain what parts of the rest of the trench system will not be affected by this drainage1 and there to dig similar sump-pits just to the side of the trenches drained1 small gullies leading to them4 ,these need only be about #f feet deep below the trench level and #d feet in diameter4 ,a short gulley1 #ab to #ae inches wide and #b feet long1 should lead from the trench to the sump-pit1 as shown in sketch of trench system4 ,sometimes the sump-pit may be semi-circular and cut into the side of the trench1 but in this case some barrier must be put across it to prevent men falling in while traveling at night4 ,the former system is far more satisfactory1 and especially so when the trench is hardly wide enough to allow the passing of traffic without touching the sides of the trench4 ,entrances to these sump-pits must always be kept clear of all obstructions4 ,very often a ridge of mud from a man's foot-mark is enough to put a sump-pit out of action4 ,they should be continually emptied by pumping the contents over the parapet1 or carrying in pails to the nearest gulley4 ,the side sump-pits must never be cut under the wall of a trench4 ,on very short notice the roof will take the place of the excavated soil and there will be no sump-pit4 ,it is not always that pumps are available1 and the few of those which are1 are of no practical use for a length of time sufficient to be of any value2 in fact1 they hardly repay the fatigue entailed in getting them to the trenches4 ,for ordinary trench drainage several small pumps are of far more use than one large one1 as the range's limited by the difficulties of removing it or by the length of pipe attached4 ,these pumps1 whether large or small1 must be given a large and substantial platform1 placed in some central position among a number of sump-pits4 ,each pump must have not only a discharge pipe1 but a suction pipe1 the latter being movable from one pit to another in the pump's area without moving the pump4 ,the placing of these pumps must be thorough and systematic1 and those sump-pits not reached by pumps must be kept empty by means of pails4 ,,floorboards ,although these are rarely available in sufficient numbers to be laid continuously along the entire length of the trench1 it is unwise to throw one down on a particularly muddy spot in a trench as a remedy4 ,the result is that when it becomes covered with mud it sinks out of sight1 and another one is thrown down with the same result4 ,then1 when an attempt to drain is made1 much to somebody's disgust they run into a layer of floorboards1 quit work1 and the trench never becomes drained4 ,patchy repairs to a trench bottom are as aggravating and as useless as bad revetment4 ,when only a few floorboards are available1 then they should be laid in one length and that length made as nearly perfect as possible1 until more may be had1 then that length continued4 ,patching here and there is of no use and never leads anywhere4 ,trench bottoms are treated in different ways up and down the line1 depending on localities and materials on hand4 ,in some places the trench bottom is of concrete blocks and bricks1 with a small trench ditch of about #f inches running along the side4 ,this is not a very happy combination1 as men traveling up and down the trenches at night with heavy loads sometimes stumble1 their feet go in1 the trench ditch becomes full of mud and blocked up1 and your trench gradually becomes flooded up and down its length1 unless very great care is taken4 ,where time and labor are available1 long lengths of trench may be put and kept in good condition and the trench question partially solved if two rows of stout #d-;foot sticks are driven well into the bottom of the trench1 about #c feet apart4 ,wooden rails are then nailed along the top of the stakes and cross-bars nailed and fastened to the rails4 ,this work must be done thoroughly1 though1 or weak places will occur and become very dangerous for men traveling at night with heavy loads1 as a fall through a hole in one of these bottoms generally means a broken ankle or some other accident4 ,in some parts of the line it has not been necessary to use anything for a trench floor1 the ground itself being sufficient1 with a small drainage ditch dug at the side1 as in the case of those trench bottoms covered with cement and brick4 ,,brushwood ,,and ,,straw ,brushwood should not be placed in a trench bottom1 except under very exceptional circumstances1 and1 as a matter of fact1 is very seldom used1 its value lying more in the manufacture of hurdles4 ,once brushwood has been trodden into the mud it is absolutely impossible to remove it1 and there is no means of removing the mud and properly repairing the trench bottom4 ,straw under no circumstances should ever be put in a trench bottom1 and when put into dugouts or shelters1 should be cleared out and burned where possible 7which will not be in front line7 as soon as it becomes sodden or sour4 ,the floor of the dugouts and shelters must be thoroughly cleaned of all this old straw1 sand bags and bad soil before fresh straw is put in4 ,it is possible in large dugouts such as are found in reserve and support lines1 to make bunks out of wire netting on the same style as the berth in a steamer1 and in a modern dugout enough of these bunks may be made to accommodate a company4 ,in all ,german dugouts this is the practice1 although it is not possible in close proximity to the front line4 ,advantage must be taken of what material is at hand4 ,,working ,,parties ,the routine of a battalion which is doing1 for the sake of illustration1 we will say six days in the trenches1 is roughly as follows3 ,six days are spent in what is generally known as a ,brigade ,reserve1 which means living in the reserve dugouts or billets1 depending on the closeness of a village to the firing line4 ,during these six days the battalion supplies working parties to assist the battalion holding the line in the upkeep of its trenches4 ,very often this necessitates continuous work night and day for the men1 more especially so during the winter months4 ,at the end of the six days they go to the trenches and are in turn assisted by the working parties of the battalion relieved4 ,these working parties may sometimes be actually in the front line with the battalion that relieved them1 or on the communication trenches leading to the front line1 or on the second line defenses or reserve and support dugouts4 ,this work is carried on under the supervision of engineer officers generally acting under orders from their brigade and divisional commanders4 ,a request is made daily through the battalion commander for so many men to form the various working parties for that day and night1 and the battalion commander keeping the brigade or division informed of his actual strength1 protects his battalion from impossible allotments of work4 ,these working parties are then detailed with the officer in charge1 and he is generally given sufficient notice that he may have some idea of the task ahead of him4 ,it is then to that officer's benefit1 knowing the amount of men who will have to do the task and what the task is like1 for him to study out before leaving for the place where the work is to be done1 just exactly what he intends to do and what sort of an organization it will require to do the work with the least possible friction4 ,this is absolutely essential1 as naturally men coming from a six days' tour of the trenches and being ordered on a working task1 are not keen on the job1 and when an officer has not studied beforehand what he intends doing and how it shall be done1 it winds up in endless confusion1 disgusts the men more than ever1 and precious little work is done4 ,,reliefs4 ,the total time occupied in digging trenches is generally divided into parties called reliefs1 usually of four hours4 ,shorter periods than this means much time wasted in commencing work and in delays2 but1 as a matter of fact1 the time spent on the job and going to and from it will run to from #g to #aj hours4 ,in digging trenches1 the usual extension is to two full paces per man4 ,where there is little probability of attack the following method may be adopted3 ,halt party about four paces in rear of the left flank of the general line of trenches required to be dug2 then form single rank1 march ahead of party to the commencement of task and indicate to the first man his task1 stepping off the next two paces for the next man1 and so on until you have your party all placed4 ,this takes a very short time and is one of the best methods4 ,allow the men to remove their equipment1 but do not allow them to throw it any place they like4 ,it is a general rule to place it about four paces to the rear of their task4 ,where attacks are possible1 rifles must be kept within easy reach4 ,,traversed ,,fire ,,trenches ,the following is a method for extending men to dig by night a traversed and recessed fire trench which is not already traced3 #a4 ,detailing a covering party to guard against sudden attack4 #b4 ,extension of the remainder to two paces4 #c4 ,number quietly down the line by #ds4 #d4 ,nos4 #a and #d stop #b paces back 7these men then become traverse men74 #e4 ,nos4 #b and #d drive in their picks 7half way between themselves and left-hand neighbors and in line with their toes74 #f4 ,front rank to mark out tasks 7,nos4 #b and #c commence from the pick between them and mark out #g feet each way1 that is1 #b pick-handles' distance74 #g4 ,rear rank mark out tasks 7commencing from pick between ,nos4 #a and #d to end of each recess74 ,as soon as this is done the men commence work1 the officer going down the line at once to check any errors before they have gone too far4 ,while this may sound very complicated it will be found that after a little training the men become accustomed to it and it is a very simple matter4 ,this method renders unnecessary the giving of many orders in the dark once the men are extended1 and prevents a great amount of confusion4 ,there will always be a slight amount of readjustment of the work1 such as the widening of traverses1 etc41 but it is easily done after the work has been started and even after the trench has been dug to some depth4 ,,obstacles ,,and ,,entanglements ,the purpose of an obstacle is to obtain the control of the enemies in respect to direction and speed during an attack1 and to deflect troops into areas favorable to their destruction by the defenders4 ,they break up the unity of action1 deflect parties isolated into the best swept fields of fire and hold them under close fire of the defenses4 ,an obstacle should be close to the defender's position1 not more than #hj yards away at the most4 ,a system is now in use on the ,western ,front where entanglements in front of trenches are placed approximately #bj yards from the parapet1 as that has been found to be the distance at which the deadliest bombing can be done4 ,they should be sheltered or screened1 when possible1 from enemy artillery1 giving no cover to the enemy and be so placed as to surprise the enemy4 ,they should not interfere with any counter attack necessary to be made and have occasional gaps1 which may be mined4 ,types of obstacles are low wire entanglements1 their height depending on the condition existing in ,no ,man's ,land2 high wire entanglements1 barricades1 mines1 inundations1 etc4 ,wire plays the important part in most of the obstacles now being used on all fronts1 and is generally used1 first1 as a trip wire stretched just above the ground1 or fastened in loose coils to short pickets4 ,flares and alarm guns and tin cans may be used in connection with this2 second3 a simple fence to cause delay and confusion to the enemy at night2 third3 as a concealed obstacle in fords and standing crops or long grass2 fourth3 as a help towards making hedges and brushwood impassable1 and as a wire entanglement solely4 ,the wire entanglements are the best obstacles1 as they are quickly and easily made1 are very difficult to destroy and offer no obstruction to fire in view of the defenses4 ,,low ,,wire ,,entanglements4 ,stout sticks1 #cf inches long and #a to #b inches in diameter1 are driven into the ground on level at #f-;foot intervals4 ,these should be driven in at least three rows so arranged that the sticks in one row are opposite the centers of gaps in the next4 ,the heads of the sticks are connected by strong wires crossing diagonally from #ab to #ah inches above the ground4 ,,high ,,wire ,,entanglements4 ,to be effective1 high wire entanglements should prevent the enemy from crawling through it at or near the ground level1 and when possible1 should be screened from enemy artillery observation4 ,this obviously is utterly impossible as far as wire entanglements in front of the firing line is concerned1 but it is possible to a certain extent to screen these high entanglements from observation in front of support lines and second line systems4 ,under conditions existing at the front1 the wire work is often and generally1 for very good reasons1 of a hasty character1 and it is best1 therefore1 to limit the first stage to just enough to form a nucleus of the whole entanglement1 in order that the required area may be covered by obstacle before serious interruption occurs4 ,to do this1 the obstacle is best constructed in two zones1 with a small space between4 ,the pickets should be from #e to #h feet long and average five inches in diameter1 being placed at irregular distances and with varying heights in order to make more difficult the passage over them by means of hurdles and planks4 ,the outer pickets should be very firmly driven and stayed to prevent the enemy dragging the obstacle away4 ,it is also nice to drive large nails into the tops of the posts with half their length projecting4 ,after the posts are driven in1 they are first joined diagonally1 that is1 from head to foot and foot to head1 by winding the wire around each post and securing it by staples4 ,each set of posts should be stayed by four wires4 ,there should be a trip wire #i inches from the ground1 or even less1 running continuously round the outer posts1 and another one foot from the top of the middle posts4 ,the barbed wire can then be hung in festoons between the posts on no fixed pattern and fastened to them4 ,it must also be fastened to the other wire where it crosses1 by short lengths of wire especially cut beforehand4 ,slack wires are of more hindrance when cut than taut wires4 ,tight wires help the enemy's advance by giving support to hurdles and other methods used to get across these entanglements4 ,one method once used by the ,germans was the carrying out of mattresses and endeavoring to cover the wire obstacles in that manner1 and had the wire been taut it would have been a success1 but as it happened1 it was not4 ,the ground on the enemy's side and within the entanglement1 as a matter of courtesy1 is strewn with broken glass and tangled wire4 ,the whole system of entanglement should be under well-controlled machine gun fire from special points and should be widest where the fire of the defenders is least effective by night4 ,there should be one sentry at least to each #ej yards of entanglement4 ,,abatis4 ,a form of obstacle made by trees cut down and laid side by side as close as possible with their branches towards the enemy is used4 ,these should be in a hollow and screened from view to make it of any value4 ,the butts of the trees should be firmly secured by burying them in the earth1 or by laying logs of timber across several butts4 ,wire and barbed wire must then be interlaced between the boughs1 which should also be sharpened to points on the enemy side4 ,some of the lower branches may be pegged to the ground1 if thought necessary1 to insure the maximum resistance4 ,,barricades4 ,these are used for the defense of streets1 roads1 bridges1 etc41 and are made of any available materials1 including furniture and vehicles1 either overthrown or with wheels removed1 carts filled with earth1 railings1 bales of goods1 etc4 ,where trees are growing along the roadside1 fell them across it and entangle with wire4 ,it must be kept in mind1 though1 that passages are required through these barricades to allow outposts to advance or retreat1 that these passages1 viewed from the front1 must not appear as openings4 ,to avoid this the barricade should be made in two parts1 one overlapping the other4 ,sometimes1 where there is a gap in a row of houses1 or a sharp bend in the road1 a barricade may be made in one part and a passage round one end left for traffic4 ,,inundations4 ,they may be formed by damming streams at convenient points1 specially in the valleys1 or by damming up the arches of bridges4 ,in the latter case1 care must be taken not to endanger the stability of the bridge4 ,the ditches of field works form a good obstacle when flooded4 ,destroyed trenches in front of a breastworks may be filled with water1 and with barbed wire thrown into it1 will prove an effective obstacle4 ,,fougasses4 ,these are used in connection with obstacles and are really land mines loaded with stones1 bricks1 etc4 ,an excavation is made in conical shape with an axis inclined to about #dj degrees toward the enemy horizon4 ,a box of powder is then placed in a recess at the bottom and on the box is placed a wooden platform or shield #c to #d inches thick1 over which stones are piled4 ,a fuse is placed in a groove cut at the back of the excavation4 ,a line of least resistance must be so arranged that by placing the excavated earth on the back edge of the fougasse1 the powder will act in the direction of the axis and not vertically4 ,a fougasse charged with #hj pounds of powder may be constructed in this manner to throw five tons of brick and stone over a surface about #afj yards long by #abj yards wide4 ,all of the foregoing are labors of working parties1 as well as construction of dugouts1 carrying of supplies1 ammunition1 etc41 drainage and building of the trenches and the many other jobs behind the lines4 ,always1 no matter how small the job1 careful forethought must be given to the planning and arrangement necessary to carry it out4 ,,organization ,,of ,,bombing ,,squads ,every infantry soldier must and does receive instruction in grenade throwing4 ,some men do not possess the temperament and qualifications necessary to make efficient bombers1 and for this reason in every platoon there should be a bombing squad of one ,n4 ,c4 ,o4 and #h men1 with a higher degree of training and efficiency as bomb throwers than the remainder1 although all hope must not be given up for the remainder4 ,these men are available either to work with the platoon or to provide a reserve of bombers for any special job1 such as raids1 cutting-out parties1 and clearing trenches just occupied4 ,only the very best men in each platoon should be chosen1 taking into consideration physique1 courage and steadiness1 although it is not always the big man physically that makes the best bomber4 ,the responsibility for the training of these men rests with the battalion and company commanders4 ,,training ,the first step is to overcome a man's natural fear of the grenade itself4 ,this is only done by explaining how it is to be used1 the method of lighting and the length of time taken for the fuse to burn4 ,a good idea is to have some of the fuses of the length used lighted and the men told to count while the fuse burns out4 ,dummy grenades with fuses attached can then be introduced and the men taught to light them1 observing carefully how long it takes for the fuse to burn down to the grenade4 ,the second step is to develop accuracy in throwing4 ,normally1 the bomb should be bowled overhand1 although it is certainly not wrong to throw1 but it has been found in tests that a man throwing bombs has tired a great deal quicker than a man bowling them overhand4 ,stick grenades may be thrown over short distances like a dart1 although this is unhandy and can only be done by a carefully trained man4 ,great care must be taken while in the trenches in throwing percussion bombs1 as very often a man swinging his arm back to throw such a bomb has exploded it in the trench1 with disaster to himself and those near him4 ,men should be taught to throw standing1 kneeling and prone4 ,it should be impressed upon them from the beginning that if a grenade with a time fuse is dropped in the act of throwing there is ample time to pick it up and throw it out of the trench before it explodes1 but this must be done immediately4 ,illustration3 ,a ,b ,a is a diagram of a bombing field where men are trained in practice with dummy bombs4 #a is the target marked on the ground and having the same general plan as a firing target1 with ,bull1 ,inner1 ,magpie1 and ,outer1 the score counting #e1 #d1 #c1 #b respectively1 or according to the instructor's taste4 #b is the first line1 #bj yards from the center of the inner ring4 ,the men must be trained to a high degree of accuracy at this range4 #c is the second line1 #be yards from the center of target4 ,there are lines every five yards back until the #dj yard line is reached1 which latter is the extreme range for bombing practice4 ,at each range the men should practice standing1 kneeling1 and prone4 ,at #ce and #dj yards bombing from the kneeling and prone positions is very difficult and the time spent on practice here should not interfere with the obtaining of great accuracy at the shorter ranges4 ,at all ranges the men should be allowed to throw any number of dummy bombs1 but should not be permitted to fatigue their arms4 ,b is a diagram showing the arrangement for trench practice with dummy bombs4 ,small trenches are built on the surface of the ground by screens of wire mesh covered with burlap or other similar material4 #a is the thrower's trench and is built so high that he cannot see over the top4 ,from this he throws1 using a periscope for observation4 #b represents part of a traverse and fire-bay1 the front part of which is about #bj yards from the throwing trench4 #c is a section of straight trench about #be yards half right from the thrower's front4 #d is a section of curved trench about #bj yards half left from the thrower's front4 ,the general custom in the practice trenches is to give the man any desirable number of dummy bombs1 say #ah2 #f for each trench4 ,four out of six are required to be put in ,no4 #b1 and #c out of #f in ,nos4 #c #d4 ,men must not be kept at bombing practice too long at a time as it spoils both their interest and their aim4 ,in taking a line of trenches1 it is well to remember that the attack will take place on a relatively small front by a large number of men1 and therefore when the trenches are finally reached1 there is liable to be great overcrowding in them4 ,this can only be prevented by extending them along the trenches as quickly as possible1 and is of the utmost importance as heavy casualties will result from allowing this overcrowding4 ,to make this extending possible1 it is the duty of the bombing parties to work along to both flanks of the trenches and take advantage of the temporary confusion of the enemy by obtaining as much of his trenches as possible1 thus allowing for the extension of men4 ,in a narrow trench the only portion of an attacking party coming into contact with the enemy is the head1 or what is known as the ,bayonet ,man4 ,the bombing party is composed of the following3 #a4 ,bayonet man1 #b4 ,first thrower1 #c4 ,first carrier1 #d4 ,first spade man1 #e4 ,n4 ,c4 ,o4 first squad1 #f4 ,second bayonet man1 #g4 ,second thrower1 #h4 ,second carrier1 #i4 ,spade man1 in charge of second party4 ,these parties will work up a trench until they come to a junction1 when the first party in charge of the ,n4 ,c4 ,o4 will continue straight on and the second party branch to the right or left1 as the case may be1 and as they come on other parties keep working up behind them1 and the infantry gradually following taking possession of the line and starting consolidation work at once4 ,communication throughout these lengths of grenade parties is very difficult with men extended in single file1 and the attendant confusion which accompanies such a stand4 ,a system is required which will enable supplies of bombs to be passed up and casualties replaced automatically4 ,this system cannot be laid down on any cut and dried lines1 but must be figured out before the attack1 with due consideration being given to the line of trenches to be attacked and the difficulties which will be encountered in getting supplies to that line1 and it is only on the spot that such a system can be worked out4 ,during an attack three grenades per man are issued to each unit detailed to open the attack1 and these grenades are turned over to the bombers or used by the men themselves if necessary4 ,when out of grenades themselves1 the men take over the casualty's1 and it is the duty of a casualty when he is so able to1 to leave his grenades and ammunition to the care of some other man before 8going down40 ,small depots should be established at frequent intervals along the trenches from which the attack starts1 with careful consideration given to their safety from shell fire1 if at all possible4 ,other depots must be established in the support and assembly trenches1 and these will generally be supplied through a central station probably controlled by a brigade or division4 ,before starting the attack1 every man and party should have had explained them in detail exactly what is required of them1 and generally the following system is adopted3 ,first bombing party of group-- ,two bayonet men to protect grenade throwers1 ,first bomber1 ,first carrier1 ,second bomber1 ,second carrier1 ,group leader 7,n4 ,c4 ,o471 ,two bayonet men to protect the group leader and the rear of party4 99 99 99 99 99 ,second bombing party-- ,formation as above4 ,the head of the party must be in touch with the rear of the first party4 ,officer commanding in rear of second party4 99 99 99 99 99 ,third and fourth bombing party-- ,formation as above4 ,second in command in touch with rear of fourth party4 ,machine gun detachment1 if available or considered necessary4 ,the machine gunners are generally used at the rear of a party1 so that they can bring their guns into action from behind and sweep the top of the ground around the trenches being attacked1 in order to prevent an overland attack on the bombing party4 ,in all these formations the number of men detailed must allow for casualties4 ,rapidity of movement is essential1 as crawling and stalking will give the waiting enemy an advantage4 ,the leading bayonet men generally move along the trench1 from corner to corner1 in a succession of rushes1 followed by first bomber1 and the thrower hurls as directed by the bayonet man4 ,the duty of the bayonet man is to protect the thrower and carrier at all costs4 ,second bomber and carrier follow the leader1 keeping one corner behind to replace casualties4 ,each party must be regarded as reserves to the party in front1 and some method must be found every time a new attack is carried out for giving the aerial service notice of trenches occupied4 ,if the head of a party is checked1 that which has been gained must be held by throwing up a barricade4 ,in all attacks bombing parties are supported by a party of sandbag men1 under an experienced ,n4 ,c4 ,o41 so that while bombers keep the enemy at bay a strong barracade may be put up as quickly as possible4 ,this is generally done by placing what is known as a demolition tube about #a feet from the bottom of the trench and in each side of the trench4 ,this will bring down enough of the sides of the trench to make a good enough barricade for the moment1 but great care must be taken that while watching and protecting the barricade the enemy do not come overland and drop in behind the barricade1 with disastrous results to the garrison4 ,although the main defense of a line of trenches is infantry supported by artillery and machine gun fire1 parties of bombers should be distributed throughout the front system of trenches4 ,the best position is in the support trenches close to the main communication trenches1 where they can make an immediate counter-attack should the enemy succeed in gaining a footing4 ,a bombing trench back about #bj yards in the rear from which bombs may be thrown into the front trench1 is a distinct advantage4 ,the bombs stored in the trench should be kept ready-fused and with detonators inserted4 ,they must be distributed in a number of dry1 enclosed1 as nearly as bomb-proof depots as possible1 established at frequent intervals along the trenches4 ,a good type of grenade depot is one built in a 8,t0 shaped trench1 slightly off the main trench4 ,,explosives ,relative strengths of explosives3 ,gunpowder #e2 cordite #h2 dynamite #i2 guncotton #aj2 gelignite #aj2 gelatine dynamite #aa2 blasting gelatine #ab4 ,guncotton is available in two forms1 wet and dry4 ,the dry1 while being utilized in making bombs1 is mostly used to explode the wet guncotton4 ,for this purpose it is made up in one-ounce primers1 which are perforated in the center for a detonator4 ,these primers are packed in metal cylinders1 each containing ten threaded on a tape4 ,each case contains six cylinders4 ,in this state1 although not as powerful1 dry guncotton is much more dangerous to handle than wet1 being susceptible to both shock and friction4 ,wet guncotton is that which has absorbed #cj of its weight in water1 and is made up in #ae-ounce slabs #f x #c x #a inches1 and packed in tin foil and air-tight boxes containing #af slabs each4 ,whether wet or dry1 guncotton1 like other explosives1 can be exploded by one detonator1 so long as the charges or slabs are in direct contact with each other4 ,dynamites include the following compounds3 7#a7 dynamite2 7#b7 gelignite2 7#c7 gelatine dynamite2 7#d7 blasting gelatine4 ,all of these are now being used4 ,their advantages over guncotton are that1 being soft and plastic1 they can be used in bombs where it would be impossible to use guncotton slabs or primers on account of size and shape4 ,dynamite and its compounds freeze very easily 7#db ,f471 becoming hard and brittle4 ,in this state they are exceptionally dangerous1 and they should be thawed before use1 but this process should not be attempted by any one other than a competent person4 ,wooden implements should always be used for cutting and piercing holes for detonators in any of these explosives1 and care should be taken to protect them from damp1 as when wet they become highly dangerous4 ,dynamite explosives are usually supplied in parchment cartridges weighing two ounces1 and are packed in boxes of #e or #ej pounds4 ,lyddite and picric acid are both high explosives1 used mostly in shells4 ,they are easily melted and in this way the shell is filled4 ,they are very safe and difficult to detonate4 ,ammonal4 ,a new explosive which is absolutely safe to handle1 not being sensitive to shock or even bullets4 ,it does not freeze and can only be exploded by means of a detonator4 ,it easily absorbs moisture and should be kept dry4 ,cordite4 ,is made in strands and is the explosive used in small arms ammunition4 ,,bombs ,there are three kinds of bombs3 7#a7 percussion2 7#b7 ignition21 and 7#c7 mechanical4 ,it is not possible to describe every bomb in use under these three headings1 but the most typical are selected for description1 although it does not follow that they are all in use at the present time1 but will give a fairly good idea of what is required4 ,,percussion ,,bombs4 #a4 ,hand ,grenade ,no4 #a4 #b4 ,hand ,grenade ,no4 #b1 formerly known as ,mexican ,hand ,grenade4 #c4 ,rifle grenade ,no4 #c1 formerly known as ,hale's ,rifle ,grenade4 ,illustration3 ,,hand ,,grenade ,,no4 #a4 ,hand ,grenade ,no4 #a consists of a brass case screwed on to a block of wood1 to which is fixed a small cane handle about half way up the case4 ,outside it is a cast iron ring serrated into #af parts4 ,the upper end is covered by a moveable cap with a striker pin in the center4 ,on the cap are the words 8,remove10 8,travel10 and 8,fire0 in duplicate4 ,these are marked in red and can be made to correspond with red pointers painted on case4 ,to prepare a bomb1 turn cap so that pointer is at 8,remove10 take off cap1 insert detonator in hole and turn it to the left until the spring on the flange is released and goes into position under the pin2 replace cap and turn to 8,travel10 which is a safety position4 ,when the bomb is to be thrown1 turn cap to 8,fire0 and then remove safety pin4 ,this bomb explodes on impact1 and to insure its falling on the head1 streamers are attached4 ,care should be taken that streamers do not get entangled4 ,the bomb must be thrown well into the air4 ,hand ,grenade ,no4 #b is similar to the above1 except that a special detonator is screwed in from the head1 and that the striker pin1 in this case1 is at the bottom4 ,the detonator having been inserted in the bomb is ready for throwing as soon as the safety pin has been drawn4 ,rifle ,grenade ,no4 #c1 more commonly known as ,hale's ,rifle ,grenade1 consists of a serrated steel case filled with ,t4,n4,t4 and a composite explosive4 ,at the bottom of the case is a brass ring fitted with wind vanes1 which keeps in place two small steel retaining plugs1 securing the striker4 ,in order to prepare this grenade for firing1 the steel rod attached must be put down the bore of the rifle4 ,the safety pin is then withdrawn1 the collar pulled down and the wind vane given a slight turn4 ,the rifle is then loaded with a special cartridge containing #dc strands of cordite4 ,when charging the rifle the bolt must be well pushed home4 ,when the rifle is fired1 the explosion of the cartridge speeds the grenade on its way and the air passing through wind vanes causes the ring mentioned above to unscrew1 and the two retaining plugs to fall out4 ,the striker is now free1 and when the grenade reaches its destination and comes in contact with the ground the shock compresses the creep spring and the needle of the striker is forced into the detonator1 exploding the grenade4 ,special screw-in detonators are supplied with this grenade1 as well as in ,grenade ,no4 #b1 and care should be taken not to mix the two detonators1 as the ,rifle ,grenade ,detonator is slightly longer1 and if fixed in the wrong grenade will cause premature explosion and much sadness4 ,these grenades have an accurate range of from #bej to #cej yards4 ,,ignition ,,bombs4 ,the following bombs come under this heading3 ,hand ,grenade ,no4 #f4--;,grenade light friction pattern4 ,hand ,grenade ,no4 #g--;,grenade heavy friction pattern4 ,hand ,grenade ,no4 #h--;,formerly known as double-cylinder light pattern4 ,hand ,grenade ,no4 #i4--;,formerly known as double-cylinder heavy pattern4 ,battye ,hand ,grenade4 ,pitcher ,hand ,grenade4 ,oval ,hand ,grenade4 ,ball ,hand ,grenade4 ,hand ,grenades ,nos4 #f and #g consist of metal cases filled with ,t4,n4,t and a composite explosive and are exactly alike1 except that ,no4 #g contains shrapnel bullets or scrap iron1 while ,no4 #f contains only explosive4 ,at the top of each case is a place to fix the friction igniter1 which is supplied separately4 ,when these bombs are to be used1 detonator fuse and igniter are put in and firmly fixed4 ,before throwing the becket on1 head of igniter should be pulled smartly off4 ,hand ,grenades ,nos4 #h and #i are similar to the above1 except that the fuse is lighted by a ,nobel ,patent ,lighter#a4 ,the ,battye ,grenade consists of a grooved cast iron cylinder filled with explosive4 ,the top is closed by a wooden plug pierced centrally for insertion of detonator and fire4 #a ,the ,nobel lighter consists of two cardboard tubes1 one fitting over the other4 ,inside the top end of the outer tube there is a layer of friction composition2 fixed to the top end of the inner tube is a forked brass friction head1 which is held in position by a safety pin fastened through both tubes4 ,inside the other end of the inner tube is a small copper band1 into which the fuse is fitted4 ,at the joint of the two tubes there is a narrow tape band with a loose end4 ,to light the fuse1 pull off tape and safety pin1 then press down outer tube and turn slightly4 ,this lighter has a five-second fuse attached4 ,the ,pitcher ,hand ,grenade is very similar to the ,battye1 only different in that it is slightly heavier and having a different patent lighter4 ,this lighter is somewhat complicated and special instructions should be given before the grenade is used4 ,illustration3 ,,hand ,,grenade ,,no4 #g4 ,,ball ,,hand ,,grenade4 ,the ,oval ,hand ,grenade is an egg-shaped cast iron receptacle filled with ammonal4 ,one egg has a steel plug and the other a flanged brass plug bored centrally1 to which a hollow copper tube is fixed to take the detonator4 ,this grenade is set off by a ,brock fuse and lighter#b4 #b ,the ,brock lighter consists of a match-head and fuse combined4 ,the head consists of a small cardboard cup filled with friction composition and covered with waterproof paper4 ,with this type of lighter an armlet covered with match composition is worn by the bomber on the left forearm4 ,to ignite fuse1 first pull off waterproof paper and then strike head against armlet4 ,time of fuse #e seconds4 ,the ,ball ,hand ,grenade consists of a cast iron sphere1 #c inches in diameter1 filled with ammonal and closed by a screwed steel plug which has attached to it a covered tube to take detonator in the center of grenade4 ,it is also lighted by a ,brock lighter4 ,,jam-,,pot ,,bombs4 ,in the early stages of the war it was found necessary to make bombs on the spot4 ,the material used was generally a jam tin filled with shrapnel bullets1 scrap iron1 powdered glass and grass1 etc4 ,this was exploded by #b one-ounce primers1 two ounces gelignite1 blastene or ammonal1 and detonated by a ,no4 #f or #g detonator1 to which was attached a five-second fuse4 ,the time could be regulated by length of fuse4 ,,mechanical ,,bombs4 ,hand ,grenade ,no4 #e1 known as ,mills' ,hand ,grenade4 ,mills' ,hand ,grenade ,no4 #e weighs about one and one-half pounds and is in constant and steady use at the front1 being the best known of all grenades4 ,it consists of an oval cast iron case1 containing explosives and serrated to provide numerous missiles on detonation4 ,in the center is a spring striking pin1 kept back by a lever or handle1 which1 in its turn1 is held in position by a safety pin4 ,illustration3 ,,hand ,,grenade ,,no4 #e 7,,mills74 ,detonators and percussion caps connected by a short length of fuse are supplied with these bombs4 ,when the bomb is to be used the bottom is unscrewed and the combined detonator and percussion cap is inserted in the space provided for it1 the percussion cap being placed in the boring under the striking pin4 ,when this is done the bottom is screwed on again as tightly as possible1 using the special spanner provided for this in each box4 ,before throwing1 the safety pin is removed and the bomb held with the lever in the palm of the hand4 ,when the bomb is actually thrown the lever or handle is released2 this releases the spring1 which forces striker down on to the percussion cap1 ignites fuse1 sets off detonator and explodes bomb4 ,,gas ,,warfare ,the use of poisonous and asphyxiating gases1 which was first adopted by the ,germans in the ,ypres salient in ,april of #aiae1 is now becoming an accepted fact in the present war4 ,it is to a certain extent in one shape or another1 before one every day of his life in or near the trenches4 ,every one should therefore be well acquainted with the various ways in which gases are used in an attack1 as well as precautionary methods to be taken in counteracting its effects while on the defense4 ,in an attack there are only two methods which can be used--emanation and shells and grenades4 ,the emanation method can only be employed under very favorable circumstances and in a few cases where rather a long chance was taken1 it reacted very badly on the enemy4 ,the first thing to make a gas attack successful must be a favorable breeze of about five miles an hour1 as if the wind blows any faster it does not give the gas a chance to settle down into the trenches4 ,the object of this gas is to create a poisonous and irritant atmosphere1 and this is accomplished either by a gas forced through tubes in the direction of the enemy1 or a liquefied gas stored in cylinders under very high pressure4 ,to be successful1 as before mentioned1 the wind must be a steady breeze of not much over #e miles per hour1 no rain1 and the element of surprise must figure very largely4 ,the gas used must be heavier than air and not allow of being held back by any protective measures taken by the enemy4 ,if the wind is too strong1 it is obvious that any gas employed will be carried too quickly over the enemy's trenches1 so that it cannot settle to any degree which will allow of its obtaining the desired effect4 ,if the wind is too light1 it will be carried up into the air by local eddies1 or may even be blown back4 ,for these reasons it is impossible to fix a definite hour for gas attacks1 as everything depends on the wind4 ,arsenic and phosphorus compounds are used in the tube method1 and their presence can be detected at once by the smell of garlic4 ,should such gases get into your own trenches1 chloride of lime scattered freely about will disperse them4 ,the gases used in liquid form from cylinders are a mixture of chlorine and other matter annoying to the ordinary infantry officer and soldier4 ,if successful in surprising the enemy1 their trenches should be cleared at once1 but if the element of surprise is not there and time is given for defensive measures to be taken1 the effect is lost4 ,in an assault following a gas attack1 men should always wear smoke helmets for at least #cj minutes after the gas dissemination has ceased1 and the assaulting party must have the strictest orders not to remove their helmets until the officer in charge has given the command4 ,in the shell and grenade method of dissemination1 shells and bombs are used containing liquid gas1 or a substance which gives off irritant fumes4 ,it is easy to tell a gas shell when it lights as it comes down1 the same as a 8dud0 shell2 that is1 one which does not explode1 the outer casing of the shell simply collapsing4 ,the liquid soaks into the ground1 and men should be warned against standing over this ground and inhaling any of the fumes1 which are very slight and rather hard to notice but very powerful and with very quick action4 ,when a man thinks he has inhaled any of this gas he should at once be made to lie down1 not undergo any exercise whatever1 and as soon as possible have him carried out on a stretcher to the dressing station4 ,tear shells1 which are used in great profusion during an attack1 are for the moment blinding in their effect1 causing smarting of the eyes and a great amount of watering4 ,this effect is only for a minute1 and the men must be impressed with the fact that if they continue moving forward instead of sitting down and rubbing their eyes1 it will pass off almost at once4 ,these shells are also greatly used against the artillery during heavy bombardments4 ,adequate protection is furnished in the shape of goggles to fit over the eyes1 as the gas has no other effect whatever4 ,as in other branches of military art1 the best means of learning defense is to have a thorough knowledge of attack4 ,thus1 direction of wind must always be noted1 and if favorable for an enemy attack1 special observers must be placed to give warning and surprise guarded against in every way4 ,sentries are specially placed in the trench1 and often in listening posts1 to get early warnings of an impending attack4 ,if a sentry at a listening post discovers that a gas attack is being made1 he at once warns the sentry at the end of his cord or wire1 giving a pre-arranged signal4 ,this sentry passes the alarm on a ,strombon horn1 which is something similar to a ,klaxton1 and will automatically give a warning which can be heard for #c or #d miles1 and which lasts about a minute4 ,when a horn is not in use1 generally shell cases are hung in the trenches4 ,these are beat on by the sentry who is warned and taken up all along the line4 ,it is then the duty of that sentry not for the instant to put on his gas helmet1 but to proceed along the front line waking all the occupants of dugouts1 etc41 who may be sleeping in the area guarded by him4 ,every man without exception stands to in his trench with his helmet on and will not renter dugouts until first given permission by officer or ,n4 ,c4 ,o4 ,these attacks are generally carried out1 when possible1 just before dawn or during the middle of the night1 and the only warning given before the actual gas reaches a trench1 is a slight hissing sound which is made and can be easily heard as the gas escapes from the cylinder4 ,great care must be taken when the wind is favorable for an attack that this sound be listened for4 ,any man wounded during a gas attack must not be placed in a dugout or on the bottom of a trench1 and even if considerable shell fire be going on it is far better that he be laid out in the open on the top of the ground1 where he will have a far better chance than lying in the bottom of the trench or in a dugout4 ,after gas has passed through a trench system1 and before the officer thinks that it is safe to remove the helmets1 the trenches must be sprayed with a machine known as ,vermeral ,sprayer4 ,a man with this sprayer on his back and wearing his helmet1 slowly traverses the trench working the spray4 ,this small tank on his back is charged with nothing more or less than 8hypo0 7sodium hyposulphite71 about #f pounds of which is dissolved in a bucket of water and a handful of ordinary washing soda added4 ,garden syringes and buckets may be used if sprayers are not available1 but their effect is not so quick4 ,when the officer thinks that the trench has been sprayed sufficiently and all gas has gone1 he may then allow the men to take off their helmets1 but not to renter their dugouts until they have been thoroughly cleaned4 ,this is sometimes done by fanning the gas out1 sometimes by building a fire and smoking it out1 and by the use of the sprayer4 ,great care must be taken that no one enters until every last vestige of gas is gone1 and it is generally well that the medical officer should inspect infected dugouts before allowing the men to return4 ,,gas ,,masks ,,or ,,respirators ,the ,box ,respirator at present in use on the ,western ,front is the latest improvement1 and proof against any gas that so far has been used1 but should such a thing happen that a man be caught without his box respirator1 any of the following improvised methods are good3 #a4 ,wet and ring out any woolen article1 such as a stocking1 muffler or cap comforter1 so as to form a thick pad large enough to cover the nose and mouth1 and press firmly over both4 #b4 ,place in a scarf1 stocking or handkerchief1 a pad of about three handfuls of damp earth1 and tie firmly over the nose and mouth4 #c4 ,a wet cap comforter will be found useful as additional protection1 especially against certain gases other than chlorine4 #d4 ,a cap comforter wetted with water and soda solution or tea1 folded into eight folds and firmly held over the nose4 #e4 ,a sock folded fourfold similarly wetted and held or tied4 ,if the sock or comforter has been soaked in soda solution it will act efficiently when dry1 though1 if possible1 it should be moist4 ,the spare tapes from puttees may be used for tying on the sock or cap comforter4 #f4 ,any loose fabric1 such as a sock1 sandbag1 woolen scarf or comforter1 soaked in urine1 then wrung out sufficiently to allow of free breathing and tied tightly over the nose and mouth4 ,in the absence of any other cloths1 the flannel waistbands issued for winter use could be used for this purpose4 ,every officer defending a trench against an enemy gas attack should endeavor to collect information whenever possible to be sent to headquarters regarding the capture of apparatus used by the enemy either for disseminating or protection from gas4 ,if a gas shell attack is made1 unexploded shells or portions of them should be sent2 the time of day1 duration of attack1 color1 taste or smell of gas used1 effect on the eyes1 breathing1 and all other symptoms should be noted4 ,new gases may be used at any time1 and speedy information greatly helps the adopting of protective measures4 ,the area of the gas attack is very large and will sometimes cover as far back as #ab to #ae miles behind the lines1 although at that point it is not generally dangerous1 but for three to four miles the gas has a killing power1 and precaution should be taken anywhere within that length of the firing line the same as though in the firing line4 ,another nuisance resulting from a gas attack is the wholesale slaughter of rats and other animals that infest the trenches1 and while a very unpleasant job1 steps should at once be taken to gather these beasts up and bury them in some place1 obviously for sanitary reasons4 ,,duties ,,of ,a ,,platoon ,,commander ,,at ,,the ,,front ,,general ,,notes3 ,the selection and training of section commanders is of the highest importance1 and a commander must assure himself that the man selected has the confidence of the men as well as his own4 ,a platoon commander should know his men and all about them1 and keep a record in a book arranged in sections always kept up-to-date4 ,this is easy to say1 but harder to do1 when the platoon changes day by day4 ,he should know his drill and be capable of moving the platoon into any position easily and by the shortest possible route4 ,he should know how to organize a task allotted to him1 such as delivering over a working party1 placing a line of sentries1 arranging posts and reliefs1 and occupying a line of trenches4 ,he should be able to assume responsibility for all trench stores1 bombs1 periscopes1 etc41 handed over to him4 ,he should know the geography of his battalion trenches1 the position of company and battalion headquarters1 and keep trained guides at hand who can find their way to all important points by day or night4 ,,going ,,into ,,the ,,trenches ,platoons generally enter by not more than two sections at a time1 thus minimizing the danger from shell fire and delay at entrance to communication trenches4 ,before leaving billets1 platoon commanders should explain fully to sergeants and sections commanders the extent of trench to be taken over and the steps to be taken in case they are caught by shelling or rapid fire going up to the trenches4 ,arrangements should also be made that if casualties occur among the soldiers1 relief will proceed as arranged4 ,,in ,,the ,,firing ,,line ,on relieving the fire trenches1 the men should make no noise1 and rifles must be carried so that they do not show over the parapet4 ,this is necessary even if enemy's trenches are at a distance1 as there is always the possibility of a listening or observation post being quite near4 ,each man should pair off with one of the party occupying the trench and find out from him any points which may be useful4 ,a commander should consult the officer or ,n4 ,c4 ,o4 in charge of the outgoing party and obtain the fullest information possible in connection with the position4 ,particular points on which information should be obtained from the outgoing officer are generally3 7a7 behavior of enemy during period preceding relief and any point in their line requiring special information1 such as enemy may have cut wire as though preparing to attack2 7b7 machine gun implacement may be suspected at some particular point2 7c7 anything ascertained by patrols about ground between firing lines1 thus avoiding unnecessary reconnoissance2 7d7 any standing arrangement for patrols at night1 including point at which wire can best be passed1 ground to be patrolled1 or place where they can lie under cover2 7e7 any parts of trench from which it is not safe to fire4 ,such positions are apt to occur in winding trenches1 and are not always recognizable in the dark2 7f7 special features of trench1 recent improvements1 work not completed1 dangerous points 7on which enemy machine guns are trained at night71 useful loopholes for observation2 7g7 places from which wood and water can be safely obtained2 7h7 amount of ammunition1 number of picks1 shovels and empty sandbags in that section of the line4 ,information on these points cannot always be given by word of mouth4 ,written notes and plans should1 therefore1 be handed over to a platoon commander taking over for the first time4 ,in the meantime the incoming party should fix bayonets and all go temporarily on sentry at posts taken over4 ,occasional shots should be fired1 so that the enemy's suspicions may not be roused4 ,the outgoing party then starts back1 and when clear1 the relieving party should be numbered off and sentries posted and dugouts allotted4 ,when practicable sentries should be taken from the dugout closest to his post4 ,by day the number of sentries varies1 but should not be less than one in six4 ,the platoon sergeant is responsible for changing sentries1 who are generally not on duty more than one hour at a time1 unless under exceptional circumstances4 ,when the maximum amount of labor must be obtained from the battalion holding the line1 sentry duty is of any length that fits in with working arrangements4 ,every man must see that he has a good clear position for all directions4 ,section commanders must satisfy themselves that men have done this and reported such4 ,when these arrangements are completed1 word must be quietly passed down for men not on sentry to stand clear1 and they are all not in that position again until the 8,stand to0 hours1 generally the hour nearest dusk and the hour before dawn4 ,after dark1 unless the moon is bright1 rifles should be kept in a firing position on the parapet1 and all men not on duty should keep rifles with bayonets fixed while in the trench4 ,,observation4 ,continuous survey of the enemy's lines through disguised steel loopholes should be made when the trenches are being held for any lengthy period1 and such loopholes must always be sideways4 ,sites may be chosen by day1 and made and disguised by night4 ,two steel loopholes about #c yards apart enable a man with leveled rifle to wait by one while another with field glasses watches for target through the other4 ,an observer watching persistently through glasses in complete security should make himself so familiar with the look of the opposite trenches as to enable him to observe any alteration in the enemy's wire entanglements1 or notice immediately if a new sap has been run out from the enemy trenches under cover of night4 ,he should watch points suspected of being machine gun implacements1 and especially at night when the flashes can be detected4 ,observers should be told what marks1 etc41 to look for on men exposing themselves1 and any result of these observations at once reported to the officer or ,n4 ,c4 ,o4 ,,inspection4 ,a platoon commander should make frequent examination of trenches2 at least once daily1 go around with platoon sergeant and section commanders and decide on the necessary work to be done4 ,section commanders are responsible for carrying it out4 ,before handing over a trench1 a platoon commander should make a rigorous inspection to see that it is as clean as possible and that latrines are left in a satisfactory state4 ,this includes the removal of old tins1 paper1 scraps of food1 etc41 which should be buried or burned1 if possible4 ,empty cartridges should also always be kept cleared out1 as they get imbedded in trench floors and hinder subsequent digging4 ,,sentries ,if the enemy is close1 sentries should be supplied with a small periscope to fix on sticks or bayonets4 ,magazines must be kept as full as possible4 ,sentries are not allowed to look over the parapet by day1 but by night they must keep a continuous lookout4 ,shots should be fired even when no lights are showing1 on the chance of catching hostile patrols or working parties4 ,the best time to watch across ,no ,man's ,land is exactly the minute that the enemy send up a ,very light1 as there is little danger of one being seen1 the real danger coming when the ,very light is coming down behind you4 ,sentries should not reply to bursts of rapid fire on the right or left1 unless they have a definite object to fire at4 ,arrangements are usually made for commanders of two or three neighboring platoons to divide the night between #aj ,p4,m4 and the time for 8,standing to0 between them4 ,the platoon commander on duty in each watch should patrol the line constantly and satisfy himself that the proper number of sentries are on duty and keeping a sufficient lookout2 also that they have good firing positions4 ,in each platoon the sergeant and section commanders keep watch similarly in turns during the night1 and are responsible for the relief of sentries4 ,they also visit sentries every hour4 ,it is a rule which must be strongly enforced1 that every sentry must challenge each person passing him1 as it has often happened that enemy officers with more daring than common sense and speaking fluent ,english1 have come into the trenches and walked up and down without being molested1 which was only made possible by sentries not challenging every one passing his post4 ,,rifles ,rifles should be inspected every morning in the trenches by the platoon commander1 and at other times during the day by the sergeant or section commander1 and it should be impressed on the men that ammunition must be kept clean or the rifles are apt to jam4 ,the principal defects of a rifle in the trenches are3 7a7 ,mud in the bolt1 owing to rifle being rested on wet parapet or dropped on wet ground4 ,to remedy this a bolt cover is used1 or when not obtainable1 an old sock pulled over the bolt action gives the desired result4 7b7 ,muddy ammunition1 resulting in mud in chamber4 ,remedy3 ,prohibit placing of ammunition on ground and provide proper boxes for it4 7c7 ,mud in muzzle resulting from rifles being pushed into the sides of the trench4 ,remedy3 ,careful and frequent inspection4 ,rifle barrels must be freed from mud before firing1 or they will be injured4 7d7 ,sticking of cartridges owing to dirt in chamber and magazine4 ,remedy3 ,the keeping clean of both4 7e7 ,rust in the lock and insufficient oiling4 ,remedy3 ,bolt and magazine tested daily4 ,cartridges never to be kept in the chamber4 ,it is a standard rule that never from the time men enter the trenches until they go out1 regardless of what they are doing1 does their equipment come off1 not even to lie down to sleep4 ,during working periods which take the men to the trenches1 their equipment and rifles must always be carried with them4 ,,preparatory ,,to ,,entering ,,trenches ,things to be taken note of before entering3 7a7 ,check periscopes1 wire cutters1 field glasses1 water carriers1 stretchers1 field dressings1 emergency rations1 smoke helmets1 rifles1 identity discs1 sandbags1 ammunition4 7b7 ,see that water bottles are filled4 7c7 ,each officer to have an orderly4 7d7 ,magazines to be charged and bayonets fixed and unfixed beforehand to insure proper working4 ,when taking over the trenches1 the first thing to be done is3 7a7 ,ascertain position of officers' dugouts4 7b7 ,arrange telephones4 7c7 ,check stores1 tools1 and reserve ammunition1 and its position4 7d7 ,obtain rough sketch of front and number of traverses to be manned4 7e7 ,see that entanglements in front of trenches are absolutely intact4 7f7 ,arrange for water and ration parties and find out position of latrines4 ,,taking ,,over ,,trenches ,on arrival each sentry is to have a periscope1 the whole company to stand at arms1 and each platoon to have its own ammunition reserve and all men know where this is4 ,it is of the greatest importance that every detail and portion of trench taken over be known1 and also the adjoining trenches as far as they affect the trenches held4 ,accurate sketches of the trench should be made1 and periscopes1 prismatic compasses and ruled notebooks are required4 ,general scale is roughly inch to #aj yards4 ,drains must be watched and every effort made to keep trenches dry4 ,when large trench mortar batteries of the enemy are active1 men must be told off to watch for these bombs1 as they are easily seen1 and many casualties may be prevented by timely warning of their coming4 ,the fire trenches should contain as few men as possible1 and work should be done at night1 the men resting by day4 ,,sniping ,each company generally has specially selected men told off as snipers4 ,strict discipline is necessary4 ,they are generally on duty by day and excused from night work1 and it is the rule that they are either told off to a definite post or given what is known as a roving commission4 ,these men must be expert in building loopholes of all kinds by day or night1 use of telescopic sights1 periscopes1 etc41 the selection and judging of good sniping positions1 either for use in front or behind fire trenches2 expert in judging distances1 in aiming and trigger pressing1 in laying fixed rifles for night firing1 and in the fixing and laying of rifle batteries4 ,,patrols ,patrolling both day and night is of great importance1 and generally during the night each unit holding a front line sends out several small patrols which frequently obtain information of great value and at the same time counter the enemy's efforts in this direction4 ,these patrols generally consist of an officer and four to six men1 according to the job in view4 ,sometimes on highly important work1 it is three officers and sufficient orderlies to carry any valuable information obtained quickly back to a pre-arranged headquarters4 ,bombs1 revolvers and trench daggers are the only weapons of any value on these patrols4 ,they frequently carry out small operations1 such as raiding parties1 cutting out parties1 etc41 obtaining from prisoners taken in this way information as to what enemy troops are opposing them in the line4 ,when a patrol is out every man in the section of firing line concerned must be warned1 as well as the listening posts1 and this cannot be done too carefully4 ,it is not a sufficient warning to tell the sentry on duty at the time a patrol goes out1 as men cannot all be trusted to pass on instructions1 and generally word is quietly passed down the line by an ,n4 ,c4 ,o4 or officer in person1 and never passed from man to man4 ,at the same time care must be taken to see that all firing does not cease1 as this is undesirable1 obviously arousing the enemy's suspicions that something is going on4 ,when these patrols have to lie out in trying conditions during winter months1 special dugouts should be kept ready for them on their return4 ,,duties ,,of ,,an ,,officer ,some of the questions an officer should ask himself on taking over a trench and keep in mind during his stay there1 are3 #a4 ,i am here for two purposes--to do as much damage as possible to the enemy and to hold my part of the line at all costs4 ,am ,i doing everything possible to insure my being able to do this8 #b4 ,do ,i worry the enemy as much as ,i might1 and are the periscope rifles1 rifle grenades1 catapults and patrols at my disposal organized in the best way to effect this purpose8 #c4 ,am ,i doing all ,i can to make my part of the line as strong as possible8 #d4 ,should the enemy succeed in getting into any part of my line1 will ,i be able to at once bring up a section of bombers for immediate counter-attack8 #e4 ,do ,i connect properly with units on my right and left8 ,do ,i know the position of the nearest support1 and the position of all machine guns in my vicinity1 as well as their lines of fire8 #f4 ,does every man know his firing position1 and can he fire from it over the parapet at the foot of our wire8 #g4 ,do ,i do my best to prevent men exposing themselves needlessly8 ,have ,i ascertained and warned all my men of the places in my part of the line1 including communication trenches1 which are exposed to the fire of hostile snipers8 #h4 ,are my sentries in the right places8 ,are they properly posted by ,n4 ,c4 ,o4's and have they received proper instructions8 ,are the sentries visited at frequent intervals8 #i4 ,have ,i always got a man ready to take messages to company headquarters8 ,do ,i realize that ,i should at once report any information ,i may obtain about the enemy1 and that such information may be of the greatest use to the highest commanders8 #aj4 ,do all my men know their duties in case of attack1 especially the bombers8 ,if the enemy succeeds in working into my line at any point1 how can ,i best arrange for counter-attacking him8 #aa4 ,are there any suitable places in my part of the line which snipers can use8 ,have ,i pointed out to section commanders the portions of the enemy's trench which each one is responsible for keeping under fire1 and where the enemy's loopholes are8 #ab4 ,do ,i thoroughly understand the best method of relief and bringing up of ration and water supplies1 and do my men come up into the trenches in absolute silence8 #ac4 ,do my men know their way about the trenches in various routes to company and battalion headquarters8 #ad4 ,am ,i acquainted with the arrangements for access to the artillery and for asking1 if necessary1 for their immediate support8 ,do ,i know the location of the nearest telephone8 #ae4 ,am ,i doing my best to collect information about the enemy1 his defenses1 his activities and movements1 and especially about his patrols at night8 ,what points in my front particularly require patrolling8 #af4 ,are my listening patrols properly detailed8 #ag4 ,which is my best way to get through the parapet in order to go towards the enemy8 #ah4 ,do ,i know the last order regarding the use of ,s4 ,o4 ,s41 gas and ,zeppelin messages1 and do ,i know exactly what messages to send8 #ai4 ,are the arrangements in case of gas attack complete and known to all ranks8 ,do ,i know the gong position1 and does the sentry know the orders as to sounding it8 #bj4 ,have my men always got their gas helmets on their person and are they in good order8 #ba4 ,are my parapets and traverses bullet-proof everywhere8 #bb4 ,is my wire strong enough and am ,i doing all ,i can to prevent my trenches from falling in8 #bc4 ,am ,i doing all ,i can to drain my trenches8 #bd4 ,have my men got weather-proof places to sleep in8 #be4 ,are the trenches as clean and sanitary as they might be8 ,are live ammunition and empty shells properly collected8 ,have ,i made all possible arrangements for the collection of refuse and do the men realize that it must not be thrown over the parapets or in the sump-pits for sanitary reasons8 #bf4 ,where are my small ammunition and bomb stores1 and are they under cover from weather8 #bg4 ,are all my rifles and ammunition clean and in good order1 and have all my men rifle covers8 ,are their magazines always charged8 #bh4 ,am ,i doing all ,i can to prevent my men from getting trench feet8 ,have my men greased their feet before entering the trenches1 and have they a pair of spare dry socks to change8 ,do my men wear gum boots when it is not necessary8 ,have ,i made all possible arrangements for drying socks8 #bi4 ,are the orders as to wearing equipment carried out8 #cj4 ,are my men using as firewood notice boards or wood from the defense or from the engineer or trench stores8 #ca4 ,are my men drinking water from any but authorized sources8 #cb4 ,do ,i know the name of every ,n4 ,c4 ,o4 and man in my platoon1 and do they know mine8 #cc4 ,do ,i insure that my men get sufficient sleep8 #cd4 ,have ,i sufficient periscopes and are they in good order8 #ce4 ,almost always remember that ,i am here for two purposes4 ,do as much damage to the enemy with the minimum amount of casualties resulting from retaliation1 and to hold my part of the line at all costs4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,illustration3 ,,machine ,,gun ,,emplacement ,a type of front line emplacement with which an infantry officer should be familiar1 but which are constructed by and are entirely under the control of ,machine ,gun ,companies4 ,,how ,,to ,,fire ,a ,,machine ,,gun ,,in ,,case ,,of ,,emergency ,as a machine gun textbook is very dry1 and it is difficult for a man who is not of a mechanical turn of mind to obtain the most elementary knowledge of the action from a book1 officers should lose no time in getting in touch with a machine gun officer and learn from actual experience1 how to load1 fire and rectify simple stoppage4 ,,lewis ,,gun4 ,to load1 put a full magazine on the magazine post with the cocking handle forward4 ,pull back cocking handle to its fullest extent1 and raise tangent sight unless the target is within #bjj yards4 ,to fire1 press the trigger and the gun will continue to fire as long as pressure on the trigger is maintained4 ,it will only stop when 7a7 the magazine is emptied2 7b7 stoppage is set up4 ,to remedy this 7#a7 take off empty magazine and put on full one1 reload relay and fire2 7#b7 cocking handle stops in one of three positions4 ,to remedy this one must have a thorough knowledge of remedying of stoppages4 ,,vicker',s ,,automatic4 ,to load1 pass the brass tack of belt through feed plug 7right to left71 pull back crank handle and pull belt to the left2 release handle and belt2 repeat this process and the gun is loaded4 ,vertical adjustment for sighting is obtained by moving elevating wheel on quadrant of tripod1 horizontal adjustment by tapping the rear cross-piece4 ,the clamping handle is in front of the cross-band of the tripod4 ,to fire1 raise safety catch with first or second finger 7the safety catch is a strip of steel which is under the thumb-piece or double button7 and press the thumb-piece4 ,the gun will now fire until pressure is released or until a stoppage occurs4 ,,stoppages4 ,there are four common stoppages1 distinguished by the position of the crank handle4 ,remedy3 7#a7 ,pull crank handle back and belt to the left1 let go crank handle2 7#b7 open rear cover1 take out lock1 remove bent cartridge from face of lock2 7#c7 hit crank handle down4 ,if it will not go1 lift it a little1 pull belt and hit again2 7#d7 raise crank handle1 pull belt1 let go of crank4 ,if not effective1 then put in the spare lock1 but unload first4 ,to disable gun1 remove lock and fuse from fire belt through the breech casing4 ,,prevention ,,of ,,frost ,,bite ,,and ,,trench ,,feet ,these conditions are generally caused by long standing in cold water and mud1 or the continuous wearing of wet socks1 boots and puttees1 and the conditions are accelerated when the blood circulation in the feet and legs is interfered with by the use of tight puttees1 or anything calculated to cause constriction of the lower limbs4 ,they can be prevented or diminished by constant improvement of trenches and reducing the time spent in the trenches as far as the general situation will permit by battalion arrangements2 by insuring that men entering the trenches are warmly clad in dry boots1 socks1 trousers and puttees1 and that before entering1 the men's legs and feet are thoroughly rubbed with whale oil4 ,provisions are made for the men on coming out of the trenches to get warm shelters1 hot foods and facilities for washing the feet and drying wet clothes1 and all along the line just behind the trenches soup kitchens are kept where the men may stop on the way to billet and get hot soup1 etc4 ,the arrangements made when a battalion is going into the trenches are roughly as follows3 ,the men's feet and legs are washed and dried and then thoroughly rubbed with whale oil and dry socks put on4 ,a second pair of dry socks is carried by each man1 and when it is possible1 battalion arrangements are made for wet socks to be brought down from the trenches one night and dry ones exchanged1 this taking place every night4 ,this is generally managed by the men changing in the early morning1 the relief party for that night taking down the wet socks and bringing in the dry for the next morning4 ,hot water must never be used1 nor the feet held near a fire4 ,where necessary1 and circumstances permit1 long gum boots are put on on entering the trench1 while the men's feet are still dry1 and taken off as soon as they prepare to leave and handed over as trench stores4 ,in some parts of the line1 where conditions are very favorable1 battalion rest posts are formed as close to the firing line as permissible1 and men showing signs of suffering from exposure are frequently attended to4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation1 hyphenation1 and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in the original book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,more than twenty possible spelling and grammatical errors in the original text were found but not changed4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected2 unbalanced quotation marks were remedied when the change was obvious1 and otherwise left unbalanced4 ,the hierarchical structure of the ,table of ,contents does not always match the structure of the main text4 ,transcriber has not changed this4 ,illustrations in this e,book have been positioned between paragraphs and outside quotations4 ,the descriptions of the ,nobel and ,brock lighters on pages #ajh and #aaj were treated as footnotes by the ,transcriber1 who added appropriate anchors to them in the text4