,,the ,,universal ,,kinship    ,,by     
,j4 ,,howard ,,moore    ,,instructor    
,,in ,,zoology1 ,,crane ,,manual        
,,training ,,high ,,school1 ,,chicago   
#8,a ,sacred ,kinship ,i would not      
forego    ,binds me to all that         
breathes4'      -- ,boyesen4            
,,chicago    ,,charles ,h4 ,,kerr       
,,company    #ef ,,fifth ,,avenue       
#aijf      ,,to    ,,my ,,dear ,,mother 
,,and ,,father    ,,who ,,have ,,done   
,,so ,,much ,,for ,,me ,,in ,,the ,,long
 ,,years    ,,that ,,are ,,past ,,and   
,,gone      ,,preface    ,the ,universal
 ,kinship means the kinship of all the  
inhabitants of  the planet ,earth4      
,whether they came into existence among 
the waters  or among desert sands1 in a 
hole in the earth1 in the hollow of a   
tree1 or in a palace2 whether they build
 nests or empires2 whether  they swim1  
fly1 crawl1 or ambulate2 and whether    
they realise it or  not1 they are all   
related1 physically1 mentally1          
morally--this is  the thesis of this    

book4 ,but since man is the most gifted 
and  influential of animals1 and since  
his relationship with other  animals is 
more important and more reluctantly     
recognised than any  other1 the chief   
purpose of these pages is to prove and  
interpret  the kinship1 of the human    
species with the other species of       
animals4    ,the thesis of this book    
comes pretty squarely in conflict with  
widely-practised and highly-prized sins4
 ,it will therefore be  generally       
criticised where it is not passed by in 
silence4 ,men as a  rule do not care to 
improve4 ,although they have but one    
life to  live1 they are satisfied to    
live the thing out as they have started 
on it4    ,enthusiasm1 which in an      
enlightened or ideal race would be      
devoted  to self-improvement1 is used by
 men in weaving excuses for their own   
inertia or in singing of the infirmities
 of others4    ,but there is a ,future4 
,and the creeds and ideals1 men bow down
 to  to-day will in time to come pass   

away1 and new creeds and ideals  will   
claim their allegiance4 ,shrines change 
as the generations come  and go1 and out
 of the decomposition of the old comes  
the new4 ,the  time will come when the  
sentiments of these pages will not be   
hailed  by two or three1 and ridiculed  
or ignored by the rest2 they will       
represent ,public ,opinion and ,law4    
,m4  ,chicago1 #aije      ,,contents    
,,the ,,physical ,,kinship      ,i4 ,man
 an ,animal    ,,ii4 ,man a ,vertebrate 
,,iii4 ,man a ,mammal    ,,iv4 ,man a   
,primate    ,v4 ,recapitulation    ,,vi4
 ,the ,meaning of ,homology    ,,vii4   
,the ,earth an ,evolution    ,,viii4    
,the ,factors of ,organic ,evolution    
,,ix4 ,the ,evidences of ,organic       
,evolution    ,x4 ,the ,genealogy of    
,animals    ,,xi4 ,conclusion    ,,the  
,,psychical ,,kinship      ,i4 ,the     
,conflict of ,science and ,tradition    
,,ii4 ,evidences of ,psychical          
,evolution    ,,iii4 ,the ,common-sense 
,view    ,,iv4 ,the ,elements of ,human 

and ,non-human ,mind ,compared    ,v4   
,conclusion    ,,the ,,ethical ,,kinship
      ,i4 ,human ,nature a ,product of  
the ,jungle    ,,ii4 ,egoism and        
,altruism    ,,iii4 ,the ,ethics of the 
,savage    ,,iv4 ,the ,ethics of the    
,ancient    ,v4 ,modern ,ethics    ,,vi4
 ,the ,ethics of ,human ,beings ,toward 
,non-human ,beings    ,,vii4 ,the       
,origin of ,provincialism    ,,viii4    
,universal ,ethics    ,,ix4 ,the        
,psychology of ,altruism    ,x4         
,anthropocentric ,ethics    ,,xi4       
,ethical ,implications of ,evolution    
,,xii4 ,conclusion      ,,the ,,physical
 ,,kinship      ,i4 ,man an ,animal     
,,ii4 ,man a ,vertebrate    ,,iii4 ,man 
a ,mammal    ,,iv4 ,man a ,primate      
,v4 ,recapitulation    ,,vi4 ,the       
,meaning of ,homology    ,,vii4 ,the    
,earth an ,evolution    ,,viii4 ,the    
,factors of ,organic ,evolution    ,,ix4
 ,the ,evidences of ,organic ,evolution 
,x4 ,the ,genealogy of ,animals    ,,xi4
 ,conclusion        #8,like the ,roman  

emperors1 who1 intoxicated by their     
power1 at    length regarded themselves 
as demigods1 so the ruler of the earth  
believes that the animals subjected to  
his will have nothing in    common with 
his own nature4 ,man is not content to  
be the king of    animals4 ,he insists  
on having it that an impassable gulf    
separates    him from his subjects4 ,the
 affinity of the ape disturbs and       
humbles    him4 ,and1 turning his back  
upon the earth1 he flies1 with his      
threatened majesty1 into the cloudy     
sphere of a special 8human    kingdom40 
,but ,anatomy1 like those slaves who    
followed the    conqueror's car crying1 
8,thou art a man10 disturbs him in his  
self-admiration1 and reminds him of     
those plain and tangible    realities   
which unite him with the animal world4' 
-- ,broca4      ,,the ,,universal       
,,kinship    ,the ,,physical ,,kinship  
,i4 ,man an ,animal4    ,it was in the  
zoology class at college4 ,we had made  
all the long  journey from amoeba to    

coral1 from coral to worm1 from worm to 
mollusk1 from mollusk to fish1 from fish
 to reptile1 and from  reptile to       
mammal--and there1 in the closing pages 
of faithful old  ,packard1 we found it4 
#8,a mammal of the order of primates1'  
the  book said1 with that unconcern     
characteristic of the deliverances of   
science4 ,i was almost saddened4 ,it was
 the first intimation ,i had  ever      
received of that trite but neglected    
truth that man is an  animal4    ,but   
the intimation was so weak1 and ,i was  
at that time so  unconscious1 that it   
was not till years later that ,i began1 
through  reflection1 actually to realise
 the truth here first caught sight  of4 
,during these years ,i knew that man was
 not a mineral nor a  plant--that1      
indeed1 he belonged to the animal       
kingdom4 ,but1 like  most men still1 ,i 
continued to think of him as being      
altogether  different from other        
animals4 ,i thought of man and the      
animals1  not of man and the other      

animals4 ,man was somehow sui generis4  
,he had had1 ,i believed1 a unique and  
miraculous origin2 for ,i had  not yet  
learned of organic evolution4 ,the      
pre-,darwinian belief that  ,i had come 
down from the skies1 and that non-human 
creatures of all  kinds had been brought
 into existence as adjuncts of the      
distinguished species to which ,i       
belonged1 occupied prominent place  in  
my thinking4 ,non-human races1 so ,i had
 been taught1 had in  themselves no     
reason for existence4 ,they were        
accessories4 ,a chasm1  too wide for any
 bridge ever to span1 yawned between the
 human and  all other species4 ,man was 
celestial1 a blue-blood barely escaping 
divinity4 ,all other beings were little 
higher than clods4 ,so  faithfully and  
mechanically did ,i reflect the bias in 
which ,i had  grown up4    ,but man is  
an animal4 ,it was away out there on the
 prairies1  among the green corn rows1  
one beautiful ,june morning--a long time
  ago it seems to me now--that this     

revelation really came to me4 ,and  ,i  
repeat it here1 as it has grown to seem 
to me1 for the sake of a  world which is
 so wise in many things1 but so darkened
 and wayward  regarding this one thing4 
,however averse to accepting it we may  
be  on account of favourite traditions1 
man is an animal in the most  literal   
and materialistic meaning of the word4  
,man has not a spark  of so-called      
#8divinity' about him4 ,in important    
respects he is  the most highly evolved 
of animals2 but in origin1 disposition1 
and  form he is no more #8divine' than  
the dog who laps his sores1 the         
terrapin who waddles over the earth in a
 carapace1 or the  unfastidious worm who
 dines on the dust of his feet4 ,man is 
not the  pedestalled individual pictured
 by his imagination--a being  glittering
 with prerogatives1 and towering apart  
from and above all  other beings4 ,he is
 a pain-shunning1 pleasure-seeking1     
death-dreading organism1 differing in   
particulars1 but not in kind1  from the 

pain-shunning1 pleasure-seeking1        
death-dreading organisms  below and     
around him4 ,man is neither a rock1 a   
vegetable1 nor a  deity4 ,he belongs to 
the same class of existences1 and has   
been  brought into existence by the same
 evolutional processes1 as the  horse1  
the toad that hops in his garden1 the   
firefly that lights its  twilight torch1
 and the bivalve that reluctantly feeds 
him4    ,man's body is composed         
fundamentally of the same materials as  
the  bodies of all other animals4 ,the  
bodies of all animals are composed  of  
clay4 ,they are formed of the same      
elements as those that murmur  in the   
waters1 gallop in the winds1 and        
constitute the substance of  the        
insensate rocks and soils4 ,more than   
two-thirds of the weight of  the human  
body is made up of oxygen alone1 a gas  
which forms  one-fifth of the weight of 
the air1 more than eight-ninths of that 
of the sea1 and forty-seven per cent1 of
 the superficial solids of  the earth4  

,man's body is composed of cells4 ,so   
are the bodies of all other  animals4   
,and the cells in the body of a human   
being are not  essentially different in 
composition or structure from the cells 
in  the body of the sponge4 ,all cells  
are composed primarily of  protoplasm1 a
 compound of carbon1 hydrogen1 nitrogen1
 and oxygen4  ,like all other animals1  
man is incapable of producing a particle
 of  the essential substance of which   
his body is made4 ,no animal can        
produce protoplasm4 ,this is a power of 
the plant1 and the plant  only4 ,all    
that any animal can do is to burn the   
compounds formed in  the sun-lit        
laboratories of the vegetable world4    
,the human skeleton1  like the skeletons
 of nearly all other animals1 is        
composed chiefly  of lime--lime being1  
in the sea1 where life spent so many of 
its  earlier centuries1 the most        
available material for parts whose      
purpose it is to furnish shape and      
durability to the organism4 ,man  grows 

from an egg4 ,so do all creatures of    
clay4 ,every animal  commences at the   
same place--in a single1 lowly1 almost  
homogeneous  cell4 ,a dog1 a frog1 a    
philosopher1 and a worm cannot for a    
long  time after their embryonic        
commencement be distinguished from each 
other4 ,like the oyster1 the ox1 the    
insect1 and the fish1 like all  that    
live1 move1 and breathe1 man is mortal4 
,he increases in size  and complexity   
through an allotted period of time2     
then1 like all  his kindred1 wilts back 
into the indistinguishable flux from    
which  he came4 ,man inhales oxygen and 
exhales carbon dioxide4 ,so does  every 
animal that breathes1 whether it breathe
 by lungs1 gills1  skin1 or ectosarc1   
and whether it breathe the sunless ooze 
of the  sea floor or the ethereal blue  
of the sky4 ,animals inhale oxygen      
because they eat carbon and hydrogen4   
,the energy of all animals is  produced 
mainly by the union of oxygen with the  
elements of carbon  and hydrogen in the 

tissues of animal bodies1 the plentiful 
and  ardent oxygen being the most       
available supporter of the combustion   
of these two elements4    ,man is1 then1
 an animal1 more highly evolved than the
 most of his  fellow-beings1 but        
positively of the same clay1 and of the 
same  fundamental make-up1 with the same
 eagerness to exceed and the same       
destiny1 as his less pompous kindred who
 float and frolic and pass  away in the 
seas and atmospheres1 and creep over the
 land-patches of  a common clod4        
,,ii4 ,man a ,vertebrate4    ,man is a  
vertebrate animal4#a ,he has            
7anatomically at least7 a  backbone4 ,he
 belongs to that substantial class of   
organisms  possessing an articulating   
internal skeleton--the family of the    
fishes1 amphibians1 reptiles1 birds1 and
 mammals4 ,most animals have  some sort 
of skeleton1 some sort of calcareous    
contrivance1 whose  business it is to   
give form and protection to the softer  
parts of  the organism4 ,some animals1  

as the starfishes1 have plates of lime  
scattered throughout the surface parts  
of the body2 others1 as the  corals and 
sponges secrete plant-like frames1 upon 
and among the  branches of which the    
organisms reside2 and still others1 as  
the  clams1 crustaceans1 and insects1   
have skeletons consisting of a  shell or
 sheath on the outside of1 and more or  
less surrounding1 the  softer substances
 of the body4 ,the limbs of insects are 
tiny tubes  on the inside of which are  
the miniature muscles with which they   
perform their marvels of locomotion4    
,the skeleton of vertebrates1           
consisting of levers1 beams1 columns1   
and arches1 all skilfully  joined       
together and sunk deep within the       
muscular tissue1 forms a  conspicuous   
contrast to the rudimentary frames of   
other animals4 ,the  vertebrate skeleton
 consists of a hollow axis1 divided into
 segments  and extending along the      
dorsal region of the body1 from the     
ventral  side of which articulate1 by   

means of awkwardly-constructed girdles1 
an anterior and a posterior pair of     
limbs4 ,this dorsal axis ends in  front 
in a peculiar bulbous arrangement called
 the head1 which  contains1 among other 
valuables1 the brain and buccal cavern4 
,the  thoracic segments of the backbone 
send off pairs of flat bones1  which1   
arching ventrally1 form the chest for   
the protection of the  heart and other  
vitals4 ,the limbs 7except in fishes7   
consist each of  a single long bone1    
succeeded by two long bones1 followed by
 two  transverse rows of short1         
irregular wrist or ankle bones1 ending  
normally in five branching series of    
bones called digits4 ,this is           
essentially the skeleton of all fishes1 
amphibians1 reptiles1 birds1  and       
mammals4 ,in short1 it is the universal 
vertebrate type of frame4  ,there are   
minor modifications to suit the various 
kinds of  environment1 adaptations to   
the necessities of aquatic1 terrestrial1
  and aerial locomotion and life1 some  

parts being specialised1 others         
atrophied1 and still others omitted1 but
 there is never anywhere1  from fishes  
to philosophers1 any fundamental        
departure from the  established         
vertebrate type of skeleton4#b ,the     
pectoral fins of  fishes correspond to  
the fore-limbs of frogs and reptiles1   
the wings  of birds1 and the arms of    
men4 ,the pelvic fins of fishes are     
homologous with the hind-limbs of frogs1
 reptiles1 and quadrupeds1  and the legs
 of birds1 apes1 and men4 ,the foot of  
the dog and  crocodile1 the hand of the 
orang1 and the flipper of the dolphin   
and  seal1 all have the same general    
structure as the hand of man2 and  the  
wings of the bat and bird1 the forelimbs
 of the lizard and  elephant1 and the   
comical shovels of the mole and         
ornithorhynchus1  notwithstanding the   
great differences in their external     
appearance  and use1 contain essentially
 the same bones and the same arrangement
  of the bones as do the arms of men and

 women4 ,the human body has two  primary
 cavities in it4 ,so have the bodies of 
all vertebrates3 a  neural cavity       
containing the brain and spinal cord1   
and a visceral  cavity containing the   
heart1 liver1 lungs1 and alimentary     
canal4  ,invertebrates have only one    
body cavity--the one corresponding to   
the visceral cavity of vertebrates--and 
the main nerve trunk1  instead of       
extending along the back1 as among      
vertebrates1 is in  invertebrates       
located ventrally4 ,vertebrates are the 
only animals on  the earth that have a  
highly developed circulatory system1 a  
system  entirely shut off from the other
 systems1 and containing a heart1       
arteries1 veins1 and capillaries4 ,in   
all invertebrates the digestive  and    
circulatory systems remain to a greater 
or less extent  connected1 the blood and
 food mingling more or less in the      
general  cavity of the body4 ,worms and 
insects have pulsating tubes instead  of
 heart and arteries4 ,crustaceans have  

hearts with one chamber1 and  mollusks  
have two or three chambered hearts1 but 
the blood1 instead  of returning to the 
heart after its journey through the     
arteries1  passes into the body cavity4 
,in man and other vertebrates the       
circulating current is confined strictly
 to the bloodvessels1 no  particle of it
 ever escaping into the general body    
cavity4 ,the heart  of vertebrates is   
distinguished from that of invertebrates
 by being  located ventrally4 ,the heart
 of invertebrates is in the back4 ,the  
blood of vertebrates differs from that  
of invertebrates in  containing both red
 and white corpuscles4 ,invertebrates   
have white  corpuscles only4 ,worms have
 yellow1 red1 or bright green blood4    
,the  blood of crustaceans is bluish1   
that of mollusks is white1 and that  of 
insects dusky or brown4 ,the blood of   
all vertebrates1 excepting  amphioxus1  
is red4 ,all backboned beings1 whether  
they dwell in seas  or cities1 and      
whether they build nests or empires1    

have two eyes1  two ears1 nose and      
mouth1 all located in the head1 and     
always  occupying the same relative     
position to each other4 ,invertebrates  
may have their brains in their abdomen1 
as do the mites2 hear with  their legs  
or antennae1 as many insects do2 see    
with their tunics1  like the scallops2  
and breathe with their skin1 as do the  
worms4 ,the  crayfish hears with its    
#8feelers1' the cricket and katydid with
  their fore-legs1 the grasshopper with 
its abdomen1 the clam with its  #8foot1'
 and mysis and other low crustaceans    
have their auditory  organs on their    
tails4    ,man is1 then1 like the       
fishes1 frogs1 reptiles1 birds1 and     
quadrupeds1 a vertebrate animal4        
,excepting in his infancy1 when he  is a
 quadruped going on all fours1 he uses  
his posterior limbs only  for           
locomotion1 and his anterior for        
prehension and the like4 ,his  spinal   
axis is erect instead of horizontal1 and
 his tail is  atrophied4 ,but he        

possesses all of the unmistakable       
qualities of the  vertebrate type of    
structure--a two-chambered body cavity1 
a highly  developed and dorsally located
 nerve trunk1 vertebrate vitals1 a      
closed circulatory system1 a ventral    
heart1 red blood1 a head  containing    
sense organs and brain1 and a           
well-ordered internal  skeleton1        
consisting of a vertebral column with   
skull and ribs and  two pairs of limbs1 
the limbs consisting each of one long   
bone1 two  long bones1 two transverse   
rows of irregular bones1 and five       
branches at the end4    #a4 ,see        
#8,classes of ,animals1' at the end of  
the chapter4  #b4 ,snakes are limbless1 
and hind-limbs are lacking in whales and
  other degenerates2 but rudimentary    
limbs are found in the embryonic  stages
 of these animals4 ,frogs1 it may be    
said also1 have no ribs4    ,,iii4 ,man 
a ,mammal4    ,man is a mammal4 ,he     
belongs to the most brilliant and       
influential  of the five classes of     

vertebrates--the class to which belong  
so  many of his associates and victims1 
the class to which belong the  horse1   
the dog1 the deer1 the ox1 the sheep1   
the swine1 the  squirrel1 the camel1 the
 unattenuated elephant1 and the         
timid-hearted hare4 ,to this class      
belong also the lion1 the tiger1  the   
kangaroo1 the beaver1 the bear1 the bat1
 the monkey1 the mole1  the wolf1 the   
ornithorhynchus1 and the whale--in      
short1 all  animals that have hair4     
,fishes and reptiles have scales2 birds 
have  feathers2 all mammals are covered 
to a greater or less extent with  hair4 
,the aquatic habits of whales render    
hair of no use to them4  ,hence1 while  
the unborn of these animals still cling 
to the  structural traditions of their  
ancestors and are covered with hair1    
the adults are almost hairless4 ,the    
sartorial habits of human beings  and   
the selective influences of the sexes   
have had a similar effect  on the hairy 
covering of the human body4 ,hair exists

 all over the  human body surface1      
excepting on the soles of the hands and 
feet1  but in a greatly dwarfed         
condition4 ,it is only on the scalp and 
on  the faces of males1 where it is     
scientifically assisted for purposes  of
 display1 that it grows luxuriantly4 ,it
 is by no means certain  that even the  
hair on the masculine scalp will last   
forever4 ,for if  the hermetical derby  
and other deadly devices worn by men    
continue  their devastations as they    
have in the past1 we may expect to have1
  in the course of generations1 men with
 foreheads reaching regularly  to the   
occiput4 ,most animals lay eggs4 ,man   
does not4 ,like the dog1  the horse1 the
 squirrel1 and the bat1 man is          
viviparous1 the eggs  hatching within   
the parental body4 ,human young are born
 helpless1  and are sustained during the
 period of their infancy by the         
secretions of the milk glands4 ,so are  
all the sons and daughters of  mammals4 
,whether they come into the world among 

the waters or among  the desert sands1  
in the hollow of a tree1 in a hole in   
the earth1  or in a palace1 the children
 of mammals are frail and pitiful1 and  
they survive to grow and multiply only  
because they are the object  of the     
loving and incessant sacrifices of a    
mother4    ,mammals are distinguished   
from all other animals by the possession
  of two kinds of skin glands--the sweat
 glands and the oil  glands--and by the 
development of certain of these glands  
in the  female into organs for the      
nourishing of the young4 ,among reptiles
  and birds the lower jaw is suspended  
from the skull by a bone called  the    
quadrate bone4 ,among men and other     
mammals the lower jaw is  joined        
directly to the skull1 the quadrate bone
 becoming1 in the  vicissitudes of      
evolution1 the hammer 7malleus7 of the  
mammalian  ear4 ,man has a              
four-chambered heart--two reservoirs    
which receive1  and two pumps which     
propel1 the scarlet waters of the body4 

,fishes  have two-chambered hearts2     
frogs and most reptiles have            
three-chambered hearts2 all mammals and 
birds have four-chambered  hearts4 ,the 
red corpuscles in the blood of fishes1  
frogs1 reptiles1  and birds1 are discs1 
double-convex1 nucleated1 and in shape  
oval or  triangular4 ,in man and in all 
other mammals 7except the archaic       
camel7 the red corpuscles are           
double-concave1 non-nucleated1 and      
circular4 #8,man has a diaphragm        
dividing the body cavity into chest  and
 abdomen1 and a shining white bridge of 
interlacing fibres1  called corpus      
callosum1 uniting his cerebral          
hemispheres4 ,and man  is a mammal      
because1 like other mammals1 he has1 in 
addition to the  qualities already      
mentioned1 these valuable and distinct  
characteristics4    ,,iv4 ,man a        
,primate4    ,man is a primate4 ,there  
are four divisions in the order of      
primates--lemurs1 monkeys1 apes1 and    
men4 ,but the most interesting  and     

important of these1 according to man1 is
 man4 ,man is a primate  because1 like  
other primates1 he has arms and hands   
instead of  fore-legs4 ,and these are   
important characteristics4 ,it was a    
splendid moment when the tendencies of  
evolution1 pondering the  possibilities 
of structural improvement1 decided to   
rear the  vertebrate upon its           
hind-limbs1 and convert its anterior    
appendages  into instruments of         
manipulation4 ,so long as living        
creatures were  able simply to move     
through the airs and waters of the earth
 and  over the surface of the solids1   
they were powerless to modify the       
universe about them very much4 ,but the 
moment beings were developed  with parts
 of their bodies fitted to take hold of 
and move and  fashion and compel the    
universe around them1 that moment the   
life  process was endowed with the power
 of miracles4 ,with the invention  of   
hands and arms commenced seriously that 
long campaign against the  tendencies of

 inanimate nature which finds its most  
marvellous  achievements in the         
sustained and triumphant operations of  
human  industry4 ,none of the primates  
excepting man use their hind-limbs as  a
 sole means of changing their place in  
the universe1 but in all of  them the   
fore-limbs are regularly used as organs 
of manipulation4  ,man is a primate     
because his fingers and toes1 like those
 of other  primates 7except the tiny    
marmosets of ,brazil71 end in nails4    
,man  has neither claws to burrow into  
the earth1 talons with which to  hold   
and rend his victims1 nor hoofs to put  
thunder into his  movements4 ,the human 
stomach1 like that of all the other     
primates1  is a bagpipe4 ,the stomach of
 the carnivora is usually a simple sack1
  while rodents have1 as a rule1 two    
stomachs1 and ruminants four4 ,man  is a
 primate because his milk glands are    
located on the breast and  are two in   
number4 ,the mammary glands vary in     
number in the  different orders of      

mammals1 from two in the horse and whale
 to  twenty-two in some insectivora4    
,most ruminating animals have four1     
swine ten1 and carnivora generally six  
or eight4 ,these glands may be  located 
in the region of the groin1 as in the   
horse and whale2  between the forelimbs1
 as in the elephant and bat2 or arranged
 in  pairs extending from the fore to   
the hind limbs1 as in the carnivora  and
 swine4 ,in man and all other primates  
7except lemurs7 the mammary  glands are 
pectoral and two in number4 ,all        
primates1 including man1  have also a   
disc-shaped placenta4 ,the placenta is  
the organ of  nutrition in mammalian    
embryos4 ,it is found in all            
young-bearing  animals above the        
marsupials1 and consists of a mass of   
glands  between the embryo and the      
parental body4 ,in some animals it      
entirely surrounds and encloses the     
embryo2 in others it assumes the  form  
of a girdle2 and in still others it is  
bell-shaped4 ,the  primates are the only

 animals in which this peculiar organ is
 in the  shape of a simple disc4#a      
,the nearest relatives by blood man has 
in this world are the  exceedingly      
man-like apes--the tailless             
anthropoids--the gorillas  and          
chimpanzees of ,africa1 and the orangs  
and gibbons of southern  and insular    
,asia4 ,the fact that man is an actual  
relative and  descendant of the ape is  
one of the most disagreeable of the many
  distasteful truths which the human    
mind in its evolution has come  upon4   
,to a vanity puffed1 as is that of human
 beings1 to the  splitting1 the         
consanguinity of gorilla and gentleman  
seems  horrible4 ,man prefers to have   
arrived on the earth by way of a  ladder
 let down by his imagination from the   
celestial concave4  ,within his own     
memory man has been guilty of many      
foolish and  disgraceful things4 ,but   
this attempt by him to repudiate his    
ancestors by surreptitiously fabricating
 for himself an origin  different from1 

and more glorious than the rest is one  
of the most  absurd and scandalous in   
the whole list4 ,it is a shallow        
logic--the  logic of those who1 without 
worth of their own1 try to shine with a 
false and stolen lustre4 ,no more       
masterly rebuke was ever  administered  
to those in the habit of sneering at the
 truth in this  matter than the caustic 
reply of ,huxley to the taunt of the    
fat-witted ,bishop--that he would rather
 be the descendant of a  respectable ape
 than the descendant of one who not only
 closed his  eyes to the facts around   
him1 but used his official position to  
persuade others to do likewise4 ,man's  
reluctance to take his  anatomical place
 beside his simian kinspeople has been  
exceeded only  by his selfish and       
high-handed determination to exclude all
 other  terrestrial beings from his     
heaven4    ,man is a talkative and      
religious ape4 ,he is an ape1 but with a
 much  greater amount of enterprise and 
with a greater likelihood of being      

found in every variety of climate4 ,like
 the anthropoid1 man has a  bald face   
and an obsolete tail4 ,but he is        
distinguished from his  arboreal        
relative by his arrogant bearing1 his   
skilled larynx1 and  especially by the  
satisfaction he experiences in the      
contemplation  of the image which       
appears when he looks in a mirror4      
,the man-like apes are from three to six
 feet tall1 and are all of  them very   
strong1 the gorilla1 who sometimes      
weighs over three  hundred pounds1 being
 about the bravest and most formidable  
unarmed  animal on the planet4 ,they are
 erect or semi-erect1 have loud  voices1
 plantigrade feet1 and irritable        
dispositions--in all of  these          
particulars being strikingly like men4  
,the gorilla1  chimpanzee1 and gibbon   
are highlanders1 preferring the uplands 
and  mountains4 ,the orang is a         
lowlander1 living phlegmatically among  
the  sylvan swamps of ,sumatra and      
,borneo4 ,the gorilla and chimpanzee are

  terrestrial1 seldom going among the   
trees except to get food or to  sleep4  
,the orang and gibbon are arboreal1     
seldom coming to the  ground except to  
drink or bathe4 ,they all walk on their 
hind-limbs1  generally in a stooping    
posture1 with their knuckles or fingers 
touching the ground4 ,but they sometimes
 walk with their arms hanging  down by  
their sides1 and sometimes with their   
hands clasped back of  their heads to   
give them balance4 ,none of them ever   
place their  palms on the ground when   
they walk--that is1 none of them walk on
  four feet4 ,the anthropoid races1 in  
the shape of their heads and  faces and 
in the general form and structure of    
their bodies1 and  even in their habits 
of life1 resemble in a remarkable manner
 the  lowest races of human beings4     
,this resemblance is recognised by the  
negro races1 who call the gorilla and   
chimpanzee #8hairy men1'  and believe   
them to be descendants of outcast       
members of their own  species4    ,there

 are differences in structure between   
man and the apes1 just as  there are    
differences in structure between the    
,caucasian and the  ,caffre1 or even    
between individual ,caucasians or       
individual ,caffres4  ,there are        
differences in structure and topography1
 often very  noticeable differences1    
even among members of the same family4  
,but  in all of its essential           
characters1 and extending often to      
astonishing particulars1 the structure  
of man is identical with that  of the   
anthropoid4#b    ,in external           
appearances the man-like races differ   
from men in having  a luxuriant covering
 of natural hair4 ,but anthropoids      
differ very  much among themselves in   
this particular4 ,the orang1 usually    
covered  with long hair1 is sometimes   
almost hairless4 ,there are1 too1 races 
of human beings whose bodies are covered
 with a considerable growth  of hair4   
,the ,todas 7,australians7 and ,ainus   
7aborigines of ,japan7 are  noted for   

the hairiness of their bodies1 certain  
individuals among  them being covered   
with a real fur1 especially on the lower
 limbs4#c    ,individuals also often    
appear in every race with a remarkable  
development of the hair4 ,adrian and his
 son ,fedor1 exhibited years  ago over  
,europe as #8dog-men1' are examples4    
,the father was  completely covered with
 a thick growth of fine dirty-yellow    
hair two  or three inches long4 ,long   
tufts grew out of his nostrils and ears1
  giving him a striking resemblance to a
 ,skye terrier4 ,fedor1 and also  his   
sister1 were covered with hair like the 
father1 but another son  was like       
ordinary men4 ,the man-like races have  
also longer arms in  proportion to the  
height of the body than man generally   
has4 ,but  this is also true of human   
infants and negroes4 ,the gibbon has    
relatively much longer arms than the    
other anthropoids4 ,it differs  from the
 chimpanzee in this respect more than   
the chimpanzee differs  from man4 ,when 

standing upright and reaching down with 
the middle  finger1 the gibbon can touch
 its foot1 while the chimpanzee can     
reach only to the knee4 ,man ordinarily 
reaches part way down the  thigh1 but   
negroes have been known to have arms    
reaching to the  knee-pan4#d    ,the    
skeleton of the ,african races contains 
many characters  recognised by          
osteologists as #8pithecoid1' or        
ape-like4 ,it is  massive1 the flat     
bones are thick1 and the pelvis narrow4 
,in the  manlike apes the large toe is  
opposable to the other four1 and is     
used by them much as the thumb is used4 
,but this difference between  the two   
races of beings is just what might be   
expected from the  differences in their 
modes of life4 ,man has little need of  
this  opposability on account of his    
exclusively terrestrial life1 while  to 
the ape it is indispensable on account  
of his arboreal  environment and life4  
#8,but there are1' says ,haeckel1 #8wild
  tribes of men who can oppose the large

 toe to the other four just as  if it   
were a thumb1 and even new-born infants 
of the most  highly-developed races of  
men can grasp as easily with their      
hind-hands as with their forehands4     
,chinese boatmen row with their  feet1  
and ,bengal workmen weave with them4    
,the negro1 in whom the big  toe is     
freely movable1 seizes hold of the      
branches of trees with it  when         
climbing1 just like the four-handed     
apes'4#e    ,many men have lost their   
arms by accident and have learned to use
  their feet as hands with wonderful    
skill4 ,not many years ago there  died  
in ,europe an armless violinist who had 
during his lifetime  played to cultured 
audiences in most of the capitals of the
 world4  ,some of the most accomplished 
of penmen hold their pen between their  
toes4 ,the man-like apes live to about  
the same age as man1 and all  of them1  
like man1 have beards4 ,the anthropoid  
beard1 too1 like the  human1 appears at 
the age of sexual maturity4 ,the human  

beard often  differs in colour from the 
hair of the scalp1 and whenever it does 
it has been observed to be invariably   
lighter--never darker--than  the hair on
 the scalp4 ,this is true among all     
races of men4 ,the same  rule and the   
same uniformity exists among            
anthropoids4 ,the races of  mankind are 
divided into two primary groups         
depending upon the shape  of the head   
and the character of the hair3 the      
short-headed races  7,brachycephali71   
such as the ,malays1 ,mongols1 and      
,aryans1 with round  or oval faces1     
straight hair1 and vertical profiles2   
and the  long-headed races              
7,dolichocephali71 with woolly hair and 
prognathous  faces1 such as the ,papuans
 and ,africa races4 ,the skin of the    
short-headed races is orange or white1  
while the skin and hair of  the         
long-headed races are glossy black4     
,it is1 at least1 interesting that the  
orang and gibbon1 who live in  ,asia and
 its islands1 where the brachycephalic  

races of men  supposedly arose1 are     
themselves brachycephalic2 and that the 
gorilla and chimpanzee1 who live in     
,africa1 where the  dolichocephalic     
races chiefly live1 are dolichocephalic4
 ,the gorilla  and chimpanzee also have1
 like the men and women of ,africa1     
black  skin and hair2 while the hair of 
the orang is a reddish-brown1 and  its  
skin sometimes yellowish-white4 ,the    
dentition of the anthropoids  and men is
 in all essentials identical4 ,they all 
have two sets of  teeth3 a set of       
milk-teeth1 twenty in number1 and       
thirty-two  permanent teeth1 the        
permanents consisting of two incisors1  
one  canine1 two premolars1 and three   
molars1 in each half-jaw4 ,man has      
ordinarily twelve pairs of ribs and     
thirty-two vertebrae4 ,so has the       
orang4 ,the other anthropoids have      
thirteen pairs of ribs4 ,but the  number
 of ribs in both human and anthropoid   
beings is not uniform1  man occasionally
 having thirteen pairs1 and the gorilla 

fourteen4  ,man has also the same number
 of caudal vertebrae in his rudimentary 
tail as the anthropoid has4 ,the hands  
and feet of anthropoids1 bone  for bone 
and muscle for muscle1 correspond with  
those of men1 no  greater structural    
differences existing than among         
different species  of men4 ,the human   
foot has three muscles not found in the 
human  hand--a short flexor muscle1 a   
short extensor muscle1 and a long       
muscle extending from the fibula to the 
foot4 ,all of these muscles  are found  
in the anthropoid foot just as in the   
foot of man4 ,there  are also the same  
differences between the arrangement of  
the bones  of the anthropoid wrist and  
ankle as between the wrist and ankle    
bones of man4 ,whatever set of          
anatomical particulars may be  selected1
 whether it be hands1 arms1 feet1       
muscles1 skull1 viscera1  ribs1 or      
dentition1 it is found that the         
anthropoid races and men  are in all    
essentials the same4 ,the differences   

are such as have  arisen as a result of 
different modes of life1 and such as    
exist  between different tribes of      
either group of animals4    #8,the      
structural differences which separate   
man from the gorilla  and chimpanzee1'  
says ,huxley1 in summing up the         
conclusion of his  brilliant inquiry    
into #8,man's ,place in ,nature1' #8are 
not so  great as those which separate   
the gorilla from the lower apes4'       
#8,the body of man and that of the      
anthropoid are not only  peculiarly     
similar1' says ,haeckel1 #8but they are 
practically one  and the same in every  
important respect4 ,the same two hundred
 bones1  in the same order and          
structure1 make up our inner skeleton2  
the  same three hundred muscles effect  
our movements2 the same hair  clothes   
our skin2 the same four-chambered heart 
is the central  pulsometer in our       
circulation2 the same thirty-two teeth  
are set in  the same order in our jaws2 
the same salivary1 hepatic1 and gastric 

glands compass our digestion2 the same  
reproductive organs insure  the         
maintenance of our race'4#f    #8,not   
being able1' says ,owen in his paper on 
#8,the ,characters of  ,mammalia1' #8to 
appreciate or conceive of the           
distinction between  the psychical      
phenomena of a chimpanzee and of a      
,boschisman or of an  ,aztec with       
arrested brain-growth1 as being of a    
nature so essential  as to preclude a   
comparison between them1 or as being    
other than a  difference in degree1 ,i  
cannot shut my eyes to the significance 
of  that all-pervading similitude of    
structure--every tooth1 every  bone1    
strictly homologous--which makes the    
determination of the  difference between
 ,homo and ,pithecus the anatomist's    
difficulty4'    #8,if before the        
appearance of man on the earth1' says   
,ward in his  #8,dynamic ,sociology1'   
#8an imaginary painter had visited it1  
and  drawn a portrait embodying the     
thorax of the gibbon1 the hands and     

feet of the gorilla1 the form and skull 
of the chimpanzee1 the brain            
development of the orang1 and the       
countenance of ,semnopithecus1  giving  
to the whole the average stature of all 
of these apes1 the  result would have   
been a being not far removed from our   
conception  of the primitive man1 and   
not widely different from the actual    
condition of certain low tribes of      
savages4 ,the brain development  would  
perhaps be too low for the average of   
any existing tribe1 and  would          
correspond better with that of certain  
microcephalous idiots  and cretins1 of  
which the human race furnishes many     
examples4'    ,and it is not true1 as is
 commonly supposed1 that1 after all     
other  resemblances between the human   
and anthropoid structures have been     
made out1 there still exists somewhere  
some undistinguishable  difference in   
the organic structure of their brains4  
,all differences  in structure from time
 to time suspected or asserted to exist 

between the brain of man and that of the
 man-like apes have been one  after     
another completely swept away4 ,and it  
is now known to all  neurologists that  
the human and anthropoid brains differ  
structurally in no particulars whatever1
 both of them containing the  same      
lobes1 the same ventricles and cornua1  
and the same  convolutional outline4    
,even the posterior lobe1 the posterior 
cornu1  and the hippocampus minor1 so   
long triumphantly asserted to be        
characteristic features of the human    
brain1 have been pitilessly  identified 
in all anthropoids by the profound and  
terrible ,huxley4  ,there is not an     
important fold or fissure in the brain  
of man that  is not found in the brain  
of the anthropoid4 #8,the surface of the
  brain of a monkey1' says ,huxley1     
#8exhibits a sort of skeleton  map of   
man's1 and in the man-like apes the     
details become more and  more filled in1
 until it is only in minor characters   
that the  chimpanzee's or the orang's   

brain can be structurally  distinguished
 from man's'4#g    ,the great difference
 physically between man and the         
anthropoids1  aside from man's talented 
larynx and erect posture1 lies in  man's
 abnormal cranial capacity4 ,the normal 
human cranium never  contains less than 
#ee cubic inches of space1 while the    
largest  gorilla cranium contains only  
#cd cubic inches4 ,this is a  difference
 of #bj cubic inches4 ,and #bj cubic    
inches of thinking  matter is an        
alarming amount to be lacking in a      
single individual4  ,but this cranial   
gap between gorilla and man is deprived 
of some of  its significance by the fact
 that human crania sometimes measure    
#aad  cubic inches1 making a difference 
between the smallest and largest  human 
brains of #ei cubic inches4 ,the        
difference between the gorilla  and the 
savage in cranial capacity is1          
therefore1 only about  one-third as     
great as the cranial chasm between the  
savage and the  sage4    #a4 ,the bat   

and a few other animals have a disc-like
 placenta1 but it  develops into the    
disc shape by a different route from    
what it does  in the primates4  #b4     
,hartmann3 ,anthropoid ,apes2 ,new      
,york1 #aija4  #c4 ,quatrefages3 ,the   
,human ,species2 ,new ,york1 #ahih4  #d4
 ,tyler3 ,anthropology2 ,new ,york2     
#ahii4  #e4 ,haeckel3 ,history of       
,creation1 #b vols42 ,new ,york1 #ahif4 
#f4 ,haeckel3 ,the ,riddle of the       
,universe2 ,new ,york1 #aija4  #g4      
,huxley3 ,man's ,place in ,nature2 ,new 
,york1 #ahhc4    ,v4 ,recapitulation4   
,the anatomical gulf between men and    
apes does not exist4 ,there are1  in    
fact1 no gulfs anywhere1 only           
gradations4 ,all chasms are  completely 
covered by unmistakable affinities1 in  
spite of the fact  that the remains of  
so many millions of deceased races lie  
hidden  beneath seas or everlastingly   
locked in the limy bosoms of the        
continents4 ,there are closer kinships  
and remoter kinships1 but  there are    

kinships everywhere4 ,the more intimate 
kinships are  indicated by more definite
 and detailed similarities1 and the more
  general relationships by more         
fundamental resemblances4 ,all          
creatures are bound to all other        
creatures by the ties of a varying  but 
undeniable consanguinity4    ,man stands
 unquestionably in the primate order of 
animals1 because  he has certain        
qualities of structure which all        
primates have1 and  which all other     
animals have not3 hands and arms and    
nails1 a  bagpipe stomach1 great        
subordination of the cerebellum1 a      
disc-like  placenta1 teeth              
differentiated into incisors1 canines1  
and molars1  and pectoral milk glands4  
,man is more closely akin to the        
anthropoid apes than to the other       
primates on account of his immense      
brain1 his ape-like face1 his  vertical 
spine1 and in being a true two-handed   
biped4 ,the manlike  apes and men have  
the same number and kinds of teeth1 the 

same limb  bones and muscles1 like ribs 
and vertebrae1 an atrophied tail1 the   
same brain structure1 and a suspicious  
similarity in looks and  disposition4   
,men and anthropoids live about the same
 number of  years1 both being toothless 
and wrinkled in old age4 ,the beard1    
too1  in both classes of animals appears
 at the same period of life and  obeys  
the same law of variation in colour4    
,even the hairs on  different parts of  
the bodies of men and anthropoids1 as on
 the  arms1 incline at a like angle to  
the body surface4 ,the hair on the      
upper arm and that on the forearm1 in   
both anthropoids and men1  point in     
opposite directions--toward the elbow4  
,this peculiarity is  found nowhere in  
the animal kingdom excepting in a few   
,american  monkeys4    ,man's mammalian 
affinities are shown in his diaphragm1  
his hair1  his four-chambered heart1 his
 corpus callosum1 his non-nucleated     
blood-corpuscles1 and his awkward       
incubation4    ,the fishes1 frogs1      

reptiles1 birds1 and non-human mammals  
are human  in having two body cavities1 
segmented internal skeletons1 two pairs 
of limbs1 skulls and spinal columns1 red
 blood1 brains1 and dorsal  cords2 and  
in possessing two eyes1 two ears1       
nostrils1 and mouth  opening out of the 
head4 ,and finally all animals1         
including man1 are  related to all other
 animal forms by the great underlying   
facts of  their origin1 structure1      
composition1 and destiny4 ,all          
creatures1  whether they live in the    
sea1 in the heavens1 or in subterranean 
glooms2 whether they swim1 fly1 crawl1  
or walk2 whether their world  is a      
planet or a water-drop2 and whether they
 realise it or not1  commence existence 
in the same way1 are composed of the    
same  substances1 are nourished by the  
same matters1 follow fundamentally  the 
same occupations1 all do under the      
circumstances the best they  can1 and   
all arrive ultimately at the same       
pitiful end4    ,,vi4 ,the ,meaning of  

,homology4    ,the similarities and     
homologies of structure existing between
 man  and other animals1 and between    
other animals and still others1 are  not
 accidental and causeless4 ,they are not
 resemblances scattered  arbitrarily    
among the multitudinous forms of life by
 the capricious  levities of chance4    
,that all animals commence existence as 
an egg  and are all made up of cells    
composed of the same protoplasmic       
substance1 and all inhale oxygen and    
exhale carbon dioxide1 and are  all     
seeking pleasure and seeking to avoid   
pain1 are more than  ordinary facts4    
,they are filled with inferences4 ,that 
vertebrate  animals1 differing in       
externals as widely as herring and      
,englishmen1  are all built according to
 the same fundamental plan1 with        
marrow-filled backbones and exactly two 
pairs of limbs branching in  the same   
way1 is an astonishing coincidence4     
,that the wing of the  bird1 the foreleg
 of the dog1 the flipper of the whale1  

and the  fore-limb of the toad and      
crocodile1 have essentially the same    
bones  as the human arm has is a fact   
which may be without significance to    
blind men1 but to no one else4 ,the     
metamorphosis of the frog from a  fish1 
of the insect from a worm1 and of a poet
 from a senseless  cell1 are            
transformations simply marvellous in    
meaning4 ,and it is  not easy1 since    
,darwin1 to understand how such lessons 
could remain  long unintelligible1 even 
to stones and simpletons4 ,not many     
generations have passed1 however1 since 
these revelations1 now so  distinct and 
wonderful1 fell on the listless minds of
 men as  ineffectually as the glories of
 the flower fall on the sightless       
sockets of the blind4    ,it is hardly  
two generations since the highest       
intelligences on the  earth conceived   
that not only the different varieties of
 men--the  black1 the white1 and the    
orange--but all the orders and genera of
  the animal world1 and not only        

animals1 but plants1 had all been       
somehow simultaneously and arbitrarily  
brought into existence in  some         
indistinct antiquity1 and that they had 
from the beginning all  existed with    
practically the same features and in    
approximately the  same conditions as   
those with which and in which they are  
found  to-day4 ,the universe was        
conceived to be a fixed and stupid      
something1 born as we see it1 incapable 
of growth1 and indulging in  nothing but
 repetitions4 ,there were no necessary  
coherencies and  consanguinities1 no    
cosmical tendencies operating eternally 
and  universally4 ,all was whimsical and
 arbitrary4 ,it was not known that      
anything had grown or evolved4 ,all     
things were believed to have been  given
 beginning and assigned to their        
respective places in the  universe by a 
potential and all-clever creator4 ,the  
serpent was  limbless because it had    
officiously allowed ,eve to include in  
her  dietary that which had been        

expressly forbidden4 ,the quadruped     
walked with its face towards the earth  
as a structural reminder of  its        
subjection to the biped1 who was        
supposed to be especially  skilled in   
keeping his eyes rolled heavenward4 ,the
 flowers flung out  their colours1 not  
for the benefit of the bugs and bees1   
and the  stars paraded1 not because they
 were moved to do so by their own       
eternal urgings1 but because man had    
eyes capable of being affected  by them4
 ,man was an erect and featherless      
vertebrate because his  hypothetical    
maker was erect and featherless4 7,i    
wonder whether1 if  a clam should       
conceive a creator1 it would have the   
magnanimity to  make him an insect or a 
vertebrate1 or anything other than a    
great  big clam47    ,,vii4 ,the ,earth 
an ,evolution4    ,the world now        
knows--at least1 the scientific part of 
it  knows--that these things are not    
true1 that they are but the solemn      
fancies of honest but simple-minded     

ancients who did the best they  could in
 that twilight age to explain to their  
inquiring instincts  the wilderness of  
phenomena in which they found           
themselves4 ,the  universe is a process4
 ,it is not petrified1 but flowing4 ,it 
is going  somewhere4 ,everything is     
changing and evolving1 and will always  
continue to do so4 ,the forms of life1  
of continents and oceans1 and  of       
streams and systems1 which we perceive  
as we open our senses upon  the world   
to-day1 are not the forms that have     
always existed1 and  they are not the   
forms of the eternal future4 ,there was 
a time1 away  in the inconceivable1 when
 there was no life upon the earth1 no   
solids1 and no seas4 ,the world was an  
incandescent lump1 lifeless  and alone1 
in the cold solitudes of the spaces4    
,there was a  time--there must have been
 a time--when life appeared for the     
first time upon the earth1 simple       
cellules without bones or blood1  and   
without a suspicion of their immense and

 quarrelsome posterity4  ,there was a   
time when ,north ,america was an island1
 and the ,alleghany  ,mountains were the
 only mountains of the continent4 ,the  
time  was--in the coal-forming age--when
 the ,mississippi ,valley1 from  the    
,colorado ,islands to the ,alleghanies1 
was a vast marsh or sea1  choked with   
forests of equisetum and fern1 and      
swarming with  gigantic reptiles now    
extinct4 ,there was a time when palms   
grew in  ,dakota1 and magnolias waved in
 the semi-tropical climate of           
,greenland and ,spitzbergen4 ,there was 
a time when there were no ,rocky        
,mountains in existence1 no ,andes1 no  
,alps1 no ,pyrenees1 and no  ,himalayas4
 ,and that time1 compared with the vast 
stretches of  geological duration1 was  
not so very long ago1 for these         
mountains  are all young mountains4 ,the
 time was when ,jurassic saurians--those
  repulsive ruffians of that rude old   
time--represented the highest           
intelligence and civilisation of the    

known universe4 ,there were no  men and 
women in the world1 not even savages1   
when our ape-like  forefathers wandered 
and wondered through the awesome        
silences of  primeval wilds2 there were 
no railroads1 steamboats1 telegraphs1   
telephones1 typewriters1 harvesters1    
electric lights1 nor sewing  machines2  
no billionaires nor bicycles1 no        
socialists nor  steam-heat1 no #8watered
 stock' nor #8government by             
injunction1' no women's clubs1 captains 
of industry1 labour  unions1 nor        
#8yellow perils'--there was none of     
these things on  the earth a hundred    
years ago4 ,all things have evolved to  
be what  they are--the continents1      
oceans1 and atmospheres1 and the plants 
and populations that live in and upon   
them4    ,there will come a time1 too1  
looking forward into the future1 when   
what we see now will be seen no more4   
,as we go backward into the  past1 the  
earth in all of its aspects rapidly     
changes2 the  continents dwindle1 the   

mountains melt1 and existing races and  
species disappear one after another4    
,the farther we penetrate into  the     
past1 the stranger and the more         
different from the present does         
everything become1 until finally we come
 to a world of molten rocks  and        
vapourised seas without a creeping thing
 upon it4 ,as it has been  in the past  
so will it be in time to come4 ,the     
present is not  everlasting4 ,the minds 
that perceive upon this planet a        
thousand  centuries in the future will  
perceive a very different world from    
that which the minds of this day        
perceive--different arts1 animals1      
events1 ideals1 geographies1 sciences1  
and civilisations4 ,the earth  seems    
fixed and changeless because we are so  
fleeting4 ,we see it but  a moment1 and 
are gone4 ,the tossing forest in the    
wrath of the storm  is motionless when  
looked at by a flash of lightning4 ,the 
same  tendencies that have worked past  
changes are at work to-day as           

tirelessly as in the past4 ,by invisible
 chisels the mountains are  being       
sculptured1 ocean floors are lifting1   
and continents are  sinking into the    
seas4 ,species1 systems1 and            
civilisations are  changing1 some       
crumbling and passing away1 others      
rising out of the  ruins of the         
departed4 ,mighty astronomical          
tendencies are secretly  but            
relentlessly at work1 and immense       
vicissitudes are in store for  this clod
 of our nativity4 ,the earth is doomed  
to be frozen to  death4 ,in a few       
million years1 according to astronomers1
 the sun  will have shrunken to a       
fraction of his present size1 and will  
have  become correspondingly reduced in 
heat-giving powers4 ,it is  estimated   
that in twelve or fifteen million years 
the sun1 upon  whose mighty             
dispensations all life and activity on  
the earth are  absolutely dependent1    
will become so enfeebled that no form of
 life  on the earth will be possible4   

,the partially-cooled earth itself is   
giving up its internal warmth1 and will 
continue to give it up until  it is the 
same temperature as the surrounding     
abysms1 which is the  frightful negative
 of something like #bgj centigrade      
degrees4 ,these  are not very cheerful  
facts for those who inhabit the earth to
  contemplate4 ,but they that seek the  
things that cheer must seek  another    
sphere4 ,no power can stay the          
emaciation of suns or the  thievery of  
enveloping immensities4 ,old age is     
inevitable4 ,it is far  off1 but it is  
as certain as human decay1 and as       
mournful4 ,in that  dreadful but        
inevitable time no living being will be 
left in this  world2 there will be no   
cities nor states nor vanities nor      
creeping  things1 no flowers1 no        
twilights1 no love1 only a frozen       
sphere4 ,the  oceans that now rave      
against the rocky flanks of the         
continents will  be locked in eternal   
immobility2 the atmospheres1 which      

to-day drive  their fleecy flocks over  
the azure meads of heaven and float     
sweet  sounds and feathered forms1 will 
be1 in that terrible time1 turned  to   
stone2 the radiant woods and fields1 the
 home of the myriads and  the green     
play-places of the shadows1 will1 like  
all that live1  move1 and breathe1 have 
rotted into the everlasting lumber of   
the  elements4 ,there will be no ,europe
 then1 no pompous philosophies1 no      
hellish rich1 and no gods4 ,all will    
have suffered indescribable             
refrigeration4 ,the earth will be a     
fluidless1 lifeless1 sunless  cinder1   
unimaginably dead and desolate1 a       
decrepit and pitiful old  ruin falling  
endlessly among heartless immensities1  
the universal  tomb of the activities4  
,the universe is an evolution4 ,change  
is as extensive as time and  space4 ,the
 present has come out of that which has 
been1 and will  enter into and determine
 that which is to be4 ,everything has a 
biography4 ,everything has              

evolved--everything--from the murmur  on
 the lips of the speechless babe to the 
soul of the poet1 and from  the molecule
 to ,jehovah4    ,,viii4 ,the ,factors  
of ,organic ,evolution4    ,the animal  
kingdom represents one of the two grand 
branches of the  organic universe4 ,it  
has been evolved--evolved in a manner as
  simple and straightforward as it is   
revolting4 ,it has all been  brought    
about by partiality or selection4       
,generations of beings  have come into  
existence4 ,the individual members of   
each generation  have differed from each
 other--differed in size1 strength1     
speed1  colour1 shape1 sagacity1 luck1  
and likelihood of life4 ,no two  beings1
 not even those born from the same womb1
 are in all respects  identical4        
,hardships have come4 ,they have come   
from the inanimate  universe in the form
 of floods1 fires1 frosts1 accidents1   
diseases1  droughts1 storms1 and the    
like2 from other species1 who were      
competitors or enemies2 and from        

unbrotherly members of the same         
species4 ,some have survived1 but the   
great majority have perished4  ,only a  
fraction1 and generally an appallingly  
small fraction1 of  each generation of a
 species have lived to maturity4 ,the   
lobster  lays #aj1jjj eggs in a season1 
yet the mortality is such that the      
number of lobsters do not increase from 
one year to another4 ,the  elephant is  
the slowest breeder of all animals1 yet1
 if they should  all live1 the offspring
 of a single pair in #gej years would1  
according to ,darwin1 number nearly     
#ai1jjj1jjj4 ,it has been shown  that at
 the normal rate of increase of ,english
 sparrows1 if none  were to die save of 
old age1 it would take but twenty years 
for a  single pair to give one sparrow  
to every square inch in the ,state of   
,indiana4#a ,a single cyclops 7one of   
the humbler crustaceans7 may  have      
#e1jjj1jjj descendants in a season4 ,one
 aphis will produce #ajj  young1 and    
these young will reproduce in like      

manner for ten  generations in a season1
 when1 if they should all live1 there   
would  be a quintillion of young4 ,a    
female white ant1 when adult1 does      
nothing but lie in a cell and lay eggs4 
,she lays #hj1jjj eggs a day  regularly 
for several months4 ,an oyster lays     
#b1jjj1jjj eggs in a  season1 and if all
 these eggs came to maturity a few dozen
 oysters  might supply the markets of   
the world4 ,the tapeworm is said to     
produce the incredible number of        
#a1jjj1jjj1jjj ova1 and some of the     
humbler plants three times this number  
of spores4 ,if each egg of the  codfish 
should produce an adult1 a single pair  
in twenty-five years  would produce a   
mass of fish larger than the earth4     
,lower forms of  life are even more     
prolific than the higher4 ,maupas said  
that  certain microscopic infusorians   
which he studied multiplied so  rapidly 
that1 if they should continue to        
multiply for thirty-eight  days1 and all
 of them should live1 any one of them   

would produce a  mass of protoplasm as  
big as the sun4    ,those of each       
generation that have died have been     
inferior1 or  unfitted to the           
environment in which they found         
themselves4 ,those  that have survived  
have been superior1 superior in         
something--bigness1 cunning1 courage1   
virtue1 vitality1 strength1  speed1     
littleness1 or ferocity--something that 
has related them  advantageously to     
surrounding conditions4 ,the surviving  
remnant of  each generation have become 
the progenitors of the next generation1 
and have transmitted1 or tended to      
transmit1 to their offspring the        
qualities of their superiority4 ,this   
winnowing has gone on in each           
generation of living beings during many 
millions of years--almost  ever since   
life commenced to be on the earth4 ,some
 have continued  themselves1 and others 
have died childless4 ,the environment of
 each  species has been an immense      
sieve1 and only the superior have gone  

through it4 ,different environments have
 emphasised different  qualities of     
structure and disposition1 and have thus
 given rise to  permanent varieties in  
survival4 ,these varieties1 through the 
accumulated effects of many generations 
of selection1 have diverged  into       
species2 species1 after a still longer  
series of selections1  have evolved into
 genera2 genera have evolved into       
families2  families into orders2 and so 
on4 ,in this simple1 terrible manner    
have all the branches of organic beings 
7thanks to the horrors of a  million    
ages7 been brought into existence4      
,variation1 therefore1 which furnishes  
variety in offspring2  ,heredity1 which 
tends to perpetuate peculiarities by    
causing  offspring to resemble more or  
less the characters of their parents2   
and ,environment1 which determines the  
character of the selections1  are the   
three factors1 and the only three       
factors1 in organic  evolution4    #a4  
,jordan3 ,footnotes of ,evolution2 ,new 

,york1 #ahih4    ,,ix4 ,the ,evidences  
of ,organic ,evolution4    ,that the    
forms of life to-day found on the earth 
have come into  existence by the        
evolution of the more complex forms from
 the  simpler1 and of these simpler     
forms from still simpler1 through the   
ever-operating law of ,selection1 is a  
necessary conclusion from the  following
 facts3    #a4 ,the existence in the    
animal world of all grades of           
structures1  from the humblest possible 
protozoan1 whose body consists of a     
single simple speck1 to the most        
powerful and complex of mammals4  ,there
 are estimated to be something like a   
million species of  animals living on   
the earth to-day4 ,there may be several 
times this  number4 ,these species are  
linked together by millions of          
varieties1  and are so related to each  
other that they may be all gathered     
together into various genera2 these     
genera may be grouped into  families1   
the families into orders1 and the orders

 into seven or  eight great primary     
phyla4 ,by taking existing species and  
adding to  them the extinct species of  
the rocks1 and placing them all         
according to their structural           
affinities1 it is possible to arrange   
them in the form of a tree with the     
various phyla1 orders1 families1        
genera1 and species1 branching and      
rebranching from the main trunk4  ,the  
existence of structures1 so graduated as
 to render such an  arrangement         
possible1 is in itself suggestive of a  
common  relationship and origin4    #b4 
,evolution is suggested by the          
similarities and homologies of          
structure found throughout the animal   
kingdom4 ,some of these  similarities   
and homologies have already been        
mentioned4 ,they are                    
everywhere--remoter and more            
fundamental1 some of them1 others       
closer and more detailed4 ,to the       
untrained mind1 which sees surfaces     
only1 and not even surfaces well1 the   

animal world is an  interminable        
miscellany of forms4 ,but to the        
biologist1 who looks  deeper and with   
immense acumen over the whole field of  
animal life1  there are only seven or   
eight different types of structure in   
the  entire animal world4 ,these seven  
or eight types correspond with the      
primary classes1 or phyla1 into which   
animals are divided1 viz41  protozoa1   
sponges1 celenterates1 echinoderms1     
worms1 mollusks1  arthropods1 and       
vertebrates4 ,however widely the members
 of each of  these great groups may     
differ among themselves in colour1 size1
  habits of life1 and the like1 the     
members of each group all resemble  each
 other fundamentally4 ,moles differ from
 monkeys1 bats from men1  and birds from
 crocodiles and toads4 ,they differ     
enormously4 ,but  they are all          
vertebrates with red blood1 double body 
cavities1  backbones1 two pairs of      
limbs1 and five fingers on each limb4   
,when  they are looked at superficially1

 there is not much similarity  between a
 water-strider and a butterfly or       
between a stag-beetle and  a gnat4 ,but 
they are all1 in reality1 built         
according to the same  plan4 ,like all  
other insects1 they have six legs1 a    
sheath-like  skeleton1 and bodies       
characteristically divided into head1   
thorax1  and abdomen4 ,it is the same   
with all other great classes of beings4 
,all worms resemble each other2 and so  
do all mollusks1 although they  may     
differ in particulars as widely as      
nautiluses and clams4  ,echinoderms have
 a radiate structure1 celenterates and  
sponges are  vase-like in shape1 and    
protozoa are one-celled4 ,the           
differences in  structure among the     
members of a group consist in different 
modifications of a fundamental type4    
,among the vertebrates the  fore-limb   
may be an arm1 a leg1 a wing1 a shovel1 
a flipper1 or a  fin4 ,but in all cases 
it is the same organ--that is1 the same 
implement modified to serve different   

ends4 ,take the mouth-parts of  insects4
 ,in the grasshopper and cricket these  
parts are fitted for  grinding2 in the  
moths and butterflies they are fashioned
 into long  tubes for sucking the sweets
 of flowers2 in the mosquito they form  
an elaborate apparatus for drilling and 
drinking2 and in the mayfly  the        
mouth-parts1 though present1 are not    
used at all4 ,in all of  these animals  
these parts are essentially the same1   
although  differing so much in their    
forms and purposes that the unscientific
  can scarcely be made to believe they  
are fundamentally alike4 ,there  is no  
fact more familiar to the biologist or  
more frequently met  with in the fields 
of animal morphology than the fact that 
the same  general type may be hammered  
into dozens1 or hundreds1 or even       
thousands1 of different patterns by the 
incessant industry of its  surroundings1
 and that the same organic part may be  
moulded into  various implements serving
 totally different ends by the          

environmental vicissitudes of time and  
space4 ,on the hypothesis that  the     
members of each group of animals        
possessing common  characteristics1     
whether the group be large or small1    
have sprung  from a common ancestry1 and
 that the differences in structure have 
arisen as a result of differences in    
environment1 the similarities  and      
homologies of structure existing among  
animals are perfectly  intelligible4    
,but on any other supposition they are  
inexplicable4    #c4 ,evolution is      
suggested by the remarkable series of   
phenomena  presented by embryology4     
,there are at least four facts in the   
developmental history of every creature 
which can hardly be  accounted for on   
any other supposition than that of      
organic  evolution4    ,first1 the fact 
that every animal1 above the lowest1    
individually  passes through an         
evolution between the beginning of its  
existence  and its maturity4            
,terrestrial beings are not born1 like  

,minerva1  full-grown4 ,they grow4 ,they
 evolve4 ,they commence close down to   
the  very atoms4 ,and from this lowly   
genesis they rise1 through a series  of 
marvellous changes1 to that high state  
of perfection and  greatness from which 
they descend to dissolution4    ,if we  
knew by actual observation as little    
concerning the evolution  of individuals
 as we do of the evolution of           
species--if we had  always been used to 
seeing animals1 including ourselves1 in 
full  bloom--had never watched the      
tadpole1 the pupa1 and the babe pass    
through their wonderful metamorphoses on
 their way to maturity1 it  would       
probably be just as hard for many minds 
to believe that  animals evolve         
individually to be what they are as it  
is for them to  believe that species    
have grown to be what they are4 ,in the 
case of  individuals1 however1 the      
evolution takes place right before our  
eyes largely1 while the evolution of    
species goes on so slowly and  stretches

 back so far into the past that it can  
only be inferred4    ,second1 the fact  
that animals1 no matter how much they   
may differ  from each other at maturity1
 all begin existence at the same place4 
,every animal commences its organic     
existence as an egg--as a  one-celled   
animal--as an organism identical in     
structure with the  simplest protozoan4 
,the ova of whales #8are no larger than 
fern  seeds4' ,the eggs of the coral1   
the crab1 the ape1 and the man are  so  
precisely alike that the highest powers 
of the microscope cannot  distinguish   
between them4    ,third1 the fact that  
the members of the same great group of  
animals in their individual development 
pass through similar stages  of         
evolution4 ,the #8worm' stage in the    
development of most  insects and the    
#8fish' stage of frogs are well known4  
,there are no more remarkable instances 
of individual evolution in  the whole   
range of animal life4 ,the fish1 the    
reptile1 the bird1 the  dog1 and the    

human being--all vertebrates1 in        
short--cannot for  some time after their
 embryonic commencement be distinguished
 from  each other4 #8,the feet of       
lizards and mammals1 the wings and feet 
of birds1 and the hands and feet of     
men1' says the illustrious ,von  ,baer1 
as quoted by ,darwin1 #8all arise from  
the same fundamental  form'4#a    #8,it 
is quite in the later stages of         
development1' says ,huxley1  #8that the 
human being presents marked differences 
from the ape1  while the latter departs 
as much from the dog in its development 
as  the man does'4#b    ,not only frogs1
 but reptiles1 birds1 and mammals1      
including man1 all  have gills at a     
certain stage in their embryonic        
development4 ,nearly  all the lower     
invertebrate animals are                
hermaphroditic--that is1 in  the body of
 each animal is found the two kinds of  
sex organs which  in the higher animals 
exist in distinct animals4 ,and frogs1  
birds1  and other higher animals1 which 

as adults are unisexual1 have1 as an    
inheritance from these primitive forms1 
hermaphroditic embryos4#c    ,fourth1   
the fact that the structural stages     
through which animals  in embryo pass   
correspond in a wonderful manner with   
the permanent  structures of those lower
 forms which extend serially back to the
  beginnings of life4 ,it is the        
proudest boast of the embryologist  that
 he is able to know the route through   
which any species has come  to be what  
it is by a simple study of the          
individual evolution of  its members4   
,each animal repeats in its individual  
evolution the  evolution of its species4
 ,this recapitulation is not always     
complete--is1 in fact1 frequently vague1
 sometimes circuitous1 and  often broken
 or abbreviated4 ,processes requiring   
originally  centuries or thousands of   
years to accomplish are here telescoped 
into a few months1 or even days4 ,it is 
not strange that the process  is        
imperfect4 ,but so firmly is the belief 

in the correspondence of  ontogeny and  
phylogeny fixed in the minds of modern  
biologists that1  in determining the    
classification and affinities of any    
particular  animal1 more reliance is    
placed on the facts of embryology than  
on  those of adult structure4    ,the   
first thing that an animal becomes after
 it is an egg--unless  it is a          
one-celled animal1 in which case it     
remains always an  egg--is two cells2   
these two cells become four2 these four 
become  eight2 and so on1 until the     
embryo becomes a many-celled ball1      
consisting of a single layer of cells   
surrounding a fluid interior4  ,a dimple
 forms in the cell layer on one side of 
this ball1 and1 by  deepening to a      
hollow1 changes the ball into a         
double-walled sac4  ,this is the        
gastrula--the permanent structure of the
 sponges and  celenterates1 and an      
7almost7 invariable stage in the larval 
development of all animals above the    
sponges and celenterates4 ,the  gastrula

 becomes a worm 7or an insect or a fish 
through the worm7 by  elongation and    
enlargement1 and by the development of  
the endoderm1  which is the inner layer 
of the cell wall1 into organs of        
nutrition  and reproduction1 and by the 
development of the ectoderm1 which is   
the outer cell layer1 into organs of    
motion and sensation4    ,the embryonic 
development of a human being is not     
different in kind  from the embryonic   
development of any other animal4 ,every 
human  being at the beginning of his    
organic existence is a protozoan1  about
 #a_/abe inch in diameter2 at another   
stage of development he is  a tiny      
sac-shaped mass of cells without blood  
or nerves1 the  gastrula2 at another    
stage he is a worm1 with a pulsating    
tube  instead of a heart1 and without   
head1 neck1 spinal column1 or limbs2  at
 another stage he has1 as a backbone1 a 
rod of cartilage extending  along the   
back1 and a faint nerve cord1 as in     
amphioxus1 the lowest  of the           

vertebrates2 at another stage he is a   
fish with a  two-chambered heart1       
mesonephric kidneys1 and gill-slits with
 gill  arteries leading to them1 just as
 in fishes2 at another stage he is  a   
reptile with a three-chambered heart1   
and voiding his excreta  through a      
cloaca like other reptiles2 and finally1
 when he enters  upon post-natal sins   
and actualities1 he is a sprawling1     
squalling1  unreasoning quadruped4 ,the 
human larva from the fifth to the       
seventh  month of development is covered
 with a thick growth of hair and has  a 
true caudal appendage1 like the monkey4 
,at this stage the embryo  has in all   
thirty-eight vertebrae1 nine of which   
are caudal1 and the  great toe extends  
at right angles to the other toes1 and  
is not  longer than the other toes1 but 
shorter1 as in the ape4    ,these facts 
are unmistakable4 ,there is a reason for
 everything1 and  there is a reason for 
these transformations through which each
  generation of living beings journeys4 

,the individual passes through  them    
because the species to which he belongs 
has passed through  them4 ,they         
represent ancestral wanderings4 ,as if  
to emphasise the  kinship of all of     
life's forms and to render              
incontrovertible the  fact of universal 
evolution1 ,nature compels every        
individual to  commence existence at the
 same place1 and to recapitulate in his 
individual evolution the phylogenetic   
journeyings of his species4    #d4 ,that
 existing forms of life have been       
evolved from other forms1  and that     
these ancestral forms have been         
different from those  derived from them1
 is shown by the occasional appearance  
of  antecedent and abandoned types of   
structure among the offspring of        
existing species4 ,occasionally a human 
child is born strangely  unlike its     
parents1 but bearing an unmistakable    
resemblance in looks  and disposition to
 his great-grandfather or some other    
remote  ancestor4 ,this is atavism1 that

 tendency to revert to ancestral  types 
which is prevalent among all animals4   
,we may think of it  figuratively as a  
flash of indecision when ,nature        
hesitates for a  moment whether to adopt
 a new form of structure or cling to the
 old  and tried4 ,horses and mules are  
sometimes born with three toes on  each 
foot1 and zebra-like stripes on their   
legs and shoulders2 and  domestic       
pigeons1 such as are naturally black1   
red1 or mottled1  occasionally produce  
offspring with blue plumage and two     
black  wing-bars1 like the wild         
rock-dove1 from which all domestic      
breeds  have sprung4 ,in man the        
cheekbone and the frontal bone of the   
forehead consist normally each of a     
single bone4 ,but in children and  human
 embryos these bones are always double1 
as is normally the case  in adults among
 some of the anthropoids and other      
mammals4 ,gills  appear regularly in the
 embryos of reptiles1 birds1 and        
mammals1 and  human young are sometimes 

born with gill-slits on the neck4 ,there
  are times when1 owing to inaccurate or
 incomplete embryological  development1 
these fish-like characteristics are so  
perfect at birth  as to allow liquids1  
on being swallowed1 to pass out through 
them  and trickle down on the outside of
 the neck4 ,many muscles are            
occasionally developed in man which are 
normal in the apes and other  mammals4  
,as many as seven different muscular    
variations have been  found in a single 
human being1 every one of which were    
muscles found  normally in the structure
 of the apes4#a    #e4 ,closely akin to 
atavism1 which is the occasional        
persistence of  ancestral types of      
character1 is the regular occurrence of 
vestigial  organs or structures1 organs 
which in ancestral forms have definite  
functions1 but which in existing        
species1 owing to changed  conditions1  
are rudimentary and useless4 ,on the    
back of each ankle  of the horse are two
 splints1 the atrophied remains of the  

second  and fourth toes4 ,similar       
vestiges of two obsolete toes are also  
found just back of the wrists and ankles
 on all the two-toed  ungulates1 such as
 the cow and sheep4 ,in the body of the 
whale where  hind-limbs would naturally 
be1 there are found the anatomical ruins
  of these organs in the form of a few  
diminutive bones4 ,the same  thing is   
true in the sirenians4 ,in the          
,greenland whale there are  remnants of 
both femur and tibia in the region of   
the atrophied  hind-limbs4 ,the snakes  
are limbless1 but the pythons and boas  
have  internal remnants of hind-limbs   
and sometimes even clawed structures    
representing toes4 ,the so-called       
#8glass-snake' or  #8joint-snake' 7which
 is really a limbless lizard7 has four  
complete internal limbs4 ,young turtles1
 parrots1 and whalebone  whales have    
teeth1 but the adults of these animals  
are toothless4  ,cows1 sheep1 deer1 and 
other ruminants1 never have as adults   
any  upper incisors1 but these teeth are

 found in the foetal stages of  these   
animals just under the gums4 ,the female
 frog has rudimentary  male reproductive
 organs1 and the male has corresponding 
vestiges of  female organs4 ,similar    
remnants of the reproductive structures 
exist  in many other animals4 ,they     
represent stages in the transition from 
the hermaphroditism of primitive animals
 to the unisexuality of the  higher     
forms1 the separation of the sex organs 
into those of male  and female having   
come about through the decay of one set 
of  structures in each individual4      
,for reasons which it is not necessary  
to mention here1 biologists  believe    
that insects all originated from a      
common parental form1  with two pairs of
 wings and six legs4 ,insects all retain
 their  original allowance of legs1 but 
in many species one or the other  pair  
of wings has become more or less        
degenerated4 ,in the whole  order of    
flies the back pair of wings is         
represented by a couple of              

insignificant knobs4 ,in the            
,strepsiptera1 a sub-order of beetles1  
the front-wings are similarly reduced1  
being mere twisted filaments4  ,many    
parasites1 such as fleas and ticks1     
whose mode of life renders  organs of   
aerial locomotion unnecessary1 are      
entirely wingless4 ,the  insects of     
small isolated islands are also largely 
without wings1  the proportion of       
wingless species being much larger than 
among  insects inhabiting continents4   
,this is due to their greater  liability
 on small land masses of being carried  
out to sea and  drowned1 owing to the   
feebleness and uncertainty of insect    
flight4  ,on the island of ,madeira1 out
 of the #eej species found there1 #bbj  
species no longer have the power of     
flight4    ,air-breathing               
animals--amphibians1 reptiles1 birds1   
and  mammals--have normally a pair of   
lungs--a right one and a left  one4 ,but
 in snakes and snake-like lizards1 where
 the body is very  slender and          

elongated1 only one lung1 sometimes the 
right one1 and  sometimes the left1 is  
fully developed4 ,the right ovary is    
likewise  aborted in all birds1 the left
 one yielding all the eggs4 ,the swifts 
and frigate birds live almost their     
whole lives long on the wing1  and the  
legs of these birds have grown so short 
and weak and  rudimentary1 as a result  
of their constant life in the air1 that 
they can scarcely walk4 ,the chimney    
swift is said never to alight  anywhere 
except on the sooty inner walls of the  
chimney where its  nest is4 ,its food   
consists of insects which it gathers in 
the air1  and the few dead twigs used in
 making its nest are nipped from the    
tree while the bird continues its       
flight4 ,the ostriches1  cassowaries1   
and many other birds1 have1 on the other
 hand1  developed their legs at the     
expense of their wings4 ,the ostrich is 
said to be able to outrun the horse1 but
 it has no power of flight1  although it
 has wings and wing muscles1 and even   

the skin-folds  covering the wings      
corresponding to those of birds that    
fly4 ,but its  whole flying apparatus is
 in ruins4 ,the rudimentary hind-toe of 
birds is a vestigial organ1 and so are  
the claws which appear on the  thumb and
 first finger of all young birds4 ,so   
also are the rudiments  of eyes in cave 
crickets1 fishes1 and other inhabitants 
of total  darkness4 ,the flounder and   
other so-called flat fishes swim        
straight  up1 as ordinary fishes do1    
when young4 ,but as they grow they      
incline  more and more to one side1 and 
finally swim entirely on their side1    
the eye on the lower side migrating     
around1 and joining the other on  the   
upper side of the head4    ,about the   
first thing a human infant does on      
coming into the world  is to prove its  
arboreal origin by grasping and         
spitefully clinging  to everything that 
stimulates its palms4 ,a little         
peeperless babe an  hour old can perform
 feats of strength with its hands and   

arms that  many men and women cannot    
equal4 ,it can support the entire weight
 of  its body for several seconds       
hanging by its hands4 ,dr4 ,robinson1 an
  ,english physician1 found as a result 
of sixty experiments on as many         
infants1 more than half of whom were    
less than an hour old1 that  with two   
exceptions every babe was able to hang  
to the finger or to  a small stick1 and 
sustain the whole weight of the body for
 at least  ten seconds4 ,twelve of those
 just born held on for nearly a minute4 
,at the age of two or three weeks1 when 
this power is greatest1  several        
succeeded in sustaining themselves for  
over a minute and a  half1 two for over 
two minutes1 and one for two minutes and
  thirty-five seconds4 ,the young ape   
for some weeks after birth clings       
tenaciously to its mother's neck and    
hair1 and the instinct of the  child to 
cling to objects is probably a survival 
of the instinct of  the young ape4 ,i   
believe it is ,wallace who relates      

somewhere an  incident which illustrates
 the instinct of the young simian to    
cling  to something4 ,wallace had       
captured a young ape1 and was carrying  
it  to camp1 when the little fellow     
happened to get its hands on the        
naturalist's whiskers1 which it mistook1
 evidently1 for the  hirsute property of
 its mother1 and1 driven by the powerful
 instinct  of self-preservation1 it hung
 on to them so desperately it could     
scarcely be pulled loose4 ,many mammals 
are provided with a  well-developed     
muscular apparatus for the manipulation 
of their  ears4 ,but in man there does  
not exist the same necessity for        
auricular detection of enemies1 and     
while these muscles still exist1  and   
are capable of being used to a slight   
extent by occasional  individuals1 they 
are generally so emaciated as to be     
useless4    ,another vestigial organ in 
the body of man1 and one of significance
  from the standpoint of morphology1 is 
the tail4 ,the tail is an  exceedingly  

unpopular part of the human anatomy1    
most men and women  being unwilling to  
admit that they have such an appendage4 
,but many  a person who has hitherto    
dozed in ignorance on this matter has   
learned with considerable dismay1 when  
he has for the first time  looked upon  
the undraped lineaments of the human    
skeleton1 that man  actually has a tail4
 ,it consists of three or four          
7sometimes five7  small vertebrae1 more 
or less fused1 at the posterior end of  
the  spinal column4 ,that this is really
 a rudimentary tail is proved  beyond a 
doubt by the fact that in the embryo it 
is highly  developed1 being longer than 
the limbs1 and is provided with a       
regular muscular apparatus for wagging  
it4 ,these caudal muscles are  generally
 represented in grown-up people by bands
 of fibrous tissue1  but cases are known
 where the actual muscles have persisted
 through  life4#d    ,the nictitating   
membrane1 which in birds and many       
reptiles consists  of a half-transparent

 curtain acting as a lid to sweep the   
eye1 is  in the human eye dwindled to a 
small membranous remnant1 draped at  the
 inner corner4 ,the growth of hair over 
the human body surface may  be regarded1
 in view of the sartorial habits of man1
 as a vestigial  inheritance from hairy 
ancestors4 ,one of the most notorious of
 the  vestigial organs of man is the    
vermiform appendix1 a small slender  sac
 opening from the large intestine near  
where the large intestine  is joined by 
the small intestine4 ,in some animals   
this organ is  large and performs an    
important part in the process of        
digestion4  ,but in man it is a mere    
rudiment1 not only of no possible aid in
  digestion1 but the source of frequent 
disease1 and even of death4    ,there   
are in all1 according to ,darwin1 about 
eighty vestigial organs  in the human   
body4 ,but these organs occur everywhere
 throughout the  animal kingdom4 ,there 
is not an order of animals1 nor of      
plants  either1 without them4 ,they are 

necessary facts growing out of          
evolution4 ,organic structures are the  
result of adjustment to  surrounding    
conditions4 ,the continual changes in   
environment to  which all organisms are 
exposed necessitate corresponding       
changes in  structure4 ,and the vestiges
 found in the bodies of all animals     
represent parts which in the previous   
existence were useful and  necessary to 
a complete adjustment of the organism1  
but which1 owing  to a change of        
emphasis in surroundings1 have become   
useless1 and  consequently shrunken4    
,they are the obsolete or obsolescent   
parts of  animal structure--parts which 
have been outgrown and  superseded--the 
#8silent letters' of morphology4 ,they  
sustain  the same relation to the       
individual organism as dead or dwindling
  species sustain to a fauna4 ,they     
furnish indisputable proof of the       
kinship and unity of the animal world4  
#f4 ,it is only on the supposition that 
the life of the earth has  evolved step 

by step with the evolution of the land  
masses1 and that  the forms of life from
 which existing forms were evolved were 
dispersed over the earth at a time when 
physiographic conditions  were very     
different from what they are now1 that  
it is possible to  account for the      
peculiar manner in which animals are    
distributed  over the earth4 ,the       
cassowary is a flightless bird of the   
ostrich  order inhabiting ,australia and
 the islands to the north of it4 ,this  
bird is found nowhere else in the world1
 and each area has its own  particular  
species4 ,the same things are also true 
of the kangaroo4  ,it is found over a   
similar region1 with a different species
  occupying each land mass4 ,now1 on the
 hypothesis of special creation  there  
is no thinkable reason why these animals
 should be divided1 as  they are1 into  
distinct species1 and restricted to this
 particular  region4 ,but on the        
hypothesis of evolution it is perfectly 
plain4  ,all of these regions at one    

time were united with one another1 and  
were subsequently submerged in part1    
forming islands4 ,each group of         
animals1 being isolated from every other
 group and subjected to  somewhat       
different conditions1 developed a style 
of departure from  the original type of 
structure different from that of every  
other  group in response to the peculiar
 conditions operating upon it4 ,this    
has led1 in the course of centuries of  
selection1 to the formation  of distinct
 species such as exist to-day4          
,lombock ,strait1 a narrow neck of water
 between ,bali and ,lombock  ,island1   
and ,macassar ,strait1 separating       
,celebes from ,borneo1 are  parts of a  
continuous passage of water which in    
remote times  separated two             
continents--an ,indo-,malayan continent 
to which  belonged ,borneo1 ,sumatra1   
,java1 and the ,malay ,peninsula2 and an
  ,austro-,malayan continent1 now       
represented by ,australia1 ,celebes1 the
  ,moluccas1 ,new ,guinea1 ,solomon's   

,islands1 etc4 ,wallace first  announced
 this ancient boundary1 and it has been 
called  #8,wallace's line4' ,he was led 
to infer its existence by the  fact     
which he observed as he travelled about 
from island to island1  that1 while the 
faunas of these two regions are as      
wholes very  different from each other1 
the faunas of the various land patches  
in  each area have a wonderful          
similarity4 ,australia is a veritable   
museum of old and obsolete forms of both
 plants and animals4 ,its  fauna and    
flora are made up prevailingly of forms 
such as have on  the other continents   
long been superseded by more specialised
  species4 ,no true mammals1 excepting  
men and a few rats1 lived in  ,australia
 when ,englishmen first went there4 ,the
 most powerful  animals were the        
comparatively helpless marsupials4 ,the 
explanation  of these remarkable facts  
is probably this3 ,the ,australian      
continent1 which formerly included ,new 
,guinea and other islands to  the north1

 has not been connected with the other  
land masses for a  very long period of  
time4 ,the development upon the other   
continents  of the more powerful        
mammals1 especially of the ungulates and
 the  carnivora1 resulted in the        
extermination of the more helpless forms
  from most of the earth's surface4 ,but
 ,australia1 protected by its           
isolation1 has retained to this day its 
old-fashioned forms of life1  neither   
land animals nor plants having been able
 to navigate the  intervening straits4  
,this supposition is strengthened by the
 fact  that fossil remains of marsupials
 are to-day found scattered all  over   
the world1 while1 with the exception of 
the ,american opossums1  living         
marsupials are found only in ,australia 
and its islands4 ,there  is to-day not a
 single survivor of these once-numerous 
races in  either ,europe1 ,asia1 or     
,africa4 ,similar facts of distribution 
are  furnished by the lemurs--those     
small1 monkey-like animals with fox     

faces1 which are sometimes called       
#8half-apes1' since they are  supposed  
to be the link connecting the true apes 
with lower forms4  ,fossil lemurs are   
found in both ,america and ,europe1 but 
lemurs are  now extinct in both         
continents4 ,those of ,america were     
probably  exterminated by the carnivora1
 who are known to be very fond of       
monkey meat of all kinds4 ,the ,european
 lemurs seem to have migrated  southward
 into eastern ,africa at a time when    
,madagascar formed a  part of the       
mainland4 #8,there they have been       
isolated1 and have  developed in a      
fashion comparable to that which has    
occurred in the  case of the ,australian
 marsupials4 ,of fifty living species1  
thirty  are confined to ,madagascar1 and
 the lemurs are there exceedingly       
numerous in individuals4 ,outside of    
,madagascar they only maintain a        
precarious footing in forests or on     
islands1 and are usually few in         
number'4#c    ,if the earth were peopled

 by migrations from ,ararat1 it would   
require a good deal of intellectual     
legerdemain to show why the  sloths are 
confined to ,south ,america and the     
monotremes to ,australia  and its       
islands4 ,the reindeer of northern      
,europe and ,asia1 and the  elk and     
caribou of ,arctic ,america1 are so much
 alike they must have  descended from a 
common ancestry1 and been developed into
 distinct  species since the separation 
of ,north ,america and ,eurasia4 ,the   
same  thing is probably also true of the
 puma and jaguar1 who inhabit the       
middle latitudes of the ,new ,world1 and
 the lion1 tiger1 and leopard1          
occupying like latitudes of the ,old    
,world4 ,they all belong to the  cat    
family1 and represent divergences from a
 common feline type of  structure4 ,the 
camel does not exist normally outside of
 northern  ,africa and central and      
western ,asia4 ,and when the camel-like 
llama  of ,south ,america first became  
known to zoologists1 it was a problem   

how this creature could have become     
separated so far from the  apparent     
origin of the camel family4 ,but since  
then fossil camels  have been found all 
over both ,north and ,south ,america4   
,and it has  even been suspected that   
perhaps ,america was the original home  
of  the camel1 and that1 like the horse1
 the camel migrated to the  eastern     
hemisphere at a time when the eastern   
and western land  masses were connected4
 ,the foxes1 hares1 and other mammals of
 the  upper ,alps1 also many ,alpine    
plants1 are like those of the ,arctic   
regions4 ,the most probable explanation 
of these resemblances is that  these    
,alpine species climbed up into these   
inhospitable altitudes1  and were left  
stranded here on this island of cold1   
when their  relatives1 on the return of 
warmth at the close of the glacial      
period1 retreated back to the ice-bound 
fastnesses around the pole4  ,it is for 
a similar reason1 probably1 that the    
flora of the upper  ,white ,mountains   

resembles that of ,labrador4    #g4 ,one
 of the strongest pieces of evidence    
bearing on evolution that  is furnished 
by any department of knowledge is that  
furnished by  geology4 ,it is the       
evidence of the rocks4 ,geology is1     
among other  things1 a history of the   
earth4 ,this history has been written by
 the  earth itself on laminae of stone4 
,it is from these records that we  learn
 incontestably the order in which the   
forms of life have made  their          
appearance on the earth4                
,three-fourths of the surface of the    
earth is sea4 ,over the surface  of the 
remaining fourth1 excepting in          
mountainous places1 is a layer  of soil1
 varying from a few feet to a few       
hundred feet in depth4  ,beneath this   
coverlet of soil1 extending as far as   
man has  penetrated into the earth1 is  
rock4 ,excepting in regions overflowed  
by lava poured out from beneath1 or     
along the backbones of  continents where
 the surface rocks have been upheaved   

into folds and  carried away by         
denudation1 the rocks immediately       
beneath the soil1  to a thickness often 
of thousands of feet1 are in the form of
  layers1 or sheets1 arranged one above 
another4 ,these rocks are  called       
sedimentary rocks1 as distinguished from
 the unlaminated  rocks of the interior4
 ,they have been formed at the bottom of
 the  sea1 and have1 hence1 all been    
formed since the condensation of the    
oceans4 ,they have been formed out of   
the detritus of continents  brought down
 by the rivers and the accumulated      
remains of animal and  vegetal forms    
which have slowly settled down through  
the waters4  ,they are the successive   
cemeteries of the dead past4 ,such rocks
 are  now forming over the floors of all
 oceans--forming just as they  have     
formed throughout the long eons of      
geological history4 ,along  the axes of 
ancient mountains and in deep-cut       
canyons the rock  layers are exposed to 
a thickness of thousands of feet1 in    

some  cases thirty or forty thousand    
feet4 ,here they lie1 piled up1 one on  
top of another1 the great1 broad pages  
upon which are written the  long1 dark  
story of our planet4 ,it is the         
mightiest and most  everlasting of all  
annals--the autobiography of a world4   
,it is  possible1 by studying these rock
 records1 to know not only the kind  of 
life that lived in each age1 but a good 
deal regarding the  conditions in which 
that life lived and passed away4 ,just  
as the  naturalist is able1 from a      
single bone of an unknown animal1 to    
reconstruct the entire animal and to    
infer something of its  surroundings and
 habits of life1 and as the             
archeologist1 by going  back to the     
graves of deceased races and digging up 
the dust upon  which these races        
wrought1 is able to tell much of their  
history and  characteristics1 so the    
geologist1 by studying the bones of     
those  more distant civilisations1 the  
civilisations sandwiched among the      

fossiliferous rocks1 is able to know1   
not only just the kind of life  that    
lived in each age1 but1 by comparing the
 species of successive  strata1 can     
construct with astonishing fulness the  
genealogical  outline of the entire life
 process4 ,the succession of life forms 
as  they appear in the rocks1 with a    
sketch of their probable genealogy1  is 
traced elsewhere in this chapter4 ,it is
 only necessary to say  here that the   
order in which the forms of life appear 
in the  sedimentary strata is that of a 
gradually increasing complexity4 ,the   
invertebrates appear first2 then the    
fishes1 the lowest of the  vertebrates2 
after these come the amphibians2        
following these the  reptiles2 and      
finally the birds and mammals4    #h4   
,there is another reason for a belief in
 evolution furnished by  geology1 but of
 a somewhat different kind from that    
just stated4 ,it  consists in the fact  
that there are found in the rocks series
 or  grades of structures1 which fit    

with amazing accuracy on to the         
structures of existing species4 ,now1   
this is precisely what1  according to   
the evolutional hypothesis1 is to be    
expected4 ,for1 if  evolution is true1  
existing species represent the tops of  
things4  ,they are the existing and     
visible parts of processes which extend 
indefinitely back into the past1 and    
whose deceased stages may  reasonably be
 expected to be found fossil in the     
earth4 ,considering  the youth and      
inexperience of paleontology and the    
torn and  incoherent character of the   
record1 it is surprising that anatomists
  have been able to accomplish what they
 have accomplished4 ,in many            
cases--notably1 those of man1 the snail1
 the crocodile1 and the                 
horse--antecedent forms of structure    
have been found in almost  unbroken     
gradations leading back to types        
differing immensely from  their existing
 representatives4 ,bones and fossils of 
men have been  found buried beneath the 

alluvium of rivers1 under old lava-beds1
  and in caves1 crusted over by the     
deposits of percolating waters4  ,many  
such fossils are found in quaternary    
rocks1 along with the  bones of animals 
still living and some extinct4 ,some of 
these  remains indicate unmistakable    
affinities with the ape4 ,the most      
celebrated of these discoveries is the  
fossil of an erect ape-man              
7,pithecanthropus erectus71 found by a  
,dutch ,governor on the island  of ,java
 in #ahid4 ,this fossil1 in the shape   
and size of the head and  in its general
 structure1 strikes about as near as    
could be the  middle between man and    
ape4 ,that it is the fossil of an       
ambiguous  form is indicated by the fact
 that1 when it was examined by a        
company of twelve specialists at ,berlin
 soon after its discovery1  three of    
them declared it to be the remains of an
 individual  belonging to a low variety 
of man2 three others thought it was a   
large anthropoid2 while the other six   

held that it was neither man  nor       
anthropoid1 but a genuine connecting    
link between them4 ,it is  discussed at 
length by ,haeckel in #8,the ,last      
,link1' a paper read  before the        
,international ,congress of ,zoology1 at
 ,cambridge1 in #ahih4  #8,it is1' says 
the veteran biologist1 #8the much-sought
  8missing link0 supposed to be wanting 
in the chain of primates  which         
stretches unbroken from the lowest      
catarhine to the most  highly developed 
man4' ,associated with this fossil      
ape-man were  the fossils of the        
elephant1 hyena1 and hippopotamus1 none 
of which  any longer exist in that part 
of the world1 also the fossil remains   
of two orders of animals now extinct4   
,the genealogy of the crocodile  has    
been traced by ,huxley1 through all     
intermediate stages1 back to  the giant 
reptiles of the early ,tertiary4#e;,and 
the pedigree of the  horse has been even
 more completely worked out by the      
indefatigable  ,marsh4 ,in the museum of

 ,yale ,university may be seen the      
fossil  history of this splendid        
ungulate1 from the time it was a clumsy 
little quadruped only #ad inches high1  
and with four or five toes on  each     
foot1 down to existing horses4 ,the     
earliest known ancestor of  the horse1  
the eohippus1 lived at the beginning of 
the ,eocene epoch4  ,it had five toes1  
almost equal1 on each front foot 7four  
toes  behind71 and was about the size of
 a fox4 ,the orohippus1 which lived  a  
little later1 had four toes on each     
front-foot1 and three behind4  ,the     
mesohippus1 found in the ,miocene1 had  
three toes and one  rudimentary toe on  
each front-foot1 and three toes behind4 
,it was  about the size of a sheep4 ,the
 miohippus1 which is found later1 had   
three toes on each of its four feet1    
with the middle toe on each  foot larger
 than the other two4 ,the pliohippus1   
living in the  ,pliocene epoch1 had one 
principal toe on each foot1 and two     
secondary toes1 the two secondary toes  

not reaching to the ground4  ,it was    
about the size of a donkey4 ,existing   
horses have one toe on  each foot--the  
digit corresponding to the big middle   
finger--and  the ruins of two others in 
the form of splints on the back of each 
ankle4 ,in the embryo of the horse these
 splints are segmented1 each  of them1  
into three phalanges4 ,fossil remains   
representing all  stages in the         
development of the horse have been found
 in the  regions about the upper waters 
of the ,missouri ,river4    ,it is an   
important fact that the types of        
structure forming any  series grow more 
and more generalised as the distance    
from the  present increases1 and that   
different lines of development1 when    
traced back into the past1 often        
converge in types which combine the     
main characters of various existing     
groups4 ,the horses1  rhinoceroses1 and 
tapirs1 great as are the differences    
among them  now1 can be traced back step
 by step through fossil forms1 their    

differences gradually becoming less     
marked1 until #8the lines  ultimately   
blend together1 if not in one common    
ancestor1 at all  events into forms so  
closely alike in all essentials that no 
reasonable doubt can be held as to their
 common origin4' #8,the  four chief     
orders of the higher mammals--the       
primates1 ungulates1  carnivora1 and    
rodents--seem to be separated by        
profound gulfs1  when we confine our    
attention to the representatives of     
to-day4 ,but  these gulfs are completely
 closed1 and the sharp distinctions of  
the  four orders are entirely lost1 when
 we go back and compare their  extinct  
predecessors of the ,cenozoic period1   
who lived at least  three million years 
ago4 ,there we find the great sub-class 
of the  placentals1 which to-day        
comprises more than two thousand five   
hundred species1 represented by only a  
small number of insignificant           
pro-placentals1 in which the characters 
of the four divergent orders  are so    

intermingled and toned down that we     
cannot in reason do other  than consider
 them as the precursors of those        
features4 ,the oldest  primates1 the    
oldest ungulates1 the oldest carnivora1 
and the oldest  rodents1 all have the   
same skeletal structure and the same    
typical  dentition 7forty-four teeth7 as
 these pro-placentals2 all are          
characterised by the small and imperfect
 structure of the brain1  especially of 
the cortex1 its chief part1 and all have
 short legs  and five-toed1 flat-soled  
7plantigrade7 feet4 ,in many cases among
  these oldest placentals it was at     
first very difficult to say  whether    
they should be classed with the         
primates1 ungulates1  carnivora1 or     
rodents1 so very closely and confusedly 
do these four  groups1 which diverge so 
widely afterwards1 approach each other  
at  that time4 ,their common origin from
 a single ancestral group follows       
incontestably'4#f    #i4 ,man is the    
most powerful and influential of        

animals4 ,he rules the  world--rules it 
with a sovereignty more despotic and    
extensive than  that hitherto exercised 
by any other animal4 ,many races of     
beings  are1 and have been for          
centuries1 completely dominated by him4 
,these  races1 during their long        
subjection1 have been changed and       
transformed by man in a wonderful manner
 through his control of  their power to 
breed4 ,all domestic animals have come  
from wild  animals2 they have been      
derived by a process of selective       
evolution  conducted by man himself4 ,by
 continually choosing as the progenitors
  of each generation those with         
qualities best suited to his whims and  
purposes1 man has evolved races as      
different from each other in  appearance
 and structure1 and as different from   
the original  species1 as many groups   
which1 in the wild state1 constitute    
distinct species2 indeed1 man has in    
some cases created entirely new         
species1 both of plants and             

animals--species that breed true and    
are what biologists call #8good'--by his
 own selections4    ,there are something
 over #aej different varieties of the   
domestic  pigeon4 ,some of these        
varieties--as many as a dozen1 ,mr4     
,darwin  thinks--differ from each other 
sufficiently to be reckoned1 if they    
are considered solely with reference to 
their structures1 as  entirely distinct 
species4 ,the carrier1 for instance1 the
 giant of  the pigeons1 measures #ag    
inches from bill-tip to the end of its  
tail1 and has a beak #a #c_/d inches    
long4 ,around each eye is a large       
dahlia-like wattle1 and another large   
wattle is on the beak1 giving  the beak 
the appearance of having been thrust    
through the kernel of  a walnut4 ,the   
tumbler is small1 squatty1 and almost   
beakless4 ,it has  the preposterous     
habit of rising high in the air and then
 tumbling  heels over head4 ,the roller1
 one of the many varieties of the       
tumbler1 descends to the ground in a    

series of back somersaults1  executed so
 rapidly that it looks like a falling   
ball4 ,the runt is  large1 weighing     
sometimes as much as the carrier4 ,the  
fantail has  thirty or forty feathers in
 its tail1 while all other varieties    
have  only twelve or fourteen1 the      
normal number for birds4 ,the trumpeter1
  so named on account of its peculiar   
coo1 has an umbrella-like hood  of      
feathers covering its head and face1 and
 its feet are so heavily  feathered that
 they look like little wings4 ,in the   
correct specimens  of this variety the  
feathers have to be clipped from the    
face before  the birds can see to feed  
themselves4 ,the pouter has the absurd  
habit of inflating its gullet to a      
prodigious size1 and the ,jacobin  wears
 a gigantic ruff4 ,the homing pigeon has
 such a strong  attachment for its cote 
that it will travel hundreds of miles1  
sometimes as many as #a1djj miles1 in   
order to reach the home from  which it  
has been separated4 ,but it is not      

simply in their colour1  size1 habits1  
and plumage1 that pigeons vary4 ,there  
are  corresponding differences in their 
structures1 in the number of  their ribs
 and vertebrae1 in the shape and size of
 the skull1 in the  bones of the face1  
in the development of the breast-bone1  
and in the  length of the neck1 legs1   
and bill4 ,pigeons also differ in the   
shape  and size of their eggs1 and in   
their dispositions and voice4  #8,there 
is1' says ,huxley in summing up his     
discussion of the  great variety in     
these birds1 #8hardly a particular of   
either  internal economy or external    
shape which has not by selective        
breeding been perpetuated and become the
 foundation of a new  race'4#g    ,all  
of the #aej different varieties of      
domestic pigeons have been  evolved by  
human selection during the past three or
 four thousand  years from the blue     
rock-doves which to-day inhabit the     
seacoast  countries of ,europe4    ,what
 is true of pigeons is also true largely

 of most of the other  races associated 
with man--of cats1 cattle1 horses1      
sheep1 swine1  goats1 fowls1 and the    
like4 ,all varieties of the domestic    
chicken--the clumsy ,cochin with its    
feather-duster legs1 the tall  and      
stately ,spanish1 the great-crested     
,minorca1 the ,dorking with its         
matchless2 comb and wattle1 the almost  
combless ,polish1 the blue  ,andalusian1
 the gigantic ,brahma1 the tiny ,bantam1
 the ,wyandottes in  all colours 7black1
 white1 buff1 silver1 and golden71 the  
magnificent ,plymouth ,rocks1 and the   
exceedingly pugnacious                  
,game-cock--these and dozens of other   
varieties1 all flightless1  have come   
from the jungle-bird whose morning      
clarion still greets  ,aurora from the  
wilds of distant ,india4 ,the dog is a  
civilised wolf1  and the wild-boar is   
the progenitor of the oleaginous swine4 
,the  ,merino and ,south ,down breeds of
 sheep have come from the same stock  in
 the last century and a half4 ,in #agij 

a lamb was born on the farm  of ,seth   
,wright in ,massachusetts4 ,it had a    
long body and short1 bowed  legs4 ,it   
was noticed that this lamb could not    
follow the others over  the fences4 ,the
 owner thought it would be a good thing 
if all his  sheep were like it4 ,so he  
selected it to breed from4 ,some of its 
offspring were like it1 and some were   
like the ordinary sheep4 ,by  continual 
selection of those with long bodies and 
short legs the  ancon breed of sheep was
 finally produced4 ,in #aggj in a herd  
of  ,paraguay cattle a hornless male    
calf appeared1 and from this  individual
 in a similar way came the stock of     
,muleys4 ,the occasional  appearance of 
horned calves and lambs among the       
offspring of  hornless breeds of cattle 
and sheep are examples of atavism       
indicating the presence of a vestigial  
tendency to breed true to  their horned 
ancestors4 ,the ,hereford cattle        
originated as a distinct  variety about 
#agfi through the careful selections of 

a certain  ,englishman by the name of   
,tompkins4 ,all domesticated quadrupeds1
  except the elephant1 have come from   
wild species with erect ears1  the ears 
acting as funnels to harvest the        
sound-waves4 ,but there are  few of them
 in which there is not one or more      
varieties with  drooping ears--cats in  
,china1 horses in parts of ,russia1     
sheep in  ,italy1 cattle in ,india1 and 
pigs1 dogs1 and rabbits in all          
long-civilised lands4 ,we are so        
accustomed to seeing dogs and pigs  with
 pendent ears that we are surprised to  
know there are varieties  with erect    
ears4 ,the goldfish is a carp1 and in   
its native haunts in  the waters of     
,china it has the colour of the carp4   
,the golden hue  seen in the occupants  
of our aquaria has been given to this   
fish by  the ,chinese through the       
continual selection of certain kinds4   
,the  goldfish1 almost as much as the   
pigeon1 has been the sport of  fanciers1
 and the strangest varieties have       

resulted4 ,some have  outlandishly long 
fins1 while others have no dorsal fin at
 all4 ,some  are streaked and splotched 
with gold and scarlet2 others are pure  
albinos4 ,one of the most monstrous     
varieties has a three-lobed  tail-fin1  
and its eyeballs1 without sockets1 are  
on the outside of  its head4 ,all of our
 common barnyard fowls--turkeys1 ducks1 
geese1  and chickens--are flightless1   
but the varieties from which the        
domesticated forms have come all have   
functional wings1 two of these          
varieties crossing continents in their  
annual migrations4    ,not only animals1
 but plants also1 many of them1 have    
been greatly  changed by man in his     
efforts to adapt them to his uses as    
food1  ornamentation1 and the like4 ,on 
the seaside cliffs of ,chili and ,peru  
may still be found growing the          
wild-potato--the small1 tough1  bitter  
ancestor of the mammoth ,burbank1       
,peerless1 ,early ,rose1 and  the nearly
 two hundred other varieties of this    

matchless tuber found  in the gardens of
 civilised man4 ,the cabbage1 kale1     
cauliflower1 and  kohlrabi are all      
modifications of the same wild species  
7,brassica  oleracea71 the cauliflower  
being the developed flower1 kohlrabi the
  stalk1 and kale and cabbage the       
leaves4 ,the peach and the almond1      
,darwin thinks1 have also come from a   
common ancestral drupe1 the  peach being
 the developed fruit1 and the almond the
 seed4 ,there are  nearly #ijj different
 varieties of apples1 varying in the    
most  wonderful manner in size1 colour1 
flavour1 texture1 and shape1 but  all of
 them probably derived from the little1 
sour1 inedible ,asiatic  crab4 ,the many
 times #8double' roses of our gardens   
have come  from the five-petalled       
wild-rose of the prairies4 ,the         
cultivated  varieties of viburnum and   
hydrangea have showy corymbs of         
infertile  flowers only1 but the wild   
forms from which the domestic varieties 
have been derived have only a single    

marginal row of showy infertile  flowers
 surrounding a mass of inconspicuous    
fertile flowers4 ,it has  been due to   
their efforts to please men that        
bananas1 pineapples1  and oranges have  
got into the habit of neglecting to     
produce seeds4  ,there are certain      
species of grapes that are seedless1    
also seedless  sugar-cane1 and a        
seedless apple has just been announced  
by  horticulturists4 ,the development of
 domesticated plants is only in  its    
infancy1 and it is probably impossible  
even for the most agile  imagination to 
dream of the miracles the horticulturist
 is destined  to work in the ages to    
come4 ,there is every reason to believe 
that  seedless varieties of all our     
common fruits will ultimately be        
produced1 and that in size1 flavour1    
nutrient constituents1 and  appearance1 
they will be developed into forms       
utterly different from  existing        
varieties4 ,just within the last few    
years the ,u4,s4  ,department of        

,agriculture has developed a            
cotton-plant immune to the  bacterial   
diseases of the soil1 which had         
completely driven the  cotton-raising   
industry out of large districts of the  
,south4 ,the  cultivation of many of the
 cereals has gone on so long1 and has   
proceeded so far1 that their origin is  
lost in antiquity4    ,whether or not it
 is possible for new varieties and      
species to be  evolved is a question1   
therefore1 which does not need to depend
 for  reply wholly upon theory4 ,it is  
known to have taken place2 and the      
process by which the different varieties
 of domestic animals and  plants have   
been evolved--domestic selection--is not
 different in  principle from the       
process of natural selection1 the chief 
operation  by which life in general1    
both plant and animal1 is assumed to    
have  been evolved4    #aj4 ,there are  
other reasons for a belief in organic   
evolution1 but  the last one ,i shall   
mention is the fact that the theory of  

organic  evolution harmonises with the  
known tendencies of the universe as a   
whole4 ,the organic kingdoms of the     
earth--animals and plants--are  as truly
 parts of the terrestrial globe as the  
inorganic kingdom is2  and as such they 
share in1 and are actuated by1 the same 
great  tendency or instinct as that     
which actuates the whole4 ,nine-tenths  
of the substance of all animals and     
plants is oxygen1 hydrogen1  carbon1 and
 nitrogen--the very elements which make 
up the entire  ocean and air1 and enter 
largely into the composition of the     
continents4 ,the human body1 which has  
essentially the same chemical           
composition as the bodies of animals in 
general1 is made up of four  solids1    
five gases1 and seven metals--in all1   
sixteen elements of  the something like 
seventy which constitute the entire     
planet4 #8,in  the past1 man appeared to
 be a creature foreign to the earth1 and
  placed upon it as a transitory        
inhabitant by some incomprehensible     

power4 ,the more perfect insight of the 
present day sees man as a  being whose  
development has taken place in          
accordance with the same  laws as those 
that have governed the development of   
the earth and  its entire               
organisation--a being not put upon the  
earth  accidentally by an arbitrary act1
 but produced in harmony with the       
earth's nature1 and belonging to it as  
do the flowers and the  fruits to the   
tree which bears them4' ,animals are not
 outside of1  nor distinct from1 the    
universe1 as one might suspect who has  
listened much to the recital of         
tradition so long accepted as  science4 
,they are more or less detached portions
 of the planet earth  which move over   
its surfaces and through its fluids and 
multiply1  but which in their phenomena 
obey the same laws of chemistry and     
physics as those in accordance with     
which the rest of the universe  acts4   
,animals are moulds through which       
digressing matters from the  soil1 sea1 

and sky pass on rounds of eternal       
itineracy4    ,now1 the earth as a      
planet is in process of evolution4 ,not 
many  things are more certain than this4
 ,the earth has come out of fire4  ,it  
has grown to be what it is4 ,its        
mountains1 valleys1 plains1  seas1      
shores1 islands1 lakes1 rivers1 and     
continents--these were  not always here4
 ,they have been evolved4 ,not only the 
earth1 but the  entire family of spheres
 of which the earth is a member--the    
solar  system--are all evolving4 ,mr4   
,spencer never did anything more        
profound than when he demonstrated in   
his #8,law and ,cause of  ,progress' the
 universal migration of things from a   
condition of  homogeneity toward a      
condition of greater and greater        
heterogeneity4  ,the whole universe1 or 
as much of it as can be examined by     
terrestrial instruments1 has probably   
evolved out of the same  primordial     
matters4 ,the organic part of the earth 
has evolved1  therefore1 and is destined

 to continue to evolve1 because it is a 
part of a whole whose habit or ambition 
it is to evolve4    ,the evidence is    
overwhelming4 ,the theory of organic    
evolution is  sustained by a mass of    
facts not less authoritative and        
convincing  than that which supports the
 ,copernican theory of the worlds4      
,evolution is1 in fact1 a doctrine so   
apparent that it only needs to  be      
honestly and intelligently looked into  
to be accepted  unreservedly4 ,it is1   
indeed1 more than a doctrine4 ,it is a  
known fact4 ,it is a necessary effect of
 the conditions known to  exist among   
the animals and plants of the earth4 ,if
 beings vary  among themselves          
generation after generation1 if only the
 fittest  of each generation survive and
 if the survivors tend to transmit  to  
their offspring the qualities of their  
superiority 7and the  animals and plants
 of the earth are known to do           
continually all of  these things71 then 
it follows with mathematical certainty  

that  evolution is going on1 and that it
 will continue to go on as long as      
these conditions continue4 ,it is       
inevitable4 ,it could not be  otherwise4
 ,we would know that evolution were     
going on among  organisms where these   
conditions existed1 even though we had  
never  observed it4    ,the boldest and 
most enthusiastic opponents of evolution
 have always  been those with the least 
information about it4 ,but the evidence 
is  accumulating so rapidly1 and is     
being drawn up in such unanswerable     
array1 that1 if it is not already the   
case1 it will not be many  years before 
it will be an intellectual reproach for 
anyone to  discredit1 or to be known to 
have discredited1 this splendid and     
inspiring revelation4    #a4 ,darwin3   
,descent of ,man1 #bnd edit42 ,london1  
#ahgd4  #b4 ,huxley3 ,man's ,place in   
,nature2 ,new ,york1 #ahhc4  #c4        
,thompson3 ,outlines of ,zoology1 #crd  
edit42 ,edinburgh1 #ahii4  #d4          
,drummond3 ,ascent of ,man2 ,new ,york1 

#ahid4  #e4 ,see table of geological    
ages1 at the end of the chapter4  #f4   
,haeckel3 ,the ,riddle of the ,universe2
 ,new ,york1 #aija4  #g4 ,huxley3 ,on   
the ,origin of ,species1 lecture iv4    
,x4 ,the ,genealogy of ,animals4        
,life originated in the sea1 and for an 
immense period of time after  it        
commenced it was confined to the place  
of its origin4 ,the  civilisations of   
the earth were for many millions of     
years  exclusively aquatic4 ,it has1    
indeed1 been estimated that the time    
required by the life process in getting 
out of the water--that is1  that the    
time consumed in elaborating the first  
species of land  animals--was much      
longer than the time which has elapsed  
since  then4 ,i presume that during a   
large part of this early period it      
would have seemed to one living at that 
time extremely doubtful  whether there  
would ever be on the earth any other    
kinds of life  than the aquatic4 ,and if
 those who to-day weave the fashionable 

fabrics of human philosophy1 and who    
know nothing about anything  outside the
 thin edge of the present1 had been back
 there1 they  would no doubt have       
declared confidently1 as they looked    
upon the  naked continents and the      
uninhabited air and the sea teeming with
  its peculiar faunas1 that life upon   
solids or in gases1 life  anywhere1 in  
fact1 except in the sea1 where it had   
always existed1  and to which alone it  
was adapted1 was absolutely1 and would  
be  forever1 impossible2 and that       
feathered fishes and fishes with the    
power to run and skip1 and especially   
#8sharks' competent to walk  on one end 
and jabber with the other1 were         
unthinkable nonsense4  ,life originated 
in the sea for the same reason that the 
first of the  series of so-called       
#8civilisations' which have appeared in 
human  history sprang from the alluvium 
of the ,euphrates and the ,nile1        
because the conditions for bringing life
 into existence were here  the most     

favourable4 ,the atmosphere was         
incompetent to perform such  a task as  
the inventing of protoplasm and there   
was no land above  the oceans4    ,the  
first forms of life were                
one-celled--simple1 jelly-like dots of  
almost homogeneous plasm--the protozoa4 
,these primitive organisms  were the    
common grandparents of all beings4 ,from
 them evolved1  through infinite travail
 and suffering1 all of the orders1      
families1  species1 and varieties of    
animals that to-day live on the earth1  
and  all those that have in the past    
lived and passed away4 ,by the          
multiplication and specialisation of    
cells1 and the formation of  cell       
aggregates1 the sponges1 celenterates1  
and flat worms were  developed from the 
protozoa4#a ,the connecting links       
between the  one-celled and the         
many-celled animals consist of a series 
of  colonial forms of increasing size   
and complexity1 some of which may  be   
found in every roadside ditch and pool1 

while others are extinct4  ,the         
development of these many-celled        
organisms 7metazoa7 from  one-celled    
organisms was a perfectly natural       
process1 a process  which takes place in
 the initial evolutions of every embryo4
 ,there  is no more mystery about it    
than there is about any other act of    
association4 ,all association is simply 
a matter of #8business4'  ,many-celled  
organisms are colonies1 or societies1 of
 more or less  closely co-operating     
one-celled organisms1 and they have come
 into  existence in obedience to the    
same laws of economy and advantage as   
have those more modern societies of     
metazoa known as nations1  communities1 
and states1 the organised bodies of men1
 ants1 and  millionaires4    ,the       
sponges are the lowest of the           
many-celled animals4 ,they consist  of  
irregular masses of loosely associated  
cells1 hopelessly anchored  to the      
sea-floor4 ,they represent the social   
instinct in embryo4 ,the  cells are but 

slightly specialised1 and each cell     
leads a more or  less independent       
existence4 ,the sponge stands at about  
that stage of  social integration and   
intelligence represented by those       
stupendous  porifera which cover        
continents and constitute the #8social  
organisms' of the civilised world4 ,the 
nutritive system of sponges  consists of
 countless pores opening from the       
surface into a common  canal within1    
through which ever-waving cilia urge the
 alimental  waters4 ,in the celenterates
 the cells arrange themselves in the    
form  of a cup with one large opening   
into and from the vase-like stomach4    
,the unsegmented worms are flat and     
sac-like1 with bilateral symmetry  and  
the power to move about1 but not        
tubular1 as are the true worms4  ,they  
are bloodless1 like the celenterates and
 sponges4    ,from the flat worms       
developed the annelid worms1 animals    
perforated  by a food canal and         
possessing a body cavity filled with    

blood  surrounding this canal4 ,the body
 cavity is the space between the  walls 
of the body and the alimentary canal1   
the cavity which in the  higher animals 
contains the heart1 liver1 lungs1       
kidneys1 etc4 ,the  worms and all       
animals above them have this cavity4    
,the worms and all  animals above them  
also have1 as an inheritance from the   
flat worms1  bodies with bilateral      
symmetry--that is1 bodies with two      
halves  similar4 ,this peculiarity was  
probably acquired by the flat worms1    
and so fastened upon all subsequently   
evolved species1 as a result  of pure   
carelessness4 ,it probably arose out of 
the habit of using  continually1 or over
 and over again1 the same parts of the  
body as  fore and aft4 ,it has been     
facetiously said that if it had not been
  for this habit1 so inadvertently      
acquired by these humble beings so      
long1 long ago1 we would not to-day be  
able to tell our right hand  from our   
left4 ,in the worm is found the         

beginning of that wonderful  organ of   
co-ordination1 the brain4 ,the brain is 
a modification of  the skin4 ,it may    
weaken our regard for this imperial     
organ to know  that it is1 in its       
morphology1 akin to nails and corns4    
,but it will  certainly add to our      
admiration for the infinite labours of  
evolution to remember that the          
magnificent thinking apparatus of       
modern philosophers was originally a    
small sensitive plate developed  down in
 the sea a hundred million years ago on 
the dorsal wall of  the mouths of       
primeval worms4    ,from the worms      
developed all of the highest four phyla 
of the animal  kingdom--the echinoderms1
 the mollusks1 the arthropods1 and the  
chordate animals1 the last of which were
 the progenitors of the  illustrious    
vertebrates4 ,the lowest of the mollusks
 are the snails1  and from these humble 
tenants of our ponds and shores sprang  
the  headless bivalves and the giant    
jawed cuttles4 ,the mollusks were for  a

 long time after their development the  
mailed monarchs of the sea1  and shared 
with the worms the dominion of the      
primordial waters4 ,but  after the      
development of the more active          
arthropods1 especially the  crustaceans1
 the less agile worms and mollusks      
rapidly declined4  ,existing worms and  
mollusks are remnants of once powerful  
and  populous races4    ,from the worms 
also developed the arthropods1 the      
water-breathing  crustaceans and the    
air-breathing spiders and insects4 ,the 
crustaceans came early1 away back in the
 gray of the ,silurian  period1 just    
about the time ,north ,america was born4
 ,north ,america  lay1 a naked1         
,v-shaped infant1 in the regions of     
,labrador and  ,canada4 ,the crustaceans
 rapidly superseded the mollusks as     
rulers of  the sea1 attaining1 in       
extreme species1 a length of four or    
five  feet4 ,the spiders and ,insects   
came into existence toward the latter   
part of the ,silurian period1#a probably

 contemporaneous1 or nearly  so1 with   
the appearance of land vegetation4 ,the 
spiders and insects  were the aborigines
 of the land and air4 ,they are the only
 races of  living beings1 except the    
original inhabitants of the sea1 who    
ever  invaded and settled an unoccupied 
world4 ,the earliest land fossils  so   
far found are the fossils of scorpions4 
,but the existence of a  sting among the
 structural possessions of these animals
 indicates  that there were already     
others who contended with them for      
supremacy  in the new world4 ,the first 
insects were the masticating insects1   
insects such as cockroaches1 crickets1  
grasshoppers1 dragon-flies1  and        
beetles4 ,they are found abundantly in  
the ,devonian and  ,carboniferous rocks4
 ,the licking insects 7bees7 and the    
pricking  insects 7flies and bugs7      
appeared first in the ,mesozoic ,era1   
and the  sipping insects 7butterflies7  
in the ,cenozoic4 ,the flower-loving    
insects 7the bees and butterflies7 came 

into the world at the same  time as did 
the flowers4 ,the wings of insects may  
be modifications  of the gills used by  
insect young in respiration during their
  aquatic existence4 ,they are1 hence1  
very different in origin from  the wings
 of birds1 which are the modified       
fore-legs of reptiles4    ,the most     
important class of animals arising out  
of the worms1 on  account of their      
distinguished offspring1 were the       
hypothetical cord  animals4 ,the only   
existing species allied to these animals
 is the  amphioxus1 a strange1          
unpromising-looking creature1 half worm 
and  half fish1 found in the beach sands
 of many seas4 ,it has white blood  and 
a tubular heart4 ,it is without either  
head or limbs1 and looks  very much like
 a long semitransparent leaf1 tapering  
at both ends4  ,but it has two          
unmistakable prophecies of the          
vertebrate anatomy3 a  cartilaginous    
rod1 pointed at both ends1 extending    
along the back1  and above this1 and    

parallel to it1 a cord of nerve matter4 
,these  are the same positions occupied 
by the spinal column and spinal cord  in
 all true vertebrates4 ,that the        
amphioxus is a genuine relative of  the 
ancestor of the vertebrates is also     
shown by the fact that these  simple    
forms of column and cord possessed by   
amphioxus are precisely  the forms      
assumed by the spinal column and spinal 
cord in the  embryos of all vertebrates1
 including man4    ,from these          
quasi-vertebrates developed the         
fishes--first 7after the  scaleless1    
limbless lampreys7 the sharks with spiny
 scales and  cartilaginous skeleton1 and
 after these the lung fishes and the    
bony  fishes1 with flat1 horny scales   
and skeletons of bone4 ,from the        
beginning of the ,devonian age1 when    
fishes first came into  prominence1 till
 the rise of the great reptiles in the  
,triassic  time1 fishes were the        
dominant life of the sea4 ,in the fishes
 first  appeared jaws1 a sympathetic    

nervous system1 red blood1 backbone1    
and the characteristic two pairs of     
limbs of vertebrates4    ,the lung      
fishes 7,dipneusta71 a small order of   
strange  salamander-like creatures which
 live ingeniously on the borderland     
between the liquid and the land1 may be 
looked upon as  physiological1 if not   
morphological1 links between the fishes 
and  the frogs4 ,they combine the       
characters of both fishes and frogs1 and
  zoologists have been tempted to make a
 separate class of them1 and  place them
 between the two classes to which they  
are related4 ,they  are like fishes in  
having scales1 fins1 permanent gills1   
and a  fish-like shape and skeleton4    
,they resemble frogs in having lungs1   
nostrils1 an incipiently three-chambered
 heart1 a pulmonary  circulation1 and   
frog-like skin glands4 ,there are three 
genera with  several species4 ,one genus
 7,neoceratodus7 is found in two or     
three  small rivers of ,queensland1     
,australia2 another 7,protopterus7 lives

  in the ,gambia and other rivers of    
,africa2 and the third  7,lepidosiren7  
inhabits the swamps of the ,amazon      
region4 ,they all  breathe ordinarily by
 means of gills1 like true fishes1 but  
have the  habit of coming frequently to 
the surface and inhaling air4 ,the      
air-bladder acts as an incipient lung in
 supplementing respiration  by gills4   
,they all live in regions where a dry   
season regularly  converts the          
watercourses into beds of sand and mud4 
,during the  season of drought these    
strange animals build for themselves a  
cocoon or nest of mud and leaves4 ,this 
cocoon is lined with mucus1  and        
provided with a lid through which air is
 admitted4 ,here they lie  in this      
capsule throughout the hot southern     
summer1 from ,august to  ,december1     
breathing air by means of their lungs   
and living upon the  stored-up fat of   
their tails1 until the return of the wet
 season1  when they again live in the   
rivers and breathe water in true        

piscatorial fashion4 ,these capsules    
have often been carried to  ,europe1 and
 opened #c1jjj miles from their place of
 construction  without harming the life 
within4    ,here1 in these eccentric    
denizens of the southern world1 we find 
the  beginnings of a grand              
transformation--a transformation in both
  structure and function1 a             
transformation made necessary by the    
transition from life in the water to    
life in the air1 a  transformation which
 reaches its maturity in the higher     
air-breathing vertebrates1 where the    
simple air-sac of the fish  becomes a   
pair of lobed and elaborately sacculated
 lungs1 performing  almost exclusively  
the function of respiration1 and the    
gills change  into parts of the ears and
 lower jaw4    ,the air-bladder of      
ordinary fishes1 which is used chiefly  
as a  hydrostatic organ to enable the   
fish to rise and fall in the water1  is 
probably the degenerated lung of the    
lung fishes4    ,from the lung fishes or

 allied forms developed the amphibians1 
the  well-known fish quadrupeds of our  
bogs and brooks4 ,the amphibians  are   
genuine connectives--living links       
between the life of the sea  and the    
life of the land4 ,in early life they   
are fishes1 with gills  and             
two-chambered hearts4 ,in later life    
they are air-breathing  quadrupeds1 with
 legs and lungs and three-chambered     
hearts4 ,here is  evolution1 plenty of  
it1 and of the most tangible character4 
,and it  takes place right before the   
eyes4 ,the transformation from the fish 
to the frog is1 however1 no more        
wonderful than the embryonic            
transformations of other vertebrates4   
,it is simply more apparent1  because it
 can be seen4 ,the lungs of amphibians  
and the lower  reptiles are simple sacks
 opening by a very short passage into   
the  mouth4 ,some amphibians1 as the    
axolotl of ,mexican lakes1 ordinarily   
retain their gills through life1 but may
 be induced to develop lungs  and adapt 

themselves to terrestrial life by being 
kept out of the  water4 ,others1 as the 
newts1 which ordinarily develop lungs1  
may be  compelled to retain their gills 
through life by being forced to  remain 
uninterruptedly in the water4 ,the black
 salamander1  inhabiting droughty       
regions of the ,alps1 brings forth its  
young  bearing lungs1 and only a pair at
 a time4 ,but if the young are          
prematurely removed from the body of the
 mother and placed in the  water1 they  
develop gills in the ordinary way4      
,these are remarkable  instances of     
elasticity in the presence of a varying 
environment4    ,in the amphibians the  
characteristic five-toed or             
five-fingered  foot1 which normally     
forms the extremities of the limbs of   
all  vertebrates except fishes1 is first
 met with4 ,it was this  pentadactyl    
peculiarity of the frog1 inherited by   
men and women  through the reptiles and 
mammals1 that gave rise to the decimal  
system of numbers and other unhandy     

facts in human life4 ,the decimal       
system arose out of the practice of     
early men performing their  calculations
 on their fingers4 ,this method of      
calculating is still  used by primitive 
peoples all over the world4 ,the sum of 
the digits  of the two hands came1 in   
the course of arithmetical evolution1 to
  be used as a unit1 and from this      
simple beginning grew up the            
complicated system of tens found among  
civilised peoples4 ,it has all  come    
about as a result of amphibian          
initiative4 ,our very arithmetics  have 
been predetermined by the anatomical    
peculiarities of the  frog's foot4 ,if  
these unthinking foreordainers of human 
affairs  had had four or six toes on    
each foot instead of five1 man would no 
doubt have inherited them just as       
cheerfully as the number he did         
inherit1 and the civilised world would  
in this case be to-day using  in all of 
its mathematical activities a system of 
eights or twelves  instead of a system  

of tens4 ,a system of eights or twelves 
would be  much superior in flexibility  
to the existing system2 for eight is a  
cube1 and its half and double are       
squares2 and twelve can be divided  by  
two1 three1 four1 and six1 while ten is 
divisible by two and five  only4    ,how
 helpless human beings are--in fact1 how
 helpless all beings  are6 ,how         
hopelessly dependent we are upon the    
past1 and how  impossible it is to be   
really original6 ,what the future will  
be  depends upon what the present is1   
for the future will grow out of1  and   
inherit1 the present4 ,what the present 
is depends upon what the  past was1 for 
the present has grown out of1 and       
inherited1 the past4  ,and what the past
 was depends upon a remoter past from   
which it  evolved1 and so on4 ,there is 
no end anywhere of dependence1 either   
forward or backward4 ,every fact1 from  
an idea to a sun1 is a  contingent link 
in an eternal chain4    ,from the       
amphibians 7probably from extinct forms1

 not from living7  there arose the      
highest three classes of                
vertebrates--the true  reptiles1 the    
birds1 and the mammals--all of whom have
 lungs and  breathe air from the        
beginning to the end of their days4     
,gills1 as  organs of breathing1        
disappear forever1 being changed1 as has
 been  said1 into parts of the organs of
 mastication and hearing4 ,in the       
reptiles first appear those organs which
 in the highest races  overflow on      
occasions of tenderness and grief1 the  
tear glands4  ,these organs are1        
however1 in our cold-blooded            
antecedents1 organs  of ocular          
lubrication rather than of weeping4     
,there are but four  small orders of    
existing reptiles--snakes1 turtles1     
lizards1 and  crocodilians4 ,these are  
the pygmean descendants of a mighty     
line1  the last of a dynasty which      
during the greater part of the ,mesozoic
  ages was represented by the most      
immense and powerful monsters that  have

 ever lived upon the earth4 ,mesozoic   
civilisation was  pre-eminently saurian4
 ,reptiles were supreme everywhere--on  
sea and  land and in the air4 ,their    
rulership of the world was not so bloody
  and masterful as man's1 but quite as  
remorseless4 ,imagine an  aristocracy   
made up of pterosaurs 7flying reptiles71
 with teeth1 and  measuring #bj feet    
between wing-tips2 great plesiosaurs    
7serpent  reptiles7 and ichthyosaurs    
7fish reptiles71 enormous bandits of the
  seas2 and dinosaurs and atlantosaurs1 
giant land lizards1 #cj feet  high and  
from #ej to #ajj feet in length4 ,a     
government of demagogs is  bad enough1  
as king-ridden mankind well know1 but   
dragons would be  worse1 if possible4   
,the atlantosaurs were the largest      
animals that  have ever walked upon the 
earth4 ,they were huge plant-eaters     
inhabiting ,north ,america4 ,it has been
 surmised that one of these  behemoths  
#8may have consumed a whole tree for    
breakfast4' ,it was  the mighty saurians

 of the ,mesozoic time who brought into 
everlasting subordination the           
piscatorial civilisation of the         
,devonian and carboniferous ages4       
,toward the latter part of the          
,reptilian ,age1 and somewhere along    
about the time of the appearance of     
hard-wood forests1 came the  birds1     
those beautiful and emotional beings    
who1 in spite of human  destructiveness1
 continue to fill our groves and gardens
 with the  miracles of beauty and song4 
,the bird is a #8glorified reptile4'    
,how the #8slow1 cold-blooded1 scaly    
saurian ever became transformed  into   
the quick1 hot-blooded1 feathered bird1 
the joy of creation1'  is a considerable
 mystery1 yet we know no reason for     
believing that  the transformation did  
not take place4 ,although in their      
external  appearance and mode of life   
birds and reptiles differ so widely from
  each other1 yet1 in their internal    
structure and embryology1 they  are so  
much alike that one of the brightest    

anatomists that has ever  lived         
7,huxley7 united them both into a single
 class under the name  ,sauropsida4 ,it 
might naturally be supposed that the    
birds are  descendants of the flying    
reptiles1 the pterosaurs4 ,but this may 
not  be true4 ,the pterosaurs were      
structurally much further removed from  
the birds than were certain extinct     
terrestrial reptiles4 ,the fact  that   
birds and pterosaurs both had wings has 
really nothing to do  with the case4    
,for the wings of reptiles1 we almost   
know1 were not  homologous with the     
wings of birds4 ,the bird's wing is a   
feathered  fore-leg2 the wing of the    
reptile was an expanded skin stretching 
from the much-elongated last finger     
backwards to the hind-leg and  tail4    
,wings1 it may be remarked in passing1  
have had at least four  different and   
distinct beginnings in the animal       
kingdom1 represented  by the bats1 the  
birds1 the reptiles1 and the insects4   
,this does not  include the parachutes  

of the so-called flying squirrels1      
lemurs1  lizards1 phalangers1 and       
fishes4    ,the first birds had teeth   
and vertebrated tails4 ,the             
archeopteryx1  which is the earliest    
toothed bird whose remains have yet been
  found1 was about the size of a crow4  
,it had thirty-two teeth and  twenty    
caudal vertebrae4 ,two specimens of it  
have been found in the  ,jurassic slates
 of ,bavaria4 ,one of these fossils is  
in the ,british  ,museum1 and the other 
in the ,museum of ,berlin4 ,other       
toothed birds  have been found fossil by
 ,dr4 ,mudge in the cretaceous chalk of 
,north  ,america4 ,these last had short1
 fan tails like existing birds4    ,from
 the toothed birds developed the beaked 
birds--the  keel-breasted birds 7the    
group to which most existing birds      
belong7  and the birds with unkeeled    
breasts1 i4e41 the ostrich-like birds4  
,the ostrich-like birds are runners4    
,they have rudimentary wings1 and  the  
keel of the breast-bone1 which in the   

keel-breasted birds acts  as a stay for 
the attachment of the wing muscles1 is  
lacking4 ,the  ostrich-like birds are   
probably degenerate flyers1 the flying  
apparatus having become obsolete through
 disuse4 ,the feathers of  birds are    
generally supposed to be the modified   
scales of reptiles4    ,the most        
brilliant offspring of the reptiles were
 the mammals1  animals capable of a     
wider distribution over the face of the 
earth  than the cold-blooded reptiles1  
on account of their hair and their  warm
 blood4 ,cold-blooded animals of great  
size are able to inhabit  but a small   
zone of the existing earth's            
surface--the torrid  belt4 ,they cannot 
house themselves during the seasons of  
cold1 as  men can2 nor escape to the    
tropics on the wings of the wind1 as do 
the birds2 nor bury themselves in       
subaqueous mud1 as do the frogs1        
snakes1 and crustaceans4 ,during the    
,mesozoic period1 when  cold-blooded    
reptiles of gigantic size flourished    

over a wide area  of the earth's        
surface1 the planet was far warmer than 
now4  ,animals1 therefore1 like the     
mammals 7or birds71 capable of          
maintaining a fixed temperature         
regardless of the thermal  fluctuations 
of the surrounding media1 are the only  
animals of large  size and power capable
 of uninterrupted existence over the    
greater  part of the surface of the     
existing earth4 ,the pre-eminent life of
  the ,cenozoic time was mammalian4 ,but
 the decline and fall of the  saurian   
power was not wholly due to the rise of 
the more dynamic  mammals4 ,it was in   
part due1 no doubt1 to adverse          
conditions of  climate1 and also to the 
fact that mammals and birds guard their 
eggs1 and saurians do not4    ,the      
lowest of the mammals are the           
monotremes1 animals which blend in  a   
marvellous manner the characteristics of
 birds1 reptiles1 and  mammals4 ,only   
two families of these old-fashioned     
creatures are  left1 the echidna and the

 duck-bill 7ornithorhynchus71 both of   
them  found on or near that museum of   
biological antiquities1 ,australia4     
,they are covered with hair and suckle  
their young like other  mammals1 but    
they have only the rudiments of milk    
glands1 and they  lay eggs with large   
yolks from a cloaca1 like the reptiles  
and  birds4 ,the duck-bill hides its    
eggs in the ground1 but the echidna     
hatches its eggs in a small external    
brooding pouch1 periodically  developed 
for this purpose4 ,the young of the     
monotremes feed on the  oily            
perspiration which exudes from the body 
of the mother4 ,the  monotremes first   
appear in the fossiliferous rocks of the
 ,triassic  ,age4    ,from the          
monotreme-like mammals developed the    
marsupial mammals1  animals possessing a
 purse-like pouch on the after part of  
the  abdomen1 in which they carry their 
young4 ,the young of marsupials  are    
born in an extremely immature state1 and
 are carried in this  pouch in order to 

complete their development4 ,the young  
of the  kangaroo1 an animal as large as 
a man1 are only about an inch in  length
 when they are born4 ,they are carried  
for nine months after  their birth in   
the marsupium of the mother1 firmly     
attached to the  maternal nipple4 ,the  
marsupials came into existence during   
the  ,jurassic ,age1 and during the next
 age1 the ,cretaceous1 they arose to    
considerable power4 ,during this latter 
age they were found on every  continent4
 ,but they have been almost exterminated
 by their more  powerful descendants4   
,from the marsupials developed the      
placental mammals1 animals so  called   
because their young are developed within
 the parental body in  association with 
a peculiar nourishing organ called the  
placenta4  ,from the herbivorous        
marsupials developed the almost         
toothless  edentates1 the rodents1 or   
gnawing animals1 the sirenians1 the     
cetaceans1 and the hoofed animals1 or   
ungulates4 ,the sirenians are  fish-like

 animals with two flippers1 and are     
often called sea-cows4  ,they resemble  
whales in many respects1 and are        
sometimes classed  with them4 ,they are 
plant-eaters exclusively1 and are found 
grazing  along the bottoms of tropical  
estuaries and rivers4 ,they have tiny   
eyes1 teeth fitted for grinding 7not    
spike-like as in the whales71  and a    
strong affection for their young1 the   
mother1 when pursued1  often carrying   
her little one under her flippers4 ,an  
immense  sirenian1 known as ,steller's  
manatee1 was discovered on the  ,behring
 ,islands1 along the ,kamschatka coast1 
in #agda4 ,twenty-seven  years          
afterwards not one of them was left1 all
 having been murdered  by the ,russian  
sailors4 ,the sirenians are probably    
degenerate forms  of land quadrupeds1   
having lost their hind-limbs and        
developed the  fish-like shape in       
adapting themselves to aquatic          
conditions4 ,they  appear first in the  
,eocene ,age4    ,among the most        

interesting derivatives of the          
herbivorous  marsupials1 because the    
most aberrant1 are the whales4 ,they are
 true  mammals--have warm blood1 breathe
 the air with lungs1 and suckle  their  
young like other mammals4 ,but1 like the
 sirenians1 they live  in the surface of
 the waters1 and have flippers and a    
fish-like tail  and form4 ,they differ  
from the sirenians1 however1 in being   
carnivorous1 in having inguinal instead 
of pectoral milk glands1 and  in being  
structurally less like quadrupeds4 ,they
 probably  degenerated from land        
quadrupeds during the ,jurassic period1 
and1  owing to their longer residence in
 the waters1 have become further        
removed from the quadrupedal type than  
the sirenians4 ,whales have  two limbs1 
the hind-limbs having disappeared as a  
result of the  pre-eminent development  
of the tail4 ,the tails of whales and   
sirenians are flattened horizontally1   
not vertically1 as in fishes4    ,out of
 generalised forms of hoofed animals now

 extinct developed the  odd-toed and    
even-toed races of existing ungulates4  
,the original  ungulates had five hoofs 
on each foot1 and were highly           
generalised  in their structure4 ,from  
these original five-toed forms have     
arisen  the variously hoofed and        
variously structured tribes of existing 
ungulates3 the five-toed elephant1 the  
four-toed tapir and  hippopotamus1 the  
three-toed rhinoceros1 the two-toed     
camel1 sheep1  swine1 deer1 antelope1   
giraffe1 and ox1 and the one-toed horse 
and  zebra4    ,the carnivorous branch  
of the placental animals came from the  
carnivorous branch of the marsupials4   
,from early forms of  carnivorous       
placentals developed the ape-like lemurs
 and those  generalised forms of        
rapacious animals from which arose the  
insect-eaters1 the bats1 and the true   
carnivora4 ,the seals represent  a      
by-development from the main line of the
 carnivora1 a third  defection1 and a   
comparatively recent one1 from land     

faunas4 ,seals  live at the meeting of  
the land and the waters rather than in  
or on  the waters1 as do the cetaceans  
and sirenians4 ,they have retained      
their fur and their four limbs1 but have
 almost lost their power of  land       
locomotion by the conversion of their   
feet into flippers4 ,the  two           
front-limbs of seals are the only ones  
used as ordinary limbs  are used4 ,the  
hind-limbs in most seals stretch        
permanently out  behind1 the webbed     
digits spreading out fan-shaped on      
either side of  the stumpy tail1 and    
constituting a rowing apparatus         
functionally  homologous with the tail  
of fishes and whales4 ,according to     
,jordan1  the fur seals and the hair    
seals are descended from different      
families of land carnivora1 the former  
probably from the bears1 and  the latter
 from the cats4    ,the lemurs are of   
especial interest to human beings1      
because in them  are found the first    
startling approximation in looks and    

structure  to the #8human form divine4' 
,the lemurs are monkey-like creatures   
living in trees1 but differ enough from 
true monkeys to be often  placed in an  
order by themselves4 ,their milk glands 
are abdominal  instead of pectoral1 as  
in the monkeys1 and the second digit of 
each  hand and foot ends in a claw4 ,the
 most of them live in ,madagascar4      
,they are generally nocturnal in their  
habits1 although some species  are      
diurnal4 ,they appear first in the      
,eocene rocks1 and ,haeckel  thinks they
 may have developed from opossum-like   
marsupials in the  late ,cretaceous or  
early ,eocene ,age4    ,from lemurs or  
from some other similar sort of         
semi-apes developed  the true apes--the 
flat-nosed 7platyrhine7 apes of the ,new
 ,world  and the narrow-nosed           
7catarhine7 apes of the ,old ,world4    
,there is  considerable difference      
between the ,new ,world apes and those  
of the  ,old ,world4 ,the differences   
between the two classes is1 in fact1 so 

striking that they are thought by some  
to have developed  independently of each
 other from distinct species of         
semi-apes4 ,the  apes of the ,new ,world
 have flat noses1 and the nostrils are  
far  apart and open in front of the     
nose1 never below4 ,the ,old ,world apes
  have narrow noses1 the nostrils being 
close together and opening  downwards as
 in man4 ,the tail of 7nearly7 all ,new 
,world apes is  prehensile1 being used  
regularly as a fifth limb1 while among  
,old  ,world apes the tail is never so  
used4 ,the ,old ,world apes all have    
the same number and kinds of teeth as   
man has1 while the ,new ,world  apes    
7excepting the ,brazilian marmosets7    
have an additional premolar  in each    
half-jaw1 making thirty-six in all4 ,the
 catarhine apes are1  therefore1        
structurally much nearer to man than    
their platyrhine  cousins4 ,all tailed  
apes probably sprang originally from a  
single  stirp of semi-apes1 and spread  
over the earth at a time when the       

eastern and western land masses of the  
southern hemisphere were  connected with
 each other4 ,the earliest remains of   
apes appear in  the ,miocene ,age4      
,from the ,old ,world tailed apes were  
developed the tailless1  man-like1 or   
anthropoid apes--the gorillas and       
chimpanzees of  ,africa1 and the orangs 
and gibbons of ,asia and the ,east      
,indies4 ,the  anthropoids arose from   
the tailed apes by the loss of the tail1
 the  thinning of the hairy covering1   
the enlargement of the fore-brain1  and 
by structural adaptations to a more     
nearly vertical position4 ,no  remains  
of anthropoids are found earlier than   
the ,pliocene ,age4    ,the man-like    
apes are the nearest living relatives of
 the human  races4 ,it is not probable  
that man has been derived directly from 
any of the existing races of man-like   
apes4 ,for no one of them in  all       
particulars of its structure stands     
closer to him than the rest4  ,the orang
 approaches closest to man in the       

formation of the brain1  the chimpanzee 
in the shape of the spine and in certain
  characteristics of the skull1 the     
gorilla in the development of the  feet 
and in size1 and the gibbon in the      
formation of the throat and  teeth4 ,the
 earliest human races probably sprang   
from man-like races  of apes now        
extinct1 who lived in southern ,asia or 
in ,africa during  the ,pliocene ,age   
7possibly as early as the ,miocene71 and
 who  combined in their structures the  
various man-like characters  possessed  
by existing anthropoids4    ,the        
earliest races of men were              
speechless--the ape-like                
#8,alali'--beings1 living wholly upon   
the ground and walking upon  their      
hind-limbs1 but without more than the   
mere rudiments of  language4 ,the       
vertical position led to a much greater 
development of  the posterior parts1    
especially of the muscles of the back   
and the  calves of the leg4 ,the great  
toe1 which in the ape is opposable1     

lost its opposability1 or all except    
traces of it1 after the  abandonment of 
arboreal life4 ,it must have been a     
sight fit to stir  the soul of the most 
leathern1 these children of the night1  
with low  brows1 stooping gait1 and     
ape-like faces1 armed with rude clubs1  
clothed in natural hair1 and wandering  
about in droves without law1  fire1 or  
understanding1 hiding in thickets and in
 the holes of the  earth1 feeding on    
roots and fruits1 and contending        
doubtfully with  the species around them
 for food and existence4    ,from the   
#8,alali'--the speechless ape-men--we   
may imagine the  true men to have       
evolved--talking men1 men with erect    
posture and  mature brain and larynx1   
the woolly-haired ulotrichi and the     
straight-haired lissotrichi4 ,there are 
four existing species of  woolly-haired 
men3 the ,papuans of ,new ,guinea and   
,melanesia1 and the  ,hottentots1       
,caffres1 and ,negroes of southern1     
equatorial1 and north  central ,africa  

respectively4 ,they all have long heads1
 slanting  teeth1 very dark skin1 and   
black1 bushy hair1 each individual hair 
in cross-section being flat or oval in  
shape4 ,in the straight-haired  races   
the skin is much fairer than in the     
woolly-haired races1 being  seldom      
darker than brown1 and each individual  
hair in cross-section  is round like the
 cross-section of a cylinder4 ,the      
principal species  of straight-haired   
men are the sea-roving ,malays of the   
,east ,indies  and the ,pacific1 the    
round-faced ,mongols of eastern and     
northern  ,asia1 the aboriginal         
,americans of the western hemisphere1   
and the  incomparable ,aryans1 including
 the ancient ,greeks and ,romans and the
  modern peoples of ,india1 ,persia1 and
 ,europe4    ,man is to-day the         
pre-eminent animal of the planet4 ,the  
successive  ascendancies of the ,worm1  
the ,mollusk1 the ,crustacean1 the      
,fish1 the  ,reptile1 and the ,mammal1  
are followed triumphantly by the        

ascendancy  of the ,children of the     
,ape4    ,a large part of the life of   
the earth has remained steadfastly where
  it was cradled1 beneath the waves4    
,but more restless portions have  left  
the sea and crept forth upon the land1  
or swarmed into the air4  ,one          
migration1 the most numerous1 is        
represented by the insects4  ,another1  
the most enterprising1 was the          
amphibian4 ,after ages of  evolution the
 amphibian branch divided4 ,one branch  
acquired wings  and sailed off into the 
air4 ,the other divided and subdivided4 
,one  of these subdivisions entered the 
forests1 climbed and clambered  among   
the trees1 acquired perpendicularity and
 hands1 descended and  walked upon the  
soil1 invented agriculture1 built cities
 and states1  and imagined itself       
immortal4 ,human society is but the     
van--the  hither terminus--of an        
evolutional process which had its       
beginning  away back in the protoplasm  
of primeval waters4 ,there is not a form

  that creeps beneath the sea but can   
claim kinship with the eagle4  ,the     
philosopher is the remote posterity of  
the meek and lowly amoeba4    #a4 ,see  
#8,genealogy of ,animals1' at the end of
 the chapter4  #b4 ,see table of        
geological ages1 at the end of the      
previous chapter4    ,,xi4 ,conclusion4 
,the resemblances1 homologies1 and      
metamorphoses existing everywhere  among
 animal forms are1 therefore1 evidence  
of the most logical  consanguinities4   
,it is all so perfectly plain4 ,the     
structures of  organic beings have come 
about as a result of the action and     
reaction of environment upon these      
structures4 ,every being--and not  only 
every being1 but every species1 the     
whole organic world--has  come to be    
what it is as a result of the incessant 
hammerings of its  surroundings1 the    
hammerings not only of the present1 but 
of the  long-stretching past4 ,by       
surroundings is meant1 of course1 the   
rest  of the universe4 ,those animals   

belonging to the same stock resemble    
each other because they have been       
subjected to the same experiences1  the 
same series of selections4 ,they have   
lain on the same great  anvil1 and felt 
the down-comings of the same sledge4    
,the  similarities among animal forms in
 general indicate relationships1  just  
as the similarities among the races of  
men indicate racial  consanguinities4   
,all men belong to the human species    
because they  are all fundamentally     
alike4 ,but there are differences in the
  character of the hair1 in the colour  
of the skin1 in the  conformation of the
 skull1 and in the structure of the     
language1  among the different varieties
 of the species1 indicating striking    
variety in relationship and origin4 ,an 
eminent biologist has said  that if     
,negroes and ,caucasians were snails    
they would be classed as  entirely      
distinct species of animals4 ,whether1  
as is thought by  some1 the             
woolly-haired races are the descendants 

of the ,african  anthropoids1 and the   
straight-haired varieties are the       
posterity of  the orangs and gibbons1 we
 may never know positively4 ,but we do  
know  that these two great branches of  
mankind must have different             
genealogies1 extending to a remote      
antiquity1 and that the varieties       
belonging to each great group sustain to
 each other the relations of  a common  
kinship4 ,englishmen look like each     
other1 act like each  other1 and speak  
the same language4 ,so do ,frenchmen and
 ,swedes and  ,chinese4 ,every people is
 peculiar4 ,this is not the result of   
accident or agreement1 but the result of
 law4 ,mongolians do not all  have short
 heads1 yellow faces1 slanting eyes1 and
 prominent malars  because they have    
agreed to have them1 but as a result of 
a common  pedigree4 ,similarity of      
structure implies commonalty of origin1 
and  commonalty of origin means         
consanguinity4    ,and this is true     
whether you contemplate the featural    

resemblances  of brothers and sisters of
 the same human parent1 or those more   
fundamental characteristics which       
distinguish species1 orders1 and        
sub-kingdoms4 ,all animals are composed 
of protoplasm1 which is a  compound of  
clay1 because all animals are descended 
from the same  first parents1           
protoplasmic organisms evolved out of   
the elemental  ooze4 ,all vertebrates   
have nerve-filled backbones with two    
pairs of  ventrally branching limbs1    
because the original ancestors of the   
vertebrates had nerve-filled backbones  
with two pairs of ventrally  branching  
limbs4 ,insects individually evolve from
 worms because  worms are their         
phylogenetic fathers and mothers4 ,man  
has hands and  a vertical spine1 and    
walks on his hind-limbs1 not because he 
was  fashioned in the image of a god1   
but because his ancestors lived  among  
the trees4 ,the habit of using the      
posterior limbs for  locomotion1 and the
 anterior for prehension1 and the       

resulting  perpendicular1 are           
peculiarities developed by our simian   
ancestors  wholly on account of the     
incentives to such structure and posture
  afforded by aboreal life4 ,these      
peculiarities would not likely have     
been acquired by quadrupeds living upon 
and taking their food from a  perfectly 
level and treeless plain4 ,if there had 
been no forests on  the earth1          
therefore1 there would have been no     
incentive to the  perpendicular1 and the
 #8human form divine' would have been   
inconceivably different from what it is 
to-day4 ,and if fishes had  had three   
serial pairs of limbs instead of two1   
and their posterity  had inherited them1
 as they certainly would have had the   
foresight  to do if they had had the    
opportunity1 the highest animals on the 
earth to-day1 the #8paragons of         
creation1' would probably be  two-handed
 quadrupeds 7centaurs7 instead of       
two-handed bipeds4 ,and  much more      
efficient and ideal individuals they    

would have been in  every way than the  
rickety1 peculiar1 unsubstantial        
plantigrades  who1 by their talent to   
talk1 have become the masters of the    
universe1 and1 by their imaginations1   
#8divine4'    ,kinship is universal4    
,the orders1 families1 species1 and     
races of  the animal kingdom are the    
branches of a gigantic arbour4 ,every   
individual is a cell1 every species is a
 tissue1 and every order is  an organ in
 the great surging1 suffering1          
palpitating process4 ,man  is simply one
 portion of the immense enterprise4 ,he 
is as veritably  an animal as the insect
 that drinks its little fill from his   
veins1  the ox he goads1 or the wild-fox
 that flees before his bellowings4  ,man
 is not a god1 nor in any imminent      
danger of becoming one4 ,he is  not a   
celestial star-babe dropped down among  
mundane matters for a  time and endowed 
with wing possibilities and the anatomy 
of a deity4  ,he is a mammal of the     
order of primates1 not so lamentable    

when we  think of the hyena and the     
serpent1 but an exceedingly discouraging
  vertebrate compared with what he ought
 to be4 ,he has come up from  the worm  
and the quadruped4 ,his relatives dwell 
on the prairies and  in the fields1     
forests1 and waves4 ,he shares the      
honours and  partakes of the infirmities
 of all his kindred4 ,he walks on his   
hind-limbs like the ape2 he eats herbage
 and suckles his young like  the ox2 he 
slays his fellows and fills himself with
 their blood like  the crocodile and the
 tiger2 he grows old and dies1 and turns
 to  banqueting worms1 like all that    
come from the elemental loins4 ,he      
cannot exceed the winds like the hound1 
nor dissolve his image in  the mid-day  
blue like the eagle4 ,he has not the    
courage of the  gorilla1 the            
magnificence of the steed1 nor the      
plaintive innocence  of the ring-dove4  
,poor1 pitiful1 glory-hunting hideful6  
,born into a  universe which he creates 
when he comes into it1 and clinging1    

like  all his kindred1 to a clod that   
knows him not1 he drives on in the      
preposterous storm of the atoms1 as     
helpless to fashion his fate as  the    
sleet that pelts him1 and lost          
absolutely in the somnambulism of  his  
own being4      ,,the ,,psychical       
,,kinship      ,i4 ,the ,conflict of    
,science and ,tradition    ,,ii4        
,evidences of ,psychical ,evolution     
,,iii4 ,the ,common-sense ,view    ,,iv4
 ,the ,elements of ,human and ,non-human
 ,mind ,compared    ,v4 ,conclusion     
#8,i saw1 deep in the eyes of the       
animals1 the human soul look out    upon
 me4'    #8,i saw where it was born down
 deep under feathers and fur1 or        
condemned for awhile to roam four-footed
 among the brambles4 ,i    caught the   
clinging mute glance of the prisoner1   
and swore that ,i    would be faithful4'
    #8,thee1 my brother and sister1 ,i  
see and mistake not4 ,do not be         
afraid4 ,dwelling thus and thus for     
awhile1 fulfilling thy appointed        

time--thou too shalt come to thyself at 
last4'    #8,thy half-warm horns and    
long tongue lapping round my wrist do   
not    conceal thy humanity any more    
than the learned talk of the pedant     
conceals his--for all thou art dumb we  
have words and plenty    between us4'   
-- ,edward ,carpenter4      ,,the       
,,psychical ,,kinship    ,i4 ,the       
,conflict of ,science and ,tradition4   
,the doctrine that on mankind's account 
all other beings came into  existence1  
and that non-human beings are mere hunks
 of matter devoid  of all psychic       
qualities found in man1 is a doctrine   
about as  sagacious as the old          
geocentric theory of the universe4      
,conceit is a  distinctly human emotion4
 ,no other animal has it4 ,but it has   
been  lavished upon man with a          
generosity sufficient to compensate for 
its  total absence from the rest of the 
universe4 ,man has always  overestimated
 himself4 ,in whatever age or province  
of the world you  look down on the human

 imagination1 you find it industriously 
digging disparities and establishing    
gulfs4 ,man1 according to  himself1 has 
had great difficulty many times in the  
history of the  world in escaping the   
divine4 ,according to the facts1 he has 
only in  recent biological times and    
after great labour and uncertainty      
abandoned his tail and his all-fours4   
,according to himself1 man was  made    
#8in the image of his maker1' and has   
been endowed with  powers and properties
 peculiarly his own4 ,according to the  
facts1 he  has come into the world in a 
manner identical with that of all other 
animals1 and has been endowed with like 
nature and destiny4 ,man has  never     
manifested a warmer or more indelicate  
enthusiasm than the  enthusiasm with    
which he has appreciated himself4 ,and  
with the same  ardour with which he has 
praised himself he has maligned and     
misrepresented others4 ,man has set     
himself up as the supreme judge  and    
executive of the world1 and he has not  

hesitated to award to  himself the      
lion's share of everything4 ,he has     
ransacked his fancy  for adjectives with
 which to praise himself1 and driven his
  inventive faculties to the verge of   
distraction in search of  justification 
for his crimes upon those around him4   
,every individual  bent on deeds of     
darkness first seeks in his own mind    
justification  for his purposed sins4   
,and it is a caustic comment on the     
character  of human conviction that no  
enthusiastic criminal--from the         
marauder of continents to the kitchen   
pilferer--ever yet sought               
unsuccessfully at the court of his      
conscience for a sinful permit4  ,it was
 an easy matter1 therefore1 for         
man--aided as he was by such  an        
experienced imagination--to convince    
himself that all other  animals were    
made for him1 that they were made       
without feeling or  intelligence1 and   
that hence he was justified in using in 
any way he  chose the conveniences so   

generously provided by an eccentric     
providence4 ,but ,darwin has lived4     
,beings have come into the world1  we   
now know1 through the operation of      
natural law4 ,man is not  different from
 the rest4 ,the story of ,eden is a     
fabrication1  bequeathed to us by our   
well-meaning but dimly-lighted          
ancestors4  ,there has been no more     
miracle in the origin of the human      
species  than in the origin of any other
 species4 ,and there is no more  miracle
 in the origin of a species than there  
is in the birth of a  molecule or in the
 breaking of a tired wave on the beach4 
,man was  not made in the image of the  
hypothetical creator of heaven and      
earth1 but in the image of the ape4 ,man
 is not a fallen god1 but a  promoted   
reptile4 ,the beings around him are not 
conveniences1 but  cousins4 ,instead of 
stretching away to the stars1 man's     
pedigree  slinks down into the sea4     
,horrible revelation6 ,frightful        
antithesis6  ,instead of celestial      

genesis and a #8fall'--long and doleful 
promotion4 ,instead of elysian gardens  
and romance--the slime4  ,instead of a  
god with royal nostrils miraculously    
animating an  immortal duplicate--a     
little lounging cellule1 too small to be
 seen  and too senseless to distinguish 
between midnight and noon4 ,but the     
situation is not half so horrible as it 
looks to be to those who see  only the  
skin of things4 ,is it not better1 after
 all1 to be the  honourable outcome of a
 straightforward evolution than the     
offspring  of flunky-loving celestials8 
,are the illustrious children of the ape
  less glorious than the sycophants of  
irrational theological systems8  ,darwin
 dealt in his quiet way some malicious  
blows to human conceit1  but he also    
bequeathed to a misguided world the     
elements of its  ultimate redemption4   
,the supposed psychical gulf between    
human and non-human beings has  no more 
existence1 outside the flamboyant       
imagination of man1 than  has the       

once-supposed physical gulf4 ,it is pure
 fiction4 ,the  supposition is a relic  
of the rapidly dwindling vanity of      
anthropocentricism1 and is perpetuated  
from age to age by human  selfishness   
and conceit4 ,it has no foundation      
either in science or  in common-sense4  
,man strives to lessen his guilt by the 
laudation of  himself and the           
disparagement and degradation of his    
victims4 ,like  the ostrich1 who1       
pursued by death1 improvises an         
imaginary escape  by plunging its head  
into the desert1 so man1 pursued by the 
vengeful correctives of his own         
conscience1 fabricates a fictitious     
innocence by the calumniation of those  
upon whom he battens4 ,but  such excuses
 cannot much longer hold out against the
 rising  consciousness of kinship4      
,psychology1 like all other sciences1 is
  rapidly ceasing to attend exclusively 
to human phenomena4 ,it is  lifting up  
its eyes and looking about2 it is       
preparing to become  comparative4 ,it   

has come to realise that the mind of man
 is but a  single shoot of a something  
which ramifies the entire animal world1 
and that in order to understand its     
subject it is necessary for it  to      
familiarise itself with the whole field 
of phenomenon4 ,the soul  of man did not
 commence to be in the savage4 ,it      
commenced to be in  the worm1 whose life
 man grinds out with his heel1 and in   
the  bivalve that flounders in his      
broth4 ,the roots of consciousness are  
in the sea4 ,side by side with physical 
evolution has gone on  psychical        
evolution2 side by side with the        
evolution of organs and  tissues has    
gone on the evolution of intellect1     
sensibility1 and  will4 ,human nature   
and human mind are no more sui generis  
than are  human anatomy and physiology4 
,the same considerations that prove     
that man's material organism is the     
cumulative result of long  evolution    
proclaim that human mind1 the immaterial
 concomitant of  the material organism1 

is also the cumulative result of long   
evolution4    ,we might just as well    
recognise facts first as last1 for they 
will  have to be recognised some time4  
,truths are not put down by             
inhospitality--they are simply put off4 
,the universe has a policy1  a program4 
,we may close our eyes to the facts     
around us1 hoping in  this way to compel
 them to pass away or be forgotten4 ,but
 they do  not pass away1 nor will they  
be forgotten4 ,they simply become       
invisible4 ,they will live on and       
present themselves to other minds  or   
ages or climes more hospitable or honest
 than our own4 ,the only  proper        
attitude of mind to assume toward the   
various doctrines  existing among men is
 the attitude of perfect willingness to 
believe  anything--anything that appeals
 to us as being reasonable and  right4  
,the great majority of men1 however1 are
 intellectual  solids--unable to move   
and unwilling to think4 ,they have      
certain  beliefs to which they are      

determined to hold on1 and everything   
that does not fit in with these beliefs 
is rejected as a matter of  course4     
,,ii4 ,evidences of ,psychical          
,evolution4    ,that mind has evolved1  
and that there is a psychical kinship1  
an  actual consanguinity of feelings and
 ideas1 among all the forms of  animal  
life is proved incontestably by the     
following facts3    #a4 ,the evolution  
of mind is implied by the fact of the   
evolution of  structures4 #8,i hold1'   
says ,romanes1 in the introduction to   
his  great work on #8,mental            
,evolution1' #8that1 if the doctrine of 
organic evolution is accepted1 it       
carries with it1 as a necessary         
corollary1 the doctrine of mental       
evolution4' ,it makes no  difference    
what theory we adopt regarding the      
essential natures of  the physical and  
the psychical--whether we agree with the
  materialist that mind is an attribute 
of matter1 with the idealist  that      
matter is a creation of mind1 with the  

monist that mind and  body are only     
different aspects of the same central   
entity1 or with  the dualist that body  
and soul are two distinct but           
temporarily  dependent existences--we   
must in any case recognise the fact1    
which  is perceived by all1 that there  
is an ever-faithful parallel between    
the neural and psychical phenomena of   
every organism4 ,and if the  elements   
which enter into and make up the        
physical structure of man  have been    
derived from1 and determined by1        
preceding forms of life1  the elements  
which enter into and make up the        
psychical counterpart  of the physical  
have also1 without any doubt1 been      
inherited from1  and determined by1     
ancestral life forms4    #b4 ,closely   
allied to the foregoing reason for a    
belief in the  evolution of mind is that
 derived from a comparative survey of   
the  nervous system in man and other    
animals4 ,in man1 mind is closely       
associated with a certain tissue or     

system of tissues--nerve  tissue or the 
nervous system4 ,that mind is correlated
 with nerve  structure1 and that mental 
anatomy may be learned from a study of  
the anatomy of the nervous system1      
especially of the brain1 is the  basic  
postulate of the science of             
physiological psychology4 ,now1  nerve  
cells exist in all animals above the    
sponge1 and a  comparatively            
well-developed nervous system is found  
even among many  of the invertebrates1  
as the higher worms1 crustaceans1       
insects1 and  mollusks4 ,the nervous    
system of invertebrates1 though composed
 of  the same kind of tissue1 is        
constructed according to a somewhat     
different plan of architecture from that
 of the vertebrates4 ,but in  all of the
 great family of backboned animals the  
nervous system is  built on the same    
general plan as in man1 with a          
cerebro-spinal  trunk extending from the
 head along the back and motory and     
sensory  nerves ramifying to all parts  

of the body4 ,there is also a           
sympathetic nervous system in all       
animals down as far as the  insects4    
,the brain1 which is the most important 
part of the nervous  system1 and which  
has been called the #8organ of          
consciousness1'  presents throughout the
 animal kingdom1 from its beginning in  
the  worms to man1 a graduated series of
 increasing complication  proceeding out
 of the same fundamental type4 ,this is 
especially true  of the vertebrates4    
,fishes1 amphibians1 reptiles1 birds1   
and  mammals1 all have in their brains  
the same primary parts1 the same  five  
fundamental divisions1 as are found in  
the brain of man4 ,hence1  whatever may 
be thought about the mental states of   
invertebrates1 we  have the right1 in   
the case of the vertebrate orders of    
life1 to  infer1 from the general       
similarity of their nervous system to   
our  own1 that they have a corresponding
 similarity to ourselves in  mental     
constitution and experience4    #c4 ,the

 evolution of mind is suggested by the  
existence in the animal  world of all   
grades of intelligence1 from almost     
mindless forms to  forms even exceeding 
in some respects the mental attainments 
of men4  ,the jelly-fish and the        
philosopher are not mental aliens4 ,they
 are  linked to each other by a         
continuous gradation of intermediate    
intelligences4 ,the existence of these  
grades of mental development  suggest   
psychical evolution and kinship1 just as
 the existence of  like grades of       
structural development suggest physical 
evolution4    #d4 ,in the mental life of
 animals the same factors of evolution  
exist  as those by means of which       
organic structures have been brought    
into  existence1 and it is reasonable to
 suppose that the operation of  these   
factors have produced in the mental     
world results analogous to  those       
produced by the operation of the same   
factors among organic  structures4      
,men and other animals vary in their    

natures and mental faculties  quite as  
much as they do in colour1 size1 and    
shape4 ,it is commonly  supposed that   
the mental and temperamental variety    
existing among  individual men does not 
exist among individual birds1           
quadrupeds1  insects1 etc4 ,but a little
 observation or reflection ought to be  
enough to convince anyone that such a   
supposition belongs to that  batch of   
pre-,darwinian mistakes presented to us 
by an over-generous  past4 ,we are not  
acquainted with the inhabitants of our  
fields and  barn-yards4 ,we are almost  
as ignorant of the mental life and      
personality of these door-yard          
neighbours and friends of ours as we    
would be if they were the inhabitants of
 another continent4 ,that is  why our   
obtuse minds lump them together so      
indiscriminately--we do  not know       
anything about them4 ,we never take the 
trouble1 or think it  worth while1 to   
get acquainted with them1 much less to  
study and  know them4 ,we have grown up 

in the falsehood that they are          
altogether different from what we are1  
and that it is really not  worth while  
to bother our gigantic heads about them1
 except to use  them when it comes      
handy1 or kick them to one side1 or     
execute them1  when they get in the way4
 ,everybody else looks at the matter in 
about the same way1 so we just let it go
 at that4    ,there is a sameness about 
foreigners and other classes of human   
beings with whom we are but slightly1 or
 not at all1 acquainted1  until we come 
to know them and can discriminate one   
from another4 ,i  remember once asking  
my sister1 if her baby1 which looked to 
me like  all other babies ,i had ever   
seen1 were mixed up with a lot of other 
babies of about the same age1 whether   
she could pick hers out from  all the   
rest1 and she gave me an unmistakable   
affirmative by  answering1 #8,what a    
foolish question6'    ,there is less    
variety among the individuals of        
non-human races than  among individual  

men1 just as there is less variety among
 individual  savages than among the     
members of a civilised community4 ,but  
there  is mental diversity among all    
beings1 and we only need to whittle  our
 observation a little to recognise the  
fact4 ,you never hear the  keeper of a  
menagerie or any intelligent associate  
of dogs1 horses1  birds1 or insects say 
there is no individuality among these   
animals4  ,brehm1 the great ,german     
naturalist1 assures us that each        
individual  monkey of all those he kept 
tame in ,africa had its own peculiar    
temper and disposition4 ,and this is no 
more than what everyone who  knows      
anything about it knows to be true of   
dogs1 horses1 cats1  cattle1 birds1 and 
even fishes and insects4 ,any           
intelligent  dog-fancier or             
pigeon-fancier can tell you the personal
  peculiarities of every one of the     
fifty or a hundred dogs or pigeons  in  
his charge4 ,he has watched and studied 
them since they came into  existence1   

and through this continuous association 
he has come to  know them4 ,he simply   
makes discriminations that are not made 
by  the casual or superficial observer4 
,the ,laplander knows and names  each   
reindeer in his herd1 though to a       
stranger they are all as much  alike as 
the multitudes on an ant-hill4 ,the     
,peckhams of ,milwaukee1  those         
indefatigable investigators of spiders  
and insects1 are  constantly telling us 
of the wonderful individuality possessed
 by  these lowly lessees of our fields  
and gardens4 ,in their work on  #8,the  
,habits and ,instincts of the ,solitary 
,wasps1' speaking of  the ammophiles1   
these authors say3 #8,in this species1  
as in every  one that we have studied1  
we have found a most interesting        
variation  among the different          
individuals1 not only in methods1 but in
  character and intellect4 ,while one   
was beguiled from her hunting by  every 
sorrel blossom she passed1 another stuck
 to her work with  indefatigable        

perseverance4 ,while one stung her      
caterpillars so  carelessly and made her
 nest in so shiftless a way that her    
young  could survive only through some  
lucky chance1 another devoted  herself  
to these duties not only with           
conscientious earnestness1 but  with an 
apparent craving after artistic         
perfection that was touching  to see4'  
,the variation in the mental phenomena  
of animals1  including man1 is partly   
innate1 and partly the result of        
environment or education4    ,animals   
not only vary in their mental qualities1
 but they also  inherit these           
variations1 just as they do physical    
properties and  peculiarities4 ,evidence
 of this is furnished by every new being
 that  comes into the world4 ,insanity  
runs in families1 and so does genius    
and criminality4 ,even the most trifling
 idiosyncrasies are often  transmitted1 
not only by men1 but also by dogs1      
horses1 and other  animals4 ,such       
qualities of mind as courage1 fidelity1 

good and bad  temper1 intelligence1     
timidity1 special tastes and aptitudes1 
are  certainly transmitted in all the   
higher orders of animal life4           
,animals are also selected1 are enabled 
to survive in the struggle  for life    
quite as much through the possession by 
them of certain  mental qualities as on 
account of their physical characters4   
,whether  the selections are made by    
nature or by man1 they are not          
determined  by the physical facts of    
size1 strength1 speed1 and the like1    
more  than by cunning1 courage1         
sagacity1 skill1 industry1 devotion1    
ferocity1 tractability1 and other mental
 properties4 ,the fittest  survive1 and 
the fittest may be the most timid or    
analytic as well  as the most powerful4 
,no better illustration of this truth   
can be  found than that furnished by man
 himself4 ,man is by nature a           
comparatively feeble animal4 ,he is     
neither large nor powerful4 ,yet  he has
 been selected to prosper over all other

 animals because of  his ingenuity1     
sympathy1 and art4 ,the great feeling   
and civilisation  of higher men have    
been built up by slow accretion due to  
the  operation of the law of survival   
extending over vast measures of  time4  
,creeds and instincts1 governments and  
impulses1 forms of  thought and forms of
 expression1 have struggled and survived
 just as  have cells and species4 ,a    
struggle for existence is constantly    
going  on1 as ,max ,mller has pointed   
out1 even among the words and           
grammatical forms of every language4    
,the better1 shorter1 easier  forms are 
constantly gaining the ascendancy1 and  
the longer and more  cumbrous           
expressions grow obsolete4    ,if1      
therefore1 the higher types of mind have
 not come into existence  as have the   
higher types of structure1 through      
evolution from  simpler and more        
generalised forms1 it has not been due  
to the  absence of the factors necessary
 for bringing about this evolution4     

#e4 ,the presumption created by the     
existence of the factors of  psychic    
evolution is strengthened by the facts  
of artificial  selection4 ,we know mind 
can evolve1 for it has done so in many  
cases4 ,the races of domesticated       
animals1 the races whom man has         
exploited and preyed upon during the    
past several thousand years1  have1 many
 of them1 been completely changed in    
character and  intelligence through     
human selection4 ,old instincts have    
been wiped  out and new ones implanted4 
,in many instances the psychology has   
been not only revolutionised1 but       
remade4    ,take1 for instance1 the dog4
 ,the dog is a reformed bandit4 ,it is a
  revised wolf or jackal4 ,it has been  
completely transformed by human         
selection2 indeed1 it may be said that  
the dog in the last ten or  fifteen     
thousand years has made greater advances
 in sagacity and  civilisation than any 
other animal1 scarcely even excepting   
man4 ,man  has made wonderful strides   

along purely intellectual lines1 but in 
the improvement of his emotions he has  
not been so successful4 ,the  rapid     
development of the dog in feeling and   
intelligence has no  doubt been due to  
the fact that his utility to man has    
always  depended largely on his good    
sense and fidelity1 and man has         
persistently emphasised these qualities 
in his selection4 ,fierceness  and      
distrust--two of the most prominent     
traits in the psychology of  the        
primitive dog--have been entirely       
eradicated in the higher  races of dogs4
 ,there is not anywhere on the face of  
the earth a more  trustful1             
affectionate1 and docile being than this
 one-time  cut-throat4 ,whether the dog 
has been derived from the wolf or from  
some wild canine race now extinct1 or   
from several distinct  ancestors1 he    
must have had originally a fierce1      
distrustful1 and  barbaric nature1 for  
all of the undomesticated members of the
 dog  family wolves1 foxes1 jackals1    

etc4--have natures of this sort4        
,there are about #age different races of
 domestic dogs4 ,they represent  almost 
as great a range of development as do   
the races of men4 ,some  of them are    
exceedingly primitive1 while others are 
highly  intelligent and civilised4 ,the 
,eskimo dogs are really nothing but     
wolves that have been trained to the    
service of man4 ,they look like  wolves1
 and have the wolf psychology4 ,they are
 not able to bark1  like ordinary dogs2 
they howl like wolves1 and their ears   
stand up  straight1 like the ears of all
 wild ,canidae4 ,some of the more       
advanced of the canine races--like the  
sheep-dogs1 pointers1 and  ,st4         
,bernards--are animals of great sympathy
 and sensibility4 ,when  educated1 these
 dogs are almost human in their impulses
 and in their  powers of discernment4   
,in patience1 vigilance1 and devotion to
 duty1  they are superior to many men4  
,at a word1 or even a look1 from its    
master1 the loyal collie will gather the

 sheep scattered for miles  around to   
the place designated1 and do it with    
such tact and  expedition as to command 
admiration4 ,it has been said that if it
  were not for this faithful and        
competent canine the highlands of       
,scotland would be almost useless for   
sheep-raising purposes1 because  of the 
greater expense that would be entailed  
if men were employed4  ,one collie will 
do the work of several men1 and will do 
it better1  and the generous-hearted    
creature pours out its services like    
water4  ,it requires no compensation    
except table refuse and a straw bed4 ,in
  ,south ,america sheep-dogs are trained
 to act as shepherds and assume  the    
whole responsibility of tending the     
flock4 #8,it is a common  thing1' says  
,darwin1 #8to meet a large flock of     
sheep guarded by  one or two dogs1 at a 
distance of some miles from any house or
  man4' ,when the dogs get hungry1 they 
come home for food1 but  immediately    
return to the flock on being fed4 #8,it 

is amusing1'  remarks this writer1 #8to 
observe1 when approaching a flock1 how  
the dog immediately advances barking1   
while the sheep all close in  his rear  
as around the oldest ram4' ,romanes     
relates an incident  which well         
illustrates the high character and      
intelligence of the  dog and its        
wonderful devotion to a trust4 #8,it was
 a ,scotch  collie4 ,her master was in  
the habit of consigning sheep to her    
charge without supervision4 ,on this    
particular occasion he remained  behind 
or proceeded by another road4 ,on       
arriving at home late in the  evening1  
he was astonished to learn that his     
faithful animal had not  made her       
appearance with the drove4 ,he          
immediately set out in search  of her4  
,but on going out into the streets1     
there she was coming with  the drove1   
not one missing1 and1 marvellous to     
relate1 she was  carrying a young puppy 
in her mouth4 ,she had been taken in    
travail  on the hills1 and how the poor 

creature had contrived to manage her    
drove in her condition is beyond human  
calculation1 for her road lay  through  
sheep all the way4 ,her master's heart  
smote him when he  saw what she had     
suffered and effected4 ,but she was     
nothing daunted1  and after depositing  
her young one in a place of safety she  
again  set out full speed for the hills1
 and brought another and another1  till 
she brought the whole litter1 one by    
one2 but the last one was  dead'4#a     
,what a wonderful transformation in     
canine character6 ,the very beings      
whose blood the dog once drank with     
ravenous thirst it now protects  with   
courage and fidelity4 ,and this         
transformation in character is  not due 
to education simply4 ,it is innate4     
,young dogs brought from  ,tierra del   
,fuego or ,australia1 where the natives 
do not keep such  domestic animals as   
sheep1 pigs1 and poultry1 invariably    
have an  incurable propensity for       
attacking these animals4    ,the feeling

 of ownership possessed by so many dogs 
is an entirely  new element in canine   
character1 a trait implanted wholly by  
human  selection4 ,bold and confident on
 his own premises1 the dog  immediately 
becomes weak and apologetic when placed 
in circumstances  in which he feels he  
has no rights4    ,the pointers and     
setters have been developed as distinct 
breeds by  human selection during the   
past #aej or #bjj years4    ,what is    
true of the dog is true also1 to a large
 extent1 of the cat1  cow1 horse1 sheep1
 goat1 fowl1 and other domestic animals4
 ,serene  and peaceful puss is the      
tranquillised descendant of the wild cat
 of  ,egypt1 one of the most untamable  
of all animals4 ,the migratory          
instinct1 so strong in wild water-fowl1 
is almost absent from our  geese and    
ducks1 as is the fighting propensity    
7prominent in the  ,indian jungle-bird7 
from most varieties of the domesticated 
chicken4  ,there are now as many as a   
hundred different kinds of domesticated 

animals1 and there is scarcely one of   
these animals that has not  been        
profoundly changed in character during  
the period of its  domestication4 ,there
 are much greater changes in some races 
than in  others4 ,some races have been  
much longer in captivity than others4   
,and then1 too1 there is great          
difference in the degree of plasticity  
in different races1 the races of ancient
 origin being much more  fixed in their 
psychology than those of more recent    
beginnings4 ,in  some races1 too--as in 
the sheep--the selections made by man   
have  been made primarily with reference
 to certain physical qualities1  and in 
these cases the mental qualities have   
been only incidentally  affected4 ,in   
,polynesia1 where it is selected for its
 flavour instead  of for its fleetness  
or intelligence1 the dog is said to be a
 very  stupid animal4 ,but in most cases
 of domestication the changes  wrought  
by selection in the mental make-up of   
the race have been  fully as great as   

the changes in body1 and in some        
instances much  greater4 ,and the       
process by which these great changes in 
psychology  have been effected is in    
principle identically the same as that  
by  which mental evolution in general is
 assumed to have been brought  about4   
,history everywhere has come out of the 
night1 out of the deep gloom  of the    
unrecorded4 ,but it has not leaped forth
 like lightning out of  the darkness4   
,it has dawned1 night being succeeded by
 the amorphous  shadows of legend and   
tradition1 and these in turn by the     
attested  events of true history4       
,almost every civilised people can trace
 back  its genealogy to a time when it  
was represented on the earth by one  or 
more tribes of savage or half-savage    
ancestors4 ,the ,anglo-,saxons  go back 
to the ,angles1 ,saxons1 and ,jutes1    
three semi-savage tribes  who came to   
,england from the borderlands of the    
,baltic fourteen or  fifteen centuries  
ago4 ,the ,french are the descendants of

 the ,gauls1  who formed the scattered  
population of warring and superstitious 
tribes referred to by ,julius ,caesar in
 the opening lines of his               
#8,commentaries4' ,the blue-eyed        
,germans came from the ,cimbri1 the     
,goths1 and the ,vandals1 those bold1   
wild hordes who charged out of  the     
north to battle with the power of ,rome4
 ,and all of the ,aryan                 
races--,english1 ,german1 ,italian1     
,scandinavian1 ,russian1 ,roman1        
,greek1 and ,persian--trace their       
ancestry back1 by means of common       
languages and legends1 to a time when   
they were wandering tribes of  nomads   
tenting somewhere on the plains of      
transcaspian ,asia4    #f4 ,the         
evolution of mind in the animal world in
 general is suggested  by the fact that 
mind in man has evolved4 ,the rich1     
luminous  intellect of civilised man1   
with its art1 science1 law1 literature1 
government1 and morality1 has been      
evolved from the rude1 raw1             

demon-haunted mind of the savage4       
,evidence of this evolution is          
furnished by the recorded facts of human
 history1 by the antiquarian            
collections of our museums1 and by a    
study of existing savages4    ,in all   
our museums there are collections of the
 relics of  prehistoric peoples4 ,these 
collections consist of objects upon     
which  men in distant ages of the world 
have wrought--their weapons1  ornaments1
 utensils1 implements1 and              
playthings--which have been  saved from 
the teeth of ,time by their durability4 
,the character of  the minds which      
operated on these objects1 which        
produced and used  them1 may be inferred
 from the character of the objects1 just
 as the  life and surroundings of an    
ancient animal or plant may be inferred 
from its fossil4 ,these relics are of   
stone1 bone1 bronze1 and iron4  ,they   
are found in almost every region of the 
earth--all over ,europe  and its        
islands1 in western and central ,asia1  

in ,china and ,japan1 in  ,malay1       
,australia1 and ,new ,zealand1 in the   
islands of the ,pacific1  and throughout
 the length and breadth of ,america4    
,they antedate  human history by        
thousands of years4 ,they are the ruins 
of the ,stone  ,age1 the ,bronze ,age1  
and the ,iron ,age of mankind4 ,in all  
of these  remains there is evidence of a
 slow but gradual improvement as we     
approach the present4 ,there are places 
on the earth where the  evolution of    
human implements1 from the rudest       
chipped stones to the  comparatively    
finished products of historic peoples1  
is epitomised  in the deposits of a few 
feet in depth4 ,one of these occurs at  
,chelles1 a suburb of ,paris1 and was   
made the subject of a paper by          
,professor ,packard in the ,popular     
,science ,monthly for ,may1 #aijb4      
,here three distinct layers1 containing 
human remains entirely  different in    
character from each other1 appear within
 a depth of #cj  feet from the surface4 

,the lowest bed1 a layer of pebbles and 
sand1  and probably preglacial in       
origin1 contains the famous ,chellean   
#8axes1' rude almond-shaped implements  
of chipped flint1 and used  by these    
ancient inhabitants by being held in the
 hand4 ,in this bed  are also found the 
bones of the straight-tusked elephant1  
cave-bear1  big-nosed rhinoceros1 and   
other species now extinct4 ,the next bed
 is  the interglacial1 and contains     
implements entirely different from  the 
one below it1 among which are           
skin-scrapers and lance-points4  ,the   
animal remains of this bed are also     
different from those found  in the bed  
below1 and include animals like the     
musk-ox and the  reindeer1 which were   
probably driven to this southern clime  
from  more northern regions by the      
excessive cold of the time4 ,the third  
bed1 which lies just below the surface  
soils1 contains polished  stone axes and
 other remains of human industry        
cotemporaneous with  the ,swiss         

lake-dwellers4 ,from the swamps and     
loams are sometimes dug  up the remains 
of ,gallo-,roman civilisations--,gallic 
coins1  serpentine axes1 and bronzes of 
the time of the ,antonines4    ,no one  
can fully realise the vast advance that 
has been made by the  human mind until  
he has looked upon a savage--has seen   
the savage  in his native haunts        
attacking the problems of his daily     
life1 and  has tasted of his philosophy 
and disposition4 ,the savage is the     
ancestor of all higher men4 ,when we    
look upon the savage1 we look  upon the 
infancy of the human world4 ,all of the 
laws1 languages1  sciences1 governments1
 religions1 and philosophies of         
civilised man1  or nearly all of them at
 any rate1 are the exfoliated laws1     
languages1 sciences1 governments1       
religions1 and philosophies of  savages4
 ,it is impossible to understand the    
laws of civilised  societies without a  
knowledge of the laws of savage         
societies4 ,the  same thing is true of  

government1 religion1 and               
philosophy--and of  human nature itself4
 ,human nature as exhibited by civilised
 men and  women--,i mean men and women  
with a veneering of civility1 not       
really civilised folks1 for there are   
none of them on the earth--is  a        
perpetual enigma unless it is illumined 
by retrospection1 by a  comparative     
study of human nature1 by a study of    
human nature as  seen in more and more  
primitive men and women4 ,the mind of   
the  savage1 as compared with that of   
civilised man1 is exceedingly           
primitive4 ,the picture drawn by        
,gilbraith of the ,north ,american      
,sioux is a typical picture of savage   
life and character4 ,gilbraith  lived   
among these tribes for several years1   
and was thoroughly  acquainted with     
them4 ,he says3    #8,they are bigoted1 
barbarous1 and exceedingly              
superstitious4 ,they  regard most of the
 vices as virtues4 ,theft1 arson1 rape1 
and murder  are regarded by them as the 

means of distinction4 ,the young ,indian
  is taught from childhood to regard    
killing as the highest of  virtues4 ,in 
their dances and at their feasts1 the   
warriors recite  their deeds of theft1  
pillage1 and slaughter as precious      
things2 and  the highest1 indeed the    
only1 ambition of the young brave is to 
secure 8the feather10 which is but the  
record of his having  murdered1 or      
participated in the murder of1 some     
human  being--whether man1 woman1 or    
child1 it is immaterial'4#b             
#8,conscience1' says ,burton1 #8does not
 exist in ,east ,africa1 and            
8repentance0 simply expresses regret for
 missed opportunities  for crime4       
,robbery makes an honorable man2 and    
murder1 the more  atrocious the crime   
the better1 makes the                   
hero'4#8,conscience1'  says ,burton1    
#8does not exist in ,east ,africa1 and  
8repentance0  simply expresses regret   
for missed opportunities for crime4     
,robbery  makes an honorable man2 and   

murder1 the more atrocious the crime the
  better1 makes the hero'4#c    ,many   
things appear natural and self-evident  
to the savage which seem  to us actually
 revolting4 ,when the ,fuegians are hard
 pressed by  want1 they kill their old  
women for food rather than their dogs1  
saying3 #8,old women no use2 dogs kill  
otters4' #8,what ,i' said  a negro to   
,burton1 #8am ,i to starve while my     
sister has children  whom she can sell8'
    ,lubbock1 in his great work on      
#8,the ,origin of ,civilisation1'  cites
 hundreds of instances of savage        
rudeness and simplicity which  seem     
almost incredible to one accustomed all 
his life to types of  human character   
such as are found in ,europe and        
,america4 ,for  instance1 #8when the    
natives of the ,lower ,murray first saw 
pack-oxen1 some of them were frightened 
and took them for demons  with spears on
 their heads1 while others thought they 
were the wives  of the settlers1 because
 they carried the baggage4' ,speaking of

  the wild men in the interior of       
,borneo1 this writer says3 #8,they  live
 absolutely in a state of nature1       
neither cultivating the ground  nor     
living in huts4 ,they eat neither rice  
nor salt1 and do not  associate with    
each other1 but rove about the woods    
like wild  beasts4 ,the sexes meet in   
the jungle4 ,when the children are old  
enough to shift for themselves1 they    
usually separate1 neither one           
afterwards thinking of the other4 ,at   
night they sleep under some  large tree 
whose branches hang low4 ,they fasten   
the children to the  branches in a kind 
of swing1 and build a fire around the   
tree to  protect them from snakes and   
wild beasts4 ,the poor creatures are    
looked on and treated by the other      
,dyaks as wild beasts4' ,lubbock  sums  
up his conclusions on the morality of   
savages in the following  pathetic      
acknowledgment3 #8,i do not remember a  
single instance in  which a savage is   
recorded as having shown any symptoms of

 remorse2  and almost the only case ,i  
can call to mind in which a man         
belonging  to one of the lower races has
 accounted for an act by saying         
explicitly that it was right1 was when  
,mr4 ,hunt asked a young ,figian  why he
 had killed his mother'4#d    ,a few    
pages further on1 the same author adds1 
regarding the  deplorable state of      
morality among savages3 #8,that there   
should be  races of men so deficient in 
moral feeling was altogether opposed to 
the preconceived ideas with which ,i    
commenced the study of savage  life1 and
 ,i have arrived at the conviction by   
slow degrees1 and even  with reluctance4
 ,i have1 however1 been forced to this  
conclusion1  not only by the direct     
statements of travellers1 but also by   
the  general tenor of their remarks1 and
 especially by the remarkable  absence  
of repentance and remorse among the     
lowest races of men4'  ,among ourselves 
the words used to distinguish right and 
wrong are  metaphors4 ,right originally 

meant #8straight1' and wrong meant      
#8twisted4' ,language existed1          
therefore1 before morality2 for if      
moral ideas had preceded language1 there
 would have been original  words to     
stand for them4 ,religion1 according to 
,lubbock1 has no  moral aspect or       
influence except among the more advanced
 races of  men4 #8,the deities of       
savages are evil1 not good2 they may be 
forced into compliance with the wishes  
of man2 they generally  delight in      
bloody1 and often require human1        
sacrifices2 they are  mortal1 not       
immortal2 they are to be approached by  
dances rather  than by prayers2 and     
often approve what we call vice rather  
than  what we esteem as virtue4 ,in     
fact1 the so-called religion of the     
lower races of mankind bears somewhat   
the same relation to religion  in its   
higher forms as astrology does to       
astronomy or alchemy to  chemistry'4#d  
,savages have few general ideas of any  
kind1 as is evidenced by the  almost    

total absence among them of words       
denoting general ideas4  ,many savage   
races cannot comprehend numbers greater 
than five or  six1 and are unable to    
make the simplest mathematical          
computations  without using the fingers4
 ,the languages of savages are extremely
  rude1 words being freely pieced out   
with pantomime4 ,savages talk  with     
difficulty in the dark1 because of their
 great reliance on  gesture in          
conversation4 ,the rich vocabularies of 
the languages of  ,europe and ,america  
have grown up step by step with the     
evolution of  ,european and ,american   
mind4 ,every language is an evolution4  
,the  languages of many primitive       
peoples lack the verb to be entirely1   
and all nouns are proper nouns4 ,words  
are often little more than  grunts or   
clucks1 and are without the euphony and 
articulation found  in the languages of 
the civilised4 ,darwin says that the    
language of  the ,fuegians sounds like a
 man clearing his throat4 ,not only     

every  language1 but every word1 both in
 its form and meaning1 is in  process of
 evolution4 ,spirit1 for instance1      
originally meant  #8blowing1'           
understanding meant #8getting beneath1' 
and  development the physical act of    
#8unfolding4' ,words are  continually   
drifting from their original meanings   
under the stress  of incessant use1 as  
ships drag their anchors in a gale4     
,those words  that are exposed to common
 use undergo the most rapid changes1    
while  words sheltered from the rush of 
human affairs1 like harboured  ships1   
hold to their moorings forever4 ,let1   
for instance1 once  meant #8hinder'2 now
 it means #8allow4' ,bisect1 on the     
other  hand1 a word of rare and         
technical use1 has remained unaltered in
  significance for twenty centuries4    
,even our alphabet has been evolved4    
,the twenty-six symbols composing  it   
have been eroded into the peculiar forms
 in which they appear at  present by the
 various peoples through whose hands    

they have come to  us4 ,the originals   
were pictographs such as are still found
 on the  aged monuments of earth's      
earliest civilisations4 ,the ,english   
got  their alphabet from the ,romans1   
who obtained it1 along with almost      
everything else they had1 from the      
,greeks4 ,the ,greeks received it  from 
the ,phenicians1 and the ,phenicians    
from the papyrus writers of  ,egypt1 who
 in turn procured it from those         
hieroglyph chiselers who  carved their  
curious literature on the granite tombs 
of the ,nile in  the remotest dawn of   
human history4 ,a1 the first letter of  
our  alphabet1 is a figure which has    
been evolved1 as the result of long     
wear and tear1 from the picture of an   
eagle2 ,b was originally the  picture of
 a crane2 ,c represents a throne2 ,d a  
hand2 ,f an asp2  ,h a sieve2 ,k a bowl2
 ,l a lioness2 ,m an owl2 ,n a          
water-line2 ,r a mouth2 ,s a garden2 ,t 
a lasso2 ,x a chairback2  and ,z a duck4
    ,the psychology of civilised man1   

though derived from that of the  savage1
 and hence resembling it fundamentally1 
is1 nevertheless1  very different from  
it1 both in character and in what it    
contains4  ,the mind of the savage is   
rude1 unresourceful1 vicious1 and       
childlike1 while that of the civilised  
man or woman may be  overflowing with   
wisdom and benignity4 ,this gulf has not
 been  covered by a stride1 but by the  
slow operation of the same laws of      
,inheritance1 ,variation1 and ,selection
 by which all progress has been  brought
 about4    #g4 ,degeneration is a       
necessary part of the process of organic
  evolution4 ,all progress1 whether     
anatomical1 intellectual1 or  social1   
takes place through selection1 and      
selection means the  pining and ultimate
 passing away of that which is left4 ,in
  individual evolution it is organs1    
ideas1 and traits of character  that are
 eliminated1 and in social evolution it 
is customs and  institutions4 ,one of   
the reasons given in the preceding      

chapter for  the belief in the evolution
 of structures is the existence in man  
and other animals of vestigial organs1  
organs which in lower forms  of life are
 useful1 but which in higher forms are  
represented by  useless or even         
injurious remnants4 ,similar remnants   
are found in  the psychology of man and 
other animals4 ,these vestiges of mind  
are not so easily recognised as the     
vestiges of structure1 but they  are    
everywhere4 ,we find them in the        
antiquated instincts of man and  the    
domestic animals1 in the silent letters 
and worn-out words of  languages1 and in
 the emaciated remains of abandoned     
beliefs and  institutions4    ,the      
hunting and fishing instinct of         
civilised man is a vestigial  instinct1 
normal in the savage1 but without either
 sense or decency  among men devoted to 
industrial pursuits4 ,the savage hunts  
and  fishes because he is hungry1 never 
for pastime2 civilised men and  women do
 so because they are too mechanical to  

assort their  impulses4 ,civilised man  
is a mongrel1 a cross between a         
barbarian  and a god4 ,his psychology is
 a compound of the jungle and the sky4  
,in their loftier moments1 many men are 
able to obscure the cruder  facts of    
their origin and to put into temporary  
operation those more  splendid processes
 of mind which characterise their       
ideals4 ,but even  the most civilised   
are forever haunted by the returning    
ghosts of  departed                     
propensities--propensities which grew up
 in ages of hate1  which are now        
out-of-date1 but which in the trying    
tedium of daily  life come back and     
usurp the high places in human nature4  
,revenge1  hate1 cruelty1 pugnacity1    
selfishness1 vanity1 and the like1 are  
all  more or less vestigial among men   
who have entered seriously on the  life 
of altruism4 ,like the vermiform        
appendix and the human tail1  these old 
obsolete parts of the human mind are    
destined1 in the  ripening of the ages1 

to waste away and disappear through     
disuse4    ,the practice of the dog of  
turning round two or three times before 
lying down is in response to an instinct
 which was no doubt  beneficial to it in
 its wild life1 when it was wont to make
 its bed  in the grasses1 but which is  
now a pure waste of time4 ,darwin       
records it as a fact1 that he has       
himself seen a simple-minded dog  turn  
round twenty times before lying down4   
,the sheep-killing mania1  which        
sometimes comes over dogs when three or 
four of them get  together and become   
actuated by the #8mob' spirit1 is a     
vestige  of the old instinct of the     
carnivore which centuries of            
domestication have not yet quite erased4
 ,goodness1 if too prolonged1  becomes  
irksome to dogs for the same reason that
 it does to men4  ,dogs have come from  
savages just as men have1 and1 while the
  civilised nature of the dog is more   
constitutional than that of  civilised  
man1 the old deposed instincts mount to 

the throne once in  awhile1 and the     
faithful collie is for the time being a 
wolf again4  ,the instinct of domestic  
sheep to imitate their leader in leaping
  over obstacles is another probable    
survival of wild life4 ,if a bar  or    
other obstacle be placed where the      
leader of a flock of sheep is  compelled
 to leap over it1 and the obstacle is   
then removed1 the  entire band of       
followers will leap at the same place   
regardless of  the fact that the        
obstruction is no longer there4 ,no     
other animals  do this4 ,the instinct is
 probably a survival of wild life1 when 
these animals1 pursued by their enemies 
over chasms and precipices1  were       
compelled to imitate in the flight those
 in front of them in  order to live4    
,darwin thinks the donkey shows its     
aboriginal desert  nature in its        
aversion for crossing the smallest      
stream1 and its  relish for rolling in  
the dust4 ,the same aversion for        
everything  aquatic exists also in the  

camel4 ,quails kept in captivity1 ,i am 
told1 persist in scratching at the pan  
when they are feeding1 just  as they    
would need to do1 and were accustomed to
 do1 among the  leaves and grasses of   
the groves4 ,the restlessness of        
cage-birds and  domestic fowls at       
migrating time1 the mimic dipping and   
sporting of  ducks when confined to a   
terrestrial habitat1 the grave          
marshalling  of geese by the chief      
gander of the band1 the ferocity of     
cows1  ewes1 and the females of other   
domestic animals during the first few   
days of motherhood1 the hunting instinct
 of dogs kept as shepherds  and pets1   
the squatting of young pigs when        
suddenly alarmed--all of  these are     
vestigial instincts1 functional in the  
wild state1 but now  useless and absurd4
    ,the silent letters and             
superannuated words and phrases found   
everywhere in literature are the        
vestigial parts of language4 ,every     
silent letter was originally sounded1   

and every obsolete word was at  one time
 used4 ,in the ,french word1 temps1 for 
instance1 which  means #8time1' neither 
the p nor the s is sounded4 ,but in the 
,latin word tempus1 from which the      
,french word is derived1 all of  the    
letters are sounded4    ,man has been   
defined as a creature of habit4 ,as he  
has done a thing  once1 or as his       
ancestors have done a thing1 so he does 
it again4 ,by  precept and example he   
transmits to each new generation the    
customs1  beliefs1 and points of view   
which he has invented4 ,social changes  
take place with extreme moderation4 ,the
 drowsy ages take plenty of  time to get
 anywhere4 ,civilisation is lazy1       
deliberate1  unimpassioned4 ,it loafs   
and hesitates4 ,it holds on to the past4
  ,living civilisations always drag     
behind them a trail of traditions  from 
dead civilisations4 ,religions and      
philosophies change1 and  creeds and    
governments flow into strange and       
undreamed-of forms2 but  their          

personalities survive1 their souls live 
on1 their remnants1  transmitted as     
traditions from generation to           
generation1 defy the  meddlings of      
innovators4 ,hence in every society     
there are forms and  ceremonies1 laws   
and customs1 games and symbols1 etc41   
which have  been completely diverted    
from their original purposes1 or which  
have  become so reduced in importance as
 to be of no use4 ,spencer has  shown   
that the forms of salutation in vogue   
among civilised  societies are the      
vestiges of primitive ceremonial used to
 denote  submission4 ,the ,may ,day     
festivals with which the opening spring 
is  usually hailed are the much-modified
 survivals of pagan festivals in  honour
 of plant and animal fecundity4         
,superstition and folklore are          
vestigial opinions4 ,the gorgeous       
,easter egg is a survival of a dawn     
myth older than the ,pyramids1 and our  
,christmas dinner is a  reminiscence of 
a cannibal carnival celebrating the     

turning back of  the sun at the winter  
solstice 7,brinton74 ,in the ,english   
government1  where democracy has in     
recent centuries made such inroads on   
the  monarchy1 there are numerous       
examples of vestigial                   
institutions--institutions which        
continue to exist purely because  they  
have existed in the past1 but which were
 functional a few  centuries ago4 ,the  
supreme office itself is one of these4  
,the ,king  represents the petered-out  
tail-end of a privilege which in the    
time  of the early ,stuarts was almost  
unlimited4 ,similar vestiges exist in   
the ,united ,states1 where the national 
spirit during the last century  and a   
half has so completely wiped out        
colonialism4 ,such are the  ,town       
,meetings of ,boston and of ,new ,haven4
 ,the earliest form of human  marriage  
was marriage by capture4 ,the man stole 
the woman and  carried her away by      
force4 ,this form of marriage was in the
 course  of evolution succeeded by      

marriage through purchase4 ,a man       
anxious  to become a husband could do so
 by paying to the father a stipulated   
amount of cash or cattle for his        
daughter4 ,this second form of  marriage
 finally evolved into marriage arranged 
by direct and  peaceful negotiation     
between the prospective husband and     
wife4 ,this  is the form most commonly  
employed at the present time among the  
more advanced societies of men4 ,but in 
the ceremonies which surround  the      
nuptial event among civilised peoples   
survive vestiges of many  of the facts  
associated with aboriginal marriages4 ,a
 marriage in  high life is a sort of    
epitome of the evolution of the         
institution4  ,the coyness and hesitancy
 of the woman in accepting the offers of
  her proposed spouse are the lineal    
descendants of the original  reluctance 
of her savage sisters4 ,the wedding-ring
 is the old token  accepted by the woman
 when she gave her pledge of bondage4   
,the  coming of the groom with his aids 

to the marriage is a figurative         
marauding expedition4 ,the honeymoon is 
the abduction4 ,and the  charivari and  
missile-throwing indulged in by friends 
and relatives  on the departure of the  
wedded twain is a good-humoured         
counterfeit  of the armed protest made  
by relatives of old when a              
bride-snatcher  came among them4#e      
,the vestiges found everywhere in the   
mental and social phenomena of  man and 
other animals have arisen as necessary  
facts in the process  of mental         
evolution4 ,they are the vermiform      
appendices of the mind4    #h4 ,one of  
the strongest reasons for a belief in   
the physical  evolution of animal       
species is that furnished by individual 
evolution4 ,each individual animal      
recapitulates in a wonderful  manner the
 phylogenesis of its species4 ,now1 it  
is extremely  significant that a similar
 parallel exists in the case of mental  
evolution4 ,each individual mind ascends
 through a series of mental  faculties  

which epitomises in a remarkable manner 
the psychogenesis  of the animal        
kingdom4    ,the human child is not born
 with a full-grown mind any more than   
with a full-grown body4 ,it grows4 ,it  
exfoliates4 ,it ripens with the  years4 
,it begins in infancy at the zero-point1
 and in manhood or  womanhood may blaze 
with genius and philanthropy4    ,but   
the mind of the child not only unfolds3 
it unfolds in a certain  order1 the more
 complex parts and the more civilised   
emotions  invariably appearing last4    
,the initial powers of the newborn babe 
are those of sensation and perception4  
,the babe cannot think4 ,it has  no     
feeling of fear1 no affection1 no       
sympathy1 and no shame4 ,it can  see1   
and hear1 and taste1 and feel pain and  
satisfaction--and these  are about all4 
,even these are vague and confused4 ,in 
a week the  perceptions are more sharp  
and vivid1 more distinct and orderly4   
,memory arises4 ,memory is the power of 
reproducing past impressions4  ,at three

 weeks the emotions begin to sprout4    
,the first to make their  appearance are
 fear and surprise4 ,when the babe is   
seven weeks old  the social affections  
show themselves1 and the simplest acts  
of  association are performed4 ,at the  
age of twelve weeks jealousy and  anger 
may be expected1 together with simple   
exhibitions of  association by          
similarity4 ,at fourteen weeks affection
 and reason  dawn4 ,sympathy germinates 
at about the age of five months2 pride  
and  resentment germinate at eight      
months2 grief1 hate1 and benevolence  at
 ten months2 and shame and remorse at   
fifteen months4    ,now1 the remarkable 
thing about this is that this is the    
order1 or  very much like the order1 in 
which mind in the animal kingdom as a   
whole has apparently evolved4 ,the lower
 orders of animal life have  none of the
 higher emotions and none of the more   
complicated  processes of mind4 ,there  
is no shame in the reptile1 no          
dissimulation in the fish1 no sympathy  

in the mollusk1 and no memory  in the   
sponge4 ,memory dawns in the            
echinoderms1 or somewhere near  the     
radiate stage of development1 and fear  
and surprise in the  worms4 ,pugnacity  
makes its appearance in the insects1    
imagination in  the spiders1 and        
jealousy in the fishes4 ,pride1         
emulation1 and  resentment originate in 
the birds3 grief and hate in the        
carnivora2  shame and remorse among dogs
 and monkeys2 and superstition in the   
savage4#a    ,it is also an important   
fact bearing on the general problem of  
evolution1 that the civilised child1    
from about the age of one on1  is a sort
 of synopsis1 rude but unmistakable1 of 
the historic  evolution of the human    
race4 ,the child is a savage4 ,it has   
the  emotions of the savage1 the        
savage's conceptions of the world1 and  
the desires1 pastimes1 and ambitions of 
the savage4 ,it hates work1  and takes  
delight in hunting1 fishing1 fighting1  
and loafing1 like  other savages4 ,the  

hero of the child is the bully1 just as 
the  demigod of primitive man is a      
blood-letting ,caesar or ,achilles4 ,the
  children of the civilised are         
savages--some more so than  others--and 
if they ever become civilised--some do1 
and some do  not--they do so through a  
process of rectification and selection  
similar to that through which the ,aryan
 races have passed during the  ages of  
human history4    ,there is a similar   
evolution in the young of other animals1
  especially of the higher animals4     
,each individual begins in a  perfectly 
mindless form1 and grows mentally as it 
develops  physically4 ,the young puppy  
has a very different thinking and       
feeling apparatus from the grown-up     
mastiff4 ,it is controlled almost       
exclusively by sense and instinct4 ,it  
is devoid of common-sense1 and  divides 
its time impartially between play and   
sleep4 ,it is easily  frightened1 and   
cries at every little thing4 ,it has the
 rollicking1  awkward1 irresponsible    

personality of a boy of six4 ,about the 
same  thing is true of kittens1 colts1  
calves1 bear cubs1 the whelps of        
wolves1 and other young quadrupeds4 ,a  
kitten will chase shadows1 try  to catch
 flies crawling on the other side of a  
windowpane1 sit and  watch in wonder the
 moving objects about it1 and do many   
other  things which it never thinks of  
doing when it has grown to be a wise    
and sophisticated puss trained in the   
ways of the world about it4  ,doghood1  
cathood1 and horsehood1 like manhood and
 womanhood1 are the  ripened products of
 long processes of growth and           
exfoliation4    ,the parallel is1 of    
course1 imperfect4 ,there are many      
abbreviations1  many breaks and         
ambiguities1 in the summary presented by
 the  individual mind of the evolution  
of the race4 ,and1 in the present  state
 of psychogeny1 only the barest outline 
can be traced4 ,but  enough is known to 
render the fact unquestionable4    #i4  
,if human mind has been evolved1 it is  

logical to expect to find  in other     
animals1 especially in those more       
closely resembling  ourselves in        
structure1 mind elements similar to     
those we find in  ourselves4#f ,and this
 is precisely what we do find4 ,the same
 great  trunk impulses that animate men 
animate also those more rudimentary  but
 not less real individuals below and    
around men4 ,the great  primary facts of
 sex1 of self-preservation1 of pleasure 
and pain1 of  life and death1 of egoism 
and altruism1 of motherhood1 of         
alimentation1 etc4--all of these are    
found everywhere1 down almost  to the   
very threshold of organic life4 ,and    
they are the antecedents  of the same   
great tendencies as those that control  
the lives of men4  ,it is often supposed
 by the superficial that the facts of   
sex and  alimentation1 which are so     
prominent in other animals1 have been   
relegated to a very subordinate place in
 the nature of man4 ,but  nothing could 
be much farther from the truth4 ,it has 

been said that  there are only two      
things that will induce the typical     
,african or  ,australian to undergo     
prolonged labour--hunger and the sex    
appetite4 ,it is probable that men--not 
only primitive men1 but the  most       
evolved races1 including even poets and 
philosophers--will do  more desperate   
and idiotic things and undergo more     
trying  experiences when actuated by the
 sex impulse than from the effects  of  
any other impulse in human nature4 ,this
 impulse is especially  overmastering in
 races like the ,italian and ,spanish1  
and has been  mentioned by ethnologists 
as a probable factor in the             
deterioration  of these races4 ,the     
sentiments of love1 marital affection1  
and  family life control mankind more   
completely than any other motives4  ,and
 next to these comes hunger4 ,let anyone
 who imagines that only  the non-human  
creatures are carnal observe with what  
uniformity  almost every function in    
both savage and civilised life          

gravitates  toward eating and drinking4 
,if it is a picnic1 a convention1 a     
national holiday1 a ,christmas          
celebration1 a meeting of a fraternal   
society1 a thanksgiving ceremony1 or    
what not1 eating is one of the  main    
things1 and the one exercise into which 
four-fifths of those  present probably  
enter with the greatest enthusiasm4     
,the human soul is the blossom1 not the 
beginning1 of psychic  evolution4       
,mother-love compassionated infancy long
 before a babe  came from the stricken  
loins of woman4 ,the inhabitants of the 
earth  had been seeking pleasure and    
seeking to avoid pain1 and seeking  ever
 with the same sad futility1 long before
 man with his retinue of  puny          
philosophies strutted upon the scene4   
,hate poisoned the  cisterns of the sea 
and dropped its pollutions through the  
steaming  spaces ages before there was  
malice among men4 ,altruism is older    
than the mountains1 and selfishness     
hardened the living heart before  the   

continents were lifted4 ,there was      
wonder in the woods and in the  wild    
heart of the fastnesses before there    
were waitings in  synagogues and        
genuflections about altar piles4 ,the   
frogs1 crickets1  and birds had been    
singing love a thousand generations and 
more when  the first amoroso knelt in   
dulcet descant to a beribboned ,venus4  
,human nature is not an article of      
divine manufacture1 any more than  is   
the human form4 ,it came out of the     
breast of the bird1 out of the  soul of 
the quadruped4 ,the human heart does not
 draw back from the  mysterious         
dissolutions of death more earnestly    
than does the hare  that flees before   
resounding packs or the wild-fowl that  
reddens the  reeds with its             
flounderings4 ,bowerbirds build their   
nest-side  resorts1 decorate them with  
gay feathers1 and surround them with    
grounds ornamented with bright stones   
and shells1 for identically  the same   
reason as human beings design           

drawing-rooms1 hang them with           
tapestries1 and surround them with      
ornamented lawns4 ,the scarlet          
waistcoat of the robin and the flaming  
dresses of tanagers and  humming-birds1 
which seem1 as they flash through the   
forest aisles1  like shafts of          
cardinal-fire1 serve the same vanities  
and minister  to the same instincts as  
the plumage of the dandy and the tints  
and  gewgaws of gorgeous dames4 ,art is 
largely a manifestation of sex1  and it 
is about as old and about as persistent 
as this venerable  impulse4 ,how did    
,darwin's dog know his master on his    
master's  return from a five-years' trip
 around the world8 ,just as the boy     
remembers where the strawberries grow   
and the philosopher recalls  his        
facts--by that power of the brain to    
retain and to reproduce  past           
impressions4 ,why does the thinker      
search his soul for new  theories and   
the spaces for new stars8 ,for the same 
reason that the  child asks questions   

and the monkey picks to pieces its toys4
 ,what  is reason8 ,a habit of wise     
men--an expedient of ants--a mania the  
fools of all ages are free from4 ,all of
 the activities of men1  however        
imposing or peculiar1 are but           
elaborations in one way or  another of  
the humble doings of the animalcule1    
whose home is a  water-drop and whose   
existence can be discovered by human    
senses  only by the aid of instruments4 
#aj4 ,mind has evolved because the      
universe has evolved4 ,whether mind  is 
a part of the universe1 or all of it1 or
 only an attribute of it1  it is1 in any
 case1 inextricably mixed up with it4   
,and1 since the  universe as a whole has
 evolved1 it is improbable that any part
 of  it or anything pertaining to it has
 remained impassive to the  general     
tendency4 ,there are no solids4 ,nothing
 stands4 ,the whole  universe is in a   
state of fluidity4 ,even the #8eternal  
hills1'  the #8unchanging continents1'  
and the #8everlasting stars1'  are      

flowing1 flowing ever1 slowly but       
ceaselessly1 from form to  form4 ,so is 
mind4 ,indeed1 if there is anywhere in  
the folds of  creation a being such as  
the one whom man has long accused of    
having  brought the universe into       
existence1 we may rest assured that even
  he is not sitting passively apart from
 the enormous enterprise which  he has  
himself inaugurated4    ,the evidence is
 conclusive4 ,the evolution of mind is  
supported by a  series of facts not less
 incontrovertible and convincing than   
that  by which physical evolution is    
established4 ,the data of mental        
evolution are not quite so definite and 
plentiful as those of  physical         
evolution4 ,but this is due to the      
greater intangibility of  mental        
phenomena and to the backward condition 
of the psychological  sciences1         
especially of comparative psychology4   
,mental phenomena are  always more      
difficult to deal with than material    
phenomena1 and  hence are always more   

tardily attended to in the application  
of any  theory4 ,but taking everything  
into account1 including the close       
connection between physical and         
psychical phenomena1 it may be  asserted
 that it is not more certain that the   
physical structure of  man has been     
derived from sub-human forms of life    
than it is that  the human mind has also
 been similarly derived4    ,man is the 
adult of long evolution4 ,the human soul
 has ancestors and  consanguinities just
 as the body has4 ,it is just as        
reasonable to  suppose that the human   
physiology1 with its definitely         
elaborated  tissues1 organs1 and        
systems1 is unrelated to the physiology 
of  vertebrates in general1 and through 
vertebrate physiology to the  physiology
 of invertebrates1 as to suppose that   
the states and  impulses constituting   
human nature and consciousness began to 
exist  in the anthropic type of anatomy 
and are unrelated to the states and     
impulses of vertebrate consciousness in 

general1 and through  vertebrate        
consciousness to those remoter types of 
sentiency lying  away at the threshold  
of organic life4 ,human psychology is a 
part of  universal psychology4 ,it has  
been evolved4 ,it has been evolved      
according to the same laws of heredity  
and adaptation as have  physiological   
structures4 ,and it is just as          
impossible to understand  human nature  
and psychology unaided by those wider   
prospects of  universal psychology as it
 is to understand the facts of human    
physiology unaided by analogous         
universalisations4    #a4 ,romanes3     
,mental ,evolution in ,animals2 ,new    
,york1 #ahih4  #b4 ,gilbraith3          
,ethnological ,journal1 #ahfi1 p4 #cjd4 
#c4 ,burton3 ,first ,footsteps in ,east 
,africa2 ,london1 #ahef4  #d4 ,lubbock3 
,origin of ,civilisation2 ,new ,york1   
#ahih4  #e4 ,demoor3 ,evolution by      
,atrophy2 ,new ,york1 #ahii4  #f4 ,this 
topic is more fully presented in the    
chapter 8,the elements  of the human and

 non-human mind compared40    ,,iii4    
,the ,common-sense ,view4    ,but it is 
not necessary to be learned in          
,darwinian science in order  to know    
that non-human beings have souls4 ,just 
the ordinary  observation of them in    
their daily lives about us--in their    
comings  and goings and doings--is      
sufficient to convince any person of    
discernment that they are beings with   
joys and sorrows1 desires and           
capabilities1 similar to our own4 ,no   
human being with a  conscientious desire
 to learn the truth can associate       
intimately day  after day with these    
people--associate with them as he       
himself  would desire to be associated  
with in order to be interpreted1        
without presumption or reserve1 in a    
kind1 honest1 straightforward1          
magnanimous manner2 make them his       
friends and really enter into  their    
inmost lives--without realising that    
they are almost unknown  by human       
beings1 that they are constantly and    

criminally  misunderstood1 and that they
 are in reality beings actuated by      
substantially the same impulses and     
terrorised by approximately the  same   
experiences as we ourselves4 ,they eat  
and sleep1 seek pleasure  and try to    
avoid pain1 cling valorously to life1   
experience health  and disease1 get     
seasick1 suffer hunger and thirst1      
co-operate with  each other1 build      
homes1 reproduce themselves1 love and   
provide for  their children1 feeding1   
defending1 and educating them1 contend  
against enemies1 contract habits1       
remember and forget1 learn from         
experience1 have friends and favourites 
and pastimes1 appreciate  kindness1     
commit crimes1 dream dreams1 cry out in 
distress1 are  affected by alcohol1     
opium1 strychnine1 and other drugs1 see1
 hear1  smell1 taste1 and feel1 are     
industrious1 provident and cleanly1 have
  languages1 risk their lives for       
others1 manifest ingenuity1             
individuality1 fidelity1 affection1     

gratitude1 heroism1 sorrow1  sexuality1 
self-control1 fear1 love1 hate1 pride1  
suspicion1  jealousy1 joy1 reason1      
resentment1 selfishness1 curiosity1     
memory1  imagination1 remorse--all of   
these things1 and scores of others1  the
 same as human beings do4    ,the       
anthropoid races have the same emotions 
and the same ways of  expressing those  
emotions as human beings have4 ,they    
laugh in joy1  whine in distress1 shed  
tears1 pout and apologise1 and get angry
  when they are laughed at4 ,they       
protrude their lips when sulky or       
pouting1 stare with wide open eyes in   
astonishment1 and look  downcast when   
melancholy or insulted4 ,when they      
laugh1 they draw  back the corners of   
their mouth and expose their teeth1     
their eyes  sparkle1 their lower eyelids
 wrinkle1 and they utter chuckling      
sounds1 just as human beings do4#a ,they
 have strong sympathy for  their sick   
and wounded1 and manifest toward their  
friends1 and  especially toward the     

members of their own family1 a devotion 
scarcely equalled among the lowest races
 of mankind4 ,they use rude  tools1 such
 as clubs and sticks1 and resort to     
cunning and  deliberation to accomplish 
their ends4 ,the orang1 when pursued1   
will  throw sticks at his pursuers1 and 
when wounded1 and the wound does  not   
prove instantly fatal1 will sometimes   
press his hand upon the  wound or apply 
grass and leaves to stop the flow of    
blood4 ,the  children of anthropoids    
wrestle with each other1 and chase and  
throw  each other1 just as do the       
juveniles of human households4 ,the     
gorilla1 chimpanzee1 and orang all build
 for themselves lodges made  of broken  
boughs and leaves in which to sleep at  
night4 ,these  lodges1 rude though they 
are1 are not inferior to the habitations
 of  many primitive men4 ,the ,puris1   
who live naked in the depths of the     
,brazilian forests1 do not even have    
huts to live in1 only screens  made by  
setting up huge palm-leaves against a   

cross-pole4#b ,some of  the ,african    
tribes are said to live largely in caves
 and the  crevices of rocks4 ,this is   
the case with many primitive men4       
,according to a writer in the ,journal  
of the ,anthropological  ,institute of  
,great ,britain and ,ireland 7,january1 
#aijb71 #8common  forms of dwelling     
among the wild tribes of the ,malay     
,peninsula are  rock-shelters 7sometimes
 caves1 but more commonly natural       
recesses  under overhanging ledges7 and 
leaf-shelters1 which are sometimes      
formed on the ground and sometimes in   
the branches of trees4 ,the  simplest   
form of these leaf-shelters consists of 
a single palm-leaf  planted in the      
ground to afford the wanderer some      
slight shelter for  the night4'    ,when
 they sleep1 the anthropoids sometimes  
lie stretched out1  man-like1 on their  
backs1 and sometimes they lie on their  
side with  their hand under their head  
for a pillow4 ,the orang retires about  
five or six o'clock in the evening1 and 

does not rise until the  morning sun has
 dissipated the mists of the forest4    
,the gorilla and  chimpanzee seem to    
mate for life4 ,the former lives1 as a  
rule1 in  single families1 each family  
consisting of a male and a female and   
their children4 ,during the day this    
primitive family roams through  the     
forests of equatorial ,africa in search 
of food4 ,they live on  fruits and nuts 
and the tender shoots and leaves of     
plants4 ,they are  especially fond of   
sugar-cane1 which they eat in small-boy 
fashion  by chewing and discarding the  
juiceless pulp4 ,among the foods of the 
gorilla is a walnut-like nut which it   
cracks with stones4 ,as evening  comes  
on1 the head of the family selects a    
sleeping-place for the  night4 ,this is 
usually some low tree with a dense      
growth at the top1  and protected as    
much as possible by higher trees from   
the chilly  night wind4 ,here1 on a bed 
of broken branches and leaves1 the      
mother  and little ones go to sleep1    

while the father devotedly crouches at  
the foot of the tree1 with his back     
against the trunk to guard his  family  
from leopards and other nocturnal       
cut-throats who eat  apes4#c ,when the  
weather is stormy1 they cover themselves
 with  broad pandanus leaves to keep off
 the rain4 ,koppenfels relates an       
incident of a gorilla family which makes
 one think of things he  sometimes sees 
among men4 ,the family consisted of the 
parents and  two children4 ,it was      
meal-time4 ,the head of the family      
reposed  majestically on the ground1    
while the wife and children hustled for 
fruits for him in a near-by tree4 ,if   
they were not sufficiently  nimble about
 it1 or if they were so wanton as to    
take a bite  themselves1 the            
paterfamilias growled and gave them a   
cuff on the  head4#c ,notwithstanding   
the sensational tales of the ferocity of
  this being1 the gorilla never attacks 
anyone at any time unless he  is        
molested4#c ,he much prefers to attend  

to his own business4 ,but  if he is not 
allowed to do so1 if he is attacked1 he 
is as fearless  as a machine4 ,he       
approaches his antagonist walking       
upright and  beating his breast with his
 fists4 ,he presents one of the most    
terrifying of all spectacles1 as1 with  
gleaming eyes1 hair erect1  and         
resounding yells1 he bears down on the  
object of his resentment4  ,the natives 
fear the gorilla more than they fear any
 other animal4    ,the chimpanzee in his
 native wilds lives in small tribes     
consisting  of a few families each4     
,like the gorilla1 it passes the most of
 its  time on the ground1 going among   
the trees only for food or sleep4 ,it   
builds a sleeping-place at night in the 
trees1 as in the case of the  gorilla4  
,brehm1 who brought up a number of      
chimpanzees in his own  home as comrades
 and playmates of his children1 and who 
studied them  and associated with them  
for years1 says3 #8,the chimpanzee is   
not  only one of the cleverest of all   

creatures1 but a being capable of       
deliberation and judgment4 ,everything  
he does is done consciously  and        
deliberately4 ,he looks upon all other  
animals1 except man1 as  very inferior  
to himself4 ,he treats children entirely
 different from  grown-up people4 ,the  
latter he respects2 the former he looks 
upon as  comrades and equals4 ,he is not
 merely inquisitive3 he is greedy for   
knowledge4 ,he can draw conclusions1 can
 reason from one thing to  another1 and 
apply the results of experience to new  
circumstances4  ,he is cunning1 even    
wily1 has flashes of humour1 indulges in
  practical jokes1 manifests moods1 and 
is entertained in one company  and bored
 in another4 ,he is self-willed but not 
stubborn1  good-natured but not wanting 
in independence4 ,he expresses his      
emotions like a human being4 ,in        
sickness he behaves like one in         
despair1 distorts his face1 groans1     
stamps1 and tears his hair4 ,he  learns 
very easily whatever is taught him1 as1 

for instance1 to sit  upright at table1 
to eat with knife and fork and spoon1 to
 drink  from a glass or cup1 to stir the
 sugar in his tea1 to use a napkin1  to 
wear clothes1 to sleep in a bed1 and so 
on4 ,exceedingly  appreciative of every 
caress1 he is equally sensitive to blame
 and  unkindness4 ,he is capable of deep
 gratitude1 and he expresses it by      
shaking hands or kissing without being  
asked to do so4 ,he behaves  toward     
infants with touching tenderness4 ,the  
behaviour of a sick and  suffering      
chimpanzee is most pathetic4 ,begging   
piteously1 almost  humanly1 he looks    
into his master's face1 receives every  
attempt  to help him with warm thanks1  
and soon looks upon his physician as a  
benefactor1 holding out his arm to him1 
stretching out his tongue  whenever     
told1 and even doing so of his own      
accord after a few  visits from his     
physician4 ,he swallows medicines       
readily1 and even  submits to surgical  
operations--in short1 behaves very like 

a human  patient in similar             
circumstances4 ,as his end approaches1  
he becomes  more gentle1 and the nobler 
traits of his character stand out       
prominently'4#d    ,the ,new ,york      
,herald1 in its issue of ,july #b1      
#aija1 contained an  account of the     
death of ,charlemagne1 a chimpanzee who 
died a short  time before at ,grenoble1 
,france4 ,this anthropoid at the time of
 his  death was the most popular        
inhabitant of the town4 ,his popularity 
was due to his good-nature and          
intelligence1 and especially to the     
fact that a few years before his death  
he had saved a child from  drowning in a
 well4 ,the ape saw the child fall1 and 
without a  moment's hesitation climbed  
down the rope used for the buckets1     
seized the child1 and climbed out again 
by the same rope by which he  had       
descended4 ,the people of the town      
thought so much of him that  they       
followed his remains to the grave1 and  
the municipal council  voted to erect a 

bronze statue to his memory4    ,a      
heartless hunter--maybe one of those    
assassins who fill the wilds  with      
widows and orphans in the name of       
,science--tells of the murder  of a     
mother chimpanzee and her baby in       
,africa4 ,the mother was high  up in a  
tree with her little one in her arms4   
,she watched intently1  and with signs  
of the greatest anxiety1 the hunter as  
he moved about  beneath1 and when he    
took aim at her the poor doomed thing   
motioned  to him with her hand precisely
 in the manner of a human being1 to     
have him desist and go away4            
,according to ,emin ,pasha1 who was for 
a number of years ,governor of  an      
,egyptian province on the ,upper ,nile1 
and whom ,stanley made his  last        
expedition to #8rescue1' chimpanzees    
sometimes make use of  fire4 ,he told   
,stanley that1 when a tribe of          
chimpanzees who resided  in a forest    
near his camp came at night to get fruit
 from the  orchards1 they always came   

bearing torches to light them on their  
way4 #8,if ,i had not seen it with my   
own eyes1' he declares1 #8,i  never     
could have believed that these beings   
have the power of making  fire'4#e ,this
 same authority relates that on one     
occasion a band  of chimpanzees         
descended upon his camp and carried off 
a drum4 ,the  marauders went away in    
great glee1 beating the drum as they    
retreated4 ,he says he heard them       
several times after that1 at night1     
beating their drum1 in the forest4      
,the monkeys are little inferior to the 
man-like races in their  intelligence   
and in the general similarity of their  
feelings and  instincts to those of men4
 ,monkeys live in tribes1 and at the    
head  of each tribe is an old male chief
 who has won his place by his  strength1
 courage1 and ability4 ,monkeys have    
excellent memories and  keen            
observation1 and are able to recognise  
their friends in a crowd  even after    
long absences4 ,they are proverbially   

imitative1 have a  strong desire for    
knowledge1 and are exceedingly sensitive
 and  sympathetic in their natures4     
,sympathy and curiosity1 the two most   
prominent traits in simian psychology1  
are1 significantly1 the two  most       
important facts in the psychology of    
man4 ,sympathy and  curiosity lie at the
 foundation of human civilisation1      
sympathy at  the foundation of morals1  
and curiosity of invention and science4 
,the monkey whose diary appears in the  
closing pages of ,romanes'  #8,animal   
,intelligence' was possessed of an      
almost ravenous desire  to know4 ,he    
spent hour after hour in exploration1   
examining with the  indomitable patience
 of a scientist everything that came    
within the  bounds of his little        
horizon4 ,and when he had found out any 
new  thing1 he was as delighted over it 
as a boy who has solved a hard  problem1
 repeating the experiment over and over 
until it was  thoroughly familiar to    
him4 ,among the many things he          

discovered for  himself was the use of  
the lever and the screw4 ,monkeys are   
the most  affectionate of all animals   
excepting dogs and men4 ,this affection 
reaches its culmination1 as among men1  
in the love of the mother for  her      
child4 ,the mother monkey's little one  
is the object of her  constant care and 
affection4 ,she nurses and bathes it1   
licks it and  cleans its coat1 and folds
 it in her arms and rocks it as if to   
lull  it to sleep1 just as human mammas 
do4 ,she divides every bite with  her   
little one1 but does not hesitate to    
chastise it with slaps and  pinches when
 it is rude4 ,the monkey child is       
generally very  obedient1 obedient      
enough for an example to many a human   
youngster4    #8,very touching1' says   
,brehm1 from whom many of the foregoing 
facts are gleaned1 #8is the conduct of  
the mother when her baby is  obviously  
suffering4 ,and if it dies she is in    
despair4 ,for hours1  and even for days1
 she carries the little corpse about    

with her1  refuses all food1 sits       
indifferently in the same spot1 and     
often  literally pines to death'4#d     
,orphan monkeys1 according to ,brehm1   
are often adopted by the tribe1  and    
carefully looked after by the other     
monkeys1 both male and  female4 ,the    
great mass of human beings1 who know    
about as much about  the real emotional 
life of monkeys as wooden ,indians do1  
are  inclined to pass over lightly all  
displays of feeling by these  people of 
the trees4 ,but the poet knows1 and the 
prophet knows1 and  the world will one  
day understand1 that in the gentle      
bosoms of  these wild woodland mothers  
glow the antecedents of the same        
impulses as those that cast that blessed
 radiance over the lost  paradise of our
 own sweet childhood4 ,the mother monkey
 who gathered  green leaves as she fled 
from limb to limb1 and frantically      
stuffed  them into the wound of her     
dying baby in order to stanch the cruel 
rush of blood from its side1 all the    

while uttering the most pitiful  cries  
and casting reproachful glances at her  
human enemy1 until she  fell with her   
darling in her arms and a bullet in her 
heart1 had in  her simian soul just as  
genuine mother-love1 and love just as   
sacred1 as that which burns in the      
breast of woman4    ,the affection of   
monkeys is not confined to the love of  
the mother  for her child1 but exists   
among the different members of the same 
tribe1 and extends even to human beings1
 especially to those who  make any      
pretensions to do to them as they would 
themselves be done  by4 ,the monkey kept
 by ,romanes1 already referred to1      
became so  attached to his master that  
he went into the wildest demonstrations 
of joy whenever his master1 after an    
absence1 came into the room4  ,standing 
on his hind-legs at the full length of  
his chain1 and  reaching out both hands 
as far as he could reach1 he screamed   
with  all his might4 ,his joy was so    
hysterical that it was impossible to    

carry on any kind of conversation until 
he had been folded in his  master's     
arms1 when he immediately grew quiet4   
#8,after ,i took this monkey back to the
 ,zoological ,gardens1' says  ,romanes1 
#8and up to the time of his death1 he   
remembered me as  well as the day he was
 returned4 ,i visited the monkey-house  
about  once a month1 and whenever ,i    
approached his cage he saw me with      
astounding quickness--indeed1 generally 
before ,i saw him--and ran  to the bars1
 through which he thrust both hands with
 every  expression of joy4 ,when ,i went
 away he always followed me to the      
extreme end of the cage1 and stood there
 watching me as long as ,i  remained in 
sight4'    ,the following account of the
 attachment of a male monkey for his    
murdered consort is a pitiful tale of   
human inhumanity and of simian          
tenderness and devotion3    #8,a member 
of a shooting-party killed a female     
monkey1 and carried  her body to his    
tent under a banyan-tree4 ,the tent was 

soon  surrounded by forty or fifty of   
the tribe1 who made a great noise  and  
threatened to attack the aggressor4     
,when he presented his  fowling-piece1  
the fearful effects of which they had   
just witnessed1  and appeared perfectly 
to understand1 they retreated4 ,the     
leader of  the troop1 however1 stood his
 ground1 threatening and chattering     
furiously4 ,at last1 finding threats of 
no avail1 the broken-hearted  creature  
came to the door of the tent and began a
 lamentable  moaning1 and by the most   
expressive signs seemed to beg for the  
dead  body of his beloved4 ,it was given
 to him4 ,he took it sorrowfully in  his
 arms and bore it away to his expecting 
companions'4#f    ,the chattering of    
monkeys is not1 as is vulgarly supposed1
  meaningless vocalisation4 ,it is      
language4 ,it is meaningless to human   
ears for the same reason that the       
chattering of ,frenchmen is  meaningless
 to ,americans--because human beings are
 foreigners4  ,the conversation of      

monkeys is to convey thought4 ,every    
species that  thinks and feels has means
 for conveying its thoughts and         
feelings1  and the means for this       
exchange1 whether it be sounds1 symbols1
  gestures1 or grimaces1 is language4   
,as ,wundt somewhere says3 #8,if        
psychologists of to-day1 ignoring all   
that an animal can express  through     
gestures and sounds1 limit the          
possession of language to  human beings1
 such a conclusion is scarcely less     
absurd than that of  many philosophers  
of antiquity who regarded the languages 
of  barbarous nations as animal cries4' 
,mr4 ,garner1 who has so long  and so   
sympathetically associated with monkeys1
 has been able to  translate a number of
 their words and to enter into slight   
communication with them4 ,among the     
words he has been able to  understand   
are the words for #8alarm1'             
#8good-will1'  #8listen1' #8food1'      
#8drink1' #8monkey1' and  #8fruit4'     
,according to him1 the simian tongue has

 about eight or  nine sounds which may  
be changed by modulation into three or  
four  times that number1 and each       
different species or kind has its own   
peculiar tongue slightly shaded into    
dialects4 ,there may be more            
discriminating students than ,garner1   
but few certainly who have  approached  
their favourite problem with more       
feeling and humanity4  ,every one should
 read his beautiful book on #8,the      
,speech of  ,monkeys4' #8,among the     
little captives of the simian race1'    
says  he tenderly1 in closing his       
chapter on the emotional character of   
these people1 #8,i have many little     
friends to whom ,i am attached1  and    
whose devotion to me is as warm and     
sincere1 so far as ,i can  see1 as that 
of any human being4 ,i must confess that
 ,i cannot  discern in what intrinsic   
way the love they have for me differs   
from  my own for them2 nor can ,i see in
 what respect their love is less  divine
 than is my own4'    ,dogs are          

distinguished for their great           
intelligence1 the  pre-eminence of the  
sense of smell1 fidelity to duty1       
nobleness of  nature1 patience1 courage1
 and affection4 ,in all of these        
particulars many individual dogs are    
superior to whole races of men4  ,dogs  
are more sensitive to physical suffering
 than savages1 and will  cry piteously  
from slight wounds or other injuries4   
,dogs of high  life have genuine        
feelings of dignity and self-respect1   
and are  easily wounded in their        
sensibilities4 ,such dogs have          
considerable  sense of propriety1 and   
suffer1 like sensitive children1 from   
disapprobation4 ,romanes had a dog that 
was so sensitive that he  resented      
insult1 and so sympathetic that he      
always fought in defence  of other dogs 
when they were punished or attacked4    
,when out driving  with his master1 this
 dog always caught hold of his master's 
sleeve every time the horse was touched 
with a whip4#f ,romanes also  tells of a

 ,scotch terrier who1 having grown old  
and useless1 and  been supplanted by a  
younger dog1 ,jack1 became painfully    
jealous1  and imitated his rival in     
everything that he did1 even to         
ridiculous  details1 in order to retain 
the attentions of the household4 ,when  
,jack was tenderly caressed1 the old dog
 would watch for a time1 and  then burst
 out whining as if in the deepest       
distress4#f ,dogs  communicate their    
ideas to each other and to human beings1
 generally  by means of sounds and      
gestures4 ,they growl in anger1 yelp in 
eagerness1 howl in despair1 bark in joy 
or warning1 bay in wonder1  wail in     
bitterness and pain1 whine in           
supplication1 and prostrate  themselves 
in submission or apology4 ,it has been  
said that there  never was a man who    
possessed the stateliness of a ,st4     
,bernard1 the  unerring sagacity of the 
collie1 or the courage and tenacity of  
the  bulldog4 ,the vainest dandy is not 
more delicate in his ways than the      

,italian greyhound1 nor more soft and   
affectionate than the ,blenheim4  ,many 
a deed of heroism has been done by dogs 
which would1 if done by  men1 have been 
honoured by the ,order of the ,victoria 
,cross4 ,the ,st4  ,bernards belonging  
to the monks on the passes between      
,switzerland  and ,italy are especially 
celebrated for their devotion to the    
business of saving human life4 ,they    
often lose their own lives in  their    
efforts to rescue travellers baffled and
 overcome by storm4  ,one particularly  
sagacious individual1 who lost his life 
in this way  some years ago1 wore a     
medal stating that he had been the means
 of  saving twenty-two human lives4 ,in 
devotion the dog is superior to  all    
other animals1 not even excepting man4  
#8,how could one get  relief from the   
endless dissimulation1 falsity1 and     
malice of  mankind1' exclaimed          
,schopenhauer in one of his inspired    
moments1  #8if there were no dogs into  
whose honest faces he could look        

without distrust8' ,a dog will follow a 
handful of rags wrapped  around a       
homeless beggar1 day after day1 through 
heat and cold and  storm and starvation1
 just as faithfully as he will follow   
the  purple of a king4 ,the dog who     
stood over the lifeless body of his     
master1 grieving for recognition and    
starting at every flutter of  his       
garments1 till he himself died of       
starvation1 had in his  faithful breast 
a nobler heart than that which beats in 
the bosom of  most men4 ,and the        
devotion of ,greyfriars ,bobby1 who     
every night for  twelve years1 in all   
kinds of weather1 slept on his master's 
grave1 was well worthy the marble       
tribute which to-day stands in          
,edinburgh to his memory4 ,there has    
never been recorded in the  history of  
the world an instance of more           
extravagant trust and  devotion than    
that told of the canine companion of a  
certain  vivisector1 which licked the   
hand of his master while undergoing the 

crime of being cut to pieces4 ,such     
deeds of self-sacrifice remind  one of  
the tales told of imaginary saints4 ,but
 they are the deeds of  only dogs--of   
beings whom half the world look upon    
with  indifference and contempt1 and    
whom the other half would feel1 if  they
 came within reach1 under the strictest 
obligations to kick4      #8,when some  
proud son of man returns to earth1      
,unknown to glory but upheld by birth1  
,the sculptor's art exhausts the pomp of
 woe1    ,and storied urns record who   
rests below2    ,when all is done1 upon 
the tomb is seen1    ,not what he was1  
but what he should have been2    ,but   
the poor dog1 in life the firmest       
friend1    ,the first to welcome1       
foremost to defend1    ,whose honest    
heart is still his master's own4    ,who
 labours1 fights1 lives1 breathes1 for  
him alone1    ,unhonoured falls1        
unnoticed all his worth--    ,denied in 
heaven the soul he had on earth4'    ,i 
am not one of those who regard the      

evidence for the post-mortem  existence 
of the human soul as being either       
abundant or conclusive4  ,but of one    
thing ,i am positive1 and that is1 that 
there are the same  grounds precisely   
for believing in the immortality of the 
bird and  the quadruped as there are for
 the belief in human immortality4 ,and  
it is delightful to find great thinkers 
like ,haeckel1 great  biologists and    
philosophers1 holding the same          
conviction4 ,haeckel is  the giant of   
the ,germans1 and in his brilliant book 
#8,the ,riddle of  the ,universe'       
appears this rather poetical paragraph3 
#8,i once  knew an old head-forester1   
who1 being left a widower and without   
children at an early age1 had lived     
alone for more than thirty years  in a  
noble forest of ,east ,prussia4 ,his    
only companions were one or  two        
servants1 with whom he exchanged merely 
a few necessary words1  and a great pack
 of different kinds of dogs1 with whom  
he lived in  perfect psychic communion4 

,through many years of training this    
keen  observer and friend of nature had 
penetrated deep into the  individual    
souls of his dogs1 and he was as        
convinced of their  personal immortality
 as he was of his own4 ,some of his most
  intelligent dogs were1 in his         
impartial estimation1 at a higher  stage
 of psychic development than his old    
stupid maid and his rough  and wrinkled 
man-servant4 ,any unprejudiced observer 
who will study  the psychic phenomena of
 a fine dog for a year1 and follow      
attentively the processes of its        
thought1 judgment1 and reason1 will     
have to admit that it has just as valid 
a claim to immortality as  man himself4'
    ,fido was a shaggy terrier who lived
 years ago in the old home on the  farm 
by the beautiful brook4 ,he was one of  
the very first  acquaintances the writer
 of these lines made on coming into     
existence4 ,in his earlier years1 before
 age had dimmed his mind and  rheumatism
 had fastened upon him1 he was an       

exceedingly agreeable  and clever       
canine1 active in all the affairs of the
 farm4 ,he knew  the old homestead by   
heart1 and he took about as much        
interest in  having everything go right 
as anybody--more1 perhaps1 even than we 
boys did4 ,he chased the pigs out of the
 orchard without being asked  to do so1 
and guarded the house at night with the 
vigilance of a  hired watchman4 ,he     
seemed to realise the demands of        
everyday  situations about as well as   
any of us4 ,he could distinguish between
  neighbours who were accustomed to come
 on the premises and strangers  who were
 not4 ,he always knew when company came1
 for he invariably  attempted to profit 
by the fact4 ,he had been taught early  
the  propriety of keeping in the        
background when his tyrants were        
feeding1 and ordinarily on such         
occasions he slept dutifully by the     
kitchen stove4 ,but just as sure as a   
guest sat at table1 ,fido would  turn   
up1 and1 tapping the visitor gently to  

get his attention1 would  sit up        
perfectly straight1 with his paws       
pendent and a peculiar grin  on his     
face1 in expectation of a morsel4 ,dear 
old ,fido6 ,how much he  thought of all 
of us6 ,and how meagerly1 as ,i know    
now1 were his  matchless love and       
services requited2 ,on ,sundays         
sometimes the human  members of the     
household would go away and stay all    
day1 and ,fido  and the cat would be    
left alone to get along the best way    
they  could4 ,he knew as well as any of 
us when these days came around1 and  he 
dreaded them4 ,i suppose he had learned 
from experience to  associate cessation 
of farm work and peculiar preparations  
with a  day alone4 ,the long1 lonely    
hours probably affected him somewhat as 
they do a human being who is compelled  
to stay alone all day with  nothing to  
do4 ,but what a welcome he gave us in   
the evening when we  came back6 ,this   
was indubitable evidence of his         
loneliness4 ,the  first familiar object 

we would see in the evening1 on coming  
in  sight of home1 was faithful ,fido1  
sitting out in the road on the  hill    
above the house--sitting straight up in 
that peculiar way of  his--watching and 
waiting for our home-coming4 ,he knew1  
or seemed  to know1 the direction from  
which to expect us1 and was able to     
recognise us a long way off4 ,the years 
have been many1 and ,fido's  dust has   
long been scattered by the gusts over   
the farms of  north-west ,missouri2 but 
now1 in fancy1 ,i can see this faithful 
creature bounding down the road in the  
sunset to meet us1 as he used  to do in 
the golden long-ago1 leaping and smiling
 and wagging his  tail1 and wriggling   
and barking in a perfect ecstasy of     
gladness4    ,well1 ,i know ,fido could 
feel and think1 that he loved and feared
  and longed and dreaded and dreamed and
 hated and grieved and  sympathised and 
reasoned and rejoiced--in short1 that he
 was moved  by about the same passions  
and considerations as human beings      

usually are4 ,he gave the same evidence 
of it precisely as a human  being does4 
,the dog is the oldest of human         
associates4 ,long before the  historical
 period the dog was domesticated in     
,europe1 ,asia1 and  ,africa4 ,no race  
of men is too primitive to be without   
the dog4 ,the  bones of the dog are     
found in the middens of the ,baltic1 and
 rude  representations of it are        
chiseled on the oldest monuments of     
,egypt  and ,assyria4 ,the dog was the  
servant of man away in paleolithic      
times1 when the mastodon was on earth1  
and man was a naked  troglodyte1 and    
,europe extended westward to the        
,azores4 ,and he has  been a faithful   
friend1 a tireless ally1 and an         
enthusiastic slave  of a thankless and  
inhuman master ever since4    ,birds are
 pre-eminently emotional and artistic4  
,this is shown by  their fondness for   
singing1 their fine dress1 their pining 
for their  dead1 their dainty           
architecture1 their pretty forms and    

manners of  life1 their joyousness1 and 
their love for their young4 ,birds are  
the most beautiful and engaging of all  
terrestrial beings4 ,endowed  with the  
power of flight1 eminently active1      
light-hearted and free1  attired in all 
the colours of the rainbow1 and with    
voices of  unrivalled richness and      
melody1 birds are the admiration and    
envy of  all of those that dwell on the 
earth4 ,birds possess naturally and in  
marvellous perfection that power of     
locomotion which has been so  long      
sought for by slow-shuffling man4 ,birds
 are also incomparable  musicians1 no   
other animals1 not even men1 approaching
 them in the  surpassing brilliancy and 
sweetness of their song4 ,no human      
musician  in high-sounding hall can     
equal the artless lay of the wild bird  
ringing melodiously through the leafy   
colonnades of the woods4 ,like  men1    
birds sing chiefly of love2 but they    
also sing for pastime or  pleasure4     
,their singing is sweetest during the   

season of courtship1  and attains its   
highest development in the males4 ,birds
 are ardent  lovers4 ,to win their      
brides1 the males contend with each     
other1 and  display their charms of     
plumage and song with the wildness of   
human  ,romeos4    ,the song of birds is
 generally acquired by inheritance from 
the  species1 but is sometimes borrowed 
by imitation from other birds1 or  even 
from other animals4 ,birds taken from   
their species when young1  before they  
have heard their native song1 sing      
generally the song of  their kind1 but  
it is likely to be interspersed with    
notes and  phrases from the birds around
 them4 ,birds thus isolated have been   
known to adopt entirely the song of     
their surroundings4 ,olive ,thorne      
,miller vouches for the fact that an    
,english sparrow she once knew  grew up 
in company with a canary1 and came in   
time to sing the song  of its more      
talented companion to perfection4 ,it   
must have been a  ,shakspere of a bird1 

however1 to have soared so high above   
the  excruciating accomplishments of the
 generality of its species4    ,the     
songs of birds can be set to music just 
as the melodies of men  can4 ,the songs 
of several birds were published in the  
,american  ,naturalist a few years ago4 
,and ,winchell1 the well-known ,english 
student of birds1 has written a clever  
book on the #8,cries and  ,call-notes of
 ,wild ,birds1' in which he prints the  
calls and songs  of most of the native  
birds of ,england4 ,according to this   
writer1  who has perhaps studied the    
music of birds more critically than     
anyone else1 the song of the            
nightingale1 when printed in the        
notation of ordinary human music1 is    
like a piano solo4 ,it is made  up of a 
score or so of different strains1 with  
trills and  crescendos1 and all executed
 in so inimitable a manner that it is   
unrecognisable when repeated on a       
musical instrument or the human  voice4 
,one of these strains1 curiously enough1

 is identical with the  song of a       
certain bush-warbler of western         
,canada--as if the ,english  vocalist   
had plagiarised the song of its humbler 
cousin in compiling  its incomparable   
repertoire4 ,the song of the            
mocking-bird is a  magnificent medley1  
made up of the calls1 trills1 twitters1 
warbles1  warnings1 and love-songs1 of a
 score or more of other birds4 ,i have  
heard this bird along the ,solomon and  
,arkansas valleys repeat in the  most   
perfect manner the notes and songs of   
the pewee1 purple martin1  kingbird1    
flicker1 blue jay1 catbird1 canary1     
crow1 ,english sparrow1  red-headed     
woodpecker1 quail1 cardinal1 cuckoo1    
robin1 red-wings1  grackle1 meadowlark1 
night-hawk1 whip-poor-will1 besides many
 other  calls and notes1 perhaps of     
birds ,i did not know4 ,in the case of  
some of these birds the mocker made all 
of the different sounds of  each bird4  
,the song of the mocking-bird is        
delivered at any time1  day or night1   

and generally in a state of high ecstasy
 and  excitement1 the performer flying  
from tree to tree and from  house-top to
 barn-top1 occasionally throwing himself
 into the air in  the most absurd       
manner1 and all the time pouring forth  
such a stream  of melody that one would 
think all the birds in the neighbourhood
  had suddenly come together and let    
loose in a grand festival of song4      
,according to ,chapman1 many of the     
notes of birds are language notes       
rather than sounds expressive of        
sentiment4 ,of the robin this           
well-known student of birds says3 #8,the
 song and call-notes of this  bird1     
while familiar to everyone1 are in      
reality understood by no  one1 and offer
 excellent subjects for the student of  
bird language4  ,its notes express      
interrogation1 suspicion1 alarm1 and    
caution1 and  it signals to its         
companions to take wing4 ,indeed1 few of
 our birds  have a more extended        
vocabulary4' ,winchell says that the    

common  ,english sparrow has as many as 
seven different notes1 which it uses  to
 express the thoughts and feelings      
passing through its rather  active but  
not very highly honoured head3 7#a7 ,the
 common note of  address of the male to 
the female2 7#b7 a note of alarm used by
 both  male and female adults1 but never
 by the young2 7#c7 an emphatic  alarm  
note1 always uttered by sentinels when a
 hawk is near or when  a man approaches 
with a gun2 7#d7 the note of the female 
when  surrounded by several noisy and   
contending male rivals2 7#e7 an  autumn 
cry uttered by the first one of the     
company perceiving danger  and flying up
 from the hedges and fields--never      
uttered by young1  but by adults of both
 sexes2 7#f7 the love note of both male 
and  female1 used mostly by the female1 
and generally with a fluttering  or     
shaking accompaniment of her wings2 7#g7
 a curious note sometimes  heard in     
,london--meaning not well understood1   
but supposed to be a  sort of chuckle or

 sign of contentment4 ,each one of these
 several  different notes may be used to
 stand for various ideas depending on   
the circumstances by being given        
different emphasis and inflection1  just
 as in the languages of many primitive  
races of men a small  vocabulary of     
words is used to stand for a much larger
 number of  ideas by being pronounced   
differently4 ,in the ,chinese language1 
for  instance1 the words are increased  
to three or four times the  original    
number by modulation2 but the same thing
 is observed in all  languages1 both    
human and non-human4 ,verbal poverty is 
pieced out by  verbal variation4 ,we say
 a-cent or ac-cent1 depending on whether
  we wish to express the idea of a noun 
or a verb4    ,the memory of birds is   
well developed4 ,many of them remember  
the  very grove or meadow1 and even the 
very knot-hole or bush1 in which  they  
built their nest the season before1     
although in the meantime  they have     
journeyed over lands and seas and       

sojourned thousands of  miles away4     
,every year1 for several seasons past1  
in late summer and  early fall1 after   
the nesting-time is over and the young  
ones are  all grown1 the purple martins 
have gathered in large numbers about    
the ,field ,columbian ,museum1 in       
,jackson ,park1 ,chicago4 ,they stay    
here  for a few weeks1 foraging the     
surrounding air for insects by day1  and
 sleeping on the great dome of the      
,museum by night1 finally  flying away  
to be seen no more in such numbers till 
next year4 ,these  birds1 many of them  
anyway1 must remember from one year to  
another  this annual assembly here by   
the big waters1 else why would they     
come together at this particular spot   
from all over the country8 ,i  have no  
doubt that some of them1 having         
sojourned here year after  year for some
 time1 remember well the great ugly     
building where they  meet1 and are more 
or less familiar with the surrounding   
locality  from having searched it so    

often4 ,i wonder what led to the        
establishing of the custom in the first 
place4 ,customs do not fall  from the   
skies4 ,and what advantage is there in  
the practice8 ,what  are they up to as  
they chirp and wheel in the air1 and    
flutter up  the slopes and sail down    
again1 and perch on the pinnacles and   
twitter8 ,maybe it is a sort of         
,saratoga for them1 where they all  come
 together ostensibly to dip their bills 
in the blue waves1 but  where sons swell
 in their new feathers1 and sly mammas  
find  prospects for unmarketable misses4
    ,a parrot has been known to remember
 the voice of its mistress after  an    
absence of a year and a half--a very    
remarkable feat even for  the grey      
matter of a bird4 ,a flock of geese     
mentioned by ,romanes  showed their     
knowledge of the arrival of market-day1 
which came  every two weeks1 by         
assembling regularly on such days1 early
 in the  morning1 in front of the town  
inn where the market was held1 to pick  

up the corn4 ,they never came on the    
wrong day2 and on one occasion1  when   
the market was omitted on account of a  
holiday1 here came the  unfailing fowls 
cackling and shouting as usual in merry 
anticipation  of their fortnightly      
feast1 but ignorant of the national     
necessities  which had doomed them to be
 disappointed4#f    ,parrots remember   
and call for their absent friends1 and  
mumble  phrases in their dreams which   
have been taught to them4 ,these gifted 
birds learn long poems by heart1 and    
sing songs with considerable  art4 ,a   
parrot belonging to the canon of the    
,cathedral of ,salzburg  was given      
instruction regularly two hours every   
day for ten years1  from #ahcj to #ahdj4
 ,the bird became very proficient in    
speech and  exceedingly intelligent4 ,it
 took part in conversations1 whistled   
tunes1 and was able to sing a number of 
popular songs1 among them an  entire    
aria from ,flotow's opera of            
#8,martha'4#g    ,educated birds though1

 like educated dogs1 horses1 cats1 mice1
 men1  and everything else1 are very    
different beings from the uneducated4   
,cultivation is a key that unlocks all  
sorts of miracles4 ,cats are  cultivated
 tigers2 and the richest grains that    
ripen in the fields  of men1 and the    
loveliest flowers that blow1 are only   
educated  weeds4 ,even the flea may be  
taught to exchange leaping for walking1 
to draw a tiny wagon1 to ride on the    
seat1 to fire a toy cannon1 and  do many
 other feats4    ,there is one family of
 birds in which the superior size1      
gorgeousness1 and vivacity1 usual to the
 males1 are found in the  other sex1 the
 females being the larger and more      
brightly  coloured--the ,phalarope      
family4 ,indeed1 the members of this    
small  family not only reverse the usual
 arrangement of the sexual  characters  
of birds1 but completely upset many of  
the most cherished  traditions of the   
avian household4 ,the female does the   
wooing1 and  takes the lead in selecting

 the nest site4 ,and while she lays the 
eggs1 the privilege of incubation she   
hands over magnanimously to  her        
dull-coloured mate4    ,birds have a    
keen observation and a good deal of that
 invaluable  faculty known as           
common-sense4 ,it is wonderful how      
quickly they  learn to avoid            
telegraph-wires when these invisible but
 deadly  gossamers are first stretched  
across a country1 and how unerringly    
they keep at safe distances when hunted 
with firearms4 ,an  experienced crow can
 tell a cane from a gun-barrel almost as
 far as  he can see it4    ,nearly all  
birds build nests of some kind in which 
to cradle their  eggs and young4 ,the   
cow-bird and cuckoo 7,european71        
however1 are  exceptions4 ,these birds  
have the rather human practice of       
turning  their cares and labours over to
 somebody else4 ,they are loafers and   
parasites4 ,they lay their eggs secretly
 in the nests of other birds1  where    
their eggs are hatched and their young  

cared for by an alien  mother4 ,i have  
seen a mother song-sparrow hustling     
about among the  shrubs and grasses for 
an hour at a time almost1 gathering food
 for  a young cow-bird nearly twice as  
big as she was1 while her foundling  sat
 phlegmatically at the foot of a tree   
chirping and fluttering its  wings1 and 
acting as a thankless and apparently    
bottomless  receptacle for the morsel   
after morsel laboriously harvested for  
it  by its tireless little              
foster-mother4 ,sand-martins and        
kingfishers  burrow in the earth and    
rear their broods in subterranean       
cradles2  gulls and gamebirds build on  
the ground2 the flamingoes and          
barn-swallows build mud nests2 the      
woodpeckers mine holes in trees2  doves 
and eagles make platforms of sticks2 the
 tailor-bird bastes  living leaves      
together2 the social weavers construct  
great straw  roofs covering the top of a
 tree1 and build their nests on the     
limbs  beneath2 most singing birds build

 daintily-lined baskets1 and swing  them
 in trees and bushes4    ,it is often   
said that all the birds of a species    
build their nests  in precisely the same
 way1 and that1 while men change and    
improve  their dwelling-places from     
generation to generation1 birds build   
their abodes in the same old way1 just  
as their ancestors built  theirs        
centuries and centuries ago4 ,this is a 
favourite thought with  the fogies1 with
 those who change not in their thinking 
from the  ways hacked out for them      
centuries and centuries ago4 ,birds are 
like  men4 ,some of them--some races and
 some individuals--are much more  given 
to initiative than others4 ,there is as 
wide a difference  between the hang-bird
 and the auk in the construction of     
their  domiciles as between the         
millionaire and the savage4 ,and the    
hang-bird has come by her home-making   
art through centuries of  improvement1  
just as the millionaire has arrived at  
his4 ,it is  believed by ornithologists 

that the first nests of birds were the  
niches of rocks or simple hollows       
scooped in the sand and soil1 such  as  
are still seen among the more primitive 
bird races1 and that from  these        
aboriginal beginnings have come1 through
 ages of evolution1  the elaborate      
creations of the cotton-bird1           
weaver-bird1 tailorbird1  oven-bird1 the
 baya-sparrow1 the finches1 and the     
orioles4 ,the  savage who lives         
unmolested generation after generation  
in the same  land and country builds his
 simple hut in just the same way as his 
ancestors built theirs1 and thinks the  
same things his ancestors  thought a    
thousand years before him4 ,sir ,samuel 
,baker1 in a paper on  #8,the ,races of 
the ,nile ,basin1' points out that each 
tribe of men  in eastern ,africa1 like  
each species of bird1 has its own       
peculiar  style of hut1 and that the    
huts of the various tribes are as       
constant in their types as are the nests
 of birds4 ,the same thing is  true of  

their headdresses as of their huts2 and 
this fixed character  exists also in    
their languages1 customs1 and religions4
 ,it is only  some races of men that are
 given to growth and fluidity1 and only 
some men of these special races4        
,right in our own country1 among the    
remote mountain recesses of             
,appalachia1 surrounded on all sides by 
the most wonderful  development1        
material and intellectual1 the world has
 ever seen1  lives a race of rude       
mountain folk almost as aboriginal in   
their  ways and views of life1 and as   
unaffected by civilisation1 as if  they 
were in the heart of ,africa4 ,they live
 huddled together in  one-room          
log-cabins without windows or floors1   
eat bacon and  cornmeal1 carry on almost
 constant wars1 and execute the deputies
 of  civilisation who happen to stray   
into their illicit dominions1 just  as  
they have done from the time these      
mountain silences were first  broken by 
them #aej or #bjj years ago4    ,birds1 

as a rule1 use a great deal of care and 
thought in the  location of their nests4
 ,after they have selected a certain    
grove or  field as the one best suited  
to their purposes1 or as the one around 
which cluster the happiest memories1 it 
usually requires several  days of flying
 and peeping about1 of spying and       
exploration1 before  the exact spot for 
the precious domicile is finally settled
 upon4 ,it  is a delicate matter for    
many birds1 for security from sun1      
storm1  and enemies must all be taken   
into account4 ,old birds1 as has been   
frequently observed1 build better nests 
and select more clever  locations for   
their nests than the young and          
inexperienced4 ,the  nest-building      
habits of many birds are known to have  
changed during  the past few hundred    
years4 ,the ,american house-swallow did 
most  certainly not build under the     
eaves of human houses #cjj years ago1   
nor did the hair-bird in her nest with  
horsehair as she invariably  does now4  

,the fact that wrens1 swifts1 and       
martins now build almost  altogether in 
boxes and chimneys shows that birds are 
able and  willing to adapt themselves to
 new conditions4 ,the chimney-swift and 
purple martin1 it is said1 still cling  
to their aboriginal custom of  rearing  
their young in hollow trees in the      
unsettled parts of  ,america4 ,the      
indomitable house-sparrow builds its    
nest almost  anywhere1 from knot-holes  
and tin cans to electric-light globes   
and  tree-tops4 ,its original dwelling  
was probably an arboreal affair1  like  
that of other sparrows1 and different   
nesting-places have been  adopted as a  
result of its association with man4 ,not
 only in its  architecture1 but in      
several other ways1 this bird has       
departed from  the traditions of its    
tribe4 ,the ,fringillidae 7the sparrow  
family of  birds7 are seed-eaters1 both 
in structure and practice4 ,but the     
house-sparrow1 since it left the fields 
and groves to become a gamin  on human  

streets1 has learned to eat almost      
anything1 and one thing1  too1 about as 
cheerfully as another4 ,the varied      
habits of this bird  are probably due to
 its natural elasticity in the first    
place1  supplemented by the unsettling  
influences of its rather  kaleidoscopic 
experiences during the past few hundred 
years4    ,the fear of birds for man is 
an acquired trait due to ages of        
persecution4 ,if man would treat birds  
kindly1 they would act toward  him as   
they do toward any other friendly       
animal4 ,when unfrequented  islands are 
first visited by man1 the birds are     
found to be  perfectly fearless of him1 
flying about him1 feeding from his hand1
  and manifesting no more timidity than 
if he were a big-hearted bird  himself4 
,darwin states that1 when he stopped at 
the ,galapagos  ,islands on his famous  
trip around the world in the ,beagle1 he
  found the birds there so tame that he 
could push them from the  branches of   
the trees with his gun-barrel4          

,professor ,cutting1 of the  ,state     
,university of ,iowa1 in an article in  
the ,popular ,science  ,monthly for     
,august1 #aijc1 tells of the almost     
absolute fearlessness  of the birds on  
the island of ,laysan1 an isolated atoll
 in the  ,pacific west of the ,hawaian  
,islands1 which he visited during that  
summer4 ,the island swarms with bird    
life--petrels1 albatrosses1 and         
tropical birds of various kinds--and    
these birds betray no more  fear in the 
presence of man than if he were a cow4  
,the albatrosses  were so numerous and  
so indifferent to the presence of man   
that it  was necessary to shove them    
aside with one's foot to keep from      
stepping on them when one went for a    
walk along the sand-stretches  of the   
shore4 ,professor ,cutting took         
photographs of birds which  literally   
posed for him in all sorts of positions1
 and half-savage  jackies amused        
themselves by going about and pulling   
the pretty tail  feathers from the      

tropical birds as they sat on their     
nests4 ,i have  known of two cases where
 persons1 by going to the same place day
  after day with food and kindness1 have
 in the course of a few weeks  taught   
robins1 sparrows1 and other birds1 to   
lose all fear of them1  so much so as to
 sit on their shoulders and arms and eat
 out of  their hands4 ,this is the      
spirit all birds would show all the time
  toward their featherless lords if     
these featherless ones would only  treat
 them with half the consideration they  
merit4    ,the love of a bird for the   
treasures of her nest is one of the most
  beautiful things of this world4       
,mother-like1 the parent bird will do   
anything almost for the sake of her     
little ones4 ,who has not seen  the     
kildeer strive with all the tact of her 
clever little soul to  allure some big  
giant of a human being1 who has wandered
 into her  neighbourhood1 away from her 
nest of precious young8 ,many a time as 
a boy on the farm ,i have followed one  

of these birds limping and  tumbling and
 fluttering along on the ground a few   
feet ahead of me1  utterly disabled1 as 
,i supposed1 but always managing to keep
 just a  little beyond the reach of my  
eager hands4 ,and when the artful       
mother has led me far from the sacred   
spot where lay all there was  in this   
world to her1 how triumphantly she has  
lifted herself on her  unharmed wings   
and1 to my utter astonishment1 sailed   
away4 ,the  partridge and the           
mourning-dove are1 if possible1 even    
more artful  in their acting than the   
kildeer4 ,after ,i became a large boy   
and had  been told the meaning of these 
exhibitions by parent birds1 ,i often   
followed the mourning-dove1 thinking the
 bird must be really wounded  after all1
 so perfectly did it pretend4 ,but the  
cunning of the  kildeer is not confined 
to luring one away from the nest4 ,if by
 some  accident one finds her nest 7and 
the nest is so cleverly concealed  that1
 if it is discovered at all1 it will be 

by pure accident71 the  resourceful     
mother is ready with other expedients to
 outwit you4 ,she  watches you all the  
time from the proper distance1 and knows
 by your  conduct the moment you have   
found her nest4 ,and before you have    
even  had time to admire the skill      
displayed by the mother in blending so  
perfectly her abode with its            
surroundings1 a single peculiar note    
from her has caused the whole nestful of
 cuddling young ones to dart  out of    
their cradle and disappear among the    
surrounding clods as if  by magic4 ,no  
amount of searching can find one of     
them4 ,they have  vanished as           
effectually as if they had evaporated4  
,and it is enough  to touch the heart of
 the most indifferent to see the anxious
 mother  bird1 as ,i have seen her from 
the cranny of a neighbouring  rock-pile1
 come back to her nest and call her     
scattered children  together again after
 they have once dispersed at her        
command4  ,circling around the nest two 

or three times to assure herself that   
no one is nigh1 she alights and begins a
 low clucking sound like  that of a hen 
calling her brood4 ,the little ones come
 out of their  hiding-places one after  
another as mysteriously as they         
vanished4  ,you can't see for the life  
of you where they come from4 ,they seem 
to just emanate4 ,and if one of them    
fails to come at her  call--for the     
devoted mother knows very well just how 
many she  has--she extends her search   
farther out from her nest1 looking all  
around and keeping up that peculiar     
little cluck1 until the                 
half-scared-to-death little slyboots    
finally comes creeping out from  his    
improvised snuggery somewhere4 ,if a    
kildeer's nest has once  been found1 and
 the mother feels that it is in danger  
of future  visits1 she will move her    
family at night to some other locality1 
and it is practically impossible ever to
 find it again4 ,the family  relations  
of the ring-dotterels are said to be    

#8so charming and  touching that even   
hunters recoil from shooting a female   
surrounded  by her young ones4'         
,human beings1 true to their instinct   
never to call into action their  ability
 to think if they can employ their      
faculty for nonsense  instead1 call this
 love of the mother bird #8machinery4'  
,but  there are some of us 7and our     
numbers are increasing7 who are         
disposed to put off the adoption of this
 conclusion until we go mad4  ,the bird 
builds her nest1 weaving it of the      
rarest fibres4 ,she hides  it in the    
copse or prudently hangs it far out on  
some inaccessible  bough4 ,she lays her 
beautiful eggs1 and hatches them with   
the warmth  and life of her own breast4 
,she tends her young1 bringing them food
  and drink1 and watching over them with
 a tender and tireless  vigilance4 ,she 
protects them in storm with her own     
little body1  worries about them when   
danger lurks1 and dreams of them1 no    
doubt1  as she rocks and sleeps under   

the silent stars4 ,she sings to them in 
the overflow of her gladness and hope1  
and risks her very existence  to shield 
them from harm4 ,she teaches them to    
fly1 to find their  food1 and to detect 
their enemies4 ,she is true to her mate1
 and her  mate is true and kind to her4 
,as the days of summer shorten1 and the 
cool1 long nights warn of approaching   
autumn1 she leads her children  away    
from the old place1 she and her faithful
 mate1 out into the  wide old world4    
,and ,i say there is love in the heart  
of that mother  as truly as in the heart
 of woman1 and there are joy and        
genuineness  and sorrow and fidelity in 
that sylvan home more sacred than may   
sometimes bloom in the cold mansions of 
men4    ,conjugal love is also very     
strong in many of the feathered races1  
especially among those in which the     
wedding is for successive  seasons or   
for life4 ,the pining of love-birds for 
their dead  sweethearts is well known4  
,the mandarin duck is proverbial for its

  marital faithfulness1 and a pair of   
these fowls is carried by the  ,chinese 
in their marriage processions as an     
emblem of constancy4  ,many instances   
are recorded of birds1 after having been
 deprived of  their mates1 refusing     
steadfastly the attentions of other     
birds1 and  even sometimes separating   
themselves entirely from the society of 
their kind4 ,the following account of   
the devotion of a widowed  pigeon for   
her deceased consort sounds like a tale 
of human woe3    #8,a man set to watch a
 field much patronised by pigeons shot  
an old  male pigeon who had long been an
 inhabitant of the farm4 ,his mate1     
around whom he had for many a year      
cooed1 whom he had nourished with  his  
own crop and had assisted in rearing    
numerous young ones  immediately settled
 on the ground by his side ,she refused 
to leave  him1 and manifested her grief 
in the most expressive manner4 ,the     
labourer took up the dead bird and hung 
it on a stake4 ,the widow  still refused

 to forsake her husband1 and continued  
day after day  slowly walking around the
 stake on which his body hung4 ,the     
kind-hearted wife of the farmer heard of
 the matter1 and went to the  relief of 
the stricken bird4 ,on arriving at the  
spot1 she found the  poor bird still    
watching at the side of her dead1 and   
making an  occasional effort to get to  
him4 ,she was much spent with her long  
fasting and grief4 ,she had made a      
circular beaten path around the  corpse 
of her companion'4#h    ,and these are  
the beings whose bones men jest over at 
their feasts1  and brutes shoot for     
pastime on human holidays4 ,much has    
been said  of the sorrow of birds for   
their deceased mates1 but not too much4 
,for the avian soul may be smothered by 
the gloom and loneliness that  come upon
 the heart1 when the great light of love
 and companionship  has gone out1 quite 
as completely as the soul of a bereaved 
human4  ,in not many human homes where  
loved ones lie sick and dying are felt  

the pangs of more genuine grief than    
those sometimes suffered by  birds when 
their friends and companions are        
stricken in death4 ,the  following      
incident1 vouched for by ,dr4 ,franklin1
 who observed it1 is  only one among    
many such instances recorded in the     
literature on  birds3    ,a pair of     
parrots had lived together on the most  
loving terms for  four years1 when the  
female was taken with a serious attack  
of gout4  ,she grew rapidly worse1 and  
was soon so weak as to be unable to     
leave her perch for food1 when the male1
 faithful and tender as a  human spouse1
 took it upon himself to carry food to  
her regularly in  his beak4 #8,he       
continued feeding her in this way for   
four months1  but the infirmities of his
 companion increased day by day1 until  
at  last she was no longer able to      
support herself on the perch4 ,she      
remained cowering down in the bottom of 
the cage1 making from time  to time     
ineffectual efforts to regain her perch4

 ,the male was always  near her1 and did
 everything in his power to aid the     
feeble efforts  of his dear better-half4
 ,seizing the poor invalid by the beak  
or the  upper part of her wing1 he tried
 his best to enable her to rise1 and    
repeated his efforts several times4 ,his
 constancy1 his gestures1 and  his      
continued solicitude1 all showed in this
 affectionate bird the  most ardent     
desire to relieve the sufferings and    
assist the weakness  of his sinking     
companion4 ,but the scene became still  
more affecting  when the female was     
dying4 ,her unhappy consort moved about 
her  incessantly1 his attentions and    
tender cares redoubled4 ,he even  tried 
to open her beak to give some           
nourishment4 ,he ran to her1 and  then  
returned with a troubled and agitated   
look4 ,at intervals he  uttered the most
 plaintive cries2 then1 with his eyes   
fixed on her1  kept a mournful silence4 
,at length his companion breathed her   
last4  ,from that moment he pined away1 

and in the course of a few weeks        
died'4#f    ,even the rough-looking     
ostrich has sensibility enough to die of
 a  broken heart1 as was the case in the
 ,jardin des ,plantes at ,paris a  few  
years ago4 ,there is many a heart with a
 slabless grave far from  the haunts of 
men1 and many a tear in secret brews    
that never wets  the eye4    ,the       
individual who has never acquired the   
enthusiasm for a knowledge  of the birds
 and a love for their presence and      
association has  omitted some of the    
richest emotions of life4 #8,the sight  
of a bird  or the sound of its voice is 
at all times an event of such           
significance to me1' says ,chapman1 #8a 
source of such unfailing  pleasure1 that
 when ,i go afield with those to whom   
birds are  strangers ,i am deeply       
impressed by the comparative barrenness 
of  their world1 for they live in       
ignorance of a great store of  enjoyment
 that might be theirs for the asking4'  
#8,i cannot love the man who does not   

love1 ,as men love light1 the    song of
 happy birds4'    ,i have seen a mother 
mouse in a moment of peril flee from her
 home  among the falling pieces of a    
cord-wood pile1 and disappear under  the
 roots of a neighbouring oak4 ,i have   
seen her a little later1  recovered from
 her initial dismay1 making her way back
 again1  clambering along among the     
tangled timbers1 stopping now and then  
to  look and listen1 her eyes wild and  
anxious1 and her whole little  body     
quaking with excitement4 ,i have seen   
her go among the ruins of  her dwelling1
 take a poor little squeaking young one 
in her mouth1  and hurry away with it to
 the gloomy refuge in the roots of the  
oak4  ,i have watched her return again  
and again1 each time taking in her      
careful teeth the tiny body of a babe1  
until five mouthfuls of  precious pink  
were safely lodged within the fortress  
of the oak4 ,and  ,i could as soon      
believe that woman1 when she saves her  
children from  some fearful harm1 is a  

soulless machine as think that that     
brave  little wood-mother1 out there    
alone under the trees1 snatching her    
darlings from the jaws of death1 was a  
heroine without sense or  feeling4 ,that
 little hairy mother with four feet and 
bead-like eyes  loved her young ones in 
just the same way and for just the same 
reason as a human mother loves her young
 ones4 ,she looked upon her  babies1 in 
all probability1 with the same          
mother-love and tenderness  as a human  
mother looks upon hers1 and felt in     
miniature1 with evil  hovering above    
them1 the same consternation a woman    
feels when  destruction reaches out     
after those that are nearest and        
dearest4  ,and when it was all over1    
when the good angel of deliverance had  
finally spread its healing white wings  
over that afflicted family1  the heart  
of that little rodent was doubtless     
soothed by the same  joy as that which1 
in the hour of deliverance1 calms the   
hearts of  humankind4    ,ants tend     

their fields1 gather their harvests1    
domesticate other  insects1 and keep    
slaves4 ,they help each other bear heavy
 burdens1  extricate each other from    
misfortune1 speak to each other when    
they  meet1 and bury their dead4 ,they  
build roads and bridges1 and  manifest  
wonderful engineering skill in their    
construction4 ,they  even tunnel under  
rivers4 ,they go far from home1 and find
 their way  back again4 ,they inhabit   
towns1 and build splendid and spacious  
palaces4 ,each ant knows every other    
citizen of its own town1 and an  ant    
from any other town is immediately      
recognised as a foreigner4  ,ants have  
their overseers of industrial           
enterprises1 and regular  hours for work
 and sleep4 ,the ant is the most        
pugnacious of all  animals1 and the most
 muscular compared with its size4 ,it   
will  boldly attack the biggest creature
 that walks if this creature  invades   
its home4 ,it will fasten its mandibles 
into an enemy1 and  allow itself to be  

torn to pieces without relaxing its     
hold4 ,among  some savage tribes1       
certain species of ants are said to be  
used as  surgeons4 ,infuriated ants are 
allowed to fasten their mandibles on    
the opposite edges of a gash1 and in    
this way the wound is closed4  ,the ants
 are decapitated1 and their bodiless    
heads with their  relentless jaws serve 
as stitches to the wound4 ,ants have    
holidays  and athletic festivals4 ,on   
such occasions they romp and chase each 
other and play hide-and-seek like       
children4 ,they stand on their          
hind-legs1 embrace each other with their
 fore-limbs1 grasp each  other by the   
feet or antennae1 pull each other down  
the entrances to  their towns1 wrestle  
and roll over on the sand1 and so       
on--all in  the friendliest manner4 ,it 
is greatly to the credit of these little
  people that no observer has ever yet  
known them to become so  inventively    
helpless or so athletically hard up as  
to play  slug-ball4 ,ants educate their 

young1 and practise the fundamental     
principles of human states and          
societies4 ,forel1 the great ,swiss     
student of ants1 says that several      
hundred nests are sometimes  united into
 a single confederation4 ,each ant knows
 every other ant  of the entire         
confederation1 and they all take part in
 the common  defence4 ,haeckel says1    
speaking of social evolution in ants1   
that  the aboriginal ants of the ,chalk 
,age had as little idea of the  division
 of labour and organisation of modern   
ant states as  paleolithic              
flint-chippers had of the complexity and
 organisation of  twentieth-century     
civilisation4 #8,if we take an ant's    
nest1 we  not only see that work of     
every description--rearing of progeny1  
foraging1 building1 rearing of aphides1 
and so on--is performed  according to   
the principles of voluntary mutual aid1 
but we must  also recognise1 with       
,forel1 that the fundamental feature of 
the life  of many species of ants is the

 obligation of every ant to share its   
food1 already swallowed and partly      
digested1 with every member of  the     
community which may apply for it4 ,two  
ants belonging to the same  nest or to  
the same confederation of nests will    
approach each other1  exchange a few    
movements with the antennae1 and if one 
of them is  hungry or thirsty--and      
especially if the other has its crop    
full--it immediately asks for food4 ,the
 individual thus requested  never       
refuses4 ,it sets apart its mandibles1  
takes a proper position1  and           
regurgitates a drop of transparent      
fluid1 which is licked up by  the hungry
 ant4 ,regurgitating food for others is 
so prominent a  feature in the life of  
the ants1 and it so constantly recurs   
both  for feeding hungry comrades and   
for feeding larvae1 that ,forel         
considers the digestive tube of ants to 
consist of two different  parts1 one of 
which--the posterior--is for the special
 use of the  individual1 and the        

other--the anterior part--is chiefly for
 the  use of the community4 ,if an ant  
which has its crop full has been        
selfish enough to refuse to feed a      
comrade1 it will be treated as an       
enemy4 ,if the refusal has been made    
while its kinsfolks were  fighting with 
some other species1 they will fall upon 
the greedy  individual with greater     
vehemence even than upon the enemies    
themselves4 ,all this has been confirmed
 by the most accurate  observations and 
experiments'4#i    ,ants keep slaves4   
,and the slaves1 in some instances1     
carry their  masters about1 feed them1  
groom them1 and attend to their every   
want1 just as human lackeys do helpless 
aristocrats4 ,in some species  the      
institution of slavery is so old that   
the physical structures of  the masters 
have been modified until the masters are
 physically  unable to feed themselves1 
and will perish from hunger1 though     
surrounded by food1 if they are left to 
themselves4 ,the brain of the  ant1 as  

,darwin says1 is one of the most        
wonderful bits of matter in  the        
universe4 ,it is scarcely one-fourth the
 size of the head of a  pin1 yet it is  
the seat of the most astonishing wisdom 
and activity4  ,if human intelligence   
were as great1 compared with the mass of
 the  human brain1 as is the ant's1 man 
would be several hundred times  as wise 
as he is now1 and would then probably   
not fall far short of  that state of    
erudition which the average man imagines
 he already  represents4 ,ants remember1
 and a fact becomes impressed by        
repetition1 showing that the faculty of 
memory in ants is governed  by the same 
laws as is this faculty in man4 ,sir    
,john ,lubbock found  it necessary to   
teach his ants the way by repeating the 
lesson where  the way was long or       
unusual4 #8,sensation1 perception1 and  
association follow in the social        
insects1 on the whole1 the same         
fundamental laws as in the vertebrates1 
including ourselves4  ,furthermore1     

attention is surprisingly developed in  
insects'  7,forel74 ,ants keep standing 
armies1 make alliances1 and maraud      
neighbouring states4 ,they have their   
wars1 civil and foreign1 and  their     
massacres and enslavements of the       
conquered4 ,but they have  never got so 
low yet1 so far as anyone knows1 as to  
hypocritically  prosecute their         
conquests in the name of ,god and       
humanity4 ,the  battlefields of ants    
resemble the carnage-plains of men1     
strewn with  ghastly corpses and covered
 with the headless and dying4 ,and the  
accounts of their expeditions--their    
going forth in regular  columns1 with   
captains1 scouts1 and skirmish lines1   
their battles1  and their return laden  
with plunder and captives--read like the
  grisly tales of human history4 ,ants  
perform1 in short1 about all the  antics
 of civilised man1 except maltreating   
the females and drinking  gin4 ,and     
shall we say their civilisation is less 
real because it is  miniature and       

because it is carried on far below the  
,brobdingnagian  contemplations of man8 
#8,when we see an ant-hill tenanted by  
thousands of industrious inhabitants1   
excavating chambers1 forming  tunnels1  
making roads1 guarding their home1      
gathering food1 feeding  the young1     
tending their domestic animals1 each one
 fulfilling its  duties industriously   
and without confusion1 it is difficult  
altogether to deny them the gift of     
reason or to escape the  conviction that
 their mental powers differ from those  
of men not so  much in kind as in       
degree' 7,lubbock74    ,the industrious 
and gifted bee1 with its wonderful      
social system1 in  advance even of that 
of the most enlightened societies of    
men2 the  generous horse1 who thinks and
 feels so much more than the clowns  who
 maul him ever suspect2 the artful      
spider1 that confirmed  waylayer lurking
 in his lair of silk2 the soft and      
predaceous cat2  the timid-hearted hare1
 poor hounded little dweller of the     

fields  and stream-sides2 the beautiful 
and vivacious squirrel2 the lowly       
lady-bug2 the cautious fox2 the         
irascible serpent1 so cruelly           
misunderstood by men2 the patient camel2
 the scornful peafowl2 the  indomitable 
goat2 the grave and vindictive elephant2
 the ingenious  beaver1 the woodman of  
the primeval wilderness2 the lordly and 
polygamous cock2 the maternal hen2 the  
wary trout1 beset everywhere  by the    
villainous traps of impostors2 the      
bride-like butterfly2 the  delicate     
antelope and deer2 and the sturdy1      
incorruptible ox--all  of these beings  
have within them souls composed         
primarily of the  same elements as those
 that compose the souls of men4         
,ground-wasps have been observed to use 
tiny stones as hammers in  packing the  
dirt firmly over their nests--a very    
remarkable act of  intelligence1 since  
the use of tools is not common even     
among the  higher mammals4#aj    ,fishes
 have been taught to assemble at the    

ringing of a bell1 and  toads and       
tortoises to come at the call of their  
favourite friends4  ,an alligator which 
was kept tame for several years became  
so much  attached to its master that    
#8it followed him about the house like  
a dog1 scrambling up the stairs after   
him1 and showing much  affection and    
docility4' ,the favourite friend and    
companion of  this alligator was the    
cat2 and1 whenever the cat stretched    
herself  on the floor in front of the   
fire1 the alligator would lie down      
beside her1 with its head on the cat1   
and go to sleep4 #8,when the  cat was   
absent1 the alligator was restless1 but 
it always appeared  happy when the cat  
was near it'4#h    ,wolves and foxes    
sometimes cooperate with each other in  
their  hunting expeditions1 somewhat as 
men do in theirs4 ,one of their  number 
will crouch in ambush by the side of a  
road known to be used  by hares or other
 small animals1 and leap on the         
unsuspecting  fugitives when driven that

 way by others of the hunting band4     
,many  animals post sentinels when they 
eat or sleep or engage in other         
hazardous undertakings1 and these       
sentinels show a good deal of           
discrimination in distinguishing between
 animals that are friendly  and those   
that are not4 ,beavers not only build   
lodges to live in1  but also construct  
dams to keep the water in which the     
villages are  located at a certain      
height4 ,the outlet of these dams is    
carefully  regulated1 being regularly   
lessened and enlarged to suit the supply
  of water in the stream4 ,the trees    
used by the beavers in their            
enterprises are felled by them along the
 margins of the stream1 and  floated to 
the place where they are used4 ,in old  
communities1 where  the supply of timber
 near the stream has been exhausted1    
artificial  canals are cut by these     
indomitable engineers for use in the    
transportation of their materials4      
,these excavations are made at a  great 

cost of labour and for the deliberate   
purpose of enabling the  builders to    
accomplish that which they could not    
accomplish in any  other way4 #8,in     
executing this purpose1' says ,romanes1 
#8there  is sometimes displayed a depth 
of engineering forethought over  details
 of structure required by the           
circumstances of special  localities    
which is even more astonishing than the 
execution of the  general idea'4#f      
,when1 for instance1 a canal has been   
carried so  far from the original       
water-supply that1 owing to the rising  
ground1  it cannot be continued without 
a very great expenditure of effort in   
digging1 a second dam is built higher   
up-stream1 and with water  drawn from   
this the canal is continued on at a     
higher level4  ,sometimes a third dam is
 built above the second1 and the canal  
again  continued at a still higher level
 before the valuable timber of the      
higher grounds is reached4 ,these       
enterprising rodents also carve         

sometimes enormous channels across the  
necks of land formed by  winding rivers1
 to serve as cut-offs in travel and     
transportation4  ,and yet all of these  
things--all of the intelligence1        
feeling1 and  ingenuity displayed by the
 non-human races--are still lumped      
together by belated psychologists under 
the head of #8instinct1'  by which is   
meant a blind1 unconscious knack of     
doing the right  thing without in any   
way realising what is being done or what
 it is  being done for6 ,the principle  
in accordance with which mind is  denied
 to non-human beings would1 if carried  
to its legitimate  conclusions1 make    
machines out of all of us1 and limit the
  possession of conscious intelligence  
to the individual who  promulgates the  
theory4 ,the attitude assumed by many   
psychologists  toward the mental        
faculties of inferior races reminds one 
of  ,heine's interview with the old     
lizard at ,lucca4 ,in the discussion    
which ensued between the poet and the   

reptile1 the poet dropped the  words1   
#8,i think4' #8,think6' snapped the     
lizard with a sharp1  aristocratic tone 
of profound contempt--#8think6 ,which of
 you  thinks8 ,for #c1jjj years1 wise   
sir1 ,i have investigated the spiritual 
functions of animals1 and ,i have made  
men and apes the special  objects of my 
study4 ,i have devoted myself to these  
queer creatures  with as great zeal and 
diligence as ,lyonnet to his            
caterpillars4 ,and  as the result of my 
researches1 ,i can assure you no man    
thinks4 ,now  and then something occurs 
to him1 and these accidentally occurring
  somethings he calls thoughts1 and the 
stringing of them together he  calls    
thinking4 ,but you can take my word for 
it1 no man thinks--no  philosopher      
thinks4 ,and1 so far as philosophy is   
concerned1 it is  mere air and water1   
like pure vapours in the sky4 ,there is1
 in  reality1 only one true philosophy1 
and that is engraven in eternal         
hieroglyphics on my own tail'4#g        

,this attitude of the lordly saurian    
toward the human race is a  stinging    
burlesque on the anthropocentric conceit
 which perverts all  of man's views of  
the other orders of life4    ,it is not 
contended that non-human beings are     
psychically identical  with human       
beings4 ,the races of men are not       
psychically identical  with each other4 
,the difference between the intellectual
 splendours  of a ,spencer evolving     
volumes of the profoundest philosophy   
and the  mind of an ,australian who     
cannot count six1 or between the        
understanding of an ,edison1 the wizard 
of the electrical world1 and  that of   
the ,south ,sea islanders1 who1 when    
,captain ,cook gave them  some ,english 
nails1 planted them in the hope of      
raising a new crop1  is almost infinite4
 ,the lowest races of men have neither  
superstition nor the power of abstract  
thought as have the higher  races4 ,they
 have a word for black stone1 white     
stone1 and brown  stone1 but no word for

 stone2 for elm-tree1 oak-tree1 and the 
like1  but no word for tree4 ,as        
,kingsley says1 #8,it is difficult to   
believe that a dog does not form as     
clear an abstract idea of a tree  as    
these people do4' ,there are human      
beings living in the forests  of ,asia1 
,africa1 and ,australasia that wander   
about from place to  place in herds     
without chief1 law1 weapons1 or fixed   
habitations4  ,they go naked1 mate by   
chance1 and climb trees like monkeys4   
,some of  these races know nothing of   
fire1 religion1 or a moral world1       
chatter to each other like apes1 and    
live on such natural products  as roots1
 fruits1 serpents1 mice1 ants1 and      
honey4 ,one of these  creatures1 we are 
told1 will lie flat on his front for an 
hour by  the runway of a field-mouse1   
waiting for a chance to snatch up the   
little creature when it comes along and 
eat it4 ,dozens of such  degraded races 
are mentioned by ,blichner in his       
#8,man3 ,past1  ,present1 and ,future1' 

and by ,sir ,john ,lubbock in his       
#8,origin of  ,civilisation4'           
,non-human beings have1 as a rule1      
neither the psychic variety nor  the    
intensity of higher humans4 ,and it is  
not contended that in  language1        
science1 and superstition they are      
capable of being  compared with the     
foremost few of civilised societies1 any
 more than  savages1 especially the     
lowest savages1 are capable of such     
comparison4 ,but it is maintained that  
the non-human races of the  earth are   
not the metallic and soulless lot of    
fixtures they are  vulgarly supposed to 
be2 that they are just as real living   
beings1  with just as precious nerves   
and just as genuine feelings1 rights1   
heartaches1 capabilities1 and           
waywardnesses1 as we ourselves3 and     
that1 since they are our own kith and   
kindred1 we have no right  whatever1    
higher than the right of main strength  
7which is the right  of devils71 to     
assume them to be1 and to treat them as 

if they were1  our natural and          
legitimate prey4    #a4 ,darwin3        
,expression of ,emotions in ,men and    
,animals2 ,new ,york1  #ahii4  #b4      
,starr3 ,human ,progress2 ,pennsylvania1
 #ahie4  #c4 ,hartmann3 ,anthropoid     
,apes2 ,new ,york1 #aija4  #d4 ,brehm3  
,from ,north ,pole to ,equator2 ,london1
 #ahif4  #e4 ,stanley3 ,in ,darkest     
,africa1 vol i42 ,new ,york1 #ahij4  #f4
 ,romanes3 ,animal ,intelligence2 ,new  
,york1 #ahii4  #g4 ,evans3 ,evolutional 
,ethics and ,animal ,psychology2 ,new   
,york1 #ahih4  #h4 ,jesse3 ,gleanings in
 ,natural ,history1 vol4 i42 ,london1   
#ahcb4  #i4 ,kropotkin3 ,mutual ,aid a  
,factor of ,evolution2 ,new ,york1      
#aijb4  #aj4 ,peckham and ,peckham3     
,instincts and ,habits of the ,solitary 
,wasps2 ,madison1 ,wisconsin1 #ahih4    
,,iv4 ,the ,elements of ,human and      
,non-human ,mind ,compared4    ,the     
analysis of human mind and the          
comparison of its elements or  powers   
with the powers of non-human mind       

corroborate the conclusions  already    
arrived at through observation and      
deductive inference4 ,the  chief powers 
of the mind of man are sensation1       
memory1  emotion1 imagination1 volition1
 instinct1 and reason4 ,all  of these   
faculties are found in non-human beings1
 some of them  developed to a much      
higher degree than they are in man1 and 
some of  them to a much lower4          
,sensation is the effect produced on the
 mind when a sense organ is  affected in
 some way by external stimuli4          
,sensation is the lumber of  the mind1  
the raw material out of which are       
elaborated all other  forms of          
consciousness4 ,the chief species of    
sensation are those of  sight1 sound1   
smell1 taste1 and feeling4 ,the original
 sense was  feeling1 and out of this    
sense were evolved the other four4 ,the 
organs of seeing1 hearing1 smelling1 and
 tasting are therefore  modifications of
 the skin1 which is the organ of        
original sense4 ,the  fact that in all  

animals1 down almost to the very        
beginnings of  life1 sense organs exist1
 suggests that sensation may be almost1 
if  not quite1 coextensive with animal  
life4 ,all mammals1 birds1  reptiles1   
amphibians1 and fishes have the same    
special sense organs  as man1 and the   
organs of sight1 sound1 taste1 and smell
 occupy in  all vertebrates the same    
relative positions in the head4 ,birds  
see  better than any other animals1 and 
carnivora smell better4 ,ruminants  see1
 hear1 and smell with great acuteness4  
,fishes also see and hear  well2 and the
 wings of the bat are so exceedingly    
sensitive that it  will move about      
blindfolded and with ears stopped with  
cotton almost  as unerringly as when    
aided by sight and sound4 ,insects have 
smell1  sight1 and taste well developed1
 as is shown by their keen  appreciation
 of the colours1 perfumes1 and flavours 
of flowers4 ,they  also hear4           
,stridulation proves this4 ,worms have  
eyes and ears1 and  land-leeches scent  

the approach of their prey at a long    
distance4  ,the starfish and the medusa 
respond to all the five classes of      
stimuli which affect the five senses of 
man1 and nervous substance  is found in 
all animals above the sponge4    ,memory
 is the power of retaining or           
recognising past states of              
consciousness4 ,the power to retain     
impressions follows in origin  close    
upon the power to receive impressions4  
,memory is the historic  faculty of the 
mind--the power of the mind to store up 
its  experiences--and is found in nearly
 all animals4 ,the lowly limpet1  whose 
world is a seaside rock1 will come back 
from its little  roamings time after    
time to the same rude lodge from which  
it set  out4 ,bees remember where they  
get honey or sugar months afterwards1   
and when it is necessary will sometimes 
go back to the old home hive  which they
 left the year before4 ,ants retrace    
their steps after  making long journeys 
from their nest1 and are able in some   

way to  recognise their friends after   
months of separation4 ,the stickleback  
7fish7 knows the way back to his nest1  
although he has been absent  several    
hours4 ,fishes return and hatch their   
young year after year  in the same      
waters2 birds come back to their old    
nesting-places2 and  horses remember    
their way along devious roads over which
 they have  not been for years4 ,horses 
used in the delivery of milk1 or in     
other  occupations in which they are    
accustomed to travel daily over about   
the same route1 come in time to remember
 every alley1 street1 and               
stopping-place of the whole round almost
 as accurately as their  drivers4       
,darwin's dog remembered and obeyed him 
after an absence  of five years4 ,the   
power of dogs1 squirrels1 and other     
animals of  remembering where they have 
long before cached food is indeed       
wonderful4 ,a squirrel will come down   
out of a tree when the earth is  covered
 to a depth of several inches with      

lately fallen snow and hop  away1       
without the slightest hesitancy or      
mistake1 to the exact spot  where it has
 months before stored its mid-winter    
acorns4 ,a lion has  been known to      
recognise its keeper after seven years  
of separation1  and an elephant obeyed  
all his old words of command on being   
recaptured after fifteen years of jungle
 life4 ,the similarity of  memory in    
other animals to the same faculty in man
 is shown by the  fact that memory      
everywhere is governed by the same laws4
 ,in all  animals1 including man1 memory
 is strengthened by repetition--that    
is1 impressions are always deepened and 
confirmed by being made over  and over4 
,a parrot or a raven masters a new      
sentence by working at  it and saying it
 over and over again1 just as a boy     
memorises his  rules and catechisms4    
,imagination is the picturing power of  
the mind4 ,in its lowest  stages of     
manifestation it is akin to memory4     
,imagination1 however1  in its higher   

reaches1 not only reimages previous     
impressions1 but  combines them in new  
and original relations4 ,imagination is 
displayed in dreams1 images1 delusions1 
anticipation1 and sympathy4  ,it also   
furnishes wings for speculation and     
reason4 ,spiders1 when  they attach     
stones to their webs to steady them     
during anticipated  gales1 probably     
exercise imagination4 ,the tame serpent 
which was  carried away from its        
master's house and found its way back   
again1  though the distance was one     
hundred miles1 no doubt carried in its  
imagination vivid pictures of its old   
home4#a ,cats1 dogs1 horses1  and other 
animals dream1 and parrots talk in their
 sleep4 ,horses and  cattle sometimes   
stampede at imaginary objects1 and often
 distort  real objects into imaginary   
monsters4 ,when a horse at night takes  
fright at a big black stump by the      
roadside1 he no doubt imagines it  to be
 some terrible creature ready to eat him
 up if he should go  near it1 just as a 

timid child does in the same            
circumstances4 ,there  is a great       
difference in horses in this respect1   
just as there is  among children and    
men1 some of them taking fright at every
 unusual  thing1 while others are more  
bold or stolid4 ,the cat playing with a 
ball of yarn converts it by means of its
 imagination into an object  of prey1   
just as a girl converts a doll into a   
baby1 or a boy  changes a stick into a  
steed4 ,sympathy is the putting or      
picturing  of one's self in the place of
 another1 and by means of the           
imagination sharing or simulating the   
psychic conditions of that  other4 ,this
 high and holy exercise of the          
imagination is exhibited  by horses1    
cattle1 dogs1 deer1 elephants1 monkeys1 
and birds--in  fact1 by nearly all      
animals as far down as the fishes and   
insects4    ,emotion is the stirring of 
the sensibilities by way of the         
intellect or the imagination4 ,the      
following emotions are found in         

non-human beings3 fear1 surprise1       
affection1 pugnacity1 play1 pride1      
anger1 jealousy1 curiosity1 sympathy1   
emulation1 resentment1  appreciation of 
the beautiful1 grief1 hate1 cruelty1    
joy1  benevolence1 revenge1 shame1      
remorse1 and appreciation of the        
ludicrous4 ,excepting the emotions of   
conscience and religion1 which  are     
really compounds1 with fear as the main 
ingredient1 this list of  non-human     
emotions is coextensive with the list of
 human emotions4  ,many of these        
emotions germinate low down in the      
animal kingdom1  fear1 anger1 sexuality1
 and jealousy all being found in fishes 
and  in the higher invertebrates4 ,in   
the higher vertebrates many of these    
emotions are almost as strong as they   
are in men4 ,does anyone who  has felt  
the throbbing sides of a frightened     
puppy or hare have any  doubt that these
 creatures suffer the keenest agony of  
fear8 ,apes  have been known to fall    
down and faint when suddenly confronted 

by a  snake1 so great is their          
instinctive horror of serpents2 and gray
  parrots1 which are extremely nervous  
birds1 have been known to drop  from    
their perch unconscious under the       
influence of great fear4#b    ,the horse
 is1 perhaps1 of all animals1 the one   
which occasionally  gives itself over   
most completely to the emotion of fear1 
as  everyone who has witnessed the      
terrible abandon of a runaway team  can 
testify4 ,ants1 fishes1 birds1 cats1    
dogs1 horses1 monkeys1  porpoises1 and  
many other animals play4 ,young kittens1
 colts1 and  puppies enjoy a scuffle    
about as well as boys do4 ,pugnacity    
originates among the spiders and        
insects1 and is highly developed in  the
 ant1 cock1 and bulldog4 ,this emotion  
is strong in the males of  nearly all   
vertebrates4 ,anyone who has observed   
the vigilance  displayed by fishes in   
protecting their nests can have little  
doubt  that these comparatively         
primitive beings possess pugnacity4 ,i  

was  one evening floating in a boat by  
the edge of a ,long ,island pond  just  
over a village of perches4 ,each nest   
was guarded by an  assiduous male1 who  
hovered over it vigilantly1 or darted   
this way  and that to drive off the     
piscatorial hoi polloi hanging about the
  neighbourhood1 ready to slip in at the
 first opportunity and eat the  eggs4   
,just to see what would happen1 ,i put  
my hand down into the  water and moved  
it slowly toward one of the nests4 ,to  
my surprise1  the guardian of the nest1 
instead of fleeing in alarm1 proceeded  
to  show fight4 ,it chased my hand away 
time after time1 and when the  hand was 
not removed it would nip it vigorously1 
not once simply1  but two or three times
 if necessary1 and each time with       
increasing  energy4 ,it contended with  
the courage of a little hero4 ,i pushed 
it  and jostled it about1 and even took 
it in my hand and lifted it  clear out  
of the water4 ,to my amazement1 on      
getting back into the  water1 it        

returned promptly to the attack4 ,it    
fought until it was  really fagged1 for 
its onsets were at last much feebler    
than at  first4 ,i came away after      
twenty minutes1 leaving the little hero 
in  triumphant possession of his charge4
    ,among some species of monkeys      
several individuals will join together  
in overturning a stone for the possible 
ants' eggs under it2 and1  when a       
burying beetle has found a dead mouse or
 bird1 it goes and  gets its companions 
to help it in the interment4#c ,crows   
show  benevolence by feeding their blind
 and helpless companions1 and  monkeys  
adopt the orphans of deceased members of
 their tribe4 ,brehm  saw two crows     
feeding in a hollow tree a third crow   
which was  wounded4 ,they had evidently 
been doing this for some time1 for the  
wound was several weeks old4 ,darwin    
tells of a blind pelican which  was fed 
upon fishes1 which were brought to it by
 its friends from a  distance of thirty 
miles4#d ,the devotion of cedar-birds to

 each  other and their kindness to all  
birds in distress are well known to     
every student of ornithology4 ,olive    
,thorne ,miller tells of a  cedar-bird  
that raised a brood of young robins that
 had been left  orphans by the          
accidental killing of the parents4      
,weddell saw more  than once during his 
journey to ,bolivia that when a herd of 
vicunas  were closely pursued the strong
 males covered the retreat of the       
weaker and less swift members of the    
herd by lagging behind and  protecting  
them4#c    ,a remarkable instance of    
altruism which he once saw exhibited by 
the  king-crabs in a ,london aquarium is
 mentioned by ,kropotkin in his  work on
 #8,mutual ,aid a ,factor in            
,evolution4' ,one of these crabs  had   
fallen on its back in a corner of the   
tank4 ,and for one of these  great      
creatures1 with its saucepan carapace1  
to get on its back is1  even in         
favourable circumstances1 a serious     
matter4 ,the seriousness  was increased 

in this instance by an iron bar1 which  
hindered the  normal activities of the  
unfortunate crustacean4 #8,its comrades 
came to the rescue1 and for one hour's  
time ,i watched how they  endeavoured to
 help their fellow-prisoner4 ,they came 
two at once1  pushed their friend from  
beneath1 and after strenuous efforts    
succeeded in lifting it upright4 ,but   
then the iron bar prevented  them from  
achieving the work of rescue1 and the   
crab again fell  heavily on its back4   
,after many attempts1 one of the helpers
 went  into the depth of the tank and   
brought two other crabs1 who began  with
 fresh forces the same pushing and      
lifting of their helpless  comrade4 ,we 
stayed in the aquarium for more than two
 hours1 and1  when leaving1 came to cast
 a glance upon the tank4 ,the work of   
attempted rescue still continued4 ,since
 ,i saw that ,i cannot refuse  credit to
 the observation quoted by ,dr4 ,erasmus
 ,darwin that the  common crab during   
the moulting season stations a sentinel1

 an  unmolted or hard-shelled           
individual1 to prevent marine enemies   
from  injuring moulted individuals in   
their unprotected state4' ,walruses  go 
to the defence of a wounded comrade when
 summoned by its cries  for help4       
,romanes tells of a gander who acted as 
a guardian to his  blind consort1 taking
 her neck gently in his mouth and       
leading her  to the water when she      
wanted to take a swim1 and after        
allowing her  to cruise for a time under
 his guidance and care1 conducting her  
back home again in the same thoughtful  
manner4 ,when goslings were  hatched1   
this remarkable gander seemed to realise
 the inability of  the mother to look   
after them1 for he took charge of them  
as if they  were his own1 convoying them
 to the waterside1 and lifting them     
carefully out of the ruts and pits with 
his bill whenever they got  into        
difficulty4#a    ,the disposition to go 
to the aid of a fellow in trouble is one
 of  the most characteristic traits in  

the psychology of the swine4 ,a  single 
squeal of distress from even the        
scrawniest member of a swine  herd will 
bring down on the one who causes this   
distress the  hair-raising wrath of     
every porker within hearing4 ,this trait
 has  been considerably reduced by      
domestication1 and in those varieties   
in which degeneracy has gone farthest it
 scarcely exists4 ,but it is            
exceedingly strong in all wild hogs4    
,animals as low in the scale of         
development and as proverbially cold as 
snakes have been known1 when  educated  
and treated with kindness1 to manifest  
considerable  affection for their       
friends and masters4 ,nearly all        
domestic animals  display a good deal of
 affection1 not only to their young1 but
 to  adult members of their own kind and
 to their human masters4 ,the  devotion 
of the dog to man is without a parallel 
anywhere4 ,it has  been said that #8the 
dog is the only thing on this earth that
 loves  you more than he loves himself4'

 ,when dogs become so much attached  to 
their masters or mistresses that they   
pine and die on being  separated from   
them1 they show beyond any question that
 they have  feelings which1 in          
intensity1 are not inferior to those    
possessed by  the more highly developed 
men and women4 ,and this has happened   
time  after time4    ,a pathetic story  
of love and of its tragic close came    
last year out  of the ,maine woods4 ,two
 moose1 who had been tracked all day by 
a  couple of human tigers1 were finally 
overtaken1 when one of them  fell       
pierced by two rifle-balls4 ,the        
remaining moose1 instead of  dashing off
 into the forest1 stood still1 lowered  
its head1 and  sniffed at its fallen    
companion4 ,then1 raising its antlers   
high into  the air1 it bellowed loudly4 
,as the cry of the great creature echoed
  through the forest1 it also fell at   
the discharge of the rifles4 ,it  was   
found on examination afterwards that the
 first moose was blind1  and that the   

second one1 which had neglected to leave
 it for safety1  was its pilot4    ,my  
father once owned a cow who contracted a
 strong affection for my  sister4 ,this 
cow1 who showed on many occasions and in
 many ways her  highly developed        
emotional nature1 would scarcely allow  
anyone else  than my sister to milk her4
 ,she always presented herself to my    
sister as soon as she was let into the  
lot in order to be milked  first1 and   
she was so jealous of this privilege    
that if it were not  accorded to her she
 would stand with her head down and give
 vent to  her unhappiness in low moans4 
,after she was milked she would follow  
her human friend around from one cow to 
another1 in order to be as  near her as 
possible4 ,she knew my sister's voice   
from that of  everyone else1 and would  
always low a response and come to her   
when  called by name1 even though she   
were a quarter of a mile away in the    
pasture4 ,romanes tells somewhere of a  
band of apes that were being  pursued by

 dogs when a young ape was cut off from 
the rest and was  about to be killed by 
the dogs4 ,the chief of the band1 seeing
 the  peril of the young one1 went      
deliberately back and rescued it4       
,many animals show that they possess a  
rudimentary sense of humour by  the     
pranks and tricks which they play on    
each other and on human  beings4 ,the   
monkey is the prince of nonhuman jokers1
 but dogs1 cats1  horses1 elephants1 and
 other animals have enough of this sense
 to  have books written about it4 ,a    
monkey has been observed to slyly  pass 
his hand back of a second monkey and    
tweak the tail of a third  one1 and then
 composedly enjoy himself while the     
resentment of the  injured monkey       
expended itself on the innocent middle  
one4 ,many  monkeys enjoy entertaining  
their friends with grimaces1 by carrying
  a cane1 putting a tin dish on their   
heads1 or other droll antics4  ,these   
intelligent animals have a sufficiently 
high appreciation of  the ludicrous to  

dislike ridicule4 ,like human beings1   
they can't  endure being laughed at1 and
 get mad if they are made the victims of
  a joke4 ,romanes' monkey was one day  
asked to crack a nut for the  amusement 
of a visitor4 ,the nut turned out to be 
a bad one1 and the  melancholy look of  
disappointment on the monkey's face     
caused the  visitor to laugh4 ,the      
insulted monkey flew into a rage1 and   
hurled  the nut at the offending        
scoffer1 then the hammer1 and finally   
the  coffee-pot which simmered on the   
grate fire4#a ,darwin tells of a  baboon
 in the ,zoological ,gardens of ,london 
who always became  infuriated every time
 his keeper took out a letter or book   
and read  aloud to him4 ,on one occasion
 when ,darwin was present the baboon    
became so furious that he bit his own   
leg until it bled4#d    ,the emotion    
variously known as shame1 regret1       
repentance1 and  remorse1 is not common 
among the non-human races4 ,it is found 
sometimes in dogs and monkeys1 and      

especially in educated  anthropoids4    
,but this emotion is exceedingly rare   
among savages1 and  is not at all       
universal even among civilised societies
 of men4 ,some  animals manifest        
self-restraint1 which is an exceedingly 
elite  quality of mind1 and one not so  
common as it might be even among the    
higher breeds of mankind4 ,by restraint 
is meant the inhibition of a  desire or 
instinct in the presence of             
circumstances tending to  render the    
desire or instinct active--and this is  
obedience1 and  the beginning of        
morality4 ,a dog that will not chase a  
hare in the  presence of his master may 
do so in his absence4 ,i taught my      
guinea-pigs to abstain from certain food
 in their presence which  they wanted   
very much1 and which they would have    
eaten if they had  not been educated to 
let it alone4 ,sympathy is the most     
beautiful of  all terrestrial emotions4 
,it is manifested1 sometimes to an      
exceedingly touching degree1 by all the 

highest races of animals4 ,no  other    
instances than those already given can  
be mentioned here4 ,it  is sufficient to
 say that the difference between the    
savage--whose  sympathies are so feeble 
that he has been known to knock his own 
child's brains out for dropping a       
basket1 and who puts his aged  parents  
to death in order to avoid the burden of
 maintaining them1  and whose sympathies
 seldom extend beyond his family or     
tribe--and  civilised men and women1 who
 feel actual pain when in the presence  
of those who suffer1 and whose          
sympathies sometimes include all        
sentient creation1 is much greater than 
that between the savage and  many       
nonhuman animals4 ,the frail1 narrow1   
fantastic character of  human sympathy  
is the most mournful fact in human      
nature4 #8,man's  inhumanity to man     
makes countless thousands mourn1' and   
his  inhumanity to not-men makes the    
planet a ball of pain and terror4       
,volition is the power of the mind to   

act executively4 ,or1 perhaps1  it is   
the resultant of the impulses actuating 
a mind at any  particular instant4      
,whatever volition is1 it is the same   
thing in  the insect as in the man4     
,non-human beings have been observed to 
pause and deliberate and to make wise   
and momentous decisions in the          
twinkling of an eye4 ,a chased hare will
 decide to squat1 to go  straight ahead1
 or to do something else which the      
emergency demands1  just as unmistakably
 as a human fugitive4 ,in the sense of  
being the  power to act differently from
 the manner in which a being actually   
does act1 there is no such thing as     
freewill4 ,the will of the worm  is just
 as free as the will of the judge--not  
in the sense that it  is as varied in   
the directions of its activity1 but in  
the sense  that the character of its    
activities is determined inevitably by  
the  character of its antecedents4 ,all 
will1 whether human or non-human1       
invariably acts in the direction of the 

strongest motive1 just as a  stone or a 
river invariably moves1 if it moves at  
all1 in the  direction of the strongest 
tendency or force4 ,it is impossible    
that  this should be otherwise4 ,for1 if
 the will in any case elects to         
overthrow this fact by arbitrarily      
discarding a stronger motive for  a     
feebler1 in the very motive of the      
election are concealed elements  which  
transform the feebler motive into the   
stronger4 ,all motion1  voluntary and   
involuntary--the motion of bullets1     
beings1  societies1 and suns--takes     
place along the lines of least arrest4  
,every being is compelled to decide as  
he does decide and to act as  he does   
act by the inherited tendencies of his  
own nature and the  tendencies of the   
environment in which he exists4 ,and if 
any being1  after having passed through 
life1 were again placed back at the     
beginning of life and endowed with the  
same nature as before1 and  were acted  
upon through life by surroundings       

identical with those he  had previously 
met1 he would act--that is1 he would    
exercise his  will--in precisely the    
same way in every particular as he had  
previously done4 ,to deny these things  
is to assert that the conduct  of living
 beings is without law1 and that        
psychology and sociology  are not       
sciences4    ,non-human beings1 all of  
the higher ones1 have the same brain and
  nervous apparatus as man1 and in their
 involuntary phenomena they  closely    
resemble human beings4 ,aim a pretended 
blow near the eyes of  a dog or a horse 
and it will wink involuntarily1 just as 
a human  being does4 ,sever the spinal  
cord of a man or a frog1 and irritate   
the feet of each1 and they will each    
manifest the same phenomena of  reflex  
action1 drawing their feet away each    
time from the stimulus4    ,instinct and
 reason are forms of intelligence4      
,intelligence is  the adaptation of acts
 to ends4 ,intelligence is manifested by
 all  organisms1 both plants and        

animals1 and may be either conscious or 
unconscious4 ,plant intelligence and    
reflex action are forms of  unconscious 
intelligence4 ,plant intelligence1 or   
the adaptation of  acts to ends by      
plants1 is manifested by plants in the  
shifting of  their positions when in    
need of light in order to obtain as     
large a  supply as possible of the      
essential sunshine2 in devices1 such as 
traps and flowers1 for utilising the    
juices and services of insects2  in     
germinating and growing away from1      
instead of toward1 the centre  of the   
earth2 in discriminating between this   
and that kind of food2  and in a        
thousand other ways4 ,plant intelligence
 is all explicable  in terms of         
chemistry and physics1 and is1 so far as
 is known1  unaccompanied by            
consciousness4 ,reflex action is        
chemical affinity  aided by the         
co-ordinating powers of nerve tissue4   
,the vital  processes of all animals1   
from the lowest to the highest1 and many

  other highly habitual and highly      
essential operations1 are carried  on by
 reflex action4 ,reflex action in       
animals1 like plant  intelligence1 is   
unconscious4    ,instinct and reason are
 conscious4 ,instinct is inherited      
intelligence--intelligence manifested   
independently of1 and prior  to1        
experience and instruction4             
#8,instinct1' says ,romanes1 #8is       
reflex action into which has been       
imported the element of                 
consciousness'4#e ,it is exhibited by   
the babe when it nurses the  mother's   
breast2 by the chick when it pecks its  
way out through  the shell of the egg2  
by animals generally1 including man1 in 
their  solicitude for their young2 by   
the parent bird in incubation2 and by   
all beings when they seek food in       
obedience to the impulse of  hunger4    
,our conception of the mental processes 
of non-humans is as  yet very primitive1
 owing to our limited means of          
information and  the erroneous influence

 on our judgments of traditional ways of
  thinking2 and much that is attributed 
by us to instinct is not  instinct at   
all1 but is acquired by the young       
through education  imparted by the      
elders4 ,parent birds have often been   
seen teaching  their young ones to fly1 
and no doubt a good deal of the         
migratory  acumen manifested by birds is
 nothing but custom and tradition       
handed down to each younger generation  
by the old and experienced4 ,a  large   
part of the knowledge of mankind 7or    
what passes for  knowledge7 consists of 
habits and hobbies1 customs and         
traditions1  impressed upon each new    
generation by the generation which      
produced  it4 ,each generation of men   
seems to feel that whenever it creates a
  new generation it has got to pile on  
to this new generation all of  the fool 
notions which have been acquired from   
the past1 amplified  by its own         
inventions4 ,and when we come to know   
other animals  better1 there is         

practically no doubt that we shall find 
that a  large part of what we now call  
instinct and look upon as congenital    
will1 on closer and more rational       
examination1 be found to be  nothing but
 the pedagogical effects of early       
environment4 ,professor  ,poulton1 of   
,oxford1 who has made many experiments  
on just-born  birds1 says that young    
chicks learn to fear the hawk and to    
interpret the oral warnings of the      
mother4 ,cats teach their young to  play
 with their prey in that cruel manner so
 characteristic of all  the ,felidae1 as
 ,i have myself observed more than once4
 ,a mother cat  will carry a live mouse 
into the presence of her kittens and lie
  down and play with it1 tossing it     
playfully into the air1 poking it  with 
her paw when it does not move1 and      
arresting it when it starts  to run     
away1 the kittens all the time looking  
on1 but never once  attempting to take  
the mouse4 ,after awhile the mother     
hands the  captive over to the kittens1 

who go through the same performance one 
after another4 ,after they have         
practised on it until the unfortunate   
creature is almost dead1 the old cat    
will probably walk over to  where the   
mouse is and eat it up4 ,the whole thing
 is a school4 ,the  mouse is obviously  
not intended as food for the young1 but 
to be  used simply to impart instruction
 to them4    #8,in popular writings and 
lectures some or all of the following   
activities of ant-life are commonly     
ascribed to instinct3 ,the  recognition 
of members of the same nest2 powers of  
communication2  keeping aphides for the 
sake of their sweet secretions2         
collection  of aphid eggs in ,october1  
hatching them out in the nest1 and      
taking  them in the spring to the       
daisies on which they feed1 for pasture2
  slave-making and slave-keeping1 which1
 in some cases1 is so ancient  a habit  
that the enslavers are unable even to   
feed themselves2  keeping insects as    
beasts of burden--e4g4 a kind of        

plant-bug to  carry leaves2 keeping     
beetles1 etc41 as domestic pets2 habits 
of  personal cleanliness--one ant giving
 another a brush-up1 and being1  brushed
 up in return2 habits of play and       
recreation2 habits of  burying their    
dead2 the storage of grain and nipping  
the budding  rootlet to prevent further 
germination2 the habit of ,texan ants of
  preparing a clearing around their     
nest1 and1 six months later1  harvesting
 the ant-rice--a kind of grass of which 
they are  particularly fond--even       
seeking and sowing the grain which shall
  yield the harvest2 the collection by  
other ants of grass to manure  the soil1
 on which there grows a species of      
fungus upon which they  feed2 the       
military organisation of the ecitons of 
,central ,america2  and so forth4 ,but  
to class all of these activities of the 
ant as  illustrations of instinct is a  
survival of an old-fashioned method  of 
treatment4    #8,suppose that the       
intelligent ant were to make            

observations on  human behaviour as     
displayed in one of our great cities or 
in an  agricultural district4 ,seeing so
 great an amount of routine work  going 
on around him1 might he not be in danger
 of regarding all this  as evidence of  
hereditary instinct8 ,might he not find 
it difficult  to obtain satisfactory    
evidence of the fact that this routine  
work  has to some extent to be learned8 
,might he not say 7perhaps not  wholly  
without truth71 8,i can see nothing     
whatever in the training  of these      
beings to fit them for their life-work4 
,the training of  their children has no 
more apparent bearing upon the          
activities of  their after-life than the
 feeding of our grubs has on the duties 
of  ant-life4 ,they seem to fall into   
the routine of life with little or  no  
preparatory training as the periods for 
the manifestation of the  various       
instincts arrive4 ,if learning thereof  
there be1 it has so  far escaped our    
observation4 ,and such intelligence as  

their  activities evince 7and many of   
them do show remarkable adaptations  to 
uniform conditions of life7 would seem  
to be rather ancestral  than of the     
present time1 as is shown by the fact   
that many of the  adaptations are       
directed rather to past conditions of   
life than to  those which now hold good4
 ,in the presence of new emergencies to 
which their instincts have not fitted   
them1 these poor creatures are  often   
completely at a loss4 ,we cannot but    
conclude1 therefore1 that1  although    
acting under somewhat different and less
 favourable  conditions1 instinct       
occupies fully as large a space in the  
psychology of man as it does in that of 
the ant1 while human  intelligence is   
far less unerring and hence markedly    
inferior to our  own40    #8,are these  
views much more absurd than the views of
 those who1 on  the evidence which we at
 present possess1 attribute all the     
activities of ant-life to instinct8'#f  
,reason is the power of adapting means  

to ends which is acquired  from         
experience or instruction4 ,all animals 
that profit by  experience1 therefore1  
or that learn from instruction--that is1
 are  teachable--exercise reason4       
,the line of demarkation between        
instinct and reason is a mezzotint1     
reason being often instinctive1 and     
instinct being as frequently  flavoured 
with judgment1 #8,instinct is usually   
regarded as a  special property of the  
lower animals1 and contrasted with the  
conscious reason of man4 ,but just as   
reason may be looked upon as a  higher  
form of the understanding or intellect1 
and not as something  essentially       
distinct from them1 so a closer         
examination shows that  instinct and the
 conscious understanding do not stand in
 absolute  contrast1 but rather in a    
complex relation1 and cannot be sharply 
marked off from each other4' ,it is     
instinct that urges the bird to  build  
its nest2 but when birds whose habit it 
is to build on the  ground learn1 on the

 introduction of cats into the          
neighbourhood1 to  change their         
nesting-places to the tree-tops1        
intelligence and  thought are necessary4
 ,the first time ,cavy 7one of my       
guinea-pigs7  smelled a cat1 she was    
almost scared to death4 ,she jumped back
 from  it as if she had come in contact 
with a red-hot stove1 and screamed  and 
kept on screaming1 and shot down under  
my coat as if she were  about to be     
crucified4 ,after a little while ,i     
tried to pull her out1  but she refused1
 and kept hiding4 ,the second time the  
kitten was  presented to her the result 
was the same4 ,but after two or three   
days of association1 she paid little    
more attention to it than to  the other 
guinea-pigs4 ,she had never seen a cat  
before4 ,it was the  odour of the       
carnivore that terrified her1 and the   
effect was  purely instinctive4 ,but    
instinct was soon modified by           
intelligent  experience4 7,poor dear    
little ,cavy6 ,i wonder where she is    

now67    ,both instinct and reason 7and 
one1 too1 just as much as the other7    
are absolutely dependent upon processes 
that are purely  mechanical--that is1   
upon brain processes2 and brain         
processes  depend upon brain structure1 
which is inherited4 ,hence1 reason is1  
in a certain sense1 as truly inherited  
as instinct is4 ,a being must  be born  
with the particular nervous apparatus by
 means of which  reasoning is carried   
on1 or with the power or disposition to 
develop  this apparatus1 or he will     
never reason4 ,the genius of the        
partridge  in cajoling the passer-by    
from her nest is called instinct1 but it
  is not more inherited than was the    
genius of ,shakspere4 ,experience       
simply calls into being that1 whatever  
it is in each particular  being1 which  
is inherited4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton took  
to philosophy and  ,ole ,bull to music  
not less inevitably than the duck takes 
to water  or the hound to hunting4      
,reason is1 hence1 inherited by every   

man1  who has it as truly as his erect  
posture and plantigrade feet4 ,there  is
 something in the past of all of us and 
of everything which has  determined1 and
 which may be used to account for1      
everything that  to-day exists or       
happens1 even to the style and behaviour
 of every  leaf that flutters in the    
forest1 and to the eccentricities of our
  opinions and handwritings4    ,reason1
 in the sense in which it is here used1 
is found feebly in  the oyster4 ,oysters
 taken from a depth never uncovered by  
the sea  open their shells1 lose their  
water1 and quickly perish4 ,but oysters 
taken from the same depths1 if kept     
where they are occasionally left        
uncovered for short intervals1 learn to 
keep their shells closed and  to live a 
much longer period out of the water4 ,on
 the coast of  ,france #8oyster schools'
 exist1 where oysters intended for      
inland  cities are educated to keep     
their shells closed when out of the     
water in order to enable them to survive

 the desiccating exposures  of the      
overland journey4#a ,this act of the    
bivalve is probably the  result of      
something like a vague form of reason4  
,it is an act  adapted to the           
accomplishment of a definite end1 and   
the adapting  power is acquired from    
experience4 ,it is1 moreover1 reason    
which in  its final analysis does not   
differ from the reason displayed by the 
wisest being that thinks4 ,judgment1    
forethought1 common-sense1  inference1  
ingenuity1 genius1 reason1 and abstract 
thought1 are all  exercises of the      
cognitive or perceptive power of mind1  
and consist1  all of them1 in nothing   
more nor less than the discerning of    
relations among stimuli4 ,the dog who   
adopts a cut-off in order to  intercept 
a fleeing hare performs exactly the same
 kind of  intellectual process as the   
mechanic who erects a windmill in order 
to divert the energies of the breeze1 or
 the politician who adopts a  particular
 platform to catch votes4 #8,a          

perception is always in its  essential  
nature what logicians term a conclusion1
 whether it has  reference to the       
simplest memory of the past sensation or
 to the  highest product of abstract    
thought4 ,for1 when the highest product 
of abstract thought is analysed1 the    
ultimate elements must always  be found 
to consist in material given directly by
 the senses2 and  every stage in the    
symbolic construction of ideas1 in which
 the  process of abstraction consists1  
depends on acts of perception  taking   
place in the lower stages'4#e    ,the   
difference among the perceptive acts of 
different individuals  consists1 not in 
the different kinds of intellectual     
exercise1 but  in differences among the 
materials with which the perceptive     
faculty deals4 ,there are perceptions of
 simple sensations1 and there  are      
perceptions of composite sensations1 or 
concepts--perceptions  of elementary    
relations1 and perceptions of compound  
and elaborate  relations4 ,but all      

displays of rational faculty1 from the  
simple  judgment of distance by the     
dimness and distinctness of definition  
and the size of the visual angle1 which 
all higher animals are  compelled to    
make1 to the labyrinthic abstractions of
 the logician1  consist in nothing in   
addition to discriminations among       
stimuli4    ,brehm one day gave one of  
his apes a paper bag with a lump of     
sugar  and a wasp in it4 ,the ape in    
getting the sugar was stung by the      
wasp4 ,from that day1 whenever ,brehm   
gave that ape1 or any other ape  in that
 cage1 a paper package1 the animal1     
before opening it1 took  the precaution 
to shake the package at his ear and     
listen to find  out whether or not there
 was a wasp inside4#g    ,now1 such an  
act of intelligence implies several     
inferences4 ,a train  of thoughts       
something like this must have passed    
through this  ape's mind3 #8,now1 if one
 wasp can sting1 so can another2 and1 if
  a man can deceive me once by wrapping 

a wasp in a paper with a lump  of sugar1
 he may try it again2 and1 if one man   
will attempt such a  thing1 so may      
another2 and1 if men will attempt it on 
me1 they may  attempt it on my friends2 
so ,i will warn my friends to look out  
for  those villainous chaps outside4'   
,these inferences of the ape are  the   
same kind of generalisations exactly as 
are made by men  everywhere in their    
daily lives4 ,and the common-sense      
inferences  made by ordinary people in  
their every-day affairs are precisely   
the  same processes of reasoning as     
those used by scientists and            
philosophers4 ,many people1 like the    
character in ,moliere's plays  who was  
surprised and delighted to learn that he
 had been talking  prose all his life1  
are surprised on hearing for the first  
time that  they use induction and       
deduction every hour almost of their    
waking lives4 ,they imagine that        
philosophers must have some secret  and 
superior way of acquiring their         

conclusions1 different from what        
ordinary mortals have4 #8,but there is  
no more difference1' says  ,huxley1     
#8between the mental operations of a man
 of science and  those of an ordinary   
person than there is between the        
operations and  methods of a grocer     
weighing out his goods in common scales 
and the  operations of a chemist in     
performing a difficult and complex      
analysis by means of his balance and    
finely graduated weights4 ,it is  not   
that the scales in the one case and the 
balances in the other  differ in the    
principles of their construction or     
manner of working2  but the beam of the 
one is set on an infinitely finer axis  
than the  other1 and1 of course1 turns  
by the addition of a much smaller       
weight'4#h ,and the difference in mental
 method between the man of  learning and
 the ordinary man or woman is the same  
as the difference  between mature men   
and children and between men generally  
and other  animals4 ,it is one of       

degree1 not of kind4 ,the philosopher1  
the clodhopper1 and the ape1 all use    
precisely the same methods of           
reasoning1 differing only in exactness  
and in the materials of  consciousness  
dealt with4    ,nearly all animals1 from
 mollusks to men1 reason--not once or   
twice  in a lifetime1 but the most of   
them every day and every hour of  their 
existence4 ,in fact1 it would be        
impossible for any animal  addicted to  
moving about1 and with a delicate and   
easily wrecked  organism1 to long       
survive in a world like this without    
that  elasticity of action which reason 
alone can impart4 ,since they live  in  
the same world-conditions as human      
beings1 and are seeking  providence for 
substantially the same wants1 non-human 
beings  manifest reason in the same     
general directions as human beings      
do--in the location and construction of 
their homes and fortresses1  in the     
arrest of their prey1 in circumventing  
their enemies1 in  overcoming obstacles 

and surmounting dangers1 in protecting  
and  educating their young1 in meeting  
the emergencies of food and  climate1 in
 the wooing of mates and the waging of  
wars1 and in the  thousand other cases  
where they are called upon in their     
daily  wanderings and doings to deal    
with novel and unprecedented            
situations4    ,when wild geese are     
feeding there is said to be always one  
of them  that acts as sentinel4 ,this   
one never takes a grain of corn while on
  duty4 ,when it has acted awhile it    
gives the bird next to it a sharp  peck 
and utters a querulous kind of cry1 and 
the second one takes  its turn4 ,this is
 prudence1 or forethought1 which is a   
form of  reason4 ,when swans are diving 
there is generally one that stays  above
 the water and watches4 ,sentinels have 
alarm sounds of various  kinds1 which   
they give to signify #8enemy4' #8,ibex1 
marmots1 and  mountain-sheep whistle2   
prariedogs bark2 elephants trumpet2 wild
  geese and swans have a kind of bugle  

call2 rabbits and sheep stamp  on the   
ground2 crows caw3 and wild ducks utter 
a low1 warning  quack4'    ,in the      
,popular ,science ,monthly for ,march1  
#aija1 is an account of a  series of    
experiments on the intelligence of the  
turtle made by  ,professor ,yerkes1 of  
,harvard4 ,the turtle was placed in a   
labyrinth1  at the farther end of which 
was a comfortable bed of sand4 ,it took 
just thirty-five minutes of wandering   
for the turtle to reach the  nest the   
first time4 ,but in the second trial the
 nest was reached in  fifteen minutes1  
and by the tenth trip the turtle was    
familiar  enough with the route to go   
through in three and one-half minutes1  
making but two mistakes4 ,the turtle was
 afterwards placed in a more  complex   
labyrinth1 containing1 among other      
features1 a blind alley  and two        
inclines4 ,the inclines were puzzles1   
and it took one hour  and thirty-five   
minutes of aimless rambling for the     
wanderer to  reach its nest the first   

time4 ,but the fifth trip was made in   
sixteen minutes1 and the tenth in four  
minutes1 which was not far  from direct4
    ,these experiments show that animals
 of almost proverbial density may  learn
 with surprising quickness4 ,english    
sparrows and other avian  inhabitants of
 the city learn to live tranquilly along
 the busiest  thoroughfares1 exposed to 
all sorts of dangers1 and subjected to  
what would be to many birds the most    
terrifying circumstances4  ,whizzing    
trolleys1 tramping multitudes1 and      
screaming engines have  no terrors for  
them4 ,they simply exercise the caution 
necessary to  keep from being run over4 
,they boldly build their nests right    
under  passing elevated cars1 where the 
roar is sufficient to scare the  life   
out of an ordinary country bird4 ,i have
 seen these testy little  chaps sit and 
feed and jabber to each other in a      
perfectly  unconcerned way within ten or
 fifteen feet of a thundering express   
train4 ,they do not do these things from

 instinct3 they learn to do  them4 ,they
 know that a diabolical-looking         
locomotive is harmless1  because they   
have seen it before2 and they know that 
an  insignificant urchin with a savage  
heart and a sling is not  harmless1 and 
they know it simply because they have   
previously had  dealings with him4      
,english sparrows will disappear        
completely from a  neighborhood if a few
 of them are killed4 ,cats1 dogs1       
horses--all  animals1 in fact--acquire  
during life a fund of information as to 
how to act in order to avoid harm and   
extinction4 ,if they did not1  they     
would not live long4 ,and they do it    
just as man does it1 by  memory and     
discrimination1 by retaining impressions
 made upon them1  and acting differently
 when an impression is made a second1   
third1  or thirteenth time4    ,animals 
of experience 7including men7 are more  
skilful in adjusting  themselves to     
environmental exigencies than the young 
and  inexperienced1 because of their    

store of initial impressions4 ,it is  a 
matter of common observation that young 
animals are more easily  caught or      
killed or otherwise victimised than the 
old and  experienced4 ,many animals1    
however1 7and a good many men7 are able 
to profit by a single impression4 ,one  
dose of tartar emetic is  generally     
sufficient to cure an egg-sucking dog1  
and it is a very  stupid canine indeed  
that does not understand perfectly after
 one or  two experiences with a         
porcupine or an unsavory skunk4 #8,the  
burnt  child dreads the fire1' but so   
does the burnt puppy4 ,rengger  states  
that his ,paraguay monkeys1 after       
cutting themselves only once  with any  
sharp tool1 would not touch it again1 or
 would handle it  with the greatest     
caution4#a ,older trout are more wary   
than young  ones1 and fishes that have  
been much hunted and deceived become    
suspicious of traps4 ,rats1 martins1 and
 other animals cannot long be  trapped  
in the same way1 and partridges and     

other birds seldom fly  against         
telegraph-wires the second season after 
the wires are put  up4 ,these animals1  
however1 cannot learn to avoid these    
dangers from  experience1 for only a few
 of them are ever caught or struck4     
,they  must learn it from observing     
their unfortunate companions4 ,everyone 
who has read the story of ,lobo1 the big
 gray wolf of the ,carrumpaw1  cannot   
but wonder at the remarkable shrewdness 
shown by this old  leader in baffling   
for years the tigers that hung upon his 
tracks4#i ,nansen states that the seals1
 before man invaded the  ,arctics1      
occupied the inner ice-floes to avoid   
the polar bear1 but  after man came they
 took to living on the outer floes in   
order to  escape the persecutions of    
this new and more fearful enemy4        
,domestic  animals1 when first turned   
out in new regions1 often die from      
eating  poisonous weeds1 but in some way
 soon learn to avoid them4 ,many        
animals1 when pursuing other animals1 or

 when being pursued1 display  a         
knowledge of facts very little          
understood by the majority of  mankind1 
such as of places where scent lies or is
 obliterated1 and  the effects of wind  
in carrying evidence of their presence  
to their  enemies4 ,the hunted roebuck  
or hare will make circles1 double on its
  own tracks1 take to water1 and fling  
itself for considerable  distances      
through the air as cleverly as if it had
 read up all the  theory of scent in a  
book4 ,according to the ,london         
,spectator one  of the large ,african   
elephants in the ,zoological ,gardens of
 that  city restores to its entertainers
 all the bits of food which on  being   
thrown to him fall alike out of his     
reach and theirs4 ,he  points his       
proboscis straight at the food1 and     
blows it along the  floor to the feet of
 those who have thrown it4 ,he clearly  
knows what  he is about1 for if he does 
not blow hard enough to land the food   
the first time1 he blows harder and     

harder until he does4 ,the  cacadoos    
7parrots7 of ,australia1 before         
descending upon a field or  orchard in  
search of food1 send out a scouting     
party to reconnoitre  the region and see
 that #8all is well4' ,sometimes a      
second party  is sent4 ,if the report is
 favourable1 the whole band advance and 
plunder the field in short order4 ,these
 birds are exceedingly wary  and        
intelligent1 and seldom make mistakes4  
,but #8if man once  succeeds in killing 
one of them1 they become so prudent and 
watchful  that they henceforward baffle 
all stratagems'4#c ,a short time ago  a 
parrot at ,washington1 ,new ,jersey1    
saved the life of its owner by          
summoning the neighbours to his relief4 
,cries of #8,murder6'  #8,help6' #8,come
 quick6' coming from the home of the    
parrot1  attracted the attention of     
neighbours1 who ran to the house to find
  out the cause4 #8,they found the owner
 of the parrot lying on the  floor      
unconscious1 bleeding from a great gash 

in his neck4 ,he had  been repairing the
 ceiling1 and had fallen and struck his 
head  against the stove4 ,it required   
six stitches to close the wound1 and    
the surgeon said that in only a few     
minutes the injured man would  have been
 dead4 ,a few years ago this parrot's   
screams awakened its  owner in time to  
arouse his neighbours and save them from
 a fire  which started in the house next
 door4'    ,a friend of mine1 who is    
thoroughly reliable1 tells me that when 
he  was a student at the ,university of 
,michigan a few years ago one of  the   
professors of zoology there had a dog   
who was used by the  department for     
experiments in digestion4 ,the dog was  
compelled to  wear a tube opening       
downward out of his stomach1 and soon   
grew very  weak and emaciated from the  
constant loss of food1 which leaked out 
through this tube4 ,after a time1       
however1 the dog was observed to be     
growing unaccountably hale and strong4  
,he was watched1 and the poor  creature 

was found to have struck upon an        
ingenious expedient to  save his life4  
,on eating his meal1 he would go out to 
the barn1 and1  in order to prevent the 
artificial escape of the contents of his
  stomach1 would lie down flat on his   
back between two boxes and  remain there
 until his digested food had passed     
safely beyond the  pylorus4    ,a few   
months ago1 ,john1 one of the monkeys at
 ,lincoln ,park1 ,chicago1  was         
suffering from a terrible abscess on the
 cheek1 and an operation  became        
necessary in order to save the little   
fellow's life4 ,it was  a pathetic sight
 to see the look of trust in the        
monkey's eyes  when the surgeon was     
ready to begin the operation1 and the   
courage  and fortitude displayed by the 
sufferer were almost human4 ,at the     
first touch of the knife the monkey     
pressed his head hard against  the knee 
of the assistant and grabbed the        
forefinger of each of the  assistant's  
hands1 just as a person does who is     

about to undergo a  painful operation4  
,the swelling was first cut open and    
washed with  antiseptic1 when the       
cheek-bone was scraped and a small piece
 of it  removed4 ,after being again     
washed in antiseptic1 the wound was     
sewed  up1 and ,john was lifted gently  
back into his cage--not1 however1  until
 he had licked the hands of the surgeon 
and kissed his face in  gratitude4 ,the 
little hero never uttered a sound from  
the time the  knife first touched his   
face until he was put back into his     
cage4 ,a  similar act of intelligence is
 recorded of an orang4 ,having been     
once bled on account of illness1 and not
 feeling well some time  afterward1 this
 orang went from one person to another1 
and1 pointing  to the vein in his arm1  
signified his desire to have the        
operation  repeated4 ,both of these     
instances are examples of reason of a   
very  high order--of a higher order1    
indeed1 than many children and some     
grown people exhibit in similar         

circumstances4 ,the chimpanzee1         
,mafuca1 learned how to unlock her cage1
 and stole the key and hid it  under her
 arm for future use4 ,after watching the
 carpenter boring  holes with his       
brad-awl1 she took the brad-awl and     
bored holes in  her table4 ,she poured  
out milk for herself at meals1 and      
always  carefully stopped pouring before
 the cup ran over4    ,when baboons go  
on marauding expeditions1 they show that
 they  realise perfectly what they are  
doing by moving with great stealth4     
,not a sound is uttered4 ,if any        
thoughtless youngster so far forgets    
the necessities of the occasion as to   
utter a single chatter1 he is  given a  
reminder in the shape of a box on the   
ear4 #8,a certain ,mr4  ,cops1 who had a
 young orang1 gave it half an orange one
 day1 and put  the other half away out  
of its sight on a high press1 and lay   
down  himself on the sofa4 ,but the     
ape's movements1 attracting his         
attention1 he only pretended to go to   

sleep4 ,the creature came  cautiously   
and satisfied himself that his master   
was asleep1 then  climbed up the press1 
ate the rest of the orange1 carefully   
hid the  peel among the shavings in the 
grate1 examined the pretended sleeper   
again1 and then went and lay down on his
 own bed4' ,this incident  is recorded  
by ,tylor in his #8,anthropology4'      
#8,and such  behaviour1' he adds1 #8is  
to be explained only by supposing a     
train of thought to pass through the    
brain of the ape somewhat  similar to   
what we ourselves call reason4' ,these  
instances of  undoubted intelligence and
 thought might be added to almost       
without  number if there was room4      
,every person nearly who has been in the
  world any length of time1 and has had 
occasion to associate with  these       
so-called #8machines1' has seen for     
himself1 often  unexpectedly1 many      
flashes of brightness among them4    ,it
 has been said that man differs from    
other animals1 and is  superior to them 

in the fact that he modifies his        
environment while  other animals do not1
 but are modified by environment4 ,mr4  
,lester ,f4  ,ward makes this           
distinction in his #8,pure ,sociology4' 
,the  distinction is no nearer the truth
 than other distinctions of like        
character that have from time to time   
been drawn between men and  other       
animals4 ,it is not much more than half 
true1 if it is that1  and does not by   
any means deserve the italics awarded to
 it by this  writer4 ,many races of     
non-human beings have a far greater     
influence  on their environment than    
many races of men have4 ,many tribes of 
men  wander about naked1 build no       
habitations1 make no weapons1 and feed  
upon the fruits1 roots1 insects1 and    
such other chance morsels as  they can  
pick up from day to day in their        
wanderings4 ,such races are  far        
inferior in constructive activity to the
 birds1 who build  elaborate houses1 and
 to the beavers1 who not only construct 

substantial dwellings1 but dam rivers1  
and cut down trees and  transport them  
long distances1 and dig artificial      
waterways1 to be  used as aids in their 
engineering enterprises4 ,compare the   
elaborate  compartments of the          
,australian bower-birds1 surrounded with
  ornamented and carefully-kept grounds1
 with the lean-to of many  savage       
tribes1 made by sticking two or three   
palm-leaves in the  ground and leaning  
them against a pole4 ,even ants plant   
crops1 make  clearings1 build roads and 
tunnels1 etc4 ,it must be remembered1   
too1  that1 however affirmative and     
masterful a race of men may become1 it  
never succeeds1 and never can succeed1  
in emancipating itself from  the        
influences of environment4 ,it is true  
that with the growth of  intelligence   
among organic forms there has been a    
constant transfer  of influence from the
 environment to the organism2 but this  
transfer  began1 not with man by any    
means1 but low down in the scale of     

animal life4    ,it has been said that  
man is the only animal that uses tools4 
,but  this is not true either1 for      
animals as low in the scale of          
development as insects have been known  
to use tools4 ,at least two  different  
observers testify to having seen        
ground-wasps use small  stones as       
hammers in packing the dirt firmly over 
their nests4  ,spiders use stones as    
weights to steady their webs in times of
  storm4 ,orangs throw sticks and stones
 at their pursuers1 and certain  tribes 
of ,abyssinian baboons1 when they go to 
battle with each  other1 carry stones as
 missiles4 ,monkeys often use stones to 
crack  nuts with1 and tame monkeys know 
very well how to use a hammer when  it  
is given to them4 ,in the ,london       
,zoological ,gardens a monkey with  poor
 teeth kept a stone hidden in the straw 
of its cage to crack its  nuts with1 and
 it would not allow any other monkey to 
touch the  stone4 #8,here1' says        
,darwin1 in speaking of this case1 #8is 

the  idea of property4' ,monkeys also   
use sticks as levers in prying  open    
chests and lifting heavy objects4       
,cuvier's orang used to  carry a chair  
across the room and stand on it to lift 
the  door-latch4 ,chimpanzees1 who are  
very fond of making a noise1 have  been 
seen standing around a hollow log in the
 forest1 beating it  with sticks2 and if
 we are to believe ,emin ,pasha1 these  
ingenious  parodies of men sometimes    
carry torches when they go at night on  
foraging expeditions4 ,the ,indian      
elephant1 when travelling1 will         
sometimes turn aside and break off a    
leafy branch from a roadside  tree and  
carry it along in its trunk to sweep off
 the flies4 ,as ,dr4  ,wesley ,mills    
says in his work on #8,the ,nature and  
,development of  ,animal ,intelligence1'
 #8,it was formerly believed that       
animals  cannot reason1 but only those  
persons who do not themselves reason    
about the subject1 with the facts before
 them1 can any longer occupy  such a    

position4'    #a4 ,romanes3 ,animal     
,intelligence2 ,new ,york1 #ahii4  #b4  
,cornish3 ,animals of ,to-day2 ,london1 
#ahih4  #c4 ,kropotkin3 ,mutual ,aid a  
,factor of ,evolution2 ,new ,york1      
#aijb4  #d4 ,darwin3 ,descent of ,man1  
#bnd edit42 ,london1 #ahgd4  #e4        
,romanes3 ,mental ,evolution in         
,animals2 ,new ,york1 #ahih4  #f4       
,morgan3 ,animal ,behaviour2 ,london1   
#aijj4  #g4 ,brehm3 ,thierleben2        
,leipzig1 #ahhj4  #h4 ,huxley3 ,on the  
,origin of ,species1 lecture iii4  #i4  
,thompson3 ,wild ,animals ,i have       
,known2 ,new ,york1 #aijj4    ,v4       
,conclusion4    ,it is enough4 ,the     
ancient gulf scooped by human conceit   
between man  and the other animals has  
been effectually and forever filled up4 
,the human species constitutes but one  
branch in the gigantic arbour  of life4 
,and all the merit and all the feeling  
and all the  righteousness of the world 
are not1 as we have been accustomed to  
aver1 congested into this one branch4   

,and all of the weakness and  deformity 
are not1 as we have also been anxious to
 believe1 found  elsewhere4 ,the        
reluctance of wrinkles and deformities  
to appear in  the pictures of men1 and  
of strength and beauty to appear in the 
representations of the other races of   
the earth1 is to be accounted  for by   
the highly elucidative fact that man is 
the universal  portrait-painter4 ,there 
is no one to tell man what he is and how
 he  strikes others1 and hence he is the
 #8paragon of creation'--the            
inter-stellar pet1 half clay and half   
halo--the image and pride of  the       
gods--the flower and gem of the eternal 
spheres4 ,man is the  only professional 
linguist in the universe4 ,and it is    
fortunate for  him that he is4 ,for1 if 
he were not1 his auditories would be    
compelled to carry to his perceptive    
centres a great many sentiments  he now 
never hears4 ,he would be likely to hear
 a good deal said1 and  said with a good
 deal of feeling1 about perpendicular   

brigand--grandiloquent kakistocrat      
swelling with                           
self-righteousness--rhetorical hideful  
wrapped in pillage and  gorged with     
decomposition--a voluble and            
sanctimonious squash with  two sticks in
 it4 ,the definition of man as it       
appears in the  dictionary of the donkey
 probably runs something like this3     
#8,man  is an animal that walks on its  
hind-legs1 invents adjectives with      
which to praise itself1 and displays its
 greatest utility in proving  that all  
sharks are not aquatic4' ,we know what a
 lion looks like  when painted by a man1
 but human eyes have never yet been     
allumined  by the sardonic lineaments of
 a man painted by a lion4 ,being boiled 
alive in order to look well as corpses  
in store-windows1 and having  wooden    
pegs thrust into our muscles and left   
there to rot for a week  or two to keep 
us in our agony from doing something    
desperate--we  know what these          
experiences are like when they are      

delegated to  lobsters1 and we take no  
more serious part in them than to insure
  their infliction1 but we are too      
fervent barbarians to bother our  heads 
about what they are like from the       
crustacean point of view4    ,let us be 
candid4 ,men are not all gentle men and 
humane1 and not-men  are not all        
inhuman4 ,there are reptiles in         
broadcloth1 and there are  warm and     
generous hearts among those peoples who 
have so long  suffered from human       
prejudice and ferocity4 ,let us label   
beings by  what they are--by the souls  
that are in them and the deeds they     
do--not by their colour1 which is       
pigment1 nor by their  composition1     
which is clay4 ,there are               
philanthropists in feathers  and        
patricians in fur1 just as there are    
cannibals in the pulpit and  saurians   
among the money-changers4 ,the golden   
rule may sometimes be  more religiously 
observed in the hearts and homes of     
outcast  quadrupeds than in the palatial

 lairs of bipeds4 ,the horse1 who       
suffers and serves and starves in       
silence1 who endures daily wrongs  of   
scanty and irregular meals1 excessive   
burdens and mangled flanks1  who forgets
 cruelty and ingratitude1 and does good 
to them that  spitefully use him1 and   
submits to crime without resistance1    
misunderstanding without murmur1 and    
insult without resentment1 is a  better 
,christian1 a better exemplar of the    
,sermon on the ,mount1 than  many       
church-goers1 in spite of the creeds and
 interdictions of men4  ,and the animal 
who goes to church on ,sundays1 wearing 
the twitching  skins and plundered      
plumage of others1 and wails long       
prayers and  mumbles meaningless        
rituals1 and gives unearned guineas to  
the  missionary1 and on week-days cheats
 and impoverishes his neighbours1       
glorifies war1 and tramples under foot  
the most sacred principles of  morality 
in his treatment of his non-human       
kindred1 is a cold1  hard-hearted brute1

 in spite of the fact that he is cunning
 and  vainglorious1 and towers about on 
his hinders4    ,there are lessons that 
may be learned from the uncorrupted     
children  of ,nature--lessons in        
simplicity of life1 straightforwardness1
  humility1 art1 economy1 brotherly     
love1 and cheerfulness--more  beautiful1
 perhaps1 and more true than may        
sometimes be learned from  the stilted  
and ,machiavellian ways of men4 ,would  
you learn  forgiveness8 ,go to the dog4 
,the dog can stand more abuse and       
forgive  greater accumulations of wrong 
than any other animal1 not even         
excepting a wife4 ,about the only thing 
in the universe superior to  the dog in 
willingness to undergo outrage is the   
human stomach4  ,would you learn wisdom 
and industry8 ,go to the ant1 that      
tireless  toiler of the dust4 ,the ant  
can do that which no man can do--keep   
grain in a warm1 moist atmosphere       
without sprouting4 ,would you learn     
art8 ,go to the bee or to the wild      

bird's lodge4 ,the art of the  honeycomb
 and of the hang-bird's nest surpasses  
that of the cranny  of the savage as the
 ,cathedral of ,st4 ,peter exceeds the  
cottage4  ,would you learn socialism1   
that dream of poets and the hope and    
expectation of wise men8 ,it is         
actualised around you in thousands of   
insect communities4 ,the social and     
economic relations existing in  the most
 highly wrought societies of bees and   
wasps are  fundamentally the ideal      
relations of living beings to each      
other1  but it will require millenniums 
of struggle and bloodshed for men to    
come up to them4 ,would you learn       
curiosity--not the curiosity that       
gossips and backbites1 but the curiosity
 of the explorer and  searcher after    
knowledge8 ,go to the monkey4 ,the      
monkey has been  known to work two      
hours1 without pause1 utterly           
unconscious of  everything but its      
purposes1 trying to open a fettered     
trunk  lock4#a ,would you learn         

sobriety8 ,go not to the gilded hells of
  cities1 where men die like flies in   
gin's vile miasma4 ,go to the  spring   
where the antelope drinks4 ,would you   
learn chastity8 ,go not  to the foul    
dens and fiery chambers of men4 ,go to  
the boudoir of the  bower-bird1 or to   
the subterranean hollow where the wild  
wolf rears  her litter4    ,man is not  
the surpassingly pre-eminent individual 
he so actively  advertises himself to   
be4 ,indeed1 in many particulars he is  
excelled1 and excelled seriously1 by    
those whom he calls  #8lower4' ,the     
locomotion of the bird is far superior  
in ease and  expedition to the shuffling
 locomotion of man4 ,the horse has a    
sense  which guides it through darkness 
in which human eyes are blind2 and  the 
manner in which a cat1 who has been     
carried in a bag and put  down miles    
away1 will turn up at the back-door of  
the old home next  morning dumfounds    
science4 ,the eye of the vulture is a   
telescope4  ,the hound will track his   

master along a frequented street an hour
  behind his footsteps1 by the          
imponderable odour of his soles4 ,the   
catbird1 without atlas or geographic    
manuals1 will find her way back  over   
hundreds of trackless leagues1 season   
after season1 to the same  old          
nesting-place in the thicket4 ,birds1   
thousands of them1 journey  from ,mexico
 to ,arctic ,america1 from ,algiers and 
,italy to  ,spitzbergen1 from ,egypt to 
,siberia1 and from ,australia and the   
,polynesian ,islands to ,new ,zealand1  
and build their nests and rear  their   
young1 year after year1 in the same     
vale1 grove1 or tundra4  ,the           
nightingale1 who pours out his          
incomparable lovesong in the  twilight  
of ,english lanes during ,may and ,june1
 winters in the heart  of ,africa2 and  
some birds nest within the ,arctic      
,circle and winter  in ,argentina4 ,some
 of the plovers travel the entire length
 of the  ,american land mass every      
summer1 from ,patagonia to the ,arctic  

,circle1 in order to lay three or four  
pale-green eggs1 and see them  turn to  
birdlings by the shores of the ,hudson  
,sea4 ,many animals have  the power to  
foretell storms1 and man1 though he can 
weigh worlds1  is ever glad to profit by
 their superior sense4 ,when herons fly 
high  above the clouds1 when sea-birds  
dip and sport in the water and the      
bittern booms from the marshes1 when    
swallows fly low and the sow  repairs   
her bed1 when horses scamper and cattle 
sniff the air1 when  ravens beat the air
 with their wings1 make noises1 and     
flock  together1 when the swan raises   
her eggs by additions to her nest and   
the prairie-dog scratches the dirt up   
around its hole1 when beetles  are not  
found in the air and caterpillars mass  
in their webs1 when  bees remain near   
their hives and ants carry their eggs to
 their  innermost abodes1 when frogs    
croak more loudly from their watery     
retreats and fishes seek the safety of  
the unharried deeps--look  out for foul 

weather6 ,man has not the sweetness of  
the song-sparrow1  the innocence of the 
fawn1 nor the high relative brain       
capacity of  the tomtit and the fice4   
,many animals have powers by which they 
are able to act in concert at  times1   
vast numbers of them moving in unison   
over immense areas by  signals or       
intuitions which man can neither imitate
 nor understand4  ,such are the         
mysterious migrations of the ,norway    
lemming and of many  birds and insects1 
and such were the memorable stampedes of
 the  bison hordes on the ,american     
plains in years gone by4 ,kropotkin saw 
on the ,siberian steppes one autumn     
#8thousands and thousands' of  fallow   
deer come together from an area as large
 as ,great ,britain at  a point on the  
,amur ,river in an unprecedented exodus 
to the lowlands  on the other side4#b   
,how these scattered thousands knew when
 to  start so as to arrive at the river 
at the same time1 and how they  knew the
 direction to travel and found their way

 so well1 are  mysteries which man can  
as yet only wonder at4 ,more marvellous 
yet--more marvellous1 perhaps1 than the 
concurrent action of any  other animal1 
for it implies the most accurate        
time-keeping  extending over many       
years--are the annual festivals of the  
palolo1 an annelid living among the     
interstices of the coral reefs  of some 
of the islands of the ,south ,pacific4  
,about three o'clock  on the morning    
following the third quarter of the      
,october moon1  these worms invariably  
appear on the surface of the sea1       
swarming in  great numbers4 ,just after 
sunrise their bodies begin to break to  
pieces1 and by nine o'clock no trace of 
them is left4 ,on the  morning following
 the third quarter of the ,november moon
 they appear  again1 but usually in     
smaller numbers4 ,after that they are   
seen no  more till the next ,october4   
,this annual swarming is a phenomenon   
connected with reproduction1 the ova    
escaping from the broken bodies  of the 

females and1 after being fertilised by  
the free-floating  sperms1 sinking down 
among the coral reefs and hatching into 
a new  generation4 #8,year after year   
these creatures appear according to     
lunar time4 ,and yet in the long-run    
they keep solar time4 ,they keep  two   
cycles1 one of three and one of         
twenty-nine years4 ,in the  three-year  
cycle there are two intervals of twelve 
lunations and one  of thirteen          
lunations4 ,these thirty-seven lunations
 bring lunar time  somewhat near to     
solar time4 ,but in twenty-nine years   
there is  enough difference to require  
the addition of another lunation2 the   
twenty-ninth year is therefore one of   
thirteen instead of twelve  lunations4  
,in this way they do not change their   
season in an entire  century4 ,so       
unfailing is their appearance that in   
,samoa they have  given their name to   
the spring season1 which is called 8the 
time  of the palolo40'    ,instead of   
the highest1 man is in some respects the

 lowest1 of the  animal kingdom4 ,man is
 the most unchaste1 the most drunken1   
the most  selfish and conceited1 the    
most miserly1 the most hypocritical1 and
  the most bloodthirsty of terrestrial  
creatures4 ,almost no animals1  except  
man1 kill for the mere sake of killing4 
,for one being to take  the life of     
another for purposes of selfish utility 
is bad enough4  ,but the indiscriminate 
massacre of defenceless innocents by    
armed  and organised packs1 just for    
pastime1 is beyond  characterisation4   
,the human species is the only species  
of animals  that plunges to such depths 
of atrocity4 ,even vipers and hyenas do 
not exterminate for recreation4 ,no     
animal1 except man1 habitually  seeks   
wealth purely out of an insane impulse  
to accumulate4 ,and no  animal1 except  
man1 gloats over accumulations that are 
of no  possible use to him1 that are an 
injury and an abomination1 and in  whose
 acquisition he may have committed      
irreparable crimes upon  others4 ,there 

are no millionaires--no professional1   
legalised1  lifelong                    
kleptomaniacs--among the birds and      
quadrupeds4 ,no animal1  except man1    
spends so large a part of his energies  
striving for  superiority--not          
superiority in usefulness1 but that     
superiority  which consists in simply   
getting on the heads of one's fellows4  
,and no animal practises common1        
ordinary morality to the other  beings  
of the world in which he lives so       
little1 compared with the  amount he    
preaches it1 as man4    ,let us be      
honest4 ,honour to whom honour is due4  
,it will not emaciate  our own glory to 
recognise the excellence and reality of 
others1 or  to come face to face with   
our own frailties4 ,we are our          
brother's keeper4 ,our brethren are they
 that feel4 ,let us  universalise4 ,our 
thoughts and sympathies have been too   
long  wingless4 ,the ,universe is our   
,country1 and our ,kindred are the      
,populations that ,mount4 ,it is        

well--it is eminently well1 for it  is  
godlike--to send our ,magnanimity to the
 ,dusts and the ,deeps1  our ,sunrises  
to the ,uttermost ,isles1 and our       
,charity to the  ,stars4    #a4         
,romanes3 ,animal ,intelligence2 ,new   
,york1 #ahii4  #b4 ,kropotkin3 ,mutual  
,aid a ,factor of ,evolution2 ,new      
,york1 #aijb4      ,,the ,,ethical      
,,kinship      ,i4 ,human ,nature a     
,product of the ,jungle    ,,ii4 ,egoism
 and ,altruism    ,,iii4 ,the ,ethics of
 the ,savage    ,,iv4 ,the ,ethics of   
the ,ancient    ,v4 ,modern ,ethics     
,,vi4 ,the ,ethics of ,human ,beings    
,toward ,non-human ,beings    ,,vii4    
,the ,origin of ,provincialism          
,,viii4 ,universal ,ethics    ,,ix4 ,the
 ,psychology of ,altruism    ,x4        
,anthropocentric ,ethics    ,,xi4       
,ethical ,implications of ,evolution    
,,xii4 ,conclusion    ,,the ,,ethical   
,,kinship        ,one of the wisest     
things ever said by one of the          
profoundest    philosophers of all time 

was the warning to the seeker after     
truth    to beware of the influence of  
the #8idols 7or illusions7 of the       
tribe' by which he meant that body of   
traditional prejudices which    every   
sect1 family1 nation1 and neighbourhood 
has clinging to it1    and in the midst 
of which and at the mercy of which every
 human    being grows up4      ,i4      
,human ,nature a ,product of the        
,jungle4    ,the ,golden ,rule is not   
exemplified by the conduct of any       
considerable number of the inhabitants  
of the earth4 ,to be civilised  or even 
half-civilised is1 to the children of   
this world1 neither  instinctive nor    
easy4 ,to preserve a certain pretence or
 appearance  of virtue1 especially when 
encouraged to do so by an uplifted      
cudgel  in the hands of the community1  
is a possible and not uncommon          
accomplishment4 ,but to be at heart and 
in reality as considerate of  others as 
we are of ourselves is1 unfortunately1  
not natural4 ,human  beings are not     

children of the sun1 sojourning for a   
season on this  spheroid of clay1 and   
needing only pinions to be angels4      
,human  nature did not come1 pure and   
shining1 down from the glittering  gods4
 ,it came out of the jungle4 ,civilised 
peoples are the not very  remote        
posterity of savages1 and savages are   
the posterity of  individuals who laid  
eggs and had literally cold blood in    
their  veins4 ,civilised men and women  
are troglodytes with a veneering of     
virtue4 ,in the heart of every          
#8civilised' man and woman is an        
unconverted core1 large or small1 of    
barbarism4 ,humanity is only a  habit4  
,against it1 and tending ever to weaken 
and subvert it1 are  the powerful       
inertias of animalism4 ,like the ship in
 ,ibsen's  #8,rhymed ,epistle1'         
civilisation carries a corpse in its    
cargo--the elemental appetites and      
passions which have been  implanted in  
all sentient nature by the laws in      
accordance with  which organic forms    

have been fashioned4 ,moral progress is 
simply  the sloughing off of this       
inherited animality4    ,to the         
initiated1 therefore1 it is not strange 
that we civilised  folk in our conduct  
display so freely the phenomena of the  
savage4  ,there is nothing more         
inevitable in the life of the convert   
than the  haunting inclination to give  
way to original impulses4 ,it is not    
strange that we are powerless to be as  
good and beautiful and true  as we would
 like to be1 that our divine efforts are
 our half-hearted  efforts1 and that the
 only time we get terribly in earnest   
and put  forth really titanic energies  
is when we are dominated directly or    
indirectly by the instincts of the pack4
 ,human aspiration is  fettered by the  
fearful facts of human origin4 ,it is   
not strange  that we are continually    
conscious of being torn by contending   
tendencies1 conscious of ghastly        
masteries1 and of horrible goings  on in
 our innermost beings4 ,the human heart 

is the gladiatorial  meeting-place of   
gods and beasts4    ,,ii4 ,egoism and   
,altruism4    ,everything has been      
evolved--everything--from daffodils to  
states and from ticks to religion4      
,every organic thing is the result  of  
long and incessant survival of the      
advantageous--advantageous  from the    
standpoint of the organism itself or    
from the standpoint of  its kind1 not   
necessarily so from the standpoint of   
the universe4  ,that which is true of   
everything is true also of egoism and   
altruism4 ,egoism and altruism exist as 
facts in the natures of human  and other
 beings for the same reason that the    
various physical facts  exist in the    
structures of human and other beings1   
because they have  been advantageous in 
the struggle for life4 ,there is just as
  definite an explanation for the       
existence of egoism and altruism in     
this world1 and for their existence in  
the particular form and ratio  in which 
they do exist1 as there is for the fact 

that the human hand  has five fingers1  
the rose odour1 and the eggs of the     
kildeer the  mottled markings of the    
clods among which they lie4    ,egoism  
is preference for self1 partiality      
toward that part of the  universe       
bounded by one's own skin4 ,it may      
consist simply of  regard for self1 but 
with regard for self is usually         
associated  enmity toward others4       
,egoism manifests itself in such        
qualities of  mind as selfishness1      
cruelty1 intolerance1 hate1             
hardheartedness1  savagery1 rudeness1   
injustice1 narrowness1 and the like4 ,it
 is the  primal impulse of the living   
heart4 ,enmity is older and more        
universal than love4 ,enmity constituted
 the very loins from which  long ago    
came the original miscreants of this    
world4      #8,i saw the fishes playing 
there2    ,i saw all that was in the    
whole world round2    ,in wood1 and     
bower1 and marsh1 and mead1 and field1  
,all things which creep and fly1 ,and   

put a foot to earth4    ,all these ,i   
saw1 and say to you1    ,that nothing   
lives among them without hate4'    ,life
 has been developed through selection4  
,this selection has been  brought about 
largely through war--war between        
individuals and  between groups of      
individuals4 ,war and competition are   
struggle  between living beings1 and the
 soul of competition is selfishness4    
,egoism is the primal and most powerful 
of terrestrial impulses1  because beings
 hated and exterminated each other      
before they  tolerated and loved1 and   
because struggle has far overshadowed   
cooperation as a factor in life         
evolution4    ,there are those who      
believe that mutual aid has been a more 
dynamic  factor in the development of   
terrestrial life than competition4      
,cooperation has been an important      
element in the evolution of animal      
life1 and it has operated among nearly  
all animals1 from the  humblest to the  
highest4 ,far down near the beginning of

 organic  existence we find the         
one-celled forms huddling together in   
colonies1 giving rise in the course of  
time to the many-celled  animals4 ,but  
to conclude that cooperation is the     
chief factor in  animal development is  
to shut one's eyes to one of the most   
obvious and overwhelming facts of       
organic evolution4 ,individualism       
antedates mutualism1 both among the     
one-celled forms and among the          
many-celled metazoa4 ,cooperation       
everywhere is the sequence of a  long   
preliminary of individual contention4   
,and cooperation does not  mean         
cessation of struggle1 either among     
those co-operating or among  the groups 
themselves1 as ,kropotkin and other     
exaggerators of the  mutual aid factor  
seem to assume4 ,it usually does little 
more than  transfer the struggle from   
individuals to groups4 ,when a lot of   
pelicans or wolves get together and work
 together in order that they  may       
thereby the better defend themselves or 

slay others it is hard  to see how such 
facts can be placed to the credit of    
cooperation any  more than to that of   
competition4 ,then1 too1 excepting in a 
few  societies of insects1 cooperation  
has not gone so far as to do more  than 
slightly alleviate the competition even 
among the members of a  co-operating    
group4 ,competition is a much more      
common and  influential fact in the     
phenomena of life than cooperation1 for 
it  involves a large part of the        
activity of individual life1 and is     
also prominent in all social activities4
    ,the preponderance of egoism in the 
natures of living beings is the  most   
mournful and immense fact in the        
phenomena of conscious life4  ,it has   
made the world the kind of world it     
would have been had the  gods actually  
emptied their wrath vials upon it4      
,brotherhood is  anomalous1 and1 even in
 its highest manifestations1 is but the 
expression of a veiled and calculating  
egoism4 ,inhumanity is  everywhere4 ,the

 whole planet is steeped in it4 ,every  
creature faces  an inhospitable         
universeful1 and every life is a        
campaign4 ,it has  all come about as a  
result of the mindless and inhuman      
manner in  which life has been developed
 on the earth4 ,it has been said that an
  individual of unlimited faculties and 
infinite goodness and power  made this  
world and endowed it with ways of       
acting1 and that this  individual1 as   
the world's executive1 continues to     
determine its  phenomena by inspiring   
the order of its events4 ,but one cannot
 help  thinking sometimes1 when1 in his 
more daring and vivid moments1 he  comes
 to comprehend the real character and   
condition of the world1  what a         
discrepancy exists between the          
reputation of this builder and  his     
works1 and cannot help wondering whether
 an ordinary human being  with only     
common-sense and insight and an average 
concern for the  welfare of the world   
would not make a great improvement in   

terrestrial affairs if he only had the  
opportunity for a while4    ,altruism is
 the recognition of1 and regard for1    
others4 ,it shows  itself in feelings of
 justice1 goodwill1 tenderness1 charity1
 pity1  public spirit1 sympathy1        
fraternity and love1 and in acts of     
kindness1 humanity1 mercy1 generosity1  
politeness1 philanthropy and  the like4 
,altruism is a graft4 ,the stock is     
selfishness and  brutality4 ,altruism   
7the form of altruism to which ,i here  
refer3  there are several distinct      
species of altruism7 has come into the  
world as a result of cooperation and    
consanguinity4 ,it has grown out  of the
 cooperation of individuals in families 
and tribes against  their cooperating   
enemies4 ,altruism--at least1 in its    
initial  stages--is a sort of tribal    
egoism4 ,men and other animals have     
learned to stand by each other and help 
each other against their  common foes   
because it was the only way in which    
they were able to  stand4 ,those        

aggregates that have had strongest this 
feeling of  fraternity have prospered   
and prevailed1 while the less fraternal 
have gone down4    ,the altruism        
manifested by men in their relations    
with each other is  not different in    
kind from the altruism and cooperation  
displayed by  other social animals4     
,human gregariousness--the gathering    
together  of human beings into tribes   
and communities for purposes of         
companionship and defence--is a part of 
the phenomena of animal  gregariousness 
in general4 ,the inhabitants of a human 
town1 however  much they may think so1  
are not impelled to associate with each 
other and to cooperate with each other  
in the affairs of life by  causes or    
considerations different from those     
which actuate a  society of ants or     
apes1 of wasps or wolves1 who do the    
same things4  ,the antecedents of human 
ethics and society are1 therefore1 to be
  looked for in the ant-hill and the    
jungle4    ,the fact that altruism has  

been evolved by the cooperation of      
individuals with each other and against 
others is a significant  fact in the    
analysis and understanding of the       
ethical phenomena of  the earth4 ,to    
this fact is due the restricted and     
illogical  character of all altruism4   
,the ethical systems of all peoples are1
  and have always been1 to a greater or 
less extent1 provincial and             
contradictory4 ,ethical feeling and     
practice are not extended               
universally--that is1 to all beings--but
 are maintained only among  those       
associating more or less closely as a   
group1 and having  interests that are   
more or less nearly the same4 ,among men
 of  primitive mind1 morality is a thing
 to be practised toward only a  few     
thousand or even a few hundred          
individuals1 and then in a very         
half-awake and half-hearted manner4 ,but
 as the perceptions sharpen  and vivify 
and the horizon of knowledge widens--as 
commerce and  imagination cause the mind

 to overflow the narrow bounds of the   
community into larger dimensions of time
 and space--as the myriad  influences   
operating as race experience and race   
selection enable  men to realise the    
wider and wider oneness of their origin1
 natures1  interests1 and destiny--an   
increasing consistency characterises the
  conduct among the members of the      
group1 and an increasingly larger       
number of individuals are admitted to   
ethical consideration and  kinship4     
,,iii4 ,the ,ethics of the ,savage4     
,the ethics of the savage is1 almost    
without exception1 purely tribal  in its
 extent4 ,a marked distinction is       
everywhere made by primitive  peoples   
between injuries to persons inside the  
tribe and injuries  to those outside the
 tribe4 ,crimes which are looked upon as
  felonious when committed by a savage  
against the members of his own  tribe   
may be regarded as harmless1 or even    
highly commendable1 when  perpetrated on
 those outside the tribe4 ,acts are not 

judged  according to their intrinsic    
natures or results1 but wholly as to    
whether they are performed on outsiders 
or on insiders4 ,the ,balantis          
7,africa7 punish with death a theft     
committed against a  fellow-tribesman1  
but encourage and reward thieving from  
other  tribes4 ,the ,afridi             
7,afghanistan7 mother prays that her son
 may be a  successful robber--not a     
robber of her own people1 but of other  
peoples--and in order that he may become
 proficient in crime  teaches him to    
creep stealthily through a hole in the  
wall4 ,by  certain ,bedouin tribes the  
#8strenuous life' is held in such high  
honour that #8it is considered a        
disgrace to die in bed'2 and  among the 
man-eating ,fijians #8men who have not  
slain an enemy  suffer the most         
degrading of all punishments'4#a ,in the
 paradise  of the ,kukis 7,india7 the   
cut-throats who have in life killed the 
largest number of aliens not only       
inherit the highest places1 but  these  

adepts of the knife are supposed to be  
attended in their  celestial comings and
 goings by their victims as slaves4#a   
,in his  dealings with the other members
 of his tribe1 the savage observes a    
certain rude code of morals1 this code  
being usually1 as in the case  of the   
civilised code1 an inglorious mixture of
 equity and  brutality1 superstition and
 sanity1 honesty and hypocrisy4 ,but the
  savage recognises no moral obligations
 to any being outside of his  tribe1    
clan1 or family4 ,anthropology teaches  
nothing more positively  than this4     
,consanguinity and self-interest are the
 only bases of  savage friendship4      
,outsiders are outlaws4 ,they may be    
attacked1  robbed1 deceived1 murdered1  
eaten1 or enslaved1 with perfect        
propriety4 ,it was this general         
hostility of foreigners that ,cain      
feared when he was turned out from his  
countrymen after his crime  upon ,abel4 
,he knew that he was liable to be set   
upon by the first  stranger that came   

upon him4 ,so the ,lord is said to have 
set a mark  upon him1 #8lest any finding
 him should kill him4'    #8,there was  
no brotherhood recognised by our savage 
forefathers1'  says ,sir ,henry ,maine1 
in speaking of the ancestors of the     
,aryan and  ,semitic races1 #8except    
actual consanguinity regarded as a fact4
 ,if  a man was not of kin to another1  
there was nothing between them4 ,he  was
 an enemy to be hated1 slain1 or        
despoiled as much as the wild  beasts   
upon which the tribe made war1 as       
belonging1 indeed1 to the  craftiest and
 cruelest of wild animals4 ,it would    
scarcely be too  strong to assert that  
the dogs which followed the camp had    
more in  common with it than the        
tribesmen of an alien and unrelated     
tribe'4#b ,among some tribes of savage  
men the ethical code is  reversed in    
dealing with outsiders1 and enmity      
toward aliens is  considered a duty4    
,this same senseless hostility toward   
every one from abroad1 so  spitefully   

exhibited by primitive men1 is also     
manifested by ants1  who immediately    
recognise and pounce upon an individual 
introduced  from a foreign colony1 but  
welcome with every demonstration of joy1
  even after a lapse of weeks or months1
 a returning member of their  own       
society4 ,the same spirit of            
exclusiveness is found also in          
elephants4 ,if by accident an elephant  
becomes separated from his  herd1 he    
becomes an outcast and a fugitive1 never
 being permitted in  any circumstances  
to attach himself to another herd4#c    
,that the savage should entertain       
feelings of friendship for those        
belonging to the same social unit as    
himself is1 considering the             
circumstances in which it takes place1 a
 perfectly natural  phenomenon4 ,the    
members of his tribe are1 to the savage1
 the beings  among whom he has come into
 existence1 and in the midst of whom he 
has grown up4 ,he knows and understands 
them1 and is known and  understood by   

them4 ,they speak the same language as  
himself1 and  cherish the same customs  
and traditions4 ,they have the same     
sacred  trees1 the same gods1 the same  
experiences day after day1 and the  same
 memories1 as he himself4 ,they are his 
associates in the chase1  his allies in 
war1 and his comrades in sorrow and     
success4 ,they are  the only beings into
 whose lives he has ever entered4 ,they 
constitute his world1 and are to him the
 only real beings in the  universe4     
,the members of his tribe are1 moreover1
 to the savage1 for the most  part1 his 
kinspeople4 ,if they are not actually   
related to him by  blood1 they are      
usually conceived by him to be so       
related4 ,the  co-villagers of an       
,indian community call each other       
brothers4 ,it is  a characteristic of   
all the ,aryan and ,semitic races when  
in the  tribal state to conceive that   
the tribes themselves1 and all          
subdivisions of them1 are descended each
 from a single male  ancestor4 ,the     

savage sees the living family of which  
he forms a part  descended from a single
 living man and his wife or wives4 ,this
  family group with which he is familiar
 and other similar groups make  up the  
tribe4 ,and the process by which each   
family has been brought  about is in his
 mind identical with the process by     
which the  community as a whole has been
 formed4#b ,it is a conception of this  
kind1 handed down as a tradition from   
ancient tribal times1 which  causes the 
,jews even to-day to regard themselves  
as the #8seed'  of that venerable sheik 
who1 so many centuries ago1 led them as 
a  band of nomads in their memorable    
migration westward from the plains  of  
,mesopotamia4 ,it is not strange1       
therefore1 considering all of the       
circumstances in the midst of which the 
savage lives and moves1 that  he should 
look upon his fellow-tribesmen as beings
 to be  distinguished by him from all   
other beings in the universe4    ,nor is
 it strange1 when we consider the mental

 sterility of the  savage1 his lack of  
travel and imagination1 the meagerness  
of his  experiences1 and his utter      
ignorance of the world beyond the       
community in which he lives1 that he    
should look upon and treat all          
outsiders as nobodies--as beings without
 any claims whatever upon  his humanity 
or mercy4 ,the imagination is the       
picturing power of the  mind1 the power 
by which beings are able to get out of  
themselves  and into the places of      
others1 the power which enables us to   
view  the world comparatively--that is1 
from different points of view4  ,this   
power of mind1 which imparts to the     
higher types of  intelligence their     
mobility and sympathy1 is rudimentary in
 the  savage4 ,this has been proved by  
,tylor in his study of the  comparative 
mythology of savages4 ,it is this lack  
of imagination in  the savage1 combined 
with his ignorance and his simplicity of
 life1  which gives to him his ferocity1
 and which renders him inaccessible  to 

those higher sentiments of justice and  
righteousness which  are--well1 which   
are1 at least1 dreamed about and        
theorised about  by the more evolved    
savages of the #8civilised world4' ,the 
world1  to the simple mind of the       
savage1 is1 as it is to the mind of the 
child1 the world in which he lives and  
moves--the world which he  feels1 hears1
 tastes1 and sees4 ,the horizon is the  
boundary of the  universe4 ,beings      
beyond his tribe are outside of the     
world4 ,if they  exist at all1 it is as 
a very different order of beings from   
him and  his people4 ,they are not of   
kin to him1 speak a strange tongue1 and 
have monstrous customs and              
superstitions4 ,how could they be in any
  way related to him8 ,they are his     
enemies--vague villainous  apparitions  
who appear to him only in the horrible  
ordeals of  battle4 ,his chief          
occupation is the waging of war against 
them1 and  his keenest gratification is 
felt in laying them low4 ,the accounts  

of all travellers testify that the      
intertribal relations of savages  are1  
with few exceptions1 those of chronic   
feud and hostility4 ,the  irreconcilable
 antagonism between the savage and those
 around him  begets in the savage nature
 its dominating impulse--hate1 hatred   
and hostility toward other men1 as well 
as toward all other beings4  ,in fact1  
the savage makes no moral distinction   
between man and the  other animals1 but 
regards them all indiscriminately as his
 foes1  whom he must either use or      
remove from the face of the earth4 ,the 
savage hunts men about as he hunts other
 animals1 and for a like  purpose4 ,the 
,troglodytes hunted the ,ethiopians in  
four-horse  chariots with as little     
compunction as ,americans hunt antelopes
  to-day4    #a4 ,spencer3 ,principles  
of ,ethics1 vol4 i42 ,new ,york1 #ahic44
  #b4 ,maine3 ,early ,history of        
,institutions2 ,new ,york1 #ahfi4  #c4  
,tennent3 ,natural ,history of ,ceylon2 
,london1 #ahfa4    ,,iv4 ,the ,ethics of

 the ,ancient4    ,but the doctrine that
 each petty tribe is the centre of the  
world  and the only real and important  
people in the universe1 and that all    
others are mere nobodies1 is not        
peculiar to primitive peoples4          
,ethnocentric ethics--the ethics of     
amity toward their own tribe or  state1 
their own clique or kind1 and the ethics
 of enmity toward  outsiders--has been  
manifested to a greater or less extent  
by the  peoples of all times and of all 
degrees of enlightenment4 ,every  people
 that has ever existed has had its own  
particular point of  view1 its own bias1
 its own knot-hole1 large or small1     
through which  it has looked at life and
 the world4 ,this is inevitable4 ,it    
arises  as a necessary sequence out of  
the fact that all peoples above  savages
 are the descendants of savages1 and as 
such have inherited  the limitations1   
mental and environmental1 of those from 
whom they  have evolved4    ,aliens had 
no legal rights in ancient times--none  

whatever4  ,international cooperation1  
such as exists among the political      
societies of ,europe and ,america       
to-day1 was absolutely unknown4         
,international relations were everywhere
 those of hostility4 ,states  and races 
looked upon each other as foes1 as      
objects of plunder and  victimisation1  
not as friends4    ,caesar says of the  
ancient ,germans that depredations      
committed  beyond the boundaries of each
 state bore no infamy1 and that         
stealing from aliens was even encouraged
 as a means of teaching  their young men
 adroitness4    ,the ancient ,jews are  
an excellent illustration of a narrow   
and  self-centred people4               
,notwithstanding their insignificance1  
politically and intellectually1 as      
compared with the ,egyptians1  ,greeks1 
and ,persians1 the ,jews believed       
themselves to be the only  people of the
 first class inhabiting the earth4 ,they
 conceived that  they had been selected 
as favourites by the gods themselves1   

and  that around their little district  
in half-arid ,palestine revolved  the   
interests of the entire world4 ,their   
chief city was supposed to  be the      
sacred and central city of the world1   
and heaven itself only  a new and       
idealised edition of their metropolis4  
,every ,jew was bound  to every other   
,jew by high-wrought ceremony and       
obligation4 ,but all  non-,jews were    
#8,gentiles1' chaff-like #8pagans1' who 
possessed  no rights which a #8child of 
,abraham' was bound to respect4 ,their  
tribal god is said to have been so      
indulgent toward them as his  #8chosen  
people' that he allowed them to exact   
usury from  foreigners1 to sell them    
diseased meats1 and to borrow jewels    
from  them and afterwards run away with 
them4 ,he even permitted them to  make  
war upon weak peoples and dispossess    
them of their lands4  #8,whomsoever the 
,lord our ,god shall drive out from     
before us1 them  will we possess'       
7,judg4 xi4 #bd74    ,the kings of the  

ancient ,assyrians were so accustomed to
 cruelties  upon non-,assyrians1 and    
were so proud of these cruelties1 that  
they  recorded them in stone as a claim 
to immortality among men4               
,assurbanipal1 in speaking of the       
conquered1 says3 #8,i pulled out  their 
tongues and cut off their limbs1 and    
caused them to be eaten  by dogs1 bears1
 eagles1 vultures1 birds of heaven4'    
,assur-natsir-pal1 another wonderful    
fellow1 boasts similarly3 #8,i  flayed  
the nobles and covered the pyramid with 
their skins1 and  their young men and   
maidens ,i burned as a holocaust4'      
#8,their  carcasses covered the valleys 
and the tops of the mountains1' says    
,tiglath-,pileser in his account of the 
slain ,muskayans2 and  ,sennacherib     
informs us proudly that he drove his    
chariot over the  dead bodies of his    
victims until #8its wheels were clogged 
with  flesh and blood4' #8,evidently'   
remarks ,spencer1 in speaking of  these 
monstrous inscriptions1 #8the           

expectation was that men of  after-times
 would admire these merciless           
destructions2 for we cannot  assume that
 these ,assyrian kings intentionally    
made themselves  eternally infamous'4#a 
,to the ancient ,greeks there were two  
classes of human beings in the  world3  
,greeks and #8barbarians4' ,the ,greeks 
were the inhabitants  of ,hellas1 which 
was believed to be the central region of
 the world1  and the #8barbarians' were 
the godless denizens of the             
less-favoured and less centrally located
 remainder of the earth4 ,the  world was
 believed to be flat or shield-shaped1  
and in its exact  centre stood ,mount   
,olympus in northern ,thessaly4 ,this   
mountain1  which is #i1gjj feet high1   
was supposed to be the highest elevation
  on the earth1 and was the awful abode 
of the gods4 ,the ,greeks called        
themselves ,hellenes4 ,according to     
their fabled genealogy1 they were  the  
descendants of ,hellen1 son of          
,deucalion1 the ,greek ,noah4 ,while    

they were often at war with each other1 
they spoke a common  language1 and      
always regarded themselves as members of
 a single  family4 ,all non-,greeks were
 #8barbarians1' including the ,romans1  
who were called #8barbarians' down to   
the time of ,augustus4 ,while  the      
,greeks themselves traced their ancestry
 back to the bright blood  of the gods1 
the #8barbarians' were generally        
supposed to have  originated from stones
 and trees4 ,the #8barbarians' were     
looked  upon and treated by the ,greeks 
everywhere as a different order of      
beings from themselves4 ,those taken by 
them in war were regularly  reduced to  
slavery4 ,the slave population created  
in this way was  increased by the slave 
traffic carried on with the ,east until 
the  slave population of ,greece was    
several times as great as the free      
population4 ,the whole ,hellenic world1 
in fact1 even in the days of  its       
greatest magnificence1 was one vast pen 
of slaves4 ,almost every  freeman of    

,attica was a slave-owner4 ,out of a    
population of about  five hundred       
thousand1 four hundred thousand were    
slaves4 ,it was  considered a real      
hardship by the ,greeks to be compelled 
to get  along with less than a          
half-dozen slaves4 ,in ,corinth and     
,aegina  there were ten slaves to one   
freeman4 ,in ,sparta the slaves were the
  vanquished ,helots1 the original      
inhabitants of the ,peloponnesus1  whom 
the ,spartans had conquered and reduced 
to chains in early  times4 ,their lot   
was particularly horrible4 ,they were   
the property  of the state1 and were    
distributed to the ,spartan lords by    
lot4  #8,they practically had no rights 
which their masters felt bound to       
respect4 ,if one of their number        
displayed unusual powers of either  body
 or mind1 he was secretly assassinated1 
as it was deemed unsafe  to allow such  
qualities to be fostered in the servile 
class4 ,it is  affirmed by ,thucydides  
that1 when the ,helots grew too numerous

 for  the supposed safety of the state1 
their numbers were thinned by           
deliberate massacre of the surplus      
population'4#b ,the conception  of human
 slavery entertained by the common mass 
of ,greeks may be  inferred from the    
fact that philosophers like ,aristotle  
taught that  #8slaves were simply       
domestic animals possessed of           
intelligence4'  ,it is this fact1 this  
utter lack of justice and humanity      
manifested  by the ,greeks in their     
treatment of non-,hellenic mankind1     
which  gives to ,greek #8civilisation'  
its seamy side4 ,greek society has  been
 appropriately likened to a pyramid1 its
 apex gleaming with  light and          
splendour1 while its base was sunk in   
darkness4    ,non-,romans were called   
#8barbarians' also by the ,romans1 and  
were  considered by the ,romans to be an
 entirely different order of beings     
from themselves4 ,any splinter of a     
,roman was1 according to the  ,romans1  
superior to the most illustrious        

#8barbarian4' ,men were  not treated nor
 estimated according to their intrinsic 
qualities1  but wholly as to whether    
they were or were not #8,roman          
citizens4'  ,to be a #8,roman citizen'  
was to be entitled to everything2 to be 
a #8barbarian' was not to be entitled to
 anything necessarily1  except to serve 
in some way the all-glorious ,romans4   
,the elaborate  legal and ethical codes 
formulated by these masters of the      
,mediterranean were reserved religiously
 for themselves4 ,the business  of the  
#8barbarians' was to furnish fields for 
pillage and  conquest1 to impart        
magnitude to triumphal pageants1 to act 
as  slaves1 and to die by ignominiously 
butchering each other for the  amusement
 of their bloodthirsty masters4         
#8,barbarian' lands were  looked upon   
simply as game-preserves where ambitious
 captains from  the ,tiber went to      
refresh their reputations by hunting and
  victimising the inhabitants4 ,the     
history of ,rome is the history of      

infamy on a colossal1 almost world-wide1
 scale4 ,there has never been  displayed
 by any people pretending to be         
civilised such shameless  savagery as   
that displayed by the ,romans in their  
gladiatorial  arenas1 where men         
7generally the captives of war7 were    
#8butchered  to make a ,roman holiday4' 
,these tragedies1 in their magnitude and
  atrocity1 seem almost frightful when  
we read of them on the pages of         
history4 ,they were generally celebrated
 by victorious captains and  emperors at
 the close of some unusual outrage      
against the  #8barbarians1' or upon the 
departure of ,roman legions for the     
field of activity4 ,the celebrations    
sometimes lasted weeks1 or even  months4
 ,the ,emperor ,trajan celebrated his   
victories over the ,dacians  with shows 
that lasted more than a hundred days4   
,during this  horrible festival ten     
thousand men fought upon the arena1 and 
more  than ten thousand wild animals    
were slain4 ,the gladiators in these    

ancient combats fought in chariots1 on  
horseback1 on foot--in all  the ways in 
which soldiers fought in actual battle4 
,they fought with  swords1 lances1      
daggers1 tridents1 and every other      
manner of weapon4  ,some had nets and   
lassoes with which they entangled their 
adversaries1 and then slew them4 ,the   
life of a wounded gladiator was  in the 
hands of the spectators1 who showed     
their clemency or their  lack of it by  
turning their thumbs respectively down  
or up4 ,the  thirst of the populace for 
blood was sometimes such that the dying 
were aroused and forced on to the fight 
by burning with a hot iron4  ,the dead  
bodies were dragged from the arena with 
hooks1 like the  carcasses of animals1  
and the pools of blood soaked up with   
dry  sand4#c ,there was an occasional   
,roman1 like ,seneca1 sane enough to    
realise the real character of these     
performances1 and brave enough  to      
denounce them as crimes4 ,but by the    
great mass of all classes of  ,romans1  

even by those who pretended to think1   
they were regarded  with perfect moral  
indifference4 ,the excuse offered by    
,pliny was  generally concurred in by   
his countrymen1 that these bloody shows 
were necessary for the cultivation of   
manliness and for keeping  awake the    
strenuous and red-handed instincts in   
the young4    ,scarce less revolting    
than the gladiatorial arena1 in its     
violation  of every principle of        
humanity1 was the institution of human  
slavery4 ,during the later republic and 
the earlier empire1 one-half  the       
population of the ,roman state was      
slaves4 ,the slave population  was      
recruited chiefly1 as in ,greece1 by war
 and by slave-hunting4  ,slave-traders  
and slave-markets flourished both in the
 capital  itself and in all the great   
ports visited by ,roman ships4 ,some of 
the outlying provinces of ,asia and     
,africa were almost depopulated by  the 
slave-hunters4 ,greek slaves were the   
highest-priced1 because the  most       

intelligent4 ,among the wealthy1 who1   
like the illiterate rich  of every age1 
dawdled their time in ostentation1 there
 were slaves  for each different        
function in the household4 ,there were  
the  cubicularii1 who acted as          
housemaids2 the triclinarii1 who  waited
 at table2 the culinarii1 who acted as  
kitchen drudges2 and  the balnearii1 who
 looked after the baths4 ,then there    
were  tonsores or barbers2 criniflores1 
or hair-crimpers2  calceatores1 who took
 care of the feet2 and lectores1 whose  
business it was to read aloud to their  
masters at meals1 in the  bath1 or in   
bed4 ,the ostiarius1 who was sometimes  
chained in the  vestibule like a dog1   
was the porter2 the invitator summoned  
the  guests2 and the servus ab hospitiis
 looked after their lodgment4  ,there   
was the slave called the sandalio1 whose
 sole duty was to  care for his master's
 sandals2 and another1 called the       
nomenclator1 whose exclusive business it
 was to accompany his  master when he   

went upon the street1 and give him the  
names of such  persons as he ought to   
recognise4 ,the common punishment for a 
refractory slave was beating4 ,if the   
runaway were caught1 as he  could hardly
 fail to be1 since there were extremely 
heavy penalties  for harbouring or      
assisting him1 he was either branded or 
had an  iron collar like a dog's welded 
around his neck1 or his legs were       
fettered1 or1 in exaggerated or repeated
 cases of offence1 he was at  once      
turned into the arena or otherwise put  
to death4 ,if he  attempted to take     
personal vengeance upon his master for  
any wrong  whatsoever1 his whole family 
shared his fate1 and the regular form   
of capital punishment for a slave was   
crucifixion under the most  ignominious 
and agonising circumstances4#d    #8,in 
many cases1 as a measure of precaution1 
the slaves were forced  to work in      
chains and to sleep in subterranean     
prisons4 ,the feeling  entertained      
toward this unfortunate class in the    

later republican  period is illustrated 
by ,varro's classification of slaves as 
8vocal agricultural implements10 and by 
,cato the ,elder's  recommendation that 
old and worn-out slaves be sold1 as a   
matter of  economy4 ,sick and hopelessly
 infirm slaves were taken to an island  
in the ,tiber1 and there left to die of 
starvation and  exposure'4#c ,slaves    
were practically without any rights     
whatever  to the world in which they    
lived4 ,a ,roman could take the life of 
his  ,gallic slave with as complete     
impunity as an ,american can slay his   
bovine servant to-day4 ,romans1 in      
short1 looked upon and treated          
non-,romans about as human beings to-day
 look upon and treat  non-humans--as    
mere prey4    #a4 ,spencer3 ,principles 
of ,ethics1 vol4 i42 ,new ,york1 #ahic4 
#b4 ,myers3 ,ancient ,history1 part i42 
,boston1 #ahii4  #c4 ,myers3 ,ancient   
,history1 part ii42 ,boston1 #ahii4  #d4
 ,preston and ,dodge3 ,the ,private     
,life of the ,romans2 ,boston1 #ahif4   

,v4 ,modern ,ethics4    ,but the peoples
 of the ancient world are not the only  
human beings  who have suffered from the
 psychological bequests of savages4     
,modern  states and peoples1            
notwithstanding their far-flung         
professions of  righteousness1 manifest1
 though in a somewhat weakened form1 the
  same ethnic prejudices and the same   
senseless antipathies as those          
displayed by the ancients4 ,remnants of 
the primitive tribal morality  are found
 in the moral habits and conceptions of 
every people1  however emancipated they 
may imagine themselves to be4 ,many a   
person  who would not think of swindling
 one of his neighbours will not         
hesitate to swindle a foreigner1        
especially if the foreigner happens  to 
be of a nationality much removed in     
language1 colour1 manners1 or  interests
 from his own4 ,morality is genetic4 ,it
 is not a consistent                    
something--something reasoned out and   
framed according to the  facts4 ,it has 

grown up4 ,it is essentially            
tribal--whether it is  confined to a    
family1 as is done by some1 to a        
corporation or trade1  to a nation1 to  
an artificial fraternity1 or to a       
species4 ,we are1  in fact1 all of us1  
even the broadest and most illuminated1 
simply  savages more or less leafed out4
 ,we all suffer1 as men have always     
suffered1 from the over-vividness of the
 presentative powers of the  mind       
7sensation and perception7 compared with
 the representative  powers 7memory and 
imagination74 ,we all exaggerate out of 
their  proper perspective in the        
phenomena of a universe the things that 
are around us and about us--the events  
we witness or take part in1  the things 
that are ours1 and the affairs of the   
street1 city1  state1 neighbourhood1    
world1 and time1 in which we live4      
,every human  being 7the sage less than 
the savage1 but the sage to some extent7
  is inclined to lump together as       
foreign to him1 and as more or less     

useless and shadowy in themselves1 the  
things1 beings1 and events  that are    
distant1 and to consider them1 of less  
reality than those  with which he is    
directly concerned1 and of which his    
knowledge is  immediate4 ,the evolution 
of consciousness in its social and      
ethical  aspects consists in the        
evolution of the ability to make real   
and  vivid the phenomena that are more  
and more distant in both space  and     
time4    ,the ,chinese call their       
country #8the flower of the middle1' and
  believe it to be the central and      
choicest portion of the earth's         
surface4 ,all those beyond the bounds of
 #8,the ,heavenly ,flower  ,kingdom'    
are1 by those on the inside1 venomously 
lumped together  as #8foreign devils4'  
,the people of ,spain look upon         
themselves in  much the same way as the 
,chinese look upon themselves1 although 
they  are in reality the most belated of
 all peoples to-day pretending to  be   
civilised4 ,there are a few travelled   

and educated ,spaniards who  realise the
 pitiful place held by their country in 
the family of  reputable states4 #8,but 
the great mass of the people are not    
only  perfectly satisfied with their    
condition1 but consider themselves  the 
most fortunate of all ,god's creatures4 
,they never go outside  of their country
 and never read a foreign newspaper or  
book4 ,like  the ,chinese1 they consider
 other nations barbarians1 and point to 
,madrid as the centre of civilisation4' 
,the ,french1 down to the  nineteenth   
century1 confiscated the property of all
 aliens who died  within the realm2 and 
the savage practice of punishing one    
alien for  the crimes of another alien  
was sanctioned by the laws of ,england  
down to the middle of the fourteenth    
century4 ,it has been only a day  in the
 history of the world since ,caucasians 
hunted their dusky  brothers in ,africa 
like #8wild animals1' and sold and      
loaned and  lashed them as we do horses 
to-day4 ,men now living can remember    

when  it made no difference how exalted 
in character men might be3 if a  certain
 pigment of their bodies was dark1 they 
were #8niggers4'  ,they had no #8souls' 
as pale men had1 and no more chance of  
paradise than cattle4 ,at the beginning 
of the nineteenth century1  incredible  
as it may seem1 every country of ,europe
 and ,america held  slaves1 and was     
engaged in the soulless avocation of    
man-hunting in  ,africa4 ,tens of       
thousands of ,africa's children were    
annually  seized by prowling pirate     
bands and exported to distant lands to  
wear their lives out in disgrace and    
drudgery4 ,it was not until the  latter 
part of the nineteenth century that     
civilised nations1  following the       
initiative of ,england1 finally         
abolished human  slavery1 the ,united   
,states and ,brazil being the last to   
act4 ,the  ,christian sneers at all who 
do not bow down to his deities and      
worship according to his ritual1 as     
#8heathens' or  #8freethinkers1' and to 

the ,moslem all who are not followers of
  #8the ,true ,prophet' are #8infidel   
dogs4' ,the history of these  two       
religions is a chronicle of almost      
unparalleled crimes upon  disbelievers4 
,but it is not necessary to go to       
,arabia or ,cathay1 nor even  necessary 
to read history1 in order to find       
examples of bigotry and  provincialism4 
,it is only necessary to open our eyes4 
,americans are  not a peculiar          
people--unless it be in the unbridled   
character of  their conceit4 ,all the   
barbarism is not behind us nor around   
us4  ,history looks dark and            
discouraging to us1 as we turn its      
terrible  pages1 but we would see       
something just as discouraging if we    
would  look into a mirror4 ,the old     
savage spirit still circulates in our   
veins4 ,the #8foreigner' is not an      
enemy1 but he is still an  individual   
whose chief significance is in his      
#8fleece4' ,if the  #8foreigner' did not
 ease our economic theories by          

benevolently  #8paying the tax1' it     
would be hard to tell what would become 
of  him4 ,those who suffer from a       
different government1 speak a different 
language1 or laud other gods are        
regarded by us as distinctly  inferior  
to ourselves4 ,millions of dollars are  
annually squandered  by self-righteous  
societies in sending missionaries to the
 other  side of the planet to peoples   
who need evangels of mercy and  humanity
 far less than we do ourselves4 ,in     
these times of  ecclesiastical          
enterprise1 however1 missionaries are   
being  superseded1 as agents of         
evangelisation1 by the more effective   
inventions of ,messrs4 ,maxim and       
,krupp4 #8,american' is regarded by  us 
as the synonym of perfection1 and to be 
#8patriotic' is to  give unthinking     
enthusiasm to every scheme incubated by 
wolfish  spoilsmen4 ,crimes of conquest 
carried on by others become1 when       
undertaken by us1 shining masterpieces  
of #8benevolent  assimilation4' ,we are 

not so far from the naked and unkempt   
contemporaries of the cave-bear and     
sabre-toothed lion as we imagine  we    
are4 ,to carry a bayonet1 and especially
 to redden it with an  alien's blood1 is
 here in this degenerate land of        
,jefferson1 more  glorious than to      
create a book4 ,captains particularly   
competent as  butchers1 though their    
characters be as coarse as a savage     
chief's1 are hailed as heroes by        
thousands besides silly women1  and held
 up1 like the cutthroats of the ,kukis1 
as the highest  exemplars of            
right-doing4 ,old ,rameses1 holding by  
their hair a  half-dozen dwarfs1 and    
ostentatiously cutting off their heads  
with a  single sweep of his sword1 finds
 his modern counterpart in miserable    
,americans pompously gloating over the  
offhand slaughter of the  children of   
distant archipelagoes4    ,,vi4 ,the    
,ethics of ,human ,beings ,toward       
,non-human ,beings4    ,but the most    
mournful instance of provincial ethics  

afforded by the  inhabitants of the     
earth is not that furnished by the      
varieties of  the human species in their
 conduct toward each other1 but that    
afforded by the human race as a whole in
 its treatment of the  non-human races4 
,human nature is nowhere so hideous1 and
 human  conscience is nowhere so        
profoundly inoperative1 as in their     
disregard for the life and happiness of 
the non-human animal world4  ,with the  
development of the representative powers
 of the mind1 the  widening and         
mutualising of human activities1 and the
 consequent  enlargement of the human   
horizon1 the feeling of amity has spread
  and intensified1 until to-day1        
notwithstanding all that is true of     
human sectionalism1 the ethical systems 
of civilised peoples  include1          
theoretically at least1 and more or less
 seriously1 all  human beings           
whatsoever4 ,ethical consciousness has  
extended from  individual to family1    
from family to clan1 from clan to tribe1

 from  tribe to confederacy1 from       
confederacy to kingdom1 from kingdom to 
race1 from race to species1 until1 in   
the case of many millions of  men1      
ethical feeling has reached1 with       
greater or less vividness and           
consistency1 the anthropocentric stage  
of evolution4 ,the fact that  an        
individual is a man--that is1 that he   
belongs to the human  species of        
animals--entitles him in all civilised  
lands to the  fundamental rights and    
privileges of existence4 ,the rights to 
life1  liberty1 and the pursuit of      
happiness are believed to-day1 by all   
exalted minds1 to be the inalienable    
properties of every human  being who    
comes into the world4    ,but1 except by
 occasional individuals here and there  
whose emotions  are more civilised than 
the rest1 or whose conceptions are more 
ample and clear1 ethical relations are  
not extended by human beings  beyond the
 bounds of their own species4 ,non-human
 millions are  outsiders4 ,they are     

looked upon and treated by human beings 
as if  they were an entirely different  
order of existences1 with entirely      
different purposes and susceptibilities1
 from human beings4 ,they are  not      
considered to be living beings at all1  
as human beings are1 who  are here in   
the world to enjoy life and all that    
life holds that is  dear to a living    
being4 ,they belong to the same class of
 existences  as the waves of the sea and
 the weeds of the field4 ,they are      
looked  upon as mere things--mere       
moving1 multiplying objects1 without    
the slightest equity in the world in    
which they find themselves4  ,they may  
be set upon1 beaten1 maimed1 starved1   
assassinated1 eaten1  insulted1         
deceived1 imprisoned1 robbed1 tormented1
 skinned alive1  shot down for pastime1 
cut to pieces out of curiosity1 or      
compelled  to undergo any other enormity
 or victimisation anybody can think of  
or is disposed to visit upon them4 ,it  
is enough almost to make  knaves        

shudder1 the cold-blooded and           
business-like manner in which  we cut   
their throats1 dash out their brains1   
and discuss their  flavour at our       
cannibalistic feasts4 ,as ,plutarch     
says1 #8,lions1  tigers1 and serpents we
 call savage and ferocious1 yet we      
ourselves  come behind them in no       
species of barbarity4' ,accustomed from 
our  cradle up to look upon violence and
 assassination1 we have become so       
habituated and hardened to these things 
that we perpetrate them and  see them   
perpetrated with the same indifference  
as that with which  we watch waves die  
on the beach4 ,human beings are1 in fact
  7#8paragons' though they pretend to   
be71 the most predatory and  brutal of  
all animals--the great bone-breakers and
 bone-pickers of  the planet4    ,it is 
scarcely possible1 astounding as it is1 
to commit crimes upon  any beings in    
this world1 except men4 ,there are no   
beings in the  universe1 according to   
human beings1 except themselves4 ,all   

others  are commodities4 ,they are of   
consequence only because they have      
thighs and can fill up the unoccupied   
places of the human  alimentary4 ,human 
beings are #8persons1' and have souls   
and gods  and places to go to when they 
die4 ,but the hundreds of thousands of  
other races of terrestrial inhabitants  
are mere #8animals1' mere  #8brutes1'   
and #8beasts of the field1' #8livestock'
 and  #8vermin4' ,every crime capable of
 being perpetrated by one being  upon   
another is day after day rained upon    
them1 and with an  equanimity that would
 do honour to the managers of an        
inferno4 ,human  beings preach as the   
cardinal rule of morality--and they seem
 never  to tire of its reiteration--that
 they should do unto others as they     
would that others would do unto them2   
but they hypocritically  confine its    
application to the members of their own 
crowd1  notwithstanding there are the   
same reasons identically for extending  
it to all creatures4 ,the happiness of  

the human species is assumed  to be so  
much more precious than that of others  
that the most sacred  interests of      
others are unhesitatingly sacrificed in 
order that  human desires may all be    
fastidiously catered to4 ,even for a    
tooth  or a feather or a piece of skin  
to wear on human vanity1 forests are    
depopulated and the land filled with the
 dead and dying4  ,assassination is the 
commonest and most fashionable of human 
pastimes4 ,jaded systems are regularly  
recuperated by massacre4 ,men  arm      
themselves--men who roar about          
#8rights1' and even ministers  of       
mercy--and go out on killing expeditions
 with as little  compunction as savages 
put on war-paint4 ,they come back from  
their  campaigns of crime like the      
cut-throats of old ,rome1 trailing their
  victims as trophies1 and expecting to 
be hailed as heroes for the  hells they 
have established4 ,barbarians           
preponderate1 and morality  is turned   
inside out4 ,cruelty is lionised1 and   

broad-mindedness is  rewarded with a    
sneer4 ,compassion is a disease1 and to 
be  fashionable is to be a fiend4 ,if   
non-human peoples had no nerves and  no 
choice of emotions1 and were utterly    
indifferent to life1 they  could        
scarcely be treated more completely as  
personal nonentities4    ,the denial by 
human animals of ethical relations to   
the rest of the  animal world is a      
phenomenon not differing either in      
character or  cause from the denial of  
ethical relations by a tribe1 people1 or
  race of human beings to the rest of   
the human world4 ,the  provincialism of 
,jews toward non-,jews1 of ,greeks      
toward non-,greeks1  of ,romans toward  
non-,romans1 of ,moslems toward         
non-,moslems1 and of  ,caucasians toward
 non-,caucasians1 is not one thing and  
the  provincialism of human beings      
toward non-human beings another4 ,they  
are all manifestations of the same      
thing4 ,the fact that these  various    
acts are performed by different         

individuals and upon  different         
individuals1 and are performed at       
different times and  places1 does not   
invalidate the essential sameness of    
their natures4  ,crimes are not         
classified 7except by savages or their  
immediate  derivatives7 according to the
 similarity of those who do them or     
those who suffer from them1 but by      
grouping them according to the          
similarity of their intrinsic qualities4
 ,all acts of provincialism  consist    
essentially in the disinclination or    
inability to be  universal1 and they    
belong in reality1 all of them1 to the  
same  species of conduct4 ,there is1 in 
fact1 but one great crime in the        
universe1 and most of the instances of  
terrestrial wrong-doing are  instances  
of this crime4 ,it is the crime of      
exploitation--the  considering by some  
beings of themselves as ends and of     
others as  their means--the refusal to  
recognise the equal1 or the             
approximately equal1 rights of all to   

life and its legitimate  rewards--the   
crime of acting toward others as one    
would that others  would not act toward 
him4 ,for millions of years1 almost ever
 since  life began1 this crime has been 
committed1 in every nook and quarter  of
 the inhabited globe4    ,every being is
 an end4 ,in other words1 every being is
 to be taken  into account in           
determining the ends of conduct4 ,this  
is the only  consistent outcome of the  
ethical process which is in course of   
evolution on the earth4 ,this world was 
not made and presented to any           
particular clique for its exclusive use 
or enjoyment4 ,the earth  belongs1 if it
 belongs to anybody1 to the beings who  
inhabit it--to  all of them4 ,and when  
one being or set of beings sets itself  
up as  the sole end for which the       
universe exists1 and looks upon and acts
  toward others as mere means to this   
end1 it is usurpation1 nothing  else and
 never can be anything else1 it matters 
not by whom or upon  whom the usurpation

 is practised4 ,a tyrant who puts his   
own welfare  and aggrandisement in the  
place of the welfare of a people1 and   
compels the whole people to act as a    
means to his own personal ends1  is not 
more certainly a usurper than is a      
species or variety which  puts its      
welfare in the place of the welfare of  
all the inhabitants  of a world4 ,the   
refusal to put one's self in the place  
of others  and to act toward them as one
 would that they would act toward him   
does not depend for its wrongfulness    
upon who makes the refusal or  upon     
whether the refusal falls upon this or  
that individual or set4  ,deeds are     
right and wrong in themselves2 and      
whether they are right  or wrong1 good  
or evil1 proper or improper1 whether    
they should be  done or should not be   
done1 depends upon their effects upon   
the  welfare of the inhabitants of the  
universe4 ,the basic mistake that  has  
ever been made in this egoistic world in
 the judging and  classifying of acts   

has been the mistake of judging and     
classifying  them with reference to     
their effects upon some particular      
fraction  of the inhabitants of the     
universe4 ,in pure egoism conduct is    
judged  as good or bad solely with      
reference to the results1 immediate or  
remote1 which that conduct produces1 or 
is calculated to produce1 on  the self4 
,to the savage1 that is right or wrong  
which affects  favourably or            
unfavourably himself or his tribe4 ,and 
this  sectional spirit of the savage    
has1 as has been shown1 characterised   
the moral conceptions of the peoples of 
all times4 ,the practice  human beings  
have to-day--the practice of those      
7relatively7 broad  and emancipated     
minds who are large enough to rise above
 the petty  prejudices and              
#8patriotisms' of the races and         
corporations of  men1 and are able to   
view #8the world as their country' 7the 
world of human beings1 of course7--the  
practice such minds have of  estimating 

conduct solely with reference to its    
effects upon the  human species of      
animals is a practice which1 while      
infinitely  broader and more nearly     
ultimate than that of the savage1       
belongs  logically in the same category 
with it4 ,the partially emancipated     
human being who extends his moral       
sentiments to all the members of  his   
own species1 but denies to all other    
species the justice and  humanity he    
accords to his own1 is making on a      
larger scale the same  ethical mess of  
it as the savage4 ,the only consistent  
attitude1  since ,darwin established the
 unity of life 7and the attitude we     
shall assume1 if we ever become really  
civilised71 is the attitude  of         
universal gentleness and humanity4      
#8,the world is my country1' said       
,thomas ,paine1 and every man1  woman1  
and child capable of appreciating the   
exalted sentiment  applauded4 ,but #8the
 world' of the great freethinker was    
inhabited by men only4    ,the following

 lines were written by ,robert          
,whitaker1 and first  printed in a ,san 
,francisco newspaper3      #8,my        
,country is the world6 ,i count    ,no  
son of man my foe1    ,whether the warm 
life currents mount    ,and mantle brows
 like snow1    ,or whether yellow1      
brown1 or black1    ,the face that into 
mine looks back4      #8,my ,native     
,land is ,mother ,earth1    ,and all men
 are my kin1    ,whether of rude or     
gentle birth1    ,however steeped in    
sin2    ,or rich or poor1 or great or   
small1    ,i count them brothers one and
 all4      #8,my ,flag is the           
star-spangled sky1    ,woven without a  
seam1    ,where dawn and sunset colours 
lie1    ,fair as an angel's dream1      
,the ,flag that still unstained1 untorn1
    ,floats over all of mortal born     
#8,my ,party is all humankind1    ,my   
,platform1 brotherhood2    ,i count all 
men of honest mind    ,who work for     
human good1    ,and for the hope that   
gleams afar4    ,my comrades in the holy

 war4      #8,my ,country is the world6 
,i scorn    ,no lesser love than mine1  
,but calmly wait that happy morn        
,when all shall own this sign1    ,and  
love of country1 as of clan1    ,shall  
yield to love of ,man4'    ,robert      
,whitaker1 you are a grand improvement  
on the #8jingo4' ,but  you are still too
 small4 ,there are conceptions as much  
more  prophetic and exalted than yours  
as your conception is superior to  that 
of the ,figian4    ,broad as he is who  
can look upon all men as his brethren   
and  countrymen--broad as he is compared
 with those groundlings called          
#8patriots1' who can see nothing clearly
 beyond the bounds of the  political    
unit to which they belong--he is not    
broad enough4 ,he is  still a           
sectionalist1 a partialist4 ,he         
represents but a stage  in the process  
of ethical expansion4 ,he is1 in fact1  
small compared  with the universalist1  
just as the savage is small compared    
with  the philanthropist4 #8,mankind1'  

#8humanity1' #8all men1'  #8the whole   
human family'--these are big            
conceptions1 too big  for the poor      
little nubbins of brains with which most
 millions make  the effort to think4    
,but they are pitifully small compared  
with that  grand conception of kinship  
which takes in all the races that live  
and move upon the earth4 ,smaller yet   
are these conceptions compared  with    
that sublime and supreme synthesis which
 embraces not only the  present         
generation of terrestrial inhabitants1  
but which extends  longitudinally as    
well as laterally1 extends in time as   
well as in  space1 and embraces the     
generations which shall grow out of the 
existing generation and which are yet   
unborn--that conception  which          
recognises earth-life as a single       
process1 world-wide and  immortal1 every
 part related and akin to every other   
party and each  generation linked to an 
unending posterity4    ,every           
individual1 therefore1 emancipated      

enough to judge of acts of  conduct     
according to their intrinsic natures and
 consequences rather  than according to 
some local or traditional bias1 cannot  
help  knowing that the exploitation of  
birds and quadrupeds for human whim  or 
convenience is an offence against the   
laws of morality1 not  different in kind
 from the offences denounced in human   
laws as  robbery and murder4 ,the       
creophagist and the hunter exemplify the
  same somnambulism1 are the authors of 
the same kind of conduct1 and  belong   
literally in the same category of       
offenders1 as the cannibal  and the     
slave-driver4 ,to take the life of an ox
 for his muscles1 or  to kill a sheep   
for his skin is murder1 and those who do
 these  things or cause them to be done 
are murderers just as actually as       
highwaymen are who blow off the heads of
 hapless wayfarers for their  guineas4  
,if these things seem untrue it is not  
because they are  untrue1 but because   
those to whom they seem so are unable to

 judge  conduct from the quadrupedal    
point of view4 ,if there were in this   
world beings as much more clever than   
,caucasians as ,caucasians are  more    
clever than cows and sheep1 and these   
beings should regard  themselves as the 
darlings of the gods and should attach a
  fictitious dignity and importance to  
their own lives1 but should  look upon  
,caucasians as simply so much #8beef'   
and #8mutton1'  these bleached          
terrorists of the world would in the    
course of a few  generations of         
experience probably become sufficiently 
illumined to  realise that current human
 conceptions of cows and sheep are not  
only preposterous1 but fiendish4        
,,vii4 ,the ,origin of ,provincialism4  
,human provincialism1 all of it1 is the 
consequence of a common  cause--the     
provincialism of the savage4 ,back of   
the provincialism  of the savage is1 of 
course1 the antecedent fact of          
primordial  egoism4 ,the savage is the  
common ancestor of all men1 and as such 

has imparted to all men their general   
characters of mind and heart4           
,everything that grows1 whether it be a 
tree1 a human being1 a grass  blade1 or 
a race1 grows from something4 ,this     
something1 this germ or  embryo from    
which each thing springs1 imparts to the
 thing its  fundamental characters4     
,however far anything may evolve1 and   
however  much it may come to differ     
superficially from its original1 it will
  always remain at heart more or less   
faithful to the facts of its  genesis4  
,this hereditary tendency of everything1
 this tendency  toward invariability1 is
 the conservative1 or inertial tendency 
of  the universe4 ,all races1 colours1  
and conditions of men--civilised1       
slightly civilised1 and                 
barbarous--extend back to1 and take root
  in1 savages1 just as all savages have 
probably sprung in some still  more     
remote period of the past from a single 
stirp of anthropoids4  ,the savage is1  
therefore1 the author of human nature   

and philosophy4  ,just as the fish1     
which is the common ancestor of all     
amphibians1  reptiles1 birds1 and       
mammals1 has predetermined the general  
structural style of all subsequently    
evolved vertebrates1 so the  savage1 as 
the original ancestor of mankind1 has   
predetermined the  general mental and   
dispositional make-up of all higher men4
 ,that  civilised and semi-civilised men
 are naturally narrow and  revengeful1  
selfish and superstitious1 and find it  
next to  impossible to feel and act     
toward others as they would like to have
  others feel and act toward them1 is1  
therefore1 not more mysterious  than    
that vertebrates have red blood1 two    
eyes1 two pairs of limbs1  and a        
backbone with a bulging brain-box at the
 hither end of it4  ,just as the habits1
 beliefs1 and conceptions of the child  
persist1  often but slightly modified1  
in the full-grown man or woman1 so the  
habits1 beliefs1 and conceptions1 formed
 by the race in its  childhood1         

continue1 under the influence of the    
same laws of  inertia1 on into the more 
mature stages of racial development4    
,human  nature changes with great       
reluctance1 and only in its superficial 
aspects at that4 ,there are cave-men1   
men with the primitive ideas  and       
practices of the ,stone ,age1 and men in
 the pastoral and hunting  stages of    
mankind1 in all the highest societies of
 men4 ,there is  scarcely a habit1 vice1
 occupation1 amusement1 crime1 or trait 
of  character1 found among men of the   
past but may be seen still among  our   
contemporaries4    ,altruism            
7other-love7 is just as natural as      
egoism 7self-love7 is4  ,there is not so
 much of it in the world as there is of 
egoism4 ,but  that is simply the        
misfortune of our place of existence4   
,there is no  reason why there might not
 have been as much1 or even more1 under 
different conditions4 ,with the same    
antecedents1 nothing can1 of  course1   
happen differently from what does       

happen4 ,but with different             
antecedents1 different causes1 the      
results are bound to be  different4     
,civilised men are not beings of        
altruism1 because they  are not the     
effects of that kind of causes4 ,but    
there is no  reason why there might not 
be a world--several of them1 in fact1 or
  even a universeful--where the         
inhabitants have never known or heard   
of such an indelicate thing as of beings
 preferring themselves to  others--where
 it is as natural for them to act toward
 each other  according to what we call  
the ,golden ,rule as it is for us       
terrestrial heathens to violate it4 ,it 
is possible to conceive of  beings with 
even too much altruism4 ,the ideal      
condition is one of  balanced egoism and
 altruism--one in which each thinks as  
much of  others as he does of himself1  
no more and no less4 ,and if beings     
were endowed with natures rendering them
 not only willing but  determined to act
 primarily in the interests of others1  

and this  condition of things were      
universal1 there would be about as much 
discord and strife as if everyone acted 
in the interest of himself4  ,the       
,golden ,rule among a lot of            
hypothetical otherists like this  would 
be the opposite of ours1 for1 instead of
 emphasising the  importance of others  
as we do1 they would need to encourage  
regard  for self4 ,wouldn't it seem     
original to live in a world where men   
were sent to gaol for over-benevolence1 
and where sermons had to be  preached on
 such texts as1 #8,love thyself as thy  
neighbour'2  #8,it is more blessed to   
receive than to give'2 #8,avoid doing to
  yourself that which you do not like   
when done to others'2 #8,the  ,lord     
loves a cheerful taker'2 and the like8  
,the persistence with which savage ideas
 and instincts continue to  influence   
men long after those ideas and instincts
 have really  become anachronistic and  
vestigial is well illustrated by        
civilised  men and women everywhere4    

,the sun continues to #8rise' and       
#8set' in all civilised lands just as it
 used to do to the  savage1 although men
 have long since learned that it does   
not do  either4 ,hell1 as originally    
conceived1 was an actual subterranean   
region1 and heaven was an abode located 
a few hours' journey above  the         
supposedly flat earth4 ,to-day we       
continue to say #8up to  heaven1' and   
#8down to hell' 7never #8down to heaven'
 and  #8up to hell'71 and always think  
of these places as being thus           
relatively located1 although it is      
extremely doubtful whether any  really  
sane mind continues to believe that hell
 is on the inside of  the earth 7or any 
place else1 for that matter71 and       
although up  means simply away from the 
centre of the earth1 and away from the  
centre of a ball means literally every  
possible direction4 ,the  theological   
theories of the origin1 nature1 and     
destiny of man and  of the universe in  
general1 all of which originated in     

savage or  semi-savage minds1 and all of
 which bear the unmistakable traces of  
their origin1 continue to cling to the  
minds of the masses of  civilised men1  
notwithstanding the inherent absurdity  
of these  theories1 and notwithstanding 
the fact that their unsoundness is      
vouched for by the most positive and    
unanimous assurances from the           
scientific world4 ,why should civilised 
men and women1 any of them1  be         
indifferent to the sufferings of others1
 or find delight in such  loathsome     
avocations as the fishing and hunting of
 their  fellow-creatures8 ,because their
 ancestors were savages1 and they are   
not yet sufficiently evolved to be      
independent of the instincts of  their  
savage sires4 ,there is no other        
explanation4 ,no human being  could     
enjoy seeing a pack of hounds hunt down 
and rend to pieces a  poor harmless     
hare--unless he were a savage4 ,no human
 being could  go out to the abodes of   
the squirrel and quail1 and shoot       

murderous  balls into their beautiful   
bodies for food or fun--unless he were a
  savage4 ,no human being would lounge  
all day about the margins of a  brook1  
blind to the beauties of the stream and 
the glories of forest  and sky1 in order
 to thrust brutal hooks into the lips of
 those whom  he deceives1 and drag them 
from their waters to suffocate in the   
sun--unless he were a savage4 ,no human 
being would have palaces and  parks and 
yachts and equipages1 townships of      
lands1 packs of hounds1  and studs of   
horses1 troops of lackeys and nothing to
 do1 when all  around him are the men   
and women who made this wealth1 half    
clad and  half starved1 suffocating in  
shanties and working like wretches from 
morning till night--unless he were a    
savage4 ,all of these deeds are  savage 
deeds1 deeds of exceeding               
thoughtlessness and brutality1 and1     
instead of being enjoyable1 are to every
 emancipated mind positively  painful4  
,hunting1 fishing1 and fighting are the 

chief occupations of savage  life4 ,back
 of the activities displayed in these   
occupations are  powerful instincts     
prompting and sustaining them4          
,civilised peoples  are devoted         
primarily to the arts of industry and   
peace4 ,but there  are enough savages in
 every civilised society1 and enough of 
the  savage spirit in those who pretend 
to approximate the civilised  state1 to 
give to civilised life a decidedly      
barbaric aspect4 ,war is  a more or less
 regular exercise1 and killing and      
competing and  torturing enter largely  
into the pastimes of all peoples4 ,next 
to  eating1 fighting1 in one form or    
another1 is the favourite pursuit  of   
men nearly everywhere on holy days and  
days of leisure4 ,whenever  human beings
 have any energy or time left over from 
what they are  required to spend in     
maintaining their existence1 they use it
 in  fighting somebody or in watching   
somebody else fight4 ,and generally  the
 more brutal and sanguinary the         

conflict1 the more popular and          
satisfying it is4 ,witness the          
bull-fights and cock-fights of ,spain   
and ,mexico1 the fisticuffs of          
,anglo-,saxons1 and the baseball and    
slugball battles of the ,americans1     
where eager thousands gather and  roar  
for hours like hysterical idiots simply 
to see one animal or  set of animals    
punish or discredit another4 ,if there  
are no pigeons  to shoot1 or if the     
community is ruled by men and women who 
are too  emancipated to allow such      
things1 we make glass birds and         
heroically  bang away at them1 supplying
 by our imaginations the blood and agony
  of real carnage4 ,and if we can't do  
anything else1 we take some  poor pig1  
that never did anyone any harm in the   
world1 and grease it  and turn it loose1
 and then take after it with knives1 as 
,chicago  butchers do on vacation days1 
and see who can cut its throat the      
quickest4 ,this amusement1 in pure      
barbarity1 certainly stands pretty  near

 the top in the list of human pastimes  
so far invented4 ,maybe it  is          
outclassed by that other contest        
sometimes advertised as a  feature of   
butchers' barbecues1 in which a band of 
professional  cutthroats compete to see 
who can kill1 skin1 and eviscerate the  
largest number of their fellow-beings in
 a given time4    ,games and other      
performances in which interest is       
aroused by  contending or killing are   
all of them entertainments gotten up    
primarily for the amusement of the      
under-exercised savage within us4  ,the 
bloody carnivals of the ancient ,romans1
 which seem so  incomprehensible to the 
people of to-day1 find their diabolical 
parallels right here in our             
high-sniffing civilisation4 ,the        
bull-pen1 where poor quadrupeds are     
baited by gorgeous assassins for  the   
amusement of ,castilian communities1 and
 the cockpit and the  prize-ring1 where 
irate fowls and naked thugs peck and    
pound each  other to insensibility for  

the entertainment of blood-loving mobs1 
are the legitimate successors of the    
gladiatorial arena of the  ,romans4 ,the
 gladiatorial horror is not changed1    
either in its nature  or functions1 by  
changing the combatants to cocks and    
bulls4 ,the  ringside roars that rise   
to-day beside the ,tagus and the ,hudson
 over  the fatal thrust of the matador  
or the knockout lunge of the  pugilist  
are howls of barbaric elation arising   
from the satisfaction  of the same      
instincts as those which seventeen      
centuries ago made  amphitheatres       
thunder at the spectacle of gutted      
,gauls4 ,the ability  to enjoy strife   
and suffering in one form is not        
different in kind  from the ability to  
be entertained by strife and suffering  
in any  other form4 ,beings who can     
follow in riotous glee the terrified    
form  of a fleeing stag1 or shout       
ecstatically at sight of the            
death-stagger of a mangled ox1 are      
psychologically equipped to go  into    

raptures over the blood-curdling        
combustions of a literal hell4    ,few  
pastimes indulged in by civilised       
peoples are more horrible to  an        
emancipated mind than that of           
bull-fighting4 ,it is the national      
amusement of ,spain1 and is carried on  
among all peoples who have  acquired    
their natures and institutions from the 
,spanish4 #8,every  ,sunday afternoon1  
whenever the weather permits1 #ad1jjj or
 #ae1jjj men  and women1 representing   
every class of society1 mothers and     
grandmothers1 priests and monks1        
assemble at the ,plaza de ,toros in     
,madrid to witness the most brutal      
spectacle the human taste  approves4    
,six bulls are tortured and worried     
until they are  exhausted4 ,then they   
are killed by the thrusts of the sword  
of a  matador1 who is the most popular  
person in the community and makes  more 
money than any other man4 ,often as many
 as twelve horses are  ripped open by   
the horns of the infuriated bulls1 and  

are allowed to  die in the presence of  
the audience1 with blood gushing from   
their  wounds and their entrails        
dragging upon the ground4 ,this sort of 
thing is carried on not only in ,madrid1
 but is a regular weekly  festival in   
all the cities of ,spain4 ,the horses   
are blindfolded1 so  they cannot even   
see what attacks them4 ,the men who     
torture the  bulls have wooden screens  
behind which they can dodge when        
pursued1  and if one of the baited      
creatures crowds too closely upon any of
  its tormentors1 the other matadors    
throw a blanket over its head4 ,it  is  
not sport1 for the poor bulls have no   
chance whatever to escape  or to fight  
back4 ,it is simply slow butchery1 an   
exhibition of  unmitigated cowardice and
 cruelty4 ,and yet1 although the        
,spanish  people are the most religious 
people of ,europe1 #ie per cent1 of the 
population approve this atrocious       
barbarism--not only approve it1  but    
demand that the ,king shall appear in   

the royal box at every  bull-fight1 or  
have his throne upset4'    ,the         
notorious #8,juke' family of criminals1 
who sprang from a  single ruffian who   
lived in #agbj1 has cost the ,state of  
,new ,york  millions of dollars in money
 and incalculable misery and crime4 ,but
  the initial savage progenitors of the 
human species have stocked the  earth   
with the most stupendous array of       
wrong-doers--knaves1  felons1 kings1    
warriors1 barbarians1 butchers1         
brutalitarians1  kleptomaniacs1 and     
thugs--that has ever 7let us hope7      
brought  damnation to a world4          
,,viii4 ,universal ,ethics4    ,there   
are the same reasons for the recognition
 by human beings of  ethical relations  
to non-human beings as there are for the
  recognition by human beings of ethical
 relations among themselves  ,analyse   
the reasons for being considerate toward
 men1 any variety of  men1 and you will 
find the same reasons to exist for being
  considerate toward all men4 ,and      

analyse the reasons for being           
altruistic toward men--for being kind   
and sympathetic toward  them--and you   
will find the same reasons to exist for 
being  altruistic toward those who are  
not men4 ,the doctrine that we human    
beings may perform upon the other       
inhabitants of the earth all sorts  of  
injurious acts1 and that these acts when
 so performed by us are  perfectly right
 and proper1 but that these same things 
when done by  others to us are crimes1  
is the logic of pure brutalitarianism4  
,it  is a doctrine utterly without      
intelligence1 at variance with every    
sentiment of justice and humanity1 and  
has no legitimate existence  outside the
 fibrous brains of ruffians4    ,right  
and wrong are qualities belonging to two
 diverse kinds of  conduct4 ,they are   
the qualities which render conduct      
respectively  proper and improper4 ,all 
terrestrial races 7unless the very      
lowest7  have the power of experiencing 
two kinds of conscious states--the      

desirable 7pleasurable7 and the         
undesirable 7painful74 ,now1 if  beings 
were indifferent as to what sort of     
conscious states entered  into and made 
up their experiences1 there would       
manifestly be no  such thing as         
propriety and impropriety in the causing
 of these  states4 ,but they are not    
indifferent4 ,the pleasurable           
experiences  are the experiences all    
beings are seeking1 and the painful ones
 are  the ones they are all seeking to  
avoid4 ,those acts which help or  tend  
to help beings to those experiences for 
which they are striving  are1 therefore1
 right and proper1 and are1 they and    
their authors1  called good4 ,while     
those acts which compel beings to       
undergo that  which they are striving to
 avoid are improper and wrong1 and are1 
they and their authors1 called bad4     
,kindness1 courtesy1 justice1  mercy1   
generosity1 sympathy1 love1 and the     
like1 are good1 and  selfishness1       
cruelty1 deceit1 pillage1 injustice1 and

 murder1 are  bad1 because they are     
respectively the promoters and          
destroyers of  wellbeing and happiness  
in the world4    ,but these two kinds of
 conduct produce the same respective    
effects  upon non-human beings as they  
do upon human beings4 ,the emotion of a 
mangled sensory--is it not the same     
terrible thing whether the  sensory hang
 to the brain of a quadruped or a man8  
,do shelter and  food not affect        
shivering and empty cattle1 horses1 and 
fowls1  precisely as they do human      
beings8 ,thunder harsh words at your    
dog4  ,will he not shrink and suffer1   
just as your child or hired hand will   
under like acts of terrorisation8 ,speak
 kindly to him1 love him1 and  accord to
 him a quarter of the consideration you 
claim for yourself4  ,is he not caused  
to be one of the happiest and most      
devoted of  associates8 ,to take        
squirrels or song-birds1 the most active
 of  animals1 and shut them up in narrow
 cages1 and keep them there shut  off   

from their companions and their own     
green world their whole  lives long2 to 
take an animal as sensitive and         
high-minded as the  horse and put a pack
 on his back and a bit in his mouth1 and
 then  strike him dozens of times a day 
with a lash whose touch is like  fire2  
to shoot off the legs and wings of birds
 and fill their vitals  with lead1 and  
leave them to flounder out a lingering  
death in the  reeds and grasses--do     
these things not cause misery and       
desolation  in the world8 ,to place     
temptations in the way of fur-bearing   
animals  and induce them to enter       
carefully concealed traps1 and then     
allow  them to remain in the villainous 
clutches of these devices1 not  minutes1
 but hours1 perhaps days1 until it suits
 the convenience of  the ensnarer to    
knock out their brains1 or until1 crazed
 by pain1  the poor wretches eat off    
their own limbs and escape--is not this 
a  monstrous thing to do8    ,oh that   
men everywhere were moved by the deep   

tenderness and the  all-embracing       
sympathy of poor ,robert ,burns1 who    
could apologise  with real feeling to a 
frightened field-mouse whom he had      
accidentally upturned with his plough4  
#8,wee1 sleekit1 cow'rin'1 tim'rous     
beastie1    ,o1 what a panic's in thy   
breastie6    ,thou needna start awa' sae
 hasty1    ,wi' bick'ring brattle6    ,i
 had be laith to rin and chase thee1    
,wi' murd'rous pattle6    #8,i'm truly  
sorry man's dominion    ,has broken     
nature's social union1    ,and justifies
 that ill opinion    ,which makes thee  
startle    ,at me1 thy poor1 earth-born 
companion1    ,and fellow-mortal4'      
,long ago it was said1 and truthfully1  
that the merciful man is  merciful to   
his ox4 ,the truly kind man1 the truly  
honest and the  truly humane man1 is not
 kind and honest and humane to men only1
 but  to all beings--to the humble and  
lowly as well as to the proud  and      
powerful--to all that have the          
misfortune to feel and mourn4           

,benevolence is the same beautiful thing
 whether it pour sunshine  into the dark
 and saddened souls of men or into the  
dark and  saddened souls of other       
beings4 ,john ,howard never hearkened to
 a  nobler duty when he lifted the      
darkness that hung over ,english gaols  
than will some inflamed soul some day   
who hears the cry of the  lonely        
captives who to-day languish in         
menagerial dungeons to  satisfy human   
curiosity4 ,he who will emancipate      
horses from the hell  in which they pass
 their lives--make them the associates  
of men  instead of their slaves--will   
deserve to stand in the constellation   
of the world's redeemers beside         
,garrison and ,garibaldi4 ,is there  he 
who holds in his heart-cups the love and
 compassion of ,buddha8  ,let him go    
where the dagger drips and the heartless
 pole-axe  crashes1 and the meek-eyed   
millions of the meadows pour out their  
innocent existences in the soulless     
houses of slaughter4 ,let him  lift from

 off the races the hounding incubus of  
fear1 give back to  them their          
birthright--the right to a free1        
unhunted life--and  make the great      
monster 7man7 to be their high-priest   
and friend4      #8,among the noblest in
 the land1    ,though he may count      
himself the least1    ,that man ,i      
honour and revere    ,who1 without      
favour1 without fear1    ,in the great  
city dares to stand    ,the friend of   
every friendless beast1    ,and tames   
with his unflinching hand    ,the brutes
 that wear our form and face1    ,the   
were-wolves of the human race4'    ,if  
to do good is to generate welfare1 then 
to cause welfare to a  horse1 a bird1 a 
butterfly1 or a fish1 is to do good just
 as truly  as to cause welfare to men4  
,and if to do evil is to cause          
unhappiness and illfare1 then to cause  
these things to one  individual or race 
is evil just as certainly as to cause   
them to any  other individual or race4  
,and if to put one's self in the place  

of  others1 and to act toward them as   
one would wish them to act toward  him1 
is the one great rule--the ,golden      
,rule--by which men are to  gauge their 
conduct when acting toward each other1  
then this is also  the one great        
rule--the ,golden ,rule--by which men   
are to regulate  their conduct toward   
all beings4 ,there is no escape from    
these  conclusions1 except for the      
savage and the fool4#a    #a4 ,the      
deliberate causing of misery and death  
to criminals1 whether  they be human or 
non-human beings1 individuals or        
species1 is not1  as is sometimes       
supposed1 a violation or reversal of the
 general  theory of ethics4 ,when they  
are prompted by a spirit of tenderness  
and universal goodness rather than by a 
spirit of revenge1 penalties  are       
justifiable by the everyday assumption  
that it is sometimes wise  to inflict or
 undergo a certain amount of illfare in 
order to avoid  or forestall a larger   
amount4 ,the problems of universal      

penology are  not different from those  
of human penology1 practically the same 
cases and perplexities being presented  
by all delinquents4 ,see                
#8,better-,world ,philosophy1' by the   
author1 pp4 #bah-bbg1 for a  discussion 
of the function of punishment4    ,,ix4 
,the ,psychology of ,altruism4    ,the  
growth of altruism in the world has been
 largely cotemporaneous  with the growth
 of the power of sympathy4 ,sympathy is 
the emotion  a being has when by means  
of his imagination he gets so actually  
into the place of another that his own  
feelings duplicate more or  less the    
feelings of that other4 ,it is the      
ability or the impulse to  weep with    
those who weep1 and rejoice with those  
who are glad4  ,sympathy is the         
substance and the only sure basis of    
morality--the  only tie of sincere and  
lasting mutualism4 ,men have always been
 to a  considerable extent1 and are yet1
 disposed to think about and act  toward
 each other from motives of mutual fear 

or advantage4 ,but such  motives are not
 the highest nor the most reliable bonds
 of  fellowship and unity4 ,true        
altruism and solidarity--true expansion 
and universalisation of the self--are   
found in sympathy4 ,it is  impossible   
for one individual to do in his heart to
 another as he  would that another      
should do to him1 unless he is at all   
times able  and willing to get into the 
place of that other1 and to realise in  
his own consciousness the results to the
 other of his acts4 ,it is  only when   
there is such an intertwining of the    
consciousnesses that  the joys and      
sorrows of each individual consist to a 
greater or less  extent of the reflexes 
of the joys and sorrows around him that 
there  exists true social oneness4 ,the 
great task of reforming the universe    
is1 therefore1 since the world is so    
steeped in selfishness and  hate1 the   
task of endowing beings1 or the task of 
stocking the  universe with beings1 with
 dispositions to get out of themselves4 

,if  the far-away first parents of men  
and women had been broad-minded  beings 
instead of narrow--had been beings whose
 most natural  impulse was to be kind to
 others1 and whose sympathies were as   
far-reaching as feeling--terrestrial    
life would not to-day present  to the   
all-seeing understanding the            
disheartening spectacle it does         
present1 and the long struggle for      
justice and amelioration would  not have
 been4    ,the primary fact prompting   
and underlying the exploitation of one  
being or set of beings by another is1   
and has always been4  ,selfishness4     
,whenever and wherever one people have  
exploited  another--whether the         
exploiters have been savages1 ,jews1    
,romans1  ,caucasians1 or men--they have
 done so primarily because the act of   
exploitation was a convenience and      
pleasure to them and in harmony  with   
their natures4 ,this selfishness1 in the
 case of civilised  peoples1 has been   
acquired by them through inheritance    

from the  savage tribes from whom they  
have severally evolved2 and the         
selfishness of the savage is a legacy   
from the animal forms from  whom the    
savage has come4 ,human selfishness is  
simply an eddy of an  impulse that is   
universal--an impulse that has been     
implanted in  the nature of the         
life-process of the earth by the manner 
in which  life has been evolved4    ,but
 there is another fact which has        
generally1 if not always1  contributed  
to every act of exploitation in this    
world1 and that is                      
,ignorance--ignorance on the part of    
those who have executed the             
exploitation3 not ignorance of grammar  
or geography or any other  particular   
branch of human information or          
philosophy1 but ignorance  regarding    
those upon whom they have worked their  
will--unconsciousness on the part of the
 exploiters of the  similarity which    
actually existed between themselves and 
their  victims4 ,however free an        

individual may be from naturally selfish
  impulses1 he will never act in an     
altruistic manner toward others  unless 
he is able to realise that these others1
 are similar to  himself1 and that acts 
toward them produce results of good and 
evil1  of welfare and suffering1 similar
 to what these same acts produce  when  
done to himself4 ,altruistic conduct    
implies not only altruistic  impulses1  
but altruistic conceptions as well4     
,tyrants hold1 and have  always held1   
themselves to be an entirely different  
order of beings  from their subjects1   
and far more deserving4 ,read           
history--it is a  tale told over and    
over4 ,between those who have ruled and 
those who  have served--between the     
,ends and the ,means--has ever yawned a 
chasm1 wide1 deep1 and impassable4 ,the 
exploited have always been1  according  
to their masters1 a fibrous set1        
unfavoured and unthought  of by the     
gods1 endowed with little feeling or    
intelligence1 and  brought into         

existence more or less expressly as     
adjuncts to their  masters4 ,this is the
 theory of the savage1 and it is the    
theory of  all those who have inherited 
his narrow and unfeeling philosophy4    
,the ,gentile had no rights because he  
was a #8pagan4' ,he was a  human being1 
it is true1 and had come forth from the 
womb of woman1  just as the ,jew had4   
,but he spoke a different language from 
the  ,jews1 had his own ways of life1   
belonged to a different order of        
things1 and was irritatingly unconcerned
 about the gods and  traditions of the  
#8chosen people4' ,the ,gaul had no     
rights that  were inconvenient to       
,romans1 because he was a #8barbarian4' 
,the  fact that he had blood1 and       
brains1 and nerves1 and love of life1   
and ambitions1 and that he suffered when
 he was subjected to  humiliation1 hard 
treatment1 and death1 just as ,romans   
did1 was  never really thought of by the
 arrogant and reckless ,romans4 ,romans 
never realised in their minds what it   

meant for non-,romans to be  treated as 
they were treated2 and one reason why   
they never realised  it was because it  
was convenient for them not to do so4   
,to kill or  enslave a ,gaul or ,german 
we now know1 who are able to judge these
  acts from an un-,roman and            
unprejudiced point of view1 was         
practically the same crime as to kill or
 enslave a ,roman4 ,but it was  not so  
to ,romans4 ,the most trifling offence  
against a ,roman citizen  was enough1   
according to ,roman law1 to condemn the 
offender to  execution4 ,but the most   
horrible outrages1 when committed by    
,romans  upon non-,romans1 were nothing4
 ,romans always thought and felt from   
the standpoint of ,romans4 ,they never  
got over into the world of the          
#8barbarians1' and really pictured to   
themselves--really  felt--the           
misfortunes of their victims4 ,it was   
the same way with  the black man in the 
eyes of the white man a generation or   
two ago2  it is the same way with the   

brown man to-day4 ,the black man had no 
rights that were inconvenient for the   
white man to respect1 because  he was a 
#8nigger1' and had no #8soul1' and was  
the offspring  of ,ham4 ,this spirit of 
unconsciousness1 which has been so      
prominent  throughout the history of    
mankind1 still survives in the minds of 
civilised men and women to-day1 as is   
shown by the conception 7or             
misconception7 cherished by the         
,caucasian toward the #8nigger1'  by the
 ,christian toward the #8heathen1' by   
the ,moslem toward the  #8infidel1' by  
the ,protestant toward the ,catholic1   
and vice  vers1 by the plutocrat toward 
the proletarian1 by men toward  women1  
and by the human being toward the       
#8animal4'    ,the psychology of the    
exploitation of nonhuman beings by human
  beings is not different in kind from  
the psychology of any other act  of     
exploitation4 ,the great first cause of 
man's inhumanity to  not-men is the same
 precisely as the great first cause of  

man's  inhumanity to                    
man--,selfishness--blind1 brutal1       
unconscionable  egoism4 ,monopolist-like
 man thinks and cares only about        
himself4 ,he  has the heart of the      
bully--deriving from the contemplation  
of his  fiendish supremacy a sort of    
monstrous satisfaction4 ,but there is   
also present in this case the same      
half-sincere1 half-fostered  nescience  
as in all other cases of exploitation4  
,the ox1 the hare1  the bird1 and the   
fish have no rights in the world in     
which they  live other than those that  
are convenient for men to allow to them1
  because they are #8animals4' ,they are
 assumed to belong to an  order of      
beings entirely different from that to  
which human beings  belong4 ,they are   
filled with nerves1 and brains1 and     
bloodvessels2  they love life1 and      
bleed1 and struggle1 and cry out when   
their  veins are opened1 just as human  
beings do2 they have the same  general  
form and structure of body1 their bodies

 are composed of the  same organs busied
 with the same functions2 and they are  
descended  from the same ancestors and  
have been developed in the same world   
through the operation of the same great 
laws as we ourselves have4  ,but all of 
these things1 and dozens of others just 
as significant1  are disregarded by us  
in our hard-hearted determination to    
exploit  them4 ,we have a set of words  
and phrases which we use in speaking of 
ourselves1 and another very different   
set for other beings4 ,the very  same   
things are called by different names    
with wholly different  connotations     
depending on whether it is a man that is
 referred to or  some other being4 ,it  
is #8murder' to take the life of a human
  being1 but to take the life of a sheep
 or a cow is only #8knocking  it on the 
head4' ,a man may murder squirrels or   
birds all  day--that is1 he may do that 
which when done to human beings is      
called murder--but it is only #8sport'  
when done to these humble  inhabitants  

of the wilds4 ,the dead body of a man is
 a #8corpse'2  the dead body of a       
quadruped is only a #8carcass4' ,a race 
of  horses or dogs is a #8breed'2 but a 
breed of men and women is  always       
respectfully referred to as a race4 ,we 
perpetuate our  blindness by the use of 
words4 ,we accommodate our consciences  
by  inventing ways of looking at things 
that will bring out our own  lustre and 
relieve us from the ghastly faces of our
 crimes4 ,for the  human race to rob and
 kill other races is the same kind of   
activity  exactly as it is for human    
beings to rob and kill each other4 ,but 
it  is not considered so to-day--except 
by a few lost-caste  #8visionaries'     
scattered here and there over           
,christendom1 and  some millions of     
#8heathens' in ,asia4    ,a short time  
ago a series of letters came into my    
hands written from  ,burmah by an       
,american missionary in that country4   
,according to this  writer1 one of the  
greatest obstacles the missionaries have

 to  contend with in their work there is
 the hostility aroused in the  people by
 the killing and flesh-eating habits of 
the missionaries  themselves4 ,the      
native inhabitants1 who are the most    
compassionate  of mankind1 look upon the
 ,christian missionaries1 who kill and  
eat  cows and shoot monkeys for pastime1
 as being little better than  cannibals4
 ,contemplate the presumption necessary 
to cause an  individual to leave behind 
him fields white for mission-work1 and  
travel1 at great expense1 halfway round 
the earth in order to preach  a narrow1 
cruel1 anthropocentric gospel to a      
people of so great  tenderness and      
humanity as to be kind even to          
#8animals' and  enemies6    ,we human   
beings feel at liberty to commit any    
kind of outrage upon  other races1 and  
these outrages are looked upon by us as 
nothing4  ,but the most trifling        
annoyances of other races are deemed by 
us of  sufficient consequence to justify
 us in visiting upon them the most      

fearful retributions4 ,we can break up  
the laboriously built home of  a mother 
mouse in the rubbish-heap of our back   
yard1 scatter the  pink babies of that  
mother over the ground to die of cold   
and  starvation1 and cause the          
frightened mother to flee at the risk of
  her very life--all to give to the     
terrier and ourselves a little  moment  
of savage pastime4 ,but if that same    
mother1 some hard  winter's night1 when 
she has failed in her search elsewhere  
for  something to stay her hunger1 comes
 into our larder and nibbles a  bit of  
cheese or a few mouthfuls of crust from 
our pie1 although she  takes but a crumb
 in all1 and is as dainty in her feeding
 as a lady1  we immediately get out our 
traps and poisons and storm around as if
  a murder or some other irreparable    
wrong had been committed4 ,we  think of 
our acts toward non-human peoples1 when 
we think of them at  all1 entirely from 
the human point of view4 ,we never take 
the time  to put ourselves in the places

 of our victims4 ,we never take the     
trouble to get over into their world1   
and realise what is happening  over     
there as a result of our doings toward  
them4 ,it is so much more  comfortable  
not to do so--so much more comfortable  
to be blind and  deaf and insane4 ,we go
 on quieting our consciences1 as best we
 can1  by the fact that everybody else  
nearly is engaged in the same  business 
as we are1 and by the fact that so few  
ever say anything  about the            
matter--anaesthetised1 as it were1 by   
the universality of  our iniquities and 
the infrequency of disquieting          
reminders4    ,many years ago an        
eccentric but gifted ,englishman had a  
dream in  which he saw the fortunes of  
the world reversed4 ,man was no longer  
master1 but victim4 ,the earth was ruled
 by the birds and quadrupeds1  the mice 
and monkeys1 who proceeded to inflict   
upon their erstwhile  tyrant the same   
cruelties he had hitherto inflicted upon
 them4  #8,multitudes of human beings   

were systematically fattened for the    
carnivora4 ,they were frequently        
forwarded to great distances by  train1 
in trucks1 without food or water4 ,large
 numbers of infants  were constantly    
boiled down to form broth for invalid   
animals4 ,in  over-populous districts   
babies were given to malicious young    
cats  and dogs to be taken away and     
drowned4 ,boys were hunted by terriers  
and stoned to death by frogs4 ,mice were
 a good deal occupied in  setting       
mantraps1 baited with toasted cheese1 in
 poor  neighbourhoods4 ,gouty old       
gentlemen were hitched to night-cabs1   
and  forced to totter1 on their weak    
ankles and diseased joints1 to  clubs1  
where fashionable young colts were      
picked up1 and taken1 at  such speed as 
whipcord could extract1 to visit        
chestnut fillies4  ,flying figures in   
scarlet coats1 buckskins1 and top-boots 
were run  down by packs of foxes that   
had nothing else to do4 ,old cock-grouse
  strutted out for a morning's sport1   

and came in to talk of how  many brace  
of country gentlemen they had bagged4   
,gamekeepers lived a  precarious life in
 holes and caves4 ,they were perpetually
 harried by  game and vermin2 held fast 
in steel traps1 their toes were nibbled 
by stoats and martens2 and finally1     
their eyes picked out by owls  and      
kites1 they were gibbeted alive on      
trees1 head downwards1 until  the       
termination of their martyrdom4 ,in one 
especially tragic case1 a  naturalist in
 spectacles dodged about painfully among
 the topmost  branches of a wood1 while 
a mias underneath1 armed with a gun1    
inflicted on him dreadful wounds4 ,a    
veterinary surgeon of ,alfort was       
stretched on his back1 his arms and legs
 secured to posts1 in order  that a     
horse might cut him up alive for the    
benefit of an equine  audience2 but the 
generous steed1 incapable of vindictive 
feelings1  with one disdainful stamp on 
the midriff1 crushed the wretch's  life 
out'4#a    ,the following is from the   

,chinese4 ,the speaker is an ox3    #8,i
 request1 good people1 that you will    
listen to what ,i have to  say4 ,in the 
whole world there is no distress equal  
to that of the  ox4 ,in spring and      
summer1 autumn and winter1 ,i diligently
 put forth  my strength2 during the four
 seasons there is no respite to my      
labours4 ,i drag the plough1 a          
thousand-pound weight fastened to my    
shoulders4 ,hundreds of thousands of    
lashes are1 by a leather whip1          
inflicted upon me4 ,curses and abuses1  
in a thousand forms are poured  upon me4
 ,i am driven1 with threatenings1       
rapidly along1 and not  allowed to stand
 still4 ,through the dry ground or the  
deep water ,i  with difficulty drag the 
plough1 with an empty belly2 the tears  
flow  from both my eyes4 ,i hope in the 
morning that ,i shall be early          
released1 but ,i am detained until the  
evening4 ,if1 with a hungry  stomach1 ,i
 eat the grass in the middle of the     
field1 the whole  family1 great and     

small1 insultingly abuse me4 ,i am left 
to eat any  species of herbs among the  
hills1 but you1 my master1 yourself     
receive the grain that is sown in the   
field4 ,of the chen paddy you  make     
rice2 of the no paddy you make wine4    
,you have cotton1 wheat1  and herbs of a
 thousand different kinds4 ,your garden 
is full of  vegetables4 ,when your men  
and women marry1 amid all your felicity1
  if there be a want of money1 you let  
me out to others4 ,when pressed  for the
 payment of duties1 you devise no plans1
 but take and sell  the ox that ploughs 
your field4 ,when you see that ,i am old
 and weak1  you sell me to the butcher  
to be killed4 ,the butcher conducts me  
to  his home and soon strikes me in the 
forehead with the head of an  iron      
hatchet1 after which ,i am left to die  
in the utmost distress4  ,my skin is    
peeled off1 my bones are scraped1 and my
 skin is taken to  cover the drum by    
which the country is alarmed4'          
#8,witness the patient ox1 with stripes 

and yells    ,driven to the slaughter1  
goaded as he runs    ,to madness1 while 
the savage at his heels    ,laughs at   
the frantic sufferer's fury4'    ,the   
angler brags about his #8haul' and the  
hunter about his  #8bag' and his #8big  
game' with as little realisation of what
  these things mean as the slave-master 
boasts of his #8niggers4'  ,men talk of 
#8chops' and #8steaks' and #8roasts'    
with the  same somnambulism1 the same   
profound unconsciousness of what these  
things really signify in the psychic    
economies of the world1 as the          
conqueror contemplates his #8captives1' 
the robber his  #8spoil1' or the savage 
his #8scalps4' ,if before the eyes and  
in the mind of each individual who sits 
unconcernedly down to a  parsleyed      
#8steak' could rise the facts in the    
biography of that  #8steak'--the happy  
heifer on the far western meadows1 the  
fateful day when she is forced by the   
drover's whip from her  home1#b the     
arduous #8drive' to the village and her 

baffled  efforts to escape1 the crowding
 into cars and the long1 painful        
journey1 the silent heartaches and the  
low1 pitiful moans1 the  terrible hunger
 and thirst and cold1 her arrival1      
bruised and  bewildered1 in the city1   
her dazed mingling with others1 the     
great  murder-house1 the prods and      
bellowings1 the treacherous crash of the
  brain-axe1 the death drop and shudder1
 the butcher's knife1 the  gush of blood
 from her pretty throat1 and the glassy 
gaze of her  dead but beautiful         
eyes--there would be1 in spite of the   
inherent  hardness of the human heart1 a
 great drawing back from those acts     
which render such fearful things        
necessary4 ,if human beings could  only 
realise what the hare suffers1 or the   
stag1 when it is pursued  by dogs1      
horses1 and men bent on taking its life1
 or what the fish  feels when it is     
thrust through and flung into           
suffocating gases1 no  one of them1 not 
even the most recreant1 could find      

pleasure in such  work4 ,how painful to 
a person of tenderness and enlightenment
 is  even the thought of                
rabbit-shootings1 duck-slaughterings1   
bear-hunts1 quail-killing expeditions1  
tame pigeon massacres1 and  the like6   
,and yet with what light-hearted        
enthusiasm the mindless  ruffians who do
 these atrocious things enter upon them6
 ,one would  think that grown men would 
be ashamed to arm themselves and go out 
with horses and hounds and engage in    
such babyish and unequal  contests as   
sportsmen usually rely on for their     
peculiar  #8glory4' ,and they would be  
if grown men were not so often simply   
able-bodied bullies4 ,if human beings   
could only realise what it  means to    
live in a world and associate day after 
day with other  beings more intelligent 
and powerful than themselves1 and yet be
  regarded by these more intelligent    
individuals simply as merchandise  to be
 bought and sold1 or as targets to be   
shot at1 they would hide  their guilty  

heads in shame and horror4    ,the      
,being from whose breaking heart gushed 
these lines of sorrow and  sympathy on  
seeing a wounded hare was a god3        
#8,inhuman man6 curse on thy barbarous  
art1    ,and blasted be thy             
murder-aiming eye3    ,may never pity   
soothe thee with a sigh1    ,nor ever   
pleasure glad thy cruel heart6          
#8,go1 live1 poor wanderer of the wood  
and field    ,the bitter little that of 
life remains2    ,no more the thickening
 brakes and verdant plains    ,to thee  
shall home1 or food1 or pastime yield4  
#8,seek1 mangled one1 some place of     
wonted rest1    ,no more of rest1 but   
now thy dying bed2    ,the sheltering   
rushes whistling o'er thy head4    ,the 
cold earth with thy bloody bosom        
pressed4      #8,oft1 as by winding     
,nith ,i1 musing1 wait    ,the sober eve
 or hail the cheerful dawn1    ,i'll    
miss thee sporting o'er the dewy lawn4  
,and curse the ruffian's aim and mourn  
thy hapless fate4'    ,we human beings1 

in our conduct toward the races of      
beings  associated with us on this      
planet1 are almost pure savages4 ,we are
  not even half civilised4 ,and this    
fact is certain to bring upon us  the   
criticism and condemnation of the more  
enlightened generations  to come4 ,the  
fact is apparent to-day1 however--just  
as apparent as  the barbarity of the    
,romans--to everyone who will take the  
trouble  to rid himself of the          
prejudices which enslave and blind him1 
and  view human phenomena from an       
un-human1 extra-terrestrial point of    
view4    ,to most persons--to all except
 to a few--everything is simply a       
matter of habit and education4 ,and a   
majority of persons1 too1 can  become   
educated to one thing about as easily   
and completely as they  can to another4 
,in ,mr4 ,huxley's #8,man's ,place in   
,nature'  there is reprinted from an old
 volume the picture of a butcher's  shop
 as it is said to have existed among the
 savage ,anziques of  ,africa in the    

sixteenth century4 ,mr4 ,huxley says    
that the original  engraving claims to  
represent an actual fact1 and that he   
has  himself no doubt but it does really
 stand for just what it purports  to    
represent1 especially since the fact has
 been corroborated by ,du  ,chaillu in  
comparatively recent times4 ,the fact   
for which this old  picture stands is a 
good illustration of the power of custom
 in  shaping human ideas4 ,in this      
savage #8market' pretty much the  same  
line of goods appears as is found in    
modern #8markets1'  except that1 instead
 of the quartered corpses of sheep and  
bullocks1  there hang the shoulders1    
thighs1 and gory heads of men4 ,the     
butcher  is represented as standing     
beside the chopping-block in the act of 
cutting up the leg of a man4 ,a child's 
head and other fragments of  the human  
body are piled up on another block1 and 
behind these on  pegs are ranged the    
more pretentious wares of the           
establishment4  #8,presently we passed a

 woman1' says ,du ,chaillu1 in speaking 
of  the cannibalism of the ,fans1 who   
were probably identical with those      
referred to two centuries earlier as    
,anziques4 #8,she bore with her  a piece
 of the thigh of a human body1 just as  
we should go to market  and carry thence
 a roast of steak4' ,we can easily      
imagine 7by the  help of the sights we  
see every day7 the anthropophagous crowd
  standing around giving their early    
morning orders1 and the  enterprising   
assassin hustling about to wait on them4
 ,one of them  wants an arm1 another    
wants a leg1 another a liver1 another a 
half-dozen nice fat ribs4 ,one fellow   
wants a tender #8cut' of  young girl's  
sirloin1 and another would like an old  
man's calf  for soup4 ,a little naked   
urchin1 who has had to wait a long time 
in  order to get a chance to buy        
anything at all1 exchanges a few shells 
for a section of human bologna4 ,one    
fellow wants to know the price  of the  
boy's head which lies on the            

neighbouring block1 and a  woman        
complains that the baby's brains which  
she bought the day  before1 and which   
were recommended as being especially    
#8fresh and  nice1' turned out to be    
#8bad4' ,we can see them go home with   
their gruesome purchases1 cook them1 and
 sit down and eat them1  discussing     
their flavour or their lack of it1 and  
remarking their  tenderness1 toughness1 
or juiciness1 and finally throwing the  
bones  out to the dogs--all with as     
little thought of the immorality of it  
as #8,thanksgiving' gluttons have to-day
 at their feasts of blood4  ,there may  
have been an occasional #8visionary'    
among these people  fanatical enough to 
#8refuse to eat meat1' or even to       
protest  against the practice4 ,probably
 there was4 ,there generally are a few  
such discordants in every generation of 
vipers4 ,but #8fanatics'  in those days 
were in all likelihood1 as they are     
to-day1 too few to  be troublesome4     
,to anyone familiar with the pliability 

of the human conscience1 or  with the   
soundness and depth of intellectual     
sleep1 these things are  neither        
impossible nor strange4 ,there is so    
little looking into the  essence of     
things1 so little looking at things as  
they are1 and so  much thinking and     
doing as we are accustomed or told to   
think and  do--there are1 in fact1 so   
few who can really think at all--that   
if we had been accustomed and taught to 
do so from childhood1 and  the world    
were practically unanimous in its       
conduct and teachings on  the matter1   
very few of us indeed would not sit down
 to a breakfast  of scrambled infant's  
brains1 a luncheon of cold boiled aunt1 
or a  dinner of roast uncle1 with as    
little compunction1 perhaps with the    
same horrible merriment1 as we to-day   
attend a #8barbecue' or a  #8turkey4'   
,why should we not make hash and        
sausages out of our  broken-down        
grandfathers and grandmothers just as we
 do out of our  worn-out horses1 and    

help out the pigeons at our killing     
carnivals  with a few live peasants8    
,how much more artistic and civilised to
  pile our tables on holy days with the 
gold and crimson of the fields  and     
orchards than to load them with the     
dead6 ,and yet how strangely  few are   
mature enough to care anything at all   
about the matter4    ,oh1 the           
helplessness and irresponsibility of the
 human mind6 ,there  is no spontaneity1 
no originality1 only the dead level of  
the  machine4 ,how impossible it is for 
us to think1 to discover anything       
unassisted1 to perceive anything after  
it has been pointed out to us  even1 if 
it is a little different from what we   
are used to6 ,this1 it  seems to me1 is 
one of the most pathetic things in all  
this  world--this illimitable impotence1
 this powerlessness to inspect  things  
from any other point of view than the   
one we inherit when we  come into the   
world2 to be a knave or lunatic 7or the 
next thing to  it71 and never have the  

slightest suspicion of the fact4 ,the   
human  mind will certainly not always be
 this way4 ,it will surely be  different
 some time4 ,it seems incredible that   
the planet will drag  along in disgrace 
this way forever4 ,the men of ,europe   
and ,america  are not so primitive as   
the junglemen1 and the junglemen are    
superior in some respects to the        
quadrupeds and reptiles1 and this  gives
 reason for a little hope4 ,but when    
that is the question1 when  will it be8 
,in what distant time will the ,golden  
,dream of our  prophetic hours come to  
this poor darkened larva of a world8    
,ages  upon ages after our little       
existences have gone out1 and the       
detritus of our wasted bodies has       
wandered long in the labyrinths of  the 
sod or been sown by aimless gusts over  
our native hills4    #a4 ,hamley3 ,our  
,poor ,relations2 ,boston1 #ahgb4  #b4  
,i have many times seen cows chased all 
over their native  premises1 round and  
round1 through fields and barnyards1    

across  streams and over fences--chased 
until the poor things were utterly      
exhausted1 and whipped and beaten until 
their faces and backs were  covered with
 wounds--before they could be compelled 
to leave for  ever the old farm where   
they had been born and raised4    ,x4   
,anthropocentric ,ethics4               
,anthropocentricism1 which drifted down 
as a tradition from ancient  times1 and 
which for centuries shaped the theories 
of the ,western  world1 but whose       
respectability among thinking people has
 now nearly  passed away1 was1 perhaps1 
the boldest and most revolting          
expression  of human provincialism and  
conceit ever formulated by any people4  
,it  was the doctrine that man was the  
centre about whom revolved all  facts   
and interests whatsoever2 and ,judaism  
and its two children1  ,christianity and
 ,mahometanism1 were responsible for it4
 ,everything1  according to this        
conception1 was interpreted in terms of 
human  utility4 ,everything was made for

 man--including women4 ,the sun and     
moon were luminaries1 not worlds1 hung  
there by the fatherly  manufacturer of  
things for the convenience and delight  
of his  children4 ,the stars were       
perforations in the overarching concave 
through which eavesdropping prophets    
peered into celestial secrets1  and     
errand-angels came and went with        
messages between gods and men4  ,not    
only the spheres in space1 but the earth
 and all it  contained--the rivers1     
seas1 and seasons1 all the plants that  
grow1  and all the flowers that blow1   
and all the millions that swim and      
suffer in the waters and skies--were1   
according to this remorseless  notion1  
the soulless adjuncts of man4           
,intrinsically they were  meaningless4  
,they had significance only as they     
served the human  species4 ,the hues and
 perfumes of flowers1 the songs of      
birds1 the  dews1 the breezes1 the      
rains1 the rocks1 the #8beasts of the   
field  and the fowls of the air1' the   

great forests1 the mighty  mountains1   
the fearful solitudes1 even famine and  
pestilence1 were  all made for the being
 with the reinless imagination4 ,luther 
believed that the fly--festive little   
,musca domestica1 who  inhabits our     
homes1 and sometimes unwittingly wanders
 over our  tender places--was a         
pestiferous invention of the devil1     
maliciously sent to annoy him in his    
meditations4 ,garlic grew on the  swamp 
brim as a handy antidote for human      
malaria4 ,fruits ripened in  the        
summertime because the acids and juices 
which they contained  were believed to  
be necessary for man's health and       
refreshment4  ,the great muscles of the 
ox were made to provide men with        
delicacies  and leisure4 ,the cloak of  
the ewe was made without any special    
thought1 or without any thought at all1 
of the comforts of the ewe4  ,it was    
placed there on the ewe by an all-tender
 creator1 to be torn  by his images from
 her bleeding back and worn4 ,the fossil

 forms  found in the rocks were not the 
bon fide remains of creatures  that had 
lived and perished when the calcareous  
foundations of the  continents were     
forming in ancient sea-beds4 ,they were 
counterfeits1  slyly designed by a      
suspicious providence1 and sandwiched   
among the  strata #8to test human       
faith4' ,the rainbow was a phenomenon   
with  which the laws of reflection and  
refraction had nothing whatever to  do4 
,it was a sign or seal stamped on the   
retreating storms as a  pledge that     
submersion would not be again used as a 
punishment for  sinners4 ,the universal 
ruler was conceived to be an individual 
of  transcendent power and              
respectability1 but was supposed to     
spend the  most of his time and a good  
deal of anxiety on the regulation and   
repair of his illustrious likenesses4   
,the history of intellectual evolution  
is the history of  disillusionment4 ,the
 stars1 we now know1 are not hatchways1 
but  worlds4 ,they burn because they are

 fire4 ,they blaze and circle in        
obedience to their own unchangeable     
inertias1 just as the earth  does4 ,they
 blazed and wheeled when the elemental  
matters of the  earth mingled           
indistinguishably with the vapours of   
the sun1 and  they will blaze and wheel 
when the last inhabitant of this clod   
has  dissolved into the everlasting     
atoms4 ,the earth is not the capital  of
 cosmos nor the subject of celestial    
anxiety4 ,the earth is a  satrap of the 
sun--a subordinate among servants1 not a
 sovereign  with a retinue of stars4    
,the earth and its contents were not    
made  for man4 ,they were not made at   
all4 ,they were evolved4 ,the concaves  
of the sea have been hollowed1 the      
mountains upheaved1 and the  continents 
planted and peopled1 by the same        
tendencies as those that  hold the      
universes in their grasp4 ,the primal   
matters of the earth  came out of the   
substance of the sun1 and by the play   
and activity  of these elements and the 

play and activity of their derivatives  
were evolved all the multitudinous forms
 of land1 fluid1 plant1  animal1 and    
society4 ,the flowers that #8blush      
unseen' do not  necessarily #8waste     
their sweetness on the desert air1' as  
the  poet so melodiously imagines4 ,the 
colours and scents of flowers  serve    
their purposes--which are to secure the 
services of insects  in                 
fertilisation--quite as well when       
unperceived1 as when perceived  by human
 senses4 ,the non-human races of beings 
were not made for  human beings4 ,they  
were evolved--the higher forms from the 
lower  forms1 and the lower forms from  
still lower--just as the higher         
societies of men have been evolved1     
under the eye of history1 out of        
barbarism and savagery4 ,they are our   
ancestors4 ,they have made human  life  
and civilisation possible4 ,they made   
their homes on primeval  land patches   
when the continents we creep over were  
sleeping in the  seas4 ,they lived and  

loved and suffered and died in order    
that a  being intelligent enough to     
analyse himself and recreant enough to  
pick their bones might come into the    
world4    ,there are supposed to be     
something like a million 7maybe there   
are  several million7 species of        
inhabitants living on the earth4 ,the   
human species is one of these4 ,not more
 than a few thousand of these  species  
are seriously advantageous to men4 ,the 
harmful and useless  species are many   
times more numerous than the helpful4   
,now1 if the  #iii1iii non-human species
 were made for the human species1 why   
were  the hundreds of thousands of      
species made that are of no possible    
human importance1 and the hundreds of   
thousands of other species  that are a  
positive injury8 ,and if by some        
miraculous stretch of  imagination the  
#iii1iii species now living on the earth
 are  conceived to have been made for   
man1 why were the #aj1jjj1jjj or        
#ae1jjj1jjj of species made that lived  

and passed away before there  was a     
human being in existence4 ,perhaps the  
traditionist will  say--accustomed as he
 is to treat syllogisms with            
contempt--that  they were made to       
invigorate human #8faith4'    ,if the   
age of the human species be estimated at
 #ej1jjj years and the  age of the      
life-process at #ajj1jjj1jjj years1 the 
time during which  man has been on the  
earth is1 when compared with the entire 
period  during which the planet has been
 tenanted1 as #a to #b1jjj4 ,and the    
time during which the earth has been    
inhabited--immense as that  time is when
 compared with the little span of human 
history--is  also insignificant when    
compared with the enormous lapse of time
  during which the planet was slowly    
cooling and solidifying  preliminary to 
the existence of life4 ,and the entire  
life of the  planet--inconceivably vast 
as it is--is as nothing compared with   
that eternity1 that duration without    
beginning or close1 during  which the   

sidereal millions have undergone1 and   
are destined to  continue to undergo1   
their countless and immeasurable        
transformations4    ,it is about as     
profound to suppose that the earth and  
its contents1  and the suns1 stars1 and 
systems of space1 were all made for a   
single species inhabiting an obscure    
ball located in a remote  quarter of the
 universe as it is to suppose that the  
gigantic body  of the elephant was made 
for the wisp of hair on the tip of its  
tail4 ,man is not the end1 he is but an 
incident1 of the  infinite elaborations 
of ,time and ,space4    ,,xi4 ,ethical  
,implications of ,evolution4    ,the    
doctrine of organic evolution1 which    
forever established the  common genesis 
of all animals1 sealed the doom of      
anthropocentricism4 ,whatever the       
inhabitants of this world were or  were 
thought to be before the publication of 
#8,the ,origin of  ,species1' they never
 could be anything since then but a     
family4  ,the doctrine of evolution is  

probably the most important revelation  
that has come to the world since the    
illuminations of ,galileo and           
,copernicus4 ,the authors of the        
,copernican theory enlarged and         
corrected human understanding by        
disclosing to man the comparative       
littleness of his world--by discovering 
that the earth1 which had  up to that   
time been supposed to be the centre and 
capital of  cosmos1 is in reality a     
satellite of the sun4 ,this heliocentric
  discovery was hard on human conceit1  
for it was the first broad hint  man had
 thus far received of his true          
dimensions4 ,the doctrine of  evolution 
has had1 and is having1 and is destined 
to continue to  have1 a similarly       
correcting effect on the naturally      
narrow  conceptions of men4 ,it tends to
 fry the conceit out of us4 ,it has     
been impossible since ,darwin for any   
sane and honest man to go  around       
bragging about having been #8made in the
 image of his  maker1' or to            

successfully lay claim to a more        
honourable origin  than the rest of the 
creatures of the earth4 ,and if men had 
accepted  the logical consequences of   
,darwin's teachings1 the world would    
not to-day--a half-century after his    
revelation--be filled with  practices   
which find their only support and       
justification in  out-of-date           
traditions4 ,but logical consequences1  
as ,huxley  observes1 are the official  
scarecrows of that large and prolific   
class of defectives usually known as    
fools4 ,the doctrine of  evolution is   
accepted in one form or another by      
practically all who  think4 ,it is      
taught even in school primers4 ,but     
while the biology  of evolution is      
scarcely any longer questioned1 the     
psychology and  ethics of the ,darwinian
 revelation1 though following from the  
same  premises1 and almost as           
inevitably1 are yet to be generally     
realised4 ,darwin's revelation1 like    
every other revelation that  has come to

 the world1 is perceived most tardily by
 those working in  departments where the
 phenomena are the most intangible and  
complicated4    ,darwin himself called  
#8the love for all living creatures the 
most  noble attribute of man4' ,giant as
 he was1 he perceived more  clearly than
 any of his contemporaries1 more clearly
 even than his  successors1 the ultimate
 goal of evolving altruism4 ,for he     
says3  #8,as man advances in            
civilisation1 and small tribes are      
united into  larger communities1 the    
simplest reason would tell each         
individual  that he ought to extend his 
social instincts and sympathies to all  
members of the same nation1 though      
personally unknown to him4 ,there  is1  
then1 only an artificial barrier to     
prevent his sympathies  extending to the
 men of all nations and races4          
,experience1 however1  shows us how long
 it is1 if such men are separated from  
him by great  differences of appearance 
or habits1 before he looks upon them as 

his fellow-creatures4 ,sympathy beyond  
the confines of man is one of  the      
latest moral acquisitions4 ,it is       
apparently unfelt by savages1  except   
for their pets4 ,the very idea of       
humanity1 so far as ,i could  observe1  
was new to most of the ,gauchos of the  
,pampas4 ,this virtue  seems to arise   
from our sympathies becoming more tender
 and more  widely diffused1 until they  
are extended to all sentient  beings4'#a
    ,the influences of a doctrine old   
enough and precious enough to have      
become embodied in the life and         
institutions of a race persist          
generally1 through mere momentum1 long  
after the substance of the  doctrine has
 passed away4 ,this is eminently true of
 that  misconception which has come down
 to us regarding the nature and  origin 
of man and his relations to the rest of 
the universe4 ,darwin  has lived1 shed  
his light over the world1 and passed    
back to the  dust whence he came4 ,men  
no longer believe that other races and  

other worlds were really made for them4 
,but they continue to act  in about the 
same manner as they did when2 they did  
believe it4  ,this assertion applies not
 simply to those half-baked             
intelligences  who have only the rudest 
and most antiquated notions about       
anything  but also to thousands of men  
and women who pretend to have           
up-to-date conceptions of themselves and
 the universe--men and  women noted even
 for their activity in reminding others 
of their  inconsistency--men and women  
who      #8,compound for sins they are  
inclined to1    ,by damning those they  
have no mind to4'    ,the doctrine of   
,universal ,kinship is not a new        
doctrine1 born from  the more brilliant 
loins of modern understanding4 ,it is as
 old  almost as human philosophy4 ,it   
was taught by ,buddha twenty-four       
hundred years ago4 ,and the teachings of
 this divine soul1 spreading  over the  
plains and peninsulas of ,asia1 have    
made unnumbered  millions mild4 ,it was 

taught also by ,pythagoras and all his  
school  of philosophers1 and rigidly    
practised in their daily lives4         
,plutarch1 one of the grandest          
characters of antiquity1 wrote several  
essays in advocacy of it4 ,in these     
essays1 as well as in many  passages of 
his writings generally1 he demonstrates 
that he was far  ahead of his           
contemporaries in the breadth and       
intensity of his  moral nature1 and in  
advance even of all except a very few of
 those  living to-day1 #b1jjj years     
after him4 ,shelley among the poets of  
modern times1 and ,tolstoy in these     
latter days1 are others among the       
eminent adherents of this holy cause4   
,wherever ,buddhism prevails1 there will
 be found in greater or less  purity1 as
 one of the cardinal principles of its  
founder1 the  doctrine of the sacredness
 of all ,sentient ,life4 ,but the ,aryan
 race  of the ,west has remained        
steadfastly deaf to the pleadings of its
  ,shelleys and ,tolstoys1 owing to the 

overmastering influence of its          
anthropocentric religions4 ,not till the
 coming of ,darwin and his  school of   
thinkers was there a basis for hope of a
 reformed world4  ,to-day the planet is 
ripe for the old-new doctrine4          
,tradition is  losing its power over    
men's conduct and conceptions as never  
before1 and ,science is growing more and
 more influential4 ,a central  truth of 
the ,darwinian philosophy is the unity  
and consanguinity of  all organic life4 
,and during the next century or two the 
ethical  corollary of this truth is     
going to receive unprecedented          
recognition in all departments of human 
thought4 ,ignorance and  ,inertia are   
fearful facts4 ,they endure like granite
 in the human  mind4 ,but the tireless  
chisels of evolution are invincible4    
,and the  time will come when the       
anthropocentric customs and conceptions1
  which are to-day fashionable enough to
 be #8divine1' will have  nothing but a 
historic existence4 ,the movement to put

 ,science and  ,humanitarianism in place
 of ,tradition and ,savagery1 which is  
so  weak1 languishing1 and neglected    
to-day1 is a movement which has for  its
 ultimate destiny the conquest of the   
,human ,species4    #a4 ,darwin3        
,descent of ,man1 #bnd edit42 ,london1  
#ahgd4    ,,xii4 ,conclusion4    ,all   
beings are ends2 no creatures are means4
 ,all beings have  not equal rights1    
neither have all men2 but all have      
rights4 ,the  ,life ,process is the     
,end--not man1 nor any other animal     
temporarily privileged to weave a       
world's philosophy4 ,nonhuman  beings   
were not made for human beings any more 
than human beings  were made for        
nonhuman beings4 ,just as the sidereal  
spheres were  once supposed by the      
childish mind of man to be unsubstantial
  satellites of the earth1 but are known
 by man's riper  understanding to be    
worlds with missions and materialities  
of their  own1 and of such magnitude and
 number as to render terrestrial        

insignificance frightful1 so the        
billions that dwell in the seas1        
fields1 and atmospheres of the earth    
were in like manner imagined by  the    
illiterate children of the race to be   
the mere trinkets of men1  but are now  
known by all who can interpret the new  
revelation to be  beings with           
substantially the same origin1 the same 
natures1  structures1 and occupations1  
and the same general rights to life and 
happiness1 as we ourselves4    ,in their
 phenomena of life the inhabitants of   
the earth display  endless variety4     
,they swim in the waters1 soar in the   
skies1 squeeze  among the rocks1 clamber
 among the trees1 scamper over the      
plains1  and glide among the grounds and
 grasses4 ,some are born for a summer1  
some for a century1 and some flutter    
their little lives out in a  day4 ,they 
are black1 white1 blue1 golden1 all the 
colours of the  spectrum4 ,some are wise
 and some are simple2 some are large and
 some  are microscopic2 some live in    

castles and some in bluebells2 some     
roam over continents and seas1 and some 
doze their little day-dream  away on a  
single dancing leaf4 ,but they are all  
the children of a  common mother and the
 co-tenants of a common world4 ,why they
 are  here in this world rather than    
some place else2 why the world in  which
 they find themselves is so full of the 
undesirable2 and  whether it would not  
have been better if the ball on which   
they ride  and riot had been in the     
beginning sterilised1 are problems too  
deep  and baffling for the most of them4
 ,but since they are here1 and  since   
they are too proud or too superstitious 
to die1 and are  surrounded by such cold
 and wolfish immensities1 what would    
seem  more proper than for them to be   
kind to each other1 and helpful1 and    
dwell together as loving and forbearing 
members of ,one ,great ,family8    ,act 
toward others as you would act toward a 
part of your own self4    ,this is ,the 
,great ,law1 the all-inclusive gospel of

 social  salvation4 ,it is the rule of  
social rectitude and perfection which   
has been held up in greater or less     
perfection in all ages by the  sages and
 prophets of the human species4    ,hear
 ,confucius1 the giant of ,mongolia1 and
 the idol and law-giver of  one-third of
 mankind3    #8,what you do not like    
when done to yourself do not do to      
others4'    ,and again he says3    #8,do
 not let a man practise to those beneath
 him that which he  dislikes in those   
above him4'    ,over and over again the 
illustrious master repeats these        
precepts to  his disciples and          
countrymen4    ,in the ,mahabharata1 the
 great epic of the ,sanskrit1 written by
  ,indian moralists in various ages1 and
 representing the accumulated  wisdom of
 one of the most marvellous of all      
peoples1 we find these  words3          
#8,treat others as thou wouldst thyself 
be treated4'    #8,do nothing to thy    
neighbour which thou wouldst not        
hereafter have  thy neighbour do to     

thee4'    #8,a man obtains a rule of    
action by looking upon his neighbour as 
himself4'    ,these same truths were    
also taught by ,jesus1 that godlike     
,galilean1  the great teacher and       
saviour of the ,western world3          
#8,love thy neighbour as thyself4'      
#8,do unto others as you would have     
others do unto you4'    ,oh that these  
words were etched in fire1 and stamped  
in scorching  characters on the dull1   
cold hearts of this world6    ,act      
toward others as you would act toward a 
part of your own self4    ,look upon and
 treat others as you do your own hands1 
your own eyes1  your very heart and     
soul--with infinite care and            
compassion--as  suffering and enjoying  
members of the same ,great ,being with  
yourself4 ,this is the spirit of the    
ideal universe--the spirit of  your own 
being4 ,it is this alone that can redeem
 this world1 and  give to it the peace  
and harmony for which it longs4 ,yes1   
#8,so many gods1 so many creeds1    ,so 

many paths that wind and wind1    ,while
 just the art of being kind    ,is all  
the sad world needs4'    ,oh the        
madness1 and sorrow1 and unbrotherliness
 of this mal-wrought  world6 ,oh the    
poor1 weak1 poisoned1 monstrous natures 
of its  children6 ,who can look upon it 
all without pain1 and sympathy1 and     
consternation1 and tears8 ,what an      
opportunity for philanthropy1 if  the   
#8,all-mighty ,one' of our traditions   
would only set about it6    ,yes1 do as 
you would be done by--and not to the    
dark man and the  white woman alone1 but
 to the sorrel horse and the gray       
squirrel as  well2 not to creatures of  
your own anatomy only1 but to all       
creatures4 ,you cannot go high enough   
nor low enough nor far enough  to find  
those whose bowed and broken beings will
 not rise up at the  coming of the      
kindly heart1 or whose souls will not   
shrink and  darken at the touch of      
inhumanity4 ,live and let live4 ,do     
more4 ,live  and help live4 ,do to      

beings below you as you would be done by
  beings above you4 ,pity the tortoise1 
the katydid1 the wild-bird1  and the ox4
 ,poor1 undeveloped1 untaught creatures6
 ,into their dim  and lowly lives strays
 of sunshine little enough1 though the  
fell  hand of man be never against them4
 ,they are our fellow-mortals4 ,they    
came out of the same mysterious womb of 
the past1 are passing  through the same 
dream1 and are destined to the same     
melancholy end1  as we ourselves4 ,let  
us be kind and merciful to them4        
#8,wilt thou draw near the nature of the
 gods8    ,draw near them1 then1 in     
being merciful2    ,sweet mercy is      
nobility's true badge4'    ,let us be   
true to our ideals1 true to the spirit  
of ,universal  ,compassion--whether we  
walk with the lone worm wandering in the
  twilight of consciousness1 the        
feathered forms of the fields and       
forests1 the kine of the meadows1 the   
simple savage on the banks of  the      
gladed river1 the political blanks whom 

men call wives1 or the  outcasts of     
human industry4    ,oh this poor world1 
this poor1 suffering1 ignorant1         
fear-filled  world6 ,how can men be     
blind or deranged enough to think it is 
a good  world8 ,how can they be cold and
 satanic enough to be unmoved by the    
groans and anguish1 the writhing and    
tears1 that come up from its            
unparalleled afflictions8    ,but the   
world is growing better4 ,and in the    
,future--in the long1  long ages to     
come--it will be redeemed6 ,the same    
spirit of sympathy  and fraternity that 
broke the black man's manacles and is   
to-day  melting the white woman's chains
 will to-morrow emancipate the  working 
man and the ox2 and1 as the ages bloom  
and the great wheels  of the centuries  
grind on1 the same spirit shall banish  
,selfishness  from the earth1 and       
convert the planet finally into one     
unbroken and  unparalleled spectacle of 
,peace1 ,justice1 and ,solidarity4