,illustration3 #a4 ,,esquimaux ,,dog-,,team4 ,,the ,,polar ,,world3 ,a ,,popular ,,description ,,of ,,man ,,and ,,nature ,,in ,,the ,,arctic ,,and ,,antarctic ,,regions ,,of ,,the ,,globe4 ,,by ,,dr4 ,g4 ,,hartwig1 ,,author ,,of 8,,the ,,sea ,,and ,,its ,,living ,,wonders10 8,,the ,,harmonies ,,of ,,nature10 ,,and 8,,the ,,tropical ,,world40 ,,with ,,additional ,,chapters ,,and ,,one ,,hundred ,,and ,,sixty-,,three ,,illustrations4 ,,new ,,york3 ,,harper ,,brothers1 ,,publishers1 ,,franklin ,,square4 #ahfi4 ,entered1 according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahfi1 by ,,harper ,,brothers1 ,in the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,united ,states for the ,southern ,district of ,new ,york4 ,,preface4 ,the object of the following pages is to describe the ,polar ,world in its principal natural features1 to point out the influence of its long winter-night and fleeting summer on the development of vegetable and animal existence1 and finally to picture man waging the battle of life against the dreadful climate of the high latitudes of our globe either as the inhabitant of their gloomy solitudes1 or as the bold investigator of their mysteries4 ,the table of contents shows the great variety of interesting subjects embraced within a comparatively narrow compass2 and as my constant aim has been to convey solid instruction under an entertaining form1 ,i venture to hope that the public will grant this new work the favorable reception given to my previous writings4 ,g4 ,,hartwig4 ,,note ,,by ,,the ,,american ,,editor4 ,i have made no alterations in the text of ,dr4 ,hartwig's book beyond changing the orthography of a few geographical and ethnological terms so that they shall conform to the mode of representation usual in our maps and books of travel4 ,for example1 ,i substitute ,nova ,zembla for 8,novaya ,zemla01 and ,samoedes for 8,samojedes40 ,here and there throughout the work ,i have added a sentence or a paragraph4 ,the two chapters on 8,alaska0 and 8,the ,innuits0 have been supplied by me2 and for them ,dr4 ,hartwig is in no way responsible4 ,the ,illustrations have been wholly selected and arranged by me4 ,i found at my disposal an immense number of illustrations which seemed to me better to elucidate the text than those introduced by ,dr4 ,hartwig4 ,in the ,list of ,illustrations the names of the authors to whom ,i am indebted are supplied4 ,the following gives the names of the authors1 and the titles of the works from which the illustrations have been taken3 ,,atkinson1 ,,thomas ,,witlam3 8,travels in the ,regions of the ,upper ,amoor20 and 8,oriental and ,western ,siberia40 ,,browne1 ,j4 ,,ross3 8,the ,land of ,thor40 ,,dufferin1 ,,lord3 8,letters from ,high ,latitudes40 ,,hall1 ,,charles ,,francis3 8,arctic ,researches1 and ,life among the ,esquimaux40 ,,harper',s ,,magazine3 ,the ,illustrations credited to this periodical have been furnished during many years by more than a score of travellers and voyagers4 ,they are in every case authentic4 ,,lamont1 ,,james3 8,seasons with the ,sea-,horses2 or1 ,sporting ,adventures in the ,northern ,seas40 ,,milton1 ,,viscount3 8,north-west ,passage by ,land40 ,,whymper1 ,,frederick3 8,alaska1 and ,british ,america40 ,,wood1 ,,rev4 ,j4 ,g43 8,natural ,history20 and 8,homes without ,hands40 ,i trust that ,i have throughout wrought in the spirit of the author2 and that my labors will enhance the value of his admirable book4 ,a4 ,h4 ,g4 ,,contents4 ,page ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,arctic ,,lands4 ,the barren ,grounds or ,tundri4--,abundance of animal ,life on the ,tundri in ,summer4--,their ,silence and ,desolation in ,winter4-- ,protection afforded to ,vegetation by the ,snow4--,flower-growth in the highest ,latitudes4--,character of ,tundra ,vegetation4-- ,southern ,boundary-line of the barren ,grounds4--,their ,extent4-- ,the forest ,zone4--,arctic ,trees4--,slowness of their ,growth4-- ,monotony of the ,northern ,forests4--,mosquitoes4--,the various ,causes which determine the ,severity of an ,arctic ,climate4-- ,insular and ,continental ,position4--,currents4--,winds4-- ,extremes of ,cold observed by ,sir ,e4 ,belcher and ,dr4 ,kane4-- ,how is ,man able to support the ,rigors of an ,arctic ,winter8-- ,proofs of a milder ,climate having once reigned in the ,arctic ,regions4--,its ,cause according to ,dr4 ,oswald ,heer4--,peculiar ,beauties of the ,arctic ,regions4--,sunset4--,long lunar ,nights4--,the ,aurora4 #ag ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,arctic ,,land ,,quadrupeds ,,and ,,birds4 ,the ,reindeer4--,structure of its ,foot4--,clattering ,noise when walking4--,antlers4--,extraordinary olfactory ,powers4--,the ,icelandic ,moss4--,present and ,former ,range of the ,reindeer4-- ,its invaluable ,qualities as an ,arctic domestic ,animal4-- ,revolts against ,oppression4--,enemies of the ,reindeer4--,the ,wolf4--,the ,glutton or ,wolverine4--,gad-flies4--,the ,elk or ,moose-deer4--,the ,musk-ox4--,the ,wild ,sheep of the ,rocky ,mountains4--,the ,siberian ,argali4--,the ,arctic ,fox4--,its ,burrows4--,the ,lemmings4--,their ,migrations and ,enemies4-- ,arctic ,anatid4--,the ,snow-bunting4--,the ,lapland ,bunting4-- ,the ,sea-eagle4--,drowned by a ,dolphin4 #cd ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,arctic ,,seas4 ,dangers peculiar to the ,arctic ,sea4--,ice-fields4--,hummocks4-- ,collision of ,ice-fields4--,icebergs4--,their ,origin4--,their ,size4--,the ,glaciers which give them ,birth4--,their ,beauty4-- ,sometimes useful ,auxiliaries to the ,mariner4--,dangers of anchoring to a ,berg4--,a crumbling ,berg4--,the ,ice-blink4-- ,fogs4--,transparency of the ,atmosphere4--,phenomena of ,reflection and ,refraction4--,causes which prevent the ,accumulation of ,polar ,ice4--,tides4--,currents4--,ice a bad ,conductor of ,heat4--,wise ,provisions of ,nature4 #de ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,arctic ,,marine ,,animals4 ,populousness of the ,arctic ,seas4--,the ,greenland ,whale4--,the ,fin ,whales4--,the ,narwhal4--,the ,beluga1 or ,white ,dolphin4-- ,the ,black ,dolphin4--,his wholesale ,massacre on the ,faeroe ,islands4--,the ,orc1 or ,grampus4--,the ,seals4--,the ,walrus4-- ,its acute ,smell4--,history of a young ,walrus4--,parental ,affection4--,the ,polar ,bear4--,his ,sagacity4--,hibernation of the ,she-bear4--,sea-birds4 #ei ,,chapter ,v4 ,,iceland4 ,volcanic ,origin of the ,island4--,the ,klofa ,jkul4-- ,lava-streams4--,the ,burning ,mountains of ,krisuvik4--,the ,mud-caldrons of ,reykjahlid4--,the ,tungo-hver at ,reykholt4-- ,the ,great ,geysir4--,the ,strokkr4--,crystal ,pools4--,the ,almanuagja4--,the ,surts-hellir4--,beautiful ,ice-cave4--,the ,gotha ,foss4--,the ,detti ,foss4--,climate4--,vegetation4-- ,cattle4--,barbarous ,mode of ,sheep-sheering4--,reindeer4-- ,polar ,bears4--,birds4--,the ,eider-duck4--,videy4--,vigr4-- ,the ,wild ,swan4--,the ,raven4--,the ,jerfalcon4--,the ,giant auk1 or ,geirfugl4--,fish4--,fishing ,season4--,the ,white ,shark4-- ,mineral ,kingdom4--,sulphur4--,peat4--,drift-woo d4 #fh ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,history ,,of ,,iceland4 ,discovery of the ,island by ,naddodr in #hfa4--;,gardar4--,floki of the ,ravens4--,ingolfr and ,leif4--,ulfliot the ,lawgiver4--,the ,althing4--,thingvalla4--,introduction of ,christianity into the ,island4--,frederick the ,saxon and ,thorwold the ,traveller4-- ,thangbrand4--,golden ,age of ,icelandic ,literature4--,snorri ,sturleson4--,the ,island submits to ,hakon1 ,king of ,norway1 in #abed4--,long ,series of ,calamities4--,great ,eruption of the ,skapta ,jkul in #aghc4--;,commercial ,monopoly4--,better ,times in ,prospect4 #hi ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,icelanders4 ,skalholt4--,reykjavik4--,the ,fair4--,the ,peasant and the ,merchant4--,a ,clergyman in his ,cups4--,hay-making4--,the ,icelander's ,hut4--,churches4--,poverty of the ,clergy4--,jon ,thorlaksen4--,the ,seminary of ,reykjavik4--,beneficial ,influence of the ,clergy4--,home ,education4--,the ,icelander's ,winter's ,evening4--,taste for ,literature4--,the ,language4--,the ,public ,library at ,reykjavik4--,the ,icelandic ,literary ,society4-- ,icelandic ,newspapers4--,longevity4--,leprosy4--,t ravelling in ,iceland4--,fording the ,rivers4--,crossing of the ,skeidara by ,mr4 ,holland4--,a ,night's ,bivouac4 #ih ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,westman ,,islands4 ,the ,westmans4--,their extreme ,difficulty of ,access4--,how they became peopled4--,heimaey4--,kaufstathir and ,ofanleyte4-- ,sheep-hoisting4--,egg-gathering4--,drea dful ,mortality among the ,children4--,the ,ginklofi4--,gentleman ,john4--,the ,algerine ,pirates4--,dreadful ,sufferings of the ,islanders4 #aad ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,from ,,drontheim ,,to ,,the ,,north ,,cape4 ,mild ,climate of the ,norwegian ,coast4--,its ,causes4--,the ,norwegian ,peasant4--,norwegian ,constitution4--,romantic coast ,scenery4--,drontheim4--,greiffenfeld ,holme and ,vre4--,the ,sea-eagle4--,the ,herring-fisheries4--,the ,lofoten ,islands4-- ,the ,cod-fisheries4--,wretched ,condition of the ,fishermen4-- ,troms4--,altenfiord4--,the ,copper ,mines4--,hammerfest the most northern ,town in the ,world4--,the ,north ,cape4 #abj ,,chapter ,x4 ,,spitzbergen--,,bear ,,island--,,jan ,,meyen4 ,the west ,coast of ,spitzbergen4--,ascension of a ,mountain by ,dr4 ,scoresby4--,his ,excursion along the ,coast4--,a stranded ,whale4--,magdalena ,bay4--,multitudes of ,sea-birds4-- ,animal ,life4--,midnight ,silence4--,glaciers4--,a dangerous ,neighborhood4--,interior ,plateau4--,flora of ,spitzbergen4-- ,its ,similarity with that of the ,alps above the ,snow-line4-- ,reindeer4--,the hyperborean ,ptarmigan4--,fishes4--,coal4-- ,drift-wood4--,discovery of ,spitzbergen by ,barentz1 ,heemskerk1 and ,ryp4--,brilliant ,period of the ,whale-fishery4--,coffins4-- ,eight ,english ,sailors winter in ,spitzbergen1 #afcj4--,melancholy ,death of some ,dutch ,volunteers4--,russian ,hunters4--,their ,mode of wintering in ,spitzbergen4--,scharostin4--,walrus-shi ps from ,hammerfest and ,troms4--,bear or ,cherie ,island4--,bennet4-- ,enormous ,slaughter of ,walruses4--,mildness of its ,climate4-- ,mount ,misery4--,adventurous ,boat-voyage of some ,norwegian ,sailors4--,jan ,meyen4--,beerenberg4 #aca ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,nova ,,zembla4 ,the ,sea of ,kara4--,loschkin4--,rosmysslow4--,ltke4 --,krotow4-- ,pachtussow4--,sails along the eastern ,coast of the ,southern ,island to ,matoschkin ,schar4--,his second ,voyage and ,death4-- ,meteorological ,observations of ,ziwolka4--,the cold ,summer of ,nova ,zembla4--,von ,baer's scientific ,voyage to ,nova ,zembla4-- ,his ,adventures in ,matoschkin ,schar4--,storm in ,kostin ,schar4-- ,sea ,bath and votive ,cross4--,botanical ,observations4--,a natural ,garden4--,solitude and ,silence4--,a ,bird ,bazar4-- ,hunting ,expeditions of the ,russians to ,nova ,zembla4 #adg ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,,lapps4 ,their ancient ,history and ,conversion to ,christianity4-- ,self-denial and ,poverty of the ,lapland ,clergy4--,their singular ,mode of ,preaching4--,gross ,superstition of the ,lapps4--,the ,evil ,spirit of the ,woods4--,the ,lapland ,witches4--,physical ,constitution of the ,lapps4--,their ,dress4--,the ,fjlllappars4-- ,their ,dwellings4--,store-houses4--,reindeer ,pens4--,milking the ,reindeer4--,migration4--,the ,lapland ,dog4--,skiders1 or ,skates4--,the ,sledge1 or ,pulka4--,natural ,beauties of ,lapland4--,attachment of the ,lapps to their ,country4-- ,bear-hunting4--,wolf-hunting4--,mode of ,living of the wealthy ,lapps4--,how they kill the ,reindeer4--,visiting the ,fair4-- ,mammon ,worship4--,treasure-hiding4--8,tabak1 or ,braende40-- ,affectionate ,disposition of the ,lapps4--,the ,skogslapp4--,the ,fisherlapp4 #aef ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,matthias ,,alexander ,,castr,n4 ,his ,birthplace and first ,studies4--,journey in ,lapland1 #ahch4-- ,the ,iwalojoki4--,the ,lake of ,enara4--,the ,pastor of ,utzjoki4-- ,from ,rowanimi to ,kemi4--,second ,voyage1 #ahda-dd4--,storm on the ,white ,sea4--,return to ,archangel4--,the ,tundras of the ,european ,samoedes4--,mesen4--,universal ,drunkenness4--,sledge ,journey to ,pustosersk4--,a ,samoede ,teacher4--,tundra ,storms4-- ,abandoned and alone in the ,wilderness4--,pustosersk4--,our ,traveller's ,persecutions at ,ustsylmsk and ,ishemsk4--,the ,uusa4--,crossing the ,ural4--,obdorsk4--,second ,siberian ,journey1 #ahde-dh4--,overflowing of the ,obi4--,surgut4-- ,krasnojarsk4--,agreeable ,surprise4--,turuchansk4--,voyage down the ,jenissei4--,castrn's ,study at ,plachina4--,from ,dudinka to ,tolstoi ,noss4--,frozen ,feet4--,return ,voyage to the ,south4-- ,frozen fast on the ,jenissei4--,wonderful ,preservation4-- ,journey across the ,chinese ,frontiers1 and to ,transbaikalia4-- ,return to ,finland4--,professorship at ,helsingfors4--,death of ,castrn1 #ahee4 #afh ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,samo,,edes4 ,their ,barbarism4--,num1 or ,jilibeambaertje4--,shamanism4-- ,samoede ,idols4--,sjadi4--,hahe4--,the ,tadebtsios1 or ,spirits4--,the ,tadibes1 or ,sorcerers4--,their ,dress4--,their ,invocations4--,their conjuring ,tricks4--,reverence paid to the ,dead4--,a ,samoede ,oath4--,appearance of the ,samoedes4--,their ,dress4--,a ,samoede ,belle4--,character of the ,samoedes4-- ,their decreasing ,numbers4--,traditions of ancient ,heroes4 #agi ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,the ,,ostiaks4 ,what is the ,obi8--,inundations4--,an ,ostiak summer ,yourt4-- ,poverty of the ,ostiak ,fishermen4--,a winter ,yourt4--,attachment of the ,ostiaks to their ancient ,customs4--,an ,ostiak ,prince4-- ,archery4--,appearance and ,character of the ,ostiaks4--,the ,fair of ,obdorsk4 #ahe ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,conquest ,,of ,,siberia ,,by ,,the ,,russians--,,their ,,voyages ,,of ,,discovery ,,along ,,the ,,shores ,,of ,,the ,,polar ,,sea4 ,ivan the ,terrible4--,strogonoff4--,yermak1 the ,robber and ,conqueror4--,his ,expeditions to ,siberia4--,battle of ,tobolsk4-- ,yermak's ,death4--,progress of the ,russians to ,ochotsk4--,semen ,deshnew4--,condition of the ,siberian ,natives under the ,russian ,yoke4--,voyages of ,discovery in the ,reign of the ,empress ,anna4--,prontschischtschew4--,chariton and ,demetrius ,laptew4-- ,an ,arctic ,heroine4--,schalaurow4--,discoveries in the ,sea of ,bering and in the ,pacific ,ocean4--,the ,lchow ,islands4--,fossil ,ivory4--,new ,siberia4--,the wooden ,mountains4--,the past ,ages of ,siberia4 #aia ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,siberia--,,fur-,,trade ,,and ,,gold-,,diggings4 ,siberia4--,its immense ,extent and ,capabilities4--,the ,exiles4-- ,mentschikoff4--,dolgorouky4--,mnich4--, the ,criminals4-- ,the free ,siberian ,peasant4--,extremes of ,heat and ,cold4-- ,fur-bearing ,animals4--,the ,sable4--,the ,ermine4--,the ,siberian ,weasel4--,the ,sea-otter4--,the black ,fox4--,the ,lynx4--,the ,squirrel4--,the varying ,hare4--,the ,suslik4--,importance of the ,fur-trade for the ,northern ,provinces of the ,russian ,empire4-- ,the ,gold-diggings of ,eastern ,siberia4--,the ,taiga4--,expenses and ,difficulties of searching ,expeditions4--,costs of ,produce1 and enormous ,profits of successful ,speculators4--,their senseless ,extravagance4--,first ,discovery of ,gold in the ,ural ,mountains4--,jakowlew and ,demidow4--,nishne-,tagilsk4 #bjd ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,middendorff',s ,,adventures ,,in ,,taimurland4 ,for what ,purpose was ,middendorff's ,voyage to ,taimurland undertaken8--,difficulties and ,obstacles4--,expedition down the ,taimur ,river to the ,polar ,sea4--,storm on ,taimur ,lake4--,loss of the ,boat4--,middendorff ill and alone in #ge ,n4 ,lat4--,saved by a grateful ,samoede4--,climate and ,vegetation of ,taimurland4 #bbj ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,the ,,jakuts4 ,their energetic ,nationality4--,their ,descent4--,their gloomy ,character4--,summer and ,winter ,dwellings4--,the ,jakut ,horse4-- ,incredible ,powers of ,endurance of the ,jakuts4--,their ,sharpness of ,vision4--,surprising local ,memory4--,their manual ,dexterity4--,leather1 ,poniards1 ,carpets4--,jakut ,gluttons4-- ,superstitious ,fear of the ,mountain-spirit ,ljeschei4--,offerings of ,horse-hair4--,improvised ,songs4--,the ,river ,jakut4 #bbh ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,wrangell4 ,his distinguished ,services as an ,arctic ,explorer4--,from ,petersburg to ,jakutsk in #ahbj4--,trade of ,jakutsk4--,from ,jakutsk to ,nishne-,kolymsk4--,the ,badarany4--,dreadful ,climate of ,nishne-,kolymsk4--,summer ,plagues4--,vegetation4--,animal ,life4--,reindeer-hunting4--,famine4--,i nundations4--,the ,siberian ,dog4--,first ,journeys over the ,ice of the ,polar ,sea1 and ,exploration of the ,coast beyond ,cape ,shelagskoi in #ahba4-- ,dreadful ,dangers and ,hardships4--,matiuschkin's ,sledge-journey over the ,polar ,sea in #ahbb4--,last ,adventures on the ,polar ,sea4--,a ,run for ,life4--,return to ,st4 ,petersburg4 #bcc ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,tungusi4 ,their ,relationship to the ,mantchou4--,dreadful ,condition of the outcast ,nomads4--,character of the ,tungusi4--,their ,outfit for the ,chase4--,bear-hunting4--,dwellings4--,d iet4--,a ,night's ,halt with ,tungusi in the ,forest4--,ochotsk4 #bdd ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,george ,,william ,,steller4 ,his ,birth4--,enters the ,russian ,service4--,scientific ,journey to ,kamchatka4--,accompanies ,bering on his second ,voyage of ,discovery4--,lands on the ,island of ,kaiak4--,shameful ,conduct of ,bering4--,shipwreck on ,bering ,island4--,bering's ,death4-- ,return to ,kamchatka4--,loss of ,property4--,persecutions of the ,siberian ,authorities4--,frozen to ,death at ,tjumen4 #bdh ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,kamchatka4 ,climate4--,fertility4--,luxuriant ,vegetation4--,fish4-- ,sea-birds4--,kamchatkan ,bird-catchers4--,the ,bay of ,avatscha4-- ,petropavlosk4--,the ,kamchatkans4--,their physical and moral ,qualities4--,the ,fritillaria ,sarrana4--,the ,muchamor4-- ,bears4--,dogs4 #bed ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,the ,,tchuktchi4 ,the ,land of the ,tchuktchi4--,their independent ,spirit and commercial ,enterprise4--,perpetual ,migrations4--,the ,fair of ,ostrownoje4--,visit in a ,tchuktch ,polog4--,races4--,tchuktch ,bayaderes4--,the ,tennygk1 or ,reindeer ,tchuktchi4--,the ,onkilon1 or ,sedentary ,tchuktchi4--,their ,mode of ,life4 #bfb ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,bering ,,sea--,,the ,,russian ,,fur ,,company--,,the ,,aleuts4 ,bering ,sea4--,unalaska4--,the ,pribilow ,islands4--,st4 ,matthew4-- ,st4 ,laurence4--,bering's ,straits4--,the ,russian ,fur ,company4-- ,the ,aleuts4--,their ,character4--,their ,skill and ,intrepidity in hunting the ,sea-otter4--,the ,sea-bear4--,whale-chasing4-- ,walrus-slaughter4--,the ,sea-lion4 #bfh ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,alaska4 ,purchase of ,alaska by the ,united ,states4--,the ,russian ,american ,telegraph ,scheme4--,whymper's ,trip up the ,yukon4--,dogs4-- ,the ,start4--,extempore ,water-filter4--,snow-shoes4--,the ,frozen ,yukon4--,under-ground ,houses4--,life at ,nulato4-- ,cold ,weather4--,auroras4--,approach of ,summer4--,breaking-up of the ,ice4--,fort ,yukon4--,furs4--,descent of the ,yukon4-- ,value of ,goods4--,arctic and ,tropical ,life4--,moose-hunting4-- ,deer-corrals4--,lip ,ornaments4--,canoes4--,four-post ,coffin4-- ,the ,kenaian ,indians4--,the ,aleuts4--,value of ,alaska4 #bgg ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,the ,,esquimaux4 ,their wide ,extension4--,climate of the ,regions they inhabit4-- ,their physical ,appearance4--,their ,dress4--,snow ,huts4--,the ,kayak1 or the ,baidar4--,hunting ,apparatus and ,weapons4-- ,enmity between the ,esquimaux and the ,red ,indian4--,the 8,bloody ,falls40--,chase of the ,reindeer4--,bird-catching4-- ,whale-hunting4--,various ,stratagems employed to catch the ,seal4--,the 8,keep-kuttuk40--,bear-hunting4--,walrus -hunting4-- ,awaklok and ,myouk4--,the ,esquimaux ,dog4--,games and ,sports4-- ,angekoks4--,moral ,character4--,self-reliance4--,intellige nce4-- ,iligliuk4--,commercial ,eagerness of the ,esquimaux4--,their ,voracity4--,seasons of ,distress4 #bij ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,the ,,fur-,,trade ,,of ,,the ,,hudson',s ,,bay ,,territories4 ,the ,coureur des ,bois4--,the ,voyageur4--,the ,birch-bark ,canoe4-- ,the ,canadian ,fur-trade in the last ,century4--,the ,hudson's ,bay ,company4--,bloody ,feuds between the ,north-west ,company of ,canada and the ,hudson's ,bay ,company4--,their ,amalgamation into a new ,company in #ahba4--,reconstruction of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company in #ahfc4--;,forts or ,houses4--,the ,attihawmeg4-- ,influence of the ,company on its savage ,dependents4--,the ,black ,bear1 or ,baribal4--,the ,brown ,bear4--,the ,grizzly ,bear4--,the ,raccoon4--,the ,american ,glutton4--,the ,pine ,marten4--,the ,pekan1 or ,wood-shock4--,the ,chinga4--,the ,mink4--,the ,canadian ,fish-otter4--,the ,crossed ,fox4--,the ,black or ,silvery ,fox4-- ,the ,canadian ,lynx1 or ,pishu4--,the ,ice-hare4--,the ,beaver4-- ,the ,musquash4 #cjd ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,the ,,cree ,,indians1 ,,or ,,eythinyuwuk4 ,the various ,tribes of the ,crees4--,their ,conquests and subsequent ,defeat4--,their ,wars with the ,blackfeet4--,their ,character4-- ,tattooing4--,their ,dress4--,fondness for their ,children4--,the ,cree ,cradle4--,vapor ,baths4--,games4--,their religious ,ideas4-- ,the ,cree ,tartarus and ,elysium4 #cai ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,the ,,tinn ,,indians4 ,the various ,tribes of the ,tinn ,indians4--,the ,dog-ribs4-- ,clothing4--,the ,hare ,indians4--,degraded ,state of the ,women4-- ,practical ,socialists4--,character4--,cruelty to the ,aged and ,infirm4 #cbg ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,the ,,loucheux1 ,,or ,,kutchin ,,indians4 ,the ,countries they inhabit4--,their ,appearance and ,dress4--,their ,love of ,finery4--,condition of the ,women4--,strange ,customs4-- ,character4--,feuds with the ,esquimaux4--,their suspicious and timorous ,lives4--,pounds for catching ,reindeer4--,their ,lodges4 #cca ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,arctic ,,voyages ,,of ,,discovery1 ,,from ,,the ,,cabots ,,to ,,baffin4 ,first ,scandinavian ,discoverer of ,america4--,the ,cabots4-- ,willoughby and ,chancellor 7#aeec-aeed74--,stephen ,burrough 7#aeef74--;,frobisher 7#aegf-aegh74--;,davis 7#aehe-aehg74-- ,barentz1 ,cornelis1 and ,brant 7#aeid74--,wintering of the ,dutch ,navigators in ,nova ,zembla 7#aeif-aeig74--;,john ,knight 7#afjf74-- ,murdered by the ,esquimaux4--,henry ,hudson 7#afjg-afji74--;,baffin 7#afaf74 #cce ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,arctic ,,voyages ,,of ,,discovery1 ,,from ,,baffin ,,to ,m',,clintock4 ,buchan and ,franklin4--,ross and ,parry 7#ahah74--;,discovery of ,melville ,island4--,winter ,harbor 7#ahai-ahbj74--;,franklin's first land ,journey4--,dreadful ,sufferings4--,parry's second ,voyage 7#ahba-ahbc74--;,iligliuk4--,lyon 7#ahbd74--,parry's third ,voyage 7#ahbd74--;,franklin's second land ,journey to the ,shores of the ,polar ,sea4--,beechey4--,parry's sledge ,journey towards the ,pole4--,sir ,john ,ross's second ,journey4--,five ,years in the ,arctic ,ocean4--,back's ,discovery of ,great ,fish ,river4--,dease and ,simpson 7#ahcg-ahci74--;,franklin and ,crozier's last ,voyage 7#ahde74--,searching ,expeditions4--,richardson and ,rae4--,sir ,james ,ross4--,austin4--,penny4--,de ,haven4--,franklin's first ,winter-quarters discovered by ,ommaney4--,kennedy and ,bellot4-- ,inglefield4--,sir ,e4 ,belcher4--,kellett4--,m',clure's ,discovery of the ,north-west ,passage4--,collinson4--,bellot's ,death4-- ,dr4 ,rae learns the ,death of the ,crews of the 8,erebus0 and 8,terror40--,sir ,leopold ,m',clintock4 #cdd ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,,kane ,,and ,,hayes4 ,kane sails up ,smith's ,sound in the 8,advance0 7#ahec74-- ,winters in ,rensselaer ,bay4--,sledge ,journey along the ,coast of ,greenland4--,the ,three-brother ,turrets4--,tennyson's ,monument4--,the ,great ,humboldt ,glacier4--,dr4 ,hayes crosses ,kennedy ,channel4--,morton's ,discovery of ,washington ,land4-- ,mount ,parry4--,kane resolves upon a second ,wintering in ,rensselaer ,bay4--,departure and ,return of ,part of the ,crew4-- ,sufferings of the ,winter4--,the ,ship abandoned4--,boat ,journey to ,upernavik4--,kane's ,death in the ,havana 7#aheg74--;,dr4 ,hayes's ,voyage in #ahfj4--;,he winters at ,port ,foulke4--,crosses ,kennedy ,channel4--,reaches ,cape ,union1 the most northern known ,land upon the ,globe4--,koldewey4--,plans for future ,voyages to the ,north ,pole4 #cfe ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,newfoundland4 ,its desolate ,aspect4--,forests4--,marshes4--,barrens 4-- ,ponds4--,fur-bearing ,animals4--,severity of ,climate4--,st4 ,john's4--,discovery of ,newfoundland by the ,scandinavians4-- ,sir ,humphrey ,gilbert4--,rivalry of the ,english and ,french4-- ,importance of the ,fisheries4--,the ,banks of ,newfoundland4-- ,mode of ,fishing4--,throaters1 ,headers1 ,splitters1 ,salters1 and ,packers4--,fogs and ,storms4--,seal-catching4 #cgf ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,,greenland4 ,a mysterious ,region4--,ancient ,scandinavian ,colonists4--,their ,decline and ,fall4--,hans ,egede4--,his ,trials and ,success4-- ,foundation of ,godthaab4--,herrenhuth ,missionaries4-- ,lindenow4--,the ,scoresbys4--,clavering4--,the ,danish ,settlements in ,greenland4--,the ,greenland ,esquimaux4-- ,seal-catching4--,the ,white ,dolphin4--,the ,narwhal4-- ,shark-fishery4--,fiskernasset4--,birds4 --,reindeer-hunting4-- ,indigenous ,plants4--,drift-wood4--,mineral ,kingdom4--,mode of ,life of the ,greenland ,esquimaux4--,the ,danes in ,greenland4-- ,beautiful ,scenery4--,ice ,caves4 #chb ,,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,,the ,,antarctic ,,ocean4 ,comparative ,view of the ,antarctic and ,arctic ,regions4-- ,inferiority of ,climate of the former4--,its ,causes4--,the ,new ,shetland ,islands4--,south ,georgia4--,the ,peruvian ,stream4--,sea-birds4--,the ,giant ,petrel4--,the ,albatross4-- ,the ,penguin4--,the ,austral ,whale4--,the ,hunchback4--,the ,fin-back4--,the ,grampus4--,battle with a ,whale4--,the ,sea-elephant4--,the ,southern ,sea-bear4--,the ,sea-leopard4-- ,antarctic ,fishes4 #cia ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,,antarctic ,,voyages ,,of ,,discovery4 ,cook's ,discoveries in the ,antarctic ,ocean4--,bellinghausen4-- ,weddell4--,biscoe4--,balleny4--,dumont d',urville4--,wilkes4-- ,sir ,james ,ross crosses the ,antarctic ,circle on ,new ,year's ,day1 #ahda4--;,discovers ,victoria ,land4--,dangerous ,landing on ,franklin ,island4--,an ,eruption of ,mount ,erebus4--,the ,great ,ice ,barrier4--,providential ,escape4--,dreadful ,gale4--,collision4-- ,hazardous ,passage between two ,icebergs4--,termination of the ,voyage4 #dja ,,chapter ,,xxxix4 ,,the ,,strait ,,of ,,magellan4 ,description of the ,strait4--,western ,entrance4--,point ,dungeness4--,the ,narrows4--,saint ,philip's ,bay4--,cape ,froward4--,grand ,scenery4--,port ,famine4--,the ,sedger ,river4-- ,darwin's ,ascent of ,mount ,tarn4--,the ,bachelor ,river4--,english ,reach4--,sea ,reach4--,south ,desolation4--,harbor of ,mercy4-- ,williwaws4--,discovery of the ,strait by ,magellan 7,october #bj1 #aeba74--;,drake4--,sarmiento4--,cavendi sh4--,schouten and ,le ,maire4--,byron4--,bougainville4--,walli s and ,carteret4--,king and ,fitzroy4--,settlement at ,punta ,arenas4--,increasing ,passage through the ,strait4--,a future ,highway of ,commerce4 #djh ,,chapter ,,xl4 ,,patagonia ,,and ,,the ,,patagonians4 ,difference of ,climate between ,east and ,west ,patagonia4-- ,extraordinary ,aridity of ,east ,patagonia4--,zoology4--,the ,guanaco4--,the ,tucutuco4--,the ,patagonian ,agouti4--,vultures4-- ,the ,turkey-buzzard4--,the ,carrancha4--,the ,chimango4-- ,darwin's ,ostrich4--,the ,patagonians4--,exaggerated ,accounts of their ,stature4--,their ,physiognomy and ,dress4--,religious ,ideas4--,superstitions4--,astronomical ,knowledge4--,division into ,tribes4--,the ,tent1 or ,toldo4--,trading ,routes4--,the great ,cacique4--,introduction of the ,horse4--,industry4-- ,amusements4--,character4 #dag ,,chapter ,,xli4 ,,the ,,fuegians4 ,their miserable ,condition4--,degradation of ,body and ,mind4-- ,powers of ,mimicry4--,notions of ,barter4--,causes of their low ,state of ,cultivation4--,their ,food4--,limpets4--,cyttaria ,darwini4--,constant ,migrations4--,the ,fuegian ,wigwam4-- ,weapons4--,their probable ,origin4--,their ,number1 and various ,tribes4--,constant ,feuds4--,cannibalism4--,language4-- ,adventures of ,fuegia ,basket1 ,jemmy ,button1 and ,york ,minster4-- ,missionary ,labors4--,captain ,gardiner4--,his lamentable ,end4 #dbe ,,chapter ,,xlii4 ,,charles ,,francis ,,hall ,,and ,,the ,,innuits4 ,hall's ,expedition4--,his early ,life4--,his reading of ,arctic ,adventure4--,his ,resolve4--,his ,arctic ,outfit4--,sets sail on the 8,george ,henry40--,the ,voyage4--,kudlago4--,holsteinborg1 ,greenland4--,population of ,greenland4--,sails for ,davis's ,strait4--,character of the ,innuits4--,wreck of the 8,rescue40-- ,ebierbing and ,tookoolito4--,their ,visit to ,england4--,hall's first ,exploration4--,european and ,innuit ,life in the ,arctic ,regions4--,building an ,igloo4--,almost ,starved4--,fight for ,food with ,dogs4--,ebierbing arrives with a ,seal4--,how he caught it4--,a ,seal-feast4--,the ,innuits and ,seals4--,the ,polar ,bear4--,how he teaches the ,innuits to catch ,seals4-- ,at a ,seal-hole4--,dogs as ,seal-hunters4--,dogs and ,bears4-- ,dogs and ,reindeers4--,innuits and ,walruses4--,more about ,igloos4--,innuit ,implements4--,uses of the ,reindeer4-- ,innuit ,improvidence4--,a ,deer-feast4--,a frozen ,delicacy4-- ,whale-skin as ,food4--,whale-gum4--,how to eat ,whale ,ligament4-- ,raw ,meat4--,the ,dress of the ,innuits4--,a pretty ,style4-- ,religious ,ideas of the ,innuits4--,their kindly ,character4-- ,treatment of the ,aged and ,infirm4--,a ,woman abandoned to die4-- ,hall's ,attempt to rescue her4--,the ,innuit ,nomads1 without any form of ,government4--,their ,numbers diminishing4--,a ,sailor wanders away4--,hall's ,search for him4--,finds him frozen to death4--,the ,ship free from ,ice4--,preparations to return4-- ,reset in the ,ice-pack4--,another ,arctic ,winter4--,breaking up of the ,ice4--,departure for ,home4--,tookoolito and her ,child 8,butterfly40--,death of 8,butterfly40--,arrival at ,home4-- ,results of ,hall's ,expedition4--,innuit ,traditions4--,discovery of ,frobisher ,relics4--,hall undertakes a second ,expedition4-- ,his ,statement of its ,object and ,prospects4--,last ,tidings of ,hall4 #dcc ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,page #a4 ,esquimaux ,dog-team4 ,,hall4 #a #b4 ,the ,tundra of ,siberia4 ,,atkinson4 #ag #c4 ,indian ,summer ,encampment1 ,alaska4 ,,whymper4 #ah #d4 ,rocks and ,ice4 ,,hall4 #bj #e4 ,coast of ,labrador4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #ba #f4 ,coast of ,norway4 ,,browne4 #bb #g4 ,arctic ,forest4 ,,lamont4 #bc #h4 ,verge of ,forest ,region4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #bd #i4 ,forest ,conflagration4 ,,whymper4 #bf #aj4 ,arctic ,clothing4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #bi #aa4 ,arctic ,moonlight4 ,,hall4 #cj #ab4 ,aurora seen in ,norway4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #ca #ac4 ,aurora seen in ,greenland4 ,,hall4 #cb #ad4 ,group of ,reindeer4 ,,lamont4 #ce #ae4 ,elks4 ,,wood4 #ci #af4 ,the ,musk-ox4 ,,wood4 #dj #ag4 ,argali4 ,,atkinson4 #da #ah4 ,the ,snowy ,owl4 ,,wood4 #dc #ai4 ,bernide ,goose4 ,,wood4 #dd #bj4 ,the ,sea-eagle4 ,,wood4 #dd #ba4 ,arctic ,navigation4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #de #bb4 ,among ,hummocks4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #df #bc4 ,drifting on the ,ice4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #dg #bd4 ,forms of ,icebergs4 ,,hall4 #dg #be4 ,gothic ,icebergs4 ,,hall4 #dh #bf4 ,pinnacle ,icebergs4 ,,hall4 #dh #bg4 ,icebergs aground4 ,,hall4 #di #bh4 ,icebergs and ,glacier1 ,frobisher ,bay4 ,,hall4 #ea #bi4 ,glacier1 ,bute ,inlet4 ,,whymper4 #eb #cj4 ,scaling an ,iceberg4 ,,hall4 #ec #ca4 ,an ,arctic ,channel4 ,,hall4 #ef #cb4 ,open ,water4 ,,hall4 #eg #cc4 ,glacier ,discharging4 ,,hall4 #eh #cd4 ,the ,whale4 ,,wood4 #fj #ce4 ,the ,narwhal4 ,,wood4 #fa #cf4 ,walruses on the ,ice4 ,,lamont4 #fc #cg4 ,home of the ,polar ,bear4 ,,wood4 #ff #ch4 ,the ,gull4 ,,wood4 #fg #ci4 ,lava-fields4 ,,browne4 #fh #dj4 ,effigy in ,lava4 ,,browne4 #gj #da4 ,the ,strokkr4 ,,browne4 #gb #db4 ,entrance to the ,almannagja4 ,,browne4 #gc #dc4 ,the ,almannagja4 ,,browne4 #gd #dd4 ,the ,hrafnagja4 ,,browne4 #ge #de4 ,the ,tintron ,rock4 ,,browne4 #ge #df4 ,fall of the ,oxeraa4 ,,browne4 #gf #dg4 ,icelandic ,horses4 ,,browne4 #ha #dh4 ,shooting ,reindeer4 ,,lamont4 #hb #di4 ,the ,eider-duck4 ,,wood4 #hc #ej4 ,the ,jyrfalcon4 ,,wood4 #he #ea4 ,the ,giant ,auk4 ,,wood4 #hf #eb4 ,cathedral at ,reykjavik4 ,,browne4 #hi #ec4 ,thingvalla1 ,lgberg and ,almannagja4 ,,browne4 #ib #ed4 ,reykjavik1 the ,capital of ,iceland4 ,,browne4 #ih #ee4 ,governor's ,residence1 ,reykjavik4 ,,browne4 #ii #ef4 ,icelandic ,houses4 ,,browne4 #ajc #eg4 ,church at ,thingvalla4 ,,browne4 #aje #eh4 ,the ,pastor's ,house1 ,thingvalla4 ,,browne4 #ajf #ei4 ,the ,pastor of ,thingvalla4 ,,browne4 #ajg #fj4 ,bridge ,river1 ,iceland4 ,,browne4 #aaa #fa4 ,icelandic ,bog4 ,,browne4 #aac #fb4 ,coast of ,iceland4 ,,browne4 #aad #fc4 ,westman ,isles4 ,,browne4 #aae #fd4 ,home of ,sea-birds4 ,,browne4 #aag #fe4 ,fishing in ,norway4 ,,browne4 #abj #ff4 ,norwegian ,farm4 ,,browne4 #abb #fg4 ,steaming along the ,coast4 ,,browne4 #abc #fh4 ,the ,puffin4 ,,wood4 #abd #fi4 ,the ,dovrefjeld4 ,,browne4 #abg #gj4 ,midnight ,sun off ,spitzbergen4 ,,dufferin4 #aca #ga4 ,magdalena ,bay1 ,spitzbergen4 ,,dufferin4 #acd #gb4 ,burial in ,spitzbergen4 ,,dufferin4 #aci #gc4 ,arctic ,fox4 ,,dufferin4 #adj #gd4 ,chase of the ,walrus4 ,,lamont4 #adc #ge4 ,a glimpse of ,jan ,meyen's ,island4 ,,dufferin4 #ade #gf4 ,a ,samoede ,priest4 ,,atkinson4 #agi #gg4 ,banks of the ,irtysch4 ,,atkinson4 #ahe #gh4 ,group of ,kirghis4 ,,atkinson4 #ahh #gi4 ,view of ,tagilsk4 ,,atkinson4 #aia #hj4 ,the ,beach at ,nicolayevsk4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #aif #ha4 ,on the ,amoor4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #aig #hb4 ,village on the ,amoor4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #aih #hc4 ,koriak ,yourt4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #aii #hd4 ,kamchatka ,sables4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #bja #he4 ,tartar ,encampment4 ,,atkinson4 #bjd #hf4 ,siberian ,peasant4 ,,atkinson4 #bjg #hg4 ,view of ,irkutsk4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #bji #hh4 ,a ,jakut ,village4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #bbi #hi4 ,bering's ,monument at ,petropavlosk4 ,,whymper4 #bdh #ij4 ,church at ,petropavlosk4 ,,whymper4 #bed #ia4 ,view of ,petropavlosk4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #beg #ib4 ,dogs ,fishing4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #bei #ic4 ,dog-team4 ,,whymper4 #bei #id4 ,dogs ,towing ,boat4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #bfj #ie4 ,frame-work of ,tchuktchi ,house4 ,,whymper4 #bfb #if4 ,tchuktchi ,canoe4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #bfc #ig4 ,tchuktchi ,pipe4 ,,whymper4 #bfd #ih4 ,an ,aleut4 ,,whymper4 #bfh #ii4 ,view of ,sitka4 ,,whymper4 #bgj #ajj4 ,a ,baidar4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #bgb #aja4 ,fort ,st4 ,michael4 ,,whymper4 #bgg #ajb4 ,the ,frozen ,yukon4 ,,whymper4 #bgi #ajc4 ,under-ground ,house4 ,,whymper4 #bhj #ajd4 ,fish-traps on the ,yukon4 ,,whymper4 #bha #aje4 ,aurora at ,nulato4 ,,whymper4 #bhb #ajf4 ,breaking up of the ,ice4 ,,whymper4 #bhc #ajg4 ,fort ,yukon4 ,,whymper4 #bhe #ajh4 ,a ,deer ,corral4 ,,whymper4 #bhf #aji4 ,lip ,ornaments4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #bhg #aaj4 ,a ,baidar4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #bhh #aaa4 ,four-post ,coffin4 ,,whymper4 #bhh #aab4 ,tauana ,indian4 ,,whymper4 #bhi #aac4 ,winter ,hut of ,hunters4 ,,milton4 #cji #aad4 ,fort ,edmonton1 ,north ,saskatchewan4 ,,milton4 #caa #aae4 ,trader's ,camp4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #cab #aaf4 ,swamp formed by deserted ,beaver ,dam4 ,,milton4 #cad #aag4 ,hunting ,bison in the ,snow4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #cai #aah4 ,herd of ,bison4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #cbj #aai4 ,driving ,bison over a ,precipice4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #cba #abj4 ,watching for ,crees4 ,,milton4 #cbb #aba4 ,a ,cree ,village4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #cbd #abb4 ,the ,albatross4 ,,wood4 #cif #abc4 ,strait of ,magellan4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #dje #abd4 ,a ,highway of ,commerce4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #daf #abe4 ,patagonians4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #dag #abf4 ,coast of ,fuegia4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #dbe #abg4 ,fuegian ,traders4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #dbg #abh4 ,a ,fuegian and his ,food4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #dbi #abi4 ,starvation ,beach4 ,,harper',s ,,mag4 #dcb #acj4 ,surveying in ,greenland4 ,,hall4 #dcc #aca4 ,hall and ,companions1 in ,innuit ,costume4 ,,hall4 #dcd #acb4 ,kudlago4 ,,hall4 #dcf #acc4 ,greenland ,currency4 ,,hall4 #dcg #acd4 ,woman and ,child4 7,drawn and ,engraved by an ,,hall4 #dch ,innuit47 #ace4 ,festival of the ,birthday of the ,king of ,,hall4 #dci ,denmark4 #acf4 ,preparing ,boot-soles4 ,,hall4 #ddj #acg4 ,wreck of the ,rescue4 ,,hall4 #dda #ach4 ,the ,george ,henry laid up for the ,winter4 ,,hall4 #ddb #aci4 ,storm-bound4 ,,hall4 #ddc #adj4 ,innuit ,stone ,lamp4 ,,hall4 #ddd #ada4 ,fighting for ,food4 ,,hall4 #dde #adb4 ,through the ,snow4 ,,hall4 #ddf #adc4 ,waiting by a ,seal-hole4 ,,hall4 #ddg #add4 ,looking for ,seals4 ,,hall4 #ddh #ade4 ,innuit ,strategy to ,capture a ,seal4 ,,hall4 #ddi #adf4 ,seal-hole and ,igloo4 ,,hall4 #dej #adg4 ,waiting for a ,blow4 ,,hall4 #dej #adh4 ,dog and ,seal4 ,,hall4 #dea #adi4 ,spearing through the ,snow4 ,,hall4 #deb #aej4 ,dogs and ,bear4 ,,hall4 #dec #aea4 ,barbekark and the ,reindeer4 ,,hall4 #ded #aeb4 ,head of ,reindeer4 ,,hall4 #ded #aec4 ,spearing the ,walrus4 ,,hall4 #dee #aed4 ,innuit ,igloos4 ,,hall4 #def #aee4 ,walrus ,skull and ,tusks4 ,,hall4 #deg #aef4 ,the ,woman's ,knife4 ,,hall4 #deg #aeg4 ,innuit ,implements4 ,,hall4 #deh #aeh4 ,finding the ,dead4 ,,hall4 #dfa #aei4 ,innuit ,summer ,village4 ,,hall4 #dfb #afj4 ,returning to the ,ship4 ,,hall4 #dfc #afa4 ,over the ,ice4 ,,hall4 #dfd #afb4 ,the ,frozen ,sailor4 ,,hall4 #dfe #afc4 ,farewell of the ,innuits4 ,,hall4 #dfg ,,the ,,polar ,,world4 ,illustration3 #b4 ,,the ,,tundra ,,of ,,siberia4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,arctic ,,lands4 ,the barren ,grounds or ,tundri4--,abundance of animal ,life on the ,tundri in ,summer4--,their ,silence and ,desolation in ,winter4-- ,protection afforded to ,vegetation by the ,snow4--,flower-growth in the highest ,latitudes4--,character of ,tundra ,vegetation4-- ,southern ,boundary-line of the barren ,grounds4--,their ,extent4-- ,the forest ,zone4--,arctic ,trees4--,slowness of their ,growth4-- ,monotony of the ,northern ,forests4--,mosquitoes4--,the various ,causes which determine the ,severity of an ,arctic ,climate4--,insular and ,continental ,position4--,currents4--,winds4--,extrem es of ,cold observed by ,sir ,e4 ,belcher and ,dr4 ,kane4--,how is ,man able to support the ,rigors of an ,arctic ,winter8--,proofs of a milder ,climate having once reigned in the ,arctic ,regions4--,its ,cause according to ,dr4 ,oswald ,heer4--,peculiar ,beauties of the ,arctic ,regions4--,sunset4--,long lunar ,nights4--,the ,aurora4 ,a glance at a map of the ,arctic regions shows us that many of the rivers belonging to the three continents--,europe1 ,asia1 ,america-- discharge their waters into the ,polar ,ocean or its tributary bays4 ,the territories drained by these streams1 some of which 7such as the ,mackenzie1 the ,yukon1 the ,lena1 the ,yenisei1 and the ,obi7 rank among the giant rivers of the earth1 form1 along with the islands within or near the ,arctic circle1 the vast region over which the frost-king reigns supreme4 ,man styles himself the lord of the earth1 and may with some justice lay claim to the title in more genial lands where1 armed with the plough1 he compels the soil to yield him a variety of fruits2 but in those desolate tracts which are winter-bound during the greater part of the year1 he is generally a mere wanderer over its surface--a hunter1 a fisherman1 or a herdsman--and but few small settlements1 separated from each other by immense deserts1 give proof of his having made some weak attempts to establish a footing4 ,it is difficult to determine with precision the limits of the ,arctic lands1 since many countries situated as low as latitude #fj or even #ej1 such as ,south ,greenland1 ,labrador1 ,alaska1 ,kamchatka1 or the country about ,lake ,baikal1 have in their climate and productions a decidedly ,arctic character1 while others of a far more northern position1 such as the coast of ,norway1 enjoy even in winter a remarkably mild temperature4 ,but they are naturally divided into two principal and well-marked zones--that of the forests1 and that of the treeless wastes4 ,illustration3 #c4 ,,indian ,,summer ,,encampment1 ,,alaska4 ,the latter1 comprising the islands within the ,arctic ,circle1 form a belt1 more or less broad1 bounded by the continental shores of the ,north ,polar seas1 and gradually merging toward the south into the forest-region1 which encircles them with a garland of evergreen conifer4 ,this treeless zone bears the name of the 8barren grounds10 or the 8barrens10 in ,north ,america1 and of 8tundri0 in ,siberia and ,european ,russia4 ,its want of trees is caused not so much by its high northern latitude as by the cold sea-winds which sweep unchecked over the islands or the flat coast-lands of the ,polar ,ocean1 and for miles and miles compel even the hardiest plant to crouch before the blast and creep along the ground4 ,nothing can be more melancholy than the aspect of the boundless morasses or arid wastes of the tundri4 ,dingy mosses and gray lichens form the chief vegetation1 and a few scanty grasses or dwarfish flowers that may have found a refuge in some more sheltered spot are unable to relieve the dull monotony of the scene4 ,in winter1 when animal life has mostly retreated to the south or sought a refuge in burrows or in caves1 an awful silence1 interrupted only by the hooting of a snow-owl or the yelping of a fox1 reigns over their vast expanse2 but in spring1 when the brown earth reappears from under the melted snow and the swamps begin to thaw1 enormous flights of wild birds appear upon the scene and enliven it for a few months4 ,an admirable instinct leads their winged legions from distant climes to the ,arctic wildernesses1 where in the morasses or lakes1 on the banks of the rivers1 on the flat strands1 or along the fish-teeming coasts1 they find an abundance of food1 and where at the same time they can with greater security build their nests and rear their young4 ,some remain on the skirts of the forest-region2 others1 flying farther northward1 lay their eggs upon the naked tundra4 ,eagles and hawks follow the traces of the natatorial and strand birds2 troops of ptarmigans roam among the stunted bushes2 and when the sun shines1 the finch or the snow-bunting warbles his merry note4 ,while thus the warmth of summer attracts hosts of migratory birds to the ,arctic wildernesses1 shoals of salmon and sturgeons enter the rivers in obedience to the instinct that forces them to quit the seas and to swim stream upward1 for the purpose of depositing their spawn in the tranquil sweet waters of the stream or lake4 ,about this time also the reindeer leaves the forests to feed on the herbs and lichens of the tundra1 and to seek along the shores fanned by the cooled sea-breeze some protection against the attacks of the stinging flies that rise in myriads from the swamps4 ,thus during several months the tundra presents an animated scene1 in which man also plays his part4 ,the birds of the air1 the fishes of the water1 the beasts of the earth1 are all obliged to pay their tribute to his various wants1 to appease his hunger1 to clothe his body1 or to gratify his greed of gain4 ,but as soon as the first frosts of ,september announce the approach of winter1 all animals1 with but few exceptions1 hasten to leave a region where the sources of life must soon fail4 ,the geese1 ducks1 and swans return in dense flocks to the south2 the strand-birds seek in some lower latitude a softer soil which allows their sharp beak to seize a burrowing prey2 the water-fowl forsake the bays and channels that will soon be blocked up with ice2 the reindeer once more return to the forest1 and in a short time nothing is left that can induce man to prolong his stay in the treeless plain4 ,soon a thick mantle of snow covers the hardened earth1 the frozen lake1 the ice-bound river1 and conceals them all--seven1 eight1 nine months long--under its monotonous pall1 except where the furious north-east wind sweeps it away and lays bare the naked rock4 ,this snow1 which after it has once fallen persists until the long summer's day has effectually thawed it1 protects in an admirable manner the vegetation of the higher latitudes against the cold of the long winter season4 ,for snow is so bad a conductor of heat1 that in mid-winter in the high latitude of #gh #ej 7,rensselaer ,bay71 while the surface temperature was as low as -#cj1 ,kane found at two feet deep a temperature of -#h1 at four feet #b1 and at eight feet #bf1 or no more than six degrees below the freezing-point of water4 ,thus covered by a warm crystal snow-mantle1 the northern plants pass the long winter in a comparatively mild temperature1 high enough to maintain their life1 while1 without1 icy blasts--capable of converting mercury into a solid body--howl over the naked wilderness2 and as the first snow-falls are more cellular and less condensed than the nearly impalpable powder of winter1 ,kane justly observes that no 8eider-down in the cradle of an infant is tucked in more kindly than the sleeping-dress of winter about the feeble plant-life of the ,arctic zone40 ,thanks to this protection1 and to the influence of a sun which for months circles above the horizon1 and in favorable localities calls forth the powers of vegetation in an incredibly short time1 even ,washington1 ,grinnell ,land1 and ,spitzbergen are able to boast of flowers4 ,morton plucked a crucifer at ,cape ,constitution 7#hj #de' ,n4 lat471 and1 on the banks of ,mary ,minturn ,river 7#gh #eb'71 ,kane came across a flower-growth which1 though drearily ,arctic in its type1 was rich in variety and coloring4 ,amid festuca and other tufted grasses twinkled the purple lychnis and the white star of the chickweed2 and1 not without its pleasing associations1 he recognized a solitary hesperis--the ,arctic representative of the wall-flowers of home4 ,illustration3 #d4 ,,rocks ,,and ,,ice4 ,next to the lichens and mosses1 which form the chief vegetation of the treeless zone1 the crucifer1 the grasses1 the saxifragas1 the caryophyll1 and the composit are the families of plants most largely represented1 in the barren grounds or tundri4 ,though vegetation becomes more and more uniform on advancing to the north1 yet the number of individual plants does not decrease4 ,when the soil is moderately dry1 the surface is covered by a dense carpet of lichens 7,corniculari71 mixed in damper spots with ,icelandic moss4 ,in more tenacious soils1 other plants flourish1 not however to the exclusion of lichens1 except in tracts of meadow ground1 which occur in sheltered situations1 or in the alluvial inundated flats where tall reed-grasses or dwarf willows frequently grow as closely as they can stand4 ,illustration3 #e4 ,,coast ,,of ,,labrador4 ,it may easily be supposed that the boundary-line which separates the tundri from the forest zone is both indistinct and irregular4 ,in some parts where the cold sea-winds have a wider range1 the barren grounds encroach considerably upon the limits of the forests2 in others1 where the configuration of the land prevents their action1 the woods advance farther to the north4 ,illustration3 #f4 ,,coast ,,of ,,norway4 ,thus the barren grounds attain their most southerly limit in ,labrador1 where they descend to latitude #eg1 and this is sufficiently explained by the position of that bleak peninsula1 bounded on three sides by icy seas1 and washed by cold currents from the north4 ,on the opposite coasts of ,hudson's ,bay they begin about #fj1 and thence gradually rise toward the mouth of the ,mackenzie1 where the forests advance as high as #fh1 or even still farther to the north along the low banks of that river4 ,from the ,mackenzie the barrens again descend until they reach ,bering's ,sea in #fe ,n4 ,on the opposite or ,asiatic shore1 in the land of the ,tchuktchi1 they begin again more to the south1 in #fc1 thence continually rise as far as the ,lena1 where ,anjou found trees in #ga ,n41 and then fall again toward the ,obi1 where the forests do not even reach the ,arctic circle4 ,from the ,obi the tundri retreat farther and farther to the north1 until finally1 on the coasts of ,norway1 in latitude #gj1 they terminate with the land itself4 ,hence we see that the treeless zone of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america occupies a space larger than the whole of ,europe4 ,even the ,african ,sahara1 or the ,pampas of ,south ,america1 are inferior in extent to the ,siberian tundri4 ,but the possession of a few hundred square miles of fruitful territory on the south-western frontiers of his vast empire would be of greater value to the ,czar than that of those boundless wastes1 which are tenanted only by a few wretched pastoral tribes1 or some equally wretched fishermen4 ,illustration3 #g4 ,,arctic ,,forest4 ,the ,arctic forest-regions are of a still greater extent than the vast treeless plains which they encircle4 ,when we consider that they form an almost continuous belt1 stretching through three parts of the world1 in a breadth of from #ae to #bj1 even the woods of the ,amazon1 which cover a surface fifteen times greater than that of the ,united ,kingdom1 shrink into comparative insignificance4 ,unlike the tropical forests1 which are characterized by an immense variety of trees1 these northern woods are almost entirely composed of conifer1 and one single kind of fir or pine often covers an immense extent of ground4 ,the ,european and ,asiatic species differ1 however1 from those which grow in ,america4 ,illustration3 #h4 ,,verge ,,of ,,forest ,,region4 ,thus in the ,russian empire and ,scandinavia we find the ,scotch fir 7,pinus sylvestris71 the ,siberian fir and larch 7,abies sibirica1 ,larix sibirica71 the ,picea obovata1 and the ,pinus cembra2 while in the ,hudson's ,bay territories the woods principally consist of the white and black spruce 7,abies alba and nigra71 the ,canadian larch 7,larix canadensis71 and the gray pine 7,pinus banksiana74 ,in both continents birch-trees grow farther to the north than the conifer1 and the dwarf willows form dense thickets on the shores of every river and lake4 ,various species of the service-tree1 the ash1 and the elder are also met with in the ,arctic forests2 and both under the shelter of the woods and beyond their limits1 nature1 as if to compensate for the want of fruit-trees1 produces in favorable localities an abundance of bilberries1 bogberries1 cranberries1 etc4 7,empetrum1 ,vaccinium71 whose fruit is a great boon to man and beast4 ,when congealed by the autumnal frosts1 the berries frequently remain hanging on the bushes until the snow melts in the following ,june1 and are then a considerable resource to the flocks of water-fowl migrating to their northern breeding-places1 or to the bear awakening from his winter sleep4 ,another distinctive character of the forests of the high latitudes is their apparent youth1 so that generally the traveller would hardly suppose them to be more than fifty years1 or at most a century old4 ,their juvenile appearance increases on advancing northward1 until suddenly their decrepit age is revealed by the thick bushes of lichens which clothe or hang down from their shrivelled boughs4 ,farther to the south1 large trees are found scattered here and there1 but not so numerous as to modify the general appearance of the forest1 and even these are mere dwarfs when compared with the gigantic firs of more temperate climates4 ,this phenomenon is sufficiently explained by the shortness of the summer1 which1 though able to bring forth new shoots1 does not last long enough for the formation of wood4 ,hence the growth of trees becomes slower and slower on advancing to the north2 so that on the banks of the ,great ,bear ,lake1 for instance1 #djj years are necessary for the formation of a trunk not thicker than a man's waist4 ,toward the confines of the tundra1 the woods are reduced to stunted stems1 covered with blighted buds that have been unable to develop themselves into branches1 and which prove by their numbers how frequently and how vainly they have striven against the wind1 until finally the last remnants of arboreal vegetation1 vanquished by the blasts of winter1 seek refuge under a carpet of lichens and mosses1 from which their annual shoots hardly venture to peep forth4 ,a third peculiarity which distinguishes the forests of the north from those of the tropical world is what may be called their harmless character4 ,there the traveller finds none of those noxious plants whose juices contain a deadly poison1 and even thorns and prickles are of rare occurrence4 ,no venomous snake glides through the thicket2 no crocodile lurks in the swamp2 and the northern beasts of prey--the bear1 the lynx1 the wolf--are far less dangerous and blood-thirsty than the large felid of the torrid zone4 ,the comparatively small number of animals living in the ,arctic forests corresponds with the monotony of their vegetation4 ,here we should seek in vain for that immense variety of insects1 or those troops of gaudy birds which in the ,brazilian woods excite the admiration1 and not unfrequently cause the despair of the wanderer2 here we should in vain expect to hear the clamorous voices that resound in the tropical thickets4 ,no noisy monkeys or quarrelsome parrots settle on the branches of the trees2 no shrill cicad or melancholy goat-suckers interrupt the solemn stillness of the night2 the howl of the hungry wolf1 or the hoarse screech of some solitary bird of prey1 are almost the only sounds that ever disturb the repose of these awful solitudes4 ,when the tropical hurricane sweeps over the virgin forests1 it awakens a thousand voices of alarm2 but the ,arctic storm1 however furiously it may blow1 scarcely calls forth an echo from the dismal shades of the pine-woods of the north4 ,in one respect only the forests and swamps of the northern regions vie in abundance of animal life with those of the equatorial zone1 for the legions of gnats which the short polar summer calls forth from the ,arctic morasses are a no less intolerable plague than the mosquitoes of the tropical marshes4 ,illustration3 #i4 ,,forest ,,conflagration4 ,though agriculture encroaches but little upon the ,arctic woods1 yet the agency of man is gradually working a change in their aspect4 ,large tracts of forest are continually wasted by extensive fires1 kindled accidentally or intentionally1 which spread with rapidity over a wide extent of country1 and continue to burn until they are extinguished by a heavy rain4 ,sooner or later a new growth of timber springs up1 but the soil1 being generally enriched and saturated with alkali1 now no longer brings forth its aboriginal firs1 but gives birth to a thicket of beeches 7,betula alba7 in ,asia1 or of aspens in ,america4 ,the line of perpetual snow may naturally be expected to descend lower and lower on advancing to the pole1 and hence many mountainous regions or elevated plateaux1 such as the interior of ,spitzbergen1 of ,greenland1 of ,nova ,zembla1 etc41 which in a more temperate clime would be verdant with woods or meadows1 are here covered with vast fields of ice1 from which frequently glaciers descend down to the verge of the sea4 ,but even in the highest northern latitudes1 no land has yet been found covered as far as the water's edge with eternal snow1 or where winter has entirely subdued the powers of vegetation4 ,the reindeer of ,spitzbergen find near #hj ,n4 lichens or grasses to feed upon2 in favorable seasons the snow melts by the end of ,june on the plains of ,melville ,island1 and numerous lemmings1 requiring vegetable food for their subsistence1 inhabit the deserts of ,new ,siberia4 ,as far as man has reached to the north1 vegetation1 when fostered by a sheltered situation and the refraction of solar heat from the rocks1 has everywhere been found to rise to a considerable altitude above the level of the sea2 and should there be land at the ,north ,pole1 there is every reason to believe that it is destitute neither of animal nor vegetable life4 ,it would be equally erroneous to suppose that the cold of winter invariably increases as we near the pole1 as the temperature of a land is influenced by many other causes besides its latitude4 ,even in the most northern regions hitherto visited by man1 the influence of the sea1 particularly when favored by warm currents1 is found to mitigate the severity of the winter1 while at the same time it diminishes the warmth of summer4 ,on the other hand1 the large continental tracts of ,asia or ,america that shelve toward the pole have a more intense winter cold and a far greater summer's heat than many coast-lands or islands situated far nearer to the pole4 ,thus1 to cite but a few examples1 the western shores of ,nova ,zembla1 fronting a wide expanse of sea1 have an average winter temperature of only -#d1 and a mean summer temperature but little above the freezing-point of water 7#cf71 while ,jakutsk1 situated in the heart of ,siberia1 and #bj nearer to the ,equator1 has a winter of -#cf #f'1 and a summer of #ff #f'4 ,the influence of the winds is likewise of considerable importance in determining the greater or lesser severity of an ,arctic climate4 ,thus the northerly winds which prevail in ,baffin's ,bay and ,davis's ,straits during the summer months1 and fill the straits of the ,american north-eastern ,archipelago with ice1 are probably the main cause of the abnormal depression of temperature in that quarter2 while1 on the contrary1 the southerly winds that prevail during summer in the valley of the ,mackenzie tend greatly to extend the forest of that favored region nearly down to the shores of the ,arctic ,sea4 ,even in the depth of a ,siberian winter1 a sudden change of wind is able to raise the thermometer from a mercury-congealing cold to a temperature above the freezing-point of water1 and a warm wind has been known to cause rain to fall in ,spitzbergen in the month of ,january4 ,the voyages of ,kane and ,belcher have made us acquainted with the lowest temperatures ever felt by man4 ,on ,feb4 #e1 #ahed1 while the former was wintering in ,smith's ,sound 7#gh #cg' ,n4 lat471 the mean of his best spirit-thermometer showed the unexampled temperature of -#fh or #ajj below the freezing-point of water4 ,then chloric ether became solid1 and carefully prepared chloroform exhibited a granular pellicle on its surface4 ,the exhalations from the skin invested the exposed or partially clad parts with a wreath of vapor4 ,the air had a perceptible pungency upon inspiration1 and every one1 as it were involuntarily1 breathed guardedly with compressed lips4 ,about the same time 7,february #i and #aj1 #ahed71 ,sir ,e4 ,belcher experienced a cold of -#ee in ,wellington ,channel 7#ge #ca' ,n471 and the still lower temperature of -#fb on ,january #ac1 #ahec1 in ,northumberland ,sound 7#gf #eb' ,n474 ,whymper1 on ,december #f1 #ahff1 experienced -#eh at ,nulatto1 ,alaska 7#fd #db' ,n474 ,whether the temperature of the air descends still lower on advancing toward the pole1 or whether these extreme degrees of cold are not sometimes surpassed in those mountainous regions of the north which1 though seen1 have never yet been explored1 is of course an undecided question3 so much is certain1 that the observations hitherto made during the winter of the ,arctic regions have been limited to too short a time1 and are too few in number1 to enable us to determine with any degree of certainty those points where the greatest cold prevails4 ,all we know is1 that beyond the ,arctic ,circle1 and eight or ten degrees farther to the south in the interior of the continents of ,asia and ,america1 the average temperature of the winter generally ranges from -#bj to -#cj1 or even lower1 and for a great part of the year is able to convert mercury into a solid body4 ,it may well be asked how man is able to bear the excessively low temperature of an ,arctic winter1 which must appear truly appalling to an inhabitant of the temperate zone4 ,a thick fur clothing2 a hut small and low1 where the warmth of a fire1 or simply of a train-oil lamp1 is husbanded in a narrow space1 and1 above all1 the wonderful power of the human constitution to accommodate itself to every change of climate1 go far to counteract the rigor of the cold4 ,after a very few days the body develops an increasing warmth as the thermometer descends2 for the air being condensed by the cold1 the lungs inhale at every breath a greater quantity of oxygen1 which of course accelerates the internal process of combustion1 while at the same time an increasing appetite1 gratified with a copious supply of animal food1 of flesh and fat1 enriches the blood and enables it to circulate more vigorously4 ,thus not only the hardy native of the north1 but even the healthy traveller soon gets accustomed to bear without injury the rigors of an ,arctic winter4 8,the mysterious compensations10 says ,kane1 8by which we adapt ourselves to climate are more striking here than in the tropics4 ,in the ,polar zone the assault is immediate and sudden1 and1 unlike the insidious fatality of hot countries1 produces its results rapidly4 ,it requires hardly a single winter to tell who are to be the heat-making and acclimatized men4 ,petersen1 for instance1 who has resided for two years at ,upernavik1 seldom enters a room with a fire4 ,another of our party1 ,george ,riley1 with a vigorous constitution1 established habits of free exposure1 and active cheerful temperament1 has so inured himself to the cold1 that he sleeps on our sledge journeys without a blanket or any other covering than his walking suit1 while the outside temperature is -#cj40 ,illustration3 #aj4 ,,arctic ,,clothing4 ,there are many proofs that a milder climate once reigned in the northern regions of the globe4 ,fossil pieces of wood1 petrified acorns and fir-cones have been found in the interior of ,banks's ,land by ,m',clure's sledging-parties4 ,at ,anakerdluk1 in ,north ,greenland 7#gj ,n471 a large forest lies buried on a mountain surrounded by glaciers1 #ajhj feet above the level of the sea4 ,not only the trunks and branches1 but even the leaves1 fruit-cones1 and seeds have been preserved in the soil1 and enable the botanist to determine the species of the plants to which they belong4 ,they show that1 besides firs and sequoias1 oaks1 plantains1 elms1 magnolias1 and even laurels1 indicating a climate such as that of ,lausanne or ,geneva1 flourished during the miocene period in a country where now even the willow is compelled to creep along the ground4 ,during the same epoch of the earth's history ,spitzbergen was likewise covered with stately forests4 ,the same poplars and the same swamp-cypress 7,taxodium dubium7 which then flourished in ,north ,greenland have been found in a fossilized state at ,bell ,sound 7#gf ,n47 by the ,swedish naturalists1 who also discovered a plantain and a linden as high as #gh and #gi in ,king's ,bay--a proof that in those times the climate of ,spitzbergen can not have been colder than that which now reigns in ,southern ,sweden and ,norway1 eighteen degrees nearer to the line4 ,we know that at present the fir1 the poplar1 and the beech grow fifteen degrees farther to the north than the plantain--and the miocene period no doubt exhibited the same proportion4 ,thus the poplars and firs which then grew in ,spitzbergen along with plantains and lindens must have ranged as far as the pole itself1 supposing that point to be dry land4 ,in the miocene times the ,arctic zone evidently presented a very different aspect from that which it wears at present4 ,now1 during the greater part of the year1 an immense glacial desert1 which through its floating bergs and drift-ice depresses the temperature of countries situated far to the south1 it then consisted of verdant lands covered with luxuriant forests and bathed by an open sea4 ,what may have been the cause of these amazing changes of climate8 ,the readiest answer seems to be--a different distribution of sea and land2 but there is no reason to believe that in the miocene times there was less land in the ,arctic zone than at present1 nor can any possible combination of water and dry land be imagined sufficient to account for the growth of laurels in ,greenland or of plantains in ,spitzbergen4 ,dr4 ,oswald ,heer is inclined to seek for an explanation of the phenomenon1 not in mere local terrestrial changes1 but in a difference of the earth's position in the heavens4 ,illustration3 #aa4 ,,arctic ,,moonlight4 ,we now know that our sun1 with his attendant planets and satellites1 performs a vast circle1 embracing perhaps hundreds of thousands of years1 round another star1 and that we are constantly entering new regions of space untravelled by our earth before4 ,we come from the unknown1 and plunge into the unknown2 but so much is certain1 that our solar system rolls at present through a space but thinly peopled with stars1 and there is no reason to doubt that it may once have wandered through one of those celestial provinces where1 as the telescope shows us1 constellations are far more densely clustered4 ,but1 as every star is a blazing sun1 the greater or lesser number of these heavenly bodies must evidently have a proportionate influence upon the temperature of space2 and thus we may suppose that during the miocene period our earth1 being at that time in a populous sidereal region1 enjoyed the benefit of a higher temperature1 which clothed even its poles with verdure4 ,in the course of ages the sun conducted his herd of planets into more solitary and colder regions1 which caused the warm miocene times to be followed by the glacial period1 during which the ,swiss flat lands bore an ,arctic character1 and finally the sun emerged into a space of an intermediate character1 which determines the present condition of the climates of our globe4 ,illustration3 #ab4 ,,aurora ,,seen ,,in ,,norway4 ,though ,nature generally wears a more stern and forbidding aspect on advancing toward the pole1 yet the high latitudes have many beauties of their own4 ,nothing can exceed the magnificence of an ,arctic sunset1 clothing the snow-clad mountains and the skies with all the glories of color1 or be more serenely beautiful than the clear star-light night1 illumined by the brilliant moon1 which for days continually circles around the horizon1 never setting until she has run her long course of brightness4 ,the uniform whiteness of the landscape and the general transparency of the atmosphere add to the lustre of her beams1 which serve the natives to guide their nomadic life1 and to lead them to their hunting-grounds4 ,illustration3 #ac4 ,,aurora ,,seen ,,in ,,greenland4 ,but of all the magnificent spectacles that relieve the monotonous gloom of the ,arctic winter1 there is none to equal the magical beauty of the ,aurora4 ,night covers the snow-clad earth2 the stars glimmer feebly through the haze which so frequently dims their brilliancy in the high latitudes1 when suddenly a broad and clear bow of light spans the horizon in the direction where it is traversed by the magnetic meridian4 ,this bow sometimes remains for several hours1 heaving or waving to and fro1 before it sends forth streams of light ascending to the zenith4 ,sometimes these flashes proceed from the bow of light alone2 at others they simultaneously shoot forth from many opposite parts of the horizon1 and form a vast sea of fire whose brilliant waves are continually changing their position4 ,finally they all unite in a magnificent crown or copula of light1 with the appearance of which the phenomenon attains its highest degree of splendor4 ,the brilliancy of the streams1 which are commonly red at their base1 green in the middle1 and light yellow toward the zenith1 increases1 while at the same time they dart with greater vivacity through the skies4 ,the colors are wonderfully transparent1 the red approaching to a clear blood-red1 the green to a pale emerald tint4 ,on turning from the flaming firmament to the earth1 this also is seen to glow with a magical light4 ,the dark sea1 black as jet1 forms a striking contrast to the white snow-plain or the distant ice-mountain2 all the outlines tremble as if they belonged to the unreal world of dreams4 ,the imposing silence of the night heightens the charms of the magnificent spectacle4 ,but gradually the crown fades1 the bow of light dissolves1 the streams become shorter1 less frequent1 and less vivid2 and finally the gloom of winter once more descends upon the northern desert4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,arctic ,,land ,,quadrupeds ,,and ,,birds4 ,the ,reindeer4--,structure of its ,foot4--,clattering ,noise when walking4--,antlers4--,extraordinary olfactory ,powers4--,the ,icelandic ,moss4--,present and ,former ,range of the ,reindeer4-- ,its invaluable ,qualities as an ,arctic domestic ,animal4--,revolts against ,oppression4--,enemies of the ,reindeer4--,the ,wolf4--,the ,glutton or ,wolverine4--,gad-flies4--,the ,elk or ,moose-deer4--,the ,musk-ox4--,the ,wild ,sheep of the ,rocky ,mountains4--,the ,siberian ,argali4--,the ,arctic ,fox4--,its ,burrows4--,the ,lemmings4--,their ,migrations and ,enemies4--,arctic ,anatid4--,the ,snow-bunting4--,the ,lapland ,bunting4--,the ,sea-eagle4--,drowned by a ,dolphin4 ,the reindeer may well be called the camel of the northern wastes1 for it is a no less valuable companion to the ,laplander or to the ,samojede than the 8ship of the desert0 to the wandering ,bedouin4 ,it is the only member of the numerous deer family that has been domesticated by man2 but though undoubtedly the most useful1 it is by no means the most comely of its race4 ,its clear1 dark eye has1 indeed1 a beautiful expression1 but it has neither the noble proportions of the stag nor the grace of the roebuck1 and its thick square-formed body is far from being a model of elegance4 ,its legs are short and thick1 its feet broad1 but extremely well adapted for walking over the snow or on a swampy ground4 ,the front hoofs1 which are capable of great lateral expansion1 curve upward1 while the two secondary ones behind 7which are but slightly developed in the fallow deer and other members of the family7 are considerably prolonged3 a structure which1 by giving the animal a broader base to stand upon1 prevents it from sinking too deeply into the snow or the morass4 ,had the foot of the reindeer been formed like that of our stag1 it would have been as unable to drag the ,laplander's sledge with such velocity over the yielding snow-fields as the camel would be to perform his long marches through the desert without the broad elastic sole-pad on which he firmly paces the unstable sands4 ,the short legs and broad feet of the reindeer likewise enable it to swim with greater ease--a power of no small importance in countries abounding in rivers and lakes1 and where the scarcity of food renders perpetual migrations necessary4 ,when the reindeer walks or merely moves1 a remarkable clattering sound is heard to some distance1 about the cause of which naturalists and travellers by no means agree4 ,most probably it results from the great length of the two digits of the cloven hoof1 which when the animal sets its foot upon the ground separate widely1 and when it again raises its hoof suddenly clap against each other4 ,a long mane of a dirty white color hangs from the neck of the reindeer4 ,in summer the body is brown above and white beneath2 in winter1 long-haired and white4 ,its antlers are very different from those of the stag1 having broad palmated summits1 and branching back to the length of three or four feet4 ,their weight is frequently very considerable--twenty or twenty-five pounds2 and it is remarkable that both sexes have horns1 while in all other members of the deer race the males alone are in possession of this ornament or weapon4 ,illustration3 #ad4 ,,group ,,of ,,reindeer4 ,the female brings forth in ,may a single calf1 rarely two4 ,this is small and weak1 but after a few days it follows the mother1 who suckles her young but a short time1 as it is soon able to seek and to find its food4 ,the reindeer gives very little milk--at the very utmost1 after the young has been weaned1 a bottleful daily2 but the quality is excellent1 for it is uncommonly thick and nutritious4 ,it consists almost entirely of cream1 so that a great deal of water can be added before it becomes inferior to the best cow-milk4 ,its taste is excellent1 but the butter made from it is rancid1 and hardly to be eaten1 while the cheese is very good4 ,the only food of the reindeer during winter consists of moss1 and the most surprising circumstance in his history is the instinct1 or the extraordinary olfactory powers1 whereby he is enabled to discover it when hidden beneath the snow4 ,however deep the ,lichen rangiferinus may be buried1 the animal is aware of its presence the moment he comes to the spot1 and this kind of food is never so agreeable to him as when he digs for it himself4 ,in his manner of doing this he is remarkably adroit4 ,having first ascertained1 by thrusting his muzzle into the snow1 whether the moss lies below or not1 he begins making a hole with his fore feet1 and continues working until at length he uncovers the lichen4 ,no instance has ever occurred of a reindeer making such a cavity without discovering the moss he seeks4 ,in summer their food is of a different nature2 they are then pastured upon green herbs or the leaves of trees4 ,judging from the lichen's appearance in the hot months1 when it is dry and brittle1 one might easily wonder that so large a quadruped as the reindeer should make it his favorite food and fatten upon it2 but toward the month of ,september the lichen becomes soft1 tender1 and damp1 with a taste like wheat-bran4 ,in this state its luxuriant and flowery ramifications somewhat resemble the leaves of endive1 and are as white as snow4 ,though domesticated since time immemorial1 the reindeer has only partly been brought under the yoke of man1 and wanders in large wild herds both in the ,north ,american wastes1 where it has never yet been reduced to servitude1 and in the forests and tundras of the ,old ,world4 ,in ,america1 where it is called 8caribou10 it extends from ,labrador to ,melville ,island and ,washington ,land2 in ,europe and ,asia it is found from ,lapland and ,norway1 and from the mountains of ,mongolia and the banks of the ,ufa1 as far as ,nova ,zembla and ,spitzbergen4 ,many centuries ago--probably during the glacial period--its range was still more extensive1 as reindeer bones are frequently found in ,french and ,german caves1 and bear testimony to the severity of the climate which at that time reigned in ,central ,europe2 for the reindeer is a cold-loving animal1 and will not thrive under a milder sky4 ,all attempts to prolong its life in our zoological gardens have failed1 and even in the royal park at ,stockholm ,hogguer saw some of these animals1 which were quite languid and emaciated during the summer1 although care had been taken to provide them with a cool grotto to which they could retire during the warmer hours of the day4 ,in summer the reindeer can enjoy health only in the fresh mountain air or along the bracing sea-shore1 and has as great a longing for a low temperature as man for the genial warmth of his fireside in winter4 ,the reindeer is easily tamed1 and soon gets accustomed to its master1 whose society it loves1 attracted as it were by a kind of innate sympathy2 for1 unlike all other domestic animals1 it is by no means dependent on man for its subsistence1 but finds its nourishment alone1 and wanders about freely in summer and in winter without ever being inclosed in a stable4 ,these qualities are inestimable in countries where it would be utterly impossible to keep any domestic animal requiring shelter and stores of provisions during the long winter months1 and make the reindeer the fit companion of the northern nomad1 whose simple wants it almost wholly supplies4 ,during his wanderings1 it carries his tent and scanty household furniture1 or drags his sledge over the snow4 ,on account of the weakness of its back-bone1 it is less fit for riding1 and requires to be mounted with care1 as a violent shock easily dislocates its vertebral column2 the saddle is placed on the haunches4 ,you would hardly suppose the reindeer to be the same animal when languidly creeping along under a rider's weight1 as when1 unencumbered by a load1 it vaults with the lightness of a bird over the obstacles in its way to obey the call of its master4 ,the reindeer can be easily trained to drag a sledge1 but great care must be taken not to beat or otherwise ill-treat it1 as it then becomes obstinate1 and quite unmanageable4 ,when forced to drag too heavy a load1 or taxed in any way above its strength1 it not seldom turns round upon its tyrant1 and attacks him with its horns and fore feet4 ,to save himself from its fury1 he is then obliged to overturn his sledge1 and to seek a refuge under its bottom until the rage of the animal has abated4 ,after the death of the reindeer1 it may truly be said that every part of its body is put to some use4 ,the flesh is very good1 and the tongue and marrow are considered a great delicacy4 ,the blood1 of which not a drop is allowed to be lost1 is either drunk warm or made up into a kind of black pudding4 ,the skin furnishes not only clothing impervious to the cold1 but tents and bedding2 and spoons1 knife-handles1 and other household utensils are made out of the bones and horns2 the latter serve also1 like the claws1 for the preparation of an excellent glue1 which the ,chinese1 who buy them for this purpose of the ,russians1 use as a nutritious jelly4 ,in ,tornea the skins of new-born reindeer are prepared and sent to ,st4 ,petersburg to be manufactured into gloves1 which are extremely soft1 but very dear4 ,thus the cocoa-nut palm1 the tree of a hundred uses1 hardly renders a greater variety of services to the islanders of the ,indian ,ocean than the reindeer to the ,laplander or the ,samojede2 and1 to the honor of these barbarians be it mentioned1 they treat their invaluable friend and companion with a grateful affection which might serve as an example to far more civilized nations4 ,the reindeer attains an age of from twenty to twenty-five years1 but in its domesticated state it is generally killed when from six to ten years old4 ,its most dangerous enemies are the wolf1 and the glutton or wolverine 7,gulo borealis or arcticus71 which belongs to the bloodthirsty marten and weasel family1 and is said to be of uncommon fierceness and strength4 ,it is about the size of a large badger1 between which animal and the pole-cat it seems to be intermediate1 nearly resembling the former in its general figure and aspect1 and agreeing with the latter as to its dentition4 ,no dog is capable of mastering a glutton1 and even the wolf is hardly able to scare it from its prey4 ,its feet are very short1 so that it can not run swiftly1 but it climbs with great facility upon trees1 or ascends even almost perpendicular rock-walls1 where it also seeks a refuge when pursued4 ,when it perceives a herd of reindeer browsing near a wood or a precipice1 it generally lies in wait upon a branch or some high cliff1 and springs down upon the first animal that comes within its reach4 ,sometimes also it steals unawares upon its prey1 and suddenly bounding upon its back1 kills it by a single bite in the neck4 ,many fables worthy of ,mnchausen have been told about its voracity2 for instance1 that it is able to devour two reindeer at one meal1 and that1 when its stomach is exorbitantly distended with food1 it will press itself between two trees or stones to make room for a new repast4 ,it will1 indeed1 kill in one night six or eight reindeer1 but it contents itself with sucking their blood1 as the weasel does with fowls1 and eats no more at one meal than any other carnivorous animal of its own size4 ,besides the attacks of its mightier enemies1 the reindeer is subject to the persecutions of two species of gad-fly1 which torment it exceedingly4 ,the one 7strus tarandi71 called ,hurbma by the ,laplanders1 deposits its glutinous eggs upon the animal's back4 ,the larv1 on creeping out1 immediately bore themselves into the skin1 where by their motion and suction they cause so many small swellings or boils1 which gradually grow to the size of an inch or more in diameter1 with an opening at the top of each1 through which the larv may be seen imbedded in a purulent fluid4 ,frequently the whole back of the animal is covered with these boils1 which1 by draining its fluids1 produce emaciation and disease4 ,as if aware of this danger1 the reindeer runs wild and furious as soon as it hears the buzzing of the 'fly1 and seeks a refuge in the nearest water4 ,the other species of gad-fly 7strus nasalis7 lays its eggs in the nostrils of the reindeer2 and the larv1 boring themselves into the fauces and beneath the tongue of the poor animal1 are a great source of annoyance1 as is shown by its frequent sniffling and shaking of the head4 ,a pestilential disorder like the rinderpest will sometimes sweep away whole herds4 ,thus in a few weeks a rich ,laplander or ,samojede may be reduced to poverty1 and the proud possessor of several thousands of reindeer be compelled to seek the precarious livelihood of the northern fisherman4 ,the elk or moose-deer 7,cervus alces7 is another member of the cervine race peculiar to the forests of the north4 ,in size it is far superior to the stag1 but it can not boast of an elegant shape1 the head being disproportionately large1 the neck short and thick1 and its immense horns1 which sometimes weigh near fifty pounds1 each dilating almost immediately from the base into a broad palmated form2 while its long legs1 high shoulders1 and heavy upper lip hanging very much over the lower1 give it an uncouth appearance4 ,the color of the elk is a dark grayish-brown1 but much paler on the legs and beneath the tail4 ,illustration3 #ae4 ,,elks ,we owe the first description of this gigantic deer to ,julius ,csar1 in whose time it was still a common inhabitant of the ,german forests4 ,but the conqueror of ,gaul can hardly have seen it himself1 or he would not have ascribed to it a single horn1 placed in the middle of the forehead1 or said that both sexes are perfectly alike1 for the female is smaller and has no antlers4 ,at present the elk is still found in the swampy forests of ,east ,prussia1 ,lithuania1 and ,poland1 but it chiefly resides in the more northern woods of ,russia1 ,siberia1 and ,america4 ,it is a mild and harmless animal1 principally supporting itself by browsing the boughs of willows1 asps1 service-trees1 and other soft species of wood4 ,it does not1 like the reindeer1 seek a refuge against the attacks of the gad-flies1 by wandering to the coasts of the sea1 or retreating to the bare mountains1 where it would soon perish for the want of adequate food1 but plunges up to the nose into the next river1 where it finds1 moreover1 a species of water-grass 7,festuca fluitans7 which it likes to feed upon4 ,though naturally mild and harmless1 it displays a high degree of courage1 and even ferocity when suddenly attacked2 defending itself with great vigor1 not only with its horns1 but also by striking violently with its fore feet1 in the use of which it is particularly dexterous4 ,it is generally caught in traps1 as it is extremely shy and watchful1 and finds an easy retreat in the swamp or the forest4 ,the only time of the year when it can be easily chased is in the spring1 when the softened snow gets covered during the night with a thin crust of ice which is too weak to bear the animal's weight4 ,though not ranging so far north as the reindeer or the elk1 we find in the ,old ,world the red-deer 7,cervus elaphus71 in the vicinity of ,drontheim1 in ,norway1 and along with the roebuck beyond ,lake ,baikal1 in ,siberia1 while in ,america the large-eared deer 7,cervus macrotis71 and the ,wapiti1 or ,canada stag 7,cervus strongylo-ceras71 extend their excursions beyond #ee of northern latitude4 ,the latter is much larger and of a stronger make than the ,european red-deer1 frequently growing to the height of our tallest oxen1 and possessing great activity as well as strength4 ,the flesh is little prized1 but the hide1 when made into leather after the ,indian fashion1 is said not to turn hard in drying after being wet--a quality which justly entitles it to a preference over almost every other kind of leather4 ,illustration3 #af4 ,,the ,,musk-,,ox4 ,one of the most remarkable quadrupeds of the high northern regions is the musk-ox 7,ovibos moschatus71 which by some naturalists has been considered as intermediate between the sheep and the ox4 ,it is about the height of a deer1 but of much stouter proportions4 ,the horns are very broad at the base1 almost meeting on the forehead1 and curving downward between the eye and ears until about the level of the mouth1 when they turn upward4 ,its long thick brown or black hair hanging down below the middle of the leg1 and covering on all parts of the animal a fine kind of soft ash-colored wool1 which is of the finest description1 and capable of forming the most beautiful fabrics manufactured1 enables it to remain even during the winter beyond #gj of northern latitude4 ,in spring it wanders over the ice as far as ,melville ,island1 or even ,smith's ,sound1 where a number of its bones were found by ,dr4 ,kane4 ,in ,september it withdraws more to the south1 and spends the coldest months on the verge of the forest region4 ,like the reindeer1 it subsists chiefly on lichens and grasses4 ,it runs nimbly1 and climbs hills and rocks with great ease4 ,its fossil remains1 or those of a very analogous species1 have been discovered in ,siberia3 at present it is exclusively confined to the ,new ,world4 ,in the ,rocky ,mountains1 from the ,mexican ,cordillera plateaux as far as #fh ,n4 lat41 dwells the wild sheep 7,ovis montana71 distinguished by the almost circular bend of its large1 triangular1 transversely striped horns1 from its relative the ,siberian argali 7,ovis argali71 which is supposed to be the parent of our domestic sheep1 and far surpasses it in size and delicacy of flesh4 ,both the ,american and the ,asiatic wild sheep are in the highest degree active and vigorous1 ascending abrupt precipices with great agility1 and1 like the wild goat1 going over the narrowest and most dangerous passes with perfect safety4 ,among the carnivorous quadrupeds of the northern regions1 many1 like the lynx1 the wolf1 the bear1 the glutton1 and other members of the weasel tribe1 have their head-quarters in the forests1 and only occasionally roam over the tundras2 but the ,arctic fox 7,canis lagopus7 almost exclusively inhabits the treeless wastes that fringe the ,polar ,ocean1 and is found on almost all the islands that lie buried in its bosom4 ,this pretty little creature1 which in winter grows perfectly white1 knows how to protect itself against the most intense cold1 either by seeking a refuge in the clefts of rocks1 or by burrowing to a considerable depth in a sandy soil4 ,it principally preys upon lemmings1 stoats1 polar hares1 as well as upon all kinds of water-fowl and their eggs2 but when pinched by hunger1 it does not disdain the carcasses of fish1 or the molluscs and crustaceans it may chance to pick up on the shore4 ,its enemies are the glutton1 the snowy owl1 and man1 who1 from the ,equator to the poles1 leaves no creature unmolested that can in any way satisfy his wants4 ,illustration3 #ag4 ,,argali4 ,the lemmings1 of which there are many species1 are small rodents1 peculiar to the ,arctic regions1 both in the ,new and in the ,old ,world1 where they are found as far to the north as vegetation extends4 ,they live on grass1 roots1 the shoots of the willow1 and the dwarf birch1 but chiefly on lichens4 ,they do not gather hoards of provisions for the winter1 but live upon what they find beneath the snow4 ,they seldom prove injurious to man1 as the regions they inhabit are generally situated beyond the limits of agriculture4 ,from the voles1 to whom they are closely allied1 they are distinguished by having the foot-sole covered with stiff hairs1 and by the strong crooked claws with which their fore feet are armed4 ,the best known species is the ,norwegian lemming 7,lemmus norwegicus71 which is found on the high mountains of the ,dovrefjeld1 and farther to the north on the dry parts of the tundra1 where it inhabits small burrows under stones or in the moss4 ,its long and thick hair is of a tawny color1 and prettily marked with black spots4 ,the migrations of the lemming have been grossly exaggerated by ,olaus ,magnus and ,pontoppidan1 to whom the natural history of the ,north owes so many fables4 ,as they breed several times in the year1 producing five or six at a birth1 they of course multiply very fast under favorable circumstances1 and are then forced to leave the district which is no longer able to afford them food4 ,but this takes place very seldom1 for when ,mr4 ,brehm visited ,scandinavia1 the people on the ,dovrefjeld knew nothing about the migrations of the lemming1 and his inquiries on the subject proved equally fruitless in ,lapland and in ,finland4 ,at all events1 it is a fortunate circumstance that the lemmings have so many enemies1 as their rapid multiplication might else endanger the balance of existence in the northern regions4 ,the inclemencies of the climate are a chief means for keeping them in check4 ,a wet summer1 an early cold and snowless autumn destroy them by millions1 and then of course years are necessary to recruit their numbers4 ,with the exception of the bear and the hedgehog1 they are pursued by all the northern carnivora4 ,the wolf1 the fox1 the glutton1 the marten1 the ermine devour them with avidity1 and a good lemming season is a time of unusual plenty for the hungry ,laplander's dog4 ,the snowy owl1 whose dense plumage enables it to be a constant resident on the tundra1 almost exclusively frequents those places where lemmings1 its favorite food1 are to be found2 the buzzards are constantly active in their destruction2 the crow feeds its young with lemmings2 and even the poor ,lap1 when pressed by hunger1 seizes a stick1 and1 for want of better game1 goes out lemming-hunting1 and rejoices when he can kill a sufficient number for his dinner4 ,illustration3 #ah4 ,,the ,,snowy ,,owl4 ,several birds1 such as the snowy owl and the ptarmigan 7,lagopus albus71 which can easily procure its food under the snow1 winter in the highest latitudes2 but by far the greater number are merely summer visitants of the ,arctic regions4 ,after the little bunting1 the first arrivals in spring are the snow-geese1 who likewise are the first to leave the dreary regions of the north on their southerly migration4 ,the common and king eider-duck1 the ,brent geese1 the great northern black and red throated divers1 are the next to make their appearance1 followed by the pintail and longtail ducks 7,anas caudacuta and glacialis71 the latest visitors of the season4 ,these birds generally take their departure in the same order as they arrive4 ,the period of their stay is but short1 but their presence imparts a wonderfully cheerful aspect to regions at other times so deserted and dreary4 ,as soon as the young are sufficiently fledged1 they again betake themselves to the southward2 the character of the season much influencing the period of their departure4 ,as far as man has penetrated1 on the most northern islets of ,spitzbergen1 or on the ice-blocked shores of ,kennedy ,channel1 the eider-duck and others of the ,arctic anatid build their nests2 and there is no reason to doubt that if the pole has breeding-places for them1 it re-echoes with their cries4 ,nor need they fear to plunge into the very heart of the ,arctic zone1 for the flight of a goose being forty or fifty miles an hour1 these birds may breed in the remotest northern solitude1 and in a few hours1 on a fall of deep autumn snow1 convey themselves by their swiftness of wing to better feeding-grounds4 ,one of the most interesting of the ,arctic birds is the snow-bunting 7,plectrophanes nivalis71 which may properly be called the polar singing-bird1 as it breeds in the most northern isles1 such as ,spitzbergen and ,novaja ,zemlya1 or on the highest mountains of the ,dovrefjeld1 in ,scandinavia1 where it enlivens the fugitive summer with its short but agreeable notes1 sounding doubly sweet from the treeless wastes in which they are heard4 ,it invariably builds its nest1 which it lines with feathers and down1 in the fissures of mountain rocks or under large stones1 and the entrance is generally so narrow as merely to allow the parent birds to pass4 ,the remarkably dense winter plumage of the snow-bunting especially qualifies it for a northern residence1 and when in captivity it will rather bear the severest cold than even a moderate degree of warmth4 ,in its breeding-places it lives almost exclusively on insects1 particularly gnats3 during the winter it feeds on all sorts of seeds1 and then famine frequently compels it to wander to a less rigorous climate4 ,illustration3 #ai4 ,,bernide ,,goose4 ,the ,lapland bunting 7,centrophanes lapponicus71 whose white and black plumage is agreeably diversified with red1 is likewise an inhabitant of the higher latitudes1 where it is frequently seen in the barren grounds and tundras4 ,both these birds are distinguished by the very long claw of their hind toe1 a structure which enables them to run about with ease upon the snow4 ,illustration3 #bj4 ,,the ,,sea-,,eagle4 ,among the raptorial birds of the ,arctic regions1 the sea-eagle 7,haliatus albicilla7 holds a conspicuous rank4 ,at his approach the gull and the auk conceal themselves in the fissures of the rocks1 but are frequently dragged forth by their relentless enemy4 ,the divers are1 according to ,wahlengren1 more imperilled from his attacks than those sea-birds which do not plunge1 for the latter rise into the air as soon as their piercing eye espies the universally dreaded tyrant1 and thus escape2 while the former1 blindly trusting to the element in which they are capable of finding a temporary refuge1 allow him to approach1 and then suddenly diving1 fancy themselves in safety1 while the eagle is only waiting for the moment of their re-appearance to repeat his attack4 ,twice or thrice they may possibly escape his claws by a rapid plunge1 but when for the fourth time they dive out of the water1 and remain but one instant above the surface1 that instant seals their doom4 ,the sea-eagle is equally formidable to the denizens of the ocean1 but sometimes too great a confidence in his strength leads to his destruction1 for ,kittlitz was informed by the inhabitants of ,kamschatka that1 pouncing upon a dolphin1 he is not seldom dragged down into the water by the diving cetacean in whose skin his talons remain fixed4 ,illustration3 #ba4 ,,arctic ,,navigation4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,arctic ,,seas4 ,dangers peculiar to the ,arctic ,sea4--,ice-fields4--,hummocks4-- ,collision of ,ice-fields4--,icebergs4--,their ,origin4--,their ,size4--,the ,glaciers which give them ,birth4--,their ,beauty4-- ,sometimes useful ,auxiliaries to the ,mariner4--,dangers of anchoring to a ,berg4--,a crumbling ,berg4--,the ,ice-blink4--,fogs4-- ,transparency of the ,atmosphere4--,phenomena of ,reflection and ,refraction4--,causes which prevent the ,accumulation of ,polar ,ice4-- ,tides4--,currents4--,ice a bad ,conductor of ,heat4--,wise ,provisions of ,nature4 ,the heart of the first navigator1 says ,horace1 must have been shielded with threefold brass--and yet the poet knew but the sunny ,mediterranean1 with its tepid floods and smiling shores3 how1 then1 would he have found words to express his astonishment at the intrepid seamen who1 to open new vistas to science or new roads to commerce1 first ventured to face the unknown terrors of the ,arctic main8 ,in every part of the ocean the mariner has to guard against the perils of hidden shoals and sunken cliffs1 but the high northern waters are doubly and trebly dangerous2 for here1 besides those rocks which are firmly rooted to the ground1 there are others which1 freely floating about1 threaten to crush his vessel to pieces1 or to force it along with them in helpless bondage4 ,the ,arctic navigators have given various names to these movable shoals1 which are the cause of so much delay and danger4 ,they are icebergs when they tower to a considerable height above the waters1 and ice-fields when they have a vast horizontal extension4 ,a floe is a detached portion of a field2 pack-ice1 a large area of floes or smaller fragments closely driven together so as to oppose a firm barrier to the progress of a ship2 and drift-ice1 loose ice in motion1 but not so firmly packed as to prevent a vessel from making her way through its yielding masses4 ,illustration3 #bb4 ,,among ,,hummocks4 ,the large ice-fields which the whaler encounters in ,baffin's ,bay1 or on the seas between ,spitzbergen and ,greenland1 constitute one of the marvels of the deep4 ,there is a solemn grandeur in the slow majestic motion with which they are drifted by the currents to the south2 and their enormous masses1 as mile after mile comes floating by1 impress the spectator with the idea of a boundless extent and an irresistible power4 ,but1 vast and mighty as they are1 they are unable to withstand the elements combined for their destruction1 and their apparently triumphal march leads them only to their ruin4 ,illustration3 #bc4 ,,drifting ,,in ,,the ,,ice4 ,when they first descend from their northern strongholds1 the ice of which they are composed is of the average thickness of from ten to fifteen feet1 and their surface is sometimes tolerably smooth and even1 but in general it is covered with numberless ice-blocks or hummocks piled upon each other in wild confusion to a height of forty or fifty feet1 the result of repeated collisions before flakes and floes were soldered into fields4 ,before the end of ,june they are covered with snow1 sometimes six feet deep1 which melting during the summer forms small ponds or lakes upon their surface4 ,illustration3 #bd4 ,,forms ,,of ,,icebergs4 ,not seldom ice-fields are whirled about in rotatory motion1 which causes their circumference to gyrate with a velocity of several miles per hour4 ,when a field thus sweeping through the waters comes into collision with another which may possibly be revolving with equal rapidity in an opposite direction--when masses not seldom twenty or thirty miles in diameter1 and each weighing many millions of tons1 clash together1 imagination can hardly conceive a more appalling scene4 ,the whalers at all times require unremitting vigilance to secure their safety1 but scarcely in any situation so much as when navigating amidst these fields1 which are more particularly dangerous in foggy weather1 as their motions can not then be distinctly observed4 ,no wonder that since the establishment of the fishery numbers of vessels have been crushed to pieces between two fields in motion1 for the strongest ship ever built must needs be utterly unable to resist their power4 ,some have been uplifted and thrown upon the ice2 some have had their hulls completely torn open2 and others have been overrun by the ice1 and buried beneath the fragments piled upon their wreck4 ,illustration3 #be4 ,,forms ,,of ,,icebergs4 ,illustration3 #bf4 ,,forms ,,of ,,icebergs4 ,the icebergs1 which1 as their name indicates1 rise above the water to a much more considerable height than the ice-fields1 have a very different origin1 as they are not formed in the sea itself1 but by the glaciers of the northern highlands4 ,as our rivers are continually pouring their streams into the ocean1 so many of the glaciers or ice-rivers of the ,arctic zone1 descending to the water-edge1 are slowly but constantly forcing themselves farther and farther into the sea4 ,in the summer season1 when the ice is particularly fragile1 the force of cohesion is often overcome by the weight of the prodigious masses that overhang the sea or have been undermined by its waters2 and in the winter1 when the air is probably #dj or #ej below zero and the sea from #bh to #cj above1 the unequal expansion of those parts of the mass exposed to so great a difference of temperature can not fail to produce the separation of large portions4 ,most of these swimming glacier-fragments1 or icebergs1 which are met with by the whaler in the ,northern ,atlantic1 are formed on the mountainous west coast of ,greenland by the large glaciers which discharge themselves into the fiords from ,smith's ,sound to ,disco ,bay1 as here the sea is sufficiently deep to float them away1 in spite of the enormous magnitude they frequently attain4 ,as they drift along down ,baffin's ,bay and ,davis's ,strait1 they not seldom run aground on some shallow shore1 where1 bidding defiance to the short summer1 they frequently remain for many a year4 ,illustration3 #bg4 ,,icebergs ,,aground4 ,dr4 ,hayes measured an immense iceberg which had stranded off the little harbor of ,tessuissak1 to the north of ,melville ,bay4 ,the square wall which faced toward his base of measurement was #cae feet high1 and a fraction over three-quarters of a mile long4 ,being almost square-sided above the sea1 the same shape must have extended beneath it2 and since1 by measurements made two days before1 ,hayes had discovered that fresh-water ice floating in salt water has above the surface to below it the proportion of one to seven1 this crystallized mountain must have gone aground in a depth of nearly half a mile4 ,a rude estimate of its size1 made on the spot1 gave in cubical contents about #bg1jjj millions of feet1 and in weight something like #bjjj millions of tons6 ,captain ,ross in his first voyage mentions another of these wrecked bergs1 which was found to be #dafi yards long1 #cfhi yards broad1 and #ea feet high above the level of the sea4 ,it was aground in #fa fathoms1 and its weight was estimated by an officer of the 8,alexander0 at #a1bib1cig1fgc tons4 ,on ascending the flat top of this iceberg1 it was found occupied by a huge white bear1 who justly deeming 8discretion the best part of valor10 sprang into the sea before he could be fired at4 ,the vast dimensions of the icebergs appear less astonishing when we consider that many of the glaciers or ice-rivers from which they are dislodged are equal in size or volume to the largest streams of continental ,europe4 ,thus one of the eight glaciers existing in the district of ,omenak1 in ,greenland1 is no less than an ,english mile broad1 and forms an ice-wall rising #afj feet above the sea4 ,further to the north1 ,melville ,bay and ,whale ,sound are the seat of vast ice-rivers4 ,here ,tyndall glacier forms a coast-line of ice over two miles long1 almost burying its face in the sea1 and carrying the eye along a broad and winding valley1 up steps of ice of giant height1 until at length the slope loses itself in the unknown ice-desert beyond4 ,but grand above all is the magnificent ,humboldt glacier1 which1 connecting ,greenland and ,washington ,land1 forms a solid glassy wall #cjj feet above the water-level1 with an unknown depth below it1 while its curved face extends full sixty miles in length from ,cape ,agassiz to ,cape ,forbes4 ,in the temperate zone it would be one of the mightiest rivers of the earth2 here1 in the frozen solitudes of the ,north1 it slowly drops its vast fragments into the waters1 making the solitudes around re-echo with their fall4 ,as the ,polar shores of continental ,america and ,siberia are generally flat1 and below the snow-line1 they are consequently deprived both of glaciers and of the huge floating masses to which these give birth4 ,in a high sea the waves beat against an iceberg as against a rock2 and in calm weather where there is a swell1 the noise made by their rising and falling is tremendous4 ,their usual form is that of a high vertical wall1 gradually sloping down to the opposite side1 which is very low2 but frequently they exhibit the most fantastic shapes1 particularly after they have been a long time exposed to the corroding power of the waves1 or of warm rains pelting them from above4 ,a number of icebergs floating in the sea is one of the most magnificent spectacles of nature1 but the wonderful beauty of these crystal cliffs never appears to greater advantage than when clothed by the midnight sun with all the splendid colors of twilight4 ,illustration3 #bh4 ,,icebergs ,,and ,,glacier1 ,,frobisher ,,bay4 8,the bergs10 says ,dr4 ,hayes1 describing one of these enchanting nights1 8had wholly lost their chilly aspect1 and glittering in the blaze of the brilliant heavens1 seemed in the distance like masses of burnished metal or solid flame4 ,nearer at hand they were huge blocks of ,parian marble inlaid with mammoth gems of pearl and opal4 ,one in particular exhibited the perfection of the grand4 ,its form was not unlike that of the ,colosseum1 and it lay so far away that half its height was buried beneath the line of blood-red waters4 ,the sun1 slowly rolling along the horizon1 passed behind it1 and it seemed as if the old ,roman ruins had suddenly taken fire4 ,in the shadow of the bergs the water was a rich green1 and nothing could be more soft and tender than the gradations of color made by the sea shoaling on the sloping tongue of a berg close beside us4 ,the tint increased in intensity where the ice overhung the water1 and a deep cavern near by exhibited the solid color of the malachite mingled with the transparency of the emerald1 while in strange contrast a broad streak of cobalt blue ran diagonally through its body4 ,the bewitching character of the scene was heightened by a thousand little cascades which leaped into the sea from these floating masses1 the water being discharged from lakes of melted snow and ice which reposed in quietude far up in the valleys separating the high icy hills of their upper surface4 ,from other bergs large pieces were now and then detached1 plunging down into the water with deafening noise1 while the slow moving swell of the ocean resounded through their broken archways40 ,illustration3 #bi4 ,,glacier1 ,,bute ,,inlet4 ,a similar gorgeous spectacle was witnessed by ,dr4 ,kane in ,melville ,bay4 ,the midnight sun came out over a great berg1 kindling variously-colored fires on every part of its surface1 and making the ice around the ship one great resplendency of gemwork1 blazing carbuncles and rubies1 and molten gold4 ,in the night the icebergs are readily distinguished even at a distance by their natural effulgence1 and in foggy weather by a peculiar blackness in the atmosphere4 ,as they are not unfrequently drifted by the ,greenland stream considerably to the south of ,newfoundland1 sometimes even as far as the fortieth or thirty-ninth degree of latitude 7,may1 #ahda1 ,june1 #ahdb71 ships sailing through the north-western ,atlantic require to be always on their guard against them4 ,the ill-fated 8,president10 one of our first ocean-steamers1 which was lost on its way to ,new ,york1 without leaving a trace behind1 is supposed to have been sunk by a collision with an iceberg1 and no doubt many a gallant bark has either foundered in the night1 or been hurled by the storm against these floating rocks4 ,but though often dangerous neighbors1 the bergs occasionally prove useful auxiliaries to the mariner4 ,from their greater bulk lying below the water-line1 they are either drifted along by the under-current against the wind1 or1 from their vast dimensions1 are not perceptibly influenced even by the strongest gale1 but1 on the contrary1 have the appearance of moving to windward1 because every other kind of ice is drifted rapidly past them4 ,thus in strong adverse winds1 their broad masses1 fronting the storm like bulwarks1 not seldom afford protection to ships mooring under their lee4 ,anchoring to a berg is1 however1 not always unattended with danger1 particularly when the summer is far advanced1 or in a lower latitude1 as all ice becomes exceedingly fragile when acted on by the sun or by a temperate atmosphere4 ,the blow of an axe then sometimes suffices to rend an iceberg asunder1 and to bury the careless seaman beneath its ruins1 or to hurl him into the yawning chasm4 ,illustration3 #cj4 ,,scaling ,,an ,,iceberg4 ,thus ,scoresby relates the adventure of two sailors who were attempting to fix an anchor to a berg4 ,they began to hew a hole into the ice1 but scarcely had the first blow been struck1 when suddenly the immense mass split from top to bottom and fell asunder1 the two halves falling in contrary directions with a prodigious crash4 ,one of the sailors1 who was possessed of great presence of mind1 immediately scaled the huge fragment on which he was standing1 and remained rocking to and fro on its summit until its equilibrium was restored2 but his companion1 falling between the masses1 would most likely have been crushed to pieces if the current caused by their motion had not swept him within reach of the boat that was waiting for them4 ,frequently large pieces detach themselves spontaneously from an iceberg and fall into the sea with a tremendous noise4 ,when this circumstance1 called 8calving10 takes place1 the iceberg loses its equilibrium1 sometimes turns on one side1 and is occasionally inverted4 ,dr4 ,hayes witnessed the crumbling of an immense berg1 resembling in its general appearance the ,british ,house of ,parliament4 ,first one lofty tower came tumbling into the water1 starting from its surface an immense flock of gulls2 then another followed2 and at length1 after five hours of rolling and crashing1 there remained of this splendid mass of congelation not a fragment that rose fifty feet above the water4 ,one of the most remarkable phenomena of the ,polar ,sea is the ice-blink1 or reflection of the ice against the sky4 ,a stripe of light1 similar to the early dawn of morning1 but without its redness1 appears above the horizon1 and traces a complete arial map of the ice to a distance of many miles beyond the ordinary reach of vision4 ,to the experienced navigator the 8blink0 is frequently of the greatest use1 as it not only points out the vicinity of the drift-ice1 but indicates its nature1 whether compact or loose1 continuous or open4 ,thus ,scoresby relates that on the #gth of ,june1 #ahba1 he saw so distinct an ice-blink1 that as far as twenty or thirty miles all round the horizon he was able to ascertain the figure and probable extent of each ice-field4 ,the packed ice was distinguished from the larger fields by a more obscure and yellow color2 while each water-lane or open passage was indicated by a deep blue stripe or patch4 ,by this means he was enabled to find his way out of the vast masses of ice in which he had been detained for several days1 and to emerge into the open sea4 ,the tendency of the pack-ice to separate in calm weather1 so that one might almost be tempted to believe in a mutual repulsive power of the individual blocks1 is likewise favorable to the ,arctic navigator4 ,the perpetual daylight of summer is another advantage1 but unfortunately the sun is too often veiled by dense mists1 which frequently obscure the air for weeks together1 particularly in ,july4 ,these fogs1 which are a great impediment to the whaler's operations1 have a very depressing influence upon the spirits2 and as they are attended with a low temperature1 which even at noon does not rise much above freezing-point1 the damp cold is also physically extremely unpleasant4 ,at other times the sun sweeps two or three times round the pole without being for a moment obscured by a cloud1 and then the transparency of the air is such that objects the most remote may be seen perfectly distinct and clear4 ,a ship's top-gallant mast1 at the distance of five or six leagues1 may be discerned when just appearing above the horizon with a common perspective-glass1 and the summits of mountains are visible at the distance of from sixty to a hundred miles4 ,on such sunny days1 the strong contrasts of light and shade between the glistening snow and the dark protruding rocks produce a remarkable deception in the apparent distance of the land1 along a steep mountainous coast4 ,when at the distance of twenty miles from ,spitzbergen1 for instance1 it would be easy to induce even a judicious stranger to undertake a passage in a boat to the shore1 from a belief that he was within a league of the land4 ,at this distance the portions of rock and patches of snow1 as well as the contour of the different hills1 are as distinctly marked as similar objects in many other countries1 not having snow about them1 would be at a fourth or a fifth part of the distance4 ,nothing can be more wonderful than the phenomena of the atmosphere dependent on reflection and refraction1 which are frequently observed in the ,arctic seas1 particularly at the commencement or approach of easterly winds4 ,they are probably occasioned by the commixture1 near the surface of the land or sea1 of two streams of air of different temperatures1 so as to occasion an irregular deposition of imperfectly condensed vapor1 which when passing the verge of the horizon apparently raises the objects there situated to a considerable distance above it1 or extends their height beyond their natural dimensions4 ,ice1 land1 ships1 boats1 and other objects1 when thus enlarged and elevated1 are said to loom4 ,the lower part of looming objects are sometimes connected with the horizon by an apparent fibrous or columnar extension of their parts2 at other times they appear to be quite lifted into the air1 a void space being seen between them and the horizon4 ,a most remarkable delusion of this kind was observed by ,scoresby while sailing through the open ice1 far from land4 ,suddenly an immense amphitheatre inclosed by high walls of basaltic ice1 so like natural rock as to deceive one of his most experienced officers1 rose around the ship4 ,sometimes the refraction produced on all sides a similar effect1 but still more frequently remarkable contrasts4 ,single ice-blocks expanded into architectural figures of an extraordinary height1 and sometimes the distant1 deeply indented ice-border looked like a number of towers or minarets1 or like a dense forest of naked trees4 ,scarcely had an object acquired a distinct form1 when it began to dissolve into another4 ,it is well known that similar causes produce similar effects in the warmer regions of the earth4 ,in the midst of the tropical ocean1 the mariner sees verdant islands rise from the waters1 and in the treeless desert fantastic palm-groves wave their fronds1 as if in mockery of the thirsty caravan4 ,when we consider the intense cold which reigns during the greatest part of the year in the ,arctic regions1 we might naturally1 expect to find the whole of the ,polar ,sea covered1 during the winter at least1 with one solid unbroken sheet of ice4 ,but experience teaches us that this is by no means the case2 for the currents1 the tides1 the winds1 and the swell of a turbulent ocean are mighty causes of disruption1 or strong impediments to congelation4 ,both ,lieutenant de ,haven and ,sir ,francis ,m',clintock#a were helplessly carried along1 in the depth of winter1 by the pack-ice in ,lancaster ,sound and ,baffin's ,bay4 ,a berg impelled by a strong under-current rips open an ice-field as if it were a thin sheet of glass2 and in channels1 or on coasts where the tides rise to a considerable height1 their flux and reflux is continually opening crevices and lanes in the ice which covers the waters4 ,that even in the highest latitudes the sea does not close except when at rest1 was fully experienced by ,dr4 ,hayes during his wintering at ,port ,foulke2 for at all times1 even when the temperature of the air was below the freezing-point of mercury1 he could hear from the deck of his schooner the roar of the beating waves4 ,from all these causes there has at no point within the ,arctic ,circle been found a firm ice-belt extending1 either in winter or in summer1 more than from fifty to a hundred miles from land4 ,and even in the narrow channels separating the islands of the ,parry ,archipelago1 or at the mouth of ,smith ,sound1 the waters will not freeze over1 except when sheltered by the land1 or when an ice-pack1 accumulated by long continuance of winds from one quarter1 affords the same protection4 ,illustration3 #ca4 ,,an ,,arctic ,,channel4 ,but the constant motion of the ,polar ,sea1 wherever it expands to a considerable breadth1 would be insufficient to prevent its total congelation1 if it were not assisted by other physical causes4 ,a magnificent system of currents is continually displacing the waters of the ocean1 and forcing the warm floods of the tropical regions to wander to the pole1 while the cold streams of the frigid zone are as constantly migrating toward the ,equator4 ,thus we see the ,gulf ,stream flowing through the broad gateway east of ,spitzbergen1 and forcing out a return current of cold water to the west of ,spitzbergen1 and through ,davis's ,strait4 ,illustration3 #cb4 ,,open ,,water4 ,the comparatively warm floods which1 in consequence of this great law of circulation1 come pouring into the ,arctic seas1 naturally require some time before they are sufficiently chilled to be converted into ice2 and as sea-water has its maximum of density1 or1 in other words1 is heaviest a few degrees above the freezing-point of water1 and then necessarily sinks1 the whole depth of the sea must of course be cooled down to that temperature before freezing can take place4 ,ice being a bad conductor of heat1 likewise limits the process of congelation2 for after attaining a thickness of ten or fifteen feet1 its growth is very slow1 and probably even ceases altogether2 for when floating fields1 or floes1 are found of a greater thickness1 this increase is due to the snow that falls upon their surface1 or to the accumulation of hummocks caused by their collision4 ,thus1 by the combined influence of these various physical agencies1 bounds have been set to the congelation of the ,polar waters4 ,were it otherwise1 the ,arctic lands would have been mere uninhabitable wastes2 for the existence of the seals1 the walrus1 and the whale depends upon their finding some open water at every season of the year2 and deprived of this resource1 all the ,esquimaux1 whose various tribes fringe the coasts in the highest latitudes hitherto discovered1 would perish in a single winter4 ,if the ,arctic glaciers did not discharge their bergs into the sea1 or if no currents conveyed the ice-floes of the north into lower latitudes1 ice would be constantly accumulating in the ,polar world1 and1 destroying the balance of nature1 would ultimately endanger the existence of man over the whole surface of the globe4 ,illustration3 #cc4 ,,glacier ,,discharging4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,arctic ,,marine ,,animals ,populousness of the ,arctic ,seas4--,the ,greenland ,whale4--,the ,fin ,whales4--,the ,narwhal4--,the ,beluga1 or ,white ,dolphin4--,the ,black ,dolphin4--,his wholesale ,massacre on the ,faeroe ,islands4--,the ,orc1 or ,grampus4--,the ,seals4--,the ,walrus4--,its acute ,smell4--,history of a young ,walrus4--,parental ,affection4--,the ,polar ,bear4--,his ,sagacity4--,hibernation of the ,she-bear4--,sea-birds4 ,the vast multitudes of animated beings which people the ,polar ,seas form a remarkable contrast to the nakedness of their bleak and desolate shores4 ,the colder surface-waters almost perpetually exposed to a chilly air1 and frequently covered1 even in summer1 with floating ice1 are indeed unfavorable to the development of organic life2 but this adverse influence is modified by the higher temperature which constantly prevails at a greater depth2 for1 contrary to what takes place in the equatorial seas1 we find in the ,polar ,ocean an increase of temperature from the surface downward1 in consequence of the warmer under-currents1 flowing from the south northward1 and passing beneath the cold waters of the superficial ,arctic current4 ,thus the severity of the ,polar winter remains unfelt at a greater depth of the sea1 where myriads of creatures find a secure retreat against the frost1 and whence they emerge during the long summer's day1 either to line the shores or to ascend the broad rivers of the ,arctic world4 ,between the parallels of #gd and #hj ,scoresby observed that the color of the ,greenland sea varies from the purest ultramarine to olive green1 and from crystalline transparency to striking opacity--appearances which are not transitory1 but permanent4 ,this green semi-opaque water1 whose position varies with the currents1 often forming isolated stripes1 and sometimes spreading over two or three degrees of latitude1 mainly owes its singular aspect to small medus and nudibranchiate molluscs4 ,it is calculated to form one-fourth part of the surface of the sea between the above-mentioned parallels1 so that many thousands of square miles are absolutely teeming with life4 ,on the coast of ,greenland1 where the waters are so exceedingly clear that the bottom and every object upon it are plainly visible even at a depth of eighty fathoms1 the ground is seen covered with gigantic tangles1 which1 together with the animal world circulating among their fronds1 remind the spectator of the coral-reefs of the tropical ocean4 ,nullipores1 mussels1 alcyonians1 sertularians1 ascidians1 and a variety of other sessile animals1 incrust every stone or fill every hollow or crevice of the rocky ground4 ,a dead seal or fish thrown into the sea is soon converted into a skeleton by the myriads of small crustaceans which infest these northern waters1 and1 like the ants in the equatorial forests1 perform the part of scavengers of the deep4 ,thus we find an exuberance of life1 in its smaller and smallest forms1 peopling the ,arctic waters1 and affording nourishment to a variety of strange and bulky creatures--cetaceans1 walruses1 and seals--which annually attract thousands of adventurous seamen to the icy ocean4 ,of these sea-mammalians1 the most important to civilized man is undoubtedly the ,greenland whale 7,balna mysticetus71 or smooth-back1 thus called from its having no dorsal fin4 ,formerly these whales were harpooned in considerable numbers in the ,icelandic waters1 or in the fiords of ,spitzbergen and ,danish ,greenland2 then ,davis's ,straits became the favorite fishing-grounds2 and more recently the inlets and various channels to the east of ,baffin's ,bay have been invaded2 while1 on the opposite side of ,america1 several hundreds of whalers penetrate every year through ,bering's ,straits into the icy sea beyond1 where previously they lived and multiplied1 unmolested except by the ,esquimaux4 ,illustration3 #cd4 ,,the ,,whale4 ,more fortunate than the smooth-back1 the rorquals1 or fin-whales 7,balnoptera boops1 musculus1 physalis1 and rostratus71 still remain in their ancient seats1 from which they are not likely to be dislodged1 as the agility of their movements makes their capture more difficult and dangerous2 while at the same time the small quantity of their fat and the shortness of their baleen render it far less remunerative4 ,they are of a more slender form of body1 and with a more pointed muzzle than the ,greenland whale2 and while the latter attains a length of only sixty feet1 the ,balnoptera boops grows to the vast length of #ajj feet and more4 ,there is also a difference in their food1 for the ,greenland whale chiefly feeds upon the minute animals that crowd the olive-colored waters above described1 or on the hosts of little pteropods that are found in many parts of the ,arctic seas1 while the rorquals frequently accompany the herring-shoals1 and carry death and destruction into their ranks4 ,the seas of ,novaja ,zemlya1 ,spitzbergen1 and ,greenland are the domain of the narwhal1 or sea-unicorn1 a cetacean quite as strange1 but not so fabulous as the terrestrial animal which figures in the arms of ,england4 ,the use of the enormous spirally wound tusk projecting from its upper jaw1 and from which it derives its popular name1 has not yet been clearly ascertained1 some holding it to be an instrument of defense1 while others suppose it to be only an ornament or mark of the superior dignity of the sex to which it has been awarded4 ,illustration3 #ce4 ,,the ,,narwhal4 ,among the numerous dolphins which people the ,arctic and ,subarctic seas1 the beluga 7,delphinus leucas71 improperly called the white whale1 is one of the most interesting4 ,when young it has a brown color1 which gradually changes into a perfect white4 ,it attains a length of from twelve to twenty feet1 has no dorsal fin1 a strong tail three feet broad1 and a round head with a broad truncated snout4 ,beyond #ef of latitude it is frequently seen in large shoals1 particularly near the estuaries of the large ,siberian and ,north ,american rivers1 which it often ascends to a considerable distance in pursuit of the salmon4 ,a troop of belugas diving out of the dark waves of the ,arctic ,sea is said to afford a magnificent spectacle4 ,their white color appears dazzling1 from the contrast of the sombre background1 as they dart about with arrow-like velocity4 ,the black dolphin 7,globicephalus globiceps7 is likewise very common in the ,arctic seas1 both beyond ,bering's ,straits and between ,greenland and ,spitzbergen1 whence it frequently makes excursions to the south4 ,it grows to the length of twenty-four feet1 and is about ten feet in circumference4 ,the skin1 like that of the dolphin tribe in general1 is smooth1 resembling oiled silk2 the color a bluish-black on the back1 and generally whitish on the belly2 the blubber is three or four inches thick4 ,the full-grown have generally twenty-two or twenty-four teeth in each jaw2 and when the mouth is shut1 the teeth lock between one another1 like the teeth of a trap4 ,the dorsal fin is about fifteen inches high1 the tail five feet broad2 the pectoral fins are as many1 long and comparatively narrow2 so that1 armed with such excellent paddles1 the black dolphin is inferior to none of his relatives in swiftness4 ,of an eminently social disposition1 these dolphins sometimes congregate in herds of many hundreds1 under the guidance of several old experienced males1 whom the rest follow like a flock of sheep--a property from which the animal is called in ,shetland the 8ca'ing whale40 ,no cetacean strands more frequently than the black dolphin1 and occasionally large herds have been driven on the shores of ,iceland1 ,norway1 and the ,orkney1 ,shetland and ,faeroe islands1 where their capture is hailed as a godsend4 ,the intelligence that a shoal of ca'ing whales or grinds has been seen approaching the coast1 creates great excitement among the otherwise phlegmatic inhabitants of the ,faeroe ,islands4 ,the whole neighborhood1 old and young1 is instantly in motion1 and soon numerous boats shoot off from shore to intercept the retreat of the dolphins4 ,slowly and steadily they are driven toward the coast2 the phalanx of their enemies draws closer and closer together2 terrified by stones and blows1 they run ashore1 and lie gasping as the flood recedes4 ,then begins the work of death1 amid the loud shouts of the executioners and the furious splashings of the victims4 ,in this manner more than #hjj grinds were massacred on ,august #af1 #aggf2 and during the four summer months that ,langbye sojourned on the island in #ahag1 #fbc were driven on shore1 and served to pay one-half of the imported corn4 ,but1 on the other hand1 many years frequently pass without yielding one single black whale to the tender mercies of the islanders4 ,the ferocious orc1 or grampus 7,delphinus orca71 is the tiger of the ,arctic seas4 ,black above1 white beneath1 it is distinguished by its large dorsal fin1 which curves backward toward the tail1 and rises to the height of two feet or more4 ,measuring no less than twenty-five feet in length and twelve or thirteen in girth1 of a courage equal to its strength1 and armed with formidable teeth1 thirty in each jaw1 the grampus is the dread of the seals1 whom it overtakes in spite of their rapid flight2 and the whale himself would consider it as his most formidable enemy1 were it not for the persecutions of man4 ,the grampus generally ploughs the seas in small troops of four or five1 following each other in close single file1 and alternately disappearing and rising so as to resemble the undulatory motions of one large serpentiform animal4 ,the family of the seals has also numerous and mighty representatives in the ,arctic waters4 ,in the sea of ,bering we meet with the formidable sea-lion and the valuable sea-bear1 while the harp-seal1 the bearded seal1 and the hispid seals 7,phoca grnlandica1 barbata1 hispida71 spreading from the ,parry ,islands to ,novaja ,zemlya1 yield the tribute of their flesh to numerous wild tribes1 and that of their skins to the ,european hunter4 ,few ,arctic animals are more valuable to man1 or more frequently mentioned in ,polar voyages than the walrus or morse 7,trichechus rosmarus71 which1 though allied to the seals1 differs greatly from them by the development of the canines of the upper jaw1 which form two enormous tusks projecting downward to the length of two feet4 ,the morse is one of the largest quadrupeds existing1 as it attains a length of twenty feet1 and a weight of from fifteen hundred to two thousand pounds4 ,in uncouthness of form it surpasses even the ungainly hippopotamus4 ,it has a small head with a remarkably thick upper lip1 covered with large pellucid whiskers or bristles2 the neck is thick and short2 the naked gray or red-brown skin hangs loosely on the ponderous and elongated trunk2 and the short feet terminate in broad fin-like paddles1 resembling large ill-fashioned flaps of leather4 ,its movements on land are extremely slow and awkward1 resembling those of a huge caterpillar1 but in the water it has all the activity of the seals1 or even surpasses them in speed4 ,illustration3 #cf4 ,,walruses ,,on ,,the ,,ice4 ,gregarious1 like the seals and many of the dolphins1 the walruses love to lie on the ice or on the sand-banks1 closely huddled together4 ,on the spot where a walrus lands1 others are sure to follow2 and when the first comers block the shore1 those which arrive later1 instead of landing on a free spot farther on1 prefer giving their friends who are in the way a gentle push with their tusks so as to induce them to make room4 ,timorous and almost helpless on land1 where1 in spite of its formidable tusks1 it falls an easy prey to the attacks of man1 the walrus evinces a greater degree of courage in the water1 where it is able to make a better use of the strength and weapons bestowed upon it by nature4 ,many instances are known where walruses1 which never attack but when provoked1 have turned upon their assailants1 or have even assembled from a distance to assist a wounded comrade4 ,like the seals1 the walrus is easily tamed1 and of a most affectionate temper4 ,this was shown in a remarkable manner by a young walrus brought alive from ,archangel to ,st4 ,petersburg in #ahbi4 ,its keeper1 ,madame ,dennebecq1 having tended it with the greatest care1 the grateful animal expressed its pleasure whenever she came near it by an affectionate grunt4 ,it not only followed her with its eyes1 but was never happier than when allowed to lay its head in her lap4 ,the tenderness was reciprocal1 and ,madame ,dennebecq used to talk of her walrus with the same warmth of affection as if it had been a pet lapdog4 ,that parental love should be highly developed in animals thus susceptible of friendship may easily be imagined4 ,mr4 ,lamont1 an ,english gentleman whom the love of sport led a few years since to ,spitzbergen1 relates the case of a wounded walrus who held a very young calf under her right arm4 ,whenever the harpoon was raised against it1 the mother carefully shielded it with her own body4 ,the countenance of this poor animal was never to be forgotten3 that of the calf expressive of abject terror1 and yet of such a boundless confidence in its mother's power of protecting it1 as it swam along under her wing1 and the old cow's face showing such reckless defiance for all that could be done to herself1 and yet such terrible anxiety as to the safety of her calf4 ,this parental affection is shamefully misused by man1 for it is a common artifice of the walrus-hunters to catch a young animal and make it grunt1 in order to attract a herd4 ,the walrus is confined to the coasts of the ,arctic regions1 unless when drift-ice1 or some other accident1 carries it away into the open sea4 ,its chief resorts are ,spitzbergen1 ,nova ,zembla1 ,north ,greenland1 the shores of ,hudson's and ,baffin's bays2 and on the opposite side of the ,polar ,ocean1 the coasts of ,bering's ,sea1 and to the north of ,bering's ,straits1 the ,american and ,asiatic shores from ,point ,barrow to ,cape ,north4 ,it has nowhere been found on the coasts of ,siberia from the mouth of the ,jenisei to the last-mentioned promontory1 and on those of ,america from ,point ,barrow to ,lancaster ,sound2 so that it inhabits two distinct regions1 separated from each other by vast extents of coast4 ,its food seems to consist principally of marine plants and shell-fish1 though ,scoresby relates that he found the remains of fishes1 or even of seals1 in its stomach4 ,as the ,polar bear is frequently found above a hundred miles from the nearest land1 upon loose ice steadily drifting into the sea1 it seems but fair to assign him a place among the marine animals of the ,arctic zone4 ,he hunts by scent1 and is constantly running across and against the wind1 which prevails from the northward1 so that the same instinct which directs his search for prey also serves the important purpose of guiding him in the direction of the land and more solid ice4 ,his favorite food is the seal1 which he surprises crouching down with his fore paws doubled underneath1 and pushing himself noiselessly forward with his hinder legs until within a few yards1 when he springs upon his victim1 whether in the water or upon the ice4 ,he can swim at the rate of three miles an hour1 and can dive to a considerable distance4 ,though he attacks man when hungry1 wounded1 or provoked1 he will not injure him when food more to his liking is at hand4 ,sir ,francis ,m',clintock relates an anecdote of a native of ,upernavik who was out one dark winter's day visiting his seal-nets4 ,he found a seal entangled1 and whilst kneeling down over it upon the ice to get it clear1 he received a slap on the back--from his companion as he supposed2 but a second and heavier blow made him look smartly round4 ,he was horror-stricken to see a peculiarly grim old bear instead of his comrade4 ,without taking further notice of the man1 ,bruin tore the seal out of the net1 and began his supper4 ,he was not interrupted1 nor did the man wait to see the meal finished1 fearing1 no doubt1 that his uninvited and unceremonious guest might keep a corner for him4 ,many instances have been observed of the peculiar sagacity of the ,polar bear4 ,scoresby relates that the captain of a whaler1 being anxious to procure a bear without wounding the skin1 made trial of the stratagem of laying the noose of a rope in the snow1 and placing a piece of kreng1 or whale's carcass1 within it4 ,a bear1 ranging the neighboring ice1 was soon enticed to the spot4 ,approaching the bait1 he seized it in his mouth2 but his foot1 at the same moment1 by a jerk of the rope1 being entangled in the noose1 he pushed it off with the adjoining paw1 and deliberately retired4 ,after having eaten the piece he carried away with him1 he returned4 ,the noose1 with another piece of kreng1 being then replaced1 he pushed the rope aside1 and again walked triumphantly off with the kreng4 ,a third time the noose was laid1 and this time the rope was buried in the snow1 and the bait laid in a deep hole dug in the centre4 ,but ,bruin1 after snuffing about the place for a few minutes1 scraped the snow away with his paw1 threw the rope aside1 and escaped unhurt with his prize4 ,the she-bear is taught by a wonderful instinct to shelter her young under the snow4 ,towards the month of ,december she retreats to the side of a rock1 where1 by dint of scraping and allowing the snow to fall upon her1 she forms a cell in which to reside during the winter4 ,there is no fear that she should be stifled for want of air1 for the warmth of her breath always keeps a small passage open1 and the snow1 instead of forming a thick uniform sheet1 is broken by a little hole1 round which is collected a mass of glittering hoar-frost1 caused by the congelation of the breath4 ,within this strange nursery she produces her young1 and remains with them beneath the snow until the month of ,march1 when she emerges into the open air with her baby bears4 ,as the time passes on1 the breath of the family1 together with the warmth exhaled from their bodies1 serves to enlarge the cell1 so that with their increasing dimensions the accommodation is increased to suit them4 ,as the only use of the snow-burrow is to shelter the young1 the male bears do not hibernate like the females1 but roam freely about during the winter months4 ,before retiring under the snow1 the bear eats enormously1 and1 driven by an unfailing instinct1 resorts to the most nutritious diet1 so that she becomes prodigiously fat1 thus laying in an internal store of alimentary matter which enables her not only to support her own life1 but to suckle her young during her long seclusion1 without taking a morsel of food4 ,by an admirable provision of nature1 the young are of wonderfully small dimensions when compared with the parent2 and as their growth1 as long as they remain confined in their crystal nursery1 is remarkably slow1 they consequently need but little food and space4 ,illustration3 #cg4 ,,home ,,of ,,the ,,polar ,,bear4 ,the ,polar bear is armed with formidable weapons1 and a proportionate power to use them4 ,his claws are two inches in length1 and his canine teeth1 exclusive of the part in the jaw1 about an inch and a half4 ,thus the hoards of provisions which are frequently deposited by ,arctic voyagers to provide for some future want1 have no greater enemy than the ,polar bear4 8,the final cache10 says ,kane1 8which ,i relied so much upon1 was entirely destroyed4 ,it had been built with extreme care1 of rocks which had been assembled by very heavy labor1 and adjusted with much aid1 often1 from capstan-bars as levers4 ,the entire construction was1 so far as our means permitted1 most effective and resisting4 ,yet these tigers of the ice seemed hardly to have encountered an obstacle4 ,not a morsel of pemmican remained1 except in the iron cases1 which being round1 with conical ends1 defied both claws and teeth4 ,they had rolled and pawed them in every direction1 tossing them about like footballs1 although over eighty pounds in weight4 ,an alcohol can1 strongly iron-bound1 was dashed into small fragments1 and a tin can of liquor smashed and twisted almost into a ball4 ,the claws of the beast had perforated the metal and torn it up as with a chisel4 ,they were too dainty for salt meats2 ground coffee they had an evident relish for2 old canvas was a favorite1 for some reason or other2 even our flag1 which had been reared #8to take possession' of the waste1 was gnawed down to the very staff4 ,they had made a regular frolic of it2 rolling our bread-barrels over the ice2 and1 unable to masticate our heavy ,india-rubber cloth1 they had tied it up in unimaginable hard knots40 ,illustration3 #ch4 ,,the ,,gull4 ,numbers of sea-birds are found breeding along the ,arctic shores as far as man has hitherto penetrated2 some even keep the sea in the high latitudes all the winter1 wherever open water exists4 ,on the most northern rocks the razorbill rears its young1 and the fulmar and ,ross's gull have been seen in lanes of water beyond #hb lat4 ,as the sun gains in power1 enormous troops of puffins1 looms1 dovekies1 rotges1 skuas1 burgermasters1 ,sabine's gulls1 kittiwakes1 ivory gulls1 and ,arctic terns1 return to the north4 ,there they enjoy the long summer day1 and revel in the abundance of the fish-teeming waters1 bringing life and animation into solitudes seldom or perhaps never disturbed by the presence of man1 and mingling their wild screams with the hoarse-resounding surge or the howling of the storm4 ,in many localities they breed in such abundance1 that it may be said1 almost without exaggeration1 that they darken the sun when they fly1 and hide the waters when they swim4 ,illustration3 #ci4 ,,lava-,,fields4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,iceland4 ,volcanic ,origin of the ,island4--,the ,klofa ,jkul4--,lava-streams4-- ,the ,burning ,mountains of ,krisuvik4--,the ,mud-caldrons of ,reykjahlid4--,the ,tungo-hver at ,reykholt4--,the ,great ,geysir4-- ,the ,strokkr4--,crystal ,pools4--,the ,almannagja4--,the ,surts-hellir4--,beautiful ,ice-cave4--,the ,gotha ,foss4--,the ,detti ,foss4--,climate4--,vegetation4--,cattle 4--,barbarous ,mode of ,sheep-shearing4--,reindeer4--,polar ,bears4--,birds4--,the ,eider-duck4--,videy4--,vigr4--,the ,wild ,swan4--,the ,raven4-- ,the ,jerfalcon4--,the ,giant auk1 or ,geirfugl4--,fish4--,fishing ,season4--,the ,white ,shark4--,mineral ,kingdom4--,sulphur4--,peat4-- ,drift-wood4 ,iceland might as well be called ,fireland1 for all its #dj1jjj square miles have originally been upheaved from the depths of the waters by volcanic power4 ,first1 at some immeasurably distant period of the world's history1 the small nucleus of the future island began to struggle into existence against the superincumbent weight of the ocean2 then1 in the course of ages1 cone rose after cone1 crater was formed after crater1 eruption followed on eruption1 and lava-stream on lava-stream1 until finally the ,iceland of the present day was piled up with her gigantic 8jkuls10 or ice-mountains1 and her vast promontories1 stretching like huge buttresses far out into the sea4 ,in winter1 when an almost perpetual night covers the wastes of this fire-born land1 and the waves of a stormy ocean thunder against its shores1 imagination can hardly picture a more desolate scene2 but in summer the rugged nature of ,iceland invests itself with many a charm4 ,then the eye reposes with delight on green valleys and crystal lakes1 on the purple hills or snow-capped mountains rising in ,alpine grandeur above the distant horizon1 and the stranger might almost be tempted to exclaim with her patriotic sons1 8,iceland is the best land under the sun40 ,that it is one of the most interesting--through its history1 its inhabitants1 and1 above all1 its natural curiosities--no one can doubt4 ,it has all that can please and fascinate the poet1 the artist1 the geologist1 or the historian2 the prosaic utilitarian alone1 accustomed to value a country merely by its productions1 might turn with some contempt from a land without corn1 without forests1 without mineral riches1 and covered for about two-thirds of its surface with bogs1 lava-wastes1 and glaciers4 ,the curse of sterility rests chiefly on the south-eastern and central parts of the island4 ,here nothing is to be seen but deserts of volcanic stone or immense ice-fields1 the largest of which--the ,klofa ,jkul--alone extends over more than #djjj square miles4 ,the interior of this vast region of nv and glacier is totally unknown4 ,the highest peaks1 the most dreadful volcanoes of the island1 rise on the southern and south-western borders of this hitherto inaccessible waste2 the ,oraefa looking down from a height of #fjjj feet upon all its rivals--the ,skaptar1 a name of dreadful significance in the annals of ,iceland1 and farther on1 like the advanced guards of this host of slumbering fires1 the ,katla1 the ,myrdal1 the ,eyjafjalla1 and the ,hecla1 the most renowned1 though not the most terrible1 of all the volcanoes of ,iceland4 ,as the ice-fields of this northern island far surpass in magnitude those of the ,alps1 so also the lava-streams of tna or ,vesuvius are insignificant when compared with the enormous masses of molten stone which at various periods have issued from the craters of ,iceland4 ,from ,mount ,skjaldebreith1 on both sides of the lake of ,thingvalla as far as ,cape ,reykjanes1 the traveller sees an uninterrupted lava-field more than sixty miles long1 and frequently from twelve to fifteen broad2 and lava-streams of still more gigantic proportions exist in many other parts of the island1 particularly in the interior4 ,in general1 these lava-streams have cooled down into the most fantastic forms imaginable4 8,it is hardly possible10 says ,mr4 ,holland1 8to give any idea of the general appearance of these once molten masses4 ,here a great crag has toppled over into some deep crevasse1 there a huge mass has been upheaved above the fiery stream which has seethed and boiled around its base4 ,here is every shape and figure that sculpture could design or imagination picture1 jumbled together in grotesque confusion1 whilst everywhere myriads of horrid spikes and sharp shapeless irregularities bristle amidst them40 ,by the eruptions of the ,icelandic volcanoes many a fair meadow-land has been converted into a stony wilderness2 but if the subterranean fires have frequently brought ruin and desolation over the island1 they have also endowed it with many natural wonders4 ,in the 8burning mountains0 of ,krisuvik1 on the south-western coast1 a whole hill-slope1 with a deep narrow gorge at its foot1 is covered with innumerable boiling springs and fumaroles1 whose dense exhalations1 spreading an intolerable stench1 issue out of the earth with a hissing noise1 and completely hide the view4 ,illustration3 #dj4 ,,effigy ,,in ,,lava4 ,the ,nmar1 or boiling mud-caldrons of ,reykjahlid1 situated among a range of mountains near the ,myvatn 7,gnat-,lake71 in one of the most solitary spots in the north of the island1 on the border of enormous lava-fields and of a vast unknown wilderness1 exhibit volcanic power on a still more gigantic scale4 ,there are no less than twelve of these seething pits1 all filled with a disgusting thick slimy gray or black liquid1 boiling or simmering with greater or less vehemence1 and emitting dense volumes of steam strongly impregnated with sulphurous gases4 ,some sputter furiously1 scattering their contents on every side1 while in others the muddy soup appears too thick to boil1 and after remaining quiescent for about half a minute1 rises up a few inches in the centre of the basin1 emits a puff of steam1 and then subsides into its former state4 ,the diameter of the largest of all the pits can not be less than fifteen feet2 and it is a sort of mud ,geysir1 for at intervals a column of its black liquid contents1 accompanied with a violent rush of steam1 is thrown up to the height of six or eight feet4 ,professor ,sartorius von ,waltershausen1 one of the few travellers who have visited this remarkable spot1 says that the witches in ,macbeth could not possibly have desired a more fitting place for the preparation of their infernal gruel than the mud-caldrons of ,reykjahlid4 ,among the hot or boiling springs of ,iceland1 which in hundreds of places gush forth at the foot of the mountains1 some are of a gentle and even flow1 and can be used for bathing1 washing1 or boiling1 while others of an intermittent nature are mere objects of curiosity or wonder4 ,one of the most remarkable of the latter is the ,tungo-hver1 at ,reykholt1 in the 8valley of smoke10 thus named from the columns of vapor emitted by the thermal springs which are here scattered about with a lavish hand4 ,it consists of two fountains within a yard of each other--the larger one vomiting a column of boiling water ten feet high for the space of about four minutes1 when it entirely subsides1 and then the smaller one operates for about three minutes1 ejecting a column of about five feet4 ,the alternation is perfectly regular in time and force1 and there are authentic accounts of its unfailing exactitude for the last hundred years4 ,but of all the springs and fountains of ,iceland there is none to equal1 either in grandeur or renown1 the ,great ,geysir1 which is not merely one of the curiosities of the country1 but one of the wonders of the earth1 as there is nothing to compare to it in any other part of the world4 ,at the foot of the ,laugafjall hill1 in a green plain1 through which several rivers meander like threads of silver1 and where chains of dark-colored mountains1 overtopped here and there by distant snow-peaks1 form a grand but melancholy panorama1 dense volumes of steam indicate from afar the site of a whole system of thermal springs congregated on a small piece of ground which does not exceed twelve acres4 ,in any other spot1 the smallest of these boiling fountains would arrest the traveller's attention1 but here his whole mind is absorbed by the ,great ,geysir4 ,in the course of countless ages this monarch of springs has formed1 out of the silica it deposits1 a mound which rises to about thirty feet above the general surface of the plain1 and slopes on all sides to the distance of a hundred feet or thereabouts from the border of a large circular basin situated in its centre1 and measuring about fifty-six feet in the greatest diameter and fifty-two feet in the narrowest4 ,in the middle of this basin1 forming as it were a gigantic funnel1 there is a pipe or tube1 which at its opening in the basin is eighteen or sixteen feet in diameter1 but narrows considerably at a little distance from the mouth1 and then appears to be not more than ten or twelve feet in diameter4 ,it has been probed to a depth of seventy feet1 but it is more than probable that hidden channels ramify farther into the bowels of the earth4 ,the sides of the tube are smoothly polished1 and so hard that it is not possible to strike off a piece of it with a hammer4 ,generally the whole basin is found filled up to the brim with sea-green water as pure as crystal1 and of a temperature of from #ahj to #aij4 ,astonished at the placid tranquillity of the pool1 the traveller can hardly believe that he is really standing on the brink of the far-famed ,geysir2 but suddenly a subterranean thunder is heard1 the ground trembles under his feet1 the water in the basin begins to simmer1 and large bubbles of steam rise from the tube and burst on reaching the surface1 throwing up small jets of spray to the height of several feet4 ,every instant he expects to witness the grand spectacle which has chiefly induced him to visit this northern land1 but soon the basin becomes tranquil as before1 and the dense vapors produced by the ebullition are wafted away by the breeze4 ,these smaller eruptions are regularly repeated every eighty or ninety minutes1 but frequently the traveller is obliged to wait a whole day1 or even longer1 before he sees the whole power of the ,geysir4 ,a detonation louder than usual precedes one of these grand eruptions2 the water in the basin is violently agitated2 the tube boils vehemently2 and suddenly a magnificent column of water1 clothed in vapor of a dazzling whiteness1 shoots up into the air with immense impetuosity and noise to the height of seventy or eighty feet1 and1 radiating at its apex1 showers water and steam in every direction4 ,a second eruption and a third rapidly follow1 and after a few minutes the fairy spectacle has passed away like a fantastic vision4 ,the basin is now completely dried up1 and on looking down into the shaft1 one is astonished to see the water about six feet from the rim1 and as tranquil as in an ordinary well4 ,after about thirty or forty minutes it again begins to rise1 and after a few hours reaches the brim of the basin1 whence it flows down the slope of the mound into the ,hvita1 or ,white ,river4 ,soon the subterraneous thunder1 the shaking of the ground1 the simmering above the tube1 and the other phenomena which attend each minor eruption1 begin again1 to be followed by a new period of rest1 and thus this wonderful play of nature goes on day after day1 year after year1 and century after century4 ,the mound of the ,geysir bears witness to its immense antiquity1 as its water contains but a minute portion of silica4 ,illustration3 #da4 ,,the ,,strokkr4 ,after the ,geysir1 the most remarkable fountain of these ,phlegran fields is the great ,strokkr1 situated about four hundred feet from the former4 ,its tube1 the margin of which is almost even with the general surface1 the small mound and basin being hardly discernible1 is funnel-shaped1 or resembling the flower of a convolvulus1 having a depth of forty-eight feet1 and a diameter of six feet at the mouth1 but contracting1 at twenty-two feet from the bottom1 to only eleven inches4 ,the water stands from nine to twelve feet under the brim1 and is generally in violent ebullition4 ,a short time before the beginning of the eruptions1 which are more frequent than those of the ,great ,geysir1 an enormous mass of steam rushes from the tube1 and is followed by a rapid succession of jets1 sometimes rising to the height of #abj or #aej feet1 and dissolving into silvery mist4 ,a peculiarity of the ,strokkr is that it can at any time be provoked to an eruption by throwing into the orifice large masses of peat or turf2 thus choking the shaft1 and preventing the free escape of the steam4 ,after the lapse of about ten minutes1 the boiling fluid1 as if indignant at this attempt upon its liberty1 heaves up a column of mud and water1 with fragments of peat1 as black as ink4 ,about #aej paces from the ,great ,geysir are several pools of the most beautifully clear water1 tinting with every shade of the purest green and blue the fantastical forms of the silicious travertin which clothes their sides4 ,the slightest motion communicated to the surface quivers down to the bottom of these crystal grottoes1 and imparts what might be called a sympathetic tremor of the water to every delicate incrustation and plant-like efflorescence4 8,aladdin's ,cave could not be more beautiful10 says ,preyer2 and ,mr4 ,holland remarks that neither description nor drawing is capable of giving a sufficient idea of the singularity and loveliness of this spot4 ,in many places it is dangerous to approach within several feet of the margin1 as the earth overhangs the water1 and is hollow underneath1 supported only by incrustations scarcely a foot thick4 ,a plunge into waters of about #bjj would be paying rather too dearly for the contemplation of their fairy-like beauty4 ,illustration3 #db4 ,,entrance ,,to ,,the ,,almannagja4 ,the gigantic chasm of the ,almannagja is another of the volcanic wonders of ,iceland4 ,after a long and tedious ride over the vast lava-plain which extends between the ,skalafell and the lake of ,thingvalla1 the traveller suddenly finds himself arrested in his path by an apparently insurmountable obstacle1 for the enormous ,almannagja1 or ,allman's ,rift1 suddenly gapes beneath his feet--a colossal rent extending above a mile in length1 and inclosed on both sides by abrupt walls of black lava1 frequently upward of a hundred feet high1 and separated from about fifty to seventy feet from each other4 ,illustration3 #dc4 ,,the ,,almannagja4 ,a corresponding chasm1 but of inferior dimensions1 the ,hrafnagja1 or ,raven's ,rift1 opens its black rampart to the east1 about eight miles farther on2 and both form the boundaries of the verdant plain of ,thingvalla1 which by a grand convulsion of nature has itself been shattered into innumerable small parallel crevices and fissures fifty or sixty feet deep4 ,illustration3 #dd4 ,,the ,,hrafnagja4 ,of the ,hrafnagja ,mr4 ,ross ,browne says3 8,a toilsome ride of eight miles brought us to the edge of the ,pass1 which in point of rugged grandeur far surpasses the ,almannagja1 though it lacks the extent and symmetry which give the latter such a remarkable effect4 ,here was a tremendous gap in the earth1 over a hundred feet deep1 hacked and shivered into a thousand fantastic shapes2 the sides a succession of the wildest accidents2 the bottom a chaos of broken lava1 all tossed about in the most terrific confusion4 ,it is not1 however1 the extraordinary desolation of the scene that constitutes its principal interest4 ,the resistless power which had rent the great lava-bed asunder1 as if touched with pity at the ruin1 had also flung from the tottering cliffs a causeway across the gap1 which now forms the only means of passing over the great ,hrafnagja4 ,no human hands could have created such a colossal work as this2 the imagination is lost in its massive grandeur2 and when we reflect that miles of an almost impassable country would otherwise have to be traversed in order to reach the opposite side of the gap1 the conclusion is irresistible that in the battle of the elements ,nature still had a kindly remembrance of man4 ,illustration3 #de4 ,,the ,,tintron ,,rock4 8,five or six miles beyond the ,hrafnagja1 near the summit of a dividing ridge1 we came upon a very singular volcanic formation1 called the ,tintron4 ,it stands1 a little to the right of the trail1 on a rise of scoria and burnt earth1 from which it juts up in rugged relief to the height of twenty or thirty feet4 ,this is1 strictly speaking1 a huge clinker1 not unlike what comes out of a grate--hard1 glassy in spots1 and scraggy all over4 ,the top part is shaped like a shell2 in the centre is a hole about three feet in diameter1 which opens into a vast subterranean cavity of unknown depth4 ,whether the ,tintron is an extinct crater1 through which fires shot out of the earth in by-gone times1 or an isolated mass of lava1 whirled through the air out of some distant volcano1 is a question that geologists must determine4 ,the probability is that it is one of those natural curiosities so common in ,iceland which defy research4 ,the whole country is full of anomalies--bogs where one would expect to find dry land1 and parched deserts where it would not seem strange to see bogs2 fire where water ought to be1 and water in the place of fire40 ,illustration3 #df4 ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,oxeraa4 8,ages ago10 says ,lord ,dufferin1 8some vast commotion shook the foundations of the island2 and bubbling up from sources far away amid the inland hills1 a fiery deluge must have rushed down between their ridges1 until1 escaping from the narrower gorges1 it found space to spread itself into one broad sheet of molten stone over an entire district of country1 reducing its varied surface to one vast blackened level4 ,one of two things then occurred3 either1 the vitrified mass contracting as it cooled1 the centre area of fifty square miles 7the present plain of ,thingvalla7 burst asunder at either side from the adjoining plateau1 and sinking down to its present level1 left two parallel gjas1 or chasms1 which form its lateral boundaries1 to mark the limits of the disruption2 or else1 while the pith or marrow of the lava was still in a fluid state1 its upper surface became solid1 and formed a roof1 beneath which the molten stream flowed on to lower levels1 leaving a vast cavern into which the upper crust subsequently plumped down40 ,in the lapse of years1 the bottom of the ,almannagja has become gradually filled up to an even surface1 covered with the most beautiful turf1 except where the river ,oxeraa1 bounding in a magnificent cataract from the higher plateau over the precipice1 flows for a certain distance between its walls4 ,at the foot of the fall the waters linger for a moment in a dark1 deep1 brimming pool1 hemmed in by a circle of ruined rocks1 in which anciently all women convicted of capital crimes were immediately drowned4 ,many a poor crone1 accused of witchcraft1 has thus ended her days in the ,almannagja4 ,as may easily be imagined1 it is rather a nerve-trying task to descend into the chasm over a rugged lava-slope1 where the least false step may prove fatal2 but the ,icelandic horses are so sure-footed that they can safely be trusted4 ,from the bottom it is easy to distinguish on the one face marks and formations exactly corresponding1 though at a different level1 with those on the face opposite1 and evidently showing that they once had dovetailed into each other1 before the igneous mass was rent asunder4 ,two leagues from ,kalmanstunga1 in an immense lava-field1 which probably originated in the ,bald ,jkul1 are situated the renowned ,surts-hellir1 or caves of ,surtur1 the prince of darkness and fire of the ancient ,scandinavian mythology4 ,the principal entrance to the caves is an extensive chasm formed by the falling in of a part of the lava-roof2 so that1 on descending into it1 the visitor finds himself right in the mouth of the main cavern1 which runs in an almost straight line1 and is nearly a mile in length4 ,its average height is about forty1 and its breadth fifty feet4 ,the lava-crust which forms its roof is about twelve feet thick1 and has the appearance of being stratified and columnar1 like basaltic pillars1 in its formation4 ,many of the blocks of lava thus formed have become detached and fallen into the cavern1 where they lie piled up in great heaps1 and heavily tax the patience of the traveller1 who has to scramble over the rugged stones1 and can hardly avoid slipping and stumbling into the holes between them1 varied by pools of water and masses of snow4 ,but after having toiled and plodded to the extremity of this dismal cavern1 his perseverance is amply rewarded by the sight of an ice-grotto1 whose fairy beauty appears still more charming1 in contrast with its gloomy vestibule4 ,from the crystal floor rises group after group of transparent pillars tapering to a point1 while from the roof brilliant icy pendants hang down to meet them4 ,columns and arches of ice are ranged along the crystalline walls1 and the light of the candles is reflected back a hundred-fold from every side1 till the whole cavern shines with astonishing lustre4 ,mr4 ,holland1 the latest visitor of the ,surts-hellir1 declares he never saw a more brilliant spectacle2 and the ,german naturalist1 ,preyer1 pronounces it one of the most magnificent sights in nature1 reminding him of the fairy grottoes of the ,arabian ,nights' ,tales4 ,from the mountains and the vast plateau which occupies the centre of the island1 numerous rivers descend on all sides1 which1 fed in summer by the melting glaciers1 pour enormous quantities of turbid water into the sea1 or convert large alluvial flats into morasses4 ,though of a considerable breadth1 their course is frequently very short1 particularly along the southern coast1 where the jokuls from which they derive their birth are only separated from the sea by a narrow foreland4 ,in their impetuous flow1 they not seldom bear huge blocks of stone along with them1 and cut off all communication between the inhabitants of their opposite banks4 ,the chief rivers of ,iceland are1 in the south1 the ,thiorsa and the ,hvita1 which are not inferior in width to the ,rhine in the middle part of its course2 in the north1 the ,skjalfandafljot and the ,jkulsa and the ,jkulsa i ,axarfirdi1 large and rapid streams above a hundred miles long2 and in the east the ,lagarfliot4 ,as may be expected in a mountainous country1 containing many glacier-fed rivers1 ,iceland has numerous cascades1 many of them rivalling or surpassing in beauty the far-famed falls of ,switzerland4 ,one of the most celebrated of these gems of nature is the ,goda-foss1 in the northern part of the island1 formed by the deep and rapid ,skjalfandafljot1 as it rushes with a deafening roar over rocks fifty feet high into the caldron below2 but it is far surpassed in magnificence by the ,dettifoss1 a fall of the ,jkulsa i ,axarfirdi4 8,in some of old earth's convulsions10 says its discoverer1 ,mr4 ,gould1--for from its remote situation1 deep in the northern wilds of ,iceland1 it had escaped the curious eye of previous travellers--8the crust of rock has been rent1 and a frightful fissure formed in the basalt1 about #bjj feet deep1 with the sides columnar and perpendicular4 ,the gash terminates abruptly at an acute angle1 and at this spot the great river rolls in4 ,the wreaths of water sweeping down2 the frenzy of the confined streams where they meet1 shooting into each other from either side at the apex of an angle2 the wild rebound when they strike a head of rock1 lurching out half way down2 the fitful gleam of battling torrents1 obtained through a veil of eddying vapor2 the ,geysir-spouts which blow up about seventy feet from holes whence basaltic columns have been shot by the force of the descending water2 the blasts of spray which rush upward and burst into fierce showers on the brink1 feeding rills which plunge over the edge as soon as they are born2 the white writhing vortex below1 with now and then an ice-green wave tearing through the foam to lash against the walls2 the thunder and bellowing of the water1 which make the rock shudder under foot1 are all stamped on my mind with a vividness which it will take years to efface4 ,the ,almannagja is nothing to this chasm1 and ,schaffhausen is dwarfed by ,dettifoss40 ,the ocean-currents which wash the coasts of ,iceland from opposite directions have a considerable influence on its climate4 ,the south and west coasts1 fronting the ,atlantic1 and exposed to the ,gulf ,stream1 remain ice-free even in winter1 and enjoy a comparatively mild temperature1 while the cold ,polar current1 flowing in a south-western direction from ,spitzbergen to ,jan ,mayen and ,iceland1 conveys almost every year to the eastern and northern shores of the island large masses of drift-ice1 which sometimes do not disappear before ,july or even ,august4 ,according to ,dr4 ,thorstensen1 the mean annual temperature of the air at ,reykjavik is #dj1 and that of the sea #db1 while according to ,herr von ,scheele the mean annual temperature at ,akureyre1 on the north coast1 is only #cc1 though even this shows a comparatively mild climate in so high a latitude4 ,but if ,iceland1 thanks to its insular position and to the influence of the ,gulf ,stream1 remains free from the excessive winter cold of the ,arctic continents1 its summer1 on the other hand1 is inferior in warmth to that which reigns in the interior of ,siberia1 or of the ,hudson's ,bay territories4 ,the mean summer temperature at ,reykjavik is not above #ed2 during many years the thermometer never rises a single time above #hj2 sometimes even its maximum is not higher than #ei2 and1 on the northern coast1 snow not seldom falls even in the middle of summer4 ,under such circumstances1 the cultivation of the cereals is of course impossible2 and when the drift-ice remains longer than usual on the northern coasts1 it prevents even the growth of the grass1 and want and famine are the consequence4 ,the ,icelandic summer is characterized by constant changes in the weather1 rain continually alternating with sunshine1 as with us in ,april4 ,the air is but seldom tranquil1 and storms of terrific violence are of frequent occurrence4 ,towards the end of ,september winter begins1 preceded by mists1 which finally descend in thick masses of snow4 ,travelling over the mountain-tracks is at this time particularly dangerous1 although cairns or piles of stone serve to point out the way1 and here and there1 as over the passes of the ,alps1 small huts have been erected to serve as a refuge for the traveller4 ,in former times ,iceland could boast of forests1 so that houses and even ships used to be built of indigenous timber2 at present it is almost entirely destitute of trees1 for the dwarf shrubberies here and there met with1 where the birch hardly attains the height of twenty feet1 are not to be dignified with the name of woods4 ,a service-tree 7,sorbus ancuparia7 fourteen feet high1 and measuring three inches in diameter at the foot1 is the boast of the governor's garden at ,reykjavik2 it is1 however1 surpassed by another at ,akureyre1 which spreads a full crown twenty feet from the ground1 but never sees its clusters of berries ripen into scarlet4 ,the damp and cool ,icelandic summer1 though it prevents the successful cultivation of corn1 is favorable to the growth of grasses1 so that in some of the better farms the pasture-grounds are hardly inferior to the finest meadows in ,england4 ,about one-third of the surface of the country is covered with vegetation of some sort or other fit for the nourishment of cattle2 but1 as yet1 art has done little for its improvement--ploughing1 sowing1 drainage1 and levelling being things undreamt of4 ,with the exception of the grasses1 which are of paramount importance1 and the trees1 which1 in spite of their stunted proportions1 are of great value1 as they supply the islanders with the charcoal needed for shoeing their horses1 few of the indigenous plants of ,iceland are of any use to man4 ,the ,angelica archangelica is eaten raw with butter2 the matted roots or stems of the ,menyanthes trifoliata serve to protect the backs of the horses against the rubbing of the saddle2 and the ,icelandic moss1 which is frequently boiled in milk1 is likewise an article of exportation4 ,the want of better grain frequently compels the poor islanders to bake a kind of bread from the seeds of the sand-reed 7,elymus arenarius71 which on our dunes are merely picked by the birds of passage2 and the oarweed or tangle 7,laminaria saccharina7 is prized as a vegetable in a land where potatoes and turnips are but rarely cultivated4 ,when the first settlers came to ,iceland1 they found but two indigenous land-quadrupeds3 a species of field-vole 7,arvicola conomus7 and the ,arctic fox2 but the seas and shores were no doubt tenanted by a larger number of whales1 dolphins1 and seals than at the present day4 ,the ox1 the sheep1 and the horse which accompanied the ,norse colonists to their new home1 form the staple wealth of their descendants2 for the number of those who live by breeding cattle is as three to one1 compared with those who chiefly depend on the sea for their subsistence4 ,milk and whey are almost the only beverages of the ,icelanders4 ,without butter they will eat no fish2 and curdled milk1 which they eat fresh in summer and preserve in a sour state during the winter1 is their favorite repast4 ,thus they set the highest value on their cattle1 and tend them with the greatest care4 ,in the preservation of their sheep1 they are much hampered by the badness of the climate1 by the scantiness of winter food1 and by the attacks of the eagles1 the ravens1 and the foxes1 more particularly at the lambing season1 when vast numbers of the young animals are carried off by all of them4 ,the wool is not sheared off1 but torn from the animal's back1 and woven by the peasantry1 during the long winter evenings1 into a kind of coarse cloth1 or knit into gloves and stockings1 which form one of the chief articles of export4 8,while at breakfast10 says ,mr4 ,shepherd1 8we witnessed the ,icelandic method of sheep-shearing4 ,three or four powerful young women seized1 and easily threw on their backs the struggling victims4 ,the legs were then tied1 and the wool pulled off by main force4 ,it seemed1 from the contortions of some of the wretched animals1 to be a cruel method2 but we were told that there is a period in the year when the young wool1 beginning to grow1 pushes the old out before it1 so that the old coat is easily pulled out40 ,the number of heads of cattle in the island is about #dj1jjj1 that of the sheep #ejj1jjj4 ,the horses1 which number from #ej1jjj to #fj1jjj1 though small1 are very robust and hardy4 ,there being no wheel carriages on the island1 they are merely used for riding and as beasts of burden4 ,their services are indispensable1 as without them the ,icelanders would not have the means of travelling and carrying their produce to the fishing villages or ports at which the annual supplies arrive from ,copenhagen4 ,in winter the poor animals must find their own food1 and are consequently mere skeletons in spring2 they1 however1 soon recover in summer1 though even then they have nothing whatever but the grass and small plants which they can pick up on the hills4 ,the dogs are very similar to those of ,lapland and ,greenland4 ,like them1 they have long hair1 forming a kind of collar round the neck1 a pointed nose1 pointed ears1 and an elevated curled tail1 with a temper which may be characterized as restless and irritable4 ,their general color is white4 ,in the year #aggj thirteen reindeer were brought from ,norway4 ,ten of them died during the passage1 but the three that survived have multiplied so fast that large herds now roam over the uninhabited wastes4 ,during the winter1 when hunger drives them into the lower districts1 they are frequently shot2 but no attempts have been made to tame them3 for1 though indispensable to the ,laplander1 they are quite superfluous in ,iceland1 which is too rugged and too much intersected by streams to admit of sledging4 ,they are1 in fact1 generally considered as a nuisance1 as they eat away the ,icelandic moss1 which the islanders would willingly keep for their own use4 ,illustration3 #dg4 ,,icelandic ,,horses4 ,the ,polar bear is but a casual visitor in ,iceland4 ,about a dozen come drifting every year with the ice from ,jan ,mayen1 or ,spitzbergen1 to the northern shores4 ,ravenous with hunger1 they immediately attack the first herds they meet with2 but their ravages do not last long1 for the neighborhood1 arising in arms1 soon puts an end to their existence4 ,in ,iceland the ornithologist finds a rich field for his favorite study1 as there are no less than eighty-two different species of indigenous birds1 besides twenty-one that are only casual visitors1 and six that have been introduced by man4 ,the swampy grounds in the interior of the country are peopled with legions of golden and king plovers1 of snipes and red-shanks2 the lakes abound with swans1 ducks1 and geese of various kinds2 the snow-bunting enlivens the solitude of the rocky wilderness with his lively note1 and1 wherever grass grows1 the common pipit 7,anthus pratensis7 builds its neat little nest1 well lined with horsehair4 ,like the lark1 he rises singing from the ground1 and frequently surprises the traveller with his melodious warbling1 which sounds doubly sweet in the lifeless waste4 ,illustration3 #dh4 ,,shooting ,,reindeer4 ,the eider-duck holds the first rank among the useful birds of ,iceland4 ,its chief breeding-places are small flat islands on various parts of the coast1 where it is safe from the attacks of the ,arctic fox1 such as ,akurey1 ,flatey1 and ,videy1 which1 from its vicinity to ,reykjavik1 is frequently visited by travellers4 ,all these breeding-places are private property1 and several have been for centuries in the possession of the same families1 which1 thanks to the birds1 are among the wealthiest of the land4 ,it may easily be imagined that the eider-ducks are guarded with the most sedulous care4 ,whoever kills one is obliged to pay a fine of thirty dollars2 and the secreting of an egg1 or the pocketing of a few downs1 is punished with all the rigor of the law4 ,the chief occupation of ,mr4 ,stephenson1 the aged proprietor of ,videy1 who dwells alone on the islet1 is to examine through his telescope all the boats that approach1 so as to be sure that there are no guns on board4 ,during the breeding season no one is allowed to land without his special permission1 and all noise1 shouting1 or loud speaking is strictly prohibited4 ,but1 in spite of these precautions1 we are informed by recent travellers that latterly the greater part of the ducks of ,videy have been tempted to leave their old quarters for the neighboring ,engey1 whose proprietor hit upon the plan of laying hay upon the strand1 so as to afford them greater facilities for nest-building4 ,the eider-down is easily collected1 as the birds are quite tame4 ,the female having laid five or six pale greenish-olive eggs1 in a nest thickly lined with her beautiful down1 the collectors1 after carefully removing the bird1 rob the nest of its contents1 after which they replace her4 ,she then begins to lay afresh1 though this time only three or four eggs1 and again has recourse to the down on her body4 ,but her greedy persecutors once more rifle her nest1 and oblige her to line it for the third time4 ,now1 however1 her own stock of down is exhausted1 and with a plaintive voice she calls her mate to her assistance1 who willingly plucks the soft feathers from his breast to supply the deficiency4 ,if the cruel robbery be again repeated1 which in former times was frequently the case1 the poor eider-duck abandons the spot1 never to return1 and seeks for a new home where she may indulge her maternal instinct undisturbed4 ,illustration3 #di4 ,,eider-,,duck4 ,mr4 ,shepherd thus describes his visit to ,vigr1 in the ,isafjardardjup1 one of the head-quarters of the eider-duck in the north of ,iceland3 8,as the island was approached1 we could see flocks upon flocks of the sacred birds1 and could hear their cooings at a great distance4 ,we landed on a rocky wave-worn shore1 against which the waters scarcely rippled1 and set off to investigate the island4 ,the shore was the most wonderful ornithological sight conceivable4 ,the ducks and their nests were everywhere in a manner that was quite alarming4 ,great brown ducks sat upon their nests in masses1 and at every step started up from under our feet4 ,it was with difficulty that we avoided treading on some of the nests4 ,the island being but three-quarters of a mile in width1 the opposite shore was soon reached4 ,on the coast was a wall built of large stones1 just above the high-water level1 about three feet in height1 and of considerable thickness4 ,at the bottom1 on both sides of it1 alternate stones had been left out1 so as to form a series of square compartments for the ducks to make their nests in4 ,almost every compartment was occupied2 and1 as we walked along the shore1 a long line of ducks flew out one after another4 ,the surface of the water also was perfectly white with drakes1 who welcomed their brown wives with loud and clamorous cooing4 ,when we arrived at the farmhouse we were cordially welcomed by its mistress4 ,the house itself was a great marvel4 ,the earthern wall that surrounded it and the window embrasures were occupied by ducks4 ,on the ground1 the house was fringed with ducks4 ,on the turf slopes of the roof we could see ducks2 and a duck sat in the scraper4 8,a grassy bank close by had been cut into square patches like a chessboard 7a square of turf of about eighteen inches being removed1 and a hollow made71 and all were filled with ducks4 ,a windmill was infested1 and so were all the outhouses1 mounds1 rocks1 and crevices4 ,the ducks were everywhere4 ,many of them were so tame that we could stroke them on their nests2 and the good lady told us that there was scarcely a duck on the island which would not allow her to take its eggs without flight or fear4 ,when she first became possessor of the island1 the produce of down from the ducks was not more than fifteen pounds' weight in the year1 but1 under her careful nurture of twenty years1 it had risen to nearly one hundred pounds annually4 ,it requires about one pound and a half to make a coverlet for a single bed1 and the down is worth from twelve to fifteen shillings per pound4 ,most of the eggs are taken and pickled for winter consumption1 one or two only being left to hatch40 ,though not so important as the eider1 the other members of the duck family which during the summer season enliven the lakes and swamps of ,iceland are very serviceable4 ,on the ,myvatn1 or ,gnat ,lake1 one of their chief places of resort1 the eggs of the long-tailed duck1 the wild duck1 the scoter1 the common goosander1 the red-breasted merganser1 the scaup-duck1 etc41 and other anserines are carefully gathered and preserved in enormous quantities for the winter1 closely packed in a fine gray volcanic sand4 ,the wild swan is frequently shot or caught for his feathers1 which bring in many a dollar to the fortunate huntsman4 ,this noble bird frequents both the salt and brackish waters along the coast and the inland lakes and rivers1 where it is seen either in single pairs or congregated in large flocks4 ,to build its nest1 which is said to resemble closely that of the flamingo1 being a large mound1 composed of mud1 rushes1 grass1 and stones1 with a cavity at top lined with soft down1 it retires to some solitary1 uninhabited spot4 ,much has been said in ancient times of the singing of the swan1 and the beauty of its dying notes2 but1 in truth1 the voice of the swan is very loud1 shrill1 and harsh1 though when high in the air1 and modulated by the winds1 the note or whoop of an assemblage of them is not unpleasant to the ear4 ,it has a peculiar charm in the unfrequented wastes of ,iceland1 where it agreeably interrupts the profound silence that reigns around4 ,the raven1 one of the commonest land-birds in ,iceland1 is an object of aversion to the islanders1 as it not only seizes on their young lambs and eider-ducks1 but also commits great depredations among the fishes laid out to dry upon the shore4 ,poles to which dead ravens are attached1 to serve as a warning to the living1 are frequently seen in the meadows2 and the ,icelander is never so happy as when he has succeeded in shooting a raven4 ,this1 however1 is no easy task1 as no bird is more cautious1 and its eyes are as sharp as those of the eagle4 ,of all ,icelandic birds1 the raven breeds the earliest1 laying about the middle of ,march its five or six pale-green eggs1 spotted with brown1 in the inaccessible crevices of rocks4 ,towards the end of ,june1 ,preyer saw many young ravens grown to a good size1 and but little inferior to the old ones in cunning4 ,in the gloomy ,scandinavian mythology the raven occupies a rank equal to that of the eagle in the more cheerful fables of ancient ,greece4 ,it was dedicated to ,odin1 who1 as the traditional history of ,iceland informs us1 had two ravens1 which were let loose every morning to gather tidings of what was going on in the world1 and which on returning in the evening perched upon ,odin's shoulders to whisper the news in his ear2 the name of one was ,hugin1 or spirit2 of the other1 ,mumin1 or memory4 ,even now many superstitious notions remain attached to the raven2 for the ,icelanders believe this bird to be not only acquainted with what is going on at a distance1 but also with what is to happen in future1 and are convinced that it foretells when any of the family is about to die1 by perching on the roof of the house1 or wheeling round in the air with a continual cry1 varying its voice in a singular and melodious manner4 ,the white-tailed sea-eagle is not uncommon in ,iceland1 where he stands in evil repute as a kidnapper of lambs and eider-ducks4 ,he is sometimes found dead in the nets of the fishermen2 for1 pouncing upon a haddock or salmon1 he gets entangled in the meshes1 and is unable to extricate himself4 ,the skins of the bird1 which seems to attain a larger size than in ,great ,britain1 most likely from being less disturbed by man1 are sold at ,reykjavik and ,akureyre for from three to six rix-dollars4 ,illustration3 #ej4 ,,the ,,jyrfalcon4 ,the jyrfalcon 7,falco gyrfalco71 generally considered as the boldest and most beautiful of the falcon tribe1 has its head-quarters in ,iceland4 ,as long as the noble sport of falconry was in fashion1 for which it was highly esteemed1 the trade in falcons was worth from #bjjj to #cjjj rix-dollars annually to the islanders1 and even now high prices are paid for it by ,english amateurs4 ,the rarest bird of ,iceland1 if not entirely extinct1 is the ,giant-auk1 or ,geirfugl4 ,the last pair was caught about seventeen years ago near the ,geirfuglaskers1 a group of solitary rocks to the south of the ,westman ,isles1 its only known habitat besides some similar cliffs on the north-eastern coast4 ,since that time it is said to have been seen by some fishermen2 but this testimony is extremely doubtful1 and the question of its existence can only be solved by a visit to the ,geirfuglaskers themselves--an undertaking which1 if practicable at all1 is attended with extreme difficulty and danger1 as these rocks are completely isolated in the sea1 which even in calm weather breaks with such violence against their abrupt declivities that for years it must be absolutely impossible to approach them4 ,in #aheh two ,english naturalists determined at least to make the attempt1 and settled for a season in a small hamlet on the neighboring coast1 eager to seize the first opportunity for storming the ,geirfugl's stronghold4 ,they waited for several months1 but in vain1 the stormy summer being more than usually unfavorable for their undertaking2 and they were equally unsuccessful in the north1 whither they had sent an ,icelandic student specially instructed for the purpose4 ,the giant-auk is three feet high1 and has a black bill four inches and a quarter long1 both mandibles being crossed obliquely with several ridges and furrows4 ,its wings are mere stumps1 like those of the ,antarctic penguins4 ,thirty pounds have been paid for its egg1 which is larger than that of any other ,european bird2 and there is no knowing the price the ,zoological ,society would pay for a live bird1 if this truly 8rara avis0 could still be found4 ,illustration3 #ea4 ,,the ,,giant-,,auk4 ,the waters of ,iceland abound with excellent fish1 which not only supply the islanders with a great part of their food and furnish them with one of their chief articles of exportation1 but also attract a number of foreign seamen4 ,thus about #cjj ,french1 ,dutch1 and ,belgian fishing-sloops1 manned with crews amounting in all to #gjjj men1 annually make their appearance on the southern and western coasts of ,iceland1 particularly those of the ,guldbringe ,syssel1 or gold-bringing country3 thus named1 not from any evidence of the precious metal1 but from the golden cod-harvests reaped on its shores4 ,between thirty and forty ,english fishing-smacks yearly visit the northern coast4 ,when they have obtained a good cargo they run to ,shetland to discharge it1 and return again for more4 ,the ,icelandic fishing-season1 which begins in ,february and ends in ,june1 occupies one-half of the male inhabitants of the island1 who come flocking to the west1 even from the remotest districts of the north and east1 to partake of the rich harvest of the seas4 ,many thus travel for more than #bjj miles in the midst of winter1 while the storm howls over the naked waste1 and the pale sun scarcely dispels for a few hours the darkness of the night4 ,in every hut where they tarry on the road they are welcome1 and have but rarely to pay for their entertainment1 for hospitality is still reckoned a duty in ,iceland4 ,on reaching the fishing-station1 an agreement is soon made with the proprietor of a boat4 ,they usually engage to assist in fishing from ,february #ab to ,may #ab1 and receive in return a share of the fish which they help to catch1 besides forty pounds of flour and a daily allowance of sour curds1 or 8skier40 ,all the men belonging to a boat generally live in the same damp and narrow hut4 ,at daybreak they launch forth1 to brave for many hours the inclemencies of the weather and the sea1 and while engaged in their hard day's work their sole refreshment is the chewing of tobacco or a mouthful of skier4 ,on returning to their comfortless hut1 their supper consists of the fishes of inferior quality they may have caught1 or of the heads of the cod or ling1 which are too valuable for their own consumption4 ,these are split open and hung upon lines1 or exposed on the shore to the cold wind and the hot sun2 this renders them perfectly hard1 and they keep good for years4 ,in this dried state the cod is called stockfish4 ,about the middle of ,may the migratory fishermen return to their homes1 leaving their fish which are not yet quite dry to the care of the fishermen dwelling on the spot4 ,towards the middle of ,june1 when the horses have so far recovered from their long winter's fast as to be able to bear a load1 they come back to fetch their stockfish1 which they convey either to their own homes for the consumption of their own families1 or to the nearest port for the purpose of bartering it against other articles4 ,haddocks1 flatfish1 and herrings are also very abundant in the ,icelandic seas2 and along the northern and north-western coasts the basking shark is largely fished for all the summer4 ,strong hooks baited with mussels or pieces of fish1 and attached to chains anchored at a short distance from the shore1 serve for the capture of this monster1 which is scarcely1 if at all1 inferior in size to the white shark1 though not nearly so formidable1 as it rarely attacks man4 ,the skin serves for making sandals2 the coarse flesh is eaten by the islanders1 whom necessity has taught not to be over-nice in their food2 and the liver1 the most valuable part1 is stewed for the sake of its oil4 8,we had observed10 says ,mr4 ,shepherd1 8that the horrible smell which infested ,jsa-fjordr varied in intensity as we approached or receded from a certain black-looking building at the northern end of the town4 ,on investigating this building1 we discovered that the seat of the smell was to be found in a mass of putrid sharks' livers1 part of which were undergoing a process of stewing in a huge copper4 ,it was a noisome green mass1 fearful to contemplate4 ,the place was endurable only for a few seconds2 yet dirty-looking men stirred up the mass with long poles1 and seemed to enjoy the reeking vapors40 ,the salmon of ,iceland1 which formerly remained undisturbed by the phlegmatic inhabitants1 are now caught in large numbers for the ,british market4 ,a small river bearing the significant name of ,laxaa1 or ,salmon ,river1 has been rented for the trifling sum of #ajj a year by an ,english company1 which sends every spring its agents to the spot well provided with the best fishing apparatus4 ,the captured fish are immediately boiled1 and hermetically packed in tin boxes1 so that they can be eaten in ,london almost as fresh as if they had just been caught4 ,the mineral kingdom contributes but little to the prosperity of ,iceland4 ,it affords neither metals1 nor precious stones1 nor rock-salt1 nor coal2 for the seams of 8surturbrand01 or 8lignite01 found here and there1 are too unimportant to be worked4 ,the solfataras of ,krisuvik and ,husavik1 though extremely interesting to the geologist1 likewise furnish sulphur in too impure a condition or too thinly scattered to afford any prospect of being worked with success1 not to mention the vast expense of transport over the almost impassable lava-tracks that separate them from the nearest ports4 ,in #ahci-dj1 when1 in consequence of the monopoly granted by the ,neapolitan ,government to a ,french company1 sulphur had risen to more than three times its usual price1 ,mr4 ,knudsen1 an enterprising ,danish merchant1 undertook to work the mines of ,krisuvik1 but even then it would not answer4 ,in #ahei1 a ,london company1 founded by ,mr4 ,bushby1--who having explored the sulphur districts1 had raised great expectations on what he considered their dormant wealth1--renewed the attempt1 but after a year's trial it was abandoned as perfectly hopeless4 ,the 8solfataras of ,iceland01 says ,professor ,sartorius of ,waltershausen1 8can not compete with those of ,sicily1 where more sulphur is wantonly wasted and trodden under foot than all ,iceland possesses4 ,while the 8,namars0 of the north1 which are far richer than those of ,krisuvik1 annually furnish scarcely more than ten tons1 the sulphur mines of ,sicily produce at least #ej1jjj1 and1 if necessary1 could easily export double the quantity40 ,as coal is too expensive a fuel for any but the rich in the small sea-port towns1 and peat1 though no doubt abundantly scattered over the island1 is dug only in a few places1 the majority of the people make use of singular substitutes4 ,the commonest is dried cow's and sheep's dung2 but many a poor fisherman lacks even this 8spicy0 material1 and is fain to use the bones of animals1 the skeletons of fishes or dried sea-birds1 which1 with a stoical contempt for his olfactory organs1 he burns1 feathers and all4 ,there is1 however1 no want of fuel in those privileged spots where drift-wood is found1 and here the lava hearth of the islander cheerfully blazes either with the pine conveyed to him by the kindly ,polar currents from the ,siberian forests1 or with some tropical trunk1 wafted by the ,gulf ,stream over the ,atlantic to his northern home4 ,illustration3 #eb4 ,,cathedral ,,at ,,reykjavik4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,history ,,of ,,iceland4 ,discovery of the ,island by ,naddodr in #hfa4--;,gardar4--,floki of the ,ravens4--,ingolfr and ,leif4--,ulfliot the ,lawgiver4--,the ,althing4--,thingvalla4--,introduction of ,christianity into the ,island4--,frederick the ,saxon and ,thorwold the ,traveller4-- ,thangbrand4--,golden ,age of ,icelandic ,literature4--,snorri ,sturleson4--,the ,island submits to ,hakon1 ,king of ,norway1 in #abed4--,long ,series of ,calamities4--,great ,eruption of the ,skapta ,jkul in #aghc4--;,commercial ,monopoly4--,better ,times in ,prospect4 ,the ,norse vikings were1 as is well known1 the boldest of navigators4 ,they possessed neither the sextant nor the compass2 they had neither charts nor chronometers to guide them2 but trusting solely to fortune1 and to their own indomitable courage1 they fearlessly launched forth into the vast ocean4 ,many of these intrepid corsairs were no doubt lost on their adventurous expeditions1 but frequently a favorable chance rewarded their temerity1 either with some rich booty or some more glorious discovery4 ,thus in the year #hfa1 ,naddodr1 a ,norwegian pirate1 while sailing from his native coast to the ,faeroe ,islands1 was drifted by contrary winds far to the north4 ,for several days no land was visible--nothing but an interminable waste of waters2 when suddenly the snow-clad mountains of ,iceland were seen to rise above the mists of the ocean4 ,soon after ,naddodr landed with part of his crew1 but discovered no traces of man in the desert country4 ,the viking tarried but a short time on this unpromising coast1 on which he bestowed the appropriate name of ,snowland4 ,three years later1 ,gardar1 another northern freebooter1 while sailing to the ,hebrides1 was likewise driven by stormy weather to ,iceland4 ,he was the first circumnavigator of the island1 which he called1 after himself1 ,gardar's holm1 or the island of ,gardar4 ,on his return to his native port1 he gave his countrymen so flattering an account of the newly-discovered land1 that ,floki1 a famous viking1 resolved to settle there4 ,trusting to the augury of birds1 ,floki took with him three ravens to direct him on his way4 ,having sailed a certain distance beyond the ,faeroe ,islands1 he gave liberty to one of them1 which immediately returned to the land4 ,proceeding onward1 he loosed the second1 which1 after circling for a few minutes round the ship1 again settled on its cage1 as if terrified by the boundless expanse of the sea4 ,the third bird1 on obtaining his liberty a few days later1 proved at length a faithful pilot1 and flying direct to the north1 conducted ,floki to ,iceland4 ,as the sea-king entered the broad bay which is bounded on the left by the huge ,snfells ,jkul1 and on the right by the bold promontory of the ,guldbringe ,syssel1 ,faxa1 one of his companions1 remarked that a land with such noble features must needs be of considerable extent4 ,to reward him for this remark1 which flattered the vanity or the ambition of his leader1 the bay was immediately named ,faxa ,fiord1 as it is still called to the present day4 ,the new colonists1 attracted by the abundance of fish they found in the bay1 built their huts on the borders of a small outlet1 still bearing the name of ,rafna ,fiord1 or the ,raven's ,frith2 but as they neglected to make hay for the winter1 the horses and cattle they had brought with them died of want4 ,disappointed in his expectations1 ,floki returned home in the second year1 and1 as might naturally have been expected from an unsuccessful settler1 gave his countrymen but a dismal account of ,iceland1 as he definitely named it4 ,yet1 in spite of his forbidding description1 the political disturbances which took place about this time in ,norway led to the final colonization of the island4 ,harold ,haarfager1 or the ,fair-haired1 a ,scandinavian yarl1 having by violence and a successful policy reduced all his brother-yarls to subjection1 first consolidated their independent domains into one realm1 and made himself absolute master of the whole country4 ,many of his former equals submitted to his yoke2 but others1 animated by that unconquerable love of liberty innate in men who for many generations have known no superior1 preferred seeking a new home across the ocean to an ignominious vassalage under the detested ,harold4 ,ingolfr and his cousin ,leif were the first of these high-minded nobles that emigrated 7#hfi-hgj7 to ,iceland4 ,on approaching the southern coast1 ,ingolfr cast the sacred pillars belonging to his former dwelling into the water1 and vowed to establish himself on the spot to which they should be wafted by the waves4 ,his pious intentions were for the time frustrated1 as a sudden squall separated him from his penates1 and forced him to locate himself on a neighboring promontory1 which to this day bears the name of ,ingolfrshofde4 ,here he sojourned three years1 until the followers he had sent out in quest of the missing pillars at length brought him the joyful news that they had been found on the beach of the present site of ,reykjavik1 whither1 in obedience to what he supposed to be the divine summons1 he instantly removed4 ,ingolfr's friend and relative ,leif was shortly after assassinated by some ,irish slaves whom he had captured in a predatory descent on the ,hibernian coast4 ,the surviving chieftain deplored the loss of his kinsman1 lamenting 8that so valiant a man should fall by such villains10 but found consolation by killing the murderers and annexing the lands of their victim4 ,when1 in course of time1 he himself felt his end approaching1 he requested to be buried on a hill overlooking the fiord1 that from that elevated site his spirit might have a better view of the land of which he was the first inhabitant4 ,such are the chronicles related in the 8,landnama ,bok10 or 8,book of ,occupation10 one of the earliest records of ,icelandic history4 ,ingolfr and his companions were soon followed by other emigrants desirous of escaping from the tyranny of ,harold ,haarfager1 who at first favored a movement that removed far beyond the sea so many of his turbulent opponents1 but subsequently1 alarmed at the drain of population1 or desirous of profiting by the exodus1 levied a fine of four ounces of silver on all who left his dominions to settle in ,iceland4 ,yet such were the attractions which the island at that time presented1 that1 in spite of all obstacles1 not half a century elapsed before all its inhabitable parts were occupied1 not only by ,norwegians1 but also by settlers from ,denmark and ,sweden1 ,scotland and ,ireland4 ,the ,norwegians brought with them their language and idolatry1 their customs and historical records1 which the other colonists1 but few in numbers1 were compelled to adopt4 ,at first the udal1 or free land-hold system of their own country1 was in vigor1 but every leader of a band of emigrants being chosen1 by force of circumstances1 as the acknowledged chief of the district occupied by himself and companions1 speedily paved the way for a demi-feudal system of vassalage and subservience4 ,as the arrival of new settlers rendered the possession of the land more valuable1 endless contests between these petty chiefs arose for the better pastures and fisheries4 ,to put an end to this state of anarchy1 so injurious to the common weal1 ,ulfliot the ,wise was commissioned to frame a code of laws1 which the ,icelanders1 by a single simultaneous and peaceful effort1 accepted as their future constitution4 ,the island was now divided into four provinces and twelve districts4 ,each district had its own judge1 and its own popular 8,thing10 or assembly2 but the national will was embodied and represented by the 8,althing10 or supreme parliament of ,iceland1 which annually met at ,thingvalla1 under an elective president1 or 8,logmathurman10 the chief magistrate of this northern republic4 ,on the banks of the river ,oxeraa1 where the rapid stream1 after forming a magnificent cascade1 rushes into the lake of ,thingvalla1 lies the spot where1 for many a century1 freemen met to debate1 while despotic barbarians still reigned over the milder regions of ,europe4 ,isolated on all sides by deep volcanic chasms1 which some great revolution of nature has rent in the vast lava-field around1 and embosomed in a wide circle of black precipitous hills1 the situation of ,thingvalla is extremely romantic1 but the naked dark-colored rocks1 and the traces of subterranean fire visible on every side1 impart a stern melancholy to the scene4 ,the lake1 the largest sheet of water in the island1 is about thirty miles in circumference2 its boundaries have undergone many changes1 especially during the earthquakes of the past century1 when its northern margin collapsed1 while the opposite one was raised4 ,the depth of its crystal waters is very great1 and in its centre rise two small crater-islands1 the result of some unknown eruption4 ,the mountains on its south bank have a picturesque appearance1 and large volumes of steam issuing from several hot sources on their sides prove that1 though all be tranquil now1 the volcanic fires are not extinct4 ,only a few traces of the ancient ,althing are left--three small mounds1 where sat in state the chiefs and judges of the land--for as the assembly used to pitch their tents on the borders of the stream1 and the deliberations were held in the open air1 there are no imposing ruins to bear witness to a glorious past4 ,but though all architectural pomp be absent1 the scene hallowed by the recollections of a thousand years is one of deep interest to the traveller4 ,the great features of nature are the same as when the freemen of ,iceland assembled to settle the affairs of their little world2 but the raven now croaks where the orator appealed to the reason or the passions of his audience1 and the sheep of the neighboring pastor crop undisturbed the grass of desecrated ,thingvalla4 ,illustration3 #ec4 ,,thingvalla1 ,l,,gberg1 ,,and ,,almannagja4 ,mr4 ,ross ,browne thus describes the scene3 8,after a slight repast ,i walked out to take a look at the ,lgberg1 or ,rock of ,laws1 which is situated about half a mile from the church4 ,this is1 perhaps1 of all the objects of historical association in ,iceland1 the most interesting4 ,it was here the judges tried criminals1 pronounced judgments1 and executed their stern decrees4 ,on a small plateau of lava1 separated from the general mass by a profound abyss on every side1 save a narrow neck barely wide enough for a foothold1 the famous 8,thing0 assembled once a year1 and1 secured from intrusion in their deliberations by the terrible chasm around1 passed laws for the weal or woe of the people4 ,it was only necessary to guard the causeway by which they entered2 all other sides were well protected by the encircling moat1 which varies from thirty to forty feet in width1 and is half filled with water4 ,the total depth to the bottom1 which is distinctly visible through the crystal pool1 must be sixty or seventy feet4 ,into this yawning abyss the unhappy criminals were cast1 with stones around their necks1 and many a long day did they lie beneath the water1 a ghastly spectacle for the crowd that peered at them over the precipice4 ,all was now as silent as the grave4 ,eight centuries had passed1 and yet the strange scenes that had taken place here were vividly before me4 ,i could imagine the gathering crowds1 the rising hum of voices2 the pause1 the shriek1 and plunge2 the low murmur of horror1 and then the stern warning of the lawgivers and the gradual dispersing of the multitude4 ,the dimensions of the plateau are four or five hundred feet in length by an average of sixty or eighty in width4 ,the surface is now covered with a fine coating of sod and grass1 and furnishes good pasturage for the sheep belonging to the pastor40 ,christianity was first preached in ,iceland about the year #iha1 by ,friedrich1 a ,saxon bishop1 to whom ,thorwald the traveller1 an ,icelander1 acted as interpreter4 ,thorwald having been treated with great severity by his father1 ,kodran1 had fled to ,denmark1 where he had been converted by ,friedrich4 ,he returned with the pious bishop to his paternal home1 where the solemn service of the ,christians made some impression on ,kodran1 but still the obstinate pagan could not be prevailed upon to renounce his ancient gods4 8,he must believe10 said he1 8the word of his own priest1 who was wont to give him excellent advice40 8,well1 then10 replied ,thorwald1 8this venerable man whom ,i have brought to thy dwelling is weak and infirm1 while thy well-fed priest is full of vigor4 ,wilt thou believe in the power of our ,god if the bishop drives him hence80 ,friedrich now cast a few drops of holy water on the priest1 which immediately burnt deep holes into his skin1 so that he fled1 uttering dreadful curses4 ,after this convincing proof1 ,kodran adopted the ,christian faith4 ,but persuasion and miracles acted too slowly for the fiery ,thorwald1 who would willingly have converted all ,iceland at once with fire and sword4 ,his sermons were imprecations1 and the least contradiction roused him to fury4 ,unable to bear so irascible an associate1 the good bishop ,friedrich1 giving up his missionary labors1 returned to ,saxony4 ,as to ,thorwald1 his restless disposition led him to far-distant lands4 ,he visited ,greece and ,syria1 ,jerusalem and ,constantinople1 and ultimately founded a convent in ,russia1 where he died in the odor of sanctity4 ,soon after ,thangbrand was sent by the ,norwegian king1 ,olaf ,truggeson1 as missionary to ,iceland4 ,his method of conversion appears to have been very like that of his erratic predecessor2 for while he held the cross in one hand1 he grasped the sword with the other4 8,thangbrand10 says an ancient chronicler1 8was a passionate1 ungovernable person1 and a great manslayer1 but a good scholar and clever4 ,he was two years in ,iceland1 and was the death of three men before he left it40 ,other missionaries of a more evangelical character took his place1 and proved by their success that mild reasoning is frequently a far more effectual means of persuasion than brutal violence4 ,they made a great number of proselytes1 and the whole island was now divided into two factions ready to appeal to the sword for the triumph of ,christ or of ,odin4 ,but before coming to this dreadful extremity1 the voice of reason was heard1 and the contending parties agreed to submit the question to the decision of the ,althing4 ,the assembly met1 and the momentous debate was proceeding1 when suddenly a loud crash of subterranean thunder was heard1 and the earth shook under their feet4 8,listen60 exclaimed a follower of ,odin1 8and beware of the anger of our gods3 they will consume us with their fires1 if we venture to question their authority40 ,the ,christian party hesitated2 but their confidence was soon restored by the presence of mind of their chief orator1 ,thorgeir1 who1 pointing to the lava-fields around1 asked with whom the gods were angry when these rocks were melted3 a burst of eloquence which at once decided the question in favor of the ,cross4 ,the new faith brought with it a new spirit of intellectual development1 which attained its highest splendor in the twelfth century4 ,classical studies were pursued with the utmost zeal1 and learned ,icelanders travelled to ,germany and ,france to extend their knowledge in the schools of ,paris or ,cologne4 ,the ,icelandic bards1 or scalds1 were renowned throughout all ,scandinavia2 they frequented the courts of ,sweden1 ,denmark1 and ,norway1 and were everywhere received with the highest honors4 ,the historians1 or sagamen1 of ,iceland were no less renowned than its scalds4 ,they became the annalists of the whole ,scandinavian world1 and the simplicity and truth by which their works are distinguished fully justify their high reputation4 ,among the many remarkable men who at that time graced the literature of the ,arctic isle1 ,smund ,frode1 the learned author of the 8,voluspa0 7a work on the ancient ,icelandic mythology7 and the 8,havamal0 7a general chronicle of events from the beginning of the world72 ,are ,thorgilson1 whose 8,landnama ,bok0 relates with the utmost accuracy the annals of his native land2 and ,gissur1 who about the year #aahj described his voyages to the distant ,orient1 deserve to be particularly mentioned2 but great above all in genius and fame was ,snorri ,sturleson1 the ,herodotus of the ,north1 whose eventful life and tragic end would well deserve to be recounted at greater length4 ,gifted with the rarest talents1 and chief of the most powerful family of the island1 ,snorri was elected in #abae to the high office of ,logmathurman2 but disgusting his sturdy countrymen by his excessive haughtiness1 he was obliged to retire to the court of ,hakon1 king of ,norway4 ,during this exile he collected the materials for his justly celebrated 8,heimskringla10 or ,chronicle of the ,kings of ,norway4 ,returning home in #abba1 he was again named ,logmathurman2 but as he endeavored to pave the way for the annexation of his native country to the ,norwegian realm1 his foreign intrigues caused a rising against his authority1 and he was once more compelled to take refuge in ,norway4 ,here he remained several years1 until the triumph of his own faction allowed him to return to his family estate at ,reikholt1 where he was murdered on a dark ,september night in the year #abda4 ,thus perished the most remarkable man ,iceland ever has produced4 ,the republic itself did not long survive his fall2 for1 weary of the interminable feuds of their chiefs1 the people voluntarily submitted to ,hakon in #abed1 and the middle of the thirteenth century was signalized by the transfer of the island to the ,norwegian crown1 after three hundred and forty years of a turbulent but glorious independence4 ,from that time the political history of the ,icelanders offers but little interest4 ,with their annexation to a ,european monarchy perished the vigor1 restlessness1 and activity which had characterized their forefathers2 and though the ,althing still met at ,thingvalla1 the national spirit had fled4 ,it was still further subdued by a long chain of calamities--plagues1 famines1 volcanic eruptions1 and piratical invasions--which1 following each other in rapid succession1 devastated the land and decimated its unfortunate inhabitants4 ,in #adjb that terrible plague1 the memory of which is still preserved under the name of the 8,black ,death10 carried off nearly two-thirds of the whole population1 and was followed by such an inclement winter that nine-tenths of the cattle in the island died4 ,the miseries of a people suffering from pestilence and famine were aggravated by the ,english fishermen1 who1 in spite of the remonstrances of the ,danish government1 frequented the defenseless coast in considerable numbers1 and were in fact little better than the old sea-robbers who first colonized the island1 plundering and burning on the main1 and holding the wealthy inhabitants to ransom4 ,their predatory incursions were frequently repeated during the seventeenth century1 and even the distant ,mediterranean sent its ,algerine pirates to add to the calamities of ,iceland4 ,the eighteenth century was ushered in by the small-pox1 which carried off sixteen thousand of the inhabitants4 ,in the middle of the century--severe winters following in rapid succession--vast numbers of cattle died1 inducing a famine that again swept away ten thousand inhabitants4 ,since the first colonization of ,iceland1 its numerous volcanoes had frequently brought ruin upon whole districts--twenty-five times had ,hecla1 eleven times ,ktlugi1 six times ,trlladyngja1 five times ,oraefa1 vomited forth their torrents of molten stone1 without counting a number of submarine volcanic explosions1 or where the plain was suddenly rent and flames and ashes burst out of the earth2 but the eruption of ,skaptar ,jkul in #aghc was the most frightful visitation ever known to have desolated the island4 ,the preceding winter and spring had been unusually mild1 and the islanders looked forward to a prosperous summer2 but in the beginning of ,june repeated tremblings of the earth1 increasing in violence from day to day1 announced that the subterranean powers that had long been slumbering under the icy mantle of the ,skaptar were ready to awake4 ,all the neighboring peasants abandoned their huts and erected tents in the open field1 anxiously awaiting the result of these terrific warnings4 ,on the #ith1 immense pillars of smoke collected over the hill country toward the north1 and1 rolling down in a southerly direction1 covered the whole district of ,sitha with darkness4 ,loud subterranean thunders followed in rapid succession1 and innumerable fire-spouts were seen leaping and flaring through the dense canopy of smoke and ashes that enveloped the land4 ,the heat raging in the interior of the volcano melted enormous masses of ice and snow1 which caused the river ,skapta to rise to a prodigious height2 but on the #aath torrents of fire usurped the place of water1 for a vast lava-stream breaking forth from the mountains1 flowed down in a southerly direction1 until reaching the river1 a tremendous conflict arose between the two hostile elements4 ,though the channel was six hundred feet deep and two hundred feet wide1 the lava-flood pouring down one fiery wave after another into the yawning abyss1 ultimately gained the victory1 and1 blocking up the stream1 overflowed its banks4 ,crossing the low country of ,medalland1 it poured into a great lake1 which after a few days was likewise completely filled up1 and having divided into two streams1 the unexhausted torrent again poured on1 overflowing in one direction some ancient lava-fields1 and in another re-entering the channel of the ,skapta and leaping down the lofty cataract of ,stapafoss4 ,but this was not all1 for while one lava-flood had chosen the ,skapta for its bed1 another1 descending in a different direction1 was working similar ruin along the banks of the ,hverfisfliot4 ,whether the same crater gave birth to both1 it is impossible to say1 as even the extent of the lava-flow can only be measured from the spot where it entered the inhabited districts4 ,the stream which followed the direction of ,skapta is calculated to have been about fifty miles in length by twelve or fifteen at its greatest breadth2 that which rolled down the ,hverfisfliot1 at forty miles in length by seven in breadth4 ,where it was inclosed between the precipitous banks of the ,skapta1 the lava is five or six hundred feet thick1 but as soon as it spread out into the plain its depth never exceeded one hundred feet4 ,the eruption of sand1 ashes1 pumice1 and lava continued till the end of ,august1 when at length the vast subterranean tumult subsided4 ,but its direful effects were felt for a long time after1 not only in its immediate vicinity1 but over the whole of ,iceland1 and added many a mournful page to her long annals of sorrow4 ,for a whole year a dun canopy of cinder-laden clouds hung over the unhappy island4 ,sand and ashes1 carried to an enormous height into the atmosphere1 spread far and wide1 and overwhelmed thousands of acres of fertile pasturage4 ,the ,faeroes1 the ,shetlands1 and the ,orkneys were deluged with volcanic dust which perceptibly contaminated even the skies of ,england and ,holland4 ,mephitic vapors obscured the rays of the sun1 and the sulphurous exhalations tainted both the grass of the field and the waters of the lake1 the river1 and the sea1 so that not only the cattle died by thousands1 but the fish also perished in their poisoned element4 ,the unhealthy air1 and the want of food--for hunger at last drove them to have recourse to untanned hides and old leather--gave rise to a disease resembling scurvy among the unfortunate ,icelanders4 ,the head and limbs began to swell1 the bones seemed to be distending4 ,dreadful cramps forced the patient to strange contortions4 ,the gums loosened1 the decomposed blood oozed from the mouth and the ulcerous skin1 and a few days of torment and prostration were followed by death4 ,in many a secluded vale whole families were swept away1 and those that escaped the scourge had hardly strength sufficient to bury the dead4 ,so great was the ruin caused by this one eruption that in the short space of two years no less than #iccf men1 #bh1jjj horses1 #aa1dfa cattle1 and #aij1jjj sheep--a large proportion of the wealth and population of the island--were swept away4 ,after this dreadful catastrophe followed a long period of volcanic rest1 for the next eruption of the ,eyjafialla did not take place before #ahba4 ,a twelfth eruption of ,ktlugja occurred in #ahbc1 the twenty-sixth of ,hecla in #ahde-df2 and ultimately the thirteenth of ,ktlugja in #ahfj4 ,since then there has been repose2 but who knows what future disasters may be preparing beneath those icy ridges and fields of snow of ,skapta and his frowning compeers1 where no human foot has ever wandered1 or how soon they may awaken their dormant thunders8 ,besides the sufferings caused by the elements1 the curse of monopoly weighed for many a long year upon the miserable ,icelanders4 ,the ,danish kings1 to whom on the amalgamation of the three ,scandinavian monarchies the allegiance of the people of ,iceland was passively transferred1 considered their poor dependency as a private domain1 to be farmed out to the highest bidder4 ,in the #afth century the ,hanseatic ,towns purchased the exclusive privilege of trading with ,iceland2 and in #aeid a ,danish company was favored with the monopoly1 for which it had to pay the paltry sum of #af rix-dollars for each of the ports of the island4 ,in the year #ahfb a new company paid #djjj dollars for the ,icelandic monopoly2 but at the expiration of the contract1 each of the ports were farmed out to the highest bidder--a financial improvement which raised the revenue to #af1jjj dollars a year1 and ultimately to #bb1jjj4 ,the incalculable misery produced by the eruption of the ,skapta had at least the beneficial consequence that it somewhat loosened the bonds of monopoly1 as it now became free to every ,danish merchant to trade with the island2 but it is only since ,april1 #ahee1 that the last restrictions have fallen and the ports of ,iceland been opened to the merchants of all nations4 ,it is to be hoped that the beneficial effects of free trade will gradually heal the wounds caused by centuries of neglect and misfortune2 but great progress must be made before ,iceland can attain the degree of prosperity which she enjoyed in the times of her independence4 ,then she had above a hundred thousand inhabitants1 now she has scarcely half that number2 then she had many rich and powerful families1 now mediocrity or poverty is the universal lot2 then she was renowned all over the ,north as the seat of learning and the cradle of literature1 now1 were it not for her remarkable physical features1 no traveller would ever think of landing on her rugged shores4 ,illustration3 #ed4 ,,reykjavik1 ,,the ,,capital ,,of ,,iceland4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,icelanders4 ,skalholt4--,reykjavik4--,the ,fair4--,the ,peasant and the ,merchant4-- ,a ,clergyman in his ,cups4--,hay-making4--,the ,icelander's ,hut4-- ,churches4--,poverty of the ,clergy4--,jon ,thorlaksen4--,the ,seminary of ,reykjavik4--,beneficial ,influence of the ,clergy4-- ,home ,education4--,the ,icelander's ,winter's ,evening4--,taste for ,literature4--,the ,language4--,the ,public ,library at ,reykjavik4-- ,the ,icelandic ,literary ,society4--,icelandic ,newspapers4-- ,longevity4--,leprosy4--,travelling in ,iceland4--,fording the ,rivers4--,crossing of the ,skeidara by ,mr4 ,holland4--,a ,night's ,bivouac4 ,next to ,thingvalla1 there is no place in ,iceland so replete with historical interest as ,skalholt1 its ancient capital4 ,here in the eleventh century was founded the first school in the island2 here was the seat of its first bishops2 here flourished a succession of great orators1 historians1 and poets2 ,isleif1 the oldest chronicler of the ,north2 ,gissur1 who in the beginning of the twelfth century had visited all the countries of ,europe and spoke all their languages2 the philologian ,thorlak1 and ,finnur ,johnson1 the learned author of the 8,ecclesiastical ,history of ,iceland40 ,the ,cathedral of ,skalholt was renowned far and wide for its size1 and in the year #aajj1 ,latin1 poetry1 music1 and rhetoric1 the four liberal arts1 were taught in its school1 more than they were at that time in many of the large ,european cities4 ,as a proof how early the study of the ancients flourished in ,skalholt1 we find it recorded that in the twelfth century a bishop once caught a scholar reading ,ovid's 8,art of ,love20 and as the story relates that the venerable pastor flew into a violent passion at the sight of the unholy book1 we may without injustice conclude that he must have read it himself in some of his leisure hours1 to know its character so well4 ,of all its past glories1 ,skalholt has retained nothing but its name4 ,the school and the bishopric have been removed1 the old church has disappeared1 and been replaced by a small wooden building1 in which divine service is held once a month2 three cottages contain all the inhabitants of the once celebrated city1 and the extensive churchyard is the only memorial of its former importance4 ,close by are the ruins of the old school-house1 and on the spot where the bishop resided a peasant has erected his miserable hovel4 ,but the ever-changing tide of human affairs has not bereft the now lonely place of its natural charms1 for the meadow-lands of ,skalholt are beautifully imbedded in an undulating range of hills1 overlooking the junction of the ,bruara and ,huita1 and backed by a magnificent theatre of mountains1 among which ,hecla and the ,eyjafialla are the most prominent4 ,reykjavik1 the present capital of the island1 has risen into importance at the expense both of ,skalholt and ,thingvalla4 ,at the beginning of the present century the courts of justice were transferred from the ancient seat of legislature to the new metropolis1 and in #agig the bishoprics of ,hoolum and ,skalholt1 united into one1 had their seats likewise transferred to ,reykjavik4 ,the ancient school of ,skalholt1 after having first migrated to ,bessestadt1 has also been obliged to follow the centralizing tendency1 so powerful in our times1 and now contributes to the rising fortunes of the small sea-port town4 ,but in spite of all these accessions1 the first aspect of ,reykjavik by no means corresponds to our ideas of a capital4 8,the town10 says ,lord ,dufferin1 8consists of a collection of wooden sheds1 one story high--rising here and there into a gable end of greater pretensions--built along the lava-track1 and flanked at either end by a suburb of turf huts4 ,on every side of it extends a desolate plain of lava that once must have boiled up red-hot from some distant gateway of hell1 and fallen hissing into the sea4 ,no tree or bush relieves the dreariness of the landscape1 and the mountains are too distant to serve as a background to the buildings2 but before the door of each merchant's house facing the sea there flies a gay little pennon2 and as you walk along the silent streets1 whose dust no carriage-wheel has ever desecrated1 the rows of flower-pots that peep out of the windows1 between curtains of white muslin1 at once convince you that1 notwithstanding their unpretending appearance1 within each dwelling reign the elegance and comfort of a woman-tended home40 ,illustration3 #ee4 ,,governor',s ,,residence1 ,,reykjavik4 ,twenty years since1 ,reykjavik was no better than a wretched fishing-village1 now it already numbers #adjj inhabitants1 and free-trade promises it a still greater increase for the future4 ,it owes its prosperity chiefly to its excellent port1 and to the abundance of fish-banks in its neighborhood1 which have induced the ,danish merchants to make it their principal settlement4 ,most of them1 however1 merely visit it in summer like birds of passage1 arriving in ,may with small cargoes of foreign goods1 and leaving it again in ,august1 after having disposed of their wares4 ,thus ,reykjavik must be lonely and dreary enough in winter1 when no trade animates its port1 and no traveller stays at its solitary inn2 but the joy of the inhabitants is all the greater when the return of spring re-opens their intercourse with the rest of the world1 and the delight may be imagined with which they hail the first ship that brings them the long-expected news from ,europe1 and perhaps some wealthy tourist1 eager to admire the wonders of the ,geysirs4 ,the most busy time of the town is1 however1 the beginning of ,july1 when the annual fair attracts a great number of fishermen and peasants within its walls4 ,from a distance of forty and fifty leagues around1 they come with long trains of pack-horses2 their stock-fish slung freely across the animals' backs1 their more damageable articles close pressed and packed in boxes or skin bags4 ,the greater part of the trade in this and other small sea-ports--such as ,akreyri1 ,hafnafjord1 ,eyrarbacki1 ,berufjord1 ,vapnafjord1 ,isafjord1 ,grafaros1 ,budenstadt1 which1 taken all together1 do not equal ,reykjavik in traffic and population--is carried on by barter4#b ,sometimes the ,icelander desires to be paid in specie for part of his produce1 but then he is obliged to bargain for a long time with the merchant1 who of course derives a double profit by an exchange of goods1 and is loth to part with his hard cash4 ,the dollars thus acquired are either melted down1 and worked into silver massive girdles1 which in point of execution as well as design are said1 on good authority1#c to be equal to any thing of the kind fashioned by ,english jewellers1 or else deposited in a strong-box1 as taxes and wages are all paid in produce1 and no ,icelander ever thinks of investing his money in stocks1 shares1 or debentures4 ,he is1 however1 by no means so ignorant of mercantile affairs as to strike at once a bargain with the ,danish traders4 ,pitching his tent before the town1 he first pays a visit to all the merchants of the place4 ,after carefully noting their several offers 7for as each of them invariably treats him to a dram1 he with some justice mistrusts his memory71 he returns to his caravan and makes his calculations as well as his somewhat confused brain allows him4 ,if he is accompanied by his wife1 her opinion of course is decisive1 and the following morning he repairs with all his goods to the merchant who has succeeded in gaining his confidence4 ,after the business has been concluded1 the peasant empties one glass to the merchant's health1 another to a happy meeting next year1 a third to the king1 a fourth because three have been drunk already4 ,at length1 after many embraces and protestations of eternal friendship1 he takes his leave of the merchant4 ,fortunately there is no thief to be found in all ,iceland2 but in consequence of these repeated libations1 one parcel has not been well packed1 another negligently attached to the horse1 and thus it happens that the poor peasant's track is not unfrequently marked with sugar1 coffee-beans1 salt1 or flour1 and that when he reaches home1 he finds some valuable article or other missing4 ,it would1 however1 be doing the ,icelanders an injustice to regard them as generally intemperate2 for though within the last twelve years the population has increased only ten per cent41 and the importation of brandy thirty1 yet the whole quantity of spirits consumed in the island amounts to less than three bottles per annum for each individual1 and1 of this allowance1 the people of ,reykjavik and of the other small sea-ports have more than their share1 while many of the clergy and peasantry in the remoter districts hardly ever taste spirituous liquors4 ,dr4 ,hooker mentions the extraordinary effect which a small portion of rum produced on the good old incumbent of ,middalr1 whose stomach had been accustomed only to a milk-diet and a little coffee4 8,he begged me10 says the doctor1#d 8to give him some rum to bathe his wife's breast2 but having applied a portion of it to that purpose1 he drank the rest without being at all aware of its strength1 which1 however1 had no other effect than in causing this clerical blacksmith1#e with his lame hip1 to dance in the most ridiculous manner in front of the house4 ,the scene afforded a great source of merriment to all his family except his old wife1 who was very desirous of getting him to bed1 while he was no less anxious that she should join him in the dance40 ,dr4 ,hooker justly remarks that this very circumstance is a convincing proof how unaccustomed this priest was to spirituous liquors1 as the quantity taken could not have exceeded a wine-glass full4 ,after his visit to the fair1 the peasant sets about hay-making1 which is to him the great business of the year1 for he is most anxious to secure winter fodder for his cattle1 on which his whole prosperity depends4 ,the few potatoes and turnips about the size of marbles1 or the cabbage and parsley1 which he may chance to cultivate1 are not worth mentioning2 grass is the chief1 nay1 the only produce of his farm1 and that ,heaven may grant clear sunshiny days for hay-making is now his daily prayer4 ,every person capable of wielding a scythe or rake is pressed into the work4 ,the best hay is cut from the 8tn10 a sort of paddock comprising the lands adjoining the farm-house1 and the only part of his grounds on which the peasant bestows any attention1 for1 in spite of the paramount importance of his pasture-land1 he does but little for its improvement1 and a meadow is rarely seen1 where the useless or less nutritious herbs are not at least as abundant as those of a better quality4 ,the 8tn0 is encircled by a turf or stone wall1 and is seldom more than ten acres in extent1 and generally not more than two or three4 ,its surface is usually a series of closely-packed mounds1 like graves1 most unpleasant to walk over1 the gutter1 in some places1 being two feet in depth between the mounds4 ,after having finished with the 8tn10 the farmer subjects to a process of cutting all the broken hillsides and boggy undrained swamps that lie near his dwelling4 ,the blades of the scythes are very short4 ,it would be impossible to use a long-bladed scythe1 owing to the unevenness of the ground4 ,the cutting and making of hay is carried on1 when the weather will permit1 through all the twenty-four hours of the day4 ,when the hay is made it is tied in bundles by cords and thongs1 and carried away by ponies to the earthen houses prepared for it1 which are similar to and adjoin those in which the cattle are stalled4 8,it is a very curious sight10 says ,mr4 ,shepherd1 8to see a string of hay-laden ponies returning home4 ,each pony's halter is made fast to the tail of the preceding one1 and the little animals are so enveloped in their burdens that nothing but their hoofs and the connecting ropes are visible1 and they look as though a dozen huge haycocks1 feeling themselves sufficiently made1 were crawling off to their resting-places40 ,when the harvest is finished the farmer treats his family and laborers to a substantial supper1 consisting of mutton1 and a soup of milk and flour2 and although the serious and taciturn ,icelander has perhaps of all men the least taste for music and dancing1 yet these simple feasts are distinguished by a placid serenity1 no less pleasing than the more boisterous mirth displayed at a southern vintage4 ,almost all labor out-of-doors now ceases for the rest of the year4 ,a thick mantle of snow soon covers mountain and vale1 meadow and moor2 with every returning day1 the sun pays the cold earth a decreasing visit1 until1 finally1 he hardly appears above the horizon at noon2 the wintry storm howls over the waste1 and for months the life of the ,icelander is confined to his hut1 which frequently is but a few degrees better than that of the filthy ,lap4 ,its lower part is built of rude stones to about the height of four feet1 and between each row layers of turf are placed with great regularity1 to serve instead of mortar1 and keep out the wind4 ,a roof of such wood as can be procured rests upon these walls1 and is covered with turf and sods4 ,on one side 7generally facing the south7 are several gable ends and doors1 each surmounted with a weather-cock4 ,these are the entrances to the dwelling-house proper1 to the smithy1 store-room1 cow-shed1 etc4 ,a long narrow passage1 dark as pitch1 and redolent of unsavory odors1 leads to the several apartments1 which are separated from each other by thick walls of turf1 each having also its own roof1 so that the peasant's dwelling is in fact a conglomeration of low huts1 which sometimes receive their light through small windows in the front1 but more frequently through holes in the roof1 covered with a piece of glass or skin4 ,the floors are of stamped earth2 the hearth is made of a few stones clumsily piled together2 a cask or barrel1 with the two ends knocked out1 answers the purpose of a chimney1 or else the smoke is allowed to escape through a mere hole in the roof4 ,illustration3 #ef4 ,,icelandic ,,houses4 ,the thick turf walls1 the dirty floor1 the personal uncleanliness of the inhabitants1 all contribute to the pollution of the atmosphere4 ,no piece of furniture seems ever to have been cleaned since it was first put into use2 all is disorder and confusion4 ,ventilation is utterly impossible1 and the whole family1 frequently consisting of twenty persons or more1 sleep in the same dormitory1 as well as any strangers who may happen to drop in4 ,on either side of this apartment are bunks three or four feet in width1 on which the sleepers range themselves4 ,such are in general the dwellings of the farmers and clergy1 for but very few of the more wealthy inhabitants live in any way according to our notions of comfort1 while the cots of the poor fisherman are so wretched that one can hardly believe them to be tenanted by human beings4 ,the farm-houses are frequently isolated1 and1 on account of their grass-covered roofs and their low construction1 are not easily distinguished from the neighboring pasture-grounds2 where four or five of them are congregated in a grassy plain1 they are dignified with the name of a village1 and become the residence of a ,hrepstior1 or parish constable4 ,then also a church is seldom wanting1 which however is distinguished from the low huts around merely by the cross planted on its roof4 ,an ,icelandic house of prayer is generally from eight to ten feet wide1 and from eighteen to twenty-four long2 but of this about eight feet are devoted to the altar1 which is divided off by a partition stretching across the church1 and against which stands the pulpit4 ,a small wooden chest or cupboard1 placed at the end of the building1 between two very small square windows not larger than a common-sized pane of glass1 constitutes the communion-table1 over which is generally a miserable representation of the ,lord's ,supper painted on wood4 ,the height of the walls1 which are wainscoted1 is about six feet1 and from them large wooden beams stretch across from side to side4 ,on these beams are placed in great disorder a quantity of old ,bibles1 psalters1 and fragments of dirty manuscripts4 ,the interior of the roof1 the rafters of which rest on the walls1 is also lined with wood4 ,on the right of the door1 under which one is obliged to stoop considerably on entering1 is suspended a bell1 large enough to make an intolerable noise in so small a space4 ,a few benches on each side the aisle1 so crowded together as almost to touch one another1 and affording accommodation to thirty or forty persons when squeezed very tight1 leave room for a narrow passage4 ,these churches1 besides their proper use1 are also made to answer the purpose of the caravanseras of the ,east1 by affording a night's lodging to foreign tourists4 ,they are indeed neither free from dirt1 nor from bad smells2 but the stranger is still far better off than in the intolerable atmosphere of a peasant's hut4 ,mr4 ,ross ,browne thus describes the church and parsonage at ,thingvalla2 8,the church is of modern construction1 and1 like all ,i saw in the interior1 is made of wood1 painted a dark color1 and roofed with boards covered with sheets of tarred canvas4 ,it is a very primitive little affair1 only one story high1 and not more than fifteen by twenty feet in dimensions4 ,from the date on the weather-cock it appears to have been built in #aheh4 ,the congregation is supplied by the few sheep-ranches in the neighborhood1 consisting at most of half a dozen families4 ,these unpretending little churches are to be seen in the vicinity of every settlement throughout the whole island4 ,simple and homely as they are1 they speak well for the pious character of the people4 8,the pastor of ,thingvalla and his family reside in a group of sod-covered huts close by the church4 ,these cheerless little hovels are really a curiosity1 none of them being over ten or fifteen feet high1 and all huddled together without the slightest regard to latitude or longitude1 like a parcel of sheep in a storm4 ,some have windows in the roof1 and some have chimneys2 grass and weeds grow all over them1 and crooked by-ways and dark alleys run among them and through them4 ,at the base they are walled up with big lumps of lava1 and two of them have board fronts1 painted black1 while the remainder are patched up with turf and rubbish of all sorts1 very much in the style of a stork's nest4 ,a low stone wall encircles the premises1 but seems to be of little use as a barrier against the encroachments of live-stock1 being broken up in gaps every few yards4 ,in front of the group some attempt has been made at a pavement1 which1 however1 must have been abandoned soon after the work was commenced4 ,it is now littered all over with old tubs1 pots1 dish-cloths1 and other articles of domestic use4 ,illustration3 #eg4 ,,church ,,at ,,thingvalla4 8,the interior of this strange abode is even more complicated than one would be led to expect from the exterior4 ,passing through a dilapidated doorway in one of the smaller cabins1 which you would hardly suppose to be the main entrance1 you find yourself in a long dark passage-way1 built of rough stone1 and roofed with wooden rafters and brushwood covered with sod4 ,the sides are ornamented with pegs stuck in the crevices between the stones1 upon which hang saddles1 bridles1 horse-shoes1 bunches of herbs1 dried fish1 and various articles of cast-off clothing1 including old shoes and sheepskins4 ,wide or narrow1 straight or crooked1 to suit the sinuosities of the different cabins into which it forms the entrance1 it seems to have been originally located upon the track of a blind boa-constrictor4 ,the best room1 or rather house--for every room is a house--is set apart for the accommodation of travellers4 ,another cabin is occupied by some members of the pastor's family1 who bundle about like a lot of rabbits4 ,the kitchen is also the dog-kennel1 and occasionally the sheep-house4 ,a pile of stones in one corner of it1 upon which a few twigs or scraps of sheep-manure serve to make the fire1 constitute the cooking apartment4 ,the floor consists of the original lava-bed1 and artificial puddles composed of slops and offal of diverse unctuous kinds4 ,smoke fills all the cavities in the air not already occupied by foul odors1 and the beams1 and posts1 and rickety old bits of furniture are dyed to the core with the dense and variegated atmosphere around them4 ,this is a fair specimen of the whole establishment1 with the exception of the travellers' room4 ,the beds in these cabins are the chief articles of luxury40 ,the poverty of the clergy corresponds with the meanness of their churches4 ,the best living in the island is that of ,breide'-,bolstadr1 where the nominal stipend amounts to #ahj specie dollars1 or about #dj a year2 and ,mr4 ,holland states that the average livings do not amount to more than #aj for each parish in the island4 ,the clergymen must therefore depend almost entirely for subsistence on their glebe land1 and a small pittance to which they are entitled for the few baptisms1 marriages1 and funerals that occur among their parishioners4 ,the bishop himself has only #bjjj rix-dollars1 or #bjj1 a year1 a miserable pittance to make a decent appearance1 and to exercise hospitality to the clergy who visit ,reykjavik from distant parts4 ,illustration3 #eh4 ,,the ,,pastor',s ,,house1 ,,thingvalla4 ,it can not be wondered at that pastors thus miserably paid are generally obliged to perform the hardest work of day laborers to preserve their families from starving1 and that their external appearance corresponds less with the dignity of their office than with their penury4 ,besides hay-making and tending the cattle1 they may be frequently seen leading a train of pack-horses from a fishing-station to their distant hut4 ,they are all blacksmiths also from necessity1 and the best shoers of horses on the island4 ,the feet of an ,iceland horse would be cut to pieces over the sharp rock and lava1 if not well shod4 ,the great resort of the peasantry is the church2 and should any of the numerous horses have lost a shoe1 or be likely to do so1 the priest puts on his apron1 lights his little charcoal fire in his smithy 7one of which is always attached to every parsonage71 and sets the animal on his legs again4 ,the task of getting the necessary charcoal is not the least of his labors1 for whatever the distance may be to the nearest thicket of dwarf-birch1 he must go thither to burn the wood1 and to bring it home when charred across his horse's back4 ,his hut is scarcely better than that of the meanest fisherman2 a bed1 a rickety table1 a few chairs1 and a chest or two1 are all his furniture4 ,this is1 as long as he lives1 the condition of the ,icelandic clergyman1 and learning1 virtue1 and even genius are but too frequently buried under this squalid poverty4 ,but few of my readers have probably ever heard of the poet ,jon ,thorlakson1 but who can withhold the tribute of his admiration from the poor priest of ,backa1 who with a fixed income of less than #f a year1 and condemned to all the drudgery which ,i have described1 finished at seventy years of age a translation of ,milton's 8,paradise ,lost10 having previously translated ,pope's 8,essay on ,man40 ,illustration3 #ei4 ,,the ,,pastor ,,of ,,thingvalla4 ,three of the first books only of the 8,paradise ,lost0 were printed by the ,icelandic ,literary ,society1 when it was dissolved in #agif1 and to print the rest at his own expense was of course impossible4 ,in a few ,icelandic verses1 ,thorlakson touchingly alludes to his penury3--8,ever since ,i came into this world ,i have been wedded to ,poverty1 who has now hugged me to her bosom these seventy winters1 all but two2 and whether we shall ever be separated here below is only known to ,him who joined us together40 ,as if ,providence had intended to teach the old man that we must hope to the last1 he soon after received the unexpected visit of ,mr4 ,henderson1 an agent of the ,british and ,foreign ,bible ,society1 who thus relates his interview3 8,like most of his brethren at this season of the year1 we found him in the meadow assisting his people in hay-making4 ,on hearing of our arrival1 he made all the haste home which his age and infirmity would allow1 and bidding us welcome to his lowly abode1 ushered us into the humble apartment where he translated my countrymen into ,icelandic4 ,the door is not quite four feet in height1 and the room may be about eight feet in length by six in breadth4 ,at the inner end is the poet's bed1 and close to the door1 over against a small window1 not exceeding two feet square1 is a table where he commits to paper the effusions of his ,muse4 ,on my telling him that my countrymen would not have forgiven me1 nor could ,i have forgiven myself1 had ,i passed through this part of the island without paying him a visit1 he replied that the translation of ,milton had yielded him many a pleasant hour1 and often given him occasion to think of ,england40 ,this visit was followed by agreeable consequences for the venerable bard4 ,the ,literary ,fund soon afterwards sent him a present of #cj1 a modest sum according to our ideas1 but a mine of wealth in the eyes of the poor ,icelandic priest4 ,his life1 however1 was now near its close1 as it is stated in a short view 8,of the ,origin1 ,progress1 and ,operations of the ,society10 dated ,march #c;d1 #ahba1 that 8the poet of ,iceland is now in his grave2 but it is satisfactory to know that the attention1 in this instance1 of a foreign and remote society to his gains and his fortunes was highly gratifying to his feelings1 and contributed not immaterially to the comfort of his concluding days40 ,he wrote a letter in very elegant ,latin1 expressing his heartfelt gratitude for the kindness and generosity of the ,society1 so accordant with the character of the ,british nation1 and accompanied it with a ,,ms4 copy of his translation4 ,the latter was first printed in ,iceland in #ahbh1 but his own original poems did not appear before #ahdb4 ,the school where most of the ,icelandic clergymen1 so poor and yet generally so respectable in their poverty1 are educated1 is that of ,reykjavik1 as few only enjoy stipends which enable them to study at ,copenhagen4 ,there they live several years under a milder sky1 they become acquainted with the splendor of a large capital1 and thus it might be supposed that the idea of returning to the dreary wastes of their own land must be intolerable4 ,yet this is their ardent desire1 and1 like banished exiles1 they long for their beloved ,iceland1 where privation and penury await them4 ,in no ,christian country1 perhaps with the sole exception of ,lapland1 are the clergy so poor as in ,iceland1 but in none do they exert a more beneficial influence4 ,though the island has but the one public school at ,reykjavik1 yet perhaps in no country is elementary education more generally diffused4 ,every mother teaches her children to read and write1 and a peasant1 after providing for the wants of his family by the labor of his hands1 loses no opportunity1 in his leisure hours1 of inculcating a sound morality4 ,in these praiseworthy efforts the parents are supported by the pastor4 ,he who1 judging from the sordid condition of an ,icelandic hut1 might imagine its inhabitants to be no better than savages1 would soon change his opinion were he introduced on a winter evening into the low1 ill-ventilated room where the family of a peasant or a small landholder is assembled4 ,vainly would he seek a single idler in the whole company4 ,the women and girls spin or knit2 the men and boys are all busy mending their agricultural implements and household utensils1 or else chiselling or cutting with admirable skill ornaments or snuff-boxes in silver1 ivory1 or wood4 ,by the dubious light of a tallow lamp1 just making obscurity visible1 sits one of the family1 who reads with a loud voice an old 8saga0 or chronicle1 or maybe the newest number of the 8,northurfari10 an ,iceland literary almanac1 published during the last few years by ,mr4 ,gisle ,brinjulfsson4 ,sometimes poems or whole sagas are repeated from memory1 and there are even itinerant story-tellers1 who1 like the troubadours and trouvres of the ,middle ,ages1 wander from one farm to another1 and thus gain a scanty livelihood4 ,in this manner the deeds of the ancient ,icelanders remain fixed in the memory of their descendants1 and ,snorre ,sturleson1 ,smund1 ,frodi1 and ,eric ,rauda are unforgotten4 ,nine centuries have elapsed2 but every ,icelander still knows the names of the proud yarls who first peopled the fiords of the island2 and the exploits of the brave vikings who spread terror and desolation along all the coasts of ,europe still fill the hearts of the peaceful islanders of our days with a glow of patriotic pride4 ,where education is so general1 one may naturally expect to find a high degree of intellectual cultivation among the clergy1 the public functionaries1 and the wealthier part of the population4 ,their classical knowledge is one of the first things that strike the stranger with astonishment4 ,he sees men whose appearance too frequently denotes an abject poverty conversant with the great authors of antiquity1 and keenly alive to their beauties4 ,travelling to the ,geysirs1 he is not seldom accosted in ,latin by his guide1 and stopping at a farm1 his host greets him in the same language4 ,i have specially named ,jon ,thorlakson1 but ,iceland has produced and still produces many other men who1 without the hope of any other reward but that which proceeds from the pure love of literature1 devote their days and nights to laborious studies1 and live with ,virgil and ,homer under the sunny skies of ,italy and ,greece4 ,in the study of the modern languages1 the ,icelanders are as far advanced as can be expected from their limited intercourse with the rest of the world4 ,the ,english language1 in which they find so many words of their own and so many borrowed from the ,latin1 is cultivated by many of the clergy4 ,the ,german they find still more easy2 and as all the ,scandinavian languages proceed from the same root1 they have no difficulty in understanding the ,danish and the ,norwegian tongues4 ,of all the modern languages or dialects which have sprung from the ancient ,norse1 spoken a thousand years ago all over ,denmark1 ,sweden1 and ,norway1 none has undergone fewer changes than the ,icelandic4 ,in the sea-ports it is mixed up with many ,danish words and phrases1 but in the interior of the island it is still spoken as it was in the times of ,ingolfr and ,eric the ,red1 and in the whole island there is no fisherman or day laborer who does not perfectly understand the oldest writings4 ,it may easily be imagined that among a people so fond of literature1 books must be in great request4 ,too poor to be constantly increasing their small collections of modern publications1 or of old 8sagas0 or chronicles1 by new acquisitions1 one assists the other4 ,when the peasant goes on ,sundays to church1 he takes a few volumes with him1 ready to lend his treasures to his neighbors1 and1 on his part1 selects from among those which they have brought for the same purpose4 ,when he is particularly pleased with a work1 he has it copied at home1 and it may be here remarked that the ,icelanders are frequently most excellent calligraphists4 ,the foundation of a public library at ,reykjavik in #ahba1 at the instigation of the learned ,professor ,rafn of ,copenhagen1 was a great boon to the people4 ,it is said to contain about #ab1jjj volumes1 which are kept under the roof of the cathedral4 ,books are freely lent for months1 or even for a whole year1 to the inhabitants of remote districts4 ,this liberality is1 of course1 attended with some inconvenience1 but it has the inestimable advantage of rendering a number of good works accessible to numerous families too poor to purchase them4 ,another excellent institution is the ,new ,icelandic ,literary ,society1 founded in #ahaf4 ,it has two seats1 one in ,copenhagen1 the other in ,reykjavik1 and its chief object is the publication of useful works in the language of the country4 ,besides an annual grant of #ajj specie dollars 7#bd7 awarded to it by the ,danish ,government1 its income is confined to the yearly contributions of its members1#f and with this scanty means it has already published many excellent works4 ,though remote from the busy scenes of the world1 ,iceland has three newspapers1 the ,thyodtholfr and the ,islendingur1 which appear at ,reykjavik1 and the ,northri1 which is published at ,akreyri1 on the borders of the ,polar ,ocean4 ,the ,islendingur is said to contain many excellent articles1 but it would sorely task the patience of those who are accustomed to the regular enjoyment of the 8,times0 at breakfast2 as it sometimes appears but once in three weeks1 and then again1 as if to make up for lost time1 twice in eight days4 ,in spite of their ill-ventilated dwellings and the hardships entailed upon them by the severity of the climate1 the ,icelanders frequently attain a good old age4 ,of the #bjai persons who died in #aheh1 #be had passed the age of ninety1 and of these #bj belonged to the fair sex4 ,the mortality among the children is1 however1 very considerable2 #iic1 or nearly one-half of the entire number having died before the age of five in the year above-mentioned4 ,cutaneous affections are very common among ,icelanders1 as may easily be supposed from their sordid woollen apparel and the uncleanliness of their huts2 and the northern leprosy1 or 8likthra10 is constantly seeking out its victims among them4 ,this dreadful disease1 which is also found among the fishermen in ,norway1 in ,greenland1 in the ,faeroes1 in ,lapland1 and1 in short1 wherever the same mode of life exists1 begins with a swelling of the hands and feet4 ,the hair falls off2 the senses become obtuse4 ,tumors appear on the arms and legs1 and on the face1 which soon loses the semblance of humanity4 ,severe pains shoot through the joints1 an eruption covers the whole body1 and finally changes into open sores1 ending with death4 ,he whom the leprosy has once attacked is doomed1 for it mocks all the efforts of medical art4 ,fortunately the victims of this shocking complaint are rather objects of pity than of disgust1 and as it is not supposed to be contagious1 they are not so cruelly forsaken by their relations as their fellow-sufferers in the ,east4 ,in the hut of the priest of ,thingvalla1 ,marmier saw a leper busy grinding corn4 ,some of the poorest and most helpless of these unfortunate creatures find a refuge in four small hospitals1 where they are provided for at the public expense4 ,since a regular steam-boat communication has been opened between ,iceland1 ,denmark1 and ,scotland1 the number of tourists desirous of viewing the matchless natural wonders of the island has considerably increased4 ,but travelling in the island itself is still attended with considerable difficulties and no trifling expense1 to say nothing of the want of all comforts2 so that most of its visitors are content with a trip to ,thingvalla and the ,geysir1 which are but a couple of days' journey from ,reykjavik1 and very few1 like ,mr4 ,holland1 make the entire circuit of the island1 or1 like ,mr4 ,shepherd1 plunge into the terra incognita of its north-western peninsula4 ,the only mode of travelling is on horseback1 as there are no roads1 and therefore no carriages in ,iceland4 ,the distances between the places are too great1 the rivers are too furious1 and the bogs too extensive to allow of a walking tour being made4 ,even the tourist with the most modest pretensions requires at least two riding horses for himself1 two for his guide1 and two packhorses2 and when a larger company travels1 it always forms a cavalcade of from twenty to thirty horses1 tied head to tail1 the chief guide mounted on the first and leading the string1 the other accelerating its motions by gesticulation1 sundry oaths1 and the timely application of the whip4 ,the way1 or the path1 lies either over beds of lava1 so rugged that the horses are allowed to pick their way1 or over boggy ground1 where it is equally necessary to avoid those places into which the animals might sink up to their belly1 but which1 when left to themselves1 they are remarkably skillful in detecting4 ,with the solitary exception of a few planks thrown across the ,bruera1 and a kind of swing bridge1 or klfr1 contrived for passing the rapid ,jkulsa1 there are no bridges over the rivers1 so that the only way to get across is to ride through them--a feat which1 considering the usual velocity of their current1 is not seldom attended with considerable danger1 as will be seen by the following account of the crossing of the ,skeidara by ,mr4 ,holland4 ,illustration3 #fj4 ,,bridge ,,river1 ,,iceland4 8,our guide10 says this intrepid traveller1 8urged on his horse through the stream1 and led the way towards the mid-channel4 ,we followed in his wake1 and soon were all stemming the impetuous and swollen torrent4 ,in the course of our journey we had before this crossed a good many rivers more or less deep1 but all of them had been mere child's play compared to that which we were now fording4 ,the angry water rose high against our horses' sides1 at times almost coming over the tops of their shoulders4 ,the spray from their broken crests was dashed up into our faces4 ,the stream was so swift that it was impossible to follow the individual waves as they rushed past us1 and it almost made us dizzy to look down at it4 ,now1 if ever1 is the time for firm hand or rein1 sure seat1 and steady eye2 not only is the stream so strong1 but the bottom is full of large stones1 that the horse can not see through the murky waters2 if he should fall1 the torrent will sweep you down to the sea--its white breakers are plainly visible as they run along the shore at scarcely a mile's distance1 and they lap the beach as if they waited for their prey4 ,happily1 they will be disappointed4 ,swimming would be of no use1 but an ,icelandic water-horse seldom makes a blunder or a false step4 ,not the least of the risks we ran in crossing the ,skeidara was from the masses of ice carried down by the stream from the ,jkul1 many of them being large enough to knock a horse over4 8,fortunately we found much less ice in the centre and swiftest part of the river1 where we where able to see and avoid it1 than in the side channels4 ,how the horses were able to stand against such a stream was marvellous2 they could not do so unless they were constantly in the habit of crossing swift rivers4 ,the ,icelanders who live in this part of the island keep horses known for their qualities in fording difficult rivers1 and they never venture to cross a dangerous stream unless mounted on a tried water-horse4 ,the action of the ,icelandic horses when crossing a swift river is very peculiar4 ,they lean all their weight against the stream1 so as to resist it as much as possible1 and move onward with a peculiar side-step4 ,this motion is not agreeable4 ,it feels as if your horse were marking time without gaining ground1 and the progress made being really very slow1 the shore from which you started seems to recede from you1 whilst that for which you are making appears as far as ever4 8,when we reached the middle of the stream1 the roar of the waters was so great that we could scarcely make our voices audible to one another2 they were overpowered by the crunching sound of the ice1 and the bumping of large stones against the bottom4 ,up to this point a diagonal line1 rather down stream1 had been cautiously followed2 but when we came to the middle1 we turned our horses' heads a little against the stream4 ,as we thus altered our course1 the long line of baggage-horses appeared to be swung round altogether1 as if swept off their legs4 ,none of them1 however1 broke away1 and they continued their advance without accident1 and at length we all reached the shore in safety40 ,illustration3 #fa4 ,,icelandic ,,bog4 ,after a day's journey in ,iceland1 rest1 as may well be supposed1 is highly acceptable4 ,instead of passing the night in the peasant's hut1 the traveller1 when no church is at hand1 generally prefers pitching his tent near a running stream on a grassy plain2 but sometimes1 in consequence of the great distance from one habitable place to another1 he is obliged to encamp in the midst of a bog where the poor horses find either bad herbs1 scarcely fit to satisfy their hunger1 or no food at all4 ,after they have been unloaded1 their fore legs are bound together above their hoofs1 so as to prevent them straying too far1 while their masters arrange themselves in the tent as comfortably as they can4 ,illustration3 #fb4 ,,coast ,,of ,,iceland4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,the ,,westman ,,islands4 ,the ,westmans4--,their extreme ,difficulty of ,access4--,how they became peopled4--,heimaey4--,kaufstathir and ,ofanleyte4-- ,sheep-hoisting4--,egg-gathering4--,drea dful ,mortality among the ,children4--,the ,ginklofi4--,gentleman ,john4--,the ,algerine ,pirates4--,dreadful ,sufferings of the ,islanders4 ,rising abruptly from the sea to a height of #iaf feet1 the small ,westman ,islands are no less picturesque than difficult of access4 ,many a traveller while sailing along the south coast of ,iceland has admired their towering rock-walls1 but no modern tourist has ever landed there4 ,for so stormy a sea rolls between them and the mainland1 and so violent are the currents1 which the slightest wind brings forth in the narrow channels of the archipelago1 that a landing can be effected only when the weather is perfectly calm4 ,the ,drifanda foss1 a cascade on the opposite mainland1 rushing from the brow of the ,eyafyalla range in a column of some #hjj or #ijj feet in height1 is a sort of barometer1 which decides whether a boat can put off with a prospect of gaining the ,westmans4 ,in stormy weather the wind eddying among the cliffs converts the fall1 though considerable1 into a cloud of spray1 which is dissipated in the atmosphere1 so that no cascade is visible from the beach4 ,in calm weather the column is intact1 and if it remains so two days in succession1 then the sea is usually calm enough to allow boats to land1 and they venture out4 ,as the ,icelanders1 through stormy weather1 are frequently cut off from ,europe1 so the inhabitants of the ,westmans are still more frequently cut off from ,iceland1 and it is seldom more than once a year that the mails are landed direct4 ,the few letters from ,denmark 7for the correspondence is in all probability not very active7 are landed in ,iceland at ,reykjavik1 and thence forwarded to the islands by boat1 as chance may offer1 for1 during the whole winter and the greater part of the summer1 communication is impossible4 ,it will now be understood why tourists are so little inclined to visit the ,westmans1 despite the magnificence of their coast scenery1 for who has the patience to tarry in a miserable hut on the opposite mainland till the cascade informs him that they are accessible1 or is inclined to run the risk of being detained by a sudden change of the weather for weeks or even months on these solitary rocks8 ,mr4 ,ross ,browne thus describes the general aspect of the coast of ,iceland3 8,nothing could surpass the desolate grandeur of the coast as we approached the point of ,reykjaness4 ,it was of an almost infernal blackness4 ,the whole country seemed uptorn1 rifted1 shattered1 and scattered about in a vast chaos of ruin4 ,huge cliffs of lava split down to their bases toppled over the surf4 ,rocks of every conceivable shape1 scorched and blasted with fire1 wrested from the main and hurled into the sea1 battled with the waves1 their black scraggy points piercing the mist like giant hands upthrown to smite or sink in a fierce death-struggle4 ,the wild havoc wrought in the conflict of elements was appalling4 ,birds screamed over the fearful wreck of matter4 ,the surf from the inrolling waves broke against the charred and shattered desert of ruin with a terrific roar4 ,columns of spray shot up over the blackened fragments of lava1 while in every opening the lashed waters1 discolored by the collision1 seethed and surged as in a huge caldron40 ,illustration3 #fc4 ,,westman ,,isles4 ,of the ,westman ,islands1 he says3 8,towards noon we made the ,westman ,isles1 a small rocky group some ten miles distant from the main island4 ,a fishing and trading establishment1 owned by a company of ,danes1 is located on one of these islands4 ,the ,arcturus touches twice a year to deliver and receive a mail4 ,on the occasion of our visit1 a boat came out with a hardy-looking crew of ,danes to receive the mail-bag4 ,it was doubtless a matter of great rejoicing to them to obtain news from home4 ,i had barely time to make a rough outline of the islands as we lay off the settlement4 ,the chief interest attached to the ,westman group is1 that it is supposed to have been visited by ,columbus in #adgg1 fifteen years prior to his voyage of discovery to the shores of ,america40 ,the puffin1 or the screeching sea-mew1 seem the only inhabitants for which nature has fitted the ,westmans1 and yet they have a history which leads us back to the times when ,iceland itself first became known to man4 ,about #hge1 a few years after ,ingolfr followed his household gods to ,reykjavik1 a ,norwegian pirate1 perchance one of the associates of that historical personage1 landed on the coast of ,ireland1 attacked with fire and sword the defenseless population1 captured forty or fifty persons1 men1 women1 and children1 and carried them off as slaves4 ,the passage must have been any thing but pleasant1 for it gave the ,hibernians such a foretaste of the wretchedness that awaited them in ,iceland1 their future abode1 that1 taking courage from despair1 they rose on their captors1 threw them overboard1 and went ashore on the first land they met with4 ,a day of rare serenity must have witnessed their arrival on the ,westmans1 a spot which of all others seemed most unlikely to become their home4 ,why they remained there1 is a secret of the past2 most likely they had no other alternative1 and freedom on a rock was1 at all events1 better than slavery under a cruel viking4 ,thus these weather-beaten islets were first peopled by men from the west1 whence they derive their name1 and it is supposed that the present inhabitants are the descendants of those children of ,erin4 ,no one will be inclined to envy them the heritage bequeathed to them by their fathers4 ,the ,westmans are fourteen in number2 but of these only one1 called ,heimaey1 or ,home ,island1 is inhabited4 ,it is fifteen miles from the coast of ,iceland1 and forty-five from ,hecla4 ,though larger than all the others put together1 its entire surface is not more than ten square miles4 ,it is almost surrounded with high basaltic cliffs1 and an otherwise iron-bound shore2 its interior is covered with black ashy-looking cones1 bearing undoubted evidence of volcanic action2 in fact1 the harbor1 which lies on its north-east side1 and is only accessible to small craft1 is formed out of an old crater1 into which the sea has worn an entrance4 ,the inhabitants are located in two villages2 ,kaufstathir1 on a little grassy knoll near the landing-place1 and ,ofanleyte1 on the grassy platform of the island4 ,only three of the other islets produce any vegetation or pasturage1 and it is said that on one of these the sheep are hoisted with a rope out of the boats by an islander1 who1 at the risk of his neck1 has climbed to the top of the precipitous rock4 ,the others are mere naked cliffs or basaltic pillars1 the abode of innumerable sea-birds1 which1 when accessible1 are a precious resource to the islanders4 ,for1 as may well be supposed1 the scanty grass lands afford nourishment but to a few cows and sheep2 and as the unruly waters too often prevent their fishing-boats from putting to sea1 they depend in a great measure for their subsistence upon the sea-birds1 in whose capture they exhibit wonderful courage and skill4 ,in the egg-season they go to the top of the cliff1 and1 putting a rope round a man's waist1 let him down the side of the perpendicular rock1 one1 two1 or three hundred feet2 on arriving at the long1 narrow1 horizontal shelves1 he proceeds to fill a large bag with the brittle treasures deposited by the birds4 ,when his bag is full1 he and his eggs are drawn to the top by his companions4 ,if the rope breaks1 or is cut off by the sharp corners of the rock1 which1 however1 happens but seldom1 nothing can save the luckless fowler1 who is either precipitated into the sea1 or dashed to pieces on the rocks below4 ,illustration3 #fd4 ,,home ,,of ,,sea-,,birds4 ,at a later period in the season they go and get the young birds1 and then they have often desperate battles with the old ones1 who will not give up fighting for their offspring till their necks are broken1 or their brains knocked out with a club4 ,where the cliffs are not accessible from the top1 they go round the bottom in boats1 and show a wonderful agility and daring in scaling the most terrible precipices4 ,in summer they get the eggs and the fresh meat of the young birds1 which they also salt for the winter4 ,the feathers form their chief article of export1 besides dried and salted codfish1 and with these they procure their few necessaries and luxuries1 consisting principally of clothing1 tobacco and snuff1 spirits1 fish-hooks and lines1 and salt4 ,as there is no peat on these islands1 nor dried fish-bones in sufficient quantity1 they also make use of the tough old sea-birds as fuel4 ,for this purpose they split them open1 and dry them on the rocks4 ,the ,westmans form a separate ,syssel1 or county1 and they have a church1 and usually two clergymen4 ,their church was rebuilt of stone1 at the expense of the ,danish ,government1 in #aggd1 and is said to be one of the best in ,iceland4 ,unfortunately the two clergymen to whom the spiritual care of the islanders is confided seem to have but a very indifferent flock1 for their neighbors on the mainland give rather a bad character to the inhabitants of ,heimaey1 describing them as great sluggards and drunkards4 ,the population1 which was formerly more considerable1 amounts to about #bjj souls1 but even this is more than might be expected from the dreadful mortality which reigns among the children4 ,the eggs and the oily flesh of sea-birds furnish a miserable food for infants1 particularly when weaned1 as is here customary1 at a very early age2 but the poor islanders have nothing else to give them1 except some fish1 and a very insufficient quantity of cow's or sheep's milk4 ,this unhealthy diet1 along with the boisterous air1 gives rise to an incurable infantile disease1 called ,ginklofi 7tetanus74 ,its first symptoms are squinting and rolling of the eyes1 the muscles of the back are seized with incipient cramps and become stiff4 ,after a day or two lock-jaw takes place1 the back is bent like a bow1 either backward or forward4 ,the lock-jaw prevents swallowing1 and the cramps become more frequent and prolonged until death closes the scene4 ,the same disease is said to decimate the children on ,st4 ,kilda in consequence of a similar mode of life4 ,the only means of preserving the infants of ,heimaey from the ,ginklofi1 is to send them as soon as possible to the mainland to be reared1 and thus a long continuance of bad weather is a death-warrant to many4 ,who would suppose that the ,westman ,islanders1 doubly guarded by their poverty and almost inaccessible cliffs1 could ever have become the prey of freebooters8 and yet they have been twice attacked and pillaged1 and well-nigh exterminated by sea-rovers4 ,i have already mentioned1 in a previous chapter1 that before the discovery of the banks of ,newfoundland1 the ,english cod-fishers used to resort in great numbers to the coasts of ,iceland1 where some of them--now and then--appeared also in the more questionable character of corsairs4 ,one of these worthies1 who1 like ,paul ,clifford1 or ,captain ,macheath1 so effectually united the suaviter in modo with the fortiter in re1 as to have merited the name of 8,gentleman ,john10 came to the ,westmans in #afad and set the church on fire1 after having previously removed the little that was worth taking4 ,after this exploit he returned to ,great ,britain1 but ,king ,james ,i4 had him hung1 and ordered the church ornaments which he had robbed to be restored to the poor islanders4 ,it was1 however1 written in the book of fate that they were not to enjoy them long1 for in #afbg1 a vessel of ,algerine pirates1 after plundering several places on the eastern and southern coasts of ,iceland1 fell like a thunderbolt on ,heimaey4 ,these miscreants1 compared with whom ,john was a 8gentleman0 indeed1 cut down every man who ventured to oppose them1 plundered and burnt the new-built church1 and every hovel of the place1 and carried away about #djj prisoners--men1 women1 and children4 ,one of the two clergymen of the island1 ,jon ,torsteinson1 was murdered at the time4 ,this learned and pious man had translated the ,psalms of ,david and the ,book of ,genesis into ,icelandic verse1 and is spoken of as the 8martyr0 in the history of the land4 ,the other clergyman1 ,olaf ,egilson1 with his wife and children1 and the rest of the prisoners1 was sold into slavery in ,algiers4 ,the account of his sufferings and privations1 which he wrote in the ,icelandic language1 was afterwards translated and published in ,danish4 ,it was not until #afcf1 nine years after their capture1 that the unfortunate ,heimaeyers were released1 and then only by being ransomed by the ,king of ,denmark4 ,such was the misery they had endured from their barbarous taskmasters1 that only thirty-seven of the whole number survived1 and of these but thirteen lived to return to their native island4 ,illustration3 #fe4 ,,fishing ,,in ,,norway4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,from ,,drontheim ,,to ,,the ,,north ,,cape4 ,mild ,climate of the ,norwegian ,coast4--,its ,causes4--,the ,norwegian ,peasant4--,norwegian ,constitution4--,romantic coast ,scenery4-- ,drontheim4--,greiffenfeld ,holme and ,vre4--,the ,sea-eagle4--,the ,herring-fisheries4--,the ,lofoten ,islands4--,the ,cod-fisheries4-- ,wretched ,condition of the ,fishermen4--,troms--,altenfiord4--,the ,copper ,mines4--,hammerfest the most northern ,town in the ,world4-- ,the ,north ,cape4 ,of all the lands situated either within or near the ,arctic ,circle none enjoys a more temperate climate than the ,norwegian coast4 ,here1 and nowhere else throughout the northern world1 the birch and the fir-tree climb the mountain-slopes to a height of #gjj or #hjj feet above the level of the sea1 as far as the #gjth degree of latitude2 here we still find a flourishing agriculture in the interior of the ,malanger ,fjord in #fi4 ,on the opposite side of the ,polar ,ocean extends the inaccessible ice belt of ,east ,greenland2 ,spitzbergen and ,nova ,zembla are not #djj miles distant from ,talvig and ,hammerfest1 and yet these ports are never blocked with ice1 and even in the depth of winter remain constantly open to navigation4 ,what are the causes which in this favored region banish the usual rigors of the ,arctic zone8 ,how comes it that the winter even at the ,north ,cape 7mean temperature #bb7 is much less severe than at ,quebec 7mean temperature #ad71 which is situated #be of latitude nearer to the equator8 ,the high mountain chains which separate ,norway from ,sweden and ,finland1 and keep off the eastern gales issuing from the ,siberian wastes1 while its coasts lie open to the mild south-westerly winds of the ,atlantic1 no doubt account in some measure for the comparative mildness of its climate2 but the main cause of this phenomenon must no doubt be sought for in the sea4 ,flowing into the ,atlantic ,ocean between ,florida and ,cuba1 the warm ,gulf ,stream traverses the sea from west to east1 and although about the middle of its course it partly turns to the south1 yet a considerable portion of its waters flows onward to the north-east1 and streaming through the wide portal between ,iceland and ,great ,britain1 eventually reaches the coasts of ,norway4 ,of course its warmth diminishes as it advances to the north1 but this is imparted to the winds that sweep over it1 and thus it not merely brings the seeds of tropical plants from ,equatorial ,america to the coasts of ,norway1 but also the far more important advantages of a milder temperature4 ,the soil of ,norway is generally rocky and sterile1 but the sea amply makes up for the deficiencies of the land1 and with the produce of their fisheries1 of their forests1 and their mines1 the inhabitants are able to purchase the few foreign articles which they require4 ,though poor1 and not seldom obliged to reap the gifts of nature amidst a thousand hardships and dangers1 they envy no other nation upon earth4 ,the ,norwegian peasant is a free man on the scanty bit of ground which he has inherited from his fathers1 and he has all the virtues of a freeman--an open character1 a mind clear of every falsehood1 a hospitable heart for the stranger4 ,his religious feelings are deep and sincere1 and the ,bible is to be found in every hut4 ,he is said to be indolent and phlegmatic1 but when necessity urges he sets vigorously to work1 and never ceases till his task is done4 ,his courage and his patriotism are abundantly proved by a history of a thousand years4 ,norway owes her present prosperity chiefly to her liberal constitution4 ,the press is completely free1 and the power of the king extremely limited4 ,all privileges and hereditary titles are abolished4 ,the ,parliament1 or the 8,storthing10 which assembles every three years1 consists of the 8,odelthing10 or ,upper ,house1 and of the 8,logthing10 or ,legislative ,assembly4 ,every new law requires the royal sanction2 but if the ,storthing has voted it in three successive sittings1 it is definitively adopted in spite of the royal veto4 ,public education is admirably cared for4 ,there is an elementary school in every village1 and where the population is too thinly scattered1 the schoolmaster may truly be said to be abroad1 as he wanders from farm to farm1 so that the most distant families have the benefit of his instruction4 ,every town has its public library1 and in many districts the peasants annually contribute a dollar towards a collection of books1 which1 under the care of the priest1 is lent out to all subscribers4 ,no ,norwegian is confirmed who does not know how to read1 and no ,norwegian is allowed to marry who has not been confirmed4 ,he who attains his twentieth year without having been confirmed has to fear the ,house of ,correction4 ,thus ignorance is punished as a crime in ,norway1 an excellent example for far richer and more powerful nations4 ,the population of ,norway amounts to about #a1cej1jjj1 but these are very unequally distributed2 for while the southern province of ,aggerhuus has #eac1jjj inhabitants on a surface of #ce1bjj square miles1 ,nordland has only #ei1jjj on #af1cbe1 and ,finmark1 the most northern province of the land1 but #ch1jjj on #bi1ibe1 or hardly more than one inhabitant to every square mile4 ,but even this scanty population is immense when compared with that of ,eastern ,siberia or of the ,hudson's ,bay territories1 and entirely owes its existence to the mildness of the climate and the open sea1 which at all seasons affords its produce to the fisherman4 ,illustration3 #ff4 ,,norwegian ,,farm4 ,it is difficult to imagine a more secluded1 solitary life than that of the 8bonders10 or peasant proprietors1 along the northern coasts of ,norway4 ,the farms1 confined to the small patches of more fruitful ground scattered along the fjords1 at the foot or on the sides of the naked mountains1 are frequently many miles distant from their neighbors1 and the stormy winter cuts off all communication between them4 ,thus every family1 reduced to its own resources1 forms as it were a small commonwealth1 which has but little to do with the external world1 and is obliged to rely for its happiness on internal harmony1 and a moderate competency4 ,strangers seldom invade their solitude1 for they are far from the ordinary tracks of the tourist1 and yet a journey from ,drontheim to ,hammerfest and the ,north ,cape affords many objects of interest well worthy of a visit4 ,the only mode of communication is by sea1 for the land is everywhere intersected by deep fjords1 bounded by one continuous chain of precipitous cliffs and rocks1 varying from one thousand to four thousand feet in height4 ,formerly1 even the sea-voyage was attended with considerable difficulties1 for the miserable 8yoegt10 or ,scandinavian sloop1 the only means of conveyance at the disposal of the traveller1 required at the best of times at least a month to perform the voyage from ,drontheim to ,hammerfest1 and in case of stormy weather1 or contrary wind1 had often to wait for weeks in some intermediate port4 ,now1 however1 a steamer leaves the port of ,drontheim every week1 and conveys the traveller in five or six days to the remote northern terminus of his journey4 ,illustration3 #fg4 ,,steaming ,,along ,,the ,,coast4 ,innumerable isles of every size1 from a few yards in diameter to as many miles1 stud the line of coast1 and between these and the mainland the steamer ploughs its way4 ,sometimes the channel is as narrow as the bed of a river1 at others it expands into a mighty lake1 and the ever-varying forms of the isles1 of the fjords1 and of the mountains1 constantly open new and magnificent prospects to the view4 ,one grand colossal picture follows upon another1 but unfortunately few or none show the presence of man4 ,from time to time only some fishing-boat makes its appearance on the sea1 or some wooden farm-house rises on the solitary beach4 ,on advancing farther to the north1 the aspect of nature becomes more and more stern1 vegetation diminishes1 man is more rarely seen1 and the traveller feels as if he were on the point of entering the gloomy regions of perpetual death4 ,with the sole exception of ,archangel1 ,drontheim is the most populous and important town situated in so high a latitude as #fc #bd4 ,although the cradle of ancient ,scandinavian history1 and the residence of a long line of kings1 it looks as if it had been built but yesterday1 as its wooden houses have frequently been destroyed by fire4 ,the choir of its magnificent cathedral1 built in the eleventh century1 and once the resort of innumerable pilgrims who came flocking to the shrine of ,st4 ,olave from all ,scandinavia1 is the only remaining memorial of the old ,tronyem of the ,norse annalists and scalds4 ,the modern town has a most pleasing and agreeable appearance1 and the lively colors with which the houses are painted harmonize with the prosperity of its inhabitants1 which is due in a great measure to its thriving fisheries1 and to the rich iron and copper mines in its neighborhood4 ,the tall chimneys of many smelting-huts1 iron foundries1 and other manufactories1 bear evidence that modern industry has found its way to the ancient capital of ,norway4 ,in point of picturesque beauty1 the bay1 on a peninsula of which the town is situated1 does not yield to that of ,naples4 ,up and down1 in every direction1 appear the villas of the merchant1 and ships of all burden riding at anchor in the bay1 and boats passing and repassing4 ,in a small island of the bay1 fronting the town1 is the celebrated castle of ,munkholm1 where in former times many a prisoner of state has bewailed the loss of his liberty4 ,here1 among others1 ,greiffenfeld1 who had risen from obscurity to the rank of an all-powerful minister1 was incarcerated for eighteen years 7#afhj-ih74 ,illustration3 #fh4 ,,the ,,puffin4 ,at ,hildringen1 where the potato is still cultivated with success1 and barley ripens every four or five years1 begins the province of ,nordland1 which extends from #fe to #fi #cj ,n4 lat4 ,the mostly uninhabited isles along the coast are called 8,holme10 when rising like steep rocks out of the water1 and 8,vre0 when flat and but little elevated above the level of the sea4 ,the latter are the breeding-places of numberless sea-fowls1 whose eggs yield a welcome harvest to the inhabitants of the neighboring mainland or of the larger islands4 ,a well-stocked egg-vr is a valuable addition to a farm1 and descends from father to son1 along with the pasture-grounds and the herds of the paternal land4 ,when the proprietor comes to plunder the nests1 the birds remain quiet1 for they know by experience that only the superfluous eggs are to be removed4 ,but not unfrequently strangers land1 and leave not a single egg behind4 ,then all the birds1 several thousands at once1 rise from their nests and fill the air with their doleful cries4 ,if such disasters occur repeatedly they lose courage1 and1 abandoning the scene of their misfortunes1 retire to another vr4 ,most of these birds are sea-gulls 7,maasfugl1 or ,maage71 their eggs are large1 and of a not disagreeable taste4 ,the island of ,lovunnen is the favorite breeding-place of the puffin1 which is highly esteemed on account of its feathers4 ,this silly bird is very easily caught4 ,the fowler lets down an iron hook1 or sends a dog trained on purpose into the narrow clefts or holes of the rock1 where the puffins sit crowded together4 ,the first bird being pulled out1 the next one bites and lays hold of his tail1 and thus in succession1 till the whole family1 clinging together like a chain1 is dragged to light4 ,this rocky coast is also much frequented by the sea-eagle1 who is very much feared over the whole province1 as he not only carries away lambs and other small animals1 but even assails and not seldom overpowers the ,norwegian oxen4 ,his mode of attack is so singular that if ,von ,buch had not heard it so positively and so circumstantially related in various places1 situated at great distances from each other1 he would willingly have doubted its truth4 ,the eagle darts down into the waves1 and then rolls about with his wet plumage on the beach until his wings are quite covered with sand4 ,then he once more rises into the air and hovers over his intended victim4 ,swooping down close to him1 he claps his wings1 flings the sand into the eyes of the unfortunate brute1 and thoroughly scares it by repeated blows of his pinions4 ,the blinded ox rushes away to avoid the eagle's attacks1 until he is completely exhausted or tumbles down some precipitous cliff4 ,the sea-coast from ,alsten to ,rodo1 which is crossed by the ,arctic ,circle1 is particularly rich in herrings1 as it furnishes more than one-half of the fish exported to ,bergen4 ,in respect of the capital invested1 the cod-fishery must be regarded as the most important of the ,norwegian deep-sea fisheries1 but in the number of hands employed1 the herring-fishery takes precedence4 ,the number of men actually engaged in the latter is not less than #fj1jjj1 and considerably more than double that number are directly or indirectly interested in the result of their operations4 ,the herrings taken in #ahff filled #gej1jjj barrels1 each weighing #bbd lbs41 the largest catch ever taken on the ,norwegian coast1 at least in recent years4 ,as the movements of the fish are extremely erratic1 large shoals being found one year in a part of the coast where none will be seen the year following1 the fishermen are forced to move from place to place1 and formerly the herrings frequently escaped altogether for want of hands to capture them4 ,now this difficulty is in a great measure removed4 ,telegraph stations are erected at different places on the coast1 from which the movements of the shoals are carefully watched2 and field telegraphs are kept in readiness to be joined on to the main line1 so as to summon the fishermen from every part of the country on the first appearance of the fish at any new point4 ,the best time for the herring-fishery is from ,january to ,march1 and in #ahff1 #bjj1jjj barrels1 or more than one-fourth of the total catch1 were caught between ,february #aath and #adth4 ,at the northern extremity of the province of ,nordland1 between #fh and #fi ,n4 lat41 are situated the ,lofoten ,islands1 or ,vesteraalen ,oerne1 which are separated from the mainland by the ,vestfjord4 ,this broad arm of the sea is remarkable both for its violent currents and whirlpools1 among which the ,maelstrom has attained a world-wide celebrity1 and also from its being the most northerly limit where the oyster has been found4 ,but it is chiefly as the resort of the cod that the ,vestfjord is of the highest importance1 not only to ,nordland1 but to the whole of ,norway4 ,no less than #fjjj boats from all parts of the coast1 manned probably by more than half of the whole adult male population of ,nordland1 annually assemble at ,vaage1 on the island of ,ost ,vaagoe1 and besides these1 more than #cjj yoegts1 or larger fishing-sloops1 from ,bergen1 ,christiansand1 and ,molde1 appear upon the scene4 ,the banks of ,newfoundland hardly occupy more hands than the fishing-grounds of the ,vestfjord1 which1 after the lapse of a thousand years1 continue as prolific as ever2#g nor is there an instance known of its having ever disappointed the fisherman's hopes4 ,in ,harold ,haarfagr's times1 ,vaage was already renowned for its fisheries1 and several yarls had settled in this northern district1 to reap the rich harvest of the seas4 ,at a later period1 under the reign of ,saint ,olave 7#ajbj71 the annual ,parliament of ,nordland was held at ,vaage1 and1 in #aabj1 the benevolent ,king ,eystein1 brother of ,sigurd the ,crusader1 caused a church to be erected here in honor of his saintly predecessor1 along with a number of huts1 to serve as a shelter to the poor fishermen1 a deed which he himself prized more highly than all his chivalrous brother's warlike exploits in the ,east1 for 8these men10 said he1 8will still remember in distant times that a ,king ,eystein once lived in ,norway40 ,the reason why the fish never cease visiting this part of the coast is that the ,lofoten ,isles inclose1 as it were1 an inland or mediterranean sea1 which only communicates with the ocean by several narrow channels between the islands1 and where the fish find the necessary protection against stormy weather4 ,they assemble on three or four banks well known to the fishermen1 seldom arriving before the middle of ,january1 and rarely later than towards the end of ,february4 ,they remain in the sheltered fjord no longer than is necessary for spawning1 and in ,april have all retired to the deeper waters1 so that the whole of the fishing season does not last longer than a couple of months4 ,the fish are either caught by hooks and lines1 or more frequently in large nets about twenty fathoms long and seven or eight feet broad1 buoyed with pieces of light wood1 and lested with stones1 so as to maintain a vertical position when let down in the water4 ,the fish1 swimming with impetuous speed1 darts into the meshes1 which effectually bar his retreat4 ,the nets are always spread in the evening1 and hauled up in the morning2 for as long as it is daylight1 the fish sees and avoids them1 even at a depth of sixty or eighty fathoms4 ,a single haul of the net frequently fills half the boat1 and the heavy fish would undoubtedly tear the meshes if they were not immediately struck with iron hooks1 and flung into the boat as soon as they are dragged to the surface4 ,claus ,niels ,sliningen1 a merchant of ,borgund1 first introduced the use of these nets in the year #afhe1 an innovation which more than doubled the total produce of the fisheries4 ,but 7as with all useful inventions7 loud complaints were raised against him in ,norway1 and as late as #agfb no nets were allowed at ,drontheim1 8to prevent the ruin of the poor people who had not the capital to provide themselves with them40 ,illustration3 #fi4 ,,the ,,dovrefjeld4 ,the life of a fisherman is everywhere full of privations and dangers1 but nowhere more so than at the ,lofoten ,islands4 ,here1 after toiling on the stormy sea for many hours1 he has nothing but the miserable shelter of a damp1 filthy1 over-crowded hut1 which affords him neither the rest nor the warmth needed after his fatiguing day's work4 ,even the iron-framed sons of the ,north are frequently unable to resist such continuous hardships1 and bring home with them the seeds of contagion and death4 ,malignant fevers have frequently decimated the population of ,norway1 and their origin may generally be traced to the fishing-grounds4 8,the ,arab and the ,persian10 says ,leopold von ,buch1 8build caravanseras for the wayfarers through the desert2 the inhabitants of the ,alps have founded #8hospices' on the summits of the mountain passes2 and the ,norwegian has erected houses of refuge on ,dovrefjeld1 but none for the fishermen of ,lofoten4 ,near ,rodo there is a large hospital for the sick of ,nordland2 would it not be as well to build houses in ,lofoten1 so as not to crowd the hospitals and churchyards80 ,this was written at the beginning of the present century1 but the poor fishermen are still as neglected as ever1 for a more recent traveller1 ,marmier1 beheld with pity the wretched huts in which they spend three winter months far from their families4 ,in the channel between ,hval and the mainland lies1 in #fi #de ,n4 lat41 the small island of ,troms1 where about fifty years since only a few fishermen resided1 whose huts have gradually expanded into a thriving little town of about #cjjj inhabitants1 along the shore opposite the mainland4 ,its staple exports are dried and salted cod1 and train-oil4 ,the livers of the cod are put in open barrels and placed in the sun1 and the melted portion which rises to the surface is skimmed off1 being the purest oil4 ,the coarse refuse is boiled in great iron pots by the side of the sea1 and yields the common 8train-oil40 ,the muscular matter which remains is collected into barrels and exported as a powerful manure2 some of it is sent to ,england4 ,the town consists mainly of one long straggling street1 following the windings of the shore1 and has a picturesque appearance from the harbor4 ,the houses are all of wood painted with lively colors1 and the roofs1 mostly covered with grass1 diversified with bright clusters of yellow and white flowers1 look pretty in summer4 ,troms has a ,latin school1 and even boasts of a newspaper1 the ,troms ,tidende et ,blan for ,nordland og ,finmarken 78,the ,troms ,gazette1 a paper for ,nordland and ,finmark074 ,this paper is published twice a week2 and as only one mail arrives at ,troms every three weeks1 the foreign news is given by instalments1 spreading over six successive numbers1 until a fresh dispatch arrives4 ,the island of ,troms is beautifully situated1 being on all sides environed by mountains1 so that it seems to lie in the midst of a huge salt lake4 ,its surface rises in gentle slopes to a tolerable elevation1 and no other ,arctic isle contains richer pasturage1 or dwarf plantations of greater luxuriance4 ,many meadows are yellow with buttercups and picturesque underwood1 and the heathy hills are covered with shrubs1 bearing bright berries of many hues4 ,the pride of the ,tromsites in their island and town1 and their profound attachment to it1 are remarkable4 ,no ,swiss can be more enthusiastically bound to his mountains and vales1 than they are to their circumscribed domain4 ,to the north of ,troms lies the broad and deep ,altenfjord1 whose borders are studded with numerous dwellings1 and where the botanist meets with a vegetation that may well raise his astonishment in so high a latitude4 ,here the common birch-tree grows #adej feet1 and the ,vaccinium myrtillus #bjcj feet above the level of the sea2 the dwarf birch 7,betula nana7 still vegetates at a height of #bgdj feet1 and the ,arctic willow is even found as high as #cejj feet1 up to the limits of perennial snow4 ,alten is moreover celebrated through its copper-mines4 ,a piece of ore having been found by a ,lap-woman in the year #ahbe1 accidentally fell into the hands of ,mr4 ,crowe1 an ,english merchant in ,hammerfest4 ,this gentleman immediately took measures for obtaining a privilege from ,government for the working of the mines1 and all preliminaries being arranged1 set off for ,london1 where he founded a company1 with a capital of #ge1jjj4 ,when ,marmier visited the ,altenfjord in #ahdb1 more than #aajj workmen were employed in these most northerly mining-works of the world1 and not seldom more than ten ,english vessels at a time were busy unloading coals at ,kaafjord for the smelting of the ores4 ,new copper-works had recently been opened on the opposite side of the bay at ,raipass1 and since then the establishment has considerably increased4 ,hammerfest1 the capital of ,finmark1 situated on the west side of the island of ,hval1 in #gj #ci #ae1 is the most northern town in the world4 ,half a century since1 it had but #dd inhabitants2 at present its population amounts to #abjj4 ,as at ,troms1 very many of the houses1 forming one long street winding round the shore1 have grass sown on their roofs1 which gives the latter the appearance of little plots of meadows4 ,with us the expression1 8he sleeps with grass above his head10 is equivalent to saying 8he is in his grave20 but here it may only mean that he sleeps beneath the verdant roof of his daily home4 ,many large warehouses are built on piles projecting into the water1 with landing-quays before them2 and numerous ranges of open sheds are filled with reindeer skins1 wolf and bear skins1 walrus tusks1 reindeer horns1 train-oil1 and dried fish1 ready for exportation4 ,the chief home traffic of ,hammerfest consists in barter with the ,laps1 who exchange their reindeer skins for brandy1 tobacco1 hardware1 and cloth4 ,some enterprising merchants annually fit out vessels for walrus and seal hunting at ,spitzbergen and ,bear ,island1 but the principal trade is with ,archangel1 and is carried on entirely in 8lodjes10 or ,white ,sea ships1 with three single upright masts1 each hoisting a huge try-sail4 ,these vessels supply ,hammerfest with ,russian rye1 meal1 candles1 etc41 and receive stock-fish and train-oil in exchange4 ,sometimes1 also1 an ,english ship arrives with a supply of coals4 ,the fishing-grounds off the coast of ,finmark1 whose produce forms the staple article of the merchants of ,hammerfest1 are scarcely inferior in importance to those of ,lofoten1 the number of cod taken here in #ahff amounting to #ae1jjj1jjj4 ,a great part of the fish is purchased by the ,russians as it comes out of the water4 ,of the prepared cod1 ,spain takes the largest quantity1 as in #ahfe upwards of #dd1jjj1jjj lbs4 of clip-fish 7nearly the whole yield for the year7 was consigned to that country4 ,of the dried variety1 #aj1jjj1jjj lbs4 were exported to the ,mediterranean1 and upwards of #d1jjj1jjj lbs4 more to ,italy4 ,sweden and ,holland come next in order1 the supply in each case being over #e1jjj1jjj lbs4 ,great ,britain takes scarcely any stock-fish1 but #a1ejj1jjj lbs4 of clip-fish1 and the large export to the ,west ,indies is almost entirely composed of the latter article4 ,the winter1 though long and dark1 has no terrors for the jolly ,hammerfesters1 for all the traders and shopkeepers form a united aristocracy1 and rarely a night passes without a feast1 a dance1 and a drinking-bout4 ,the day when the sun re-appears is one of general rejoicing2 the first who sees the great luminary proclaims it with a loud voice1 and every body rushes into the street to exchange congratulations with his neighbors4 ,the island of ,hval has a most dreary1 sterile aspect1 and considerable masses of snow fill the ravines even in summer4 ,the birch1 however1 is still found growing #fbj feet above the sea1 but the fir has disappeared4 ,it may well be supposed that no stranger has ever sojourned in this interesting place1 the farthest outpost of civilization towards the ,pole1 without visiting1 or at least attempting to visit1 the far-famed ,north ,cape1 situated about sixty miles from ,hammerfest1 on the island of ,mager1 where a few ,norwegians live in earthen huts1 and still manage to rear a few heads of cattle4 ,the voyage to this magnificent headland1 which fronts the sea with a steep rock-wall nearly a thousand feet high1 is frequently difficult and precarious1 nor can it be scaled without considerable fatigue2 but the view from the summit amply rewards the trouble1 and it is no small satisfaction to stand on the brink of the most northern promontory of ,europe4 8,it is impossible10 says ,mr4 ,w4 ,hurton1 8adequately to describe the emotion experienced by me as ,i stepped up to the dizzy verge4 ,i only know that ,i devoutly returned thanks to the ,almighty for thus permitting me to realize one darling dream of my boyhood4 ,despite the wind1 which here blew violently and bitterly cold1 ,i sat down1 and wrapping my cloak around me1 long contemplated the spectacle of ,nature in one of her sublimest aspects4 ,i was truly alone4 ,not a living object was in sight2 beneath my feet was the boundless expanse of ocean1 with a sail or two on its bosom at an immense distance2 above me was the canopy of heaven1 flecked with fleecy cloudlets2 the sun was luridly gleaming over a broad belt of blood-red mist2 the only sounds were the whistling of the wandering winds and the occasional plaintive scream of the hovering sea-fowl4 ,the only living creature which came near me was a bee1 which hummed merrily by4 ,what did the busy insect seek there8 ,not a blade of grass grew1 and the only vegetable matter on this point was a cluster of withered moss at the very edge of the awful precipice1 and this ,i gathered1 at considerable risk1 as a memorial of the visit40 ,illustration3 #gj4 ,,midnight ,,sun ,,off ,,spitzbergen4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,spitzbergen--,,bear ,,island--,,jan ,,meyen4 ,the west ,coast of ,spitzbergen4--,ascension of a ,mountain by ,dr4 ,scoresby4--,his ,excursion along the ,coast4--,a stranded ,whale4-- ,magdalena ,bay4--,multitudes of ,sea-birds4--,animal ,life4--,midnight ,silence4--,glaciers4--,a dangerous ,neighborhood4--,interior ,plateau4--,flora of ,spitzbergen4--,its ,similarity with that of the ,alps above the ,snow-line4--,reindeer4--,the hyperborean ,ptarmigan4--,fishes4--,coal4--,drift-wo od4--,discovery of ,spitzbergen by ,barentz1 ,heemskerk1 and ,ryp4--,brilliant ,period of the ,whale-fishery4--,coffins4--,eight ,english ,sailors winter in ,spitzbergen1 #afcj4--,melancholy ,death of some ,dutch ,volunteers4-- ,russian ,hunters4--,their ,mode of wintering in ,spitzbergen4-- ,scharostin4--,walrus-ships from ,hammerfest and ,troms4--,bear or ,cherie ,island4--,bennet4--,enormous ,slaughter of ,walruses4-- ,mildness of its ,climate4--,mount ,misery4--,adventurous ,boat-voyage of some ,norwegian ,sailors4--,jan ,meyen4--,beerenberg4 ,the archipelago of ,spitzbergen consists of five large islands3 ,west ,spitzbergen1 ,north-east ,land1 ,stans ,foreland1 ,barentz ,land1 ,prince ,charles ,foreland2 and of a vast number of smaller ones1 scattered around their coasts4 ,its surface is about equal to that of two-thirds of ,scotland2 its most southern point 7#gf #cj ,n4 lat47 lies nearer to the ,pole than ,melville ,island2 and ,ross ,islet1 at its northern extremity 7#hj #di ,n4 lat471 looks out upon the unknown ocean1 which perhaps extends without interruption as far as the ,straits of ,bering4 ,of all the ,arctic countries that have hitherto been discovered1 ,grinnell ,land and ,washington alone lie nearer to the ,pole2 but while these ice-blocked regions can only be reached with the utmost difficulty1 the western and north-western coasts of ,spitzbergen1 exposed to the mild south-westerly winds1 and to the influence of the ,gulf ,stream1 are frequently visited1 not only by walrus-hunters and ,arctic explorers1 but by amateur travellers and sportsmen4 ,the eastern coasts are far less accessible1 and in parts have never yet been accurately explored4 ,as far as they are known1 they are not so bold and indented as the western and north-western coasts1 which1 projecting in mighty capes or opening a passage to deep fjords1 have been gnawed into every variety of fantastic form by the corroding power of an eternal winter1 and justify1 by their endless succession of jagged spikes and break-neck acclivities1 the name of ,spitzbergen1 which its first ,dutch discoverers gave to this land of 8serrated peaks40 ,the mountains on the west coast are very steep1 many of them inaccessible1 and most of them dangerous to climb1 either from the smooth hard snow with which they are encrusted even in summer1 or from the looseness of the disintegrated stones which cover the parts denuded by the sun1 and give way under the slightest pressure of the foot4 ,more than one daring seaman has paid dearly for his temerity in venturing to scale these treacherous heights4 ,the supercargo1 or owner1 of the very first ,dutch whaler that visited ,spitzbergen 7#afab7 broke his neck in attempting to climb a steep mountain in ,prince ,charles ,foreland1 and ,barentz very nearly lost several of his men under similar circumstances4 ,dr4 ,scoresby1 who in the course of his whaling expeditions touched at ,spitzbergen no less than seventeen times1 was more successful in scaling a mountain #cjjj feet high1 near ,mitre ,cape1 though the approach to the summit was by a ridge so narrow that he could only advance by sitting astride upon its edge4 ,but the panorama which he beheld1 after having attained his object1 amply repaid him for the danger and fatigue of clambering for several hours over loose stones1 which at every step rolled with fearful rapidity into the abyss beneath4 8,the prospect10 says the distinguished naturalist1 8was most extensive and grand4 ,a fine sheltered bay was seen to the east of us2 an arm of the same on the north-east2 and the sea1 whose glassy surface was unruffled by a breeze1 formed an immense expanse on the west2 the icebergs1 rearing their proud crests almost to the tops of the mountains between which they were lodged1 and defying the power of the solar beams1 were scattered in various directions about the sea-coast and in the adjoining bays4 ,beds of snow and ice1 filling extensive hollows and giving an enamelled coat to adjoining valleys1 one of which1 commencing at the foot of the mountain where we stood1 extended in a continued line towards the north as far as the eye could reach2 mountain rising above mountain1 until by distance they dwindled into insignificance2 the whole contrasted by a cloudless canopy of deepest azure1 and enlightened by the rays of a blazing sun1 and the effect aided by a feeling of danger--seated1 as we were1 on the pinnacle of a rock1 almost surrounded by tremendous precipices2 all united to constitute a picture singularly sublime4 8,our descent we found really a very hazardous1 and in some instances a painful undertaking4 ,every movement was a work of deliberation4 ,having1 by much care and with some anxiety1 made good our descent to the top of the secondary hills1 we took our way down one of the steepest banks1 and slid forward with great facility in a sitting posture4 ,towards the foot of the hill an expanse of snow stretched across the line of descent4 ,this being loose and soft1 we entered upon it without fear1 but on reaching the middle of it1 we came to a surface of solid ice1 perhaps a hundred yards across1 over which we launched with astonishing velocity1 but happily escaped without injury4 ,the men1 whom we left below1 viewed this latter movement with astonishment and fear40 ,after this perilous descent1 ,scoresby continued his excursion on the flat land next the sea1 where he found scattered here and there many skulls and other bones of sea-horses1 whales1 narwhals1 foxes1 and seals4 ,two ,russian lodges1 formed of logs of pine1 with a third in ruins1 were also seen2 the former1 from a quantity of fresh chips about them and other appearances1 gave evidence of having been recently inhabited4 ,these huts were built upon a ridge of shingle adjoining the sea4 ,among the boulders heaped upon the shore1 numerous sea-birds had built their nests or laid their eggs1 which they defended with loud cries and determined courage against the attacks of gulls4 ,the only insect he perceived was a small green fly1 but the water along the coast was filled with medus and shrimps4 ,the strong north-west winds had covered the strand with large heaps of ,fucus vesiculosus and ,laminaria saccharina1 the same which the storms also cast out upon our shores4 ,the view of this high northern life was extremely interesting1 but ,dr4 ,scoresby was still further rewarded by the discovery of a dead whale1 found stranded on the beach1 which1 though much swollen and not a little putrid1 proved a prize worth at least #djj4 ,by a harpoon found in its body1 it appeared to have been struck by some of the fishers on the ,elbe1 and having escaped from them1 it had probably stranded itself on the spot where it was found4 ,when the first incision was made1 the oil gushed forth like a fountain4 ,it was a slow and laborious work to transport the blubber to the ship1 which on account of the dangerous nature of the coast was obliged to remain two miles off at sea4 ,after five boat-loads had safely been brought on board1 the wind suddenly changed1 so that the ship was driven far out to sea1 and the boat reached her with great difficulty4 ,of the numerous fjords of ,spitzbergen1 once the busy resort of whole fleets of whalers1 and now but rarely visited by man1 none has been more accurately described by modern ,arctic voyagers than the magnificent harbor of ,magdalena ,bay4 ,here the ,dorothea and the ,trent anchored in #ahah1 on their way to the ,north ,pole2 here also the ,french naturalists1 who had been sent out in the corvette ,la ,recherche 7#ahce-cf7 to explore the high northern latitudes1 sojourned for several weeks4 ,the number of the sea-birds is truly astonishing4 ,on the ledges of a high rock at the head of the bay ,beechey saw the little auks 7,arctica alle7 extend in an uninterrupted line full three miles in length1 and so closely congregated that about thirty fell at a single shot4 ,he estimated their numbers at about #d1jjj1jjj4 ,when they took flight they darkened the air2 and at the distance of four miles their chorus could distinctly be heard4 ,illustration3 #ga4 ,,magdalena ,,bay1 ,,spitzbergen4 ,on a fine summer's day1 the bellowing of the walruses and the hoarse bark of the seals are mingled with the shrill notes of the auks1 divers1 and gulls4 ,although all these tones produce a by no means harmonious concert1 yet they have a pleasing effect1 as denoting the happy feelings of so many creatures4 ,when the sun verges to the pole1 every animal becomes mute1 and a silence broken only by the bursting of a glacier reigns over the whole bay--a remarkable contrast to the tropical regions1 where ,nature enjoys her repose during the noonday heat1 and it is only after sunset that life awakens in the forest and the field4 ,four glaciers reach down this noble inlet3 one1 called the ,wagon ,way1 is #gjjj feet across at its terminal cliff1 which is #cjj feet high1 presenting a magnificent wall of ice4 ,but the whole scene is constructed on so colossal a scale that it is only on a near approach that the glaciers of ,magdalena ,bay appear in all their imposing grandeur4 ,in clear weather the joint effect of the ice under the water1 and the reflection of the glacier-wall above1 causes a remarkable optical delusion4 ,the water assumes a milk-white color1 the seals appear to gambol in a thick cream-like liquid1 and the error only becomes apparent when1 on leaning over the side of the boat1 the spectator looks down into the transparent depth below4 ,it is extremely dangerous to approach these cliffs of ice1 as every now and then large blocks detach themselves from the mass1 and frequently even a concussion of the air is enough to make them fall4 ,during the busy period of ,spitzbergen history1 when its bay used to be frequented by whalers who anchored under the glacier-walls1 these ice-avalanches often had disastrous consequences4 ,thus1 in the year #afai1 an ,english ship was driven by a storm into ,bell ,sound4 ,while it was passing under a precipice of ice1 a prodigious mass came thundering down upon it1 broke the masts1 and threw the ship so violently upon one side that the captain and part of the crew were swept into the sea4 ,the captain escaped unhurt1 but two sailors were killed and several others wounded4 ,one day a gun was fired from a boat of the ,trent when about half a mile from one of the glaciers of ,magdalena ,bay4 ,immediately after the report of the musket1 a noise resembling thunder was heard in the direction of the ice-stream1 and in a few seconds more an enormous mass detached itself from its front1 and fell into the sea4 ,the men in the boat1 supposing themselves to be beyond the reach of its influence1 were tranquilly contemplating the magnificent sight1 when suddenly a large wave came sweeping over the bay1 and cast their little shallop to a distance of ninety-six feet upon the beach4 ,another time1 when ,franklin and ,beechey had approached one of these ice-walls1 a huge fragment suddenly slid from its side1 and fell with a crash into the sea4 ,at first the detached mass entirely disappeared under the waters1 casting up clouds of spray1 but soon after it shot up again at least #ajj feet above the surface1 and then kept rocking several minutes to and fro4 ,when at length the tumult subsided1 the block was found to measure no less than #aejj feet in circumference2 it projected #fj feet above the water1 and its weight was calculated at more than #djj1jjj tons4 ,besides the glaciers of ,magdalena ,bay1 ,spitzbergen has many others that protrude their crystal walls down to the water's edge2 and yet but few icebergs1 and the largest not to be compared with the productions of ,baffin's ,bay1 are drifted from the shores of ,spitzbergen into the open sea4 ,the reason is that the glaciers usually terminate where the sea is shallow1 so that no very large mass if dislodged can float away1 and they are at the same time so frequently dismembered by heavy swells that they can not attain any great size4 ,the interior of ,spitzbergen has never been explored4 ,according to the ,swedish naturalists1#h who climbed many of the highest mountains in various parts of the coast1 all the central regions of the archipelago form a level ice-plateau1 interrupted only here and there by denuded rocks1 projecting like islands from the crystal sea in which they are imbedded4 ,the height of this plateau above the level of the ocean is in general from #aejj to #bjjj feet1 and from its frozen solitudes descend the various glaciers above described4 ,during the summer months1 the radiation of the sun at ,spitzbergen is always very intense1 the thermometer in some sheltered situations not seldom rising at noon to #fb1 #fg1 or even #gc4 ,even at midnight1 at the very peak of the high mountain ascended by ,scoresby1 the power of the sun produced a temperature several degrees above the freezing-point1 and occasioned the discharge of streams of water from the snow-capped summit4 ,hence1 though even in the three warmest months the temperature of ,spitzbergen does not average more that #cd1 yet in the more southern aspects1 and particularly where the warmth of the sun is absorbed and radiated by black rock-walls1 the mountains are not seldom bared at an elevation nearly equal to that of the snow-line of ,norway1 and various ,alpine plants and grasses frequently flourish1 not only in sheltered situations at the foot of the hills1 but even to a considerable height1 wherever the disintegrated rocks lodge and form a tolerably good soil4 ,the ,flora of ,spitzbergen consists of about ninety-three species of flowering or phenogamous plants1 which generally grow in isolated tufts or patches2 but the mosses which carpet the moist lowlands1 and the still more hardy lichens1 which invest the rocks with their thin crusts or scurfs as far as the last limits of vegetation1 are much more numerous4 ,some of the plants of ,spitzbergen are also found on the ,alps beyond the snow-line1 at elevations of from #ijjj to #aj1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,according to ,mr4 ,martins1 nothing can give a better idea of ,spitzbergen than the vast circus of nv1 in the centre of which rises the triangular rock known to the visitors of ,chamonny as the ,jardin or the ,courtil4 ,let the tourist1 placed on this spot at a time when the sun rises but little above the horizon1 or better still1 when wreaths of mist hang over the neighboring mountains1 fancy the sea bathing the foot of the amphitheatre of which he occupies the centre1 and he has a complete ,spitzbergen prospect before him4 ,supposing him to be a botanist1 the sight of the ,ranunculus glacialis1 ,cerastium alpinum1 ,arenaria biflora1 and ,erigeron uniflorus will still further increase the illusion4 ,the only esculent plant of ,spitzbergen is the ,cochlearia fenestrata1 which here loses its acrid principles1 and can be eaten as a salad4 ,the grasses which ,keilhau found growing near some ,russian huts in ,stans ,foreland are during the summer a precious resource for the reindeer1 which1 though extremely shy1 make their appearance from time to time in every part of the land from the ,seven ,islands to ,south ,cape1 and are more abundant than could have been expected4 ,the ,polar bears are probably their only native enemies on these islands1 and their fleetness furnishes them with ample means of escape from a pursuer so clumsy on land4 ,lord ,mulgrave's crew killed fifty deer on ,vogelsang1 a noted hunting-place1 and on ,sir ,edward ,parry's polar expedition about seventy deer were shot in ,treurenberg ,bay by inexperienced deer-stalkers1 and without the aid of dogs4 ,during the winter these large herbivora live on the ,icelandic moss which they scent under the snow1 but it may well be asked where they find shelter in a naked wilderness without a single tree4 ,in ,may and ,june they are so thin as scarcely to be eatable1 but in ,july they begin to get fat1 and then their flesh would everywhere be reckoned a delicacy4 ,besides the reindeer1 the only land-quadrupeds of ,spitzbergen are the ,polar bear1 the ,arctic fox1 and a small field-mouse1 which in summer has a mottled1 and in winter a white fur4 ,of the birds1 the hyperborean ptarmigan 7,lagopus hyperborea71 which easily procures its food under the snow1 undoubtedly winters in ,spitzbergen1 and probably also the lesser red-pole1 which perhaps finds grass seeds enough for its subsistence during the long polar nights1 while the snow-bunting 7,plectrophanes nivalis71 and the twenty species of water-fowl and waders that frequent the shores of the high northern archipelago during the summer1 all migrate southward when the long summer's day verges to its end4 ,until very lately the ,spitzbergen waters were supposed to be poor in fishes1 though the numerous finbacks1 which towards the end of summer frequent the southern and south-western coasts1 and1 unlike the large smooth-back whales1 chiefly live on herrings1 as well as the troops of salmon-loving white dolphin seen about the estuaries of the rivers1 sufficiently proved the contrary1 not to mention the herds of seals1 and the hosts of ichthyophagous sea-birds that breed on every rocky ledge of the archipelago4 ,phipps and ,scoresby mention only three or four species of fishes occurring in the seas of ,spitzbergen1 while the ,swedish naturalist ,malmgren1 the first who seems to have paid real attention to this interesting branch of zoology1 collected no less than twenty-three species in #ahfa and #ahfd4 ,the northern shark 7,scymnus microcephalus7 is so abundant that of late its fishery has proved highly remunerative4 ,the first ship which was fitted out for this purpose in #ahfc by ,hilbert ,pettersen1 of ,troms1 returned from ,bell and ,ice ,sounds with a full cargo of sharks' livers1 and in #ahfe the same enterprising merchant sent out no less than five shark-ships to ,spitzbergen4 ,the cod1 the common herring1 the shell-fish1 the halibut have likewise been caught in the waters of the archipelago1 and there is every reason to believe that their fishery1 which has hitherto been entirely neglected1 might be pursued with great success4 ,the mineral riches of ,spitzbergen are1 of course1 but little known4 ,coal of an excellent quality1 which might easily be worked1 as it nearly crops out on the surface at a short distance from the sea1 has1 however1 been discovered lately by ,mr4 ,blomstrand in ,king's ,bay1 and similar strata exist in various parts of ,bell ,sound and ,ice ,sound4 ,large quantities of drift-wood1 probably from the large ,siberian rivers1 are deposited by the currents1 particularly on the north coasts of ,north-east ,land1 and on the southern coasts of ,stans ,foreland4 ,in ,english ,bay ,lord ,dufferin saw innumerable logs of unhewn timber1 mingled with which lay pieces of broken spars1 an oar1 a boat's flagstaff1 and a few shattered fragments of some long-lost vessel's planking4 ,most probably the ,norwegians had their attention directed at a very early period to the existence of a land lying to the north of ,finmarken by the troops of migratory birds which they saw flying northward in spring1 and by the casual visits of sea-bears1 which the drift-ice carried to the south4 ,there can be no doubt that they were the first discoverers of ,spitzbergen1 but their history contains no positive records of the fact1 and it was not before the sixteenth century that ,europe first became acquainted with that desolate archipelago4 ,sir ,hugh ,willoughby may possibly have seen it in #aeei1 but it is certain that on ,june #ai1 #aeif1 ,barentz1 ,heemskerke1 and ,ryp1 who had sailed in two ships from ,amsterdam to discover the north-eastern passage to ,india1 landed on its western coast1 and gave it the name it bears to the present day4 ,in the year #afjg it was visited by the unfortunate ,henry ,hudson1 and four years later the first ,english whalers were fitted out by the ,russia ,company in ,london to fish in the bays of ,spitzbergen1 or ,east ,greenland1 as it was at that time called1 being supposed to be the eastern prolongation of that vast island4 ,here our countrymen met with ,dutchmen1 ,norwegians1 and ,biscayans from ,bayonne and the ports of ,northern ,spain1 and commercial rivalry soon led to the usual quarrels4 ,in the year #afac ,james ,i4 granted the ,russia ,company a patent1 giving them the exclusive right to fish in the ,spitzbergen waters1 and seven ships of war were sent out to enforce their pretensions4 ,the ,dutch1 the ,norwegians1 and the ,biscayans were driven away2 a cross with the name of the ,king of ,england was erected on the shore1 and ,spitzbergen received the name of 8,king ,james his ,newland40 ,this triumph1 however1 was but of short duration1 and after a struggle1 in which none of the combatants gained any decisive advantage1 all parties came at last to an amicable agreement4 ,the ,english received for their share the best stations on the south-western coast1 along with ,english ,bay and ,magdalena ,bay4 ,the ,dutch were obliged to retreat to the north1 and chose ,amsterdam ,island1 with ,smeerenberg ,bay1 as the seat of their operations4 ,the ,danes or ,norwegians established their head-quarters on ,dane's ,island2 the ,hamburgers1 who also came in for their share1 in ,hamburg ,bay2 and the ,french or ,biscayans on the north coast1 in ,red ,bay4 ,at present a right or smooth-backed whale rarely shows itself in the ,spitzbergen waters1 but at that time it was so abundant that frequently no less than forty whalers used to anchor in a single bay1 and send out their boats to kill these cetaceans1 who came there for the purpose of casting their young in the sheltered friths and channels4 ,the fat of the captured whales was immediately boiled in large kettles on the shore1 and the bays of ,spitzbergen presented a most animated spectacle during the summer season4 ,numerous coffins--an underground burial being impossible in this frost-hardened earth--still bear witness to those busy times1 and also to the great mortality among the fishermen1 caused doubtless by their intemperate habits4 ,they are particularly abundant at ,smeerenberg1 where ,admiral ,beechey saw upwards of one thousand of them2 boards with ,english inscriptions were erected over a few1 but the greater number were ,dutch1 and had been deposited in the eighteenth century4 ,some coffins having been opened1 the corpses were found in a state of perfect preservation1 and even the woollen caps and stockings of the mariners1 who might perhaps have rested for more than a century on this cold earth1 were still apparently as new as if they had been but recently put on4 ,illustration3 #gb4 ,,burial ,,in ,,spitzbergen4 ,in the seventeenth century the ,english and the ,dutch made several attempts to establish permanent settlements in ,spitzbergen4 ,the ,russia ,company tried to engage volunteers by the promise of a liberal pay1 and as none came forward1 a free pardon was offered to criminals who would undertake to winter in ,bell ,sound4 ,a few wretches1 tired of confinement1 accepted the proposal1 but when the fleet was about to depart1 and they saw the gloomy hills1 and felt the howling north-eastern gales1 their hearts failed them1 and they entreated the captain who had charge of them to take them back to ,london and let them be hanged4 ,their request to be taken back was complied with1 but the company generously interceded for them1 and obtained their pardon4 ,some time after1 in the year #afcj1 an ,english whaler landed eight men in ,bell ,sound to hunt reindeer4 ,they remained on shore during the night1 but meanwhile a storm had arisen1 and on the following morning their ship had vanished out of sight4 ,it was towards the end of ,august1 and they had no hope of rescue at this advanced period of the year4 ,their despair may be imagined1 but they soon recovered their courage1 and wisely determined to make preparations for the impending winter1 instead of losing time in useless lamentations4 ,their first care was to lay in a stock of food1 and in a short time they had killed nineteen reindeer and four bears4 ,fortunately they found in ,bell ,sound the necessary materials for the erection of a hut4 ,a large shed fifty feet long and thirty-eight broad had been built as a workshop for the men of the ,russia ,company1 and they very judiciously constructed their small hut of stones and thick planks within this inclosed space4 ,they thus gained a better protection against the icy wind and room for exercise during stormy weather1 one of the best preservatives against the scurvy4 ,they made their beds and winter dresses of the skins of the animals they had killed1 sewing them together with needles made of bone splinters1 and using disentangled rope-ends as thread4 ,illustration3 #gc4 ,,arctic ,,fox4 ,their hut was ready by ,september #ab1 and to preserve their supply of meat as long as possible1 they lived four days of the week on the offal of whales' fat which lay scattered about in great plenty4 ,from ,october #bf to ,february #ae they saw no sun1 and from the #acth to the #cast of ,december no twilight4 ,the new year began with excessive cold3 every piece of metal they touched stuck to their fingers like glue1 and their skin became blistered when exposed to the air4 ,the re-appearance of the sun was as a resurrection from death4 ,to increase their joy1 they saw two bears on the ice1 one of which they killed1 but they found1 what has since been frequently experienced by others1 that the liver of the animal has poisonous qualities1 or is at least very unwholesome1 for1 after eating it1 they were all attacked with a kind of eruptive fever1 and their skin peeled off4 ,towards the middle of ,march their provisions were well-nigh exhausted1 but the ,polar bears appearing more frequently1 replenished their stock4 ,soon also the migratory birds arrived from the south1 the foxes crept out of their burrows1 and many were caught in traps4 ,on ,june #e the ice began to break up1 and on the following morning one-half of the bay was open4 ,a gale forced them to seek the shelter of their hut4 ,there1 seated round the fire1 they spoke of their approaching delivery1 when suddenly a loud halloo was heard4 ,they immediately rushed out into the open air1 and hardly believed their eyesight1 for they were greeted by their comrades of the previous summer1 and saw their own well-known ship at anchor in the bay4 ,thus were these brave-hearted men rescued after a ten months' exile in the latitude of #gg4 ,the possibility of wintering in ,spitzbergen having thus been proved1 some volunteers belonging to the ,dutch fleet were induced by certain emoluments to attempt the same enterprise on ,amsterdam ,island2 but1 less fortunate than their predecessors1 they all fell victims to the scurvy4 ,a diary which they left behind recorded the touching history of their sufferings4 8,four of us10 these were its last words1 8are still alive1 stretched out flat upon the floor1 and might still be able to eat if one of us had but the strength to rise and fetch some food and fuel1 but we are all so weak1 and every movement is so painful1 that we are incapable of stirring4 ,we constantly pray to ,god soon to release us from our sufferings1 and truly we can not live much longer without food and warmth4 ,none of us is able to help the others1 and each must bear his burden as well as he can40 ,since that time both the ,english and the ,dutch have given up the idea of forming permanent settlements in ,spitzbergen1 but scarcely a year passes that some ,russians and ,norwegians do not winter in that high northern land4 ,as far back as the seventeenth century1 the former used to send out their clumsy but strongly-built 8lodjes0 of from #fj to #afj tons from the ports of ,archangel1 ,mesen1 ,onega1 ,kola1 and other places bordering the ,white ,sea1 to chase the various animals of ,spitzbergen1 the reindeer1 the seal1 the beluga1 but chiefly the walrus1 the most valuable of all4 ,these vessels leave home in ,july1 or as soon as the navigation of the ,white ,sea opens1 and as the shortness of the season hardly allows them to return in the same year1 they pass the winter in some sheltered bay4 ,their first care on landing is to erect a large cross on the shore1 a ceremony they repeat on leaving1 and such is their religious faith that under the protection of that holy symbol they mock all the terrors of the ,arctic winter4 ,near the place where their vessels are laid up1 they build a large hut from twenty to twenty-five feet square1 which is used as a station and magazine2 but the huts used by the men who go in quest of skins1 and which are erected at distances of from ten to fifty versts along the shore1 are only seven or eight feet square4 ,the smaller huts are usually occupied by two or three men1 who take care to provide themselves from the store-house with the necessary provisions for the winter4 ,scoresby visited several of these huts1 some constructed of logs1 others of deal two inches in thickness4 ,they are of the same kind as those used by the peasants in ,russia1 and1 being taken out in pieces1 are erected with but little trouble in the most convenient situation4 ,the stoves are built with bricks1 or with clay found in the country4 ,during the stay of the hunters1 they employ themselves in killing seals or walruses in the water1 and bears1 foxes1 deer1 or whatever else they meet with on land4 ,each ship is furnished with provisions for eighteen months1 consisting of rye flour for bread1 oatmeal1 barley-meal1 peas1 salt beef1 salt cod1 and salt halibut1 together with curdled milk1 honey1 and linseed oil2 besides which1 they enjoy the flesh of the animals which they kill4 ,their drink consists chiefly of quas1 a national beverage made from rye flour and water2 malt or spirituous liquors being entirely forbidden1 to prevent drunkenness1 as1 when they were allowed it1 they drank so immoderately that their work was often altogether neglected4 ,their fuel for the most part is brought with them from ,russia1 and drift-wood is used for the same purpose4 ,the hunters1 seldom travelling far in winter1 make their short excursions on foot on snow-skates1 and draw their food after them on hand-sledges4 ,not seldom they are overtaken by terrific snowstorms1 which force them to throw themselves flat upon the ground1 and sometimes even cost them their lives4 ,their best preservation against the scurvy is bodily exercise2 they also use the ,cochlearia fenestrata1 which grows wild in the country1 either eating it without any preparation1 or drinking the liquor prepared from it by infusion in water4 ,yet1 in spite of all their precautions1 they often fall a prey to this terrible scourge4 ,in the year #agga1 ,mr4 ,steward1 of ,whitby1 landed in ,king's ,bay to gather drift-wood1 and found a ,russian hut4 ,after having vainly called for admittance1 they opened it1 and found a corpse stretched out on the ground1 its face covered with green mould4 ,most likely the unfortunate man1 having buried all his comrades1 had1 as the last survivor1 found no one to perform the same kind office for himself4 ,generally the ,russian hunters1 after spending the winter in ,spitzbergen1 return home in the following ,august or ,september2 but their stop is often prolonged during several years2 and ,scharostin1 a venerable ,russian1 who died in #ahbf in ,ice ,sound1 is deservedly remarkable for having spent no less than thirty-two winters of his long life in that high northern land1 where he once remained during fifteen consecutive years4 ,surely this man ought to have been crowned king of ,spitzbergen-- ,on a throne of rocks1 in a robe of clouds1 ,with a diadem of snow6 ,every year1 at the beginning of summer1 about a dozen vessels leave the ports of ,hammerfest and ,troms for ,spitzbergen4 ,formerly it was a very common thing for them to procure three cargoes of walrus and seals in a season1 and less than two full cargoes was considered very bad luck indeed2 now1 however1 it is a rare thing to get more than one cargo in a season1 and many vessels return home after four months' absence only half full4 ,yet1 in spite of this diminution1 the numbers of walruses still existing in that country are very considerable1 particularly on the northern banks and skerries1 which are only accessible in open seasons1 or perhaps once in every three or four summers1 when the persecuted animals get a little time to breed and replenish their numbers4 ,illustration3 #gd4 ,,chase ,,of ,,the ,,walrus4 ,about midway between ,hammerfest and ,spitzbergen lies ,bear ,island1 originally discovered by ,barentz on ,june #i1 #aeif4 ,seven years later1 ,stephen ,bennet1 a shipmaster in the service of the ,muscovy ,company1 while on a voyage of discovery in a north-easterly direction1 likewise saw ,bear ,island on ,august #af4 ,ignorant of its previous discovery by ,barentz1 he called it ,cherie ,island1 after ,sir ,francis ,cherie1 a member of the company1 and to this day both names are used4 ,bennet found some walruses on its desert shores1 and returned in the following year with a vessel fitted out by a merchant of the name of ,welden1 to wage war with these sea-monsters4 ,his first operations were not very successful4 ,of a herd of at least a thousand walruses1 he killed no more than fifteen1 and a later attack upon an equally enormous troop raised the entire number of his victims to no more than fifty4 ,their tusks alone were brought away1 and along with some loose ones collected on the beach formed the chief produce of the expedition4 ,at first the unwieldy creatures were fired at1 but as the bullets made no great impression on their thick hides1 grapeshot was now discharged into their eyes1 and the blinded animals were finally killed with axes4 ,in the following year ,welden himself proceeded to ,bear ,island1 and the art of walrus-killing gradually improving by practice1 this second expedition proved far more profitable than the first4 ,care had also been taken to provide large kettles and the necessary fuel to boil their fat on the spot1 so that besides the tusks a quantity of oil was gained4 ,in #afjf ,bennet again appeared on the field of action1 and the dexterity of the walrus-hunters had now become so great that in less than six hours they killed more than #gjj1 which yielded twenty-two tons of oil4 ,during the following voyage1 ,welden1 who seems to have acted in partnership with ,bennet1 each taking his turn1 killed no less than #ajjj walruses in seven hours4 ,thus ,bear ,island proved a mine of wealth to these enterprising men1 and though the walruses are not now so abundant as in the good old times1 yet they are still sufficiently numerous to attract the attention of speculators4 ,every year several expeditions proceed to its shores from the ,russian and ,norwegian ports1 and generally some men pass the winter in huts erected on its northern and south-eastern coasts4 ,considering its high northern latitude of #ge1 the climate of ,bear ,island is uncommonly mild4 ,according to the reports of some ,norwegian walrus-hunters1 who remained there from #ahbd to #ahbf1 the cold was so moderate during the first winter that1 until the middle of ,november1 the snow which fell in the night melted during the daytime4 ,it rained at ,christmas1 and seventy walruses were killed during ,christmas week by the light of the moon and that of the ,aurora4 ,even in ,february the weather was so mild that the men were able to work in the open air under the same latitude as ,melville ,island1 where mercury is a solid body during five months of the year4 ,the cold did not become intense before ,march1 and attained its maximum in ,april1 when the sea froze fast round the island1 and the white bears appeared which had been absent during the whole winter4 ,the second winter was more severe than the first1 but even then the sea remained open until the middle of ,november--evidently in consequence of the prevailing south-westerly winds4 ,the greater part of ,bear ,island is a desolate plateau raised about #ajj or #bjj feet above the sea4 ,along its western shores rises a group of three mountains1 supposed to be about #bjj feet high1 and towards the south it terminates in a solitary hill to which the first discoverers gave the appropriate name of ,mount ,misery4 ,at the northern foot of this terrace-shaped elevation the plateau is considerably depressed1 and forms a kind of oasis1 where grass 7,poa pratensis71 enlivened with violet cardamines and white polygonums and saxifragas1 grows to half a yard in height4 ,the general character of the small island is1 however1 a monotony of stone and morass1 with here and there a patch of snow1 while the coasts have been worn by the action of the waves into a variety of fantastic shapes1 bordered in some parts by a flat narrow strand1 the favorite resort of the walrus1 and in others affording convenient breeding-places to hosts of sea-birds4 ,in ,coal ,bay1 four parallel seams of coal1 about equidistant from each other1 are visible on the vertical rock-walls1 but they are too thin to be of any practical use4 ,illustration3 #ge4 ,a ,,glimpse ,,of ,,jan ,,meyen',s ,,island4 ,bear ,island has no harbors1 and is consequently a rather dangerous place to visit4 ,during the first expedition sent out from ,hammerfest1 it happened that some of the men who had been landed were abandoned by their ship1 which was to have cruised along the coast while they were hunting on shore4 ,but the current1 the wind1 and a dense fog so confused the ignorant captain that1 leaving them to their fate1 he at once returned to ,hammerfest4 ,when the men became aware of their dreadful situation1 they determined to leave the island in their boat1 and taking with them a quantity of young walrus flesh1 they luckily reached ,northkyn after a voyage of eight days4 ,it seems almost incredible that these same people immediately after revisited ,bear ,island in the same ship1 and were again obliged to return to ,norway in the same boat4 ,the ship had anchored in the open bay of ,north ,haven1 and having taken in its cargo1 consisting of #ahj walruses1 which had all been killed in a few days1 was about to leave1 when a storm arose1 which cast her ashore and broke her to pieces4 ,the ,russians had built some huts in the neighborhood1 and the provisions might probably have been saved1 but rather than winter in the island the crew resolved to venture home again in the boat4 ,this was so small that one-half of them were obliged to lie down on the bottom while the others rowed2 the autumn was already far advanced1 and they encountered so savage a storm that an ,english ship they fell in with at the ,north ,cape vainly endeavored to take them on board4 ,after a ten days' voyage1 however1 they safely arrived at ,mager1 thus proving the truth of the old saying that 8,fortune favors the bold40 ,the distance from ,bear ,island to ,north ,cape is about sixty nautical miles4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in a straight line between ,spitzbergen and ,iceland lies ,jan ,meyen1 which1 exposed to the cold ,greenland current1 almost perpetually veiled with mists1 and surrounded by drift ice1 would scarcely ever be disturbed in its dreary solitude but for the numerous walrus and seal herds that frequent its shores4 ,the ice-bears and the wild sea-birds are its only inhabitants2 once some ,dutchmen attempted to winter there1 but the scurvy swept them all away4 ,its most remarkable features are the volcano ,esk and the huge mountain ,beerenberg1 towering to the height of #fhgj feet1 with seven enormous glaciers sweeping down its sides into the sea4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,nova ,,zembla4 ,the ,sea of ,kara4--,loschkin4--,rosmysslow4--,ltke4 --,krotow4-- ,pachtussow4--,sails along the eastern ,coast of the ,southern ,island to ,matoschkin ,schar4--,his second ,voyage and ,death4-- ,meteorological ,observations of ,ziwolka4--,the cold ,summer of ,nova ,zembla4--,von ,baer's scientific ,voyage to ,nova ,zembla4--,his ,adventures in ,matoschkin ,schar4--,storm in ,kostin ,schar4--,sea ,bath and votive ,cross4--,botanical ,observations4--,a natural ,garden4-- ,solitude and ,silence4--,a ,bird ,bazar4--,hunting ,expeditions of the ,russians to ,nova ,zembla4 ,the sea of ,kara1 bounded on the west by ,nova ,zembla1 and on the east by the vast peninsula of ,tajmurland1 is one of the most inhospitable parts of the inhospitable ,polar ,ocean4 ,for all the ice which the east-westerly marine currents drift during the summer along the ,siberian coasts accumulates in that immense land-locked bay1 and almost constantly blocks the gate of ,kara1 as the straits have been named that separate ,nova ,zembla from the island of ,waigatz4 ,the rivers ,jenissei and ,obi1 which remain frozen over until late in ,june1 likewise discharge their vast masses of ice into the gulf of ,kara1 so that we can not wonder that the eastern coast of ,nova ,zembla1 fronting a sea which opposes almost insuperable obstacles to the ,arctic navigator1 has remained almost totally unknown until #ahcc1 while the western coast1 exposed to the ,gulf ,stream1 and bathed1 in summer at least1 by a vast open ocean1 has long been traced in all its chief outlines on the map4 ,the walrus-hunter ,loschkin is indeed said to have sailed along the whole eastern coast of ,nova ,zembla in the last century1 but we have no authentic records of his voyage1 and at a later period ,rosmysslow1 who1 penetrating through ,mathew's ,straits1 or ,matoschkin ,schar1 found ,nova ,zembla to consist of two large islands1 investigated but a small part of those unknown shores4 ,from #ahai to #ahbd the ,russian ,government sent out no less than five expeditions to the sea of ,kara2 the famous circumnavigator ,admiral ,ltke endeavored no less than four times to advance along the eastern coast of ,nova ,zembla1 but all these efforts proved fruitless against the superior power of a stormy and ice-blocked sea4 ,yet in spite of these repeated failures1 two enterprising men--,klokow1 a chief inspector of forests1 and ,brandt1 a rich merchant of ,archangel--fitted out three ships in #ahcb for the purpose of solving the mysteries of the sea of ,kara4 ,one of these vessels1 commanded by ,lieutenant ,krotow1 was to penetrate through ,mathew's ,straits1 and1 having reached their eastern outlet1 to sail thence across the sea to the mouth of the ,obi and the ,jenissei2 but nothing more was heard of the ill-fated ship after her first separation from her companions at ,kanin ,nos4 ,the second ship1 which was to sail along the western coast of ,nova ,zembla1 and1 if possible1 to round its northern extremity1 was more fortunate1 for though it never reached that point1 it returned home with a rich cargo of walrus-teeth4 ,the third ship1 finally1 under ,pachtussow's command1 was to penetrate through the gate of ,kara1 and from thence to proceed along the eastern coast4 ,when ,pachtussow1 according to his instructions1 had reached the straits1 all his efforts to effect a passage proved ineffectual4 ,it was in vain he more than once steered to the east2 the stormy weather and large masses of drift ice constantly threw him back1 the short summer approached its end1 and thus he was obliged to put off all further attempts to the next year1 and to settle for the winter in ,rocky ,bay within the gate of ,kara4 ,a small hut was built out of the drift-wood found on the spot1 and joined by means of a gallery of sail-cloth to a bathing-room1 that indispensable comfort of a ,russian4 ,the laying of traps1 in which many ,arctic foxes were caught1 and the carrying of the wood1 which had sometimes to be fetched from a distance of ten versts1 occupied the crew during fair weather4 ,in ,april a party under ,pachtussow's command set out for the purpose of exploring the western coast4 ,on this expedition they were overtaken on the twenty-fourth day of the month by a terrible snowstorm1 which obliged them to throw themselves flat upon the ground to avoid being swept away by the wind4 ,they remained three days without food under the snow1 as it was impossible for them to reach the dpt of provisions buried a few versts off4 ,on ,june #bd the gate of ,kara was at length open1 and ,pachtussow would gladly have sailed through the passage1 but his ship was fast in the ice4 ,he therefore resolved1 in order to make the best use of his time1 to examine the eastern coast in a boat1 and reached in this manner the small ,sawina ,river1 where he found a wooden cross with the date of #agdb4 ,most likely it had been placed there by ,loschkin1 his predecessor on the path of discovery4 ,he now returned with his boat to the ship1 which1 after an imprisonment of #big days1 was at length1 ,july #aa1 able to leave the bay4 ,on ,stadolski ,island1 near ,cape ,menschikoff1 they found a wretched hut1 which proved that they were not the first to penetrate into these deserts4 ,but the hut was tenantless1 and a number of human bones were strewn over the ground4 ,one of ,pachtussow's companions now related that in #ahbb a ,samojede1 named ,mawei1 had gone with his wife and children to ,nova ,zembla1 and had never returned4 ,on gathering the bones1 they were found to compose the skeletons of two children and of a woman1 but no remains could be discovered of the man4 ,most likely the unfortunate savage had been surprised by a snowstorm1 or had fallen a prey to a hungry ice-bear1 on one of his excursions1 and his family1 deprived of their support1 had died of hunger in the hut4 ,on ,july #ai they reached the river ,stawinen1 and on the #bast ,ltke's ,bay1 where a number of white dolphins and seals of an unknown species were found4 ,here contrary winds arrested the progress of the navigators during eighteen days4 ,on ,august #ac ,pachtussow entered ,matoschkin ,schar1 and reached its western mouth on the #aith4 ,thus he succeeded at least in circumnavigating the southern island1 which no one had achieved before him1 and as his exhausted provisions did not allow him to spend a second winter in ,nova ,zembla1 he resolved to return at once to ,archangel4 ,but contrary winds drove him to the island of ,kolgujew1 and thence to the mouth of the ,petschora1 where1 on ,september #c1 a dreadful storm at length shattered his crazy vessel4 ,the crew found refuge in a hut1 but this also was filled by the water2 so that they had to wade several versts before they could reach the dry land4 ,pachtussow now travelled by way of ,archangel and ,onega to ,st4 ,petersburg1 where he communicated the results of his journey to the ,minister of ,marine1 who gave him a most flattering reception1 well merited by his ability and courage4 ,the success he had already obtained encouraged the hope that a second expedition would be able to complete the undertaking1 and consequently1 by an imperial order1 the schooner ,krotow and a transport were fitted out1 with which ,pachtussow once more sailed from the port of ,archangel on ,august #e4 ,his instructions were to winter in ,mathew's ,straits1 and thence to attempt in the following summer the exploration of the eastern coast of the northern island4 ,the winter hut he built at the western entrance of the straits was ready for his reception by ,october #bj4 ,it was of stately dimensions1 for a ,nova ,zembla residence--#be feet long1 #ba broad1 #h feet high in the centre1 #e at the sides1 and consisted of two compartments1 one for the officers and the other for the crew4 ,they found the cold very endurable1 but were rather incommoded by the smoke1 which did not always find a ready passage through the opening in the roof4 ,sometimes the snow accumulated in such masses1 or the storm raged so furiously round the hut1 that they could not leave it for eight days running1 and frequently the hole in the roof had to serve them for a door4 ,eleven white bears were killed about the hut during the winter2 one on the roof1 another in the passage4 ,pachtussow1 well aware that occupation is the best remedy against melancholy1 kept his crew in constant activity4 ,they were obliged to fetch wood from distances of ten or eleven versts1 not seldom during a cold of -#cf1 which1 thanks to their thick fur dresses1 they bore remarkably well1 particularly as a temperature lower than -#be never occurred1 unless during perfectly calm weather4 ,he also made them lay fox-traps at considerable distances from the hut1 and amused them with shooting at a mark and gymnastic exercises4 ,by this means he succeeded in preserving their health1 and warding off the attacks of the scurvy4 ,as early as ,april the indefatigable ,pachtussow fitted out two sledge-parties1 for the exploration of the eastern coast4 ,the one1 consisting of seven men1 he commanded in person2 the other was led by the steersman ,ziwolka4 ,both parties travelled in company as far as the eastern entrance of the straits1 where one of the huts in which ,rosmysslow had wintered seventy years before was still found in a good condition4 ,pachtussow now returned for the purpose of accurately surveying the straits1 while ,ziwolka proceeded along the east coast1 with a small tent and provisions for a month4 ,all his men had ,samojede dresses1 but they were already so hardened that they did not wear the upper coat with the hood even during the night1 although snow-storms not seldom occurred4 ,once their boots were frozen so hard that they could not pull them off before they had been previously thawed1 and as drift-wood was nowhere to be found1 they were obliged to burn the poles of their tent1 and to keep their feet over the fire until the leather became soft4 ,on ,may #ah1 the thirty-fourth day of his journey1 ,ziwolka returned to his commander1 after having explored the east coast northward to a distance of #aej versts4 ,meanwhile ,pachtussow had been busy building a boat eighteen feet long1 with which he intended to proceed along the western coast to the northern extremity of the island1 and1 the elements permitting1 to return to the straits along its eastern shores4 ,about the beginning of ,june the migratory birds made their appearance1 and introduced a very agreeable change in the monotonous fare of the navigators1 who1 a few weeks later1 enjoyed the sight of blooming flowers1 and gathered antiscorbutic herbs in large quantities4 ,thus the high northern land had assumed its most friendly aspect1 and looked as cheerfully as it possibly could1 when1 on ,july #aa1 ,pachtussow and ,ziwolka set out for the north with the boat and the transport1 the schooner being left behind in the straits with the surgeon and a few invalids4 ,at first the wind and weather favored their course1 but on ,july #ba the boat was smashed between two pieces of ice1 so that they had hardly time to escape upon the land with the nautical instruments1 a sack of flour1 and some butter4 ,in this unpleasant situation they were obliged to remain for thirteen days1 until at last a walrus-hunter appeared1 who took the shipwrecked explorers on board1 and brought them safely back to their winter-quarters on ,august #bb4 ,thus this first attempt ended in complete disappointment1 and the season was already too far advanced to permit of its renewal4 ,yet ,pachtussow1 resolving with praiseworthy zeal to make the most of the last days of the short summer1 set out again on ,august #bf for the eastern entrance of the straits1 and proceeded along the coast1 until he was stopped by the ice at some distance beyond the small islands which bear his name4 ,convinced of the fruitlessness of all further efforts1 ,pachtussow bade adieu with a sorrowful heart to the coast1 which still stretched out before him in undiscovered mystery1 and sailed back again to ,archangel on ,september #bj4 ,soon after his return he fell ill1 and four weeks later his mourning friends carried him to his grave4 ,the ,arctic ,ocean is so capricious that in the following year the walrus-hunter ,issakow1 of ,kem1 who had no discoveries in view1 was able to round without difficulty the north-eastern extremity of ,nova ,zembla1 but1 fearful of encountering the dangers of that dreadful coast1 he almost immediately returned4 ,during the two winters he spent in ,nova ,zembla1 the steersman ,ziwolka had daily consulted the thermometer1 and the result of his observations gave to the western entrance of ,mathew's ,straits a mean annual temperature of #ag4 ,thus ,nova ,zembla is colder than the west coast of ,spitzbergen1 which1 although still farther to the north1 is more favorably situated with regard to the winds and currents1 and from five to ten degrees warmer than the high northern parts of ,siberia and continental ,america1 which sustain a comparatively numerous population1 while ,nova ,zembla is uninhabited4 ,hence this want1 and the circumstance that the vegetation of these islands scarcely rises a span above the ground1 while the forest region still penetrates far within the confines of the colder continental regions above mentioned1 are to be ascribed not to the low mean annual temperature of ,nova ,zembla1 but to the unfavorable distribution of warmth over the various seasons of the year4 ,for although high ,northern ,siberia and ,america have a far colder winter1 they enjoy a considerably warmer summer1 and this it is which in the higher latitudes determines the existence or the development of life on the dry land4 ,during the winter the organic world is partly sheltered under the snow1 or else it migrates1 or it produces within itself sufficient warmth to defy the cold--and thus a few degrees more or less at that time of the year are of no material consequence1 while the warmth of summer is absolutely indispensable to awaken life and determine its development4 ,the comparatively mild winter of ,nova ,zembla 7no less than thirty-three degrees warmer than that of ,jakutsk7 is therefore of but little benefit to vegetable life1 which on the other hand suffers considerably from a summer inferior even to that of ,melville ,island and ,boothia ,felix4 ,a coast where the sun1 in spite of a day of several months' continuance1 generates so small a quantity of heat1 and where yet some vegetation is able to flourish1 must necessarily be well worthy the attention of botanists1 or rather of all those who take an interest in the geographical distribution of plants4 ,for if in the primitive forests of ,brazil the naturalist admires the effects of a tropical sun and an excessive humidity in producing the utmost exuberance of vegetation1 it is no less interesting for him to observe how ,flora under the most adverse circumstances still wages a successful war against death and destruction4 ,thus a few years after ,pachtussow's expedition1 the desire to explore a land so remarkable in a botanical point of view1 and to gather new fruits for science in the wilderness1 induced ,herr von ,baer1 though already advanced in years1 to undertake the journey to ,nova ,zembla4 ,accompanied by two younger naturalists1 ,mr4 ,lehmann and ,mr4 ,rder1 the celebrated ,petersburg academician arrived on ,july #bi1 #ahcg1 at the western entrance of ,mathew's ,straits1 sailed through them the next day in a boat1 and reached the sea of ,kara1 where he admired a prodigious number of jelly-fishes 7,pleurobrachia pileus7 swimming about in the ice-cold waters1 and displaying a marvellous beauty of coloring in their ciliated ribs4 ,this excursion might1 however1 have had very disagreeable consequences1 for a dreadful storm1 blowing from the west1 prevented their boat from returning1 and forced them to pass the night with some walrus-hunters1 whom they had the good-fortune to meet with4 ,on the following day the storm abated1 so that the return could be attempted2 they were1 however1 obliged to land on a small island in the ,beluga ,bay1 where1 wet to the skin1 and their limbs shaking with cold1 they fortunately found a refuge in the ruins of a hut in which ,rosmysslow had wintered in #agfg4 ,meanwhile the wind had veered to the east1 accompanied by a very disagreeable cold rain1 which on the mountains took the form of snow2 they were now1 however1 able to make use of their sail1 and arrived late at night at the spot where their ship lay at anchor1 completely wet1 but in good health and spirits4 8,we could esteem ourselves happy10 says ,von ,baer1 8in having paid so slight a penalty for neglecting the precaution1 so necessary to all travellers in ,nova ,zembla1 of providing for a week when you set out for a day's excursion40 ,on ,august #d1 after a thorough botanical examination of the straits1 the party proceeded along the west coast4 ,the wind1 blowing from the north1 brought them to the ,kostin ,schar1 a maze of passages between numerous islets1 where the walrus-hunters in ,nova ,zembla chiefly assemble4 ,on ,august #i an excursion was made up the river ,nechwatowa1 where they rested in a hut which had been erected by some fisherman employed in catching 8golzi10 or ,arctic salmon4 ,on returning to the ship1 a dreadful storm arose from the north-east1 which lasted nine days1 and1 very fortunately for the botanists1 caught them in the ,kostin ,schar1 and not on the high sea4 ,although they were anchored in a sheltered bay1 the waves frequently swept over the deck of their vessel1 and compelled them to remain all the time in their small1 low cabin4 ,only once they made an attempt to land1 but the wind was so strong that they could hardly stand4 ,their situation was rendered still more terrible and anxious1 as part of the crew which had been sent out hunting before the storm began had not yet returned4 ,when at last the storm ceased1 winter seemed about to begin in good earnest4 ,every night ice formed in the river1 and the land was covered with snow1 which had surprised the scanty vegetation in its full bloom4 ,at length the hunters returned1 after having endured terrible hardships1 and now preparations were made for a definitive departure4 ,a general bath was taken1 without which no anchorage in ,nova ,zembla is ever left1 and1 according to ancient custom1 a votive cross was likewise erected on the strand1 as a memorial of the expedition4 ,on ,august #bh the anchors were weighed1 but they were soon dropped again in the ,schar1 to examine on a small island the vegetable and animal products of the land and of the shore4 ,the former offered but few objects of interest1 but they were astonished at the exuberance of marine life4 ,after having been detained by a thick fog in this place for several days1 they at length sailed towards the ,white ,sea1 where they were obliged by contrary winds to run into ,tri ,ostrowa4 ,dreary and desolate as the tundras at this extreme point of ,lapland had appeared to them on their journey outward1 they were now charmed with their green slopes1 a sight of which they had been deprived in ,nova ,zembla4 ,on ,september #aa they at length reached the port of ,archangel1 with the agreeable prospect of passing the winter in a comfortable study at ,st4 ,petersburg instead of spending it1 like ,barentz and his associates1 as might easily have happened1 in a wretched hut beyond the #gjth degree of northern latitude4 ,having thus briefly sketched ,von ,baer's adventures1 ,i will now notice some of the most interesting scientific results of his journey4 ,the rocky west coast of ,nova ,zembla has about the same appearance as the analogous part of ,spitzbergen1 for here also the mountains1 particularly in the northern island1 rise abruptly to a height of three or four thousand feet from the sea1 while the eastern coast is generally flat4 ,in both countries1 angular blocks of stone1 precipitated from the summits1 cover the sides of the hills1 and frequently make it impossible to ascend them4 ,in fact1 no rock1 however hard or finely grained1 is able to withstand the effects of a climate where the summer is so wet and the winter so severe4 ,nowhere in ,nova ,zembla is a grass-covered spot to be found deserving the name of a meadow4 ,even the foliaceous lichens1 which grow so luxuriantly in ,lapland1 have here a stunted appearance2 but1 as ,von ,baer remarks1 this is owing less to the climate than to the nature of the soil1 as plants of this description thrive best on chalky ground4 ,the crustaceous lichens1 however1 cover the blocks of augite and porphyry with a motley vesture1 and the dingy carpet with which ,dryas octopetala invests here and there the dry slopes1 formed of rocky detritus1 reminds one of the tundras of ,lapland4 ,the scanty vegetable covering which this only true social plant of ,nova ,zembla affords is1 however1 but an inch thick1 and can easily be detached like a cap from the rock beneath4 ,on a clayey ground in moist and low situations1 the mosses afford a protection to the polar willow 7,salix polaris71 which raises but two leaves and a catkin over the surface of its covering4 ,even the most sparing sheet of humus has great difficulty to form in ,nova ,zembla1 as in a great number of the plants which grow there the discolored leaf dries on the stalk1 and is then swept away by the winds1 so that the land would appear still more naked if many plants1 such as the snow ranunculus 7,ranunculus nivalis71 were not so extremely abstemious as to require no humus at all1 but merely a rocky crevice or some loose gravel capable of retaining moisture in its interstices4 ,but even in ,nova ,zembla there are some more favored spots4 ,thus when ,von ,baer landed at the foot of a high slate mountain fronting the south-west1 and reflecting the rays of the sun1 he was astonished and delighted to see a gay mixture of purple silenes1 golden ranunculuses1 peach-colored parryas1 white cerastias1 and blue palemones1 and was particularly pleased at finding the well-known forget-me-not among the ornaments of this ,arctic pasture4 ,between these various flowers the soil was everywhere visible1 for the dicotyledonous plants of the high latitudes produce no more foliage than is necessary to set off the colors of the blossoms1 and have generally more flowers than leaves4 ,the entire vegetation of the island is confined to the superficial layer of the soil and to the lower stratum of the air4 ,even those plants which in warm climates have a descending or vertical root have here a horizontal one1 and none1 whether grasses or shrubs1 grow higher than a span above the ground4 ,in the polar willow1 a single pair of leaves sits on a stem about as thick as a straw1 although the whole plant forms an extensive shrub with numerous ramifications4 ,another species of willow 7,salix lanata7 attains the considerable height of a span1 and is a perfect giant among the ,nova ,zembla plants1 for the thick subterranean trunk sometimes measures two inches in diameter1 and can be laid bare for a length of ten or twelve feet without finding the end4 ,thus in this country the forests are more in than above the earth4 ,this horizontal development of vegetation is caused by the sun principally heating the superficial sheet of earth1 which imparts its warmth to the stratum of air immediately above it1 and thus confines the plants within the narrow limits which best suit their growth4 ,hence also the influence of position on vegetation is so great that1 while a plain open to the winds is a complete desert1 a gentle mountain slope not seldom resembles a garden4 ,the absence of all trees or shrubs1 or even of all vigorous herbage1 imparts a character of the deepest solitude to the ,nova ,zembla landscape1 and inspires even the rough sailor with a kind of religious awe4 8,it is10 says ,von ,baer1 8as if the dawn of creation had but just begun1 and life were still to be called into existence40 ,the universal silence is but rarely broken by the noise of an animal4 ,but neither the cry of the sea-mew1 wheeling in the air1 nor the rustling of the lemming in the stunted herbage are able to animate the scene4 ,no voice is heard in calm weather4 ,the rare land-birds are silent as well as the insects1 which are comparatively still fewer in number4 ,this tranquillity of nature1 particularly during serene days1 reminds the spectator of the quiet of the grave2 and the lemmings seem like phantoms as they glide noiselessly from burrow to burrow4 ,in our fields even a slight motion of the air becomes visible in the foliage of the trees or in the waving of the corn2 here the low plants are so stiff and immovable that one might suppose them to be painted4 ,the rare sand-bee 7,andrena71 which on sunny days and in warm places flies about with languid wings1 has scarcely the spirit to hum1 and the flies and gnats1 though more frequent1 are equally feeble and inoffensive4 ,as a proof of the rarity of insects in ,nova ,zembla1 ,von ,baer mentions that not a single larva was to be found in a dead walrus which had been lying at least fourteen days on the shore4 ,the hackneyed phrase of our funeral sermons can not therefore be applied to these high latitudes1 where even above the earth the decay of bodies is extremely slow4 ,however poor the vegetation of ,nova ,zembla may be1 it still suffices to nourish a number of lemmings1 which live on leaves1 stems1 and buds1 but not on roots4 ,the slopes of the mountains are often undermined in all directions by their burrows4 ,next to these lemmings1 the ,arctic foxes are the most numerous quadrupeds1 as they find plenty of food in the above-mentioned little rodents1 as well as in the young birds1 and in the bodies of the marine animals which are cast ashore by the tides4 ,white bears are scarcely ever seen during the summer1 and the reindeer seems to have decreased in numbers1 at least on the west coast1 where they are frequently shot by the ,russian morse-hunters4 ,the hosts of sea-birds in some parts of the coast prove that the waters are far more prolific than the land4 ,the foolish guillemots 7,uria troile71 closely congregated in rows1 one above the other1 on the narrow ledges of vertical rock-walls1 make the black stone appear striped with white4 ,such a breeding-place is called by the ,russians a bazar4 ,on the summit of isolated cliffs1 and suffering no other bird in his vicinity1 nestles the large gray sea-mew 7,larus glaucus71 to whom the ,dutch whale-catchers have given the name of 8burghermaster40 ,while the ice-bear is monarch of the land animals1 this gull appears as the sovereign lord of all the sea-birds around1 and no guillemot would venture to dispute the possession of a dainty morsel claimed by the imperious burghermaster4 ,this abundance of the sea has also attracted man to the desert shores of ,nova ,zembla4 ,long before ,barentz made ,western ,europe acquainted with the existence of ,nova ,zembla 7#aeid-if71 the land was known to the ,russians as a valuable hunting or fishing ground2 for the ,dutch discoverer met with a large number of their vessels on its coast4 ,burrough1 who visited the port of ,kola in #aeef1 in search of the unfortunate ,willoughby1 and thence sailed as far as the mouth of the ,petschora1 likewise saw in the gulf of ,kola no less than thirty lodjes1 all destined for walrus-hunting in ,nova ,zembla4 ,whether1 before the ,russians1 the adventurous ,norsemen ever visited these desolate islands1 is unknown1 but so much is certain1 that ever since the times of ,barentz the expeditions of the ,muscovites to its western coast have been uninterruptedly continued4 ,as is the case with all fishing speculations1 their success very much depends upon chance4 ,the year #ahcd was very lucrative1 so that in the following season about eighty ships1 with at least #ajjj men on board1 sailed for ,nova ,zembla from the ports of the ,white ,sea1 but this time the results were so unsatisfactory that in #ahcf scarce half the number were fitted out4 ,in #ahcg no more than twenty vessels were employed1 and ,von ,baer relates that but one of them which penetrated into the sea of ,kara made a considerable profit1 while all the rest1 with but few exceptions1 did not pay one-half of their expenses4 ,the most valuable animals are the walrus and the white dolphin1 or beluga4 ,among the seals1 the ,phoca albigena of ,pallas distinguishes itself by its size1 the thickness of its skin1 and its quantity of fat2 ,phoca grnlandica and ,phoca hispida rank next in estimation4 ,the ,greenland whale never extends his excursions to the waters of ,nova ,zembla1 but the fin-back and the grampus are frequently seen4 ,the ,alpine salmon 7,salmo alpinus71 which towards autumn ascends into the mountain-lakes1 is caught in incredible numbers2 and1 finally1 the bean-goose 7,anser segetum7 breeds so frequently1 at least upon the southern island1 that the gathering of its quill-feathers is an object of some importance4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,the ,,lapps4 ,their ancient ,history and ,conversion to ,christianity4--,self-denial and ,poverty of the ,lapland ,clergy4--,their singular ,mode of ,preaching4--,gross ,superstition of the ,lapps4--,the ,evil ,spirit of the ,woods4--,the ,lapland ,witches4--,physical ,constitution of the ,lapps4--,their ,dress4--,the ,fjlllappars4--,their ,dwellings4-- ,store-houses4--,reindeer ,pens4--,milking the ,reindeer4-- ,migration4--,the ,lapland ,dog4--,skiders1 or ,skates4--,the ,sledge1 or ,pulka4--,natural ,beauties of ,lapland4--,attachment of the ,lapps to their ,country4--,bear-hunting4--,wolf-hunting 4--,mode of ,living of the wealthy ,lapps4--,how they kill the ,reindeer4--,visiting the ,fair4--,mammon ,worship4--,treasure-hiding4--8,tabak1 or ,braende40-- ,affectionate ,disposition of the ,lapps4--,the ,skogslapp4--,the ,fisherlapp4 ,the nation of the ,lapps spreads over the northern parts of ,scandinavia and ,finland from about the #fc;d degree of latitude to the confines of the ,polar ,ocean2 but their number1 hardly amounting to more than twenty thousand1 bears no proportion to the extent of the vast regions in which they are found4 ,although now subject to the crowns of ,russia1 ,sweden1 and ,norway1 they anciently possessed the whole ,scandinavian peninsula1 until the sons of ,odin drove them farther and farther to the north1 and1 taking possession of the coasts and valleys1 left them nothing but the bleak mountain and the desolate tundra4 ,in the thirteenth century1 under the reign of ,magnus ,ladislas1 ,king of ,sweden1 their subjugation was completed by the ,birkarls1 a race dwelling on the borders of the ,bothnian ,gulf4 ,these ,birkarls had to pay the crown a slight tribute1 which they wrung more than a hundred-fold from the ,lapps1 until at length ,gustavus ,i4 granted the persecuted savages the protection of more equitable laws1 and sent missionaries among them to relieve them at the same time from the yoke of their ancient superstitions4 ,in #afjj ,charles ,,ix4 ordered churches to be built in their country1 and1 some years after1 his son and successor1 the celebrated ,gustavus ,adolphus1 founded a school for the ,lapps at ,pitea1 and ordered several elementary works to be translated into their language4 ,in the year #afjb1 ,christian ,,iv41 ,king of ,denmark and ,norway1 while on a visit to the province of ,finmark1 was so incensed at the gross idolatry of the ,lapps that he ordered their priests or sorcerers to be persecuted with bloody severity4 ,a worthy clergyman1 ,eric ,bredal1 of ,drontheim1 used means more consonant with the spirit of the ,gospel1 and1 having instructed several young ,lapps1 sent them back again as missionaries to their families4 ,these interpreters of a purer faith were1 however1 received as apostates and traitors by their suspicious countrymen1 and cruelly murdered1 most likely at the instigation of the sorcerers4 ,in #agjg ,frederic ,,iv4 founded the ,finmark mission1 and in #agaf ,thomas ,westen1 a man of rare zeal and perseverance1 preached the ,gospel in the wildest districts of the province4 ,other missionaries and teachers followed his example1 and at length succeeded in converting the ,lapps1 and in some measure conquering their ancient barbarism4 ,nothing can be more admirable than the self-denial and heroic fortitude of these ministers of ,christ1 for to renounce all that is precious in the eyes of the world to follow nomads little better than savages through the wilds of an ,arctic country surely requires a courage not inferior to that of the soldier ,who seeks preferment at the cannon's mouth4 ,the ,lapland schoolmaster enjoys an annual salary of twenty-five dollars1 and receives besides half a dollar for every child instructed4 ,but the priest is not much better off1 as his stipend amounts to no more than thirty dollars in money1 and to about #aej dollars in produce4 ,among this miserably paid clergy there are1 as in ,iceland1 men worthy of a better lot4 ,the famous ,lstadius was priest at ,karesuando1 seventy-five leagues from ,troms1 the nearest town1 and a hundred leagues from ,tornea4 ,his family lived upon rye bread and fishes1 and but rarely tasted reindeer flesh4 ,chamisso mentions another ,lapland priest who had spent seven years in his parish1 which lay beyond the limits of the forest region4 ,in the summer he was completely isolated1 as then the ,lapps wandered with their herds to the cool shores of the icy sea2 and in the winter1 when the moon afforded light1 he travelled about in his sledge1 frequently bivouacking at the temperature of freezing mercury1 to visit his ,lapps4 ,during all that time his solitude had been but twice broken by civilized man2 a brother had come to see him1 and a botanist had strayed to his dwelling4 ,he well knew how to appreciate the pleasure of such meetings1 but neither this pleasure nor any other1 he said1 was equal to that of seeing the sun rise again above the horizon after the long winter's night4 ,it is a singular custom that the pastors preaching to the ,lapps deliver their harangues in a tone of voice as elevated as if their audience1 instead of being assembled in a small chapel1 were stationed upon the top of a distant mountain1 and labor as if they were going to burst a bloodvessel4 ,dr4 ,clarke1 who listened to one of these sermons1 which lasted one hour and twenty minutes1 ventured to ask the reason of the very loud tone of voice used in preaching4 ,the minister said he was aware that it must appear extraordinary to a stranger1 but that1 if he were to address the ,laplanders in a lower key1 they would consider him as a feeble and impotent missionary1 wholly unfit for his office1 and would never come to church2 that the merit and abilities of the preacher1 like that of many a popular politician1 are always estimated by the strength and power of his lungs4 ,though the ,lapps 7thanks to the efforts of their spiritual guides7 hardly even remember by name the gods of their fathers--,aija1 ,akka1 ,tuona--they still pay a secret homage to the ,saidas1 or idols of wood or stone1 to whom they were accustomed to sacrifice the bones and horns of the reindeer4 ,they are in fact an extremely superstitious race1 faithfully believing in ghosts1 witchcraft1 and above all in ,stallo1 or ,troller1 the evil spirit of the woods4 ,many of them1 when about to go hunting1 throw a stick into the air1 and then take their way in the direction to which it points4 ,the appearance of the ,aurora borealis fills them with terror1 as they believe it to be a sign of divine wrath1 and generally shout and howl during the whole duration of the grand phenomenon1 which their ignorance connects with their own petty existence4 ,the pretended gift of being able to predict future events is common among the ,laplanders4 ,the sorcerers fall into a magic sleep1 during which their soul wanders4 ,in this state1 like the somnambules of more polished nations1 they reveal things to come or see what passes at a distance4 ,men and women affect the power of fortune-telling by the common trick of palmistry1 or by the inspection of a cup of liquor2 and this1 to insure the greatest possible certainty1 must be a cup of brandy1 which at once explains the whole business of the prophecy4 ,the ,lapland witches pretended1 or perhaps still pretend1 to the power of stilling the wind or causing the rain to cease1 and such was their reputation that ,english seamen trading to ,archangel made it a point to land and buy a wind from these poor creatures4 ,the ,lapps are a dwarfish race4 ,on an average1 the men do not exceed five feet in height1 many not even reaching four1 and the women are considerably less4 ,most of them are1 however1 very robust1 the circumference of their chest nearly equalling their height4 ,their complexion is more or less tawny and copper-colored1 their hair dark1 straight1 and lank1 its dangling masses adding much to the wildness of their aspect4 ,they have very little beard1 and as its want is considered a beauty1 the young men carefully eradicate the scanty supply given them by nature4 ,their dark piercing eyes are generally deep sunk in their heads1 widely separated from each other1 and1 like those of the ,tartars or ,chinese1 obliquely slit towards the temples4 ,the cheek-bones are high1 the mouth pinched close1 but wide1 the nose flat4 ,the eyes are generally sore1 either in consequence of the biting smoke of their huts or of the refraction from the snow1 so that a ,lapp seldom attains a high age without becoming blind4 ,their countenances generally present a repulsive combination of stolidity1 low cunning1 and obstinacy4 ,hogguer1 who dwelt several months among them1 and saw during this time at least #hjj ,lapps1 found not twenty who were not decidedly ugly2 and ,dr4 ,clarke says that many of them1 when more advanced in years1 might1 if exhibited in a menagerie of wild beasts1 be considered as the long-lost link between man and ape4 ,their legs are extremely thick and clumsy1 but their hands are as small and finely shaped as those of any aristocrat4 ,the reason for this is that from generation to generation they never perform any manual labor1 and the very trifling work which they do is necessarily of the lightest kind4 ,their limbs are singularly flexible1 easily falling into any posture1 like all the ,oriental nations1 and their hands are constantly occupied in the beginning of conversation with filling a short tobacco-pipe1 the head being turned over one shoulder to the person addressed4 ,such are the traits by which the whole tribe is distinguished from the other inhabitants of ,europe1 and in which they differ from the other natives of the land in which they live4 ,the summer garb of the men consists of the 8poesk10 a sort of tunic1 generally made of a very coarse light-colored woollen cloth1 reaching to the knees1 and fastened round the waist with a belt or girdle4 ,their woollen caps are shaped precisely like a night-cap1 or a ,turkish fez1 with a red tassel and red worsted band round the rim1 for they are fond of lively hues strongly contrasted4 ,their boots or shoes are made of the raw skin of the reindeer1 with the hair outward1 and have a peaked shape4 ,though these shoes are very thin1 and the ,lapp wears no stockings1 yet he is never annoyed by the cold or by striking against stones1 as he stuffs them with the broad leaves of the ,carex vesicaria1 or cyperus grass1 which he cuts in summer and dries4 ,this he first combs and rubs in his hands1 and then places it in such a manner that it covers not only his feet but his legs also1 and1 being thus guarded1 he is quite secure against the intense cold4 ,with this grass1 which is an admirable non-conductor of heat1 he likewise stuffs his gloves in order to preserve his hands4 ,but as it wards off the cold in winter1 so in summer it keeps the feet cool1 and is consequently used at all seasons4 ,the women's apparel differs very little from that of the other sex1 but their girdles are more ornamented with rings and chains4 ,in winter both sexes are so packed up in skins as to look more like bears than human beings1 and1 when squatting according to the fashion of their country1 exhibit a mound of furs1 with the head resting upon the top of it4 ,according to their different mode of life1 the ,lapps may be aptly subdivided into ,fjlllappars1 or ,mountain ,lapps2 ,skogslappars1 or ,wood ,lapps2 and ,fisherlapps4 ,the ,fjlllappars1 who form the greater and most characteristic part of the nation1 lead an exclusively pastoral life1 and are constantly wandering with their herds of reindeer from place to place1 for the lichen which forms the chief food of these animals during the greater part of the year is soon cropped from the niggard soil1 and requires years for its reproduction4 ,for this reason1 also1 this people do not herd together1 and never more than three or four families pitch their huts1 or tuguria1 upon the same spot4 ,of course the dwelling of the nomad ,lapp harmonizes with his vagrant habits2 a rude tent1 which can easily be taken to pieces1 and as easily erected1 is all he requires to shelter his family and chattels4 ,it consists of flexible stems of trees1 placed together in a conical form1 like a stack of poles for hops1 and covered in the summer with a coarse cloth1 in winter with additional skins1 to be better fenced against the inclemencies of the climate4 ,to form the entrance1 a part of the hanging1 about eighteen inches wide at the bottom1 and terminating upward in a point1 is made to turn back as upon hinges4 ,the hearth1 consisting of several large stones1 is in the centre1 and in the roof immediately above it is a square opening for the escape of smoke and the admission of rain1 snow1 and air4 ,all the light which the den receives when the door is closed comes from this hole4 ,the diameter of one of these conical huts generally measures at its base no more than six feet2 its whole circumference1 of course1 does not exceed eighteen feet1 and its extreme height may be about ten feet4 ,the floor is very nearly covered with reindeer skins1 on which the inmates squat during the day and sleep at nights1 contracting their limbs together and huddling round their hearth1 so that each individual of this pigmy race occupies scarcely more space than a dog4 ,on the side of the tent are suspended a number of pots1 wooden bowls1 and other household utensils2 and a small chest contains the holiday apparel of the family4 ,such are the dwellings of those among the ,laplanders who are called wealthy1 and who sometimes possess very considerable property4 ,near the tent is the dairy or store-house of the establishment4 ,it consists of nothing more than a shelf or platform1 raised between two trees1 so as to be out of the reach of the dogs or wolves4 ,the means of ascent to this treasury of curds1 cheese1 and dried reindeer flesh1 is simply a tree stripped of its branches1 but presenting at every foot or so knobs1 which serve the same purpose as staves on a ladder1 the tree being obliquely reared against the platform4 ,another characteristic feature of a ,lapp encampment is found in the inclosures in which the reindeer are penned during the night or for the purpose of milking4 ,these are circus-like open places1 each of a diameter of about one hundred and fifty feet1 and are formed by stumps of trees and poles set upright on the ground1 and linked together by horizontal poles4 ,against the latter are reared birch poles and branches of trees1 varying from six to ten feet in height1 without the slightest attempt at neatness1 the whole being as rude as well can be--a sufficient security against the wolves being all that its builders desire4 ,the milking of a herd of reindeer presents a most animated scene4 ,when they have been driven within the inclosure1 and all outlets are secured1 a ,lapp1 selecting a long thong or cord1 takes a turn of both ends round his left hand1 and then gathers what sailors call the bight in loose folds1 held in his right4 ,he now singles out a reindeer1 and throws the bight with unerring aim over the antlers of the victim4 ,sometimes the latter makes no resistance1 but in general the moment it feels the touch of the thong it breaks away from the spot1 and is only secured by the most strenuous exertions4 ,every minute may be seen an unusually powerful deer furiously dragging a ,lapp round and round the inclosure1 and sometimes it fairly overcomes the restraint of the thong1 and leaves its antagonist prostrate on the sod4 ,this part of the scene is highly exciting1 and it is impossible not to admire the trained skill evinced by all the ,lapps1 women as well as men4 ,the resistance of the deer being overcome1 the ,lapp takes a dexterous hitch of the thong round his muzzle and head1 and then fastens him to the trunk of a prostrate tree1 many of which have been brought within the level inclosure for that especial purpose4 ,men and women are indiscriminately engaged both in singling out milch reins and in milking them4 ,every one is fully occupied1 for even the little children are practising the throwing of the lasso1 in which they evince great dexterity1 although their strength is insufficient to hold the smallest doe4 ,when the pasture in the neighborhood is fully exhausted1 which generally takes place in about a fortnight1 the encampment is broken up1 to be erected again on some other spot4 ,in less than half an hour the tent is taken to pieces1 and packed with all the household furniture upon the backs of reindeer1 who by long training acquire the capacity of serving as beasts of burden4 ,on the journey they are bound together1 five and five1 with thongs of leather1 and led by the women over the mountains1 while the father of the family precedes the march to select a proper place for the new encampment1 and his sons or servants follow with the remainder of the herd4 ,towards the end of spring the ,lapps descend from the mountains to the sea4 ,when they approach its borders1 the reindeer1 sniffing the sea air from a distance1 rush tumultuously to the fjord1 where they take long draughts of the salted water4 ,this1 as the ,lapps believe1 is essential to their health4 ,as the summer advances1 and the snow melts1 they ascend higher and higher into the mountains4 ,at the approach of winter they retreat into the woods1 where1 with the assistance of their dogs and servants1 they have enough to do to keep off the attacks of the wolves4 ,the reindeer dog is about the size of a ,scotch terrier1 but his head bears a wonderful resemblance to that of the lynx4 ,his color varies considerably1 but the hair is always long and shaggy4 ,invaluable as are his services1 he is nevertheless treated with great cruelty4 ,for their winter journeys the ,lapps use sledges or skates4 ,one of their skates1 or 8skiders10 is usually as long as the person who wears it2 the other is about a foot shorter4 ,the feet stand in the middle1 and to them the skates are fastened by thongs or withes4 ,the skiders are made of fir-wood1 and covered with the skins of young reindeer1 which obstruct a retrograde movement by acting like bristles against the snow--the roots pointing towards the fore part of the skate1 and thus preventing their slipping back4 ,with these skiders1 the ,lapp flies like a bird over the snow1 now scaling the mountains by a tortuous ascent1 and now darting down into the valley3 ,ocior cervis et agente nimbos ,ocior ,euro4 ,such is the rapidity of his course that he will overtake the swiftest wild beasts2 and so violent the exercise that1 during the most rigorous season of the year1 when earnestly engaged in the chase1 he will divest himself of his furs4 ,a long pole with a round ball of wood near the end1 to prevent its piercing too deep in the snow1 serves to stop the skater's course when he wishes to rest4 ,the ,laplander is no less expert in the use of the sledge1 or 8pulka10 which is made in the form of a small boat with a convex bottom1 that it may slide all the more easily over the snow2 the prow is sharp and pointed1 but the sledge is flat behind4 ,the traveller is swathed in this carriage like an infant in a cradle1 with a stick in his hand to steer the vessel1 and disengage it from the stones or stumps of trees which it may chance to encounter in the route4 ,he must also balance the sledge with his body1 to avoid the danger of being overturned4 ,the traces by which this carriage is fastened to the reindeer are fixed to a collar about the animal's neck1 and run down over the breast between the fore and hind legs1 to be connected with the prow of the sledge2 the reins managed by the traveller are tied to the horns1 and the trappings are furnished with little bells1 the sound of which the animal likes4 ,with this draught at his tail1 the reindeer will travel sixty or seventy ,english miles in a day2 often persevering fifty miles without intermission1 and without taking any refreshment1 except occasionally moistening his mouth with the snow4 ,his ,lapland driver knows how to find his way through the wilderness with a surprising certainty2 here a rock1 there a fir-tree1 is impressed as a landmark on his faithful memory1 and thus1 like the best pilot1 he steers his sledge to the distant end of his journey4 ,frequently the ,aurora lights him on his way1 illumining the snow-covered landscape with a magic brilliancy1 and investing every object with a dream-like1 supernatural beauty4 ,but even without the aid of this mysterious coruscation1 ,lapland is rich in grand and picturesque features1 and has all the romance of the mountain and the forest4 ,in summer countless rivulets meander through valleys of alpine verdure1 and broad pellucid rivers rush down the slopes in thundering cataracts1 embracing islands clothed with pine-trees of incomparable dignity and grace4 ,whoever has grown up in scenes like these1 and been accustomed from infancy to the uncontrolled freedom of the nomad state1 receives impressions never to be erased2 and thus we can not wonder that the wild ,laplander believes his country to be a terrestrial paradise1 and feels nowhere happy but at home4 ,in the year #ahai a ,scotch gentleman attempted to acclimatize the reindeer in ,scotland1 and induced two young ,laplanders to accompany the herd which he had bought for that purpose4 ,the reindeer soon perished1 and the ,laplanders would have died of nostalgia if they had not been sent home by the first opportunity4 ,prince ,jablonowsky1 a ,polish nobleman1 who travelled about thirty years since through a part of ,russian ,lapland1 took a ,lapp girl with him to ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,he gave her a superior education1 and she was well treated in every respect4 ,she made rapid progress1 and seemed to be perfectly reconciled to her new home4 ,about two years after her arrival1 it happened that a ,russian gentleman1 who possessed extensive estates near the capital1 bought a small herd of reindeer1 which arrived under the guidance of a ,lapp family4 ,as it was winter-time1 and these people had brought with them their tents1 their sledges1 and their snow-shoes1 they soon became objects of curiosity1 and crowds of fashionable visitors flocked to their encampment2 among others1 the good-natured prince1 who imprudently conducted his pupil1 the young ,lapland girl1 to see her countrymen1 an interview which he supposed would give her great pleasure4 ,but from that moment she became an altered being2 she lost her spirits and her appetite1 and1 in spite of every care and attention1 her health declined from day to day4 ,one morning she disappeared1 and it was found on inquiry that she had returned to her family1 where she remained ever after4 ,another very remarkable instance of the ,laplanders' love of their country is related by ,hogstrm4 ,during the war of ,gustavus ,,iii4 with ,russia1 a young ,laplander enlisted in a regiment which was passing through ,tornea4 ,he served in several campaigns as a common soldier1 was made a sergeant in consequence of his good conduct and courage2 and having given himself the greatest trouble to improve his education and acquire military knowledge1 at length1 after twenty years of service1 attained the rank of captain in the ,swedish army4 ,after this long time spent in the civilized world1 and having become accustomed to all its enjoyments and comforts1 he felt a strong desire to revisit his family and his country4 ,scarcely had he seen his native mountains1 and spent a few days among his countrymen and the reindeer1 than he at once quitted the service1 and resumed the nomad life of his youth4 ,the ,laplander's chief desire is for peace and tranquillity4 ,exposed to all the privations of a vagrant life1 and to every inclemency of weather1 he endures the greatest hardships with equanimity1 desiring only not to be disturbed in the enjoyment of the little that is his--not to be interfered with in his old customs and habits4 ,yet this same peaceful ,laplander1 who has so easily submitted to a foreign yoke1 is one of the boldest hunters1 and not only pursues the elk or the wild reindeer1 but engages in single combat with the bear4 ,like all the other ,arctic nations of ,russia and ,siberia1 he has strange notions about this animal1 which in his opinion is the most cunning and gifted of all created beings4 ,thus he supposes that the bear knows and hears all that is said about him1 and for this reason he takes good care never to speak of him disrespectfully4 ,it may seem strange that he should venture to slay an animal which ranks so high in his esteem2 but the temptation is too strong1 as its flesh has an excellent flavor1 and its fur1 though not near so valuable as that of the ,american black bear1 is still worth from fifteen to twenty dollars4 ,at the beginning of winter1 the bear1 as is well known1 retires either into a rocky cave1 or under a cover of branches1 leaves1 and moss1 and remains there without food1 and plunged in sleep until the next spring recalls him to a more active existence4 ,after the first fall of snow1 the ,lapp hunters go into the forest and look out for traces of the bear4 ,having found them1 they carefully mark the spot1 and returning after a few weeks disturb the slumbering brute1 and excite him to an attack4 ,it is not considered honorable to shoot him while sleeping2 and in many parts of ,lapland the hunter who would kill a bear with any other weapon but a lance would be universally despised4 ,hogguer accompanied two ,lapps1 well-armed with axes and stout lances with barbed points1 on one of these bear-hunts4 ,when about a hundred paces from the lair the company halted1 while one of the ,lapps advanced shouting1 telling his comrades to make as much noise as they could4 ,when about twenty paces from the cavern1 he stood still and flung several stones into it4 ,for some time all was quiet1 so that ,hogguer began to fear that the lair was deserted1 when suddenly an angry growl was heard4 ,the hunters now redoubled their clamor1 until slowly1 like an honest citizen disturbed in his noonday slumbers1 the bear came out of his cavern4 ,but this tranquillity did not last long1 for the brute1 as soon as he perceived his nearest enemy1 uttered a short roar and rushed upon him4 ,the ,lapp coolly awaited the onset with his lance in rest1 until the bear1 coming quite near1 raised himself on his haunches and began to strike at him with his fore paws4 ,the hunter bent down to avoid the strokes1 and then suddenly rising1 with a sure eye and with all his might1 plunged his lance into the heart of the bear4 ,during this short conflict the ,lapp had received a slight wound on the hand1 but the marks of the bear's teeth were found deeply impressed upon the iron of the lance4 ,according to an ancient custom1 the wives of the hunters assemble in the hut of one of them2 and as soon as they hear the returning sportsmen1 begin chanting or howling a song in praise of the bear4 ,when the men1 laden with the skin and flesh of the animal1 approach1 they are received by the women with opprobrious epithets1 and forbidden ingress through the door2 so that they are obliged to make a hole in the wall1 through which they enter with their spoils4 ,this comedy1 which is meant to pacify the manes of the victim1 is still acted1 though not so frequently as formerly2 but the custom of begging the bear's pardon with many tears is completely out of date4 ,the animal's interment1 however1 still takes place with all the ancient honors and ceremonies4 ,after having been skinned1 and its flesh cut off1 the body is buried in anatomical order--the head first1 then the neck1 the fore paw1 etc4 ,this is done from a belief in the resurrection of the bear1 who having been decently buried1 will1 it is hoped1 allow himself to be killed a second time by the same ,lapp2 while a neglect of the honors due to him would exasperate the whole race of bears1 and cause them to wreak a bloody vengeance on the disrespectful hunter4 ,the wolf is treated with much less ceremony4 ,many a wealthy ,lapp1 the owner of a thousand reindeer1 has been reduced to poverty by the ravages of this savage beast1 which is constantly prowling about the herds4 ,hence one of the first questions they put to each other when they meet is1 8,lekor rauhe80 8,is it peace80--which means nothing more than1 8,have the wolves molested you80 ,such is their detestation of these animals that they believe them to be creatures of the devil1 contaminating all that touches them while alive4 ,thus they will never shoot a wolf1 as the gun that killed him would ever after be accursed4 ,at the first alarm that wolves have appeared1 the neighbors assemble1 and the chase begins4 ,for miles they pursue him over hills and valleys on their 8skiders10 and kill him with clubs1 which they afterwards burn4 ,they will not even defile themselves with skinning him1 but leave his hide to the ,finnish or ,russian colonists1 who1 being less scrupulous or superstitious1 make a warm cloak of it1 or sell it for a few dollars at the fair4 ,among the ,fjall ,lapps there are many rich owners of #ajjj or #aejj reindeer1 #cjj of which fully suffice for the maintenance of a family4 ,in this case the owner is able to kill as many as are necessary for providing his household with food and raiment1 while the sale of the superfluous skins and horns enables him to purchase cloth1 flour1 hardware1 and other necessary articles--not to forget the tobacco or the brandy in which he delights4 ,the price of the entire carcass of a reindeer1 skin and all1 varies from one to three dollars ,norsk 7four shillings and sixpence to thirteen shillings and sixpence74 ,a fine skin will always sell for one dollar in any part of the ,north4 ,it will thus be seen that a ,lapp possessing a herd of #ejj or #ajjj deer is virtually a capitalist in every sense of the word1 far richer than the vast majority of his ,norwegian1 ,swedish1 or ,russian fellow-subjects1 although they all affect to look upon him with supreme contempt4 ,the daily food of the mountain ,laplanders consists of the fattest reindeer venison1 which they boil1 and eat with the broth in which it has been cooked4 ,their summer diet consists of cheese and reindeer-milk4 ,the rich also eat bread baked upon hot iron plates4 ,their mode of killing the reindeer is the method used by the butchers in the ,south of ,italy--the most ancient and best method of slaying cattle1 because it is attended with the least pain to the animal1 and the greatest profit to its possessor4 ,they thrust a sharp-pointed knife into the back part of the head between the horns1 so as to divide the spinal marrow from the brain4 ,the beast instantly drops1 and dies without a groan or struggle4 ,as soon as it falls1 and appears to be dead1 the ,laplander plunges the knife dexterously behind the off-shoulder into the heart2 then opening the animal1 its blood is found in the stomach1 and ladled out into a pot4 ,boiled with fat and flour1 it is a favorite dish4 ,an important epoch in the life of the ,fjall ,lapp is his annual visit to one of the winter fairs held in the chief towns or villages which the more industrious ,swedes1 ,norwegians1 or ,fins have founded on the coasts here and there1 or in the well-watered valleys of his fatherland1 and which he attends frequently from an immense distance4 ,after a slight duty to ,government has been paid1 business begins2 but as every bargain is ratified with a full glass of brandy1 his thoughts get confused before the day is half over--a circumstance which the cunning merchant does not fail to turn to account4 ,on awaking the next morning1 the vexation of the nomad at his bad bargains is so much the greater1 as no people are more avowed mammon-worshippers than the ,lapps1 or more inclined to sing1 with our ,burns3-- ,o wae on the siller1 it is sae prevailin'6 ,their sole object seems to be the amassing of treasure for the sole purpose of hoarding it4 ,the avarice of a ,lapp is gratified in collecting a number of silver vessels or pieces of silver coin2 and being unable to carry this treasure with him on his journeys1 he buries the whole1 not even making his wife acquainted with the secret of its deposit1 so that when he dies the members of his family are often unable to discover where he has hidden it4 ,some of the ,lapps possess a hundred-weight of silver1 and those who own #aejj or #ajjj reindeer have much more2 in short1 an astonishing quantity of specie is dispersed among them4 ,silver plate1 when offered to them for sale1 must be in a polished state1 or they will not buy it2 for such is their ignorance1 that when the metal1 by being kept buried1 becomes tarnished1 they conceive that its value is impaired1 and exchange it for other silver1 which being repolished1 they believe to be new4 ,the merchants derive great benefit from this traffic4 ,brandy and tobacco are the chief luxuries of the ,lapps4 ,the tobacco-pipe is never laid aside except during meals2 it is even used by the women1 who also swallow spirits as greedily as the men2 in fact1 both sexes will almost part with life itself for the gratification of dram-drinking4 ,if you walk up to a ,lapp1 uncouthly squatted before his tent1 his very first salutation is made by stretching forth a tawny hand and demanding1 in a whining tone1 8,tabak0 or 8,braendi40 ,dr4 ,clarke relates an amusing instance of their propensity for spirituous liquors4 ,on his very first visit to one of their tents1 he gave the father of the family about a pint of brandy1 thinking he would husband it with great care1 as he had seen him place it behind him upon his bed near the skirting of the tent4 ,the daughter now entered1 and begged for a taste of the brandy1 as she had lost her share by being absent4 ,the old man made no answer1 but when the request was repeated1 he slyly crept round the outside of the tent until he came to the spot where the brandy was1 when1 thrusting his arm beneath the skirting1 he drew it out1 and swallowed the whole contents of the bottle at a draught4 ,the practice of dram-drinking is so general that mothers pour the horrid dose down the throats of their infants4 ,their christenings and funerals become mere pretexts for indulging in brandy4 ,but their mild and pacific disposition shows itself in their drunkenness1 which is manifested only in howling1 jumping1 and laughing1 and in a craving for more drams with hysteric screams until they fall senseless on the ground--while at the same time they will suffer kicks1 cuffs1 blows1 and provocations of any kind without the smallest irascibility4 ,when sober they are as gentle as lambs1 and the softness of their language1 added to their effeminate shrill tone of voice1 remarkably corresponds with their placable disposition4 ,an amiable trait in the character of the ,lapp is the warmth of his affection towards his wife1 his children1 and his dependents4 ,nothing can exceed the cordiality of their mutual greetings after separations1 and it is to be feared that but few married men in ,england could match the ,lapp husband who assured ,castrn that during thirty years of wedlock no worse word had passed between himself and his wife than 8,loddad-sham10 or 8,my little bird40 ,in spite of his fatiguing life1 and the insufficient shelter afforded him by his hut1 the ,fjall ,lapp is generally vigorous and healthy1 and not seldom lives to a hundred years age4 ,continual exercise in the open air braces his constitution1 his warm clothing protects him against the cold of winter1 and his generous meat diet maintains his strength4 ,to prevent the scurvy1 he eats the berries of the ,empetrum nigrum or ,rubus chammorus1 and mixes the stems of the ,angelica among his food4 ,but his chief remedy against this and every other bodily evil is warm reindeer-blood1 which he drinks with delight as a universal panacea4 ,the ,skogs ,lapp1 or ,forest ,lapp1 occupies an intermediate grade between the ,fjall ,lapp and the ,fisher ,lapp1 as fishing is his summer occupation1 and hunting and the tending of his reindeer that of the winter months4 ,his herds not being so numerous as those of the ,fjall ,lapp1 he is not driven to constant migration to procure them food2 but they require more care than his divided pursuits allow him to bestow upon them1 and hence he inevitably descends to the condition of the ,fisher ,lapp4 ,lstadius describes his life as one of the happiest on earth--as a constant change between the agreeable pastime of fishing and the noble amusement of the chase4 ,he is not1 like the ,mountain ,lapp1 exposed to all the severity of the ,arctic winter1 nor so poor as the ,fisher ,lapp4 ,he is often heard to sing under the green canopy of the firs4 ,the villages of the ,fisher ,lapps--as they are found1 for instance1 on the banks of ,lake ,enara--afford a by no means pleasing spectacle4 ,about the miserable huts1 which are shapeless masses of mingled earth1 stones1 and branches of trees1 and scarcely equal to the dwellings of the wretched ,fuegians1 heaps of stinking fish and other offal taint the air with their pestilential odors4 ,when a stranger approaches1 the inmates come pouring out of their narrow doorway so covered with dirt and vermin as to make him recoil with disgust4 ,not in the least ashamed1 however1 of their appearance1 they approach the stranger and shake his hand according to the code of ,lapp politeness4 ,after this preliminary1 he may expect the following questions3 8,is peace in the land8 ,how is the emperor1 the bishop1 and the captain of the district80 ,the more inquisitive of the filthy troop then ask after the home of the stranger1 and being told that it is beyond the mountains1 they further inquire if he comes from the land where tobacco grows4 ,for as our imagination loves to wander to the sunny regions1 ,where the citron and olive are fairest of fruit1 ,and the voice of the nightingale never is mute2 so the fancy of the ,lapp conceives no greater paradise than that which produces the weed that1 along with the brandy-bottle1 affords him his highest luxury4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,matthias ,,alexander ,,castr,n4 ,his ,birthplace and first ,studies4--,journey in ,lapland1 #ahch4-- ,the ,iwalojoki4--,the ,lake of ,enara4--,the ,pastor of ,utzjoki4-- ,from ,rowanimi to ,kemi4--,second ,voyage1 #ahda-dd4--,storm on the ,white ,sea4--,return to ,archangel4--,the ,tundras of the ,european ,samojedes4--,mesen4--,universal ,drunkenness4--,sledge ,journey to ,pustosersk4--,a ,samojede ,teacher4--,tundra ,storms4--,abandoned and alone in the ,wilderness4--,pustosersk4--,our ,traveller's ,persecutions at ,ustsylmsk and ,ishemsk4--,the ,uusa4--,crossing the ,ural4--,obdorsk4--,second ,siberian ,journey1 #ahde-dh4-- ,overflowing of the ,obi4--,surgut4--,krasnojarsk4--,agreeab le ,surprise4--,turuchansk4--,voyage down the ,jenissei4--,castrn's ,study at ,plachina4--,from ,dudinka to ,tolstoi ,noss4--,frozen ,feet4-- ,return ,voyage to the ,south4--,frozen fast on the ,jenissei4-- ,wonderful ,preservation4--,journey across the ,chinese ,frontiers1 and to ,transbaikalia4--,return to ,finland4--,professorship at ,helsingfors4--,death of ,castrn1 #ahee4 ,matthias ,alexander ,castrn1 whose interesting journeys form the subject of the present chapter1 was born in the year #ahac1 at ,rowanimi1 a ,finland village situated about forty miles from the head of the ,gulf of ,bothnia1 immediately under the ,arctic ,circle2 so that1 of all men who have attained celebrity1 probably none can boast of a more northern birthplace4 ,while still a scholar at the ,alexander's ,college of ,helsingfors1 he resolved to devote his life to the study of the nations of ,finnish origin 7,fins1 ,laplanders1 ,samojedes1 ,ostjaks1 etc472 and as books gave but an insufficient account of them1 each passing year strengthened his desire to visit these tribes in their own haunts1 and to learn from themselves their languages1 their habits1 and their history4 ,we may imagine1 therefore1 the joy of the enthusiastic student1 whom poverty alone had hitherto prevented from carrying out the schemes of his youth1 when ,dr4 ,ehrstrm1 a friend and medical fellow-student1 proposed to take him as a companion1 free of expense1 on a tour in ,lapland4 ,no artist that ever crossed the ,alps on his way to sunny ,italy could feel happier than ,castrn at the prospect of plunging into the wildernesses of the ,arctic zone4 ,on ,june #be1 #ahch1 the friends set out1 and arrived on the #cjth at the small town of ,muonioniska1 where they remained six weeks--a delay which ,castrn put to good account in learning the ,lapp language from a native catechist4 ,at length the decreasing sun warned the travellers that it was high time to continue their journey1 if they wished to see more of ,lapland before the winter set in2 and after having1 with great difficulty1 crossed the mountain ridge which forms the water-shed between the ,gulf of ,bothnia and the ,polar ,sea1 they embarked on the romantic ,iwalojoki1 where for three days and nights the rushing waters roared around them4 ,in spite of these dangerous rapids1 they were obliged to trust themselves to the stream1 which every now and then threatened to dash their frail boat to pieces against the rocks4 ,armed with long oars1 they were continually at work during the daytime to guard against this peril2 the nights were spent near a large fire kindled in the open air1 without any shelter against the rain and wind4 ,the ,iwalo ,river is1 during the greater part of its course1 encased between high rocks2 but a few miles before it discharges itself into the large ,lake of ,enara1 its valley improves into a fine grassy plain4 ,small islands covered with trees divide the waters1 which now flow more tranquilly2 soon also traces of culture appear1 and the astonished traveller finds in the village of ,kyr1 not wretched ,lapland huts1 but well-built houses of ,finnish settlers1 with green meadows and cornfields4 ,the beautiful ,lake of ,enara1 sixty miles long and forty miles broad1 is so thickly studded with islands that they have never yet been counted4 ,after the travellers had spent a few days among the ,fisher ,lapps who sojourn on its borders1 they proceeded northward to ,utzjoki1 the limit of their expedition1 and one of the centres of ,lapland civilization1 as it boasts of a church1 which is served by a man of high character and of no little ability4 ,on accepting his charge1 this self-denying priest had performed the journey from ,tornea in the depth of winter1 accompanied by a young wife and a female relation of the latter1 fifteen years of age4 ,he had found the parsonage1 vacated by his predecessor1 a wretched building1 distant some fifteen miles from the nearest ,lapp habitation4 ,after establishing himself and his family in this dreary tenement1 he had returned from a pastoral excursion to find his home destroyed by a fire1 from which its inmates had escaped with the loss of all that they possessed4 ,a miserable hut1 built for the temporary shelter of the ,lapps who resorted thither for divine service1 afforded the family a refuge for the winter4 ,he had since contrived to build himself another dwelling1 in which our party found him1 after five years' residence1 the father of a family1 and the chief of a happy household4 ,gladly would the travellers have remained some time longer under his hospitable roof1 but the birds of passage were moving to the south1 warning them to follow their example4 ,thus they set out1 on ,august #ae1 for their homeward voyage1 which proved no less difficult and laborious than the former4 ,at length1 after wandering through deserts and swamps--frequently wet to the skin1 and often without food for many hours--they arrived at ,rowanimi1 where they embarked on the ,kemi ,river4 8,with conflicting feelings10 says ,castrn1 8,i descended its stream2 for every cataract was not only well-known to me from the days of my earliest childhood1 but the cataracts were even the only acquaintances which death had left me in the place of my birth4 ,along with the mournful impressions which the loss of beloved relations made upon my mind1 it was delightful to renew my intercourse with the rapid stream and its waterfalls--those boisterous playfellows1 which had often brought me into peril when a boy4 ,now1 as before1 it was a pleasant sport to me to be hurried along by their tumultuous waters1 and to be wetted by their spray4 ,the boatmen often tried to persuade me to land before passing the most dangerous waterfalls1 and declared that they could not be answerable for my safety4 ,but1 in spite of all their remonstrances1 ,i remained in the boat1 nor had ,i reason to repent of my boldness1 for ,he who is the steersman of all boats granted us a safe arrival at ,kemi1 where our ,lapland journey terminated40#i ,in #ahda ,castrn published a metrical translation1 into the ,swedish language1 of the 8,kalewala10 a cycle of the oldest poems of the ,fins2 and at the end of the same year proceeded on his first great journey to the land of the ,european ,samoedes1 and from thence across the northern ,ural ,mountains to ,siberia4 ,in the famous convent of ,solovetskoi1 situated on a small island in the ,white ,sea1 he hoped to find a friendly teacher of the ,samoede language in the ,archimandrite ,wenjamin1 who had labored as a missionary among that savage people1 but the churlish dignitary jealously refused him all assistance2 and as the tundras of the ,samoedes are only accessible during the winter1 he resolved to turn the interval to account by a journey among the ,terski ,lapps1 who inhabit the western shores of the ,white ,sea4 ,with this view1 in an evil hour of the #bgth ,june1 #ahdb1 though suffering at this time from illness severe enough to have detained any less persevering traveller1 he embarked at ,archangel in a large corn-laden vessel1 with a reasonable prospect of being landed at ,tri ,ostrowa in some twenty-four hours2 but a dead calm detained him eight days1 during which he had no choice but to endure the horrible stench of ,russian sea-stores in the cabin or the scorching sun on deck4 ,at length a favorable wind arose1 and after a few hours' sailing nothing was to be seen but water and sky4 ,soon the ,terski coast came in view1 with its white ice-capped shore1 and ,castrn hoped soon to be released from his floating prison1 when suddenly the wind changed1 and1 increasing to a storm1 threatened to dash them on the cliffs of the ,solovetskoi ,islands4 8,both the captain and the ship's company began to despair of their lives2 and prayers having been resorted to in vain1 to conjure the danger1 general drunkenness was the next resource4 ,the captain1 finding his own brandy too weak to procure the stupefaction he desired1 left me no peace till ,i had given him a bottle of rum4 ,after having by degrees emptied its contents1 he at length obtained his end1 and fell asleep in the cabin4 ,the crew1 following his example1 dropped down one by one into their cribs1 and the ship was left without guidance to the mercy of the winds and waves4 ,i alone remained on deck1 and gloomily awaited the decisive moment4 ,but ,i soon discovered that the wind was veering to the east1 and1 awaking the captain from his drunken lethargy1 sent him on deck1 and took possession of his bed4 ,exhausted by the dreadful scenes of the day1 ,i soon fell into a deep slumber2 and when ,i awoke the following morning1 ,i found myself again on the eastern coast of the ,white ,sea1 at the foot of a high sheltering rock-wall40 ,continued bad weather and increasing illness now forced ,castrn to give up his projected visit to the ,lapps1 and when he returned to ,archangel1 both his health and his purse were in a sad condition4 ,he had but fifteen roubles in his pocket1 but fortunately found some ,samoede beggars still poorer than himself1 one of whom1 for the reward of an occasional glass of brandy1 consented to become at once his host1 his servant1 and his private tutor in the ,samoede language4 ,in the hut and society of this savage he passed the remainder of the summer1 his health improved1 and soon also his finances changed wonderfully for the better--the ,government of ,finland having granted him a thousand silver roubles for the prosecution of his travels4 ,with a light heart he continued his linguistic studies until the end of ,november1 when he started with renewed enthusiasm for the land of the ,european ,samoedes4 ,these immense tundras extend from the ,white ,sea to the ,ural ,mountains1 and are bounded on the north by the ,polar ,sea1 and on the south by the region of forests1 which here reaches as high as the latitudes of #ff and #fg4 ,the large river ,petschora divides these dreary wastes into two unequal halves1 whose scanty population1 as may easily be imagined1 is sunk in the deepest barbarism4 ,it consists of nomadic ,samoedes1 and of a few ,russians1 who inhabit some miserable settlements along the great stream and its tributary rivers4 ,to bury himself for a whole year in these melancholy deserts1 ,castrn left ,archangel in ,november1 #ahdb4 ,as far as ,mesen1 #cde versts north of ,archangel1 the scanty population is ,russ and ,christian4 ,at ,mesen civilization ceases1 and farther north the ,samoede retains for the most part1 with his primitive habits and language1 his heathen faith--having1 in fact1 borrowed nothing from occasional intercourse with civilized man but the means and practice of drunkenness4 ,castrn's first care1 on his arrival at ,mesen1 was to look for a ,samoede interpreter and teacher2 but he was as unsuccessful here as at ,somsha1 a village some forty versts farther on1 where drunkenness was the order of the day4 ,he took the most temperate person he could find in all ,somsha into his service1 but even this moderate man would1 according to our ideas1 have been accounted a perfect drunkard4 ,he now resolved to try the fair sex1 and engaged a female teacher1 but she also could not remain sober4 ,at length a man was introduced to him as the most learned person of the tundra1 and at first it seemed as if he had at length found what he wanted2 but after a few hours the ,samoede began to get tired of his numerous questions1 and declared himself ill4 ,he threw himself upon the floor1 wailed and lamented1 and begged ,castrn to have pity on him1 until at length the incensed philologist turned him out-of-doors4 ,soon after he found him lying dead drunk in the snow before the 8,elephant and ,castle0 of the place4 ,thus obliged to look for instruction elsewhere1 ,castrn resolved to travel1 in the middle of winter1 to the ,russian village of ,pustosersk1 at the mouth of the ,petschora1 where the fair annually attracts a number of ,samoedes4 ,during this sledge-journey of #gjj versts1 he had to rest sometimes in the open air on the storm-beaten tundra1 and sometimes in the rickety tent of the ,samoede1 or in the scarcely less wretched hut of the ,russian colonist--where the snow penetrated through the crevices of the wall1 where the flame of the light flickered in the wind1 and a thick cloak of wolf-skin afforded the only protection against the piercing cold of the ,arctic winter4 ,for this arduous tour1 two sledges1 with four reindeer attached to each1 were employed--the traveller's sledge1 which was covered1 being attached to an uncovered one occupied by the guide4 ,the ,kanin ,tundra stretched out before them1 as they flew along1 almost as naked as the sea1 of which they saw the margin in the east2 and had not the wind here and there driven away the snow which ,heaven in its mercy strews over this gloomy land1 they might have been in doubt on which element they were travelling4 ,daily1 from time to time1 some dwarf firs made their appearance1 or clumps of low willows1 which generally denote the presence of some little brook slowly winding through the flat tundra4 ,the village of ,ness1 on the north coast1 was the first halting-place1 and here ,castrn flattered himself he had at length found what his heart desired1 in the person of a ,samoede teacher who knew ,russian1 and was gifted with a clearer head than is usually possessed by his race4 8,the man was conscious of his superiority1 and while acting as a professor looked down with contempt upon his weaker brethren4 ,once1 some other ,samoedes venturing to correct one of his translations1 he commanded them to be silent1 telling them they were not learned4 ,i tried by all possible means to secure the services of this ,samoede phenomenon4 ,i spoke kindly with him1 ,i paid him well1 gave him every day his allowance of brandy1 and never once forbade him to get drunk when he felt inclined to do so4 ,yet1 in spite of all my endeavors to please1 he felt unhappy1 and sighed for the liberty of the tundra4 #8,thou art kind1 and ,i love thee1' said he one day to me1 #8but ,i can not endure confinement4 ,be therefore merciful1 and give me my freedom4' 8,i now increased his daily pay and his rations of brandy1 sent for his wife and child1 treated his wife also with brandy1 and did all ,i could to dispel the melancholy of the ,samoede4 ,by these means ,i induced him to remain a few days longer with me4 8,while ,i was constantly occupying him1 the wife was busy sewing ,samoede dresses1 and sometimes assisted her husband in his translations4 ,i often heard her sighing deeply1 and having asked for the reason1 she burst into tears1 and answered that she grieved for her husband1 who was thus imprisoned in a room4 #8,thy husband1' was my reply1 #8is not worse off than thyself4 ,tell me1 what do you think of your own position8' #8,i do not think of myself--,i am sorrowful for my husband1' was her ingenuous reply4 ,at length both the husband and the wife begged me so earnestly to set them at liberty that ,i allowed them to depart40 ,on the way from ,pjoscha to ,pustosersk1 after ,castrn had once more vainly endeavored to discover that rara avis1 a ,samoede teacher1 he became thoroughly acquainted with the ,january snow-storms of the tundra3 8,the wind arose about noon1 and blew so violently that we could not see the reindeer before our sledges4 ,the roof of my vehicle1 which at first had afforded me some protection1 was soon carried away by the gale4 ,anxious about my fate1 ,i questioned my guides1 whenever they stopped to brush off the snow which had accumulated upon me1 and received the invariable answer1 #8,we do not know where we are1 and see nothing4' ,we proceeded step by step1 now following one direction1 now another1 until at length we reached a river well known to the guides4 ,the leader of the first sledge hurried his reindeer down the precipitous bank1 and drove away upon the ice to seek a more convenient descent2 but as he did not return1 the other guide likewise left me to look after his companion1 and thus ,i was kept waiting for several hours on the tundra1 without knowing where my guides had gone to4 8,at first ,i did not even know that they had left me1 and when ,i became aware of the fact1 ,i thought that they had abandoned me to my fate4 ,i will not attempt to describe my sensations2 but my bodily condition was such1 that when the cold increased with the approach of night1 ,i was seized with a violent fever4 ,i thought my last hour was come1 and prepared for my journey to another world40 ,the re-appearance of the guides relieved ,castrn of his anxiety1 and when the little party reached some ,samoede huts1 the eldest of the guides knelt down at the side of our traveller's sledge and expressed his joy in a prayer to ,god1 begging ,castrn to join him in his thanksgivings1 8for ,he1 and not ,i1 has this night saved thee40 ,the next morning1 as the weather seemed to improve1 and the road 7along the ,indiga ,river7 to the next ,russian settlement was easy to find1 ,castrn resolved to pursue his journey4 8,but the storm once more arose1 and became so dreadfully violent that ,i could neither breathe nor keep my eyes open against the wind4 ,the roaring of the gale stupefied my senses4 ,the moist snow wetted me during the day1 and the night converted it into ice4 ,half frozen1 ,i arrived after midnight at the settlement4 ,the fatigues of the journey had been such that ,i could scarcely stand2 ,i had almost lost my consciousness1 and my sight had suffered so much from the wind that ,i repeatedly ran with my forehead against the wall4 ,the roaring of the storm continually resounded in my ears for many hours after40 ,a few days later ,castrn arrived at ,pustosersk1 undoubtedly one of the dreariest places in the world4 ,with scarcely a trace of arboreal vegetation1 the eye1 during the greater part of the year1 rests on an interminable waste of snow1 where the cold winds are almost perpetually raging4 ,the storms are so violent as not seldom to carry away the roofs of the huts1 and to prevent the wretched inhabitants from fetching water and fuel4 ,in this ,northern ,eden our indefatigable ethnologist tarried several months1 as it afforded him an excellent opportunity for continuing his studies of the language1 manners1 and religion of the ,samoedes1 who come to the fair of ,pustosersk during the winter1 to barter their reindeer skins for flour and other commodities1 and at the same time to indulge in their favorite beverage--brandy4 ,at length the ,samoedes retired1 the busy season of the place was evidently at an end1 and ,castrn1 having no further inducement to remain at ,pustosersk1 left it for the village of ,ustsylmsk1 situated #aej versts higher up the ,petschora1 where he hoped still to find some straggling ,samoedes4 ,the road to ,ustsylmsk leads through so desolate a region1 that1 according to the priests of the neighborhood1 it can not have been originally created by ,god with the rest of the world1 but must have been formed after the ,deluge4 ,near ,ustsylmsk 7#fe #cj ,n4 lat47 the country improves1 as most of the northern trees grow about the place2 but1 unfortunately1 a similar praise can not be awarded to its inhabitants1 whom ,castrn found to be the most brutal and obstinate ,raskolniks 7or sectarians7 he had ever seen4 ,without in the least caring for the ,ten ,commandments1 and indulging in every vice1 these absurd fanatics fancied themselves better than the rest of mankind1 because they made the sign of the cross with the thumb and the two last fingers1 and stood for hours together before an image in stupid contemplation4 ,our homeless traveller soon became the object of their persecutions2 they called him 8wizard10 8a poisoner of rivers and wells10 and insulted him during his walks4 ,at length they even attempted to take his life1 so that he thought best to retreat to ,ishemsk1 on the ,ishma1 a hundred versts farther to the south4 ,but1 unfortunately1 his bad reputation had preceded him1 and although the ,isprawnik 7or parish official7 and his wife warmly took his part1 the people continued to regard him with suspicion4 ,towards the end of ,june ,castrn ascended the ,petschora and its chief tributary1 the ,uusa1 as far as the village of ,kolwa1 where he spent the remainder of the summer1 deeply buried as usual in ,samoede studies4 ,beyond ,kolwa1 which he left on ,september #af for ,obdorsk1 there is not a single settlement along the ,uusa and its tributaries4 ,as he ascended the river1 the meadows on its low banks appeared colored with the gray tints of autumn4 ,sometimes a wild animal started from its lair1 but no vestige of man was to be seen4 ,countless flocks of wild ducks and geese passed over the traveller's head1 on their way southward4 ,after many a tedious delay1 caused by storms and contrary winds1 ,castrn reached 7on ,september #bg7 a wretched hut1 about forty versts from the ,ural1 where he was obliged to wait a whole month1 with fourteen other persons1 until the snow-track over the mountains became practicable for sledges4 ,the total want of every comfort1 the bad company1 the perpetual rain1 and the dreary aspect of the country1 made his prolonged stay in this miserable tenement almost unbearable4 ,at length1 on ,october #be1 he was able to depart1 and on ,november #c he saw the ,ural ,mountains raising their snow-capped summits to the skies4 8,the weather is mild10 said his ,samoede driver1 8and thou art fortunate1 but the ,ural can be very different40 ,he then described the dreadful storms that rage over the boundary-chain which separates ,europe from ,asia1 and how they precipitate stones and rocks from the mountain-tops4 ,this time the dreaded pass was crossed in safety1 and on ,november #i1 #ahdc1 ,castrn arrived at ,obdorsk1 on the ,obi1 exhausted in strength and shattered in health1 but yet delighted to find himself in ,asia1 the land of his early dreams4 ,obdorsk--the most northerly colony in ,western ,siberia1 and1 as may easily be imagined1 utterly deficient in all that can be interesting to an ordinary traveller--was as much as a university to the zealous student1 for several thousands of ,samoedes and ,ostiaks congregate to its fair from hundreds of versts around4 ,no better place could possibly be found for the prosecution of his researches2 but the deplorable condition of his health did not allow him to remain as long as he would have desired at this fountain-head of knowledge4 ,he was thus obliged to leave for ,tobolsk1 and to return in ,march1 #ahdd1 by the shortest road to ,finland4 ,in the following summer 7#ahde7 we again find him on the banks of the ,irtysch and the ,obi1 plunged in ,ostiak studies with renewed energy and enthusiasm4 ,after having sojourned for several weeks at ,toropkowa1 a small island at the confluence of these two mighty streams1 he ascended the ,obi in ,july as far as ,surgut1 where he arrived in the beginning of ,august4 ,in consequence of the overflowing of its waters1 the river had spread into a boundless lake1 whose monotony was only relieved1 from time to time1 by some small wooded island or some inundated village4 ,the rising of the stream had spread misery far and wide1 for many ,ostiak families had been obliged to abandon their huts1 and to seek a refuge in the forests4 ,those who had horses and cows had the greatest difficulty to keep them alive2 and as all the meadows were under water1 and the autumn1 with its night-frosts1 was already approaching1 there was scarcely any hope of making hay for the winter4 ,as ,castrn proceeded on his journey1 the low banks of the river rose above the waters1 and appeared in all their wild and gloomy desolation4 ,the number of inhabitants along the ,obi is utterly insignificant when compared with the wide extent of the country2 and as hunting and fishing are their chief occupations1 nothing is done to subdue the wilderness4 ,the weary eye sees but a dull succession of moors1 willow bushes1 dry heaths1 and firs on the higher grounds4 ,near every flourishing tree stands another bearing the marks of decay4 ,the young grass is hemmed in its growth by that of the previous year1 which even in ,july gives the meadow a dull ash-gray color4 ,cranes1 wild ducks1 and geese are almost the only living creatures to be seen4 ,from ,siljarski to ,surgut1 a distance of #bjj versts1 there are but three ,russian villages2 and the ,ostiaks1 who form the main part of the population1 generally live along the tributary rivers1 or erect their summer huts on the smaller arms of the ,obi1 where they can make a better use of their very imperfect fishing implements than on the principal stream4 ,surgut1 once a fortress1 and the chief town of the ,cossack conquerors of ,siberia1 is now reduced to a few miserable huts1 scattered among the ruins of repeated conflagrations4 ,here ,castrn remained till ,september #bd1 occupied with the study of the various dialects of the neighboring ,ostiak tribes1 and then ascended the ,obi as far as ,narym1 a distance of #hjj versts4 ,most of the fishermen had already retired from the banks of the river1 and a death-like stillness1 rarely interrupted by an ,ostiak boat rapidly shooting through the stream1 reigned over its waters4 ,fortunately the weather was fine1 at least during the first days of the journey2 and the green river-banks1 the birds singing in the trees1 and the sunbeams glancing over the wide mirror of the ,obi1 somewhat enlivened the monotony of the scene4 ,after having enjoyed at ,narym a remarkably mild ,siberian winter1 as no crows had been frozen to death1 and having increased his knowledge of the ,ostiak dialects1 ,castrn proceeded in the following spring1 by way of ,tomsk1 to ,krasnojarsk1 on the ,jenissei1 where he arrived in ,april1 #ahdf1 and was welcomed in a most agreeable and unexpected manner4 ,it will be remembered that during his stay at ,ishemsk1 in the tundra of the ,samoedes1 he found warm-hearted friends and protectors against the insane bigotry of the ,raskolniks in the ,isprawnik and his young and amiable wife4 ,of the latter it might truly be said that she was like a flower born to blush unseen in the desert4 ,remarkably eloquent1 she was no less talented in expressing her thoughts by writing2 and yet she was only the daughter of a serf who had been exiled to ,krasnojarsk1 and had spent a great part of a small property1 acquired by industry and economy1 in the education of his gifted daughter4 ,the ,isprawnik1 a young ,pole of insinuating manners1 having gained her affections1 she had accompanied him to ,ishemsk as his wife4 ,from what ,castrn had told her three years since about his future plans1 she knew that he would probably arrive about this time at ,krasnojarsk1 and had written a letter1 which reached its destination only a few hours before him4 ,it was to her father1 earnestly begging him to pay every attention to the homeless stranger4 ,the feelings of ,castrn may easily be imagined when the old man knocked at his door1 and brought him these friendly greetings from a distance of #fjjj versts4#aj ,but his stay at ,krasnojarsk was not of long duration1 for he was impatient to proceed northward1 for the purpose of becoming acquainted with the tribes dwelling along the ,jenissei1 after having studied their brethren of the ,obi4 ,from ,june till the end of ,july1 his literary pursuits detained him at ,turuchansk1 where1 in the vicinity of the ,arctic ,circle1 he had much to suffer from the heat and the mosquitoes4 ,in the beginning of ,august the signs of approaching winter made their appearance1 the cold north wind swept away the leaves from the trees1 the fishermen retired to the woods1 and the ducks and geese prepared to migrate to the south4 ,and now ,castrn also took leave of ,turuchansk--not however1 like the birds1 for a more sunny region1 but to bury himself still deeper in the northern wilds of the ,jenissei4 ,below ,turuchansk the river begins to flow so languidly1 that when the wind is contrary1 the boat must be dragged along by dogs1 and advances no more than from five to ten versts during a whole day4 ,thus the traveller has full time to notice the willows on the left bank1 and the firs on the right2 the ice-blocks1 surviving memorials of the last winter1 which the spring inundations have left here and there on the banks of the vast stream2 and the countless troops of wild birds that fly with loud clamor over his head4 ,about #cfe versts below ,turuchansk is situated ,plachina1 the fishing-station of a small tribe of ,samoedes1 among whom ,castrn tarried three weeks4 ,he had taken possession of the best of the three huts of which the place consisted1 but even this would have been perfectly intolerable to any one but our zealous ethnologist4 ,into his study the daylight penetrated so sparingly through a small hole in the wall1 that he was often obliged to write by the light of a resinous torch in the middle of the day4 ,the flame flickering in the wind1 which blew through a thousand crevices1 affected his eyes no less severely than the smoke1 which at the same time rendered respiration difficult4 ,although the roof had been repaired1 yet during every strong rain--and it rained almost perpetually--he was obliged to pack up his papers1 and to protect himself from the wet as if he had been in the open air4 ,from this delightful residence1 ,castrn1 still pursuing his study of the ,samoede dialects1 proceeded down the river to ,dudinka1 and finally1 in ,november1 to ,tolstoi ,noss1 whose pleasant climate may be judged of by the fact that it is situated in the latitude of #ga4 ,this last voyage was performed in a 8balok10 or close sledge1 covered with reindeer skins4 ,the tediousness of being conveyed like a corpse in a dark and narrow box1 induced him to exchange the 8balok0 for an open sledge2 but the freezing of his feet1 of his fingers1 and of part of his face1 soon caused him to repent of his temerity4 ,as soon as this accident was discovered at the next station1 ,castrn crept back again into his prison1 and was heartily glad when1 after a nine days' confinement1 he at length arrived at ,tolstoi ,noss1 which he found to consist of four wretched huts4 ,here again he spent several weeks studying by torchlight1 for the sun had made his last appearance in ,november1 and the day was reduced to a faint glimmering at noon4 ,in ,january we find him on his return-voyage to ,turuchansk1 a place which1 though not very charming in itself1 appeared delightful to ,castrn after a six months' residence in the tundras beyond the ,arctic ,circle4 ,turuchansk can boast at least of seeing some daylight at all seasons of the year1 and this may be enjoyed even within-doors1 for ,turuchansk possesses no less than four houses with glass windows4 ,longing to reach this comparatively sunny place1 ,castrn1 against his usual custom1 resolved to travel day and night without stopping1 but his impatience well-nigh proved fatal to him4 ,his ,samoede guide had not perceived in the dark that the waters of the ,jenissei1 over which they were travelling1 had oozed through fissures in the ice1 and inundated the surface of the river far and wide4 ,thus he drove into the water1 which of course was rapidly congealing2 the reindeer were unable to drag the sledge back again upon the land1 and ,castrn stuck fast on the river1 with the agreeable prospect of being frozen to death4 ,from this imminent danger he was rescued by a wonderful circumstance4 ,letters having arrived from the ,imperial ,academy of ,st4 ,petersburg1 a courier had been dispatched from ,turuchansk to convey them to ,castrn4 ,this courier fortunately reached him while he was in this perilous situation1 helped him on land1 and conducted him to a ,samoede hut1 where he was able to warm his stiffened limbs4 ,after such a journey1 we can not wonder that1 on arriving at ,turuchansk1 he was so tormented with rheumatism and toothache as to be obliged to rest there several days4 ,with sore joints and an aching body1 he slowly proceeded to ,jeniseisk1 where he arrived on ,april #c1 #ahdg1 in a wretched state of health1 which however had not interrupted his ,ostiak studies on the way4 ,i rapidly glance over his subsequent travels1 as they are but a repetition of the same privations and the same hardships1 all cheerfully sustained for the love of knowledge4 ,having somewhat recruited his strength at ,jeniseisk1 he crossed the ,sajan ,mountains to visit some ,samoedes beyond the ,russian frontier--a journey which1 besides the usual fatigues1 involved the additional risk of being arrested as a spy by the ,chinese authorities2 and the year after he visited ,transbaikalia1 to make inquiries among the ,buriat priests about the ancient history of ,siberia4 ,having thus accomplished his task1 and thoroughly investigated the wild nations of the ,finnish race from the confines of the ,arctic ,sea to the ,altai--a task which cost him his health1 and the best part of his energies--he longed to breathe the air of his native country4 ,but neither the pleasures of home1 nor a professorship at the ,university of ,helsingfors1 richly earned by almost super-human exertions1 were able to arrest the germs of disease1 which journeys such as these could scarcely fail to plant even in his originally robust constitution4 ,after lingering some years1 he died in #ahee1 universally lamented by his countrymen1 who justly mourned his early death as a national loss4 ,illustration3 #gf4 ,a ,,samo,,ede ,,priest4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,samo,,edes4 ,their ,barbarism4--,num1 or ,jilibeambaertje4--,shamanism4--,samoede ,idols4--,sjadi4--,hahe4--,the ,tadebtsios1 or ,spirits4--,the ,tadibes1 or ,sorcerers4--,their ,dress4--,their ,invocations4--,their conjuring ,tricks4--,reverence paid to the ,dead4--,a ,samoede ,oath4--,appearance of the ,samoedes4--,their ,dress4--,a ,samoede ,belle4--,character of the ,samoedes4--,their decreasing ,numbers4-- ,traditions of ancient ,heroes4 ,the ,samoedes1 the neighbors of the ,laplanders1 are still farther removed from civilized society1 and plunged in even deeper barbarism4 ,the wildest tundras and woods of ,northern ,russia and ,western ,siberia are the home of the ,samoede4 ,with his reindeer herds he wanders over the naked wastes1 from the eastern coast of the ,white ,sea to the banks of the ,chatanga1 or hunts in the boundless forests between the ,obi and the ,jenissei4 ,his intercourse with the ,russians is confined to his annual visit at the fairs of such miserable settlements as ,obdorsk and ,pustosersk1 where1 far from improving by their company1 he but too often becomes the prey of their avarice1 and learns to know them merely as cheats and oppressors4 ,protestant missionaries have long since brought instruction to the ,laplander's hut1 but the majority of the less fortunate ,samoedes still adhere to the gross superstitions of their fathers4 ,they believe in a ,supreme ,being--,num1 or ,jilibeambaertje--who resides in the air1 and1 like the ,jupiter of old1 sends down thunder and lightning1 rain and snow2 and as a proof that something of a poetic fancy is to be found even among the most savage nations1 they call the rainbow 8the hem of his garment40 ,as this deity1 however1 is too far removed from them to leave them any hope of gaining his favor1 they never think of offering him either prayer or sacrifice4 ,but1 besides ,num1 there are a great many inferior spirits1 or idols1 who directly interfere in human concerns--capricious beings1 who allow themselves to be influenced by offerings1 or yield to magical incantations2 and to these1 therefore1 the ,samoede has recourse when he feels the necessity of invoking the aid or averting the wrath of a higher ,power4 ,the chief of all ,samoede idols is in the island of ,waygatz--a cold and melancholy ,delos--where it was already found by old ,barentz4 ,this idol is a mere block of stone1 with its head tapering to a point4 ,it has thus been fashioned1 not by a mortal artist1 but by a play of nature4 ,after this original the ,samoedes have formed many idols of stone or wood of various sizes1 which they call 8,sjadi10 from their possessing a human physiognomy 7sja74 ,these idols they dress in reindeer skins1 and ornament them with all sorts of colored rags4 ,but a resemblance to the human form is not the necessary attribute of a ,samoede idol2 any irregularly-shaped stone or tree may be thus distinguished4 ,if the object is small1 the savage carries it every where about with him1 carefully wrapped up2 if too cumbersome to be transported1 it is reserved as a kind of national deity4 ,as with the ,ostiaks1 each ,samoede tribe has in its train a peculiar sledge--the ,hahengan--in which the household idols 7or ,hahe7 are placed4 ,one of these ,penates protects the reindeer1 another watches over the health of his worshippers1 a third is the guardian of their connubial happiness1 a fourth takes care to fill their nets with fish4 ,whenever his services are required1 the ,hahe is taken from his repository1 and erected in the tent or on the pasture-ground1 in the wood or on the river's bank4 ,his mouth is then smeared with oil or blood1 and a dish with fish or flesh is set before him1 in the full expectation that his good offices will amply repay the savory repast4 ,when his aid is no longer necessary1 he is put aside without any further ceremony1 and as little noticed as the ,madonna of the ,neapolitan fisherman after the storm has ceased4 ,the ,hahe1 or idols1 are very convenient objects of reverence to the ,samoede1 as he can consult them1 or ask their assistance1 without being initiated in the secrets of magic2 while the ,tadebtsios1 or invisible spirits1 which everywhere hover about in the air1 and are more inclined to injure than to benefit man1 can only be invoked by a ,tadibe1 or sorcerer1 who1 like the ,cuman ,sibyl1 works himself into a state of ecstatic frenzy4 ,when his services are required1 the first care of the ,tadibe is to invest himself with his magical mantle--a kind of shirt made of reindeer leather1 and hemmed with red cloth4 ,the seams are covered in a similar manner1 and the shoulders are decorated with epaulettes of the same gaudy material4 ,a piece of red cloth veils the eyes and face--for the ,tadibe requires no external organs of sight to penetrate into the world of spirits--and a plate of polished metal shines upon his breast4 ,thus accoutred1 the ,tadibe seizes his magical drum1 whose sounds summon the spirits to his will4 ,its form is round1 it has but one bottom1 made of reindeer skin1 and is more or less decorated with brass rings and other ornaments1 according to the wealth or poverty of its possessor4 ,during the ceremony of invocation1 the ,tadibe is generally assisted by a disciple1 more or less initiated in the magic art4 ,they either sit down1 or walk about in a circle4 ,the chief sorcerer beats the drum1 at first slowly1 then with increasing violence1 singing at the same time a few words to a mystic melody4 ,the disciple immediately falls in1 and both repeat the same monotonous chant4 ,at length the spirits appear1 and the consultation is supposed to begin2 the ,tadibe from time to time remaining silent1 as if listening to their answers1 and but gently beating his drum1 while the assistant continues to sing4 ,finally1 this mute conversation ceases1 the song changes into a wild howling1 the drum is violently struck1 the eye of the ,tadibe glows with a strange fire1 foam issues from his lips--when suddenly the uproar ceases1 and the oracular sentence is pronounced4 ,the ,tadibes are consulted not only for the purpose of recovering a strange reindeer1 or to preserve the herd from a contagious disorder1 or to obtain success in fishing2 the ,samoede1 when a prey to illness1 seeks no other medical advice2 and the sorcerer's drum either scares away the malevolent spirits that cause the malady1 or summons others to the assistance of his patient4 ,the office of ,tadibe is generally hereditary1 but individuals gifted by nature with excitable nerves and an ardent imagination not seldom desire to be initiated in these supernatural communications4 ,no one can teach the candidate4 ,his morbid fancy is worked upon by solitude1 the contemplation of the gloomy aspect of nature1 long vigils1 fasts1 the use of narcotics and stimulants1 until he becomes persuaded that he too has seen the apparitions which he has heard of from his boyhood4 ,he is then received as a ,tadibe with many ceremonies1 which are held in the silence of the night1 and invested with the magic drum4 ,thus the ,tadibe partly believes in the visions and fancies of his own overheated brain4 ,besides dealing with the invisible world1 he does not neglect the usual arts of an expert conjuror1 and knows by this means to increase his influence over his simple-minded countrymen4 ,one of his commonest tricks is similar to that which has been practised with so much success by the ,brothers ,davenport4 ,he sits down1 with his hands and feet bound1 on a reindeer skin stretched out upon the floor1 and1 the light being removed1 begins to summon the ministering spirits to his aid4 ,strange unearthly noises now begin to be heard--bears growl1 snakes hiss1 squirrels rustle about the hut4 ,at length the tumult ceases1 the audience anxiously awaits the end of the spectacle1 when suddenly the ,tadibe1 freed from his bonds1 steps into the hut--no one doubting that the spirits have set him free4 ,as barbarous as the poor wretches who submit to his guidance1 the ,tadibe is incapable of improving their moral condition1 and has no wish to do so4 ,under various names--,schamans among the ,tungusi1 ,angekoks among the ,esquimaux1 medicine-men among the ,crees and ,chepewyans1 etc4--we find similar magicians or impostors assuming a spiritual dictatorship over all the ,arctic nations of the ,old and the ,new ,world1 wherever their authority has not been broken by ,christianity or ,buddhism2 and this dreary faith still extends its influence over at least half a million of souls1 from the ,white ,sea to the extremity of ,asia1 and from the ,pacific to ,hudson's ,bay4 ,like the ,ostiaks and other ,siberian tribes1 the ,samoedes honor the memory of the dead by sacrifices and other ceremonies4 ,they believe that their deceased friends have still the same wants1 and pursue the same occupations1 as when in the land of the living2 and thus they place in or about their graves a sledge1 a spear1 a cooking-pot1 a knife1 an axe1 etc41 to assist them in procuring and preparing their food4 ,at the funeral1 and for several years afterwards1 the relations sacrifice reindeer over the grave4 ,when a person of note1 a prince1 a ,starschina1 the proprietor of numerous herds of reindeer1 dies 7for even among the miserable ,samoedes we find the social distinctions of rich and poor71 the nearest relations make an image1 which is placed in the tent of the deceased1 and enjoys the respect paid to him during his lifetime4 ,at every meal the image is placed in his former seat1 and every evening it is undressed and laid down in his bed4 ,during three years the image is thus honored1 and then buried2 for by this time the body is supposed to be decayed1 and to have lost all sensation of the past4 ,the souls of the ,tadibes1 and of those who have died a violent death1 alone enjoy the privilege of immortality1 and after their terrestrial life hover about in the air as unsubstantial spirits4 ,yet in spite of this privilege1 and of the savory morsels that fall to their share at every sacrificial feast1 or of the presents received for their services1 the ,tadibes are very unhappy beings4 ,the ecstatic condition into which they so frequently work themselves shatters their nerves and darkens their mind4 ,wild looks1 bloodshot eyes1 an uncertain gait1 and a shy manner1 are among the effects of this periodical excitement4 ,like the ,ostiaks1 the ,samoedes consider the taking of an oath as an action of the highest religious importance4 ,when a crime has been secretly committed against a ,samoede1 he has the right to demand an oath from the suspected person4 ,if no wooden or stone ,hahe is at hand1 he manufactures one of earth or snow1 leads his opponent to the image1 sacrifices a dog1 breaks the image1 and then addresses him with the following words3--8,if thou hast committed this crime1 then must thou perish like this dog40 ,the ill consequences of perjury are so much dreaded by the ,samoedes--who1 though they have but very faint ideas of a future state1 firmly believe that crime will be punished in this life1 murder with violent death1 or robbery by losses of reindeer--that the true criminal1 when called upon to swear1 hardly ever submits to the ceremony1 but rather at once confesses his guilt and pays the penalty4 ,the most effectual security for an oath is that it should be solemnized over the snout of a bear--an animal which is highly revered by all the ,siberian tribes1 from the ,kamchatkans to the ,samoedes1 as well as by the ,laplanders4 ,like the ,laplanders1 they believe that the bear conceals under his shaggy coat a human shape with more than human wisdom1 and speak of him in terms of the highest reverence4 ,like the ,lapps also1 when occasion offers1 they will drive an arrow or a bullet through his skin2 but they preface the attack with so many compliments that they feel sure of disarming his anger4 ,the appearance of the ,samoedes is as wild as the country which they inhabit4 ,the dwarfish stature of the ,ostiak1 or the ,lapp1 thick lips1 small eyes1 a low forehead1 a broad nose so much flattened that the end is nearly upon a level with the bone of the upper jaw 7which is strong and greatly elevated71 raven-black shaggy hair1 a thin beard1 and a yellow-brown complexion1 are their characteristic features1 and in general they do nothing to improve a form which has but little natural beauty to boast of4 ,the ,samoede is satisfied if his heavy reindeer dress affords him protection against the cold and rain1 and cares little if it be dirty or ill-cut2 some dandies1 however1 wear furs trimmed with cloth of a gaudy color4 ,the women1 as long as they are unmarried1 take some pains with their persons2 and when a ,samoede girl1 with her small and lively black eyes1 appears in her reindeer jacket tightly fitting round the waist1 and trimmed with dog-skin1 in her scarlet moccasins1 and her long black tresses ornamented with pieces of brass or tin1 she may well tempt some rich admirer to offer a whole herd of reindeer for her hand4 ,for among the ,samoedes no father ever thinks of bestowing a portion on his daughter3 on the contrary1 he expects from the bridegroom an equivalent for the services which he is about to lose by her marriage4 ,the consequence of this degrading custom is that the husband treats his consort like a slave1 or as an inferior being4 ,a ,samoede1 who had murdered his wife1 was quite surprised at being summoned before a court of justice for what he considered a trifling offense2 8he had honestly paid for her10 he said1 8and could surely do what he liked with his own40 ,the senses and faculties of the ,samoedes correspond to their mode of life as nomads and hunters4 ,they have a piercing eye1 delicate hearing1 and a steady hand3 they shoot an arrow with great accuracy1 and are swift runners4 ,on the other hand1 they have a gross taste1 generally consuming their fish or their reindeer flesh raw2 and their smell is so weak that they appear quite insensible to the putrefying odors arising from the scrapings of skins1 stinking fish1 and other offal which is allowed to accumulate in and about their huts4 ,the ,samoede is good-natured1 melancholy1 and phlegmatic4 ,he has1 indeed1 but indistinct notions of right and wrong1 of good and evil2 but he possesses a grateful heart1 and is ready to divide his last morsel with his friend4 ,cruelty1 revenge1 the darker crimes that pollute so many of the savage tribes of the tropical zone1 are foreign to his character4 ,constantly at war with a dreadful climate1 a prey to ignorance and poverty1 he regards most of the things of this life with supreme indifference4 ,a good meal is of course a matter of importance in his eyes2 but even the want of a meal he will bear with stoical apathy1 when it can only be gained by exertion1 for he sets a still higher value on repose and sleep4 ,a common trait in the character of all ,samoedes is the gloomy view which they take of life and its concerns2 their internal world is as cheerless as that which surrounds them4 ,true men of ice and snow1 they relinquish1 without a murmur1 a life which they can hardly love1 as it imposes upon them many privations1 and affords them but few pleasures in return4 ,they are suspicious1 like all oppressed nations that have much to suffer from their more crafty or energetic neighbors4 ,obstinately attached to their old customs1 they are opposed to all innovations2 and they have been so often deceived by the ,russians1 that they may well be pardoned if they look with a mistrustful eye upon all benefits coming from that source4 ,the wealth of the ,samoedes consists in the possession of herds of reindeer1 and ,p4 von ,krusenstern1 in #ahde1 calculated the number owned by the ,samoedes of the ,lower ,petschora1 near ,pustosersk1 at #dj1jjj head--a much smaller number than what they formerly had1 owing to a succession of misfortunes4 ,the ,russian settlers along that immense stream and its tributaries gradually obtain possession of their best pasture-grounds1 and force them to recede within narrower and narrower limits4 ,thus many have been reduced to the wretched condition of the ,arctic fisherman1 or have been compelled to exchange their ancient independence for a life of submission to the will of an imperious master4 ,the entire number of the ,european and ,asiatic ,samoedes is estimated at no more than about #aj1jjj1 and this number1 small as it is when compared to the vast territory over which they roam1 is still decreasing from year to year4 ,before their subjugation by the ,russians1 the ,samoedes were frequently at war with their neighbors1 the ,ostiaks1 the ,woguls1 and the ,tartars1 and the rude poems which celebrate the deeds of the heroes of old are still sung in the tents of their peaceful descendants4 ,the minstrel1 or troubadour--if ,i may be allowed to use these names while speaking of the rudest of mankind--is seated in the centre of the hut1 while the audience squat around4 ,his gesticulations endeavor to express his sympathy with his hero4 ,his body trembles1 his voice quivers1 and during the more pathetic parts of his story1 tears start to his eyes1 and he covers his face with his left hand1 while the right1 holding an arrow1 directs its point to the ground4 ,the audience generally keep silence1 but their groans accompany the hero's death2 or when he soars upon an eagle to the clouds1 and thus escapes the malice of his enemies1 they express their delight by a triumphant shout4 ,illustration3 #gg4 ,,banks ,,of ,,the ,,irtysch4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,the ,,ostiaks4 ,what is the ,obi8--,inundations4--,an ,ostiak summer ,yourt4--,poverty of the ,ostiak ,fishermen4--,a winter ,yourt4--,attachment of the ,ostiaks to their ancient ,customs4--,an ,ostiak ,prince4--,archery4-- ,appearance and ,character of the ,ostiaks4--,the ,fair of ,obdorsk4 ,what is the ,obi8--8,one of the most melancholy rivers on earth10 say the few ,european travellers who have ever seen it roll its turbid waters through the wilderness1 8its monotonous banks a dreary succession of swamps and dismal pine-forests1 and hardly a living creature to be seen1 but cranes1 wild ducks1 and geese40 ,if you address the same question to one of the few ,russians who have settled on its banks1 he answers1 with a devout mien1 8,obi is our mother20 but if you ask the ,ostiak1 he bursts forth1 in a laconic but energetic phrase1 8,obi is the god whom we honor above all our other gods40 ,to him the ,obi is a source of life4 ,with its salmon and sturgeon he pays his taxes and debts1 and buys his few luxuries2 while the fishes of inferior quality which get entangled in his net he keeps for his own consumption and that of his faithful dog1 eating them mostly raw1 so that the perch not seldom feels his teeth as soon as it is pulled out of the water4 ,in spring1 when the ,obi and its tributaries burst their bonds of ice1 and the floods sweep over the plains1 the ,ostiak is frequently driven into the woods1 where he finds but little to appease his hunger2 at length1 however1 the waters subside1 the flat banks of the river appear above their surface1 and the savage erects his summer hut close to its stream4 ,this hovel has generally a quadrangular form1 low walls1 and a high pointed roof1 made of willow-branches covered with large pieces of bark4 ,these1 having first been softened by boiling1 are sewn together1 so as to form large mats or carpets1 easily rolled up and transported4 ,the hearth1 a mere hole inclosed by a few stones1 is in the centre1 and the smoke escapes through an aperture at the top4 ,close to the hut there is also1 generally1 a small store-house erected on high poles1 as in ,lapland2 for the provisions must be secured against the attacks of the glutton1 the wolf1 or the owner's dogs4 ,although the ,obi and its tributaries--the ,irtysch1 the ,wach1 the ,wasjugan--abundantly provide for the wants of the ,ostiaks1 yet those who are exclusively fishermen vegetate in a state of the greatest poverty1 in indolence1 drunkenness1 and vice4 ,the wily ,russian settlers have got them completely in their power1 by advancing them goods on credit1 and thus securing the produce of their fisheries from year to year4 ,during the whole summer ,russian speculators from ,obdorsk1 ,beresow1 and ,tobolsk sail about on the ,obi1 to receive from their ,ostiak debtors the salmon and sturgeon which they have caught1 or to fish on their own account1 which1 as having better nets and more assistance1 they do with much greater success than the poor savages4 ,the ,russian ,government has1 indeed1 confirmed the ,ostiaks in the possession of almost all the land and water in the territories of the ,lower ,obi and ,irtysch1 but the ,russian traders find means to monopolize the best part of the fisheries2 for ignorance and stupidity1 in spite of all laws in their favor1 are nowhere a match for mercantile cunning4 ,at the beginning of winter the ,ostiaks retire into the woods1 where they find at least some protection against the ,arctic blasts1 and are busy hunting the sable or the squirrel2 but as fishing affords them at all times their chief food1 they take care to establish their winter huts on some eminence above the reach of the spring inundations1 near some small river1 which1 through holes made in the ice1 affords their nets and anglers a precarious supply4 ,their winter yourt is somewhat more solidly constructed than their summer residence1 as it is not removed every year4 ,it is low and small1 and its walls are plastered with clay4 ,light is admitted through a piece of ice inserted in the wall or on the roof4 ,in the better sort of huts1 the space along one or several of the walls is hung with mats made of sedges1 and here the family sits or sleeps4 ,sometimes a small antechamber serves to hang up the clothes1 or is used as a repository for household utensils4 ,besides those who live solely upon fishes and birds of passage1 there are other ,ostiaks who possess reindeer herds1 and wander in summer to the border of the ,polar sea1 where they also catch seals and fish4 ,when winter approaches1 they slowly return to the woods4 ,finally1 in the more southerly districts1 there are some ,ostiaks who1 having entirely adopted the ,russian mode of life1 cultivate the soil1 keep cattle1 or earn their livelihood as carriers4 ,in general1 however1 the ,ostiak1 like the ,samoede1 obstinately withstands all innovations1 and remains true to the customs of his forefathers4 ,he has been so often deceived by the ,russians that he is loth to receive the gifts of civilization from their hands4 ,he fears that if his children learn to read and write1 they will no longer be satisfied to live like their parents1 and that the school will deprive him of the support of his age4 ,he is no less obstinately attached to the religion of his fathers1 which in all essential points is identical with that of the ,samoedes4 ,in some of the southern districts1 along the ,irtysch1 at ,surgut1 he has indeed been baptized1 and hangs up the image of a saint in his hut1 as his ,russian pope or priest has instructed him to do2 but his ,christianity extends no farther4 ,along the tributaries of the ,obi1 and below ,obdorsk1 he is still plunged in ,schamanism4 ,like the ,samoedes1 the ,ostiaks1 whose entire number amounts to about #be1jjj1 are subdivided into tribes1 reminding one of the ,highland clans4 ,each tribe consists of a number of families1 of a common descent1 and sometimes comprising many hundred individuals1 who1 however distantly related1 consider it a duty to assist each other in distress4 ,the fortunate fisherman divides the spoils of the day with his less fortunate clansman1 who hardly thanks him for a gift which he considers as his due4 ,in cases of dispute the ,starschina1 or elder1 acts as a judge2 if1 however1 the parties are not satisfied with his verdict1 they appeal to the higher authority of the hereditary chieftain or prince--a title which has been conferred by the ,empress ,catherine ,,ii4 on the ,ostiak magnates1 who1 from time immemorial1 have been considered as the heads of their tribes4 ,these princes are1 of course1 subordinate to the ,russian officials1 and bound to appear1 with the ,starschinas1 at the fairs of ,beresow or ,obdorsk1 as they are answerable for the quantity and quality of the various sorts of furs which the ,ostiaks are obliged to pay as a tribute to ,government4 ,their dignity is hereditary1 and1 in default of male descendants1 passes to the nearest male relation4 ,it must1 however1 not be supposed that these princes are distinguished from the other ,ostiaks by their riches or a more splendid appearance2 for their mode of life differs in no way from that of their inferiors in rank1 and1 like them1 they are obliged to fish or to hunt for their daily subsistence4 ,on entering the hut of one of these dignitaries1 ,castrn found him in a ragged jacket1 while the princess had no other robe of state but a shirt4 ,the prince1 having liberally helped himself from the brandy-bottle which the traveller offered him1 became very communicative1 and complained of the sufferings and cares of the past winter4 ,he had exerted himself to the utmost1 but without success4 ,far from giving way to indolence in his turf-hut1 he had been out hunting in the forest1 after the first snow-fall1 but rarely pitching his bark-tent1 and frequently sleeping in the open air4 ,yet1 in spite of all his exertions1 he had often not been able to shoot a single ptarmigan4 ,his stores of meal and frozen fishes were soon exhausted1 and sometimes the princely family had been reduced to eat the flesh of wolves4 ,the ,ostiaks are excellent archers1 and1 like all the other hunting tribes of ,siberia1 use variously constructed arrows for the different objects of their chase4 ,smaller shafts1 with a knob of wood at the end1 are destined for the squirrels and other small animals whose fur it is desirable not to injure2 while large arrows1 with strong triangular iron points1 bring down the wolf1 the bear1 and sometimes the fugitive exile4 ,for1 to prevent the escape of criminals sentenced to banishment in ,siberia1 the ,russian ,government allows the ,ostiaks to shoot any unknown person1 not belonging to their race1 whom they may meet with on their territory4 ,although well aware of this danger1 several exiles have attempted to escape to ,archangel along the border of the ,arctic sea2 but they either died of hunger1 or were devoured by wild beasts1 or shot by the ,ostiaks4 ,there is but one instance known of an exile who1 after spending a whole year on the journey1 at length reached the abodes of civilized man1 and he was pardoned in consideration of the dreadful sufferings he had undergone4 ,the ,ostiaks are generally of a small stature1 and most of them are dark-complexioned1 with raven-black hair like the ,samoedes2 some of them1 however1 have a fairer skin and light-colored hair4 ,they have neither the oblique eyes nor the broad projecting cheek-bones of the ,mongols and ,tungus1 but bear a greater resemblance to the ,finnish1 ,samoede1 and ,turkish cast of countenance4 ,they are a good-natured1 indolent1 honest race2 and though they are extremely dirty1 yet their smoky huts are not more filthy than those of the ,norwegian or ,icelandic fisherman4 ,as among the ,samoedes1 the women are in a very degraded condition1 the father always giving his daughter in marriage to the highest bidder4 ,the price is very different1 and rises or falls according to the circumstances of the parent2 for while the rich man asks fifty reindeer for his child1 the poor fisherman is glad to part with his daughter for a few squirrel-skins and dried sturgeon4 ,illustration3 #gh4 ,,group ,,of ,,kirghis4 ,before taking leave of the ,ostiaks1 we will still tarry a moment at the small town of ,obdorsk1 which may be considered as the capital of their country1 and entirely owes its existence to the trade carried on between them and the ,russians4 ,formerly the merchants from ,beresow and ,tobolsk used merely to visit the spot1 but the difficulties of the journey soon compelled them to establish permanent dwellings in that dreary region4 ,a certain number of exiles serves to increase the scanty population1 which consists of a strange medley of various nations1 among whom ,castrn found a ,calmuck1 a ,kirghis1 and a ,polish cook1 who bitterly complained that he had but few opportunities of showing his skill in a town where people lived la ,ostiak4 ,in fact1 most of the ,russian inhabitants of the place have in so far adopted the ,ostiak mode of life1 as to deem the cooking of their victuals superfluous4 ,when ,castrn1 on his arrival at ,obdorsk1 paid a visit to a ,tobolsk merchant1 who had been for some time settled in the place1 he found the whole family lying on the floor1 regaling on raw fish1 and the most civilized person he met with told him that he had tasted neither boiled nor roast flesh or fish for half a year4 ,yet fine shawls and dresses1 and now no doubt the crinoline and the chignon1 are found amidst all this barbarism4 ,edifices with the least pretensions to architectural beauty it would of course be vain to look for in ,obdorsk4 ,the houses of the better sort of ,russian settlers are two-storied1 or consisting of a ground-floor and garrets2 but as they are built of wood1 and are by no means wind-tight1 the half-famished ,ostiaks1 who have settled in the town1 are probably more comfortably housed in their low turf-huts than the prosperous ,russian inhabitants of the place4 ,the latter make it their chief occupation to cheat the ,ostiaks in every possible way2 some of them1 however1 add to this profitable1 if not praiseworthy occupation1 the keeping of reindeer herds1 or even of cows and sheep4 ,the fair lasts from the beginning of winter to ,february1 and during this time the ,ostiaks who assemble at ,obdorsk pitch their bark-tents about the town4 ,with their arrival a new life begins to stir in the wretched place4 ,groups of the wild sons and daughters of the tundra1 clothed in heavy skins1 make their appearance1 and stroll slowly through the streets1 admiring the high wooden houses1 which to them seem palaces4 ,but nothing is to be seen of the animation and activity which usually characterize a fair4 ,concealing some costly fur under his wide skin mantle1 the savage pays his cautious visit to the trader1 and makes his bargain amidst copious libations of brandy4 ,he is well aware that this underhand way of dealing is detrimental to his interests2 that his timorous disposition shrinks from public sales1 and frequently he is not even in the situation to profit by competition2 for among the thousands that flock to the fair1 there are but very few who do not owe to the traders of ,obdorsk much more than they possess1 or can ever hope to repay4 ,woe to the poor ,ostiak whose creditor should find him dealing with some other trader6--for the seizure of all his movable property1 of his tent and household utensils1 would be the least punishment which the wretch turned adrift into the naked desert would have to expect4 ,the fair is not opened before ,government has received the furs which are due to it1 or at least a guarantee for the amount from the merchants of the place4 ,then the magazines of the traders gradually fill with furs--with clothes of reindeer skin ready made1 with feathers1 reindeer flesh1 frozen sturgeon1 mammoth tusks1 etc4 ,for these goods the ,ostiaks receive flour1 baked bread1 tobacco1 pots1 kettles1 knives1 needles1 brass buttons and rings1 glass pearls1 and other trifling articles4 ,an open trade in spirits is not allowed2 but brandy may be sold as a medicine1 and thus many an ,ostiak takes advantage of the fair for undergoing a cure the reverse of that which is recommended by hydropathic doctors4 ,towards the end of ,february1 when the ,ostiaks have retired into the woods--where they hunt or tend their reindeer herds until the opening of the fishing-season recalls them to the ,obi--the trader prepares for his journey to ,irbit1 where he hopes to dispose of his furs at an enormous profit1 and ,obdorsk is once more left until the following winter to its death-like solitude4 ,illustration3 #gi4 ,,tagilsk4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,conquest ,,of ,,siberia ,,by ,,the ,,russians--,,their ,,voyages ,,of ,,discovery ,,along ,,the ,,shores ,,of ,,the ,,polar ,,sea4 ,ivan the ,terrible4--,strogonoff4--,yermak1 the ,robber and ,conqueror4--,his ,expeditions to ,siberia4--,battle of ,tobolsk4-- ,yermak's ,death4--,progress of the ,russians to ,ochotsk4--,semen ,deshnew4--,condition of the ,siberian ,natives under the ,russian ,yoke4--,voyages of ,discovery in the ,reign of the ,empress ,anna4-- ,prontschischtschew4--,chariton and ,demetrius ,laptew4--,an ,arctic ,heroine4--,schalaurow4--,discoveries in the ,sea of ,bering and in the ,pacific ,ocean4--,the ,lchow ,islands4--,fossil ,ivory4--,new ,siberia4--,the wooden ,mountains4--,the past ,ages of ,siberia4 ,in the beginning of the thirteenth century1 the now huge ,empire of ,russia was confined to part of her present ,european possessions1 and divided into several independent principalities1 the scene of disunion and almost perpetual warfare4 ,thus when the country was invaded1 in #abcf1 by the ,tartars1 under ,baaty ,khan1 a grandson of the famous ,gengis ,khan1 it fell an easy prey to its conquerors4 ,the miseries of a foreign yoke1 aggravated by intestine discord1 lasted about #bej years1 until ,ivan ,wasiljewitsch ,i4 7#adfb-aeje7 became the deliverer of his country1 and laid the foundations of her future greatness4 ,this able prince subdued1 in #adgj1 the ,great ,novgorod1 a city until then so powerful as to have maintained its independence1 both against the ,russian grand princes and the ,tartar khans2 and1 ten years later1 he not only threw off the yoke of the ,khans of ,khipsack1 but destroyed their empire4 ,the conquest of ,constantinople by the ,turks placed the spiritual diadem of the ancient ,csars on his head1 and caused him1 as chief of the ,greek orthodox ,church1 to exchange his old title of ,grand ,prince for the more significant and imposing one of ,czar4 ,his grandson1 ,ivan ,wasiljewitsch ,,ii41 a cruel but energetic monarch1 conquered ,kasan in #aeeb1 and thus completely and permanently overthrew the dominion of the ,tartars4 ,two years later he subdued ,astrakhan1 and planted the ,greek cross on the borders of the ,caspian ,sea1 where until then only the ,crescent had been seen4 ,in spite of the inhuman cruelty that disgraced his character1 and earned for him the name of ,terrible1 ,ivan sought1 like his illustrious successor1 ,peter the ,great1 to introduce the arts and sciences of ,western ,europe into his barbarous realm1 and to improve the ,russian manufactures by encouraging ,german artists and mechanics to settle in the country4 ,it was in his reign that ,chancellor discovered the passage from ,england to the ,white ,sea1 and ,ivan gladly seized the opportunity thus afforded4 ,soon after this the port of ,archangel was built1 and thus a new seat was opened to civilization at the northern extremity of ,europe4 ,after the conquest of ,kasan1 several ,russians settled in that province2 among others1 a merchant of the name of ,strogonoff1 who established some salt-works on the banks of the ,kama1 and opened a trade with the natives4 ,among these he noticed some strangers1 and having heard that they came from a country ruled by a ,tartar ,khan1 who resided in a capital called ,sibir1 he sent some of his people into their land4 ,these agents returned with the finest sable skins1 which they had purchased for a trifling sum2 and ,strogonoff1 not so covetous as to wish to keep all the advantage of his discovery to himself1 immediately informed the ,government of the new trade he had opened4 ,he was rewarded with the gift of considerable estates at the confluence of the ,kama and ,tschinsova1 and his descendants1 the ,counts ,strogonoff1 are1 as is well known1 reckoned among the richest of the ,russian nobility4 ,soon after ,ivan sent some troops to ,siberia1 whose prince1 ,jediger1 acknowledged his supremacy1 and promised to pay him an annual tribute of a thousand sable skins4 ,but this connection was not of long duration1 for a few years after ,jediger was defeated by another ,tartar prince1 named ,kutchum ,khan2 and thus1 after ,russian influence had taken the first step to establish itself beyond the ,ural1 it once more became doubtful whether ,northern ,asia was to be ,christian or ,mohammedan4 ,the question was soon after decided by a fugitive robber4 ,the conquests of ,ivan on the ,caspian ,sea had called into life a considerable trade with ,bokhara and ,persia1 which1 however1 was greatly disturbed by the depredations of the ,don ,cossacks1 who made it their practice to plunder the caravans4 ,but ,ivan1 not the man to be trifled with by a horde of freebooters1 immediately sent out a body of troops against the ,don ,cossacks1 who1 not venturing to meet them1 sought their safety in flight4 ,at the head of the fugitives1 whose number amounted to no less than #fjjj men1 was ,yermak ,timodajeff1 a man who1 like ,cortez or ,pizarro1 was destined to lay a new empire at the feet of his master4 ,but while the troops of the ,czar were following his track1 ,yermak was not yet dreaming of future conquests2 his only aim was to escape the executioner2 and he considered himself extremely fortunate when1 leaving his pursuers far behind1 he at length arrived on the estates of ,strogonoff4 ,here he was well received--better1 no doubt1 than if he had come single-handed and defenseless2 and ,strogonoff having made him acquainted with ,siberian affairs1 he at once resolved to try his fortunes on this new scene of action4 ,as the tyranny of ,kutchum ,khan had rendered him odious to his subjects1 he hoped it would be an easy task to overthrow his power2 the prospect of a rich booty of sable skins was also extremely attractive2 and1 finally1 there could be no doubt that the greatest dangers were in his rear1 and that any choice was better than to fall into the hands of ,ivan the ,terrible4 ,strogonoff1 on his part1 had excellent reasons for encouraging the adventure4 ,if it succeeded1 a considerable part of the profits was likely to fall to his share2 if not1 he at least was rid of his unbidden guest4 ,thus ,yermak1 in the summer of #aegh1 advanced with his ,cossacks along the banks of the ,tschinsova into ,siberia4 ,but1 either from a want of knowledge of the country1 or from not having taken the necessary precautions1 he was overtaken by winter before he could make any progress2 and when spring appeared1 famine compelled him to return to his old quarters1 where1 as may easily be imagined1 his reception was none of the most cordial4 ,but1 far from losing courage from this first disappointment1 ,yermak was firmly resolved to persevere4 ,he had gained experience--his self-confidence was steeled by adversity2 and when ,strogonoff attempted to refuse him further assistance1 he pointed to his ,cossacks with the air of a man who has the means of enforcing obedience to his orders4 ,this time ,yermak took better measures for insuring success2 he compelled ,strogonoff to furnish him with an ample supply of provisions and ammunition1 and in the ,june of the following year we again find him1 with his faithful ,cossacks1 on the march to ,siberia4 ,but such were the impediments which the pathless swamps and forests1 the severity of the climate1 and the hostility of the natives opposed to his progress1 that towards the end of #aehj his force 7now reduced to #aejj men7 had reached no farther than the banks of the ,tara4 ,the subsequent advance of this little band was a constant succession of hardships and skirmishes1 which caused it to melt away like snow in the sunshine2 so that scarcely #ejj remained when1 at the confluence of the ,tobol and the ,irtysch1 they at length reached the camp of ,kutchum ,khan1 whose overwhelming numbers seemed to mock their audacity4 ,but ,yermak felt as little fear at sight of the innumerable tents of the ,tartar host1 as the wolf when meeting a herd of sheep4 ,he knew that his ,cossacks1 armed with their matchlocks1 had long since disdained to count their enemies1 and1 fully determined to conquer or to die1 he gave the order to attack4 ,a dreadful battle ensued1 for though the ,tartars only fought with their bows and arrows1 yet they were no less brave than their adversaries1 and their vast superiority of numbers made up for the inferior quality of their weapons4 ,the struggle was long doubtful--the ,tartars repeating attack upon attack like the waves of a storm-tide1 and the ,cossacks receiving their assaults as firmly and immovably as rocks2 until1 finally1 the hordes of ,kutchum ,khan gave way to their stubborn obstinacy1 and his camp and all its treasures fell into the hands of the conquerors4 ,the subsequent conduct of ,yermak proved that he had all the qualities of a general and a statesman1 and that his talents were not unequal to his fortunes4 ,without losing a single moment1 he1 immediately after this decisive battle1 sent part of his small band to occupy the capital of the vanquished ,kutchum1 for he well knew that a victory is but half gained if one delays to reap its fruits4 ,the ,cossacks found the place evacuated1 and soon after ,yermak made his triumphal entry into ,sibir4 ,his weakness now became a source of strength1 for1 daunted by the wonderful success of this handful of strangers1 the people far and wide came to render him homage4 ,the ,ostiaks of the ,soswa freely consented to yield an annual tribute of #bhj sable skins1 and other tribes of the same nation1 who were more backward in their submission1 were compelled by his menaces to pay him a tax1 or jassak1 of eleven skins for every archer4 ,it was not without reason that ,yermak thus sought to collect as many of these valuable furs as he possibly could1 for his aim was to obtain from ,ivan a pardon of his former delinquencies1 by presenting him with the richest spoils of his victories1 and he well knew that it would be impossible for him to maintain his conquests without further assistance from the ,czar4 ,great was ,ivan's astonishment when an envoy of the fugitive robber brought him the welcome gift of #bdjj sable skins1 and informed him that ,yermak had added a new province to his realm4 ,he at once comprehended that the hero who with small means had achieved such great successes1 was the fittest man to consolidate or enlarge his acquisitions2 he consequently not only pardoned all his former offenses1 but confirmed him in the dignity of governor and commander-in-chief in the countries which he had subdued4 ,thus ,yermak's envoy1 having been received with the greatest distinction at ,moscow1 returned to his fortunate master with a robe of honor which had been worn by the ,czar himself1 and the still more welcome intelligence that re-enforcements were on the march to join him4 ,meanwhile ,yermak had continued to advance into the valley of the ,obi beyond its confluence with the ,irtysch2 and when at length his force was augmented by the arrival of #ejj ,russians1 he pursued his expeditions with increasing audacity4 ,on his return from one of these forays1 he encamped on a small island in the ,irtysch4 ,the night was dark and rainy1 and the ,russians1 fatigued by their march1 relied too much upon the badness of the weather or the terror of their name4 ,but ,kutchum ,khan1 having been informed by his spies of their want of vigilance1 crossed a ford in the river1 and falling upon the unsuspecting ,russians1 killed them all except one single soldier1 who brought the fatal intelligence to ,sibir4 ,yermak1 when he saw his warriors fall around him like grass before the scythe1 without losing his presence of mind for a moment1 cut his way through the ,tartars1 and endeavored to save himself in a boat4 ,but in the medley he fell into the water and was drowned4 ,by the orders of ,kutchum1 the body of the hero was exposed to every indignity which the rage of a barbarian can think of2 but after this first explosion of impotent fury1 his followers1 feeling ashamed of the ignoble conduct of their chief1 buried his remains with princely pomp1 and ascribed miraculous powers to the grave in which they were deposited4 ,the ,russians have also erected a monument to ,yermak in the town of ,tobolsk1 which was built on the very spot where he gained his first decisive victory over ,kutchum4 ,it is inscribed with the dates of that memorable event1 and of the unfortunate day when he found his death in the floods of the ,irtysch4 ,his real monument1 however1 is all ,siberia from the ,ural to the ,pacific2 for as long as the ,russian nation continues to exist1 it will remember the name of ,yermak ,timodajeff4 ,the value of the man became at once apparent after his death1 for scarcely had the news of the disaster arrived1 when the ,russians immediately evacuated ,sibir1 and left the country4 ,but they well knew that this retreat was to be but temporary1 and that the present ebb of their fortunes would soon be followed by a fresh tide of success4 ,after a few years they once more returned1 as the definitive masters of the country4 ,their first settlement was ,tjumen1 on the ,tara1 and before the end of #aehg ,tobolsk was founded4 ,they had1 indeed1 still many a conflict with the ,woguls and ,tartars1 but every effort of the natives to shake off the yoke proved fruitless4 ,as gold had been the all-powerful magnet which led the ,spaniards from ,hispaniola to ,mexico and ,peru1 so a small fur-bearing animal 7the sable7 attracted the ,cossacks farther and farther to the east2 and although the possession of fire-arms gave them an immense advantage over the wild inhabitants of ,siberia1 yet it is as astonishing with what trifling means they subdued whole nations1 and perhaps history affords no other example of such a vast extent of territory having been conquered by so small a number of adventurers4 ,as they advanced1 small wooden forts 7or ostrogs7 were built in suitable places1 and became in their turn the starting-posts for new expeditions4 ,the following dates give the best proof of the uncommon rapidity with which the tide of conquest rolled onward to the east4 ,tomsk was founded in #afjd2 and the ostrog ,jeniseisk1 where the neighboring nomads brought their sable skins to market1 in #afba4 ,the snow-shoes of the ,tunguse1 which they sometimes saw ornamented with this costly fur1 induced the ,cossacks to follow their hordes1 of which many had come from the middle and inferior ,tunguska1 and thus1 in #afcj1 ,wassiljew reached the banks of the ,lena4 ,in #afcf ,jelissei ,busa was commissioned to ascend that mighty river1 and to impose jassak on all the natives of those quarters4 ,he reached the western mouth of the ,lena1 and after navigating the sea for twenty-four hours came to the ,olekma1 which he ascended4 ,in #afch he discovered the ,tana1 on whose banks he spent another winter2 and in #afci1 resuming his voyage eastward by sea1 he reached the ,tchendoma1 and wintering for two years among the ,jukahirs1 made them also tributary to ,russia4 ,in that same year another party of ,cossacks crossed the ,altai ,mountains1 and1 traversing forests and swamps1 arrived at the coasts of the inhospitable ,sea of ,ochotsk2 while a third expedition discovered the ,amoor1 and built a strong ostrog1 called ,albasin1 on its left bank4 ,the report soon spread that the river rolled over gold-sand1 and colonists came flocking to the spot1 both to collect these treasures1 and to enjoy the fruits of a milder climate and of a more fruitful soil4 ,but the ,chinese destroyed the fort in #afhj1 and carried the garrison prisoners to ,peking4 ,albasin was soon after rebuilt2 but as ,russia at that time had no inclination to engage in constant quarrels with the ,celestial ,empire about the possession of a remote desert1 all its pretensions to the ,amoor were given up by the treaty of ,nertschinsk 7#afhi74 ,this agreement1 however1 like so many others1 was doomed to last no longer than it pleased the more powerful of the contracting parties to keep it1 and came to nothing as soon as the possession of the ,amoor territory became an object of importance1 and the increasing weakness of ,china was no longer able to dispute its possession4 ,thus1 when ,count ,nicholas ,mourawieff was appointed ,governor-general of ,eastern ,siberia in #ahdg1 one of his first cares was to appropriate or annex the ,amoor4 ,he immediately sent a surveying expedition to the mouth of the river1 where1 in #ahea1 regardless of the remonstrances of the ,chinese ,government1 he ordered the stations of ,nicolayevsk and ,mariinsk to be built2 and in #ahed he himself sailed down the ,amoor1 with a numerous flotilla of boats and rafts1 for the purpose of personally opening this new channel of intercourse with the ,pacific4 ,other expeditions soon followed1 and the ,chinese1 finding resistance hopeless1 ceded to ,russia in the year #aheh1 by the treaty of ,aigun1 the left bank of the ,amoor as far as the influx of the ,ussuri1 and both its banks below the latter river4 ,thus the ,czar found some consolation for the losses of the ,crimean campaign in the acquisition of a vast territory in the distant ,east1 which1 though at present a mere wilderness1 may in time become a flourishing colony4 ,illustration3 #hj4 ,,the ,,beach ,,at ,,nicolayevsk4 ,in #afdd1 a few years after the discovery of the ,amoor1 the ,cossack ,michael ,staduchin formed a winter establishment on the delta of the ,kolyma1 which has expanded into the town of ,nishnei-,kolymsk1 and afterwards navigated the sea eastward to ,cape ,schelagskoi1 which may be considered as the north-eastern cape of ,siberia4 ,illustration3 #ha4 ,,on ,,the ,,amoor4 ,in #afdh ,semen ,deschnew sailed from the ,kolyma with the intention of reaching the ,anadyr by sea1 and by this remarkable voyage--which no one else1 either before or after him1 has ever performed--discovered and passed through the strait1 which properly should bear his name1 instead of ,bering's1 who1 sailing from ,kamchatka northward in #agbh1 did not go beyond ,east ,cape1 being satisfied with the westerly trending of the cape beyond the promontory4 ,some of ,deschnew's companions subsequently reached ,kamchatka1 and were put to death by the people of that peninsula1 which was conquered1 in #afii1 by ,atlassoff1 a ,cossack officer who came from ,jakutsk4 ,after having thus rapidly glanced at the progress of the ,russian dominion from the ,ural to the ,sea of ,ochotsk1 it may not be uninteresting to inquire whether the natives had reason to bless the arrival of their new masters1 or to curse the day when they were first made to understand the meaning of the word jassak1 or tribute4 ,unfortunately1 history tells us that1 while the conquerors of ,siberia were fully as bold and persevering as the companions of ,cortez and ,pizarro1 they also equalled them in avarice and cruelty4 ,under their iron yoke whole nations1 such as the ,schelagi1 ,aniujili1 and ,omoki1 melted away2 others1 as the ,woguls1 ,jukahires1 ,koriaks1 and ,itlmenes1 were reduced to a scanty remnant4 ,the history of the subjugation of the ,itlmenes1 or natives of ,kamchatka1 as described by ,steller1 may suffice to show how the ,cossacks made and how they abused their conquests4 ,illustration3 #hb4 ,,village ,,on ,,the ,,amoor4 ,when ,atlassoff1 with only sixteen men1 came to the river of ,kamchatka1 the ,itlmene chieftain inquired1 through a ,koriak interpreter1 what they wanted1 and whence they came2 and received for answer that the powerful sovereign1 to whom the whole land belonged1 had sent them to levy the tribute which they owed him as his subjects4 ,the chieftain was naturally astonished at this information1 and offering the strangers a present of costly furs1 he requested them to leave the country1 and not to repeat their visit4 ,but the ,cossacks thought proper to remain1 and built a small wooden fort1 ,verchnei ,ostrog1 whence they fell on the neighboring villages1 robbing or destroying all they could lay hands upon4 ,exasperated by these acts1 the ,itlmenes resolved to attack the fort2 but as the wary ,cossacks had kept up a friendly intercourse with some of them1 and had moreover ingratiated themselves with the women1 the plans of their enemies were always revealed to them in proper time1 and led to a still greater tyranny4 ,at length the savages appeared before the ostrog in such overwhelming numbers that the ,cossacks began to lose courage2 yet by their superior tactics they finally managed to gain a complete victory1 and those who escaped their bullets were either drowned or taken prisoners1 and then put to death in the most cruel manner4 ,illustration3 #hc4 ,,koriak ,,yourt4 ,convinced that a lasting security was impossible as long as the natives retained their numbers1 the ,cossacks lost no opportunity of goading them to revolt1 and then butchering as many of them as they could4 ,thus1 in less than forty years1 the ,kamchatkans were reduced to a twelfth part of their original numbers2 and the ,cossacks1 having made a solitude1 called it peace4 ,in former times the nomads of the ,north used freely to wander with their reindeer herds over the tundra1 but after the conquest they were loaded with taxes1 and confined to certain districts4 ,the consequence was that their reindeer gradually perished1 and that a great number of wandering herdsmen were now compelled to adopt a fisherman's life--a change fatal to many4 ,it would1 however1 be unjust to accuse the ,russian ,government of having willfully sought the ruin of the aboriginal tribes2 on the contrary1 it has constantly endeavored to protect them against the exactions of the ,cossacks1 and in order to secure their existence1 has even granted them the exclusive possession of the districts assigned to them4 ,thus the ,ostiaks and ,samoedes1 the ,koriaks and the ,jakuts1 have their own land1 their own rivers1 forests1 and tundri4 ,but if it is a common saying in ,european ,russia 8that heaven is high1 and the ,czar distant10 it may easily be imagined that beyond the ,ural the weak indigenous tribes found the law but a very inefficient barrier against the rapacity of their conquerors4 ,thus1 in spite of the ,government1 the jassak was not unfrequently raised1 under various pretenses1 to six or ten times its original amount2 and the natives were1 besides1 obliged to bring the best of their produce1 from considerable distances1 to the ostrog4 ,nor could the ,government prevent the accumulation of usurious debts1 nor the leasing of the best pasturages or fishing-stations for a trifling sum quite out of proportion to their value2 so that the natives no longer had the means of feeding their herds1 and sank deeper and deeper into poverty4 ,and if we consider1 finally1 of what elements ,yermak's band was originally composed1 we can easily conceive that1 under such masters1 the lot of the ,siberian natives was by no means to be envied4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the year #agcd opens a new epoch in the history of ,siberian discoveries4 ,until then they had been merely undertaken for purposes of traffic2 bold ,cossacks and ,promyschlenniki 7or fur-hunters7 had gradually extended their excursions to the ,sea of ,bering2 but now1 for the first time1 scientific expeditions were sent out1 for the more accurate investigation of the northern coasts of ,siberia4 ,prontschischtschew1 who sailed westward from the ,lena to circumnavigate the icy capes of ,taimurland1 was accompanied by his youthful wife1 who wintered with him at the ,olenek1 in #gb #ed of latitude1 and in the following summer took part in his fruitless endeavors to double those most northerly points of ,asia4 ,he died in consequence of the fatigues he had to undergo1 and a few days after she followed him to the grave4 ,a similar example of female devotion is not to be met with in the annals of ,arctic discovery4 ,after ,prontschischtschew's death1 ,lieutenant ,chariton ,laptew was appointed to carry out the project in which the former had failed4 ,having been repulsed by the drift-ice1 he was obliged to winter on the ,chatanga 7#agci-dj72 but renewed the attempt in the following summer1 which however exposed him to still severer trials4 ,the vessel was wrecked in the ice2 the crew reached the shore with difficulty1 and many of them perished from fatigue and famine before the rivers were sufficiently frozen to enable the feeble survivors to return to their former winter-station at ,chatanga4 ,notwithstanding the hardships which he and his party had endured1 ,laptew prosecuted the survey of the promontory in the following spring4 ,setting out with a sledge-party across the ,tundra on ,april #bd1 #agda1 he reached ,taimur ,lake on the #cjth2 and following the ,taimur ,river1 as it flows from the lake1 ascertained its mouth to be situated in lat4 #ge #cf ,n4 ,on ,august #bi he safely returned to ,jeniseisk1 after one of the most difficult voyages ever performed by man4 ,the resolution with which he overcame difficulties1 and his perseverance amid the severest distresses1 entitle him to a high rank among ,arctic discoverers4 ,while ,chariton ,laptew was thus gaining distinction in the wilds of ,taimurland1 his brother1 ,dimitri ,laptew1 was busy extending geographical knowledge to the east of the ,lena4 ,he doubled the ,sviatoi-noss1 wintered on the banks of the ,indigirka1 surveyed the ,bear ,islands1 passed a second winter on the borders of the ,kolyma1 and in a fourth season extended his survey of the coast to the ,baranow ,rock1 which he vainly endeavored to double during two successive summers4 ,after having passed seven years on the coasts of the ,polar ,ocean1 he returned to ,jakutsk in #agdc4 ,fourteen years later1 ,schalaurow1 a merchant of ,jakutsk1 who sailed from the ,jana in a vessel built at his own expense1 at length succeeded in doubling the ,baranow ,rock1 and proceeded eastward as far as ,cape ,schelagskoi1 which prevented his farther progress4 ,after twice wintering on the dreary ,kolyma1 he resolved1 with admirable perseverance1 to make a third attempt1 but his crew would no longer follow him4 ,from a second sea-journey1 which he undertook in #agfd to that cape1 he did not return4 8,his unfortunate death is the more to be lamented10 says ,wrangell1 8as he sacrificed his property and life to a disinterested aim1 and united intelligence and energy in a remarkable degree40 ,on his map1 the whole coast from the ,jana to ,cape ,schelagskoi is marked1 with an accuracy which does him the greatest honor4 ,in #aghe ,billings and ,sarytchew were equally unsuccessful in the endeavor to sail round the cape which had defeated all ,schalaurow's endeavors2 nor has the voyage been accomplished to the present day4 ,illustration3 #hd4 ,,kamchatka ,,sables ,as the sable had gradually led the ,russian fur-hunters to ,kamchatka1 so the still more valuable sea-otter gave the chief impulse to the discovery of the ,aleutic chain and the opposite continent of ,america4 ,when ,atlassow and his band arrived at ,kamchatka by the end of the seventeenth century1 they found the sea-otter abounding on its coasts2 but the fur-hunters chased it so eagerly that1 before the middle of the eighteenth century1 they had entirely extirpated it in that country4 ,on ,bering's second voyage of discovery 7#agda-db71 it was again found in considerable numbers4 ,tschirigow is said to have brought back #ijj skins1 and on ,bering's ,island #gjj sea-otters--whose skins1 according to present prices1 would be worth about #bj1jjj--were killed almost without trouble4 ,these facts1 of course1 encouraged the merchants of ,jakutsk and ,irkutsk to undertake new expeditions4 ,generally1 several of them formed an association1 which fitted out some hardly seaworthy vessel at ,ochotsk1 where also the captain and the crew1 consisting of fur-hunters and other adventurers1 were hired4 ,the expenses of such an expedition amounted to the considerable sum of about #cj1jjj roubles1 as pack-horses had to transport a great part of the necessary outfit all the distance from ,jakutsk1 and the vessel generally remained four or five years on the voyage4 ,passing through one of the ,kurile ,straits1 these expeditions sailed at first along the east coast of ,kamchatka1 bartering sables and sea-otters for reindeer skins and other articles2 and as the precious furs became more rare1 ventured out farther into the ,eastern ,ocean4 ,thus ,michael ,nowodsikoff discovered the ,western ,aleuts in #agde2 ,paikoff the ,fox ,islands in #agei2 ,adrian ,tolstych almost all the islands of the central group1 which still bear his name1 in #agfj2 ,stephen ,glottoff the island of ,kadiak in #agfc1 and ,krenitzin the peninsula of ,aljaska in #agfh4 ,when we consider the scanty resources of these ,russian navigators1 the bad condition of their miserable barks1 their own imperfect nautical knowledge1 and the inhospitable nature of the seas which they traversed1 we can not but admire their intrepidity4 ,in the ,polar ,sea there are neither sables nor otters1 and thus the islands lying to the north of ,siberia might have remained unknown till the present day1 if the search after mammoth-teeth had not1 in a similar manner1 led to their discovery4 ,in ,march1 #aggj1 while a merchant of the name of ,lchow was busy collecting fossil ivory about ,cape ,sviatoinoss1 he saw a large herd of deer coming over the ice from the north4 ,resolute and courageous1 he at once resolved to follow their tracks1 and after a sledge-journey of seventy versts1 he came to an island1 and twenty versts farther reached a second island1 at which1 owing to the roughness of the ice1 his excursion terminated4 ,he saw enough1 however1 of the richness of the two islands in mammoth-teeth1 to show him that another visit would be a valuable speculation2 and on making his report to the ,russian ,government1 he obtained an exclusive privilege to dig for mammoth-bones on the islands which he had discovered1 and to which his name had been given4 ,in the summer of #aggc he consequently returned1 and ascertained the existence of a third island1 much larger than the others1 mountainous1 and having its coasts covered with drift-wood4 ,he then went back to the first island1 wintered there1 and returned to ,ustjansk in spring with a valuable cargo of mammoth-tusks4 ,there hardly exists a more remarkable article of commerce than these remains of an extinct animal4 ,in ,north ,siberia1 along the ,obi1 the ,jenissei1 the ,lena1 and their tributaries1 from lat4 #eh to #gj1 or along the shores of the ,polar ,ocean as far as the ,american side of ,bering ,strait1 the remains of a species of elephant are found imbedded in the frozen soil1 or become exposed1 by the annual thawing and crumbling of the river-banks4 ,dozens of tusks are frequently found together1 but the most astonishing deposit of mammoth-bones occurs in the ,lchow ,islands1 where1 in some localities1 they are accumulated in such quantities as to form the chief substance of the soil4 ,year after year the tusk-hunters work every summer at the cliffs1 without producing any sensible diminution of the stock4 ,the solidly-frozen matrix in which the bones lie thaws to a certain extent annually1 allowing the tusks to drop out or to be quarried4 ,in #ahba1 #bj1jjj lbs4 of the fossil ivory were procured from the island of ,new ,siberia4 ,the ice in which the mammoth remains are imbedded sometimes preserves their entire bodies1 in spite of the countless ages which must have elapsed since they walked on earth4 ,in #agii the carcass of a mammoth was discovered so fresh that the dogs ate the flesh for two summers4 ,the skeleton is preserved at ,st4 ,petersburg1 and specimens of the woolly hair--proving that the climate of ,siberia1 though then no doubt much milder than at present1 still required the protection of a warm and shaggy coat--were presented to the chief museums of ,europe4 ,the remains of a rhinoceros1 very similar to the ,indian species1 are likewise found in great numbers along the shores1 or on the steep and sandy river-banks of ,northern ,siberia1 along with those of fossil species of the horse1 the musk-ox1 and the bison1 which have now totally forsaken the ,arctic wilds4 ,the ,archipelago of ,new ,siberia1 situated to the north of the ,lchow ,islands1 was discovered by ,sirowatsky in #ahjf1 and since then scientifically explored by ,hedenstrm in #ahjh1 and ,anjou in #ahbc4 ,these islands are remarkable no less for the numerous bones of horses1 buffaloes1 oxen1 and sheep scattered over their desolate shores1 than for the vast quantities of fossil-wood imbedded in their soil4 ,the hills1 which rise to a considerable altitude1 consist of horizontal beds of sandstone1 alternating with bituminous beams or trunks of trees4 ,on ascending them1 fossilized charcoal is everywhere met with1 incrusted with an ash-colored matter1 which is so hard that it can scarcely be scraped off with a knife4 ,on the summit there is a long row of beams resembling the former1 but fixed perpendicularly in the sandstone4 ,the ends1 which project from seven to ten inches1 are for the most part broken1 and the whole has the appearance of a ruinous dike4 ,thus a robust forest vegetation once flourished where now only hardy lichens can be seen2 and many herbivorous animals feasted on grasses where now the reindeer finds but a scanty supply of moss1 and the polar bear is the sole lord of the dreary waste4 ,illustration3 #he4 ,,tartar ,,encampment4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,siberia--,,fur-,,trade ,,and ,,gold-,,diggings4 ,siberia4--,its immense ,extent and ,capabilities4--,the ,exiles4-- ,mentschikoff4--,dolgorouky4--,mnich4--, the ,criminals4--,the free ,siberian ,peasant4--,extremes of ,heat and ,cold4--,fur-bearing ,animals4--,the ,sable4--,the ,ermine4--,the ,siberian ,weasel4--,the ,sea-otter4--,the black ,fox4--,the ,lynx4--,the ,squirrel4--,the varying ,hare4--,the ,suslik4--,importance of the ,fur-trade for the ,northern ,provinces of the ,russian ,empire4--,the ,gold-diggings of ,eastern ,siberia4--,the ,taiga4--,expenses and ,difficulties of searching ,expeditions4--,costs of ,produce1 and enormous ,profits of successful ,speculators4--,their senseless ,extravagance4--,first ,discovery of ,gold in the ,ural ,mountains4--,jakowlew and ,demidow4-- ,nishne-,tagilsk4 ,siberia is at least thirty times more extensive than ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 but its scanty population forms a miserable contrast to its enormous size4 ,containing scarcely three millions of inhabitants1 it is comparatively three hundred times less peopled than the ,british ,islands4 ,this small population is1 moreover1 very unequally distributed1 consisting chiefly of ,russians and ,tartars1 who have settled in the south or in the milder west1 along the rivers and the principal thoroughfares which lead from the territory of one large stream to the other4 ,in the northern and eastern districts1 as far as they are occupied1 the settlements are likewise almost entirely confined to the river-banks2 and thus the greater part of the enormous forest-lands1 and of the interminable tundras1 are either entirely uninhabited by man1 or visited only by the huntsman1 the gold-digger1 or the migratory savage4 ,and yet ,siberia has not been so niggardly treated by ,nature as not to be able to sustain a far more considerable population4 ,in the south there are thousands of square miles fit for cultivation2 the numbers of the herds and flocks might be increased a hundred-fold1 and even the climate would become milder after the labor of man had subdued the chilling influences of the forest and the swamp4 ,but it is easier to express than to realize the wish to see ,siberia more populous1 for its reputation is hardly such as to tempt the free colonists to settle within its limits2 and thus the ,russian ,government1 which would willingly see its more temperate regions covered with flourishing towns and villages1 can only expect an increase of population from the slow growth of time1 aided by the annual influx of the involuntary emigrants which it sends across the ,ural to the ,east4 ,many a celebrated personage has already been doomed to trace this melancholy path1 particularly during the last century1 when the all-powerful favorite of one period was not seldom doomed to exile by the next palace revolution4 ,this fate befell1 among others1 the famous ,prince ,mentschikoff4 ,in a covered cart1 and in the dress of a peasant1 the confidential minister of ,peter the ,great1 the man who for years had ruled the vast ,russian ,empire1 was conveyed into perpetual banishment4 ,his dwelling was now a simple hut1 and the spade of the laborer replaced the pen of the statesman4 ,domestic misfortunes aggravated his cruel lot4 ,his wife died from the fatigues of the journey2 one of his daughters soon after fell a victim to the smallpox2 his two other children1 who were attacked by the same malady1 recovered4 ,he himself died in the year #agbi1 and was buried near his daughter at ,beresow1 the seat of his exile4 ,like ,cardinal ,wolsey1 after his fall he remembered ,god1 whom he had forgotten during the swelling tide of his prosperity4 ,he considered his punishment as a blessing1 which showed him the way to everlasting happiness4 ,he built a chapel1 assisting in its erection with his own hands1 and after the services gave instruction to the congregation4 ,the inhabitants of ,beresow still honor his memory1 and revere him as a saint4 ,they were confirmed in this belief by the circumstance that his body1 having been disinterred in #ahba1 was found in a state of perfect preservation1 after a lapse of ninety-two years4 ,one day1 as his daughter walked through the village1 she was accosted by a peasant from the window of a hut4 ,this peasant was ,prince ,dolgorouky1 her father's enemy--the man who had caused his banishment1 and was now1 in his turn1 doomed to taste the bitterness of exile4 ,soon after the princess and her brother were pardoned by the ,empress ,anna1 and ,dolgorouky took possession of their hut4 ,young ,mentschikoff was finally reinstated in all the honors and riches of his father1 and from him descends1 in a direct line1 the famous defender of ,sebastopol4 ,marshal ,mnich1 the favorite of the ,empress ,anna1 was doomed1 in his sixtieth year1 to a ,siberian exile1 when ,elizabeth ascended the throne4 ,his prison consisted of three rooms--one for his guards or jailers1 the second for their kitchen1 the third for his own use4 ,a wall twenty feet high prevented him from enjoying the view even of the sky4 ,the man who had once governed ,russia had but half a rouble daily to spend2 but the love of his wife--who1 although fifty-five years old1 had the courage and the self-denial to accompany him in his banishment--alleviated the sorrows of his exile4 ,the venerable couple spent twenty-one years in ,siberia1 and on their return from exile1 fifty-two children1 grandchildren1 and great-grandchildren1 were assembled to meet them at ,moscow4 ,the revolution which placed ,catherine the ,second on the throne had nearly once more doomed the octogenarian statesman to banishment1 but he fortunately weathered the storm1 and died as governor of ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,in this century1 also1 many an unfortunate exile1 guiltless at least of ignoble crimes1 has been doomed to wander to ,siberia4 ,there many a soldier of the grande arme has ended his life2 there still lives many a patriotic ,pole1 banished for having loved his country 8not wisely but too well20 there also the conspirators who marked with so bloody an episode the accession of ,nicholas1 have had time to reflect on the dangers of plotting against the ,czar4 ,most of the ,siberian exiles are1 however1 common criminals--such as in our country would be hung or transported1 or sentenced to the treadmill3 the assassin1 the robber--to ,siberia2 the smuggler on the frontier1 whose free-trade principles injure the imperial exchequer--to ,siberia2 even the vagabond who is caught roaming1 and can give no satisfactory account of his doings and intentions1 receives a fresh passport--to ,siberia4 ,thus the annual number of the exiles amounts to about #ab1jjj1 who1 according to the gravity of their offenses1 are sent farther and farther eastward4 ,on an average1 every week sees a transport of about #cjj of these 8unfortunates10 as they are termed by popular compassion1 pass through ,tobolsk4 ,about one-sixth are immediately pardoned1 and the others sorted4 ,murderers and burglars are sent to the mines of ,nertschinsk1 after having been treated in ,russia1 before they set out on their travels1 with fifty lashes of the knout4 ,in former times their nostrils used to be torn off1 a barbarity which is now no longer practised4 ,according to ,sir ,george ,simpson's 8,narrative of a ,journey ,round the ,world0 7#ahdg71 ,siberia is the best penitentiary in the world4 ,every exile who is not considered bad enough for the mines--those black abysses1 at whose entrance1 as at that of ,dante's hell1 all hope must be left behind--receives a piece of land1 a hut1 a horse1 two cows1 the necessary agricultural implements1 and provisions for a year4 ,the first three years he has no taxes to pay1 and1 during the following ten1 only the half of the usual assessment4 ,thus1 if he choose to exert himself1 he has every reason to hope for an improvement in his condition1 and at the same time fear contributes to keep him in the right path2 for he well knows that his first trespass would infallibly conduct him to the mines1 a by no means agreeable prospect4 ,under the influence of these stimulants1 many an exile attains a degree of prosperity which would have been quite beyond his reach had he remained in ,european ,russia4 ,hofmann gives a less favorable account of the ,siberian exiles4 ,in his opinion1 the prosperity and civilization of the country has no greater obstacle than the mass of criminals sent to swell its population4 ,in the province of ,tomsk1 which seems to be richly stocked with culprits of the worst description1 all the wagoners belong to this class4 ,they endeavored to excite his compassion by hypocrisy4 8,it was the will of ,god60 is their standing phrase1 to which they tried to give a greater emphasis by turning up the whites of their eyes4 ,but1 in spite of this pious resignation to the ,divine will1 ,hofmann never met with a worse set of drunkards1 liars1 and thieves4 ,illustration3 #hf4 ,,siberian ,,peasant4 ,as to the free ,siberian peasant1 who is generally of exile extraction1 all travellers are agreed in his praise4 8,as soon as one crosses the ,ural10 says ,wrangell1 8one is surprised by the extreme friendliness and good-nature of the inhabitants1 as much as by the rich vegetation1 the well-cultivated fields1 and the excellent state of the roads in the southern part of the government of ,tobolsk4 ,our luggage could be left without a guard in the open air4 #8,ne-boss6' #8,fear not6' was the answer when we expressed some apprehension2 #8there are no thieves among us4' ,this may appear strange1 but it must be remembered that the ,tomsk wagoners1 described above1 are located far more to the east1 and that every exiled criminal has his prescribed circuit1 the bounds of which he may not pass without incurring the penalty of being sent to the mines4 ,according to ,professor ,hansteen1 the ,siberian peasants are the finest men of all ,russia1 with constitutions of iron4 ,with a sheepskin over their shirt1 and their thin linen trowsers1 they bid defiance to a cold of #cj and more4 ,they have nothing of the dirty avarice of the ,european ,russian boor2 they have as much land as they choose for cultivation1 and the soil furnishes all they require for their nourishment and clothing4 ,their cleanliness is exemplary4 ,within the last thirty years the gold-diggings have somewhat spoilt this state of primitive simplicity1 yet even ,hofmann allows that the ,west-,siberian peasant has retained much of the honesty and hospitality for which he was justly celebrated4 ,besides agriculture1 mining1 fishing1 and hunting1 the carriage of merchandise is one of the chief occupations of the ,siberians1 and probably1 in proportion to the population1 no other country employs so large a number of wagoners and carriers4 ,the enormous masses of copper1 lead1 iron1 and silver produced by the ,altai and the ,nertschinsk mountains1 have to be conveyed from an immense distance to the ,russian markets4 ,the gold from the ,east-,siberian diggings is indeed easier to transport1 but the provisions required by the thousands of workmen employed during the summer in working the auriferous sands1 have to be brought to them1 frequently from a distance of many hundred versts4 ,the millions of furs1 from the squirrel to the bear1 likewise require considerable means of transport2 and1 finally1 the highly important caravan-trade with ,china conveys thousands of bales of tea from ,kiachta to ,irbit4 ,siberia has indeed many navigable rivers1 but a glance at the map shows us at once that they are so situated as to afford far less facilities to commerce than would be the case in a more temperate climate4 ,they all flow northward into an inhospitable sea1 which is forever closed to navigation1 and are themselves ice-bound during the greater part of the year4 ,enormous distances separate them from each other1 and there are no navigable canals to unite them4 ,on some of the larger rivers steam-boats have indeed been introduced1 and railroads are talked of2 but there can be no doubt that1 for many a year to come1 the cart and the sledge will continue to be the chief means of transport in a country which1 in consequence of its peculiar geographical position1 is even in its more southern parts exposed to all the rigors of an ,arctic winter4 ,thus at ,jakutsk 7#fb ,n4 lat471 which is situated but six degrees farther to the north than ,edinburgh 7#ee #eh71 the mean temperature of the coldest month is -#dj1 and mercury a solid body during one-sixth part of the year2 while at ,irkutsk 7#eb #af ,n4 lat471 situated but little farther to the north than ,oxford 7#ea #df71 the thermometer frequently falls to -#cj1 or even -#dj2 temperatures which are of course quite unheard of on the banks of the ,isis4 ,for these dreadful winters in the heart of ,siberia1 and under comparatively low degrees of latitude1 there are various causes4 ,the land is1 in the first place1 an immense plain slanting to the north2 moreover1 it is situated at such a distance from the ,atlantic1 that beyond the ,ural the western sea-winds1 which bring warmth to our winters1 assume the character of cold land-winds2 and1 finally1 it merges in the south into the high ,mongolian plateau1 which1 situated #djjj feet above the level of the sea1 has of course but little warmth to impart to it in winter2 so that1 from whatever side the wind may blow at that season1 it constantly conveys cold4 ,but in summer the scene undergoes a total change4 ,under the influence of the sun circling for months round the ,north ,pole1 floods of warmth are poured into ,central ,siberia1 and rapidly cause the thermometer to rise2 no neighboring sea refreshes the air with a cooling breeze2 whether the wind come from the heated ,mongolian deserts1 or sweep over the ,siberian plains1 it imbibes warmth on every side4 ,thus the terrible winter of ,jakutsk is followed by an equally immoderate summer 7#eh #c71 so that rye and barley are able to ripen on a soil which a few feet below the surface is perpetually frozen4 ,illustration3 #hg4 ,,irkutsk4 ,the boundless woods of ,siberia harbor a number of fur-bearing animals whose skins form one of the chief products of the country4 ,among these persecuted denizens of the forest1 the sable 7,martes zibellina71 which closely resembles the pine-marten 7,martes abietum7 in shape and size1 deserves to be particularly noticed1 both for the beauty of its pelt1 and its importance in the fur-trade4 ,sleeping by day1 the sable hunts his prey by night2 but though he chiefly relishes animal food1 such as hares1 young birds1 mice1 and eggs1 he also feeds on berries1 and the tasteful seeds of the ,pinus cembra4 ,his favorite abode is near the banks of some river1 in holes of the earth1 or beneath the roots of trees4 ,incessant persecution has gradually driven him into the most inaccessible forests2 the days are no more when the ,tunguse hunter willingly gave for a copper kettle as many sable skins as it would hold1 or when the ,kamchatkan trapper1 could easily catch seventy or eighty sables in one winter2 but ,von ,baer still estimates the annual produce of all ,siberia at #de1jjj skins4 ,the finest are caught in the forests between the ,lena and the ,eastern ,sea1 but ,kamchatka furnishes the greater number4 ,a skin of the finest quality is worth about forty roubles on the spot1 and at least twice as much in ,st4 ,petersburg or ,moscow1 particularly when the hair is long1 close1 and of a deep blackish-brown1 with a thick brown underwool4 ,skins with long dark hair tipped with white are highly esteemed1 but still more so those which are entirely black--a color to which the ,russians give the preference1 while the ,chinese have no objection to reddish tints4 ,in consequence of this difference of taste1 the sables from the ,obi1 which are generally larger but of a lighter color1 are sent to ,kiachta1 while the darker skins1 from ,eastern ,siberia1 are directed to ,st4 ,petersburg and ,leipsic4 ,the chase of the sable is attended with many hardships and dangers4 ,the skins are in the highest perfection at the commencement of the winter2 accordingly1 towards the end of ,october1 the hunters assemble in small companies1 and proceed along the rivers in boats1 or travel in sledges to the place of rendezvous--taking with them provisions for three or four months4 ,in the deep and solitary forest they erect their huts1 made of branches of trees1 and bank up the snow round them1 as a further protection against the piercing wind4 ,they now roam and seek everywhere for the traces of the sable1 and lay traps or snares for his destruction4 ,these are generally pitfalls1 with loose boards placed over them1 baited with fish or flesh2 fire-arms or cross-bows are more rarely used1 as they damage the skins4 ,the traps must be frequently visited1 and even then the hunter often finds that a fox has preceded him1 and left but a few worthless remnants of the sable in the snare4 ,or sometimes a snow-storm overtakes him1 and then his care must be to save his own life4 ,thus sable-hunting is a continual chain of disappointments and perils1 and at the end of the season it is frequently found that the expenses are hardly paid4 ,until now the sable has been but rarely tamed4 ,one kept in the palace of the ,arch-bishop of ,tobolsk was so perfectly domesticated1 that it was allowed to stroll about the town as it liked4 ,it was an arch-enemy of cats1 raising itself furiously on its hind-legs as soon as it saw one1 and showing the greatest desire to fight it4 ,in former times the ermine 7,mustela erminea7 ranked next to the sable as the most valuable fur-bearing animal of the ,siberian woods2 at present the skin is worth no more than from five to eight silver kopeks at ,tobolsk1 so that the whole produce of its chase hardly amounts to #bjj1jjj roubles4 ,this little animal resembles in its general appearance the weasel1 but is considerably larger1 as it attains a length of from twelve to fourteen inches4 ,its color1 which is reddish-brown in summer1 becomes milk-white during the winter in the northern regions1 with the exception of the tip of the tail1 which always remains black4 ,its habits likewise greatly resemble those of the weasel2 it is equally alert in all its movements1 and equally courageous in defending itself when attacked4 ,it lives on birds1 poultry1 rats1 rabbits1 leverets1 and all kinds of smaller animals1 and will not hesitate to attack a prey of much greater size than itself4 ,although various species of ermine are distributed over the whole forest region of the north1 yet ,siberia produces the finest skins4 ,the largest come from the ,kolyma1 or are brought to the fair of ,ostrownoje by the ,tchutchi1 who obtain them from the coldest regions of ,america4 ,the ,siberian weasel 7,viverra siberica71 which is much smaller than the ermine1 is likewise hunted for its soft and perfectly snow-white winter dress--the tip of the tail not being black1 as in the latter4 ,the sea-otter1 or kalan 7,enhydris lutris71 the most valuable of all the ,russian fur-bearing animals1 as #aaj silver roubles is the average price of a single skin1 is nearly related to the weasel tribe4 ,the enormous value set upon the glossy1 jet-black1 soft1 and thick fur of the kalan sufficiently explains how the ,russian hunters have followed his traces from ,kamchatka to ,america1 and almost entirely extirpated him on many of the coasts and islands of ,bering's ,sea and the ,northern ,pacific1 where he formerly abounded4 ,his habits very much resemble those of the seal2 he haunts sea-washed rocks1 lives mostly in the water1 and loves to bask in the sun4 ,his hind feet have a membrane skirting the outside of the exterior toe1 like that of a goose1 and the elongated form of his flexible body enables him to swim with the greatest celerity4 ,the love of the sea-otters for their young is so great that they reckon their own lives as nothing to protect them from danger2 and ,steller1 who had more opportunities than any other naturalist for observing their habits1 affirms that1 when deprived of their offspring1 their grief is so strong that in less than a fortnight they waste away to skeletons4 ,on their flight they carry their young in their mouths1 or drive them along before them4 ,if they succeed in reaching the sea1 they begin to mock their baffled pursuer1 and express their joy by a variety of antics4 ,sometimes they raise themselves upright in the water1 rising and falling with the waves1 or holding a fore paw over their eyes1 as if to look sharply at him2 or they throw themselves on their back1 rubbing their breast with their fore paws2 or cast their young into the water1 and catch them again1 like a mother playing with her infant4 ,the sea-otter not only surpasses the fish-otter by the beauty of his fur1 but also in size1 as he attains a length of from three to four feet1 exclusive of the tail4 ,his food consists of small fishes1 molluscs1 and crustaceous animals1 whose hard calcareous covering his broad grinders are well adapted to crush4 ,next to the sea-otter1 the black fox1 whose skin is of a rich and shining black or deep brown color1 with the longer or exterior hairs of a silvery-white1 furnishes the most costly of all the ,siberian furs4 ,the average price of a single skin amounts to #fj or #gj silver roubles1 and rich amateurs will willingly pay #cjj roubles1 or even more1 for those of first-rate quality4 ,the skin of the ,siberian red fox1 which ranks next in value1 is worth no more than #bj roubles2 the steel-gray winter dress of the ,siberian crossed fox 7thus named from the black cross on his shoulders71 from #aj to #ab roubles2 and that of the ,arctic fox1 though very warm and close1 no more than #f or #h4 ,the bear family likewise furnishes many skins to the ,siberian furrier4 ,that of the young brown bear 7,ursus arctos7 is highly esteemed for the trimming of pelisses2 but that of the older animal has little value1 and is used1 like that of the polar bear1 as a rug or a foot-cloth in sledges4 ,the lynx is highly prized for its very thick1 soft1 rust-colored winter dress1 striped with darker brown4 ,it attains the size of the wolf1 and is distinguished from all other members of the cat tribe1 by the pencils of long black hair which tip its erect and pointed ears4 ,it loves to lie in ambush for the passing reindeer or elk1 on some thick branch at a considerable distance from the ground4 ,with one prodigious bound it leaps upon the back of its victim1 strikes its talons into its flesh1 and opens with its sharp teeth the arteries of its neck4 ,though singly of but little value1 as a thousand of its skins are worth no more than one sea-otter1 the squirrel plays in reality a far more important part in the ,siberian fur-trade than any of the before-mentioned animals1 as the total value of the gray peltry which it furnishes to trade is at least seven times greater than that of the sable4 ,four millions of gray squirrel skins are1 on an average1 annually exported to ,china1 from two to three millions to ,europe1 and the home consumption of the ,russian ,empire is beyond all doubt still more considerable1 as it is the fur most commonly used by the middle classes4 ,the ,european squirrels are of inferior value1 as the hair of their winter dress is still a mixture of red and gray2 in the territory of the ,petschora1 the gray first becomes predominant1 and increases in beauty on advancing towards the east4 ,the squirrels are caught in snares or traps1 or shot with blunted arrows4 ,among the fur-bearing animals of ,siberia1 we have further to notice the varying hare1 whose winter dress is entirely white1 except the tips of the ears1 which are black2 the ,baikal hare2 the ground-squirrel1 whose fur has fine longitudinal dark-brown stripes1 alternating with four light-yellow ones2 and the suslik1 a species of marmot1 whose brown fur1 with white spots and stripes1 fetches a high price in ,china4 ,it occurs over all ,siberia as far as ,kamchatka4 ,its burrows are frequently nine feet deep2 this1 however1 does not prevent its being dug out by the hunters1 who likewise entrap it in spring when it awakes from its winter sleep4 ,summing together the total amount of the ,russian fur-trade1 ,von ,baer estimates the value of the skins annually brought to the market by the ,russian ,american ,fur ,company at half a million of silver roubles1 the produce of ,european ,russia at a million and a half1 and that of ,siberia at three millions4 ,as agriculture decreases on advancing to the north1 the chase of the fur-bearing animals increases in importance4 ,thus1 in the most northern governments of ,european ,russia--,wjatka1 ,wologda1 ,olonez1 and ,archangel--it is one of the chief occupations of the inhabitants4 ,in ,olonez about four hundred bears are killed every year1 and the immense forests of ,wologda furnish from one hundred to two hundred black foxes1 three hundred bears1 and three millions of squirrels4 ,although the sable and the sea-otter are not so numerous as in former times1 yet1 upon the whole1 the ,russian fur-trade is in a very flourishing condition2 nor is there any fear of its decreasing1 as the less valuable skins--such as those of the squirrels and hares1 which from their numbers weigh most heavily in the balance of trade--are furnished by rodents1 which multiply very rapidly1 and find an inexhaustible supply of food in the forests and pasture-grounds of ,siberia4 ,the chase of the fur-bearing animals affords the ,north-,siberian nomads--such as the ,ostiaks1 ,jakuts1 ,tungusi1 and ,samoedes--the only means of procuring the foreign articles they require2 hence it taxes all their ingenuity1 and takes up a great deal of their time4 ,on the river-banks and in the forests they lay innumerable snares and traps1 all so nicely adapted to the size1 strength1 and peculiar habits of the various creatures they are intended to capture1 that it would be almost impossible to improve them4 ,an industrious ,jakut will lay about five hundred various traps as soon as the first snow has fallen2 these he visits about five or six times in the course of the winter1 and generally finds some animal or other in every eighth or tenth snare4 ,the produce of his chase he brings to the nearest fair1 where the tax-gatherer is waiting for the jassak1 which is now generally paid in money 7five paper roubles four shillings74 ,with the remainder of his gains he purchases iron kettles1 red cloth for hemming his garments1 powder and shot1 rye-meal1 glass pearls1 tobacco1 and brandy--which1 though forbidden to be sold publicly1 is richly supplied to him in private--and then retires to his native wilds4 ,from the smaller fairs1 the furs are sent by the ,russian merchants to the larger staple places1 such as ,jakutsk1 ,nertschinsk1 ,tobolsk1 ,kiachta1 ,irbit1 ,nishne-,novgorod1 and finally ,st4 ,petersburg and ,moscow2 for by repeatedly sorting and matching the size and color of the skins1 their value is increased4 ,about thirty years ago firs were still the chief export article of ,siberia--to ,china1 ,european ,russia1 and ,western ,europe--but since then the discovery of its rich auriferous deposits has made gold its most important produce4 ,the precious metal is found on the western slopes of the ,ural chain and in ,west ,siberia2 but the most productive diggings are situated in ,east ,siberia1 where they give occupation to many thousands of workmen1 and riches to a few successful speculators4 ,the vast territory drained by the ,upper ,jenissei and its tributaries1 the ,superior and the ,middle ,tunguska1 consists for the greater part of a dismal and swampy primeval forest1 which scarcely thirty years since was almost totally unknown4 ,a few wretched nomads and fur-hunters were the only inhabitants of the ,taiga--as those sylvan deserts are called--and squirrel skins seemed all they were ever likely to produce4 ,a journey through the ,taiga is said to be one of the most fatiguing and tedious tours which it is possible to make4 ,up-hill and down-hill1 a narrow path leads over a swampy ground1 into which the horses sink up to their knees4 ,the rider is scarcely less harassed than the patient animal which carries him over this unstable soil4 ,no bird enlivens the solitary forest with its song2 the moaning of the wind in the crowns of the trees alone interrupts the gloomy silence4 ,the eternal sameness of the scene--day after day one constant succession of everlasting larches and fir-trees--is as wearying to the mind as the almost impassable road to the body4 ,but suddenly the sound of the axe or the creaking of the water-wheel is heard2 the forest opens1 a long row of huts extends along the banks of a rivulet1 and hundreds of workmen are seen moving about as industrious as a hive of bees4 ,what is the cause of all this activity--of this sudden change from a death-like quiet to a feverish life8 ,these are the gold-fields2 the sands of these swampy grounds are mixed1 like those of the ,pactolus1 with gold1 and their fortunate possessors would not exchange them for the finest meadows1 cornfields1 or vineyards4 ,fedor ,popow1 a hunter of the province of ,tomsk1 is said to have been the first discoverer of gold in ,siberia2 and ,government having granted permission to private persons to search for the precious metal1 a few enterprising men directed their attention to the wild spurs of the ,sajan ,mountains4 ,a brilliant success rewarded their endeavors4 ,in the year #ahcf an exploring-party1 sent out by a merchant named ,jakin ,resanow1 discovered a rich deposit of auriferous sand near the banks of the ,great ,birussa2 and in #ahci-dj1 similar deposits were found along several of the tributaries of the ,upper ,tunguska1 and still farther to the north1 on the ,oktolyk1 a rivulet that flows into the ,pit4 ,the expenses of a searching-party amount1 on an average1 to #cjjj silver roubles 7#fjj72 and as very often no gold whatever is found1 these hazardous explorations not seldom put both the purse and the perseverance of their undertakers to a severe trial4 ,thus ,nikita ,maesnikow had spent no less than #bfj1jjj silver roubles 7#eb1jjj7 in fruitless researches1 when he at length discovered the rich gold-field on the ,peskin1 which1 as we shall presently see1 amply remunerated him for his previous losses4 ,of the difficulties which await the gold-searchers1 a faint idea may be formed1 on considering that the whole of the auriferous region1 which far surpasses in size most of the ,european kingdoms1 consists of one vast forest like that above described4 ,patches of grass-land on which horses can feed are of very rare occurrence1 and damp moss is the only bed the ,taiga affords4 ,as the gold-searchers are very often at work some hundreds of versts from the nearest village1 they are obliged to carry all their provisions along with them4 ,their clothes are almost constantly wet1 from their sleeping in the damp forest1 from the frequent rains to which they are exposed1 and from their toiling in the swampy ground4 ,scarcely have they dug a few feet deep when the pit fills with water1 which they are obliged to pump out as fast as it gathers1 and thus standing up to their knees in the mud1 they work on until they reach the solid rock1 for then only can they be certain that no auriferous layer has been neglected in their search4 ,when we consider1 moreover1 that all this labor is very often totally useless1 their perseverance can not but be admired2 nor is it to be wondered at that exploring-parties have sometimes encamped on the site of rich gold-deposits without examining the spot1 their patience having been exhausted by repeated failures in the vicinity4 ,when the winter1 with its deep snowfalls1 suddenly breaks in upon the searchers1 their hardships become dreadful4 ,the frost and want of food kill their horses1 their utensils have to be left behind2 and dragging their most indispensable provisions along with them on small sledges1 they are not seldom obliged to wade for weeks through the deep snow before they reach some inhabited place4 ,but even the severity of a ,siberian winter does not prevent the sending out of exploring-parties4 ,such winter explorations are only fitted out for the more accurate examination of very swampy auriferous grounds that have been discovered in the previous year1 and where it is less difficult to work in the frozen soil than to contend with the water in summer4 ,a winter-party travels without horses1 the workmen themselves transporting all that they require on light sledges4 ,they are obliged to break up the obdurate soil with pickaxes1 and the sand thus loosened has to be thawed and washed in warm water4 ,after their day's work1 they spend the night in huts made of the branches of trees1 where they sleep on the hard ground4 ,it requires the iron constitution of a ,siberian to bear such hardships1 to which many fall a prey1 in spite of their vigorous health4 ,a gold-deposit having been found1 the fortunate discoverer obtains the grant of a lot of ground1 #ajj sashens 7#fjj feet7 broad1 and #bejj sashens 7or #e versts7 long4 ,two adjoining lots are never granted to the same person1 but a subsequent purchase or amalgamation is permitted4 ,at first ,government was satisfied with a moderate tax of #ae per cent4 of the produce2 subsequently1 however1 this was doubled1 until within the last few years1 when1 the gold production having been found to decrease1 the primitive impost was returned to1 or even reduced to #e per cent4 for the less productive mines4 ,besides this tax1 from four to eight gold roubles per pound of gold1 according to the richness of the diggings1 have to be paid for police expenses4 ,only a twelve years' lease is granted1 after which the digging reverts to the crown1 and a new lease has to be purchased4 ,as the severe climate of the ,taiga limits the working-time to four months 7from ,may to ,september71 the period of the concession is thus in reality not more than four years4 ,the first care of the lessee is1 of course1 to collect the necessary provisions and working apparatus4 ,the distant steppe of the ,kirghese furnishes him with dried or salted meat2 his iron utensils he purchases in the factories of the ,ural2 the fairs of ,irbit and ,nishne-,novgorod supply him with every other article2 and rye-meal and fishes he easily obtains from the ,siberian peasants or traders4 ,by water and by land1 all these various stores have to be transported in summer to the residence or establishment of the gold-digger on the border of the ,taiga4 ,the transport through the ,taiga itself takes place during the winter1 on sledges1 at a very great cost2 and the expense is still more increased if time has been lost through inattention1 as then all that may still be wanting has to be conveyed to the spot on the backs of horses4 ,most of the men that are hired for working in the diggings are exiles--the remainder generally free peasants1 who have been reduced in their circumstances by misfortunes or misconduct4 ,the procuring of the necessary workmen is an affair of no small trouble and expense4 ,before every summer campaign the agents of the gold-diggers travel about the country like recruiting-sergeants1 and after giving many fair words and some hand-money1 they take the passport of the man engaged as a security for his appearance4 ,but although a passport is an indispensable document in ,siberia1 yet it not seldom happens that the workman finds means to obtain a new one under some other name1 and1 engaging himself to a new master1 defrauds the first of his hand-money4 ,it may be easily imagined that1 as the workmen only consist of the refuse of society1 the greatest discipline is necessary to keep them in order4 ,the system of a secret police1 so cherished by all arbitrary governments1 is here extended to its utmost limits2 scarcely has a suspicious word fallen among the workmen1 when the director is immediately informed of it1 and takes his measures accordingly4 ,every man knows that he is watched1 and is himself a spy upon his companions4 ,hofmann relates an instance of a plot singularly nipped in the bud4 ,in one of the gold-diggings on the ,noiba1 the workmen1 at the instigation of an under-overseer1 had refused to perform a task assigned to them4 ,it was to be feared that the spirit of insubordination would gain ground1 and extend over all the neighboring diggings4 ,the director1 consequently1 sent at once for military assistance2 this1 however1 proved to be unnecessary1 for when the ,cossacks arrived at the ,noiba1 a thunder-storm arose1 and at the very moment they came riding up to the digging a flash of lightning killed the ringleader in the midst of the mutineers4 ,as soon as the men recovered from the first shock of their surprise and terror1 they all exclaimed1 8,this is the judgment of ,god60 and1 without any further hesitation1 at once returned to their duty4 ,besides free rations1 the ordinary wages of a common workman are #ae roubles banco1 or #ab shillings a month1 but more experienced hands receive #ej or even #fj roubles4 ,the pay dates from the day when the workman makes his appearance at the residence1 and thenceforward1 also1 his rations are served out to him4 ,they consist of a pound of fresh or salt meat1 or an equivalent portion of fish on fasting-days1 cabbage and groats for soup1 besides fresh rye-bread and quas 7the favorite national beverage7 ad libitum4 ,the whole number of workmen employed in a gold-digging subdivide themselves into separate societies1 or artells4 ,each of these elects a chief1 or head-man1 to whom the provisions for his artell are weighed out1 and to whom all the other common interests are intrusted4 ,the sale of spirituous liquor is strictly forbidden1 for its use would render it impossible to maintain order2 and1 according to law1 no gin-shop is allowed to be opened within #fj versts of a digging4 ,the pay and the liberal rations received would alone be insufficient to allure workmen to the diggings1 for1 as we have seen1 the voyage there and back is extremely irksome1 and the labor very fatiguing4 ,an excellent plan has consequently been devised for their encouragement4 ,the contract of each workman distinctly specifies the quantity of his daily work1 consisting of a certain number of wheelbarrows of sand--from #ajj to #abj1 according to the distance from the spot where it is dug to the place where it is washed out--each reckoned at three pouds1#aa which one party has to fill1 another to convey to the wash-stands1 and a third to wash4 ,the task is generally completed by noon1 or early in the afternoon4 ,for the labor they perform during the rest of the day1 or on ,sundays and holidays1 they receive an extra pay of two or three roubles for every solotnik of gold they wash4 ,every evening the workmen come with the produce of their free labor to the office1 the gold is weighed in their presence1 and the artell credited for the amount of its share4 ,this free-work is as advantageous for the masters as the laborers4 ,the former enjoy a net profit of eight or ten roubles per solotnik1 and all the working expenses are of course put to the charge of the contract labor2 and the latter earn a great deal of money1 according to their industry or good-luck1 for when fortune favors an artell1 its share may amount to a considerable sum4 ,during ,hofmann's stay at the ,birussa1 each workman of a certain artell earned in one afternoon #gb roubles1 and the ,sunday's work of another of these associations gave to each of its members #aje roubles1 or #d4 ,the artisans--who1 though employed in a gold-mine1 are not engaged in digging or washing the auriferous sand--are also rewarded from time to time by a day's free-labor in places which are known to be rich4 ,on one of these occasions a ,cossack on the ,oktolyk received #cjj roubles for his share of the gold that was washed out of #di wheelbarrows of sand4 ,these of course are extraordinary cases1 but they show how much a workman may gain2 and being of course exaggerated by report1 are the chief inducements which attract the workmen1 and keep them to their duty4 ,if the free-labor is unproductive1 many of the workmen desert or give up free-labor altogether1 and in both cases the master is a loser4 ,to prevent this1 it is customary1 in many of the diggings1 to pay the workmen a fixed sum for their extra work4 ,at the end of the season the workmen are paid off1 and receive provisions for their home-journey4 ,generally1 the produce of their summer's labor is spent1 in the first villages they reach1 in drinking and gambling2 so that1 to be able to return to their families1 they are obliged to bind themselves anew for the next season1 and to receive hand-money from the agent1 who1 knowing their weakness1 is generally on the spot to take advantage of it4 ,after spending a long winter full of want and privations1 they return to the ,taiga in spring1 and thus1 through their own folly1 their life is spent in constant misery and hard labor4 ,during the winter the digging is deserted1 except by an under-overseer and a few workmen1 who make the necessary preparations for the next campaign1 receive and warehouse the provisions as they arrive1 and guard the property against thieves or wanton destruction4 ,the upper-overseer or director1 meanwhile1 is fully occupied at the residence in forwarding the provisions and stores that have arrived there during the summer to the mine1 in making the necessary purchases for the next year1 in sending his agents about the country to engage new workmen2 and thus the winter is1 in fact1 his busiest time4 ,with the last sledge transport he returns to the digging1 to receive the workmen as they arrive1 and to see that all is ready for the summer4 ,as his situation is one of great trust and responsibility1 he enjoys a considerable salary4 ,maesnikow1 for instance1 paid his chief director #dj1jjj roubles a year2 and #fjjj or #hjjj roubles1 besides free station1 and a percentage of the gold produced1 is the ordinary emolument4 ,it is thus evident that the expenses of a ,siberian gold-mine are enormous1 but when fortune favors the undertaker he is amply rewarded for his outlay2 an annual produce of #aj1 #ae1 or #bj pouds of gold is by no means uncommon4 ,in the year #ahde1 #deh workmen employed in the gold-mine of ,mariinsk1 belonging to ,messrs4 ,golubdow and ,kusnezow1 produced #ha pouds #ai lbs4 of the much-coveted metal2 in the year #ahdc the mine of ,olginsk1 belonging to ,lieutenant ,malewinsky1 yielded #hb pouds #cg lbs42 and in #ahdd1 the labor of #ajad workmen1 employed in the mine of ,kresdowosdwishensk1 belonging to ,messrs4 ,kusnezow and ,schtschegolow1 produced no less than #hg pouds #ad lbs4 of gold4 ,but even ,kresdowosdwishensk has been distanced by the mine of ,spasky1 situated near the sources of the ,peskin1 which1 in the year #ahdb1 yielded its fortunate possessor1 the above-mentioned ,counsellor ,nikita ,maesnikow 7one of the few men who were already extremely rich before the ,siberian auriferous deposits were discovered71 the enormous quantity of #ajj pouds of gold6 ,from #ahdj to #ahde1 ,maesnikow extracted from this mine no less than #cdh pouds #f lbs4 of gold1 worth #d1ace1agd silver roubles1 or about #fdj1jjj4 ,still more recently1 in #ahfj1 the ,gawrilow mine1 belonging to the house of ,rjasanow1 produced #ajb pouds of pure gold4 ,but in ,siberia1 as elsewhere1 mining operations are frequently doomed to end in disappointment1 particularly if the space destined to be worked in the following summer has not been carefully examined beforehand1 as the ore is often very unequally distributed4 ,a speculator1 having discovered a gold-mine1 examined four or five samples of the sand1 which gave a highly satisfactory result4 ,delighted with his good-fortune1 he made his arrangements on a grand scale1 and collected provisions for #ejj workmen2 but when operations began1 it was found that he had1 unfortunately1 hit upon a small patch of auriferous sand1 the vicinity of which was totally void of gold1 so that his #ejj workmen produced no more than a few pounds of ore1 and he lost at least #aj1jjj by his adventure4 ,the entire gold produce of ,east ,siberia amounted1 in #ahde1 to #hdh pouds #cf lbs41 and in #ahef to about #aajj pouds2 but latterly1 in consequence of the increasing wages and dearness of provisions1 which has caused many of the less productive mines to be abandoned1 it has somewhat diminished4 ,in #ahfj1 #ca1gif men1 #iai women1 and #hgea horses and oxen1 were employed in the ,siberian gold-mines4 ,as may easily be imagined1 the discovery of these sources of wealth in the desert has caused a great revolution in the social state of ,siberia4 ,the riches so suddenly acquired by a few favorites of fortune1 have raised luxury to an unexampled height1 and encouraged a senseless prodigality4 ,some sterlets#ab having been offered for #cjj roubles to a miner suddenly raised from penury to wealth1 8,fool60 said the upstart1 with the superb mien of a conquering hero1 to the fish-dealer1 8wilt thou sell me these excellent sterlets so cheap8 ,here are a thousand roubles2 go1 and say that thou hast dealt with me60 ,the small town of ,krasnojarsk1 romantically situated on the ,jenissei1 is the chief seat of the rich miners4 ,here may be seen the choicest toilettes1 the most showy equipages1 and champagne 7which in ,siberia costs at least #a a bottle7 is the daily beverage of the gold aristocracy4 ,unfortunately1 ,krasnojarsk had1 until very recently1 not a single bookseller's shop to boast of2 and while thousands were lavished on vanity and sensual enjoyments1 not a rouble was devoted to the improvement of the mind4 ,less rich in gold than the province of ,jeniseisk1 but richer in copper and iron1 and above all in platina1 is the ,ural1 where mining industry was first introduced by ,peter the ,great1 in the last years of the seventeenth century1 and has since acquired a colossal development4 ,though gold was discovered in the ,uralian province of ,permia as early as #agde1 yet its production on a large scale is of more modern date4 ,in the year #ahaf the whole quantity of gold furnished by the ,ural amounted only to #e pouds #ce lbs41 while in #ahcd it had increased to #dje pouds4 ,the discovery of the precious metals on the estates of the large mine-proprietors of the ,ural1 who already before that time were among the wealthiest men of the empire1 has increased their riches to an enormous extent1 and given a ,european celebrity to the names of ,jakowlew and ,demidoff4 ,werch ,issetsk and ,werchne ,tagilsk1 in the province of ,permia1 belonging to the ,jakowlew family1 have an extent of more than three millions of acres1 with a population of #aa1jjj souls4 ,besides iron and copper1 their chief produce1 these estates yielded1 in #ahcd1 #eh pouds of gold4 ,nishne-,tagilsk1 belonging1 since #agbe1 to the ,demidoffs1 is a still more magnificent possession2 for it may truly be said1 that perhaps nowhere in the world are greater mineral riches congregated in one spot than here1 where1 besides vast quantities of iron and copper1 the washing of the sands produced1 in #ahcd no less than #bi pouds of gold1 and #aac pouds #c lbs4 of platina4 ,the estate extends over four millions of acres1 and its population1 in #ahcd1 amounted to #bj1jjj souls4 ,the town of ,nishne-,tagilsk has about #ae1jjj inhabitants1 and ,helmersen 78,travels in the ,ural07 praises the ,demidoffs for their zeal in carrying the civilization of ,europe to the wilds of the ,ural4 ,in an excellent elementary school1 #aej boys are clothed1 fed1 and educated at their expense4 ,those pupils who distinguish themselves by their abilities are then sent to a higher school1 such as the ,demidoff ,lyceum in ,jaroslaw1 or the ,university of ,moscow1 and after the termination of their studies obtain a situation on the estates of the family4 ,the palace of the ,demidoffs has a fine collection of paintings by the first ,italian masters2 but it is seldom if ever inhabited by the proprietors1 who prefer ,florence and ,paris to the ,ural4 ,the founder of the family was an eminent gunsmith of the town of ,tula1 whose abilities gained him the favor of ,peter the ,great1 and the gift of the mines on which the colossal fortune of his descendants has been raised4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,middendorff',s ,,adventures ,,in ,,taimurland4 ,for what ,purpose was ,middendorff's ,voyage to ,taimurland undertaken8-- ,difficulties and ,obstacles4--,expedition down the ,taimur ,river to the ,polar ,sea4--,storm on ,taimur ,lake4--,loss of the ,boat4-- ,middendorff ill and alone in #ge ,n4 ,lat4--,saved by a grateful ,samoede4--,climate and ,vegetation of ,taimurland4 ,on following the contours of the ,siberian coast1 we find to the east of ,nova ,zembla a vast tract of territory projecting towards the ,pole1 and extending its promontories far into the icy sea4 ,this country-- which1 from its principal river1 may be called ,taimurland--is the most northern1 and1 ,i need hardly add1 the most inhospitable part of the ,old ,world4 ,the last huts of the ,russian fishermen are situated about the mouth of the ,jenissei1 but the whole territory of the ,taimur ,river1 and the regions traversed by the lower course of the ,chatanga and the ,psina1 are completely uninhabited4 ,even along the upper course of these two last-named rivers1 the population is exceedingly scanty and scattered2 and the few ,samoedes who migrate during the summer to the banks of the ,taimur1 gladly leave them at the approach of winter1 the cold of which no thermometer has ever measured4 ,as may easily be imagined1 ,taimurland has but few attractions for the trader or the fur-hunter1 but for the naturalist it is by no means without interest4 ,we have seen in a former chapter how ,von ,baer1 prompted by the disinterested love of science1 travelled to ,nova ,zembla to examine the productions of a cold insular summer beyond the #gjth degree of latitude4 ,the instructive results of his journey rendered it doubly desirable to obtain information about the effects of summer in a continental climate1 situated if possible still farther to the north2 and as no region could be better suited to this purpose than the interior of the broad mass of ,taimurland1 the ,academy of ,sciences of ,st4 ,petersburg resolved to send thither a scientific expedition4 ,fortunately for the success of the undertaking1 ,von ,middendorff1 the eminent naturalist1 whose offer of service was gladly accepted1 was in every respect the right man in the right place2 for to the most untiring scientific zeal1 and an unwavering determination1 he joined a physical strength and a manual dexterity rarely found united with learning4 ,in the ,lapland moors he had learned to bivouac for nights together1 while chasing the waterfowl1 and on foot he was able to tire the best-trained walrus-hunter4 ,he understood how to construct a boat1 and to steer it with his own hand1 and every beast or bird was doomed that came within reach of his unerring ball4 ,in one word1 no traveller ever plunged into the ,arctic wilds more independent of baggage1 followers1 or the means of transport4 ,on ,april #d we find ,middendorff1 accompanied by ,mr4 ,brandt1 a ,danish forester1 and a single servant1 on the ice of the ,jenissei between ,turuchansk and ,dudino4 ,here his companions were attacked by measles2 but as it was high time to reach the ,chatanga before the melting of the snow1 the patients were carefully packed up in boxes lined with skins1 and the whole party--whose numbers1 meanwhile1 had been increased by the addition of a topographer and of three ,cossacks-- emerged from the region of forests on ,april #ac1 having to face a cold of -#cf1 and a storm that almost overturned their sledges4 ,with ,tunguse guides they traversed the tundra in a north-easterly direction as far as the ,psina1 and thence passing on from one ,samoede horde to another1 at length reached ,koronnoie ,filippowskoi 7#ga #e lat47 on the ,boganida1 an affluent of the ,cheta1 which is itself a tributary of the ,chatanga4 ,here a halt was made1 partly because all the party except ,middendorff were by this time attacked with the reigning epidemic1 and partly to wait for the ,samoedes1 whom they intended to join on their summer migration to the north4 ,during this interval ,middendorff made an excursion to the ,chatanga1 for the purpose of gathering information about the voyage down that river1 and to make the necessary preparations4 ,in the village of ,chatangsk1 however1 he found nearly all the inhabitants suffering from the measles2 and as no assistance was to be expected from them1 he resolved to alter his route1 and to proceed as soon as possible to the ,river ,taimur1 which would in all probability afford him the best means for penetrating to the extreme confines of continental ,asia4 ,as this most northerly river of the ,old ,world lies far beyond the boundaries of arboreal growth1 a boat-frame of twelve feet on the keel had to be made at ,koronnoie before setting out4 ,brandt was left behind with part of the company1 to make a prolonged series of meteorological observations1 and to gather as complete a collection as possible of the animals and plants of the country1 while ,middendorff started on his adventurous tour 7,may #ai7 with sixty-eight reindeer1 under the guidance of a few ,samoedes on their progress to the north1 and accompanied only by the topographer1 an interpreter1 and two ,cossacks4 ,the difficulties of this journey1 since a boat-frame1 fuel1 provisions1 physical instruments1 apparatuses for the preservation of objects of natural history1 forming altogether a load for many sledges1 had to be transported along with the travellers1 would have been great at all times1 but were now considerably increased by the epidemic having also seized the tribe of ,samoedes which ,middendorff expected to find near the small ,river ,nowaia1 and which was to guide him farther on to the ,taimur4 ,at length1 after a search of three days1 he found the remnant of the horde1 which had been decimated and reduced to a deplorable condition by the epidemic4 ,in vain he sought for the well-known faces of the chief personages of the horde1 with whom he had negotiated on the ,boganida--8they were all dead40 ,of thirty-five persons1 one only was completely healthy2 a second could hardly crawl about2 but the others lay prostrate in their tents1 coughing and groaning under their skin coverings4 ,leaving seven corpses on the road1 they had advanced by slow journeys to join ,middendorff1 until they broke down1 so that instead of receiving aid at their hands1 he was now obliged to help them in their distress--an assistance which they amply repaid1 as we shall see in the sequel4 ,unfortunately the illness had prevented the ,samoede women from sewing together1 as they had promised1 the skins that were necessary to complete the covering of the travellers' tent1 so that they had much to suffer during a violent snow-storm1 which raged from ,may #bg to #cj4 ,thus after another long delay and an irreparable loss of time1 considering the extreme shortness of the summer1 ,middendorff was not able to start from the ,nowaia before ,may #ca4 ,the softening of the snow rendered the advance of the sledges extremely difficult1 so that it was not before ,june #ad that he reached the ,taimur at a considerable distance above the point where the river discharges its waters into the lake4 ,encamping on a steep declivity of its bank1 ,middendorff now set about building his boat4 ,on ,june #cj the ice on the river began to break up1 and on ,july #e the navigation of the stream was free4 ,by the light of the midnight sun the boat was launched1 and christened 8,the ,tundra10 to commemorate the difficulties of its construction in the deserts of #gd ,n4 lat4 ,constant north winds retarded the voyage down the river and over the lake1 beyond which the ,taimur1 traversing a hilly country1 is inclosed within steep and picturesque rocks4 ,the increasing rapidity of the stream now favored the travellers1 and the storms were less troublesome between the mighty rock-walls2 but unfortunately ,middendorff1 instead of being able1 as he had expected1 to fill his nets with fish as he advanced1 and to establish dpts for his return journey1 found himself obliged to consume the provisions he had taken with him in the boat4 ,on ,august #f the first night-frost took place1 and from that time was regularly repeated4 ,yet in spite of these warnings1 ,middendorff continued his journey down the river1 and reached the sea on ,august #bd1 in #gf ,n4 lat4 ,but now it was high time to return4 8,the fear of leaving my undertaking half unfinished10 says ,middendorff1 8had hitherto encouraged me to persevere4 ,the great distance from any human habitation1 the rapid stream1 against which we had now to contend1 and the advanced season1 with its approaching dark nights and frosts1 made our return an imperative necessity1 and ,i could have but little reliance on our remaining strength4 ,the insufficient food and the fatigues of our journey1 often prolonged to extreme exhaustion1 had reduced our vigor1 and we all began to feel the effects of our frequent wading through cold water1 when1 as often happened1 our boat had grounded upon a shallow1 or when the flat mud-banks of the river gave us no other alternative for reaching the dry land4 ,it was now also the second month since we had not slept under a tent1 having all the time passed the nights behind a screen erected on the oars of the boat1 as a shelter against the wind4 ,provided with a good load of drift-wood1 collected on the shore of the ,polar ,ocean1 we began our return voyage on ,august #bf4 ,the borders of the river were already incrusted with ice4 ,wading became extremely irksome1 the river having meanwhile fallen above six feet1 and the shallows frequently forcing us to step into the water and pull the boat along4 8,fortunately the wind remained favorable1 and thus by rowing to the utmost of our strength1 and with the assistance of the broad sails of our #8,tundra1' we surmounted two rapids which1 encased between abrupt rocks1 seemed to defy our utmost efforts4 8,on the #cast1 a malicious gust of wind1 bursting out of a narrow gorge1 threw our boat against the rocks and broke the rudder4 ,the frost and wet1 together with the shortness of our provisions1 tried us sorely4 ,not a day passed without sleet and snow4 8,on ,september #e1 while endeavoring to double during a violent storm a rocky island at the northern extremity of ,lake ,taimur1 one wave after another dashed into the boat1 which ,i could only save by letting her run upon a sand-bank4 ,the violent wind1 with a temperature of only #bg at noon1 covered our clothes with solid ice-crusts4 ,we were obliged to halt four days till the storm ceased2 our nets and my double-barrelled gun proved daily more and more unsuccessful1 so that hunger combined with cold to render our situation almost intolerable4 ,on the #hth1 while on the lookout for ptarmigan1 ,i saw through my telescope a long stripe of silver stretching over the lake1 and1 returning to my comrades1 informed them that we must absolutely set off again the next morning1 regardless of wind and weather4 8,on the following day the ominous indications of the telescope rendered it necessary to approach the more open west side of the lake2 which ,i followed until stopped by the ice1 along whose borders ,i then sailed in order to reach the river1 which must still be open4 ,meanwhile the wind had completely fallen1 and1 to our astonishment1 we saw the water in our wake cover itself with a thin crust of ice as soon as we passed4 ,the danger of freezing fast in the middle of the lake was evident40 ,unfortunately1 while endeavoring to reach the river1 the boat was crushed between two ice floes1 and was with great difficulty dragged on shore4 ,the only chance of rescue now was to meet with some ,samoedes on the upper course of the river1 for these nomads never wander northward beyond the southern extremity of the lake1 and from this our travellers were still at a great distance4 8,we made a large hand-sledge10 continues ,middendorff1 8and set off without loss of time on the #ajth1 in spite of the rainy weather1 which had completely dissolved the sparing snow upon the hills4 ,the sharp stones cut into our sledge-runners like knives1 and after having scarcely made three versts1 the vehicle fell to pieces4 ,the bad weather forced us to stop for the night4 ,the fatigues of our boat-journey1 the want of proper food1 and mental anxiety1 had for several weeks been undermining my health3 a total want of sleep destroyed the remainder of my strength1 so that1 early on the #aath1 ,i felt myself quite unable to proceed40 ,in this extremity ,middendorff adopted with heroic self-denial the best and only means for his own preservation and that of his comrades4 ,if1 by departing without loss of time1 they were fortunate enough to reach the ,samoedes before these nomads had left the ,taimur country for the south1 he also might be rescued2 if they found them very late1 they at least might expect to save their lives2 if the ,samoedes could not be found1 then of course the whole party was doomed4 ,thus ,middendorff resolved to separate at once from his comrades4 ,a remnant of flesh extract1 reserved for extreme cases1 was divided into five equal portions2 the naturalist's dog1 the faithful companion of all his previous journeys1 was killed1 though reduced to a mere skeleton1 and his scanty flesh similarly distributed among the party4 ,the blood and a soup made of the bones served for the parting repast4 ,thus of his own free-will1 the winter having already set in1 ,middendorff1 ill and exhausted1 remained quite alone in the icy desert1 behind a sheltering rock1 in #ge ,n4 lat41 several hundred versts from all human dwellings1 almost without fuel1 and with a miserable supply of food4 ,the three first days he was still able to move4 ,he saw the lake cover itself completely with ice1 and the last birds depart for the south4 ,then his strength utterly failed him1 and for the next three days he was unable to stir4 ,when he was again able to move1 he felt an excessive thirst4 ,he crawled to the lake1 broke the ice1 and the water refreshed him4 ,but he was not yet free from disease1 and this was fortunate1 as want of appetite did not make him feel the necessity of food4 ,now followed a succession of terrible snow-storms1 which completely imprisoned the solitary traveller1 but at the same time afforded him a better shelter against the wind4 8,my companions10 he writes in a letter to a relation1 8had now left me twelve days2 human assistance could no longer be expected2 ,i was convinced that ,i had only myself to rely upon1 that ,i was doomed1 and as good as numbered with1 the dead4 ,and yet my courage did not forsake me4 ,like our squirrels1 ,i turned myself according to the changes of the wind4 ,during the long sleepless nights fancy opened her domains1 and ,i forgot even hunger and thirst4 ,then ,boreas broke roaring out of the gullies as if he intended to sweep me away into the skies1 and in a short time ,i was covered with a comfortable snow-mantle4 ,thus ,i lay three days1 thinking of wretches who had been immured alive1 and grown mad in their dreadful prison4 ,an overwhelming fear of insanity befell me--it oppressed my heart--it became insupportable4 ,in vain ,i attempted to cast it off--my weakened brain could grasp no other idea4 ,and now suddenly--like a ray of light from heaven--the saving thought flashed upon me4 8,my last pieces of wood were quickly lighted--some water was thawed and warmed--,i poured into it the spirits from a flask containing a specimen of natural history1 and drank4 ,a new life seemed to awaken in me2 my thoughts returned again to my family1 to the happy days ,i had spent with the friends of my youth4 ,soon ,i fell into a profound sleep--how long it lasted ,i know not--but on awakening ,i felt like another man1 and my breast was filled with gratitude4 ,appetite returned with recovery1 and ,i was reduced to eat leather and birch-bark1 when a ptarmigan fortunately came within reach of my gun4 ,having thus obtained some food for the journey1 ,i resolved1 although still very feeble1 to set out and seek the provisions we had buried4 ,packing some articles of dress1 my gun and ammunition1 my journal1 etc41 on my small hand-sledge1 ,i proceeded slowly1 and frequently resting4 ,at noon ,i saw1 on a well-known declivity of the hills1 three black spots which ,i had not previously noticed1 and as they changed their position1 ,i at once altered my route to join them4 ,we approached each other--and1 judge of my delight1 it was ,trischun1 the ,samoede chieftain1 whom ,i had previously assisted in the prevailing epidemic1 and who now1 guided by one of my companions1 had set out with three sledges to seek me4 ,eager to serve his benefactor1 the grateful savage had made his reindeer wander without food over a space of #aej versts where no moss grew4 8,i now heard that my companions had fortunately reached the ,samoedes four days after our separation2 but the dreadful snow-storms had prevented the nomads from coming sooner to my assistance1 and had even forced them twice to retrace their steps4 8,on ,september #cj the ,samoedes brought me to my tent1 and on ,october #i we bade the ,taimur an eternal farewell4 ,after five months we hailed with delight1 on ,october #bj1 the verge of the forest1 and on the following day we reached the smoky hut on the ,boganida1 where we had left our friends40 ,having thus accompanied ,middendorff on his adventurous wanderings through ,taimuria1 ,i will now give a brief account of his observations on the climate and natural productions of this northern land4 ,the remark of ,saussure that the difference of temperature between light and shade is greatest in summer1 and in the high latitudes1 was fully confirmed by ,middendorff4 ,while the thermometer marked -#cg in the shade1 the hillsides exposed to the sun were dripping with wet1 and towards the end of ,june1 though the mean temperature of the air was still below the freezing-point of water1 the snow had already entirely disappeared on the sunny side of the ,taimur ,river4 ,torrents came brawling down the hills2 the swollen rivers rose forty or sixty feet above their winter level1 and carried their icy covering along with them to the sea4 ,on ,august #c1 in the very middle of the short ,taimurian summer1 in #gd #ae of latitude1 ,middendorff hunted butterflies under the shelter of a hill1 bare-footed and in light under-clothes4 ,the thermometer rose in the sun to #fh1 and close to the ground to #hf1 while at a short distance on a spot exposed to the north-eastern air-current it fell at once to #bg4 ,the moisture of the air was very remarkable4 ,in ,may thick snow-fogs almost perpetually obscured the atmosphere1 so that it was impossible to ascertain the position of the sun4 ,it appeared only in the evening1 or about midnight1 and then regularly a perpendicular column of luminous whiteness descended from its orb to the earth1 and1 widening as it approached the horizon1 took the form and the appearance of a colossal lamp-flame1 such as the latter appears when seen through the mists of a vapor bath4 ,from the same cause parhelia and halos were very frequent4 ,during the daytime the snow-fogs1 in perpetual motion1 either entirely veiled the nearest objects1 or magnified their size1 or exhibited them in a dancing motion4 ,in ,june the snow-fog became a vapor-fog1 which daily from time to time precipitated its surplus of moisture in form of a light rain1 but even then the nights1 particularly after eleven o'clock1 were mostly serene4 ,experience proved1 contrary to ,arago's opinion1 that thunder-storms take place within the ,arctic zone4 ,the perpetual motion of the air was very remarkable4 ,the sun had merely to disappear behind a cloud to produce at once a gust of wind4 ,towards the end of ,august1 the southern and the northern air-currents1 like two contending giants1 began to strive for the mastery1 until finally the storms raged with extreme violence4 ,but in these treeless deserts their fury finds nothing to destroy4 ,it is impossible to form any thing like a correct estimate of the quantity of snow which annually falls in the highest latitudes4 ,so much is certain that it can not be small1 to judge by the violence and swelling of the rivers in spring4 ,the summits of the hills1 and the declivities exposed to the reigning winds1 are constantly deprived of snow1 which1 however1 fills up the bottom of the valleys to a considerable height4 ,great was ,middendorff's astonishment1 while travelling over the tundra at the end of winter1 to find it covered with no more than two inches1 or at the very utmost half a foot1 of snow2 the dried stems of the ,arctic plants everywhere peeping forth above its surface4 ,this was the natural consequence of the north-easterly storms1 which1 sweeping over the naked plain1 carry the snow along with them1 and form the snow-waves1 the compass of the northern nomads4 ,it is extremely probable that1 on advancing towards the pole1 the fall of snow gradually diminishes1 as in the ,alps1 where its quantity likewise decreases on ascending above a certain height4 ,on measuring the thickness of the ice1 ,middendorff was very much surprised to find it nowhere1 both in the lakes and on the river1 thicker than eight feet1 and sometimes only four and a half2 its thickness being constantly proportionate to the quantity of snow with which it was covered4 ,at first he could hardly believe that this simple covering could afford so efficacious a protection against the extreme cold of winter in the #gdth degree of latitude1 but the fact is well known to the ,samoedes1 who1 whenever they require water1 always make the hole where the snow lies deepest4 ,the tundras of ,taimuria were found to consist principally of arid plateaux and undulating heights1 where the vegetation can not conceal the boulders and the sand of which the crust of the earth is formed4 ,the withered tips of the grasses scarcely differ in color from the dirty yellow-brown moss1 and the green of the lower part of the stalks appears as through a veil4 ,nothing can be of a more dreary monotony than this vegetation when spread over a wide surface2 but in the hardly perceptible depressions of the plains where the spring water is able to collect1 a fresher green gains the upper hand1 the stalks are not only longer1 but stand closer together1 and the grass1 growing to a height of three or even four inches1 usurps the place of the moss4 ,here and there small patches of ,dryas octopetala1 or ,cassiope tetragona1 and much more rarely a dwarf ranunculus1 diversify the dingy carpet1 yet without being able to relieve its wearisome character4 ,but very different1 and indeed truly surprising1 is the aspect of the slopes which1 facing the ,taimur lake or river1 are protected against the late and early frosts4 ,here considerable patches of ground are covered with a lively green1 intermingled with gayly-colored flowers1 such as the brilliant yellow ,sieversia1 the elegant ,oxytropis1 the blue and white ,saxifragas1 the red ,armeria alpina1 and a beautiful new species of ,delphinium4 ,all these various flowers are not dwarfs of stunted growth1 for ,polemones1 ,sisymbrias1 ,polygonums1 and ,papavers above a foot high decorate the slopes1 and ,middendorff found an islet in the ,taimur covered like a field with a ,senecio1 of which some of the most conspicuous specimens were more than a foot and a half high1 and bore no less than forty flowers above an inch in diameter4 ,the progress of vegetation is uncommonly rapid1 so that1 as ,middendorff remarks1 if any one wishes to see the grass grow1 he must travel to the ,taimur4 ,scarcely do the first leaves peep forth when the blossoms also appear1 as if1 conscious of the early approach of autumn1 they felt the necessity of bringing their seeds to a rapid maturity under this wintry sky4 ,with regard to the animal creation1 the general law of polar uniformity was fully confirmed in ,taimurland4 ,the same lemmings were found which people the whole north of ,asia and ,america1 and as high as #ge ,n4 lat4 they found the traces of the snow-hare1 which inhabits the complete circle of the ,arctic regions of the globe4 ,the ,arctic fox1 everywhere at home in the treeless wastes1 is here also pursued by the northern glutton2 and following the herds of the reindeer1 the wolves1 and the ,samoedes1 roams up and down the tundra4 ,the ptarmigan1 which in ,scandinavia and on ,melville ,island feeds on berries and buds1 appears also as a summer visitor at the mouth of the ,taimur in #ge #d ,n4 lat41 and the ivory gull of the northern ,european seas likewise builds its nest on the rocks of that distant shore4 ,the more vigorous vegetation on the sheltered declivities of the ,taimur provides food for a comparatively greater number of insects than is found on the coasts of ,nova ,zembla4 ,bees1 hornets1 and three different species of butterflies1 buzzed or hovered round the flowers1 and caterpillars could be gathered by dozens on the tundra1 but their mortal enemies had pursued them even here2 and ichneumon flies crept out of most of them4 ,two spiders1 several flies1 gnats1 and tipul1 a curculio1 and half a dozen carabi completed ,middendorff's entomological list1 to which1 no doubt1 further researches would have considerably added4 ,thus1 at the northern extremity of ,asia1 as in every other part of the world1 the naturalist finds the confirmation of the general law that1 where the means of life are given1 life is sure to come forth4 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,the ,,jakuts4 ,their energetic ,nationality4--,their ,descent4--,their gloomy ,character4--,summer and ,winter ,dwellings4--,the ,jakut ,horse4-- ,incredible ,powers of ,endurance of the ,jakuts4--,their ,sharpness of ,vision4--,surprising local ,memory4--,their manual ,dexterity4-- ,leather1 ,poniards1 ,carpets4--,jakut ,gluttons4--,superstitious ,fear of the ,mountain-spirit ,ljeschei4--,offerings of ,horse-hair4-- ,improvised ,songs4--,the ,river ,jakut4 ,the ,jakuts are a remarkably energetic race1 for though subject to the ,muscovite yoke1 they not only successfully maintain their language and manners1 but even impose their own tongue and customs upon the ,russians who have settled in their country4 ,thus in ,jakutsk1 or the 8capital of the ,jakuts10 as with not a little of national pride and self-complacency they style that dreary city1 their language is much more frequently spoken than the ,russian1 for almost all the artisans are ,jakuts1 and even the rich fur-merchant has not seldom a ,jakut wife1 as no ,russian now disdains an alliance with one of that nation4 ,at ,amginskoie1 an originally ,russian settlement1 ,middendorff found the greatest difficulty in procuring a guide able to speak the ,russian language1 and all the ,tunguse whom he met with between ,jakutsk and ,ochotsk understood and spoke ,jakut1 which is thus the dominant language from the basin of the ,lena to the extreme eastern confines of ,siberia4 ,in truth1 no ,russian workman can compete with the ,jakuts1 whose cunning and effrontery would make it difficult even for a ,jew to prosper among them4 ,though of a ,mongolian physiognomy1 their language1 which is said to be intelligible at ,constantinople1 distinctly points to a ,turk extraction1 and their traditions speak of their original seats as situated on the ,baikal and ,angora1 whence1 retreating before more powerful hordes1 they advanced to the ,lena1 where in their turn they dispossessed the weaker tribes which they found in possession of the country4 ,at present their chief abode is along the banks of that immense river1 which they occupy at least as far southward as the ,aldan4 ,eastward they are found on the ,kolyma1 and westward as far as the ,jenissei4 ,their total number amounts to about #bjj1jjj1 and they form the chief part of the population of the vast but almost desert province of ,jakutsk4 ,they are essentially a pastoral people1 and their chief wealth consists in horses and cattle1 though the northern portion of their nation is reduced to the reindeer and the dog4 ,besides the breeding of horses1 the ,russian fur-trade has developed an industrial form of the hunter's state1 so that among the ,jakuts property accumulates1 and we have a higher civilization than will be found elsewhere in the same latitude1 ,iceland1 ,finland1 and ,norway alone excepted4 ,of an unsocial and reserved disposition1 they prefer a solitary settlement1 but at the same time they are very hospitable1 and give the stranger who claims their assistance a friendly welcome4 ,villages consisting of several huts1 or yourts1 are rare1 and found only between ,jakutsk and the ,aldan1 where the population is somewhat denser4 ,beyond the ,werchojansk ridge the solitary huts are frequently several hundred versts apart1 so that the nearest neighbors sometimes do not see each other for years4 ,in summer the ,jakut herdsmen live in urossy1 light conical tents fixed on poles and covered with birch rind1 and during the whole season they are perpetually employed in making hay for the long winter4 ,in #fb ,n4 lat41 and in a climate of an almost unparalleled severity1 the rearing of their cattle causes them far more trouble than is the case with any other pastoral people4 ,their supply of hay is frequently exhausted before the end of the winter1 and from ,march to ,may their oxen must generally be content with willow and birch twigs or saplings4 ,illustration3 #hh4 ,a ,,jakut ,,village4 ,at the beginning of the cold season the ,jackut exchanges his summer tent for his warm winter residence1 or yourt1 a hut built of beams or logs1 in the form of a truncated pyramid1 and thickly covered with turf and clay4 ,plates of ice serve as windows1 and are replaced by fish-bladders or paper steeped in oil1 as soon as the thaw begins4 ,the earthen floor1 for it is but rarely boarded1 is generally sunk two or three feet below the surface of the ground4 ,the seats and sleeping berths are ranged along the sides1 and the centre is occupied by the tschuwal1 or hearth1 the smoke of which finds its exit through an aperture in the roof4 ,clothes and arms are suspended from the walls1 and the whole premises exhibit a sad picture of disorder and filth4 ,near the yourt are stables for the cows1 but when the cold is very severe1 these useful animals are received into the family room4 ,as for the horses1 they remain night and day without a shelter1 at a temperature when mercury freezes1 and are obliged to feed on the withered autumnal grass which they find under the snow4 ,these creatures1 whose powers of endurance are almost incredible1 change their hair in summer like the other quadrupeds of the ,arctic regions4 ,they keep their strength1 though travelling perhaps for months through the wilderness without any other food than the parched1 half-rotten grass met with on the way4 ,they retain their teeth to old age1 and remain young much longer than our horses4 8,he who thinks of improving the ,jakut horse10 says ,von ,middendorff1 8aims at something like perfection4 ,fancy the worst conceivable roads1 and for nourishment the bark of the larch and willow1 with hard grass-stalks instead of oats2 or merely travel on the post-road to ,jakutsk1 and see the horses that have just run forty versts without stopping1 and are covered with perspiration and foam1 eating their hay in the open air without the slightest covering1 at a temperature of -#dj40 ,but the ,jakut himself is no less hardened against the cold than his faithful horse4 8,on ,december #i10 says ,wrangell1 8we bivouacked round a fire1 at a temperature of -#bh1 on an open pasture-ground1 which afforded no shelter against the northern blast4 ,here ,i had an excellent opportunity for admiring the unparalleled powers of endurance of our ,jakut attendants4 ,on the longest winter journey they take neither tents nor extra covering along with them1 not even one of the larger fur-dresses4 ,while travelling1 the ,jakut contents himself with his usual dress2 in this he generally sleeps in the open air2 a horse rug stretched out upon the snow is his bed1 a wooden saddle his pillow4 ,with the same fur jacket1 which serves him by daytime as a dress1 and which he pulls off when he lies down for the night1 he decks his back and shoulders1 while the front part of his body is turned towards the fire almost without any covering4 ,he then stops his nose and ears with small pieces of skin1 and covers his face so as to leave but a small opening for breathing--these are all the precautions he takes against the severest cold4 ,even in ,siberia the ,jakuts are called #8men of iron4' ,often have ,i seen them sleeping at a temperature of -#d in the open air1 near an extinguished bivouac fire1 and with a thick ice-rind covering their almost unprotected body40 ,most of the ,jakuts have an incredible sharpness of vision4 ,one of them told ,lieutenant ,anjou1 pointing to the planet ,jupiter1 that he had often seen yonder blue star devour a smaller one1 and then after a time cast it out again4#ac ,their local memory is no less astonishing2 a pool of water1 a large stone1 a solitary bush imprints itself deeply into their remembrance1 and guides them after a lapse of years through the boundless wilderness4 ,in manual dexterity they surpass all other ,siberian nations1 and some of their articles1 such as their poniards and their leather1 might figure with credit in any ,european exhibition4 ,long before the ,russian conquest they made use of the iron ore on the ,wilui to manufacture their own knives and axes1 which1 either from the excellence of the material or of the workmanship1 rarely break1 even in the severest cold--a perfection which the best ,sheffield ware does not attain4 ,since time immemorial they have been acquainted with the art of striking fire with flint and steel1 an invention unknown even to the ancient ,greeks and ,romans4 ,their leather is perfectly water-tight1 and the women make carpets of white and colored skins1 which are even exported to ,europe4 ,it is almost superfluous to mention that a people so capable of bearing hardships1 so sharp-witted1 and so eager for gain as the ,jakuts must needs pursue the fur-bearing animals with which their forests abound with untiring zeal and a wonderful dexterity4 ,the horse renders the ,jakut services not less important than those of the reindeer to the ,samoede or the ,lapp4 ,besides using it for carrying or riding1 the ,jakut makes articles of dress out of its skin1 and fishing-nets of its hair2 boiled horse-meat is his favorite food1 and sour mare's milk1 or kumyss1 his chief beverage4 ,of the latter he also makes a thick porridge1 or salamat1 by mixing it with rye-flour1 or the inner rind of the larch or fir tree1 to which he frequently adds dried fish and berries1 and1 to render it perfect1 a quantity of rancid fat1 of which he is immoderately fond4 ,he is in fact a gross feeder1 and some professional gluttons are capable of consuming such astonishing masses as to shame the appetite even of an ,esquimaux4 ,during his stay at ,jakutsk1 ,sir ,george ,simpson put the abilities of two distinguished artists to the test1 by setting two pouds of boiled beef and a poud of melted butter before them4 ,each of them got a poud of meat for his share2 the butter they were allowed to ladle out and drink ad libitum4 ,the one was old and experienced1 the other young and full of zeal4 ,at first the latter had the advantage4 8,his teeth are good10 said the elder champion1 8but with the assistance of my saint 7crossing himself71 ,i will soon come up to him40 ,when about half of their task was finished1 ,sir ,george left his noble guests to the care and inspection of his secretary1 but when he returned a few hours after1 he was informed that all was consumed1 while the champions1 stretched out on the floor1 confirmed the secretary's report1 and expressed their thanks for the exorbitant meal they had enjoyed by respectfully kissing the ground4 ,after one of these disgusting feats1 the gorged gluttons generally remain for three or four days plunged in a torpid state like boa snakes1 without eating or drinking1 and are frequently rolled about on the ground to promote digestion4 ,it may also be noticed1 as a proof of the low state of intellectual culture among the ,jakuts1 that at every wedding among the richer class two professed virtuosi in the art of gormandizing are regularly invited for the entertainment of the guests4 ,one of them is treated at the bridegroom's expense1 the other at that of the bride1 and the party whose champion gains the victory considers it as a good omen for the future4 ,the ,jakuts1 besides being a pre-eminently pastoral people1 are also the universal carriers to the east of the ,lena4 ,for beyond ,jakutsk1 the only roads are narrow paths leading through swamps1 dense forests1 or tangled bushes1 so that the horse affords the only means of reaching the more even and lower countries where reindeer or dogs can be attached to sledges4 ,without the ,jakut and his horse1 the ,russian would never have been able to penetrate to the ,sea of ,ochotsk1 and from thence to the ,aleutian chain2 but for him1 they never would have settled on the ,kolyma1 nor have opened a commercial intercourse with the ,tchuktchi and the western ,esquimaux4 ,before the possession of the ,amoor had opened a new road to commerce1 thousands of pack-horses used annually to cross the ,stanowoi hills on the way to ,ochotsk2 and when we consider the dreadful hardships of the journey1 we can not wonder that the road was more thickly strewn with the skeletons of fallen horses than the caravan routes through the desert with the bones of famished camels4 ,but the ,jakut fears neither the icy cold of the bivouac nor the pangs of hunger1 which1 in spite of his wolfish voracity1 he is able to support with stoical fortitude4 ,he fears neither the storm on the naked hill1 nor the gloom of the forest1 nor the depth of the morass2 and1 bidding defiance to every thing else1 fears only the invisible power of 8,ljeschei10 the spirit of the mountain and the wood4 ,the traveller wonders when he sees on an eminence crowned with firs an old tree from whose branches hang bunches of horse-hair4 ,the ,jakut who leads the caravan soon explains the mystery4 ,he dismounts1 and plucking a few hairs from the mane of his horse1 attaches them with a great show of respect to a branch1 as an offering to propitiate the favor of ,ljeschei on the journey4 ,even those ,jakuts who pass for ,christians still pay this mark of respect to the dethroned divinity of their fathers2 and there can be no doubt that they still retain the old belief in ,schamanism1 and an abject fear of all sorts of evil spirits4 ,while travelling they sing almost perpetually melancholy tunes1 corresponding with the habitual gloom of their national character4 ,the text has more variety and poetry1 and generally celebrates the beauties of nature1 the stately growth of the pine1 the murmuring of the brook1 or the grandeur of the mountain4 ,the singers are mostly improvisatores1 and to conciliate the favor of ,ljeschei1 they praise the desert through which they pass as if it were a paradise4 ,like the impoverished ,samoede or ,lapp1 the indigent ,jakut1 who possesses neither cattle nor horses1 settles near some stream4 ,his only domestic animal is his dog1 who carries the fish on a light sledge from the river-bank to his hut1 or follows him into the woods on his hunting expeditions4 ,with the skins of fur-bearing animals he pays his jassak1 and is glad if the surplus allows him to indulge from time to time in the luxury of a pipe of ,circassian tobacco4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,,wrangell4 ,his distinguished ,services as an ,arctic ,explorer4--,from ,petersburg to ,jakutsk in #ahbj4--,trade of ,jakutsk4--,from ,jakutsk to ,nishne-,kolymsk4--,the ,badarany4--,dreadful ,climate of ,nishne-,kolymsk4--,summer ,plagues4--,vegetation4--,animal ,life4-- ,reindeer-hunting4--,famine4--,inundatio ns4--,the ,siberian ,dog4-- ,first ,journeys over the ,ice of the ,polar ,sea1 and ,exploration of the ,coast beyond ,cape ,shelagskoi in #ahba4--;,dreadful ,dangers and ,hardships4--,matiuschkin's ,sledge-journey over the ,polar ,sea in #ahbb4--,last ,adventures on the ,polar ,sea4--,a ,run for ,life4-- ,return to ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,the expeditions which had been sent out during the reign of the ,empress ,anna for the exploration of the ,arctic shores of ,eastern ,siberia1 had performed their task so badly as to leave them still almost totally unknown4 ,to fill up this blank in geography1 the ,emperor ,alexander ordered two new expeditions to be fitted out in #ahbj for the purpose of accurately ascertaining the limits of these extreme frontiers of his immense empire4 ,of the one which1 under ,lieutenant ,anjou1 commenced its operations from the mouth of the ,jana1 and comprised within its range ,new ,siberia and the other islands of the ,lchow group1 but little has been communicated to the public1 all his papers having been accidentally burned2 but the travels of ,lieutenant von ,wrangell1 the commander of the second expedition1 have obtained a world-wide celebrity4 ,starting from the mouths of the ,kolyma1 he not only rectified the errors of the coast-line of ,siberia1 from the ,indigirka in the west to ,koliutschin ,island in the east1 but more than once ventured in a sledge upon the ,polar ,ocean1 in the hopes of discovering a large country supposed to be situated to the northward of ,kotelnoi and ,new ,siberia4 ,wrangell left ,st4 ,petersburg on ,march #bc1 #ahbj1 and experiencing in his journey of #cejj miles repeated alternations of spring and winter1 arrived at ,irkutsk1 where the gardens were in full flower1 on ,may #bj4 ,after a month's rest1 a short journey brought him to the banks of the ,lena1 on which he embarked on ,june #bg1 to descend to ,jakutsk1 which he reached on ,july #bg4 ,this small town of #djjj inhabitants bears the gloomy stamp of the frigid north1 for though it has a few good houses1 its dwellings chiefly consist of the winter yourts of the ,jakuts1 with turf-covered roofs1 doors of skins1 and windows of talc or ice4 ,the only 8sight0 of this dreary place is the old ruinous ostrog or wooden fort built by the ,cossacks1 the conquerors of the country1 in #afdg4 ,jakutsk is the centre of the interior trade of ,siberia4 ,to this place are brought1 in enormous quantities1 furs of all kinds1 walrus-teeth1 and mammoth-tusks1 from distances of many thousand versts1 to an amount of half a million pounds4 ,the commercial sphere of the ,jakutsk merchants is of an immense extent4 ,during a cold of ten and twenty degrees they set out for the ,lchow ,isles1 for the fair of ,ostrownoje1 for ,ochotsk1 or ,kjachta4 ,jakutsk merchants were the first who ventured in crazy ships across the ,sea of ,kamchatka1 and discovered the island of ,kadjiak1 eighty degrees of longitude from their home4 ,on ,september #ab ,wrangell left ,jakutsk1 where regular travelling ends1 as from thence to ,kolymsk1 and generally throughout ,northern ,siberia1 there are no beaten roads4 ,the utmost that can be looked for are foot or horse tracks leading through morasses or tangled forests1 and over rocks and mountains4 ,travellers proceed on horseback through the hilly country1 and1 on reaching the plains1 use sledges drawn either by reindeer or dogs4 ,in this manner ,wrangell crossed from the basin of the ,lena to that of the ,yana1 never experiencing a higher temperature than #b1 and frequently enduring a cold of more than -#ab1 during the journey over the intervening hills1 and then turning eastward1 traversed the ,badarany1 a completely uninhabited desert1 chiefly consisting of swamps4 ,these ,badarany never entirely dry up1 even after the longest summer-drought4 ,at that time a solid crust is formed1 through which the horses frequently break1 but they are preserved from totally sinking in the mire by the perpetually frozen underground4 ,nothing can be more dismal and dreary than the ,badarany4 ,as far as the eye reaches1 nothing is to be seen but a covering of dingy moss1 relieved here and there on some more elevated spots by wretched specimens of dwarf-larches4 ,the winter is the only season for traversing this treacherous waste1 but woe to the traveller should he be overtaken by a snow-storm1 as for miles and miles there is no shelter to be found but that of some ruinous powarni1 or post-station4 ,at length1 fifty-two days after leaving ,jakutsk1 ,wrangell arrived on ,november #b at ,nishne-,kolymsk1 the appointed head-quarters of the expedition1 where he was welcomed with a cold of -#dj1 or #gb below the freezing-point of water4 ,even in ,siberia the climate of this place is ill-reputed for its severity1 which is as much due to its unfavorable position as to its high latitude 7#fh ,n474 ,the town stands on a low swampy island of the ,kolyma1 having on the west the barren tundra1 and on the north the ,arctic ,ocean1 so that the almost constant north-west winds have full scope for their violence1 and cause frequent snow-storms even in summer4 ,the mean temperature of the whole year is only #ad4 ,the river at ,nishne-,kolymsk freezes early in ,september1 but lower down1 where the current is less rapid1 loaded horses can sometimes cross on the ice as early as ,august #bj1 nor does the ice ever melt before ,june4 ,although the sun remains fifty-two days above the horizon1 the light1 obscured by almost perpetual mists1 is accompanied with little heat1 and the solar disc1 compressed by refraction into an elliptical form1 may be looked at with the naked eye without inconvenience4 ,in spite of the constant light1 the common order of the parts of the day is plainly discernible4 ,when the sun sinks down to the horizon1 all nature is mute2 but when1 after a few hours1 it rises in the skies1 every thing awakens1 the few little birds break out in feeble twitter1 and the shrivelled flowers venture to open their petals4 ,although winter and summer are in reality the only seasons1 yet the inhabitants fancy they have spring when about noon the rays of the sun begin to make themselves felt1 which generally takes place about the middle of ,march1 but this so-called spring has frequent night-frosts of twenty degrees4 ,their autumn is reckoned from the time when the rivers begin to freeze over1 that is1 from the first days of ,september1 when a cold of thirty degrees is already by no means uncommon4 ,as may easily be supposed in a climate like this1 the vegetation of summer is scarcely more than a struggle for existence4 ,in the latter end of ,may the stunted willow-bushes put out little wrinkled leaves1 and those banks which slope towards the south become clothed with a semi-verdant hue2 in ,june the temperature at noon attains #gb2 the flowers show themselves1 and the berry-bearing plants blossom1 when sometimes an icy blast from the sea destroys the bloom4 ,the air is clearest in ,july1 and the temperature is usually mild1 but then a new plague arises for the torment of man4 ,millions and millions of mosquitoes issue from the swamps of the tundra1 and compel the inhabitants to seek refuge in the dense and pungent smoke of the 8dymokury10 or large heaps of fallen leaves and damp wood1 which are kindled near the dwellings and on the pasture-grounds1 as the only means of keeping off those abominable insects4 ,these tormentors1 however1 are not without use1 for they compel the reindeer to migrate from the forests to the sea-shore and the ice1 thus exposing them to the attack of the hunters1 and they also prevent the horses from straying in the plains1 and wandering beyond the protection of the smoke4 ,scarcely is the mosquito plague at an end1 when the dense autumn fogs rising from the sea spoil the enjoyment of the last mild hours which precede the nine months' winter4 ,in ,january the cold increases to -#de2 breathing then becomes difficult2 the wild reindeer1 the indigenous inhabitant of the ,polar region1 withdraws to the thickest part of the forest1 and stands there motionless1 as if deprived of life4 ,with the #bb;d ,november begins a night of thirty-eight days1 relieved in some degree by the strong refraction and the white of the snow1 as well as by the moon and the aurora4 ,on the #bhth ,december the first pale glimmering of dawn appears1 which even at noon does not obscure the stars4 ,with the re-appearance of the sun the cold increases1 and is most intense in ,february and ,march at the rising of the sun4 ,even in winter completely clear days are very rare1 as the cold sea-wind covers the land with mists and fogs4 ,the character of the vegetation corresponds with that of the climate4 ,moss1 stunted grass1 dwarfish willow-shrubs1 are all that the place produces4 ,the neighboring valleys of the ,aniuj1 protected by mountains against the sea-wind1 have a somewhat richer flora1 for here grow berry-bearing plants1 the birch1 the poplar1 absinthe1 thyme1 and the low-creeping cedar4 ,this poverty1 however1 of the vegetable world is strongly contrasted with the profusion of animal life over these shores and on the ,polar ,sea4 ,reindeer1 elks1 bears1 foxes1 sables1 and gray squirrels fill the upland forests1 while stone-foxes burrow in the low grounds4 ,enormous flights of swans1 geese1 and ducks arrive in spring1 and seek deserts where they may moult and build their nests in safety4 ,eagles1 owls1 and gulls pursue their prey along the sea-coast2 ptarmigan run in troops among the bushes2 little snipes are busy among the brooks4 ,in the morasses the crows gather round the huts of the natives2 and when the sun shines in spring1 the traveller may even sometimes hear the note of the finch1 and in autumn that of the thrush4 ,but the landscape remains dreary and dead2 all denotes that here the limits of the habitable earth are passed1 and one asks with astonishment what could induce human beings to take up their abode in so comfortless a region8 ,in the district of ,kolymsk1 which surpasses in size many a ,european kingdom1 the population1 at the time of ,wrangell's visit1 consisted of #cbe ,russians1 #ajcd ,jakuts1 and #aaci ,jukahires of the male sex1 of whom #bagc had to pay the jassak1 consisting of #hjc fox and #bh sable skins1 worth #fgjd roubles1 besides which they were taxed to the amount of #aj1hdg roubles in money4 ,thus the ,russian double-eagle made1 and no doubt still makes1 the poor people of ,kolymsk pay rather dear for the honor of living under the protection of its talons4 ,the ,cossacks1 in virtue of their descent from the original conquerors of the country1 enjoy the enviable privilege of being tax free2 they are1 however1 obliged to render military service when required4 ,they form the small garrison of ,nishne-,kolymsk1 and every year twenty-five of them repair to the fair of ,ostrownoje1 to keep the wild ,tchuktchi in check4 ,the ,russians are chiefly the descendants of fur-hunters or of exiles2 and though they have adopted the native clothing and mode of life1 they are still distinguishable by their more muscular frame4 ,the women1 who are somewhat better-looking than the female ,jakuts and ,jukahires1 are fond of music1 and their traditional songs dwell on the beauties of nature--the rustling brook1 the flowery mead1 the nightingale's note--all things belonging to a world of which they have no idea4 ,the dwellings of the ,russians are hardly to be distinguished from the yourts of the native tribes4 ,they are made of drift-wood1 and1 as may easily be imagined1 are very small and low4 ,the interstices are carefully stopped up with moss1 and the outside is covered with a thick layer of clay4 ,an external mud wall rises to the height of the roof to keep off the wind4 ,in a hut like this ,wrangell spent many a winter month1 but when the cold was very intense1 he was not able to lay aside any part of his fur clothing1 though sitting close to a large fire4 ,when he wanted to write he had to keep the inkstand in hot water2 and at night1 when the fire was allowed to go out for a short time1 his bedclothes were always covered with a thick snow-like rime4 ,the existence of the people of ,kolymsk depends upon fishing and hunting1 in which they are assisted by their dogs4 ,these faithful1 but cruelly-treated animals1 are said to resemble the wolf1 having long1 pointed1 projecting noses1 sharp and upright ears1 and long bushy tails4 ,their color is black1 brown1 reddish-brown1 white1 and spotted1 their howling that of a wolf4 ,in summer they dig holes in the ground for coolness1 or lie in the water to escape the mosquitoes2 in winter they burrow in the snow1 and lie curled up1 with their noses covered with their bushy tails4 ,the preparation of these animals for a journey must be carefully attended to2 for a fortnight at least they should be put on a small allowance of hard food1 to convert their superfluous fat into firm flesh2 they must also be driven from ten to twenty miles daily1 after which they have been known to travel a hundred miles a day without being injured by it4 ,a team consists commonly of twelve dogs1 and it is of importance that they should be accustomed to draw together4 ,the quick and steady going of the team1 as well as the safety of the traveller1 mainly depends on the docility and sagacity of the foremost dog or leader4 ,no pains are therefore spared in his education1 so that he may understand and obey his master's orders1 and prevent the rest from starting off in pursuit of the stone-foxes or other animals that may chance to cross their path4 ,their usual food is frozen fish1 and ten good herrings are said to be a proper daily allowance for each dog while on duty4 ,when not actively employed1 they are obliged to content themselves with offal1 and towards spring1 when the winter's provisions are generally exhausted1 they suffer the keenest hunger4 ,this season is also a hard time for the wandering tribes of the neighborhood4 ,then they flock to ,nishne-,kolymsk1 and to the other ,russian settlements on the ,kolyma1 but here also famine stares them in the face4 ,there is1 indeed1 a public corn magazine1 but the price of flour is raised by the cost of transport to such an exorbitant height1 as to be completely beyond the reach of the majority of the people4 ,three such dreadful springs did ,wrangell pass at ,kolymsk1 witnessing scenes of misery never to be forgotten4 ,but when the distress of the people has reached its highest point1 relief is generally at hand4 ,troops of migratory birds come from the south1 and furnish some food for the despairing population4 ,the supply is increased in ,june1 when the ice breaks on the ,kolyma1 for in spite of the faultiness of the nets and the want of skill of the fishermen1 the river is the principal source of plenty during the summer1 and supplies1 moreover1 the chief provisions for the following winter4 ,but with these gifts the ,kolyma brings the plague of inundations1 so that during the summer of #ahbb ,wrangell was obliged to spend a whole week on the flat roof of his hut4 ,the chief resource of the ,jukahires of the ,river ,aniuj is the reindeer chase1 the success of which mainly decides whether famine or some degree of comfort is to be their lot during the coming winter4 ,the passage of the reindeer takes place twice a year2 in spring1 when the mosquitoes compel them to seek the sea-shore1 where they feed on the moss of the tundra1 and in autumn1 when the increasing cold forces them to retire from the coast4 ,the spring migration1 which begins about the middle of ,may1 is not very profitable1 partly because the animals are meagre1 and their furs in bad condition1 and partly because it is more difficult to kill them as they pass the frozen rivers4 ,the chief hunting is in ,august and ,september1 when the herds1 consisting each of several thousand deer1 return to the forests4 ,they invariably cross the river at a particular spot1 where a flat sandy bank makes their landing easier2 and here they press more closely together1 under the guidance of the strongest animals of the herd4 ,the passage takes place after some hesitation1 and in a few minutes the river is covered with swimming reindeer4 ,the hunters1 hidden in creeks or behind stones and bushes1 now shoot forth in their small boats and wound as many as they can4 ,while they are thus busy1 they run some risk of being overturned in the turmoil1 for the bucks defend themselves with their horns1 their teeth1 and their hind legs1 while the roes generally attempt to spring with their fore feet upon the edge of the boat4 ,when the hunter is thus overset1 his only chance of safety is to cling to a strong animal1 which safely brings him to the shore4 ,but the dexterity of the hunters renders such accidents rare4 ,a good hunter will kill a hundred reindeer and more in half an hour4 ,in the mean time the other boats seize the killed animals1 which become their property1 while those that are merely wounded and swim ashore belong to the hunters1 who1 in the midst of the tumult1 where all their energies are taxed to the utmost1 direct their strokes in such a manner as only severely to wound the larger animals4 ,the noise of the horns striking against each other1 the waters tinged with blood1 the cries of the hunters1 the snorting of the affrighted animals1 form a scene not to be described4 ,the people of the ,aniuj were already suffering great distress when1 on ,september #ab1 #ahba1 the eagerly-expected reindeer herds made their appearance on the right bank of the river4 ,never had such a multitude been seen2 they covered the hills1 and their horns might have been mistaken at a distance for a moving forest4 ,in a short time numbers of the ,siberian tribes had assembled1 ready to destroy them4 ,but the wary animals1 alarmed by some circumstance or other1 took another road1 and1 leaving the banks of the river1 vanished on the mountains4 ,the despair of the people may be imagined2 some lamented aloud and wrung their hands1 others threw themselves upon the ground and scratched up the snow1 others stood motionless like statues--a dreadful image of the universal misery4 ,the later fishing-season likewise failed in this deplorable year1 and many hundreds died in the following winter4 ,while the men of ,kolymsk are busily employed during the short summer in hunting1 fishing1 and hay-making1 the women wander over the country1 particularly in the mountains1 to gather edible roots1 aromatic herbs1 and berries of various kinds1 which latter1 however1 do not every year arrive at maturity4 ,the berry-gathering here1 like the vintage elsewhere1 is a time of merriment4 ,the younger women and girls go together in large parties1 passing whole days and nights in the open air4 ,when the berries are collected1 cold water is poured over them1 and they are preserved in a frozen state for a winter treat4 ,social parties are not unknown at ,kolymsk1 and are perhaps not less entertaining than in more refined communities4 ,floods of weak tea 7for the aromatic leaves 8which cheer1 but not inebriate10 are very dear at ,kolymsk7 form the staple of the entertainment2 and as sugar is also an expensive article1 every guest takes a lump of candy in his mouth1 lets the tea which he sips flow by1 and then replaces it upon the saucer4 ,it would be considered very unmannerly were he to consume the whole piece1 which thus is able to do duty at more than one soire4 ,next to tea1 brandy is a chief requisite of a ,kolymsk party4 ,the busiest time at ,kolymsk is in ,february1 when the caravan from ,jakutsk arrives on its way to the fair of ,ostrownoje4 ,it consists of about twenty merchants1 each of whom leads from ten to forty sumpter horses4 ,this is the time not only for sale and purchase1 but also for hearing the last news from the provincial capital ,jakutsk1 and receiving intelligence six months old from ,moscow and ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,from this short account of ,kolymsk life it may well be imagined what a sensation it must have made in so secluded a place when ,wrangell arrived there in ,november1 and informed the people that he was come to spend the better part of the next three years among them4 ,the winter was passed in preparation for the next spring expeditions1 for during the long ,arctic night the darkness prevents travelling1 and the snow acquires a peculiar hardness or sharpness from the extreme cold1 so that then four times the number of dogs would be needed4 ,but as in summer the thawing is likewise a hindrance1 ,wrangell had in reality only about ten weeks every year1 from ,march till the end of ,may1 for the accomplishment of his task4 ,as may easily be supposed1 it was no easy matter to make the necessary arrangements for an expedition requiring some hundreds of dogs1 and provisions for several weeks2 but such was the energy displayed by ,wrangell and his colleagues1 that on ,february #ai1 #ahba1 they were able to start on their first journey over the ice of the ,polar ,sea1 which they reached on the #beth4 ,nine sledges1 with the usual team of twelve dogs to each1 were provided for the present excursion1 six of which were to carry provisions and stores1 to be distributed in different dpts1 and then to return4 ,the provisions for the dogs consisted of #bdjj fresh herrings1 and as much 8jukola0 as was equivalent to #haej dried herrings4 ,the increasing cold and the violence of the wind made travelling very difficult4 ,to guard the dogs from being frozen1 the drivers were obliged to put clothing on their bodies1 and a kind of boots on their feet1 which greatly impeded their running4 ,at times the frost was so intense that the mercury congealed while ,wrangell was making his observations4 ,he thus describes the manner in which he passed the nights on the ,polar ,sea in his tent3-- 8,between tea and supper the sledge-drivers went out to attend and feed their dogs1 which were always tied up for the night1 lest they should be tempted away by the scent of some wild animal4 ,meanwhile1 we were engaged in comparing our observations1 and in laying down on the map the ground which we had gone over in the course of the day2 the severe cold1 and the smoke which usually filled the tent1 sometimes made this no easy task4 ,supper always consisted of a single dish of fish or meat soup1 which was boiled for us all in the same kettle1 out of which it was eaten4 ,soon after we had finished our meal1 the whole party lay down to sleep4 ,on account of the cold we could not lay aside any part of our travelling-dress1 but we regularly changed our boots and stockings every evening1 and hung those we had taken off1 with our fur caps and gloves1 on the tent-poles to dry4 ,this is an essential precaution1 particularly in respect to stockings1 for with damp clothing there is the greatest risk of the part being frozen4 ,we always spread the bear-skins between the frozen ground and ourselves1 and the fur coverings over us1 and1 being well tired1 we usually slept very soundly4 ,as long as all the sledge-drivers continued with us1 we were so crowded that we had to place ourselves like the spokes of a wheel1 with our feet towards the fire and our heads against the tent wall4 ,in the morning we generally rose at six1 lit the fire1 and washed ourselves before it with fresh snow2 we then took tea1 and immediately afterwards dinner 7which was similar to the supper of the night before74 ,the tent was then struck1 and every thing packed and stowed on the sledges1 and at nine we usually took our departure40 ,the chief impediments to journeying on the ice were found to be the hummocks1 often eighty feet high1 which lie in ridges at certain distances1 parallel perhaps to the shore4 ,along the line or lines where the ice is periodically broken1 it is forced by pressure and the tossing of a tempestuous sea into those irregular ridges through which ,wrangell had sometimes to make a way with crowbars for half a mile4 ,the 8polinyas10 or spaces of open water in the midst of the ice1 offered less hindrance1 as they might be avoided2 but in this neighborhood1 and sometimes even where no hole in the ice was visible1 layers of salt were met with1 which cut the dogs' feet1 and at the same time increased the labor of the draft1 the sledges moving over the salt with as much difficulty as they would over gravel4 ,in spite of all these hindrances1 ,wrangell extended his exploration of the coast fifty versts beyond ,cape ,shelagskoi1 where the want of fuel and provisions compelled him to return4 ,the dpts which he had made as he advanced1 were found partly devoured by the stone-foxes and gluttons1 so that the party was compelled to fast during the two last days of the journey4 ,after an absence of three weeks ,nishne-,kolymsk appeared like a second ,capua to ,wrangell1 but time being precious he allowed himself but a few days' rest1 and started afresh1 on ,march #bf1 for ,cape ,shelagskoi1 with the intention of penetrating as far as possible to the north on the ice of the ,polar ,sea4 ,the caravan consisted of twenty-two sledges1 laden with fuel and provisions for thirty days1 including food for #bdj dogs4 ,so imposing a train had certainly never been seen before in these desolate regions1 for the part of the coast between the ,kolyma and ,cape ,shelagskoi is wholly uninhabited2 on one side the occasional excursions of the ,russians terminate at the ,baranow rocks1 and on the other the ,tchuktchi do not cross the larger ,baranow ,river4 ,the intervening eighty versts of coast are never visited by either party1 but considered as neutral ground4 ,on ,april #a ,wrangell reached the borders of the ,polar ,sea1 and proceeding northward to #ga #ca1 found the thickness of the ice1 which he measured by means of a hole1 to be about a foot1 very rotten1 and full of salt2 the soundings1 twelve fathoms1 with a bottom of soft green mud4 ,the wind increasing in violence1 he heard the sound of the water beneath1 and felt the undulatory motion of the thin crust of ice4 8,our position10 says the bold explorer1 8was at least an anxious one2 the more so as we could take no step to avoid the impending danger4 ,i believe few of our party slept1 except the dogs1 who alone were unconscious of the great probability of the ice being broken up by the force of the waves4 ,next day1 the wind having fallen1 ,i had two of the best sledges emptied1 and placed in them provisions for twenty-four hours1 with the boat and oars1 some poles and boards1 and proceeded northward to examine the state of the ice2 directing ,m4 von ,matiuschkin1 in case of danger1 to retire with the whole party as far as might be needful1 without awaiting my return4 ,after driving through the thick brine with much difficulty for seven versts1 we came to a number of large fissures1 which we passed with some trouble by the aid of the boards which we had brought with us4 ,at last the fissures became so numerous and so wide that it was hard to say whether the sea beneath us was really still covered by a connected coat of ice1 or only by a number of detached floating fragments1 having everywhere two or more feet of water between them4 ,a single gust of wind would have been sufficient to drive these fragments against each other1 and being already thoroughly saturated with water1 they would have sunk in a few minutes1 leaving nothing but sea on the spot where we were standing4 ,it was manifestly useless to attempt going farther2 we hastened to rejoin our companions1 and to seek with them a place of greater security4 ,our most northern latitude was #ga #dc at a distance of #bae versts in a straight line from the lesser ,baranow rock40 ,after rejoining his companions1 and while still on the frozen sea1 so thick a snow-storm came on that those in the hindmost sledge could not see the leading ones4 ,unable either to pitch their tent or to light a fire1 they were exposed during the night to the whole fury of the storm1 with a temperature of #g1 without tea or soup1 and with nothing to quench their thirst or satisfy their hunger but a few mouthfuls of snow1 a little rye biscuit1 and a half-spoilt fish4 ,on ,april #bh they arrived at ,nishne-,kolymsk1 after an absence of thirty-six days1 during which they had travelled above #hjj miles with the same dogs1 men and animals having equally suffered from cold1 hunger1 and fatigue4 ,neither discomfort1 however1 nor danger prevented ,wrangell from undertaking a third excursion in the following spring4 ,he had great difficulty in procuring the necessary dogs1 a disease which raged among them during the winter having carried off more than four-fifths of these useful animals4 ,at length his wants were supplied by the people of the ,indigirka1 where the sickness had not extended1 and on ,march #ad1 #ahbb1 he again set out for the borders of the ,polar ,sea4 ,during this expedition a large extent of coast was accurately surveyed by ,wrangell1 who sent out his worthy assistant ,matiuschkin1 with two companions1 in an unloaded sledge1 to see if any farther advance could be made to the north4 ,having accomplished ten versts1 ,matiuschkin was stopped by the breaking up of the ice4 ,enormous masses1 raised by the waves into an almost vertical position1 were driven against each other with a dreadful crash1 and pressed downward by the force of the billows to re-appear again on the surface covered with the torn-up green mud which here forms the bottom of the sea4 ,it would tire the reader were ,i to relate all the miseries of their return voyage2 suffice it to say that1 worn out with hunger and fatigue1 they reached ,nishne-,kolymsk on ,may #e1 after an absence of fifty-seven days4 ,such sufferings and perils might have excused all further attempts to discover the supposed land in the ,polar ,sea1 but nothing daunted by his repeated failures1 ,wrangell determined on a fourth expedition in #ahbc1 on which he resolved to start from a more easterly point4 ,on reaching the coast1 the obstacles were found still greater than on his previous visits to that fearful sea4 ,the weather was tempestuous1 the ice thin and broken4 ,it was necessary at times to cross wide lanes of water on pieces of ice2 at times the thin ice bent beneath the weight of the sledges1 which were then saved only by the sagacity of the dogs1 who1 aware of the danger1 ran at their greatest speed until they found a solid footing4 ,at length1 about sixty miles from shore1 they arrived at the edge of an immense break in the ice1 extending east and west farther than the eye could reach4 8,we climbed one of the loftiest hummocks10 says ,wrangell1 8whence we obtained an extensive view towards the north1 and whence we beheld the wide ocean spread before our gaze4 ,it was a fearful and magnificent1 but to us a melancholy spectacle6 ,fragments of ice of enormous size floated on the surface of the water1 and were thrown by the waves with awful violence against the edge of the ice-field on the farther side of the channel before us4 ,the collisions were so tremendous that large masses were every instant broken away1 and it was evident that the portion of ice which still divided the channel from the open ocean would soon be completely destroyed4 ,had we attempted to ferry ourselves across upon one of the floating pieces of ice1 we should not have found firm footing upon our arrival4 ,even on our own side fresh lines of water were continually forming1 and extending in every direction in the field of ice behind us4 ,we could go no farther4 ,with a painful feeling of the impossibility of overcoming the obstacles which nature opposed to us1 our last hope vanished of discovering the land1 which we yet believed to exist4 ,we saw ourselves compelled to renounce the object for which we had striven through three years of hardships1 toil1 and danger4 ,we had done what honor and duty demanded2 further attempts would have been absolutely hopeless1 and ,i decided to return40 ,they turned1 but already the track of their advance was scarcely discernible1 as new lanes of water had been formed1 and fresh hummocks raised by the sea4 ,to add to their distress1 a storm arose1 which threatened every moment to swallow up the ice island1 on which they hoped to cross a wide space of water which separated them from a firmer ground4 8,we had been three long hours in this position1 and still the mass of ice beneath us held together1 when suddenly it was caught by the storm1 and hurled against a large field of ice2 the crash was terrific1 and the mass beneath us was shattered into fragments4 ,at that dreadful moment1 when escape seemed impossible1 the impulse of self-preservation1 implanted in every living being1 saved us4 ,instinctively we all sprang at once on the sledges1 and urged the dogs to their full speed4 ,they flew across the yielding fragments to the field on which we had been stranded1 and safely reached a part of it of firmer character1 on which were several hummocks1 where the dogs immediately ceased running1 conscious1 apparently1 that the danger was past4 ,we were saved6 ,we joyfully embraced each other1 and united in thanks to ,god for our preservation from such imminent peril40 ,but their misfortunes did not end here2 they were cut off from the deposit of their provisions2 they were #cfj versts from their nearest magazines1 and the food for the dogs was now barely sufficient for three days4 ,their joy may be imagined when1 after a few versts' travelling1 they fell in with ,matiuschkin and his party1 bringing with them an abundant supply of provisions of all kinds4 ,to leave nothing undone which could possibly be effected1 ,wrangell advanced to the eastward along the coast1 past ,cape ,north1 seen in ,cook's last voyage1 and proceeded as far as ,koliutschin ,island1 where he found some ,tchuktchi1 who had come over from ,bering's ,straits to trade4 ,with this journey terminated ,wrangell's labors on the coasts1 or on the surface of the ,polar ,sea1 and1 at the beginning of the following winter1 we find him taking a final leave of ,nishne-,kolymsk4 ,on ,january #aj1 #ahbd1 he arrived at ,jakutsk1 and a few months later at ,petersburg4 ,if we consider the difficulties he had to encounter1 and his untiring zeal and courage in the midst of privations and dangers1 it is only fair to admit that his name deserves to be ranked among the most distinguished explorers of the ,arctic world4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,tungusi4 ,their ,relationship to the ,mantchou4--,dreadful ,condition of the outcast ,nomads4--,character of the ,tungusi4--,their ,outfit for the ,chase4--,bear-hunting4--,dwellings4--,d iet4--,a ,night's ,halt with ,tungusi in the ,forest4--,ochotsk4 ,though both belonging to the same stock1 the fate of the ,tungusi and ,mantchou has been very different2 for at the same time when the latter conquered the vast ,chinese ,empire1 the former1 after having spread over the greatest part of ,east ,siberia1 and driven before them the ,jakuts1 the ,jukahiri1 the ,tchuktchi1 and many other aboriginal tribes1 were in their turn subjugated by the mightier ,russians4 ,in the year #afdj the ,cossacks first encountered the ,tungusi1 and in #afdd the first ,mantchou emperor mounted the ,chinese throne4 ,the same race which here imposes its yoke upon millions of subjects1 there falls a prey to a small number of adventurers4 ,however strange the fact1 it is1 however1 easily explained1 for the ,chinese were worse armed and less disciplined than the ,mantchou1 while the ,tungusi had nothing but bows and arrows to oppose to the ,cossack fire-arms2 and history 7from ,alexander the ,great to ,sadowa7 teaches us that victory constantly sides with the best weapons4 ,in their intellectual development we find the same difference as in their fortunes between the ,mantchou and the ,siberian ,tungusi4 ,two hundred and fifty years ago the former were still nomads1 like their northern kinsfolk1 and could neither read nor write1 and already they have a rich literature1 and their language is spoken at the court of ,peking2 while the ,tungusi1 oppressed and sunk in poverty1 are still as ignorant as when they first encountered the ,cossacks4 ,according to their occupations1 and the various domestic animals employed by them1 they are distinguished by the names of ,reindeer1 ,horse1 ,dog1 ,forest1 and ,river ,tungusi2 but although they are found from the basins of the ,upper1 ,middle1 and ,lower ,tunguska to the western shores of the ,sea of ,ochotsk1 and from the ,chinese frontiers and the ,baikal to the ,polar ,ocean1 their whole number does not amount to more than #cj1jjj1 and diminishes from year to year1 in consequence of the ravages of the small-pox and other epidemic disorders transmitted to them by the ,russians4 ,only a few rear horses and cattle1 the reindeer being generally their domestic animal2 and the impoverished ,tunguse1 who has been deprived of his herd by some contagious disorder or the ravages of the wolves1 lives as a fisherman on the borders of a river1 assisted by his dog1 or retires into the forests as a promyschlenik1 or hunter4 ,of the miseries which here await him1 ,wrangell relates a melancholy instance4 ,in a solitary hut in one of the dreariest wildernesses imaginable1 he found a ,tunguse and his daughter4 ,while the father1 with his long snow-shoes1 was pursuing a reindeer for several days together1 this unfortunate girl remained alone and helpless in the hut--which even in summer afforded but an imperfect shelter against the rain and wind--exposed to the cold1 and frequently to hunger1 and without the least occupation4 ,no wonder that the impoverished ,tungusi not seldom sink into cannibalism4 ,neither the reindeer nor the dogs1 nor the wives and children of their more fortunate countrymen1 are secure from the attacks and voracity of these outcasts1 who1 in their turn1 are treated like wild beasts1 and destroyed without mercy4 ,a bartering trade is1 however1 carried on with them1 but only at a distance1 and by signs2 each party depositing its goods1 and following every motion of the other with a suspicious eye4 ,the ,russian ,government1 anxious to relieve the misery of the impoverished nomads1 has given orders to settle them along the river-banks1 and to provide them with the necessary fishing implements2 but only extreme wretchedness can induce the ,tunguse to relinquish the free life of the forest4 ,his careless temper1 his ready wit1 and sprightly manner1 distinguish him from the other ,siberian tribes--the gloomy ,samoede1 the uncouth ,ostiak1 the reserved ,jakut--but he is said to be full of deceit and malice4 ,his vanity shows itself in the quantity of glass beads with which he decorates his dress of reindeer leather1 from his small ,tartar cap to the tips of his shoes4 ,when chasing or travelling on his reindeer through the woods1 he of course lays aside most of his finery1 and puts on large water-tight boots1 or sari1 well greased with fat1 to keep off the wet of the morass4 ,his hunting apparatus is extremely simple4 ,a small axe1 a kettle1 a leathern bag containing some dried fish1 a dog1 a short gun1 or merely a bow and a sling1 is all he requires for his expeditions into the forest4 ,with the assistance of his long and narrow snow-shoes1 he flies over the dazzling plain1 and protects his eyes1 like the ,jakut1 with a net made of black horse-hair4 ,he never hesitates to attack the bear single-handed1 and generally masters him4 ,the nomad ,tunguse naturally requires a movable dwelling4 ,his tent is covered with leather1 or large pieces of pliable bark1 which are easily rolled up and transported from place to place4 ,the yourt of the sedentary ,tunguse resembles that of the ,jakut1 and is so small that it can be very quickly and thoroughly warmed by a fire kindled on the stone hearth in the centre4 ,in his food the ,tunguse is by no means dainty4 ,one of his favorite dishes consists of the contents of a reindeer's stomach mixed with wild berries1 and spread out in thin cakes on the rind of trees1 to be dried in the air or in the sun4 ,those who have settled on the ,wiluj and in the neighborhood of ,nertschinsk1 likewise consume large quantities of brick tea1 which they boil with fat and berries into a thick porridge1 and this unwholesome food adds no doubt to the yellowness of their complexion4 ,but few of the ,tungusi have been converted to ,christianity1 the majority being still addicted to ,shamanism4 ,they do not like to bury their dead1 but place them1 in their holiday dresses1 in large chests1 which they hang up between two trees4 ,the hunting apparatus of the deceased is buried beneath the chest4 ,no ceremonies are used on the occasion1 except when a ,shaman happens to be in the neighborhood1 when a reindeer is sacrificed1 on whose flesh the sorcerer and the relations regale themselves1 while the spirits to whom the animal is supposed to be offered are obliged to content themselves with the smell of the burnt fat4 ,as among the ,samoedes or the ,ostiaks1 woman is a marketable ware among the ,tungusi4 ,the father gives his daughter in marriage for twenty or a hundred reindeer1 or the bridegroom is obliged to earn her hand by a long period of service4 ,in ,east ,siberia the ,tungusi divide with the ,jakuts the task of conveying goods or travellers through the forests1 and afford the stranger frequent opportunities for admiring their agility and good-humor4 ,on halting after a day's journey1 the reindeer are unpacked in an instant1 the saddles and the goods ranged orderly on the ground1 and the bridles collected and hung on branches of trees4 ,the hungry animals soon disappear in the thicket1 where they are left to provide for themselves4 ,the men1 who meanwhile have been busy with their axes1 drag a larch-tree or two to the place of encampment4 ,the smaller branches are lopped off and collected to serve as beds or seats upon the snow1 while the resinous wood of the larger trunks is soon kindled into a lively fire4 ,the kettle1 filled with snow1 is suspended from a strong forked branch placed obliquely in the ground over the fire1 and in a few minutes the tea is ready--for the ,tungusi proceed every evening according to the same method1 and are consequently as expert as long and invariable practice can make them4 ,comfortably seated on his reindeer saddle1 the traveller may now amuse himself with the dances1 which the ,tungusi accompany with an agreeable song2 or if he choose to witness their agility in athletic exercises1 it only costs him a word of encouragement1 and a small donation of brandy4 ,two of the ,tungusi hold a rope1 and swing it with all their might1 so that it does not touch the ground4 ,meanwhile a third ,tunguse skips over the rope1 picks up a bow and arrow1 spans the bow and shoots the arrow1 without once touching the rope4 ,some particularly bold and expert ,tungusi will dance over a sword which a person lying on his back on the ground is swinging about with the greatest rapidity4 ,should our traveller be a friend of chess1 the ,tungusi are equally at his service1 as they are passionately fond of this noblest of games1 especially in the ,kolymsk district4 ,like all other ,siberian nomads1 they visit at least once a year the various fairs which are held in the small towns scattered here and there over their immense territory--such as ,kirensk1 ,olekminsk1 ,bargusin1 ,tschita1 and ,ochotsk1 which1 before the opening of the ,amoor to trade1 was the chief port of ,east ,siberia4 ,ochotsk is one of the dreariest places imaginable2 at least no traveller who ever visited it has a word to say in its favor4 ,not a single tree grows for miles and miles around1 and the wretched huts of which the town is composed lie in the midst of a swamp1 which in summer is a fruitful source of malaria and pestilence4 ,the ,river ,ochota1 at whose mouth ,ochotsk is situated1 does not break up before the end of ,may1 and the ice-masses continue to pass the town till the #aeth or #bjth of ,june4 ,soon after begins the most unpleasant time of all the year1 or 8buss0 of the ,siberians1 characterized by thick fog and a perpetual drizzling rain4 ,the weather clears up in ,july1 but as early as ,august the night-frosts cover the earth with rime4 ,salmon1 of which no less than fourteen different species live in the ,sea of ,ochotsk1 are the only food which the neighborhood affords2 all other necessaries of life come from ,jakutsk1 and are of course enormously dear4 ,meat appears only from time to time on the tables of the wealthier merchants1 and bread is an article of luxury4 ,no wonder that the scurvy ravages every winter a place so ill-provisioned1 and that at the time when the first caravan of pack-horses is expected to cross the ,aldan ,mountains1 the people of ,ochotsk1 unable to restrain their impatience1 go out a long way to meet it4 ,as the former trade of the place has now no doubt been transferred to the settlements on the ,amoor1 it may well be supposed that ,ochotsk has lost most of its former inhabitants1 who can only be congratulated on their change of residence4 ,illustration3 #hi4 ,,bering',s ,,monument ,,at ,,petropaulovsk4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,george ,,william ,,steller4 ,his ,birth4--,enters the ,russian ,service4--,scientific ,journey to ,kamchatka4--,accompanies ,bering on his second ,voyage of ,discovery4--,lands on the ,island of ,kaiak4--,shameful ,conduct of ,bering4--,shipwreck on ,bering ,island4--,bering's ,death4--,return to ,kamchatka4--,loss of ,property4--,persecutions of the ,siberian ,authorities4--,frozen to ,death at ,tjumen4 ,george ,william ,steller1 one of the most distinguished naturalists of the past century1 was born at ,winsheim1 a small town in ,franconia1 in the year #agji4 ,after completing his studies at the universities of ,wittenberg and ,halle1 he turned his thoughts to ,russia1 which1 since the reforms of ,czar ,peter the ,great1 and the protection which that monarch and his successors afforded to ,german learning1 had become the land of promise for all adventurous spirits4 ,having been appointed surgeon in the ,russian army1 which at that time was besieging ,danzig1 he went with a transport of wounded soldiers1 after the surrender of that town1 to ,st4 ,petersburg1 where he arrived in #agcd4 ,here his talents were soon appreciated2 after a few years he was named a member of the ,imperial ,academy of ,sciences1 and sent by ,government1 in #agch1 to examine the natural productions of ,kamchatka4 ,the ability and zeal with which he fulfilled this mission is proved by the valuable collections which he sent to the ,academy1 and by his numerous memoirs1 which are still read with interest in the present day4 ,in #agda he accompanied ,bering on his second voyage of discovery1 the object of which was to determine the distance of ,america from ,kamchatka1 and to ascertain the separation or the junction of both continents in a higher latitude--a question which his first voyage had left undecided4 ,nothing could be more agreeable to a man like ,steller1 than the prospects held out to him by an expedition to unknown regions2 and we can easily imagine the delight with which the naturalist embarked on board of the 8,saint ,peter10 commanded by ,bering in person4 ,accompanied by the 8,saint ,paul10 under ,tschirigow1 they sailed on ,june #d from the ,bay of ,avatscha4 ,the expedition had cost ten years of preparation1 and brought misery and ruin upon many of the wild ,siberian tribes1 for all that was necessary for the outfit had to be conveyed by compulsory labor from the interior of the continent over mountains and rivers1 through dense forests and pathless wilds1 and it seemed from the very beginning of the voyage as if the curses of the unfortunate natives clung to it4 ,much valuable time had been lost1 for the ships ought to have sailed at least a month earlier1 and ,bering1 who from illness constantly kept to his cabin1 was by no means a fit commander for a scientific expedition4 ,after a few days a dense fog separated the vessels1 which were never to meet again2 and as the 8,st4 ,peter0 held her course too much to the south1 the ,aleutic chain remained undiscovered1 and the first land was only sighted after four weeks in the neighborhood of ,bering's ,bay4 ,during the whole of this passage ,steller had to endure all the vexations which arrogant stupidity could inflict upon a man anxious to do his duty4 ,it was in vain that he repeatedly pointed out the signs which indicated the presence of land not far to the north1 in vain that he entreated the commander to steer but one day in that direction4 ,at last1 on ,july #ae1 the high mountains of ,america were seen to rise above the horizon1 and the vessel anchored on the #aith near to the small island of ,kaiak4 ,on the following day a boat was sent out to fetch some fresh water1 but it was with the utmost difficulty that ,steller could obtain permission to join the party4 ,all assistance was obstinately denied him1 and accompanied by his only servant1 a ,cossack1 he landed on the unknown shore1 eager to make the most of the short time allotted him for his researches4 ,he immediately directed his steps towards the interior1 and had scarcely walked a mile when he discovered the hollowed trunk of a tree1 in which1 a few hours before1 the savages had boiled their meat with red-hot stones4 ,he also found several pots filled with esculent herbs1 and a wooden instrument for making fire1 like those which are used by the inhabitants of ,kamchatka4 ,hence he conjectured that the aborigines of this part of the ,american coast must be of the same origin as the ,kamchatkans1 and that both countries must necessarily approach each other towards the north1 as the inhabitants could not possibly traverse such vast extents of ocean in their rudely-constructed boats4 ,pursuing his way1 ,steller now came to a path which led into a dense and shady forest4 ,before entering1 he strictly forbade his ,cossack to act without commands1 in case of a hostile encounter4 ,the ,cossack had a gun1 with a knife and hatchet2 ,steller himself only a ,jakut poniard1 which he had taken with him to dig out plants or stones4 ,after half an hour's walking1 they came to a place strewn with grass4 ,this was immediately removed1 and a roof or platform discovered1 consisting of strips of bark laid upon poles and covered with stones4 ,this platform opened into a cellar containing a large quantity of smoked fishes1 and a few bundles of the inner bark of the larch or fir tree1 which1 in case of necessity1 serves as food throughout all ,siberia4 ,there were also some arrows1 dyed black and smoothed1 of a size far superior to those used in ,kamchatka4 ,after ,steller1 in spite of the danger of being surprised by the savages1 had accurately examined the contents of the cellar1 he sent his ,cossack back again to the place where the boatmen were watering4 ,he gave him specimens of the various articles which he had found1 ordering him to take them to ,captain ,bering1 and to request that two or three men might be sent to him for further assistance4 ,in the mean time1 though quite alone1 he continued his investigations of the strange land1 and having reached the summit of a hill1 he saw smoke rising from a forest at some distance4 ,overjoyed at the sight1 for he now could hope to meet with the natives and to complete his knowledge of the island1 he instantly returned to the landing-place with all the eagerness of a man who has something important to communicate2 and as the boat was just about to leave1 told the sailors to inform the captain of his discovery1 and to beg that the small pinnace1 with a detachment of armed men1 might be sent out to him4 ,meanwhile1 exhausted with fatigue1 he sat down on the beach1 where he described in his pocket-book some of the more delicate plants he had collected1 which he feared might speedily wither1 and regaled himself with the excellent water4 ,after waiting for about an hour1 he at length received an answer from ,bering1 telling him to return immediately on board1 unless he chose to be left behind2 and we can easily imagine the indignation of the disappointed naturalist at this shameful command4 ,on the morning of ,july #ba1 ,bering1 contrary to his custom1 appeared on deck1 ordered the anchors to be weighed1 and gave directions to sail back again on the same course4 ,the continent he had discovered was not even honored with a single visit1 so that ,steller could not help telling the ,russians they had merely come thus far for the purpose of carrying ,american water to ,asia4 ,any conscientious commander would have continued to sail along the unknown shore1 or1 considering that the season was already far advanced1 would have determined to winter there1 and to pursue his discoveries next spring2 but1 unfortunately for ,bering and his companions1 the course he adopted proved as disastrous as it was dishonorable4 ,three months long the ship was tossed about by contrary winds and storms2 the islands of the ,aleutic chain1 though frequently seen through the mists1 were but seldom visited2 the scurvy broke out among the dispirited1 ill-fed crew1 their misery increased from day to day1 and their joy may be imagined when at length1 on ,november #e1 a land was seen which they firmly believed to be ,kamchatka--though in reality it was merely the desert of ,bering's ,island1 situated a hundred miles from that peninsula4 ,even those who were nearly half dead crept upon deck to enjoy the welcome sight2 every one thanked ,god1 and the ignorant officer1 convinced that they were at the entrance of the ,bay of ,avatscha1 even named the several mountains2 but their mistake soon became apparent when1 on rounding a small promontory1 some well-known islets were missed4 ,as they had no doubt1 however1 that the land was really ,kamchatka1 and the bad weather and the small number of hands fit to do duty rendering it difficult to reach the ,gulf of ,avatscha1 it was resolved to run into the bay that lay before them1 and to send notice from thence to ,nishne-,kamchatsk of their safe arrival4 ,steller was among the first to land1 and probably the very first of the party who discovered the mistake of the excellent navigators to whom the expedition had been intrusted4 ,sea-otters came swimming to him from the land1 and he well knew that these much-persecuted animals had long since disappeared from the coast of ,kamchatka4 ,the number of ,arctic foxes1 too1 who showed no fear at his approach1 and the sea-cows gambolling in the water1 were sure signs that the foot of man had not often trodden this shore4 ,steller was also the first to set the good example of making the best of a bad situation1 instead of uselessly bewailing his misfortunes4 ,he began to erect a hut for the following winter1 and formed an association with several of the crew1 who1 whatever might await them1 promised to stand by each other4 ,during the following days the sick were gradually conveyed on shore4 ,some of them died on board as soon as they were brought into the open air1 others in the boat1 others as soon as they were landed4 8,on all sides10 says ,steller1 in his interesting account of this ill-fated voyage1 8nothing was to be seen but misery4 ,before the dead could be buried1 they were mangled by the foxes1 who even ventured to approach the helpless invalids who were lying without cover on the beach4 ,some of these wretched sufferers bitterly complained of the cold1 others of hunger and thirst--for many had their gums so swollen and ulcerated with the scurvy as to be unable to eat40 8,on ,november #ac10 continues the naturalist1 8,i went out hunting for the first time with ,messieurs ,plenisner and ,betge2 we killed four sea-otters1 and did not return before night4 ,we ate their flesh thankfully1 and prayed to ,god that ,he might continue to provide us with this excellent food4 ,the costly skins1 on the other hand1 were of no value in our eyes2 the only objects which we now esteemed were knives1 needles1 thread1 ropes1 etc41 on which before we had not bestowed a thought4 ,we all saw that rank1 science1 and other social distinctions were now of no avail1 and could not in any way contribute to our preservation3 we therefore resolved1 before we were forced to do so by necessity1 to set to work at once4 ,we introduced among us five a community of goods1 and regulated our housekeeping in such a manner as not to be in want before the winter was over4 ,our three ,cossacks were obliged to obey our orders1 when we had decided upon something in common2 but we began to treat them with greater politeness1 calling them by their names and surnames1 and we soon found that ,peter ,maximowitsch served us with more alacrity than formerly ,petrucha 7a diminutive of ,peter74 8,nov4 #ad4--,the whole ship's company was formed into three parties4 ,the one had to convey the sick and provisions from the ship2 the second brought wood2 the third1 consisting of a lame sailor and myself1 remained at home--the former busy making a sledge1 while ,i acted as cook4 ,as our party was the first to organize a household1 ,i also performed the duty of bringing warm soup to some of our sick1 until they had so far recovered as to be able to help themselves4 8,the barracks being this day ready to receive the sick1 many of them were transported under roof2 but for want of room1 they lay everywhere on the ground1 covered with rags and clothes4 ,no one could assist the other1 and nothing was heard but lamentations and curses--the whole affording so wretched a sight1 as to make even the stoutest heart lose courage4 ,on ,november #ae all the sick were at length landed4 ,we took one of them1 named ,boris ,snd1 into our hut1 and by ,god's help he recovered within three months4 8,the following days added to our misery1 as the messengers we had sent out brought us the intelligence that we were on a desert island1 without any communication with ,kamchatka4 ,we were also in constant fear that the stormy weather might drive our ship out to sea1 and along with it all our provisions1 and every hope of ever returning to our homes4 ,sometimes it was impossible to get to the vessel for several days together1 so boisterous was the surge2 and about ten or twelve men1 who had hitherto been able to work1 now also fell ill4 ,want1 nakedness1 frost1 rain1 illness1 impatience1 and despair1 were our daily companions40 ,fortunately the stormy sea drove the ship upon the strand1 better than it could probably have been done by human efforts4 ,successively many of the scorbutic patients died1 and on ,december #h the unfortunate commander of the expedition paid his debt to nature4 ,titus ,bering1 by birth a ,dane1 had served thirty-six years with distinction in the ,russian navy1 but age and infirmities had completely damped his energies1 and his death is a warning to all who enter upon undertakings above their strength4 ,in the mean time the whole ship's company had established itself for the winter in five subterranean dwellings2 the general health was visibly improving1 merely by means of the excellent water1 and by the fresh meat furnished by sea-otters1 seals1 and manatees2 and the only care now was to gain sufficient strength to be able to undertake the work of deliverance in spring4 ,in ,april the shipwrecked mariners began to build a smaller ship out of the timbers of the 8,st4 ,peter10 and1 such was the alacrity with which all hands set to work1 that on ,august #ac they were able to set out4 8,when we were all embarked10 says ,steller1 8we first perceived how much we should be inconvenienced for want of room2 the water-casks1 provisions1 and baggage taking up so much space1 that our forty-two men 7the three ship's officers and myself were somewhat better off in the cabin7 could hardly creep between them and the deck4 ,a great quantity of the bedding and clothing had to be thrown overboard4 ,meanwhile we saw the foxes sporting about our deserted huts1 and greedily devouring remnants of fat and meat4 8,on the #adth1 in the morning1 we weighed anchor1 and steered out of the bay4 ,the weather being beautiful1 and the wind favorable1 we were all in good spirits1 and1 as we sailed along the island1 pointed out to each other the well-known mountains and valleys which we had frequently visited in quest of game or for the purpose of reconnoitring4 ,towards evening we were opposite the farthest point of the island1 and on the #aeth1 the wind continuing favorable1 we steered direct towards the ,bay of ,avatscha4 ,about midnight1 however1 we perceived1 to our great dismay1 that the vessel began to fill with water from an unknown leak1 which1 in consequence of the crowded and overloaded state of the vessel1 it was extremely difficult to find out4 ,the pumps were soon choked by the shavings left in the hold1 and the danger rapidly increased1 as the wind was strong and the vessel badly built4 ,the sails were immediately taken in2 some of the men removed the baggage to look for the leak1 others kept continually pouring out the water with kettles1 while others again cast all superfluous articles overboard4 ,at length1 after the lightening of the ship1 the carpenter succeeded in stopping the leak1 and thus we were once more saved from imminent danger4444 ,on the #agth we sighted ,kamchatka1 but as the wind was contrary1 we did not enter the harbor before the evening of the #bgth4 8,in spite of the joy we all felt at our deliverance1 yet the news we heard on our arrival awakened in us a host of conflicting emotions4 ,we had been given up for lost1 and all our property had passed into other hands1 and been mostly carried away beyond hope of recovery4 ,hence joy and sorrow alternated within a few moments in our minds1 though we were all so accustomed to privation and misery1 as hardly to feel the extent of our losses40 ,in the year #agdd ,steller was ordered to return to ,st4 ,petersburg2 but his candor had made him powerful enemies4 ,having reached ,novgorod1 and rejoicing in the idea of once more mixing with the civilized world1 he was suddenly ordered to appear before the imperial court of justice at ,irkutsk1 on the charge of having treacherously sold powder to the enemies of ,russia4 ,thus obliged to return once more into the depths of ,siberia1 he was at length dismissed by his judges1 after waiting a whole year for their verdict4 ,once more on his way to ,st4 ,petersburg1 he had already reached ,moscow1 when he was again summoned to appear without delay before the court of ,irkutsk4 ,a journey to ,siberia is1 under all circumstances1 an arduous undertaking2 what1 then1 must have been ,steller's feelings when1 instead of enjoying the repose he had so well merited1 he saw himself obliged to retrace his steps for the fourth time1 for the purpose of vindicating his conduct before a rascally tribunal8 ,on a very cold day his ,cossack guards stopped to refresh themselves with some brandy at an inn by the road-side1 and ,steller1 who remained in the sledge waiting for their return1 fell asleep1 and was frozen to death4 ,he lies buried near the town of ,tjumen1 and no monument apprises the naturalist1 whom the love of knowledge may lead into the ,siberian wilds1 that his unfortunate predecessor was thus basely requited after years of exertion in the interests of science4 ,illustration3 #ij4 ,,church ,,at ,,petropavlosk4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,kamchatka4 ,climate4--,fertility4--,luxuriant ,vegetation4--,fish4--,sea-birds4-- ,kamchatkan ,bird-catchers4--,the ,bay of ,avatscha4--,petropavlosk4-- ,the ,kamchatkans4--,their physical and moral ,qualities4--,the ,fritillaria ,sarrana4--,the ,muchamor4--,bears4--,dogs4 ,the peninsula of ,kamchatka1 though numbering no more than #fjjj or #gjjj inhabitants1 on a surface equalling ,great ,britain in extent1 has so many natural resources that it could easily maintain a far greater number4 ,the climate is much more temperate and uniform than that of the interior of ,siberia1 being neither so excessively cold in winter1 nor so intensely hot in summer2 and though the late and early night-frosts1 with the frequent fogs and rains1 prevent the cultivation of corn1 the humid air produces a very luxuriant herbaceous vegetation4 ,not only along the banks of the rivers and lakes1 but in the forest glades1 the grass grows to a height of more than twelve feet1 and many of the ,composit and ,umbellifer attain a size so colossal that the ,heraclium dulce and the ,senecio cannabifolius not seldom overtop the rider on horseback4 ,the pasture-grounds are so excellent that the grass can generally be cut thrice during the short summer1 and thus a comparatively small extent of land affords the winter supply for all the cattle of a hamlet4 ,though the cold winds prevent the growth of trees along the coast1 the more inland mountain slopes and valleys are clothed with woods richly stocked with sables and squirrels4 ,no country in the world has a greater abundance of excellent fisheries4 ,in spring the salmon ascend the rivers in such amazing numbers1 that on plunging a dart into the stream one is almost sure to strike a fish2 and ,steller affirms that the bears and dogs of ,kamchatka catch on the banks more fish with their paws and mouths than man in other countries1 with all his cunning devices of net or angle4 ,as the various birds of passage do not all wander at the same time to the north1 so also the various kinds of fishes migrate1 some sooner1 others later1 and consequently profusion reigns during the whole of the summer4 ,ermann was astonished at this incalculable abundance of the ,kamchatkan rivers1 for in one of them1 when the water was only six inches deep1 he saw multitudes of ,chaekos 7,slagocephalus7 as long as his arm partly stranded on the banks1 partly still endeavoring to ascend the shallow stream4 ,as the waters contain such an incredible multitude of fishes1 we can not wonder that the rocky coasts of the peninsula swarm with sea-fowl1 whose breeding and roosting places are as densely peopled as any others in the world4 ,at the entrance of the ,avatscha ,bay lies a remarkable labyrinth of rocks1 separated from each other by narrow channels of water1 like the intricate streets of an old-fashioned city4 ,the flood has everywhere scooped out picturesque cavities and passages in these stupendous masses of stone1 and the slightest wind causes the waves to beat with terrific violence against their feet4 ,every ledge1 platform1 and projection1 every niche1 hollow1 and crevice is peopled with sea-birds of strange and various forms4 ,in the capture of these birds the ,kamchatkans display an intrepidity equal to that of the islanders of ,st4 ,kilda or ,feroe1 and trust solely to their astonishing agility in climbing4 ,barefooted1 without ropes or any other assistance1 they venture down the steepest declivities1 which are frequently only accessible from the top1 as the foaming breakers cut off all access from below4 ,the left arm clasps a basket1 which they fill with eggs as they advance1 while the right hand grasps a short stick with an iron hook to drag the birds from the crevices of the rock4 ,when a bird is caught1 a dexterous grip wrings its neck1 and it is then attached to the girdle of the fowler4 ,in this manner an expert climber will kill in one day from seventy to eighty birds1 and gather above a hundred eggs4 ,thus the population of ,kamchatka is quite out of proportion to the riches of its pastures and waters4 ,its scanty inhabitants are moreover concentrated on a few spots along the chief rivers and bays1 so that almost the whole peninsula is nothing but an uninhabited wilderness4 ,before the conquest of the country by the ,russians it had at least twenty times its present population1 but the cruelty of the ,cossacks and the ravages of the small-pox caused it to melt away almost as rapidly as that of ,cuba or ,hayti after the arrival of the ,spaniards4 ,at that time the sable and the sea-otter were considered of far greater importance than man2 and unfortunately ,russia has too many deserts to people1 before she can think of repairing past errors and sparing inhabitants for this remotest corner of her vast ,asiatic empire4 ,as the peninsula is too distant from the highways of the world to attract the tide of emigration1 it is also seldom visited by travellers4 ,the few strangers1 however1 who have sailed along the coasts1 or made excursions into the interior of the country1 speak with enthusiasm of the boldness of its rocky promontories1 the magnificence of its bays and mountains1 and only regret that during the greater part of the year an ,arctic winter veils the beauties of the landscape under mists and snow4 ,throughout its whole length ,kamchatka is traversed by an ,alpine chain rising in some of its peaks to a height of #ad1jjj or #af1ejj feet1 and numbering no less than #bh active volcanoes along with many others whose fires are extinct4 ,a land thus undermined with subterranean fires must be possessed of many mineral riches1 but as yet no one has ever thought of seeking for them or putting them to use4 ,owing to the great humidity of the climate and the quantities of rain attracted by the mountains1 ,kamchatka abounds in springs4 ,in the lowlands they gush forth in such numbers as to render it very difficult to travel any distance on foot or horseback1 even in winter1 as they prevent the rivers from freezing4 ,no doubt many a mineral spring-- cold1 tepid1 or warm--that would make the fortune of a ,german spa1 here flows unnoticed into the sea4 ,kamchatka has many excellent harbors1 and the magnificent ,bay of ,avatscha would alone be able to afford room to all the navies of the world4 ,its steep rocky shores are almost everywhere clothed with a species of beech 7,betula ,ermanni71 intermingled with luxuriant grasses and herbs1 and the higher slopes are generally covered with a dense underwood of evergreens and shrubs of deciduous foliage1 whose changes of color in autumn tinge the landscape with yellow1 red1 and brown tints4 ,but the chief beauty of the ,bay of ,avatscha is the prospect of the distant mountains1 forming a splendid panorama of fantastic peaks and volcanic cones1 among which the ,streloshnaja ,sopka towers pre-eminent to the height of #ad1jjj feet4 ,close to this giant1 but somewhat nearer to the coast1 rises the active volcano of ,avatscha1 which frequently covers the whole country with ashes4 ,the vast ,bay of ,avatscha forms several minor creeks3 among others the haven of ,st4 ,peter and ,paul1 one of the finest natural harbors in the world1 where the ,russians have established the seat of their government in the small town of ,petropavlosk1 which hardly numbers #ejj inhabitants1 but has acquired some celebrity from the unsuccessful attack of the ,english and ,french forces in #ahed4 ,mr4 ,knox thus describes ,petropavlosk3 8,to make a counterfeit ,petropavlosk1 take a log village in the backwoods of a western state in ,america1 and place it near a little harbor1 where the ground slopes gently to the water4 ,arrange most of the houses along a single unpaved street1 and drop the rest in a higgledy-piggledy fashion on the sloping hillside4 ,all buildings must be but one story high1 and those of the poorer sort thatched with grass4 ,the better class may have iron or board roofs painted for preservation4 ,the houses of the officials and the foreign merchants may be commodious1 and built of hewn timber1 but the doors of all must be low1 and heavily constructed1 to exclude the winter cold4 ,every dwelling must contain a brick stove that presents a side to each of two or three rooms4 ,in winter this stove will maintain a temperature of about #fh degrees in all the rooms it is intended to warm40 ,illustration3 #ia4 ,,petropavlosk4 ,besides some ,jakut immigrants1 the chief stock of the scanty population of the country consists of the descendants of the primitive ,kamchatkans1 who1 in spite of frequent intermarriages with their conquerors the ,cossacks1 have still retained many of their ancient manners4 ,they are of a small stature1 but broad-shouldered1 their cheek-bones are prominent1 their jaws uncommonly broad and projecting1 their noses small1 their lips very full1 their hair black4 ,the color of the men is dark brown1 or sometimes yellow2 the women have fairer complexions1 which they endeavor to preserve by means of bears' guts1 stuck upon their faces in spring with fresh lime1 so as not to be burned by the sun4 ,they also paint their cheeks with a sea-weed1 which1 when rubbed upon them with fat1 gives them a beautiful red color4 ,the ,kamchatkans are a remarkably healthy race4 ,many of them attain an age of seventy or eighty years1 and are able to walk and to work until their death4 ,their hair seldom turns gray before their sixtieth year1 and even the oldest men have a firm and elastic step4 ,the weight of their body is greater than that of the ,jakuts1 though the latter live on milk and flesh1 while fish is the almost exclusive food of the ,kamchatkans4 ,the round tubercles of the ,fritillaria sarrana1 a species of lily with a dark purple flower1 likewise play an important part in their diet1 and serve them instead of bread and meal4 8,if the fruits of the bread-fruit tree10 says ,kittlitz--who has seen both plants in the places of their growth--8are pre-eminent among all others1 as affording man a perfect substitute for bread1 the roots of the ,sarrana1 which are very similar in taste1 rank perhaps immediately after them4 ,the collecting of these tubers in the meadows is an important summer occupation of the women1 and one which is rather troublesome1 as the plant never grows gregariously1 so that each root has to be sought and dug out separately with a knife4 ,fortunately the wonderful activity of the ,siberian field-vole facilitates the labor of gathering the tubers4 ,these remarkable animals burrow extensive winter nests1 with five or six store-houses1 which they fill with various roots1 but chiefly with those of the ,sarrana4 ,to find these subterranean treasures1 the ,kamchatkans use sticks with iron points1 which they strike into the earth4 ,the contents of three of these nests are as much as a man can carry on his back4 ,a species of fungus1 called muchamor1 affords a favorite stimulant4 ,it is dried and eaten raw4 ,besides its exhilarating effects1 it is said to produce1 like the ,peruvian ,coca1 a remarkable increase of strength1 which lasts for a considerable time4 ,fishing and hunting supply all the wants of the ,kamchatkans1 for they have not yet learned to profit in any degree worth mentioning by the luxuriance of their meadow-lands4 ,they pay their taxes and purchase their foreign luxuries--meal and tea1 tobacco and brandy--with furs4 ,the chase of the costly sea-otter 7which from excessive persecution had at one time almost become extinct7 has latterly improved4 ,besides the fur animals1 they also hunt the reindeer1 the argali1 the wolf1 and the bear1 whose skins supply them with clothing4 ,bears abound in ,kamchatka1 as they find a never-failing supply of fishes and berries1 and ,ermann assures us that they would long since have extirpated the inhabitants1 if 7most probably on account of the plenty in which they live7 they were not of a more gentle disposition than any others in the world4 ,in spring they descend from the mountains to the mouths of the rivers1 to levy their tribute on the migratory troops of the fishes1 frequently eating only the heads4 ,toward autumn they follow the fishes into the interior of the country as they ascend the streams4 ,illustration3 #ib4 ,,dogs ,,fishing4 ,the most valuable domestic animal in ,kamchatka is the dog1 who has the usual characters of the ,esquimaux race4 ,he lives exclusively on fish1 which he catches very dexterously4 ,from spring to autumn he is allowed to roam at liberty1 no one troubling himself about him2 but in ,october1 every proprietor collects his dogs1 binds them to a post1 and lets them fast for a time1 so as to deprive them of their superfluous fat1 and to render them more fit for running4 ,during the winter they are fed with dried fish every morning and evening1 but while travelling they get nothing to eat1 even though they run for hours4 ,their strength is wonderful4 ,generally no more than five of them are harnessed to a sledge1 and will drag with ease three full-grown persons1 and sixty pounds' weight of luggage4 ,when lightly laden1 such a sledge will travel from #cj to #dj versts in a day over bad roads and through the deep snow2 on even roads1 from #hj to #adj4 ,the horse can never be used for sledging1 on account of the deep snow1 into which it would sink1 and of the numerous rivers and sources1 which are either never frozen1 or merely covered with a thin sheet of ice1 unable to bear the weight of so large an animal4 ,illustration3 #ic4 ,,dog-,,team4 ,travelling with dogs is1 however1 both dangerous and difficult4 ,instead of the whip1 the ,kamchatkans use a crooked stick with iron rings1 which1 by their jingling1 give the leader of the team the necessary signals4 ,when the dogs do not sufficiently exert themselves1 the stick is cast among them to rouse them to greater speed2 but then the traveller must be dexterous enough to pick it up again while the sledge shoots along4 ,during a snow-storm the dogs keep their master warm1 and will lie quietly near him for hours1 so that he has merely to prevent the snow from covering him too deeply and suffocating him4 ,the dogs are also excellent weather prophets1 for when1 while resting1 they dig holes in the snow1 a storm may with certainty be expected4 ,illustration3 #id4 ,,dogs ,,towing ,,boats4 ,the sledge-dogs are trained to their future service at a very early period4 ,soon after birth they are placed with their mother in a deep pit1 so as to see neither man nor beast1 and1 after having been weaned1 they are again condemned to solitary confinement in a pit4 ,after six months they are attached to a sledge with other older dogs1 and1 being extremely shy1 they run as fast as they can4 ,on returning home1 they are again confined in their pit1 where they remain until they are perfectly trained1 and able to perform a long journey4 ,then1 but not before1 they are allowed their summer liberty4 ,this severe education completely sours their temper1 and they constantly remain gloomy1 shy1 quarrelsome1 and suspicious4 ,to return to the ,kamchatkans3 travellers praise their good-nature1 their hospitality1 and their natural wit4 ,of a sanguine disposition1 they are happy and content in their poverty1 and have no cares for the morrow4 ,being extremely indolent1 they never work unless when compelled4 ,they readily adopt strange manners1 and no doubt education might produce valuable results in so pliable and sharp-witted a race4 ,unfortunately the ,russians and ,cossacks who have settled among them do not afford them the best examples4 ,they have long since been converted to the ,greek ,church1 but it is supposed that baptism has not fully effaced all traces of ,shamanism4 ,formerly they had many gods1 the chief of whom was ,kutka1 the creator of heaven and earth4 ,but far from honoring ,kutka1 they continually ridiculed him1 and made him the constant butt of their satire4 ,kutka1 however1 had a wife1 ,chachy1 who was endowed with all the intelligence in which her spouse was supposed to be deficient1 and who1 as is the case in many mortal housekeepings1 was constantly exerting her ingenuity in repairing the blunders of her lord and master4 ,illustration3 #ie4 ,,frame-,,work ,,of ,,tchuktchi ,,house4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,the ,,tchuktchi4 ,the ,land of the ,tchuktchi4--,their independent ,spirit and commercial ,enterprise4--,perpetual ,migrations4--,the ,fair of ,ostrownoje4-- ,visit in a ,tchuktch ,polog4--,races4--,tchuktch ,bayaderes4--,the ,tennygk1 or ,reindeer ,tchuktchi4--,the ,onkilon1 or ,sedentary ,tchuktchi4--,their ,mode of ,life4 ,at the extreme north-eastern point of ,asia1 bounded by the ,polar ,ocean on one side and the ,sea of ,bering on the other1 lies the land of the ,tchuktchi4 ,the few travellers who have ever visited that bleak promontory describe it as one of the dreariest regions of the earth4 ,the climate is dreadfully cold1 as may be expected in a country confined between icy seas4 ,before ,july #bjth there is no appearance of summer1 and winter already sets in about ,august #bjth4 ,the lower grounds shelving to the north are intersected with numerous streams1 which1 however1 enjoy their liberty but a short time of the year2 the valleys are mostly swampy and filled with small lakes or ponds2 while on the bleak hill-slopes the ,vaccinium and the dwarf birch or willow sparingly vegetate under a carpet of mosses and lichens4 ,the eastern1 north-eastern1 and partly also the southern coasts abound with walruses1 sea-lions1 and seals1 while the reindeer1 the argali1 the wolf1 and the ,arctic fox occupy the land4 ,during the short summer1 geese1 swans1 ducks1 and wading-birds frequent the marshy grounds2 but in winter the snow-owl and the raven alone remain1 and constantly follow the path of the nomadic inhabitants4 ,in this desolate nook of the ,old ,world lives the only aboriginal people of ,north ,asia which has known how to maintain its liberty to the present day1 and which1 proud of its independence1 looks down with sovereign contempt upon its relations1 the ,korjaks1 who1 without offering any resistance1 have yielded to the authority of ,russia4 ,the rulers of ,siberia have indeed confined the ,tchuktchi within narrow limits1 but here at least they obey no foreign ruler1 and wander1 unmolested by the stranger1 with their numerous reindeer herds1 over the naked tundras4 ,a natural distrust of their powerful neighbors has rendered them long unwilling to enter into any commercial intercourse with the ,russians1 and to meet them at the fair of ,ostrownoje1 a small town1 situated not far from their frontiers1 on a small island of the ,aniuj1 in #fh ,n4 lat4 ,illustration3 #if4 ,,tchuktchi ,,canoe4 ,this remotest trading-place of the ,old ,world is not so unimportant as might be supposed1 from the sterile nature of the country1 for the ,tchuktchi are not satisfied1 like the indolent ,lapps or ,samoedes1 with the produce of their reindeer herds1 but strive to increase their enjoyments or their property by an active trade4 ,from the ,east ,cape of ,asia1 where1 crossing ,bering's ,straits in boats covered with skins1 they barter furs and walrus-teeth from the natives of ,america1 the ,tchuktchi come with their goods and tents drawn on sledges to the fair of ,ostrownoje4 ,other sledges laden with lichens1 the food of the reindeer1 follow in their train1 as in their wanderings1 however circuitous1 they not seldom pass through regions so stony and desert as not even to afford these frugal animals the slightest repast4 ,thus regulating their movements by the wants of their herds1 they require five or six months for a journey which1 in a direct line1 would not be much longer than a thousand versts1 and are almost constantly wandering from place to place1 though1 as they always carry their dwellings along with them1 they at the same time never leave home4 ,one of these snail-like caravans generally consists of fifty or sixty families1 and one fair is scarcely at an end when they set off to make their arrangements for the next4 ,tobacco is the primum mobile of the trade which centres in ,ostrownoje4 ,their pipes are of a peculiar character1 larger at the stem than the bowl1 which holds a very small quantity of tobacco4 ,in smoking1 they swallow the fumes of the tobacco1 and often1 after six or eight whiffs1 fall back completely intoxicated for the time4 ,the desire to procure a few of its narcotic leaves induces the ,american ,esquimaux1 from the ,icy ,cape to ,bristol ,bay1 to send their produce from hand to hand as far as the ,gwosdew ,islands in ,bering's ,straits1 where it is bartered for the tobacco of the ,tchuktchi1 and these again principally resort to the fair of ,ostrownoje to purchase tobacco from the ,russians4 ,generally the ,tchuktchi receive from the ,americans as many skins for half a poud1 or eighteen pounds1 of tobacco-leaves as they afterwards sell to the ,russians for two pouds of tobacco of the same quality4 ,these cost the ,russian merchant about #afj roubles at the very utmost1 while the skins which he obtains in barter are worth at least #bfj at ,jakutsk1 and are more than double that sum at ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,illustration3 #ig4 ,,tchuktchi ,,pipe4 ,the furs of the ,tchuktchi principally consist of black and silver-gray foxes1 stone-foxes1 gluttons1 lynxes1 otters1 beavers1 and a fine species of marten which does not occur in ,siberia1 and approaches the sable in value4 ,they also bring to the fair bear-skins1 walrus-thongs and teeth1 sledge-runners of whale-ribs1 and ready-made clothes of reindeer skin4 ,the ,american furs are generally packed in sacks of seal skin1 which are made in an ingenious manner by extracting the bones and flesh through a small opening made in the abdomen4 ,the ,russian traders on their part bring to the fair1 besides tobacco1 ironware--particularly kettles and knives--for the ,tchuktchi1 and tea1 sugar1 and various stuffs for their countrymen who have settled along the ,kolyma4 ,but ,ostrownoje attracts not only ,tchuktchi and ,russians2 a great number of the ,siberian tribes from a vast circuit of #ajjj or #aejj versts--,jukahires1 ,lamutes1 ,tungusi1 ,tschuwanzi1 ,koriaks--also come flocking in their sledges1 drawn partly by dogs1 partly by horses1 for the purpose of bartering their commodities against the goods of the ,tchuktchi4 ,fancy this barbarous assembly meeting every year during the intense cold and short days of the beginning of ,march4 ,picture to yourself the fantastic illumination of their red watch-fires blazing under the starry firmament1 or mingling their ruddy glare with the ,aurora flickering through the skies1 and add to the strange sight the hollow sound of the ,shaman's drum1 and the howling of several hundreds of hungry dogs1 and you will surely confess that no fair has a more original character than that of ,ostrownoje4 ,a government commissary1 assisted by some ,cossacks1 superintends the fair1 and receives the inconsiderable market-tax which the ,tchuktchi pay to the ,emperor4 ,all preliminaries having been arranged1 the orthodox ,russians repair to the chapel for the purpose of hearing a solemn mass1 after which1 the hoisting of a flag on the tower of the ostrog announces the opening of the market4 ,at this welcome sign1 the ,tchuktchi1 completely armed with spears1 bows1 and arrows1 advance with their sledges1 and form a wide semicircle round the fort1 while the ,russians1 and the other visitors of the fair1 ranged opposite to them1 await in breathless silence the tolling of the bell1 which is to begin the active business of the day4 ,at the very first sound1 each trader1 grotesquely laden with packages of tobacco1 kettles1 knives1 or whatever else he supposes best able to supply some want1 or to strike some fancy of the ,tchuktchi1 rushes as fast as he can towards the sledges1 and in the jumble not seldom knocks down a competitor1 or is himself stretched at full length on the snow4 ,but1 unmindful of the loss of cap and gloves1 which he does not give himself time to pick up1 he starts afresh1 to make up for the delay by redoubled activity4 ,before he reaches the first ,tchuktch1 his eloquence breaks forth in an interminable flow1 and in a strange jargon of ,russian1 ,tchuktch1 and ,jakute1 he praises the excellence of his tobacco or the solidity of his kettles4 ,the imperturbable gravity of the ,tchuktch forms a remarkable contrast with the greedy eagerness of the ,russian trader2 without replying to his harangue1 he merely shakes his head if the other offers him too little for his goods1 and never for an instant loses his self-possession3 while the ,russian1 in his hurry1 not seldom hands over two pouds of tobacco for one1 or pockets a red fox instead of a black one4 ,although the ,tchuktch have no scales with them1 it is not easy to deceive them in the weight1 for they know exactly by the feeling of the hand whether a quarter of a pound is wanting to the poud4 ,the whole fair seldom lasts longer than three days1 and ,ostrownoje1 which must have but very few stationary inhabitants indeed 7as it is not even mentioned in statistical accounts1 which cite towns of seventeen souls71 is soon after abandoned for many months to its ultra-,siberian solitude4 ,but before we allow the ,tchuktchi to retire to their deserts1 we may learn something more of their habits by accompanying ,mr4 ,matiuschkin-- ,wrangell's companion--on a visit to the ladies of one of their first chiefs4 8,we enter the outer tent1 or #8namet1' consisting of tanned reindeer skins supported on a slender frame-work4 ,an opening at the top to let out the smoke1 and a kettle in the centre1 announce that antechamber and kitchen are here harmoniously blended into one4 ,but where are the inmates8 ,most probably in that large sack made of the finest skins of reindeer calves1 which occupies1 near the kettle1 the centre of the #8namet4' ,to penetrate into this #8sanctum sanctorum' of the ,tchuktch household1 we raise the loose flap which serves as a door1 creep on all fours through the opening1 cautiously re-fasten the flap by tucking it under the floor-skin1 and find ourselves in the reception or withdrawing room--the #8polog4' ,a snug box no doubt for a cold climate1 but rather low1 as we can not stand upright in it1 and not quite so well ventilated as a sanitary commissioner would approve of1 as it has positively no opening for light or air4 ,a suffocating smoke meets us on entering1 we rub our eyes1 and when they have at length got accustomed to the biting atmosphere1 we perceive1 by the gloomy light of a train-oil lamp1 the worthy family squatting on the floor in a state of almost complete nudity4 ,without being in the least embarrassed1 ,madame ,lett and her daughter receive us in their primitive costume3 but to show us that the ,tchuktchi know how to receive company1 and to do honor to their guests1 they immediately insert strings of glass beads in their greasy hair4 ,their hospitality equals their politeness2 for1 instead of a cold reception1 a hot dish of boiled reindeer-flesh1 copiously irrigated with rancid train-oil by the experienced hand of the mistress of the household1 is soon after smoking before us4 ,unfortunately our effeminate taste is not up to the haut got of her culinary art1 and while ,mr4 ,lett does ample justice to the artistic talent of his spouse1 by rapidly bolting down pieces as large as a fist1 we are hardly able to swallow a morsel40 ,during his visit at ,ostrownoje1 ,matiuschkin had a favorable opportunity of becoming acquainted with the sports of the ,tchuktchi1 the chieftain1 ,makomol1 having set out prizes for a race4 ,these consisted of a valuable silver fox1 a first-rate beaver skin1 and two fine walrus-teeth4 ,nothing can be more admirable than the fleetness of the reindeer or the dexterity of their drivers2 and the agility displayed in the foot-race by the ,tchuktchi1 running at full speed1 in their heavy winter dresses1 over a distance of fifteen versts1 gives a high idea of their muscular powers4 ,after the races1 the spectators are treated to a grand choregraphic display4 ,the ,arctic bayaderes1 muffled from head to foot in their stiff skin garments1 form a narrow circle1 slowly moving their feet backward and forward1 and fiercely gesticulating with their hands1 whilst their faces are distorted into a thousand horrible grimaces4 ,the singing that accompanies the ballet has no doubt its charm for native ears1 but to strangers it seems no better than a kind of grunt4 ,the representation is closed by three first-rate artistes executing a particularly favorite dance4 ,the faces of their countrymen express the same intense admiration with which a ,european dilettante follows the graceful pirouettes of a ,taglioni1 while the ,russian guests see only three greasy monsters alternately rushing towards each other and starting back1 until at length they stop from sheer exhaustion4 ,as a token of their satisfaction1 the ,russians regale the fair performers with a cup of brandy and a roll of tobacco1 and both parties take leave of each other with mutual protestations of satisfaction and friendship4 ,though most of the ,reindeer or nomadic ,tchuktchi have been baptized1 yet ,wrangell supposes the ceremony to have been a mere financial speculation on their part1 and is convinced that the power of the ,shamans is still as great as ever4 ,an epidemic had carried off a great number of persons1 and also whole herds of reindeer4 ,in vain the ,shamans had recourse to their usual conjurations1 the plague continued4 ,they consulted together1 and directed that one of their most respected chiefs1 named ,kotschen1 must be sacrificed1 to appease the irritated spirits4 ,kotschen was willing to submit to the sentence1 but none could be found to execute it1 until his own son1 prevailed on by his father's exhortations1 and terrified by his threatened curse1 plunged a knife into his heart1 and gave his body to the ,shamans4 ,polygamy is general among the ,tchuktchi1 and they change their wives as often as they please4 ,still1 though the women are certainly slaves1 they are allowed more influence1 and are subjected to less labor than among many savages4 ,among other heathenish and detestable customs1 is that of killing all deformed children1 and all old people as soon as they become unfit for the hardships and fatigues of a nomad life4 ,two years before ,wrangell's arrival at ,kolyma there was an instance of this in the case of one of their richest chiefs4 ,waletka's father became infirm and tired of life1 and was put to death at his own express desire by some of his nearest relations4 ,besides the wandering1 or ,reindeer ,tchuktchi1 who call themselves ,tennygk1 there are others1 dwelling in fixed habitations along the borders of the sea at ,bering's ,straits and the ,gulf of ,anadyr1 who differ considerably from the former in appearance and language4 ,these ,onkilon1 or stationary ,tchuktchi1 belong to the wide-spread ,esquimaux family1 and1 like most of their race1 subsist by hunting the whale1 the walrus1 and the seal4 ,they live in a state of abject dependence on the nomad ,tchuktchi1 and are poor1 like all fishermen1 while some of the ,tennygk chieftains possess several thousands of reindeer1 and are continually adding to their wealth by trade4 ,of course there is an active exchange of commodities between the two2 the ,onkilon furnishing thongs of walrus hide1 walrus-teeth1 train-oil1 etc41 and receiving reindeer skins1 or ready-made clothes of the same material1 in return4 ,they live in small settlements or villages spread along the coast2 their huts1 raised on frame-works of whale-rib and covered with skins1 resemble a large irregular cone reposing on its side1 with the apex directed to the north1 and the base shelving abruptly to the south4 ,here is the small opening1 closed by a flap of loose skin1 which serves as a door1 while the smoke escapes and the light enters through a round hole in the roof4 ,at the farther or northern end of this structure is a second low square tent1 covered with double reindeer skins1 the polog1 which in winter serves both as the dining and bed room of the family4 ,the ,onkilon catch seals in a kind of net made of leather straps1 which they spread out under the ice1 and in which the animal entangles itself with the head or flippers4 ,when the walrus1 which is particularly abundant about ,koliutschin ,island1 creeps on shore1 they steal upon it unawares1 cut off its retreat1 and kill it with their spears4 ,like the ,esquimaux1 they use dogs to drag their sledges4 ,the number of the ,tchuktchi is greater than one might expect to find in so sterile a country4 ,according to the ,russian missionaries1 there were1 some years back1 #eb ulusses or villages of the ,onkilon1 with #aefh tents1 and #aj1jjj inhabitants2 and ,wrangell tells us that the ,tennygk are at least twice as numerous1 so that the entire population of the land of the ,tchuktchi may possibly amount to #cj1jjj4 ,illustration3 #ih4 ,,an ,,aleut4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,bering ,,sea--,,the ,,russian ,,fur ,,company--,,the ,,aleuts4 ,bering ,sea4--,unalaska4--,the ,pribilow ,islands4--,st4 ,matthew4-- ,st4 ,laurence4--,bering's ,straits4--,the ,russian ,fur ,company4-- ,the ,aleuts4--,their ,character4--,their ,skill and ,intrepidity in hunting the ,sea-otter4--,the ,sea-bear4--,whale-chasing4-- ,walrus-slaughter4--,the ,sea-lion4 ,bering ,sea is extremely interesting in a geographical point of view1 as the temperature of its coasts and islands exhibits so striking a contrast with that part of the ,arctic ,ocean which extends between ,greenland1 ,iceland1 ,norway1 and ,spitzbergen1 and affords us the most convincing proof of the benefits we owe to the ,gulf ,stream1 and to the mild south-westerly winds which sweep across the ,atlantic4 ,while through the sea between ,iceland and ,scotland1 a part of the warmth generated in the tropical zone penetrates by means of marine and arial currents as far as ,spitzbergen and the western coast of ,nova ,zembla1 the ,sea of ,bering is completely deprived of this advantage4 ,the long chain of mountainous islands which bounds it on the south serves as a barrier against the mild influence of the ,pacific1 and instead of warm streams mixing with its waters1 many considerable rivers and deep bays yearly discharge into it enormous masses of ice4 ,thus as soon as the navigator enters ,bering ,sea he perceives at once a considerable fall in the temperature1 and finds himself suddenly transferred from a temperate oceanic region to one of a decidedly ,arctic character4 ,in spite1 therefore1 of their comparatively southerly position 7for the ,straits of ,bering do not even reach the ,arctic ,circle1 and the ,andrianow ,islands are ten degrees farther to the south than the ,feros71 those frigid waters are1 with regard to climate1 far less favorably situated than the seas of ,spitzbergen4 ,the same gradual differences of temperature and vegetation which we find in ,unalaska1 the ,pribilow ,islands1 ,st4 ,laurence1 and the ,straits of ,bering1 within #aj of latitude1 occur in the ,shetland ,islands1 ,iceland1 ,bear ,island1 and ,spitzbergen at distances of almost #bj2 so that in the ,sea of ,bering the increase of cold on advancing to the north is about twice as rapid as in the waters between ,north ,europe and ,north ,america4 ,the long and narrow peninsula of ,aliaska1 which forms the south-eastern boundary of this inhospitable sea1 shows us its influence in a very marked degree1 for while the climate of the northern side of that far-projecting land-tongue has a decidedly ,arctic character1 its southern coasts fronting the ,pacific enjoy a temperate climate4 ,the mountain-chain which1 rising to a height of five or six thousand feet1 forms the backbone of the peninsula1 serves as the boundary of two distinct worlds1 for while the northern slopes are bleak and treeless like ,iceland1 the southern shores are covered from the water's edge with magnificent forests4 ,while on the northern side the walrus extends his excursions down to #ef #cj ,n4 lat41 on the southern exposure the hummingbird is seen to flit from flower to flower as high as #fa1 the most northerly point it is known to attain4 ,the ,fero ,islands 7#fd ,n4 lat47 have undoubtedly a no very agreeable climate to boast of1 but they may almost be said to enjoy ,italian skies when compared with ,unalaska 7#ed ,n4 lat471 the best known of the ,aleutian chain4 ,the ,scandinavian archipelago is frequently obscured with fogs1 but here they are perpetual from ,april to the middle of ,july4 ,from this time till the end of ,september the weather improves1 as then the southerly winds drive the foggy region more to the north1 and enable the sun to shine during a few serene days upon the bleak shores of ,unalaska4 ,but soon the ,polar air-streams regain the supremacy1 and a dismal veil once more shrouds the melancholy island4 ,of ,sitka1 the chief town of ,aliaska1 ,mr4 ,whymper says3 8,it enjoys the unenviable position of being about the most rainy place in the world4 ,rain ceases only when there is a good prospect of snow40 ,snow generally begins to fall early in ,october1 and snow-storms occur to the very end of ,may4 ,there are years in which it rains continually during the whole winter4 ,in the ,feros some service-trees are to be seen twelve feet high or more1 while nothing like a tree ever grew in ,unalaska4 ,the difference between the temperatures of the summer and winter1 which in the ,feros is confined to very narrow limits1 is much more considerable in ,unalaska1 though here also the moderating influence of the sea makes itself felt4 ,thus in summer the thermometer rarely rises above #ff1 but on the other hand in winter it still more rarely falls below -#b4 ,of course no corn of any kind can possibly ripen in a climate like this1 but the damp and cool temperature favors the growth of herbs4 ,in the moist lowlands the stunted willow-bushes are stifled by the luxuriant grasses2 and even on the hills1 the vegetation1 which is of a decidedly ,alpine character1 covers the earth up to the line of perpetual snow2 while several social plants1 such as the ,lupinus nootkeanus and the ,rhododendron kamtschadalicum1 decorate these dismal regions with their brilliant color4 ,the lively green of the meadows reminds one of the valley of ,urseren1 so well known to all ,alpine tourists4 ,the mosses and lichens begin already at ,unalaska to assume that predominance in the ,flora which characterizes the frigid zone4 ,illustration3 #ii4 ,,sitka4 ,a few degrees to the north of the ,aleutian chain1 which extends in a long line from the promontory of ,aliaska to ,kamchatka1 are situated the ,pribilow ,islands1 ,st4 ,george and ,st4 ,paul1 which are celebrated in the history of the fur-trade1 the former as the chief breeding-place of the sea-bear1 the latter as that of the sea-lion4 ,chamisso was struck with their wintry aspect1 for here no sheltered valleys and lowlands promote1 as at ,unalaska1 a more vigorous vegetation4 ,the rounded backs of the hills and the scattered rocks are covered with black and gray lichens2 and where the melting snows afford a sufficient moisture1 sphagnum1 mosses1 and a few weeds occupy the marshy ground4 ,the frozen earth has no springs1 and yet these desolate islands have a more southerly situation than the ,orkneys1 where barley grows to ripeness4 ,before these islands were discovered by the ,russians they had been for ages the undisturbed home of the sea-birds and the large cetacean seals4 ,under ,russian superintendence1 some ,aleuts have now been settled on both of them4 ,the innumerable herds of sea-lions1 which cover the naked shores of ,st4 ,george as far as the eye can reach1 present a strange sight4 ,the guillemots have taken possession of the places unoccupied by their families and fly fearlessly among them1 or nestle in the crevices of the wave-worn rock-walls1 or between the large boulders which form a bank along the strand4 ,still farther to the north lies the uninhabited island of ,st4 ,matthew 7#fb ,n4 lat474 ,a settlement was once attempted2 but as the animals which had been reckoned upon for the winter supply of food departed1 the unfortunate colonists all died of hunger4 ,fogs are so frequent about the island of ,st4 ,laurence that navigators have often passed close by it 7#fe ,n4 lat47 without seeing it4 ,chamisso was surprised at the beauty and the numbers of its dwarfish flowering herbs1 which reminded him of the highlands of ,switzerland1 while the neighboring ,st4 ,laurence ,bay1 in the land of the ,tchuktchi1 was the image of wintry desolation4 ,in ,july the lowlands were covered with snow-fields1 and the few plants bore the ,alpine character in the most marked degree4 ,under this inclement sky1 the mountains1 unprotected by vegetation1 rapidly fall into decay4 ,every winter splits the rocks1 and the summer torrents carry the fragments down to their feet4 ,the ground is everywhere covered with blocks of stone1 unless where the sphagnum1 by the accumulation of its decomposed remains1 has formed masses of peat in the swampy lowlands4 ,on sailing through ,bering's ,straits1 the traveller may see1 in clear weather1 both the ,old and the ,new ,world4 ,on both sides rise high mountains1 precipitously from the water's edge in ,asia1 but separated from the sea by a broad alluvial belt on the ,american side4 ,the sea is deepest on the ,asiatic border1 where the current1 flowing from the south with considerable rapidity1 has also the greatest force4 ,here also whales may be often seen1 and large herds of walruses4 ,in former times the baidar of the ,esquimaux was the only boat ever seen in the straits1 and since ,semen ,deshnew1 who first sailed round the eastern point of ,asia1 ,european navigators had but rarely passed them to explore the seas beyond2 but recently this remotest part of the world has become the scene of an active whale-fishery4 ,illustration3 #ajj4 ,a ,,baidar4 ,the shores of ,bering ,sea are naked and bleak1 and the numerous volcanoes of the ,aleutian chain pour out their lava-streams over unknown wildernesses4 ,but the waters of the sea are teeming with life4 ,gigantic alg1 such as are never seen in the torrid zone1 form1 round the rocky coasts1 vast submarine forests4 ,a host of fishes1 whales1 walruses1 and seals1 fill the sea and its shores1 and innumerable sea-birds occupy the cliffs4 ,but these treasures of the ocean1 which for ages furnished the ,aleuts and other wild tribes with the means of existence1 have also been the cause of their servitude4 ,had the sea-otter not existed1 the wild children of the soil might possibly still be in possession of their ancient freedom2 and but for the sea-bear and the walrus1 the whale and the seal1 the banners of the ,czar would scarcely have met the flag of ,england on the continent of ,america4 ,as the whole fur-trade of the ,hudson's ,bay ,territory is concentrated in the hands of one mighty company1 thus also one powerful association enjoys the exclusive commerce of the eastern possession of ,russia4 ,the regions under the authority of the ,russian ,fur ,company#ad occupy an immense space1 as they comprise not only all the islands of ,bering ,sea1 but also the ,american coasts down to #ee ,n4 lat4 ,the extreme points of this vast territory are situated at a greater distance from each other than ,london from ,tobolsk1 but the importance of its trade bears no proportion to its extent4 ,the company1 which was founded in the year #agii1 under the ,emperor ,paul1 had1 in #ahci1 thirty-six hunting settlements on its own territory 7the ,kurile ,islands1 the ,aleutic chain1 ,aliaska1 ,bristol ,bay1 ,cook's ,inlet1 ,norton ,sound1 etc471 besides a chain of agencies from ,ochotsk to ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,its chief seat is ,new ,archangel1 on ,sitka1 one of the many islands of ,king ,george ,,iii4's ,archipelago1 first accurately explored by ,vancouver4 ,the magnificent ,bay of ,norfolk1 at the head of which the small town is situated1 greatly resembles a ,norwegian fjord1 as we here find the same steep rock-walls bathing their precipitous sides in the emerald waters1 and clothed with dense pine forests wherever a tree can grow4 ,a number of islets scattered over the surface of the bay add to the beauty of the scene4 ,the furs collected by the company are chiefly those of sea-bears1 sea-otters1 foxes1 beavers1 bears1 lynxes1 ,american martens1 etc41 and are partly furnished by the subjects of its own territory 7,aleuts1 ,kadjacks1 ,kenazes1 ,tchugatchi1 ,aliaskans71 who are compelled to hunt on its account1 and partly obtained by barter from the independent tribes of the mainland1 or from the ,hudson's ,bay ,company4 ,the greater part is sent to ,ochotsk or the ,amoor1 and from thence through ,siberia to ,st4 ,petersburg2 the rest to the ,chinese ports1 where the skins of the young sea-bear always find a ready market4 ,of all the aboriginal tribes which inhabit the vast territory of ,russian ,america1 the most worthy of notice is that of the ,aleuts4 ,less fortunate than their independent relatives1 the ,esquimaux of the north--who in the midst of privations maintain an imperturbable gayety of temper--these islanders have been effectually spirit-broken under a foreign yoke4 ,in #ahag the cruel treatment of their masters had reduced them to about a thousand2 since that time their number has somewhat increased1 the company having at length discovered that man is1 after all1 the most valuable production of a land1 and that if depopulation increased still further1 they would soon have no more hunters to supply them with furs4 ,every ,aleut is bound1 after his eighteenth year1 to serve the company three years2 and this forced labor-tax does not seem at first sight immoderate1 but if we consider that the islanders1 to whom every foreign article is supplied from the warehouses of the company1 are invariably its debtors1 we can not doubt that as long as the ,aleut is able to hunt1 he is obliged to do so for the wages of a slave4 ,the ,bishop ,ivan ,weniaminow1 who resided ten years at ,unalaska1 draws a picture of this people which exhibits evident marks of a long servitude4 ,they never quarrel among each other1 and their patience is exemplary4 ,nothing can surpass the fortitude with which they endure pain4 ,on the other hand1 they never show excessive joy2 it seems impossible to raise their feelings to the pitch of delight4 ,even after a long fast1 a child never grasps with eagerness the proffered morsel1 nor does it on any occasion exhibit the mirth so natural to its age4 ,in hunting the marine animals1 the ,aleuts exhibit a wonderful skill and intrepidity4 ,to catch the sea-otter1 they assemble in ,april or ,may at an appointed spot1 in their light skin boats1 or baidars1 and choose one of their most respected chiefs for the leader of the expedition1 which generally numbers from fifty to a hundred boats4 ,such hunting-parties are annually organized from the ,kurile ,islands to ,kadjack1 and consequently extend their operations over a line of #cjjj miles4 ,on the first fine day the expedition sets out and proceeds to a distance of about forty versts from the coast1 when the baidars form into a long line1 leaving an interval of about #bej fathoms from boat to boat1 as far as a sea-otter diving out of the water can be seen1 so that a row of thirty baidars occupies a space of from ten to twelve versts4 ,when the number of the boats is greater1 the intervals are reduced4 ,every man now looks upon the sea with great attention4 ,nothing escapes the eye of the ,aleut2 in the smallest black spot appearing but one moment over the surface of the waters1 he at once recognizes a sea-otter4 ,the baidar which first sees the animal rows rapidly towards the spot where the creature dived1 and now the ,aleut1 holding his oar straight up in the air1 remains motionless on the spot4 ,immediately the whole squadron is on the move1 and the long1 straight line changes into a wide circle1 the centre of which is occupied by the baidar with the raised oar4 ,the otter1 not being able to remain long under water1 reappears1 and the nearest ,aleut immediately greets him with an arrow4 ,this first attack is seldom mortal2 very often the missile does not even reach its mark1 and the sea-otter instantly disappears4 ,again the oar rises from the next baidar2 again the circle forms1 but this time narrower than at first2 the fatigued otter is obliged to come oftener to the surface1 arrows fly from all sides1 and finally the animal1 killed by a mortal shot1 or exhausted by repeated wounds1 falls to the share of the archer who has hit it nearest to the head4 ,if several otters appear at the same time1 the boats form as many rings1 provided their number be sufficiently great4 ,the boldest of all hunters1 the ,aleuts of the ,fox ,islands1 pursue the sea-otter also in winter4 ,if1 during the summer chase1 the rapidity and regularity with which all the movements are performed1 and the sure eye and aim of the archers command the spectator's admiration1 this winter chase gives him occasion to wonder at their courage4 ,during the severest winter-storms the otter shelters himself on the shore of some small uninhabited island or on a solitary rock1 and after having carefully ascertained that no enemy is near1 coils himself up and falls asleep4 ,while the storm still rages1 two ,aleuts approach the rock in two single baidars from the leeward4 ,the hunter in the foremost baidar stands upright1 a gun or a club in his hand1 and waits in this position till a wave brings him near to the summit of the rock4 ,he now springs on land1 and while his companion takes care of the baidar1 approaches the sleeping otter and shoots it or kills it with his club4 ,with the assistance of his companion who has remained on the water1 he springs back into his baidar as soon as the crest of a wave brings it within his reach4 ,the sea-bear is nearly as valuable as the sea-otter to the fur company1 as the woolly skin of the young animal is the only one of the whole seal tribe which is reckoned among the finer peltry4 ,the sea-bears are chiefly killed on the ,commodore and ,pribilow islands1 particularly on ,st4 ,paul1 where they are hunted by a certain number of ,aleuts located there under ,russian superintendence4 ,the chase begins in the latter part of ,september1 on a cold1 foggy day1 when the wind blows from the side where the animals are assembled on the rocky shore4 ,the boldest huntsmen open the way1 then follow the older people and the children1 and the chief personage of the band comes last1 to be the better able to direct and survey the movements of his men1 who are all armed with clubs4 ,the main object is to cut off the herd as quickly as possible from the sea4 ,all the grown-up males and females are spared and allowed to escape1 but most of the young animals are sentenced to death4 ,those which are only four months old 7their furs being most highly prized7 are doomed without exception2 while of the others that have attained an age of one1 two1 or three years1 only the males are killed4 ,for several days after the massacre1 the mothers swim about the island1 seeking and loudly wailing for their young4 ,from ,october #e ,st4 ,paul is gradually deserted by the sea-bears1 who then migrate to the south and re-appear towards the end of ,april1 the males arriving first4 ,each seeks the same spot on the shore which he occupied during the preceding year1 and lies down among the large stone blocks with which the flat beach is covered4 ,about the middle of ,may the far more numerous females begin to make their appearance1 and the sea-bear families take full possession of the strand4 ,each male is the sultan of a herd of females1 varying in number according to his size and strength2 the weaker brethren contenting themselves with half a dozen1 while some of the sturdier and fiercer fellows preside over harems #bjj strong4 ,jealousy and intrusion frequently give rise to terrible battles4 ,the full-grown male sea-bear1 who is about four or five times larger than the female1 grows to the length of eight feet1 and owes his name to his shaggy blackish fur1 and not to his disposition1 which is far from being cruel or savage4 ,armed with a short spear1 a single ,aleut does not hesitate to attack the colossal whale4 ,approaching cautiously from behind in his baidar until he reaches the head1 he plunges his weapon into the animal's flank under the fore fin1 and then retreats as fast as his oar can carry him4 ,if the spear has penetrated into the flesh1 the whale is doomed2 it dies within the next two or three days1 and the currents and the waves drift the carcass to the next shore4 ,each spear has its peculiar mark by which the owner is recognized4 ,sometimes the baidar does not escape in time1 and the whale1 maddened by pain1 furiously lashes the water with his tail1 and throws the baidar high up into the air1 or sinks it deep into the sea4 ,the whale-fishers are highly esteemed among the ,aleuts1 and their intrepidity and skill well deserve the general admiration4 ,of course many of the whales are lost4 ,in the summer of #ahca1 #aah whales were wounded near ,kadjack1 of which only forty-three were found4 ,the others may have been wafted far out into the sea to regale the sharks and sea-birds1 or driven to more distant shores1 whose inhabitants no doubt gladly welcomed their landing4 ,wrangell informs us that since #ahcc the ,russians have introduced the use of the harpoon1 and engaged some ,english harpooners to teach the ,aleuts a more profitable method of whale-catching1 but we are not told how the experiment has succeeded4 ,the company1 besides purchasing a great quantity of walrus-teeth from the ,tchuktchi of the ,bering's ,straits and ,bristol ,bay1 send every year a detachment of ,aleuts to the north coast of ,aliaska1 where generally a large number of young walruses1 probably driven away by the older ones1 who prefer the vicinity of the polar ice1 spend the summer months4 ,the walruses herd on the lowest edge of the coast which is within reach of the spring tides4 ,when the ,aleuts prepare to attack the animals1 they take leave of each other as if they were going to face death1 being no less afraid of the tusks of the walruses than of the awkwardness of their own companions4 ,armed with lances and heavy axes1 they stealthily approach the walruses1 and having disposed their ranks1 suddenly fall upon them with loud shouts1 and endeavor to drive them from the sea1 taking care that none of them escape into the water1 as in that case the rest would irresistibly follow and precipitate the huntsmen along with them4 ,as soon as the walruses have been driven far enough up the strand1 the ,aleuts attack them with their lances1 striking at them in places where the hide is not so thick1 and then pressing with all their might against the spear1 to render the wound deep and deadly4 ,the slaughtered animals tumble one over the other and form large heaps1 whilst the huntsmen1 uttering furious shouts and intoxicated with carnage1 wade through the bloody mire4 ,they then cleave the jaws and extract the tusks1 which are the chief objects of the slaughter of several thousand walruses1 since neither their flesh nor their fat is made use of in the colony4 ,the carcasses are left on the shore to be washed away by the spring tides1 which soon efface the mark of the massacre1 and in the following year the inexhaustible north sends new victims to the coast4 ,sir ,george ,simpson1 in his 8,overland ,journey round the ,world10 relates that the bales of fur sent to ,kiachta are covered with walrus hide2 it is then made to protect the tea-chests which find their way to ,moscow1 and after all these wanderings1 the far-travelled skin returns again to ,new ,archangel1 where1 cut into small pieces and stamped with the company's mark1 it serves as a medium of exchange4 ,the skin of the sea-lion 7,otaria ,stelleri7 has but little value in the fur-trade1 as its hair is short and coarse1 but in many other respects the unwieldy animal is of considerable use to the ,aleut4 ,its hide serves to cover his baidar2 with the entrails he makes his water-tight kamleika1 a wide1 long shirt which he puts on over his dress to protect himself against the rain or the spray2 the thick webs of its flippers furnish excellent soles for his boots1 and the bristles of its lip figure as ornaments in his head-dress4 ,illustration3 #aja4 ,,fort ,,st4 ,,michael4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,alaska4 ,purchase of ,alaska by the ,united ,states4--,the ,russian ,american ,telegraph ,scheme4--,whymper's ,trip up the ,yukon4--,dogs4--,the ,start4--,extempore ,water-filter4--,snow-shoes4--,the ,frozen ,yukon4--,under-ground ,houses4--,life at ,nulato4--,cold ,weather4-- ,auroras4--,approach of ,summer4--,breaking-up of the ,ice4--,fort ,yukon4--,furs4--,descent of the ,yukon4--,value of ,goods4-- ,arctic and ,tropical ,life4--,moose-hunting4--,deer-corrals4- -,lip ,ornaments4--,canoes4--,four-post ,coffin4--,the ,kenaian ,indians4-- ,the ,aleuts4--,value of ,alaska4 ,in #ahfg the ,russian ,government sold to the ,united ,states all of its possessions in ,america1 comprising an area of more than #ejj1jjj square miles1 equal in extent to ,france1 ,germany1 and ,great ,britain1 stretching from #ed #dj north latitude to the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,the sum paid was about seven and a quarter millions of dollars4 ,in this purchase is included ,mount ,st4 ,elias1 the highest peak in ,north ,america1 rising to a height of more than #ah1jjj feet1 and one of the loftiest single peaks on the globe4 ,the real value of this new acquisition was quite unknown to both buyer and seller4 ,in the southern part1 and on the islands1 there is considerable vegetation and forests of large trees2 and it is said that there is some mineral wealth4 ,but the greater part of the territory is essentially ,arctic4 ,it now bears the designation of the ,territory of ,alaska1 an abbreviation of ,aliaska1 the name of the peninsula stretching into the ,north ,pacific ,ocean4 ,little information has as yet been gained of this region4 ,the most important is the result of a journey up the ,river ,yukon1 performed in #ahff by ,mr4 ,frederick ,whymper1 an artist connected with the ,telegraph ,expedition4 ,this telegraph enterprise was undertaken in the confident expectation that the cables laid directly across the ,atlantic would fail1 and that telegraphic communications between ,london and ,new ,york must be mainly by land4 ,the proposed line1 starting from the mouth of the ,amoor1 to which point it was already constructed1 should bend around the head of the ,sea of ,okotsch1 thence run eastward and northward through ,kamchatka to the #fc;d degree of north latitude1 then cross the narrow ,strait of ,bering1 and run southward through what was then ,russian ,america1 ,british ,columbia1 ,washington ,territory1 and ,oregon1 to ,san ,francisco2 thence across the ,american continent to ,new ,york4 ,a dispatch from ,london to ,new ,york by this route would travel something more than #be1jjj miles1 while the distance in a straight line across the ,atlantic was about #cjjj miles4 ,the company undertaking this enterprise had surveyed a considerable part of the distance1 and expended some millions of dollars1 when it was announced that the ,atlantic cable was a success1 and the work was abandoned4 ,in the mean while ,mr4 ,whymper undertook a trip up the great ,river ,yukon4 ,this is essentially an ,arctic river1 though its mouth is far southward of the ,arctic ,circle4 ,it is probably the greatest of the ,arctic rivers1 and in length and volume of water is exceeded by not more than six rivers of the globe4 ,the party of which ,mr4 ,whymper was one consisted of six ,europeans and three ,indians4 ,in ,october1 #ahfe1 they started from ,unalachleet1 on ,norton ,sound4 ,a trip of #bjj miles would bring them to ,nulato1 a ,russian trading-post #gjj miles from the mouth of the river1 which here runs almost parallel with the coast4 ,they were to travel on foot over frozen rivers and through deep snow4 ,to convey their supplies they had four sledges1 each drawn by five dogs4 ,such a team will draw about #cej pounds4 ,the dogs of this region are not of a good class4 ,mr4 ,whymper thinks they have in them quite as much of the wolf as of the dog4 ,their usual food is fish2 their regular daily allowance in winter is a dried salmon a day3 in summer they are expected to fish for themselves4 ,they will1 however1 eat almost any thing1 and1 if they can get enough1 will grow fat upon it4 ,they even took kindly to beans1 provided they were boiled soft--a thing which ,kane could never induce his ,esquimaux dogs to undertake4 ,they set out on the #bgth of ,october at #aa o'clock--that is1 just after sunrise--the thermometer standing at #cj below freezing-point4 ,their trip was begun a little too early1 for the deep snow had not become packed hard1 and a bit of thaw would transform it into slush2 and the streams which they had to cross were not all frozen over4 ,fortunately1 they had a light skin boat1 which not only stood them in good stead now1 but served them afterwards for more than a thousand miles of winter travel4 ,whenever they came to a frozen stream1 the ,indians would break a hole through the ice to get a draught of water4 ,they always filled up the hole with loose snow1 through which they sucked the water4 ,this they said was to filter out the little red worms with which they said the water was infested4 ,the travellers wore snow-shoes2 the use of which1 although indispensable in going over the soft snow1 is very fatiguing1 obliging the wearers to lift a dozen pounds of snow at every step4 ,sometimes they had to break a path for the sledges4 ,the men would go on ahead for a space1 then return and start on again1 thus traversing the distance three times4 ,often they could not accomplish more than ten miles a day4 ,illustration3 #ajb4 ,,the ,,frozen ,,yukon4 ,at noon on the #aath of ,november1 a fortnight after starting1 they caught in the distance a glimpse of a faint bluish streak1 varying the white monotony of the scene4 ,this they knew marked the course of the great river towards which they were tending4 ,pushing eagerly on1 at sunset they broke out of the woods1 shot down a steep bank1 and stood on an immense plain of snow-covered ice4 ,it was the ,yukon1 frozen solidly over as far as the eye could reach1 except that here and there was a faint streak of open water4 ,from bank to bank the distance was more than a mile1 and this they afterwards found was the normal breadth of the river for seven hundred miles below1 and a thousand miles above4 ,not unfrequently it spread out into broad lagoons four or five miles wide4 ,the ,yukon is one of the great rivers of the globe4 ,in length and volume of water it is exceeded only by the ,amazon1 the ,mississippi1 and perhaps the ,plata4 ,it exceeds the ,nile1 the ,ganges1 the ,volga1 the ,amoor1 and has affluents to which the ,rhine and ,rhone are but brooks4 ,it rises far within the ,british ,possessions1 and its head-waters almost interlock with those of the ,mackenzie1 which empties into the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,a portage of only eighty miles intervenes between these rivers at points where each is navigable for boats forty feet long1 and drawing two feet of water4 ,over this portage the ,hudson's ,bay ,company transport upon men's backs the goods for trading with the ,indians on the ,upper ,yukon4 ,mr4 ,whymper thinks that a flat-bottomed stern-wheel steamer1 like those used on the ,upper ,mississippi1 could ascend the ,yukon for eighteen hundred miles1 and tap the whole fur-bearing region4 ,but as the river is frozen solid for eight months out of the twelve1 the steamer could hardly make more than one trip a year4 ,illustration3 #ajc4 ,,under-,,ground ,,house4 ,the travellers stopped two days at the ,indian winter village of ,coltog4 ,the houses were built mainly under-ground4 ,first1 a little shanty is put up1 under which a hole like a well is dug2 thence a branch like a sewer runs some yards1 along which one must crawl on hands and knees to reach the proper dwelling1 which is a square hole in the earth1 over which is raised a low dome-shaped roof1 with a hole in the top to let out the smoke of the fire1 which is built directly underneath4 ,when the fire gets low the smoke-hole is covered with a skin1 which keeps in not only the heat but the manifold scents engendered by the crowded occupancy4 ,the slight heat from below makes the roof a favorite trysting-place for the dogs1 and every now and then one comes tumbling down through the smoke-hole upon the fire below1 adding the odor of singed hair to those arising from stale fish1 old skin garments1 and other unnamable abominations4 ,coltog is a rather favorable sample of an ,indian winter village in ,alaska4 ,from ,coltog the travellers proceeded up the river two days' journey to ,nulato1 the most northern and most inland of the ,russian ,company's fur-posts4 ,it stands in latitude #fe1 and longitude #aeh1 upon a level slip of land bounded on two sides by the great river and one of its main branches4 ,notwithstanding the high latitude1 trees of considerable size grow there1 and during the brief summer the grass is luxuriant1 and berries abound4 ,the post is a little fortress1 surrounded by a picket1 which is closed at night to exclude the ,indians1 who camp around in large numbers4 ,the house appropriated to the travellers was built of logs1 forming one side of the little square4 ,the windows were of seal-gut instead of glass2 and as there is during the winter only two or three hours of daylight1 the light was never any of the best4 ,by caulking the floor with moss1 and carpeting it with skins1 the main room was kept comfortably warm1 except near the floor4 ,if one hung a damp garment from the rafters it would steam at the top1 while frozen stiff at the bottom4 ,the temperature at the roof was sometimes #fe1 while near the floor it was #d4 ,water for daily use was hauled on a sledge from the river4 ,to get at it1 they were obliged to break through solid ice four feet thick4 ,nevertheless1 the ,indians contrive to catch immense quantities of fish by constructing a weir of wicket-work1 and keeping holes open in the ice4 ,illustration3 #ajd4 ,,fish-,,traps ,,on ,,the ,,yukon4 ,winter fairly set in soon after the party had taken up their abode at ,nulato4 ,on the #b;d of ,november the thermometer indicated the moderate temperature of #b above zero4 ,it suddenly fell to #bj below zero1 and kept on steadily falling until the #eth of ,december1 when it sunk to #eh below zero1 that is1 ninety degrees below the freezing-point of water4 ,this was the coldest day1 but there were during ,december and ,january eleven days when the thermometer sunk below the freezing-point of mercury4 ,it is to be noted that after a certain point the human system seems to take little additional note of the temperature as indicated by the thermometer4 ,when the mercury froze1 #gb below the freezing-point of water1 it did not seem very cold1 provided there was no wind2 while one day when the thermometer was #dd higher1 we find this note3 8,a north wind blew1 and made us feel the cold very decidedly4 ,it is wonderful how searching the wind is in this northern climate2 each little seam1 slit1 or tear in your fur or woollen clothing makes you aware of its existence1 and one's nose1 ears1 and angles generally are the special sufferers40 ,one day when the thermometer stood at #aj1 an expedition started off for the coast3 and once when it was at #cb1 a half-clad ,indian came to the post with his child1 no better clad1 bringing some game2 he did not seem to think the day remarkably cold4 ,the shortest day of the winter was ,december #ba1 when the sun was an hour and fifty minutes above the horizon4 ,illustration3 #aje4 ,,aurora ,,at ,,nulato4 ,during the winter ,mr4 ,whymper made many capital sketches out-of-doors1 while the temperature was sixty degrees below freezing-point4 ,among these is a remarkable aurora borealis on the #bast of ,december4 ,it was not the conventional arch1 but a graceful1 undulating1 ever-changing snake of pale electric light2 evanescent colors1 pale as those of a lunar rainbow1 ever and again flitting through it1 and long streamers and scintillations moving upward to the bright stars1 which shone distinctly through its hazy ethereal form4 ,the night was beautifully calm and clear2 cold1 but not intensely so1 the thermometer standing at #af4 ,so passed the long winter months4 ,early in ,april there came signs of summer--for in the ,arctic regions there is properly no spring or autumn4 ,on the #ith flies made their appearance4 ,next day the willows were seen budding4 ,but for another fortnight the weather was variable4 ,on the #bhth the first goose put in his appearance4 ,but for another fortnight the ice in the river remained unbroken4 ,the first sign of breaking up was on the #abth of ,may4 ,that day mosquitoes showed themselves4 ,next day came swallows and wild geese in abundance4 ,still another fortnight1 during which a steady stream of broken ice came down1 bearing with it whole trees torn up from the banks4 ,on the #bdth of ,may the river was tolerably clear of ice4 ,illustration3 #ajf4 ,,breaking ,,up ,,of ,,the ,,ice4 ,the ,russians had already got ready for a trading-excursion up the ,yukon to an ,indian trading-place #bdj miles above1 the farthest point ever visited by them4 ,they had a huge skin boat1 fitted with mast and sail1 manned by eight men1 carrying1 besides men and provisions1 two tons of goods4 ,the ,americans went with them1 though meaning to go far beyond4 ,they had their own little boat1 laden with six or seven hundred pounds of stores of all kinds4 ,the river was still full of ice and drift-wood4 ,a large tree would sometimes pass under the bow of the ,russian boat1 and fairly lift it out of the water4 ,these skin boats seem to be the best of all for this kind of navigation4 ,they give way without harm to a blow which would break through a bark canoe4 ,one can scarcely conceive the rapidity with which summer comes on in these regions4 ,on the #bgth of ,may the river was yet full of ice4 ,ten days after they had to lie by during the noontide heat1 the thermometer standing at #hj in the shade4 ,the ,americans reached ,fort ,yukon on the #ith of ,june1 having1 in twenty-nine days1 rowed and tracked six hundred miles4 ,a few weeks later1 with the current in their favor1 they descended the same space in seven days4 ,fort ,yukon lies a little within what was formerly ,russian ,america1 and the ,hudson's ,bay ,company paid a small sum for the privilege of its occupancy4 ,here the ,americans remained a month1 being hospitably entertained4 ,the fort had quite a civilized look4 ,there were freshly-plastered walls1 glazed windows1 open fireplaces1 magazines1 store-houses1 and a great fur-room4 ,camped around were ,indians of many tribes1 locally designated as 8,foolish ,folks10 8,wood ,folks10 8,birch-bark ,folks10 8,rat ,folks10 8,hill ,folks10 and the like4 ,some wore their native costumes2 others were tricked out in the odds and ends of civilized attire4 ,the fur-room was a rare sight4 ,from the beams hung marten-skins by the thousand1 while the cheaper sorts were lying in huge heaps on the floor4 ,skins are here the regular currency4 ,the beaver is the unit1 estimated at about half a dollar4 ,two martens count as one beaver1 and so on by a recognized scale4 ,fox-skins are numerous4 ,the most valuable is that of the black fox1 worth twenty times more than any other4 ,there is a story that an unlucky employ of the company once bought the skin of a white fox1 which the ,indian seller had cunningly dyed black1 paying for it more pounds than he should have paid shillings4 ,the overplus was deducted from his salary4 ,illustration3 #ajg4 ,,fort ,,yukon4 ,on the #hth of ,july the travellers started on their return journey1 under a salute from their hospitable hosts4 ,they canoed down the river day and night1 only stopping two or three times a day to prepare their tea and cook their fish4 ,it was a holiday excursion1 the current sweeping them along at the rate of four miles an hour4 ,once1 by aid of rowing1 they made forty-five miles in seven hours4 ,they followed the river clear to its mouth4 ,for the seven hundred miles below ,nulato1 near where they had struck the river on their upward journey1 the region is comparatively poor4 ,it lies out of the way of traders2 fish are plenty and cheap enough4 ,five needles were considered a fair price for a thirty-pound salmon2 and1 says ,mr4 ,whymper1 8tobacco went farther than we had ever known it to do before40 ,on the #bc;d of ,july they reached the mouth of the river1 whence two days' sailing up the coast brought them to ,st4 ,michael's4 ,the whole voyage of #acjj miles between ,fort ,yukon and ,st4 ,michael's had taken fifteen and a half days4 ,at ,st4 ,michael's they were told that the telegraphic enterprise had been abandoned1 and that all employed in it were to return to ,california4 ,illustration3 #ajh4 ,a ,,deer ,,corral4 ,the result of this expedition adds considerably to our knowledge of the ,arctic regions4 ,it confirms what has been told us by ,richardson1 ,kane1 ,hall1 and all other ,arctic explorers as to the superabundance of animal life existing in certain seasons in the northern regions4 ,strange as it may seem1 tropical and semi-tropical countries are almost bare of living creatures4 ,strain and his party wandered for weeks through the thick forests of ,central ,america1 never seeing an animal1 and rarely a bird1 and the river appeared to be almost destitute of fish4 ,but life abounds in the ,arctic regions4 ,the rivers swarm with fish almost begging to be caught4 ,the ,kamchatdales have reindeer by the thousand4 ,whymper and his friends1 during their brief stay at ,nulato1 bought the skins of eight hundred white hares with which to cover their blankets2 the ,indians had used the flesh for food4 ,moose-meat1 varied by beaver1 is the standing food of those who have got tired of salmon4 ,the delicacies are a moose's nose and a beaver's tail4 ,so abundant are the moose on the ,yukon that the natives think it hardly worth while to waste powder and shot in killing them4 ,when an ,indian in his canoe comes upon a moose swimming in the water1 he gives chase until the creature is fatigued1 and then stabs it to the heart with his knife4 ,they have also an ingenious way of corralling deer4 ,they build a long elliptical inclosure of stakes upon a trail made by the deer4 ,between each pair of stakes is a slip-noose4 ,a herd of deer is driven into this inclosure2 they try to run out between the stakes1 get caught by the nooses1 and so fall a ready prey to the guns of the hunters4 ,illustration3 #aji4 ,,lip ,,ornaments4 ,the native population of ,alaska is estimated at about #fj1jjj4 ,from the southern boundary up to ,mount ,st4 ,elias and on the islands live the ,koloschians1 estimated at #bj1jjj4 ,they are of middling stature1 of copper-colored complexion1 with round faces1 thick lips1 and black hair4 ,the men wear various ornaments in their ears and noses2 the women1 when young1 insert a piece of ivory in a slit made in the under lip1 increasing it in size from year to year1 until at last the ornament gets to be four inches wide1 projecting six inches from the side of the face4 ,the baidars or canoes of the ,koloschians are dug out of a single tree1 and will carry from twelve to fifty persons4 ,they are usually propelled by paddles1 though upon long voyages they are rigged with two or more masts and sails of matting or canvas4 ,they1 and indeed all of the tribes1 do not bury their dead1 but deposit their remains in an oblong box raised upon posts1 with the canoe and other possessions of the deceased over the box4 ,illustration3 #aaj4 ,a ,,baidar4 ,next northward of the ,koloschians come the ,kenaians1 who stretch almost across the continent to ,hudson's ,bay4 ,those living upon the ,yukon call them ,co-yukons1 that is1 ,people of the ,great ,river1 8,yukon0 in their language signifying river4 ,they are much feared by the surrounding tribes1 and have often given no little trouble to their ,russian masters4 ,many of these wear a bone ornament stuck through the septum of the nose4 ,illustration3 #aaa4 ,,four-,,post ,,coffin4 ,the ,aleuts1 who inhabit the ,aleutian ,islands are1 to a considerable extent1 of mixed blood1 ,russian and ,koloschian4 ,they have advanced in civilization far beyond any other of the ,esquimaux race4 ,not a few of them have received a fair education1 and among the priests of the ,greek ,church there are not a few who go through the service of the church in the ,greek language1 with a full understanding of the words of the service4 ,illustration3 #aab4 ,,tanana ,,indian4 ,quite nine-tenths of the whole territory of ,alaska is purely ,arctic1 and is not only uninhabited but uninhabitable4 ,the other tenth is now sparsely inhabited1 and there is little reason to suppose that the population will ever be greatly beyond its present number4 ,except in special cases1 the possible population of a country is measured by its agricultural capacity4 ,leaving out of view the extreme northern parts of ,alaska1 the best accounts as yet accessible show that at ,st4 ,michael's lettuce1 parsnips1 and turnips can be raised by sowing them in beds4 ,at ,fort ,yukon potatoes not much larger than cherries can be raised4 ,at ,sitka potatoes will grow a little larger4 ,on some of the islands the inhabitants can even venture upon barley4 ,the forest-trees1 which flourish in isolated parts1 will soon be exhausted1 as far as any profitable use of them is concerned4 ,fish and furs constitute almost the sole value of ,alaska4 ,the fisheries are among the most valuable in the world4 ,the furs will soon be exhausted1 unless prompt measures are taken to prevent the capture of fur-bearing animals in the breeding season4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,the ,,esquimaux4 ,their wide ,extension4--,climate of the ,regions they inhabit4--,their physical ,appearance4--,their ,dress4--,snow ,huts4--,the ,kayak1 or the ,baidar4--,hunting ,apparatus and ,weapons4--,enmity between the ,esquimaux and the ,red ,indian4--,the 8,bloody ,falls40--,chase of the ,reindeer4--,bird-catching4--,whale-hunt ing4--,various ,stratagems employed to catch the ,seal4--,the 8,keep-kuttuk40--,bear-hunting4-- ,walrus-hunting4--,awaklok and ,myouk4--,the ,esquimaux ,dog4--,games and ,sports4--,angekoks4--,moral ,character4--,self-reliance4-- ,intelligence4--,iligliuk4--,commercial ,eagerness of the ,esquimaux4--,their ,voracity4--,seasons of ,distress4 ,of all the uncivilized nations of the globe none range over a wider space than the ,esquimaux1 whose various tribes extend from ,greenland and ,labrador1 over all the coasts of ,arctic ,america1 to the ,aleutic chain and the extreme north-eastern point of ,asia4 ,many are independent1 others subject to the ,russian1 ,danish1 or ,british rule4 ,in ,baffin's ,bay and ,lancaster ,sound they accost the whale-fisher2 they meet him in the ,icy ,sea beyond ,bering's ,straits2 and while their most southerly tribes dwell as low as the latitude of ,vienna1 others sojourn as high as the #hjth degree of northern latitude1 and probably roam even still higher on the still undiscovered coasts beyond--a nearness to the pole no other race is known to reach4 ,the old ,scandinavian settlers in ,greenland expressed their dislike for them in the contemptuous name of ,skraelingers 7screamers or wretches72 the seamen of the ,hudson's ,bay ships1 who trade annually with the natives of ,northern ,labrador and the ,savage ,islands1 have long called them 8,seymos0 or 8,suckemos10 names evidently derived from the cries of 8,seymo10 or 8,teymo10 with which they greet the arrival of the ships2 they speak of themselves simply as 8,inuit10 or men4 ,with few exceptions the whole of the vast region they inhabit lies beyond the extremest limits of forest growth1 in the most desolate and inhospitable countries of the globe4 ,the rough winds of the ,polar ,sea almost perpetually blow over their bleak domains1 and thus only a few plants of the hardest nature--lichens and mosses1 grasses1 saxifragas1 and willows--are able to subsist there1 and to afford a scanty supply of food to a few land animals and birds4 ,ill indeed would it fare with the ,esquimaux1 if they were reduced to live upon the niggardly produce of the soil2 but the sea1 with its cetaceans and fishes1 amply provides for their wants4 ,thus they are never found at any considerable distance from the ocean1 and they line a considerable part of the coasts of the ,arctic seas without ever visiting the interior4 ,it may easily be supposed that a race whose eastern branches have for several centuries been under the influence of the ,danes and ,english1 while in the extreme west it has long been forced to submit to ,russian tyranny1 and whose central and northern tribes rarely come into contact with ,europeans1 must show some variety in its manners and mode of life1 and that the same description is not applicable in all points to the disciples of the ,moravian brothers in ,labrador or ,greenland1 to the ,greek-,catholic ,aleuts1 and to the far more numerous heathen ,esquimaux of continental ,america1 or of the vast archipelago beyond its northern shores4 ,upon the whole1 however1 it is curious to observe how exactly1 amidst all diversity of time and place1 these people have preserved unaltered their habits and manners4 ,the broad1 flat face1 widest just below the eyes1 the forehead generally narrow and tapering upward2 the eyes narrow and more or less oblique2 all indicate a ,mongol or ,tartar type1 differing greatly from the features of the conterminous ,red ,indian tribes4 ,their complexion1 when relieved from smoke and dirt1 also approaches more nearly to white than that of their copper-colored neighbors4 ,most of the men are rather under the medium ,english size1 but they can not be said to be a dwarfish race4 ,thus ,simpson saw in ,camden ,bay three ,esquimaux who measured from five feet ten inches to six feet2 and among the natives of ,smith ,strait1 ,kane1 a rather short man1 met with one a foot taller than himself4 ,the females1 however1 are all comparatively short4 ,the ,esquimaux are all remarkably broad-shouldered1 and though their muscles are not so firm as those of the ,european seamen1 yet they surpass in bodily strength all the other natives of ,america4 ,in both sexes the hands and feet are remarkably small and well-formed4 ,from exercise in hunting the seal and walrus1 the muscles of the arms and back are much developed in the men1 who are moreover powerful wrestlers4 ,when young1 the ,esquimaux looks cheerful and good-humored1 and the females exhibit1 when laughing1 a set of very white teeth4 ,could they be induced to wash their faces1 many of these savage beauties would be found to possess a complexion scarcely a shade darker than that of a deep brunette2 but though disinclined to ablutions1 for which the severity of their climate may serve as an excuse1 they are far from neglecting the arts of the toilette4 ,unlike the ,hare ,indian and ,dog-,rib females1 in whom the hard rule of their lords and masters has obliterated every trace of female vanity1 the ,esquimaux women tastefully plait their straight1 black1 and glossy hair2 and hence we may infer that greater deference is paid to them by the men4 ,they also generally tattoo their chin1 forehead1 and cheeks1 not1 however1 as in the ,south ,sea ,islands1 with elaborate patterns1 but with a few simple lines1 which have a not unpleasing effect4 ,from ,bering's ,straits eastward as far as the ,mackenzie1 the males pierce the lower lip near each angle of the mouth1 and fill the apertures with labrets of blue or green quartz1 or of ivory resembling buttons4 ,many also pierce the septum of the nose1 and insert a dentalium shell or ivory needle4 ,like the ,red ,indians1 they are fond of beads1 but their most common ornament consists in strings of teeth of the fox1 wolf1 or musk-ox--sometimes many hundreds in number--which are either attached to the lower part of the jacket1 or fastened as a belt round the waist4 ,their dress is admirably adapted to the severity of their climate4 ,with their two pair of breeches made of reindeer or seal skin1 the outer one having the hair outside and the inner one next the body1 and their two jackets--of which the upper one is provided with a great hood--with their water-tight seal-skin boots1 lined with the downy skins of birds1 and their enormous gloves1 they bid defiance to the severest cold1 and even in the hardest weather pursue their occupations in the open air whenever the moon is in the sky1 or during the doubtful meridian twilight4 ,the women are perfect in the art of making water-tight shirts1 or 8kamleikas10 of the entrails of the seal or walrus1 which in summer serve to replace their heavy skin jackets4 ,they also sew their boots so tight that not the slightest wet can penetrate1 and with a neatness of which the best shoemaker in ,europe might be proud4 ,the dress of the two sexes is much alike1 the outer jacket having a pointed skirt before and behind1 but that of the females is a little longer4 ,the women also wear larger hoods1 in which they carry their children2 and sometimes 7as in ,labrador7 the inner boot has in front a long1 pointed flap1 to answer the same purpose4 ,the ,esquimaux are equally expert in the construction of their huts4 ,as soon as the lengthening days induce the tribes about ,cape ,bathurst and the mouth of the ,mackenzie to move seaward on the ice to the seal-hunt1 a marvellous system of architecture comes into use1 unknown among any other ,american nations4 ,the fine pure snow has by that time acquired1 under the action of the winds and frosts1 sufficient coherence to form an admirable light building material1 which the ,esquimaux skillfully employ for the erection of most comfortable dome-shaped houses4 ,a circle is first traced on the smooth surface of the snow1 and slabs for raising the walls cut from within1 so as to clear a space down to the ice1 which is to form the floor of the dwelling1 and whose evenness was previously ascertained by probing4 ,the slabs for the dome are cut from some neighboring spot4 ,the crevices between the slabs are plugged up1 and the seams closed1 by throwing a few shovelfuls of loose snow over the fabric4 ,two men generally work together1 and when the dome is completed the one within cuts a low door and creeps out4 ,the walls being only three or four inches thick1 admit a very agreeable light1 which serves for ordinary purposes2 if more is required1 a window of transparent ice is introduced4 ,the proper thickness of the walls is of some importance2 one of a few inches excludes the wind1 yet keeps down the damp so as to prevent dripping from the interior4 ,the furniture of this crystal hut is also formed of snow 7the seats1 the table1 the sleeping-places71 and1 when covered with skins1 is very comfortable4 ,by means of antechambers and porches1 with the opening turned to leeward1 warmth is insured1 and social intercourse facilitated by contiguous building1 doors of communication1 and covered passages4 ,by constant practice the ,esquimaux can raise such huts almost as quickly as we could pitch a tent4 ,when ,m',clintock for a few nails hired four ,esquimaux to build a hut for his party1 they completed it in an hour1 though it was eight feet in diameter and five and a half feet high4 ,in spite of its fragile materials1 this snow-house is durable1 for the wind has little effect on its dome-like form1 and it resists the thaw until the sun acquires a very considerable power4 ,of course a strong fire could not possibly be made within1 but such is not needed by the ,esquimaux4 ,the train-oil lamp suffices to dry his wet clothes and boots when he returns from hunting2 and the crowding of the inmates engenders a sufficiently high temperature to keep him warm4 ,having also a decided predilection for raw flesh and fat1 he requires no great expenditure of fuel to cook his dinner4 ,the lower part of his dwelling being under the surface of the snow1 likewise promotes its warmth4 ,but of whatever materials the hut of the ,esquimaux may be constructed-- of snow1 as ,i have just described1 or1 as is frequently the case1 of stones1 or earth1 or drift-wood--everywhere1 from ,bering's ,straits to ,smith ,sound1 it is equally well adapted to the climate and to circumstances4 ,thus when ,dr4 ,scoresby landed in #ahbb on the eastern coast of ,greenland1 he discovered some deserted ,esquimaux huts1 which gave proof both of the severity of the climate1 and of the ingenuity evinced in counteracting its rigors4 ,a horizontal tunnel about fifteen feet long1 and so low as to render it necessary to creep through on hands and feet1 opens with one end to the south1 and leads through the other into the interior of the hut4 ,this rises but little above the surface of the earth1 and1 as it is generally overgrown with moss or grass1 is scarcely to be distinguished from the neighboring soil4 ,the floor of the tunnel is frequently on a level with that of the hut1 but often also it is made to slant downward and upward1 so that the colder1 and consequently heavier1 air without is still more effectually kept off from the warmer air within2 and thus the ,esquimaux1 without ever having studied physics1 make a practical use of one of its fundamental laws4 ,but their most ingenious invention is unquestionably that of the one-seated boat1 the 8kayak10 or the 8baidar40 ,a light1 long1 and narrow frame of wood1 or seal or walrus bone1 is covered water-tight with seal-skin1 leaving but one circular hole in the middle4 ,in this the ,esquimaux sits with outstretched legs1 and binds a sack 7which is formed of the intestines of the whale1 or of the skins of young seals1 and fits in the opening7 so tightly round his middle1 that even in a heavy sea not a drop of water can penetrate into the boat4 ,striking with his light oar 7which is paddled at each extremity7 alternately to the right and to the left1 his spear or harpoon before him1 and maintaining his equilibrium with all the dexterity of a rope-dancer1 he flies like an arrow over the water2 and should a wave upset him1 he knows how to right himself by the action of the paddle4 ,the 8oomiak10 or women's boat1 likewise consists of a frame-work covered with seal-skins1 and is roomy enough to hold ten or twelve people1 with benches for the women who row or paddle4 ,the mast supports a triangular sail made of the entrails of seals1 and easily distended by the wind4 ,the men would consider it beneath their dignity to row in one of these omnibus boats2 they leave this labor entirely to the women1 who1 to the tact of a monotonous song1 slowly propel the oomiak through the water4 ,judging of foreign customs by their own1 the ,esquimaux between the ,mackenzie and ,coppermine rivers made the strange mistake1 as ,sir ,john ,richardson relates1 of supposing that the ,english sailors whom they saw rowing in company were women4 ,one of them even asked whether all white females had beards4 ,the weapons of the ,esquimaux1 and their various fishing and hunting implements1 likewise show great ingenuity and skill4 ,their oars are tastefully inlaid with walrus-teeth2 they have several kinds of spears or darts1 adapted to the size of the various animals which they hunt2 and their elastic bows1 strongly bound with strings of seal-gut1 drive a six-foot arrow with unerring certainty to a distant mark4 ,to bring down a larger animal1 the shaft is armed with a sharp flint or a pointed bone2 if intended to strike a bird1 it is smaller1 and blunted4 ,the harpoons and lances used in killing whales or seals have long shafts of wood or of the narwhal's tooth1 and the barbed point is so constructed that1 when the blow takes effect1 it is left sticking in the body of the animal1 while the shaft attached to it by a string is disengaged from the socket1 and becomes a buoy of wood4 ,seal-skins1 blown up like bladders1 are likewise used as buoys for the whale-spears1 being adroitly stripped from the animal so that all the natural apertures are easily made air-tight4 ,with equal industry and skill the ,esquimaux put to use almost every part of the land and marine animals which they chase4 ,knives1 spear-points1 and fish-hooks are made of the horns and bones of the deer4 ,the ribs of the whale are used in roofing huts or in the construction of sledges1 where drift-timber is scarce4 ,strong cord is made from strips of seal-skin hide1 and the sinews of musk-oxen and deer furnish bow-strings1 or cord to make nets or snares4 ,in default of drift-wood1 the bones of the whale are employed for the construction of their sledges1 in pieces fitted to each other with neatness1 and firmly sewed together4 ,during the long confinement to their huts or 8igloos0 in the dark winter months1 the men execute some very fair figures in bone1 and in walrus or fossil ivory1 besides making fish-hooks1 knife-handles1 and other instruments neatly of these materials1 or of metal or wood4 ,thus in all these respects the ,esquimaux are as superior to the ,red ,indians as they are in strength and personal courage2 and yet no ,norwegian can more utterly despise the filthy ,lapp1 and no orthodox ,mussulman look down with greater contempt upon a 8giaour10 than the ,loucheux or ,cheppewayan upon the ,esquimaux1 who in his eyes is no better than a brute1 and whom he approaches only to kill4 ,in his 8,voyage to the ,coppermine ,river0 ,hearne relates a dreadful instance of this bloodthirsty hatred4 ,the ,indians who accompanied him having heard that some ,esquimaux had erected their summer huts near the mouth of that river1 were at once seized with a tiger-like fury4 ,hearne1 the only ,european of the party1 had not the power to restrain them1 and he might as well have attempted to touch the heart of an ice-bear as to move the murderous band to pity4 ,as craftily and noiselessly as serpents they drew nigh1 and1 when the midnight sun verged on the horizon1 with a dreadful yell they burst on the huts of their unsuspecting victims4 ,not one of them escaped1 and the monsters delighted to prolong the misery of their death-struggle by repeated wounds4 ,an old woman had both her eyes torn out before she received the mortal blow4 ,a young girl fled to ,hearne for protection1 who used every effort to save her1 but in vain4 ,in #ahba some human skulls lying on the spot still bore testimony to this cruel slaughter1 and the name of the 8,bloody ,falls10 given by ,hearne to the scene of the massacre1 will convey its memory to distant ages4 ,no wonder that the hate of the ,esquimaux is no less intense1 and that they also pursue the ,indians1 wherever they can1 with their spears and arrows1 like wild beasts4 8,year after year10 says ,sir ,john ,richardson1 8sees the ,esquimaux on the ,polar coast of ,america occupied in a uniform circle of pursuits4 ,when the rivers open in spring1 they proceed to the rapids and falls to spear the salmon1 which at that season come swimming stream upward4 ,at the same time1 or earlier in more southern localities1 they hunt the reindeer1 which drop their young on the coasts and islands while the snow is only partially melted4 ,where the open country affords the huntsman no opportunity of approaching his game unperceived1 deep pits are dug in the snowy ravines1 and superficially covered with snow-tablets4 ,the wind soon effaces the traces of the human hand1 and thus many reindeer are snared40 ,in summer the reindeer are killed partly by driving them from islands or narrow necks of land into the sea1 and then spearing them from their kayaks1 and partly by shooting them from behind heaps of stones raised for the purpose of watching them1 and imitating their peculiar bellow or grunt4 ,among the various artifices which they employ for this purpose1 one of the most ingenious consists in two men walking directly from the deer they wish to kill1 when the animal almost always follows them4 ,as soon as they arrive at a large stone1 one of the men hides behind it with his bow1 while the other1 continuing to walk on1 soon leads the deer within range of his companion's arrows4 ,the multitudes of swans1 ducks1 and geese resorting to the morasses of the northern coasts to breed1 likewise aid in supplying the ,esquimaux with food during their short but busy summer of two months4 ,for their destruction a very ingenious instrument has been invented4 ,six or eight small balls made of walrus-tooth and pierced in the middle are separately attached to as many thongs of animal sinew1 which are tied together at the opposite end4 ,when cast into the air the diverging balls describe circles--like the spokes of a wheel--and woe to the unfortunate bird that comes within their reach4 ,on the coasts frequented by whales1 the month of ,august is devoted to the pursuit of these animals2 a successful chase insuring a comfortable winter to a whole community4 ,their capture requires an association of labor2 hence along the coasts of the ,polar ,sea the ,esquimaux unite their huts into villages1 for whose site a bold point of coast is generally chosen1 where the water is deep enough to float a whale4 ,when one of these huge creatures is seen lying on the water1 a dozen kayaks or more cautiously paddle up astern of him1 till a single canoe1 preceding the rest1 comes close to him on one quarter1 so as to enable the men to drive the spear into the animal with all the force of both arms4 ,this spear has a long line of thong and an inflated seal-skin attached to it4 ,the stricken whale immediately dives2 but when he re-appears after some time1 all the canoes again paddle towards him1 some warning being given by the seal-skin buoy floating on the surface4 ,each man being furnished like the first1 they repeat the blow as often as they find an opportunity1 till perhaps every line has been thus employed4 ,after chasing him in this manner sometimes for half a day1 he is at length so wearied by the resistance of the buoys and exhausted by loss of blood as to be obliged to rise more and more often to the surface1 and is finally killed and towed ashore4 ,though in many parts seals are caught at every season of the year1 yet the great hunt takes place in spring1 when they play in the open lanes near the coasts1 or come out on the ice to bask in the sun4 ,in spite of their wariness1 they are no match for the ,esquimaux1 who have carefully studied all their habits from infancy4 ,sometimes the hunter approaches them by imitating their forms and motions so perfectly that the poor animals are not undeceived until one of them is struck with his lance2 or else1 by means of a white screen pushed forward on a sledge1 the hunter comes within range and picks out the best-conditioned of the band4 ,as the season draws near midsummer1 the seals are more approachable2 their eyes being so congested by the glare of the sun that they are sometimes nearly blind4 ,in winter they are assaulted while working at their breathing-holes or when coming up for respiration4 ,if an ,esquimaux has any reason to suppose that a seal is busy gnawing beneath the ice1 he immediately attaches himself to the place1 and seldom leaves it1 even in the severest frost1 till he has succeeded in killing the animal4 ,for this purpose he first builds a snow-wall about four feet in height1 to shelter him from the wind1 and seating himself under the lee of it1 deposits his spears1 lines1 and other implements upon several little forked sticks inserted into the snow1 in order to prevent the smallest noise being made in moving them when wanted4 ,but the most curious precaution consists in tying his own knees together with a thong so securely as to prevent any rustling of his clothes1 which might otherwise alarm the animal4 ,in this situation a man will sit quietly sometimes for hours together1 attentively listening to any noise made by the seal1 and sometimes using the 8keep-kuttuk0 in order to ascertain whether the animal is still at work below4 ,this simple little instrument--which affords another striking proof of ,esquimaux ingenuity--is merely a slender rod of bone 7as delicate as a fine wire1 that the seal may not see it71 nicely rounded1 and having a point at one end and a knob at the other4 ,it is inserted into the ice1 and the knob remaining above the surface1 informs the fisherman by its motion whether the seal is employed in making his hole2 if not1 it remains undisturbed1 and the attempt is given up in that place4 ,when the hunter supposes the hole to be nearly completed1 he cautiously lifts his spear 7to which the line has been previously attached71 and as soon as the blowing of the seal is distinctly heard--and the ice consequently very thin--he drives it into him with the force of both arms1 and then cuts away with his 8panna10 or well-sharpened knife1 the remaining crust of ice1 to enable him to repeat the wounds and get him out4 ,the 8neituk0 7,phoca hispida71 being the smallest seal1 is held1 while struggling1 either simply by hand1 or by putting the line round a spear with the point stuck into the ice4 ,for the 8oguke0 7,phoca barbata71 the line is passed round the man's leg or arm2 and for a walrus1 round his body1 his feet being at the same time firmly set against a hummock of ice1 in which position these people can1 from habit1 hold against a very heavy strain4 ,a boy of fifteen is equal to the killing of a 8neituk10 but it requires a full-grown person to master either of the larger animals4 ,this sport is not without the danger which adds to the excitement of success1 particularly if the creature struck by the hunter be a large seal or walrus2 for woe betide him if he does not instantly plant his feet firmly in the ice1 and throw himself in such a position that the strain on the line is as nearly as possible brought into the direction of the length of the spine of his back and axis of his lower limbs4 ,a transverse pull from one of these powerful animals would double him up across the air-hole1 and perhaps break his back2 or if the opening be large1 as it often is when the spring is advanced1 he would be dragged under water and drowned4 ,as the ,polar bear is as great a seal-hunter as the ,esquimaux1 one of the usual methods employed by the latter to catch these bears is to imitate the motions of the seal by lying flat on the ice until the bear approaches sufficiently near to insure a good aim2 but a gun is necessary to practise this stratagem with success4 ,seeman 78,voyage of the ,herald07 mentions another ingenious mode of capturing the bear by taking advantage of the well-known voracity of the animal1 which generally swallows its food without much mastication4 ,a thick and strong piece of whalebone1 about four inches broad and two feet long1 is rolled up into a small compass1 and carefully enveloped in blubber1 forming a round ball4 ,it is then placed in the open air at a low temperature1 where it soon becomes hard and frozen4 ,the natives1 armed with their knives1 bows1 and arrows1 together with this frozen bait1 proceed in quest of the bear4 ,as soon as the animal is seen1 one of the natives discharges an arrow at it2 the monster1 smarting from this assault1 chases the party1 then in full retreat1 until1 meeting with the frozen blubber dropped in his path1 he greedily swallows it1 and continues the pursuit--doubtless fancying that there must be more where that came from4 ,the natural heat of the body soon causes the blubber to thaw1 when the whalebone1 thus freed1 springs back1 and frightfully lacerates the stomach4 ,the writhing brute falls down in helpless agony1 and the ,esquimaux1 hurrying to the spot1 soon put an end to his sufferings4 ,the ,esquimaux of ,smith ,sound hunt the bear with the assistance of their dogs1 which are carefully trained not to engage in contest with the bear1 but to retard his flight4 ,while one engrosses his attention ahead1 a second attacks him in the rear1 always alert1 and each protecting the other2 and thus it rarely happens that they are seriously injured1 or that they fail to delay the animal until their masters come up4 ,if there be two hunters1 the bear is killed easily2 for one makes a feint of thrusting a spear at the right side1 and as the animal turns with his arms towards the threatened attack1 the left is unprotected1 and receives the death-wound4 ,but if the hunter is alone1 he grasps the lance firmly in his hands1 and provokes the animal to pursue him by moving rapidly across its path1 and then running as if to escape4 ,but hardly is its long1 unwieldy body extended for the chase1 than1 with a rapid jump1 the hunter doubles on his track1 and runs back towards his first position4 ,the bear is in the act of turning after him again1 when the lance is plunged into the left side below the shoulder4 ,so dexterously has this thrust to be made1 that an unpractised hunter has often to leave his spear in the side of his prey and run for his life2 but even then1 if well-aided by the dogs1 a cool1 skillful man seldom fails to kill his adversary4 ,while the seal1 narwhal1 and white whale furnish the staple food of the more southern ,greenlander1 the walrus is the chief resource of the ,smith ,sound ,esquimaux4 ,the manner of hunting this animal depends much on the season of the year4 ,in spring1 or the breeding-season1 when the walrus is in his glory1 he is taken in two ways4 ,sometimes he has risen by the side of an iceberg1 where the currents have worn away the floe1 or through a tide crack1 and1 enjoying the sunshine too long1 finds his retreat cut off by the freezing up of the opening2 for like the seal1 the walrus can only work from below at his breathing-hole4 ,when thus caught1 the ,esquimaux1 who with keen hunter-craft are scouring the floes1 scent him out by their dogs and spear him4 ,frequently the female and her calf1 accompanied by the grim-visaged father1 are seen surging1 in loving trios1 from crack to crack1 and sporting in the openings4 ,while thus on their tour1 they invite their vigilant enemies to the second method of capture4 ,this also is by the lance and harpoon2 but it often becomes a regular battle1 the male gallantly fronting the assault1 and charging the hunters with furious bravery4 ,in the fall1 when the pack is but partially closed1 the walrus are found in numbers1 hanging around the neutral region of mixed ice and water1 and1 as this becomes solid with the advance of winter1 following it more and more to the south4 ,the ,esquimaux at this season approach them over the young ice1 and assail them in cracks and holes with harpoon and line4 ,this fishery1 as the season grows colder1 darker1 and more tempestuous1 is fearfully hazardous4 ,kane relates how1 during a time of famine1 two of his ,esquimaux friends1 ,awaklok and ,myouk1 determined to seek the walrus on the open ice4 ,they succeeded in killing a large male1 and were returning to their village1 when a north wind broke up the ice1 and they found themselves afloat4 ,the impulse of a ,european would have been to seek the land2 but they knew that the drift was always most dangerous on the coast1 and urged their dogs towards the nearest iceberg4 ,they reached it after a struggle1 and1 by great efforts1 made good their landing1 with their dogs and the half-butchered carcass of the walrus4 ,it was at the close of the last moonlight of ,december1 and a complete darkness settled around them4 ,they tied the dogs down to knobs of ice1 to prevent their losing their foothold1 and prostrated themselves1 to escape being blown off by the violence of the wind4 ,at first the sea broke over them1 but they gained a higher level1 and built a sort of screen of ice4 ,on the fifth night afterwards1 so far as they could judge1 one of ,myouk's feet was frozen1 and ,awaklok lost his great toe by frost bite4 ,but they did not lose courage1 and ate their walrus-meat as they floated slowly to the south4 ,it was towards the close of the second moonlight1 after a month's imprisonment1 such as only these iron men could endure1 that they found the berg had grounded4 ,they liberated their dogs as soon as the young ice could bear their weight1 and attaching long lines to them1 which they cut from the hide of the dead walrus1 they succeeded in hauling themselves through the water-space which always surrounds an iceberg1 and reaching safe ice4 ,they returned to their village like men raised from the dead1 to meet a welcome1 but to meet famine along with it4 ,in the form of their bodies1 their short pricked ears1 thick furry coat1 and bushy tail1 the dogs of the ,esquimaux so nearly resemble the wolf of these regions1 that when of a light or brindled color1 they may easily at a little distance be mistaken for that animal2 but an eye accustomed to both1 perceives that the wolf always keeps his head down and his tail between his legs in running1 whereas the dogs almost always carry their tails handsomely curled over the back4 ,their hair in the winter is from three to four inches long2 but besides this nature furnishes them during this rigorous season with a thick under-coating of close1 soft wool1 which enables them to brave the most inclement weather4 ,they do not bark1 but have a long melancholy howl1 like that of the wolf4 ,when drawing a sledge1 they have a simple harness of deer or seal skin going round the neck by one bight1 and another for each of the fore legs1 with a single thong leading over the back1 and attached to the sledge as a trace4 ,though they appear at first sight to be huddled together without regard to regularity1 considerable attention is really paid to their arrangement1 particularly in the selection of a dog of peculiar spirit and sagacity1 who is allowed by a longer trace to precede the rest as leader1 and to whom1 in turning to the right or left1 the driver usually addresses himself1 using certain words as the carters do with us4 ,to these a good leader attends with admirable precision 7especially if his own name be repeated at the same time71 looking behind over his shoulder with great earnestness1 as if listening to the directions of the driver1 who sits quite low on the fore part of the sledge1 his whip in hand1 and his feet overhanging the snow on one side4 ,on rough ground1 as among hummocks of ice1 the sledge would be frequently overturned if the driver did not repeatedly get off1 and1 by lifting or drawing it to one side1 steer it clear of those obstacles4 ,at all times1 indeed1 except on a smooth and well-made road1 he is pretty constantly employed thus with his feet1 and this1 together with his never-ceasing vociferations and frequent use of the whip1 renders the driving of one of these vehicles by no means a pleasant or easy task4 8,the whip10 says ,kane1 who from assiduous practice at length attained a considerable proficiency in its use1 8is six yards long1 and the handle but sixteen inches--a short lever to throw out such a length of seal-hide4 ,learn to do it1 however1 with a masterly sweep1 or else make up your mind to forego driving sledges2 for the dogs are guided solely by the lash1 and you must be able to hit not only any particular dog of a team of twelve1 but to accompany the feat also with a resounding crack4 ,after this you find that1 to get your lash back1 involves another difficulty2 for it is apt to entangle itself among the dogs and lines1 or to fasten itself cunningly round bits of ice1 so as to drag you head over heels into the snow4 ,the secret by which this complicated set of requirements is fulfilled consists in properly describing an arc from the shoulder with a stiff elbow1 giving the jerk to the whip-handle from the hand and wrist alone4 ,the lash trails behind as you travel1 and when thrown forward is allowed to extend itself without an effort to bring it back4 ,you wait patiently1 after giving the projectile impulse1 until it unwinds its slow length1 reaches the end of its tether1 and cracks to tell you that it is at its journey's end4 ,such a crack on the ear or fore foot of an unfortunate dog is signalized by a howl quite unmistakable in its import40 ,the mere labor of using this whip is such that the ,esquimaux travel in couples1 one sledge after the other4 ,the hinder dogs follow mechanically1 and thus require no whip2 and the drivers change about so as to rest each other4 ,in the summer1 when the absence of snow prevents the use of sledges1 the dogs are still made useful1 on journeys and hunting excursions1 by being employed to carry burdens in a kind of saddle-bags laid across their shoulders4 ,a stout dog thus accoutred will accompany his master laden with a weight of about twenty or twenty-five pounds4 ,the scent of the ,esquimaux dog is excellent1 and this property is turned to account in finding the seal-holes1 which they will discover entirely by the smell at a very great distance4 ,the track of a single deer upon the snow will in like manner set them off at full gallop at least a quarter of a mile before they arrive at it1 and with the same alacrity they pursue the bear or the musk-ox4 ,indeed1 the only animal which they are not eager to chase is the wolf1 of which they seem to have an instinctive dread1 giving notice at night of their approach to the huts by a loud and continued howl4 ,in spite of their invaluable services1 they are treated with great severity by their masters1 who never caress them1 and1 indeed1 scarcely ever take any notice of them except to punish them4 ,but notwithstanding this rough treatment1 the attachment of the dogs to their masters is very great1 and this they display1 after a short absence1 by jumping up and licking their faces all over with extreme delight4 ,it may be supposed that among so cheerful a people as the ,esquimaux there are many games or sports practised4 ,one of their exhibitions consists in making hideous faces by drawing both lips into the mouth1 poking forward the chin1 squinting frightfully1 occasionally shutting one eye1 and moving the head from side to side as if the neck had been dislocated4 ,another performance consists in repeating certain words with a guttural tone resembling ventriloquism1 staring at the same time in such a manner as to make their eyes appear ready to burst out of their sockets with the exertion4 ,two or more will sometimes stand up face to face1 and1 with great quickness and regularity1 respond to each other1 keeping such exact time that the sound appears to come from one throat instead of several4 ,they are fond of music1 both vocal and instrumental1 but their singing is not much better than a howl4 ,the ,esquimaux have neither magistrates nor laws1 yet they are orderly in their conduct towards each other4 ,the constitution of their society is patriarchal1 but there is no recognition of mastership except such as may be claimed by superior prowess4 ,the rule of the head of a family lasts only as long as he has vigor enough to secure success in hunting4 ,when his powers of mind and body are impaired by age1 he at once sinks in the social scale1 associates with the women1 and takes his seat in the oomiak4 ,they rarely quarrel among themselves1 and settle their disputes either by boxing1 the parties sitting down and striking blows alternately until one of them gives in1 or before a court of honor1 where1 after the accuser and the accused have richly abused and ridiculed each other1 the case is decided by the priests or 8angekoks40 ,these wonder-workers1 who enjoy a great reputation as sorcerers1 soothsayers1 or medicine-men1 employ ventriloquism1 swallow knives1 extract stones from various parts of their bodies1 and use other deceptions to impress their dupes with a high opinion of their supernatural powers4 ,like the members of the learned professions elsewhere1 they have a certain language or jargon of their own1 in which they communicate with each other4 ,the heathen ,esquimaux do not appear to have any idea of the existence of one ,supreme ,being1 but believe in a number of spirits1 with whom on certain occasions the angekoks pretend to hold mysterious intercourse4 ,even in ,old ,greenland the influence and teachings of the missionaries have not entirely obliterated the old superstitions1 and the mysteries of the angekok1 though not openly recognized near the ,danish settlements1 still hold their secret power over many a native who is professedly a ,christian4 ,captain ,hall highly praises the good-nature of the ,esquimaux2 but in their behavior to the old and infirm they betray the insensibility1 or rather inhumanity1 commonly found among savage nations1 frequently abandoning them to their fate on their journeys1 and allowing them to perish in the wilderness4 ,among themselves 8,tiglikpok0 7he is a thief7 is a term of reproach1 but they steal without scruple from strangers1 and are not ashamed when detected1 nor do they blush when reproved4 ,parry taxes them with want of gratitude2 and though they have no doubt rendered good services to many of our ,arctic navigators1 yet sometimes1 when they fancied themselves the stronger party1 they have not hesitated to attack or to murder the strangers1 and their good behavior can only be relied upon as long as there is the power of enforcing it4 ,one of the most amiable traits of their character is the kindness with which they treat their children1 whose gentleness and docility are such as to occasion their parents little trouble1 and to render severity towards them quite unnecessary4 ,even from their earliest infancy they possess that quiet disposition1 gentleness of demeanor1 and uncommon evenness of temper for which1 in mature age1 they are for the most part distinguished4 8,they are just as fond of play10 says ,parry1 8as any other young people1 and of the same kind1 only that while an ,english child draws a cart of wood1 an ,esquimaux of the same age has a sledge of whalebone2 and for the superb baby-house of the former1 the latter builds a miniature hut of snow1 and begs a lighted wick from her mother's lamp to illuminate the little dwelling40 ,when not more than eight years old1 the boys are taken by their fathers on their sealing excursions1 where they begin to learn their future business2 and even at that early age they are occasionally intrusted to bring home a sledge and dogs from a distance of several miles over the ice4 ,at the age of eleven we see a boy with his water-tight boots1 a spear in his hand1 and a small coil of line at his back1 accompanying the men to the fishery under every circumstance2 and from this time his services daily increase in value to the whole tribe4 ,in intelligence and susceptibility of civilization the ,esquimaux are far superior to the neighboring ,indians4 ,they have such a good idea of the hydrography and bearings of the sea-coasts which they frequent as to draw accurate charts of them4 ,thus ,parry1 in his second voyage1 was guided in his operations by the sketches of the talented ,iligliuk2 and while ,beechey was at ,kotzebue ,sound1 the natives constructed a chart of the coast upon the sand1 first marking out the coast-line with a stick1 and regulating the distance by the day's journey4 ,the hills and ranges of mountains were next shown by elevations of sand or stone1 and the islands represented by heaps of pebbles1 their proportions being duly attended to4 ,when the mountains and islands were erected1 the villages and fishing-stations were marked by a number of sticks placed upright1 in imitation of those which are put up on the coast wherever these people fix their abode4 ,in this manner a complete hydrographical plan was drawn from ,cape ,derby to ,cape ,krusenstern4 ,the ,esquimaux have a decided predilection for commercial pursuits1 and undertake long voyages for the purposes of trade4 ,thus on the continental line of coast west of the ,mackenzie1 the ,point ,barrow ,esquimaux proceed every summer1 with sledges laden with whale or seal oil1 whalebone1 walrus-tusks1 thongs of walrus hide1 and seal-skins1 to the ,colville ,river1 where they meet the ,esquimaux from ,kotzebue ,sound1 who offer them in exchange articles procured from the ,tchuktchi in the previous summer1 such as iron and copper kettles1 knives1 tobacco1 beads1 and tin for making pipes4 ,about ten days are spent in bartering1 dancing1 and revelry1 on the flat ground between the tents of each party1 pitched a bow-shot apart4 ,the time is one of pleasant excitement1 and is passed nearly without sleep4 ,about ,july #bj this friendly meeting is at an end3 the ,kotzebue ,sound ,esquimaux ascend the ,colville on their way homeward1 while those from ,point ,barrow descend to the sea1 to pursue their voyage eastward to ,barter ,reef1 where they obtain in traffic from the eastern ,esquimaux various skins1 stone lamps1 ,english knives1 small white beads1 and1 lately1 guns and ammunition1 which in the year following they exchange for the ,kotzebue ,sound articles at the ,colville1 along with the produce of their own sea-hunts4 ,in this manner1 articles of ,russian manufacture1 originally purchased at the fair of ,ostrownoje by the ,tchuktchi1 or from the factors of the ,russian ,fur ,company on ,sledge ,island1 in ,bering's ,straits1 find their way from tribe to tribe along the ,american coast as far as ,repulse ,bay1 and compete among the tribes of the ,mackenzie with articles from ,sheffield or ,birmingham4 ,a hunter's life is always precarious--a constant alternation between abundance and want2 and though the ,esquimaux strikes many a seal1 white-fish1 or walrus in the course of the year1 yet these animals do not abound at all seasons1 and there are other causes1 besides improvidence1 which soon exhaust the stores laid by in times of abundance4 ,active exercise and constant exposure to cold are remarkable promoters of atomic change in the human body1 and a very large supply of food is absolutely necessary to counterbalance the effects of a rapid organic combustion4 ,as a matter of curiosity1 ,parry once tried how much an ,esquimaux lad would1 if freely supplied1 consume in the course of a day4 ,the following articles were weighed before being given to him3 he was twenty hours in getting through them1 and certainly did not consider the quantity extraordinary4 lbs4 oz4 ,sea-horse flesh1 hard frozen #d #d 0 0 boiled #d #d ,bread and bread-dust #a #ab ------- ,total of solids #aj #d ,the fluids were in fair proportion1 viz41 rich gravy soup1 #a pint2 raw spirits1 #c wine-glasses2 strong grog1 #a tumbler2 water1 #a gallon #a pint4#ae ,kane averages the ,esquimaux ration in a season of plenty at eight or ten pounds a day1 with soup and water to the extent of half a gallon1 and finds in this excessive consumption--which is rather a necessity of their peculiar life and organization than the result of gluttony-- the true explanation of the scarcity from which they frequently suffer4 ,in times of abundance they hunt indomitably without the loss of a day1 and stow away large quantities of meat4 ,an excavation is made either on the mainland--or1 what is preferred1 on an island inaccessible to foxes--and the flesh is stacked inside and covered with heavy stones4 ,one such cache which ,kane met on a small island contained the flesh of ten walruses1 and he knew of others equally large4 ,but by their ancient custom1 all share with all2 and as they migrate in numbers as their necessities prompt1 the tax on each particular settlement is not seldom so excessive that even considerable stores are unable to withstand the drain1 and soon make way for pinching hunger1 and even famine4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,the ,,fur-,,trade ,,of ,,the ,,hudson',s ,,bay ,,territories4 ,the ,coureur des ,bois4--,the ,voyageur4--,the ,birch-bark ,canoe4-- ,the ,canadian ,fur-trade in the last ,century4--,the ,hudson's ,bay ,company4--,bloody ,feuds between the ,north-west ,company of ,canada and the ,hudson's ,bay ,company4--,their ,amalgamation into a new ,company in #ahba4--,reconstruction of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company in #ahfc4--;,forts or ,houses4--,the ,attihawmeg4--,influence of the ,company on its savage ,dependents4--,the ,black ,bear1 or ,baribal4-- ,the ,brown ,bear4--,the ,grizzly ,bear4--,the ,raccoon4--,the ,american ,glutton4--,the ,pine ,marten4--,the ,pekan1 or ,woodshock4--,the ,chinga4--,the ,mink4--,the ,canadian ,fish-otter4--,the ,crossed ,fox4-- ,the ,black or ,silvery ,fox4--,the ,canadian ,lynx1 or ,pishu4--,the ,ice-hare4--,the ,beaver4--,the ,musquash4 ,as the desire to reach ,india by the shortest road first made the civilized world acquainted with the eastern coast of ,north ,america1 so the extension of the fur-trade has been the chief1 or rather the only1 motive which originally led the footsteps of the white man from the ,canadian ,lakes and the borders of ,hudson's ,bay into the remote interior of that vast continent4 ,the first ,european fur-traders in ,north ,america were ,french ,canadians-- coureurs des bois--a fitting surname for men habituated to an ,indian forest-life4 ,three or four of these 8irregular spirits0 agreeing to make an expedition into the backwoods would set out in their birch-bark canoe1 laden with goods received on trust from a merchant1 for a voyage of great danger and hardship1 it might be of several years1 into the wilderness4 ,on their return the merchant who had given them credit of course received the lion's share of the skins gathered among the ,hurons or the ,iroquois2 the small portion left as a recompense for their own labor was soon spent1 as sailors spend their hard-earned wages on their arrival in port2 and then they started on some new adventure1 until finally old age1 infirmities1 or death prevented their revisiting the forest4 ,the modern 8voyageur10 who has usurped the place of the old 8coureurs10 is so like them in manners and mode of life1 that to know the one is to become acquainted with the other4 ,in short1 the voyageur is merely a coureur subject to strict law and serving for a fixed pay2 while the coureur was a voyageur trading at his own risk and peril1 and acknowledging no control when once beyond the pale of ,european colonization4 ,the camel is frequently called the 8ship of the desert10 and with equal justice the birch-bark canoe might be named the 8camel of the ,north ,american wilds40 ,for if we consider the rivers which1 covering the land like a net-work1 are the only arteries of communication2 the frequent rapids and cataracts2 the shallow waters flowing over a stony ground whose sharp angles would infallibly cut to pieces any boat made of wood2 and finally the surrounding deserts1 where1 in case of an accident1 the traveller is left to his own resources1 we must come to the conclusion that in such a country no intercourse could possibly be carried on without a boat made of materials at once flexible and tough1 and capable moreover of being easily repaired without the aid of hammer and nails1 of saw and plane4 ,this invaluable material is supplied by the rind of the paper-birch1 a tree whose uses in the ,hudson's ,bay territories are almost as manifold as those of the palm-trees of the tropical zone4 ,where the skins of animals are rare1 the pliant bark1 peeled off in large pieces1 serves to cover the ,indian's tent4 ,carefully sewn together1 and ornamented with the quills of the porcupine1 it is made into baskets1 sacks1 dishes1 plates1 and drinking-cups1 and in fact is1 in one word1 the chief material of which the household articles of the ,crees are formed4 ,the wood serves for the manufacture of oars1 snow-shoes1 and sledges2 and in spring the sap of the tree furnishes an agreeable beverage1 which1 by boiling1 may be inspissated into a sweet syrup4 ,beyond the ,arctic ,circle the paper-birch is a rare and crooked tree1 but it is met with as a shrub as far as #fi ,n4 lat4 ,it grows to perfection on the northern shores of ,lake ,superior1 near ,fort ,william1 where the canoes of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company are chiefly manufactured4 ,a birch-bark canoe is between thirty and forty feet long1 and the rinds of which it is built are sewn together with filaments of the root of the ,canadian fir4 ,in case of a hole being knocked into it during the journey1 it can be patched like an old coat1 and is then as good as new4 ,as it has a flat bottom1 it does not sink deep into the water2 and the river must be almost dried up which could not carry such a boat4 ,the cargo is divided into bales or parcels of from #ij to #ajj pounds2 and although it frequently amounts to more than four tons1 yet the canoe itself is so light that the crew can easily transport it upon their shoulders4 ,this crew generally consists of eight or ten men1 two of whom must be experienced boatmen1 who receive double pay1 and are placed one at the helm1 the other at the poop4 ,when the wind is fair1 a sail is unfurled1 and serves to lighten the toil4 ,the ,canadian voyageur combines the light-heartedness of the ,frenchman with the apathy of the ,indian1 and his dress is also a mixture of that of the ,red-skins and of the ,european colonists4 ,frequently he is himself a mixture of ,gallic and ,indian blood--a so-called 8bois-brl10 and in this case doubly light-hearted and unruly4 ,with his woollen blanket as a surcoat1 his shirt of striped cotton1 his pantaloons of cloth1 or his ,indian stockings of leather1 his moccasins of deer-skin1 and his sash of gaudily-dyed wool1 in which his knife1 his tobacco-bag1 and various other utensils are stuck1 he stands high in his own esteem4 ,his language is a ,french jargon1 richly interlarded with ,indian and ,english words--a jumble fit to drive a grammarian mad1 but which he thinks so euphonious that his tongue is scarcely ever at rest4 ,his supply of songs and anecdotes is inexhaustible1 and he is always ready for a dance4 ,his politeness is exemplary3 he never calls his comrades otherwise than 8mon frre10 and 8mon cousin40 ,it is hardly necessary to remark that he is able to handle his boat with the same ease as an expert rider manages his horse4 ,when after a hard day's work they rest for the night1 the axe is immediately at work in the nearest forest1 and in less than ten minutes the tent is erected and the kettle simmering on the fire4 8,while the passengers--perhaps some chief trader on a voyage to some distant fort1 or a ,back or a ,richardson on his way to the ,polar ,ocean--are warming or drying themselves1 the indefatigable 8voyageurs0 drag the unloaded canoe ashore1 turn it over1 and examine it carefully1 either to fasten again some loose stitches1 or to paint over some damaged part with fresh resin4 ,under the cover of their boat1 which they turn against the wind1 and with a flaming fire in the foreground1 they then bid defiance to the weather4 ,at one o'clock in the morning 8,lve6 lve6 lve60 is called2 in half an hour the encampment is broken up1 and the boat reladen and launched4 ,at eight in the morning a halt is made for breakfast1 for which three-quarters of an hour are allowed4 ,about two in the afternoon half an hour's rest suffices for a cold dinner4 ,eighteen hours' work and six hours' rest make out the day4 ,the labor is incredible2 yet the 8voyageur0 not only supports it without a murmur1 but with the utmost cheerfulness4 ,such a life requires1 of course1 an iron constitution4 ,in rowing1 the arms and breast of the 8voyageur0 are exerted to the utmost2 and in shallow places he drags the boat after him1 wading up to the knees and thighs in the water4 ,where he is obliged to force his way against a rapid1 the drag-rope must be pulled over rocks and stumps of trees1 through swamps and thickets2 and at the portages the cargo and the boat have to be carried over execrable roads to the next navigable water4 ,then the 8voyageur0 takes upon his back two packages1 each weighing #ij pounds1 and attached by a leathern belt running over the forehead1 that his hands may be free to clear the way2 and such portages sometimes occur ten or eleven times in one day4 ,for these toils of his wandering life he has many compensations1 in the keen appetite1 the genial sensation of muscular strength1 and the flow of spirits engendered by labor in the pure and bracing air4 ,surely many would rather breathe with the 8voyageur0 the fragrance of the pine forest1 or share his rest upon the borders of the stream1 than lead the monotonous life of an artisan1 pent up in the impure atmosphere of a city4 ,during the first period of the ,american fur-trade the 8coureurs des bois0 used to set out on their adventurous expeditions from the village 8,la ,chine10 one of the oldest and most famous settlements in ,canada1 whose name points to a time when the ,st4 ,lawrence was still supposed to be the nearest way to ,china4 ,how far some of them may have penetrated into the interior of the continent is unknown2 but so much is certain1 that their regular expeditions extended as far as the ,saskatchewan1 #bejj miles beyond the remotest ,european settlements4 ,several factories or forts protected their interests on the banks of that noble river2 and the ,french would no doubt have extended their dominion to the ,rocky ,mountains or to the ,pacific if the conquest of ,canada by ,england1 in #agfa1 had not completely revolutionized the fur-trade4 ,the change of dominion laid it prostrate for several years1 but our enterprising countrymen soon opened a profitable intercourse with the ,indian tribes of the west1 as their predecessors had done before them4 ,now1 however1 the adventurous 8coureur des bois10 who had entered the wilds as a semi-independent trader1 was obliged to serve in the pay of the ,british merchant1 and to follow him1 as his 8voyageur10 deeper and deeper into the wilderness1 until finally they reached on the ,athabasca and the ,churchill ,river the ,indian hunters who used to sell their skins in the settlements of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company4 ,this company was founded in the year #afgj by a body of adventurers and merchants under the patronage of ,prince ,rupert1 second cousin of ,charles ,,ii4 ,the charter obtained from the ,crown was wonderfully liberal1 comprising not only the grant of the exclusive trade1 but also of full territorial possession to all perpetuity of the vast lands within the watershed of ,hudson's ,bay4 ,the ,company at once established some forts along the shores of the great inland sea from which it derived its name1 and opened a very lucrative trade with the ,indians1 so that it never ceased paying rich dividends to the fortunate shareholders until towards the close of the last century1 when1 as ,i have already mentioned1 its prosperity began to be seriously affected by the energetic competition of the ,canadian fur-traders4 ,in spite of the flourishing state of its affairs1 or rather because the monopoly which it enjoyed allowed it to prosper without exertion1 the ,company1 as long as ,canada remained in ,french hands1 had conducted its affairs in a very indolent manner1 waiting for the ,indians to bring the produce of their chase to the ,hudson's ,bay settlements1 instead of following them into the interior and stimulating them by offering greater facilities for exchange4 ,for eighty years after its foundation the ,company possessed no more than four small forts on the shores of ,hudson's ,bay2 and only when the encroachments of the ,canadians at length roused it from its torpor1 did it resolve likewise to advance into the interior1 and to establish a fort on the eastern shore of ,sturgeon ,lake1 in the year #aggd4 ,up to this time1 with the exception of the voyage of discovery which ,hearne 7#aggj-ga7 made under its auspices to the mouth of the ,coppermine ,river1 it had done but little for the promotion of geographical discovery in its vast territory4 ,meanwhile the ,canadian fur-traders had become so hateful to the ,indians that these savages formed a conspiracy for their total extirpation4 ,fortunately for the white men1 the small-pox broke out about this time among the ,redskins1 and swept them away as the fire consumes the parched grass of the prairies4 ,their unburied corpses were torn by the wolves and wild dogs1 and the survivors were too weak and dispirited to be able to undertake any thing against the foreign intruders4 ,the ,canadian fur-traders now also saw the necessity of combining their efforts for their mutual benefit1 instead of ruining each other by an insane competition2 and consequently formed1 in #aghc1 a society which1 under the name of the ,north-west ,company of ,canada1 at first consisted of sixteen1 later of twenty partners or shareholders1 some of whom lived in ,canada1 while the others were scattered among the various stations in the interior4 ,the whole ,canadian fur-trade was now greatly developed2 for while previously each of the associates had blindly striven to do as much harm as possible to his present partners1 and thus indirectly damaged his own interests1 they now all vigorously united to beat the rival ,hudson's ,bay ,company out of the field4 ,the agents of this ,north-west ,company1 in defiance of their charter1 were indefatigable in exploring the lakes and woods1 the plains and the mountains1 for the purpose of establishing new trading-stations at all convenient points4 ,the most celebrated of these pioneers of commerce1 ,alexander ,mackenzie1 reached1 in the year #aghi1 the mouth of the great river which bears his name1 and saw the white dolphins gambol about in the ,arctic ,sea4 ,in a second voyage he crossed the ,rocky ,mountains1 and followed the course of the ,fraser ,river until it discharges its waters into the ,georgian ,gulf opposite to ,vancouver's ,island4 ,here he wrote with perishable vermilion the following inscription on a rock-wall fronting the gulf3-- ,a4 ,mackenzie arrived from ,canada by land1 #bb ,july1 #agib4 ,the words were soon effaced by wind and weather1 but the fame of the explorer will last as long as the ,english language is spoken in ,america4 ,the energetic ,north-west ,company thus ruled over the whole continent from the ,canadian ,lakes to the ,rocky ,mountains1 and in #ahjf it even crossed that barrier and established its forts on the northern tributaries of the ,columbia ,river4 ,to the north it likewise extended its operations1 encroaching more and more upon the privileges of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 which1 roused to energy1 now also pushed on its posts farther and farther into the interior1 and established in #ahab a colony on the ,red ,river to the south of ,winipeg ,lake1 thus driving1 as it were1 a sharp thorn into the side of its rival4 ,but a power like the ,north-west ,company1 which had no less than #ej agents1 #gj interpreters1 and #aabj voyageurs in its pay1 and whose chief managers used to appear at their annual meetings at ,fort ,william1 on the banks of ,lake ,superior1 with all the pomp and pride of feudal barons1 was not inclined to tolerate this encroachment2 and thus1 after many quarrels1 a regular war broke out between the two parties1 which1 after two years' duration1 led to the expulsion of the ,red ,river colonists and the murder of their governor1 ,semple4 ,this event took place in the year #ahaf1 and is but one episode of the bloody feuds which continued to reign between the two rival companies until #ahba4 ,at first sight it may seem strange that such acts of violence should take place between ,british subjects and on ,british soil1 but then we must consider that at that time ,european law had little power in the ,american wilderness4 ,the dissensions of the fur-traders had most deplorable consequences for the ,redskins2 for both companies1 to swell the number of their adherents1 lavishly distributed spirituous liquors--a temptation which no ,indian can resist4 ,the whole of the hunting-grounds of the ,saskatchewan and ,athabasca were but one scene of revelry and bloodshed4 ,already decimated by the small-pox1 the ,indians now became the victims of drunkenness and discord1 and it was to be feared that if the war and its consequent demoralization continued1 the most important tribes would soon be utterly swept away4 ,illustration3 #aac4 ,,winter ,,hut ,,of ,,hunters4 ,the finances of the belligerent companies were in an equally deplorable state2 the produce of the chase diminished from year to year with the increase of their expenditure2 and thus the ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 which used to gratify its shareholders with dividends of #ej and #be per cent41 was unable1 from #ahjh to #ahad1 to distribute a single shilling among them4 ,at length wisdom prevailed over passion1 and the enemies came to a resolution which1 if taken from the very beginning1 would have saved them both a great deal of treasure and many crimes4 ,instead of continuing to swing the tomahawk1 they now smoked the calumet1 and amalgamated in #ahba1 under the name of the 8,hudson's ,bay ,company10 and under the wing of the charter4 ,the ,british ,government1 as a dowry to the impoverished couple1 presented them with a license of exclusive trade throughout the whole of that territory which1 under the name of the ,hudson's ,bay and ,north-west territories1 extends from ,labrador to the ,pacific1 and from the ,red ,river to the ,polar ,ocean4 ,this license was terminable in #ba years1 but in #ahch it was renewed again for the same period4 ,the good effects of peace and union soon became apparent1 for after a few years the ,company was enabled to pay half-yearly dividends of five per cent41 and the ,indians1 to whom brandy was now no longer supplied unless as a medicine1 enjoyed the advantages of a more sober life4 ,about #ahdh the ,imperial ,government1 fearing that ,vancouver's ,island might be annexed by the ,united ,states1 resolved to place it under the management of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company4 ,this was accordingly done in #ahdi4 ,a license of exclusive trade and management was granted for ten years1 terminable therefore in #ahei 7the time of expiration of the similar license over the ,indian territory74 ,these were the palmy days of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company4 ,they held ,rupert's ,land by the royal charter1 which was perpetual2 they held ,vancouver's ,island and the whole ,indian territory to the ,pacific by exclusive licenses1 terminable in #ahei2 and thus maintained under their sole sway about #d1jjj1jjj square miles--a realm larger than the whole of ,europe4 ,for the ten years ending ,may #ca1 #ahfb1 the average net annual profits of the ,company amounted to #ha1jjj on a paid-up capital of #djj1jjj1 but a portion only of this income was distributed as dividend4 ,in #ahfc the ,company was reconstructed1 with a capital of #b1jjj1jjj1 for the purpose of enlarging its operations--such as opening the southern and more fruitful districts of the ,saskatchewan or the ,winipeg to ,european colonization2 but the northern1 and by far the larger portion of the vast domains over which1 after the dismemberment of ,british ,columbia and the ,stikine territory1 it still holds sway1 have too severe a climate ever to be cultivated1 and1 unless their mineral wealth be made available1 must ever be what they are now--a fur-bearing region of gloomy pine-forests1 naked barren-grounds1 lakes1 and morasses4 ,over this vast extent of desert the ,company has established about #aej trading-posts1 called 8houses10 or 8forts10 which1 however1 consist merely of a few magazines and dwelling-houses1 protected by a simple wall1 stockade1 or palisade sufficiently strong to resist any sudden attack of the ,indians4 ,among the tribes1 with whom a friendly intercourse has long subsisted1 and whose fidelity may implicitly be trusted1 no guard is ever kept1 and it is only in forts more recently built in remote parts that precautions are taken4 ,illustration3 #aad4 ,,fort ,,edmonton1 ,,north ,,saskatchewan4 ,these forts are always situated on the borders of a lake or river1 both for facility of transport and for the purpose of catching fish1 particularly the species of ,coregonus1 or white-fish1 which1 from its importance to all the natives of ,rupert's ,land between the great ,canada lakes and the ,arctic ,sea1 the ,crees call ,attihawmeg1 or the 8reindeer of the waters40 ,in many of the trading-posts it forms the chief food of the white residents2 and it is asserted that though deprived of bread and vegetables1 a man may live upon it for months or even years without tiring4 ,according to ,sir ,john ,richardson1 no fish in any country or sea excels the white-fish in flavor and wholesomeness1 and it is the most beneficial article of diet to the ,red ,indians near the ,arctic ,circle1 being obtained with more certainty than the reindeer1 and with less change of abode in summer and winter4 ,each of the principal forts is the seat of a chief factor1 or general administrator of a district1 and of a chief trader1 who transacts the business with the ,indians4 ,besides these principal functionaries--out of whom the governor is chosen--the ,company employed1 in #ahfj1 #e surgeons1 #hg clerks1 #fg postmasters1 #abjj permanent servants1 and #ejj voyageurs1 besides temporary employs of different ranks1 so that the total number of persons in its pay was at least #cjjj4 ,besides this little army of immediate dependents1 the whole male ,indian population of its vast territory1 amounting to about #ajj1jjj hunters and trappers1 may be considered as actively employed in the service of the ,company4 ,armed vessels1 both sailing and steam1 are employed on the north-west coast to carry on the fur-trade with the warlike natives of that distant region4 ,more than twenty years ago this trade alone gave employment to about #ajjj men1 occupying #ba permanent establishments1 or engaged in navigating five armed sailing vessels and one armed steamer1 varying from #ajj to #cjj tons in burden4 ,illustration3 #aae4 ,,trader',s ,,camp4 ,the influence of the ,company over its savage dependents may justly be called beneficial4 ,both from motives of humanity and self-interest1 every effort is made to civilize them4 ,no expense is spared to preserve them from the want into which their improvidence too often plunges them2 and the example of an inflexible straightforwardness serves to gain their confidence4 ,this moral preponderance1 and the admiration of the ,indian for the superior knowledge and arts of the ,europeans1 explain how a mere handful of white men1 scattered over an enormous territory1 not only lead a life of perfect security1 but exercise an almost absolute power over a native population outnumbering them at least several hundred times4 ,the ,indians have in course of time acquired many new wants1 and have thus become more and more dependent on the white traders4 ,the savage hunter is no longer the free1 self-dependent man1 who1 without any foreign assistance1 was able to make and manufacture1 with his own hands1 all the weapons and articles needed for his maintenance4 ,without ,english firearms and fishing-gear1 without iron-ware and woollen blankets1 he could no longer exist1 and the unfortunate tribe on which the ,company should close its stores would soon perish for want4 8,history10 says ,professor ,hind1 8does not furnish another example of an association of private individuals exerting a powerful influence over so large an extent of the earth's surface1 and administering their affairs with such consummate skill and unwavering devotion to the original objects of their incorporation40 ,the standard of exchange in all mercantile transactions with the natives is a beaver skin1 the relative value of which1 as originally established by the traders1 differs considerably from the present worth of the articles represented by it2 but the ,indians are averse to change4 ,they receive their principal outfit of clothing and ammunition on credit in the autumn1 to be repaid by their winter hunts2 the amount intrusted to each of the hunters varying with their reputations for industry and skill4 ,the furs which1 in the course of the year1 are accumulated in the various forts or trading-stations1 are transported in the short time during which the rivers and lakes are navigable1 and in the manner described at the beginning of the chapter1 to ,york ,factory1 or ,moose ,factory1 on ,hudson's ,bay1 to ,montreal or ,vancouver1 and shipped from thence mostly to ,london4 ,from the more distant posts in the interior1 the transport often requires several seasons2 for travelling is necessarily very slow when rapids and portages continually interrupt navigation1 and the long winter puts a stop to all intercourse whatever4 ,the goods from ,europe1 consisting 7besides those mentioned above7 of printed cotton or silk handkerchiefs1 or neck-cloths1 of beads1 and the universal favorite tobacco1 require at least as much time to find their way into the distant interior2 and thus the ,company is not seldom obliged to wait for four1 five1 or six years before it receives its returns for the articles sent from ,london4 ,it must1 however1 be confessed1 that it amply repays itself for the tediousness of delay1 for ,dr4 ,armstrong was told by the ,esquimaux of ,cape ,bathurst--a tribe in the habit of trading with the ,indians from the ,mackenzie1 who are in direct communication with the ,hudson's ,bay ,company's agents--that for three silver-fox skins--which sometimes fetch as high a price as twenty-five or thirty guineas apiece at the annual sale of the ,company--they had got from the traders cooking utensils which might be worth eight shillings and sixpence6 ,the value of the skins annually imported into ,england by the ,company amounts to about #aej1jjj or #bjj1jjj4 ,besides1 many of its furs are bartered for ,russian-,american peltry1 and a large quantity is exported direct to ,china4 ,illustration3 #aaf4 ,,swamp ,,formed ,,by ,,deserted ,,beaver-,,dam4 ,after this brief account of one of the most remarkable mercantile associations of any age1 some remark on the chief fur-bearing animals of the ,hudson's ,bay territory may not be without interest4 ,among these1 the black bear1 muskwa1 or baribal 7,ursus americanus71 is one of the most valuable1 as his long hair--unlike that of the brown or the white bear--is beautifully smooth and glossy4 ,he inhabits the forest regions of ,north ,america1 but migrates according to the seasons4 ,in spring he seeks his food in the thickets along the banks of the rivers or lakes2 in summer he retreats into the forests2 in winter he either wanders farther to the south1 or hollows out a kind of lair beneath the root of an overthrown tree1 where1 as the cold is more or less severe1 he either finds a retreat after his excursions1 or hibernates buried in the snow4 ,he feeds chiefly on berries1 grain1 acorns1 roots1 eggs1 and honey2 though1 when pressed by hunger1 he will attack other quadrupeds4 ,he climbs upon trees or rocks with great agility1 and1 being very watchful1 is not easily got at in summer4 ,sometimes1 however1 his caution brings about his destruction2 for1 from fear of some possible danger1 or at the slightest noise1 he rises on his hind legs to look over the bushes under which he lies concealed1 and thus offers a mark to the bullet of the hunter4 ,in the winter1 when the snow betrays his traces1 he is more easily shot1 and his skin and flesh are then also in the best condition4 ,in spite of his apparent clumsiness and stolidity1 the muskwa is more alert than the brown bear1 whom he nearly approaches in size2 he runs so fast that no man can overtake him1 and is an excellent swimmer and climber4 ,when attacked1 he generally retreats as fast as possible into the forest2 but if escape is impossible1 he turns furiously upon his pursuers1 and becomes exceedingly dangerous4 ,dogs alone are incapable of mastering him1 as he is always ready to receive them with a stroke of his fore paw2 but they are very useful in driving him up a tree1 and thus giving the hunter an opportunity of hitting him in the right spot4 ,when in a state of captivity1 the baribal1 in his mild and good-humored disposition1 is distinguished1 from the brown and white bear4 ,his fur is also much more valuable than that of the brown bear4 ,it is not yet fully ascertained whether the ,american brown bear is identical with that of ,europe2 the resemblance1 however1 is close4 ,in summer he wanders to the shores of the ,polar ,sea1 and indulges more frequently in animal food than the baribal4 ,he is even said to attack man when pressed by hunger2 but all those whom ,sir ,john ,richardson met with ran away as soon as they saw him4 ,as the grizzly bear 7,ursus ferox7 is found on the ,rocky ,mountains up to the latitude of #fa1 he undoubtedly deserves a place among the sub-arctic animals4 ,the skin of this most formidable of the ursine race1 who is about nine feet long1 and is said to attain the weight of eight hundred pounds1 is but little prized in the fur-trade4 ,he is the undoubted monarch of his native wilds1 for even the savage bison flies at his approach4 ,although the raccoon 7,procyon lotor7 is more commonly found in ,canada and the ,united ,states1 yet he is also an inhabitant of the ,hudson's ,bay territories1 where he is met with up to #ef ,n4 lat4 ,this interesting little animal1 which1 like the bears1 applies the sole of its foot to the ground in walking1 has an average length of two feet from the nose to the tail1 which is about ten inches long4 ,its color is grayish-brown1 with a dusky line running from the top of the head down the middle of the face1 and ending below the eyes4 ,the tail is very thickly covered with hair1 and is annulated with several black bars on a yellowish-white ground4 ,its face is very like that of the fox1 whom it equals in cunning1 while its active and playful habits resemble those of the monkey4 ,its favorite haunts are the woods1 near streams or lakes1 for one of its most marked peculiarities1 from which it has received its specific name of lotor1 or the washer1 is its habit of plunging its dry food into water before eating it4 ,the raccoon devours almost any thing that comes in his way--fruits and grain of all sorts1 birds' nests1 mice1 grasshoppers1 beetles3 while the waters yield him fishes1 crabs1 and oysters1 which he is very expert in opening4 ,his fur forms no inconsiderable article of commerce1 and is very fashionable in ,russia4 ,in #ahda1 #aaa1caf raccoon skins were imported into ,st4 ,petersburg1 and more than half a million were stapled in ,leipzig1 intended1 no doubt1 for smuggling across the frontier4 ,the fur of the ,american glutton1 or wolverine1 is much used for muffs and linings2 yet1 from its being a notorious robber of their traps1 the animal is as much hated by the ,indian hunters as the dog-fish by the northern fishermen4 ,the ,hudson's ,bay territories can not boast of the sable1 but the ,american pine marten 7,martes abietum7 is not much inferior in value1 as its dark-brown fur is remarkably fine1 thick1 and glossy4 ,it frequents the woody districts1 where it preys on birds1 and all the smaller quadrupeds from the hare to the mouse4 ,even the squirrel is incapable of escaping the pine marten1 and after having vaulted and climbed from tree to tree1 sinks at last exhausted into its gripe4 ,the pekan1 or woodshock 7,martes canadensis71 the largest of the marten family1 is also the one which most richly supplies the fur-market4 ,it is found over the whole of ,north ,america1 and generally lives in burrows near the banks of rivers1 as it principally feeds on the small quadrupeds that frequent the water4 ,several species of ermine inhabit the ,hudson's ,bay territories1 but their skins are of no great importance in the fur-trade4 ,like many other species of the marten family1 they eject1 when irritated or alarmed1 a fluid of a fetid odor2 but in this respect they are far surpassed by the chinga 7,mephitis chinga71 whose secretion has so intolerable a smell that the least quantity suffices to produce nausea and a sense of suffocation4 ,this animal is frequently found near ,hudson's ,bay1 whence it extends farther to the north4 ,in spite of the formidable means of defense with which it has been armed by nature1 it is of use to man1 for its black and white striped fur 7which1 as may easily be supposed1 never appears in the ,european market7 provides the ,indians with coverings or tobacco-pouches4 ,before seizing the chinga1 they irritate it with a long switch until it has repeatedly emptied the glands from which the noxious vapor issues2 then suddenly springing upon it1 they hold it up by the tail and dispatch it4 ,the mink 7,vison americanus71 another member of the weasel family1 is one of the most important fur-bearing animals of the ,hudson's ,bay territories4 ,it resembles the small ,european fish-otter 7,vison lutreola71 but its skin is far more valuable--the brown hair with which it is covered being much softer and thicker4 ,as its toes are connected by a small web1 it is an excellent swimmer1 and as formidable to the salmon or trout in the water as to the hare on land4 ,the ,canadian fish-otter 7,lutra canadensis7 far surpasses the ,european species1 both in size and in the beauty of its glossy brown skin4 ,it occurs as far northward as #ff or #fg lat41 and is generally taken by sinking a steel trap near the mouth of its burrow4 ,it has the habit of sliding or climbing to the top of a ridge of snow in winter1 or of a sloping moist bank in summer1 where1 lying on the belly1 with the fore feet bent backward1 it gives itself with the hind legs an impulse which sends it swiftly down the eminence4 ,this schoolboy sport it continues for a long time4 ,the red fox 7,vulpes fulvus71 which is found throughout the ,hudson's ,bay territories1 has likewise a much finer fur than our common fox4 ,it is of a bright ferruginous red on the head1 back1 and sides2 beneath the chin it is white1 while the throat and neck are of a dark gray1 and the under parts of the body1 toward the tail1 are of a very pale red4 ,the crossed fox 7,canis decussatus71 thus named from the black cross on its shoulders1 is still more valuable2 its skin--the color of which is a sort of gray1 resulting from the mixture of black and white hair-- being worth four or five guineas4 ,peltry still more costly is furnished by the black or silvery fox 7,canis argentatus71 whose copious and beautiful fur is of a rich and shining black or deep brown color1 with the longer or exterior hairs of a silvery white4 ,unfortunately it is of such rare occurrence that not more than four or five are annually brought to a trading-post4 ,the ,canada lynx1 or pishu 7,lynx canadensis71 is smaller than the ,european species1 but has a finer fur1 those skins being most valued which approach to a pale or whitish color1 and on which the spots are most distinct4 ,it chiefly feeds on the hare 7,lepus americanus71 which is not much larger than a rabbit1 and is found on the banks of the ,mackenzie as far north as #fh or #fi4 ,still nearer to the ,pole1 the ice-hare 7,lepus glacialis7 ranges as far as the ,parry ,islands 7#ge ,n4 lat471 where it feeds on the arctic willow1 and other high northern plants4 ,its favorite resorts are the stony districts1 where it easily finds a refuge2 in winter it burrows in the snow4 ,in summer its back is grayish white1 but as the cold increases1 it becomes white1 with the exception of the tips of the ears1 which remain constantly black4 ,formerly the beaver 7,castor fiber7 was the most important of the fur-bearing animals of the ,hudson's ,bay territories4 ,in the year #agdc1 #abg1jjj beaver skins were exported from ,montreal to ,la ,rochelle1 and #bf1gjj by the ,hudson's ,bay ,company to ,london4 ,at present1 the exportation hardly amounts to one-third of this quantity4 ,as the beaver chiefly lives on the barks of the willow1 the beech1 and the poplar1 it is not found beyond the forest region2 but along the banks of the ,mackenzie it reaches a very high latitude4 ,the musk-rat1 ondatra or musquash 7,fiber zibethicus7--which is about the size of a small rabbit1 and of a reddish-brown color--is called by the ,indians the younger brother of the beaver1 as it has similar instincts4 ,essentially a bank-haunting animal1 it is never to be seen at any great distance from the water1 where it swims and dives with consummate ease1 aided greatly by the webs which connect the hinder toes4 ,it drives a large series of tunnels into the bank1 branching out in various directions1 and having several entrances1 all of which open under the surface of the water4 ,if the animal happens to live upon a marshy and uniformly wet soil1 it becomes a builder1 and lives in curiously-constructed huts1 from three to four feet in height1 plastered with great neatness in the inside1 and strengthened externally with a kind of basket-work of rushes1 carefully interlaced together4 ,the judgment of the animal shows itself in the selection of the site1 invariably choosing some ground above the reach of inundation1 or else raising its hut on an artificial foundation2 for1 though obliged to reside near flat1 submerged banks1 where the soft soil is full of nourishing roots1 it requires a dry home to rest in4 ,in winter the musquash villages--for the huts are sometimes built in such numbers together as to deserve that name--are generally covered with thick snow1 under which this rodent is able to procure water1 or to reach the provisions laid up in its storehouse4 ,thus it lives in ease and plenty1 for the marten is too averse to the water1 and the otter too bulky to penetrate into its tunnels4 ,but when the snow melts1 and the huts of the musquash appear above the ground1 the ,indian1 taking in his hand a large four-barbed spear1 steals up to the house1 and driving his weapon through the walls1 is sure to pierce the animals inside4 ,holding the spear firmly with one hand1 he takes his tomahawk from his belt1 dashes the house to pieces1 and secures the inmates4 ,another method employed by the ,indians to capture the musquash is to block up the different entrances to their tunnels1 and then to intercept the animals as they try to escape4 ,sometimes the gun is used1 but not very frequently1 as the musquash is so wary that it dives at the least alarm1 and darts into one of its holes4 ,the trap1 however1 is the ordinary means of destruction4 ,the soft and glossy fur of the musquash1 though worth no more than from #f;d4 to #i;d41 is still a not inconsiderable article of trade1 as no less than half a million skins are annually imported into ,england for hat-making2 nor is there any fear of the musquash being extirpated1 in spite of its many enemies1 as it multiplies very fast1 and is found near every swamp or lake with grassy banks as far as the confines of the ,polar ,sea4 ,illustration3 #aag4 ,,hunting ,,bison ,,in ,,the ,,snow4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,the ,,cree ,,indians1 ,,or ,,eythinyuwuk4 ,the various ,tribes of the ,crees4--,their ,conquests and subsequent ,defeat4--,their ,wars with the ,blackfeet4--,their ,character4-- ,tattooing4--,their ,dress4--,fondness for their ,children4--,the ,cree ,cradle4--,vapor ,baths4--,games4--,their religious ,ideas4--,the ,cree ,tartarus and ,elysium4 ,the various tribes of the ,crees1 or ,eythinyuwuk1 range from the ,rocky ,mountains and the plains of the ,saskatchewan to the swampy shores of ,hudson's ,bay4 ,towards the west and north they border on the ,tinn1 towards the east and south1 on the ,ojibbeway or ,sauteurs1 who belong like them to the great family of the ,lenni-lenape ,indians1 and inhabit the lands between ,lake ,winipeg and ,lake ,superior4 ,about sixty years since1 at the time when ,napoleon was deluging ,europe with blood1 the ,crees likewise played the part of conquerors1 and subdued even more extensive1 though less valuable domains4 ,provided with fire-arms1 which at that time were unknown to their northern and western neighbors1 they advanced as far as the ,arctic ,circle1 imposing tribute on the various tribes of the ,tinn4 ,but their triumphs were not more durable than those of the great ,european conqueror4 ,the small-pox broke out among them and swept them away by thousands4 ,meanwhile the ,tinn tribes had remained untouched by this terrible scourge2 and as the agents of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 advancing farther and farther to the west and north1 had likewise made them acquainted with the use of fire-arms1 they in their turn became the aggressors1 and drove the ,crees before them4 ,their former conquerors now partly migrated to the south1 and leaving the forest region1 where they had hunted the reindeer and the elk1 spread over the prairies of the ,saskatchewan1 where they now pursued the herds of bison1 sometimes driving them over a precipice1 or chasing them on foot through the snow4 ,but in their new abodes they became engaged in constant feuds with their new neighbors the ,assiniboins and ,blackfeet1 who of course resented their intrusion4 ,the romance in which the manners and character of the ,indians are portrayed might lead us to attribute to these people a loftiness of soul for which it would be vain to look in the present day1 and which without much skepticism we may assert they never really possessed4 ,actions prompted only by the caprice of a barbarous people have been considered as the results of refined sentiment2 and savage cunning1 seen through the false medium of prejudice1 assumed the nobler proportions of a far-sighted policy4 ,but though the history of the wars of the ,indians among themselves and with the ,europeans affords but few instances of heroism1 it abounds in traits of revolting cruelty1 and in pictures of indescribable wretchedness4 ,illustration3 #aah4 ,a ,,herd ,,of ,,bison4 ,a large party of ,blackfeet once made a successful foray in the territory of the ,crees4 ,but meanwhile the latter surprised the camp where the aggressors had left their wives and children2 and thus1 when the ,blackfeet returned to their tents1 they found desolation and death where they looked for a joyful welcome4 ,in their despair they cast away their arms and their booty1 and retired to the mountains1 where for three days and nights they wailed and mourned4 ,illustration3 #aai4 ,,driving ,,bison ,,over ,a ,,precipice4 ,in the year #ahdj a bloody war broke out between the ,crees and the ,blackfeet1 arising as in general from a very trifling cause4 ,peace was at length concluded1 but while the two nations were celebrating this fortunate event with games and races1 a ,cree stole a ragged blanket1 and a new fight immediately began4 ,returning home1 the ,blackfeet met a ,cree chieftain1 with two of his warriors1 and killed them after a short altercation4 ,soon after the ,crees surprised and murdered some of the ,blackfeet1 and thus the war raged more furiously than ever4 ,sir ,george ,simpson1 who was travelling through the country at the time1 visited the hut of a ,cree who had been wounded in the conflict at the peace meeting4 ,as in his flight he bent over his horse's neck1 a ball had struck him on the right side1 and remained sticking near the articulation of the left shoulder4 ,in this condition he had already lain for three-and-thirty days1 his left arm frightfully swollen1 and the rest of his body emaciated to a skeleton4 ,near the dying savage1 whose glassy eye and contracted features spoke of the dreadful pain of which he disdained to speak1 lay his child1 reduced to skin and bones1 and expressing by a perpetual moaning the pangs of illness and hunger1 while most to be pitied perhaps of this wretched family was the wife and mother1 who seemed to be sinking under the double load of care and fatigue4 ,during the night the 8medicine-man0 was busy beating his magic drum and driving away the evil spirits from the hut4 ,although the ,crees show great fortitude in enduring hunger and the other evils incident to a hunter's life1 yet any unusual accident dispirits them at once1 and they seldom venture to meet their enemies in open warfare1 or even to surprise them1 unless they have a great advantage in point of numbers4 ,instances of personal bravery like that of the ,esquimaux are rare indeed among them4 ,superior in personal appearance to the ,tinn1 they are less honest1 and though perhaps not so much given to falsehood as the ,tinn1 are more turbulent and more prompt to invade the rights of their countrymen1 as well as of neighboring nations4 ,tattooing is almost universal among them4 ,the women are in general content with having one or two lines drawn from the corners of the mouth towards the angles of the lower jaw1 but some of the men have their bodies covered with lines and figures4 ,it seems to be considered by most rather as a proof of courage than an ornament1 as the operation is both painful and tedious4 ,the lines on the face are formed by dexterously running an awl under the cuticle1 and then drawing a cord1 dipped in charcoal and water1 through the canal thus formed4 ,the punctures on the body are made by needles of various sizes1 set in a frame4 ,a number of hawk-bells attached to this frame serve1 by their noise1 to cover the groans of the sufferer1 and probably for the same reason the process is accompanied with singing4 ,an indelible stain is produced by rubbing a little finely-powdered willow-charcoal into the puncture4 ,a half-breed1 whose arm was amputated by ,sir ,john ,richardson1 declared that tatooing was not only the more painful operation of the two1 but rendered infinitely more difficult to bear by its tediousness1 having lasted1 in his case1 three days4 ,the ,crees are also fond of painting their faces with vermilion and charcoal4 ,in general the dress of the male consists of a blanket thrown over the shoulders1 a leathern shirt or jacket1 and a piece of cloth tied round the middle4 ,the women have in addition a long petticoat1 and both sexes wear a kind of wide hose1 which1 reaching from the ankle to the middle of the thigh1 are suspended by strings to the girdle4 ,these hose1 or 8,indian stockings10 are commonly ornamented with beads or ribands1 and from their convenience have been universally adopted by the white residents1 as an essential part of their winter-clothing4 ,their shoes1 or rather soft boots 7for they tie round the ankle71 are made of dressed moose-skins2 and during the winter they wrap several pieces of blanket round their feet4 ,they are fond of ,european articles of dress1 such as great-coats1 shawls1 and calicoes1 which1 however showy they may be at first1 are soon reduced to a very filthy condition by their custom of greasing the face and hair with soft fat or marrow4 ,this practice they say preserves the skin soft1 and protects it from cold in the winter and the mosquitoes in summer2 but it renders their presence disagreeable to ,europeans who may chance to be seated near them in a close tent and near a hot fire4 ,illustration3 #abj4 ,,watching ,,for ,,crees4 ,the ,cree women are not in general treated harshly by their husbands3 a great part of the labor1 however1 falls to the lot of the wife4 ,she makes the hut1 cooks1 dresses the skins1 and for the most part carries the heaviest load2 but when she is unable to perform her task1 the husband does not consider it beneath his dignity to assist her4 ,the ,crees are extremely indulgent to their children4 ,the father never chastises them2 and the mother1 though more hasty in her temper1 seldom bestows a blow on a troublesome child4 ,the cradle in use among them is well adapted to their mode of life1 and is one of their neatest articles of furniture1 being generally ornamented with beads and bits of scarlet cloth1 but it bears a very strong resemblance in its form to a mummy-case4 ,the infant is placed in this bag1 having its lower extremities wrapped up in soft sphagnum1 or bog-moss1 and may be hung up in the tent or to the branch of a tree1 without the least danger of tumbling out2 or1 in a journey may be suspended on the mother's back by a band which crosses the forehead so as to leave her hands free4 ,the sphagnum forms a soft elastic bed1 which absorbs moisture very readily1 and affords such a protection from the winter cold that its place would be ill supplied by any other material4 ,illustration3 #aba4 ,a ,,cree ,,village4 ,the ordinary wigwams1 skin tents1 or 8lodges0 of the ,tinn and ,crees are exactly alike in form1 being extended on poles set up in a conical manner2 but as a general rule the tents of the latter are more commodious and more frequently supplied with a fresh lining of the spray of the balsam-fir4 ,they also occasionally erect a larger dwelling of lattice-work1 covered with birch-bark1 in which forty men or more can assemble for feasting1 debating1 or performing some of their religious ceremonies4 ,the entire nation of the ,eythinyuwuk cultivate oratory more than their northern neighbors1 who express themselves more simply and far less fluently4 ,vapor baths are in common use with the ,crees1 and form one of the chief remedies of their medicine-men4 ,the operator shuts himself up with his patient in the small sweating-house--in which red-hot stones besprinkled with water1 and having a few leaves of a species of prunus strewed around them1 produce a damp atmosphere of a stifling heat--and shampoos him1 singing all the time a kind of hymn4 ,as long as the medicine-man can hold out1 so long must the patient endure the intense heat of the bath1 and then1 if the invalid be able to move1 they both plunge into the river4 ,if the patient does not recover1 he is at least more speedily released from his sufferings by this powerful remedy4 ,the ,crees are a vain1 fickle1 improvident1 indolent1 and ludicrously boastful race4 ,they are also great gamblers1 but1 instead of cards or dice1 they play with the stones of a species of prunus4 ,the difficulty lies in guessing the number of stones which are tossed out of a small wooden dish1 and the hunters will spend whole nights at this destructive sport1 staking their most valuable articles4 ,they have1 however1 a much more manly amusement1 termed the 8cross10 although they do not engage even in it without depositing considerable stakes4 ,an extensive meadow is chosen for this sport1 and the articles staked are tied to a post1 or deposited in the custody of two old men4 ,the combatants being stripped and painted1 and each provided with a kind of racket1 in shape resembling the letter ,p1 with a handle about two feet long1 and a head loosely wrought with net-work1 so as to form a shallow bag1 range themselves on different sides4 ,a ball being now tossed up in the middle1 each party endeavors to drive it to their respective goals1 and much dexterity and agility is displayed in the contest4 ,when a nimble runner gets the ball in his cross1 he sets off towards the goal with the utmost speed1 and is followed by the rest1 who endeavor to jostle him and shake it out1 but1 if hard pressed1 he discharges it with a jerk1 to be forwarded by his own party or bandied back by their opponents until the victory is decided by its passing the goal4 ,neither the ,esquimaux nor the ,tinn have any visible objects of worship1 but the ,crees carry with them small wooden figures rudely carved1 or merely the tops of a few willow-bushes tied together1 as the representatives of a malicious1 or at least capricious being1 called ,kepoochikann4 ,their most common petition to this being is for plenty of food1 but as they do not trust entirely to his favor1 they endeavor at the same time to propitiate the animal1 an imaginary representative of the whole race of larger quadrupeds that are objects of the chase4 ,though often referring to the ,kitche-manito1 the 8,great ,spirit10 or 8,master of ,life10 they do not believe that he cares for his creatures1 and consequently never think of praying to him4 ,they have no legend about the creation1 but they speak of a deluge caused by an attempt of the fish to drown ,woesack-ootchacht1 a kind of demi-god1 with whom they had quarrelled4 ,having constructed a raft1 this being embarked with his family and all kinds of birds and beasts4 ,after the flood had continued for some time1 he ordered several waterfowl to dive to the bottom4 ,they were all drowned2 but a musk-rat1 dispatched on the same errand1 returned with a mouthful of mud1 out of which ,woesack-ootchacht1 imitating the mode in which the rats construct their houses1 formed a new earth4 ,first a small conical hill of mud appeared above the water2 by-and-by1 its base gradually spreading out1 it became an extensive bank1 which the rays of the sun at length hardened into firm land4 ,notwithstanding the power that ,woesack-ootchacht here displayed1 his person is held in very little reverence by the ,indians1 who do not think it worth while to make any effort to avert his wrath4 ,like the ,tinn1 the ,crees also have a ,tartarus and an ,elysium4 ,the souls of the departed are obliged to scramble with great labor up the sides of a steep mountain1 upon attaining the summit of which they are rewarded with the prospect of an extensive plain abounding in all sorts of game1 and interspersed here and there with new tents pitched in pleasant situations4 ,while they are absorbed in the contemplation of this delightful scene1 they are descried by the inhabitants of the happy land1 who1 clothed in new skin dresses1 approach and welcome1 with every demonstration of kindness1 those ,indians who have led good lives1 but the bad ,indians are told to return from whence they came1 and without more ceremony are hurled down the precipice4 ,as yet ,christianity has made but little progress among the ,indians of ,british ,north ,america1 its benefits being hitherto confined to the ,ojibbeways of ,lake ,huron1 and to a small number of the ,crees of the ,hudson's ,bay territory4 ,the well-fed ,sauteurs of the ,winipeg are as disinclined to be converted as the buffalo-hunters of the prairies4 ,,chapter ,,xxx4 ,,the ,,tinn ,,indians4 ,the various ,tribes of the ,tinn ,indians4--,the ,dog-ribs4-- ,clothing4--,the ,hare ,indians4--,degraded ,state of the ,women4-- ,practical ,socialists4--,character4--,cruelty to the ,aged and ,infirm4 ,the ,tinn ,indians1 whose various tribes range from the ,lower ,mackenzie to the ,upper ,saskatchewan1 and from ,new ,caledonia to the head of ,chesterfield ,inlet1 occupy a considerable part of the territories of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company4 ,to their race belong the ,strongbows of the ,rocky ,mountains2 the ,beaver ,indians1 between ,peace ,river and the west branch of the ,mackenzie2 the ,red-knives1 thus named from the copper knives of which their native ores furnish the materials1 and who roam between the ,great ,fish ,river and the ,coppermine2 the ,hare ,indians1 who inhabit the thickly wooded district of the ,mackenzie from ,slave ,lake downward2 the ,dog-ribs1 who occupy the inland country on the east from ,martin ,lake to the ,coppermine2 the ,athabascans1 who frequent the ,elk and ,slave ,rivers1 and many other tribes of inferior note4 ,the ,tinn1 in general1 have more regular features than the ,esquimaux1 and1 taken on the whole1 exhibit all the characteristics of the red races dwelling farther south2 but their utter disregard of cleanliness and their abject behavior 7for when in the company of white people they exhibit the whine and air of inveterate mendicants7 give them a wretched appearance4 ,mackenzie1 the first ,european who became acquainted with the ,dog-ribs1 describes them as an ugly emaciated tribe1 covered with dirt and besmeared with grease from head to foot4 ,more than sixty years have passed since ,mackenzie's journey1 but his account of them is true to the present day4 ,the women are even uglier and more filthy than the men1 for the latter at least paint their unwashed faces and wear trinkets on festive occasions1 while the females leave even their hair without any other dressing than wiping their greasy hands on the matted locks1 when they have been rubbing their bodies with marrow4 ,the clothing of the men in summer consists of reindeer leather dressed like shammy1 which1 when newly made1 is beautifully white and soft4 8,a shirt of this material10 says ,sir ,john ,richardson1 to whom we are indebted for the best account of the various nations inhabiting the ,hudson's ,bay territory1 8cut evenly below1 reaches to the middle2 the ends of a piece of cloth secured to a waist-band hang down before and behind2 the hose1 or ,indian stockings1 descend from the top of the thigh to the ankle1 and a pair of moccasins or shoes of the same soft leather with tops which fold round the ankle1 complete the costume4 ,when the hunter is equipped for the chase he wears1 in addition1 a stripe of white hare-skin1 or of the belly part of a deer-skin1 in a bandana round the head1 with his lank1 black elf-locks streaming from beneath2 a shot-pouch suspended by an embroidered belt1 a fire-bag or tobacco-pouch tucked into the girdle1 and a long fowling-piece thrown carelessly across the arm1 or balanced on the back of the neck4 ,the several articles here enumerated are ornamented at the seams and hems with leather thongs wound round with porcupine quills1 or more or less embroidered with bead-work1 according to the industry of the wife or wives4 ,one of the young men1 even of the slovenly ,dog-ribs1 when newly equipped1 and tripping jauntily over the mossy ground with an elastic step1 displays his slim and not ungraceful figure to advantage4 ,but this fine dress once donned is neither laid aside nor cleaned while it lasts1 and soon acquires a dingy look1 and an odor which betrays its owner at some distance4 ,in the camp a greasy blanket of ,english manufacture is worn over the shoulders by day1 and forms with the clothes the bedding by night40 ,in winter they clothe themselves with moose or reindeer skins1 retaining the hair1 while a large robe of the same material is thrown over the shoulders1 and hangs down to the feet in place of the blanket4 ,the women's dress resembles the men's1 but the skirt is somewhat longer1 and generally accompanied by a petticoat which reaches nearly to the knee4 ,the form of dress here described is common to the whole ,tinn nation1 and also to the ,crees1 but the material varies with the district4 ,thus moose-deer1 red-deer1 and bison leather are in use among the more southern and western tribes1 and the ,hare ,indians make their skirts of the skins of the animal from which they derive their surname4 ,as this1 however1 is too tender to be used in the ordinary way1 it is torn into narrow strips1 twisted slightly1 and plaited or worked into the required shape4 ,such is the closeness and fineness of the fur that these hare-skin dresses are exceedingly warm1 notwithstanding the closeness of their texture4 ,the ,hare ,indian and ,dog-rib women are certainly at the bottom of the scale of humanity in ,north ,america4 ,not that they are treated with cruelty1 but that they are looked upon as inferior beings1 and in this belief they themselves acquiesce4 ,in early infancy the boy discovers that he may show any amount of arrogance towards his sisters1 who1 as soon as they can walk1 are harnessed to a sledge1 while the tiny hunter struts in his snow-shoes after the men and apes their contempt of the women4 ,all the work1 except hunting and fishing1 falls to their share2 yet they are in general not discontented with their lot4 ,it would be vain to look among the ,dog-ribs for the stoicism popularly attributed to the ,indians1 for they shrink from pain1 shed tears readily1 and are very timorous2 but all1 young and old1 enjoy a joke heartily1 and when young are lively and cheerful4 ,when bands of their nation meet each other after a long absence1 they perform a kind of dance4 ,a piece of ground is cleared for the purpose1 and the dance frequently lasts for two or three days1 the parties relieving each other as they get tired4 ,the two bands commence the dance with their backs turned to each other1 the individuals following one another in ,indian file1 and holding the bow in the left hand and an arrow in the right4 ,they approach obliquely after many turns1 and when the two bands are closely back to back1 they feign to see each other for the first time1 and the bow is instantly transferred to the right hand and the arrow to the left1 signifying that it is not their intention to use them against their friends4 ,their dancing1 which they accompany by a chorus of groans1 compared by ,sir ,john ,richardson to the deep sigh of a pavior as he brings his rammer down upon the pavement1 has not the least pretensions to grace2 their knees and body are half bent1 and1 from their heavy stamping1 they appear as if desirous of sinking into the ground4 ,the ,dog-ribs are practical socialists1 and their wretched condition results in a great measure from this cause4 ,all may avail themselves of the produce of a hunter's energy or skill1 and do not even leave him the distribution of his own game4 ,when it becomes known in a camp that deer have been killed1 the old men and women of each family sally forth with their sledges and divide the quarry1 leaving the owner nothing but the ribs and tongue--all he can claim of right4 ,unable to restrain their appetite1 all the community feast in times of abundance1 however little many of the men 7and there are not a few idle ones7 may have contributed to the common good4 ,taught by frequent sufferings1 the more active hunters frequently withdraw from the worthless drones1 leaving them at some fishing-station1 where1 with proper industry1 they may subsist comfortably4 ,fish-diet is1 however1 not agreeable to their taste1 and as soon as reports of a successful chase arrive1 a general movement to the hunting-ground ensues4 ,if on their march the craving multitude discover a hoard of meat1 it is devoured on the spot2 but they are not always so fortunate4 ,the deer and the hunters may have gone off1 and then they are obliged to retrace their steps1 many perishing by the way4 ,the ,dog-ribs are not conspicuous for hospitality4 ,when a stranger enters a tent he receives no welcome and proffer of food1 though he may help himself from a piece of meat hanging on the wall or join the repast4 ,though great liars1 they do not steal the white man's property like the ,esquimaux and ,crees1 and when visiting a fort1 they may be trusted in any of the rooms4 ,as to their religious belief1 the majority of the nation recognize a ,great ,spirit1 while others doubt his existence1 assigning as a reason their miserable condition4 ,they are in great fear of evil spirits1 which1 as they imagine1 assume the forms of the bear1 wolf1 and wolverine1 and in the woods1 waters1 and desert places they fancy they hear them howling in the winds or moaning by the graves of the dead4 ,they never make offerings to the ,great ,spirit1 but deprecate the wrath of an evil being by the promise of a sacrifice1 or by scattering a handful of deer-hair or a few feathers4 ,they believe in a state of future happiness or torment4 ,the soul1 after death1 crosses a broad river in a boat1 and thus endeavors to reach the opposite shore1 which is adorned with all the beauties of paradise4 ,if laden with crime1 the boat sinks under the weight1 and the unfortunate soul1 immersed in water1 strives in vain to reach the blissful abode from which it is forever banished4 ,formerly when a ,tinn warrior died1 it was customary for the family to abandon every article they possessed1 and betake themselves1 in a perfectly destitute condition1 to the nearest body of their own people or trading-post4 ,the advice of traders is gradually breaking down this absurd practice1 which would alone suffice to keep this people in a state of perpetual poverty4 ,in other respects also1 ,european influence begins to make itself felt4 ,since #ahdf ,roman ,catholic missionaries are at work among the ,chepewyans1 and have taught many of their converts to read and write4 ,the ,athabascans had formerly but a small breed of dogs1 now a stouter race has1 in some respects1 ameliorated the condition of the females1 and the introduction of the horse1 which has more recently taken place1 holds out prospects of a still greater improvement4 ,the ,tinn are as giddy and thoughtless as children4 ,when accompanied by a white man they will perform a long journey carefully1 but can not be depended upon to carry letters1 however high the reward may be that has been promised them on reaching their destination1 as the least whim suffices to make them forget their commission4 ,they are generally content with one wife at a time1 and none but the chiefs have more than two4 ,the successful wrestler takes the wife of his weaker countryman1 who consoles himself for his loss by endeavoring to find one weaker than himself4 ,tender and affectionate parents1 the ,tinn are totally indifferent to the sorrows of helpless age4 ,during the stay of ,sir ,george ,back at ,fort ,reliance1 an old woman arrived there on ,easter ,sunday1 clothed in ragged reindeer skins1 worn down to a skeleton1 and grasping with both her hands a stick to support her body1 bent double by age and want4 ,the story of the poor creature was soon told4 ,she had become a burden to her family2 her former services had all been forgotten1 and she had been told 8that though she still seemed to live1 she was in reality dead1 and must be abandoned to her fate4 ,in the new fort she might find assistance1 for the white strangers were powerful medicine-men40 ,this had happened a month before1 and all this time she had slowly crept along1 appeasing her hunger with the berries she found here and there on the way4 ,when she reached the fort it was too late2 she died a few days after her arrival4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi4 ,,the ,,loucheux1 ,,or ,,kutchin ,,indians4 ,the ,countries they inhabit4--,their ,appearance and ,dress4--,their ,love of ,finery4--,condition of the ,women4--,strange ,customs4-- ,character4--,feuds with the ,esquimaux4--,their suspicious and timorous ,lives4--,pounds for catching ,reindeer4--,their ,lodges4 ,on the banks of the ,lower ,mackenzie1 to the west of ,great ,bear ,lake1 in the territories drained by the ,peel ,river and by the ,upper ,yukon1 dwell the ,loucheux1 or ,kutchin ,indians1 whose language is totally different from that of the other ,north ,american tribes1 and whose customs and manners also vary considerably from those of all their neighbors1 both ,red-skins and ,esquimaux4 ,they are an athletic and fine-looking people1 with regular features and a complexion of a lighter copper color than that of the other ,red ,indians1 so that many of their women would be reckoned handsome in any country4 ,the females tattoo their chins and use a black pigment when they paint their faces1 while the men employ both red and black on all occasions of ceremony1 and always to be ready1 each carries a small bag with red clay and black lead suspended to his neck4 ,most commonly the eyes are encircled with black1 a stripe of the same runs down the middle of the nose1 and a blotch is daubed on the upper part of each cheek4 ,the forehead is crossed by many narrow red stripes1 and the skin is streaked alternately with red and black4 ,the outer shirt of the ,kutchin is made of the skins of fawn reindeer1 dressed with the hair on after the manner of the ,hare1 ,dog-rib1 and other ,chepewyan tribes1 but resembles in form the analogous garment of the ,esquimaux1 being furnished with peaked skirts1 though of smaller size4 ,the men wear these skirts before and behind2 the women have larger back skirts1 but none in front4 ,in winter shirts of hare-skin are worn1 and the pantaloons of deer-skin have the fur next the skin4 ,none of the neighboring nations pay so much attention to personal cleanliness1 or are so studious in adorning their persons4 ,a broad band of beads is worn across the shoulders and breast of the shirt1 and the hinder part of the dress is fringed with tassels wound round with dyed porcupine quills and strung with the silvery fruit of the oleaster 7,elagnus argentea72 a stripe of beads1 strung in alternate red and white squares1 ornament the seams of the trowsers1 and bands of beads encircle the ankles4 ,the poorer sort1 or the less fortunate hunters1 who are unable to procure these costly trinkets in the same enviable abundance as the rich1 strive to wear at least a string of beads1 and look down with contemptuous pity upon the still more needy class1 which is reduced to adorn itself with porcupine quills only4 ,in consequence of this passionate fondness for beads1 these ornaments serve as a medium of exchange among the ,kutchin1 and ,sir ,john ,richardson remarks that no such near approach to money has been invented by the nations to the eastward of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,the standard bead1 and one of the most value1 is a large one of white enamel1 manufactured in ,italy only1 and is with difficulty procured in sufficient quantity to satisfy the demand1 as beads are more prized than ,english cloth and blankets4 ,another article very much in request among the ,kutchin is the large ribbed dentalium shell which is collected in the archipelago between ,oregon and ,cape ,fairweather1 and passes by trade from tribe to tribe until it finds its way at length to the ,yukon4 ,with this shell they adorn their mittens1 and even attach it to their guns1 which have been lately introduced1 and are in great demand4 ,all men carry powder and ball1 whether they own a gun or not1 and obtain for it a share of the game4 ,the tribes on the ,yukon tie their hair behind in a cue1 or 8chignon10 and daub it with grease1 and the down of geese and ducks1 until1 by the repetition of the process continued from infancy1 it swells to an enormous thickness1 so that the weight of the accumulated load of hair1 dirt1 and ornaments causes the wearer to stoop forward habitually4 ,the tail-feathers of the eagle and fishing-hawk are stuck into the hair on the back of the head1 and are removed only when the owner retires to sleep1 or when he wishes to wave them to and fro in a dance4 ,the principal men have two or three wives each1 while the bad hunters are obliged to remain bachelors4 ,a good wrestler1 however1 even though poor1 can always obtain a wife4 ,the women do all the drudgery in winter except cooking1 and do not eat till the husband is satisfied4 ,in summer they labor little1 except in drying meat or fish for its preservation4 ,the men alone paddle while the women sit as passengers1 and husbands even carry their wives to the shore on their arms1 that they may not wet their feet--an instance of gallantry almost unparalleled in savage life4 ,the ,esquimaux women row their own 8oomiaks10 and the ,chepewyan women assist the men in paddling their canoes4 ,on the whole1 the social condition of the ,kutchin women is far superior to that of the ,tinn women1 but scarcely equal to that of the ,esquimaux dames4 ,they do not carry their children in their hoods or boots like the ,esquimaux1 nor do they stuff them into a bag with moss like the ,tinn and ,crees1 but they place them in a seat of birch-bark1 with a back and sides like those of an armchair1 and a pommel in front resembling the peak of a ,spanish saddle1 by which they hang it from their back4 ,the child's feet are bandaged to prevent them growing1 small feet being thought handsome1 and consequently short unshapely feet are characteristic of the people of both sexes4 ,a more ridiculous or insane custom can hardly be imagined among a nation of hunters4 ,the ,kutchin are a lively1 cheerful people1 fond of dancing and singing1 in which they excel all other ,indians2 leaping1 wrestling1 and other athletic exercises are likewise favorite amusements4 ,they are inveterate talkers4 ,every new-comer arriving at a trading-post makes a long speech1 which must not be interrupted4 ,the belief in ,shamanism is still in full vigor among them4 ,though a treacherous people1 they have never yet imbrued their hands in ,european blood1 but there are frequent feuds among their various tribes1 by which one-half of the population of the banks of the ,yukon has been cut off within the last twenty years4 ,from a constant dread of ambuscade1 they do not travel except in large parties2 and thus a perpetual feeling of insecurity embitters their lives1 which are already rendered sufficiently hard by the severity of an ,arctic climate4 ,the agents of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company have endeavored by good advice1 and the distribution of large presents1 to establish peace1 but have only met with partial success4 ,like the ,tinn1 the ,kutchin are in a state of perpetual warfare with the ,esquimaux2 and though they always charge the latter with treachery1 yet there can be no doubt that the accusation might1 with full justice1 be retorted upon themselves4 ,one of the hostile encounters1 mentioned by ,sir ,j4 ,richardson1 deserves notice1 on account of its resemblance in some particulars to the meeting of ,joab and ,abner1 recorded in the ,second ,book of ,samuel4 ,a party of each of the two nations having met on the banks of a river1 the young men of both parties rose up as if for a friendly dance4 ,the stream glides peacefully along1 the setting sun gilds the pine forest and sparkles in the waters2 all nature breathes peace4 ,but the ,esquimaux having1 according to their custom1 concealed their long knives in the sleeves of their deer-skin shirts1 suddenly draw them in one of the evolutions of the dance and plunge them into their opponents4 ,a general conflict ensues1 in which the ,kutchin1 thanks to their guns1 ultimately prove victorious4 8,another incident10 says ,sir ,john ,richardson1 8which occurred on the banks of the ,yukon in #ahde1 gives us a farther insight into the suspicious and timorous lives of these people4 ,one night four strangers from the lower part of the river arrived at the tent of an old man who was sick1 and who had with him only two sons1 one of them a mere boy4 ,the newcomers entered in a friendly manner1 and when the hour of repose came1 lay down2 but as they did not sleep1 the sons1 suspecting from their conduct that they meditated evil1 feigned a desire of visiting their moose-deer snares4 ,they intimated their purpose aloud to their father and went out1 taking with them their bows and arrows4 ,instead1 however1 of continuing their way into the wood1 they stole back quietly to the tent1 and listening on the outside1 discovered1 as they fancied1 from the conversation of the strangers1 that their father's life was in danger4 ,knowing the exact position of the inmates1 they thereupon shot their arrows through the skin covering of the tent and killed two of the strange ,indians2 and the other two1 in endeavoring to make their escape by the door1 shared the fate of their companions4 ,this is spoken of in the tribe as an exceedingly brave action40 ,during the summer the ,yukon ,kutchin dry1 for their winter use1 the white-fish 7,coregonus albus71 which they catch by planting stakes across the smaller rivers and narrow parts of the lakes and closing the openings with wicker-baskets4 ,they take the moose-deer in snares1 and towards spring mostly resort to the mountains to hunt reindeer and lay in a stock of dried venison4 ,on the open pasture-grounds frequented by this animal they construct large pounds4 ,two rows of posts firmly planted in the ground1 and united by the addition of strong horizontal bars into a regular fence1 extend their arms for nearly the length of a mile in the form of a ,roman ,v4 ,the extremity of the avenue is closed by stakes with sharp points sloping towards the entrance1 on which the reindeer1 driven together and hotly pursued by the ,indians1 may impale themselves in their desperate flight4 ,the structure is erected with great labor1 as the timber has to be transported into the open country from a considerable distance4 ,some of these may be a century old1 and they are the hereditary possession of the families or tribes by whom they were originally constructed4 ,but in spite of all their contrivances and the use of fire-arms1 the ,kutchin1 whose numbers on the banks of the ,yukon are estimated at about a thousand men and boys able to hunt1 are frequently reduced to great distress4 ,hence the old and infirm are mercilessly left to their fate when game is scarce1 and famine makes itself felt4 ,attempts have been vainly made to better the condition of the northern ,indians by inducing them to tame the reindeer4 ,their superstition is one of the obstacles against this useful innovation1 for they fear that were they to make some of the reindeer their captives1 the remainder would immediately leave the country4 8,and why10 they add1 8should we follow like slaves a herd of tame animals1 when the forest and the barren ground provide us with the elk1 the wild reindeer1 and the musk-ox1 and our rivers and lakes are filled with fishes that cost us nothing but the trouble of catching them80 ,each family possesses a deer-skin tent or lodge1 which in summer1 when in quest of game1 is rarely erected4 ,the winter encampment is usually in a grove of spruce-firs2 the ground being cleared of snow1 the skins1 which are prepared with the hair1 are extended over flexible willow poles which take a semicircular form4 ,this hemispherical shape of lodges is not altogether unknown among the ,chepewyans and ,crees1 being that generally adapted for their vapor baths1 framed of willow poles1 but their dwelling-places are conical1 as stiff poles are used for their construction4 ,when the tent is erected the snow is packed on outside to half its height1 and it is lined equally high within with the young spray of the spruce-fir1 that the bodies of the inmates may not rest against the cold wall4 ,the doorway is filled up by a double fold of skin1 and the apartment has the closeness and warmth but not the elegance of the ,esquimaux snow hut1 which it resembles in shape4 ,though only a very small fire is kept in the centre of the lodge1 yet the warmth is as great as in a log-house4 ,the provisions are stored on the outside under fir branches and snow1 and further protected from the dogs by sledges being placed on top4 ,,chapter ,,xxxii4 ,,arctic ,,voyages ,,of ,,discovery1 ,,from ,,the ,,cabots ,,to ,,baffin4 ,first ,scandinavian ,discoverer of ,america4--,the ,cabots4--,willoughby and ,chancellor 7#aeec-aeed74--,stephen ,burrough 7#aeef74--;,frobisher 7#aegf-aegh74--;,davis 7#aehe-aehg74--;,barentz1 ,cornelis1 and ,brant 7#aeid74--,wintering of the ,dutch ,navigators in ,nova ,zembla 7#aeif-aeig74--;,john ,knight 7#afjf74--,murdered by the ,esquimaux4-- ,henry ,hudson 7#afjg-afji74--;,baffin 7#afaf74 ,long before ,columbus sailed from the port of ,palos 7#adib7 on that ever-memorable voyage which changed the geography of the world1 the ,scandinavians had already found the way to ,north ,america4 ,from ,greenland1 which was known to them as early as the ninth century1 and which they began to colonize in the year #ihe1 they sailed farther to the west1 and gradually extended their discoveries from the coasts of ,labrador1 ,nova ,scotia1 and ,newfoundland1 to those of the present ,state of ,rhode ,island1 which1 from the wild vines they there found growing in abundance1 they called the 8good ,vinland40 ,but a long series of disasters destroyed their ,greenland colonies about the end of the fourteenth century1 and as ,scandinavia itself had at that time but very little intercourse with the more civilized nations of ,southern ,europe1 it is not to be wondered at that1 despite the discoveries of ,gnnbjorn and ,eric the ,red1 the great western continent remained unknown to the world in general4 ,one of the first consequences of the achievements of ,columbus was the rediscovery of the northern part of ,america1 for the ,english merchants longed to have a share of the commerce of ,india2 and as the ,pope had assigned the eastern route to the ,portuguese and the western one to the ,spaniards1 they resolved to ascertain whether a third and shorter way to the ,spice ,islands1 or to the fabulous golden regions of the east1 might not be found by steering to the north-west4 ,in pursuance of these views ,john and ,sebastian ,cabot sailed in #adig from ,bristol1 at that time our first commercial port1 and discovered the whole ,american coast from ,labrador to ,virginia4 ,they failed indeed in the object of their mission1 but they laid the first foundations of the future colonial greatness of ,england4 ,a second voyage1 in #adih1 by ,sebastian ,cabot alone1 without the companionship of his father1 had no important results1 but in a third voyage which he undertook in search of a north-west passage1 at ,henry ,,viii4's expense1 in #aeaf or #aeag1 it is tolerably certain that that great navigator discovered the two straits which now bear the names of ,davis and ,hudson4 ,the ,french expeditions of ,verazzani 7#aebc7 and ,jacques ,cartier 7#aebd71 however memorable in other respects1 having been as unsuccessful as those of ,cortereal 7#aejj7 or ,gomez 7#aebd7 in discovering the desired north-western passage1 ,sebastian ,cabot1 who in #aedi was created ,grand ,pilot of ,england1 started in his old age another idea1 which has become almost equally momentous in the history of ,arctic discovery--the search for a north-eastern route to ,china4 ,accordingly1 in the year #aeec1 a squadron of three small vessels1 under the command of ,sir ,hugh ,willoughby1 ,chancellor1 and ,durfoorth1 set sail from ,ratcliffe1 with the vain hope of reaching ,india by sailing round ,north ,asia1 the formation and vast extent of which were at that time totally unknown4 ,off ,senjan1 an island on the ,norwegian coast in lat4 #fi1 the ships parted company in a stormy night1 never to meet again4 ,willoughby and ,durfoorth reached the coast of ,nova ,zembla1 and ultimately sought a harbor in ,lapland on the west side of the entrance into the ,white ,sea1 where the captain-general1 officers1 and crews of both ships were miserably frozen to death1 as some ,russian fishermen ascertained in the following spring4 ,how long they sustained the severity of the weather is not known1 but the journals and a will found on board the 8,admiral0 proved that ,sir ,hugh ,willoughby and most of that ship's company were alive in ,january1 #aeed4 ,they died the victims of inexperience2 for had they1 as ,sir ,john ,richardson remarks1 been skilled in hunting and clothing themselves1 and taken the precaution moreover of laying in at the beginning of the winter a stock of mossy turf such as the country produces for fuel1 and above all had they secured a few of the very many seals and belug which abounded in the sea around them1 they might have preserved their lives and passed an endurable winter4 ,chancellor was either more fortunate or more skillful1 for after having long been buffeted about by stormy weather1 he eventually reached ,st4 ,nicholas1 in the ,white ,sea4 ,from thence he proceeded overland to ,moscow1 and delivered his credentials to the ,czar1 ,ivan ,vasilovitch1 from whom he obtained many privileges for the company of merchants who had fitted out the expedition4 ,in #aeed he returned to ,england1 and shortly afterwards was sent back to ,russia by ,queen ,mary for the purpose of negotiating a treaty of commerce between the two nations4 ,having satisfactorily accomplished his mission1 he once more set sail from the ,white ,sea1 accompanied by a ,muscovite ambassador4 ,but this time the return voyage was extremely unfortunate1 for ,chancellor1 after losing two of his vessels off the coast of ,norway1 was carried by a violent tempest into the ,bay of ,pitsligo1 in ,scotland1 where his ship was wrecked4 ,he endeavored to save the ambassador and himself in a boat1 but the small pinnace was upset2 and although the ,russian safely reached the strand1 the ,englishman1 after having escaped so many dangers in the ,arctic ,ocean1 was drowned within sight of his native shores4 ,in #aeef the ,muscovy ,company fitted out the ,serchthrift pinnace1 under the command of ,stephen ,burrough1 for discovery towards the ,river ,obi and farther search for a north-east passage4 ,this small vessel reached the strait between ,nova ,zembla and ,vaigats1 called by the ,russians the ,kara ,gate1 but the enormous masses of ice that came floating through the channel compelled it to return4 ,in spite of these repeated disappointments1 the desire to discover a northern route to ,india was too great to allow an enterprising nation like the ,english to abandon the scheme as hopeless4 ,thus in the days of ,elizabeth the question of the north-west passage was again revived1 and ,martin ,frobisher1 who had solicited merchants and nobles during fifteen years for means to undertake 8the only great thing left undone in the world10 sailed in the year #aegf with three small vessels of #ce1 #cj1 and #aj tons1 on no less an errand than the circumnavigation of ,northern ,america4 ,the reader may smile at the ignorance which encouraged such efforts1 but he can not fail to admire the iron-hearted man who ventured in such wretched nutshells to face the ,arctic seas4 ,the expedition safely reached the coasts of ,greenland and ,labrador1 and brought home some glittering stones1 the lustre of which was erroneously attributed to gold4 ,this belief so inflamed the zeal for new expeditions to 8,meta ,incognita10 as ,frobisher had named the coasts he had discovered1 that he found no difficulty in equipping three ships of a much larger size1 that they might be able to hold more of the anticipated treasure4 ,at the entrance of the straits which still bear his name1 he was prevented by the gales and drift-ice from forcing a passage to the sea beyond1 but having secured about #bjj tons of the supposed golden ore1 the expedition was considered eminently successful4 ,a large squadron of fifteen vessels was consequently fitted out in #aegh for a third voyage1 and commissioned not only to bring back an untold amount of treasure1 but also to take out materials and men to establish a colony on those desolate shores4 ,but this grand expedition1 which sailed with such extravagant hopes1 was to end in disappointment4 ,one of the largest vessels was crushed by an iceberg at the entrance of the strait1 and the others were so beaten about by storms and obstructed by fogs that they were at length glad to return to ,england without having done any thing for the advancement of geographical knowledge4 ,the utter worthlessness of the glittering stones having meanwhile been discovered1 ,frobisher relinquished all further attempts to push his fortunes in the northern regions1 and sought new laurels in a sunnier clime4 ,he accompanied ,drake to the ,west ,indies1 commanded subsequently one of the largest vessels opposed to the ,spanish ,armada1 and ended his heroic life while attacking a small ,french fort in behalf of ,henry ,,iv4 during the war with the ,league4 ,the discovery of the ,north-western ,passage was1 however1 still the great enterprise of the day1 and thus sundry ,london merchants again 8cast in their adventure10 and sent out ,john ,davis1 in #aehe1 with his two ships1 8,sunshine0 and 8,moonshine10 carrying1 besides their more necessary equipments1 a band of music 8to cheer and recreate the spirits of the natives40 ,davis arrived in sight of the south-western coast of ,greenland1 where he saw a high mountain 7,sukkertoppen7 towering like a cone of silver over the fog which veiled the dismal shore4 ,the voyagers were glad to turn from the gloomy scene1 and to steer through the open water to the north-west1 where1 on ,august #f1 they discovered land in latitude #ff #dj altogether free from 8the pesters of ice1 and ankered in a very fair rode40 ,a friendly understanding was established with the ,esquimaux1 and a lively traffic opened1 the natives eagerly giving their skins and furs for beads and knives1 until a brisk wind separated the strange visitants from their simple-minded friends4 ,the remainder of the season was spent in exploring ,cumberland ,sound and the entrance to ,frobisher's and ,hudson's ,straits4 ,in the following year ,davis undertook a second voyage to the north-west1 for which the 8,sunshine0 and 8,moonshine0 were again engaged1 with two other vessels4 ,on ,june #bi1 #aehf1 he landed on the coast of ,greenland1 in latitude #fd1 and soon after steered to the west4 ,the enormous ice-floes which1 as is well known1 come drifting from ,baffin's ,bay until the season is far advanced1 opposed his progress4 ,for some days he coasted these floating islands1 when a fog came on1 during which ropes1 sails1 and cordage were alike fast frozen1 and the seamen1 hopeless of accomplishing the passage1 warned their commander that 8by his over-boldness he might cause their widows and fatherless children to give him bitter curses40 ,touched by this appeal1 ,davis ordered two of his ships to return home1 and pushing on in the 8,moonshine0 with the boldest of his followers1 he reached the ,american shore1 which he coasted from #fg to #eg of latitude4 ,off the coast of ,labrador two of his sailors were killed by the natives1 and ,september being ushered in by violent gales1 he gave up further attempts for the year1 and returned to ,england4 ,on ,june #af1 #aehg1 we once more find him on the coast of ,greenland1 in his old tried bark the 8,sunshine10 in company with the 8,elizabeth0 and a pinnace4 ,the supplies for this third voyage being furnished under the express condition that the expenses should be lightened as much as possible by fishing at all suitable times1 the two larger ships were stationed for the purpose near the part of the coast which they had formerly visited1 while ,davis steered forward in the small and ill-conditioned vessel which alone remained at his disposal4 ,he first sailed along the ,greenland coast as far as #gb lat41 where1 having fairly entered ,baffin's ,bay1 he named the point at which he touched ,sanderson's ,hope1 in honor of his chief patron1 and then steered to the west1 until he once more fell in with the ice-barrier which had prevented his progress the year before4 ,time and perseverance1 however1 overcame all obstacles1 and by ,july #ai he had crossed to the opposite side of the strait which bears his name4 ,he then sailed for two days up ,cumberland ,strait--which1 it will be remembered1 he discovered on his first expedition--but believing this passage to be an inclosed gulf1 he returned1 and again passing the entrance to ,hudson's ,bay without an effort to investigate it1 repaired to the rendezvous appointed for the two whaling-vessels to meet him on their way to ,england4 ,but who can paint his astonishment and consternation when he found that his companions had sailed away1 leaving him to find his way home in his miserable pinnace1 which1 however1 landed him safely on his native shores8 ,this was the last of the ,arctic voyages of that great navigator1 for the spirit of the nation was chilled by his three successive disappointments2 and all the zeal with which he pleaded for a fourth expedition proved fruitless4 ,he subsequently made five voyages to the ,east ,indies1 and was killed on ,december #bg1 #afje1 on the coast of ,malacca1 in a fight with the ,malays4 ,seven years after ,davis's last ,arctic voyage the ,dutch made their first appearance on the scene of northern discovery4 ,this persevering people had just then succeeded in casting off the ,spanish yoke1 and was now striving to gain1 by the development of his maritime trade1 a position among the neighboring states1 which the smallness of its territory seemed to deny to it4 ,all the known avenues to the treasures of the south were at that time too well guarded by the fleets of ,portugal and ,spain to admit of any rivalry2 but if fortune favored them in finding the yet unexplored northern passage to ,india1 they might still hope to secure a lion's share in that most lucrative of trades4 ,animated by this laudable spirit of enterprise1 the merchants of ,amsterdam1 ,enkhuizen1 and ,middelburg fitted out in #aeid an expedition in quest of the north-eastern passage1 which they intrusted to the command of ,cornelius ,corneliszoon1 ,brant ,ysbrantzoon1 and ,william ,barentz1 one of the most experienced seamen of the day4 ,the three vessels sailed from the ,texel on ,june #f1 and having reached the coast of ,lapland1 separated into two divisions2 ,barentz choosing the bolder course of coasting the west side of ,nova ,zembla as far as the islands of ,orange1 the most northerly points of the archipelago2 while his less adventurous comrades were contented to sail along the ,russian coast until they reached a strait1 to which they gave the very appropriate name of ,vaigats1 or 8,wind-hole40 ,forcing their way through the ice1 which almost constantly blocks up the entrance to the ,kara ,sea1 they saw1 on rounding a promontory at the other end of the strait1 a clear expanse of blue open sea1 stretching onward as far as the eye could reach1 while the continent trended away rapidly towards the south-east4 ,they now no longer doubted that they had sailed round the famous ,cape ,tabin--a fabulous headland1 which1 according to ,pliny 7an indisputable authority in those times of geographical ignorance71 formed the northern extremity of ,asia1 from whence the voyage was supposed to be easy to its eastern and southern shores4 ,little did ,brant and ,cornelius dream that within the ,arctic ,circle the ,asiatic coast still stretched #abj to the east2 and fully trusting their erroneous impressions1 they started in full sail for ,holland1 eager to bring to their countrymen the news of their imaginary success4 ,off ,russian ,lapland they fell in with ,barentz1 who1 having arrived at the northern extremity of ,nova ,zembla--a higher latitude than any navigator is recorded to have reached before--had turned back before strong opposing winds and floating ice1 and the three vessels returned together to ,texel4 ,such were the hopes raised by the discovery of the imaginary ,cape ,tabin that1 losing sight of their habitual caution1 the merchants of ,middelburg1 ,enkhuizen1 ,rotterdam1 and ,amsterdam immediately fitted out a fleet of six ships1 laden with all sorts of merchandise fit for the ,indian market4 ,a little yacht was added1 which was to accompany the fleet as far as that promontory1 and thence to return with the good news that the squadron had been left steering with a favorable wind right off to ,india4 ,but1 as may well be supposed1 these sanguine hopes1 built on the unsubstantial fabric of a vision1 were doomed to a woful disappointment1 for the 8,wind-hole ,strait10 doing full justice to its name1 did not allow the vessels to pass2 and after fruitless efforts to force their way through the ice-blocks which obstructed that inhospitable channel1 they returned crestfallen to the port whence they had sailed a few months before with such brilliant expectations4 ,although great disappointment was felt at this failure1 the scheme of sailing round ,cape ,tabin to ,india was1 however1 not abandoned by the persevering ,amsterdamers2 and1 on ,may #af1 #aeif1 ,heemskerk1 ,barentz1 and ,cornelis ,ryp once more started for the north-east4 ,bear ,island and ,spitzbergen were discovered1 whereupon the ships separated1 ,cornelis and ,heemskerk returning to ,holland1 while ,barentz1 slowly making his way through the fog and ice1 advanced to the most northern point of ,nova ,zembla1 the crew being encouraged by the tidings that from the high cliffs of ,orange ,island clear open water had been seen to the south-east4 ,the effort to reach this inviting channel was frustrated by the ice1 which gathered about the ship as it lay near shore1 and gradually collecting under and around it1 raised it far above the level of the sea4 ,all hope of return before the next summer now vanished1 but these brave sailors submitted with resignation to their fate1 8though much grieved10 says ,gerrit de ,veer1 who was himself an eye-witness of all the incidents he relates1 8to live there all that cold winter1 which we knew would fall out to be extremely bitter40 ,fortunately a quantity of drift-wood was found on the strand1 which served the ,dutchmen both for the construction of a small hut and for fuel4 ,as early as ,september the ground was frozen so hard that they tried in vain to dig a grave for a dead comrade1 and their cramped fingers could hardly build the hut1 which was the more necessary1 as the vessel1 cracking under the pressure of the ice1 gave signs of speedily breaking up altogether4 ,by the middle of ,october the rude dwelling was completed1 and though its accommodation was scanty1 they were glad to take up their abode in it at once4 ,the best place by the central fire was assigned to a sick comrade1 while all the rest arranged their beds as best they could on shelves which had been built round the walls4 ,an examination into the state of their provisions showed the necessity of reducing their daily rations of bread1 cheese1 and wine1 but by setting traps they caught a good many ,arctic foxes1 which gave them an occasional supply of fresh food4 ,the sun had now entirely taken his departure1 and the long winter night of the #ge #dc of latitude set in1 during which snowdrifts and impetuous winds confined them to their miserable hut4 8,we looked pitifully one upon the other10 says ,de ,veer1 8being in great fear that if the extremity of the cold grew to be more and more1 we should all die there of cold1 for that what fire soever we made would not warm us40 ,the ice was now two inches thick upon the walls1 and even on the sides of their sleeping cots and the very clothes they wore were whitened with frost4 ,yet in the midst of all their sufferings these brave men maintained cheerful hearts2 and so great was their elasticity of spirit that1 remembering ,january #e was ,twelfth ,eve1 they resolved to celebrate it as best they might4 8,and then10 says the old chronicler1 8we prayed our ,maister that we might be merry that night1 and said that we were content to spend some of the wine that night which we had spared1 and which was our share 7one glass7 every second day1 and whereof for certaine days we had not dranke1 and so that night we made merry and drew for king4 ,and therewith we had two pounds of meal1 whereof we made pancakes with oyle1 and every man had a white biscuit which we sopt in the wine4 ,and so supposing that we were in our owne country and amongst our friends1 it comforted us well as if we had made a great banquet in our owne house4 ,and we also made trinkets1 and our gunner was king of ,novaya ,zemlya1 which is at least #hjj miles long and lyeth between two seas40 ,on ,january #bd the edge of the sun appeared above the horizon1 and the sight was a joyful one indeed4 ,now also the furious snow-storm ceased1 and though the severity of the cold continued unabated1 they were better able to brave the outer air and to recruit their strength by exercise4 ,with the return of daylight the bears came again about the house1 and some being shot1 afforded a very seasonable supply of grease1 so that they were able to burn lamps and pass the time in reading4 ,when summer returned it was found impossible to disengage the ice-bound vessel1 and the only hopes of escaping from this dreary prison now rested on two small boats1 in which they finally quitted the scene of so much suffering on ,june #ad1 #aeif4 ,on the fourth day of their voyage their barks became surrounded by enormous masses of floating ice1 which so crushed and injured them that the crews1 giving up all hope1 took a solemn leave of each other4 ,but in this desperate crisis they owed their preservation to the presence of mind and agility of ,de ,veer1 who1 with a well-secured rope1 leaped from one ice-block to another till he reached a larger floe1 on which first the sick1 then the stores1 the crews1 and finally the boats themselves were fairly landed4 ,here they were obliged to remain while the boats underwent the necessary repairs1 and during this detention upon a floating ice raft the gallant ,barentz closed the eventful voyage of his life4 ,he died as he had lived1 calmly and bravely1 thinking less of himself than of the welfare of his fellow-sufferers1 for his last words were directions as to the course in which they were to steer4 ,his death was bitterly mourned by the rough men under his command1 and even the prospect of a return to their homes could not console them for the loss of their beloved leader4 ,after a most tedious passage 7for by ,july #bh they had only reached the southern extremity of ,nova ,zembla7 they at length1 at the end of ,august1 arrived at ,kola1 in ,russian ,lapland1 where1 to their glad surprise1 they found their old comrade1 ,john ,cornelison ,ryp1 with whom they returned to ,amsterdam4 ,meanwhile the spirit of discovery had once more recovered in ,england from the chill thrown upon it by so many previous disappointments4 ,in #afjb1 ,weymouth1 while attempting to sail up the promising inlet1 now so well-known as the entrance to ,hudson's ,bay1 was repulsed by a violent storm1 and in #afjf a melancholy issue awaited the next expedition to the north-west1 which sailed under the command of ,john ,knight1 a brave and experienced sailor4 ,driven by stormy weather among the drift-ice on the coast of ,labrador1 ,knight was fain to take shelter in the first cove that presented itself1 and lost no time in ordering his damaged ship of forty tons to be drawn high up on the dry sand beyond the tide mark1 where she might undergo the necessary repairs4 ,this position1 however1 not proving satisfactory1 he manned his boat next day1 and while the rest of the crew were busy at work1 sailed across to the other side of the inlet to seek for some more convenient anchorage4 ,leaving two men in charge of the boat1 he landed with his mate and three of his men to explore the strange coast4 ,they climbed the steep acclivity of the shore1 lingered for a moment on the summit of the cliffs1 and before disappearing on the other side exchanged greetings of farewell with their messmates in the boat1 who little imagined that it was a parting forever4 ,evening came on1 and then darkened into night2 muskets were fired and trumpets sounded1 but no answer was made1 and eleven o'clock arriving without any sign or signal of the missing party1 the men who had tarried on shore mournfully returned to the ship with the dismal tidings of the loss of their brave commander and his comrades4 ,during this melancholy night1 passed in alternate lamentations and plans for search and rescue1 the ice had so accumulated in the channel which the unfortunate ,knight crossed the day before1 that though the boat was speedily rigged for the expedition1 and the party who occupied it were one and all uncontrollably eager to start1 the morning light convinced the most sanguine of the utter impossibility of forcing their way across the gulf4 ,thus passed two wretched days of uncertainty1 rendered doubly miserable by the inactivity to which they were condemned1 when on the night of the second day the little encampment was attacked by a large party of natives1 whose hostility left no doubt about the fate which had befallen their missing friends4 ,a volley of musketry soon dispersed the savages1 but fearing future attacks1 the crew1 now only eight in number1 at once resolved to put to sea in their crazy bark1 which1 though deprived of its rudder1 and so leaky that the pumps were obliged to be constantly at work1 safely carried them to ,newfoundland4 ,in the year #afjg ,henry ,hudson made the first attempt to sail across the ,north ,pole1 a plan started in #aebg by ,robert ,thorne1 but not yet acted upon by any one during the eighty years that had since passed4 ,he reached the east coast of ,greenland in #gc of latitude1 and then proceeded to the northern extremity of ,spitzbergen1 but all his efforts to launch forth into the unknown ocean beyond were baffled by the ice-fields that opposed his progress4 ,in his next voyage 7#afjh7 he vainly tried for the north-east passage1 but his third voyage 7#afji71 which he performed in the service of the ,dutch1 led to the discovery of the magnificent river which still bears his name1 and at whose mouth the 8,empire ,city0 of the great ,american republic has arisen4 ,in ,april1 #afaj1 we find him setting sail on the last and most celebrated of his voyages4 ,in all but its commander1 this expedition was miserably inadequate to the object of its mission1 for it consisted only of one vessel of fifty-five tons provisioned for six months1 and manned by a crew who speedily proved themselves to be utterly unworthy of their leader4 ,on entering ,hudson's ,straits1 the large masses of ice which encumbered the surface of the water and the thickness of the constant fogs made them lose all courage1 and they earnestly begged their commander to return at once to ,england4 ,but ,hudson pressed on until at last his little bark emerged into a vast open water rippling and sparkling in the morning sunshine4 ,hudson's ,bay expanded before him1 and the enraptured discoverer was fully convinced that the north-western route to ,india now lay open to the mariners of ,england4 ,it was the beginning of ,august1 and the dastardly crew considering the passage effected1 urged an immediate return2 but ,hudson was determined on completing the adventure1 and wintering1 if possible1 on the sunny shores of ,india4 ,for three months he continued tracking the south coasts of that vast northern ,mediterranean1 but all his hopes of finding a new channel opening to the south proved vain1 until at length the ship was frozen in on ,november #aj in the south-east corner of ,james's ,bay4 ,a dreary winter awaited the ice-bound seamen1 with almost exhausted provisions1 and unfortunately without that heroic patience and concord which had sustained the courage of ,barentz and his companions under trials far more severe4 ,but spring came at last1 and revived the spirits of their leader4 ,his ship was once more afloat1 once more his fancy indulged in visions of the sunny ,east1 when1 as he stepped on deck on the morning of ,june #ba1 his arms were suddenly pinioned1 and he found himself in the power of three of his men4 ,inquiry1 remonstrance1 entreaty1 command1 all failed to draw a word from the stubborn mutineers1 and ,hudson resigned himself bravely to his fate1 and1 with the quiet dignity of a noble nature1 looked on calmly at the ominous preparations going forward4 ,a small open boat was in waiting1 and into this ,hudson--his hands being previously tied behind his back--was lowered2 some powder and shot and the carpenter's box came next1 followed by the carpenter himself1 ,john ,king1 whose name ought to be held in honorable remembrance1 as he alone among the crew remained true to his master4 ,six invalids were also forced into the boat1 which was then cut adrift1 and the vessel sailed onward on its homeward course4 ,nothing more was ever heard of ,hudson2 but the ringleaders of that dark conspiracy soon paid a terrible penalty4 ,some fell in a fight with the ,esquimaux1 and others died on the homeward voyage1 during which they suffered from the extremest famine4 ,the account of the great expanse of sea which had been reached gave new vigor to the spirit of discovery1 and new expeditions sallied forth 7,sir ,thomas ,button1 #afab1 ,gibbons1 #afad1 ,bylot1 #afae71 to seek along the western shores of ,hudson's ,bay the passage which was to open the way to ,india4 ,all efforts in this direction were of course doomed to disappointment1 but ,baffin1 who sailed in #afaf1 with directions to try his fortune beyond ,davis's ,straits1 enriched geography with a new and important conquest by sailing round the enormous bay which still bears his name4 ,during this voyage he discovered the entrances of ,smith's1 ,jones's1 and ,lancaster ,sounds1 without attempting to investigate these broad highways to fields of later exploration4 ,he believed them to be mere inclosed gulfs1 and this belief became so firmly grounded in the public mind that two full centuries elapsed before any new attempt was made to seek for a western passage in this direction1 while ,jens ,munk1 a ,dane1 sent out in #afai with two good vessels1 under the patronage of his king1 ,christian ,,iv42 ,fox and ,james 7#afca-afcb71 ,knight and ,barlow 7#agai71 ,middleton 7#agda71 ,moor and ,smith 7#agdf71 confined their efforts to ,hudson's ,bay1 and1 by their repeated disappointments1 made all expeditions in quest of a north-western passage appear well-nigh as chimerical as those of the knight-errants of romance4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiii4 ,,arctic ,,voyages ,,of ,,discovery1 ,,from ,,baffin ,,to ,m',,clintock4 ,buchan and ,franklin4--,ross and ,parry 7#ahah74--;,discovery of ,melville ,island4--,winter ,harbor 7#ahai-ahbj74--;,franklin's first land ,journey4--,dreadful ,sufferings4--,parry's second ,voyage 7#ahba-ahbc74--;,higliuk4--,lyon 7#ahbd74--,parry's third ,voyage 7#ahbd74--;,franklin's second land ,journey to the ,shores of the ,polar ,sea4--,beechey4--,parry's sledge ,journey towards the ,pole4--,sir ,john ,ross's second ,journey4--,five ,years in the ,arctic ,ocean4--,back's ,discovery of ,great ,fish ,river4--,dease and ,simpson 7#ahcg-ahci74--;,franklin and ,crozier's last ,voyage 7#ahde74-- ,searching ,expeditions4--,richardson and ,rae4--,sir ,james ,ross4-- ,austin4--,penny4--,de ,haven4--,franklin's first ,winter-quarters discovered by ,ommaney4--,kennedy and ,bellot4--,inglefield4--,sir ,e4 ,belcher4--,kellett4--,m',clure's ,discovery of the ,north-west ,passage4--,collinson4--,bellot's ,death4--,dr4 ,rae learns the ,death of the ,crews of the 8,erebus0 and 8,terror40--,sir ,leopold ,m',clintock4 ,the failure of ,captain ,phipps 7afterwards ,lord ,mulgrave7 in the ,spitzbergen seas 7#aggc71 and that of the illustrious ,cook 7#aggf71 in his attempt to circumnavigate the northern shores of ,america or ,asia by way of the ,straits of ,bering1 entirely damped1 for the next forty years1 the spirit of ,arctic discovery2 but hope revived when it became known that ,captain ,scoresby1 on a whaling expedition in the ,greenland seas 7#ahjf71 had attained #ha #cj ,n4 lat41 and thus approached the pole to within #edj miles4 ,no previous navigator had ever reached so far to the north2 an open sea lay temptingly before him1 and the absence of the ice-blink proved that for miles beyond the visible horizon no ice-field or snow-covered land opposed his onward course2 but as the object of ,scoresby's voyage was strictly commercial1 and he himself answerable to the owners of his vessel1 he felt obliged to sacrifice his inclinations to his duty1 and to steer again to the south4 ,during the ,continental war1 indeed1 ,england had but little leisure to prosecute discoveries in the ,arctic ,ocean2 but not long after the conclusion of peace1 four stout vessels 7#ahah7 were sent out on that mission by ,government4 ,two of these1 the 8,dorothea10 ,captain ,buchan1 and the 8,trent10 ,commander ,lieutenant ,john ,franklin1 were destined to proceed northward by way of ,spitzbergen1 and to endeavor to cross the ,polar ,sea4 ,after unnumbered difficulties1 the expedition was battling with the ice to the north-west of that wintry archipelago1 when1 on ,july #cj1 a sudden gale compelled the commander1 as the only chance of safety1 to 8take the ice0--that is1 to thrust the ships into an opening among the moving masses that could be perceived4 ,in this very hazardous operation1 the 8,dorothea0--having received so much injury that she was in danger of sinking--was therefore turned homeward as soon as the storm subsided1 and the 8,trent0 of necessity accompanied her4 ,the other two ships1 which sailed in the same year1 the 8,isabella10 commanded by ,captain ,john ,ross1 and the 8,alexander10 by ,lieutenant ,william ,edward ,parry1 had been ordered to proceed up the middle of ,davis's ,strait to a high northern latitude1 and then to stretch across to the westward1 in the hope of being able to pass the northern extremity of ,america1 and reach ,bering's ,strait by that route4 ,as respects the purposes for which it was sent out1 this expedition likewise ended in disappointment2 for though ,ross defined more clearly the ,greenland coast to the north of the ,danish possessions between ,cape ,melville and ,smith's ,sound1 he was satisfied with making a very cursory examination of all the great channels leading from ,baffin's ,bay into the ,polar ,sea4 ,after sailing for some little distance up ,lancaster ,sound1 he was arrested by the atmospheric deception of a range of mountains1 extending right across the passage1 and concluding it useless to persevere1 he at once--to the great astonishment and mortification of his officers--abandoned a course which was to render his successor illustrious4 ,as may easily be imagined1 the manner in which ,ross had conducted this expedition failed to satisfy the authorities at home2 and thus1 in the following year1 the 8,hecla0 and 8,griper0 were commissioned for the purpose of exploring the sound1 whose entrance only had been seen by ,baffin and ,ross4 ,the former ship was placed under the ,command of ,parry1 and the latter under that of ,lieutenant ,matthew ,liddon4 ,with this brilliant voyage1 the epoch of modern discoveries in the ,arctic ,ocean may properly be said to begin4 ,sailing right through ,lancaster ,sound1 over the site of ,ross's imaginary ,croker ,mountains1 ,parry passed ,barrow's ,strait1 and after exploring ,prince ,regent ,inlet1 whence the ice compelled him to return to the main channel1 he discovered ,wellington ,channel 7,august #bb71 and soon after had the satisfaction of announcing to his men that1 having reached #aaj ,w4 long41 they were entitled to the king's bounty of #ejjj1 secured by order of council to 8such of ,his ,majesty's subjects as might succeed in penetrating thus far to the west within the ,arctic ,circle40 ,after passing and naming ,melville ,island1 a little progress was still made westward2 but the ice was now rapidly gathering1 the vessels were soon beset1 and1 after getting free with great difficulty1 ,parry was only too glad to turn back and settle down in ,winter ,harbor4 ,it was no easy task to attain this dreary port1 as a canal1 two miles and a third in length1 had first to be cut through solid ice of seven inches average thickness2 yet such was the energy of the men that the herculean labor was executed in three days4 ,the two vessels were immediately unrigged1 the decks housed over1 a heating apparatus arranged1 and every thing made as comfortable as possible4 ,to relieve the monotony of the long winter's night1 plays were acted every fortnight1 a school established1 and a newspaper set on foot--certainly the first periodical ever issued in so high a latitude4 ,during the day the men were employed for exercise in banking up the ships with snow or making excursions within a certain distance2 and when the weather forbade their leaving shelter1 they were obliged to run round the decks to the tune of a barrel-organ4 ,in ,january the cold became more and more intense4 ,on the #abth it was #ea below zero in the open air1 and on the #adth the thermometer fell to #ed4 ,on ,february #bd a fire broke out in a small house which had been built near the ships1 to serve as an observatory for ,captain ,sabine1 who accompanied the expedition as astronomer4 ,all hands rushed to the spot to endeavor to subdue the flames1 but having only snow to throw on it1 it was found impossible to extinguish it4 ,the snow1 however1 covered the astronomical instruments1 and secured them from the fire4 ,the thermometer was at the time #dd below zero1 and the faces of nearly the whole party grew white and frost-bitten after five minutes' exposure1 so that the surgeon and two or three assistants were busily employed in rubbing the faces of their comrades with snow1 while the latter were working might and main to extinguish the flames4 ,one poor fellow1 in his anxiety to save the dipping-needle1 carried it out without putting on his gloves2 his hands were so benumbed in consequence1 that when plunged into a basin of cold water it instantly froze1 from the intense coldness imparted to it1 and it was found necessary to resort1 some time after1 to the amputation of a part of four fingers on one hand and three on the other4 ,february #c was a memorable day--the sun being visible from the maintop of the 8,hecla10 from whence it was last seen on ,november #aa4 ,the weather got considerably milder in ,march2 on the #fth the thermometer rose to zero1 for the first time since ,december #ag1 and on ,april #cj it stood at the freezing-point1 which it had not done since ,september #ab4 ,at length ,may appeared1 bringing the long summer's day of the high northern latitudes2 but as many a week must still pass before the vessels could move out of their ice-bound harbor1 ,parry started on ,june #a to explore the interior of the island1 which at this early period of the season still wore a very dreary aspect4 ,but such was the rapidity of vegetation1 that by the end of the month the land1 now completely clear of snow1 was covered with the purple-colored saxifrage in blossom1 with mosses1 and with sorrel1 and the grass was from two to three inches long4 ,the pasturage appeared to be excellent in the valleys1 and1 to judge by the numerous tracks of musk-oxen and reindeer1 there was no lack of animals to enjoy its abundance4 ,it was not before ,august #a that the ships were released from their ten months' blockade in ,winter ,harbor1 when ,parry once more stood boldly for the west2 but no amount of skill or patience could penetrate the obstinate masses of ice that blocked the passage1 or insure the safety of the vessels under the repeated shocks sustained from them4 ,finding the barriers insuperable1 he gave way1 and steering homeward1 reached ,london on ,november #c1 #ahbj1 where1 as may well be imagined1 his reception was most enthusiastic4 ,while ,parry was engaged on this wonderful voyage1 ,lieutenant ,franklin and ,dr4 ,richardson1 accompanied by two midshipmen1 ,george ,back and ,robert ,hood1 and a sailor1 ,john ,hepburn1 to whom were added during the course of the journey a troop of ,canadians and ,indians1 were penetrating by land to the mouth of the ,coppermine ,river for the purpose of examining the unexplored shores of the ,polar ,sea to the east4 ,an idea of the difficulties of this undertaking may be formed1 when ,i mention that the travellers started from ,fort ,york1 ,hudson's ,bay1 on ,august #cj1 #ahai1 and after a boat voyage of #gjj miles up the ,saskatchewan arrived before winter at ,fort ,cumberland4 ,the next winter found them #gjj miles farther on their journey1 established during the extreme cold at ,fort ,enterprise1 as they called a log-house built by them on ,winter ,lake1 where they spent ten months1 depending upon fishing and the success of their ,indian hunters4 ,during the summer of #ahba they accomplished the remaining #ccd miles to the mouth of the ,coppermine1 and on ,july #ba ,franklin and his party embarked in two birch-bark canoes on their voyage of exploration4 ,in these frail shallops they skirted the desolate coast of the ,american continent #eee miles to the east of the ,coppermine as far as ,point ,turnagain1 when the rapid decrease of their provisions and the shattered state of the canoes imperatively compelled their return 7,august #bb74 ,and now began a dreadful land-journey of two months1 accompanied by all the horrors of cold1 famine1 and fatigue4 ,an esculent lichen 7tripe de roche71 with an occasional ptarmigan1 formed their scanty food1 but on very many days even this poor supply could not be obtained1 and their appetites became ravenous4 ,sometimes they had the good-fortune to pick up pieces of skin1 and a few bones of deer which had been devoured by the wolves in the previous spring4 ,the bones were rendered friable by burning1 and now and then their old shoes were added to the repast4 ,on reaching the ,coppermine1 a raft had to be framed1 a task accomplished with the utmost difficulty by the exhausted party4 ,one or two of the ,canadians had already fallen behind1 and never rejoined their comrades1 and now ,hood and three or four more of the party broke down and could proceed no farther1 ,dr4 ,richardson kindly volunteering to remain with them1 while ,back1 with the most vigorous of the men1 pushed on to send succor from ,fort ,enterprise1 and ,franklin followed more slowly with the others4 ,on reaching the log house this last party found that wretched tenement desolate1 with no deposit of provisions and no trace of the ,indians whom they had expected to meet there4 8,it would be impossible10 says ,franklin1 8to describe our sensations after entering this miserable abode and discovering how we had been neglected2 the whole party shed tears1 not so much for our own fate as for that of our friends in the rear1 whose lives depended entirely on our sending immediate relief from this place40 ,their only consolation was a gleam of hope afforded them by a note from ,back1 stating that he had reached the deserted hut two days before1 and was going in search of the ,indians4 ,the fortunate discovery of some cast-off deer-skins and of a heap of acrid bones1 a provision worthy of the place1 sustained their flickering life-flame1 and after eighteen miserable days they were joined by ,dr4 ,richardson and ,hepburn1 the sole survivors of their party1 ,lieutenant ,hood1 a young officer of great promise1 having been murdered by a treacherous ,canadian1 whom ,richardson was afterwards obliged to shoot through the head in self-defense4 8,upon entering the desolate dwelling10 says ,richardson1 8we had the satisfaction of embracing ,captain ,franklin1 but no words can convey an idea of the filth and wretchedness that met our eyes on looking around4 ,our own misery had stolen upon us by degrees1 and we were accustomed to the contemplation of each other's emaciated figures2 but the ghastly countenances1 dilated eyeballs1 and sepulchral voices of ,captain ,franklin and those with him were more than we could at first bear40 ,at length1 on ,november #g1 when the few survivors of the ill-fated expedition 7for most of the voyagers died from sheer exhaustion7 were on the point of sinking under their sufferings1 three ,indians sent by ,back1 whose exertions to procure them relief had been beyond all praise1 brought them the succor they had so long been waiting for4 ,the eagerness with which they feasted on dried meat and excellent tongues may well be imagined2 but severe pains in the stomach soon warned them that after so long an abstinence they must be exceedingly careful in the quantity of food taken4 ,in a fortnight's time they had sufficiently recruited their strength to be able to join ,back at ,moose ,deer ,island1 and in the following year they returned to ,england4 ,parry's second voyage of discovery 7#ahba-ahbc7 was undertaken for the purpose of ascertaining whether a communication might be found between ,regent's ,inlet and ,rowe's ,welcome1 or through ,repulse ,bay and thence to the north-western shores of ,america4 ,the first summer 7#ahba7 was spent in the vain attempt of forcing a way through ,frozen ,strait1 ,repulse ,bay1 the large masses of ice in these waters holding the ships helplessly in their grasp1 and often carrying them back in a few days to the very spot which they had left a month before4 ,owing to these rebuffs1 the season came to an end while their enterprise was yet scarcely begun1 and the ships took up their quarters in an open roadstead at ,winter ,island to the south of ,melville ,peninsula4 ,besides the winter amusements and occupations of the first voyage1 the monotony of the winter was pleasantly broken during ,february by friendly visits from a party of ,esquimaux4 ,among these a young woman1 ,higliuk1 distinguished herself by her talents4 ,her love for music amounted to a passion1 and her quickness of comprehension was such that she soon became an established interpreter between her own people and the ,english4 ,the nature of a map having been explained to her1 she readily sketched with chalk upon the deck the outlines of the adjoining coast1 and continuing it farther1 delineated the whole eastern shore of ,melville ,peninsula1 rounding its northern extremity by a large island and a strait of sufficient magnitude to afford a safe passage for the ships4 ,this information greatly encouraged the whole party1 whose sanguine anticipations already fancied the worst part of their voyage overcome1 and its truth was eagerly tested as soon as the ships could once more be set afloat1 which was not till ,july #b4 ,after running the greatest dangers from the ice1 they at length reached the small island of ,igloolik1 near the entrance of the channel1 the situation of which had been accurately laid down by the ,esquimaux woman4 ,but all their efforts to force a passage through the narrow strait proved vain1 for after struggling sixty-five days to get forward1 they had only in that time reached forty miles to the westward of ,igloolik4 ,the vessels were therefore again placed in winter-quarters in a channel between ,igloolik and the land2 but having ascertained by boat excursions the termination of the strait1 ,parry thought it so promising for the ensuing summer that he at once named it the 8,hecla and ,fury ,strait40 ,but his hopes were once more doomed to disappointment by the ice-obstructed channel1 and he found it utterly impossible to pass through it with his ships4 ,his return to ,england with his crews in health1 after two winters in the high latitudes1 was another triumph of judgment and discipline4 ,in the following year two new expeditions set sail for ,polar ,america4 ,captain ,lyon was sent out in the 8,griper10 with orders to land at ,wager ,river off ,repulse ,bay1 and thence to cross ,melville ,peninsula1 and proceed overland to ,point ,turnagain1 where ,franklin's journey ended4 ,but a succession of dreadful storms so crippled the 8,griper10 while endeavoring to proceed onward up ,rowe's ,welcome1 that it became necessary to return at once to ,england4 ,such was the esteem and affection ,parry had acquired among the companions of his two former voyages1 that when he took the command of a third expedition1 with the intention of seeking a passage through ,prince ,regent's ,inlet1 they all volunteered to accompany him4 ,from the middle of ,july till nearly the middle of ,september 7#ahbd71 the 8,hecla0 and the 8,fury0 had to contend with the enormous ice-masses of ,baffin's ,bay1 which would infallibly have crushed vessels less stoutly ribbed2 and thus it was not before ,september #aj that they entered ,lancaster ,sound1 which they found clear of ice1 except here and there a solitary berg4 ,but new ice now began to form1 which1 increasing daily in thickness1 beset the ship1 and carried them once more back again into ,baffin's ,bay4 ,by perseverance1 however1 and the aid of a strong easterly breeze1 ,parry regained the lost ground1 and on ,september #bg reached the entrance of ,port ,bowen1 on the eastern shore of ,prince ,regent's ,inlet1 where he passed the winter4 ,by ,july #ai the vessels were again free1 and ,parry now sailed across the inlet to examine the coast of ,north ,somerset2 but the floating ice so injured the 8,fury0 that it was found necessary to abandon her4 ,her crew and valuables were therefore received on board the 8,hecla20 the provisions1 stores1 and boats were landed1 and safely housed on ,fury ,point1 off ,north ,somerset1 for the relief of any wandering ,esquimaux1 or future ,arctic explorers who might chance to visit the spot1 and the crippled ship was given up to the mercy of the relentless ice1 while her companion made the best of her way to ,england4 ,in spite of the dreadful sufferings of ,franklin1 ,richardson1 and ,back during their first land journey1 we find these heroes once more setting forth in #ahbe1 determined to resume the survey of the ,arctic coasts of the ,american continent4 ,a far more adequate preparation was made for the necessities of their journey than before2 and before they settled down for the winter at 8,fort ,franklin10 on the shores of ,great ,bear ,lake1 a journey of investigation down the ,mackenzie ,river to the sea had been brought to a successful end4 ,as soon as the ice broke in the following summer1 they set out in four boats1 and separated at the point where the river divides into two main branches1 ,franklin and ,back proposing to survey the coast-line to the westward1 while ,richardson set out in an easterly direction to the mouth of the ,coppermine ,river4 ,franklin arrived at the mouth of the ,mackenzie on ,july #g1 where a large tribe of ,esquimaux pillaged his boats1 and it was only by great prudence and forbearance that the whole party were not massacred4 ,a full month was now spent in the tedious survey of #cgd miles of coast1 as far as ,return ,reef1 more than #ajjj miles distant from their winter-quarters on ,great ,bear ,lake4 ,the return journey to ,fort ,franklin was safely accomplished1 and they arrived at their house on ,september #ba1 where they had the pleasure of finding ,dr4 ,richardson and ,lieutenant ,kendall1 who1 on their part1 had reached the ,coppermine1 thus connecting ,sir ,john ,franklin's former discoveries to the eastward in ,coronation ,gulf with those made by him on this occasion to the westward of the ,mackenzie4 ,the cold during the second winter at ,fort ,franklin was intense1 the thermometer standing at one time at #eh below zero2 but the comfort they now enjoyed formed a most pleasing contrast to the squalid misery of ,fort ,enterprise4 ,when ,franklin left ,england to proceed on this expedition1 his first wife was then lying at the point of death1 and indeed expired the day after his departure4 ,but with heroic fortitude she urged him to set out on the very day appointed1 entreating him1 as he valued her peace and his own glory1 not to delay a moment on her account4 ,his feelings may be imagined when he raised on ,garry ,island a silk flag which she had made and given him as a parting gift1 with the instruction that he was only to hoist it on reaching the ,polar ,sea4 ,while ,parry and ,franklin were thus severally employed in searching for a western passage1 a sea expedition under the command of ,captain ,beechey had been sent to ,bering's ,straits to co-operate with them1 so as to furnish provisions to the former and a conveyance home to the latter--a task more easily planned than executed2 and thus we can not wonder that when the 8,blossom0 reached the appointed place of rendezvous at ,chamisso ,island1 in ,kotzebue ,sound 7,july #be1 #ahbf71 she found neither ,parry 7who had long since returned to ,england7 nor ,franklin4 ,yet the barge of the 8,blossom0--which was dispatched to the eastward under charge of ,mr4 ,elson--narrowly missed meeting the latter2 for when she was stopped by the ice at ,point ,barrow1 she was only about #aej miles from ,return ,reef1 the limit of his discoveries to the westward of the ,mackenzie4 ,in the year #ahbg the indefatigable ,parry undertook one of the most extraordinary voyages ever performed by man2 being no less than an attempt to reach the ,north ,pole by boat and sledge travelling over the ice4 ,his hopes of success were founded on ,crosby's authority1 who reports having seen ice-fields so free from either fissure or hummock1 that had they not been covered with snow1 a coach might have been driven many leagues over them in a direct line2 but when ,parry reached the ice-fields to the north of ,spitzbergen1 he found them of a very different nature1 composed of loose1 rugged masses1 intermixed with pools of water1 which rendered travelling over them extremely arduous and slow4 ,the strong flat-bottomed boats1 specially prepared for an amphibious journey1 with a runner attached to each side of the keel1 so as to adapt them for sledging1 had thus frequently to be laden and unladen1 in order to be raised over the hummocks1 and repeated journeys backward and forward over the same ground were the necessary consequence4 ,frequently the crew had to go on hands and knees to secure a footing4 ,heavy showers of rain often rendered the surface of the ice a mass of slush1 and in some places the ice took the form of sharp-pointed crystals1 which cut the boots like penknives4 ,but in spite of all these obstacles1 they toiled cheerfully on1 until at length1 after thirty-five days of incessant drudgery1 the discovery was made that1 while they were apparently advancing towards the pole1 the ice-field on which they were travelling was drifting to the south1 and thus rendering all their exertions fruitless4 ,yet1 though disappointed in his hope of planting his country's standard on the northern axis of the globe1 ,parry had the glory of reaching the highest authenticated latitude ever yet attained 7#hb #dj #cj74 ,on their return to the 8,hecla10 which awaited them under ,captain ,forester in ,treurenberg ,bay1 on the northern coast of ,spitzbergen1 the boats encountered a dreadful storm on the open sea1 which obliged them to bear up for ,walden ,island--one of the most northerly rocks of the archipelago--where1 fortunately1 a reserve supply of provisions had been deposited4 8,every thing belonging to us10 says ,sir ,edward ,parry1 8was now completely drenched by the spray and snow2 we had been fifty-six hours without rest1 and forty-eight at work in the boats1 so that by the time they were unloaded we had barely strength to haul them up on the rocks4 ,however1 by dint of great exertion1 we managed to get the boats above the surf1 after which1 a hot supper1 a blazing fire of drift-wood1 and a few hours' quiet rest restored us40 ,he who laments over the degeneracy of the human race1 and supposes it to have been more vigorous or endowed with greater powers of endurance in ancient times1 may perhaps come to a different opinion when reading of ,parry and his companions4 ,thus ended the last of this great navigator's ,arctic voyages4 ,born in the year #agij1 of a family of seamen1 ,parry at an early age devoted himself1 heart and soul1 to the profession in which his father had grown old4 ,in his twenty-eighth year he discovered ,melville ,island1 and his subsequent expedition confirmed the excellent reputation he had acquired by his first brilliant success4 ,from the years #ahbi to #ahcd we find him in ,new ,south ,wales1 as ,resident ,commissioner of the ,australian ,agricultural ,company4 ,in the year #ahcg he was appointed to organize the mail-packet service1 then transferred to the ,admiralty1 and after filling the post of ,captain ,superintendent of the ,royal ,naval ,hospital at ,haslar1 was finally appointed ,governor of ,greenwich ,hospital4 ,he died in the summer of #ahee at ,ems4 ,ten years had elapsed since ,captain ,john ,ross's first unsuccessful voyage1 when the veteran seaman1 anxious to obliterate the reproach of former failure by some worthy achievement1 was enabled1 through the munificence of ,sir ,felix ,booth1 to accomplish his wishes4 ,a small ,liverpool steamer1 bearing the rather presumptuous name of the 8,victory10 was purchased for the voyage1 a rather unfortunate selection1 for surely nothing can be more unpractical than paddle-boxes among ice-blocks2 but to make amends for this error1 the commander of the expedition was fortunate in being accompanied by his nephew1 ,commander ,james ,ross1 who1 with every quality of the seaman1 united the zeal of an able naturalist4 ,he it was who1 by his well-executed sledge journeys1 made the chief discoveries of the expedition2 but the voyage of the 8,victory0 is far less remarkable for successes achieved than for its unexampled protraction during a period of five years4 ,the first season ended well4 ,on ,august #aj1 #ahbi1 the 8,victory0 entered ,prince ,regent's ,inlet1 and reached on the #acth the spot where ,parry1 on his third voyage1 had been obliged to abandon the 8,fury40 ,the ship itself had been swept away2 but all her sails1 stores1 and provisions on land were found untouched4 ,the hermetically sealed tin canisters in which the flour1 meat1 bread1 wine1 spirits1 sugar1 etc41 were packed had preserved them from the attacks of the white bears1 and they were found as good after four years as they had been on the day when the 8,fury0 started on her voyage4 ,it was to this discovery that the crew of the 8,victory0 owed their subsequent preservation1 for how else could they have passed four winters in the ,arctic wastes8 ,on ,august #ae ,cape ,garry was attained1 the most southern point of the inlet which ,parry had reached on his third voyage4 ,fogs and drift-ice greatly retarded the progress of the expedition1 but ,ross moved on1 though slowly1 so that about the middle of ,september the map of the northern regions was enriched by some #ejj miles of newly-discovered coast4 ,but now1 at the beginning of winter1 the 8,victory0 was obliged to take refuge in ,felix ,harbor1 where the useless steam-engine was thrown overboard as a nuisance1 and the usual preparations made for spending the cold season as pleasantly as possible4 ,the following spring 7from ,may #ag to ,june #ac7 was employed by ,james ,ross on a sledge journey1 which led to the discovery of ,king ,william's ,sound and ,king ,william's ,land1 and during which that courageous mariner penetrated so far to the west that he had only ten days' provisions-- scantily measured out--for a return voyage of #bjj miles through an empty wilderness4 ,after twelve months' imprisonment1 the 8,victory0 was released from the ice on ,september #ag1 and proceeded once more on her discoveries4 ,but the period of her liberty was short1 for1 after advancing three miles in one continual battle against the currents and the drift-ice1 she again froze fast on the #bgth of the same month4 ,in the following spring we again see the indefatigable ,james ,ross extending the circle of his sledge excursions1 and planting the ,british flag on the site of the ,northern ,magnetic ,pole--which1 however1 is not invariably fixed to one spot1 as was then believed1 but moves from place to place within the glacial zone4 ,on ,august #bh1 #ahca1 the 8,victory0--after a second imprisonment of eleven months--was warped into open water2 but after spending a whole month to advance four miles1 she was encompassed by the ice on ,september #bg1 and once more fettered in the dreary wilderness4 ,as there seemed no prospect of extricating her next summer1 they resolved to abandon her and travel over the ice to ,fury ,beach1 there to avail themselves of the boats1 provisions1 and stores1 which would assist them in reaching ,davis's ,straits4 ,accordingly1 on ,may #bi1 #ahcb1 the colors of the 8,victory0 were hoisted and nailed to the mast1 and after drinking a parting glass to the ship with the crew1 and having seen every man out in the evening1 the captain took his own leave of her4 8,it was the first vessel10 says ,ross1 8that ,i had ever been obliged to abandon1 after having served in thirty-six1 during a period of forty-two years4 ,it was like the last parting with an old friend1 and ,i did not pass the point where she ceased to be visible without stopping to take a sketch of this melancholy desert1 rendered more melancholy by the solitary1 abandoned1 helpless home of our past years1 fixed in immovable ice1 till time should perform on her his usual work40 ,after having1 with incredible difficulty1 reached ,fury ,beach1 where1 thanks to the forethought of ,sir ,edward ,parry1 they fortunately found a sufficient number of boats left for their purpose1 and all the provisions in good condition1 they set out on ,august #a--;a considerable extent of open sea being visible--and after much buffeting among the ice1 reached the north of the inlet by the end of the month4 ,but here they were doomed to disappointment1 for1 after several fruitless attempts to run along ,barrow's ,strait1 the ice obliged them to haul their boats on shore and pitch their tents4 ,day after day they lingered till the third week in ,september1 but the strait continuing one impenetrable mass of ice1 it was unanimously agreed that their only resource was to fall back again on the stores at ,fury ,beach1 and there spend a fourth long winter within the ,arctic ,circle4 ,they were only able to get half the distance in the boats1 which were hauled on shore in ,batty ,bay on ,september #bd1 and performed the rest of their journey on foot1 the provisions being dragged in sledges4 ,on ,october #g they once more reached the canvas hut1 dignified with the name of 8,somerset ,house10 which they had erected in ,july on the scene of the 8,fury's0 wreck1 and which they had vainly hoped never to see again4 ,they now set about building a snow-wall four feet thick round their dwelling1 and strengthening the roof with spars1 for the purpose of covering it with snow1 and by means of this shelter1 and an additional stove1 made themselves tolerably comfortable1 until the increasing severity of the cold and the furious gales confined them within-doors1 and sorely tried their patience4 ,scurvy now began to appear1 and several of the men fell victims to the scourge4 ,at the same time1 cares for the future darkened the gloom of their situation2 for1 should they be disappointed in their hopes of escaping in the ensuing summer1 their failing strength and diminishing stores gave them but little hope of surviving another year4 ,it may easily be imagined how anxiously the movements of the ice were watched when the next season opened1 and with what beating hearts they embarked at ,batty ,bay on ,august #ae4 ,making their way slowly among the masses of ice with which the inlet was encumbered1 they to their great joy found1 on the #agth1 the wide expanse of ,barrow's ,strait open to navigation4 ,pushing on with renewed spirits1 ,cape ,york soon lay behind them1 and1 alternately rowing and sailing1 on the night of the #beth they rested in a good harbor on the eastern shore of ,navy ,board ,inlet4 ,at #d o'clock on the following morning they were roused from their slumber by the joyful intelligence of a ship being in sight1 and never did men more hurriedly and energetically set out2 but the elements were against them1 and the ship disappeared in the distant haze4 ,after a few hours' suspense1 the sight of another vessel lying to in a calm relieved their despair4 ,this time their exertions were successful1 and1 strange to say1 the ship which took them on board was the same 8,isabella0--now reduced to the rank of a private whaler--in which ,ross had made his first voyage to the ,arctic ,seas4 ,the seamen of the 8,isabella0 told him of his own death--of which all ,england was persuaded--and could hardly believe that it was really he and his party who now stood before them4 ,but when all doubts were cleared away1 the rigging was instantly manned to do them honor1 and thundering cheers welcomed ,ross and his gallant band on board6 ,the scene that now followed can not be better told than in ,ross's own words4 8,though we had not been supported by our names and characters1 we should not the less have claimed from charity the attentions that we received2 for never was seen a more miserable set of wretches4 ,unshaven since ,i know not when1 dirty1 dressed in rags of wild beasts1 and starved to the very bones1 our gaunt and grim looks1 when contrasted with those of the well-dressed and well-fed men around us1 made us all feel 7,i believe for the first time7 what we really were1 as well as what we seemed to others4 ,but the ludicrous soon took the place of all other feelings2 in such a crowd and such confusion1 all serious thought was impossible1 while the new buoyancy of our spirits made us abundantly willing to be amused by the scene which now opened4 ,every man was hungry1 and was to be fed2 all were ragged1 and were to be clothed2 there was not one to whom washing was not indispensable1 nor one whom his beard did not deprive of all human semblance4 ,all1 every thing too1 was to be done at once3 it was washing1 dressing1 shaving1 eating1 all intermingled3 it was all the materials of each jumbled together1 while in the midst of all there were interminable questions to be asked and answered on both sides2 the adventures of the #8,victory1' our own escapes1 the politics of ,england1 and the news1 which was now four years old4 ,but all subsided into peace at last4 ,the sick were accommodated1 the seamen disposed of1 and all was done for us which care and kindness could perform4 ,night at length brought quiet and serious thoughts1 and ,i trust there was not a man among us who did not then express where it was due his gratitude for that interposition which had raised us all from a despair which none could now forget1 and had brought us from the borders of a most distant grave to life1 and friends1 and civilization4 ,long accustomed1 however1 to a cold bed on the hard snow or the bare rocks1 few could sleep amidst the comfort of our new accommodations4 ,i was myself compelled to leave the bed which had been kindly assigned me1 and take my abode in a chair for the night2 nor did it fare much better with the rest4 ,it was for time to reconcile us to this sudden and violent change1 to break through what had become habit1 and to inure us once more to the usages of our former days40 ,the 8,isabella0 remained some time longer in ,baffin's ,bay to prosecute the fishery1 and thus our ,arctic voyagers did not return to ,england before ,october #ae1 #ahcc1 when they were received as men risen from the grave4 ,wherever ,ross appeared1 he was met and escorted by a crowd of sympathizers2 orders1 medals1 and diplomas from foreign states and learned societies rained down upon him4 ,london1 ,liverpool1 ,bristol1 and ,hull presented him with the freedom of their respective cities2 he received the honor of knighthood2 and1 though last1 not least1 ,parliament granted him #ejjj as a remuneration for his pecuniary outlay and privations4 ,it may easily be imagined that his long-protracted absence had not been allowed to pass without awakening a strong desire to bring him aid and assistance4 ,thus1 when ,captain 7afterwards ,rear-admiral ,sir ,george7 ,back1 that noble ,paladin of ,arctic research1 volunteered to lead a land expedition in quest of ,ross to the northern shore of ,america1 #djjj were immediately raised by public subscription to defray expenses4 ,while deep in the ,american wilds1 ,back was gratified with the intelligence that the object of his search had safely arrived in ,england2 but1 instead of returning home1 the indefatigable explorer resolved to trace the unknown course of the ,thlu-it-scho1 or ,great ,fish ,river1 down to the distant outlet where it pours its waters into the ,polar ,seas4 ,it would take a volume to relate his adventures in this expedition1 the numberless falls1 cascades1 and rapids that obstructed his progress2 the storms and snow-drifts1 the horrors of the deserts through which he forced his way1 until he finally 7,july #bh7 reached the mouth of the ,thlu-it-scho1 or1 rather1 the broad estuary through which it disembogues itself into the ,polar ,sea4 ,his intention was to proceed to ,point ,turnagain1 but the obstacles were insurmountable1 even by him4 ,for ten days the exploring party had a continuation of wet1 chilly1 foggy weather1 and the only vegetation 7fern and moss7 was so damp that it would not burn2 being thus without fuel1 they had only during this time one hot meal4 ,almost without water1 without any means of warmth1 and sinking knee-deep as they proceeded on land1 in the soft slush and snow1 no wonder that some of the best men1 benumbed in their limbs1 and dispirited by the prospect before them1 broke out for a moment in murmuring at the hardness of their duty4 ,on ,august #ae1 seeing the impossibility of proceeding even a single mile farther1 ,back assembled the men around him1 and unfurling the ,british flag1 which was saluted with three cheers1 he announced to them his determination to return4 ,the difficulties of the river were of course doubled in the ascent1 from having to go against the stream4 ,all the obstacles of rocks1 rapids1 sand-banks1 and long portages had to be faced4 ,they found1 as they went on1 that many of the deposits of provisions1 on which they relied1 had been destroyed by wolves4 ,after thus toiling on for six weeks1 they were ultimately stopped by one most formidable perpendicular fall1 which obliged them to abandon their boat2 and proceeding on foot--each laden with a pack of about #ge lbs4 weight--they ultimately arrived at their old habitation1 ,fort ,reliance1 after an absence of nearly four months1 exhausted and worn out1 but justly proud of having accomplished so difficult and dangerous a voyage4 ,the ,fish ,river has since been named ,back's ,river1 in honor of its discoverer2 and surely no geographical distinction has ever been more justly merited4 ,this indefatigable explorer had scarcely returned to ,england 7,sept4 #h1 #ahce71 when he once more set out on his way to the ,arctic regions2 but his ship1 the 8,terror10 was so disabled by the ice that she was scarcely able to accomplish the return voyage across the ,atlantic1 without allowing her to make any new discoveries4 ,the land expedition sent out by the ,hudson's ,bay ,company 7#ahcg-ci71 under the direction of ,peter ,warren ,dease1 one of their chief factors1 and ,mr4 ,thomas ,simpson1 proved far more successful4 ,descending the ,mackenzie to the sea1 they surveyed1 in ,july1 #ahcg1 that part of the northern coast of ,america which had been left unexamined by ,franklin and ,elson in #ahbe1 from ,return ,reef to ,cape ,barrow4 ,although it was the height of summer1 the ground was found frozen several inches below the surface1 and the spray froze on the oars and rigging of their boats1 which the drift-ice along the shore ultimately obliged them to leave behind4 ,as they went onward on foot1 heavily laden1 the frequent necessity of wading up to the middle in the ice-cold water of the inlets1 together with the constant fogs and the sharp north wind1 tried their powers of endurance to the utmost2 but ,simpson1 the hero of the expedition1 was not to be deterred by any thing short of absolute impossibility2 nor did he stop till he had reached ,point ,barrow4 ,indeed1 no man could be more fit than he to lead an expedition like this1 for he had once before travelled #bjjj miles on foot in the middle of winter from ,york ,factory to ,athabasca1 walking sometimes not less than fifty miles in one day1 and without any protection against the cold but an ordinary cloth mantle4 ,after wintering at ,fort ,confidence1 on ,great ,bear ,lake1 the next season was profitably employed in descending the ,coppermine ,river1 and tracing nearly #adj miles of new coast beyond ,cape ,turnagain1 the limit of ,franklin's survey in #ahba4 ,the third season 7#ahci7 was still more favored by fortune1 for ,simpson succeeded in discovering the whole coast beyond ,cape ,turnagain as far as ,castor and ,pollux ,river 7,august #bj1 #ahci71 on the eastern side of the vast arm of the sea which receives the waters of the ,great ,fish ,river4 ,on his return voyage1 he traced sixty miles of the south coast of ,king ,william's ,island1 and a considerable part of the high1 bold shores of ,victoria ,land1 and reached ,fort ,confidence on ,september #bd1 after one of the longest and most successful boat voyages ever performed in the ,polar waters1 having traversed more than #afjj miles of sea4 ,unfortunately he was not destined to reap the rewards of his labor1 for in the following year1 while travelling from the ,red ,river to the ,mississippi1 where he intended to embark for ,england1 he was assassinated by his ,indian guides2 and thus died1 in the thirty-sixth year of his age1 one of the best men that have ever served the cause of science in the frozen north4 ,on ,may #bf1 #ahde1 ,sir ,john ,franklin1 now in the sixtieth year of his age1 and ,captain ,crozier1 sailed from ,england1 to make a new attempt at the north-west passage4 ,never did stouter vessels than the 8,erebus0 and 8,terror10 well-tried in the ,antarctic ,seas1 carry a finer or more ably commanded crew2 never before had human foresight so strained all her resources to insure success2 and thus1 when the commander's last dispatches from the ,whalefish ,islands1 ,baffin's ,bay 7,july #ab71 previous to his sailing to ,lancaster ,sound1 arrived in ,england no one doubted but that he was about to add a new and brilliant chapter to the history of ,arctic discovery4 ,his return was confidently expected towards the end of #ahdg2 but when the winter passed and still no tidings came1 the anxiety at his prolonged absence became general1 and the early part of #ahdh witnessed the beginning of a series of searching expeditions fitted out at the public cost or by private munificence1 on a scale exceeding all former examples4 ,the 8,plover0 and the 8,herald0 7#ahdh7 were sent to ,bering's ,straits to meet ,franklin with supplies1 should he succeed in getting thither4 ,in spring ,sir ,john ,richardson hurried to the shores of the ,polar ,sea1 anxious to find the traces of his lost friend4 ,he was accompanied by ,dr4 ,rae1 who had just returned from the memorable land expedition 7#ahdf-dg71 during which1 after crossing the isthmus which joins ,melville ,peninsula to the mainland1 he traced the shores of ,committee ,bay and the east coast of ,boothia as far as the ,lord ,mayor's ,bay of ,sir ,john ,ross1 thus proving that desolate land to be likewise a vast peninsula4 ,but in vain did ,rae and ,richardson explore all the coasts between the ,mackenzie and the ,coppermine4 ,the desert remained mute2 and ,sir ,james ,ross 78,enterprise07 and ,captain ,bird 78,investigator071 who set sail in ,june1 #ahdh1 three months after ,dr4 ,richardson's departure1 and minutely examined all the shores near ,barrow ,strait1 proved equally unsuccessful4 ,three years had now passed since ,franklin had been expected home1 and even the most sanguine began to despair2 but to remove all doubts1 it was resolved to explore once more all the gulfs and channels of the ,polar ,sea4 ,thus in the year #ahej no less than twelve ships sailed forth1 some to ,bering's ,straits1 some to the sounds leading from ,baffin's ,bay4#af ,other expeditions followed in #aheb and #ahec1 and though none of them succeeded in the object of their search1 yet they enriched the geography of the ,arctic ,world with many interesting discoveries1 the most important of which ,i will now briefly mention4 ,overcoming the ice of ,baffin's ,bay by the aid of their powerful steam-tugs1 ,austin1 ,ommaney1 and ,penny reached the entrance of ,lancaster ,sound4 ,here they separated1 and while the 8,resolute0 remained behind to examine the neighborhood of ,pond's ,bay1 ,ommaney found at ,cape ,riley 7,north ,devon7 the first traces of the lost expedition4 ,he was soon joined by ,ross1 ,austin1 ,penny1 and the ,americans1 and a minute investigation soon proved that ,cape ,spencer and ,beechey ,island1 at the entrance of ,wellington ,channel1 had been the site of ,franklin's first winter-quarters1 distinctly marked by the remains of a large storehouse1 staves of casks1 empty pemmican-tins1 and1 most touching relic of all1 a little garden shaped into a neat oval by some flower-loving sailor1 and filled with the few hardy plants which that bleak clime can nourish4 ,meanwhile winter approached1 and little more could be done that season2 so all the vessels which had entered ,barrow's ,strait now took up their winter-quarters at the southern extremity of ,cornwallis ,land2 with the exception of the 8,prince ,albert10 which set sail for ,england before winter set in1 and of the ,americans1 who1 perceiving the impolicy of so many ships pressing to the westward on one parallel1 turned back1 but were soon shut up in the pack-ice1 which for eight long months kept them prisoners4 ,the 8,rescue0 and 8,advance0 were drifted backward and forward in ,wellington ,channel until in ,december a terrific storm drove them into ,barrow's ,strait1 and still farther on into ,lancaster ,sound4 ,several times during this dreadful passage they were in danger from the ice opening round them and closing suddenly again1 and only escaped being 8nipped0 by their small size and strong build1 which enabled them to rise above the opposing edges instead of being crushed between them4 ,even on their arrival in ,baffin's ,bay the ice did not release them from its hold1 and it was not till ,june #i1 #ahea1 that they reached the ,danish settlement at ,disco4 ,after recruiting his exhausted crew1 the gallant ,de ,haven determined to return and prosecute the search during the remainder of the season2 but the discouraging reports of the whalers induced him to change his purpose1 and the ships and crews reached ,new ,york at the beginning of ,october1 having passed through perils such as few have endured and still fewer have lived to recount4 ,meanwhile the ,english searching expeditions had not remained inactive4 ,as soon as spring came1 well-organized sledge expeditions were dispatched in all directions1 but they all returned with the same invariable tale of disappointment4 ,as soon as ,wellington ,channel opened1 ,penny boldly entered the ice-lanes with a boat1 and1 after a series of adventures and difficulties1 penetrated up ,queen's ,channel as far as ,baring ,island and ,cape ,beecher1 where1 most reluctantly1 he was compelled to turn back4 ,a fine open sea stretched invitingly away to the north1 but his fragile boat was ill-equipped for a voyage of discovery4 ,fully persuaded that ,franklin must have followed this route1 he failed1 however1 in convincing ,captain ,austin of the truth of his theory1 and as1 without that officer's co-operation1 nothing could be effected1 he was compelled to follow the course pointed out by the ,admiralty squadron1 which1 after two ineffectual attempts to enter ,smith's and ,jones's ,sounds1 returned to ,england4 ,the 8,prince ,albert0 having brought home in #ahej the intelligence of the discoveries at ,beechey ,island1 it was resolved to prosecute the search during the next season1 and no time was lost to refit the little vessel and send her once more on her noble errand1 under the command of ,william ,kennedy 7#ahea-eb71 to examine ,prince ,regent's ,inlet1 on the coast of ,north ,somerset4 ,finding the passage obstructed by a barrier of ice1 ,kennedy was obliged to take a temporary refuge in ,port ,bowen1 on the eastern shore of the inlet4 ,as it was very undesirable1 however1 to winter on the opposite coast to that along which lay their line of search1 ,kennedy1 with four of his men1 crossed to ,port ,leopold1 amid masses of ice1 to ascertain whether any documents had been left at this point by previous searching parties4 ,none having been found1 they prepared to return2 but to their dismay they now found the inlet so blocked with ice as to render it absolutely impossible to reach the vessel either by boat or on foot4 ,darkness was fast closing round them1 the ice-floe on which they stood threatened every instant to be shivered in fragments by the contending ice-blocks which crashed furiously against it3 unless they instantly returned to shore1 any moment might prove their last4 ,a bitter cold night 7,september #aj1 #ahea71 with no shelter but their boat1 under which each man in turn took an hour's rest--the others1 fatigued as they were1 seeking safety in brisk exercise--was spent on this inhospitable shore1 and on the following morning they discovered that the ship had disappeared4 ,the drift-ice had carried her away1 leaving ,kennedy and his companions to brave the winter as well as they could1 and to endeavor in the spring to rejoin their vessel1 which must have drifted down the inlet1 and was most likely by this time imprisoned by the ice4 ,fortunately a dpt of provisions1 left by ,sir ,james ,ross at ,whaler ,point1 was tolerably near1 and finding all in good preservation1 they began to fit up a launch1 which had been left at the same place as the stores1 for a temporary abode4 ,here they sat1 on ,october #ag1 round a cheerful fire1 manufacturing winter garments and completely resigned to their lot1 when suddenly1 to their inexpressible joy1 they heard the sound of well-known voices1 and ,lieutenant ,bellot1 the second in command of the 8,prince ,albert10 appeared with a party of seven men4 ,twice before had this gallant ,french volunteer made unavailing attempts to reach the deserted party1 who soon forgot their past misery as they accompanied their friends back to the ship4 ,in the following spring ,kennedy and ,bellot explored ,north ,somerset and ,prince of ,wales' ,land1 traversing with their sledge #aajj miles of desert1 but without discovering the least traces of ,franklin or his comrades4 ,yet in spite of these frequent disappointments the searching expeditions were not given over1 and as ,wellington ,channel and the sounds to the north of ,baffin's ,bay appeared to offer the best chances1 the spring of #aheb witnessed the departure of ,sir ,edward ,belcher and ,captain ,inglefield#ag for those still unknown regions4 ,the voyage of the latter proved one of the most successful in the annals of ,arctic navigation4 ,boldly pushing up ,smith's ,sound1 which had hitherto baffled every research1 ,inglefield examined this noble channel as far as #gh #cj2 ,n4 lat41 when stormy weather drove him back4 ,he next attempted ,jones's ,sound1 and entered it sufficiently to see it expand into a wide channel to the northward4 ,the squadron which sailed under the command of ,sir ,edward ,belcher was charged with the double mission of prosecuting the discoveries in ,wellington ,channel1 and of affording assistance to ,collinson and ,m',clure1 who1 it will be remembered1 had sailed in #ahej to ,bering's ,straits4 ,at ,beechey ,island1 where the 8,north ,star0 was stationed as dpt-ship1 the squadron separated1 ,belcher proceeding with the 8,assistance0 and the 8,pioneer0 up ,wellington ,channel1 while ,kellett1 with the 8,resolute0 and 8,intrepid10 steered to the west4 ,scarcely had the latter reached his winter-quarters 7,september #g1 #aheb7 at ,dealy ,island1 on the south coast of ,melville ,island1 when parties were sent out to deposit provisions at various points of the coast1 for the sledge parties in the ensuing spring4 ,the difficulties of transport over the broken surface of the desert when denuded of snow may be estimated from the fact1 that though the distance from the north to the south coast of ,melville ,island is no more than thirty-six miles in a direct line1 ,lieutenant ,m',clintock required no less than nineteen days to reach the ,hecla and ,griper ,gulf4 ,similar difficulties awaited ,lieutenant ,mecham on his way to ,liddon ,gulf1 but he was amply rewarded by finding at ,winter ,harbor dispatches from ,m',clure1 showing that1 in ,april1 #ahea1 the 8,investigator0 was lying in ,mercy ,bay1 on the opposite side of ,banks's ,strait1 and that consequently the north-west passage1 the object of so many heroic efforts1 was at last discovered4 ,on ,march #i1 #ahec1 the 8,resolute0 opened her spring campaign with ,lieutenant ,pym's sledge journey to ,mercy ,bay1 to bring assistance to ,m',clure1 or to follow his traces in case he should no longer be there4 ,a month later three other sledge expeditions left the ship4 ,the one under ,m',clintock proceeded from the ,hecla and ,griper ,gulf to the west1 and returned after one hundred and six days1 having explored #abjj miles of coast--a sledge journey without a parallel in the history of ,arctic research1 though nearly equalled by the second party under ,lieutenant ,mecham1 which likewise started to the west from ,liddon ,gulf1 and travelled over a thousand miles in ninety-three days4 ,the third party1 under ,lieutenant ,hamilton1 which proceeded to the north-east towards the rendezvous appointed by ,sir ,edward ,belcher the preceding summer1 was the first that returned to the ship1 but before its arrival another party had found its way to the 8,resolute0--pale1 worn1 emaciated figures1 slowly creeping along over the uneven ice4 ,a stranger might have been surprised at the thundering hurrahs which hailed the ragged troop from a distance1 or at the warm and cordial greetings which welcomed them on deck1 but no wonder that ,m',clure and his heroic crew were thus received by their fellow-seamen after a three years' imprisonment in the ice of the ,polar ,sea4 ,on ,august #a1 #ahej1 the 8,investigator10 long since separated from her consort1 the 8,enterprise10 had met the 8,herald0 and 8,plover0#ah at ,cape ,lisburne1 beyond ,bering's ,straits1 and now plunged alone into the unknown wildernesses of the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,she reached the coast of ,banks's ,land on ,september #f1 discovered ,prince ,albert ,land on the #ith1 and then sailed up ,prince of ,wales' ,strait1 where1 on ,october #i1 she froze in for the winter4 ,in the same month1 however1 a sledge expedition was sent to the northern extremity of the strait1 which established the fact of its communication with ,parry ,sound and ,barrow's ,strait4 ,in the following ,july the 8,investigator10 though set free1 was prevented from penetrating into the sound by impassable barriers of ice4 ,nothing now remained but to return to the southern extremity of the strait1 and then to advance along the west coast of ,banks's ,land to the north4 ,this course was followed with tolerable ease till ,august #bj1 when the ship was driven between the ice and the beach a little north of ,prince ,albert ,cape4 ,here she lay in comparative safety till the #bith1 when the immense floe to which she was attached was raised edgeways out of the water1 from the pressure of surrounding ice1 and lifted perpendicularly some twenty-five feet4 ,the slightest additional pressure would have thrown the delicately-poised vessel entirely over1 but fortunately a large piece from underneath was rent away1 and after one or two frightful oscillations the floe righted itself and drifted onward1 bearing the ship unharmed upon its course4 ,during the succeeding month1 every day brought its perils4 ,now forced ashore by the pressure of the ice1 now hurried along amidst its inclosing masses1 the adventurers1 slowly working their way along the north coast of ,banks's ,land1 at length found refuge in a harbor to which the appropriate name of ,mercy ,bay was thankfully given4 ,here they spent two winters--the intervening summer having failed to release the ship4 ,in the spring of #ahec ,lieutenant ,pym brought them the joyful news that the 8,resolute0 was not far off4 ,such had been the adventures of ,m',clure up to the moment when ,kellett welcomed him on board4 ,meanwhile neither the sledge parties of the 8,resolute10 nor those which ,sir ,edward ,belcher had sent out in all directions from his first winter-quarters in ,northumberland ,sound 7#gf #eb ,n4 lat471 on the west side of ,grinnell ,peninsula1 had been able to discover the least traces of ,franklin4 ,the winter 7#ahec-ed7 passed1 and in the following ,april ,lieutenant ,mecham found in ,prince of ,wales' ,strait1 and later on ,ramsay ,island1 at its southern outlet1 documents from ,collinson1 bearing date ,august #bg1 #aheb1 and giving full intelligence of his proceedings since his separation from the 8,investigator40 ,while ,m',clure was achieving in #ahej the discovery of the north-west passage1 ,collinson1 having arrived in ,bering's ,straits later in the season1 was unable to double ,point ,barrow4 ,in #ahea1 however1 he succeeded in getting round that projection1 and pursuing the continental channel as easily as his precursor had done1 followed him through ,prince of ,wales' ,strait2 but1 though he penetrated a few miles farther into ,melville ,sound1 he found no passage1 and returning to the south end of the strait passed the winter of #ahea-eb in ,walker ,bay4 ,next summer he carried his ship through ,dolphin and ,union ,straits and ,dease ,strait to ,cambridge ,bay1 where he spent his second winter 7#aheb-ec74 ,his sledge parties explored the west side of ,victoria ,strait1 but a deficiency of coals compelled him to return the way he came1 instead of attempting to force a passage through the channel4 ,he did not1 however1 get round ,barrow ,point on his return without passing a third winter on the northern coast of ,america4 ,on returning to the 8,resolute10 ,lieutenant ,mecham found all hands busy preparing to leave the ship1 ,sir ,e4 ,belcher having given orders to abandon her1 as well as the 8,assistance10 8,pioneer10 and 8,intrepid10 which had now been blocked up above a year in the ice1 and had no chance of escaping4 ,thus the summer of #ahed witnessed the return to ,england of the 8,north ,star10 with all those brave crews which had spent so many unavailing efforts1 and in numerous boat and sledge excursions had explored so many known and unknown coasts in search of ,franklin2 and thus also ,m',clure and his comrades1 abandoning the 8,investigator0 in ,mercy ,bay1 returned home through ,davis's ,straits1 after having entered the ,polar ,ocean at the ,strait of ,bering4 ,he had1 however1 been preceded by ,lieutenant ,cresswell and ,mr4 ,wynniat1 who1 on an excursion to ,beechey ,island in the summer of #aheh1 had there met with and joined the 8,phnix10 ,captain ,inglefield1 who1 accompanied by his friend ,lieutenant ,bellot1 had conveyed provisions to ,sir ,e4 ,belcher's squadron1 and was about to return to ,england4 ,during this expedition ,bellot1 whose many excellent qualities had made him a universal favorite1 was unfortunately drowned by a fall into an ice-crevice during a sledge excursion4 ,a stone monument erected before ,greenwich ,hospital reminds ,england of the gallant volunteer whose name is gloriously linked with that of ,franklin in ,arctic history4 ,years had thus passed without bringing any tidings of the 8,erebus0 and 8,terror0 since the discovery of their first winter-quarters1 until at last1 in the spring of #ahed1 ,dr4 ,rae1 of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 while engaged in the survey of the ,boothian isthmus1 fell in with a party of ,esquimaux1 who informed him that in the spring of #ahej some of their countrymen on ,king ,william's ,island had seen a party of white men making their way to the mainland4 ,none of them could speak the ,esquimaux language intelligibly1 but by signs they gave them to understand that their ships had been crushed by ice1 and that they were now going to where they expected to find deer to shoot4 ,at a later date of the same season1 but before the breaking up of the ice1 the bodies of some thirty men were discovered on the continent a day's journey from ,back's ,great ,fish ,river1 and five on an island near it4 ,some of the bodies had been buried 7probably those of the first victims of famine71 some were in a tent1 others under the boat which had been turned over to form a shelter1 and several lay scattered about in different directions4 ,of those found on the island1 one was supposed to have been an officer1 as he had a telescope strapped over his shoulder1 and his double-barrelled gun lay underneath him4 ,the mutilated condition of several of the corpses and the contents of the kettles left no doubt that our wretched countrymen had been driven to the last resource of cannibalism1 as a means of prolonging existence4 ,some silver spoons and forks1 a round silver plate1 engraved 8,sir ,john ,franklin1 ,k4,c4,b410 a star or order1 with the motto1 8,nec aspera terrent10 which ,dr4 ,rae purchased of the ,esquimaux1 corroborated the truth of their narrative4 ,thus it was now known how part of the unfortunate mariners had perished1 but the fate of the expedition was still enveloped in mystery4 ,what had become of the ships and of the greater part of their crews8 ,and was ,franklin one of the party seen by the ,esquimaux1 or had an earlier death shortened his sufferings8 ,to solve at least this mournful secret--for every hope that he might still be alive had long since vanished--his noble widow resolved to spend all her available means--since ,government would no longer prosecute the search--and with the assistance of her friends1 but mostly at her own expense1 fitted out a small screw steamer1 the 8,fox10 which the gallant ,m',clintock1 already distinguished in perilous ,polar voyages1 volunteered to command4 ,another ,arctic officer1 ,lieutenant ,hobson1 likewise came forward to serve without pay4 ,at first it seemed as if all the elements had conspired against the success of this work of piety1 for in the summer of #aheg the floating ice off ,melville ,bay1 on the coast of ,greenland1 seized the 8,fox10 and after a dreary winter1 various narrow escapes1 and eight months of imprisonment1 carried her back nearly #abjj geographical miles1 even to #fc ,n4 lat4 in the ,atlantic4 ,at length1 on ,april #be1 #aheh1 the 8,fox0 got free1 and1 having availed herself of the scanty stores and provisions which the small ,danish settlement of ,holstenburg afforded1 sailed into ,barrow ,strait4 ,finding ,franklin ,channel obstructed with ice1 she then turned back1 and steaming up ,prince ,regent's ,inlet1 arrived at the eastern opening of ,bellot's ,strait4 ,here the passage to the west was again found blocked with ice1 and after five ineffectual attempts to pass1 the 8,fox0 at length took up her winter-quarters in ,port ,kennedy1 on the northern side of the strait4 ,on his first sledge excursion in the following spring1 ,m',clintock met at ,cape ,victoria1 on the south-west coast of ,boothia1 with a party of ,esquimaux1 who informed him that some years back a large ship had been crushed by the ice out in the sea to the west of ,king ,william's ,island1 but that all the people landed safely4 ,meeting with the same ,esquimaux on ,april #bj1 he learned1 after much anxious inquiry1 that besides the ship which had been seen to sink in deep water1 a second one had been forced on shore by the ice1 where they supposed it still remained1 but much broken4 ,they added that it was in the fall of the year--that is1 ,august or ,september--when the ships were destroyed2 that all the white people went away to the ,great ,fish ,river1 taking a boat or boats with them1 and that in the following winter their bones were found there4 ,these first indications of the fate of ,franklin's expedition were soon followed by others4 ,on ,may #g ,m',clintock heard from an old ,esquimaux woman on ,king ,william's ,island that many of the white men dropped by the way as they went to the ,great ,river2 that some were buried1 and some were not4 ,they did not themselves witness this1 but discovered their bodies during the winter following4 ,visiting the shore along which the retreating crews must have marched1 he came1 shortly after midnight of ,may #be1 when slowly walking along a gravel ridge near the beach1 which the winds kept partially bare of snow1 upon a human skeleton1 partly exposed1 with here and there a few fragments of clothing appearing through the snow4 8,a most careful examination of the spot10 says ,m',clintock1 8was of course made1 the snow removed1 and every scrap of clothing gathered up4 ,a pocket-book1 which being frozen hard could not be examined on the spot1 afforded strong grounds for hope that some information might be subsequently obtained respecting the owner1 and the march of the lost crews4 ,the victim was a young man1 slightly built1 and perhaps above the common height2 the dress appeared to be that of a steward4 ,the poor man seems to have selected the bare ridge top1 as affording the least tiresome walking1 and to have fallen upon his face in the position in which we found him4 ,it was a melancholy truth that the old woman spake when she said1 #8,they fell down and died as they walked along4'0 ,meanwhile ,lieutenant ,hobson1 who was exploring with another sledge party the north-western coast of ,king ,william's ,land1 had made the still more important discovery of a record giving a laconic account of the ,franklin expedition up to the time when the ships were lost and abandoned4 ,it was found on ,may #f in a large cairn at ,point ,victory4 ,it stated briefly that in #ahde the 8,erebus0 and 8,terror0 had ascended ,wellington ,channel to lat4 #gg1 and returned by the west side of ,cornwallis ,island to ,beechey ,island1 where they spent the first winter4 ,in #ahdf they proceeded to the south-west1 through ,peel ,sound and ,franklin ,sound1 and eventually reached within twelve miles of the north extremity of ,king ,william's ,land1 when their progress was arrested by the ice4 ,sir ,john ,franklin died on ,june #aa1 #ahdg1 having completed--two months before his death--the sixty-first year of an active1 eventful1 and honorable life4 ,on ,april #bb1 #ahdh1 the ships were deserted1 having been beset since ,september #ab1 #ahdf4 ,the officers and crew1 consisting of #aje souls1 under the command of ,captain ,crozier1 landed with the intention of starting for ,back's ,fish ,river1 which1 as we have seen1 they were never destined to reach4 ,quantities of clothing and articles of all kinds were found lying about the cairn1 as if these men1 aware that they were retreating for their lives1 had then abandoned every thing which they considered superfluous4 ,thus all doubts about ,sir ,john ,franklin's fate were at length removed4 ,he at least had died on board his ship1 and been spared the miserable end of his comrades as they fell one by one in the dreary wilderness4 ,the two wrecks have disappeared without leaving a trace behind4 ,a single document1 some coins and pieces of plate--this is all that remains of the gallant ships which so hopefully sailed forth under one of the noblest seamen that ever served in the navy of ,great ,britain4 ,it is a curious circumstance that ,franklin's ships perished within sight of the headlands named ,cape ,franklin and ,cape ,jane ,franklin by their discoverer1 ,sir ,james ,ross1 eighteen years before4 ,,chapter ,,xxxiv4 ,,kane ,,and ,,hayes4 ,kane sails up ,smith's ,sound in the 8,advance0 7#ahec74--,winters in ,rensselaer ,bay4--,sledge ,journey along the ,coast of ,greenland4-- ,the ,three-brother ,turrets4--,tennyson's ,monument4--,the ,great ,humboldt ,glacier4--,dr4 ,hayes crosses ,kennedy ,channel4--,morton's ,discovery of ,washington ,land4--,mount ,parry4--,kane resolves upon a second ,wintering in ,rensselaer ,bay4--,departure and ,return of ,part of the ,crew4--,sufferings of the ,winter4--,the ,ship abandoned4-- ,boat ,journey to ,upernavik4--,kane's ,death in the ,havana 7#aheg74-- ,dr4 ,hayes's ,voyage in #ahfj4--;,he winters at ,port ,foulke4--,crosses ,kennedy ,channel4--,reaches ,cape ,union1 the most northern known ,land upon the ,globe4--,koldewey4--,plans for future ,voyages to the ,north ,pole4 ,in point of dramatic interest1 few of the ,arctic expeditions can rival the second and last voyage of ,dr4 ,kane1 which1 to avoid interrupting the narrative of the discovery of ,franklin's fate by ,dr4 ,rae and ,sir ,james ,m',clintock1 ,i have refrained from mentioning in chronological order4 ,weak in body1 but great in mind1 this remarkable man1 who had accompanied the first ,grinnell expedition in the capacity of surgeon1 sailed from ,boston in #ahec1 as commander of the 8,advance10 with a crew of #ag officers and men1 to which two ,greenlanders were subsequently added4 ,his plan was to pass up ,baffin's ,bay to its most northern attainable point1 and thence pressing on towards the pole as far as boats or sledges could reach1 to examine the coast-lines for vestiges of ,franklin4 ,battling with storms and icebergs1 he passed1 on ,august #g1 #ahec1 the rocky portals of ,smith's ,sound1 ,cape ,isabella and ,cape ,alexander1 which had been discovered the year before by ,inglefield2 left ,cape ,hatherton--the extreme point attained by that navigator--behind1 and after many narrow escapes from shipwreck1 secured the 8,advance0 in ,rensselaer ,bay1 from which she ,avas destined never to emerge4 ,his diary gives us a vivid account of the first winter he spent in this haven1 in lat4 #gh #ch1 almost as far to the north as the most northern extremity of ,spitzbergen1 and in a far more rigorous climate4 8,sept4 #aj1 #ad ,f4--,the birds have left4 ,the sea-swallows1 which abounded when we first reached here1 and even the young burgomasters that lingered after them1 have all taken their departure for the south4 ,the long 8night in which no man can work0 is close at hand2 in another month we shall lose the sun4 ,astronomically1 he should disappear on ,october #bd1 if our horizon were free2 but it is obstructed by a mountain ridge2 and1 making all allowance for refraction1 we can not count on seeing him after the #ajth4 8,sept4 #aa4--,the long staring day1 which has clung to us for more than two months1 to the exclusion of the stars1 has begun to intermit its brightness4 ,even ,aldebaran1 the red eye of the bull1 flared out into familiar recollection as early as ten o'clock2 and the heavens1 though still somewhat reddened by the gaudy tints of midnight1 gave us ,capella and ,arcturus1 and even that lesser light of home memories1 the polar star4 ,stretching my neck to look uncomfortably at the indication of our extreme northernness1 it was hard to realize that he was not directly overhead2 and it made me sigh as ,i measured the few degrees of distance that separated our zenith from the pole over which he hung4 8,oct4 #bh4--,the moon has reached her greatest northern declination of about #be #ce4 ,she is a glorious object2 sweeping around the heavens1 at the lowest part of her curve1 she is still #ad above the horizon4 ,for eight days she has been making her circuit with nearly unvarying brightness4 ,it is one of those sparkling nights that bring back the memory of sleigh-bells and songs1 and glad communings of hearts in lands that are far away4 8,nov4 #g4--,the darkness is coming on with insidious steadiness1 and its advances can only be perceived by comparing one day with its fellow of some time back4 ,we still read the thermometer at noonday without a light1 and the black masses of the hills are plain for about five hours1 with their glaring patches of snow2 but all the rest is darkness4 ,the stars of the sixth magnitude shine out at noonday4 ,except upon the island of ,spitzbergen1 which has the advantages of an insular climate1 and tempered by ocean currents1 no ,christians have wintered in so high a latitude as this4#ai ,they are ,russian sailors who made the encounter there--men inured to hardships and cold4 ,our darkness has ninety days to run before we shall get back again even to the contested twilight of to-day4 ,altogether our winter will have been sunless for one hundred and forty days4 8,nov4 #i4--,wishing to get the altitude of the cliffs on the south-west cape of our bay before the darkness set in thoroughly1 ,i started in time to reach them with my ,newfoundlanders at noonday1 the thermometer indicating #bc below zero4 ,fireside astronomers can hardly realize the difficulties in the way of observations at such low temperatures4 ,the breath1 and even the warmth of the face and body1 cloud the sextant-arc and glasses with a fine hoar-frost4 ,it is1 moreover1 an unusual feat to measure a base-line in the snow at #ee below freezing4 8,nov4 #ba4--,we have schemes innumerable to cheat the monotonous solitude of our winter--a fancy ball2 a newspaper1',the ,ice ,blink2' a fox-chase round the decks4 8,dec4 #ae4--,we have lost the last vestige of our midday twilight4 ,we can not see print1 and hardly paper2 the fingers can not be counted a foot from the eyes4 ,noonday and midnight are alike2 and1 except a vague glimmer in the sky that seems to define the hill outlines to the south1 we have nothing to tell us that this ,arctic world of ours has a sun4 ,in the darkness1 and consequent inaction1 it is almost in vain that we seek to create topics of thought1 and1 by a forced excitement1 to ward off the encroachments of disease4 8,jan4 #ba4--;,first traces of returning light1 the southern horizon having for a short time a distinct orange tinge4 8,feb4 #ba4--,we have had the sun for some days silvering the ice between the headlands of the bay1 and to-day1 towards noon1 ,i started out to be the first of my party to welcome him back4 ,it was the longest walk and toughest climb that ,i have had since our imprisonment1 and scurvy and general debility have made me #8short o' wind4' ,but ,i managed to attain my object4 ,i saw him once more1 and upon a projecting crag nestled in the sunshine4 ,it was like bathing in perfumed water40 ,thus this terrible winter night drew to its end1 and the time came for undertaking the sledge journeys1 on which the success of the expedition mainly depended4 ,unfortunately1 of the nine magnificent ,newfoundlanders and the thirty-five ,esquimaux dogs originally possessed by ,kane1 only six had survived an epizootic malady which raged among them during the winter3 their number was1 however1 increased by some new purchases from the ,esquimaux who visited the ship at the beginning of ,april4 ,thus scantily provided with the means of transport1 ,kane1 though in a very weak condition1 set out on ,april #be1 #ahed1 to force his way to the north4 ,he found the ,greenland coast beyond ,rensselaer ,bay extremely picturesque1 the cliffs rising boldly from the shore-line to a height of sometimes more than a thousand feet1 and exhibiting every freak and caprice of architectural ruin4 ,in one spot the sloping rubbish at the foot of the coast-wall led up1 like an artificial causeway1 to a gorge that was streaming at noonday with the southern sun1 while everywhere else the rock stood out in the blackest shadow4 ,just at the edge of this bright opening rose the dreamy semblance of a castle1 flanked with triple towers1 completely isolated and defined4 ,these were called the 8,three-brother ,turrets40 8,farther on1 to the north of latitude #gi1 a single cliff of greenstone rears itself from a crumbled base of sandstone1 like the boldly-chiselled rampart of an ancient city4 ,at its northern extremity1 at the brink of a deep ravine which has worn its way among the ruins1 there stands a solitary column or minaret tower1 as sharply finished as if it had been cast for the ,place ,vendme4 ,yet the length of the shaft alone is #dhj feet1 and it rises on a pedestal1 itself #bhj feet high4 ,i remember well the emotions of my party1 as it first broke upon our view4 ,cold and sick as ,i was1 ,i brought back a sketch of it which may have interest for the reader1 though it scarcely suggests the imposing dignity of this magnificent landmark4 ,those who are happily familiar with the writings of ,tennyson1 and have communed with his spirit in the solitudes of a wilderness1 will apprehend the impulse that inscribed the scene with his name40 ,but no rock formation1 however striking or impressive1 equalled in grandeur the magnificent glacier to which ,kane has given the name of ,humboldt4 ,its solid glassy wall1 diminishing to a well-pointed wedge in the perspective1 rises #cjj feet above the water-level1 with an unknown1 unfathomable depth below it and its curved face sixty miles in length-- from ,cape ,agassiz to ,cape ,forbes--vanishes into unknown space at not more than a single day's railroad travel from the pole4 ,in spite of the snow1 which had so accumulated in drifts that the travellers were forced to unload their sledges and carry forward the cargo on their backs1 beating a path for the dogs to follow in1 ,kane came in sight of the ,great ,glacier on ,may #d2 but this progress was dearly earned1 as it cost him the last remnant of his strength4 8,i was seized with a sudden pain10 says the intrepid explorer1 8and fainted4 ,my limbs became rigid1 and certain obscure tetanoid symptoms of our winter enemy1 the scurvy1 disclosed themselves4 ,i was strapped upon the sledge1 and the march continued as usual1 but my powers diminished so rapidly that ,i could not resist the otherwise comfortable temperature of #e below zero4 ,my left foot becoming frozen caused a vexatious delay1 and the same night it became evident that the immovability of my limbs was due to dropsical effusion4 ,on the #eth1 becoming delirious and fainting every time that ,i was taken from the tent to the sledge1 ,i succumbed entirely4 ,my comrades would kindly persuade me that1 even had ,i continued sound1 we could not have proceeded on our journey4 ,the snows were very heavy1 and increasing as we went2 some of the drifts perfectly impassable1 and the level floes often four feet deep in yielding snow4 8,the scurvy had already broken out among the men1 with symptoms like my own1 and ,morton1 our strongest man1 was beginning to give way4 ,it is the reverse of comfort to me that they shared my weakness4 ,all that ,i should remember with pleasurable feeling is that to my brave companions1 themselves scarcely able to travel1 ,i owe my preservation4 8,they carried me back by forced marches4 ,i was taken into the brig on the #adth1 where for a week ,i lay fluctuating between life and death4 ,dr4 ,hayes regards my attack as one of scurvy1 complicated by typhoid fever40 ,fortunately summer was now fast approaching1 with his cheering sunbeams and his genial warmth4 ,the seals began to appear on the coast in large numbers1 and there was now no want of fresh meat1 the chief panacea against the scurvy4 ,the snow-buntings returned to the ice-crusted rocks1 and the gulls and eider-ducks came winging their way to their northern breeding-places4 ,vegetation likewise sprang into life with marvellous rapidity1 and the green sloping banks not only refreshed the eye1 but yielded juicy1 anti-scorbutic herbs4 ,kane's health slowly but steadily improved4 ,he was1 however1 obliged to give up all further sledge excursions for the season1 and to leave the execution of his plans to his more able-bodied companions4 ,thus ,dr4 ,hayes1 crossing the sound in a north-easterly direction1 reached the opposite coast of ,grinnell ,land1 which he surveyed as far as ,cape ,frazer in lat4 #gj #de4 ,this journey was rendered uncommonly slow and tedious by the excessively broken and rugged character of the ice4 ,deep cavities filled with snow intervened between lines of hummocks frequently exceeding twenty or thirty feet in height4 ,over these the sledge had to be lifted by main strength1 and it required the most painful efforts of the whole party to liberate it from the snow between them4 ,dr4 ,hayes returned on ,june #a1 and a few days later ,morton left the brig1 to survey the ,greenland coast beyond the ,great ,glacier4 ,the difficulties were great1 for1 besides the usual impediments of hummocks1 the lateness of the season had in many places rendered the ice extremely unsafe1 or even entirely destroyed the ice-ledge along the shore4 ,thus for the last days of his onward journey he was obliged to toil over the rocks and along the beach of a sea which1 like the familiar waters of the south1 dashed in waves at his feet4 ,morton and his companion ,hans1 the ,esquimaux1 reached on ,june #bf1 #ahed1 ,cape ,constitution1 a bold headland1 where the surf rolled furiously against high overhanging cliffs1 which it was found impossible to pass4 ,climbing from rock to rock1 in hopes of doubling the promontory1 ,morton stood at this termination of his journey1 and from a height of #cjj feet looked out upon a great waste of waters1 stretching to the unknown north4 ,numerous birds--sea-swallows1 kittiwakes1 brent-geese--mixed their discordant notes with the novel music of dashing waves2 and among the flowering plants growing on the rocks was found a crucifer 7,hesperis pygma71 the dried pods of which1 still containing seed1 had survived the wear and tear of winter4 ,from ,cape ,constitution the coast of ,washington ,land trended to the east1 but far to the north-west1 beyond the open waters of the channel1 a peak1 terminating a range of mountains similar in their features to those of ,spitzbergen1 was seen towering to a height of from #bejj to #cjjj feet4 ,this peak1 the most remote northern land at that time known upon our globe1 received the name of ,mount ,parry4 ,meanwhile the short summer was wearing on1 and1 as far as the eye could reach1 the ice remained inflexibly solid4 ,it was evident that many days must still elapse before the vessel could possibly be liberated--but then most likely winter would almost have returned--a dismal prospect for men who knew by experience the long fearful night of the #gi of latitude1 and who1 broken in health and with very insufficient supplies of provisions and fuel1 were but ill armed for a second encounter4 ,no wonder that many of ,kane's companions thought it better to abandon the vessel than to tarry any longer in those frozen solitudes4 ,but though it was horrible to look another winter in the face1 the resolution of ,kane could not be shaken4 ,on ,august #bd1 when the last hope of seeing the vessel once more afloat had vanished1 he called the officers and crew together1 and explained to them frankly the considerations which determined him to remain4 ,to abandon the vessel earlier would have been unseemly1 and to reach ,upernavik so late in the season was next to impossible4 ,to such of them1 however1 as were desirous of making the attempt1 he freely gave his permission so to do1 assuring them of a brother's welcome should they be driven back4 ,he then directed the roll to be called1 and each man to answer for himself4 ,in result1 eight out of the seventeen survivors of the party resolved to stand by the brig4 ,the others left on the #bhth1 with every appliance which the narrow circumstances of the brig could furnish to speed and guard them4 ,when they disappeared among the hummocks1 the stern realities of their condition pressed themselves with double force on those whom they left behind4 ,the reduced numbers of the party1 the helplessness of many1 the waning efficiency of all1 the impending winter1 with its cold1 dark nights1 the penury of their resources1 the dreary sense of increased isolation--all combined to depress them4 ,but their energetic leader1 leaving them no time for these gloomy thoughts1 set them actively to work to make the best possible preparations they could for the long cold night to come4 ,he had carefully studied the ,esquimaux1 and determined that their form of habitations and their mode of diet1 without their unthrift and filth1 were the safest and best that could be adopted4 ,the deck was well padded with moss and turf1 so as to form a nearly cold-proof covering1 and1 down below1 a space some eighteen feet square--the apartment of all uses--was inclosed and packed from floor to ceiling with inner walls of the same non-conducting material4 ,the floor itself1 after having been carefully caulked1 was covered with ,manilla oakum a couple of inches deep and a canvas carpet4 ,the entrance was from the hold1 by a low moss-lined tunnel1 with as many doors and curtains to close it up as ingenuity could devise4 ,large banks of snow were also thrown up along the brig's sides to keep off the cold wind4 ,all these labors in the open air wonderfully improved the health of the exiles1 and their strength increased from day to day4 ,a friendly intercourse was opened with the ,esquimaux of the winter settlements of ,etah and ,anoatok1 distant some thirty and seventy miles from the ship1 who1 for presents of needles1 pins1 and knives1 engaged to furnish walrus and fresh seal meat1 and to show the white men where to find the game4 ,common hunting-parties were organized1 visits of courtesy and necessity paid1 and even some personal attachments established deserving of the name4 ,as long as the ,americans remained prisoners of the ice1 they were indebted to their savage friends for invaluable counsel in relation to their hunting expeditions1 and in the joint hunt they shared alike4 ,the ,esquimaux gave them supplies of meat at critical periods1 and they were able to do as much for them4 ,in one word1 without the natives1 ,kane and his companions would most likely have succumbed to the winter1 and the ,esquimaux on their part learned to look on the strangers as benefactors1 and mourned their departure bitterly4 ,on ,december #ab the party which had abandoned the ship returned1 having been unable to penetrate to the south1 and was received1 as had been promised1 with a brotherly welcome4 ,they had suffered bitterly from the cold1 want of food1 and the fatigues of their march among the hummocks4 8,the thermometer10 says ,kane1 8was at -#ej2 they were covered with rime and snow1 and were fainting with hunger4 ,it was necessary to use caution in taking them below2 for1 after an exposure of such fearful intensity and duration as they had gone through1 the warmth of the cabin would have prostrated them completely4 ,they had journeyed three hundred and fifty miles2 and their last run from the bay near ,etah1 some seventy miles in a right line1 was through the hummocks at this appalling temperature4 ,one by one they all came in and were housed4 ,poor fellows6 as they threw open their ,esquimaux garments by the stove1 how they relished the scanty luxuries which we had to offer them6 ,the coffee1 and the meat-biscuit soup1 and the molasses1 and the wheat bread1 even the salt pork1 which our scurvy forbade the rest of us to touch--how they relished it all6 ,for more than two months they had lived on frozen seal and walrus meat40 ,thus ,kane1 by his determination not to abandon the ship1 proved the saviour of all his comrades2 for what would have become of them had he been less firm in his resolution1 or if his courage had failed him during the trials of that dreadful winter8 8,february closes10 says the heroic explorer2 8thank ,god for the lapse of its twenty-eight days6 ,should the thirty-one of the coming ,march not drag us farther downward1 we may hope for a successful close to this dreary drama4 ,by ,april #aj we should have seals2 and when they come1 if we remain to welcome them1 we can call ourselves saved4 ,but a fair review of our prospects tells me that ,i must look the lion in the face4 ,the scurvy is steadily gaining on us4 ,i do my best to sustain the more desperate cases1 but as fast as ,i partially build up one1 another is stricken down4 ,of the six workers of our party1 as ,i counted them a month ago1 two are unable to do out-door work1 and the remaining four divide the duty of the ship among them4 ,hans musters his remaining energies to conduct the hunt4 ,petersen is his disheartened1 moping assistant4 ,the other two1 ,bonsall and myself1 have all the daily offices of household and hospital4 ,we chop five large sacks of ice1 cut six fathoms of eight-inch hawser into junks of a foot each1 serve out the meat when we have it1 hack at the molasses1 and hew out with crowbar and axe the pork and dried apples2 pass up the foul slop and cleansings of our dormitory1 and1 in a word1 cook1 scullionize1 and attend the sick4 ,added to this1 for five nights running ,i have kept watch from #h ,p4,m4 to #d ,a4,m41 catching such naps as ,i could in the day without changing my clothes1 but carefully waking every hour to note thermometers40 ,with ,march came an increase of sufferings4 ,every man on board was tainted with scurvy1 and there were seldom more than three who could assist in caring for the rest4 ,the greater number were in their bunks1 absolutely unable to stir4 ,had ,kane's health given way1 the whole party1 deprived of its leading spirit1 must inevitably have perished4 ,to abandon the ship was now an absolute necessity1 for a third winter in ,rensselaer ,bay would have been certain death to all2 but before the boats could be transported to the open water1 many preparations had to be made1 and most of the party were still too weak to move4 ,the interval was employed by ,kane in an excursion with his faithful ,esquimaux to the ,great ,glacier4 ,at length on ,may #bj1 #ahee1 the entire ship's company bade farewell to the 8,advance10 and set out slowly on their homeward journey4 ,it was in the soft1 subdued light of a ,sunday evening1 ,june #ag1 that after hauling their boats with much hard labor through the hummocks1 they stood beside the open sea-way4 ,but fifty-six days had still to pass before they could reach the port of ,upernavik4 ,neither storms nor drift-ice rendered this long boat-journey dangerous1 but they had to contend with famine1 when they at length reached the open bay1 and found themselves in the full line of the great ice-drift to the ,atlantic1 in boats so unseaworthy as to require constant bailing to keep them afloat4 ,their strength had decreased to an alarming degree2 they breathed heavily2 their feet were so swollen that they were obliged to cut open their canvas boots2 they were utterly unable to sleep1 and the rowing and bailing became hourly more difficult4 ,it was at this crisis of their fortunes that they saw a large seal floating--as is the custom of these animals--on a small patch of ice1 and seemingly asleep4 8,trembling with anxiety10 says ,kane1 8we prepared to crawl down upon him4 ,petersen1 with a large ,english rifle1 was stationed in the bow1 and stockings were drawn over the oars as mufflers4 ,as we neared the animal1 our excitement became so intense that the men could hardly keep stroke4 ,he was not asleep1 for he reared his head when we were almost within rifle-shot2 and to this day ,i can remember the hard1 careworn1 almost despairing expression of the men's thin faces as they saw him move2 their lives depended on his capture4 ,i depressed my hand nervously1 as a signal for ,petersen to fire4 ,m',gary hung upon his oar1 and the boat slowly1 but noiselessly surging ahead1 seemed to me within certain range4 ,looking at ,petersen1 ,i saw that the poor fellow was paralyzed by his anxiety1 trying vainly to obtain a rest for his gun against the cut-water of the boat4 ,the seal rose on his fore flippers1 gazed at us for a moment with frightened curiosity1 and coiled himself for a plunge4 ,at that instant1 simultaneously with the crack of our rifle1 he relaxed his long length on the ice1 and1 at the very brink of the water1 his head fell helpless to one side4 ,i would have ordered another shot1 but no discipline could have controlled the men4 ,with a wild yell1 each vociferating according to his own impulse1 they urged their boats upon the floes4 ,a crowd of hands seized the seal and bore him up to safer ice4 ,the men seemed half crazy4 ,i had not realized how much we were reduced by absolute famine4 ,they ran over the floe1 crying and laughing1 and brandishing their knives4 ,it was not five minutes before every man was sucking his bloody fingers1 or mouthing long strips of raw blubber4 ,not an ounce of this seal was lost40 ,within a day or two another seal was shot1 and from that time forward they had a full supply of food4 ,when ,kane1 after an absence of thirty months1 returned on ,october #aa1 #ahee1 to ,new ,york1 he was enthusiastically received4 ,well-deserved honors of all sorts awaited him on both sides of the ,atlantic2 but his health1 originally weak1 was completely broken by the trials of his journey1 and on ,february #af1 #aheg1 he died at the ,havana1 in the thirty-seventh year of his age4 ,in him the ,united ,states lost one of her noblest sons1 a true hero1 whose name will ever shine among the most famous navigators of all times and of all nations4 ,in #ahfj1 ,dr4 ,hayes1 who had accompanied ,kane on his journey1 once more sailed from ,america for the purpose of completing the survey of ,kennedy's ,channel1 and1 if possible1 of pushing on to the pole itself4 ,after several narrow escapes from ice-fields and icebergs1 his schooner1 the 8,united ,states10 was at length compelled to take up her winter-quarters at ,port ,foulke1 on the ,greenland coast1 about twenty miles in latitude to the south of ,rensselaer ,harbor4 ,thanks to an abundant supply of fresh meat 7for the neighborhood abounded with reindeer71 and also no doubt to the inexhaustible fund of good-humor which prevailed in the ship's company1 they passed the winter without suffering from the scurvy2 but most of the dogs on which ,dr4 ,hayes relied for his sledge expeditions in the ensuing spring were destroyed by the same epidemic which had been so fatal to the teams of ,dr4 ,kane4 ,fortunately some fresh dogs could be purchased and borrowed of the friendly ,esquimaux1 and thus1 early in ,april1 #ahfa1 ,dr4 ,hayes left the schooner1 to plunge into the icy wilderness4 ,having previously ascertained that an advance along the ,greenland shore was utterly impossible1 he resolved to cross the sound1 and to try his fortunes along the coast of ,grinnell ,land4 ,of the difficulties which he had to encounter his own words will give the best idea4 8,by winding to the right and left1 and by occasionally retracing our steps when we had selected an impracticable route1 we managed to get over the first few miles without much embarrassment1 but farther on the tract was rough past description4 ,i can compare it to nothing but a promiscuous accumulation of rocks closely packed together and piled up over a vast plain in great heaps and endless ridges1 leaving scarcely a foot of level surface4 ,the interstices between these closely accumulated ice-masses are filled up1 to some extent1 with drifted snow4 ,the reader will readily imagine the rest4 ,he will see the sledges winding through the tangled wilderness of broken ice-tables1 the men and dogs pulling and pushing up their respective loads4 ,he will see them clambering over the very summit of lofty ridges1 through which there is no opening1 and again descending on the other side1 the sledge often plunging over a precipice1 sometimes capsizing and frequently breaking4 ,again he will see the party baffled in their attempt to cross or find a pass1 breaking a track with shovel and handspike1 or again1 unable even with these appliances to accomplish their end1 they retreat to seek a better track2 and they may be lucky enough to find a sort of gap or gateway1 upon the winding and uneven surface of which they will make a mile or so with comparative ease4 ,the snow-drifts are sometimes a help1 and sometimes a hinderance4 ,their surface is uniformly hard1 but not always firm to the foot4 ,the crust frequently gives way1 and in a most tiresome and provoking manner4 ,it will not quite bear the weight1 and the foot sinks at the very moment when the other is lifted4 ,but1 worse than this1 the chasms between the hummocks are frequently bridged over with snow in such a manner as to leave a considerable space at the bottom quite unfilled2 and at the very moment when all looks promising1 down sinks one man to his middle1 another to the neck1 another is buried out of sight2 the sledge gives way1 and to extricate the whole from this unhappy predicament is probably the labor of hours4 ,it would be difficult to imagine any kind of labor more disheartening1 or which would sooner sap the energies of both men and animals4 ,the strength gave way gradually2 and when1 as often happened after a long and hard day's work1 we could look back from our eminence and almost fire a rifle-ball into our last snow-hut1 it was truly discouraging40 ,no wonder that after thus toiling on for twenty-five days they had not yet reached half-way across the sound1 and that they were all broken down4 ,but their bold leader was fully determined not to abandon his enterprise while still the faintest hope of success remained1 and1 sending the main party back to the schooner1 he continued to plunge into the hummocks with three picked companions--,jensen1 ,m',donald1 ,knorr--and fourteen dogs4 ,after fourteen days of almost superhuman exertion the sound was at length crossed1 and now began a scarcely less harassing journey along the coast4 ,on the fifth day ,jensen1 the strongest man of the party1 completely broke down1 and leaving him to the charge of ,m',donald1 ,dr4 ,hayes now pushed on with ,knorr alone1 until1 on ,may #ah1 he reached the border of a deep bay1 where farther progress to the north was stopped by rotten ice and cracks4 ,right before him1 on the opposite side of the frith1 rose ,mount ,parry1 the lofty peak first seen by ,morton in #ahed from the shores of ,washington ,land2 and farther on1 a noble headland1 ,cape ,union--the most northern known land upon the globe--stood in faint outline against the dark sky of the open sea4 ,thus ,dr4 ,hayes divides the honor of extreme northern travel with ,parry4 ,on ,july #ab the 8,united ,states0 was released from her icy trammels1 and ,dr4 ,hayes once more attempted to reach the opposite coast and continue his discoveries in ,grinnell ,land1 but the schooner was in too crippled a state to force her way through the pack-ice which lay in her course1 and compelled her commander to return to ,boston4 ,thus ended this remarkable voyage2 but having done so much1 ,dr4 ,hayes is eager1 and resolved1 to do still more4 ,fully convinced by his own experience that men may subsist in ,smith's ,sound independent of support from home1 he proposes to establish a self-sustaining colony at ,port ,foulke1 which may be made the basis of an extended exploration4 ,without any second party in the field to co-operate with him1 and under the most adverse circumstances1 he1 by dint of indomitable perseverance1 pushed his discoveries a hundred miles farther to the north and west than his predecessors2 and it is surely not over-sanguine to expect that a party better provided with the means of travel may be able to traverse the #dhj miles at least which intervene between ,mount ,parry and the pole4 ,the open sea which both ,morton and himself found beyond ,kennedy ,channel gives fair promise of success to a strong vessel that may reach it after having forced the ice-blocked passage of ,smith's ,sound1 or1 should this be impracticable1 to a boat transported across the sound and then launched upon its waters4 ,captain ,sherard ,osborne1 who is likewise a warm partisan of this route1 has been endeavoring to interest ,government in its favor2 but in the opinion of other scientific authorities an easier passage seems open to the navigator who may attempt to reach the pole by way of ,spitzbergen4 ,to the east of this archipelago the ,gulf ,stream rolls its volume of comparatively warm water far on to the north-east1 and possibly sweeps round the pole itself4 ,it was to the north of ,spitzbergen that ,parry reached the latitude of #hb #de2 and in #ahcg the 8,truelove10 of ,hull1#bj sailed through a perfectly open sea in #hb #cj ,n41 #ae ,e41 and1 had she continued her course1 might possibly have reached the pole as easily as the high latitude which she had already attained4 ,the distinguished geographer1 ,dr4 ,augustus ,petermann1 who warmly advocates the route between ,spitzbergen and ,greenland1 has1 by dint of perseverance1 succeeded in collecting among his countrymen the necessary funds for a reconnoitring voyage in this direction4 ,thanks to his exertions1 ,may #bd1 #ahfh1 witnessed the departure of a small ship of eighty tons1 the 8,germania10 ,captain ,koldewey1 from the port of ,bergen1 for ,shannon ,island 7#ge #ad ,n4 lat471 the highest point on the east coast of ,greenland attained by ,sabine in #ahbc4 ,here the attempt to explore the unknown ,arctic seas beyond was to begin2 but1 meeting with enormous masses of drift-ice on her repeated endeavors to penetrate to the north-east1 the 8,germania0 has been obliged to return1 after reaching the high latitude of #ha #e1 and accurately surveying a small part of the ,greenland coast hitherto but imperfectly explored4 ,an expedition on a more extensive scale is to renew the attempt in #ahfi4 ,a third route to the pole is no less strenuously recommended by ,m4 ,gustave ,lambert1 a ,french hydrographer1 who1 having sailed through ,bering's ,strait in a whaler in #ahfe1 is persuaded that this is the right way to reach the problematical open ,north ,sea1 which1 once attained1 promises a free passage to the navigator4 ,liberal subscriptions have been raised in ,paris for the accomplishment of his plan1 and an expedition under his command will most probably set out in #ahfi4 ,thus1 after so many illustrious navigators have vainly endeavored to reach the pole1 sanguine projectors are still as eager as ever to attain the goal2 nor is it probable that man will ever rest in his efforts until every attainable region of the ,arctic ,ocean shall have been fully explored4 ,,chapter ,,xxxv4 ,,newfoundland4 ,its desolate ,aspect4--,forests4--,marshes4--,barrens 4--,ponds4-- ,fur-bearing ,animals4--,severity of ,climate4--,st4 ,john's4-- ,discovery of ,newfoundland by the ,scandinavians4--,sir ,humphrey ,gilbert4--,rivalry of the ,english and ,french4--,importance of the ,fisheries4--,the ,banks of ,newfoundland4--,mode of ,fishing4-- ,throaters1 ,headers1 ,splitters1 ,salters1 and ,packers4--,fogs and ,storms4--,seal-catching4 ,generally veiled with mists1 ,newfoundland appears at first sight gloomy and repulsive4 ,abrupt cliffs1 showing here and there traces of a scanty vegetation1 rise steep and bare from the sea1 and for miles and miles the eye sees nothing but brown hills or higher mountains1 desolate and wild as they appeared in the eleventh century to the bold ,norwegian navigators who first landed on its desert shore4 ,the waves of the ocean have everywhere corroded the rocky coast into fantastic pinnacles or excavated deep grottoes in its flanks4 ,in one of these cavities the action of the surge has produced a remarkable phenomenon1 known under the name of 8,the ,spout40 ,in stormy weather the waves penetrate into the hollow and force their way with a dreadful noise from an aperture in the rock as a gigantic fountain visible at a distance of several miles4#ba ,the interior of the country corresponds with the forbidding appearance of the coasts1 and offers nothing but a succession of forests1 marshes1 and barrens4 ,the forests1 if they may thus be called1 generally grow on the declivities of the hills or on the sides of the valleys1 where the superfluous waters find a natural drain4 ,the trees consist for the most part of fir1 spruce1 birch1 pine1 and juniper or larch2 and in certain districts the wych-hazel1 the mountain-ash1 the elder1 the aspen1 and some others are found4 ,the character of the timber varies greatly according to the nature of the subsoil and the situation4 ,in some parts1 more especially where the woods have been undisturbed by the axe1 trees of fair height and girth may be found2 but most of the wood is of stunted growth1 consisting chiefly of fir-trees about twenty or thirty feet high1 and not more than three or four inches in diameter4 ,these commonly grow so closely together that their twigs and branches interlace from top to bottom1 while among them may be seen innumerable old and rotten stumps and branches1 or newly-fallen trees1 which1 with the young shoots and brushwood1 form a tangled and often impenetrable thicket4 ,the trees are often covered with lichens1 and tufts of white dry moss are entangled about the branches4 ,other green and softer mosses spread over the ground1 concealing alike the twisted roots of the standing trees and the pointed stumps of those which have fallen1 the sharp edges or slippery surface of the numerous rocks and boulders1 and the holes and pitfalls between them4 ,every step through these woods is consequently a matter of great toil and anxiety4 ,in the heat of summer1 while the woods are so thick as to shut out every breath of air1 they are at the same time too low and too thinly leaved at top to exclude the rays of the sun1 the atmosphere being further rendered close and stifling by the smell of the turpentine which exudes from the trees4 ,inclosed in these gloomy woods1 large open tracts1 called marshes1 are found covering the valleys and lower lands1 and frequently also at a considerable height above the sea on the undulating backs of the mountains4 ,these tracts are covered to a depth sometimes of several feet with a green1 soft1 and spongy moss1 bound together by straggling grass and various marsh-plants4 ,the surface abounds in hillocks and holes1 the tops of the hillocks having often dry crisp moss like that on the trees4 ,a boulder or small crag of rock occasionally protrudes1 covered with red or white lichens1 and here and there is a bank on which the moss has become dry and yellow4 ,the contrast of these colors with the dark velvety green of the wet moss frequently gives a peculiarly rich appearance to the marshes1 so that when seen from a little distance they might easily be mistaken for luxuriant meadow-grounds1 but a closer inspection soon destroys the illusion1 and shows1 instead of nutritious grass and aromatic flowers1 nothing but a carpet of useless cryptogamic plants4 ,except in long-continued droughts or hard frosts1 these marshes are so wet as to be unable to bear the weight of a person walking over them4 ,a march of three miles1 sinking at every step into the moss1 sometimes knee-deep1 and always as far as the ankle1 is1 it may well be supposed1 toilsome and fatiguing1 especially when1 as must always be the case in attempting to penetrate the country1 a heavy load is carried on the shoulders4 ,this thick coating of moss is precisely like a great sponge spread over the country1 and becomes at the melting of the snow in the spring thoroughly saturated with water1 which it long retains1 and which every shower of rain continually renews4 ,the 8barrens0 of ,newfoundland are those districts which occupy the summits of the hills and ridges1 and other elevated and exposed tracts4 ,they are covered with a thin and scrubby vegetation1 consisting of berry-bearing plants and dwarf bushes of various species1 resembling the moorlands of the north of ,england1 and differing only in the kind of vegetation and its scantier quantity4 ,bare patches of gravel and boulders and crumbling fragments of rock are frequently met with upon the barrens1 and they are generally altogether destitute of vegetable soil4 ,but only on the barrens is it possible to explore the interior of the country with any kind of ease or expedition4 ,these different tracts are none of them of any great extent2 woods1 marshes1 and barrens frequently alternating with each other in the course of a day's journey4 ,another remarkable feature of ,newfoundland is the almost incredible number of lakes of all sizes1 all of which are indiscriminately called ponds4 ,they are scattered over the whole country1 not only in the valleys but on the higher lands2 and even in the hollows of the summits of the ridges and the very tops of the hills4 ,they vary in size from pools of fifty yards in diameter to lakes upward of thirty miles long and four or five miles across4 ,the number of those which exceed a couple of miles in extent must on the whole amount to several hundreds1 while those of a smaller size are absolutely countless4 ,it is supposed that a full third of the surface of the island is covered by fresh water1 and this reckoning is rather below than above the mark4 ,in a country so abundantly provided with lakes or ponds1 it seems strange to find no navigable rivers4 ,the undulating surface of the land1 with its abrupt hills and deep gullies1 is1 without all doubt1 one cause of this absence of larger streams4 ,each pond or small set of ponds communicates with a valley of its own1 down which it sends an insignificant brook1 which takes the nearest course to the sea4 ,the chief cause1 however1 both of the vast abundance of ponds and the comparative scantiness of the brooks1 is to be found in the great coating of moss which spreads over the country1 and retains the water like a sponge1 allowing it to drain off but slowly and gradually4 ,the wilds of ,newfoundland are tenanted by numerous fur-bearing animals1 affording a great source of gain to some of the fishermen1 who in winter turn furriers4 ,arctic foxes are here in all their variety4 ,beavers1 once nearly extirpated1 but now unmolested owing to the low value of their fur1 are increasing in numbers4 ,brown bears are pretty numerous1 and ,polar bears sometimes find their way to the northern promontory of the island upon the ice which comes drifting down in spring from ,davis's ,straits4 ,by way of contrast1 in hot summers the tropical humming-bird has been known to visit the southern shores of ,newfoundland4 ,reindeer are abundant1 but unfortunately their enemies the wolves have likewise increased in number1 since the reward given by the ,colonial ,government for their destruction has ceased to be paid4 ,although in the same latitude as ,central ,france and the south of ,germany1 ,newfoundland has a long and severe winter1 owing to the two vast streams of ,arctic water1 the ,davis's ,straits and ,east ,greenland currents1 which combine and run by its shores2 and the summer1 though sometimes intensely hot1 is so short and so frequently obscured by fogs that1 even were the soil less sterile1 agriculture must necessarily be confined to narrow limits4 ,the little wheat and barley1 cultivated on the inside lands far above the sea-shore1 is often cut green1 and carrots1 turnips1 potatoes1 and cabbages are nearly all the esculent vegetables which the land has been proved capable of producing4 ,hence we can not wonder that the whole island1 which is considerably larger than ,scotland1 has only about #ij1jjj inhabitants1 and even these would have had no inducement to settle on so unpromising a soil if the riches of the sea did not amply compensate for the deficiencies of the land4 ,fish is the staple produce of ,newfoundland1 and the bulk of its population consists of poor fishermen1 who have established themselves along the deep bays by which the coast is indented1 and catch near the coast vast quantities of cod1 which they bring in and cure at their leisure1 in order to have it ready for the ships when they arrive4 ,with the outer world they have little communication1 and a visit to ,st4 ,john's1 the capital of the island1 forms an epoch in their solitary lives4 ,this town lies at the head of a wide and secure bay1 and consists of a main street fronting the water1 from which narrow1 dirty lanes and alleys branch out towards the land4 ,the dingy1 unpainted houses are built of wood1 the ,government edifices only being constructed of brick or stone4 ,the long rows of fish-stages along the shore attract the stranger's attention1 but he is still more astonished at the countless gin and beer shops1 which at once tell him he is in a place where thirsty sailors and fishermen form the mass of the population4 ,in the winter ,st4 ,john's is comparatively deserted1 as it then has no more than about #aj1jjj inhabitants1 but their number is doubled or trebled during the fishing-season4 ,the island of ,newfoundland1 first seen and visited in the eleventh century by the ,norse colonists of ,greenland1 and then utterly forgotten1 was rediscovered in #adig or #adih by ,john and ,sebastian ,cabot4 ,the richness of its cod-fisheries soon attracted attention1 and fishermen from ,spain1 ,france1 ,portugal1 and ,england annually visited its banks4 ,the best harbors along the coast were occupied by the first comers in spring--a circumstance which gave rise to frequent quarrels4 ,to obviate this lawless state of affairs1 ,sir ,humphrey ,gilbert was sent out by ,queen ,elizabeth in #aehc to take possession of the land4 ,he divided the coast about ,st4 ,john's into districts1 and the ,british settlers willingly agreed to pay a tax to ,government in the expectation of seeing their interests better protected4 ,the new arrangement had a beneficial effect on the trade of ,newfoundland1 for in #afae more than #bej ,english vessels visited ,st4 ,john's1 and gradually the whole of the eastern coast of the island was occupied by ,english fishermen4 ,the ,french on their part colonized the north and south sides of the island1 and founded the town of ,placentia1 once a very considerable place1 but now reduced to insignificance4 ,the rivalry of the ,french was naturally a great source of jealousy to a nation ill-accustomed to brook any foreign intrusion into its commercial interests4 ,thus1 after the war of the ,spanish succession1 ,great ,britain demanded and obtained by the ,treaty of ,utrecht the sole possession of ,newfoundland2 and ,louis ,,xiv41 anxious for peace on any terms1 willingly acceded to this sacrifice1 merely reserving for his subjects the right to dry on the shores of the island the fish they had caught on the banks4 ,by the subsequent treaties of ,paris the ,french were restricted to the small islands of ,st4 ,pierre and ,miquelon1 but not allowed to erect fortifications of any kind4 ,besides the ,english and the ,french1 the ,americans also have the right to fish on the banks of ,newfoundland2 for when ,england acknowledged the independence of the ,united ,states1 a formal article of the treaty of peace secured to the latter the fishing privileges which they had previously enjoyed as colonies4 ,the value of the dry codfish alone exported every year from ,newfoundland is on an average about #djj1jjj1 while the total value of the exported productions in fish1 oil1 and skins is upward of #gjj1jjj4 ,this1 from a population of #hj1jjj or #ij1jjj1 proves that the people of the island ought to be happy and prosperous2 but unfortunately a system of credit renders the bulk of the fishermen entirely dependent on the merchants1 and want of education is a further source of evil4 ,though vast quantities of cod are taken along the shores of ,newfoundland1 yet the most important fishery is carried on on the banks at some distance from the island4 ,the ,great ,bank lies twenty leagues from the nearest point of land from latitude #da to #di1 and extends #cjj miles in length and #ge in breadth4 ,to the east of this lies the ,false ,bank2 the next is styled the ,green ,bank1 about #bdj miles long and #abj broad2 then ,banquero1 about the same size1 with several other shoals of less note1 all abounding with fish1 but chiefly with cod1 the great magnet which sets whole fleets in motion4 ,in winter the cod retire to the deeper waters1 but they re-appear in ,march and ,april1 when their pursuers hasten to the spot1 not only from the bays and coves of ,newfoundland1 but from ,great ,britain1 the ,united ,states1 and ,france4 ,while fishing1 each man has a space three feet and a half wide allotted to him on deck1 so as not to interfere with his neighbor4 ,the lines are from thirty to forty fathoms long--for the cod generally swims at that depth4 ,the chief baits used are the squid1 a species of cuttle-fish1 and the capelin1 a small salmon abounding on the ,north ,american coasts4 ,the herring and the launce1 and a shell-fish called clam1 which is found in the belly of the cod1 are likewise used4 ,in spring particularly the cod rushes so eagerly upon the bait1 that in the course of a single day a good fisherman is able to haul up four hundred1 one after another4 ,this is no easy task1 considering the size of the fish1 which on an average weighs fourteen pounds1 but has been taken four feet three inches long1 and forty-six pounds in weight4 ,when a large fish1 too heavy for the line1 has been caught1 the fisherman calls on his neighbor1 who strikes a hook attached to a long pole into the fish1 and then safely hauls it on board4 ,mindful of the proverb which recommends us all to strike while the iron is hot1 the fishermen continue to catch cod for hours1 until so many are heaped on the deck that to make room it becomes necessary to 8dress them down40 ,this is done on long planks made to rest with both ends on two casks1 and thus forming a narrow table4 ,first1 each man cuts out the tongues of the fish he has caught1 as his wages are reckoned by their number1 and then the whole crew divide themselves into throaters1 headers1 splitters1 salters1 and packers4 ,the throater begins the operation of 8dressing0 by drawing his knife across the throat of the cod to the bone and ripping open the bowels4 ,he then passes it to the header1 who with a strong wrench pulls off the head and tears out the entrails1 which he casts overboard1 passing the fish at the same time to the splitter1 who with one cut lays it open from head to tail1 and almost in the twinkling of an eye with another cut takes out the backbone4 ,after separating the sounds1 which are placed with the tongues and packed in barrels as a delicacy1 the backbone follows the entrails overboard1 while the fish at the same moment is passed with the other hand to the salter4 ,such is the amazing quickness of the operations of heading and splitting1 that a good workman will often decapitate and take out the entrails and backbone of six fish in a minute4 ,every fisherman is supposed to know something of each of these operations1 and no rivals at cricket ever entered with more ardor into their work than do some athletic champions for the palm of 8dressing down0 after a 8day's catch40 ,generally the fog is so dense that one ship does not see the other1 although both may be so near that the crews distinctly hear each other's voices4 ,frequently one is hardly able to see to the distance of a few feet1 and the large drops of the condensed mist fall like rain from the yards4 ,during calm weather the aspect of the sea is so dismal that it requires all the buoyant spirits of a seaman to resist its depressing influence4 ,for days the calm remains unbroken1 and no sound is heard but that of a fish darting out of the water1 or the screech of a sea-bird flitting over the sea4 ,but sometimes a storm breaks this awful silence of nature4 ,at such times the fishing-ships1 hidden in mists1 run the greatest danger of striking against each other1 although signal-lanterns and alarm-trumpets are used to give warning4 ,a tremendous wave bursting on the deck often strikes them with such force as to sink them or dash them to pieces against the rocky coast4 ,thus many a widow and orphan has a mournful tale to relate of the dangers of the cod-fishery on the banks of ,newfoundland4 ,in some parts of the coast where the water is sufficiently shallow the codfish are now caught in sieves or nets4 ,this operation requires more capital to commence with than the mere boat and hooks and lines of the common fishermen1 and1 like all improvements1 met at first with much opposition1 on the plea that it must interfere with the interests of the poorer class4 ,it is obvious1 however1 that the use of the net is advantageous to the trade at large1 for shoals1 or1 as they are termed1 8schools10 of fish may sometimes be seen sweeping along shore1 which but for the net would escape altogether4 ,besides1 there seems such an incalculable abundance of the fish that there will always be enough to hook1 enough to jig1 enough to net1 and more than enough to go away4 8,one calm ,july evening10 says ,mr4 ,jukes1#bb 8,i was in a boat just outside ,st4 ,john's harbor1 when the sea was pretty still1 and the fish were #8breaching1' as it is termed4 ,for several miles around us the calm sea was alive with fish4 ,they were sporting on the surface of the water1 flirting their tails occasionally into the air1 and as far as could be seen the water was rippled and broken by their movements4 ,looking down into its clear depths1 codfish under codfish of all sizes appeared swimming about as if in sport4 ,some boats were fishing1 but not a bite could they get1 the fish being already gorged with food4 ,had the ground been shallow enough to use nets1 the harbor might have been filled with fish40 ,besides the cod-fishery1 seal-catching is also carried on with considerable success on the eastern coast1 which intercepts many immense fields and islands of ice as they move southward in the spring from the ,arctic ,sea4 ,the interior parts of these drifting shoals1 with the lakes or openings interspersed1 remain unbroken1 and on them myriads of seals maybe found4 ,in the month of ,march or ,april1 as soon as the ice-fields descend with the currents from ,davis's ,straits1 many small ships1 not only from the harbors of the east coast of ,newfoundland1 but even from the distant ,scotch ports1 particularly ,aberdeen1 put out to sea1 and boldly plunge into all the openings of the ice-fields to make war upon the seals4 ,armed with firelocks and heavy bludgeons1 the crews surprise the animals on the ice4 ,in this way thousands are killed yearly from the north1 but their numbers have latterly decreased1 and the seal-catchers pay the penalty of their heedless and indiscriminate slaughter4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvi4 ,,greenland4 ,a mysterious ,region4--,ancient ,scandinavian ,colonists4--,their ,decline and ,fall4--,hans ,egede4--,his ,trials and ,success4-- ,foundation of ,godthaab4--,herrenhuth ,missionaries4--,lindenow4-- ,the ,scoresbys4--,clavering4--,the ,danish ,settlements in ,greenland4--,the ,greenland ,esquimaux4--,seal-catching4--,the ,white ,dolphin4--,the ,narwhal4--,shark-fishery4--,fiskernasse t4--,birds4-- ,reindeer-hunting4--,indigenous ,plants4--,drift-wood4--,mineral ,kingdom4--,mode of ,life of the ,greenland ,esquimaux4--,the ,danes in ,greenland4--,beautiful ,scenery4--,ice ,caves4 ,in many respects ,greenland is one of the most remarkable countries of the ,arctic zone4 ,the whole of the northern coast of continental ,america from ,cape ,lisburne to ,belle ,isle ,straits is known2 the borders of ,siberia fronting the icy ocean have been thoroughly explored by water and by land2 the distance of ,spitzbergen and ,nova ,zembla from the pole has long since been determined2 but how far ,greenland may reach to the north we know not--though nearly a thousand years have passed since the ,icelander ,gnnbjorn 7#igj ,a4,d47 first saw its high mountain coast1 and in spite of all the attempts made since that time to circumnavigate it4 ,the interior of the island--or continent as it may perhaps more justly be called1 for it has a surface of at least #gej1jjj square miles1 and is probably larger than ,australia--is also unknown2 for of this vast extent of territory only the narrow shores of the coast-line seemed to be inhabitable1 or even accessible to man4 ,on penetrating into the deeper fjords1 all the valleys are found blocked with glaciers1 which1 on climbing the heights1 are seen to pass into a monotonous plateau of ice1 or nv1 which seems to cover and conceal the whole interior4 ,thus1 from its physical configuration1 ,greenland may well be called a mysterious region2 and1 strange to say1 the history of the decline and fall of its first colonists is as little known as its geography4 ,we have seen in a previous chapter that ,iceland1 so peaceful in the present day1 was peopled in the ninth century with a highly turbulent race of jarls and vikings4 ,one of these worthies1 called ,erik ,rauda1 or the ,red1 having twice dyed his hands with blood1 was banished by the ,althing 7#ihb7 for a term of years1 and resolved to pass the time of his compulsory absence in exploring the land discovered by ,gnnbjorn4 ,after spending three years on its western coasts1 he returned to ,iceland1 and made so favorable a report of the new country1 which--knowing the advantages of a good name--he called ,greenland1 that in #ihf he induced a large body of colonists to sail with him and settle there4 ,other emigrants followed1 and in a few years all the habitable places of ,southern ,greenland were occupied4 ,the colony1 which soon after its foundation adopted the ,christian religion1 was divided into two districts1 or 8bygds0 7from the ,icelandic 8byggia10 to inhabit71 by an intervening tract of land named ,ubygd1 the 8uninhabitable0 or 8uninhabited40 ,the ,west ,bygd reached from lat4 #ff down to #fb1 and contained1 in its best days1 ninety farms and four churches4 ,south of it lay the desert1 8,ubygd10 of seventy geographical miles1 terminated by the ,east ,bygd1 consisting of #aij farms1 and having two towns1 ,gardar and ,alba1 one cathedral1 and eleven churches4 ,the whole population may probably have amounted to #fjjj souls4 ,the country was governed by ,icelandic laws1 and the first of its eighteen bishops1 ,arnold1 was elected in #aaba1 the last being ,endride ,andreason1 who was consecrated in #adjf4 ,in spite of its poverty and distance1 ,greenland was obliged to contribute its mite to the revenues of the ,papal chair1 for we read in the ancient annalists that in #acbf its tribute1 consisting of walrus-teeth1 was sold by the ,pope's agent1 ,bertram of ,ortolis1 to a merchant of ,flanders for the sum of twelve livres and fourteen sous4 ,the time1 however1 was now fast approaching when the ,greenland colony was not only to cease paying tithes and ,peter's pence1 but to be swept away4 ,during the course of the fourteenth century it was visited by one misfortune after another4 ,the black death1 which carried off twenty-five millions of ,europeans1 did not spare its distant fjords 7#acdh-i72 the ,esquimaux harassed the survivors with repeated attacks1 killing some1 and carrying away others captive4 ,a hostile fleet1 suspected to be ,english1 laid waste the country in #adah2 and1 finally1 the revolutions and wars which broke out in ,scandinavia after the death of ,queen ,margaret of ,waldemar caused ,greenland to be entirely neglected and forgotten4 ,the last colonists either retreated to ,iceland1 or were destroyed by the ,esquimaux1 and many years elapsed before ,greenland was again thought of as a place where ,scandinavians had once been living4 ,at length ,king ,frederick ,,ii4 of ,denmark sent out ,mogens ,heineson1 a famous 8sea-cock10 as the chroniclers style him1 to the south-eastern coast of ,greenland 7#aeha71 to see if men of a ,norse origin still dwelt along those ice-bound fjords4 ,heineson reached the coast1 but the great transparency of the air1 which in the ,polar regions frequently causes strange optical delusions1 led him into a singular error4 ,after having sailed for many hours in the same direction1 and still seeing the mountains which seemed quite near recede as he advanced1 he fancied himself fettered by an invisible power1 and thus the famous 8sea-cock0 returned home with the report that1 detained by a magnetic rock1 he had not been able to reach the land4 ,in #afje ,king ,christian ,,iv4 of ,denmark sent out a new ,greenland expedition1 consisting of three ships1 under the command of ,godske ,lindenow1 and the guidance of ,james ,hall1 an ,english pilot4 ,this time no magnetic rocks intervened2 but the ships having separated1 ,hall landed on the west coast1 which had already been rediscovered and visited by ,davis1 ,hudson1 ,baffin1 and other ,arctic navigators2 while ,lindenow1 anchoring off ,cape ,farewell1 kidnapped two ,esquimaux1 who afterwards died of nostalgia in ,denmark4 ,but neither ,lindenow1 who the year after again made his appearance on the western coast of ,greenland1 nor two later expeditions under ,carsten ,richardson and ,dannell1 were able to effect a landing on any part of the eastern coast4 ,it was in sight1 but the drift-ice made it inaccessible4 ,they were equally unsuccessful in finding any traces of the lost colony1 which came at length to be regarded as a mere ,scandinavian myth4 ,but while no one else cared about its existence1 the ardent ,hans ,egede 7born in ,norway1 ,january #ca1 #afhf71 pastor of ,vaage1 in the ,lofoten ,islands1 still continued to cherish its memory4 ,he had read in the ancient chronicles about the old ,christian communities in ,greenland1 and could not believe in their total extinction4 ,he felt the deepest concern in the fate of their descendants1 and the thought that after so long a separation from the mother-country they must needs be plunged in barbarism and heathen darkness1 left him no rest by night or day4 ,at length he resolved to devote his life to their spiritual welfare1 and to become the apostle of rediscovered or regenerated ,greenland4 ,his zeal and perseverance overcame a thousand difficulties4 ,neither the public ridicule1 nor the coldness of the authorities to whom he vainly applied for assistance1 nor the exhortations of his friends1 could damp his ardor4 ,at length1 after years of fruitless endeavors1 after having given up his living and sacrificed his little fortune in the prosecution of his plans1 he succeeded in forming a ,greenland ,company1 with a capital of #ijjj dollars1 and in obtaining an annual stipend from the ,danish ,missionary ,fund of #cjj dollars1 to which ,king ,frederic ,,iv4 added a gift of #bjj dollars4 ,with three ships1 the largest of which 8,the ,hope10 had forty colonists on board1 ,egede1 accompanied by his wife and four children1 set sail from the port of ,bergen on ,may #ab1 #agba1 and reached ,greenland on ,july #c1 after a long and tedious passage4 ,the winds had driven him to the western coast1 in latitude #fd1 and here he resolved at once to begin his evangelical labors with the ,esquimaux4 ,a wooden chapel was speedily erected1 which formed the first nucleus of the still existing settlement of ,godthaab4 ,but if the life of worthy ,egede had for many a year been full of trouble before he went to ,greenland1 trials still more severe awaited him during his apostolical career4 ,he had not merely the suspicions of the ,esquimaux1 the enmity of their medicine-men1 the severity of the climate1 and not seldom even famine to contend with4 ,his own countrymen1 disappointed in their hopes of carrying on a lucrative trade with the ,greenlanders1 resolved to abandon it altogether1 and1 after ten laborious years1 the ,government not only withdrew all further assistance from the mission1 but even ordered the colony to be broken up4 ,all his companions1 with the exception of a few volunteers who engaged to share his fortunes1 now returned to ,denmark2 but ,egede1 though his health had been so shattered by almost superhuman exertions that he had long since been obliged to leave all active duties to his son1 resolved1 like a faithful soldier1 to die at his post4 ,in #agcc his perseverance was at length rewarded by the grateful news that the king1 at the entreaty of ,count ,zinzendorf1 the founder of ,herrenhuth1 had consented to bestow an annual grant of #bjjj dollars on the ,greenland mission1 and that three ,moravian brothers had arrived to assist him in his work4 ,thus he could at length 7#agce7 return with a quiet heart to his native country1 where he died1 universally regretted1 in #ageh1 at the age of seventy-two4 ,it may easily be supposed that1 during his long stay in ,greenland1 he anxiously sought the traces of his lost countrymen1 for the desire to help them had first led him to that ,arctic country4 ,nothing in the physiognomy of the ,esquimaux or in their language pointed in any way to a ,european origin1 and even their traditions said not a word of the old ,norse settlers who had once inhabited the land4 ,the ruins of some churches1 and other buildings scattered here and there along the west coast1 alone attested their existence1 and formed a link between the past and the present4 ,thus if ,greenland still had inhabitants of ,scandinavian origin1 they must necessarily be confined to the eastern coast beyond ,cape ,farewell4 ,but ,egede was as little able as his predecessors to penetrate through the ice-belt which1 both by land and sea1 completely separated it from the rest of the world4 ,for many years after his death it remained unknown and inaccessible2 and ,lwenorn1 who was sent out in #aghf-hg to renew the attempts of ,heineson and ,lindenow1 had no better success4 ,no doubt many a whaler may have admired its distant mountain peaks glowing in the evening sun1 or may have been driven by the storm against its shores1 but the ,scoresbys were the first to determine accurately the position of part of its well-fenced coast4 ,in the year #ahag1 ,captain ,scoresby the elder1 deviating from the usual course of the whalers1 steered through the western ice1 and reached the east coast of ,greenland beyond #gj4 ,he could easily have landed2 the coast which had so frequently baffled the attempts of previous navigators lay invitingly before him1 but he could not sacrifice his duty as the commander of a whaler to curiosity or renown4 ,and thus1 without having set his foot on shore1 he sailed back into the open sea4 ,on a later visit1 however1 he landed in the sound which bears his name4 ,in the year #ahbb ,scoresby the younger succeeded in more closely examining the land4 ,leaving the usual track of the whalers1 he had steered to the west1 and threaded his way through the drift-ice until1 between #gj #cc and #ga #ab ,n4 lat41 the coast of ,greenland lay before him4 ,no coast that he had ever seen before had so majestic a character4 ,the mountains1 on which he bestowed the name of ,roscoe1 consisted of numberless jagged stones or pyramids1 rising in individual peaks to a height of #cjjj feet1 and a chaos of sharp needles covered their rough declivities4 ,on ,july #bd he landed on a rocky promontory1 which he named ,cape ,lister 7#gj #cj71 and1 climbing its summit1 continued his excursion along its back1 which was between three and four hundred feet high4 ,here and there between the stones1 which were either naked or thinly clothed with lichens1 bloomed ,andromeda tetragona1 a ,saxifraga oppositifolia1 a ,papaver nudicanle1 or a ,ranunculus nivalis4 ,at ,cape ,swainson he again descended to the shore1 which here formed a flat strand about #fjj feet broad4 ,some deserted ,esquimaux huts soon arrested his attention4 ,charred drift-wood and a quantity of ashes lay scattered about the hearths1 and proved that these dwellings had not been long forsaken4 ,scarcely a bird was to be seen on land1 but countless auks and divers animated the waters4 ,a great number of winged insects--butterflies1 bees1 mosquitoes--flew or buzzed about1 particularly on the hillocks between the stones4 ,on ,july #be he once more landed on ,cape ,hope1 where he again found traces of inhabitants4 ,bones of hares and fragments of reindeer horns lay scattered about on the ground4 ,the skull of a dog was planted on a small mound of earth1 for it is a belief of the ,greenland ,esquimaux that the dog1 who finds his way everywhere1 must necessarily be the best guide of the innocent children to the land of souls4 ,the heat1 which soon put an end to this excursion1 was so great that many of the plants had shed their seeds1 and some were already completely dried up and shrivelled4 ,the part of the coast of ,east ,greenland discovered by ,scoresby1 and that which was visited the year after by ,clavering1 lay1 however1 too far to the north to afford any clue about the extinct ,scandinavian settlements1 even supposing them1 as was then still believed1 to have been partly situated to the east of ,cape ,farewell4 ,at length in the year #ahbi1 ,captain ,graah1 who had been sent out by ,king ,frederick ,,vi4 of ,denmark1 succeeded in exploring the south-eastern coast of ,greenland1 from its southern extremity to the latitude of #fe #ah1 beyond which no colony could ever have existed2 and as he nowhere found either the most insignificant ruins or the least traces of an ancient ,christian settlement in the language and customs of the natives1 it was now fully proved that the east bygd of the old chroniclers was1 in reality1 situated on the south-western coast of ,greenland1 in the present districts of ,julianshaab and ,lichtenau1 a coast which1 in comparison with the more northern colonies of ,frederikshaab and ,fiskerns1 distinctly trends to the east4 ,the present ,danish settlements1 which are confined to the more sheltered fjords of its western coast1 are divided into a north and south inspectorate1 the former extending from lat4 #fg to #gb1 and comprising the districts of ,upernavik1 ,omenak1 ,jakobshavn1 ,christianshaab1 ,egedesminde1 and ,godhavn1 on ,disco ,island2 while the latter contains the districts of ,holsteensborg1 ,sukkertoppen1 ,godthaab1 ,fiskernasset1 ,frederikshaab1 and ,julianshaab4 ,in the year #ahee the population of the ,south ,inspectorate consisted of #fabh aboriginal ,greenlanders1 or ,esquimaux1 and #abj ,europeans2 that of the ,north ,inspectorate1 of #ceaf of the former1 and #abh of the latter2 a very small number if we consider that it is scattered over a space of #ab of latitude4 ,in a country like this1 such towns as ,godhavn1 with #aej inhabitants1 or ,godthaab1 the most populous of all1 with #ccj1 pass for considerable cities4 ,but1 in spite of its scanty population1 ,greenland is a valuable possession of the ,danish crown1 or rather of the ,danish company1 which entirely monopolizes the trade1 and manages its affairs so well that the ,greenlander receives for his produce only about the sixth part of its price at ,copenhagen4 ,according to the average of six years 7#ahej-ahee71 the total value of the exports from ,greenland amounted to #cgh1ehh rix-dollars2 that of the importations from ,denmark1 to #afd1bae2 but in the latter sum was included not only the price paid to the ,greenlanders for their goods1 but all the stores and provisions necessary for the agents and servants of the company1 the missionaries1 and the administration of the colony4 ,the trifling amount which1 after all deductions and charges1 the poor ,greenlander receives for his seal-skins or his blubber1 he generally spends in tobacco1 candy-sugar1 coffee1 and sea-biscuits1 for his real wants are amply supplied by his own country1 and he has not yet learned to invest his gains more profitably4 ,like all other ,esquimaux1 he depends chiefly upon the sea for his subsistence4 ,of the various species of ,phoc found in the ,greenland waters the most valuable is the hispid seal 7,phoca hispida71 both from its numbers and from its frequenting the fjords during the whole year2 while the larger ,greenland seal 7,phoca grnlandica7 is not stationary like the former1 but leaves the coast from ,march to ,may1 and from ,july to ,september4 ,the ,cystophora cristata1 or hooded seal1 remarkable for a globular sac1 capable of inflation1 on the head of the male1 appears in the fjords only from ,april till ,june4 ,it is the most pugnacious of all the seals4 ,in the southern districts1 where the seal-hunting must be chiefly carried on in open water1 the ,greenlander relies upon his boat1 the kayak4 ,when the animal is struck1 the barbed point of the harpoon detaches itself1 by an ingenious mechanism1 from the shaft1 which otherwise would be broken by its violent contortions2 and as the line is attached to a bladder1 it can easily be recovered4 ,among the cetaceans1 the white dolphin 7,delphinopterus leucas7 and the narwhal 7,monodon monoceros7 are the most valuable to the ,greenlanders of the ,north ,inspectorate1 from #ejj to #fjj of these huge animals being annually caught4 ,the former makes its appearance a short time after the breaking up of the ice1 and again in autumn2 in summer it seeks the open sea4 ,sometimes large herds of the white dolphins are cut off from the sea by the closing in of the ice in the neighborhood of the land1 so that several hundred may be killed in the course of a few days4 ,the narwhal is caught only in the ,omenak fjord1 which it visits regularly in ,november4 ,as its chase is both difficult and dangerous1 the ,greenlanders generally hunt it in company1 so that after a narwhal has been struck with the first harpoon or lance1 others are ready to follow up the advantage4 ,the larger whales are now seldom caught1 but the dead body of a fin-back is not seldom cast ashore1 and affords a rich harvest to the neighborhood4 ,sometimes masses of oil1 evidently proceeding from dead whales1 are found floating in the fjords4 ,in #ahed ninety-five tons of this matter were collected near ,holsteinburg4 ,the fishes likewise amply contribute to supply the ,greenlander's wants4 ,the shark-fishery 7,scymnus microcephalus7 is of considerable importance4 ,the entrails of seals and other offal are placed in the openings of the ice to attract these sharks to the spot1 where they are caught in various ways1 particularly by torch-light1 which brings them to the surface4 ,the fishermen1 watching the moment1 strike them with a sharp hook1 and then drag them upon the ice4 ,they are also caught with strong iron angles attached to chains4 ,they are captured for the sake of their livers1 which yield a good deal of oil4 ,it has very recently been ascertained that a valuable substance resembling spermaceti may be expressed from the carcass which was formerly wasted1 and for this purpose powerful screw presses are now employed4 ,about #cj1jjj of these gluttonous animals are caught every year1 and the fishery may be greatly extended1 as the bottom of the ice-fjords absolutely swarms with them4 ,their capture is attended with far less trouble and danger than in ,iceland1 where they are pursued in boats1 and in a capricious and tempestuous sea4 ,improving upon the old ,esquimaux methods of fishing or hunting1 the ,danish residents set nets for the white whale or the seal2 for the former1 they are attached to the shore1 and extend off at right angles1 so as to intercept them in their autumnal southern migration1 when they swim close along the rocks to avoid the grampus4 ,when the white whale is stopped by the net1 it often appears at first to be unconscious of the fact1 and continues to swim against it1 and then allows the boat to approach it from behind4 ,if entangled in the net1 it is soon drowned1 as1 like all the whale tribe1 it is obliged to come to the surface to breathe4 ,a large quantity of cod are caught in various parts of the ,south ,inspectorate1 particularly at ,fiskernasset1 which1 being less subject to fogs and more exposed to the sea-wind1 offers peculiar advantages for the drying of the fish4 ,the capelin 7,mallotus villosus71 which in ,may and ,june visits the coasts of ,greenland in great numbers1 is eaten both fresh or laid upon the rocks to dry for the winter4 ,the sea-wolf1 the lump-fish1 the bull-head1 the ,norway haddock1 the salmon-trout1 are likewise important articles of food4 ,the halibut grows to a huge size1 and a smaller species 7,hippoglossus pinguis7 is fished for at the depth of #ahj or even #chj fathoms4 ,the banks frequented by this fish are most valuable to the neighboring ,greenlanders4 ,many are no doubt still undiscovered1 others may be known by the dead fish floating on the surface1 or by the seals diving out of the water with a flat fish in their mouth4 ,long-tailed crabs are easily caught in many parts1 and the common mussel may be gathered almost everywhere at ebb tide4 ,crowds of birds nestle during the summer on the rocky shores1 particularly at ,upernavik1 where the largest breeding-places are found4 ,they are generally killed with small blunted arrows4 ,in the ice-fjord of ,jacobshavn the gulls are caught ingeniously by floating traps on which something brilliant or resembling a fish is fixed4 ,the eggs of the sea-birds are gathered in vast numbers1 and the feathers and skins of the eider-duck and auk are both exported and used for the lining of boots4 ,compared with the wealth of the seas1 the land is very poor4 ,the chase of the reindeer is1 however1 important1 as its skin affords both a warmer and a softer clothing than that of the seal1 and serves moreover as a bed-cover or a sledge-carpet4 ,reindeer-hunting is a favorite summer occupation of the ,greenlanders1 who annually kill from #aj1jjj to #bj1jjj1 and export about one-half of the skins4 ,only a few cows1 sheep1 and goats are kept at ,julianshaab4 ,for want of hay they are fed with fish during the winter4 ,in ,south ,greenland the potato is cultivated by the ,european residents as a luxury4 ,the plant never flowers1 and even buds are rare4 ,turnips1 cabbages1 salad1 and spinach likewise grow in ,south ,greenland1 but barley sown in the gardens scarcely ever comes to ear4 ,in summer the windows of the houses are gay with geraniums and fuchsias and other flowers of a more temperate zone4 ,among the indigenous plants1 the berries of the ,empetrum nigrum1 ,vaccinium uliginosum1 and ,vaccinium vitis ida furnish the ,greenlanders with their only vegetable food4 ,while the coasts exposed to the bleak sea-winds afford scanty traces of vegetation1 the valleys and hill slopes of the more sheltered fjords are green during the summer1 and justify the name bestowed by ,erick on the land of his adoption4 ,forests are of course out of the question in ,greenland1 though in some places the birch attains a not inconsiderable size4 ,thus in a dell at the upper end of ,lichtenau ,fjord a thicket of these trees1 fifteen feet high1 surrounds a little lake fed by a waterfall1 the largest hitherto known in ,greenland4 ,more generally1 however1 the trees1 such as the beech1 the willow1 the elder1 etc41 merely creep along the ground1 where the dense matting of their roots and branches1 mingled with bushes of the empetrum1 or with mosses1 lichens1 and fallen leaves1 forms a kind of turf which is used as fuel by the ,danes4 ,in some measure the sea makes up for the want of timber by casting on the shore a quantity of drift-wood1 the origin of which is still a matter of doubt1 some tracing it to the ,north ,american rivers1 others to those of ,siberia4 ,it consists mostly of the uprooted trunks of coniferous trees4 ,sometimes also large pieces of bark1 such as those of which the ,indians make their canoes1 and sewn together with threads of hair1 and drifted into the fjords4 ,the mineral kingdom1 though it has within the last few years attracted the attention of speculators1 will hardly ever realize their hopes4 ,several attempts to work the lead and copper ores at ,nanursoak and in the ,arksak fjord have miserably failed4 ,the cost of transport is immense1 and the difficulty of obtaining the necessary workmen presents an insuperable obstacle to all mining operations in ,greenland4 ,though the ,greenlanders have now been for more than a century under the influence of ,christian teachers1 yet their mode of life is still much the same as that of their relatives the wild ,esquimaux on the opposite continent of ,north ,america4 ,like them1 they use the 8kayak10 the 8oomiak10 and the sledge2 like them1 they live in small winter huts of stone 7the snow-house is unknown to them7 or in summer tents hung with skins1 and they are equally improvident in times of abundance4 ,their constant intercourse with ,europeans has1 however1 taught them the use of many luxuries unknown to the wild ,esquimaux1 and they are now great consumers of coffee4 ,they are fond of instruction1 but the immense space over which the population is scattered1 and their vagrant life during a great part of the year1 are great hinderances to their improvement4 ,they are also very good-natured1 and live on the best terms with the ,danes who reside among them4 ,the latter1 who1 with the exception of the ,moravian missionaries1 are all in the service of the ,company1 soon get attached to the country1 and leave it with regret2 sometimes even returning to close their days in ,greenland4 ,the climate1 though severe1 is very healthy1 and the lover of sport finds ample opportunities for gratifying his favorite passion4 ,in ,september1 or at the beginning of ,october1 the last ships leave for ,europe2 and then1 till the next ,april or ,may--when the first ,english whalers appear in the ports of ,godhavn or ,upernavik--all communication with the civilized world is totally cut off4 ,towards the end of ,january or the beginning of ,february1 when the days begin rapidly to lengthen1 frequent sledge-parties keep up a constant interchange of visits between the various settlements4 ,this mode of travelling over the lakes and inclosed fjords is very agreeable in ,may1 as then the sun is pleasantly warm at noon2 and though he hardly disappears below the horizon1 the nights are sufficiently cold to convert the melted snow into ice hard enough to bear the weight of a sledge4 ,this is the best time for visiting many interesting spots inaccessible at other seasons of the year1 and for enjoying many a scene unsurpassed in ,switzerland itself4 ,here1 as on the ,alps1 the glacier and the snow-clad peak appear in all their grandeur2 here also1 in the valleys1 the summer brooks flow between well-clothed banks1 and the ,helvetian lakes are worthily rivalled by the magnificent fjords of ,greenland4 ,in many parts1 the waves1 beating against the steep coasts of the islands and fjords1 render access difficult1 if not impossible during the summer1 but in winter or spring they may easily be visited across the ice4 ,the surf has worn many caves in these precipitous rock-walls1 which are no less remarkable for their picturesque basaltic forms than for the huge masses of ice on their sides1 which1 in their tints and grouping1 far surpass the stalactites of the most renowned ,european grottoes4 ,,chapter ,,xxxvii4 ,,the ,,antarctic ,,ocean4 ,comparative ,view of the ,antarctic and ,arctic ,regions4--,inferiority of ,climate of the former4--,its ,causes4--,the ,new ,shetland ,islands4--,south ,georgia4--,the ,peruvian ,stream4--,sea-birds4-- ,the ,giant ,petrel4--,the ,albatross4--,the ,penguin4--,the ,austral ,whale4--,the ,hunchback4--,the ,fin-back4--,the ,grampus4--,battle with a ,whale4--,the ,sea-elephant4--,the ,southern ,sea-bear4--,the ,sea-leopard4--,antarctic ,fishes4 ,the ,antarctic regions are far more desolate and barren than the ,arctic4 ,here we have no energetic hunters1 like the ,esquimaux1 chasing the seal or the walrus2 no herdsmen following1 like the ,samoedes or the ,lapps1 their reindeer to the brink of the icy ocean2 but all is one dreary1 uninhabitable waste4 ,while within the ,arctic ,circle the musk-ox enjoys an abundance of food1 and the lemming is still found thriving on the bleakest islands1 not a single land quadruped exists beyond #ef of southern latitude4 ,summer flowers gladden the sight of the ,arctic navigator in the most northern lands yet reached2 but no plant of any description--not even a moss or a lichen--has been observed beyond ,cockburn ,island in #fd #ab ,s4 lat42 and while even in ,spitzbergen vegetation ascends the mountain slopes to a height of #cjjj feet the snow-line descends to the water's edge in every land within or near the ,antarctic ,circle4 ,an open sea1 extending towards the northern pole as far as the eye can reach1 points out the path to future discovery2 but the ,antarctic navigators1 with one single exception1 have invariably seen their progress arrested by barriers of ice1 and none have ever penetrated beyond the comparatively low latitude of #gh #aj4 ,even in ,spitzbergen and ,east ,greenland1 ,scoresby sometimes found the heat of summer very great2 but the annals of ,antarctic navigation invariably speak of a frigid temperature4 ,in #aggc1 when ,captain ,phipps visited ,spitzbergen1 the thermometer once rose to #eh2 and on ,july #ae1 #ahbj1 when the 8,hecla0 left her winter-quarters in ,melville ,island 7#gd #dg ,n471 she enjoyed a warmth of #ef4 ,but during the summer months spent by ,sir ,james ,ross in the ,antarctic ,polar area1 the temperature of the air never once exceeded #da #e4 ,in ,northumberland ,sound 7#gf #db ,n471 probably the coldest spot hitherto visited in the north1 the mean of the three summer months was found to be #cj #h1 while within the ,antarctic ,circle it only amounted to #bg #c4 ,the reader may possibly wonder why the climate of the southern polar regions is so much more severe than that of the high northern latitudes2 or why coasts and valleys1 at equal distances from the equator1 should in one case be found green with vegetation1 and in another mere wastes of snow and ice2 but the predominance of land in the north1 and of sea in the south1 fully answers the question4 ,within the ,arctic ,circle we see vast continental masses projecting far to the north1 so as to form an almost continuous belt round the icy sea2 while in the southern hemisphere1 the continents taper down in a vast extent of open ocean4 ,in the north1 the plains of ,siberia and of the ,hudson's ,bay territories1 warmed by the sunbeams of summer1 become at that season centres of radiating heat1 so that in many parts the growth of forests1 or even the culture of the cereals1 advances as high as #gj of latitude2 while the ,antarctic lands are of a comparatively small extent1 and isolated in the midst of frigid waters1 whose temperature scarcely varies from #bi #b even in the height of summer4 ,mostly situated within the ,antarctic ,circle1 and constantly chilled by cold sea-winds1 they act at every season as refrigerators of the atmosphere4 ,in the north1 the formation of icebergs is confined to a few mountainous countries1 such as the west coast of ,greenland or ,spitzbergen2 but the ,antarctic coast-lands generally tower to a considerable height above the level of the sea1 and the vast fragments which are constantly detaching themselves from their glaciers keep up the low temperature of the seas4 ,in the north1 the cold currents of the ,polar ,ocean1 with their drift-ice and bergs1 have but the two wide gates of the ,greenland ,sea and ,davis's ,strait through which they can emerge to the south1 so that their influence is confined within comparatively narrow limits1 while the gelid streams of the ,antarctic seas branch out freely on all sides1 and convey their floating ice-masses far and wide within the temperate seas4 ,it is only to the west of ,newfoundland that single icebergs have ever been known to descend as low as #ci of latitude2 but in the southern hemisphere they have been met with in the vicinity of the ,cape of ,good ,hope 7#ce ,s4 lat471 near ,tristan d',acunha1 opposite to the mouth of the ,rio de la ,plata1 and within a hundred leagues of ,tasmania4 ,in the north1 finally1 we find the ,gulf ,stream conveying warmth even to the shores of ,spitzbergen and ,nova ,zembla2 while in the opposite regions of the globe1 no traces of warm currents have been observed beyond #ee of latitude4 ,thus the predominance of vast tracts of flat land in the boreal hemisphere1 and of an immense expanse of ocean in the ,antarctic regions1 sufficiently accounts for the stival warmth of the former1 and the comparatively low summer temperature of the latter4 ,it is unnecessary to describe in detail each of the desolate lands which modern navigators have discovered among the ,antarctic ice-fields1 but it may not be uninteresting to compare one or two of these dreary wastes with the lands of the north1 situated in analogous latitudes4 ,the ,new ,shetland ,islands1 situated between #fa and #fc of ,southern latitude1 were originally discovered by ,dirck ,gheritz1 a ,dutch navigator1 who1 in attempting to round ,cape ,horn1 was carried by tempestuous weather within sight of their mountainous coasts4 ,long forgotten1 they were re-discovered in #ahai by ,mr4 ,smith1 a master in the royal navy--whom a storm had likewise carried thither--and in the following year more accurately examined by ,edward ,bransfield1 whose name survives in the strait which separates them from ,d',urville's ,louis ,philippe ,land4 ,in #ahbi1 the 8,chanticleer10 ,captain ,forster1 was sent to ,new ,shetland for the purpose of making magnetic and other physical observations1 and remained for several months at ,deception ,island1 which was selected as a station from its affording the best harbor in ,south ,shetland4 ,though these islands are situated at about the same distance from the pole as the ,faroe ,islands which boast of numerous flocks of sheep1 and where the sea never freezes1 yet1 when the 8,chanticleer0 approached ,deception ,island1 on ,january #e 7a month corresponding to our ,july71 so many icebergs were scattered about1 that ,forster counted at one time no fewer than eighty-one4 ,a gale having arisen1 accompanied by a thick fog1 great care was needed to avoid running foul of these floating cliffs4 ,after entering the harbor--a work of no slight difficulty1 from the violence of the wind--the fogs were so frequent that1 for the first ten days1 neither sun nor stars were seen2 and it was withal so raw and cold1 that ,lieutenant ,kendal1 to whom we owe a short narrative of the expedition1 did not recollect having suffered more at any time in the ,arctic regions1 even at the lowest range of the thermometer4 ,in this desolate land1 frozen water becomes an integral portion of the soil2 for this volcanic island is composed chiefly of alternate layers of ashes and ice1 as if the snow of each winter1 during a series of years1 had been prevented from melting in the following summer1 by the ejection of cinders and ashes from some part where volcanic action still goes on4 ,early in ,march 7the ,september of the north7 the freezing over of the cove in which the ship was secured gave warning that it was high time for her to quit this desolate port4 ,with much difficulty and severe labor1 from the fury of the gales1 they managed to get away1 and we may fully credit ,lieutenant ,kendal's assertion1 that it was a day of rejoicing to all on board when the shores of ,deception faded from their view4 ,in #agge ,cook1 on his second voyage1 discovered the large island of ,south ,georgia1 situated in latitude #ed and #ee1 a situation corresponding to that of ,scarborough or ,durham4 ,but what a difference in the climate1 for 8we saw not a river or stream of water10 says the great navigator1 8on all the coast of ,georgia4 ,the head of the bay1 as well as two places on each side1 was terminated by perpendicular icebergs of considerable height4 ,pieces were continually breaking off and floating out to sea1 and a great fall happened while we were in the bay1 which made a noise like a cannon4 ,the inner parts of the country were not less savage and horrible4 ,the wild rocks raised their lofty summits till they were lost in the clouds1 and the valley lay covered with everlasting snow4 ,not a tree was to be seen1 not a shrub even big enough to make a toothpick4 ,the only vegetation was a coarse strong-bladed grass growing in tufts1 wild burnet1 and a plant like moss1 which sprang from the rocks4 ,the lands1 or rather rocks1 bordering on the sea-coast were not covered with snow like the inland parts1 but all the vegetation we could see on the clear places was the grass above mentioned40 ,to find scenes of a similar wintry desolation1 we must travel in the north as far as ,nova ,zembla or ,spitzbergen1 which are #bj or #bd nearer to the pole6 ,thus the influence of the cold ,antarctic waters extends far within the temperate zone4 ,we can trace their chilling effects in ,kerguelen ,land 7#ej ,s4 lat471 which when visited by ,cook in the height of summer was found covered with snow1 and where only five plants in flower were collected2 in ,tierra del ,fuego 7#ec ,s4 lat471 where the mean summer temperature is fully #i lower than that of ,dublin 7#ec #ba ,n4 lat472 in the ,falkland ,islands 7#ea #cj71 which1 though flat and low and near ,patagonia1 have1 according to ,mr4 ,darwin1 a climate similar to that which is experienced at the height of between one and two thousand feet on the mountains of ,north ,wales1 with less sunshine and less frost1 but more wind and rain2 and finally along the south-west coast of ,america1 where the ,peruvian current and the cold sea-winds so considerably depress the snow-line1 that while in ,europe the most southern glacier which comes down to the sea is met with1 according to ,von ,buch1 on the coast of ,norway in lat4 #fg2 the 8,beagle0 found a glacier fifteen miles long and in one part seven miles broad descending to the sea-coast in the gulf of ,penas1 in a latitude 7#df #ej7 nearly corresponding with that of the ,lake of ,geneva4 8,the position of this glacier10 says ,mr4 ,darwin1 8may be put even in a more striking point of view1 for it descends to the sea-coast within less than #i from where palms grow2 within #d of a region where the jaguar and puma range over the plains1 less than #b from arborescent grasses1 and 7looking to the westward in the same hemisphere7 less than #b from orchideous parasites1 and within a single degree of tree-ferns60 ,as the influence of the tropical gulf stream reaches as far as ,spitzbergen1 so that of the cold ,peruvian stream1 which issues from the ,antarctic ,seas1 extends even to the equator1 and not seldom reduces the temperature of the waters about the ,galapagos to less than #eh1 so that reef-building corals1 which require a minimum warmth of #fj1 are unable to grow near islands situated directly under the line4 ,though the ,antarctic lands are so bleak and inclement that not a single quadruped is to be found within #fj of latitude1 yet they are the resort of innumerable sea-birds which1 belonging to the same families as those of the north1 generally form distinct genera or species1 for with rare exceptions no bird is found to inhabit both the ,arctic and the ,antarctic regions4 ,thus in the petrel family we find the fulmar 7,procellaria glacialis7 and the glacial petrel 7,p4 gelida7 of the high north represented in the ,antarctic ,seas by the giant petrel 7,procellaria gigantea71 which extends its flight from ,patagonia to the ice-banks of the south1 where the ,antarctic and the snowy petrels 7,p4 antarctica et nivea7 first appear1 cold-loving birds which never leave those dreary waters1 and are often seen in vast flocks floating upon the drift-ice4 ,the giant petrel1 which has received from the ,spaniards the significant appellation of 8quebranta huesos10 or 8break-bones10 is a more powerful bird than the fulmar4 ,it is larger than a goose1 with a strong beak #d inches long4 ,its color is a dirty black1 white below1 and with white spots on the neck and back4 ,in its habits and manner of flight it closely resembles the albatross1 and1 as with the albatross1 a spectator may watch it for hours together without seeing on what it feeds4 ,like the fulmar it feasts upon fishes1 or the carcasses of seals and cetaceans1 but it also chases other birds4 ,at ,port ,saint ,antonio it was seen by some of the officers of the 8,beagle0 pursuing a diver1 which tried to escape by diving and flying1 but was continually struck down1 and at last killed by a blow on its head4 ,such is its voracity that it does not even spare its own kind1 for a gigantic petrel having been badly wounded by a shot from the 8,terror10 and falling at too great a distance for a boat to be sent after it1 was immediately attacked by two others of the same kind and torn to pieces4 ,it is a common bird both in the open sea and in the inland channels of ,tierra del ,fuego1 and the south-west coast of ,america4 ,the wandering albatross 7,diomedea exulans71 closely allied to the petrels1 and rivalling the condor in size and strength of wing1 may truly be ranked among the ,antarctic birds1 as it is seldom seen in a lower latitude than #cf1 and increases in numbers towards the south4 ,freyssinet saw it most frequently between #ee and #ei ,s4 lat41 and it probably knows no other limits than those of the ,polar ice4 ,it is found in every meridian of this enormous zone1 but the regions of storms-- the ,cape of ,good ,hope and ,cape ,horn--are its favorite resorts4 ,here it may frequently be seen in the full majesty of its flight4 ,the auks of the northern hemisphere are represented1 in the austral regions1 by the penguins1 who1 as ,buffon remarks1 are the least bird-like of all birds4 ,their small wing-stumps1 covered with short rigid scale-like feathers1 are altogether incapable of raising the body in the air1 but serve as admirable paddles in the water1 and on land as fore feet1 with whose help they so alertly scale the grassy cliffs that they might easily be mistaken for quadrupeds4 ,their feet1 like those of the auks1 are placed so far back that the body is quite upright when the bird is standing on the ground1 a position which renders their gait uncommonly slow and awkward1 but greatly facilitates their movements in the water4 ,when at sea and fishing1 the penguin comes to the surface for the purpose of breathing with such a spring1 and dives again so instantaneously1 that at first sight no one can be sure that it is not a fish leaping for sport4 ,other sea-birds generally keep a considerable part of their body out of the water while swimming1 but this is not the case with the penguin1 whose head alone appears above the surface1 and thus rowing at the same time with its wings and feet1 it swims so quickly that many fishes would fail to keep up with it4 ,sir ,james ,ross once saw two penguins paddling away a thousand miles from the nearest land4 ,protected against the cold by a thick layer of fat and a warm great-coat of feathers1 it remains for months on the high seas1 and seeks land only in the summer for the purpose of breeding4 ,at this time it is found in vast numbers on the ,falkland ,islands1 ,kerguelen's ,land1 ,new ,shetland1 or wherever in the ,antarctic ,seas1 perhaps even to the pole itself1 a convenient coast invites its stay4 ,on ,possession ,island1 for instance1 a desolate rock1 discovered by ,sir ,james ,ross in lat4 #ga #ef1 myriads of penguins covered the whole surface of the land1 along the ledges of the precipices1 and even to the summit of the hills4 ,undaunted by the presence of beings whom they had never seen before1 the birds vigorously attacked the ,british seamen as they waded through their ranks1 and pecked at them with their sharp beaks1 a reception which1 together with their loud coarse notes1 and the insupportable stench of their guano1 made our countrymen but too happy to depart1 after having loaded their boat with geological specimens and penguins4 ,there are several species of this singular bird4 ,the largest and rarest 7,aptenodytes ,forsteri7 is generally found singly1 while the smaller species always associate in vast numbers4 ,several were caught in lat4 #gg by ,sir ,james ,ross and brought on board alive2 indeed it was a very difficult and a cruel operation to kill them1 until hydrocyanic acid was resorted to1 of which a tablespoonful effectually accomplished the purpose in less than a minute4 ,these enormous birds varied in weight from sixty to seventy-five pounds4 ,they are remarkably stupid1 and allow a man to approach them so near as to strike them on the head with a bludgeon1 and sometimes1 if knocked off the ice into the water1 they will almost immediately leap upon it again as if eager for a fight1 though without the smallest means either of offense or defense4 ,they were first discovered during ,captain ,cook's voyage to the ,antarctic regions1 but ,sir ,james ,ross was fortunate in bringing the first perfect specimens to ,england1 some of which were preserved entire in casks of strong pickle1 that the physiologist and comparative anatomist might have an opportunity of thoroughly examining their structure4 ,the principal food of the great penguin consists of various species of crustaceous animals1 and in its stomach are frequently found from two to ten pounds' weight of pebbles1 swallowed no doubt to promote digestion4 8,its capture10 says ,sir ,james ,ross1 8afforded great amusement to our people1 for when alarmed and endeavoring to escape1 it makes its way over deep snow faster than they could follow it3 by lying down on its belly and impelling itself by its powerful feet1 it slides along upon the surface of the snow at a great pace1 steadying itself by extending its fin-like wings1 which alternately touch the ground on the side opposite to the propelling leg40 ,illustration3 #abb4 ,,the ,,albatross4 ,though the ,antarctic ,seas possess neither the narwhal nor the morse1 they abound1 perhaps even more than the ,arctic waters1 in whales1 dolphins1 and seals1 at least in the higher latitudes4 ,the austral smooth-backed whale 7,balna australis7 differs from his ,greenland relative in many respects3 the head is comparatively smaller1 being only about one-fourth of the total length1 the mouth is broader1 the baleen shorter1 the pectoral fins are larger and pointed1 and the color is almost totally black1 the white on the lower surface being confined to a small part of the abdomen4 ,the skull is also differently formed2 and while the ,greenland whale has only thirteen pairs of ribs1 the austral smooth-back has fifteen4 ,according to ,mr4 ,bennett1 the austral smooth-back seldom attains a greater length than fifty feet2 but as it yields on an average from eighty to ninety barrels of oil1 its capture amply rewards the whaler's trouble4 ,though met with in the highest latitudes1 and roaming over the whole extent of the ,antarctic ,seas1 it resorts in spring to the sheltered bays of ,new ,zealand1 ,australia1 ,kerguelen's ,land1 ,chili1 the ,falkland ,islands1 ,algoa ,bay1 etc41 for the purpose of bringing forth its young4 ,this of course makes its capture easier1 but must at the same time lead to its extirpation1 or drive it to the most inaccessible regions of the ,polar ,ocean4 ,even now the whale-fishery of the southern seas1 which twenty or thirty years ago employed hundreds of vessels1 has much diminished in importance3 it is chiefly carried on by the ,americans1 the ,french1 and our ,australian colonies1 which have the advantage of being more conveniently situated than the mother-country4 ,in the higher latitudes of the ,antarctic zone the hunch-back and fin-back whales abound2 but as the former is meagre and hardly worth the boiling1 and the latter1 like the rorquals of the north1 dives with such rapidity that he snaps the harpoon-line or drags the boat along with him into the water1 they are seldom hunted4 ,hence they will most likely continue to prosper in their native seas1 unless the improved missiles recently introduced in the whale-fishery can be made to conquer them4 ,the hunch-back is distinguished by the great length of his pectoral fins1 which extend to full eighteen feet1 while these organs are comparatively small in the fin-back4 ,a kind of broad-nosed whale likewise makes its appearance in the ,antarctic ,seas1 but it is not yet determined whether all these fin-backed whales of the south are distinct species from those of the ,arctic waters4 ,a circumstance which seems to speak for their identity is that fin-backs are met with in the intervening temperate and tropical seas1 so that no limits appear to have been set to their excursions4 ,the sperm whale1 or cachalot1 though partial to the equinoctial ocean1 is also found in the cold ,antarctic waters4 ,it was met with by ,sir ,james ,ross among the icebergs in #fc #bj ,s4 lat42 and near ,possession ,island 7#ga #ej ,s4 lat471 where the hunch-backs were so abundant that thirty were counted at one time in various directions1 and during the whole day wherever the eyes turned their blasts were to be seen4 ,a few sperm whales were also distinguished among them by their peculiar manner of blowing or spouting4 ,among the dolphins of the ,antarctic ,ocean we find a species of grampus no less formidable and voracious than that of the northern seas4 ,on ,january #bj1 #ahdj1 the ,american ship 8,peacock10 while cruising in the ,antarctic waters1 witnessed a conflict between one of them and a whale4 ,the sea was perfectly smooth1 so that the whole combat could be distinctly seen4 ,at first the whale was perceived at some distance from the ship lashing the water into foam1 and apparently making desperate efforts to shake off some invisible enemy4 ,on approaching1 they found that an enormous grampus had seized it with its jaws4 ,the whale vainly turned and twisted itself in every direction1 and its blood tinged the water far around4 ,the grampus had evidently the advantage1 and the other whales1 of which there were many in sight1 instead of assisting their comrade1 seemed only intent on their own safety4 ,the grampus had a brown back1 a white abdomen1 and a large fin on its back4 ,the speed at which the monstrous animals shot through the water prevented the ,americans from witnessing the issue of the fight4 ,the classical dolphin of the ancients has been seen near the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and most likely wanders far to the south1 as he is proverbial for his arrow-like rapidity1 and can easily traverse a couple of hundred miles in a single day4 ,in the ,strait of ,magellan and about ,cape ,horn are frequently seen the ,delphinus superciliosus1 whose turned-up mouth-corners give his countenance a peculiarly benevolent and friendly expression1 belied by his ravenous propensities1 and the ,delphinus leucoramphus1 who1 like the bjeluga of the north1 has no dorsal fin1 and by the liveliness of his movements emulates the classical dolphin of the ,mediterranean4 ,the seal family plays a no less important part in the zoology of the ,antarctic ,seas than in that of the northern waters4 ,here we find the monstrous sea-elephant 7,macrorhinus elephantinus71 so called not only from his size attaining a length of twenty-five feet1 and a girth at the largest part of the body of from fifteen to eighteen1 but also from the singular structure of his elongated nostrils1 which hang down when he is in a state of repose1 but swell out to a proboscis a foot long when he is enraged4 ,this gives the animal a very formidable appearance1 which1 along with his bellowing and his widely-gaping jaws armed with tusk-like canines1 might strike terror into the boldest heart4 ,but in reality the sea-elephant is a most defenseless creature1 for on land it moves its unwieldy carcass with the utmost difficulty1 and a single blow upon the snout with a club suffices to stretch it lifeless on the ground4 ,it used to be met with in considerable numbers on all the flat shores or islands between #ce and #fb ,s4 lat41 but as it yields a large quantity of excellent oil1 and as its skin1 though merely covered with thick short bristles1 is of some value from its great strength and thickness1 incessant persecution has greatly thinned its ranks1 and in some parts extirpated it4 ,thus ,sir ,james ,ross relates that the sea-elephant and several other species of seals1 which were formerly in great abundance at ,kerguelen's ,land1 annually drew a number of fishing-vessels to its shores4 ,but at the time of his visit 7#ahdj71 after so many years of slaughter1 they had quite deserted the place4 ,the flesh of the sea-elephant is black1 and of an oily taste1 but ,anson and his companions1 after having been tossed about for several months on a tempestuous sea and reduced to great distress by scurvy1 relished it at ,juan ,fernandez4 ,the tongue is said to be a great delicacy4 ,as the soft jet-black fur of the young southern sea-bear 7,arctocephalus falclandicus7 is no less valuable than that of its northern relative1 the eagerness with which it is pursued may easily be imagined4 ,formerly vast herds of sea-bears used to resort every summer to the ,new ,shetland ,islands1 but soon after the rediscovery of the group the ,american and ,english sealers made their appearance on its desolate shores1 and in the short time of four years extirpated the ursine seals1 thus destroying by wasteful destruction what might have been a permanent source of profit4 ,the southern sea-lion 7,otaria jubata7 is a larger animal than his northern namesake2 and while the latter is furnished only with an erect and curly hair-tuft at the neck1 a complete mane flows round his breast4 ,the remainder of the tawny body is covered with short smooth hairs or bristles4 ,the sea-lioness1 who is much smaller than her mate1 has no mane2 and as she is of a darker color and has a differently shaped head1 is frequently mistaken for another species1 and called wolf1 or lobo1 by the inhabitants of the south-western coast of ,america4 ,the fore flippers of the sea-lion have the appearance of large pieces of black tough leather1 showing1 instead of nails1 slight horny elevations2 the hind fins1 which are likewise black1 have a closer resemblance to feet1 and the five toes are furnished with small nails4 ,it is a formidable-looking beast1 particularly when full grown to a length of ten feet and more4 ,the sea-leopard 7,leptonyx ,weddelli71 which owes its name to its spotted skin1 is peculiar to the southern seas4 ,this large seal is from eight to nine feet long2 the hind feet have no nails1 and greatly resemble the tail of a fish4 ,the ,antarctic seals1 dolphins1 and petrels chiefly prey upon a genus of fish discovered at ,kerguelen's ,land1 and named ,notothenia by ,dr4 ,richardson4 ,these fish1 which are of an elongated eel-like shape1 conceal themselves from the persecutions of their enemies in the small cracks and cavities of the pack-ice1 and were frequently noticed by ,sir ,james ,ross when driven from shelter by the ship as it struck and passed over their protecting pieces of ice4 ,they in their turn live upon the smaller cancri and limacin1 and these again upon creatures of a still more diminutive size1 until finally the chain of created beings terminates in the diatoms1#bc which are found filling these seas with the minutest forms of organic life4 ,,chapter ,,xxxviii4 ,,antarctic ,,voyages ,,of ,,discovery4 ,cook's ,discoveries in the ,antarctic ,ocean4--,bellinghausen4-- ,weddell4--,biscoe4--,balleny4--,dumont d',urville4--,wilkes4-- ,sir ,james ,ross crosses the ,antarctic ,circle on ,new ,year's ,day1 #ahda4--;,discovers ,victoria ,land4--,dangerous ,landing on ,franklin ,island4--,an ,eruption of ,mount ,erebus4--,the ,great ,ice ,barrier4-- ,providential ,escape4--,dreadful ,gale4--,collision4--,hazardous ,passage between two ,icebergs4--,termination of the ,voyage4 ,before ,cook1 no navigator had left ,europe with the clear design of penetrating into the ,antarctic regions4 ,dirk ,gheritz indeed had been driven by a furious storm far to the south of ,cape ,horn1 and became the involuntary discoverer of the ,new ,shetland ,islands in #afjj2 but his voyage was soon forgotten1 and in an age when the love of gold or the desire of conquest were the sole promoters of maritime enterprise1 no mariner felt inclined to follow on his track1 and to plunge into a sea where most probably he would find nothing but ice-fields and icebergs to reward his efforts4 ,nearly two centuries later a more scientific age directed its attention to the unknown regions of the distant south1 and ,cook sailed forth to probe the secrets of the ,antarctic ,seas4 ,this dangerous task he executed with an intrepidity unparalleled in the annals of navigation4 ,beyond #fj of southern latitude1 he cruised over a space of more than #ajj of longitude1 and on ,january #cj1 #aggd1 penetrated as far as #ga of southern latitude1 where he was stopped by impenetrable masses of ice4 ,such were the difficulties encountered from dense fogs1 snow-storms1 intense cold1 and every thing that can render navigation dangerous1 that in his opinion the lands situated to the southward of his discoveries must forever remain unknown4 ,again for many a year no one attempted to enter a field where the most celebrated of modern mariners had found but a few desert islands 7,south ,georgia1 ,sandwich's ,land1 ,southern ,thule7 until ,smith's casual rediscovery of ,new ,south ,shetland in #ahai once more turned the current of maritime exploration to the ,antarctic ,seas4 ,soon afterwards a ,russian expedition under ,lazareff and ,bellinghausen discovered 7,january1 #ahba71 in #fi #c ,s4 lat41 the islands ,paul the ,first and ,alexander1 the most southern lands that had ever been visited by man4 ,the year after ,captain ,weddell1 a sealer1 penetrated into the icy ocean as far as #gd #ae ,s4 lat41 #c nearer to the pole than had been attained by ,cook4 ,the sea lay invitingly open1 but as the season was far advanced1 and ,weddell apprehended the dangers of the return voyage1 he steered again to the north4 ,in #ahca ,biscoe discovered ,enderby ,land1 and soon afterwards ,graham's ,land1 to which the gratitude of geographers has since given the discoverer's name4 ,in #ahci ,balleny revealed the existence of the group of islands called after him1 and of ,sabrina ,land 7#fi ,s4 lat474 ,about the same time three considerable expeditions1 fitted out by the governments of ,france1 the ,united ,states1 and ,england1 made their appearance in the ,antarctic ,seas4 ,dumont d',urville discovered ,terre ,louis ,philippe 7#fc #ca ,s4 lat47 in ,february1 #ahch1 and ,terre ,adlie 7#ff #fg ,s4 lat47 on ,january #ba1 #ahdj4 ,almost on the same day1 ,wilkes1 the commander of the ,united ,states ,exploring ,expedition1 reached an ice-bound coast1 which he followed for a length of #aejj miles1 and which has been called ,wilkes's ,land1 to commemorate the discoverer's name4 ,but of all the explorers of the southern frozen ocean1 the palm unquestionably belongs to ,sir ,james ,ross who penetrated farther towards the pole than any other navigator before or after1 and made the only discoveries of extensive land within the area bounded by the ,antarctic ,circle4 ,on ,new ,year's ,day1 #ahda1 the 8,erebus10 ,captain ,james ,clark ,ross1 and the 8,terror10 commanded by ,francis ,crozier1 who died with ,franklin in the ,arctic ,sea1 crossed the ,antarctic ,circle1 and after sustaining many severe shocks in breaking through the pack-ice1 emerged on ,january #i into a clear sea of great extent2 but the fog and snow-showers were so thick that the navigators could seldom see more than half a mile before them4 ,on the following day the fog began to disperse1 and on the #aath1 ,victoria ,land1 rising in lofty peaks entirely covered with perennial snow1 was seen at a distance of more than one hundred miles4 ,on steering towards ,mount ,sabine1 the highest mountain of the range1 new chains of hills were seen extending to the right and left4 ,after sailing for a few days to the south along the ice-bound coast1 a gale forced the ships to stand out to sea2 but on the morning of ,january #ae1 the weather becoming beautifully clear1 allowed a full view of a magnificent chain of mountains stretching far away to the southward4 ,ross was most anxious to find a harbor in which to secure the ships1 but every indentation of the coast was found filled with snow drifted from the mountains1 and forming a mass of ice several hundred feet thick4 ,it was thus impossible to enter any of the valleys or breaks in the coast where harbors in other lands usually occur4 ,yet these inhospitable shores 7#gb #gc ,s4 lat47 are situated but one or two degrees nearer to the pole than ,hammerfest1 the seat of an active commerce on the ,norwegian coast4 ,favored by northerly winds and an open sea1 the ships reached on ,january #bb a higher southern latitude 7#gd #bj ,s47 than that which had been attained by ,weddell4 ,pursuing their way to the southward along the edge of the pack-ice1 which now compelled them to keep at a considerable distance from the coast1 they came on the #bgth within two or three miles of a small island connected by a vast ice-field with the extreme point of the mainland4 ,eager to set his foot on the most southerly soil 7#gf #h ,s47 he had as yet discovered1 ,ross left the 8,erebus10 accompanied by several officers1 and1 followed by ,crozier and a party from the 8,terror10 pulled towards the shore4 ,a high southerly swell broke so heavily against the cliffs and on the only piece of beach which they could see as they rowed from one end of the island to the other1 as almost to forbid their landing4 ,by great skill and management ,ross succeeded in jumping on to the rocks4 ,by means of a rope some of the officers landed somewhat more easily1 but not without getting thoroughly wetted1 and one of them nearly lost his life in this difficult affair4 ,the thermometer being at #bb1 every part of the rocks washed by the waves was covered with a coating of ice1 so that in jumping from the boat he slipped from them into the water between her stern and the almost perpendicular rock on which his companions had landed4 ,but for the promptitude of the men in the boat in instantly pulling off1 he must have been crushed between it and the rock4 ,he was taken into the boat without having suffered any other injury than being benumbed by the cold4 ,the island1 which received the name of ,franklin1 bore not the smallest trace of vegetation1 not even a lichen or piece of sea-weed growing on the rocks2 but the white petrel and the skua-gull had their nests on the ledges of the cliffs1 and seals were seen sporting in the water4 ,the following day was memorable for the discovery of the southernmost known land of the globe1 a magnificent mountain chain1 to which the name of ,parry was given1 in grateful remembrance of the honor which that illustrious navigator had conferred on ,ross1 by calling the most northern land at that time known by his name4 ,it is not often that men are able to reciprocate such compliments as these6 ,the most conspicuous object of the chain was ,mount ,erebus 7#gg #e ,s471 an active volcano1 of which ,ross had the good-fortune to witness a magnificent eruption4 ,the enormous columns of flame and smoke rising two thousand feet above the mouth of the crater1 which is elevated #ab1djj feet above the level of the sea1 combined with the snow-white mountain chain and the deep-blue ocean to form a magnificent scene4 ,an extinct volcano to the eastward of ,mount ,erebus1 and a little inferior in height1 being by measurement #aj1ijj feet high1 was called 8,mount ,terror40 ,a brilliant mantle of snow swept down the sides of both these giants of the south1 and projected a perpendicular icy cliff several miles into the sea4 ,gladly would ,ross have penetrated still farther to the south1 but all his efforts were baffled by a vast barrier of ice1 forming an uninterrupted wall1 #dej miles in length1 and rising in some parts to a height of #ahj feet above the sea-level4 ,while sailing along this barrier1 the ships were frequently obliged by the wind and the closely-packed ice to keep at a considerable distance2 but on ,february #i1 having entered the only indentation which they had perceived throughout its whole extent1 they had an excellent opportunity of getting quite close to it1 though at no little hazard4 ,this bay was formed by a projecting peninsula of ice1 terminated by a cape #agj feet high2 but at the narrow isthmus which connected it with the great barrier it was not more than fifty feet high1 affording ,ross the only opportunity he had of seeing its upper surface from the mast-head4 ,it appeared to be quite smooth1 and conveyed to the mind the idea of an immense plain of frosted silver4 ,gigantic icicles depended from every projecting point of its perpendicular cliffs1 proving that it sometimes thawed1 which otherwise could not have been believed2 for at a season of the year equivalent to ,august in ,england1 the thermometer at noon did not rise above #ad1 and the young ice formed so quickly in the sheltered bay as to warn them of the necessity of a speedy retreat4 ,favored by the breeze1 and by dint of great exertion1 they ultimately emerged from their dangerous position1 but scarcely had they escaped when the wind came directly against them1 so that had they lingered but half an hour longer near the barrier they would certainly have been frozen up4 ,on ,february #ac the approach of winter convinced ,ross that it was high time to relinquish the further examination of the barrier to the eastward2 and as no place of security where it was possible to winter could be found upon any part of the land hitherto discovered1 he reluctantly resolved to recross the ,antarctic ,circle1 and postpone all attempts to reach the pole to the next season4 ,the return voyage was difficult and dangerous4 ,on ,march #g1 the ships1 while endeavoring to find a way through the pack-ice in lat4 #fe1 had a narrow escape from imminent destruction4 ,the wind having ceased1 they found themselves at the mercy of a heavy easterly swell1 which was driving them down upon the pack1 in which were counted from the mast-head eighty-four large bergs1 and some hundreds of smaller size4 ,as they rapidly approached this formidable chain1 no opening could be discovered through which the ships could pass2 the waves were beating violently against the bergs1 and dashing huge masses of pack-ice against their precipitous faces1 now lifting them nearly to their summit1 then forcing them again far beneath their water-line1 and sometimes rending them in a multitude of brilliant fragments against their projecting points4 8,sublime and magnificent10 says ,ross1 8as such a scene must have appeared under different circumstances1 to us it was awful1 if not appalling4 ,for eight hours we had been gradually drifting towards what to human eyes appeared inevitable destruction2 the high waves and deep rolling of our ships rendered towing with the boats impossible1 and our situation the more painful and embarrassing from our inability to make any effort to avoid the dreadful calamity that seemed to await us4444 ,we were now within half a mile of the range of bergs4 ,the roar of the surf1 which extended each way as far as we could see1 and the crashing of the ice1 fell upon the ear with fearful distinctness1 whilst the frequently averted eye as immediately returned to contemplate the awful destruction that threatened in one short hour to close the world1 and all its hopes1 and joys1 and sorrows upon us forever4 ,in this our deep distress #8we called upon the ,lord1 and ,he heard our voices out of ,his temple1 and our cry came before ,him4' ,a gentle air of wind filled our sails2 hope again revived1 and the greatest activity prevailed to make the best use of the feeble breeze2 as it gradually freshened1 our heavy ships began to feel its influence1 slowly at first1 but more rapidly afterwards1 and before dark we found ourselves far removed from every danger40 ,after passing the winter at ,hobarton1 the capital of ,tasmania1 ,sir ,james ,ross1 in the following year1 once more crossed the ,antarctic ,circle to examine the icy barrier which in his previous voyage had blocked his progress to the south1 and to renew his attempts to pass round or through it4 ,but there were new dangers to be encountered4 ,on ,january #ag1 #ahdb1 a fearful storm came on as the 8,erebus0 and 8,terror0 were making their way through the pack-ice1 which was this time met with in a more northern latitude than the year before4 ,the sea broke all the hawsers which held them to a large piece of floe1 and drove them helplessly along into the heavy pack4 ,they were now involved in an ocean of rolling fragments of ice1 which were dashed against them by the waves with so much violence that their masts quivered as if they would fall at every successive blow4 ,the loud crashing noise of the straining and working of the timbers and decks1 as they were driven against some of the heavier pieces1 might well appall the stoutest heart1 and thus hour passed away after hour4 ,during this terrible scene the ships were at one time so close together that when the 8,terror0 rose to the top of one wave1 the 8,erebus0 was on the top of the wave next to leeward of her1 the deep chasm between them being filled with heavy rolling masses2 and as the ships descended into the hollow between the waves1 the maintopsail-yard of each could be seen1 just level with the crest of the intervening wave1 from the deck of the other4 ,the night1 which now began to draw in1 rendered their condition1 if possible1 more hopeless and helpless than before2 but at midnight the snow1 which had been falling thickly for several hours1 cleared away1 as the wind suddenly shifted to the westward2 the swell began to subside1 and the shocks which the ships still sustained1 though strong enough to shatter any vessel less strongly ribbed1 were feeble compared with those to which they had been exposed4 ,on the following day1 the wind having moderated to a fresh breeze1 the crippled ships1 whose rudders had been sorely shattered1 were securely moored to a large floe-piece in the now almost motionless pack1 where1 by dint of unceasing labor1 the damages were repaired in the course of a week1 and the vessels once more fitted to fight their way to the south4 ,on ,february #bb the great barrier was seen from the mast-head1 just before midnight1 and the following day1 the wind blowing directly on to its cliffs1 they approached it within a mile and a half1 in lat4 #gh #aa1 the highest ever attained in the southern hemisphere4 ,from this point1 situated about #e of longitude farther to the east than the indentation where the ships had so narrowly escaped being frozen fast in the preceding year1 the barrier trended considerably to the northward of east1 so that ,ross was obliged to give up all hope of rounding it1 and extending his explorations towards the pole1 as the season was already considerably advanced4 ,on his return voyage to the ,falklands1 where he intended to pass the winter1 he had already reached the latitude of #fj1 and thought himself out of danger of meeting with bergs1 when1 in the afternoon of ,march #ab1 the southerly wind changed to a strong north-westerly breeze4 ,in the evening the wind increased so much1 and the snow-showers became so incessant1 that he was obliged to proceed under more moderate sail4 ,small pieces of ice were also met with1 warning him of the presence of bergs1 concealed by the thickly-falling snow1 so that before midnight he directed the topsails of the 8,erebus0 to be close-reefed1 and every arrangement made for rounding to until daylight1 deeming it too hazardous to run any longer4 8,our people10 says the gallant explorer1 8had hardly completed these operations1 when a large berg was seen ahead and quite close2 the ship was immediately hauled to the wind on the port tack1 with the expectation of being able to weather it2 but just at this moment the #8,terror' was observed running down upon us1 under her topsail and foresail2 and as it was impossible for her to clear both the berg and the #8,erebus1' collision was inevitable4 ,we instantly hove all aback to diminish the violence of the shock2 but the concussion when she struck us was such as to throw almost every one off his feet2 our bowsprit1 foretopmast1 and other smaller spars1 were carried away1 and the ships hanging together entangled by their rigging1 and dashing against each other with fearful violence1 were falling down upon the weather face of the lofty berg under our lee1 against which the waves were breaking and foaming to near the summit of its perpendicular cliffs4 ,sometimes the #8,terror' rose high above us1 almost exposing her keel to view1 and again descended1 as we in our turn rose to the top of the wave1 threatening to bury her beneath us1 whilst the crashing of the breaking upper-works and boats increased the horror of the scene4 ,providentially the ships gradually separated before we drifted down amongst the foaming breakers1 and we had the gratification of seeing the #8,terror' clear the end of the berg1 and of feeling that she was safe4 ,but she left us completely disabled2 the wreck of the spars so encumbered the lower yard that we were unable to make sail so as to get headway on the ship2 nor had we room to wear round1 being by this time so close to the berg that the waves1 when they struck against it1 threw back their spray into the ship4 ,the only way left to us to extricate ourselves from this awful and appalling situation was by resorting to the hazardous expedient of a stern board1 which nothing could justify during such a gale but to avert the danger which every moment threatened us of being dashed to pieces4 ,the heavy rolling of the vessel1 and the probability of the masts giving away each time the lower yard-arms struck against the cliffs1 which were towering high above our mast-heads1 rendered it a service of extreme danger to loose the mainsail2 but no sooner was the order given1 than the daring spirit of the ,british seaman manifested itself--the men ran up the rigging with as much alacrity as on any ordinary occasion2 and1 although more than once driven off the yard1 they after a short time succeeded in loosing the sail4 ,amidst the roar of the wind and sea1 it was difficult both to hear and to execute the orders that were given1 so that it was three-quarters of an hour before we could get the yards braced by2 and the main tack hauled on board sharp aback--an expedient that perhaps had never before been resorted to by seamen in such weather2 but it had the desired effect2 the ship gathered sternway1 plunging her stern into the sea1 and with her lower yard-arms scraping the rugged face of the berg1 we in a few minutes reached its western termination2 the #8under-tow1' as it is called1 or the reaction of the water from its vertical cliffs1 alone preventing us being driven to atoms against it4 ,no sooner had we cleared it than another was seen directly astern of us1 against which we were running2 and the difficulty now was to get the ship's head turned round and pointed fairly through between the two bergs1 the breadth of the intervening space not exceeding three times her own breadth4 ,this1 however1 we happily accomplished2 and in a few minutes1 after getting before the wind1 she dashed through the narrow channel between two perpendicular walls of ice1 and the foaming breakers which stretched across it1 and the next moment we were in smooth water under its lee4 ,the #8,terror's' light was immediately seen and answered2 she had rounded to1 waiting for us4441 and1 as soon as day broke1 we had the gratification of learning that she had not suffered any serious damage40 ,on ,december #ag ,sir ,james ,ross sailed from the ,falkland ,islands1 with the intention of following the track of ,weddell1 as1 from the account of that daring navigator1 he had every reason to expect to find a clear sea1 which would enable him considerably to extend the limits of geographical knowledge towards the pole4 ,he was disappointed1 for though he discovered some new land 7#fc-fd #cj ,s4 lat41 #ee-eg ,w4 long47 to the south of ,d',urville's ,terre ,louis ,philippe1 yet the pack-ice so blocked his progress that the farthest point he could attain was in lat4 #ga #cj ,s41 long4 #ad #ea ,w4 ,on ,march #a he recrossed the ,antarctic ,circle1 and on the #bhth of the same month dropped his anchors at the ,cape4 ,thus ended this most remarkable voyage1 so honorable to all engaged in it1 for1 as ,sir ,john ,richardson justly remarks1 8the perseverance1 daring1 and coolness of the commanding officer1 of the other officers1 and of the crews of the #8,erebus' and #8,terror1' was never surpassed1 and have been rarely1 if ever1 equalled by seamen of any nation40 ,since then the 8,pagoda10 which had been sent out by the ,admiralty for the purpose of observing magnetic phenomena in a quarter of the ,antarctic ,seas that had not been visited by ,sir ,james ,ross1 attained the #gc;d parallel1 but no more recent expedition has been fitted out to prosecute his discoveries1 and no man after him has seen ,mount ,erebus vomiting forth its torrents of flame1 or traced the stupendous barrier which stopped his progress to the pole4 ,illustration3 #abc4 ,,strait ,,of ,,magellan4 ,,chapter ,,xxxix4 ,,the ,,strait ,,of ,,magellan4 ,description of the ,strait4--,western ,entrance4--,point ,dungeness4-- ,the ,narrows4--,saint ,philip's ,bay4--,cape ,froward4--,grand ,scenery4--,port ,famine4--,the ,sedger ,river4--,darwin's ,ascent of ,mount ,tarn4--,the ,bachelor ,river4--,english ,reach4--,sea ,reach4-- ,south ,desolation4--,harbor of ,mercy4--,williwaws4--,discovery of the ,strait by ,magellan 7,october #bj1 #aeba74--;,drake4--,sarmiento4-- ,cavendish4--,schouten and ,le ,maire4--,byron4--,bougainville4-- ,wallis and ,carteret4--,king and ,fitzroy4--,settlement at ,punta ,arenas4--,increasing ,passage through the ,strait4--,a future ,highway of ,commerce4 ,the celebrated strait which bears the name of ,magellan is generally pictured as the scene of a wild and dreary desolation2 but though its climate is far from being genial1 and its skies are often veiled with mists and rain1 yet nature can smile even here4 ,a glance at the map shows us the extreme irregularity of its formation1 as it is constantly changing in width and direction2 now swelling almost to the magnitude of a ,mediterranean ,sea1 and then again contracting to a narrow passage2 sometimes taking a rapid turn to the north1 and at others as suddenly deviating to the south4 ,islands and islets of every form--some mere naked rocks1 others clothed with umbrageous woods--are scattered over its surface2 promontories without number1 from the ,patagonian mainland or the ,fuegian archipelago1 protrude their bold fronts into its bosom1 as if with the intention of closing it altogether2 and countless bays and havens are scooped into its rocky shores1 as if the sea in a thousand different places had striven to open a new passage to her waters4 ,the western entrance of this remarkable strait is formed by ,queen ,catherine's ,foreland 7,cape ,virgins7 and ,point ,dungeness1 the latter having been thus named from its resemblance to the well-known ,kentish promontory at the eastern mouth of the channel4 ,although it rises at most nine feet above low-water mark1 the snow-white breakers which the tides are constantly dashing over its sides render it visible from a great distance4 ,it is generally the resort of a number of sea-lions4 ,when the wind comes blowing from the north-east1 the passing mariner-- who1 from the shallow nature of the shore1 is obliged to keep at some distance from the ,ness--hears their hoarse bellowing1 which harmonizes well with the wild and desolate character of the scene4 ,albatrosses and petrels hover about them1 while rows of grave-looking penguins seem to contemplate their doings with philosophic indifference4 ,beyond these promontories the strait widens into ,possession ,bay1 which at ,punta ,delgada and ,cape ,orange contracts to a narrow passage4 ,this leads into a wide basin1 to which the ,spaniards have given the name of ,saint ,philip's ,bay1 and which again terminates in a second narrow passage or channel1 a formation resembling on a small scale the ,sea of ,marmora1 which1 as we all know1 has likewise the semblance of a lake1 receiving and discharging its waters through the ,dardanelles and the ,strait of ,constantinople4 ,during the rising of the flood1 a strong current flows through all these bays and narrows from the west1 so as to allow ships an easy passage1 even against the wind2 but during ebb tide the current turns to the east1 so that at this time a vessel1 even when favored by the wind1 makes but little progress1 or is even obliged to anchor to avoid losing ground4 ,when ,magellan1 after sailing round ,cape ,virgins1 penetrated into the strait1 this circumstance at once convinced that great navigator that he was not in an inclosed bay1 but in an open channel1 which would lead him into another ocean4 ,thus far the country on both sides of the strait consists of nearly level plains1 like those of ,patagonia2 but beyond the second ,narrows the land begins to assume the more bold and picturesque appearance which is characteristic of ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,mountains rise above mountains with deep intervening valleys1 all covered by one thick1 dusky mass of forest2 while farther to the east scarcely a bush clothes the naked soil4 ,the trees reach to an elevation of between #ajjj and #aejj feet1 and are succeeded by a band of peat1 with minute ,alpine plants1 and this again is succeeded by the line of perpetual snow1 which1 according to ,captain ,king1 descends to between #cjjj and #djjj feet4 ,the finest scenery about the ,strait of ,magellan is undoubtedly to the east of ,cape ,froward1 the most southerly point of the mainland of ,south ,america4 ,this promontory1 which consists of a steep mass of rock about #hjj feet high1 abutting from a mountain chain of about #bjjj or #cjjj feet in height1 forms the boundary between two very different climates1 for to the east the weather is finer and more agreeable than to the west1 where wind and rain are almost perpetual4 ,on the ,patagonian plains1 the drought and the want of protection against the piercing winds almost entirely impede vegetation2 but the country between ,cape ,negro--a little within the second ,narrows--and ,cape ,froward1 or the eastern shore of ,brunswick ,peninsula1 is shielded by its situation against the almost perpetual storms from the west1 and enjoys1 moreover1 a sufficiency of rain1 and now and then serene weather4 ,as1 moreover1 the soil in this central part of the strait consists of disintegrated clay-slate1 which is most favorable to the growth of trees1 the forests1 from all these causes1 are finer here than anywhere else4 ,the country about ,port ,famine is particularly distinguished for the richness of its vegetation2 and both for this reason1 and from its central situation1 this harbor has become a kind of chief station for the ships that pass through the strait4 ,several unfortunate attempts at colonization have been made at ,port ,famine2 here many a naturalist has tarried1 and thus no part of the strait has been oftener described or more accurately observed4 8,the anchorage10 says ,dumont d',urville1 who1 in ,december1 #ahcg1 spent several days at ,port ,famine1 8is excellent1 and landing everywhere easy4 ,a fine rivulet gives us excellent water1 and the neighboring forests might furnish whole fleets with the necessary fuel4 ,the cliffs along the shore are literally covered with mussels1 limpets1 and whelks1 which afford a delicious variety of fare to a crew tired of salt beef and peas4 ,among the plants ,i noticed with pleasure a species of celery1 which1 with another herb resembling our corn flower in form and taste1 gives promise of an excellent salad4 8,i made use of my first leisure to visit the romantic banks of the ,sedger ,river1 which discharges its waters on the western side of the port4 ,at its mouth the swampy strand is completely covered with enormous trees heaped upon the ground4 ,these naked giants1 stripped of their branches1 afford a remarkable spectacle3 they might be taken for huge bones bleached by time4 ,no doubt they are transported from the neighboring forest by the waters of the river1 which1 when it overflows its banks1 after a deluge of rain1 tears along with it the trees it meets with in its course4 ,arrested by the bar at the mouth of the stream1 they are cast out upon its banks1 where they remain when the waters sink to their usual level4 8,having crossed the river1 ,i entered the large and fine forest with which it is bordered4 ,the chief tree is the ,antarctic beech 7,fagus betuloides71 which is often from sixty to ninety feet high1 and about three feet in diameter4 ,along with this are two other trees1 the winter's bark 7,winteria aromatica71 and a species of berberis1 with a very solid wood2 but they are much less abundant1 and of a much smaller size4 ,with the exception of mosses1 lichens1 and other plants of this order1 these forests afford but little that is interesting to the naturalist--no quadrupeds1 no reptiles1 no land-snails2 a few insects and some birds are the only specimens to be gained after a long search4 ,after collecting a good supply of mosses and lichens1 ,i returned to the boat for the purpose of rowing up the river4 ,although the current was tolerably rapid1 we advanced about two miles1 admiring the beauty of its umbrageous banks4 ,on my return ,i shot two geese that were crossing the river over our heads1 and whose excellent meat amply supplied my table for several days4 ,this1 together with the little gobies which were abundantly caught with hand-lines1 the large mussels we detached from the rocks1 and the celery-salad1 gave me dinners fit for an alderman4 ,how often since have ,i regretted the plenty of ,port ,famine60 ,in the month of ,february 7#ahcd71 in the height of the ,antarctic summer1 ,mr4 ,darwin ascended ,mount ,tarn1 which is #bfjj feet high1 and the most elevated point in the vicinity of ,port ,famine4 8,the forest10 says our great naturalist1 8commences at the line of high-water mark1 and during the first two hours ,i gave over all hopes of reaching the summit4 ,so thick was the wood that it was necessary to have constant recourse to the compass1 for every landmark1 though in a mountainous country1 was completely shut out4 ,in the deep ravines the death-like scene of desolation exceeded all description2 outside it was blowing a gale1 but in these hollows not even a breath of wind stirred the leaves of the tallest trees4 ,so gloomy1 cold1 and wet was every part1 that not even the fungi1 mosses1 or ferns could flourish4 ,in the valleys it was scarcely possible to crawl along1 they were so completely barricaded by great mouldering trunks1 which had fallen down in every direction4 ,when passing over these natural bridges1 one's course was often arrested by sinking knee-deep into the rotten wood2 at other times1 when attempting to lean against a tree1 one was startled by finding a mass of decayed matter1 ready to fall at the slightest touch4 ,we at last found ourselves among the stunted trees1 and then soon reached the bare ridge1 which conducted us to the summit4 ,here was a view characteristic of ,tierra del ,fuego2 irregular chains of hills1 mottled with patches of snow1 deep yellowish-green valleys1 and arms of the sea intersecting the land in many directions4 ,the strong wind was piercingly cold1 and the atmosphere rather hazy1 so that we did not stay long on the top of the mountain4 ,our descent was not quite so laborious as our ascent2 for the weight of the body forced a passage1 and all the slips and falls were in the right direction40 ,to the west of ,cape ,froward the strait extends in a north-westerly1 almost rectilinear direction1 until it finally opens into the ,pacific1 between ,cape ,pillar and ,cape ,victory4 ,here a day rarely passes without rain1 hail1 or snow4 ,where the dreadful power of the prevailing winds has free play1 the mountain sides are naked and bare1 but in every sheltered nook the damp climate produces a luxuriant vegetation4 ,the trees1 however1 do not attain any great height1 and at ,port ,gallant the beech is already decidedly stunted in its growth4 ,this is no doubt caused by the excessive humidity of the soil1 which in all lower situations is converted by the continual rains into a deep morass4 ,the trunks and the branches are covered with a thick layer of moss1 and the tree becomes rotten in its youth4 ,but many shrubs1 herbs1 and mosses thrive under the perpetual deluge2 the latter particularly1 covering large patches of ground with a spongy carpet4 ,it may easily be imagined how difficult1 or rather impossible it must be to penetrate into the interior of such a country4 ,yet even these wild inhospitable regions can boast of many a romantic scene4 ,thus the ,english ,reach1 which extends from ,cape ,froward to ,carlos ,island1 is bounded on both sides by lofty mountains1 their cones or jagged peaks covered with eternal snow4 ,its southern bank1 formed by ,clarence ,island1 is intersected with bays and channels1 two of which1 ,magdalena ,sound and ,barbara ,channel1 lead through a maze of islands into the open sea4 ,several glaciers descend in a winding course from the upper great expanse of snow to the sea-coast1 and many a cascade comes dashing down from rock to rock4 ,skogman#bd draws an enthusiastic picture of the beauty of ,york ,roads near the mouth of the small ,bachelor ,river4 ,to the south1 behind ,carlos ,island1 mountains rise above mountains1 and snow-fields above snow-fields2 to the north lies the jagged colossus1 which from its solitary grandeur has been called ,bachelor ,peak1 and at whose foot the crystal river now hides itself beneath a shady wood1 and now rolls its crystal waters through a green lawn1 decorated with clumps of fuchsias4 ,but in spite of its romantic beauty1 the want of life gives a melancholy character to this solitary vale4 ,beyond ,carlos ,island in ,long ,reach1 the banks of the strait become yet more bare and desolate4 ,vegetation descends lower and lower into the valleys1 and even here the trees are misshapen and dwarfish4 ,but the mountain scenery has still all the majesty which snow-fields and glaciers of a beryl-like blue impart to an ,alpine landscape4 ,as ,sea ,reach shows itself1 vegetation is almost totally extinct1 and on approaching the mouth of the strait1 the mountains become lower1 their forms are less picturesque1 and instead of the stern grandeur which marks the middle part of the strait1 low1 rounded1 barren hills make their appearance1 which completely justify the name of ,south ,desolation1 which ,sir ,james ,narborough gave to this coast1 8because it was so desolate a land to behold40 ,it may easily be imagined that the prevailing winds beyond ,cape ,froward are extremely troublesome to ships sailing to the western mouth of the strait1 and that if not entirely beaten back1 they can frequently only force the passage after many efforts4 ,fortunately1 the deeply indented coasts possess a number of small havens which may serve the mariner as stations during his gradual advance4 ,thus1 close to the mouth of the strait1 where1 between ,cape ,victory and ,cape ,pillar1 the sea during and after storms is so boisterous that even steamers require their utmost strength not to be dashed against the rocks1 a secure port1 appropriately called 8,harbor of ,mercy10 allows the vessels to watch for more tranquil weather1 and to seize the first favorable opportunity for emerging into the open sea4 ,but even these harbors and bays are subject to peculiar dangers from sudden gusts of wind that come sweeping down from the mountains1 and are known among the seal-catchers who frequent these dangerous waters under the name of williwaws1 or hurricane squalls4 ,for when the wild south-west storms come rushing against the mountain-masses of ,tierra del ,fuego1 the compressed air precipitates itself with redoubled violence over the rock-walls1 and then suddenly expanding1 flows down the valleys or gullies1 tearing up trees by the roots1 and hurling rocks into the abyss4 ,where such a gust of wind touches the surface of the water1 the sea surges in mighty waves1 and volumes of spray are whirled away to a vast distance4 ,if a ship comes under its influence1 its safety depends mainly upon the strength of its anchor ropes4 ,some situations are particularly subject to williwaws1 and then the total want of vegetation and the evident marks of ruin along the mountain slopes warn the mariner to avoid the neighborhood4 ,in ,gabriel ,channel ,captain ,king saw a spot where the williwaws1 bursting over the mountains on the south side1 had swept down the declivities1 and then rushing against the foot of the opposite hills1 had again dashed upward with such fury as to carry away with them every thing that could possibly be attached from the bare rock4 ,it was a memorable day in the annals of maritime discovery 7,october #bj1 #aeba7 when ,magellan reached the eastern entrance of the strait that was to lead him1 first of all ,european navigators1 from the broad basin of the ,atlantic into the still wider expanse of the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,it was the day dedicated in the ,catholic calendar to ,st4 ,ursula and her eleven thousand virgins1 and he consequently named the promontory which first struck his view 8,cabo de las ,virgines40 ,the flood tide1 streaming violently to the west1 convinced him that he was at the mouth of an open channel1 but he had scarcely provisions for three months--a short allowance for venturing into an unknown world1 and thus before he attempted the passage he convoked a council of all his officers4 ,some were for an immediate return to ,europe1 but the majority voted for the continuation of the voyage1 and ,magellan declared that should they even be reduced to eat the leather of their shoes he would persevere to the last1 and with ,god's assistance execute the commands of his imperial master ,charles ,v4 ,he then at once gave orders to enter the strait full sail1 and on pain of death forbade any one to say a word more about a return or the want of provisions4 ,fortunately the winds were in his favor1 for had the usual inclemencies of this stormy region opposed him1 there is no doubt that with such crazy vessels1 and such discontented crews1 all his heroism would have failed to insure success4 ,it was the spring of the southern hemisphere1 and the strait showed itself in one of its rare aspects of calm4 ,many fish were caught1 and1 as ,pigafetti1 the historian of the voyage1 relates1 the aromatic winter's bark which served them for fuel 8wonderfully refreshed and invigorated their spirits40 ,the fires kindled by the savages on the southern side during the night induced ,magellan to give that part of the country the name of ,tierra del ,fuego1 or ,fireland2 while from their high stature and bulky frames1 he called the inhabitants of the opposite mainland ,patagonians 7patagon being the ,spanish augmentative of pata1 foot74 ,although several days were lost in exploring some of the numerous passages and bays of the straits1 its eastern mouth was reached on ,november #bh1 and ,magellan saw the wide ,pacific expand before him4 ,in #aebe ,charles ,v4 sent out a new expedition of six vessels1 under ,garcia de ,loaisa1 to circumnavigate the globe4 ,the vice-admiral of the squadron was ,sebastian el ,cano1 who1 after the death of ,magellan1 had brought the illustrious navigator's ship safely back to ,europe1 and as a reward had been ennobled with the globe in his coat of arms1 and the motto18,primus circumdedisti me40 ,loaisa entered the strait on ,january #bf1 #aebf1 but he was beaten back by storms as far as the ,river ,santa ,cruz4 ,on ,april #h he once more attempted the passage1 and emerged into the ,pacific on ,may #be4 ,simon de ,alcazaba1 who in #aecd attempted to pass the ,magellans with a number of emigrants for ,peru1 was less successful1 but in #aeci1 ,alfonso de ,camargo1 having lost two vessels in the strait1 passed it with the third1 and reached the port of ,callao4 ,until now the ,spanish flag had alone been seen in these remote and solitary waters1 but the time was come when they were to open a passage to its most inveterate foes4 ,on ,august #bj1 #aegi1 ,francis ,drake1 commissioned by ,queen ,elizabeth to plunder and destroy the ,spanish settlements on the west coast of ,america1 ran into the strait1 and on ,december #f sallied forth into the ,pacific4 ,to meet this formidable enemy1 the ,viceroy of ,peru sent out in the same year two ships under ,pedro ,sarmiento de ,gamboa4 ,his orders were to intercept ,drake's passage through the strait and then to sail on to ,spain4 ,though he failed in the object of his mission1 yet ,sarmiento displayed in the navigation of the intricate and dangerous passages along the south-west coast of ,america1 the courage and skill of a consummate seaman1 and he gave the first exact and detailed account of the land and waters of ,fuegia4 ,his voyage1 according to the weighty testimony of ,captain ,king1 deserves to be noted as one of the most useful of the age in which it was performed4 ,on his arrival in ,spain1 ,sarmiento strongly pointed out the necessity of establishing a colony and erecting a fort in the strait 7at that time the only known passage to the ,pacific71 so as effectually to prevent the recurrence of a future hostile expedition like that of ,drake4 ,commissioned by ,philip ,,ii4 to carry his plans into execution1 he founded a colony1 to which he gave the name of ,ciudad de ,san ,felipe1 but a series of disasters entirely destroyed it2 and when1 a few years later1 ,cavendish1 who had fitted out three ships at his own expense to imitate the example of ,drake1 appeared in the strait1 he found but three survivors of many hundreds1 and gave the scene of their misery the appropriate name of ,port ,famine1 which it has retained to the present day4 ,after ,cavendish and ,hawkins 7#aeid71 the ,dutch navigators ,de ,cordes 7#aeii71 ,oliver ,van ,noort 7#aeii71 and ,spilberg 7#afae71 attempted1 with more or less success1 to sail through the strait with the intention of harassing and plundering the ,spaniards on the coast of the ,pacific4 ,strange to say1 no attempt had been made since ,magellan to discover a passage farther to the south1 so universal and firmly established was the belief that ,fuegia extended without interruption to the regions of eternal ice1 until at length1 in #afaf1 the ,dutchmen ,schouten and ,le ,maire discovered the passage round ,cape ,horn4 ,two years later ,garcia de ,nodales sailed through the ,strait of ,le ,maire1 and1 returning through the ,magellans into the ,atlantic1 was thus the first circumnavigator of ,fuegia4 ,in #affi1 ,sir ,john ,narborough having been sent out by ,king ,charles ,,ii4 to explore the ,magellanic regions1 furnished a good general chart of the strait1 and many plans of the anchorage within it4 ,more than sixty years now elapsed before any expedition of historical renown made its appearance in the strait4 ,the dangers and hardships which had assailed the previous navigators discouraged their successors1 who all preferred the circuitous way round ,cape ,horn to the shorter but1 as it was at that time considered1 more perilous route through the strait4 ,after this long pause1 ,byron 7,december1 #agfd7 and ,bougainville 7,february1 #agfe7 once more attempted the ,magellans4 ,the difficulties encountered by them were surpassed by those of ,wallis and ,carteret4 ,the former spent nearly four months 7from ,december #ag1 #agff1 to ,april #aa1 #agfg7 in a perpetual conflict with stormy weather while slowly creeping through the strait2 and the latter required eighty-four days for his passage from ,port ,famine to ,cape ,pillar4 ,no wonder that the next circumnavigators1 ,ltke1 ,krusenstern1 ,kotzebue1 preferred sailing round ,cape ,horn1 and that adventurous seal-hunters became for a long time the sole visitors of these ill-famed waters4 ,at length the ,british ,government came to a resolution worthy of ,england1 and resolved to have the ,magellanic regions carefully surveyed1 and to conquer them1 as it were1 anew for geographical science4 ,under the command of ,captain ,king1 the 8,adventure0 and the 8,beagle0 were engaged in this arduous task from #ahbf to #ahcj3 but such were the dangers they had to encounter1 that ,captain ,stokes1 the second in command1 after contending for four months with the storms and currents which frequently threatened to dash his vessel against the cliffs1 became so shattered in mind and body1 that after his return to ,port ,famine he committed suicide in a fit of melancholy4 ,from #ahca to #ahcd ,captain ,fitzroy was engaged in completing the survey of ,patagonia and ,tierra del ,fuego1 and the result of all these labors was a collection of charts and plans which have rendered navigation in those parts as safe as can be expected in the most tempestuous region of the globe4 ,while formerly the passage round ,cape ,horn was universally preferred1 the more accurate knowledge of the ,strait of ,magellan1 for which navigation is indebted to the labors of ,king and ,fitzroy1 has since then turned the scale in favor of the latter4 ,for a trading-vessel1 with only the ordinary number of hands on board1 the passage through the strait from east to west is indeed very difficult1 and even dangerous2 but in the opposite direction1 the almost constant westerly winds render it commodious and easy particularly during the summer months1 in which they are most prevalent4 ,for small vessels--clippers1 schooners1 cutters--the passage in both directions is1 according to the excellent authority of ,captain ,king1 much to be preferred4 ,such vessels have far more reason for fearing the heavy seas about ,cape ,horn2 they can more easily cross against the west winds1 as their manuvres are generally very skillful1 and they find in the ,sound itself a great number of anchoring-places1 which are inaccessible to larger vessels4 ,for steamers the advantage is entirely on the side of the ,strait1 and they consequently now invariably prefer this route4 ,here they find plenty of wood1 which enables them to save their coals2 and moreover1 from ,cape ,tamar as far as the ,gulf of ,penas1 an easy navigation for about #cfj sea miles through the channels along the west coast of ,america4 ,as the trade of the ,pacific is continually increasing1 and the ,strait of ,magellan more frequented from year to year1 we can not wonder that the old project of settling a colony on its shores should have been revived in our days4 ,about the year #ahdj the ,government of ,chili established a penal colony at ,punta ,arenas and ,port ,famine1 which miserably failed in consequence of a mutiny2 but in #ahec about one hundred and fifty ,german emigrants were settled at ,punta ,arenas1 and when the 8,novara0 visited the strait in #aheh1 they were found in a thriving condition4 ,should the project of stationing steam-tugs in the strait1 and of erecting lighthouses at ,cape ,virgins and at the entrance of ,smyth ,channel be executed1 the ,magellans would become one of the high-roads of commerce1 and the dangers which proved so dreadful to the navigators of former days a mere tale of the past4 ,illustration3 #abd4 ,a ,,highway ,,of ,,commerce4 ,illustration3 #abe4 ,,patagonians4 ,,chapter ,,xl4 ,,patagonia ,,and ,,the ,,patagonians4 ,difference of ,climate between ,east and ,west ,patagonia4-- ,extraordinary ,aridity of ,east ,patagonia4--,zoology4--,the ,guanaco4--,the ,tucutuco4--,the ,patagonian ,agouti4--,vultures4-- ,the ,turkey-buzzard4--,the ,carrancha4--,the ,chimango4--,darwin's ,ostrich4--,the ,patagonians4--,exaggerated ,accounts of their ,stature4--,their ,physiognomy and ,dress4--,religious ,ideas4-- ,superstitions4--,astronomical ,knowledge4--,division into ,tribes4-- ,the ,tent1 or ,toldo4--,trading ,routes4--,the great ,cacique4-- ,introduction of the ,horse4--,industry4--,amusements4--,char acter4 ,patagonia1 the southern extremity of the ,american continent1 is divided by the ridge of the ,andes into two parts of a totally different character4 ,its western coast-lands1 washed by the cold ,antarctic current and exposed to the humid gales of a restless ocean1 are almost constantly obscured with clouds and drenched with rain4 ,dense forests1 dripping with moisture1 clothe the steep hill-sides2 and1 from the coldness of the summer1 the snow-line is so low that for #fej miles northward of ,tierra del ,fuego almost every arm of the sea which penetrates to the interior higher chain is terminated by huge glaciers descending to the water's edge4 ,east ,patagonia1 on the contrary1 a vast plain rising in successive terraces from the ,atlantic to the foot of the ,cordillera1 is one of the most arid regions of the globe4 ,the extreme dryness of the prevailing westerly winds1 which have been totally deprived of their humidity before crossing the ,andes1 and the well-rounded shingles which compose the soil1 have entailed the curse of sterility on the land4 ,monotonous warm tints of brown1 yellow1 or light red everywhere fatigue the eye1 which vainly seeks for rest in the dark blue sky1 and finds refreshing green only on some river-banks4 ,many broad flat vales transsect the plains1 and in these the vegetation is somewhat better4 ,the streams of former ages have no doubt hollowed them out1 for the rivers of the present day are utterly inadequate to the task4 ,on account of the dryness of the atmosphere1 the traveller may journey for days in these ,patagonian plains without finding a drop of water4 ,springs are rare1 and even when found are generally brackish and unrefreshing4 ,while the 8,beagle0 was anchoring in the spacious harbor of ,port ,st4 ,julian1 a party one day accompanied ,captain ,fitzroy on a long walk round the head of the harbor4 ,they were eleven hours without tasting any water1 and some of the party were quite exhausted4 ,from the summit of a hill1 to which the appropriate name of 8,thirsty ,hill0 was given1 a fine lake was spied1 and two of the party proceeded1 with concerted signals1 to show whether it was fresh water4 ,the disappointment may be imagined when the supposed lake was found to be a snow-white expanse of salt1 crystallized in great cubes4 ,the extreme dryness of the air1 which imparts so sterile a character to the country1 favors the formation of guano deposits on the naked islands along the coast1 which are frequented by sea-birds4 ,protracted droughts are essential to the accumulation of this manure1 for repeated showers of rain would wash it into the sea1 and for this reason no guano deposits are found on the populous bird-mountains of the north4 ,a similar dryness of the atmosphere favors the deposit at ,ichaboe on the ,african coast1 at the ,kooria ,nooria ,islands in the ,indian ,ocean1 and at the ,chincha ,islands on the ,peruvian coast2 and this kind of climate appears also to be particularly agreeable to the sea-birds4 ,considering the excessive aridity of ,patagonia1 it seems surprising that the country should be traversed from west to east by such considerable rivers as the ,rio ,negro1 the ,gallegos1 and the ,santa ,cruz2 but all these have their sources in the ,andes1 and are fed by mountain torrents1 which no doubt derive their waters from the atmospherical precipitations of the ,pacific4 ,the zoology of ,patagonia is as limited as its flora1 and greatly resembles in its character that of the mountain regions of ,chili1 or of the ,puna or high table-land of the tropical ,andes of ,peru and ,bolivia1 the height of which varies from #aj1jjj to #ad1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,in all these countries1 situated in such different latitudes1 the explorer is astonished to find not only the same genera1 but even animals of the same species4 ,the forest-loving race of monkeys is nowhere to be found in treeless ,patagonia4 ,none of the quadrumana ventures farther south than #bi lat41 but on the borders of the ,rio ,negro1 the northern boundary of ,patagonia1 some small bats are seen fluttering about in the twilight4 ,the dark-brown yellow-headed ,galictis vittata1 an animal allied to the ,civets and ,genets1 is likewise found there1 but much more frequently its relation the ,zorilla1 which ranges from #cj lat4 to the ,strait of ,magellan1 and1 like the skunk of the north1 has the power of discharging a fluid of an intolerably fetid odor4 ,the guanaco is the characteristic quadruped of the plains of ,patagonia1 where it is no less useful to man than the wild reindeer to the savage hunters of the north4 ,it ranges from the ,cordillera of ,peru as far south as the islands near ,cape ,horn1 but it appears to be more frequent on the plains of ,south ,patagonia than anywhere else4 ,it is of greater size than the llama1 and resembles it so much that it was supposed to be the wild variety1 until ,tschudi1 in his 8,fauna ,peruana10 pointed out the specific difference between both4 ,the guanaco is a more elegant animal1 with a long1 slender neck and fine legs2 its fleece is shorter and less fine2 its color is brown1 the under parts being whitish4 ,it generally lives in small herds of from half a dozen to thirty in each2 but on the banks of the ,santa ,cruz ,mr4 ,darwin saw one herd which contained at least five hundred4 ,though extremely shy and wary1 it is no match for the cunning of the savage2 and1 before the horse was introduced into ,patagonia1 man most probably could not have existed in those arid plains without the guanaco4 ,it easily takes to the water1 and this accounts for its presence on the eastern islands of ,fuegia1 where it has been followed by the puma1 or ,american lion1 who likewise pursues it on the plateaus of the ,cordillera1 #ab1jjj feet above the level of the sea4 ,the ,brazilian fox 7,canis ,azar7 is also met with as far as the strait4 ,it is somewhat smaller than our fox1 but more robustly built4 ,in ,patagonia it preys chiefly upon the small rodents1 with which the land1 in spite of its sterility1 is perhaps more richly stocked than any other country in the world4 ,among these the tucutuco 7,ctenomys magellanica71 which may briefly be described as a gnawer with the habits of a mole1 is one of the most remarkable4 ,it abounds near the strait1 where the sandy plain is one vast burrow of these creatures4 ,this curious animal makes1 when beneath the ground1 a very peculiar noise1 consisting of a short nasal grunt1 monotonously repeated about four times in quick succession1 the name tucutuco being given in imitation of the sound4 ,where the animal is abundant1 it may be heard at all times of the day1 and sometimes directly beneath one's feet4 ,the tucutuco is nocturnal in its habits2 its food consists chiefly of roots1 the search after which seems to be the cause of its burrowing4 ,among the indigenous quadrupeds of ,patagonia we find1 moreover1 a species of agouti 7,dasyprocta patagonica71 which in some measure represents our hare1 but is about twice the size1 and has only three toes on its hind feet2 the elegant long-eared mara 7,dolichotis patagonicus71 which1 unlike most burrowing animals1 wanders1 commonly two or three together1 for miles from its home2 the ,didelphis ,azar1 a species of opossum2 and the pichy 7,dasypus minutus71 a small armadillo1 which extends as far south as #ej lat4 ,it would be vain to seek among the ,patagonian birds for the splendid plumage of the tropical feathered tribes2 their colors are simple and monotonous1 as those of the naked plains which are their home4 ,many birds of prey of the warmer regions of ,america likewise frequent the arid wastes of ,patagonia4 ,when a horse chances to perish from fatigue or thirst1 the turkey-buzzard 7,vultur aura87 begins to feast upon its carcass1 and then the carrancha 7,polyborus brasiliensis7 and the chimango 7,polyborus chimango7 pick its bones clean4 ,though these birds1 which well supply the place of our carrion-crows1 magpies1 and ravens1 generally feed in common1 they are by no means on a friendly footing4 ,when the carrancha is quietly seated on the branch of a tree or on the ground1 the chimango often continues for a long time flying backward and forward1 up and down1 in a semicircle1 trying each time1 at the bottom of the curve1 to strike its larger relative1 which takes little notice except by bobbing its head4 ,the carrancha1 which is common in the dry and open countries1 and likewise on the arid shores of the ,pacific1 is also found inhabiting the forests of ,west ,patagonia and ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,the chimango is much smaller than the carrancha4 ,of all the carrion feeders1 it is generally the last which leaves the skeleton of a dead animal1 and may frequently be seen within the ribs of a horse1 like a prisoner behind a grating4 ,it is frequently found on the sea-coast1 where it lives on small fishes4 ,the condor may likewise be reckoned among the ,patagonian birds1 as it follows its prey1 the guanaco1 across the ,strait of ,magellan as far as the eastern lowlands of ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,in the winter especially1 when the cold forces vast numbers of geese and ducks to quit the ,antarctic islands in the higher latitudes1 all these birds of prey1 to which the crowned falcon 7,circtes coronatus71 the three-colored buzzard 7,buteo tricolor71 the ,aguia eagle 7,haliatus aguia71 and several others must be added1 live in luxury4 ,most of them are likewise migratory birds1 and disappear in summer1 with the defenseless tribes on which they prey4 ,the ,magellanic thrush 7,turdus magellanicus7 leaves in winter the stormy banks of the strait1 and retires to the milder skies of the ,rio ,negro1 where it meets the tuneful ,patagonian warbler 7,orpheus patagonicus71 the nimble troglodyte 7,troglodytes pallida71 and the inconstant fly-catcher 7,muscicape parvulus74 ,a peculiar species of ostrich1 the nandu 7,rhea ,darwini71 roams over the plains of ,southern ,patagonia as far as the ,strait of ,magellan4 ,it is smaller than the ,south ,american ostrich 7,rhea americana71 which inhabits the country of ,la ,plata as far as a little south of the ,rio ,negro2 but it is more beautiful1 as its white feathers are tipped with black at the extremity1 and its black ones in like manner terminate in white4 ,in the same high latitude one is surprised to meet with a member of the parrot tribe 7,psittacus patagonicus7 feeding on the seeds of the winter's bark1 and to see humming-birds 7,trochilus forficatus7 flitting about during the snowstorms in the forests of ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,the plains of ,patagonia are inhabited by a race of ,indians supposed to be gigantic1 but the descriptions of modern travellers have dispelled the idea4 ,thus ,pigafetti1 the companion of ,magellan1 relates that the ,europeans only reach to the waist of the ,patagonians2 ,simon de ,weert tells us that they are from ten to eleven feet high2 ,byron1 who visited them in the last century1 reduces them to seven feet1 and ,captain ,king finally1 who accurately measured them1 found the medium height of the males about five feet eleven inches4 ,as the ,patagonians have most likely not degenerated within the last few centuries1 we may infer from these various accounts that the travellers of the present day are less prone to exaggeration than those of more ancient times4 ,so much is certain1 that the ,patagonians are a fine athletic race of men1 with remarkably broad shoulders and thick muscular limbs4 ,the head is long1 broad1 and flat1 and the forehead low1 with the hair growing within an inch of the eyebrows1 which are bare2 the eyes are often placed obliquely1 and have but little expression2 the forehead and the large lips are prominent1 so that if a perpendicular line were drawn between the two1 the thick flat nose would hardly reach it1 and but seldom project beyond it4 ,in spite of these coarse features the physiognomy of the young girls is by no means unpleasant1 as it has an amiable1 lively expression4 ,all of them have small hands and feet1 and ,d',orbigny says that they have the finest shapes of all the savages he saw4 ,though they have a wide mouth and thick lips1 this fault is redeemed by their beautiful white teeth1 which never fall out even in old age4 ,the color of the ,patagonians is much darker than that of the ,pampas ,indians and others farther to the north1 and most closely resembles that of the mulatto2 a fact totally at variance with the common belief that the darkness of the human skin increases on approaching the equator4 ,the chief garment is the manuh1 a wide1 square mantle--eight feet long and nearly as broad--which they wear after the fashion of the ancient ,greeks and ,romans1 with one end hanging down to the earth4 ,it generally consists of guanaco skins neatly sewn together with ostrich sinews4 ,in cold weather the manuh1 which serves also as a blanket1 is worn with the hair inside2 the even surface is therefore ornamented with red drawings4 ,sometimes they wear boots of horse-leather1 like the ,gauchos1 from whom they have learned to make them2 formerly sandals of guanaco skin were alone in use4 ,their long black hair is tied behind with a thong of leather or a piece of ribbon2 the women plait and adorn it with a number of ornaments of glass and copper4 ,the face is generally painted red1 white1 and black1 and a ,patagonian is never seen without the little pouch in which he carries the necessary colors4 ,a remarkable custom1 common to all the ,indian tribes as far as ,bolivia1 is that of eradicating the hairs of the beard1 and the men may frequently be seen plucking them out with a pair of pincers4 ,the religious ideas of the ,patagonians greatly resemble those of their neighbors the ,aucas and the ,puelches4 ,the divine ,achekenat ,kanet is reverenced as the genius of both good and evil2 but beside this chief deity they have a number of inferior spirits1 generally of a malignant nature1 which can be held in check only by the arts of their magicians4 ,like the shamans1 or medicine-men of the north1 these impostors work themselves into an ecstatic state1 in which they predict things to come1 or announce the will of the unseen gods2 but their trade does not seem to be very lucrative if we may judge from the bad condition of their mantles4 ,they also act as physicians1 for all diseases are invariably ascribed to the agency of evil spirits4 ,the ,patagonians are quite as superstitious as the ,indians of the high northern latitudes4 ,they seldom cut their hair1 but when they do1 they cast it into the river or carefully burn it1 so that it may not fall into the hands of some malignant magician1 who might use it to the hurt of its quondam owner4 ,when1 on journeying along a river1 they see some trunks of trees descending with the current1 they take them for evil spirits1 and address them with a loud voice4 ,if by chance the trees are swept by less rapidly or are driven round in a whirlpool1 they believe that this takes place for the purpose of hearing them4 ,they then make them liberal promises1 which they faithfully keep4 ,they cast their weapons1 their ornaments1 sometimes even their horses with bound feet1 into the water1 fully persuaded that by this sacrifice they have averted the misfortunes that otherwise would have befallen them4 ,like many other savage nations1 they believe in a future paradise1 where they expect to find again all that they prized on earth4 ,for this reason they immolate over the graves of their friends all the animals that belonged to them1 and inter with them all they possessed4 ,the astronomical knowledge of the ,patagonians is surprising in a people ranking so low in the scale of civilization4 ,continually migrating over their arid land1 they soon felt the necessity of directing their movements during the day by the position of the sun1 during the night by the stars2 and thus they gradually learned to observe the march of the constellations1 and to note the times of their appearance and disappearance1 giving them names1 so as to be able to communicate their observations to each other4 ,their lively fancy traces in the starry firmament the picture of the ,indian's hunting expedition4 ,the ,milky ,way is the path on which he follows the ostrich2 the 8,three ,kings0 are the bolas1 or balls1 with which he strikes the bird whose feet form the ,southern ,cross2 and the ,magellanic clouds are heaps of its feathers that have been collected by its pursuer4 ,when the ,patagonians speak of the direction they intend to follow1 from north to south or from east to west1 they always indicate the constellations2 so that in these ,south ,american plains1 as in those of ,chaldea1 a similar necessity has led man to lay the first foundations of astronomical knowledge4 ,the ,patagonians are divided into a number of small migratory tribes1 each consisting of1 at the utmost1 thirty or forty families4 ,as they live exclusively by the chase1 it is evident that a few days would suffice to destroy or to drive away the game of a great extent of territory were they to assemble in larger numbers4 ,not to perish of want1 they are thus compelled to wander from place to place in small companies1 and to carry along with them their leathern toldos1 or tents4 ,the toldo reposes on a frame of poles stuck into the earth1 and is scarcely higher than six feet in its centre1 so that one can hardly imagine how a family of tall ,patagonians can live in so small a space4 ,the door is invariably to the east1 so that early in the morning the chief of the family may sprinkle before it a few drops of water as an offering to the rising sun1 for were this sacrifice to be neglected1 the evil spirits would infallibly wreak their vengeance upon the inmates of the tent4 ,horse-hides1 or guanaco skins coarsely sewn together1 cover the frame1 and afford but a scanty protection against the rain and the much more frequent wind4 ,at the top1 as in the ,laplander's hut1 an opening is left to let out the smoke4 ,the hearth is in the middle1 and close by lie some earthen vases1 and large volute shells which serve as drinking-horns4 ,the inmates lie on skins1 or sit in a corner cross-legged1 after the ,oriental fashion4 ,the excessive filth of these wretched tenements makes their poverty appear still more squalid than it really is4 ,thirty or forty toldos form a migratory village1 or tolderia4 ,though the dreadful small-pox epidemic from #ahji to #ahab destroyed whole tribes of ,patagonians1 their present number may still be estimated at from eight to ten thousand2 a small one1 when compared with the size of the country1 yet large enough when we consider the sterile nature of its soil and the vast space of desert needed to feed a sufficient number of guanacos and horses for the wants of even a scanty population4 ,each tolderia appears to have its territory limited by the hunting-grounds of its neighbors1 but commercial transactions take place between the various tribes1 and occasion longer journeys4 ,one of the chief trading routes runs along the eastern foot of the ,andes from the ,strait of ,magellan to the ,rio ,negro1 as water is here everywhere found2 another1 leading parallel with the coast from the ,rio ,negro to ,port ,st4 ,julian and ,port ,desire1 is only frequented in the rainy season1 and even then there are wide spaces without any sweet water1 and where it is necessary to travel night and day so as to avoid the danger of dying of thirst4 ,every year the various ,patagonian tribes wander to the sources of the ,rio ,negro1 where they provide themselves with araucaria seeds1 which serve them as food1 or with apples1 which have multiplied on the eastern spurs of the ,andes in the same astonishing manner as the peach-trees near the mouths of the ,la ,plata4 ,the apple-tree was introduced by the first ,spaniards who inhabited the ,chilian ,andes soon after the conquest2 and when later the intruders were expelled by the victorious ,araucanians1 the natives found their country enriched by this valuable acquisition4 ,one of the chief bartering rendezvous is the island ,cholechel1 which is formed by two arms of the ,rio ,negro1 about eighty leagues from the mouth of the river4 ,here the ,patagonian exchanges his guanaco skins for the articles which the ,puelches1 his northern neighbors1 either fabricate themselves or procure in a more easy manner by stealing them from the white settlers in their neighborhood4 ,this bartering trade is very ancient1 and has always existed excepting in times of war4 ,in this manner the ,patagonians were provided with horses soon after the introduction of this valuable animal into the ,new ,world1 and thus also articles of ,spanish manufacture soon found their way as far as the ,strait of ,magellan4 ,at present there seems to be peace among all the ,patagonian tribes1 which consider themselves as brothers1 though frequently separated several hundred leagues from each other4 ,their system of government is very simple4 ,the whole nation has a chief1 or great cacique1 whom they call carasken1 and whose authority is very limited4 ,in war he presides in the assembly of the minor chiefs1 and has the supreme command in battle4 ,in peace his sway is confined to his own tribe4 ,he is as poor as his subjects1 and1 far from enjoying a copious civil list1 is obliged to hunt for his subsistence like every other ,patagonian2 the only advantage he owes to his exalted station being a somewhat larger share of the products of the chase2 and this he is obliged to distribute among the more needy of his followers1 to maintain his influence4 ,the dignity of carasken is not always hereditary4 ,to succeed his father1 the son must first prove by his eloquence1 his courage1 and his liberality that he is worthy to succeed him2 and if he is found wanting1 the ,indian most distinguished by his moral and intellectual qualities is elected in his place4 ,the ,patagonians are very awkward fishermen2 they merely catch what chance throws into their hands1 and are unacquainted with nets or any other piscatorial artifice4 ,in this respect they are totally different from the ,fuegians1 who derive their chief subsistence from the sea4 ,they have ever been a nation of hunters1 and before the introduction of the horse1 they pursued their game on foot1 using their bolas with great dexterity for the destruction of the guanaco and the ostrich4 ,their dogs afforded them a valuable assistance1 and since they have become accomplished horsemen1 their fleet coursers enable them to overtake with ease all the animals of the wilderness4 ,in times of scarcity they dig for a small root1 which is either eaten fresh or preserved dry4 ,horse-flesh is their favorite food4 ,the ,patagonian toldos and their weapons are very rudely made1 but their skin mantles are not untastefully ornamented with rectilinear figures4 ,in their war-dress they have a very hideous appearance1 and it would be difficult to imagine a more diabolical figure than that of a tall ,patagonian ready for a fight1 his broad face painted scarlet1 with black or blue stripes under the eyes1 and his coarse features distorted with fury4 ,their arms are bows and arrows1 with points of flint loosely attached with sinews1 so as to remain sticking in the wound4 ,they are excellent archers1 and use with skill the sling1 the javelin1 and above all their formidable bolas1 which serve them both for bringing the guanaco to the ground or for breaking the skull of an enemy4 ,when not engaged in war or in the chase1 the men1 like most savages1 pass their time in absolute idleness1 leaving all the household work to the women4 ,amusements they have but few4 ,the use of dice they have learned from the ,spaniards4 ,they are said to be a false and deceitful people1 but their hospitality and good-nature have been frequently extolled by travellers4 ,illustration3 #abf4 ,,coast ,,of ,,fuegia4 ,,chapter ,,xli4 ,,the ,,fuegians4 ,their miserable ,condition4--,degradation of ,body and ,mind4--,powers of ,mimicry4--,notions of ,barter4--,causes of their low ,state of ,cultivation4--,their ,food4--,limpets4--,cyttaria ,darwini4-- ,constant ,migrations4--,the ,fuegian ,wigwam4--,weapons4--,their probable ,origin4--,their ,number1 and various ,tribes4--,constant ,feuds4--,cannibalism4--,language4--,adv entures of ,fuegia ,basket1 ,jemmy ,button1 and ,york ,minster4--,missionary ,labors4--,captain ,gardiner4--,his lamentable ,end4 ,the wilds of ,tierra del ,fuego are inhabited by a race of men generally supposed to occupy the lowest grade in the scale of humanity4 ,in a far more rigorous climate1 the ,esquimaux1 their northern antipodes1 exhibit skill in their snow huts1 their kayaks1 their weapons1 and their dress2 but the wretched ,fuegians are ignorant of every useful art that could better their condition1 and contrive scarcely any defense against either rain or wind4 ,but even among the ,fuegians there are various grades of civilization-- or rather barbarism4 ,the eastern tribes1 which inhabit the extensive plains of ,king ,charles's ,south ,land1 seem closely allied to the ,patagonians1 and are a very different race from the undersized wretches farther westward4 ,a mantle of guanaco skin1 with the wool outside-- the usual ,patagonian garment--loosely thrown over their shoulders1 and leaving their persons as often exposed as covered1 affords them some protection against the piercing wind4 ,the condition of the central tribes inhabiting the south-western bays and inlets of this dreary country is much more miserable4 ,those farther to the west possess seal-skins1 but here the men are satisfied with an otter skin or some other covering scarcely larger than a pocket-handkerchief4 ,it is laced across the breast by strings1 and according as the wind blows it is shifted from side to side4 ,but all have not even this wretched garment1 for near ,wollaston ,island ,mr4 ,darwin saw a canoe with six ,fuegians1 one of whom was a woman1 naked4 ,it was raining heavily1 and the fresh water1 together with the spray1 trickled down their bodies4 ,in another harbor not far distant1 a woman1 who was suckling a recently-born child1 came one day alongside the vessel1 and remained there out of mere curiosity1 whilst the sleet fell and thawed on her naked bosom and on the skin of her naked baby6 ,these poor wretches were stunted in their growth1 their faces bedaubed with white paint1 their skins filthy1 their hair entangled1 their voices discordant1 and their gestures violent4 ,the ,fuegians whom ,cook met with in ,christmas ,sound were equally wretched4 ,their canoes were made of the bark of trees stretched over a framework of sticks1 and the paddles which served to propel these miserable boats were small1 and of an equally miserable workmanship4 ,in each canoe sat from five to eight persons2 but instead of greeting the strangers with the joyful shouts of the ,south ,sea ,islanders1 they rowed along in perfect silence2 and even when quite close to the vessel1 they only uttered from time to time the word 8,pescherh60 ,after repeated invitations some of these savages came on board1 but without exhibiting the least sign of astonishment or curiosity4 ,none were above five feet four inches high2 they had large heads1 broad faces1 with prominent cheek-bones1 flat noses1 small and lack-lustre eyes2 and their black hair1 smeared with fat1 hung in matted locks over their shoulders4 ,instead of a beard1 their chin exhibited a few straggling bristles1 and their whole appearance afforded a striking picture of abject misery4 ,their shoulders and breast were broad and strongly built1 but the extremities of the body so meagre and shrivelled that one could hardly realize the fact that they belonged to the upper part4 ,the legs were crooked1 the knees disproportionately thick4 ,their sole garment consisted of a small piece of seal-skin1 attached to the neck by means of a cord1 otherwise they were quite naked2 but even these miserable creatures had made an attempt to decorate their olive-brown skin with some stripes of ochre4 ,the women were as ugly as the men4 ,their food consisted of raw1 half-putrid seal's flesh1 which made them smell so horribly1 that it was impossible to remain long near them4 ,their intelligence was on a par with the filth of their bodies4 ,the most expressive signs were here of no avail4 ,gestures which the most dull-headed native of any ,south ,sea island immediately understood1 these savages either did not1 or would not give themselves the trouble to comprehend4 ,of the superiority of the ,europeans they appeared to have no idea1 never expressing by the slightest sign any astonishment at the sight of the ship and the various objects on board4 ,it would however be doing the ,fuegians injustice to suppose them all on a level with these wretches4 ,according to ,forster1 they were most likely outcasts from the neighboring tribes4 ,mr4 ,darwin1 as well as ,sir ,james ,ross1 describes the ,fuegians whom they met with in the ,bay of ,good ,success and on ,hermit ,island as excellent mimics4 8,as often as we coughed or yawned10 says the former1 8or made any odd motion1 they immediately imitated us4 ,some of our party began to squint and look awry1 but one of the young ,fuegians 7whose whole face was painted black1 excepting a white band across his eyes7 succeeded in making far more hideous grimaces4 ,they could repeat with perfect correctness each word in any sentence we addressed them1 and they remembered such words for some time4 ,yet we all know how difficult it is to distinguish apart the sounds in a foreign language40 ,close to the junction of ,ponsonby ,sound with the ,beagle ,channel1 where ,mr4 ,darwin and his party spent the night1 a small family of ,fuegians soon joined the strangers round a blazing fire4 ,they seemed well pleased1 and all joined in the chorus of the seamen's songs4 ,during the night the news had spread1 and early in the morning other ,fuegians arrived4 ,several of these had run so fast that their noses were bleeding1 and their mouths frothed from the rapidity with which they talked2 and with their naked bodies all bedaubed with black1 white1 and red1 they looked like so many demons4 ,illustration3 #abg4 ,,fuegian ,,traders4 ,these people plainly showed that they had a fair notion of barter4 ,mr4 ,darwin gave one man a large nail 7a most valuable present7 without making any signs for a return2 but he immediately picked out two fish1 and handed them up on the point of his spear4 ,here at least we see signs of a mental activity favorably contrasting with the stolid indifference of the ,fuegians seen by ,forster at ,christmas ,harbor2 and ,mr4 ,darwin is even of opinion that in general these people rise above the ,australians in mental power1 although their actual acquirements may be less4 ,the reason why the ,fuegians are so little advanced in the arts of life1 are partly to be sought for in the nature of the land1 and partly in their political state4 ,the perfect equality among the individuals in each tribe must retard their civilization2 and until some chief shall arise with power sufficient to secure any acquired advantage1 such as the domesticated animals1 it seems scarcely possible that their condition can improve4 ,but the chief causes of their wretchedness are doubtless the barrenness of their country and their constant forced migrations4 ,with the exception of the eastern part1 the habitable land is reduced to the stones on the beach4 ,in search of food they are compelled to wander from spot to spot2 and so steep is the coast that they can only move about in their canoes4 ,whenever it is low water1 winter or summer1 night or day1 they must rise to pick limpets from the rock2 and the women either dive to collect sea-eggs1 or sit patiently in their boats1 and with a baited hair-line1 without any hook1 jerk out little fish4 ,if a seal is killed1 or the floating carcass of a putrid whale discovered1 it is a feast2 and such miserable food is assisted by a few tasteless berries1 chiefly of a dwarf arbutus1 or by a globular bright yellow fungus 7,cyttaria ,darwini71 which grows in vast numbers on the beech-trees4 ,when young1 it is elastic1 with a smooth surface2 but1 when mature1 it shrinks1 becomes tougher1 and has its entire surface deeply pitted or honey-combed4 ,in this mature state it is collected in large quantities by the women and children1 and is eaten uncooked4 ,it has a mucilaginous1 slightly sweet taste1 with a faint smell like that of a mushroom4 ,the necessity of protecting themselves against the extremity of cold1 and of obtaining their food from the sea1 or by the chase of the reindeer or the white bear1 forces the ,esquimaux to exert all their faculties1 and thus they have raised themselves considerably higher in the scale of civilization than the ,fuegians1 whose mode of life requires far less exertion of the mind4 ,to knock a limpet from the rock or to collect a fungus does not even call cunning into exercise4 ,living chiefly upon shell-fish1 they are obliged constantly to change their abode1 and thus they hardly bestow any thought on their dwellings1 which are more like the dens of wild beasts than the habitations of human beings4 ,the ,fuegian wigwam consists of a few branches stuck in the ground1 and very imperfectly thatched on one side with a few tufts of grass and rushes4 ,the whole can not be the work of an hour1 and it is only used for a few days4 ,at intervals1 however1 the inhabitants of these wretched huts return to the same spot1 as is evident from the piles of old shells1 often amounting to several tons in weight4 ,these heaps can be distinguished at a distance by the bright green color of certain plants1 such as the wild celery and scurvy grass1 which invariably grow on them4 ,the only articles in the manufacture of which the ,fuegians show some signs of ability are a few ornaments and their weapons1 which again are far inferior to those of the ,esquimaux4 ,their bows are small and badly shaped1 their arrows1 which are between two and three feet long1 feathered at one end and blunted at the other4 ,the points are only attached when the arrow is about to be used1 and for this purpose the archer carries them about with him in a leathern pouch4 ,the shaft of their larger spears is about ten feet long1 and equally thick at both ends4 ,at one of the extremities is a fissure1 into which a pointed bone with a barbed hook is inserted and tightly bound with a thread4 ,with this weapon they most probably attack the seals2 they also use it to detach the shell-fish from the rocks below the surface of the water4 ,a second spear1 longer and lighter than the first1 with a barbed point1 serves most likely as a weapon of war2 and a third one1 much shorter and comparatively thin1 may perhaps be destined for the birds4 ,the females know how to make pretty necklaces of colored shells and baskets of grass stalks4 ,here1 as with all other races of mankind1 we find the germs of improvement1 which only require for their development the external impulse of more favorable circumstances4 ,illustration3 #abh4 ,a ,,fuegian ,,and ,,his ,,food4 ,if it be asked whether they feel themselves as miserable as their wretched appearance would lead us to believe them1 it must be replied that most travellers describe them as a cheerful1 good-humored1 contented people2 and as ,mr4 ,darwin finely remarks1 8,nature1 by making habit omnipotent and its effects hereditary1 has fitted the ,fuegian to the climate and the productions of his country40 ,the number of these savages is no doubt very small1 as seldom more than thirty or forty individuals are seen together4 ,the interior of the mountainous islands1 which is as little known as the interior of ,spitzbergen1 is no doubt completely uninhabited2 as the coasts alone1 with the exception of the eastern and more level part of the country1 where the guanaco finds pasture1 are able to furnish the means of subsistence4 ,the various tribes1 separated from each other by a deserted neutral territory1 are nevertheless engaged in constant feuds1 as quarrels are perpetually arising about the possession of some limpet-bank or fishing-station4 ,when at war they are cannibals2 and it is equally certain that when pressed in winter by hunger they kill and devour their old women before they kill their dogs1 alleging as an excuse that their dogs catch otters1 and old women do not4 ,it has not been ascertained whether they have any distinct belief in a future life4 ,they sometimes bury their dead in caves1 and sometimes in the mountain forests4 ,each family or tribe has a wizard1 or conjuring doctor4 ,their language1 of which there are several distinct dialects1 is likewise little known2 it is1 however1 far inferior to the copious and expressive vocabulary of the ,esquimaux4 ,in #ahcj1 while ,captain ,fitzroy was surveying the coasts of ,fuegia1 he seized on a party of natives as hostages for the loss of a boat which had been stolen1 and some of these natives1 as well as a child belonging to another tribe1 whom he bought for a pearl button1 he took with him to ,england1 determining to educate them at his own expense4 ,one of them afterwards died of the smallpox2 but a young girl1 ,fuegia ,basket1 and two boys1 ,jemmy ,button 7thus named from his purchase-money7 and ,york ,minster 7so called from the great rugged mountain of ,york ,minster1 near ,christmas ,sound71 were placed in a school at ,walthamstow1 and moreover had the honor of being presented to ,king ,william and ,queen ,adelaide4 ,three years ,jemmy and his companions remained in ,england1 at the end of which time ,captain ,fitzroy was again sent out to continue the survey1 and took with him these three ,fuegians1 intending to return them to the place whence they had come4 ,in this1 however1 he was disappointed2 but at their own request ,york and ,fuegia were1 with ,jemmy1 deposited at ,woollya1 a pleasant looking spot in ,ponsonby ,sound1 belonging to ,jemmy's tribe4 ,his family1 consisting of his mother and three brothers1 was absent at the time1 but they arrived the following morning4 ,jemmy recognized the stentorian voice of one of his brothers at a prodigious distance1 but the meeting1 as ,mr4 ,darwin1 who witnessed the scene1 relates1 was less interesting than that between a horse turned out into a field and an old companion4 ,there was no demonstration of affection2 they simply stared for a short time at each other4 ,three large wigwams were built for them1 gardens planted1 and an abundant supply of every thing landed for their use4 ,jemmy1 who had become quite a favorite on board1 was short and fat1 but vain of his personal appearance2 he used always to wear gloves1 his hair was neatly cut1 and he was distressed if his well-polished shoes were dirtied4 ,york was somewhat coarse and less intelligent1 though in some things he could be quick4 ,he became attached to ,fuegia1 and as both were of the same tribe1 they became man and wife after their return to ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,she was the most intelligent of the three1 and quick in learning any thing1 especially languages4 ,thus these semi-civilized savages were left among their barbarous countrymen1 with the hope that they might become the means of improving their whole tribe2 but when ,captain ,fitzroy returned to the spot twelve months after1 he found the wigwams deserted and the gardens trampled under foot4 ,jemmy came paddling up in his canoe1 but the dandy who had been left plump1 clean1 and well-dressed1 was now turned into a thin1 haggard savage1 with long1 disordered hair1 and naked1 except a bit of a blanket round his waist4 ,he could still speak ,english1 and said that he had enough to eat1 that he was not cold1 and that his relations were very good people4 ,he had a wife besides1 who was decidedly the best-looking female in the company4 ,with his usual good feeling1 he brought two beautiful otter skins for two of his best friends1 and some spearheads and arrows made with his own hands for the captain4 ,he had lost all his property4 ,york ,minster had built a large canoe1 and with his wife ,fuegia had1 several months since1 gone to his own country1 and had taken farewell by an act of consummate villainy4 ,he persuaded ,jemmy and his mother to come with him1 and then on the way deserted them by night1 stealing every article of their property4 ,it was the opinion of all on board that the cunning rogue had planned all this long before1 and that with this end in view he had desired so earnestly to remain with ,jemmy's tribe rather than be landed on his own country4 ,eight years after an ,english vessel put into a bay in the ,magellans for water1 and there was found a woman1 without doubt ,fuegia ,basket1 who said1 8,how do8 ,i have been to ,plymouth and ,london40 ,york ,minster was also seen in #ahea4 ,from ,captain ,snow1 commander of the mission yacht 8,allen ,gardiner10 we have the last accounts of ,jemmy ,button in #ahee4 ,twenty-three years had not obliterated his knowledge of the ,english language1 but he was as wild and shaggy as his untaught countrymen4 ,in spite of his superior knowledge1 he was treated as a very inferior personage by the members of his tribe2 yet he declared that though he loved ,england1 he loved his country still better2 that nothing should induce him to leave it1 and that he would never allow any of his children to quit their native soil4 ,other efforts have been made to civilize the ,fuegians4 ,a ,spanish vessel having been shipwrecked on the eastern coast in #agfg1 its crew was hospitably treated by the natives1 who even assisted in saving the cargo4 ,out of gratitude1 the ,governor of ,buenos ,ayres sent out some missionaries1 who1 however1 totally failed to make any impression on the savages4 ,a no less unsuccessful attempt was made about the year #ahce by ,english missionaries2 and the expedition of ,captain ,gardiner1 who1 accompanied by a surgeon1 a catechist1 and four ,cornish fishermen1 sailed to ,fuegia in #ahea1 with the intention of converting the natives1 proved equally fruitless1 and had a far more tragic end4 ,his measures for securing the necessary supplies of food were so ill calculated that the whole party died of hunger in ,spaniards' ,harbor1 on the southern coast4 ,captain ,morshead1 of the 8,dido10 had received orders on his way to ,valparaiso to visit the scene of the mission1 and afford ,captain ,gardiner any aid he might require1 but1 on arriving at the cove1 he found it deserted4 ,after a few days' search the bodies were discovered1 and fragments of a journal written by ,captain ,gardiner gave proof of the sufferings which they had endured before death relieved them from their misery4 ,the spot has received the name of ,starvation ,beach4 ,illustration3 #abi4 ,,starvation ,,beach4 ,illustration3 #acj4 ,,surveying ,,in ,,greenland4 ,,chapter ,,xlii4 ,,charles ,,francis ,,hall ,,and ,,the ,,innuits4 ,hall's ,expedition4--,his early ,life4--,his reading of ,arctic ,adventure4--,his ,resolve4--,his ,arctic ,outfit4--,sets ,sail on the 8,george ,henry40--,the ,voyage4--,kudlago4--,holsteinborg1 ,greenland4--,population of ,greenland4--,sails for ,davis's ,strait4-- ,character of the ,innuits4--,wreck of the 8,rescue40--,ebierbing and ,tookoolito4--,their ,visit to ,england4--,hall's first ,exploration4-- ,european and ,innuit ,life in the ,arctic ,regions4--,building an ,igloo4--,almost ,starved4--,fight for ,food with ,dogs4--,ebierbing arrives with a ,seal4--,how he caught it4--,a ,seal-feast4--,the ,innuits and ,seals4--,the ,polar ,bear4--,how he teaches the ,innuits to catch ,seals4--,at a ,seal-hole4--,dogs as ,seal-hunters4--,dogs and ,bears4--,dogs and ,reindeers4--,innuits and ,walruses4--,more about ,igloos4--,innuit ,implements4--,uses of the ,reindeer4--,innuit ,improvidence4--,a ,deer-feast4--,a frozen ,delicacy4--,whale-skin as ,food4--,whale-gum4--,how to eat ,whale ,ligament4--,raw ,meat4-- ,the ,dress of the ,innuits4--,a pretty ,style4--,religious ,ideas of the ,innuits4--,their kindly ,character4--,treatment of the ,aged and ,infirm4--,a ,woman abandoned to die4--,hall's ,attempt to rescue her4--,the ,innuit ,nomads1 without any form of ,government4-- ,their ,numbers diminishing4--,a ,sailor wanders away4--,hall's ,search for him4--,finds him frozen to death4--,the ,ship free from ,ice4--,preparations to return4--,reset in the ,ice-pack4--,another ,arctic ,winter4--,breaking up of the ,ice4--,departure for ,home4-- ,tookoolito and her ,child 8,butterfly40--,death of 8,butterfly40-- ,arrival at ,home4--,results of ,hall's ,expedition4--,innuit ,traditions4--,discovery of ,frobisher ,relics4--,hall undertakes a second ,expedition4--,his ,statement of its ,object and ,prospects4-- ,last ,tidings of ,hall4 ,among the most remarkable expeditions ever undertaken in the ,polar world is that of ,charles ,francis ,hall1 performed during the years #ahfj1 #ahfa1 and #ahfb4 ,its primary object was to discover the survivors of ,sir ,john ,franklin's party2 for at this time there was good reason to believe that out of the #aje who were known to be living on the #beth of ,april1 #ahdh1 some were still surviving4 ,towards the main purpose of the undertaking nothing was indeed accomplished4 ,hall came upon no traces of ,franklin and his men2 but he acquired a more accurate knowledge of the ,esquimaux--or rather as they call themselves1 and as we shall call them1 the ,innuits--a word meaning simply 8men0 or 8people0--and their mode of life than was ever before1 or is likely to be hereafter1 gained by any other white man capable of telling what he saw1 and a part of which he was4 ,the remarkable book in which ,mr4 ,hall describes his expedition#be seems not to have come under the notice of ,dr4 ,hartweg4 ,it is proposed in this chapter to supplement the account of the ,innuits from this work of ,mr4 ,hall4 ,illustration3 #aca4 ,,hall ,,and ,,companions1 ,,in ,,innuit ,,costume4 ,up to middle life ,hall had resided in the inland city of ,cincinnati4 ,he had eagerly read every thing that he could find on record of the searches made for ,franklin4 ,large ships and small ships had been sent out4 ,brave hearts and stout hands had been enlisted in the search1 but with no tangible result beyond ascertaining the spot where the surviving #aje were when they abandoned their ships and took to the shore1 hoping to make their way to their homes4 ,only two of these men were proven to have died2 and it was more than probable that of the #aje known to have been living in #ahdh1 some would yet be alive in #ahfj1 for not a few of these men1 if living1 would be still of middle age4 ,hall had read the story of the sufferings of ,kane's party during the long months of the ,arctic winter1 but he had come to the conclusion that most of these resulted from the mode of life adopted by them4 ,the ,innuits1 he knew1 lived to a good old age through a succession of such winters1 and he believed that a civilized man could live where a savage could4 ,this conviction was confirmed by one of ,kane's companions1 who told him1 8,when we lived like the ,esquimaux1 we immediately recovered1 and enjoyed our usual health4 ,if ,providence had so ordered it that we should cast our lot with the ,esquimaux1 ,i have no doubt that we would have lived quite as long1 and in quite as good health as in the ,united ,states or ,england4 ,white men can live where ,esquimaux can1 and frequently when and where they can not40 ,so ,hall grew into the conviction that some of these lost ones could yet be found2 and he writes1 8,it seemed to me as if ,i had been called1 if ,i may so speak1 to try and do the work4 ,my heart felt sore at the thought of so great a mystery in connection with any of our fellow-creatures1 especially akin to ourselves1 yet remaining unsolved40 ,how should he obey this call8 ,his own means1 beyond a stout frame and strong will1 were of the smallest4 ,he broached the project at the ,west1 where it was received with favor4 ,then he came ,east1 and was met with like consideration4 ,funds were raised1 and the expedition which ,hall contemplated was fitted out4 ,this expedition consisted simply of ,hall himself4 ,the cash contributed for the outfit was just #ihj1 of which more than a third was contributed by ,henry ,grinnell1 of ,new ,york4 ,in addition to this was about a quarter as much in the way of presents4 8,these10 says ,hall1 8constituted all the means and material ,i had to carry out the great undertaking my mind had led me to embark in40 ,hall's list of the articles on his outfit for a three years' residence and exploration is worthy of record4 ,it shows in what way his #ihj in cash was expended4 8,my outfit10 he writes1 8for the voyage and the whole of my expedition1 consisted of3--a boat1 length twenty-eight feet1 beam seven feet1 depth twenty-nine and one-half inches1 drawing eight inches of water when loaded with stores and a crew of six persons2 one sledge2 one half-ton of pemmican2 two hundred pounds of ,borden's meat biscuit2 twenty pounds pork scrap2 one pound preserved quince2 one pound preserved peaches2 two hundred and fifty pounds powder2 a quantity of ball1 shot1 and percussion caps2 one rifle1 six double-barrelled guns2 one ,colt's revolver2 beads1 needles1 etc41 for presents2 two dozen pocket-knives2 some tin ware2 one axe1 two picks1 files1 etc42 tobacco and pipes2 wearing apparel for self1 and red shirts for natives2 stationery and journal-books2 watch1 opera-glass1 spy-glass2 sextant1 pocket sextant1 artificial horizon1 azimuth compass1 common compass1 two pocket compasses2 three ordinary and two self-registering thermometers4 ,some navigation-books and several ,arctic works1 with my ,bible and a few other volumes1 formed my library40 ,the boat and fixtures cost one hundred and twenty-five dollars2 meat1 biscuit1 pemmican1 etc41 about two hundred and fifty dollars2 astronomical instruments1 about one hundred dollars2 guns and accoutrements1 about two hundred and twenty-five dollars2 clothing1 fifty dollars2 pipes and tobacco1 twenty dollars2 travelling expenses and express payments1 seventy-five dollars2 dog-team1 bought in ,greenland1 fifty dollars4 ,the other items making up the nine hundred and eighty dollars are all duly given4 ,it will be seen that the balance left for minor1 but necessary1 expenditures was very small4 ,new ,london1 ,connecticut1 is the port from which vessels mainly sail for the ,arctic whale-fishery4 ,here was the place of business4 ,williams and ,haven largely engaged in that enterprise4 ,they relieved ,hall of a great load of anxiety by a brief note1 in which they said3 8,as a testimony of our personal regard1 and the interest we feel in the proposed expedition1 we will convey it and its required outfit1 boats1 sledges1 provisions1 instruments1 etc41 free of charge1 on the barque #8,george ,henry1' to ,northumberland ,inlet2 and1 whenever desired1 we will give the same free passage home in any of our vessels40 ,on the #bith of ,may1 #ahfj1 the 8,george ,henry0 set sail1 with a crew1 officers and men1 of twenty-nine souls4 ,accompanying as tender was a schooner1 which had a history4 ,she was now known as the 8,amaret20 but under the name of the 8,rescue0 she had won fame in ,arctic research1 for in her ,kane had made his first ,arctic voyage4 ,hall always calls her by her old name1 and the account of her loss forms a striking episode in his narrative4 ,illustration3 #acb4 ,,kudlago4 ,we have said that ,hall's expedition consisted of himself alone4 ,but when he started he had with him a companion1 who he hoped would greatly aid him4 ,this was ,kudlago1 an ,innuit1 who had acquired some knowledge of our language in ,greenland from whalers1 had come to the ,united ,states on a whaling-vessel1 and was now anxious to return to ,greenland4 ,but he fell sick on the voyage1 and died on the #ast of ,july4 ,his last words were1 8,do you see the ice80 for he knew that the appearance of ice at this season would show that he was near his home4 ,he died three hundred miles at sea1 and was committed to the ocean1 ,hall reading the funeral service4 ,a great iceberg--the slender one represented on page #dh of this volume--was drifting close by1 and ,hall named it 8,kudlago's ,monument40 ,on the #gth of ,july they reached ,holsteinborg1 the capital of the ,danish colony of ,greenland1 a town consisting of twenty-four houses4 ,the entire population of ,greenland is estimated at about #bdej1 of whom #bcjj are ,innuits1 and the remainder ,europeans4 ,of the ,innuits1 #agjj live by sealing1 and #djj by fishing2 the others being mainly mechanics and sailors1 besides twenty native catechists4 ,of the ,europeans1 thirty-one are 8,first and ,second ,governors20 twenty-four missionaries and priests2 thirty-six clerks2 the others mechanics and sailors4 ,the forty-four native and ,european missionaries receive1 in all1 #ac1fjj ,danish paper dollars1 equal to about #hejj in specie4 ,the head-schoolmaster has one hundred and twenty-five paper dollars2 three others receive one hundred dollars each2 three1 twenty-five dollars2 two1 six dollars4 ,of these last1 one teaches his own two children1 who are the only ones in his district4 ,there are also four women1 who get a dollar a year each for teaching children their letters4 ,the sixteen ,government employs get from forty to ninety dollars a year1 besides provisions for themselves and their families4 ,bread is baked for them every fortnight4 ,the currency of the colony is paper1 the 8six-skilling0 note being worth about three cents4 ,illustration3 #acc4 ,,greenland ,,currency4 ,the native ,greenlanders are by no means deficient in intelligence4 ,mr4 ,hall gives a fac-simile of a wood-cut representing a woman and child drawn and engraved by one of them who had received no instruction in art1 and no education of any sort beyond that of the majority of his countrymen4 ,the great festival of ,greenland is the birthday of the ,king of ,denmark1 in which all the population1 native and ,european1 who can be assembled1 take part1 his ,majesty furnishing the cheer4 ,hall gives a view of this celebration1 taken from a drawing made by a native4 ,the original drawing was full of character4 ,the 8,rescue0 having rejoined her consort1 the 8,george ,henry10 from whom she had been separated on the voyage1 the captain proposed to set sail for his proposed whaling-ground on the west side of ,davis's ,strait4 ,they sailed on the #bdth of ,july1 ,hall accompanying4 ,three days after1 they encountered a violent snow-storm1 and were beset by icebergs4 ,on the #hth of ,august they anchored in a bay in latitude #fc #bj1 called by the natives ,ookoolear1 but by ,hall named ,cornelius ,grinnell ,bay4 ,here and hereabouts the whalers went to work1 and ,hall began his acquaintance with the ,esquimaux at home4 ,illustration3 #acd4 ,,woman ,,and ,,child4 7,drawn and ,engraved by ,,an ,,innuit47 ,illustration3 #ace4 ,,festival ,,of ,,the ,,birthday ,,of ,,the ,,king ,,of ,,denmark4 ,among these was ,kookerjabin1 the widow of ,kudlago1 and of three others4 8,the ,innuits10 writes ,hall1 8are a happy people4 ,as they crowded our decks1 ,i one day noticed about a dozen women seated1 and busily engaged at their work4 ,two were mending one of the boat's sails1 some were chewing seal-skins for boot-soles1 others were sewing1 while one was tending a cross baby4 ,it is rare to find an ,innuit child who is not very quiet1 but this little fellow had eaten a piece of raw blubber1 which had disordered him4 ,some of the amusing tricks played by these ,esquimaux women are especially deserving of notice4 ,the variety of games performed by a string tied at the ends1 similar to a #8cat's cradle1' completely throws into the shade our adepts at home4 ,i never before witnessed such a number of intricate ways in which a simple string could be used4 ,one arrangement represented a deer2 another1 a whale2 a third1 the walrus2 a fourth1 the seal2 and so on without end40 ,illustration3 #acf4 ,,preparing ,,boot-,,soles4 ,the short ,arctic summer soon came to a close4 ,on the morning of the #bfth of ,september came light winds from the north-west2 by noon it began to snow1 the wind increasing to a gale4 ,the whaling-boats all came in1 and preparations were made for bad weather4 ,during the night the storm grew hourly fiercer4 ,the 8,rescue0 dragged her anchor1 and was dashed upon the rocks an utter wreck4 ,hall's little boat1 upon which he had so much relied1 was torn from its moorings and lost1 8dooming me10 says ,hall1 8to a wreck of disappointment in the hopes ,i had cherished concerning her4 ,the #8,george ,henry' was also in imminent peril1 but outrode the tempest2 but on her next voyage1 eighteen months later1 was lost at a point hardly a hundred miles distant40 ,the 8,george ,henry0 was soon after laid up in winter-quarters1 fairly blocked in by ice4 ,hall in the mean time had made himself acquainted with the ,esquimaux of the region4 ,prominent among these were a couple--husband and wife--whose history is worthy of record4 ,illustration3 #acg4 ,,wreck ,,of ,,the ,,rescue4 ,one day--it was ,november #b--while ,hall was writing in his cabin1 he heard a low1 sweet voice saying1 8,good-morning1 ,sir40 ,looking up1 he saw a comely woman1 dressed in very good imitation of civilized costume4 ,he had heard of her before4 ,her name was ,tookoolito4 ,she was the wife of ,ebierbing1 a rather famous seal-hunter and pilot4 ,seven years before a ,british whaler had taken them to ,england1 where they were received as the lions of the day4 ,they dined with ,prince ,albert1 and were introduced to the ,queen4 ,ebierbing thought that the ,queen was 8very pretty20 indeed she bore no very distant likeness to his own wife4 ,tookoolito thought ,prince ,albert was a 8very kind1 good man40 ,both agreed that the ,queen had 8a very fine place40 ,tookoolito1 as many thousands in the ,united ,states afterwards had occasion to know1 spoke ,english almost perfectly4 ,her husband was less fluent1 but still quite intelligible4 ,this pair became ,hall's constant companions in the ,arctic regions2 came with him upon his return to the ,states1 remained there with him for two years1 and went back with him upon his second expedition1 which now 7,september1 #ahfi7 is not completed4 ,illustration3 #ach4 ,,the ,,george ,,henry ,,laid ,,up ,,for ,,the ,,winter4 ,early in ,january ,hall resolved to make an exploring expedition with the dog-team which he had bought at ,holsteinborg4 ,the party consisted of himself1 ,ebierbing1 ,tookoolito1 and another ,esquimaux1 named ,koodloo4 ,the sledge was drawn by ten dogs--five of which belonged to ,hall1 and five to ,ebierbing4 ,they relied for food mainly upon the proceeds of their hunting1 taking with them only a pound and a half of preserved mutton1 three pounds of salt pork1 fifteen pounds of sea-bread1 three pounds of pork scraps for soup1 and a little coffee1 pepper1 and molasses4 ,the trip lasted nearly a month and a half1 during which time ,hall learned to live like the ,esquimaux in their snow cabins1 and subsisted mainly upon raw seal flesh4 ,when he returned to the ship it was hard for him to accustom himself to the change from the pure atmosphere of a snow-house to the confined air of a small cabin4 ,illustration3 #aci4 ,,storm-,,bound4 ,had ,kane but known how to pass an ,arctic winter1 the world would never have had occasion to read one of the most pathetic accounts ever written of suffering4 ,buddington1 the captain of the 8,george ,henry10 had learned the lesson by dear experience4 ,five years before1 when in command of another vessel1 he had lost thirteen of his men by scurvy4 8,but10 said he1 8,i am not now afraid of losing any more men by scurvy while ,i have command over them4 ,whenever there are appearances of it on board1 ,i will have every pork and beef barrel--salt provisions of every kind--headed up at once1 and every man shall live upon bread and fresh provision1 such as whale1 walrus1 seal1 deer1 bear1 ptarmigan1 duck1 and the like4 ,it is not a little remarkable that persons afflicted with scurvy seem madly inclined to salt provisions1 which they know to be in their case absolute poisons4 ,they will go any length to obtain salt pork1 even when they have fresh food in abundance40 ,hall's first night in an igloo may stand as a sample of many more4 ,we cite1 with much abridgment1 from his journal3 8,we encamped at #e ,p4,m41 having found good material for building a snow-house4 ,ebierbing and ,koodloo at once commenced sawing out snow-blocks1 while ,i carried them to a suitable spot for erecting the igloo1 which took us one hour to make4 ,as soon as it was completed ,tookoolito entered1 and commenced placing the stone lamp in its proper position4 ,it was trimmed1 and soon a kettle of snow was over it1 making water for coffee and soup4 ,she then placed several pieces of board1 which we had brought with us1 on the snow platform where our beds were to be made4 ,upon these were placed canvas and deer-skins1 and our sleeping accommodations were complete4 ,the drying of any thing that has become wet during the day falls to the lot of the woman4 ,she places them in a net hung over the lamp and attends to them through the night1 meanwhile mending all articles of clothing that need repairs4 ,presently our evening meal was ready4 ,it consisted of ,cincinnati #8crackling' soup1 a bit of raw salt pork1 half a biscuit for each1 and coffee40 ,illustration3 #adj4 ,,innuit ,,stone ,,lamp4 ,a snow-house1 built in an hour1 is abandoned when the use for it is over4 ,the dogs are suffered to enter1 and appropriate any thing that is left which suits their taste4 ,nothing comes amiss to them4 ,on the third night ,hall had his hair cut by ,tookoolito1 and the clippings were left on the floor4 ,the dogs swallowed these1 among other things4 ,stormy weather soon came on4 ,there was no hunting or sealing1 and the party had nothing to eat except some bits of raw1 frozen whale's-skin which they found in a cache1 which a party from the ship had made a few weeks before4 ,not far off was an igloo belonging to an ,innuit named ,ugarng1 whom they knew4 ,hall went to it hoping to find something to eat4 ,ugarng had just come in1 having spent two whole days and a night in watching over a seal-hole without success4 ,he had heard the seal blow1 and that was all4 ,he bore his disappointment coolly4 8,away ,i go tomorrow again10 he said4 ,he went next day1 remained all night over the seal-hole1 and came back with nothing4 8,this was very bad for the whole of us10 says ,hall4 ,how bad it was for the poor wife of ,ugarng and her children may be inferred from her own words4 ,they were without food or light2 her infant was restless from hunger4 ,she said simply1 8,me got no milk1 meat all gone1 blubber too2 nothing to eat1 no heat2 must wait till get seal40 ,hall was about as near starvation as were the ,innuits4 ,all he had to eat was a bit of the 8black skin0 of a whale1 and this he relished2 he could have eaten any thing which would have gone to keep up internal heat1 and make bone and flesh4 ,ebierbing was away hunting4 ,at length ,tookoolito managed to extemporize a warm dinner4 ,from the black skin she tried out enough oil to fill the lamp and heat some snow-water4 ,this was thickened with a couple of ounces left of a quart of meal which formed a part of the stores with which they set out4 ,the pair shared the 8pudding10 and thought it excellent4 ,the cold was severe4 ,within the dark igloo the thermometer stood at about zero2 outside1 #be to #eb below zero4 ,under these circumstances ,hall kept at his journal1 sitting wrapped in furs to keep from freezing4 ,so passed ten days4 ,ebierbing had gone back to the vessel in order to bring back some food4 ,day by day ,hall went to the top of a hill1 straining his eyes over the snowy waste in hope of seeing the approach of the messenger4 ,on the evening of the #bdth of ,january1 fourteen days after their starting upon the expedition1 they were reduced to their last ration of food1 which was a piece of black skin two inches long1 an inch and a half wide1 and three-quarters of an inch thick4 ,at midnight footsteps were heard approaching2 ,hall sprang from his bed and opened the snow-block door4 ,there was 8,jack10 an ,innuit1 who had gone out on a hunt1 with his spear strung with strips of seal-blubber4 ,hall's favorite dog had been allowed to sleep in the igloo4 ,the half-starved creature scented the blubber1 gave a desperate leap1 and grasped a portion of the food1 and in spite of all the efforts of ,hall and the others swallowed it4 ,before the door could be closed all the other dogs outside were aroused1 and fighting for a share4 ,among them they got nearly the whole4 ,next morning ,hall went out1 and gazing in the direction from which the approach of ,ebierbing was hoped for1 saw something black moving over the snow4 ,it was ,ebierbing with dogs and a sledge1 loaded with provisions from the ship1 and also with a seal which he had caught that morning4 ,a great seal-feast took place at once1 which ,hall thus describes3 ,illustration3 #ada4 ,,fighting ,,for ,,food4 8,according to ,innuit custom1 an immediate invitation was given by the successful hunter's family for every one to attend a seal-feast4 ,our igloo was soon crowded4 ,my station was on the dais1 or bed-place1 so that ,i could watch what was going on4 ,the first thing done was to consecrate the blubber by sprinkling water over it4 ,then our host proceeded to separate the blubber and skin from the meat and skeleton of the seal4 ,the body was then opened1 and the blood scooped out4 ,the blood is considered very precious4 ,the liver came next1 cut into pieces and eaten raw1 ,i getting a share4 ,then followed distributing the ribs1 for social picking1 also eaten raw1 ,i doing my duty1 and becoming quite an ,innuit in all except in the quantity eaten4 ,this ,i might challenge any white man to do4 ,no human stomach but an ,innuit's could possibly hold what ,i saw these men and women devour4 ,when the feast was ended1 the company dispersed4 ,tookoolito then sent around bountiful gifts of seal-blubber for fire-lamps1 also some seal-meat and blood4 ,this is the usual custom among the ,innuits4 ,they share each other's success1 and bear each other's wants4 ,generally if it is found that one is short of provisions1 it may be known that all are so40 ,illustration3 #adb4 ,,through ,,the ,,snow4 ,the manner in which ,ebierbing secured that precious seal is a striking example of ,innuit patience4 ,on his way to the ship the dogs discovered a seal-hole4 ,he marked the spot by making a small pile of snow close by1 and squirting a mouthful of tobacco-juice upon it by way of mark4 ,on his return he found the hole1 and determined to try to secure the animal4 ,so wrapping his feet and legs in furs taken from the sledge1 he took his position1 spear in hand1 over the seal-hole4 ,it was buried two feet deep under the snow4 ,he thrust his spear through the snow again and again until he found the little aperture leading through the ice2 then in the dark night he seated himself close by1 waiting to hear the blowing of the seal4 ,towards morning the welcome sound was heard4 ,one well-aimed thrust of the spear secured the prize4 ,ebierbing was nearly frozen1 his nose being frostbitten2 but he suffered more from thirst than from cold4 ,there was indeed snow all around1 but in that intense cold the mouth does not retain sufficient caloric to melt a piece of snow placed in it4 ,his first call when he reached the igloo was for water4 ,to watch all night at a seal-hole would seem to be a sufficient trial of patience and endurance2 but ,hall notes another time when ,ebierbing passed two whole days and nights without food by a hole1 and then failed to secure the seal4 ,to the ,innuit the seal is1 in the broadest sense1 the staff of life4 ,it is to them all that flocks and herds1 grain-fields1 forests1 coal mines1 and petroleum wells are to dwellers in more favored lands4 ,it furnishes to them food1 fuel1 and clothing4 ,the seal is the most wary and suspicious of creatures2 to capture him demands a patience and dexterity which throws into the shade all the exploits of deer-stalkers and lion-hunters4 8,nutchook10 for so the ,innuits name the seal1 has good reason for wariness1 for his chief enemy1 8,ninoo10 the bear1 against whom he has to keep constant watch1 is a keen hunter4 ,the ,innuits acknowledge that 8,ninoo0 has taught them how to catch 8,nutchook10 the common seal1 and his big cousin 8,oookgook10 the great seal4 ,hall1 no contemptible sportsman1 acknowledges that he was never able to get within rifle-shot of a seal when basking upon the ice2 yet ,ninoo catches them with his own paws2 and the ,innuits1 taught by him1 come within the distance of a spear's cast4 ,illustration3 #adc4 ,,waiting ,,by ,a ,,seal-,,hole4 ,the way ,ninoo goes to work at seal-hunting upon the ice1 according to ,innuit accounts1 is this3 ,he sees far away upon the ice a black spot1 which he knows to be a seal resting at the edge of his hole1 and taking a succession of 8cat naps10 hardly ten seconds long1 lifting up his head between times1 and narrowly surveying the whole horizon4 ,ninoo flings himself upon his side1 and creeps along when the seal's head is down4 ,the moment the seal's head is raised the bear stops short1 and begins 8talking0 to the seal4 ,the sound which he utters is quite distinct from his ordinary voice4 ,the seal is charmed1 suspects no harm1 and down goes his head for another nap4 ,forward goes ,ninoo1 and so on for a long time1 until he gets within leaping distance2 then one spring1 and it is all over with ,nutchook4 ,the ,innuits say that if they could only talk to ,nutchook as cleverly as ,ninoo does1 they would catch more seals4 ,the ,innuit imitates ,ninoo4 ,illustration3 #add4 ,,looking ,,for ,,seals4 ,hall describes one of these hunts1 the main actor being an ,innuit named ,koojesse3 8,koojesse had #8talk' with seals1 and it was with great interest that ,i watched him4 ,he lay down on one side1 and crawled by hitches or jerks towards his victim2 then as the seal raised its head ,koojesse would stop1 and commenced pawing with his right hand and foot1 while he uttered his #8seal-talk4' ,on this the seal would feel a charm1 raise and shake its flippers both fore and aft1 and roll over on its side and back as if perfectly delighted2 after this it would drop its head to sleep4 ,then ,koojesse would hitch along till the seal's head would pop up again1 which usually occurred every few moments40 ,in this particular case the seal escaped1 for the ,innuit had approached too near1 and had thus broken the charm4 ,illustration3 #ade4 ,,innuit ,,strategy ,,to ,,capture ,a ,,seal4 ,in the winter1 when the seal lives under the ice1 its capture requires great skill and perseverance4 ,she1 for somehow the male seal seems now not to be noticed1 has a breathing-hole through the ice1 to which she must come now and then for air4 ,upon the surface of the solid ice1 which is covered with snow1 the prospective mother constructs an igloo for her progeny4 ,she scrapes off the snow until she has formed a dome1 carrying away the snow down through the hole in the ice4 ,upon the shelf of ice surrounding the hole the young one is born1 and there it is regularly visited by the mother4 ,none but very keen-scented animals1 such as the bear1 fox1 and dog1 can discover such an igloo4 ,the dog sometimes captures a seal4 ,hall describes such an event3 8,ebierbing had one day been out with dogs and sledge where the ice was still firm1 when suddenly a seal was noticed ahead4 ,in an instant the dogs were off towards the prey1 drawing the sledge after them at a marvellous rate4 ,the seal for a moment acted as if frightened1 and kept on the ice a second or two too long1 for just as he plunged1 ,smile1 the best seal and bear dog ,i ever saw1 caught him by the tail and flippers4 ,the seal struggled violently1 and so did ,smile2 but in a moment more the other dogs laid hold1 and aided in dragging the seal out of his hole1 when ,smile took it in charge4 ,the prize was secured wholly by the dogs40 ,illustration3 #adf4 ,,seal-,,hole ,,and ,,igloo4 ,illustration3 #adg4 ,,waiting ,,for ,a ,,blow4 ,dogs seem to hunt the seal only upon their master's account2 but the fox and the bear capture him for themselves4 ,how the fox contrives to get into a seal igloo we are not told2 but as they manage to break open the best packed provision-cases1 we may assume that they know how to commit burglary upon the igloo of a poor seal4 ,if the ,innuits are to be believed1 the way the bear goes to work is this3 ,when he has scented out the precise position of an igloo he goes back a little distance1 so as to get a good run2 and then1 giving a high leap1 comes down with all his weight upon the roof of the dome1 crushes it in1 and with his paw seizes the young seal1 who was quietly asleep upon the ice-shelf4 ,the cunning bear is not always satisfied with the little infant seal1 but uses it as a bait to catch its mother4 ,having caught the young one1 and holding it fast by the hind flippers1 the bear scrapes away all the snow1 and lets the young seal paddle about in the water2 its cries draw the mother to the hole1 and within reach of the bear's paw1 when one grab is given1 and the anxious mother is secured4 ,at all events the ,innuits practise this sort of strategy with the seal1 and they declare that they have learned it from the bear4 ,the bear is to the ,innuits the embodiment of all wisdom4 ,they tell stories of his sagacity which are hard to believe4 ,thus they say that when he sees a walrus basking upon the ice at the foot of a high cliff1 he mounts to the summit of the cliff1 and picking up a big stone flings it down with perfect aim upon the head of the walrus and crushes its thick skull4 ,if it should happen that the walrus is only stunned1 the bear crawls down the cliff1 picks up a stone1 and with it hammers away at the head of the walrus until the skull is broken4 ,this story of the ,innuits needs confirmation1 though ,hall seems to credit it4 ,illustration3 #adh4 ,,dog ,,and ,,seal4 ,the dog is essential to the existence of the ,innuits4 ,as they have never domesticated the reindeer1 without the dog they could not travel from place to place1 which they are obliged to do in order to follow the migrations of the seal and walrus1 upon which they mainly subsist4 ,without him they could never find out the holes in the ice through which the seal comes up to breathe in the winter4 ,their dogs seem to be much more intelligent and docile than those of any other of the ,polar tribes4 ,when one is found to be more than usually intelligent he is carefully trained as a seal-dog4 ,when the dog scents a seal-hole1 which he does though it is covered deep under the snow1 he unerringly follows the scent to the very spot4 ,illustration3 #adi4 ,,spearing ,,through ,,the ,,snow4 ,the ,innuit proceeds to 8prospect0 by driving the slender spear through the snow until he finds the small opening in the ice which leads to the main hole4 ,he then withdraws the spear1 taking the utmost care not to disturb the snow1 and seats himself close by to await the coming of the seal4 ,he watches for hours1 and sometimes for days1 before he hears the welcome 8blow40 ,at the second or third puff1 he knows that the nose of the seal is at the bottom of the breathing-hole1 perhaps two yards below the spot where he is standing4 ,the spear must be thrust with perfect accuracy2 for an error of a quarter of an inch on either side would miss the hole1 and the spear-point would strike the solid ice1 and the seal would be away in an instant4 ,if the blow is well-aimed and at the right instant1 it pierces the head of the unseen seal1 who instantly dives1 and runs out the eight or ten fathoms of line which1 fastened to the harpoon1 is tied around the waist of the ,innuit4 ,the snow is then dug away1 the breathing-hole enlarged1 so as to permit the seal to be drawn through4 ,illustration3 #aej4 ,,dogs ,,and ,,bear4 ,the dogs also take special delight in hunting the bear4 ,when a team scent a bear it is impossible to restrain them4 ,once when ,hall was on a journey a bear with her cub was seen on the ice at the foot of a high mountain4 ,when within two hundred yards1 the leading dog was cut loose1 and he made straight for the bear2 one by one the others were set free from the sledge1 and all were in hot pursuit4 ,one dog set upon the cub1 and finally separated it from its mother2 another caught the dam2 and both rolled down a precipice1 up which the bear scrambled again and escaped1 for it was so steep that the dogs could not follow4 ,all the dogs1 eleven in number1 now set upon the cub4 ,hall coming up1 the young brute made at him2 he ran it through with his spear4 ,he expected that the ,innuits would applaud his courage and dexterity2 but they shook their heads and said nothing at the time4 ,they soon showed the utmost determination to leave the neighborhood1 and explained by saying that the old bear would come back at night1 smell the blood of the cub1 and become enraged1 and kill them all4 ,the ,innuits avoid killing a young bear until they have dispatched the old one1 for they say that knowing the death of her young makes her a hundred times more terrible4 ,although the liver of the seal is held to be a great delicacy1 the ,innuits never eat that or the head of the bear2 nor1 if they can prevent it1 will they suffer their dogs to do so4 ,illustration3 #aea4 ,,barbekark ,,and ,,the ,,reindeer4 ,the ,innuit dogs also sometimes hunt the reindeer4 ,hall's dogs one day gave chase to a deer1 and one of them1 ,barbekark1 sprung at its throat1 and bit through skin1 windpipe1 jugular1 and tongue1 taking out the piece as clearly as though it had been cut with a knife4 ,barbekark was brought to the ,united ,states by ,mr4 ,hall1 and died there4 ,his stuffed skin showed him to be a noble beast of unusual size4 ,illustration3 #aeb4 ,,head ,,of ,,reindeer4 ,the walrus enters largely into the supplies of the ,innuits4 ,they manifest much courage and skill in harpooning these ungainly beasts4 ,the hunter goes out armed with a lance and a peculiar harpoon made for that purpose4 ,a long hide-rope is attached to the head of the harpoon1 and coiled around the neck of the hunter1 who crawls along until he comes within striking distance of the walrus1 who lies basking upon the ice4 ,the walrus dives at once2 the hunter slips the coil off from his neck1 and fastens the end of it to a spear driven into the ice2 thus tethering the animal4 ,as soon as the walrus comes up he is dispatched with a long lance4 ,should the ,innuit fail to slip off the coil in time1 he would infallibly be drawn into the water1 and almost certainly lose his life2 but as ,hall records no instance of such a catastrophe1 we infer that these rarely happen4 ,illustration3 #aec4 ,,spearing ,,the ,,walrus4 ,the ,innuits show remarkable ingenuity in availing themselves of every facility afforded by their inhospitable country4 ,of their igloos or snow-houses we have already spoken4 ,in half an hour a couple of men will build one of these1 which answers very well for a temporary shelter4 ,when one is to be built for a longer residence1 more care is taken in the construction4 ,a site is chosen where the snow is hard-- if possible1 over a running stream1 so that they can obtain water without the labor of melting the ice4 ,a circle is marked out for the ground plan4 ,blocks of snow are cut with a large knife or saw4 ,these blocks are three feet long1 eighteen inches wide1 and six inches thick1 shaped rounding1 so that each block forms the segment of a circle of the proposed diameter of the igloo4 ,the blocks are slightly tapered off on the inner side1 and are laid spirally1 one man building from within1 while the other brings the blocks from without4 ,the courses grow smaller and smaller as the dome rises1 until there is only a narrow open circle1 into which a block of snow is dropped by way of keystone1 binding the whole dome firmly together4 ,the man within now carefully examines every part1 and if there are any openings left they are stopped up with snow4 ,a hole for a door is then cut2 and through this are passed the snow-blocks to build the divan1 which forms the seats and bed4 ,a tunnel-like passage is then dug and covered over4 ,this is so low and narrow that one must crawl on all fours to pass through it4 ,the outer door of the passage consists of a block of ice or hard snow fitting closely to the opening and turning upon a sort of pivot4 ,the usual diameter of a family igloo is twelve or sixteen feet1 and its height about eight4 ,it will accommodate ten or a dozen people4 ,illustration3 #aed4 ,,innuit ,,igloos4 ,when newly built1 an igloo is one of the most beautiful structures conceivable4 ,the blocks are more transparent than the clearest alabaster and whiter than the purest marble1 but they soon become defaced by the smoke and the filth of all kinds which rapidly accumulates4 ,apart from the divan1 almost the only article of furniture is the stone lamp1 which serves the purpose both of lamp and furnace4 ,it reminds one of an implement common among civilized people1 and known as an 8,etna40 ,illustration3 #aee4 ,,walrus ,,skull ,,and ,,tusks4 ,the ,innuits show great dexterity in the construction of their implements and in the fabrication of their clothing4 ,their canoes have been the admiration of every voyager in the ,arctic regions1 and they are wonderfully dexterous in the management of them4 ,their sledges have the runners made of bits of bone ingeniously tied together with the sinews of the deer4 ,when they wish them to run very smoothly they shoe them with ice1 by simply squirting from their mouths a thin stream of water upon the runner1 where it congeals in an instant4 ,the 8oodloo10 or woman's knife1 is shaped like our common meat-chopper4 ,it is made of bone1 merely edged with iron2 but in the hands of an ,innuit woman it takes the place of the knife1 hatchet1 scraper1 and shears of her civilized sisters4 ,the different kinds of spears and harpoons used in capturing the seal1 walrus1 and whale are admirably adapted for their purpose4 ,we doubt whether we could improve upon the design1 and1 with all our facilities in the way of material1 very much in the way of execution4 ,the ,innuits have clearly given their whole minds to the fabrication of these weapons4 ,they have the bow and arrow1 and are quite clever in its employment2 but for them it is of little use except in the shooting of birds1 for a seal or walrus would not even feel an arrow shot from the strongest bow4 ,illustration3 #aef4 ,,the ,,woman',s ,,knife4 ,although the ,innuits have never domesticated the reindeer1 it yet plays a great part in their economy4 ,their clothing and bedding is composed almost wholly of deer-skin1 which is one of the best non-conductors of heat known4 ,even when the thermometer marks #gj degrees below the freezing-point1 they never use but one for bedding2 and ,mr4 ,hall says that he has slept under a dozen of the best woollen blankets and been almost frozen1 while a single slender skin kept him abundantly warm4 ,during the summer the deer furnishes a great part of the food of the people4 ,the grass and mosses upon which the deer live are very abundant4 ,nowhere1 except on the prairies of the ,west1 had ,hall ever seen such luxuriant pasturage1 and the deer in ,august were so plentiful that they were killed merely for the sake of their hides and tallow1 which is a great luxury1 fully equal1 in ,hall's opinion1 to the finest butter4 ,if the ,innuits would only store up their provisions in the season of plenty1 they need never suffer from famine2 but they never do this1 and the consequence is that from ,november till ,may they are almost always on the verge of starvation1 while during the rest of the year they revel in plenty4 ,illustration3 #aeg4 ,,innuit ,,implements4 ,as a pendant to ,mr4 ,hall's account of a seal-feast1 we give his description of a reindeer-feast4 ,the date is ,december1 the season of scarcity4 8,four months before1 they had more deer-meat than they could eat--and the quantity that an ,innuit and his dog can consume is something almost incredible4 ,but one day a man came in from a hunting excursion bearing with him a portion of the carcasses of two deer1 frozen as hard as a rock4 ,a general invitation for a feast was of course given out2 and the entire population1 about thirty in all1 rushed in4 ,sampson1 the giver of the feast1 acted as master of ceremonies4 ,he first made the ladies on the bed give away1 so as to clear a space whereon he might do the carving4 ,then he placed a huge seal-skin on this spot1 by way of tablecloth1 upon which the frozen carcass was laid4 ,this he began to carve with a hatchet4 ,slabs of its side were chopped and peeled off2 chips of ice flew here and there into the faces of the guests at each stroke of the axe4 ,as fast as the fragments of venison rolled off1 other men took the pieces1 and by means of a saw and seal-knives reduced them to a size adapted for handling4 ,then ,sampson distributed these bits1 one to each1 till every mill had its grist to grind4 ,thus for half an hour ,sampson carved2 then his hatchet-handle broke off close up to the head4 ,another axe was sent for1 and meanwhile1 with the half of a saw1 the two saddles were divided into the proper number of pieces1 ready for distribution4 ,the carcass was then once more attacked1 and the shell was broken1 split1 and sawed to pieces4 ,in it was the #8kernel1' to which all looked with anxious eyes2 this was at last divided into as many pieces as there were pieces of saddle1 and then one of each was given to every guest4 ,i received my share with gratitude1 and1 with a piece in each hand1 began eating4 ,i bit off a mouthful of the saddle-piece2 it was good4 ,i took a morsel of the other2 it was delightful3 its flavor was a kind of sorrel acid2 it had an ambrosial taste2 it fairly melted in my mouth4 ,when nearly through1 ,i had the curiosity to crowd my way to a light to see what this delicious frozen food was1 for where ,i sat ,i was shaded by large forms between me and the firelight4 ,i looked at it1 rolled it over1 and looked again4 ,behold1 it was the contents of a reindeer's paunch6 ,on this discovery ,i stopped feasting for that night40 ,mr4 ,hall passes judgment upon various other articles of ,innuit food4 ,seal's blood1 smoking hot1 is excellent4 ,the skin of the whale1 three-quarters of an inch thick1 looking like ,india-rubber1 even when raw1 is good eating2 but when boiled and soused in vinegar1 is most excellent4 ,the 8gum0 of the whale1 that is1 the substance in which whalebone is set1 is a special ,innuit delicacy2 it looks like cocoa-nut meat1 and tastes like unripe chestnuts4 ,hall could not fully appreciate this2 but he adds savingly1 8,if the struggle was for life1 and its preservation depended upon the act1 ,i would undoubtedly eat whale's gum until ,i got something better to my liking40 ,once a substance which looked like a choice bit from a turkey's breast was handed to him4 ,he thought he had stumbled upon a delicacy1 but after vainly trying to masticate it for half an hour1 he found it as solid as when he began4 ,this substance was the ligament lying between the vertebr of the whale4 ,he had made a mistake in the way of disposing of it4 ,the ,innuit mode is to take a huge piece into the mouth1 lubricate it thoroughly1 and then bolt it whole1 as the boa-constrictor swallows a deer4 ,hall thinks well of the ,innuit practice of eating their meat raw1 in a sanitary point of view2 but he never quite liked it4 ,he never fully came up to the opinion of ,mansfield ,parkyns1 the ,abyssinian traveller1 who assures us that no man knows what a good beef-steak is until he has eaten it raw1 before it has had time to get cold4 ,the costume of the ,innuits is admirably adapted to the climate4 ,the winter dress1 commencing with the feet1 is thus composed3 ,long stockings of reindeer skin1 with the hairy side next to the person2 socks of eider-duck skin1 with the feathers on both sides1 and of seal-skin with the hair outside2 boots1 the legs of reindeer skin with the hair outside1 the soles of seal-skin4 ,the jacket is of reindeer skin1 fitting rather loosely2 those of the women have long tails reaching almost to the ground4 ,the ornamentation of the female dress depends on the means and taste of the wearer4 ,one 8very pretty style10 mentioned by ,mr4 ,hall1 had a fringe of colored beads across the neck1 bowls of ,britannic-metal tea-spoons down the front flap1 and a double row of copper cents1 surmounted by a small bell1 down the tail1 which was bordered by a beading of leaden shot4 ,the jacket has no opening before or behind1 but is slipped on over the head4 ,the women's jacket has a hood which serves a variety of purposes1 among others1 that of carrying the children4 ,the breeches reach below the knee1 and are fastened by a string drawn about the waist4 ,finger-rings and a head-band of bright brass1 complete the fashionable costume4 ,the religious ideas of the ,innuits are very vague4 ,they believe that there is one ,supreme ,being who created the earth1 sea1 and stars2 and also a secondary divinity1 his daughter1 who created all things having life1 whether animal or vegetable4 ,she is the tutelary deity of the ,innuits4 ,they believe in a heaven and a hell1 but have no very well defined ideas about them4 ,according to ,tookoolito1 heaven was upward2 it is light there all the time1 and there are no ice or storms4 ,hell is downward2 no sun there1 but storms and snows all the while2 it is cold1 and there is a great deal of ice there4 ,any one who has been killed by accident goes straight to heaven4 ,they have a kind of priests1 or rather conjurers1 called ,angekos1 whose business is to charm away sickness1 and secure good hunting-seasons1 with an abundance of seals1 walrus1 and deer1 and an early disappearance of the ice4 ,when his services are called for1 he is always1 like a wise man1 careful to get his pay in advance1 and it is generally understood that the success of his incantations depends greatly upon the amount of his fee4 ,illustration3 #aeh4 ,,finding ,,the ,,dead4 ,upon the whole1 the ,innuits must be regarded as an amiable and kindly people4 ,they are exceedingly tender parents1 and not unaffectionate husbands and wives4 ,the main exception to their general kindness is their treatment of the aged and infirm4 ,when one1 especially a woman1 is hopelessly sick or infirm1 she is not unfrequently abandoned4 ,mr4 ,hall relates several incidents of this kind which came within his own knowledge4 ,in one case the husband1 when he found that his wife was hopelessly sick of consumption1 abandoned her1 and took another while the poor creature was still alive4 ,the deserted woman lingered several weeks1 supplied with food by the neighbors4 ,in another case a sick woman1 in the depth of winter1 was left behind in an igloo1 with a small quantity of provisions4 ,hall1 learning of this1 made an attempt to go to her rescue4 ,but in the mean time a heavy snow-storm had come on1 and the igloo was entirely buried1 so that no traces of it could be found4 ,a few days after1 ,hall1 accompanied by ,ebierbing1 made another attempt4 ,the spot was finally found1 though the snow lay level above the ice-hut1 the position of which could be ascertained only by exploring with their spears4 ,they broke through the roof1 and1 looking down1 saw the woman frozen as solid as a marble statue4 ,she had been dead for days1 and the indications showed that she had perished from cold very soon after being abandoned4 ,there were supplies of whale-skin for food1 and blubber to keep up the fire1 but she was too feeble to rise from the bed and replenish the lamp4 ,illustration3 #aei4 ,,innuit ,,summer ,,village4 ,the ,innuits of the present day are a purely nomadic race1 roaming from place to place1 following the seal1 walrus1 and deer4 ,but their wanderings appear to be confined to the region of the coast1 never extending far into the interior4 ,their dwellings are therefore constructed for mere temporary occupation1 being snow-huts 7igloos7 for winter1 and tents 7tupics7 for summer4 ,but there are indications in the form of trenches and excavations which show that they formerly led a more settled life1 and constructed more permanent habitations4 ,their numbers have been gradually diminishing ever since they have come into contact with the whites4 ,how this comes to pass is a mystery4 ,there is nothing to show that the climate has become more rigorous1 or that the animals which constitute their food have grown scarcer or less easy of capture4 ,the ,indians of ,america have been destroyed by the occupation of their hunting-grounds1 by whisky1 and the small-pox1 introduced by the whites4 ,the natives of the ,south ,sea ,islands have been eaten up by nameless diseases1 contracted from their licentious white visitors4 ,there is scarcely a trace of either drunkenness or licentiousness among the ,innuits4 ,consumption is the great destroyer among them2 but we can see no reason why this should be more prevalent now than it was generations ago4 ,illustration3 #afj4 ,,returning ,,to ,,the ,,ship4 ,it seems that in former times there were chiefs among the ,innuits1 but at the present time there is no trace of any thing like government among them4 ,in each community there is usually some one who1 from age1 personal prowess as a hunter1 or native shrewdness1 is looked up to with respect1 and his opinions are regarded with deference2 but he has no sort of authority except that which each person voluntarily concedes to him4 ,illustration3 #afa4 ,,over ,,the ,,ice4 ,we left ,mr4 ,hall near the close of ,january1 #ahfa1 when he was just returning to the ship after his first overland expedition4 ,we do not propose to follow him through the course of his personal narrative1 although it abounds with striking incidents and details of hardship and peril4 ,thus1 one day in ,march1 ,john ,brown1 one of the ship's crew1 in company with two ,innuits1 started off from an igloo a few miles distant to rejoin the ship4 ,somehow he got separated from his companions1 but the next morning he had not arrived4 ,the night had been intensely cold1 the thermometer marking #eg degrees below freezing-point4 ,a party of a dozen set off in the attempt to find him4 ,in two hours they came upon the tracks of the wanderer1 but only ,hall and four others could hold out2 the others1 one by one1 fell back4 ,they kept on1 following the tracks1 which now began to grow faint1 being partly filled up with snow4 ,for a time the tracks went straight for the ship2 then they began to waver1 now in one direction1 and then in another1 showing that the man had lost his way4 ,they followed the tracks1 in the intense cold1 #fj degrees below freezing-point4 ,they were tormented by thirst1 which they attempted to allay by the use of ice4 ,the first fragment which ,hall put into his mouth froze it fast4 ,he managed to reduce the temperature of the ice by holding the fragments in his mittened hand1 so that he could place them in his mouth4 ,after six hours1 ,hall's companions said they could go no farther and must return2 for they had brought along no snow-knife1 with which they could build an igloo for the night2 and if a storm should spring up1 they must all be inevitably lost4 ,hall went on alone4 ,one of the crew named ,johnston soon overtook him1 saying1 8,brown was my shipmate1 and ,i loved him4 ,i will go on with you4 ,if ,i were to go back now1 ,i shall always regret it40 ,they followed the tracks1 which now began to run in circles1 interlocking one another4 ,there were twelve of these within less than two miles4 ,every little while they came upon places where the wanderer had lain down to rest4 ,at five o'clock1 nine hours after setting out1 they were overtaken by ,captain ,buddington1 with two sailors and two ,innuits1 accompanied by a dog-team4 ,they all pressed on with renewed vigor1 and in a few minutes came upon poor ,brown1 frozen dead4 ,they could not convey the corpse to the ship1 fully ten miles away1 and so buried him in the snow upon the spot where he was found4 ,illustration3 #afb4 ,,the ,,frozen ,,sailor4 ,it was the middle of ,july before the ship was released from her icy prison4 ,the whalers went to work1 and ,hall made several important expeditions by land and water1 living nearly all the while with the ,innuits4 ,towards the middle of ,october the captain began to prepare for returning home4 ,but he was a few days too late4 ,the ship was beset in the ice-pack1 with no hope of escape4 ,there was nothing left but to make up their minds to spend another winter in the ice4 ,we must pass wholly over the incidents and adventures of this second winter4 ,it is the old tale of suffering and privation4 ,on the #abth of ,january the thermometer fell to #gb degrees below the freezing point4 ,one of the men who had left to visit an ,innuit encampment came back1 saying that he thought he had frozen his toe4 ,upon pulling off his boots both feet were found to be frozen stiff1 and as hard as ice4 ,the usual attempts to save the members were made in vain2 mortification began1 and1 to save the man's life1 the captain was obliged to amputate portions of both his feet4 ,this year1 #ahfb1 the ice held on unusually late2 but on the #hth of ,august it was found that the pack had broken up4 ,the way home was apparently open2 and all hands were summoned on board4 ,the vessel spread her canvas and sailed off1 the ,innuits surrounding her in their canoes1 and shouting farewell4 ,tookoolito and ,ebierbing resolved to accompany ,hall to the ,states1 taking with them ,tukeliketa 78,butterfly071 their infant1 a year old4 ,the child died a few months after their arrival in the ,states1 and lies buried in the graveyard at ,groton1 ,connecticut4 8,i never saw10 says ,hall1 8a more animated1 sweet-tempered1 and engaging child40 ,for days the mother was delirious2 then she longed to die1 that she might be with her lost ,butterfly4 ,upon his grave were laid1 according to the custom of his people1 all his childish playthings4 ,they were sacred to the dead4 ,the mother went to the grave one day1 and found that one article1 a gayly-painted little tin pail1 had been taken away4 ,she was inconsolable4 8,poor little ,butterfly10 she said1 8how he will miss his beautiful pail60 ,the homeward voyage was speedy and prosperous4 ,on the #acth of ,september the 8,george ,henry0 dropped anchor at ,new ,london1 whence she had sailed two years and three and a half months before4 ,the net results of ,hall's expedition were these3 ,many new discoveries were made in ,arctic geography2 much information was gathered in relation to the inhabitants2 and experience acquired of immense value to all future ,arctic explorers4 ,mr4 ,hall also made a very interesting discovery in regard to the fate of the expedition of ,martin ,frobisher1 undertaken almost three centuries ago4 ,he found a tradition among the natives that many years ago white men in ships had visited a place still called 8,white ,man's ,island40 ,hall compared these traditions with the accounts extant in books respecting this voyage1 and was struck with their remarkable coincidence4 ,he visited the place designated as the white man's encampment1 and found many things which had evidently been left by ,europeans4 ,among these was a heap of coal amounting to several tons1 a large fragment of iron1 and some bricks4 ,every thing was covered over with moss whose thick growth showed that they must have remained there undisturbed for ages4 ,the bearing of this upon the possibility of revealing the whole mystery of the fate of ,franklin is evident4 ,if the ,innuits have preserved tolerably accurate traditions of what took place three centuries ago1 it is not to be doubted that they still have information of what took place within a single generation4 ,it is now past hoping that any members of ,franklin's expedition are yet living2 but there must be ,innuits who can tell how and where they died4 ,to further this investigation ,hall resolved upon a second expedition4 ,he spent nearly two years in preparing his book for publication1 and in making preparations for this enterprise4 ,abundant facilities were now placed at his disposal2 and on the #cjth of ,july1 #ahfd1 he again set sail4 ,in the preface to his book1 written on board the vessel1 he says3 8,i am persuaded that among the ,innuits may be sought1 by one competent1 with every chance of complete success1 the sad history of ,sir ,john ,franklin's men4 ,to make myself competent for this more interesting and important research1 ,i patiently acquired the language and familiarized myself with the habits of the ,esquimaux4 ,i now return to their country able to speak with them1 to live among them1 to support my life in the same manner that they do theirs2 to migrate with them from place to place1 and to traverse and patiently explore all the region in which it is reasonable to suppose ,franklin's crew travelled and perished4 ,i shall be accompanied by the two intelligent ,esquimaux1 ,ebierbing and ,tookoolito1 who1 having accompanied me on my return from my first expedition1 and after remaining with me for two years1 now go back with me on this second voyage4 ,i enter upon this undertaking with the liveliest hope of success4 ,i shall not1 like previous explorers1 set my foot on shore for a few days or weeks1 or1 like others1 journey among men whose language to me is unintelligible4 ,i shall live for two or three years among the ,esquimaux1 and gain their confidence2 and ,i have the advantage of understanding their language1 and of making all my wishes known to them40 ,illustration3 #afc4 ,,farewell ,,of ,,the ,,innuits4 ,it is now 7,september1 #ahfi7 more than five years since ,hall set out on this second expedition4 ,up to #ahfg he wrote1 as occasional opportunity offered1 to his fast friend and warm supporter1 ,henry ,grinnell2 but his letters gave only faint indications of what he had been able to accomplish4 ,in #ahfh1 when he had hoped to return1 no whaling-vessels came back to the ,states from the ,arctic seas4 ,a trace or two of him has been reported by ,english vessels1 sufficient1 however1 to afford reason to believe that he still lives4 ,an ,american whaler expected to pass the winter of #ahfh-i in the region where ,hall1 if living would probably be1 and it is hoped that in ,october of this year1 #ahfi1 before these pages will be before the reader1 this vessel1 bearing the brave explorer1 will have reached the ,american shores4 ,,footnotes #a ,see ,chapter ,,xxxii4 #b ,in #ahee1 ,iceland imported1 among others1 #fe1gab pieces of timber1 #adh1jch lbs4 of iron1 #cg1gjj lbs4 hemp1 #ae1agi fishing-lines1 #bj1cdb lbs4 salt1 #feci tons of coal4 ,the chief exportations of the same year were1 tallow1 #icb1ijf lbs41 wool1 #a1efi1cbc lbs41 #fi1cje pairs of stockings1 #bg1aji pairs of gloves1 #ab1gab salted sheepskins1 #daaf lbs4 eider-downs1 #be1jjj lbs4 other feathers1 #bdd horses1 and #bd1jgi ship's pounds 7the ship's pound #cbj lbs47 salt fish4 #c ,barrow1 8,visit to ,iceland10 #ahcd4 #d 8,journal of a ,tour in ,iceland10 p4 #aaj4 #e ,all the clergymen are blacksmiths1 for a reason that will be stated hereafter4 #f ,their number in #ahfj was #iia4 ,during his voyage to ,iceland in #ahej ,prince ,napoleon was named honorary president1 a distinction he shares with the ,bishop of ,reykjavik4 ,among the #df honorary members ,i find the name of ,lord ,dufferin4 #g ,in #ahff the total catch of cod was #ba1jjj1jjj1 about #ab1jjj1jjj of which were salted 7clip fish71 and the remainder dried 7stock-fish72 each fish making on an average #b lbs4 of clip-fish1 and one-fourth less of stock-fish4 #h ,within the last few years1 no less than three scientific expeditions have been sent out to ,spitzbergen at the expense of the ,swedish ,government4 ,during the summer of #aheh1 ,messrs4 ,otto ,torell1 ,guennerstedt1 and ,nordenskjold visited the western parts of the archipelago4 ,in #ahfa the whole coast1 from ,ice ,sound to ,dove ,bay in ,north-east ,land was accurately investigated by ,messrs4 ,torell1 ,malmgren1 ,chydenius1 etc41 and in #ahfd ,messrs4 ,nordenskjold1 ,duner1 and ,malmgren visited the southern shores and ,wjde ,jan's ,water4 ,a fourth expedition has just left the port of ,gothenburg 7,june1 #ahfh74 #i ,reisen in ,lappland1 etc4 #aj ,the verst is about three-fifths of a mile4 #aa ,the poud is equal to #dj pounds4 ,the poud is divided into #if solotniks4 #ab ,a species of sturgeon highly esteemed by epicures4 #ac ,humboldt likewise mentions an artisan of ,breslau whose sight was so sharp as to enable him to point out the position of ,jupiter's satellites4 #ad ,since last year #ahfg the ,russian ,government has sold her ,american possessions to the ,united ,states1 but as it is not yet known how far the interests of the ,russian ,fur ,company have been affected by the change1 ,i may be allowed to speak of her in the present tense4 #ae ,captain ,hall1 who in his search after the remains of the ,franklin expedition has now spent several years among the ,esquimaux1 has so far acquired their appetite that he is able to consume #i lbs4 of meat a day without any inconvenience4 #af #ahej-ahed4 8,investigator10 ,captain ,m',clure1 ,bering's ,straits4 #ahej-ahee4 8,enterprise10 ,captain ,collinson1 #ahej1 #ahea4 8,resolute10 ,captain ,austin1 ,lancaster ,strait and #ahej1 #ahea4 8,assistance10 ,captain ,ommaney1 ,cornwallis ,island4 ,accompanied by two steam tenders1 officered by ,lieutenant ,sherard ,osborne and ,lieutenant ,f4 ,l4 ,m',clintock4 #ahej1 #ahea4 8,lady ,franklin10 ,master ,penny1 accompanied by the 8,sophia10 ,master ,a4 ,stewart1 under ,admiralty ,orders1 to ,lancaster ,strait and ,wellington ,channel4 #ahej4 8,prince ,albert10 ,captain ,forsyth1 belonging to ,lady ,franklin1 to ,regent's ,inlet and ,beechey ,island4 #ahej1 #ahea4 8,advance10 ,lieutenant ,de ,haven1 ,u4,s4,n4 #ahej1 #ahea4 8,rescue10 ,s4 ,p4 ,griffin1 ,esq41 ,u4,s4,n4 ,fitted at the expense of ,h4 ,grinnell1 ,esq41 of ,new ,york1 to ,lancaster ,strait and ,wellington ,channel4 #ag #aheb4 8,isabel10 ,captain ,e4 ,inglefield4 ,lady ,franklin's vessel4 #aheb-ahed4 8,assistance10 ,sir ,edward ,belcher1 to ,lancaster ,sound1 ,wellington ,channel4 #aheb-ahed4 8,resolute10 ,captain ,kellett1 ,lancaster ,strait1 ,melville1 and ,banks's ,island4 #aheb-ahed4 8,pioneer10 ,lieutenant ,sherard ,osborne4 #aheb-ahed4 8,intrepid10 ,captain ,m',clintock4 #aheb-ahed4 8,north ,star10 ,captain ,pullen4 #ah ,these two vessels had been sent in the year #ahdg to the ,polar ,sea beyond ,bering's ,straits1 when they discovered the 8,herald0 and 8,plover0 ,islands4 #ai ,rensselaer ,harbor is situated #a #df higher than ,sir ,e4 ,belcher's winter-quarters in ,northumberland ,sound1 #gf #eb4 #bj 8,athenum10 ,dec4 #c1 #ahec4 #ba ,for an account of the similar phenomena of the 8,buffadero10 on the ,mexican coast1 and of the 8,souffleur10 ,mauritius1 see 8,the ,sea and its ,living ,wonders10 #c;d ed4 p4 #eb4 #bb 8,excursions in ,newfoundland40 #bc 8,the ,sea and its ,living ,wonders10 p4 #djc4 #bd ,voyage of the ,swedish ship 8,eugnie40 #be ,arctic ,researches1 and ,life among the ,esquimaux4 ,by ,,charles ,,francis ,,hall4 ,new ,york1 #ahff4 ,,index4 ,a4 ,adlie1 ,terre1 discovery of1 #djb4 ,agouti1 the1 of ,patagonia1 #dai4 ,agriculture1 state of1 in ,iceland1 #gi4 ,aigun1 treaty of1 #aif4 ,air1 remarkable moisture of the1 in ,taimurland1 #bbe4 ----1 its perpetual motion in the ,arctic zones1 #bbe4 ,akurig1 eider-ducks of1 #ha4 ,alaska1 discovery of1 #bjb4 ----1 climate of the1 #bfi4 ----1 mountains and forests of1 #bfi4 ----1 purchase of1 by the ,americans1 #bgg4 ----1 telegraph through1 #bgh4 ----1 travelling in1 #bgh-bhi4 ----1 natives of1 #bgh-bhi4 ----1 climate of1 #bhd4 ----1 food in1 #bhg4 ,albasin1 the ,russian fort of1 built1 #aie4 ----1 destroyed by the ,chinese1 but rebuilt1 #aif4 ,albatross1 wandering1 of the ,antarctic seas1 #cie4 ,alcyonians on the coasts of ,greenland1 #ei4 ,aleutian ,islands1 causes which led to the discovery of the1 #bja4 ----1 extent of the1 #bgj4 ,aleuts1 their wretched condition under their masters1 #bgc4 ----1 their skill and intrepidity in hunting1 #bgc-bgf4 ,alexander1 ,cape1 discovery of1 #cfe4 ---- ,island1 discovery of1 #dja4 ,algerine pirates1 ravages of1 in ,iceland1 #ie2 and in the ,westman ,islands1 #aai4 ,almannagja1 description of the1 #gc4 ,altai ,mountains1 crossed by the ,cossacks1 #aie4 ,alten1 copper mines of1 #abh4 ,altenfjord1 vegetation of the borders of the1 #abh4 ,america1 ,north1 treeless zone of1 #ah-bb4 ----1 character of the ,conifer of1 #bc1 #bd4 ----1 range of the caribou1 or reindeer1 of1 #cf-ci4 ----1 the musk-ox of1 #da4 ----1 the white dolphin in the rivers of1 #fa4 ----1 the black dolphin of1 #fa4 ----1 walruses of the shores of1 #fd4 ----1 history of the fur-trade of1 #cjg et seq4 ----1 first discoverers and settlers of1 #cce4 ,america1 ,north1 destruction of the ,greenland colonies1 #cce4 ----1 subsequent discoveries1 #cce et seq4 ----1 attempts to discover the north-western passage to ,india1 #cdb et seq4 ,america1 ,russian1 its transfer to the ,united ,states1 #bgb1 note4 ,amoor1 river1 discovery of the1 by the ,russians1 who relinquish it to the ,chinese1 #aie1 #aif4 ----1 the country annexed by ,russia1 #aif4 ,anakerdluk1 in ,north ,greenland1 buried forest of1 #bi4 ,angekoks1 or priests of the ,esquimaux1 #cja4 ,animals1 comparatively small number of1 in the ,arctic regions1 #be4 ----1 the forests the head-quarters of many1 #da4 ---- of the ,arctic ,seas1 #ei4 ---- of the coasts of ,spitzbergen1 #acd4 ----1 fur-bearing1 of ,siberia1 #bji4 ----1 the1 of ,taimurland1 #bbg4 ---- of ,nishne-,kolymsk1 #bce4 ---- of ,newfoundland1 #cgh4 ----1 no land1 in the ,antarctic region1 #cid4 ---- of ,patagonia1 #dah4 ,aniuj1 vegetation of the valley of the1 #bce4 ----1 chief resource of the people of the1 #bcg4 ,anjou1 ,lieut41 his ,arctic explorations1 #bcc4 ,archangel1 foundation of1 #aib4 ----1 ,new1 site of the town of1 #bgb4 ----1 fur-trade of1 #bgc4 ----1 medium of exchange at1 #bgf4 ,archers1 the ,ostiaks as1 #ahg4 ,arctic regions1 rivers of the1 #ag4 ----1 limits of the1 #ah4 ----1 the forests of the1 #ah-bc4 ----1 their treeless wastes1 or ,tundra1 #ah4 ----1 in summer and winter1 #ai4 ----1 their extent and boundaries1 #ba4 ----1 animal life in the1 #be4 ----1 influence of the sea and winds on the severity of the winter of the1 #bg4 ----1 the lowest temperatures felt by man1 #bg1 #bh4 ----1 how man becomes accustomed to the rigors of the winter of the1 #bh4 ----1 proofs of a former milder climate in the northern regions of the globe1 #bi4 ----1 beauties of ,nature in the1 #ca-cc4 ----1 land quadrupeds and birds of the1 #cd4 ----1 the seas of the1 #di4 ---- compared with the ,antarctic regions1 #cia4 ,arctic voyages of discovery1 history of1 #cce et seq4 ,are ,thorgilson1 his ,icelandic works1 #id4 ,argali 7,ovis argali7 of ,siberia1 #da4 ,arrows of the ,ostiaks1 #ahg1 #ahh4 ,ascidians on the coasts of ,greenland1 #ei4 ,ash1 the1 in the ,arctic regions1 #bd4 ,asia1 treeless zone of1 #ah-bb4 ,athabascan ,indians1 hunting-grounds of the1 #cbg4 ,atlassoff1 the ,cossack1 his treatment of the natives of ,kamchatka1 #aih4 ,atmosphere1 transparency of the1 in the ,polar regions1 #ed1 #ee4 ----1 phenomena of1 reflection and refraction1 and their probable causes1 #ee4 ,auk1 the giant1 its rarity at present in ,iceland4 #he4 ,aurora borealis1 #cc4 ----1 splendor of the1 in the ,arctic regions1 #cc4 ,aurora borealis1 terror of the ,lapps at the1 #aeg4 ----1 at ,nulato1 #bha4 ,austin1 ,captain1 his search for ,franklin1 #ceg4 ,avalanches of ice in ,spitzbergen1 #ace4 ,awaklok and ,myouk1 their imprisonment on an iceberg1 #bih4 ,awatscha ,bay1 sea-birds of1 #bee4 ----1 its magnificence and extent1 #bef4 ,b4 ,baaty ,khan1 his subjection of ,russia1 #aia4 ,bachelor river1 the1 #dab4 ,back 7,mr41 afterwards ,sir ,george71 his ,arctic voyages1 #cdf1 #cdg1 #cdi4 ----1 his search for ,captain ,ross1 #ced4 ----1 his discovery of ,great ,fish ,river1 #cee4 ----1 voyage in #ahce1 #cee4 ,back's river1 discovery of1 #cee4 ,badarany1 desert of swamps1 the1 #bcd4 ,baer1 ,herr von1 his scientific journey to ,nova ,zembla1 #aea4 ,baffin1 his voyages of discovery1 #cdc4 ,baffin's ,bay1 probable influence of the northerly winds on the depression of the temperature of1 #bg4 ,baffin's ,bay1 walruses of the coasts of1 #fd4 ----1 discovery of1 #cdc4 ,balleny1 his discoveries in the ,antarctic ocean1 #dja4 ---- ,islands1 discovery of1 #dja4 ,banks's ,land1 proofs of a former milder temperature in1 #bi4 ,bards1 or ,scalds1 of ,iceland1 #id4 ,barentz1 ,william1 visit of1 to ,spitzbergen1 #ach4 ----1 his voyages of discovery1 #cci4 ----1 his winter in ,nova ,zembla1 #cdj4 ----1 his death1 #cdb4 ,barley1 cultivation of1 in ,norway1 #abd4 ,barren grounds1 barrens1 or tundri1 ,arctic belt of the1 #ah4 ----1 causes of their barrenness1 #ah4 ----1 their appearance in winter and in summer1 #ai4 ----1 indistinct and irregular boundaries of the1 #ba4 ----1 those of ,newfoundland1 #cgg4 ,barrow ,point1 traffic of1 #cjb4 ,barter ,reef1 traffic of1 #cjb4 ,bear1 black1 muskwa 7,ursus americanus71 value of the fur of the1 #cae4 ----1 description of him1 #cae1 #cah4 ----1 brown1 of ,north ,america1 #cae4 ----1 value of the skins of the young brown bear1 #baa4 ----1 grizzly1 of the ,rocky ,mountains 7,ursus ferox71 #cae4 ----1 his skin1 #cae4 ----1 the polar1 his mode of hunting1 #fe1 #ddf1 #ddh4 ----1 his favorite food and mode of seizing it1 #fe1 #ddg1 #dej1 #dea4 ----1 anecdote of one1 #fe4 ----1 instances of his sagacity1 #fe4 ----1 parental care of the she-bear1 #fe4 ----1 her winter nursery1 #fe1 #ff4 ----1 her internal store of food for her hibernation1 #ff4 ----1 immense strength of claws and teeth1 #ff1 #fg4 ----1 his unwelcome visits to ,iceland1 #ha4 ----1 of ,spitzbergen1 #acg4 ----1 of ,nova ,zembla1 #adi4 ----1 ,lapp mode of hunting the1 #afd-aff4 ----1 ,esquimaux methods of hunting the1 #afc4 ,bear of ,newfoundland1 #cgh4 ----1 abundance of1 in ,kamchatka1 #beh4 ----1 sea-1 value of the skins of the1 in ,china1 #cgd4 ----1 chase of the1 in the ,pribilow ,islands1 #bgd4 ---- families and battles1 #bgd1 #bge4 ----1 the ,austral sea-1 #cii4 ----1 hunted by dogs1 #dec4 ,bear ,island1 or ,cherie ,island1 account of1 #adc4 ----1 climate of1 #add4 ----1 walruses of1 #add4 ----1 boat-voyages of ,norwegian sailors from1 #ade4 ----1 discovery of1 #cdj4 ----1 surveyed by the ,russians1 #bjj4 ,beaver 7,castor fiber71 its skin the standard of exchange with the ,canadian ,indians1 #cac4 ----1 former enormous trade in the fur of the1 #cag4 ---- of ,newfoundland1 #cgh4 ,beaver ,indians1 their hunting-grounds1 #cbg4 ,bee1 sand 7,andrena71 of ,nova ,zembla1 #aed4 ,beech1 ,antarctic 7,fagus betuloides71 #daj4 ,beechey1 ,captain1 his voyage to ,bering's ,straits1 #cej4 ,beerenberg mountain1 #adf4 ,bering1 ,titus1 never passed through the straits bearing his name1 #aig4 ----1 his second voyage1 #bja4 ----1 his second voyage of discovery1 #bdh1 #bdi4 ----1 his bad conduct1 #bej4 ----1 his death1 #beb4 ,bering ,island1 ,bering and ,steller on1 #bea4 ---- ,sea1 description of the1 #bfh4 ----1 barren lands at1 #bb4 ----1 seals and walruses of1 #fc1 #fd4 ----1 its climate1 #bfi4 ----1 character of the shores of the1 #bgj4 ----1 animals of the1 #bga4 ,bering's ,straits1 view of the ,old and ,new worlds in the1 #bga4 ----1 ,captain ,beechey's voyage to1 #cej4 ,belcher1 ,sir ,edward1 his search for ,franklin1 #cei4 ,bellinghausen1 his discovery of the islands ,paul the ,first and ,alexander1 #dja4 ,bellot1 ,lieut41 his gallant search for ,franklin1 #cei4 ----1 his death and monument1 #cfb4 ,beluga1 or white dolphin 7,delphinus leucas71 description of the1 #fa4 ----1 domain of the1 #fa4 ,beluga ,bay1 visit of ,von ,baer's party to1 #aea4 ,bennet1 ,stephen1 his visit to ,bear ,island1 #adc1 #add4 ,berry-gathering in ,nishne-,kolymsk1 #bch4 ,bilberries of the ,arctic regions1 #bd4 ,billings1 voyage of1 on the coast of ,siberia1 #bja4 ,birch1 paper1 value of the1 in ,north ,america1 #cjd4 ,birch-trees in the ,arctic regions1 #bd4 ,birds1 flights of wild1 in summer months1 in the ,tundra1 #ai4 ----1 their migrations to and from high latitudes1 #dc1 #dd1 #fg4 ----1 the polar singing-bird1 the snow-bunting1 #dc4 ----1 raptorial1 of the ,arctic regions1 #dc4 ----1 enormous numbers of1 along the ,arctic shores1 #fg4 ----1 ,icelandic1 #ha4 ---- of the coast of ,norway1 #abd4 ---- of ,spitzbergen1 #acc1 #acd1 #acg4 ---- of ,nova ,zembla1 #aed4 ----1 a bird bazar1 #aed4 ----1 abundance of sea-fowl on the coast of ,kamchatka1 #bee4 ----1 ,esquimaux mode of bird-catching1 #bie4 ----1 abundance of1 on the coast of ,greenland1 #chh4 ,birds of the coasts of the ,antarctic sea1 #cid4 ---- of ,patagonia1 #dai4 ,birkarls1 their final subjugation of the ,lapps1 #aef4 ,biscoe1 his discovery of ,enderby ,land1 and of ,graham ,land1 #dja4 ,black death1 ravages of the1 in the ,north1 #chc4 ,blackfeet ,indians1 their wars with the ,tinn and ,crees1 #cai1 #cbj4 ,bloody ,falls1 on the ,coppermine river1 #bid4 ,boats of the ,esquimaux1 #bic4 ----1 the birch-bark canoes of ,north ,america1 #cjd4 ,bogberries of the ,arctic regions1 #bd4 ,booth1 ,sir ,felix1 his ,arctic expedition1 #bea4 ,bougainville1 his voyage through the ,strait of ,magellan1 #dad4 ,brandt1 the ,danish forester1 his journey with ,von ,middendorff1 #bbj4 ,brandy1 fondness of the ,samoedes for1 #aga-agc4 ---- drunk at ,kolymsk1 #bch4 ,brant ,ysbrantzoon1 his voyages of discovery1 #cci4 ,bread of the poor ,icelanders1 #gi4 ,bredal1 ,eric1 his education of ,lapps in ,christianity1 #aef4 ,bridges1 swing1 of ,iceland1 #aaa4 ,browne1 ,t4 ,ross1 #gd1 #ie1 #ajd1 #aae4 ,buchan1 ,captain1 his ,arctic voyage1 #cdd4 ,bunting1 its migrations to and from the north1 #dc4 ----1 the ,lapland 7,centrophanes ,lapponicus71 latitudes inhabited by the1 #dc1 #dd4 ,bunting1 the snow1 the polar singing-bird1 #dd4 ,bunting1 its nest and food1 #dd4 ---- of ,iceland1 #ha4 ---- of ,spitzbergen1 #acg4 ,burglars1 treatment of1 in ,russia1 #bjf4 ,burrough1 ,stephen1 his voyage to discover the north-eastern passage1 #ccf4 ,busa1 ,jelissei1 his ascent of the rivers ,lena and ,olekma1 #aie4 ----1 his discovery of the ,tana1 #aie4 ----1 his residence among the ,jukahirs1 #aie4 ,butter made from the reindeer milk1 #cf4 ,butterflies in ,taimurland1 #bbg4 ,byron1 ,commodore1 his voyage through the ,strait of ,magellan1 #dad4 ,c4 ,cabot1 ,john and ,sebastian1 their re-discovery of parts of ,north ,america1 #cce4 ----1 their re-discovery of ,newfoundland1 #cgi4 ,canada1 enterprise of the ,french settlers in1 #cjf4 ----1 results of the ,english conquest of1 #cjf4 ----1 history of the fur-trade of1 #cjg4 ,cano1 ,sebastian el1 his voyage round the globe1 #dac4 ,canoes1 birch-bark1 of ,north ,america1 #cjd1 #cje4 ,cape1 ,north1 description of the1 #abi1 #acj4 ,caribou1 or reindeer of ,north ,america1 range of the1 #cf4 ,carrancha1 the1 of ,patagonia1 #dai1 #dbj4 ,cartier1 ,jacques1 his voyages1 #cce4 ,caryophyll1 the1 of the treeless zone1 #ba4 ,cascades of ,iceland1 #gh4 ,castor and ,pollux river1 discovery of1 #cef4 ,castrn1 ,matthias ,alexander1 account of him and of his journeys1 #afh-agh4 ,catherine's ,foreland1 ,queen1 #dji4 ,cattle1 value of1 to the ,icelands1 #hj4 ,cavendish1 his voyages1 #dad4 ,chancellor1 his discovery of the passage from ,england to the ,white ,sea1 #aib4 ,chancellor1 his voyage to discover the north-eastern route to ,china1 #ccf4 ----1 his visit to ,moscow1 and subsequent fate1 #ccf4 ,charles ,,ix41 ,king of ,sweden1 his kindness to the ,lapps1 #aef4 ,chatanga river1 scanty population of the1 #bbj4 ----1 ,middendorff's journey to the1 #bbj1 #bba4 ,chatangsk1 ,middendorff's journey to1 #bba ,cheese made from reindeer milk1 #cf4 ,cherie ,island1 account of1 #add4 ,chess-players of the ,tungusi1 #bdf4 ,chickweed1 the1 on the ,mary ,minturn river1 #bj4 ,chimengo1 the1 of ,patagonia1 #dai4 ,china1 ,castrn's journey over the mountains into1 #agg4 ,chinese take the ,russian fort of ,albasin1 #aie2 and make the treaty of ,nertschinsk with the ,russians1 #aif4 ----1 the treaty broken by the ,russians1 who compel the ,chinese to give them the ,amoor1 #aif4 ,chinga 7,mephitis chinga71 its ftid secretion1 #caf4 ,christian ,,iv41 ,king of ,denmark1 his treatment of the ,lapp priests and sorcerers1 #aef4 ----1 his expedition to ,greenland1 #chc4 ,christianity1 introduction of1 into ,iceland1 #ib4 ,churches of the ,icelanders1 #ajd4 ,clavering1 his voyage to ,greenland1 #chf4 ,clergy of the ,lapps1 their poverty and self-denial1 #aeg4 ----1 their sermons1 #aeg4 ----1 those of ,iceland all blacksmiths1 #aja1 note1 #ajf4 ----1 their poverty1 #ajf4 ,coal1 does not exist in ,iceland1 #hh4 ---- of ,spitzbergen1 #acg4 ---- in ,coal ,bay1 #ade4 ,coal ,bay1 #ade4 ,cochlearia fenestrata1 the only esculent plant in ,spitzbergen1 #acf1 #adb4 ,cod and cod-fishing of the coast of ,iceland1 #hf1 #hg4 ----1 the1 called stockfish1 #hg4 ----1 the cod-fishery of ,norway1 #abe-acj4 ----1 wretched state of the fishermen1 #abg4 ----1 exports of1 to various countries1 #abi4 ----1 cod-fishery of ,greenland1 #chh4 ----1 value of the cod-fishery of ,newfoundland1 #cgi1 #chj4 ----1 mode of fishing and curing the cod1 #chj4 ----1 dangers of the fishery1 #cha4 ----1 immense numbers of1 #cha4 ,cod-liver oil of ,troms1 #abh4 ,collinson1 ,captain1 his search for ,franklin1 #cei1 #cfa4 ,commodore ,islands1 chase of the sea-bear on the1 #bgd4 ,condor1 the1 of ,patagonia1 #dbj4 ,conifer1 ,arctic forests almost confined to the1 #bd4 ----1 difference between the ,european and ,asiatic and ,american species1 #bd4 ,constitution1 ,cape1 discovery of1 #cfi4 ,cook1 his attempt to discover the northwest passage1 #cdd4 ,cook1 ,captain1 his discovery of ,south ,georgia1 #cic4 ----1 his ,antarctic voyages1 #dja4 ,copper mines near ,drontheim1 #abd4 ---- of ,alten1 #abh4 ---- of ,raipass1 #abh4 ,coppermine river1 ,dr4 ,richardson's voyage to the1 #cdi4 ,cornelius ,ryp1 his voyages of discovery1 #cdj1 #cda4 ,cornelius ,corneliszoon1 his voyages of discovery1 #cci4 ,corniculari1 carpets of1 and the treeless zone1 #ba4 ,cortereal1 his voyages of discovery1 #cbe4 ,cossacks1 ,don1 their depredations1 #aib4 ----1 their conquest of ,siberia for the ,czar1 #aic4 ----1 their privileges and duties in ,nishne-,kolymsk1 #bcf4 ,coureur des bois1 the1 of ,north ,america1 #cjd4 ,cranberries of the ,arctic regions1 #bd4 ,cree ,indians1 uses of the paper-birch-tree to the1 #cje4 ----1 range of the various tribes of1 #cai4 ----1 their conquests of the ,tinn1 but subsequent defeat1 #cai1 #cbj4 ----1 their wars with the ,blackfeet1 #cbj1 #cba ----1 their character1 #cba4 ----1 their customs1 habits1 and dress1 #cba1 #cbb1 #cbc4 ----1 their wives and families1 #cbc4 ----1 their cradles1 #cbc4 ----1 their wigwams1 or tents1 #cbd4 ----1 their medicine-men and vapor-baths1 #cbd4 ----1 their games and sports1 #cbd1 #cbe4 ----1 their wooden figures for worship1 #cbe4 ----1 their malicious or capricious spirit1 called ,kepoochican1 #cbe4 ----1 their notion of the ,great ,spirit and of the ,deluge1 #cbe4 ----1 their ,tartarus and ,elysium1 #cbe4 ----1 prospects of ,christianity amongst them1 #cbf4 ,cross1 the game of1 of the ,cree ,indians1 #cbe4 ,crowe1 ,mr41 his copper mines at ,alten1 #abh4 ,crozier1 ,captain1 his last voyage1 #cef4 ----1 the last heard of him1 #cfd4 ----1 his ,antarctic voyages1 #djb4 ,crucifer1 the1 of the treeless zone1 #bj4 ,crustaceans1 immense numbers of1 on the coast of ,greenland1 #ei4 ,cumberland ,strait1 ,davis's discovery of1 #ccg1 #cch4 ,currents1 magnificent system of1 and their effects on the accumulation of ice1 #ef1 #eg4 ,d4 ,dances of the ,tchuktchi1 #bff4 ,darwin1 ,mr41 his ascent of ,mount ,tarn1 #daa4 ,davis1 ,john1 his voyages to discover an ,arctic passage to ,india1 #ccg4 ----1 his visit to ,labrador1 #cch4 ----1 his subsequent life1 #cch4 ,davis's ,straits1 probable influence of the northerly winds on the depression of the temperature of1 #bg4 ----1 ,sebastian ,cabot's discovery of1 #cce4 ,dead1 reverence paid to the1 by the ,samoedes1 #aha4 ,dease1 ,peter ,warren1 his land ,arctic expedition1 #cee4 ,death1 black1 its ravages in ,iceland1 #ie4 ,deception ,island1 account of1 #cic4 ,deer1 red 7,cervus elaphus71 its habitat and uses to man1 #dj4 ,deer of ,vogelsang and ,treurenberg ,bay1 #acg4 ,deluge1 ,cree legend of the1 #cbe4 ,demidoff1 foundation of the family of1 #bai4 ----1 their enormous wealth1 #bai4 ,deschnew1 ,semen1 his the first and last voyage through ,bering's ,strait1 #aig4 ,desolation1 ,south1 #dab4 ,detti-foss1 an ,icelandic cascade1 ,mr4 ,gould's description of the1 #gh4 ,disco bay1 icebergs formed in1 #di4 ,divers1 their migrations to and from the north1 #db4 ,dog-rib ,indians1 hunting-grounds of the1 #cbg4 ----1 their character1 dress1 and customs1 #cbg1 #cbi4 ----1 their want of hospitality1 #cbi4 ----1 their honesty1 #cbi4 ----1 their notions of a future life1 #cbi4 ,dog1 the reindeer of the ,lapps1 #afa4 ----1 ,wrangell's dog-sledges on the ,polar sea1 #bci4 ----1 ,icelandic1 #hj4 ----1 the1 of the people of ,kolymsk1 #bcf4 ----1 the ,kamchatkan1 and dog-sledges1 #beh1 #bei4 ----1 their mode of foretelling storms1 #bei4 ----1 mode of training sledge-dogs1 #bei4 ----1 trained by ,esquimaux to attack the bear1 #big4 ----1 description of the1 and dog-sledges of the ,esquimaux1 #bii4 ----1 ,dr4 ,kane's ,newfoundland and ,esquimaux1 #cfg4 ----1 epidemic amongst the ,esquimaux1 #cgb4 ,dolgorouky1 ,prince1 his exile to ,siberia1 #bje4 ,dolphin1 white1 or beluga1 of ,nova ,zembla1 #aee4 ----1 ,greenland fishery of the1 #chg4 ,dolphins of the ,polar seas1 #fa1 #cih4 ----1 the beluga1 or white dolphin1 #fa4 ----1 the black dolphin1 8ca'ing0 whale1 or grind1 #fa4 ----1 the orc1 or grampus1 #fb4 ---- of ,spitzbergen1 #acg4 ,drake1 ,sir ,francis1 his voyage through the ,strait of ,magellan1 #dad4 ,drifanda ,foss1 an icelandic cascade1 #aad4 ,drontheim1 the red deer near1 #dj4 ----1 description of1 #abd4 ,ducks1 wild1 of the ,arctic regions1 #ai4 ----1 their migrations to and from the north1 #db4 ---- of ,iceland1 #ha1 #hd4 ,dudinka1 ,castrn's visit to1 #agf4 ,dungeness1 ,point1 #dji4 ,durfoorth1 his voyage and death1 #ccf4 ,d',urville1 ,dumont1 his discoveries in the ,antarctic ocean1 #djb4 ,dutch1 their expeditions to discover an ,arctic passage to ,india1 #cci4 ,e4 ,eagle1 the sea- 7,halitus albicilla71 of the north1 #dd4 ----1 his food1 #dd4 ----1 white-tailed1 of ,iceland1 #he4 ----1 value of the skins of the1 #he4 ----1 the1 on the coast of ,norway1 #abe4 ----1 in the ,tundra in summer1 #ai4 ,ebierbing1 #dda1 #dff4 ,egede1 ,hans1 his voyage to ,greenland1 #chd4 ,egg-vre of the coast of ,norway1 #abd4 ,egilson1 ,olaf1 the ,westman clergyman1 his slavery in ,algiers1 #aah4 ,eider-duck1 its migrations to and from the north1 #dc4 ---- of ,iceland1 #ha4 ----1 breeding of1 #hc4 ----1 ,mr4 ,shepherd's visit to one of its head-quarters1 #hc4 ,elder1 the1 in the ,arctic regions1 #bd4 ,elephant1 sea-1 of the ,antarctic ocean1 #cii4 ,elk1 or moose deer1 of the forests of the north1 #ch4 ----1 ,csar's account of it1 #ci4 ----1 its food and present habitat1 #dj4 ,elk1 its mode of defending itself1 #dj4 ,enara1 ,lake of1 the ,fisher ,lapps of1 #aff4 ----1 description of the1 #afi4 ,enderby ,land1 discovery of1 #dja4 ,english pirates1 ravages of1 in ,iceland1 #ie4 ,erebus1 mount1 eruption of1 #djc4 ,eric the ,red1 his visit to ,greenland1 #chb4 ,ermine 7,mustela erminea7 beauty and importance of the fur of the1 #baj4 ----1 those of the ,hudson's ,bay ,territory1 #caf4 ,esk1 volcano1 #adf4 ,esquimaux 7see also ,innuits71 their wide extension1 #bij4 ----1 their own name of ,innuit1 #bij4 ----1 character of the regions they inhabit1 #bij4 ----1 their physical character1 habits1 and manners1 #bij1 #bia4 ---- women1 #bia4 ----1 their dress and snow-huts1 #bia1 #bib4 ----1 their boat1 the kayak or baidar1 #bic4 ----1 their weapons1 and fishing and hunting implements1 #bic1 #bid4 ----1 enmity between them and the ,red ,indians1 #bid4 ----1 their chase of the reindeer1 and bird-catching1 #bie4 ----1 their whale and seal hunts1 #bie1 #bif4 ----1 their 8keep kuttuk10 #bif4 ----1 their bear and walrus hunts1 #bif1 #bih4 ----1 their dogs and dog-sledges1 #bii4 ----1 their games and sports1 #cjj4 ----1 constitution of their society1 #cjj4 ----1 their angekoks1 or priests1 #cjj1 #cja4 ----1 their moral character1 self-reliance1 and intelligence1 #cja1 #cjb4 ----1 their maps1 and predilection for commercial pursuits1 #cjb4 ----1 their voracity1 and seasons of abundance and distress1 #cjb1 #cjc4 ----1 their dpts of food1 #cjb1 #cjc4 ----1 their wars with the ,kutchin ,indians1 #ccc4 ----1 their attack of ,franklin's boats1 #cdi4 ----1 their hunting expeditions with ,dr4 ,kane's party1 #cgj4 ----1 their ravages on the ,greenland coast1 #chc4 ,europe1 treeless zone of1 #ah-bd4 ,evil ,spirit of the woods of the ,laplanders1 #aeg4 ,exiles1 ,siberian1 #bjd1 #bje4 ----1 annual number of1 #bjf4 ,eyjafialla1 eruption of1 in #ahba1 #if4 ,eystein1 ,king1 his benevolence1 #abf4 ,f4 ,faeroe ,islands1 chase of the black dolphin1 or 8ca'ing0 whale1 in the1 #fa4 ,falkland ,islands1 climate of1 #cid4 ,famine1 ,port1 rich vegetation of1 #daj1 #dad4 ,festuca of the ,arctic regions1 #bj4 ,finback whales of ,spitzbergen1 #acg4 ,finches in the ,tundra in summer1 #ai4 ,finmark1 trade and fisheries of the coast of1 #abi4 ,finnur ,johnson1 the ,icelander1 his 8,ecclesiastical ,history of ,iceland10 #ih4 ,fir1 different species of1 in ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america1 #bd4 ,fish1 and fishing season of ,iceland1 #hf4 ----1 abundance of1 in ,kamchatka1 #bee4 ---- of ,newfoundland1 #cgi4 ---- of ,greenland1 #chg4 ,fish river1 ,great1 ,back's discovery of1 #cee4 ,fisher ,lapps1 account of the1 #aff4 ,fiskernasset1 cod-fishery of1 #chh4 ,fitzroy1 ,captain1 his surveys of ,patagonia and ,tierra del ,fuego1 #dae4 ,fjall ,lappars1 or ,mountain ,lapps1 account of the1 #aei4 ,flatey1 eider-ducks of1 #ha1 #hb4 ,flat-fish1 abundance of1 on the coasts of ,iceland1 #hg4 ,floki1 the ,viking1 his visit to ,iceland1 #ij4 ,flora of ,spitzbergen1 #acf4 ,flowers of the ,arctic regions1 #bj4 ---- of the island of ,st4 ,lawrence1 #bga4 ---- of ,taimurland1 #bbf4 ---- of ,unalaschka1 #bfi4 ,fogs of the ,arctic seas in summer1 #ed4 ---- near the island of ,st4 ,lawrence1 #bgj4 ---- off ,newfoundland1 #chj4 ,food1 amount of1 required by man in the ,arctic regions1 #bh4 ,forest regions1 ,arctic1 #ah4 ----1 extent of the1 #bb4 ----1 character of the trees of the1 #bd4 ----1 distinctive character of the forests1 #be4 ----1 characters of the ,arctic forests of the ,miocene period1 #bh1 #bi4 ----1 legions of gnats in the1 #be4 ----1 changes being effected by the agency of man1 #be4 ,forests1 the1 head-quarters of many of the ,arctic fauna1 #da4 ----1 more in than above the earth in ,nova ,zembla1 #aec4 ----1 of ,newfoundland1 #cgf4 ,forget-me-not found in ,nova ,zembla1 #aec4 ,forster1 ,captain1 his expedition to the ,antarctic sea1 #cic4 ,fossils1 ,arctic1 in ,new ,siberia1 #bjc4 ,foulke1 ,port1 ,dr4 ,hayes's winter at1 #cgb4 ,fox1 the ,arctic 7,canis lagopus71 its mode of protecting itself from the most intense cold1 #db4 ,fox1 the ,arctic1 its food and enemies1 #db4 ---- of ,spitzbergen1 #acg4 ---- in ,nova ,zembla1 #aed4 ---- found in ,taimurland1 #bbg4 ---- of ,newfoundland1 #cgh4 ----1 black1 of ,siberia1 value of the fur of the1 #baa4 ----1 the ,brazilian 7,canis ,azar71 of ,patagonia1 #dai4 ---- red 7,vulpes fulvus71 the1 #baa1 #cag4 ---- value of the fur of the1 #cag4 ,fox ,islands1 discovery of the1 #bja4 ,france1 right of the people of1 to fish on the banks of ,newfoundland1 #cgi4 ,franklin1 ,lieut4 7afterwards ,sir ,john71 his first ,arctic voyage1 #cdd4 ----1 his first land journey1 #cdf4 ----1 his second land journey to the shores of the ,polar sea1 #cdi4 ----1 loss of his first wife1 #cej4 ----1 his last voyage1 #cef4 ----1 searching expeditions sent for him1 #cef4 ----1 his fate and that of his companions1 #cfb-cfd4 ,franklin ,island1 discovery of1 #djc4 ,fraser river1 voyage of ,mackenzie down the1 #cjh4 ,frederick ,,ii41 ,king of ,denmark1 his expedition to ,greenland1 #chc4 ,frederick ,,iv41 his foundation of the ,finmark mission1 #aef4 ,friedrich1 the ,saxon bishop1 introduces ,christianity into ,iceland1 #ib4 ,fritillaria ,sarrana1 used as food in ,kamchatka1 #beh4 ,frobisher1 ,martin1 his endeavors to discover an ,arctic passage to ,india1 #ccg4 ----1 discovery of relics of1 #dff4 ----1 his subsequent career1 #ccg4 ,froward1 ,cape1 scenery of1 #daj4 ,frozen sailor1 #dfd4 ,fruits of the ,arctic regions1 #ba4 ,fuego1 ,tierra del1 climate of1 #cic4 ----1 origin of the name1 #dac4 ----1 ,captain ,fitzroy's survey of1 #dae4 ----1 account of the ,fuegians1 #dbe4 ----1 degradation of the ,fuegians1 #dbe1 #dbf4 ----1 their powers as mimics1 #dbf4 ----1 their notions of trade1 #dbg4 ----1 causes of their low state of civilization1 #dbg4 ----1 their food1 #dbh4 ----1 their dress1 huts1 arms1 and ornaments1 #dbh1 #dbi4 ----1 their cannibalism1 #dcj4 ----1 their language1 #dcj4 ----1 ,captain ,fitzroy's three ,fuegians1 #dcj1 #dca4 ----1 missionary labors1 #dca4 ----1 ,captain ,gardiner1 #dca4 ,fuel1 kinds of1 used in ,iceland1 #hi4 ,fur1 account of the ,russian ,fur ,company1 and its operations1 #bgb4 ----1 account of the fur-trade of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 #cjd et seq4 ----1 trade in1 at the fair of ,obdorsk1 #ahi4 ---- of ,siberia1 #bjh4 ----1 importance of the trade in1 #bab4 ---- of the ,tchuktchi1 #bfd4 ,g4 ,gabriel ,channel1 williwaws of1 #dab4 ,gadflies which attack the reindeer1 #ch4 ,galictis vittata1 the1 of ,patagonia1 #dah4 ,gambling of the ,cree ,indians1 #cbd4 ,gardar1 the northern pirate1 his the first circumnavigation of ,iceland1 #ij4 ,gardar's ,holm1 or ,gadar's ,island1 ,iceland so called1 #ij4 ,gardiner1 ,captain1 his mission to ,fuegia1 and melancholy end1 #dca4 ,gawrilow1 produce of the gold mine of1 #bah4 ,geese1 wild1 of the ,arctic regions1 #ai4 ----1 snow1 their migrations to and from the north1 #dc4 ---- of ,iceland1 #ha4 8,george ,henry10 the ship1 #dcf4 ,george1 ,st41 climate of the island of1 #bgj4 ----1 sea-lions and guillemots of1 #bga4 ,georgia1 ,south1 discovery of1 #cic4 ,germany1 the elk or moose-deer of1 in the time of ,csar1 #ci4 ,geysir1 the ,great1 description of the1 #ga4 ,gheritz1 ,dirck1 his discovery of the ,new ,shetland ,islands1 #cib4 ,gilbert1 ,sir ,humphrey1 takes possession of ,newfoundland1 #cgi4 ,ginkloti1 or children's disease1 in the ,westman ,islands1 #aah4 ,gissur1 his work on his voyages to the ,east1 #id4 ----1 the ,icelander1 his learning and travels1 #ih4 ,gjas1 or chasms1 in ,iceland1 #gf1 #gg4 ,glacier1 the great1 in the ,gulf of ,penas1 #cid4 ,glaciers1 enormous dimensions of the1 of the polar regions1 #ej4 ,glaciers of ,magdalena ,bay1 #ace2 ice cliffs and avalanches of1 #ace4 ---- of the ,beerenberg mountain1 #adf4 ,glottoff1 ,stephen1 his discovery of ,kadiak1 #bjb4 ,gloves1 reindeer1 of ,tornea1 #cg4 ,glutton1 or wolverine1 strength and fierceness of the1 #cg4 ,glutton1 its attack of the reindeer1 #cg1 #ch4 ----1 its voracity1 #ch4 ----1 found in ,taimurland1 #bbg4 ----1 those of ,north ,america1 #caf4 ----1 value and uses of the fur of the1 #caf4 ,gnats1 legions of1 in the forests and swamps1 #bf4 ,goda-foss1 the1 an ,icelandic cascade1 #gh4 ,gold diggings of ,eastern ,siberia1 #bjh4 ----1 description of the gold-fields1 #bad4 ,gomez1 his voyages of discovery1 #cce4 ,goose1 bean 7,anser segetum71 of ,nova ,zembla1 #aee4 ,goose1 ,brent1 its migrations to and from the north1 #dc4 ----1 its rapid flight1 #dc4 ,graah1 ,captain1 his explorations of the coast of ,greenland1 #chf4 ,graham ,land1 discovery of1 #dja4 ,grampus1 or orc 7,delphinus orca71 description of the1 #fb4 ----1 his ferocity and mode of ploughing the seas1 #fb4 ---- of ,nova ,zembla1 #aee4 ---- of the ,antarctic ,ocean1 #cih4 ----1 conflict of one with a whale1 #cih4 ,grasses1 tufted1 of the ,arctic regions1 #bj4 ---- of the treeless zone1 #ba4 ----1 paramount importance of the grasses in ,iceland1 #gi4 ---- of ,taimurland1 #bbf4 ,greenland1 vast ice-fields of1 #bg4 ----1 proofs of a former milder climate in1 #bi4 ----1 enormous dimensions of the glaciers of1 #ej4 ----1 the1 whale1 #fj4 ----1 transparency of the water on the coast of1 #ei4 ----1 abundance of animal life in the seas of1 #fj4 ----1 walruses of the coasts of the north of1 #fd4 ----1 ,kane's sledge journey along the coast of1 #cfg4 ----1 unknown extent of1 #chb4 ----1 ancient ,scandinavian colonists of1 #chb4 ----1 the name of1 given to it1 #chb4 ----1 introduction of ,christianity in1 #chb4 ----1 decline and fall of the country1 #chc4 ----1 subsequent explorations of1 #chc4 ----1 ,hans ,egede1 the pastor1 his voyage to1 #chd4 ----1 foundation of ,godthaab in1 #chd4 ----1 arrival of ,herrenhuth missionaries in1 #chd4 ----1 explorations of the coast of1 #che4 ----1 present ,danish settlements of1 #chf4 ----1 scanty population of1 #chf4 ----1 mode of life of the people of1 #chf1 #chg1 #chi4 ----1 fisheries of1 #chh4 ----1 poorness of the land in1 #chh4 ----1 quantities of drift-wood at1 #chh4 ----1 minerals of1 #chi4 ----1 ,christianity in1 #chi4 ----1 climate1 mountains1 and fjords of1 #chi4 ----1 ice-caves of the coast of1 #cij4 ----1 the capital of1 #dcg4 ,greenlanders1 their discovery of1 and colonies in ,america1 #cce4 ----1 destruction of their colonies1 #cce4 ----1 their habits1 #dcg4 ,greiffenfeld1 his imprisonment in ,munkholm1 #abd4 ,grinds4 ,see ,dolphins1 black4 ,grinnell ,land1 vegetation of1 #bj4 ----1 ,dr4 ,hayes's discoveries in1 #cgb-cgd4 ,guanaco1 the1 of ,patagonia1 #dai4 ,guano1 circumstances which favor the deposit of1 #dah4 ,guillemot1 on the ,pribilow ,islands1 #bga4 ,gulf ,stream1 influence of1 on the south and west coasts of ,iceland1 #gi2 and on the climate of ,norway1 #aba4 ,gull1 ,ross's1 distance north at which it has been seen1 #fg4 ,gull1 ivory1 in ,taimurland1 #bbg4 ,gustavus ,i41 ,king of ,sweden1 his kind treatment of the ,lapps1 #aef4 ,gustavus ,adolphus1 his foundation of a school for the ,lapps1 #aef4 ,h4 ,haddocks1 abundance of1 on the coast of ,iceland1 #hg4 ,hakon1 ,king of ,norway1 his annexation of ,iceland1 #ie4 ,hall1 ,charles ,francis1 his ,arctic expedition1 #dcc-dfg4 ----1 ,james1 his voyage to ,greenland1 #chc4 ,hammerfest1 description of the town of1 #abi4 ----1 traffic of1 #abi4 ----1 the people of1 #abi4 ----1 cargoes of walruses and seals brought from ,spitzbergen1 #adc4 ,hare1 the fur of the1 of ,siberia1 #bab4 ----1 ice 7,lepus glacialis71 #cag4 ----found in ,taimurland1 #bbg4 ,hare ,indians1 hunting-grounds of the1 #cbg4 ----1 their women1 #cbh4 ,harold ,haafager1 or the ,fair-haired1 his establishment of an absolute monarchy in ,norway1 #ij4 ----1 exodus caused by his tyranny1 #ia4 ,harp-seal of the ,polar seas1 #fb4 ,hatherton1 ,cape1 discovery of1 #cfe4 ,haven1 ,lieut1 de1 his search for ,franklin1 #ceg1 #ceh4 ,hawks in the ,tundra1 in summer1 #ai4 ,hayes1 ,dr41 his sledge journey over ,kennedy ,channel1 #cfh4 ----1 his ,arctic voyage in #ahfj1 #cgb-cgd4 ----1 his opinion as to what may be done in the ,arctic regions1 #cgd4 ,hecla1 eruptions of1 since the colonization of ,iceland1 #ie-ig4 8,hecla0 and 8,fury0 ,straits1 discovery of1 #cdh4 ,heemskerk1 his voyages of discovery1 #cdj4 ,heineson1 ,mogens1 the 8sea-cock10 his voyage towards ,greenland1 #chc4 ,hepburn1 ,john1 the sailor1 his overland journey1 #cdf4 ,herald ,island1 discovery of1 #cfj4 ,heimaey1 or ,home ,island1 description of1 #aaf4 ,herring1 the fishery of the coast of ,norway1 #abe4 ----1 food for the rorqual1 or fin-whales1 #fa4 ----1 abundance of the1 on the coasts of ,iceland1 #hg4 ,hesperis1 the1 on the ,mary ,minturn river1 #bj4 ,hildringen1 agriculture of1 #abd4 ,hobson1 ,lieut41 his search for ,franklin1 #cfb1 #cfd4 ,holme1 the1 of ,norway1 #abd4 ,hood1 ,robert1 his ,arctic journey1 #cdf4 ----1 murdered1 #cdg4 ,horn1 ,cape1 discovery of the passage round1 #dad4 ,horse1 the1 in ,iceland1 #hj4 ---- of the ,jakuts1 #bcj-bcb4 ,hrafnagja1 #ge4 ,hudson1 ,henry1 visit of1 to ,spitzbergen1 #ach4 ----1 his the first attempt to sail across the ,north ,pole1 #cdb4 ----1 his subsequent voyages and discoveries1 #cdb4 ----1 his melancholy end1 #cdc4 ,hudson's ,bay1 barren lands of1 #bb4 ----1 characters of the ,conifer of1 #bd4 ----1 walruses of the coasts of1 #fd4 ----1 discovery of1 #cab4 ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 account of the fur-trade of the1 #cjd4 ----1 the old coureur des bois and the modern voyageur of1 #cjd1 #cje4 ----1 history of the1 #cjg4 ----1 formation of a rival company1 and subsequent amalgamation of the two1 #cjg-caj4 ----1 palmy days of the1 #caj4 ----1 its reconstruction in #ahfc1 #caj4 ----1 its trading-posts1 and their management1 #caj1 #caa4 ----1 its efforts to civilize the native tribes1 #cab4 ----1 the standard of exchange1 the beaver-skin1 #cac4 ----1 extent of the fur-trade of1 #cac4 ----1 account of the fur-bearing animals of the ,territory1 #cac1 #cad4 ,hudson river1 discovery of the1 #cdb4 ,hudson's ,straits1 ,sebastian ,cabot's discovery of1 #cce4 ,humboldt ,glacier1 the ,great1 #ej4 ----1 ,kane's description of the1 #cfg4 ,humming-bird on the peninsula of ,aliaska1 #bfi4 ---- in ,newfoundland1 #cgh4 ---- of ,patagonia1 #dbj4 ,huts of the ,esquimaux1 #bic4 ---- of the ,icelanders1 #ajb4 ,hval1 island of1 #abi4 ,hvita river1 in ,iceland1 #gh4 ,i4 ,ice1 vast fields of1 in the plateaus of ,spitzbergen1 ,greenland1 and ,nova ,zembla1 #bg4 ----1 floating masses of1 in the ,polar seas1 #de4 ----1 enormous extent of the ,polar glaciers1 #di1 #ej4 ----1 causes which prevent the accumulation of ,polar ice1 #ee1 #ef4 ----1 a bad conductor of heat1 #eg4 ----1 ice-fields of ,iceland1 #fi4 ----1 glaciers1 ice-cliffs1 and avalanches of ,spitzbergen1 #ace1 #acf4 ----1 impediments offered by the hummocks to travellers on the ,polar sea1 #bdj4 ----1 icebergs of the ,antarctic sea1 #cib4 ----1 ice-caves of ,greenland1 #cij4 ----1 the great ice-barrier of the ,antarctic ,ocean1 #djc4 ----1 pack-ice of the ,antarctic ,ocean1 #djd1 #dje4 ,icebergs1 #df4 ----1 forms and size of1 #dh4 ----1 origin of1 #dh4 ----1 localities in which most of the icebergs of the ,north ,atlantic are formed1 #di4 ----1 ,dr4 ,hayes's description of1 in a midnight sun1 #ej4 ----1 how distinguished at night and in fogs1 #eb4 ----1 dangers of collisions with1 #eb4 ----1 protection to ships afforded by1 #ec4 ----1 dangers of anchoring to1 #ec4 ,icebergs1 8calving0 of1 #ed4 ----1 crumbling of1 #ed4 ,ice-blink1 description of the phenomenon of1 #ed4 ----1 its advantages to the ,arctic navigator1 #ed4 ,ice-fields1 #df4 ----1 hummocks on1 #df4 ----1 collision of1 #dh4 ----1 dangers caused by1 to ships1 #dh4 ,ice-grotto of ,surts-hellir1 #gg4 ,iceland1 volcanic origin of1 #fh4 ----1 the country in winter and in summer1 #fh1 #gi4 ----1 sterile portions of the island1 #fi4 ----1 its immense ice-fields1 #fi4 ----1 its lava-streams1 #fi1 #gg4 ----1 the burning mountains of ,krisuvik1 #fi4 ----1 the mud-caldrons and hot springs1 #gj4 ----1 the ,great ,geysir1 #ga4 ----1 the ,strokkr1 #gb4 ----1 crystal pools1 #gc4 ----1 the ,almannagja1 #gc1 #gd4 ----1 the ,surts-hellir1 or caves of ,surtur1 #gg4 ----1 rivers and cascades of1 #gh4 ----1 influence of the ocean currents on the climate1 #gh4 ----1 mean annual temperature1 #gi4 ----1 absence of trees in1 #gi4 ----1 vegetation and condition of agriculture1 #gi4 ----1 indigenous land quadrupeds1 #hj4 ----1 cattle of the ,icelanders1 #hj4 ----1 beverages1 #hj4 ----1 mode of shearing sheep1 #hj4 ----1 characteristics and number of horses1 #hj4 ----1 the reindeer1 #hj1 #ha4 ----1 the polar bear1 #ha4 ----1 the eider-duck1 #ha1 #hh4 ----1 the giant auk1 #he1 #hf4 ----1 ,icelandic fish and fishing season1 #hf1 #hg4 ----1 hospitality of the people1 #hg4 ----1 minerals of the country1 #hh4 ----1 fuel used by the ,icelanders1 #hh4 ----1 history of1 #hi4 ----1 ,naddodr's discovery of the ,ice ,land1 #hi2 which he named ,snowland1 #ii4 ----1 circumnavigated by the pirate ,gadar1 and called by him ,gardar's holm1 #ij4 ----1 visited by the viking ,floki1 and called by him ,iceland1 #ij4 ----1 foundation of ,reykjavik by ,ingolfr and ,leif1 #ij4 ----1 exodus from ,norway to1 #ia4 ----1 introduction of the ,norwegian language and customs1 #ia4 ----1 code of laws of ,uffliot the ,wise1 #ia4 ----1 the ancient ,althing at ,thingvalla1 #ia1 #ib4 ----1 introduction of ,christianity into the island1 #ib4 ----1 the golden age of ,icelandic literature1 #id4 ----1 history of1 annexation of the island to ,norway1 #ie4 ----1 its subsequent misfortunes1 #ie4 ----1 volcanic eruptions1 #ie4 ----1 misery caused by the curse of monopoly1 #ig4 ----1 hope for the future of the islanders1 #ig4 ----1 account of the ,icelanders of the present day1 #ih4 ----1 ,skalkott1 the former capital of the island1 #ih4 ----1 the present capital1 ,reykjavik1 #ajj4 ----1 state of trade in1 #ajj4 ----1 the merchant and the peasant1 #aja4 ----1 temperate habits of the people1 #aja4 ----1 condition of agriculture1 #ajb4 ,iceland1 a harvest home1 #ajb4 ----1 winter life1 #ajb1 #ajh1 #aji4 ----1 huts of the ,icelanders1 #ajb1 #ajc4 ----1 churches1 #ajd4 ----1 clergymen all blacksmiths1 #aja1 note1 #ajf2 their poverty1 #ajf-ajh4 ----1 the ,iceland poet1 ,john ,thorlakson1 #ajg4 ----1 education of the clergy and children1 #ajh1 #aji4 ----1 industry and thirst for knowledge of the people1 #aji2 their language1 #aji4 ----1 the library of ,reykjavik1 #aji4 ----1 the ,icelandic ,literary ,society1 #aaj4 ----1 ,icelandic newspapers1 #aaj4 ----1 health of the people1 #aaj4 ----1 difficulties and expense of travelling1 #aaj-aac4 ---- moss1 eaten and exported by the ,icelanders1 #gi4 ---- moss1 food for the deer of ,spitzbergen1 #acg4 ----1 in the treeless zone1 #ba4 ,idols of the ,samoedes1 #ahj4 ,igloolik1 island of1 #cdh4 ,iligliuk1 the ,esquimaux1 her intelligence and passion for music1 #cdh4 ,indians1 ,red1 their enmity with the ,esquimaux1 #bid4 ----1 their decimation by smallpox and drunkenness1 #cjh4 ----1 efforts of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company to civilize them1 #cab1 #cac4 ----1 the beaver skin their standard of exchange with the ,company1 #cac4 ,inglefield1 ,captain1 his search for ,franklin1 #cei4 ----1 his discoveries1 #cfe4 ,ingolfr1 the ,norwegian yarl1 his visit to ,iceland1 and foundation of ,reykjavik1 #ij4 ,innuits1 the1 see also ,esquimaux1 #dcc1 #dfg4 ----1 their character1 #dci1 #dfa4 ----1 amusement of1 #ddj4 ----1 their dwellings1 #ddc1 #deg1 #dfb4 ----1 distress in winter1 #ddd4 ----1 seal1 feasts of1 #dde4 ----1 mode of capturing seals1 #ddf1 #ddh1 #deb4 ----1 their dogs1 #dde1 #dej1 #ded4 ----1 their opinion of the bear1 #dea4 ----1 mode of hunting the walrus1 #ded4 ----1 their implements1 #def4 ----1 mode of constructing an igloo1 #deg4 ----1 their use of the reindeer1 #deh4 ----1 their clothing1 #dfj4 ----1 reindeer feasts1 #dei4 ----1 food and mode of eating1 #dfj4 ----1 their religious ideas1 #dfj4 ----1 treatment of the sick1 #dfa4 ----1 gradual extinction1 #dfb4 ,insects of ,taimurland1 #bbg4 ,irish colonists on the ,westman ,islands1 #aae4 ,irkutsk1 extreme cold of1 #bjh4 ----1 ,wrangell's visit to1 #bcc4 ----1 summer flowers of1 #bcc4 ,iron mines near ,drontheim1 #abd4 ,isabella1 ,cape1 discovery of1 #cfe4 ,ishemsk1 ,castrn's visit to1 #agd4 ----1 the ,isprawnik of1 and his wife1 #agd1 #agf4 ,islands within the ,arctic ,circle1 barren grounds of the1 #ah4 ,isleif1 the oldest chronicler of the ,north1 #ih4 ,issakow1 of ,kem1 rounds the north-eastern extremity of ,nova ,zembla1 #aej4 ,itlmenes1 cruelty of their conquerors1 the ,russians1 #aih4 ,ivan ,wasiljewitsch ,i41 first ,czar of ,russia1 his defeat of the ,tartars1 #aia4 ,ivan ,wasiljewitsch ,i41 subdues the ,great ,novgorod1 #aia4 ----1 becomes head of the ,greek orthodox ,church and the first ,czar1 #aib4 ----1 ,chancellor's visit to him at ,moscow1 #ccf4 ,ivan ,wasiljewitsch ,,ii41 his conquest of ,kasan1 #aib4 ----1 his surname of the ,terrible1 #aib4 ,ivory1 fossil1 in the islands of ,new ,siberia1 #bjb4 ,iwalo river1 in ,lapland1 ,castrn's journey on the1 #afi4 ,j4 ,jakowlew family1 #bai4 ----1 their enormous wealth in gold mines1 #bai4 ,jakuts1 the1 confirmed by the ,czar in their possessions1 #aii4 ----1 their snares and traps1 #bac4 ----1 their energy and cunning1 #bbh4 ----1 their language1 origin1 character1 and personal appearance1 #bbh4 ----1 their summer and winter huts1 #bbi4 ----1 their horses1 #bcj4 ----1 their powers of endurance and sharpness of vision1 #bcj4 ----1 their manufactures and articles of dress1 #bca4 ----1 their gluttony1 #bca4 ----1 the universal carriers to the east of the ,lena1 #bca4 ----1 their superstitions1 #bcb4 ----1 their offerings of horsehair to the spirit of the mountains1 #bcb4 ----1 their songs1 #bcb4 ----1 wretched condition of the river1 #beb4 ,jakutsk1 mean temperature of1 in summer and winter1 #bg4 ----1 extreme cold of1 #bjh4 ----1 gloomy appearance of the town1 #bcc4 ----1 trade of1 #bcc4 ,jan ,meyen1 description of1 #adf4 ,jelly1 made from the horns and claws of the reindeer1 #cg4 ,jelly-fish 7,pleurobrachia pileus7 in the sea of ,kara1 #aea4 ,jenissei river1 ,castrn's journey to the1 #agf4 ,jeniseisk1 ,castrn's visit to1 #agg4 ----1 the ostrog of1 founded1 #aie4 ,jyrfalcon 7,falco gyrfalco71 its head-quarters in ,iceland1 #he4 ----1 former trade in the1 #he4 ,jilibeambaertje1 or ,num1 the ,supreme ,being of the ,samoedes1 #agi4 8,john1 ,gentleman10 the ,english pirate1 #aah4 ,john's1 ,st41 capital of ,newfoundland1 #cgh4 ,jkuls1 or ice-mountains of ,iceland1 #fh4 ,jkulsa i ,axarfirdi river1 in ,iceland1 #gh4 ,jkulsa river1 in ,iceland1 #gh4 ,jones's ,sound1 discovery of the entrance to1 #cdc4 ,jukahires1 chief resource of those of the ,aniuj1 #bcg4 ----1 ,jelissei ,busa's residence among the1 #aie4 ,k4 ,kadiak1 island of1 discovery of the1 #bjb4 ,kaiak1 island of1 landing of ,stella on the1 #bdi4 8,kalewala10 ,castrn's ,swedish translation of the1 #agj4 ,kamchatka1 subjugation of1 by the ,russians1 #aih4 ----1 cruelty of the conquerors1 #aih4 ,kamchatka1 ,steller's scientific journey to1 #bdh4 ----1 its climate and fertility1 #bed4 ----1 abundance of fish in the rivers1 #bee4 ----1 bird-catchers of1 #bee4 ----1 population1 #bee4 ----1 mountain chain and volcanoes1 #bef4 ----1 climate and mineral springs1 #bef4 ----1 harbors and population1 #bef4 ----1 healthiness of the people1 #beg4 ----1 their food1 #beh4 ----1 their animals1 #beh1 #bfj4 ----1 character of the people1 #bfj1 #bfa4 ,kane1 ,dr41 his ,arctic voyages1 #cfe4 ----1 his account of his first winter in ,rensselaer ,bay1 #cfe4 ----1 his description of the ,polar night1 #cff4 ----1 his sledge journey along the coast of ,greenland1 #cfg4 ----1 his illness on the voyage and recovery1 #cfh4 ----1 resolves to winter a second time in ,rensselaer ,bay1 #cfi4 ----1 departure and return of part of his crew1 #cfi1 #cgj4 ----1 sufferings of his party1 #cga4 ----1 abandonment of his ship1 and boat journey to ,upernavik1 #cga4 ----1 his return to ,new ,york1 and death1 #cgb4 ,kara ,gate1 reached by ,stephen ,burrough1 #ccf4 ,kara1 ,sea of1 #adg4 ----1 expeditions to the1 #adg4 ,kasan1 ,russian conquest of1 #aib4 ,kellett1 ,captain1 his search for ,franklin1 #cei4 ,kendall1 ,lieut41 his voyage to the ,coppermine river1 #cdi4 ----1 his account of ,deception ,island1 #cic4 ,kennedy1 ,william1 his search for ,franklin1 #ceh4 ----1 his sledge journey with ,bellot1 #cei4 ,kennedy ,channel1 ,dr4 ,hayes's sledge journey across1 #cfh4 ----1 his voyage across1 #cgc4 ,kerguelen ,land1 climate of1 #cic4 ,khipsack1 destruction of the empire of the ,khans of1 #aia4 ,king1 ,captain1 his survey of the ,magellan ,strait1 #dae4 ,king ,william's ,island1 coast of1 traced by ,mr4 ,thomas ,simpson1 #cef4 ,klofa jkul1 extent of the1 #fi4 ,knight1 ,john1 his melancholy ,arctic voyage1 #cda4 ----1 murdered by the ,esquimaux1 #cdb4 ,koldewey1 ,captain1 his journey towards the ,north ,pole1 #cgd4 ,kolwa1 ,castrn's visit to1 #agd4 ,kolyma river1 inundations of the1 #bcg4 ,kolymsk1 ,nishnei1 foundation of the town of1 #aig4 ----1 ,wrangell's visit to1 #bcd4 ----1 situation and climate of1 #bcd4 ----1 vegetable and animal life1 #bce4 ----1 population of the district1 #bcf4 ----1 dwellings of the ,russian residents1 #bcf4 ----1 mode of life of the natives1 #bcf1 #bcg4 ----1 their dogs1 #bcf1 #bcg4 ----1 berry-gathering in the district1 #bch4 ----1 famine of the people1 #bch4 ----1 social parties at1 #bch4 ,koriaks1 the1 confirmed by the ,czar in their possessions1 #aii4 ,koronnoie ,filippowskoi1 ,von ,middendorff's journey to1 #bba4 ,kostin ,schar1 visit of ,von ,baer to1 #aeb4 ----1 storm in1 #aeb4 ,ktlugja1 eruptions of1 since the colonization of ,iceland1 #ie1 #ig4 ,krasnojarsk1 ,castrn's visit to1 #age1 #agf4 ----1 extravagance of the gold aristocracy of1 #bah4 ,krenitzin1 his discovery of the peninsula of ,aljaska1 #bjb4 ,kresdowosdwishensk1 produce of the gold mine of1 #bah4 ,krisuvik1 burning mountains of1 #fi4 ,krotow1 ,lieutenant1 lost off ,nova ,zembla1 #adg4 ,kutchin ,indians1 their dwelling-place1 #cca4 ----1 their personal appearance and dress1 #cca4 ----1 their medium of exchange1 #cca4 ----1 their women and children1 #ccb4 ----1 their amusements1 #ccb4 ----1 their wars with the ,esquimaux1 #ccc4 ----1 their suspicious and timorous lives1 #ccc4 ----1 their mode of pounding the moose-deer1 #ccc4 ----1 their frequent distress1 #ccd4 ----1 their huts1 #ccd4 ,kutchum ,khan1 his conquest of ,siberia1 #aib4 ----1 defeated by ,yermak the robber1 at ,tobolsk1 #aic1 #aid4 ----1 his revenge1 #aid4 ,l4 ,labrador1 barren lands of1 #bb4 ----1 effect of the icy seas and cold currents on the climate of1 #bb4 ----1 discovered and colonized by ,greenlanders1 #cce4 ,lchow ,islands1 discovery of the1 #bjb4 ,lagarfliot river1 in ,iceland1 #gh4 ,lakes of ,newfoundland1 #cgg4 ,lambert1 ,m4 ,gustave1 his opinion as to the route to the ,pole1 #cge4 ,lancaster ,sound1 discovery of the entrance to1 #cdc4 ,lapps1 their history and conversion to ,christianity1 #aef4 ----1 poverty and self-denial of their clergy1 #aeg4 ----1 their ancient gods and present superstitions1 #aef1 #aeg4 ----1 ,evil ,spirit of the woods1 #aeg4 ----1 sorcery and witchcraft1 #aeh4 ----1 their personal appearance1 #aeh4 ,lappars1 the ,fjall1 or ,mountain ,lapps1 #aei4 ----1 their dwellings1 #aei4 ----1 their reindeer pens1 #afj4 ----1 their summer and winter encampments1 #afa4 ----1 their sledges and skates1 #afa4 ----1 natural beauties of their country1 #afb4 ----1 their love of home1 #afb4 ----1 their mode of hunting the bear and the wolf1 #afc1 #afd4 ----1 the wealthy1 and their mode of living1 #afd4 ----1 their annual visits to the fairs1 #afe4 ----1 their drunkenness1 #afe4 ----1 their worship of mammon1 treasure hoarding1 #afe4 ----1 their fondness for brandy and tobacco1 #afe4 ----1 their affectionate disposition1 #aff4 ----1 the ,skogslappars1 or ,forest ,lapps1 #aff4 ----1 the ,fisher1 #aff4 ,laptew1 ,lieut4 ,cheriton1 his explorations of the coasts of ,taimurland1 #bjj4 ----1 his explorations to the east of the ,lena1 #bjj4 ,larch1 the1 of ,siberia1 #bd4 ----1 of the ,hudson's ,bay ,territory1 #bd4 ,lawrence1 ,st41 climate and vegetation of the island of1 #bga4 ,lava streams of ,iceland1 #fi1 #gg4 ----1 streams of1 thrown out by the great eruption of ,skaptar ,jkul1 #ie-ig4 ,laxaa1 or ,salmon river1 abundance of fish caught in the1 #hg4 ,leif1 the ,norwegian jarl1 his visit to ,iceland1 #ij4 ----1 murdered by his ,irish slaves1 #ia4 ,lemming1 its habitat and food4 #db4 ----1 exaggerations of ,olaus ,magnus and ,pontoppidan respecting the1 #db4 ----1 its enemies1 and accidents to which it is liable1 #db4 ----of ,new ,siberia1 #bg4 ----of ,nova ,zembla1 #aed4 ,lena river1 ascended by the ,cossacks1 #aie4 ----1 importance of the1 #ag4 ----1 barren grounds near the1 #bb4 ----1 ,wrangell's journey down the1 #bcc4 ,leprosy1 or 8likthra10 of ,iceland1 #aaj4 ,lichens1 gray1 of the 8barren grounds10 #ah4 ----1 food for the reindeer1 #bg4 ----1 the ,lichen rangiferinus1 the food of the reindeer1 #cf4 ----of ,nova ,zembla1 #aec4 ----of the ,pribilow ,islands1 #bga4 ,liddon1 ,lieut4 ,m41 his ,arctic voyages1 #cde4 ,lindenow1 ,godske1 his voyage to ,greenland1 #chc4 ,lion1 sea- 7,otaria ,stelleri71 value of the skin of the1 #bgf4 ----1 the sea-1 of the ,antarctic ,ocean1 #cii4 ,lister1 ,cape1 discovery of1 #che4 ,lithuania1 the elk of1 #ci4 ,loaisa1 ,garcia de1 his voyage round the globe1 #dac4 ,lofoten ,islands1 the1 #abe4 ----1 cod-fishery of the1 #abe1 #abf4 ,looming objects in the ,arctic regions1 #ee4 ,loschkin1 the walrus-hunter1 his voyage on the coast of ,nova ,zembla1 #adg4 ,lstadius1 the ,lapp priest1 his self-denial and poverty1 #aeg4 ,loucheux4 ,see ,kutchin ,indians4 ,louis-,philippe ,terre1 discovery of1 #djb4 ,lovunnen1 puffins of1 #abe4 ,lwenorn1 his voyage to ,greenland1 #che4 ,ltke1 ,admiral1 his endeavors to penetrate along the coast of ,nova ,zembla1 #adg4 ,lychnis1 purple1 of the ,arctic regions1 #bj4 ,lynx1 ,canada1 or pishu 7,lynx ,canadensis71 #cag4 ----1 value of the fur of the1 #bab1 #cag4 ,lyon1 ,captain1 his unsuccessful voyage1 #cdh4 ,m4 ,mackenzie1 ,alexander1 his voyages of discovery in ,north ,america1 #cjh4 ,mackenzie river1 importance of the1 #ag4 ----1 forests and barren lands near the1 #bb4 ----1 influence of the southerly winds on the temperature of the valley of the1 #bg4 ----1 discovery of the1 #cjh4 ,maesnikow1 ,nikita1 his gold-fields in ,eastern ,siberia1 #bad1 #bag1 #bah4 ,magdalena ,bay1 description of1 #acc4 ,magellan1 ,strait of1 #djh4 ----1 description of the1 #djh4 ----1 entrances to1 #dji4 ----1 opening into the ,pacific1 #daa4 ----1 discovery of the1 by ,magellan1 #dac4 ----1 ,sir ,j4 ,narborough's chart1 #dad4 ----1 ,captains ,king and ,fitzroy's surveys of1 #dae4 ,mager1 island of1 #abi4 ,magicians of the ,samoedes1 #ahj1 #aha4 ,malewinsky1 ,lieutenant1 his gold mine of ,olginsk1 #bah4 ,maelstrom1 the1 #abf4 ,mammoth1 fossil remains of the1 in ,new ,siberia1 #bjb4 ,man1 his difficulty in establishing a footing in the ,arctic regions1 #ag4 ----1 how he is able to stand the rigors of an ,arctic winter1 #bh4 ,maps of the ,esquimaux1 #cjb4 ,mariinsk1 station of1 built by the ,russians1 #aif4 ----1 gold mine of1 #bag4 ,marshes of ,newfoundland1 #cgg4 ,marten1 pine 7,martes abietum71 the1 #caf4 ----1 value of the fur of the1 #caf4 ,mary ,minturn river1 flowers of1 #bj4 ,matiuschkin1 his sledge journey over the ,polar ,sea1 #bda4 ,matoschkin ,schar1 visits to1 #adg-aeb4 ,matthew1 ,st41 island of1 inhospitable character of the1 #bga4 ,matthew's ,straits1 visited by ,rosmysslow1 ,pachtussow1 and ,herr von ,baer1 #adg-aeb4 ,mc,clintock1 ,lieut4 7now ,sir ,leopold71 his search for ,franklin1 #cfj4 ----1 his voyage in the 8,fox10 and discovery of the fate of ,franklin and his companions1 #cfb-cfd4 ,mc,clure1 ,captain1 his search for ,franklin1 #cei-cfa4 ----1 his discovery of the north-west passage1 #cfj4 ,mecham1 ,lieut41 his search for ,franklin1 #cfj4 ,mediterranean1 dried codfish sent to the1 #abi4 ,medus1 enormous numbers of1 in the ,polar world1 #ei4 ----1 in the seas off ,spitzbergen1 #acc4 ,melville ,bay1 enormous glaciers of1 #di1 #ej4 ,melville ,island1 discovery of1 #cde4 ,mentschikoff1 ,prince1 his exile and death in ,siberia1 #bje4 ----1 his son restored to the honors of his house1 #bje4 ,mercy ,bay1 discovery of1 #cfa4 ,mercy1 harbor of1 #dab4 ,middendorff1 ,von1 his adventures in ,taimurland1 #bbj4 ----1 his visit to the ,chatanga river1 #bba4 ----1 his journey down the ,taimur river to the ,polar ,sea1 #bba-bbc4 ----1 his return journey and illness1 #bbc-bbe4 ----1 gratitude of the ,samoedes1 #bbd4 ----1 his observations on the climate and natural productions of ,taimurland1 #bbe4 ,midnight1 silence of1 in ,spitzbergen1 #ace4 ,milk of the reindeer1 #cf4 ,minerals of ,iceland1 #hh4 ,mink 7,vison ,americanus71 value of the fur of the1 #caf4 ,misery1 ,mount1 #ade4 ,mollusca1 small1 of the ,polar ,seas1 #ei4 ,moonlight nights in the ,arctic regions1 #cb1 #cc4 ,morse4 ,see ,walrus4 ,morton1 one of ,dr4 ,kane's crew1 his illness1 #cfh4 ----1 his discovery of ,washington ,land1 #cfi4 ,mosquitoes of ,nishne-,kolymsk1 #bce4 ,mosses1 dingy1 of the 8barren grounds10 #ah4 ---- of ,nova ,zembla1 #aec4 ---- of the ,pribilow ,islands1 #bgj1 #bga4 ,mourawieff1 ,count ,nicholas1 his annexation of the ,amoor1 #aif4 ,mouse1 field1 of ,spitzbergen1 #acg4 ,muchamor1 the fungus1 used as food by the ,kamchatkans1 #beh4 ,mud-springs1 boiling1 of ,iceland1 #gj4 ,mnich1 ,marshal1 his exile to ,siberia1 #bje4 ----1 his return and subsequent life1 #bjf4 ,munk1 ,jens1 his voyages1 #cdc4 ,munkholm1 castle of1 #abd4 ,murderers1 treatment of1 in ,russia1 #bjf4 ,muscovy ,company1 its endeavors to discover a north-east passage to ,india1 #ccf4 ,musk-ox 7,ovibos moschatus71 description of the1 #dj4 ----1 its former and present habitat1 #dj1 #da4 ,musquash1 musk-rat1 or ondatra 7,fiber zibethicus71 #cag4 ----1 villages1 #cah4 ----1 modes of catching the animal1 #cah4 ----1 value of the fur of the1 #cah4 ,mussels on the coast of ,greenland1 #ei4 ,myvatn1 ducks of the1 #hd4 ,n4 ,naddodr1 the ,norwegian pirate1 his discovery of ,iceland1 #hi4 ,nmar1 or boiling mud-springs of ,iceland1 #gj4 ,narborough1 ,sir ,john1 his chart of the ,strait of ,magellan1 #dad4 ,narwhal1 or sea-unicorn1 domain of the1 #fj4 ----1 its tusk1 #fa4 ----1 ,greenland fishery of the1 #chg4 ,narym1 ,castrn's visit to1 #age4 ,necromancy of the ,samoedes1 #ahj4 ,nertschinsk1 treaty of1 #aif4 ----1 criminals at the mines of1 #bjf4 ,ness1 ,castrn's visit to the ,samoede village of1 #agb4 ,newfoundland1 discovered and colonized by ,greenlanders1 #cce4 ----1 its desolate appearance1 #cgf4 ----1 its forests1 marshes1 and barrens1 #cgf1 #cgg4 ----1 its lakes and ponds1 #cgg1 #cgh4 ----1 its fur-bearing animals1 #cgh4 ----1 its reindeer and wolves1 #cgh4 ----1 its climate and inhabitants1 #cgh4 ----1 its capital1 ,st4 ,john's1 #cgh1 #cgi4 ----1 history of the island1 #cgi4 ----1 taken possession of by the ,english1 #cgi4 ----1 right of the ,french and ,americans to fish on the banks of1 #cgi4 ----1 the ,french town of ,placentia1 #cgi4 ----1 the whole island ceded to ,england1 #cgi4 ----1 importance of the cod-fisheries1 #cgi4 ----1 the great banks of1 #chj4 ----1 account of the mode of fishing1 #chj4 ----1 fogs and storms1 #chj1 #cha4 ----1 seal-catching1 #cha4 ,newspapers of ,iceland1 #aaj4 ,night of a ,polar winter1 ,kane's description of1 #cff4 ,nicolayevsk1 station of1 built by the ,russians1 #aif4 ,noiba1 gold-diggings on the1 #baf4 ,norfolk ,bay1 position and fur-trade of1 #bgb4 ,north-eastern route to ,india and ,china1 ,sebastian ,cabot's idea of1 #cce4 ----1 attempts to discover it1 #cce-ccg4 ,north ,pole1 the first attempt to sail across the1 #cdb4 ----1 the plan first suggested by ,thorne1 #cdb4 ----1 ,scoresby's near approach to the1 #cdd4 ----1 ,parry's boat and sledge journey towards the1 #cej4 ----1 ,dr4 ,hayes's opinion as to the practicability of reaching the1 across ,kennedy ,channel1 #cgd4 ,north ,pole1 opinions of other scientific authorities as to the best way to reach1 #cgd4 ,north-west passage to ,india1 attempts to discover the1 #cdb1 #cdc4 ----1 ,m',clure's discovery of the1 #cfj4 ---- ,company of ,canada1 formation and trade of the1 #cjg4 ----1 its wars with the ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 and final amalgamation1 #cjh-caj4 ,northumberland ,sound1 temperature of1 #bh4 ,notothenia1 the1 of the ,antarctic seas1 #djj4 ,norway1 the lemming of the ,dovrefjeld1 in1 #db4 ----1 an absolute monarchy established by ,harold ,haarfager in1 #ij4 ----1 causes of the mild climate of the coast of1 #aba4 ----1 condition of the soil1 and of the cultivators of it1 #aba-abc4 ----1 constitution of1 and education of the people1 #aba4 ----1 population of1 #aba4 ----1 coast scenery of1 #abc4 ----1 ,drontheim and its industry1 #abd4 ----1 birds of the coast of1 #abd1 #abe4 ----1 the herring and cod fisheries of1 #abe-abh4 ,nova ,zembla1 investigations of the shores of1 #adg4 ----1 circumnavigated by ,pachtussow1 #adg1 #adh4 ----1 meteorological observations of ,ziwolka1 #aej4 ----1 the climate of1 #aea4 ----1 ,von ,baer's scientific journey1 #aea4 ----1 scientific results of his journey1 #aeb1 #aec4 ----1 vegetation of1 #aec4 ----1 solitude and silence of1 #aed4 ----1 rarity of insects in1 #aed4 ----1 lemmings and foxes of1 #aed4 ----1 birds of1 #aed4 ----1 other animals of1 #aed1 #aee4 ----1 wintering of the ,dutch under ,barentz at1 #cdj4 ,novgorod1 the ,great1 subdued by the ,czar ,ivan ,i41 #aia4 ,nowodsikoff1 ,michael1 his discoveries1 #bja4 ,nudibranchiata1 enormous numbers of1 in the ,polar seas1 #ei4 ,nullipores on the coast of ,greenland1 #ei4 ,nun1 or ,jilibeambaertje1 the ,supreme ,being of the ,samoedes1 #agi4 ,o4 ,obdorsk1 ,castrn's visit to1 #agd4 ----1 description of the town1 #ahh4 ----1 the fair at1 #ahi4 ,obi river1 importance of1 #ag4 ----1 barren grounds near the1 #bb4 ----1 its importance to the ,ostiaks1 #ahe4 ----1 ,castrn's journey to the1 #agd4 ----1 misery caused by the overflow of the1 #age4 ----1 inhabitants of the banks of the1 #age4 ,ochota river1 the1 #bdf4 ,ochotsk1 sea of1 reached by a party of ,cossacks1 #aie4 ----1 description of the town1 #bdf4 ,olaf ,truggeson1 ,king of ,norway1 sends a missionary to ,iceland1 #ic1 #id4 ,olginsk1 gold mine of1 #bah4 ,olonez1 number of bears killed for their skins every year in1 #bab4 ,ommaney1 ,captain1 his search for ,franklin1 #ceg4 ----1 his discovery of ,franklin's first winter-quarters1 #ceg4 ,onkilon1 or sedentary ,tchuktchi1 #bfg4 ----1 their mode of life1 #bfg4 ,oraefa ,jkul1 height of1 #fi4 ----1 eruptions of1 since the colonization of ,iceland1 #ie4 ,orange ,island1 visited by ,barentz1 #cci4 ,orc4 ,see ,grampus4 ,osborne1 ,captain ,sherard1 his opinion as to the method of reaching the ,north ,pole1 #cgd4 ,ostiaks1 their fishing-grounds on the ,obi1 #age4 ----1 their summer huts and mode of life1 #ahe1 #ahf4 ----1 their poverty1 #ahf4 ----1 their winter huts1 #ahf4 ----1 their attachment to their ancient customs1 #ahf1 #ahg4 ----1 their clans1 and princes1 or chieftains1 #ahg4 ----1 their excellence as archers1 #ahg4 ----1 their personal appearance1 and customs1 #ahh4 ----1 annual tribute levied by ,yermak1 the robber1 on them1 #aid4 ----1 confirmed by the ,czar in the possession of their lands1 #aii4 ,ostrich1 ,darwin's1 of ,patagonia1 #dbj4 ,ostrownoje1 town and fair of1 #bfc-bfe4 ,otter1 the sea-1 or kalan 7,enhydris lutris71 value of the fur of the1 #baa1 #bab4 ----1 description of1 #baa4 ----1 chase of the1 in ,kamchatka1 #beh4 ---- hunting of the ,aleuts1 #bgc4 ,otter1 the fish- 7,lutra ,canadensis71 #cag4 ----1 fur of the1 #cag4 ,owl1 its favorite food1 #dc4 ----1 its winter in the highest latitudes1 #dc4 ,ox1 the1 in ,iceland1 #hj4 ,oyster1 most northerly limit where found1 #abf4 ,p4 ,pachtussow1 his circumnavigation of the southern island of ,nova ,zembla1 #adh4 ----1 his second voyage and death1 #adi1 #aej4 ,pack-ice1 #df4 ----1 its tendency to separate in calm weather1 #ed4 ,paikoff1 his discovery of the ,fox ,islands1 #bja4 ,parrots of ,patagonia1 #dbj4 ,parry1 ,lieut4 ,w4 ,e4 7afterwards ,admiral ,sir71 his ,arctic voyages1 #cdd4 ----1 his second voyage1 #cdh4 ----1 his third voyage1 #cdi4 ----1 abandonment of the 8,fury10 #cdi4 ----1 his boat and sledge journey towards the ,pole1 #cej4 ----1 his subsequent career1 #cea4 ,parry1 ,mount1 discovery of1 #cfi4 ----1 ,dr4 ,hayes's journey to1 #cgc1 #cgd4 ----1 ,mountains1 discovery of the1 #djc4 ,psina river1 scanty population of the1 #bbj4 ,patagonia1 ,captain ,fitzroy's survey of1 #dae4 ----1 the people of1 #dag1 #dbj4 ----1 difference of climate between the east and west1 #dag4 ----1 aridity of the east of1 #dag1 #dah4 ----1 large rivers of1 #dah4 ----1 animals of1 #dah1 #dai4 ----1 introduction of the horse1 #dbd4 ----1 fashions of the ,patagonians1 #dba4 ----1 their religious ideas1 #dba4 ----1 their superstitions and astronomical knowledge1 #dbb4 ----1 their division into tribes1 #dbb4 ----1 their huts1 #dbb4 ----1 their trading routes1 #dbc4 ,patagonians1 their system of government1 and great cacique1 #dbc4 ----1 their arms1 amusements1 and character1 #dbd4 ,paul1 ,st41 climate of the island1 #bga4 ----1 chase of the sea-bear on the1 #cac4 ,paul the ,first1 discovery of the ,island of1 #bgd4 ,pekan1 or woodshock 7,martes ,canadensis71 fur of the1 #caf4 ,penas1 gulf of1 glacier at the1 #cid4 ,penguin1 the1 of the ,antarctic seas1 #cie4 ----1 its food1 #cig4 ,penny1 ,master1 his search for ,franklin1 #ceg1 #ceh4 ,peruvian current1 influence of the1 #cid4 ,petermann1 ,dr4 ,augustus1 his view of the route to the ,pole1 #cgd4 ,petrel1 the giant 7,procellaria gigantea71 of the ,antarctic seas1 #cid4 ,petropavlosk1 its population1 #beg4 ----1 unsuccessful attack of the ,english and ,french on1 #bef4 ,petschora river1 #adi4 ,philip's bay1 #dji4 ,phipps1 ,captain 7afterwards ,lord ,mulgrave71 his voyage to discover the north-west passage1 #cdd4 ,pipit 7,anthus pratensis71 the1 of ,iceland1 #ha4 ,plachina1 ,castrn's residence and study at1 #agf4 ,plover island1 discovery of1 #cfj4 ,plovers of ,iceland1 #ha4 ,poland1 the elk of1 #ci1 #dj4 ,pole1 ,north1 probable condition of the land 7if any7 at the1 #bg4 ,popow1 ,fedor1 his discovery of the gold fields of ,eastern ,siberia1 #bad4 ,population of ,norway1 #abb4 ,potato1 cultivation of1 in ,norway1 #abd4 ,pribilow ,islands1 climate of1 #bga4 ----1 sea-lions and guillemots of1 #bga4 ----1 chase of the sea-bear1 #bgd4 ,prontschischtschew1 his fruitless endeavors to double the capes of ,taimurland1 #bjj4 ----1 death of him and his wife1 #bj4 ,prussia1 ,east1 the elk of1 #ci1 #dj4 ,ptarmigan 7,lagopus albus71 its residence in the highest latitudes in winter1 #dc4 ---- of ,spitzbergen1 #acg4 ----1 its summer visits to ,taimurland1 #bbg4 ---- in the ,tundra in summer1 #ai4 ,pteropods1 food for the ,greenland whale1 #fj4 ,puffins of ,lovunnen island1 #abe4 ----1 mode of catching them1 #abe4 ,punta ,arenas1 colony of ,germans at1 #daf4 ,pustosersk1 visit of ,castrn to1 #aga1 #agc4 ,pym1 ,lieut41 his sledge journey of search for ,franklin1 #cfj4 ,r4 ,racoon 7,procyon lotor71 #cae1 #cgh4 ----1 value and trade in the skins of the1 #caf4 ,rae1 ,dr41 his search for ,sir ,john ,richardson1 #ceg4 ----1 his discoveries in the ,arctic seas1 #ceg4 ----1 his discovery of the fate of ,franklin and his crew1 #cfb4 ,raipass1 copper mines at1 #abh4 ,ranunculus1 snow 7,ranunculus nivalis71 of ,nova ,zembla1 #aec4 ,rat1 musk-4 ,see ,musquash4 ,ravens of ,iceland1 #hd4 ----1 in ,scandinavian mythology1 #hd1 #he4 ----1 superstitions of the ,icelanders respecting the1 #he4 ,razor-bill1 its nests on the most northern rocks1 #fg4 ,red-knife ,indians1 their hunting-grounds1 #cbg4 ,red-pole1 the1 of ,spitzbergen1 #acg4 ,red river colony1 destruction of the1 #cjh4 ,red sharks of ,iceland1 #ha4 ,reindeer1 its summer and winter quarters in the ,arctic regions1 #ai4 ----1 food found by the1 in ,spitzbergen1 #bg4 ----1 its importance to man in the northern regions1 #cd4 ----1 its formation and adaptation to the circumstances in which it is placed1 #cd4 ----1 clattering sound of its feet1 #cd4 ----1 its antlers1 #cd4 ----1 its young1 #ce4 ----1 its milk1 #cf4 ----1 its food and olfactory powers1 #cf4 ----1 the caribou of ,north ,america1 #cf4 ----1 its geographical range in the ,old and ,new ,world1 #cf4 ----1 its love of a cold climate1 #cf4 ----1 its services to man1 #cg4 ----1 its enemies1 and disorders to which it is liable1 #cg1 #ch4 ----1 a nuisance in ,iceland1 #ha4 ---- of ,spitzbergen1 #acg4 ----1 the1 pens of the ,lapps1 #afj4 ----1 milking the1 #afj4 ----1 the1 sledges of the ,lapps1 #afa4 ----1 attempt made to acclimatize the1 in ,scotland1 #afb4 ----1 ravages of wolves in herds of1 #afd4 ----1 rich ,lapp owners of herds of1 #afd4 ----1 ,lapp mode of killing the1 #afd4 ----1 its two annual migrations1 #bcg4 ---- hunts of the ,jukahires of the ,aniuj1 #bcg1 #bch4 ---- races of the ,tchuktchi1 #bff4 ---- hunting of the ,esquimaux1 #bie4 ----1 the ,kutchin ,indian mode of pounding the1 #ccc4 ----1 chase of the1 in ,greenland1 #chh4 ,rensselaer bay1 temperature of1 in mid-winter1 #ai1 #bj4 ----1 ,kane's winters at1 #cfe1 #cfi4 ,resanow1 ,jakin1 his gold-fields1 #bad4 8,rescue10 wreck of the1 #ddj4 ,reykjahlid1 boiling mud-caldrons of1 #gj4 ,reykjavik1 mean annual temperature of1 #gh4 ----1 the present capital of ,iceland1 #ia4 ----1 account of1 #ii1 #ajj4 ----1 the annual fair of1 #ajj4 ----1 salary of the bishop of1 #ajf4 ----1 schools and library of1 #ajh1 #aji4 ----1 the ,icelandic ,literary ,society1 #aaj4 ,rhinoceros remains found on the coast of ,northern ,siberia1 #bjc4 ,richardson1 ,dr4 7afterwards ,sir ,john71 his ,arctic land voyages1 #cdf1 #cdi4 ----1 dreadful sufferings of the party1 #cdf1 #cdg4 ----1 his search for ,sir ,john ,franklin1 #cef4 ,rivers discharging their waters into the ,polar ocean1 #ag4 ---- of ,iceland1 #gh4 ,rocky ,mountains1 the wild sheep of the1 #da4 ,roebuck1 near ,lake ,baikal1 #dj4 ,rorquals1 or fin-whales1 habitat and size of the1 #fj4 ----1 their food1 #fj4 ,rosmysslow1 his investigations of the shores of ,nova ,zembla1 #adg4 ,ross1 ,capt4 7afterwards ,sir ,john71 ,arctic voyages of1 #cdd4 ,ross1 ,sir ,john1 his second journey1 #cea4 ----1 his five years in the ,arctic ,ocean1 #cea-ced4 ----1 his return home and honors1 #ced4 ----1 ,sir ,james1 his ,arctic voyages1 #cea4 ----1 his search for ,franklin1 #ceg4 ----1 his discoveries in the ,antarctic ,ocean1 #djb4 ----1 collision between his ships1 the 8,erebus0 and 8,terror10 #dje1 #djf4 ----1 his danger between two icebergs1 #djf4 ,rum1 effects of1 on an ,iceland clergyman1 #aja4 ,rupert's ,land1 held by the ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 #caj4 ,russia1 character of the conifer of1 #bc1 #bd4 ----1 the elk of the woods of the northern parts of1 #dj4 ----1 conquest of1 by the ,tartars under ,baaty ,khan1 #aia4 ----1 liberated from the ,tartar yoke by ,ivan ,i41 #aia4 ----1 advances of1 in ,siberia1 #aie4 ----1 annexes the country of the ,amoor1 #aif4 ----1 condition of the natives under the yoke of1 #aig1 #aih4 ----1 exiles from1 to ,siberia1 #bjd-bjf4 ----1 value of the skins annually imported by1 #bab1 #bac4 ----1 life and dwellings in ,nishne-,kolymsk1 #bcf4 ----1 first treaty of commerce between ,england and1 #ccf4 ----1 ,company1 patent granted to the1 to fish off ,greenland1 #ach4 ,russian ,fur ,company1 account of the1 and its trade1 #bgb4 ,s4 ,sabine1 ,mount1 discovery of1 #djb4 ,sable1 value of the1 to the ,cossack conquerors of ,siberia1 #aie4 ----1 importance and beauty of the fur of the1 #bji4 ----1 hunting1 #baj4 ,sabrina ,land1 discovery of1 #dja1 #djb4 ,sagamen1 or historians1 of ,iceland1 #id4 ,sajan ,mountains1 ,castrn's journey over the1 #agg4 ,salmon1 ,alpine 7,salmo alpinus71 immense numbers of1 in ,nova ,zembla1 #aee4 ,salmon1 shoals of1 in the rivers of the ,arctic regions1 #ai4 ----1 abundance of1 in ,iceland1 #hg4 ----1 of the ,sea of ,ochotsk1 #bdf1 #bdg4 ----1 abundance of1 in ,kamchatka1 #bee4 ,samoedes1 ,european1 ,castrn's journey among the1 #agj4 ----1 their drunkenness1 #aga4 ----1 their impatience of confinement1 #aga-agc4 ----1 their barbarism1 #agi4 ----1 their ,supreme ,being1 ,num1 or ,jilibeambaertje1 #agi4 ----1 their recourse to incantations1 #ahj4 ----1 their idols1 #ahj1 #aha4 ----1 their reverence paid to the dead1 #aha4 ----1 their mode of taking an oath1 #ahb4 ----1 their personal appearance and habits1 #ahb4 ----1 their wealth in reindeer1 #ahc1 #ahd4 ----1 their entire number in ,europe and ,asia1 #ahd4 ----1 their traditions of ancient heroes1 #ahd4 ----1 confirmed by the ,czar in their possessions1 #aii4 ----1 the companions of ,von ,middendorff on his journey1 #bba1 #bbe4 ,smund ,frode1 his ,icelandic works1 #id4 ,sand-bee 7,andrena7 of ,nova ,zembla1 #aed4 ,sand-reed bread used in ,iceland1 #gi4 ,sarmiento1 ,pedro1 his voyage1 #dad4 ,sawina river1 #adh4 ,saxifragas1 the1 of the treeless zone1 #bj4 ,scalds1 or bards1 of ,iceland1 #id4 ,scandinavia1 character of the conifer of1 #bb4 ,schalaurow1 his journeys on the coast of ,siberia1 #bja4 ,scharostin1 his residence at ,spitzbergen1 #adb4 ,schelagskoi1 ,cape1 rounded by ,count ,michael ,staduchin1 #aig4 ----1 reached by ,schalaurow1 #bja4 ,scoresby1 ,dr41 his visit to ,spitzbergen1 #acb4 ----1 ,captain1 his near approach to the ,north ,pole1 #cdd4 ----1 his voyage to ,greenland1 #che1 #chf4 ,scotia1 ,nova1 discovered and colonized by ,greenlanders1 #cce4 ,scurvy in ,spitzbergen1 #adj-adb4 ----1 preservative against1 #ada4 ----1 ,lapp mode of preventing the1 #aff4 ,sea1 influence of the1 on the severity of the ,arctic winter1 #bg4 ,sea1 ,antarctic1 compared with the ,arctic regions1 #cia4 ----1 absence of vegetation in the1 #cia4 ----1 causes of the inferiority of the ,antarctic climate1 #cia1 #cib4 ----1 immensity of the icebergs of the1 #cib4 ----1 the ,peruvian current1 #cid4 ----1 birds of the coasts1 #cid4 ----1 cetaceans1 #cig-cii4 ----1 ,austral fishes1 #djj4 ----1 voyages of discovery1 #dja4 ----1 storms and pack-ice1 #djd et seq4 ,seas1 ,arctic1 dangers peculiar to the1 #de4 ----1 floating masses of ice1 #de1 #df4 ----1 ice-blink1 #ed4 ----1 summer fogs1 #ed4 ----1 clearness of the atmosphere and apparent nearness of objects1 #ee4 ----1 phenomena of reflection and refraction of the atmosphere1 #ee4 ----1 causes which prevent the accumulation of ,polar ice1 #ee-eg4 ----1 the animals of the1 #dj1 #dc1 #dd1 #ei4 ----1 ,russian discoveries off the ,siberian coast1 #bja et seq4 ----1 ,von ,middendorff's journey down the ,taimur river to the ,polar sea1 #bba4 ----1 ,wrangell's nights on the ,polar sea1 #bci4 ----1 his observations on the ,polar sea1 #bdj4 ----1 ,matiuschkin's sledge journey1 #bda4 ----1 voyages of the ,english and ,dutch1 #cce et seq4 ,sea-bear of ,bering's sea1 #fb4 ,sea-eagles of the coast of ,norway1 #abe4 ,sea-elephant of the ,antarctic ,ocean4 #cih1 #cii4 ,sea-gulls of the coast of ,norway1 #abd1 #abe4 ,sea-lion of ,bering sea1 #fb4 ---- of the ,pribilow ,islands1 #bga4 ,seal-fishing at ,spitzbergen1 #adb4 ---- of ,nova ,zembla1 #aee4 ---- hunts of the ,esquimaux1 #bie1 #bif4 ---- catching at ,newfoundland1 #cha4 ---- hunting on the coasts of ,greenland1 #chd1 #ddf4 ,seals1 the1 of the ,polar seas1 #fb4 ----1 their uses to man1 #fb1 #ddf4 ----1 the ,antarctic1 #cii1 #djj4 ----1 their igloos1 #ddi4 ,sea-otter1 value of the skin and former numbers of the1 #bja1 #bjb4 ,sedger river1 romantic scenery of the1 #daj4 ,semple1 ,governor1 murder of1 #cjh4 ,sertularians on the coasts of ,greenland1 #ei4 ,service-trees in the ,arctic regions1 #bd4 ,shark1 basking1 on the northern coasts of ,iceland1 #hg4 ----1 its uses to the islanders1 #hg4 ----1 oil manufactured from its liver1 #hg4 ----1 the northern 7,scymnus microcephalus71 abundance of1 off ,spitzbergen1 #acg4 ----1 fishery of1 on the coast of ,greenland1 #chg4 ,sheep1 wild 7,ovis montana71 of the ,rocky ,mountains1 description of the1 #da4 ----1 the1 of ,iceland1 and their enemies1 #hj4 ----1 mode of sheep-shearing1 #hj4 ,shetland ,islands1 ,new1 account of the1 #cib1 #cic4 ,shrimps off ,spitzbergen1 #acc4 ,siberia1 extent of the treeless zone of1 #bb4 ----1 character of the conifer of1 #bc1 #bd4 ----1 the elk of1 #ci4 ----1 the roebuck and red deer of1 #dj4 ----1 the argali1 or wild sheep of1 #da4 ----1 the white dolphin in the rivers of1 #fa4 ----1 conquest of1 by the ,cossacks1 for the ,russians1 #aic1 #aid4 ----1 final conquest of1 by the ,russians1 and foundation of ,tobolsk1 #aie et seq4 ----1 condition of the natives of1 under the dominion of ,russia1 #aig1 #aih4 ----1 scientific expeditions sent to1 #bjj et seq4 ----1 its past ages1 #bjc4 ----1 its extent and capabilities1 #bjd4 ----1 the exiles sent there1 #bjd-bjf4 ----1 their condition there1 #bjf4 ----1 condition of the ,west ,siberian peasants1 #bjg1 #bjh4 ----1 resources of the country1 #bjh4 ----1 extremes of heat and cold1 #bjh4 ----1 fur-bearing animals1 #bji et seq4 ----1 the gold-fields of ,eastern1 and the miners1 #bad-baf4 ----1 value of the produce of some of the mines1 #bag1 #bah4 ----1 entire value of the produce of gold in #ahef and #ahfj1 #bah4 ----1 luxury and extravagance caused by the wealthy gold speculators1 #bah1 #bai4 ----1 the gold of the ,ural1 #bai4 ----1 ,new1 lemmings of1 #bg4 ----1 discovery of the islands of1 #bja1 #bjb4 ----1 fossil ivory of1 #bjb4 ,sibir1 the capital of the ,tartars in ,siberia1 #aib4 ----1 taken by ,yermak1 the robber1 for the ,czar1 #aid4 ,simpson1 ,mr4 ,thomas1 his ,arctic land voyage1 #cee4 ----1 his discoveries1 #cef4 ----1 assassinated1 #cef4 ,sirowatsky1 his discovery of the ,archipelago of ,new ,siberia1 #bjc4 ,skalholt1 the ancient capital of ,iceland1 account of1 #ih4 ----1 its present condition1 #ii4 ----1 its meadow lands and scenery1 #ii4 ,skaptar jkul1 #fi4 ----1 the great eruption of1 in #aghc1 #ie4 ,skates of ,lapps1 #afa4 ,skeidara1 ,mr4 ,holland's journey across the1 #aaa1 #aab4 ,skjalfandafljot river in ,iceland1 #gh4 ,skogslappar1 or ,forest ,lapps1 account of the1 #aff4 ,sledges of the ,lapps1 #afa4 ----1 the sacred sledge1 ,hahengau1 of the ,samoedes1 #ahj4 ,smith's ,sound1 temperature of1 #bg4 ----1 icebergs formed in1 #dh4 ----1 discovery of the entrance to1 #cdc1 #cfe4 8,smoke1 valley of10 in ,iceland1 #gj4 ,snorri ,sturleson1 the ,herodotus of the ,north1 account of him and his 8,heimskringla10 #id1 #ie4 ,snow-buntings of the 8barren grounds10 #ah4 ,snow1 its protection of the vegetation of the ,arctic regions1 #ai4 ----1 warmth caused by1 #ai4 ----1 no land yet found covered to the water's edge with eternal snow1 #bg4 ----1 amount of the fall of1 in ,taimurland1 #bbe1 #bbf4 ----1 probable diminution of the fall of1 advancing towards the pole1 #bbf4 ----1 its protection against cold1 #bbf4 ,socialism among the ,dog-rib ,indians1 #cbi4 ,solfataras of ,iceland and ,sicily compared1 #hh4 ,solovetskoi1 convent of1 #ahj4 ,sorcery of the ,laplanders1 #aeh4 ----1 of the ,samoedes1 #ahj4 ,spain1 salted cod-fish imported into1 #abi4 ,spasy1 produce of the gold mine of1 #bah4 ,spirits1 invisible1 of the ,samoedes1 #ahj1 #aha4 ,spitzbergen1 flowers of1 #bj4 ----1 vast fields of ice in the plateau of1 #bg4 ----1 food of the reindeer of1 #bg4 ----1 proofs of a former milder climate in1 #bi1 #cj4 ----1 birds of1 #dc1 #dd4 ----1 apparent nearness of objects at1 in clear weather1 #ed4 ----1 the walrus of the coast of1 #fd4 ----1 description of the archipelago of1 #aca1 #acb4 ----1 the west coast1 #acb4 ----1 ,scoresby's ascent of a mountain1 and excursion along the coast1 #acb1 #acc4 ----1 ,magdalena bay1 #acc-acf4 ----1 ice-cliffs and avalanches of ice1 #ace4 ----1 scientific exploring expeditions sent to1 #acf4 ----1 flora and fauna of1 #acf1 #acg4 ----1 fisheries of1 #aci4 ----1 coal and drift-wood of1 #acg1 #ach4 ----1 history of1 #ach4 ----1 attempts made to colonize it1 #aci-ada4 ----1 ,russian hunters' mode of wintering at1 #adb4 ----1 walrus and seal-fishing at1 #adb4 ----1 discovery of1 #cdj4 ,spout1 the1 of ,newfoundland1 #cgf4 ,springs1 hot1 of ,iceland1 #gj4 ----1 the ,geysir1 #ga4 ----1 the ,strokkr1 #gb4 ,spruce fir of the ,hudson's ,bay territory1 #bd4 ,squirrel1 value of the fur of the1 #bab4 ,stadolski ,island1 visit of ,pachtussow to1 #adh4 ,staduchin1 ,count ,michael1 his foundation of the town of ,nishnei-,kolymsk1 #aif1 #aig4 ---- navigates the sea eastward of ,cape ,schelagskoi1 #aig4 ,stawinen river1 #adh4 ,steller1 ,g4 ,w41 notice of him1 #bdh4 ----1 his scientific journey to ,kamchatka1 #bdh4 ----1 ill-treated by ,bering1 #bej4 ----1 his sufferings on ,bering's ,island1 #bea4 ----1 death of his commander1 ,bering1 #beb4 ----1 his return to ,kamchatka1 #beb4 ----1 persecuted by the ,siberian authorities1 #bec4 ----1 his death1 #bec4 ,stockfish of ,iceland1 #hg4 ,storms on the ,white ,sea1 #afi4 ---- of the ,tundras1 #agb1 #agc4 ---- of the ,arctic zone1 #bbe1 #bbf4 ---- off ,newfoundland1 #cha4 ---- in the ,antarctic ocean1 #djd1 #dje4 ----1 the williwaws1 or hurricane squalls1 of the ,strait of ,magellan1 #dab4 ,strogonoff1 foundation of the ,russian family of1 #aib1 #aic4 ,strokkr1 description of the1 #gb4 ,strongbow ,indians of the ,rocky ,mountains1 the1 #cbg4 ,sukkertoppen1 seen by ,davis1 #ccg4 ,sulphur of ,iceland1 #hh4 ----1 compared with that of ,sicily1 #hh4 ,summer1 the perpetual daylight of1 #cf4 ----1 fogs of1 #ed4 ---- in ,taimurland1 #bbe4 ,sun1 the midnight1 effect of1 on icebergs1 #ej-eb4 ,sunset1 magnificence of a1 #cb4 ,surgut1 ,castrn's visit to1 #age4 ,surts-hellir1 or caves of ,surtur1 description of1 #gg4 ,suslik1 the1 of ,siberia1 #bab4 ----1 value of its fur1 #bab4 ,sviatoinoss1 ,cape1 fossil ivory at1 #bjb4 ,sviatoi-noss1 doubled by the ,russians1 #bjj4 ,swans of ,iceland1 #ha1 #hd4 ,t4 ,tabin1 the imaginary ,cape1 of the ,dutch navigators1 #cci4 ,tadibes1 or sorcerers of the ,samoedes1 #ahj4 ----1 their dress and incantations1 #ahj4 ,tagilsk1 ,nishne1 the gold-producing town of1 #bai4 ,taiga1 melancholy character of the1 #bcj4 ----1 gold-fields of the1 #bac4 ,taimur ,lake1 visited by ,lieut4 ,laptew1 #bjj4 ----1 storm on the1 #bbc4 ,taimur river1 visited by ,lieut4 ,laptew1 #bjj4 ----1 ,von ,middendorff's journey to the1 #bba-bbc4 ,taimurland1 endeavors of ,prontschischtschew to double the capes of1 #bjj4 ----1 ,middendorff's adventures in1 #bbj1 #bba4 ----1 his observations on the climate and natural productions of1 #bbe4 ----1 amount of the fall of snow in1 #bbe1 #bbf4 ,tana river1 discovery of the1 by ,jelissei ,busa1 #aie4 ,tarn ,mount1 ,darwin's ascent of1 #daa4 ,tartars1 their subjection of the ,russians1 #aia4 ---- driven out by ,ivan ,i41 #aia4 ---- permanently overthrown by ,ivan ,,ii41 #aib4 ,tattooing1 ,cree ,indian mode of1 #cbc4 ,tchendoma1 the1 visited by ,jelissei ,busa1 #aie4 ,tchuktchi1 barren grounds in the land of the1 #ba1 #bb4 ----1 the land of the1 #bfb4 ----1 pipes of1 #bfd4 ----1 their short summer1 #bfb4 ----1 their independence and commercial enterprise1 #bfc4 ---- ladies1 ,matiuschkin's visit to some1 #bfe4 ----1 amusements of the people1 #bff4 ----1 the wandering and sedentary1 #bfg4 ----1 their mode of life1 #bfg4 ----1 population of the land of the1 #bfg4 ,tea-parties at ,nishne-,kolymsk1 #bch4 ,temperature of ,rensselaer bay in mid-winter1 #ai1 #bj4 ----1 effect of the sea on1 of the ,arctic regions1 #bg4 ,temperature1 influence of the winds on1 #bg4 ----1 former milder1 of the ,arctic regions1 #bi4 ----1 probable causes of the changes in the ,arctic climate1 #bi4 ----1 the lowest ever felt by man1 #bh4 ----1 how man is enabled to bear extraordinary low1 #bh4 ---- of ,iceland at different places1 #gh4 ,tennyson's ,monument1 ,dr4 ,kane's description of1 #cfg4 ,terror1 ,mount1 #djc4 ,terski ,lapps1 ,castrn's attempted journey to the1 #agj4 ,thangbrand1 ,christian missionary to ,iceland1 #ic1 #id4 ,thingvalla1 plain of1 #gf4 ----1 site of the ancient ,icelandic ,althing at1 #ia1 #ib4 ----1 pastor of1 #ajd4 ----1 church of1 #aje4 ,thingvalla ,lake1 in ,iceland1 #ib4 ,thiorsa river1 in ,iceland1 #gh4 ,thorlakson1 ,jon1 the poet of ,iceland1 account of him and his works1 #ajg4 ,thorne1 ,robert1 his suggestion for sailing across the ,north ,pole1 #cdb4 ,thorwald the traveller1 the first ,christian ,icelander1 his career1 #ib1 #ic4 ,tides1 effect of the1 in preventing the accumulation of ,polar ice1 #eg4 ,tinn ,indians1 defeated by the ,crees1 #cai4 ----1 their retaliation1 #cbj4 ----1 their wars with the ,blackfeet1 #cbj4 ----1 their wigwams1 or tents1 #cbd4 ----1 various tribes of the1 and their range1 #cbg4 ----1 their appearance1 manners1 and customs1 #cbg-cbi4 ----1 improvements in their condition1 #cbi1 #ccj4 ----1 their wives and children1 #ccj4 ----1 their cruelty to the aged1 #ccj4 ,tjumen1 the first settlement of ,russians in ,siberia1 #aie4 ----1 ,steller's grave at1 #bec4 ,tobacco1 fondness of the ,lapps for1 #afe1 #afg4 ----1 eagerness of the wild tribes of the ,north for1 #bfd4 ,tobolsk1 battle of1 #aic1 #aie4 ----1 foundation of the city of1 #aie4 ----1 condition of the southern part1 #bjg1 #bjh4 ,tolstoi ,ness1 ,castrn's visit to1 #agg4 ,tolstych1 ,adrian1 his discoveries1 #bja4 ,tomsk1 criminals of1 #bjf1 #bjg4 ,tornea1 reindeer gloves of1 #cg4 ,torsteinson ,jon1 the martyr of the ,westman ,islands1 #aah4 ,tookoolito1 #ddb1 #dff4 ,train-oil of ,troms1 #abh4 ,transbaikalia1 ,castrn's visit to1 #agg4 ,travelling in ,iceland1 #aaj1 #aaa4 ,treeless zone of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america1 #ah-bb4 ,treurenberg bay1 deer of1 #acg4 ,trlladyngja1 eruptions of1 since the colonization of ,iceland1 #ie4 ,troms1 cod-fishery and cod-liver oil of1 #abh4 ----1 description of the town and island1 #abh4 ,tschirigow1 his voyages1 #bja4 ,tucutuco 7,ctenomys ,magellanica71 the1 of ,patagonia1 #dai4 ,tundri1 or barren grounds of the ,arctic regions1 #ah1 #ai4 ---- of the ,european ,samoedes1 #aga4 ,tundri1 storms of the ,tundras1 #agb4 ,tung-ower1 or hot spring at ,reikholt1 in ,iceland1 #gj4 ,tungusi1 the1 their relationship to the ,mantchou1 #bdd4 ----1 their conquests and final subjugation by the ,russians1 #bdd4 ----1 their intellectual development1 #bdd4 ----1 their tribes and population1 #bdd4 ----1 their wretchedness1 #bdd4 ----1 their manners and customs1 #bde4 ,tunguska river1 gold-fields of the ,upper1 #bad4 ,turkey-buzzard1 the1 of ,patagonia1 #dai4 ,turuchansk1 ,castrn's visits to1 #agf1 #agg4 ,tyndall glacier1 enormous size of1 #ej4 ,u4 ,uffliot the ,wise1 his first code of laws in ,iceland1 #ia4 ,unalaschka1 climate of1 #bfi4 ----1 vegetation of1 #bfi1 #bgj4 ----1 people of1 #bgc4 ,union1 ,cape1 ,dr4 ,hayes's sledge voyage to1 #cgc1 #cgd4 ,united ,states1 right of1 to fish on the banks of ,newfoundland1 #cgi4 ,ural ,mountains1 ,castrn's passage of the1 #agd4 ----1 first discovery of gold in the1 #bad4 ----1 quantity of gold found in the1 #bai4 ,ustsylmsk1 ,castrn's visit to1 and ill-treatment at1 #agc1 #agd4 ,utzjoki1 the pastor of1 #afi4 ,uusa river1 ,castrn's journey up the1 #agd4 ,v4 ,vaage1 cod-fishery of1 #abf4 ----1 ancient importance of1 #abf4 ,vancouver's ,island1 placed under the management of the ,hudson's ,bay ,company1 #caj4 ,vapor baths of the ,cree ,indians1 #cbd4 ,vre1 the1 of ,norway1 #abd4 ,vegetation1 protection afforded by snow to1 #ai4 ----1 distinctive characters of the ,arctic forests1 #bb-bd4 ---- of the 8barren grounds10 #ah1 #ba1 #bb4 ----1 length of time necessary for the formation of even small stems of trees in the ,arctic regions1 #be4 ----1 harmless character of the ,arctic plants1 #be4 ----1 no land yet discovered in which it is entirely subdued by winter1 #bg4 ----1 former1 of the northern regions of the globe1 #bi4 ---- of ,spitzbergen1 #acf4 ---- of ,nova ,zembla1 #aeb4 ---- of ,taimurland1 #bbf4 ---- of ,kamchatka1 #bed4 ---- of the ,bay of ,awatscha1 #bef4 ---- of the ,pribilow ,islands1 #bga4 ---- of ,newfoundland1 #cgf4 ---- of ,greenland1 #chh4 ----1 absence of1 in the ,antarctic regions1 #cia4 ---- of ,port ,famine1 #daj4 ,verchnei ,ostrog1 in ,kamchatka1 built1 #aih4 ,verazzani1 his voyages1 #cce4 ,vestfjord1 cod-fishery of the1 #abf4 ,victoria ,land1 discovery of1 #djb4 ,videy1 eider-ducks of1 #ha1 #hb4 ,vigr1 eider-ducks of1 #hc4 ----1 ,mr4 ,shepherd's visit to1 #hc1 #hd4 ,vikings1 their courage and discoveries1 #hi4 ,virgins1 ,cape1 #dji4 ,vogelsang1 deer of1 #acg4 ,volcanic eruptions in ,iceland since its colonization1 #ie4 ,volcanoes giving birth to ,iceland1 #fh4 ----1 those now existing there1 #fi4 ----1 the ,esk1 on ,jan ,meyen1 #adf4 ----1 of ,kamchatka1 #bef4 ----1 eruption of ,mount ,erebus1 #djc4 ,vole1 field 7,arvicola conomus71 indigenous to ,iceland1 #hj4 ,voyageur1 the1 of ,north ,america1 #cjd4 ----1 his life and character1 #cjd1 #cje4 ,w4 ,walrus1 or morse 7,trichechus rosmarus71 description of the1 #fb-fd4 ----1 its affectionate temper1 #fd4 ----1 its parental love1 #fd4 ----1 its chief resorts and food1 #fd4 ---- fishing at ,spitzbergen1 #add4 ---- hunted on ,bear ,island1 #add4 ---- of ,nova ,zembla1 #aee4 ---- hunting on the coast of ,aliaska1 #bge4 ----1 pieces of skin of1 a medium of exchange1 #bgf4 ----1 ,esquimaux mode of hunting it1 #bih4 ,washington ,land1 discovery of1 #cfi4 ----1 ,dr4 ,hayes's journey to1 #cgc4 ,wassiljew1 his visit to the ,lena1 #aie4 ,waygatz1 island of1 the sacred island of the ,samoedes #ahj4 ,weasel1 the ,siberian 7,viverra ,siberica71 the fur of1 #baa4 ,weddell1 ,captain1 his ,antarctic voyages1 #dja4 ,welden1 his visit to ,bear ,island1 #add4 ,wellington ,channel1 temperature of1 #bh4 ----1 discovery of1 #cde4 ,wenjamin1 the ,archimandrite1 #agj4 ,western1 ,thomas1 preaches ,christianity to the ,lapps1 #aef4 ,westman ,islands1 description of the1 #aad4 ----1 difficulty of access of the1 #aad4 ----1 how they became colonized1 #aae4 ----1 ,heimaey1 or ,home ,island1 #aaf4 ----1 food and trade of the people1 #aag4 ----1 population and mortality of the children1 #aah4 ----1 their sufferings from pirates1 #aah1 #aai4 ,weymouth1 his voyage to ,hudson's ,bay1 #cda4 ,whale1 the ,greenland 7,balna mysticetus71 or smooth-back1 #fj4 ---- off ,nova ,zembla1 #aee4 ----1 the white1 or beluga1 #fa4 ----1 the 8ca'ing10 #fb4 ----1 a stranded1 at ,spitzbergen1 #acc4 ----1 the fin-back1 #ei1 #fj4 ---- of ,spitzbergen1 #acg4 ---- off ,nova ,zembla1 #aee4 ----1 smooth-backed1 of the ,antarctic seas1 #cig4 ----1 sperm1 of the ,antarctic ,ocean1 #cih4 ,whalers1 their dangers1 in the ,arctic seas1 #dh4 ----1 depressing effect of the summer fogs1 #ed4 ----1 their operations in the ,polar seas1 #ei4 ----1 whale chases of the ,aleuts1 #bge4 ----1 whale-hunts of the ,esquimaux1 #bie4 ----1 abundance of whales in the ,antarctic seas1 #cig4 ----1 battle between a whale and a grampus1 #cih4 ,whale ,sound1 enormous glaciers of1 #ej4 ,white-fish1 or ,coregonus1 of ,north ,america1 #caj1 #caa4 ,white ,sea1 ,castrn's journey to the1 #agj4 ----1 ,chancellor's discovery of the passage from ,england to the1 #aib4 ----1 an ,english expedition in the1 #ccf4 ,whymper1 ,frederick1 travels in ,alaska1 #bgg-bhi4 ,wilkes1 ,captain1 his discoveries in the ,antarctic ,ocean1 #djb4 ,wilkes's ,land1 discovery of1 #djb4 ,williwaws of the ,strait of ,magellan1 #dab4 ,willoughby1 ,sir ,hugh1 his voyage and death1 #ccf4 ,willow1 polar 7,salix polaris71 of ,nova ,zembla1 #aec4 ----1 dwarf1 of the treeless zone1 #ba4 ----1 dwarf1 on the shores of the rivers and lakes1 #bd4 ,wind-hole ,strait of the ,dutch navigators1 #cci4 ,winds1 effects of the cold sea-winds on vegetation1 #bb4 ----1 influence of the1 on an ,arctic climate1 #bg4 ,winter ,harbor1 ,parry's winter in1 #cde4 ,winteria aromatica1 the1 #daj4 ,witchcraft and witches of the ,laplanders1 #aeh4 ,wolf1 its attack of the reindeer1 #cg1 #ch4 ----1 ,lapp mode of hunting the1 #afd4 ---- in ,newfoundland1 #cgh4 ,wolverine4 ,see ,glutton4 ----1 fur of the1 #caf4 ,wood1 length of time necessary for the formation of1 in the ,arctic regions1 #be4 ,woman1 dying1 abandoned1 #dfb4 ,wrangell1 ,lieut4 von1 his services as an ,arctic explorer1 #bcc4 ,wrangell1 his journey to the shores of the ,polar sea1 #bcd4 ----1 his winters at ,kolymsk1 #bch4 ----1 his night on the ,polar sea1 #bci4 ----1 his danger1 and return to ,st4 ,petersburg1 #bda-bdc4 ,wrestling for a wife among the ,tinn ,indians1 #ccj2 and among the ,kutchin ,indians1 #ccb4 ,y4 ,yenisei river1 importance of1 #ag4 ,yermak ,timodajeff1 the ,cossack robber1 #aib4 ----1 his conquest of ,siberia and death1 #aid4 ----1 his monument in ,tobolsk1 #aid1 #aie4 ,york roads1 beauty of1 #dab4 ,yukon river1 #bgh-bhi4 ----1 ice in1 #bhc4 ,yukon1 fort1 #bhd4 ,z4 ,zembla1 ,nova1 vast ice-fields of1 #bg4 ----1 mean temperature of1 in summer and winter1 #bg4 ----1 the narwhal of the seas of1 #fj4 ----1 the walruses of the coasts of1 #fd4 ,zinzendorf1 ,count1 his interest in ,greenland1 #chd4 ,ziwolka1 the ,russian steersman1 his voyages1 #adi1 #aej4 ----1 his meteorological observations1 #aej4 ,,the ,,end4 ,,harper ,,brothers' ,,list ,,of ,,new ,,books4 ,,harper ,,brothers will send any of the following books by mail1 postage prepaid1 to any part of the ,united ,states1 on receipt of the price4 ,,harper',s ,,catalogue1 with ,,classified ,,index ,,of ,,contents1 sent by mail on receipt of ,five ,cents1 or it may be obtained gratuitously on application to the ,publishers personally4 ,,lossing',s ,,war ,,of #ahab4 ,the ,pictorial ,field-,book of the ,war of #ahab2 or1 ,illustrations1 by ,pen and ,pencil1 of the ,history1 ,biography1 ,scenery1 ,relics1 and ,traditions of the ,last ,war for ,american ,independence4 ,by ,,benson ,j4 ,,lossing1 ,author of 8,the ,pictorial ,field-,book of the ,revolution40 ,with #hhb ,illustrations1 engraved on ,wood by ,lossing ,barritt1 chiefly from ,original ,sketches by the ,author4 ,complete in ,one ,volume1 #ajhd pages1 large #hvo4 ,price1 in ,cloth1 #g #jj2 ,sheep1 #h #ej2 ,full ,roan1 #i #jj2 ,half ,calf or ,half ,morocco extra1 #aj #jj4 ,mr4 ,lossing not only writes excellent history1 but he collects the materials from which that history is made2 and we are reminded of ,herodotus1 who traveled into many lands to obtain the materials from which his immortal work was composed1 and whose skillfulness in acquiring knowledge1 and sagacity and truthfulness in using his acquisitions1 modern research and criticism are putting beyond all question1 thus refuting that ignorance which would have it that the ,father of ,history was the ,father of ,lies4 ,mr4 ,lossing's industry is equaled only by his conscientiousness1 which leads him to treat all parties to the ,war of #ahab with the utmost impartiality1 and to give all the facts that throw light upon the contest1 which is a novelty in writing about it1 for never was the history of an important war told in a more partisan manner than that of our second conflict with ,england4 99 99 99 ,the time has come when it is possible to write of it with candor as well as with spirit1 as ,mr4 ,lossing writes its history2 and the time has come1 too1 when we are beginning to understand its real effect on the country1 and when it is possible to discuss its character and its consequences in a philosophical manner1 as ,mr4 ,lossing discusses them4 99 99 99 ,it is proper that the history of such a contest should be given in a sound manner2 and such is the work that ,mr4 ,lossing has placed before his countrymen1 after immense exertions to make it worthy of their approbation4 ,that they will well appreciate what he has done so thoroughly is a thing of course4 ,for young persons who would have correct views of their country's history1 no better book can be named4 ,its minuteness1 its liveliness1 its accuracy1 its high tone1 and its exhaustive character1 render it a fine opening work for youthful readers1 whose minds are always injured by the perusal of superficial histories4 99 99 99 ,the volume is perfectly printed1 no ,european or ,american book ever having come from the press in a more elegant state4 ,the paper and the binding are faultless4 ,in fact1 the book pleases the eye as much as it affords food for the mind4 ,it should be in every library1 public and private1 and in the hands of all persons who would understand ,american history1 and who would acquire knowledge thereof from the highest available sources4--,boston ,traveller4 ,worthy of the highest praise for its full and vivid recital of the stirring events on land and sea that ended with the ,battle of ,new ,orleans1 and for its valuable summary of political affairs from the close of the ,revolution to the ,peace of ,ghent4--,evening ,post4 ,,hartwig',s ,,polar ,,world4 ,the ,polar ,world3 a ,popular ,description of ,man and ,nature in the ,arctic and ,antarctic ,regions of the ,globe4 ,by ,dr4 ,g4 ,,hartwig1 ,author of 8,the ,sea and its ,living ,wonders10 8,the ,harmonies of ,nature10 and 8,the ,tropical ,world40 ,with ,additional ,chapters and #afj ,illustrations by the ,american ,editor4 #hvo1 ,cloth4 ,those of our readers who are acquainted with ,dr4 ,hartwig's former books on ,physical ,geography1 especially his 8,tropical ,world10 will not be disappointed by his description of man and nature in the ,arctic and ,antarctic regions of the globe4 ,whereas within the tropics the variety and abundance of nature throw man and his works into the shade1 in the 8,polar ,world0 man becomes the most important and interesting animal4 ,a great part of ,dr4 ,hartwig's book is taken up with the adventures and hair-breadth escapes of discoverers by land and sea--,norsemen1 ,finns1 ,cossacks1 ,russians1 ,dutch1 ,english1 and ,americans4 ,among these1 the ,finn philologist ,castrn is perhaps the most interesting4 ,he wore out his life traveling across the frozen deserts of ,northern ,europe and ,asia1 from ,lapland to ,lake ,baikal1 studying the languages of the most remote tribes1 and died soon after his return to the ,university of ,helsingfors4 ,equally interesting is the account of the ,cossack conquest of ,siberia by the adventurous robber ,yermak ,timodajeff4 ,the book contains several lively sketches of the natives of these inclement regions1 including not only the ,lapps1 ,samoyedes1 ,jakuts1 etc41 of ,europe and ,asia1 but also the ,esquimaux and ,indians of ,arctic ,america4--,pall ,mall ,gazette4 ,,scott',s ,,fishing-,,book4 ,fishing in ,american ,waters4 ,by ,,genio ,c4 ,,scott4 #agj ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,contains a vast amount of information concerning the sea and fresh-water fishes of our ,american waters1 the various methods of capturing them1 the tackle to be employed1 etc4 ,important in respect of fish-culture4 ,this book1 like the author of it1 is eminently practical1 and every angler ought to have it4 ,we doubt whether there is another man in ,america capable of writing and illustrating1 as ,mr4 ,scott has done1 such a book as this4--,spirit of the ,times4 ,the author is a skillful votary of the fascinating art1 to which he has given many years of successful practice1 not only with an unusual knowledge of the subject1 but with a keen sense of its manifold enjoyments4 99 99 99 ,describes the principal varieties of the ,american salt and fresh water fishes1 offers minute directions for the most feasible methods of capture1 and enlivens his statements by relations of personal adventures in many waters1 and picturesque descriptions of nature4--,n4 ,y4 ,tribune4 ,the book has certainly been got up with painstaking care and a devoted love of the subject1 and it unquestionably contains a vast mass of valuable information and innumerable useful directions4--,n4 ,y4 ,citizen4 ,,upham',s ,,mental ,,philosophy4 ,mental ,philosophy2 embracing the ,three ,departments of the ,intellect1 ,sensibilities1 and ,will4 ,by ,,thomas ,c4 ,,upham1 ,d4,d41 ,professor of ,mental and ,moral ,philosophy in ,bowdoin ,college4 ,in ,two ,volumes4 ,vol4 ,i43 ,intellect1 ,language2 ,vol4 ,,ii43 ,sensibilities1 ,will4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #ge per volume4 ,,harper',s ,,hand-,,book ,,of ,,foreign ,,travel4 ,harper's ,hand-,book for ,travellers in ,europe and the ,east4 ,being a ,guide through ,france1 ,belgium1 ,holland1 ,germany1 ,austria1 ,italy1 ,egypt1 ,syria1 ,turkey1 ,greece1 ,switzerland1 ,tyrol1 ,russia1 ,denmark1 ,sweden1 ,spain1 and ,great ,britain and ,ireland4 ,with a ,railroad ,map corrected up to #ahfi4 ,by ,w4 ,,pembroke ,,fetridge4 ,revised ,edition3 ,eighth ,year4 ,large #abmo1 ,leather1 ,pocket-,book ,form1 #g #ej4 ,,harper',s ,,phrase-,,book2 or ,hand-,book of ,travel ,talk for ,travellers and ,schools4 ,being a ,guide to ,conversations in ,english1 ,french1 ,german1 and ,italian1 on a ,new and ,improved ,method4 ,intended to accompany 8,harper's ,hand-,book for ,travellers40 ,by ,w4 ,,pembroke ,,fetridge4 ,assisted by ,professors of ,heidelberg ,university4 ,with concise and explicit ,rules for the ,pronunciation of the different ,languages4 ,square #afmo1 ,flexible ,cloth1 #a #ej4 ,,wallace',s ,,malay ,,archipelago4 ,the ,malay ,archipelago3 ,the ,land of the ,orang-,utan and the ,bird of ,paradise4 ,a ,narrative of ,travel4 #ahed-ahfb4 ,with ,studies of ,man and ,nature4 ,by ,,alfred ,,russel ,,wallace4 ,with ,ten ,maps and ,fifty-one ,elegant ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,mr4 ,wallace's style is as charming as ,darwin's1 and greater praise it could not have4 ,his scientific observations are as interesting as other people's adventures3 he is a truly intelligent writer--one who has the power to interest others in his pursuits1 investigations1 and speculations4 ,those who have read ,mr4 ,darwin's 8,voyage of a ,naturalist10 a book too little known1 will find in this a companion volume as absorbingly interesting and as clear and instructive as that4--,n4 ,y4 ,evening ,post4 ,in short1 no book of travels1 adventure1 and observations of our time can be pronounced superior to this1 in which ,mr4 ,wallace gives an accurate account of that rich and wonderful part of the globe1 the great and lavishly-endowed ,malay ,archipelago1 and which the ,american publishers have reproduced in admirable style4--,boston ,traveller4 ,a vivid picture of tropical life1 which may be read with unflagging interest1 and a sufficient account of his scientific conclusions to stimulate our appetite without wearying us by detail4 ,in short1 we may safely say that we have seldom read a more agreeable book of its kind4--,saturday ,review4 ,,abbott',s ,,new ,,testament ,,truths4 ,old ,testament ,shadows of ,new ,testament ,truths4 ,by ,,lyman ,,abbott1 ,author of 8,jesus of ,nazareth1 his ,life and ,teachings10 c4 ,elegantly ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth4 7,nearly ,ready47 ,,abbott',s ,,joseph ,,bonaparte4 ,the ,history of ,joseph ,bonaparte1 ,king of ,naples and of ,italy4 ,by ,,john ,s4 ,c4 ,,abbott1 ,author of 8,the ,history of ,napoleon ,bonaparte10 8,the ,french ,revolution10 c4 #afmo1 ,cloth1 #a #bj4 ,uniform with ,,abbotts' ,,illustrated ,,histories4 ,by ,,jacob ,,abbott and ,,john ,s4 ,c4 ,,abbott4 #afmo1 ,cloth1 #a #bj per ,volume4 ,cyrus the ,great1 ,darius the ,great1 ,xerxes1 ,alexander the ,great1 ,romulus1 ,hannibal1 ,pyrrhus1 ,julius ,csar1 ,cleopatra1 ,nero1 ,alfred the ,great1 ,william the ,conqueror1 ,richard ,i41 ,richard ,,ii41 ,richard ,,iii41 ,mary ,queen of ,scots1 ,queen ,elizabeth1 ,charles ,i41 ,charles ,,ii41 ,josephine1 ,maria ,antoinette1 ,madame ,roland1 ,henry ,,iv41 ,peter the ,great1 ,genghis ,khan1 ,king ,philip1 ,hernando ,cortez1 ,margaret of ,anjou4 ,,loomis',s ,,astronomy4 ,elements of ,astronomy4 ,designed for ,academies and ,high ,schools4 ,by ,,elias ,,loomis1 ,,ll4,d41 ,professor of ,natural ,philosophy and ,astronomy in ,yale ,college1 and ,author of a 8,course of ,mathematics40 #abmo1 ,sheep1 #a #ej4 ,we took up ,prof4 ,loomis's ,elements of ,astronomy1 confident that we should here find1 brought within the comprehension of unscientific minds1 the higher truths of a science whose grandeur is lost to the common people by the technicalities in which it is enshrined4 ,we have not been disappointed4 ,we know of no treatise on ,astronomy to which we should turn for an explanation of any of its elementary principles with such confident assurance of receiving real satisfaction1 and none which we should so soon place in the hands of a young person who desired an introduction to this study4--,new ,monthly ,magazine4 ,,nevius',s ,,china4 ,china and the ,chinese3 a ,general ,description of the ,country and its ,inhabitants2 its ,civilization and ,form of ,government2 its ,religious and ,social ,institutions2 its ,intercourse with other ,nations2 and its ,present ,condition and ,prospects4 ,by the ,rev4 ,,john ,l4 ,,nevius1 ,ten ,years a ,missionary in ,china4 ,with a ,map and ,illustrations4 l#bmo1 ,cloth1 #a #ge4 ,the great merit of the book seems to be that it undertakes to tell1 in a plain and practical manner1 those main things which intelligent people desire to learn about ,china1 its people1 life1 customs1 religions1 etc41 and does it without encumbering itself with overmuch of detail or profundity4 ,reading it is much like having a series of talks with a ,chinaman who is able freely to answer all those questions which a curious ,yankee is prompted to ask about his nation1 and who does so4 ,we incline to think it the best book yet published in our language for giving a general description of ,china and its people1 without being overburdened in any direction with details4--,congregationalist4 ,when ,mr4 ,nevius tells us about the fashions1 the ways of talking1 shopping1 teaching1 trading1 praying1 eating1 marrying1 burying1 gambling1 reading1 writing1 which he saw among them1 he makes the scenes life-life2 the interests treated he makes altogether human3 and so he leads us on in a path almost as entertaining as a journey of our own4--,n4 ,y4 ,evening ,post4 ,,roosevelt',s ,,five ,,acres ,,too ,,much4 ,five ,acres ,too ,much4 ,a ,truthful ,elucidation of the ,attractions of the ,country1 and a ,careful ,consideration of the ,question of ,profit and ,loss as involved in ,amateur ,farming1 with much ,valuable ,advice and ,instruction to those about ,purchasing ,large or ,small ,places in the ,rural ,districts4 ,by ,,robert ,b4 ,,roosevelt1 ,author of 8,game ,fish of ,north ,america10 8,superior ,fishing10 8,game ,birds10 c4 ,with ,characteristic ,illustrations4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #ej4 ,one of the pleasantest bits of satire we have read for some time4 ,the author has written the book for the purpose of having a good-humored fling at the writers of works which profess to show how1 out of half a dozen acres of land any where1 the veriest novice can make splendid profit and good time as a practical farmer4 ,so ,mr4 ,roosevelt tells us how1 fired with the noble inspiration these books suggest1 he got his five acres1 built his house1 bought his horse1 cows1 pigs1 and poultry1 and went to work to convert himself into a successful agriculturist4 ,his experiences are very droll1 and the financial results he arrives at highly ingenious and satisfactory4 ,there is not too much extravagance in the book--just enough to make one laugh1 not enough to convert the mirth into broad farce and grotesquerie4--,independent4 ,an injunction should be put upon the sale of this book1 for we consider it a dangerous thing to be let loose upon the community4 ,this opinion is formed from its effect upon ourselves4 ,though progressive in most matters1 we have some old fogy notions about books1 and one of these is to read them before noticing them4 ,we read 8,five ,acres ,too ,much10 and when we laid it down felt as lame and sore as if we had done a hard day's work at mowing or rowing4 ,is a book which makes one laugh until he cries1 laugh until he is tired and can not laugh any more1 a safe thing8 ,we call the attention of the ,board of ,health to the ,harpers1 and give ours to the book4 ,it is the story of a city lawyer who went to the country to farm it on five acres1 and contains an account of the blunders of a novice4 ,there is a perfect breeze of fun through the whole1 not boisterous fun1 but charming and irresistible1 and it is marked by a genial appreciation of the ludicrous4 ,we have not for a long time been so thorougly amused as in reading this book1 and laughed none the less at the gentle digs he gives us as editors in general1 and of the ,agriculturist in particular4--,american ,agriculturist4 ,,bourne',s ,,london ,,merchants4 ,famous ,london ,merchants4 ,a ,book for ,boys4 ,by ,h4 ,r4 ,,fox ,,bourne4 ,with ,portrait of ,george ,peabody and #bd ,illustrations1 #afmo1 ,cloth1 #a #jj4 ,tells pleasantly1 and with much casual information about commerce and foreign countries1 the story of the lives of thirteen ,london merchants1 from famous ,dick ,whittington to our honored countryman1 ,george ,peabody4 ,most of them were self-made men1 and surely no better incentives to a proper ambition can be placed before boys than these simple stories of real and honored lives4 ,it is a book1 too1 which boys will seize upon gladly1 since it allows the subjects to speak for themselves1 and attempts no moralizing4 ,we know of no book which a father could better buy for his boys4--,n4 ,y4 ,evening ,mail4 ,,guiccioli',s ,,recollections ,,of ,,lord ,,byron4 ,my ,recollections of ,lord ,byron3 and those of ,eye-,witnesses of his ,life4 ,by the ,,countess ,,guiccioli4 ,translated by ,,hubert ,e4 ,h4 ,,jerningham4 ,portrait1 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #ge4 ,this book is of great value2 for it collects the various opinions of ,lord ,byron's biographers1 presents them at one glance1 illustrates them by the letters and journal of the poet himself1 and subjects them to a final criticism4--,pall ,mall ,gazette4 ,,flagg',s ,,european ,,vineyards4 ,three ,seasons in ,european ,vineyards4 ,treating of ,vine-,culture2 ,vine ,disease and its ,cure2 ,wine-,making and ,wines1 ,red and ,white2 ,wine-,drinking1 as affecting ,health and ,morals4 ,by ,,william ,j4 ,,flagg4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #ej4 ,a pleasant1 gossipy book of travels through those portions of ,france rarely visited by tourists1 with fresh pictures1 touches of historical lore1 glimpses of ancient chateaux buried in trees1 of the queer characters one meets with in a diligence1 of rural amusements1 of firesides in the inn kitchens1 of quaint customs and odd sayings1 and all related in a simple and natural way1 with here and there a touch of humor1 must always be acceptable to the general reader4 ,he holds the book lightly in his hand1 as if he could lay it down at any moment2 but he does not lay it down--a smile lingers on his lips1 and he enjoys it to the last page4 99 99 99 ,such a book is the one now before us1 and if this were its only merit1 we should say no more4 ,but interwoven with the narrative of travel are some suggestions1 hints1 and thoughts drawn from acute observation1 which enhance the value of the book ten--or rather ten times ten--fold4 ,his theme is1 ,vine-,culture in ,europe4 ,his object is to use the long experience of the old world in this branch of science for the promotion of ,vine-,culture in ,america4 ,thus1 like a true master1 he makes his narrative pleasant to attract readers1 his description of ,vine-,culture in ,europe minute1 accurate1 and valuable2 and the application of his suggestions to our own methods of this growing branch of home industry he leaves to the sagacity of the reader to use or to improve upon4 99 99 99 ,there is probably no person better qualified in this country to write upon this subject4--,evening ,post4 ,besides being a summary of useful information concerning the produce of the grape1 the present book contains an extremely pleasant sketch of travel1 interspersed with reflections of much interest and observations of considerable originality1 affording a picture of a certain phase of ,french life unknown and unseen by ordinary tourists4 ,it is full of that kind of entertaining reading which ,sir ,philip ,sidney styles 8trifles triflingly handled20 and congenial fancy kindles over descriptions of the beautiful scenery1 the oddities of local customs1 the luxurious vineyards1 the genial atmosphere1 8the incense of fruitful summer1 the incense of fruit-time10 the village feasts and pastimes1 and1 rarest of all1 the happy peasantry1 not yet rendered unhappy by demagogues and visionaries4--,round ,table4 ,a livelier1 racier1 more entertaining volume on a practical subject has not yet been written4 ,mr4 ,flagg shows such a hearty delight in his subject that the most indifferent reader can not escape the infection2 while all his willful1 irrepressible play of humor1 his flashes of personal tastes and prejudices1 his occasional misconceptions of character and customs1 leave untouched the sharp1 clear perception1 and shrewd common-sense which form the staple of the book4--,n4 ,y4 ,tribune4 ,,whymper',s ,,alaska4 ,travel and ,adventure in the ,territory of ,alaska1 formerly ,russian ,america1 now ,ceded to the ,united ,states--and in various other ,parts of the ,north ,pacific4 ,by ,,frederick ,,whymper4 ,map and ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #ej4 ,this agreeable book of travel and adventure4 99 99 99 ,the purchase of ,alaska by the ,united ,states ,government has awakened a lively interest in that region2 and whatever relates to its natural features1 its inhabitants1 its existing state1 and its possible resources1 comes to us with the two-fold charm of novelty and material interest4 ,mr4 ,whymper was able to take with him the requisite qualifications for breaking ground in that new and1 in many respects1 rough and uncivilized quarter1 as the results of his exploration in the clearly-written and cleverly-illustrated volume before us testify4 99 99 99 ,all that is most original and striking in his narrative centres in his experiences of life in the lately-ceded territory1 and in the estimate which his graphic pictures of its physical aspects and of its people encourage us to draw for the future4--,saturday ,review4 ,,the ,,students ,,old ,,testament ,,history4 ,the ,old ,testament ,history4 ,from the ,creation to the ,return of the ,jews from ,captivity4 ,edited by ,,wm4 ,,smith1 ,,ll4,d4 ,with ,maps and ,woodcuts4 ,large #abmo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj4 7,uniform with the ,student's ,new ,testament ,history47 ,the history of the ,jews is here told in a better manner than in any other work of the same size1 and all the results of the deep and accurate inquiries into that history are incorporated with the narrative4 ,it is1 indeed1 a popular1 though grave and learned commentary on the ,old ,testament1 a commentary taking the form of regular historical writing1 and written with force and clearness4--,boston ,traveller4 ,in the preparation of the text it is evident that great care has been taken to render the work one that1 while reverent and recognizing the sanctity and claims of ,revelation1 should be suitable for the characteristic criticism and exegesis of the age4 ,it is an excellent condensation of nearly all the valuable matter that criticism1 historical1 ethnographical1 topographical1 and chronological investigations have accumulated round the ,old ,testament ,word of ,god4--,presbyterian 7,chicago74 ,,the ,,student',s ,,new ,,testament ,,history4 ,the ,new ,testament ,history4 ,with an ,introduction1 connecting the ,history of the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 ,edited by ,,william ,,smith1 ,,ll4,d41 ,classical ,examiner in the ,university of ,london4 ,with ,maps and ,woodcuts4 ,large #abmo1 #ghj pages1 ,cloth1 #b #jj4 ,a valuable and cheap compendium of accurate information drawn from the most recent results of scholarship4--,advance4 ,those who have read the ,new ,testament only in a desultory fashion1 or in the disorderly method in which it is arranged in our version1 will find a new light cast upon it by the study of the ,book in its chronological order1 and with such helps as ,dr4 ,smith has here presented4--,american ,presbyterian 7,philadelphia74 ,sabbath-school teachers1 and the more advanced pupils of ,sabbath-schools1 as well as intelligent private students of the ,scriptures1 will find this a helpful and remunerative volume4--,congregationalist4 ,,halpine',s ,,poems4 7,,miles ,o',,reilly47 ,the ,poetical ,works of ,,charles ,g4 ,,halpine 7,miles ,o',reilly74 ,consisting of ,odes1 ,poems1 ,sonnets1 ,epics1 and ,lyrical ,effusions which have not heretofore been collected together4 ,with a ,biographical ,sketch and ,explanatory ,notes4 ,edited by ,,robert ,b4 ,,roosevelt4 ,portrait on ,steel4 ,crown #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #ej4 ,his poetry will not be soon neglected or forgotten4 ,there is a charm about his verses which must make them ever welcome4 ,tenderness1 sentiment1 and humor abound in them2 the absence of malice or bitterness is characteristic of the writer's whole-souled nature4 99 99 99 ,few can read the poems without pleasure--none can read them without interest4--,n4 ,y4 ,herald4 ,,mrs4 ,,hale',s ,,woman',s ,,record2 or1 ,biographical ,sketches of all ,distinguished ,women1 from the ,creation to the ,present ,time4 ,arranged in ,four ,eras1 with ,selections from ,female ,writers of each ,era4 ,by ,mrs4 ,s4 ,j4 ,,hale4 ,illustrated with more than #bjj ,portraits1 engraved by ,benson ,j4 ,lossing4 ,a ,new ,edition1 with ,additions4 #hvo1 ,cloth4 7,nearly ,ready47 ,,haydn',s ,,dictionary ,,of ,,dates1 relating to all ,ages and ,nations4 ,for ,universal ,reference4 ,edited by ,,benjamin ,,vincent1 ,assistant ,secretary and ,keeper of the ,library of the ,royal ,institution of ,great ,britain2 and ,revised for the ,use of ,american ,readers4 #hvo1 ,cloth4 7,nearly ,ready47 ,,haven',s ,,rhetoric4 ,rhetoric3 a ,text-,book1 designed for ,use in ,schools and ,colleges1 and for ,private ,study4 ,by ,rev4 ,e4 ,o4 ,,haven1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,president of the ,northwestern ,university1 ,evanston1 and late ,president of ,michigan ,university1 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #ej4 ,i welcome the book heartily1 and shall adopt it in my classes here4 ,dr4 ,haven seems to me to have aimed to produce a useful book rather than a showy one4 ,too many who deal with the subject are only theoretical rhetoricians3 on every page of ,dr4 ,haven's book ,i find the good effects of his being also a practical rhetorician4 ,hitting the happy mean between the excess and the total rejection of the old technical phraseology1 he has given to us a series of just such sensible1 suggestive1 and helpful talks about writing and speaking the ,english language as one would expect from a man of his great experience as a speaker1 writer1 and teacher4 ,this1 after all1 is precisely what ,american students need4 ,upon the whole1 the book has these great merits3 it is a growth1 and not a manufacture2 it is fresh1 sincere1 lively1 clear1 practical2 finally1 instead of being1 like so many text-books on this subject1 dry and deadening1 it will prove throughout positively interesting to the student--it will stimulate1 cheer1 and guide him4--,,moses ,,coit ,,taylor1 ,m4,a41 ,professor of ,rhetoric and ,english ,literature1 ,university of ,michigan4 ,concise1 direct1 lucid1 and arranged in a natural order of topics4--,advance4 ,this book1 by ,president ,haven1 had its growth in a class-room4 ,this accounts for its character1 which is decidedly practical4 ,it is no high-flying treatise or deeply-profound discussion on this subject of rhetoric4 ,it is plain and concise1 and every way a good statement of those principles and rules which must be observed in order to a correct and happy expression of one's thoughts and feelings4--,watchman and ,reflector4 ,i have carefully read 8,haven's ,rhetoric40 ,it is a good elementary book1 and has the merit of presenting many new illustrations instead of the hackneyed quotations usually found in compilations4--,,wm4 ,,preston ,,johnston1 ,professor of ,history and ,english ,literature1 ,washington ,college1 ,va4 ,,wood',s ,,wedding ,,day ,,in ,,all ,,ages4 ,the ,wedding ,day in all ,ages and ,countries4 ,by ,,edward ,j4 ,,wood1 ,author of 8,the ,curiosities of ,clocks and ,watches from the ,earliest ,times10 and 8,giants and ,dwarfs40 l#bmo1 ,cloth1 #a #be4 ,one of the most curious books we have seen for a long time4 ,it is packed full of facts4 ,beginning with the institution of marriage1 the author successively treats of all the strange and picturesque customs by which different peoples have given character and interest to the marriage ceremony4 ,the past has been ransacked1 and the present investigated4 ,history1 poetry1 philosophy1 archology1 have all been drawn upon1 and the result is one of the most entertaining books we have seen for a long time4--,n4 ,y4 ,commercial ,advertiser4 ,a compilation of historical facts relating to the marriage ceremony as it has been conducted in ancient and modern times among all the peoples of the earth4 ,a great deal of antiquarian research has been expended upon it1 and the curious reader will find the topics of the wedding ring1 the marriage bells1 the bridal cake1 flinging the old shoe1 etc41 etc41 fully treated by the author4--,n4 ,y4 ,evening ,post4 ,,march',s ,,parser ,,and ,,analyzer4 ,a ,parser and ,analyzer for ,beginners1 with ,diagrams and ,suggestive ,pictures4 ,by ,,francis ,a4 ,,march1 ,professor of the ,english ,language and ,comparative ,philology in ,lafayette ,college1 ,author of 8,method of ,philological ,study of the ,english ,language10 8,comparative ,grammar of the ,anglo-,saxon ,language10 c4 #afmo1 ,flexible ,cloth1 #dj cents4 ,the volume is small1 but compact and serviceable4 ,its design is to introduce beginners to the laws of the ,english ,language by appealing directly to their rational powers1 and as little as possible to memory4 ,it abolishes mere recitation1 and makes the work of learning more nearly recreative than any attempt yet brought to our notice4 ,the teacher can easily perceive its scope and purpose4 ,it will not relieve him of care1 but will so change his duty that1 instead of sitting and hearing tasks1 he will be called upon to stimulate and guide development4 ,the work unites the pupil and teacher in their theme1 and the processes of teaching and learning take an identity which does away with estrangement and begets naturalness4 ,it combines all the benefits of object-teaching1 by fullness of illustration1 with that active inquiry common to youth when matters touching history1 biography1 geography1 or every-day occurrences are suggested4 ,it is more and more seen that the duty of education is to bring the pupil into direct relation with things1 that he may reflect or exercise judgment upon them4 ,the lessons or suggestions in this work are so arranged as to keep as nearly as possible an even pace with healthful development4 99 99 99 ,a look into it will prove almost as profitable as a glance at nature4 ,they can learn without memorizing to a harmful extent1 and what they learn will not be forgotten4 ,we commend the work to general attention upon its merits4 ,its author is one of the first philologists in the land1 and no man has a keener appreciation of our language1 or understands better the true methods of introducing the young mind to its beauties4--,philadelphia ,press4 ,beginning with the definitions of simple nouns1 the lessons ascend by easy stages to the highest form of grammatical construction4 ,the diagram analysis and illustrations are admirable aids to the student in the lessons1 impressing them upon the mind4--,n4 ,y4 ,herald4 ,,barnes',s ,,notes ,,on ,,the ,,psalms4 ,notes1 ,critical1 ,explanatory1 and ,practical1 on the ,book of ,psalms4 ,by ,,albert ,,barnes1 ,author of 8,notes on the ,new ,testament10 8,lectures on the ,evidences of ,christianity10 c4 ,three ,volumes4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #ej per volume4 99 99 99 ,there is the same blending of the critical and the practical1 with constant expression of devout feelings and sentiments1 which1 in a work on the ,psalms1 is peculiarly congruous with the book which ,mr4 ,barnes is interpreting4--,presbyterian 7,philadelphia74 ,these ,notes on the ,psalms are characterized by the excellences which made ,mr4 ,barnes's earlier expository works so eminently successful4--,american ,presbyterian4 ,,baldwin',s ,,pre-,,historic ,,nations4 ,pre-,historic ,nations2 or1 ,inquiries concerning some of the ,great ,peoples and ,civilizations of ,antiquity1 and their ,probable ,relation to a still ,older ,civilization of the ,ethiopians or ,cushites of ,arabia4 ,by ,,john ,d4 ,,baldwin1 ,member of the ,american ,oriental ,society4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #ge4 ,mr4 ,baldwin has treated an interesting subject with great lucidity and breadth1 while his reading and research are apparent on every page4--,examiner and ,london ,review4 ,both instructive and suggestive4--,nation4 ,,sights ,,and ,,sensations in ,france1 ,germany1 and ,switzerland2 or1 ,experiences of an ,american ,journalist in ,europe4 ,by ,,edward ,,gould ,,buffum1 ,author of 8,six ,months in the ,gold ,mines10 c4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #ej4 99 99 99 ,a book at once entertaining and instructive4 99 99 99 ,fashionable tourists who are leaving this port for a trip to ,europe will find ,mr4 ,buffum's 8,sights and ,sensations in ,france1 ,germany1 and ,switzerland0 a delightful and serviceable traveling companion4 ,at the same time the thousands who are to spend the summer at home1 either in town1 in the country1 or on the sea-shore1 may1 by the help of this little book1 enjoy many of the pleasures of foreign travel while they escape its annoyances4 99 99 99 ,it will doubtless be more heartily welcomed by the public than any similar work which has appeared4--,n4 ,y4 ,herald4 ,a refreshing and entertaining book1 which will interest every body4--,n4 ,y4 ,evening ,mail4 ,mr4 ,buffum's style is remarkably good and graphic1 and his descriptions of the scenes he has witnessed are among the best we have seen--so simple1 animated1 and to the point4 ,he seems to have had a genius for observation and the happy management of facts1 and every thing he sees is distinctly seen by the reader as well4--,n4 ,y4 ,times4 ,it differs from the common run of books of modern travel by looking at life from a more practical--it might be said1 literal--side1 and by describing things not often touched in a sparkling and instructive way4--,conpregationalist4 ,it is one's self walking about1 as it were1 and saying these things in his own ears with unexpected and most admired cleverness4 ,the story of the ,mont ,cenis ,tunnel is quite the best description of that incredible miracle which has fallen under our observation4 ,baden-,baden and ,homburg seem as familiar to us1 on this bright traveler's introduction1 as ,long ,branch or ,rockaway1 and much more interesting4--,n4 ,y4 ,tribune4 ,,motley',s ,,dutch ,,republic4 ,the ,rise of the ,dutch ,republic4 ,a ,history4 ,by ,,john ,,lothrop ,,motley1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,with a ,portrait of ,william of ,orange4 ,new ,edition4 #c vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #aj #ej4 ,,motley',s ,,united ,,netherlands4 ,history of the ,united ,netherlands3 from the ,death of ,william the ,silent to the ,twelve ,years' ,truce--#afji4 ,with a full ,view of the ,english-,dutch ,struggle against ,spain1 and of the ,origin and ,destruction of the ,spanish ,armada4 ,by ,,john ,,lothrop ,,motley1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,new ,edition4 #d vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #ad #jj4 ,,greenwood',s ,,seven ,,curses ,,of ,,london4 ,the ,seven ,curses of ,london4 ,by ,,james ,,greenwood1 the 8,amateur ,casual10 ,author of 8,the ,true ,history of a ,little ,ragamuffin10 8,reuben ,davidger10 8,wild ,sports of the ,world10 c4 #hvo1 ,paper1 #be cents4 ,james ,greenwood1 the 8,amateur ,casual10 whose revelations of 8,a ,night in a ,workhouse0 created so much excitement in ,england two or three years since1 in 8,the ,seven ,curses of ,london0 discloses many startling facts concerning the social life of the lower classes4 ,the seven curses treated of by the author are3 ,i4 ,neglected ,children2 ,,ii4 ,professional ,thieves2 ,,iii4 ,professional ,beggars2 ,,iv4 ,fallen ,women2 ,v4 ,the ,curse of ,drunkenness2 ,,vi4 ,betting ,gamblers2 ,,vii4 ,waste of ,charity4 ,,abbott',s ,,life ,,of ,,christ4 ,jesus of ,nazareth3 his ,life and ,teachings2 founded on the ,four ,gospels1 and ,illustrated by ,reference to the ,manners1 ,customs1 ,religious ,beliefs1 and ,political ,institutions of his ,times4 ,by ,,lyman ,,abbott4 ,with ,designs by ,dor1 ,de ,laroche1 ,fenn1 and others4 ,crown #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,beveled ,edges1 #c #ej4 ,this is remarkable for its valuable endeavors1 first to prepare the way for the intelligent comprehension of the life of the ,redeemer1 by four preliminary chapters1 which discuss3 7#a7 the peculiarities1 physical and otherwise1 of the ,holy ,land itself2 7#b7 the ,jewish ,commonwealth1 its religious sanctions and moral precepts1 its judicial peculiarities1 its measure of popular education1 its political economy1 its national ,church1 and its ,scriptures2 7#c7 the decay of that ,commonwealth1 the captivity1 and the ,roman subjugation2 7#d7 the civilization of the ,jews1 and the whole manner of their dress1 food1 manners1 pursuits1 and daily life4 ,the way thus being prepared1 and the background painted in1 the ,christ is outlined and then colored upon it1 from ,bethlehem to ,calvary4 ,second1 for the extremely fresh and interesting way in which the events of ,christ's life are told4 ,and third1 for the temper of the book1 which is unaffectedly written from the ,christian stand-point1 as ,renan's was from that of rationalism4--,congregationalist4 ,the simplicity of the plan specially pleases me4 ,yet you really accomplish1 in its execution1 more than ,i find in some other lives of ,christ which make a good deal more pretension4 ,you have hit upon a very valuable combination of ,biblical resources with researches in related fields4 ,it is a real pleasure to be able to turn to a life of ,christ which stimulates thought and refreshes the heart4--,prof4 ,,austin ,,phelps1 of ,andover4 ,,beecher',s 7,,henry ,,ward7 ,,sermons4 ,sermons by ,,henry ,,ward ,,beecher1 ,plymouth ,church1 ,brooklyn4 ,selected from ,published and ,unpublished ,discourses1 and ,revised by their ,author4 ,in two ,volumes1 with ,steel ,portrait by ,halpin4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 ,the published sermons of the ,plymouth pastor1 like wind-wafted seed1 have carried the germs of a new life to all quarters of the world1 and have awakened the immortal longings of the hunter in his prairie cabin1 and the sailor on the distant sea4 ,no one needs that we should speak of the exuberance of illustration and the felicity of expression that make these books as fascinating as the pages of old ,thomas ,fuller or the essays of 8,elia40 ,every body has come under the glamour of ,mr4 ,beecher's style1 and every one of these pages abounds in his peculiar beauties4 ,here is no garden1 but 7according to the author's own lavish idea of the desirable7 a whole prairie of flowers4--,n4 ,y4 ,times4 ,judged as the free utterance of a great and loving heart1 as the spontaneous appeals of a powerful1 emotional man1 striving with all his strength to lift his hearers from the dominion of sin and sorrow to the highest and noblest plane of human feeling and action1 their wisdom and healthful influence will be appreciated3 while their usefulness will be increased by the fact that to so many readers the written word will be vivified by the recollection of the ringing voice1 the vehement action1 and the vast amount of magnetic energy which lies enchained and inspired within the auditorium of ,plymouth ,church4--,n4 ,y4 ,evening ,post4 ,,yonge',s ,,english-,,greek ,,lexicon3 ,containing all the ,greek ,words used by ,writers of good ,authority1 in ,chronological ,order1 for every ,word used2 explaining the ,construction1 and giving the ,declension or ,conjugation of each ,word when ,irregular1 and marking the ,quantities of all ,doubtful ,syllables4 ,edited1 with large ,additions1 by ,,henry ,,drisler1 ,,ll4,d41 ,professor of ,latin in ,columbia ,college1 ,n4 ,y4 ,royal #hvo1 ,sheep extra4 7,in ,press47 ,,romance ,,of ,,spanish ,,history4 ,by ,,john ,s4 ,c4 ,,abbott1 ,author of 8,the ,french ,revolution10 8,the ,history of ,napoleon ,bonaparte10 c4 ,with ,illustrations4 #abmo1 ,cloth4 7,in ,press47 ,,sands',s ,,philosophy ,,of ,,teaching4 ,the ,teacher1 the ,pupil1 the ,school4 ,by ,,nathaniel ,,sands4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #a #jj4 ,a thoughtful book on a subject of the highest importance4-- ,worcester ,spy4 ,there are many excellent suggestions in this little treatise of ,mr4 ,sands1 who has evidently given much thought to the philosophy and the process of education4 ,he would have a radical change in the system of teaching1 by which there shall be less stuffing and more feeding2 fewer books1 and more of the living instructor's effort4 ,it is a small volume1 but compact with thought4--,new ,bedford ,mercury4 99 99 99 ,contains many valuable suggestions deserving of earnest consideration by parents and teachers4 ,the work of the teacher is a high1 honorable1 and important one4 ,education is essential to the stability of our institutions and the success of our industries4 ,mr4 ,sands would develop1 not cram the intellect2 he would furnish the nutriment necessary to the natural growth of the mind1 not retard it by a forcing process4 ,he would place before the scholar the aliment of everyday life4 ,he would teach him practical science and useful art4 ,he would open before him the beauties of the world1 and show him the laws of growth every where4 ,we are told now that dead languages are necessary to the discipline of the mind1 and so we go back among the catacombs and study the laws of speech of the ancient departed4 ,these laws are necessary4 ,linguistic science is one of the most valuable in the world4 ,but why should it be made the basis of educational systems8 ,it is time that scientific training should be awarded the high place which of right belongs to it in mental culture1 and that linguistic lore should be left to its proper sphere1 as the foundation simply of the knowledge of language and the relations of nations4--,albany ,evening ,journal4 ,,dixon',s ,,her ,,majesty',s ,,tower4 ,her ,majesty's ,tower4 ,historic ,studies in the ,tower of ,london4 ,with ,frontispiece ,plan of the ,tower4 ,by ,,wm4 ,,hepworth ,,dixon4 l#bmo1 ,cloth1 #fj cents4 ,a valuable and attractive addition to our historical literature3 one which1 from the nature of its materials and its bright and vivid method of treatment1 is certain to interest as well as to instruct the reader4--,london ,review4 ,from first to last1 this volume overflows with new information and original thought1 with poetry and picture4 ,in these fascinating pages ,mr4 ,dixon discharges alternately the functions of the historian and the historic biographer1 with the insight1 art1 humor1 and accurate knowledge which never fail him4--,morning ,post4 ,,thomson',s 7,w4 ,m47 ,,land ,,and ,,book4 ,the ,land and the ,book2 or1 ,biblical ,illustrations drawn from the ,manners and ,customs1 the ,scenes and the ,scenery of the ,holy ,land4 ,by ,w4 ,m4 ,,thomson1 ,d4,d41 ,twenty-five ,years a ,missionary of the ,a4,b4,c4,f4,m4 in ,syria and ,palestine4 ,with two elaborate ,maps of ,palestine1 an accurate ,plan of ,jerusalem1 and several ,hundred ,engravings1 representing the ,scenery1 ,topography1 and ,productions of the ,holy ,land1 and the ,costumes1 ,manners1 and ,habits of the ,people4 ,two elegant ,large l#bmo ,volumes1 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 7,new ,edition1 just ,ready47 ,,valuable ,,standard ,,works ,,for ,,public ,,and ,,private ,,libraries1 ,,published ,,by ,,harper ,,brothers1 ,,new ,,york4 ,for a full ,list of ,books suitable for ,libraries1 see ,,harper ,,brothers' ,,trade-,,list and ,,catalogue1 which may be had gratuitously on application to the ,publishers personally1 or by letter enclosing ,five ,cents4 ,,harper ,,brothers will send any of the following works by mail1 postage prepaid1 to any part of the ,united ,states1 on receipt of the price4 ,,motley',s ,,dutch ,,republic4 ,the ,rise of the ,dutch ,republic4 ,a ,history4 ,by ,,john ,,lothrop ,,motley1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,with a ,portrait of ,william of ,orange4 #c vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #aj #ej4 ,,motley',s ,,united ,,netherlands4 ,history of the ,united ,netherlands3 from the ,death of ,william the ,silent to the ,twelve ,years' ,truce--#afji4 ,with a full ,view of the ,english-,dutch ,struggle against ,spain1 and of the ,origin and ,destruction of the ,spanish ,armada4 ,by ,,john ,,lothrop ,,motley1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l41 ,author of 8,the ,rise of the ,dutch ,republic40 ,portraits4 #d vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #ad #jj4 ,,abbott',s ,,life ,,of ,,christ4 ,jesus of ,nazareth3 his ,life and ,teachings2 ,founded on the ,four ,gospels1 and ,illustrated by ,reference to the ,manners1 ,customs1 ,religious ,beliefs1 and ,political ,institutions of his ,times4 ,by ,,lyman ,,abbott4 ,with ,designs by ,dor1 ,de ,laroche1 ,fenn1 and others4 ,crown #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,beveled ,edges1 #c #ej4 ,,napoleon',s ,,life ,,of ,c,,sar4 ,the ,history of ,julius ,csar4 ,by ,his ,imperial ,majesty ,,napoleon ,,iii4 ,volumes ,i4 and ,,ii4 now ready4 ,library ,edition1 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej per vol4 ,maps to ,vols4 ,i4 and ,,ii4 sold separately4 ,price #a #ej each1 ,,net4 ,,henry ,,ward ,,beecher',s ,,sermons4 ,sermons by ,,henry ,,ward ,,beecher1 ,plymouth ,church1 ,brooklyn4 ,selected from ,published and ,unpublished ,discourses1 and ,revised by their ,author4 ,with ,steel ,portrait by ,halpin4 ,complete in ,two ,vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 ,,lyman ,,beecher',s ,,autobiography1 c4 ,autobiography1 ,correspondence1 c41 of ,lyman ,beecher1 ,d4,d4 ,edited by his ,son1 ,,charles ,,beecher4 ,with ,three ,steel ,portraits1 and ,engravings on ,wood4 ,in ,two ,vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 ,,baldwin',s ,,pre-,,historic ,,nations4 ,pre-,historic ,nations2 or1 ,inquiries concerning some of the ,great ,peoples and ,civilizations of ,antiquity1 and their ,probable ,relation to a still ,older ,civilization of the ,ethiopians or ,cushites of ,arabia4 ,by ,,john ,d4 ,,baldwin1 ,member of the ,american ,oriental ,society4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #ge4 ,,whymper',s ,,alaska4 ,travel and ,adventure in the ,territory of ,alaska1 formerly ,russian ,america--now ,ceded to the ,united ,states--and in various other parts of the ,north ,pacific4 ,by ,,frederick ,,whymper4 ,with ,map and ,illustrations4 ,crown #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #ej4 ,,dilke',s ,,greater ,,britain4 ,greater ,britain3 a ,record of ,travel in ,english-speaking ,countries during #ahff and #ahfg4 ,by ,,charles ,,wentworth ,,dilke4 ,with ,maps and ,illustrations4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #jj4 ,,alford',s ,,greek ,,testament4 ,the ,greek ,testament3 with a critically-revised ,text2 a ,digest of ,various ,readings2 ,marginal ,references to ,verbal and ,idiomatic ,usage2 ,prolegomena2 and a ,critical and ,exegetical ,commentary4 ,for the ,use of ,theological ,students and ,ministers4 ,by ,,henry ,,alford1 ,d4,d41 ,dean of ,canterbury4 ,vol4 ,i41 containing the ,four ,gospels4 #idd pages1 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #f #jj2 ,sheep1 #f #ej4 ,,lossing',s ,,field-,,book ,,of ,,the ,,war ,,of #ahab4 ,pictorial ,field-,book of the ,war of #ahab2 or1 ,illustrations1 by ,pen and ,pencil1 of the ,history1 ,biography1 ,scenery1 ,relics1 and ,traditions of the ,last ,war for ,american ,independence4 ,by ,,benson ,j4 ,,lossing4 ,with several hundred ,engravings on ,wood1 by ,lossing and ,barritt1 chiefly from ,original ,sketches by the ,author4 #ajhh pages1 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #g #jj4 ,,lossing',s ,,field-,,book ,,of ,,the ,,revolution4 ,pictorial ,field-,book of the ,revolution2 or1 ,illustrations1 by ,pen and ,pencil1 of the ,history1 ,biography1 ,scenery1 ,relics1 and ,traditions of the ,war for ,independence4 ,by ,,benson ,j4 ,,lossing4 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #ad #jj2 ,sheep1 #ae #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #ah #jj2 ,full ,turkey ,morocco1 #bb #jj4 ,,white',s ,,massacre ,,of ,,st4 ,,bartholomew4 ,the ,massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew3 ,preceded by a ,history of the ,religious ,wars in the ,reign of ,charles ,,ix4 ,by ,,henry ,,white1 ,m4,a4 ,with ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #a #ge4 ,,smiles',s ,,self-,,help4 ,self-,help2 with ,illustrations of ,character and ,conduct4 ,by ,,samuel ,,smiles4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #be4 ,,smiles',s ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,huguenots4 ,the ,huguenots3 their ,settlements1 ,churches1 and ,industries in ,england and ,ireland4 ,by ,,samuel ,,smiles1 ,author of 8,self-,help10 c4 ,with an ,appendix relating to the ,huguenots in ,america4 ,crown #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,beveled1 #a #ge4 ,,abbott',s ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,revolution4 ,the ,french ,revolution of #aghi1 as viewed in the ,light of ,republican ,institutions4 ,by ,,john ,s4 ,c4 ,,abbott4 ,with #ajj ,engravings4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 ,,abbott',s ,,napoleon ,,bonaparte4 ,the ,history of ,napoleon ,bonaparte4 ,by ,,john ,s4 ,c4 ,,abbott4 ,with ,maps1 ,woodcuts1 and ,portraits on ,steel4 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #aj #jj4 ,,abbott',s ,,napoleon ,,at ,,st4 ,,helena2 or1 ,interesting ,anecdotes and ,remarkable ,conversations of the ,emperor during the ,five and a ,half ,years of his ,captivity4 ,collected from the ,memorials of ,las ,casas1 ,o',meara1 ,montholon1 ,antommarchi1 and others4 ,by ,,john ,s4 ,c4 ,,abbott4 ,with ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 ,,addison',s ,,complete ,,works4 ,the ,works of ,joseph ,addison1 embracing the whole of the 8,spectator40 ,complete in #c vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #f #jj4 ,,alcock',s ,,japan4 ,the ,capital of the ,tycoon3 a ,narrative of a ,three ,years' ,residence in ,japan4 ,by ,sir ,,rutherford ,,alcock1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,her ,majesty's ,envoy ,extraordinary and ,minister ,plenipotentiary in ,japan4 ,with ,maps and ,engravings4 #b vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,,alison',s ,,history ,,of ,,europe4 ,,first ,,series3 ,from the ,commencement of the ,french ,revolution1 in #aghi1 to the ,restoration of the ,bourbons1 in #ahae4 ,in addition to the ,notes on ,chapter ,,lxxvi41 which correct the errors of the original work concerning the ,united ,states1 a copious ,analytical ,index has been appended to this ,american edition4 ,,second ,,series3 ,from the ,fall of ,napoleon1 in #ahae1 to the ,accession of ,louis ,napoleon1 in #aheb4 #h vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #af #jj4 ,,draper',s ,,civil ,,war4 ,history of the ,american ,civil ,war4 ,by ,,john ,w4 ,,draper1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,professor of ,chemistry and ,physiology in the ,university of ,new ,york4 ,in ,three ,vols4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 just published4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej per vol4 ,,draper',s ,,intellectual ,,development ,,of ,,europe4 ,a ,history of the ,intellectual ,development of ,europe4 ,by ,,john ,w4 ,,draper1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 ,professor of ,chemistry and ,physiology in the ,university of ,new ,york4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 ,,draper',s ,,american ,,civil ,,policy4 ,thoughts on the ,future ,civil ,policy of ,america4 ,by ,,john ,w4 ,,draper1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,professor of ,chemistry and ,physiology in the ,university of ,new ,york1 ,author of a 8,treatise on ,human ,physiology10 8,a ,history of the ,intellectual ,development of ,europe10 c4 ,crown #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #ej4 ,,bancroft',s ,,miscellanies4 ,literary and ,historical ,miscellanies4 ,by ,,george ,,bancroft4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj4 ,,barth',s ,,north ,,and ,,central ,,africa4 ,travels and ,discoveries in ,north and ,central ,africa3 being a ,journal of an ,expedition undertaken under the ,auspices of ,h4,b4,m4's ,government1 in the ,years #ahdi-ahee4 ,by ,,henry ,,barth1 ,ph4,d41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,illustrated4 ,complete in ,three ,vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #ab #jj4 ,,bellows',s ,,old ,,world4 ,the ,old ,world in its ,new ,face3 ,impressions of ,europe in #ahfg-ahfh4 ,by ,,henry ,w4 ,,bellows4 #b vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,,boswell',s ,,johnson4 ,the ,life of ,samuel ,johnson4 ,,ll4,d4 ,including a ,journey to the ,hebrides4 ,by ,,james ,,boswell1 ,esq4 ,a ,new ,edition1 with numerous ,additions and ,notes4 ,by ,,john ,,wilson ,,croker1 ,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,portrait of ,boswell4 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj4 ,,brodhead',s ,,history ,,of ,,new ,,york4 ,history of the ,state of ,new ,york4 ,by ,,john ,,romeyn ,,brodhead4 ,first ,period1 #afji-affd4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj4 ,,bulwer',s ,,prose ,,works4 ,miscellaneous ,prose ,works of ,edward ,bulwer1 ,lord ,lytton4 ,in ,two ,vols4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,,burns',s ,,life ,,and ,,works4 ,the ,life and ,works of ,robert ,burns4 ,edited by ,,robert ,,chambers4 #d vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #f #jj4 ,,carlyle',s ,,frederick ,,the ,,great4 ,history of ,friedrich ,,ii41 called ,frederick the ,great4 ,by ,,thomas ,,carlyle4 ,portraits1 ,maps1 ,plans1 c4 #f vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #ab #jj4 ,,carlyle',s ,,french ,,revolution4 ,history of the ,french ,revolution4 ,newly ,revised by the ,author1 with ,index1 c4 #b vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,,carlyle',s ,,oliver ,,cromwell4 ,letters and ,speeches of ,oliver ,cromwell4 ,with ,elucidations and ,connecting ,narrative4 #b vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,,chalmers',s ,,posthumous ,,works4 ,the ,posthumous ,works of ,dr4 ,chalmers4 ,edited by his ,son-in-,law1 ,rev4 ,,william ,,hanna1 ,,ll4,d4 ,complete in ,nine ,vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #ac #ej4 ,,clayton',s ,,queens ,,of ,,song4 ,queens of ,song3 being ,memoirs of some of the most celebrated ,female ,vocalists who have performed on the ,lyric ,stage from the ,earliest ,days of ,opera to the ,present ,time4 ,to which is added a ,chronological ,list of all the ,operas that have been performed in ,europe4 ,by ,,ellen ,,creathorne ,,clayton4 ,with ,portraits4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj4 ,,coleridge',s ,,complete ,,works4 ,the ,complete ,works of ,samuel ,taylor ,coleridge4 ,with an ,introductory ,essay upon his ,philosophical and ,theological ,opinions4 ,edited by ,professor ,,shedd4 ,complete in ,seven ,vols4 ,with a fine ,portrait4 ,small #hvo1 ,cloth1 #aj #ej4 ,,curtis',s ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,constitution4 ,history of the ,origin1 ,formation1 and ,adoption of the ,constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,by ,,george ,,ticknor ,,curtis4 ,complete in ,two large and handsome ,octavo ,volumes1 ,cloth1 #f #jj4 ,,du ,,chaillu',s ,,africa4 ,explorations and ,adventures in ,equatorial ,africa3 with ,accounts of the ,manners and ,customs of the ,people1 and of the ,chase of the ,gorilla1 the ,crocodile1 ,leopard1 ,elephant1 ,hippopotamus1 and other ,animals4 ,by ,,paul ,b4 ,,du ,,chaillu1 ,corresponding ,member of the ,american ,ethnological ,society2 of the ,geographical and ,statistical ,society of ,new ,york2 and of the ,boston ,society of ,natural ,history4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 ,,du ,,chaillu',s ,,ashango ,,land4 ,a ,journey to ,ashango ,land3 and ,further ,penetration into ,equatorial ,africa4 ,by ,,paul ,b4 ,,du ,,chaillu1 ,author of 8,discoveries in ,equatorial ,africa10 c4 ,new ,edition4 ,handsomely ,illustrated4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 ,,davis',s ,,carthage4 ,carthage and her ,remains3 being an ,account of the ,excavations and ,researches on the ,site of the ,phnician ,metropolis in ,africa and other adjacent ,places4 ,conducted under the ,auspices of ,her ,majesty's ,government4 ,by ,dr4 ,,davis1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,profusely ,illustrated with ,maps1 ,woodcuts1 ,chromo-,lithographs1 c4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj4 ,,doolittle',s ,,china4 ,social ,life of the ,chinese3 with some ,account of their ,religious1 ,governmental1 ,educational1 and ,business ,customs and ,opinions4 ,with special but not exclusive ,reference to ,fuhchau4 ,by ,rev4 ,,justus ,,doolittle1 ,fourteen ,years ,member of the ,fuhchau ,mission of the ,american ,board4 ,illustrated with more than #aej characteristic ,engravings on ,wood4 #b vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 ,,edgeworth',s 7,,miss7 ,,novels4 ,with ,engravings4 #aj vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #ae #jj4 ,,gibbon',s ,,rome4 ,history of the ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire4 ,by ,,edward ,,gibbon4 ,with ,notes by ,rev4 ,h4 ,h4 ,,milman and ,m4 ,,guizot4 ,a new cheap ,edition4 ,to which is added a complete ,index of the whole ,work1 and a ,portrait of the ,author4 #f vols41 #abmo 7uniform with ,hume71 ,cloth1 #i #jj4 ,,grote',s ,,history ,,of ,,greece4 #ab vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #ah #jj4 ,,hale',s 7,,mrs47 ,,woman',s ,,record4 ,woman's ,record2 or1 ,biographical ,sketches of all ,distinguished ,women1 from the ,creation to the ,present ,time4 ,arranged in ,four ,eras1 with ,selections from ,female ,writers of each ,era4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,sarah ,,josepha ,,hale4 ,illustrated with more than #bjj ,portraits4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 ,,hall',s ,,arctic ,,researches4 ,arctic ,researches and ,life among the ,esquimaux3 being the ,narrative of an ,expedition in ,search of ,sir ,john ,franklin1 in the ,years #ahfj1 #ahfa1 and #ahfb4 ,by ,,charles ,,francis ,,hall4 ,with ,maps and #ajj ,illustrations4 ,the ,illustrations are from ,original ,drawings by ,charles ,parsons1 ,henry ,l4 ,stephens1 ,solomon ,eytinge1 ,w4 ,s4 ,l4 ,jewett1 and ,granville ,perkins1 after ,sketches by ,captain ,hall4 ,a ,new ,edition4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,beveled ,edges1 #e #jj4 ,,hallam',s ,,constitutional ,,history ,,of ,,england1 from the ,accession of ,henry ,,vii4 to the ,death of ,george ,,ii4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj4 ,,hallam',s ,,literature4 ,introduction to the ,literature of ,europe during the ,fifteenth1 ,sixteenth1 and ,seventeenth ,centuries4 ,by ,,henry ,,hallam4 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj4 ,,hallam',s ,,middle ,,ages4 ,state of ,europe during the ,middle ,ages4 ,by ,,henry ,,hallam4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj4 ,,hildreth',s ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,,first ,,series3 ,from the ,first ,settlement of the ,country to the ,adoption of the ,federal ,constitution4 ,,second ,,series3 ,from the ,adoption of the ,federal ,constitution to the ,end of the ,sixteenth ,congress4 #f vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #ah #jj4 ,,hume',s ,,history ,,of ,,england4 ,history of ,england1 from the ,invasion of ,julius ,csar to the ,abdication of ,james ,,ii41 #afhh4 ,by ,,david ,,hume4 ,a new ,edition1 with the ,author's last ,corrections and ,improvements4 ,to which is ,prefixed a short ,account of his ,life1 written by ,himself4 ,with a ,portrait of the ,author4 #f vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #i #jj4 ,,harper',s ,,pictorial ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,rebellion4 ,harper's ,pictorial ,history of the ,great ,rebellion in the ,united ,states4 ,with nearly #ajjj ,illustrations4 ,in ,two ,vols41 #dto4 ,price #f #jj per vol4 ,,harper',s ,,new ,,classical ,,library4 ,literal ,translations4 ,the following ,volumes are now ready4 ,portraits4 l#bmo1 ,cloth1 #a #ej each4 ,c,,sar4 ,,virgil4 ,,sallust4 ,,horace4 ,,cicero',s ,,orations4 ,,cicero',s ,,offices1 c4 ,,cicero ,,on ,,oratory ,,and ,,orators4 ,,tacitus4 #b vols4 ,,terence4 ,,sophocles4 ,,juvenal4 ,,xenophon4 ,,homer',s ,,iliad4 ,,homer',s ,,odyssey4 ,,herodotus4 ,,demosthenes4 ,,thucydides4 ,,schylus4 ,,euripides4 #b vols4 ,,helps',s ,,spanish ,,conquest4 ,the ,spanish ,conquest in ,america1 and its ,relation to the ,history of ,slavery and to the ,government of ,colonies4 ,by ,,arthur ,,helps4 ,complete in ,four ,volumes4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #f #jj4 ,,jay',s ,,works4 ,complete ,works of ,rev4 ,william ,jay3 comprising his ,sermons1 ,family ,discourses1 ,morning and ,evening ,exercises for every ,day in the ,year1 ,family ,prayers1 c4 ,author's enlarged ,edition1 revised4 #c vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #f #jj4 ,,johnson',s ,,complete ,,works4 ,the ,works of ,samuel ,johnson1 ,,ll4,d4 ,with an ,essay on his ,life and ,genius1 by ,,arthur ,,murphy1 ,esq4 ,portrait of ,johnson4 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj4 ,,kinglake',s ,,crimean ,,war4 ,the ,invasion of the ,crimea1 and an ,account of its ,progress down to the ,death of ,lord ,raglan4 ,by ,,alexander ,,william ,,kinglake4 ,with ,maps and ,plans4 ,two ,vols4 ready4 l#bmo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj per vol4 ,,krummacher',s ,,david1 ,,king ,,of ,,israel4 ,david1 the ,king of ,israel3 a ,portrait drawn from ,bible ,history and the ,book of ,psalms4 ,by ,,frederick ,,william ,,krummacher1 ,d4,d41 ,author of 8,elijah the ,tishbite10 c4 ,translated under the express ,sanction of the ,author by the ,rev4 ,m4 ,g4 ,,easton1 ,m4,a4 ,with a ,letter from ,dr4 ,krummacher to his ,american ,readers1 and a ,portrait4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #ge4 ,,lamb',s ,,complete ,,works4 ,the ,works of ,charles ,lamb4 ,comprising his ,letters1 ,poems1 ,essays of ,elia1 ,essays upon ,shakspeare1 ,hogarth1 c41 and a ,sketch of his ,life1 with the ,final ,memorials1 by ,t4 ,,noon ,,talfourd4 ,portrait4 #b vols41 l#bmo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj4 ,,marcy',s ,,army ,,life ,,on ,,the ,,border4 ,thirty ,years of ,army ,life on the ,border4 ,comprising ,descriptions of the ,indian ,nomads of the ,plains2 ,explorations of ,new ,territory2 a ,trip across the ,rocky ,mountains in the ,winter2 ,descriptions of the ,habits of ,different ,animals found in the ,west1 and the ,methods of ,hunting them2 with ,incidents in the ,life of ,different ,frontier ,men1 c41 c4 ,by ,brevet ,brigadier-,general ,r4 ,b4 ,,marcy1 ,u4,s4,a41 ,author of 8,the ,prairie ,traveller40 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,beveled ,edges1 #c #jj4 ,,loomis',s ,,meteorology4 ,a ,treatise on ,meteorology4 ,with a ,collection of ,meteorological ,tables4 ,by ,,elias ,,loomis1 ,,ll4,d41 ,professor of ,natural ,philosophy and ,astronomy in ,yale ,college1 and ,author of a 8,course of ,mathematics40 #hvo1 ,sheep extra1 #b #jj4 ,m',,clintock ,,strong',s ,,cyclop,,dia4 ,cyclopdia of ,biblical1 ,theological1 and ,ecclesiastical ,literature4 ,prepared by the ,rev4 ,,john ,m',,clintock1 ,d4,d41 and ,,james ,,strong1 ,s4,t4,d4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 now ready4 ,royal #hvo4 ,price per vol41 ,cloth1 #e #jj2 ,sheep1 #f #jj2 ,half ,morocco1 #h #jj4 ,,macaulay',s ,,history ,,of ,,england4 ,the ,history of ,england from the ,accession of ,james ,,ii4 ,by ,,thomas ,,babington ,,macaulay4 ,with an ,original ,portrait of the ,author4 #e vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #aj #jj2 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #g #ej4 ,,livingstone',s ,,south ,,africa4 ,missionary ,travels and ,researches in ,south ,africa2 including a ,sketch of ,sixteen ,years' ,residence in the ,interior of ,africa1 and a ,journey from the ,cape of ,good ,hope to ,loando on the ,west ,coast2 thence across the ,continent1 down the ,river ,zambesi1 to the ,eastern ,ocean4 ,by ,,david ,,livingstone1 ,,ll4,d41 ,d4,c4,l4 ,with ,portrait1 ,maps by ,arrowsmith1 and numerous ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #ej4 ,,livingstone',s ,,zambesi4 ,narrative of an ,expedition to the ,zambesi and its ,tributaries1 and of the ,discovery of the ,lakes ,shirwa and ,nyassa4 #aheh-ahfd4 ,by ,,david and ,,charles ,,livingstone4 ,with ,map and ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 ,,moshelm',s ,,ecclesiastical ,,history1 ,ancient and ,modern2 in which the ,rise1 ,progress1 and ,variation of ,church ,power are considered in their ,connection with the ,state of ,learning and ,philosophy1 and the ,political ,history of ,europe during that ,period4 ,translated1 with ,notes1 c41 by ,a4 ,,maclaine1 ,d4,d4 ,a new ,edition1 continued to #ahbf1 by ,c4 ,,coote1 ,,ll4,d4 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj4 ,,nevius',s ,,china4 ,china and the ,chinese3 a ,general ,description of the ,country and its ,inhabitants2 its ,civilization and ,form of ,government2 its ,religious and ,social ,institutions2 its ,intercourse with other ,nations2 and its ,present ,condition and ,prospects4 ,by the ,rev4 ,,john ,l4 ,,nevius1 ,ten ,years a ,missionary in ,china4 ,with a ,map and ,illustrations4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #a #ge4 ,,olin',s 7,,dr47 ,,life ,,and ,,letters4 #b vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj4 ,,olin',s 7,,dr47 ,,travels4 ,travels in ,egypt1 ,arabia ,petra1 and the ,holy ,land4 ,engravings4 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj4 ,,olin',s 7,,dr47 ,,works4 ,the ,works of ,stephen ,olin1 ,d4,d41 late ,president of the ,wesleyan ,university4 #b vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj4 ,,oliphant',s ,,china ,,and ,,japan4 ,narrative of the ,earl of ,elgin's ,mission to ,china and ,japan1 in the ,years #aheg1 '#eh1 '#ei4 ,by ,,laurence ,,oliphant1 ,private ,secretary to ,lord ,elgin4 ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,,oliphant',s 7,,mrs47 ,,life ,,of ,,edward ,,irving4 ,the ,life of ,edward ,irving1 ,minister of the ,national ,scotch ,church1 ,london4 ,illustrated by his ,journals and ,correspondence4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,oliphant4 ,portrait4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,,page',s ,,la ,,plata4 ,la ,plata3 the ,argentine ,confederation and ,paraguay4 ,being a ,narrative of the ,exploration of the ,tributaries of the ,river ,la ,plata and ,adjacent ,countries1 during the ,years #ahec1 '#ed1 '#ee1 and '#ef1 under the orders of the ,united ,states ,government4 ,by ,,thomas ,j4 ,,page1 ,u4,s4,n41 ,commander of the ,expedition4 ,with ,map and numerous ,engravings4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 ,,poets ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,the ,poets of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,selected and ,edited by the ,rev4 ,,robert ,,aris ,,willmott4 ,with ,english and ,american ,additions1 arranged by ,,evert ,a4 ,,duyckinck1 ,editor of 8,cyclopdia of ,american ,literature40 ,comprising ,selections from the greatest ,authors of the ,age4 ,superbly ,illustrated with #acb ,engravings from ,designs by the most ,eminent ,artists4 ,in elegant ,small #dto form1 printed on ,superfine ,tinted ,paper1 richly bound in extra ,cloth1 ,beveled1 ,gilt ,edges1 #f #jj2 ,half ,calf1 #f #jj2 ,full ,turkey ,morocco1 #aj #jj4 ,,prime',s ,,coins1 ,,medals1 ,,and ,,seals4 ,coins1 ,medals1 and ,seals1 ,ancient and ,modern4 ,illustrated and ,described4 ,with a ,sketch of the ,history of ,coins and ,coinage1 ,instructions for ,young ,collectors1 ,tables of ,comparative ,rarity1 ,price-,lists of ,english and ,american ,coins1 ,medals1 and ,tokens1 c41 c4 ,edited by ,w4 ,c4 ,,prime1 ,author of 8,boat ,life in ,egypt and ,nubia10 8,tent ,life in the ,holy ,land10 c41 c4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,,russell',s ,,modern ,,europe4 ,history of ,modern ,europe1 with a ,view of the ,progress of ,society1 from the ,rise of ,modern ,kingdoms to the ,peace of ,paris in #agfc4 ,by ,w4 ,,russell4 ,with a ,continuance of the ,history1 by ,,william ,,jones4 ,engravings4 #c vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #f #jj4 ,,smiles',s ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,stephenson',s4 ,the ,life of ,george ,stephenson1 and of his ,son1 ,robert ,stephenson2 comprising1 also1 a ,history of the ,invention and ,introduction of the ,railway ,locomotive4 ,by ,,samuel ,,smiles1 ,author of 8,self-,help10 c4 ,with ,steel ,portraits and numerous ,illustrations4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj4 ,,speke',s ,,africa4 ,journal of the ,discovery of the ,source of the ,nile4 ,by ,captain ,,john ,,hanning ,,speke1 ,captain ,h4 ,m4 ,indian ,army1 ,fellow and ,gold ,medalist of the ,royal ,geographical ,society1 ,hon4 ,corresponding ,member and ,gold ,medalist of the ,french ,geographical ,society1 c4 ,with ,maps and ,portraits and numerous ,illustrations1 chiefly from ,drawings by ,captain ,,grant4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 uniform with ,livingstone1 ,barth1 ,burton1 c41 #d #jj4 ,,shakspeare4 ,the ,dramatic ,works of ,william ,shakspeare1 with the ,corrections and ,illustrations of ,dr4 ,,johnson1 ,g4 ,,steevens1 and others4 ,revised by ,,isaac ,,reed4 ,engravings4 #f vols41 ,royal #abmo1 ,cloth1 #i #jj4 ,,spring',s ,,sermons4 ,pulpit ,ministrations2 or1 ,sabbath ,readings4 ,a ,series of ,discourses on ,christian ,doctrine and ,duty4 ,by ,rev4 ,,gardiner ,,spring1 ,d4,d41 ,pastor of the ,brick ,presbyterian ,church in the ,city of ,new ,york4 ,portrait on ,steel4 #b vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #f #jj4 ,,strickland',s 7,,miss7 ,,queens ,,of ,,scotland4 ,lives of the ,queens of ,scotland and ,english ,princesses connected with the ,regal ,succession of ,great ,britain4 ,by ,,agnes ,,strickland4 #h vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #ab #jj4 ,,the ,,student',s ,,histories4 ,france4 ,engravings4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj4 ,gibbon4 ,engravings4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj4 ,greece4 ,engravings4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj4 ,the same1 abridged4 ,engravings4 #afmo1 ,cloth1 #a #jj4 ,hume4 ,engravings4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj4 ,rome4 ,by ,liddell4 ,engravings4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj4 ,smaller ,history of ,rome4 ,engravings4 #afmo1 ,cloth1 #a #jj4 ,old ,testament ,history4 ,engravings4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj4 ,new ,testament ,history4 ,engravings4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj4 ,strickland's ,queens of ,england4 ,abridged4 ,engravings4 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #b #jj4 ,,thomson',s ,,land ,,and ,,the ,,book4 ,the ,land and the ,book2 or1 ,biblical ,illustrations drawn from the ,manners and ,customs1 the ,scenes and the ,scenery of the ,holy ,land4 ,by ,w4 ,m4 ,,thomson1 ,d4,d41 ,twenty-five ,years a ,missionary of the ,a4,b4,c4,f4,m4 in ,syria and ,palestine4 ,with two elaborate ,maps of ,palestine1 an accurate ,plan of ,jerusalem1 and several hundred ,engravings1 representing the ,scenery1 ,topography1 and ,productions of the ,holy ,land1 and the ,costumes1 ,manners1 and ,habits of the ,people4 ,two elegant ,large #abmo ,vols41 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 ,,ticknor',s ,,history ,,of ,,spanish ,,literature4 ,with ,criticisms on the particular ,works1 and ,biographical ,notices of prominent ,writers4 #c vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 ,,wilkinson',s ,,ancient ,,egyptians4 ,a ,popular ,account of their ,manners and ,customs1 condensed from his larger ,work1 with some ,new ,matter4 ,illustrated with #ejj ,woodcuts4 #b vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #c #ej4 ,v,,mr,,ry',s ,,central ,,asia4 ,travels in ,central ,asia4 ,being the ,account of a ,journey from ,teheran across the ,turkoman ,desert1 on the ,eastern ,shore of the ,caspian1 to ,khiva1 ,bokhara1 and ,samarcand1 performed in the ,year #ahfc4 ,by ,,arminius ,v,,mr,,ry1 ,member of the ,hungarian ,academy of ,pesth1 by whom he was sent on this ,scientific ,mission4 ,with ,map and ,woodcuts4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #ej4 ,,maury',s 7,m4 ,f47 ,,physical ,,geography ,,of ,,the ,,sea4 ,the ,physical ,geography of the ,sea1 and its ,meteorology4 ,by ,m4 ,f4 ,,maury1 ,,ll4,d41 late ,u4,s4,n4 ,the ,eighth ,edition1 ,revised and greatly ,enlarged4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #d #jj4 ,,wood',s ,,homes ,,without ,,hands4 ,homes ,without ,hands3 being a ,description of the ,habitations of ,animals1 classed according to their ,principle of ,construction4 ,by ,j4 ,g4 ,,wood1 ,m4,a41 ,f4,l4,s41 ,author of 8,illustrated ,natural ,history40 ,with about #adj ,illustrations1 engraved by ,g4 ,pearson1 from ,original ,designs made by ,f4 ,w4 ,keyl and ,e4 ,a4 ,smith1 under the ,author's ,superintendence4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 ,beveled ,edges1 #d #ej4 ,,anthon',s ,,smith',s ,,dictionary ,,of ,,antiquities4 ,a ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,antiquities4 ,edited by ,,william ,,smith1 ,,ll4,d41 and ,illustrated by numerous ,engravings on ,wood4 ,third ,american ,edition1 carefully ,revised1 and containing1 also1 numerous additional ,articles relative to the ,botany1 ,mineralogy1 and ,zoology of the ,ancients4 ,by ,,charles ,,anthon1 ,,ll4,d4 ,royal #hvo1 ,sheep extra1 #f #jj4 ,,anthon',s ,,classical ,,dictionary4 ,containing an ,account of the principal ,proper ,names mentioned in ,ancient ,authors1 and intended to elucidate all the important ,points connected with the ,geography1 ,history1 ,biography1 ,mythology1 and ,fine ,arts of the ,greeks and ,romans1 together with an ,account of the ,coins1 ,weights1 and ,measures of the ,ancients1 with ,tabular ,values of the same4 ,royal #hvo1 ,sheep extra1 #f #jj4 ,,dwight',s 7,,rev4 ,,dr47 ,,theology4 ,theology ,explained and ,defended1 in a ,series of ,sermons4 ,by ,,timothy ,,dwight1 ,s4,t4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,with a ,memoir of the ,life of the ,author4 ,portrait4 #d vols41 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #h #jj4 ,,englishman',s ,,greek ,,concordance4 ,the ,englishman's ,greek ,concordance of the ,new ,testament3 being an ,attempt at a ,verbal ,connection between the ,greek and the ,english ,texts2 including a ,concordance to the ,proper ,names1 with ,indexes1 ,greek-,english and ,english-,greek4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #e #jj4 ,,gieseler',s ,,ecclesiastical ,,history4 ,a ,text-,book of ,church ,history4 ,by ,dr4 ,,john ,c4 ,l4 ,,gieseler4 ,translated from the ,fourth ,revised ,german ,edition by ,,samuel ,,davidson1 ,,ll4,d41 and ,rev4 ,,john ,,winstanley ,,hull1 ,m4,a4 ,a ,new ,american ,edition1 ,revised and ,edited by ,rev4 ,,henry ,b4 ,,smith1 ,d4,d41 ,professor in the ,union ,theological ,seminary1 ,new ,york4 ,four ,volumes ready4 7,vol4 ,v4 in ,press47 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #be per vol4 ,,godwin',s 7,,parke7 ,,history ,,of ,,france4 ,the ,history of ,france4 ,from the ,earliest ,times to the ,french ,revolution of #aghi4 ,by ,,parke ,,godwin4 ,vol4 ,i4 7,ancient ,gaul74 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj4 ,,hall',s 7,,robert7 ,,works4 ,the ,complete ,works of ,robert ,hall2 with a brief ,memoir of his ,life1 by ,dr4 ,,gregory1 and ,observations on his ,character as a ,preacher1 by ,rev4 ,,john ,,foster4 ,edited by ,,olinthus ,,gregory1 ,,ll4,d41 and ,rev4 ,,joseph ,,belcher4 ,portrait4 #d vols41 #hvo1 ,sheep extra1 #i #jj4 ,,hamilton',s 7,,sir ,,william7 ,,works4 ,discussions on ,philosophy and ,literature1 ,education and ,university ,reform4 ,chiefly from the ,edinburgh ,review4 ,corrected1 ,vindicated1 and ,enlarged1 in ,notes and ,appendices4 ,by ,sir ,,william ,,hamilton1 ,bart4 ,with an ,introductory ,essay1 by ,rev4 ,,robert ,,turnbull1 ,d4,d4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #c #jj4 ,,robinson',s ,,greek ,,lexicon ,,of ,,the ,,testament4 ,a ,greek and ,english ,lexicon of the ,new ,testament4 ,by ,,edward ,,robinson1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d41 late ,professor of ,biblical ,literature in the ,union ,theological ,seminary1 ,new ,york4 ,a ,new ,edition1 ,revised1 and in great part ,rewritten4 ,royal #hvo1 ,cloth1 #f #jj4 ,,humboldt',s ,,cosmos4 ,cosmos3 a ,sketch of a ,physical ,description of the ,universe4 ,by ,,alexander ,,von ,,humboldt4 ,translated from the ,german1 by ,e4 ,c4 ,,ott4 #e vols41 #abmo1 ,cloth1 #f #be4 ,,fowler',s ,,english ,,language4 ,the ,english ,language in its ,elements and ,forms4 ,with a ,history of its ,origin and ,development1 and a full ,grammar4 ,designed for ,use in ,colleges and ,schools4 ,revised and ,enlarged4 ,by ,,william ,c4 ,,fowler1 ,,ll4,d41 late ,professor in ,amherst ,college4 #hvo1 ,cloth1 #b #ej4 ,transcriber's ,notes ,punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in the original book2 otherwise they were not changed4 ,inconsistent hyphenation was not changed4 ,simple typographical errors were corrected2 unbalanced quotation marks were remedied when the change was obvious1 and otherwise left unbalanced4 ,illustrations in this e,book have been positioned between paragraphs and outside quotations4 ,in versions of this e,book that support hyperlinks1 the page references in the ,list of ,illustrations lead to the corresponding illustrations4 ,numbers corresponding to those in the ,list of ,illustration have been added to the captions as an aid when reading versions of this e,book that do not support hyperlinks4 ,footnotes1 originally at the bottoms of pages1 have been renumbered1 collected1 and placed just before the ,index4 ,the index was not systematically checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references4 ,the entry and sub-entries for 8,alaska0 were out-of-sequence1 and were moved by ,transcriber4