,transcrib]'s ,notes3 ,und]scores 80 be=e & aft] a ^w or phrase indicate italics 9 ! orig9al text4 ,equal signs 80 be=e & aft] a ^w or phrase indicate bold 9 ! orig9al text4 ,small capitals h be5 conv]t$ to ,,solid capitals4 ,illu/rations h be5 mov$ s !y d n break up p>agraphs4 ,typographical errors h be5 sil5tly correct$4 ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,nature ,,/udy4 ,illu/ration ,,macmillan ,,& ,,co41 ,,limit$ ,,london ,,bombay ,,calcutta ,,melb\rne ,,! ,,macmillan ,,company ,,new ,,york ,,bo/on ,,*icago ,,atlanta ,,san ,,francisco ,,! ,,macmillan ,,co4 ,,( ,,canada1 ,,ltd4 ,,toronto ,,an ,,introduction ,,to ,,nature-,,/udy ,,by ,,erne/ ,,/5h\se1 ,b4,,sc4 7,,lond47 ,,associate ,,( ,,! ,,royal ,,college ,,( ,,sci5ce1 ,,london2 ,,jo9t-,,au?or ,,) ,a4 ,t4 ,,simmons1 ,b4,,sc4 ,,( 8,,sci5ce ,,( ,,common ,,life0 ,,macmillan ,,& ,,co41 ,,limit$ ,,/4 ,,m>t9',s ,,/reet1 ,,london #aiaj ,fir/ ,edition #aijc4 ,repr9t$ #aijd 7twice71 #aije1 #aijf1 7) additions7 #aijh1 #aiaj4 ,,glasg[3 ,,pr9t$ ,,at ,,! ,,univ]sity ,,press ,,by ,,rob]t ,,maclehose ,,& ,,co4 ,,ltd4 ,,preface4 ,"o ( ! mo/ enc\rag+ ( rec5t educational movem5ts is ! increas+ importance atta*$1 bo? 9 ?is c\ntry & abroad1 to :at is call$ ,nature-,/udy4 ,x is evid5t t ! in/ruction contemplat$ diff]s z widely1 on ! "o h&1 f ! traditional object-lessons on pol> be>s & ironclads1 z x diff]s f =mal ,biology on ! o!r4 ,?is diff]5ce is abundantly %[n1 n only by ! circul>s & syllabuses issu$ by our own ,bo>d ( ,education1 b by ! publications ( ! lead+ educational au?orities ( ,europe & ,am]ica4 ,! aim ( ,nature-,/udy1 z ?us laid d[n1 is n prim>ily ! acquisition ( ! facts ( natural hi/ory3 x is r a tra9+ 9 me?ods ( op5-ey$1 close1 & accurate obs]vation1 especially ( famili> animals & plants1 :i* %all tea* ! /ud5t to see :at he looks at1 & to ?9k ab\t :at he sees4 ,x is 9 a _s ( entire agreem5t ) ^! views t ?is book has be5 writt54 ,no previ\s k ( ,biology on ! "p ( ! read] is assum$1 & te*nical t]ms h z f> z possible be5 disp5s$ )4 ,9 draw+ up ! c\rse1 ,i h _h 9 m9d ?r\gh\t ! attitude ( an intellig5t y\? ( sixte51 & ! "w w be f\nd to be well )9 ! p[]s ( su* a /ud5t4 ,tea*]s w1 h[ev]1 f9d no difficulty 9 adapt+ ! ex]cises to ! ne$s ( y\ng] pupils4 ,c>e has be5 tak5 to select1 z types = /udy1 animals & plants :i* are at ! same "t repres5tative & easily obta9able1#a & ,i h be5 fur!r guid$ 9 ! selection by ! ,bo>d ( ,education ,syllabuses ( ! ,k+'s ,s*ol>%ip ,exam9ation & ,section ,i4 ( ! ,elem5t>y ,/age ( ,g5]al ,biology1 ! subjects ( :i* are includ$ 9 ! volume4 ,! book has1 h[ev]1 a consid]ably wid] scope ?an is indicat$ 9 ^! syllabuses1 & w !re=e1 ,i hope1 be f\nd useful n only 9 s*ools & tra9+-colleges1 & to exam9ation c&idates1 b also to memb]s ( field clubs & to /ud5ts ( natural hi/ory g5]ally4 ,x has be5 necess>y to arrange ! *apt]s ) "s attempt at logical sequ5ce1 b x is n suppos$ t ?is ord] w be adh]$ to 9 practice2 by ! aid ( ! mon?ly nature-cal5d>1 toge!r ) num]\s cross-ref]5ces1 x w be f\nd easy to take up ! "w at any po9t4 ,! *apt]s are divid$ into sections1 ea* ( :i* consi/s ( two p>ts3 ,fir/1 precise in/ructions = practical obs]vations & exp]im5ts1 design$ to ex]cise ! reason+ faculties ( ! /ud5ts2 &1 second1 a descriptive portion1 9 :i* ! mean+ & relation ( ! results obta9$ are discuss$4 ,at ! end ( ea* *apt] is a numb] ( additional ex]cises1 ei!r orig9al or tak5 f pa/ exam9ation pap]s4 ,( ! latt] class1 que/ions to :i* dates are affix$ h be5 set by ! ,bo>d ( ,education1 :ile ^? m>k$ 8,n4,f4,u40 are select$ f ,national ,froebel ,union te/s4 ,9 _m cases1 ! ex]cises provide subjects = fur!r obs]vation & exp]im5t1 z well z = writt5 description4 ,mu* tr\ble has be5 tak5 9 ! selection ( ! illu/rations1 _m ( :i* h be5 expressly drawn or photograph$ = ?is book4 ,?r\gh ! k9dness ( ! publi%]s ,i h be5 able to include illu/rations f ,/rasburg]'s ,text-,book ( ,botany1 ,p>k] & ,haswell's ,text-,book ( ,zoology1 ,! ,cambridge ,natural ,hi/ory1 & o!r books2 & ,mr4 ,erne/ ,evans has c\rte\sly cons5t$ to ! use ( a numb] ( figures f 8 ,botany = ,beg9n]s4 ,! foll[+ illu/rations h be5 prep>$ f photographs suppli$ by ,mr4 ,j4 ,c4 ,%5/one1 ,f4,l4,s41 ,vice-,presid5t ( ! ,essex ,field ,club3 ,figs4 #bg1 #eg1 #fe1 #fg to #ga1 #gd1 #ge1 #hj1 #ha1 #hc1 #hd1 #he1 #hg1 #hi1 #ib1 #id1 #ie1 #ajb to #aaj1 #abj1 #acf1 #ade1 #adi1 #aeb & #aec2 :ile ,figs4 #ahj1 #aif1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bjc1 #bje1 & #baa are reproduc$1 by p]mission1 f ,pike's ,woodl&1 ,field1 & ,%ore 7,religi\s ,tract ,society74 ,f9ally1 ,i mu/ ackn[l$ge gratefully ! cont9u\s help :i*1 at e /age 9 ! prep>ation ( ! book1 ,i h receiv$ f ,pr(essor ,r4 ,a4 ,gregory & ,mr4 ,a4 ,t4 ,simmons1 ,b4,sc4--help z valuable z x 0 g5]\s4 ,! issue ( a new edition has provid$ ! opportunity ( add+ a section on ,s*ool ,j\rneys1 orig9ally contribut$ by me z an article to ,! ,s*ool ,_w1 & repr9t$ "h by k9d p]mission ( ! ,editors ( t j\rnal4 ,= ! illu/rative sket*-map 7,fig4 #bcg71 & = ,figs4 #ai1 #ba & #ach1 ,i am indebt$ to my fri5d ,mr4 ,t4 ,d4 ,tuton ,hall4 ,e4 ,,/5h\se4 ,,cont5ts4 ,,"p ,i4 ,,plant ,,life4 ,,*apt] ,,page ,i4 ,,se$s ,,& ,,_! ,,e>ly ,,/ages ,,( ,,gr[?1 #a ,,ii4 ,,h[ ,a ,,gre5 ,,plant ,,fe$s1 #bf ,,iii4 ,,! ,,=ms ,,& ,,duties ,,( ,,leaves1 #cg ,,iv4 ,,buds4 ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,a ,,twig1 #ee ,v4 ,,h[ ,,/ems ,,d ,,_! ,,"w1 #fg ,,vi4 ,,"s ,,common ,,fl[]s1 #hh ,,vii4 ,,grasses1 #abe ,,viii4 ,,common ,,=e/ ,,trees1 #adj ,,ix4 ,,fruits3 ,,h[ ,,se$s ,,are ,,scatt]$1 #afe ,x4 ,,f]ns ,,& ,,horsetails1 #ahc ,,xi4 ,,mosses1 ,,mu%rooms1 ,,& ,,m\lds1 #aii ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,animal ,,life4 ,,xii4 ,,! ,,rabbit3 ,a ,,typical ,,mammal1 #baa ,,xiii4 ,,h[ ,a ,,rabbit ,,lives1 #bbb ,,xiv4 ,,"s ,,o!r ,,mammals1 #bdf ,,xv4 ,,! ,,pigeon3 ,a ,,typical ,,bird1 #bfe ,,xvi4 ,,! ,,developm5t ,,& ,,education ,,( ,,! ,,*ick1 #bhb ,,xvii4 ,,"s ,,famili> ,,briti% ,,birds1 #cja ,,xviii4 ,,frogs ,,& ,,tadpoles1 #ccb ,,xix4 ,,! ,,habits ,,& ,,life-,,hi/ories ,,( ,,common ,,insects1 #cdi ,,xx4 ,,"s ,,cru/aceans1 ,,molluscs1 ,,& ,,worms1 #cgb ,,xxi4 ,,field-,,"w4 ,,! ,,s*ool ,,j\rney1 #chh ,,mon?ly ,,nature ,,cal5d>1 #djj ,,"p ,i4 ,,plant ,,life ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,se$s ,,& ,,_! ,,e>ly ,,/ages ,,( ,,gr[?4 #a4 ,,! ,,/ructure ,,( ,,se$s ,,) ,,two ,,cotyl$ons4 #a4 ,prep>ation ( ! se$s4--,obta9 sev]al se$s ( ! broad bean1 pea1 mu/>d1 yell[ lup9e1 vegetable m>r[1 & sycamore2 soak !m 9 cold or slightly w>m wat] until !y are s(t en\gh to be cut ?r\gh easily ) a %>p knife4 ,! "t necess>y w v>y ) diff]5t se$s accord+ to ! size ( ! se$s1 & ) ! temp]ature ( ! wat]4 ,! beans %\ld be left 9 ! wat] = a few days4 ,:5 ! se$s are s(t en\gh1 exam9e "o or two ( ea*1 & 9 ! meantime put ab\t six ( ea* 7except ! mu/>d7 9 damp sawdu/ 9 a w>m place4 ,put ! mu/>d se$s on damp flannel 9 a sauc]4 #b4 ,! outside ( a broad bean4--,notice ! flatt5$ oval %ape1 ) an ind5tation at "o place 7,fig4 #a74 ,:at is ! col\r ( ! sk9 7se$-coat7 ( ! bean se$8 ,is all ! sk9 ( ?is col\r8 ,a black sc> ext5ds along ! edge f ! ind5tation = ab\t 94 ,:at is ?is sc>8 ,if beans 9 ! pod c be obta9$1 see t ! sc> is ! place ( atta*m5t ( ! se$ /alk4 ,make draw+s to scale1 %[+ side & edge-views ( ! se$4 ,wipe ! bean dry & !n squeeze x g5tly4 ,notice t a drop ( wat] comes out at a po9t at "o end ( ! /alk sc>4 ,!re is evid5tly a little hole "h4 ,?is little hole is call$ ! micropyle4 ,m>k its position by a dot on ! draw+4 #c4 ,! inside ( a broad bean4--,) a %>p knife cut ! se$-coat op51 beg9n+ at ! side ( ! se$ fur!/ f ! micropyle1 & c>efully remove ! se$-coat4 ,notice t ne> ! micropyle ! se$-coat =ms a funnel-%ap$ depression1 & t ! po9t ( ! funnel is at ! micropyle4 ,does any?+ fit into ! funnel8 ,a little cone may be se5 to fill ! funnel2 ?is conical body is call$ ! radicle4 ,make a draw+ ( ! se$ aft] ! removal ( ! se$-coat4 ,look at ! edge opposite ! radicle & notice t a crack divides ! body ( ! se$ into halves4 ,put ! po9t ( y\r knife blade into ! crack1 & g5tly =ce ! halves ap>t4 ,!y come ap>t )\t te>+1 %[+ t !y are naturally sep>ate1 al?\gh !y fit s closely toge!r4 ,^! two swoll5 bodies are call$ ! cotyl$ons4 ,sep>ate !m & see1 at ! po9t :]e !y jo9 ! radicle1 a little curv$ rod1 evid5tly a cont9uation ( ! radicle1 ly+ betwe5 !m4 ,?is rod is ! plumule4 ,take (f "o cotyl$on1 & make a draw+ ( ! inn] face ( ! o!r cotyl$on1 ) ! adh]+ plumule & radicle 7,fig4 #b74 #d4 ,/>* pres5t 9 ! cotyl$ons ( ! bean4--,scrape ! inn] surface ( a cotyl$on & !n p\r on x a drop ( iod9e solution4#b ,is !re any *ange8 ,p\r also a drop ( iod9e solution on a piece ( laundry-/>*4 ,is a simil> blue col\r =m$8 ,:at sub/ance is probably pres5t 9 ! cotyl$ons ( ! bean8 #e4 ,! pea4--,exam9e a pea 9 a simil> mann]4 ,make draw+s %[+ ! /alk-sc>1 ! micropyle1 & ! plumule & radicle ) _! mann] ( connection ) ! cotyl$ons4 ,does ! end ( ! radicle po9t t[>ds ! micropyle8 ,h[ _m cotyl$ons has ?is se$8 ,:at %ape & col\r are !y8 ,d !y conta9 />*8 #f4 ,! se$ ( ! yell[ lup9e4--,comp>e ?is ) ! bean & ! pea1 & f9d out h[ _m cotyl$ons x has1 & :e!r !y conta9 />*4 ,c y f9d ! plumule8 ,x is v small1 b occupies a position simil> to t ( ! plumule ( ! bean4 ,does ! end ( ! radicle po9t to ! micropyle8 #g4 ,! vegetable m>r[ se$4--,notice ! peculi> %ape 7some:at l a pocket-flask7 ( ! se$1 & ! ?ick5$ m>g9 :i* runs r\nd x4 ,c>efully cut ! se$-coat away s z n to injure ! "p inside4 ,h[ _m cotyl$ons are pres5t8 ,:at is _! col\r8 ,d !y conta9 />*8 ,c y see ! plumule & radicle cle>ly8 ,if n1 d n decide t !y are abs5t1 b leave ! "q to be settl$ lat]1 :5 y wat* a vegetable m>r[ se$ 8come up40 #h4 ,! mu/>d se$4--,notice h[ mu* small] ?is se$ is ?an ! o!rs4 ,) a balance1 f9d h[ _m mu/>d se$s are equal 9 weight to "o bean se$4 ,obs]ve ! /ick9ess ( ! se$-coat ( ! soak$ se$1 & !n remove x c>efully ) ne$les1 expos+ two ?9 plates1 ea* "o fold$ on itself1 & "o tuck$ inside ! o!r1 l two %eets ( note-pap]4 ,^! are ! cotyl$ons2 x seems t ! smallness ( ! se$ may be ma9ly due to ! small size ( ! cotyl$ons4 ,:at is _! col\r8 ,rememb] ^! *>act]s & try1 :5 y wat* ! "y plants come up lat]1 to f9d an explanation ( !m4 #i4 ,! sycamore fruit4--,! se$ ( ! sycamore is enclos$ 9 a case :i* has a w+ atta*$ to x4 ,! w+1 ! case1 & ! enclos$ se$ toge!r con/itute ! fruit ( ! sycamore4 ,! fruits occur 9 pairs 7,fig4 #acg74 ,notice t a cord runs out to ea* fruit f ! /alk on :i* ! pair ( fruits is borne4 ,make a draw+ ( a pair ( fruits1 !n sep>ate ! fruits4 #aj4 ,! sycamore se$4--,cut op5 a fruit4 ,c y see any?+ betwe5 ! se$ & ! fruit-case8 ,w\ld ! hairy cov]+ ( ! se$ t5d to keep x w>m dur+ ! w9t]8 ,:y8 ,:y d y pref] to we> flannel 9 w9t] & l95 9 summ]8 ,flannel is m fluffy ?an l954 ,remove ! se$-coat c>efully4 ,runn+ d[n "o side y w see a little curv$ rod4 ,?is is ! radicle4 ,g5tly raise x ) ! po9t ( y\r knife4 ,notice t ! re/ ( ! se$ seems to consi/ ( a gre5 "p1 :i* is curl$ up4 ,uncoil ! curls c>efully4 ,y f9d t !y are two gre5 leaves1 fix$ at ! top ( ! radicle4 ,^! are ! cotyl$ons4 ,9 ! se$ ea* cotyl$on is fir/ fold$ 9 two across ! middle & !n coil$ up4 ,make a sket* %[+ ! coils 7,fig4 #d74 ,c y see ! plumule8 ,x is j at ! top ( ! radicle1 :]e ! cotyl$ons are fix$ on4 ,plants are liv+ ?+s4--,"o ( our =emo/ naturali/s#c tells u t :5 he goes out into ! woods1 or into "o ( ^? fairy =e/s :i* we call fields1 he f9ds himself welcom$ by a glad company ( fri5ds1 ev]yone ) some?+ int]e/+ to tell4 ,su* a feel+ w\ld be q impossible to "o :o did n vividly recognise ! fact t plants are alive2 = x is precisely ?is recognition or its abs5ce :i* makes ! obs]vation ( ! =ms & habits ( plants fasc9at+ or ! rev]se4 ,let ! ,nature-,/ud5t1 !n1 at ! outset ( 8 "w1 keep ! idea ( life insep>ably b\nd up ) 8 e ?\ght ab\t plants4 ,x may at fir/ require a little ef=t1 b be=e long x w enable him to und]/& h[ ! fri5d%ip ( ! m sil5t half ( animate nature may =m "o ( ! great pleasures ( life4 ,! /udy ( se$s4--,! manife/ation ( life is s /rik+1 & ! *anges 9 =m & size take place s rapidly1 9 ! g]m9ation ( se$s1 t ! /udy ( plants _c bett] be comm5c$ ?an ) ?is /age ( _! gr[?4 ,! me?od has also ! logical virtue ( beg9n+ at ! beg9n+1 or ne>ly s4 ,^! e>ly *anges c be well obs]v$ by tak+ v>i\s common se$s1 soak+ !m 9 wat] until !y are s(t1 & !n all[+ !m to g]m9ate 9 damp sawdu/1 tak+ a few out at int]vals & not+ _! progress4 ,! gr[? ( ! se$s takes place m rapidly if !y are kept 9 a w>m room1 b 9 any case "s days w probably elapse be=e mu* *ange is noticeable 9 !m4 ,dur+ ! int]val ( wait+1 "s ( ! se$s !mselves %\ld be c>efully exam9$1 & draw+s ( all ! p>ts %\ld be made4 ,! draw+ ought on no acc\nt to be omitt$4 ,x compels ! /ud5t's att5tion to details :i* w\ld o!rwise pass unnotic$2 & a c>eful sket* is a mu* bett] record ( an obs]vation ?an any am\nt ( description alone c\ld be4 ,! draw+ ne$ n be elaborate2 an outl9e p5cil-sket* to scale w usually be suffici5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,a ,broad-,bean se$4 ,a1 side view2 ,b1 edge view3 /4 sc41 /alk-sc>2 m1 micropyle4 7 47 ,! se$ ( ! broad bean4--,! se$ ( ! broad bean 7,fig4 #a7 is l>ge1 hav+ a diamet] ( p]haps an in* & a half1 & a ?ickness ( half an in*4 ,9 %ape x is oval1 b at "o region ! edge is ind5t$1 & a black sc> 7/4 sc47 runs f ! ind5tation along ! edge = a di/ance ( ab\t ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in*4 ,?is sc> is ! place ( atta*m5t ( ! /alk :i* =m]ly c>ri$ ! se$ 9 ! bean-fruit 7pod74 ,x may be call$ ! /alk-sc>4 ,if a soak$ bean is wip$ dry & !n g5tly squeez$1 a small drop ( wat] escapes f ! end ( ! /alk-sc> ne>e/ ! ind5tation4 ,! hole out ( :i* ! wat] comes is v small & difficult to see1 b its position is ?us made cle>4 ,?is hole 7m7 is call$ ! micropyle1--a ^w mean+ ! 8little gate40 ,! bean se$ is cov]$ by a t\gh br[n sk91 ! se$-coat 7,fig4 #b1 s4c471 a funnel-%ap$ depression 9 :i* leads to ! micropyle 7m74 ,! depression is occupi$ by a "p ( ! se$ :i* is %ap$ l a conical peg & call$ ! radicle 7,r72 ! po9t ( ! radicle is direct$ t[>d ! micropyle4 ,! great body ( ! se$ is compos$ ( two fle%y1 cream-col\r$ lobes1 easily w$g$ ap>t by ins]t+ a knife-blade betwe5 !m2 ^! fle%y lobes are ! cotyl$ons 7,cot474 ,betwe5 !m1 & cont9u\s ) ! radicle1 is a small yell[ body1 ! plumule 7pl474 ,! relations ( ! radicle1 plumule & cotyl$ons are be/ se5 by remov+ "o cotyl$on 7,fig4 #b74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,broad-,bean se$1 se5 f ! inside1 aft] ! removal ( half ! se$-coat & "o cotyl$on4 ,cot41 ! inn] face ( rema9+ cotyl$on2 ,c1 area ( atta*m5t ( o!r cotyl$on2 m1 micropyle2 pl1 plumule2 ,r1 radicle2 ,s4c41 se$-coat2 /4 sc41 /alk-sc>4 7 #a47 ,a scrap$ cotyl$on at once turns blue :5 a drop ( dilute iod9e solution is p\r$ on x1 ?us %[+ ! pres5ce ( />*4 ,we %all see 9 ,*apt] ,,ii4 :at use ! gr[+ se$l+ makes ( ! />*y food :i* is /or$ 9 its cotyl$ons4 ,! se$ ( ! pea4--,except 9 size & %ape ! se$ ( ! pea is v simil> to ! bean se$4 ,its =m is sph]ical1 & ! sc> left by ! /alk :i* =m]ly atta*$ x to ! wall ( ! pea-pod 7,fig4 #c7 is pla9ly to be se54 ,po9t+ t[>ds ! micropyle is ! peg-l radicle2 ! plumule lies betwe5 ! hemisph]ical cotyl$ons4 ,z be=e1 ! cotyl$ons c be prov$ to conta9 />*1 by ! blue col\r :i* is =m$ :5 a drop ( iod9e solution is p\r$ on ! scrap$ surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,pods & ,se$s ( ,pea4 7 47 ,! se$ ( ! yell[ lup9e4--,! se$ ( ! yell[ lup9e is ab\t z l>ge z a pea1 b x is slightly flatt5$ 9 %ape4 ,! se$-coat is prettily mottl$2 :5 x is remov$1 ! great] "p ( ! se$ is f\nd to consi/ ( two cotyl$ons4 ,!y are some:at swoll51 b ! /or$ food is n />*4 ,! plumule & radicle occupy positions simil> to ^? ( ! bean & pea4 ,! vegetable m>r[ se$4--,?is se$ has a r curi\s %ape1 & some:at resembles a pocket-flask4 ,x is flatt5$1 & ! bord] ( ! se$-coat is ?ick5$ & ( silky appe>ance1 ! re/ ( ! 8sk90 hav+ "s resemblance to kid4 ,! two cotyl$ons1 :i* compose ! great] "p ( ! se$1 are :ite & only slightly fle%y4 ,! plumule & radicle are at ! po9t$ end ( ! se$1 & are difficult to see4 ,! mu/>d se$4--,9 comp>+ ! mu/>d se$ ) ^? already describ$1 "o is /ruck ) ! great diff]5ce 9 size4 ,an av]age broad-bean se$ weighs ab\t #fjj times z mu* z ! mu/>d se$4 ,:ile ! two fle%y cotyl$ons make up ! bulk ( ! se$ ( ! bean1 pea1 lup9e & vegetable m>r[1 ! cotyl$ons ( ! mu/>d se$ are ?9 & leaf-l4 ,!y are fold$ on !mselves1 "o inside ! o!r 7z at g1 ,fig4 #fa71 & enclose ! radicle4 ,! *>act]s ( ! cotyl$ons acc\nt v l>gely = ! small size ( ! mu/>d se$4 ,x w be se51 :5 ! gr[? ( ! "y plants is wat*$1 t ! diff]5ce is associat$ ) ! special duties :i* ! cotyl$ons p]=m 9 ! v>i\s cases4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,sycamore ,fruit1 cut ?r\gh 9 ! plane ( ! w+4 s4c41 se$-coat 7indicat$ by a ?ick1 brok5 l9e72 f4w41 fruit-wall2 h1 lay] ( f9e hairs2 ,r1 radicle2 pl41 plumule2 cot4 #a1 cot4 #b1 cotyl$ons 7diagrammatically %ad$74 7 #b47 ,! sycamore se$4--,:at is g5]ally call$ ! se$ ( ! sycamore is really a fruit4 ,! fruits are 9 pairs 7,figs4 #cc & #acg71 & ea* half consi/s ( a flat w+ & a r\nd$ case 9 :i* ! se$ itself is enclos$4 ,! r\nd se$-cases ( ! two fruits are connect$ toge!r4 ,:5 !y come ap>t1 a sc> m>ks ! place :]e !y 7 =m]ly 9 contact1 & a little cord runs out to ea* fruit f ! /alk on :i* ! pair ( fruits is borne4 ,betwe5 ! sycamore se$ & ! wall ( its case is a lay] ( f9e hair 7h1 ,fig4 #d71 :i* =ms a w>m ne/ = ! se$ 9 w9t]4 ,! se$ is surr\nd$ by a ?91 br[n se$-coat1 & consi/s ma9ly ( two cotyl$ons1 b ^! are v diff]5t f any yet describ$4 ,ea* is a gre5 leaf1 measur+1 :5 unfold$1 ab\t an in* 9 l5g?4 ,x is fir/ fold$ across ! middle ( its l5g?1 & !n roll$ up into a close coil ) its fell[4 ,! coils are v pla9ly to be se5 :5 ! se$ coat is remov$1 or :5 ! :ole se$ is cut ?r\gh1 by a %>p knife1 9 ! plane ( ! w+4 ,runn+ d[n "o side ( ! se$ is a gre5 rod1 ! radicle 7,r1 ,fig4 #d74 ,! two cotyl$ons 7cot4 #a & cot4 #b7 spr+ f its upp] end1 & betwe5 !m is ! t9y plumule 7pl47 ,! sycamore se$ be>s m resemblance to ! mu/>d se$ ?an to ! o!rs1 b x is on a mu* l>g] scale4 ,9 ea* ( ^! two se$s ! cotyl$ons are pla9ly leaves1 :ile 9 ! o!rs _! nature is disguis$ by ! great accumulation ( /or$ food 9 !m4 #b4 ,,! ,,e>ly ,,/ages ,,( ,,gr[? ,,( ,,se$s ,,) ,,two ,,cotyl$ons4 ,if ! se$s :i* 7 s[n 9 damp sawdu/ & on flannel are kept w>m !y w soon be ready = /udy4 ,y %\ld rememb] t at pres5t y\r object is n s mu* to re> ! plants z to f9d out h[ !y gr[4 ,z soon1 !re=e1 z any sign ( gr[? is to be se5 :5 y take a se$ out1 y %\ld beg9 to exam9e !m at regul> int]vals1 tak+ "o or two out e day & leav+ ! re/ to cont9ue _! developm5t4 ,keep ! sawdu/ damp1 b n wet4 #a4 ,! pea & bean4--7a7 ,g5]al developm5t4--,v soon ! se$-coat splits at ! micropyle-end ( ! /alk-sc>1 & ! end ( ! radicle protrudes4 ,does ! radicle gr[ upw>ds or d[nw>ds8 ,obs]ve t ev5 if ! se$ 0 s plant$ t ! micropyle 0 at ! top1 ! radicle turns ov] & gr[s /raight d[n4 ,turn ov] a se$l+ & see if y c p]suade ! radicle to gr[ upw>ds4 ,op5 a se$ :5 ! radicle is ab\t an in* long1 & see :at ! plumule is do+4 ,x is /ill enclos$ 9 ! se$-coat1 & lies betwe5 ! cotyl$ons1 b is l>g] ?an at fir/4 ,z ! gr[? proce$s ! cotyl$ons beg9 to sep>ate ne> ! top ( ! radicle1 & y c get a glimpse ( ! plumule4 7b7 ,! gr[? ( ! radicle4--,day by day ! radicle becomes long]4 ,is x all gr[+ long]1 or does ! increase 9 l5g? take place m at "o "p ?an ano!r8 ,to answ] ?is "q1 take five or six in*es ( cotton ?read & moi/5 ! middle "p ) ,indian ink4 ,lay ! se$ on a flat rul]1 s t ! radicle lies ov] an in* divid$ into--say--t5?s4 ,hold ! ?read tight1 & press ! ink$ "p g5tly on ! radicle1 mak+ ab\t five m>ks at equal int]vals f ! po9t upw>ds4 ,! ink w dry almo/ imm$iately4 ,!n c>efully replant ! se$1 tak+ c>e n to injure ! radicle4 ,aft] a few days take x out aga91 lay x once m on ! rul]1 & measure ! di/ance betwe5 ! m>ks4 ,! radicle is evid5tly ! "y root4 7c7 ,! root-cap4--,hold up ! radicle to ! light1 & exam9e its tip ) a l5s4 ,try to see t ! tip is cov]$ by a little cap1 some:at l a v small ?imble4 ,?is is call$ ! root-cap4 7d7 ,! root-hairs4--,hold a se$1 ) ! radicle ab\t an in* long1 aga9/ a d>k surface4 ,is ! surface ( ! radicle smoo?1 or c y see any fluff9ess on x8 ,is all ! radicle fluffy1 or only a "p8 ,:i* "p8 ,z y exam9e old] & old] se$l+s notice h[ mu* ( ! radicle is fluffy1 & :]e ! fluffy "p is4 ,! fluffy appe>ance is caus$ by f9e1 closely-set hairs1 call$ root-hairs4 7e7 ,! plumule4--,h[ soon aft] plant+ does ! plumule become free8 ,does x gr[ upw>ds or d[nw>ds8 ,! plumule is evid5tly ! "y /em4 ,z soon z ! "y /em is old en\gh m>k x ) ,indian ink z y m>k$ ! "y root1 & replant x to f9d if !re is any diff]5ce 9 ! rates ( gr[? ( its diff]5t p>ts4 7f7 ,! fate ( ! cotyl$ons4--,f "t to "t exam9e ! cotyl$ons & notice t z ! se$l+ gr[s l>g] !y become m & m %runk54 ,some?+ is evid5tly be+ tak5 f !m1 p]haps to fe$ ! "y plant4 ,we %all inquire into ?is by fur!r exp]im5t 7,*apt] ,,ii474 ,d ! cotyl$ons rema9 9 _! orig9al position1 or are !y c>ri$ upw>ds ) ! gr[+ /em or d[nw>ds ) ! gr[+ root8 #b4 ,! yell[ lup9e4--,9 ! same way obs]ve h[ ?is se$ gr[s4 ,d ! cotyl$ons %ift _! position or *ange 9 col\r8 ,d !y become leaf-l8 ,h[ d !y diff] f lat]-=m$ leaves8 ,:at becomes ( !m at la/8 ,:at becomes ( ! se$-coat8 #c4 ,! mu/>d se$4--,notice t1 soon aft] ! radicle has come out ( ! se$-coat1 a sort ( hump =ms at its upp] end1 & at l5g? ! cotyl$ons are pull$ out ( ! se$-coat & turn up t[>ds ! light4 ,:at is _! col\r8 ,obs]ve t ! two cotyl$ons are soon rais$ on ! end ( a little /alk4 ,l ! cotyl$ons ( ! yell[ lup9e !y are pla9ly leaves4 ,notice _! %ape4 ,are !y ( equal size8 ,:y n8 ,:5 !y are ab\t ?ree in*es above ! se$-coat g5tly sep>ate !m & notice ! little bud betwe5 !m4 ,draw ! se$l+4 ,h[ l>ge c y get a mu/>d se$l+ to gr[ on damp flannel8 ,plant a few mu/>d se$s on e>?1 & notice ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! %ape ( ! cotyl$ons or se$-leaves & t ( ! leaves :i* appe> lat]4 ,:at becomes ( ! cotyl$ons8 #d4 ,! vegetable m>r[ se$4--,make simil> obs]vations ^u ! vegetable m>r[ se$s1 notic+ p>ticul>ly :e!r ! cotyl$ons rema9 9 _! orig9al positions & %r9k up z ! plant increases 9 size1 or :e!r !y are pull$ out ( ! se$-coat by ! elongat+ /em1 & become gre5 & leafy4 ,h[ does ! plant hold d[n its se$-coat :il/ x pulls out its cotyl$ons8 #e4 ,! sycamore se$4--,f :at y h se5 ( ! cotyl$ons ( ! sycamore se$1 w y expect !m to behave l ^? ( ! mu/>d se$1 or l ^? ( ! pea & bean8 ,ev5 9 ! se$ !y are gre51 & pla9ly leaves4 ,h[ d !y escape f ! se$-coat8 ,:at is _! %ape8 ,d !y come out be=e or aft] ! radicle8 ,d !y get any l>g] z ! /em gr[s8 ,h[ l>ge c y get a sycamore se$l+ to gr[ 9 damp sawdu/8 ,z l>ge z a se$l+ ( pea or bean8 ,plant "s sycamore se$s on e>? & comp>e ! %ape ( ! cotyl$ons ) t ( ! next-=m$ leaves4 ,h[ soon d ! 8true0 leaves appe> aft] ! cotyl$ons h escap$ f ! se$8 ,d any 8true0 leaves gr[ on ! plants 9 sawdu/8 ,:at becomes ( ! cotyl$ons at la/8 ,! embryo4--,! plumule1 radicle1 & cotyl$ons1 :i* h n[ be5 se5 9 ! se$1 =m ! embryo ( ! plant4 ,! adult plant w be :olly =m$ by ! gr[? & developm5t ( ^! p>ts1 & we mu/ n[ foll[ c>efully ! *anges :i* take place :5 ! se$ g]m9ates1 & try to f9d out :at becomes ( ea* "p4 ,x is bett] to put ! se$s at fir/ 9 damp sawdu/ r ?an 9 e>?1 z ! "y roots c !n be m readily clean$ & obs]v$4 ,) small se$s ! e>ly /ages ( gr[? are bett] se5 if damp flannel is us$4 ,g]m9ation4--,"u ! influ5ce ( moi/ure & w>m? ! embryo 9 ! se$ beg9s to swell & unfold its p>ts4 ,! radicle makes its appe>ance fir/ 7,fig4 #e71 break+ ?r\gh ! se$-coat at ! micropyle2 x is ! "y root4 ,! radicle always gr[s d[nw>ds1 t is1 t[>d ! c5tre ( ! e>?4 ,if ! se$ lies 9 su* a position t ! micropyle is direct$ upw>ds1 ! po9t ( ! radicle turns ov] & gr[s d[nw>ds z soon z x escapes f ! se$-coat4 ,z ! "y root becomes long] & ?ick] 7,fig4 #f7 ! se$-coat op5s m & m1 %[+ ! cotyl$ons b5ea?1 & ^!1 too1 are gradually =c$ ap>t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,an e>ly /age 9 ! g]m9ation ( a ,broad-,bean se$4 ,r1 radicle2 s4c41 se$-coat4 7 47 ,,fig4 #f4--;,a slightly lat] /age 9 ! g]m9ation ( a ,broad-,bean se$4 cot41 cotyl$on2 pl1 plumule2 ,r1 radicle2 s4c41 se$-coat4 7 47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,mu/>d ,se$l+1 %[+ root-hairs & cotyl$ons4 7 47 ,! cotyl$ons4--,dur+ ! g]m9ation ( v>i\s se$s1 a v m>k$ diff]5ce 9 ! behavi\r ( ! cotyl$ons is to be se54 ,9 ! case ( ! broad bean & pea ! cotyl$ons rema9 9 _! orig9al positions1 p>tially enclos$ by ! split se$-coat4 ,pres5tly a hump 7,figs4 #f & #aa7 =ms at ! upp] end ( ! radicle1 z if ! plant 7 mak+ an ef=t to pull its plumule out ( ! se$4 ,x soon succe$s 7,fig4 #ab71 & ! plumule turns up to ! light4 ,x is ! "y /em4 ,at its end is a little bud1 =m$ by a numb] ( small1 ov]lapp+1 gre5 leaves :i* surr\nd ! gr[+ po9t4 ,h5ce=? ! /em gr[s upw>ds1 t is 9 a direction precisely opposite to t ( ! root's gr[?4 ,bo? /em & root are atta*$ to ! cotyl$ons1 :i* gradually %rivel up z ! /em & root become l>g] & l>g]4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! se$ ( ! mu/>d1 or sycamore1 g]m9ates ! cotyl$ons behave v diff]5tly 7,figs4 #g & #h74 ,soon aft] ! root has become well e/abli%$ ! cotyl$ons come q out ( ! se$-coat & unfold !mselves4 ,in/ead ( rema9+ on or "u ! surface ( ! gr\nd !y are c>ri$ upw>ds at ! end ( a /alk t[>d ! light1 & = "s "t ! little plant appe>s to consi/ ( root1 /alk1 & cotyl$ons only4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! cotyl$ons are g5tly press$ ap>t1 a t9y bud is se5 betwe5 !m4 ,?is evid5tly corresponds to ! bud at ! end ( ! /em ( ! bean or pea4 ,9 ! case ( ! lup9e 7,fig4 #i7 or vegetable m>r[ 7,fig4 #aj7 ! cotyl$ons appe> to comb9e ^! two conditions4 ,!y are swoll5 & conta9 /or$ food2 yet !y come out ( ! se$-coat e>ly1 become gre51 & op5 out to ! light4 ,!y are evid5tly leaves1 ?\gh _! %ape diff]s f t ( ! lat] leaves4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,?ree /ages 9 ! gr[? ( a ,sycamore ,se$l+4 cot41 cotyl$ons2 fol41 fir/ pair ( foliage leaves4 7,slightly r$uc$47 ,! g]m9at+ vegetable-m>r[ se$ possesses a curi\s contrivance = pull+ its cotyl$ons out ( ! se$-coat4 ,?is is a peg 7p1 ,fig4 #aj7 :i* develops at ! top ( ! radicle1 & holds d[n ! l[] half ( ! se$-coat :il/ ! o!r half is =c$ upw>ds to all[ ! cotyl$ons to be )drawn4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,?ree /ages 9 ! gr[? ( ! ,yell[ ,lup9e4 ,on ! "r ! cotyl$ons are /ill enclos$ 9 ! mottl$ se$-coat4 ,9 ! middle plant ! cotyl$ons are spread+ out2 ! fir/ foliage leaves h n yet unfold$4 ,on ! left1 ! fir/ two foliage leaves are unfold+1 & ! cotyl$ons h spread out flat4 7,slightly r$uc$47 ,aft] a little ?\ght a possible explanation ( ^! diff]5ces 9 ! cotyl$ons sugge/s itself4 ,x may be t1 9 ! case ( ! mu/>d & sycamore1 leaves are requir$ z e>ly z possible1 :ile ! bean & pea h no imm$iate ne$ = leaves because _! cotyl$ons conta9 s mu* /or$ food4 ,! cotyl$ons ( ^! plants %rivel up z ! se$l+ gr[s1 & ?is seems to indicate t dur+ its e>ly /ages ! plant lives ^u ?is food4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,ii4 we %all make exp]im5ts to see if ?is explanation is ! true "o4 ,if s1 ! lup9e & vegetable-m>r[ se$s evid5tly rely p>tly ^u _! /or$ food & p>tly ^u sett+ ! cotyl$ons to "w z leaves1 :il/ ! plant is /ill v "y4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,g]m9at+ ,vegetable ,m>r[ se$4 p1 ! peg by :i* ! se$-coat 7s4c47 is held d[n to all[ ! cotyl$ons 7cot47 to be )drawn4 7 #a47 7,aft] ,bailey47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,a g]m9at+ ,pea2 cot1 cotyl$on2 pl1 plumule2 ,r1 radicle2 r4h41 root-hairs2 ,s4c41 se$-coat4 ,! radicle has be5 m>k$ ) ,indian ink at int]vals ( _/04 ,! true leaves4--,! cotyl$ons are really make%ift leaves1 :i* are already =m$ 9 ! se$s4 ,ev5 :5 !y exp& & become gre5 !y d n live long1 b z soon z ! next few leaves are well e/abli%$1 %rivel up & )]4 ,! true or 8foliage0 leaves fir/ make _! appe>ance z a bud :i* surr\nds ! gr[+ po9t ( ! /em4 ,z ?is "p ( ! /em increases 9 l5g?1 ! foliage leaves become sep>at$ f ea* o!r & spread out to ! light & air4 ,! l5g!n+ ( ! /em & root4--,unless an exp]im5t to te/ ! tru? ( ! matt] is really made1 x might be suppos$ t ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! /em & root ( ! se$l+ gr[ 9 l5g? at ! same rate4 ,?is c be te/$ by m>k+ ! /em & root ) l9es ( ,indian ink at equal di/ances4 ,9 "o exp]im5t ) a pea se$l+ five l9es 7 m>k$ ^u ! "y root at regul> int]vals ( "o-t5? ( an in*1 beg9n+ at ! tip 7,fig4 #aa74 ,! se$l+ 0 c>efully replant$ & exam9$ aga9 a few days lat]4 ,betwe5 ! tip & ! fir/ m>k !re 0 !n 7,fig4 #ab7 a di/ance ( sev5-t5?s ( an in*2 t is1 ?is "p _h gr[n to sev5 times its =m] l5g?4 ,! second int]val 0 f\r times z long z be=e1 ! ?ird 0 "o & a half times z long1 :ile ! f\r? & fif? int]vals _h n increas$ 9 l5g? at all4 ,su* exp]im5ts prove t ! root gr[s 9 l5g? ei!r at or j beh9d ! tip4 ,:5 a "y /em is treat$ 9 ! same way ! l5g!n+ is f\nd to take place m ev5ly4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,! ,pea se$l+ ( ,fig4 #aa1 a few days lat]4 cot1 cotyl$ons2 pl1 plumule2 ,r1 radicle2 ,s4c41 se$-coat4 7 #a47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,! tip ( a root1 %[+ ! root-cap4 7,magnifi$47 ,rootlets4--,aft] a "t ! radicle beg9s to put out bran*es call$ rootlets4 ,^! come (f ! ma9 root 9 r[s4 ,9 "s cases rootlets make _! appe>ance :il/ ! radicle is /ill v %ort1 z 9 ! vegetable m>r[ ( ,fig4 #aj1 b 9 o!rs ! radicle may be a few in*es long be=e x produces rootlets4 ,! root cap4--,! tip ( ! root1 & ( ea* ( its bran*es1 is cov]$ by a little cap1 %ap$ some:at l a ?imble 7,fig4 #ac74 ,?is protects ! t5d] gr[+ po9t f ! friction ( p>ticles ( soil1 & is cont9ually r5ew$ by gr[? f )9 z its out] lay]s are worn away4 ,root hairs4--,:5 a "y root is held aga9/ a d>k backgr\nd x appe>s fluffy4 ,?is appe>ance is caus$ by a l>ge numb] ( v f9e hairs ^u its surface4 ,! hairs are n f\nd all ov] ! root & its bran*es1 b only = a %ort di/ance a little way beh9d ! tips 7,figs4 #g & #aa74 ,^! root hairs are ( v great importance to ! plant1 z w be se5 9 ,*apt] ,,ii4 #c4 ,,! ,,/ructure ,,( ,,gra9s ,,( ,,maize ,,& ,,:eat4 #a4 ,prep>ation ( ! se$s4--,soak gra9s ( maize 7,indian corn7 & :eat 9 wat] until !y are s(t4 ,! gra9s ( maize w ne$ soak+ = sev]al days4 ,plant ab\t a doz5 ( ea* 9 damp sawdu/1 & 9 ! meantime exam9e o!rs4 #b4 ,! maize gra94--,a gra9 ( maize is really a fruit1 z a pea-pod is4 ,a pea-pod conta9s sev]al se$s2 a maize fruit conta9s only "o se$1 :i* fills x4 ,notice ! %ape ( ! gra9--flatt5$1 r\nd$ along "o edge1 & bluntly po9t$ at ! opposite edge 7,fig4 #ad74 ,notice a :iti% pat* on "o ( ! flatt5$ sides2 a ridge 7,e7 d[n ! middle ( ?is m>ks ! position ( ! embryo4 ,cut ?r\gh ! gra9 l5g?wise1 s z to divide ! embryo into two equal p>ts1 & exam9e ! cut surface 7,fig4 #ae74 ,id5tify3 7a7 ,! embryo1 ly+ some:at obliquely1 & to "o side4 ,! radicle 7rad47 is direct$ t[>ds ! po9t$ end ( ! gra91 & ! plumule 7pl47 t[>ds ! r\nd$ end4 7b7 ,! endosp]m 7end73 a mass ( mat]ial outside ! embryo1 & =m+ at lea/ half ( ! gra94 7c7 ,! scutellum 7scm73 a plate ly+ betwe5 ! endosp]m & ! embryo4 7d7 ,! coats ( ! se$ & fruit1 surr\nd+ ! :ole4 ,draw4 ,add a drop ( iod9e solution to ! cut surface ( ! half-gra94 ,! endosp]m turns blue4 ,:at does ?is indicate8 #c4 ,! :eat gra94--,a gra9 ( :eat is also a "o-se$$ fruit4 ,notice ! groove along "o side1 &--on ! opposite side ne> "o end--! :ite pat* m>k+ ! position ( ! embryo4 ,at ! o!r end is a tuft ( v f9e hairs4 ,cut ! gra9 l5g?wise1 s z to divide ! :ite pat* into two equal p>ts1 & make out ! embryo1 endosp]m1 & scutellum 7,fig4 #af74 ,draw4 ,te/ ! endosp]m ) iod9e solution4 ,does x conta9 />*8 ,gra9s ( maize & :eat4--,a gra9 ( maize or :eat is really a "o-se$$ fruit4 ,9 o!r words1 ! gra9 consi/s n only ( ! se$ ) its se$-coat1 b also ( ! se$-case4 ,9 ?is respect x resembles ! fruit ( ! sycamore 7p4 #h74 ,:51 h[ev]1 a gra9 ( maize or :eat is c>efully exam9$1 x is f\nd to diff] greatly f all ! se$s hi!rto m5tion$4 ,a maize gra9 is some:at flatt5$1 & r po9t$ along "o edge 7,fig4 #ad74 ,on "o flat side1 ne> ! po9t$ end1 may be se5 a :iti% pat*1 &1 along ! middle l9e ( ?is1 a ridge :i* m>ks ! position ( ! embryo4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,maize gra91 %[+ ! position ( ! embryo 7,e74 7 #d47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--;,a longitud9al section ( a ,maize gra91 ?r\gh ! middle l9e ( ! embryo4 end1 endosp]m2 pl1 plumule2 rad1 radicle2 rt1 orig9 ( a root2 scm1 scutellum4 7 #d47 ,a :eat gra9 has a diff]5t %ape4 ,x is oval1 ) a deep groove runn+ d[n "o side4 ,"o end is clo!d ) a tuft ( v f9e hairs2 ne> ! o!r end1 on ! side opposite to ! groove1 is a :ite pat* b5ea? :i* is ! embryo4 ,^! diff]5ces 9 %ape are ( small importance1 = ! two gra9s are really ( v simil> /ructure1 z may be se5 :5 !y are cut ?r\gh l5g?wise ) a %>p knife1 9 a direction :i* divides ! embryo along its middle l9e4 ,x is !n pla9 t ea* gra9 consi/s ( two pr9cipal p>ts3 ! embryo & ! endosp]m 7,figs4 #ae & #af74 ,! embryo lies to "o side & 9 ! l[] half ( ! se$4 ,at its upp] end ! "y /em & at its l[] end ! "y root--ea* /ill enclos$ 9 protect+ %ea?s--are easily se54 ,! great] "p ( ! se$ is q outside ! embryo2 x is a mass ( food call$ ! endosp]m1 :i* has be5 /or$ up = ! use ( ! "y plant dur+ its e>lie/ /ages ( g]m9ation4 ,?is food mass at once turns blue :5 a drop ( iod9e solution is plac$ ^u x1 %[+ t x conta9s a consid]able am\nt ( />*4 ,x is ! endosp]m :i* is made into fl\r :5 corn is gr\nd4 ,ly+ betwe5 ! embryo & endosp]m is a flat plate call$ ! scutellum4 ,cov]+ embryo1 scutellum1 & endosp]m is ! se$-coat prop]1 & outside t come ! v>i\s lay]s ( ! fruit case4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,diagram ( a longitud9al section ?r\gh ! middle l9e ( a :eat gra94 ,9 ! se$s previ\sly exam9$1 ! embryo--consi/+ ( plumule1 radicle1 & cotyl$ons--0 se5 to fill ! se$-coat completely4 ,9 "s cases ! cotyl$ons 7 f\nd to be m or less swoll5 ) /or$ food-mat]ial4 ,9 ! maize & :eat1 h[ev]1 ! embryo =ms only a comp>atively small proportion ( ! se$1 ! bulk ( :i* consi/s ( /or$ food call$ endosp]m4 ,?is is a diff]5ce ( "s importance4 ,/ill m important1 h[ev]1 is ! fact t ! two cotyl$ons1 :i* 7 s conspicu\s a feature ( ! o!r se$s1 _c app>5tly be se5 at all 9 ^! se$s4 ,are !re !n no cotyl$ons 9 ! se$s ( ! maize & :eat8 ,if !re are1 h[ & :5 d !y appe>1 & :at is _! numb]8 #d4 ,,! ,,e>ly ,,/ages ,,( ,,gr[? ,,( ,,maize ,,& ,,:eat4 #a4 ,! roots4--,wat* = ! appe>ance ( ! roots4 ,is !re1 z 9 ! se$l+s previ\sly /udi$1 "o pr9cipal root1 or are !re soon sev]al1 all app>5tly ( equal or ne>ly equal importance8 ,d ! roots gr[ /raight d[n z be=e1 or d !y spread horizontally8 #b4 ,! /em & ! cotyl$on4--,notice t a rod1 some:at ?ick] ?an a root1 gr[s out ne> ! orig9 ( ! roots1 & curves upw>ds t[>ds ! light4 ,:5 ?is is ab\t an in* long on a maize se$l+1 slit x op5 c>efully1 & obs]ve t x consi/s ( a pale out] %ea? & a gre5 core4 ,! %ea? is ! s+le cotyl$on2 ! gre5 core is ! "y /em enclos$ 9 a "y foliage leaf4 ,cut op5 ! gra9 & notice h[ ! endosp]m has %rivell$4 ,z ! se$l+s become l>g] wat* ! "y /em gr[+ out at ! end ( its %ea?+ cotyl$on4 ,:at is ! l5g? ( ! cotyl$on :5 ! /em fir/ appe>s 7a7 9 ! maize1 7b7 9 ! :eat8 #c4 ,! foliage leaves4--,z soon z a foliage leaf unfolds make a draw+ ( its %ape4 ,contra/ x ) ! "y foliage leaves ( ! o!r se$l+s4 ,hold up ! leaves to ! light & comp>e ! arrangem5t ( _! ve9s4 ,h[ maize & :eat se$s gr[4--,:5 ! maize & :eat fruits h be5 kept 9 damp sawdu/ = a few days1 ! se$s--"o 9 ea* fruit--beg9 to g]m9ate4 ,z a rule ! :eat plants h gr[n to a height ( "s in*es be=e ! roots & /ems ( ! maize plant h em]g$ f ! se$s4 ,! roots4--,z might be expect$1 ! fir/ signs ( life make _! appe>ance at ! :ite sc> :i* indicates ! position ( ! embryo or "y plant4 ,in/ead ( "o ma9 root gr[+ out1 sev]al little roots make _! appe>ance almo/ at ! same "t4 ,!y d n gr[ z directly d[nw>ds z ! radicle ( a pea or bean 7,fig4 #f71 b t5d to spread 9 a horizontal direction 7,fig4 #ag74 ,x is cle> t 9 ?is way ! roots are m indep5d5t ( ea* o!r ?an if !y grew directly d[nw>d side by side4 ,! cotyl$on & ! /em4--,gr[+ out f ! se$ close to ! roots is ano!r rod 7,fig4 #ag1 ,c71 r ?ick] ?an ! roots1 :i* at once curves upw>ds to ! light4 ,x is pale gre5 9 col\r4 ,?is is ! cotyl$on or fir/ leaf4 ,:5 x is c>efully slit op51 x is f\nd to be a holl[ %ea?1 enclos+ a bright gre5 core4 ,9 ! se$l+s :i* are left undi/urb$1 ! core at la/ breaks ?r\gh ! tip ( ! cotyl$on4 ,x consi/s ( ! "y /em & its surr\nd+ foliage leaves4 ,z ! gr[? ( ! plant cont9ues1 ^! %ea?+ leaves unfold !mselves into ! long n>r[ blades *>act]i/ic ( grass leaves 7,fig4 #ih74 ,! bottom ( ea* leaf is tubul> & =ms a %ea? r\nd ! /em4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,"y :eat se$l+4 ,c1 cotyl$on2 r1 r1 r1 r1 roots4 7 #c47 ,! endosp]m4--,! endosp]m1 :i* at fir/ made up m ?an half ! se$1 gradually %rivels up z ! little plant cont9ues its gr[?4 ,! food mat]ial :i* x conta9s is absorb$ by ! scutellum & is pass$ on to af=d ! plant ! necess>y n\ri%m5t = ^? e>ly /ages :5 x is too "y to fe$ itself4 ,by ! "t ! fir/ few foliage leaves are well develop$1 all t rema9s ( ! gra9 is an empty husk4 ,comp>isons & contra/s4--,! exam9ation ( ^! se$s & se$l+s w enable ! /ud5t to see t diff]5ces1 :i* at ! fir/ glance appe> great1 are (t5 ( only m9or importance2 :ile app>5tly small v>iations may prove1 on clos] inspection1 to be caus$ by deeply-seat$ diff]5ces ( /ructure & habits ( life4 ,he %\ld always set himself ! que/ions1 8,9 :at ways d su* & su* objects resemble ea* o!r2 & 9 :at ways d !y diff] f ea* o!r8 ,:i* ( ! diff]5ces & resemblances are ( mo/ importance80 ,he %\ld also notice t a m]e diff]5ce ( size is (t5 ( v small consequ5ce4 ,above all1 ! /ud5t %\ld get into ! habit ( ask+ ! reasons = ! diff]5ces & resemblances :i* he notices 9 8 nature-/udy4 ,to le>n :at ^! reasons are he mu/ obs]ve closely1 ?9k c>efully1 & !n make exp]im5ts to te/ ! accuracy ( 8 conclusions4 8,be sure y are "r2 !n look aga90#d %\ld be 8 motto4 ,x is at once pla9 t ! se$l+s fall into two classes1 accord+ to ! numb] ( cotyl$ons or se$-leaves :i* !y possess4 ,! :eat & maize h only "o su* se$-leaf1 :ile ! mu/>d1 bean1 pea1 sycamore1 & vegetable m>r[ h two ea*4 ,we %all see lat] on t "o-se$-leav$ plants diff] f ^? ) two se$-leaves n only 9 ! numb] ( _! cotyl$ons1 b also 9 ! *>act]s ( _! leaves & fl[]s & 9 _! me?od ( gr[?4 ,^! diff]5ces are s con/ant & s important t botani/s h agre$ to call all plants ( ! fir/ class 7su* z maize & :eat7 ,monocotyl$ons1 & plants ( ! second class ,dicotyl$ons4 ,"o ( ^! diff]5ces is t ! ma9 roots ( dicotyl$ons are =m$ directly by ! gr[? ( _! radicles2 :ile 9 monocotyl$ons !re is1 aft] a %ort "t1 no su* ma9 root to be f\nd1 b sev]al roots ( almo/ equal size spr+ f ! base ( ! /em & spread outw>ds 9 all directions 7,fig4 #ag74 ,bo? maize & :eat se$s conta9--outside ! embryo--a l>ge /ore ( food call$ endosp]m 7,figs4 #ae & #af71 :i* is n se5 9 any ( ! dicotyl$on\s se$s describ$ 9 ?is *apt]4 ,?is is n a v important diff]5ce1 =1 if we exam9$ a v l>ge numb] ( dicotyl$on se$s1 we %\ld f9d t mo/ ( !m possess$ endosp]m4 ,on ! o!r h&1 _m monocotyl$on\s se$s are de/itute ( endosp]m4 ,only aft] obs]v+ a v l>ge numb] ( facts is x safe to make g5]al /atem5ts4 ,conf9+ our att5tion to dicotyl$ons1 we are impress$ by ! great v>iation 9 size ( ! cotyl$ons4 ,^? ( ! bean & pea are swoll5 ) food mat]ial & =m a l>ge proportion ( ! bulk ( ! se$4 ,z a consequ5ce1 ! se$l+ has en\gh food to enable x to gr[ into q a /urdy little plant be=e x ne$s any foliage leaves4 ,! cotyl$ons ( ! mu/>d & sycamore1 h[ev]1 are ?91 & !y unfold almo/ imm$iately into gre5 leaves1 & set to "w to help to ma9ta9 ! plant until ! fir/ foliage leaves c be =m$4 ,! cotyl$ons ( ! lup9e 7,fig4 #i7 & vegetable m>r[ 7,fig4 #aj7 s]ve a d\ble purpose4 ,!y n only conta9 a /ore ( food ready to h&1 b !y also set to "w e>ly to make new food1 until ! new leaves are suffici5tly advanc$ to take up _! duties4 ,x %\ld be rememb]$ t cotyl$ons are make%ift leaves4 ,,ex]cises ,,on ,,*apt] ,i4 #a4 ,make a collection ( ! se$s ( v>i\s trees2 try to f9d1 9 ea* se$1 ! cotyl$ons1 radicle1 & plumule4 ,:i* ( ! se$s conta9 /or$ />*8 #b4 ,soak p9e & l>* se$s 9 wat] = sev]al days & !n s[ !m1 ) a cov]+ ( half an in* ( soil4 ,make notes ( ! numb]1 %ape1 size1 & behavi\r ( ! cotyl$ons4 ,h[ l>ge are ! se$l+s at ! end ( ! fir/ season8 #c4 ,make simil> obs]vations on ! gr[? ( sycamore1 a%1 & bee*4 ,cov] ! se$s ) an in* ( soil4 #d4 ,plant se$s ( oak & *e/nut two in*es deep1 & make draw+s & notes ( ! /ages ( gr[?4 #e4 ,inve/igate ! /ructure & me?od ( g]m9ation ( a b>ley se$1 & f9d out :e!r b>ley is a dicotyl$on or a monocotyl$on4 #f4 ,make exp]im5ts to discov] ! effects1 ^u ! g]m9ation ( v>i\s se$s1 ( diff]5ces ( temp]ature1 moi/ure1 & light1 & write full acc\nts ( ! results obta9$4 #g4 ,draw f memory a "y se$l+ ( maize1 & notice its *ief peculi>ities4 7#ahih7 #h4 ,draw ! se$l+ ( ! sycamore 9 two or m /ages1 & add %ort notes4 7#ahih7 #i4 ,draw ! root ( any se$l+ t y h /udi$1 giv+ its "n4 ,m>k ! exact position ( ! root-hairs4 7#ahih7 #aj4 ,op5 ! nut provid$4 ,draw :at is to be f\nd 9 x 9 "o or two positions4 ,"n ! p>ts & give %ort explanations4 7#aija7 #aa4 ,expla91 ) draw+s1 h[ c]ta9 se$l+s )draw _! se$-leaves f ! se$-coat4 7#aija7 #ab4 ,describe & expla9 z f> z y c ! pr9cipal *anges to be obs]v$ dur+ ! g]m9ation ( a bean or pea4 7#aija7 #ac4 ,describe ! g]m9ation ( a bean1 & comp>e x ) t ( a gra9 ( :eat4 7#ahih7 #ad4 ,describe ! /ructure ( a gra9 ( :eat1 & contra/ x ) t ( an acorn4 7#ahif7 #ae4 ,plant se$s 9 wet1 /icky soil 7s t ! air _c easily get to !m71 & comp>e _! gr[? ) t ( simil> se$s 9 a light1 op5 soil4 #af4 ,two acorns are all[$ to g]m9ate1 "o 9 ! neck ( a bottle full ( wat]1 & ! o!r 9 an ord9>y fl[] pot4 ,:at diff]5ces w be not$ 9 ! two plants z !y gr[8 7,c]tificate1 #aijd7 ,,footnotes3 #a ,if any difficulty is f\nd 9 procur+ plant-specim5s1 !y may be obta9$ by po/ f ! ,briti% ,botanical ,association1 ,ltd41 ,holgate1 ,york4 ,! names ( deal]s prep>$ to supply v>i\s animal-specim5s are m5tion$ 9 ! text4 #b ,made by dissolv+ "o or two cry/als ( potassium iodide 9 ab\t half a p9t ( wat]1 & !n add+ iod9e 9 small quantities until ! solution is ! col\r ( %]ry4 #c ,"l ,avebury1 ,! ,pleasures ( ,life 7,macmillan74 #d ,pr(4 ,com/ock4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,h[ ,a ,,gre5 ,,plant ,,fe$s4 #e4 ,,! ,,food ,,:i* ,a ,,gre5 ,,plant ,,obta9s ,,f ,,! ,,soil4 #a4 ,a plant _c gr[ p]man5tly 9 damp sawdu/ or clean s&4--,notice t ! se$l+s :i* 7 gr[n 9 damp sawdu/ pres5tly )] & die1 :ile ^? :i* 7 gr[n 9 soil fl\ri%1 &1 ) prop] c>e1 come to maturity4 ,obta9 "s clean s&1 &1 to be sure t !re is no?+ 9 x :i* wat] c dissolve1 wa% ! s& 9 sev]al *anges ( clean wat]4 ,g]m9ate "s se$s 9 ! s&1 keep+ x damp4 ,! result+ plants 9 ?is case also )] & die4 ,evid5tly soil conta9s "s plant-food :i* ! plant _c obta9 f sawdu/ or clean s&4 ,:at is ?is food8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,porcela9 crucible heat$ by ,buns5 burn]4 #b4 ,! am\nt ( wat] & m9]al matt] 9 plants4--,take a heal?y plant1 say a bean plant1 & weigh x4 ,!n dry x ?or\ghly 9 ! ov5 & weigh x aga94 ,x w be f\nd v mu* light]2 ! diff]5ce 9 weight repres5ts ! wat] :i* has be5 driv5 (f4 ,burn ! dri$ plant4 ,:5 ! flame goes out notice ! black *>coal :i* is obta9$4 ,cont9ue ! heat+ & obs]ve t at la/ no?+ is left b a little grey a%4 ,?is exp]im5t c be p]=m$ ov] an ord9>y fire by us+ an old %ovel or a tile1 b if y c use a porcela9 crucible 7)\t lid7 & a ,buns5 burn] 7,fig4 #ah7 y w get bett] results4 ,if a *emical balance is available1 weigh ! a% & comp>e x ) ! weight ( a% obta9$ f an ord9>y bean se$1 su* z t :i* gave rise to ! plant y h us$4 ,! a% f ! plant is mu* great] ?an t got f ! se$4 ,?is extra a% mu/ h be5 tak5 f ! soil dur+ ! plant's gr[?4 #c4 ,a nutritive solution4--,make1 or ask a disp5s+ *emi/ to make1 ! foll[+ solution3 ,potassium nitrate 7consi/s ( potassium1 nitrog51 & oxyg571 #a gram4 ,sodium *loride 7consi/s ( sodium & *lor9e71 0 ,calcium sulphate 7consi/s ( calcium1 sulphur1 & oxyg571 0 ,magnesium sulphate 7consi/s ( magnesium1 sulphur1 & oxyg571 0 ,calcium phosphate 7consi/s ( calcium1 phosphorus1 & oxyg571 0 ,wat]1 #a litre4 7,a few drops ( a dilute solution ( sulphate1 or *loride1 ( iron %\ld be add$47 ,wat]1 ) ?is solution1 a plant gr[+ 9 wet s&1 & :5 x is well gr[n1 dry & burn x4 ,z mu* a% is obta9$ z f a plant ( ! same size gr[n 9 soil4 ,notice ! diff]5ce betwe5 su* a plant & "o :i* has _h wat] only suppli$ to x4 #d4 ,wat] culture4--,fix two simil> "y plants 9 corks z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ai1 & put ! corks into two bottles1 ! fir/ ( :i* conta9s pure wat] & ! second ! nutritive solution1 & let ! roots ( ! se$l+s dip into ! liquids4 ,cov] ! outsides ( ! bottles ) rolls ( pap] to keep out ! light4 ,notice t ! plant liv+ 9 ! nutritive solution ?rives1 :ile ! o!r pres5tly )]s4 ,dry & burn ! =m]1 & obs]ve t x yields m a% ?an does a se$ su* z t f :i* x sprang4 #e4 ,plants obta9 _! m9]al food f ! soil by _! roots4--,z ! roots are ! only p>ts ( ! plant :i* are 9 contact ) ! nutritive solution1 or :i* 7"u ord9>y conditions7 are 9 ! soil1 ! m9]al matt] mu/ be tak5 9 by ! roots4 #f4 ,! root-hairs4--,take up a se$l+ :i* has be5 gr[+ 9 damp s&1 & obs]ve ! small p>ticles ( s& adh]+ to ! root-hairs 7p4 #ag74 ,! hairs ( a plant's root & rootlets apply !mselves v closely to p>ticles ( soil 7,fig4 #bj71 & ! m9]al food 7dissolv$ 9 wat]7 passes into ! hairs & s gets into ! root & !nce to ! o!r p>ts ( ! plant4 #g4 ,roots z /oreh\ses ( food4--,exam9e1 be=e ! plants fl[]1 ! roots ( a turnip1 a c>rot1 & a radi%1 & notice h[ greatly !y are swoll54 ,y "k t ^! roots are valu$ z foods2 ( :at use d y ?9k ! /or$ food is to ! plants !mselves8 ,! food ( a "y se$l+4--,:5 su* a se$ z t ( a bean is g]m9at$ 9 damp sawdu/ or wet clean s&1 & kept 9 a w>m & light place1 x puts out a radicle1 :i* gr[s d[nw>ds & becomes ! ma9 root1 & a /em :i* gr[s upw>ds & be>s gre5 leaves4 ,aft] a "t ! ma9 root bran*es1 giv+ (f side roots1 :i* spread 9 all directions ?r\gh ! sawdu/ or s&4 ,! ma9 root & ! rootlets be> v f9e fluffy hairs = a %ort l5g?1 :i* is situat$ j beh9d _! po9ts 7,fig4 #aa71 & ^! root hairs come into v close contact ) p>ticles ( damp sawdu/ or s& 7,fig4 #bj71 ! moi/ure pass+ into !m & ?us rea*+ ! ma9 root1 f :i* x is di/ribut$ to ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! plant4 ,! /em likewise fl\ri%es1 gr[+ 9 l5g? & ?ickness1 & putt+ out new leaves4 ,all ?is "t ! "y bean plant is liv+ on ! food mat]ial /or$ up 9 its cotyl$ons 7p4 #f72 & if ! s& or sawdu/ is kept moi/1 ) ev5 pure wat]1 ?is se$ food is at fir/ q suffici5t4 ,:5 at la/ ! se$ food is all us$ up1 h[ev]1 & all t rema9s ( ! cotyl$ons is a %rivell$ sk91 ! plant beg9s to droop & )] f lack ( food4 ,plants obta9 food f ! soil4--,contra/ ?is ) ! condition ( a se$l+ :i* has be5 gr[n 9 soil4 ,x /ill fl\ri%es1 ev5 :5 ! se$ food is us$ up1 = x is draw+ up food f ! soil--food :i* c\ld n be obta9$ f ! damp sawdu/ or clean s&4 ,t ! plant really has tak5 up "s solid matt] f ! soil c be prov$ by a few simple exp]im5ts4 ,a plant :i* has be5 gr[+ 9 soil = "s "t aft] its se$ food is us$ up is dri$ & burnt1 & ! a%es are weigh$4 ,! weight ( a% or m9]al matt] ?us obta9$ is f\nd to be consid]ably great] ?an t ( ! a% obta9$ f an ung]m9at$ se$1 or f a se$l+ gr[n 9 damp sawdu/ or s& :i* has only be5 suppli$ ) pure wat]4 ,! m9]al food ( plants4--,! composition ( ! a% obta9$ f v>i\s plants has be5 c>efully det]m9$ by *emi/s1 & 9 ?is mann] !y h be5 able to f9d out :at sub/ances mu/ be pres5t 9 soil 9 ord] t ! plant may obta9 all ! m9]al food x requires4 ,a mixture ( potassium nitrate 7nitre71 sodium *loride 7common salt71 calcium sulphate 7pla/] ( ,p>is71 magnesium sulphate 7,epsom salts71 calcium phosphate1 & *loride 7or sulphate7 ( iron--dissolv$ 9 wat] 9 ! proportions specifi$ on p4 #bg--;has be5 f\nd to supply ! necess>y elem5ts ( ! m9]al food 9 a =m :i* ! plant c readily use4 ,t su* a mixture is capable ( support+ ! plant1 :ile wat] alone is incapable ( do+ s1 may be se5 by gr[+ a plant--9 ! mann] %[n 9 ,fig4 #ai--;9 ?is solution4 ,if1 9 addition1 ! plant is suppli$ ) light & fre% air1 x w gr[ 9 a p]fectly heal?y & normal mann]4 ,if any ( ! con/itu5ts 7except ! common salt7 are omitt$1 ! plant w suff]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a plant :i* is gr[+ 9 pure wat] w pres5tly die1 f ! lack ( ! necess>y m9]al food4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,plant gr[+ 9 a nutritive solution ( salts4 ,! bottle %\ld be cov]$ ) a roll ( pap] to keep out ! light4 ,! "w ( ! roots4--,^! exp]im5ts %[ t wat]--( :i* a l>ge proportion ( a plant consi/s--& ! m9]al con/itu5ts ( its food 7dissolv$ 9 ! soil-wat]7 are tak5 up f ! soil by ! roots4 ,9 ord9>y soil ! rootlets spread out on all sides1 divid+ & subdivid+1 seek+ = ?is v weak solution ( m9]al salts4 ,ev5 :5 soil appe>s practically dry1 a v ?9 film ( moi/ure cov]s ea* little p>ticle ( e>?1 & ! root hairs become closely appli$ to ^! little p>ticles 7,fig4 #bj71 s t ! wat] passes ?r\gh _! walls & gradually makes its way to ! ma9 root1 ! /em1 & ! leaves4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,tip ( a root hair ) adh]+ p>ticles ( soil4 7 #bdj47 ,roots sometimes p]=m o!r duties 9 addition to ^? ( fix+ ! plant 9 ! soil & provid+ x ) wat] & m9]al food4 ,x is usual1 = example1 = bi5nial plants--:i* produce fl[]s & se$s 9 _! second ye>1 & !n die--to take 9 mu* m food dur+ _! fir/ season ?an !y require at ! "t1 & to /ore up ! surplus 9 read9ess = ! great ef=t ( ! second ye>4 ,^! res]ve mat]ials are (t5 /or$ 9 ! roots1 :i* !n become swoll5 & fle%y1 l ^? ( ! turnip1 radi%1 & c>rot4 #f4 ,,! ,,food ,,:i* ,a ,,gre5 ,,plant ,,obta9s ,,f ,,! ,,air4 #a4 ,plants conta9 mu* c>bon4--,*> a /ick1 & notice ! black *>coal :i* is =m$4 ,*>coal is an impure =m ( c>bon4 #b4 ,c>bon dioxide gas is =m$ :5 wood burns4--,fa/5 a %av+ or a spl9t] ( wood on a piece ( wire1 light x1 & l[] x into a clean glass j>4 ,:5 ! wood has burn$ = a few seconds take x out1 & p\r a little cle> lime-wat] into ! j>4 ,! lime-wat] turns milky4 ,simil>ly1 p\r a little lime-wat] into a j> 9 :i* no?+ has be5 burn+1 & notice t x rema9s cle>4 ,!re is evid5tly a diff]5ce 9 ! nature ( ! air ( ! two j>s4 ,! diff]5ce is caus$ by ! burn+ ( ! wood1 dur+ :i* "s ( ! c>bon unites ) ! oxyg5 ( ! air 9 ! j>1 =m+ an invisible gas1 call$ c>bon dioxide4 ,c>bon dioxide c always be detect$ by ! milk9ess x causes 9 cle> lime-wat]4 #c4 ,c>bon dioxide pres5t 9 ord9>y air4--,p\r "s cle> lime-wat] into a blue sauc] & let x /& expos$ to ! air = half an h\r1 !n exam9e x4 ,a :ite scum has =m$ on ! surface ( ! lime-wat]4 ,/ir ) a glass rod2 ! solution becomes milky4 ,! scum & ! milk9ess are produc$ by ! union ( ! lime ) c>bon dioxide f ! air4 ,c>bon 79 ! =m ( c>bon dioxide7 is !re=e pres5t 9 ! air4 #d4 ,no c>bon 9 ! food solution4--,exam9e aga9 ! li/ ( elem5ts 7p4 #bg71 :i* compose ! m9]al salts :i* h be5 f\nd to replace satisfactorily ! food :i* a plant obta9s f ! soil4 ,!re is no c>bon 9 x4 ,a plant evid5tly does n dep5d on ! soil = ! c>bonace\s "p ( its food4 ,f :at o!r s\rce c a plant obta9 its c>bon8 ,c>bon has j be5 prov$ to be pres5t 9 ! air4 ,does ! plant obta9 its c>bon f ! air8 #e4 ,gre5 leaves conta9 />* aft] exposure to sunlight4--,take a gre5 leaf f a plant :i* has be5 expos$ to ! sunlight1 boil ! leaf 9 wat] = a m9ute or two to kill x4 ,!n put x 9 me?ylat$ _s until ! leaf-gre5 is dissolv$ out4 ,:5 ! leaf is blea*$ r9se x 9 wat]1 !n put x into a dilute solution ( iod9e 7p4 #b7 & notice t x becomes blue or purpli% br[n4 ,! =mation ( ?is col\r proves ! pres5ce ( />* 9 ! leaf4 #f4 ,/>* conta9s c>bon4--,*> a piece ( laundry />* & obs]ve ! *>coal =m$4 #g4 ,gre5 leaves d n conta9 />* aft] be+ left 9 ! d>k = #bd h\rs4--,keep a leafy plant 9 ! d>k = #bd h\rs & !n te/ a leaf z 9 ! previ\s exp]im5t4 ,no />* c be detect$4 ,put ! plant 9 ! sunlight = an h\r or two & te/ ano!r leaf4 ,x conta9s />*4 ,pla9ly1 />* is only =m$ 9 leaves if !y are expos$ to light1 & any />* previ\sly pres5t disappe>s :5 ! plant is kept 9 ! d>k4 #h4 ,a gre5 plant kept 9 air f :i* ! c>bon dioxide has be5 remov$ w n =m />* 9 its leaves4--,obta9 a l>ge glass bottle1 su* z ^? us$ by confection]s1 & fit x ) a cork or india-rubb] /opp] ?r\gh :i* passes a glass tube b5t#e z 9 ,fig4 #ba4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 to make all ! jo9ts tight1 & x may be necess>y to soak ! cork 9 melt$ p>aff9 to ensure ?is4 ,pack ! b5d ( ! tube loosely ) pieces ( soda lime1 & 9 ! bottle place a small j> conta9+ lumps or a /rong solution ( cau/ic soda4 ,:5 ! app>atus is ready1 place 9 ! bottle a small plant or a leafy twig 9 wat] 7fu*sia answ]s v well71 :i* has be5 kept 9 ! d>k = #bd h\rs4 ,! cau/ic soda 9 ! j> v soon absorbs all ! c>bon dioxide :i* is pres5t1 & ! soda lime 9 ! b5d ( ! tube prev5ts any c>bon dioxide f gett+ into ! bottle f ! outside air4 ,place ! j> 9 bright sunlight = a few h\rs & !n te/ a leaf = />*4 ,none c be detect$4 ,x is pla9 t "o ( ! c>bonace\s food /uffs--/>*--is n =m$ 9 ! leaves ( plants unless ! plant is gr[n 79 ! light7 9 air conta9+ c>bon dioxide4 #i4 ,se$l+s are at fir/ indep5d5t ( light4--,g]m9ate pea or bean se$s 9 wet s& or sawdu/ 9 ! d>k4 ,notice t = "s "t ! se$l+s gr[ almo/ z well z :5 9 ! light4 ,soon1 h[ev]1 ! /em becomes long1 weak & /raggl+1 & ! leaves are pale 9 col\r1 ev5 if ! plant is suppli$ ) m9]al food4 #aj4 ,! =mation ( sug> 9 a g]m9at+ pea-se$4--,take up a pea-se$l+ :5 ! /em is "o or two in*es long1 & *ew ! p>tly %runk5 cotyl$ons4 ,notice ! slightly sweet ta/e4 ,contra/ ?is ) ! ta/e ( an ung]m9at$ se$4 ,a plant conta9s mu* c>bon4--,:5 a piece ( wood or o!r "p ( a plant is /rongly heat$ x fir/ black5s or *>s1 %[+ ! pres5ce ( a l>ge proportion ( *>coal or impure c>bon4 ,on cont9u$ heat+1 ?is c>bon 8burns away40 ,9 ! process ( burn+ x unites ) "s ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air1 & =ms a col\rless1 invisible gas kn[n z c>bon dioxide4 ,?\gh ?is sub/ance _c be se51 its pres5ce c be easily detect$ by means ( cle> lime-wat]1 :i*1 :5 expos$ to ! gas1 absorbs x & becomes milky ow+ to ! =mation ( a :ite precipitate ( *alk4 ,if1 = example1 a spl9t] ( wood is burnt 9 a glass j>1 & a little cle> lime-wat] is imm$iately aft]w>ds p\r$ into ! j> & %ak5 up1 a milk9ess at once proclaims ! pres5ce ( c>bon dioxide4 ,! air conta9s c>bon4--,if lime-wat] is p\r$ into a blue sauc] & left expos$ to ! air = half an h\r1 a :ite scum ( *alk is se5 to h =m$ on its surface1 %[+ t c>bon dioxide is pres5t 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,x is important t ! /ud5t %\ld realise ?is pres5ce ( c>bon--z invisible c>bon dioxide gas--9 ! air4 ,al?\gh ! proportion is v small1 am\nt+ to only #c p>ts ( c>bon dioxide 9 #aj1jjj p>ts ( fre% c\ntry air1 x is ( incalculable importance to plants1 & indirectly to ourselves & all o!r animals4 ,a gre5 plant obta9s its c>bon f ! air4--,s9ce ! p>ts ( a plant conta9 mu* c>bon1 & ! food :i* a plant obta9s f ! soil ne$ n conta9 any c>bon2 :ile ! air1 on ! o!r h&1 does conta9 c>bon1 x seems likely t a plant obta9s its c>bonace\s food f ! air4 ,?is surmise is confirm$ by exp]im5ts4 ,"o ( ! mo/ easily recognisable ( plant products conta9+ c>bon is />*1 = x yields a v *>act]i/ic blue1 or purpli%-br[n1 col\r :5 treat$ ) iod9e solution4 ,by means ( ?is te/ />* c easily be prov$ to be pres5t 9 ! gre5 leaves ( a plant :i* has be5 expos$ to ! air & sunlight4 ,! leaf is fir/ kill$ by be+ boil$ 9 wat] = a m9ute or two1 & !n its gre5 col\r+ matt] is dissolv$ out by imm]sion 9 alcohol 7me?ylat$ _s74 ,! blea*$ leaf is r9s$ 9 wat] & !n put 9 iod9e solution1 & ! blue or purpli%-br[n col\r :i* is =m$ %[s ! pres5ce ( />*4 ,!re is a m>k$ diff]5ce :5 a leaf1 :i* has be5 kept 9 ! d>k = tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 is simil>ly te/$4 ,9 ?is case no />* c be detect$4 ,"o comp\nd ( c>bon--i4e4 />*--may ?us be recognis$ easily2 & if we f\nd t a leaf made no />* :5 suppli$ only ) air f :i* ! c>bon dioxide _h be5 remov$1 ?is fact w\ld be /rong evid5ce 9 fav\r ( ! conclusion t a gre5 plant obta9s its c>bon f ! c>bon dioxide ( ! air4 ,to te/ ?is1 a l>ge bottle is fitt$1 by means ( a tightly fitt+ cork or /opp]1 ) a tube conta9+ lumps ( soda lime1 a sub/ance :i* eag]ly absorbs c>bon dioxide f air4 ,a small j> ( cau/ic soda is plac$ inside ! bottle 7,fig4 #ba74 ,a gre5 plant or a leafy twig1 :i* has be5 kept = tw5ty-f\r h\rs 9 ! d>k to free x f />*1 is !n put 9 ! bottle1 & ! :ole expos$ to sunlight = a few h\rs4 ,at ! end ( ?is "t x is f\nd1 on te/+ ! leaves1 t no />* has be5 =m$4 ,by ?is1 & o!r exp]im5ts1 botani/s h prov$ t gre5 plants obta9 all _! c>bon f ! c>bon dioxide ( ! air1 & t sunlight is indisp5sable = ! process4 ,we %all exam9e ?is "q m fully :5 we /udy leaves 7,*apt] ,,iii474 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,exp]im5t to prove t leaves d n make />* unless ! air ) :i* !y are suppli$ conta9s c>bon dioxide4 ,s1 tube conta9+ lumps ( soda lime2 ,s1 j> conta9+ a solution ( cau/ic soda4 ,! c>bonace\s food ( a "y se$l+4--,j z a bean or pea se$l+ is = a "t indep5d5t ( an outside supply ( m9]al food--its roots ne$+ only to be suppli$ ) wat]--s !re is en\gh c>bonace\s food also /or$ up 9 ! se$ to satisfy = "s "t ! ne$s ( ! gr[+ plant--! /or$ />* be+ gradually *ang$ into sug> & absorb$4 ,= ?is reason a "y se$l+ w live heal?ily 9 ! d>k4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! se$ food is exhau/$1 or ne>ly s1 ! plant draws ^u ! /ore ( c>bon1 :i* is pres5t z c>bon dioxide 9 ! air1 = a r5ewal ( ! />* & alli$ sub/ances :i* are necess>y to x4 ,z x _c make use ( ?is atmosph]ic c>bon 9 ! d>k1 x mu/ h5ce=? be suppli$ ) sunlight or x w n ?rive4 ,plants kept 9 ! d>k aft] _! se$-food is exhau/$ are pale 9 col\r & unheal?y4 ,_! /ems gr[ long & /raggl+ 7,fig4 #bb71 b are usually too weak to /& upright4 ,,ex]cises ,,on ,,*apt] ,,ii4 #a4 ,make exp]im5ts to discov] ! effects1 ^u se$l+s gr[+ 9 a nutritive solution 7p4 #bg71 ( ea* ( ! foll[+ modifications 9 ! composition ( ! solution3 7a7 omit ! sodium *loride2 7b7 omit ! potassium nitrate2 7c7 omit ! comp\nd ( iron2 7d7 omit ! magnesium sulphate2 7e7 sub/itute sodium nitrate = potassium nitrate4 #b4 ,expla9 h[ x is t a gre5 plant _c c>ry on its nutrition 9 d>kness4 7#ahib7 #c4 ,:at "p ( its food does a gre5 plant obta9 f ! air8 ,9 :at =m1 & "u :at conditions1 is x tak5 98 7#ahhi7 #d4 ,describe ! me?od ( wat] cultures1 & give ! g5]al results ( a set ( exp]im5ts4 7#ahih7 #e4 ,give exp]im5tal pro( t gre5 plants require to be f$ ) comb9$ nitrog54 7#ahig7 #f4 ,:at are ! necess>y conditions = ! =mation ( />* 9 a plant8 ,m5tion exp]im5ts :i* support y\r /atem5ts4 7#ahif7 #g4 ,expla9 ! influ5ce ( light on a gr[+ plant4 ,illu/rate y\r answ] by ref]5ce to ! *anges 9 a rip5+ & g]m9at+ bean4 7,k+'s ,s*ol4 #aijc7 #h4 ,h[ c x be prov$ exp]im5tally t a gre5 plant draws "s1 b n ! :ole1 ( its n\ri%m5t f ! air8 7#aijd7 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,two mu/>d se$l+s ( equal age4 ,e1 gr[n 9 ! d>k2 ,n1 gr[n 9 ord9>y daylight4 ,,footnote3 #e ,*eap glass tub+ c easily be made s(t en\gh to b5d by heat+ x 9 an ord9>y batsw+ gas burn]4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,=ms ,,& ,,duties ,,( ,,leaves4 #g4 ,,! ,,=ms ,,( ,,leaves4 #a4 ,! %apes4--,make a collection ( ! leaves ( a l>ge numb] ( diff]5t plants1 = example1 elm1 bee*1 lime1 oak1 bir*1 a%1 blackb]ry1 p9e1 yew1 horse *e/nut1 rose1 holly1 woodsorrel1 grass4 ,lay ea* 9 turn flat 9 y\r notebook & trace ! %ape ( ! leaf blade by pass+ ! po9t ( y\r p5cil r\nd ! edge4 ,measure ! l5g? & greate/ wid?2 write d[n ^! dim5sions4 ,is ! greate/ wid? at1 above1 or bel[1 ! middle ( ! leaf blade8 ,mo/ ( ! leaves are flatt5$ gre5 plates4 ,^? ( ! p9e & yew are long & ne$le-%ap$4 ,d y "k any o!r leaves l ^!8 #b4 ,! ve9s4--,:at enables ! leaf to keep /ret*$ out8 ,turn x ov] & notice ! 8ve9s0 on ! l[] side4 ,d !y act l ! ribs ( an umbrella8 ,fill 9 ! positions ( ! ma9 ve9s 9 y\r draw+s4 ,are ! ve9s p>allel to ea* o!r 9 any ( y\r leaves8 ,write a li/ ( z _m leaves z y c f9d :i* h p>allel ve9s4 #c4 ,skeleton leaves4--,put "s leaves 9 a sauc] ) a little s(t wat]1 & all[ !m to rot4 ,clean away ! s(t /uff f "t to "t by g5tly bru%+ ! leaves ) an old too?-bru%4 ,notice ! 8skeleton0 :i* rema9s4 ,skeleton leaves may be made mu* m quickly by soak+ ! leaves = "s "t 9 a weak solution ( blea*+ p[d]4 ,wa% !m well be=e dry+4 #d4 ,! col\r4--,is ! gre5 deep] on ! upp] or ! l[] surface ( a leaf8 ,:i* surface usually receives m light8 #e4 ,! apex4--,9 h[ _m ( y\r leaves is ! apex 7a7 po9t$1 7b7 blunt1 7c7 r\nd$8 #f4 ,! m>g94--,exam9e ! edge or m>g9 ( ea* leaf4 ,9 h[ _m is x 7a7 q pla91 7b7 hairy1 7c7 wavy1 7d7 saw-edg$1 7e7 d\bly saw-edg$1 7f7 sp9y8 ,d y f9d sp9es on holly leaves :i* are s high on ! tree z to be out ( ! rea* ( cattle8 ,:at is ! use ( ! sp9es8 #g4 ,blackb]ry leaves4--,ga!r sev]al leaves f a blackb]ry bu%4 ,notice t 9 addition to ! 8saw cuts10 ! m>g9s ( "s are cut into slightly1 :ile o!rs are divid$ q to ! midrib1 ! leaf be+ ?us cut into two or m leaflets4 ,select specim5s :i* =m a gradual s]ies betwe5 ! 8simple0 leaf & ! 8comp\nd0 leaf 7consi/+ ( ?ree or five leaflets7 & draw !m4 #h4 ,! horse *e/nut leaf4--,draw ! comp\nd leaf ( ! horse *e/nut1 & draw an ev5 curv$ l9e jo9+ ! po9ts ( ! leaflets4 ,y c imag9e t ! comp\nd leaf may h be5 =m$ by a leaf ( ?is %ape be+ cut into until x 0 divid$ into sev5 complete leaflets4 #i4 ,! rose leaf4--,draw an imag9>y simple leaf su* z may h be5 ! orig9al =m f :i* ! comp\nd leaf ( ! rose 0 d]iv$4 ,notice ! diff]5ce 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! ma9 ve9s ( ! leaves ( ! horse *e/nut & ! rose4 ,does ?is acc\nt = ! leaflets com+ (f at ! sides ( ! midrib 9 ! rose leaf1 & spr++ f "o po9t1 l f+]s f ! palm ( ! h&1 9 ! case ( ! horse *e/nut8 #aj4 ,sycamore & ivy leaves4--,if ! l>ge ind5tations 9 ^! leaves 7 cont9u$ to ! midrib1 w\ld ! comp\nd leaves ?us =m$ be ( ! type ( ! rose leaf or ( t ( ! horse *e/nut leaf8 #aa4 ,! leaf-/alk4--,:at atta*es ! leaf-blade to ! /em or bran* ( ! plant8 ,c y see signs ( ! ma9 ve9s jo9+ ! top ( ! leaf-/alk8 ,d y "k any plant ) ! blades ( ! leaves fix$ directly on ! /em1 i4e4 )\t any leaf-/alks8 #ab4 ,/ipules4--,exam9e ! rose leaf aga9 & notice ! two leaf-l outgr[?s at ! bottom ( ! /alk4 ,^! are call$ /ipules4 ,make a li/ ( z _m leaves z y c f9d :i* h /ipules4 ,h[ _m leaves c y f9d ) a %ea? at ! bottom ( ! /alk8 #ac4 ,! leaf ( ! sweet pea4--,notice ! l>ge /ipules ( ?is comp\nd leaf 7,fig4 #bh74 ,:at are ! t5drils8 ,d y ?9k !y may be ma9ly ! l>g] ve9s ( ! upp] leaflets8 ,is ! leaf ( ! type ( ! rose or ( ! horse *e/nut leaf8 #ad4 ,o!r comp\nd leaves4--,comp>e & contra/ a%1 lup9e1 woodsorrel1 /rawb]ry1 & o!r comp\nd leaves ) ^? ( ! rose & horse *e/nut4 ,a leaf4--,! leaves ( diff]5t plants v>y mu* 9 size & %ape1 b 9 g5]al a leaf is a ?91 broad1 & m or less oval blade ( gre5 col\r1 atta*$ by a leaf /alk to ! /em or bran*4 ,9 "s cases1 h[ev]1 ! leaf /alk is abs5t & ! blade is atta*$ directly to ! /em or bran*4 ,! ve9s4--,! leaf is kept taut by a numb] ( bran*+ ribs1 some:at z ! silk ( an op5$ umbrella is /ret*$ tightly by ! ribs4 ,! ribs or 8ve9s0 ( ! leaf run b5ea? ! sk91 b are g5]ally ne>] ! l[] surface ?an ! upp]1 & are easily se5 :5 ! leaf is turn$ ov]4 ,if a leaf is all[$ to rot 9 a little s(t wat]1 ! sk9 & ! s(t gre5 /uff ( ! int]ior decay & leave ^! ve9s z a :ite 8skeleton0 7,fig4 #bc74 ,! process may be assi/$ by g5tly bru%+ ! leaf f "t to "t4 ,a skeleton leaf may be obta9$ /ill m quickly by putt+ ! leaf 9 a weak solution ( blea*+ p[d] until ! sk9 & int]ior are s(t en\gh to be bru%$ away4 ,c>e %\ld be tak5 to use a weak solution1 or ! ve9s also w be rott$4 ,! skeleton %\ld be well wa%$ 9 wat] be=e dry+4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! ve9s 9 a leaf v>ies widely1 b x falls broadly into two classes1 accord+ z ! ma9 ve9s run p>allel or ne>ly p>allel to ea* o!r 7,fig4 #bd71 or =m a less regul> network 7,fig4 #bc74 ,! v5ation ( a leaf is curi\sly associat$ ) ! numb] ( cotyl$ons possess$ by ! se$l+2 = ne>ly all dicotyl$ons 7p4 #bc7 h net-ve9$ leaves1 :ile ! leaves ( monocotyl$ons are almo/ inv>iably p>allel-ve9$4 ,c>eful draw+s ( sev]al typical leaves %\ld be made1 & ! pr9cipal ve9s indicat$ on !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,net-ve9$ leaf ( a dicotyl$on 7,:ite ,?orn74 7 7 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,p>allel v5ation ( ! leaf ( a monocotyl$on 7,solomon's ,seal74 7 #a7 ,! %apes ( leaves4--,al?\gh ! blade ( a leaf is mo/ commonly flatt5$1 & r\ghly oval 9 outl9e1 !re are sev]al exceptions4 ,! leaves ( p9e1 spruce1 l>*1 & yew are ne$le-%ap$2 ^? ( grasses 7,figs4 #ajb-aaj7 are v long 9 proportion to _! wid?2 :ile ! leaves ( _m moorl& plants are roll$ up into holl[ cyl9d]s4 ,!re is "s reason--c\ld we f9d x--= e su* v>iation1 & ! significance ( "s ( ^! %apes w be ref]r$ to lat] 7p4 #dg74 ,:5 ! dim5sions ( leaves are c>efully measur$1 ! proportion ( ! l5g? to ! wid? w be f\nd to v>y mu* 9 ! leaves ( diff]5t plants1 b w be f\nd to be pretty con/ant = ! same sort ( plant4 ,?is holds good1 too1 = ! position ( ! greate/ wid? 7e4g4 at1 above1 or bel[1 ! middle ( ! blade71 ! =m ( ! apex ( ! blade 7blunt1 po9t$1 sp9y1 or r\nd$71 ! nature ( ! m>g9 7smoo? & 8entire10 hairy1 saw-edg$1 d\bly saw-edg$1 lob$1 etc471 & ! ext5t & positions ( ! l>g] ind5tations4 ,?us1 :ile any p>ticul> elm leaf 7,fig4 #abd7 is probably slightly diff]5t f e o!r elm leaf 9 ! _w1 x resembles e o!r elm leaf m ?an x does any leaf f any o!r plant ?an an elm4 ,no leaf ( ?is %ape ev] gr[s on an oak tree or a sycamore4 ,?us1 9 spite ( m9or v>iations !re is a wond]ful con=mity to type1 & ! /ud5t w f9d t by c>efully exam9+ ! %ape1 v5ation1 m>g91 apex1 etc41 ( all 8 leaves1 & above all by draw+ !m1 he w soon be able to recognise !m at sight4 ,x is by do+ ?is & notic+ 9 ea* case ! me?ods ( fold+ & arrangem5t ( "y leaves 9 ! bud t x may be possible 9 ! future to expla9 "s v>iations :i* are at pres5t n und]/ood4 ,x has already be5 se5 t ! peculi> =ms ( ! leaves kn[n z cotyl$ons are associat$ to "s ext5t ) ! %ape & size ( ! se$s conta9+ !m1 & ) ! am\nt1 if any1 ( ! food /or$ 9 !m4 ,simple & comp\nd leaves4--,blackb]ry leaves 7,fig4 #gf7 well repay close exam9ation4 ,"s ( ! leaves on ! bu% w be f\nd to be simple--hav+ "o blade only on ! leaf /alk4 ,"h & !re1 h[ev]1 a leaf may be discov]$ :i* is s deeply cut into along "o side1 t x is almo/ completely divid$ into two leaflets2 & o!r leaves w easily be f\nd :i* consi/ ( ?ree or five leaflets1 mu* resembl+ ! leaves ( ! rose 7,fig4 #be71 a ne> relative ( ! blackb]ry4 ,"h1 !n1 we h a plant :i* produces simple or comp\nd leaves accord+ to its ne$s4 ,x seems z if ! blackb]ry 7 /ill try+1 z an exp]im5t1 a device :i* ! rose tree has f\nd s advantage\s z to h adopt$ = good4 ,"s o!r plants1 ! a%1 = example1 h comp\nd leaves broadly simil> to ! rose leaf--! leaflets spr++ 9 pairs f ! sides ( ! midrib4 ,! comp\nd leaf ( ! horse *e/nut 7,fig4 #bf7 is ( a diff]5t type1 = ! sev5 leaflets all arise f "o po9t2 & ! leaves ( ! lup9e 7,fig4 #i7 are arrang$ on ! same plan4 ,:5 ! v5ation is exam9$1 ! reason = ?is becomes pla94 ,9 ^! cases ! ma9 ve9s all div]ge f ! top ( ! leaf /alk2 :]eas 9 ! rose & a% ! midrib gives rise to side ribs 9 pairs4 ,! leaflets are naturally arrang$ s t "o ( ! l>g] ve9s %all support ea*4 ,! next "q aris+ is1 8,:at causes ! diff]5ces 9 ! me?ods ( bran*+ ( ! midrib80 ,at pres5t ?is is a my/]y4 ,comp\nd leaves consi/+ ( ?ree leaflets are f\nd 9 woodsorrel1 /rawb]ry 7,fig4 #ej71 clov]1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #be4--;,comp\nd leaf ( ! ,rose4 ,l1 leaflets2 ,p1 leaf-/alk2 /1 /ipules4 7 7 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--;,comp\nd leaf ( ! ,horse ,*e/nut4 7 7 ,int]m$iate leaves4--,! ivy 7,fig4 #bg7 & sycamore 7,fig4 #cc7 h leaves :i* seem int]m$iate betwe5 truly simple & truly comp\nd leaves4 ,f ! arrangem5t ( ! ve9s x is se5 t !y approa* ! horse *e/nut type m ?an t ( ! rose4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! deep ind5tations ( ! oak leaf 7,fig4 #aac7 7 c>ri$ to ! midrib1 ! simple leaf w\ld be divid$ into leaflets arrang$1 some:at l ^? ( ! rose or a% leaf1 along ! sides ( ! midrib4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,ivy4 7 _/7 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,comp\nd leaf ( ,pea4 ,fl1 fl[]-/alk2 ,sp1 /ipules2 ,t1 t5drils4 7 7 ,/ipules4--,at ! bases ( _m leaf /alks1 close to ! /em1 are leaf-l outgr[?s call$ /ipules4 ,!y are well se5 9 ! rose 7,fig4 #be7 & pea 7,fig4 #bh74 ,"s leaves h a %ea? at ! bottom ( ! /alk1 p>tially enclos+ ! /em4 ,t5drils4--,! pea also af=ds an int]e/+ case ( leaflets be+ modifi$ to d special "w4 ,"h ! upp] leaflets seem to h rema9$ undevelop$ except = _! ma9 ve9s1 & ^! h acquir$ a rem>kable p[] ( tw9+ r\nd suitable objects & s support+ ! /em4 ,_m o!r plants h t5drils1 b ^! are n always modifi$ leaflets4 #h4 ,,h[ ,,leaves ,,are ,,arrang$ ,,on ,,! ,,/em4 #a4 ,opposite leaves4--,exam9e a deadnettle plant 7,fig4 #ib74 ,d ! leaves come (f ! /em haphaz>d8 ,h[ _m come (f at ea* level8 ,are bo? leaves on ! same side ( ! /em1 or opposite ea* o!r8 ,are ! two leaves at ! next level above j ov] ^!1 or d ! directions cross8 ,d ! leaves get z mu* light or m ?an !y w\ld if ea* pair 7 j ov] ! pair next bel[8 ,h[ _m o!r plants d y "k :i* h leaves arrang$ 9 ?is mann]8 ,exam9e leafy twigs ( sycamore1 horse *e/nut 7,fig4 #dj71 & a%4 ,are ! /alks ( ! l[] leaves ( ^! twigs ( ! same l5g? z ^? ( ! upp] ones8 ,is x any advantage = ! l[] leaves to h long] leaf /alks8 #b4 ,box leaves4--,:at is ! arrangem5t 9 ! box8 ,exam9e p>ticul>ly ! "y leaves ne> ! end ( ! twig4 ,are ! l[] ones twi/$8 ,c y sugge/ a reason = ?is twi/+8 ,c y f9d any twigs 9 :i* no twi/+ has tak5 place8 ,are ^! untwi/$ twigs s plac$ t !y are equally expos$ to ! light on all sides8 #c4 ,alt]nate leaves4--,exam9e ! arrangem5t ( ! leaves on a wallfl[] /em4 ,!y come (f alt]nately1 ea* spr++ f a rib on ! /em4 ,h[ _m ribs are !re8 ,look at ! bottom ( ! /em1 :]e ! leaves h fall5 (f1 & notice t ea* has left a sc>4 ,m>k "o ( ! sc>s ) y\r p5cil & !n c\nt h[ _m sc>s y pass be=e com+ to ano!r on ! same rib4 ,h[ _m times d y w9d r\nd ! /em 9 do+ ?is8 ,y pass five leaves & w9d spirally r\nd ! /em twice4 ,?is is always ! case 9 ! wallfl[]4 ,exam9e leafy twigs ( oak & pe> trees4 ,"h1 too1 ! leaves are alt]nate1 & e six? leaf is above ! fir/1 & a l9e jo9+ all ! leaf-bases or sc>s betwe5 ! fir/ & six? leaves w\ld w9d spirally r\nd ! /em twice4 ,:at is ! arrangem5t 9 ! elm & lime8 #d4 ,leaves :i* =m a rosette4--,exam9e plants ( primrose 7,fig4 #ha7 & daisy4 ,! leaves 9 ^! cases spr+ f close to ! gr\nd & =m a rosette4 ,notice t ! bottom ( ! leaf blade is mu* n>r[] ?an ! upp] "p4 ,is any sav+ ( mat]ial obta9$ by ?is arrangem5t8 #e4 ,! position ( bran*es & buds4--,look 9 ! upp] angle betwe5 a leaf & ! /em 9 all y\r specim5s4 ,?is angle is call$ ! axil ( ! leaf4 ,c y see a bud 9 ! axil ( ! leaf8 ,c y f9d t a bud or a side bran* ev] arises 9 any o!r position8 7,! =m] positions ( fall5 leaves are m>k$ by sc>s47 ,to ! beg9n] 9 nature-/udy leaves seem 9 ! majority ( cases to be arrang$ on ! /em ( a plant 9 a haphaz>d & confus+ mann]1 & x is only aft] v c>eful obs]vation t a def9ite ord] & regul>ity is se5 to be always ma9ta9$4 ,nodes & int]nodes4--,! level at :i* a leaf spr+s f ! /em is call$ a node 7,lat4 nodus1 a knot71 & ! l5g? betwe5 two consecutive nodes is call$ an int]node 7,lat4 int]1 betwe574 ,opposite leaves4--,x is be/ to beg9 ! /udy ( leaf-arrangem5t by exam9+ "s su* plant z ! deadnettle 7,fig4 #ib74 ,! leaves come (f 9 pairs3 two at ! same level1 set opposite to ea* o!r4 ,! next pair above or bel[ spr+s f ! /em 9 a direction at "r angles to ! fir/--a device :i* all[s ! leaves to get a m equal %>e ( light ?an if ea* pair 7 plac$ directly ov] ! next bel[4 ,a simil> arrangem5t is adopt$ by v>i\s o!r plants1 includ+ ! horse *e/nut 7,fig4 #dj71 sycamore 7,fig4 #cd71 box1 privet1 etc41 b 9 "s in/ances x is disguis$4 ,box twigs af=d an int]e/+ example ( ?is4 ,^? twigs :i* are equally1 or almo/ equally1 illum9at$ on all sides1 h _! leaves arrang$ 9 pairs at "r angles to ea* o!r l ^? ( ! deadnettle4 ,"s twigs1 h[ev]1 receive ! light f "o direction only1 & 9 ^! cases ! leaves turn !mselves until !y face ! light2 s t at a casual glance ! pairs ( leaves seem to lie all 9 ! same plane4 ,"o only ne$s to exam9e ! end ( ! twig1 :]e ! leaves are j unfold+1 to see t ! arrangem5t is really 9 pairs alt]nately at "r angles4 ,9 ! case ( ! privet ! ef=ts ( ! leaves to face ! light (t5 cause ! /em itself to be twi/$ betwe5 ! leaf-levels4 ,! alt]nate1 or spiral1 arrangem5t4--,p]haps ! commone/ leaf-arrangem5t is "o 9 :i* only "o leaf is giv5 (f at any p>ticul> node1 ! next leaf be+ a little fur!r r\nd ! /em1 & s on4 ,z a result1 an ink l9e or a piece ( ?read jo9+ ! leaf-bases w\ld w9d spirally r\nd ! /em4 ,9 ! case ( ! wallfl[]1 oak1 pe>1 & _m o!rs1 su* a l9e w\ld w9d spirally twice r\nd ! /em be=e com+ to a leaf v]tically above ! fir/1 & 9 s do+ x w\ld pass five leaves4 ,?is may be %ortly describ$ z ! _/ arrangem5t4 ,a less common "o is 1 :]e 9 w9d+ spirally r\nd ! /em #c times1 #h leaves w\ld be pass$4 ,ef=ts ( leaves to obta9 light4--,x w\ld be difficult to imag9e any ord] ( ins]tion :i* w\ld secure a m equal di/ribution ( light to ea* leaf ?an ! spiral arrangem5t2 b "h also cases ( leaves twi/+ 9 ord] to face ! light are n uncommon4 ,lime leaves v (t5 turn = ?is reason1 s z to lie 9 almo/ ! same plane--adopt+ a device simil> to t ( ! box & privet describ$ above4 ,fur!r1 ! lime leaves arrange !mselves at su* angles t !re is v little ov]lapp+4 ,elm twigs also (t5 exhibit simil> in/ances ( a mutual accommodation ( leaves to ea* o!r's light supply4 ,! l[] leaves on a horse *e/nut twig h long] /alks ?an ^? ne>] ! end 7,fig4 #dj74 ,?is enables ! leaves to /& well out to ! light & escape ! ov]%ad[+ ( ^? above4 ,! positions ( bran*es4--,a bran* ( ! /em ( a fl[]+ plant always arises z a bud 9 ! upp] angle betwe5 a leaf & ! /em4 ,?is position is call$ by botani/s ! axil ( ! leaf1 f ! ,lat9 ^w axilla1 ! arm-pit4 ,cle>ly1 !n1 ! arrangem5t ( ! bran*es is prim>ily dep5d5t ^u t ( ! leaves1 & we %all1 = example1 nev] f9d 8opposite0 bran*es on a tree :i* be>s its leaves on ! 8alt]nate0 sy/em4 ,x is easy to notice1 h[ev]1 t n all ! buds develop into bran*es4 ,9 o!r words !re are _m buds :i* rema9 dormant1 & ! f9al arrangem5t ( ! bran*es is (t5 some:at irregul> on ?is acc\nt4 ,b :]ev] an ord9>y bud or a bran* occurs1 we may be p]fectly sure t !re 0 once a leaf imm$iately bel[1 ev5 if ! leaf-sc> c no long] be se54 ,economy ( leaf surface4--,all ^! ?+s seem to indicate t a good supply ( light is ( ! greate/ importance to leaves1 & ?is conclusion is support$ by ! fact t leaves are usually ei!r n>r[ or actually cut away 9 places :]e ! light _c rea* !m4 ,! leaves ( ! daisy & ( ! primrose 7,fig4 #ha71 = example1 all spr+ f ne>ly ! same po9t1 & =m a rosette4 ,evid5tly !re w\ld be a c]ta9 am\nt ( ov]lapp+ at ! leaf-bases1 unless ! blades !re 7 v n>r[1 z !y are4 ,aga91 ! greatly-ind5t$ leaves ( ! ivy are (t5 arrang$ s t a po9t ( "o leaf fits ov] an ind5tation ( ano!r--a beautiful example ( plant economy4 #i4 ,,! ,,"w ,,( ,,leaves4 #a4 ,9 sunlight leaves make />*4--,expts4 #e1 #g1 & #h 7,sec4 #f7 h already prov$ 7a7 t leaves ( a plant gr[+ 9 ord9>y air & expos$ to ! sunlight make />*2 7b7 t 9 ! d>k ?is />* someh[ disappe>s2 7c7 t 9 air de/itute ( c>bon dioxide leaves are unable to make />* ev5 9 sunlight4 #b4 ,! p>ts ( a leaf :i* are n expos$ to light d n make />*4--,keep a plant1 say ( tropolum--or1 if n conv5i5t1 a s+le leaf 7,fig4 #ca7--;9 ! d>k = #bd h\rs to free ! leaves f />*4 ,split a small cork & p9 ! halves on opposite sides ( a leaf1 & !n expose ! plant to bright sunlight = an h\r or two4 7,if a s+le leaf is us$ let ! end ( ! /alk dip into wat]47 ,take (f ! cork1 kill ! leaf ) boil+ wat]1 dissolve out ! gre5 col\r+ matt] ) me?ylat$ _s1 r9se1 & te/ ) iod9e solution4 ,! "p f :i* ! light 0 exclud$ rema9s blea*$1 & !re=e conta9s no />*2 :ile ! re/ ( ! leaf becomes blue or purpli% br[n ow+ to ! pres5ce ( />*4 #c4 ,p>ts ( a leaf :i* are n gre5 d n =m />* 9 sunlight4--,take a v>iegat$ leaf f a plant 7e4g4 ! v>iegat$ g]anium or maple7 :i* has be5 9 bright sunlight = "s h\rs4 ,apply ! usual te/ = />*4 ,! p>ts :i* 7 orig9ally gre5 conta9 />*2 ! orig9ally :ite p>ts rema9 blea*$4 #d4 ,leaves suppli$ ) c>bon dioxide1 & expos$ to sunlight1 give (f oxyg5 gas4--7a7 ,take a bun* ( fre% wat]cress or any gre5 wat]-we$ & put x 9 a beak] or glass j>4 ,cov] ! plant ) an inv]t$ funnel :i* is %ort] ?an ! beak]4 ,n[ fill ! beak] ) ord9>y tap wat] or riv] wat] 7n di/ill$ wat]71 s t ! end ( ! neck ( ! funnel is cov]$4 ,completely fill a n>r[ te/ tube ) wat]1 close x ) ! ?umb1 & inv]t x ov] ! neck ( ! funnel4 ,if ?is has be5 done c>efully ! te/ tube w /ill be full ( wat]4 ,expose ! arrangem5t 7,fig4 #bi7 to bright sunlight1 & notice ! bubbles ( gas :i* are giv5 (f f ! plant & collect at ! top ( ! tube4 ,:5 a few in*es ( gas h collect$1 raise ! te/ tube1 close x ) ! ?umb :il/ /ill "u wat]1 & hold x m\? upw>ds4 ,9 ! meantime1 light a spl9t] ( wood ) ! o!r h&4 ,:5 x is well burn+1 bl[ out ! light1 remove ! ?umb f ! te/ tube1 & plunge ! gl[+ spl9t] into ! gas4 ,x bur/s into flame aga91 %[+ t ! gas is oxyg54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--;,exp]im5t to prove t gre5 leaves suppli$ ) c>bon dioxide1 & expos$ to sunlight1 give (f oxyg5 gas4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,exp]im5t to prove t tap-wat]1 or riv]-wat]1 conta9s dissolv$ c>bon dioxide4 7b7 ,repeat ! exp]im5t1 7i7 plac+ ! app>atus 9 ! d>k1 7ii7 )\t us+ any plant4 ,no gas collects 9 ! te/ tube4 7c7 ,to %[ t ! wat] us$ conta9s c>bon dioxide 9 solution1 completely fill a gallon c or a l>ge flask ) simil> wat]1 & atta* a cork & a deliv]y tube :i* has also be5 fill$ ) wat]--dipp+ ! end ( ! tube into a little cle> lime-wat] 7,fig4 #cj74 ,put ! same quantity ( lime-wat] into ano!r vessel = comp>ison1 & !n heat ! c4 ,gas is giv5 (f1 & z x bubbles ?r\gh ! lime-wat] ! liquid is gradually turn$ milky4 #e4 ,leaves )] 9 sunlight unless suppli$ ) wat]4--7a7 ,cut (f a leafy twig & leave x expos$ to sunlight = an h\r or two2 notice ! *ange 9 ! appe>ance ( ! leaves4 7b7 ,put a simil> twig 9 ! d>k = ! same l5g? ( "t2 aga9 notice ! leaves4 ,is ! diff]5ce due to a diff]5ce 9 light or to "o ( heat8 7c7 ,to te/ ?is1 keep1 if possible1 a simil> twig 9 ! d>k 9 a w>m place4 ,d ! leaves )] z mu* z 9 7a78 7d7 ,sme> ) vasel9e ! "u surface ( "s ( ! leaves ( su* a twig & aga9 expose to sunlight4 ,d ! sme>$ leaves rema9 fre% long] ?an ! o!rs8 7e7 ,cut (f ! end ( a twig ) a %>p knife :il/ x is "u wat]1 & leave x expos$ to sunlight1 dipp+ 9 wat]4 ,! leaves rema9 fre%4 ,h[ d y expla9 ^! diff]5ces8 #f4 ,9 sunlight1 leaves give (f wat]4--,take a piece ( c>dbo>d ab\t #d 94 squ>e & make a small hole 9 ! middle4 ,pass ! end ( a leafy twig ?r\gh ! hole & make up ) wax any *9ks betwe5 ! twig & ! c>d4 ,put ! c>d on a tumbl] conta9+ wat]1 s t ! end ( ! twig dips "u wat]2 & inv]t on ! c>d--cov]+ ! leafy end ( ! twig--a second tumbl] :i* is clean & dry4 ,put ! app>atus 9 ! sun%9e & notice ! mi/9ess 7or ev5 visible drops ( wat]7 =m+ on ! inside ( ! upp] tumbl]4 ,:]e does ?is moi/ure come f8 #g4 ,! sk9 ( a leaf is p]=at$ by little pores4--,dip a fre% laurel leaf into boil+ wat] 9 a beak] or tumbl]4 ,c y see bubbles ( air escap+ f ! leaf8 ,are !y to be se5 on bo? surfaces ( ! leaf1 or only on "o8 ,:i*8 ,exam9e bo? surfaces ( box leaves ) a /rong l5s1 & try to see ! little dots 7pores7 on ! l[] surface4 ,! /ud5t :o has p]=m$ ! exp]im5ts describ$ 9 ?is section1 & :o has ?\ght ab\t ! results obta9$1 _c b h ga9$ "s insight into ! ma9 duties ( leaves4 ,! mean+ ( ^! results mu/ n[ be discuss$4 ,! =mation ( />* 9 leaves4--,:5 ! gre5 leaves ( a plant are expos$ to sunlight 9 ord9>y air--t is 9 air conta9+ a c]ta9 proportion ( c>bon dioxide--! leaf =ms />* 9 its int]ior1 & ! />* c be detect$ by apply+ ! iod9e te/ 7p4 #cd74 ,:5 "p ( a leaf is protect$ f ! light1 z by p9n+ ! halves ( a split cork on opposite sides ( x 7,fig4 #ca71 no />* is =m$ 9 ! %ad$ p>ts1 b only 9 ! regions :i* are expos$ to ! light4 ,fur!r1 if a v>iegat$ leaf is treat$ 9 ! same way1 />* c be detect$ only 9 ^? p>ts ( ! leaf :i* 7 orig9ally gre52 ! p>ts :i* 7 :ite are free f />*4 ,x is pla9 t x is ! gre5 col\r+ matt] :i* puts ! en]gy ( ! sunlight at ! disposal ( ! leaf & enables x to manufacture />*4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,b ,,fig4 #ca4--;,a1 ,tropolum leaf1 on :i* h be5 p9n$ ! halves ( a split cork 7,c74 7 47 ,b1 ! same leaf te/$ = />* ) iod9e solution1 aft] exposure to sunlight = an h\r4 ,! "p %ield$ f ! light rema9s blea*$2 ! re/ ( ! leaf has turn$ blue4 ,at lea/ ?ree conditions are !re=e necess>y = ! =mation ( />* 9 leaves3 7#a7 ! gre5 col\r+ matt]2 7#b7 sunlight2 7#c7 c>bon dioxide4 ,oxyg5 is lib]at$ :5 leaves =m />*4--,c>bon dioxide gas1 :i* has be5 se5 to be indisp5sable = ! manufacture ( />* 9 leaves1 consi/s ( c>bon1 or *>coal1 *emically unit$ ) ! gas oxyg54 ,! gre5-/uff ( ! int]ior ( ! leaf makes ! />* by caus+ ?is c>bon to comb9e ) wat] :i* has come up f ! roots1 b x returns to ! air ! unnecess>y oxyg54 ,wat] plants1 ! leaves ( :i* are n directly expos$ to ! air1 use c>bon dioxide :i* ! wat] has dissolv$ f ! air4 ,!y also give (f ! surplus oxyg51 aft] fix+ ! c>bon4 ,?is is ! explanation ( ! bubbles ( gas :i*1 9 sunlight1 are (t5 se5 ris+ f ! plants 9 an aqu>ium4 ,by su* an arrangem5t z is describ$ 9 ,expt4 #i1 #d1 ?is evolv$ gas c be collect$1 & prov$ to be oxyg54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--;,exp]im5t to prove t gre5 leaves1 expos$ to sunlight1 give (f wat]4 ,! use ( wat] to ! leaves4--,x is common k t if a twig is all[$ to become dry its leaves hang limply & )]2 b if ! twig is all[$ to dip into wat] ! leaves w keep fre% & crisp = a consid]able "t4 ,?is necessity = supply+ ! twig ) wat] seems to indicate t leaves give (f wat]1 & t ?is is s may be prov$ by a few simple exp]im5ts4 ,two tumbl]s may be arrang$ z 9 ,fig4 #cb3 sep>at$ by a c>d ?r\gh :i* passes ! end ( a leafy twig4 ,! end ( ! twig dips into wat] 9 ! l[] tumbl]4 ,9 ord] to prev5t wat] vap\r f pass+ f ! l[] tumbl] to ! upp]1 ! *9ks betwe5 ! twig & ! c>d are seal$ ) p>aff9 wax4 ,:5 ?is arrangem5t is plac$ 9 ! sunlight1 a dew soon collects on ! inside ( ! inv]t$ upp] tumbl]4 ,?is wat] mu/ h be5 giv5 (f 9 ! =m ( vap\r f ! leaves4 ,t ! loss ( wat] f leaves is due r to ! light ?an to ! heat ( ! sun%9e may be %[n by keep+ leafy twigs 9 ! d>k4 ,! leaves keep fre% mu* long] ?an :5 plac$ 9 ! light1 ev5 if !y are kept 9 z w>m a place4 ,! pores ( ! leaf-surface4--,an ord9>y leaf rema9s fre% mu* long] if its l[] surface is sme>$ ) vasel9e4 ,! explanation ( ?is lies 9 ! fact t ! wat]pro( sk9 ( a leaf is p]=at$ by a multitude ( little pores1 especially on ! l[] surface4 ,9 mo/ leaves1 inde$1 ! pores are conf9$ to ! l[] surface4 ,sme>+ ! surface ) vasel9e blocks up ^! pores & ?us prev5ts ! escape ( wat] vap\r f ! int]ior ( ! leaf4 ,^! little m\?s 7kn[n z /omata7#f op5 9 ! light & close 9 ! d>k4 ,dur+ ! daytime1 !re=e1 ! air 7conta9+ its small proportion ( c>bon dioxide7 has free access to ! int]ior ( ! leaf ?r\gh ! /omata1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 any wat] :i* ! leaf does n require c escape 9 ! =m ( vap\r4 ,a leaf requires wat] n only because all its m9]al food 7p4 #bi7 is br\ght to x dissolv$ 9 wat]1 b also because wat] z well z c>bon dioxide is requir$ = ! manufacture ( ! />* & o!r plant-foods4 ,h[ plant-food is di/ribut$4--,! wat] :i* comes up f ! roots is di/ribut$ to ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! leaf ?r\gh ! ve9s4 ,^! are !re=e n only supports1 :i* /ret* out ! s(t leaf-/uff to ! light & air1 b !y also =m a v complete network ( irrigat+ *annels or wat] pipes4 ,fur!r1 ! />* & o!r foods :i* a leaf makes are dra9$ (f into ! /em ?r\gh o!r m9ute *annels :i* are b\nd up ) ! wat] pipes4 ,! />*1 = example1 is *ang$ into a k9d ( sug> :i* dissolves 9 wat] & dra9s away4 ,f ! /em1 ! food solutions are di/ribut$ to all ! p>ts :]e gr[? is tak+ place4 ,,ex]cises ,,on ,,*apt] ,,iii4 #a4 ,make draw+s ( z _m cases z possible ( economy ( leaf surface4 #b4 ,gr[ v>i\s plants1 e4g4 ,tropolum1 ,g]anium1 ,fu*sia1 ,mu/>d1 etc41 9 ! w9d[1 & notice ! effect :i* ! direction ( ! light has ^u ! positions ( ! leaves4 #c4 ,sme> ) vasel9e ! l[] surfaces ( v>i\s gr[+ leaves1 & on ! foll[+ day te/ ! leaves = />*1 comp>+ ea* ) an unsme>$ leaf f ! same plant4 #d4 ,h[ is ! transpiration ( wat] f a gre5 leaf effect$ & controll$8 ,discuss ! uses ( transpiration4 7#ahig7 #e4 ,put ! same quantity ( wat] into ea* ( two simil> te/-tubes1 & let ! end ( a leafy twig dip into "o4 ,weigh ! tubes1 place !m toge!r 9 ! sun = an h\r1 weigh aga91 & e/imate r\ghly ! weight ( wat] lo/ by "o squ>e in* ( leaf surface p] h\r4 ,comp>e v>i\s plants 9 ?is respect4 ,repeat ! exp]im5ts1 7a7 9 a mod]ate light1 7b7 9 ! d>k4 #f4 ,make a li/ ( plants 9 :i* ! leaves are s arrang$ z 7a7 to conduct ra9-wat] t[>ds ! base ( ! ma9 /em1 7b7 to cause ra9-wat] to fall to ! gr\nd f ! outside ( ! foliage4 ,try to discov] :e!r ! diff]5ce has any relation to ! arrangem5t ( ! roots4 #g4 ,"u :at conditions c plants use c>bon dioxide z a s\rce ( food8 ,m5tion exp]im5tal & o!r pro(s ( ! pr9cipal /atem5ts made4 7#aije7 #h4 ,:at "p ( its food does a gre5 plant obta9 f ! air8 ,9 :at =m & "u :at conditions is x tak5 98 7,k+'s ,s*ol>%ip1 #aije7 ,,footnote3 #f ,greek1 /oma1 a m\?4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,buds4 ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,a ,,twig4 #aj4 ,,! ,,/ructure ,,& ,,uses ,,( ,,buds4 #a4 ,a typical bud4--,split a cabbage1 or a lettuce 8he>t10 d[n ! middle1 & obs]ve h[ ! leaves are arrang$ r\nd ! conical end ( ! /alk4 ,! leaves :i* are fix$ l[e/ on ! /alk are ! l>ge/1 & !y cov] ! outside ( ! bud4 ,! leaves are small] & small] z !y are fix$ ne>] & ne>] ! end ( ! /alk1 until r\nd ! tip !y are almo/ too small to be recognis$ z leaves4 ,a bud is ! tip or 8gr[+ po9t0 ( a /em or bran*1 toge!r ) ! "y leaves :i* cr[d r\nd x4 ,draw ! section4 #b4 ,a sycamore twig4--,look 9 ! axils 7p4 #dg7 ( ! leaves ( a sycamore twig 9 summ] or autumn1 & notice ! buds4 ,c y see any buds on ! l[] p>ts ( ! twig--:i* bore leaves twelve mon?s or long] ago8 ,did ^! also arise 9 ! axils ( leaves8 ,h[ c y be sure !y did8 ,tie a piece ( /r+1 or tape1 r\nd ?is twig & look at x (t51 mak+ a note ( e *ange :i* y see 9 x4 #c4 ,! fall ( ! leaf4--,on :at date did y fir/ notice t ! leaves ( ! sycamore 7 fall+8 ,did ! fir/ leaves fall f ! twigs at1 or ne>1 ! ends ( ! bran*es1 or l[] d[n ne> ! trunk8 ,exam9e ! sc> left by ! fir/ leaf :i* falls f y\r twig4 ,:at is its %ape8 ,:at is ! mean+ ( ! d>k dots on ! sc>8 ,g5tly take (f ! leaf ne>e/ to ! sc>4 ,does x come (f easily8 ,are !re any d>k dots on ?is sc>8 ,c y see any?+ on ! end ( ! leaf /alk correspond+ to ! dots8 ,d y ?9k ! dots are ! ends ( ! food pipes ref]r$ to on p4 #ec8 ,make a draw+ ( a fall5 leaf & write d[n on ! draw+ at ! prop] place1 ! col\r ( t "p ( ! leaf1 or bett] /ill1 col\r ! draw+ ) wat]-col\r pa9ts4 ,collect good specim5s ( ! autumn leaves ( z _m o!r trees z possible1 & make col\r$ draw+s ( !m4 ,on :at date did y fir/ notice t all ! leaves 7 %$8 ,make simil> notes = o!r trees4 #d4 ,! /ructure ( a sycamore bud4--,9 w9t] take (f a sycamore twig :i* has a big bud at ! end1 & exam9e x4 ,! bud is clo!d ) ov]lapp+ scales ( a pale gre5 col\r4 ,make a draw+ ( ! bud1 d\ble ! size1 & !n take (f ! scales "o by "o & c\nt !m4 ,look ) a l5s at ! upp] end ( "o ( ! l>ge/ scales4 ,c y see any trace ( a rudim5t>y leaf blade8 ,:5 ! la/ scale is remov$ !re rema9s on ! end ( ! twig a t9y tuft ( delicate gre5 leaves surr\nd$ by a little d[n4 ,c\nt !m1 & notice h[ ea* is fold$ up fanwise4 ,9 "s buds y may f9d a bun* ( gre5 fl[]s 9 ! middle4 ,^! buds are l>g] ?an ^? conta9+ leaves only4 ,cut a bud across ) a %>p knife1 & exam9e ! cut surface ) a l5s to see m cle>ly h[ ! scales & "y foliage leaves are arrang$4 ,draw :at y see4 #e4 ,h[ ! bud bur/s4--,9 spr+ wat* y\r twig v c>efully to be sure y d n miss any /age ( ! op5+ ( ! buds4 ,make draw+s e day or two ( ! end bud1 :5 x has begun to unfold4 ,notice h[ ! scales fall (f--^? on ! outside fir/--& h[ ! foliage leaves pu% op5 ! upp] scales & come out4 ,wat* ! way 9 :i* ea* leaf op5s its folds & spreads itself out flat4 ,! buds may be made to op5 e>li] by cutt+ (f a twig ab\t two or ?ree feet long & keep+ x 9 wat] 9 a w>m room4 #f4 ,/>* is /or$ up 9 ! twigs4--,cut (f a twig & p\r a drop ( iod9e solution on ! cut end4 ,:at does ! blue col\r indicate8 #g4 ,! gr[? ( ! bud4--,wat* y\r bud gr[+1 & notice t ! tip ( ! twig--:i* 0 surr\nd$ by ! "y leaves--elongates s t ea* pair ( leaves is soon sep>at$ f ! next pair4 ,notice ! r+s ( sc>s :i* ! scales left :5 !y fell (f4 #h4 ,a ye>'s gr[?4--,look d[n ! twig until y f9d ! r+s or sc>s :i* 7 left la/ spr+1 :5 ! scales fell (f ! exp&+ t]m9al bud4 ,a ye> ago ! end ( ! twig 0 at ?is po9t1 s t ! l5g? betwe5 "o su* set ( r+s & ! next m>ks a ye>'s gr[?4 #i4 ,side bran*es4--,! buds on ! l5g? =m$ la/ summ] b "o may h gr[n out into side twigs4 ,try to f9d ! leaf sc>s bel[ ea* ( ^! side twigs4 #aj4 ,a horse *e/nut twig & its buds4--,exam9e 9 ! same way a horse *e/nut twig & trace its hi/ory4 ,! buds are l>g] ?an ^? ( ! sycamore1 & ea* is cov]$ ) a %9+1 /icky lay] ( res94 ,:at d y ?9k is ! use ( ! res98 ,put a bud 9 wat]1 & :5 y take x out notice h[ ! wat] runs (f & leaves ! bud dry4 ,pull "o ( ! t]m9al buds to pieces4 ,! scales w come ap>t m easily if ! bud is soak$ = "s "t 9 me?ylat$ _s1 to dissolve out ! res94 ,notice ! ?ick lay] ( d[n inside ! scales4 ,:at d y ?9k is its use8 ,scrape ! d[n g5tly1 & c>efully clean x away f ! little foliage leaves 9 ! middle4 ,see h[ ! leaflets ( ea* leaf are fold$4 ,9 "s t]m9al buds y may also f9d a little p9k fl[]-spray4 ,tie a piece ( /r+ r\nd a gr[+ twig1 s t y c recognise x1 & wat* all ! /ages ( ! expansion ( ! t]m9al bud1 ! unfold+ ( ! leaves1 & ! elongation ( ! tip 7,figs4 #cg1 #ci & #dj74 ,cut (f o!r twigs two or ?ree feet long1 9 ,febru>y or e>ly ,m>*1 & keep !m 9 wat] 9 a w>m room4 #aa4 ,o!r buds4--,exam9e ! buds ( ! bee*1 lilac1 violet1 dock1 f]n1 etc41 & make draw+s %[+ 7#a7 h[ ! leaves are arrang$ ) reg>d to ea* o!r1 & 7#b7 h[ ea* leaf is fold$ or roll$4 ,z a rule ^! po9ts c be easily made out by exam9+ ) a l5s ! cut surface ( a bud :i* has be5 cut across ) a %>p knife2 b ! buds %\ld also be exam9$ at frequ5t int]vals :5 !y are unfold+4 ,a typical bud4--,an excell5t idea ( ! /ructure ( a typical bud c be obta9$ by splitt+ d[n ! middle an ord9>y cabbage1 or a lettuce 8he>t10 & exam9+ ! mann] 9 :i* ! leaves cr[d r\nd & cov] ! conical end ( ! /alk4 ,ar\nd ! tip or 8gr[+ po9t0 ! leaves are extremely small & t5d]4 ,!y are ov]lapp$ by slightly l>g] leaves1 :i* spr+ f ! /alk a little l[] d[n4 ,^! 9 _! turn are cov]$ by /ill l>g] leaves1 ins]t$ at a yet l[] level1 & s on--! l>ge/ & olde/ leaves fold+ ov] ! small] & m rec5tly =m$4 ,! gr[+ po9t ( a /em1 or ( a bran* ( a /em1 surr\nd$ by a clu/] ( immature leaves1 is call$ a bud4 ,! hi/ory ( a sycamore twig4--,! /ud5t :o w\ld "k ! mean+ ( ! v>i\s m>ks & sc>s on ! surface ( a twig1 %\ld select "o & foll[ c>efully = a ye> ! fate ( ! buds :i* x be>s4 ,x is conv5i5t to beg9 by /udy+ a twig on a sycamore tree4 ,x may be m>k$ = ease ( recognition by ty+ a piece ( tape on x4 ,if sev]al /ud5ts are work+1 ea* %\ld write 8 "n or numb] on a luggage-label & fix ?is to 8 twig4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,sycamore leaves & fruits4 7,f a photograph by ,mr4 ,a4 ,flatt]s47 7 _/47 ,! positions ( ! buds4--,9 summ] ! y\ng] twigs ( ! sycamore tree are cov]$ ) l>ge five-po9t$ leaves 7,fig4 #cc74 ,! leaves come (f 9 pairs1 ea* pair be+ at "r angles to ! pair next above or bel[4 ,e leaf is engag$ ?r\gh\t ! day 9 build+ up--by means ( ! gre5 /uff 9 its int]ior--/>* & o!r foods 7p4 #ej71 & 9 giv+ (f excess wat]1 9 ! =m ( invisible vap\r1 ?r\gh its /omata 7p4 #ec74 ,9 ! axil 7p4 #dg7 ( ea* leaf is a little bud1 call$ f its position an axill>y bud 7,fig4 #da1 ,b71 & at ! v tip ( ! twig is a l>g] t]m9al bud4 ,autumn col\rs & ! fall ( ! leaf4--,z ! summ] wanes1 ! soil becomes cold]1 & ! *ill$ roots lose mu* ( _! p[] ( absorb+ moi/ure4 ,x is pla9 t if ! leaves cont9u$ giv+ (f wat] :5 no fre% supplies 7 =?com+ ! tree w\ld suff]4 ,h[ is ! dang] to be met8 ,/>* & o!r foods h already be5 /or$ up 9 quantity suffici5t to supply ! ne$s ( ! w9t] & ! e>ly spr+4 ,! leaves h f9i%$ _! "w1 & "o by "o !y fall (f4 ,b ?is does n take place until c>eful prep>ation has be5 made4 ,_! gre5 col\r+ matt] breaks up2 ! "p :i* may /ill be useful to ! plant dra9s into ! /em1 leav+ little heaps ( yell[ gra9s 9 ! leaves4 ,or a special col\r+ matt] may be =m$1 :i*1 unit$ 9 v>i\s ways ) ! mat]ials ( ! dy+ leaf1 gives ! w>m %ades ( r$1 orange1 & purple :i* make ! woods s beautiful 9 autumn4 ,:5 all is ready1 a lay] ( cork 7,fig4 #da1 ,c7 =ms at ! junction ( ! leaf /alk & ! twig s t no raw w\nd may be left2 ! leaf-base splits across1 j above ! cork lay]1 & ! leaf flutt]s to ! gr\nd1 !re to rot & make ri* leaf m\ld4 ,! leaf sc>s4--,! =m] position ( ea* leaf is n[ m>k$ by a curv$ sc> 7l4s4 ,fig4 #cd71 & a r[ ( br[n dots 7v4b47 9 ! sc> /ill %[s :]e ! food-pipes b5t outw>ds f ! twig into ! leaf4 ,a l9e 7a7 /ret*es across & jo9s ! two sc>s ( ea* pair4 ,! buds4--,j above e sc> is ! bud :i* arose 9 ! axil ( ! fall5 leaf4 ,x is cov]$ ) ov]lapp+ scales ( light gre5 col\r4 ,at ! end ( ! twig is a s+le t]m9al bud1 simil> 9 appe>ance to ! axill>y buds1 b ( l>g] size4 ,x is in/ructive to take ! t]m9al bud ( a twig to pieces4 ,! out] scales are t\gh & gre51 :ile ! inn] ones are ?9n] & h a beautiful silv]y appe>ance4 ,usually !re are f\rte5 scales4 ,ea* is long & n>r[ & be>s at its upp] end ! rudim5t ( a leaf blade1 :i* _c usually be se5 well )\t a l5s4 ,! scale is really a leaf :i* has be5 arre/$ 9 its developm5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,sycamore twig 9 w9t]4 l4s41 leaf-sc>s2 v4b41 ends ( food-pipes2 ,r1 r+s ( sc>s left by scales ( la/ w9t]'s t]m9al bud4 7,slightly r$uc$47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,cross section ( a ,sycamore bud4 7 #g47 ,:5 all ! scales h be5 remov$1 !re rema9s a t9y tuft ( delicate gre5 foliage leaves surr\nd$ by a little d[n4 ,ea* leaf is fold$ fanwise1 bo? = conv5i5ce ( pack+1 & to protect its t5d] tissues f ! cold & ! damp :5 ! bud is exp&+4 ,! complicat$ fold+ ( ^! leaves is well %[n 9 ,fig4 #ce1 :i* is a magnifi$ sket* ( a cross section ?r\gh a sycamore bud4 ,! l>ge %ea?s surr\nd+ ! "y leaves are f\r ( ! ov]lapp+ scales4 ,9 a l>ge t]m9al bud a bun* ( gre5 fl[]s may (t5 be f\nd4 ,! bur/+ ( ! buds4--,ab\t ! middle ( ,april ! tree wak5s to new life4 ,! /or$ food makes its way to ! t]m9al buds2 invigorat$ by ! ri* sug>y sap ! "y leaves swell & pu% =w>d1 bur/ ap>t ! scales1 & op5 out _! folds to ! light & air1 z if eag] to get to "w at ! e>lie/ possible mom5t4 ,! scales fall (f to ! gr\nd1 leav+ close-set r+s ( sc>s2 ! gr[+ po9t elongates1 & new leaves--:i* 7 indi/+ui%able 9 ! bud--gr[ out & exp&4 ,dur+ ! summ]1 food is pl5tiful1 & a little bud appe>s 9 ! axil ( e leaf4 ,only ) ! autumn does ! activity ( ! tree sl[ d[n4 ,except = "s two pairs at ! tip1 ! newe/ leaves n[ rema9 /unt$4 ,!y =m scales & close r\nd ! t5d] gr[+ po9t protect+ly1 9 read9ess = ! w9t]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,sycamore twig 9 w9t]4 7 47 ,if necess>y1 ! axill>y buds c\ld h behav$ z ! t]m9al bud did1 9 :i* case !y w\ld h gr[n out into side twigs4 ,!y usually rema9 small1 h[ev]1 until next ye> 7,fig4 #cf71 = ! leaves are s busy mak+ food1 & ! t]m9al bud is s busy gr[+ 9 l5g?1 t no en]gy c be sp>$ = _! fur!r developm5t4 ,if any accid5t _h befall5 ! t]m9al gr[+ po9t1 "o or m ( ! axill>y buds w\ld h gr[n out into side twigs4 ,g>d5]s take advantage ( su* res]ve buds :5 !y clip (f ! ends ( twigs to make a plant gr[ 8bu%y40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,horse ,*e/nut twig 9 w9t]4 7 _/47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--,! t]m9al "p ( a ,horse ,*e/nut twig 9 w9t]4 l4s41 leaf-sc>s2 v4b41 ends ( food-pipes4 7 47 ,a ye>'s gr[?4--,:5 ! bud scales drop (f !y leave1 z we h se51 a s]ies ( closely-set r+s ( sc>s4 ,! di/ance betwe5 "o set ( r+s & ! next 7z at ,r41 ,fig4 #cd71 !re=e repres5ts a ye>'s gr[?4 ,! /ud5t %\ld get a twig two or ?ree feet long & f9d out = himself1 by exam9+ ! m>ks on x1 :at ! twig did la/ ye>1 two ye>s ago1 & ?ree ye>s ago4 ,) c>e he w be able to say def9itely 9 :i* ye> any fairly rec5t side-twig began to gr[ out f its bud4 ,a horse *e/nut twig4--,a w9t] twig ( horse *e/nut 7,fig4 #cg7 is v simil> 9 its g5]al features to :at we h se5 9 ! sycamore4 ,! buds are 9 pairs at "r angles to ea* o!r1 & bel[ ea* bud is a l>ge corky leaf sc> 7l4s4 ,fig4 #ch71 ) ! positions ( ! =m] food-pipes m>k$ by black dots 7v4b474 ,^! buds1 h[ev]1 are l>g] ?an ^? ( ! sycamore1 & ea* is cov]$ ) a %9+ lay] ( res91 to keep out insects & ! ra94 ,we may slip ! end ( a p5knife "u ! bud scales & remove !m "o by "o4 ,! fir/ few are ?9 & pap]y1 & soak$ 9 res94 ,^? next inside are woody & mu* ?ick]4 ,next comes a lay] ( pap]y scales1 inside t a coat ( cottony d[n1 !n ano!r s(t pap]y lay]1 & la/ly a ?ick pad ( d[n4 ,:5 we c>efully scrape away ?is d[n1 we f9d--w>m & cosy 9 its mid/--a tuft ( little objects ) a mo/ qua9t resemblance to h&s clad 9 wooll5 gloves4 ,we remove "o ( ^!1 & on scrap+ x g5tly ) a knife we see t ! 8h&0 has sev5 f+]s2 & x pres5tly becomes cle> t ea* f+] is a t9y gre5 leaflet fold$ on itself1 & t ! h& is a "y leaf4 ,if we take (f ^! glov$ leaves 9 turn "o by "o1 we f9d z we proce$ t !y become small]1 until !y are almo/ too small to be di/+ui%$ 9 _! fluffy ne/4 ,& :5 all ! d[n & ! baby leaves are scrap$ away1 ! t5d] gr[+ po9t ( ! twig is left alone at ! summit ( a little cone1 ) /eps %[+ :]e ! leaves 74 ,_h ! twig be5 left undi/urb$ on ! tree1 ! bud w\ld h awak5$ 9 spr+ & begun to gr[ 7,fig4 #ci74g ,! scales & ! d[n w\ld h be5 %$1 leav+ only ! r+s ( sc>s z a mem5to ( ! w9t] sleep2 ! gr[+ po9t w\ld h pu%$ on & on1 l5g!n+ p]haps a foot or m 9 ?ree weeks2 ! leaves w\ld h op5$ _! bright gre5 f+]s to ! spr+ air1 & begun _! "w 7,fig4 #dj71 only to cease :5 9 ! autumn !y too dropp$ (f1 & ! new buds tuck$ !mselves up 9 _! b$s to g to sleep4 ,! leaves ( ! horse *e/nut fall (f1 z d ^? ( ! sycamore1 ow+ to a 8sep>ation-lay]0 aris+ at ! base ( ! leaf /alk 7,fig4 #da71 & 9 ?is case ea* leaflet also becomes sep>ately deta*$ 9 ! same way4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,lat] /age ( ! ,horse ,*e/nut twig ( ,fig4 #cg4 7 _/47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,! lat] developm5t ( ! t]m9al bud ( ! twig ( ,figs4 #cg & #ci4 7 47 ,o!r =ms ( buds4--,surr\nd+ ! "y silky-fr+$ leaves ( ! bee* bud are sev]al crimson membran\s scales :i* are really ! /ipules 7p4 #dc7 ( undevelop$ leaves4 ,! ?91 s(t p>ts ( ! leaf blade are %>ply pleat$ 7,fig4 #db7 betwe5 ! side ve9s :i* spr+ f ! midrib4 ,! way 9 :i* ! bran*+ ( a tree dep5ds on ! buds is well %[n 9 a lilac4 ,! t]m9al bud does n usually develop1 s t ea* ( ! two lat]al buds j bel[ gr[s out into a bran*1 produc+ ! *>act]i/ic 8=k+40 ,9 ! lilac bud e gradation betwe5 scales & ord9>y foliage leaves may be se54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,longitud9al section ( twig ( ,sycamore4 ,a1 base ( leaf2 ,b1 axill>y bud2 ,c1 cork lay]4 7 #b47 7,f a photograph by ,mr4 ,a4 ,flatt]s47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #db4--;,cross section ?r\gh leaf-bud ( ,bee*4 7 #f47 ,9 ! violet bud ! two m>g9s ( ! leaf are roll$ inw>ds t[>ds ! midrib2 :ile 9 ! dock !y are roll$ backw>ds4 ,"y f]n leaves 7,fig4 #adf7 are n fold$ f side to side l ! examples ref]r$ to above1 b are roll$ into a tight coil f apex to base4 ,x is ! upp] surface ( ! leaf 7frond7 :i* is to ! inside4 ,z ! leaf gr[s1 ! coil /raight5s out4 ,,ex]cises ,,on ,,*apt] ,,iv4 #a4 ,:]e & :5 are ! buds ( common ,engli% trees =m$8 7#aija7 #b4 ,%[1 by describ+ & draw+ "o example1 t ! bran* ( a tree may pres]ve a record ( pa/ seasons 9 ! b>k4 7#aija7 #c4 ,draw an unop5$ bud ( sycamore4 ,( :at p>ts is x compos$1 & h[ are ! p>ts arrang$8 7#aija7 #d4 ,:at c be se5 inside a l>ge bud ( horse *e/nut8 ,on :at "p ( ! bran* are ! l>ge/ buds to be f\nd8 7#ahih7 #e4 ,^u :at does ! me?od ( bran*+ ( a tree dep5d8 ,give examples4 #f4 ,exam9e poll>d$ trees2 :at is ! cause ( _! peculi>ities8 #g4 ,exam9e buds ( v>i\s trees 9 spr+1 & try to discov] 9 :i* cases ! bud scales are 7a7 modifications ( entire leaves1 7b7 modifi$ leaf /alks1 & 7c7 modifi$ /ipules4 #h4 ,exam9e & describe ! me?od ( protection1 dur+ ! summ]1 ( ! axill>y buds ( ! plane4 #i4 ,take a popl> %oot dur+ late summ]1 & exam9e ! corky sep>ation-lay] =m+ at ! base ( ea* leaf4 ,write an acc\nt ( its use1 & make draw+s ( its appe>ance4 #aj4 ,! 8he>t0 ( a cabbage or lettuce is ( light] col\r1 sweet] ta/e1 & m t5d] texture ?an ! ext]nal leaves4 ,h[ d y expla9 ^! diff]5ces8 7,k+'s ,s*ol41 #aijb7 #aa4 ,describe & expla9 ! effect ( clipp+ a privet h$ge4 #ab4 ,give an acc\nt ( ! *anges 9 appe>ance 9 any common leaf dur+ ! :ole p]iod ( its gr[?4 ,expla9 briefly :at "p ! leaf plays 9 ! life ( ! plant4 7,c]tificate1 #aijd7 #ac4 ,expla9 precisely h[ y w\ld decide :e!r a giv5 specim5 consi/$ ( 7a7 "o comp\nd leaf1 or 7b7 a twig be>+ sev]al simple leaves4 ,,footnote3 #g ,9 a l>ge t]m9al bud ! cone (t5 ends 9 a t9y p9k spray1 :i* gives rise to a bran* ( beautiful fl[]s :5 ! bud unfolds4 ,9 ?is case no fur!r gr[? ( ! ma9 axis ( ! twig takes place4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,h[ ,,/ems ,,d ,,_! ,,"w #aa4 ,,! ,,duties ,,( ,,/ems4 #a4 ,! %apes ( /ems4--,cut across a deadnettle /em & a wallfl[] /em & exam9e ! %ape ( ! sections4 ,! =m] is squ>e1 ! latt] is five-ribb$4 ,is !re any relation betwe5 ! =m ( ! /em & ! arrangem5t ( ! leaves8 #b4 ,! 8ble$+0 ( /ems4--,cut ?r\gh ! l[] "p ( a sc>let-runn] plant 9 spr+4 ,c y see any wat] escap+ f t "p ( ! /em /ill 9 ! gr\nd8 ,simil>ly1 cut back a sunfl[] /em :5 x is f to #a in* ?ick4 ,does ! wat] exude f all p>ts ( ! cut surface equally1 or does x come f def9ite *annels8 ,to see ?is bett]1 dry ! cut end ) blott+ pap] & exam9e ! surface ) a l5s4 8,ble$+0 is be/ se5 9 v9e /ems2 if a "y v9e is available1 cut x back 9 spr+ & obs]ve ! l>ge escape ( wat]4 #c4 ,! wat]-curr5t travels along def9ite *annels4--,col\r "s wat] ) r$ ink & put 9 x ! /alks ( cut :ite fl[]s su* z sn[drops or n>cissi4 ,! /alks & fl[]s soon become ve9$ ) r$4 ,cut ! /alks across & see t ! /r&s 9 ! int]ior are also col\r$4 ,! col\r$ wat] has evid5tly travell$ along def9ite *annels4 #d4 ,! food-*annels 9 a s(t /em4--7a7 ,take a /\t piece ( ! /em ( a deadnettle1 includ+ ?ree nodes 7p4 #de71 & slit x d[n 9 a l9e betwe5 ! end pairs ( leaves4 ,!n boil ! /em 9 wat] until ! int]nal tissue is s(t4 ,take ! /em out & c>efully scrape away all ! s(t mat]ial until ! woody /r&s c be well se54 ,^! are ! food-*annels4 ,notice _! arrangem5t 9 ! /em1 & ! mann] 9 :i* !y run out to ! leaves4 7b7 ,simil>ly1 exam9e ! /r&s 9 a piece ( sunfl[] /em1 & 9 an old cabbage /alk4 #e4 ,! pa? ( ! wat]-curr5t 9 a woody /em4--,take a leafy twig ( eld] or laurel &1 f ! "p ( ! %oot bel[ ! leaves1 remove a r+ ( ab\t an in* ( ! b>k & ! s(t tissues :i* lie b5ea? x1 s z to expose ! wood4 ,put ! end ( ! twig 7bel[ ! r+7 9 wat]4 ,! leaves rema9 fre% & crisp1 %[+ t ! wat] travels ei!r along ! wood or ! pi?1 or along bo?4 #f4 ,! wat] travels along ! wood4--,put a simil> leafy twig ( eld] dipp+ 9 wat] :i* has be5 col\r$ by r$ ink4 ,expose to sunlight1 & aft] an h\r or two cut op5 ! twig & obs]ve :i* p>ts are col\r$4 ,! b>k & ! s(t tissues betwe5 x & ! wood are n col\r$4 ,! wood is /a9$ r$4 ,! pi? is n col\r$4 #g4 ,! pa? ( ! leaf-made food4--7a7 ,take a leafy bran* ( a tree--e4g4 will[--& ne> ! bottom remove a r+ ( ! b>k & ! s(t tissues ly+ betwe5 b>k & wood4 ,put ! twig 9 wat]1 s t ! r+$ "p & a few in*es above %all be imm]s$4 ,aft] a "t roots are produc$ above ! cut4 ,if any arise f ! /ripp$ "p !y are few 9 numb] & mu* %ort] ?an ^? above4 7b7 ,place a simil> b un9jur$ twig 9 wat]1 & notice t ! new roots are produc$ at ! end4 ,:at is ! reason = ! diff]5ce8 ,! duties ( /ems4--,no "o c /udy leaves )\t be+ impress$ by ! great importance to ! plant ( ! "w :i* !y d4 ,ev5 ! casual obs]vation t ye> aft] ye> ?\s&s ( fre% leaves make _! appe>ance w\ld indicate ?is4 ,& :5 x is le>n$ t ?r\gh\t ! day e leaf is busily engag$ 9 decompos+ c>bon dioxide1 & jo9+ up ! c>bon ) ! wat] & m9]al comp\nds :i* h come up f ! root--?us =m+ sug>s1 />* & a ho/ ( o!r valuable sub/ances--"s g5]al idea is obta9$ t ! trunk & spread+ b\ghs ( a tree may1 aft] all1 be ( m9or importance1 & may exi/ ma9ly to help ! leaves to p]=m _! duties z p]fectly z possible4 ,?is is ! true view to take ( ! /em & its bran*es2 _! duties are 7#a7 to be> ! leaves & spread !m out1 s t ^! w receive z mu* sun%9e & fre% air z possible2 7#b7 to supply ! leaves ) ! wat] & m9]al sub/ances :i* !y require = _! "w2 & 7#c7 to receive f ! leaves & di/ribute to ! re/ ( ! plant ! food mat]ials :i* ! leaves h prep>$4 ,a /em1 toge!r ) ! leaves & bran*es :i* x be>s1 is call$ a %oot4 ,x w be f\nd t almo/ all ! v>iations 9 ! /ructure & habits ( /ems are connect$ ) ! arrangem5ts ( ! leaves4 ,= example1 ! weight ( ! mass ( leaves borne by a =e/ tree is v great1 & !y (f] a great resi/ance to ! w9d2 ! trunk & its bran*es1 !re=e1 are correspond+ly /rong & /\t4 ,aga91 :5 a /em is ribb$ or ridg$ 9 any p>ticul> mann] x w g5]ally be f\nd t ! ridges h a def9ite relation to ! leaves & to _! po9ts ( ins]tion on ! /em4 ,?is has be5 se5 7p4 #dd7 to be ! case 9 ! /em ( ! wallfl[]4 ,! tip ( a /em or bran* is occupi$ by a bud4 ,z ! tip elongates 7,fig4 #dj71 ! out] leaves ( ! bud become sep>at$ by int]nodes1 & new leaves cont9ually arise ar\nd ! gr[+ po9t4 ,! pa? ( ! wat] 9 ! /em4--,x may easily be %[n t wat] travels up ! /em to ! leaves4 ,x is common k t slightly )]$ leaves or fl[]s become fre% & crisp aga9 if ! twig or /alk is put 9 wat]4 ,if ! /alks ( :ite fl[]s--say sn[drops or n>cissi--are put into wat] col\r$ ) r$ ink1 ! fl[]s become ve9$ ) r$1 &1 if ! /alks are cut into1 r$ /r&s may be se54 ,?is exp]im5t n only %[s t wat] has travell$ up ! /alk1 b x also %[s t ! wat] has pass$ along def9ite *annels4 ,:5 a v9e /em is cut back 9 ! spr+1 ! wat] wells out rapidly f ! end ( t "p ( ! /alk :i* is /ill 9 ! gr\nd4 ,?is ble$+1 z x is call$1 may also be se51 ?\gh to a small] ext5t1 9 /ems ( sunfl[]1 sc>let-runn]1 & o!r plants4 ,by dry+ ! cut surface ) blott+ pap]1 & !n exam9+ x ) a l5s1 x may be se5 t ! wat] escapes f ! ends ( c]ta9 little tubes2 & x is possible 9 a boil$ or rott+ /em 7,expt4 #aa4 #d7 to foll[ ! di/ribution ( ! /r&s conta9+ ^! tubes4 ,! /r&s run along ! l5g? ( ! /em1 outside ! pi?4 ,cross /r&s connect ! ma9 ones1 *iefly at ! leaf-levels 7nodes72 & o!r /r&s run out into ! leaves to =m ! ve9s4 ,! tubes :i* convey ! wat] curr5t are 9 t "p ( ! /r& :i* is ne>e/ ! pi?1 & !y become woody4 ,?us1 if ! curr5t ye>'s gr[? (1 say1 a horse *e/nut or an eld] twig is cut across1 a ?9 r+ ( wood is se5 surr\nd+ ! s(t pi?4 ,outside ! wood are ! s(t] tissues1 surr\nd$ by ! b>k4 ,a r+ ( ! b>k & s(t tissues b5ea? x may be entirely remov$ f a gr[+ twig1 leav+ ! wood expos$1 b ! leaves above rema9 crisp & fre%1 %[+ t ?is treatm5t has n int]f]$ ) _! wat] supply4 ,! wat]1 !re=e1 travels along ei!r ! wood or ! pi?4 ,t ! wood & n ! pi? conducts ! wat] may be %[n by putt+ a leafy twig 9 wat] col\r$ ) r$ ink4 ,only ! wood is /a9$4 ,! pa? ( ! food made by ! leaves4--,! plant food :i* ! leaves make is dra9$ (f into ! /em1 & di/ribut$ to ! p>ts :]e gr[? is tak+ place4 ,?is food travels 9 ! s(t tissue--call$ ! ba/--:i* lies bel[ ! b>k4 ,?is fact c be %[n indirectly by remov+ a r+ ( ba/ f ! l[] "p ( a bran*1 say ( will[1 & putt+ ! bran* into wat]4 ,:5 at l5g? ! cutt+ puts out roots1 ^! spr+ f ! top ( ! r+4 ,if any spr+ f ! /ripp$ "p !y are m>k$ly small]1 & few] 9 numb]4 ,9 an un9jur$ cutt+1 :i* is ( c\rse suppli$ ) prep>$ food along all its l5g? by ! ba/ vessels1 su* roots spr+ f ! cut end4 ,! supply ( leaf-made food c also be cut (f by ligatur+ a twig bel[ ! leaves1 z by twi/+ a wire or cord tightly r\nd x4 ,9 su* a case gr[? usually ceases 9 ! "p ( ! twig bel[ ! /rangl$ "p1 :ile ! upp] "p ( ! twig1 to :i* ! leaf-made food is n[ re/rict$1 gr[s mu* m luxuriantly ?an be=e4 ,g>d5]s (t5 produce unusually f9e fruits by ligatur+ ! l[] p>ts ( ! twigs on :i* ! fruits are rip5+4 #ab4 ,,h[ ,,/ems ,,are ,,/r5g!n$4 #a4 ,! =mation ( wood4--7i47 ,9 summ] take a horse *e/nut twig ( ?ree or f\r ye>s' gr[?4 ,cut ?r\gh x ) a %>p knife at ! foll[+ places1 & trim ! cut ends flat3 7a7 ,ne> ! apex2 7b7 at ! middle ( ! curr5t ye>'s gr[?2 7c7 ne> ! bottom ( ! curr5t ye>'s gr[?2 7d7 ab\t ! middle ( la/ ye>'s gr[?2 7e7 0 0 ! previ\s ye>'s gr[?4 ,make a draw+ ( :at y see 9 ea* case3--,9 7a7 ! twig is cov]$ on ! outside by a gre5 sk94 ,9 ! middle is ! s(t pi?4 ,betwe5 ! two is a r+ ( sep>ate /r&s4 ,9 7b7 & 7c7 ! /r&s h jo9$ up1 & a di/9ct1 ?\gh ?91 lay] ( wood surr\nds ! pi?4 ,ba/ & o!r s(t tissues lie betwe5 ! wood & ! b>k4 7d7 has two lay]s ( wood4 7e7 has ?ree lay]s ( wood4 7ii47 ,split ea* l5g? longitud9ally4 ,:y is x easi] to d ?is ?an to cut ! twig across8 ,9 :i* direction does ! gra9 ( ! wood run8 ,make out 9 ea* piece ! pi?1 /r&s1 or lay]s ( wood1 ba/1 etc41 & sk9 or b>k4 ,y c te> (f ! ba/ 9 ribbon-l %r$s4 ,see h[ ! /r&s run out into ! "y leaves4 ,cut l5g?wise ?r\gh ! junction betwe5 ! ma9 twig & any side twigs1 & notice t correspond+ p>ts are cont9u\s4 #b4 ,! /r5g? ( a grass /em4--,notice ! relatively enorm\s /r5g? ( a /raw & o!r grass /ems4 ,burn a /raw & obs]ve ! tube ( m9]al matt] :i* is left beh9d4 ,exam9e a piece ( bamboo2 is x holl[ or solid8 ,woody /ems4--,to enable !m to be> ! weight ( ! leaves & bran*es1 & to )/& ! =ce ( ! w9d1 ! /ems ( plants are /r5g!n$ 9 v>i\s ways4 ,mo/ commonly ?is is effect$ by ! =mation ( wood 9 ! walls ( ! wat]-vessels4 ,ev5 9 succul5t /ems1 su* z t ( ! sunfl[]1 ! /r&s ( vessels are /iff5$ by ! long & n>r[ wood pipes :i* run along !m2 & :5 ! /r&s jo9 up to =m a complete cyl9d] a v /rong column is ! result4 ,eng9e]s make use ( ! same device1 kn[+ t ! same am\nt ( mat]ial w be> a f> great] /ress :5 made into a holl[ cyl9d] ?an x w 9 any o!r =m4 ,! ?ick5+ ( woody /ems4--,9 dicotyl$ons 7p4 #bc7 & gymnosp]ms 7p4 #afc7 ! cyl9d]1 :i* is =m$ by ! jo9+-up ( ! conduct+ /r&s1 consi/s ( ?ree lay]s4 ,! inn]mo/ ( ^! is ! wood1 & ! out]mo/ is ba/4 ,betwe5 !m is a v delicate lay] call$ cambium1 :i* is cont9ually divid+ & =m+ m wood on its inn] side & m ba/ on its out] side4 ,! wood is h>d & resi/s pressure1 :ile ! ba/ is s(t & is squeez$ aga9/ ! inside ( ! b>k by ! exp&+ wood 7,fig4 #dc74 ,! =mation ( new wood & ba/ takes place vigor\sly dur+ ! summ]1 at ! exp5se ( ! food :i* is manufactur$ by ! leaves & travels along ! ba/ to ! active cambium4 ,z autumn comes1 ! activity ( ! tree sl[s d[n1 & ! new wood is =m$ ( clos] texture4 ,9 w9t] ! process /ops altoge!r2 b ) ! w>m? & ! pl5tiful food-supply ( spr+ ! =mation ( new1 op5-textur$ wood is resum$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,portion ( a f\r-ye>-old /em ( ! ,p9e1 cut 9 w9t]4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 ! f\r successive annual r+s ( ! wood2 b1 ba/2 br1 b>k2 c1 cambium2 f1 spr+ wood2 i1 junction ( wood ( successive ye>s2 m1 pi?2 ms1 m$ull>y rays2 s1 autumn wood4 7 #d47 ,?is diff]5ce 9 texture betwe5 ! autumn wood & ! lat] spr+ wood is q visible to ! nak$ eye 7,fig4 #dd71 & gives rise to a s]ies ( annual r+s1 ea* ( :i* repres5ts a ye>'s gr[?4 ,?us1 a cross cut ?r\gh ! f\r ye> old "p ( a bran* 7,fig4 #dc7 %[s f\r lay]s ( wood1 "o ( :i* 0 =m$ ea* ye>4 ,! l5g? =m$ la/ ye> has two lay]s ( wood 7if we look 9 summ]71 & ! curr5t ye>'s gr[? has "o lay]1 all ( :i* has be5 =m$ s9ce spr+4 ,! advantages ( second>y ?ick5+4--,! =mation ( second>y wood & ba/ is v important4 ,! new wood is requir$ 7#a7 to provide additional wat]-vessels to supply ! dem&s ( an increas+ numb] ( leaves1 & 7#b7 to give ! necess>y increase ( me*anical /r5g? to ! gr[+ tree4 ,aga91 ! increase 9 ! quantity ( food manufactur$ by ! leaves makes a l>g] quantity ( ba/ necess>y = its di/ribution4 ,la/ ( all1 new tissues are requir$ to take up ! duties ( ^? :i* are old & worn-out4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--;,cross section ( ,l>* /em1 %[+ annual r+s4 ,9 =e/ trees1 ! c5tral pi? becomes almo/ oblit]at$ & ! old /em practically consi/s ( wood1 ba/1 & b>k4 ,! v>i\s annual r+s1 & ! ba/1 ( a woody /em are jo9$ toge!r by a numb] ( radiat+ horizontal spokes call$ m$ull>y rays 7,fig4 #dc1 ms1 ms1 ms1 ms74 ,^! conduct wat] & food mat]ials across ! /em f lay] to lay]4 ,! beautiful l9es & pat*es call$ 8silv] gra910 :i* may be se5 9 oak furniture1 consi/ ( ! m$ull>y rays expos$ 9 radial-longitud9al section4 ,b>k4--,! v "y /em is surr\nd$ by a ?9 wat]pro( sk91 p]=at$ by /omata 7p4 #ec7 z ! sk9 ( a leaf is2 & ! "p imm$iately bel[ ! sk9 possesses leaf-gre51 & c !re=e decompose c>bon dioxide z a leaf does 7p4 #ea74 ,an old /em1 on ! o!r h&1 is cov]$ by a lay] ( t\gh b>k 7br1 ,fig4 #dc71 :i* splits f "t to "t1 ow+ to ! /ret*+ :i* is caus$ by ! increas+ ?ickness ( ! wood4 ,! b>k beg9s z a lay] ( cork1 :i* =ms on ! out] side ( ! ba/4 ,! cork cuts (f ! food supply f all ! ext]nal tissues1 :i* die4 ,b>k1 !re=e1 consi/s ( ! cork & ! dead lay]s outside x4 ,grass /ems4--,! great /r5g? ( grass /ems--s app>5t :5 we try to b5d a /raw--is l>gely due to silica1 ! sub/ance ( :i* rock-cry/al & ord9>y s& are compos$4 ,:5 a /raw is burnt1 ?is rema9s z a holl[ cyl9d] ( m9]al matt]4 ,! great /r5g? ( ! cyl9drical =m has already be5 ref]r$ to4 ,x is v well se5 also 9 a bamboo /em1 & anyone :o has blunt$ ! edge ( 8 knife on a piece ( bamboo w appreciate ! additional h>dness :i* is giv5 by ! pres5ce ( m9]al matt]4 #ac4 ,,climb+ ,,/ems4 #a4 ,hook+ /ems4--,exam9e a bramble or a wild rose plant 9 a h$ge4 ,:y does x ne$ to climb8 ,h[ does x climb8 ,pull a bran* & notice by :at means x resi/s ! pull4 ,:at is ! %ape ( ! prickles8 ,d !y po9t upw>ds or d[nw>ds8 ,on :at p>ts ( ! plant are ! prickles f\nd8 ,notice h[ easily a prickle may be pu%$ (f1 sideways4 ,is x z easy to te> x (f l5g?ways8 ,is ! prickle a little bran*1 or m]ely an ext5sion ( ! r9d8 ,contra/ a prickle ) ! ?orn ( ! haw?orn4 ,! ?orn does n come (f easily1 & x conta9s a woody core :i* is cont9u\s ) ! wood ( ! bran*4 ,cut l5g?wise ?r\gh ! ?orn & ! bran* :i* be>s x to see ?is4 ,! ?orn is a %ort po9t$ bran*2 x arises 9 ! axil ( a leaf1 & sometimes be>s leaves itself4 #b4 ,! ivy4--,obs]ve h[ ! climb+ /em ( ! ivy is atta*$ to a wall or tree4 ,x puts out a l9e ( roots on its %ad$ side4 ,^! roots give out a /icky fluid1 :i*1 on h>d5+1 fixes !m to ! wall4 #c4 ,tw9+ /ems4--,wat* ! gr[? ( a convolvulus se$l+4 ,at fir/ ! "y /em gr[s /raight up1 b soon ! tip beg9s to move r\nd & r\nd4 ,try to f9d out h[ long x takes to describe "o revolution4 ,put a long /ick 9 ! gr\nd ne> ! plant & notice h[1 :5 ! revolv+ /em t\*es ! /ick1 ! spiral is h5ce=? describ$ r\nd ! support & ! /em consequ5tly cl+s to x4 ,lay y\r wat* face-upw>d1 & notice :e!r ! /em moves 9 ! same direction z ! h&s 7! 8clockwise0 direction71 or 9 ! opposite 78c\nt]-clockwise07 direction4 ,make simil> obs]vations on ! hop1 honeysuckle1 & sc>let runn]1 & note ! results4 #d4 ,leaf climb]s4--,exam9e a climb+ tropolum 7(t51 ?\gh wrongly1 call$ 8na/urtium074 ,:i* p>ts ( ! plant clasp ! support8 ,wat* a "y plant com+ up4 ,does ! /em revolve be=e ! leaf /alks come 9 contact ) ! support8 ,comp>e ! clematis4 #e4 ,t5dril climb]s4--,exam9e plants ( sweet pea1 bryony1 v9e1 passion fl[]1 & cucumb]4 ,try to f9d out 9 ea* case :i* "p has be5 modifi$ to =m ! t5drils4 ,wat* a plant day by day until a free t5dril grasps a support1 & notice h[ x becomes spirally coil$4 ,c y /raight5 ! t5dril by pull+1 )\t leav+ any k9ks8 ,:y8 ,is ! spiral ( ! t5dril cont9u\s1 or does x *ange its direction 9 ! middle8 ,make a cont9u\s spiral ) wire1 & notice ! k9ks =m$ :5 ! wire is /raight5$ by pull+ ! ends4 ,:i* is bett] = ! plant 9 a gale ( w9d1 a cont9u\s or a rev]s$ spiral8 ,:y8 ,notice ! suck]-l t5drils ( ! ,virg9ian creep]1 & ! way 9 :i* !y fix ! plant to ! wall4 ,plants ^: /ems are n /rong en\gh to /& erect )\t support mu/ adopt "s special means ( spread+ out _! leaves to ! light & air4 ,"o ( ! commone/ devices ( su* plants is t ( climb+ up o!r & /rong] plants1 walls1 trellis-"w1 etc4 ,scrambl]s & climb]s4--,9 ! simple/ cases ! plant simply scrambles ov] o!r plants4 ,_m brambles & roses are m]ely scrambl]s1 b m (t5 !y are true climb]s1 weav+ !mselves among _! neighb\rs by ! help ( hook$ prickles 7,fig4 #gf74 ,! prickles po9t backw>ds1 & !re=e an*or ! twigs firmly1 z is v evid5t on try+ to pull a bran* out ( ! h$ge4 ,a prickle may easily be brok5 (f by a side pu%1 = x is m]ely an outgr[? ( ! r9d1 & does n conta9 any woody core4 ,x is s atta*$1 h[ev]1 t x resi/s mu* great] =ce 9 ! l5g?wise direction--a manife/ advantage to ! plant4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #de4--;,ivy climb+ up a wall4 ,r1 arial roots4 7 47 ,! diff]5ces betwe5 su* a prickle & a ?orn l t ( ! haw?orn %\ld be c>efully notic$4 ,a ?orn is really a little twig :i* has rema9$ %ort & become po9t$ at ! end4 ,x has a core ( wood :i* is cont9u\s ) ! wood ( ! bran* be>+ x4 ,t a ?orn is really a little bran* is %[n by its orig9 9 ! axil ( a leaf1 & by its (t5 giv+ rise to leaves & buds4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,climb+ /em ( ,honeysuckle4 7 47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--;,climb+ /em ( ,convolvulus4 7 47 ,! /em ( ! ivy climbs by means ( little roots1 :i* x puts out on ! side fur!/ f ! light 7,fig4 #de74 ,^! give out a /icky liquid :i*1 on dry+1 cem5ts !m to ! wall or tree4 ,tw9+ /ems are mu* 9 advance ( ^!4 ,!re seems to be some?+ approa*+ intellig5ce 9 ! mann] 9 :i* ! "y /em ( a hop1 honeysuckle1 or convolvulus1 :i* at fir/ gr[s /raight up1 beg9s to w&] r\nd & r\nd1 trac+ a spiral pa? 9 ! air until x t\*es a support4 ,!n1 h[ev]1 z if ! plant c\ld feel1 ! movem5t bel[ ! po9t ( contact /ops2 b ! upp] "p ( ! /em /ill revolves & !re=e tw9es r\nd ! support4 ,! /ems ( ! honeysuckle 7,fig4 #df7 & ! hop turn 9 ! same direction z ! h&s ( a clock4 ,?is is call$ ! 8clockwise0 direction4 ,on ! o!r h& ! convolvulus 7,fig4 #dg7 & mo/ o!r tw9+ /ems are 8c\nt]-clockwise0 climb]s4 ,! /em ( ! bitt]sweet revolves indiff]5tly 9 ei!r direction4 ,s5sitive clasp+ organs 9 _! simple/ =m are se5 9 ! tw9+ leaf /alk ( ! clematis & tropolum2 ! /em itself revolves z if to give its leaf /alks e opportunity ( f9d+ suitable supports4 ,! leaf /alks seize ^! & tw9e r\nd !m4 ,mo/ wond]ful ( all climb+ organs are ! t5drils4 ,!y are well se5 9 ,fig4 #dh4 ,a "p ( ! plant--sometimes a leaflet1 z 9 ! pea 7,fig4 #bh72 sometimes a bran*1 z 9 ! passion fl[]2 or a fl[] /alk1 z 9 ! v9e--becomes modifi$ into a ?read1 slight b /rong4 ,:5 ! end ( ! ?read t\*es & !n tw9es r\nd a support1 ! :ole t5dril =ms itself into a spiral :i*1 l a wire spr+1 draws ! plant up to ! support1 & c yet l5g!n & yield to ! w9d :5 necess>y4 ,9 ! middle ( ! t5dril ! direction ( ! spiral is rev]s$1 s t ! t5dril c be /raight5$ )\t be+ twi/$4 ,! t5drils ( ! ,virg9ian creep] d n tw9e1 b on meet+ a wall !y =m r\nd r$ suck]s at ! end1 & atta* ! plant 7,fig4 #di74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--;,h[ a t5dril grasps a support4 ,! spiral is rev]s$ at x4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,virg9ian ,creep]4 ,r1 ,r1 /em t5drils4 7 47 #ad4 ,,creep+ ,,& ,,und]gr\nd ,,/ems4 #a4 ,a creep+ /em4--,exam9e a plant ( ! gr\nd ivy4 ,is ! /em /rong en\gh to /& upright8 ,h[ does x spread out its leaves to ! light & air8 ,! /em gr[s along ! gr\nd1 & at int]vals x gives (f a pair ( leaves :i* gr[ upw>ds1 & a tuft ( roots :i* gr[ d[n to ! gr\nd4 #b4 ,a runn]4--,is ! 8runn]0 ( ! /rawb]ry ( ! same nature1 i4e4 is x a cont9u\s /em l t ( ! gr\nd ivy8 ,:5 ! plant is c>efully exam9$1 ! creep+ 8/em0 is se5 to be a bran* aris+ 9 ! axil ( a leaf4 ,! bran* runs along ! gr\nd = a little di/ance1 & !n roots itself & gives (f a numb] ( leaves4 ,9 ! axil ( "o ( ^! ano!r bran* arises & runs on 9 ! same direction4 ,! same bran* does n run on & on4 #c4 ,a /olon4--,foll[ c>efully ! und]gr\nd "p ( ! c\* grass & make out its connection ) ! ma9 %oot4 ,x is a bran* l ! runn] ( ! /rawb]ry1 :i* arises 9 ! axil ( a leaf1 & ext5ds only to ! next %oot4 ,comp>e ! /olons ( ! c9quefoil4 #d4 ,a potato tub]4--,exam9e a potato tub] 7! "p :i* is eat574 ,notice ! 8eyes40 ,^! are buds1 ) scale leaves4 ,leaves nev] occur on roots1 s t ! potato mu/ be an und]gr\nd /em4 ,put a p9 into e eye1 & w9d a ?read r\nd ! tub] along ! bases ( ! p9s4 ,x =ms a spiral4 ,cut ! potato into halves1 & p\r a drop ( iod9e solution on ! cut surface4 ,:at is ! mean+ ( ! blue dots :i* at once make _! appe>ance8 ,plant a potato 9 w>m1 moi/ e>?1 & :5 x has spr\t$ notice t ea* bud 7eye7 has giv5 rise to a bran*4 #e4 ,bulbs4--,cut an onion or sn[drop bulb d[n ! middle1 & draw :at y see1 m>k+ on y\r draw+ ! out] scale leaves1 ! swoll5 bases ( la/ ye>'s leaves1 ! "y leaves 9 ! middle1 ! %ort1 ?ick5$ /em1 & ! roots4 ,also cut o!r bulbs across & aga9 draw4 ,:at is ! simil>ity & :at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ^! bulbs & su* a bud z a cabbage8 ,also exam9e hyac9?1 tulip & daffodil bulbs4 ,put !m 9 glasses ) wat] t\*+ _! bases1 & wat* !m gr[4 ,:at d !y live ^u8 #f4 ,a crocus corm4--,obta9 a few crocus 8bulbs0 9 ! e>ly w9t]4 ,obs]ve ! t\gh out] tunic spr++ r\nd ! edge ( a circul> sc> on ! base4 ,if !re are any roots !y come (f f ! sc>4 ,take (f ! tunics f "o 8bulb0 & obs]ve ! bud or buds at ! top ( ! :ite mass inside4 ,o!r tunics cov] ! buds4 ,cut l5g?wise ?r\gh ! mass ( ! 8bulb0 s z to bisect ! l>ge/ bud4 ,sep>ate ! p>ts ( ! bud ) a ne$le & notice 7a7 ! ?9 out] leaves1 7b7 ! "y foliage leaves1 7c7 ! fl[]-%ea? & fl[]4 ,p\r a drop ( iod9e solution on ! cut :ite mass 7! /em7 bel[ ! bud4 ,x turns blue4 ,:y8 ,:at is ! pr9cipal diff]5ce betwe5 a crocus 8bulb0 & ! bulb ( an onion1 hyac9?1 or tulip8 ,a true bulb is ma9ly compos$ ( swoll5 leaves or leaf bases2 9 ! crocus ! ?ick1 r\nd$ /em makes up mo/ ( ! bulk4 ,x is bett]1 !re=e1 to speak ( a crocus corm1 to indicate ! diff]5ce4 ,plant ! rema9+ corms & exam9e !m at int]vals = a ye>4 ,notice ! =mation ( ! roots1 ! l5g!n+ ( ! buds1 ! =mation ( ! fl[]s1 ! activity ( ! foliage leaves aft] fl[]+ 7:y871 ! )]+ ( ! roots & leaves 9 summ]1 & ! gr[? ( ! enl>g$ base ( ! bran* into next ye>'s corm4 ,creep+ /ems4--,in/ead ( climb+1 _m /ems f9d t ! be/ me?od ( spread+ out _! leaves is to creep along or "u ! gr\nd1 & give (f leaves & roots at int]vals4 ,n only does ?is device prev5t ! leaves ( "o node f int]f]+ ) ! light & air supply ( ^? ( ! next1 b ! plant is cont9ually com+ 9 contact ) a fre% lot ( soil4 ,! gr\nd ivy is an in/ructive example ( ?is me?od ( gr[?4 ,! /em creeps along ! gr\nd1 & at e node x gives (f a pair ( leaves :i* gr[ upw>ds1 & a tuft ( roots :i* gr[ d[n into ! gr\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,runn] ( ,/rawb]ry4 7 47 ,! runn] ( ! /rawb]ry 7,fig4 #ej7 appe>s at ! fir/ glance to gr[ 9 a simil> mann]4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 h[ev]1 ! app>5t /em is a bran* aris+ 9 ! axil ( "o ( ! leaves ( ! la/ node4 ,! bran* runs along ! gr\nd & gives rise to a new %oot1 & f ?is ano!r bran*1 spr++ f ! axil ( a leaf1 =ms ano!r runn]4 ,! same bran* does n run on f %oot to %oot4 ,! /olon ( ! c\* grass 7,fig4 #ea7 is some:at simil>4 ,! erect /em ( ! plant is divid$1 z usual1 into nodes or knots 7f :i* ! n>r[1 %ea?+ leaves arise7 & int]nodes4 ,bran*es 7/olons7 spr+ 9 ! axils ( ! l[] leaves1 turn d[nw>ds1 & run on und]nea? ! soil1 tak+ root aga9 at "s di/ance f ! p>5t plant4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,/olon ( ,c\* ,grass4 7 47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--;,creep+ und]gr\nd /em ( ,solomon's ,seal4 a1 bud ( next ye>'s arial gr[?2 b1 sc> ( ?is ye>'s gr[?2 c1 d1 e1 sc>s ( arial gr[? ( previ\s ye>s2 w1 roots4 7 47 ,und]gr\nd /ems4--,al?\gh ! /em is usually t "p ( ! axis ( a plant :i* is above gr\nd1 !re are _m exceptions4 ,! brack5 f]n1 daisy1 coltsfoot1 ,solomon's seal 7,fig4 #eb71 & _m o!r plants h /ems :i* are ord9>ily buri$ 9 ! gr\nd1 giv+ (f leaves above & roots bel[4 ,9 "s cases su* und]gr\nd /ems become mu* swoll5 ) /or$ food-mat]ial--manufactur$ by ! leaves 9 excess ( imm$iate requirem5ts4 ,9 ! potato1 = example1 c]ta9 und]gr\nd bran*es ( ! /em /ore up />* to su* an ext5t t _! ends become fle%y1 ovoid masses "s in*es 9 ?ickness 7,fig4 #ec74 ,! true nature ( ^! tub]s is reveal$ by ! buds or 8eyes0 :i* spr+ ^u !m4 ,! buds are arrang$ spirally--z may be se5 by /ick+ a p9 into ea* & jo9+ up ! p9s ) ?read--& :5 ! tub]s are kept 9 a w>m1 moi/ place1 ea* bud gr[s out into a new leafy %oot4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,"p ( a ,potato plant1 %[+ ! old tub] 7d>k7 & sev]al new ones4 7 47 ,! /ructure ( a bulb is easily made out 9 ! onion1 tulip 7,fig4 #ed71 hyac9?1 or daffodil4 ,:5 su* a bulb is cut d[n ! middle1 x is se5 to be ma9ly compos$ ( leaves or leaf-bases1 swoll5 ) /or$ food4 ,inside ^! are ! "y leaves & ! fl[] bud1 :i* w\ld h exp&$ next season2 & on ! outside are a few ?9 scale leaves4 ,all ^! leaves spr+ f a fle%y button at ! base1 :i* gives (f roots bel[4 ,! button is ! flatt5$ /em4 ,:5 a plant produces a bulb x w g5]ally be f\nd t x fl[]s ei!r v e>ly or v late 9 ! season2 t is1 at a p]iod :i* w\ld n be v fav\rable = ! "w ( ! leaves4 ,! fl[] 7,fig4 #ee7 is produc$ at ! exp5se ( ! /or$ food 9 ! bulb--made 9 excess ( ! requirem5ts ( ! previ\s season4 ,aft] ! plant has fl[]$1 ! new leaves "w until !y h made en\gh food = next season's fl[]1 & !n !y also die4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,longitud9al section ( ,tulip bulb4 zk1 modifi$ /em2 zs1 scale leaves2 v1 t]m9al bud2 k1 "y bud2 w1 roots4 7 #a47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--;,daffodil4 7 _/47 ,! s-call$ bulb ( ! crocus is te*nically kn[n z a corm 7,fig4 #ef74 ,x diff]s f a true bulb 9 consi/+ ma9ly ( a fle%y1 r\nd$ /em 9 :i* ! surplus food made by la/ ye>'s leaves is /or$ up4 ,! plant is ?us able to fl[] e>ly1 )\t wait+ = ! new leaves to supply food4 ,! swoll5 /em be>s "o or m buds1 & ! :ole is surr\nd$ by t\gh tunics ( scales4 ,:5 ! corm beg9s to gr[1 roots are put out f ! base1 & ! fl[]s &--lat]--! leaves ( ! buds exp&4 ,! foliage leaves cont9ue _! "w aft] fl[]+1 & ! food :i* !y make accumulates 9 ! base ( ! =m] bud1 :i* becomes swoll5 to =m ! new corm = next ye>'s fl[]4 ,! leaves !n die d[n1 _! bases becom+ ! tunics ( ! new corm4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--;,crocus corm1 se5 f ! side1 f bel[1 & 9 longitud9al section4 c1 base ( bud1 :i* w gr[ into next ye>'s corm2 fd4*41 food *annel2 flr1 fl[] bud2 l1 "y leaves2 rts1 roots2 t1 t1 t1 t1 tunics4 7 47 ,,ex]cises ,,on ,,*apt] ,v4 #a4 ,m5tion exp]im5ts1 :i* prove t organic sub/ances are =m$ 9 ! leaves1 & di/ribut$ to o!r p>ts ( a gre5 fl[]+ plant4 ,by :at *annels are !y di/ribut$8 7#ahie7 #b4 ,draw a cross section ?r\gh ! /em ( a fl[]+ plant select$ by y\rself4 ,expla9 ! uses ( ! *ief ?+s se5 9 ! section4 7#ahig7 #c4 ,m5tion exp]im5ts or obs]vations :i* %[ by :at tissues wat] asc5ds to ! leaves1 & nutritive sub/ance desc5ds f ! leaves4 7#ahig7 #d4 ,by :at tissues does wat] pass along ! /em ( a tree to ! leaves8 ,give pro(s ( y\r /atem5ts4 7#ahih7 #e4 ,describe ! effect ( a tight ligature ^u a gr[+ hazel /em4 7#ahih7 #f4 ,:at pro(s c be giv5 t ! /em ( a tree draws n\ri%m5t f ! leaves8 7#ahih7 #g4 ,%[1 by describ+ & draw+ "o example1 t ! bran* ( a tree may pres]ve a record ( pa/ seasons 9 its wood4 7#aija7 #h4 ,m5tion an exp]im5t :i* %[s t organic sub/ance =m$ 9 ! leaves travels d[n ! /em outside ! cambium4 7#aija7 #i4 ,obta9 ?9 sections 7e4g4 plane-%av+s7 ( z _m diff]5t k9ds ( wood z possible1 & gum !m into a book1 writ+ "u ea* section ! "n ( ! wood & ! direction 7transv]se1 radial-longitud9al1 or tang5tial-longitud9al7 ( ! section4 #aj4 ,make y\rself famili> ) ! appe>ance & *>act]s ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( timb] us$ 9 c>p5try & jo9]y4 #aa4 ,notice ! light-br[n spots on ! b>k ( twigs ( apple & horse *e/nut4 ,^! are call$ l5ticels2 !y are brea?+-pores4 ,9 h[ _m o!r trees c y f9d l5ticels8 #ab4 ,obs]ve :e!r an ivy /em puts out roots only :]e !y c become fix$ to a support1 or indiscrim9ately4 #ac4 ,make a li/ ( plants :i* y h obs]v$ to climb by tw9+ /ems1 & note :e!r !y are clockwise or c\nt]-clockwise climb]s4 #ad4 ,make c>eful draw+s ( all ! t5drils y c f9d1 & try to discov] :i* "p ( ! plant has be5 modifi$ to =m ! t5dril4 #ae4 ,g5tly /roke a t5dril ( ! passion fl[] & write an acc\nt ( any result+ movem5t4 #af4 ,m5tion any ?ree climb+ plants :i* gr[ wild 9 ?is c\ntry1 & expla9 9 ea* case h[ ! plant climbs4 7#ahie7 #ag4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 7a7 a ?orn1 7b7 a leaf-sp9e1 & 7c7 a prickle8 ,give examples4 7#ahif7 #ah4 ,enum]ate & briefly describe ! pr9cipal v>ieties ( t5drils1 & expla9 h[ !y act4 7#ahig7 #ai4 ,if a wire is fa/5$ tightly ab\t a gr[+ bran* ( a common tree1 & left = two or ?ree ye>s1 :at effect w be produc$1 & h[ c ! effect be expla9$8 7#aijd7 #bj4 ,:at processes ( vegetable gr[? are accompani$ by ! pres5ce ( sug>8 ,give examples f plants )9 y\r own exp]i5ce4 7,k+'s ,s*ol>%ip1 #aijd7 #ba4 ,:at are ! *ief uses ( ! vessels ( a h]bace\s /em8 ,m5tion obs]vations & exp]im5ts 9 support ( y\r /atem5ts4 7#aije7 #bb4 ,h[ c y demon/rate exp]im5tally t food sub/ances1 =m$ 9 ! leaves ( a tree1 desc5d to ! bran*es bel[8 7#aije7 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,"s ,,common ,,fl[]s4 #ae4 ,a ,,typical ,,fl[]4 ,i4 ,! wallfl[]4--,aft] notic+ ! g5]al habit ( gr[? ( a wallfl[] plant 7,fig4 #eg71 & especially ! %ape & v5ation ( ! leaves1 make out ! foll[+ p>ts 9 "o ( its fl[]s4 ,on ! top ( ! fl[]-/alk 7call$ ! receptacle7 are3 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,wallfl[]4 7 47 7a7 ,f\r small1 n>r[1 purpli% leaves1 call$ sepals4 ,! f\r sepals toge!r con/itute ! calyx4 ,take (f ! sepals "o by "o4 ,notice t two opposite sepals are bulg$ out at _! bases1 =m+ p\*es conta9+ nect>4 ,try to get out a small drop ( nect> on ! po9t ( a p5cil & ta/e x4 7b7 ,f\r %[y leaves arrang$ 9 ! =m ( a ,maltese cross1 call$ petals4 ,!y are yell[1 or r$1 or purpli% 9 col\r1 are delicately sc5t$1 & h beautiful velvety surfaces4 ,! f\r petals toge!r con/itute ! corolla4 ,take (f ! petals "o by "o4 7c7 ,six /am5s1 ea* consi/+ ( a gre5i% /alk or filam5t surm\nt$ by a yell[1 boat-%ap$ body1 call$ ! an!r4 ,! an!r is a f\r-*amb]$ box conta9+ an enorm\s numb] ( t9y yell[ gra9s call$ poll5 gra9s4 ,two ( ! /am5s are %ort]1 & are fix$ at a l[] level on ! receptacle ?an ! rema9+ f\r4 ,take (f ! /am5s "o by "o4 7d7 ,a c5tral pi/il1 %ap$ some:at l a sl5d] bottle4 ,at ! top1 :]e ! cork w\ld come 9 a real bottle1 is ! not*$ /igma1 slightly /icky4 ,! neck is call$ ! /yle1 & ! "p correspond+ to ! body ( ! bottle is ! ov>y4 ,te> op5 ! ov>y ) a ne$le to see ! ovules1 :i* 9 an undi/urb$ fl[] w\ld h become se$s4 ,wat* bees visit+ fl[]s4 ,does ea* bee conf9e itself to "o k9d 7species7 ( fl[] at ea* j\rney1 or does x visit sev]al k9ds indiscrim9ately8 ,try to discov] :at ! bees are do+4 ,avoid al>m+ !m4 ,! "w ( fl[]s4--,! roots1 /em1 & leaves ( a plant d a great deal ( "w1 b1 z x is p]=m$ = ! b5efit ( ! plant itself1 x is all1 9 a s5se1 selfi% "w4 ,plants1 h[ev]1 l animals1 gr[ old 9 "t1 & at la/ die4 ,if !y are n to become ext9ct x is evid5t t !y mu/ devote "p ( _! en]gies to produc+ new individuals1 & to s5d+ ^! =? into ! _w z well equipp$ z possible = ! battle ( life4 ,?is unselfi% & self-sacrific+ "p ( a plant's life-"w is call$ reproduction2 9 ! high] plants x is c>ri$ out by fl[]s4 ,! /ructure ( a wallfl[] blossom4--,! fl[]s ( diff]5t gr\ps ( plants v>y greatly 9 /ructure1 b a good g5]al idea ( ! arrangem5t ( ! p>ts ( a fl[] c be obta9$ by exam9+ ! blossoms ( a wallfl[] plant 7,fig4 #eh74 ,o!r fl[]s may aft]w>ds be comp>$ & contra/$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,wallfl[]4 ,a1 bran*1 be>+ leaves & fl[]s2 ,b1 fl[]2 ,c1 longitud9al section ( fl[]2 ,d1 /am5s & pi/il2 ,e1 fruit2 ,s1 transv]se section ( /em1 7 47 ,!re are evid5tly at lea/ eight leaves 9 ! fl[]1 b1 unlike ! gre5 foliage leaves1 ^! are n arrang$ spirally1 b /& at ne>ly ! same level on ! end--call$ ! receptacle--( ! fl[]-/alk4 ,! mo/ ext]nal leaves are f\r 9 numb]1 small1 n>r[1 & purpli% 9 col\r4 ,ea* ( ^! leaves is call$ a sepal1 & ! f\r sepals toge!r con/itute ! calyx ( ! fl[]4 ,two opposite sepals are p\*$ at ! base1 =m+ pockets1 9 :i* a sug>y fluid1 call$ nect>1 collects4 ,be=e ! bud op5s1 ! calyx is ! only "p ( ! fl[] :i* is visible4 ,x is probably develop$ 9 ! wallfl[] solely = ! protection ( ! m delicate /ructures )94 ,next1 inside ! sepals1 plac$ alt]nately ) !m1 & /&+ a little high] on ! receptacle1 are f\r %[y leaves arrang$ 9 ! =m ( a ,maltese cross4 ,^! leaves are call$ petals1 & ! f\r petals toge!r =m ! corolla4 ,! petals are delicately sc5t$1 & _! surfaces h a beautiful velvety %e54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--;,cross section ?r\gh a ,wallfl[] bud4 ,sep1 sepals2 ,pet1 petals2 lg4/41 an!r ( a long /am52 %4 /41 an!r ( a %ort /am52 pol4sac41 poll5 sacs2 ,ov1 wall ( ov>y2 ,ovl1 ovule4 7 #h47 ,:5 ! sepals & petals are remov$1 !re rema9 /&+ on ! receptacle six /am5s surr\nd+ a c5trally-plac$ pi/il 7,fig4 #eh1 ,d74 ,! /am5s are ! male "p1 & ! pi/il is ! female "p1 ( ! fl[]4 ,ea* /am5 consi/s ( a gre5i% /alk or filam5t1 surm\nt$ by a yell[ boat-%ap$ body call$ ! an!r4 ,! an!r is a box ) f\r comp>tm5ts 7,fig4 #ei74 ,:5 x is ripe1 ea* comp>tm5t conta9s an enorm\s numb] ( t9y1 yell[ gra9s call$ poll5 gra9s2 & :5 ! an!r bur/s 7z x does z soon z ! fl[] op5s7 its inn] face is cov]$ by ! yell[ du/ ( ! poll54 ,! pi/il be>s a r\gh resemblance to a sl5d] bottle1 & consi/s ( ?ree di/9ct p>ts4 ,! neck ( ! 8bottle10 call$ ! /yle1 is %ort 9 ! wallfl[]1 & diff]s f an ord9>y bottle-neck 9 be+ solid in/ead ( tubul>4 ,at ! top ( ! neck1 :]e ! cork w\ld come 9 a real bottle1 is a body call$ ! /igma4 ,! /igma ( ! wallfl[] pi/il is hairy1 not*$1 & slightly /icky1 f ! pres5ce ( a sug>y solution :i* =ms ^u x4 ,! "p ( ! pi/il1 correspond+ to ! body ( ! bottle1 is ! ov>y4 ,x conta9s f\r r[s ( little :ite ovules1 :i* are de/9$ to become se$s capable ( gr[+ up & =m+ new wallfl[] plants4 ,! relations ( ! p>ts ( ! fl[] are well se5 9 ,fig4 #ei4 ,f]tilisation4--,9 ord] t an ovule may become a se$1 its cont5ts mu/ mix ) ! cont5ts ( a poll5 gra94 ,! fusion ( ! two con/itutes f]tilisation4 ,= f]tilisation to take place1 ! poll5 gra9 mu/ fir/ ( all ga9 access to ! /igma ( ! pi/il4 ,if ?is be prev5t$ ! fl[]s w )] )\t =m+ ripe se$s4 7,?is may be prov$ easily by ,expts4 #ah1 #c & #ba1 #b47 ,! sug>y solution at ! top ( ! /igma /imulates ! poll5 gra9s to gr[?1 & ea* puts out a long tube :i* gr[s d[n ! /yle4 ,! liv+ matt] ( ! gra9s keeps ne> ! tips ( ! tubes z ^! cont9ue _! j\rney d[n ! /yle4 ,at l5g? ! tubes ent] ! ov>y & f9d ! ovules4 ,ea* ovule has at "o end a m9ute pore 7! micropyle--p4 #f71 & a poll5 tube f9ds ?is & ent]s x4 ,! liv+ matt] ( ! poll5 tube fuses ) t ( ! ovule 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! pore1 & f]tilisation is effect$4 ,x is n[ easy to und]/& t ! comp>atively insignificant /am5s & pi/il are ! all-important p>ts ( a fl[]4 ,h[ ! wallfl[] adv]tises4--,botani/s h prov$ t a fl[] produces m1 & also bett]1 se$s :5 x is f]tilis$ by poll5 f ano!r fl[] ( ! same species4 ,?is is call$ cross f]tilisation4 ,! wallfl[] relies ^u bees = ! transf]5ce ( ! poll5 f "o fl[] to ano!r2 & x is solely to attract !m t ! petals are s delicately sc5t$ & brilliantly col\r$1 & t sweet nect> collects 9 ! sepal-p\*es4 ,! gaily col\r$ petals are !re=e adv]tisem5t plac>ds :i* are hung out to attract ! att5tion ( bees4 ,a bee comes to a wallfl[] = ! sake ( bo? nect> & poll5--! 8bee-bread40 ,z ! bee ?ru/s its proboscis d[n betwe5 /am5s & pi/il 9 se>* ( ! sweet liquid 9 ! p\*es1 its head is pretty c]ta9 to come 9 contact )1 & to bru% (f1 "s ( ! poll5 du/ hang+ loose on ! inn] faces ( ! an!rs4 ,:5 ! bee flies (f to ano!r wallfl[] & cont9ues its se>* = nect>1 x almo/ inv>iably leaves "s ( ! poll51 f ! fir/ fl[]1 on ! hairy & /icky /igma ( ! second4 ,9 almo/ all cases :5 a fl[] is brightly col\r$ x dep5ds ^u ! help ( insects = cross f]tilisation4 #af4 ,,! ,,wallfl[] ,,family4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,%eph]d's ,purse4 7 47 #a4 ,%eph]d's purse4--,comp>e ! %eph]d's purse 7,fig4 #fj7 ) ! wallfl[]4 ,! fl[] is v mu* small]1 & :ite1 b ! p>ts h ! same arrangem5t z 9 ! wallfl[]1 viz41 f\r sepals1 f\r petals arrang$ 9 ! =m ( a cross1 six /am5s 7two %ort & f\r long71 & a c5tral pi/il1 all arrang$ sep>ately on ! receptacle4 ,look d[n ! plant1 & notice t 9 ! olde/ 7l[e/7 fl[]s1 ev]y?+ b ! pi/il has dropp$ (f1 & t ?is has become greatly enl>g$ to =m a fruit4 ,cut "s fruits op51 bo? l5g?wise & crosswise1 & obs]ve t ea* consi/s ( two pocket-l *amb]s1 sep>at$ by a ?9 p>tition on :i* ! se$s are borne4 ,notice ! mann] 9 :i* ! olde/ fruits h op5$ naturally4 #b4 ,o!r relatives ( ! wallfl[]4--,comp>e also ! fl[]s & fruits ( ! /ock & c&ytuft1 & also cress1 mu/>d1 radi% 7,fig4 #fa71 cabbage1 & turnip1 :i* h be5 all[$ to 8run to se$40 ,exam9e ! roots ( ! turnip & radi%4 ,make a note ( ! e>lie/ dates on :i* y see ! above plants 9 fl[]4 ,! wallfl[] family4--,! plants ( ! family to :i* ! wallfl[] belongs are ( v great importance to mank9d2 = :ile n "o ( !m is poison\s1 _m are extremely valuable z food-crops4 ,!y are all dicotyl$ons2 t is1 _! se$s conta9 two cotyl$ons or 8make%ift leaves10 z has already 7,*apt] ,i47 be5 se5 9 ! case ( ! mu/>d4 ,! net-l v5ation ( ! leaves ( ! full-gr[n plant also indicates ?is4 ,!re is a great family lik5ess betwe5 ! fl[]s ( ?is gr\p1 & !y are easily recognis$ 7,fig4 #fa a1 c7 by ! cross-%ap$ corolla & ! six /am5s 7two %ort & f\r long74 ,all ! p>ts ( ! fl[]--sepals1 petals1 /am5s1 & pi/il--are fix$ sep>ately on ! top ( ! fl[] /alk or receptacle4 ,! cross-arrangem5t ( ! petals has l$ to ^! plants be+ call$ ,crucif]s 7cross-be>]s74 ,! %eph]d's purse 7,fig4 #fj7--s-call$ f ! %ape ( its fruit--is a common we$ ) small1 :ite fl[]s4 ,all /ages ( ! fl[] may g5]ally be f\nd on ! same plant4 ,:ile at ! top ! buds may /ill be unop5$1 ! fl[]s bel[ h be5 f]tilis$ 79 ?is case g5]ally self-f]tilis$72 ! sepals1 petals1 & /am5s--hav+ fulfill$ _! duties--h fall5 (f2 ! ovules h become se$s1 & ! ovule-box or ov>y has become a se$-box or fruit1 consi/+ ( two bags sep>at$ by a p>tition :i* be>s two r[s ( se$s on ea* side 7,fig4 #fb74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--,wild ,radi%4 a1 fl[] 7nat4 size72 b1 petal2 c1 /am5s & pi/il 7 #b72 d1 pi/il 7 #b72 e1 fruit 7 #a72 f1 cross section ( fruit2 g & h1 embryo 7mag47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--;,a1 ,fruits ( ,%eph]d's ,purse 7 72 ,b1 a s+le op5 fruit 7mag472 ,c1 cross section ( ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,root ( ,turnip4 7 47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,root ( ,radi%4 7 47 ,useful crucif]s4--,! turnip & ! radi% are l>gely cultivat$ = _! roots 7,figs4 #fc & #fd71 & are !n tak5 out ( ! gr\nd at ! end ( _! fir/ season4 ,z ^! plants naturally fl[] 9 _! second ye> ( gr[? & !n die1 !y are call$ bi5nials4 ,! production ( fl[]s & fruit is a great /ra9 on a plant1 & x is to prep>e = ! ef=t t ! turnip & radi% /ore s mu* food 9 _! roots dur+ ! fir/ ye> z to give !m a globul> & sp9dle %ape respectively4 ,a c>rot is n a crucif]1 b x also adopts ?is device4 ,! cabbage is gr[n = its leaves4 ,v>ieties ( ! cabbage are ,brussels spr\ts1 broccoli1 & caulifl[]2 x is ! v small fl[]-buds ( ! la/ two :i* are eat54 ,cress & :ite mu/>d are eat5 9 ! se$l+ /age4 ,! se$s ( ! black mu/>d are gr\nd & eat5 z a condim5t4 #ag4 ,,! ,,butt]cup ,,family4 #a4 ,! butt]cup4--,notice ! habit ( gr[?1 *>act]s ( ! leaves1 etc4 ,is ! butt]cup a dicotyl$on8 ,make ?is obs]vation ) all fl[]+ plants4 7,see1 h[ev]1 ,*ap4 ,,viii41 p4 #afc47 ,9 ! fl[]s ( a butt]cup 7,fig4 #fe7 make out3 7a7 ,! calyx ( five gre51 sep>ate sepals2 !y are ! only p>ts to be se5 9 "y1 unop5$ buds4 ,take (f ! sepals ( a fully-op5$ fl[] "o by "o4 7b7 ,! corolla ( five1 gold5-yell[1 sep>ate petals1 alt]nate ) ! sepals4 ,notice ! nect>y--a little pocket--ne> ! base ( ! upp] surface ( ea* petal4 ,take (f ! petals "o by "o & obs]ve t !y are fix$ on ! receptacle1 a little high] ?an ! sepals4 7c7 ,! l>ge numb] ( sep>ate /am5s1 ins]t$ /ill high] on ! receptacle4 7d7 ,on ! top ( ! receptacle ! l>ge numb] ( sep>ate1 flask-%ap$ bodies1 :i* toge!r make up ! pi/il4 ,ea* ( ^! is call$ a c>pel4 ,wat* bees & o!r insects visit+ butt]cups & notice h[ !y /& on ! fl[] to obta9 ! nect> f ! nect>ies4 ,does a bee on leav+ g to ano!r butt]cup1 or does x *ange to ano!r k9d ( fl[]8 ,9 a fl[] f :i* ! sepals1 petals1 & /am5s h fall51 notice ! comp\nd fruit 7,fig4 #ff71 consi/+ ( rip5$ c>pels4 ,op5 a c>pel ) a ne$le & pick out ! s+le se$4 #b4 ,o!r plants ( ! butt]cup family4--,notice t 9 ! anemone 7,fig4 #fg7 & m>% m>igold 7,fig4 #fh71 ! sepals appe> to be abs5t 7! ?ree leaves "u ! anemone fl[] are n p>ts ( ! fl[]2 !y are call$ bracts74 ,! app>5t petals are really ! sepals2 x is ! corolla :i* is abs5t4 ,obs]ve ! l>ge numb] ( /am5s1 & notice t ! pi/il consi/s ( sev]al sep>ate c>pels4 ,9 :at k9d ( gr\nd h y se5 ^! plants gr[+ wild8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--;,butt]cup4 7 _/47 ,! butt]cup family4--,! butt]cup 7,fig4 #fe7 & its relatives resemble ! crucif]s 7#a7 9 be+ dicotyl$ons 7z is indicat$ 7p4 #dj7 by ! v5ation ( ! leaves71 & 7#b7 9 ! fact t1 ( ! p>ts :i* compose ! fl[]1 ea* gr\p is arrang$ sep>ately on ! receptacle4 ,= example1 ! /am5s are n connect$ ) ei!r ! calyx1 ! corolla or ! pi/il4 ,hav+ not$ ^! po9ts ( resemblance1 h[ev]1 we are met by "s important diff]5ces4 ,9 ! butt]cup !re are usually five sepals & five petals2 !re may be tw5ty or m /am5s2 & ! pi/il is n a s+le /ructure1 b consi/s ( a numb] ( sep>ate p>ts1 ea* ( :i* is call$ a c>pel1 & conta9s a s+le ovule4 ,! pi/il ( a crucif] consi/s ( only two c>pels2 ^! are weld$ toge!r into a s+le /ructure1 & until ! fruit rip5s a slight not* 9 ! /igma is ! only ext]nal indication t ! pi/il is 9 two p>ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--;a1 ,comp\nd fruit ( ,butt]cup 7 #b72 b1 a c>pel 7 #d72 c1 c>pel 9 longitud9al section 7 #d74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--;,anemone4 7 47 ,insects visit butt]cups = ! sake ( nect> & poll51 & :il/ creep+ ab\t ! fl[] transf] poll5 to ! /igmas ( ! c>pels4 ,! insects may h br\ght "s ( ?is poll5 f o!r fl[]s1 & !n cross-f]tilisation is caus$4 ,if ! poll5 is d]iv$ f ! same fl[] self-f]tilisation is ! result4 ,aft] f]tilisation ! ovules become se$s2 ! sepals1 petals1 & /am5s drop (f2 & ! c>pels swell up1 =m+ a dry comp\nd fruit 7,fig4 #ff71 consi/+ ( sev]al nutlets4 ,two o!r common plants ( ?is family are ! anemone 7,fig4 #fg7 & m>% m>igold 7,fig4 #fh74 ,9 nei!r ( ^! cases has ! fl[] any petals1 b ! calyx has tak5 on ! appe>ance ( a corolla4 ,9 ! m>% m>igold x is l>ge & yell[2 9 ! anemone x is :ite or purple4 ,! ?ree gre5 leaves imm$iately b5ea? ! fl[] ( ! anemone are call$ bracts4 ,!y %\ld n be mi/ak5 = sepals4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--,m>% ,m>igold4 7 47 ,! plants ( ! butt]cup family are z g5]ally poison\s z ! crucif]s are :olesome4 ,monk%ood is especially poison\s1 & its root has be5 mi/ak51 ) fatal results1 = t ( horse-radi%4 ,x is (t5 notic$ t graz+ cattle avoid ! butt]cups 9 a field4 ,! bitt] & disagreeable ta/e ( ! leaves is ( c\rse a valuable protection to ! plant4 #ah4 ,,! ,,pea ,,family4 #a4 ,! g>d5 pea4--,notice aga9 ! habit ( ! plant3 its comp\nd1 net-ve9$ leaves ) l>ge /ipules1 & its me?od ( climb+ by t5drils :i* are modifi$ leaflets4 ,exam9e ! fl[] & make out 7a7 ! calyx ( five unit$ sepals2 7b7 ! curi\sly %ap$ corolla4 ,! l>ge upp] petal is call$ ! /&>d1 ! two at ! side are ! w+s1 & ! l[e/ 7really two lock$ toge!r7 is ! keel2 7c7 ! t5 /am5s4 ,"o 7opposite ! /&>d7 is sep>ate2 ! rema9+ n9e h ! l[] p>ts ( _! filam5ts unit$ to =m a tube4 ,slit op5 ! filam5t-tube & remove ! /am5s1 notic+ h[ !y are atta*$ to ! o!r p>ts ( ! fl[]2 7d7 ! pi/il4 ,slit op5 ! ov>y & see ! ovules 9 x4 ,wat* ! v>i\s /ages ( ! =mation ( ! fruit 7pod74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--,vet*4 7 47 ,wat* bees visit+ ! fl[]s4 ,! insect alights on ! w+s1 & its weight pulls !m d[n & l[]s ! keel1 br++ ! /am5s aga9/ ! bee's body4 ,cut a complete fl[] d[n ! middle ) a %>p knife1 & notice t calyx1 corolla1 & /am5s seem n to be ins]t$ sep>ately on ! receptacle1 b to spr+ f a common base4 #b4 ,o!r plants ( ! pea family4--,exam9e also bean1 vet* 7,fig4 #fi71 mead[ vet*l+ 7,fig4 #gj71 clov] 7,fig4 #ga71 laburnum 7,fig4 #gc71 & broom4 ,comp>e ! habits ( gr[? ( ! plants1 & notice t !y all h ! same peculi> %ape ( fl[]4 ,dissect a fl[] ( ea*4 ,notice t 9 laburnum & broom ! t5 /am5s are all unit$4 ,9 clov] ! fl[]s are 9 heads4 ,notice h[ ! leaflets ( ! clov] plant close at sunset4 #c4 ,f]tilisation4--,dig up sev]al r$ clov] plants 9 e>ly summ] & pot !m4 ,cov] ab\t half ! plants ) gauze1 s fix$ on wire frames t insects _c get inside1 & !n put all ! plants toge!r :]e !y w get pl5ty ( sun4 ,wat] !m regul>ly1 & notice :i* plants rip5 se$4 ,h[ d y acc\nt = ! diff]5ces8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,mead[ ,vet*l+4 7 47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,r$ ,clov]4 7 47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--;,bird's-foot ,trefoil4 #a1 fl[]+ bran* 7 72 #b1 fl[]2 #c1 pi/il & /am5s2 #d1 pi/il 7 #a_/72 #e1 fruit 7 72 #f1 corolla2 a1 /&>d2 b1 w+s2 c1 keel2 #g1 diagram ( fl[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--;,fl[]+ bran* ( ,laburnum2 /1 /&>d2 w1 w+s2 k1 keel2 #a1 #b1 #c1 ! fl[] f diff]5t po9ts ( view4 7 47 ,! pea family4--,plants ( ! pea family are f\nd 9 all qu>t]s ( ! e>?4 ,!y are ( v div]se size & habit ( gr[?2 ! laburnum1 = example1 is a tree2 ! gorse is a bu%2 ! broad bean has a /rong1 erect1 h]bace\s /em2 ! pea is a weak-/emm$ climb+ plant2 ! clov]s are small h]bs ) fl[]s =m+ 8heads40 ,mo/ ( ! memb]s ( ! family agree 9 hav+ a 8butt]fly-%ap$0 corolla 7,figs4 #gb & #gc71 :i* consi/s ( ?ree well-m>k$ p>ts1 viz41 a l>ge /&>d1 a pair ( w+s1 & two closely-connect$ petals :i* =m a boat-%ap$ keel4 ,!re are t5 /am5s1 & ! filam5ts ( n9e ( ^! usually coh]e to =m a tube surr\nd+ ! ov>y4 ,9 ! laburnum1 gorse1 & a few o!rs1 all ! t5 /am5s are unit$4 ,:5 a bee visits ! fl[]1 9 se>* ( nect>1 x alights on ! 8w+s0 ( ! fl[]1 & its weight depresses ^! & pulls d[n ! keel4 ,! an!rs ( ! /am5s are s plac$ ) respect to ! keel t ?is results 9 a mass ( poll5 be+ scrap$ (f ! an!rs & =c$ out at ! beak ( ! keel1 or 9 ! /am5s be+ sudd5ly lib]at$ & scatt]+ poll5 on ! bee4 ,! poll5 /icks to ! bee's body1 & "s ( x is almo/ c]ta9ly transf]r$ to ! /igma ( ! next fl[] visit$4 ,! qua9t %ape ( ! corolla is ?us def9itely adapt$ to ! visits ( insects2 = ! nect> is s plac$ t to obta9 x ! insect mu/ c>ry (f "s ( ! poll54 ,! calyx1 corolla1 & /am5s are n obvi\sly--z 9 ! wallfl[] & butt]cup--ins]t$ sep>ately on ! receptacle1 b seem to spr+ f a common base4 ,! fruit is a pod 7,fig4 #c71 :i* op5s :5 ripe along bo? m>g9s & lib]ates ! se$s4 ,laburnum se$s are poison\s1 b ! se$s ( _m o!r plants ( ! family 7peas1 beans1 l5tils1 etc47 are valuable foods4 #ai4 ,,! ,,rose ,,family4 #a4 ,! wild rose 7,fig4 #ge74--,) a %>p knife cut v]tically ?r\gh ! middle ( a wild rose4 ,notice t ! receptacle =ms a deep cup1 & t ! c>pels ( ! pi/il are enclos$ 9 ! cup4 ,f ! edge ( ! cup spr+ ! five sepals1 five petals1 & num]\s /am5s4 ,:at is ! great diff]5ce betwe5 a rose & a butt]cup8 ,trace ! =mation ( ! succul5t fruit or hip f ! receptacle cup ( ! fl[]4 ,cut ?r\gh a rose hip1 & obs]ve ! rip5$ c>pels 9 ! int]ior4 #b4 ,! blackb]ry4--,simil>ly exam9e a blackb]ry fl[] 7,fig4 #gf74 ,?is is /ill m l a butt]cup1 b--z 9 ! rose & ! pea--! calyx1 corolla1 & /am5s seem to spr+ f a common base1 & n to be ins]t$ sep>ately on ! receptacle4 ,trace ! =mation ( ! comp\nd fruit1 & notice t ea* "p is l a little plum or *]ry4 #c4 ,! *]ry4--,simil>ly exam9e *]ry blossom 7,fig4 #gg74 ,! pi/il consi/s ( "o c>pel1 & is fix$ at ! bottom ( ! receptacle-cup1 :ile ! calyx1 corolla1 & /am5s are fix$ on ! m>g9 ( ! cup4 ,trace ! orig9 ( ea* "p ( ! fruit4 ,comp>e ! plum & apricot4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--;,apple ,blossom4 7 47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--,wild ,rose4 7 47 #d4 ,! apple & pe>4--,cut v]tically ?r\gh an apple blossom 7,fig4 #gd7 or pe> blossom 7,fig4 #gh71 & notice t ! ov>y is emb$d$ 9 ! receptacle1 & t calyx1 corolla1 & /am5s are fix$ on ! top ( ?is4 ,cut across ! ov>y & see ! five divisions 7c>pels74 ,! eatable "p ( ! fruit is ! swoll5 receptacle4 ,comp>e ! haw?orn4 ,! wild rose4--,! plants ( ! rose family are1 mo/ commonly1 woody trees or %rubs4 ,! leaves are provid$ ) /ipules 9 ne>ly all cases4 ,! wild rose 7,fig4 #ge7 may be tak5 z a type ( ! gr\p4 ,x be>s a sup]ficial resemblance to a butt]cup1 b on dissection consid]able diff]5ce 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! p>ts is se54 ,9 ! rose1 ! receptacle is urn-%ap$2 f ! m>g9 ( ! urn spr+ ! five sepals1 five petals1 & num]\s /am5s2 :ile inside ! urn ! sep>ate c>pels ( ! pi/il are ins]t$4 ,9 ! blackb]ry 7,fig4 #gf71 raspb]ry1 & /rawb]ry ! receptacle is knob-%ap$1 & ! c>pels are arrang$ on ! outside ( ! knob1 some:at z 9 ! butt]cup4 ,"h aga91 h[ev]1 ! calyx1 corolla1 & /am5s diff] f ^? ( ! butt]cup 9 seem+ to arise f a common base4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--;,blackb]ry4 #a1 fl[]+ bran* 7 72 #b1 longitud9al section ( fl[] 7 #a72 #c1 fruit 7 72 #d1 diagram ( fl[]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--;,*]ry4 #a1 fl[]+ bran* 7 72 #b1 longitud9al section ( fl[]2 #c1 longitud9al section ( fruit4 ,! diff]5ces betwe5 ! rose1 blackb]ry1 raspb]ry1 & /rawb]ry are m m>k$ :5 ! pi/il has become a fruit4 ,! fle%y "p ( ! rose hip is ! urn-%ap$ receptacle :i* encloses ! rip5$ c>pels4 ,9 ! case ( ! blackb]ry & raspb]ry ! receptacle is dry1 & is surr\nd$ by ! comp\nd fruit 7,fig4 #gf1 #c7 ( ! sev]al bodies l little plums or *]ries4 ,! eatable "p ( ! /rawb]ry fruit 7,fig4 #add7 is ! swoll5 receptacle1 on ! outside ( :i* are ! little yell[ nutlets d]iv$ f ! c>pels ( ! fl[]4 ,9 ! *]ry 7,fig4 #gg71 plum1 & apricot ! pi/il consi/s ( only "o c>pel1 :i* is enclos$ 9 ! urn-l receptacle4 ,aft] f]tilisation1 ! great] "p ( ! wall ( ! ov>y becomes fle%y1 & "o ( ! two ovules conta9$ 9 x becomes a se$4 ,! 8/one0 is =m$ f ! inn]mo/ "p ( ! ov>y wall4 ,! apple 7,fig4 #gd7 & pe> 7,fig4 #gh7 h _! five c>pels emb$d$ 9 ! receptacle1 & ! re/ ( ! fl[] /&s on ?is "p4 ,! eatable portion ( ! fruit is ! swoll5 receptacle4 ,! haw?orn has usually only two c>pels1 & 9 ! fruit ! "p d]iv$ f ! receptacle becomes h>d & horny4 ,9 o!r respects x is v simil> to ! apple4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,pe>4 #a1 fl[]+ bran* 7 72 #b1 longitud9al section ( fl[]2 #c1 longitud9al section ( fruit2 #d1 diagram ( fl[]4 ,! rose family is widely di/ribut$1 especially 9 temp]ate regions4 #bj4 ,,! ,,p>sley ,,family4 #a4 ,! poison hemlock4--,exam9e ?is plant 7,fig4 #gi7 v c>efully1 rememb]+ t x is poison\s4 ,notice ! g5]al habit ( gr[?2 ! *>act]s ( ! %ea?+1 comp\nd leaves2 ! holl[ ribb$ /em2 & also ! arrangem5t ( ! fl[]s1 :i* is *>act]i/ic ( ! family4 ,f ! top ( a ma9 fl[]-/alk sev]al small] /alks come (f toge!r1 l ! ribs ( an umbrella4 ,f ! top ( ea* ( ^! spr+ ! /alklets :i* be> ! small :ite fl[]s4 ,notice ! bracts at ! po9ts ( orig9 ( ! /alks4 ,exam9e ! fl[]s1 & wat* insects visit+ !m4 ,:i* insects are mo/ commonly f\nd on ! fl[]s8 ,comp>e ! c[ p>snip1 ! wat] hemlock1 c>rot1 p>sley1 p>snip1 & cel]y1 c>efully not+ ! po9ts ( resemblance & diff]5ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,poison ,hemlock4 7 47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--;,h$ge ,p>sley4 7 47 ,! p>sley family4--,! plants ( ?is family may be recognis$ easily by ! arrangem5t ( ! fl[]s4 ,sev]al /alks spr+ toge!r f ! top ( ! ma9 fl[] /alk & ea* ( ^! aga9 gives rise at its tip to a numb] ( small] /alks1 at ! ends ( :i* ! small fl[]s are borne 7,figs4 #gi & #hj74 ,! fl[]s are f]tilis$ by ! aid ( insects1 & z ! nect> is on ! surface x is accessible to small insects su* z flies1 beetles1 etc4 ,! fl[]s are r5d]$ m conspicu\s by be+ plac$ close toge!r4 ,! /ems are usually holl[1 & ! leaves are alt]nate1 & g5]ally comp\nd1 ) %ea?+ bases4 ,_m ( ! plants ( ?is family are v poison\s1 & su* %\ld be c>efully di/+ui%$ & :5ev] possible ext]m9at$4 ,! poison hemlock 7,fig4 #gi7 v>ies 9 height f two to sev5 feet4 ,x has a holl[ /em :i* is spott$ ) purple 9 ! l[] "p1 & :5 bruis$ ! leaves give (f a smell l t ( mice4 ,cattle are (t5 poison$ by eat+ ! plant 9 hay1 & *ildr5 h be5 poison$ ev5 by bl[+ :i/les made f ! /em4 ,! wat]-hemlock is extremely poison\s4 ,x gr[s along ! sides ( pools4 ,! /em is holl[1 & ! leaflets ( ! comp\nd leaves are f9ely too!d4 ,! root is a clu/] ( fle%y swell+s1 & has un=tunately a r pleasant ta/e4 ,o!r poison\s plants ( ! family are ! wat] dropwort & ! fool's-p>sley4 ,among ! h>mless & useful memb]s ( ! gr\p are cel]y 7:5 cultivat$71 c>rot1 p>snip1 & p>sley4 #ba4 ,,! ,,primrose ,,& ,,c[slip4 #a4 ,! primrose4--,exam9e ! habit 7,fig4 #ha7 ( ! plant1 its und]gr\nd /em1 its spoon-%ap$ leaves--arrang$ 9 a rosette--& ! mann] 9 :i* ! fl[]s spr+ f ! /em4 ,9 ! fl[] make out 7a7 ! calyx1 #e-po9t$ & ) unit$ sepals2 7b7 ! corolla1 consi/+ ( #e petals unit$ bel[ into a tube4 ,te> d[n ! corolla-tube to see 7c7 ! #e /am5s ins]t$ on ! corolla-tube4 ,9 "s 78?rum-ey$07 fl[]s ! an!rs are at ! top ( ! tube2 9 o!rs 78p9-ey$071 !y are halfway d[n2 7d7 ! pi/il1 consi/+ ( /igma1 /yle1 & ov>y4 ,9 ?rum-ey$ fl[]s ! /yle is %ort & ! /igma is halfway d[n ! corolla-tube2 :ile 9 p9-ey$ fl[]s ! /yle is long & ! /igma is at ! top ( ! tube4 ,d y f9d bo? p9-ey$ & ?rum-ey$ fl[]s on ! same plant1 or does "o plant be> only "o k9d8 #b4 ,f]tilisation4--,cov] up a plant ( ea* k9d ) gauze1 to keep insects f ! fl[]s1 & notice :e!r ! cov]$ fl[]s rip5 se$s l ! o!rs4 #c4 ,! c[slip4--,comp>e ! c[slip 7,fig4 #hc71 & notice t ! ma9 /alk gives (f f ! same po9t sev]al small] /alks1 ea* ( :i* be>s a fl[]4 ,obs]ve t ! c[slip also has bo? p9-ey$ & ?rum-ey$ =ms ( fl[]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,primrose4 7 47 ,! primrose & c[slip4--,9 ! primrose we h fl[]s ( a type diff]+ f all ^? previ\sly consid]$ 9 ?is *apt]4 ,n only are ! sepals jo9$ toge!r to =m a five-too!d calyx-tube1 b ! five petals are also jo9$ toge!r to =m a corolla-tube1 & ! /am5s are fix$ on ! corolla-tube4 ,!re are two k9ds ( primroses1 kn[n to c\ntry *ildr5 z p9-ey$ & ?rum-ey$ fl[]s respectively 7,fig4 #hb74 ,! two =ms gr[ on sep>ate plants4 ,9 a p9-ey$ primrose ! /yle is long1 & ! /igma--look+ some:at l ! head ( a p9--is at ! top ( ! corolla-tube2 :ile ! /am5s are halfway d[n4 ,! ?rum-ey$ primroses h _! /am5s at ! top1 :ile ! /igma ( ! pi/il is halfway d[n ! tube1 exactly opposite ! place :]e1 9 ! p9-ey$ =m1 ! /am5s are ins]t$4 ,?is curi\s /ate ( ?+s 0 a great puzzle to botani/s until ,d>w9 cle>$ up ! my/]y4 ,a bee1 ?ru/+ its proboscis d[n a p9-ey$ primrose 9 se>* ( ! nect> at ! bottom1 du/s x ) poll5 ab\t halfway d[n--j 9 ! place :i* w come 9 contact ) ! /igma :5 ! animal visits a ?rum-ey$ fl[]4 ,& ! poll5 f ! ?rum-ey$ =m adh]es to ! "p ( ! bee :i* w pres5tly t\* ! /igma ( a long-/yl$ fl[]4 ,?is beautiful & simple arrangem5t makes x practically c]ta9 t ea* primrose %all be f]tilis$ by poll5 f ! o!r =m4 ,9 ! ?rum-ey$ =m1 h[ev]1 x is possible = poll5 to fall ^u ! /igma & produce self-f]tilisation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--;,*9ese ,primrose4 ,l1 long-/yl$ 78p9-ey$07 fl[]2 ,k1 %ort-/yl$ 78?rum-ey$07 fl[]2 ,g1 /igma2 ,s1 an!rs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,c[slip4 7 47 ,x is obvi\s t ! c[slip 7,fig4 #hc7 is closely relat$ to ! primrose4 ,! diff]5ce lies *iefly 9 ! "* ( ! fl[]-/alk4 ,9 ! c[slip ?is is long1 & x be>s at its top sev]al /alklets1 ea* ( :i* ends 9 a fl[]4 ,z 9 ! primrose1 cross-f]tilisation is secur$ by "s fl[]s be+ p9-ey$ 7long /yl$7 & o!rs ?rum-ey$ 7%ort /yl$74 #bb4 ,,! ,,daisy ,,& ,,its ,,relatives4 #a4 ,! daisy4--,take up sev]al daisy plants 7,fig4 #hd7 entire1 & wa% away ! soil f ! roots4 ,notice h[ ! /ems--"s ( :i* are und]gr\nd--are connect$ toge!r4 ,draw a leaf4 ,:at advantage is x to ! plant to h leaves ( ! %ape notic$8 ,cut v]tically ?r\gh ! 8head10 & notice t :at is usually call$ ! 8fl[]0 really consi/s ( a l>ge numb] ( small fl[]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--;,daisy4 7 47 ,! c5tral or disc fl[]s are tubul>4 ,:i* disc fl[]s op5 fir/1 ^? ne> ! middle or ^? ne>] ! edge ( ! disc8 ,pick (f a fl[] & notice ! #e-too!d corolla4 ,te> ! corolla d[n ) a ne$le1 & obs]ve ! t9y /am5s 7#e7 fix$ on ! corolla-tube4 ,! an!rs are jo9$ toge!r4 ,notice ! divid$ /igma ( ! pi/il4 ,! :ite & p9k ray fl[]s h /rap-%ap$ corollas4 ,!y h no /am5s1 b ea* has a pi/il l t ( a disc fl[]4 ,:at d y ?9k is ! object ( ! ray fl[]s be+ s conspicu\s8 ,:y d !y close ov] ! disc at night8 ,notice ! l>ge numb] ( gre5 bracts bel[ ! disc4 #b4 ,! d&elion4--,comp>e ! d&elion 7,fig4 #he74 ,notice t all ! fl[]s are /rap-%ap$1 l ! ray fl[]s ( ! daisy4 ,pull "o out1 & make out ! /rap-l corolla1 ! five /am5s ) jo9$ an!rs1 & ! d\ble /igma 7,fig4 #hf1 #b74 ,notice ! tuft ( f9e hairs bel[ ! corolla & above ! knob-l ov>y4 ,! tuft ( hairs is ! top ( ! calyx-tube4 ,:5 ! fl[]s h be5 f]tilis$1 ! yell[ corollas )]1 & ea* calyx-tube elongates until x is ab\t an in* long1 ! tuft ( f9e hairs be+ /ill at ! top 7#d74 ,bl[ a 8clock10 & notice h[ easily ! fruits are deta*$ f ! disc & h[ sl[ly !y settle4 ,:at advantage is ?is to ! plant8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #he4--;,d&elion4 7 47 #c4 ,! ?i/le4--,comp>e ! ?i/le 7,fig4 #hg74 ,! bracts are v prickly4 ,is ?is an advantage8 ,are ! fl[]s tubul> or /rap-%ap$8 ,exam9e ! fruits 78?i/le d[n07 & comp>e ) ^? ( d&elion4 ,! daisy4--,:at is g5]ally call$ ! 8fl[]0 ( ! daisy 7,fig4 #hd7 really consi/s ( a v l>ge numb] ( small sep>ate fl[]s set close toge!r on a flatt5$ disc or receptacle4 ,! gr\p ( fl[]s is call$ a head4 ,on ! l[] surface ( ! head are sev]al gre5 leaves1 or bracts1 :i* protect ! bud be=e x op5s4 ,! fl[]s ( a daisy-head are ( two k9ds4 ,! :ite or p9k /raps set r\nd ! edge ( ! head are ! corollas ( ! ray fl[]s4 ,!y h no /am5s1 b a pi/il ) a divid$ /igma is pres5t 9 ea*4 ,! disc fl[]s are yell[ & tubul>4 ,! corolla consi/s ( five unit$ petals4 ,on x are fix$ five /am5s1 ! an!rs ( :i* are jo9$ toge!r4 ,! pi/il is l t ( a ray fl[]4 ,no calyx is pres5t 9 ei!r ! ray or disc fl[]s ( ! daisy4 ,! daisy is f]tilis$ by ! aid ( insects :i* are attract$ by ! /rap-l corollas ( ! ray fl[]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--;,d&elion4 #a1 two heads & a leaf 7 72 #b1 a s+le fl[] 7 #b72 #c1 fruit 7 _/72 #d1 receptacle1 ) "o fruit4 ,! d&elion 8fl[]0 7,fig4 #he7 is also really a head consi/+ ( a great _m sep>ate fl[]s4 ,!re are (t5 betwe5 two & ?ree hundr$ ( ^! little fl[]s pres5t 9 "o head4 ,bel[ ! head are sev]al gre5 bracts1 & ^! protect ! fl[]s bo? 9 ! bud & at night 7,fig4 #hf74 ,! fl[]s ( ! d&elion are all ( "o type4 ,! corolla is /rap-%ap$ 7,fig4 #hf1 #b71 & ( a beautiful yell[ col\r to attract insects4 ,on ! end ( ! /rap may be se5 five small tee? :i* indicate t x really consi/s ( five unit$ petals4 ,at ! base ( ! corolla is a tuft ( f9e hairs1 :i* is ! top ( ! calyx-tube1 & at ! bottom ( ! fl[] is a little :ite knob--! ov>y4 ,! five /am5s are fix$ on ! inside ( ! corolla tube4 ,_! an!rs are unit$ to =m a tube ?r\gh :i* ! upp] "p ( ! /yle1 & ! =k$ /igma protrude4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--,?i/le4 7 47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--,tubul> fl[] ( ,?i/le 7magnifi$74 ,x w be notic$ t a d&elion fl[] is practically l a ray fl[] ( a daisy1 ) ! addition ( calyx & /am5s4 ,! ?i/le 7,fig4 #hg7 is ano!r common memb] ( ! family4 ,its bracts are prickly1 & are a protection f ! attacks ( animals4 ,! fl[]s 7,fig4 #hh7 are all tubul>4 ,! common ?i/le di/ributes its fruit by a plume ( radiat+ f9e hairs--! calyx4 ,! fruit is commonly kn[n z 8?i/le d[n40 ,! ,compositae1 z plants ( ?is family are call$1 are f\nd 9 all p>ts ( ! _w4 ,! family is ! l>ge/ 9 ! vegetable k+dom1 & _m ( ! plants includ$ 9 x are ( consid]able importance4 #bc4 ,,! ,,foxglove ,,family4 #a4 ,! foxglove4--,exam9e a fl[]+ plant ( foxglove 7,fig4 #hi74 ,notice ! g5]al habit ( gr[?4 ,9 ! fl[] make out ! five-lob$ calyx1 ! irregul> corolla ) five petals jo9$ to =m a tube1 ! f\r /am5s 7two long & two %ort7 fix$ on ! corolla tube 7,fig4 #ij71 & ! =m & atta*m5t ( ! pi/il4 ,wat* bees visit+ ! fl[]4 #b4 ,! spe$well4--,comp>e ! spe$well 7,fig4 #ia71 & notice t ! corolla is m ne>ly regul> ?an is ! case ) ! foxglove1 t x consi/s ( f\r comb9$ petals1 & t two /am5s are fix$ ^u x4 #c4 ,! musk4--,comp>e ! musk4 ,dissect a fl[] & notice ! =ms & positions ( ! p>ts4 ,especially exam9e ! pi/il ) its two-lob$ /igma4 ,) a hair1 c>efully t\* "o ( ! lobes ( ! /igma ( a gr[+ fl[] & wat* h[ ! lobes close4 ,d ! lobes op5 aga98 ,put a little poll5 on1 & wat* to see if ?is "t ! lobes op5 aga9 aft] clos+4 ,wat* insects visit+ ! fl[]s & try to make out h[ ! poll9ation ( ! /igmas is br\ght ab\t4 ,! foxglove family4--,9 ! primrose & ! disc-fl[]s ( ! daisy are se5 examples ( regul>1 dicotyl$on\s fl[]s ) five petals fus$ to =m a corolla-tube1 & ) five /am5s ins]t$ on ! corolla4 ,9 ! /rap-%ap$ fl[]s ( ! d&elion ! corolla is irregul>1 b /ill consi/s ( five fus$ petals & be>s ! five /am5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--;,foxglove1 7 47 ,! foxglove 7,fig4 #hi7 & its relatives h also irregul> corollas ( jo9$ petals on :i* ! /am5s are fix$2 b ! /am5s are usually only f\r 9 numb]1 two be+ long & two %ort z 9 ,fig4 #ij1 b4 ,9 ! foxglove ! /am5s rip5 & %$ _! poll5 be=e ! pi/il ( ! same fl[] is mature4 ,?is prev5ts self-f]tilisation1 b bumble bees 9 pass+ f "o fl[] to ano!r convey ! ripe poll5 ( ! y\ng] fl[]s to ! /igmas ( fl[]s :i* are ready = f]tilisation4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--;,foxglove4 a1 fl[]2 b1 corolla cut op5 & spread out2 c1 calyx & pi/il2 d1 fruit2 e1 section ( fruit4 7 47 ,! pretty blue spe$well 7,fig4 #ia7 is closely relat$ to ! foxglove1 b its corolla has only f\r lobes in/ead ( five1 & "s times ^! seem ( almo/ equal size at ! fir/ glance4 ,g5]ally1 h[ev]1 ! corolla is v pla9ly irregul>4 ,! spe$well has only two /am5s1 :ile mulle9 has five4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--,spe$well4 7 47 ,calceol>ia1 musk1 glox9ia1 & snapdragon--o!r memb]s ( ! family--are (t5 cultivat$ 9 g>d5s4 ,! fl[]s ( ! musk are especially int]e/+1 because !y %[ s well :at is call$ irritability1--! p[] :i* all liv+ ?+s possess ( act+ 9 a def9ite mann] 9 response to a def9ite irritation or /imulus4 ,we h already se5 good examples ( plant-irritability 9 ! way a climb+ /em w9ds itself r\nd a support4 ,! /igma ( ! musk fl[] has two flaps4 ,if ^! are t\*$ ) a hair or bri/le !y quickly close toge!r1 b pres5tly op5 aga9 z if !y _h f\nd out t !y _h be5 trick$4 ,:51 h[ev]1 a little poll5 is put on ! flaps !y close f9ally1 = _! :ole object is accompli%$4 ,"s ( ! plants 9 ?is family are poison\s1 ! foxglove be+ especially s 9 all its p>ts4 #bd4 ,,! ,,labiates4 #a4 ,! deadnettle4--,exam9e a deadnettle plant 7,fig4 #ib74 ,notice ! habit ( gr[?1 & write d[n a description ( ! %ape & appe>ance ( ! /em & leaves4 ,:at is ! %ape ( ! fl[]8 ,h[ _m sepals1 petals1 & /am5s has x8 ,d ! /am5s rip5 fir/1 or does ! pi/il8 ,:at insects d y f9d visit+ ! fl[]8 ,try to f9d out h[ !y poll9ate ! /igma4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--,:ite ,deadnettle4 7 47 #b4 ,o!r labiates4--,comp>e ! sage 7especially 9 respect ( its relation to bees71 rosem>y1 ?yme1 m>joram1 & m9t1 & di/+ui% betwe5 _! v>i\s fl[]s1 leaves1 & sc5ts4 ,! labiates4--,! deadnettle is a type ( an easily recognisable family ( plants4 ,! /em is squ>e 9 section1 & ! leaves are arrang$ ^u x 9 opposite pairs at "r angles to ea* o!r4 ,! plants are hairy & h di/9ctive od\rs4 ,! aroma ( ?yme1 m9t1 m>joram1 sage1 etc41 has l$ to ! plants be+ us$ = flav\r+ food4 ,none ( ! labiates is poison\s4 ,! %ape ( ! fl[] is v *>act]i/ic1 & is specially adapt$ to ! visits ( bees4 ,! fl[]s are s modifi$ t ! l[e/ "p ( ! corolla =ms a plat=m on :i* ! bee may conv5i5tly alight1 :ile ! upp] petals unite into an ar*$ ro( :i* protects ! pi/il & /am5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--,poll9ation ( ! ,sage by a bumble bee4 ,= explanation see text4 7 #a47 ,! me*anism ( cross-poll9ation is p>ticul>ly well %[n 9 ! case ( ! sage 7,fig4 #ic74 ,! fl[] conta9s f\r /am5s1 b two ( ^! h lo/ _! use1 & ! o!rs are modifi$ 9 a /range mann]4 ,! :ole /am5 has some:at ! %ape ( a capital ,t1 & at ea* end ( ! cross-piece is a poll5 box4 ,usually ! cross-piece 7c1 ,fig4 #ic1 #c7 is n at "r angles to ! filam5t1 b is swung up--! junction acts z a h+e--until x is ne>ly v]tical 7,fig4 #ic1 #d74 ,! poll5 box s1 :i* is at ! l[] end ( ! cross-piece c :5 ?is is v]tical1 conta9s h>dly any poll54 ,! entrance to ! honey tube is ?us gu>d$ by two pill>s1 ! filam5ts 7f7 ( ! /am5s2 & ! l[] poll5 box 7s7 ( ! cross-piece ( ea* /am5 is directly 9 front ( ! bee's head z x /&s on ! l[] lip ( ! fl[]4 ,:5 x pu%es =w>d its head to rea* ! nect> x comes 9 contact ) ! l[] poll5 boxes1 & ! cross pieces sw+ r\nd on _! h+es1 br++ ! upp] poll5 boxes d[n ) a smack on ! bee's back 7,fig4 #ic1 #a71 & spr9kl+ x lib]ally ) poll5 du/4 ,hav+ %$ _! poll5 ! /am5s %rivel up1 & ! pi/il comes to maturity4 ,z ! pi/il rip5s1 ! /igma ar*es ov] 7,fig4 #ic1 #b7 s z to scrape along ! back ( any bee visit+ ! fl[] = ! nect>1 & ?us to wipe (f ! poll5 :i* has be5 br\ght f a y\ng] fl[]4 #be4 ,,! ,,lily ,,& ,,sn[drop ,,families4 #a4 ,! hyac9?4--,take up a plant 7,fig4 #id7 entire & notice ! und]gr\nd bulb ) roots spr++ f its l[] surface1 & ! long n>r[ leaves4 ,is ! v5ation ( ! leaves p>allel or net-l8 ,is ! hyac9? a monocotyl$on or a dicotyl$on8 ,see ! bract at ! base ( ea* fl[]-/alklet4 ,exam9e ! fl[]4 ,its leaves _c be di/+ui%$ into calyx & corolla1 b are q simil> to ea* o!r 9 size1 %ape1 & col\r4 ,!y are !re=e call$ ! p]ian?4 ,! p]ian? leaves are unit$ to =m a tube4 ,te> d[n ! tube to see ! six /am5s fix$ on x4 ,are !y all on ! same level8 ,exam9e ! pi/il & cut ! ov>y across to see ! ovules 9 ! ?ree jo9$ c>pels4 ,:i* is fix$ at ! high] level1 ! p]ian? or ! base ( ! pi/il8 #b4 ,o!r plants ( ! lily family4--,exam9e also ! :ite lily1 tulip1 /> ( ,be?lehem1 & lily ( ! valley1 & notice t 9 spite ( small diff]5ces !y are all monocotyl$ons 7h[ d y "k ?is87 & all h ! p]ian? fix$ bel[ ! ov>y4 #c4 ,! sn[drop4--,comp>e & contra/ ! sn[drop 7,fig4 #ie74 ,make out t x is a monocotyl$on1 b t its p]ian? is ins]t$ above ! ov>y4 ,?is is ! great po9t ( diff]5ce f ! lily family4 ,notice also h[ ! /am5s are fix$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #id4--,wild ,hyac9?4 7 _/47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--,sn[drops4 7 47 #d4 ,o!r plants ( ! sn[drop family4--,exam9e ! daffodil 7,figs4 #ee & #if7 & n>cissus4 ,aris+ f ! %ort p]ian? tube ( ! daffodil is a long] "o :i* is (t5 mi/ak5 = a corolla2 x is call$ ! corona4 ,none ( ! fl[]s hi!rto describ$ conta9s any?+ correspond+ to a corona4 ,! corona 9 ! n>cissus is %ort4 ,z 9 ! sn[drop1 ! p]ian? is fix$ above ! ov>y4 ,obs]ve h[ ! /am5s are fix$1 & notice ! dry leaf b5ea? ! fl[]4 ,! lily family4--,ei!r ! wild hyac9? 7,fig4 #id7 or ! cultivat$ s+le hyac9? may be tak5 z a good repres5tative ( ?is family4 ,! fir/ po9t :i* /rikes ! /ud5t on exam9+ ! g5]al 8habit0 ( ! plant is ! "* ( ! long %ea?+ leaves4 ,_! ve9s d n =m an obvi\s network1 su* z is se5 9 ! leaves ( dicotyl$ons1 b run l5g?wise & r\ghly p>allel to ea* o!r 9 ! mann] *>act]i/ic ( grasses & o!r monocotyl$ons 7p4 #dj74 ,! leaves are n>r[1 & are n divid$ into blade & /alk2 !y & ! fl[] /alk spr+ f an und]gr\nd bulb 7p4 #hd7 :i* consi/s *iefly ( ! swoll5 leaf-bases ( a previ\s season4 ,a sep>ate calyx & corolla are n to be di/+ui%$ 9 ! fl[]2 ! six leaves be+ all alike 9 size1 %ape1 & col\r4 ,^! six leaves h5ce receive a special "n1 & are call$ ! p]ian?4 ,! p]ian? leaves are unit$ into a tube1 on ! inside ( :i* ! six /am5s are arrang$ 9 two s]ies ( ?ree ea*4 ,9 ! middle ( ! fl[]1 & fix$ above ! ins]tion ( ! p]ian?1 is ! pi/il1 :i* consi/s ( ?ree unit$ c>pels4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #if4--;,daffodil fl[]1 cut d[n ! middle4 7 47 ,x w be notic$ t ! p>ts ( ! fl[] are 9 ?rees4 ,!re are six unit$ p]ian? leaves 7?ree inn] & ?ree out]71 six /am5s 7also 9 two s]ies71 & ?ree unit$ c>pels4 ,?is is v common--?\gh by no means univ]sal--9 monocotyl$ons4 ,all ! plants ( ! lily family--includ+ ! tulips1 ! true lilies1 lily ( ! valley1 asp>agus1 onion1 etc4--agree 9 be+ monocotyl$ons1 & 9 _! fl[]s hav+ a conspicu\s p]ian? 7= attract+ insects7 & six /am5s1 & 9 ! ov>y be+ above ! ins]tion ( ! p]ian?4 ,! sn[drop family4--,plants ( ?is family are v simil> to ^? ( ! lily family2 9 fact 9 only "o respect c any %>p l9e ( dem>cation be drawn betwe5 ! two gr\ps2 9 ! sn[drop & its relatives ! o!r p>ts ( ! fl[] /& ^u ! ov>y 7,fig4 #if74 ,! fl[]s ( "s plants ( ! family1 e4g4 ! daffodil1 possess a tubul> outgr[? ( ! p]ian?1 :i* is call$ a corona4 ,x is (t5 mi/ak5 = a corolla4 #bf4 ,,! ,,arum ,,lily4 #a4 ,! cuckoo-p9t4--,exam9e ! habit ( ! plant1 & !n cut op5 ! 8fl[]40 ,y w probably f9d a numb] ( small flies inside4 ,exam9e ! c5tral rod & make out ! /am5s & pi/ils on x4 ,:i* rip5 fir/8 ,! arum 8lily10 ) its humble relative ! cuckoo-p9t 7,fig4 #ig71 m]its special m5tion2 =1 9 ! fir/ place1 x is n a lily at all1 & secondly1 x furni%es an extremely int]e/+ example ( pi/ils com+ to maturity be=e an!rs1 :i* is r r>e4 ,:at is g5]ally call$ ! 8fl[]0 ( ! cuckoo-p9t1 or 8lords & ladies10 consi/s ( a big curl$ leaf ) a purple rod /ick+ up 9 ! middle4 ,ne> ! bottom ( ! rod1 b hidd5 f sight by ! l[] "p ( ! leaf1 ! true fl[]s arise4 ,! *amb] conta9+ !m is %ut 9 by a s]ies ( /iffi% hairs :i* po9t d[nw>ds4 ,bel[ ! hairs ! rod supports a s]ies ( an!rs &1 ne> ! bottom ( ! *amb]1 sev]al pi/ils4 ,on cutt+ op5 ! *amb] "o ne>ly always f9ds a numb] ( small flies1 cov]$ ) poll51 :i* !y h br\ght f ano!r arum4 ,! flies get 9 easily en\gh1 b once 9 !y are prison]s1 = ! d[n-po9t+ hairs prev5t !m f gett+ out aga94 ,! pi/ils ne> ! bottom ( ! rod rip51 & are f]tilis$ by ! poll5 ! flies h br\ght4 ,aft] a "t ! an!rs above rip5 & %$ _! welcome poll5 on ! hungry captives4 ,soon aft] ?is ! hairs at ! top ( ! *amb] %rivel up1 & ! flies1 once m cov]$ ) poll51 are at lib]ty to return to ! out] _w &1 untaught by exp]i5ce1 to repeat ! exp]im5t on ano!r 8fl[]40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--;,a1 ,cuckoo-p9t4 7 47 ,9 ,b1 ! front ( ! leaf is cut away to %[ ! rod sp 7,c74 ,f1 female fl[]s2 ,m1 male fl[]s2 /1 undevelop$ male fl[]s4 ,,ex]cises ,,on ,,*apt] ,,vi4 #a4 ,describe ! arrangem5t ( ! /am5s 9 ! wallfl[]1 ! sage1 & ! primrose4 #b4 ,describe ! pi/il ( ! deadnettle1 ! primrose1 & ! %eph]d's purse4 7#ahie7 #c4 ,9 :at respects does ! fl[] ( ! butt]cup diff] f t ( ! wild rose8 #d4 ,expla9 ! arrangem5t & =m ( ! /am5s 9 "s fl[] select$ by y\rself4 ,describe ! /ructure & cont5ts ( ! an!r4 7#ahig7 #e4 ,:]e is ! poll5 ( a fl[] =m$8 ,:at is its use8 7#ahih7 #f4 ,"n "o or two plants :i* d n rip5 se$ if insects are exclud$1 & %[ :y !y d n4 7#ahih7 #g4 ,"n two plants :i* w\ld be 9 fl[] 9 ea* ( ! mon?s f ,m>* to ,augu/ inclusive1 & /ate 9 :at localities !y w\ld be f\nd8 7,n4,f4,u47 #h4 ,9 :at ways are insects attract$ to visit fl[]s8 ,give examples1 ) an explanation & draw+ 9 ea* case1 ( any special /ructure :i* may be a means ( attraction4 7,n4,f4,u47 #i4 ,"n t5 fl[]+ plants :i* may be f\nd1 7a7 9 a %ady wood1 7b7 9 a mead[1 9 late spr+4 #aj4 ,"n any fre% specim5s ( fl[]s :i* usually c\ld be obta9$ gr[+ wild 9 ,m>*1 ,june1 & ,octob] respectively4 7,n4,f4,u47 #aa4 ,:at wild fl[]s w\ld y expect to f9d 9 e>ly ,april 9 y\r "p ( ! c\ntry8 ,9 :at k9ds ( places w\ld y look = !m8 7,n4,f4,u47 #ab4 ,"n ! p>ts ( any fl[] y h exam9$ :i* are conc]n$ ) ! production ( se$4 7,k+'s ,s*ol>%ip1 #aijd7 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,grasses4 #bg4 ,,! ,,ev]yday ,,life ,,( ,a ,,grass4 #a4 ,g5]al features4--,pull up a sod ( c\* grass or ( ,york%ire fog & cle> away ! e>? z well z possible4 ,notice ! fibr\s1 creep+ bran*es or /olons1 & ! bun*es ( f9e roots4 ,9 summ] ! plant s5ds up also erect bran*es call$ haulms1 :i* be> leaves & fl[]s4 ,exam9e ! %ape ( ! leaves & notice _! p>allel v5ation1 :i* indicates 7p4 #dj7 t ! plant is a monocotyl$on4 ,obs]ve h[ ! leaves are borne on ! haulms4 ,ea* leaf arises at a knot 7node7 :i* is slightly swoll54 ,! fir/ "p ( ! leaf is a %ea? :i* encloses ! haulm up to p]haps ! next knot4 ,!n ! leaf-blade /&s out f ! haulm4 ,turn back ! blade slightly & notice at ?is po9t a little /rap1 ! ligule 7,fig4 #ih71 on ! upp] surface ( ! leaf-blade4 ,notice ! v>iation 9 ! size & %ape ( ! ligules ( diff]5t k9ds ( grass4 ,pull ! haulm until x gives way1 & draw ! brok5 "p out ( ! leaf-%ea?s4 ,*ew ! end1 & notice ! ta/e ( sug>4 ,cut across haulms ( v>i\s ages4 ,! "y haulms are solid2 ! old ones are holl[ except at ! nodes1 :]e !re is a horizontal %elf4 ,notice ?is also 9 a bamboo cane1 :i* is ! haulm ( a l>ge tropical grass4 ,9 spr+1 m>k a "y haulm1 s t y c recognise x1 & measure x day by day4 ,note ! measurem5ts made on v>i\s days1 & also ! date ( op5+ ( ! fl[]s4 #b4 ,diff]5t grasses4--,le>n to recognise diff]5t grasses1 n only by ! way 9 :i* ! clu/]s ( fl[]s are borne on ! haulms 7,figs4 #ajb to #aaj7 & by _! col\rs1 b also by ! g5]al appe>ance ( ! plant :5 x is n fl[]+2 ! size & %ape ( ! leaves1 ! "* ( ! ligules1 ! mann] ( root+1 etc4 ,aga9 g]m9ate gra9s ( :eat1 & especially notice ! s+le cotyl$on1 ! leaves1 & roots 7p4 #ba74 ,importance ( grasses4--,x is impossible to ov]-e/imate ! value to man ( ! v>i\s grasses4 ,f ! e>lie/ times he has obta9$ 8 /aple food f ! gra9s ( su* c]eals z :eat1 b>ley1 oats1 rice1 & maize2 & 8 flocks & h]ds h graz$ ^u ! nutriti\s h]bage ( ! pla9s4 ,! numb]less applications ( su* l>ge tropical grasses z ! bamboo & ! sug>-cane are also well kn[n4 ,sug> occurs v g5]ally 9 grasses4 ,x c easily be recognis$ ev5 9 ord9>y mead[-grass by pull+ out ! upright 8/em0 f ! %ea?+ leaves1 & *ew+ ! t5d] end4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--,"p ( a ,grass ,/em & ,leaf4 h1 haulm2 s1 "p ( leaf-blade2 l1 ligule2 v1 leaf-%ea?2 k1 node-l swell+ at ! base ( ! leaf-%ea?4 7 474 ,! g5]al *>act]s ( grasses4--,9 ?is c\ntry1 grasses are usually h]bs n m ?an ?ree or f\r feet high4 ,!y h abundant leaves1 :i* are long1 n>r[1 & po9t$ at ! end2 !y h p>allel ve9s l ! leaves ( mo/ o!r monocotyl$ons4 ,! roots1 too1 are ( ! usual monocotyl$on\s type--spr++ 9 bun*es f ! base ( ! /em1 n bran*+ f a ma9 tap-root4 ,mo/ grasses spread by pro/rate creep+ bran*es or /olons 7p4 #hc71 :i* spr+ f ! axils ( leaves & !n run along b5ea? ! soil4 ,at "s little di/ance f ! p>5t %oot1 ! /olon =ms roots bel[ & a new %oot above4 ,o!r /olons arise 9 ! axils ( ! leaves ( ! new %oots1 & s ! process is repeat$4 ,9 ?is way su* grasses become ?or\ghly e/abli%$ 9 ! soil1 &--if !y are ( ! undesirable species :i* are class$ z 8we$s0--cause mu* tr\ble4 ,?is habit ( gr[? is1 h[ev]1 useful 9 b9d+ toge!r ! s& & e>? ( embankm5ts1 etc41 into a compact mass4 ,! new %oots ( /olon-be>+ grasses are ( two k9ds4 ,?r\gh\t ! great] "p ( ! ye> !y consi/ ( tufts ( leaves2 b1 9 ! spr+ & summ]1 !re are also produc$ erect bran*es--commonly kn[n z /ems1 b bett] call$ haulms--:i* be> leaves 9 ! 8alt]nate0 mann]4 ,! po9t at :i* a leaf spr+s f ! haulm is call$ a knot or node2 x is usually swoll54 ,! di/ance betwe5 two knots is1 ( c\rse1 an int]node4 ,extra roots are (t5 giv5 (f f ! l[] nodes ( ! haulm4 ,! l[e/ "p ( ! leaf is a cyl9drical1 & g5]ally split1 %ea? 7,fig4 #ih71 :i* closely embraces ! haulm = "s di/ance--(t5 = ! l5g? ( an int]node4 ,! %ea? protects & supports ! s(t1 gr[+ int]node1 inside x4 ,at ! top ( ! %ea? is ! blade ( ! leaf1 :i* /&s out f ! haulm4 ,at ! junction ( ! blade & %ea?1 on ! upp] surface ( ! leaf1 is a little membran\s outgr[? call$ a ligule 7,fig4 #ih1 l74 ,x (t5 v>ies greatly 9 size & %ape 9 diff]5t species ( grasses1 & is a valuable means ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 !m4 ,its use is n c]ta9ly kn[n4 ,! /ud5t %\ld exam9e ! ligule ( e grass he /udies4 ,! haulm1 or fl[]+ bran*1 is = "s "t %ort & solid1 & its nodes are s close toge!r t ! %ea? ( a l[] leaf may ov]lap sev]al upp] leaves4 ,! haulm is ?us protect$ f ! r\gh wea!r ( ! e>ly spr+4 ,9 ! meantime1 ! fl[]s h be5 develop+ at its upp] end4 ,:5 !y are almo/ ready to op51 ! haulm beg9s to gr[ v rapidly2 its int]nodes elongate s quickly t ! int]nal tissues are torn & ! haulm becomes a holl[ /raw1 except at ! nodes1 :]e !re are horizontal %elves4 ,! haulm h>d5s & /iff5s z x gr[s1 s t1 :5 ! spikelets ( fl[]s at its upp] end op51 !y are c>ri$ high above ! leaves on a sl5d] b v /rong rod1 :i* b5ds & dances 9 ! w9d1 & all[s ! poll5 to be deta*$ & bl[n to ! /igmas ( o!r fl[]s4 #bh4 ,,! ,,reproduction ,,( ,a ,,grass4 #a4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! spikelets4--,ga!r e>s 7fl[]+ haulms7 ( sev]al diff]5t k9ds ( grasses & notice ! arrangem5t ( ! fl[]s4 ,9 ! oat 7,fig4 #ii71 ! mead[ grasses 7,fig4 #ajc71 fescues 7,fig4 #ajb71 & o!rs1 ! nodd+ oval bodies1 call$ spikelets1 are borne on delicate /alks :i* spread outw>ds f ! haulm4 ,9 ! foxtails 7,figs4 #ajd & #aje71 timo?y 7,fig4 #ajf71 & sweet v]nal grass 7,fig4 #aaj7 ! spikelets are on %ort /alks1 :i* c1 h[ev]1 be se5 on b5d+ ! e> %>ply on itself4 ,9 :eat1 b>ley1 c\* grass1 rye1 & rye grasses 7,fig4 #aji7 ! spikelets are devoid ( /alks & are set close along ! haulm4 ,be q sure y und]/& :at is meant by a spikelet4 #ci spikelets are %[n 9 ,fig4 #ii4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--,panicle ( ,oats4 7 47 #b4 ,! arrangem5t & /ructure ( ! fl[]s4--,take an op5 spikelet f ! e> ( a grass 7e4g4 oat7 :i* has l>ge fl[]s1 & exam9e x4 ,at ! bottom are two boat-%ap$ leaves--really bracts--call$ glumes4 ,remove !m c>efully4 ,above !m w be f\nd two or m fl[]s1 ea* fl[] enclos$ 9 two o!r leaves4 ,! out] ( ^! two leaves is call$ ! out] pale2 ! inn] is ! inn] pale4 ,f ! middle ( ! back ( ! out] pale ( ! oat spr+s a bri/le call$ an awn4 ,remove ! out] pale & make out ! ?ree an!rs on long filam5ts1 & ! ov>y ) two bran*+ fea!ry /igmas & %ort /yles4 ,fig4 #ajj is a diagram ( a spikelet1 :i* makes cle> ! relation ( ! glumes1 pales1 & fl[]s4 ,fig4 #aja1 ,a1 is a spikelet ( mead[ fescue4 ,its out] pales diff] f ^? ( ! oat 9 n be>+ awns4 ,o!rwise x is v simil>4 ,fig4 #aja1 ,b1 %[s ! appe>ance 7magnifi$7 ( a fl[] ( mead[ fescue f :i* ! out] pale has be5 remov$4 ,! two little scales se5 9 front ( ! ov>y possibly repres5t a p]ian?4 ,be c>eful n to confuse ! t]ms e>1 spikelet1 & fl[]4 ,! e> consi/s ( a numb] ( spikelets1 & ea* spikelet consi/s ( glumes & "o or m fl[]s4 ,simil>ly dissect spikelets & fl[]s ( o!r grasses1 mak+ notes ( ! l5g?s ( ! /alks ( ! spikelets1 & ! pres5ce 7& l5g?s7 or abs5ce ( awns4 #c4 ,! use ( ! awns4--,try to f9d out ! use ( ! awns4 ,are !y g5]ally r\gh or smoo?8 ,h y ev] se5 grass 8se$s0 /ick+ 9 ! wool ( %eep8 ,:at kept !m atta*$8 #d4 ,gra94--,exam9e sev]al k9ds ( grass 8se$s0 & make out t !y n only consi/ ( ! entire rip5$ ov>y & are !re=e fruits1 b t usually ! pales also rema9 atta*$ to !m4 #e4 ,! embryo & endosp]m4--,aga9 cut ?r\gh soak$ gra9s ( maize & :eat1 & make out ! embryo & endosp]m 7p4 #ai74 ,grass fl[]s4--,grasses are true fl[]+ plants2 b because !y dep5d on ! w9d = ! transf]5ce ( poll5 to ! /igmas1 !y d n p&] to ! ta/e ( bees & butt]flies by secret+ nect>1 & h5ce h no ne$ to display ^? adv]tisem5t plac>ds :i* we call petals4 ,= ?is reason _! fl[]s are n g5]ally recognis$ z su*4 ,x requires a little c>e to make out ! p>ts ( ! fl[] & to und]/& ! mann] 9 :i* ! fl[]s are arrang$ among !mselves4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajj--;,diagram ( a ,grass ,spikelet4 g1 ! glumes2 p & p1 ! out] & inn] pales2 ,b1 fl[]4 ,! :ole gr\p ( fl[]s borne by any "o haulm is g5]ally call$ ! e> or panicle4 ,! e> 9 its turn consi/s ( sev]al bodies call$ spikelets4 ,! appe>ance ( ! e> v>ies greatly 9 diff]5t grasses 7,figs4 #ajb to #aaj7 accord+ z ! /alks ( ! spikelets are long & spread outw>ds f ! haulm1 z 9 ! mead[-grasses 7,fig4 #ajc71 oats 7,figs4 #ii & #ajh71 fescues 7,fig4 #ajb71 & o!rs2 %ort1 z 9 ! foxtails 7,figs4 #ajd & #aje71 timo?y 7,fig4 #ajf71 & sweet v]nal grass 7,fig4 #aaj72 or abs5t altoge!r1 z 9 ! :eat1 b>ley1 rye1 rye grasses 7,fig4 #aji71 & c\* grass4 ,a s+le spikelet ( a grass is %[n diagrammatically 9 ,fig4 #ajj4 ,at ! bottom are two boat-%ap$ bracts call$ glumes 7g1 g71 :i* almo/ or entirely cov] ! spikelet be=e x op5s4 ,:5 ! glumes h be5 remov$ a few fl[]s rema94 ,ea* "o is protect$ by two leaves call$ pales3 out] 7p7 & inn] 7p7 respectively4 ,! fl[] 7,b71 z a rule1 has ?ree /am5s1 ! an!rs be+ borne on long filam5ts & dangl+ out to ! w9d 7,fig4 #aja71 & a pi/il ) two bran*+ fea!ry /igmas4 ,9 _m grasses ! out] pale be>s a bri/le call$ an awn1 well se5 9 8be>d$0 :eat1 b>ley1 & upright brome grass4 ,fig4 #aja1 ,a1 repres5ts a s+le spikelet ( mead[ fescue1 ) two op5 fl[]s4 ,! out] pales ( ?is grass are n awn$4 ,fig4 #aja1 ,b1 %[s a s+le fl[] ( ! same grass f :i* ! out] pale has be5 remov$4 ,! two little scales se5 9 front ( ! ov>y 7& at e 9 ,fig4 #ajj7 possibly repres5t all t is left ( a p]ian? 7p4 #aba74 ,f]tilisation4--,by ! "t ! fl[]s h op5$1 ! haulm has usually gr[n s tall t !y are lift$ well above ! leaves4 ,! /am5s hang _! an!rs loosely out to ! w9d1 &1 z ! sl5d] haulm sways 9 ! breeze1 ! poll5 is readily deta*$ & c>ri$ to o!r fl[]s1 p]haps miles away4 ,x is 9 ord] to cat* ! w9d-borne poll5-gra9s t ! /igmas ( grasses are bran*$ & fea!ry4 ,a great wa/e ( poll5 is obvi\sly entail$ by ?is me?od4 ,b on ! o!r h& x mu/ be rememb]$ t insect-poll9at$ fl[]s h to pay = _! privileges by /or+ nect> 9 cunn+ly hidd5 pockets1 & by adv]tisem5t-exp5ses1 all ( :i* ! grasses avoid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--,mead[ ,fescue4 ,a1 spikelet ) two op5 fl[]s 7 #a72 ,b1 a fl[] f :i* ! out] pale has be5 remov$ 7 #f74 ,! ovule is f]tilis$ 9 ! usual way1 by a poll5 tube gr[+ d[n ! /yle f a gra9 on ! /igma4 ,z a result ( f]tilisation ! ov>y becomes a fruit conta9+ "o se$ :i* fills x4 ,9 _m cases 7e4g4 b>ley & oats7 ! pales /ill rema9 9 position & adh]e to ! fruit4 ,:5 ! awn is pres5t x may play an important "p 9 di/ribut+ ! 8se$s0 by cl++ to ! hides ( animals1 etc4 ,sometimes ! awn is ( use 9 fix+ ! gra9 9 position on ! gr\nd until ! se$ has g]m9at$4 ,! /ructure ( a grass se$ has already 7p4 #ai7 be5 /udi$ 9 ! :eat & maize4 ,! develop+ embryo 7p4 #ba7 lives ^u a /ore ( food call$ ! endosp]m 7,fig4 #af7 until its roots & leaves are suffici5tly advanc$ to make food = !mselves4 #bi4 ,,"s ,,common ,,grasses4 #a4 ,! fescues4--,ga!r plants ( mead[ fescue1 & exam9e ! habit ( gr[? 79 tufts71 ! broad leaves1 & ! nodd+ panicles & ! fl[]s4 ,also exam9e ! 8se$s40 ,comp>e %eep's fescue 7,fig4 #ajb71 & notice ! v f9e leaves4 ,! out] pales are awn$4 #b4 ,! mead[ grasses4--,exam9e ! v>i\s species ( mead[ grass 7,fig4 #ajc74 ,!y c be di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r by ! *>act]s ( ! ligules4 ,notice ! tree-l habit ( ! panicles & comp>e !m ) ! fescues4 ,! mead[ grasses nev] be> awns4 ,notice ! woolly 8webs0 at ! bases ( ! 8se$s40 #c4 ,! foxtails4--,9 mead[ foxtail 7,fig4 #ajd7 notice ! pro/rate /olons & l>ge succul5t leaves4 ,does ! grass gr[ 9 tufts8 ,:y n8 ,:at is ! e>lie/ date on :i* y h se5 x 9 fl[]8 ,d\ble ! e> on itself to see ! %ort /alks ( ! spikelets4 ,h[ _m fl[]s are !re 9 ea* spikelet8 ,notice ! silky awns ( ! fl[]s4 ,comp>e ! sl5d] foxtail 7,fig4 #aje71 :i* is a tr\blesome we$4 #d4 ,timo?y4--,comp>e ! leaves & fl[]s ( timo?y or 8mead[ cat/ail0 7,fig4 #ajf7 ) ! mead[ foxtail4 ,! e> is gre5 & r\gh1 & ! fl[]s are awnless4 ,:at is ! date ( fl[]+8 #e4 ,york%ire fog4--,notice ! woolly cov]+ ( ?is we$ 7,fig4 #ajg74 ,?is cov]+ & its bitt] flav\r make x di/a/eful to cattle4 ,obs]ve ! 8kne$0 awn ( ! fl[]4 ,dig up & %ake (f ! e>? f a sod to see ! /olons4 #f4 ,wild oat 7,fig4 #ajh74 ,exam9e ! l>ge spikelets & make out ! long twi/$ awn ( ! fl[]4 ,comp>e ?is we$ ) ! cultivat$ oat 7,fig4 #ii7 & ) ! yell[ oat grass4 #g4 ,! p]5nial rye grass4--,notice t ! e> is flatt5$1 & t ! spikelets are )\t /alks & h only "o glume4 ,! leaf is glossy & has a prom95t midrib & a flatt5$ %ea?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--,%eep's ,fescue4 7 47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--,smoo?-/alk$ ,mead[ ,grass4 7 47 #h4 ,sweet-sc5t$ v]nal grass4--,notice ! tuft$ habit ( gr[? & ! *>act]s ( ! leaves4 ,*ew ! /alk & notice ! sweet od\r ( new-m[n hay4 ,:at is ! date ( fl[]+8 ,make out t ! fl[] has two /am5s only4 #i4 ,ru%es & s$ges4--,ru%es & s$ges are sometimes mi/ak5 = grasses4 ,exam9e ! /ems1 ! fl[]s1 & ! leaves 7look = ligules71 & tabulate z _m diff]5ces f ! true grasses z possible4 ,! /ud5t %\ld le>n to recognise ! common grasses & to di/+ui% ! useful species f ! we$s4 ,:5 ! grasses are 9 fl[] !re is n mu* difficulty 9 do+ ?is1 b ! habit ( gr[?--! *>act]s ( ! leaves & roots1 & ( ! /olons ( ! p]5nial species--%\ld also be notic$ c>efully1 z dur+ ! great] "p ( ! ye> ^! alone c be dep5d$ ^u4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--,mead[ ,foxtail4 7 47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--,sl5d] ,foxtail4 7 47 ,! fescues fall into two gr\ps accord+ z _! leaves are broad or n>r[4 ,! mead[ fescue is a good example ( ! =m] gr\p4 ,x is f\nd 9 mead[s & pa/ures & has long broad leaves4 ,%eep's fescue 7,fig4 #ajb7 is a good example ( ! second gr\p ( fescues4 ,x has v f9e--almo/ bri/le-%ap$--leaves4 ,l ! mead[ fescue x gr[s 9 tufts2 x inhabits high l&s & d[ns1 especially 9 lime/one di/ricts4 ,! nodd+ spikelets are borne on fairly long /alks1 & ! panicles are some:at l ^? ( ! mead[ grasses 7,fig4 #ajc74 ,! fl[]s ( %eep's fescue1 h[ev]1 be> %ort awns4 ,! mead[ grasses mu* resemble ! fescues 9 g5]al appe>ance1 b ! panicles 7,fig4 #ajc7 are r m tree-l--! /alks ( ! spikelets spread+ m horizontally--& ! fl[]s are nev] awn$4 ,! v>i\s species c be di/+ui%$ by _! ligules2 = example1 ! ligule ( ! smoo?-/alk$ mead[ grass 7,fig4 #ajc7 is blunt1 :ile t ( ! r\gh-/alk$ species is long & po9t$4 ,! annual mead[ grass is a we$ to be f\nd almo/ ev]y:]e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--,timo?y ,grass4 7 47 ,! foxtails are easily recognis$ by ! tail-l appe>ance ( ! e>s 7,figs4 #ajd & #aje74 ,! mead[ foxtail 7,fig4 #ajd7 is a valuable grass ) broad1 long1 & succul5t leaves4 ,x spreads by means ( pro/rate /olons4 ,! spikelets h %ort /alks1 z c be se5 on b5d+ ! e> on itself1 & ea* spikelet conta9s only "o fl[]4 ,! silky awns give ! e> a silv]y grey col\r4 ,! grass fl[]s 9 e>ly spr+4 ,! sl5d] foxtail 7,fig4 #aje7 is a mo/ injuri\s we$ ( cornfields4 ,x c be di/+ui%$ f ! mead[ foxtail by its less vigor\s appe>ance1 by ! ?9n] & m po9t$ e>1 & by ! black pat*es on ! e>4 ,x is (t5 call$ 8black b5t40 ,timo?y grass or 8mead[ cat/ail0 7,fig4 #ajf7 has a g5]al resemblance to mead[ foxtail1 b its e>s are r\gh to ! t\* & gre5 9 col\r4 ,x also fl[]s mu* lat] 9 ! ye> 7,july7 & its pales are awnless2 ! two grasses are !re=e easily di/+ui%$4 ,timo?y gr[s abundantly 9 clay soils1 =m+ fairly close tufts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--,york%ire ,fog4 7 47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--,wild ,oat4 7 47 ,york%ire fog 7,fig4 #ajg7 is a rank we$ :i* is di/a/eful to cattle1 p>tly because x is cov]$ ) hairs & is difficult to wet1 & p>tly because x has a bitt] flav\r4 ,x is pale 9 col\r & s(t4 ,x spreads rapidly by means ( creep+ /olons4 ,oat grasses are ( sev]al species2 "o is cultivat$ z a c]eal1 o!rs are valu$ z =age = cattle1 :ile o!rs /ill are tr\blesome we$s4 ,! wild oat 7,fig4 #ajh7 is a common we$ 9 cornfields4 ,x is an annual1 f two or ?ree feet high1 ) l>ge spikelets =m+ a loose panicle1 ! fl[]s hav+ awns twice z long z ! spikelets4 ,! cultivat$ oat is suppos$ to be a v>iety ( ! wild oat4 ,! panicle ( ! yell[ oat grass is oblong1 & has erect spikelets4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--,p]5nial ,rye ,grass4 7 47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--,sweet-sc5t$ ,v]nal ,grass4 7 47 ,! p]5nial rye grass 7,fig4 #aji7 is v easily recognis$ by its flatt5$ e>s ( alt]nate1 /alkless spikelets4 ,ea* spikelet has only "o glume4 ,! leaves are d>k-gre5 & glossy1 & ! leaf-%ea?s are flatt5$ in/ead ( be+ r\nd1 z is ! case ) mo/ grasses4 ,?is is "o ( ! mo/ valuable ( =age grasses4 ,sweet-sc5t$ v]nal grass 7,fig4 #aaj7 does n occur v abundantly 9 mead[s & pa/ures1 b ! fragrance ( new-m[n hay is almo/ :olly attribut$ to x4 ,! od\r c be di/9ctly p]ceiv$ :5 a /alk ( ! grass is *ew$4 ,! leaves are some:at hairy & are broad & flat4 ,! spikelets are borne on %ort /alks4 ,! fl[]s op5 e>ly & are rem>kable 9 possess+ only two /am5s in/ead ( ?ree4 ,ru%es & s$ges are monocotyl$on\s plants :i* are (t5 errone\sly call$ grasses4 ,! /ems ( ru%es are vivid gre51 r\nd1 & po9t$1 & conta9 a di/9ct pi?4 ,! fl[]s 7,fig4 #aaa7 are nev] 9 spikelets2 !y conta9 six /am5s1 & ! pi/il has ?ree long /igmas4 ,! s$ges1 l grasses1 h n>r[1 po9t$ leaves1 b ! ligules are ei!r v small or abs5t1 & ! leaf-%ea?s are n split4 ,! fl[]s are (t5 9 spikelets ) glumes1 z are grass fl[]s4 ,! /ems ( s$ges are solid & triangul>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4--;,a ,ru%4 a1 fl[]+ "p ( /em2 s+le fl[] 7b7 & pi/il 7c7 m highly magnifi$4 ,! fl[]s ( ru%es 9 _m respects resemble ^? ( ! lily family4 ,inde$ x is suppos$ t ! ance/ors1 n only ( ! lily family1 b also 7along a diff]5t l9e7 ( ! grasses & s$ges1 7 primitive & n[ ext9ct ru%es4 ,! lilies h develop$ ! ru% p]ian? m & m z !y h increas+ly dep5d$ on insects = poll9ation2 :ile 9 ! grasses & s$ges ! p]ian? has gradually dw9dl$ because ^! plants f\nd t w9d-poll9ation 0 suffici5t = _! ne$s4 ,,ex]cises ,,on ,,*apt] ,,vii4 #a4 ,:at grasses are gr[n z corn 9 y\r "p ( ! c\ntry8 ,h[ c y recognise ! grasses 7a7 be=e fl[]+1 7b7 9 ! e>1 7c7 by ! /raw8 #b4 ,:at =age grasses are mo/ cultivat$ 9 y\r "p ( ! c\ntry8 ,make a li/ ( ! e>lie/ dates on :i* y h se5 ea* 9 fl[]4 #c4 ,exam9e gra9s ( :eat1 b>ley1 oats1 & rye1 z h>ve/$4 ,9 :i* ( ^! are ! pales pres5t8 ,:at is ! 8be>d0 ( b>ley8 #d4 ,make a collection ( 8se$s0 ( v>i\s grasses1 & write d[n ! *>act]s by :i* !y may be di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r4 #e4 ,:at are ! commone/ we$s y h se5 9 corn fields8 ,d ! corn & ! we$s fl[] at ! same "t or n8 ,is ! "t ( fl[]+ an advantage 7a7 to ! we$s1 7b7 to ! f>m]8 #f4 ,9 :at important respects d w9d-f]tiliz$ fl[]s diff] f insect-f]tiliz$ fl[]s8 ,give examples ( ea*4 7#ahih7 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,common ,,=e/ ,,trees4 #cj4 ,,! ,,oak ,,family4 #a4 ,! oak4--7a7 ,habits ( gr[?4--,exam9e an oak tree gr[+ 9 an expos$ situation4 ,:at is its approximate height8 ,e/imate ! diamet] ( ! trunk at 7a7 ! gr\nd level1 7b7 at heights ( #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 etc41 feet4 ,at :at height d ! pr9cipal b\ghs come (f8 ,ab\t :at angle d ! b\ghs make ) ! trunk8 ,are !y /raight1 ev5ly curv$1 or zig-zag8 ,contra/ 9 ^! respects an oak gr[+ 9 a plantation4 ,try to acc\nt = ! diff]5ces obs]v$4 7b7 ,! b>k4--,exam9e ! b>ks 9 oaks ( v>i\s ages4 ,d ! ridges & furr[s caus$ by ! splitt+ ( ! b>k =m any def9ite patt]n1 or are !y arrang$ anyh[8 ,f9d a piece :i* %[s ! patt]n well1 & make a draw+ ( x4 7c7 ,me?od ( bran*+4--,c>efully obs]ve ! tree f a di/ance1 & notice h[ ! great b\ghs spr+ f ! trunk1 & 9 _! turn give rise to small] & small] bran*es4 ,notice ! %ape ( a tuft ( ! smalle/ twigs aga9/ ! sky2 !n close y\r eyes & try to recall ! picture4 ,a /ill bett] way is to make a c>eful draw+ ( ! tree1 n attempt+ to put 9 details1 b pay+ special att5tion to ! trunk & ma9 bran*es1 & to ! g5]al mass+ ( ! twigs4 ,:at is ! g5]al 8expression0 ( ! tree8 ,w\ld y call x1 e4g41 graceful1 =mal1 /urdy1 delicate1 /iff1 or sombre8 ,! me?od ( bran*+ is be/ se5 9 ! w9t] or spr+1 :5 ! tree is leafless4 ,exam9e a twig 9 w9t] or spr+1 & notice ! position ( ! buds4 ,r\nd ! tip !re may be ?ree or m cr[d$ buds4 ,! "o at ! tip g5]ally dies1 & ^? j beh9d gr[ out into lat]al bran*es4 ,c y see any trace ( ?is hav+ be5 ! case ) ! big b\ghs8 ,on a twig make out--f ! m>ks on ! outside--! gr[? ( la/ ye>1 two1 ?ree1 & f\r ye>s ago4 ,cut ^! l5g?s across ) a %>p knife1 & c\nt ! r+s ( wood4 7d7 ,! leaves4--,wat* a m>k$ twig f spr+ to summ]1 & notice h[ %ort are ! new %oots :i* come f ! buds1 & consequ5tly h[ close toge!r ! new leaves are4 ,does ?is acc\nt = ! cr[n ( foliage on ! tree be+ s d5se8 ,make a draw+ ( an oak leaf4 ,at :at "t ( ! ye> d 7i7 ! leaf-buds op51 7ii7 ! leaves fall f ! tree8 ,9 w9t]1 try to f9d an oak :i* has n %$ its leaves2 is x a "y tree or an old "o8 7e7 ,! fl[]s4--,9 ,may notice 7i7 ! hang+ catk9s1 ea* ( :i* is a bun* ( male fl[]s conta9+ /am5s1 b no pi/il2 7ii7 ! gr\ps ( small female fl[]s :i* arise 9 ! axils ( two or ?ree ( ! upp] foliage leaves2 ea* conta9s a pi/il1 b no /am5s4 ,notice ! cup ( scaly bracts1 :i* surr\nds ! l[] "p ( a female fl[]4 ,does ! tree fl[] be=e or aft] ! leaf buds h exp&$8 7f7 ,! fruit4--,trace ! developm5t ( ! acorn f ! female fl[]1 & ! *ange ( ! cov]+ ( scales into ! woody cup4 ,if possible1 comp>e = "s ye>s ! yield ( acorns by a select$ old oak4 ,g]m9ate an acorn4 7g7 ,associat$ animals4--,make z full a li/ z possible ( ! animals :i* y h se5 obta9+ food or %elt] f ! oak4 ,:at 0 ea* do+ :5 y saw x8 ,look = galls--! s-call$ 8oak apples0--& cut !m op5 to see ! insect inside4 ,also exam9e ! o!r k9ds ( galls f\nd on ! leaves & catk9s4 ,make simil> obs]vations1 sket*es1 & notes ( o!r =e/-trees1 9 addition to ! special obs]vations m5tion$ bel[1 & le>n to recognise _! 8expressions10 me?ods ( bran*+1 b>k1 leaves1 fl[]s1 & fruit4 #b4 ,! bee*4--,notice ! smoo?1 olive-grey b>k1 & ! 8flut$ column0 appe>ance ( ! base ( ! trunk ( _m bee*es2 ! long1 wavy b\ghs2 ! br[n1 %>p leaf-buds2 ! smoo?1 silky-fr+$ leaves2 ! sc>city1 or abs5ce1 ( vegetation b5ea? ! tree2 ! hang+1 globul> catk9s ( male fl[]s2 ! pairs ( female fl[]s1 surr\nd$ by prickly scales4 ,make notes ( ! dates ( fl[]+ & op5+ ( ! leaf-buds4 ,trees may be consid]$ 9 fl[] :5 ! /am5s c be se54 ,trace ! developm5t ( ! fruit or 8ma/40 ,ea* pair ( fl[]s gives rise to two ?ree-sid$ nuts1 enclos$ 9 a woody cup or husk4 ,x is cov]$ ) h>d bri/les1 & splits into f\r p>ts :5 ripe4 ,comp>e ! sweet *e/nut4 #c4 ,! bir*4--,obs]ve ! graceful appe>ance ( ! tree2 ! sl5d] trunk1 ) its b>k /reak$ ) br[n1 yell[1 & silv]2 ! purple-br[n col\r & wir9ess ( ! "y twigs2 ! %ape & size ( ! d>k gre5 leaves1 & ! cyl9drical1 _m-fl[]$ catk9s4 ,! male catk9s appe> 9 ! autumn1 ! small] female catk9s 9 ! foll[+ spr+4 ,exam9e ! two k9ds ( fl[]s4 ,f9d an old bir*-cone & break x op5 to see ! w+$ fruits4 ,:at is ! use ( ! w+s8 #d4 ,! hazel & ald]4--,9 :at situations d ^! trees gr[8 ,comp>e !m ) ! bir*4 ,notice t 9 bo? hazel & ald] ! male fl[]s are 9 long1 dangl+ catk9s4 ,! gr\ps ( female fl[]s ( ! hazel look almo/ l leaf-buds1 b c be recognis$ by ! spread+ r$ /igmas4 ,! female fl[]s ( ! ald] =m di/9ct cones4 ,is ! fl[]+ "p ( ! twig ( ?is ye>'s or la/ ye>'s gr[?8 ,look 9 ! autumn = ! cones & catk9s :i* w exp& next spr+4 ,trace ! developm5t ( ! fruit4 ,! oak4--,! /ud5t _c bett] comm5ce ! /udy ( =e/ trees ?an by select+ "o z a type1 & mak+ himself ?or\ghly famili> ) its life-hi/ory1 & ) its appe>ance at all times ( ! ye>4 ,o!r trees %\ld !n be comp>$ & contra/$ po9t by po9t1 is & ) ea* o!r4 ,! oak answ]s admirably z su* a c5tral type4 ,x is p]haps ! be/-kn[n ( all ,briti% =e/ trees1 n only f its wide di/ribution1 b also f its hi/orical & leg5d>y associations4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--,! ,oak4 ,! oak 7,fig4 #aab7 fl\ri%es 9 expos$ & sunny situations1 especially :]e ! soil is well dra9$4 ,x c be recognis$ by ! zig-zag & wide-spread+ b\ghs1 :i* (t5 spr+ f ! trunk almo/ horizontally4 ,a v /rong =m ( trunk is pla9ly necess>y to support su* bran*es1 & 9 an old solit>y oak x may (t5 be se5 t ! bole is v ?ick at ! gr\nd l9e1 & !n rapidly n>r[s1 until at a height ab\t equal to ! base-diamet] x may be only half or "o-?ird ! ?ickness4 ,above ?is po9t x is practically cyl9drical up to ! orig9 ( ! b\ghs1 :]e x is swoll54 ,an oak gr[+ 9 a wood1 or plantation1 is ( v diff]5t =m4 ,its trunk is tall & /raight1 & ! l>g] b\ghs are n giv5 (f until ne> ! top4 ,to secure ! necess>y light1 ! tree us$ its en]gy 9 gr[+ 9 l5g?1 & 9 keep+ pace ) its neighb\rs r ?an 9 spread+ lat]ally4 ,9 su* a cr[d$ oak ! lat]al buds g5]ally rema9 undevelop$1 :ile ! end ( ! %oot pu%es onw>ds & upw>ds to ! light4 ,! opposite is ! case :5 !re is pl5ty ( room & light on all sides4 ,!n x is usually ! t]m9al bud :i* dies1 :ile ! lat]al buds gr[ out into bran*es1 =m+ ! 8knee-jo9ts0 :i* 7 once s greatly valu$ = %ipbuild+4 ,! b>k ( ! oak is v rugg$1 ) ridges & furr[s runn+ almo/ v]tically4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aac4--,! ,oak2 leaves1 fl[]s & fruit4 ,a1 fl[]+ bran* 7 72 ,b1 a male fl[] 7magnifi$72 ,c1 /am5s 7magnifi$72 ,d1 a female fl[] 7magnifi$72 ,e1 acorns2 ,f1 cup ( acorn2 ,g1 ,h1 se$4 ,! "y %oots :i* are =m$ :5 ! buds exp& 9 spr+ are %ort1 & ! leaves are set closely toge!r4 ,z a result1 ! oak's foliage is *>act]i/ically d5se & ?ick4 ,! leaves are v di/9ctive2 _! g5]al %ape is oval1 & ! m>g9 is deeply & irregul>ly lob$ 7,fig4 #aac74 ,if 9 e>ly spr+ we g out 9 ! woods & fix on an old oak tree 7! oak h>dly ev] fl[]s be=e x is #ej ye>s old71 we %all probably see ! fl[]s on "s ( ! "y twigs4 ,! female fl[]s--"o to five on ea* fl[]-/alk--are ne> ! end ( ! twig1 :ile ! male fl[]s arise l[] d[n4 ,! female fl[]s are de/itute ( /am5s1 ea* consi/+ practically ( a s+le pi/il1 p>tially enclos$ 9 two envelopes1 ! l[] ( :i* ultimately becomes ! famili> 8cup0 ( ! acorn4 ,! /igma has ?ree spread+ lobes = receiv+ poll54 ,! male /alks or catk9s1 hang d[n f ! l[] "p ( ! twig1 & e /alk be>s ab\t a doz5 fl[]s4 ,! male fl[]s h ea* f #e to #ab /am5s1 b !y h no pi/il4 ,! /am5s produce poll5 9 ! usual way1 & :5 !y bur/1 ! w9d bl[s ! loose poll5 f ! /am5s & scatt]s x 9 ! air4 ,"s ( ! poll5 du/ is almo/ c]ta9 to be waft$ to ! /igmas ( ! female fl[]s1 & ! poll5 gra9s put out tubes1 & 9 due c\rse f]tilise ! ovules4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--,! ,bee*4 ,mo/ ( our =e/ trees resemble ! oak 9 be+ poll9at$ by ! aid ( ! w9d4 ,x is evid5t t = ! process to be successful ! trees mu/ fl[] e>ly 9 ! spr+1 be=e ! foliage has become s ?ick z to be 9 ! way ( ! poll5 & prev5t x f rea*+ ! /igmas ( ! female fl[]s4 ,x is also important t ! poll5 may be easily deta*$1 & x is = ?is purpose t ! male fl[]s ( ! oak & simil> trees hang d[n 9 ! famili> catk9 fa%ion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--,! ,bee*4 #a1 fl[]+ bran* 7 72 #b1 a male fl[] 7 #d72 #c1 a female fl[] cut ?r\gh longitud9ally 7 #b72 #d1 cross section ( ov>y2 #e1 cup & fruits 7 72 #f1 fruit4 ,aft] f]tilisation ! female fl[] *anges into an acorn 7,fig4 #aac1 ,e71 a nut enclos$ 9 a cup4 ,! nut conta9s a s+le l>ge se$1 :i* on g]m9ation gr[s up into a new oak4 ,galls ( v>i\s k9ds are to be f\nd on mo/ oaks4 ,^! are excresc5ces caus$ by c]ta9 insects hav+ laid _! eggs 9 ! s(t tissues b5ea? ! surface4 ,m ?an fifty species ( insects obta9 _! food f ! oak4 ,"s ( ^! w be ref]r$ to 9 a lat] *apt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4--,! ,bir*4 ,! bee*4--,! bee* 7,fig4 #aad7 is easily recognis$ by ! olive-grey1 smoo? b>k1 & by ! %ape ( ! base ( ! trunk1 :i* usually has ! appe>ance ( be+ =m$ by ! union ( sev]al sep>ate columns4 ,:5 well gr[n ! tree is l(ty1 & be>s a wide-spread+ cr[n ( bran*es :i*1 :5 clo!d ) leaves 9 summ]1 ca/s a d5se %ade4 ,! gr\nd b5ea? ! tree is g5]ally de/itute ( o!r vegetation4 ,! w9t]-buds are long & po9t$2 !y exp& 9 ,may1 ! new %oots at fir/ droop+1 b /raight5+ out 9 a =tnight or s4 ,! leaves 7,fig4 #aae7 are broad1 ?91 & glossy1 & are fr+$ ) f9e1 silky hairs4 ,"y bee*es1 l "y oaks1 (t5 reta9 _! leaves ?r\gh ! w9t]4 ,! tree is 9 fl[] by ! "t ! foliage has fully develop$4 ,! male fl[]s are borne 9 small1 r\nd$ catk9s 7a1 ,fig4 #aae74 ,! female fl[]s 7#c1 ,fig4 #aae7 are 9 pairs4 ,ea* pair is surr\nd$ by prickly scales1 & gives rise aft] f]tilisation to two ?ree-sid$ & po9t$ nuts enclos$ 9 a woody cup or husk4 ,! husk is cov]$ ) h>d1 blunt prickles1 & :5 ripe splits into f\r p>ts4 ,bee*es d n h>b\r _m insects1 b squirrels frequ5t !m = ! sake ( ! nuts4 ,! prickly husks protect ! fruit f be+ eat5 be=e x is ripe4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--,! ,bir*2 leaves1 fl[]s & fruit4 #a1 bran* ) male 7b7 & female 7a7 catk9s 7 72 #b1 bract ) ?ree male fl[]s 7 #b72 #c1 bract ) ?ree female fl[]s 7 #d72 #d1 ripe cone 7 72 #e1 fruit 7 _/74 ,! ,spani%1 or sweet *e/nut is alli$ to ! oak & bee*4 ,x has long1 n>r[ leaves2 x fl[]s 9 ,july4 ,its fruit is enclos$ 9 a prickly husk1 :i* splits into f\r :5 ! nuts are ripe 9 ,octob]4 ,! bir*4--,! bir* 7,fig4 #aaf7 is a sl5d]1 graceful tree1 ) b>k /reak$ ) br[n1 yell[1 & silv]y pat*es4 ,its leaves 7,fig4 #aag7 are r small1 & _! glossy1 d>k-gre5 col\r contra/s pleasantly ) ! br[ni%-purple ( ! "y twigs4 ,bo? male & female fl[]s are arrang$ 9 catk9s 7,fig4 #aag74 ,! male fl[]s appe> 9 autumn1 b d n op5 until spr+1 :5 ! newly-=m$ female fl[]s are ready4 ,! female catk9s 7a1 ,fig4 #aag7 are mu* small] ?an ! male 7b74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aah4--,! ,hazel2 leaf1 fl[]s & fruit4 #a1 a fl[]+ bran* 7 72 #b1 a male fl[] 7 #b72 #c1 a /am5 7 #d72 #d1 a female fl[] cut ?r\gh longitud9ally2 #e1 fruit ) cup 7 72 #f1 fruit )\t cup2 a foliage leaf4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aai4--,! ,ald]2 leaf1 fl[]s & fruit4 #a1 ,bran* ) male catk9s 7a7 & female cones 7b7 7 72 #b1 male fl[]s 7 #b72 #c1 female cone2 #d1 two female fl[]s2 #e1 ripe cone 7 72 #f1 a fruit 7 #a74 ,! hazel & ald] develop _! fl[]s 9 ! ye> prec$+ _! op5+4 ,! female fl[]s ( ! hazel 7,fig4 #aah7 look some:at l buds1 b may be di/+ui%$ by ! r$ /igmas4 ,! fruit is a nut1 enclos$ by a %ea? ( s(t bracts4 ,! se$s are l>gely disp]s$ by squirrels4 ,! ald] gr[s on ! banks ( /reams2 its female fl[]s 7,fig #aai1 b7 are arrang$ 9 %ort catk9s1 :i* may be call$ cones4 ,! ripe cone 7#e1 ,fig4 #aai7 conta9s two nuts at ! base ( ea* scale4 ,! fruits fall into ! /ream1 & float away1 p]haps to g]m9ate at a consid]able di/ance4 #ca4 ,,! ,,will[ ,,& ,,! ,,popl>4 #a4 ,! will[4--,ab\t ! ?ird week 9 ,m>*1 exam9e will[ trees1 & notice ! s(t1 r\nd1 silky bodies :i* spr+ alt]nately on ! "y twigs4 ,on "s trees ^! are broad & yell[2 !y are male catk9s 7,fig4 #abj74 ,pick (f a fl[] & see ! /am5s 7g5]ally two /am5s to ea* fl[]7 ins]t$ on a small silky bract 7,fig4 #aba1 ,b74 ,) a l5s look = ! honey cup at ! bottom ( ! bract4 ,on o!r trees notice ! long1 n>r[1 silv]y female catk9s4 ,pick (f a fl[] to see ! s+le pi/il ) ! =k$ /yle1 also on a small1 honey$ bract4 ,h y ev] se5 bees visit+ ! fl[]s8 ,are ! catk9s z conspicu\s :5 ! trees are 9 leaf8 ,is x an advantage to ! trees to fl[] be=e ! leaves come out8 ,9 ,june1 exam9e ! rip5$ female catk9s4 ,pull out a tuft ( ! hairy se$s & dry x 9 ! sun1 notic+ h[ !y =m a fluffy mass4 ,bl[ ! mass ( se$s4 ,h[ d y ?9k ! se$s are disp]s$8 #b4 ,! popl>4--,f9d male & female popl>s & exam9e _! fl[]s4 ,are ! female fl[]s poll9at$ by insects or by ! w9d8 ,is self-f]tilisation ev] possible ) will[s & popl>s8 ,:y n8 ,:i* appe> fir/1 ! fl[]s1 or ! leaves ( popl>s8 ,:y8 ,exam9e ! leaves ( ! ,engli% popl>4 ,:y d !y turn ov] s easily1 ev5 ) a v slight breeze8 ,are bo? sides ( ! leaf ( ! same col\r8 ,comp>e ! ,lomb>dy popl> ) ! ,engli% popl>4 ,! will[4--,_m species ( will[ are kn[n1 b ! sall[ will[--call$ ! saugh tree 9 ,scotl&--is common 9 coppices & h$ges4 ,x has purpli% br[n bran*es1 & l>ge1 broad1 d[ny leaves4 ,9 ! will[ ! male & female fl[]s are produc$ on diff]5t trees1 s t self-f]tilisation is obvi\sly impossible4 ,! fl[]s ( ! male will[ =m broad yell[ catk9s :i* cl+ closely to ! twig 7,fig4 #aba74 ,!y are (t5 call$ 8gold5 palms40 ,ea* fl[] consi/s ( two /am5s1 borne on a silky scale :i* has a t9y honey cup at ! base4 ,! female fl[]s =m long1 n>r[1 & silv]y catk9s2 ea* fl[] is m]ely a s+le pi/il ) a =k$ /igma1 &1 l a male fl[]1 is support$ on a small honey$ bract4 ,! fl[]s appe> 9 ,m>*1 be=e ! leaves1 & ! catk9s are v conspicu\s4 ,!y are visit$ by bees = ! sake ( ! honey & poll51 poll9ation be+ ?us effect$4 ,9 ,june1 ! female catk9s are ripe4 ,ea* ov>y has n[ become a fruit1 :i* op5s & lib]ates ! silky se$s4 ,:5 ! se$s dry1 _! f9e hairs cl+ toge!r s t a light fluffy mass is =m$1 :i* c be bl[n to great di/ances by ! w9d4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--,twig ( male ,will[1 ) catk9s4 7 7 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--,! ,will[4 ,a1 fl[]+ male-%oot 7 72 ,b1 male fl[] ) bract 7magnifi$72 ,c1 female cone2 ,d1 ,e1 female fl[]s 7magnifi$72 ,f1 fruit 7 72 ,g1 ! same magnifi$2 ,h1 se$ 7magnifi$74 ,! popl>4--,! v>i\s popl>s are also completely unisexual1 t is1 any "o tree be>s ei!r male or female fl[]s1 b n bo?4 ,9 ?is case also ! fl[]s appe> be=e ! leaves2 b ! fl[]s are poll9at$ by ! aid ( ! w9d1 n by insects1 & nect>ies are !re=e n =m$4 ,! catk9s are n v mu* l ^? ( ! will[s 9 appe>ance1 b ! fruit & se$s are v simil>4 ,bo? will[s & popl>s are fond ( ! banks ( /reams4 ,! ,engli% popl>s are graceful trees :i* c be recognis$ at a di/ance by ! mann] 9 :i* ! broad leaves turn on _! long /alks1 expos+ ! light]-col\r$ "u-surface at ! slighte/ brea? ( w9d4 ,?is is especially noticeable ) ! asp5 or trembl+ popl> 7,fig4 #abb74 ,! ,lomb>dy popl> is a tall1 /iff tree4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--,! ,popl>4 #a1 male catk9 7 72 #b1 female catk9 7 72 #c1 male fl[] 7 #b72 #d1 female fl[] 7 #d72 #e1 ! same 9 longitud9al section2 #f1 fruit2 #g1 ! same aft] op5+2 #h1 se$s 7 #c72 #i1 diagram ( male fl[]4 #cb4 ,,! ,,elm1 ,,lime1 ,,& ,,a%4 #a4 ,! elm4--,notice ! /raight trunk1 r\gh b>k1 & sl5d] bran*es ( ! common elm4 ,exam9e ! fl[]s 9 e>ly spr+ & notice t ea* conta9s bo? /am5s & pi/il4 ,:5 d ! fl[]s op58 ,:5 d ! leaves exp&8 ,draw a leaf & a fruit4 ,:at is ! use ( ! broad plate ( ! fruit8 #b4 ,! lime4--,obs]ve ! /raight trunk1 smoo? b>k1 & g5]al pyramid %ape ( ! tree4 ,draw a leaf1 & notice t x is po9t$ & is l>g] on "o side ( ! midrib ?an on ! o!r4 ,notice t ! fl[] /alks spr+ f leaves 7bracts7 diff]+ 9 %ape 7,fig4 #abf7 & col\r f ord9>y leaves4 ,draw "o ( ^! leaves ) its atta*$ fl[] /alk4 ,:5 d ! fl[]s op58 ,try to discov] :e!r bees haunt ! fl[]s4 ,f9d out :at is ! use to ! fruit ( ! long leafy bract4 #c4 ,! a%4--,look 9 w9t] = ! black buds & ! flatt5$ tips ( ! twigs4 ,:5 d ! fl[]s op58 ,notice _! ri* purple col\r4 ,exam9e a fl[] & make out ! two /am5s & ! pi/il4 ,trace ! =mation ( ! fruit1 :i* is w+$ & hangs 9 bun*es call$ keys4 ,:at is ! use ( ! w+8 ,:5 d ! leaves exp&8 ,are !y simple or comp\nd8 ,draw "o4 ,:at is its col\r8 ,:5 d ! leaves fall8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abc4--,! ,elm4 ,! elm4--,! elm 7,fig4 #abc7 is usually a l(ty tree1 easily recognis$ at a di/ance by its /raight trunk1 sl5d] bran*es1 & r\nd$ masses ( foliage4 ,! b>k is r\gh & v corky4 ,! tree fl[]s e>ly 9 ! spr+ be=e ! leaves are exp&$4 ,! fl[]s are purple & conta9 bo? /am5s & pi/il4 ,ea* fruit 7,fig4 #abd7 is a flat plate ) a r\nd$ se$ box 9 ! middle2 x is di/ribut$ by ! w9d4 ,! se$s ( ! common elm d n (t5 rip5 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,! leaves 7,fig4 #abd7 are r\gh to ! t\*1 & h v prom95t ve9s4 ,!y d n fall until late autumn4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abd4--,! ,elm2 leaves1 fl[]s & fruit4 #a1 fl[]+ bran* 7 72 #b1 bran* ) leaves2 #c1 a fl[] 7 #b72 #d1 ! same1 cut ?r\gh longitud9ally2 #e1 a fruit 7 74 ,! lime4--,! lime tree 7,fig4 #abe7 has a /raight smoo? trunk4 ,! tree g5]ally spreads at ! base1 & tap]s to a blunt apex4 ,! leaves are bright gre51 he>t-%ap$1 & po9t$1 & pla9ly l>g] on "o side ( ! midrib ?an on ! o!r4 ,! yell[i%-gre5 fl[]s are 9 bun*es1 c>ri$ on a /alk :i* spr+s f ! middle ( a long1 n>r[ bract 7,fig4 #abf74 ,! fl[]s are complete--calyx1 corolla1 /am5s1 & pi/il be+ all pres5t--& are poll9at$ by bees1 :i* visit !m = ! sake ( nect>1 be+ attract$ by ! sweet sc5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abe4--,lime ,trees4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abf4--,! ,lime4 ,a1 gr\p ( fl[]s on /alk 7a71 spr++ f bract 7b7 7 72 ,b1 longitud9al section ( fruit 7magnifi$74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abg4--,! ,a%4 ,! a% 7,fig4 #abg7 is a v graceful tree1 & its comp\nd leaves1 ) leaflets spr++ f ! sides ( ! midrib1 give ! foliage a *>act]i/ically fea!ry appe>ance4 ,! b>k is a%5-grey 9 col\r4 ,! tips ( ! twigs are curi\sly flatt5$1 & ! w9t] buds are jet black4 ,! fl[]s are small1 ) two purple-black /am5s & a pi/il4 ,!y op5 9 ,april be=e ! leaves appe>1 =m+ close clu/]s4 ,! fruits are long & flat1 & hang toge!r 9 bun*es :i* are popul>ly call$ keys4 ,!y are only deta*$ by high w9ds1 & are !n bl[n to consid]able di/ances4 ,! leaves appe> r late--ab\t ! end ( ,may--& are %$ e>ly4 ,!y are comp\nd1 ea* consi/+ ( sev5 or m leaflets arrang$ 9 opposite pairs along ! midrib1 ) a s+le leaflet at ! end4 ,! m\nta9 a% or ,r[an tree has leaves some:at l ^? ( ! a% prop]1 b 9 o!r respects x is q diff]5t1 z x belongs to ! rose family 7p4 #ajc74 #cc4 ,,! ,,sycamore ,,& ,,horse ,,*e/nut4 #a4 ,! sycamore4--,obs]ve ! size & g5]al %ape ( ! tree4 ,exam9e ! twigs 9 w9t] & wat* ! buds op5 9 spr+4 ,draw a leaf4 ,:y are ! leaves usually s /icky 9 w>m wea!r8 ,notice ! hang+ sprays ( gre5 fl[]s4 ,are bo? /am5s & pi/il pres5t 9 ! same fl[]8 ,are ! fl[]s visit$ by bees8 ,:y8 ,foll[ ! developm5t ( ! fruit4 ,draw a pair ( fruits4 ,:at is ! use ( ! w+ on a fruit8 ,d ! fruits fall (f !mselves or are !y torn (f by gales8 ,look = se$l+ sycamores 9 ! woods2 also g]m9ate se$s 9 g>d5 soil & aga9 obs]ve ! v>i\s /ages4 ,comp>e ! plane1 & notice ! pyramidal %ape ( ! tree4 ,! leaves are v simil> 9 outl9e to ^? ( ! sycamore1 b ! fl[]s are clu/]$ into balls :i* dangle on long /alks4 ,9 summ]1 pull (f a leaf & obs]ve h[ ! axill>y bud is cov]$ by ! cup-%ap$ base ( ! leaf-/alk4 #b4 ,! horse *e/nut4--,notice ! g5]al %ape & me?od ( bran*+4 ,^! *>act]s1 ! l>ge buds 9 w9t]1 & ! %ape & size ( ! leaves 9 spr+ & summ]1 r5d] ! tree easily recognisable at all seasons4 ,trace ! connection betwe5 ! me?od ( bran*+ & arrangem5t ( ! leaves & buds on ! twigs4 ,note ! date ( fl[]+1 & ( ! unfold+ & %$d+ ( ! leaves4 ,exam9e ! fl[]s2 are !y poll9at$ by insects or by ! w9d8 ,trace ! developm5t ( ! fruit4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abh4--,! ,sycamore4 ,! sycamore 7,fig4 #abh7 is "o ( ! be/-kn[n trees 9 ?is c\ntry1 & (t5 gr[s to a great height4 ,its leaves 7,fig4 #cc7 are l>ge & five-po9t$1 ! ma9 ve9s spread+ f ! top ( ! leaf /alk4 ,:5 "y !y are ( a beautiful r$ col\r4 ,9 hot wea!r ! leaves become v /icky ) a sug>y syrup call$ honey-dew4 ,! sycamore is inde$ a species ( maple1 & is closely relat$ to ! sug> maple ( ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,9 ,may1 ! fl[]s hang f ! twigs 9 droop+ gre5 clu/]s4 ,!y conta9 bo? /am5s & pi/ils1 & are visit$ by bees = ! sake ( ! honey 9 :i* !y ab\nd4 ,! fruits or keys 7,figs4 #acg & #d7 occur 9 pairs1 or sometimes ?ree toge!r4 ,ea* has a flat1 membran\s w+1 by means ( :i* x is easily transport$ by ! w9d4 ,9 ,scotl& ! sycamore is (t5 call$ ! plane4 ,! leaves ( ! plane & sycamore are some:at simil> 9 %ape1 b ! trees belong to diff]5t families4 ,! plane c be id5tifi$ by its globul> heads ( fl[]s & subsequ5t balls ( se$s1 :i* hang on long /alks f ! twigs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #abi4--,! ,horse ,*e/nut4 ,! horse *e/nut4--,! horse *e/nut diff]s f all our o!r =e/ trees ( equal size 9 be>+ brilliantly col\r$ & conspicu\s fl[]s4 ,! fl[]s are complete1 conta9+ n only /am5s & pi/il1 b also a calyx & a beautiful p9k or :ite corolla4 ,! tree has a /rik+ appe>ance at all seasons ( ! ye>4 ,9 w9t]1 ! ?ick twigs1 ! l>ge t]m9al buds1 & ! opposite lat]al buds already describ$ on pp4 #fb-fd are v conspicu\s1 & give an in/ructive clue to ! me?od ( bran*+4 ,! buds op5 e>ly & ! new %oots rapidly l5g!n1 s t ! tree is a mass ( foliage :il/ mo/ neighb\r+ trees are /ill b>e4 ,! leaves 7,fig4 #bf7 are comp\nd1 consi/+ ( sev5 l>ge1 spoon-%ap$ leaflets :i* spr+ f a common po9t at ! end ( ! leaf-/alk4 ,! fl[]s op5 9 ,may4 ,! fruit is ripe 9 ,octob] & !n falls to ! gr\nd1 its prickly husk splitt+ into ?ree p>ts to lib]ate ! r\nd$ se$s4 ,! leaves fall e>ly1 leav+ l>ge sc>s 7,fig4 #ch71 :i* h "s resemblance to ! ho(-m>ks ( a horse4 #cd4 ,,cone-,,be>+ ,,trees4 #a4 ,! ,scot* p9e4--,notice ! %ape ( ! tree3 ! tall /raight /em & rugg$ b>k1 & ! d>k tufts ( foliage4 ,does ! tree be> leaves all ! ye> r\nd8 ,does x ev] %$ its leaves8 ,are !y %$ at any special "t ( ! ye>8 ,exam9e a leafy twig2 obs]ve t ! leaves are ne$le-%ap$ & come (f 9 pairs4 ,at ! apex is a t]m9al bud :i* w cont9ue ! l5g? ( ! twig next season2 ! lat]al buds bel[ w gr[ out into twigs at ! same "t4 ,try to make out :i* p>ts ( ! twig grew dur+ la/ ye>1 & :i* dur+ ! two previ\s ye>s4 ,notice ! cones4 ,! "y female cones 7b1 ,fig4 #acj1 #a7 are erect1 & _! scales sep>ate slightly 9 spr+ to all[ ! poll5 to ent]4 ,aft]w>ds !y hang d[n 7c7 :il/ ! se$s are rip5+4 ,?ree ye>s aft] poll9ation ! scales come ap>t aga9 to let ! se$s fall out4 ,exam9e ! se$s f a ripe cone & notice ! atta*$ w+s 7,fig4 #acj1 #d74 ,exam9e cones ( v>i\s ages4 ,9 spr+ look = ! po9t$ cones ( male fl[]s 7,fig4 #acj1 #a1 a7 :i* produce ! abundant poll54 #b4 ,! spruce fir4--,comp>e ! spruce fir4 ,notice ! conical ,*ri/mas tree %ape & ! l>ge spread+ bran*es ne> ! gr\nd4 ,comp>e ! leaves & cones ) ^? ( ! p9e4 #c4 ,! l>*4--,comp>e ! l>* ) ! p9e & spruce4 ,notice ! droop+ b\ghs1 ! alt]nate tufts ( leaves1 & ! small cones arrang$ 9 a r[ along ! twig4 ,is ! l>* an ev]gre58 ,cone-be>+ trees4--,! cone-be>+ trees1 su* z ! p9es & firs1 are true fl[]+ plants1 b ( a type :i* is v diff]5t f any hi!rto describ$4 ,! fl[]s are peculi>1 & =m cones1 ! male fl[]s produc+ poll5 & ! female fl[]s ovules4 ,! ovules1 h[ev]1 are n enclos$ 9 ov>ies1 b are nak$1 s t ! poll5 ga9s access to ! ovule directly1 & is n receiv$ on a /igma4 ,! female cone consi/s v l>gely ( smoo? scales1 a pair ( ovules be+ borne by ea* scale ne> its base4 ,! poll5 gra9s ( ^! trees are r5d]$ p>ticul>ly buoyant by be+ bl[n out at ! sides into little air-fill$ bladd]s1 & are ?us easily c>ri$ by ! w9d4 ,:5 ! poll5 falls on ! female cone1 ! gra9s slide d[n ! smoo? scales & v likely come 9 contact ) ! ovules at ! bottom4 ,ea* ovule has a /icky drop ( gum at its end1 & ! poll5 is caught 9 ! gum4 ,su* poll5 gra9s z roll (f ! upp] scales are almo/ c]ta9 to fall on a l[] "o & rea* ! ovules4 ,! ,scot* p9e4--,?is is a l>ge tree1 ) a dome-%ap$ cr[n ( foliage4 ,! b>k is r\gh & scaly4 ,its foliage leaves 7,fig4 #acj7 are long & ne$le-%ap$1 & occur 9 pairs1 ea* pair be+ c>ri$ by a v %ort bran*4 ,! leaves d n fall (f ea* w9t]1 z d ^? ( mo/ =e/ trees1 b rema9 on ! bran*es = ?ree ye>s or m1 s t ! y\ng] twigs are clo!d ) foliage at all seasons4 ,! cones ( male fl[]s 7,fig4 #acj1 #a1 a7 are f\nd at ! base ( "s ( ! %oots ( ! curr5t ye>4 ,! female cones 7,fig4 #acj1 #a1 b7 are =m$ r\nd ! ends ( ! "y twigs4 ,!y consi/ ma9ly ( ov]lapp+ woody scales1 ea* be+ knobb$ on its expos$ surface & be>+ a c\ple ( ovules ne> ! base1 :]e x spr+s f ! axis ( ! cone4 ,! "y cones are erect1 & 9 spr+ 7:5 cl\ds ( poll5 are bl[+ ab\t7 _! scales sep>ate slightly to admit ! poll5 9 ! *9ks betwe5 !m4 ,aft] poll9ation ! scales close aga9 & ! cone hangs d[n 7,fig4 #acj1 #a1 c74 ,! ovules receive ! poll5 9 ,may1 b ! actual union1 or f]tilisation1 does n take place until ,june ( ! foll[+ ye>4 ,! se$s become mature two ye>s aft] f]tilisation4 ,:5 !y are ripe ea* be>s a ?9 w+ :i* has split (f f ! upp] surface ( ! scale4 ,! scales n[ sep>ate1 & ! w+$ se$s fall out1 to be di/ribut$ by ! w9d4 ,:5 all ! se$s h fall51 ! empty cones drop (f ! tree4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acj4--,! ,scot* ,p9e4 #a1 bran* ) male 7a7 & female 7b1 c7 cones2 c1 cone 7 73 #b1 two views ( a /am5 7 #b73 #c1 scales be>+ two ovules 7 #b73 #d1 scale ) two se$s 7a71 w+ 7b71 se$ 7c73 #e1 se$ 9 longitud9al section 7 #a74 ,ow+ to ! l5g? ( "t necess>y = ! rip5+ ( ! se$s1 cones ( v>i\s ages may be f\nd on ! tree all ! ye> r\nd4 ,! spruce fir4--,! spruce has a *>act]i/ic conical %ape1 :i* is famili> 9 ,*ri/mas trees4 ,! bran*es are long1 & spread horizontally4 ,! foliage leaves are ne$le-%ap$ & f\r-sid$ 9 section1 b are %ort] ?an ^? ( ! p9e1 & are borne s+ly4 ,! tree is 8ev]gre50 9 ! s5se t ! p9e is s1 t is1 ! leaves are n %$ all toge!r1 b gradually4 ,! me?od ( poll9ation1 f]tilisation1 & di/ribution ( ! w+$ se$s is simil> to t ( ! p9e4 ,9 ! spruce1 h[ev]1 ! se$s are ripe 9 ,octob] ( ! ye> 9 :i* ! cones are poll9at$4 ,! l>*4--,! l>* is a cone-be>]1 & a ne> relative ( ! p9es & firs1 b x diff]s f !m 9 %$d+ its leaves annually4 ,! leaves are 7z is usual 9 cone-be>+ trees7 ne$le-%ap$1 b !y are v ?9 & !y gr[ 9 tufts on %ort alt]nate spurs4 ,! cones are small & are arrang$ 9 a r[ on ! twig4 ,_! scales d n fit s closely toge!r z ^? ( ! p9e & fir cones4 ,! l>* tree has a conical =m1 b c readily be di/+ui%$ f ! spruce by its droop+ b\ghs1 & abs5ce ( leaves 9 w9t]4 ,gymnosp]ms4--,! p9es1 firs1 & l>*es are nei!r dicotyl$ons nor monocotyl$ons1 b belong to a class ( plants :i* botani/s call gymnosp]ms1 9 allusion to ! fact t _! ovules are n enclos$ 9 ov>ies1 l ^? ( o!r fl[]+ plants1 b are nak$4 ,?is is ! mo/ anci5t & primitive gr\p ( fl[]+ plants kn[n4 ,9 fact !y =m a connect+ l9k betwe5 high] fl[]+ plants & ! gr\p to :i* ! f]ns & horsetails--:i* are /ill m primitive--belong4 ,,ex]cises ,,on ,,*apt] ,,viii4 #a4 ,:at trees are ! fir/ to put on leaves 9 ,engl&8 ,:i* fl[] be=e leaf+8 ,:i* trees are ! late/ to come into leaf8 ,:5 d ev]gre5s1 = ! mo/ "p1 *ange _! leaves8 7,n4,f4,u47 #b4 ,describe ! fruit & se$ ( f\r ( our commone/ trees1 expla9+ 9 ea* case h[ ! se$s are di/ribut$4 7,n4,f4,u47 #c4 ,make obs]vations to f9d :i* ( ! foll[+ trees endure %ade mo/ readily--oak1 bee*1 elm1 sycamore1 *e/nut4 #d4 ,:at d y suppose are ! advantages & disadvantages ( %ad+ & cr[d+ trees1 z reg>ds ! quality ( ! result+ timb]8 #e4 ,/udy "y p9es & firs1 & f9d out dur+ :i* p]iod ( life !y gr[ mo/ rapidly4 #f4 ,:i* trees h y f\nd gr[+ 7a7 9 heavy clay soils1 7b7 9 s&y soils8 #g4 ,describe any obs]vations ^u six common ,briti% trees :i* c\ld be made dur+ a walk 9 e>ly spr+4 7,n4,f4,u47 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,fruits3 ,,h[ ,,se$s ,,are ,,scatt]$4 #ce4 ,,plants ,,:i* ,,s[ ,,_! ,,own ,,se$s4 #a4 ,! fruit ( ! wallfl[]4--,exam9e wallfl[] fruits & make out t ea* consi/s ( ! rip5$ pi/il4 ,does ! fruit op5 ( itself8 ,h[ _m *amb]s does x consi/ (8 ,:]e are ! se$s atta*$8 ,are !y bl[n (f at la/ by ! w9d8 ,draw ! fruit4 ,x is call$ a siliqua4 #b4 ,comp>e ) ?is ! fruit ( %eph]d's purse 7,fig4 #fb71 & p5ny cress 7,fig4 #acb71 & notice t !y are ( ! type ( ! wallfl[] fruit1 b are mu* broad] 9 proportion to ! l5g?4 ,su* a fruit is call$ a silicula4 ,draw4 #c4 ,! fruit ( ! pea4--,exam9e a ripe pea-pod & comp>e x ) 7a7 ! pi/il ( an unf]tilis$ fl[]1 7b7 a half-ripe pod4 ,h[ _m c>pels h tak5 "p 9 =m+ ! pod8 ,h[ _m se$s 7peas7 does ! pod conta98 ,leave a pod on ! plant until ! %ell becomes dry1 to f9d out h[ ! fruit op5s4 ,does x op5 along "o edge only1 or along bo?8 ,h[ are ! se$s atta*$8 ,su* a pod is call$ a legume4 ,draw x4 ,comp>e & draw ! legumes ( ! broad bean1 ,fr5* bean1 sc>let runn]1 laburnum 7rememb] its se$s are poison\s71 & bird's foot trefoil4 ,! legume ( ! bird's foot trefoil bur/s op5 sudd5ly & scatt]s ! se$s 9 ! air4 ,is ! scatt]+ ( ! se$s any advantage8 ,:y8 #d4 ,! fruit ( ! field g]anium4--,make out t five c>pels are gr\p$ ar\nd a c5tral rod4 ,exam9e fruits :i* h op5$4 ,ab\t noon on a bright1 sunny day g5tly t\* a ripe fruit ) a small bru%1 & wat* ! c>pels spr+ back f ! rod & j]k ! se$s into ! air4 ,comp>e & contra/ ?is fruit ) a siliqua1 silicula1 & legume respectively4 #e4 ,! fruit ( ! poppy4--,exam9e a poppy head4 ,! top ( ! fruit is ! /igma4 ,obs]ve bel[ ?is a l9e ( small holes runn+ r\nd ! fruit4 ,draw4 ,%ake ! fruit1 & notice t se$s fall out ?r\gh ! holes4 ,cut ! fruit across to see ! l>ge numb] ( small se$s inside4 ,h[ does ! fruit hang on ! gr[+ plant8 ,does ! w9d %ake x & lib]ate ! se$s8 #f4 ,! fruit ( ! pansy & violet4--,wat* ! rip5+ ( ! fruits on ! plants4 ,obs]ve t ! ov>y swells up into an egg-%ap$ body :i* aft]w>ds splits into ?ree boat-%ap$ valves conta9+ se$s4 ,try to make out :y ! se$s are "o by "o %ot out z ! sides ( ! valves dry4 ,put a ripe fruit be=e ! fire & wat* ! process4 ,imitate x by plac+ a pea betwe5 two flat rul]s & press+ ! rul]s toge!r4 ,! orig9 ( a fruit4--,:5 ! ovules ( a fl[] h be5 f]tilis$ 7p4 #ib7 by ! poll5 tubes !y *ange into se$s :i* h ! rem>kable p[] ( gr[+ up--9 fav\rable circum/ances--into plants resembl+ t :i* produc$ ! se$s4 ,?is is n1 h[ev]1 ! only result ( f]tilisation4 ,:il/ ! ovules are *ang+ into ripe se$s1 ^? p>ts ( ! fl[]--! /am5s1 corolla1 & calyx--:i* h f9i%$ _! "w )] & fall (f1 ?\gh ! calyx sometimes rema9s4 ,o!r p>ts--! pi/il & sometimes ! receptacle 7p4 #ij7--take on new duties1 & become gradually modifi$ 9 ord] to protect or scatt] ! se$s4 ,?us1 ! t5d] wall ( ! pi/il (t5 becomes a woody1 lea!ry1 or juicy se$-case2 :ile ! receptacle1 or top ( ! fl[] /alk1 may become fle%y & swoll5 ) sug>y pulp1 z a bait = birds & o!r animals4 ,9 any case we give ! "n ( fruit to all su* alt]$ & p]si/5t p>ts toge!r ) ! se$s :i* accompany !m4 ,a pea pod1 = example1 is z truly a fruit z a plum1 & a poppy-head z a /rawb]ry4 ,:at a fruit is l dep5ds to a great ext5t ^u ! *>act]s ( ! pi/il :i* gave rise to x4 ,if1 = example1 ! pi/il consi/s ( sev]al sep>ate c>pels1 ! rip5$ c>pels or fruits w also be sep>ate4 ,:51 on ! o!r h&1 ! pi/il is compos$ ( unit$ c>pels1 ^! w rema9 unit$1 at lea/ until ! fruit is ripe4 ,!n 9 "s cases !y come ap>t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aca4--;,a1 fruits ( wallfl[] 7 72 ,b1 siliqua 7 #a72 ,c1 siliqua op54 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acb4--;,fruits 7siliculae7 ( ,p5ny ,cress4 7,nat4 size47 ,! "p ( a fruit :i* is d]iv$ f ! walls ( ! pi/il is call$ ! p]ic>p4 ,! fruit ( ! wallfl[]4--,aft] f]tilisation ! /am5s1 petals1 & sepals ( ! wallfl[] drop (f1 leav+ ! pi/il alone on ! top ( ! fl[] /alk4 ,! pi/il increases greatly 9 size 7,fig4 #aca1 ,b7 dur+ ! rip5+ ( ! se$s4 ,at la/ its wall 7! p]ic>p7 splits into two flaps4 ,^! become free at ! bottom1 expos+ a c5tral plate :i* be>s ! r[s ( se$s4 ,:5 ! se$s are q ripe1 a slight breeze is suffici5t to %ake !m (f1 & !y fall to ! gr\nd to take _! *ance ( f9d+ a place fav\rable = g]m9ation4 ,a fruit ) a dry p]ic>p1 :i* op5s ( itself :5 ! se$s are ripe1 is call$ a capsule4 ,?is p>ticul> k9d ( capsule--consi/+ ( two c>pels :i* come ap>t at maturity1 leav+ a c5tral p>tition be>+ se$s--is kn[n z a siliqua4 ,:5 x is %ort 9 proportion to its l5g?1 z 9 ! %eph]d's purse 7,fig4 #fb7 & p5ny cress 7,fig4 #acb71 x is di/+ui%$ z a silicula4 ,! fruits ( ! pea tribe4--,! pod ( ! pea 7,fig4 #c7 & its relatives is a capsule ( ano!r k9d4 ,x consi/s ( "o c>pel only1 & op5s1 :5 ripe1 along bo? back & front m>g9s to lib]ate ! se$s4 ,su* a fruit is call$ a legume4 ,9 ! "y fruit ! p]ic>p is some:at fle%y & succul5t1 b x becomes dry dur+ rip5+4 ,! legume ( ! bird's foot trefoil bur/s op5 sudd5ly1 & ?r[s ! se$s to a consid]able di/ance4 ,! fruit ( ! field g]anium 7,fig4 #acc7 is a long capsule compos$ ( five c>pels arrang$ r\nd a c5tral column 7,a74 ,:5 ! se$s are ripe1 ! c>pels sudd5ly spr+ f ! rod1 rema9+ atta*$ only at _! upp] ends 7,b71 & fl+ ! se$s into ! air4 ,! me?od may be wat*$ by /rok+ ! fruits v g5tly ) a small bru%1 :5 !y op5 9 ! mann] describ$4 ,! exp]im5t is mo/ likely to succe$ 9 dry1 sunny wea!r1 ab\t ! middle ( ! day4 ,! fruit ( ! poppy4--,! pi/il ( ! poppy swells dur+ rip5+ into a l>ge1 globul> capsule kn[n z ! poppy head4 ,! top ( ! fruit 7,fig4 #acd7 is ! p]si/5t /igma4 ,j bel[ ?is1 a l9e ( small holes l w9d[s runs r\nd ! head4 ,z ! fruit hangs inv]t$ on ! top ( ! fl[] /alk x is %ak5 ab\t by ! w9d1 & ! t9y se$s fall out ?r\gh ! w9d[s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acc4--;,field ,g]anium 7 74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acd4--;,a1 capsule ( poppy2 ,b1 cross section ( capsule 7 72 ,c1 se$s4 ,! fruit ( ! violet or pansy4--,! arrangem5t by :i* ! violet 7,fig4 #acd7 or pansy s[s its se$s is mo/ int]e/+4 ,aft] f]tilisation ! ov>y swells into a great egg-%ap$ capsule1 9 ! inside ( :i* ! se$s are arrang$ 9 ?ree r[s4 ,:5 ! se$s h become ripe & h>d1 ! capsule splits d[n ! side along ?ree l9es1 & is ?us divid$ into ?ree p>ts4 ,^! op5 outw>ds1 & b5d back z %[n 9 ,fig4 #ace4 ,ea* is a boat-%ap$ valve4 ,! se$s inside are ?us expos$ to ! air1 & !y soon dry & become ready = scatt]+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ace4--,violet4 ,f1 explosive fruit2 ,s1 se$s be+ %ot out ( fruit4 ,!n ! curv$ sides ( ea* valve beg9 to /raight5 & come toge!r1 & naturally all[ less & less room = ! h>d1 smoo? se$s inside4 ,! pressure ( ! sides ( ea* valve on ! se$s inside x becomes great] & great]1 until "o by "o !y are %ot out to a consid]able di/ance4 ,if a ripe violet ov>y be w>m$ be=e ! fire ! :ole op]ation may easily be wat*$4 ,! process may be imitat$ by putt+ a pea betwe5 two flat rul]s & press+ ! rul]s toge!r1 :5 ! pea may be %ot to a di/ance ( sev]al y>ds4 ,:y fruits are scatt]$4--,a fl[]+ plant is practically conf9$ = life to ! place :]e x fir/ sprang up1 s t x is unable to g ab\t & select fav\rable situations = its (fspr+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! se$s simply fell to ! gr\nd b5ea? ! p>5t plant1 ! se$l+s w\ld g5]ally be s cr[d$ toge!r t !y w\ld int]f]e v mu* ) ea* o!r's gr[?4 ,9 addition1 !y w\ld (t5 be "u a great disadvantage1 because ! p>5t plant w\ld keep s mu* light f !m4 ,h5ce1 v _m plants h "s special arrangem5t = scatt]+ _! se$s1 s t "s at lea/ ( ! se$s w h a *ance ( fall+ 9 a place :]e !y w obta9 pl5ty ( light1 air1 & good soil4 ,9 ?is section we h /udi$ examples ( devices by :i* plants s[ _! own se$s4 ,we %all see next t o!r plants call 9 ! help ( ! w9d & ( animals4 #cf4 ,,se$s ,,s[n ,,by ,,! ,,w9d4 #a4 ,! fruit ( ! d&elion4--,exam9e ! mann] 9 :i* ! t9y fl[]s ( ! d&elion are gr\p$ toge!r to =m ! head 7p4 #aac72 & make out ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! fl[]1 especially ! ov>y--a little :ite knob at ! bottom ( ! fl[]1 & ! calyx-tube--=m+ a tuft ( f9e hairs above ! ov>y4 ,trace ! developm5t ( ! fruits3 ! )]+ ( ! corollas & /am5s1 ! elongation ( ! calyx-tube1 & ! expansion ( ! tuft ( hairs to =m a p>a*ute4 ,bl[ a d&elion 8clock0 7! head ( fruits71 & notice h[ ! p>a*utes float ! fruits 9 ! air4 ,exam9e 8?i/le d[n0 & contra/ x ) ! d&elion fruit4 #b4 ,! fruit ( ! will[4--,exam9e ! rip5$ catk9s ( a female will[ 9 ,june1 & notice h[ ea* fruit has split into halves1 :i* come ap>t & expose ! silky se$s inside4 ,pull a tuft ( se$s out & dry !m 9 ! sun4 ,notice t !y wriggle & wri! ab\t & gradually become entangl$ toge!r into a woolly mass1 :i* is easily bl[n away4 #c4 ,! elm fruit4--,ab\t ! end ( ,april look = elm fruits4 ,notice ! flat gre5 plate 7w+7 ) ! r\nd$ swell+ ne> ! middle 7,fig4 #abd1 #e74 ,cut op5 ! fruit & see t ! swell+ is caus$ by a s+le se$4 ,h[ does ! flat w+ aid 9 ! di/ribution ( ! se$8 ,comp>e ! w+$ fruits ( ! a% & sycamore 7,fig4 #acg74 ,d ^! w+$ fruits drop f ! trees easily1 or are !y torn (f by gales8 ,take a pair ( sycamore fruits4 ,cut (f ! w+ f "o & let x & an un9jur$ fruit fall at ! same in/ant f a height4 ,:i* rea*es ! gr\nd fir/8 ,:y8 #d4 ,p9e & fir cones4--,exam9e & comp>e p9e & fir cones ( v>i\s ages4 ,break op5 a ripe cone & see ! scales ) ! pairs ( nak$ se$s1 ea* se$ be>+ a ?91 pap]y w+ :i* has split (f f ! upp] surface ( ! scale4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acf4--8;,clock0 ( ,d&elion ,fruits4 7 47 ,w9d-s[n se$s4--,_m plants dep5d on ! w9d = ! disp]sal ( _! se$s1 & consequ5tly ! se$s are provid$ ) outgr[?s ( v>i\s k9ds1 :i* increase ! surface greatly )\t add+ mu* to ! weight1 &1 act+ l p>a*utes1 (f] increas$ resi/ance to ! air & ?us prev5t ! se$s f fall+ quickly to ! gr\nd4 ,9 "s cases ! outgr[? is "p ( ! p]ic>p1 9 o!rs x is an app5dix c>ri$ by ! se$ itself1 :ile 9 ! lime x is ! bract ^u :i* ! fl[]s 7 =m]ly borne4 ,! d&elion fruit4--,! fruit ( ! d&elion 7,fig4 #acf7 af=ds "o ( ! be/ possible examples ( w9d-disp]sal4 ,x w be rememb]$ 7p4 #aac7 t :at is commonly call$ ! fl[] ( ! d&elion is really a head ( p]haps #cjj complete fl[]s3 ea* ) a hairy calyx-tube1 a yell[1 /rap-%ap$ corolla1 five /am5s1 & a pi/il4 ,:5 ! fl[]s h be5 f]tilis$1 ! yell[ corollas & ! /am5s )]1 ! ov>y increases 9 size ) ! rip5+ ( ! s+le nutlet 9 its int]ior1 & ea* calyx-tube elongates until x is ab\t an in* 9 l5g?1 ! tuft ( f9e hairs be+ /ill at its upp] end4 ,! atta*m5t ( ! fruit 7,fig4 #hf1 #d7 to ! disc 7receptacle7 is s slight :5 ! se$ is ripe t a v g5tle puff ( air is suffici5t to ov]come x4 ,! tuft ( hairs at ! upp] end has by ?is "t exp&$ until x acts l a p>a*ute1 :i* supports ! t9y fruit = a long "t 9 ! air4 ,! common ?i/le--a relative ( ! d&elion--also di/ributes its fruit by means ( a tuft ( f9e hairs d]iv$ f ! calyx4 ,9 ?is case ! hairs radiate f ! se$4 ,su* 8?i/le d[n0 is commonly f\nd float+ ?r\gh ! air 9 summ]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #acg4--;,a pair ( ,sycamore ,fruits4 7 47 ,! will[ fruit4--,! catk9s ( ! female will[ are ripe 9 ,june4 ,ea* catk9 consi/s ( a l>ge numb] ( t9y pods d]iv$ f ! ov>ies ( ! fl[]s 7p4 #aea74 ,ea* fruit splits into halves1 :i* b5d back f ea* o!r 7,fig4 #aba1 ,f71 expos+ ! silky se$s )9 to ! w>m? ( ! sun4 ,! se$s 7,h7 turn & twi/ ab\t z !y dry1 & gradually entangle !mselves toge!r into a light1 woolly mass1 :i* is easily bl[n to great di/ances by ! w9d4 ,! will[ & ! d&elion1 !re=e1 use v simil> devices to ensure ! disp]sal ( _! se$s1 al?\gh ^! plants are n at all ne>ly relat$4 ,! fruits ( ! elm1 sycamore1 & a%4--,^! common =e/ trees be> fruits ) ! se$ atta*$ to a flat plate1 :i* is an outgr[? ( ! p]ic>p 7p4 #afg74 ,9 ! elm fruit 7,fig4 #abd1 #e7 ! plate is gre5 & oval1 & ! se$ =ms a r\nd$ swell+ at1 or ne>1 its middle4 ,! fruits ( ! sycamore g5]ally gr[ 9 pairs 7,figs4 #cc & #acg74 ,ea* half consi/s ( a s+le se$ ) an atta*$ membran\s plate1 & ! two se$-boxes ( ea* pair are 9 contact4 ,! fruits ( ! a% hang f ! twigs 9 bun*es call$ 8keys10 ea* fruit on a sep>ate little /alk4 ,! plates :i* be> ! se$ are long1 n>r[1 & oval 9 %ape4 ,x is pla9 t su* plates1 or w+s1 expose a relatively l>ge surface to ! air & prev5t ! fruit f fall+ to ! gr\nd z quickly z x o!rwise w\ld4 ,! fruit is ?us (t5 bl[n to a great di/ance be=e x f9ally settles & ! se$ g]m9ates4 ,! action ( ! w+ may be well %[n by cutt+ (f ! plate f a sycamore fruit & lett+ x & "o ) an atta*$ w+ fall at ! same in/ant f a height4 ,! se$ )\t a w+ comes /raight d[n z a pea w\ld2 b ! w+$ se$ sp9s 9 ! air & settles m sl[ly4 ,9 ! case ( ! r\nd d[ny fruits ( ! lime1 a simil> s]vice is p]=m$ by ! bract 7,fig4 #abf71 ^u :i* ! fl[]s 7 c>ri$4 ,p9e & fir cones4--,if a ripe p9e1 or fir cone is brok5 op51 x w be se5 t ea* se$ is atta*$ to a ?91 pap]y w+ 7,fig4 #acj1 #d71 :i* has split (f ! upp] surface ( ! scale be>+ ! se$s4 ,! w+$ se$s are %ak5 out ( ! cone by ! w9d1 & bl[n away4 ,trees alone be> w+$ se$s4--,w+$ se$s w\ld be useless to any b fairly high trees1 because if !y 7 =m$ on ! l[ plant !y w\ld fall to ! gr\nd long be=e ! w9d c\ld cat* !m prop]ly4 ,x is also int]e/+ to f9d t su* se$s are g5]ally atta*$ s firmly t !y are only brok5 (f by gales /rong en\gh to c>ry !m a consid]able di/ance4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! t9y plum$ fruit ( ! d&elion or ?i/le is s v light 9 comp>ison ) ! surface expos$ to ! air t x takes q a long "t to fall ev5 a few in*es4 #cg4 ,,se$s ,,:i* ,,are ,,scatt]$ ,,by ,,animals4 #a4 ,hook$ fruits4--,exam9e plants ( h]b b5net 7wood av5s7 9 summ] & autumn1 & f9d ! fruits4 ,bru% y\r sleeve aga9/ ! fruits1 & notice h[ !y cl+ to ! clo?4 ,exam9e !m ) a l5s & obs]ve ! hooks at ! ends ( ! /yles4 ,comp>e goosegrass 7cleav]s7 & f9d ! hooks on ! fruits4 #b4 ,nuts4--,exam9e a hazel nut4 ,notice ! %ea?+ bracts at ! base ( ! fruit4 ,crack ! nut & exam9e ! brok5 edge ( ! %ell 7p]ic>p7 ) a l5s4 ,make out ! ?ree lay]s :i* compose x4 ,h[ _m se$s are pres5t8 ,cut ! se$ 7k]nel7 across & see t ! bulk ( x consi/s ( two cotyl$ons 7,*ap4 ,i474 ,does ! fruit op5 ( itself1 if undi/urb$8 ,comp>e ! acorn ( ! oak4 ,trace ! developm5t ( ! acorn f ! female fl[]1 notic+ t ! cup is develop$ f a wr9kl$ disc surr\nd+ ! l[] "p ( ! fl[]4 ,cut across ! ov>y 9 ,june & notice t !re are six ovules 9 x4 ,9 ! ripe fruit obs]ve t ! cup sep>ates easily f ! nut4 ,remove ! %ell 7p]ic>p7 ( ! nut4 ,h[ _m se$s does x conta98 ,:at d y ?9k has become ( ! o!r five ovules8 ,cut ?r\gh ! se$ & obs]ve ! two cotyl$ons4 ,comp>e ! fruits ( ! bee*4 ,notice t !y are ?ree-sid$ nuts 7ea* be+ a se$ enclos$ 9 a woody p]ic>p72 & t two nuts occur toge!r1 surr\nd$ by a bri/ly woody cup :i* splits1 :5 ! nuts are ripe1 into f\r valves4 #c4 ,/one fruits4--,exam9e a ripe plum4 ,cut x op5 & crack ! /one to see ! s+le se$4 ,notice t ! p]ic>p consi/s ( ?ree lay]s z 9 ! hazel nut1 b t "h ! middle lay] is s(t & fle%y1 & ! out] lay] is ! 8sk940 ,! /one is ! inn] lay] ( ! p]ic>p4 ,is !re any special means ( lib]at+ ! se$8 ,comp>e ! *]ry1 & exam9e ! se$ & ! ?ree lay]s ( ! p]ic>p4 ,exam9e ! fruits ( ! blackb]ry & raspb]ry1 & obs]ve t ea* consi/s ( sev]al small /one-fruits arrang$ on ! receptacle4 #d4 ,b]ries4--,! gooseb]ry4--,notice ! /alk at ! bottom ( ! fruit1 &1 at ! top1 ! )]$ rema9s ( ! calyx4 ,cut across a half-ripe gooseb]ry & obs]ve ! ?ick1 fle%y p]ic>p enclos+ ! se$s4 ,treat a ripe gooseb]ry 9 ! same way1 & obs]ve t ! p]ic>p has n[ = ! mo/ "p become a s(t pulp1 9 :i* ! se$s are emb$d$4 ,! re/ ( ! p]ic>p is a membran\s sk94 ,is !re any special means ( lib]at+ ! se$s8 ,comp>e grapes1 currants1 oranges1 & vegetable m>r[ fruits1 & notice t ! /ructure ( ^! resembles t ( ! gooseb]ry4 #e4 ,! apple4--,cut across ! receptacle ( ! fl[] 7apple blossom7 & notice h[ ! five c>pels are buri$ 9 x 7p4 #ajf74 ,trace ! =mation ( ! fruit1 & see h[ ! receptacle becomes l>g] & l>g] dur+ rip5+4 ,at ! top ( ! ripe fruit obs]ve ! )]$ rema9s ( ! calyx4 ,cut ! apple ?r\gh across ! middle to see ! core4 ,?is consi/s ( ! horny walls ( ! five c>pels & ! conta9$ se$s 7pips74 ,f :at "p ( ! fl[] is ! fle%y1 eatable "p ( ! apple d]iv$8 ,comp>e ! pe>4 #f4 ,! rose hip4--,exam9e fruits ( ! wild rose4 ,notice t !y are urn-%ap$4 ,on ! flat rim ( ! urn obs]ve ! five sc>s left by ! sepals 7or1 9 "s cases1 ! sepals !mselves74 ,9 ! op5+ ( ! urn see a tuft ( greyi% hairs4 ,cut ! fruit d[n f top to bottom ?r\gh ! middle to see ! ?ick1 fle%y wall ( ! urn & ! conta9$ nutlets4 ,f :at "p ( ! fl[] is ! fle%y wall ( ! hip d]iv$8 ,exam9e a nutlet4 ,:at does ! tuft ( hairs se5 9 ! m\? ( ! urn consi/ (8 ,op5 a nutlet ) a ne$le & pick out ! se$4 #g4 ,! /rawb]ry4--,cut a /rawb]ry d[n ! middle & notice at ! base ! p]si/5t calyx1 9 ! inside ! fle%y receptacle1 & on ! outside ! yell[i% nutlets4 ,op5 a nutlet ) a ne$le & pick out ! se$4 ,! help ( animals4--,x has be5 se5 9 ,*apt] ,,vi4 t insects play a v important "p 9 ! f]tilisation ( _m fl[]s4 ,v _m plants also call 9 ! aid ( animals at a lat] /age = ! disp]sal ( ! se$s1 & ! devices by :i* ?is aid is obta9$ are (t5 v +5i\s4 ,hook$ fruits4--,sometimes aft] a c\ntry walk ! read] has probably f\nd small fruits & se$s /ick+ to 8 clo!s4 ,!y h become atta*$ to ! clo? by means ( small hooks :i* !y c>ry4 ,! fruit ( ! h]b b5net 7wood av5s7 is a good example ( ?is device4 ,:5 ! /igma ( ! fruit breaks away1 a little hook is left at ! top ( ! /yle 7,fig4 #ach74 ,goosegrass or cleav]s--a common h$g][ plant--& _m o!rs h also hook$ fruits4 ,%eep or cattle1 graz+ ne> su* plants are v likely to bru% aga9/ !m & c>ry (f ! fruits & se$s 9 _! hair4 ,!y may n aga9 rea* ! gr\nd until !y h be5 c>ri$ f> f ! place :]e !y grew4 ,! position ( hook$ fruits4--,x is evid5t t ^! little hooks w\ld be q useless if ! fruits grew out ( ! rea* ( animals4 ,su* hook$ fruits are nev] f\nd1 = in/ance1 on high trees4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ach4--;,a1 ,aggregate ,fruit ( ,wood ,av5s 7nat4 size72 mo/ ( ! /igmas h brok5 (f4 a1 a1 a1 fruits ) /igmas /ill atta*$2 c1 calyx2 ,b1 s+le fruit ) /igma /ill atta*$ 7magnifi$72 ,c1 s+le hook$ fruit aft] loss ( /igma 7magnifi$74 ,nuts4--,a fruit :i* has a dry1 woody p]ic>p & does n op5 ( itself is call$ a nut4 ,! fruits ( ! hazel1 oak1 & bee* are good examples4 ,! %ell 7p]ic>p7 ( ! hazel nut 7,fig4 #aci7 is compos$ ( ?ree lay]s1 & encloses a s+le se$1 or k]nel4 ,! nut ( ! oak 7,fig4 #aac7 is call$ an acorn4 ,its l[] "p lies 9 a cup develop$ f a wr9kl$ disc by :i* ! l[] "p ( ! female fl[] 0 surr\nd$4 ,:5 ! fruit is ripe ! nut easily sep>ates f ! cup4 ,! acorn conta9s "o se$ only1 :i* consi/s l>gely ( two swoll5 cotyl$ons4 ,if ! ov>y ( ! female fl[] ( ! oak is cut across 9 ,june six ovules are f\nd 9 x4 ,z 9 ! case ( ! hazel only "o ovule is all[$ to rea* maturity2 ! re/ are sacrific$ 9 ord] t ! rema9+ "o may be m p]fectly develop$4 ,9 ! bee*1 two ?ree-sid$ nuts occur toge!r1 surr\nd$ by a bri/ly1 woody cup1 :i* splits into f\r valves :5 ! nuts are ripe4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aci4--;,a1 gr\p ( ,hazel ,nuts 7 72 ,b1 longitud9al section ( fruit4 ,! disp]sal ( nuts4--,squirrels & o!r nut-eat+ animals are in/rum5tal 9 ! disp]sal ( ! se$s 9 a some:at indirect mann]4 ,!y h a habit ( /or+ up nuts & se$s 9 holes2 b 9 _! active life ^! animals (t5 =get :]e _! l>d] is4 ,! se$s1 ?us left to !mselves1 spr\t & gr[ into trees4 ,! unripe nuts ( ! bee* are protect$ f ! attacks ( squirrels by ! h>d bri/les on ! out] husk4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adj4--;,a1 ,plum2 ,b1 longitud9al section2 ,c1 cross section2 ,e1 ,m1 ,en1 out]1 middle1 & inn] lay]s ( p]ic>p2 ,s1 se$4 7 47 ,/one fruits4--,a ripe plum 7,fig4 #adj7 or *]ry 7,fig4 #gg71 l a nut1 consi/s ( a se$ & a p]ic>p2 b "h ! p]ic>p is specially modifi$ to tempt animals & at ! same "t to protect ! se$ f !m4 ,! inn] p]ic>p-lay] is a h>d1 woody %ell call$ ! /one2 ! middle "p swells up to =m a juicy1 sweet mass2 :ile ! out] lay] con/itutes ! 8sk910 & is (t5 beautifully col\r$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ada4--;,blackb]ry4 7 #a47 ,blackb]ries 7,fig4 #ada7 & raspb]ries consi/ ( sev]al small fruits ( ! plum type1 :i* are arrang$ r\nd an axis d]iv$ f ! receptacle ( ! fl[]4 ,b]ries4--,! gooseb]ry 7,fig4 #adb7 is a type ( ?is class ( fruit4 ,x conta9s sev]al se$s4 ,! p]ic>p is ?ick & fle%y be=e ! fruit is ripe1 b dur+ rip5+ ! great] "p ( x becomes a s(t1 sweet pulp 9 :i* ! se$s are emb$d$4 ,! re/ ( ! p]ic>p is a membran\s sk94 ,grapes1 currants1 oranges1 & vegetable m>r[ fruits are also b]ries4 ,! vegetable m>r[ has obvi\sly a g5]al resemblance to a half-ripe gooseb]ry b is on a mu* l>g] scale4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adb4--;,a1 ,gooseb]ry2 ,b1 longitud9al section2 ,c1 cross section4 7 47 ,! apple4--,9 ! apple 7,fig4 #adc7 we h an example ( a fruit 9 ! =mation ( :i* ! receptacle has tak5 a l>ge %>e4 ,ev5 9 ! fl[]1 ! five c>pels ( ! pi/il are buri$ 9 ! receptacle1 & z ! se$s 7pips7 rip51 ! receptacle swells until x composes ! great] "p ( ! fruit & at la/ becomes sweet & fle%y4 ,! c>pels ) ! conta9$ se$s con/itute ! core4 ,! )]$ sepals are /ill to be se5 at ! top ( ! fruit4 ,! /ructure ( ! pe> is q simil> to t ( ! apple4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adc4--;,a1 ,apple2 ,b1 longitud9al section2 ,c1 cross section4 7 47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #add4--;,a1 ,/rawb]ry2 ,b1 longitud9al section2 ,ac1 c>pel1 ,r1 swoll5 receptacle4 7 47 ,! fruit ( ! wild rose4--,! fruits ( ! wild rose are call$ hips4 ,!y are urn-%ap$1 & on ! flat rim ( ! urn five sc>s %[ ! =m] position ( ! sepals4 ,9 "s cases ! sepals !mselves h rema9$4 ,! n>r[] m\? ( ! urn is fill$ by a tuft ( greyi% hairs :i*1 :5 ! fruit is cut op51 are se5 to be ! /yles ( ! c>pels4 ,! c>pels are hairy1 & /& on ! bottom & sides ( ! urn-cavity4 ,ea* c>pel conta9s a se$4 ,comp>ison ) ! fl[] %[s t ! r$1 fle%y urn is ! develop$ receptacle4 ,! /rawb]ry4--,9 ! /rawb]ry 7,fig4 #add7 ! eatable "p ( ! fruit is aga9 ! swoll5 & juicy receptacle4 ,9 ?is case x has gr[n up on ! inside ( ! c>pels--! little1 yell[ nutlets 7c>pels7 ly+ on ! surface4 ,ea* c>pel conta9s a se$4 ,:y "s fruits are sweet4--,! delici\s flav\rs ( sweet fruits h be5 develop$ z baits = ! allurem5t ( su* animals z are likely to scatt] ! se$s to ! be/ advantage4 ,consid] su* fruits z *]ries1 currants1 & rose-hips4 ,birds--su* z ?ru%es--f9d !m v nice to eat1 & are ready to c>ry !m away to consume at _! leisure4 ,! birds eat ! sweet1 fle%y "p1 b 9 ! case ( a /one-fruit !y drop ! /one & leave ! se$ to g]m9ate4 ,a se$ :i* is 9 dang] ( be+ swall[$ is ei!r hairy l ! rose-c>pels 7& !re=e reject$ because x irritates ! m\? unpleasantly71 or x is enclos$ 9 a h>d or horny case1 ^u :i* ! animal's dige/ive juices are unable to act4 ,:5 ! se$ is dropp$ x is no worse = its exp]i5ce1 & ) good luck gr[s up into a plant4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ade4--;,holly4 ,! r$ col\r ( ! fruits contra/s /rongly ) ! d>k-gre5 ( ! leaves4 7 47 ,eatable fruits g5]ally conspicu\s4--,9 ord] t birds & o!r animals may easily f9d ! lusci\s fruits :i* !y may eat z a rew>d = scatt]+ ! se$s1 su* fruits are almo/ always display$ v conspicu\sly1 & are brilliantly col\r$4 ,oranges1 plums1 r$ currants1 apples1 etc41 illu/rate ?is fact well4 ,r$ is p]haps ! commone/ col\r ( eatable fruits1 because x contra/s s /rongly ) ! gre5 col\r ( ! foliage 7,fig4 #ade74 ,,ex]cises ,,^u ,,*apt] ,,ix4 #a4 ,"n & def9e ! diff]5t k9ds ( self-op5+ fruits4 ,f :at common plants c\ld y collect examples ( ^! dur+ an ,autumn walk8 7,n4,f4,u47 #b4 ,describe any r\gh1 prickly1 or hairy se$s or fruits1 expla9+ ! =m & nature ( ! outgr[?s & _! use4 7,n4,f4,u47 #c4 ,:at wild fruits & wild fl[]s w\ld y expect to f9d 9 ,septemb] 9 y\r "p ( ! c\ntry8 ,9 :at k9ds ( places w\ld y look = !m8 7,n4,f4,u47 #d4 ,describe & draw ! fruit ( a field g]anium1 & po9t out ! uses ( "s ( its peculi>ities4 7#ahih7 #e4 ,describe ! se$ vessels ( a pansy4 ,draw "o entire1 & also bur/ op54 ,h[ does x scatt] ! se$s8 7#ahih7 #f4 ,%ortly describe ! fruit ( an apple or pe>1 & ( a *]ry or plum4 ,po9t out ! *ief diff]5ces betwe5 !m4 7#aija7 #g4 ,h[ are ! se$s ( *]ry1 field g]anium1 & p9e or bir* disp]s$8 7#aija7 #h4 ,give examples ( se$s :i* are disp]s$ by ! aid ( birds or o!r animals1 expla9+ 9 ea* case h[ ! disp]sal is effect$4 7#ahic7 #i4 ,:y is x an advantage to "s fruits to be 7a7 brightly col\r$1 7b7 sweet8 ,give examples4 #aj4 ,a s*ool museum conta9s1 among o!r ?+s1 "s d&elion fluff1 a di% ( m>r[fat peas1 a few nodules ( g>lic1 & "s haw?orn b]ries4 ,h[ c\ld y employ ^! to illu/rate a lesson on plant g]m9ation8 7,c]tificate #aijc7 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,f]ns ,,& ,,horsetails4 #ch4 ,,f]ns4 #a4 ,! male-f]n4--7a7 ,habit ( gr[?4--,9 summ] dig up a plant ( ! common male-f]n 7,fig4 #adf7 & wa% ! soil f ! roots4 ,make out ! %ort1 /umpy1 creep+ /em1 cov]$ ) ! hairy bases ( old leaves2 ! sl5d] matt$ roots spr++ f ! leaf-bases2 ! l>ge1 comp\nd leaves or fronds ( ! curr5t ye>1 & ! coil$ "y leaves :i* h n yet exp&$4 7b7 ,! /em4--,remove ! l>ge leaves1 leaf-bases1 & roots f ! /em1 & exam9e x4 ,notice h[ ! y\nge/ leaves are gr\p$ r\nd ! apex ( ! /em4 ,cut across ! o!r end ( ! /em1 & notice ! cut ends ( ! conduct+ /r&s emb$d$ 9 a s(t] gr\nd-tissue4 ,cut ! /em 9 halves l5g?wise & c>efully scrape away ! gr\nd-tissue ( "o half to see h[ ! h>d] conduct+ /r&s are connect$ toge!r4 ,if y spoil ?is1 try aga9 on ! o!r half1 aft] boil+ x until x is s(t5$4 7c7 ,! leaves4--,make a draw+ ( "o ( ! exp&$ leaves4 ,notice t ! leaf consi/s ( a numb] ( leaflets1 & t ^! are aga9 cut up into segm5ts1 or are at lea/ deeply lob$4 ,notice ! br[n hairs clo?+ ! leaf-/alk & ! midrib4 ,notice ! crozi]-l coil+ ( ! "y fronds1 & make out t :5 !y uncoil ! inside ( ! coil becomes ! upp] surface ( ! leaf4 7d7 ,! reproductive organs4--,exam9e ! l[] surface ( full-gr[n fronds1 & notice ! br[n r\nd$ pat*es4 ,dry "s leaves be>+ ^! pat*es & %ake !m ov] a %eet ( pap]4 ,collect ! br[n du/ :i* falls f ! pat*es2 x consi/s ( m9ute gra9s call$ spores4 7e7 ,! pro?allus4--,s[ "s spores on damp soil %elt]$ f ! direct rays ( ! sun4 ,keep ! soil moi/1 & notice t 9 a few weeks ! spores h gr[n into small1 flat1 gre51 he>t-%ap$ plants4 ,ea* ( ^! is call$ a pro?allus4 ,pick (f pro?alli ( diff]5t ages ) a ne$le1 float !m 9 wat]1 & comp>e ! v>i\s /ages ( gr[?4 ,9 old pro?alli notice a "y f]n plant spr++ up f ! l[] surface4 ,obs]ve t z ^! become l>g] ! pro?alli :i* be> !m %rivel up & die4 #b4 ,! brack51 f]n4--,dig up a brack5 f]n1 wa% ! e>? f ! roots1 & comp>e x1 po9t = po9t1 ) ! male-f]n4 ,notice3 7a7 ,! long cyl9drical1 bran*+1 und]gr\nd /em4 ,does x lie deep] 9 ! gr\nd ?an ! /em ( ! male-f]n8 ,cut ! /em across & comp>e ! section ) ,fig4 #adh1 not+ 7i7 ! two conc5tric r+s ( sep>ate vascul> /r&s 7s74 7ii7 ,! /r5g!n+ mat]ial1 arrang$ z a br[n zone 7lp7 j bel[ ! sk91 & z an incomplete r+ 7ll7 betwe5 ! two r+s ( vascul> /r&s4 7iii7 ,! s(t] gr\nd-tissue 7,r71 9 :i* ! vascul> & /r5g!n+ /r&s are emb$d$4 ,draw ! ext]nal appe>ance ( ! /em 7natural size71 & also ! cross section 7#d times natural size74 7b7 ,! roots4--,describe ! roots4 ,d !y appe> to arise f any p>ticul> region ( ! /em8 7c7 ,! leaves4--,f :at "p ( ! /em d ! leaves arise8 ,h[ _m come up ea* ye>8 ,:at is ! appe>ance ( a "y leaf be=e x exp&s8 ,h[ does x diff] f t ( ! male-f]n8 ,draw a "y leaf1 & also an exp&$ "o4 ,is ! leaf simple or comp\nd8 ,does x bran*8 ,does ! leaf ( ! male-f]n bran*8 7d7 ,! spores4--,exam9e ! "u side ( ! leaf1 & notice ! abs5ce ( ! br[n pat*es se5 9 ! male-f]n4 ,notice t ! edge ( ! brack5 frond is fold$ ov] l a hem4 ,dry a frond1 & !n run ! po9t ( y\r p5cil "u ! fold & obs]ve ! br[n du/ 7spores7 :i* is remov$4 7e7 ,! pro?alli4--,s[ "s brack5 spores on damp e>? & keep 9 a %ad$ place4 ,notice t ! pro?alli produc$ are v simil> to ^? ( ! male-f]n4 ,wat* _! developm5t & ! gr[?1 on old pro?alli1 ( a new g5]ation ( f]ns4 #c4 ,! h>t's tongue f]n4--,exam9e ! h>t's tongue f]n1 & notice h[ x diff]s f ! two previ\s types4 ,are ! leaves simple or comp\nd8 ,obs]ve ! br[n tr5*es on ! l[] surface ( ! leaf4 ,try to get out "s spores by runn+ ! po9t ( a p5cil along ! tr5*es ( a dri$ leaf4 ,s[ ! spores & try to raise pro?alli4 ,! daily life ( a f]n4--,! ev]yday life ( a f]n is v simil> to t ( a fl[]+ plant2 = ! organs by :i* x obta9s food are--broadly speak+--( ! same type4 ,f]ns are lov]s ( damp & %ady situations4 ,! plant obta9s its m9]al food f ! soil by means ( its roots2 & its spread+ gre5 leaves1 or fronds1 enable x1 ) ! help ( ! sunlight1 to decompose ! c>bon dioxide ( ! air & to build up />*1 sug>s1 & o!r c>bonace\s comp\nds4 ,! male-f]n4--,! common male-f]n 7:i*1 by ! way1 has no sex :atev]7 may be tak5 z a type ( ! gr\p4 ,x occurs abundantly 9 woods & h$g][s4 ,! /em1 or rhizome1 is %ort & /umpy2 x gr[s obliquely upw>ds1 & does n bran*4 ,x is cov]$ ) old leaf-bases1 :i* are clo!d ) br[n1 scaly hairs4 ,! /em consi/s ( a r s(t gr\nd-sub/ance1 9 :i* is emb$d$ a holl[ cyl9drical network ( conduct+ /r&s4 ,9 a cross section ^! appe> z a some:at irregul> r+ ( dots 7,fig4 #adf1 #b1 a74 ,:5 ! s(t gr\nd-tissue is c>efully scrap$ away1 ! network ( /r&s is left z a skeleton1 ) l>ge diamond-%ap$ me%es4 ,! ?9 wiry roots spr+ f ! bases ( ! leaf-/alks1 j :]e ^! come (f ! /em4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adf4--,! ,male-,f]n4 #a1 ,illu/ration %[+ g5]al habit 7 _/72 a1 "y leaves3 #b1 cross section ( /em %[+ conduct+ bundles a3 #c1 portion ( leaf2 b1 spore-boxes2 a1 cov]+ scale3 #d1 longitud9al1 & #e1 cross section ( gr\p ( spore-boxes2 a1 leaf2 b1 scale2 c1 spore-boxes3 #f1 a s+le spore-box2 a1 /alk2 c1 spr+2 d1 spores4 ,! leaves or fronds ( ! male-f]n arise ne> ! gr[+-po9t 7! upp] end7 ( ! /em4 ,leaves ( almo/ all ages are pres5t4 ,^? :i* surr\nd ! gr[+-po9t are m]e rudim5ts2 :ile slightly old] ones 7,fig4 #adf1 #a1 a7 are tightly roll$ up into a coil4 ,dur+ _! gr[? ! coils unfold1 ! inside ( ! coil becom+ ! upp] surface ( ! leaf4 ,a fully exp&$ leaf is r\ghly triangul> 9 %ape4 ,! leaf-/alk & ! midrib are cov]$ ) br[n1 scaly hairs2 & ! blade ( ! leaf is divid$ into sev]al di/9ct leaflets1 :i* are arrang$ on ! midrib 9 two r[s4 ,! leaflets are also 9 _m cases sub-divid$ into sep>ate segm5ts4 ,! spores4--,on ! l[] surface ( _m ( ! segm5ts ( a male-f]n frond may be se5 a numb] ( small1 br[n1 kidney-%ap$ scales 7,fig4 #adf1 #c1 a74 ,ea* scale is atta*$ to ! leaf by a %ort /alk1 & ! /ructure ?us be>s a r\gh resemblance to a little umbrella4 ,atta*$ to ! bottom ( ! %ort 8h&le0 ( ! 8umbrella0 are sev]al t9y boxes1 some:at l pill-boxes4 ,^! are %[n at b 7,fig4 #adf1 #c71 & highly magnifi$ at #d & #e4 ,fig4 #adf1 #f1 repres5ts a s+le box1 m highly magnifi$4 ,:5 ripe1 ea* box conta9s ab\t fifty m9ute gra9s1 :i* may ?us be lik5$ to ! pills 9 ! pill-boxes4 ,^! 8pills0 are call$ spores4 ,summ+ up ?us f>1 we may say t ! spores are =m$ 9 spore-boxes1 :i* are atta*$ by /alks to ! l[] surface ( ! frond1 ea* gr\p ( spore-boxes be+ cov]$ by a protective scale4 ,! scatt]+ ( ! spores4--,:5 ! spores are ripe1 ea* box 7,fig4 #adf1 #f7 becomes dry1 & is ultimately bur/ by ! sudd5 /raight5+ ( a spr+ 7c7 :i* is coil$ r\nd its edge4 ,! =ce ( ! uncoil+ ( ! spr+ is suffici5t to j]k ! spores 7d7 out ( ! box into ! air1 & !y may be c>ri$ = "s di/ance by ! w9d be=e !y at l5g? rea* ! gr\nd4 ,once !re1 h[ev]1 ea* spore1 "u fav\rable conditions1 beg9s to gr[1 & gives rise to a plant :i*1 curi\sly en\gh1 is n 9 ! lea/ l ! p>5t f]n plant :i* produc$ ! spore4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 a spore & a se$4--,x is important to notice t ! spore is produc$ by a purely non-sexual process4 ,9 ?is respect x diff]s widely f ! se$ ( a fl[]+ plant1 :i*1 x w be rememb]$ 7p4 #ib71 results f ! union ( ! liv+ matt] ( a poll5 gra9 ) t ( an ovule4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adg4--,! ,male-,f]n4 ,a1 ,pro?allus se5 f bel[2 an1 male organs2 ar1 female organs2 rh1 hairs4 ,b1 ,pro?allus ) "y f]n atta*$ to x2 b1 ! fir/ leaf2 w1 ! prim>y root 7ab\t #e times nat4 size74 ,! pro?allus4--,! new plant1 :i* is produc$ :5 a f]n spore g]m9ates1 is call$ a pro?allus 7,fig4 #adg1 ,a74 ,x is a flat1 filmy little plant1 ( ! =m :i* is g5]ally call$ he>t-%ap$4 ,x has nei!r /em nor roots1 b1 z x conta9s gre5 col\r+ matt] l t ( leaves1 & z x puts out on its l[] surface little hairs 7rh7 :i* take up wat]y solutions f ! soil1 x is 9 no dang] ( />vation1 & is q capable ( tak+ c>e ( itself & lead+ an indep5d5t exi/5ce4 ,?is t9y plant 7a l>ge f]n pro?allus is p]haps half ! size ( a #c;d4 piece71 9 contra/ ) its p>5t1 produces sexual organs4 ,"s ( ^! organs 7an7 give rise to male cells & o!rs 7ar7 to female cells4 ,! male cells are excessively small1 & c only be se5 by high p[]s ( ! microscope4 ,:5 !y are ripe !y swim ab\t 9 a drop ( ra9 or dew1 z if !y 7 little animals1 & f9d _! way to ! female cells1 :i* !y f]tilise4 ,! embryo :i* results f ! union gr[s up 7,fig4 #adg1 ,b7 into an ord9>y f]n plant1 "o be+ borne by ea* pro?allus4 ,9 its "y /ages x is p>asitic on ! pro?allus1 i4e4 x dep5ds entirely ^u ! pro?allus = its nutrition2 b x soon develops a little leaf 7b7 & a root 7w71 & h5ce=? fe$s itself4 ,:5 ! "y f]n is well e/abli%$ 9 indep5d5t life1 ! pro?allus %rivels up & dies4 ,! subsequ5tly-=m$ roots ( ! f]n are n bran*es ( ! prim>y root1 b spr+ f ! bases ( ! leaves4 ,alt]nation ( g5]ations4--,9 ! life-hi/ory ( ! f]n !re are ?us two v diff]5t g5]ations4 ,! fir/ g5]ation--! ord9>y f]n1 :i* is non-sexual--produces1 by means ( spores1 ! sexual g5]ation1 call$ ! pro?allus4 ,! pro?allus gives rise1 9 its turn1 by a sexual process1 to ! obvi\s f]n plant4 ,ea* g5]ation !re=e resembles1 n its p>5t1 b its gr&p>5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adh4--;,cross section ( und]gr\nd /em 7rhizome7 ( ,brack5 ,f]n4 s1 ,conduct+ /r&s2 l1 lp1 /r5g!n+ tissue2 ,r1 gr\nd-tissue2 e1 sk94 7 #g47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #adi4--,leaf ( ! ,brack5 ,f]n4 7 _/47 ,! brack5 or brake f]n diff]s 9 sev]al respects f ! male f]n4 ,its cyl9drical /em 7rhizome7 creeps along horizontally b5ea? ! gr\nd1 bran*+ at int]vals1 by a division ( its gr[+ po9t into two4 ,conduct+ /r&s run along ! /em & into ! leaves & may be se5 9 cross section 7,fig4 #adh1 s7 to =m two some:at irregul>1 conc5tric r+s4 ,/r&s & plates ( /r5g!n+ tissue 7l7 accompany !m1 & a cyl9drical zone 7lp7 ( simil> mat]ial also occurs j b5ea? ! outside sk9 7e7 ( ! /em4 ,! great advantage ( hav+ support+ /ructures arrang$ z holl[ cyl9d]s has already 7p4 #gb7 be5 ref]r$ to4 ,! re/ ( ! /em consi/s ( s(t] pack+ or gr\nd-tissue1 9 :i* />* is (t5 /or$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig #aej4--;,h>t's ,tongue ,f]n4 7 47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aea4--;,h>t's ,tongue ,f]n4 ,"p ( a section ?r\gh ! f]tile portion ( a leaf2 sg1 spore-boxes2 i1 i1 protect+ flaps4 7 #be47 ,! sappy /alk ( a "y brack5 leaf is v /urdy2 :5 x is only six in*es high ! /alk may be already half an in* across at ! bottom1 & half t ?ickness :]e x curls ov] at ! top to =m a crook4 ,! end ( ! leaf-/alk divides into ?ree1 ea* be>+ a frond :i*1 at ?is /age1 is coil$ up tightly1 look+ some:at l a gre5 cat]pill>4 ,at a lat] /age1 ! middle "o ( ! ?ree bran*es commonly divides aga9 into ?ree1 & ! bran*+ may cont9ue until ! fully exp&$ leaf 7,fig4 #adi7 is v complex4 ,! spore-boxes & conta9$ spores ( ! brack5 are v simil> to ^? ( ! male f]n1 b !y are n collect$ 9 pat*es1 l ^? %[n 9 ,fig4 #adf1 #c4 ,in/ead1 !y are arrang$ 9 a r[ along ! m>g9 ( ! l[] surface ( ! frond-segm5t2 & ! m>g9 is turn$ ov]--l a hem--s z to cov] !m 94 ,! spores are lib]at$ 9 ! usual way 7p4 #ahg7 :5 ripe2 & ea* g]m9ates1 "u fav\rable conditions1 to =m a sexual pro?allus4 ,ea* pro?allus gives rise to an embryo1 :i* is at fir/ p>asitic ^u x1 b pres5tly gr[s up into an ord9>y brack54 ,! h>t's tongue f]n 7,fig4 #aej7 has simple & undivid$ leaves1 :i*1 z usual1 be> spore-boxes ^u ! l[] surface4 ,9 ?is case ! spore-boxes are produc$ 9 tr5*es1 :i* appe> to ! nak$ eye z oblique br[n l9es4 ,ea* tr5* is cov]$ 9 by a pair ( ?9 flaps 7i1 ,fig4 #aea74 ,! life-hi/ory closely resembles t already describ$ = ! male-f]n & brack54 #ci4 ,,! ,,common ,,horsetail4 #a4 ,habit ( gr[?4--,c>efully dig up a plant ( ! common horsetail4 ,notice 7a7 ! deep1 creep+1 und]gr\nd /ems2 7b7 ! ?9 wiry roots spr++ f ! /em2 7c7 ! two k9ds ( upright %oots or haulms3 "o k9d 7,fig4 #aeb7--to be f\nd 9 summ]--be+ ?91 & giv+ rise to ti]s ( gre5 bran*es1 :i* come (f l ! ribs ( an umbrella2 ! o!r k9d 7,fig4 #aec71 com+ up 9 ,m>*1 be+ pal] 9 col\r1 )\t bran*es1 & be>+ little cones at ! apex4 #b4 ,! und]gr\nd /em4--,make out t ! /em is di/9ctly divid$ into nodes--m>k$ by too!d leaf-%ea?s--& int]nodes4 ,does x bran*8 ,notice t "s ( ! bran*es are swoll51 =m+ tub]s4 #c4 ,! roots4--,^! are ?9 & wiry1 & come (f f ! /em4 ,d !y come (f at ! nodes or at ! int]nodes8 #d4 ,! bran*$ haulms4--,obs]ve t ea* is divid$ into nodes--m>k$ by too!d leaf-%ea?s--& int]nodes4 ,are ! int]nodes smoo? or ridg$8 ,f :at p>ts ( ! haulms d ! lat]al bran*es arise8 ,c>efully te> d[n a leaf-%ea? to see its relation to ! bran*es4 ,notice t ! bran*es !mselves bran* repeat$ly4 ,:at is ! col\r ( ! bran*es8 #e4 ,! cone-be>+ haulms4--,d ^! haulms appe> e>li] or lat] ?an ! o!rs8 ,:at is _! col\r8 ,does a cone-be>+ haulm give rise to bran*es at ! nodes8 ,exam9e ! cone ) a l5s & see t x is cov]$ ) hexagonal scales4 ,does ! hexagonal %ape all[ ! scales to be m closely pack$8 ,take (f a scale ) a ne$le & notice1 ) ! help ( a l5s1 ! spore-boxes atta*$ to its inn] surface4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4--,/]ile ,haulms ( ,horsetail4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aec4--;,f]tile ,haulms ( ,horsetail4 #f4 ,! pro?allus4--,dry a ripe cone & %ake x ov] pap] to collect ! spores4 ,s[ ^! on moi/ soil1 & try to raise pro?alli4 ,! g5]al appe>ance ( ! horsetail4--,! common horsetail 7,fig4 #aed71 :i* may be f\nd 9 h$g][s & cornfields1 is n 9 any respect %[y4 ,x r>ely exce$s a few feet 9 height1 & does n attract att5tion by any display ( bright col\rs4 ,! plant has /iff1 jo9t$ /ems or haulms1 /&+ gracefully erect & be>+ r+s ( small unit$ leaves at int]vals4 ,! bran*es arise j above ! leaves1 & alt]nate ) !m3 sev]al com+ (f at ea* level1 some:at l ! ribs ( an umbrella4 ,! :ole plant has ?us a r /iff & =mal aspect4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aed4--;,common ,horsetail4 7 47 #a1 ,f]tile haulms1 t]m9at+ 9 cones 7a73 #b1 a /]ile haulm2 a1 tub]s3 #c1 scale ( cone ) spore-boxes 7mag473 #d1 scale ) ruptur$ spore-boxes 7mag473 #e1 #f1 #g1 spores 7mag474 ,! haulms are v pla9ly ( two k9ds2 = "s1 :i* are ( a pale col\r1 d n bran*1 & are develop$ m]ely to be> ! pretty little cones 7,fig4 #aed1 #a1 a7 :i* appe> at _! upp] ends4 ,z ! purpose ( ! cones is to give rise to ! next g5]ation1 ! haulms :i* be> !m may be call$ ! f]tile haulms4 ,!y w be describ$ pres5tly1 :5 ! reproduction ( ! plant is consid]$4 ,! /]ile haulms4--,! erect bran*+ %oots 7,fig4 #aed1 #b71 be> no organs ( reproduction1 & are h5ce ref]r$ to z ! /]ile haulms4 ,_! "w is to provide ! :ole plant ) c>bonace\s food1 & x is on ?is acc\nt t _! bran*es are ( ! *>act]i/ic gre5 t9t4 ,9 mo/ gre5 plants ! manufacture ( c>bonace\s food 7,*apt] ,,iii47 takes place ma9ly 9 ! leaves4 ,9 ! horsetail1 h[ev]1 ! leaves are small & ( v little importance 9 ?is respect1 & ! "w is c>ri$ on by ! /]ile haulms & _! bran*es4 ,! und]gr\nd /em & roots4--,a l>ge "p ( ! horsetail plant is hidd5 b5ea? ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 & (t5 p5etrates to a great dep?4 ,9 ord9>y language ^! und]gr\nd p>ts are call$ roots4 ,!y are1 h[ev]1 subt]ranean /ems1 z is %[n q pla9ly by ! fact t !y be> small leaf-%ea?s l ^? on ! /ems above gr\nd4 ,9 ! common horsetail ! und]gr\nd /ems (t5 become swoll5 9 p>ts by ! =mation ( tub]s 7,fig4 #aed71 z is ! case ) ! potato4 ,! true roots are v sl5d] & ?read-l1 & spr+ f ! nodes 7p4 #de7 ( ! und]gr\nd /ems4 ,!y p5etrate ! soil 9 all directions1 seek+ = wat]1 :i* !y take up by ! f9e hairs :i* clo! !m1 l velvet-pile1 a little beh9d _! po9ts4 ,! /em & its haulms1 l ^? ( grasses1 are /iff5$ by silica1 :i* is deposit$ 9 ! out] lay]s4 ,?is is ( c\rse obta9$ f ! soil4 ,x is n absolutely necess>y to ! life ( ! plant1 b x is nev]!less v useful1 z x enables ! haulms to /& upright & spread out _! bran*es to ! light & air4 ,! /]ile bran*es are ?us conc]n$ ) ! horsetail's daily life4 ,! roots provide x ) wat] & m9]al food1 & ! gre5 bran*es supply ! necess>y c>bonace\s matt]4 ,/em1 bran*es1 & roots are p]meat$ ) a complete sy/em ( canals1 ?r\gh :i* ! food sub/ances f9d _! way to ! v>i\s c5tres ( activity4 ,! reproduction ( ! horsetail4--,x has be5 se5 t "s ( ! haulms d n be> bran*es1 b are set aside = ! production ( ! cones4 ,^! f]tile haulms come up 9 ,m>*1 be=e ! gre5 /]ile haulms appe>4 ,:5 ! cones are c>efully exam9$ !y are se5 to be cov]$ by a numb] ( %ield-%ap$ scales4 ,to ! inn] side ( ea* scale 7,fig4 #aed1 #c1 #d7 are atta*$ f five to t5 boxes1 ea* conta9+ a l>ge numb] ( little gra9s or spores4 ,! boxes bur/ op5 :5 !y are ripe1 ab\t ! end ( ,m>*1 lib]at+ ! spores2 & ! f]tile haulms1 hav+ p]=m$ ! "o duty = :i* !y 7 develop$1 at once die d[n4 ,if ! spores fall 9 a fav\rable situation !y g]m9ate1 & ea* gives rise to a new plant4 ,! new plant is1 h[ev]1 n a horsetail1 b a small filmy pro?allus1 some:at l ! pro?allus ( a f]n4 ,"s ( ! pro?alli produce male cells1 :ile o!rs give rise to female cells4 ,:5 ! m9ute male cells are ripe1 !y are set free1 & are able1 by means ( f9e1 la%+ ?reads1 to swim t[>ds ! female cells ( a neighb\r+ pro?allus1 ?r\gh a drop ( dew or ra94 ,! two cells fuse toge!r & give rise to a little embryo1 :i* 9 due c\rse gr[s up into a new plant--an ord9>y horsetail ) /ems & bran*es & roots l its gr&p>5t4 ,! advantage ( an alt]nation ( g5]ations4--,! life-hi/ory ( ! horsetail is evid5tly v simil> to t ( a f]n1 ea* exhibit+ a well-m>k$ alt]nation ( g5]ations4 ,!re is reason = believ+ t ! pro?allus-g5]ation is ! orig9al =m1 & t ! ord9>y f]n & horsetail 7 develop$ simply to scatt] spores at int]vals1 & s to give new plants ! advantages ( fre% soil4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aee4--;,calamite3 an ext9ct plant alli$ to ! ,horsetails 7greatly r$uc$74 ,liv+ & ext9ct horsetails4--,none ( ! ,briti% horsetails is ( great height1 al?\gh "o species may atta9 to six feet4 ,"s ( ! tropical memb]s ( ! family1 h[ev]1 are v mu* l>g] ?an ?is1 rea*+ ev5 =ty feet4 ,9 spite ( ! la/-nam$ fact x is q pla9 t ! horsetails h _h _! day1 & are dy+ out4 ,if we wi% to =m an idea ( :at !y 7 at ! height ( _! prosp]ity1 we mu/ c>ry our m9ds back to ! long di/ant age :5 our coal 0 be+ =m$2 :5 s mu* ( ?is c\ntry z !n exi/$ 0 l[-ly+ swamp1 cov]$ ) exub]ant vegetation4 ,!n ! horsetails & _! relatives 7 /ately =e/ trees1 & at ! head ( ! vegetable k+dom4 ,"s ( !m t[]$ to a height ( ov] n9ety feet4 ,nor did m]e height con/itute ! only diff]5ce betwe5 !m & _! deg5]ate desc5dants4 ,_m ( ^! old-_w giants _h already f\nd out ! device1 s9ce inv5t$ afre% by m mod]n plants1 ( ?ick5+ _! /ems & roots ) second>y wood1 & ( giv+ rise to b>k l t ( our pres5t-day =e/ trees4 ,! wood ( ^! ,calamites 7,fig4 #aee71 z !y are call$ by geologi/s1 _h already rea*$ mu* ! same /age ( developm5t z is f\nd to-day 9 su* a tree z ! yew4 ,! cones (t5 %[ great v>iation f ! comp>atively simple =m f\nd 9 ! mod]n horsetail1 b !y are ess5tially ( ! same type4 ,fl[]+ & fl[]less plants4--,botani/s divide plants into two great gr\ps--fl[]+ plants1 :i* reproduce !mselves by means ( poll5 gra9s & ovules2 & fl[]less plants1 :i* /ill reta9 ! primitive m>riage cu/oms ( _! ance/ors4 ,! fl[] is a comp>atively rec5t inv5tion 9 ! hi/ory ( plant life1 & its success is %[n by ! dom9ant position 9 ! plant _w :i* ! fl[]+ plants n[ occupy4 ,_m ( ! fl[]less plants--l ! horsetails--h fall5 beh9d _! competitors4 ,! f]ns1 9 spite ( _! cons]vatism1 /ill hold _! own1 & seem 9 no dang] ( ext9ction4 ,_m o!r fl[]less plants ma9ta9 _! position by %e] =ce ( numb]s4 ,yet o!rs h become completely ext9ct1 & c n[ be kn[n only by _! fossil rema9s4 ,b ^! latt] are sometimes s di/9ct t /ems1 roots1 & spore-boxes c be se5 ) all _! %>pness ( outl9e unimpair$2 ! delicate trac]y ( frond & leaf is visible1 z cle> & fre% z if made ye/]day4 ,& su* rocky h]b>ia tell u 9 unmi/akable t]ms t our =e/ trees & o!r fl[]+ plants are aft] all m]e p>v5us & up/>ts4 ,,ex]cises ,,on ,,*apt] ,x4 #a4 ,expla9 ! =mation ( ! gre5 scales :i* are frequ5tly se5 on ! surface soil ( a f]n]y4 ,:5ce d !y arise8 ,:at happ5s to !m if !y are all[$ to gr[8 7,k+'s ,s*ol>%ip1 #aijb7 #b4 ,po9t out ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! fronds ( a f]n & ! leaves ( mo/ fl[]+ plants4 7#aija7 #c4 ,%[ h[ ! spore-produc+ plant ( a f]n is atta*$ to ! pro?allus1 & trace ! e>ly developm5t ( ! =m]4 #d4 ,make a li/ ( ! f]ns :i* y h se5 gr[+ wild1 & /ate exactly 9 :at k9ds ( places !y 7 gr[+4 #e4 ,make exp]im5ts to prove t ! pro?allus ( a f]n is capable ( manufactur+ />*4 #f4 ,make draw+s ( ! spore-be>+ leaves ( all ! f]ns y c f9d1 m>k+ 9 ea* case ! position ( ! spore-gr\ps4 #g4 ,9 :at situations h y f\nd horsetails gr[+8 ,:at o!r plants 7 gr[+ ne>8 #h4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 a se$ & a spore8 #i4 ,describe ! situation 9 :i* ! ma9 /em ( ! brack5 is f\nd1 its mode ( gr[?1 & ! simpl] facts ( its /ructure4 7#aijd7 #aj4 ,9 :at respects d y consid] ! rhizome ( a f]n 7a7 simil>2 7b7 dissimil> to ! root ( a tree8 7,c]tificate1 #aije7 #aa4 ,:]e are ! spores ( a f]n =m$1 & h[ are !y disp]s$8 ,:at d !y produce on g]m9ation8 7#aije7 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,mosses1 ,,mu%rooms1 ,,& ,,m\lds4 #dj4 ,,liv]worts ,,& ,,true ,,mosses4 #a4 ,a common liv]wort4--,look along ! sides ( a brook or a well1 & try to f9d a flat gre5 plant ) num]\s lob$ & ov]lapp+ bran*es4 ,ea* bran* is p]haps half an in* across4 ,?is is "o ( ! commone/ liv]worts 7,pellia74 ,notice ! prom95t midrib runn+ along ea* bran*4 ,9 spr+1 obs]ve ! 8frill$0 appe>ance ( ! end1 caus$ by ! small new bran*es4 ,pull ! plant up1 & notice t x is atta*$ to ! soil by a l>ge numb] ( f9e hairs :i* spr+ f ! l[] surface ( ! midrib4 ,9 ,febru>y1 or ,m>*1 exam9e ! upp] surface ( ! gr[+ plant ) a l5s1 & notice ! small1 d>k-gre5 balls1 m\nt$ on %ort1 ?ick /alks4 ,exam9e ^! at int]vals until ,may1 & notice t ! /alks !n gr[ rapidly until !y are two or ?ree in*es long4 ,ea* is :ite1 & /ill be>s ! black ball 7! capsule7 on its summit4 ,:5 ! /alk is full-gr[n1 ! capsule op5s--its wall splitt+ into f\r p>ts--to lib]ate ! spores4 ,h[ soon1 aft] ! lib]ation ( ! spores1 d ! capsule & its /alk die d[n8 #b4 ,a common moss4--,sep>ate a s+le plant f a tuft ( ! common moss 7,fun>ia7 :i* gr[s1 almo/ ev]y:]e1 on ! gr\nd & on walls4 ,notice t ! plant consi/s ( a /em p]haps half an in* high1 ?ickly cov]$ ) small simple gre5 leaves4 ,! moss is fix$ 9 ! soil by a tuft ( f9e hairs4 ,on "s ( ! plants notice a ?9 /alk 7ab\t half an in* long7 spr++ f ! top ( ! /em2 & on ! end ( ! /alk an ovoid capsule or spore-box4 ,9 cases :]e ! /alk is n yet full-gr[n1 notice t ! capsule is cov]$ by a conical hood1 some:at l a c&le-ext+ui%]4 ,select a plant be>+ a ripe capsule1 & w>m x g5tly be=e ! fire--hold+ x ov] a %eet ( pap]--to dry x4 ,exam9e ! m\? ( ! capsule ) a l5s1 & try to see ! tee? :i* surr\nd ! op5+4 ,!n %ake ! capsule ov] moi/ soil 9 a small fl[]-pot to scatt] ! spores2 cov] ) a %eet ( glass & keep 9 a w>m room4 ,9 a few days notice t ! soil is cov]$ ) f9e gre5 ?reads4 ,ultimately new moss plants w gr[ f ^!4 ,! life-hi/ory ( a liv]wort4--,"o ( ! commone/ & simple/ ( ?is class ( plants is kn[n to botani/s z ,pellia4 ,x may g5]ally be f\nd gr[+ by ! sides ( /reams or old wells4 ,x has nei!r /em1 leaves1 nor root1 b consi/s ( flat1 gre51 ov]lapp+ lobes :i* =k at _! ends4 ,x bran*es v freely1 & 9 spr+ ! new bran*es give ! ends ( ! lobes a frill$ appe>ance4 ,a r prom95t midrib runs along ea* bran*4 ,! plant is atta*$ to ! soil by a l>ge numb] ( f9e hairs :i* spr+ f ! l[] surface ( ! midrib4 ,! :ole appe>ance ( ?is liv]wort is v sugge/ive ( ! pro?allus 7,fig4 #adg7 ( a f]n2 &1 inde$1 x corresponds to a pro?allus1 n only 9 its g5]al /ructure & mode ( life1 b also 9 be>+ sexual organs ( a v simil> type4 ,x 0 se5 9 ,*apt] ,x4 t a f]n pro?allus at l5g? produces an embryo1 :i* gr[s up & =ms ! spore-be>+ g5]ation :i* is :at p usually und]/& by a 8f]n04 ,! liv]wort also gives rise to a spore-be>+ g5]ation1 b 9 ?is case x consi/s m]ely ( a small1 r\nd1 spore-box1 d>k-gre5 9 col\r1 :i* is c>ri$ on ! summit ( a :ite /alk--! :ole look+ some:at l a /\t p94 ,9 ,febru>y1 or e>ly ,m>*1 ! spore-boxes may be se5 ^u ! upp] surface ( ! plant z small balls1 p]haps "o-sixte5? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 protrud+ f ! m\? ( a little pocket 9 :i* _! e>ly /ages are pass$4 ,ab\t ,may1 _! /alks l5g!n s rapidly t 9 a few days ! spore-boxes are lift$ to a height ( two or ?ree in*es4 ,!n ea* box op5s by its wall splitt+ into f\r1 & ! spores are lib]at$ to g]m9ate & =m new liv]worts4 ,hav+ ?us %$ ! spores1 ! box & /alk die d[n4 ,! complete life-cycle ( a liv]wort ?us includes two unlike g5]ations1 z t ( a f]n does2 b x is a diff]5t g5]ation :i* atta9s ! great] developm5t 9 ! two cases4 ,! ord9>y f]n is ! spore-be>+ g5]ation2 ! 8ord9>y0 liv]wort is ! sexual g5]ation1 & its spor+ (fspr+ is n a sep>ate plant at all1 b a m]e /alk$ box1 almo/ entirely dep5d5t ^u its p>5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aef4--;,a ,moss4 ,a1 a plant ) spore-case /ill cov]$ by hood 7c7 7 #a74 ,b1 a plant ) ripe spore-case 7k72 s1 /alk2 d1 lid2 rh1 hairs 7 #a74 ,c1 mature spore-case ) lid 7d7 remov$2 p1 fr+e ( tee? 7 #c74 ,! mosses4--,a moss-plant appe>s at fir/ sight to be v simil> 9 its g5]al features to "o ( ! high] plants2 = x has a little /em1 be>+ flatt5$ gre5 leaves :i* build up c>bonace\s food 9 ! usual way4 ,x has no true roots1 b f9e hairs p5etrate ! soil & d ! "w ( roots by tak+ up solutions ( m9]al food4 ,x is all ! m rem>kable1 !re=e1 to f9d f its me?od ( reproduction t ! moss-plant belongs to ! g5]ation :i* corresponds to ! pro?allus /age ( a f]n's life-hi/ory1 & n to ! leafy1 spor+ g5]ation :i* x some:at resembles sup]ficially4 ,! sexual organs ( a moss are ess5tially ( ! same type z ^? :i* a pro?allus be>s1 & "h also ! t9y male cells ga9 access to ! female cells by swimm+ ?r\gh a drop ( ra9 or dew4 ,! result ( f]tilisation is an embryo :i*1 h[ev]1 gr[s up to =m1 n a plant ) /em & leaves1 b a /alk$ spore-case only4 ,9 a tuft ( ! moss ,fun>ia1 :i* is s common 9 all c\ntry places1 sev]al /ages ( developm5t ( ! spore-cases may usually be se54 ,fig4 #aef repres5ts a moss :i* is v simil> to ,fun>ia b l>g]4 ,9 ,a1 ! spore-case is /ill cov]$ by a conical hood 7c74 ,9 ,b1 ! /alk 7s7 has gr[n mu* long]1 & ! hood has dropp$ (f4 ,! spore-case or capsule 7k7 is n[ se5 to be a pe>-%ap$ body1 clos$ by ! lid 7d74 ,:5 ! spores are ripe1 ! lid becomes deta*$4 ,! m\? ( ! nodd+ capsule is /ill block$1 h[ev]1 by a numb] ( tee? 7,fig4 #aef1 ,c1 p7 :i* rema9 close toge!r 9 damp wea!r4 ,9 dry wea!r ! tee? sep>ate1 & all[ ! spores to fall out4 ,:5 a moss spore falls 9 a fav\rable situation x g]m9ates to =m a f9e1 bran*+ network ( gre5 ?reads1 f :i* new moss-plants arise z buds4 ,! obvi\s plant ( a moss--l t ( a liv]wort--!re=e corresponds to ! pro?allus g5]ation ( a f]n or horsetail4 ,its spor+ g5]ation1 correspond+ to ! obvi\s f]n-plant or horsetail1 is a /alk$ spore-case1 :i* is always m or less dep5d5t on its p>5t & dies d[n z soon z its "w ( scatt]+ ! spores is accompli%$4 #da4 ,,! ,,common ,,mu%room4 #a4 ,habit ( gr[?4--,9 :at situations d y f9d mu%rooms gr[+8 ,9 :at k9ds ( wea!r & at :at "t ( ! ye> are !y mo/ abundant8 ,take up a mu%room ) a tr[el1 & c>efully wa% ! e>? f ! l[] "p to see ! tangle ( :ite ?reads 7call$ ! mycelium71 :i* is ! und]gr\nd "p ( ! plant4 ,see t sev]al ( ^! run into ! bottom ( ! /alk4 ,on ! und]gr\nd mycelium look = "y mu%rooms 9 ! 8button0 /age4 ,look ar\nd1 & try to get a s]ies ( mu%rooms %[+ all /ages f ! smalle/ buttons to fully-op5$ specim5s4 #b4 ,/ructure4--,draw a side view 7natural size7 ( a full-gr[n mu%room1 %[+ ! /alk & cap4 ,runn+ r\nd ! /alk notice a ragg$ flap1 call$ ! coll>4 ,:at is ! height ( ! coll> f ! base ( ! /alk8 ,exam9e y\ng] mu%rooms to f9d :at ! coll> really is4 ,notice t 9 "y specim5s a membrane or veil /ret*es f ! edge ( ! cap to ! /alk1 & t z ! mu%room gr[s l>g] ?is veil is torn away f ! cap 7,fig4 #aeg71 & rema9s z a ragg$ flap 7! coll>7 on ! /alk4 ,9 "y specim5s1 !re=e1 ! l[] side ( ! cap is completely %ut 9 by ! veil1 :ile 9 fully-gr[n ones x is expos$4 #c4 ,! gills & spores4--,cut ! /alk across at ! top1 & make a draw+ ( ! l[] surface ( ! cap4 ,notice ! radiat+ v]tical plates 7! gills71 & _! fle%-col\r$ or d>k-br[n t9t4 ,be c>eful to %[ ! exact arrangem5t ( ! gills 91 say1 a qu>t] ( ! draw+4 ,cut (f ! cap ( a mu%room :i* has br[n gills & lay x1 gills d[n1 on a %eet ( pap]2 cov] x ) a tumbl] to %ield x f draughts1 & leave x = a day4 ,!n take (f ! cap 7be+ c>eful n to sme> x along ! pap]71 & obs]ve ! radiat+ br[n l9es4 ,on t\*+ !m1 x w be se5 t ! l9es consi/ ( f9e br[n du/4 ,! p>ticles ( du/ are spores4 ,!y h evid5tly fall5 f ! gills4 #d4 ,! s\rce ( ! mu%room's food4--,:at is ! col\r ( ! mu%room8 ,cut ?r\gh ! /alk & cap 9 v>i\s directions & notice ! pure :ite 8fle%0 ( ! int]ior4 ,d y ?9k x likely t ! plant c obta9 c>bonace\s food f ! air8 ,:y n8 ,dry a mu%room & burn x c>efully4 ,does x conta9 c>bon8 ,:]e mu/ ! c>bon h come f1 if n f ! air4 ,c y f9d any decay+ vegetable or animal matt] 9 ! soil 9 :i* mu%rooms gr[8 #e4 ,toad/ools4--,c>efully comp>e ! common mu%room ) o!r gill$ fungi :i* look some:at l x4 ,notice p>ticul>ly ! foll[+ *>act]s3 ! col\r1 %ape1 & texture ( ! surface ( ! cap2 ! col\r & arrangem5t ( ! gills2 ! proportions ( ! l5g? & ?ickness ( ! /alk to ! diamet] ( ! cap2 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( a coll> on ! /alk2 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( a cup1 or scaly swell+1 at ! base ( ! /alk4 ,! foll[+ precautions are necess>y 9 select+ mu%rooms = food3 ,nev] eat a 8button0 mu%room2 9 ?is /age :olesome & poison\s mu%rooms _c be prop]ly di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r4 ,reject all mu%rooms :i* %[ signs ( a cup or a scaly swell+ at ! base ( ! /alk--especially if !y h also :ite spores & a coll>4 ,! common mead[ mu%room4--,! common mu%room 7,fig4 #aeg7 may easily be f\nd 9 mead[s1 especially 9 autumn & aft] damp wea!r 9 summ]4 ,! "p :i* rises above ! surface ( ! gr\nd consi/s ( a /\t /alk1 ab\t ?ree in*es long & p]haps ?ree-qu>t]s ( an in* ?ick4 ,on ! upp] end ( ! /alk is a circul> horizontal cap1 convex & smoo? above & concave bel[2 ) a diamet] ab\t equal to ! l5g? ( ! /alk4 ,! int]ior ( ! /alk & cap is compos$ ( a firm :ite fle%y sub/ance4 ,! und]gr\nd "p ( ! plant consi/s ( a tangle ( f9e :ite ?reads1 mo/ ( :i* are wov5 toge!r into /r&s2 & x is easy to see t sev]al ( ^! /r&s run into ! base ( ! /alk4 ,ea* ( ! f9e ?reads is call$ a hypha1 & ! network :i* !y toge!r compose is kn[n z ! mycelium4 ,x has inde$ be5 f\nd by microscopic exam9ation t ! :ole plant is built up ( su* hyphae--closely pack$ toge!r 9 ! /em & cap1 m loosely aggregat$ 9 ! und]gr\nd /r&s4 ,! /alk ( ! full-gr[n mu%room be>s1 a little above its middle1 a ragg$ r+ ( tissue--! coll>4 ,?is r+ is ! rema9s ( a membrane or veil :i* 9 ! y\ng] /ages rea*$ to ! edge ( ! cap1 completely enclos+ its l[] surface2 b :i* 0 torn (f ! cap 7,fig4 #aeg7 z ! /alk ( ! 8button0 mu%room elongat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeg4--;,common ,mead[ ,mu%room4 ,to ! "r1 mu%room 9 8button0 /age 7 74 ,! reproduction ( ! mu%room4--,! l[] side ( ! cap ( a mature mu%room be>s a v l>ge numb] ( radiat+ plates call$ ! gills4 ,^! are at fir/ p9k1 b ! col\r aft]w>ds *anges to a d>k br[n4 ,ea* gill produces an imm5se numb] ( extremely f9e spores1 too small to be se5 individually by ! nak$ eye4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! cap ( a mu%room is laid1 gills d[n1 on a %eet ( pap] & protect$ f draughts1 a 8spore pr9t0 is obta9$2 ! du/ ( ! fall5 spores m>ks ! positions ( ! gills 9 br[n radial l9es4 ,q rec5tly x has be5 f\nd possible to raise new mu%room plants by g]m9at+ ! spores1 & !re c be no d\bt t ?is is ! natural me?od ( reproduction4 ,! me?od ( life ( ! mu%room4--,! mu%room1 l all ! plants we h /udi$1 ?us consi/s ( p>ts :i* p]=m "o or o!r ( two duties2 t ( fe$+ ! plant1 & t ( cont9u+ ! race4 ,9 ?is case ! food is suppli$ entirely by ! und]gr\nd mycelium2 :ile ! arial "p1 consi/+ ( /alk & cap1 is conc]n$ only ) ! "w ( scatt]+ ! spores4 ,!re is no?+ correspond+ to ! leaf-gre5 ( ! high] plants1 & ! mu%room is !re=e unable to make use ( ! c>bon dioxide ( ! air 7p4 #cd7 z ! s\rce ( ! c>bonace\s food :i* is necess>y = its life4 ,c>bonace\s & m9]al food alike are obta9$ f ! soil by ! und]gr\nd mycelium4 ,! plant is1 9 %ort1 dep5d5t ^u c>bonace\s food :i* has be5 previ\sly built up by "s o!r plant or animal1 & c !re=e gr[ only 9 soil conta9+ decay+ animal or vegetable matt]4 ,x w\ld be q unable to subsi/ ^u ! nutritive solution ( salts :i* 0 se5 7p4 #bi7 to suffice 7:5 supplem5t$ by fre% air7 = gre5 plants4 ,fungi4--,! mu%room belongs to a class ( plants call$ ! ,fungi1 all ( :i* obta9 _! c>bonace\s food ready-made f "s o!r plant or animal1 liv+ or dead4 ,= ?is reason _m fungi are p>asitic ^u o!r liv+ plants4 ,mo/ ( ! diseases ( crops & ( =e/ trees are due to fungi4 ,! m\lds :i* de/roy food are fungi1 & ! dry rot :i* ru9s timb] is caus$ by organisms ( ! same class4 ,toad/ools4--,! common mead[ mu%room is a ju/ly-e/eem$ article ( food1 b "s o!r gill$ fungi1 :i* are int5sely poison\s1 be> a suffici5tly close resemblance to mu%rooms to r5d] !m dang]\s4 ,! /ud5t %\ld !re=e take e opportunity ( exam9+ ^!1 & ( comp>+ !m ) ! edible mu%room 9 ! mann] describ$ on p4 #bjd4 #db4 ,,m\lds4 #a4 ,! gr[? ( m\lds4--,damp ?ree small slices ( bread1 & cov] !m ) tumbl]s to prev5t !m f dry+4 ,expose "o slice to ord9>y daylight2 keep ano!r 9 a d>k place at ab\t ! same temp]ature2 & submit ! ?ird to ! direct rays ( bright sunlight z mu* z possible4 #b4 ,:ite m\ld 7,mucor74--,9 "o or two days obs]ve t ! bread is cov]$ ) :ite fleecy ?reads4 ,"s ( ^! may gr[ to a height ( an in* or m1 & end 9 small black knobs :i* c be se5 ) ! nak$ eye4 ,! knobs conta9 spores4 ,exam9e ! m\ld ) ! help ( a l5s4 ,on :i* ( ! ?ree pieces ( bread is !re mo/ m\ld1 & on :i* ! lea/8 ,mix fre%ly-boil$ & /ra9$ juice ( /ew$ fruit 7pref]ably col\rless or ne>ly s7 ) an equal quantity ( wat]4 ,half fill a small glass ) ! mixture1 & ) ! po9t ( a ne$le add a few spores f ! m\ld on ! bread4 ,cov] ! glass1 avoid %ak+ x1 & exam9e day by day4 ,notice ! delicate ?reads 7hyphae7 ( ! mycelium :i* spreads ov] ! liquid & s5ds d[n bran*es bel[ ! surface4 ,obs]ve also ! hyphae :i* gr[ up into ! air & be> spore-knobs at ! end4 ,simil>ly1 s[ "s ( ! spores on a little ( ! nutritive solution ( salts 7p4 #bg7 conta9$ 9 a clean glass4 ,d ^! spores also develop into m\lds8 ,:y n8 ,scrat* ?r\gh ! sk9 ( a ripe fruit 7e4g4 plum1 apple1 grape1 etc47 ) a ne$le1 & lay ! fruit aside ) ! scrat* upw>d4 ,scrat* a simil> fruit 9 ! same way1 & rub into ! scrat* a few m\ld-spores be=e lay+ x aside4 ,) ^! put a ?ird fruit :i* has a p]fectly :ole sk94 ,comp>e ! fruits aft] a few days4 #c4 ,blue m\ld 7,p5icillium74--,aft] "s days ! :ite m\ld on ! bread w probably be cr[d$ out by a blue or gre5i% velvety m\ld call$ ,p5icillium4 ,exam9e x ) a l5s4 ,z ) ,mucor1 make exp]im5ts z to ! action ( light ^u ?is m\ld2 ! g]m9ation ( its spores 7:i* =m a gre5i% p[d] on ! ends ( ! %ort arial hyphae7 9 fruit-juice2 & ! action ( ! spores ^u ripe fruits4 ,common m\lds4--,9 ! du/ float+ ab\t 9 ! air ! spores ( c]ta9 m\lds are almo/ always pres5t4 ,:5 ^! spores fall ^u mat]ials :i*--l bread1 fruit1 old lea!r1 etc4--are capable ( af=d+ !m suitable food-sub/ances1 !y g]m9ate & =m ! woolly gr[?s :i* are famili> to ev]yone4 ,! :ite m\ld 7,mucor74--,:at is kn[n famili>ly z :ite m\ld1 & botanically z ,mucor1 is v conv5i5t = /udy on acc\nt ( its abundance & l>ge size4 ,if a piece ( bread is kept 9 a damp atmosph]e x g5]ally becomes cov]$1 aft] a day or two1 ) a fleecy gr[? ( ! :ite ?reads ( ?is m\ld4 ,^! may atta9 a height ( an in* or m1 & _m ( !m be> at _! ends a small black knob1 9 :i* ! spores are =m$4 ,:5 mature1 ! knobs bur/ op51 & ! f9e spores are scatt]$ 9 ! air4 ,! v>i\s p>ts ( ! m\ld are be/ se5 9 position by scatt]+ "s ( ! spores1 or a little du/ f a %elf1 ^u ! surface ( cle>1 col\rless fruit-juice 9 a glass vessel1 & foll[+ ! /ages ( gr[? ) a l5s4 ,x !n becomes cle> t ! m\ld--l ! mu%room--consi/s ( 7a7 a buri$ tangle or mycelium ( hyphal ?reads :i* take 9 ! plant's food1 & ( 7b7 an arial "p :i* scatt]s ! spores4 ,! m\ld also resembles ! mu%room 9 n conta9+ ! gre5 col\r+ matt] possess$ by ! high] plants1 & !re=e 9 be+ dep5d5t ^u ready-made organic food4 ,provid$ ) ?is1 x c gr[ freely ev5 9 ! d>k4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4--,p5icillium4 ,an arial hypha ) its t]m9al spore-bru%es4 7 #cfj74 ,blue m\ld 7,p5icillium74--,x is g5]ally f\nd t ! fleecy hyphae ( ,mucor1 :i* fir/ cov] ! damp bread1 are cr[d$ out 9 a %ort "t by ! gr[? ( ano!r m\ld1 :i* is kn[n to botani/s z ,p5icillium4 ,?is also consi/s ( a mycelium1 :i* p5etrates ! nutritive sub/ance1 & ( arial hyphae :i* produce spores4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 ! spores are n borne 9 cases1 b break (f f ! ends ( bru%-l bran*es ( ! arial hyphae 7,fig4 #aeh74 ,! spores ( ,p5icillium are gre5i%-blue 9 col\r1 & x is f ?is circum/ance t ! m\ld receives its common "n4 ,! col\r is1 h[ev]1 q diff]5t f ! leaf-gre5 :i* gives ! high] plants ! p[]1 9 sunlight1 ( decompos+ ! c>bon dioxide ( ! air & build+ up _! own c>bonace\s food--a p[] :i* nei!r ,p5icillium nor any o!r fungus possesses4 ,! smalle/ plants4--,! description ( microscopic organisms is beyond ! scope ( ?is book1 b ! /ud5t ought to realise t by f> ! great] numb] ( plants are q invisible to ! nak$ eye4 ,"s ( ^!--to be f\nd 9 e pond & dit*--are gre51 &1 ?\gh !y are ( v simple /ructure1 !y obta9 _! food 9 a mann] sub/antially resembl+ t adopt$ by a fl[]+-plant or a f]n4 ,o!rs1 l ! yea/ plant1 are fungi1 & are subject to ! limitations 9 food-supply :i* are *>act]i/ic ( t class4 ,! smalle/ ( all plants are ! bact]ia2 !y are almo/ inconceivably m9ute1 yet !y possess an influ5ce ^u ! heal? & wellbe+ ( mank9d :i* x is impossible to ov]-e/imate4 ,,ex]cises ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xi4 #a4 ,expla9 9 :at respects a moss plant resembles & diff]s f ! pro?allus ( a f]n4 #b4 ,:at /ructure 9 a moss corresponds1 z reg>ds reproduction1 to an ord9>y f]n plant8 #c4 ,:at d y mean by ! t]m 8alt]nation ( g5]ations08 ,expla9 y\r answ] by ref]5ces to f]ns & mosses4 #d4 ,h[ does a mu%room resemble & diff] f a gre5 plant 9 its me?od ( obta9+ food8 #e4 ,:y does a piece ( damp bread become m\ldy :5 x is expos$ to ! air8 #f4 ,describe simple exp]im5ts :i* prove t ! du/ ( ord9>y air conta9s liv+ p>ticles4 #g4 ,m5tion common plants :i* are waft$ ab\t by curr5ts ( air 9 a dwell+-h\se1 & po9t out *anges :i* su* plants may set up 9 articles ( human food4 7#aije7 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,animal ,,life ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,! ,,rabbit3 ,a ,,typical ,,mammal4 #dc4 ,,! ,,rabbit3 ,,habits ,,& ,,appe>ance4 #a4 ,! habits ( ! wild rabbit4--,9 :at places h y kn[n wild rabbits to h a w>r58 ,9 :at k9d ( gr\nd is a rabbit w>r5 g5]ally f\nd8 ,h[ c y recognise x8 ,are all ! holes ( ! w>r5 ( simil> size1 or c y di/+ui% betwe5 ma9 entrances & 8bolt-holes08 ,look = smoo? pa?s1 p]haps n9e in*es wide1 :i* lead to ! ma9 entrances & int]sect ea* o!r1 s z to =m 8runs40 ,wat* ! animals fe$+ & play+2 to d ?is successfully x w be necess>y to keep v /ill & sil5t2 avoid walk+ on ! runs4 ,:at d ! rabbits eat8 ,d !y walk1 or hop8 ,h[ d !y run8 ,notice h[ conspicu\s is ! :ite tail ( a runn+ rabbit4 ,9 ,june look = a ne/ ( "y rabbits4 ,! position ( su* a ne/ may (t5 be recognis$1 :5 ! doe is away f home1 by a smoo? pat* ( e>? ) :i* %e has cov]$ up ! hole4 ,dig up ?is v c>efully & notice h[ ! ne/ is l9$4 ,exam9e ! "y ones )\t hurt+ !m1 & !n cov] !m up aga94 ,:at is ! col\r ( a wild rabbit8 ,does ! col\r r5d] ! animal less conspicu\s8 ,are tame rabbits s (t5 ( ?is col\r8 ,:y n8 ,wat* a tame rabbit1 notic+ especially ! movem5ts ( its no/rils1 :isk]s1 & e>s1 & its me?od ( fe$+4 ,try to see h[ x gnaws ! b>s ( its hut*4 #b4 ,fur4--,exam9e a dead rabbit4 ,) :at is ! sk9 cov]$8 ,:at are ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! fur ( a rabbit1 ! hair ( a dog1 & ! wool ( a %eep8 ,is fur curly8 ,does x lie flat on ! sk98 ,does x consi/ ( diff]5t sizes ( hair--%ort1 f9e hairs & long1 ?ick] ones8 ,:at o!r animals d y "k :i* h fur8 #c4 ,! head4--7a7 ,! :isk]s4--,on :at p>ts ( ! head are ! longe/ hairs f\nd8 ,h[ d ^! diff]1 ap>t f l5g?1 f ord9>y hairs8 ,:at o!r common animals h :isk]s8 ,d su* animals (t5 make _! way ?r\gh n>r[ passages8 ,:at d y suppose is ! use ( ! :isk]s8 7b7 ,! skull4--,feel ! bones ( ! head ?r\gh ! sk91 & make out ! r\nd$ bra9-case1 ! ridge above & ! ar* bel[ ea* eye1 & ! positions ( ! jaws4 7c7 ,! ext]nal e>s4--,exam9e ! l>ge e>-flaps4 ,notice t ! upp] p>ts are ?9 & almo/ transp>5t1 & t ! l[] p>ts are gri/ly & lead into ! int]ior ( ! head4 7d7 ,! eyes4--,notice t ! eyes are at ! sides ( ! head4 ,is ?is position an advantage to ! rabbit8 ,exam9e1 9 ea* eye1 ! upp] & l[] lids2 & also1 9 ! angle ( ! eye next ! nose1 ! ?ird eyelid--a fold ( :ite sk94 ,take hold ( ?is fold ) ! =ceps & see t x is easily pull$ ov] ! eyeball4 ,look 9 a mirror & see ! little fle%y body :i* occupies a simil> position 9 y\r own eye2 ?is corresponds to ! rabbit's ?ird eyelid4 ,9 ! visible "p ( ! rabbit's eyeball notice ! r\nd d>k pupil 9 ! middle 7contra/ ! pupil ( a cat's eye72 ! col\r$ r+ 7! iris7 surr\nd+ ! pupil2 & ! 8:ite0 7call$ ! scl]otic7 surr\nd+ ! iris4 7e7 ,! lips & no/rils4--,notice h[ ! upp] lip is split 9 ! middle l9e1 s z to %[ ! front tee?4 ,:at is ! use ( ! split8 ,notice ! grooves pass+ f ! upp] lip to ! no/rils4 7f7 ,! inside ( ! m\?4--,op5 ! rabbit's m\? & notice3 7i7 ,! two gnaw+ or incisor tee? 9 ! l[] jaw1 & ! pair ( /rongly-groov$ incisors :i* are s conspicu\s 9 ! upp] jaw4 ,j beh9d ! l>ge1 upp] incisors two small] incisors may be felt ) ! f+]4 ,sep>at$ by a wide space f ! incisors are ! gr9d+ tee?--six on ea* side 9 ! upp] jaw1 & five on ea* side 9 ! l[] jaw4 7ii7 ,! tongue1 ly+ betwe5 ! halves ( ! l[] jaw4 7iii7 ,! h>d ridges runn+ across ! =e half ( ! ro( ( ! m\?4 7iv7 ,! hair9ess ( ! inside ( ea* *eek1 betwe5 ! incisor & gr9d+ tee?4 #d4 ,! neck4--,notice h[ ! neck enables ! head to be turn$ freely 9 v>i\s directions )\t ! body be+ mov$4 ,feel ?r\gh ! sk9 & id5tify3 7a7 ,9 front ( ! neck1 ! tra*ea or w9dpipe1 ) ! l>ynx or 8voice box0 at its upp] end betwe5 ! halves ( ! l[] jaw4 7b7 ,! bones ( ! neck-"p ( ! sp9e4 #e4 ,! trunk4--,feel ?r\gh ! sk9 & make out ! sp9e1 ! brea/-bone1 & ! curv$ ribs :i* connect ^!4 ,! sp9e1 brea/-bone1 & ribs toge!r =m a bony cage :i* encloses ! =e-"p 7! ?orax7 ( ! body4 ,! h9d] & l>g] "p ( ! body 7! abdom57 is n protect$ by ribs1 b ! bones ( ! sp9e are l>ge/ & /\te/ 9 ?is "p ( ! body4 #f4 ,! limbs4--,h[ _m limbs has ! rabbit8 ,:i* pair is ! long]8 ,is ! diff]5ce 9 l5g? an assi/ance 9 leap+8 ,make out ! ma9 divisions ( ea* limb1 &1 by feel+ ?r\gh ! sk91 ! mann] ( atta*m5t ( its bones to ! bones ( ! body 7,fig4 #afa74 #g4 ,! tail4--,notice ! l5g?1 %ape1 position1 & col\r ( ! tail4 ,! *a9 ( bones inside x is a prolongation ( ! sp9e4 ,me?ods ( /udy+ animals4--,9 /udy+ animals1 me?ods simil> 9 pr9ciple to ^? describ$ 9 previ\s *apt]s = plants %\ld be employ$4 ,a real k ( ! habits ( animals c only be obta9$ by wat*+ !m z closely z possible 9 _! natural surr\nd+s4 ,x is (t5 v difficult to get suffici5tly close to %y animals to see !m di/9ctly )\t caus+ al>m1 & a good field-glass is a valuable help 9 su* cases4 ,a great deal ( fir/-h& k ( wild life c1 h[ev]1 be ga9$ )\t su* aids if ! /ud5t w le>n to move quietly & sil5tly1 & to rema9 motionless z soon z he is 9 a good position = obs]vation4 ,! books ( su* ma/]s ( woodcraft z ,ri*>d ,jeff]ies1 ,william ,j4 ,long1 ,erne/ ,?ompson ,seton1 & ,w4 ,h4 ,hudson give *>m+ descriptions ( ! me?ods ( track+ & /udy+ wild animals1 & %\ld be c>efully read by e field-naturali/4 ,obs]vations made 9 ! field %\ld be at once record$1 ) ! date1 9 a note book4 ,_m animals c be kept = "s "t1 )\t cruelty1 9 conf9em5t2 & a m intimate k ( c]ta9 ( _! habits c be ?us obta9$4 ,! practice ( keep+ pets is1 h[ev]1 to be enc\rag$ only :5 e possible c>e is tak5 to secure ! com=t ( ! captives4 ,to und]/& ! int]nal /ructure ( an animal1 dissection is necess>y4 ,?is consi/s 9 expos+ & sep>at+ ! int]nal organs ( ! dead animal f ea* o!r1 9 ord] to notice _! mutual relation4 ,a c>eful outl9e draw+ ( e dissection %\ld be made & pres]v$4 ,! /ud5t %\ld make x a rule nev] to kill any animal unless = "s useful purpose1 & !n to d s 9 ! quicke/ & mo/ pa9less mann]4 ,! habits ( ! rabbit4--,wild rabbits live 9 burr[s or und]gr\nd passages :i* !y excavate1 by means ( _! /rong feet1 9 ! soil ( s&banks1 fields1 woods1 etc4 ,! animals are sociable1 & ! burr[s belong+ to any "o community are collectively kn[n z a w>r54 ,! passages ( ! w>r5 communicate ) ! outside _w by means ( op5+s1 "s ( :i* are 9 common use1 :ile o!rs seem to be us$ ma9ly z 8bolt-holes0 9 cases ( sudd5 al>m4 ,a rabbit :i* is bolt+ to its burr[ exposes ! :ite und]side ( its tail1 & ?us acts z a dang] signal & guide to its fell[s4 ,:5 a rabbit is />tl$1 or puzzl$ by see+ "s unusual object1 x g5]ally ?umps ! gr\nd sm>tly ) its long h9d-foot2 o!r rabbits 9 ! neighb\rhood are !reby w>n$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aei4--,rabbits4 ,x is common to f9d1 outside a rabbit w>r51 a numb] ( int]sect+ pa?s1 p]haps n9e in*es wide1 & worn smoo? by ! patt] ( little feet4 ,^! are ! highways1 or 8runs10 :i* lead f ! holes ( ! w>r5 to ! v>i\s fe$+-gr\nds4 ,rabbits bre$ v rapidly2 x has be5 e/imat$ t 9 five ye>s a s+le pair might h ab\t a million desc5dants1 7 x n = ! c\ntless mi%aps to :i* rabbits are expos$4 ,! "y are born & suckl$ 9 a special %all[ burr[1 :i* ! doe excavates & l9es ) dry leaves1 fur1 etc4 ,:5 %e leaves ! ne/ = any purpose %e cov]s up ! entrance ) soil4 ,! proportions ( ! p>ts ( ! body ( a v "y rabbit are m>k$ly diff]5t f ^? ( ! adult4 ,! head is relatively l>g]1 ! tail long]1 & ! e>s %ort]2 :ile ! h9d limbs & =e limbs are ( almo/ equal l5g?4 ,dur+ ! fir/ six mon?s ( its life ! animal gradually takes on ! proportions ( ! adult--) small head1 long e>s1 l>ge h9d legs ) long feet1 & small1 upw>dly-turn$ tail4 ,a rabbit is able to /& upright on its h9d legs1 & to ma9ta9 itself 9 ?is position = a consid]able "t4 ,x ?us obta9s a wid] view & a great] *oice ( food4 ,! great diff]5ce 9 ! l5g? ( ! =e & h9d legs gives ! animal a *>act]i/ic gait4 8,9 a freely mov+ rabbit10 says ,jeff]ies1 8bo? =e-feet /op :5 ! h9d] come up--"o h9d] foot slightly beh9d ! o!r1 & r wide ap>t40 ,rabbits are exclusively veget>ian fe$]s1 liv+ on gre5 h]bs & on ! t5d] %oots & b>k ( %rubs & "y trees4 ,! ext]nal *>act]s ( ! rabbit4--,! outside ( ! rabbit's body is almo/ entirely cov]$ ) fur4 ,?is consi/s ( two k9ds ( hair--co>se & f9e4 ,! co>s] hairs are few] 9 numb] & long] ?an ! f9e ones1 :i* !y protect f wet4 ,! f9e hairs are extremely closely-set1 & /& /raight out f ! sk94 ,9 a seal-sk9 coat only ! %ort hairs ( ! fur are to be f\nd2 ! long] hairs h be5 remov$ by ! dress+ process4 ,! great w>m? ( furs is due to ! air :i* is entangl$ betwe5 ! f9e1 close hairs4 ,x is g5]ally ! case t fur-be>+ animals are expos$ to ei!r mud or wet by _! me?od ( life2 9 spite ( ?is fact1 :ile ! hair ( a dog soon becomes wett$ by ra91 & ! wool ( a %eep reta9s a great deal ( dirt1 furr$ animals are not$ = keep+ _! coats clean & dry4 ,! longe/ hairs ( ! rabbit are ! /iff :isk]s :i* /& out f ! upp] lip1 ! *eeks1 & above ! eyes4 ,!y are extremely s5sitive to t\*1 & are ( great assi/ance to ! animal 9 f9d+ its way ?r\gh ! d>k burr[s4 ,! col\r ( ! wild rabbit is greyi% br[n1 except on ! belly & "u ! tail1 :]e x is :ite4 ,?is col\r h>monises well ) ! surr\nd+s1 & r5d]s ! animal mu* less noticeable4 ,wild rabbits are expos$ to s _m enemies1 t individuals :i* happ5 to be born ) conspicu\sly col\r$ fur h g5]ally b a poor *ance ( surviv+ & leav+ (fspr+ to inh]it _! disadvantages4 ,!re is ?us 9 ea* g5]ation a natural selection ( ! animals :i* are be/ protect$1 by _! col\r1 f obs]vation4 ,among tame rabbits1 on ! o!r h&1 protective col\ration is ( v little importance1 & "o v>iation ( col\r is z likely z ano!r to be transmitt$ by h]$ity to ! next g5]ation4 ,! regions ( ! body4--,= conv5i5ce & precision 9 describ+ animals x is cu/om>y to use ! words ant]ior & po/]ior to indicate ! =e1 or head1 end1 & ! h9d1 or tail1 end respectively4 ,! belly-surface is said to be v5tral1 & ! back dorsal4 ,! body ( a rabbit obvi\sly consi/s ( head1 trunk1 a %ort tail1 & f\r limbs4 ,! g5]al arrangem5t ( ! bony framework1 or skeleton1 7,fig4 #afa7 :i* supports ! s(t] p>ts may be felt ?r\gh ! sk94 ,! skeleton consi/s ( 7#a7 ! skull2 7#b7 ! sp9e or v]tebral column 7g5]ally spok5 ( z ! backbone71 plac$ dorsally1 & rea*+ f ! ant]ior end ( ! neck into ! tail2 7#c7 ! v5tral /]num or brea/-bone1 :i* is connect$ ) ! v]tebral column by means ( curv$ ribs2 7#d7 ! bones ( ! two pairs ( limbs1 ) ! %\ld]-& hip-bones to :i* !y are atta*$4 ,! bones w be /udi$ 9 m detail 9 ! next *apt]4 ,! trunk is divid$ into two regions--an ant]ior ?orax1 or *e/1 7enclos$ 9 ! bony cage =m$ by ! ribs1 /]num1 & ! adjo9+ "p ( ! v]tebral column71 & a po/]ior abdom54 ,! two cavities are divid$ f ea* o!r by a fle%y p>tition call$ ! diaphragm4 ,organs ( special s5se4--,9 addition to ! s5se ( t\* :i* is possess$ by ! :ole surface ( ! body1 ! rabbit has organs :i* enable x to di/+ui% objects by sight1 s\nds1 sc5ts1 & ta/e4 ,its s5se ( smell is s ke5 t1 to be successful 9 sn>+ rabbits1 89 walk+ to ! spot select$ = ! sn>e x is be/ to avoid ev5 /epp+ on ! run1 & :ile sett+ x up to /& back z f> z conv5i5t & lean =w>d4 ,! grass t gr[s ne> mu/ n be t\*$ by ! h&1 :i* seems to imp>t a v /rong sc5t4 ,! /ick t has be5 c>ri$ 9 ! h& mu/ n be all[$ to fall across ! run2 & be c>eful t y\r h&k]*ief does n drop out ( y\r pocket on or ne> x4 ,if a bun* ( grass gr[s v tall & requires p>t+1 "p x ) ! end 7n ! h&le7 ( y\r /ick40#h ,! %ape ( ! e>-flaps1 :i* c be turn$ 9 diff]5t directions 7,fig4 #aei71 enables ! rabbit to cat* v slight s\nds4 ,! eyes are plac$ on ! sides ( ! head1 s t ! animal has a wide field ( view1 & an enemy approa*+ f beh9d is n likely to be unnotic$4 ,! eye ( ! rabbit is v simil> 9 /ructure to our own1 b x possesses "o useful adjunct :i* ours has lo/1 9 ! %ape ( a ?ird eyelid--an opaque flap ( sk9 :i* lies 9 ! inn] angle1 & c be drawn ov] ! eyeball at w4 ,! little fle%y nodule 9 ! correspond+ position ( ! human eye is a rudim5t ( a simil> /ructure4 ,! rabbit a gnaw+ animal4--,rabbits are mu* addict$ to gnaw+ "y trees = ! sake ( ! b>k & ! s(t] juicy tissues betwe5 b>k & wood4 ,ev5 tame rabbits exhibit ! same in/9ct by gnaw+ _! wood5 hut*es1 al?\gh ^! are ( no use z food4 ,! gnaw+ is done by ! %>p tee?1 call$ incisors1 :i* are conspicu\s 9 ! middle ( bo? upp] & l[] jaw4 ,9 ! upp] jaw two incisors 7:i* are s deeply groov$ t !y look l f\r7 are visible ev5 :5 ! m\? is clos$1 ow+ to ! split 9 ! middle ( ! upp] lip4 ,! h>de/ "p ( ! too? 7a sub/ance call$ enamel7 is at ! front4 ,beh9d ?is ! too? is compos$ ( a s(t]1 bony mat]ial call$ d5t9e2 & ! back ( ! too? consi/s ( /ill s(t] d5t9e4 ,! result ( ^! diff]5ces 9 ! composition ( ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! too? is t ! gnaw+ ( h>d sub/ances we>s away ! back ( ! too? mo/1 ! middle "p next1 & ! front lea/ ( all2 & ?us a %>p *isel-edge is always ma9ta9$4 ,moreov]1 ! tee? ( ! rabbit nev] /op gr[+1 s t !y nev] become appreciably %ort] ?r\gh use4 ,imm$iately beh9d ! two visible incisors ( ! upp] jaw1 ano!r & small] pair c be felt by ! f+]2 ! enamel-faces ( ^! are direct$ backw>ds t[>ds ! cavity ( ! m\?4 ,! s(t] & m easily worn faces ( ! two pairs ( upp] incisors are ?us 9 contact1 & are cont9ually worn d[n to =m a groove4 ,into ?is groove ! two incisors ( ! l[] jaw bite4 ,! incisor tee? /& well out f ! jaws1 & ! split upp] lip c be drawn back1 s t ! lips are n injur$ by gnaw+4 ,9 ! h9d] "p ( ! m\?1 :]e ! *ew+1 or ma/ication1 ( ! food takes place1 are six flatt] b cross-ridg$ gr9d+ tee? on ea* side ( ! upp] jaw1 & five on ea* side ( ! l[] jaw4 ,! insides ( ! *eeks are protect$ f %>p spl9t]s ( wood by a pat* ( hair on ea* side1 :i* ext5ds f ! region ( ! incisors to ! gr9d+ tee? beh9d4 ,! ro( ( ! m\? is protect$ by h>d cross-ridges1 & ! tongue by t\gh sk94 ,rod5ts4--,rabbits & h>es1 rats & mice1 & squirrels are said to be rod5ts 7,lat4 rodo1 ,i gnaw71 z !y n only agree 9 ! gnaw+ habit1 b also 9 o!r v important respects4 ,mammals4--,rod5ts1 & all o!r animals :i* suckle _! "y1 are includ$ by naturali/s 9 ! class ,mammalia4 ,^! animals agree fur!r 9 brea?+ air1 9 hav+ w>m blood1 & 9 be+ m or less completely cov]$ ) hair4 ,v]tebrates4--,mammals1 birds1 reptiles1 amphibians1 & fi%es are gr\p$ toge!r to =m ! sub-k+dom ,v]tebrata4 ,!y are giv5 ?is "n because !y all possess a sp9al1 or v]tebral1 column 7:i* usually consi/s l>gely ( a *a9 ( bones71 runn+ bel[ ! dorsal surface 7p4 #bag7 ( ! body1 f neck to tail4 ,! position ( ! rabbit 9 ! animal k+dom4--,x is cle> f ! above t ! rabbit is1 9 ! fir/ place1 a v]tebrate animal2 x belongs1 secondly1 to ! mammalian class ( v]tebrates1 & ?irdly1 to ! rod5t-ord] ( mammals4 ,,ex]cises ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xii4 #a4 ,9 :at respects does ! h9d-foot ( a rabbit diff] f ! =e-foot8 ,:at is ! use ( ! diff]5ce8 #b4 ,describe ! way 9 :i* a rabbit runs4 ,:at precautions does x take :5 fe$+ 9 an op5 place8 7#aija7 #c4 ,make obs]vations ( ! habits & ext]nal *>act]s ( h>es1 & comp>e !m1 po9t = po9t1 ) ^? ( rabbits4 #d4 ,describe ! inside ( a rabbit's m\?1 & expla9 ! advantages ( any peculi> features to be se5 9 x4 #e4 ,m5tion ! two *ief con/itu5ts ( a rabbit's too?4 ,describe by :at means ! edges ( a rabbit's incisor tee? are kept %>p4 #f4 ,make a li/ ( all ! v]tebrate animals ) :i* y are acqua9t$4 ,:y are !y call$ v]tebrates8 #g4 ,by :at ext]nal *>act]s w\ld y recognise t an animal 0 a mammal8 ,,footnote3 #h ,jeff]ies1 ,! ,amateur ,poa*] 7,smi?1 ,eld] ,co474 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,h[ ,a ,,rabbit ,,lives4 #dd4 ,,! ,,skeleton ,,& ,,muscles #a4 ,! exam9ation ( ! bones4--,9 a boil$ rabbit cle> away ! fle% f ! bones4 ,be=e sep>at+ a bone1 notice c>efully h[ x is atta*$ to neighb\r+ bones4 ,notice also1 especially 9 ! limbs1 ! atta*m5t ( ! bundles ( fle% 7muscles7 to ! bones1 ! ends ( ea* muscle be+ fix$ to sep>ate bones4 ,notice t ! places ( atta*m5t ( ! l>ge/ muscles are m>k$ by ridges or r\ghnesses on ! bones4 #b4 ,! skull4--,obs]ve ! two r\nd$ knobs at ! back ( ! skull1 :i* fit into holl[s on ! fir/ bone 7v]tebra7 ( ! v]tebral column4 ,9 ! skull notice ! saw-l b\nd>ies ( ! v>i\s bones1 & make out3 ! great1 r\nd$ bra9-case2 ! ext]nal op5+s ( ! e>s2 ! eye-sockets2 ! sn\t1 ) ! two nasal *amb]s2 & ! upp] & l[] jaws4 ,be=e sep>at+ ! l[] jaw obs]ve c>efully h[ x is h+$ on ! ar*es :i* run bel[ ! eyes1 & notice ! great muscle on ea* side :i* moves x4 ,exam9e ! tee? 9 detail1 & remove !m "o by "o f _! sockets4 ,notice ! bony %elf or palate sep>at+ ! nasal *amb]s f ! cavity ( ! m\?4 ,draw a side view ( ! skull4 ,%ave (f ! top ( ! bra9-case ) a %>p knife1 & exam9e ! bra94 #c4 ,! v]tebral column4--,make out t ea* ( ! bones 7v]tebrae7 :i* compose ! v]tebral column is really a r+1 & t ! :ole column is !re=e a bony tube4 ,9 ?is tube is enclos$ ! sp9al cord1 a backw>d cont9uation ( ! bra94 ,exam9e & draw v]tebrae f ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! column1 & notice h[ !y v>y 9 %ape & size4 ,comp>e v]tebrae f 7a7 ! neck1 7b7 ! region ( ! *e/ 7notice ! atta*m5t ( ! ribs71 7c7 ! abdom9al region1 7d7 ! region ( ! hips 7f\r unit$ v]tebrae2 leave ^! = ! pres5t 9 position betwe5 ! hip-bones71 7e7 ! tail4 #d4 ,! ribs & /]num4--,exam9e ! mann] ( atta*m5t ( ! ant]ior 7p4 #bag7 pairs ( ribs to ! /]num or brea/-bone4 ,"s ( ! m po/]ior ribs are free at _! v5tral ends4 #e4 ,! bones ( ! =e-limb4--,exam9e ! bones 9 ord] & make out3 7a7 ! triangul> %\ld]-blade1 7b7 ! s+le long bone ( ! upp] arm 7its upp]1 r\nd$ end fitt+ into a socket 9 ! %\ld]-blade2 its l[] end =m+1 ) ! bones ( ! =e-arm1 ! elb[ jo9t71 7c7 ! two bones ( ! =e-arm 7^! lie side by side2 notice ! peg :i* makes x impossible = ! h+$ elb[-jo9t to be b5t back beyond a /raight l9e71 7d7 ! small bones ( ! wri/1 7e7 ! bones ( ! h&4 #f4 ,! bones ( ! h9d-limb4--,notice t ! limb z a :ole is divid$ into p>ts--upp] leg1 leg1 ankle & foot--:i* correspond to ! divisions ( ! =e-limb4 ,make out3 7a7 t z ! bone ( ! upp] arm fits into a socket 9 ! %\ld]-blade1 s ! bone ( ! upp] leg has a ball-%ap$ end :i* works 9 a socket ( ! hip-bone4 ,notice t ! two hip-bones are jo9$ toge!r v5trally1 & t !y are fix$ to ! weld$ v]tebrae ( ! hip-region4 ,does ?is give increas$ /r5g? to ! h9d-limb8 ,id5tify3 7b7 ! two bones ( ! leg 7betwe5 knee & ankle7 & notice t !y diff] f ! correspond+ bones ( ! arm 9 be+ fus$ toge!r 9 ! l[] "p2 7c7 ! bones ( ! ankle1 & 7d7 ! bones ( ! foot4 #g4 ,! /ructure ( a long bone4--,take ! long bones ( ! upp] arms & upp] legs1 & exam9e !m fur!r4 ,break "o across ! middle4 ,is x solid or holl[8 ,:at is ! advantage ( its be+ holl[8 ,is ! tube empty or does x conta9 m>r[8 ,are ! ends ( ! bone holl[ or solid8 ,place "o ( ! bones on a bright hot fire4 ,is !re any sign ( burn+8 ,does all ! bone burn away8 ,c>efully remove :at is left1 & comp>e ! brittl5ess ( ! 8burnt0 bone ) t ( an unburnt bone4 ,place ano!r bone = sev]al days 9 a cupful ( wat] to :i* has be5 add$ ab\t two teaspoonfuls ( /rong hydro*loric acid4 ,!n take x out1 wa% x2 & try to b5d x4 ,cont9ue ! treatm5t until ! bone is s(t en\gh to tie 9 a knot4 ,c y tie an ord9>y bone 9 a knot8 ,:y n8 ,put a 8burnt0 bone 9 simil> dilute acid4 ,does x dissolve8 ,:at d y ?9k gives a bone its h>dness8 #h4 ,bones mov$ by muscle4--,/ret* out "o ( y\r arms & grasp ! middle ( ! upp] arm firmly ) ! o!r h&4 ,n[ b5d ! elb[1 & notice t ! great muscle 7! biceps7 ( ! front ( ! upp] arm ?ick5s & becomes %ort]4 ,/raight5 ! arm aga91 & notice t ! muscle becomes ?9n] & long] aga94 ,exam9e ,fig4 #afj1 :i* %[s h[ ! upp] end ( ! biceps is atta*$ at a to ! %\ld]-blade & its l[] end to "o ( ! bones ( ! =e-arm at ,p4 ,if ! biceps muscle %ort5s1 ! =e-arm mu/ be pull$ up1 because ! %\ld] rema9s /ation>y4 ,c>efully notice ! v>i\s movem5ts ( :i* y\r arm is capable--e4g4 ext5sion ( ! arm2 b5d+ 7flexure7 on ! elb[-jo9t2 rotation ( ! =e-arm1 s t ei!r ! palm or ! back ( ! h& c be turn$ upw>ds2 & grasp+4 ,obs]ve y\r p[] ( t\*+ ! tip ( ! little f+] ) t ( ! ?umb4 ,if a human skeleton is accessible wat* h[ "o 7:i*87 ( ! two long bones ( ! =e-arm rotates :5 ! h& is turn$ ov]4 ,h[ _m ( ^! movem5ts c ! rabbit make8 ,! uses ( ! skeleton4--,! bodies ( v]tebrate animals 7p4 #bbj7 are support$1 & _! m delicate p>ts protect$ f injury1 by an int]nal framework call$ ! skeleton4 ,9 "s ( ! simpl] fi%es ?is is compos$ ( gri/le or 8c>tilage02 b 9 m highly develop$ animals x consi/s almo/ entirely1 9 ! adult /ate1 ( bone4 ,fur!r1 almo/ all ! bones are connect$ ) /r&s or bundles ( r$ fle% call$ muscle1 :i* ! animal is able to %ort5 or 8contract0 at w4 ,:5 a muscle %ort5s1 ! bones to :i* its ends are fix$ are ( necessity pull$ ne>] to ea* o!r4 ,if ! bone at "o end ( ! muscle rema9s /ation>y1 t at ! o!r end is mov$ into a new position4 ,?is is1 g5]ally speak+1 ! mann] 9 :i* ! numb]less movem5ts ( ! limbs1 head1 etc41 are made4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afj4--,! action ( ! ,biceps muscle4 a1 ! atta*m5t ( ! muscle to ! %\ld]-blade2 ,p1 atta*m5t ( ! muscle to ! =e-arm2 ,f1 elb[2 ,w1 h&4 ,! movem5ts ( ! limbs4--,an excell5t illu/ration ( ?is relation betwe5 ! bones & muscles is se5 9 ! b5d+ ( ! arm at ! elb[4 ,:5 ! arm is b5t1 a great mass ( fle%1 ! biceps muscle1 9 front ( ! upp] arm may be obs]v$ to become mu* ?ick]4 ,! muscle 7,fig4 #afj7 ?ick5s because x becomes %ort]4 ,its upp] end is atta*$ to ! corn] ( ! %\ld]-blade 7a71 :i* rema9s /ation>y2 :ile its l[] end is connect$ at ,p ) "o ( ! bones ( ! =e-arm4 ,! %ort5+ ( ! muscle !re=e draws up ! =e-arm4 ,! elb[-jo9t1 ab\t :i* ! motion takes place1 is a v p]fect h+e4 ,sev]al o!r =ms ( jo9t are also f\nd 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! body4 ,x is se51 :5 ! skeleton is exam9$1 t 9 e case ! *>act]s ( ! jo9ts & ! atta*m5t ( ! muscles are mo/ admirably adapt$ to ! movem5ts ) :i* !y are associat$4 ,! /udy ( ! skeleton4--,! /udy ( ! rabbit's skeleton is n only highly int]e/+ 9 itself1 b necess>y = ! intellig5t appreciation ( ! animal's life4 ,& :5 x is comp>$ ) ! skeletons ( o!r famili> animals1 a common plan ( /ructure is f\nd :i* illu/rates 9 ! mo/ conv9c+ mann] ! k9%ip :i* (t5 exi/s betwe5 v dissimil> creatures4 ,su* a comp>ison %[s t1 almo/ bone = bone1 ! skeleton ( a rabbit corresponds ) t ( a man or a horse1 & ev5 ) t ( a bird or a frog4 ,m\nt$ skeletons are %[n 9 mo/ natural-hi/ory museums1 & ! /ud5t %\ld1 :5ev] possible1 exam9e & comp>e !m4#i ,he c himself1 h[ev]1 easily sep>ate ! bones f a boil$ rabbit1 & make out _! ma9 features & relation%ips4 ,! rabbit's skull & backbone--,! bones ( ! head are collectively kn[n z ! skull4 ,?is consi/s ( 7#a7 a l>ge bra9 case2 7#b7 ! cavities = ! organs ( special s5se1 viz41 7a7 a pair ( nasal *amb]s 79 :i* ! organ ( smell is locat$7 9 front3 _! h9d] ends op5 into ! top ( ! ?roat2 7b7 ! eye-sockets at ! sides1 & 7c7 ! flask-%ap$ *amb]s = ! int]nal e>s at ! sides ( ! h9d] end ( ! bra9-case2 7#c7 ! jaws3 ! upp] jaw is rigidly atta*$ to ! bra9-case1 b ! l[] jaw is h+$ at ea* side on ! h9d] end ( ! bony ar* :i* runs bel[ ! eye4 ,bo? upp] & l[] jaws be> tee?1 :i* are fix$ 9 sockets4 ,on ea* side ! upp] jaw conta9s two incisor tee? 7p4 #bai7 &--mu* fur!r back--six gr9d+ tee?4 ,9 ! l[] jaw are "o incisor & five gr9d+ tee? on ea* side4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afa4--,! ,rabbit4 ,! skeleton 9 position1 se5 f ! left side4 ,! v]tebral column or backbone is a *a9 ( bony r+s or v]tebrae :i* runs dorsally 7p4 #bag7 f ! h9d] end ( ! skull to ! tail1 & =ms a long tube conta9+ ! sp9al cord--a backw>d cont9uation ( ! bra94 ,on ! ant]ior face ( ! fir/ v]tebra are two holl[s into :i* a pair ( knobs on ! skull fit4 ,al?\gh1 ) ! exception ( ! fir/ & second1 all ! v]tebrae are =m$ on ess5tially simil> l9es1 !re is consid]able v>iation 9 %ape & size 9 ! diff]5t regions ( ! sp9e1 z may be se5 f ,fig4 #afa4 ,!re are sev5 neck v]tebrae1 & ?is numb] is rem>kably con/ant 9 mammals 7p4 #bbj74 ,foll[+ ^! are ! *e/ v]tebrae1 :i* be> pairs ( ribs4 ,! majority ( ! ribs curve r\nd & jo9 on to a v5tral b> ( bone call$ ! /]num or brea/ bone2 s t ! cavity ( ! *e/1 conta9+ ^? v important organs ! he>t & lungs1 is enclos$ 9 a protective bony cage4 ,! v]tebrae ( ! abdom9al region ( ! body are v l>ge & /\t4 ,betwe5 !m & ! tail-bones are f\r fus$ v]tebrae1 =m+ a mass :i* on ea* side gives atta*m5t to ! l>ge hip-bone4 ,! bones ( ! rabbit's limbs4--,! =e & h9d-limbs ( ! rabbit are obvi\sly comp>able3 ! upp] arm correspond+ to ! upp] leg1 ! elb[ to ! knee1 ! =e-arm to ! 8leg10 ! wri/ to ! ankle1 & ! =e-foot to ! h9d-foot4 ,?is simil>ity becomes ev5 m app>5t :5 ! limb-skeletons are exam9$4 ,comm5c+ 9 ea* limb at ! end ne>e/ ! body we f9d a s+le long bone4 ,9 ! =e-limb ! r\nd$1 upp] end ( ?is bone works 9 a socket at ! ant]ior angle ( ! %\ld]-blade1 a triangul> plate on ea* side :i* ov]lies ! *e/ dorsally2 9 ! h9d-limb ! r\nd$ end ( ! correspond+ bone works 9 a cup 9 ! hip-bone4 ,aga91 betwe5 ! elb[ & ! wri/ are two bones ly+ side by side2 & betwe5 ! knee & ! ankle are two correspond+ bones1 al?\gh "h !y are only sep>ate 9 _! upp] p>ts4 ,simil>ly1 ! wri/ bones correspond to ! ankle bones1 & ! bones ( :at may be call$ ! f+]s to ^? ( ! toes4 ,c]ta9 ( ! ankle bones are1 h[ev]1 mu* elongat$3 obvi\sly a great advantage to an animal :i* progresses by a s]ies ( hops--ow+ to ! increas$ lev]age :i* is !reby giv5 to ! h9d-foot4 ,! rabbit's =e-foot be>s five toes1 ! h9d-foot f\r4 ,! /ructure ( a long bone4--,! long bones ( ! limbs are holl[ except at ! ends4 ,/r5g? & lightness are ?us secur$ by a device 7! holl[ cyl9d]71 :i* has already 7p4 #gb7 be5 se5 to be adopt$ by ! support+ /ructures ( plants1 & is also copi$ by human eng9e]s4 ,! cavity ( ! tube is fill$ by m>r[1 :i* supplies ! bone ) food4 ,! h>d1 bony tube itself is p>tly compos$ ( m9]al matt] & p>tly ( animal matt]4 ,! m9]al matt] is left z a :ite1 brittle framework :5 ! animal matt] is burnt away2 :ile on ! o!r h& ! m9]al "p--:i* gives ! bone its rigidity--may be dissolv$ out by imm]s+ ! bone 9 dilute hydro*loric acid1 leav+ ! organic tissue z a s(t flexible sub/ance hav+ ! %ape ( ! orig9al bone4 #de4 ,,h[ ,,! ,,rabbit ,,dige/s ,,its ,,food4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afb4--;,exp]im5t to %[ t />* solution w n pass ?r\gh a ?9 membrane4 b1 beak]2 w1 wat]2 p4p41 p>*m5t pap]2 t4t41 /em ( ?i/le funnel2 s1 />* solution 9 head ( ?i/le funnel4 #a4 ,a solution ( />* w n pass ?r\gh a ?9 membrane4--,rub up ) wat] z mu* />* z w lie on a %ill+1 s z to =m a ?9 8cream10 & !n p\r on x ab\t a cupful ( boil+ wat]4 ,! />* swells up & l>gely dissolves 9 ! wat]4 ,add a few drops ( ! />* solution to ab\t half a p9t ( wat]1 /ir1 & te/ x by add+ a little iod9e solution 7p4 #b1 footnote74 ,a beautiful blue col\r is obta9$1 %[+ t ! te/ is a v delicate "o4 ,n[ take a ?i/le funnel & ) a file cut ?r\gh ! /em ab\t six in*es bel[ ! head4 ,wet a piece ( p>*m5t pap] or ?9 bladd] 7hav+ previ\sly held x up to ! light to be sure !re are no holes 9 x71 & tie x tightly across ! m\? ( ! funnel4 ,fill ! head & ab\t an in* ( ! /em ) ! />* solution4 ,?is c easily be done by means ( a 8canula10 su* z is us$ = fill+ f\nta9 p5s4 ,n[ put ! funnel into a beak] ( wat]1 9 ! mann] %[n 9 ,fig4 #afb1 & put ! arrangem5t aside = a few h\rs4 ,aft] t "t add iod9e solution to ! wat] 9 ! beak]4 ,no blue col\r is =m$1 %[+ t no />* has pass$ ?r\gh ! membrane4 #b4 ,a solution ( sug> w pass ?r\gh a ?9 membrane4--,a delicate te/ = c]ta9 v>ieties ( sug> 7n1 h[ev]1 table sug>7 is a liquid kn[n z ,fehl+'s solution4#aj ,place a p>ticle ( honey 9 a te/ tube ) a teaspoonful ( ,fehl+'s solution1 & put ! te/ tube into a vessel ( boil+ wat]4 ,notice t 9 a %ort "t ! blue col\r ( ! solution disappe>s & ! liquid becomes r$ & turbid4 ,n[ repeat ,exp]im5t #de1 #a1 b in/ead ( />* solution use honey dissolv$ 9 wat]4 ,to %[ t "s ( ! honey-sug> has pass$ ?r\gh ! membrane1 take ab\t a teaspoonful ( ! wat] 9 ! beak]1 & put x 9 a te/ tube ) twice z mu* ,fehl+'s solution4 ,heat z be=e1 & notice ! r$ turbidity4 ,if table sug> is us$ x may be recognis$ by ! sweet ta/e ( ! wat] aft] ! exp]im5t4 #c4 ,! action ( saliva on />*4--7a7 ,*ew a piece ( india-rubb] to induce a free fl[ ( saliva1 & collect ! liquid4 ,9 "o te/ tube put half a teaspoonful ( />* solution2 9 a second tube put a mixture ( equal quantities ( />* solution & saliva2 9 a ?ird put saliva alone4 ,keep ! tubes at blood heat = tw5ty m9utes4 ,!n add a little wat] to ea* tube & divide its cont5ts into two p>ts4 ,te/ "o "p ( ea* = />* ) iod9e solution1 & ! o!r "p = sug> ) ,fehl+'s solution4 ,! fir/ tube conta9s only />*4 ,! second n[ conta9s no />*1 b %[s ! pres5ce ( sug>4 ,! ?ird conta9s nei!r />* nor sug>4 ,evid5tly ! saliva has *ang$ ! />* ( ! second tube into sug>4 7b7 ,repeat ! exp]im5t1 b keep ! mixture ( />* & saliva 9 a cold place4 ,no sug> is produc$4 7c7 ,repeat ! exp]im5t z 9 7a71 b use saliva :i* has be5 heat$ to boil+ 9 a te/ tube4 ,no sug> is =m$4 ,! necessity = food4--,x is common k t a rabbit1 l e o!r animal1 mu/ h a regul> supply ( food if x is to cont9ue heal?y1 & t x w\ld soon die outright if food 7 )held4 ,! reason = ?is is t ! liv+ sub/ance ( ! animal's body is incessantly wa/+ away4 ,! rabbit _c move a muscle except at ! exp5se ( ! liv+ sub/ance ( ! muscle1 & ! m active is its life1 ! m rapidly does its body wa/e4 ,x is to c\nt]act ?is cont9ual wa/e by cont9ual =mation ( new liv+ sub/ance t food is tak54 ,b ! succul5t plants :i* ! rabbit eats are n sudd5ly trans=m$ into animal muscle & bone1 & s =?1 :5 !y are swall[$4 ,!y h fir/ ( all to und]go a process :i* is call$ dige/ion4 ,?is takes place 9 a tube--! dige/ive canal--:i* runs f end to end ( ! body4 ,! dige/ive canal ( ! rabbit is coil$ 9 a some:at intricate mann]4 ,t ( ! frog is1 h[ev]1 mu* simpl] & m typical ( v]tebrates 7p4 #bbj7 g5]ally1 & w s]ve equally well 9 s elem5t>y a consid]ation ( dige/ion z ! pres5t4#aa ,! frog's dige/ive canal4--,! h9d] end ( ! frog's m\? op5s 7,fig4 #afc7 into ! gullet 7gul471 a %ort wide tube :i* leads to a capaci\s bag call$ ! /oma* 7/474 ,! t]m9ation ( ?is is cont9u\s ) a coil$ n>r[ tube call$ ! small inte/9e 7s4 9471 :i* passes sudd5ly into a mu* wid] l>ge inte/9e or rectum4 ,! rectum op5s to ! ext]ior1 at ! h9d] end ( ! body1 by an ap]ture 7an47 kn[n z ! anus4 ,9 addition to ! dige/ive tube prop]1 two l>ge dige/ive gl&s1 ! liv] & ! pancreas1 %\ld be c>efully notic$4 ,! liv] 7lr47 is a l>ge1 d>k r$ organ1 consi/+ ( two lobes :i* lie at ! sides ( ! /oma*4 ,x makes a dige/ive fluid call$ bile4 ,! pancreas 7pn47 is an elongat$ body :i* lies 9 ! loop betwe5 ! /oma* & ! fir/ portion--call$ ! duod5um 7du47--( ! small inte/9e4 ,x makes a dige/ive fluid call$ ! pancreatic juice4 ,9 ! frog bo? ! bile & ! pancreatic juice are dis*>g$ into ! duod5um by "o tube or duct 7b4d474 ,small dige/ive gl&s also occur 9 ! inn] wall ( ! /oma*2 ^! dis*>ge a fluid call$ ga/ric juice into ! cavity ( ! /oma*4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afc4--,! ,frog1 dissect$ f ! left side4 gul1 gullet2 /1 /oma*2 du1 duod5um2 s4 int1 small inte/9e2 an4 anus2 lr1 liv]2 pn1 pancreas2 b4d1 bile duct2 bl1 ur9>y bladd]2 c4art1 l4au1 s4v1 v1 p>ts ( ! he>t2 cn4 #c1 8body0 ( #crd v]tebra2 eus t4 ,eu/a*ian tube2 gl1 glottis1 lead+ to l4lng1 left lung1 & r4lng1 "r lung2 n4a4 #a1 ar* ( #a/ v]tebra2 p4na1 int]nal op5+ ( no/ril2 sp4cd1 sp9al cord2 spl4 sple52 tng1 tongue2 kd1 kidney2 ur1 uret]2 vo4t1 vom]9e tee?4 ,! rabbit's dige/ive canal--,9 its ma9 features ! dige/ive canal ( ! rabbit resembles t ( ! frog2 "h also ! m\? op5s into a long tube consi/+ ( gullet1 a bag-l /oma*1 a small inte/9e1 & a l>ge inte/9e4 ,!re are also a liv] & a pancreas :i* dis*>ge _! fluids--by sep>ate ducts1 h[ev]1--into ! fir/ "p ( ! small inte/9e2 & ! /oma* is suppli$ ) ga/ric juice by small gl&s 9 its inn] wall4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 diff]5ces besides ^? ( size 9 ! dige/ive tubes ( ! two animals4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 a fluid call$ saliva is p\r$ into ! rabbit's m\? by ! ducts ( saliv>y gl&s :i* occur ne> ! m\?4 ,secondly1 ! coils ( ! small inte/9e are v mu* m complicat$ ?an 9 ! frog4 ,& la/ly1 at ! junction ( small & l>ge inte/9es !re is giv5 (f1 9 ! rabbit & 9 h]bivor\s mammals g5]ally 7:5 ^! h simple /oma*s1--p4 #bfa71 a great1 spirally-con/rict$ tube :i* ends bl9dly 9 a f+]-l process4 ,h[ ! rabbit dige/s its food4--,a rabbit ne$s food to repair ! con/ant wa/e ( sub/ance :i* ! activities ( its life entail2 & ! same is true ( e o!r liv+ ?+1 be x plant or animal4 ,n[1 e "p ( a rabbit's body is irrigat$ & dra9$ by ! f9e/ bran*es ( a sy/em ( pipes ?r\gh :i* blood is always fl[+2 & x is 9 ?is blood-/ream t ! food is convey$ to ! muscles & o!r organs :i* are to be repair$4 ,! food f9ds its way into ! blood :5 t fluid is fl[+ ?r\gh ! small vessels :i* lie 9 ! ?ickness ( ! wall ( ! dige/ive tube4 ,be=e food c ga9 access to ! blood x mu/ be 9 a condition 9 :i* x is capable ( diffus+ ?r\gh ! ?9 membrane :i* sep>ates !m4 ,dige/ion is ! process :i* r5d]s food soluble & diffusible1 & h5ce capable ( pass+ into ! blood4 ,! food ( animals is ( sev]al diff]5t k9ds4 ,a few ( ^! are soluble & diffusible at ! "t !y are eat51 b mo/ ( !m are nei!r1 & !re=e require treat+ accord+ to _! nature4 ,?is is :y s _m diff]5t fluids are p\r$ into ! rabbit's dige/ive canal4 ,saliva1 ga/ric juice1 bile1 & pancreatic juice are ea* capable ( act+ ^u c]ta9 con/itu5ts ( ! food & r5d]+ !m soluble & diffusible4 ,x w\ld be beyond ! scope ( ?is book to consid] ! "w ( ^! fluids 9 detail1 b ! action ( saliva is n only fairly typical1 b x c easily be imitat$ outside ! body4 ,/>* is a v common con/itu5t ( vegetable foods1 & its pres5ce or abs5ce is readily det]m9$ by ! blue col\r :i* x gives ) a solution ( iod9e4 ,/>* is q insoluble 9 cold wat]1 b :5 treat$ ) hot wat] x swells up &1 to a great ext5t1 dissolves4 ,b a m]e solution ( />* _c get into ! blood1 = x is incapable 7,expt4 #de1 #a7 ( pass+ ?r\gh a ?9 membrane4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if />* is mix$ ) saliva1 & ! mixture is kept at ! temp]ature ( ! body1 x is f\nd 9 a %ort "t t ! />* has be5 *ang$ into sug>1 :i* is n only soluble1 b readily diffuses ?r\gh a ?9 membrane4 ,9 o!r words1 />* z su* is useless to ! rabbit z food2 only aft] x has be5 dige/$ by conv]sion into sug> c x be us$ by ! body4 ,some?+ v simil> (t5 takes place 9 plants4 ,x 0 se5 7p4 #cc7 t ! cotyl$ons ( a pea become sweet dur+ g]m9ation4 ,/>* is a conv5i5t =m ( food = /or+ 9 ! cotyl$ons ( a pea1 ! endosp]m ( ! maize se$1 ! %ort /em ( ! crocus-corm1 & s on2 b be=e ! plant c use x z food ! />* mu/ be made soluble & diffusible by be+ *ang$ into sug>4 ,9 plants ! *ange is br\ght ab\t1 n by saliva1 b by a sub/ance kn[n z dia/ase4 ,! pancreatic juice cont9ues ! *ange ( />* into sug> :i* is comm5c$ by ! saliva1 b x also dige/s o!r food-/uffs z well4 ,simil>ly1 ga/ric juice & bile are ea* conc]n$ ) ! dige/ion ( c]ta9 foods4 ,! result ( ! action--sep>ate & comb9$--( ! dige/ive fluids is t1 :5 a rabbit eats no m food ?an x requires1 all ! useful p>ts ( ! food are absorb$ into ! blood1 & !n di/ribut$ to ! tissues by ! blood z x fl[s ?r\gh !m4 #df4 ,,! ,,circulation ,,( ,,! ,,blood4 #a4 ,evid5ce ( ! circulation4--7a7 ,! art]ial pulse4--,feel y\r pulse at ! wri/ & c\nt ! numb] ( beats p] m9ute4 7b7 ,! beats ( ! he>t4--,simil>ly c\nt h[ _m times y\r he>t beats p] m9ute4 ,put y\r e> ov] ! he>t ( a fri5d1 & li/5 to ! s\nds ( ! he>t4 ,h[ _m diff]5t s\nds c y di/+ui%8 7c7 ,! valves ( ! ve9s4--,press y\r ?umb on y\r arm inside ! elb[1 & !n move x d[n ! arm t[>ds ! wri/4 ,notice ! small knots :i* rise "u ! sk9 betwe5 ! po9t ( pressure & ! wri/4 #b4 ,! /ructure ( a %eep's he>t4#ab--,procure f ! but*] a %eep's he>t )1 if possible1 ! lungs /ill atta*$4 ,if ! ?9 transp>5t bag :i* naturally surr\nds ! he>t has be5 left on1 c>efully cut x away4 ,make out ! ma9 ext]nal features ( ! he>t be=e cutt+ into x4 ,! %ape is conical1 ! apex ( ! cone be+ po/]ior1 ! base 7:]e ! blood-vessels are atta*$7 ant]ior4 ,! v5tral face is r\nd$2 ! dorsal face is flatt]4 ,comp>e ,fig4 #afd4 ,! l9e ( fat 7#c7 m>ks ! l9e ( division betwe5 two *amb]s1 ! "r 7,r4,v47 & left 7,l4,v47 v5tricles4 ,feel t ! "r v5tricle yields to pressure m readily ?an ! left4 ,two m *amb]s1 ! "r & left auricles1 are situat$ at ! basal 7?ick7 end4 ,r4,a4 & ,l4,a4 are flaps ( ! "r & left auricles respectively4 ,id5tify ! great vessels ,,svc & ,,ivc :i* dis*>ge into ! "r auricle4 ,cut !m op5 to see ! entrance4 ,!n lay op5 ! "r auricle4 ,pass y\r f+] d[n & notice t ! "r auricle communicates freely ) ! "r v5tricle4 ,obs]ve t y c f ! "r v5tricle pass y\r f+] into ! tube ,p4,a42 make out t ?is goes to ! lungs4 ,lay op5 ! left auricle1 & see t x receives vessels f ! lungs4 ,pass y\r f+] f ! left auricle into ! left v5tricle1 & notice t ?is latt] *amb] leads into ! ,aorta1 ,ao4 7,ao4 a bran* ( ,ao474 ,notice t ! walls ( ! blood-vessels 9 connection ) ! two auricles are collaps$1 :ile ^? 7,p4,a4 & ,ao47 lead+ f ! two v5tricles are m ela/ic & rema9 op54 ,:i* ( ! two auricles has ! ?ick] wall8 ,:i* ( ! two v5tricles has ! ?ick] wall8 ,c y pass y\r f+] f "o auricle to ! o!r8 ,f "o v5tricle to ! o!r8 ,cut away ! auricles & p\r wat] into ! v5tricles4 ,!n squeeze ! he>t g5tly1 & notice ! flaps :i* rise to close ! op5+s into ! v5tricles4 ,c\ld blood pass f ! v5tricles to ! auricles8 ,:y n8 ,lay op5 ! bases ( ! vessels ,p4,a4 & ,ao4 lead+ f ! "r & left v5tricles respectively1 & notice ! pockets ( ?9 membrane :i* are atta*$ !re4 ,op5 !m out g5tly ) ! po9t ( a p5cil4 ,put ! he>t "u ! tap & let wat] trickle d[n ! vessels t[>ds ! v5tricles2 notice h[ ! pockets /& out z !y fill ) wat]4 ,:at w\ld be ! effect ( blood try+ to pass f ,p4,a4 or ,ao4 back into _! respective v5tricles8 ,! circulation ( ! blood4--,! blood ( su* an animal z ! rabbit is conta9$ 9 a sy/em ( clos$ tubes call$ blood-vessels1 ?r\gh :i* ! fluid is cont9ually fl[+4 ,! regul> fl[ ( ! blood 9 "o direction is ma9ta9$ by ! action ( ! he>t1 a f\r-*amb]$ organ :i* is situat$ 9 ! *e/1 betwe5 ! lungs4 ,! he>t is muscul>1 &1 l o!r muscles 7p4 #bbe71 has ! p[] ( 8contract+0 9 def9ite directions4 ,! contraction ( ! walls ( ! *amb]s ( ! he>t less5s _! capacity1 & !re=e drives ! blood out ( !m1 ! direction ( fl[ be+ det]m9$ by valves4 ,! vessels :i* c>ry blood to ! he>t are call$ ve9s2 ^? :i* transmit ! blood :i* is pump$ out ( ! he>t are call$ art]ies4 ,! art]ies bran* into small] & small] tubes :i* supply ! v>i\s organs ( ! body1 & ! small art]ial bran*es divide aga9 & aga9 9 ! organs until _! f9e/ ramifications =m a close-me%$ network ( vessels ) excessively ?9 walls1 ?r\gh :i* diffusion c readily take place betwe5 ! tissues & ! blood4 ,^! f9e/ blood-vessels are call$ capill>ies4 ,!y c be /udi$ 9 ! transp>5t web ( ! frog's foot ) ! aid ( a l[ p[] ( ! microscope4 ,! blood c !n be se5 fl[+1 at a spe$ :i* v>ies ) ! size ( ! vessel1 its c\rse be+ r5d]$ obvi\s by ! t9y oval p>ticles 7r$ corpuscles7 :i* are susp5d$ 9 x4 ,! smalle/ capill>ies are s ?9-wall$ t !y appe> to be m]ely *annels 9 ! sub/ance ( ! web1 & ! corpuscles creep along 9 s+le file4 ,b ^! *annels unite to =m l>g] vessels ) obvi\s walls1 & ^! unite aga9 & aga9 until a ma9 ve9 is =m$ 9 :i* ! blood1 ) its susp5d$ corpuscles1 ru%es along 9 a swift torr5t t[>ds ! he>t4 ,! he>t4--,! beg9n] w f9d ! %eep's he>t m conv5i5t = exam9ation ?an ! rabbit's1 on acc\nt ( its l>g] size2 b ap>t f "s diff]5ce 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! great blood-vessels op5+ into !m1 ! two he>ts are broadly simil>4 ,! he>t 7,fig4 #afd7 consi/s ( f\r *amb]s4 ,two ( ^!1 ! auricles1 are receiv+-*amb]s1 & are plac$ at ! ?ick1 ant]ior end ( ! he>t4 ,into ! "r auricle op5 ! great ve9s 7,,svc1 ,,ivc17 :i* br+ blood f all p>ts ( ! body except ! lungs2 ! left auricle receives only blood f ! lungs4 ,ea* auricle op5s into a m po/]ior *amb] call$ a v5tricle1 ! "r auricle op5+ into ! "r v5tricle & ! left auricle into ! left v5tricle4 ,! v5tricles pump blood into ! art]ies4 ,! blood f ! "r v5tricle is s5t into ! art]y 7,p4,a47 :i* supplies ! capill>ies ( ! lungs2 :ile ! blood ( ! left v5tricle is =c$ into ! aorta 7,ao471 a great art]y :i* bran*es & supplies ) blood all p>ts ( ! body except ! lungs4 ,! two auricles contract simultane\sly1 =c+ _! cont5ts into ! flaccid v5tricles4 ,!n bo? ! fill$ v5tricles contract at once1 & pump blood into ! great art]ies1 flaps ( membrane betwe5 ! auricles & v5tricles prev5t+ a backw>d fl[ into ! auricles4 ,simil>ly ! bases ( ! great art]ies are provid$ ) membran\s pockets :i* readily admit ! blood f ! v5tricles :5 ^! contract1 b entirely prev5t a return ( blood to ! v5tricles4 ,! appe>ance ( ^! f\r sets ( valves1 z se5 f above1 is %[n 9 ,fig4 #afe4 ,aft] ! contraction ( ! two v5tricles !re is a %ort re/1 !n ! auricles contract aga9 & ! :ole process is repeat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afd4--;,he>t ( ,%eep1 9 position betwe5 ! lungs4 ,r4,a41 app5dage ( "r auricle2 ,l4,a41 app5dage ( left auricle2 ,r4,v41 "r v5tricle2 ,l4,v41 left v5tricle2 ,s4,v4,c41 ,i4,v4,c41 great ve9s f ! sy/em g5]ally2 ,p4,a41 art]y to lungs2 ,ao41 aorta2 ,ao41 bran* ( aorta2 ,l41 lung2 ,tr41 w9dpipe1 lead+ to lungs2 #b1 #c1 #d1 fat4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afe4--,! orifices ( ! he>t se5 f above1 ! auricles & great vessels be+ cut away4 ,,pa1 valves at base ( art]y to lungs2 ,ao1 valves at base ( aorta2 ,r4,a4,v41 orifice betwe5 "r auricle & v5tricle1 ) its valves l4v4 #a1 l4v4 #b1 & l4v4 #c2 ,l4,a4,v41 orifice betwe5 left auricle & v5tricle1 ) its valves m4v4 #a & m4v4 #b4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aff4--;,diagrammatic sections ( ve9s ) valves4 ,9 ! upp] figure ! blood is suppos$ to be fl[+ 9 ! direction ( ! arr[1 t[>ds ! he>t2 9 ! l[]1 back t[>ds ! capill>ies4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afg4--;,a ve9 laid op5 to %[ a pair ( p\*-%ap$ valves4 ,! s\nds :i* are he>d :5 ! e> is plac$ ov] ano!r p]son's he>t are (t5 comp>$ to ! syllables lub-dup4 ,! 8lub0 is p>tly caus$ by ! contraction ( ! v5tricles2 ! 8dup10 :i* imm$iately foll[s1 is caus$ by ! sudd5 closure ( ! valves at ! bases ( ! great art]ies4 ,! ?rob ( ! he>t1 :i* c be felt f ! outside1 is really ! ?ru/ ( ! apex ( ! he>t aga9/ ! *e/-wall at ea* beat4 ,! sudd5 =c+ ( blood into ! already-full b ela/ic art]ies causes a wave to travel along ^! vessels1 :i* c readily be felt1 or ev5 se51 at places :]e a fairly l>ge art]y lies j b5ea? ! sk94 ,?is art]ial wave is call$ ! pulse4 ,_m ( ! ve9s are provid$ ) p\*-%ap$ valves :i* p]mit ! blood to fl[ freely t[>ds ! he>t1 b :i* b> ! passage ( blood 9 ! opposite direction4 ,_! action w readily be und]/ood f ,figs4 #aff & #afg4 ,! importance ( ! capill>ies4--,! capill>ies are ! lea/ conspicu\s "p ( ! circulatory sy/em1 b !y are by f> ! mo/ important4 ,! he>t1 art]ies1 & ve9s exi/ m]ely to r5ew con/antly ! blood :i* fl[s ?r\gh ^! m9ute *annels4 ,! excessive ?9ness ( ! walls ( ! capill>ies makes x possible = a ready ex*ange to take place betwe5 ! liv+ tissue & ! blood1 & ! vessels !mselves =m a network ( su* extremely close texture t x is practically impossible to prick any liv+ "p ( ! body ) a f9e ne$le )\t punctur+ "s ( !m & 8draw+ blood40 ,! "w ( ! blood 9 supply+ ! v>i\s organs ( ! body ) food has already be5 ref]r$ to4 ,we h next to see h[ ?is all-important fluid is ( s]vice 9 supply+ ! organs ) oxyg54 #dg4 ,,respiration4 #a4 ,c>bon dioxide is =m$ :5 fle% burns4--,dry a piece ( meat & atta* x to ! end ( a wire4 ,!n light x1 & :5 x is burn+ vigor\sly l[] x into a clean glass j>4 ,:5 ! flame goes out remove ! *>r$ fle%1 & at once p\r a little cle> lime-wat] into ! j> & %ake up4 ,! lime-wat] turns milky1 %[+ ! pres5ce ( c>bon dioxide gas 9 ! j>4 ,exam9e :at is left ( ! meat4 ,x is *>r$1 %[+ t meat conta9s c>bon4 ,h[ 0 ! c>bon dioxide =m$ dur+ ! burn+8 #b4 ,c>bon dioxide is =m$ by ! liv+ body4--,brea! ?r\gh a glass tube into cle> lime-wat]1 s t ! air y expel f y\r lungs bubbles ?r\gh ! liquid4 ,does ! lime-wat] rema9 cle>1 or turn milky8 ,does ! air y brea! out conta9 a consid]able quantity ( c>bon dioxide gas8 ,burn+ & life4--,:5 a piece ( ! fle% ( any animal has be5 dri$ x may easily be set on fire4 ,! burn+ is caus$ by ! union ( ! con/itu5ts ( ! fle% ) "s ( ! oxyg5 ( ! air to =m v>i\s gases4 ,"o ( ^! gases is c>bon dioxide1 =m$ by ! comb9ation ( ! c>bon ( ! fle% ) oxyg54 ,c>bon is pres5t 9 all ! p>ts ( animals & plants1 z is evid5t f ! sep>ation ( *>coal 7an impure =m ( c>bon7 9 ! fir/ /ages ( burn+2 ! c>bon dioxide gas :i* is =m$ may easily be recognis$ by ! milk9ess :i* x produces 9 cle> lime-wat]4 ,! lib]ation ( heat1 & ! =mation ( c>bon dioxide1 :i* always accompany ! burn+ ( animal & plant tissues1 are wor?y ( v c>eful att5tion4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afh4--;,exp]im5t to prove t expir$ air conta9s c>bon dioxide4 ,x is well kn[n t ! body ( a liv+ animal su* z a rabbit or a man is always w>m2 & ! exp]im5t 7,fig4 #afh7 ( pass+ ?r\gh cle> lime-wat] ! air brea!d out f ! lungs %[s1 by ! milk9ess produc$1 t ! animal is also con/antly produc+ c>bon dioxide dur+ its life4 ,is life1 !n1 always accompani$ by a peculi> =m ( burn+1 9 :i* ! liv+ sub/ance ( ! body is ! combu/ible mat]ial8 ,x seems s1 & ! exp]im5ts ( physiologi/s t5d to confirm ?is view4 ,! necessity = brea?+4--,! en]gy :i* enables a muscle to contract is d]iv$ f ! oxidation--! sl[ burn+--( "p ( its sub/ance1 j z ! en]gy :i* enables a /eam-eng9e to move is d]iv$ f ! burn+ ( fuel 9 ! boil] fires4 ,! fires soon g out1 & ! eng9e /ops1 unless fre% fuel is add$ f "t to "t & a pl5tiful supply ( air is available4 ,simil>ly1 a muscle loses its p[] ( contract+1 a gl& t ( secret+1 ! bra9 t ( ?9k+1 unless ! wa/e matt]s result+ f previ\s activities are cle>$ away & replac$ by fre% food & fre% oxyg54 ,:]ev] vital action is tak+ place1 :e!r 9 a contract+ muscle1 a secret+ gl&1 or a ?9k+ bra91 !re is cont9ual consumption ( oxyg5 & cont9ual production ( wa/e mat]ial1 *iefly c>bon dioxide4 ,9 ! high] animals ! r5ewal ( oxyg5 & ! removal ( wa/e mat]ial are p]=m$ by ! blood4 ,blood-vessels are to ! body :at riv]s & canals are to a c\ntry3 !y act z highways = ! transport ( mat]ial4 ,we may p]haps c>ry ! analogy a little f>!r & f9d 9 ! r$ corpuscles ( ! blood ! r\gh equival5ts ( boats or canal-b>ges1 = !y c>ry ) !m t9y loads ( oxyg54 ,z ! blood creeps along ! n>r[ *annels 9 an active tissue ! r$ corpuscles rel9qui% _! oxyg51 & ! fluid portion ( ! blood takes up c>bon dioxide4 ,! blood cont9ues its c\rse1 & soon] or lat] arrives at a place :]e x c obta9 a fre% supply ( oxyg5 & get rid ( its surplus c>bon dioxide4 ,9 ! rabbit ?is ex*ange takes place z ! blood is pass+ ?r\gh ! capill>ies ( ! lungs4 ,!re ! blood is sep>at$ f ! air by a membrane s delicate t gases c readily pass ?r\gh x2 &1 h5ce1 on leav+ ! lungs ! blood has got rid ( ! wa/e c>bon dioxide1 & its r$ corpuscles are lad5 ) fre% oxyg54 ,?is ex*ange ( useless c>bon dioxide = oxyg5 con/itutes respiration or brea?+4 ,! me*anism ( respiration4--,9 active animals ! air inside ! lungs soon becomes vitiat$1 unless !re is "s means ( *ang+ x4 ,"u ord9>y conditions a man *anges ! air 9 8 lungs f ?irte5 to fifte5 times a m9ute4 ,he does ?is q automatically1 & )\t ?9k+ ab\t x4 ,e f\r seconds or s a set ( muscles contracts & pulls 8 ribs upw>ds & outw>ds2 ano!r muscul> contraction pulls d[n ! floor ( 8 *e/ at ! same "t4 ,z a consequ5ce ! cavity is mu* enl>g$4 ,! lungs foll[ ! movem5ts ( ! walls ( ! *e/1 & "s ?irty cubic in*es ( air are suck$ 94 ,imm$iately ! ribs fall back to _! =m] position1 ! *e/-floor rises1 & air is driv5 out4 ,!n aft] a %ort pause ! process is repeat$4 ,x %\ld be notic$ t only ab\t ?irty cubic in*es ( air are *ang$ at ea* respiration1 al?\gh ! capacity ( ! human lungs av]ages ab\t #bcj cubic in*es4 ,all mammals brea! 9 mu* ! same way4 ,plants & animals4--,!re are consid]ably m po9ts ( simil>ity ?an ( diff]5ce betwe5 plants & animals4 ,9 e case ! vital activities are accompani$ by an oxidation ( liv+ sub/ance1 & f ?is fact arises ! necessity = food & oxyg54 ,! brea?+ ( plants is ess5tially l t ( animals1 & consi/s 9 tak+ 9 oxyg5 & giv+ out c>bon dioxide2 ?\gh ! me*anism ( respiration is--except 9 ! l[e/ plants & animals--entirely diff]5t 9 ! two cases4 ,x is 9 ! s\rces f :i* !y obta9 _! food t plants & animals are mo/ unlike4 ,an animal mu/ be suppli$ ) food :i* has already be5 prep>$ by "s o!r liv+ ?+2 & x is obvi\s t ! food ev5 ( c>nivor\s animals c ultimately be trac$ back to plants1 = ! fle%-eat] preys ^u ! veget>ian4 ,animals are !re=e entirely dep5d5t ^u plants = food4 ,9 ?is s5se ! say+ 8all fle% is grass0 is full ( significance4 ,gre5 plants 7,*apt] ,,ii47 are q indep5d5t ( all o!r =ms ( life1 & c build up _! sub/ance f wat]1 m9]al matt]1 & ! c>bon dioxide ( ! air4 ,! tak+ 9 ( c>bon dioxide & giv+ out ( oxyg5 by gre5 plants has no?+ :atev] to d ) respiration2 x is "p ( _! process ( fe$+4 ,gre5 plants brea! 9 ! usual mann]--by tak+ 9 oxyg5 & giv+ out c>bon dioxide4 ,x %\ld1 h[ev]1 be notic$ t ! peculi> me?od by :i* a gre5 plant obta9s its c>bonace\s food is ( ! highe/ importance to animal life2 = by ?is process ! am\nt ( injuri\s c>bon dioxide 9 ! air is consid]ably less5$1 :ile ! proportion ( life-support+ oxyg5 9 x is greatly increas$4 ,fungi 7,*apt] ,,xi47 seem to be int]m$iate1 z reg>ds _! me?od ( fe$+1 betwe5 gre5 plants & animals4 ,!y require _! c>bonace\s food 9 an organic =m1 t is1 already prep>$ by o!r liv+ ?+s2 b !y c obta9 ! o!r elem5ts ( _! food f m9]al salts & wat]4 ,! ?\ghtful /ud5t w be increas+ly impress$ by ! ext5t to :i* ! plant & animal k+doms are dep5d5t ^u ea* o!r1 & by ! mann] 9 :i* ea* utilises ! wa/e products ( ! o!r = c>ry+ on its own life processes4 ,,ex]cises ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 #a4 ,( :at p>ts does ! skull ( a rabbit consi/8 ,:at is ! use ( ea* "p8 #b4 ,describe "o ( ! long bones ( a rabbit's leg4 ,to :at features does x owe its /r5g?8 #c4 ,! bones ( ! skeleton are useful 7#a7 z af=d+ po9ts ( atta*m5t = ! muscles2 7#b7 z af=d+ protection = delicate tissues & organs4 ,give examples ( ea* ( ^! uses4 ,d n give ! te*nical names = ! v>i\s muscles4 7,k+'s ,s*ol41 #aijb7 #d4 ,draw & describe "o ( ! middle jo9ts ( ! backbone ( a quadrup$1 & expla9 ! uses ( ! v>i\s p>ts4 7#ahih7 #e4 ,:at is meant by 8dige/ion08 ,:y mu/ food be dige/$8 ,:]e does dige/ion take place8 #f4 ,give full practical in/ructions = demon/rat+ ! *ief prop]ties ( saliva1 & its action ^u v>i\s k9ds ( food4 7#ahig7 #g4 ,prove t ! action ( human saliva ^u />* is n due to liv+ p>ticles conta9$ 9 x4 7#ahih7 #h4 ,:at are ! *ief uses ( ! blood8 ,:y is x necess>y t x %\ld be kept 9 motion8 7#aija7 #i4 ,:]e w\ld y look = ! ,aorta 9 a %eep's he>t8 ,:at valves are f\nd 9 x8 ,h[ does x diff] 9 appe>ance & feel f a l>ge ve98 7#aija7 #aj4 ,:at k9ds ( valves are f\nd 9 a %eep's he>t1 & :]e are !y plac$8 ,describe a valve ( ea* k9d4 7#ahih7 #aa4 ,h[ does air brea!d out f ! lungs diff] f common air8 ,h[ c ! diff]5ces be demon/rat$8 7#ahih7 #ab4 ,describe ! process by :i* a mammal r5ews ! air 9 its lungs4 #ac4 ,:at is meant by 8respiration08 ,:y is respiration necess>y8 #ad4 ,po9t out ! mo/ rem>kable diff]5ces betwe5 ! nutrition ( a gre5 plant & t ( an animal4 7#ahig7 #ae4 ,"n organisms :i* c d]ive n\ri%m5t f c>bon dioxide1 f sug>1 & f ! dead bodies ( animals4 7#ahih7 #af4 ,:at are ! simple/ functions :i* di/+ui% liv+ animal matt] f inanimate matt]8 7,k+'s ,s*ol4 #aijc7 #ag4 ,expla9 z fully z y c h[ food tak5 into ! /oma* acts ^u organs1 su* z ! bra91 :i* are n closely connect$ ) ! /oma*4 7#aijd7 #ah4 ,! uses ( bone are1 g5]ally speak+1 to protect delicate /ructures1 to support weight & to ga9 lev]age4 ,illu/rate ?is /atem5t by a simple description ( "o example ( ea* type4 7,c]tificate1 #aijd7 #ai4 ,! fl[ ( liquids ?r\gh ! body is regulat$ 9 c]ta9 localities by valves4 ,expla9 ! action ( a valve1 & indicate :]e !y are to be f\nd 9 ! body4 7,c]tificate1 #aijd7 #bj4 ,9 :i* k9d ( blood-vessel c ! pulse be felt8 ,9 :i* k9ds c x n be felt8 ,expla9 ! reason ( ! diff]5ce4 7,c]tificate1 #aije7 #ba4 ,h[ is oxyg5 convey$ f ! lungs to ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! body8 ,describe :at c\ld be obs]v$ if a drop ( blood 7 spread out on a piece ( glass & exam9$ "u a microscope4 7,k+'s ,s*ol4 #aije7 ,,footnotes3 #i ,see footnote1 p4 #bca4 #aj ,prep>$ by add+ to a solution ( copp] sulphate fir/ t>t>ic acid1 & !n cau/ic soda until ! blue mixture is cle>4 ,x may be obta9$ f a *emi/ if ! mat]ials are n available4 #aa ,,note ,,to ,,tea*]s4--,a g5]al dissection ( a frog %\ld be made & exhibit$ to ! class4 ,detail$ in/ructions = su* a dissection w be f\nd 9 ,m>%all's ,! ,frog 7,smi?1 ,eld] ,co47 or 9 ,huxley & ,m>t9's ,elem5t>y ,practical ,biology 7,macmillan74 ,! frog's he>t cont9ues to beat = "s "t aft] ! dea? ( ! animal1 & may be %[n z an illu/ration ( ! next section ( ?is *apt]4 ,tea*]s :o are unskill$ 9 dissection may obta9 prep>$ dissections1 m\nt$ skeletons1 etc41 f ,newmann ,co41 #hd ,newman ,/reet1 ,london1 ,w4 #ab ,m detail$ in/ructions w be f\nd 9 ,fo/] & ,%ore's ,physiology = ,beg9n]s 7,macmillan74 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,"s ,,o!r ,,mammals4 #dh4 ,,! ,,cat ,,& ,,dog4 #a4 ,! ext]nal *>act]s ( ! cat4--,c>efully & g5tly exam9e a cat1 & make notes ( ! foll[+ *>act]s3 7a7 ,hair4--,:at is ! cov]+ ( ! body l8 ,is ! hair l t ( a rabbit1 i4e4 fur 7p4 #baf78 ,are ! :isk]s v noticeable8 ,on :at p>ts ( ! head d !y gr[8 ,are ! fur & l>ge :isk]s 9 any way connect$ ) ! animal's habits8 7b7 ,eyes4--,look at a cat's eyes 9 a bright light4 ,is ! pupil 7p4 #bab7 r\nd or slit-l8 ,keep ! cat 9 ! d>k = a few m9utes & !n look aga9 at ! pupil ( ! eye2 has x *ang$ 9 =m8 ,is ! *ange ( any advantage to ! cat8 7c7 ,tee?4--,g5tly op5 ! cat's m\? & exam9e ! tee?4 ,notice ! %>p1 po9t$ tee? beh9d ! incisors 7p4 #bai72 !y are call$ ! can9e tee?4 ,has a rabbit any can9e tee?8 ,:y does a cat1 & n a rabbit1 ne$ su* tee?8 ,feel ! rema9+ tee? ) y\r f+]2 are !y flat l ^? ( a rabbit1 or %>p-edg$8 ,h[ are ! *>act]s ( ! tee? associat$ ) ! k9d ( food8 ,wat* a cat eat+2 does x *ew its food or swall[ x 89 lumps08 7d7 ,tongue4--,pass y\r f+]-end ov] ! cat's tongue2 is x r\gh or smoo?8 ,9 :i* direction ( motion ( ! f+] does ! tongue feel r\ghe/8 ,w\ld ! r\ghness be ( any help to ! animal 9 lick+ meat f bones8 7e7 ,! limbs4--,measure ! legs4 ,are ! =e & h9d limbs ( equal l5g?1 slightly unequal1 or v unequal8 ,h[ d !y comp>e 9 ?is respect ) ! limbs ( ! rabbit8 ,make out ! ma9 bones by feel+ ?r\gh ! sk91 & especially notice :]e ! ankle-jo9t is4 ,exam9e ! toes & notice h[1 :5 y g5tly squeeze !m j beh9d ! ends1 ! %>p claws protrude1 & g back into a k9d ( %ea? :5 ! pressure is remov$4 ,c ! animal put out its claws & draw !m back at w8 #b4 ,! habits ( ! cat4--7a7 ,food4--,:at k9d ( food does ! cat pref]1 animal or vegetable8 ,does x bolt its food gre$ily1 or does x eat delib]ately & da9tily8 ,h y ev] kn[n cats to hunt o!r animals8 ,d !y hunt s+ly1 or d sev]al cats jo9 toge!r to hunt8 ,h[ d !y approa* ! prey2 d !y try to run x d[n by spe$1 or d !y creep up slyly & !n spr+8 ,:at is ! use ( ! claws8 ,h[ does a cat dr9k8 7b7 ,locomotion4--,wat* a cat mov+ sl[ly2 does x walk or hop8 ,try to f9d out ! ord] 9 :i* x puts its feet d[n4 ,h[ does x run8 ,is x nimble or clumsy8 ,does ! cat walk ) ! :ole sole ( its foot on ! gr\nd1 or does x walk 8on its toes08 7c7 ,likes & dislikes4--,d y consid] a cat sociable1 i4e4 fond1 9 g5]al1 ( ! society ( o!r cats8 ,d cats1 z a rule1 %[ mu* appreciation ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 "r & wrong8 ,are !y z affectionate z dogs8 ,h y ev] he>d ( any cat try+ to rema9 9 a h\se aft] ! family _h remov$ to ano!r h\se8 ,are cats fond] ( w>m or ( cool places 9 a h\se8 ,d !y l gett+ wet8 ,d !y pay mu* att5tion to p]sonal cleanl9ess8 ,h[ d !y wa% !mselves8 ,d y ?9k ! tongue is us$ z a comb8 ,h[8 ,c y "k :e!r a cat is pleas$ or angry 7i7 by ! appe>ance & movem5ts ( ! tail1 7ii7 by ! s\nds :i* x makes8 7d7 ,intellig5ce4--,write acc\nts ( cases ( great intellig5ce :i* y h kn[n cats to %[4 7e7 ,voice4--,h[ d y describe a cat's voice8 ,h[ does ! voice v>y accord+ to ! animal's mood8 7f7 ,play4--,h[ does a cat play8 #c4 ,kitt5s4--7a7 ,appe>ance4--,are kitt5s helpless or active :5 !y are born8 ,is !re any v m>k$ diff]5ce betwe5 ! proportions ( ! body & limbs & ^? ( a full-gr[n cat8 ,at :at age is a cat full-gr[n8 7b7 ,play4--,h[ does a kitt5 play8 ,h[ does x pret5d to 8/alk0 a small object1 su* z a ball ( wool8 ,9 ! same way t a full-gr[n cat /alks a m\se8 ,:y does ! kitt5 adopt ?is me?od be=e x has any exp]i5ce ( hunt+8 7c7 ,education4--,wat* a cat ) its kitt5s1 & describe any actions :i* seem l education4 ,h y ev] se5 a cat tea* its kitt5s to fight8 ,h y ev] se5 x puni% a kitt5 = disobey+ a call8 #d4 ,! ext]nal *>act]s ( ! dog4--,exam9e a dog 9 ! same way1 & comp>e x po9t by po9t ) ! cat z reg>ds ! foll[+ *>act]s3 7a7 ,hair4--,notice t ! dog is cov]$1 n ) fur1 b ) r\gh hair1 & t ! :isk]s are n v l>ge4 ,h[ are ^! diff]5ces associat$ ) diff]5ces 9 habit8 7b7 ,eyes4--,notice t ! pupil is always r\nd1 al?\gh x is small] 9 a /rong light ?an 9 a weak "o4 7c7 ,tee?4--,comp>e ! tee? ) ^? ( ! cat1 & notice t !y are ( simil> =m--) /rong int]lock+ can9es & a %>p-edg$ too? on ea* side ( ! upp] jaw :i* clips aga9/ a simil> too? 9 ! l[] jaw--b t ! cat's tee? are m po9t$4 7d7 ,tongue4--,notice t ! dog's tongue is mu* smoo!r ?an ! cat's4 7e7 ,limbs4--,exam9e & measure ! limbs1 comp>+ !m ) ^? ( ! cat1 rabbit1 & man4 ,notice t ! claws are blunt] ?an ! cat's1 & t !y _c be )drawn into %ea?s4 ,h[ _m toes are !re on ! feet8 #e4 ,! habits ( ! dog4--7a7 ,food4--,does ! dog pref] animal or vegetable food8 ,wat* a dog gnaw+ a bone1 & obs]ve ! use ( ! clipp+ tee?4 ,does a dog eat gre$ily or delib]ately8 ,does x *ew its food or swall[ x 9 lumps8 ,d dogs hunt s+ly or 9 packs8 ,d !y /alk ! prey /eal?ily1 z cats d1 or d !y try to run x d[n by spe$8 ,:5ev] possible wat* a pack ( h\nds2 ^u :at s5se--he>+1 sight1 or smell--d ! h\nds rely mo/8 ,h[ does a dog dr9k8 7b7 ,locomotion4--,does a sl[ly-mov+ dog hop or walk8 ,try to f9d out ! ord] 9 :i* x puts its feet d[n4 ,h[ does x run8 ,does a dog walk flat-foot$ or on its toes8 7c7 ,likes & dislikes4--,d y consid] dogs sociable or o!rwise8 ,d !y seem to "k ! diff]5ce betwe5 "r & wrong8 ,are dogs affectionate8 ,are !y m atta*$ to ! p or to ! h\ses to :i* !y are accu/om$8 ,:at c y le>n ( a dog's feel+s1 by ! movem5ts ( its tail8 ,write acc\nts ( in/ances1 :i* y "k to be true1 illu/rat+ its likes & dislikes4 ,:at expression ( ! human face seems to y mo/ l ! sn>l ( an angry dog8 ,:at are ! resemblances8 7d7 ,intellig5ce4--,write acc\nts ( evid5ce ( intellig5ce1 or reason+ p[]1 :i* y h obs]v$ 9 dogs4 7e7 ,voice4--,:at is ! ord9>y voice ( ! dog8 ,:at o!r s\nds d dogs make1 & :at d !y mean8 7f7 ,play4--,h[ d dogs play8 ,d y ?9k dogs h any s5se ( hum\r1 or are able to appreciate a joke = ! joke's sake8 ,h y ev] se5 any expression resembl+ a smile on a dog's face8 #f4 ,puppies4--7a7 ,appe>ance4--,are puppies bl9d & helpless :5 !y are born1 or are !y active8 ,h[ soon c !y see8 ,are ! proportions ( ! body & limbs m>k$ly diff]5t f ^? ( ! full-gr[n dog8 ,at :at age is a dog full-gr[n8 7b7 ,play4--,does a puppy play 9 ! same mann] z a kitt58 ,:at diff]5ces h y notic$8 ,h ^! diff]5ces any connection ) ! me?ods ( cat*+ ! prey ( ! adult animals8 7c7 ,education4--,h y ev] se5 a puppy be+ taught to d any?+ by its "m8 ,write full acc\nts ( su* cases4 #g4 ,diff]5t bre$s ( dogs4--,make notes ( y\r obs]vations ( z _m diff]5t bre$s ( dogs z possible1 e4g4 collies1 t]ri]s1 retriev]1 fox-h\nd1 po9t]1 spaniel1 etc41 & describe ! resemblances & diff]5ces 9 size1 =m1 habits1 intellig5ce1 etc4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #afi4--,! ,cat4 ,! ext]nal *>act]s ( ! cat & dog4--,! cat & ! dog are s commonly kept z pets t !y are p]haps m easily exam9$ ?an any o!r animals4 ,9 addition1 !y are s closely relat$ & yet exhibit s _m diff]5ces t !y af=d a valuable ex]cise 9 ! me?ods ( comp>ison & contra/ :i* are at ! f\ndation ( all successful "w 9 ,nature-,/udy4 ,sev]al diff]5ces are at once app>5t on ev5 a casual inspection4 ,! body ( ! cat 7,fig4 #afi7 is cov]$ ) s(t1 smoo? fur1 & its head is provid$ ) long1 s5sitive :isk]s4 ,9 bo? ( ^! respects x resembles ! rabbit & o!r mammals :i* are 9 ! habit ( creep+ along n>r[ & d>k passages4 ,x is commonly said t cats c see 9 ! d>k4 ,al?\gh ?is is n altoge!r true--= no animal c see 9 total d>kness--! cat's eyes h ! p[] ( adapt+ !mselves rem>kably to ! int5sity ( ! light4 ,9 a dim light1 ! curta91 or iris1 :i* surr\nds ! pupil 7! d>k1 c5tral w9d[ ?r\gh :i* light ent]s ! eye7 is drawn back s z to admit z mu* light z possible2 :]eas 9 a v bright light ! curta9 is s ne>ly clos$ t ! pupil is m]ely a n>r[1 v]tical slit4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! dog 7,fig4 #agj71 :i* is n fond ( d>k passages1 has its body clo!d ) r\gh hair1 in/ead ( fur2 & its :isk]s are n ne>ly s long z ^? ( ! cat4 ,aga91 al?\gh ! iris ( a dog's eye alt]s 9 size to regulate ! am\nt ( light ent]+ ! eye1 ! pupil is always r\nd1 & ! *ange ( size is mu* less m>k$ ?an 9 ! cat4 ,ano!r v noticeable diff]5ce is 9 ! claws at ! ends ( ! toes1 correspond+ to ! nails at ! ends ( our own f+]s & toes4 ,9 ! cat ^! are sickle-%ap$ & extremely %>p1 & are kept drawn completely back into %ea?s :5 !y are n requir$4 ,! dog's claws are blunt1 & _c be retract$4 ,bo? ! dog & ! cat re/ ! weight ( ! body ^u ! toes--n ^u ! sole ( ! foot--:5 walk+ or runn+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agj4--;,foxh\nd4 ,!re is also a v m>k$ diff]5ce 9 ! tongues ( ! two animals4 ,! tongue ( ! cat is r\gh1 ) small po9ts direct$ backw>ds4 ,^! po9ts are ( great help 9 lick+ ! fle% f bones2 & !y also s]ve z a comb :5 ! cat--:i* is fa/idi\s ab\t ! cleanl9ess ( its fur--8wa%es0 itself4 ,! tongue ( ! dog is smoo? & moi/4 ,! inh]it$ habits ( ! cat & dog4--,v obvi\s diff]5ces are also to be se5 9 ! habits ( ! two animals1 & ^! w\ld be some:at difficult to expla9 if we conf9$ our att5tion to ! dome/icat$ animals only1 :i* live "u artificial conditions4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we consid] ! wild relatives ( ! cat & dog1 _m ( ! diff]5ces become full ( significance4 ,! wild animals ( ! cat family1 almo/ )\t exception1 are ei!r solit>y or live 9 pairs2 :]eas ! wild dogs 7wolves1 jackals1 etc47 live 9 packs4 ,! habits :i* ^! respective me?ods ( life entail$ h become s firmly implant$ 9 ! nature ( ! race t ev5 n[1 aft] ?\s&s ( g5]ations ( dome/ication1 !y may be trac$4 ,su* inh]it$ habits1 :i* are n dep5d5t ^u1 or may be at v>iance )1 pres5t conditions ( life1 are call$ in/9cts4 ,we w fir/ see h[ ! ance/ral cu/om ( liv+ 9 organis$ packs has left its impress ^u ! in/9cts ( ! dome/icat$ dog4 ,! fir/ ess5tial to ! success ( any community ( animals--:e!r ^! are bees or rooks1 wolves or m5--is t all ! creatures compos+ x %all con=m to c]ta9 rules1 :i* h = _! object ! good ( ! community & n m]ely t ( ! individual4 ,acts :i* promote ! wellbe+ ( ! society z a :ole are good1 & are directly or indirectly rew>d$4 ,acts :i* t5d to injure ! society z su* are bad1 & inevitably br+ puni%m5t ei!r to ! individual (f5d] or1 :at is worse1 to 8 pack4 ,a di/9ction betwe5 "r & wrong is ?us e/abli%$ :i* w\ld be impossible to any animal liv+ s solit>y a life t its acts affect$ only itself4 ,9 ?is mann] 7 ar\s$ ! social in/9ct1 ! love ( praise & ! dread ( %ame1 ! lifelong atta*m5t to e>ly fri5ds1 & almo/ all ! o!r qualities :i* h s ende>$ ! dog to mank9d2 because ^! qualities result$ naturally f ! ance/ral pack-life4 ,left to itself1 ! dog loses its n]ve1 = x is by nature unfitt$ = a solit>y life4 ,:at m woe-begone animal is ev] se5 ?an a lo/ dog8 ,contra/ ! cat 9 ^! respects4 ,x is at he>t an outlaw1 l its wild ance/ors3 recognis+1 9 g5]al1 no motives b ^? ( its own ease & gratification4 ,its social in/9ct is almo/ abs5t2 & ?\gh x sometimes displays affection to p :o pet x1 ! cat is1 z a rule1 m atta*$ to places ?an to p]sons4 ,x reta9s1 too1 ! indep5d5ce & v]satility :i* are develop$ by a solit>y life4 ,a lo/ cat c usually take c>e ( itself & f9d suffici5t food2 & cases are n uncommon ( cats leav+ com=table homes & *oos+ to live wild lives 9 ! woods4 ,ance/ral me?ods ( hunt+ also acc\nt l>gely = c]ta9 diff]5ces 9 ! dome/ic cat & dog4 ,! solit>y ance/ral cats1 l ! lions & tig]s ( to-day1 sprang sudd5ly ^u ! prey at ! end ( sil5t1 /eal?y /alk+4 ,h[ firmly ?is me?od has become fix$ 9 ! "* ( ! race may be se5 /ill 9 ! mann] 9 :i* a cat /alks a m\se or a small bird1 or ev51 9 play1 a dead leaf4 ,at ! f9al spr+ ! %>p1 sickle-%ap$ claws are us$ to hold d[n ! victim4 ,! solit>y hunt] is able to dev\r its capture at leisure1 & ! dome/ic cat is /ill di/+ui%$ by its da9ty & delib]ate mann] ( fe$+4 ,! wild dogs hunt 9 a q diff]5t mann]4 ,! :ole pack jo9s 9 ! *ase1 ! trail be+ foll[$ by ! s5se ( smell4 ,!re is no attempt at concealm5t1 no /eal?y /alk+2 b an op5 reliance ^u spe$1 endurance1 & numb]s1 r ?an ^u cunn+4 ,if "o dog loses ! sc5t ano!r picks x up & gives ! signal4 ,mutual help is ?us ! secret ( success 9 hunt+4 ,b ?is is at an end :5 ! prey is kill$4 ,! victim is torn to pieces & dev\r$ gre$ily1 ea* animal eat+ z rapidly z possible1 = 9 mo/ cases !re is n en\gh to satisfy !m all4 ,& ! well-f$ dome/ic dog /ill betrays ! ance/ral necessity = hurri$ eat+ 9 ! mann] ( bolt+ 8 food4 ,me?ods ( express+ feel+4--,animals express _! feel+s 9 v>i\s ways--by ! voice1 by ! face1 by ! tail1 & by ! g5]al attitude ( ! body4 ,p]haps no animal's feel+s are m readily recognis$ by man ?an ! dog's4 8,x is a rem>kable fact10 says ,d>w91#ac 8t ! dog1 s9ce be+ dome/icat$1 has le>nt to b>k 9 at lea/ f\r or five di/9ct tones4 ,al?\gh b>k+ is a new art1 no d\bt ! wild p>5t-species ( ! dog express$ _! feel+s by cries ( v>i\s k9ds4 ,) ! dome/icat$ dog we h ! b>k ( eag]ness1 z 9 ! *ase2 t ( ang]1 z well z gr[l+2 ! yelp or h[l ( despair1 z :5 %ut up2 ! bay+ at night2 ! b>k ( joy1 z :5 />t+ on a walk ) 8 ma/]2 & ! v di/9ct "o ( dem& or supplication1 z :5 wi%+ = a door or w9d[ to be op5$40 ,! movem5ts ( ! tail are also full ( mean+1 & capable ( express+ sev]al diff]5t moods4 ,x seems likely t 9 a dog ! movem5ts ( ! tail 7 orig9ally ( use *iefly to signal to ! re/ ( ! pack4 ,! use ( ! movem5ts ( a cat's tail is n v cle>1 al?\gh ^! also diff] accord+ to ! animal's feel+s4 ,c>nivores4--,dogs & cats1 ) sev]al o!r mammals1 :i* are mo/ly fle%-eat]s1 are call$ ,c>nivores4 ,!y h nev] few] ?an f\r di/9ct toes on ea* foot1 & ! claws 7nails7 are (t5 capable ( be+ )drawn into %ea?s4 ,! tee? 7,fig4 #aga7 are *>act]is$ by ! l>ge1 int]lock+ can9es1 :i* are conical1 curv$1 & po9t$2 & by "o ( ! *eek tee? on ea* side hav+ a %>p1 cutt+ edge :i* bites aga9/ ! simil> too? ( ! o!r jaw1 almo/ 9 ! mann] ( ! blades ( scissors4 ,! seals & walruses1 h[ev]1 :i* are c>nivores adapt$ to liv+ 9 wat]1 h no su* clipp+ tee?4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aga4--,skull ( ,wolf1 se5 f left side4 #di4 ,,! ,,bat4 #a4 ,habits4--,at :at "t ( ! ye> h y se5 bats fly+ ab\t8 ,d !y fly 9 broad daylight1 or only 9 ! ev5+8 ,h[ c y di/+ui% a bat's flight f t ( a bird8 ,h y ev] he>d a bat squeak8 ,^u :at does x fe$8 ,are fly+ insects pl5tiful 9 w9t]8 ,h y ev] se5 a bat dr9k8 ,h[ does x dr9k8 ,:at does ! bat d 9 w9t]8 ,try to f9d a sleep+ bat 9 w9t] 9 a b>n1 a holl[ tree1 or a belfry4 ,:at is its position8 #b4 ,appe>ance4--,exam9e a sleep+ bat or a /uff$ specim54 ,:at is its body cov]$ )1 hair or fea!rs8 ,is x a bird or a mammal8 ,is ! hair s(t & furry8 ,h[ l>ge are ! e>s8 ,are ! :isk]s l>ge or small8 ,:at are ! w+s l8 ,c y see any f+]s8 ,h[ _m f+]s are !re8 ,d any ( ! f+]s be> claws8 ,d ! f+]s support ! w+s8 ,:i* are long]1 ! =e limbs or ! h9d limbs8 ,d ! toes ( ! h9d limbs be> claws8 ,:at is _! use8 ,if possible1 put a live bat on ! gr\nd2 does x walk easily8 ,ap>t f ! w+s1 :at animal does ! bat seem mo/ to resemble8 ,d y "k ( any o!r fly+ mammal8 ,! ,bat 7,figs4 #agb & #ahd;a74--,on summ] ev5+s 9 mo/ c\ntry di/ricts ( ,brita9 bats may be se5 flitt+ ab\t cat*+ insects4 ,! flight is peculi>1 & some:at sugge/ive ( t ( a butt]fly1 s t ev5 9 ! dusk ! animal may be di/+ui%$ easily f a small bird4 8,bats dr9k on ! w+ l swall[s1 by sipp+ ! surface z !y play ov] pools & /reams4 ,!y love to frequ5t wat]s1 n only = ! sake ( dr9k+1 b on acc\nt ( insects1 :i* are f\nd ov] !m 9 ! greate/ pl5ty40#ad ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agb4--,! ,bat4 7 47 ,! voice ( ! bat is a %rill squeak1 ( s high a pit* t _m p _c he> x at all4 ,! animal is probably q bl9d1 b x has ke5 p[]s ( sc5t & he>+1 & 9 avoid+ ob/acles seems to be greatly aid$ by pat*es ( specially s5sitive sk9 on ! face1 & by delicate :isk]s4 ,dur+ ! day x lurks 9 d>k corn]s ( b>ns1 *ur*-t[]s1 holl[ trees1 etc41 hang+ head d[nw>d by ! hook$ claws ( its h9d feet4 ,on close exam9ation ! body ( ! bat is se5 to be cov]$ ) s(t fur1 a "* :i* at once proclaims ! animal to be n a bird--z x has be5 incorrectly consid]$--b a mammal4 ,! fur is (t5 ( a bright *e/nut col\r4 ,! e>s are l>ge & practically devoid ( hair1 & are s ?9 z to be almo/ transp>5t4 ,! w+s are ?9 folds ( sk91 :i* are atta*$ 9 front to ! long arms1 are support$ by ! greatly elongat$ f+]s1 & rea* to ! h9d limbs4 ,ano!r membrane passes betwe5 ! h9d limbs1 & 9 common species is also support$ by ! tail4 ,! ?umb is free1 & be>s a claw :i* is ( "s assi/ance 9 climb+4 ,! h9d limbs are small4 ,! /ructure ( ! bat is obvi\sly b little adapt$ to walk+1 & ! animal moves ab\t v awkw>dly :5 on ! gr\nd1 al?\gh x c rise on ! w+ aga9 )\t mu* difficulty4 ,! bat is r>ely to be se5 abroad aft] ! middle ( ,novemb]1 = z ! cold wea!r approa*es & insects become sc>ce1 x susp5ds itself by its h9d claws 9 "s d>k & %elt]$ corn]1 & goes to sleep = ! w9t]1 reappe>+ 9 e>ly spr+4 #ej4 ,,ho($ ,,mammals4 #a4 ,! ext]nal *>act]s ( ! %eep4--7a7 ,wool4--,h[ does ! cov]+ ( a %eep's body diff] f ! fur ( a cat or rabbit1 & f ! hair ( ! dog8 ,exam9e a lock ( 8raw0 wool2 is x at all greasy8 ,dip x 9 wat]2 is x mu* wett$8 ,are ! fibres easily entangl$ toge!r8 ,:y is wooll5 clo?+ s w>m8 7b7 ,tee?4--,obta9 a %eep's head f ! but*]1 & exam9e ! tee?4 ,notice ! abs5ce ( incisors & can9es 9 ! upp] jaw1 & ( can9es 9 ! l[] jaw4 ,obs]ve ! ?ick5$ pad on ! surface ( ! upp] jaw1 aga9/ :i* ! l[] incisors bite4 ,are ! *eek tee? flat1 or %>p-edg$ l ! *eek tee? ( c>nivores8 ,wat* a %eep fe$+1 & notice h[ x bites ! grass4 ,h[ is ! l[] jaw mov$ dur+ ! *ew+ ( ! cud8 7c7 ,horns4--,:i* %eep h ! l>ge/ horns1 ! males 7rams7 or ! females 7ewes78 ,if y c f9d a ca/ horn notice :e!r x is holl[ or solid4 ,:at is ! use ( horns8 7d7 ,limbs4--,is !re any m>k$ diff]5ce 9 ! l5g?s ( =e & h9d limbs8 ,notice ! ho(s :i* cov] ^? p>ts ( ! feet t\*+ ! gr\nd4 ,h[ _m ho(s are !re on ea* foot8 #b4 ,! habits ( ! %eep4--,are %eep solit>y or d !y live 9 flocks8 ,:at k9d ( gr\nd d !y seem to pref]1 flat or hilly8 ,are %eep on a hillside easily se5 f a di/ance8 ,:y n8 ,are %eep nimble or clumsy8 ,c !y run v fa/8 ,w\ld a flock ( %eep be saf] f1 say1 wolves on a rocky hillside or on an op5 pla98 ,9 a graz+ flock ( %eep notice :e!r mo/ ( ! animals h _! heads turn$ 9 ! same direction4 ,has ! direction any relation to ! direction ( ! w9d8 ,c y expla9 ?is8 ,9 a runn+ flock ( %eep does any "o animal act z lead]8 ,is ! lead] a ram or a ewe8 ,is x a lamb or an old animal8 ,d ! re/ ( ! flock imitate ! actions ( ! lead]1 &1 = example1 leap ov] a wall at ! same place 9 s+le file8 ,h y ev] notic$ t if "o animal jumps at a c]ta9 place1 all ! foll[+ %eep jump at ! same place8 ,h y ev] se5 %eep fight+8 ,7 ! combatants rams or ewes8 ,h[ did !y fight8 ,:at is ! voice ( a %eep l8 #c4 ,lambs4--7a7 ,appe>ance4--,at :at "t ( ! ye> are lambs born8 ,are !y helpless or active8 ,h !y long legs8 ,:at advantage to ! lamb is l5g? ( limb8 7b7 ,play4--,wat* lambs play+4 ,d !y %[ a pref]5ce = any em95ce1 e4g4 a rock1 9 ! neighb\rhood8 ,:at is ! mean+ ( ?is pref]5ce8 ,h[ d lambs fight8 ,h y ev] se5 a ewe /amp ) h] =e-feet :5 anyone approa*$ h] lamb8 ,at :at age is a %eep full gr[n8 ,! %eep4--,! %eep 7,fig4 #agc7 diff]s 9 sev]al important respects f any ( ! animals previ\sly m5tion$4 ,x is ( c\rse a mammal1 = x suckles its "y1 & its body is cov]$ by hair2 b ! hair is ( t w>m fleecy k9d :i* is call$ wool4 ,! fibres ( wool are se5 "u ! microscope to be r\gh & scaly4 ,= ?is reason !y c be spun into loosely-textur$ ?reads :i* entangle a great deal ( air2 wooll5 g>m5ts are ?us v bad conductors ( heat4 ,! wool ^u ! %eep's body is slightly greasy1 f a sub/ance :i* is giv5 (f by ! sk9 & protects ! animal f ra94 ,! toes ( ! %eep are n arm$ ) ord9>y nails or claws1 b claws are repres5t$ by horny masses call$ ho(s1 :i* encase ! ends ( ! toes1 & ^u :i* ! :ole weight ( ! body is ?r[n4 ,! %eep1 especially ! male 7ram71 is (t5 provid$ ) weapons 9 ! =m ( holl[ horns1 :i* gr[ ^u its =ehead4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agc4--,%eep4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agd4--,section ( ,skull ( ,%eep4 7,aft] ,fl[]47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #age4--,/oma* ( a ,rum9ant op5$ to %[ ! int]nal /ructure4 ,= description1 see text4 ,me?od ( fe$+4--,! %eep is a /rict veget>ian1 liv+ l>gely ^u grass4 ,x grips ! grass betwe5 its l[] incisor tee? & a h>d pad on ! upp] jaw2 !re are no incisor tee? 9 ! upp] jaw4 ,nei!r upp] nor l[] jaw be>s can9e tee?2 & ! *eek tee?1 :i* are us$ = *ew+ ! food1 h _! cr[ns ridg$ l5g?wise4 ,! arrangem5t ( ! tee? ( ! %eep is %[n 9 ,fig4 #agd4 ,dur+ graz+1 h[ev]1 ! food is n at once *ew$1 b is simply mix$ ) a l>ge quantity ( saliva & swall[$1 ! *ew+-process be+ p]=m$ at a lat] p]iod4 ,x is obvi\sly a great advantage to an animal1 :i* 9 ! wild /ate is liable at any mom5t to be attack$ by enemies1 to be able to /[ away its food quickly1 & aft]w>ds ma/icate x at leisure4 ,?is is r5d]$ possible1 9 ox51 %eep1 goats1 de]1 & ! few o!r animals :i* *ew ! cud1 by ! peculi> =m ( /oma* %[n 9 ,fig4 #age4 ,! ha/ily swall[$ food is pass$ into ! l>ge paun* b & into ! comp>tm5t c4 ,:5 ! animal f9ds an opportunity ( 8rum9at+0 or *ew+ ! cud1 ! food is return$ to ! m\? 9 small quantities at a "t1 & is !re f9ely divid$ by ! *eek tee?4 ,9 ?is condition x is aga9 swall[$1 & makes its way at once into ! comp>tm5t d1 :]e x is /ra9$ betwe5 leaf-l folds & !n pass$ into ! la/ *amb] e1 & !nce to ! inte/9es1 to und]go ! f9al processes ( dige/ion4 ,rum9ants4--,animals :i*1 l ! %eep1 ox51 goats1 de]1 etc41 rum9ate or *ew ! cud 9 ?is mann]1 are call$ rum9ants4 ,9 all rum9ants ! weight ( ! body is support$ by ! tips ( ! ?ird & f\r? toes ( ! feet1 ! rema9+ toes ei!r hav+ completely disappe>$ or rema9+ v small 7,fig4 #agf74 ,! tips ( ! toes are encas$ 9 horny ho(s1 :i* repres5t greatly enl>g$ claws or nails4 ,! rum9ants !re=e belong to :at may be call$ ! ev5-to$ ho($ mammals4 ,pigs are also ev5-to$ ho($ mammals1 b !y are n rum9ants1 because1 hav+ simple /oma*s1 !y d n *ew ! cud4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agf4--;,bones ( =e-foot ( ,r$ ,de]4 7,aft] ,fl[]47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agg4--;,bones ( =e-foot ( ,horse4 7,aft] ,fl[]47 ,o!r ho($ mammals4--,9 ! horse & donkey ! r$uction ( ! numb] ( toes has gone /ill fur!r2 = ^! animals h n[ only ! ?ird or middle toe ( ea* foot left 7,fig4 #agg72 & because x has to c>ry ! :ole weight ( ! body1 x has become v l>ge & /\t2 its tip is encas$ 9 a ho(4 ,! ho($ mammals are !re=e divid$ into two gr\ps3 7#a7 ! odd-to$1 includ+ ! horse & ass 7!y h simple /oma*s1 & !re=e d n *ew ! cud72 & 7#b7 ! ev5-to$1 includ+ 7a7 rum9ants l ! %eep1 etc41 & 7b7 su* non-rum9ants z ! pigs & _! relatives4 ,! inh]it$ habits ( ! %eep4--,z 9 ! cases ( ! dog & cat1 s 9 ! %eep1 ! true explanation ( sev]al curi\s habits is to be f\nd 9 ! mann] ( life ( ! wild ance/ors2 = x mu/ be rememb]$ t dome/ication1 h[ev] k9dly an animal may take to x1 is an artificial condition ( life4 ,wild %eep live 9 flocks1 z a rule 9 cold & m\nta9\s di/ricts2 & "s organisation is necess>y if !y are n to be at ! m]cy ( savage c>nivores4 ,an old & exp]i5c$ ram is g5]ally 9 *>ge ( ! flock1 & 9 case ( al>m he leads ! way to a m inaccessible position4 ,! re/ ( ! flock foll[ 9 s+le file1 closely imitat+ 8 e movem5t1 leap+ )\t hesitation--& !re=e sav+ valuable "t--:]ev] he has leapt4 ,! survival ( ?is in/9ct 9 dome/ic %eep may be obs]v$ :5ev] a flock is travell+ along ! road4 ,ev5 "y lambs /ill display a decid$ pref]5ce = rocks1 hillocks1 & o!r elevat$ positions4 ,wild %eep1 be+ s liable to sudd5 int]ruption :5 graz+1 are enabl$ by _! comp\nd /oma*s to swall[ food quickly & po/pone ! *ew+ process to a m fav\rable opportunity4 ,s5t9els usually keep wat*1 & w>n ! flock ( approa*+ enemies by /amp+ _! ho(s on ! gr\nd1 an action :i* may /ill be se5 :5ev] a ewe fe>s dang] to h] lambs4 ,! play & education ( ! "y4--,! "y ( mammals are usually "u ! c>e ( ! "m = education & protection until !y are ne>ly adult2 & x is g5]ally f\nd t ! longe/ infancy 79 proportion to ! natural life ( ! animal7 occurs 9 ! mo/ intellig5t races4 ,! importance ( ! play & education p]iod is v great1 = x n only gives ! "y animal an opportunity ( tra9+ its natural faculties 9 comp>ative safety1 by ex]cise ( v>i\s k9ds & by games ) companions ( its own age & /r5g?2 b x all[s ! "m to imp>t1 by direct in/ruction1 "s ( ! exp]i5ce :i* %e has p]sonally ga9$ dur+ h] life4 ,! ext5t ( ?is mat]nal education is great] ?an has be5 g5]ally suppos$2 & e opportunity %\ld be tak5 ( obs]v+ & record+ cases ( x4#ae ,! play ( "y animals also 9 _m cases gives important clues to lo/ ance/ral habits1 :i* are n n[ to be se5 9 adult life4 ,! inh]it$ t5d5cy ( animals to repeat1 dur+ _! own developm5t1 ! hi/ory ( _! race is v great2 "s /rik+ cases ( ?is w be consid]$ 9 lat] *apt]s4 ,,ex]cises ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 #a4 ,make a li/ ( cases :i* y h obs]v$ ( protective col\ration 9 mammals1 specify+ 7a7 ! col\r ( ! animal1 7b7 ! col\r ( its surr\nd+s4 #b4 ,describe any cases :i* y h obs]v$ ( mammals hav+ diff]5tly-col\r$ coats 9 summ] & w9t]4 ,( :at use is ! *ange 9 col\r8 #c4 ,make a li/ ( ! mammals y "k f obs]vation to walk 7a7 flat-foot$1 7b7 on _! toes1 7c7 on ! tips ( _! toes4 #d4 ,make a li/ ( ! mammals :i* habitually hop1 walk1 fly1 & swim respectively2 & f9d out1 by obs]vation if possible1 h[ ! /ructure is adapt$ to ! me?od ( life4 #e4 ,/udy ! habits ( ! mole1 & try to discov] by :at modifications x is enabl$ to burr[ s rapidly4 #f4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce 9 ! ways 9 :i* c[s & horses get up & lie d[n8 #g4 ,= :at purposes d ! foll[+ mammals use _! tails--c[s1 squirrels1 rabbits8 ,:at mammals d y "k :i* are )\t tails8 #h4 ,obs]ve & describe ! diff]5ces--ap>t f spe$--betwe5 walk+1 trott+1 & gallop+1 9 ! case ( ! horse4 #i4 ,describe h[ y h tam$ any wild animal4 ,:y is x easi] to tame a "y animal ?an an old "o8 #aj4 ,describe cases ( mammals %[+ antipa?y to c]ta9 col\rs4 ,h[ d y expla9 ! dislike8 #aa4 ,:i* dome/ic mammals are 7a7 mo/ %y1 7b7 mo/ inquisitive1 7c7 mo/ g5tle1 7d7 mo/ suspici\s1 7e7 mo/ intellig5t8 #ab4 ,( :at %ape is ! pupil ( ! eye 9 a dog1 a cat1 & a %eep8 ,does ! %ape ( ! pupil *ange f "t to "t 9 any ( ^! animals8 7#ahih7 #ac4 ,describe ! =e-foot ( a cat1 a dog1 & a %eep4 ,! bones ( ! foot ne$ n be describ$ 9 detail4 ,draw a footpr9t ( ea* animal 7=e-foot71 & %[ h[ ea* "p ( ! pr9t is produc$4 7#ahih7 #ad4 ,give a %ort acc\nt ( ! life ( a bat4 ,:5 & :]e does x seek its food8 ,h[ does x pass ! w9t]8 7#ahih7 #ae4 ,give illu/rations 7f y\r own exp]i5ce if possible7 ( ! curiosity ( dogs & cats4 ,%[ t _! curiosity is necess>y to _! welf>e4 7#aija7 #af4 ,m5tion animals :i* are nocturnal 7only com+ =? at night71 animals :i* burr[ 9 ! gr\nd1 animals :i* are solit>y1 & animals :i* are social4 7#aija7 #ag4 ,h[ are "y cats treat$ by _! "m :5 !y are helpless1 :5 !y fir/ run ab\t freely1 & :5 !y are able to get _! own food8 7#aijc7 #ah4 ,m5tion "s ( ! peculi>ities :i* s]ve 9 mo/ cases to di/+ui% ! h9d limb ( a quadrup$ f ! =e limb4 7#aije7 #ai4 ,! habits ( an animal c be inf]r$ f its tee?4 ,to :at ext5t is ?is /atem5t true ( 7a7 ! cat1 7b7 ! rabbit8 7,k+'s ,s*ol>%ip1 #aije7 ,,footnotes3 #ac ,! ,desc5t ( ,man4 ,*eap edition1 #as4 7,murray74 #ad ,gilb]t ,:ite1 ,! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,selborne4 #ae ,see ,lloyd ,morgan's ,habit & ,in/9ct 7,arnold71 ,?ompson-,seton's ,wild ,animals ,i h kn[n 7,nutt71 & ,long's ,s*ool ( ! ,woods 7,g9n74 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,! ,,pigeon3 ,a ,,typical ,,bird4 #ea4 ,,habits ,,& ,,/ructure ,,( ,,! ,,pigeon4 #a4 ,g5]al obs]vations ^u ! dovecote pigeon4--,wat* a gr\p ( pigeons4 ,:at is ! %ape ( ! body8 ,) :at is ! body cov]$8 ,:at is ! col\r ( ! fea!rs8 ,does ! bird walk or hop8 ,h[ _m walk+ limbs has x8 ,has x any o!r means ( mov+ f place to place1 9 addition to walk+8 ,h[ _m w+s has x8 ,are ! w+s ant]ior or po/]ior 7p4 #bag7 to ! legs8 ,wat* a pigeon pre5+ its fea!rs2 :y does x apply its bill s frequ5tly to its tail8 ,c ! bird b5d its neck easily 9 all directions8 ,on :at d pigeons fe$8 ,h[ d !y pick up _! food8 ,d !y *ew ! food8 ,:at is ! voice ( ! pigeon l8 ,at :at "t ( ! ye> d pigeons m\lt8 ,h[ _m eggs does ! h5-pigeon lay8 ,:at is ! col\r ( ! eggs8 ,:at are newly-hat*$ pigeons l8 ,h[ d ! p>5t birds fe$ !m8 ,try to f9d a wood-pigeon's ne/4 ,:at is its %ape8 ,:at is x made (8 ,is ! top op5 or clos$-98 #b4 ,! ext]nal *>act]s4--,closely exam9e a dead pigeon 9 respect ( ! foll[+ features3 7a7 ,fea!rs4--,9 :at direction d ! free ends ( ! fea!rs po9t8 ,:]e are ! longe/ fea!rs8 7b7 ,! head4--,:at is ! g5]al %ape ( ! head8 ,notice ! horny bill2 is x blunt1 po9t$1 or hook$8 ,does x be> tee?8 ,obs]ve ! c]e1 a :iti% pat* ( swoll5 sk9 at ea* side ( ! base ( ! upp] beak1 & surr\nd+ ! no/ril4 ,exam9e ! l>ge eyes1 & notice ! upp] & l[] eyelids & ! transp>5t ?ird eyelid4 ,f9d ! e>-op5+1 a little bel[ & beh9d ! level ( ! eye1 & hidd5 by ! small fea!rs ( ! neck4 ,op5 ! m\? & see ! po9t$ tongue4 7c7 ,! neck4--,9 ! fea!r$ bird ?is appe>s %ort2 x w be bett] se5 aft] ! removal ( ! fea!rs 7cont\r fea!rs7 :i* cov] x4 7d7 ,! trunk4--,:at is ! app>5t %ape ( ! trunk8 ,:]e is its heavie/ "p8 7e7 ,! w+s4--,op5 out ! w+s fully & measure ! di/ance f tip to tip2 comp>e x ) ! l5g? ( ! trunk4 ,:i* surface1 upp] or l[]1 ( ! exp&$ w+ is r\nd$ 7convex7 & :i* is holl[$ 7concave78 ,put up an umbrella &1 hold+ x by ! h&le1 move x quickly 7i7 away f y1 7ii7 t[>ds y4 ,9 :i* direction ( motion does ! air (f] m resi/ance8 ,is x an advantage = ! exp&$ w+ to be convex above & concave bel[8 ,:y8 ,feel ! w+-bones ?r\gh ! sk91 & notice t ! w+-skeleton consi/s ( ?ree p>ts correspond+ to ! bones ( y\r upp]-arm1 =e-arm1 & h& 7) ! wri/7 respectively2 & t !y are b5t on ea* o!r 9 ! =m ( a ,z :5 ! w+s are fold$4 ,! l>ge quill-fea!rs atta*$ to ! segm5t :i* corresponds to ! h& & wri/ are call$ prim>ies2 c\nt !m4 ,^? atta*$ to ! =e-arm are call$ second>ies2 c\nt !m4 ,f9d ! tuft ( small] fea!rs :i* spr+1 at ! front edge ( ! w+1 f ! ?umb2 ?is tuft is call$ ! ?umb-w+4 ,! prim>ies & second>ies collectively may be call$ ! r[+ fea!rs4 ,notice ! small] fea!rs :i*1 on bo? ! upp] & l[] surface ( ! w+1 cov] ! quills ( ! prim>ies & second>ies2 ^! small] fea!rs are call$ ! w+-cov]ts4 7f7 ,! legs4--,feel ! leg-bones ?r\gh ! sk91 & make out ! v>i\s segm5ts4 ,is ! :ole ( ! h9d-limb fea!r$8 ,:i* "p is devoid ( fea!rs8 ,) :at is ?is "p cov]$8 ,h[ _m toes are !re8 ,d any po9t backw>ds8 ,/ret* out ! legs & notice t ! toes op54 ,b5d ! ankle-jo9t & notice t ! toes close automatically4 ,( :at use is ?is 9 p]*+8 7g7 ,! tail4--,exam9e ! tail & notice ! l>ge quill-fea!rs atta*$ to x2 c\nt !m4 ,z !y are l>gely us$ = /e]+ dur+ flight !y are sometimes call$ ! /e]+ fea!rs4 #c4 ,! fea!rs4--,exam9e ! arrangem5t ( ! fea!rs4 ,! %ort fea!rs :i* clo! ! body g5]ally are call$ cont\r fea!rs because !y det]m9e ! cont\r ( ! unpluck$ bird2 remove "o or two & place !m aside4 ,! fea!rs :i* cov] ! bases ( ! l>ge quills are call$ cov]ts--w+-cov]ts or tail-cov]ts accord+ to _! position4 ,remove "o or two = future exam9ation4 ,exam9e ! arrangem5t ( ! quill-fea!rs ( ! w+s1 & notice h[ ! vane or web ( "o p>tially ov]laps ! next4 ,! vane is support$ by a %aft4 ,are ! two sides ( ! vane ( equal wid?8 ,is ! n>r[] side direct$ =w>ds or backw>ds8 ,pull out a quill-fea!r f ea* w+ & comp>e !m4 ,h[ c\ld y recognise1 if y did n "k1 :e!r any p>ticul> fea!r _h come f ! "r or f ! left w+8 ,pull out a quill-fea!r f ! tail2 are ! sides ( ! vane ( equal wid?8 #d4 ,exam9ation ( v>i\s fea!rs4--,exam9e 9 detail a quill-fea!r f ! w+4 ,make out3 7a7 ,! quill4--,is x holl[ or solid8 ,try to b5d x & notice its great /r5g?4 ,obs]ve ! small hole at its base4 7b7 ,! %aft4--,?is is ! prolongation ( ! quill1 & c>ries ! web or vane4 ,is ! %aft holl[ or solid8 ,notice ! small tuft ( d[n on ! inn] face ( ! fea!r1 at ! junction ( ! quill & %aft4 7c7 ,! vane4--,hold up ! fea!r to ! light & exam9e ! vane ) a l5s4 ,notice t ! vane consi/s ( a numb] ( la?s :i* spr+ f ! %aft2 ^! are call$ b>bs4 ,try to sep>ate ! b>bs1 & obs]ve t !y (f] consid]able resi/ance to ! pull1 z if !y 7 someh[ fa/5$ toge!r4 ,exam9e a b>b ) a /rong l5s & obs]ve ! f9] bran*es1 call$ b>bules1 :i* x be>s4 ,! b>bules on "o side ( ! b>b c>ry little hooks1 :ile ^? ( ! o!r side be> flanges1 on :i* fit ! hooks ( b>bules c>ri$ by ! next b>b bel[4 ,! hooks & flanges _c be se5 )\t a microscope4 7d7 ,o!r fea!rs4--,comp>e ! cov]t & cont\r fea!rs ) ! quill fea!rs4 ,obs]ve1 9 ! cont\r fea!rs1 ! less p]fect int]lock+ ( ! b>bs ( ^? p>ts :i* are cov]$ by o!r fea!rs4 ,pluck ! pigeon1 & notice ! hair-l /ructures left 9 ! sk94 ,!y are call$ filoplumes4 ,pull "o out & exam9e x ) a l5s2 x be>s a few b>bs at its upp] end1 b ^! d n int]lock4 ,exam9e a ne/l+-pigeon1 & notice ! d[n-fea!rs :i* clo! x tempor>ily4 ,ea* is at fir/ cov]$ at ! base ) a horny %ea?4 ,! b>bs d n int]lock4 ,! d[n-fea!rs are pu%$ (f by ! gr[? ( ! p]man5t fea!rs4 #e4 ,! pluck$ pigeon4--,obs]ve t fea!rs d n gr[ on all p>ts ( ! body1 b are conf9$ to def9ite fea!r-tracts1 :i* c be recognis$ by ! sc>s left by ! quills4 ,notice especially ! sockets ( ! l>ge w+-& tail-quills4 ,make out ! oil-gl&1 a small knob j above ! tip ( ! true tail4 ,x furni%es a lubricat+ fluid us$ 9 pre5+ ! fea!rs4 ,exam9e m closely ! diff]5t regions ( ! body--! neck1 ! jo9ts ( ! limbs1 etc41 :i* 7 disguis$ by ! fea!rs4 ,! filoplumes h already be5 se54 ,feel ! great muscles ( ! brea/1 & ! edge ( ! /]num or brea/-bone 9 ! middle l9e4 ,j 9 front ( ?is feel ! s(t crop1 ) ! gra9 :i* is probably pres5t 9 x4 ,be=e boil+ ! bird 9 ord] to sep>ate & exam9e ! bones1 op5 ! crop & inspect its cont5ts4 ,cut away ! enorm\s muscles ( ! brea/ 7:y are !y s l>ge87 & op5 ! body-cavity beh9d & remove ! int]nal organs1 be+ c>eful n to break any bones4 #f4 ,! skeleton4--,boil ! bird until ! fle% c be easily remov$4 ,a small nail-bru% w be f\nd useful 9 clean+ ! bones4 ,keep z _m ( ^! 9 contact z possible1 & make out & exam9e ! foll[+ p>ts3 7a7 ,! skull1 ) ! r\nd$ bra9-case1 horny beak1 & l>ge eye-sockets4 ,notice1 at ! back ( ! skull1 ! s+le knob1 :i* fits into a holl[ on ! fir/ v]tebra4 7b7 ,! backbone4--,notice ! long neck1 ! fusion ( _m ( ! v]tebrae 9 ! trunk-region1 &1 at ! end ( ! tail1 ! 8pl\gh%>e bone40 ,?is la/ supports ! tail-quills4 7c7 ,! brea/-bone1 or /]num1 produc$ v5trally into a ?9 plate call$ ! keel 7to :i* 7 atta*$ ! great muscles ( ! brea/71 & connect$ by ribs to ! backbone4 7d7 ,! position ( ! %\ld] jo9t1 & ! socket = ! bone ( ! upp]-arm4 ,notice ! ,v-%ap$ 8m]ry?\ght40 7e7 ,! bones ( ! =e-limb 7w+74--,make out ! p>ts belong+ to ! upp]-arm1 =e-arm1 & wri/ & h&1 & notice t ! bones ( ! wri/ & h& are firmly fus$ toge!r to give increas$ /r5g?4 7f7 ,! l>ge hip-bones4--,notice _! =w>d ext5sion & fusion ) ! jo9$ v]tebrae ( ?is region1 & ! result+ increas$ firmness ( ?is "p4 7g7 ,! bones ( ! h9d-limbs4 #g4 ,pneumatic bones4--,exam9e ! bone ( ! upp]-arm ( ! pigeon & notice1 j bel[ ! head ( ! bone1 a small hole :i* leads into ! int]ior4 ,break ! bone across2 is x holl[ or solid8 ,does ! inside conta9 m>r[8 ,h[ does x diff] f ! correspond+ bone ( a rabbit8 #h4 ,diff]5t bre$s4--,exam9e v>i\s bre$s ( dome/ic pigeons1 & comp>e !m ) ! common v>iety1 z reg>ds col\r1 %ape1 me?od ( flight1 ext5t ( fea!r+ ( ! h9d-limbs1 etc4 ,birds4--,x is probable t no class ( animals has be5 m /udi$ ?an t ( ! birds2 & ! reasons = ?is are n difficult to f9d4 ,! wond]ful p[] ( flight--rivall$ only by ! insects--& ! p]fect adaptation ( /ructure to ?is p[]2 ! habits1 always int]e/+ & 9 _m cases %[+ a curi\s p>allelism to human in/itutions2 ! beautiful voices ( song birds2 ! grace ( movem5t2 ! my/]ies ( migration2 &1 x may be add$1 ! rem>kable /ory ( ! orig9 ( birds :i* has be5 reveal$ by mod]n zoology1--=m a comb9ation ( *>act]s1 at once famili> & elusive1 :i* has greatly /imulat$ human sympa?y & imag9ation4 ,x is well to beg9 ! /udy ( birds by fir/ tak+ "o famili> species & exam9+ x some:at closely1 & aft]w>ds comp>+ & contra/+ o!r memb]s ( ! class4 ,su* a conv5i5t type = /udy is f\nd 9 ! dovecote pigeon4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agh4--,pigeons4 ,! pigeon4--,! body ( ! common dovecote pigeon 7,fig4 #agh7 is ovoid 9 %ape1 tap]+ g5tly at ! neck & appe>+1 9 ! liv+ animal1 to pass ins5sibly into ! head4 ,! =e-limbs are modifi$ to =m a pair ( w+s1 :i* are set on a little above & 9 front ( ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! body4 ,except dur+ flight ! weight ( ! body is entirely support$ by ! h9d-limbs or legs1 :i* are fix$ almo/ exactly bel[ ! c5tre ( gravity ( ! body1 i4e4 9 ! be/ imag9able position4 ,ea* foot be>s f\r toes1 ! fir/ ( :i* is direct$ backw>ds4 ,ea* toe is arm$ ) a claw4 ,! body g5]ally is clo!d ) fea!rs1 rem>kable /ructures :i* are z *>act]i/ic ( birds z hairs are 7p4 #bbj7 ( mammals4 ,! great majority ( ! fea!rs are small1 ov]lapp+ & plate-l1 ) _! free ends po9t+ backw>ds2 & !y =m a light1 w>m1 & smoo? cov]+ :i* is admirably adapt$ to ! animal's ne$s4 ,c]ta9 l>ge fea!rs1 c>ri$ by ! w+s & tail1 are us$ 9 flight4 ,! legs are fea!r$ to ! ankle-jo9t1 b ! feet are cov]$ only ) scales4 ,! g5]al col\r ( ! dovecote pigeon is a slaty blue4 ,! head is r\nd$1 & t]m9ates 9 front 9 a horny bill1 :i* does n be> tee?4 ,at ! base ( ! upp] beak !re is1 on ea* side1 a :iti% pat* ( swoll5 sk9 call$ ! c]e1 :i* surr\nds ! op5+ ( ! no/ril4 ,! eyes are l>ge & r\nd2 9 addition to upp] & l[] eyelids1 ea* is provid$ ) a transp>5t ?ird eyelid1 :i* c be flick$ rapidly across ! eyeball4 ,birds g5]ally h v p[]ful sight & dep5d m ^u ?is s5se ?an ^u any o!r4 ,!re are no ext]nal e>s1 b :5 ! fea!rs are sep>at$1 a little bel[ & beh9d ! eyes1 a pair ( ap]tures lead+ to ! int]nal e>s may be se54 ,habits4--,! pigeon lives ^u gra91 :i* x picks up by means ( its horny bill4 ,! l5g? & flexibility ( ! neck are a great help 9 fe$+4 ,! food is swall[$ imm$iately & pass$ into a l>ge bag call$ ! crop1 :i* is really a dilatation ( ! l[] "p ( ! gullet4 ,"h x is mac]at$ = "s "t be=e x passes onw>d to ! true /oma*4 ,! h9d] "p ( ! /oma* is call$ ! gizz>d2 x has v ?ick walls & a h>d horny l9+4 ,9 ! gizz>d ! food is gr\nd up by ! aid ( small /ones :i* ! pigeon swall[s = ! purpose4 ,! /oma* is foll[$ by a mu*-coil$ inte/9e1 9 :i* ! process ( dige/ion is complet$4 ,! pigeon diff]s f _m birds 9 walk+ in/ead ( hopp+4 ,:5 p]*+1 x b5ds its legs at ! ankles1 an action :i* automatically closes ! toes 9 su* a mann] t ! p]* is grasp$ beh9d by ! fir/ toe & 9 front by ! second1 ?ird1 & f\r?4 ,! weight ( ! body is suffici5t to ma9ta9 a tight clasp ^u ! p]*1 s t ! bird is able to sleep com=tably 9 ?is position4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #agi4--;,a ,falcon4 ,! regions ( a bird's body4 ,! h5-pigeon lays two :ite eggs1 :i* are sat ^u by ! p>5ts = f\rte5 days & !reby kept at a temp]ature ( ab\t #dj degrees ,c5tigrade4 ,! "y birds !n break ?r\gh ! %ell & are hat*$4 ,z ! *icks are at fir/ q helpless & unable to fe$ !mselves1 ! p>5ts supply !m ) a milky fluid secret$ by _! crops4 ,?is is sometimes call$ 8pigeon's milk40 ,newly hat*$ pigeons are cov]$ ) f9e fea!rs call$ d[n1 :i* are pu%$ (f by ! developm5t ( ! p]man5t fea!rs b5ea? !m4 ,! ne/s ( wood-pigeons 7,fig4 #ahj7 are usually built 9 trees2 !y are some:at r\gh /ructures1 compos$ ( twigs1 & op5 at ! top4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahj4--,wood-pigeon's ne/4 ,! w+s4--,a bird's w+s are full ( int]e/1 f :atev] po9t ( view !y are consid]$4 ,ev5 n[1 ! exact mann] 9 :i* !y & ! tail are us$ to br+ ab\t ! _m diff]5t movem5ts ( flight is n fully und]/ood2 b a g5]al idea may be obta9$ by an exam9ation ( ! bones & fea!rs & ! c>eful obs]vation ( fly+ birds4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aha4--,! skeleton ( ! limbs & tail ( a fly+-bird4 ,,oa1 bone ( upp] arm2 ,,os1 bone ( upp] leg2 ,rd1 ,ul1 bones ( =e-arm2 ,t1 ,fi1 bones ( leg2 ,,hw1 ,,mh1 bones ( wri/2 ,f1 ,f1 ,f1 bones ( f+]s2 ,z1 ,z1 ,z1 ,,mp1 bones ( foot2 ,scp1 %\ld] blade2 ,cr1 keel on /]num 7,/72 ,pg1 pl\gh%>e bone4 ,! bones ( ! =e-limb & ! neighb\r+ regions %[ a rem>kable modification ( ! primitive plan4 ,! bones ( ! upp] arm ,,oa1 7,fig4 #aha7 & =e-arm 7,rd41 ,ul417 are arrang$ mu* l ! correspond+ bones ( ! rabbit2 b ^? ( ! wri/ & h& are unlike any?+ we h yet exam9$4 ,! f\r? & fif? f+]s h entirely disappe>$2 & ! fir/ 7?umb71 second1 & ?ird1 ?\gh !y c be /ill recognis$ 7,figs4 #aha1 ,f1 ,f1 ,f & #ahd;a71 h become consolidat$ ) :at rema9s ( ! wri/ 7,,hw1 ,,mh7 to =m a firm mass :i* is 9 no dang] ( 8giv+0 dur+ ! p[]ful d[n-/roke ( ! w+4 ,! head ( ! bone ( ! upp] arm fits into a socket 7gl4cv41 ,fig4 #ahb7 at ! junction ( ! %\ld]-blade 7scp47 & ano!r & /\t] bone 7cor47 :i* runs back & is atta*$ to ! brea/-bone or /]num 7/474 ,! /]num 9 its turn is connect$ by means ( ribs ) ! sp9al column1 :i* is /r5g!n$ "h by ! fusion ( "s ( its bones4 ,! v5tral "p ( ! /]num is produc$ into a l>ge plate call$ ! keel 7c>41 ,fig4 #ahb71 :i* gives atta*m5t to ! great muscles ( ! brea/1 us$ 9 ! movem5ts ( ! w+s4 ,s great is ! developm5t ( ^! muscles 9 fly+ birds t 9 ! pigeon !y h a weight equal to "o-fif? ! total weight ( ! body4 ,! ?ree segm5ts ( ! w+1 correspond+ to ! upp]-arm1 =e-arm1 & wri/ & h& respectively are1 9 ! position ( re/1 b5t ^u ea* o!r l ! lett] ,z4 ,! l>ge quill fea!rs ( ! w+1 fix$ along ! h9d] bord] ( ! limb1 are 9 two s]ies 7,fig4 #agi74 ,^? atta*$ to ! =e-arm are call$ second>ies2 :ile ^? atta*$ to ! wri/ & h& are kn[n z prim>ies4 ,a small] tuft ( fea!rs borne by ! ?umb is call$ ! ba/>d-w+ or ?umb-w+4 ,! small] fea!rs cov]+ ! bases ( ! w+-quills are call$ w+-cov]ts4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahb4--,pigeon4 ,! bones ( ! trunk4 actb1 socket = bone ( upp] leg2 c>1 keel ( /]num2 cd4v1 v]tebrae ( tail2 cor1 coracoid2 fur1 m]ry?\ght2 gl4cv1 socket = bone ( upp] arm2 pyg4/1 pl\gh%>e bone2 scp1 %\ld] blade2 s4scr1 fus$ v]tebrae ( hip region2 /1 /]num2 /4r1 vr4r1 rib2 ?4v4#a1 fir/1 & ?4v4#e1 la/ ?oracic v]tebra4 7 47 ,! h9d-limbs & tail4--,! h9d-limbs1 or legs1 ( birds are ! sole support ( ! body except dur+ flight1 & a relatively great weight is ?us ?r[n ^u !m4 ,to provide = ?is1 ! skeleton ( ! hip region is exceptionally /rong4 ,n only are ! bones ( ! sp9e "h weld$ toge!r into "o solid mass1 b ! hip-bones ext5d =w>d mu* fur!r ?an is ! case 9 quadrup$s1 & are firmly atta*$ to ! fus$ v]tebrae4 ,ea* hip-bone possesses a socket 7actb41 ,fig4 #ahb7 into :i* fits ! head ( ! bone ( ! upp] leg4 ,ano!r fusion ( bones is to be notic$ at ! end ( ! tail1 result+ 9 ! pl\gh%>e-bone 7,fig4 #ahb1 pyg4 /47 :i* supports ! l>ge /e]+ fea!rs ( ! tail4 ,! quills ( ^! fea!rs are cov]$ at _! bases by ! tail-cov]ts4 ,j above ! end ( ! tail ( a pluck$ pigeon is to be se5 a small conical body1 ! oil-gl&1 f :i* ! bird obta9s a fluid :i* x applies to ! fea!rs dur+ ! pre5+ process4 ,! fea!rs4--,fea!rs d n gr[ ^u all p>ts ( a bird's body1 b are re/rict$ to c]ta9 def9ite areas or 8fea!r tracts0 :i*1 h[ev]1 diff] 9 arrangem5t 9 diff]5t species4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahc4--,pigeon4 ,a1 portion ( a w+ fea!r2 cal1 quill2 r*1 %aft2 ,b1 filoplume2 ,c1 ne/l+-d[n4 ,"o ( ! l>ge fea!rs ( ! w+ ( ! pigeon is illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #ahc1 ,a4 ,x consi/s ( a holl[1 horny quill 7cal471 prolong$ into a solid %aft 7r*47 :i* supports ! web or vane4 ,! out] face ( ! fea!r is slightly convex & smoo?2 :ile ! inn] surface is some:at concave & r\gh1 & c>ries a little tuft ( d[n at ! junction ( quill & %aft4 ,! gr[+ fea!r is n\ri%$ by a conical projection ( ! deep] "p ( ! sk91 :i* fits into a small hole 7inf4 umb47 at ! base ( ! quill4 ,x is easily %[n t ! vane ( ! fea!r is compos$1 on ea* side1 ( a l>ge numb] ( p>allel la?s :i* spr+ f ! %aft4 ,^! la?s are call$ b>bs4 ,consid]able resi/ance is felt :5 an attempt is made to pull ! b>bs ap>t1 b ! mann] ( _! connection _c be cle>ly se5 )\t ! aid ( ! microscope4 ,a fairly l[ magnify+ p[]1 h[ev]1 %[s 7,fig4 #ahd7 t ea* b>b be>s extremely delicate ?reads--b>bules--on ea* side1 arrang$ on ! b>b mu* z ! b>bs are arrang$ on ! %aft4 ,! b>bules on "o side ( ea* b>b 7! side fur!/ f ! quill7 are se5 to c>ry t9y hooks2 :ile ! b>bules ( ! o!r side ( ! b>b are furni%$ ) flanges4 ,! hook$ b>bules ( "o b>b cross ! flang$ b>bules ( ! next & int]lock ) !m2 s t relatively great =ce is requir$ to pull ! b>bs ap>t & de/roy ! cont9uity ( ! web4 ,! quill-fea!rs ( ! tail1 & ! cov]ts1 h webs ( simil> /ructure4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahd4--,/ructure ( a ,fea!r4 ,a1 small portion ( a fea!r ) pieces ( two b>bs1 ea* hav+ to ! left ?ree hook$ b>bules1 & to ! "r a numb] ( flang$ b>bules2 ,b1 hooklet ( "o b>bule int]lock+ ) flange ( ano!r b>bule2 ,c1 two adjac5t flang$ b>bules2 ,d1 a hook$ b>bule4 7,aft] ,pycraft47 ,! cont\r-fea!rs are us$ = protection & w>m? r ?an = flight1 & h5ce h less-p]fectly int]lock+ b>bs4 ,! hair-l /ructures se5 on ! sk9 ( ! pluck$ bird are extremely simple fea!rs call$ filoplumes 7,fig4 #ahc1 ,b74 ,ea* consi/s ( a long1 sl5d] axis1 be>+ at ! end a few b>bs :i* d n int]lock4 ,! d[n-fea!rs 7,fig4 #ahc1 ,c71 :i* =m ! tempor>y cov]+ ( ne/l+ pigeons1 also be> b>bs :i* d n int]lock4 ,at regul> int]vals1 ei!r once or twice a ye>1 birds m\lt1 t is1 %$ mo/ or all ( _! fea!rs & gr[ new ones4 ,! m\lt+ usually takes place gradually & symmetrically3 a flight fea!r f ea* w+1 = example1 be+ dropp$ at ! same "t4 ,flight4--,! out/ret*$ w+ ( a pigeon has a relatively great area2 & is m>k$ly convex on ! upp] surface & concave on ! l[]1 resembl+ 9 ?is respect an op5 umbrella4 ,! great diff]5ce 9 ! resi/ance :i* ! inside & outside ( an op5 umbrella respectively oppose to ! w9d is famili> to ev]yone1 & illu/rates ! advantage ( ! dome-%ape ( ! out/ret*$ w+4 ,! =ce :i* ! great brea/-muscles put into ! d[n-/roke ( ! w+ is enorm\s 9 comp>ison ) ! weight ( ! body1 & is suffici5t to pu% ! bird upw>ds & =w>ds 9 ! air4 ,! g5tly tap]+ %ape & smoo? surface ( ! fea!r$ bird dim9i% ! resi/ance ( ! air4 ,:5 ! w+ is rais$ aga9 = ! next /roke1 ! quill-fea!rs are turn$ a little edgewise1 s t ! air slips betwe5 !m2 j z an o>sman 8fea!rs0 8 o> to less5 ! resi/ance to ! blade 9 ! return-/roke4 ,! direction ( ! w+-/roke c be alt]$ 9 accordance ) ! direction ( air curr5ts1 & ! fan ( tail-fea!rs is capable ( be+ op5$ or clos$1 rais$ or l[]$1 & turn$ at v>i\s angles to act z a rudd]4 ,b ! me?od ( flight :i* p]haps mo/ ( all excites ! obs]v]'s admiration is so>+1 9 :i* ! bird seems to rema9 almo/ passive1 ) out/ret*$ w+s & spread tail1 & m\nts automatically 9 a spiral c\rse4 ,exactly h[ ! so>+ is p]=m$1 only ! birds !mselves "k2 b x mu/ be simil> 9 ess5ce to ! arrangem5t ( ! sails ( a ya*t s z to select t compon5t ( ! =ce ( ! breeze :i* w drive ! boat 9 ! requir$ direction1 ev5 ?\gh ?is be almo/ 89 ! tee? ( ! w9d40 ,su* spiral so>+ may be se5 to p]fection1 among common ,briti% birds1 9 ! skyl>k 7p4 #caf74 ,a breeze is necess>y = so>+4 ,9 hov]+1 ! motion ( ! w+s is extremely rapid1 & ! bird rema9s pois$ 9 "o place4 ,! ke/rel 7p4 #ccj7 d]ives its common "n ( 8w9dhov]0 f its habit ( us+ ?is me?od ( flight :5 look+ = food4 ,! pigeon's air supply4--,we "k t a man brea!s m quickly :5 he is tak+ active ex]cise ?an at ord9>y times2 & we might1 f ?is & simil> obs]vations1 expect to f9d ! mo/ p]fect brea?+ organs 9 animals :i* lead ! mo/ active lives4 ,( all v]tebrate animals1 birds probably p]=m ! mo/ "w 9 proportion to _! size2 & x is n surpris+1 !re=e1 to le>n t !y h special facilities = quickly replac+ f\l$ air by fre%4 ,! lungs are comp>atively small1 b !y are n ! only organs ( respiration 7p4 #bdb72 = ! w9dpipe op5s also into sev]al air-sacs1 :i* supply ne>ly all p>ts ( ! body ) air1 & ev5 communicate ) ! int]ior ( c]ta9 bones4 ,! bone ( ! pigeon's upp]-arm1 = example1 is holl[ & conta9s air4 ,by means ( ! sy/em ( air-sacs1 ! air 9 ! lungs is completely r5ew$ at ea* respiratory act1 & ?us ! wa/e c>bon-dioxide 9 ! blood c be ex*ang$ = fre% oxyg5 mu* m completely ?an x is 9 mammals4 ,"o result ( ?is is t ! blood ( birds is mu* w>m] ?an t ( mammals4 ,! air-sacs are also an assi/ance to flight by r5d]+ ! body m buoyant4 ,diff]5t bre$s ( pigeons4--,! v>i\s bre$s ( dome/ic pigeons furni% "o ( ! be/ examples ( ! *anges 9 /ructure :i* bre$]s c br+ ab\t1 aft] sev]al g5]ations1 by c>eful cross+4 ,9 spite ( ! great diff]5ces betwe51 say1 ! tumbl]1 ) its habit ( turn+ head-ov]-heels 9 ! air2 ! p\t]1 ) its exagg]at$ crop2 ! ,jacob91 ) its neck-fea!rs rev]s$2 ! fantail1 ) its l>ge numb] ( erect tail-fea!rs2 & o!rs1--!re c be no d\bt t all ^! v>ieties h be5 artificially produc$ f ! rock-pigeon2 & x is curi\s to obs]ve occasional rev]sions to ! *>act]s ( ! ance/ral /ock4 8,! rock-pigeon is ( a slaty blue1 ) :ite lo9s4444 ,! tail has a t]m9al d>k b>1 ) ! out] fea!rs ext]nally edg$ at ! base ) :ite4 ,! w+s h two black b>s4 ,"s semi-dome/ic bre$s1 & "s truly wild bre$s1 h1 besides ! two black b>s1 ! w+s *equ]$ ) black4 ,^! sev]al m>ks d n occur toge!r 9 any o!r species ( ! :ole family4 ,n[1 9 e "o ( ! dome/ic bre$s1 tak+ ?or\ghly well-br$ birds1 all ! above m>ks1 ev5 to ! :ite edg+ ( ! out] tail-fea!rs1 sometimes concur p]fectly develop$4 ,moreov]1 :5 two birds belong+ to two or m di/9ct bre$s are cross$1 none ( :i* are blue or h any ( ! above-specifi$ m>ks1 ! mongrel (fspr+ are v apt sudd5ly to acquire ^! *>act]s40#af ,?is is a /rik+ in/ance ( ! t5d5cy exhibit$ by liv+ ?+s to rev]t to ance/ral *>act]s1 ev5 ?\gh ^! latt] may h la9 dormant = hundr$s ( g5]ations4 ,,ex]cises ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xv4 #a4 ,:y does a bird require a long neck1 & a keel ^u ! brea/ bone8 7#ahih7 #b4 ,draw ! bones ( a bird's w+1 & m>k ! places ( ins]tion ( ! l>ge/ quills4 7#ahih7 #c4 ,:at bones c>ry ! prim>y & second>y quills ( a bird's w+1 & ! quills ( ! tail8 ,illu/rate y\r answ] by a draw+4 7#aija7 #d4 ,po9t out ! *ief diff]5ces betwe5 ! skulls ( a quadrup$ & a bird4 7#aija7 #e4 ,describe "o ( ! l>ge fea!rs ( a bird's w+4 7#ahih7 #f4 ,draw g5]al plans ( ! =e-limbs ( a mammal & a bird4 ,lett] ! pr9cipal bones1 s z to %[ h[ !y correspond 9 ! two animals4 7#aija7 #g4 ,if ! skull ( a bird 7 plac$ be=e y1 :at features w\ld enable y to recognise x ) c]ta9ty8 7#aija7 #h4 ,h[ does ! fact t a bird /&s on two legs affect ! skeleton ( ! trunk8 7#ahig7 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahd;a4--,comp>ison ( ,bat & ,bird4 #i4 ,po9t out ! *ief diff]5ces betwe5 ! w+ ( a bird & t ( a bat4 #aj4 ,expla9 h[ ! b>bs ( a quill fea!r are atta*$ to "o ano!r4 ,describe a fea!r at ! "t :5 x is =c+ its way ?r\gh ! sk94 7#aije7 #aa4 ,:at peculi>ities di/+ui% fea!rs :i* aid 9 flight f fea!rs :i* m]ely prev5t loss ( heat8 7#aijf7 #ab4 ,describe ! w+ ( a bird1 bo? z to skeleton & z to ext]nal appe>ance4 ,comp>e ! skeletal p>ts ) ^? ( ! correspond+ /ructures 9 a ,mammal4 7#aijh7 ,,footnote3 #af ,d>w91 ,! ,orig9 ( ,species 7,murray74 ,*eap edition1 #as4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,! ,,developm5t ,,& ,,education ,,( ,,! ,,*ick4 #eb4 ,a ,,h5',s ,,egg4 ,obta9 ?ree or f\r h5's-eggs1 & make ! foll[+ obs]vations ^u !m3 #a4 ,ext]nal appe>ance4--,:at is ! col\r ( ! egg8 ,:at is its %ape8 ,h[ does ! %ape diff] f t ( a cricket ball or o!r sph]e8 ,! %ape ( an egg is said to be ovoid4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 an ovoid & an oval8 ,measure1 ) a tape1 ! l5g? & bread? ( ! egg1 & also its di/ance r\nd1 7i7 9 ! direction ( its greate/ l5g?1 7ii7 9 ! direction ( its greate/ wid?4 ,:at advantages has ?is %ape8 ,c\ld a h5 sit s com=tably ^u h] eggs if !y _h %>p corn]s8 ,put an egg ^u ! table & roll x g5tly4 ,does x roll 9 a /raight l9e8 ,does x roll f> be=e com+ to re/8 ,comp>e ! roll+ ( a cricket ball or o!r sph]e4 ,is x an advantage t an egg is n likely to roll f>1 or 9 a /raight l9e8 ,:y8 #b4 ,! /r5g? ( ! %ell4--,hold an egg ) y\r ?umb at "o end & y\r fir/ or second f+] at ! o!r1 & press exactly 9 ! l9e ( ! l5g? ( ! egg4 ,y _c break ! %ell4 #c4 ,/ructure4--7a7 ,! %ell4--,tap ! egg g5tly at ! middle ( its broad end until ! %ell cracks4 ,!n c>efully remove small pieces ( ! %ell & notice ! %ell-membrane1 a t\gh sk9 :i* is closely appli$ to ! inside ( ! %ell4 ,snip ?r\gh ! membrane 9 ! middle ( ! broad end2 notice ! air-*amb] :i* lies b5ea? x4 ,obs]ve ! inn] membrane :i* sep>ates ! air-*amb] f ! inside ( ! egg4 ,hold a piece ( %ell up to ! light1 & notice ! small1 almo/ transp>5t dots4 ,! %ell is p]=at$ by v small pores1 ?r\gh :i* ! air c pass4 7b7 ,! :ite ( ! egg4--,tap ! %ell s z to crack x all r\nd at its wide/ "p2 raise bits ( %ell c>efully & see ! membrane "h4 ,te> ?r\gh ! membrane & notice t 9 ?is region !re is no air-space1 b ! :ite lies j b5ea? ! %ell-membrane4 ,sep>ate ! halves ( ! %ell1 notice ! position & %ape ( ! yolk1 & !n let ! cont5ts ( ! egg fall g5tly into a bas94 ,obs]ve ! appe>ance1 col\r1 & transp>5cy ( ! :ite1 & try to di/+ui% two tangl$ cords ( firm] :ite--! balanc]s 7,fig4 #ahe7--;aris+ close to ! yell[ yolk4 7c7 ,! yolk4--,:at is ! %ape ( ! yolk z x lies 9 ! bas98 ,h[ does x diff] f ! %ape ( a yolk susp5d$ naturally 9 ! :ite8 ,:at is ! cause ( ! *ange ( %ape8 ,notice c>efully a small pal] pat* 9 ! middle ( ! upp] surface4 ,?is is ! lighte/ "p ( ! yolk1 s t ! yolk always settles ) ?is "p upp]mo/ aft] any turn+ ( ! egg1 & !re=e ! pale pat* is always m directly expos$ to ! heat ( ! h5's body 7dur+ incubation7 ?an is any o!r "p ( ! yolk4 ,prick ! yolk & notice t ! yell[1 fluid cont5ts fl[ out4 ,y h evid5tly pi]c$ ! ?9 bag :i* =m]ly pres]v$ ! %ape4 7d7 ,a h>d-boil$ egg4--,boil an egg 9 wat] = five m9utes1 & !n *ip r\nd ! %ell 9 ! direction ( ! l5g? &1 ) a %>p knife1 cut ! :ole egg into halves along ?is plane4 ,make a draw+ ( ! section1 indicat+ ! %ell1 %ell-membrane1 air-*amb]1 :ite1 & yolk 9 position4 ,obs]ve t ! :ite is no long] transp>5t & fluid1 b an opaque1 :ite1 & ela/ic solid4 ,try to peel (f ! :ite 9 lay]s4 ,!y w probably break (f %ort1 b y may be able to see t ! :ite is deposit$ 9 spiral %eets ar\nd ! yolk4 ,! h5's egg4--,a h5's egg be>s a some:at simil> relation to ! adult bird t ! maize or bean se$ 7,*apt] ,i47 be>s to ! adult plant2 = ! egg conta9s 7#a7 a speck ( liv+ matt] :i* little by little gr[s & becomes m>k$ (f1 by ord]ly arrangem5t1 to =m ! v>i\s regions & organs ( ! adult animal2 & 7#b7 a /ore ( food1 :i* enables ! "y *ick to develop 9 security1 )\t be+ hamp]$1 :il/ /ill weak & helpless1 by ! necessity ( e>n+ its own liv+4 ,! *anges by :i* ! speck ( liv+ matt] becomes ! p]fect *ick w be consid]$ 9 ! next section4 ,we mu/ n[ exam9e ! /ructure ( ! egg itself1 & see :at provision x conta9s = ! n\ri%m5t & safety ( ! develop+ bird4 ,! egg is ovoid 9 %ape1 "o end be+ di/9ctly broad] ?an ! o!r4 ,?is %ape has ! advantage ( prev5t+ ! egg f roll+ v f> :5 plac$ ^u a slightly incl9$ surface1 & x is wor?y ( notice t ! eggs ( birds :i* lay on cliffs & o!r expos$ situations are usually m elongat$ & po9t$ ?an o!rs1 s t :5 /irr$ !y d n roll away1 b simply describe a small circle & come to re/ aga94 ,9 ! case ( eggs :i* are laid 9 cup-%ap$ ne/s 7,fig4 #aig7 ! pe>-%ape l5ds itself to close pack+1 & ?us all[s ! eggs to be m easily kept w>m by ! p>5t bird4 ,! %ell 7%41 ,fig4 #ahe7 is compos$ ( a *alky mat]ial1 & is p]=at$ by small pores1 ?r\gh :i* ! develop+ *ick obta9s fre% oxyg5 f ! air1 & gives (f its surplus c>bon dioxide 7p4 #bdb74 ,a small piece ( %ell easily snaps1 b ! %ape ( ! complete %ell s di/ributes an outside pressure1 especially "o 9 ! direction ( ! long axis1 t relatively great =ce is requir$ to break x4 ,! %ell is l9$ by a ?91 p>*m5t-l membrane 7%4 m474 ,at ! broad end ( ! egg ?is membrane is d\ble1 & ! two lay]s enclose an air-*amb] 7a74 ,inside ! %ell-membrane are ! :ite or album91 & ! yolk4 ,! :ite 7alb47 is a visc\s1 transp>5t fluid4 ,its inn]mo/ "p 7alb471 :i* imm$iately surr\nds ! yolk1 is ( ?ick] consi/5cy ?an ! re/1 & is prolong$ into two twi/$ cords call$ ! balanc]s 7*471 :i* susp5d ! yolk 9 position4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahe4--,semi-diagrammatic view ( a f[l's egg at ! "t ( lay+4 a1 air-space2 alb1 d5se lay] ( album92 alb1 m fluid album92 bl1 g]m9al disc2 *1 balanc]s2 %1 %ell2 %4m1 %ell-membrane2 %4m #a1 %4m #b1 its two lay]s sep>at$ to enclose air-space2 yk1 yolk4 7,aft] ,m>%all47 7 #a47 ,! yolk is a gold5-yell[ fluid enclos$ 9 a ?91 ela/ic membrane & h5ce pres]v+ a sph]ical %ape4 ,on its upp] surface 7b "u ! membrane7 is a small circul> pat* 7bl47 ( pal] col\r4 ,?is pat*1 call$ ! g]m9al disc1 is ab\t 0 9 diamet]2 x conta9s ! liv+ matt] f :i* ! *ick w be =m$2 ! re/ ( ! yolk1 & ! :ite1 are simply a /ore ( in]t food :i* is us$ up by ! gr[+ *ick4 ,! "w ( ! balanc]s4--,9 ord] t ! small liv+ pat* ( pale yolk1 ! g]m9al disc1 may gr[ & develop into ! *ick x mu/ be kept w>m4 ,:5 eggs are hat*$ 9 ! natural mann]1 ! heat is suppli$ by ! body ( ! sitt+ h51 & ! upp] "p ( ! egg is consequ5tly kept w>m] ?an ! re/4 ,x is important t ! liv+ "p ( ! egg %all always lie ne>e/ ! h5's body & ?us be kept w>m1 & ?is is secur$ by an arrangem5t z effective z x is simple4 ,! yolk is lighte/ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! g]m9al disc1 & !re=e always lies ) ?is "p upp]mo/4 ,if ! egg is sl[ly turn$ ov]1 ! yolk rema9s 8"r side up40 ,if x is turn$ ov] quickly1 ! yolk soon sw+s r\nd into its orig9al position4 ,! twi/$ cords ( :ite1 ! balanc]s1 n only sl+ up ! yolk & gu>d x f be+ ?r[n to "o side by a sudd5 movem5t1 b !y also prev5t x f rotat+ too quickly--& s possibly injur+ ! delicate body ( ! "y *ick--:5 x rights itself aft] ! egg has be5 turn$ ov]4 ,! balanc]s are r5d]$ necess>y by ! h5's habit ( turn+ h] eggs two or ?ree times a day4 ,x is (t5 suppos$ t ! eggs are turn$ 9 ord] to keep !m equally w>m on all sides1 b ?is is unnecess>y4 ,mo/ probably ! egg is turn$ 9 ord] to alt] slightly ! "y *ick's position f "t to "t1 & all[ its p>ts to gr[ naturally1 unimp$$ by ! o!r cont5ts ( ! egg4 #ec4 ,,! ,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,*ick4 #a4 ,a simple incubator4--,eggs are be/ incubat$ 9 ! natural mann]1 t is1 by ! w>m? ( ! h5's body2 b if a sitt+ h5 _c be obta9$1 an ord9>y wat]-ov51 su* z is us$ 9 *emical laboratories1 may be made to answ]4 ,x %\ld be heat$ by a self-regulat+ burn]1 & kept at a temp]ature ( ab\t #dj ,c4 ,! eggs %\ld be turn$ two or ?ree times a day1 & ! air ( ! ov5 %\ld be kept moi/ by spr9kl+ wat] ^u pieces ( clo?1 blott+ pap]1 or hay1 kept ) ! eggs4 ,spr+ is ! mo/ fav\rable "t ( ! ye> = mak+ ! obs]vations1 z eggs laid at o!r seasons are n always 9 a condition to produce *icks4 #b4 ,h[ to m>k ! eggs4--,! mo/ in/ructive *anges take place dur+ ! fir/ five days ( incubation4 ,if all ! /ages ( ! fir/ five days are to =m ! subject ( "o lesson1 an egg %\ld be m>k$ 8#e0 ) p5cil1 & !n put into ! incubator or "u ! h5 five days be=e ! lesson2 a day lat]1 an egg numb]$ 8#d0 %\ld be put 91 & s on4 ,! numb]s w !n indicate ! l5g? ( incubation at ! "t ( ! lesson1 & ! eggs %\ld be exam9$ 9 ord]1 f #a to #e4 ,if "o egg is to be exam9$ ea* day1 five %\ld be put 9 ! incubator at ! same "t2 no numb]+ w !n be requir$4 #c4 ,h[ to exam9e ! eggs4--,h ready a bas9 ( wat]1 heat$ slightly above ! temp]ature ( ! h& 7i4e4 to ab\t #dj ,c471 & dissolve table-salt 9 x 9 ! proportion ( a level teaspoonful ( salt to a p9t ( wat]4 ,! "y *icks w keep alive long] 9 ?is solution ?an 9 ord9>y wat]4 ,tap ! %ell 9 ! middle ( its broad end1 & op5 ! air-*amb] 7a1 ,fig4 #ahe7 completely4 ,!n crack ! %ell 9 ! middle ( ! l5g? &1 keep+ ! l5g? ( ! egg horizontal1 cut transv]sely r\nd ! middle ( ! %ell ) scissors 9 a v]tical plane1 until ! halves are on ! po9t ( com+ ap>t4 ,!n l[] ! egg into ! w>m sal9e solution1 pull ! halves ( ! %ell ap>t1 & float out ! cont5ts4 ,exam9e ! embryo c>efully1 mak+ out z mu* z possible1 & !n snip r\nd x ) a pair ( f9e scissors to remove x f ! yolk2 float x into a wat*-glass & cov] x ) weak alcohol 7equal p>ts ( wat] & spirits ( w9e74 ,exam9e x ) a l5s4 ,aft] x has rema9$ = a day 9 weak alcohol1 put ! embryo into /rong alcohol 9 a small bottle 7writ+ ! age on a label71 & pres]ve x4 ,notice ! gradual absorption ( ! :ite ( ! egg z developm5t proce$s4 #d4 ,*ick aft] "o day's incubation4--,notice t ! embryo is n[ to be di/+ui%$ z a /reak cross+ ! g]m9al disc 9 a direction at "r angles to ! long axis ( ! egg4 ,notice a r\nd$ swell+ at "o end ( ! embryo2 ?is is ! head4 ,place ! egg be=e y ) ! broad end to y\r left1 & obs]ve t ! head ( ! embryo po9ts away f y4 #e4 ,*ick aft] two days' incubation4--,obs]ve ! increase 9 size ( ! embryo2 make a note ( its l5g?4 ,! head & neck ( ! embryo are n[ almo/ cov]$ by a v ?9 transp>5t bag :i* has gr[n ov] x f ! sides4 ,?is bag is call$ ! amnion2 x is fill$ ) fluid1 & protects ! embryo f j>s4 ,remove ! amnion & notice ! l>ge head2 x is n[ twi/$ s t its left side lies aga9/ ! yolk1 :ile ! re/ ( ! embryo /ill lies 8face-d[n40 ,obs]ve ! l>ge eye on ! "r side ( ! head2 ! left eye _c be se5 )\t turn+ ! head ov]4 ,notice ! he>t1 a small r$ dot :i* by help ( a l5s c be se5 to beat rapidly4 ,surr\nd+ ! embryo is a circul> network ( blood-vessels :i* br+ food f ! yolk to ! he>t1 to be di/ribut$ to ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! body4 ,h[ l>ge is ! circul> area ( blood-vessels8 #f4 ,*ick aft] ?ree days' incubation4--,! :ite ( ! egg is di/9ctly %runk51 & ! network ( blood-vessels is mu* l>g] ?an be=e4 ,remove ! amnion & notice ! m>k$ increase 9 size ( ! embryo1 especially ( ! head4 ,! "r side ( ! head & neck are /ill turn$ t[>ds ! %ell4 ,!y are n[ q free f ! yolk1 b ! body ( ! embryo communicates ) ! yolk by a %ort1 wide tube1 ! yolk-/alk4 ,try to see a small pit1 a little above & beh9d ! l>ge eye4 ,?is is ! beg9n+ ( ! "r e>4 ,measure ! embryo & ! wid? ( ! surr\nd+ network ( blood-vessels4 ,wat*1 ?r\gh a l5s1 ! beat+ ( ! he>t4 #g4 ,*ick aft] f\r days' incubation4--,c>efully cut op5 ! amnion to see ! embryo bett]4 ,obs]ve t ! "y *ick is /ill m completely fold$ (f f ! yolk1 & t ! yolk-/alk is consequ5tly n>r[] ?an be=e4 ,! head is s /rongly b5t ^u itself t ! sn\t almo/ t\*es ! tail4 ,! body also has n[ turn$ ov] s z to lie ) its left side on ! yolk4 ,obs]ve ! two pairs ( small buds :i* are ! rudim5ts ( ! limbs4 #h4 ,*ick aft] five days' incubation4--,cut op5 ! amnion1 & notice ! great increase 9 size ( ! embryo1 & especially ! enorm\s developm5t ( ! head4 ,! limbs n[ %[ signs ( division into segm5ts4 ,obs]ve1 "u ! h9d] end ( ! body1 a small1 bladd]-l outgr[?1 ! allantois1 :i* 9 ! lat] /ages gr[s rapidly & spreads all r\nd ! inside ( ! %ell4 ,x is ! brea?+ organ ( ! *ick4 #i4 ,effect ( v>ni%+ an egg4--,v>ni% an egg1 & leave x "u ! h5 ) unv>ni%$ eggs = ! :ole p]iod ( incubation 7#ba days74 ,! v>ni%$ egg does n develop1 because ! v>ni% closes ! pores ( ! %ell & prev5ts ! embryo f brea?+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahf4--;,h5's ,egg aft] #a day's incubation4 a1 air-*amb]2 hd1 head ( embryo2 v4a41 area 9 :i* yolk blood-vessels w appe> lat]2 yk1 yolk4 7 #a47 ,! e>ly developm5t ( ! *ick4--,:5 ! h5's egg is expos$ to a temp]ature ( ab\t #dj;,c41 ! g]m9al disc--! circul> pat* ( liv+ matt] :i* lies1 some:at l a small inv]t$ wat*-glass1 ^u ! upp] surface ( ! yolk--gr[s l>g]1 & its p>ts are gradually modifi$ to =m ! v>i\s regions ( ! *ick's body4 ,! :ite & yolk ( ! egg are us$ up dur+ ! process1 & by ! "t !y are absorb$1 ! "y bird is 9 a condition to break ! %ell & take up ! activities ( an indep5d5t life4 ,to wat* ! ord]ly appe>ance & gradual developm5t ( ! diff]5t sy/ems ( organs is mo/ fasc9at+1 & =tunately ! obs]vation ( ! ma9 features pres5ts no great difficulty if ! =ego+ in/ructions are foll[$4 ,! fir/ signs ( ! *ick are to be se5 7,fig4 #ahf71 t[>ds ! end ( ! fir/ day ( incubation1 9 a /reak :i* crosses ! g]m9al disc 9 a direction at "r angles to ! long axis ( ! egg4 ,"o end ( ! /reak is di/9ctly r\nd$1 & ?is is ! head end 7hd474 ,9 almo/ all cases1 if ! egg be plac$ s t its broad end is to ! obs]v]'s left1 ! head ( ! embryo w be direct$ away f him4 ,a day lat]1 ! embryo is m>k$ly l>g]1 & is p>tly cov]$ by a d\ble membrane call$ ! amnion4#ag ,surr\nd+ ! embryo is n[ 7,fig4 #ahh7 a network ( f9e blood-vessels :i* ramify ov] ! yolk & c>ry small p>ticles ( yolk to fe$ ! gr[+ organs4 ,at ! end ( ! second day ! network c\ld be ab\t cov]$ by a sixp5ny piece4 ,on ea* side1 its ve9s jo9 to =m a s+le small tube runn+ to ! he>t 7ht471 a t9y r$ dot :i* is situat$ beh9d ! head & c be se51 by ! help ( a l5s1 to be beat+ rapidly4 ,! head has gr[n m ?an ! re/ ( ! embryo1 ow+ to ! rapid developm5t ( ! primitive bra91 & is b5t =w>ds4 ,! head has turn$ ov] a little1 s t its "r side is direct$ t[>ds ! egg-%ell2 ! re/ ( ! embryo /ill lies 8face-d[n40 ,! "r eye 7e47 c easily be se5 z a d>k spot on ! side ( ! head4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahh4--;,h5's ,egg aft] #b days' incubation4 ,! amnion has be5 remov$4 a1 air-*amb]2 au1 beg9n+ ( "r e>2 e1 "r eye2 ht1 he>t2 v4a41 network ( yolk blood-vessels2 yk1 yolk4 7 #a47 ,by ! end ( ! ?ird day 7,fig4 #ahi7 ! head & neck are rais$ di/9ctly above ! yolk1 & ! tail is also m pla9ly m>k$ (f1 s t ! body is connect$ ) ! yolk only by a %ort wide tube1 ! yolk-/alk 7yk4/41 ,fig4 #ahg1 ,b74 ,! neck z well z ! head has n[ turn$ s z to lie ) ! "r side direct$ t[>ds ! %ell4 ,! comm5cem5t ( ! e> is to be se5 on ea* side z a small pit 7au47 a little above & beh9d ! l>ge eye4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahi4--;,h5's ,egg aft] #c days' incubation4 ,! amnion has be5 remov$4 ,ref]5ces z 9 ,fig4 #ahh4 7 #a47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aij4--;,*ick ,embryo aft] #d days' incubation4 ,! amnion has be5 remov$4 all1 allantois2 am1 cut edge ( amnion2 f4l41 =e-limb2 h4l41 h9d-limb2 ht1 he>t2 t1 tail4 7,aft] ,duval47 7 #b47 ,on ! f\r? day ! embryo turns to lie entirely on its left side4 ,x becomes m completely fold$ (f f ! yolk1 & ! connect+ yolk-/alk is a n>r[] tube ?an be=e4 ,! previ\sly =m$ organs increase 9 size & complexity4 ,! disproportionate size ( ! head1 ow+ to ! great developm5t ( ! bra91 is /ill m m>k$ ?an be=e1 & ! head is s /rongly b5t ^u itself t ! sn\t almo/ t\*es ! tail4 ,"o ( ! mo/ notewor?y features ( ! f\r? day is ! appe>ance ( ! limbs4 ,z yet ^! are m]ely a pair ( small buds 7fl41 hl41 ,fig4 #aij71 & no jo9ts c be detect$ 9 !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aia4--;,h5's ,egg aft] #e days' incubation4 a1 air-*amb]2 all1 allantois2 am1 amnion2 ar4 vasc41 area ( yolk blood-vessels2 emb1 embryo2 yk1 yolk4 7,aft] ,duval47 7 #a47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aib4--;,diagrams illu/rat+ ! me?od ( developm5t ( ! allantois4 al1 allantois2 am1 amnion fold2 am4c41 amniotic cavity2 em1 embryo2 yk1 yolk4 7,aft] ,fo/] & ,balf\r47 ,by ! end ( ! fif? day 7,fig4 #aia7 ! head is enorm\s1 & ! limbs n[ %[ signs ( be+ divid$ into def9ite segm5ts4 ,a ?9 bladd]-l /ructure--! allantois 7all471 :i* appe>$ on ! f\r? day--has gr[n out f ! l[] "p ( ! body1 beh9d ! yolk-/alk4 ,its mode ( orig9 is well %[n 9 ,fig4 #aib4 ,x rapidly increases 9 size1 & soon ext5ds ov] ! embryo 7,figs4 #aib ,b1 & #aia7 & becomes closely appli$ to ! %ell-membrane4 ,air passes ?r\gh ! pores ( ! %ell1 & its oxyg5 is tak5 up by ! blood :i* circulates 9 ! vessels ( ! allantois4 ,at ! same "t1 wa/e c>bon dioxide is able to escape f ! blood to ! out] air4 ,! allantois is !re=e ! brea?+ organ ( ! develop+ *ick4 ,if ! egg is v>ni%$ & ! %ell ?us r5d]$ air-tight1 ! embryo dies ( suffocation at an e>ly /age4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aic4--;,*ick aft] #i days' incubation4 7,aft] ,duval47 7 #a47 ,! *ief organs ( ! bird are n[ e/abli%$1 & ! lat] developm5t may be sket*$ m briefly4 ,by ! end ( ! n9? day 7,fig4 #aic7 ! :ite ( ! egg is almo/ us$ up2 ! yolk1 h[ev]1 is /ill l>ge1 & is connect$ ) ! *ick's body by ! n>r[ yolk-/alk4 ,x ?us appe>s t ! :ite is n directly absorb$ by ! *ick1 b is fir/ tak5 up by ! yolk & aft]w>ds pass$ on by ! yolk blood-vessels :i* run to ! he>t4 ,by ?is "t1 too1 ! allantois has spread at lea/ halfway r\nd ! inside ( ! %ell1 t a supply ( oxyg5 adequate to ! increas$ ne$s ( ! animal may be obta9$ f ! air4 ,! *ick has n[ a *>act]i/ic bird-l appe>ance2 ! beak has appe>$2 fea!rs h begun to spr\t2 ! neck is long & sl5d]2 & ! segm5ts ( ! limbs1 includ+ ! f+]s & toes1 are well def9$4 ,ab\t ! f\rte5? day ! *ick turns s z to lie l5g?wise 9 ! %ell1 ) its head ne> ! broad end4 ,! yolk-sac dw9dles 9 size1 & at la/1 ab\t ! tw5tie? day1 x is drawn into ! int]ior ( ! body4 ,n[ ! *ick becomes re/less1 &--usually on ! tw5ty-fir/ day--?ru/s its beak ?r\gh ! inn] %ell-membrane into ! air-*amb] at ! broad end ( ! egg4 ,= ! fir/ "t x draws refre%+ air into its lungs1 & is /imulat$ to break ! %ell by a knob on its beak1 & to creep out into ! _w4 #ed4 ,,! ,,education ,,& ,,lat] ,,gr[? ,,( ,,! ,,*ick4#ah #a4 ,hat*+4--,on ! #bj? or #ba/ day ( incubation remove ?ree or f\r eggs f ! clut* "u ! h51 & keep !m 9 a w>m cosy place s t y may wat* ! process ( hat*+4 ,c y he> ! *ick tapp+ ! inside ( ! %ell8 ,c\ld x h be5 taught to tap8 ,:i* "p ( ! %ell cracks fir/8 ,:5 ! %ell has crack$1 c y he> ! *ick *irp+8 ,c\ld x h be5 taught to *irp8 ,imitate ! *irp & li/5 = a response4 ,keep ! newly-hat*$ *icks 9 a w>m1 s(t place4 ,h[ soon d !y recov] f ! exhau/ion ( hat*+8 ,d ! *icks %[ a lik+ = w>m corn]s8 ,are !y afraid ( be+ t\*$ g5tly8 #b4 ,locomotion4--,h[ soon d ! *icks beg9 to run ab\t8 ,d !y /umble ^u ob/acles1 or d !y avoid or leap ov] !m8 ,d !y use _! w+s 9 runn+1 or 9 jump+ d[n a small /ep8 ,put a *ick into a basket1 & l[] ! basket quickly ?r\gh ! air1 be+ c>eful n to let ! *ick fall out4 ,does x move its w+s8 ,h[8 #c4 ,fe$+ & dr9k+4--,lay a few gra9s ( soak$ :eat ^u ! gr\nd be=e a *ick :i* has n yet be5 f$4 ,does x peck at !m in/9ctively8 ,tap a gra9 ) ! po9t ( a p5cil2 does ! *ick n[ peck at x8 ,does x hit ! gra9 at ! fir/ try8 ,does x ev] /rike at a gra9 :i* is out ( rea*8 ,wat* a h5 ) h] *icks2 does %e tea* !m to peck at food8 ,h[8 ,d ! *icks "k in/9ctively ! diff]5ce betwe5 food & gra9s ( s&1 or h !y to le>n8 ,try if a *ick c di/+ui% betwe5 a small worm & a bit ( r$ wor/$4 ,are "y *icks afraid ( l>ge insects8 ,take a *ick1 :i* has n yet drunk1 to a small pool 7a few drops7 ( wat]4 ,does x seem to "k ! use ( ! wat]8 ,induce x to peck at ! wat]2 does x n[ dr9k8 ,h[8 #d4 ,! cr\*+-in/9ct4--,clap y\r h&s sudd5ly & l\dly ne> "y *icks4 ,h[ d ! *icks behave8 ,does ?is behavi\r r5d] !m less conspicu\s8 #e4 ,non-recognition ( h54--,hav+ made ! above obs]vations on *icks hat*$ ap>t f ! h51 put ! *icks among _! bro!rs & si/]s ) ! p>5t h54 ,d ! new-com]s respond1 z readily z ! o!rs1 to ! cluck+1 etc41 ( ! h58 #f4 ,mat]nal tra9+ & protection4--,h[ _m diff]5t mean+s c y recognise 9 ! diff]5t s\nds ( ! h5's voice8 ,h[ does %e call & protect ! *icks :5 any dang] ?reat5s !m8 #g4 ,! voice ( ! *ick4--,notice ! diff]5t s\nds by :i* a *ick expresses pleasure1 al>m1 di/ress1 etc4 #h4 ,pre5+ & scrat*+4--,at :at age d *ick5s beg9 to pre5 _! fea!rs1 & to scrat* ! gr\nd8 ,try to discov] if ^! are in/9ctive activities1 or :e!r !y h to be le>nt f ! h54 #i4 ,*ange 9 plumage4--,at :at age are ! d[n fea!rs replac$ by ! true plumage8 ,at :at age is x possible to di/+ui% ! "y cocks f ! "y h5s8 #aj4 ,ext]nal *>act]s1 etc41 ( adults4--,notice ! fl[+ tail-fea!rs1 hackles 7! long fea!rs on ! neck & lo9s71 comb1 & spurs ( ! cock-birds1 & _! abs5ce or small size 9 ! h5s4 ,:at diff]5ces are !re z reg>ds voice8 ,h[ does ! h5 ann\nce t %e has laid an egg8 ,:i* sex is ! m pugnaci\s8 ,! rec5tly hat*$ *ick4--,! newly-hat*$ *ick is clo!d ) f9e d[n-fea!rs 7pp4 #bgc & #bgg74 ,x is g5]ally exhau/$ by its /ruggles to escape f ! %ell1 b x soon recov]s1 & is able to run ab\t freely on ! second day aft] hat*+4 ,"y birds :i*1 l ! *ick1 are active imm$iately aft] hat*+1 are said to be precoci\s4 ,in/9ct & education4--,f ! fir/1 ! *ick p]=ms c]ta9 movem5ts :i* are obvi\sly in/9ctive1 t is1 :i* h n be5 acquir$ by any process ( imitation or in/ruction4 ,ev5 9 ! egg1 x may be he>d *irp+ soon aft] x has tak5 its fir/ brea? ( air2 & ! complex activities ( walk+1 runn+1 jump+ ov] ob/acles1 &1 lat]1 pre5+ ! fea!rs & scrat*+ ! gr\nd--ea* ( :i* involves ! nice/ adju/m5t ( sev]al muscles--are also in/9ctive4 ,c]ta9 o!r p[]s h to be le>nt2 ! h51 = example1 lifts & drops be=e ! *ick a p>ticle ( food :i* %e wi%es x to seize1 & x soon le>ns to peck4 ,at fir/ its pecks g5]ally fall a little %ort ( ! objects1 b pres5tly x becomes v adroit at cat*+ food4 8,a *ick a day or s old w cat* a runn+ fly at f ! sev5? to ! twelf? %ot40#ai ,!re does n appe> to be mu* in/9ctive recognition ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 objects :i* are valuable z food & ^? :i* are ! rev]se4 ,su* discrim9ation comes only by exp]i5ce1 & to a v "y *ick a piece ( r$ wor/$ & a small worm are equally attractive be=e be+ seiz$4 ,9 ! same way1 ! nature ( wat] has to be le>nt4 ,*icks peck at drops ( wat]1 b d n seem to "k ! use ( wat] until _! beaks are wett$1 :5 !y dr9k in/9ctively 9 ! usual mann]4 ,! use ( ! w+s is also a matt] ( in/9ct1 b x is acquir$ some:at late1 & is assi/$ by p>5tal enc\ragem5t & example ev5 9 birds :i* are not$ = _! p[]s ( flight4 ,f[ls d n fly mu*1 b *icks may be obs]v$ to use _! w+s z an aid 9 runn+ or jump+4 ,pr(4 ,lloyd ,morgan#bj quotes an int]e/+ exp]im5t :i* %[s well h[ deeply ! reliance on flight is /amp$ 9 bird-nature4 8,if a *ick a day or two old be plac$ 9 a basket1 held firmly 9 ! h&1 & !n l[]$ rapidly ?r\gh ! air1 ! fl$gl+ w /ret* out 8 little immature w+s 9 su* an attitude z w\ld make !m break ! fall 7 !y fully develop$2 or w1 if he be a little old]1 flap !m ) flight-l action1 9 ei!r case %[+ an in/9ctive response40 ,h5s & *ick5s4--,*ick5s :i* h be5 hat*$ 9 ! natural mann] are1 f ! fir/1 "u ! control ( ! h5 7,fig4 #aid71 & h] anxi\s c>e = _! welf>e has always be5 consid]$ "o ( ! mo/ beautiful examples ( ! mat]nal in/9ct4 ,9 _! def5ce h] c\rage is unb\nd$2 %\ld %e discov] a succul5t worm or o!r da9ty morsel1 h] ord9>y complac5t cluck *anges to a note ( invitation1 to :i* ! brood at once responds2 & at h] dang]-signal ! *ick5s run to take refuge "u h] w+s1 or cr\* motionless aga9/ ! gr\nd4 ,! *irp ( a *ick also is capable ( express+ sev]al /ates ( feel+1 su* z cont5tm5t1 pleasure1 al>m1 & di/ress4 ,^! diff]5t notes are n only p]fectly intelligible to ! h51 b are famili> to anyone :o has _h exp]i5ce ( p\ltry4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aid4--;,h5 & ,*ick5s4 ,9 ! face ( ^! well-kn[n in/ances ( ! p]fect und]/&+ betwe5 ! h5 & h] *ick5s1 x is some:at surpris+ to f9d t *ick5s1 hat*$ ap>t f ! h5 & !n plac$ ) ! re/ ( ! brood aft] a few days1 at fir/ pay v little att5tion to ! h51 except = _! in/9ctive t5d5cy to ne/le into w>m places1 & d n seem to und]/& h] clucks4 ,adult f[ls4--,! d[n-fea!rs are soon %$ & replac$ by ! true plumage1 & ! *ick5 gradually takes on ! appe>ance ( ! adult4 ,a m>k$ diff]5ce is g5]ally to be se5 betwe5 ! cocks & h5s 7,fig4 #aie7 ( any bre$ ( p\ltry4 ,! cock is usually provid$ ) fl[+ tail-fea!rs1 hackles 7elongat$ fea!rs on ! neck & lo9s71 a prom95t comb1 & 8spurs0--features :i* are ei!r abs5t or mu* less p]fectly develop$ 9 ! h5s4 ,z great diff]5ces exi/ betwe5 ! voices ( ! two sexes1 ! cr[ by :i* ! pugnaci\s male *all5ges 8 rivals1 & ! cackle ( ! h5 :5 %e has laid an egg1 be+ famili> examples4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aie4--;,cock & ,h5s4 ,,ex]cises ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 #a4 ,po9t out ! diff]5ces 9 appe>ance & position betwe5 ! :ite & yolk ( a f[l's egg4 ,:at becomes ( ea* dur+ ! developm5t ( ! egg8 #b4 ,:5 does ! he>t ( a *ick beg9 to beat8 ,describe its appe>ance at ?is "t1 & expla9 :at mu/ be done to expose x to view4 #c4 ,expla9 exactly :]e ! *ick is to be f\nd 9 a f]tile egg :i* has be5 incubat$ = ?ree days4 ,h[ big is a *ick ( t age8 ,( :at col\r is x8 ,does x give any signs ( life8 7#ahih7 #d4 ,:at is ! amnion8 ,:]e1 9 a develop+ *ick1 is x to be f\nd1 :at is its appe>ance1 :5 & h[ is x =m$1 & :at is its use8 #e4 ,expla9 ! nature & use ( ! 8balanc]s0 ( an egg4 #f4 ,expla9 h[ a develop+ *ick brea!s4 #g4 ,:at new organs are fir/ se5 di/9ctly on ! f\r? & fif? days respectively ( incubation ( a h5's egg8 ,expla9 exactly h[ y w\ld expose !m to view1 & describe _! appe>ance4 #h4 ,:at is ! p]iod ( incubation ( a duck's egg8 ,obs]ve & describe exactly h[ ! hat*+ duckl+ breaks op5 ! %ell & escapes f x4 #i4 ,obs]ve & describe a duckl+'s fir/ attempt to swim4 ,is ! action in/9ctive or n8 #aj4 ,make o!r obs]vations ^u duckl+s1 comp>+ !m 9 z _m respects z possible ) *icks1 & write c>eful acc\nts ( ! results y obta94 #aa4 ,h[ does a f[l's egg :i* has be5 hat*$ = f\r days diff] f a fre%-laid egg8 ,describe ! new /ructures :i* h =m$ 9 x1 s f> z !y c be made out by ! unaid$ eye4 7#aijd7 #ab4 ,:]e does ! *ick beg9 to =m 9 ! egg8 ,expla9 ! arrangem5t :i* br+s x z ne> z possible to ! body ( ! sitt+ h54 7#aije7 #ac4 ,:at is ! use ( ! cl\dy masses atta*$ to opposite sides ( ! yolk ( a f[l's egg8 7#aijf7 ,,footnotes3 #ag ,! amnion orig9ates1 e>ly 9 ! second day1 z a d\ble fold ( ! yolk-surface 9 front ( ! embryo4 ,simil> folds arise r\nd ! sides & tail1 =m+ a l[ wall 7,fig4 #ahg1 ,a72 ! folds gradually gr[ ov] ! embryo 7,fig4 #ahg1 ,b7 until1 dur+ ! f\r? day1 !y meet 7,fig4 #ahg1 ,c7 & enclose x 9 a protective transp>5t bag1 conta9+ a wat]y fluid4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #ahg4--;,diagrams to illu/rate ! me?od ( developm5t ( ! amnion4 ,! embryo & ! re/ ( ! yolk are suppos$ to be se5 9 m$ian longitud9al section2 ! head end is to ! "r4 ,= conv5i5ce1 ! yolk-membrane 7yk4m47 is repres5t$ at "s di/ance f its cont5ts4 am1 folds ( amnion2 am4c41 amniotic cavity2 em1 embryo2 yk1 yolk2 yk4/41 yolk-/alk4 7,aft] ,fo/] & ,balf\r47 #ah ,i desire to ackn[l$ge my indebt$ness1 9 draw+ up ?is section1 to ,pr(4 ,lloyd ,morgan's ,habit & ,in/9ct 7,arnold74 #ai ,lloyd ,morgan's ,habit & ,in/9ct 7,edw>d ,arnold74 #bj ,lloyd ,morgan's ,habit & ,in/9ct 7,edw>d ,arnold74 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,"s ,,famili> ,,briti% ,,birds4 #ee4 ,,! ,,?ru% ,,family4 #a4 ,! song-?ru%1 mavis1 or ?ro/le4--,?ro/les are to be se5 ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,take e opportunity ( obs]v+ _! habits1 & make c>eful notes ( ^! at ! "t4 ,especially att5d to ! foll[+ *>act]s3 7a7 ,g5]al appe>ance4--,:at is ! av]age size ( ! bird8 ,:at is ! l5g? ( ! tail8 ,at :at angle is ! tail held8 ,does ! bird move x 9 any special mann]8 ,:at is ! prevail+ col\r ( ! body8 ,notice ! light-col\r$ & spott$ brea/4 ,comp>e ! male & female z reg>ds size1 col\ration1 etc4 7b7 ,habits4--,:at situations d ?ro/les *iefly inhabit8 ,d !y keep ne> ! edge ( ! wood1 or h y (t5 se5 !m inside ?ick woods8 ,does ! bird hop1 or walk1 :5 on ! gr\nd8 ,^u :at does x fe$8 ,h y ev] se5 x crack+ ! %ell ( a snail8 ,if y f9d a heap ( snail-%ells ne> a /one1 wat*1 at a little di/ance1 = ! ?ro/le com+ to crack snail-%ells on ! /one4 ,does x also eat worms1 or fruit8 ,describe a ?ro/le's beak4 ,h[ w\ld y describe ! flight--z high or l[1 swift or sl[1 /raight1 9 wide curves1 or undulat+8 ,does ! bird p]* on trees8 ,h[ does x use its toes 9 p]*+8 7c7 ,song4--,9 :at mon?s does ! ?ro/le s+8 ,does x s+ late at night & e>ly 9 ! morn+8 ,h[ does x comp>e ) o!r birds 9 ?is respect8 ,9 :at positions h y se5 ! bird s++--:5 fly+1 p]*+1 or on ! gr\nd8 ,try to write d[n ! syllables :i* seem to y mo/ l ! ?ro/le's song1 & notice h[ ! phrases are repeat$4 ,notice t ?ro/les s+ less dur+ ,augu/ ?an 9 autumn4 ,li/51 9 ,septemb] or ,octob]1 = "y ?ru%es le>n+ to s+1 & contra/ _! ef=ts ) ! song ( ! adult birds4 7d7 ,! ne/4--,at :at "t ( ! ye> d ?ro/les pair & build _! ne/s8 ,9 :at situations h y f\nd ! ne/s8 ,write a description ( ! %ape1 size1 & mat]ials ( ! fir/ ?ro/le's ne/ y f9d4 ,visit x frequ5tly1 try n to di/urb ! birds1 & note ! dates ( lay+ ( ! eggs4 ,h[ _m eggs are laid8 ,:at are _! size & col\r8 ,h[ are !y arrang$ 9 ! ne/8 ,d ! broad or ! n>r[ ends po9t inw>ds8 ,:at are ! advantages ( ?is arrangem5t 7i7 = purposes ( pack+1 7ii7 :5 ! eggs hat*8 ,d bo? birds sit on ! eggs8 ,if only "o1 :i*8 ,:at is ! "t ( incubation8 7e7 ,! "y4--,are ! "y birds nak$ & helpless1 or fea!r$1 at hat*+8 ,h[ d ! p>5t-birds fe$ !m8 ,:at is ! appe>ance ( ! fl$gl+s8 ,9 :at respect d !y 7i7 resemble1 7ii7 diff] f1 ! p>5ts8 ,h[ long d ! birds rema9 9 ! ne/ aft] hat*+8 ,write an acc\nt ( any education y h obs]v$ !m to receive f ! p>5ts4 ,make simil> obs]vations & notes on o!r birds1 9 addition to ! special obs]vations m5tion$ bel[1 & le>n to recognise _! appe>ance1 flight1 song1 ne/1 & eggs4 ,a field-glass w be f\nd ( great assi/ance4 #b4 ,! missel-?ru%1 or /orm-cock4--,comp>e ! missel-?ru% ) ! song-?ru%4 ,notice its l>g] size1 ! bright] col\r ( its spott$ brea/1 & its some:at less musical song4 ,li/5 = its song dur+1 or imm$iately aft]1 a /orm1 ev5 9 w9t]4 ,9 ! ne/+ season obs]ve ! m>k$ c\rage & pugnacity ( ! bird4 #c4 ,! blackbird4--,comp>e ! blackbird ) ! ?ru%es 9 respect ( appe>ance1 food1 habits1 & song4 ,notice ! diff]5ce 9 ! col\ration ( ! male & female blackbird4 ,obs]ve t ! "y bird has a spott$ brea/ l t ( a ?ru%1 b t old blackbirds are n spott$4 ,h y notic$ a blackbird %[ a pref]5ce = s++ 9 any p>ticul> place8 ,:at obs]vations w\ld lead y to suppose t ! blackbird is a ne> relative ( ! ?ru%es8 #d4 ,fieldf>es4--,di/+ui% ^! birds f ?ru%es4 ,notice t !y arrive ab\t ,octob]1 & frequ5t fields 9 l>ge p>ties4 ,! ?ru% family4--,= _m reasons ! ?ru% family =ms a conv5i5t />t+ po9t 9 ! /udy ( ! habits ( common ,briti% birds4 ,x includes "s ( our v f9e/ song/]s & !re=e mo/ popul> birds2 _m ( its memb]s are abundant 9 mo/ p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 s t ne>ly e /ud5t has ! opportunity ( obs]v+ !m at fir/ h&2 ! birds are n specially %y2 &1 la/ly1 ! family af=ds excell5t mat]ial = ! me?od ( comp>ison & contra/1 :i*1 be x repeat$1 is ! ess5ce ( all s\nd "w 9 nature-/udy4 ,! song-?ru%1 :i* is also kn[n z ! ?ro/le & mavis1 is a %apely bird1 easily recognisable by its grey1 spott$ brea/ 7,fig4 #aif71 :i* may be se5 all ! ye> r\nd 9 wood$ p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,! male & female are v simil> 9 appe>ance1 & ( almo/ equal size1 measur+ #h or #i in*es f head to tail4 ,! ?ru% g5]ally fe$s on ! gr\nd1 hopp+ along on a pair ( /urdy legs & feet1 seiz+ & pull+ out worms :i* incauti\sly %[ !mselves at ! m\?s ( _! burr[s1 & cat*+ insects & snails4 ,a ?ru% usually has a fav\rite /one on :i* x cracks ! %ells ( snails1 & x is n uncommon to f9d1 ne> ! /one1 a little heap ( brok5 snail-%ells--! rema9s ( _m a fea/4 ,9 w9t]1 :5 ! summ] diet c no long] be obta9$1 ! ?ru% subsi/s l>gely ^u ! fruit ( haw?orn1 mi/letoe1 etc4 ,its beak1 z is usual ) birds1 is di/9ctly adapt$ to ! capture ( its food1 be+1 9 ?is case1 n>r[1 r\nd1 & fairly long4 ,! ?ru% is a /rong & r rapid fli]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aif4--,song-,?ru%4 7 74 ,?ru%es beg9 to s+ at ! fir/ signs ( spr+1 pair+ & comm5c+ ! "w ( ne/-build+ 9 ,febru>y or e>ly ,m>*4 ,! ?ro/le's song is surpass$ by v few birds2 & _m p consid] x equal1 if n sup]ior1 to ! night+ale's4 ,! song beg9s be=e sunrise1 & may be he>d :5 almo/ all o!r birds h retir$ to re/4 ,! ?ru% has a curi\s habit ( repeat+ ea* /ra9 two or ?ree times1 8le/10 z ,br[n+ says1 8y %\ld ?9k he nev] c\ld recapture ! fir/ f9e c>eless rapture40 ,_m attempts h be5 made to imitate ! song by words2 ,mr4 ,r4 ,ke>ton#ba quotes ) approval ! foll[+ r5d]+ by ! fam\s ,scotti% naturali/ ,macgillivray3 8,qui qui qui kweeu quip1 ,tiurru tiurru *ipiwi1 ,too-tee1 too-tee1 *iu *oo1 ,*irri *irri *ooee ,quiu qui qui40 ,b1 z ,mr4 ,ke>ton rem>ks1 8no human words c ev] repres5t1 especially 9 cold type1 ! passionate vehem5ce1 ! sprightl9ess1 or ! t5d] plead+ ( a ?ru%'s song40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aig4--,ne/ ( ,song-,?ru%4 7 74 ,! ne/ ( ! ?ru% 7,fig4 #aig7 is a massive /ructure1 deep & cup-%ap$1 & op5 at ! top4 ,x is built ( small twigs & grass1 & is pla/]$ ) mud or c[-dung until ! inside is smoo? & h>d4 ,x is usually plac$ 9 an ev]gre5 bu% or tree1 b may also be f\nd 9 cavities 9 tree-trunks or 9 holes 9 walls1 or ev5 9 %elt]$ places on ! gr\nd4 ,! eggs numb] f #d to #f2 !y are ab\t an in* long1 are sky-blue 9 col\r1 & m>k$ ) black spots1 :i* are mo/ num]\s ne> ! ?ick end4 ,! eggs are arrang$ ) _! po9t$ ends inw>ds2 ?is me?od n only all[s !m to be pack$ m closely toge!r & !re=e to be m easily cov]$ by ! sitt+ bird1 b is also ( conv5i5ce at ! "t ( hat*+1 z ! "y birds usually em]ge 7p4 #bid7 at ! ?ick end4 ,! eggs hat* aft] a =tnight's incubation4 ,! "y ?ru%es are at fir/ bl9d1 almo/ nak$1 & are q helpless4 ,!y make rapid progress1 h[ev]1 & are suffici5tly fl$g$ to leave ! ne/ 9 ab\t a =tnight aft] hat*+4 ,! fl$gl+ ?ro/le 7,fig4 #aih7 is light] 9 col\r ?an ! adult1 & mu* m di/9ctly spott$4 ,9 ,octob] ! "y birds may be he>d le>n+ to s+2 _! fir/ ef=ts are hesitat+ & unc]ta91 b by tireless practice & c>eful imitation ( ! old birds !y pres5tly come into full possession ( _! delightful p[]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aih4--,"y ,song-,?ru%es 9 ,ne/4 ,! missel1 or mi/letoe1 ?ru% 7,fig4 #aii7 mu* resembles ! song-?ru% 9 appe>ance & mann] ( life1 b is di/9ctly l>g]1 measur+ ab\t #aj in*es f head to tail4 ,x has a v pleas+ song1 :i* may be he>d1 ev5 9 ! dep? ( w9t]1 :5 all o!r song-birds are mute4 ,! missel ?ru%'s habit ( s++ vigor\sly dur+ /orms has l$ to its alt]native "n ( 8/orm-cock40 ,! bird is not$ = its pugnacity 9 ! bre$+ season1 & = ! c\rage ) :i* x def5ds its ne/ & "y2 any o!r birds approa*+ ! ne/ are promptly attack$ & driv5 to a di/ance4 ,! ne/ is g5]ally built 9 a tree1 :]e a bran* spr+s f ! trunk4 ,x is made ( dri$ grass1 moss1 & wool1 & ! h5 lays f #d to #f pale-gre5 eggs1 :i* are speckl$ ) br[n4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #aii4--,mi/letoe-,?ru%4 7 47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjj4--;,blackbird 7,h574 7 47 ,! blackbird 7,fig4 #bjj7 may easily be di/+ui%$ f ! ?ru% by its col\r--! male be+ black1 ) a yell[ beak1 & ! female blacki% br[n1 slightly mottl$ bel[4 ,! blackbird is slightly l>g] ?an ! ?ru%1 b 9 %ape & habits ! two birds are v simil>2 !y haunt ! same woods1 live ^u simil> food 7i4e4 worms1 insects1 snails &1 9 w9t]1 fruit7 & build _! ne/s 9 simil> situations4 ,! blackbird's song is1 h[ev]1 q di/9ctive1 & consi/s ( mell[1 flute l notes1 )\t ! repetition :i* is s *>act]i/ic ( ! ?ro/le & missel-?ru%4 ,! blackbird is fond ( p]*+1 :5 s++1 ^u a b>e bran* :i* comm&s a good view ( ! surr\nd+s4 ,! ne/ 7,fig4 #bja7 is mu* l t ( ! song ?ru%1 b ! inside has a s(t l9+ ( f9e grass in/ead ( be+ h>d5$ ) mud4 ,! #d1 #e1 or occasionally #f eggs are blui%-gre5 9 col\r1 & are m>k$ ) blurr$ br[n spots4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bja4--;,blackbird's ,ne/4 ,curi\sly en\gh1 "y blackbirds1 l "y ?ru%es1 are v di/9ctly spott$4 ,!re c be no d\bt t blackbirds & ?ru%es are desc5d$ f ! same /ock1 & t _! ance/ors _h spott$ brea/s4 ,= "s reason1 ! blackbird has lo/ its family col\rs1 al?\gh1 z is s (t5 ! case among animals1 x is /ill compell$ to be> ! m>ks ( its ance/ry dur+ its infancy4 ,"y blackbirds also receive a musical education f _! p>5ts1 & may (t5 be he>d practis+ _! song 9 ,septemb] or ,octob]4 ,! fieldf>e1 ano!r ne> relative ( ! ?ru%1 arrives 9 ?is c\ntry ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ,octob]1 & /ays ) u = ! w9t]1 return+ 9 spr+ to its ne/+ places among ! p9es & firs ( ,norway4 ,! g5]al col\r ( ! bird is grey1 ) r$di%-br[n on ! w+s1 & its brea/ is speckl$ 9 ! ?ru%-mann]4 ,fieldf>es frequ5t fields 9 l>ge p>ties1 especially 9 ! ev5+s1 b are readily al>m$4 ,o!r birds ( ! ?ru% family4--,! r$w+1 :eat-e>1 :9-*at1 /one-*at1 r$/>t1 rob91 night+ale1 & h$ge-sp>r[ are o!r memb]s ( ! ?ru% family :i* c "h be only ref]r$ to4 ,!y h _m po9ts ( resemblance1 "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ ( :i* is t ! "y birds are inv>iably spott$4 ,! bill is usually r long1 /\t1 & /raight1 ! /aple food be+ insects1 worms1 etc41 ?\gh fruit is also eat51 especially 9 w9t]4 ,! ne/s are typically cup-%ap$1 & ! eggs gre5i% or blue1 ) or )\t spots4 ,! "y birds are q helpless & almo/ nak$ :5 hat*$1 & c only op5 _! m\?s to be f$ by ! p>5ts4 ,ev5 aft] !y h left ! ne/ !y ne$ c>eful & cont9u\s tea*+ by ! p>5ts be=e !y c be made to und]/& t 9 future !y w h to obta9 _! own food4 ,birds ( ?is family1 on acc\nt ( ! v>iable "* ( _! food1 are n s m>k$ly migratory z _m o!rs1 al?\gh !y g5]ally move fur!r s\?w>d 9 w9t]1 z ! supply ( insects becomes sc>ce--_! place be+ tak5 by birds :i* h sp5t ! summ] 9 m nor!rly regions4 ,?is habit is v obvi\s 9 ! case ( ! fieldf>e & r$w+1 :i* visit u = ! w9t] & return to ,norway & ,sw$5 = ! summ]4 ,! night+ale1 on ! o!r h&1 arrives "h f ! s\? 9 ,april to build its ne/ & re> its "y4 #ef4 ,,! ,,swall[ ,,family1 ,,! ,,skyl>k1 ,,& ,,cr[s4 #a4 ,! swall[4--7a7 ,g5]al appe>ance4--,notice1 fir/ ( all1 ! bird's col\ration1 z ?is readily di/+ui%es ! swall[ f ! m>t9s4 ,! :ole ( ! upp] surface is /eel-blue2 ! only :ite is on ! v5tral surface4 ,a black b& /ret*es across ! brea/2 ! ?roat & =ehead are p9k4 ,obs]ve ! long1 deeply =k$ tail1 & ! broad1 %ort bill4 7b7 ,habits4--,:at are ! e>lie/ & late/ dates on :i* y h se5 swall[s8 ,d ! birds seem to pref] ! neighb\rhood ( wat]8 ,h y ev] se5 !m 7i7 p]*+ on trees1 7ii7 on ! gr\nd8 ,:y d swall[s occasionally alight on ! gr\nd8 ,d !y seem com=table on ! gr\nd8 ,obs]ve ! small & weak feet2 are ^! adapt$ to a t]re/rial life8 ,d swall[s fe$ on ! gr\nd8 ,:at d !y eat8 ,h[ are ! insects caught8 ,:at is ! advantage ( ! v wide gape8 ,h[ w\ld y describe ! flight ( ! swall[8 7c7 ,voice4--,does ! swall[ s+8 ,describe its voice4 ,h y he>d x :5 ! bird 0 on ! w+1 or only :5 x 0 at re/8 ,:at k9d ( s\nd is utt]$ by ! swall[ :5 x is al>m$ or angry8 7d7 ,ne/4--,9 :at situations h y f\nd swall[s' ne/s8 7,d n confuse ! ne/ ) t ( ! h\se-m>t91 :i* lays :ite1 unspott$ eggs47 ,h[ soon aft] _! arrival d ! birds beg9 to build8 ,:at is ! %ape ( ! ne/8 ,( :at mat]ials is x compos$8 ,h[ _m eggs does x conta98 ,:at is _! col\r8 7e7 ,"y4--,look = ! newly-hat*$ "y ab\t ! la/ week 9 ,june1 & describe _! appe>ance4 ,h[ soon aft] hat*+ d !y leave ! ne/8 ,d !y at once fe$ !mselves1 or are !y f$ by ! p>5ts8 ,keep ! ne/ "u obs]vation aft] ! "y birds h left x1 & notice :e!r ! old birds re> ano!r brood ! same summ]4 ,9 ,septemb] look = ! annual congregation ( swall[s :i* prec$es _! dep>ture = ,africa4 #b4 ,! h\se-m>t94--,di/+ui% ! h\se-m>t9 f ! swall[ by ! pat* ( :ite on ! upp] tail-cov]ts 7,fig4 #agi71 & by ! fea!r$ toes4 ,make notes ( ! dates ( arrival & dep>ture ( ! birds4 ,d h\se-m>t9s occupy old ne/s or build fre% ones8 ,:at are ! position1 mat]ial1 %ape1 & size ( ! ne/8 ,h[ does x diff] f ! swall['s ne/8 ,is ! m>t9 ( sociable or solit>y habits8 ,wat* ! birds build+ new ne/s or repair+ old ones1 & describe ! process4 ,exam9e & c\nt ! pure-:ite eggs4 ,:at are ! newly-hat*$ "y l8 ,h[ _m broods h y kn[n "o pair ( m>t9s to re> 9 "o season8 ,h y ev] kn[n m>t9s to be turn$ out ( _! ne/s by sp>r[s8 ,wat* = ! autumn congregation4 #c4 ,! s&-m>t94--,notice ! small size ( ! bird1 ! m\se-col\r ( ! upp] p>ts1 & ! black fea!rs ( ! w+s & tail4 ,note ! dates ( arrival & dep>ture4 ,is ! bird (t5 se5 ne> h\ses8 ,look = ! ne/+-holes 9 cliffs1 banks1 etc4 ,exam9e ! holes1 & notice t !y lead into tunnels :i* slope slightly upw>ds4 ,:at is ! use ( ! slope8 ,if possible exam9e ! ne/ at ! end ( ! tunnel1 & comp>e x & ! eggs ) ^? ( ! swall[ & h\se-m>t94 ,obs]ve ! peculi> j]ky flight4 ,does ! bird s+8 ,describe its voice4 #d4 ,! skyl>k4--,does ! skyl>k frequ5t woods or op5 gr\nd8 ,describe ! appe>ance1 size1 & col\ration ( ! bird1 & try to see ! long toes4 ,especially notice ! long claw ( ! h9d-toe4 ,h y ev] se5 ! bird p]*+ on trees or bu%es8 ,are ! feet well adapt$ = p]*+8 ,does ! skyl>k run or hop8 ,9 :at mon? does x beg9 to s+8 ,9 ,m>* look = l>ks' ne/s 9 holl[s & ruts ( fields4 ,:at are ! mat]ials ( ! ne/8 ,describe ! numb] & appe>ance ( ! eggs4 ,li/5 to ! song1 & try to say 9 :at respects x diff]s f t ( o!r birds4 ,does ! bird s+ only :5 fly+1 or also :5 on ! gr\nd8 ,describe ! skyl>k's flight1 & /udy its me?od ( so>+ 7p4 #bgh74 ,obs]ve t ! birds collect into flocks 9 autumn4 ,d !y leave ! c\ntry = ! w9t]8 ,h[ d !y sp5d ! w9t]8 ,d !y s+ 9 w9t]8 ,if possible exam9e ! beak2 = :at k9d ( food d y ?9k x be/ adapt$8 #e4 ,! rook4--,notice ! size1 %ape1 & col\ration ( ! bird4 ,d rooks live m]ely 9 pairs or 9 l>ge communities8 ,d !y build on ! gr\nd or 9 trees8 ,are ! trees high or l[8 ,:at is ! l>ge/ numb] ( rooks' ne/s y h se5 9 "o tree8 ,wat* ! birds repair+ & build+ ne/s 9 ,febru>y & ,m>*4 ,( :at are ! ne/s compos$8 ,h y ev] se5 rooks /eal+ /icks f o!r rooks' ne/s8 ,are ! birds qu>relsome8 ,:]e d !y fe$8 ,d !y hop or walk8 ,d !y keep toge!r :5 fe$+8 ,d all ! birds ( "o rook]y fe$ at ! same "t1 or d "s rema9 9 ! trees8 ,:y8 ,:at is ! %ape ( ! beak8 ,h[ is ?is associat$ ) ! food ( ! bird8 ,d ! f>m]s 9 y\r neighb\rhood consid] rooks useful or ! rev]se8 ,:y8 ,:at is ! voice ( ! rook l8 ,h[ does x v>y to express w>n+1 ang]1 etc4 ,describe any obs]vations :i* lead y to suppose t a colony ( rooks has a code ( laws4 ,describe ! flight ( ! rook2 :at o!r birds fly 9 a some:at simil> mann]8 ,9 spr+1 look b5ea? ! trees = ! brok5 %ells ( eggs :i* may h fall5 f ! ne/s4 ,:at is _! col\r8 ,describe ! appe>ance & habits ( ! "y birds4 ,:]e d rooks sp5d ! w9t]8 ,h y ev] se5 !m visit+ & inspect+ _! ne/s 9 w9t]8 #f4 ,o!r birds ( ! cr[ family4--,) ! rook comp>e & contra/ ! cr[1 rav51 jackdaw1 magpie1 & jay4 ,! swall[ family4--,swall[s & m>t9s are popul> ) all lov]s ( birds1 = _m reasons4 ,_! arrival is welcom$ z visible evid5ce ( ! approa* ( summ]2 _! graceful & rapid flight delights ! eye2 _! obvi\s lik+ = ! neighb\rhood ( human dwell+s w9s our sympa?y2 &1 la/ly1 !y claim our gratitude by _! incalculable s]vices 9 keep+ d[n insect pe/s4 ,! swall[ 7,fig4 #bjb7 may readily be di/+ui%$ f ! m>t9s by ! abs5ce ( :ite f its upp] p>ts1 :i* are glossy & ( a /eel-blue col\r4 ,! =ehead1 *91 & ?roat are ( a p9k or *e/nut col\r2 ! v5tral surface is :ite1 ) a black b& cross+ ! neck4 ,! tail is long1 & v deeply =k$4 ,! bill is %ort & broad1 & ! gape /ret*es ne>ly to ! eyes--a great advantage to a bird liv+ on insects :i* are caught fly+4 ,! feet are v small & weak1 b z ! swall[ sp5ds mo/ ( its "t 9 ! air1 & r>ely alights on ! gr\nd except to collect mat]ials = its ne/1 x does n ne$ v /urdy h9d-limbs1 & ! feet are *iefly us$ = p]*+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjb4--,! ,swall[4 7 47 ,swall[s arrive 9 ?is c\ntry ab\t ! middle ( ,april1 & ab\t a mon? lat] proce$ to build _! ne/s 9 ! *imneys ( h\ses & on ! raft]s ( b>ns & ou?\ses4 ,! ne/ is bas9-%ap$ & op5 at ! top2 x is *iefly compos$ ( mud1 :i* ! birds collect on ! gr\nd1 place 9 position1 & all[ to dry4 ,%ort /raws are us$ to b9d ! mud toge!r1 & ! ne/ is l9$ ) s(t grass & fea!rs4 ,! h5 lays f #d to #g eggs1 :i* are a transluc5t :ite1 ) r$di%-br[n or grey m>k+s4 ,! fir/ brood ( "y is usually hat*$ ab\t ! end ( ,june1 b a second or ev5 a ?ird brood may be rais$ be=e ! p>5ts dep>t = ! s\?4 ,gilb]t ,:ite#bb gives ! foll[+ *>m+ acc\nt ( ! tra9+ ( "y swall[s3 8,= a day or two !y are f$ on ! *imney-top1 & !n are conduct$ to ! dead1 leafless b\gh ( "s tree1 :]e1 sitt+ 9 a r[1 !y are att5d$ ) great assiduity1 & may !n be call$ p]*]s4 ,9 a day or two m !y become fly]s1 b are /ill unable to take _! own food2 !re=e !y play ab\t ne> ! place :]e ! dams are hawk+ = flies2 &1 :5 a m\?ful is collect$1 at a c]ta9 signal giv51 ! dam & ! ne/l+ advance1 ris+ t[>ds ea* o!r1 & meet+ at an angle2 ! "y "o all ! :ile utt]+ su* a little quick note ( gratitude & complac5cy1 t a p]son mu/ h paid v little reg>d to ! wond]s ( ,nature t has n (t5 rem>k$ ?is feat40 ,:5 ! "y bird has le>nt to fe$ itself 8x at once associates ) ! fir/ brood ( h\se-m>t9s2 & ) !m congregates1 clu/]+ on sunny ro(s1 t[]s1 & trees4444 ,all ! summ] long is ! swall[ a mo/ in/ructive patt]n ( unwe>i$ indu/ry & affection2 = f morn+ to night1 :ile !re is a family to be support$1 %e sp5ds ! :ole day 9 skimm+ close to ! gr\nd1 & execut+ ! mo/ sudd5 turns & quick evolutions4444 ,:5 a fly is tak5 a sm>t snap f h] bill is he>d1 resembl+ ! noise at ! %utt+ ( a wat* case2 b ! motion ( ! m&ibles is too quick = ! eye40 ,! swall[ dr9ks :il/ fly+1 sipp+ ! wat] f ! surface ( pools4 ,its song is a delicate & pleas+ w>ble1 :i* is utt]$ bo? at re/ & dur+ flight4 ,! voice becomes a squeak :5 ! bird is al>m$ or angry4 ,j be=e ! autumn migration1 swall[s p]* 9 cr[ds on ro(s1 h$ges1 & ! bran*es ( trees4 ,!y leave = ,africa ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ,octob]4 ,! h\se-m>t9 may be di/+ui%$ f ! swall[ by ! pat* ( :ite ^u ! upp] tail-cov]ts1 & by its fea!r$ toes4 ,l ! swall[1 x arrives 9 ?is c\ntry ab\t ! middle ( ,april4 ,! birds soon beg9 to repair _! old ne/s & to con/ruct new ones "u ! eaves ( h\ses4 ,! ne/ is l>gely compos$ ( clay or mud1 :i* ! birds collect f damp places 9 ! road1 etc41 place 9 position aga9/ ! wall1 & all[$ to h>d54 ,! complet$ ne/ is some:at bag-%ap$1 hav+ only a small hole at ! top2 x is l9$ ) s(t grass4 ,! eggs are :ite1 )\t spots4 ,x is wor?y ( notice :5 a wild bird lays :ite eggs1 !y are hidd5 f sight by ! %ape or position ( ! ne/1 z 9 ! case ( ! m>t9s1 or ! ne/ is built 9 an inaccessible place4 ,expos$ eggs are usually made m or less inconspicu\s by be+ col\r$ or spott$4 ,h\se-sp>r[s 7,fig4 #bjh7 h (t5 be5 kn[n to expel ! def5celess m>t9s f _! ne/s1 & to lay _! own eggs !re94 ,! eggs ( ! sp>r[ may be recognis$ by _! grey col\r1 & by ! br[n blot*es ) :i* !y are m>k$4 ,! /ructure ( ! m>t91 l t ( ! swall[1 is admirably adapt$ to a life 9 ! air1 & to a diet ( fly+ insects--! bird hav+ p[]ful w+s1 small & weak feet1 & a s(t & %ort b widely-op5+ beak4 ,h\se-m>t9s leave u ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ,octob]4 ,! s&-m>t9 is di/9ctly small] ?an ei!r ! swall[ or h\se-m>t91 & x may be fur!r di/+ui%$ f !m by ! 8m\se-col\r0 ( its upp] p>ts4 ,x usually arrives 9 ?is c\ntry ab\t a =tnight 9 advance ( its two relatives1 & also dep>ts be=e !m1 leav+ 9 ,augu/ or ,septemb]4 ,^! birds live 9 colonies 9 tunnels :i* !y excavate 9 banks or friable cliffs 7,fig4 #bjc7--;g5]ally 9 ! ne> vic9ity ( wat]4 ,! excavation may be ?ree feet 9 l5g?2 x slopes slightly upw>ds to ! ne/ 7:i* is plac$ at ! end ( ! tunnel71 9 ord] t ra9 wat] may n collect 9 x4 ,! eggs are pure :ite1 & five or six 9 numb]4 ,! birds are exclusively insectivor\s2 !y d n s+1 b utt] a little twitt]4 ,! flight is v *>act]i/ic1 consi/+ ( 8odd j]ks & vacillations1 n unlike ! motions ( a butt]fly40 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjc4--,s& ,m>t9s' ,ne/+ ,holes4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjd4--,! ,skyl>k4 7 47 ,! skyl>k4--,at ! fir/ glance1 x is obvi\s t ! skyl>k 7,fig4 #bjd7 is adapt$ = a life sp5t l>gely ^u ! gr\nd4 ,! l>ge toes lie flat on ! e>?1 & ! long claw ( ! h9d toe is pla9ly n v suitable = grasp+ ! twigs ( trees 9 ! act ( p]*+4 ,9 fact1 ! skyl>k only occasionally p]*es1 on l[ bu%es4 ,walk+ or runn+ on ! gr\nd1 x lives ^u grubs1 cat]pill>s1 flies1 worms1 etc41 & also ^u se$s1 :i* its /rong beak enables x to extract f ! husks4 ,! body is br[n1 ! w+s be+ /reak$ ) black1 & ! dull-:ite ?roat & brea/ be+ m>k$ ) br[n spots--a col\ration :i* is a consid]able protection4 ,! ne/ is built 9 ,m>*1 9 a holl[ or rut on ! gr\nd2 x is l9$ ) dry grass4 ,! f\r or five eggs are gre5i%-grey1 & spott$ ) br[n4 ,:il/ ! h5 sits ^u h] eggs 7,fig4 #bje7 ! cock-bird ei!r hunts = food or s+s 8 delightful song z he so>s 9 ! air4 ,! wond]ful p[]s ( so>+ ( ?is bird h already 7p4 #bgh7 be5 ref]r$ to4 ,:5 ! l>k drops to ! gr\nd he alights at a little di/ance f ! ne/1 & !n runs up to x ?r\gh ! grass4 ,by ?is device he avoids reveal+ ! position ( 8 mate & "y4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bje4--,skyl>k at ,home4 ,skyl>ks r>ely s+ 9 ! dep? ( w9t]2 9 autumn !y =m l>ge flocks :i* patrol ! fields until spr+ 9 se>* = food--r5d]+ incalculable s]vices to mank9d by ! de/ruction ( insect-l>vae4 ,dur+ ! colde/ wea!r ( w9t] ! birds cr\* "u banks & h$ges4 ,! rook4--,! rook 7,fig4 #bjf7--(t5 call$ ! cr[--is a r l>ge bird1 measur+ ab\t #ag in*es f head to tail4 ,its plumage is black1 b z x becomes adult ! fea!rs cov]+ ! face & no/rils are %$1 leav+ ! sk9 ( ^! p>ts b>e4 ,! bird has long & po9t$ w+s1 & is a /rong fli]4 ,! bill is /\t & almo/ /raight4 ,rooks are no song/]s1 _! h>% 8caw0 be+ de/itute ( musical qualities4 ,:5 he>d at a di/ance1 h[ev]1 ! cry 8becomes a confus$ noise or *id+2 or r a pleas+ murmur1 v engag+ to ! imag9ation1 & n unlike ! cry ( a pack ( h\nds 9 holl[1 e*o+ woods1 or ! ru%+ ( ! w9d 9 tall trees1 or ! tumbl+ ( ! tide ^u a pebbly %ore40#bc ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjf4--,! ,rook4 7 _/47 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ features ( rook-ways is ! habit ( liv+ 9 organis$ communities4#bd ,x is true t a primitive =m ( social life is f\nd among swall[s1 m>t9s1 & 79 w9t]7 l>ks1 rem9d+ u ( ! greg>i\s habits ( ! rabbit 7,*apt] ,,xii47 among mammals2 b a rook-society is r to be comp>$ ) ! pack-life ( ! wild dogs 7p4 #beb71 :i* dep5ds = its integrity ^u ! obs]vance ( c]ta9 rules ( conduct by its memb]s4 ,naturali/s h long kn[n t su* a code ( laws is 9 =ce 9 e rook]y1 b :at ^! laws are we d n fully und]/&4 ,"h is a pr(itable & int]e/+ field ( obs]vation = ! /ud5t4 ,x has sometimes be5 obs]v$ t c]ta9 birds are prev5t$ by ! re/ f build+ until ! ne/s already comm5c$ are f9i%$1 & cases h be5 kn[n ( birds be+ expell$ f ! rook]y1 or ev5 put to dea?1 aft] a consultation or 8trial10 presumably = "s brea* ( law4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x mu/ be admitt$ t rooks are g5]ally arrant ?ieves1 n scrupl+ to rob _! neighb\rs' ne/s ( build+-mat]ials to save !mselves tr\ble4 ,!y are also v qu>relsome4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjg4--,rooks' ,ne/s 9 ,trees4 ,! ne/s are built on high trees 7,fig4 #bjg72 !y are compos$ ( /icks & turf1 & are l9$ ) moss & s(t grass4 ,z ea* ( sev]al adjac5t trees (t5 conta9s a l>ge numb] ( ne/s1 a sort ( rook-t[n call$ a 8rook]y0 is =m$4 ,?is is add$ to f ye> to ye>1 z ! numb] ( ! birds increases4 ,dur+ ! summ] ! rook]y =ms ! headqu>t]s ( ! community1 b ab\t ,augu/ or ,septemb]1 be=e ! leaves are %$1 ! birds leave _! ne/s1 to sp5d ! w9t] 9 ?ick] or ev]gre5 woods1 (t5 at "s di/ance4 ,at int]vals dur+ ! w9t] !y revisit _! spr+ ne/s4 ,!y come back to ! rook]y 9 ,febru>y or ,m>*1 & at once set ab\t repair+ old ne/s or build+ new ones4 ,! male bird beg9s to fe$ ! female ev5 be=e ! blui%-gre5 eggs are laid1 & is a patt]n ( dome/ic virtue ?r\gh\t ! p]iod ( incubation4 ,= "s "t aft] hat*+1 ! "y birds are f$ by ! p>5ts4 ,rooks fe$ on ! gr\nd 9 flocks1 a few birds rema9+ beh9d 9 ! trees z s5t9els to give ! al>m :5 dang] ?reat5s4 ,! food consi/s v l>gely ( ! l>vae ( injuri\s insects1 especially ! grubs ( ! cock*af] beetle1 & al?\gh ! birds und\bt$ly eat corn & o!r "y crops1 !y d f> m good ?an h>m4 ,o!r birds ( ! cr[ family4--,! cr[1 rav51 jackdaw1 magpie1 & jay are s simil> 9 _m respects to ! rook & to ea* o!r t naturali/s include !m all 9 "o gr\p1 :i* !y call ! cr[ family4 ,! pass]9e ord]4--,! families ( ! birds hi!rto consid]$ 9 ?is *apt]1 ) ! flycat*]s1 wr5s1 *ats1 tits1 f9*es1 l9nets1 />l+s1 etc41 are fur!r gr\p$ toge!r to =m :at is call$ an ord]4 ,! ord] :i* consi/s ( ^! families d]ives its "n pass]9e f ! sp>r[#be 7,fig4 #bjh71 p]haps ! commone/ ( ! birds includ$ 9 x4 ,x is probably 9 ?is ord] t bird /ructure atta9s its mo/ p]fect developm5t4 ,aga91 ! birds ( ! cr[ family are g5]ally consid]$ to /& at ! head ( ! ord]2 if ?is view is correct1 rooks mu/ be reg>d$ z occupy+1 among birds1 a position :i* r\ghly corresponds to man's place 9 ! class ( mammals4 ,pass]9e birds are ne>ly all s+]s1 & _! toes are g5]ally adapt$ = p]*+4 ,!y fe$ ^u insects1 se$s 7especially ! se$s ( grasses71 & s(t fruit4 ,_! beaks v>y 9 =m accord+ to ! nature ( ! food ^u :i* !y mo/ dep5d1 z is well %[n by ! s(t1 widely op5+ bills ( ! swall[s1 ! /rong b sl5d] beaks ( ! ?ru%es1 l>ks1 & cr[s1 & ! %ort1 h>d beaks ( su* se$-eat]s z ! can>y1 sp>r[1 & o!r f9*es4 ,birds :i* are exclusively1 or almo/ exclusively1 insectivor\s are compell$ to migrate to w>m] c\ntries to obta9 food dur+ ! w9t]4 ,! eggs ( pass]9e birds are usually col\r$ or spott$1 & ! "y birds are hat*$ 9 a helpless & almo/ nak$ condition1 be+ c>efully t5d$ & f$ by bo? p>5ts until !y are able to f5d = !mselves4 ,a few famili> birds ( o!r ord]s w n[ be briefly consid]$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bjh4--;,h\se ,sp>r[s4 7 47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bji4--,! ,swift4 7 47 #eg4 ,,! ,,swift ,,& ,,! ,,cuckoo4 #a4 ,! swift4--,di/+ui% ! swift f ! swall[ by its l>g] size1 its sooty black col\r 7except = ! dull :ite ( ! ?roat71 & its long1 b[$ w+s4 ,9 :at respect does ! swift resemble ! swall[8 ,wat* = ! appe>ance ( swifts ab\t ! end ( ,april4 ,d ! birds arrive s+ly1 9 pairs1 or 9 flocks8 ,notice ! rapid turns & twi/s ( ! fly+ bird4 ,does x z a rule fly ne> ! gr\nd1 or at some:at great heights8 ,h y ev] notic$ ! bird p]*+1 or settl+ on ! gr\nd8 ,h y se5 x cl++ to walls ) its feet8 ,7 ^! ! walls ( h\ses or b>ns1 or ( high t[]s8 ,:at actions w\ld lead y to suppose t ! ne/s are built 9 high t[]s8 ,are m swifts to be se5 9 ! ev5+1 or dur+ ! day8 ,c y expla9 ?is8 ,wat* dur+ ! fir/ half ( ,augu/1 & make a note ( ! day on :i* swifts 7 la/ se54 #b4 ,! cuckoo4--,:at is ! e>lie/ date on :i* y h he>d ! cuckoo8 ,imitate ! cry by putt+ y\r holl[$ h&s toge!r & bl[+ betwe5 ! ?umbs4 ,) practice y w be able to deceive ! bird into ?9k+ t ano!r cuckoo is pres5t1 & x w approa* ne> en\gh to be se5 di/9ctly4 ,e/imate ! size ( ! bird1 & write d[n a c>eful description ( its =m1 col\ration1 & me?od ( flight4 ,try to see t two ( its toes po9t =w>ds & two backw>ds4 ,h y ev] se5 cuckoos mobb$ by small birds8 ,c>efully exam9e z _m ne/s ( small birds z possible1 & try to f9d "o conta9+ an egg slightly l>g] ?an ! re/ & p]haps diff]5tly col\r$4 ,?is w probably be a cuckoo's egg4 ,visit ! ne/ at frequ5t int]vals1 bo? be=e & aft] ! hat*+ ( ! eggs1 & write descriptions ( ! eggs1 ! appe>ance & size ( ! "y birds1 :at becomes ( ea*1 & ! behavi\r ( ! old birds4 ,:at is ! late/ date on :i* y h he>d ! cuckoo8 ,! swift4--,?\gh ! swift be>s a /rong g5]al resemblance to ! swall[1 ! two birds are n at all closely relat$1 b belong to diff]5t ord]s4 ,! swall[1 l all o!r pass]9e birds 7p4 #cbj71 has #ab tail-fea!rs1 & its fir/ toe is sep>ately movable & direct$ backw>ds4 ,! swift1 on ! o!r h&1 has only #aj tail-quills1 & all its toes po9t =w>ds4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 m obvi\s diff]5ces1 :i* readily enable "o bird to be di/+ui%$ f ! o!r1 ev5 at a di/ance4 ,! swift is1 ) ! exception ( a dull-:ite pat* on ! ?roat1 ( a sooty black hue ov] all ! body1 & 9 flight its long & p[]ful w+s take ! =m ( a b5t b[ 7,fig4 #bji74 ,! swall[ flies 9 bold1 sweep+ curves1 :ile ! m rapid swift turns %>ply 9 ! air1 9 pursuit ( ! fly+ insects ^u :i* x fe$s1 9 a mann] sugge/ive ( ! flight ( a bat4 ,:ile1 aga91 ! swall[ flies mu* ne> ! gr\nd1 ! swift is usually se5 at great] heights4 ,! h>% scream ( ! swift is1 moreov]1 9 m>k$ contra/ ) ! swall['s pleas+ song4 ,swifts d n will+ly alight on ! gr\nd1 ev5 to collect mat]ials = _! ne/s1 nor d !y p]* on trees or ro(s1 ! arrangem5t ( _! toes be+ q unsuitable = ei!r action1 & ! l5g? ( ! w+s be+ su* t1 ev5 ) toes ( ! normal type1 walk+ w\ld be almo/ impossible4 ,! ne/1 a some:at rude /ructure ( grass & fea!rs1 is g5]ally built 9 high t[]s or o!r tall build+s4 ,! eggs are two 9 numb]2 !y are m conical 9 %ape ?an ^? ( ! swall[1 &1 z ! position ( ! ne/ r5d]s !m indep5d5t ( protective col\ration1 are :ite4 ,! h5-bird sits on !m dur+ ! day1 b g5]ally leaves ! ne/ & flies abroad 9 ! ev5+ to hunt = insects4 ,only "o brood is re>$1 & ! birds take _! dep>ture e>ly 9 ,augu/1 to sp5d ! w9t] 9 ,s\? ,africa or ,madagasc>4 ,! cuckoo4--,! cuckoo is plac$ by naturali/s1 n among ! pass]9e birds1 b 9 ! ord] to :i* ! swift belongs4 ,! reasons = ?is _c be fully consid]$ "h1 b x may be m5tion$ t ! cuckoo has only #aj tail-fea!rs1 & t x diff]s f all pass]9e birds 9 hav+ its f\r? toe1 z well z ! fir/1 direct$ backw>ds1 ! second & ?ird po9t+ =w>ds 7,fig4 #baj74 ,! cuckoo has a total l5g? ( ab\t #ad in*es4 ,! upp] surface ( ! body1 & ! ?roat1 are grey2 ! re/ ( ! l[] surface is :ite1 cross$ ) black b>s4 ,! w+s are l>ge & p[]ful1 & ! ?ighs are cov]$ ) long fea!rs4 ,9 g5]al appe>ance1 z well z 9 mann] ( flight1 ! cuckoo be>s a great resemblance to a hawk1 :i* may p]haps be ! reason :y small birds s (t5 jo9 =ces & attack x4 ,a ke5-ey$ obs]v] w1 h[ev]1 at once di/+ui% ! birds by ! head & ! bill1 bo? ( :i* are m>k$ly long] 9 ! cuckoo ?an 9 ! hawk4 ,cuckoos arrive "h 9 ,april1 ! males usually appe>+ fir/4 ,! well-kn[n call1 to :i* ! bird owes its "n1 is utt]$ by ! male only2 ! voice ( ! female is q diff]5t1 & is (t5 comp>$ to ! s\nd ( bubbl+ wat]4 ,! cuckoo fe$s entirely ^u insects2 x is believ$ to be ! only bird :i* eats ! hairy cat]pill> ( ! tig]-mo? 7p4 #cfi74 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #baj4--,! ,cuckoo1 7 _/47 ,( all bird-habits1 probably none has excit$ m int]e/ ?an ! mann] ( life ( ! "y cuckoo4 ,its p>5ts build no ne/1 b dep5d entirely ^u o!r birds = re>+ _! (fspr+4 ,! female cuckoo lays h] egg ^u ! gr\nd & !n c>ries x 9 h] bill to a ne/ :i* conta9s simil>ly col\r$ eggs1 if su* a ne/ is to be f\nd4 ,if n1 ano!r conv5i5t ne/ is select$4 ,x is said t ! male sometimes r5d]s assi/ance by di/ract+ ! att5tion ( ! rightful own]s 9 ! meantime4 ,9 mo/ cases ! own]s ( ! ne/1 app>5tly unaw>e ( ! trick1 sit ^u ! /range egg ) ! re/1 & 9 due c\rse ! "y birds are hat*$4 ,! "y cuckoo1 :il/ /ill bl9d & nak$1 wriggles itself "u its fo/] bro!rs & hoi/s !m ov] ! edge ( ! ne/4 ,f> f res5t+ ! crime1 ! dup$ p>5ts n[ devote _! en]gies to fe$+ ! murd]]1 & cont9ue _! att5tions until aft] x is fully fl$g$ 7ab\t a =tnight aft] hat*+7 & p]haps sev]al times _! comb9$ size4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #baa4--;,cuckoo's ,egg 9 ,gre5f9*'s ,ne/ 7,cuckoo's ,egg on ! "r74 ,! small size ( ! cuckoo's egg--ab\t "o-f\r? ( :at might be expect$ f s l>ge a bird--& its g5]al simil>ity 9 col\r to _! own eggs1 bo? aid 9 deceiv+ ! victimis$ birds 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 & ! disproportionate size ( _! suppos$ (fspr+ %ortly aft] hat*+ app>5tly does n ar\se _! suspicions4 ,x is believ$ t any p>ticul> female cuckoo lays only eggs ( "o type & deposits !m1 z f> z possible1 9 ne/s ( ! mimick$ species--! species1 probably1 by :i* %e h]self 0 re>$4 ,dur+ ! summ]1 !re=e1 %e visits "o su* ne/ aft] ano!r1 until %e has dispos$ ( all h] eggs4 ,fur!r1 x is suppos$ t h] (fspr+ inh]it h] t5d5cy to lay eggs ( ! p>ticul> col\r1 & !re=e to prey 9 _! turn ^u ! species ( _! fo/]-p>5ts4 ,9 ?is c\ntry1 ! mead[ pipit1 pi$ wagtail1 rob91 & re$-w>bl] are p]haps ! mo/ usual victims ( ! cuckoo's p>asitism1 b ! ne/s ( o!r species 7,fig4 #baa7 are n uncommonly select$4 ,! old cuckoos dep>t ab\t ! end ( ,july1 app>5tly leav+ ! "y ones to f9d _! way s\? alone4 #eh4 ,,! ,,duck4 #a4 ,tame ducks4--,closely obs]ve ducks1 bo? on l& & :5 !y are swimm+4 ,:]e is ! heavie/ "p ( ! body8 ,are ! legs atta*$ 9 front (1 directly bel[1 or beh9d ! c5tre ( gravity8 ,is ! position ( ! legs an advantage or a disadvantage 7i7 9 walk+1 7ii7 9 swimm+8 ,h[ does ! foot diff] f ! feet ( ! birds previ\sly m5tion$8 ,betwe5 :i* toes is ! web /ret*$8 ,h[ are ! toes held :5 ! bird lifts its foot 9 walk+8 ,does x walk gracefully8 ,h[ does x swim8 ,are ! legs mov$ toge!r or alt]nately 9 swimm+8 ,notice h[ ! web folds up :5 ! foot is mov$ =w>ds1 & spreads out = ! back-/roke4 ,:at does ! duck eat8 ,h[ is ! food obta9$8 ,:y are a duck's fea!rs s little wett$ by ! wat]8 ,wat*1 & describe exactly1 h[ ! bird pre5s its fea!rs4 ,h[ c y di/+ui% ! male 7drake7 f ! female duck1 7i7 by appe>ance1 7ii7 by ! voice8 ,d ! col\rs ( ! drake's plumage diff] at diff]5t p]iods ( ! ye>8 ,:at relation h ! *anges ( plumage to ! m\lt+-season8 ,:at diff]5ces c y obs]ve 9 ! me?ods ( m\lt+ ( ducks & f[ls8 ,is !re any "t ( ! ye> :5 7i7 ducks1 7ii7 f[ls are unable to fly8 ,:y8 ,:5 & :]e d ducks lay _! eggs8 ,describe ! appe>ance ( ! eggs4 ,are "y ducks helpless or precoci\s 7p4 #bif71 nak$ or clo!d1 at hat*+8 ,c !y fe$ !mselves8 ,c !y swim8 ,exam9e a dead duck4 ,notice ! ?ick cov]+ ( d[n-fea!rs next ! sk94 ,:at is its use8 ,exam9e & draw a foot1 & see h[ ! web folds betwe5 ! toes4 ,obs]ve ! s(t1 s5sitive sk9 on ! outside ( ! beak2 :at d y suppose is its use8 ,notice ! %ape ( ! beak4 ,op5 x to see ! horny plates fr++ its inn] edge1 & notice h[ ^!1 ) o!r plates on ! ?ick1 fle%y tongue1 =m a /ra9]4 ,! duck4--,! birds ( ! duck ord]--:i* includes also ! geese & swans--diff] 9 _m important respects f all our previ\s types1 & x is int]e/+ to obs]ve h[ p]fectly ^! diff]5ces are adapt$ to ! mann] ( life4 ,on l&1 ! unga9ly waddle1 :i* is entail$ by ! ins]tion ( ! h9d limbs s f> back on ! body 7,fig4 #bab71 %[s t ! duck is n 9 an entirely cong5ial elem5t2 9 ! wat] ! bird is a model ( graceful movem5t1 p]fectly balanc$1 progress+ smoo?ly by alt]nate /rokes ( its webb$ feet1 & alt]+ its c\rse to any desir$ direction ) ! utmo/ ease4 ,! duck fe$s l>gely ^u ! small animals :i* ab\nd 9 ! wat] ( ponds1 & 9 ! mud ( ! sides1 & ! beak is beautifully fitt$ = ! duties x has to p]=m4 ,x is cov]$ on ! outside by a s(t & highly s5sitive sk91 :i* enables ! bird to detect ) c]ta9ty ! pres5ce ( its prey 9 ! mud2 ! inn] edge ( ! beak is provid$ ) horny plates :i*1 ) simil> plates situat$ on ! edge ( ! ?ick1 fle%y tongue1 =m a v effici5t /ra9]1 by means ( :i* ! useless wat] & ?9 mud c be =c$ out at ! sides ( ! m\? & sep>at$ f ! worms1 etc41 :i* 7 tak5 into ! m\? at ! same "t4 ,a ?ick coat ( d[n-fea!rs1 :i* lies next ! sk9 & conta9s a great deal ( entangl$ air1 =ms a non-conduct+ lay] :i* prev5ts ! undue escape ( ! heat ( ! body1 & saves ! bird f becom+ *ill$ :5 9 ! wat]4 ,ducks are1 moreov]1 c>eful to keep _! fea!rs well oil$1 & may (t5 be se5 pre5+ !mselves--apply+ ! bill alt]nately to ! oil-gl& on ! tail & to ! fea!rs4 ,! complet5ess ) :i* wat] fl[s (f a duck's back is prov]bial4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bab4--;,ducks4 ,dur+ ! great] "p ( ! ye> ! brilliant plumage ( ! drake =ms a /rik+ contra/ to ! sob] br[n & grey fea!rs ( ! female4 ,ano!r po9t ( diff]5ce is t 9 ! male ! f\r middle tail-fea!rs are curl$ upw>ds4 ,f ,july to ,octob]1 h[ev]1 be=e ! m\lt takes place1 ! two sexes are v simil> 9 appe>ance4 ,birds ( ! duck ord] m\lt 9 a some:at diff]5t mann] f mo/ o!r birds1 9 t all ! quill-fea!rs are %$ at once1 in/ead ( 9 pairs4 ,until ! new fea!rs develop1 flight is ( c\rse out ( ! "q1 & ! birds rema9 z seclud$ z possible 9 ! meantime4 ,! eggs are :ite & greasy-look+2 !y are laid 9 a r\gh1 op5-topp$ ne/1 l9$ ) d[n1 :i* is plac$ on ! gr\nd4 ,! wild duck cov]s up ! eggs :5 %e leaves ! ne/4 ,! "y are active imm$iately aft] hat*+4 ,x has be5 notic$ t ! eggs ( precoci\s birds are g5]ally l>g]1 9 proportion to ! size ( ! p>5t1 ?an ^? ( birds :i* are nak$ & helpless at hat*+--! l>g] /ore ( egg-food all[+ a m complete developm5t ( ! "y bird 9 ! %ell4 ,fur!r1 ! ne/s ( precoci\s birds are1 z a rule1 less elaborately con/ruct$4 #ei4 ,,two ,,common ,,hawks4 #a4 ,! sp>r[-hawk4--,wat* = sp>r[-hawks ne> f>ms4 ,notice ! g5]al resemblance ( ! bird to ! cuckoo1 b di/+ui% !m by ! %ort head & beak ( ! hawk4 ,obs]ve ! blui%-grey col\ration ( ! upp] p>ts4 ,describe ! flight ( ! hawk &1 if possible1 its me?od ( cat*+ its prey4 #b4 ,! ke/rel or w9dhov]4--,di/+ui% ! ke/rel f ! sp>r[-hawk 7i7 by ! r$di% col\r ( its upp] p>ts1 & 7ii7 by its habit ( hov]+ 9 mid-air4 ,h y ev] kn[n ! ke/rel to prey ^u small birds8 ,^u :at does x fe$8 ,! sp>r[ hawk & ke/rel4--,^! two birds are ! only ,briti% hawks :i* ! av]age nature-/ud5t is likely to see dur+ a c\ntry walk2 & z "o ( !m is giv5 to prey+ on "y game-birds1 *ick5s1 etc41 :ile ! o!r z g5]ally conf9es itself to animals :i* are univ]sally reg>d$ z v]m91 x is important to be able to di/+ui% !m at sight4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bac4--,! ,ne/ ( ! ,sp>r[ ,hawk4 ,! sp>r[-hawk 7,fig4 #bac7 atta9s a l5g? ( #ac in*es2 ! female is slightly l>g] ?an ! male4 ,! upp] p>ts ( ! body are blui%-grey 9 col\r2 ! l[] p>ts are buffi% :ite1 & cross$ ) br[n b>s4 ,! head is %ort & r\nd2 ! bill is hook$ & %>p1 z 9 birds ( prey g5]ally1 & ! toes are arm$ ) %>p claws4 ,! bird is (t5 to be se5 ne> f>ms1 lurk+ beh9d h$ges & wait+ = an opportunity ( da%+ ^u *ick5s or o!r small birds & c>ry+ !m (f4 ,! ke/rel1 :i* 9 size & %ape mu* resembles ! sp>r[-hawk1 is really a species ( falcon 7,fig4 #agi74 ,x is unrivall$ among common ,briti% birds 9 its p[] ( rema9+ pois$ 9 "o position 9 mid-air by t rapid motion ( ! w+s :i* is call$ hov]+1 a p[] :i* has e>n$ = x ! "n ( 8w9dhov]40 ,! ke/rel1 ?\gh 9 reality "o ( ! f>m]'s be/ fri5ds1 f its :olesale de/ruction ( field-mice1 voles1 & _m injuri\s insects1 is (t5 ignorantly confus$ ) ! sp>r[-hawk4 ,! r$di% hue ( ! plumage ( ! ke/rel's upp] p>ts1 toge!r ) ! hov]+ habit1 ought to r5d] su* a mi/ake impossible to obs]vant eyes1 & to secure ! bird f a p]secution :i* may reasonably be direct$ aga9/ ! sp>r[-hawk4 ,,ex]cises ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 #a4 ,ext5d ! =ego+ me?ods ( /udy to ! foll[+ pass]9e birds3--,/>l+1 f9*es1 wagtails1 pipits1 nu?at*1 tits1 w>bl]s1 wr5s1 & flycat*]s1 & make notes ( ! obs]vations4 #b4 ,try to discov] reasons = gr\p+ 7a7 woodpeck]s1 nightj>s1 & k+fi%]s ) swifts & cuckoos2 7b7 pheasants & gr\se ) f[ls4 #c4 ,comp>e geese & swans ) ducks1 & make notes ( z _m po9ts ( resemblance & diff]5ce z possible4 #d4 ,comp>e & contra/ owls ) hawks4 #e4 ,arrange ! above birds 9 li/s accord+ to 7a7 food1 & ! *>act]s ( ! beak2 7b7 *>act]s ( feet & arrangem5t ( toes2 7c7 ne/s 7op5-topp$1 cov]$1 built 9 holes or tunnels72 7d7 col\r & numb] ( eggs2 7e7 condition ( "y at "t ( hat*+4 #f4 ,h[ _m birds d y "k :i* 7a7 sp5d only ! summ]1 7b7 sp5d only ! w9t]1 7c7 /ay all ! ye>1 9 ?is c\ntry8 ,/ate1 9 ea* in/ance1 ^u :at food ! bird mo/ dep5ds4 ,,footnotes3 #ba ,our ,bird ,fri5ds 7,cassell74 #bb ,! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,selborne4 #bc ,! ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,selborne4 #bd ,a delightful acc\nt is giv5 9 ! /ory ( 8,silv]spot0 7,?ompson-,seton's ,wild ,animals ,i ,h ,kn[n74 #be ,lat91 pass]1 a sp>r[4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,frogs ,,& ,,tadpoles4 #fj4 ,,! ,,life ,,( ,,! ,,frog4 #a4 ,mann] ( life4--,:]e h y f\nd frogs8 ,are !y commone/ 9 dry or 9 damp situations8 ,at :at "t ( ! ye> h y se5 !m actually 9 wat]8 ,h[ d frogs move ab\t8 ,d !y walk or hop8 ,*ase a frog1 & notice t its hops become %ort] z x is pursu$4 ,^u :at does ! frog fe$8 ,h y ev] se5 frogs abroad 9 ! dep? ( w9t]8 ,are insects common 9 w9t]8 ,h[ d y suppose frogs sp5d ! w9t]8 ,:at are ! pr9cipal enemies ( frogs8 #b4 ,ext]nal *>act]s4--,cat* a frog2 is its body dry or moi/8 ,does x feel cold or w>m8 ,h[ does x behave :5 caught8 ,does x soon become tame if well treat$8 ,put a frog "u an inv]t$ pickle-bottle & obs]ve x c>efully4 ,:at is its size8 ,:at 0 ! size ( ! smalle/ frog y h se58 ,at :at "t ( ! ye> c ! smalle/ frogs be se58 ,:at is ! col\r ( ! frog8 ,put "o frog ) d>k-col\r$ leaves & soil1 & ano!r ) light-col\r$ leaves1 & try to f9d out if ! sk9 ( ! fir/ becomes light] & t ( ! second d>k] 9 col\r4 ,is x an advantage to ! frog to be able to *ange slightly 9 col\r8 ,:y8 ,:at is ! position ( ! frog :5 at re/8 ,notice ! %ortness ( ! body1 ! hump on ! back1 ! relative l5g?s ( ! limbs1 ! #d unwebb$ f+]s1 ! #e webb$ toes1 & ! abs5ce ( a tail4 ,:at is ! advantage ( ! long h9d-limbs8 ,m5tion o!r leap+ animals ^: h9d-limbs are long] ?an ! =e-limbs4 ,is a %ort-bodi$ animal 7i4e4 "o ) its f\r limbs pretty close toge!r7 less likely to be injur$ by ! fall1 aft] a leap1 ?an a long-bodi$ animal8 ,:y8 ,put ! frog into wat]1 & wat* x swim4 ,:at is ! use ( ! webs betwe5 ! toes8 ,exam9e ! head4 ,notice ! v wide /ret* ( ! m\?1 ! small op5+s ( ! no/rils1 ! l>ge prom95t eyes1 & ! e>-drum--a d>k-col\r$ disc on ea* side1 a little bel[ & beh9d ! eye4 #c4 ,brea?+4--,wat* ! up-&-d[n movem5ts ( ! floor ( ! m\?1 by :i* ! animal pumps air1 ?r\gh its no/rils1 9 & out ( its m\?-cavity4 #d4 ,me?od ( fe$+4--,put live insects1 small worms1 etc41 "u ! upturn$ bottle enclos+ ! frog1 & wat* ! animal's me?od ( fe$+4 ,try to see h[ x uses its tongue4 ,:at is ! advantage ( ! wide gape ( ! m\?8 ,c y get ! frog to accept dead insects8 #e4 ,! inside ( ! m\?4--,to kill a frog pa9lessly1 soak ab\t a teaspoonful ( *lor(orm on cotton wool1 & put x ) ! frog "u a bottle or tumbl]4 ,aft] #ae or #bj m9utes ! frog w be q dead4 7a74--,op5 ! jaws widely1 & exam9e ! inside ( ! m\?4 ,notice h[ ! r\nd$ eyeballs project into ! m\?-cavity :5 !y are press$ f ! outside4 ,pass y\r f+]-end r\nd ! m>g9s ( ! jaws1 & feel ! r[ ( f9e tee? borne by ! upp] jaw2 ! l[] jaw is de/itute ( tee?4 ,feel also1 9 ! ro( ( ! m\?1 two small pat*es ( tee? 7,vo41 ,fig4 #baf72 ^! are c>ri$ by small bones call$ ! vom]s1 & are !re=e call$ ! vom]9e tee?4 ,j to ! outside ( ! vom]9e tee? & 9 front ( ! eyeball1 notice on ea* side ! int]nal op5+ ( ! no/ril 7,*41 ,fig4 #baf72 pass into "o no/ril a /iff bri/le1 & obs]ve t x em]ges at ! ext]nal no/ril4 ,pull =w>d ! tongue 7,t1 ,fig4 #baf7 & obs]ve t x is atta*$ at its front end2 feel h[ /icky ! tongue is4 ,beh9d ! eyes1 & at ! angles ( ! jaws1 notice ! op5+s ( ! ,eu/a*ian tubes 7,e1 ,fig4 #baf72 pu% a /iff bri/le into "o & obs]ve1 f ! outside1 t ! end ( ! bri/le presses ! inn] surface ( ! e>-drum4 7b74--,if ! ro( ( ! m\? has dri$1 moi/5 x ) wat]1 & place a v small cork-%av+ or a t9y snip ( pap] on x1 f> back betwe5 ! eyeballs4 ,notice t ! %av+ travels sl[ly d[n ! ?roat4 ,?is exp]im5t ought to be made soon aft] ! frog has be5 kill$4 #f4 ,! bones4--,feel1 ?r\gh ! body-wall1 ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! skeleton1 mak+ out ! skull1 backbone1 limb-bones & _! mann] ( atta*m5t1 & brea/-bone 7protect+ ! he>t74 ,obs]ve ! abs5ce ( ribs4 #g4 ,! sk94--,exam9e ! sk9 ( ! dead frog1 & notice t x is damp or ev5 some:at slimy1 & t x diff]s f ! sk9 ( a mammal or bird 9 be+ nak$1 be>+ nei!r hairs1 fea!rs1 nor scales4 ,p9* up ! sk91 & notice h[ v loosely x is atta*$ to ! und]ly+ body-wall4 ,snip ?r\gh ! ?9 sk91 turn x back f ! body-wall1 & see ! network ( blood-vessels ^u its inn] surface4 ,! habits ( ! frog4--,! common grass frog 7,fig4 #bad7 is to be f\nd 9 abundance1 f e>ly spr+ to ,octob]1 9 dit*es1 m>%y l&1 & o!r damp places4 ,z w9t] approa*es1 frogs g5]ally bury !mselves 9 ! mud at ! bottom ( ponds1 etc41 & rema9 !re 9 a /ate ( torpor until ! spr+1 :5 !y em]ge & ! females lay _! eggs4 ,frogs are said to be 8cold-blood$0 because _! temp]ature nev] v>ies mu* f t ( _! surr\nd+s4 ,birds & mammals1 on ! o!r h&1 ma9ta9 an almo/ con/ant temp]ature1--a heal?y man's blood1 = example1 be+ j z w>m 9 ! dep? ( w9t] z x is on a hot summ] day4 ,s long z !y are n actually froz5 h>d1 !re=e1 frogs c endure ! w9t] cold )\t mu* inconv5i5ce4 ,al?\gh ! frog is ess5tially a l& animal1 x is q at home 9 ! wat]1 & swims gracefully & easily by ! help ( ! webs :i* connect ! long toes ( its h9d feet4 ,on l&1 x progresses by long leaps1 its limbs & body be+ well adapt$ to ?is habit4 ,z is usual 9 leap+ animals1 ! h9d legs & feet are m>k$ly long] ?an ! =e limbs2 & ! %ortness ( ! body enables ! two pairs ( limbs to be br\ght toge!r to break ! %ock ( ! fall4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bad4--,! ,frog4 7 #a47 ,food4--,! frog's me?od ( cat*+ its prey is v int]e/+1 & is graphically describ$ by ,dr4 ,hans ,gad[#bf z foll[s3--8,! food1 :i* consi/s *iefly ( insects1 snails1 & worms1 mu/ be mov+ to excite int]e/2 !n ! frog1 ^: fav\rite position is half squatt+1 half support$ by ! arms1 erects itself &1 fac+ ! insect1 turns r\nd ^u its haun*es1 adju/s its position anew by a %ift+ ( ! legs1 & betrays its m5tal agitation by a few rapid movem5ts ( ! ?roat4 ,all ?is "t ! prey is wat*$ int5tly until x moves2 !n !re foll[s a jump1 a flap ( ! tongue1 & ! insect is se5 no m40 ,?is flap ( ! tongue is well illu/rat$ 9 ,fig4 #bae4 ,! frog's tongue is free beh9d1 b is atta*$1 by its ant]ior end1 close to ! middle ( ! l[] jaw1--an arrangem5t :i* enables x to be flick$ out to its full l5g?4 ,fur!r1 x is cov]$ by a glut9\s secretion1 :i* /icks t5aci\sly to ! prey4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bae4--,?ree ,/ages ( ! ,movem5t ( ! ,tongue ( a ,frog4 7 #a47 ,! frog is =tunate also 9 ! extremely wide gape ( its m\?1 :i* /ret*es1 almo/ lit]ally1 f e> to e>4 ,once 9 ! m\?1 ! captive is prev5t$ f escap+ by ! tee?4 ,( ^! !re are two sets2 a r[ ( f9e tee? is pres5t along ! great] "p ( ! m>g9 ( ! upp] jaw1 &1 9 addition1 two small pat*es ( tee?--! vom]9e tee? 7,vo41 ,fig4 #baf7--occur on ! ro( ( ! m\?4 ,fairly l>ge insects are promptly gulp$ d[n into ! /oma*2 ^? :i*1 ow+ to _! m9ute size1 escape be+ swall[$ 9 ! ord9>y mann]1 are sl[ly b surely =c$ d[n ! ?roat by ! incessant la%+ ( ?\s&s ( t9y ?reads--too small to be se5 except by high p[]s ( ! microscope--:i* are c>ri$ by ! sk9 ( ! ro( ( ! m\?4 ,! action ( ^! invisible ?reads may easily be se5 if a frog's m\? be op5$ widely & a small cork-%av+ be plac$ ne> ! top ( ! ?roat 7,expt4 #fj1 #e1 b74 ,! %av+ /eadily travels backw>ds & is soon lo/ to sight4 ,x %\ld be cle>ly und]/ood t frogs & toads are ( incalculable value 9 keep+ d[n insect pe/s1 & des]ve sy/ematic protection = ?is if = no o!r reason4 ,h[ a frog brea!s4--,:5 a re/+ frog is wat*$1 ! floor ( ! m\? is se5 to be rais$ & l[]$ alt]nately4 ,x is a common belief among *ildr5 t ^! movem5ts are a sign t ! animal is 8gett+ ready to spit40 ,frogs d n spit1 h[ev]1 & ! action is simply a "p ( ! brea?+ process1 :i* is p]=m$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,! m\? be+ clos$1 ! no/rils are op5$1 &1 by alt]nate up-&-d[n movem5ts ( ! floor ( ! m\?1 ! air pres5t 9 ! m\?-cavity is completely replac$ by fre% air4 ,! no/rils are !n clos$1 & ! slit-l glottis 7gl41 ,fig4 #afc7 :i* leads to ! lungs 7l4 lng41 r4 lng47 is op5$4 ,! f\l air is =c$ out ( ! lungs & mix$ ) ! pure air 9 ! m\?-cavity4 ,!n1 imm$iately1 ! floor ( ! m\? is rais$--pump+ ! mix$ air into ! lungs--& ! glottis is clos$4 ,9 ! lungs an ex*ange takes place betwe5 ! oxyg5 ( ! refre%$ air1 & ! surplus c>bon dioxide 9 ! blood :i* is circulat+ 9 ! capill>ies 7p4 #bdb7 ( ! walls ( ! lungs4 ,9 ! meantime ! no/rils h aga9 be5 op5$1 & ! fir/ /ages ( ! process are already be+ repeat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #baf4--;,inside ( m\? ( ,edible ,frog4 ,*1 int]nal op5+ ( no/ril2 ,e1 op5+ ( ,eu/a*ian tube2 ,s1 op5+ lead+ into vocal sac2 ,t1 tongue2 ,vo1 vom]9e tee?4 7 #a47 ,a consid]able "p ( a frog's brea?+ is c>ri$ on1 9 ^! fir/ /ages1 ?r\gh ! ?9 membrane =m+ ! ro( ( ! m\?-cavity4 ,?is is ri*ly suppli$ ) blood capill>ies1 & is !re=e admirably adapt$ = ! ex*ange ( gases :i* con/itutes respiration4 ,moreov]1 ! sk9 cov]+ ! g5]al surface ( ! body has also a v abundant blood-supply1 & =ms yet a ?ird respiratory organ2 s t x is practically impossible to dr[n a frog 9 ord9>y wat]--9 wat]1 t is1 :i* conta9s dissolv$ air4 ,?is p[] ( brea?+ ?r\gh ! sk9 is ( great importance to a frog dur+ ! w9t] sleep at ! bottom ( a pond4 ,! frog's sk94--,! frog's sk9 is kept moi/ by a slimy fluid :i* is cont9ually be+ dis*>g$ f small gl&s 9 its sub/ance4 ,! moi/ure n only facilitates sk9-brea?+ z describ$ above1 b its evaporation keeps ! body cool ev5 9 hot wea!r--a matt] ( vital importance to an animal to :i* a temp]ature ( #dj ,c4 or s is fatal4 ,a ?ird mo/ int]e/+ prop]ty ( ! frog's sk9 is its p[] ( *ang+ some:at 9 col\r to mat* ! col\r ( its surr\nd+s4 ,! *ange dep5ds ^u an alt]ation 9 =m & size ( c]ta9 small br[n specks imb$d$ 9 ! ?ickness ( ! sk94 ,:5 ! animal f9ds itself 9 d>k-col\r$ surr\nd+s ^! specks enl>ge1 & ! sk9 z a :ole takes on a d>k] hue4 ,on a light backgr\nd ! rev]se *ange takes place4 ,a case ( evolution4--,! advantage :i* accrues to a frog f be+ ?us r5d]$ less conspicu\s to enemies & prey alike is obvi\s1 & !re is no difficulty 9 pictur+ to ourselves ! probable mann] 9 :i* ! advantage 0 develop$4 ,widely diff]5t races ( animals h col\r-specks 9 ! sk91 & we may assume t frogs & _! ance/ors h possess$ su* spots = c\ntless g5]ations4 ,n[ suppose t1 ages ago1 a frog happ5$ to be born ) ! p[] ( alt]+ v slightly ! size ( 8 col\r-specks4 ,if ?is p[] r5d]$ him less conspicu\s1 9 h[ev] slight a degree1 ?an 8 neighb\r frogs he w\ld1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 be m likely ?an !y to escape f enemies1 gr[ to maturity1 & 9 due c\rse h sons & daught]s4 ,all 8 (fspr+1 & !y might numb] ?\s&s1 w\ld t5d to inh]it1 to v>y+ ext5ts1 ! p[] ( *ang+ col\r4 ,9 "s--p]haps 9 mo/--! p[] w\ld be practically abs5t2 9 o!rs x might be equal to t ( ! p>5t2 :ile 9 a few in/ances x w\ld probably be great]4 ,9 any case1 ^? frogs ( ! second g5]ation :i* _h ! greate/ p[] ( *ang+ _! col\r w\ld be ! mo/ likely to survive ! ke5 /ruggle = exi/5ce & !re=e to leave (fspr+4 ,! survival ( ! 8fitte/0 frogs ( ea* g5]ation1 & ! transmission to ! next g5]ation1 9 ev]-increas+ int5sity1 ( _! fav\r+ accompli%m5t1 w\ld naturally result at la/ 9 ! production ( a race ( animals 9 :i*1 z 9 ! frogs ( to-day1 ! p[] ( *ang+ col\r is univ]sal4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bag4--;,head ( ,male ,edible ,frog1 se5 f ! left side1 %[+ inflat$ vocal sacs4 7 #a47 ,! lay+ ( ! eggs4--,ab\t ! end ( ,m>* ! frogs resort 9 great numb]s to %all[ ponds & dit*es1 pair ) mu* croak+1 & ! females lay _! eggs or 8spawn40 ,bo? sexes croak1 & ! male ( ! edible frog1 ?\gh n ( ! common grass frog1 is able to make m noise 9 virtue ( a pair ( vocal sacs 7,fig4 #bag71 :i* he c inflate ) air f ! m\? 7,fig4 #baf71 & :i* act z resonators4 ,aft] spawn+1 ! frogs leave ! wat]1 ab&on+ ! eggs to _! fate1 & resume _! ord9>y t]re/rial life1 until approa*+ w9t] prompts !m to hide 9 ! mud & g to sleep4 #fa4 ,,! ,,developm5t ,,( ,,! ,,frog4 #a4 ,a simple aqu>ium4--,a simple aqu>ium1 9 :i* ! developm5t ( ! frog f ! egg may be wat*$1 is easily made4 ,obta9 a fairly l>ge bas91 & cov] ! bottom ) s&1 mud1 & /ones f a pond4 ,arrange ^! s t ! bottom %all %elve f ! surface ( ! wat] at "o side to a dep? ( #c0 or #d0 at ! o!r4 ,put 9 "s /ones cov]$ ) gre5 slime1 :i* w almo/ c]ta9ly be f\nd 9 ! pond1 plant a few wat]-we$s1 & all[ ! wat] to cle>4 #b4 ,frog spawn4--,hav+ prep>$ ! aqu>ium1 obta91 t[>ds ! end ( ,m>* 7or e>li] 9 a mild spr+7 a h&ful ( frog spawn f a pond or dit*4 ,x =ms a mass ( jelly 9 :i* ! true eggs--small balls ab\t _/0 9 diamet]--are imb$d$4 ,put ?is 9 ! aqu>ium & exam9e x c>efully e day1 mak+ ! obs]vations describ$ bel[4 ,if possible1 obta9 a pair ( spawn+ frogs1 & place !m 9 a bucket ) a little wat]1 s t ! e>lie/ /ages also may be /udi$4 #c4 ,! eggs be=e hat*+4--,obs]ve ! globe ( jelly :i* surr\nds ea* egg4 ,try to pick x up betwe5 y\r f+] & ?umb4 ,d y ?9k x is ( any use 9 protect+ ! eggs f be+ eat5 by fi%es1 birds1 etc48 ,remove ! jelly z completely z possible f "o egg1 put ! egg 9 a wat*-glass ) a little wat]1 & exam9e x c>efully ) a /rong l5s4 ,to :i* ( ! /ages %[n 9 ,fig4 #bah does x correspond8 ,if possible1 treat a newly-laid egg 9 ! same mann] & exam9e x e h\r or s ?r\gh ! day4 ,make notes ( ! "t elaps+ betwe5 ! v>i\s /ages %[n 9 ,fig4 #bah4 #d4 ,hat*+4--,notice t ! develop+ eggs *ange f ! sph]ical to ! ovoid =m4 ,:at is ! %ape :5 ! embryo beg9s to move8 ,notice ! appe>ance ( a neck & a tail4 ,at ?is /age ! embryo makes its way out ( ! jelly1 or hat*es4 ,! jelly may n[ be ?r[n away1 z x is ( no fur!r use4 ,h[ does ! embryo behave imm$iately aft] hat*+8 ,put "o 9 a wat*-glass & ) a l5s try to see ! suck] by :i* x atta*es itself to wat]-we$s1 etc4 #e4 ,tadpolehood4--,exam9e ! tadpoles at frequ5t int]vals by ! help ( a l5s1 & write c>eful acc\nts ( ! *anges :i* take place 9 !m4 ,notice p>ticul>ly ! f9e ?reads--! ext]nal gills--:i* gr[ out f ! sides ( ! neck4 ,h[ _m are !re8 ,aft] a "t !y %rivel up & are replac$ by o!r gills :i* _c be se54 ,write a description ( a tadpole at ! "t :5 x beg9s to fe$4 ,h[ l>ge is x8 ,c\nt ! tadpoles 9 ! aqu>ium at int]vals ( a few days1 c>efully remov+ all dead ones4 ,supply fre% gre5 slime f ! pond f "t to "t4 ,h y any reason to suppose t tadpoles are cannibals8 ,h[ soon d ! tadpoles come to ! surface to brea! air8 ,describe ! appe>ance ( "o :5 x beg9s to d ?is4 ,has x any legs8 ,h[ _m c y see8 ,9 :at ord] d ! legs gr[ out8 ,notice n[ ! dw9dl+ ( ! tail4 7,x does n drop (f1 z is s (t5 /at$47 ,! tadpole has become a frog4 ,:at p]c5tage ( ! orig9al eggs h develop$ into frogs8 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bah4--,! e>ly developm5t ( ! ,frog4 mi1 small black cells2 mg1 l>ge :ite yolk-cells2 ect1 black cells ov]spread+ yolk-cells2 yk4pl1 yolk-plug2 md4gr1 groove ( comm5c+ n]v\s sy/em2 md4f1 "r m>g9 ( groove2 br4cl1 depressions m>k+ position ( future gill-slits2 /dm1 pit :i* w become m\?2 t1 tail2 br4#a1 br4#b1 ext]nal gills2 e1 eye2 sk1 suck]4 7 #e47 ,! e>ly developm5t ( ! frog's egg4--,a frog's egg is a little sph]ical mass ab\t "o-t5? ( an in* 9 diamet]4 ,:5 laid1 x is cov]$ by a ?9 gelat9\s lay] :i* soon swells up 9 ! wat] to =m a transp>5t globe ( ab\t half-an-in* diamet]1 9 ! c5tre ( :i* ! true egg c be se54 ,?is jelly is extremely slipp]y & difficult to grasp1 & is consequ5tly an effici5t protection aga9/ ! attacks ( birds1 fi%es1 insect-l>vae1 etc41 & ev5 ( p>asitic fungi & o!r small organisms4 ,! jelly also acts z a float4 ,at ! "t ( lay+1 ea* egg consi/s ( a black & a :ite portion4 ,9 ! l[]1 or :ite1 "p !re is a /ore ( food1 on :i* ! little embryo subsi/s until x acquires a m\? & beg9s to f5d = itself4 ,! developm5t beg9s 9 ! upp]1 or black1 "p ( ! egg1 & may easily be wat*$ ) a l5s4 ,& to be appreciat$ prop]ly1 ! *anges %\ld be wat*$1 & n m]ely read ab\t4 ,! /ud5t %\ld get1 if possible1 "s fre%ly-laid frog's eggs1 & remove ! gelat9\s inve/m5t f "o or two4 ,x w require c>e to d ?is )\t injur+ ! eggs4 ,!y %\ld n[ be put1 ) a little fre% wat]1 into a wat*-glass1 & c>efully exam9$ at int]vals ( half an h\r or s4 ,soon a little pit makes its appe>ance 9 ! middle ( ! black half1 & gradually ext5ds until x becomes a groove1 :i* little by little rea*es q r\nd ! egg 7,fig4 #bah1 ,a74 ,9 ! meantime ano!r groove beg9s to =m at "r angles to ! fir/1 &1 9 its turn1 gr[s d[n r\nd ! egg 7,b74 ,if we comp>e ! :ole egg to ! e>?1 & ! middle ( ! black half to ! ,nor? ,pole1 ^! two grooves may be said to be along m]idians at "r angles to ea* o!r4 ,! ?ird groove 7,c7 may be consid]$ z along a p>allel ( latitude1 b x is some:at to ! nor? ( ! ,equator4 ,^! fir/ ?ree grooves deep5 until ! :ole egg is cut up into eight sep>ate pieces4 ,! sight ( ! app>5tly lifeless speck divid+ itself up 9 ?is regul> & ord]ly mann]1 8:ile y wait10 is an intellectual treat :i* %\ld n be miss$4 ,! cleavage ( ! egg goes on rapidly1 b 9 a less regul> mann] n[1 until ! :ole is cut up into a holl[ sph]e ( segm5ts 7,f71 black & small 7mi7 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e1 :iti% & l>g] 7mg7 9 ! s\?4 ,x is wor? :ile to pause "h to consid] h[ ^! e>ly *anges are assi/$ by ! peculi> condition ( ! egg at ! "t ( lay+4 ,! s\!rn hemisph]e ( ! egg is lad5 ) a /ore ( food4 ,! food is dead1 & acts z a me*anical h9drance to ! activity ( ! liv+ matt]4 ,9 ! nor!rn half ( ! egg b little food is pres5t to imp$e its activity1 & x is pla9ly important t ?is half %all receive z mu* w>m? z possible f ! unc]ta9 sun%9e ( e>ly spr+4 ,two circum/ances ensure ?is4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! food-lad5 region is ! heavie/ "p ( ! egg1 s t ! latt]--buoy$ up z x is by ! jelly--t5ds to float ) its mo/ 8alive0 "p upw>ds4 ,secondly1 ?is upp] "p is col\r$ black1--a great advantage1 s9ce black objects absorb heat readily4 ,bo? ^! peculi>ities !re=e fav\r ! m rapid developm5t ( ! 8nor!rn0 hemisph]e4 ,h5ce ! ?ird cleft is to ! nor? ( ! egg's equator1 in/ead ( be+ halfway betwe5 ! upp] & l[] poles1 & h5ce1 too1 at ! close ( segm5tation ! nor!rn segm5ts are small] & m num]\s ?an ! s\!rn4 ,9 ! case ( ! h5's egg 7,*apt] ,,xvi471 ! am\nt ( /or$ food conta9$ 9 ! egg 7! yolk7 is s enorm\s t segm5tation is conf9$ entirely to a small pat* on ! upp] surface4 ,ano!r result ( ! relatively small am\nt ( /or$ food 9 ! frog's egg is t ! tadpole is compell$ to turn out & e>n its own liv+ at a /age :5 ! *ick's inh]it$ =tune is /ill consid]able4 ,! tadpole4--,! sph]ical mass soon becomes ovoid1 & is divid$ into head & trunk by a neck-con/riction 7,j74 ,an occasional wriggle %[s t ! creature is alive4 ,%ortly aft]w>ds a tail gr[s out f ! h9d] end ( ! trunk1 giv+ ! animal some?+ ( ! appe>ance ( a fi% 7,l74 ,9 ?is /age ! tadpole makes its way out ( ! jelly1 & ?us hat*es1 ab\t a =tnight aft] ! lay+ ( ! eggs4 ,! little creature is q helpless2 x has no m\? 7! egg food is n yet exhau/$1 h[ev]71 & its attempts at swimm+ are /ill feeble & unc]ta94 ,9 ?is def5celess condition 7,fig4 #bai1 #a7 x w be se5 to atta* itself to ! wat]-we$ ( ! aqu>ium by means ( a suck] 7,fig4 #bah1 ,l1 sk7 on ! und]side ( its head4 ,x is 9 a v fav\rable position = exam9ation1 & by help ( a l5s1 two--soon !re are ?ree--pairs ( f9e1 ?read-l outgr[?s c be di/+ui%$ on ! sides ( ! neck 7,fig4 #bai1 #b & #b;a74 ,^! are ! ext]nal gills4 ,9 a few days ! m\? breaks ?r\gh1 & ! animal beg9s to nibble at ! vegetation ) little horny jaws1 & soon swims ab\t ! aqu>ium ) confid5ce4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bai4--,! ,frog4 ,/ages 9 ! life-hi/ory1 f ! newly-hat*$ ,tadpoles 7#a7 to ! "y ,frog 7#h74 7 #a47 #b;a is a magnifi$ view ( #b4 ,! gills are ! organs by :i* ! "y tadpole brea!s1 & ea* little gill-?read is se51 :5 view$ ) a l[ p[] ( ! microscope1 to conta9 t9y loops ( blood-vessels4 ,e "t ! tadpole uses 8 jaws1 wags 8 tail1 or1 9 %ort1 does any?+ at all1 he uses up "s oxyg5 & produces "s c>bon dioxide4 ,! wat] ( ! aqu>ium conta9s dissolv$ oxyg5--gre5 wat]-we$s are kept 9 aqu>ia = ! express purpose ( lib]at+ oxyg5 7p4 #ea7--;& ?is oxyg5 makes its way ?r\gh ! excessively ?9 membrane :i* divides ! blood ( ! gills f ! wat]1 to be swept away by ! curr5t ( ! blood to ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! body4 ,! c>bon dioxide produc$ is br\ght to ! gills by ! blood /ream1 & passes ?r\gh ! membrane into ! wat]1 :]e x is utilis$ by ! wat]-we$ z food 7p4 #ea74 ,animal & plant are ?us mutually s]viceable4 ,a s]ies ( slits soon op5s ?r\gh ! sides ( ! neck1 & along _! m>g9s are =m$ folds :i* are usually call$ ! int]nal gills4 ,! ext]nal gills dw9dle & %rivel up z ! int]nal gills are be+ =m$1 & at ! same "t a flap ( sk9 gr[s backw>ds f ea* side ( ! head & cov]s ov] ! slits s t !y _c be se54 ,pres5tly ! two flaps fuse at _! edges--except at "o po9t on ! left side1 :]e a sp\t is left--& s enclose a *amb]4 ,! wat] :i* ent]s ! tadpole's m\? p\rs ?r\gh ! gill-slits1 into ! *amb]1 & out ?r\gh ! sp\t4 ,z x swills ov] ! folds ( ! int]nal gills !re is an ex*ange ( c>bon dioxide = oxyg5 9 ! mann] j describ$4 ,! tadpole 9 ! meantime is gr[+ /rong & active1 & ! tail has gr[n out to =m a p[]ful organ1 ! s9u\s motion ( :i* propels ! animal ) relatively great spe$ ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( ! biologi/1 p]haps ! mo/ int]e/+ feature ( ?is /age ( tadpolehood is ! almo/ entire correspond5ce ( ! /ructure ) t ( a fi%1 al?\gh ! adult frog is n 9 any s5se a fi%4 ,?is curi\s /ate ( ?+s is expla9$ by suppos+ t frogs h desc5d$ f fi%-l ance/ors1 & t e frog1 9 ! c\rse ( its developm5t1 is "u ! necessity ( repeat+1 9 a m or less modifi$ mann]1 ! *ief /ages ( its ance/ral hi/ory4 ,z ,m>%all happily express$ x1#bg a frog dur+ its developm5t climbs up its own g5ealogical tree4 ,! metamorphosis4--,j z ! ext]nal gills are replac$ by int]nal gills1 s ^!1 9 _! turn1 are replac$ by lungs1 & advanc$ tadpoles frequ5tly come to ! surface ( ! wat] to brea! air4 ,limbs h n[ gr[n out f ! sides ( ! body1 & ! webb$ h9d feet consid]ably assi/ ! tail 9 swimm+4 ,*anges take place 9 ne>ly all ! int]nal organs1 fitt+ ! animal = its life on l&2 & ^! *anges are s ext5sive t !re is necess>ily a %ort p]iod :5 ! creature is nei!r tadpole nor frog1 & is incapable ( fe$+4 ,! tail1 h[ev]1 :i* w\ld be useless to ! t]re/rial1 leap+ frog1 is gradually absorb$1 & =ms a /ore ( nutrim5t dur+ ! trans=mation4 ,! gills %rivel up1 & ! slits close2 ! out] lay] ( ! sk9 7includ+ ! horny jaws7 is ?r[n (f1 ! h9d limbs l5g!n1 & ! animal leaves ! wat]--a frog4 ,,ex]cises ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 #a4 ,make obs]vations ^u toads4 ,9 :at respects d !y diff] 9 appe>ance f frogs8 ,h[ d !y move ab\t8 #b4 ,are ! sk9s ( toads dry or moi/8 ,9 :at situations h y f\nd toads8 ,h[ d !y protect !mselves f ! heat ( ! summ] sun8 #c4 ,at :at "t ( ! ye>1 & 9 :at places1 d toads lay _! eggs8 ,comp>e ! voice ) t ( a frog4 ,d toads inflate any "p ( ! body :5 !y s+8 ,comp>e ! vocal sacs ) ^? ( frogs4 #d4 ,look = toad-spawn 9 ! spr+4 ,x =ms long1 gelat9\s ropes 9 :i* ! eggs are emb$d$4 ,h[ l>ge are ! eggs8 ,9 :at respects d !y diff] f frogs' eggs8 #e4 ,keep toads' eggs 9 an aqu>ium1 & c>efully comp>e all ! /ages ( developm5t ) ^? ( ! frog4 #f4 ,c\nt h[ _m cat]pill>s y c p]suade a toad to eat 8at "o sitt+40 ,:at w\ld be "o result ( ! ext]m9ation ( toads & frogs8 #g4 ,describe c>efully :at happ5s :5 a frog leaps4 ,po9t out ! special arrangem5ts :i* enable a frog to leap safely4 7#ahig7 #h4 ,describe ! ord9>y process ( fe$+ ( a frog1 & %[ h[ x is assi/$ by ! peculi> /ructure ( ! frog's m\? & tongue4 7#ahie7 #i4 ,expla9 ! special use ( ! wide gape ( ! frog4 ,:]e are ! tee? ( ! frog situat$8 7#ahih7 #aj4 ,m5tion "s rem>kable features ( ! m\? ( a frog1 & try to %[ t !y are adapt$ to meet special ne$s4 7#aija7 #aa4 ,describe ! process ( fill+ ! lungs ) air1 z obs]v$ 9 ! frog & ! rabbit4 7#ahif7 #ab4 ,:at *anges take place 9 a tadpole dur+ ! fir/ week aft] hat*+8 ,illu/rate y\r answ] by draw+s4 7#ahih7 #ac4 ,describe ! appe>ance ( "o ( ! gills ( a v "y tadpole z se5 by a l[ magnify+ glass4 7#aija7 #ad4 ,describe ! appe>ance1 size1 & mode ( life ( a tadpole ab\t a =tnight aft] hat*+4 ,on :at does x fe$8 ,describe its m\? c>efully4 7#ahig7 #ae4 ,comp>e a fre%-hat*$ tadpole ) "o 9 :i* ! h9d limbs h rec5tly appe>$4 7#ahih7 #af4 ,trace ! hi/ory ( a tadpole f hat*+ to ! "t :5 ! tail beg9s to gr[ less4 ,:at does x fe$ ^u dur+ ?is "t8 7#ahih7 #ag4 ,relate ! life-hi/ory ( ! frog1 f ! "t ( hat*+ to ! end ( ! fir/ summ]4 7#ahig7 #ah4 ,give "s acc\nt ( ! habits ( a "y tadpole a few days aft] hat*+1 especially ) respect to locomotion & fe$+4 ,make a draw+ ( su* a tadpole 9 side view1 ?ree times ! natural l5g?4 7#aijd7 #ai4 ,describe ! h9d leg ( a frog1 & expla9 ! ways 9 :i* x is us$4 7#aije7 #bj4 ,%[ h[ a full-gr[n frog is enabl$ to live ei!r 9 air or 9 wat]4 7#aijf7 ,,footnotes3 #bf ,! ,cambridge ,natural ,hi/ory1 ,vol4 ,,viii4 7,macmillan47 #bg ,m>%all's ,! ,frog 7,smi?1 ,eld] ,co474 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,! ,,habits ,,& ,,life-,,hi/ories ,,( ,,common ,,insects4 #fb4 ,,! ,,cockroa*3 ,a ,,typical ,,insect4 #a4 ,habits4--,9 :at places h y se5 cockroa*es8 ,are !y (t5 to be se5 dur+ ! day1 or d !y1 9 g5]al1 come =? only at night8 ,:at is ! col\r ( ! body8 ,put a live cockroa* "u a tumbl]1 & wat* its movem5ts4 ,9 :at position is ! head held8 ,notice ! long feel]s2 h[ are !y us$8 ,look at ! l[] "p ( ! head1 & try to see ! palps1 :i* resemble small feel]s4 ,h[ _m legs has ! cockroa*8 ,wat* ! rhy?mical movem5t ( ! h9d] "p ( ! body4 ,soak a small piece ( bread 9 milk or wat]1 & put x "u ! tumbl]2 wat* ! cockroa* fe$4 ,h[ does x use ! palps8 ,notice t ! jaws move f side to side4 ,h[ does ! insect clean itself8 #b4 ,ext]nal *>act]s4--,put a cockroa* into a te/-tube1 & dip ! tube into boil+ wat]2 ?is kills ! insect in/antly4 ,notice ! ?9 8%ell0 :i* cov]s ! outside ( ! animal4 ,make out t ! body consi/s ( 7a7 head1 c>ry+ ! eyes1 feel]s1 & jaws2 7b7 ?orax1 c>ry+ ! w+s & legs2 & 7c7 abdom54 ,exam9e !m 9 turn4 7a7 ,! head4--,notice ! v]tical position1 ! black1 kidney-%ap$ eyes1 ! feel]s1 ! 8upp]0 lip 7labrum71 & ! small1 blacki% m&ibles at ! sides ( ! labrum4 ,pass y\r knife-po9t close beh9d ! labrum & into ! m\?1 & see ! 8l[]0 lip 7labium71 :i* lies beh9d ! knife1 i4e4 beh9d ! m\?4 ,cut (f ! head & c>efully /rip (f ! labium4 ,put x on a %eet ( pap] & exam9e x ) a l5s1 comp>+ x ) ,fig4 #bbb 7,mx4 #b74 ,exam9e ! same head f beh9d ) a l5s & see ! pair ( fir/ maxillae4 ,notice h[ !y are atta*$ to ! head1 & !n remove "o & comp>e x ) ,fig4 #bbb 7,mx4 #a74 ,"w "o ( ! m&ibles backw>ds & =w>ds ) ! po9t ( a p91 & !n remove x & exam9e x ) a l5s to see ! too!d inn] m>g94 7b7 ,! ?orax4--,notice ! ov]lapp+ =e-w+s 7w+-cov]s74 ,pull !m aside ) =ceps2 notice t !y are n>r[ & r /iff1 make out _! po9ts ( atta*m5t at ! corn]s ( ! second segm5t ( ! ?orax1 & !n cut !m (f ) scissors4 ,pull out ! delicate h9d-w+s 9 ! same way1 c>efully notic+ _! fanlike me?od ( fold+1 & _! po9ts ( atta*m5t to ! corn]s ( ! ?ird segm5t ( ! ?orax4 ,/ret* "o out1 cov] x ) a piece ( glass to flatt5 x1 & !n draw x1 m>k+ ! l9es ( fold+4 7,notice t "s cockroa*es ( ! common species f\nd 9 kit*5s are de/itute ( w+s1 & h only v small w+-cov]s4 ,^! are females47 ,aft] removal ( ! w+-cov]s & w+s1 ! ?ree segm5ts ( ! ?orax are v di/9ct4 ,notice t ea* segm5t be>s a pair ( legs4 ,take (f "o ( ! legs & draw x4 ,h[ _m jo9ts has x8 ,:at is ! use ( its bri/les8 7c7 ,! abdom54--,obs]ve ! l9e :i* runs along ! dorsal middle l9e ( ! abdom52 ?is m>ks ! position ( ! he>t4 ,exam9e ! me?od ( telescop+ ( ! segm5ts ( ! abdom51 & ! s(t membrane :i* connects ! dorsal & v5tral plates ( ea* segm5t4 ,notice t ! abdom5 be>s nei!r w+s nor legs4 ,obs]ve ! pair ( %ort palp-l bodies 7c]41 ,fig4 #bbc7 at ! end ( ! abdom51 & betwe5 !m1 9 ! male1 a pair ( m sl5d] /yles4 ,9 ! female obs]ve ! boat-%ap$ 8brood-*amb]0 7,fig4 #bbc1 /4 #g71 on ! v5tral surface4 7d7 ,! spiracles4--,9 ! ?9 membrane betwe5 ! dorsal & v5tral plates1 at ! junction ( two abdom9al segm5ts1 look = a small hole 7spiracle7 lead+ into ! int]ior ( ! body4 ,h[ _m abdom9al spiracles c y f9d on ea* side8 ,obs]ve ! two l>g] spiracles on ea* side ( ! ?orax1 betwe5 ! fir/ & second1 & ! second & ?ird legs4 ,:at is an insect4--,! ^w insect is s commonly appli$ to animals hav+ no claim :atev] to ! title1 t x is advisable to po9t out at once "s ( ! features :i* di/+ui% insects f o!r animals ) :i* !y are (t5 confus$4 ,insects1 spid]s1 cru/aceans1 c5tip$es1 & _! ne> relatives1 all h jo9t$ bodies & legs1 :i* are cov]$ by a cont9u\s suit ( arm\r ( a sub/ance call$ *it94 ,9 "s cases1 z 9 lob/]s & crabs1 ?is is = ! mo/ "p h>d5$ by m9]al matt] to =m a /\t %ell1 be+ s(t & flexible only at ! jo9ts :]e ease ( movem5t is requir$4 ,9 o!r cases ! lay] ( *it9 may rema9 ?9 & delicate1 & all gradations betwe5 ! two extremes may be f\nd4 ,?\gh s(t :]e movem5t ( "o "p on ano!r takes place1 ! *it9 is always firm en\gh1 else:]e1 n only to =m a protection = int]nal organs1 b also to af=d atta*m5t to ! muscles :i* move ! body & limbs4 ,x is !re=e a skeleton1 b z x is on ! outside ( ! body x is call$ an exoskeleton1 to di/+ui% x f ! int]nal skeleton 7p4 #bbd7 ( ! v]tebrata4 ,animals su* z insects1 spid]s1 c5tip$es1 & cru/aceans1 :i* h jo9t$ bodies & legs1 & are cov]$ by a *it9\s exoskeleton1 are call$ ar?ropods4 ,insects may be at once di/+ui%$ f all o!r ar?ropods by ! s+le pair ( feel]s & ! six legs4 ,_m ( !m1 b n all1 possess w+s--/ructures :i* are f\nd 9 no o!r ar?ropods4 ,insects are always air-brea!rs :5 adult4 ,! cockroa*4--,! cockroa* is n a g5]al fav\rite1 b x displays s well ! ess5tial features ( insect /ructure t x af=ds an excell5t introduction to ! /udy ( ! m popul> memb]s ( ! class1 :i* 9 _m respects are highly specialis$4 ,x is also easily obta9$1 & ( fairly l>ge size4 ,! body ( ! cockroa* 7,fig4 #bbj7 is v di/9ctly divid$ into ?ree regions3 7#a7 ! head 7,fig4 #bba7 :i* c>ries ! feel]s1 ! eyes 7ey47 & ! jaws 7man41 max41 & max472 7#b7 ! ?orax1 sep>at$ f ! head by ! sl5d] neck1 & be>+ ! legs & ! w+s2 & 7#c7 ! abdom51 :i* be>s nei!r jaws nor limbs4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbj4--;,cockroa*1 male1 se5 f above4 7 #a47 ,! head 7,fig4 #bba7 hangs ne>ly v]tically f ! neck4 ,! l>ge1 comp\nd eyes 7ey47 are some:at kidney-%ap$2 ! long1 jo9t$ feel]s are set 9 sockets j bel[ ! eyes4 ,! front ( ! head is smoo? & r\nd$2 h+$ on its l[] edge is a flap :i* hangs d[n 9 front ( ! m\?1 & is call$ ! labrum or upp] lip4 ,j beh9d ! labrum1 & atta*$ to ! side & front plates ( ! head1 is ! fir/ pair ( jaws1 ! m&ibles 7man41 ,fig4 #bba2 ,mn41 ,fig4 #bbb72 !y "w f side to side1 & _! inn] edges1 :i* bite aga9/ ea* o!r1 are /rongly too!d4 ,! second pair ( jaws1 call$ ! fir/ pair ( maxillae 7max41 ,fig4 #bba2 ,mx4 #a1 ,fig4 #bbb7 is situat$ beh9d ! m&ibles4 ,ea* fir/ maxilla consi/s ( a two-jo9t$ base & two bran*es2 ! inn] bran* bites aga9/ ! inn] bran* ( ! fir/ maxilla ( ! o!r side1 :ile ! out] & long] bran* =ms ! maxill>y palp1 :i* acts z a small feel]4 ,! two second maxillae 7! ?ird pair ( jaws7 are broadly l ! fir/ maxillae1 b are p>tially fus$ to =m ! labium or l[] lip 7,fig4 #bbb1 ,mx4 #b71 :i* hangs d[n beh9d ! m\?4 ,! out] bran*es ( ! second maxillae are call$ ! labial palps 7,lab4 ,pa474 ,x is well to acquire cle> notions ( ! arrangem5t ( ! jaws 9 ! cockroa*1 9 ord] to und]/& ! great modification :i* ! m\?-p>ts ( _m o!r insects h und]gone4 ,x is important to notice t ! jaws ( all ar?ropods "w f side to side1 n v]tically z d ! jaws ( v]tebrates4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bba4--;,cockroa*4 ,! head & its app5dages se5 f ! left side4 c]v41 "o ( ! neck-plates2 ey41 eye2 g541 side plate ( head2 man41 m&ible2 max41 fir/ pair ( maxillae2 max41 second pair ( maxillae 7labium74 7 #e47 ,! ?orax consi/s ( ?ree segm5ts1 ea* ( :i* be>s a pair ( legs1 ^u :i* ! weight ( ! re/+ or walk+ insect is support$4 ,x has be5 f\nd1 by in/antane\s photography1 t 9 a walk+ insect ! weight is c>ri$ at any in/ant by ! fir/ & ?ird legs ( "o side & ! second leg ( ! o!r side4 ,at ! next /ep ! body is c>ri$ by ! rema9+ ?ree legs4 ,9 ! ,am]ican 7,fig4 #bbj7 & ,g]man cockroa*es bo? sexes possess two pairs ( w+s1 :i* are fix$ at ! front angles ( ! second & ?ird segm5ts ( ! ?orax4 ,! h9d-w+s1 :i* alone are us$ 9 flight1 are fold$ up fanwise :5 n 9 use1 & are cov]$ by ! small] =e-w+s1 :i* are g5]ally call$ ! w+-cov]s4 ,9 ! common cockroa* ( ?is c\ntry1 only ! male has well develop$ w+-cov]s & w+s4 ,9 ! female ! w+-cov]s rema9 small1 :ile ! w+s !mselves h disappe>$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbb4--;,jaws ( ! ,cockroa*4 ,mn41 m&ibles2 ,mx4 #a1 fir/ pair ( maxillae2 ,mx4 ,pa41 maxill>y palp 7out] bran*72 ,la41 ,ga41 inn] bran*2 ,mx4 #b1 second pair ( maxillae 7labium72 ,lab4 ,pa41 labial palp 7out] bran*72 ,la41 ,ga41 inn] bran*4 7 #h47 ,! abdom5 consi/s ( t5 segm5ts1 al?\gh only eight c be cle>ly se5 )\t dissection4 ,! 8telescopic0 arrangem5t ( ! segm5ts is well %[n 9 ,fig4 #bbc4 ,:]e "o segm5t jo9s ! next1 ! *it9 rema9s ?9 & flexible4 ,9 ea* segm5t ! *it9 =ms a dorsal 7p4 #bag7 & a v5tral plate1 :i* are jo9$ toge!r at ! sides by a flexible membrane4 ,! *it9\s cov]+ ( ! upp] surface ( ! abdom5 is s transp>5t t ! he>t1 a m$ian tube1 may be se5 ?r\gh x4 ,h[ an insect brea!s4--,if ! sides ( ! abdom9al segm5ts be c>efully exam9$1 a small ap]ture w be se5 p]=at+ ! ?9 lay] ( *it9 betwe5 ! dorsal & v5tral plates1 at ! po9t :]e ea* segm5t jo9s ! next2 &1 9 ! ?orax1 l>g] b simil> op5+s w be f\nd on ea* side betwe5 ! fir/ & second & ! second & ?ird legs4 ,^! holes are call$ spiracles 7,fig4 #bbc1 spir472 !y lead into a complex sy/em ( air-tubes :i* ramify ?r\gh\t ! :ole sy/em & supply ! organs ) oxyg54 ,! tubes are prev5t$ f collaps+ by a spiral l9+ ?read ( *it94 ,?is peculi> me?od ( respiration1 :i* is *>act]i/ic ( insects1 %\ld be c>efully contra/$ ) ! mann] ( brea?+ 9 a rabbit or a man 7p4 #bdb7 & 9 a tadpole 7p4 #cdd74 ,x ought to be borne 9 m9d1 h[ev]1 t ! ess5ce ( respiration is ! same 9 all liv+ ?+s1 & consi/s 9 a replacem5t ( excess c>bon dioxide by fre% oxyg5 7p4 #bdb72 ! diff]5ce lies m]ely 9 ! mann] ( effect+ ! ex*ange4 ,9 ! rabbit1 ! blood1 c>ry+ ! excess ( c>bon dioxide1 is br\ght to ! air 79 ! lungs72 9 ! tadpole x is expos$1 9 ! gills1 to ! dissolv$ air ( ! surr\nd+ wat]2 :ile 9 ! cockroa* ! air is c>ri$ directly to ! tissues ne$+ fre% oxyg54 ,! air ( ! tubes is r5ew$ by a rhy?mic action ( ! abdom51 :i* c readily be obs]v$ 9 ! liv+ insect4 ,! int]nal organs4--,figs4 #afc & #bbc1 :i* repres5t a g5]al dissection ( a frog & ( a cockroa* respectively1 exhibit 9 ! mo/ /rik+ mann] ! ess5tial diff]5ces 9 ! /ructure ( v]tebrates & ar?ropods4 ,! fact t ! skeleton ( ! frog is :olly int]nal & t ( ! cockroa* :olly ext]nal1 has already be5 m5tion$4 ,x w be se51 fur!r1 t :ile 9 ! frog ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em 7! bra9 & sp9al cord7 lies entirely dorsal to ! dige/ive canal1 9 ! cockroa* ! great n]ve *a9 7,fig4 #bbc1 n1 n17 is ma9ly v5tral--! only dorsal "p ( ! c5tral n]v\s sy/em be+ ! s call$ bra9 7brn471 :i* is connect$ ) ! v5tral *a9 by a r+ surr\nd+ ! gullet 7gul474 ,! he>t ( ! frog is v5tral to ! dige/ive canal2 t ( ! cockroa* is ! mo/ dorsally plac$ organ ( ! body4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbc4--;,cockroa*2 g5]al dissection ( female f ! left side4 abd4 #a1 fir/1 & abd4 #e1 fif? abdom9al segm5ts2 brn41 8bra902 c]41 c]cus2 c4gl41 gl&s :i* =m ! egg-case2 cr41 crop2 f41 feel]2 giz41 gizz>d2 gul41 gullet2 int41 inte/9e2 lab4 pa41 labial palp2 mx4 pa41 maxill>y palp2 n1 n1 n]ve *a92 r4 ov41 "r1 & l4 ov41 left ov>y2 sal4 du41 saliv>y duct2 sal4 gl41 saliv>y gl&2 spir41 spiracles2 /4 #g1 brood-*amb]2 ?4 #a1 fir/1 ?4 #b1 second1 & ?4 #c1 ?ird ?oracic segm5ts4 7 #b47 ,habits & life-hi/ory4--,cockroa*es infe/ kit*5s & pantries2 !y are ( social habits1 & hide toge!r 9 crevices dur+ ! day1 b come =? at night to fe$4 ,!y are n at all fa/idi\s z to diet1 b are especially fond ( />*y foods1 :i* !y are able to dige/ 7p4 #bcd7 by means ( ! fluid =m$ 9 _! l>ge saliv>y gl&s 7,fig4 #bbc1 sal4 gl474 ,! eggs are laid sixte5 at a "t 9 a little oblong case1 :i* ! female c>ries ab\t 9 a boat-%ap$ receptacle 7/4 #g1 ,fig4 #bbc7 at ! end ( h] abdom51 until %e f9ds a suitable place 9 :i* to deposit x4 ,:5 ! little cockroa*es hat*1 !y are q :ite1 b except = ! abs5ce ( w+s !y closely resemble ! p>5ts 9 =m1 & run ab\t & fe$ freely f ! fir/4 ,! *it9\s exoskeleton is %$ f "t to "t z ! animal increases 9 size1 a new coat1 at fir/ s(t & wr9kl$1 b rapidly /ret*+ & h>d5+1 hav+ previ\sly =m$ b5ea? ! old "o4 ,%ortly be=e ! la/ m\lt1 ! w+-cov]s & w+s beg9 to gr[ out f ! angles ( ! second & ?ird ?oracic segm5ts4 ,9 ?is mann] ! "y animal gradually takes on ! =m & dim5sions ( ! adult4 ,! position ( ! cockroa* 9 ! insect class4--,! cockroa* is famili>ly kn[n z ! 8black-beetle10 b ! "n is a v mislead+ "o1 because ! true beetles diff] f cockroa*es n only 9 /ructure1 b also 9 life hi/ory4 ,cockroa*es are gr\p$ ) e>wigs1 gras%opp]s1 crickets1 & locu/s 9 ! ord] ,or?opt]a1#bh a t]m allud+ to ! fanlike fold+ ( ! h9d-w+s4 #fc4 ,a ,,wat] ,,beetle4#bi #a4 ,! habits ( ,dytiscus4--,se>* a pond = wat] beetles4 ,put !m 9 a wide-m\!d bottle ) "s ( ! we$s to be f\nd 9 ! pond1 & take !m home & obs]ve _! habits4 ,among ! l>g] beetles--especially f ponds ) a cle> surface 7n cov]$ ) duckwe$1 etc47--w probably be se5 "s ) a yell[ b& r\nd ! edge ( ! upp] surface4 ,^! are ,dytisci4 ,notice ! ovoid1 smoo? body1 ! bread? ( ! h9d legs1 &--9 ! male--! cup on ea* =e leg4 ,try to see h[ ! legs ( ea* pair are us$4 ,on :at does ! animal fe$8 ,take a small piece ( meat 9 a pair ( =ceps & hold x ne> ! beetle's head4 ,if ! animal does n notice x1 /roke "o ( ! feel]s ) ! meat2 h[ does ! beetle behave8 ,:at is ! use ( ! feel]s8 ,notice h[ ! beetle rises to ! surface imm$iately x /ops paddl+4 ,:i* end ( ! body /icks out ( ! wat]8 ,:y does ! beetle ne$ to come to ! surface8 ,9 ,april look = l>vae 7,fig4 #bbd1 ,a71 & describe _! appe>ance & habits4 #b4 ,ext]nal *>act]s4--,kill a ,dytiscus by dropp+ x = a mom5t into boil+ wat]4 ,exam9e x fir/ f ! dorsal surface1 not+ ! almo/ unbrok5 oval outl9e1 & ! firmness ( ! arm\r4 ,notice t ! inn] edges ( ! two w+-cov]s fit closely toge!r 9 ! middle l9e4 ,h[ does ! beetle comp>e 9 ?is respect ) ! cockroa*8 ,obs]ve ! small triangul> plate betwe5 ! ant]ior ends ( ! w+-cov]s2 op5 out ! cov]s & w+s to f9d ( :i* segm5t ( ! ?orax x is a "p4 ,exam9e ! w+-cov]s & w+s closely2 notice t ! w+s are fold$ transv]sely z well z longitud9ally4 ,spread & p9 out "o w+-cov] & w+ ( "o side1 & draw a dorsal view ( ! animal4 ,dissect out ! jaws & comp>e !m ) ! jaws ( ! cockroa* 7,fig4 #bbb74 ,exam9e & draw "o leg ( ea* pair4 ,! bord]$ little div]4--,9 ne>ly e ,engli% pond !re at times occurs a beetle--an in* or m 9 l5g?--:i* is kn[n to naturali/s z ,dytiscus m>g9alis4 ,! "n is some:at cumbr\s1 b x w\ld be difficult to f9d a m appropriate "o2 = 8bord]$ little div]0--! pla9 ,engli% ( ! sci5tific t]m--indicates at once ! peculi>ities :i* soone/ /rike ! obs]v]3 ! creature's skill 9 div+1 & ! yell[ b& :i* runs r\nd ! edge ( ! olive-gre5 body4 ,! outl9e ( ! beetle is an almo/ unbrok5 oval1 & x is wor? notic+ t ei!r su* a boat-%ape 7,fig4 #bbd1 ,b71 or ! cig>-%ape ( ! torp$o is adopt$ by almo/ all actively swimm+ aquatic animals4 ,! resi/ance ( ! wat] is fur!r less5$ by ! smoo?ness ( ! beetle's arm\r1 :i* =ms a h>d %ell enclos+ ! body4 ,z 9 all insects1 ! body is divid$ into head1 ?orax1 & abdom54 ,! eyes are l>ge1 & are s arrang$ t ! animal c at ! same "t see objects bo? above & bel[--a great advantage to a creature liv+ s active a life4 ,! feel]s are v s5sitive organs ( t\*1 & possibly ( smell also4 ,! jaws consi/ ( "o pair ( m&ibles & two pairs ( maxillae1 & are %ap$ mu* l ^? ( ! cockroa*2 !y are p[]ful1 & r5d] ,dytiscus a v =midable enemy to ! m peaceable inhabitants ( ! pond4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbd4--;,a beetle ( ! ,dytiscus family4 ,a1 l>va2 ,b1 adult insect 7male74 ,! ?orax consi/s ( ! usual ?ree segm5ts1 b only ! fir/ & a small triangul> area ( ! second are to be se5 until ! w+-cov]s are pull$ aside4 ,^! la/ diff] f ! w+-cov]s ( ! cockroa* n only 9 be+ mu* h>d] & /rong]1 b also 9 _! inn] edges meet+ accurately along ! middle l9e ( ! body4 ,! delicate1 filmy w+s1 :i* alone are ( use 9 flight1 are fold$ transv]sely z well z longitud9ally4 ,on ! l[] side ( ! ?orax are ?ree pairs ( legs2 !y are v int]e/+ & are wor? exam9+ 9 "s detail4 ,9 ! male1 ! fir/ leg on ea* side is furni%$ ) little circul> areas :i* 7 at "o "t believ$ to be suck]s4 ,x is n[ kn[n1 h[ev]1 t !y give (f a /icky sub/ance :i* adh]es firmly to any object clasp$ by ! legs4 ,! middle pair ( legs seems to be us$ *iefly = /e]+4 ,9 bo? sexes ! ?ird or la/ pair ( legs is modifi$ to =m a pair ( sculls4 ,ord9>y l&-beetles c move _! legs 9 a v]tical direction1 z well z 9 a horizontal "o2 b ! h9d legs ( wat]-beetles are jo9t$ to ! ?orax 9 su* a mann] t !y c only move backw>ds & =w>ds1 n up & d[n4 ,! resemblance ( ! h9d leg to an o> does n /op "h1 h[ev]4 ,on "o side !re is a fr+e ( /iff hairs1 =m+ ! blade ( ! o>4 ,! jo9t c>ry+ ! hairs is s arrang$ t ! beetle c 8fea!r0 its o>--by turn+ ! edge ( ! blade to ! wat]--at ea* /roke4 ,occasionally1 usually aft] sunset1 ! beetle quits 8 wat]y home1 & 8:eels 8 dron+ flight0 9 se>* ( pa/ures new4 ,8 flights are1 h[ev]1 only tempor>y & m]ely f "o pond to ano!r4 ,al?\gh ,dytiscus ?us normally lives 9 wat]1 v cursory obs]vation only is ne$$ to see t he _c exi/ )\t a regul> supply ( fre% air4 ,he no soon] /ops paddl+ ?an 8 body rises naturally to ! surface1 & z ! tail is light] ?an ! head1 x rises out ( ! wat]4 ,! w+-cov]s are n[ rais$ a little1 s t ! space betwe5 !m & ! w+s is put into communication ) ! outside air4 ,! impure gas conta9$ 9 ?is space is soon replac$ by a bubble ( fre% pure air1 ! w+-cases are l[]$1 & ! 8little div]0 plunges once m into ! dep?s4 ,! wat] is prev5t$ by hairs f gett+ into ! air-space bel[ ! w+-cases1 & ! true w+s are ?us kept always dry4 ,! spiracles 7p4 #cee7 are 9 communication ) ! air-space1 s t ! animal is enabl$ to rema9 bel[ ! surface = a relatively long "t4 ,! life-hi/ory ( ,dytiscus4--,9 ,m>* or ,april ! female ,dytiscus lays h] eggs 9 slits :i* %e cuts 9 ! subm]g$ /ems ( pond-we$s1 & ! eggs hat* 9 ab\t ?ree weeks4 ,! creature :i* em]ges f ! egg is ( active habits1 b is n at all l ! p>5t 9 appe>ance4 ,a "y animal :i* leads an indep5d5t & self-support+ life1 & diff]s m>k$ly 9 /ructure f ! adult1 is call$ a l>va4 ,?us a tadpole is a l>val frog1 & a cat]pill> is ! l>va ( a butt]fly or mo?4 ,! l>va ( ,dytiscus :5 ( full size is ab\t #b in*es 9 l5g?4 ,l o!r l>vae ( its family 7,fig4 #bbd1 ,a71 x has six sl5d] legs1 :i* s]ve bo? = swimm+ & = crawl+ ov] ! bottom ( ! pond1 & its head is provid$ ) a pair ( sickle-%ap$ m&ibles1 ) :i* x seizes its prey4 ,ea* m&ible is groov$ on its inn] side1 ! groove be+ conv]t$ into a tube by a membrane :i* cov]s x 94 ,! savage l>va sucks ! blood ( its victim until lit]ally no?+ is left b ! %rivell$ husk4 ,at ! end ( ! ,dytiscus l>va's tail are two app5dages :i* are fr+$ ) hair4 ,:5 ! creature wi%es to brea! x comes to ! surface1 & ! tip ( its tail protrudes out ( ! wat]4 ,z ea* ( ! app5dages j m5tion$ is pi]c$ ) a hole :i* leads into "o ( ! two ma9 air-tubes ( ! body1 an int]*ange ( vitiat$ = pure air readily takes place4 ,:5 ! l>va is ab\t six weeks old1 x leaves ! pond & buries itself 9 ! soil on ! banks4 ,its exoskeleton is %$1 & a ?91 transp>5t lay] ( *it9--! 8pupa-sk90--takes its place4 ,9 ?is condition ! animal s9ks into a /ate ( torpor1 & app>5tly becomes z motionless z a mummy4 ,9 ?is re/+ /age x is call$ a pupa4 ,! pupal /age is necess>y = ! completion ( ! great *anges--comm5c$ "s "t previ\sly--:i* mu/ take place be=e ! l>va c acquire ! /ructure ( ! adult4 ,! pupal /age la/s two or ?ree weeks1 & :5 at la/ ! creature em]ges f its cell x is a beetle l its p>5ts4 ,9 consi/+ ( ?ree well-m>k$ /ages1 ! life-hi/ory ( a beetle ?us diff]s ess5tially f t ( a cockroa*4 ,all beetles agree ) ,dytiscus 9 ?is respect1 ?\gh 9 mann] ( life almo/ e conceivable v>iation is f\nd4 ,! beetle-ord] ( insects receives its sci5tific "n--,coleopt]a#cj--;f ! %ea?+ "* ( ! /rong & closely-fitt+ w+-cov]s4 ,! w+s !mselves are l>ge1 & fold$ 9 a some:at complex mann]4 ,! m\? p>ts greatly resemble ^? ( ! cockroa*4 #fd4 ,,butt]flies ,,& ,,mo?s4#ca #a4 ,cabbage-:ite butt]flies4--7a7 ,! eggs4--,9 ,may or ,septemb]1 se>* ! leaves ( cabbages1 turnips1 & o!r crucif]s 7p4 #ie7 = ! t9y eggs ( cabbage-:ite butt]flies4 ,d ! eggs occur s+ly or 9 clu/]s8 ,are !y f\nd on ! upp] or ! l[] surface ( ! leaf8 ,cut (f a piece ( leaf :i* c>ries eggs1 put x "u a tumbl]1 & exam9e x e day until ! l>vae 7cat]pill>s7 em]ge f ! eggs4 7b7 ,! l>va4--,h ready a 8bre$+-cage10 i4e4 a box measur+1 say1 #ah0 #h0 #f01 "o l>ge face ( :i* is ( p]=at$ z9c or f9e wire gauze1 & ! o!r ( glass2 ! box %\ld be )\t bottom1 s t x c be plac$ ov] a food-plant4 ,put ! l>vae1 ) leaves ( ! plant on :i* !y 7 f\nd1 "u ! box1 & obs]ve !m c>efully4 ,replace all rott$ or soil$ leaves by fre% ones4 ,x is be/ to keep ! food-plant 9 a bottle ( wet s& inside ! case2 ! leaves !n rema9 fre% = sev]al days4 ,describe ! appe>ance ( ! cat]pill>2 notice its g5]al worm-l =m & abs5ce ( w+s4 ,9 ! head1 obs]ve ! small feel]s1 & wat* ! action ( ! m&ibles 9 fe$+4 ,beh9d ! head come ! ?ree segm5ts ( ! ?orax2 notice t ea* be>s a pair ( %ort1 jo9t$ legs4 ,h[ _m segm5ts c y see 9 ! abdom58 ,:i* ( ! abdom9al segm5ts be> legs or feet8 ,h[ d ^! diff] f ! ?oracic legs8 ,look = ! spiracles 7p4 #cee7 at ! sides ( ! body4 ,:i* segm5ts h spiracles8 ,kill a full-f$ cat]pill> by imm]s+ x 9 me?ylat$ _s1 or by putt+ x into a small box ) a few drops ( e!r 7a mo/ inflammable liquid7 or *lor(orm4 ,:5 x is dead1 exam9e x m closely4 ,try to make out ! m\?-p>ts cle>ly2 !y are be/ se5 f ! back ( ! head4 ,! labium 7p4 #cec7 is "h repres5t$ by a conical body call$ ! sp9n]et1 out ( :i* come ! silk5 ?reads us$ to protect ! pupa4 7c7 ,! pupa4--,:5 ! l>va is full-f$1 x seeks out a %elt]$ place1 & fixes itself 9 position by means ( silk ?reads :i* issue f ! sp9n]et2 ! l>val sk9 is %$ & replac$ by a pupal sk91 & ! animal rema9s quiesc5t until ! *ange f l>va to butt]fly is complete4 ,exam9e ! mann] ( atta*m5t ( ! pupa to its support4 ,kill a pupa by imm]sion 9 me?ylat$ _s1 or by dipp+ x = a mom5t 9 boil+ wat]2 c>efully /rip (f ! sk91 & make a draw+ ( ! animal4 ,especially notice ! arrangem5t ( ! w+s & legs4 7d7 ,! imago or w+$ insect4--,:5 ! int]nal organs ( ! butt]fly are complet$1 ! pupal sk9 splits1 & ! p]fect insect comes out4 ,look = pupae betwe5 ,septemb] & ,m>*1 or 9 ,july1 & try to see ! trans=mation4 ,notice ! me?od ( flight ( ! butt]fly1 & ! position 9 :i* ! w+s are held :5 x settles4 ,at :at "t ( ! day1 & 9 :at k9d ( wea!r1 h y se5 cabbage-:ites fly+8 ,kill a butt]fly by putt+ x into a bottle conta9+ cru%$ laurel leaves1 or a few lumps ( potassium cyanide 7a deadly poison7 wrapp$ 9 blott+ pap]1 & exam9e x closely4 7i7 ,! head4--,notice ! l>ge1 comp\nd eyes1 ! knobb$ feel]s1 ! long & coil$ proboscis1 & ! labial palps 7:i* look l tusks74 7ii7 ,! ?orax4--,! true =m ( ! ?orax & abdom5 is conceal$ by ! hairs :i* clo! ! body4 ,wet ! body ) me?ylat$ _s to make ! hairs lie d[n4 ,notice t ! fir/ & ?ird segm5ts ( ! ?orax are v small1 :ile ! middle segm5t1 :i* c>ries ! =e-w+s1 is l>ge4 ,obs]ve t ! =e-w+s are n modifi$ into w+-cov]s1 b are1 g5]ally speak+1 mu* l ! h9d-w+s4 ,det]m9e ! sex ( ! specim5 by means ( ,fig4 #bbe4 ,notice t1 :5 y t\* a w+1 a little :ite du/ comes (f on y\r f+]2 ! du/ consi/s ( v small scales4 ,d bo? surfaces ( ! w+s be> scales8 ,) a r /iff camel-hair bru%1 bru% ! scales f ! w+s ( "o side4 ,:at m>k+s h be5 remov$1 & :at new m>k+s h be5 made cle>1 by ! removal ( ! scales8 ,h[ _m legs has ! butt]fly8 7iii7 ,! abdom54--,c\nt ! segm5ts4 #b4 ,! tig] mo?4--,9 e>ly summ] exam9e lettuce1 /rawb]ry1 & nettle leaves = 8woolly be>s0--! hairy cat]pill>s ( ! tig] mo?4 ,keep ^! 9 ! bre$+-cage ) ! food-plants1 & obs]ve & describe _! appe>ance & habits4 ,h[ d !y behave :5 al>m$8 ,wat* !m sp9 _! cocoons 7pupa cases7 ab\t ! end ( ,june1 & describe ! process4 ,exam9e ! pupa1 & /ate 9 :at respects x diff]s f ! cat]pill>4 ,ab\t ! end ( ,july wat* = ! em]g5ce ( ! p]fect mo?4 ,notice ! position ( ! w+s ( a re/+ mo?4 ,are !y held l ^? ( a butt]fly8 ,kill & exam9e ! mo?1 & comp>e x fur!r ) a butt]fly4 ,especially notice 7a7 ,t ! feel]s ( ! tig] mo? are n knobb$ at ! ends1 b are ei!r ?read-l 79 ! female7 or comb-l 79 ! male72 & 7b7 ,t a bri/le at ! base ( ! h9d-w+ hooks on a cat* 9 ! =e-w+ ( ! same side4 #c4 ,! vap\r] mo?4--,ab\t ! end ( ,june exam9e rose trees1 fruit trees1 will[s1 oaks1 etc41 = cat]pill>s ( ! vap\r] mo?4 ,!y may be recognis$ 7,fig4 #bbh7 by ! r$di% w>ts & ! tufts ( hair :i* /& out f v>i\s p>ts ( ! body4 ,notice t ! cat]pill>s fall into two gr\ps accord+ to size1 be+1 :5 full-gr[n1 ab\t #b 94 & #a 94 long respectively4 ,keep ! l>vae 9 a bre$+-cage until !y pupate & *ange into mo?s2 notice t ! mo?s 7! females7 :i* come f ! l>ge cat]pill>s h no w+s2 :ile ! male mo?s1 :i* are d]iv$ f ! small cat]pill>s1 h well-develop$ w+s4 ,a typical butt]fly4--,! great beauty ( butt]flies & mo?s1 & ! ease ) :i* ! /ages ( _! wond]ful life-hi/ory c be foll[$1 h made ^! insects fav\rite objects ( /udy among naturali/s ( all ages4 ,among ! commone/ ( butt]flies are ! well-kn[n cabbage-:ites1 ! cat]pill>s ( :i* "w s mu* havoc ^u crops ( crucif]\s plants 7p4 #ie74 ,! eggs are laid 9 ,may & ,septemb] ^u ! leaves1 & soon hat* out into small l>vae call$ cat]pill>s1 :i* fe$ voraci\sly & gr[ rapidly4 ,! l>val sk9 is %$ f "t to "t z x becomes too small4 ,! cat]pill> 7,fig4 #bbe1 ,a7 is some:at worm-l 9 appe>ance1 b insect *>act]s may easily be recognis$ 9 x4 ,! head is small & %9y4 ,x c>ries six eye-spots1 b ! l>ge comp\nd eyes ( ! adult are n yet visible4 ,a pair ( %ort feel]s is pres5t2 & ! m\?-p>ts are obvi\sly comp>able ) ^? ( ! cockroa*1 al?\gh ! labium 7p4 #cec7 has become conv]t$ into a sp9n]et1 :i* gives out ! silk ?reads us$ = ! protection ( ! pupa4 ,! m&ibles1 :i* are us$ 9 gnaw+ leaves1 are /\t & too!d2 ! fir/ maxillae are r small4 ,beh9d ! head come ! ?ree segm5ts ( ! ?orax1 ea* ( :i* be>s a pair ( %ort jo9t$ legs2 w+s h n1 z yet1 develop$4 ,! abdom5 really consi/s ( t5 segm5ts1 al?\gh only n9e c be se5 )\t dissection4 ,segm5ts #c to #f ( ! abdom5 be> %ort1 unjo9t$ legs call$ pro-legs or cu%ion feet1 & ! la/ segm5t be>s a pair ( app5dages call$ ! anal feet4 ,spiracles are to be se5 on ! fir/ eight abdom9al segm5ts4 ,9 ! l>va ( ! gre5-ve9$ cabbage-:ite1 ea* spiracle is r$di% & surr\nd$ by a yell[ bord]4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbe4--;,cabbage ,:ite ,butt]fly4 ,a1 l>va2 ,b1 pupa2 ,c1 p]fect insect4 7,all 47 7,b & ,c f photographs by ,mr4 ,a4 ,flatt]s7 ,:5 ! cat]pill> has atta9$ its full size1 x /ops fe$+ & seeks out a %elt]$ place--(t5 a *9k 9 a wall4 ,silk5 ?reads are giv5 (f by ! sp9n]ets until a little heap ( silk is =m$ into :i* ! hook$ end ( ! abdom5 is fix$4 ,!n a girdle ( silk is made1 pass$ r\nd ! ?ick] =e-"p ( ! body1 & s atta*$ to ! wall t ! animal is support$ 9 an upright position4 ,! l>val sk9 n[ splits & is peel$ (f1 & ! pupa1 or *rysalis1 /age 7,fig4 #bbe1 ,b7 is ent]$ ^u4 ,all ! ext]nal p>ts ( ! butt]fly are complete at ! "t ( pupation1 b pr(\nd *anges are /ill necess>y 9 ! int]nal organs2 x is to all[ ^! *anges to take place 9 tranquillity t ! re/+1 or pupal1 /age is int]pos$ betwe5 l>val & adult life4 ,at la/ ! new organs are ready = _! "w1 ! pupal sk9 cracks1 & ! p]fect insect 7,fig4 #bbe1 ,c7 em]ges4 ,! head n[ c>ries a pair ( l>ge comp\nd eyes1 & two sl5d] feel]s ) knobb$ ends4 ,! jaws also h be5 remodell$ 9 accordance ) ! completely diff]5t mann] ( life ^u :i* ! insect is n[ ent]+4 ,! m&ibles are n[ only d\btfully recognisable2 ! fir/ pair ( maxillae are elongat$ & groov$1 & are closely appli$ to ea* o!r to =m a long tube call$ ! proboscis 7,fig4 #bbf1 ,mx4 #a71 :i*1 :5 n 9 use = suck+ up ! sweet juices ( fl[]s1 is kept coil$ up b5ea? ! head2 ! palps ( ! labium 7,lab4 ,pa47 project l tusks on ! sides ( ! head4 ,! ?orax is provid$ ) two pairs ( broad w+s1 :i* are cov]$ ) m9ute ov]lapp+ scales--=m+ a delicate 8bloom0 :i* is readily deta*$ by r\gh h&l+4 ,9 _m butt]flies & mo?s ! scales are gorge\sly col\r$ & arrang$ 9 symmetrical patt]ns4 ,! "n ,lepidopt]a1#cb :i* is appli$ to ?is ord] ( insects1 0 sugge/$ by ! scaly cov]+ ( ! w+s4 ,:5 ! butt]fly is at re/ ! w+s are ei!r fully exp&$ horizontally1 or are held v]tically ov] ! back1 ! upp] surfaces ( ! =e w+s be+ 9 contact4 ,! fir/ segm5t ( ! ?orax1 :i* be>s ! fir/ ( ! ?ree pairs ( legs1 is greatly r$uc$2 ! ?ird segm5t also is b small4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbf4--;,a1 ,head ( a ,lepidopt]\s insect2 ,b1 ! labium2 ,ant41 feel]2 ,e1 eye2 ,lab4 ,pa41 labial palp2 ,mx4 #a1 proboscis2 ,mx4 ,pa41 maxill>y palp 7magnifi$74 ,9 %ort1 ! :ole organisation ( a butt]fly is def9itely adapt$ to ! special duties :i* belong to ?is p]iod ( its life4 ,! gr[+ /age is ov]2 ! sole object ( life is n[ to seek a mate &--9 ! case ( ! female--to lay ! eggs 9 a place :]e ! future l>vae may f9d pl5ty ( food4 ,ease ( locomotion & conspicu\sness are secur$ by ! broad & brilliantly-col\r$ w+s2 ! peculi> mann] ( flight is consid]able protection aga9/ ! attacks ( birds2 l>ge eyes aid 9 ! recognition ( ! mate2 & a conc5trat$ & easily-dige/$ food is suppli$ by ! nect> ( fl[]s1 & made accessible by ! long1 suck+ proboscis--! s]vice ( cross-poll9ation 7p4 #ib7 (t5 be+ unconsci\sly r5d]$ 9 return = ! sweet draught4 ,! common species ( cabbage-:ite butt]flies sp5d ! w9t] z pupae2 ! p]fect insects em]ge 9 ,april1 lay _! eggs1 & !n die4 ,! cat]pill>s pupate & a second g5]ation ( butt]flies appe>s1 _! (fspr+ rea*+ ! pupa /age ab\t ! end ( autumn4 ,mo?s4--,mo?s pass ?r\gh a life-hi/ory :i* is id5tical1 9 its broad features1 ) t ( butt]flies4 ,! l>va :i* hat*es f ! egg is a cat]pill>1 ^: life is sp5t 9 fe$+ & gr[+4 ,at ! same "t ! ext]nal features ( ! adult are gradually tak+ =m "u ! sk94 ,:5 at la/ ! full l>val size is atta9$1 & a re/+ /age is necess>y = ! p]fection ( ! int]nal organs1 ! cat]pill>'s sk9 splits1 & is %$1 & ! animal becomes a pupa or *rysalis4 ,a mo?-pupa is g5]ally some:at egg-%ap$ 7,fig4 #bbg71 :]eas ! pupa ( a butt]fly is usually conical1 ?\gh !re are _m exceptions4 ,! w+$ mo?1 :i* at l5g? em]ges f ! pupal sk91 diff]s f a butt]fly 9 c]ta9 obvi\s respects4 ,its body is usually broad & ?ick2 its feel]s are ei!r comb-l or ?read l1 n knobb$ at ! ends2 ! two w+s ( "o side are 9 mo/ cases secur$ toge!r at ! base by "o or m bri/les on ! h9d-w+ hook+ ov] a cat* on ! =e-w+2 9 re/1 ! w+s usually slope & are n fully ext5d$4 ,:]eas butt]flies usually fly only 9 ! sun%9e1 mo?s (t5 fly by night1 & ! fl[]s :i* night-fly+ mo?s frequ5t = nect> are z a rule :ite & /rongly-sc5t$1 & close dur+ ! day4 ,9 f9d+ _! mates1 mo?s seem to dep5d l>gely ^u ! s5se ( smell1 :i* is probably lodg$ 9 ! feel]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbg4--,/ages ( ,tig] ,mo?4 ,a1 ,cat]pill>1 f left side2 ,b1 pupa 7remov$ f cocoon71 v5tral view2 ,c1 p]fect insect 7female74 7,f a photograph by ,mr4 ,a4 ,flatt]s47 7 _/47 ,! life-hi/ory ( a typical mo? is well exemplifi$ by ! ,tig] ,mo? 7,fig4 #bbg71 :i* is easily re>$ 9 captivity4 ,! l>va--(t5 call$ ! 8woolly be>10 f its ?ick cov]+ ( hair--may be f\nd 9 e>ly summ] on ! leaves ( lettuce1 /rawb]ry1 nettle1 & o!r plants4 ,x pupates ab\t ! end ( ,june1 work+ its hair1 toge!r ) silk spun by ! sp9n]et1 into a cocoon1 9 :i* ! re/+ /age is pass$4 ,ab\t a mon? lat] ! p]fect mo? em]ges2 its =e-w+s are beautifully mottl$ ) cream col\r & *ocolate br[n2 ! h9d-w+s are r$1 ) metallic violet spots4 ,! feel]s ( ! male are comb-l1 & are probably v s5sitive organs ( smell1 by means ( :i* he seeks out 8 mate4 ,! female's feel]s are ?read-l4 ,9 ! ,vap\r] ,mo? 7,fig4 #bbh71 ^: 8loop+0 flight may (t5 be obs]v$ ev5 9 ! /reets ( t[ns dur+ ! day1 ! two sexes are rem>kably diff]5t f ea* o!r4 ,! male 7,c7 alone c fly2 ! female 7,d7 is w+less1 & is conf9$ = ! :ole ( h] %ort adult life to ! place :]e %e em]g$ f ! cocoon4 ,"h %e lays h] eggs & !n dies4 ,nei!r %e nor h] mate is capable ( fe$+4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbh4--,/ages ( ,vap\r] ,mo?4 ,a1 ,l>va 7male72 ,b1 male pupa2 ,c1 male mo?2 ,d1 female mo?4 7,f a photograph by ,mr4 ,a4 ,flatt]s47 7 47 ,x w\ld be difficult to f9d a m /rik+ example ( ! fact t ! "o duty ( ! adult mo? is reproduction4 ,! female vap\r] is ev5 deb>r$ f ! privilege ( *oos+ fav\rable places = h] eggs2 b a comp5sation = ?is disadvantage lies 9 ! agility ( ! l>vae 7,a71 :i* are able to migrate )\t difficulty to ano!r plant :5ev] food becomes sc>ce4 ,z ,pr(4 ,miall rem>ks3#cc 8,:atev] ! l>va c d = itself1 ! female c safely leave undone2 b :at ! l>va _c d1 by reason ( sluggi%ness or re/rict$ diet1 ! p>5t mu/ provide =4 ,h5ce activity & intellig5ce 9 ! "o lead to deg5]ation 9 ! o!r4444 ,w+s are to insects :at spores are to f]ns1 plum$ se$s to d&elions1 & hook$ se$s to burrs--a ready means ( disp]sal40 ,o!r insects4--,space does n p]mit ( m ?an a ref]5ce to o!r insects1 & ! "w ( ?is *apt] is to be reg>d$ z ! m]e/ introduction to ! /udy ( ?is fasc9at+ class ( animals4 ,! *ief rema9+ ord]s are ! ,neuropt]a1 includ+ ,may flies1 dragon flies1 & caddis flies2 ! ,hemipt]a1 among :i* are includ$ ! v>i\s 8bugs10 wat] boatm51 plant lice1 etc42 ! ,dipt]a 7two-w+$ flies71 su* z ! h\se-fly1 gnat1 h>lequ9 fly1 daddy-long-legs1 etc42 & ! ,hym5opt]a1 includ+ bees1 wasps1 ants1 gall flies 7p4 #adf71 & i*neumons4 ,_m ( ^! insects h aquatic l>vae :i* may be f\nd 9 ponds2 & _! life-hi/ories %\ld be /udi$ 9 aqu>ia & c>eful notes made ( ! trans=mations4#cd ,,ex]cises ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xix4 #a4 ,exam9e ! foll[+ animals1 & f9d out 7a7 :i* are ar?ropods1 7b7 :i* are insects3 tortoise1 spid]1 gras%opp]1 lob/]1 e>wig1 c5tip$e4 ,give reasons = y\r conclusions4 #b4 ,keep a gras%opp] "u a tumbl] ) a small sod ( grass4 ,obs]ve its habits1 & f9d out h[ x 8*irps40 ,comp>e its /ructure ) t ( ! cockroa*4 #c4 ,comp>e a cock*af] ) a wat]-beetle4 ,9 :at ord] ( insects w\ld y place ! cock*af]1 & :y8 #d4 ,comp>e o!r wat]-beetles ) ,dytiscus1 & try to trace _! life-hi/ory4 #e4 ,obs]ve ! habits & exam9e ! /ructure ( ! wat]-boatman4 ,:at reasons c y f9d = exclud+ x f ! beetle-ord]8 #f4 ,exam9e a daddy-long-legs1 & try to f9d ! two /umps :i* are all t rema9 ( ! h9d-w+s4 #g4 ,look = 8blood worms0 7l>vae ( ! h>lequ9 fly7 9 horse-tr\ghs & sluggi% /reams 9 summ]2 keep !m 9 a sauc] ( wat] ) a few dead leaves4 ,obs]ve _! habits & describe ! appe>ance ( ! pupa4 ,:at k9d ( insect em]ges f ! pupa8 #h4 ,keep caddis-worms 9 an aqu>ium & describe _! habits4 #i4 ,exam9e ! leaves ( /++ nettles = cat]pill>s 9 ,june1 & try to re> butt]flies f !m4 ,c>efully notice f :i* k9d ( cat]pill> ea* butt]fly is d]iv$4 #aj4 ,look = cat]pill>s ( ! ,privet ,hawk ,mo? on privets & lilacs on ,augu/ & ,septemb] ev5+s4 ,keep "s1 ) e>? & twigs ( ! food plant1 9 a cov]$ fl[]-pot1 & obs]ve _! me?od ( pupation4 #aa4 ,comp>e ! col\ration ( ! w+s ( butt]flies & mo?s ) t ( ! plants !y mo/ frequ5t1 & describe any cases ( protective col\ration :i* y f9d4 ,,footnotes3 #bh ,greek3 or?os1 /raight2 pt]on1 a w+4 #bi ,see ,footnote1 p4 #cgb4 #cj ,greek3 koleos1 a %ea?2 pt]on1 a w+4 #ca ,liv+ eggs1 l>vae1 & pupae ( ,lepidopt]a may be obta9$ f ,mr4 ,h4 ,w4 ,head1 ,burni/on1 ne> ,sc>bor\gh1 & o!r deal]s4 #cb ,greek3 lepis1 a scale2 pt]on1 a w+4 #cc ,injuri\s & ,useful ,insects 7,bell74 #cd ,miall's ,injuri\s & ,useful ,insects 7,bell71 & ,natural ,hi/ory ( ,aquatic ,insects 7,macmillan71 are /rongly recomm5d$ z guides to fur!r "w4 ,,*apt] ,,xx4 ,,"s ,,cru/aceans1 ,,molluscs1 ,,& ,,worms4 #fe4 ,,"s ,,common ,,cru/aceans4 #a4 ,! crayfi% & lob/]4--7a7 ,habits4--,read]s 9 lime/one di/ricts w probably be able to f9d crayfi%es 9 ! /reams1 & ! habits ( ! animals 9 _! natural surr\nd+s %\ld be obs]v$ & describ$4 ,o!r read]s w be able to obta9 live specim5s f deal]s4#ce ,place ! animal on ! table or desk4 ,notice t ! body consi/s ( an ant]ior1 unsegm5t$ portion1 ! cephalo?orax 7correspond+ to ! head plus ! ?orax ( an insect71 & a po/]ior1 jo9t$ abdom54 ,wat* ! movem5ts ( ! /alk$ eyes1 ! feel]s & legs2 all[ ! claws ( ! l>ge/ pair ( legs 7! 8p9c]s07 to grasp a p5cil4 ,put ! crayfi% 9 a :ite di%1 ) an in* or two ( wat]1 & by means ( a pipette dis*>ge a few drops ( wat] conta9+ "s susp5d$ col\r+ matt]1 su* z c>m9e or indigo1 ne> ! po9t ( atta*m5t ( ! la/ walk+ leg4 ,describe ! movem5ts ( ! col\r$ wat]4 ,:5 ! animal is />tl$1 notice ! sudd5 v]tical flexure ( ! abdom51 by means ( :i* ! body is pull$ backw>d 9 ! wat]4 ,fe$ ! crayfi% ) meat or worms1 & try to see ! action ( ! jaws4 7b7 ,ext]nal *>act]s4--,kill ! crayfi% in/antane\sly by dropp+ x into boil+ wat]4 ,comp>e ! animal ) a cockroa* 7p4 #cdi74 ,exam9e m closely ! /alk$ eyes1 ! two pairs ( feel]s1 ! f\r pairs ( walk+ legs & ! s+le pair ( l>ge p9c]s1 & ! fusion ( ! head & ?orax to =m ! cephalo?orax4 ,c\nt ! segm5ts ( ! abdom54 7c7 ,! app5dages4--,exam9e ! v5tral surface ( ! abdom51 & notice t ea* segm5t1 except ! la/1 be>s a pair ( small jo9t$ organs2 ^! are call$ swimm]ets4 ,remove "o ( ! pair c>ri$ by ! la/ segm5t b two1 exam9e & draw x2 make out t x consi/s ( a /alk & two bran*es4 ,notice t ! bran*es ( ! swimm]ets ( ! la/ segm5t b "o are exp&$1 & =m1 ) ! la/ segm5t1 ! tail f94 ,/udy ! app5dages ( ! cephalo?orax f beh9d =w>ds4 ,!y consi/ ( 7i7 f\r pairs ( legs us$ = walk+1 & a l>g] pair ( p9c]s2 7ii7 ?ree pairs ( foot-jaws or maxillip$es2 7iii7 two pairs ( maxillae2 7iv7 "o pair ( m&ibles2 7v7 two pairs ( feel]s4 7d7 ,! gills4--,) /rong scissors cut (f ! side "p ( ! exoskeleton ( ! cephalo?orax1 & notice ! plume-l gills 9 ! gill-*amb] ?us laid op54 ,move ! adjo9+ legs1 & see t "s ( ! gills also move4 #b4 ,! crab4--,obta9 a crab & comp>e x1 po9t by po9t1 ) ! crayfi%1 or lob/]4 ,notice ! great wid? ( ! %ell ( ! cephalo?orax2 mu* ( ?is wid? is due to ! gill-cov]s1 :i* /& out f ! sides ( ! true body4 ,look = ! op5+ ( ! gill-*amb] at ! base ( ! p9c]s4 ,make out ! /alk$ eyes 79 sockets71 ! two pairs ( feel]s1 & ! five pairs ( legs4 ,notice h[ ! animal runs2 9 :at respects does ! me?od diff] f ! gait ( ! crayfi%8 ,exam9e ! v5tral surface ( a dead specim51 & notice t ! abdom5 is tuck$ "u ! cephalo?orax4 ,/ret* out ! abdom52 comp>e x ) t ( ! crayfi%1 & c\nt ! segm5ts4 ,notice ! abs5ce ( ! tail f92 x is n requir$1 z ! crab does n swim4 ,ext5d ! abdom51 & make draw+s ( ! animal 7i7 f above1 & 7ii7 f bel[1 & label ! p>ts4 ,c>efully remove ! foot-jaws & ! true jaws1 & comp>e !m ) ! correspond+ app5dages ( ! crayfi%4 ,) /rong scissors cut (f "o ( ! gill-cov]s1 & exam9e ! gills4 ,obs]ve t 9 ! crab ! gills are n 9 any case atta*$ to app5dages2 !y all spr+ f ! sides ( ! body-wall4 ,tabulate ! respects 9 :i* y h f\nd ! crayfi% & crab 7i7 to agree )1 7ii7 to diff] f1 insects4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bbi4--;,crayfi%1 se5 f ! "r side4 ,! app5dages are numb]$ 9 ,arabic & ! abdom9al segm5ts 9 ,roman num]als4 ant4 #a1 fir/1 & ant4 #b1 second1 feel]s ( ! "r side2 c4?41 cephalo?orax2 ,e1 eye2 g4c41 gill-cov]4 7 47 ,! /ud5t :o has work$ ?r\gh ,*apt] ,,xix4 w at once recognise 9 a crayfi%1 or a lob/]1 an animal possess+ _m features 9 common ) ! insects1 & w f9d x int]e/+ to try to discov] = himself :y x is n call$ an insect1 b is plac$ by naturali/s 9 a diff]5t class4 ,! crayfi%4--,! crayfi% 7,fig4 #bbi71 or ! lob/] 7:i* agrees closely 9 /ructure ) ! crayfi%71 is obvi\sly an ar?ropod 7p4 #cea71 = x is cov]$ by an exoskeleton ( *it91 & has holl[ jo9t$ limbs & a segm5t$ body4 ,9 ^! respects x agrees ) ! insects4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x pla9ly possesses at lea/ five pairs ( legs1 & has two pairs ( feel]s 7ant4 #a & ant4 #b1 ,fig4 #bbi71 :]eas no insect has m ?an ?ree pairs ( legs 7:5 adult71 or m ?an "o pair ( feel]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcj4--;,crayfi%2 ! "r gill-*amb] & gills z se5 aft] removal ( ! "r gill-cov]4 a1 a1 feel]s2 #f-ac1 six? to ?irte5? app5dages2 xiv1 xv1 fir/ & second abdom9al segm5ts2 ,e1 eye2 ep4 #e1 scoop on second maxilla2 g4*41 gill-*amb]2 pdb4 #g1 gill atta*$ to sev5? app5dage2 pdb4 #ab1 gill atta*$ to twelf? app5dage2 plb4 #ac1 gill on body-wall above ?irte5? app5dage4 7,slightly r$uc$47 ,^! diff]5ces are app>5t at ! fir/ glance1 & clos] exam9ation reveals ev5 great] contra/s4 ,! ?ree prim>y divisions ( ! body into head1 ?orax1 & abdom51 :i* are s *>act]i/ic ( insects1 are n obvi\s 9 ! crayfi%2 = ! head & ?orax are "h fus$ into "o mass1 ! cephalo?orax#cf 7,fig4 #bbi1 c4?471 :i* is cov]$ by a %ield call$ ! c>apace4 ,moreov]1 9 ! crayfi% e segm5t except ! la/ be>s a pair ( app5dages1 :i* v>y 9 =m 9 diff]5t regions ( ! body accord+ to _! duties1 b :i* c all be %[n1 by c>eful comp>ison1 to be modifications ( "o primitive =m1 :i* is ,y-%ap$ & consi/s ( a basal /alk & two bran*es4 ,?is =m ( app5dage is well se5 9 ! swimm]ets 7#ag1 ,fig4 #bbi7 ( ! abdom9al region2 fur!r =w>ds ! app5dages become walk+ legs 7#i-ac1 ,fig4 #bbi72 next come ?ree pairs :i* comb9e ! *>act]s ( legs & jaws1 & are call$ maxillip$es 7#h1 ,fig4 #bbi72 !n are ! true jaws--two pairs ( maxillae1 & "o pair ( bit+ & cru%+ m&ibles2 & la/ly1 9 front ( ! jaws1 two pairs ( feel]s 7ant4 #b & ant4 #a74 ,x is believ$ t ! fir/ pair ( feel]s corresponds to ! s+le pair ( feel]s ( ! cockroa*2 t ! jaws correspond to ! jaws2 t ! maxillip$es ( ! crayfi% are ! equival5ts ( ! walk+ legs ( ! cockroa*2 :ile ! rema9+ app5dages ( ! crayfi% h no repres5tatives 9 ! insect4 ,la/ly1 ! crayfi% diff]s ess5tially f ! insect 9 its me?od ( respiration 7p4 #cee71 = x is an aquatic animal & brea!s dissolv$ oxyg54 ,x !re=e possesses nei!r lungs nor spiracles b gills 7,fig4 #bcj74 ,^! are situat$ at ! sides ( ! true body-wall1 9 gill-*amb]s =m$ by ! d[ngr[? ( ! sides ( ! c>apace4 ,! gills are delicate plumes1 conta9+ f9e blood-vessels1 s t an ex*ange ( gases readily takes place betwe5 ! blood & ! surr\nd+ wat]4 ,on ea* side1 a scoop 7,fig4 #bcj1 ep4 #e7 on ! second maxilla is cont9ually bal+ wat] out ( ! front ( ! gill-*amb]1 fre% wat] fl[+ 9 f beh9d to take its place4 ,c]ta9 ( ! gills are atta*$ to ! legs1 s t ! motion ( ! legs also is "s assi/ance to respiration4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bca4--;,crab2 ,a1 f above1 ,b1 f bel[1 ant4 #a1 fir/1 & ant4 #b1 second feel]s2 abd4 #c1 ?ird1 & abd4 #g1 sev5? abdom9al segm5ts2 ,e1 eye2 l4 #a1 p9c]s2 l4 #e1 la/ walk+ leg2 mxp1 ?ird maxillip$e4 7 47 ,! crab 7,fig4 #bca7 is m>k$ly diff]5t 9 %ape f ! crayfi% or lob/]1 b is nev]!less easily se5 to be built on ess5tially ! same l9es ( /ructure4 ,x also consi/s ( tw5ty segm5ts1 ( :i* ! fir/ ?irte5 are fus$ to =m a cephalo?orax2 & ! app5dages ( ?is region are q comp>able ) ^? ( ! crayfi%4 ,! great wid? ( ! %ell is l>gely due to ! gill-cov]s1 :i* /& out f ! sides ( ! body mu* fur!r ?an d ^? ( ! crayfi%4 ,z a result ! crab f9ds x easy to run side-fir/4 ,! crab is ess5tially a walk+1 n a swimm+1 animal1 & ! abdom5--^u :i* ! crayfi% & lob/] s mu* dep5d 9 swimm+--is 9 ! crab r$uc$ 9 size & kept tuck$ "u ! cephalo?orax4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcb4--,! ,wood-l\se4 7 #a47 ,cru/aceans4--,^! facts are suffici5t to %[ t ! title 8insect0 _c ) any propriety be giv5 to ei!r ! crayfi% or ! crab1 unless1 inde$1 ! t]m is to be appli$ to all ar?ropods indiscrim9ately4 ,! crayfi%1 lob/]s1 %rimps1 prawns1 crabs1 b>nacles1 & _m less-famili> animals1 are plac$ 9 ! cru/acean class ( ar?ropods4 ,cru/aceans h usually a di/9ct head1 ?orax1 & abdom52 b "s ( ! ?oracic segm5ts may be fus$ ) ! head to =m a cephalo?orax 7p4 #cge74 ,l o!r ar?ropods1 ! animals are cov]$ ) an arm\r ( *it91 & 9 _m cases ?is is s h>d5$1 except at ! jo9ts1 by m9]al matt] t x becomes a rigid %ell or cru/4 ,! head be>s two pairs ( feel]s 9 addition to ! jaws2 & ! segm5ts ( ! ?orax & abdom5 are provid$ ) app5dages :i* are v>i\sly modifi$ z jaw-feet1 legs1 swimm]ets1 etc4 ,typically1 ! animals brea! by gills & are aquatic1 b =ms are kn[n :i* are able to live com=tably on l& if ! gills are kept moi/4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ examples ( ?is is f\nd 9 ! common wood-l\se 7,fig4 #bcb71 :i* lurks "u /ones & logs 9 damp & d>k situations1 & brea!s by plate-l gills on ! abdom9al segm5ts4 ,o!r ar?ropods4--,o!r famili> ar?ropods1 :i* are nei!r insects nor cru/aceans1 are spid]s & c5tip$es4 ,! spid]s belong to ! ara*nid class1 & ! c5tip$es to ! myriapod class ( ar?ropods4 #ff4 ,,"s ,,common ,,molluscs4#cg #a4 ,! fre%-wat] mussel4--7a7 ,habits4--,/udy ! habits ( ! liv+ animal 7,fig4 #bcc7 9 ! aqu>ium4 ,notice ! muscul> foot :i* is protrud$ betwe5 ! halves 7valves7 ( ! %ell1 & by means ( :i* ! mussel sl[ly makes its way along ! s&y bottom4 ,) a pipette1 dis*>ge "s wat]1 col\r$ ) c>m9e or indigo1 close to ! m po9t$ end ( ! %ell4 ,:]e is ! col\r$ wat] tak5 91 & :]e is x expell$8 ,notice t ! %ell closes :5 ! animal is h&l$4 7b7 ,! regions ( ! %ell4--,! r\nd$ end is ant]ior1 ! m po9t$ end po/]ior1 ! /raight h+e-l9e dorsal1 & ! gape v5tral4 ,notice ! knob-l umbo on ea* side ne> ! ant]ior end ( ! h+e2 x is ! olde/ "p ( ! valve4 ,make out ! conc5tric l9es ( gr[?1 %[+ ! successive positions ( ! m>g94 ,draw ! %ell f ! "r side & f above4 7c7 ,g5]al /ructure4--,kill ! mussel by putt+ x = a few m9utes into hot1 b n boil+1 wat]4 ,notice t ! valves ( ! %ell n[ gape ap>t some:at4 ,hold up ! animal & see1 l9+ ! %ell1 a ?9 s(t membrane1 ! mantle4 ,c>efully sep>ate ! mantle f "o valve & notice1 ne> ea* end1 a ?ick :ite pill> :i* passes f "o valve to ! o!r4 ,^! pill>s are ! clos+ muscles4 ,pass ! blade ( a knife betwe5 ! mantle & valve1 & cut ?r\gh ea* clos+ muscle q ne> to ! valve4 ,turn ! valve back & remove x f ! o!r valve by cutt+ ?r\gh ! ela/ic ligam5t 7at ! h+e7 ) /rong scissors4 ,clean ! inside ( ! sep>at$ valve & exam9e x2 notice 7i7 ! l9e ( atta*m5t ( ! mantle2 7ii7 ! impressions ( ! clos+ muscles2 7iii7 ! l9es ( %ift+ ( ! clos+ muscles--triangul> depressions /ret*+ f ! umbo to ! muscles4 ,exam9e ! animal z x lies 9 ! o!r valve4 ,make out3 7i7 ,! "r & left lobes ( ! mantle :i* l9e ! valves & 79 ! natural position ( ! mussel7 hang d[n f ! sides ( ! body2 7ii7 ! two plate-l gills on ea* side1 ly+ betwe5 ! mantle & ! foot2 7iii7 ! m$ian foot2 7iv7 ! r$di%1 triangul> palps surr\nd+ ! m\?--an ap]ture at ! ant]ior end ( ! foot4 ,pu% a /\t p9 into ! m\? & upw>ds into ! gullet4 ,make a draw+ %[+ ! relative positions ( ! p>ts4 #b4 ,! g>d5 snail4--7a7 ,habits4--,:]e h y se5 snails8 ,at :at "t ( ! ye> are !y mo/ active8 ,^u :at d !y fe$8 ,place a snail ^u a lettuce leaf & c>efully wat* its me?od ( eat+4 ,h[ does x move ab\t8 ,put a live snail ^u a %eet ( glass1 & look ?r\gh ! glass to see ! wave-l action ( ! flat sole--! foot--by means ( :i* x moves4 ,h y ev] f\nd snails 9 w9t]8 ,h[ mu* ( ! animal 0 visible8 ,h[ is ! m\? ( ! %ell clos$ 9 w9t]8 7b7 ,g5]al appe>ance4--,make a draw+ ( ! animal f ! left side & ano!r f ! "r side1 & notice ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! two4 ,is ! %ell plac$ ov] ! middle ( ! animal1 or does x lie to "o side8 ,h[ _m turns has ! spiral ( ! %ell8 ,9 a fully exp&$ snail obs]ve ! fle%y 8coll>0 r\nd ! m>g9 ( ! %ell2 x is ! edge ( ! mantle4 ,notice ! r\nd$ head1 ! two pairs ( t5tacles1 ! eye-spot at ! tip ( ea* ( ! l>g] & upp] t5tacles1 ! m\?1 &1 ne> ! base ( ! %ell on ! "r side1 ! respiratory pore1 :i* op5s into ! lung4 ,t\* v>i\s p>ts ( ! body 9 turn to see if !y are irritable2 h[ are ! t5tacles retract$8 ,c ! animal close & op5 its respiratory pore at w8 #c4 ,an air-brea?+ pond-snail4--,obta9 sev]al fre%-wat] snails & /udy _! habits 9 glass aqu>ia4 ,! commone/ fre%-wat] snails are species ( ,limnaea2 id5tify "s ( ^! by comp>ison ) ,fig4 #bcd1 ,a1 & try to make out ! p>ts already se5 9 ! g>d5 snail4 ,wat* ! action ( ! m\? z ! animal fe$s on ! gre5 scum :i* (t5 collects on ! sides ( aqu>ia4 ,notice h[ x creeps ov] ! glass or along ! surface-film ( ! wat]4 ,:5 ! snail comes to ! surface x replaces ! air ( its lung by fre% air1 & a bubble may (t5 be se5 escap+ f ! respiratory op5+ "u ! lip ( ! %ell4 ,look = ! spawn 7egg-masses7 ( ?is snail on leaves or on ! sides ( ! aqu>ium1 & exam9e ! eggs frequ5tly ) a h& l5s4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcc4--;,fre%-wat] ,mussel4 ,a1 f left side2 ,b1 f beh9d4 ft1 foot2 94 sph41 inhalant siphon2 ex4 sph41 exhalant siphon2 lg1 ligam5t2 m1 mantle2 um1 umbo4 7 47 7,aft] ,h[es47 ,molluscs4--,molluscs are s(t-bodi$ animals1 9 mo/ cases protect$ by a h>d1 ext]nal %ell1 b !y diff] ess5tially f cru/aceans & all o!r ar?ropods 9 n be+ segm5t$1 & 9 n possess+ jo9t$ limbs4 ,famili> & in/ructive examples ( two classes ( ! gr\p are f\nd 9 ! fre%-wat] mussel & ! g>d5 snail4 ,! fre%-wat] mussel 7,fig4 #bcc7 is to be f\nd 9 /reams1 along ! b$ ( :i* x pl\ghs its way by means ( a muscul> foot 7ft474 ,! body is enclos$ 9 a br[n %ell1 :i* consi/s ( halves call$ valves1 h+$ toge!r along ! /raight1 dorsal edge by an ela/ic ligam5t 7lg474 ,! action ( ! ligam5t is to sep>ate ! valves slightly unless !y are =cibly held toge!r by ! contraction ( clos+ muscles :i* run f "o valve to ! o!r4 ,h5ce ! %ell ( a dead mussel always gapes op54 ,! r\nd$ end ( ! %ell is ant]ior1 ! m po9t$ end po/]ior4 ,! olde/ "p ( ea* valve is ! umbo 7um41 ,fig4 #bcc71 a knob j 9 front ( ! ligam5t2 & conc5tric l9es surr\nd+ ! umbo m>k successive positions ( ! m>g9 ( ! valve z ! animal increas$ 9 size4 ,! valves are =m$ by ! activity ( ! mantle lobes 7m47--a pair ( delicate membranes :i* hang d[n f ! sides ( ! body4 ,! foot is a m$ian prolongation ( ! body itself1 & on ea* side a pair ( plate-l gills lies betwe5 ! foot & ! mantle lobe ( t side4 8,?us ! :ole animal has be5 comp>$ to a book1 ! back be+ repres5t$ by ! h+e1 ! cov]s by ! valves1 ! fly-leaves by ! mantle lobes1 ! fir/ two & ! la/ two pages by ! gills1 & ! rema9d] ( ! leaves by ! foot40#ch ,:5 ! liv+ mussel is undi/urb$1 ! mantle folds project slightly at ! h9d] end ( ! %ell1 _! edges be+ s plac$ 9 contact t !y =m two %ort tubes4 ,a curr5t ( wat] fl[s 9 at ! l[] ( ^! 794 sph41 ,fig4 #bcc71 c>ry+ to ! m\? a supply ( food-p>ticles1 & to ! gills & mantle a /ore ( dissolv$ oxyg52 :ile an outgo+ curr5t leaves by ! upp] tube 7ex4 sph474 ,! g>d5 snail 7,fig4 #bcd1 ,b7 seems at fir/ sight to h b little resemblance to a mussel2 b x also is a mollusc--consi/+ ( a s(t1 unsegm5t$ body1 :i* is produc$ v5trally into a foot1 & is protect$ by a %ell =m$ by ! activity ( a mantle fold ( ! body4 ,9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 ! %ell is "o piece1 & is spirally coil$4 ,! snail has also a di/9ct head1 :i* be>s two pairs ( t5tacles2 at ! tip ( ea* ( ! long] & upp] t5tacles 7t7 is an eye 7e74 ,! animal crawls ab\t by wave-l contractions ( ! muscul> foot2 x fe$s ^u vegetation1 :i* x rasps into small p>ticles by means ( a too!d tongue1 & !n swall[s4 ,! snail is entirely adapt$ to a t]re/rial life1 & brea!s air--! mantle fold "u ! %ell enclos+ a lung *amb] ) blood-vessels 9 its walls1 :i* op5s to ! ext]ior by a respiratory pore 7p4o41 ,fig4 #bcd7 on ! "r side4 ,! snail sp5ds ! w9t]1 9 a /ate ( torpor1 "u logs or /ones1 ! body be+ entirely retract$ into ! %ell1 ! m\? ( :i* is clos$ by a plate ( h>d5$ slime4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcd4--;,a1 ,a ,fre%-wat] ,snail 7,limnaea72 ,b1 ,g>d5 ,snail4 e1 e1 eyes2 p4o41 respiratory pore2 t1 t1 t5tacles1 7 #a47 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bce4--,slug1 p4a41 respiratory pore4 7 #a47 ,slugs 7,fig4 #bce7 are ( v simil> /ructure1 b 9 !m ! %ell has almo/ disappe>$1 ev5 ! trace :i* rema9s be+ conceal$ by ! mantle fold4 ,among ! commone/ ( fre%-wat] snails are v>i\s species ( ,limnaea 7,fig4 #bcd1 ,a74 ,!y may be f\nd abundantly 9 ponds1 & are (t5 kept 9 aqu>ia1 :]e !y p]=m a useful s]vice by dev\r+ ! m9ute plants :i* are apt to accumulate to an undesirable ext5t & =m gre5 scum on ! sides4 ,^! snails1 l ! g>d5 snail1 brea! air1 & (t5 come to ! surface to take a fre% supply into _! lung *amb]s4 ,"s o!r wat] snails1 h[ev]1 brea! dissolv$ oxyg5 by means ( gills b5ea? ! %ell4 #fg4 ,,e>?worms4 #a4 ,ext]nal *>act]s4--,dig up sev]al e>?worms f ! soil & exam9e !m4 ,:at is ! l5g? ( ! l>ge/ & ( ! smalle/ specim5s8 ,:at is ! ?ickness ( ! body8 ,wat* ! worms crawl+ ab\t1 & describe ! me?od ( locomotion4 ,has ! animal any legs8 ,d ! l5g? & ?ickness ( any "o worm v>y dur+ its movem5ts8 ,is ! v>iation connect$ ) locomotion8 ,h[8 ,c y di/+ui% betwe5 ! =e 7ant]ior7 & h9d 7po/]ior7 ends1 & betwe5 ! upp] 7dorsal7 & l[] 7v5tral7 surfaces8 ,h[ d !y diff]8 ,kill a l>ge worm by imm]sion 9 me?ylat$ _s & exam9e x m closely4 ,notice ! segm5t$ "* ( ! body1 & e/imate ! numb] ( segm5ts4 ,:i* "p ( ! body has ! l>ge/ segm5ts8 ,obs]ve ! swoll5 appe>ance ( segm5ts #cb to #cg2 ?is region is call$ ! clitellum4 ,notice ! m\? 7ov]hung by a %ort lobe7 9 ! fir/ segm5t1 & ! v5t 9 ! la/ segm5t4 ,on ! v5tral surface ( segm5t #ad try to see a pair ( small pores2 ^! pores are ! op5+s ?r\gh :i* ! eggs are dis*>g$ f ! body4 ,pull ! worm g5tly betwe5 y\r f+]s1 & notice ! bri/ly feel2 9 :i* direction ( motion is ?is mo/ app>5t8 ,exam9e ! v5tral surface ) a /rong l5s 9 a good light1 & try to see f\r d\ble r[s ( v small bri/les4 #b4 ,habits4--,exam9e ! surface ( ! gr\nd ( a g>d5 or lawn at night by help ( a lant]n or lamp1 be+ c>eful to tread lightly1 & obs]ve ! actions ( any worms y see4 ,are m worms to be se5 at night ?an dur+ ! day8 ,d ! worms seem di/urb$ by ! light ( ! lant]n8 ,try to grasp "o2 is x easily caught8 ,:y n8 ,:]e does ! worm retreat8 ,if y c grasp a worm be=e x has "t to )draw completely into its burr[1 obs]ve ! difficulty ( draw+ x out )\t te>+ x4 ,try if ! worms are di/urb$ by a l\d %\t 7be c>eful n to bl[ ^u !m :5 %\t+71 or by a heavy /amp ( y\r foot4 ,c>efully lay op5 sev]al burr[s & notice3 7a7 ,:e!r ! m\?s ( ! burr[s are plugg$ 9 any way1 &1 if leaves are us$ = ?is purpose1 :e!r ! leaves h be5 dragg$ into ! hole 7i7 by ! broad ends1 7ii7 by ! n>r[ ends1 or 7iii7 by ! sides2 d y f9d any signs ( intellig5ce 9 ! me?od adopt$8 7b7 ,! l5g? & wid? ( ! burr[ & ! "* ( its l9+4 7c7 ,! end ( ! burr[2 is x enl>g$8 ,exam9e worm ca/+s4 ,m>k out a squ>e y>d ( surface & collect1 dry1 & weigh all ! ca/+s f\nd on ?is area 9 a c]ta9 "t1 say a mon?4 ,su* obs]vations %\ld be made at diff]5t p]iods ( ! ye>1 & ov] diff]5t k9ds ( soil1 & comp>isons made4 ,e/imate ! weight br\ght up p] acre by worms dur+ a ye>4 ,are ! p>ticles compos+ ! ca/+s v f9e1 f9e1 or co>se8 ,place worms 9 glass-cov]$ fl[]-pots ) e>? ( diff]5t degrees ( firmness1 & obs]ve ! me?ods ( burr[+ 9 loose & 9 firmly compact$ e>? respectively4 ,place pieces ( leaf ( c>rot1 onion1 & cabbage on ! surface1 & at night obs]ve h[ ! worms grasp ! pieces & drag !m into ! burr[s4 ,e>?worms4--,few p except naturali/s h any idea ( ! va/ numb] ( e>?worms liv+ 9 ! surface soil ( ?is & mo/ o!r c\ntries1 or ( ! importance ( ! "w :i* !y d4 ,! common e>?worm 7,fig4 #bcf7 is mu* simpl] 9 /ructure ?an any ( ! animals previ\sly consid]$ 9 ?is book4 ,x is r\ghly cyl9drical 9 %ape1 ?\gh some:at flatt5$ on ! v5tral surface4 ,x is divid$ into ab\t #aej segm5ts1 :i* are m>k$ on ! ext]ior by grooves runn+ r\nd ! body4 ,! m\? is an op5+ 9 ! fir/ segm5t 7,fig4 #bcf1 #a7 & is ov]hung by a %ort fle%y lobe4 ,! worm crawls along by alt]nate elongation & %ort5+ ( its body1 be+ aid$ by %ort bri/les :i* are direct$ backw>ds & act z pivots2 limbs are entirely abs5t4 ,! animal is v s5sitive to t\*1 ev5 to ! vibrations ( ! gr\nd2 b x is /one-deaf1 only j capable ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 light & d>kness1 & has v little s5se ( smell4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcf4--;,e>?worm1 se5 f "r side4 #a1 #ae1 #cc1 fir/1 fifte5?1 & ?irty-?ird segm5ts4 7 47 ,dur+ ! day1 ! e>?worm g5]ally rema9s 9 its burr[ 9 ! soil1 ) its head j inside ! entrance4 ,its me?od ( =m+ ! burr[ dep5ds ^u ! texture ( ! gr\nd4 ,9 loose soil ! e>? is simply pu%$ aside1 b :]e ! mat]ial is too compact = ?is1 ! animal actually eats its way ?r\gh4 ,! burr[ is l9$ ) s(t e>? or little /ones1 & is plugg$ at ! m\? ) leaves or o!r conv5i5t objects4 ,! animal 0 f\nd by ,d>w9 to display di/9ct intellig5ce 9 its mann] ( draw+ leaves into ! m\? ( its burr[1 seiz+ !m 9 mo/ cases by _! n>r[ ends1 s t !y c\ld be pull$ 9 ) z little difficulty z possible4 ,objects are g5]ally grasp$ betwe5 ! lobe1 :i* ov]hangs ! m\?1 & ! l[] "p ( ! fir/ segm5t1 ! hold be+ ma9ta9$ by a suck+ action4 ,! inn] end ( ! burr[ is enl>g$ to all[ ! worm room to turn r\nd4 ,at night1 ! =e "p ( ! body is protrud$ 9 se>* ( food1 ! tail be+ g5]ally reta9$ 9 ! burr[1 ready = in/antane\s retreat 9 case ( al>m4 ,! e>?worm fe$s ^u leaves--:i* are fir/ s(t5$ by a fluid dis*>g$ ov] !m1 & !n suck$ into pieces small en\gh to be swall[$1 = ! animal has no jaws--& ^u ! half-decay$ organic matt] :i* is always pres5t 9 ord9>y soil4 ,! soil itself is swall[$ 9 l>ge quantities2 ! nutriti\s portion is extract$1 & ! undige/$ matt] deposit$ ^u ! surface ( ! gr\nd1 ne> ! m\? ( ! burr[1 9 ! =m ( ca/+s4 ,z a result ( num]\s exp]im5ts1 ,d>w9 e/imat$ ! weight ( ca/+s ?us ?r[n up by e>?worms on an acre ( l& z #ae tons annually4 ,! foll[+ passage is wor?y ( v c>eful att5tion3 8,:5 we behold a wide1 turf-cov]$ expanse1 we %\ld rememb] t its smoo?ness1 on :i* s mu* ( its beauty dep5ds1 is ma9ly due to all ! inequalities hav+ be5 sl[ly levell$ by worms4 ,x is a m>vell\s reflection t ! :ole ( ! sup]ficial m\ld ov] any su* expanse has pass$1 & w aga9 pass1 e few ye>s ?r\gh ! bodies ( worms4 ,! pl\gh is "o ( ! mo/ anci5t & mo/ valuable ( man's inv5tions2 b long be=e he exi/$ ! l& 0 9 fact regul>ly pl\gh$1 & /ill cont9ues to be ?us pl\gh$ by e>?worms4 ,x may be d\bt$ :e!r !re are _m o!r animals :i* h play$ s important a "p 9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w z h ^! l[ly organis$ creatures40#ci ,! e>?worm lays its eggs 9 a small cocoon =m$ by ! h>d5+ ( a viscid mat]ial :i* is dis*>g$ by a swoll5 "p ( ! body call$ ! clitellum1 ext5d+ f ! #cbnd to ! #cg? segm5ts4 ,aft] ! =mation ( ! cocoon ! worm moves backw>ds1 & ! eggs leave ! body by small pores on ! v5tral surface ( segm5t #ad1 z ?is region passes ! cocoon4 ,a small am\nt ( food-mat]ial is also enclos$ 9 ! cocoon1 & =ms a /ore ( nutrim5t = ! "y worms dur+ _! e>ly developm5t4 ,,ex]cises ,,on ,,*apt] ,,xx4 #a4 ,comp>e ! legs ( a cockroa* ) ^? ( a crayfi% & a v]tebrate4 7#aijj7 #b4 ,describe ! respiratory organs ( ! crayfi%4 ,h[ are !y cont9ually suppli$ ) fre% wat]8 7#ahih7 #c4 ,exam9e a spid]4 ,h[ _m legs has x8 ,( :at divisions does its body consi/8 ,:y d y consid] t a spid] is n an insect8 #d4 ,make obs]vations1 & write descriptions1 ( ! habits ( spid]s1 pay+ special att5tion to ! me?ods ( con/ruction ( ! webs1 ! mann] ( cat*+ prey 9 diff]5t cases1 & ! c>e ( ! "y by ! p>5ts4 #e4 ,comp>e a c5tip$e ) an insect1 po9t+ out ! features ( resemblance & diff]5ce4 7#ahig7 #f4 ,h[ does a pond-mussel op5 & close its %ell8 7#aijj7 #g4 ,comp>e an oy/] ) a fre%-wat] mussel1 & try to f9d po9ts ( resemblance & diff]5ce1 mak+ c>eful notes & sket*es ( ^!4 ,h[ _m clos+ muscles has ! oy/]8 ,are its gills plate-l8 ,:y d y consid] ! oy/] a mollusc8 #h4 ,:]e is ! lung ( a snail situat$8 ,h[ d we "k t x is really a lung8 7#ahig7 #i4 ,h[ does an e>?worm resemble & diff] f a cat]pill>8 7#aijj7 #aj4 ,expla9 ! action ( an e>?worm 9 ! =mation ( vegetable m\ld4 7#ahig7 #aa4 ,classify ! animal describ$ bel[3 ,a l& animal ) a long n>r[ s(t body & no legs2 two pairs ( t5tacles on ! head2 a brea?+ hole on "o side8 7#aijd7 #ab4 ,give ! *>act]s by :i* insects c be di/+ui%$ f cru/aceans4 7#aije7 ,,footnotes3 #ce ,liv+ specim5s may be obta9$ f ,mr4 ,t4 ,bolton1 #be ,balsall ,hea? ,road1 ,birm+ham4 #cf ,greek1 kephalon1 a head4 #cg ,see footnote1 p4 #cgb4 #ch ,p>k] & ,haswell's ,text-book ( ,zoology 7,macmillan74 #ci ,d>w9's ,vegetable ,m\ld & ,e>?worms 7,murray74 ,,*apt] ,,xxi4 ,,field-,,"w4 ,an animal or a plant mu/ be /udi$ f sev]al po9ts ( view be=e its mann] ( life c be und]/ood 9 any real s5se4 ,x mu/1 = example1 be reg>d$1 fir/1 z a complicat$ piece ( ma*9]y1 e "p ( :i* is beautifully fitt$ = ! p]=mance ( a special duty2 x mu/ also be consid]$ z an individual1 hav+ likes or dislikes--or at lea/ t5d5cies--:i* are to "s ext5t peculi> to itself2 f9ally1 x mu/ be consid]$ 9 its relation to o!r animals & plants1 & to its surr\nd+s4 ,field-"w is especially conc]n$ ) ! la/ ( ^! me?ods ( /udy--! obs]vation ( liv+ ?+s "u natural conditions1--& ?is ought con/antly to be borne 9 m9d4 ,to make nature-/udy a pretext = uproot+ locally-r>e plants & robb+ birds' ne/s is indef5sible4 ,! commone/ plants are usually ! mo/ in/ructive1 & af=d ample mat]ial = ! beg9n]'s exp]im5tal "w2 :ile ! pleasure ( f9d+ & describ+ 7p]haps photograph+7 a bird's ne/1 & ( keep+ ! eggs & "y "u obs]vation1 is some?+ unkn[n to ! m]e collector ( eggs4 ,! life ( bo? plant & animal is sacr$ 9 ! eyes ( e nature-/ud5t wor?y ( ! "n4 ,at ! same "t1 no s5tim5tality ought to prev5t ! de/ruction ( und\bt$ly noxi\s insects & we$s4 ,9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 specim5s %\ld be kill$ only = ! purpose ( a leisurely exam9ation ( /ructure1 :i* w\ld o!rwise be impossible1 or to make ne$$ additions to ! tea*+-collection ( a s*ool museum4 ,g5]ally speak+1 collect+ is ( v d\btful value1 except to exp]ts4 ,insects & common plants may1 h[ev]1 be collect$ )\t scruple by ! beg9n]1 ?\gh x is wor? rememb]+ t ! mo/ p]fect specim5s ( butt]flies & mo?s are ^? re>$ 9 captivity f ! eggs1 l>vae1 or pupae4 ,! /ud5t is /rongly recomm5d$ to make a sket* map ( "s small area to :i* he has easy access1 & to record ^u ?is ! positions ( features ( special int]e/4 ,su* a map may1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 be copi$ on an enl>g$ scale f an ordnance map ( ! neighb\rhood1 :i* may be obta9$ at ! local free libr>y4 ,x w be advisable to duplicate ! draw+ by means ( "o ( ! _m appliances = su* "w1 & to keep "o copy ea* = trees1 fl[]+ plants1 birds' ne/s1 etc4--! position ( ea* object1 or ( a well-def9$ gr\p1 be+ c>efully m>k$ by a small numb] 7,fig4 #bcg71 & ! ref]5ce1 ) ! date1 be+ fill$ 9 on ! m>g94 ,! v>y+ "* ( ! gr\nd--s&y1 m>%y1 clayey1 etc4--%\ld be indicat$ by diagrammatic %ad+ or col\r+4 ,by foll[+ ?is me?od ! /ud5t w m cle>ly realise t diff]5t plants are dep5d5t ^u diff]5t conditions ( soil1 dra9age1 etc42 & t1 e4g41 plants at home on a bleak moor1 9 a h$ge1 9 m>%y l& or 9 wat] respectively1 are *>act]i/ically modifi$ s t !y c make ! be/ ( _! special conditions ( life4 ,9 ?is mann] he w1 almo/ unconsci\sly1 ga9 wid] views ( ! relation%ips :i* exi/ betwe5 ! facts le>n$ f 8 m detail$ obs]vations4 ,x w\ld be a di/9ct ga9 to biological sci5ce if field clubs also w\ld adopt "s su* plan1 ea* memb] und]tak+ to fill 9 ^u 8 map in=mation ( ! animal & plant life ( ! area allott$ to him4 ,! co-op]ation ( v>i\s clubs1 & ! sy/ematic arrangem5t ( in=mation ?us obta9$1 w\ld result 9 a /ore ( k ( ! highe/ value4 ,_m animals are s %y t !y c only be approa*$ ) difficulty4 ,9 su* cases x is especially necess>y = ! obs]v] to move quietly & sil5tly1 &1 :5 a fav\rable position is rea*$1 to rema9 z motionless z possible1 pref]ably ) 8 back to ! sun4 ,if a field-glass c be obta9$ x w be ( great assi/ance1 b "s practice w probably be requir$ be=e x c be us$ easily4 ,x is well to />t ea* ramble ) "s def9ite object ( /udy 9 view--ei!r trees1 grasses1 fl[]s1 fruits1 birds1 cat]pill>s1 or pond life1 = example1 & to be provid$ ) pill-boxes1 bottles1 etc41 accord+ to circum/ances4 ,a notebook1 p5cil1 pocket knife1 & h& l5s %\ld1 h[ev]1 always be c>ri$1 & obs]vations %\ld be record$ on ! spot4 ,pond life4--,practically ! only me?od ( ga9+ a real k ( aquatic organisms is by ! help ( ! aqu>ium4 ,specim5s may be obta9$ by means ( a net1 or ( a small wide-m\!d bottle ti$ to a /ick4 ,a pickle bottle is conv5i5t = c>ry+ home ! mat]ial collect$4 ,! conditions ( a natural pond %\ld be imitat$ z closely z possible 9 ! aqu>ium4 ,at fir/1 "s little difficulty w probably be f\nd 9 obta9+ ! necess>y balance betwe5 ! animals & plants ( ! aqu>ium4 ,:5 ?is has be5 rea*$1 x w only r>ely be necess>y to *ange ! wat]1 provid$ t dead or sickly specim5s are promptly remov$4 ,,! ,,s*ool ,,j\rney4 ,9 ! organisation ( s*ool j\rneys s mu* dep5ds ^u local conditions ( v>i\s k9ds1 s mu* mu/ ( necessity be left to ! initiative ( ! tea*]1 t x is manife/ly impossible "h to d m ?an enunciate c]ta9 g5]al pr9ciples4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x %\ld be borne 9 m9d con/antly t ! prim>y object ( ! s*ool j\rney is ! cultivation ( habits ( ?\ghtful obs]vation2 & t ! *ief dang] to be gu>d$ aga9/ is t out-(-focus condition into :i* ! m9d1 l ! eye1 inevitably falls :5 x is conc]n$ ) too _m ?+s at once4 ,to obviate ?is dang] ! tea*] %\ld g ov] ! r\te 9 advance1 not+ c>efully ! features1 physical & o!rwise1 :i* af=d mat]ial = obs]vation & inve/igation by ! class4 ,! ord] 9 :i* ^! features may be be/ /udi$ %\ld be decid$ ^u1 & a s*eme ( sev]al visits1 ea* to be conc]n$ ) "o special subject ( /udy1 c !n be drawn up4 ,su* a prelim9>y survey %\ld sugge/ a plan by :i* e memb] ( ! class may be allott$ a def9ite task--to f9d some?+ or d some?+1 or to solve "s problem on ! spot4 ,^! pr9ciples may be be/ illu/rat$ by a special example1 b x w be obvi\s t ! same ideas1 ) modifications 9 detail1 may be appli$ 9 any di/rict4 ,! sket*-map 7,fig4 #bcg7 illu/rates a walk ?r\gh ,healey ,dell1 ne> ,ro*dale1 ,lanca%ire4 ,! rocks :i* are expos$ at v>i\s places along ! r\te belong to ! ,c>bonif]\s =mation1 & are compos$ ( %ale1 coal1 or mill/one grit4 ,! object ( ! fir/ j\rney w be 9 mo/ cases to famili>ise ! class ) ! 8lie ( ! l&0 & ! mo/ obvi\s features ( ! sc5]y4 ,z a prep>ation1 lessons %\ld be giv5 on ! po9ts ( ! compass & ! v>i\s me?ods ( f9d+ ! direction ( ! nor?4 ,! simple/ ( ^! is by ! use ( ! compass3 x be+ rememb]$ t ! ne$le po9ts ab\t #af to ! we/ ( true nor?4 ,a second me?od dep5ds on ! fact t at noon ! sun is 9 ! s\? & t !re=e 7because ! h\r h& ( a wat* makes two revolutions 9 ! tw5ty-f\r h\rs7 ! nor? & s\? l9e approximately bisects ! angle betwe5 twelve & ! h\r h&1 if ! latt] is po9t$ to ! sun :5 ! wat* is horizontal4 ,incid5tally1 ! me?od ( f9d+ ! pole-/> might be also expla9$ to ! class4 ,fur!r1 ea* pupil %\ld be enc\rag$ to f9d out h[ _m /eps he takes1 on ! av]age1 9 pac+ a giv5 measur$ di/ance4 ,if ! g5]al direction ( ! walk is nor? & s\?1 z 9 ! example1 x w be f\nd be/ to beg9 ! fir/ j\rney at ! s\? end 79 ?is case f ,%awcl\gh ,/ation71 s9ce to mo/ *ildr5 x is easi] to conceive ( a j\rney nor?w>d ?an 9 any o!r specifi$ direction4 ,?r\gh\t ! ramble con/ant ref]5ce %\ld be made to ! direction ( ! r\te & ! relative positions ( well-m>k$ features ( ! l&scape4 ,! di/ances betwe5 c]ta9 po9ts %\ld be e/imat$1 &1 :5ev] possible1 measur$ 7by pac+71 & notes made by ! class4 ,= example1 f ,%awcl\gh to ,end+ ! di/ances & directions are r\ghly3 -mile ,w4,n4,w41 -mile ,n4,n4,w41 -mile ,e4,n4,e4 ,9 ! fir/ j\rney also ! class %\ld be made to notice :]e ! gr\nd slopes mo/ & :]e lea/ 7! direction & angle ( slope %\ld be e/imat$ 9 a few cases71 & ! names ( neighb\r+ woods1 f>ms1 etc41 %\ld be le>nt4 ,! direction ( fl[ ( ! riv] & ! v>i\s b5ds 9 its c\rse %\ld also be not$1 & ref]5ce made to ! r\te by :i*1 aft] jo9+ ^? ( o!r riv]s1 its wat]s ultimately rea* ! sea4 ,aft]w>ds1 ! pupils %\ld write an acc\nt ( ! j\rney &1 9 ! high] classes1 %\ld be enc\rag$ to draw a sket*-map1 h[ev] crude1 f memory4 ,illu/ration3 ,,fig4 #bcg4--,sket*-map ( ,healey ,dell1 ,ro*dale4 #a1 bir*es2 #b1 will[s2 #c1 bee*2 #d1 po?oles2 #e1 two wat]falls2 #f1 %all[s1 & v]tical concave bank2 #g1 8,fairies' ,*apel02 #h1 /ratification ( rocks2 #i1 mud deposits2 #aj1 wat]fall2 #aa1 docks2 #ab1 slop+ trees2 #ag1 weir2 #ad1 railway viaduct2 #ae1 horse *e/nut2 #af1 aqu$uct2 #ag1 sycamore2 #ah1 elm2 #ai1 elm2 #bj1 bee*2 #ba1 pond life2 #bb1 well2 #bc1 %ale2 #bd1 sycamore2 #be1 oak1 be>+ leaves 9 w9t]2 #bf1 flag/ones2 #bg1 bee*es1 ) wood-pigeons' & magpies' ne/s2 #bh1 haw?orn h$ge2 #bi1 solit>y oak2 #cj1 gutt]1 ) ,pellia2 #ca1 blackb]ry bu%2 #cb1 /unt$ oak4 ,illu/ration3 ,g4 ,a4 ,close1 photograph]1 ,ro*dale4 ,,fig4 #bch4--,wat]fall1 ,healey ,dell1 ,ro*dale 7m>k$ 8#aj0 9 ,fig4 #bcg74 ,be=e ! second j\rney ea* pupil %\ld be provid$ ) a blank sket*-map ( ! r\te4 ,?is may1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 be copi$ or trac$ f ! six-in* ,ordnance ,map1 & !n duplicat$ 9 l>ge numb]s4 ,only ! r\te & riv]1 & a few ( ! m conspicu\s l&m>ks1 %\ld be indicat$ on ! maps z giv5 to ! class3 details %\ld be fill$ 91 on ! spot1 by ! pupils4 ,! object ( ! second j\rney may conv5i5tly be ! /udy ( ! riv] & its "w1 & = ?is purpose x w be advisable to foll[ ! /ream 9 ! direction ( its fl[4 ,v>iations 9 ! spe$ ( ! curr5t1 & 9 ! wid? ( ! /ream & ! h>dness ( ! rocks or banks betwe5 :i* ! wat] fl[s1 %\ld be not$1 & ! relations betwe5 cause & effect elicit$ by que/ion+4 ,! h>dness ( ! rocks at #d has prev5t$ ! *annel f be+ wid5$ to a great] ext5t by ! wat]1 & acc\nts = ! rapidity ( ! fl[4 ,a glass ( wat] collect$ "h is f\nd to conta9 mu* susp5d$ gravel4 ,! consid]able loss ( weight ( bodies 9 wat] is notewor?y1 z expla9+ ! great size ( ! /ones :i* may be transport$ by riv]s4 ,! sc\r+ action ( su* /ones is %[n 9 ! f9e 8po?oles0 at #d & bel[ ! wat]fall 7,fig4 #bch7 at #aj1 & has result$ also 9 ! qua9t /one portico ( ! 8,fairies' ,*apel0 "u ! "r 7we/7 bank ( ! riv] at #g4 ,aga91 ! diff]5ce 9 ! rates ( erosion ( h>d & s(t rocks has _h mu* to d ) =m+ ! wat]falls at #e & #aj4 ,:]e ! /ream is wid] & ! fl[ sl[] 7z at #f & #i1 & bel[ #aj71 may be notic$ s& & mud deposits2 & :]e ! /ream makes a b5d x is f\nd t ! sl[e/ fl[ & ! maximum deposit are on ! convex bank2 :ile ! concave bank is worn almo/ v]tical 7z at #f & o!r places7 by ! swift] ru% ( ! wat]1 & may be und]cut to su* an ext5t z to cause ! bank to give way4 ,9 ?is mann] a riv] is con/antly *ang+ its c\rse4 ,! weir at #ac1 & ! old wat]-:eel /ill to be se5 9 ! ru9$ mill bel[1 sugge/ rem>ks on ! motive p[] ( wat]1 & on ! circum/ances :i* may cause ! old indu/ries ( a di/rict to be sup]s$$ by new ones4 ,along ! re/ ( ! r\te ! b$ ( ! riv] is less /eep & its banks exhibit less v>iation1 b !y /ill af=d pl5ty ( mat]ial = /udy4 ,! railway viaduct at #ad & an aqu$uct at #af sugge/ at lea/ a casual ref]5ce to ! d]ivation ( ! t]ms4 ,be=e ! pupils are ask$ to write a 8composition0 on ! ramble1 a revision lesson on ! features notic$ %\ld be giv51 & ! accuracy ( ! entries on ! sket*-maps *eck$ by comp>ison ) an enl>g$ map drawn by ! tea*]1 or ) a l>ge 8p>i% plan0 ( ! ,ordnance ,survey1 on ! scale ( #be4c in*es to ! mile4 ,x w be well to devote two or m j\rneys to ! /udy ( ! trees along ! r\te4 ,"o j\rney %\ld be tak5 9 ! spr+1 be=e ! leaves are out1 & ano!r 9 ! summ]1 :5 ! foliage is well develop$4 ,x is f> bett] to /udy ?ree k9ds ( trees 9 "s detail ?an to risk confusion at ! beg9n+ by att5d+ to a doz54 ,9 ,healey ,dell ! commone/ trees are bee*1 oak1 & sycamore1 & ^! s]ve admirably z an introduction to tree lore4 ,if ! fir/ tree-j\rney be tak5 9 ! summ]1 ! leaves ( "s ?ree abundant species %\ld be comp>$ & contra/$1 & ea* pupil %\ld secure good specim5s1 to be drawn & pres]v$ aft]w>ds4 ,! pres5ce ( a little bud 9 ! 8axil0 7! upp] angle betwe5 leaf & twig7 ( mo/ ( ! leaves %\ld be po9t$ out by ! tea*]2 & s9ce ! arrangem5t ( ! buds 7& !re=e ( ! subsequ5t bran*es ( ! twig7 ?us dep5ds on ! positions ( ! leaves1 ?is la/ po9t is ( consid]able int]e/4 ,9 ! sycamore1 ! leaves are 9 pairs at "r angles to ea* o!r2 9 ! bee* & oak !y are s+le & alt]nate1 b mu* m cr[d$ toge!r 9 ! oak ?an 9 ! bee*4 ,! b>k ( ! ?ree trees is equally di/9ctive1 & ) ! me?od ( bran*+ 7obscur$ :5 ! foliage is ?ick7 s]ves to id5tify ! trees f a di/ance 9 ! w9t]4 ,9 w9t] & spr+ ! int]e/ ( a tree is c5tr$ 9 its buds1 & !re are few ?+s :i* m ri*ly repay /udy4 ,9 spr+1 att5tion %\ld also be giv5 to ! fl[]s--g5]ally arrang$ 9 catk9s--( common trees4 ,sep>ate sket*-maps %\ld be us$ z records ( ! positions ( ! m notable trees or plantations along ! r\te4 ,any t5d5cy to v&alism on ! "p ( ! pupils by te>+ (f bran*es %\ld1 ( c\rse1 be /]nly repress$2 especially int]e/+ twigs %\ld1 on occasion1 be cut (f by ! tea*] only1 = lat] /udy4 ,!re is mu* div]sity ( op9ion z to ! way 9 :i* fl[]s may be be/ /udi$ 9 a limit$ numb] ( s*ool j\rneys4 ,9 mo/ cases x w p]haps be impracticable to attempt m ?an tea*+ ! names & call+ att5tion to ! habitat ( ! commone/4 ,?is1 ?\gh a necess>y introduction to ! subject1 t5ds to deg5]ate into a m]e ex]cise ( ! memory1 & 9 itself possesses little educational value4 ,x %\ld be supplem5t$ by a detail$ exam9ation ( a typical fl[]--say a butt]cup--& by ! explanation ( ! "w ( ea* "p4 ,once ! pupil has und]/ood t ! s+le duty ( a fl[] is ! production ( heal?y se$s1 & has be5 l$ to notice h[1 by ! aid ( +5i\s devices1 ! up-to-date plants h le>nt to call 9 ! aid ( insects1 :ile ! m cons]vative families /ill rely on ! aid ( ! w9d1 he w be eag] to discov] = himself 8h[ ! ?+ works40 ,) "y *ildr5 x is folly to attempt any b ! v broade/ pr9ciples ( classification ( fl[]s2 b q "y *ildr5 c appreciate ! advance f fl[]s )\t petals1 ?r\gh fl[]s ) sep>ate petals1 to ^? ) petals unit$ to =m a tube 7?us re/rict+ ! nect> m & m to 8useful0 insects72 & s und]/& ! advantage :i* a primrose has ov] a butt]cup1 & a butt]cup ov] an oak fl[]4 ,at lea/ "o j\rney %\ld be giv51 9 ! autumn1 to ! /udy ( ! disp]sion ( fruits & se$s4 ,! pupils %\ld provide !mselves ) empty mat*-boxes or *ip pill-boxes4 ,9 ?is ramble ! class may ) advantage be divid$ into f\r gr\ps4 ,gr\p ,a w collect examples ( fruits & se$s :i* are disp]s$ by ! w9d2 ,gr\p ,b1 ( fruits :i* by means ( hooks or o!rwise become atta*$ to ! hides ( graz+ animals1 & are c>ri$ f> f ! place :]e !y gr[2 ,gr\p ,c w collect fruits :i* tempt animals to eat !m = ! sake ( sweet pulp 79 ^! cases ! pupils %\ld f9d out a h[ ! fruit is made conspicu\s1 b h[ ! se$s !mselves are protect$ f be+ injur$ by ! animals72 :ile ,gr\p ,d w se>* = specim5s ( plants :i* s[ _! own se$s4 ,!re /ill rema9s abundant mat]ial = /udy 9 ?is walk1 & m5tion only c be made ( ! /icklebacks1 frog-spawn1 snails1 caddis-worms1 dragon fly l>vae1 blood-worms--( ! 8?+s creep+ innum]able1 bo? small & great bea/s0--:i* h be5 f\nd 9 ! riv]1 ponds1 & wells along our r\te1 & h be5 us$ to /ock ! aqu>ium2 ( ! rabbits & birds2 ( ! ne/s ( ants & wild bees & wasps2 ( a c]ta9 blackb]ry bu% 7#ca7 ri* 9 int]e/+ leaves2 & ( a ?\s& & "o o!r ?+s :i*1 "u ! guidance ( a judici\s lead]1 may well be ! means ( tea*+ *ildr5 to see :at !y look at & to ?9k ab\t :at !y see4 ,= ?is is ! fir/ & la/ object ( ! s*ool j\rney4 ,,mon?ly ,,nature ,,cal5d>4#dj ,,janu>y4 ,,plant ,,life4 ,g5]al4--,z 9 ,decemb] 7p4 #dbb74 ,plants usually 9 fl[]4--,%eph]d's purse1 daisy1 sn[drop1 & a few o!rs4 ,,animal ,,life4 ,g5]al4--,z 9 ,decemb] 7p4 #dbb74 ,mammals4--,bats 7p4 #bee7 reappe> at ! end ( ! mon?4 ,birds4--,missel ?ru% 7p4 #cjf7 s+s4 ,insects4--,w9t] pupae ( butt]flies & mo?s 7,*ap4 ,,xix47 may be f\nd4 ,,febru>y4 ,,plant ,,life4 ,g5]al4--,z 9 ,decemb]4 ,plants usually 9 fl[]4--,%eph]d's purse1 daisy1 sn[drop1 hazel1 & a few o!rs4 ,h$ges are n[ clipp$2 /udy ! effect :i* ?is treatm5t has ^u subsequ5t gr[?4 ,corn4-- ,b>ley & oats are s[n4 ,liv]worts4--,spore-cases ( ,pellia 7p4 #bjj7 become visible4 ,,animal ,,life4 ,g5]al4--,z 9 ,decemb]4 ,mammals4--,bats reappe>4 ,birds4--,?ru%es & blackbirds pair & beg9 to build2 /udy diff]5ces 9 song 7pp4 #cjd & #cjh74 ,rooks repair & build ne/s 7p4 #cah74 ,frogs4 7p4 #ccb7 reappe>4 ,insects4--,pupae ( cabbage-:ite butt]flies & o!r ,lepidopt]a may be f\nd4 ,,m>*4 ,,plant ,,life4 ,g5]al ,"w = ,spr+ ,mon?s4--,/udy ! g]m9ation ( se$s & ! e>ly /ages ( gr[? ( ! new plants 7,*ap4 ,i472 ! /ructure & me?ods ( unfold+ ( buds 7,*aps4 ,,iv4 & ,,viii472 ! movem5ts ( "y tw9+ /ems2 8ble$+0 ( /ems1 & pa?s ( food-curr5ts 7,*ap4 ,v472 & exam9e & collect spr+ fl[]s 7,*aps4 ,,vi41 ,,vii41 & ,,viii474 ,plants usually 9 fl[]--,%eph]d's purse1 m>% m>igold1 wild plum1 daisy1 d&elion1 daffodil1 sn[drop1 hazel1 ald]1 will[1 popl>1 elm1 & o!rs4 ,horsetail4--,f]tile haulms 7p4 #aie7 appe>4 ,corn4--,b>ley & oat s[+ cont9u$4 ,,animal ,,life4 ,g5]al ,"w = ,spr+ ,mon?s4--,/udy ! developm5t ( frogs & toads 7,*ap4 ,,xviii47 & insects 7,*ap4 ,,xix472 ! developm5t & education ( ! *ick 7,*ap4 ,,xvi472 ! ne/+-habits ( birds 7,*ap4 ,,xvii472 ! education & play ( lambs & o!r "y mammals 7,*ap4 ,,xiv472 ! habits ( molluscs 7,*ap4 ,,xx472 & ! "w ( e>?worms 7,*ap4 ,,xx474 ,/ock aqu>ia4 ,mammals4--,lambs are born4 ,birds4--,?ru%es1 blackbirds1 skyl>ks1 rooks1 & o!r birds lay eggs4 ,fieldf>es & r$w+s beg9 to dep>t4 ,frogs & ,toads lay _! eggs4 ,insects4--,dytiscus 7p4 #cfa7 lays eggs4 ,pupae ( cabbage-:ite butt]flies & o!r ,lepidopt]a may be f\nd4 ,,april4 ,,plant ,,life4 ,plants usually 9 fl[]4--,wallfl[]1 %eph]d's purse1 butt]cup1 anemone1 m>% m>igold1 common vet*1 plum1 pe>1 /rawb]ry1 primrose1 c[slip1 daisy1 d&elion1 spe$well1 r$ deadnettle1 daffodil1 wild hyac9?1 wild tulip1 ru%es1 arum1 annual mead[ grass1 oak1 bir*1 ald]1 will[1 popl>1 elm1 a%1 & o!rs4 ,trees :i* unfold _! leaf-buds4--,l>*1 horse *e/nut1 bee*1 elm1 sycamore4 ,elm fruits 7p4 #aed7 are abundant2 /udy ! me?od ( disp]sal 7p4 #agc74 ,corn4--,b>ley & oat s[+ cont9u$4 ,,animal ,,life4 ,birds4--,s&-m>t9s1 cuckoos1 swall[s1 h\se-m>t9s1 night+ales1 swifts1 & o!r birds arrive4 ,ke/rels & sp>r[-hawks ne/4 ,fieldf>es & r$w+s dep>t4 ,frogs & ,toads4--,tadpoles hat*4 ,insects4--,cabbage-:ite butt]flies 7p4 #cfb7 & o!r ,lepidopt]a em]ge f pupae4 ,cat]pill>s are pl5tiful4 ,mo?s may be tak5 on will[ fl[]s at beg9n+ ( mon?4 ,l>vae ( ,dytiscus 7p4 #cfa7 & o!r aquatic insects may be f\nd 9 ponds4 ,molluscs4--,g>d5 snails 7p4 #cgi7 reappe>4 ,,may4 ,,plant ,,life4 ,plants usually 9 fl[]4--,wallfl[]1 %eph]d's purse1 butt]cup1 anemone1 m>% m>igold1 laburnum1 common vet*1 r$ clov]1 :ite clov]1 broom1 *]ry1 apple1 pe>1 /rawb]ry1 haw?orn1 primrose1 c[slip1 daisy1 d&elion1 spe$well1 r$ deadnettle1 :ite deadnettle1 lily ( ! valley1 wild hyac9?1 /> ( ,be?lehem1 wild tulip1 ru%es1 s$ges1 arum1 sweet-sc5t$ v]nal grass1 sl5d] foxtail1 mead[ foxtail1 annual mead[ grass1 p]5nial rye grass1 oak1 bee*1 bir*1 will[1 elm1 horse-*e/nut1 a%1 sycamore1 & o!rs4 ,mo/ =e/ trees are n[ 9 leaf4 ,liv]worts4--,spore-cases ( ,pellia 7p4 #bjj7 op54 ,,animal ,,life4 ,birds4--,swall[s build ne/s4 ,mo/ birds are incubat+ eggs 7,*ap4 ,,xvi474 ,frogs & ,toads4--,tadpoles may be f\nd 9 ponds4 ,insects4--,mo?s & butt]flies are common4 ,cabbage-:ites lay eggs4 ,cat]pill>s ( tig]-mo? 7p4 #cfd7 & o!r ,lepidopt]a may be f\nd4 ,aquatic insect-l>vae 9 ponds4 ,,june4 ,,plant ,,life4 ,g5]al ,"w = ,summ] ,mon?s4--,/udy ! =ms & duties ( leaves 7,*ap4 ,,iii472 & ! ?ick5+ ( /ems 7,*ap4 ,v474 ,exam9e1 id5tify1 & collect grasses 7,*ap4 ,,vii47 & summ] fl[]s 7,*ap4 ,,vi471 & make obs]vations ^u cross-poll9ation ( fl[]s by insects 7,*ap4 ,,vi474 ,/udy ! developm5t & /ructure ( fruits 7,*ap4 ,,ix472 & ! life-hi/ory ( f]ns 7,*ap4 ,x474 ,comp>e & contra/ mu%rooms & toad/ools 7,*ap4 ,,xi474 ,plants usually 9 fl[]4--,wallfl[]1 %eph]d's purse1 butt]cup1 anemone1 mead[ vet*l+1 common vet*1 r$ clov]1 :ite clov]1 broom1 wild rose1 haw?orn1 poison hemlock1 c[ p>snip1 c>rot1 daisy1 d&elion1 spe$well1 mulle91 snapdragon1 ?yme1 sage1 r$ deadnettle1 :ite deadnettle1 lily ( ! valley1 wild hyac9?1 /> ( ,be?lehem1 ru%es1 s$ges1 sweet-sc5t$ v]nal grass1 sl5d] foxtail1 mead[ foxtail1 ,timo?y grass1 ,york%ire fog1 wild oat1 annual mead[ grass1 smoo?-/alk$ mead[ grass1 r\gh-/alk$ mead[ grass1 mead[ fescue1 %eep's fescue1 p]5nial rye grass1 c\* grass1 lime1 sycamore1 & o!rs4 ,lime leaves unfold4 ,fruits ( /rawb]ry1 will[1 & o!r plants are ripe4 ,haymak+ beg9s4 ,,animal ,,life4 ,mammals4--,exam9e "y wild rabbits 7,*ap4 ,,xii474 ,birds4--,mo/ birds are hat*+ eggs4 ,fir/ brood ( swall[s hat*$ at end ( mon?4 ,drake's plumage becomes simil> to duck's 7p4 #cbi74 ,frogs & ,toads4--,tadpoles rea* full size4 ,insects4--,all /ages ( ,lepidopt]a v abundant4 ,cat]pill>s ( tig]-mo? 7p4 #cfd7 pupate at end ( mon?4 ,vap\r] cat]pill>s 7p4 #cfd7 may be f\nd at end ( mon?4 ,l>vae ( aquatic insects 9 ponds2 pupae ( ,dytiscus 7p4 #cfa7 9 soil on banks4 ,,july4 ,,plant ,,life4 ,plants 9 fl[]4--,%eph]d's purse1 c&ytuft1 butt]cup1 mead[ vet*l+1 r$ clov]1 :ite clov]1 wild rose1 blackb]ry1 poison hemlock1 wat] hemlock1 c[ p>snip1 c>rot1 h$ge p>sley1 fool's p>sley1 wat] dropwort1 daisy1 d&elion1 ?i/le1 foxglove1 spe$well1 snapdragon1 mulle91 musk1 m9t1 ?yme1 sage1 r$ deadnettle1 :ite deadnettle1 ru%es1 sl5d] foxtail1 ,timo?y grass1 ,york%ire fog1 wild oat1 annual mead[ grass1 smoo?-/alk$ mead[ grass1 r\gh-/alk$ mead[ grass1 mead[ fescue1 %eep's fescue1 c\* grass1 ,spani% *e/nut1 lime1 & o!rs4 ,fruits ( gooseb]ry1 *]ry1 raspb]ry1 /rawb]ry1 & o!r plants are ripe4 ,f]ns4--,spores ( male-f]n1 brack51 & h>t's tongue are ripe 7,*ap4 ,x474 ,fungi4--,mu%rooms 7p4 #bjc7 & toad/ools may be f\nd4 ,,animal ,,life4 ,mammals4--,lambs are wean$4 ,birds4--,_m birds are hat*+ second broods4 ,old cuckoos beg9 to dep>t at end ( mon?4 ,p\ltry m\lt4 ,"y wild ducks may be se5 9 wat] mead[s4 ,frogs & ,toads4--,"y animals leave ponds4 ,insects4--,cabbage-:ite cat]pill>s pupate4 ,tig] mo?s 7p4 #cfi7 em]ge f pupae at end ( mon?4 ,cat]pill>s ( vap\r] mo? 7p4 #cfd7 may be f\nd4 ,,augu/4 ,,plant ,,life4 ,plants 9 fl[]4--,%eph]d's purse1 c&ytuft1 butt]cup1 mead[ vet*l+1 r$ clov]1 :ite clov]1 wild rose1 blackb]ry1 wat] hemlock1 c[ p>snip1 c>rot1 h$ge p>sley1 fool's p>sley1 wat] dropwort1 daisy1 d&elion1 ?i/le1 foxglove1 spe$well1 snapdragon1 mulle91 musk1 m9t1 ?yme1 sage1 r$ deadnettle1 :ite deadnettle1 ru%es1 sl5d] foxtail1 ,timo?y grass1 ,york%ire fog1 wild oat1 annual mead[ grass1 c\* grass1 & o!rs4 ,leaves ( horse *e/nut beg9 to fall4 ,fruits ( *]ry1 plum1 raspb]ry1 & o!r plants are ripe4 ,corn4--,:eat1 oats1 & b>ley h>ve/s beg94 ,f]ns4--,spores ( male-f]n1 brack51 & h>t's tongue are ripe4 ,fungi4--,mu%rooms & toad/ools may be f\nd4 ,,animal ,,life4 ,birds4--,swifts & old cuckoos dep>t4 ,_m rooks g into w9t] qu>t]s4 ,night+ales beg9 to dep>t4 ,s&-m>t9s congregate4 ,song-birds are comp>atively sil5t4 ,insects4--,all /ages ( vap\r] mo? may be f\nd4 ,,septemb]4 ,,plant ,,life4 ,g5]al ,"w = ,autumn ,mon?s4--,/udy ! /orage ( food 9 twigs1 und]gr\nd /ems1 bulbs1 etc4 7,*aps4 ,,iv4 & ,v472 collect good specim5s ( leaves %[+ autumn col\rs1 obs]ve ! ph5om5a ( leaf-fall & ! =mation ( vegetable m\ld1 & notice ! ord] 9 :i* =e/ trees become leafless 7,*aps4 ,,iv4 & ,,viii474 ,/udy ! developm5t & /ructure ( fruits1 & ! me?ods ( disp]sal ( se$s 7,*ap4 ,,ix474 ,make collections ( dry fruits 7,*ap4 ,,ix471 & ( ! 8se$0 ( useful & injuri\s grasses 7,*ap4 ,,vii474 ,plants usually 9 fl[]4--,%eph]d's purse1 butt]cup1 mead[ vet*l+1 r$ clov]1 :ite clov]1 blackb]ry1 h$ge p>sley1 wat] dropwort1 daisy1 d&elion1 ?i/le1 foxglove1 spe$well1 snapdragon1 musk1 m9t1 r$ deadnettle1 :ite deadnettle1 sl5d] foxtail1 annual mead[ grass1 & o!rs4 ,a% & horse *e/nut leaves fall4 ,fruits ( apple1 pe>1 plum1 blackb]ry1 & o!r plants are ripe4 ,corn4--,:eat-s[+ beg9s4 ,fungi4-- ,mu%rooms & toad/ools may be f\nd4 ,,animal ,,life4 ,g5]al ,"w = ,autumn ,mon?s4--,/udy ! v>i\s me?ods by :i* animals prep>e = ! w9t]3 e4g4 migration ( birds1 hib]nation ( bats1 frogs1 insects1 etc42 *ange ( col\r or ?ickness ( coat1 /orage ( food1 etc4 ,birds4--,swall[s & h\se-m>t9s congregate4 ,s&-m>t9s & night+ales dep>t4 ,rooks g into w9t] qu>t]s4 ,"y song-birds may be he>d le>n+ to s+4 ,insects4--,mo?s may be tak5 on ivy blossoms1 etc4 ,eggs ( cabbage-:ite butt]flies may be f\nd4 ,cat]pill>s are mo/ly full-f$ & ready to pupate4 ,pupae ( vap\r] mo? may be f\nd4 ,,octob]4 ,,plant ,,life4 ,plants usually 9 fl[]4--,%eph]d's purse1 :ite clov]1 daisy1 d&elion1 snapdragon1 r$ deadnettle1 :ite deadnettle1 sl5d] foxtail1 & o!rs4 ,mo/ =e/-trees %$ _! leaves4 ,fruits ( apple1 pe>1 plum1 & o!r plants are ripe4 ,corn4--,:eat-s[+ cont9u$4 ,,animal ,,life4 ,birds4--,"y song-birds may be he>d le>n+ to s+4 ,fieldf>es & r$w+s arrive4 ,swall[s & h\se-m>t9s dep>t4 ,drakes reassume _! di/9ctive plumage4 ,frogs hib]nate 7p4 #ccd74 ,insects4--,octob] is ! be/ mon? = pupa hunt+4 ,,novemb]4 ,,plant ,,life4 ,plants usually 9 fl[]4--,%eph]d's purse1 daisy1 :ite deadnettle1 & o!rs4 ,mo/ =e/-trees are n[ leafless4 ,fruits ( haw?orn1 rose1 holly1 mi/letoe1 etc41 are ripe4 ,corn4--,:eat-s[+ cont9u$4 ,,animal ,,life4 ,mammals4--,bats hib]nate 7p4 #beg74 ,birds4--,l>ks patrol fields 9 flocks 7p4 #cah74 ,insects4--,pupae may be f\nd4 ,,decemb]4 ,,plant ,,life4 ,g5]al ,"w = ,w9t] ,mon?s4--,arrange collections ( fl[]s1 grasses1 leaves1 etc4 ,/udy ! me?ods ( bran*+1 & ! b>k1 ( trees1 & make draw+s ( typical examples 7,*ap4 ,,viii474 ,exam9e bulbs & corms1 7,*ap4 ,v47 & gr[ !m 9 wat]-glasses4 ,trace ! wat]-conduct+ /r&s 9 ! fl[]-/alks ( sn[drop1 n>cissus1 etc4 7,*ap4 ,v474 ,fl[]s ( daisy1 :ite deadnettle1 & a few o!rs may be f\nd4 ,fruits ( mi/letoe1 holly1 etc41 are ripe4 ,,animal ,,life4 ,g5]al ,"w = ,w9t] ,mon?s4--,prep>e skeletons1 etc41 & /udy ! /ructure & mann] ( life ( rabbits1 p\ltry1 & pigeons 7,*aps4 ,,xii41 ,,xiii41 & ,,xv474 ,9 sn[y wea!r1 exam9e & draw ! footpr9ts ( dome/ic & o!r animals 7,*ap4 ,,xiv474 ,place gra91 crumbs1 suet1 & o!r food = birds1 & id5tify ^? :i* come to fe$ 7,*ap4 ,,xvii474 ,birds4--,missel-?ru% s+s4 ,sp>r[-hawks may be se5 ne> f>ms4 ,insects4--,pupae may be f\nd4 ,,footnote3 #dj ,no attempt has be5 made to compile a complete cal5d>1 ! ev5ts notic$ be+ ^? only :i* are consid]$ 9 ?is book4 ,,typical ,,exam9ation ,,pap]s4 ,! ,national ,froebel ,union4 ,,elem5t>y ,,c]tificate4 ,,nature ,,k4-- ,pap] ,i4 7,que/ions #a & #b & ,,any ,,two o!rs to be answ]$47 #a4 ,describe ! fl[] provid$1 & draw x 9 longitud9al section4 ,expla9 h[ cross-poll9ation is ensur$ 9 ?is fl[]2 give draw+s to illu/rate4 #b4 ,give & plan out ! subject-matt] = "o or m ,lessons1 to be giv5 to *ildr5 ( sev5 or eight ye>s ( age1 on ! ,disp]sal ( ,fruits & ,se$s by ,animals4 #c4 ,describe ! /ructure ( an ,acorn & ( a ,:eat gra91 & contra/ ^! two se$s4 ,give enl>g$ draw+s ( ea*4 #d4 ,:at is ! "w ( ! root ( a plant1 & h[ is ?is "w c>ri$ out8 ,:at diff]5t =ms ( roots are to be f\nd8 ,give examples & make a r\gh sket* ( ea*4 #e4 ,describe ! bud 9 w9t]1 & its me?od ( unfold+ 9 spr+1 ( any two ( ! foll[+ trees3--,oak1 ,bee*1 ,sycamore4 ,make sket*es to illu/rate4 #f4 ,make z complete a li/ z y c ( ,fl[]+ ,plants :i* gr[ 9 ponds2 /ate h[ ^! plants h adapt$ !mselves to _! habitat1 & say at :at "t ( ! ye> ea* ( !m fl[]s4 ,:at plants w\ld y expect to f9d gr[+ r\nd ! m>g9 ( ! pond8 ,pap] ,,ii4 7,que/ions #a & #b ,,mu/ be answ]$1 & ,,any ,,?ree o!rs47 #a4 ,draw up ,notes ( ,lessons on "o ( ! foll[+ subjects3--8,a ,mole10 8,dome/ic ,f[ls10 8,a ,cat40 ,/ate ! age ( ! *ildr51 & ! me?od y w\ld pursue4 #b4 ,:at is a rum9ant8 ,give z _m gr\ps ( rum9at+ animals z y c & ! habits ( "o4 #c4 ,give ! life-hi/ory ( "o ( ! foll[+1 ) illu/rations3--a ,bee1 a ,caddis-fly1 a ,spid]1 a ,butt]fly4 #d4 ,give ! life & habits ( ! ,squirrel4 #e4 ,h[ does a ,/>l+ diff] f o!r ,birds8 #f4 ,draw a common ,snail & a ,slug4 ,give a %ort acc\nt ( _! life-hi/ories4 #g4 ,give in/ances ( protective col\r+ among/ 7#a7 ,insects1 7#b7 ,birds1 7#c7 ,mammals1 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,bo>d ( ,education4 ,,tea*]s' ,,c]tificate ,,exam9ation4 ,,g5]al ,,elem5t>y ,,sci5ce4 ,,"p ,,ii4 #aa4 ,give an example 9 ea* case ( a plant )--7a7 ,plum$ fruits or se$s4 7b7 ,w+$ fruits or se$s4 7c7 ,climb+ /em cov]$ ) hooks4 7d7 ,fl[]s :i* come out be=e ! leaves4 7e7 ,fl[]s 9 :i* ! /am5s are unit$ to =m a tube4 #ab4 ,%[ 9 ! case ( any two ,briti% wild plants ! special means !y possess = survival 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4 #ac4 ,"n five ( ! e>lie/ fl[]+ wild plants 9 y\r neighb\rhood1 9 ! ord] 9 :i* !y fl[]1 & m5tion ! *ief *>act]i/ics ( ! fl[] 9 ea* case4 #ad4 ,describe ! life-hi/ory ( a f]n s f> z x c be obs]v$ by ! nak$ eye & ) ! aid ( a pocket l5s4 #ae4 ,describe1 ) ! help ( draw+s1 ! "w ( a bee 9 its mode bo? ( collect+ poll5 & honey & ( f]tilis+ fl[]s4 #af4 ,give a %ort acc\nt ( ! /ructure ( a bird's w+4 ,h[ are ! w+s made use ( dur+ flight8 #ag4 ,give an acc\nt ( "s simple exp]im5ts y w\ld employ to demon/rate ! ph5om5a ( respiration 9 animals & plants4 ,bo>d ( ,education4 ,,prelim9>y ,,exam9ation ,,= ,,! ,,c]tificate4 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,elem5t>y ,,sci5ce4--,,syllabus ,,no4 ,,ii4 7,y %\ld answ] ,,six que/ions47 #a4 ,describe ) ! aid ( a draw+ ! v>i\s /ructures se5 by means ( a pocket l5s 9 a section across ! middle region ( a gra9 ( :eat4 #b4 ,h[ w\ld y measure ! rate ( transpiration ( wat] f a small plant or a leafy /em8 #c4 ,h[ c x be %[n t ! root responds to ext]nal influ5ces ( moi/ure1 light & gravity8 #d4 ,give a brief acc\nt ( ! function ( ! gre5 leaf 9 ! nutrition ( plants4 #e4 ,comp>e by draw+s ! leaves ( broad bean & g>d5 pea4 ,!n discuss ! means by :i* ! two plants obta9 me*anical support4 #f4 ,:5 ! bulb ( a !rmomet] is plac$ 9 a j> ( soak$ & g]m9at+ se$s1 :at temp]ature *ange is obs]v$8 ,expla9 ! cause ( ?is4 #g4 ,describe exp]im5ts :i* %[ 9 :at respects ! air is affect$ 9 composition by pass+ ?r\gh ! lungs4 #h4 ,describe ) ! help ( draw+s ! /ructure ( ! fl[]s ( ! hazel or will[ & %[ h[ !y are adapt$ = cross-poll9ation4 #i4 ,:at is meant by root pressure1 & h[ w\ld y demon/rate x8 ,illu/rate y\r answ] by draw+s4 #aj4 ,:at are ! conditions ( ! soil :i* make x a suitable m$ium = heal?y root-action & vigor\s plant gr[?8 ,conv]sely "u :at conditions ( soil w\ld ! plant fail to ?rive or die8 ,bo>d ( ,education 7,s\? ,k5s+ton74 ,,g5]al ,,biology4 ,,section ,i4 ,,( ,,/age ,i4 7,y are p]mitt$ to answ] only ,,eight que/ions47 #a4 ,write :at y c ( ! habits ( ! common ,h\se ,fly & ( ! common ,clo!s ,mo?2 draw figures ( _! appe>ance at diff]5t /ages ( ! life-hi/ory4 #b4 ,:]e & :5 d y f9d ,frog's eggs8 ,( :at use is ! jelly ) :i* !y are surr\nd$8 #c4 ,h[ does ! ,tadpole swim1 & h[ does ! ,frog swim8 ,h[ does ! ,frog jump1 & h[ does x cat* a fly8 #d4 ,contra/ ! *>act]s ( ! m\? 7includ+ tee? if pres5t7 9 ! ,frog1 ,bird1 ,cat1 ,rabbit & ,%eep4 #e4 ,describe ! *>act]i/ic modes ( locomotion 9 ! ,bird1 ,dog1 ,rabbit & ,bat1 & po9t out any peculi>ities ( ! skeleton :i* are relat$ to ^! habits4 #f4 ,describe ! he>t ( ! ,%eep1 & acc\nt s f> z y c = any diff]5ces y c po9t out betwe5 ! v>i\s *amb]s4 #g4 ,9 :at way are bees useful to fl[]s8 ,expla9 9 any "o example y *oose :at happ5s :5 a bee visits ! fl[]4 #h4 ,describe ! roots ( a pea or bean4 ,:at importance d y atta* to ! diff]5t p>ts y m5tion8 #i4 ,:at is />*8 ,h[ w\ld y %[ :e!r or n x 0 pres5t 9 a leaf8 ,:at conditions are necess>y 9 ord] t ! leaf may produce x8 #aj4 ,describe ! fruit ( ei!r ! ,sycamore or ! ,poppy1 & expla9 ! uses ( ! diff]5t p>ts 9 disp]s+ ! se$4 #aa4 ,describe h[ y w\ld proce$ 9 arrang+ an exp]im5t to enable y to /udy ! g]m9ation ( a se$4 ,give a brief acc\nt ( ! process ( g]m9ation ( any se$ y may select4 #ab4 ,describe & sket* ! specim5 provid$1 & expla91 z f> z y c1 ! use ( ! diff]5t p>ts4 ,,index4 ,acorn1 #ada1 #add1 #adf1 #age1 #agg ,air1 c>bon dioxide 91 #ca1 #cc ,air-*amb] ( h5's egg1 #bhc1 #bhe ,air sacs ( birds1 #bgi ,album91 #bhe ,ald]1 #adb1 #adi ,allantois1 #bhi1 #bic ,alt]nation ( g5]ations1 #ahi1 #aif ,amnion1 #bhh1 #bij ,anemone1 #ig1 #ih ,animals & plants1 resemblances & diff]5ces1 #bdc ,annual1 mead[ grass1 #ace2 r+s1 #gc ,ant]ior1 #bag ,an!r ( /am51 #ia ,aorta1 #bcf1 #bch ,app5dages ( crayfi% & lob/]1 #cgc1 #cge ,apple1 #ajd1 #ajf2 fruit (1 #agf1 #agi ,apricot1 #ajf ,aqu>ium1 a simple1 #cdj ,ara*nids1 #cgh ,art]ies1 #bcg1 #bch ,art]ies1 pulse 91 #bce1 #bci ,ar?ropods1 #cea ,arum1 #abb ,a%1 #aec1 #aef2 fruit (1 #aga1 #agc2 m\nta91 #aeg ,asp51 #aeb ,auricles ( he>t1 #bce1 #bcg ,awn1 #abi1 #acj1 #aca ,axil ( leaf1 #de1 #dg ,backbone1 ( pigeon1 #bfi2 ( rabbit1 #bag1 #bbb1 #bbg ,bact]ia1 #bji ,balanc]s ( h5's egg1 #bhc1 #bhe ,b>k1 #gd ,ba/1 #ga1 #gb ,bat1 #bee1 #bef ,bean se$1 #a1 #b1 #e2 g]m9ation (1 #i1 #ac2 />* 91 #b ,bee*1 #adb1 #ade1 #adg2 fruit (1 #age1 #agh ,beetle1 a wat]1 #ceg ,beetles1 #cfb ,b]ries1 #age1 #agi ,bi5nials1 #ca1 #if ,bile1 #bcb1 #bcd ,bir*1 #adb1 #adg1 #adh ,birds1 #bfi ,bird's foot trefoil1 #ajb ,black b5t1 #ace ,blackb]ry1 #ajc1 #aje2 fruit (1 #age1 #agi2 leaves1 #ch1 #da1 #aje ,blackbird1 #cjb1 #cjg ,ble$+ ( /ems1 #fg1 #gj ,blood1 #bcc1 #bce1 #bdb2 circulation (1 #bce2 r$ corpuscles (1 #bcg1 #bdb ,blue m\ld1 #bjg1 #bjh ,bone1 /ructure ( a long1 #bbc1 #bbh ,bones1 ( birds1 #bfi2 ( pigeon1 #bgd2 ( rabbit1 #bbb ,box leaves1 #dd1 #de ,brack5 f]n1 #ahd1 #ahi ,bracts ( anemone1 #ig1 #ii2 ( daisy1 #aaa2 ( d&elion1 #aac2 ( lime1 #aeb1 #aed1 #aee1 #agd ,bran*es1 position (1 #de1 #dg ,brea/ bone1 ( pigeon1 #bfi2 ( rabbit1 #bag1 #bbc1 #bbg ,brea?+1 def9ition (1 #bdb2 necessity =1 #bda2 ( cockroa*1 #cee2 ( cru/aceans1 #cgf1 #cgg2 ( fre%-wat] mussel1 #cha2 ( frog1 #ccc1 #ccg2 ( mammals1 #bdb1 #bdc2 ( snails1 #chb1 #chc2 ( tadpole1 #cdd ,brea?+ organ ( *ick-embryo1 #bhi1 #bid ,broad bean se$1 #a1 #b1 #e ,broccoli1 #if ,broom1 #aja ,brussels spr\ts1 #if ,bud1 a typical1 #ee1 #eh ,buds1 #ee1 #fi2 bur/+ (1 #ef1 #fa1 #fd2 ( a%1 #aec1 #aef2 ( horse *e/nut1 #eg1 #fc2 ( sycamore1 #ef1 #fj2 position (1 #de1 #ej ,bulb1 #ha1 #hd ,burr[s ( e>?worms1 #chd1 #che ,butt]cup1 #if1 #ig2 family1 #if1 #ig ,butt]flies1 cabbage-:ite1 #cfb1 #cfe ,calamites1 #aif ,calceol>ia1 #aaf ,calyx1 #ij ,cambium1 #gb ,c&ytuft1 #id ,can9e tee?1 #bdf1 #bdh1 #bee ,capill>ies1 #bcg1 #bdj ,capsule1 #afh ,c>bon1 conta9$ 9 plants1 #ca1 #cc2 conta9$ 9 />*1 #cb ,c>bon dioxide1 =m$ by liv+ body1 #bdj1 #bda2 =m$ :5 fle% burns1 #bdj1 #bda2 =m$ :5 wood burns1 #ca2 9 air1 #ca1 #cc ,c>nivores1 #bed ,c>pel1 #if1 #ih ,c>rot1 #if1 #ajh ,ca/+s ( e>?worms1 #chd1 #chf ,cat1 #bdf1 #bej1 #beb1 #bed ,catk91 #adf ,catk9s1 ( ald]1 #adb1 #adi2 ( bee*1 #adb1 #adh2 ( bir*1 #adb1 #adh2 ( hazel1 #adb1 #adi2 ( oak1 #ada1 #add1 #ade2 ( popl>1 #aea2 ( will[1 #aej1 #aea ,cat]pill>1 ( cabbage-:ite butt]fly1 #cfb1 #cfe2 ( tig]-mo?1 #cfd1 #cfi2 ( vap\r]-mo?1 #cfd1 #cgj ,caulifl[]1 #if ,cel]y1 #ajh ,c5tip$es1 #cgh ,cephalo?orax ( crab1 #cgc1 #cgf2 ( crayfi% & lob/]1 #cgc1 #cge ,*]ry1 #ajc1 #aje1 #ajf2 fruit (1 #age1 #agi ,*e/nut1 horse1 #ch1 #db1 #dg1 #eg1 #fc1 #fe1 #aeg1 #aei2 ,spani% or sweet1 #adh ,*ick1 developm5t (1 #bhf1 #bhi2 education (1 #bie1 #bif2 embryo (1 #bhg1 #bhi2 hat*+ (1 #bid1 #bie ,*it91 #bea ,*rysalis1 #cff ,claws ( cat1 #bdg1 #bea ,cleav]s1 #age1 #agg ,climb+ /ems1 #ge ,clitellum ( e>?worm1 #chc1 #chf 8,clock0 ( d&elion1 #aab1 #aga1 #agb ,clov]1 #aja1 #ajb ,cockroa*1 #cdi1 #cea2 habits (1 #cef2 life-hi/ory (1 #cef2 position ( 9 insect class1 #ceg2 /ructure (1 #cee ,cocoon ( e>?worm1 #chf2 ( tig]-mo?1 #cfd1 #cfi ,coleopt]a1 #cfb ,coll> ( mu%room1 #bjc1 #bje2 ( g>d5 snail1 #cgi ,collect+1 #chi1 #cij ,col\r1 ( fl[]s1 #ic2 ( fruits1 #ahb ,compositae1 #aad ,cone-be>+ trees1 #afj1 #afa ,cones ( ald]1 #adi2 ( horsetail1 #aia1 #aib1 #aid1 #aie2 ( l>*1 #afa1 #afc2 ( ,scot* p9e1 #afj1 #afb1 #aga1 #agd2 ( spruce fir1 #afc1 #aga1 #agd ,convolvulus1 #gf1 #gh1 #gi ,cork1 #ge ,corm1 #ha1 #he ,corolla1 #ia ,corona1 #abj1 #abb ,cotyl$ons1 #ac1 #af1 #bb1 #bc2 ( bean1 #b1 #f ,c[slip1 #aji1 #aaj ,crayfi%1 #cgb1 #cgd ,creep+ /ems1 #hj1 #hb ,cress1 #id1 #if ,crocus corm1 #ha1 #he ,crop ( pigeon1 #bga ,cross f]tilisation1 #ib1 #ajb1 #aaj1 #aah1 #abb1 #aea ,cr[1 #cab1 #cah1 #cbj2 family1 #cab1 #cbj ,crucif]s1 #ie ,cru/aceans1 #cgb1 #cgg ,cuckoo1 #cbb1 #cbd2 cuckoo-p9t1 #abb ,currants1 #agf1 #agi ,cu%ion-feet ( cat]pill>1 #cfe ,daffodil1 #hd1 #he1 #abj1 #abb ,daisy1 #aaa1 #aab ,d&elion1 #aab1 #aac2 fruit (1 #aga1 #agb ,deadnettle1 #aag ,de]1 #bfa ,d5t9e1 #bai ,developm5t ( *ick1 #bhf1 #bhi2 ( frog1 #cdj ,diaphragm1 #bah ,dia/ase1 #bcd ,dicotyl$ons1 #bc1 #dj1 #gb ,dige/ion1 #bca1 #bcc2 def9ition (1 #bcc ,dige/ive canal ( frog1 #bca2 ( rabbit1 #bcb ,dipt]a1 #cgj ,disp]sal ( insects1 #cgj2 ( se$s1 #afe ,dissection1 #bad ,dog1 #bdh1 #bea1 #beb1 #bed ,donkey1 #bfa ,dorsal1 #bag ,d[n fea!rs1 #bgc1 #bgg ,dropwort1 wat]1 #ajh ,duck1 #cbf1 #cbg ,dytiscus1 habits & /ructure (1 #ceg1 #ceh2 life-hi/ory (1 #cfa ,e>1 ( grass1 #acj ,e>s1 ( rabbit1 #bah ,e>?worms1 #chc1 #chd ,education ( "y animals1 #bdh1 #bdi1 #bfb ,eggs1 ( cabbage-:ite butt]fly1 #cfb2 ( cockroa*1 #ceg2 ( ,dytiscus1 #cfa2 ( e>?worm1 #chf2 ( frog1 #cci1 #cdj1 #cda2 ( h51 #bhb1 #bhd2 ( ,limnaea1 #chj ,elm1 #aeb1 #aec2 fruit (1 #aga1 #agc ,embryo1 #ab2 ( *ick1 #bhg1 #bhi2 ( f]n1 #ahh1 #aia2 ( horsetail1 #aie ,enamel1 #bai ,endosp]m1 #bb ,evolution1 a case (1 #cch ,ext9ct horsetails1 #aif ,eyes1 ( butt]fly1 #cfc1 #cfg1 #cfh2 ( cat1 #bdf1 #bej2 ( cockroa*1 #cdh1 #ceb2 ( crab1 #cgc2 ( crayfi% & lob/]1 #cgb2 ( dog1 #bdh1 #bea2 ( pigeon1 #bga2 ( rabbit1 #bah2 ( snail1 #cgi1 #chb ,falcon1 #bgb1 #ccj ,fantail pigeon1 #bhj ,fea!rs ( pigeon1 #bfe1 #bff1 #bfg1 #bgj1 #bge1 #bgf ,feel]s1 ( butt]fly1 #cfc1 #cfg2 ( cockroa*1 #cdi1 #ceb2 ( crayfi% & lob/]1 #cgb1 #cgc1 #cgd1 #cge2 ( ,dytiscus1 #ceh1 #cei2 ( mo?1 #cfd1 #cfh1 #cfi ,fehl+'s solution1 #bcj ,f]ns1 #ahc2 brack51 #ahd1 #ahi2 h>t's tongue1 #ahe1 #aij1 #aia2 male f]n1 #ahc1 #ahe ,f]tilisation1 #ib2 ( f]ns1 #ahh2 ( =e/ trees1 #adf2 ( foxglove1 #aaf2 ( grasses1 #aca2 ( horsetail1 #aie2 ( moss1 #bjb2 ( oak1 #ade2 ( primrose1 #aji2 ( r$ clov]1 #aja2 ( ,scot* p9e1 #afb ,fescues1 #acb1 #acd ,fieldf>e1 #cjc1 #cji ,field "w1 #chh ,filam5t ( /am51 #ia ,fir1 spruce1 #afa1 #afc ,flight ( bird1 #bgh ,fl[]1 ( a grass1 #abh1 #abi2 ( wallfl[]1 #hh1 #hi ,fl[]less plants1 #aig ,fl[]s1 "w (1 #hi ,food1 c>bonace\s1 ( plants1 #cd1 #ce2 m9]al1 ( plants1 #bi2 necessity (1 #bcj2 obta9$ f air1 #ca1 #cd2 obta9$ f soil1 #bf1 #bi2 ( mu%room1 #bjd1 #bjf2 ( "y se$l+1 #bh ,fool's p>sley1 #ajh ,f[ls1 #bif1 #bii ,foxglove1 #aad1 #aae2 family1 #aad1 #aae ,foxtails1 #acb1 #acd1 #ace ,frog1 developm5t (1 #cdj2 dige/ive canal (1 #bca2 life (1 #ccb1 #ccd ,fronds ( f]ns1 #fe1 #ahc1 #ahd1 #ahf1 #ahi ,fruit1 #aff ( apple1 #agf1 #agi2 ( a%1 #aga1 #agc2 ( bee*1 #age1 #agh2 ( blackb]ry1 #age1 #agi2 ( butt]cup1 #ih2 ( *]ry1 #age1 #agi2 ( d&elion1 #aga1 #agb2 ( elm1 #aga1 #agc2 ( field g]anium1 #afe1 #afh2 ( gooseb]ry1 #age1 #agi2 ( hazel1 #age1 #agg2 ( h]b b5net1 #agd1 #agg2 ( lime1 #agd2 ( oak1 #age1 #agg2 ( pansy1 #aff1 #afi2 ( pea1 #g1 #afe1 #afh2 ( pe>1 #agf1 #ahj2 ( p5ny-cress1 #afe1 #afh2 ( plum1 #age1 #agi2 ( poppy #aff1 #afh2 ( raspb]ry1 #age1 #agi2 ( rose1 #agf1 #ahj2 ( %eph]d's purse1 #afe2 ( /rawb]ry1 #agf1 #ahj1 #aha2 ( sycamore1 #c1 #aga1 #agc2 ( vegetable m>r[1 #agf1 #agi2 ( violet1 #aff1 #afi2 ( wallfl[]1 #afe1 #afg2 ( will[1 #aga1 #agc2 ( wood av5s1 #agd1 #agg ,fruits1 col\r (1 #ahb2 hook$1 #agd1 #agg ,fun>ia1 #aii1 #bjb ,fungi1 #bjf1 #bdd ,fur1 ( bat1 #bef2 ( cat1 #bdf1 #bej2 ( rabbit1 #bab1 #baf ,galls1 #ada1 #adf ,ga/ric juice1 #bcb1 #bcc ,g]anium1 fruit (1 #afe1 #afh ,g]m9al disc1 #bhe1 #bhg1 #bhi ,g]m9ation1 #ab1 #ba ,gills1 ( crab1 #cgd2 ( crayfi% & lob/]1 #cgc1 #cgf2 ( fre%-wat] mussel1 #cgi1 #cha2 ( mu%room1 #bjc1 #bje2 ( tadpole1 #cda1 #cdd1 #cdf ,gizz>d ( pigeon1 #bga ,glox9ia1 #aaf ,glumes1 #abi1 #acj ,goats1 #bfa ,gooseb]ry1 #age1 #agi ,goose grass1 #age1 #agg ,gorse1 #aja ,grapes1 #agf1 #agi ,grasses1 #abe ,grass1 fl[]s (1 #abh1 #abi2 reproduction (1 #abh ,grass /ems1 #gb1 #ge ,gr9d+ tee? ( rabbit1 #bai ,gullet1 #bca1 #bcb ,gymnosp]ms1 #gb1 #afc ,hair1 ( cat1 #bdf1 #bej2 ( dog1 #bdh1 #bea2 ( %eep1 #beh ,h>t's tongue f]n1 #ahe1 #aij1 #aia ,hat*+1 ( *ick1 #bid1 #bie2 ( tadpole1 #cdj1 #cdd ,haulms1 ( grasses1 #abe1 #abg2 ( horsetail1 #aia1 #aib1 #aic1 #aid ,hawks1 #cbi ,haw?orn1 #ajf ,hazel1 #adb1 #adi2 fruit (1 #age1 #agg ,head1 ( clov]1 #aja1 #ajb2 ( daisy1 #aac2 ( d&elion1 #aac ,he>t1 beats (1 #bce1 #bci2 ( *ick-embryo1 #bhh1 #bia2 ( cockroa*1 #cej1 #cee1 #cef2 %eep's1 /ructure (1 #bce1 #bcg2 valves (1 #bcf1 #bch1 #bci ,hemipt]a1 #cgj ,hemlock1 poison1 #ajf1 #ajg2 wat]1 #ajh ,h51 eggs (1 #bhb1 #bhd ,h]b-b5net1 fruit (1 #agd1 #agg ,h]$ity1 #bag1 #cci ,hip bones ( rabbit1 #bbc1 #bbh ,hip ( rose1 #agf1 #ahj ,honey-dew1 #aeh ,honeysuckle1 #gh ,ho($ mammals1 #beg ,ho(s1 #beh1 #bei1 #bfa ,hook$ fruits1 #agd1 #agg ,hook+ /ems1 #ge ,horns1 #beg1 #bei ,horse1 limbs (1 #bfa ,horse *e/nut1 #aeg1 #aei2 buds (1 #eg1 #fc2 leaves (1 #ch1 #db1 #dg1 #fd ,horsetail1 #aia ,h\se-m>t91 #caa1 #cae ,h\se-sp>r[s1 #cae1 #cbj ,hov]+1 #bgi1 #cca ,hyac9?1 #hd1 #aai1 #abj ,hym5opt]a1 #cgj ,hypha ( mu%room1 #bje ,hyphae ( m\lds1 #bjh1 #bji ,imago1 #cfc ,incisor tee? ( rabbit1 #bac1 #bai ,incubator1 a simple1 #bhf ,insect1 def9ition (1 #cea ,insects1 #cdi ,in/9ct1 #beb1 #bif ,int]nodes1 #de ,inte/9es1 #bca1 #bcb ,iod9e solution1 #b ,irritability1 #aaf ,ivy1 leaves1 #ch1 #dc2 /em1 #ge1 #gg1 #gh ,jacob9 pigeon1 #bhj ,jaws1 ( cockroa*1 #cdi1 #ceb1 #ced2 ( crayfi%1 #cge2 ( rabbit1 #bbb1 #bbf2 ( %eep1 #beg1 #bei ,keel1 ( bird's brea/-bone1 #bgd2 ( pea fl[]1 #ajj1 #ajb ,ke/rel1 #cbi1 #ccj ,keys1 ( a%1 #aec1 #aef2 ( sycamore1 #aei ,kitt5s1 #bdh ,labial palps1 ( cockroa*1 #cec2 ( ,lepidopt]a1 #cfg ,labiates1 #aag ,labium1 ( cat]pill>1 #cfc1 #cfe2 ( cockroa*1 #cdi1 #cec ,labrum ( cockroa*1 #cdi1 #ceb ,laburnum1 #aja1 #ajb ,lambs1 #beh1 #bfb ,l>k1 #caa1 #caf ,l>va1 ( cabbage-:ite butt]fly1 #cfb1 #cfe2 ( ,dytiscus1 #cfa2 ( tig]-mo?1 #cfd1 #cfi2 ( vap\r]-mo?1 #cfd1 #cgj ,leaf fall1 #ee1 #ei ,leaf ( a grass1 #abg ,leaves1 arrangem5t (1 #dd2 ( blackb]ry1 #ch1 #da1 #aje2 ( box1 #dd1 #de2 ( f]ns1 #fe1 #ahc1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #ahf1 #ahi1 #aia2 ( horse *e/nut1 #ch1 #db1 #dg1 #fd2 ( ivy1 #ch1 #dc2 ( rose1 #ch1 #db2 ( sweet pea1 #ci1 #dc2 ( sycamore1 #ch1 #db1 #eh1 #aeg1 #aeh2 %apes (1 #cg1 #dj2 simple & comp\nd1 #da2 skeleton1 #cg1 #ci2 ve9s (1 #cg1 #ci2 "w (1 #dh ,legume1 #afe1 #afh ,ligule1 #abe1 #abg ,lily family1 #aai1 #abj ,limbs1 movem5t (1 #bbe2 ( cat1 #bdf2 ( *ick-embryo1 #bhh1 #bib2 ( dog1 #bdh2 ( pigeon1 #bff1 #bgj2 ( rabbit1 #baf1 #bbc1 #bbh2 ( %eep1 #bei1 #bfa ,lime1 #aeb1 #aed1 #aee2 fruit (1 #agd ,limnaea1 #cgi1 #chb ,liv]1 #bcb1 #bcc ,liv]wort1 #aii1 #bjj ,lob/]1 #cgb1 #cgd ,locomotion1 ( cat1 #bdg1 #bea2 ( crab1 #cgg2 ( dog1 #bdi1 #bea2 ( e>?worm1 #chc1 #che2 ( fre%-wat] mussel1 #chj2 ( g>d5 snail1 #cgi1 #chb2 ( insects1 #cec1 #cfj1 #cfh2 ( rabbit1 #baf ,lomb>dy popl>1 #aej1 #aeb 8,lords & ,ladies10 #abb ,lup9e se$1 #c1 #g1 #aa1 #ad ,maize se$1 #ah1 #ai2 g]m9ation (1 #ba ,male f]n1 #ahc1 #ahe ,mammals1 #bbj ,m&ibles1 ( cat]pill>1 #cfe2 ( cockroa*1 #cdi1 #ceb2 ( crayfi% & lob/]1 #cgc1 #cge ,mantle ( fre%-wat] mussel1 #cgh1 #cha2 ( g>d5 snail1 #cgi1 #cha ,maps1 use (1 9 ,nature-/udy1 #chi ,m>joram1 #aah ,m>% m>igold1 #ig1 #ih ,m>t91 h\se1 #caa1 #cae2 s&1 #caa1 #cae ,ma/ ( bee*1 #adb ,ma/ication1 #bai ,mavis1 #cja1 #cjc ,maxillae1 ( cockroa*1 #cej1 #cec2 ( crayfi% & lob/]1 #cgc1 #cge2 ( ,lepidopt]a1 #cfg ,maxill>y palps ( cockroa*1 #cec ,maxillip$es ( crayfi% & lob/]1 #cgc1 #cge ,mead[1 cat/ail1 #acb1 #acf2 fescue1 #acb1 #acd2 fl[] (1 #aca2 foxtail1 #acb1 #acd1 #ace2 grasses1 #acb1 #ace2 vet*l+1 #aja ,m$ull>y rays1 #gd ,metamorphosis ( frog1 #cdf ,m9]al matt] 9 plants1 #bf1 #bh1 #bi ,m9t1 #aah ,missel-?ru%1 #cjb1 #cjf ,molluscs1 #cgh ,monk%ood1 #ii ,monocotyl$ons1 #bc1 #dj ,mosses1 #aii1 #bja ,mo?1 #cfh2 tig]-mo?1 #cfd1 #cfi2 vap\r]-mo?1 #cfd1 #cfi ,m\lds1 #bjg1 #bjh ,m\lt+ ( birds1 #bgg1 #cbg1 #cbi ,m\nta9 a%1 #aeg ,mucor1 #bjg1 #bjh ,mulle91 #aaf ,muscles1 action (1 #bbd1 #bbe ,mu%room1 #bjc ,musk1 #aae1 #aaf ,mussel1 fre%-wat]1 #cgh1 #chj ,mu/>d1 #id1 #if2 se$1 #c1 #g1 #aa ,mycelium1 ( m\lds1 #bjh1 #bji2 ( mu%room1 #bjc1 #bje ,myriapods1 #cgh ,n>cissus1 #abj ,natural selection1 #bag1 #cch ,nect>y1 #ij ,neuropt]a1 #cgj ,nodes1 #de ,nuts1 #age1 #agg ,oak1 #adj1 #adb2 family1 #adj2 fruit (1 #age1 #agg ,oat1 #acc1 #acf ,oranges1 #agf1 #agi ,or?opt]a1 #ceg ,ov>y1 #ib ,ovule1 #ib ,ox51 #bfa ,oxyg51 lib]at$ by leaves1 #dh1 #ea ,pales1 #abi1 #acj ,pancreas1 #bcb1 #bcc ,pancreatic juice1 #bcb1 #bcd ,panicle1 #acj ,pansy1 fruit (1 #aff1 #afi ,p>sley1 #ajh2 family1 #ajf1 #ajg2 fool's1 #ajh2 h$ge1 #ajg ,p>snip1 #ajh ,pass]9e ord] ( birds1 #cbj ,pea1 #ii2 family1 #ii1 #aja2 fruit (1 #g1 #afe1 #afh2 leaves (1 #ci1 #dc2 se$1 #b1 #g2 se$1 g]m9ation (1 #i1 #ac ,pe>1 #ajd1 #ajf2 fruit (1 #agf1 #ahj ,pellia1 #aii1 #bjj ,p5icillium1 #bjg1 #bjh ,p]*+ ( pigeon1 #bga ,p]5nial rye grass1 #acc1 #acg ,p]ian?1 #aai1 #aba ,p]ic>p1 #afg ,petal1 #ia ,pets1 #bad ,pigeon1 #bfe1 #bgj ,pigeons1 diff]5t bre$s (1 #bgi ,p9e cones1 #afj1 #afb1 #aga1 #agd ,p9e1 ,scot*1 #afj1 #afa ,pi/il1 #ia ,plane1 #aeg1 #aei ,plants & animals1 resemblances & diff]5ces1 #bdc ,plants1 respiration (1 #bdc ,play ( "y animals1 #bdh1 #bdi1 #beh1 #bfb ,pl\gh-%>e bone ( pigeon1 #bfi ,plum1 #ajf2 fruit (1 #age1 #agi ,plumule ( bean1 #b1 #f ,pod1 #ajc ,poison hemlock1 #ajf1 #ajg1 #ajh ,poll51 #ia ,pond-life1 #cdj1 #ceg1 #cgh1 #cgi1 #cij ,pond-snails1 #cgi1 #chb ,p\t] pigeon1 #bhj ,popl>1 #aej1 #aea ,poppy1 fruit (1 #aff1 #afh ,po/]ior1 #bag ,potato1 #ha1 #hd ,p\ltry1 #bif1 #bii ,precoci\s birds1 #bif1 #cbi ,prickles1 #ge1 #gg ,primrose1 #ajh1 #aji2 f]tilisation (1 #aji ,proboscis ( butt]fly1 #cfg ,pro-legs ( cat]pill>1 #cfe ,protective col\ration1 ( frog1 #ccb2 ( rabbit1 #bag ,pro?allus1 ( f]ns1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #ahh1 #aia2 ( horsetail1 #aib1 #aie ,pupa1 ( cabbage-:ite butt]fly1 #cfc1 #cff2 ( ,dytiscus1 #cfa2 ( tig]-mo?1 #cfd1 #cfi ,rabbit1 #baa2 dige/ion 91 #bcc ,radicle1 ( bean1 #b1 #f2 ( lup9e1 #g2 ( pea1 #b1 #g2 ( sycamore1 #d ,radi%1 #id1 #ie ,raspb]ry1 #aje1 #age1 #agi ,receptacle1 #ij ,r$1 clov]1 #aja2 f]tilisation (1 #aja2 corpuscles ( blood1 #bcg1 #bdb ,reproduction1 ( a grass1 #abh2 ( a moss1 #bja2 ( f]ns1 #ahg1 #ahh2 ( fl[]+ plants1 #hi2 ( horsetail1 #aie2 ( liv]wort1 #bja2 ( m\lds1 #bjh1 #bji2 ( mu%room1 #bje ,respiration1 #bdj2 def9ition (1 #bdb2 ( *ick-embryo1 #bid2 ( cockroa*1 #cee2 ( cru/aceans1 #cgf1 #cgg2 ( fre%-wat] mussel1 #cha2 ( frog1 #ccg2 ( mammals1 #bdb1 #bdc2 ( pigeon1 #bgi2 ( snail1 #cgi1 #chb1 #chc2 ( tadpole1 #cdd ,re/+ /age1 ( butt]fly1 #cfc1 #cff2 ( ,dytiscus1 #cfa ,ribs ( rabbit1 #bag1 #bbc1 #bbg ,rock pigeon1 #bhj ,rod5ts1 #bbj ,rook1 #cab1 #cah ,root cap1 #ag ,root1 hairs1 #ag1 #bh1 #cj2 l5g!n+ (1 #af ,rootlets1 #ag ,roots1 #ag1 #ba1 #bh2 z /oreh\ses ( food1 #bh1 #cj2 climb+1 #ge1 #gh2 "w (1 #bh1 #cj ,rose1 #ajc1 #ajd2 family1 #ajc2 fruit (1 #agf1 #ahj2 leaves (1 #ch1 #db ,r[an tree1 #aeg ,rum9ants1 #bfa ,runn]1 #hj1 #hb ,ru%es1 #acc1 #ach ,rye grass1 #acc1 #acg ,saliva1 #bcc1 #bcd ,sall[ will[1 #aej ,s&-m>t91 #caa1 #cae ,saugh tree1 #aej ,scales ( ,lepidopt]a1 #cfd1 #cfg ,scot* p9e1 #afj1 #afa ,second>y ?ick5+1 #gc ,s$ges1 #acc1 #ach ,se$s1 g]m9ation (1 #i1 #ab2 ( broad bean1 #a1 #e1 #i1 #ac2 ( maize1 #ah1 #ai2 ( mu/>d1 #c1 #g1 #aa2 ( pea1 #b1 #g2 ( sycamore1 #c1 #h1 #aa1 #ac2 ( vegetable m>r[1 #c1 #g1 #aa2 ( :eat1 #ah1 #ai2 ( yell[ lup9e1 #c1 #g1 #aa ,sepal1 #ij ,%eep1 #beg1 #beh ,%eep's1 fescue1 #acb1 #acc1 #acd2 he>t1 /ructure (1 #bce1 #bcg ,%ell ( h5's egg1 #bhb1 #bhd ,%ell1 ( fre%-wat] mussel1 #cgh1 #cha2 ( g>d5 snail1 #cgi1 #chb2 ( slug1 #chb ,%eph]d's purse1 #ic1 #ie2 fruit (1 #afe ,%oot1 #fi ,%\ld] blade ( rabbit1 #bbc1 #bbh ,silicula1 #afe1 #afh ,siliqua1 #afe1 #afh ,skeleton1 leaves1 #cg1 #ci2 ( ar?ropods1 #cea2 ( pigeon1 #bfh2 ( rabbit1 #bag1 #bbb1 #bbf2 uses (1 #bbd ,sk9 ( frog1 #ccd1 #cch ,skull1 ( pigeon1 #bfh2 ( rabbit1 #bag1 #bbb1 #bbf ,skyl>k1 #caa1 #caf ,sl5d] foxtail1 #acd1 #ace ,smell-s5se ( mo?s1 #cfi2 ( rabbit1 #bah ,snapdragon1 #aaf ,sn[drop1 #abj1 #abb ,so>+1 #bgh ,song-?ru%1 #cja1 #cjc ,s\nds ( he>t1 #bch ,spani% *e/nut1 #adh ,sp>r[1 #cae1 #cbj ,sp>r[ hawk1 #cbi1 #ccj ,spawn1 ( frog1 #cci1 #cdj1 #cda2 ( ,limnaea1 #chj ,spe$well1 #aae1 #aaf ,spid]s1 #cgh ,spikelet1 #abh1 #acj ,sp9n]et ( cat]pill>1 #cfc1 #cfe ,spiracles1 ( cabbage-:ite cat]pill>1 #cfc1 #cfe2 ( cockroa*1 #cej1 #cee ,spores1 ( f]ns1 #ahd1 #ahe1 #ahg1 #aij1 #aia2 ( horsetail1 #aie2 ( liv]wort1 #aii1 #bja2 ( moss1 #bjj1 #bjb2 ( ,mucor1 #bjg1 #bjh2 ( mu%room1 #bjc1 #bje2 ( ,p5icillium1 #bjg1 #bji ,spruce fir1 #afa1 #afc2 cones1 #aga1 #agd ,squirrels1 #agh1 #bbj ,/am51 #ia ,/&>d1 #ajj1 #ajb ,/>*1 #bbi2 action ( saliva on1 #bcj1 #bcd2 =mation (1 9 leaves1 #cb1 #cd2 9 cotyl$ons1 #b1 #f2 9 leaves1 #dh1 #ej2 9 twigs1 #ef2 te/ =1 #b1 #cb ,/em1 l5g!n+ (1 #af ,/ems1 ble$+ (1 #fg1 #gj2 climb+1 #ge2 creep+1 #hj1 #hb2 duties (1 #fh2 food *annels 91 #fg1 #fh1 #fi1 #ga2 hook+1 #ge2 ( grasses1 #gb1 #ge2 ( ivy1 #ge1 #gg1 #gh2 /r5g!n+ (1 #ga1 #gb1 #ge2 ?ick5+ (1 #gb2 tw9+1 #gf1 #gi2 und]gr\nd1 #hj1 #hc ,/]num1 ( pigeon1 #bfi2 ( rabbit1 #bag1 #bbc1 #bbg ,/igma1 #ia ,/ipules1 #ci1 #dc ,/ock1 #id ,/olon1 #ha1 #hc1 #abe1 #abf ,/oma*1 #bca1 #bcb2 ( rum9ant1 #bfj ,/omata1 #ec ,/one fruits1 #age1 #agi ,/orm-cock1 #cjb1 #cjg ,/rawb]ry1 #aje2 fruit (1 #agf1 #ahj1 #aha ,/yle ( fl[]1 #ia ,sug>1 #bcj ,sug>1 =mation (1 9 g]m9at+ pea1 #cc2 9 grasses1 #abf ,swall[1 #caj1 #cac2 family1 #caj1 #cab ,sweet *e/nut1 #adh ,sweet-sc5t$ v]nal grass1 #acc1 #acg ,swift1 #cba1 #cbb ,swimm]ets ( crayfi% & lob/]1 #cgc1 #cge ,sycamore1 #aeg1 #aeh2 buds (1 #ef1 #fj2 fruit (1 #c1 #h1 #aga1 #agc2 leaves (1 #ch1 #db1 #eh1 #aeg1 #aeh2 se$s (1 #c1 #h1 #aa1 #ac ,tadpoles1 #cda1 #cdd ,tail1 ( rabbit1 #bae2 ( tadpole1 #cdf1 #cdg ,tee?1 ( cat1 #bdf1 #bee2 ( dog1 #bdh1 #bee2 ( frog1 #ccc1 #ccf2 ( rabbit1 #bai2 ( %eep1 #beg1 #bei ,t5drils1 #dc1 #gf1 #gi ,t5tacles ( snail1 #cgi1 #chb ,?i/le1 #aab1 #aad ,?orax1 ( cockroa*1 #cej1 #cec2 ( rabbit1 #bah ,?orns1 #ge1 #gh ,?ro/le1 #cja1 #cjc ,?ru%1 #cja1 #cjc2 family1 #cja1 #cjc2 missel1 #cjb1 #cjf ,?yme1 #aah ,tig]-mo?1 #cfd1 #cfi ,timo?y grass1 #acb1 #ace1 #acf ,toad/ools1 #bjd1 #bjf ,tongue1 ( cat1 #bdf1 #beb2 ( frog1 #ccc1 #ccf ,tub]1 #ha1 #hd1 #aia1 #aid ,tumbl] pigeon1 #bgi ,turnip1 #id1 #ie ,tw9+ /ems1 #gf1 #gi1 #hj ,valves1 ( he>t1 #bcf1 #bch1 #bci2 ( ve9s1 #bce1 #bci ,vap\r]-mo?1 #cfd1 #cfi ,vegetable m>r[1 se$ (1 #c1 #g1 #aa1 #ad2 fruit (1 #agf1 #agi ,vegetable m\ld1 =mation (1 by e>?worms1 #chd1 #chf ,ve9s1 ( leaves1 #cg1 #ci2 valves (1 #bce1 #bci ,v5tral1 #bag ,v5tricles ( he>t1 #bce1 #bcg ,v]tebrae1 ( pigeon1 #bfi2 ( rabbit1 #bbc1 #bbg ,v]tebral column1 #bag1 #bbb1 #bbg ,v]tebrates1 #bbj1 #cee ,vet*1 #ajj ,violet1 fruit (1 #aff1 #afi ,wallfl[]1 #hh1 #hi2 family1 #ic1 #id2 fruit (1 #afe1 #afg ,w>r5 ( rabbit1 #baa1 #bad ,wat]1 am\nt (1 9 plants1 #bf2 culture1 #bg2 dropwort1 #ajh2 hemlock1 #ajh ,:eat se$1 #ah1 #ai2 g]m9ation (1 #ba ,:isk]s1 ( bat1 #bef2 ( cat1 #bdf1 #bej2 ( rabbit1 #bag ,:ite1 m\ld1 #bjg1 #bjh2 ( egg1 #bhc1 #bhe ,wild oat1 #acc1 #acf ,will[1 #aej2 fruit (1 #aga1 #agc ,w9dhov]1 #cbi1 #cca 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,,boys' ,,book ,,( ,,poetry4 ,"p ,i4 ,junior 7,/ages ,i4 & ,,ii474 ,"p ,,ii4 ,int]m$iate 7,/ages ,,iii4 & ,,iv474 ,"p ,,iii4 ,s5ior 7,/ages ,v4 & upw>ds74 ,limp ,clo?1 #e;d4 ea*4 ,sew$1 #d;d4 ea*4 ,,! ,,girls' ,,book ,,( ,,poetry4 ,"p ,i41 ,junior 7,/ages ,i4 & ,,ii474 ,"p ,,ii41 ,int]m$iate 7,/ages ,,iii4 & ,,iv474 ,"p ,,iii41 ,s5ior 7,/ages ,v4 & upw>ds74 ,limp ,clo?1 #e;d4 ea*4 ,pap] ,cov]s1 #d;d4 ea*4 ,,! 8,,globe0 ,,poetry ,,books4 ,junior 7,/ages ,i4 & ,,ii474 ,int]m$iate 7,/ages ,,iii4 & ,,iv474 ,s5ior 7,/ages ,v4 & upw>ds74 ,pap] ,cov]s4 #f;d4 ea*4 ,clo?4 #h;d4 ea*4 ,,! 8,,globe0 ,,poetry ,,read]4 ,= ,advanc$ ,classes4 #as4 #d;d4 ,,macmillan',s ,,dep>tm5tal ,,poetry ,,books4 ,edit$ by ,s4 ,c4 ,b4 ,,edg>1 ,m4,a4 ,pap] ,cov]s4 ,infants1 #b;d4 ,junior ,i41 #d;d4 ,junior ,,ii41 #e;d4 ,s5ior ,i41 #e;d4 ,s5ior ,,ii41 #e;d4 ,,macmillan',s ,,new ,,globe ,,read]s4 ,prim] ,i41 #d;d4 ,prim] ,,ii41 #e;d4 ,infant ,read] ,i41 #f;d4 ,infant ,read] ,,ii41 #h;d4 ,book ,i41 #aj;d4 ,book ,,ii41 #as4 ,book ,,iii41 #as4 #b;d4 ,book ,,iv41 #as4 #d;d4 ,book ,v41 #as4 #f;d4 ,book ,,vi41 #as4 #h;d4 ,,macmillan',s ,,new ,,lit]>y ,,read]s4 ,read+ ,%eets 7#ag %eets on ,manilla4 ,size1 #cgbh7 #abs4 ,prim] ,i4 #d;d4 ,prim] ,,ii4 #e;d4 ,infant ,read] #f;d4 ,introductory #h;d4 ,book ,i4 #i;d4 ,book ,,ii4 #aj;d4 ,book ,,iii4 #as4 ,book ,,iv4 #as4 #d;d4 ,book ,v4 #as4 #f;d4 ,book ,,vi4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,macmillan',s ,,hi/ory ,,read]s4 ,book ,i4 ,simple ,/ories #i;d4 ,book ,,ii4 ,simple ,/ories #aj;d4 ,book ,,iii4 ,/ories & ,tales #as4 ,book ,,iv4 #ajff to #adhe #as4 #d;d4 ,book ,v4 ,! ,tudor ,p]iod #as4 #f;d4 ,book ,,vi4 ,! ,/u>t ,p]iod #as4 #h;d4 ,book ,,vii4 ,! ,hanov]ian ,p]iod #as4 #i;d4 ,,macmillan',s ,,new ,,hi/ory ,,read]s ,,on ,,! ,,conc5tric ,,plan4 ,prim>y4 #as4 ,junior4 #as4 #f;d4 ,int]m$iate4 #as4 #f;d4 ,s5ior4 #bs4 ,summ>ies3 ,junior & ,int]m$iate4 #c;d4 ea*4 ,s5ior4 #d;d4 ,scotti% ,edition4 ,prim>y4 #as4 ,junior4 #as4 #f;d4 ,int]m$iate4 #as4 #f;d4 ,s5ior4 #bs4 ,summ>ies3 ,junior & ,int]m$iate4 #c;d4 ea*4 ,s5ior4 #d;d4 ,,macmillan',s ,,geography ,,read]s4 ,book ,i4 #aj;d4 ,book ,,ii4 #as4 ,book ,,iii4 ,engl& #as4 #d;d4 ,book ,,iv4 ,! ,briti% ,empire #as4 #d;d4 ,book ,v4 ,europe #as4 #f;d4 ,book ,,vi4 ,! ,briti% ,colonies1 etc4 #as4 #f;d4 ,book ,,vii4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates1 etc4 #as4 #i;d4 ,,macmillan',s ,,new ,,geography ,,read]s4 ,asia4 #as4 #f;d4 ,am]ica4 #as4 #f;d4 ,africa & ,au/ralasia4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,macmillan',s ,,%ort ,,geography ,,( ,,! ,,_w4 ,,by ,,george ,f4 ,,boswor?1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 #as4 #f;d4 ,a ,,summ>y ,,( ,,geography4 ,by ,,george ,f4 ,,boswor?1 ,f4,r4,g4,s4 ,) ,maps4 ,9 ,?ree ,p>ts4 ,sew$1 #d;d4 ea* ,"p ,i4--,! ,briti% ,isles & ,europe4 ,"p ,,ii4--,asia & ,africa4 ,"p ,,iii4--,am]ica1 ,au/ralia1 & ,isl&s ( ! ,pacific4 ,,macmillan ,,co41 ,,ltd41 ,,/4 ,,m>t9',s ,,/reet1 ,,london1 ,w4,c4 ,,macmillan ,,& ,,co4',s ,,publications4 ,,macmillan',s ,,orographical ,,map ,,( ,,europe4 ,design$ by ,b4 ,b4 ,,dick9son1 ,m4,a41 & ,a4 ,w4 ,,&rews1 ,m4,a4 ,clo?1 m\nt$ on ,roll]s1 & ,v>ni%$4 #aes4 ,unm\nt$4 #aas4 ,m\nt$ on ,weekes' ,roll]s ) cords1 unv>ni%$4 #bas4 ,notes to same4 #as4 ,,macmillan',s ,,globe ,,geography ,,read]s4 ,by ,v4 ,t4 ,,mur*4 ,introductory4 #as4 ,junior4 #as4 #f;d4 ,int]m$iate 7,engl&74 #as4 #i;d4 ,int]m$iate 7,our ,isl& ,home74 #bs4 ,s5ior4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,mur*',s ,,object ,,lessons ,,= ,,infants4 ,two ,vols4 #bs4 #f;d4 ea*4 ,,mur*',s ,,object ,,lessons ,,9 ,,elem5t>y ,,sci5ce4 ,vol4 ,,ii4--,/ages ,,iii41 ,,iv4 #cs4 ,,mur*',s ,,object ,,lessons ,,9 ,,elem5t>y ,,sci5ce4 ,new ,edition4 ,/age ,i4 #bs4 ,/age ,,ii4 #bs4 ,/age ,,iii4 #bs4 ,/age ,,iv4 #bs4 ,/age ,v4 #bs4 ,/age ,,vi4 #bs4 ,/age ,,vii4 #bs4 ,,mur*',s ,,sci5ce ,,read]s4 ,book ,i4 #as4 ,book ,,ii4 #as4 ,book ,,iii4 #as4 #d;d4 ,book ,,iv4 #as4 #d;d4 ,book ,v4 #as4 #f;d4 ,book ,,vi4 #as4 #f;d4 ,book ,,vii4 #as4 #i;d4 ,,mur*',s ,,tea*]s' ,,manual ,,( ,,object ,,lessons ,,9 ,,dome/ic ,,economy4 ,vol4 ,i4--,/ages ,i41 ,,ii4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,vol4 ,,ii4--,/ages ,,iii41 ,,iv4 #cs4 ,,mur*',s ,,dome/ic ,,sci5ce ,,read]s4 ,book ,i4 #as4 ,book ,,ii4 #as4 ,book ,,iii4 #as4 #d;d4 ,book ,,iv4 #as4 #d;d4 ,book ,v4 #as4 #f;d4 ,book ,,vi4 #as4 #f;d4 ,book ,,vii4 #as4 #i;d4 ,,mur*',s ,,tea*]s' ,,manual ,,( ,,object ,,lessons ,,9 ,,geography4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,mur*',s ,,tea*]s' ,,manual ,,( ,,object ,,lessons ,,9 ,,elem5t>y ,,sci5ce ,,& ,,geography4 ,a ,complete ,s*eme4 ,vol4 ,i4--,/age ,i4 #as4 #f;d4 ,vol4 ,,ii4--,/age ,,ii4 #as4 #f;d4 ,vol4 ,,iii4--,/age ,,iii4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,mur*',s ,,read]s ,,9 ,,elem5t>y ,,sci5ce ,,& ,,geography4 ,book ,i4 #as4 ,book ,,ii4 #as4 ,book ,,iii4 #as4 #d;d4 ,a ,,heal? ,,read]4 ,by ,c4 ,e4 ,,%elly1 ,m4,a41 ,m4,d41 & ,e4 ,,/5h\se1 ,b4,sc4 ,book ,i4 #as4 ,book ,,ii4 #as4 #d;d4 ,book ,,iii4 ,9 prep>ation4 ,,mur*',s ,,object ,,lessons ,,9 ,,nature ,,k4 ,junior4 #as4 #f;d4 ,int]m$iate4 #bs4 ,s5ior4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,mur*',s ,,nature ,,k ,,read]s 7,,rural ,,read]s74 ,junior4 #as4 ,int]m$iate4 #as4 #c;d4 ,s5ior4 #as4 #i;d4 ,,bu*anan ,,& ,,gregory',s ,,junior ,,c\ntry ,,read]s4 ,book ,i4 ,true ,animal ,/ories4 #as4 ,book ,,ii4 ,m ,true ,animal ,/ories4 #as4 #b;d4 ,book ,,iii4 ,talks on ,c\ntry ,life4 #as4 #d;d4 ,,bu*anan',s ,,s5ior ,,c\ntry ,,read]s4 ,book ,i41 #as4 #f;d42 ,book ,,ii41 #as4 #f;d42 ,book ,,iii41 #bs4 ,,bu*anan ,,& ,,gregory',s ,,lessons ,,on ,,c\ntry ,,life4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,macmillan',s ,,wall ,,pictures ,,( ,,f>m ,,animals4 ,unm\nt$1 v>ni%$ or unv>ni%$1 #cs4 ea*2 m\nt$ on c>ds1 b\nd edges1 & hang]1 v>ni%$1 #cs4 #f;d4 ea*2 9 oak frame1 v>ni%$1 #es4 ea*4 #a1 ,?or\ghbr$ ,horse4 #b1 ,%ire ,horse4 #c1 ,%or?orn ,c[4 #d1 ,ayr%ire ,c[4 #e1 ,l9coln & ,s\?d[n ,%eep4 #f1 ,l>ge ,:ite & ,b]k%ire ,pigs4 ,,macmillan',s ,,m5tal ,,ari?metic4 ,) ,answ]s4 ,/ages ,i41 ,,ii4 #f;d4 ,/ages ,,iii41 ,,iv4 #f;d4 ,/ages ,v41 ,,vi4 #f;d4 ,/ages ,i4 to ,,vi4 sep>ately4 ,)\t ,answ]s4 #b;d4 ea*4 ,,! ,,rational ,,ari?metic4 ,by ,george ,ricks1 ,b4,sc4 ,tea*]s' ,books = ,fir/1 ,second1 ,?ird1 ,f\r?1 ,fif?1 ,six?1 & ,sev5? ,ye>s' ,c\rses4 #h;d4 ea*4 ,s*ol>s' ,books = ,fir/1 ,second1 ,?ird1 ,f\r?1 ,fif?1 ,six?1 & ,sev5? ,ye>s' ,c\rses4 #c;d4 ea*4 ,,macmillan',s ,,rational ,,te/ ,,c>ds ,,9 ,,ari?metic4 ,?ird1 ,f\r?1 ,fif?1 ,six?1 & ,sev5? ,ye>s4 #fd ,c>ds 9 ea*4 #as4 net p] packet4 ,,macmillan',s ,,picture ,,ari?metic4 ,book ,i4 #c;d4 ,book ,,ii4 #c;d4 ,book ,,iii4 #c;d4 ,answ]s ,i4-,,iii4 #d;d4 ,,macmillan',s ,,ari?metic ,,= ,,iri% ,,elem5t>y ,,s*ools4 ,,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,adair4 ,p>ts ,i4 & ,,ii4 #a;d4 ea*4 ,,iii4 & ,,iv4 #b;d4 ea*4 ,v41 ,,vi4 & ,,vii4 #c;d4 ea*4 ,,metric ,,ari?metic4 ,) ,copi\s ,examples & ,answ]s4 ,by ,,ri*>d ,,wilson1 ,b4,a4 7,lond474 ,globe #hvo4 ,sew$4 #f;d4 ,,ari?metic ,,= ,,! ,,/&>ds4 ,s*eme ,a4 ,by ,rev4 ,j4 ,b4 ,,lock1 ,m4,a41 & ,,geo4 ,,coll>1 ,b4,a4 ,b4,sc4 ,"p ,i4 #b;d4 ,"p ,,ii4 #b;d4 ,"p ,,iii4 #b;d4 ,"p ,,iv4 #b;d4 ,"p ,v4 #c;d4 ,"p ,,vi4 #d;d4 ,"p ,,vii4 #f;d4 ,answ]s to ,p>ts ,i41 ,,ii41 ,,iii41 ,,iv41 #c;d4 ea*2 ,p>ts ,v41 ,,vi41 ,,vii41 #d;d4 ea*4 ,,ari?metical ,,te/ ,,c>ds4 ,s*eme ,a4 ,/age ,,ii41 #fj ,c>ds & #b sets ( ,answ]s1 #as4 #f;d4 p] packet4 ,/age ,,vi41 #dh ,c>ds1 #as4 #f;d4 p] packet4 ,/age ,,vii41 #dj ,c>ds1 #as4 #f;d4 p] packet4 ,,ari?metic ,,= ,,promotion4 ,s*eme ,b4 ,by ,rev4 ,j4 ,b4 ,,lock1 ,m4,a41 & ,r4 ,f4 ,,macdonald4 ,"p ,i4 #c;d4 ,"p ,,ii4 #c;d4 ,"p ,,iii4 #c;d4 ,"p ,,iv4 #c;d4 ,"p ,v4 #c;d4 ,"p ,,vi4 #d;d4 ,"p ,,vii4 #f;d4 ,answ]s to ,p>ts ,i41 ,,ii41 ,,iii41 ,,iv41 #c;d4 ea*2 ,p>ts ,v41 ,,vi41 ,,vii41 #d;d4 ea*4 ,,ari?metical ,,te/ ,,c>ds ,,= ,,ari?metic ,,= ,,promotion4 ,s*eme ,b4 ,by ,r4 ,f4 ,,macdonald4 ,/ages ,,iii4 to ,,vii41 #as4 #f;d4 ea*4 ,,macmillan',s ,,mon?ly ,,te/ ,,books ,,9 ,,ari?metic4 ,s*eme ,b4 ,by ,r4 ,f4 ,,macdonald4 ,"p ,i4 #c;d4 ,"p ,,ii4 #c;d4 ,"p ,,iii4 #c;d4 ,"p ,,iv4 #c;d4 ,"p ,v4 #c;d4 ,"p ,,vi4 #c;d4 ,"p ,,vii4 #c;d4 ,answ]s1 #d;d4 ea*4 ,,algebra ,,= ,,elem5t>y ,,s*ools4 ,by ,h4 ,s4 ,,hall & ,r4 ,j4 ,,wood4 ,p>ts ,i41 ,,ii41 & ,,iii41 #f;d4 ea*2 ,clo?1 #h;d4 ea*4 ,answ]s1 #d;d4 ea*4 ,,m5suration ,,= ,,beg9n]s4 ,) ! ,rudim5ts ( ,geometrical ,draw+4 ,by ,f4 ,h4 ,,/ev5s1 ,m4,a4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,engli% ,,gramm> ,,= ,,elem5t>y ,,s*ools4 ,,by ,j4 ,c4 ,,nesfield1 ,m4,a4 ,book ,i4 #c;d4 ,book ,,ii4 #d;d4 ,book ,,iii4 #e;d4 ,book ,,iv4 #f;d4 ,,^w-,,build+ ,,& ,,composition4 ,by ,,rob]t ,s4 ,,wood4 ,book ,i4 #b;d4 ,book ,,ii4 #b;d4 ,book ,,iii4 #c;d4 ,book ,,iv4 #c;d4 ,complete 9 #a ,vol4 ,clo? #as4 ,book ,v4 #f;d4 ,book ,,vi4 #f;d4 ,book ,,vii4 #as4 ,complete 9 #a ,vol4 ,clo? #bs4 ,,! ,,tea*]s' ,,manual ,,( ,,composition4 ,by ,,rob]t ,s4 ,,wood4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,junior4--,= ,infants & ,/ages ,i4 & ,,ii4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,six ,,l>ge ,,*>ts ,,9 ,,col\rs ,,= ,,! ,,class ,,tea*+ ,,( ,,composition4 7#a7 ,s5t5ce ,/ructure & ,anatomy 7,diagram7--,synoptic & ,analytic4 7#b7 ,a ,writ]'s ,guide & ,dang] ,signal ,code 9 m>k+ ,ex]cises4 7#c7 ,common ,faults 9 ,composition--,_! effectual ,criticism & ,prev5tion4 7#d7 ,h[ to orally ,describe ,common ,objects = ,juniors4 7#e7 ,lett]-,writ+ ,guide--,g5]al & ,comm]cial ,correspond5ce4 7#f7 ,use ( ,capitals1 ,/ops1 & ,m>ks 9 ,writ+4 ,price #cs4 ea*1 ,m\nt$ & ,v>ni%$4 ,! ,six on ,roll] to turn ov]1 #acs4 7,e4 ,j4 ,,arnold ,,& ,,son1 ,,publi%]s1 ,,le$s47 ,a ,,text-,,book ,,( ,,ne$lework1 ,,knitt+1 ,,& ,,cutt+ ,,out1 ,,) ,,me?ods ,,( ,,tea*+4 ,by ,,elizabe? ,,roseve>1 ,tra9+ ,college1 ,/ockwell4 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,cr[n #hvo4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,ne$lework1 ,,knitt+1 ,,& ,,cutt+ ,,out ,,= ,,old] ,,girls4 ,by ,,elizabe? ,,roseve>4 ,globe #hvo4 ,/age ,v4 #h;d4 ,/ages ,,vi41 ,,vii41 & ,ex-,,vii4 #as4 ,,v>i$ ,,occupations ,,9 ,,weav+1 ,,& ,,cane ,,& ,,/raw ,,"w4 ,by ,,l\isa ,,walk]4 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,globe #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,v>i$ ,,occupations ,,9 ,,/r+ ,,"w4 ,compris+ ,knott+1 ,nett+1 ,loop+1 ,plait+1 & ,macrame4 ,by ,,l\isa ,,walk]4 ,illu/rat$4 ,globe #hvo4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,tea*]s' ,,"w ,,book2 ,syllabus ( ,in/ruction & ,exam9ation2 ,progress & ,m>k ,book2 & ,head ,tea*]s' ,report ,book4 ,arrang$ by ,a4 ,,flavell & ,g4 ,h4 ,,rob9son4 ,fcap4 folio4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,infant ,,s*ool ,,tea*]s' ,,"w ,,book3 ,syllabus ( ,in/ruction & ,exam9ation2 ,progress & ,m>k ,book2 & ,head ,tea*]s' ,report ,book4 ,arrang$ by ,a4 ,,flavell & ,g4 ,h4 ,,rob9son4 ,fcap4 folio4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,macmillan',s ,,att5dance ,,regi/]4 ,= ! ,late/ ,requirem5ts ( ! ,code4 #as4 #f;d4 ,,macmillan',s ,,regi/] ,,( ,,admission1 ,,progress1 ,,& ,,)drawal4 #hs4 #f;d4 ,,summ>y ,,( ,,att5dances ,,= ,,five ,,ye>s4 ,arrang$ = a ,mix$ or an ,infants' ,dep>tm5t4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,arrang$ = a ,boys' or ,girls' ,dep>tm5t4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,arrang$ = an ,infants' ,dep>tm5t4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,,macmillan',s 8,,?ree ,,t]m0 ,,class ,,record ,,book4 #dto4 #as4 ,,macmillan',s ,,class ,,"t ,,table4 ,arrang$ by ,a4 ,,flavell & ,g4 ,h4 ,,rob9son4 #f;d4 ,,macmillan',s ,,s*ool ,,"t ,,table4 ,arrang$ by ,a4 ,,flavell & ,g4 ,h4 ,,rob9son4 ,m\nt$1 #bs4 ,pap]1 #as4 ,,! ,,class ,,tea*]s' ,,j\rnal4 ,arrang$ by ,g4 ,h4 ,,rob9son & ,h4 ,m4 ,,coh54 ,fcap4 folio4 #as4 #i;d4 ,,macmillan',s 8,,(ficial0 ,,draw+ ,,books4 ,no4 ,i4-,,xx4 ,price #c;d4 ea*4 ,,blackbo>d ,,draw+4 ,by ,m4 ,,swannell4 ,royal #dto4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,! ,,fir/ ,,elem5ts ,,( ,,sci5ce4 ,arrang$ z ,obs]vation ,lessons1 & correlat$ ) ,draw+4 ,by ,,george ,,ricks1 ,b4,sc4 ,illu/rat$ by ,,ar?ur ,,wilk9son4 ,9 #c p>ts4 ,m$4 #dto4 #as4 #f;d4 ea*4 ,,macmillan',s ,,art ,,/udies ,,( ,,animals1 ,,plants1 ,,common ,,objects ,,& ,,conv5tional ,,=ms4 #hvo4 ,sew$4 #f;d4 ,a ,,graduat$ ,,c\rse ,,( ,,draw+ ,,= ,,infants4 ,by ,,con/ance ,h4 ,,f[l]4 ,royal #dto4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,macmillan',s ,,bru%work ,,copy-,,books4 ,a ,graduat$ ,s*eme ( ,lessons ,design$ & ,arrang$ by ,a4 ,r4 ,,c>twright & ,f4 ,c4 ,,proctor4 ,nos4 #a to #d4 #d;d4 ea*4 ,nos4 #e & #f4 #e;d4 ea*4 ,,macmillan',s ,,bru%work ,,c>ds4 ,be+ advanc$ ,draw+ ,copies ( ,animals & ,birds illu/rat+ expression ( ,mass & ,=m ) ! ,bru%4 ,select$ & arrang$ by ,f4 ,c4 ,,proctor4 ,s]ies ,a43 ,animals4 ,s]ies ,b43 ,birds4 #bs4 ea*4 ,,macmillan',s ,,free ,,bru% ,,design ,,draw+ ,,c>ds4 ,,by ,,francis ,w4 ,,wallis4 ,9 ,?ree ,sets4 ,junior #bs4 ,int]m$iate #bs4 ,s5ior #bs4 ,,nature ,,/udy ,,draw+ ,,c>ds4 ,by ,,isaac ,j4 ,,williams4 #h ,subjects 7#bj alike 9 ea* box7 #dhs41 or sep>ately1 #fs4 ea*4 ,packets conta9+ #h assort$ ,c>ds4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,,macmillan ,,co41 ,,ltd41 ,/4 ,m>t9's ,/reet1 ,,london1 ,w4,c4