,the ,library of ,scandinavian ,literature ,,the ,,king',s ,,mirror ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,the ,,king',s ,,mirror 7,,speculum ,,regale--,,konungs ,,skuggsj7 ,,translated ,,from ,,the ,,old ,,norse ,,with ,,introduction ,,and ,,notes ,,by ,,laurence ,,marcellus ,,larson ,illustration ,,twayne ,,publishers1 ,,inc41 ,,new ,,york ,,the ,,american-,,scandinavian ,,foundation ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,the ,library of ,scandinavian ,literature ,erik ,j4 ,friis1 ,general ,editor ,volume #ae ,the ,king's ,mirror ,copyright #aiag by ,the ,american-,scandinavian ,foundation ,library of ,congress catalog card number3 #gb-aedb ,,manufactured ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,of ,,america ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,to ,,my ,,father ,,and ,,to ,,the ,,memory ,,of ,,my ,,mother ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,foreword ,among the many arguments that have recently been advanced in support of imperialistic ambitions and statesmanship1 there is one that justifies and demands aggression in the interest of human culture4 ,according to this rather plausible political philosophy1 it is the destiny of the smaller states to be absorbed into the larger and stronger4 ,the application is not to be limited to the so-called 8backward races02 it is also extended to the lesser peoples of ,europe4 ,these have1 it is held1 no real right to an independent existence2 only the great1 the powerful1 and the mighty can claim this privilege1 for they alone are able to render the higher forms of service to civilization4 ,to this theory the history of the ,scandinavian lands provides a complete and striking refutation4 ,in the drama of ,european development the ,northern countries have played important and honorable parts2 but except for a brilliant period in ,swedish history 7chiefly during the seventeenth century7 they have never weighed heavily in the ,continental balance4 ,their geographical situation is unfavorable and their economic resources have never been comparable to those of the more prominent states beyond the ,baltic and the ,north ,sea4 ,but when we come to the kingdom of intellect the story is a totally different one4 ,the literary annals of ,europe in the nineteenth century give prominence to a series of notable ,scandinavian writers who not only achieved recognition in their own lands but found a place in the competition for leadership in the world at large4 ,the productivity of the ,northern mind is not of recent origin1 however2 the literatures of ,scandinavia have a history that leads back into the days of heathen worship more than a thousand years ago4 ,perhaps the most effective illustration of what a fruitful intellect can accomplish even when placed in the most unpromising environment is medieval ,iceland4 ,along the western and southwestern coasts of the island lay a straggling settlement of ,norwegian immigrants whose lives were spent chiefly in a struggle to force the merest subsistence from a niggardly soil4 ,and yet1 in the later middle ages and even earlier1 there was a literary activity on these ,arctic shores which1 in output as well as in quality1 compares favorably with that of any part of contemporary ,europe4 ,evidently intellectual greatness bears but slight relation to economic advantages or political power4 ,what was true of ,iceland was also true of ,norway1 though in a lesser degree4 ,in that country1 too1 life was in great measure a continuous struggle with the soil and the sea4 ,still1 even in that land and age1 the spirits were active1 the arts flourished1 and the ,north added her contribution to the treasures of ,european culture4 ,the poems and tales of those virile days1 the eddas and sagas1 are too familiar to need more than a mention in this connection4 ,but the fact is not so commonly known that the medieval ,northmen were thinkers and students as well as poets and romancers4 ,they1 too1 were interested in the mysteries of the universe1 in the problems of science1 and in the intricate questions of social relationships4 ,in their thinking on these matters they showed more intellectual independence and less slavish regard for venerable authority than was usually the case among medieval writers4 ,and of all the men who in that age of faith tried to analyse and set in order their ideas of the world in which they moved1 perhaps none drew more largely on his own spiritual resources than the unknown author of the ,king's ,mirror4 ,unlike the sagas and related writings1 the purpose of the ,king's ,mirror is utilitarian and didactic4 ,the author has before him a group of serious and important problems1 which he proceeds to discuss for the instruction of his readers4 ,consequently1 certain qualities of style that are often associated with ,old ,norse literature are not apparent in his work to any marked degree4 ,in his effort to make his language clear1 definite1 and intelligible1 the author sometimes finds it necessary to repeat and restate his ideas1 with the result that his literary style is frequently stiff1 labored1 and pedantic4 ,these defects are1 however1 not characteristic of the book as a whole4 ,many of its chapters display rare workmanship and prove that the author of the ,king's ,mirror is one of the great masters of ,old ,norse prose4 ,in preparing the translation of this unique work1 my aim has been to reproduce the author's thought as faithfully as possible and to state it in such a form as to satisfy the laws of ,english syntax4 ,but ,i have also felt that1 so far as it can be done1 the flavor of the original should be retained and that a translator1 in his effort to satisfy certain conventional demands of modern composition1 should not deviate too far from the path of mental habit that the author has beaten in his roamings through the fields of thought4 ,peculiarities of style and expression1 can1 it is true1 usually not be reproduced in another language2 at the same time it is possible to ignore these considerations to such an extent that the product becomes a paraphrase rather than a translation2 and ,i have believed that such a rendition should be avoided1 even at the risk of erring on the side of literalness4 ,the importance of the ,king's ,mirror as a source of information in the study of medieval thought was first brought to my attention by ,professor ,julius ,e4 ,olson of the ,university of ,wisconsin1 who has also1 since the work of preparing this edition was begun1 followed its progress with helpful interest4 ,professors ,g4 ,t4 ,flom and ,a4 ,h4 ,lybyer of the ,university of ,illinois1 and ,professor ,w4 ,h4 ,schofield of ,harvard ,university1 have read the manuscript in whole or part and have contributed many valuable suggestions4 ,my wife1 ,lillian ,may ,larson1 has assisted in a great variety of ways1 as in all my work4 ,dr4 ,h4 ,g4 ,leach of the ,american-,scandinavian ,foundation has read the proof sheets of the entire volume and has suggested many improvements in the text4 ,to all these persons ,i wish to express my thanks4 ,i am also deeply indebted to the trustees of the ,american-,scandinavian ,foundation whose generosity has made it possible to publish the work at this time4 ,l4 ,m4 ,l4 ,university of ,illinois1 ,august1 #aiag4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,contents ,,introduction ,,page ,,northern ,,literature ,,in ,,the ,,thirteenth ,,century #a ,,the ,,speculum ,,regale1 ,,or ,,king',s ,,mirror2 ,,sources #f ,,scientific ,,lore ,,and ,,the ,,belief ,,in ,,marvels #aa ,,courtesy ,,and ,,the ,,king',s ,,household #bf ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,the ,,divine ,,right ,,of ,,norwegian #cc ,,kingship ,,ethical ,,and ,,theological ,,ideas ,,of ,,the ,,work #di ,,modern ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,king',s ,,mirror #ec ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,authorship #ed ,,date ,,and ,,place ,,of ,,composition #ei ,,editions ,,of ,,the ,,king',s ,,mirror #fe ,,the ,,king',s ,,mirror ,i4 ,,introduction3 ,,name ,,and ,,purpose ,,of ,,the ,,work #gb ,,ii4 8,,the ,,fear ,,of ,,the ,,lord ,,is ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,wisdom0 #gf ,,iii4 ,,the ,,activities ,,and ,,habits ,,of ,a ,,merchant #gi ,,iv4 ,,the ,,same ,,subject ,,continued #ha ,v4 ,,the ,,sun ,,and ,,the ,,winds #hf ,,vi4 ,,the ,,tides ,,and ,,the ,,changes ,,in ,,the ,,course ,,of ,,the ,,sun #ib ,,vii4 ,,the ,,subject ,,of ,,the ,,sun',s ,,course ,,continued #ie ,,viii4 ,,the ,,marvels ,,of ,,norway #ii ,,ix4 ,,popular ,,doubt ,,as ,,to ,,the ,,genuineness ,,of ,,marvels #ajb ,x4 ,,the ,,natural ,,wonders ,,of ,,ireland #aje ,,xi4 ,,irish ,,marvels ,,which ,,have ,,miraculous ,,origins #aaa ,,xii4 ,,the ,,marvels ,,of ,,the ,,icelandic ,,seas3 ,,whales2 ,,the #aai ,,kraken ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,wonders ,,of ,,iceland #abf ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,volcanic ,,fires ,,of ,,iceland #acj ,,xv4 ,,other ,,icelandic ,,wonders3 ,,ore ,,and ,,mineral ,,springs #acc ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,marvels ,,of ,,the ,,waters ,,about ,,greenland3 #ace ,,monsters1 ,,seals1 ,,and ,,walruses ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,animal ,,life ,,of ,,greenland ,,and ,,the ,,character ,,of #ada ,,the ,,land ,,in ,,those ,,regions ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,products ,,of ,,greenland #add ,,xix4 ,,the ,,climate ,,of ,,greenland2 ,,the ,,northern ,,lights #ade ,,xx4 ,,the ,,subject ,,of ,,the ,,northern ,,lights ,,continued #aea ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,zones ,,of ,,heat ,,and ,,cold #aec ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,winds ,,with ,,respect ,,to ,,navigation #aef ,,xxiii4 ,,the ,,proper ,,season ,,for ,,navigation4 ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,first #afa ,,part ,,xxiv4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,part3 ,,the ,,king ,,and ,,his #afb ,,court ,,xxv4 ,,the ,,importance ,,of ,,courtesy ,,in ,,the ,,royal ,,service #afe ,,xxvi4 ,,the ,,advantages ,,derived ,,from ,,service ,,in ,,the ,,king',s #afg ,,household ,,xxvii4 ,,the ,,various ,,classes ,,among ,,the ,,kingsmen #agj ,,xxviii4 ,,the ,,honored ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,kingsmen #agc ,,xxix4 ,,the ,,superior ,,order ,,of ,,kingsmen3 ,,the ,,hird #age ,,xxx4 ,,how ,a ,,man ,,who ,,wishes ,,to ,,apply ,,for ,,admission ,,to ,,the #agi ,,royal ,,household ,,service ,,should ,,approach ,,the ,,king ,,xxxi4 ,,why ,,one ,,should ,,not ,,wear ,a ,,mantle ,,in ,,the ,,royal #ahd ,,presence ,,xxxii4 ,,rules ,,of ,,speech ,,and ,,conversation ,,in ,,the ,,king',s #ahf ,,hall ,,xxxiii4 ,,the ,,proper ,,uses ,,of 8,,you0 ,,and 8,,thou0 #ahh ,,xxxiv4 ,,the ,,same ,,subject ,,continued #ahi ,,xxxv4 ,,concerning ,,failure ,,of ,,crops ,,and ,,dearth ,,in ,,morals #aic ,,and ,,government ,,xxxvi4 ,,the ,,causes ,,of ,,such ,,periods ,,of ,,dearth ,,and ,,what #aie ,,forms ,,the ,,dearth ,,may ,,take ,,xxxvii4 ,,the ,,duties1 ,,activities1 ,,and ,,amusements ,,of ,,the #bjc ,,royal ,,guardsmen ,,xxxviii4 ,,weapons ,,for ,,offense ,,and ,,defense #bag ,,xxxix4 ,,military ,,engines #bbj ,,xl4 ,,the ,,proper ,,manners ,,and ,,customs ,,of ,a ,,royal ,,court #bbf ,,xli4 ,,the ,,same ,,subject ,,continued #bca ,,xlii4 ,a ,,discussion ,,of ,,how ,,god ,,rewards ,,righteousness1 #bcd ,,humility1 ,,and ,,fidelity1 ,,illustrated ,,by ,,examples ,,drawn ,,from ,,sacred ,,and ,,profane ,,history ,,xliii4 ,,the ,,duties ,,and ,,the ,,exalted ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,king #bde ,,xliv4 ,,the ,,same ,,subject ,,continued #bdh ,,xlv4 ,,concerning ,,the ,,moderation ,,which ,a ,,king ,,must #bea ,,observe ,,in ,,his ,,judicial ,,sentences ,,and ,,penalties1 ,,with ,,illustrations ,,drawn ,,from ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,god',s ,,judgment ,,in ,,the ,,case ,,of ,,adam ,,and ,,eve1 ,,in ,,which ,,case ,,truth ,,and ,,justice ,,were ,,associated ,,with ,,peace ,,and ,,mercy ,,xlvi4 ,,an ,,example ,,of ,,righteous ,,severity ,,in ,,judgment ,,drawn #beh ,,from ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,god',s ,,condemnation ,,of ,,lucifer ,,xlvii4 ,a ,,further ,,discussion ,,of ,,verdicts ,,and ,,penalties #bfj ,,with ,,illustrations ,,from ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,lucifer',s ,,rebellion ,,and ,,downfall ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,sin ,,and ,,punishment ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,man ,,and ,,woman ,,xlviii4 ,a ,,commentary ,,on ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,lucifer #bgb ,,xlix4 ,,instances ,,in ,,which ,,god ,,has ,,allowed ,,the ,,decision ,,to #bgg ,,be ,,framed ,,according ,,to ,,the ,,stern ,,demands ,,of ,,truth ,,and ,,justice ,l4 ,,other ,,instances ,,in ,,which ,,the ,,arguments ,,of ,,peace #bgi ,,and ,,mercy ,,have ,,had ,,greater ,,weight ,,li4 ,,the ,,reasons ,,for ,,this ,,diversity ,,in ,,the ,,verdicts ,,of #bhc ,,god ,,lii4 ,,the ,,same ,,subject ,,continued #bhd ,,liii4 ,,instances ,,in ,,which ,,god ,,has ,,modified ,,his ,,sentences #bhe ,,and ,,the ,,reasons ,,for ,,such ,,modifications ,,liv4 ,,the ,,king',s ,,prayer #bij ,,lv4 ,a ,,further ,,discussion ,,of ,,the ,,king',s ,,business #big ,,especially ,,his ,,judicial ,,duties ,,lvi4 ,,the ,,speech ,,of ,,wisdom #bii ,,lvii4 ,,difficult ,,duties ,,of ,,the ,,king',s ,,judicial ,,office #cjd ,,with ,,illustrations ,,lviii4 ,,the ,,same ,,subject ,,continued #cji ,,lix4 ,,when ,,judgments ,,should ,,be ,,severe ,,and ,,when ,,they #cac ,,should ,,be ,,merciful ,,lx4 ,,the ,,same ,,subject ,,continued #caf ,,lxi4 ,,concerning ,,capital ,,punishment #cah ,,lxii4 ,,the ,,same ,,subject ,,continued #cbj ,,lxiii4 ,,the ,,judgments ,,of ,,god ,,illustrated ,,by ,,the ,,story ,,of #cba ,,david ,,and ,,saul ,,lxiv4 ,,illustrations ,,from ,,the ,,judgments ,,of ,,solomon #cci ,,lxv4 ,,solomon',s ,,decision ,,in ,,the ,,case ,,of ,,shimei #cda ,,lxvi4 ,,solomon',s ,,judgment ,,in ,,the ,,case ,,of ,,adonijah ,,and ,,his #cdd ,,followers ,,lxvii4 ,,why ,,solomon ,,broke ,,his ,,promise ,,of ,,peace ,,and #cec ,,security ,,to ,,joab ,,lxviii4 ,a ,,discussion ,,of ,,promises3 ,,when ,,they ,,must ,,be ,,kept #cee ,,and ,,when ,,they ,,should ,,be ,,withdrawn ,,lxix4 ,,concerning ,,the ,,kingship ,,and ,,the ,,church ,,and ,,the #ceg ,,king',s ,,responsibility ,,to ,,god ,,lxx4 ,,the ,,authority ,,of ,,kings ,,and ,,bishops4 ,,end ,,of ,,the #cfc ,,second ,,part ,,bibliography #cfi ,,index #cge ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,the ,,king',s ,,mirror ,,introduction ,the place of the thirteenth century in the history of human achievement is a subject upon which scholars have not yet come to a general agreement4 ,there can be no doubt that it was1 on the whole1 an age of progress in many fields2 but there is much in its history that points to stagnation1 if not to actual decline4 ,from a superficial study of its annals one might be led to class it with the lesser centuries2 most writers are inclined to rank it lower than the fourteenth century1 and perhaps not even so high as the twelfth4 ,it was in this period that the crusading movement finally flickered out and the ,christian world was compelled to leave the cradle of the holy faith in the hands of the infidel4 ,in the thirteenth century1 too1 the medieval empire sank into hopeless inefficiency and all but expired4 ,the papacy1 which more than any other power was responsible for the ruin of the imperial ambitions1 also went into decline4 ,whether the loss in authority and prestige on the part of the holy see was compensated by a renewed spiritual energy in the church at large may well be doubted3 what evidence we have would indicate that the religion of the masses was gross and materialistic1 that ethical standards were low1 and that the improvement in clerical morals1 which the church had hoped would follow the enforcement of celibacy1 had failed to appear4 ,yet the thirteenth century also had its attractive figures and its important movements4 ,the old social order was indeed crumbling1 but in its place appeared two new forces which were to inherit the power and opportunities of feudalism and reshape social life3 these were the new monarchy1 enjoying wide sovereign powers1 and the new national consciousness1 which was able to think in larger units4 ,in ,england the century saw the development of a new representative institution1 which has become the mother of modern legislative assemblies4 ,the ,italian cities were growing rich from the profits of ,oriental trade2 in the ,flemish towns the weaver's industry was building up new forms of municipal life2 the great ,german ,hansa was laying hold on the commerce of the northern seas4 ,in the realms of higher intellect1 in science1 philosophy1 and theology1 the age was a notable one1 with ,roger ,bacon1 ,albertus ,magnus1 and ,thomas ,aquinas as the leaders1 each in his field4 ,the century also meant much for the progress of geographical knowledge1 for it was in this period that ,marco ,polo penetrated the mysterious lands of the ,far ,east4 ,as the historian looks back into this age1 he is1 therefore1 able to find broad traces of much that is regarded as fundamental to modern life4 ,of first importance in this regard is the employment of popular idioms in literary productions4 ,french literature saw its beginnings in the eleventh century with the chansons de geste1 songs of valorous deeds from the heroic age of the ,frankish kingdom4 ,in the next century the poets began to use the themes of the ,arthurian legends and sang the exploits of the famous ,british king and the knights of his ,round ,table4 ,a little later came another cycle of poems based on the heroic tales of classical antiquity4 ,the twelfth century witnessed a parallel movement in ,germany1 which at first was largely an imitation of contemporary ,french poetry4 ,the poets1 however1 soon discovered literary treasures in the dim world of the ,teutonic past1 in the tales of the ,nibelungs1 in the heroic deeds of ,theodoric1 and in the exploits of other heroes4 ,thus in the first half of the thirteenth century there was a large body of ,french and ,german verse in circulation4 ,the verses were borne from region to region and from land to land by professional entertainers1 who chanted the poems1 and by pilgrims and other travelers1 who secured manuscript copies4 ,in the course of time the new tales reached the ,northern countries1 and it was not long before the ,northmen were eagerly listening to the stories of chivalrous warfare1 militant religion1 and tragic love1 that they had learned in the southlands4 ,the ,northern peoples thus had a share in the fruitage of the later middle ages2 but they also had a share in their achievements4 ,politically as well as intellectually the thirteenth century was a great age in the ,scandinavian countries4 ,the ,danish kingdom rose to the highest point of its power under ,valdemar the ,victorious1 whose troubled reign began in #abjb4 ,valdemar succeeded in extending the territories of ,denmark along the entire southern coast of the ,baltic ,sea2 but the greatness was short-lived3 after the defeat of the ,danes by the ,north ,germans at ,brnhoved in #abbg1 the decline of ,danish imperialism began4 ,in ,sweden1 too1 men dreamed of conquest beyond the sea4 ,under the leadership of ,earl ,birger1 the most eminent statesman of medieval ,sweden1 ,swedish power was steadily extended into ,finnish territory1 and the foundations of ,sweden as a great ,european power was being laid4 ,during the days of ,valdemar and the great ,birger ,norway also reached its greatest territorial extent4 ,after a century of factional warfare1 the nation settled down to comparative peace4 ,all the ,norwegian colonies except those in ,ireland1 were definitely made subject to the ,norwegian crown3 these were the ,isle of ,man1 the ,hebrides1 the ,orkneys1 the ,shetlands1 the ,faroes1 ,iceland1 and ,greenland4 ,in every field of national life there was vigor and enterprise4 ,and on the throne sat a strong1 wise1 and learned monarch1 ,hakon ,,iv1 the ruler with the 8great king-thought40 ,the real greatness of the thirteenth century in the ,north lies1 however1 in the literary achievements of the age4 ,it is not known when the ,old ,norse poets first began to exercise their craft1 but the earliest poems that have come down to us date from the ninth century4 ,for two hundred years the literary production was in the form of alliterative verse2 but after #ajej there came a time when scaldic poetry did not seem to thrive4 ,this does not mean that the interest in literature died out2 it merely took a new form3 the age of poetry was followed by an age of prose4 ,with the ,christian faith came the ,latin alphabet and writing materials1 and there was no longer any need to memorize verse4 ,the new form was the saga1 which began to appear in the twelfth century and received many notable additions in the thirteenth4 ,the literary movement on the continent1 therefore1 had its counterpart in the ,north2 only here the writings took the form of prose1 while there literature was chiefly in verse4 ,these two currents came into contact in the first half of the thirteenth century1 when the men and women of the ,north began to take an interest in the ,arthurian romances and other tales that had found their way into ,norway4 ,in this new form of ,norwegian literature there could not be much originality2 still its appearance testifies to a widening of the intellectual horizon4 ,in addition to sagas and romances the period was also productive of written laws1 homilies1 legends1 ,biblical narratives1 histories1 and various other forms of literature4 ,it is to be noted that virtually everything was written in the idiom of the common people4 ,latin was used to some extent in the ,north in the later middle ages1 but it never came into such general use there as in other parts of ,europe4 ,in the thirteenth century it had almost passed out of use as a literary language4 ,in our interest in tales and romances we must not overlook the fact that the thirteenth century also produced an important literature of the didactic type4 ,for centuries the ,christian world had studied the encyclopedic works of ,capella1 ,cassiodorus1 and ,isidore1 or had read the writings of ,bede and his many followers who had composed treatises 8on the nature of things10 in which they had striven to set in order the known or supposed facts of the physical world4 ,the thirteenth century had an encyclopedist of its own in ,vincent of ,beauvais1 who produced a vast compendium made up of several ,specula1 which were supposed to contain all the knowledge that the world possessed in science1 history1 theology1 and other fields of learning4 ,the age also produced various other ,latin works of the didactic sort1 of which the ,historia ,scholastica of ,petrus ,comestor was perhaps the most significant for the intellectual history of the ,north4 ,norway had no encyclopedist1 but the thirteenth century produced a ,norwegian writer who undertook a task which was somewhat of the encyclopedic type4 ,some time during the reign of ,hakon ,,iv1 perhaps while ,vincent was composing his great ,speculum ,majus1 a learned ,norseman wrote the ,speculum ,regale1 or ,king's ,mirror1 a work which a competent critic has characterized as 8one of the chief ornaments of ,old ,norse literature40#a ,unlike the sagas and the romances1 which have in view chiefly the entertainment of the reader1 the ,king's ,mirror is didactic throughout2 in a few chapters only does the author depart from his serious purpose1 and all but two of these are of distinct value4 ,the purpose of the work is to provide a certain kind of knowledge which will be of use to young men who are looking forward to a career in the higher professions4 ,footnote #a3 ,r4 ,keyser in the introduction to the ,christiania edition 7p4 xi74 ,as outlined in the introductory chapter1 the work was to deal with the four great orders of men in the ,norwegian kingdom3 the merchants and their interests2 the king and his retainers2 the church and the clergy2 and the peasantry or husbandmen4 ,in the form in which the ,king's ,mirror has come down to modern times1 however1 the first two divisions only are included2 not the least fragment of any separate discussion of the clerical profession or of the agricultural classes has been found4 ,it is1 therefore1 generally believed that the work was not completed beyond the point where the extant manuscripts close4 ,why the book was left unfinished cannot be known2 but it is a plausible conjecture that illness or perhaps death prevented the author1 who was apparently an aged man1 from completing the task that he had set before him4 ,it is also possible that the ideas expressed in the closing chapters of the work1 especially in the last chapter1 which deals with the subject of clerical subordination to the secular powers1 were so repugnant to the ecclesiastical thought of the time that the authorities of the church discouraged or perhaps found means to prevent the continuation of the work into the third division1 where the author had planned to deal with the church and the clergy4 ,in form the ,speculum is a dialog between a wise and learned father and his son1 in which the larger part of the discussion naturally falls to the former4 ,the son asks questions and suggests problems1 which the father promptly answers or solves4 ,in the choice of form there is nothing original3 the dialog was frequently used by didactic writers in the middle ages1 and it was the natural form to adopt4 ,the title1 ,speculum ,regale1 is also of a kind that was common in those days4#b ,specula of many sorts were being produced3 ,speculum ,ecclesiae1 ,speculum ,stultorum1 ,speculum ,naturale1 and ,speculum ,perfectionis are some of the titles used for writings of a didactic type4 ,the ,german ,sachsenspiegel is an instance of the title employed for a work in a vulgar idiom4 ,there was also a ,speculum ,regum1 or ,mirror of ,kings1 and a century later an ,english ecclesiastic wrote a ,speculum ,regis1 but the writer knows of no other work called the ,speculum ,regale4 ,footnote #b3 ,it is believed that the title came into use in ,europe in imitation of ,hindu writers who wrote 8,mirrors of ,princes40 ,nansen1 ,in ,northern ,mists1 ,,ii1 #bdb4 ,it is an interesting question whether the ,king's ,mirror was inspired by any earlier work written along similar lines4 ,originality was a rare virtue in the middle ages1 and the good churchmen who wrote books in those days cannot have regarded plagiarism as a mortal sin4 ,the great writers were freely copied by the lesser men1 thoughts1 titles1 statements1 and even the wording being often taken outright4 ,it is1 therefore1 difficult to determine the sources of statements found in the later works1 as they may have been drawn from any one of a whole series of writings on the subject under discussion4 ,the writer has not been able to make an exhaustive examination of all the didactic and devotional literature of the centuries preceding the thirteenth1 but the search that has been made has not proved fruitful4 ,there is every reason to believe that the author of the ,king's ,mirror was an independent thinker and writer4 ,he was doubtless acquainted with a large number of books and had drawn information from a great variety of sources2 but when the writing was actually done he had apparently a few volumes only at his disposal4 ,in the region where the work seems to have been composed1 on the northern edge of ,european civilization1 there was neither cathedral nor monastery nor any other important ecclesiastical foundation where a collection of books might be found4#c ,it is likely1 therefore1 that the author had access to such books only as were in his own possession4 ,but he came to his task with a well-stocked mind1 with a vast fund of information gathered by travel and from the experiences of an active life2 and thus he drew largely from materials that had become the permanent possession of his memory4 ,this fact1 if it be a fact1 will also help to explain why so many inaccuracies have crept into his quoted passages2 in but very few instances does he give the correct wording of a citation4 ,footnote #c3 ,there must have been important collections of manuscripts at ,nidaros 7,trondhjem71 where there was a cathedral and several monastic institutions4 ,the ,king's ,mirror was probably composed in ,namdalen1 about one hundred miles northeast of ,nidaros4 ,see below1 pp4 #ei-fj4 ,there can be no doubt that the author had a copy of the ,vulgate before him2 at least one ,biblical passage is correctly given1 and it is quoted in its ,latin form4#d ,it has also been discovered that he had access to an ,old ,norse paraphrase of a part of the ,old ,testament1 the books of ,samuel and of the ,kings4#e ,it is likely that he was also acquainted with some of the works of ,saint ,augustine1 and perhaps with the writings of certain other medieval authorities4 ,among these it seems safe to include the ,disciplina ,clericalis1 a collection of tales and ethical observations by ,petrus ,alfonsus1 a converted ,jew who wrote in the first half of the twelfth century4 ,the ,disciplina is a somewhat fantastic production wholly unlike the sober pages of the ,speculum ,regale2 nevertheless1 the two works appear to show certain points of resemblance which can hardly have been accidental4 ,the ,disciplina is a dialog and the part of the son is much the same as in the ,king's ,mirror4 ,in both works the young man expresses a desire to become acquainted with the customs of the royal court1 inasmuch as he may some day decide to apply for admission to the king's household service4#f ,the description of courtly manners and customs in the earlier dialog1 though much briefer than the corresponding discussion in the ,norwegian treatise1 has some resemblance to the latter which suggests a possible relationship between the two works4 ,footnote #d3 ,see below1 p4 #bcg4 ,footnote #e3 ,storm1 8,om ,tidsforholdet mellem ,kongespeilet og ,stjrn samt ,barlaams ,saga03 ,arkiv for nordisk ,filologi1 ,,iii1 #hc-hh4 ,footnote #f3 ,see ,disciplina ,clericalis1 fabula xxiv3 ,migne1 ,patrologia ,latina1 ,,clvii1 #fih-gjj4 ,the ,norwegian author may also have used some of the many commentaries on the books of ,holy ,writ1 in the production of which the medieval cloisters were so prolific4 ,of the influence of ,petrus ,comestor's ,historia ,scholastica the writer has found no distinct trace in the ,king's ,mirror2 but one can be quite sure that he knew and had used the ,elucidarium of ,honorius of ,autun4 ,the ,elucidarium is a manual of medieval theology which was widely read in the later middle ages and was translated into ,old ,norse1 probably before the ,king's ,mirror was written4#g ,but our ,norwegian author was not a slavish follower of earlier authorities3 in his use and treatment of materials drawn from the ,scriptures he shows remarkable independence4 ,remarkable at least is his ability to make ,biblical narratives serve to illustrate his own theories of ,norwegian kingship4 ,he was acquainted with some of the legends that circulated through the church and made effective use of them4 ,he must also have known a work on the marvels of ,ireland#h and the letter of ,prester ,john to the ,byzantine emperor1#i in which that mythical priest-king recounts the wonders of ,india4 ,but the chief source of his work is a long life full of action1 conflict1 thought1 and experience4 ,footnote #g3 ,a fragment of the ,elucidarium1 comprising1 however1 the greater part of the work1 is published in ,annaler for nordisk ,oldkyndighed1 #aheb and #ahec2 in the former volume a ,danish translation is given2 the latter contains the ,icelandic text4 ,footnote #h3 ,see below1 pp4 #bb-be4 ,footnote #i3 ,see below1 p4 #aja 7c4 viii74 ,the importance of the ,king's ,mirror lies in the insight that it gives into the state of culture and civilization of the ,north in the later middle ages4 ,the interest follows seven different lines3 physical science1 especially such matters as are of importance to navigators2 geography1 particularly the geography of the ,arctic lands and waters2 the organization of the king's household and the privileges and duties of the king's henchmen2 military engines1 weapons1 and armour used in offensive and defensive warfare2 ethical ideas1 especially rules of conduct for courtiers and merchants2 the royal office1 the duties of the king and the divine origin of kingship2 and the place of the church in the ,norwegian state4 ,in one of his earlier chapters the author enumerates the chief subjects of a scientific character that ought to be studied by every one who wishes to become a successful merchant4 ,these are the great luminaries of the sky1 the motions and the paths of the heavenly bodies1 the divisions of time and the changes that bring the seasons1 the cardinal points of the compass1 and the tides and currents of the ocean4#aj ,in discussing these matters he is naturally led to a statement as to the shape of the earth4 ,all through the middle ages there were thinkers who accepted the teachings of the classical astronomers who had taught that the earth is round like a sphere2 but this belief was by no means general4 ,bede for one appears to have been convinced that the earth is of a spherical shape1 though he explains that1 because of mountains which rise high above the surface1 it cannot be perfectly round4#aa ,alexander ,neckam1 an ,english scientist who wrote two generations before the ,king's ,mirror was composed1 states in his ,praise of ,divine ,wisdom that 8the ancients have ventured to believe that the earth is round1 though mountains rise high above its surface40#ab ,neckam's own ideas on this point are quite confused and he remains discreetly non-committal4 ,footnote #aj3 ,c4 iv4 ,see also ,larson1 8,scientific ,knowledge in the ,north in the ,thirteenth ,century03 ,publications of the ,society for the ,advancement of ,scandinavian ,study1 ,i1 #aci-adf4 ,footnote #aa3 ,de ,natura ,rerum1 c4 xlvi3 ,migne1 ,patrologia ,latina1 ,,xc1 #bfd-bfe4 ,footnote #ab3 ,de ,naturis ,rerum1 #dda4 ,but if the earth is a globe1 there is every reason to believe in the existence of antipodes2 and if there are antipodes1 all cannot behold ,christ coming in the clouds on the final day4 ,to the medieval theologians1 at least to the larger number of them1 this argument disposed effectually of the ,ptolemaic theory4 ,job does indeed say that ,god 8hangeth the earth upon nothing10#ac and this passage might point to a spherical form2 but then the ,psalmist affirms that ,he 8stretched out the earth above the waters10#ad and this statement would indicate that the inhabited part of the earth is an island floating upon the waters of the great ,ocean1 by which it is also surrounded4 ,this belief was generally maintained in the earlier centuries of the classical world1 and it had wide acceptance in the middle ages4 ,there were also those who held that beyond and around the outer ,ocean is a great girdle of fire4 ,it is likely1 however1 that many believed with ,isidore of ,seville that it is useless to speculate on subjects of this sort4 8,whether it the earth is supported by the density of the air1 or whether it is spread out upon the waters 444 or how the yielding air can support such a vast mass as the earth1 whether such an immense weight can be upheld by the waters without being submerged1 or how the earth maintains its balance 444 these matters it is not permitted any mortal to know and they are not for us to discuss40#ae ,footnote #ac3 ,job1 xxvi1 #g4 ,footnote #ad3 ,psalms1 cxxxvi1 #f4 ,footnote #ae3 ,de ,natura ,rerum ,liber1 c4 xlv3 ,migne1 ,patrologia ,latina1 ,,lxxxiii1 #ajae4 ,there can be no doubt that the author of the ,king's ,mirror believed in the ,ptolemaic theory of a spherical earth4 ,in speaking of our planet he uses the term jararbollr1#af earth-sphere4 ,in an effort to explain why some countries are hotter than others1 he suggests an experiment with an apple4 ,it is not clear how this can shed much light on the problem1 but the author boldly states the point to be illustrated3 8,from this you may infer that the earth-circle is round like a ball40#ag ,footnote #af3 ,see c4 xix4 ,footnote #ag3 ,see c4 vii4 ,toward the close of the medieval period there were certain thinkers who attempted to reconcile the spherical theory with the belief that the inhabited part of the earth is an island4 ,these appear to have believed that the earth is a globe partly submerged in a larger sphere composed of water4#ah ,the visible parts of the earth would rise above the surrounding ocean like a huge island1 and the ,biblical passages which had caused so much difficulty could thus be interpreted in accord with apparent facts4 ,it is quite clear that the author of the ,king's ,mirror held no such theory4 ,in a poetic description of how the eight winds form their covenants of friendship at the approach of spring1 he tells us that 8at midnight the north wind goes forth to meet the coursing sun and leads him through rocky deserts toward the sparse-built shores40#ai ,the author1 therefore1 seems to believe that the earth is a sphere1 that there are lands on the opposite side of the earth1 and that these lands are inhabited4 ,he also understands that the regions that lie beneath the midnight course of the sun in spring and summer must be thinly populated1 as the sun's path on the opposite side of the earth during the season of lengthening days is constantly approaching nearer the pole4 ,footnote #ah3 ,ruge1 ,geschichte des ,zeitalters der ,entdeckungen1 #ig4 ,footnote #ai3 ,c4 v4 ,but while the author seems to accept the ,ptolemaic theory of the universe1 he is not able to divest his mind entirely of current geographical notions4 ,there can be no doubt that he believed in the encircling outer ocean1 and it is barely possible that he also looked with favor on the belief that the whole was encompassed by a girdle of fire4 ,on this point1 however1 we cannot be sure3 he mentions the belief merely as one that is current1 not as one accepted by himself4#bj ,footnote #bj3 ,c4 xix4 ,it was commonly held in the middle ages that the earth is divided into five zones1 only two of which may be inhabited4 ,this was a theory advanced by a ,greek scientist in the fifth century before our era1#ba and was given currency in medieval times chiefly1 perhaps1 through the works of ,macrobius4#bb ,at first these zones were conceived as belts drawn across the heavens2 later they came to be considered as divisions of the earth's surface4 ,it will be noted that our author uses the older terminology and speaks of the zones as belts on the heaven2#bc it may be inferred1 therefore1 that he derived his information from one of the earlier ,latin treatises on the nature of the universe4#bd ,for two thousand years it was believed that human life could not exist in the polar and torrid zones4 ,even as late as the fifteenth century ,european navigators had great fear of travel into the torrid zone1 where the heat was thought to grow more intense as one traveled south1 until a point might be reached where water in the sea would boil4 ,the author of the ,king's ,mirror seems to doubt all this4 ,he regards the polar zones as generally uninhabitable2 still1 he is sure that ,greenland lies within the arctic zone2 and yet1 ,greenland 8has beautiful sunshine and is said to have a rather pleasant climate40#be ,he sees quite clearly that the physical nature of a country may have much to do with climatic conditions4 ,the cold of ,iceland he ascribes in great part to its position near ,greenland3 8for it is to be expected that severe cold would come thence1 since ,greenland is ice-clad beyond all other lands40#bf ,he conceives the possibility that the south temperate zone is inhabited4 8,and if people live as near the cold belt on the southern side as the ,greenlanders do on the northern1 ,i firmly believe that the north wind blows as warm to them as the south wind to us4 ,for they must look north to see the midday and the sun's whole course1 just as we1 who dwell north of the sun1 must look to the south40#bg ,footnote #ba3 ,parmenides of ,ela 7ca4 #dhj ,b4,c474 ,nansen1 ,in ,northern ,mists1 ,i1 #ab4 ,footnote #bb3 ,see below1 p4 #adg 7c4 xix74 ,cf4 ,ibid41 #abc4 ,footnote #bc3 ,c4 xix4 ,footnote #bd3 ,probably from the writings of ,isidore1 who speaks of the zones as belts on the heavens4 ,etymologiae1 iii1 c4 xliv2 xiii1 c4 vi2 ,de ,natura ,rerum1 c4 x4 ,footnote #be3 ,c4 xix4 ,footnote #bf3 ,c4 xiii4 ,footnote #bg3 ,c4 xxi4 ,on the questions of time and its divisions the author of the ,king's ,mirror seems to have had nearly all the information that the age possessed4 ,he divides the period of day and night into two 8days0 7dgr7 of twelve hours each4 ,each hour is again divided into smaller hours called ostenta in ,latin4#bh ,any division below the minute he apparently does not know4 ,the length of the year he fixes at #cfe days and six hours1 every fourth year these additional hours make twenty-four and we have leap year4#bi ,the waxing and waning of the moon and the tidal changes in the ocean are also reckoned with fair accuracy4#cj ,footnote #bh3 ,c4 vi4 ,footnote #bi3 ,ibid4 ,footnote #cj3 ,ibid4 ,medieval scientists found these movements in the ocean a great mystery4 ,some ascribed the tides to the influence of the moon2#ca others believed that they were caused by the collision of the waters of two arms of the ocean1 an eastern arm and a western2 still others imagined that somewhere there were 8certain cavern-like abysses1 which now swallow up the water1 and now spew it forth again40#cb ,the author of the ,speculum has no doubts on the subject3 he believes that the tides are due to the waxing and waning of the moon4#cc ,footnote #ca3 ,the ,venerable ,bede held that the moon is in some way responsible for the tides4 ,de ,natura ,rerum1 c4 xxxix3 ,migne1 ,patrologia ,latina1 ,,xc1 #beh-bei2 see also ibid41 ,,xc1 #dbb-dbf 7,de ,tempore ,ratione1 c4 xxix74 ,footnote #cb3 ,alexander ,neckam1 ,de ,naturis ,rerum1 #ach4 ,footnote #cc3 ,c4 vi4 ,in his discussion of the volcanic fires of ,iceland he shows that on this subject he was completely under the influence of medieval conceptions4 ,he has heard that ,gregory the ,great believed that the volcanic eruptions in ,sicily have their origins in the infernal regions4 ,our author is inclined to question1 however1 that there is anything supernatural about the eruptions of ,mount ,etna2 but he is quite sure that the volcanic fires of ,iceland rise from the places of pain4 ,the fires of ,sicily are living fires1 inasmuch as they devour living materials1 such as wood and earth2 those of ,iceland1 on the other hand1 consume nothing living but only dead matter like rock4 ,and he therefore concludes that these fires must have their origin in the realms of death4#cd ,footnote #cd3 ,c4 xiii4 ,the author has a suspicion that earthquakes may be due to volcanic action1 but he offers another explanation1 though he does not give it as his own belief4 ,down in the bowels of the earth there is probably a large number of caverns and empty passages4 8,at times it may happen that these passages and cavities will be so completely packed with air either by the winds or by the power of the roaring breakers1 that the pressure of the blast cannot be confined1 and this may be the origin of those great earthquakes that occur in that country40#ce ,in this theory there is nothing new or original3 the belief that the earth is of a spongy constitution and that earthquakes are caused by air currents is a very old one1 which can be followed back through the writings of ,alexander ,neckam1#cf the ,venerable ,bede1#cg and others1 at least as far as to ,isidore4#ch ,the elder ,pliny1 who wrote his ,natural ,history in the first century of the ,christian era1 seems to have held similar views3 8,i believe there can be no doubt that the winds are the cause of earthquakes40#ci ,footnote #ce3 ,ibid4 ,footnote #cf3 ,de ,naturis ,rerum1 #aeh4 ,footnote #cg3 ,de ,natura ,rerum1 c4 xlix3 ,migne1 ,patrologia ,latina1 ,,xc1 #bge-bgf4 ,footnote #ch3 ,de ,natura ,rerum1 c4 xlvi3 ,migne1 ,patrologia ,latina1 ,,lxxxiii1 #ajae4 ,see also ,the ,christian ,topography of ,cosmas 7written about #edg71 #ag-ah2 ,cosmas scoffs at the theory4 ,footnote #ci3 ,naturalis ,historiae1 ,i1 #bja 7ii1 c4 lxxix74 ,the chapters that deal with the northern lights are interesting because they seem to imply that these lights were not visible in those parts of ,norway where the ,king's ,mirror was written4 ,the editors of the ,christiania edition of this work call attention to the fact that there have been periods when these phenomena were less prominent1 and suggest that there may have been such a period in the thirteenth century4#dj ,the author discusses these lights as one of the wonders of ,greenland1 and the natural inference is that they were not known in ,norway4 ,but it is also true that he speaks of whales as if they were limited to the seas about ,iceland and ,greenland1 which is manifestly incorrect4 ,it is likely that the author merely wishes to emphasize the fact that the northern lights appear with greater frequency and in greater brilliance in ,greenland than anywhere in ,norway4 ,he gives three theories to account for these phenomena3 some ascribe them to a girdle of fire which encircles the earth beyond the outer ocean2 others hold that the lights are merely rays of the sun which find their way past the edges of the earth while the sun is coursing underneath2 but his own belief is that frost and cold have attained to such a power in the ,arctic that they are able to put forth light4#da ,in his opinion cold is a positive force as much as heat or any other form of energy4 ,to the men of the author's time there was nothing strange in this belief3 it seems to have been held by many even before the thirteenth century that ice could under certain conditions produce heat and even burn4#db ,footnote #dj3 ,p4 ix1 note4 ,footnote #da3 ,c4 xix4 ,footnote #db3 ,thus ,solinus 7pp4 xxxiv1 xxxvii1 #bcf7 says 8the sea-ice on this island ignites itself on collision1 and when it is ignited it burns like wood40 ,see ,nansen1 ,in ,northern ,mists1 ,i1 #aic4 ,adam von ,bremen 7,gesta ,hammaburgensis ,ecclesiae ,pontificum1 iv1 #cd7 writes3 8they report this remarkable thing about it that this ice appears so black and dry that1 on account of its age1 it burns when it is kindled40 ,ibid4 ,the same belief appears in a ,german poem ,meregarto3 8,thereby the ice there becomes so hard as crystal1 that they make a fire above it till the crystal glows40 ,ibid41 ,i1 #aha4 ,among the author's scientific notions very little that is really original can be found4 ,it is ,riant's belief that he drew to some extent from ,oriental sources1 the lore of the ,east having come into the ,north as the spoil of crusaders or as the acquisitions of ,norwegian pilgrims4#dc ,it may be doubted1 however1 whether the ,saracenic contribution is a real one3 almost everything that the author of the ,speculum ,regale presents as his belief can be found in the ,latin scientific manuals of the middle ages4 ,he alludes to the writings of ,isidore of ,seville1 and there can be little doubt that he was acquainted with the ideas of the great ,spaniard1 though he does not accept them all4 ,his ideas as to the shape of the earth and the probable causes of earthquakes may have been derived from the writings of the ,venerable ,bede1 or from one of his numerous followers4 ,the divisions of time are discussed in many of the scientific treatises of the middle ages1 but the division of the hour into sixtieths called ostenta is probably not found in any manual written before the ninth century2 so far as the writer has been able to determine1 ostenta1 meaning minutes1 first appears in the works of ,rabanus ,maurus4#dd ,footnote #dc3 ,riant1 ,expditions et ,plerinages des ,scandinaves en ,terre ,sainte1 #ddj-dda4 ,footnote #dd3 ,rabanus ,maurus died in #hef4 ,the discussion of these scientific notions has its chief value in showing to what extent the ,norwegians of the thirteenth century were acquainted with the best theories of the age as to the great facts of the universe4 ,the author's own contribution to the scientific learning of his time lies almost exclusively in the field of geography4 8,beyond comparison the most important geographical writer of the medieval ,north10 says ,dr4 ,nansen1 8and at the same time one of the first in the whole of medieval ,europe1 was the unknown author who wrote the ,king's ,mirror4444 ,if one turns from contemporary or earlier ,european geographical literature1 with all its superstition and obscurity1 to this masterly work1 the difference is very striking40#de ,this is doubtless due to the fact that our author was not a cloistered monk who was content to copy the ideas and expressions of his predecessors with such changes as would satisfy a theological mind1 but a man who had been active in the secular world and was anxious to get at real facts4 ,footnote #de3 ,nansen1 ,in ,northern ,mists1 ,,ii1 #bdb4 ,among the chapters devoted to scientific lore the author has introduced several which are ostensibly intended to serve the purpose of entertainment2 the author seems to fear that the interest of his readers is likely to flag1 if the dry recital of physical facts is continued unbroken4 ,it is in these chapters1 which profess to deal with the marvels of ,norway1 ,ireland1 ,iceland1 ,greenland1 and the ,arctic seas1 that he introduces his geographical data4 ,in the description of ,greenland are included such important and practical subjects as the general character of the land1 the great ice fields1 the products of the country1 wild animals1 and a few facts from the economic life of the people4 ,in the chapters on ,iceland the author limits himself to certain physical features1 such as glaciers1 geysers1 mineral springs1 volcanoes1 and earthquakes4 ,he also gives a 8description of the animal world of the northern seas to which there is no parallel in the earlier literature of the world40#df ,he enumerates twenty-one different species of whales#dg and describes several of them with some fulness4 ,he mentions and describes six varieties of seals#dh and also gives a description of the walrus4 ,the marvelous element is represented by detailed accounts of the 8sea-hedges0 7probably sea quakes7 on the coasts of ,greenland1 the merman1 the mermaid1 and the kraken4#di ,but on the whole these chapters give evidence of careful1 discriminating observation and a desire to give accurate knowledge4 ,footnote #df3 ,nansen1 ,in ,northern ,mists1 ,,ii1 #bdc4 ,footnote #dg3 ,ibid4 8,if we make allowance for three of them being probably sharks and for two being perhaps alternative names for the same whale1 the total corresponds to the number of species that are known in northern waters40 ,footnote #dh3 ,ibid4 ,this 8corresponds to the number of species living on the coasts of ,norway and ,greenland40 ,footnote #di3 ,cc4 xii1 xvi4 ,for all but the two chapters on ,ireland the sources of the author's geographical information are evidently the tales of travelers and his own personal experiences2 of literary sources there is no trace4 ,the account of the marvels of ,ireland1 however1 gives rise to certain problems4 ,it may be that the ,norwegian geographer based these chapters on literary sources that are still extant1 or he may have had access to writings which have since disappeared4 ,it is also possible that some of the information was contributed by travelers who sailed the western seas and had sojourned on the 8western isles20 for it must be remembered that ,norway still had colonies as far south as the ,isle of ,man1 and that ,norsemen were still living in ,ireland1 though under ,english rule4 ,when ,hakon ,,iv made his expedition into these regions in #abfc1 some of these ,norwegian colonists in ,ireland sought his aid in the hope that ,english rule might be overthrown4#ej ,footnote #ej3 ,hkonar ,saga1 c4 #cbb4 ,it has long been known that many of the tales of ,irish wonders and miracles that are recounted in the ,speculum ,regale are also told in the ,topographia ,hibernica by ,giraldus ,cambrensis4 ,the famous ,welshman wrote his work several decades before the ,king's ,mirror was composed2 and it is not impossible that the author of the latter had access to the 8,irish ,topography40 ,moreover1 the ,speculum ,regale and the ,topographia ,hibernica have certain common features which correspond so closely that literary kinship seems quite probable4 ,the resemblances1 however1 are not so much in the details as in the plan and the viewpoint4 ,in the second book of his 8,topography10 ,giraldus recounts 8first those things that nature has planted in the land itself20 and next 8those things that have been miraculously performed through the merits of the saints40#ea ,the author of the ,king's ,mirror has adopted a similar grouping4 ,after having discussed some of the wonders of the island he continues3 8,there still remain certain things that may be thought marvelous2 these1 however1 are not native to the land but have originated in the miraculous powers of holy men40#eb ,this correspondence in the general plan is too remarkable to be wholly accidental2 at least it should lead us to look for other resemblances elsewhere4 ,footnote #ea3 ,giraldus1 ,opera1 ,v1 #fb-fd2 ,king's ,mirror1 c4 x4 ,footnote #eb3 ,topographia ,hibernica1 iii1 c4 #bh2 ,king's ,mirror1 c4 x4 ,in his general description of ,ireland the author of the ,norwegian work calls attention to the excellence of the land and its temperate climate3 8for all through the winter the cattle find their feed in the open40#ec ,giraldus informs us that grass grows in winter as well as in summer1 and he adds3 8therefore they are accustomed neither to cut hay for fodder nor to provide stables for the cattle40#ed ,both writers emphasize the fact that grapes do not grow on the island4 ,in both writings attention is called to the sacred character of the ,irish soil1 which makes it impossible for reptiles and venomous animals to live on the land1 though ,giraldus has his doubts as to the supernatural phase of the matter4 ,both writers add that if sand or dust is brought from ,ireland to another country and scattered about a reptile1 it will perish4#ee ,both characterize the ,irish people as savage and murderous1 but they also call attention to their kind treatment of holy men1 of whom the island has always had many4#ef ,in fact1 every statement in the ,king's ,mirror as to the nature of the land and the character of the inhabitants can be duplicated in ,giraldus' description of ,ireland1 except1 perhaps1 the single observation that the ,irish people1 because of the mildness of the climate1 often wear no clothes4 ,footnote #ec3 ,topographia ,hibernica1 ii1 introd43 ,opera1 ,v1 #gd4 ,footnote #ed3 ,c4 xi4 ,footnote #ee3 ,c4 x4 ,footnote #ef3 ,topographia ,hibernica1 i1 c4 xxxiii3 ,opera1 ,v1 #fg4 ,but even if ,giraldus' work is to be regarded as one of the sources which the ,norwegian author may have used in writing his chapters on the ,irish mirabilia1 it cannot have been the only or even the principal source4 ,the account of these marvels in the ,king's ,mirror does not wholly agree with that of the ,welshman's work4 ,in some instances the wonders are told with details that are wanting in the earlier narrative4 ,frequently1 too1 the ,norwegian version is more explicit as to localities and gives proper names where ,giraldus has none4 ,it also records marvels and miracles which are not found in the ,topographia ,hibernica4 ,in an edition of the ,irish ,nennius the editor has added as an appendix a brief account of the 8,wonders of ,ireland10 many of the tales of which have interesting parallels in the ,king's ,mirror4 ,there is also a medieval poem on the same theme#eg which contains allusions to much that the ,norwegian author has recorded with greater fulness4 ,neither of these works1 however1 can have been the source from which the chapters on ,ireland in the ,speculum ,regale have been derived4 ,footnote #eg3 ,see ,wright-,halliwell1 ,reliquiae ,antiquae1 ,,ii1 #ajc-ajg4 ,the learned editors of the ,christiania edition of the ,king's ,mirror reached the conclusion that the author did not draw from any literary source but derived his information from current tales and other oral accounts4#eh ,this is also the opinion of ,dr4 ,kuno ,meyer1 the eminent student of ,celtic philology4#ei ,dr4 ,meyer bases his belief on the form of the ,irish proper names4 ,as written in the ,speculum ,regale they can not have been copied1 as the spelling is not normally ,irish2 he believes1 therefore1 that they show an effort on the author's part to reproduce phonetically these names as he heard them spoken4 ,but this theory ignores the fact that in writing them the author employs combinations of consonants which are unusual to say the least4 ,combinations of ch and gh are used in writing nearly all the ,irish proper names that occur in the ,king's ,mirror and the gh-combination is found nowhere else in the work4#fj ,it was probably coming into the language in the century to which the work is credited1 but the author uses it only as indicated above4 ,it seems likely1 therefore1 that he had access to a written source1 though it is also likely that he did not have this account before him when the writing was actually done4 ,as has already been stated1 the author seems to have written largely from memory1 and his memory is not always accurate4 ,footnote #eh3 ,p4 x4 ,footnote #ei3 riu1 ,,iv41 #ad-af4 ,footnote #fj3 ,in a letter to the writer ,professor ,meyer expresses the belief that the use of gh in the ,irish proper names is an invention by the author4 ,the combination of c and h is also used in certain other proper names1 the system varying in the different manuscripts4 ,for a discussion of the writing of proper names in the chief manuscript1 see the ,american ,facsimile ,edition of the ,konungs ,skuggsj 7edited by ,g4 ,t4 ,flom71 xxxvii-xxxix4 ,having discussed the subjects which he considers of chief importance for the education of a merchant1 the learned father proceeds to describe the king's household and its organization1 the manners which one should observe at court1 and the business that is likely to come before a king4 ,for the part which deals with the royal court1 it is probable that no literary sources were used4 ,the author evidently wrote from long experience in the king's retinue2 he is not discussing an ideal organization but the king's household as it was in ,bergen and ,trondhjem in his own day4 ,if he drew from any written description of courtly manners1 it may have been from some book like ,petrus ,alfonsus' ,disciplina ,clericalis1 which has already been mentioned#fa and which seems to have had a wide circulation throughout western ,europe in the later middle ages4 ,footnote #fa3 ,see above1 pp4 #i-aj4 ,the chapters that are devoted to the discussion of the duties and activities of the king's guardsmen1 to the manners and customs which should rule in the king's garth1 and to the ethical ideas on which these were largely based are of great interest to the student of medieval culture4 ,they reveal a progress in the direction of refined life and polished manners1 which one should scarcely expect to find in the ,northern lands4 ,the development of courtesy and refined manners may have been accelerated by the new literature which was coming into ,scandinavia from ,france and ,germany1 a literature that dealt so largely with the doings of knights and kings2#fb but it was probably not so much a matter of bookish instruction as of direct imitation4 ,the ,northmen1 though they lived far from the great centers of culture1 were always in close touch with the rest of the world4 ,in the earlier centuries the viking sailed his dreaded craft wherever there was wealth and plunder and civilized life4 ,after him and often as his companion came the merchant who brought away new ideas along with other desirable wares4 ,after a time ,christianity was introduced from the southlands1 and the pilgrim and the crusader took the place of the heathen pirate4 ,and all these classes helped to reshape the life of courtesy in the ,northern countries4 ,footnote #fb3 ,see above1 pp4 #b-c4 ,it is difficult to overestimate the influence of the crusader as a pioneer of ,christian culture in ,scandinavia1 but it seems possible that the pilgrim was even more important in this respect4 ,it was no doubt largely through his journeys that ,german influences began to be felt in the ,scandinavian lands1 though it is possible that the wide activities of the ,hanseatic merchants should also be credited with some importance for the spread of ,teutonic culture4 ,it is told in the ,king's ,mirror that a new mode of dressing the hair and the beard had been introduced from ,germany since the author had retired from the royal court4#fc ,it is significant that the routes usually followed by ,norwegian pilgrims who sought the ,eternal ,city and the holy places in the ,orient ran through ,german lands4 ,as a rule the pilgrims traveled through ,jutland1 ,holstein1 and the ,old ,saxon territories and reached the ,rhine at ,mainz4 ,it was also possible to take a more easterly route1 and sometimes the travelers would go by sea to the ,low ,countries and thence southward past ,utrecht and ,cologne2 but all these three routes converged at ,mainz1 whence the journey led up the ,rhine and across the ,alps4 ,it will be noted that a long stretch of the journey from ,norway to ,rome would lead through the ,german kingdom4 ,concerning the people of the ,old ,saxon or ,german lands an ,icelandic scribe makes the following significant remark3 8,in that country the people are more polished and courteous than in most places and the ,northmen imitate their customs quite generally40#fd ,footnote #fc3 ,c4 xxx4 ,footnote #fd3 ,nikolas ,smundarson1 abbot of ,thingeyrar1 who made a journey to the ,holy ,land about #aaea1 wrote an itinerary for the use of pilgrims from which the above quotation is taken4 ,the itinerary is summarized in ,riant1 ,expditions et ,plerinages des ,scandinaves en ,terre ,sainte1 #hj-hg4 ,the cultural influences which followed in the wake of the returning crusaders were no doubt largely of ,frankish origin4 ,as a rule the crusading expeditions followed the sea route along the coasts of ,france and the ,spanish peninsula2 thus the ,northern warriors came in contact with ,french ideas and customs in the ,frankish homeland as well as in the ,christian armies1 which were largely made up of enthusiastic and venturesome knights from ,frankland4 ,the author of the ,king's ,mirror urges his son to learn ,latin and ,french1 8for these idioms are most widely used40#fe ,footnote #fe3 ,c4 iii4 ,it is likely that ,english culture found its way into the ,north along with the ,french4 ,when ,king ,sigurd sailed to the ,orient in #aajg1 he spent the winter of #aajg-aajh at the ,english court4 ,one of the reasons why the son wishes to master the mercantile profession is that he desires to travel and learn the customs of other lands4#ff ,in the thirteenth century the ,norwegian trade still seems to have been largely with ,england and the other parts of the ,british ,isles4 ,it is also important to remember that the ,norwegian church was a daughter of the church of ,england1 and that occasionally ,english churchmen were elevated to high office in the ,norwegian establishment4 ,it is likely that ,master ,william1 who was ,hakon ,,iv's chaplain1 was an ,englishman2 at least he bore an ,english name4#fg ,footnote #ff3 ,c4 iii4 ,footnote #fg3 ,hkonar ,saga1 c4 #bbh4 ,information as to foreign civilization and the rules of courteous behavior could also pass from land to land and from court to court with the diplomatic missions of the time4 ,the wise father states that envoys who come and go are careful to observe the manners that obtain at the courts to which they are sent4#fh ,frequent embassies must have passed between the capitals of ,england and ,norway in the thirteenth century4 ,it is recorded that both ,king ,john and his son ,henry ,,iii received envoys from the king of ,norway1 and that they brought very acceptable gifts1 such as hawks and elks1#fi especially the former3 in twelve different years ,hakon ,,iv sent hawks to the ,english king4#gj ,footnote #fh3 ,c4 xxix4 ,footnote #fi3 ,rotuli ,litterarum ,clausarum1 ,i1 #chb1 #ejf1 #eji4 ,footnote #gj3 ,olafsen1 8,falkefangsten i ,norge03 ,historisk ,tidsskrift1 ,femte ,rkke1 ,,iii1 #cea4 ,embassies also came quite frequently from the imperial court in ,germany4 ,it was during the reign of ,hakon ,,iv that the ,hohenstaufens were waging their last fight with the papacy1 and both sides in the conflict seemed anxious to secure the friendship of the great ,norwegian king4 ,the ,saga of ,hakon relates that early in the king's reign 8missions began between the emperor and ,king ,hakon40#ga ,in #abda1 8when ,king ,hakon came to the ,king's ,crag1 that man came to him whose name was ,matthew1 sent from the emperor ,frederick with many noble gifts4 ,along with him came from abroad five ,bluemen 7negroes740#gb ,just how acceptable such a gift would be in medieval ,norway the chronicler does not state4 ,there can be no doubt1 however1 that ,hakon returned the courtesy4 ,the saga mentions several men who were sent on diplomatic errands to the imperial court4 ,one of these emissaries had to go as far as ,sicily1 8and the emperor received him well40#gc ,footnote #ga3 ,hkonar ,saga1 c4 #aia4 ,footnote #gb3 ,ibid41 c4 #bdc4 ,footnote #gc3 ,ibid41 c4 #aia4 ,the relationship with the other ,scandinavian kingdoms was more direct4 ,the ,king's ,mirror states that occasionally kings find it necessary to meet in conference for the discussion of common problems2 and that on such occasions the members of the various retinues note carefully the customs and manners of the other groups4#gd ,these meetings were usually held at some point near the mouth of the ,gta ,river1 where the boundaries of the three kingdoms touched a common point4 ,in #abed such a meeting was held at which ,hakon of ,norway1 ,christopher of ,denmark1 and the great ,earl ,birger of ,sweden were in attendance with their respective retinues4#ge ,footnote #gd3 ,c4 xxix4 ,footnote #ge3 ,hkonar ,saga1 c4 #bha4 ,the kings of the ,north were not limited1 however1 in their diplomatic intercourse to the neighboring monarchies2 their ambassadors went out to the remotest parts of ,europe and even to ,africa4 ,valdemar the ,victorious1 in his day one of the greatest rulers in ,christendom1 married as his first wife ,dragomir1 a ,bohemian princess who brought the ,dagmar name into ,denmark1 and took as his second consort ,berengaria of ,portugal1 ,queen ,bengjerd1 whose lofty pride is enshrined in the ,danish ballads of the age4 ,hakon ,,iv married the daughter of his restless rival1 ,duke ,skule2 but his daughter ,christina was sought in marriage by a prince in far-away ,spain4 ,the luckless princess was sent to ,castile and was married at ,valladolid to a son of ,alfonso the ,wise4#gf ,louis ,,ix of ,france was anxious to enlist the support of the ,norwegian king for his crusading ventures and sent the noted ,english historian ,matthew ,paris to present the matter to ,king ,hakon4#gg ,the mission1 however1 was without results4 ,norwegian diplomacy was concerned even with the courts of the infidel3 in #abfb an embassy was sent to the ,mohammedan sultan of ,tunis 8with many falcons and those other things which were there hard to get4 ,and when they got out the ,soldan received them well1 and they stayed there long that winter40#gh ,footnote #gf3 ,hkonar ,saga1 c4 #bid4 ,footnote #gg3 ,matthew ,paris1 ,chronica ,majora1 ,,iv1 #fea-feb4 ,footnote #gh3 ,hkonar ,saga1 c4 #cac4 ,an important event of the diplomatic type was the coming of ,cardinal ,william of ,sabina as papal legate to crown ,king ,hakon4 ,the coronation ceremony was performed in ,bergen1 ,july #bi1 #abdg4 ,at the coronation banquet the cardinal made a speech in which1 as the ,saga of ,hakon reports his remarks1 he called particular attention to the polished manners of the ,northmen4 8,it was told me that ,i would here see few men2 but even though ,i saw some1 they would be liker to beasts in their behaviour than to men2 but now ,i see here a countless multitude of the folk of this land1 and1 as it seems to me1 with good behaviour40#gi ,if the ,king's ,mirror gives a correct statement of what was counted good manners and proper conduct at the court of ,hakon ,,iv1 the cardinal's praise is none too strong4 ,footnote #gi3 ,hkonar ,saga1 c4 #bee4 7,dasent's translation47 ,as a part of his discussion of the duties and activities of the king's henchmen1 the author describes the military methods of the age1 arms and armour1 military engines and devices used in offensive and defensive warfare1 and other necessary equipment4#hj ,he also discusses the ethics of the military profession to some extent4 ,this part of the work has been made the subject of a detailed study by ,captain ,otto ,blom of the ,danish artillery1 who has tried to fix a date for the composition of the ,king's ,mirror on the basis of these materials4#ha ,it is not likely1 however1 that the work describes the military art of the ,north2 such an elaborate system of equipment and such a variety of military engines and devices the ,norwegians probably never knew at any time in the middle ages4 ,it is the military art of ,europe which the author describes1 especially the war machinery of the crusades4 ,one should not be surprised to find that he had knowledge of the devices which were employed by the ,christian hosts in their warfare against the infidel in the ,orient4 ,the crusades attracted the ,norwegian warriors and they took a part in them almost from the beginning4 ,the fifth crusade began in #abag1 the year of ,hakon ,,iv's accession to the kingship4 ,several ,norwegian chiefs with their followers joined this movement1 some marching by land through ,germany and ,hungary1 while others took the sea route4 ,one is tempted to believe that the author was himself a crusader1 but it is also possible that he got his information as to the military art of the south and east from warriors who returned from those lands4 ,footnote #hj3 ,cc4 xxxviii-xxxix4 ,footnote #ha3 ,see below1 pp4 #fb-fc4 ,from the subject of proper behavior and good breeding the author passes to a discussion of evil conduct and its effect on the welfare of the kingdom4 ,many causes1 he tells us1 may combine to bring calamities upon a land1 and if the evils continue any length of time1 the realm will be ruined4#hb ,there may come dearth upon the fields and the fishing grounds near the shores2 plagues may carry away cattle1 and the huntsman may find a scarcity of game2 but worst of all is the dearth which sometimes comes upon the intellects and the moral nature of men4 ,as a prolific source of calamities of the last sort1 the author mentions the institution of joint kingship1 the evils of which he discusses at some length4 ,his chapter on this subject is an epitome of ,norwegian history in the twelfth century when joint kingship was the rule4 ,footnote #hb3 ,c4 xxxv4 ,according to the laws of medieval ,norway before the thirteenth century1 the national kingship was the king's allodial possession and was inherited by his sons at his death4 ,all his sons were legal heirs1 those of illegitimate birth as well as those who were born in wedlock4 ,when there was more than one heir1 the kingship was held jointly1 all the claimants receiving the royal title and permission to maintain each his own household4 ,usually a part of the realm was assigned to each2 but it was the administration1 and not the kingdom itself1 which was thus divided4 ,it is readily seen that such a system would offer unusual opportunities for pretenders2 and at least three times in one hundred years men whose princely rights were at best of a doubtful character mounted the ,norwegian throne4 ,it is an interesting fact that two of these1 the strenuous ,sverre and the wise ,hakon ,,iv1 must be counted among the strongest1 ablest1 and most attractive kings in the history of ,norway4 ,though there had been instances of joint rule before the twelfth century1 the history of that unfortunate form of administration properly begins with the death of ,magnus ,bareleg on an ,irish battlefield in #aajc4 ,three illegitimate sons1 the oldest being only fourteen years of age1 succeeded to the royal title4 ,one of these was the famous ,sigurd ,jerusalemfarer1 who took part in the later stages of the first crusade4 ,about twenty years after ,king ,magnus' death1 a young ,irishman1 ,harold ,gilchrist by name1 appeared at the ,norwegian court and claimed royal rights as a son of the fallen king4 ,king ,sigurd forced him to prove his birthright by an appeal to the ordeal1 but the ,irishman walked unhurt over the hot plowshares4 ,harold became king in #aacj as joint ruler with ,sigurd's son ,magnus1 later called 8the ,blind40#hc ,three of his sons succeeded to the kingship in #aacf4 ,during the next century several pretenders appeared and civil war became almost the normal state of the country4 ,between #aajc and #abag fifteen princes were honored with the royal title2 eleven of these were minors4 ,the period closed with the defeat and death of ,king ,hakon's father-in-law1 the pretender ,skule1 in #abdj4 ,footnote #hc3 ,the strife that followed the accession of ,harold ,gille and ,magnus the ,blind is the subject of ,bjrnson's great historical drama1 ,sigurd ,slembe 7,english translation by ,william ,morton ,payne74 ,it was the history of these hundred years and more of joint kingship1 of pretenders1 of minorities1 and of civil war1 which the author of the ,king's ,mirror had in mind when he wrote his gloomy chapter on the calamities that may befall a state4 ,perhaps he was thinking more especially of the unnatural conflict between ,king ,hakon and ,duke ,skule1#hd which was fought out in #abdj1 and the memory of which was still fresh at the time when the ,king's ,mirror was being written4 ,footnote #hd3 ,see below1 p4 #dh4 ,of the king and his duties as ruler and judge the ,speculum ,regale has much to say2 but as these matters offer no problems that call for discussion1 it will not be necessary to examine them in detail4 ,wholly different is the case of the king's relation to the church1 of the position of the church in the state1 of the divine origin of kingship1 of the fulness of the royal authority4 ,on these questions the author's opinions and arguments are of great importance3 in the history of the theory of kingship by the grace of ,god and divine right and of absolute monarchy1 the ,speculum ,regale is an important landmark4 ,in the discussion of the origin and powers of the royal office1 the ,king's ,mirror again shows unmistakably the influence of events in the preceding century of ,norwegian history4 ,so long as the church of ,norway was under the supervision of foreign archbishops1 first the metropolitan of distant ,hamburg and later the archbishop of the ,danish 7now ,swedish7 see of ,lund1 there was little likelihood of any serious clash between the rival powers of church and state4 ,but when1 in #aaeb1 an archiepiscopal see was established at ,nidaros 7,trondhjem7 trouble broke out at once4 ,the wave of enthusiasm for a powerful and independent church1 which had developed such vigor in the days of ,gregory ,,vii1 was still rising high4 ,able men were appointed to the new metropolitan office and the ,norwegian church very soon put forth the usual demands of the time3 separate ecclesiastical courts and immunity from anything that looked like taxation or forced contribution to the state4 ,at first these claims had no reality in fact1 as the kings would not allow them2 but in #aafche an opportunity came for the church to make its demands effective4 ,in that year a victorious faction asked for the coronation of a new king whose claims to the throne came through his mother only4 ,the pretender was a mere child and the actual power was in the hands of his capable and ambitious father1 ,erling ,skakke4 ,the imperious archbishop ,eystein agreed to consecrate the boy king if he would consent to become the vassal of ,saint ,olaf1 or1 in other words1 of the archbishop of ,nidaros4 ,erling acquiesced and young ,magnus was duly crowned4 ,it was further stipulated that in future cases of disputed succession the final decision should rest with the bishops4#hf ,the state was formally made subject to the church4 ,it must be noted1 however1 that it was not the head of ,catholic ,christendom who made these claims1 but the chief prelate of the national ,norwegian church4 ,the theory was doubtless this1 that if the pope is superior to the emperor1 the archbishop is superior to the king4 ,footnote #he3 ,the date usually given is #aafd2 but ,ebbe ,hertzberg argues quite conclusively for the earlier year4 8,den frste norske ,kongekroning02 ,historisk ,tidsskrift1 ,fjerde ,rkke1 ,,iii1 #cj-cg4 ,footnote #hf3 ,according to the new rules of succession the oldest legitimate son1 if qualified for the office1 should inherit the throne4 ,the oldest might be passed over1 however1 in favor of a younger legitimate son1 or even in favor of an illegitimate descendant1 if the bishops should find such a procedure expedient4 ,see ,gjerset1 ,history of the ,norwegian ,people1 ,i1 #cfd4 ,the new arrangement did not long remain unchallenged4 ,in #aagg the opposition to the ecclesiastical faction found a leader in ,sverre1 called ,sigurdsson1 an adventurer from the ,faroe ,islands1 who pretended to be a grandson of ,harold ,gilchrist1 though the probabilities are that his father was one ,unas1 a native of the ,faroes4#hg ,sverre's followers were known as ,birchshanks1 because they had been reduced to such straits that they had to bind birch bark around their legs4 ,the faction in control of the government was called the ,croziermen and was composed of the higher clergy with an important following among the aristocracy4 ,sverre's fight was1 therefore1 not against ,king ,magnus alone but against the ,guelph party of ,norway4 ,for half a century there was intermittent civil warfare between the supporters of an independent and vigorous kingship on the one side and the partisans of clerical control on the other4 ,king ,sverre's great service to ,norway was that he broke the chain of ecclesiastical domination4 ,the conflict was long and bitter and the great king died while it was still on2 but when it ended the cause of the ,croziermen was lost4 ,the church attained to great power in the ,norwegian state1 but it never gained complete domination4 ,footnote #hg3 ,while it seems probable that ,sverre was not of royal blood he was not necessarily an impostor2 he may have believed his mother's assertions4 ,for a discussion of the problem see ibid41 #cgf-cgg4 ,sverre was a man of great intellectual strength2 he was a born leader of men1 a capable warrior1 and a resourceful captain4 ,when it began to look as if victory would crown his efforts1 the archbishop fled to ,england and from his refuge in ,saint ,edmundsbury excommunicated the king4 ,but exile is irksome to an ambitious man1 and after a time the fiery prelate returned to ,norway and was reconciled to the strenuous ruler4 ,eystein's successor1 however1 took up the fight once more2 and when ,sverre made ,norway too uncomfortable for him1 he fled to ,denmark and excommunicated his royal opponent4 ,a few years later1 ,innocent ,,iii1 who had just ascended the papal throne1 also excommunicated ,sverre1 and threatened the kingdom with an interdict4#hh ,but the papal weapons had little effect in the far ,north2 the king forced priests and prelates to remain loyal and to continue in their duties4 ,no doubt they obeyed the excommunicated ruler with great reluctance and much misgiving2 but no other course was possible1 for the nation was with the king4 ,footnote #hh3 ,it is usually stated that ,innocent ,,iii actually did lay an interdict on the land1 but this appears to be an error4 ,he authorized the bishops to do so1 but they seem not to have made use of the authorization4 ,see ,bull1 8,interdiktet mot ,sverre03 ,historisk ,tidsskrift1 ,femte ,rkke1 ,,iii1 #cba-cbd4 ,the militant ,faroese was a man with strong literary interests2 he was educated for the priesthood and it is believed that he had actually taken orders4 ,he was eloquent in speech1 but he realized the power of the written as well as of the spoken word4 ,it is a fact worth noting that among the ,northmen of the thirteenth century learning was not confined to the clergy4 ,while the author of the ,king's ,mirror urges the prospective merchant to learn ,latin and ,french1 he also warns him not to neglect his mother tongue4 ,king ,sverre replied to the ecclesiastical decrees with a manifesto in the ,norwegian language in which he stated his position and his claims for the royal office4 ,this pamphlet1 which is commonly known as 8,an ,address against the ,bishops10 was issued about #aaii and was sent to all the shire courts to be read to the freemen4 ,it was a cleverly written document and seems to have been very effective4 ,in spite of the fact that the king was under the ban1 the masses remained loyal4 ,between the political theory of the ,address and the ideas of kingship expressed in the ,king's ,mirror there is an agreement which can hardly be accidental4 ,it is more likely that we have in this case literary kinship of the first degree4 ,it has been thought that ,king ,sverre may have prepared his manifesto himself1 but this is scarcely probable4 ,some one of his court1 however1 must have composed it1 perhaps some clerk in the royal scriptorium1 for the ideas developed in the document are clearly those of the king4 ,it has also been suggested that the ,address and the ,speculum ,regale may have been written by the same hand2#hi but the only evidence in support of such a conclusion is this agreement of political ideas1 which may have originated in a careful study of the earlier document by the author of the later work4 ,footnote #hi3 ,this appears to be ,heffermehl's opinion4 ,see ,historiske ,skrifter tilegnede ,ludvig ,daae1 #hg4 ,king ,sverre's ,address begins with a violent attack on the higher clergy3 the bishops have brought sorrow upon the land and confusion into holy church4 ,this deplorable condition is ascribed chiefly to a reckless use of the power of excommunication4 ,in this connection the king is careful to absolve the pope from all guilt3 his unfortunate deeds were due to ignorance and to false representations on the part of the bishops4 ,it is next argued that excommunication is valid only when the sentence of anathema is just2 an unjust sentence is not only invalid but it recoils upon the head of him who is the author of the anathema4 ,in support of this contention the author of the manifesto quotes the opinions of such eminent fathers as ,saint ,jerome1 ,saint ,augustine1 ,pope ,gregory the ,great1 and other authorities on canon law4 ,it will be remembered that the king himself was under the ban at the time4 ,the author argues further that his view is supported by reason as well as by the law of the church4 ,bishops have been appointed shepherds of the flocks of ,god2 they are to watch over them1 not drive them away into the jaws of the wolves4 ,but if a bishop excommunicates one who is without guilt1 he consigns him to hell2 and if his decree is effective1 he destroys one of ,god's sheep4 ,from this subject the ,address passes to the nature of the royal office4 8,so great a number of examples show clearly that the salvation of a man's soul is at stake if he does not observe complete loyalty1 kingly worship1 and a right obedience2 for kingly rule is created by ,god's command and not by the ordinance of man1 and no man can obtain royal authority except by divine dispensation40 ,the king is not a secular ruler only1 he also has holy church in his power and keeping4 ,it is his right and duty to appoint church officials1 and the churchmen owe him absolute loyalty the same as his other subjects4 ,christ pointed out the duty of church officials quite clearly when he paid tribute to his earthly ruler1 one who was1 moreover1 a heathen4#ij ,footnote #ij3 ,the ,address is published as an appendix to the ,christiania edition of the ,king's ,mirror4 ,it has also been issued in separate form under the title ,en ,tale mod ,biskopperne2 this edition is by ,gustav ,storm4 ,it will be seen that the ,address puts forth four claims of far-reaching importance3 kingship is of divine origin and the king rules by the grace of ,god2 the power of royalty extends to the church as well as to the state and includes the power to appoint the rulers of the church2 disloyalty to the king is a mortal sin2 an unjust sentence of excommunication is invalid and injures him only who publishes the anathema4 ,on all these points the ,king's ,mirror is in complete agreement with ,sverre's manifesto4 ,in the course of the dialog in the ,speculum ,regale the son requests his father to take up and discuss the office and business of the king2 for1 says he1 8he is so highly honored and exalted upon earth that all must bend and bow before him as before ,god40#ia ,the father accounts for the power and dignity of kingship in this way3 men bow before the king as before ,god1 because he represents the exalted authority of ,god2 he bears ,god's own name and occupies the highest judgment seat upon earth2 consequently1 when one honors a king1 it is as if he honors ,god himself1 because of the title that he has from ,god4#ib ,footnote #ia3 ,c4 xliii4 ,footnote #ib3 ,c4 xliii4 ,the author evidently realizes that statements of this sort will not be accepted without further argument1 and he naturally proceeds to give his doctrine a basis in ,biblical history4 ,the reverence due kingship is fully illustrated with episodes in the career of ,david4 ,so long as ,god permitted ,king ,saul to live1 ,david would do nothing to deprive him of his office2 for ,saul was also the ,lord's anointed4 ,he took swift revenge upon the man who came to his camp pretending that he had slain ,saul2 for he had sinned against ,god in bearing arms against ,his anointed4 ,he also calls attention to ,saint ,peter's injunction3 8,fear ,god and honor your king20 and adds that it is 8almost as if he had literally said that he who does not show perfect honor to the king does not fear ,god40#ic ,footnote #ic3 ,c4 xliv4 ,to emphasize his contention that kingship is of divine origin1 the author cites the example of ,christ4 ,the miracle of the fish in whose mouth the tribute money was found is referred to in the ,address as well as in the ,king's ,mirror4 ,peter was to examine the first fish1 not the second or the third4 ,in the same way1 and here the argument is characteristically medieval1 8every man should in all things first honor the king and the royal dignity2 for ,god ,himself calls the king ,his anointed40#id ,footnote #id3 ,ibid4 ,but1 objects the son1 how could ,christ who is himself the lord of heaven and earth be willing to submit to an earthly authority8 ,to this the father replies that ,christ came to earth as a guest and did not wish to deprive the divine institution of kingship of any honor or dignity4#ie ,the author evidently deems it important to establish this contention2 for if ,christ submitted to ,caesar as to a rightful authority1 the church in opposing secular rulers could scarcely claim to be following in the footsteps of the ,master4 ,footnote #ie3 ,c4 xliv4 ,it seems to be a safe conclusion that the doctrine of the divine character of kingship as developed in the ,king's ,mirror is derived from ,king ,sverre's ,address1 unless it should be that the two have drawn from a common source4 ,there is nothing novel about ,sverre's ideas except the form in which they are stated2 fundamentally they are a return to the original ,norwegian theory of kingship4 ,the ,norwegian kings of heathen times were descendants of divine ancestors4 ,they recognized the will of the popular assemblies as a real limitation on their own powers1 but no religious authority could claim superiority to the ruler4 ,the king was indeed himself a priest1 a mediator between the gods and men4 ,the ,christian kings for a century and a half had controlled the church in a very real manner2 they had appointed bishops and had also on occasion removed them4 ,the claim of the archbishop to overlordship was therefore distinctly an innovation4 ,the king makes use of arguments from the ,bible to support his theory1 not because it was based on ,scriptural truths1 but because to a ,christian people these would prove the most convincing4 ,in his statement of the fulness and majesty of the royal power1 the author of the ,speculum ,regale goes1 however1 far beyond the author of the ,address4 ,so complete is the king's power1 8that he may dispose as he likes of the lives of all who live in his kingdom40#if ,he 8owns the entire kingdom as well as all the people in it1 so that all the men who are in his kingdom owe him service whenever his needs demand it40#ig ,these sentences would indicate that the author's position lies close to the verge of absolutism4 ,but ,norwegian kingship was anything but absolute2 the king had certain well-defined rights1 but the people also had some part in the government4 ,professor ,ludvig ,daae has put forth the hypothesis that the author of the ,king's ,mirror was acquainted with the governmental system of ,frederick ,,ii in his ,italian kingdom1 which he governed as an absolute monarch4#ih ,there may be some truth in this for there is no doubt that the character of ,frederick's government was known to the ,northmen2 but it is also possible that the theory of absolute monarchy had a separate ,norse origin1 that the insistence on divine right in the long fight with the church had driven the partisans of monarchy far forward along the highway that led to practical absolutism4 ,less than a generation after the ,king's ,mirror was composed1 the newer ideas of kingship appear in the legislation of ,magnus ,lawmender4 ,kings have received their authority from ,god1 for 8,god ,himself deigns to call ,himself by their name20 and the preamble continues3 8he is1 indeed1 in great danger before ,god1 who does not with perfect love and reverence uphold them in the authority to which ,god has appointed them40#ii ,this is the doctrine of the ,address as well as of the ,speculum2 the significant fact is that the principle has now been introduced into the constitution of the monarchy4 ,it is possible that the author of the ,king's ,mirror states an alien principle2 but it is more probable that he merely gives form to a belief that had been growing among ,northmen for some time4 ,footnote #if3 ,c4 xliii4 ,footnote #ig3 ,c4 xxviii4 ,footnote #ih3 8,studier angaaende ,kongespeilet03 ,aarbger for nordisk ,oldkyndighed1 #ahif1 #ahi4 ,footnote #ii3 ,norges gamle ,love1 ,,ii4 #bc2 ,gjerset1 ,history of the ,norwegian ,people1 ,i1 #dfc4 ,on the question of the validity of excommunication the teachings of the ,speculum ,regale are in perfect accord with those of the ,address4 ,the uncompromising position and methods of ,innocent ,,iii had given point to an exceedingly practical question3 was a ,christian permitted to obey a king who was under the ban of the church8 ,generally the church held that obedience under the circumstances would be sinful4 ,the author of the ,speculum distinguishes closely1 however1 between just and unjust sentences of excommunication4 ,god has established two houses upon earth1 the house of the altar and the house of the judgment seat4#ajj ,there is1 therefore1 a legitimate sphere of action for the bishop as well as for the king4 ,but an act is not necessarily righteous because it emanates from high authority either in the church or in the state4 ,if the king pronounces an unjust judgment1 his act is murder2 if a bishop excommunicates a ,christian without proper reasons1 the ban is of no effect1 except that it reacts upon the offending prelate himself4#aja ,footnote #ajj3 ,c4 lxix4 ,footnote #aja3 ,c4 lxx4 ,after the author has thus denied the right of the church to use the sword of excommunication in certain cases1 there remains the question3 has the king any superior authority over the church8 ,the answer is that the king has such authority2 and the author fortifies his position by recalling the story how ,solomon punished ,abiathar the high priest1 or bishop as he is called in the ,king's ,mirror4 ,in reply to the young man's inquiry whether ,solomon did right when he deprived ,abiathar of the high-priestly office1 the father affirms that the king acted properly and according to law4 ,the king is given a two-edged sword for the reason that he must guard1 not only his own house of judgment1 but also the house of the altar1 which is ordinarily in the bishop's keeping4 ,abiathar had sinned in becoming a party to the treasonable intrigues of ,adonijah1 who was plotting to seize the throne of ,israel while his father ,david was still living4 ,inasmuch as the high priest had attempted to deprive the ,lord's anointed of his royal rights1 ,solomon would have been guiltless even if he had taken ,abiathar's life4 ,the author also calls attention to the fact that ,abiathar was elevated to the high-priestly office by ,david himself4#ajb ,footnote #ajb3 ,c4 lxx4 ,on the question of the king's right to control episcopal appointments the ,king's ,mirror is also in agreement with the earlier ,address4 ,on the death of ,archbishop ,john1 the ,address tells us1 8,inge appointed ,eystein1 his own chaplain1 to the archiepiscopal office#ajc 444 without consulting any cleric in ,trondhjem1 either the canons or any one else2 and he drove ,bishop ,paul from the episcopal throne in ,bergen and chose ,nicholas ,petersson to be his successor40 ,doubtless the philosopher of the ,king's ,mirror1 when he wrote of the fall of ,abiathar1 was also thinking of the many ,abiathars of ,norwegian history in the twelfth century1 especially1 perhaps1 of the bishops of ,sverre's reign1 who had striven so valiantly to rid the nation of its energetic king4 ,there can be no doubt1 however1 that he regarded the hierarchy as inferior to the secular government4 ,a bishop1 who unrighteously excommunicates a ,norwegian king and attempts in this way to render him impossible as a ruler1 forfeits not only his office but his life4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,archbishop ,eystein was consecrated in #aafa4 ,there was another problem in the middle ages which also involved the question of ecclesiastical authority as opposed to secular jurisdiction1 the right of sanctuary4 ,there can be no doubt that in the unsettled state of medieval society it was well that there were places where an accused might find security for a time at least2 but the right of sanctuary was much abused1 too frequently it served to shield the guilty4 ,the ,king's ,mirror teaches unequivocally that the right of sanctuary cannot be invoked against the orders of the king4 ,as usual the author finds support for his position in the ,scriptures4 ,joab fled to ,god's tabernacle and laid hold on the horns of the altar2 nevertheless1 ,king ,solomon ordered him to be slain1 and the command was carried out4#ajd ,solomon appears to have reasoned in this wise3 8,it is my duty to carry out the provisions of the sacred law1 no matter where the man happens to be whose case is to be determined40 ,it was not his duty to remove ,joab by force1 for all just decisions are ,god's decisions and not the king's2 and 8,god's holy altar will not be defiled or desecrated by ,joab's blood1 for it will be shed in righteous punishment40#aje ,and the author is careful to emphasize the fact that ,god's tabernacle was the only house in all the world that was dedicated to ,him1 and must consequently have had an even greater claim to sacredness than the churches of the author's own day1 of which there was a vast number4#ajf ,footnote #ajd3 ,c4 lxvi4 ,footnote #aje3 ,c4 lxix4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,c4 lxvii4 ,there was a ,norwegian ,joab in the first half of the thirteenth century1 who1 like the chieftain of old1 plotted against his rightful monarch and was finally slain within the sacred precincts of an ,augustinian convent4 ,skule1 ,king ,hakon's father-in-law1 was a man of restless ambition1 who could not find complete satisfaction in the titles of earl and duke1 but stretched forth his hand to seize the crown itself4 ,in #abci he assumed the royal title1 but a few months later 7#abdj7 his forces were surprised in ,nidaros by the king's army1 and the rebellion came to a sudden end4 ,skule's men fled to the churches2 his son ,peter found refuge in one of the buildings belonging to the monastery of ,elgester1 but was discovered and slain4 ,after a few days ,duke ,skule himself sought security in the same monastery2 but the angry ,birchshanks1 in spite of the solemn warnings and threatenings of the offended monks1 slew the pretender and burned the monastery4#ajg ,this was an act of violence which must have caused much trouble for the king's partisans1 and it is most likely the act which the author of the ,king's ,mirror had in his thoughts when he wrote of the fate of ,joab4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,hkonar ,saga1 cc4 #bci-bda2 ,munch1 ,det norske ,folks ,historie1 ,,iii1 #igg-igh4 ,writers on political philosophy usually begin their specific discussion of the theory of divine right of kingship when they come to the great political theorists of the fourteenth century4#ajh ,the most famous of these is ,marsiglio of ,padua1 who wrote his ,defensor ,pacis in #acbd4 ,in this work he asserted that the emperor derived his title and sovereignty from ,god and that his authority was superior to that of the pope4 ,some years earlier ,william ,occam1 an ,english scholar and philosopher1 made similar claims for the rights of the king of ,france4 ,earlier still1 perhaps in #acaj1 ,dante had claimed divine right for princes generally in his famous work ,de ,monarchia4 ,somewhat similar1 though less precise1 ideas had been expressed by ,john of ,paris in #acje4 ,but nearly two generations earlier the doctrine had been stated in all its baldness and with all its implications by the author of the ,king's ,mirror2 and more than a century before ,dante wrote his work on 8,monarchy0 ,sverre had published his ,address to the ,norwegian people4 ,so far as the writer has been able to determine there is no treatise on general medieval politics1 at least no such treatise written in ,english1 which contains even an allusion to these two significant works4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,on this subject1 see ,figgis1 ,divine ,right of ,kings1 c4 iii4 ,the ethical ideas that are outlined in the ,speculum ,regale are also of more than common interest4 ,on most points the learned father preaches the conventional principles of the church with respect to right and wrong conduct1 and as a rule his precepts are such as have stood the test of ages of experience4 ,he emphasizes honesty1 fair dealing1 careful attendance upon worship1 and devotion to the church2 he warns his son to shun vice of every sort2 he must also avoid gambling and drinking to excess4#aji ,in some respects the author's moral code is ,scandinavian rather than ,christian3 in the emphasis that he places upon reputation and the regard in which one is held by one's neighbors he seems to echo the sentiment that runs through the earlier ,eddic poetry1 especially the 8,song of the ,high ,one40 8,one thing ,i know that always remains10 says ,woden1 8judgment passed on the dead40#aaj ,and the ,christian scribe more than three centuries later writes thus of one who has departed this life3 8,but if he lived uprightly while on earth and made proper provision for his soul before he died1 then you may take comfort in the good repute that lives after him1 and even more in the blissful happiness which you believe he will enjoy with ,god in the other world40#aaa ,and again he says3 8,now you will appreciate what ,i told you earlier in our conversation1 namely that much depends on the example that a man leaves after him40#aab ,footnote #aji3 ,cc4 iii-iv1 xxxvii4 ,footnote #aaj3 ,c4 xli4 ,footnote #aaa3 ,hvaml1 #dj3 ,corpus ,poeticum ,boreale1 ,i1 #h4 ,footnote #aab3 ,c4 xlii4 ,the author is also ,norse in his emphasis on moderation in every form of indulgence1 on the control of one's passion1 and in permitting private revenge4 ,his attitude toward this present world is not medieval3 we may enjoy the good things of creation1 though not to excess4 ,on the matter of revenge1 however1 his ideas are characteristically medieval4 ,private warfare was allowed almost everywhere in the middle ages1 and it appears to have a place in the political system of the ,speculum ,regale4 ,but on this point too the author urges moderation4 8,when you hear things in the speech of other men which offend you much1 be sure to investigate with reasonable care whether the tales be true or false2 but if they prove to be true and it is proper for you to seek revenge1 take it with reason and moderation and never when heated or irritated40#aac ,footnote #aac3 ,c4 xli4 ,the theology of the ,king's ,mirror1 as far as it can be discerned1 is also medieval1 though it is remarkable that the ,virgin and the saints find only incidental mention in the work4 ,no doubt if the author had been able to complete his treatise as outlined in his introduction1 he would have discussed the forms and institutions of the church at greater length and we should be able to know to what extent his theological notions were in agreement with the religious thought of the age4 ,in this connection his theory of penance and punishment for crime is of peculiar interest4 ,he makes considerable use of ,biblical narratives to illustrate his teachings and refers at length to some of the less worthy characters of ,holy ,writ1 including certain men who suffered death for criminal offenses4 ,almost invariably he justifies the punishment by arguing that it was better for the criminal to suffer a swift punishment in death than to suffer eternally in hell4 ,apparently his theory is that a criminal can cleanse himself in his own blood1 that a temporal death can save him from eternal punishment4 ,the idolaters who were slain by ,moses and the ,levites#aad 8were cleansed in their penance and in the pangs which they suffered when they died2 and it was much better for them to suffer a brief pain in death than a long torture in hell40 ,the sacramental efficiency of the death penalty seems also to extend to the one who executes punishment3 for those who assisted ,moses in the slaughter sanctified their hands in the blood of those who were slain4 ,in the same way 8a king cleanses himself in the blood of the unjust1 if he slays them as a rightful punishment to fulfil the sacred laws40#aae ,footnote #aad3 ,exodus1 xxxii4 ,footnote #aae3 ,c4 lxi4 ,there can be little doubt that this doctrine of the death penalty also shows the influence of the great civil conflict which ended with the death of ,duke ,skule in #abdj4 ,during a century of factional warfare there had been much violence1 much slaughter1 much 8swift punishment40 ,applied to ,norwegian history the author's argument amounts to a justification of the slaughter at ,elgester2 for ,skule and his partisans had rebelled against the ,lord's anointed4 ,the hands of the ,birchshanks were cleansed and sanctified in the blood of the rebels2 but the author also has this comforting assurance for the kinsmen of the fallen1 that their souls were not lost3 ,skule and his companions were cleansed from their sins in the last great penance of death4 ,it may also be that this same long record of violence1 treason1 and rebellion was responsible for the prominence that the ,king's ,mirror gives to the duty of obedience4 ,in the political ethics of the work obedience is the chief virtue and the central principle4 ,conversely disobedience is the greatest of all sins4 ,when ,saul spared the ,amalekites1 whom the ,lord had ordered him to destroy1 he sinned far more grievously than did ,david when he dishonored ,uriah's wife and afterward brought about ,uriah's death2 for ,saul neglected to carry out the commands of ,god1 and 8no offense is graver than to be disobedient toward one's superiors40#aaf ,footnote #aaf3 ,c4 lxiii4 ,the ,king's ,mirror is a medieval document2 it was in large part inspired by the course of events in ,norway during the century of the civil wars2 it records the scientific and political thought of a certain definite period in ,norwegian history4 ,but even though the author of the work must be classed among the thinkers of his own time1 his place is far in advance of most of his fellows4 ,his outlook on the world is broader than that of most medieval writers4 ,in matters of science he is less credulous and less bound by theological thought than others who wrote on these subjects in his own century or earlier4 ,on such questions as the cause of earthquakes and the source of the northern lights he shows an open-mindedness1 which is rarely met with in the middle ages4#aag ,for the author's view of life was not wholly medieval2 on many subjects we find him giving utterance to thoughts which have a distinctly modern appearance4 ,his theory of the state and its functions is distinctly unorthodox4 ,but it is probably in the field of education where the great ,northman is farthest in advance of his time4 ,in his day the work of instruction was still in the hands of the church2 and the churchmen showed no great anxiety to educate men except for the clerical profession4 ,the ,king's ,mirror1 however1 teaches that merchants must also be educated3 they must learn the art of reckoning and those facts of science that are of interest to navigators2 they must study languages1 ,latin1 ,french1 and ,norwegian2 and they must become thoroughly acquainted with the laws of the land4 ,but the author does not stop here3 a merchant should also educate his children4 8,if children be given to you1 let them not grow up without learning a trade2 for we may expect a man to keep closer to knowledge and business when he comes of age1 if he is trained in youth while under control40#aah ,footnote #aag3 ,see ,larson1 8,scientific ,knowledge in the ,north in the ,thirteenth ,century03 ,publications of the ,society for the ,advancement of ,scandinavian ,study1 ,i1 #ada-adf4 ,footnote #aah3 ,c4 iv4 ,the identity of the author of the ,speculum ,regale has never been disclosed4 ,anonymous authorship was not uncommon in medieval ,norse literature3 many of the sagas were written by men whose names are not known4 ,in the thirteenth century1 however1 it had become customary for writers to claim the honors of authorship4 ,our philosopher of the ,king's ,mirror clearly understood that his readers would be curious to know his name3 if the book1 he tells us in his introductory chapter1 has any merit1 that should satisfy the reader1 and there is no reason why any one should wish to search out the name of the one who wrote it4#aai ,evidently he had a purpose in concealing his identity1 and the motive is not far to seek4 ,footnote #aai3 ,c4 i4 ,after the death of ,king ,sverre 7#abjb7 the conflict between the king and the hierarchy ceased for a time4 ,the church made peace with the monarchy2 the exiled bishops returned2 and the faction of the ,croziermen disintegrated4 ,after a few years1 however1 the old quarrels broke out anew4 ,on the accession of ,hakon ,,iv the church yielded once more1 though the prelates did not renounce their earlier claims4 ,in #abde1 when plans were being made for ,king ,hakon's coronation1 the bishops put forth the suggestion that the king should1 on that occasion1 renew the agreement of #aafc1 which gave the bishops control of the succession4 ,but the great king refused4 8,if we swear such an oath as ,king ,magnus swore1 then it seems to us as though our honor would be lessened by it rather than increased40#abj ,he flatly asserted that he would be crowned without any conditions attached to the act1 or the crown 8shall never come upon our head40 ,footnote #abj3 ,hkonar ,saga1 c4 #bdg4 ,after the arrival of ,cardinal ,william of ,sabina1 who had been sent by the pope to officiate at the coronation1 and while preparations for that joyous event were going forward1 the subject was brought up once more4 ,on the suggestion of the ,norwegian bishops the cardinal asked the king to take ,magnus ,erlingsson's oath2 but the king again refused1 and the cardinal decided that 8there is no need to speak of it oftener40#aba ,the king was crowned and there was peace between the two great forces of church and monarchy1 at least so long as ,hakon lived4 ,sometime not long before or after the coronation of the great king 7#abdg7 the ,king's ,mirror seems to have been written4 ,it is clear that such ideas as are enunciated in this work with respect to the submission of the church to the authorities of the state can not have been relished by the hierarchy1 and perhaps they were just then somewhat unwelcome to the secular rulers as well1 since a discussion of this sort might tend to renew ill feeling and stir up strife4 ,consequently the author may have thought it wiser to remain anonymous4 ,footnote #aba3 ,ibid41 c4 #bea4 ,earlier students of the ,speculum ,regale have believed that the author was some local chieftain1 who had spent his more active days at the royal court1 but who had later retired to his estates and was spending his declining years in literary pursuits4 ,various efforts have been made to find this chieftain1#abb but with no success2 there is no evidence that the lords or crusaders who have been suggested as probable authors had any literary interests or abilities4 ,there can be no doubt that the author was at one time a prominent member of the royal retinue2 he asserts in several places that such was the case4#abc ,he is1 furthermore1 too thoroughly familiar with the organization of the royal household to have been an occasional courtier merely4 ,at the same time it is not likely that he was a secular lord2 it seems impossible that he could have been anything but a churchman4 ,he knows the ,latin language2 he is well acquainted with sacred history2 he has read a considerable number of medieval books4 ,it is quite unlikely that the various types of learning that are reflected in the chapters of the ,king's ,mirror could be found in the thirteenth century in any scholar outside the clerical profession4 ,he could not have been one of the higher ecclesiastics1 as the prelates belonged to the faction of the ,croziermen4 ,the ,speculum ,regale was evidently written by a member of the ,norwegian priesthood1 though it is possible that he belonged to one of the minor orders4 ,but at all events he was a professional churchman4#abd ,footnote #abb3 ,see the ,sor edition1 xxiii2 ,munch1 ,det norske ,folks ,historie1 ,,iii1 #cii1 note4 ,footnote #abc3 ,cc4 ii1 iii1 xxx4 ,footnote #abd3 ,cf4 ,daae1 8,studier angaaende ,kongespeilet03 ,aarbger for nordisk ,oldkyndighed1 #ahif1 #ahj-aha4 ,daae holds that the author was a clergyman4 ,there was an old belief in ,norway that the work was written at ,king ,sverre's court1 perhaps by the priest-king himself2#abe but this theory is wholly without foundation4 ,professor ,ludvig ,daae1 believing that only a few ,northmen possessed the necessary qualifications for the authorship of such a work as the ,king's ,mirror1 concluded that it must have been written by ,master ,william1 one of the chaplains at the court of ,hakon ,,iv4#abf ,master ,william was evidently a man of some erudition2 he held a degree 7magister7 from a ,european university2 he must have traveled abroad and was no doubt a man of experience2 he lived and flourished in the period when the work must have been composed4 ,but there is no shred of evidence that ,master ,william actually wrote the ,king's ,mirror or that he was interested in the problems that are discussed in this work4 ,footnote #abe3 ,ibid41 #ahif1 #agh4 ,footnote #abf3 ,ibid41 #ahif1 #aib-aif2 see also pp4 #agi ff4 ,daae believes that ,master ,william must have held a position at court corresponding to the office of chancellor2 he also conjectures that he was the tutor of the king's sons4 ,master ,william is mentioned in the ,hkonar ,saga1 cc4 #baj1 #bbh4 ,more recently ,a4 ,v4 ,heffermehl has made an attempt to prove that the author so long sought for was ,ivar ,bodde1 a ,norwegian priest1 who seems to have played an important part in the history of ,norway in the first half of the thirteenth century as an influential member of the anti-clerical party4#abg ,much is not known of ,ivar ,bodde1 and nearly all that we do know comes from a speech which he is reported to have delivered in his own defence in #abag4abh ,he entered ,king ,sverre's service 8before the fight was at ,strindsea10 which was fought in the summer of #aaii4 ,this was also the year in which ,king ,sverre seems to have issued his famous ,address4 8,i had good cheer from the king while he lived1 and ,i served him so that at last ,i knew almost all his secret matters40 ,in ,king ,inge's reign 7#abjd-abag7 he served in the capacity of chancellor3 8and that besides1 which was much against my wish1 they relied on me for writing letters40 ,during the same reign he also served as ,prince ,hakon's foster father1 and was consequently responsible for the education of the great king4#abi ,ivar was also skilled in military arts3 he was a warrior as well as a priest4#acj ,he was apparently twice sent to ,england on diplomatic errands1 first to the court of ,king ,john1 later to that of ,henry ,,iii4#aca ,he withdrew from the court in #abag4 ,in #abbc he reappears as one of the king's chief counsellors4 ,after this year nothing is known of ,ivar ,bodde4 ,footnote #abg3 ,historiske ,skrifter tilegnede ,ludvig ,daae1 #gi-ajd 78,presten ,ivar ,bodde074 ,ivar is one of the characters in ,ibsen's ,pretenders4 ,footnote #abh3 ,hkonar ,saga1 c4 #ba4 ,footnote #abi3 ,historiske ,skrifter tilegnede ,ludvig ,daae1 #hh-hi 7,heffermehl72 ,hkonar ,saga1 c4 #bj4 ,footnote #acj3 ,historiske ,skrifter tilegnede ,ludvig ,daae1 #hj4 ,footnote #aca3 ,ibid41 #ha1 #he4 ,the author of the ,king's ,mirror was a professional churchman who belonged to the anti-clerical faction2 he was a master of the literary art4 ,ivar ,bodde was a man of this type2 nothing is known of his literary abilities1 but it is clear that a man who was entrusted with the king's correspondence can not have been without literary skill4 ,there seems to be no reason why ,ivar ,bodde could not have written the ,king's ,mirror1 and he may also have had a hand in the preparation of ,sverre's ,address2 but that he actually did write either or both of these important works has not yet been proved2 there may have been other priests in ,norway in the thirteenth century who stood for the divine right of ,norwegian kingship4 ,from certain geographical allusions it is quite clear that the work was written in ,norway and in some part of the country that would be counted far to the north4 ,the author mentions two localities in the ,lofoten region and he shows considerable knowledge of conditions elsewhere in ,halogaland2#acb but it is evident that he did not reside in that part of the kingdom when he was at work on his great treatise4 ,it is generally agreed that the home of the ,speculum ,regale is ,namdalen1 a region which lies northeast of the city of ,trondhjem and which touches the border of ,halogaland on the north4#acc ,this conclusion is based on certain astronomical observations on the part of the author1 namely the length of the shortest day1 the daily increase in the length of the day1 and the relationship between the length of the sun's path and the sun's altitude at noon of the longest and the shortest day4#acd ,the ,norwegian astronomer ,hans ,geelmuyden has determined that if the author's statements on these points are to be regarded as scientific computations1 they indicate a latitude of #fe1 #fd #db1 and #fd #eb respectively4 ,all these points lie within the shire of ,namdalen4#ace ,as the author can scarcely have been much more than a layman in the fields of mathematics and astronomy1 the agreement as to results obtained is quite remarkable4 ,footnote #acb3 ,c4 vii4 ,footnote #acc3 ,see the ,sor edition1 pp4 lix-lx2 the ,christiana edition1 p4 v4 ,footnote #acd3 ,cc4 vi1 vii4 ,footnote #ace3 8,om ,stedet for ,kongespeilets ,forfattelse03 ,arkiv for nordisk ,filologi1 ,i1 #bje-bjh4 ,the problem of place is relatively unimportant1 but the question of the date of composition has more than mere literary interest4 ,there is nothing in the work itself which gives any clue to the year when it was begun or completed4 ,it seems evident1 however1 that it was written after the period of the civil wars1 though while the terrors of that century of conflicts were yet fresh in the memories of men4 ,for various other reasons1 too1 it is clear that the ,king's ,mirror was composed in the thirteenth century and more specifically during the reign of ,hakon ,,iv4 ,the allusion to the ,byzantine emperor ,manuel ,comnenus1#acf whose reign began in #aadc1 gives a definite date from which any discussion of this problem must begin4 ,it is also clear that the work was written after the church had begun to lay claim to power in the government of the state1 which was in #aafc4acg ,the author looks back to an evil time when minorities were frequent and joint kingships were the rule2#ach but the period of joint rule virtually came to a close in #aahd when ,sverre became sole king2 and the last boy king whom the author can have taken into account was ,hakon ,,iv1 who was thirteen years old when he was given the royal title4 ,it therefore seems evident that the ,king's ,mirror was written after #abag1 the year of ,hakon's accession4 ,footnote #acf3 ,c4 viii4 ,footnote #acg3 ,see above1 p4 #cf4 ,footnote #ach3 ,see above1 pp4 #cc-ce4 ,on the other hand1 it is also quite evident that the treatise can not have been written after the great revision of the ,norwegian laws which was carried out during the reign of ,magnus ,lawmender4 ,the new court-law1 which was promulgated about #abge1 is clearly later than the ,speculum ,regale3 the fine exacted for the death of a king's thegn1 which is given as forty marks in the ,king's ,mirror1 is fixed at a little more than thirteen marks in ,magnus' legislation4 ,in #abgc the law regulating the succession to the throne made impossible the recurrence of joint kingships2 but the principle of this arrangement appears to have been accepted as early as #abfj1 when the king's son ,magnus was given the royal title4 ,another decree1 apparently also from ,hakon's reign1 which abolished the responsibility of kinsmen in cases of manslaughter and deprived the relatives of the one who was slain of their share in the blood fine1 also runs counter to methods described in the ,king's ,mirror1 which states distinctly that kinsmen share in the payment4#aci ,it is therefore safe to conclude that the work was written some time between #abag and #abfj4 ,footnote #aci3 ,c4 xxxvi 7p4 #bja74 ,the earliest attempt to date the ,king's ,mirror was made by the learned ,icelander1 ,hans ,finsen4 ,in an essay included in the ,sor edition 7#agfh7 he fixes the time at about #aafd4adj ,j4 ,erichsen1 who wrote the introduction to this edition1 doubts that it was composed at so early a date2 impressed with the fact that the work reflects the political views of the ,birchshank faction1 he is inclined to place the date of composition some time in ,sverre's reign or in the last decade of the twelfth century4#ada ,the striking resemblance between the ideas expressed in the treatise and the guiding principles of ,sverre's regime led the editors of the ,christiania edition to the same conclusion3 #aaif or soon after4#adb ,and so it was held that the work is a twelfth century document until a ,danish artillery officer1 ,captain ,otto ,blom1 began to make a careful study of the various types of weapons1 armor1 and siege engines mentioned in the work4 ,his conclusion1 published in #ahfg1 was that the ,king's ,mirror reflects the military art of the thirteenth century and that the manuscript was composed in the latter half of the century1 at any rate not long before #abfj4adc ,this conclusion has been accepted by ,gustav ,storm1#add ,ludvig ,daae1#ade and virtually all who have written on the subject since ,blom's study appeared1 except ,heffermehl1 whose belief that ,ivar ,bodde was the author could not permit so late a date1 as ,ivar1 who was a man of prominence at ,sverre's court about #abjj1 must have been an exceedingly aged man1 if he were still living in #abfj4 ,heffermehl is1 therefore1 compelled to force the date of composition back to the decade #abcj-abdj4 ,footnote #adj3 ,see page xx of the ,sor edition4 ,footnote #ada3 ,see pages lxv-lxvi of the ,sor edition4 ,footnote #adb3 ,christiania edition1 p4 viii4 ,footnote #adc3 ,aarbger for nordisk ,oldkyndighed1 #ahfg1 #fe-aji4 ,see above1 p4 #cb4 ,footnote #add3 ,arkiv for nordisk ,filologi1 ,,iii1 #hc-hh4 ,footnote #ade3 ,aarbger for nordisk ,oldkyndighed1 #ahif1 #agf-agg4 ,the weakness of ,captain ,blom's argument is that he supposes the military art described in the ,speculum ,regale to be the military art of the ,north at the time when the work was written4 ,if all the engines and accoutrements that the author describes ever came into use in the ,north1 it was long after #abfj4 ,nearly all the weapons and devices mentioned were in use in southern ,europe and in the ,orient in earlier decades of the thirteenth century2 some of them belong to much earlier times4 ,if certain engines and devices which ,captain ,blom is disposed to regard as mythical are left out of account1 it will be found that only three items fail to appear in illustrations from the earlier part of the thirteenth century2 and it would not be safe to assume that these were not in use because no drawing of them has been found4 ,viewed against the background of ,norwegian history1 those chapters of the ,king's ,mirror which deal with the nature and the rights of monarchy and with the place of the church in the state take on the appearance of a political pamphlet written to defend and justify the doings of the ,birchshank party4 ,the motives for composing an apology of this sort may be found at almost any time in the thirteenth century but especially during the decade that closed with the coronation of ,hakon ,,iv4 ,it will be remembered that the author of the ,king's ,mirror discusses the calamities that may befall a kingdom as a result of joint rule4#adf ,but in #abce1 after one of ,earl ,skule's periodic attempts at rebellion1 his royal son-in-law granted him the administration of one-third of the realm4 ,the grant was ratified the next year with certain changes3 instead of a definite1 compact fief the earl now received territories everywhere in the kingdom4 ,in #abcg ,skule was given the ducal title and to many men it seemed as if the curse of joint kingship was about to afflict the land once more4 ,two years later the partisans of the duke proclaimed him king3 like ,adonijah of old he tried to displace the ,lord's anointed4#adg ,but after a few months came the surprise of ,skule's forces in ,trondhjem and the duke's own tragic end in ,elgester convent4#adh ,it will be recalled that the author defends ,king ,solomon's dealings with ,joab and lays down the principle that the right of sanctuary will not hold against a king4#adi ,the rebellion of the ,norwegian ,adonijah was in #abci2 he died the death of ,joab in #abdj4 ,three years later the believers in a strong monarchy were disturbed by the news that the bishops had revived the old claim to supremacy in the state4 ,soon after this series of events the political chapters of the ,king's ,mirror must have been composed4 ,footnote #adf3 ,c4 xxxvi4 ,footnote #adg3 ,c4 lxvi4 ,footnote #adh3 ,see above1 p4 #dh4 ,footnote #adi3 ,c4 lxix4 ,in #abdg1 the year of ,hakon's coronation1 the hierarchy was once more reconciled to the monarchy1 and nothing more is heard of ecclesiastical pretensions during the remainder of the reign4 ,it would seem that after this reconciliation1 no churchman1 at least not one of the younger generation1 would care to send such a challenge as the ,king's ,mirror out into the world4 ,one of the older men1 one who had suffered with ,sverre and his impoverished ,birchshanks1 might have wished to write such a work even after #abdg2 but after that date the surviving followers of the eloquent king must have been very few indeed1 seeing that ,sverre had now lain forty-five years in the grave4 ,it is therefore the writer's opinion1 though it cannot be regarded as a demonstrated fact1 that the closing chapters of the ,king's ,mirror were written after #abdj1 the year when ,duke ,skule was slain1 perhaps after #abdc1 in which year ,norwegian clericalism reasserted itself1 but some time before #abdg1 the year of ,hakon's coronation and final reconciliation with the church4 ,in the centuries following its composition the ,king's ,mirror appears to have had wide currency in the ,north4 ,when the editors of the ,sor edition began to search for manuscripts1 they found a considerable number1 though chiefly fragments1 in ,norway and ,iceland2 and traces of the work were also found in ,sweden4#aej ,thus far twenty-five manuscripts have come to light2 8some of them are extensive1 but many are fragments of only a few leaves40#aea ,copies of the work were made as late as the reformation period and even later4 ,footnote #aej3 ,see the ,sor edition1 pp4 xxix-xxxvii4 ,footnote #aea3 ,konungs ,skuggsj 7ed4 ,g4 ,t4 ,flom71 p4 i4 ,among the fragments is a part of a ,latin paraphrase made in ,sweden in the first half of the fourteenth century4 ,the translator was a cleric in the service of the ,duchess ,ingeborg1 a daughter of the ,norwegian ,king ,hakon ,v4 ,ingeborg was married to the ,swedish ,duke ,erik4 ,arkiv for nordisk ,filologi1 ,i1 #aaj-aab4 ,the first mention of the ,speculum ,regale in any printed work is in ,peder ,claussn's 8,description of ,norway10#aeb the manuscript of which dates from the earlier years of the seventeenth century4 ,but more than one hundred years were still to pass before this important work was brought to the attention of the literary world4 ,early in the eighteenth century1 however1 great interest began to be shown in the records of the ,old ,northern past4 ,the great ,icelandic scholar and antiquarian1 ,arne ,magnussen1 had begun to collect manuscripts and was laying the foundation of the ,arnamagnean collection1 which is one of the treasures of the ,danish capital4 ,among other things he found several copies and fragments of manuscripts of the ,speculum ,regale4 ,no effort was made to publish any of these before the middle of the century was past2 but about #agfj three young scholars began to plan editions of this famous work4 ,the first to undertake this task was ,professor ,gerhard ,schning1#aec a ,norwegian by birth1 who was at the time rector of the ,latin school in ,trondhjem but later held a professorship in the ,danish academy at ,sor4 ,schning began the preparation of a ,latin translation of the work1 which he planned to publish along with the original version2 but his work was never completed4 ,about the same time an ,icelandic student at the ,university of ,copenhagen1 ,hans ,finsen1#aed later bishop in his native island1 projected an edition1 but was unable to carry out his plans for want of a publisher1 and turned his materials over to others4 ,the third and only successful attempt at publication was made on the suggestion of a recently organized association of ,icelandic scholars known as 8the ,invisible0 society4 ,this association requested ,halfdan ,einersen1#aee rector of the ,latin school at ,holar1 one of the members and founders of the 8invisible0 body1 to prepare an edition4 ,an ,icelandic merchant1 ,sren ,pens1 generously offered to bear all the expense of publication4#aef ,footnote #aeb3 ,norrigis ,bescriffuelse4 ,see ,aarbger for nordisk ,oldkyndighed1 #ahif1 #agb 7,daae74 ,footnote #aec3 ,schning's dates are #agbb-aghj4 ,he was professor of ,latin literature and history at ,sor1 but his real achievements lie in the field of ,norwegian history4 ,footnote #aed3 #agci-agif4 ,footnote #aee3 #agcb-aghe4 ,footnote #aef3 ,see the introduction to the ,sor edition1 xxv-xxviii1 from which the above facts have been culled4 ,rector ,einersen prepared the text from the best available ,icelandic manuscripts4 ,he also made a ,danish translation and a ,latin paraphrase of the same and forwarded the whole to ,denmark to be published4 ,the materials were given into the editorial charge of another learned ,icelander1 ,jon ,erichsen1 teacher of jurisprudence at ,sor ,academy4 ,although ,jon ,erichsen's name does not appear on the title page1 it is quite clear that the general excellence of the work is in large measure due to his careful collation of ,einersen's text with manuscripts to which the ,icelandic rector had not had access4 ,professor ,erichsen discarded ,einersen's ,danish translation and prepared one of his own4 ,he also found place in the volume for a dissertation by ,hans ,finsen1 which was first published in #agff1 and in which the learned theologian discusses various literary problems1 such as the authorship of the work1 the date of composition1 and the like4 ,all these materials were brought together and published at ,sor in #agfh4 ,on the whole the ,sor edition is an excellent piece of work4 ,the ,icelandic text was made with great care and reveals the fact that the editors were possessed of a critical insight which for the time was remarkable4 ,the ,danish translation is somewhat stiff and literal and does not always follow the laws of ,danish syntax2 but it is generally accurate and retains an unmistakable flavor of the ,old ,norse original4 ,except for some assistance rendered by ,professor ,schning1 the first edition of the ,king's ,mirror was the work of ,icelanders4 ,the ,norwegians were also beginning to show some interest in their medieval past2 but ,norway was still a part of the ,danish monarchy1 the political and intellectual center of which was ,copenhagen1 and for half a century longer the ,norwegians were unable to do anything to promote the publication of historical materials4 ,however1 four years after the ,sor edition had come from the press1 a society of ,norsemen at the ,university of ,copenhagen was organized1 the purpose of which was to further the cause of ,norwegian autonomy4 ,after ,norway in #ahad resumed her place among the nations of ,europe1 it was only natural that ,norwegian scholars should be attracted to the ,old ,norse treasures of the middle ages4 ,so far as the means of the impoverished state would allow1 publication of the sources of ,norwegian history was undertaken4 ,the first ,norwegian historian of distinction was ,rudolf ,keyser1 professor in the ,university of ,christiania4 ,in his efforts to draw the attention of his countrymen to the glories of earlier centuries1 he was soon renforced by his younger contemporary1 the fiery and industrious scholar and investigator ,peter ,andreas ,munch1 who1 though his work is somewhat marred by the fervor of his patriotism1 has not yet found a superior among the historians of the ,north4 ,soon a third was added to these two3 ,carl ,r4 ,unger1 a man of remarkable abilities as a linguist4 ,these three now undertook to edit a series of ,old ,norse texts1 among which was the ,king's ,mirror1 which was published under the auspices of the ,university of ,christiania in #ahdh4 ,the ,christiania edition is based on the main manuscript of the ,speculum ,regale1 the manuscript #bdc ,b of the ,arnamagnean collection4 ,this was produced in ,norway some time during the last quarter of the thirteenth century1 perhaps not long after #abge4aeg ,as the manuscript was incomplete in part1 the editors also made use of the copies which had been made the basis of the earlier edition4 ,inasmuch as the materials to be used had been copied at different times and consequently reflected various stages of linguistic development1 it was thought desirable to normalize the orthography3 and in this part of their task the editors made use of a fragment which was thought to belong to a somewhat earlier date than the main manuscript4#aeh ,if this belief is correct1 the ,christiania edition must1 in respect to orthography1 be a comparatively close approximation of the original manuscript4 ,footnote #aeg3 ,see ,flom's edition of ,konungs ,skuggsj1 introduction4 ,footnote #aeh3 ,see the ,christiania edition1 pp4 xiii-xvi4 ,in #ahha a third edition prepared by the ,german philologist ,otto ,brenner was published under the title ,speculum ,regale1 ein altnorwegischer ,dialog4 ,brenner based his text on the ,norwegian manuscript #bdc ,b1 but he also made use of the ,icelandic copy 7#bdc ,a7 and of some of the older fragments4 ,his edition consequently includes all the materials that had been used in the earlier editions4 ,it was ,brenner's purpose to prepare a text which should give the ,norwegian version in its original form1 so far as such a restoration is possible4 ,though scholars are not agreed that ,brenner achieved his purpose1 all have acknowledged the value of his work1 and since its publication his version has been regarded as the standard edition4 ,two years ago 7#aiae7 the ,university of ,illinois published1 under the editorial direction of ,professor ,george ,t4 ,flom1 a photographic reproduction of this same manuscript1 #bdc ,b4 ,this important linguistic monument has thus been made accessible to scholars in its original form4 ,professor ,flom has also prepared the ,old ,norse text of the manuscript1 which makes a part of the publication1 and has prefaced the whole with an extended introduction in which he discusses the history of the manuscript1 marginal addenda1 abbreviations1 and other paleographic and linguistic problems4 ,until very recently the ,danish version prepared by ,jon ,erichsen for the ,sor edition was the only translation of the ,speculum ,regale into a modern language4#aei ,but a few years ago the first part of the work was published under the title ,kongespegelen in the form of a translation into ,new ,norse1 a language of recent origin based on the spoken dialects of ,norway4 ,as these dialects are closely related to the original idiom of the ,north1 such a translation can be made with comparative ease4 ,the work has recently been completed1 and in most respects the ,new ,norse version proves to be a very satisfactory translation4 ,footnote #aei3 ,in #ahib a small volume of extracts from the ,king's ,mirror translated by ,chr4 ,dorph was published in ,copenhagen4 ,some years ago a number of ,american scholars who have interests in the fields of ,scandinavian history1 language1 and literature united to form a ,society for the ,advancement of ,scandinavian ,study4 ,the founders believed that the purpose of the organization might be in part achieved by encouraging the publication of some of the great ,scandinavian classics in ,english translation4 ,it was on the suggestion of this ,society that the writer undertook to prepare the present version of the ,king's ,mirror4 ,the translation is based on the text of the ,christiania edition1 the readings of which have been consistently followed1 except in a few instances where the scribe does not seem to have copied his manuscript correctly2 in such cases the most satisfactory variant readings have been followed4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,i ,,introduction3 ,,name ,,and ,,purpose ,,of ,,the ,,work ,i passed all the crafts before my mind's eye and studied intently all the practices belonging to each craft2 and ,i saw a vast multitude walking wearily along the paths that slope downward from the highways of virtue into error and vice4 ,some of these were very steep1 and those who followed them perished in desolate ravines2 for the long1 wearisome road had fatigued them1 and they had not enough strength left to climb up the hillside1 nor were they able to find the by-paths that led back to the highways of virtue4 ,the destruction of this multitude was due1 it seemed to me1 to various causes3 some perished through ignorance1 for the ways of error were trodden so generally that they appeared to be the most convenient to follow1 and ignorant men mistook them for highways1 since the majority seemed to walk in them2 some perished because of laziness and carelessness2 others feared that they would suffer derision and contumely1 if they walked the highroad alone2 while still others were led astray by perversity1 wickedness1 and the various passions4 ,but when ,i had observed how good morals were scorned and how the scorners perished1 ,i began to wonder how to find a road where ,i should not be traveling entirely alone and yet would not have to choose one of those paths where the crowd were exhausting their strength1 lest the steep climb should weary me1 if ,i were to make an effort to get back up again4 ,inasmuch as my father was still living and loved me well1 ,i thought it would be better to seek his counsel than after a slight consideration to reach a decision which might displease him4 ,so ,i hastened to my father and laid the whole problem before him4 ,he was a wise and kind man1 and ,i found that he was pleased when he heard that my errand was to learn right conduct4 ,he permitted me to ask whatever ,i wished about the practices of the various crafts1 and how they differed4 ,he also promised to make known to me all the usages that are most properly observed by each craft that ,i might ask about4 ,he further promised to point out1 as a warning1 the paths of error which most men enter upon when they leave the highways of virtue4 ,finally he promised to show me the by-paths that those may take who wish to return from wrong roads to the highway4 ,thereupon ,i began my inquiry by asking about the activities of merchants and their methods4 ,at the close of the first discussion1 when my questions had all been answered1 ,i became bolder in speech and mounted to a higher point in our review of the conditions of men2 for next ,i began to inquire into the customs of kings and other princes and of the men who follow and serve them4 ,nor did ,i wholly omit to ask about the doings of the clergy and their mode of life4 ,and ,i closed by inquiring into the activities of the peasants and husbandmen1 who till the soil1 and into their habits and occupation4 ,but when my father had given wise and sufficient replies to all the questions that ,i had asked1 certain wise and worthy men1 who1 being present1 had heard my questions and his wise and truthful answers1 requested me to note down all our conversations and set them in a book1 so that our discussions should not perish as soon as we ceased speaking1 but prove useful and enjoyable to many who could derive no pastime from us who were present at these conversations4 ,so ,i did as they advised and requested4 ,i searched my memory and pondered deeply upon the speeches and set them all in a book1 not only for the amusement or the fleeting pastime of those who may hear them1 but for the help which the book will offer in many ways to all who read it with proper attention and observe carefully everything that it prescribes4 ,it is written in such a way as to furnish information and entertainment1 as well as much practical knowledge1 if the contents are carefully learned and remembered4 ,but whoever has clear and proper insight will realize that1 if a book is to develop these subjects fully1 it will have to be a much larger work than this one4 ,the book has been given a handsome title3 it is called ,speculum ,regale1 not because of pride in him who wrote it1 but because the title ought to make those who hear it more eager to know the work itself2 and for this reason1 too1 that if any one wishes to be informed as to proper conduct1 courtesy1 or comely and precise forms of speech1 he will find and see these therein along with many illustrations and all manner of patterns1 as in a bright mirror4 ,and it is called ,king's ,mirror1 because in it one may read of the manners of kings as well as of other men4 ,a king1 moreover1 holds the highest title and ought1 with his court and all his servants1 to observe the most proper customs1 so that in them his subjects may see good examples of proper conduct1 uprightness1 and all other courtly virtues4 ,besides1 every king should look frequently into this mirror and observe first his own conduct and next that of the men who are subject to him4 ,he should reward all whose conduct is good1 but should discipline and compel those to observe good morals who cannot learn without threats4 ,although the book is first and foremost a king's mirror1 yet it is intended for every one as a common possession2 since whoever wishes is free to look into it and to seek information1 as he may desire1 about his own conduct1 or any other type of manners which he may find discussed in the book4 ,and ,i believe that no man will be considered unwise or unmannerly who carefully observes everything that he finds in this work which is suited to his mode of living1 no matter what his rank or title may be4 ,if any one desires or is curious to hear or study this book1 he need not inquire about the name or the standing of the man who composed and wrote it1 lest perchance he should reject what may be found useful in it because of contempt1 envy1 or hostile feeling of some sort for the author4#afj ,footnote #afj3 ,it seems probable that the form in which the author of the ,speculum expresses his desire to remain anonymous shows the influence of the ,old ,norse version of the ,elucidarium1 a theological discussion in dialog form1 which dates from the twelfth century and is ascribed to ,honorius of ,autun4 ,the author of the ,elucidarium writes as follows in his preface3 8,my name1 however1 ,i have purposely withheld1 lest wicked men should be prompted by a feeling of envy to cast aside a useful work40 ,for the original ,latin preface to the ,elucidarium see ,migne1 ,patrologia ,latina1 ,,clxxii1 #aaaj2 the ,old ,norse version is given in ,annaler for nordisk ,oldkyndighed1 #aheg1 p4 #bdj1 #aheh1 p4 #bd4 ,this request1 however1 which surely may be granted to any man1 we should like to make3 we ask all good men who hear this book to give it careful thought and study2 and if there should be aught which seems necessary to the work but has not been included1 whether concerning morals and conduct or discreet and proper forms of speech1 let them insert it in proper form and connection4 ,and if they find any matters which seem to impair the work or to have been discussed at too great length1 let them discreetly remove all such and thus1 amending our ignorance in kindness1 help our work to be appreciated in proper spirit4 ,for it was not pride that impelled us to labor but good will toward all who seemed to need and desire knowledge of this sort4 ,when ,i went to my father with these inquiries that ,i have now mentioned1 ,i learned in the very first words that ,i addressed to him1 how every one ought to salute or address one's father4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,ii 8,,the ,,fear ,,of ,,the ,,lord ,,is ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,wisdom0 ,son4 ,good day1#afa sire6 ,i have come to see you as it behooves a humble and obedient son to approach a loving and renowned father2 and ,i pray you to listen with patience to the questions that ,i have in mind to ask and kindly to vouchsafe an answer to each one4 ,footnote #afa3 ,good day 7,god dag7 is still the common form of greeting among ,norwegians and other ,scandinavians4 ,father4 ,inasmuch as you are my only son1 ,i am pleased to have you come often to see me1 for there are many subjects which we ought to discuss4 ,i shall be glad to hear what you wish to inquire about and to answer such questions as are discreetly asked4 ,son4 ,i have heard the common report 7which ,i believe is true7 as to your wisdom1 that in all the land it would be difficult to find a man who has greater insight into every form of knowledge than you have2 for all those who have difficult matters to settle are eager to get your decision4 ,i have also been told that the same was true when you were at the royal court1 and that the entire government1 lawmaking1 treaty making1 and every other sort of business1 seemed to be guided by your opinion4 ,now as ,i am the lawful heir to your worldly possessions1 ,i should also like to share somewhat in the heritage of your wisdom4 ,wherefore ,i wish to have you point out to me the beginnings and the alphabet of wisdom1 as far as ,i am able to learn them from you1 so that ,i may later be able to read all your learned writings1 and thus follow in your footsteps4 ,for ,i am sure that after your decease many will rely on your having trained me after your own ways4 ,father4 ,it pleases me to hear you speak in this wise1 and ,i shall be glad to answer2 for it is a great comfort to me that ,i shall leave much wealth for my own true son to enjoy after my days2 but ,i should scarcely regard him as a son1 though ,i had begotten him1 if he were a fool4 ,now if you seek understanding1 ,i will show you the basis and the beginning of all wisdom1 as a great and wise man once expressed it3 to fear ,almighty ,god1 this is the beginning of wisdom4#afb ,but ,he is not to be feared as an enemy1 but rather with the fear of love1 as the ,son of ,god taught the man who asked him what the substance of the law was4 ,for the ,son of ,god referred him to the ,scripture that reads as follows3 ,thou shalt love ,god with all thy heart and with all thy strength and with all thy might4#afc ,now one should love ,god above everything else and fear ,him at all times when evil desires arise2 he should banish evil longings for ,god's sake1 though he were bold enough to cherish them for men's sake4 ,now if you wish to know what are the beginnings and the first steps in the pursuit of wisdom1 this is the true beginning1 and there is none other4 ,and whoever learns this and observes it shall not be wanting in true knowledge or in any form of goodness4 ,footnote #afb3 ,proverbs1 ix1 #aj4 ,in the use of ,scriptural quotations the author is seldom accurate4 ,footnote #afc3 ,st4 ,luke1 x1 #bg4 ,son4 ,this is indeed loving counsel1 such as one might expect from you2 besides1 it is good and easily learned by every one whom fortune follows4 ,still1 if one is to be reputed a wise man1 it will surely be necessary to take up many things that pertain to the various crafts4 ,father4 ,this is the beginning and the alphabet of every good thing4 ,but through the alphabet one learns to read books1 and in the same way it is always better the more crafts are added to this art4 ,for through the crafts a man gains wisdom whatever the calling that he intends to follow1 whether that of kingsman1#afd yeoman1 or merchant4 ,footnote #afd3 ,a 8kingsman0 7konungsmar7 was any one who had formally entered into the king's personal service1 whether he was actually employed at court or not4 ,see below1 cc4 xxiv ff4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,iii ,,the ,,activities ,,and ,,habits ,,of ,a ,,merchant ,son4 ,i am now in my most vigorous years and have a desire to travel abroad2 for ,i would not venture to seek employment at court before ,i had observed the customs of other men4 ,such is my intention at present1 unless you should give me other advice4 ,father4 ,although ,i have been a kingsman rather than a merchant1 ,i have no fault to find with that calling1 for often the best of men are chosen for it4 ,but much depends on whether the man is more like those who are true merchants1 or those who take the merchant's name but are mere frauds and foisterers1 buying and selling wrongfully4 ,son4 ,it would be more seemly for me to be like the rightful ones2 for it would be worse than one might think likely1 if your son were to imitate those who are not as they ought4 ,but whatever my fate is to be1 ,i desire to have you inform me as to the practices of such men as seem to be capable in that business4 ,father4 ,the man who is to be a trader will have to brave many perils1 sometimes at sea and sometimes in heathen lands1#afe but nearly always among alien peoples2 and it must be his constant purpose to act discreetly wherever he happens to be4 ,on the sea he must be alert and fearless4 ,footnote #afe3 ,these 8heathen lands0 were probably the regions along the ,arctic inhabited by the ,finns2 it is also possible that the author alludes to trading voyages to lands occupied by ,esquimaux1 though he makes no mention of these people anywhere in his work4 ,when you are in a market town1 or wherever you are1 be polite and agreeable2 then you will secure the friendship of all good men4 ,make it a habit to rise early in the morning1 and go first and immediately to church wherever it seems most convenient to hear the canonical hours1 and hear all the hours and mass from matins on4 ,join in the worship1 repeating such psalms and prayers as you have learned4 ,when the services are over1 go out to look after your business affairs4 ,if you are unacquainted with the traffic of the town1 observe carefully how those who are reputed the best and most prominent merchants conduct their business4 ,you must also be careful to examine the wares that you buy before the purchase is finally made to make sure that they are sound and flawless4 ,and whenever you make a purchase1 call in a few trusty men to serve as witnesses as to how the bargain was made4 ,you should keep occupied with your business till breakfast or1 if necessity demands it1 till midday2 after that you should eat your meal4 ,keep your table well provided and set with a white cloth1 clean victuals1 and good drinks4 ,serve enjoyable meals1 if you can afford it4 ,after the meal you may either take a nap or stroll about a little while for pastime and to see what other good merchants are employed with1 or whether any new wares have come to the borough which you ought to buy4 ,on returning to your lodgings examine your wares1 lest they suffer damage after coming into your hands4 ,if they are found to be injured and you are about to dispose of them1 do not conceal the flaws from the purchaser3 show him what the defects are and make such a bargain as you can2 then you cannot be called a deceiver4 ,also put a good price on your wares1 though not too high1 and yet very near what you see can be obtained2 then you cannot be called a foister4 ,finally1 remember this1 that whenever you have an hour to spare you should give thought to your studies1 especially to the law books2 for it is clear that those who gain knowledge from books have keener wits than others1 since those who are the most learned have the best proofs for their knowledge4 ,make a study of all the laws1 but while you remain a merchant there is no law that you will need to know more thoroughly than the ,bjarkey code4#aff ,if you are acquainted with the law1 you will not be annoyed by quibbles when you have suits to bring against men of your own class1 but will be able to plead according to law in every case4 ,footnote #aff3 ,the 8,birch-isle0 code was originally a set of rules governing commercial intercourse4 ,after a time it became a more elaborate law governing the municipality as well as the traders who were more or less permanently located there4 ,it is believed that the name is derived from ,birka1 a trading center in eastern ,sweden not far from the site of modern ,stockholm4 ,the 8,birch-,isle0 code is published in ,norges ,gamle ,love1 ,i1 part iii1 #cjc-ccf4 ,but although ,i have most to say about laws1 ,i regard no man perfect in knowledge unless he has thoroughly learned and mastered the customs of the place where he is sojourning4 ,and if you wish to become perfect in knowledge1 you must learn all the languages1 first of all ,latin and ,french1 for these idioms are most widely used2 and yet1 do not neglect your native tongue or speech4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,iv ,,the ,,same ,,subject ,,continued ,son4 ,may ,god reward you1 sire1 for the love of kinship that you show in pointing out so many things that ,i may find needful1--if ,i have the good fortune to learn them and to remember them after they are learned4 ,and if you think there are any other important matters that ought to be taken up in this discussion1 ,i shall be glad to listen attentively4 ,father4 ,there are1 indeed1 certain matters which should not be omitted from this discourse1 but they can be stated in a few words1 if that seems best4 ,train yourself to be as active as possible1 though not so as to injure your health4 ,strive never to be downcast1 for a downcast mind is always morbid2 try rather to be friendly and genial at all times1 of an even temper and never moody4 ,be upright and teach the right to every man who wishes to learn from you2 and always associate with the best men4 ,guard your tongue carefully2 this is good counsel1 for your tongue may honor you1 but it may also condemn you4 ,though you be angry speak few words and never in passion2 for unless one is careful1 he may utter words in wrath that he would later give gold to have unspoken4 ,on the whole1 ,i know of no revenge1 though many employ it1 that profits a man less than to bandy heated words with another1 even though he has a quarrel to settle with him4 ,you shall know of a truth that no virtue is higher or stronger than the power to keep one's tongue from foul or profane speech1 tattling1 or slanderous talk in any form4 ,if children be given to you1 let them not grow up without learning a trade2 for we may expect a man to keep closer to knowledge and business when he comes of age1 if he is trained in youth while under control4 ,and further1 there are certain things which you must beware of and shun like the devil himself3 these are drinking1 chess1 harlots1 quarreling1 and throwing dice for stakes4 ,for upon such foundations the greatest calamities are built2 and unless they strive to avoid these things1 few only are able to live long without blame or sin4 ,observe carefully how the sky is lighted1 the course of the heavenly bodies1 the grouping of the hours1 and the points of the horizon4 ,learn also how to mark the movements of the ocean and to discern how its turmoil ebbs and swells2 for that is knowledge which all must possess who wish to trade abroad4 ,learn arithmetic thoroughly1 for merchants have great need of that4 ,if you come to a place where the king or some other chief who is in authority has his officials1 seek to win their friendship2 and if they demand any necessary fees on the ruler's behalf1 be prompt to render all such payments1 lest by holding too tightly to little things you lose the greater4 ,also beware lest the king's belongings find their way into your purse2 for you cannot know but that he may be covetous who has those things in charge1 and it is easier to be cautious beforehand than to crave pardon afterwards4 ,if you can dispose of your wares at suitable prices1 do not hold them long2 for it is the wont of merchants to buy constantly and to sell rapidly4 ,if you are preparing to carry on trade beyond the seas and you sail your own ship1 have it thoroughly coated with tar in the autumn and1 if possible1 keep it tarred all winter4 ,but if the ship is placed on timbers too late to be coated in the fall1 tar it when spring opens and let it dry thoroughly afterwards4 ,always buy shares in good vessels or in none at all4 ,keep your ship attractive1 for then capable men will join you and it will be well manned4 ,be sure to have your ship ready when summer begins and do your traveling while the season is best4 ,keep reliable tackle on shipboard at all times1 and never remain out at sea in late autumn1 if you can avoid it4 ,if you attend carefully to all these things1 with ,god's mercy you may hope for success4 ,this1 too1 you must keep constantly in mind1 if you wish to be counted a wise man1 that you ought never to let a day pass without learning something that will profit you4 ,be not like those who think it beneath their dignity to hear or learn from others such things even as might avail them much if they knew them4 ,for a man must regard it as great an honor to learn as to teach1 if he wishes to be considered thoroughly informed4 ,there remain a few minor matters that ought to be mentioned4 ,whenever you travel at sea1 keep on board two or three hundred ells of wadmal of a sort suitable for mending sails1 if that should be necessary1 a large number of needles1 and a supply of thread and cord4 ,it may seem trivial to mention these things1 but it is often necessary to have them on hand4 ,you will always need to carry a supply of nails1 both spikes and rivets1 of such sizes as your ship demands2 also good boat hooks and broadaxes1 gouges and augers1 and all such other tools as ship carpenters make use of4 ,all these things that ,i have now named you must remember to carry with you on shipboard1 whenever you sail on a trading voyage and the ship is your own4 ,when you come to a market town where you expect to tarry1 seek lodgings from the innkeeper who is reputed the most discreet and the most popular among both kingsmen and boroughmen4 ,always buy good clothes and eat good fare if your means permit2 and never keep unruly or quarrelsome men as attendants or messmates4 ,keep your temper calm though not to the point of suffering abuse or bringing upon yourself the reproach of cowardice4 ,though necessity may force you into strife1 be not in a hurry to take revenge2 first make sure that your effort will succeed and strike where it ought4 ,never display a heated temper when you see that you are likely to fail1 but be sure to maintain your honor at some later time1 unless your opponent should offer a satisfactory atonement4 ,if your wealth takes on rapid growth1 divide it and invest it in a partnership trade in fields where you do not yourself travel2 but be cautious in selecting partners4 ,always let ,almighty ,god1 the holy ,virgin ,mary1 and the saint whom you have most frequently called upon to intercede for you be counted among your partners4 ,watch with care over the property which the saints are to share with you and always bring it faithfully to the place to which it was originally promised4 ,if you have much capital invested in trade1 divide it into three parts3 put one-third into partnerships with men who are permanently located in market boroughs1 are trustworthy1 and are experienced in business4 ,place the other two parts in various business ventures2 for if your capital is invested in different places1 it is not likely that you will suffer losses in all your wealth at one time3 more likely it will be secure in some localities1 though frequent losses be suffered4 ,but if you find that the profits of trade bring a decided increase to your funds1 draw out the two-thirds and invest them in good farm land1 for such property is generally thought the most secure1 whether the enjoyment of it falls to one's self or to one's kinsmen4 ,with the remaining third you may do as seems best1--continue to keep it in business or place it all in land4 ,however1 though you decide to keep your funds invested in trade1 discontinue your own journeys at sea or as a trader in foreign fields1 as soon as your means have attained sufficient growth and you have studied foreign customs as much as you like4 ,keep all that you see in careful memory1 the evil with the good2 remember evil practices as a warning1 and the good customs as useful to yourself and to others who may wish to learn from you4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,v ,,the ,,sun ,,and ,,the ,,winds ,son4 ,it is evident that whoever wishes to become informed on such matters as those which you have now discussed must first try to determine what is most worth learning and afterwards to keep in mind all that he has heard4 ,but in your discussion just recently you mentioned several things the nature of which ,i do not understand1 though ,i have reflected upon your statements1 namely1 the lights of the sky and the movements of the ocean4 ,moreover1 you urged me to learn these things and stated that there is knowledge in learning them4 ,but ,i cannot comprehend them unless ,i shall hear them explained2 and ,i know of no other wise master with so kind a will to teach me these matters as yourself4 ,therefore1 with your permission1 ,i will ask you to continue this discussion1 so that ,i may become somewhat better informed on these subjects3 how the lights of the sky and the course of the heavenly bodies wax and wane2 how the time of the day is told and the hours are grouped2 but especially how the ocean moves and what causes its restlessness4 ,for sometimes the ocean appears so blithe and cheerful that one would like to sport with it through an entire season2 but soon it displays such fierce wrath and ill-nature that the life and property of those who have anything to do with it are endangered4 ,now ,i have thought that1 although the sun completes its course according to an established law1 that fact cannot produce the unquiet of the sea4 ,if you are disposed to explain these things further1 ,i shall listen gladly and attentively4 ,father4 ,i can indeed give such an explanation1 just as ,i have heard it from the lips of well-informed men1 and as seems most reasonable according to the insight that ,god has given me4 ,the sun has received divers offices3 for it brings light and warmth to all the earth1 and the various parts of the world rejoice in its approaching2 but its course is planned in such a way that it sometimes withdraws from those regions that it approaches at other times4 ,when it first comes to visit the east with warmth and bright beams1 the day begins to lift up silvery brows and a pleasant face to the east wind4 ,soon the east wind is crowned with a golden glory and robed in all his raiments of joy4 ,he eases griefs and regretful sighs and turns a bright countenance toward his neighbors on either side1 bidding them rejoice with him in his delight and cast away their winterlike sorrows4 ,he also sends blazing rays into the face of the west wind to inform him of his joy and happiness4 ,he advises the west wind1 too1 that in the evening he shall be clad in garments similar to those which the east wind wore in the morning4 ,later in the day and at the proper hour the southeast wind displays the glory of his newly-gotten robes and sends warming rays with friendly messages into the face of the northwest wind4 ,but at midday the south wind reveals how he has been endowed with riches of heat1 sends warm gifts of friendship across to the north wind1 warms his cool face1 and invites all the neighboring winds to share in the abundance of his wealth4 ,as the day declines the southwest wind with glad face receives the gentle sheen and genial beams4 ,having put away wrath1 he reveals his desire for peace and concord2 he commands the mighty billows and steep wave-crests to subside with waning power and calls forth quickening dews in a wish to be fully reconciled with all his neighbors4 ,gently he blows a refreshing breath into the face of the northeast wind1 warms his wind-chilled lips1 and thaws his frosty brow and frozen cheeks4 ,but when evening begins1 the west wind1 clad in splendor and sunset beauty as if robed for a festal eve1 lifts a gleaming brow above a blithe countenance1 and sends a message on darting beams across to the east wind telling him to prepare for the festive morrow to come4 ,at sunset the northwest wind begins to raise his fair brows and with lifted eyelids betokens to all his neighbors that the dazzling radiance is now in his keeping4 ,thereupon he sends forth a shadow over the face of the earth proclaiming to all that now come the hours of rest after the toil of day4 ,but at midnight the north wind goes forth to meet the coursing sun and leads him through rocky deserts toward the sparse-built shores4 ,he calls forth heavy shadows1 covers his face with a broad-brimmed helmet1 and informs all that he is arrayed for the night watch to keep guard over his neighbors that they may have comfort and untroubled rest after the heat of day4 ,with cool lips he gently blows upon the face of the south wind1 that he may be better able to resist the violent heat of the coming day4 ,he also scatters the dark clouds and clears up the face of heaven in order that the sun1 when light appears1 may be easily able to send forth his warm and radiant beams in all directions4 ,but on the coming of morn the northeast wind begins to open his closed eyelids and blinks to both sides as if to determine whether it is time to rise4 ,then he opens quickly his clear eyes as if sated with sleep after ended rest4 ,soon he leads forth the gleaming day into all the homesteads like a fair youth and fitting herald1 to give sure knowledge that the radiant sphere and shining sun follows close behind and to command all to be arrayed for his coming4 ,soon the sun rises and shoots forth his beams in all directions to watch over the covenant made by the winds2 and after that he goes on through his ordained course as we have already told4 ,when peace has been established among these chiefs that we have just named1 it is safe to travel wherever you may wish through the realms of any one of them4 ,then the sea begins to bar out all violent storms and make smooth highways where earlier the route was impassable because of broad billows and mighty waves2 and the shores offer harbors in many places which formerly gave no shelter4 ,now1 while this covenant holds1 there will be fair sailing for you or any others who wish to travel to foreign shores or steer their ships over the perils of the ocean4 ,it is1 therefore1 the duty of every man1 indeed it is a necessary one1 to learn thoroughly when one may look for dangerous seasons and bad routes1 or when times come when one may risk everything4 ,for even unwitting beasts observe the seasons1 though by instinct1 since they have no intellect4 ,even the fishes1 though lacking human insight1 know how to find security in the deep seas1 while the winter storms are most violent2 but when winter wanes1 they move nearer the shores and find enjoyment as after a sorrow suffered and past4 ,later in the spring after the roe has come1 they lay the spawn and bring forth a vast multitude of young fishes and in this way increase their race1 each after its kind and class4 ,it does1 indeed1 show great forethought for unintelligent creatures to provide so carefully against the coming winter storms1 and to bring forth their offspring at the opening of spring1 so that they may enjoy the calm weather of summer and search for food in peace and quiet along the wide shores2 for thus they gather strength enough in summer against the ensuing winter to sustain themselves among other fishes in the chilly deep4 ,the covenant brings joy to the sky as well as to the sea2 for as spring advances the birds soaring high into the air rejoice with beautiful songs in the newly made treaty of these lords as in a coming festival4 ,their joy is as great as if they have escaped great and terrible dangers which might arise from the strife of these chieftains4 ,soon they build nests upon the earth and lead birdlings forth from them1 each after its kind4 ,thus they increase their species and care for their young in the summer that these may be able to find their own sustenance in the winter following4 ,even the earth rejoices in this peace-making1 for as soon as the sun begins to pour out its warming rays over the face of the earth1 the ice begins to thaw around the frozen grass roots2 soon fragrant and fair-hued herbs sprout forth1 and the earth shows that she finds gladness and festive joy in the fresh beauty of her emerald robes4 ,she gladly offers to all her offspring the sustenance which she had to refuse them earlier because of the dearth in winter4 ,the trees that stood with dripping branches and frozen roots put forth green leaves1 thus showing their joy that the sorrow and distress of winter are past4 ,unclean and repulsive beasts display insight and understanding in their ability to determine the proper time to increase their kind and to come out of their dens4 ,they also observe the season when it is necessary to flee the cold and stormy distress of winter and seek shelter under rocks1 in large crags1 or in the deep scar of the landslide till the time to come forth is at hand4 ,wild beasts that seek their food in woods or on the mountains know well how to discern the seasons2 for they bear the begotten offspring while winter is most severe1 so that they may bring forth their young when the grass is fresh and the summer is warm4 ,there is a little creeping thing called the ant1 which can teach thoughtful men much practical wisdom1 whether they be merchants or husbandmen1 kings or lesser men4 ,it teaches kings how to build castles and fortresses2 in the same way it teaches the merchants and the husbandmen with what industry and at what seasons they ought to pursue their callings2 for he who has proper insight and observes carefully the activities of the ant will note many things and derive much profit from them4 ,all other creatures1 too1 whether clean or unclean1 rejoice in this season1 and with vigilant eyes seek their food in the warm summer time so as to be able to endure more confidently the perils of a destitute winter season4 ,now it is this covenant between these eight winds that calls forth all the delights of earth and sky and the calm stirring of the sea according to the command and mysterious skill of ,him ,who ordained in the beginning that thus should all nature remain until ,he should change the order of things4 ,now if you feel that some of these matters have not yet been fully cleared up1 you may continue your inquiries and ask what questions you like4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,vi ,,the ,,tides ,,and ,,the ,,changes ,,in ,,the ,,course ,,of ,,the ,,sun ,son4 ,it was a wise thought1 it seems to me1 to ask those questions to which ,i have just received such fair replies2 and ,i am encouraged to inquire into certain other matters1 namely the waxing of the sun1 the moon1 and the streams or tides of the ocean1--how much and how rapidly these things wax and wane4 ,now these things that ,i have brought up for discussion are subjects which especially touch the welfare of seafaring men1 and it looks to me as if they would profit much from a knowledge of these matters1 since it gives insight into the right conduct of their profession4 ,and since ,i intend to labor diligently in the trader's calling1 ,i should like very much1 if it can be done1 to have you explain further some of those things that ,i have just mentioned4 ,father4 ,those things that you have now asked about do not all wax or wane with equal rapidity2 for the tide1 when it rises1 completes its course in seven days plus half an hour of the eighth day2 and every seventh day there is flood tide in place of ebb4 ,for the tide rises one seventh part daily from the time when the rise begins2 and after it turns and begins to fall1 it ebbs in the same way during the next seven days but is retarded as much as half an hour of the eighth day1#afg which must be added to the seven days4 ,as to how long an hour should be ,i can give you definite information2 for there should be twenty-four hours in two days1 that is1 a night and a day1 while the sun courses through the eight chief points of the sky3 and according to right reckoning the sun will pass through each division in three hours of the day4 ,on the other hand1 the moon1 while it waxes1 completes its course in fifteen days less six hours2#afh and in a like period it wanes until the course is complete and another comes4 ,and it is always true that at this time the flood tide is highest and the ebb strongest4 ,but when the moon has waxed to half1 the flood tide is lowest and the ebb1 too1 is quite low4 ,at full moon the flood tide is again very high and the ebb is strong4 ,but when it has waned to half1 both ebb and flood are quite low4 ,merchants are1 however1 scarcely able to note these changes1 as the course is too swift2 for the moon takes such long strides both in waxing and waning that men1 on that account1 find it difficult to determine the divisions of its course4 ,the sun1 on the other hand1 completes its course more slowly both in ascending and declining1 so that one may easily mark all the stages of its course4 ,the sun moves upward one hundred and eighty-two and one-half days and three hours and for a like period it recedes again2 it has then completed its entire course1 both ascent and decline1 in three hundred days1 by the twelve-count#afi #cfj1 plus five days and six hours4 ,every fourth year this becomes three hundred by the twelve-count and six days more #cff2 this is called leap year1 for it has one day more than the preceding twelvemonth1 the additional hours being gathered into twenty-four1 a night and a day4 ,in ,latin all hundreds are counted by tens1 and there are1 therefore1 properly computed three hundred by the ten-count plus sixty-six days whenever leap year occurs1 while the intervening years have only five days and six hours with as many additional days by the other reckoning as ,i have just stated4 ,footnote #afg3 ,the mean retardation is forty-eight minutes4 ,footnote #afh3 ,this is within twenty-two minutes of the length of the lunar half-month4 ,footnote #afi3 ,the ,northmen in medieval times had two hundreds1 the great hundred1 or duodecimal hundred1 which counted #abj 7#ab #aj7 and the ordinary hundred 7#aj #aj74 ,but to your question concerning the growth of the sun's path1 how one can most clearly discern it1 ,i can scarcely give an answer so precise as not to be wrong in part2 for the sun's path does not wax at the same rate in all parts of the earth4 ,i can1 of course1 answer according to what ,i have found in the writings of men who have treated the subject thoroughly1 and it is generally believed that their words come very near the truth4 ,i have already told you how many hours there are in a night and day and gave the number as twenty-four4#agj ,i have indicated the length of each hour in stating that three hours pass while the sun moves across one division of the sky4 ,now there are some other little hours called ostensa1#aga sixty of which make one of those that ,i mentioned earlier4 ,it seems to me quite likely that1 as far north as we are1 the sun's path waxes five of these little hours in a day and as much less than six as a twelfth part of a little hour4 ,and as to the growth of the sun's path it seems most reasonable to me that it waxes three-fourths of these hours toward the east and the west and the remaining fourth in height toward the zenith4 ,south of us1 however1 this reckoning will fail2 for north of us the increase is greater and to the south less than we have just stated2 and the farther south1 the greater is the difference1 and the sun more nearly overhead4 ,footnote #agj3 ,see ,brenner's edition1 #bj4 ,footnote #aga3 ,error for ostenta2 the ostentum1 computed at one-sixtieth of an hour1 seems to appear first in the writings of ,rabanus ,maurus 7ninth century74 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,vii ,,the ,,subject ,,of ,,the ,,sun',s ,,course ,,continued ,son4 ,with your permission ,i wish to inquire somewhat more fully into this subject1 for ,i do not quite understand it4 ,you have said that the sun's ascent is more rapid to the north of us1 where summer is almost wanting1 while the strength of winter is so overpowering that summer seems like a mere shadow1 and where in many places both snow and ice lie all through summer just as in winter1 as is true of ,iceland and particularly of ,greenland4 ,but ,i have heard that in the southlands there are no severe winters1 the sun being as hot in winter as it is with us in summer2 and that in winter1 when the sun has less power1 both grain and other crops grow1 while in summer the earth cannot endure the fervent heat of the sun and consequently yields neither grass nor grain2 so that in regions like ,apulia and even more so in the land of ,jerusalem the heat of summer causes as great distress as the cold of winter with us4 ,now when you tell me that the sun's path waxes faster here in the north than yonder in the south1 ,i cannot see the reason why2 for there the sun's heat is as great in winter as it is with us in summer2 and it is so much greater in summer that all vegetation on the earth is scorched by it4 ,therefore it seems to me more likely that the sun's path waxes most rapidly where the heat is most intense4 ,now if you can and will clear this up for me so that ,i can grasp it1 ,i shall listen gladly and attentively4 ,father4 ,i shall begin my talk on the subject that ,i am now to take up with a little illustration1 which may help you to a clearer insight1 since you find it so difficult to believe the facts as stated4 ,if you take a lighted candle and set it in a room1 you may expect it to light up the entire interior1 unless something should hinder1 though the room be quite large4 ,but if you take an apple and hang it close to the flame1 so near that it is heated1 the apple will darken nearly half the room or even more4 ,however1 if you hang the apple near the wall1 it will not get hot2 the candle will light up the whole house2 and the shadow on the wall where the apple hangs will be scarcely half as large as the apple itself4 ,from this you may infer that the earth-circle is round like a ball and not equally near the sun at every point4 ,but where the curved surface lies nearest the sun's path1 there will the greatest heat be2 and some of the lands that lie continuously under the unbroken rays cannot be inhabited4 ,on the other hand1 those lands which the sun approaches with slanting rays may readily be occupied2 and yet1 some of these are hotter than others according as they lie nearer the sun's path4 ,but when the curved and steep slope of the sphere-shaped wheel moves up before the light and the beams of the sun1 it will cast the deepest shadow where its curved surface lies nearest the sun2 and yet1 the lands nearest the sun are always hottest4#agb ,now ,i agree with you that ,apulia and ,jerusalem are hotter than our own country2 but you must know that there are places where the heat is greater than in either of those just mentioned1 for some countries are uninhabitable on account of the heat4 ,and ,i have heard it stated as a fact1 that even when the sun mounts highest1 the night in those regions is very dark and quite long4 ,from this you must conclude that where the strength and power of the sun are greater1 since it is nearer1 it must ascend and decline more slowly2 for the night is long in summer when the sun mounts highest1 and the day is long in winter when it sinks lowest4 ,now ,i shall explain this so clearly that you will understand it fully4 ,footnote #agb3 ,it is evident from this discussion that the author believes in a spherical earth2 elsewhere1 too1 he speaks of the sphere of earth 7jararbollr72 see c4 lvi4 ,you know that here with us in winter the day and the course of the sun are brief2 for so short is the sun's path that it passes through but a single region of the sky1 and then only where the sun has considerable strength4 ,but in many places the sun is not to be seen during a large part of winter1 for example in ,halogaland1#agc as we have not only heard tell but have often and constantly learned and observed with our own eyes4 ,for we know definitely that from about ,november #aj to ,january #aj there never comes a day so bright up north in ,vaag or at ,andenes#agd in ,halogaland but that the stars in the sky are visible at midday as at midnight4 ,and although the days have so much light that the stars cannot be seen1 nevertheless1 in most of the places that we have mentioned the sun remains invisible till ,january #bc4 ,but after that date the days lengthen and the sun mounts so rapidly1 that beginning with ,april #f daylight does not disappear before ,september #ag1 all the intervening time being one continuous day1 for daylight never fails in all that while4 ,from this you may safely conclude that1 though the sun is hotter in the southern lands that we spoke of earlier1 its course waxes and mounts more slowly where the night1 even at mid-summer1 is deep and long and dark1 and where there is never a time in the whole twelvemonth when day does not fail4 ,but in ,halogaland1 as ,i have just said1 there is no day in winter and stars are visible at midday when the day should be brightest2 later1 however1 when the days begin to lengthen1 they grow so rapidly that early in spring daylight begins to tarry all the night and continues till much of the autumn is past4 ,footnote #agc3 ,halogaland1 the modern ,nordland1 is that part of ,norway lying north of the sixty-fifth parallel4 ,footnote #agd3 ,vaag and ,andenes are points in the ,lofoten ,islands2 their latitudes are #fh #ab #ce and #fi #ah #ej respectively4 ,there remains one more proof which will seem very clear to you4 ,you know that in those localities in ,halogaland that we have just mentioned the sun about ,may #ae begins to shine with the same brightness by night as by day1 never setting either at night or during the day but shining continuously in this manner and with this brightness1 except when its light is obscured by clouds1 even to ,july #be4 ,now you know that the sun is only moderately warm in ,halogaland1 and that there is but a little time in summer when it gives sufficient warmth4 ,still1 there it is with its blazing disk about as long as we have just stated1 and it maintains the daylight about as long as we have just computed4 ,but neither fact is true of the southlands1 though the sun is hotter there4 ,now these facts give evidence that the sun is more distant here1 for it gives less heat4 ,they also testify to the waxing of its course1 for1 since its light is as bright by night as by day1 its path must lengthen more rapidly here4 ,but yonder it waxes less and more slowly1 for there the night has its prescribed period both for length and darkness in summer as well as in winter4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,viii ,,the ,,marvels ,,of ,,norway ,son4 ,i see this so clearly now that ,i can no longer gainsay that the sun mounts higher and more rapidly up the sky where there is almost no day in winter and the sunlight is so abundant in summer that it shines by night as well as by day throughout almost the entire season4 ,i also see that its course changes much less yonder where it rises high in winter and gives long days with much heat and sunshine1 though the night in summer is long and dark4 ,seafaring traders ought to note the differences precisely so as to be able to determine what seas they are upon1 whether they lie to the north or to the south4 ,and it seems unnecessary to inquire any further into these matters1 for ,i believe that ,i have had correct and sufficient answers4 ,now since we are wearied with profound questions and thoughtful discourse1 let us rest from these for a while and turn our conversation to matters of a lighter sort4 ,and even though ,i should inquire about things that are not so useful as those others1 which are of the highest utility1 ,i pray you for the sake of our intimacy to vouchsafe replies to such questions as ,i may ask2 for my mind is often as eager for amusement as for things of useful intent4 ,and it may seem restful in a long talk1 if a few questions come up that can stir the mind to gentle mirth4 ,i do not wish1 however1 to bring such themes into our talk unless you give me permission4 ,father4 ,i take it that you will ask no stupid questions1 seeing that you have thus far inquired into such matters only as seem very pertinent2 and you are therefore free to ask whatever you wish2 for if the questions do not seem appropriate1 we are at liberty to drop them as soon as we like4 ,son4 ,now that ,i am permitted to choose a topic for entertainment1 it occurs to me that ,i have asked too little about ,ireland1 ,iceland1 and ,greenland1 and all the wonders of those lands1 such as fire and strange bodies of water1 or the various kinds of fish and the monsters that dash about in the ocean1 or the boundless ice both in the sea and on the land1 or what the ,greenlanders call the 8northern lights10 or the 8sea-hedges0 that are found in the waters of ,greenland4 ,father4 ,i am not much disposed to discuss the wonders that exist among us here in the ,north1 though my reason may be rather trivial3 many a man is inclined to be suspicious and think everything fiction that he has not seen with his own eyes2 and therefore ,i do not like to discuss such topics1 if my statements are to be called fabrications later on1 even though ,i know them to be true beyond doubt1 inasmuch as ,i have seen some of these things with mine own eyes and have had daily opportunity to inquire about the others from men whom we know to be trustworthy and who have actually seen and examined them1 and therefore know them to be genuine beyond question4 ,my reason for bringing up this objection is that a little book has recently come into our country1 which is said to have been written in ,india and recounts the wonders of that country4 ,the book states that it was sent to ,emmanuel1 emperor of the ,greeks4#age ,now it is the belief of most men who have heard the book read1 that such wonders are impossible1 and that what is told in the book is mere falsehood4 ,but if our own country were carefully searched1 there would be found no fewer things here than are numbered in that book which would seem as wonderful1 or even more so1 to men of other lands who have not seen or heard anything like them4 ,now we call those things fiction because we had not seen them here or heard of them before the coming of that book which ,i have just mentioned4 ,that little book has1 however1 been widely circulated1 though it has always been questioned and charged with falsehood2 and it seems to me that no one has derived honor from it1 neither those who have doubted it nor the one who wrote it1 even though his work has been widely distributed and has served to amuse and tickle the ear1 seeing that what is written in it has always been called fiction4 ,footnote #age3 ,manuel ,i1 ,comnenus1 #aadc-aahj4 ,the 8little book0 is thought to have been one of the many forms of the legend of ,prester ,john1 a fabulous ,christian ruler of ,india of whom much was heard in the middle ages4 ,about #aafe a letter from the 8,presbyter ,johannes0 addressed to the emperor ,manuel ,comnenus was circulated through ,europe and later found its way into the ,north4 ,in the extant copies of this letter many marvels are told1 though the wonder mentioned in the ,speculum ,regale does not appear4 ,see ,zarncke1 ,der ,priester ,johannes1 #hc-ih4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,ix ,,popular ,,doubt ,,as ,,to ,,the ,,genuineness ,,of ,,marvels ,son4 ,of course ,i cannot know how widely our talks will travel either in our days or later2 and yet1 with your permission1 ,i will again ask the pleasure of hearing further speech concerning those matters that we might think strange in other lands1 but which we know are surely genuine4 ,and we need not be so very skeptical of this book which is said to have been written in ,india1 though many marvels are told in it2 for there are many things in our own country1 which1 though not strange to us1 would seem wonderful to other people1 if our words should fly so far as to come thither where such things are unheard of4 ,but if ,i should express surprise at any of those tales that are told in that book1 it seems to me not least wonderful that manikins are able to subdue those great winged dragons which infest the mountains and desert places there1 as the book tells us1 and tame them so completely that men are able to ride them just as they please like horses1 fierce and venomous beasts though they are said to be and not inclined to allow men in their neighborhood1 still less to be tamed and to do service4 ,father4 ,both such and many other tales are told in that book which seem so marvelous that many express their doubts about them2 but it seems to me that there is no need to compare the wonders that are described there with those that we have in our own country1 which would seem as strange to men yonder as those that you have just mentioned seem to us4 ,for it must be possible to tame wild beasts and other animals1 though they be fierce and difficult to manage4 ,but it would seem a greater marvel to hear about men who are able to tame trees and boards1 so that by fastening boards seven or eight ells long under his feet1 a man1 who is no fleeter than other men when he is barefooted or shod merely with shoes1 is made able to pass the bird on the wing1 or the fleetest greyhound that runs in the race1 or the reindeer which leaps twice as fast as the hart4 ,for there is a large number of men who run so well on skis that they can strike down nine reindeer with a spear1 or even more1 in a single run4 ,now such things must seem incredible1 unlikely1 and marvelous in all those lands where men do not know with what skill and cleverness it is possible to train the board to such great fleetness that on the mountain side nothing of all that walks the earth can escape the swift movements of the man who is shod with such boards4 ,but as soon as he removes the boards from his feet1 he is no more agile than any other man4 ,in other places1 where men are not trained to such arts1 it would be difficult to find a man1 no matter how swift1 who would not lose all his fleetness if such pieces of wood as we have talked about were bound to his feet4 ,we1 however1 have sure information and1 when snow lies in winter1 have opportunity to see men in plenty who are expert in this art4 ,not long since1 we mentioned a certain fact which must be thought exceedingly strange elsewhere1 as it runs wholly counter to the order which holds good in most places with respect to the change from night to day1 namely1 that here the sun shines as bright and fair and with as much warmth by night as by day through a large part of the summer4 ,in our own country1 in ,mre1 there is a bog called the ,bjarkudal bog1 which must also seem wonderful3 for every sort of wood that is thrown into it and left there three winters loses its nature as wood and turns into stone4#agf ,if it is thrown upon the fire1 it will glow like stone1 though before it would have burned like wood4 ,i have seen and handled many such stones of which the half that rose above the mire was wooden1 while the part submerged in the bog was wholly petrified4 ,now we must call that a marvel1 for the bog is located in a forest which is heavily wooded with young trees of all sorts2 and these are not injured so long as they are green and growing1 but as soon as one is hewn down and1 having begun to decay1 is thrown into the bog1 it turns into stone4 ,footnote #agf3 ,the 8,birchdale0 bog seems to be a myth2 but that stories of such a marvel were current is evident from a statement by ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 who has heard that there was such a bog in ,norway4 ,opera1 ,v1 #hf4 ,mre is an old ,norwegian shire lying to the west of ,trondhjem along the coast4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,x ,,the ,,natural ,,wonders ,,of ,,ireland ,son4 ,i am familiar with all these things since they are found in our own country1 and ,i have seen them all4 ,but ,i have no knowledge of all those other marvels which are to be found in ,iceland1 ,greenland1 and ,ireland1 and in the seas about those lands1 for of those things ,i have heard rumors only4 ,father4 ,those lands1 if we are to speak more fully about them1 differ much in character and are not all of the same appearance4 ,for the wonders of ,iceland and ,greenland consist in great frost and boundless ice1 or in unusual display of flame and fire1 or in large fishes and other sea monsters4 ,and these countries are everywhere barren and unfruitful and consequently almost unfit for habitation4 ,but ,ireland comes near being the best land that is known to man1 though the grape vine does not grow there4#agg ,and there are many marvels in ,ireland1 some of which are of such a character that this country may be called holier than all others4 ,footnote #agg3 ,cf4 ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 ,opera1 ,v1 #bf-bh4 ,giraldus quotes ,bede 7,historia ,ecclesiastica1 i1 c4 #a74 ,see also ,isidore1 ,etymologiae1 xiv1 #f4 ,the country lies on that side of the world where heat and cold are so well tempered that the weather is never very hot or very cold4 ,for all through the winter the cattle find their feed in the open1 and the inhabitants wear almost no clothes there either in winter or in summer4 ,and so holy is this land beyond all others that no venomous animal can exist there1 either snake or toad4#agh ,when such animals are brought in from other countries1 they die as soon as they touch the bare earth or rock4#agi ,and if wood1 earth1 or sand is taken from that country and brought to a land where venomous beasts are found1 and the sand or earth is strewn around them where they lie1 they will never be able to cross the circle but must remain within it and perish4 ,in the same way1 if you take a stick of wood which has come from the country of which we now speak and trace a circle around them with it by scratching the soil with the stick1 they will soon all lie dead within the circle4 ,it is told of ,ireland that men scarcely know of another island of equal size where there are so many holy men4 ,we are also told that the inhabitants of the country are by nature fierce and murderous and very immoral4 ,but bloodthirsty though they be1 they have never slain any of the saints who are so numerous in the land2 the holy men who have dwelt there have all died in sick bed4 ,for the ,irish have been kindly disposed toward all good and holy men1 though they have dealt savagely with each other4#ahj ,footnote #agh3 ,cf4 ,giraldus1 ,opera1 ,v1 #fb2 see also ,bede1 ,hist4 ,eccles41 i1 c4 #a4 ,footnote #agi3 8,wonders of ,ireland0 7,irish ,nennius1 #bai72 this writer states that the experiment has been made4 ,footnote #ahj3 ,giraldus tells us that the ,irish are faithless and treacherous 7,opera1 ,v1 #afe7 but that the island has no martyrs 7ibid41 #agd74 ,cf4 riu1 ,,iv1 #d 7,meyer1 8,irish ,memorabilia in the ,speculum ,regale074 ,there is a lake in that country concerning the nature of which strange tales are told2 it is called ,logechag#aha in the native speech4 ,it is quite an extensive lake and has this property1 that if you take a stick of the wood that some call holm and others holly but is called acrifolium#ahb in ,latin and fix it in the lake so that part of it is in the earth1 a part in the water1 and a part rising above1 the part in the earth will turn into iron1 the part in the water into stone1 while that which stands out above will remain as before4 ,but if you set any other sort of wood in the lake1 its nature will not change4#ahc ,footnote #aha3 ,the editor of the ,irish ,nennius gives this name as ,loch n-,echach 7,lough ,neagh74 ,p4 #aie1 note4 ,footnote #ahb3 ,error for aquifolium4 ,footnote #ahc3 ,see the 8,wonders of ,ireland0 7,irish ,nennius1 #aie7 where a similar account is given2 but according to this 8the part of it that sinks into the earth will be stone1 the part that remains in the water will be iron40 ,giraldus writes of a petrifying well 7fons7 in the north of ,ulster1 but gives no place name4 ,opera1 ,v1 #hf4 ,see also ,wright-,halliwell1 ,reliquiae ,antiquae1 ,,ii1 #ajc4 7,latin poem on the wonders of ,ireland47 ,again1 there are two springs on a mountain called ,blandina1#ahd which is almost a desert mountain2 these have a peculiar nature4 ,one of them has this property that if you take either a white sheep1 cow1 or horse1 or a man with white hair1 and wash any one of these with the water1 the white will immediately turn to coal black4 ,and such is the nature of the other spring in that place that if a man washes himself in its water1 his hair will turn to a snowy white as if he were an aged man1 no matter what its color be before1 whether red or white or black4#ahe ,footnote #ahd3 ,blandina 7,bladina1 ,bladma7 is the ,slieve ,bloom range in central ,ireland4 ,footnote #ahe3 ,giraldus has heard of such springs1 but he locates the one in ,ulster and the other in ,munster4 ,opera1 ,v1 #hd4 ,a spring that whitens hair is mentioned in ,wright-,halliwell1 ,reliquiae ,antiquae1 ,,ii1 #ajd1 and in the ,irish ,nennius1 #aie4 ,there is also a lake in that country which the natives call ,loycha4 ,in that lake there is what appears to be a little floating island2 for it floats about in the lake1 here and there approaching the shore sometimes so near that one may step out upon it2 and this occurs most frequently on ,sundays4 ,and such is the property of this islet that if one who is ill steps out upon it and partakes of the herbs that grow there1 he is healed at once1 no matter what his ailment may be4 ,another singular fact is this1 that never more than one can come upon it at one time1 though many may wish to do so2 for as soon as one has landed1 the island immediately floats away4 ,it also has this peculiarity that it floats constantly about in the lake for seven winters2 but as soon as the seventh winter is past1 it floats to the shore somewhere and unites with the other land1 as if it had always been joined to it4 ,but when that moment has come1 a crash like a peal of thunder is heard1 and1 when the din is past1 another island can be seen in the lake of the same size and character as the earlier one4 ,thus it happens regularly every seventh year that1 as soon as the one island has joined the mainland1 another appears1 though no one knows whence it comes4#ahf ,footnote #ahf3 ,see riu1 ,,iv1 #f4 ,kuno ,meyer knows of no such story in ,irish folklore1 but refers to similar tales told of floating islands in ,wales and ,scotland4 ,there is another little island in that country1 which the natives call ,inhisgluer4#ahg ,there is a large village on this island and also a church2 for the population is about large enough for a parish4 ,but when people die there1 they are not buried in the earth but are set up around the church along the churchyard fence1 and there they stand like living men with their limbs all shriveled but their hair and nails unmarred4 ,they never decay and birds never light on them4 ,and every one who is living is able to recognize his father or grandfather and all the successive ancestors from whom he has descended4 ,footnote #ahg3 ,inhisgluair1 now ,inishglory1 is on the west coast of ,ireland in county ,mayo4 ,giraldus mentions the legend but assigns it to a different locality2 see ,opera1 ,v1 #hc and note4 ,the ,irish ,nennius 7#aic7 adds that the nails and hair grow and that unsalted meat does not decay on the island4 ,the island is also referred to in the ,reliquiae ,antiquae1 ,,ii1 #ajc4 ,there is still another quite extensive lake that is called ,logri4#ahh ,in that lake is an islet inhabited by men who live a celibate life and may be called1 as one likes1 either monks or hermits2 they live there in such numbers that they fill the island1 though at times they are fewer4 ,it is said concerning this isle that it is healthful and quite free from diseases1 so that people grow aged more slowly there than elsewhere in the land4 ,but when one does grow very old and sickly and can see the end of the days allotted by the ,lord1 he has to be carried to some place on the mainland to die2 for no one can die of disease on the island4 ,one may sicken and suffer there1 but his spirit cannot depart from the body before he has been removed from the island4 ,footnote #ahh3 ,giraldus refers briefly to this legend4 ,opera1 ,v1 #ha4 ,the editor of ,giraldus' writings adds in a note 7ibid473 8the isle of the living was three miles from ,roscrea1 parish of ,cobally1 in a lake called ,loch ,cr1 now dried up40 ,roscrea is near the north edge of ,munster not far from the ,slieve ,bloom mountains4 ,see also the ,irish ,nennius1 #bag4 ,meyer identifies ,logri with ,loch ,ree in west central ,ireland4 riu1 ,,iv1 #g4 ,there is another large lake which the natives call ,logherne4#ahi ,in this lake there is a great abundance of fish of the sort that we call salmon2 and the fish is sent into all the country about in such quantities that all have plenty for table use4 ,in this lake there are also many islands1 one of which is called ,kertinagh by the natives4 ,this island might very well be inhabited1 as far as size is concerned1 if men dared occupy it4 ,but it is reported about this island that the powers of evil have as great authority over one-half of it as they have in hell itself4 ,venturesome men who have tried to settle there have said that they suffered as great trouble and torment as souls are believed to suffer in hell4 ,but on the other half of the island there is a church with a churchyard about it4 ,both halves are now deserted1 however1 though we are told that over the half where the church is the demons have no power4#aij ,footnote #ahi3 ,probably ,lough ,erne1 though ,loch ,uair1 now ,lough ,owel1 in ,westmeath has also been suggested4 ,footnote #aij3 ,giraldus calls this island the ,purgatory of ,saint ,patrick2 but this famous place was 8on an island in ,lough ,derg1 in county ,donegal40 ,opera1 ,v1 #hb-hc and note4 ,it seems likely1 however1 that two different legends have been confused in the ,welshman's account4 ,it once happened in that country 7and this seems indeed strange7 that a living creature was caught in the forest as to which no one could say definitely whether it was a man or some other animal2 for no one could get a word from it or be sure that it understood human speech4 ,it had the human shape1 however1 in every detail1 both as to hands and face and feet2 but the entire body was covered with hair as the beasts are1 and down the back it had a long coarse mane like that of a horse1 which fell to both sides and trailed along the ground when the creature stooped in walking4 ,i believe ,i have now recounted most of the marvels that have their origin in the nature of the land itself1 so far as we seem to have sure knowledge concerning them4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xi ,,irish ,,marvels ,,which ,,have ,,miraculous ,,origins ,son4 ,i consider it fortunate that ,i had some curiosity to know about these matters1 for there are no doubt many so ill-informed that they have never heard about such things4 ,most men who may hear these accounts are likely to find them marvelous1 though also somewhat informing4 ,but since ,i gather from your remarks that there may be certain other things that are wonderful and seem worth discussing1 either native to the land or having some other origin1 ,i wish to request that nothing be omitted which you consider worth mentioning1 now that we have taken up these subjects4 ,father4 ,there still remain certain things that may be thought marvelous2 these1 however1 are not native to the land but have originated in the miraculous powers of holy men1 and we know of a truth that these do exist4 ,certain things are told1 too1 of which we cannot be sure whether they are credible or merely the talk of men1 though they are common rumor in that country2 but what follows we know to be true beyond a doubt4 ,in that same lake that ,i mentioned earlier which is called ,logri1 lies a little island named ,inisclodran4 ,once there was a holy man named ,diermicius who had a church on the isle near which he lived4 ,into this church and churchyard of which he is the patron no female creature is allowed to enter4 ,all beasts are aware of this1 for both birds and other animals which are without human reason avoid it as carefully as humans do4 ,and no creature of the female sex ever ventures into that churchyard1 nor could it enter if it tried4#aia ,footnote #aia3 ,the holy island which is shunned by all females is mentioned by ,giraldus 7,opera1 ,v1 #hj-ha71 but he fails to give the name of either the lake or the island4 ,in the 8,wonders of ,ireland0 7,irish ,nennius1 #bag7 this island is also the one on which no one is permitted to die4 ,a similar legend is alluded to in ,reliquiae ,antiquae1 ,,ii1 #ajg4 ,meyer believes that 8the ,norse version offers a combination or confusion of two different ,irish stories1 one relating to ,diarmait's churchyard in ,inis ,clothrann1 and the other relating to an island on ,loch ,cr40 riu1 ,,iv1 #i4 ,once there was a holy man in that country named ,kevinus1 who lived in a place called ,glumelaga4#aib ,at the time he lived almost as a hermit1 and the event which we shall now relate occurred in his day4 ,it so befell that a young man was living with him1 a kinsman of his who was his servant1 and the saint loved the youth very much4 ,but the lad fell ill before his eyes1 and the malady grew so heavy and severe that death seemed imminent4 ,it was in the spring time1 in the month of ,march1 when the man's illness was at the worst4 ,then it happened that the youth asked his kinsman ,kevinus to give him an apple1 saying that he would find relief from his illness if he got what he asked for4 ,it seemed unlikely1 however1 that apples could be gotten in that season1 as the buds had only just begun to swell and sprout forth leaves on the fruit trees4 ,but because the holy ,kevinus grieved sorely over the illness of his kinsman1 and also because he was unable to procure what he had requested1 he knelt down in prayer and implored ,god to send him somewhat of those things1 so that his kinsman might find the relief that he yearned for4 ,having risen from prayer1 he stepped outside and looked around4 ,near the house stood a willow of large growth4 ,kevinus looked up among the branches of the willow as if expecting to find help and comfort there2 then he saw that apples had grown upon the willow1 just as there would be on an apple tree in the proper season4 ,he picked three apples and gave them to the youth1 and after the lad had eaten of these1 his illness began to leave him and he was cured of the malady4 ,but the willow has ever since continued to keep the gift that ,god gave it on that occasion1 for every year it bears apples like an apple tree2 and since that day these have always been called ,saint ,kevinus' apples4#aic ,they have been carried into all parts of ,ireland in order that those who are ill may partake of them2 and they seem to have virtue in all human ailments1 for those who eat of them appear to get relief4 ,but they are not sweet in taste and would not be wanted if men did not prize them for their healing properties4 ,many wonderful things have come to pass in ,ireland which certain highly endowed saints have brought about in an instant2 and these1 too1 must seem very marvelous4 ,thus far1 however1 we have spoken only of such things as have been achieved through a holiness so great that they remain as a testimony to this day and seem as wonderful now as on the day when they first occurred4 ,but those other matters that men regard as surely genuine and speak of as actual facts we may now proceed to point out4 ,footnote #aib3 ,glendalough4 ,st4 ,kevin was the founder of the great abbey of ,glendalough4 ,the year of his death is variously given as #fag and #fah4 ,footnote #aic3 ,for a less detailed account of ,saint ,kevin and the wonderful willow1 see ,giraldus1 ,opera1 ,v1 #aac4 ,cf4 riu1 ,,iv1 #i4 ,in that country there is also a place called ,themar1#aid which in olden times was apparently a capital or royal borough2 now1 however1 it is deserted1 for no one dares to dwell there4 ,it was this event that caused the place to be abandoned3 all the people in the land believed that the king who resided at ,themar would always render just decisions and never do otherwise2 although they were heathen in other respects and did not have the true faith concerning ,god1 they held firmly to their belief that every case would be decided properly if that king passed upon it2 and never1 they thought1 could an unrighteous decision come from his throne4 ,on what seems to have been the highest point of the borough1 the king had a handsome and well built castle in which was a large and beautiful hall1 where he was accustomed to sit in judgment4 ,but once it happened that certain lawsuits came before the king for decision in which his friends and acquaintances were interested on the one side1 and he was anxious to support their contentions in every way4 ,but those who were interested in the suits on the other side were hostile toward him1 and he was their enemy4 ,so the outcome was that the king shaped his decision more according to his own wish than to justice4 ,but because an unrighteous judgment had come whence all people expected just decisions and because of this popular belief1 the judgment seat was overturned and the hall and the castle likewise1 even to their very foundations4 ,the site1 too1 was overturned1 so that those parts of the earth which had formerly pointed downward were now turned upward2 and all the houses and halls were turned down into the earth and thus it has been ever since4 ,but because such a great miracle happened there1 no one has since dared to inhabit the place1 nor has any king ventured to set up his throne there2 and yet1 it is the loveliest place known in all that country4 ,it is also thought that if men should attempt to rebuild the town1 not a single day would pass without the appearance of some new marvel4 ,footnote #aid3 ,themar was the ancient royal seat ,temhair1 now ,tara4 ,it seems to be alluded to in ,reliquiae ,antiquae1 ,,ii1 #aje4 ,cf4 riu1 ,,iv1 #aj4 ,there is still another wonder in that country which must seem quite incredible2 nevertheless1 those who dwell in the land affirm the truth of it and ascribe it to the anger of a holy man4 ,it is told that when the holy ,patricius#aie preached ,christianity in that country1 there was one clan which opposed him more stubbornly than any other people in the land2 and these people strove to do insult in many ways both to ,god and to the holy man4 ,and when he was preaching the faith to them as to others and came to confer with them where they held their assemblies1 they adopted the plan of howling at him like wolves4 ,when he saw that he could do very little to promote his mission among these people1 he grew very wroth and prayed ,god to send some form of affliction upon them to be shared by their posterity as a constant reminder of their disobedience4 ,later these clansmen did suffer a fitting and severe though very marvelous punishment1 for it is told that all the members of that clan are changed into wolves for a period and roam through the woods feeding upon the same food as wolves2 but they are worse than wolves1 for in all their wiles they have the wit of men1 though they are as eager to devour men as to destroy other creatures4 ,it is reported that to some this affliction comes every seventh winter1 while in the intervening years they are men2 others suffer it continuously for seven winters all told and are never stricken again4#aif ,footnote #aie3 ,saint ,patrick4 ,footnote #aif3 ,see the poem on the 8,wonders of ,ireland0 7,reliquiae ,antiquae1 ,,ii1 #aje71 where this transformation is alluded to4 ,stories of men who have become wolves are also told in ,giraldus1 ,opera1 ,v1 #aja1 and in the ,irish ,nennius1 #bje2 but these differ widely from the account given above4 ,stories of werewolves and lycanthropy are found in folklore everywhere4 ,there is still another matter1 that about the men who are called 8gelts10#aig which must seem wonderful4 ,men appear to become gelts in this way3 when hostile forces meet and are drawn up in two lines and both set up a terrifying battle-cry1 it happens that timid and youthful men who have never been in the host before are sometimes seized with such fear and terror that they lose their wits and run away from the rest into the forest1 where they seek food like beasts and shun the meeting of men like wild animals4 ,it is also told that if these people live in the woods for twenty winters in this way1 feathers will grow upon their bodies as on birds2 these serve to protect them from frost and cold1 but they have no large feathers to use in flight as birds have4 ,but so great is their fleetness said to be that it is not possible for other men or even for greyhounds to come near them2 for those men can dash up into a tree almost as swiftly as apes or squirrels4 ,footnote #aig3 ,gelt 7gjalti7 is evidently a ,celtic loanword1 a form of the ,irish geilt1 meaning mad or madman4 ,cf4 the ,adventures of ,suibhne ,geilt1 translated by ,j4 ,g4 ,o',keefe4 ,suibhne was an ,irish king who lost his reason in battle and for years afterwards led a wild life in the woods4 ,o',keefe thinks that the author of the ,king's ,mirror must have heard the tale of ,suibhne 7pp4 xxxiv-xxxv74 ,see also riu1 ,,iv1 #ab4 ,there happened something once in the borough called ,cloena1#aih which will also seem marvelous4 ,in this town there is a church dedicated to the memory of a saint named ,kiranus4#aii ,one ,sunday while the populace was at church hearing mass1 it befell that an anchor was dropped from the sky as if thrown from a ship2 for a rope was attached to it1 and one of the flukes of the anchor got caught in the arch above the church door4 ,the people all rushed out of the church and marveled much as their eyes followed the rope upward4 ,they saw a ship with men on board floating before the anchor cable2 and soon they saw a man leap overboard and dive down to the anchor as if to release it4 ,the movements of his hands and feet and all his actions appeared like those of a man swimming in the water4 ,when he came down to the anchor1 he tried to loosen it1 but the people immediately rushed up and attempted to seize him4 ,in this church where the anchor was caught1 there is a bishop's throne4 ,the bishop was present when this occurred and forbade his people to hold the man2 for1 said he1 it might prove fatal as when one is held under water4 ,as soon as the man was released1 he hurried back up to the ship2 and when he was up the crew cut the rope and the ship sailed away out of sight4 ,but the anchor has remained in the church since then as a testimony to this event4#bjj ,footnote #aih3 ,kuno ,meyer identifies ,cloena with ,clonmacnois4 riu1 ,,iv1 #ab4 ,clonmacnois is in ,king's county eight miles southwest of ,athlone4 ,footnote #aii3 ,st4 ,ciaran 7,kiranus7 of ,clonmacnois was the founder of a great monastery there4 ,the year of his death is given as #edg4 ,footnote #bjj3 ,in the ,irish ,nennius 7#baa-bac7 the following version of this tale appears4 8,congalach1 son of ,maelmithig1 was at the fair of ,teltown on a certain day1 when he saw a ship 7sailing7 along in the air4 ,one of the crew cast a dart at a salmon4 ,the dart fell down in the presence of the gathering1 and a man came out of the ship after it4 ,when he seized its end from above1 a man from below seized it from below4 ,upon which the man from above said3 #8,i am being drowned1' said he4 #8,let him go1' said ,congalach2 and he is allowed to go up1 and then he goes from them swimming40 ,the translation is by ,kuno ,meyer3 riu1 ,,iv1 #ac4 ,congalach was an ,irish king 7#idd-ief72 ,teltown is in county ,meath4 ,the legend is alluded to in ,reliquiae ,antiquae1 ,,ii1 #aje1 with some difference in details4 ,i believe we have now mentioned all the features of this country that are most worth discussing4 ,but there is one other matter that ,i can tell about1 if you wish1 for the sport or amusement of it4 ,long time ago a clownish fellow lived in that country2 he was a ,christian1 however1 and his name was ,klefsan4#bja ,it is told of this one that there never was a man who1 when he saw ,klefsan1 was not compelled to laugh at his amusing and absurd remarks4 ,even though a man was heavy at heart1 he could not restrain his laughter1 we are told1 when he heard that man talk4 ,but ,klefsan fell ill and died and was buried in the churchyard like other men4 ,he lay long in the earth until the flesh had decayed from his bones1 and his bones1 too1 were largely crumbled4 ,then it came to pass that other corpses were buried in the same churchyard1 and graves were dug so near the place where ,klefsan lay that his skull was unearthed1 and it was whole4 ,they set it up on a high rock in the churchyard1 where it has remained ever since4 ,but whoever comes to that place and sees that skull and looks into the opening where the mouth and tongue once were immediately begins to laugh1 even though he were in a sorrowful mood before he caught sight of that skull4 ,thus his dead bones make almost as many people laugh as he himself did when alive4 ,now ,i know of no further facts about that country which appear to be suitable materials with which to lengthen a talk like this4 ,footnote #bja3 ,a somewhat different version of this tale is found in the poem on the 8,wonders of ,ireland0 7,reliquiae ,antiquae1 ,,ii1 #aje74 ,see also riu1 ,,iv1 #ad4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xii ,,the ,,marvels ,,of ,,the ,,icelandic ,,seas3 ,,whales2 ,,the ,,kraken ,son4 ,now since we have discussed everything in ,ireland that may be counted marvelous1 let us have a talk about ,iceland and the wonders that are found in the ,icelandic seas4 ,father4 ,aside from the whales in the ocean1 there are1 ,i should say1 but few things in the ,icelandic waters which are worth mentioning or discussing4 ,the whales vary much both in kind and size4 ,those that are called blubber-cutters--and they are the most numerous--grow to a length of twenty ells2#bjb a great many of them are1 however1 so small that they measure only ten ells2 the rest are in between1 each having its own size4 ,these fishes have neither teeth nor whalebone1 nor are they dangerous either to ships or men1 but are rather disposed to avoid the fishermen4 ,nevertheless1 they are constantly being caught and driven to land by the hundreds1 and where many are caught1 they provide much food for men4#bjc ,there are also other varieties of small whales1 such as the porpoise1 which is never longer than five ells1 and the caaing whale1 which has a length of seven ells only4 ,footnote #bjb3 ,an ell was approximately eighteen inches4 ,footnote #bjc3 ,whale fishing is an ancient industry in ,norway2 it is mentioned as early as the ninth century in the writings of ,alfred the ,great4 ,see ,nansen1 ,in ,northern ,mists1 ,i1 #agb4 ,there is another kind of whales called the grampus1 which grow no longer than twelve ells and have teeth in proportion to their size very much as dogs have4 ,they are also ravenous for other whales just as dogs are for other beasts4 ,they gather in flocks and attack large whales1 and1 when a large one is caught alone1 they worry and bite it till it succumbs4 ,it is likely1 however1 that this one1 while defending itself with mighty blows1 kills a large number of them before it perishes4 ,there are two other varieties1 the beaked whale and the 8hog whale10 the largest of which are not more than twenty-five ells in length4 ,these are not fit to be eaten1 for the fat that is drawn from them cannot be digested either by man or by any beast that may partake of it4 ,for it runs through them and even through wood2 and after it has stood a while1 scarcely any vessel can contain it1 even if made of horn4 ,there are certain other types which are worth a passing mention only1 namely the 8raven whale0 and the white whale4#bjd ,the white whales are so named because of their snow white color1 while most other varieties are black1 except that some of them have spots1 such as the 8shield whale10 the 8spear whale10 and the baleen whale4 ,all these kinds that ,i have just mentioned may be freely eaten and many other kinds too4 ,footnote #bjd3 ,probably the beluga1 also called white whale4 ,the other varieties named in this paragraph1 excepting the beaked whale and the baleen whale seem not to have been identified with any known types of whales4 ,it has been suggested that some of them may have been sharks4 ,see ,nansen1 ,in ,northern ,mists1 ,,ii1 #bdc4 ,there is another sort of whales called the 8fish driver10#bje which is perhaps the most useful of all to men2 for it drives the herring and all other kinds of fish in toward the land from the ocean outside1 as if appointed and sent by the ,lord for this purpose4 ,this is its duty and office as long as the fishermen keep the peace on the fishing grounds4 ,its nature is also peculiar in this1 that it seemingly knows how to spare both ships and men4 ,but when the fishermen fall to quarreling and fighting1 so that blood is spilt1 this whale seems able to perceive it2 for it moves in between the land and the fish and chases the shoals back into the ocean1 just as it earlier had driven them in toward the men4 ,these whales are not more than thirty ells in length1 or forty at the very largest4 ,they would provide good food1 if men were allowed to hunt them1 but no one is permitted to catch or harm them1 since they are of such great and constant service to men4 ,footnote #bje3 ,the editor of the ,sor edition identifies this with the nor-caper 7,balna glacialis71 though he thinks it possible that the fin-fish 7,balnoptera laticeps7 may be meant 7p4 #abe74 ,another kind is called the sperm whale4 ,these are toothed whales1 though the teeth are barely large enough to be carved into fair-sized knife handles or chess men4 ,they are neither fierce nor savage1 but rather of a gentle nature1 and so far as possible they avoid the fishermen4 ,in size they are about like those that ,i mentioned last4 ,their teeth are so numerous that more than seventy can be found in the head of a single whale of this sort4 ,still another species is called the right whale2#bjf this has no fins along the spine and is about as large as the sort that we mentioned last4 ,sea-faring men fear it very much1 for it is by nature disposed to sport with ships4 ,footnote #bjf3 ,balna mysticetus2 also called bowhead or ,greenland whale4 ,there is another kind called the ,greenland shark1#bjg which is peculiar in this1 that it has caul and fat in the abdomen like cattle4 ,the largest of these whales grow to a length of thirty ells at most4 ,footnote #bjg3 ,it is possible that the basking sharks are meant rather than the ,greenland sharks2 they are larger than the ,greenland sharks1 but do not seem to be common in the ,arctic waters4 ,there are certain varieties that are fierce and savage toward men and are constantly seeking to destroy them at every chance4 ,one of these is called the 8horse whale10 and another the 8red comb40#bjh ,they are very voracious and malicious and never grow tired of slaying men4 ,they roam about in all the seas looking for ships1 and when they find one they leap up1 for in that way they are able to sink and destroy it the more quickly4 ,these fishes are unfit for human food2 being the natural enemies of mankind1 they are1 in fact1 loathsome4 ,the largest of this type never grow more than thirty or forty ells in length4 ,footnote #bjh3 ,the 8horse whale0 and the 8red comb0 have not been identified4 ,there is still another sort called the narwhal1 which may not be eaten for fear of disease1 for men fall ill and die if they eat of it4 ,this whale is not large in size2 it never grows longer than twenty ells4 ,it is not at all savage but rather tries to avoid fishermen4 ,it has teeth in its head1 all small but one which projects from the front of the upper jaw4 ,this tooth is handsome1 well formed1 and straight as an onion stem4 ,it may grow to a length of seven ells and is as even and smooth as if shaped with a tool4 ,it projects straight forward from the head when the whale is traveling2 but sharp and straight though it is1 it is of no service as a defensive weapon2 for the whale is so fond and careful of its tusk that it allows nothing to come near it4 ,i know of no other varieties of whales that are unfit for human food1 only these five that ,i have now enumerated3 the two that ,i mentioned first were the beaked whale and the 8hog whale20 the three mentioned later were the 8horse whale10 the 8red comb10 and the narwhal4 ,there are certain varieties of even greater size which ,i have not yet described2 and all those that ,i shall now discuss may be eaten by men4 ,some of them are dangerous for men to meet1 while others are gentle and peaceable4 ,one of these is called humpback2 this fish is large and very dangerous to ships4 ,it has a habit of striking at the vessel with its fins and of lying and floating just in front of the prow where sailors travel4 ,though the ship turn aside1 the whale will continue to keep in front1 so there is no choice but to sail upon it2 but if a ship does sail upon it1 the whale will throw the vessel and destroy all on board4 ,the largest of these fishes grow to a length of seventy or eighty ells2 they are good to eat4 ,then there is that kind which is called the ,greenland whale4#bji ,this fish grows to a length of eighty or even ninety ells and is as large around as it is long2 for a rope that is stretched the length of one will just reach around it where it is bulkiest4 ,its head is so large that it comprises fully a third of the entire bulk4 ,this fish is very cleanly in choice of food2 for people say that it subsists wholly on mist and rain and whatever falls into the sea from the air above4 ,when one is caught and its entrails are examined1 nothing is found in its abdomen like what is found in other fishes that take food1 for the abdomen is empty and clean4 ,it cannot readily open and close its mouth1 for the whalebone which grows in it will rise#baj and stand upright in the mouth when it is opened wide2 and consequently whales of this type often perish because of their inability to close the mouth4 ,this whale rarely gives trouble to ships4 ,it has no teeth and is fat and good to eat4 ,footnote #bji3 ,this is another name for the right whale described above2 the author's classification in this case must have been based on size only4 ,footnote #baj3 ,the author seems to believe that the whalebone rises from the lower jaw or the floor of the mouth2 as a matter of fact it is fastened to the palate4 ,then there is a kind of whale called the rorqual1 and this fish is the best of all for food4 ,it is of a peaceful disposition and does not bother ships1 though it may swim very close to them4 ,this fish is of great size and length2 it is reported that the largest thus far caught have measured thirteen times ten ells1 that is1 one hundred and thirty ells by the ten-count4 ,because of its quiet and peaceful behavior it often falls a prey to whale fishers4 ,it is better for eating and smells better than any of the other fishes that we have talked about1 though it is said to be very fat2 it has no teeth4 ,it has been asserted1 too1 that if one can get some of the sperm of this whale and be perfectly sure that it came from this sort and no other1 it will be found a most effective remedy for eye troubles1 leprosy1 ague1 headache1 and for every other ill that afflicts mankind4 ,sperm from other whales also makes good medicine1 though not so good as this sort4 ,and now ,i have enumerated nearly all the varieties of whales that are hunted by men4 ,there is a fish not yet mentioned which it is scarcely advisable to speak about on account of its size1 which to most men will seem incredible4 ,there are1 moreover1 but very few who can tell anything definite about it1 inasmuch as it is rarely seen by men2 for it almost never approaches the shore or appears where fishermen can see it1 and ,i doubt that this sort of fish is very plentiful in the sea4 ,in our language it is usually called the 8kraken40 ,i can say nothing definite as to its length in ells1 for on those occasions when men have seen it1 it has appeared more like an island than a fish4 ,nor have ,i heard that one has ever been caught or found dead4 ,it seems likely that there are but two in all the ocean and that these beget no offspring1 for ,i believe it is always the same ones that appear4 ,nor would it be well for other fishes if they were as numerous as the other whales1 seeing that they are so immense and need so much food4 ,it is said1 that when these fishes want something to eat1 they are in the habit of giving forth a violent belch1 which brings up so much food that all sorts of fish in the neighborhood1 both large and small1 will rush up in the hope of getting nourishment and good fare4 ,meanwhile the monster keeps it mouth open1 and inasmuch as its opening is about as wide as a sound or fjord1 the fishes cannot help crowding in in great numbers4 ,but as soon as its mouth and belly are full1 the monster closes its mouth and thus catches and shuts in all the fishes that just previously had rushed in eagerly to seek food4#baa ,footnote #baa3 ,the kraken myth probably came to the ,north with the legend of ,st4 ,brendan1 an ,irish abbot1 who was believed to have made a journey into the ,atlantic about the middle of the sixth century4 ,the oldest extant form of the legend1 the ,navigatio ,brendani1 dates from the eleventh century4 ,for earlier versions of the myth see ,nansen1 ,in ,northern ,mists1 ,,ii1 #bcd4 ,now we have mentioned and described most of those things in the ,icelandic waters that would be counted wonderful1 and among them a few that are more plentiful in other seas than in those which we have just discussed4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xiii ,,the ,,wonders ,,of ,,iceland ,son4 ,now since we have named most of the species of fish that roam about in the ocean1 those that are worth mentioning or discussing1 ,i should like to hear about those features of the land itself that are most worthy of mention4 ,what do you think of the extraordinary fire which rages constantly in that country8 ,does it rise out of some natural peculiarity of the land1 or can it be that it has its origin in the spirit world8 ,and what do you think about those terrifying earthquakes that can occur there1 or those marvelous lakes1 or the ice which covers all the higher levels8 ,father4 ,as to the ice that is found in ,iceland1 ,i am inclined to believe that it is a penalty which the land suffers for lying so close to ,greenland2 for it is to be expected that severe cold would come thence1 since ,greenland is ice-clad beyond all other lands4 ,now since ,iceland gets so much cold from that side and receives but little heat from the sun1 it necessarily has an over-abundance of ice on the mountain ridges4 ,but concerning the extraordinary fires which burn there1 ,i scarcely know what to say1 for they possess a strange nature4 ,i have heard that in ,sicily there is an immense fire of unusual power which consumes both earth and wood4 ,i have also heard that ,saint ,gregory has stated in his ,dialogues#bab that there are places of torment#bac in the fires of ,sicily4 ,but men are much more inclined to believe that there must be such places of torment in those fires in ,iceland4 ,for the fires in ,sicily feed on living things1 as they consume both earth and wood4 ,trees live2 they grow and put forth green leaves2 but they dry up and wither when they begin to die2 therefore1 since they die when they wither1 they must be called living while they are green4 ,the earth1 too1 must be called living1 inasmuch as it sometimes yields much fruitage2 and as soon as one crop is fallen into decay1 it gives new growth4 ,all living creatures1 too1 are formed of earth1 and therefore it surely must be called living4 ,both these things1 earth and wood1 the fires of ,sicily can burn and consume as nourishment4 ,the fire of ,iceland1 however1 will burn neither earth nor wood1 though these be cast upon it2 but it feeds upon stone and hard rock and draws vigor from these as other fires do from dry wood4 ,and never is rock or stone so hard but that this fire will melt it like wax and then burn it like fat oil4 ,but when a tree is cast upon the fire1 it will not burn but be scorched only4 ,now since this fire feeds on dead things only and rejects everything that other fires devour1 it must surely be said that it is a dead fire2 and it seems most likely that it is the fire of hell1 for in hell all things are dead4 ,footnote #bab3 ,dialogorum ,libri ,,iv4 ,pope ,gregory died in #fjd4 ,the ,icelandic version of ,gregory's ,dialogues is published in ,heilagra ,manna ,sgur1 ,i4 ,footnote #bac3 ,it is difficult to determine whether the author uses 8places of torment0 as a term for hell or for purgatory2 it seems probable1 however1 that in this case hell is meant4 ,i am also disposed to believe that certain bodies of water in ,iceland must be of the same dead nature as the fire that we have described4 ,for there are springs which boil furiously all the time both winter and summer4 ,at times the boiling is so violent that the heated water is thrown high into the air4 ,but whatever is laid near the spring at the time of spouting1 whether it be cloth or wood or anything else that the water may touch when it falls down again1 will turn to stone4 ,this seems to lead to the conclusion that this water must be dead1 seeing that it gives a dead character to whatever it sprinkles and moistens2 for the nature of stone is dead4 ,but if the fire should not be dead but have its origin in some peculiarity of the country1 the most reasonable theory as to the formation of the land seems to be that there must be many veins1 empty passages1 and wide cavities in its foundations4 ,at times it may happen that these passages and cavities will be so completely packed with air1 either by the winds or by the power of the roaring breakers1 that the pressure of the blast cannot be confined1 and this may be the origin of those great earthquakes that occur in that country4#bad ,now if this should seem a reasonable or plausible explanation1 it may be that the great and powerful activity of the air within the foundations of the earth also causes those great fires to be lit and to appear1 which burst forth in various parts of the land4#bae ,footnote #bad3 ,for the history of this theory see above1 pp4 #ag-ah4 ,footnote #bae3 ,the number of volcanoes in ,iceland is variously given1 but the more reliable authorities give #ajg4 ,now it must not be regarded as settled that the facts are as we have just said2 we have merely tried to bring together and compare various opinions in order to determine what seems most reasonable4 ,for we see that all fire originates in force4 ,if a hard stone is stricken against hard iron1 fire comes out of the iron and out of the energy of the stroke when they clash4 ,you can also rub pieces of wood against each other in such a way that their antagonism will produce fire4 ,it also happens frequently that two winds rising at the same time will go against each other2 and when they meet in the air1 heavy blows fall1 and these blows give forth a great fire which spreads widely over the sky4#baf ,at times it also happens that this fire is driven to the earth where it causes much damage by burning houses and sometimes forests and ships at sea4 ,but all the fires that ,i have now named1 whether they come from iron1 or winds colliding in the air1 or any of those mighty forces which can produce fire1 will consume trees1 forests1 and earth3 while the fire which we discussed earlier and which appears in ,iceland refuses all these things1 as ,i have already shown4 ,now these facts lead to this conclusion as to its nature1 that it is more likely to have arisen from dead things or from like sources1 than those other fires that we have now discussed4 ,and in case it is as we have imagined1 it is likely that the great earthquakes of that country originate in the power of those mighty fires that well through the bowels of the land4 ,footnote #baf3 ,the common belief of medieval scientists was that lightning was caused by the collision of clouds4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xiv ,,the ,,volcanic ,,fires ,,of ,,iceland ,son4 ,i should like very much1 with your permission1 to ask further about this fire4 ,you stated earlier in your remarks that ,gregory has written in his ,dialogues that there are places of torment in ,sicily2 but to me it seems more likely that those places are in ,iceland4 ,you also said that so vast are the fires in the bowels of the land that earthquakes arise out of their violent movements2 but if the fires are so destructive to stone and rock that it melts them like wax and feeds wholly upon them1 ,i should imagine that it would soon consume all the foundations beneath the land and all the mountains as well4 ,though you may think ,i am asking childish questions about these things1 still ,i entreat you to give indulgent replies2 for1 of course1 one can ask many questions that reveal youth rather than wisdom4 ,father4 ,i have no doubt that there are places of torment in ,iceland even in places where there is no burning2 for in that country the power of frost and ice is as boundless as that of fire4 ,there are those springs of boiling water which we have mentioned earlier4 ,there are also ice-cold streams which flow out of the glaciers with such violence that the earth and the neighboring mountains tremble2 for when water flows with such a swift and furious current1 mountains will shake because of its vast mass and overpowering strength4 ,and no men can go out upon those river banks to view them unless they bring long ropes to be tied around those who wish to explore1 while farther away others sit holding fast the rope1 so that they may be ready and able to pull them back if the turbulence of the current should make them dizzy4 ,now it seems evident to me that wherever such a great violence appears and in such terrible forms1 there surely must be places of torment4 ,and ,god has made such great and terrifying things manifest upon earth to man1 not only that men may be the more vigilant1 and may reflect that these tortures are indeed heavy to think upon1 although after they depart this life they will have to suffer those that they see while still on earth2 but even more to make them reflect that greater still are the things invisible1 which they are not permitted to see4 ,but these things are a testimony1 that it is not untrue what we have been told1 that those men who will not beware of evil deeds and unrighteousness1 while they live on earth1 may expect to suffer torment when they leave this world4 ,for many a simple-minded man might think that all this was mere deception unworthy of notice and told merely to terrify1 if there were no such evidence as what we have now pointed out4 ,but now no one can deny what he sees before his own eyes1 since we hear exactly the same things about the tortures of hell as those which one can see on the island called ,iceland3 for there are vast and boundless fire1 overpowering frost and glaciers1 boiling springs1 and violent ice-cold streams4#bag ,footnote #bag3 ,the belief that hell was a region of extreme cold as well as of heat was common in the middle ages4 ,the author of the ,king's ,mirror probably derived his ideas of hell in part from the ,old ,norse version of the ,elucidarium of ,honorius of ,autun4 ,see ,annaler for nordisk ,oldkyndighed1 #aheg1 #bib4 ,but what you suggested just now1 namely that this fire is likely to melt and consume the mountains and the foundations of the earth1 so that the entire land will be destroyed1 that cannot come to pass before the time that ,god has appointed4 ,for neither this created force nor any other governs itself2 but all things are compelled to move as ,god's providence has ordained from the beginning4 ,and you will understand this better if ,i take up certain events that can be used to illustrate these things4 ,when the lord of death wished to tempt ,job1 he had no power to do so before he had asked permission2 and when this had been granted1 he did not have power to carry out his will farther than the permission extended2 for he would gladly have slain ,job at once1 if that had been allowed4 ,he was allowed to take away ,job's wealth and he took it all at the first stroke2 but he was not permitted to destroy the man himself4 ,as he yearned for permission to tempt him even more severely than he had already1 he was suffered to carry out his will upon ,job's body and upon all the possessions that belonged to him4 ,but he was not permitted to separate soul from body1 before the hour should come that ,he had fixed1 ,who has all power over life and destiny4 ,but as soon as ,satan had received permission to carry out his desires upon ,job1 he showed immediately how eager he was to act in such matters as were within his power4 ,for it is written that ,satan took away from ,job his abundant wealth and his seven sons and three daughters1 and smote his body with terrible leprosy from the crown to the sole of his feet4 ,now the meaning of this 7which ought to be noted carefully in our minds7 is that the ,lord of life has power over all things and is kindly disposed2 while the lord of death has an evil will1 but has power over nothing1 except as he receives authority beforehand from ,him ,who rules over all1 ,who is ,almighty ,god4 ,the devil can1 therefore1 injure no one to such an extent that he is consumed either by the fires of death which he has kindled and continues to maintain by means of dreadful earthquakes1 or by such other fiendish enmity or malignity as he delights in4 ,for he is allowed to do nothing more than the task at hand1 as is evident from what ,i have just related about the case of ,job4 ,and if it should be thought necessary to cite several examples in one speech1 it will be found that instances of this sort are both plentiful and convincing4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xv ,,other ,,icelandic ,,wonders3 ,,ore ,,and ,,mineral ,,springs ,son4 ,it seems evident that the more examples ,i can hear you cite of the sort that leads to knowledge1 the better it will be2 and from the instance that you have just given ,i can see clearly that if ,satan was not able to carry out his will against one man1 except as far as he was permitted1 he will surely have even less power to carry out his desires against many thousands1 either by his own effort or through a servant1 except as far as permission has been given4 ,now if we are to go on with this entertaining conversation1 as we have been doing1 ,i should like to know1 whether there are any other things about this island which you think are worth discussing or which seem remarkable4 ,father4 ,we have already mentioned nearly everything in ,iceland that is really worth noticing2 but there are a few other things which ,i may discuss1 if you wish4 ,in that country there is an abundance of the ore that iron is made of3 it is called 8swamp-ore0 in the speech of the people there1 and the same term is used among ourselves4 ,it has happened at times that great deposits of this ore have been found1 and men have prepared to go thither the next day to smelt it and make iron of it1 only to find it gone1 and none can tell what becomes of it4 ,this is called the 8ore-marvel0 in that country4 ,there is still another marvel that men wonder at4 ,it is reported that in ,iceland there are springs which men call ale-springs4 ,they are so called because the water that runs from them smells more like ale than water2 and when one drinks of it1 it does not fill as other water does1 but is easily digested and goes into the system like ale4 ,there are several springs in that country that are called ale-springs2 but one is the best and most famous of all2 this one is found in the valley called ,hiterdale4#bah ,it is told about this spring1 or the water flowing from it1 that it tastes exactly like ale and is very abundant4 ,it is also said that if drunk to excess1 it goes into one's head4 ,if a house is built over the spring it will turn aside from the building and break forth somewhere outside4 ,it is further held that people may drink as much as they like at the spring2 but if they carry the water away1 it will soon lose its virtue and is then no better than other water1 or not so good4 ,now we have discussed many and even trifling things1 because in that country they are thought marvelous2 and ,i cannot recall anything else in ,iceland that is worth mentioning4 ,footnote #bah3 ,mineral springs yielding carbonated waters are found in ,iceland1 though they are not numerous4 ,the ,hiterdale spring is probably mythical4 ,see ,herrmann1 ,island1 ,i1 #ff4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xvi ,,the ,,marvels ,,of ,,the ,,waters ,,about ,,greenland3 ,,monsters1 ,,seals1 ,,and ,,walruses ,son4 ,now that we have entered upon this interesting conversation and have spoken of the marvels that are found in ,iceland and the ,icelandic seas1 let us close it by calling to mind what is worth noting in the waters of ,greenland or in the land itself and the wonders that are to be seen there4 ,father4 ,it is reported that the waters about ,greenland are infested with monsters1 though ,i do not believe that they have been seen very frequently4 ,still1 people have stories to tell about them1 so men must have seen or caught sight of them4 ,it is reported that the monster called merman is found in the seas of ,greenland4 ,this monster is tall and of great size and rises straight out of the water4 ,it appears to have shoulders1 neck and head1 eyes and mouth1 and nose and chin like those of a human being2 but above the eyes and the eyebrows it looks more like a man with a peaked helmet on his head4 ,it has shoulders like a man's but no hands4 ,its body apparently grows narrower from the shoulders down1 so that the lower down it has been observed1 the more slender it has seemed to be4 ,but no one has ever seen how the lower end is shaped1 whether it terminates in a fin like a fish or is pointed like a pole4 ,the form of this prodigy has1 therefore1 looked much like an icicle4 ,no one has ever observed it closely enough to determine whether its body has scales like a fish or skin like a man4 ,whenever the monster has shown itself1 men have always been sure that a storm would follow4 ,they have also noted how it has turned when about to plunge into the waves and in what direction it has fallen2 if it has turned toward the ship and has plunged in that direction1 the sailors have felt sure that lives would be lost on that ship2 but whenever it has turned away from the vessel and has plunged in that direction1 they have felt confident that their lives would be spared1 even though they should encounter rough waters and severe storms4 ,another prodigy called mermaid#bai has also been seen there4 ,this appears to have the form of a woman from the waist upward1 for it has large nipples on its breast like a woman1 long hands and heavy hair1 and its neck and head are formed in every respect like those of a human being4 ,the monster is said to have large hands and its fingers are not parted but bound together by a web like that which joins the toes of water fowls4 ,below the waist line it has the shape of a fish with scales and tail and fins4 ,it is said to have this in common with the one mentioned before1 that it rarely appears except before violent storms4 ,its behavior is often somewhat like this3 it will plunge into the waves and will always reappear with fish in its hands2 if it then turns toward the ship1 playing with the fishes or throwing them at the ship1 the men have fears that they will suffer great loss of life4 ,the monster is described as having a large and terrifying face1 a sloping forehead and wide brows1 a large mouth and wrinkled cheeks4 ,but if it eats the fishes or throws them into the sea away from the ship1 the crews have good hopes that their lives will be spared1 even though they should meet severe storms4 ,footnote #bai3 ,the belief that mermaids lived in the ,arctic waters was one that was long held by ,european navigators4 ,henry ,hudson reports that on his voyage into the ,arctic in #afjh 7,june #ae7 some of his men saw a mermaid4 8,this morning one of our companie looking over boord saw a mermaid1 and calling up some of the companie to see her1 one more came up and by that time shee was come close to the ships side1 looking earnestly on the men3 a little after a sea came and overturned her3 from the navill upward her backe and breasts were like a womans1 as they say that saw her2 her body as big as one of us2 her skin very white1 and long haire hanging downe behind of colour blacke3 in her going downe they saw her tayle1 which was like the tayle of a porposse and speckled like a macrell40 ,asher1 ,henry ,hudson1 #bh4 ,now there is still another marvel in the seas of ,greenland1 the facts of which ,i do not know precisely4 ,it is called 8sea hedges10#bbj and it has the appearance as if all the waves and tempests of the ocean have been collected into three heaps1 out of which three billows are formed4 ,these hedge in the entire sea1 so that no opening can be seen anywhere2 they are higher than lofty mountains and resemble steep1 overhanging cliffs4 ,in a few cases only have the men been known to escape who were upon the seas when such a thing occurred4 ,but the stories of these happenings must have arisen from the fact that ,god has always preserved some of those who have been placed in these perils1 and their accounts have afterwards spread abroad1 passing from man to man4 ,it may be that the tales are told as the first ones related them1 or the stories may have grown larger or shrunk somewhat4 ,consequently1 we have to speak cautiously about this matter1 for of late we have met but very few who have escaped this peril and are able to give us tidings about it4 ,footnote #bbj3 ,the ,danish scientist ,i4 ,japetus ,s4 ,steenstrup has shown in his paper 8,hvad er ,kongespeilets ,havgjerdinger80 that this phenomenon is produced by sea quakes4 ,the three huge waves did not form a triangle as the author's account would seem to imply2 they were three successive waves rolling in toward the shore4 ,steenstrup argues chiefly from the behavior of sea quakes in modern times4 ,aarbger for nordisk ,oldkyndighed og ,historie1 #ahga4 ,in that same ocean there are many other marvels1 though they cannot be reckoned among the prodigies4 ,as soon as one has passed over the deepest part of the ocean1 he will encounter such masses of ice in the sea1 that ,i know no equal of it anywhere else in all the earth4 ,sometimes these ice fields are as flat as if they were frozen on the sea itself4 ,they are about four or five ells thick and extend so far out from the land that it may mean a journey of four days or more to travel across them4 ,there is more ice to the northeast and north of the land than to the south1 southwest1 and west2 consequently1 whoever wishes to make the land should sail around it to the southwest and west1 till he has come past all those places where ice may be looked for1 and approach the land on that side4#bba ,it has frequently happened that men have sought to make the land too soon and1 as a result1 have been caught in the ice floes4 ,some of those who have been caught have perished2 but others have got out again1 and we have met some of these and have heard their accounts and tales4 ,but all those who have been caught in these ice drifts have adopted the same plan3 they have taken their small boats and have dragged them up on the ice with them1 and in this way have sought to reach land2 but the ship and everything else of value had to be abandoned and was lost4 ,some have had to spend four days or five upon the ice before reaching land1 and some even longer4 ,footnote #bba3 ,the settled portion of ,greenland is in the southern part on the west coast4 ,the author wishes to say that a ship sailing from ,norway to ,greenland must round ,cape ,farewell and proceed some distance up the west coast before trying to make land4 ,for a discussion of the conditions of settlement in ,greenland and the navigation of the waters about ,greenland1 see ,hovgaard1 ,the ,voyages of the ,norsemen to ,america1 c4 ii2 ,nansen1 ,in ,northern ,mists1 cc4 vii1 viii4 ,these ice floes have peculiar habits4 ,sometimes they lie as quiet as can be1 though cut apart by creeks or large fjords2 at other times they travel with a speed so swift and violent that a ship with a fair wind behind is not more speedy2 and when once in motion1 they travel as often against the wind as with it4 ,there is also ice of a different shape which the ,greenlanders call icebergs4 ,in appearance these resemble high mountains rising out of the sea2 they never mingle with other ice but stand by themselves4 ,in those waters there are also many of those species of whales which we have already described4 ,it is claimed that there are all sorts of seals1 too1 in those seas1 and that they have a habit of following the ice1 as if abundant food would never be wanting there4 ,these are the species of seals that are found there4 ,one is called the 8corse seal20 its length is never more than four ells4 ,there is another sort called the 8erken-seal10#bbb which grows to a length of five ells or six at the very longest4 ,then there is a third kind which is called the 8flett seal10 which grows to about the same length as those mentioned above4 ,there is still a fourth kind1 called the bearded seal1 which occasionally grows to a length of six ells or even seven4 ,in addition there are various smaller species1 one of which is called the saddleback2#bbc it has this name because it does not swim on the belly like other seals but on the back or side2 its length is never more than four ells4 ,there remains the smallest kind1 which is called the 8short seal0 and is not more than two ells in length4 ,it has a peculiar nature2 for it is reported that these seals can pass under flat ice masses four or even five ells thick and can blow up through them2 consequently they can have large openings where-ever they want them4 ,footnote #bbb3 ,this is called haverkn in modern ,norse and seems to be the same as the grey seal3 ,halichoerus gryphus4 ,see ,nansen1 ,in ,northern ,mists1 ,,ii4 #aee4 ,footnote #bbc3 ,also called the harp seal3 ,phoca ,grnlandica4 ,there still remains another species which the ,greenlanders count among the whales1 but which1 it seems to me1 ought rather to be classed with the seals4#bbd ,these are called walrus and grow to a length of fourteen ells or fifteen at the very highest4 ,in shape this fish resembles the seal both as to hair1 head1 skin1 and the webbed feet behind2 it also has the swimming feet in front like the seal4 ,its flesh like that of other seals must not be eaten on fast days4 ,its appearance is distinguished from that of other seals in that it has1 in addition to the other small teeth1 two large and long tusks1 which are placed in the front part of the upper jaw and sometimes grow to a length of nearly an ell and a half4 ,its hide is thick and good to make ropes of2 it can be cut into leather strips of such strength that sixty or more men may pull at one rope without breaking it4 ,the seals that we have just discussed are called fish because they find their food in the sea and subsist upon other fishes4 ,they may be freely eaten1 though not like the whales1 for whale flesh may be eaten on fast days like other fish food1 while these fishes may be eaten only on the days when flesh food is allowed4 ,now ,i know of nothing else in the waters of ,greenland which seems worth mentioning or reporting1--only those things that we have just discussed4 ,footnote #bbd3 ,this observation accords with modern scientific classification4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xvii ,,the ,,animal ,,life ,,of ,,greenland ,,and ,,the ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,land ,,in ,,those ,,regions ,son4 ,these things must seem wonderful to all who may hear of them1--both what is told about the fishes and that about the monsters which are said to exist in those waters4 ,now ,i understand that this ocean must be more tempestuous than all other seas2 and therefore ,i think it strange that it is covered with ice both in winter and in summer1 more than all other seas are4 ,i am also curious to know why men should be so eager to fare thither1 where there are such great perils to beware of1 and what one can look for in that country which can be turned to use or pleasure4 ,with your permission ,i also wish to ask what the people who inhabit those lands live upon2 what the character of the country is1 whether it is ice-clad like the ocean or free from ice even though the sea be frozen2 and whether corn grows in that country as in other lands4 ,i should also like to know whether you regard it as mainland or as an island1 and whether there are any beasts or such other things in that country as there are in other lands4 ,father4 ,the answer to your query as to what people go to seek in that country and why they fare thither through such great perils is to be sought in man's threefold nature4 ,one motive is fame and rivalry1 for it is in the nature of man to seek places where great dangers may be met1 and thus to win fame4 ,a second motive is curiosity1 for it is also in man's nature to wish to see and experience the things that he has heard about1 and thus to learn whether the facts are as told or not4 ,the third is desire for gain2 for men seek wealth wherever they have heard that gain is to be gotten1 though1 on the other hand1 there may be great dangers too4 ,but in ,greenland it is this way1 as you probably know1 that whatever comes from other lands is high in price1 for this land lies so distant from other countries that men seldom visit it4 ,and everything that is needed to improve the land must be purchased abroad1 both iron and all the timber used in building houses4 ,in return for their wares the merchants bring back the following products3 buckskin1 or hides1 sealskins1 and rope of the kind that we talked about earlier which is called 8leather rope0 and is cut from the fish called walrus1 and also the teeth of the walrus4 ,as to whether any sort of grain can grow there1 my belief is that the country draws but little profit from that source4 ,and yet there are men among those who are counted the wealthiest and most prominent who have tried to sow grain as an experiment2 but the great majority in that country do not know what bread is1 having never seen it4 ,you have also asked about the extent of the land and whether it is mainland or an island2 but ,i believe that few know the size of the land1 though all believe that it is continental and connected with some mainland1 inasmuch as it evidently contains a number of such animals as are known to live on the mainland but rarely on islands4 ,hares and wolves are very plentiful and there are multitudes of reindeer4 ,it seems to be generally held1 however1 that these animals do not inhabit islands1 except where men have brought them in2 and everybody seems to feel sure that no one has brought them to ,greenland1 but that they must have run thither from other mainlands4 ,there are bears1 too1 in that region2 they are white1 and people think they are native to the country1 for they differ very much in their habits from the black bears that roam the forests4 ,these kill horses1 cattle1 and other beasts to feed upon2 but the white bear of ,greenland wanders most of the time about on the ice in the sea1 hunting seals and whales and feeding upon them4 ,it is also as skillful a swimmer as any seal or whale4 ,in reply to your question whether the land thaws out or remains icebound like the sea1 ,i can state definitely that only a small part of the land thaws out1 while all the rest remains under the ice4 ,but nobody knows whether the land is large or small1 because all the mountain ranges and all the valleys are covered with ice1 and no opening has been found anywhere4 ,but it is quite evident that there are such openings1 either along the shore or in the valleys that lie between the mountains1 through which beasts can find a way2 for they could not run thither from other lands1 unless they should find open roads through the ice and the soil thawed out4 ,men have often tried to go up into the country and climb the highest mountains in various places to look about and learn whether any land could be found that was free from ice and habitable4 ,but nowhere have they found such a place1 except what is now occupied1 which is a little strip along the water's edge4 ,there is much marble in those parts that are inhabited2 it is variously colored1 both red and blue and streaked with green4 ,there are also many large hawks in the land1 which in other countries would be counted very precious1--white falcons1 and they are more numerous there than in any other country2 but the natives do not know how to make any use of them4#bbe ,footnote #bbe3 ,in the thirteenth century1 the century of the ,king's ,mirror1 falconry was a favorite sport of the ,european nobility and there seems to have been some demand for ,norwegian hawks4 ,in the ,close ,rolls of the reign of ,henry ,,iii there are allusions to gifts of hawks sent by the king of ,norway to the ,english king4 ,see above p4 #bi4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xviii ,,the ,,products ,,of ,,greenland ,son4 ,you stated earlier in your talk that no grain grows in that country2 therefore ,i now want to ask you what the people who inhabit the land live on1 how large the population is1 what sort of food they have1 and whether they have accepted ,christianity4 ,father4 ,the people in that country are few1 for only a small part is sufficiently free from ice to be habitable2 but the people are all ,christians and have churches and priests4 ,if the land lay near to some other country it might be reckoned a third of a bishopric2 but the ,greenlanders now have their own bishop1#bbf as no other arrangement is possible on account of the great distance from other people4 ,you ask what the inhabitants live on in that country since they sow no grain2 but men can live on other food than bread4#bbg ,it is reported that the pasturage is good and that there are large and fine farms in ,greenland4 ,the farmers raise cattle and sheep in large numbers and make butter and cheese in great quantities4 ,the people subsist chiefly on these foods and on beef2 but they also eat the flesh of various kinds of game1 such as reindeer1 whales1 seals1 and bears4 ,that is what men live on in that country4 ,footnote #bbf3 ,the diocese of ,gardar in ,greenland was established about #aaaj4 ,for an account of the ,norwegian colony in ,greenland see ,gjerset1 ,history of the ,norwegian ,people1 ,i1 #aig-bjd4 ,footnote #bbg3 ,cf4 the papal letter of ,alexander ,,vi1 written in #adib4 ,olson and ,bourne1 ,the ,northmen1 ,columbus1 and ,cabot1 #gc-gd4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xix ,,the ,,climate ,,of ,,greenland2 ,,the ,,northern ,,lights ,son4 ,i believe ,i still have some questions to ask about this country4 ,how do you account for the fact that ,greenland and the ocean that lies about it have greater masses of ice than any other land or sea8 ,for ,i gather from what you have said that the ocean is deep and also very salt and always in commotion2 and ,i did not suppose that it could freeze readily there1 since1 where the ocean is deep and the water is salt1 ice forms with difficulty1 especially when the sea is in turmoil and the waves roll high4 ,but now ,i hear about these waters that we have just talked about and likewise about the land1 that there is never an interval when the land or the sea is not covered with ice1 except that occasionally an opening appears here and there in the ice field2 but this is due to the stirring of the sea and not to the heat4 ,now since the land is constantly frozen over in both winter and summer1 ,i wish to ask you to tell me exactly how the climate is in ,greenland3 whether there is any warmth or fair sunshine as in other lands1 or if the weather is always unpleasant1 and whether that is what causes the excessive ice and frost4 ,i should like to have you clear this matter up for me along with those things that ,i asked about earlier in our conversation1 and what that thing is which the ,greenlanders call the northern lights4#bbh ,all these questions ,i should like to have you answer1 and also this1 in what part of the world you believe that country to be located3 whether it lies somewhere on the edge of the world or about some large bend in the ocean like other extensive lands1 seeing that you think it is joined to other mainlands4 ,footnote #bbh3 ,we should infer from the form of this question and from the later discussion of the northern lights that this phenomenon was not prominent in ,norway in the thirteenth century4 ,there seem to be periods when these 8lights0 are less in evidence than at other times4 ,but it should also be noted that the author discusses whales in connection with ,greenland and ,iceland only1 though it is extremely likely that whales were not unknown on the shores of ,norway4 ,father4 ,the matters about which you have now inquired ,i cannot wholly clear up for you1 inasmuch as ,i have not yet found any one who has knowledge of the entire 8home-circle0#bbi and its dimensions and who has explored the whole earth on all its sides1 or the nature of the lands and the landmarks located there4 ,if ,i had ever met such a man1 one who had seen and examined these things1 ,i should have been able to give you full information about them4 ,but ,i can at least tell you what those men have conjectured who have formed the most reasonable opinions4 ,footnote #bbi3 ,the 8home-circle0 7kringla heimsins7 was the ,old ,norse translation for the ,latin orbis terrae1 orb of the earth4 ,the men who have written best concerning the nature of the earth1 following the guidance of ,isidore and other learned men1#bcj state that there are certain zones on the heavens under which men cannot live4 ,one is very hot and1 because of the glowing heat which burns everything that comes beneath it1 people cannot exist under this zone4 ,it seems reasonable that this is the broad path of the sun1 and ,i believe it is because this zone is pervaded with the sun's flaming rays that no one who wishes only a moderately warm dwelling place can live beneath it4 ,these writers have also said concerning two other zones in the sky that under them too the land is uninhabitable2 because1 on account of their frigidity1 it is no more comfortable to dwell under them than under the first mentioned where the heat is torrid4 ,for there the cold has developed such a power that water casts aside its nature and turns into ice masses2 in this way all those lands become ice-cold1 and the seas too1 that lie under either of these two zones4 ,from this ,i conclude that there are five zones in the heavens3 two under which the earth is habitable1 and three under which it is uninhabitable4 ,footnote #bcj3 ,isidore of ,seville 7d4 #fcf7 discusses the five zones in his ,etymologiae1 iii1 c4 xliv2 xiii1 c4 vi2 and in his ,de ,natura ,rerum1 c4 x4 ,the editors of the ,sor edition suggest that the 8other learned men0 may be ,macrobius and ,martianus ,capella1 the famous encyclopedists of the fifth century 7p4 #aie74 ,but as these writers preceded ,isidore by nearly two centuries1 it is unlikely that their works were more than indirect sources for the scientific statements in the ,speculum ,regale4 ,it is more probable that the reference is to such writers as ,bede1 ,rabanus ,maurus1 and ,honorius of ,autun1 though it is impossible to specify what authority was followed4 ,now all the land that lies under the zones between the hot and the cold belts can be occupied2 but it is likely that owing to location the lands differ somewhat1 so that some are hotter than others2 the hottest being those that are nearest the torrid belt4 ,but lands that are cold1 like ours1 lie nearer the frigid zones1 where the frost is able to use its chilling powers4 ,now in my opinion it seems most probable that the hot zone extends from east to west in a curved ring like a flaming girdle around the entire sphere4 ,on the other hand1 it is quite probable that the cold zones lie on the outer edges of the world to the north and south3 and in case ,i have thought this out correctly1 it is not unlikely that ,greenland lies under the frigid belt2 for most of those who have visited ,greenland testify that there the cold has received its greatest strength4 ,moreover1 both sea and land bear testimony in their very selves that there the frost and the overpowering cold have become dominant1 for both are frozen and covered with ice in summer as well as in winter4 ,it has been stated as a fact that ,greenland lies on the outermost edge of the earth toward the north2 and ,i do not believe there is any land in the home-circle beyond ,greenland1 only the great ocean that runs around the earth4 ,and we are told by men who are informed that alongside ,greenland the channel is cut through which the wide ocean rushes into the gap that lies between the land masses and finally branches out into fjords and inlets which cut in between the lands wherever the sea is allowed to flow out upon the earth's surface4 ,you asked whether the sun shines in ,greenland and whether there ever happens to be fair weather there as in other countries2 and you shall know of a truth that the land has beautiful sunshine and is said to have a rather pleasant climate4 ,the sun's course varies greatly1 however2 when winter is on1 the night is almost continuous2 but when it is summer1 there is almost constant day4 ,when the sun rises highest1 it has abundant power to shine and give light1 but very little to give warmth and heat2 still1 it has sufficient strength1 where the ground is free from ice1 to warm the soil so that the earth yields good and fragrant grass4 ,consequently1 people may easily till the land where the frost leaves1 but that is a very small part4 ,but as to that matter which you have often inquired about1 what those lights can be which the ,greenlanders call the northern lights1 ,i have no clear knowledge4 ,i have often met men who have spent a long time in ,greenland1 but they do not seem to know definitely what those lights are4 ,however1 it is true of that subject as of many others of which we have no sure knowledge1 that thoughtful men will form opinions and conjectures about it and will make such guesses as seem reasonable and likely to be true4 ,but these northern lights have this peculiar nature1 that the darker the night is1 the brighter they seem2 and they always appear at night but never by day1--most frequently in the densest darkness and rarely by moonlight4 ,in appearance they resemble a vast flame of fire viewed from a great distance4 ,it also looks as if sharp points were shot from this flame up into the sky2 these are of uneven height and in constant motion1 now one1 now another darting highest2 and the light appears to blaze like a living flame4 ,while these rays are at their highest and brightest1 they give forth so much light that people out of doors can easily find their way about and can even go hunting1 if need be4 ,where people sit in houses that have windows1 it is so light inside that all within the room can see each other's faces4 ,the light is very changeable4 ,sometimes it appears to grow dim1 as if a black smoke or a dark fog were blown up among the rays2 and then it looks very much as if the light were overcome by this smoke and about to be quenched4 ,but as soon as the smoke begins to grow thinner1 the light begins to brighten again2 and it happens at times that people think they see large sparks shooting out of it as from glowing iron which has just been taken from the forge4 ,but as night declines and day approaches1 the light begins to fade2 and when daylight appears1 it seems to vanish entirely4 ,the men who have thought about and discussed these lights have guessed at three sources1 one of which1 it seems1 ought to be the true one4 ,some hold that fire circles about the ocean and all the bodies of water that stream about on the outer sides of the globe2 and since ,greenland lies on the outermost edge of the earth to the north1 they think it possible that these lights shine forth from the fires that encircle the outer ocean4 ,others have suggested that during the hours of night1 when the sun's course is beneath the earth1 an occasional gleam of its light may shoot up into the sky2 for they insist that ,greenland lies so far out on the earth's edge that the curved surface which shuts out the sunlight must be less prominent there4 ,but there are still others who believe 7and it seems to me not unlikely7 that the frost and the glaciers have become so powerful there that they are able to radiate forth these flames4 ,i know nothing further that has been conjectured on this subject1 only these three theories that ,i have presented2 as to their correctness ,i do not decide1 though the last mentioned looks quite plausible to me4 ,i know of no other facts about ,greenland that seem worth discussing or mentioning1 only those that we have talked about and what we have noted as the opinions of well-informed men4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xx ,,the ,,subject ,,of ,,the ,,northern ,,lights ,,continued ,son4 ,everything that you have told here seems wonderful to me1 though also very instructive1 and this fact most of all1 that men1 as you have pointed out1 are able to leave the earth1 as it were1 and view for themselves the boundaries which ,god has drawn amid such great perils4 ,your last remark1 however1 suggests that there is yet a little matter to inquire about along this same line4 ,in speaking of those three conjectures you said that you think it most likely that these lights have their origin in frost and ice2 but just before in describing their appearance1 you added that now and then fog and dark mist resembling smoke would mount up among these lights4 ,but even if the cold should be so prevalent there as to give rise to these lights with their fire-like rays1 ,i cannot help wondering whence that smoke can come which sometimes appears to shade and becloud the light till it seems almost quenched2 for to me it seems more likely that the smoke is due to heat than to frost4 ,there is one more thing that looks strange to me which you mentioned earlier in your speech1 namely that you consider ,greenland as having a good climate1 even though it is full of ice and glaciers4 ,it is hard for me to understand how such a land can have a good climate4 ,father4 ,when you say1 in asking about the smoke that sometimes appears to accompany the northern lights1 that you think it more likely that the smoke comes from heat than from cold1 ,i agree with you4 ,but you must also know that wherever the earth is thawed under the ice1 it always retains some heat down in the depths4 ,in the same way the ocean under the ice retains some warmth in its depths4 ,but if the earth were wholly without warmth or heat1 it would be one mass of ice from the surface down to its lowest foundations4 ,likewise1 if the ocean were without any heat1 it would be solid ice from the surface to the bottom4 ,now large rifts may appear in the ice that covers the land as well as openings in the ice upon the sea4 ,but wherever the earth thaws out and lies bare1 whether in places where there is no ice or under the yawning rifts in the glacier1 and wherever the sea lies bare in the openings that have formed in the ice1 there steam is emitted from the lower depths2 and it may be that this vapor collects and appears like smoke or dark fog2 and that1 whenever it looks as if the lights are about to be quenched by smoke or fog1 it is this vapor that collects before them4 ,in reply to your remark about the climate of ,greenland1 that you think it strange that it is called a good climate1 ,i shall tell you something about the nature of the land4 ,when storms do come1 they are more severe than in most other places1 both with respect to keen winds and vast masses of ice and snow4 ,but usually these spells of rough weather last only a short while and come at long intervals only4 ,in the meantime the weather is fair1 though the cold is intense4 ,for it is in the nature of the glacier to emit a cold and continuous breath which drives the storm clouds away from its face so that the sky above is usually clear4#bca ,but the neighboring lands often have to suffer because of this2 for all the regions that lie near get severe weather from this ice1 inasmuch as all the storms that the glacier drives away from itself come upon others with keen blasts4 ,now if this is clear to you1 ,i believe there is no need of giving any further explanation of the subject than what you have now heard4 ,footnote #bca3 ,by glacier the author evidently means the great inland ice masses4 ,on the effect of this inland ice on the climate of ,greenland and neighboring regions1 see ,nansen1 ,in ,northern ,mists1 ,,ii1 #bdg4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xxi ,,the ,,zones ,,of ,,heat ,,and ,,cold ,son4 ,these things are all clear to me and it seems reasonable that they should be as you say4 ,still1 there are a few things that you mentioned a little earlier in your talk1 which ,i wish to ask about1 if you permit4 ,you said that both sides of the earth are cold1 the southern as well as the northern4 ,but ,i hear it said by all men who come from the regions to the south that the farther south one travels1 the hotter the lands are4 ,likewise all the winds that come from the south are both moister and milder than other winds4 ,in the winter those winds always bring a good thaw1 while other winds are so cold that they bring frost1 and ice is formed4 ,and during the summer the south wind is still warmer than other winds4 ,now if my questions do not tire you and ,i do not seem to ask too much1 ,i should like to have you answer this question too4 ,father4 ,when ,i told you that in the skies three belts are traced under which it is difficult to cross1 one torrid and two frigid1 ,i added that the hot belt curves from east to west4 ,but if ,i have stated this correctly1 it will be evident that the cold must be as severe in the southern parts as in the northern4#bcb ,i believe1 however1 that all the regions lying near the hot belt1 whether on the south side or on the north1 are also hot2 but ,i believe those lands to be frigid which lie very far in either direction4 ,you have stated that all men tell us that the farther south one travels1 the greater the heat2 but that1 ,i believe1 is due to the fact that you have never found any one who has traveled as far south of the hot belt as those lands which we have now talked of lie to the north4 ,you have also said that the winds which come from a southerly direction are warmer than the rest4 ,but it is reasonable that the south wind should be warm when it reaches us1 even though it comes from the frozen south side of the earth1 for it blows through the curved ring of the torrid belt4#bcc ,consequently1 though it blows cold from the south1 it is warm when it emerges on the northern side4 ,and if people live as near the cold belt on the southern side as the ,greenlanders do on the northern1 ,i firmly believe that the north wind blows as warm to them as the south wind to us4 ,for they must look north to see the midday and the sun's whole course1 just as we1 who dwell north of the sun1 must look to the south4 ,footnote #bcb3 ,cf4 ,macrobius1 #fja4 8444 for both the northern and the southern extremities lie stiff with perpetual frost1 and they are like two zones with which the earth is girdled1 but narrow as if they were circlets drawn about the farthest regions40 ,footnote #bcc3 ,macrobius states the same belief in quite similar terms3 the south wind comes from a frozen clime just as the north wind does2 but 8since it comes to us through the flames of the torrid zone and mixes with the fire1 it becomes hot1 so that what was cold in the beginning comes to us with warmth40 7,p4 #fjc47 ,we have said earlier that in winter the sun's course here is short1 but of such extraordinary length in summer that we then have day nearly all the time4 ,from this you may conclude that the sun's path is quite broad and that its course is not narrow and straight as if it were always following a certain line4 ,as soon as it reaches the outer edge of its sloping circuit toward the south1 those who live on the extreme side of the world to the south have summer and long sun paths1 while we have winter and little sunlight4 ,and when the sun comes to the extreme edge of its circuit to the north1 we have long-continued sunshine1 while they have cold winter4 ,for it is always this way1 that the sun rises higher in the north when its path declines in the south3 and when its course begins to decline in the north1 it begins to wax on the southern side4 ,you should also know that the change from day to night is due to the movements of the sun4 ,for some places have midday when others have midnight2 and the day dawns and brightens in some places just when darkness begins and night falls in other places4#bcd ,for the day and the light always follow the sun1 while the shadows flee from it2 still they follow after it as it moves away2 and there is always night where the shadows are1 but always day where the light is4 ,now if you understand all these things that we have discussed in these hours1 the change in day and night1 the course of the sun1 and all the other matters that we have talked about1 you may count yourself thoroughly prepared for the trader's calling1 inasmuch as few only have had more instruction in these subjects than you have had4 ,footnote #bcd3 ,cf4 ,capella1 ,satiricon1 #bjd4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xxii ,,the ,,winds ,,with ,,respect ,,to ,,navigation ,son4 ,i should indeed consider it highly informing1 if ,i could remember all the things that you have now told me4 ,i gather from your remarks1 however1 that you seem to think that ,i have asked about too many things in these our talks4 ,but if you are not wearied with my questions1 there still remains a little matter which1 with your permission1 ,i should like to ask about1 one that also seems to belong to the knowledge of seafarers4 ,in a talk some time ago you said that whoever wishes to be a merchant ought to be prepared early in spring1 and be careful not to remain out at sea too late in the autumn2 but you did not indicate the earliest time in the spring when you think one may risk a journey over-seas to other countries1 nor how late you consider it safe to sail the seas in autumn4 ,you told how the ocean manages to quiet its storms1 but you did not show under what circumstances it begins to grow restless4 ,therefore ,i would fain ask you again to answer this question1 even if it does annoy you1 for ,i think that a time may come when it will seem both needful to know this and instructive to understand it4 ,father4 ,the matters to which you are now referring can scarcely be grouped under one head2 for the seas are not all alike1 nor are they all of equal extent4 ,small seas have no great perils1 and one may risk crossing them at almost any time2 for one has to make sure of fair winds to last a day or two only1 which is not difficult for men who understand the weather4 ,and there are many lands where harbors are plentiful as soon as the shore is reached4 ,if the circumstances are such that a man can wait for winds in a good haven or may confidently expect to find good harbors as soon as he has crossed1 or if the sea is so narrow that he needs to provide for a journey of only a day or two1 then he may venture to sail over such waters almost whenever he wishes4 ,but where travel is beset with greater perils1 whether because the sea is wide and full of dangerous currents1 or because the prow points toward shores where the harbors are rendered insecure by rocks1 breakers1 shallows1 or sand bars1--wherever the situation is such1 one needs to use great caution2 and no one should venture to travel over such waters when the season is late4 ,now as to the time that you asked about1 it seems to me most correct to say that one should hardly venture over-seas later than the beginning of ,october4 ,for at that time the sea begins to grow very restless1 and the tempests always increase in violence as autumn passes and winter approaches4 ,and about the time when we date the sixteenth of ,october1 the east wind begins to look sorrowful and thinks himself disgraced1 now that his headgear1 the golden crown1 is taken away4 ,he puts a cloud-covered hat on his head and breathes heavily and violently1 as if mourning a recent loss4 ,but when the southeast wind sees how vexed his neighbor is1 he is stricken with a double grief3 the one sorrow is that he fears the same deprivation as the east wind has suffered2 the other is grief over the misfortunes of his good and estimable neighbor4 ,stirred by the distress of a resentful mind1 he knits his brows under the hiding clouds and blows the froth violently about him4 ,when the south wind sees the wrath of his near neighbors1 he wraps himself in a cloud-lined mantle in which he conceals his treasures and his wealth of warm rays and blows vigorously as if in terrifying defence4 ,and when the southwest wind observes how friendship has cooled1 now that the truce is broken1 he sobs forth his soul's grief in heavy showers1 rolls his eyes above his tear-moistened beard1 puffs his cheeks under the cloudy helmet1 blows the chilling scud violently forward1 leads forth huge billows1 wide-breasted waves1 and breakers that yearn for ships1 and orders all the tempests to dash forward in angry contest4 ,but when the west wind observes that a wrathful blast and a sorrowful sighing are coming across to him from the east1 whence formerly he was accustomed to receive shining beams with festive gifts1 he understands clearly that the covenant is broken and that all treaties are renounced4 ,deeply grieved and pained because of the unpeace1 he puts on a black robe of mourning over which he pulls a cloud-gray cloak1 and1 sitting with wrinkled nose and pouting lips1 he breathes heavily with regretful care4 ,and when the ill-tempered northwest wind observes how sorrowful his neighbors look1 and sees how he himself has suffered the loss of the evening beauty which he was formerly accustomed to display1 he shows at once his temper in stern wrath3 he knits his brows fiercely1 throws rattling hail violently about1 and sends forth the rolling thunder with terrifying gleams of lightning1 thus displaying on his part a fearful and merciless anger4 ,but when the north wind misses the friendliness and the kind gifts which he was wont to get from the south wind1 he seeks out his hidden treasures and displays the wealth that he has most of3 he brings out a dim sheen which glitters with frost1 places an ice-cold helmet on his head above his frozen beard1 and blows hard against the hail-bearing cloud-heaps4 ,but the chill northeast wind sits wrathful with snowy beard and breathes coldly through his wind-swollen nostrils4 ,glaring fiercely under his rimy brows1 he wrinkles his cheeks beneath his cold and cloudy temples1 puffs his jowl with his icy tongue1 and blows the piercing drift-snow vigorously forth4 ,but since peace has been broken among these eight chiefs and the winds are stirred to stormy violence1 it is no longer advisable for men to travel over-seas from shore to shore because of great perils3 the days shorten2 the nights grow darker2 the sea becomes restless2 the waves grow stronger and the surf is colder2 showers increase and storms arise2 the breakers swell and the shores refuse good harbors2 the sailors become exhausted1 the lading is lost1 and there is great and constant destruction of life due to a too great venturesomeness2 souls are placed in perils of judgment because of recklessness and sudden death4 ,therefore all sensible men should beware and not venture upon the sea too late in the season2 for there are many dangers to look out for and not one alone1 if a man dares too much at such times4 ,consequently1 the better plan is to sail while summer is at its best2 for one is not likely to meet misfortune if there has been careful and wise forethought4 ,but it would surely pass all expectations if that were to succeed which was foolishly advised and planned at the beginning1 though sometimes the outcome may be favorable4 ,i consider it a more sensible plan for a man to remain quiet as long as much danger may be looked for1 and to enjoy during the winter in proper style and in restful leisure what he labored to win during the summer1 than to risk in a little while through his own obstinate contriving the loss of all the profit which he strove to gain in the summer4 ,but first of all a man must have care for his own person2 for he can have no further profit1 if it fares so ill that he himself goes under4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xxiii ,,the ,,proper ,,season ,,for ,,navigation4 ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,part ,son4 ,i did wisely to continue my inquiries when we had our last talk2 for you have given replies which will be useful as well as instructive for all who have the sense to understand and profit by such matters as we have discussed4 ,but ,i wish to ask you again to tell me briefly how early in the spring and at what stated time you think one may venture to travel over-seas to other shores1 just as ,i asked in my earlier inquiries4 ,father4 ,men may venture out upon almost any sea except the largest as early as the beginning of ,april4 ,for at the time when we date the sixteenth of ,march1 the days lengthen1 the sun rises higher1 and the nights grow shorter4 ,the north wind gently clears up the face of heaven with a light and cool breeze1 brushes away the restless and storm-laden clouds1 and with blithe persuasiveness asks for a new covenant4 ,then peace is renewed among the winds1 for they all yearn for rest after the season of violent wrath and wearisome blasts2 so they make a covenant once more in the way that we told earlier when we described the peace making4 ,the showers cease1 the waves sink to rest1 the breakers flag1 the swell of the noisy ocean dies away1 all the storms weaken1 and quiet follows upon restless turmoil4 ,now ,i have done as you requested3 ,i have pointed out the seasons with definite dates both in spring and fall1 when it seems most advisable to brave the perils of the sea4 ,i have also informed you as to the times that seem more suitable for rest than for travel4 ,i have likewise described briefly the sources of light in the sky and the belts that are drawn across the heaven1 those under which travel is difficult and those which allow travel4 ,and if you keep carefully in mind all these things that ,i have discussed with you1 you will never be counted among the ignorant navigators1 if you shall decide to try the trader's calling4 ,my advice1 therefore1 is first to fix in your mind all the facts which you have now heard2 and later you shall have a chance to ask further questions1 if you should wish to do so4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xxiv ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,second ,,part3 ,,the ,,king ,,and ,,his ,,court ,son4 ,the last time that ,i had a talk with you1 sire1 ,i heard a wise speech from your lips1 one that should profit every man who intends to follow the craft with which our conversation was concerned4 ,since then ,i have meditated on that speech1 and ,i believe that ,i have fixed firmly in memory most of the facts that were brought out at the time1 whatever luck ,i may have later in trying to apply them4 ,no doubt ,i ought1 like everyone else1 to observe carefully all the good which ,i have been taught2 and more is to be expected from those who take thought than from those who forget4 ,but whatever success or good fortune ,i may have in the practice1 ,i delight to learn while ,i have the opportunity4 ,now ,i still have some subjects in mind which ,i wish to inquire about1 but ,i am going to ask your consent to a discussion before ,i bring up the questions in which ,i am now interested2 and when ,i have presented these1 ,i shall await your answers4 ,father4 ,when we last met and talked about the doings and mode of living of merchants1 we mentioned1 ,i believe1 most of the things that were in real need of discussion2 and ,i feel sure that no man will have ill repute from his conduct who everywhere observes with care what was then brought out4 ,but if you still wish and are anxious to make further inquiries into these matters1 ,i shall be glad to answer1 if ,i can4 ,and even if you wish to open another discussion1 ,i shall also be glad to answer1 as far as ,i have knowledge4 ,you have permission1 therefore1 to ask just as you like2 and on my side there shall be such replies as ,god enables me to give4 ,son4 ,the talk that ,i last heard you give concerning the business of merchants was delivered with more evident wisdom in the answers than in the questions2 and ,i shall now let that subject rest4 ,as ,i have in mind1 with your permission1 to try that business1 it may be that a very long time will pass between our conversations4 ,and when ,i am far away from you1 ,i shall have no opportunity to seek your advice1 though ,i should wish to do so1 in case my mind should turn to some craft or business other than that of the merchant's trade4 ,but though1 ,god willing1 we may meet again in good health1 it seems to me advisable to ask about those things that ,i am interested in1 while ,i have sure opportunity to learn4 ,and while there is opportunity we should learn what we do not know1 for this reason especially1 that we cannot be sure of a chance to inquire when it seems most needful to seek knowledge4 ,now after having learned the trader's mode of living and how to travel in unknown lands1 it might happen that ,i should want to visit the king's court1 where ,i could see more perfect manners than those to be seen on my commercial tours2 and therefore ,i should like to learn from you1 while here at home1 such manners as are most needful to know1 when one is at court1 though it is not sure that ,i shall have to use them4 ,now if such an interest does not seem worthless to you1 ,i should like to have you inform me as to those customs that ,i have mentioned4 ,father4 ,it cannot be called worthless curiosity to wish to know what customs prevail and must be observed at the king's court2 for all courtesy and proper conduct have their origin there1 if the mode of life is as it ought to be and as it was ordained of old4 ,still1 customs at court are by no means of one sort only1 for there is a multitude of services and offices about the king1 and those of his men who are less in rank are usually not held to strict manners4 ,those who are higher in the service often differ much in manners and deportment1 so that the men who observe the better customs are1 unfortunately1 fewer1 as a rule1 than those who are moderately courteous1 or scarcely so much4 ,now ,i do not know whose conduct you are interested in1 that of the more mannerly or of the greater number4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xxv ,,the ,,importance ,,of ,,courtesy ,,in ,,the ,,royal ,,service ,son4 ,it would be most profitable both for me and for all others who are interested in unfamiliar subjects1 whether good breeding or other knowledge1 to learn what is best and most useful4 ,for there are but few masters who can teach such things1 and they are all more difficult to grasp than those subjects which are of but slight value or wholly worthless4 ,now since ,i hear that there are differences both in the duties of men and in the customs of the court1 ,i shall ask you to inform me as to the regulations there and to explain how the services differ and what belongs to each2 also to point out the customs which seem good to you and which are surely needful to learn1 if one wishes to serve a king with honor1 as well as those which one who wishes to be reputed a moral man should shun and beware of4 ,i have this reason1 too1 for seeking this information so earnestly1 that ,i have seen men come from a king's household1 whose conduct ,i have noted carefully1 most of whom seemed only about as well-bred as those who had never been at court1 or even less than they4 ,now ,i do not know which is the more likely1 whether ,i do not understand what good breeding means1 or that the facts are as they seemed to me4 ,father4 ,if it should be your fate to serve at court and you wish to be called courtly and polite1 you will need to beware of what happens to those who come to court without manners and leave without refinement4 ,but since you have asked how the services and the usages at a royal court differ1 ,i shall now explain that to you1 and also show why some return thence rude and unpolished4 ,when a dull man fares to court1 it is as when an ignorant fellow travels to ,jerusalem1 or a simpleton enters a good school4 ,an ignorant man who has been to ,jerusalem believes himself well informed and tells many things about his journey1 though chiefly what seems worthless to a knowing man1 or mere sport and foolery4 ,in the same way the simpleton who comes from school believes himself to be perfectly educated2 he struts about and shows great disdain whenever he meets one who knows nothing4 ,but when he meets one who is a real scholar1 he himself knows naught4 ,so it is1 too1 when stupid men come to the king's court3 they promptly seek out men of their own kind and learn from them such things as are most easily grasped and into which they had gotten some insight earlier2 but this is mere folly and unwisdom4 ,and when they return from court1 they will display such manners and courtesy as they learned there4 ,and yet1 many who come from strange places1 whether from other lands or courts1 will behave in this way2 but when those who have remained at home find that these men bring great tidings1 they come to regard them at once as thoroughly informed1 both as to customs and happenings1 seeing that they have visited alien peoples and foreign lands2 and this is most often the case with dull men4 ,now if you aim at good breeding1 beware lest you fall into such unwisdom4 ,we may now take up the question how the duties of the men at court differ and what belongs to each service4 ,all the men who have gone to the king's hand#bce are housecarles2 but honors and authority are distributed among them according to the merits of each and as the king wishes to grant4 ,thus one class of housecarles is made up of men who are always present at court1 but draw no wages1 and do not eat and drink where the hirdmen take their meals4 ,they have to do such service in the king's garth as the steward shall assign1 whether it be to go on a journey or to do manual labor in the garth4 ,footnote #bce3 ,to go to the king's hand 7ganga konungi til handa7 is the technical term for the formal initiation into the royal service4 8,the king was in his high-seat with his guard grouped about him2 across his knees lay a sword1 his right hand grasping the hilt4 ,the candidate approached1 knelt1 touched the swordhilt1 and kissed the royal hand4 ,he then arose and took the oath of fealty4 ,kneeling once more he placed his folded hands between those of the king and kissed his new lord40 ,larson1 8,the ,household of the ,norwegian ,kings in the ,thirteenth ,century30 ,american ,historical ,review1 ,,xiii1 #dfa4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xxvi ,,the ,,advantages ,,derived ,,from ,,service ,,in ,,the ,,king',s ,,household ,son4 ,i pray you1 sire1 not to regard me as thoughtless or as wishing to interrupt your discourse1 if ,i inquire briefly about the duties of these men4 ,father4 ,while we are on this subject1 you had better ask what you like1 or you may regret it later1 having come away ill-informed about what you wanted to hear1 because you did not inquire sufficiently4 ,son4 ,since those whom you have just mentioned live by labor and manual toil in the king's garth and have no greater honors than at home in the country1 what advantage do they find in being with the king more than in serving their parents or kinsmen in the country or engaging in trade and winning wealth in that way8 ,father4 ,there are many reasons why such men would rather be at court than live in the country or engage in trade4 ,some prefer being at court to living in the country 7though in the king's service their labor is as burdensome1 or more so7 because1 though they are of excellent kinship1 they have little wealth and cannot engage in trade on account of their poverty4 ,if they take up work in the country1 they find many who have more wealth1 though they are no higher in kinship1 or scarcely so high4 ,and when quarrels arise1 the rich find protection in their wealth and thrust the poor aside1 so that these can get no justice in their law suits4 ,consequently such men think it better to toil in security at court than without protection in the country4 ,others may have committed manslaughter or have come into other difficulties which make it urgent for them to seek security in the king's power4 ,some there are1 too1 who always find pleasure in being in a throng2 they also feel more secure there1 whatever may happen4 ,when these come back to the country where earlier they seemed so utterly defenseless1 they regard themselves as the peers of every one1 because of the protection which they enjoy as kingsmen4 ,if one of them is slain in single combat1 the king will take forty marks#bcf in thegn money#bcg for him as for his other thegns1 and1 in addition1 one mark gold as housecarle fine1#bch which he exacts whenever a housecarle is slain4 ,footnote #bcf3 ,the mark as a standard of value was widely used in the middle ages4 ,originally it was a measure of weight equivalent to eight ounces of gold or silver4 ,its value varied at different times and in different places4 ,dr4 ,gjerset estimates the purchasing power of a mark of silver in the fourteenth century as equal to that of #hj at the present time4 ,history of the ,norwegian ,people1 ,,ii1 #ah-ai1 note4 ,footnote #bcg3 ,thegn money 7egngildi7 was a fine paid to the king by one who had been guilty of manslaughter4 ,footnote #bch3 ,the housecarle fine was higher than that exacted for the death of a common subject because the housecarle stood in a personal relation to the king4 ,you shall also know that many come to court from the country who were considered of little consequence there2 and yet1 it often happens that the king gives high honors to such men in return for their service1 if they perform it well1 though they are but slightly honored in their own homes4 ,those1 on the other hand1 whom the cotters in the country seemed to value highly for their wealth1 kindred1 and fellowship1 are often no more regarded at the royal court than in their home communities and sometimes even less4 ,indeed1 those who come to the king with riches are often honored less than those who come in poverty4 ,frequently1 men who come to court with little wealth or none at all and have no choice but to accept what the king graciously offers are set so high in riches and power that they tower above their kinsmen1 though before they came to the king they were not regarded as their equals4 ,they win this either by bravery in warfare and good deportment at court1 or by being faithful to the king in all things and striving to be discreet and loving toward him4 ,for the king helps and promotes those whom he finds to be anxious to remain truly affectionate toward him and to serve him in loyal friendship4 ,for these reasons a king by an act of grace1 will very often exalt those who are lacking in riches2 and therefore many such are encouraged to seek service at court1 where they all expect to win rewards1 high honors1 and marked advancement in position4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xxvii ,,the ,,various ,,classes ,,among ,,the ,,kingsmen ,son4 ,i believe ,i have now had correct and adequate answers1 and it no longer seems strange to me that such men as you have just talked about would rather be kingsmen than remain in the country1 even though their duties are as toilsome as those of the farmer1 or even more so4 ,but now ,i wish to ask you to describe the other services at the king's court1 so that ,i may1 if possible1 gain some knowledge of every one of them4 ,father4 ,that is surely possible1 and since you are interested in such matters1 ,i shall give you what information ,i have concerning them4 ,there are certain other housecarles at the king's court1 who1 in addition to the housecarle's title1 have a by-name and are called 8gests40#bci ,they have this name from their manifold duties2 for they visit the homes of many1 though not always with friendly intent4 ,these men are also in the king's pay and get half the wages of 8hirdmen40 ,these are the duties that belong to the office of these men3 they serve as spies throughout the king's domain to make sure whether he has any enemies in his kingdom2 and if such are found1 the gests are to slay them1 if they are able to do so4 ,but if the king sends his gests upon his enemies and those against whom they are sent are slain1 they are to have for their trouble as much of the enemies' wealth as they can carry away at the time1 only no gold1 for that is the king's1 as is all the rest that the gests are unable to bring away4 ,and whenever the king becomes aware of an enemy1 it is the gest's duty to pursue the foeman and thus to cleanse the realm4 ,whenever they are present at court1 they keep the various watches about the king1 just as the others do who share the king's bounty in the royal garth1 except the head-ward2#bdj this they do not keep2 nor do they sit at table to eat or drink in the house where the king dines with his hirdmen1 except at ,christmas and ,easter1 when they are to eat with the hirdmen in the king's hall1 but at no other time4 ,if any of these men be slain in single combat1 the king exacts as large a fine both in thegn money and housecarle fine as for the death of those whom we discussed earlier4 ,footnote #bci3 ,see ,american ,historical ,review1 ,,xiii1 #dfi-dga4 ,footnote #bdj3 ,the head-ward was stationed near the king's person1 usually outside the door of the chamber where he slept4 ,see ,american ,historical ,review1 ,,xiii1 #dfb4 ,there is still another class of royal housecarles who do not share the king's tables and but rarely come to court2 these receive nothing from the king but protection and support in securing justice from others2 but these1 too1 are kingsmen4 ,in case any of these are slain1 the king exacts the same housecarle fine in addition to the thegn money as in the case of those housecarles who dine at his tables4 ,these men come into his service from various walks of life3 some are peasants1 some merchants1 and some laymen4 ,but this service they owe the king before all his other subjects1 namely1 that wherever the king's officials come at his command to present the king's causes or business1 and these housecarles of whom we are speaking are present1 they must join the retinue of these officials and render such assistance as they can in all the king's business4 ,these1 too1 may claim support from the kingsmen in their efforts to obtain justice1 wherever they have suits to bring up4 ,likewise if any of these men are slain1 the fines due the king will be increased as much as for those whom we spoke of earlier4 ,there is another class of royal housecarles who receive money payments from the king1 some twelve aura1#bda some two marks1 some three marks1 and others more1 in proportion as the king finds them likely to add to his strength and credit4 ,these men do not dine with the king at court2 they are abroad in the realm in a sort of official capacity1 for some of them are sons of the king's landedmen1#bdb while others are peasants1 though so wealthy that they seem to rank with the landedmen4 ,these royal housecarles owe the king the same kind of service as those whom we have just mentioned1 but more1 inasmuch as they have greater prestige and enjoy greater favors from the king2 and the fines due the king in case these men are ill used will be increased about as much as has been stated before4 ,from all these kingsmen that we have now told about1 who do not dine at his tables1 the king may demand such service as he finds each capable of3 some are called to pilot the longships when the king sets out on a naval campaign2 some are sent abroad in embassies to foreign rulers and other princes2 while others are sent out upon the sea as traders with the king's wares or ships4#bdc ,these are the duties that they are bound to perform with such other duties as may arise out of the king's needs4 ,footnote #bda3 ,the ,eyrir 7pl4 aura1 from ,latin aurum87 was an ounce of silver1 or one-eighth of a mark4 ,footnote #bdb3 ,the landedman 7lendir mar7 was one who enjoyed a fief granted by the king4 ,the term was also used in a more restricted sense for the local chieftains who in return for the fief enjoyed gave certain assistance in the local administration4 ,see ,norges ,gamle ,love1 ,v1 #cif-cig2 ,gjerset1 ,history of the ,norwegian ,people1 ,i1 #chg-chh2 ,american ,historical ,review1 ,,xiii1 #dfg-dfh4 ,footnote #bdc3 ,the kings of medieval ,norway seem to have engaged quite actively in the mercantile profession4 ,the trade with the ,finns was made a royal monopoly at least as early as the tenth century2 later the trade with ,greenland also passed into the king's hands4 ,now ,i have told you about several classes of the king's servants1 and you will have to determine which of those enumerated seem to you most likely to know much about courtly behavior and the manners that ought by right to be found at a king's court2 they are all kingsmen1 however4 ,and from this you will observe that every man cannot become perfect in all courtly customs and manners just as soon as he sees the king and his men2 for a man will have to be both quick-witted and quick to learn1 who1 if he lacks in breeding1 is to learn perfect courtliness in a year's time1 even though every day of the year is spent at court among the hirdmen in the king's own presence4 ,now you shall know this of a truth1 that there are many at court who have spent a large part of their lives there and have daily opportunities to see good deportment1 and yet they never become either courtly or well-bred4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xxviii ,,the ,,honored ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,kingsmen ,son4 ,if such is the case1 that some of the customs at court are so difficult to learn that both quick wit and continued observation are necessary1 it seems evident that the men whom you have just now spoken of can have but slight knowledge of what constitutes deportment or good manners in the king's house1 though they be kingsmen1 since they come but rarely into those of the royal apartments where good manners must especially be observed4 ,but there is yet something that ,i am anxious to know concerning the duties of those men of whom you spoke last3 what profit can such men as have an abundance of wealth and kinsmen find in the king's service and in binding themselves to his service with the housecarle name as their only title8 ,why do not they rather seek the honor of being called hirdmen1 or remain at home looking after their property as other husbandmen do8 ,father4 ,i should say that you have not inquired very wisely into this matter2 still1 as you do not appear to be well informed on this subject1 ,i think it better for you to question than to remain ignorant1 and since you have inquired ,i ought to answer4 ,there are many reasons1 as we have already said1 why men would rather be kingsmen than be called by the peasant's name only4 ,the first reply must be that the king owns the entire kingdom as well as all the people in it1 so that all the men who are in his kingdom owe him service whenever his needs demand it4 ,thus the king has a right to call upon every freeman1 who seems fitted for it or is found to possess suitable insight1 to serve in embassies to foreign lords2 likewise1 when the king calls upon the freemen to pilot his ship in warfare1 each one who is appointed must attend1 though he be the king's henchman only so far as he is his subject4 ,even if a king should order a clerk or a bishop of his kingdom to fare as envoy to another king or to the pope1 if such is his wish1 the one who is called must set out1 unless he is willing to risk the king's enmity and to be driven from the kingdom4 ,now since all the men of the realm are thus bound to the royal service1 why should not every sensible man regard it a greater advantage to be in the king's full protection and friendship1 no matter what may happen in his intercourse with other men1 and to be superior to his comrades and hold them loyal to the king if they will not otherwise obey1 than to be called a mere cotter who is constantly under the control of others1 though he still owes nearly the same duties as otherwise8 ,verily you must know that to be called a king's housecarle is not to be despised as a title of derision2 but it is a name of great honor to everyone who bears it4 ,for neither landedmen nor hirdmen1 though because of some infirmity or because they are tired of warfare they prefer to cultivate an estate in the country1 are willing to surrender the housecarle name because of its honor and security4 ,now if there is any phase of this subject that seems insufficiently inquired into or explained1 we may extend the conversation if you wish4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xxix ,,the ,,superior ,,order ,,of ,,kingsmen3 ,,the ,,hird ,son4 ,this subject has been discussed almost too fully and has been cleared up for me with such good and complete answers that it looks to me as if a man cannot dispense with the king's support1 if he wishes to found his cause securely4 ,for the multitude is fickle-minded and the one unfair toward the other1 except those alone to whom ,god has given wisdom and rectitude2 but they are few only and not the mass4 ,however1 as there are certain matters relating to the service and manners at court that are still unexplained1 ,i should like to hear you discuss these further1 lest ,i continue ignorant about subjects that ,i desire to know4 ,father4 ,we must now speak about those of the king's housecarles who1 if they give proper attention1 are best able to acquire knowledge as to what is counted good manners in royal circles4 ,they too1 however1 differ in character1 and those are very often the fewer who should be the more numerous4 ,these kingsmen that we are now to discuss have1 in addition to the housecarle name1 the title of hirdmen4 ,some bear that title rightfully1 but to many it is a nickname4 ,the one who originated the name placed it on a sound basis2 for hirdman means the same as keeper and guardian2 and those who wish to possess this title rightfully should be true keepers and guardians both of the king's person and of all his kingship4 ,they should guard the bounds of equity among all the men of the realm1 wherever they are present when suits at law are heard4 ,they should also observe good and courtly behavior and every useful custom1 for they are at all times nearest the king in all matters4 ,they guard the king's life and person both night and day2 they are always about the king at the table when he eats and drinks1 at public assemblies1 and at all general gatherings1 like near kinsmen4 ,these men ought of right to be addressed as lords by all men who bear lesser titles than they do2 for they are1 in a sense1 stewards of the realm1 if they observe the customs that are suited to their title4 ,they should be chosen from all classes and not from wealthy or distinguished families only2 but those who are chosen to this dignity should be perfect in all things1 both in ancestry and wealth1 and in nobility of mind and courtesy1 but above all in conduct4 ,they ought1 furthermore1 before all others to observe righteousness in every form1 so that they may be able to discern clearly what should be loved as belonging to honor and good deportment and what should be shunned as leading to dishonor and shame4 ,for wherever they are present1 the eyes of all men are turned upon their manners and behavior2 all incline their ears to their words2 and all expect1 as they ought1 to find them so much more excellent than other men in deeds and deportment as they stand nearer the king in service and regard than his other men4 ,and if these men wish by right to enjoy the titles which are given them along with the housecarle name1 they must shun vulgarity and rudeness2 they must also1 more than other men1 avoid many things which a foolish desire might suggest4 ,for many things become a disgrace both in words and deeds to well-bred men1 which are not a disgrace to the vulgar who behave in that way2 wherefore such men must keep watch over their tongues and their behavior4 ,it also frequently happens that well trained envoys from other lands come to visit the king and his court2 and the more polished they are1 the more carefully they observe the royal service as well as the manners of the king and his courtiers and all the customs that prevail at the court4 ,on returning to their own lands1 they will describe the customs and relate the happenings which they saw or heard at the court to which they were sent4 ,but all the rumors that travel to other lands and are circulated about a lord1 if they be truthful1 will usually either bring him ridicule and contumely or be turned to his honor4 ,it may also frequently come to pass that the kings themselves need to meet in conference to discuss such rules and arrangements as must be kept jointly by the kingdoms4#bdd ,wherever kings meet1 there the best men are always assembled2 for the kings bring their chief men with them to such conferences3 archbishops1 bishops1 earls1 landedmen1 and hirdmen or knights4 ,and the conduct and breeding of those who assemble are carefully noted1 first the manners of the mighty ones1 and then those of all the rest2 for everyone watches closely the behavior of all the others4 ,and if one of the kings or one of his principal men is found indecorous1 he soon becomes the subject of ridicule and contempt and is regarded as a common churl4 ,and if a king's retinue is found to be poorly trained and is lacking in polish1 especially if the service of the king's apartments is not performed in a comely and proper manner1 then the king himself is pronounced unfit2 for it will be held that if he himself were polite and perfect in manners1 all would acquire good breeding from him4 ,consequently it is possible for a courtly chief to suffer great shame from a vulgar and indecent man2 wherefore it is very important that those who wish to bear a comely and honorable title in the royal presence should be well informed as to what is becoming or unbecoming4 ,for one cannot hope for great honors from a king1 if he has at any time disgraced him where many honorable men were assembled and where it seemed very important to maintain the king's honor1 which is everywhere1 for a king must nowhere suffer shame4 ,heedlessness and evil conduct are therefore ill becoming to a man1 if they bring him shame and enmity and cause him to lose his honorable name1 his good repute1 and his fair service1 even though life and limb be spared4 ,and he can even bring such deep dishonor upon his king that with many of his kindred he will be made to suffer a well deserved but ignominious death4 ,such grades there are both in the duties and in the titles at the royal court as you have now heard described4 ,but if it seems to you that everything has not yet been thoroughly examined1 you may inquire further1 if you like4 ,footnote #bdd3 ,such meetings of two or three of the kings of the ,north were occasionally held all through the later middle ages4 ,the conferences were often held at some point near the mouth of the ,gta ,river1 on the southwest coast of modern ,sweden4 ,see above1 p4 #cj4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xxx ,,how ,a ,,man ,,who ,,wishes ,,to ,,apply ,,for ,,admission ,,to ,,the ,,royal ,,household ,,service ,,should ,,approach ,,the ,,king ,son4 ,it seems to me that we should not fail to continue this discussion and ,i shall now direct my remarks and questions toward some theme that may help me to see more clearly how one1 who comes to seek honors1 should appear in the king's presence and how he must afterwards demean himself in order to attain all those distinctions of which you have just told4 ,now it may happen that ,i shall want to fare to court and join the king's service2 for since my father and my kinsmen served the king before me and gained honor and high esteem for their service1 it is likely that ,i shall wish to do what my kinsmen achieved before me4 ,now inasmuch as that is likely1 ,i want to ask you to tell me how ,i ought to begin my speech when ,i come to seek audience with a king4 ,state it as clearly as if you were to accompany me to the royal presence1 and inform me as to my gestures1 my dress1 my manner of speech and all matters of deportment that are becoming in the king's company4 ,now this time ,i have asked as ,i thought best2 but even though ,i have inquired less wisely than ,i ought1 kindly do as before1 giving thought to the questions on my part and to the replies from your side4 ,father4 ,your questions on this subject are not so unwise that one may not very well answer them2 for many have need to make such inquiries1 if they mean to have their suits brought up before lords and to have them planned as carefully as need be4 ,now ,i shall try to clear up these matters that you have asked about1 stating what seems most truthful and advisable4 ,when you come1 then1 to where the king resides1 intending to become his man1 you should inquire carefully who the men are in the king's company that are best able to present men's business to the king in such a way that their speeches please him the most4 ,as soon as you have learned who they are1 you must first make their acquaintance and cultivate their friendship2 after that make your errand known and ask them to undertake your suit4 ,if they undertake your business1 they can best find time and occasion for audience and speech with the king1 as they often have speech with him4 ,if you are to present your request at a time when the king is at the table1 get sure information whether he is in good spirits and pleasant humor4 ,if you should observe that his disposition is somewhat irritable1 or that he is displeased about something1 or that he has such important affairs to consider that you think your business for that reason cannot be taken up1 then let your suit rest for the time being and seek to find the king in better humor some other day4 ,but if you find that he is in merry mood and has no business to take up of such importance that you may not very well state your errand1 wait1 nevertheless1 till he has nearly finished his meal4 ,your costume you should plan beforehand in such a way that you come fully dressed in good apparel1 the smartest that you have1 and wearing fine trousers and shoes4 ,you must not come without your coat2 and also wear a mantle1 the best that you have4 ,for trousers always select cloth of a brown dye4 ,it seems quite proper also to wear trousers of black fur1 but not of any other sort of cloth1 unless it be scarlet4 ,your coat should be of brown color or green or red1 and all such clothes are good and proper4 ,your linen should be made of good linen stuff1 but with little cloth used2 your shirt should be short1 and all your linen rather light4 ,your shirt should be cut somewhat shorter than your coat2 for no man of taste can deck himself out in flax or hemp4 ,before you enter the royal presence be sure to have your hair and beard carefully trimmed according to the fashions of the court when you join the same4 ,when ,i was at court it was fashionable to have the hair trimmed short just above the earlaps and then combed down as each hair would naturally lie2 but later it was cut shorter in front above the eyebrows4 ,it was the style at that time to wear a short beard and a small moustache2 but later the cheeks were shaved according to the ,german mode2#bde and ,i doubt that any style will ever come which is more becoming or more suitable in warfare4 ,footnote #bde3 ,it is impossible to determine what style of beard this jaarskegg was2 if we may judge from contemporary ,german illustrations1 the ,german mode was a smooth-shaven face4 ,see also ,weiss1 ,kostumekunde1 ,,ii1 #eha4 ,now when you seem to be in proper state to appear before the king both as to dress and other matters1 and if you come at a suitable time and have permission from the doorkeeper to enter1 you must have your coming planned in such a way that some capable servant can accompany you4 ,but though you are both allowed to enter1 do not let him follow you farther than inside the door or1 at the farthest1 up to the staller's seat1 and leave him there to keep your mantle4 ,leave your mantle behind when you go before the king and be careful to have your hair brushed smooth1 and your beard combed with care4 ,you must have neither hat nor cap nor other covering on your head2 for one must appear before lords with uncovered head and ungloved hands1 with a blithe face and with limbs and body thoroughly bathed4 ,you should also have the men with you who are to present your suit4 ,form the habit of holding your head up and your whole body erect when walking2 strike a dignified gait1 but do not walk too slowly4 ,when you come into the king's presence1 bow humbly before him and address him in these words3 8,god give you a good day1 my lord king60 ,if the king is at the table when you appear before him1 be careful not to lean against the king's board1 as so many a simpleton does2 and above all do not lean forward across it as unmannerly churls do1 but remain standing far enough away from it so that the service belonging to the royal table may have sufficient space to pass between the table and yourself4 ,but if the king is not at the table1 approach his seat only so near as to leave abundant space for all the service between yourself and the footstools that are before the king's seat4 ,when standing before the king1 you should dispose of your hands in such a way that the thumb and forefinger of the right will grasp the left wrist2 and then let your hands drop slowly before you as seems most comfortable4 ,thereupon the men chosen for that purpose shall present your errand to the king4 ,and if fortune allows your suit to prosper immediately according to your wishes1 you shall go to the king's hand and thereafter enter the fellowship of the hird according to the customs which those who plead your case will teach you4 ,but if the king makes promise and fixes a day when you are to appear and the matter is to be settled1 it must rest till that time4 ,if the king postpones the decision1 saying as is not unlikely3 8,i know nothing about this man1 either as to repute or manners1 and cannot reply at once to his request but must first observe clearly his ways of thinking and doing20 then the matter is closed for the time being4 ,but you may1 if you are so disposed1 continue your suit and try to find a more convenient time1 when your affairs may have a more favorable outcome4 ,however1 while you are seeking to gain the king's favor1 you will need above all to keep close to the best and most discreet men1 and you should often be seen in the company of those who are dearest to the king4 ,but pay all the necessary outlay out of your own means1 however long this probation may last1 unless you should sometime be invited by the king's order to his tables4 ,and let it not be true in your case as is true in the case of many an unwise man1 that the more often you find yourself invited1 the more you begin to long for another's fare1 lest upright men come to regard you as selfish and impertinent1 and those become hostile who were formerly your friends and comrades4 ,walk uprightly1 therefore1 and be heedful in all such matters1 lest evil befall you through lack of foresight4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xxxi ,,why ,,one ,,should ,,not ,,wear ,a ,,mantle ,,in ,,the ,,royal ,,presence ,son4 ,if you permit1 ,i will ask to be allowed a few words in this discussion4 ,on what do you base your statement that it is considered good deportment among princes for a man to come bareheaded and without a mantle when he comes to seek audience with them4 ,if anyone did thus in the country1 the mob would say that the man was a fool to run about in that way without a cloak like a ninny4 ,father4 ,i told you a little earlier in our conversation that many a man goes about in ignorance as to what is fitting in a king's house1 because many things look stupid to the multitude which are considered proper in the presence of kings and other great men4 ,now you shall know of a truth1 not only that it is fitting to come without a mantle when one appears for the first time before a king1 but also that in many places it is as proper to wear one's mantle in the royal presence as to leave it off4 ,but since you have asked the reason why it should seem more decorous to appear before princes without one's mantle than to wear it1 it might be a more than sufficient answer to say that it is the custom wherever well-bred men appear in the presence of mighty lords to come without a mantle1 and that whoever is ignorant of that custom is there called a churl4 ,but these facts may serve as an additional answer3 if a man appears before magnates wrapped in his cloak1 he shows in that way that he regards himself as an equal to them in whose presence he is2 for he comes clad in all his finery like a lord1 and acts as if he need not serve any one4 ,but if he lays aside his cloak1 he shows that he is ready for service1 if the one who is entitled to receive rather than to do service is willing to accept it4 ,likewise there are instances of this other fact1 which often necessitates caution1 that many are envious of a king2 and if his enemy is rash and bold1 he can indeed come before the king with hidden perils and murderous weapons1 if he is allowed to wear his mantle2 but he cannot easily accomplish this if he comes without his cloak4 ,it is therefore evident that he was a wise man who first ordained the formality that a man should appear without a mantle before great lords and especially before kings4 ,for that custom has since led to greater security against secret treason which could easily be hidden under the cloak1 if it were worn4 ,the custom has also promoted fair dealing and concord among men1 for in this matter they all enjoy the same rights2 and this being the accepted custom1 one is not suspected or searched more than others4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xxxii ,,rules ,,of ,,speech ,,and ,,conversation ,,in ,,the ,,king',s ,,hall ,son4 ,although this custom seemed strange to me before ,i heard your comment1 it now looks as if it were founded on good sense and is not to be dispensed with2 and therefore it will be well if you will continue to recount and point out to me all the forms of speech and conduct which one needs to observe in the presence of kings and other great men4 ,father4 ,keep carefully in mind1 while in the king's presence1 that you ought not to engage in conversation with other men and thus fail to pay heed to everything that the king says1 lest it happen1 if he addresses a remark to you1 that you have to ask what he said4 ,for it always looks ill for one to be so inattentive that the words spoken to him must be repeated before he can hear2 and it looks particularly bad in the presence of important men4 ,still1 it can very often come to pass1 when one is in a lord's presence1 that other men crowd about him and ask questions of many sorts2 sometimes this is due to the stupidity of those who do thus1 but often the reason may be that he who acts in this way would not be displeased if something should be found to be censured in him who has a plea to make4 ,now if it should happen while you are standing before a king that some one in the meantime should try to address a question or other remark to you1 have friendly words ready on your lips and reply in this wise3 8,wait a moment1 my good man1 while ,i listen a while to what the king says2 later ,i shall be pleased to talk with you as long as you wish40 ,if he still tries to have further words with you1 speak no more to him then until the king has finished his remarks4 ,if it now should happen that the king has a few words to say to you1 be very careful in your answer not to use plural terms in phrases that refer to yourself1 though you do use the plural1 as is proper1 in all phrases referring to the king4 ,but even more you need to beware of what fools frequently do1 namely using the plural in phrases referring to yourself1 while you employ the singular in those that refer to the king4 ,and if the king should happen to speak a few words to you which you did not catch1 and you have to ask what he said1 do not say 8,eh80 or 8,what80 or make a fuss about it1 but use only the word 8,sire20 or if you prefer to ask in more words3 8,my lord1 be not offended if ,i ask what you said to me1 but ,i did not quite catch it40 ,but see to it that it happens in rare cases only that the king need to repeat his remarks to you more than once before you grasp them4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xxxiii ,,the ,,proper ,,uses ,,of 8,,you0 ,,and 8,,thou0 ,son4 ,on what ground is it thought better to phrase all remarks addressed to lords in the plural than in the singular8 ,when one directs a prayer to ,god1 ,who is higher and more excellent than all others1 the expressions that refer to ,him are all phrased in the singular2 for everyone who makes his prayer to ,god speaks in this wise3 8,almighty ,god1 my ,lord1 hear ,thou my prayer and be ,thou more merciful toward me than ,i deserve40 ,but ,i hear no one form his words in this wise3 8,my ,lord1 hear my prayer and deal better with me because of ,your mercy than ,i deserve40 ,now ,i am not sure that my question is a very wise one2 still1 since you have allowed me to ask whatever ,i desire to know1 ,i shall look for an informing reply as before1 even though ,i ask like a child4 ,father4 ,i shall indeed be glad to explain everything to you as far as ,i am able2 but ,i do not see why you are searching into this matter so closely that one shall even have to give reasons for the choice of terms in holy prayer4 ,for the teachers of the church are far better able to interpret matters that belong to divinity than ,i4 ,but since every question looks toward a reply1 ,i shall explain this to you in a few words1 as it seems most reasonable to me2 and ,i shall take up first what seems to me the most important4 ,now ,i believe the terms used in sacred prayers are chosen so that we call upon the divine name in the singular rather than in the plural1 in order that all who believe in ,god may clearly understand that we believe in one true ,god and not in numerous idols like the heathen who formerly called upon seven gods4 ,for they held that one god ruled the heavens2 another1 the heavenly bodies2 a third1 the earth and its fruits2 a fourth1 the sea and its waters2 a fifth1 the air and the winds2 a sixth1 learning and eloquence2 a seventh1 death and hell4 ,now we should honor the one true ,god ,whom all creation serves and call upon ,him in singular terms1 lest false gods obtain our worship1 if when calling upon the divine name we use plural terms1 as if there were more than one ,god4 ,there is this added reason1 that simple-minded folk may conclude that there are more gods than one if ,his name be invoked in plural terms4 ,thus it is rightfully and wisely ordered1 so that a simple and holy faith shall have no cause to stray away from the true highway4 ,now if you do not fully grasp this speech1 we shall find more to say2 but if it has led you to clearer insight1 we may as well direct our thoughts to the other matters that you have asked about4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xxxiv ,,the ,,same ,,subject ,,continued ,son4 ,these things seem very clear to me and it appears both reasonable and necessary that one should use the singular rather than the plural in addressing ,god1 lest the true faith be debased by the use of plural expressions and the cunning adversaries obtain the worship that a simple and true faith refuses them4 ,but now ,i wish to have you turn to what ,i asked about the mighty men of this world1 and explain why it seems better to address them in plural than in singular terms4 ,father4 ,it might be a sufficient answer to state that it seems better to address princes in plural than in singular terms for the reason that well-bred people have found it so from the beginning2 and it has since become a custom among all discreet and courteous men1 and is done in honor of those who are addressed and are entitled to a deferential mode of address4 ,but this is the thought which they had in mind who originated these expressions1 that men of power are not like all others who have only themselves and their households to care for and are responsible for a few men only4 ,for chieftains are responsible for all those who are subject to them in service or authority1 and they have not only one man's answer on the tongue but have indeed to answer for many4 ,and when a good chief departs this life1 it is not as if one man is lost1 but it is a great loss to all those who received support and honors from him2 and they seem to be of less consequence after they have lost their chief than before while he was living1 unless one shall come into his stead who will be as gracious to them as the departed one was4 ,now since great lords both maintain the honor of many and have great cares and liabilities on their account1 it is surely proper to honor them by using the plural forms of address in all speech that those who are humbler and of less consequence may have to address to them4 ,but there remain those things which were learned or thought of when this custom was first ordained3 that kings and other powerful men are not alone in their deliberations but are associated with many other wise and distinguished men2 and therefore1 when a chief is addressed in plural terms1 it may be thought that the words are not addressed to the king alone1 but also to all those who sit in his councils as his advisers4 ,in my last speech ,i also mentioned that you must have care never to use the plural in expressions referring to yourself1 lest you seem to regard yourself as on an equality with the one to whom you are speaking1 if he is of higher rank than you are4 ,and even when you talk with an equal or with a humbler man than you are1 it is not fitting for you to honor yourself with plural terms4 ,you must also beware when in the presence of princes1 lest you become too verbose in your talk2 for great lords and all discreet men are displeased with prolixity and regard it as tedious and worthless folly4 ,further1 if you have a matter to present1 whether it concerns yourself or others1 present it clearly but with quick utterance and in the fewest possible words2 for constantly there comes before kings and other lords such a great mass of business respecting the manifold needs of their subjects1 that they have neither time nor inclination to hear a case discussed in a long1 detailed speech4 ,and it is very evident that1 if a man is clever and fluent in speech1 he will find it easy to state his case in a few rapidly spoken words1 so that the one who is to reply will grasp it readily4 ,then1 too1 if one is not an orator and1 even more1 is awkward in speech1 the briefer the errand on his tongue1 the better it is2 for a man can somehow manage to get through with a few words and thus conceal his awkwardness from those to whom it is unknown4 ,but when a man makes an elaborate effort1 he will surely seem the more unskilful the longer he talks4 ,now such things there are and others like them into which a man1 if he wishes to be called well-bred1 must get some insight and which he ought to learn at home before he goes very often to have conversation with great lords4 ,and from all this you will see how courtly and cultured they ought to be in their manners and conduct who are constantly to be near a king in all manner of honorable intercourse1 since it has appeared to knowing men as if one is scarcely prepared to come into the king's presence to converse with him unless he has mastered all these things that we have now talked about1 except he should be a perfect boor1 and not to be reckoned or classed among well-bred people but among the very churls4 ,still1 you must know this1 too1 that there are many who have spent a long time at court1 and know but little or nothing about these things4 ,and this is true of those who bear the hirdman's name and should be very close to the king1 as well as of those who have lesser titles and rarely see the king4 ,it must have been of such as these last mentioned that you spoke earlier in our conversation when you remarked that those who came from the court seemed no more polished or cultured1 or even less1 than those who had never been at court4 ,to that ,i replied1 and with truth1 that everyone who wishes to be proper in his conduct needs to guard against such ignorance as they are guilty of1 who know not the meaning of shame or honor or courtesy1 and learn nothing from the conduct of good and courtly men1 even though they see it daily before their eyes4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xxxv ,,concerning ,,failure ,,of ,,crops ,,and ,,dearth ,,in ,,morals ,,and ,,government ,son4 ,it is a fact that ,i have met some who1 though they came from court1 either concealed the sort of manners that you have now discussed1 if they knew them1 or had1 as ,i remarked1 never gained insight into such matters4 ,now it is not strange that those who remain at home in ignorance or are not of an inquiring mind know little or nothing about such things2 but it is more to be wondered at1 as you have just said1 that many remain a long time with the king and close to him in service1 and still do not learn either what courtesy means or what courtly manners are4 ,therefore1 since you have warned me to beware of such ignorance1 ,i want to ask you how this can be and how a king who is well-bred and courteous can be willing to keep men about his person to serve him1 who refuse to live according to good manners4 ,for ,i have thought that1 if a king is courteous and refined1 all would imitate him in decorum1 and that he would not care much for churlish men4 ,father4 ,it may happen sometimes that a husbandman who is accustomed to eat good bread and clean food has to mix chaff or bran with his flour so as to make his bread and that of his household last longer than common2 and at such times he must1 though reluctant1 partake of such food as is set before him in the same thankful spirit as earlier1 when he was given good and clean food2 and such cases result from grinding necessity1 that is1 from crop failures4 ,but scarcity arises in many ways4 ,sometimes there is dearth of grain1 even when the earth continues to yield grass and straw1 though at times it gives neither4 ,there are times1 too1 when the earth gives good and sufficient fruitage1 and yet no one is profited1 for dearth is in the air1 and bad weather ruins the crops at harvest time4 ,sometimes smut#bdf causes trouble1 though the crop is plentiful and the weather good4 ,it can also happen at times that all vegetation flourishes at its best1 and there is no dearth2 and yet there may be great scarcity on some man's farm or among his cattle1 or in the ocean1 or in the fresh waters1 or in the hunting forests4 ,sometimes when everything goes wrong1 it may even come to pass that all these failures occur together2 and then bran will be as dear among men as clean flour was earlier1 when times were good1 or even dearer than that4 ,all these forms of dearth which ,i have now recounted must be regarded as great calamities in every land where they occur2 and it would mean almost complete ruin if they should all appear at the same time and continue for a period of three years4 ,footnote #bdf3 ,skjaak4 ,the translation is uncertain2 possibly some sort of weed is meant4 ,there remains another kind of dearth which alone is more distressing than all those which ,i have enumerated3 dearth may come upon the people who inhabit the land1 or1 what is worse1 there may come failure in the morals1 the intelligence1 or the counsels of those who are to govern the land4 ,for something can be done to help a country where there is famine1 if capable men are in control and there is prosperity in the neighboring lands4 ,but if dearth comes upon the people or the morals of the nation1 far greater misfortunes will arise4 ,for one cannot buy from other countries with money either morals or insight1 if what was formerly in the land should be lost or destroyed4 ,but even though there be failure of harvest on a peasant's farm1 which has always been good and which he and his kinsmen before him have owned a long time1 he will not take such an angry dislike to it that1 caring no longer what becomes of it1 he will proceed forthwith to dispose of it2 much rather will he plan to garner and store grass and chaff as carefully as he once garnered good and clean grain1 or even more so1 and in this way provide for his household as best he can1 until ,god wills that times shall improve4 ,in this way1 too1 a king must act1 if he should suffer the misfortune of dearth upon the morals or the intelligence of his realm3 he must not renounce the kingdom1 but necessity may force him to rate the men of little wit as high as the wise were rated earlier while the kingdom stood highest in prosperity and morals4 ,sometimes punishment will serve and sometimes prayer2 something may also be gained through instruction2 but the land must be maintained in every way possible until ,god wills that times shall improve4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xxxvi ,,the ,,causes ,,of ,,such ,,periods ,,of ,,dearth ,,and ,,what ,,forms ,,the ,,dearth ,,may ,,take ,son4 ,i see clearly now that troubles may befall men in many ways1 the mighty as well as the humble1 kings as well as cotters4 ,but as you have given me this freedom and have allowed me to question you in our conversation1 ,i shall ask you to enlarge somewhat fully upon this speech before we take up another4 ,what is your opinion as to the causes of such a severe dearth as may come upon the minds of men1 so that all is ruined at the same time1 insight and national morals8 ,and do you think such losses should be traced to the people who inhabit the realm or to the king and the men who manage the state with him8 ,father4 ,what you have now asked about has its origin in various facts and occurrences of a harmful character4 ,i believe1 however1 that such misfortunes would rarely appear among the people who inhabit and till the land1 if the men who govern the realm were discreet and the king himself were wise4 ,but when ,god1 because of the sins of the people1 determines to visit a land with a punishment that means destruction to morals and intellect1 ,he will carry out ,his decision promptly1 though in various ways1 as soon as ,he wills it4 ,instances of this have occurred frequently and in various places1 where trouble has come when a chieftain1 who possessed both wealth and wisdom and who had been highly honored by the king1 having sat in his council and shared largely with him in the government1 departed this life leaving four or five sons in his place1 all in their early youth or childhood4 ,then the king and the whole realm have suffered immediate injury3 the king has lost a good friend1 an excellent adviser1 and a strong bulwark4 ,next the man's possessions are divided into five parts1 and all his projects are disturbed4 ,his household sinks in importance1 since each of the sons has but a fifth of all the power that the father derived from his means while he was living1 and has even less of his insight and knowledge of manners1 being a mere child4 ,greater still will the change be if he leaves no son at his decease but as many daughters as ,i have now counted sons2 but the very greatest change will come if neither sons nor daughters survive him2 for then it is likely that his possessions will be split up among distant relatives1 unless a near kinsman be found4 ,now if many such events should occur at one time in a kingdom1 vigor would disappear from the king's council1 though he himself be very capable4 ,and if it should happen 7for there are cases of such events as well as of the others7 that a king depart this life and leave a young son who succeeds to the paternal kingdom1 though a mere child1 and young counsellors come into the places of the old and wise advisers who were before1--if all these things that we have now recounted should happen at one time1 then it is highly probable that all the government of the realm would be stricken with dearth1 and that1 when the government goes to ruin1 the morals of the nation would also fail to some extent4 ,there still remains the one contingency which is most likely to bring on such years of dearth as produce the greatest evils2 and unfortunately there are no fewer instances of such issues than of those that we have just mentioned4 ,if a king who has governed a kingdom should happen to die1 and leave behind three or four sons1 and the men who are likely to be made counsellors be all young and full of temerity1 though wealthy and of good ancestry1 since they have sprung from families that formerly conducted the government with the king1--now if a kingdom should come into such unfortunate circumstances as have been described1 with several heirs at the same time1 and the evil counsel is furthermore taken to give them all the royal title and dignity1 then that realm must be called a rudderless ship or a decayed estate2 it may be regarded almost as a ruined kingdom1 for it is sown with the worst seeds of famine and the grains of unpeace4 ,for the petty kings1 having rent the realm asunder1 will quickly divide the loyalty of the people who inhabit the land1 both of the rich and of the poor2 and each of these lords will then try to draw friends about him1 as many as he can4 ,thereupon each will begin to survey his realm as to population and wealth2 and when he recalls what his predecessor possessed1 each will feel that he has too little4 ,then the friends1 too1 of each one will remind him of and tell about how much the king who ruled before him possessed in wealth and numbers and what great undertakings he set out upon2 and it seems as if in every suggestion each one tries to urge his lord to seize upon more than he already has4 ,after that these lords begin to treasure those riches that are of the least profit to the kingdom1 namely envy3 trivial matters are carefully garnered and great wrath is blown out of them4 ,soon the love of kinship begins to decay2 he who was earlier called friend and relative is now looked upon as an evil-doer1 for soon each one begins to be suspicious of the others4 ,but when suspicion and evil rumors begin to appear1 wicked men think that good times are at hand1 and they all bring out their plows4 ,before long the seeds of hostility begin to sprout1 avarice and iniquity flourish1 and men grow bold in manslaying1 high-handed robbery1 and theft4 ,now if it happens that one of these princes should wish to punish the aforesaid vices in his kingdom1 the wicked take refuge in the service of some other master2 and1 though they have been driven from home because of their misdeeds1 they pretend to have come in innocence to escape the cruel wrath of their lord4 ,the one to whom they have fled gives protection in temerity rather than in mercy2 for he wishes to acquire friends in the other's realm1 who may prove useful to himself and hostile to the other in case they should come to disagreement4 ,but those who had to flee because of their evil conduct and law-breaking soon begin to show hostility toward the lord whose subjects they formerly were and to rouse as much enmity as they can between him and the one to whom they have come4 ,they take revenge for their exile by carrying murder1 rapine1 and plundering into the kingdom1 as if they were guiltless and all the blame lay with the lord4 ,soon immorality begins to multiply1 for ,god shows ,his wrath in this way1 that where the four boundaries of the territories of these chiefs touch1 he places a moving wheel which turns on a restless axle4 ,after that each one forgets all brotherly love1 and kinship is wrecked4 ,nothing is now spared1 for whenever the people are divided into many factions through loyalty to different chiefs1 and these fall out1 the masses will rashly pursue their desires1 and the morals of the nation go to ruin4 ,for then everyone makes his own moral code according to his own way of thinking2 and no one fears punishment any longer when the rulers fall out and are weakened thereby4 ,when each one looks only to his own tricks and wiles1 great misfortunes of all kinds will come upon the land4 ,murder and quarrels will multiply2 many women will be carried off as captives of war and violated1 while others will be ensnared and seduced into fornication2 children will be begotten in adultery and unlawful co-habitation4 ,some take their kinswomen or sisters-in-law1 while others seduce wives away from their husbands2 and thus all forms of whoredom are committed and degeneracy will come to light in all the generations that are begotten in such immorality4 ,every form of crime will be committed4 ,peasants and subjects become defiant and disobedient2 they are not careful to avoid crimes1 and though they commit many1 they atone for few only4 ,trusting in their own strength and numbers1 they attend seditious meetings2 and they choose as their part what is likely to bring a dangerous outcome1 for they place all men on the same level1 the discreet and decent ones with the coarse and stupid1 and they screen foolish and iniquitous men from punishment1 though these deserve it every day4 ,and this they do either by swearing falsely and giving false witness in their behalf1 or by making a foolhardy and crafty defence at the court of trial1 so that the guilty have to answer for nothing before the kingsmen who assist the king in carrying out the law4 ,for the unthinking mob seem to imagine that the king was appointed to be their opponent2 and a foolish man regards himself fortunate and highly favored in the eyes of thoughtless people1 if he can maintain himself for some time in opposition to royal authority and the prescriptions of law4 ,and if such men have disputes to settle anywhere1 the wicked will support the foolish one1 so that he may prevail in the controversy2 thus the upright and the peaceful are robbed of their dues4 ,if the greedy or the quarrelsome is slain because of his avarice1 his stupid kinsmen who survive him will feel that their family has been greatly injured and impaired thereby2 and if at some earlier time there was slain one of their family who was both wise and peaceful1 and whose wisdom and even temper proved useful to many1 and if this one was atoned for with a payment to the kindred1 they will now ask as large a fine for the unwise as what was formerly taken for the prudent one2 otherwise there will be revenge by manslaying4 ,but when ,god sees that such misjudgments1 born of perversity and unwisdom1 are decreed1 ,he turns the injustice back upon those who first began to pass unfair and unfounded judgments4 ,for as soon as the foolish or the avaricious sees that he is held in high regard1 even more than the wise with his even temper1 and that his avarice and folly are turned to honor and advancement1 he will do according to his nature and the custom of all foolish men3 he will become more grasping and will operate more widely in his greed4 ,and when the mob begins to regard that as worthy of praise and renown which is evil and should be hated by all1 the second and the third will learn it and the one after the other1 until it becomes common custom2 and he alone will be counted a worthy man who is grasping and knows how to detract unjustly from another's honor to his own profit4 ,after that the one deals greedily with the other1 till misfortune turns against the very ones whose folly and wickedness originally began these evil practices4 ,for one will finally bring evil upon another1 wounds or other afflictions1 and thus all old and lawful ordinances must decay4 ,now everyone holds that the king and other great lords should temper the severity of the laws with mercy2 but none of the commoners seems willing to deal justly with another2 indeed1 each would rather demand more than what he was entitled to from the beginning4 ,but when all lawful ordinances and right punishments are ignored and unlaw and malice take their place1 and this condition becomes so general that ,god is wearied1 ,he applies the punishment that is able to reach all1 since the guilt has touched all4 ,he throws hatred and enmity down among the chiefs who are placed in control of the realm2 when things go ill there may also come failure of crops2 and the chiefs soon begin to quarrel1 for each finds complaints in the other's kingdom1 which are finally settled with slaughter and strife4 ,but whenever famine1 murder1 and warfare begin to arrive together and visit all those who inhabit the realm1 the kingdom will be brought near to utter weakness and ruin1 if the period should continue any length of time4 ,though laws and useful customs may have been observed and maintained to some extent in the times mentioned earlier1 they will be wholly forgotten whenever such times appear as those that we have just now described2 for in warfare the best men and those of the noblest kinship are destroyed4 ,but failure of crops1 rapine1 and unpeace of every sort that may then appear will rob those of wealth who are in possession of it and have acquired it honestly1 while he gets it who can most readily deprive others by theft and plunder4 ,and when such a time comes upon a nation1 it will suffer loss in good morals and capable men1 wealth and security1 and every blessing as long as ,god permits the plague to continue4 ,but ,he metes out according to ,his mercy1 for ,he is able to save such a country1 when ,he finds that the people have been sufficiently chastised for their sins4 ,now you can imagine how highly moral the people will become1 if such a nation is saved by ,god's grace and again brought under the rule of a single monarch1 and how prosperous the realm may become in the period immediately following such an unrest as ,i have just described4 ,for then the kingdom was rent1 the morals of the people were confused1 and their loyalty was divided among a number of lords1 each one of whom was striving to contrive and employ against the others cunning1 deception1 disloyalty1 and evil in every form4#bdg ,footnote #bdg3 ,in this chapter the author has summed up the history of ,norwegian kingship in the twelfth century1 when minorities were frequent and joint kingships almost the rule4 ,three boys were proclaimed kings in #aajc2 two kings shared the power in #aacj2 the royal title fell to three children in #aacf4 ,at no time was the realm actually divided1 the theory being that the administration and the revenues might be divided1 while the monarchy remained a unit4 ,the century was a period of great calamities2 pretenders were numerous2 and civil war raged at intervals4 ,for a fuller discussion of the theory of ,norwegian kingship in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 see above1 pp4 #ce ff4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xxxvii ,,the ,,duties1 ,,activities1 ,,and ,,amusements ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,guardsmen ,son4 ,it is perfectly evident that if all these misfortunes should befall a kingdom and the period of trouble were to continue for some time1 the realm would decline4 ,there surely must be instances of such an issue1 and we may safely conclude that wherever such events come to pass1 there will be much evil and manifold misfortunes before they cease4 ,i also see clearly that if the morals or laws of a kingdom are undermined by such troubles as you have described1 even though ,god should purpose to rescue it finally from distress and unpeace and bring it again under one ruler after such troublous times1 the people who survive are likely to be both wicked and vicious2 and there will surely be need1 as you have said1 of good instruction and at times even of very severe punishment4 ,furthermore1 even if the kingdom did possess tolerable morals for a time before the unpeace came1 he who is to undertake the government1 though he be very wise1 will need to use great determination and severity for a long period1 if the realm is to be replaced on its earlier footing4 ,i have been deeply interested in your discussion of what may bring the greatest damage to a kingdom 7and it may be rendered worthless through loss of morals1 population1 and wealth1 if such conditions should arise72 and ,i have now been sufficiently informed as to how matters may shape themselves1 if misfortune means to come2 and ,i see clearly what great losses and damage may follow such events4 ,now it seems to me that we have dwelt rather long upon facts which must bring distress to everyone who wishes to be reputed a moral man 7wherefore all1 both rich and poor1 should implore the ,lord to let no such times come in their days71 and ,i will therefore return to what ,i began with and ask you to point out the manners and customs which you think would be becoming to me1 if ,i were employed in the royal service1 no matter what times might come1 though ,i will pray the ,lord that as long as ,i live there may be peace and quiet and prosperous times4 ,father4 ,no one knows how ,god will order such things during the days of any man's lifetime4 ,but if a man determines to be a kingsman and there happens to be much distress and many disasters at the time because of too many rulers or unpeace in some form1 he must be careful to join the service of the one who has obtained the power in the most legal manner and is most likely to observe the customs that rightful and well-bred kings have observed before his day4 ,he is then least likely to incur danger in accounting for his service1 whether he be called to account in this world or in the next4 ,but you have asked what customs you should observe if you were bound to a royal service1 and on that point ,i can very well inform you4 ,this should be the first principle of all your conduct1 never to let your heart be wanting in reverence and fear of ,god1 to love him above everything else1 and next to him to love righteousness4 ,train yourself to be fair1 upright1 and temperate in all things4 ,always keep in mind the day of death and guard carefully against vices4 ,remember that many a man lives but a brief time1 while his deeds live long after him2 and it is of great importance what is remembered about him4 ,some have reached fame through good deeds1 and these always live after them1 for one's honor lives forever1 though the man himself be dead4 ,some win fame by evil deeds and these men1 though they be dead1 bear a burden of lasting disgrace when their deeds are recalled2 their kinsmen1 too1 and all their descendants after their days have to bear the same dishonor4 ,those1 however1 are most numerous who drop away like cattle and are remembered neither for good nor for evil2 but you shall know of a truth that such is surely not the purpose of mankind2 for all other creatures were made for the pleasure and subsistence of man1 while man was created to enjoy the glories of both this and the other world1 if he is to realize the purpose of his creation4 ,every one1 therefore1 while he still lives1 should strive to leave a few such deeds after him as will cause him to be remembered with favor after he has departed this life4 ,but this is above all the duty of kings and other mighty chiefs and of all those who seek their society and enter their service2 for after that a man is no longer looked upon as a churl1 but is honored as a governor or a chief2 and thus he ought to be honored1 if he strives to observe the customs that are becoming to himself and his dignity4 ,take heed lest you vacillate in friendship among several chiefs1 as fickle men do2 for no one who acts thus can be firm in purpose4 ,love your lord highly and without guile as long as you stay in his service1 and never seek the society or the confidence of his enemies1 if you wish to remain a man of honor4 ,above your lord you must love ,god alone1 but no other man4 ,these are the things that you must especially avoid1 lest they bring you an evil name3 perjury and false testimony1 brothels1 drinking bouts1 except in the king's house or in decent gatherings1 casting dice for silver1 lust after bribes1 and all other evil covetousness2 for these things are a great disgrace to every kingsman in this world and his soul will be in peril in the other world1 if he is found guilty of such vices4 ,never get drunk1 wherever you are2 for it may fall out at any time that you will be summoned to hear a dispute or to supervise something1 or that you will have important business of your own to look after4 ,now if such demands should come to a man while he is drunk1 he will be found wholly incompetent2 wherefore drunkenness should be avoided by everyone1 and most of all by kingsmen and others who wish to be reputed as worthy men1 for such are most frequently called to hear suits at law and to other important duties4 ,moreover1 they ought to set good examples for all1 as some may wish to learn decorum from their behavior4 ,if you are a kingsman you must observe the same prudence in your address and habits1 and do not forget this4 ,you should frequently be seen in your lord's presence4 ,early in the morning you must escort him to church1 if he observes that custom1 as by right he ought to do2 listen attentively to the service while you are in the church1 and call devoutly upon ,god for mercy4 ,when the king leaves the church1 join him at once and keep sufficiently near him to be in sight1 so that he may be able to call you for any purpose1 if he should wish to do so4 ,but do not keep so close to him as to make him feel annoyed by your presence1 when he wishes to speak with men whom he has called to converse with him1 or to discuss such matters as he wishes to keep secret4 ,never show an interest in those affairs which you see that your lord wishes to keep to himself1 unless he summons you to share knowledge with him4 ,but if anything should come up that your lord confides to you but wishes to have kept secret1 keep it carefully in discreet silence2 do not babble about such affairs as should be hidden in your fidelity4 ,you must also make a habit of going to the royal apartments early in the morning before the king has arisen2 but be sure to come carefully washed and bathed and wearing your best raiment2 and wait near the king's chamber until he has arisen4 ,go into the king's chamber if he calls you1 but at no other time2 but wherever it is that the king summons you1 you must come into his presence without your mantle4 ,if it is early in the morning and you have not seen him before1 wish him a good day in the words that ,i have already taught you2 but approach only so near as to leave him sufficient room to confer with the men who are nearest to him1 and remain standing there4 ,but if he calls you to come nearer1 wishing to speak with you in private1 then kneel before him but only so near that you can readily hear his words2 and come without your mantle4 ,however1 if he invites you to be seated1 you may put on your cloak1 if you like1 and be seated where he indicates4 ,now when it happens that the king goes out to seek diversion1 whether it be in town or in the country1 or wherever he is sojourning1 and you and your comrades accompany him1 the retinue looks best1 whether you are armed or not1 if you walk in equal numbers on either side of the king1 though never in compact groups4 ,wherever you go he should walk in your midst1 and you and your companions should be arranged in equal numbers before and behind him and on either side4 ,but none of you must walk so near the king that he has not sufficient space to converse with those whom he summons to him1 whether he wishes to speak with them openly or in private4 ,and even though he call no one to have speech with him1 keep the order such that there is plenty of space around him on all sides4 ,but when the king rides out for amusement and you and your comrades accompany him1 arrange the order of riding in the way that ,i have suggested about your walking2 only keep at a greater distance1 so that no dirt can splash from your horses upon the king1 even though you ride quite rapidly4 ,if the king should call you by name1 be careful not to answer by 8,eh80 or 8,hm80 or 8,what80 but rather speak in this wise3 8,yes1 my lord1 ,i am glad to listen60 ,also take good heed not to rush away early in the morning to eat and drink with greedy and unmannerly men4 ,wait1 as custom demands1 till the king's meal time1 and take your seat at the royal tables1 whenever you are present at court4 ,but when the king sits down to eat with his hirdmen1 these ought all to observe good manners and decent order1 and the one should never run in ahead of the other like an ill-bred man2 but each ought to know his right place and table companion2 and the men should sit at the table in the same order as when they are out walking4 ,the men should go by twos1 those who sit together1 to lave their hands1 whether the washing is done within the hall or without1 and then to the table1 each in the order and to the seat that he knows was assigned to him in the beginning4 ,the hirdmen ought to speak in a low tone at the table so that not a single word will be heard by those who sit on either side of the two who wish to converse2 let each one speak to his partner so softly that none shall hear but those who are conversing2 then there will be good deportment and quiet in the king's hall4 ,you may1 however1 partake freely and quickly of both the food and the drink on the table according to your needs without suffering any discredit to your manners2 but always take good heed not to get drunk4 ,you should cast frequent glances toward the king's seat to see how his service is going forward1 and always note carefully when the king raises the beaker to his lips1 for you must not eat while he is drinking4 ,if you have a cup in your hand1 set it down and do not drink just then4 ,you must show the queen everywhere the same honor as you show the king according as ,i have told you4 ,and if the king has a guest at his table who ought to be shown the same deference1 whether he be a king1 an earl1 an archbishop1 or a bishop1 you should observe these same customs which ,i have just taught you4 ,however1 if the number of distinguished people at the royal table should be large1 you need not observe this custom as to drinking unless you wish1 except when the king or the queen drinks1 or when there is another king at the table with them4 ,now if the king's hirdmen happen to be seated together in the royal hall but with no tables before them and certain lords come in whom the king is pleased to receive with honor1 it is the duty of all men to rise before them just as before their own lords and to give them such cordial greetings as they know that the king desires4 ,but this is an honor which every kingsman owes to his fellows3 when one who has been absent comes in and walks toward the seat where he has his proper place and position1 the two who sit nearest to him on either side should rise1 receive him in a friendly manner1 and bid him welcome among them4 ,wherever the kingsmen are much in the eyes of other men1 whether they sit together at a feast1 or walk in the king's escort1 or go out together to make merry1 they ought always to speak in rather low tones1 to be proper in their actions and elegant in their speech1 and to avoid all indecent talk4 ,all these rules which ,i have now recounted must be learned and observed by all kingsmen who wish to be known for good breeding4 ,but no matter how others behave1 be sure that you observe carefully all that ,i have taught you1 and be willing to teach others who may wish to learn from you4 ,now if your comrades are planning to go from the king's apartments to some drinking bout or other merrymaking1 and you1 too1 have the king's permission to seek diversion1 you should prefer the forms of amusement which ,i shall now point out to you4 ,if you are sojourning where horses may be ridden and you have your own horse1 put on heavy armor and1 mounting your horse1 train yourself in the art of sitting on horseback in the firmest and most handsome manner4 ,train yourself to press the foot firmly into the stirrup2 keep your leg stiff and the heel a little lower than the toes1 except when you have to guard against thrusts from the front2 and practice sitting firmly with the thighs pressed close4 ,cover your breast and limbs carefully with a curved shield4 ,train your left hand to grasp firmly the bridle and the grip of the shield1 and your right hand to direct the spear-thrust so that all your bodily strength will support it4 ,train your good steed to veer about when in full gallop2 keep him clean and in good condition2 keep him shod firmly and well1 and provide him with a strong and handsome harness4 ,but if you are in a borough or some such place where horses cannot be used for recreation1 you should take up this form of amusement3 go to your chambers and put on heavy armor2 next look up some fellow henchman 7he may be a native or an alien7 who likes to drill with you and whom you know to be well trained to fight behind a shield or a buckler4 ,always bring heavy armor to this exercise1 either chain mail or a thick gambison1#bdh and carry a heavy sword and a weighty shield or buckler in your hand4 ,in this game you should strive to learn suitable thrusts and such counterstrokes as are good1 necessary1 and convenient4 ,learn precisely how to cover yourself with the shield1 so that you may be able to guard well when you have to deal with a foeman4 ,if you feel that it is important to be well trained in these activities1 go through the exercise twice a day1 if it is convenient2 but let no day pass1 except holidays1 without practicing this drill at least once2 for it is counted proper for all kingsmen to master this art and1 moreover1 it must be mastered if it is to be of service4 ,if the drill tires you and makes you thirsty1 drink a little now and then1 enough to quench your thirst2 but while the game is on1 be careful not to drink till you are drunk or even merry4 ,footnote #bdh3 ,the gambison 7panzari7 was a form of defensive armor made of cloth padded and quilted4 ,it is described on page #bag as being made 8of soft linen thoroughly blackened40 ,usually it was worn under the coat of mail1 but it could also be worn outside4 ,see ,annaler for nordisk ,oldkyndighed1 #ahfg1 #gd ff4 7,blom472 ,falk1 ,altnordische ,waffenkunde1 #aha-ahb4 ,if you should like to try a variety of drills and pastimes1 there are certain sports that one can take up out of doors1 if that is thought more diverting4 ,for one thing1 you may have a pole prepared1 somewhat heavier than a spear shaft1 and put up a mark some distance away for a target2 with these you can determine how far and how accurately you can throw a spear and do it effectively4 ,it is also counted rare sport and pastime to take one's bow and go with other men to practice archery4 ,another pleasant and useful diversion is to practice throwing with a sling both for distance and for accuracy1 and with a staff sling#bdi as well as with a hand sling1 and to practice throwing stone missiles4 ,formerly the custom was for all who wished to become expert in such arts and thoroughly proficient in war and chivalry to train both hands alike to the use of weapons4 ,strive after the same skill1 if you find yourself gifted for it1 inasmuch as those who are trained in that way are the most perfect in these activities and the most dangerous to their enemies4 ,footnote #bdi3 ,the staff sling was a sling fastened to the end of a stick2 it was an earlier form which was not used much in the thirteenth century4 ,you should abhor and avoid manslaying in every form except as a lawful punishment or in common warfare4 ,but in ordinary warfare on the lawful command of your chief1 you need to shun manslaying no more than any other deed which you know to be right and good4 ,show courage and bravery in battle2 fight with proper and effective blows1 such as you have already learned1 as if in the best of humor1 though filled with noble wrath4 ,never fight with feigned strokes1 needless thrusts1 or uncertain shots like a frightened man4 ,heed these things well that you may be able to match your opponent's skill in fighting4 ,be resolute in combat but not hot-headed and least of all boastful4 ,always remember that there may be those who can give good testimony in your behalf2 but never praise your own deeds1 lest after a time it should come to pass that you are pursued for the slaughter of men whose death is rated a great loss and the revenge is directed toward you by your own words4 ,if you are fighting on foot in a land battle and are placed at the point of a wedge-shaped column1#bej it is very important to watch the closed shield line in the first onset1 lest it become disarranged or broken4 ,take heed never to bind the front edge of your shield under that of another4#bea ,you must also be specially careful1 when in the battle line1 never to throw your spear1 unless you have two1 for in battle array on land one spear is more effective than two swords4 ,but if the fight is on shipboard1 select two spears which are not to be thrown1 one with a shaft long enough to reach easily from ship to ship and one with a shorter shaft1 which you will find particularly serviceable when you try to board the enemy's ship4 ,various kinds of darts should be kept on ships1 both heavy javelins and lighter ones4 ,try to strike your opponent's shield with a heavy javelin1 and if the shield glides aside1 attack him with a light javelin1 unless you are able to reach him with a long-shafted spear4 ,fight on sea as on land with an even temper and with proper strokes only2 and never waste your weapons by hurling them to no purpose4 ,footnote #bej3 ,the wedge-shaped column 7svnfylking1 perhaps so named from a fancied resemblance to a boar's head7 was a common form of battle array among the ,northern peoples as well as among the early ,germans generally4 ,footnote #bea3 ,as the shield was born on the left arm1 the front edge would be the right edge4 ,weapons of many sorts may be used to advantage on shipboard1 which one has no occasion to use on land1 except in a fortress or castle4 ,longhandled scythes#beb and long-shafted broadaxes1#bec 8war-beams0 and staff slings1 darts1#bed and missiles of every sort are serviceable on ships4 ,crossbows and longbows are useful as well as all other forms of shooting weapons2 but coal and sulphur#bee are1 however1 the most effective munitions of all that ,i have named4 ,caltrops#bef cast in lead and good halberds#beg are also effective weapons on shipboard4 ,a tower joined to the mast#beh will be serviceable along with these and many other defenses1 as is also a beam cloven into four parts and set with prongs of hard steel1#bei which is drawn up against the mast4 ,a 8prow-boar0#bfj with an ironclad snout is also useful in naval battles4 ,but it is well for men to be carefully trained in handling these before they have to use them2 for one knows neither the time nor the hour when he shall have to make use of any particular kind of weapons4 ,but take good heed to collect as many types of weapons as possible1 while you still have no need of them2 for it is always a distinction to have good weapons1 and1 furthermore1 they are a good possession in times of necessity when one has to use them4 ,for a ship's defense the following arrangement is necessary3 it should be fortified strongly with beams and logs built up into a high rampart1 through which there should be four openings1 each so large and wide that one or two men in full armor can leap through them2 but outside and along the rampart on both sides of the ship there should be laid a level walk of planks to stand upon4#bfa ,this breastwork must be firmly and carefully braced so that it cannot be shaken though one leaps violently upon it4 ,wide shields and chain mail of every sort are good defensive weapons on shipboard2 the chief protection1 however1 is the gambison made of soft linen thoroughly blackened1 good helmets1 and low caps of steel4 ,there are many other weapons that can be used in naval fights1 but it seems needless to discuss more than those which ,i have now enumerated4 ,footnote #beb3 ,these scythes were apparently used to catch and hold the hostile ships and perhaps also to cut the ropes on the ship4 ,see the ,sor edition1 #chh4 ,footnote #bec3 ,the broadax 7skeggx7 had the blade extended backward somewhat like that of a halberd1 though in the latter case the extension was usually forward4 ,see ,falk1 ,altnordische ,waffenkunde1 #ajh-aaj4 ,footnote #bed3 ,skeptifletta3 a dart of some sort with a cord attached4 ,footnote #bee3 ,coal and sulphur seem to have been used chiefly to fire the enemy's ship4 ,footnote #bef3 ,caltrops were instruments provided with iron prongs and were usually scattered where the enemy's horsemen were likely to pass1 in the hope of maiming the horses4 ,it is evident that they were also used in naval warfare1 the purpose being to maim the men on the enemy's deck4 ,see the ,sor edition1 #cib4 ,footnote #beg3 ,atgeirr4 ,the translation is doubtful1 but it seems clear that some kind of spear useful for striking as well as for thrusting is meant4 ,see ,falk1 ,altnordische ,waffenkunde1 #ha-hb4 ,footnote #beh3 ,probably some sort of a cage placed at the top or near the top of the mast from which men with bows and slings could fight to better advantage4 ,see ,aarbger for nordisk ,oldkyndighed1 #ahgb1 #bdb2 ,falk1 ,altnordische ,waffenkunde1 #aig4 ,footnote #bei3 ,only one end of the beam was cloven in this way4 ,see the ,sor edition1 #cid-cie4 ,the beam was apparently fastened to the mast and used to crush the sides of the enemy's ship in much the same way as the ram was used against a castle wall4 ,see ,falk1 ,altnordische ,waffenkunde1 #aii4 ,footnote #bfj3 ,the prow-boar 7rrgoltr7 was not a beak but apparently some device fastened to the prow which served much the same purpose1 namely to run down and sink an opposing ship4 ,see the ,sor edition1 #cie-cif2 ,falk1 ,altnordische ,waffenkunde1 #aih-aii4 ,footnote #bfa3 ,see the ,sor edition1 #cig-cii2 ,falk1 ,altnordische ,waffenkunde1 #aif4 ,this rampart was built of logs and planks and raised on the gunwales4 ,sometimes it seems to have been placed along the entire length of the ship1 but often1 perhaps1 only where the ship was lowest4 ,inside it was braced with strong beams4 ,the plank walk on the outside projected over the edge of the ship and was no doubt in part intended to make it difficult for the enemy to board it4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xxxviii ,,weapons ,,for ,,offense ,,and ,,defense ,son4 ,since we now have before us a discussion which teaches chiefly how a man must prepare himself to meet his enemies in attack and defense1 it seems to me that it would be well to say something about how one has to fight on land1 on horse or on foot1 and in attacking and defending castles4 ,therefore1 if you feel disposed to say anything about such matters1 ,i shall be glad to listen4 ,father4 ,the man who is to fight on horseback needs to make sure1 as we have already stated1 that he is thoroughly trained in all the arts of mounted warfare4 ,for his horse he will need to provide this equipment3#bfb he must keep him carefully and firmly shod2 he must also make sure that the saddle is strong1 made with high bows1 and provided with strong girths and other saddlegear1 including a durable surcingle across the middle and a breast strap in front4#bfc ,the horse should be protected in such a way both in front of the saddle and behind it that he will not be exposed to weapons1 spear-thrust or stroke1 or any other form of attack4 ,he should also have a good shabrack#bfd made like a gambison of soft and thoroughly blackened linen cloth1 for this is a good protection against all kinds of weapons4 ,it may be decorated as one likes1 and over the shabrack there should be a good harness of mail4 ,with this equipment every part of the horse should be covered1 head1 loins1 breast1 belly1 and the entire beast1 so that no man1 even if on foot1 shall be able to reach him with deadly weapons4 ,the horse should have a strong bridle1 one that can be gripped firmly and used to rein him in or throw him when necessary4 ,over the bridle and about the entire head of the horse and around the neck back to the saddle1 there should be a harness made like a gambison of firm linen cloth1 so that no man shall be able to take away the bridle or the horse by stealth4#bfe ,footnote #bfb3 ,on the equipment of the horse in medieval warfare1 see ,aarbger for nordisk ,oldkyndighed1 #ahfg1 #ij-ig4 ,footnote #bfc3 ,in the thirteenth century the saddle was made with high bows before and behind so as to provide a firmer seat for the rider4 ,the surcingle was a girth drawn over the saddle2 the breast strap served to keep the saddle from slipping backwards4 ,aarbger for nordisk ,oldkyndighed1 #ia4 ,footnote #bfd3 ,kovertur1 from medieval ,french couverture4 ,but the couverture was not a covering worn underneath the mail2 it was probably the mail itself or an outer covering for the horse4 ,see ,falk1 ,altnordische ,waffenkunde1 #aia4 ,footnote #bfe3 ,falk believes that this description is in some respects inaccurate4 ,no such elaborate equipment could have been used in the ,north where cavalry was not an important part of the host in the thirteenth century4 ,he also doubts that an equipment just like the one described was in use anywhere in ,europe at the time4 ,ibid41 #aij-aia4 ,the medieval couverture was not placed beneath the covering of mail as the ,speculum ,regale states2 and ,falk can see no reason why a gambison placed beneath the mail should be ornamented4 ,it seems clear that the author is somewhat confused as to these various coverings4 ,the rider himself should be equipped in this wise3 he should wear good soft breeches made of soft and thoroughly blackened linen cloth1 which should reach up to the belt2 outside these1 good mail hose#bff which should come up high enough to be girded on with a double strap2 over these he must have good trousers made of linen cloth of the sort that ,i have already described2 finally1 over these he should have good kneepieces made of thick iron and rivets hard as steel4#bfg ,above and next to the body he should wear a soft gambison1 which need not come lower than to the middle of the thigh4 ,over this he must have a strong breastplate#bfh made of good iron covering the body from the nipples to the trousers belt2 outside this1 a well-made hauberk and over the hauberk a firm gambison made in the manner which ,i have already described but without sleeves4 ,he must have a dirk#bfi and two swords1 one girded on and another hanging from the pommel of the saddle4 ,on his head he must have a dependable helmet made of good steel and provided with a visor4#bgj ,he must also have a strong1 thick shield fastened to a durable shoulder belt and1 in addition1 a good sharp spear with a firm shaft and pointed with fine steel4 ,now it seems needless to speak further about the equipment of men who fight on horseback2 there are1 however1 other weapons which a mounted warrior may use1 if he wishes2 among these are the 8horn bow0#bga and the weaker crossbow1 which a man can easily draw even when on horseback1 and certain other weapons1 too1 if he should want them4 ,footnote #bff3 ,the mail hose were made of chain mail4 ,aarbger for nordisk ,oldkyndighed1 #ahfg1 #gc-gd4 ,footnote #bfg3 ,the kneepieces1 or genouillres were pieces of armor worn to protect the knees4 ,footnote #bfh3 ,blom thinks that the breastplate was a new thing in the thirteenth century 7ibid41 #gf71 but ,falk believes that it was used quite generally 7,altnordische ,waffenkunde1 #ahb74 ,footnote #bfi3 ,the dirk 7brynknifr7 was probably a poniard-like weapon used to pierce the chain mail at the joints4 ,falk1 ,altnordische ,waffenkunde1 #abd4 ,footnote #bgj3 ,the helmet with the visor appears in the illustrations of the closing years of the twelfth century2 the earlier helmet was a steel cap with a nose guard4 ,aarbger for nordisk ,oldkyndighed1 #hc-hd4 ,footnote #bga3 ,little seems to be known about the hornbow4 ,captain ,blom finds it mentioned in the ,latin sources as balista cornea or balista cum cornu4 ,aarbger for nordisk ,oldkyndighed1 #ahfg1 #ajj-aja4 ,falk believes that it was a bow which was reinforced on the inner side with horn4 ,altnordische ,waffenkunde1 #ia-ib4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xxxix ,,military ,,engines ,son4 ,inasmuch as you seem to think that you have described most of the weapons which are convenient to have in naval warfare or in fighting on horseback1 ,i will now ask you to say something about those which you think are most effective in besieging or defending castles4 ,father4 ,all the weapons that we have just discussed as useful on ships or on horseback can also be used in attacking and defending castles2 but there are many other kinds4 ,if one is to attack a castle with the weapons which ,i have enumerated1 he will also have need of trebuckets3#bgb a few powerful ones with which to throw large rocks against stone walls to determine whether they are able to resist such violent blows1 and weaker trebuckets for throwing missiles over the walls to demolish the houses within the castle4 ,but if one is unable to break down or shatter a stone wall with trebuckets1 he will have to try another engine1 namely the iron-headed ram1#bgc for very few stone walls can withstand its attack4 ,if this engine fails to batter down or shake the wall1 it may be advisable to set the cat#bgd to work4 ,a tower raised on wheels#bge is useful in besieging castles1 if it is constructed so that it rises above the wall which is to be stormed1 even though the difference in height be only seven ells2 but the higher it is1 the more effective it will be in attacking another tower4 ,scaling ladders on wheels which may be moved backward and forward are also useful for this purpose1 if they are boarded up underneath and have good ropes on both sides4 ,and we may say briefly about this craft1 that in besieging castles use will be found for all sorts of military engines4 ,but whoever wishes to join in this must be sure that he knows precisely even to the very hour when he shall have need for each device4 ,footnote #bgb3 ,the trebucket 7,french trbuchet7 was a siege engine which came into use in the twelfth century2 it was worked by counterpoises4 ,for a description see ,oman1 ,art of ,war1 #adc-add2 ,aarbger for nordisk ,oldkyndighed1 #ahfg1 #ajc-ajd2 ,falk1 ,altnordische ,waffenkunde1 #aic-aid4 ,footnote #bgc3 ,the ram was a massive beam used to batter down walls2 it was an inheritance from antiquity and was much in use4 ,see ,oman1 ,art of ,war1 #acb2 ,aarbger for nordisk ,oldkyndighed1 #ahfg1 #ajd2 ,falk1 ,altnordische ,waffenkunde1 #aih4 ,footnote #bgd3 ,grafsvin4 ,falk translates this with 8badger0 and seems to believe that it was a shelter on wheels under which the attackers might work in comparative safety4 ,altnordische ,waffenkunde1 #aif4 ,it is more likely1 however1 that a 8cat0 is meant4 ,the cat was a long pointed pole used to loosen the stones in a wall and thus to make a breach4 ,it is also called a 8sow0 and the ,old ,norse term grafsvin1 8digging boar10 was evidently an attempt to translate the ,latin term scrofa or sus1 8hog0 or 8sow40 ,for a description of the cat1 see ,oman1 ,art of ,war1 #acb4 ,footnote #bge3 ,on the subject of the movable tower see ,oman1 ,art of ,war1 #acd-ace1 #edi4 ,those who have to defend a castle may also make use of these weapons which ,i have now enumerated and many more3 trebuckets both large and small1 hand slings and staff slings4 ,they will find crossbows and other bows1 too1 very effective1 as well as every other type of shooting weapons1 such as spears and javelins both light and heavy4 ,but to resist the trebuckets1 the cat1 and the engine called the ram1 it is well to strengthen the entire stone wall on the inside with large oaken timbers2 though if earth and clay are plentiful1 these materials had better be used4 ,those who have to defend castles are also in the habit of making curtains of large oak boughs1 three or even five deep1 to cover the entire wall2#bgf and the curtain should be thoroughly plastered with good sticky clay4 ,to defeat the attacks of the ram1 men have sometimes filled large bags with hay or straw and lowered them with light iron chains in front of the ram where it sought to pierce the wall4 ,it sometimes happens that the shots fall so rapidly upon a fortress that the defenders are unable to remain at the battlements2 it is then advisable to hang out brattices made of light planks and built high enough to reach two ells above the openings in the parapet and three ells below them4 ,they should be wide enough to enable the men to fight with any sort of weapons between the parapet and the brattice wall1 and they should be hung from slender beams in such a way that they may be readily drawn in and hung out again later1 as one may wish4#bgg ,footnote #bgf3 ,these curtains were evidently placed on the outer side of the wall4 ,footnote #bgg3 ,this translation of hengivigskar is based on ,blom's interpretation 7,aarbger for nordisk ,oldkyndighed1 #ahfg1 #aje-ajf1 note74 ,the brattices were projecting galleries built along the top of the wall and were in use before it became customary to build stone parapets4 ,cf4 ,oman1 ,art of ,war1 #ecd4 ,the 8hedgehog0#bgh will be found an effective device in defending a castle4 ,it is made of large1 heavy beams armed along the ridge with a brush of pointed oak nails2 it is hung outside the parapet to be dropped on anyone who comes too near the wall4 ,turnpikes made of large heavy logs armed with sharp teeth of hard oak may be raised on end near the battlements and kept ready to be dropped upon those who approach the castle4 ,another good device is the 8briar10#bgi which is made of good iron and has curved thorns as hard as steel with a barb on every thorn2 and the chain1 from which it hangs1 as high up as a man can reach must be made of spiked links1 so that it can be neither held nor hewn2 higher up any kind of rope that seems suitable may be used1 only1 it must be firm and strong4 ,this briar is thrown down among the enemy in the hope of catching one or more of them and then it is pulled up again4 ,a 8running wheel0#bhj is also a good weapon for those who defend castles3 it is made of two millstones with an axle of tough oak joining them4 ,planks sloping downward are laid out through the openings in the wall2 the wheel is rolled out upon these and then down upon the enemy4 ,footnote #bgh3 ,the hedgehog 7ericius7 in common use was a form of the cheval de frise and was laid on the earth to impede a hostile advance4 ,i know of no other mention of the device 7igelkttr7 described above4 ,footnote #bgi3 ,captain ,blom is disposed to look on the brynklungr as an imaginary device 7,aarbger for nordisk ,oldkyndighed1 #ahfg1 #ajf7 but ,falk finds that some such instrument was in use in ,italy as early as the tenth century 7,altnordische ,waffenkunde1 #aii-bjj74 ,footnote #bhj3 ,devices somewhat similar to the 8running wheel0 seem to have been used in medieval warfare1 but of this particular form no other mention has been found4 ,see ,falk1 ,altnordische ,waffenkunde1 #bjj4 ,a 8shot wagon0#bha is also a good device4 ,this is made like any other wagon with two or four wheels as one likes and is intended to carry a load of stones1 hot or cold as one may prefer4 ,it must also be provided with two firm and strong chains1 one on each side1 which can be depended on to check the wagon even where it has a long track to run upon4 ,it is meant to run on planks set with a downward slope1 but one must be careful to keep the wheels from skidding off the planks4 ,when the chains check the speed1 the wagon shoots its load out upon the men below4 ,the more uneven the stones are1 some large and some small1 the more effective the load will be4 ,canny men1 who are set to defend a wall and wish to throw rocks down upon the attacking line or upon the penthouse1 make these rocks of clay with pebbles1 slingstones1 and other hard stones placed inside4 ,the clay is burned hard enough on the outside to endure the flight while the load is being thrown2 but as soon as the rocks fall they break into fragments and consequently cannot be hurled back again4 ,to break down stone walls1 however1 large1 hard rocks are required4 ,similarly1 when one hurls missiles from a stone fortress against an opposing wooden tower or upon the axletrees which support siege engines1 towers1 scaling ladders1 cats1 or any other engine on wheels1 the larger and harder the rocks that are used1 the more effective they will be4 ,footnote #bha3 ,ibid4 ,the 8shot wagon0 is not mentioned elsewhere4 ,boiling water1 molten glass1 and molten lead are also useful in defending walls4#bhb ,but if a cat or any other covered engine which cannot be damaged by hot water is being pushed toward a castle1 it is a good plan1 if the engine is lower than the walls1 to provide beams carefully shod with iron underneath and in addition armed with large1 sharp1 red-hot plowshares4 ,these are to be thrown down upon the wooden engine in which the plowshares are likely to stick fast1 while the beams may be hoisted up again4 ,this attack should be followed up with pitch1 sulphur1 or boiling tar4#bhc ,footnote #bhb3 ,see the ,sor edition1 #dbd-dbe1 where the editor cites a number of references to the use of fire in defensive warfare2 these are nearly all drawn from the sagas4 ,footnote #bhc3 ,evidently the purpose would be to crush the engine with the beam1 to set it on fire with the hot plowshares1 and to put the assailants to flight with the pitch1 sulphur1 or tar2 these would also feed the flames4 ,mines dug in the neighborhood of a castle are also an excellent protection2 the deeper and narrower they are1 the better it is2 and where men are shoving mounted engines toward the walls1 it were well if there were many mines4 ,all mines should have a number of small openings1 which must be covered so as not to be visible on the surface4 ,they should be filled with fuel of the most inflammable sort1 peat or anything else that burns readily4 ,when a castle is attacked at night either from wooden towers or with scaling ladders or any other engine on wheels1 the defenders should steal out and fire the mines4#bhd ,footnote #bhd3 ,on the subject of mines see ,oman1 ,art of ,war1 #edi-eej4 ,now if it should happen that the enemy's stones come over the battlements with such violence that the men cannot remain in the open to defend the wall1 it is a good plan to set up strong posts cut from thick oak and to lay large and tough cross beams upon these1 then to roof the whole over with firm oak timbers1 and finally to cover the roofing with a layer of earth not less than three or four ells in depth1 upon which the rocks may be allowed to drop4#bhe ,in like manner the attack of a wooden tower that is moving toward a castle may be foiled by setting up strong1 firm posts rising considerably higher than the attacking tower4 ,but a more effective contrivance than all the engines that ,i have now described is a stooping shield-giant which breathes forth flame and fire4#bhf ,and now we shall close our account of the engines that are useful in defending castle walls with the reminder that every sort of weapon with which one can shoot1 hurl1 hew1 or thrust1 and every kind that can be used in attack or defense may be brought into service4 ,footnote #bhe3 ,the posts were apparently placed on top of the wall1 the purpose being to raise the wall to a greater height as well as to furnish shelter for the defenders4 ,footnote #bhf3 ,the shield-giant was probably a mythical device2 but it is possible as has been suggested that its fiery breath may refer to the use of ,greek fire1 with which the ,norwegians became acquainted during the crusades1 or even to early experiments with gunpowder4 ,falk1 ,altnordische ,waffenkunde1 #bjj-bja4 ,it is not known when gunpowder was invented1 but the earliest known formula for making it is found in the writings of ,roger ,bacon1 who was a contemporary of the author of the ,king's ,mirror4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xl ,,the ,,proper ,,manners ,,and ,,customs ,,of ,a ,,royal ,,court ,son4 ,since you seem to think that sufficient has been said about weapons both for attack and defense1 how they should be made or built1 and on what occasion each kind should be used 7and after your comments these things are very clear to me71 ,i now wish to ask whether there may not be other subjects which you think ought to be discussed1 such as pertain to customs that one must observe in the presence of great men or at royal courts4 ,father4 ,there still remain a number of things which a man should not fail to hear discussed and to reflect upon1 if he is to attend on kings or other magnates and wishes to be ranked among them as a worthy man4 ,but there are three things 7which are1 however1 almost the same in reality7 which one must observe with care3 they are wisdom1 good breeding1 and courtesy4 ,it is courtesy to be friendly1 humble1 ready to serve1 and elegant in speech2 to know how to behave properly while conversing or making merry with other men2 to know precisely1 when a man is conversing with women1 whether they be young or older in years1 of gentle or humble estate1 how to select such expressions as are suited to their rank and are as proper for them to hear as for him to use4 ,in like manner when one speaks with men1 whether they be young or old1 gentle or humble1 it is well to know how to employ fitting words and how to determine what expressions are proper for each one to take note of4 ,even when mere pleasantry is intended1 it is well to choose fair and decent words4 ,it is also courtesy to know how to discriminate in language1 when to use plural and when to use singular forms in addressing the men with whom one is conversing2 to know how to select one's clothes both as to color and other considerations2 and to know when to stand or sit1 when to rise or kneel4 ,it is also courtesy to know when a man ought to let his hands drop gently and to keep them quiet1 or when he ought to move them about in service for himself or for others2 to know in what direction to turn his face and breast1 and how to turn his back and shoulders4 ,it is courtesy to know precisely when he is free to wear his cloak1 hat1 or coif1 if he has one1 and when these are not to be worn2 also to know1 when at the table1 whether good breeding demands that one must watch the great men partake of food1 or whether one may eat and drink freely in any way that seems convenient and proper4 ,it is also courtesy to refrain from sneers and contemptuous jests1 to know clearly what churlishness is and to avoid it carefully4 ,it is good breeding to be agreeable and never obstinate when one is with other men1 and to be modest in demeanor2 to walk a proper gait when on foot and to watch one's limbs carefully wherever one goes to make sure that each will move correctly and yet in a natural way4 ,it is good breeding1 too1 when one strolls about in a city among strangers1 to keep silence and use few words1 to shun turmoil and disgraceful tippling1 to punish theft and robbery and all other foolish rioting4 ,it is also good breeding to avoid profanity1 cursing1 scolding1 and all other pernicious talk4 ,be careful also never to appear as the advocate of stupid and dishonest men and especially not to support them in their impudence1 but rather to show hatred for wickedness in every form4 ,it is good breeding to shun chess and dice1 brothels and perjury1 false testimony1 and other lasciviousness or filthy behavior4 ,it shows good breeding to be cleanly in food and clothes2 to take good care of the ships1 horses1 weapons1 and buildings that one may possess2 to be cautious and never rash and to be undismayed in times of stress2 never to be ostentatious1 domineering1 or envious2 and to shun arrogance and affectation in every form4 ,but the chief point in all conduct is to love ,god and holy church1 to hear mass regularly1 to be diligent in divine service1 and to implore mercy for oneself and all other ,christian people4 ,no one can attain to all these virtues which we have now enumerated as belonging to courtesy and good breeding1 unless he is also endowed with wisdom4 ,these gifts will accompany wisdom3 elegance in speech1 eloquence1 insight into proper conduct1 and ability to discriminate between good manners and what passes for such in the sayings of foolish men1 though they are in fact bad manners4 ,it is also wisdom1 when one is present at the law court1 or some other place where men congregate1 and hears the speeches and the suits of men1 to be able to discern clearly what suits or what speeches delivered there are based on reason and which ones are merely glib palaver and senseless verbosity4 ,it is also wisdom to have a clear appreciation1 when decrees are rendered in the disputes of men1 of how these are stated1 so that not a word will be added or taken away1 if one should need to know them at some later time4 ,it is also wisdom to keep faithfully in mind what facts were discussed and what agreements were reached4 ,it is wisdom to know the law thoroughly1 to have clear perceptions of what is actual law and what is merely called law1 being nothing but quibble and subterfuge4 ,it is also wisdom1 if one has a request to make1 to be able to determine what he may ask for that will prove serviceable and is proper for the other to grant2 also1 if one meets a request1 to know precisely what he may grant with propriety and in what matters he must be careful not to bind himself or those who come after him1 such things1 namely1 as may prove a disgrace to him rather than a distinction4 ,finally1 it is wisdom not to be strait-handed about things which one may just as well dispose of1 lest such stint or stinginess bring shame upon him4 ,there is also great wisdom in moderation and righteousness4 ,all forms of learning1 insight1 and good foresight which is necessary to courtesy and good breeding1 to stewardship1 government and the enforcement of law1--these1 too1 are akin to wisdom4 ,and you will need to learn all this thoroughly1 if you wish to be known among kings and chieftains as an estimable man1 for all who know these things are received with favor among the great4 ,furthermore1 the lives of men who have mastered this knowledge may bring great honor to themselves and profit to many others4 ,but wisdom has many forms1 for it springs from roots which have many branches4 ,and from these roots of wisdom rises the mightiest of all stems1 which again divides into large boughs1 many branches1 and a multitude of twigs of different sizes1 some small and some large4 ,these are later distributed among men in such a way that some obtain the larger and some the smaller ones1 and these riches have their value according as they are loved4 ,he who is sure to appreciate this wealth and share it freely receives a large amount2 for the nature of this possession is such that it is most attracted to him who loves it most and uses it most liberally4 ,and if men knew how to value and appreciate these riches properly1 gold and silver would seem to them like rust1 clay1 or ashes1 when compared with these treasures4 ,but he who wishes to secure this wealth must begin in this way3 he must fear ,almighty ,god and love ,him above all things4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xli ,,the ,,same ,,subject ,,continued ,son4 ,it was clearly well-advised to continue this inquiry1 for now ,i have gotten both useful and precise information2 and this speech will surely help every man who is at least somewhat intelligent to more definite ideas than he had before4 ,moreover1 those who have received only slender wands from the boughs of wisdom are more numerous than those who have received large branches1 some getting but the tiniest twigs1 and some a mere leaf1 while those who get nothing must indeed be few4 ,therefore ,i wish to ask you to instruct me further in the art of choosing and laying hold on those branches which may prove useful to myself and others4 ,father4 ,the virtues that ,i have just enumerated grow especially on the boughs of wisdom1 but they ramify into a great many good branches and twigs4 ,now these are the branches which are most useful3 a rational outlook1 a temperate mind1 and the capacity to determine judiciously what one owes to every other man4 ,if you are angry with any man because of a law suit or some evil deed1 take careful thought before seeking revenge1 as to how important the matter really is and how great a retribution it is worth4 ,when you hear things in the speech of other men which offend you much1 be sure to investigate with reasonable care whether the tales be true or false2 but if they prove to be true and it is proper for you to seek revenge1 take it with reason and moderation and never when heated or irritated4 ,even though you hear tidings which seem damaging to yourself or your business1 such as loss of property or men1 always bear it with a calm and undaunted temper4 ,let the loss of wealth seem least to you1 for you must bear in mind that it is sinful to worship wealth or to love it too highly1 even though it returns a man's love and comes abundantly into his keeping4 ,and to love wealth much1 when it seems inclined to turn away from a man and does not return his love1 is surely sinful and will lead to grief4 ,remember1 too1 that all come destitute into the world2 and our mode of departure from this life is such that wealth cannot follow us out of the world4 ,nevertheless1 you must take heed that nothing is lost through your neglect or indifference4 ,and never grieve so deeply over a loss that you cannot be hopeful and cheerful as before4 ,if you suffer loss of men1 bear that loss1 too1 with a calm spirit2 for remember that every man in departing this life fulfils a law in human nature1 inasmuch as no one is created to live forever in this world4 ,let it grieve you more1 if an acquaintance of yours who has not lived as he ought here on earth1 should die in that state and leave the world in disgrace2 but most of all if you fear that his soul is in peril2 for such things are rather to be lamented than that in dying he pays a debt to nature4 ,but if he lived uprightly while on earth and made proper provision for his soul before he died1 then you may take comfort in the good repute that lives after him1 and even more in the blissful happiness which you believe he will enjoy with ,god in the other world4 ,in the same way you must keep your spirit calm and in good control when such events come to pass as may seem profitable to you and stir your heart to joy and gladness1 whether it be the death of men whom you have hated1 or other happenings in which you might seem to find pleasure4 ,but if you should happen to hear of the death of a man whom you counted an enemy and to whom you had planned to do evil1 if opportunity should be found1 rejoice much more in that ,god has saved you from a threefold sin than in the death of him who has departed4 ,for you should be glad that ,god has prevented your hands from committing the sinful deed that was in your purpose1 and has relieved your mind of the long-continued wrath and bitterness which you cherished against your enemy while he lived4 ,likewise1 if high honors and dignities should come to you from a king or from other magnates1 it is important that you should know how to receive them with modesty1 lest what befalls so many an indiscreet man should also happen to you4 ,for it is often the case that when one who is lacking in good sense receives any preferment from great men1 he will rate himself so high in his pride and avarice that he counts no other man his equal4 ,but such pretension leads to the downfall of everyone who behaves in this way2 inasmuch as it is ,god's purpose to strike down immoderate pride with sacred humility2 and everyone who is too proud and greedy in his behavior will surely find ,god a constant opponent4 ,now if you should be so fortunate as to receive preferments from a king or other princes1 remember it is ,god's method and purpose1 by prompting them 7for ,he holds the minds and hearts of chiefs in ,his hand71 to elevate such men as ,he wishes to honor and dignity4 ,on the other hand1 it is also the duty of every man to assist all those who have less strength than he4 ,keep in mind1 then1 if ,god should raise you up to any place of honor1 that it must be to the profit of all who are less capable than yourself1 except such as hate morality and right counsel2 to them it should be a hindrance for a just man to be given power and authority4 ,if ,god gives you wisdom and clear insight and you have also the good fortune to be awarded honors by great men1 there are certain vices which you need especially to guard against3 arrogant self-esteem1 avarice that yearns for bribes1 and forgetful neglect of the needs of men who are less capable than yourself4 ,keep constantly before your eyes as a warning the misfortunes of those who have fallen into disgrace because of immoderate pride4 ,also keep in mind1 as a comforting hope1 the careers of men who have received constant honors because of their steadfast justice and humility4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xlii ,a ,,discussion ,,of ,,how ,,god ,,rewards ,,righteousness1 ,,humility1 ,,and ,,fidelity1 ,,illustrated ,,by ,,examples ,,drawn ,,from ,,sacred ,,and ,,profane ,,history ,son4 ,i see clearly that ,god creates men unequal in power and wisdom because ,he wishes to see how each one is going to use what ,he has endowed him with1 whether in high living for the glorification of self1 or in bountiful kindness toward those who have need of him and have not received such gifts from ,god4 ,and now ,i want to ask you to cite a few examples both of men whose good sense and humility have brought them honor and of such as have suffered destruction through vain pride4 ,father4 ,there have been so many cases of that sort1 that we should have to extend our talk to a great length1 if we were to mention all those of either class which we know could serve as examples to show how these things have worked out4 ,i shall therefore name a few only1 though some of each kind1 for in that way a long discourse may be the sooner finished4 ,the following instances are ancient and easily remembered4 ,when ,joseph was sold into ,egypt1#bhg a mighty lord bought him2 but after he had purchased him he found that ,joseph was a discreet man1 and he preferred and honored him above all his other servants1 not only above those whom he kept in bondage1 but even above his freeborn kinsmen2 and he gave into his hands the oversight of his wealth and property1 house and home1 and all his welfare4 ,but because ,joseph was a handsome man1 kind and courteous in behavior1 and sensible in speech1 he won the love and friendship of all who knew him and were subject to the same lord who was ,joseph's master4 ,footnote #bhg3 ,genesis1 cc4 xxxix-xli4 ,the author treats the ,biblical narratives with great freedom4 ,the wife of this mighty man loved ,joseph more than was proper1 and impelled by evil desire1 she sought to commit a vile sin against her husband1 because of the love that she bore for ,joseph2 and she was not ashamed in her bold passion to intimate to him what she had in mind4 ,but when he learned her purpose1 he replied in this wise3 8,we cannot deal with each other as equals1 for you are my lady and ,i am your thrall2 and it would be a very great disgrace for you to submit yourself to me and too bold and rash in me to bring such dishonor upon you4 ,but even worse is the unfaithfulness toward my lord which ,i should be guilty of1 if ,i were to reward his kindness in this way like a treacherous thrall4 ,for he has trusted me1 his servant1 so far as to give all his wealth and riches into my hands and keeping1 and ,i must not deceive my lawful master with shameful treachery1 unless ,i should wish to prove the saying in daily use that it is ill to have a thrall as a chosen friend40 ,but when the woman saw that ,joseph was a good man and wished to be faithful1 she thought it a shame that he should know her faithlessness1 and1 prompted by enmity and not by justice1 she became anxious to work his ruin1 if possible4 ,so she told her husband that ,joseph had made an unseemly request and added that it showed great audacity in a thrall to make such bold remarks to his lady4 ,she was believed as a good wife1 and ,joseph was cast into prison strongly fettered and heavily chained1 the purpose being to let him end his days by rotting alive because of his pride and faithlessness4 ,but when ,god1 ,who always loves justice and humility1 saw the faithfulness of ,joseph whom ,he knew to be innocent1 ,he shaped the outcome so that ,joseph profited by the condemnation that he had suffered though innocent4 ,for ,god saved him from prison under such circumstances that he was elevated to far greater prominence than before2 and ,god prompted ,king ,pharaoh to make ,joseph master and judge of all ,egypt next to the king himself2 and this office he held into his old age and as long as he lived4 ,long after this and in another place1 a somewhat similar experience came to a famous king1 who ruled over many realms4 ,he was called by three names1 because the languages differed in the lands that he ruled over3 in one place he was called ,artaxerxes2 in another place1 ,cyrus2 and some tell us that to him ,god spoke these kind words by the mouth of his prophet3 8,to mine anointed1 to ,cyrus1 whose right hand ,i have holden to subdue nations before him2 and ,i will loose the loins of kings10 etc4#bhh ,others1 however1 maintain that it was another ,cyrus who is referred to in this scripture2 but we shall not discuss this any longer1 since we cannot be sure whether it was written about this ,cyrus or another4 ,but in a third place the king was called ,ahasuerus4 ,and whereas he himself was mighty and excellent1 he also had a wealthy wife named ,vashti1 who was his queen4 ,once when the king was absent in distant warfare to extend his dominion1 he had appointed ,queen ,vashti to govern that part of his kingdom where his court resided4 ,on his return home with a wealth of spoils1 he made a great feast to gladden all those among his lords who had accompanied him on the campaign2 and ,queen ,vashti made another feast for her own lords1 who had remained at home to assist her in the government4 ,then the king commanded ,vashti to appear before him in his hall in all her regalia and arrayed in all the beauty of queenly raiment and thus to show her joy in his home-coming and do honor to his feast4 ,but ,queen ,vashti refused to obey the king's command1 saying that she could not leave her own feast1 having invited many good chiefs4 ,when the king saw her arrogance and pride1 he concluded that she esteemed him no more highly for the perilous toil that he had endured while extending his frontiers than she esteemed herself for having remained quietly at home with the regency1 which he had left in her hands4 ,because of this presumption the king became so wrathful1 that he decreed that ,vashti had forfeited the office of queen and all the authority which she possessed4 ,and he found a captive maiden of the people of ,israel1 whose name was ,esther1 who was then in bondage in his kingdom1 though she had sprung from a prominent family in her native land1 and this maiden the king placed in ,vashti's seat1 endowing her with all the power that ,vashti had once possessed2 and he made ,esther queen of all his kingdom4 ,footnote #bhh3 ,isaiah1 xlv1 #a4 ,in this case the author quotes directly from the ,vulgate3 8,christo meo ,sciro1 cujus apprehendi dexteram1 ut subjiciam ante faciem ejus gentes et dorsa regum vertam40 ,a few days later another event occurred at this same court4 ,there was a famous and powerful chief named ,haman and he was with ,king ,ahasuerus4 ,so highly did the king esteem ,haman that all the people were ordered to obey him and bow down before him as before the king himself4 ,now there was also a man named ,mordecai1 a captive of the people of ,israel1 who was ,queen ,esther's uncle2 but inasmuch as he was both poor and in bondage1 he dared not make known his kinship to the queen2 nor dared the queen show greater deference to him than to any other in the royal service4 ,then it happened one day1 when ,haman the prince came to see the king1 that on his return home his way passed near where ,mordecai sat4 ,but ,mordecai was brooding over the bondage in which he had been placed along with the people who had been taken captive out of ,israel2 and being in deep thought he failed to notice that ,haman was passing so near1 and consequently did not rise to bow before him4 ,but when ,haman saw that an alien thrall neglected to bow the knee before him1 he became so wrathful that as soon as he came home he ordered a high gallows to be raised near his house1 on which he intended to hang ,mordecai4 ,he also caused letters to be sent throughout the realm permitting every man to deal with the people of ,israel as he liked3 whoever wished to do so might plunder them1 or force them into bondage and servitude1 or even slay them4 ,when the news of this came to ,mordecai1 necessity compelled him to deal more boldly with the queen than before3 he came to wait upon her1 and1 throwing himself at her feet1 he told these tidings with much sorrow4 ,when the queen heard that the entire nation from which she had sprung was condemned1 she called upon ,god with all her soul2 next she sought the king's presence1 robed in the stately apparel of a queen1 and fell humbly at his feet4 ,but when the queen had entered and the king saw that she came in such deep humility and with troubled countenance1 he perceived that she had a matter of such great importance to bring before him that she would have to find the courage in his favor to state what concerned her4 ,taking her hand he raised her up1 spoke gently to her1 seated her beside him1 and bade her state clearly all the details of her errand4 ,queen ,esther did as the king commanded and related the whole event just as it had occurred2 and then she begged him to take action according to royal mercy rather than according to ,haman's excessive anger4 ,when the king saw ,haman's boundless ambition and arrogant wrath1 he caused ,haman himself to be hanged upon the gallows which he had intended for ,mordecai1 and sent orders throughout the entire realm that the people of ,israel be allowed to live in complete freedom according to the ordinances of their sacred laws2 and he gave to ,mordecai all the authority that ,haman had once possessed4#bhi ,footnote #bhi3 ,see ,esther1 cc4 i-viii4 ,from this you will observe that ,god demands moderation and fairness1 humility1 justice1 and fidelity as a duty from those whom he raises to honor4 ,for ,joseph1 as we said before1 was rewarded with splendid honors and great advancement because of his faithfulness and humility1 although he had been sold for money like a thrall into a strange land2 but ,god soon raised him by the king's command to be a lord and the highest judge in all ,egypt next to the king himself4 ,one may also observe from this how much it is contrary to ,god's will to exalt oneself through vain conceit2 for ,queen ,vashti lost her queenship and all her power in a single day because of her pride1 while a captive maiden of a strange people was appointed in her stead2 and ,haman lost all his authority in a single day because of his excessive vanity1 while his dignities were given to a stranger1 a captive thrall4 ,now if you should win honors from great lords1 beware of an outcome like those in the stories which you have just heard1 and there are many such2 but make good use of the story that ,i told you earlier about ,joseph4 ,there are still other examples which go far back into the days of ,emperor ,constantine3 for ,god had appointed him ruler of all the world1 and he turned to righteousness and ,christianity as soon as he came to understand the holy faith4 ,he gave his mother1 ,queen ,helena1 a kingdom east of the sea in the land of the ,jews4 ,but because her realm and dominion were there1 she came to be persuaded that no faith concerning ,god could be correct but that held by the ,jews2 and as letters passed between them1 the queen and her son the emperor1 they began to realize that they differed somewhat in the beliefs which each of them held concerning ,god4 ,then the emperor commanded the queen to come over the sea from the east with her wise and learned men and many other lords to a meeting in ,rome1 where the verities of the holy faith should be examined4 ,but when the queen arrived with her company1 the emperor had called together many bishops including ,pope ,sylvester and many wise men1 both ,christians and heathen4 ,when the conference had begun and a court had been appointed to decide between the emperor and the queen1 it became evident to both that there was likely to be a violent dispute between the ,christian bishops and the learned ,jews and other wise men who had come with the queen from the east1 in view of the fact that each side would produce weighty arguments from its books against the other to prove and confirm its own learning and holy faith4 ,they saw clearly1 therefore1 that it would be necessary for the assembly to appoint upright judges1 who could weigh in a tolerant and rational spirit all the arguments that might be offered on either side4 ,but whereas the emperor with the pope and the ,christian bishops was the defender of holy ,christianity and the queen the protecting shield of the ,jewish faith1 it was clear to both that it would be improper for them to subject themselves to temptation by acting as judges in this dispute4 ,so they ordered a careful search to be made among the wise men to find whether there might be some in all their number who were so reliable in wisdom1 judgment1 and rightmindedness1 that all those present could trust them to judge rightly in their contest4 ,but when the entire multitude had been examined1 only two men were found whom the people dared choose to be judges in these important matters2 and both of these men were heathen and bound neither to the law of the ,christians nor to the ,jewish faith4 ,one of them was named ,craton3 he was a great philosopher and thoroughly versed in all learning2 he was a friend of mighty men and enjoyed their favor2 but never had he cared for more of this world's riches than what he needed for clothes and food4 ,and when great men sometimes gave him more than he required1 he would give away what he did not consume to such as were needy4 ,it was also in his nature to speak little but truthfully1 and no man knew that falsehood had ever been found on his lips2 wherefore all felt that the merits of wisdom and good character which he possessed would surely make him worthy to judge in these important matters4 ,the other who was chosen judge was named ,zenophilus2 he was a famous and powerful prince1 and where he directed the government it was not known that he had ever swerved from justice4 ,he was a great master of eloquence and learned in all science1 friendly in speech and affable1 though a man of authority4 ,nor could anyone recall that falsehood had ever been found on his lips4 ,these having been chosen to act as judges in behalf of all present1 the ,christians and the ,jews held a court2 and these two decided all the disputes1 as they were chosen to do1 and it was found as before that in no wise did they deviate from justice4#bij ,footnote #bij3 ,the author's source for his account of the council where ,craton and ,zenophilus served as judges is the legend of ,pope ,silvester1 probably the ,old ,norse version of the legend1 ,silvesters ,saga1 published by ,unger in ,heilagra ,manna ,sgur1 ,,ii1 #bde-bhf4 ,i have cited these instances that you might appreciate the humility and rightmindedness of both the emperor and the queen2 for though they were lords of the entire world1 they regarded it as proper to sit in obedience to chosen judges who were much inferior to themselves in both power and wealth and every other respect4 ,likewise you are to appreciate what great honor these men gained through their wisdom and uprightness2 for though they were both heathen1 they were superior to all others as to insight into the holy faith and the world's welfare4 ,and now you will appreciate what ,i told you earlier in our conversation1 namely1 that much depends on the example that a man leaves after him4 ,joseph lived before the birth of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ2 he was sold for money into ,egypt as an alien thrall2 but his faithfulness and humility pleased ,god so highly that he was made ruler next to the king of all those who were native to the land and had wealth and kinsmen there1 whether they were rich or poor4 ,it is many hundred winters since ,joseph died1 but his glory still lives and is daily recalled among all thoughtful people throughout the world4 ,queen ,vashti died long before the birth of ,christ1 as did ,haman the prince2 but the disgrace that came upon them because of their pride and folly still lives4 ,queen ,esther bears even to this day the living honor which she gained through her humility2 though she was brought to ,india#bia as a captive bondmaiden1 she was later made queen over many large kingdoms and seated upon the throne from which ,queen ,vashti was banished4 ,footnote #bia3 ,not ,india but ,persia in the ,biblical story2 but the ,northmen in the middle ages used the term ,india very much as we use the term ,orient to-day4 ,although the events that we last related in speaking of ,emperor ,constantine and his mother ,queen ,helena happened after the birth of ,christ1 it was still so long ago that no man can recall them because of their antiquity2 yet they are bright with honor even to this day4 ,craton and ,zenophilus1 though they are dead1 are celebrated for their wisdom and righteousness4 ,though both were heathen men1 they were chosen to be judges over nearly all the people who were in the world1 and were even trusted in behalf of all men1 both ,christians and ,jews1 to pass judgment on those laws which neither of them kept1 but upon which the welfare of the world nevertheless depended4 ,from such occurrences you will realize that ,god holds in ,his hand the tiller with which ,he turns and moves the hearts of great lords whenever ,he wishes1 and controls all their thoughts according to ,his will4 ,for ,king ,pharaoh raised up ,joseph to a dominion above that of all the other princes who were in the kingdom before him4 ,ahasuerus deprived ,vashti of her queenship1 though she was both wealthy and high-born1 and appointed ,esther queen in her stead4 ,he also hanged ,haman1 the renowned prince1 and gave all his power to ,mordecai1 who was once a bondman brought captive from a strange land4 ,emperor ,constantine placed ,craton and ,zenophilus1 two heathen men1 in the judgment seat and trusted them to pass judgment on the verities and the interpretation of the holy faith4 ,now you shall know of a truth that all these events have come to pass through ,god's providence and secret commands2 and all these things are noted down for the memory of men in the future1 so that all may learn and derive profit from the good examples1 but shun the evil ones4 ,and if it should be your fortune to become a kingsman1 remember these examples that ,i have now shown you 7and there are a great many others like them which we have not mentioned in this speech72 and be sure to follow all those which you see are likely to profit you4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xliii ,,the ,,duties ,,and ,,the ,,exalted ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,king ,son4 ,god reward you1 sire1 for taking so much time to hear all my questions and for giving such very patient and useful answers3 for these talks will surely lead me to think and observe more accurately than ,i did before4 ,it may also be that others will study these learned discourses in the future and derive knowledge1 good insight1 and profitable manners from them4 ,there are1 however1 several other things which ,i have in mind to investigate and wish very much to ask about4 ,and therefore ,i beg you not yet to grow weary of teaching me2 for your permission gives me courage to confide so fully in you that ,i am not likely to overlook anything that my mind is eager to know4 ,indeed1 it seems to me that this subject opens up such a wide field1 that there must be many things left which one needs to know and discern fully1 if one wishes to be rated a worthy man by kings or other great lords2 and ,i am eager to hear you talk further about these matters4 ,but for this once ,i wish to inquire about men of greater importance than those who have to serve the mighty4 ,i see clearly that those who serve are in duty bound to strive after the best manners1 knowledge1 wisdom1 and righteousness2 but it would seem that those1 who are chiefs and rulers and whom all others must serve1 owe an even greater duty to seek both knowledge and insight2 above all it must be their duty to love every form of righteousness1 since they have authority to punish all others who are not righteous4 ,therefore ,i wish to ask with your permission what customs the king himself should observe which would accord with his regal dignity4 ,tell me clearly so that ,i can understand what business or conduct is demanded of him early in the morning and what affairs he is later occupied with throughout the day2 for he is so highly honored and exalted upon earth that all must bend and bow before him as before ,god4 ,so great is his power that he may dispose as he likes of the lives of all who live in his kingdom3 he lets him live whom he wills and causes him to be slain whom he wills4 ,but ,i have observed this1 that if a man becomes another's banesman1 all upright men from that time on have an aversion for him as for a heathen2 since to slay a man is counted a great sin for which the one who commits it must suffer great penance and much trouble before ,christian people will again admit him to fellowship4 ,and again1 you told me in an earlier speech to shun manslaughter2 but you added that all manslaughter committed by royal command or in battle ,i need shun no more than any other deed which is counted good4 ,now if the king has received such great authority from ,god that all slaughter done by his command is without guilt1 ,i should imagine that he must need to be very wise1 cautious1 and upright in all his doings2 and therefore ,i wish to have you explain fully the things that ,i have now asked about1 unless you feel that my questions are stupid1 or that ,i am presuming too much in showing curiosity about the doings of such great men4 ,father4 ,your questions are not stupid1 for we may just as well talk about how the king has to order his government or his conduct as about other men4 ,it surely is his bounden duty to seek knowledge and understanding1 and he ought indeed to be well informed as to what has occurred in the past1 for in that way he will gain insight for all the business that pertains to his kingship4 ,you have stated that he is highly honored and exalted on earth and that all bow before him as before ,god2 and the reason for this is that the king represents divine lordship3 for he bears ,god's own name and sits upon the highest judgment seat upon earth1 wherefore it should be regarded as giving honor to ,god ,himself1 when one honors the king1 because of the name which he has from ,god4 ,the son of ,god himself1 when he was on earth1 taught by his own example that all should honor the king and show him due obedience2 for he commanded his apostle ,peter to draw fishes up from the depth of the sea and to open the mouth of the fish that he caught first1 and said that he would find a penny there1 which he ordered him to pay to ,caesar as tribute money for them both4 ,from this you are to conclude that it is the duty of every one upon earth to respect and honor the royal title which an earthly man holds from ,god2 for the very son of ,god thought it proper to honor the royal dignity so highly that he1 to the glory of kingship1 made himself subject to tribute along with that one of his disciples whom he made chief of all his apostles and gave all priestly honors4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xliv ,,the ,,same ,,subject ,,continued ,son4 ,there remains one thing1 which1 as usual1 ,i shall need to have explained further1 as it is not very clear to me4 ,you stated1 and it seems reasonable1 that the king holds a title of high honor and dignity from ,god ,himself2 but ,i do not see clearly why ,god made ,himself subject to the tribute of an earthly king2 since ,he must1 it seems to me1 be above all kings1 seeing that ,he rules the earthly as well as the heavenly kingdom4 ,father4 ,that ,god ,himself has honored earthly kings you will observe from the fact that1 when ,he came down to earth from the loftiest pinnacles of heaven1 ,he regarded ,himself as having come among men as a guest and did not wish to claim a share in the earthly kingship1 though he might have done so4 ,but ,he fulfilled the words that ,david had spoken3 8,the ,lord ruleth in the heavens1 but verily he hath given an earthly kingdom to the sons of men40#bib ,now ,god1 while ,he was on earth1 wished to honor earthly kings and kingdoms rather than disparage them in any way2 for ,he would not deprive the earthly kingship of what ,he had formerly given into the control of earthly lords2 but ,god showed a perfect obedience to ,caesar4 ,you should also observe that1 just as ,god commanded ,his apostle ,peter to examine the first fish that he drew and take a penny from its mouth 7and ,god did not want him to examine the second fish or the third1 but the first only71 similarly every man should in all things first honor the king and the royal dignity4 ,for ,god ,himself calls the king ,his anointed1 and every king who possesses the full honors of royalty is rightly called the ,lord's anointed4 ,in like manner one of ,god's apostles said in a sermon while instructing the people in the true faith3 8,fear ,god and honor your king10#bic--which is almost as if he had literally said that he who does not show perfect honor to the king does not fear ,god4 ,footnote #bib3 ,the reference is evidently to ,psalms1 cxv1 #af3 8,the heavens1 even the heavens1 are the ,lord's3 but the earth hath he given to the children of men0 7,king ,james' version74 ,the ,vulgate reads 7cxiii1 #af71 8,caelum caeli ,domino2 terram autem dedit filiis hominum40 ,in neither case is the idea of an earthly kingship implied4 ,it is evident that the author is quoting and translating from memory4 ,footnote #bic3 ,i ,peter1 ii1 #ag4 ,every king1 as you have said1 ought1 indeed1 to be wise1 well-informed1 and above everything upright1 that he may be able to realize fully that he is after all merely a servant of ,god1 though he is honored and exalted so highly in the supreme service of ,god1 that all bow down before him as before ,god2 for in so doing they worship ,god and the holy name which the king bears but not the king himself4 ,it is1 therefore1 in the very nature of kingship to inspire all with a great awe and fear of the king1 wherefore every one trembles who hears him named4 ,but he ought also to appear gracious and friendly toward all good men1 lest any one should fear him so much as to be deterred from presenting any important request to him because of his severity4 ,in the night1 as soon as the king is sated with sleep1 it should be his duty and business to center his thoughts upon the kingdom as a whole and to consider how his plans may be formed and carried out in such a way that ,god will be well pleased with the care that he gives to the realm2 also how it may be made most profitable and obedient to himself2 further what measure of firmness he must use in restraining the rich lest they become too arrogant toward the poor1 and what caution in uplifting the poor1 lest they grow too defiant toward the wealthy2 wherefore he needs to ponder and plan judiciously how to hold everyone to moderation in the estate in which he is placed4 ,this1 too1 the king must be sure to keep in his thoughts1 that when it becomes necessary to chastise those who are not satisfied with what ,god has planned for them1 he must not be so lenient in his punishment1 that this excessive indulgence should lead anyone to consider it safe to transgress what ought to stand as rightfully ordained4 ,nor must he be so severe in his penalties that ,god and rightminded men will regard him as punishing more from a cruel disposition than from a sense of justice4 ,these things and many more a king ought to reflect upon at night when he is done with sleep1 for then fewer matters will come upon him unawares during the day1 when the needs of the land are presented to him4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xlv ,,concerning ,,the ,,moderation ,,which ,a ,,king ,,must ,,observe ,,in ,,his ,,judicial ,,sentences ,,and ,,penalties1 ,,with ,,illustrations ,,drawn ,,from ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,god',s ,,judgment ,,in ,,the ,,case ,,of ,,adam ,,and ,,eve1 ,,in ,,which ,,case ,,truth ,,and ,,justice ,,were ,,associated ,,with ,,peace ,,and ,,mercy ,son4 ,it is evident that a king must possess great constraint and an even greater sense of justice1 as you remarked earlier1 if he is to find the true mean in meting out punishment so as to be neither too lenient nor too severe4 ,and now ,i wish to ask whether there are any examples which may guide him toward this moderation1 inasmuch as you have stated that every king should have knowledge of all the examples that are to be found4 ,father4 ,i repeat what ,i said then that no man needs to be more learned or better informed in all subjects than a king1 for both he and his subjects have great need of this4 ,but one who has a thorough knowledge of past events will meet but few contingencies that are really unexampled4 ,now the following examples are very ancient1 and every king should keep them frequently before his eyes and seek guidance from them for the government of his kingdom4 ,when ,god had created the entire world and had beautified it with grass and other herbage1 as well as with birds and beasts1 ,he appointed two human beings1 a man and a woman1 to have dominion over everything4 ,he led the two1 ,adam and ,eve1 to the highest point of ,paradise and showed them all the birds and beasts and all the flowers and glories of ,paradise4 ,then ,god said to ,adam and ,eve3 8,all these things that you now see ,i give to you for your maintenance and dominion1 if you will keep the covenant which ,i now establish between ourselves4 ,but these are the laws which you must carefully observe1 if you wish to keep the gifts which ,i have now given you3 that beautiful tree which you see standing with lovely apples in the midst of ,paradise is called the tree of knowledge1 and the fruit which the tree bears is called the apples of knowledge4 ,this tree you must not touch nor may you eat of the apples which it bears1 for as soon as you eat of them you shall die2 but of everything else that you now see you may freely eat according to desire40 ,four sisters were called to witness this covenant1 divine virgins1 who should hear the laws decreed and learn all the terms of the agreement3 the first was named ,truth1 the second1 ,peace1 the third1 ,justice1 and the fourth1 ,mercy4 ,and ,god spoke thus to these virgins3 8,i command you to see to it that ,adam does not break this covenant which has been made between ,me and him3 follow him carefully and protect him as long as he observes these things that are now decreed2 but if he transgresses1 you shall sit in judgment with your ,father1 for you are the daughters of the very ,judge40 ,when the speech was ended1 ,god vanished from ,adam's sight2 and ,adam went forth to view the glories of ,paradise4 ,but at that time the serpent1 which was more subtle and crafty than any other beast1 came in the guise of a maiden#bid to ,eve1 ,adam's wife1 and addressed her in great friendliness3 8,blessed is your husband and you with him1 since ,god has given all things into your power2 for it is now the duty of every beast to obey your commands1 seeing that ,adam is our lord and you are our lady4 ,but now ,i want to ask you whether ,god has withheld anything upon earth from your dominion1 or whether you may enjoy all things as you wish without hesitation40 ,eve replied3 8,god has given us dominion over all things that he has created upon earth except the tree that stands in the midst of ,paradise2 of this ,he has forbidden us to eat1 having said that we shall die1 if we eat thereof40 ,the serpent said to ,eve3 8,oho1 my lady6 ,he does not wish you to become so wise that you know both good and evil2 for ,he knows the difference between good and evil things1 while you know good things only4 ,but when you have eaten of the apples of knowledge1 you will become like ,god and will have knowledge of evil things as well as of good40 ,as soon as the serpent had disappeared from ,eve's sight1 she called ,adam her husband and told him all this speech4 ,then she took two of the apples of knowledge1 ate one herself1 and gave the other to ,adam4 ,but when they had eaten these apples1 their knowledge was extended to evil things1 as the serpent had said2 and they began to observe the shapes of beasts and birds and trees1 and finally how they themselves were formed4 ,then said ,adam3 8,we are shamefully naked1 we two1 for there is nothing to hide our limbs2 beasts are covered with hair and tail1 birds with feathers1 and trees with branches and leaves2 we two alone have shamefully naked limbs40 ,thereupon they took broad leaves from the trees and covered those of their members which they were most ashamed to have naked4 ,then ,peace came forth and spoke to ,adam and ,eve3 8,now you have broken the law and your covenant with ,god1 and ,i will no longer give you the security in the open fields that you have thus far enjoyed2 but ,i will keep you safe in a secret hiding place until judgment is pronounced in your case2 and ,i give you this safety that you may have opportunity to present your defense4 ,but you must take good care to make a plea which may profit you1 and prove a defense rather than a detriment40 ,truth came forth and spoke to ,adam3 8,take heed1 when you come to plead your case1 that you do not lie1 for then ,i shall testify with you2 tell everything just as it happened1 for if you lie about anything1 ,i shall testify against you at once40 ,justice came forth and said3 8,it is my duty and office to make sure that you are not unjustly condemned2 but the more you are found guilty of lies and wrongdoing1 the more shall ,i oppose you40 ,mercy came forth and said to ,adam3 8,i shall add assistance and mercy to your plea1 if you heed carefully all that my sisters have taught40 ,but fear had come upon ,adam and he went away to hide among the trees1 lest he should be seen naked4 ,footnote #bid3 ,the compiler of ,stjrn1 an ,old ,norse paraphrase of the larger part of the ,old ,testament1 following ,petrus ,comestor's ,historia ,scholastica1 attributes to ,bede the statement that the serpent in those days bore the face of a maiden 7p4 #cd74 ,the author of the ,king's ,mirror cannot have used ,stjrn1 as it seems to be a production of the fourteenth century1 nor is there any evidence that he knew the ,historia ,scholastica4 ,at midday ,god went forth to view the beauties of ,paradise and ,adam's stewardship2 but as ,he did not see ,adam in the wide fields1 ,he called him1 asking where he was4 ,adam replied3 8,i hid myself1 ,lord1 because ,i was ashamed to show myself naked before ,thy face40 ,god answered1 saying3 8,why shouldst thou be more ashamed of thy nakedness now than at our former meeting1 unless it be that thou hast broken the law and hast eaten of the apples of knowledge1 which ,i forbade thee to eat40 ,adam replied as if defending himself3 8,the woman that ,thou gavest me led me into this fault2 if ,i had been alone about my affairs and if ,thou hadst not given me this wife to advise with me1 ,i should have kept the appointed law and should not have transgressed ,thy command40 ,then ,god said to ,eve3 8,why didst thou give thy husband this evil counsel to break the law80 ,eve replied as if defending her case3 8,the crafty serpent gave me that evil advice2 had he not been created or appeared before me1 ,i should not have come upon this evil design40 ,then ,god said3 8,since the law has now been broken1 ,i want those virgins whom ,i appointed keepers of our covenant to sit in judgment with us40 ,then ,truth spoke3 8,it is my duty and business to show ,adam's guilt1 inasmuch as he has concealed with a lie what most of all led him to transgress4 ,for this was the chief motive in your case1 that the apples were fair and pleasant and sweet to taste1 and that you desired greatly to be wiser than was promised you4 ,you committed a theft in planning to take them secretly1 covetous robbery in taking them without permission1 and an act of insolent pride in wishing to become like unto ,god in wisdom beyond what was promised you40 ,then ,god said to ,peace that she should give a brief opinion in the case4 ,peace answered in this wise3 8,whereas ,thou didst appoint me to watch over ,adam's safety as long as there was no transgression1 ,i now offer to bring him an even greater insecurity1 because he did not know how to keep the great freedom which he enjoyed before40 ,then ,god said to ,justice that she should give judgment2 and she answered in this wise3 8,since ,adam was unable to keep the freedom that ,peace had secured for him1 let him now suffer misery and distress instead2 and because he coveted knowledge of evil things1 let him experience evil in place of good2 and because he wished to make himself like ,god in knowledge beyond what was permitted1 and blamed ,god for his transgression with lying excuses1 let him suffer the death of which he was warned before he transgressed40 ,then ,god said to ,mercy that she should pass judgment on this transgression4 ,mercy replied in these words3 8,as it is my nature to urge forbearance and clemency to some degree in every case1 ,i request that ,adam be not destroyed through a merciless death2 but since he now must repent of his error as long as he lives1 let him have hope of mercy and help in his death1 as long as he does not despair40 ,then it was discussed whether1 in case he had sons1 they should suffer for his sin1 or be allowed to enjoy the gifts and the riches that ,god had given him at the beginning1 but from which he had been ousted like an outlaw4 ,justice said3 8,how can his sons1 who will be begotten in exile1 enjoy those gifts that he forfeited as an outlaw because of transgression8 ,let his sons follow him to the death4 ,but whereas he shall have hope of mercy and leniency and of a return to the possessions which he has now forfeited1 let his sons be recalled with him through a new covenant40 ,and when sentence had been passed in ,adam's case1 the sisters all came to a friendly agreement2 ,mercy and ,truth embraced while ,justice and ,peace kissed each other with loving gestures4#bie ,footnote #bie3 ,the story of the court proceedings in ,paradise after the fall of man and the discussion between ,mercy and ,peace on the one side and ,truth and ,justice on the other was widely current in the thirteenth century4 ,it made an important scene in certain types of mystery plays1 and it seems quite likely that the source of the version given in the ,king's ,mirror must be sought in some dramatic representation of the creation story4 ,the account of the trial was made the theme of two poems in ,old ,french which have been attributed to the ,english ecclesiastics ,archbishop ,langton and ,bishop ,grosseteste1 both of whom were contemporaries of our ,norwegian author4 ,homilies were written on this theme in the twelfth century by ,st4 ,bernard of ,clairvaux 7,migne1 ,patrologia ,latina1 ,,clxxxiii1 #ggj7 and by ,hugh of ,st4 ,victor 7ibid41 ,,clxxvii1 #fbc-fbf74 ,there is a still earlier version of the story in a homily attributed1 though for no good reason1 to the ,venerable ,bede4 ,according to this story a man has a son and four daughters named ,mercy1 ,truth1 ,peace1 and ,justice4 ,he also has a servant whom he wishes to try by giving him an easy task4 ,the servant fails and is handed over to the executioner4 ,the daughters now come into violent disagreement1 but the son finds a way out of the difficulty3 he saves the servant and succeeds in bringing the sisters into agreement4 ,ibid41 ,,xciv1 #eje-ejg4 ,w4 ,scherer1 in ,zeitschrift fr deutsche ,altertumskunde1 ,n4 ,f41 ,,ix1 #dad-daf1 finds traces of the legend in ,talmudic sources4 ,in the ,hebrew story1 however1 the disagreement is over the expediency of creating man1 ,mercy favoring and ,truth opposing the project4 ,the ultimate source appears to be ,psalms1 lxxxv1 #aj3 8,mercy and truth are met together2 righteousness and peace have kissed each other40 ,for bibliographical information see ,l4 ,petit du ,juleville1 ,les ,mystres1 ,,ii1 #cei4 ,now every king ought to have these two things frequently in mind3 how ,god appeased ,his anger toward the man and the woman for breaking the law1 and what judges ,he called in1 lest ,his punishment should be too severe and merciless4 ,moreover1 a king does justice to all men when he does justice to any man or woman2 but all decisions which imply punishment he must always consider in the presence of these four sisters2 and it must be such as will bring them into agreement1 so that they can kiss and embrace each other1 in which case the judgment will be neither too lenient nor too severe4 ,a king ought to consider very carefully how to bring the minds of the sisters into agreement2 for in all trials they are arranged and seated apart in groups2 ,truth and ,justice on one side of the court and ,mercy and ,peace on the other4 ,they should be agreed and unanimous in every case2 but it frequently occurs that ,peace and ,mercy give the whole suit over to ,truth and ,justice1 though all unite in the verdict none the less4 ,sometimes it happens that each of the sisters has a full voice in the decision according to right reckoning2 but at other times it may be that the larger share falls to ,peace and ,mercy2 but the sisters are unanimous in the verdict none the less4 ,it has also happened at times that1 after a verdict has been reached and confirmed1 ,mercy and ,peace have exercised leniency because of the prayers and repentance of him who was in need of it4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xlvi ,,an ,,example ,,of ,,righteous ,,severity ,,in ,,judgment ,,drawn ,,from ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,god',s ,,condemnation ,,of ,,lucifer ,son4 ,it looks to me now as if this is a more intricate matter than ,i thought earlier2 for it must require great understanding and insight to harmonize the opinions of these sisters so that they will always be unanimous1 seeing that the verdict sometimes leans more to one side than to the other4 ,for you remarked that at times the whole verdict falls to ,truth and ,justice and no leniency is shown1 while at other times the larger share may fall to ,peace and ,mercy2 and you also stated that sometimes a sentence has been modified after it was agreed to and confirmed4 ,now you have stated that one can find examples of most things1 if one looks for them2 and if there are any instances of such proceedings1 ,i should like to hear about them1 so that the subject may look clearer to me and also to others who may hear about it4 ,and it must surely be the highest duty of kings to be well informed on such things1 as on all other subjects1 since they will need them very frequently4 ,father4 ,the world is now so ancient that1 no matter what comes to pass1 one is likely to find that similar events have occurred before2 and nothing is likely to happen of which a learned man can find no examples4 ,but of the fact that the entire judgment may fall to ,truth and ,justice1 no mercy being shown1 there are cases which occurred so early that ,i know of none before them4 ,when ,lucifer1 an angel in heaven1 turned traitor and committed a base crime against his ,lord1 ,truth and ,justice condemned him to swift downfall without hope of pardon4 ,into this condemnation all his comrades and counsellors fell with him4 ,and these were the crimes which ,god punished with a merciless doom4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xlvii ,a ,,further ,,discussion ,,of ,,verdicts ,,and ,,penalties ,,with ,,illustrations ,,from ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,lucifer',s ,,rebellion ,,and ,,downfall ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,sin ,,and ,,punishment ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,man ,,and ,,woman ,son4 ,i must ask you not to take offence if the questions which ,i wish to bring up should seem childish and ill advised2 but since ,i do not fully understand the subject that ,i intend to ask about next1 it may also be that there are others who do not understand it any better than ,i4 ,and it is that matter about the serpent1 which1 you said1 came to ,eve1 and speaking to her like a man egged her on to transgress the law4 ,now ,i wish to ask whether the serpent1 unlike other beasts1 was created with power of speech2 or whether other animals could speak in those days1 though now they are all dumb2 and for what reason the serpent wished to lead the woman into transgression4 ,father4 ,we have had a very lengthy speech before us1 and if we were to comment on the whole1 it would lengthen very much a discussion that is already long2 but certain it is1 we have spoken very few words which would not be in need of comment1 if a well informed man1 who thoroughly understands all these speeches1 should come to the task4 ,but ,i believe it is more advisable for us to continue as we have been doing since we began our conversation1 and leave the task of glossing our remarks to others who may hear them later and are willing to do the work with faithful care4 ,still1 inasmuch as every question looks toward some reply or solution1 it is proper that ,i should enlarge somewhat on this speech1 so as to make the subject a little clearer to you and to others who do not understand it better than you do4 ,i shall1 however1 run over it in a few words only1 for ,i do not care much to comment on my own remarks4 ,you have asked whether serpents and other beasts were created with the power of speech in the days when ,adam was appointed keeper of ,paradise1 and you shall know of a truth that the gift of speech was not given to any bodily creature but man4 ,and since you wish to know why speech was given to the serpent and why it wished to lead the woman into transgression1 ,i shall now proceed to explain4 ,the explanation begins with the fact that ,god created angels before men4 ,the angels were immortal spirits1 free from all corporal weakness1 and endowed with great beauty4 ,but though created with perfect beauty1 they were held subject to this law1 that they must show love and obedience toward their ,creator in humility and without deceit4 ,it was promised them that they should keep their beauty and all the other honors that ,god had given them1 as long as they kept this law2 at the same time ,god gave them full freedom to violate the law1 if they wished2 for ,he spoke to them in this wise3 8,since you were all created at the same moment and none was begotten by another1 each one of you shall decide for himself and none for another whether these laws that ,i have now ordained shall be kept or broken4 ,and if there are those who transgress them1 they shall be driven out of this life of bliss2 while those who observe the laws shall continue to enjoy unceasing happiness and unending life in my noble service4 ,and ,i give you all a free choice to keep these laws or to break them as you may prefer1 in order that those who observe them may be set apart as my chosen jewels1 while those who violate them shall suffer hatred and be driven into cruel thralldom and wretched service40 ,these angels were all fair1 but one was more handsome than all the rest1 wherefore he was called ,lucifer2 he was appointed chief of many angels and a great multitude made obeisance to him in service and friendship4 ,but ,god having finished ,his speech1 ,lucifer turned away from ,god with all his following as if toward the north and spoke thus3 8,why should we suffer threats from ,god in return for our service1 seeing that we have power1 beauty and numbers in full measure to maintain our prestige8 ,now ,i intend1 like ,god1 to set up a high-seat in the northern part of heaven#bif and to extend a wise control over half of heaven or even more40 ,then ,god answered and said to ,lucifer3 8,since thou hast broken the law by treacherous rebellion1 thou canst no longer have habitation with us2 and whereas thou wouldst enjoy dominion1 depart to the kingdom that is prepared for thee1 where thou shalt have suffering instead of freedom1 misery instead of bliss1 sorrows of every kind but no joy4 ,let all those go with thee who did not oppose thy design40 ,and as ,god looked upon them in ,his wrath1 all the heavens trembled before ,his countenance2 and ,his enemies fled with a terrible downfall1 and they suffered a horrible change of countenance in the loss of their beauty4 ,thereupon they sought out the places that were assigned to them and were scattered about in all the caves of hell1 each appointed to a separate service4 ,in this way darkness was separated from light4 ,footnote #bif3 ,the statement that ,lucifer planned to set up a rival throne in the northern regions of heaven also appears in the ,michaels ,saga 7,heilagra ,manna ,sgur1 ,i1 #fgg74 ,it was apparently a common belief in medieval ,christendom and was based on ,isaiah1 xiv1 #ac4 ,but when ,god had made man and had given him a blissful life in ,paradise1 ,lucifer said to his companions3 8,it is evidently ,god's intention to give this one the dominion from which ,he drove me out1 unless he shall act counter to ,god's will4 ,even if ,god should appoint other angels in our stead1 we could never allow it1 if we could do anything to prevent it2 but our disgrace would be too great1 if a man formed of clay or the filthy dust of the earth were to enter into the eternal happiness from which we were expelled4 ,therefore we must fight incessantly against everyone who has such ambitions and revenge our injuries with fierce hatred upon all those whom we can overcome4 ,now ,i shall try to gain a victory over the first man that ,god has created1 so that my companions may be able to overcome those who come later40 ,then he armed himself with seven wiles from which he expected great aid3 the first was venomous envy2 the second1 burning hatred2 the third1 false cunning2 the fourth1 specious deception2 the fifth1 haughty arrogance2 the sixth1 covetous self-seeking2 the seventh1 lustful desire4 ,then he said to himself3 8,inasmuch as ,i am now an invisible spirit1 ,i cannot visibly come to have speech with physical man1 unless ,i adorn my ugly countenance with a certain corporeal beauty4 ,i shall therefore enter this serpent which ,god has created with the face of a maiden and which most resembles man in beauty2 and ,i shall speak with his tongue to ,eve1 ,adam's wife1 and learn from her whether they are created to full freedom without obedience to law1 or whether ,god has given them laws to keep1 through which ,i may be able to ruin their covenant with ,him40 ,thereupon this envious spirit sought the serpent that is now called the asp1 which in those days walked with upright form on two feet like man and had a face like a maiden's1 as we have just said4 ,and when the evil minded spirit came to ,eve concealed in the body of this serpent1 he made use of the artifice that is called specious deception1 for he spoke to ,eve with seductive sweetness using these words3 8,blessed is thy husband and thou likewise40 ,this praise he did not give them out of good will2 rather did he praise their happiness in order to drag them into misery through hatred and envy1 and he used false cunning when he asked ,eve to tell him whether ,god had given everything to ,adam to control and to enjoy without restriction4 ,but when ,eve in return for his sweet words had given the desired information1 and he heard that death was to be their part if they transgressed1 he was glad1 and then made use of haughty arrogance in suggesting to ,eve that they could become like ,god in knowledge in this respect1 that they might be able to know good from evil4 ,but he used lustful desire when he bade her try how sweet and fragrant was the apple of knowledge which was forbidden her4 ,and he employed covetous self-seeking when he caused ,eve to take for her own what ,god had earlier forbidden her2 for ,god had given everything into the power of ,adam and ,eve1 except this tree2 but they longed to have this even without permission1 though everything else was in their power4 ,they knew this one difference between good and evil1 that good was better than evil2 wherefore they feared the death that was assured them4 ,but having never tasted the bitterness of evil1 they could not know what great misery they would suffer for transgression2 but they thought it would be a great distinction to be like ,god in knowledge1 and to know the difference between good and evil things4 ,but when the serpent urged ,eve to eat of the apples of knowledge1 she began to fear death1 and replied thus to the serpent3 8,i fear that1 if ,i eat1 ,i shall die1 for such is ,god's threat4 ,now do you eat first while ,i look1 and if you do not die1 ,i will eat1 for if this fruit really does possess death dealing powers1 it will surely prove baneful to other living beings besides me40 ,then the spirit that was concealed in the serpent said to himself3 8,i may indeed eat the apple1 for it will make me no more guilty or mortal1 inasmuch as ,i am already in the full wrath of ,god40 ,but these words the woman did not hear4 ,then ,eve took an apple and placed it in the serpent's mouth and he ate forthwith4 ,and when she saw that it did him no harm1 she immediately picked another apple and ate2 and she found it very sweet1 just as the serpent had told her4 ,thereupon the serpent vanished from ,eve's sight2 but she called ,adam her husband and told him these things4 ,but because he1 too1 feared the death that ,god had threatened1 he would not eat1 unless he should see ,eve eat first4 ,so ,eve took two more apples and boldly ate the one forthwith1 for she had already tasted the sweetness of the fruit1 and instead of feeling shame for what she had already done1 she longed to taste it oftener4 ,when ,adam saw that it did her no harm 7and he even observed a pleasurable sweetness upon her lips71 he took the apple that she had offered him and ate just as she had done4 ,but when they had eaten the apple1 their eyes were opened to a greater knowledge than they had had before1 just as the serpent had predicted3 for immediately they were ashamed of their naked limbs1 since they saw that the bodies of the birds were covered with feathers and those of the beasts with hair1 while their own bodies were naked1 and they were much ashamed of that4 ,but most of all did it shame them to know that their transgression had made them guilty before ,god2 and they bore their bodies in fear and were ashamed of their naked limbs4 ,soon they went to hide among the trees1 thus giving proof of their shortsightedness1 for they did not realize that ,god had such knowledge of ,his handiwork and all the things that ,he had made1 that neither bushes nor forests could hide them from ,his sight1 since even the secret hiding places in the caverns of hell lie bare and visible before ,his eyes at all times4 ,but while ,adam was in hiding1 ,god spoke to the spirit that was concealed in the serpent3 8,through pride and evil intent thou didst raise the first rebellion1 there being none to ensnare thee1 only thine own pride and envy2 wherefore ,mine anger rages against thee without mercy1 and thou has forfeited eternal happiness and all hope of returning to it4 ,thou hast now a second time stirred ,my heart to anger because of the sin that has just been committed4 ,adam will have to suffer punishment for his transgression1 but he shall still have hope of return and mercy1 because he came into ,my wrath on account of thy wickedness and seductive guile4 ,and as thou overcamest ,adam's wife while she was yet a virgin1 so shall one of her daughters1 also a virgin1 win a triumph over thee4 ,and just as thou seemest now to have led ,adam with all his possessions and kinship as spoils into thy dominion1 so shall one of his sons search all thy garners and carry all thy treasures away as spoils2 and leading forth ,adam and all his faithful kinsmen out of thy power in a glorious triumph1 he shall appoint him to an honored place among his sons in the kingdom which thou wert fittingly deprived of4 ,and as a green tree bore the fruit through which thou hast now won thy victory1 so shall a dry tree bear the fruit through which thy victory shall be brought to naught40 ,then ,god spoke to the serpent in which the spirit had concealed himself3 8,cursed art thou before all the beasts upon earth2 because thou hast received ,mine enemy and concealed him from the eyes of ,eve to the end that1 hidden in thee1 he might win a victory over mankind4 ,therefore shalt thou lose the likeness to a maiden's face which thy countenance has borne and shalt henceforth bear a grim and ugly face hateful to mankind2 thou shalt lose the feet that bore thy body upright and henceforth crawl upon breast and belly4 ,bitter and unclean dust shall be thy food1 because thou atest of the apple which thou tookest from the hand of ,eve4 ,thou shalt be a self-chosen vessel of venom and death as evidence that thou didst hide venomous envy in thy body4 ,i declare the covenant sundered between thee and all mankind2 thy head and neck shall be crushed under the heel and the tread of men in revenge for the treachery which mankind has suffered through thy slippery cunning4 ,and since thou didst cause man to break the law with his mouth and in eating1 the spittle that comes forth from the mouth of a fasting man shall prove as dangerous a venom to thy life1 if thou taste it1 as thy venom is to man1 if he taste it40 ,then ,god1 calling ,adam and ,eve1 asked where they were4 ,and ,adam replied3 8,we hid ourselves1 ,lord1 being ashamed to appear naked before ,thy face40 ,in the first word that ,adam answered ,god1 he lied to ,him2 for they knew themselves guilty of violating the law and hid for that reason2 but ,adam concealed this in the answer that he gave to ,god4 ,then ,god said to him3 8,why should you be more ashamed of your nakedness now than when we last talked together1 unless it be that you have increased in knowledge from eating the apples that ,i forbade you80 ,but when ,adam saw that he could not conceal how they had broken the law1 he sought to escape by placing the blame for the act on another rather than on himself1 for he answered in these words3 8,if ,i had been alone about my affairs and if ,thou hadst not given me this woman to advise with me1 ,i should have kept the appointed law and would not have broken ,thy commands40 ,these words added greatly to ,adam's guilt in ,god's eyes1 for he sought defense rather than mercy4 ,but if he had spoken in this wise3 8,remember now1 ,o ,lord1 that ,i am formed of fragile stuff like a pot of brittle clay1 and am in greater need of ,thy forbearance and mercy than the merits of my case can demand1 for in my weakness ,i have fallen into great guilt against ,thee1 ,o ,lord1 because of my transgression10--then his guilt would at once have been lessened in the sight of ,god1 inasmuch as he would be seeking mercy but not defense4 ,but when ,god heard ,adam replying as if excusing himself1 ,he said as if in wrath3 8,thou shalt put no blame upon ,me for creating the woman2 for ,i gave her to thee to be a delight and a companion1 not that thou shouldst commit law-breaking by her counsel4 ,i even warned thee not to transgress and told thee what guilt threatened if thou didst break the law4 ,why then didst thou follow thy wife's miserable advice rather than ,my saving counsel1 if thou didst not do it through pride and avarice1 wishing to equal ,me in knowledge and therefore eager to know what was not promised thee80 ,after that ,god spoke to ,eve3 8,why didst thou egg thy husband on to transgress80 ,and ,eve was anxious that another should bear the blame for her guilt rather than herself1 for she spoke in this wise3 8,this crafty serpent gave me that evil advice2 had he not been created or appeared before me1 ,i should not have transgressed or egged on my husband to transgress40 ,when ,god heard ,eve's excuse1 ,he spoke in ,his wrath3 8,it looks to ,me as if you both wish to blame ,me for your law-breaking3 ,adam blamed ,me for having created thee to advise with him1 and now thou findest fault with ,me for having created the serpent4 ,i created the serpent as ,i created all the other beasts of the earth1 but ,i did not give him to you as a counsellor2 on the contrary1 ,i made him subject to your dominion like all the other beasts of the earth4 ,i warned you both to commit no sin and told you to look for death1 if you did4 ,now your deed appears no better in your defense than before in the transgression2 wherefore you shall suffer the death with which ,i threatened you4 ,though you may not immediately fall down dead1 you shall1 nevertheless1 in your death suffer a long punishment for your offence1 and all your offspring shall be responsible with you for this transgression4 ,and the while that you live upon earth you shall suffer sorrowful distress instead of enjoying the blissful freedom which you knew not how to keep4 ,and whereas thou didst transgress before ,adam1 ,i will increase thy troubles beyond what you are both to suffer3 thou shalt be subject to the control of thy husband and to all his commands1 and shalt therefore seem of lesser importance and lower in the sight of thy sons4 ,the children that thou shalt conceive in lustful passion thou shalt bring forth in pain and imminent peril2 it shall also be thy duty to give thy children all forms of service in toil and troublesome care while bringing them up40 ,then ,god said3 8,adam has now become as wise as any one of us1 knowing good and evil4 ,have care that he does not eat from the tree of life without permission1 as he did of the apples of knowledge1 lest he live eternally in his guilt40 ,thereupon ,god appointed ,cherubim to guard the path leading to the tree of life with a flaming sword which constantly turned its fiery edge in every direction so that none could pass forward without permission4 ,then ,god said to ,adam3 8,because thou didst hearken to thy wife's evil advice rather than to my good counsel and hast eaten of the forbidden fruit1 the earth1 which gave thee all manner of desirable fruit in her motherly kindness1 shall be cursed through thy deed4 ,as if in sorrowful wrath1 she shall refuse thee such herbs as thou mayest think suitable for food3 thistles and weeds shall she give thee for herbs1 unless thou till her soil with labor and drench it with thy sweat2 for henceforth thou shalt gain thy food upon earth with toil40 ,thereafter ,god gave ,adam and ,eve coats of skin and said to them3 8,since you are ashamed of your naked limbs1 cover yourselves now with the garments of travail and sorrow and fare forth into the wide fields to find your food with irksome toil4 ,and finally you shall rest in the deathlike embraces of earth and be changed again naturally into the mortal materials from which you were made in the beginning40 ,then said ,adam3 8,for justice and mercy ,i thank ,thee1 ,o ,lord1 for ,i see clearly how greatly ,i have sinned2 likewise do ,i own ,thy grace in that ,i am not to suffer merciless destruction like ,lucifer4 ,sorrowing shall ,i descend into the deathlike shadows of hell2 yet ,i shall ever rejoice in the hope of returning2 for in this ,i trust to ,thee1 ,o ,lord1 that ,thou wilt show me the light of life even in the darkness of death4 ,and ,i shall ever look forward to the day when he1 who is now rejoicing in my misfortune as in a victory won1 shall be afflicted by our returning as one who is overcome and deprived of victory40 ,then ,eve said3 8,though we now depart in sorrow1 ,lord1 because of our great misdoing1 we shall take joy in ,thy merciful lenience in our distress40 ,then ,god disappeared from their sight2 and they began to till the earth as ,god had commanded4 ,now ,i have done as you requested1 having explained briefly why the serpent sought speech with the woman and what caused him to egg the woman on to violate the law4 ,still1 ,i have taken up only what is most easily grasped in this speech2 for the task of glossing our discourse after deep meditation ,i prefer to leave to others4 ,but let us continue straight ahead in the discussion as we have begun1 since we do not have time to do both4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xlviii ,a ,,commentary ,,on ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,lucifer ,son4 ,i now see clearly why you regard the answers to my last questions as glosses and interpretations of the speeches which you gave earlier rather than a continuation of our original plan2 and ,i fear that1 if ,i should ask you to enlarge further upon this subject1 you will consider my questions unwise4 ,but having been granted freedom to ask about whatever ,i have the curiosity to know1 ,i shall venture another question3 and ,i shall continue to look for good answers as before1 even though my questions be childish4 ,now you have brought out that1 when the serpent spoke to the woman as he did1 it was the spirit speaking with the serpent's tongue4 ,you have likewise shown me why the woman was led into sin2 that ,lucifer was inspired by malicious envy to hinder man from coming into the dominion from which he himself had been expelled4 ,and in your discussion of the judgments of ,god you had something to say both about ,lucifer and about ,adam1 which ,i am not sure has often been heard before4 ,now if ,i should on occasion recall these remarks and repeat them as ,i have heard you state them1 it may be that some one hearing me will say that he has never heard this account before2 and therefore ,i want to ask you to tell me what facts ,i could state in my reply1 so that ,i shall not seem to withdraw my statements on account of ignorance but rather find such means to support them1 that all will think them true rather than false4 ,father4 ,the glosses to a speech are like the boughs and branches of a tree4 ,first the roots send up a stem which again branches out into many limbs and boughs4 ,and whatever limb you take1 if you examine it with proper care1 you will find it joined to the stem which originally sprang up from the roots2 and all the boughs and branches draw nourishment from the roots from which the stem grows4 ,but if you hew off a limb and cast it far away from the tree1 and one should find it who knows not where it grew1 it will look to him like every other branch which he finds on his way1 seeing that he does not know where it has grown4 ,but if he carries it back to the stem from which it was cut and fits it there1 the branch itself will testify as to what roots it sprang from4 ,it is the same with the interpretation of a sermon2 if a man knows how to present a speech properly1 he will also know how to interpret it correctly4 ,but as ,i hear that some things have been introduced into this discussion which have not often been heard1 ,i will now do the questioning for a while1 since ,i have answered more than ,i have asked4 ,and first ,i wish to ask whether this speech included anything that you already knew4 ,son4 ,there were a few things but not many4 ,i have heard it quoted from ,lucifer's words that he intended to set his throne as high as that of ,god2 but the answer that ,god gave to this ,i had never heard interpreted before1 but now you have explained it4 ,father4 ,let me ask again3 who do you suppose it was that1 standing by1 heard ,lucifer's boastful and treacherous words and quoted them afterwards8 ,son4 ,i have never heard his name spoken and ,i am not sure that they were told by any one who heard them at the beginning4 ,father4 ,but this you shall know of a surety1 that if ,lucifer's words have been quoted by one who heard them in the beginning1 he surely must have heard those replies of ,god also1 which ,i have just given2 and he could have reported both speeches1 had he wished1 since he heard either both or neither4 ,but if he reported ,lucifer's treacherous boasting as he divined it1 he surely could have thought out ,god's truthful statement of his vengeance in the same way2 for either both or neither would be true4 ,for at the very moment when ,lucifer transgressed1 whether in thought or in words1 ,god had already purposed all the vengeance that was to befall him from the first hour to the last4 ,so great and all-sufficient are ,god's thoughts and wisdom1 that the vision of the divine foresight sees in the twinkling of an eye all the events that shall come to pass from the first hour to the very last4 ,but ,he withholds in divine patience all the things that ,he intends shall come to pass1 until suitable times appear2 and ,he will let everything happen as ,he has purposed it heretofore4 ,now if ,god should have endowed any one with such great insight and wisdom that he could know all the thoughts of ,god and should report them as if ,god had disclosed them in word or speech1 he would by no means be telling falsehoods2 for all that ,god has purposed has been told him in his thoughts1 whether his lips have spoken about them or not4 ,the apostle ,paul tells us that ,god has given men his ,holy ,spirit with a definite office and activity3 some receive a spirit of prophecy1 some a spirit of knowledge and wisdom1 some a spirit of eloquence1 some a spirit of understanding1 and some a spirit of skill2#big some have these gifts in large measure1 others in less2 some enjoy one of these gifts1 others two1 still others three1 while some have all1 each one as ,god wills to endow him4 ,footnote #big3 ,i ,corinthians1 xii1 #d-aj4 ,but those who1 like ,king ,david1 have received both the spirit of understanding and of eloquence1 have ventured to compose speeches and write books in order that the speeches shall not perish4 ,in some places ,david has told of ,god's purposes1 in other places of ,his deeds1 and in still other places he has reported ,his words2 and those who in times past have written glosses to the psalms which ,david composed have had more to say about what was in ,david's mind than about the words that he wrote4 ,for to every word they have added long comments of what ,david had in thought when he spoke this word2 and in these comments they point out the meaning which he had in his thoughts at every word that he wrote in the ,psalter4 ,in like manner they have proceeded1 who have interpreted the words of the ,evangelists1 and they have brought out much that the ,evangelists have left unsaid4 ,thus they have shown that their comments are on the words of thought which the lips had left unspoken4 ,and if one has received the ,god-given spirit of a perfect understanding1 he has a gift of such a nature that1 when he hears a few spoken words1 he perceives many words of thought4 ,but ,david did not himself gloss the ,psalter for the reason that he wished to leave to others the task of expressing all those thoughts which came up in his mind1 while he continued writing the ,psalms as originally planned4 ,thus all do who have a speech on the tongue which ought to be interpreted3 they proceed with the discourse as planned and begun1 and leave to others the task of expressing in words what is in their thoughts4 ,still1 you should know that no one has glossed the sayings of ,david who sat by him1 while he was composing the ,psalter1 and asked what was in his mind at the time4 ,and from this you will perceive that it is the grace of the spirit of insight which guides such men to examine the foundations of the sermons that they hear4 ,next they investigate how widely the roots ramify which lie beneath the speech2 they consider carefully how many limbs grow out of it2 and finally they make a count of the branches that sprout from each limb4 ,they also note precisely what bough they take for themselves1 that they may be able to trace it correctly back to the roots from which it originally grew4 ,now if you understand this thoroughly and if you investigate with care and precision everything that you hear told1 you will not fall into error1 no matter whether the comments that you hear be right or wrong1 if ,god has given you the spirit that leads to a right understanding4 ,for every man who is gifted with proper insight and gets into the right path at the beginning will be able to find the highways of reason and to determine what expressions are suitable and will best fit the circumstances4 ,now gather from these things whatever you can that may give insight2 but it does not seem necessary to discuss them further4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,xlix ,,instances ,,in ,,which ,,god ,,has ,,allowed ,,the ,,decision ,,to ,,be ,,framed ,,according ,,to ,,the ,,stern ,,demands ,,of ,,truth ,,and ,,justice ,son4 ,god reward you1 sire1 for being so patient in answering all the questions that ,i am asking4 ,i find1 however1 that you think my queries wander about in a childish way1 but as ,i cannot keep to the subject of the conversation that we have begun1 my questions will come down here and there1 as one might expect of youthful ignorance4 ,still1 it seems that it is better to have asked than not about the matter that ,i brought up last1 namely1 how one is to determine whether the glosses are correct or not4 ,now ,i understand perfectly your statement that a man does not tell a lie about ,god1 if he tells ,god's purposes as if they were ,his own words2 for whatever ,god has determined in ,his own soul1 ,he has already spoken to ,himself in ,his thoughts1 whether ,he has uttered them with ,his lips or not2 wherefore those things may be interpreted as if spoken1 because in ,his mind ,he has spoken all that to ,himself4 ,this1 too1 is clear to me1 that1 although no one is able to divine what ,god had in mind at the beginning1 ,he has ,himself revealed it in letting those things come to pass which ,he had thought and purposed2 for it seems very evident that all those things which ,god has allowed to occur1 ,he had thought upon and wisely planned in his own mind1 before they came to pass4 ,it is also quite clear to me that those who have added explanatory glosses to the writings of ,david1 or other men who have written sermons and set them in books1 have developed their interpretations by studying out what fundamental thought or purpose had since the beginning lain underneath the words4 ,afterwards they wisely considered this1 too1 with what truth probability might be able to account for every branch and twig of that discourse1 so that the contents might be revealed4 ,now since these things begin to look somewhat clearer to me1 it may be that ,i shall continue to reflect upon them1 if ,god gives me the necessary insight4 ,but since ,i realize that you feel it would be a large and tedious task both to continue the discourse already begun and to make suitable comments1 ,i will now ask you to return to the subject before us and to continue setting forth the judgment of ,god1 giving cases in which ,he allowed the sentence to be carried out with severity according to the verdict of ,justice and ,truth1 and others in which ,he showed greater leniency4 ,father4 ,the following instances occurred long after the fall but had a similar outcome4 ,pharaoh1 the king of ,egypt1 suffered a merciless doom by the judgment of ,truth and ,justice4#bih ,dathan and ,abiram were justly doomed and destroyed4#bii ,when ,joshua led the people of ,israel into the land that ,god had promised them ,god ordered him to punish the people who dwelt in the city called ,jericho with such severity that whatever was living should perish4#cjj ,long after that1 when ,king ,saul led an invasion into ,amalek1 ,god commanded him to slay everything that was living2 but ,saul incurred the anger of ,god because he did not carry out what was commanded4#cja ,the case of ,judas1 one of the apostles of ,god1 is among the examples that belong to a much later date3 for ,truth and ,justice condemned him without mercy for dastardly treachery toward his ,lord4 ,there are many similar cases1 though we have given these only2 and1 inasmuch as our speech would get too long1 we cannot include in a single discourse all the examples that we know resemble these4 ,but when ,god decreed all these punishments which we have now recounted1 the sisters were all on the judgment seat with ,him1 ,truth and ,justice1 ,mercy and ,peace1 and they all agreed with ,him and kissed and embraced each other4 ,footnote #bih3 ,exodus1 xiv4 ,footnote #bii3 ,numbers1 xvi4 ,footnote #cjj3 ,joshua1 vi4 ,footnote #cja3 ,i ,samuel1 xv4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,l ,,other ,,instances ,,in ,,which ,,the ,,arguments ,,of ,,peace ,,and ,,mercy ,,have ,,had ,,greater ,,weight ,son4 ,it is quite evident that in the cases which you have now recounted1 ,truth and ,justice had a larger part in the verdict than ,peace and ,mercy4 ,but no one can doubt that the sisters were all agreed in these decisions1 for we may be sure that ,god never passes a merciless judgment4 ,one will consequently need to ponder these things with careful attention and close thinking2 for the judgments of ,god are largely concealed from men4 ,therefore ,i wish to ask you to point out those cases in which ,mercy and ,peace have chiefly dictated the verdict1 so that ,i may get insight into dooms of both kinds1 seeing that examples of both are to be found4 ,father4 ,there are so many cases of either class1 that we cannot include all the verdicts in one discussion2 still1 we can point out a few of them1 in order that both your questions may be answered4 ,the following are events which occurred long ago1 when ,aaron and ,ur1 the bishops1#cjb committed a great sin against ,god in that they gave ,his people two calves made of molten gold1 through which the entire nation was led astray from the faith2 for the people called these calves the gods of ,israel and brought sacrifices to them as to ,god4 ,but when ,moses came down to the people 7he had been up on the mountain where he had spoken to ,god ,himself71 the bishops ran to meet him1 deeply repenting their sins2 and1 falling at ,moses' feet1 they begged him to intercede for them with ,god1 lest ,he be angered with them according to their deserts4 ,but when ,god saw how deeply the bishops repented1 ,he heard ,moses' prayer1 and the bishops retained the dignities which they had before1 and they did penance for their sin4 ,the instance that ,i have now related is one of those in which the greater share in the decision was assigned to ,peace and ,mercy1 though ,truth and ,justice also consented to the doom2 for the bishops would have suffered death for this offence1 if ,mercy had not been more lenient with them than they deserved4 ,the following event is like this but happened much later3 ,king ,david fell into this great sin1 that he committed adultery with ,uriah's wife and afterwards brought about the death of ,uriah himself4 ,after ,uriah's death ,david took his wife and had her for his own1 and surely he deserved death for these sins4 ,but he repented his misdeeds so deeply before ,god and begged forgiveness so humbly for the sins confessed1 that ,god heard his prayer and did not take away his kingship1 but even confirmed him in it1 though he had committed these crimes4#cjc ,footnote #cjb3 ,exodus1 xxxii4 ,no high priest by the name of ,ur is mentioned in this connection2 but ,hur1 the son of ,caleb1 is associated with ,aaron on two earlier occasions4 ,see ibid41 xvii1 #aj2 xxiv1 #ad4 ,there was a legend that ,ur refused to make the golden calf and that the people spitting into his face suffocated him with the spittle4 ,petrus ,comestor1 ,historia ,scholastica1 c4 #gc3 ,migne1 ,patrologia ,latina1 ,,cxcviii1 #aahi4 ,footnote #cjc3 ,,ii ,samuel1 xii4 ,the following events occurred much later at the time when our ,lord ,jesus ,christ was on earth among men4 ,the bishops of the ,jews and all their other learned men became very hostile toward him and were constantly striving to find something for which they might reproach him4 ,so they took a woman who had openly committed adultery and was worthy of death according to the law of ,moses2 this woman they brought before ,jesus and told him of her crimes4 ,they also said that the law condemned her to die and asked what sentence he would pass in this case4 ,jesus replied that he who had never committed a sin should cast the first stone upon her4 ,then they turned away quickly1 not daring to question him further1 for they all knew themselves to have sinned4 ,but ,jesus said to the woman3 8,woman1 since none of those who accused thee has passed judgment in thy case1 neither will ,i condemn thee to die2 go in peace1 but henceforth beware of sin40 ,there is another instance which is like those that ,i related earlier1 and which happened in the night when ,jesus was seized4 ,his apostle ,peter had boastfully protested that he would never forsake him1 though all others should leave him1 and that he would suffer death with ,jesus before he would desert him like a coward4 ,but in the same night when ,jesus was seized1 ,peter denied three times that he had been with him1 and the third time he confirmed the statement with an oath that he had not been ,jesus' man4 ,then he went away out of the hall where ,jesus was held and immediately began to repent his sin and all his words and wept bitterly4 ,nevertheless1 after ,jesus had risen1 ,peter's sins were forgiven1 and he retained all the honors that had been promised him before4 ,there is still another event which came to pass a few days later when our ,lord was crucified4 ,two thieves were crucified with him1 one on either side2 both had been guilty of the same crimes1 murder and robbery4 ,but while they hung on the cross1 one of them took thought to repent and implored mercy of ,jesus1 though he1 too1 like the thieves1 hung on a cross4 ,his sins were pardoned and he was given sure promise of paradise on that very day2 but his companion was condemned according to his deeds4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,li ,,the ,,reasons ,,for ,,this ,,diversity ,,in ,,the ,,verdicts ,,of ,,god ,son4 ,if earthly kings and other chiefs1 who are appointed to act as judges1 are to adapt their decisions to the examples that you have now given1 they must find it very important to learn precisely what each suit is based upon2 for in many of these instances1 it looks as if the cases were somewhat alike in appearance4 ,still1 all the decisions in the earlier examples led to severe punishments1 while in the later ones they all led to mercy and forgiveness4 ,therefore ,i now wish to ask you why ,pharaoh1 ,dathan1 and ,abiram1 the people who dwelt in ,jericho1 and those of ,amalek1 who were punished by ,king ,saul1 were all destroyed without mercy4 ,father4 ,these things were all done at the command of ,justice and ,truth1 though ,peace and ,mercy consented4 ,for ,moses daily performed many miracles before ,king ,pharaoh and commanded him to release ,god's people2 and he might have released them1 had he wished1 without suffering any injury thereby4 ,he made constant promises that it should be done1 but he never kept either word or promise4 ,now it was right that he should perish in his stubborn wickedness and evil-doing1 since he would accept neither mercy nor pardon1 though he had the opportunity4 ,dathan and ,abiram1 when ,moses told them that they had done evil1 became angry and refused to repent2 and they perished without mercy because they sought no mercy4 ,those who dwelt in ,jericho and ,amalek had heard for many days that they had done evil both to ,god's people and against ,his will but they offered no atonement2 on the contrary1 they proposed to take up arms in their defense1 wherefore they were overcome by a merciless revenge4 ,but those whom ,i pointed out to you in the later accounts1 ,aaron1 ,ur1 ,david1 and the others who were mentioned in those examples1 did not conceal their wickedness1 but confessed their misdeeds as they were2 hoping for pardon1 they begged mercy and clemency1 and offered to atone1 as ,he should determine1 ,who1 they knew1 had the decision in ,his power4 ,and they promised that nevermore would they fall into such guilt1 if they might become fully reconciled4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lii ,,the ,,same ,,subject ,,continued ,son4 ,i now wish to ask you why such a great distinction was made in the cases of ,peter and ,judas1 though their offences appear similar4 ,judas returned the money that he had received and repented his evil deed2 he confessed that he had sold his innocent ,lord1 and threw away the silver1 saying that he would not keep what had come to him so wrongfully4 ,now he was destroyed1 though he repented2 while ,peter was forgiven at once1 because he repented4 ,father4 ,judas fell in the beginning into sin through avarice and love of wealth and took a bribe to betray his ,lord4 ,his repentance was such that he could not hope for pardon1 and he asked for no mercy but punished himself with a sudden death4 ,but ,peter wept bitterly in his repentance1 and1 hoping for mercy1 implored forgiveness4 ,furthermore1 ,judas had the greater guilt1 for he sold his ,lord2 and though he repented1 he craved no pardon2 and he did not abide the judgment of ,god1 but condemned himself forthwith4 ,but ,peter denied his ,lord through sudden fear and repented immediately in great sorrow2 he submitted to the judgment of ,god and abided it1 and did not condemn himself as ,judas did4 ,there was a similar outcome in the case of the crucified thieves4 ,though both acknowledged the sins that they had committed1 one prayed for mercy and pardon1 while the other asked no mercy but spoke in contempt and derision rather than in prayer or serious thought4 ,therefore these whom we have now named were saved through the merciful judgments of ,mercy and ,peace1 though ,truth and ,justice agreed to the verdicts4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,liii ,,instances ,,in ,,which ,,god ,,has ,,modified ,,his ,,sentences ,,and ,,the ,,reasons ,,for ,,such ,,modifications ,son4 ,i am beginning to see these things more clearly now and to understand why it is that the larger share in a verdict is sometimes assigned to ,justice and ,truth and at other times to ,peace and ,mercy4 ,and now ,i want to ask you to discuss those cases which you mentioned earlier in which ,god modified the sentence agreed upon1 and to state the causes that led to this4 ,father4 ,to this class belong certain events which occurred a long time ago in the days when ,moses was upon the mountain called ,sinai4 ,in those days the great mass of the people sinned grievously and even fell into whoredom1 cohabiting with women of the heathen race4 ,but so strictly had ,god forbidden this1 that everyone who fell into that sin was held worthy of death4 ,then ,god said to ,moses3 8,now shalt thou cease speaking with ,me that ,my wrath may have time to wax hot against this people which ,i gave into thy charge4 ,for they have fallen into such grievous sins against ,my commandments that ,i intend to consume them all in ,my fierce wrath2 and ,i will give thee another people1 far better and stronger and more numerous than this one40 ,at this point it would almost seem as if a definite sentence had been passed in the case of this nation4 ,moses1 however1 asked permission to intercede briefly in behalf of the people of ,israel and1 this being granted1 he spoke these words4 8,i pray ,thee1 ,o ,lord1 to turn from ,thy wrath and do not destroy ,thy people1 though they have done ill4 ,let not the ,egyptians have this to say1 that ,thou didst lead ,thy people out of ,egypt and out of their dominion to consume them in the mountains and the desert2 or that ,thou wert unable to lead ,thy people into the land which ,thou hadst promised them from the beginning4 ,remember1 ,o ,lord1 ,thy servants ,abraham and ,isaac and ,jacob1 and do not destroy the generations that have sprung from ,israel's kin which ,thou hast ,thyself promised to multiply upon earth and to lead securely into the land that is now controlled by ,thine enemies40#cjd ,god heard the prayer of ,moses2 ,his wrath was appeased1 and ,he did not slay the people as ,he had threatened2 but ,he gave their punishment into the hands of ,moses1 instructing him that they must not wholly escape chastisement1 though it should not be so severe as ,god had threatened earlier4 ,moses returned hastily to the camp and coming upon the people in a tempestuous spirit and in fierce wrath1 he slew many thousand men in that day1 and in this way pacified the wrath of ,god4 ,now this example shows how ,god lessened a penalty imposed1 in that ,he appeased ,his wrath before ,moses' prayer4 ,and it shows that neither of the sisters1 ,truth or ,justice1 suffered in her rights by this judgment1 inasmuch as ,moses slew a great host to pacify the wrath of ,god4 ,but ,peace and ,mercy also had their rights1 seeing that less was done than had been decreed at first4 ,footnote #cjd3 ,exodus1 xxxii1 #g-ad4 ,this is another instance that shows how ,god has modified a judgment already passed4 ,he sent ,jonah the prophet to ,niniveh with orders to tell the king and all the people of the city that within thirty days ,niniveh should be destroyed with all that was therein4 ,jonah did as ,god commanded and told these things as true tidings4 ,but when the king understood that the people were of a truth in danger of divine wrath 7for the nation was full of whoredoms and wickedness of every form7 he descended from his throne1 laid aside his royal robes1 and did penance and fasted2 and he bade all men in the city do likewise1 both young and old4 ,and when ,god saw that they repented of their wickedness with sorrow and penance in many forms1 ,he extended mercy and destroyed neither the city nor the people within it4#cje ,footnote #cje3 ,jonah1 iii4 ,here is still another instance that points to the same result4 ,hezekiah was the name of a good king in the land of ,israel2 he fell ill and meditated deeply about his case1 whether ,god intended to bring him through this illness or to let him die4 ,then ,god sent ,isaiah ,his prophet to him2 and ,god said to the prophet that ,hezekiah should die of this malady4 ,isaiah went to the king and said to him3 8,take good heed and set your house in order and all your affairs1 for ,god has said that you shall die of this illness and not live40 ,as soon as ,isaiah had spoken these words to the king1 he departed2 but the king turned his face to the wall and prayed for deliverance in these words3 8,remember1 ,o ,lord1 how steadfast ,i have been in ,thy service1 for ,i have always opposed ,thine enemies1 and this people that ,thou hast given into my keeping have ,i turned from much wickedness which many of them practiced before ,i came to the kingship4 ,and there are three reasons why ,i am loath to die so suddenly now of this illness4 ,the first1 which ,i fear the most1 is that ,i may not have kept ,thy commandments fully1 and if ,i die in a state of sin ,i may look for ,thy vengeance in my death4 ,the second is that ,i have not yet turned all ,thy people wholly away from their evil ways2 and ,i fear1 if ,i die suddenly now1 that they will soon return to their old abominations4 ,the third1 which ,i fear much1 is the victory of ,thine enemies over ,thy people1 seeing that my son is a child2 and his power to defend the people against ,thine enemies may prove less than is required4 ,but if ,thou wilt hear my prayer1 ,o ,lord1 and add a few days to my life1 all these things may be brought into a better state than they are at present40 ,god heard ,hezekiah's prayer and said to ,isaiah the prophet3 8,return quickly to ,king ,hezekiah and tell him different tidings now from what thou toldest before2 for ,i have heard his prayer1 and ,i will add unto the days of his life fifteen years beyond what ,i had intended for him1 and ,i will deliver all his realm from the attack of his adversaries40#cjf ,footnote #cjf3 ,,ii ,kings1 xx2 ,isaiah1 xxxviii4 ,the prayer is imaginary4 ,here is another instance which belongs to a much later time4 ,in the days when ,jesus ,christ was here upon earth among men1 one of his friends1 ,lazarus by name1 fell ill and died of the illness4 ,bethany was the name of the town where ,lazarus was buried4 ,but when he had lain four days in the grave1 ,jesus came to ,bethany4 ,now it would seem in ,lazarus' case1 as in that of all others who have departed from this world1 that an irrevocable sentence had been passed1 seeing that he had lain four days a dead man in the earth1 death having even appointed him a place in his kingdom4 ,jesus ordered ,lazarus' grave to be opened1 and calling him he commanded him to tear himself away from the hands of his dead companions4 ,thereupon ,lazarus rose from the dead1 and he lived many days after that4 ,there are many other examples of this kind1 but these are the ones which we have preferred to bring to light2 and since our talk has been quite long1 it seems unnecessary to recount others1 though they are plentiful4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,liv ,,the ,,king',s ,,prayer ,son4 ,the more examples ,i hear1 the more evident is the truth of what you stated earlier in your remarks1 namely that it is very necessary for kings and other rulers who are in charge of justice to be widely informed1 if they are to adapt their verdicts to the examples that we have now heard4 ,father4 ,you should understand this clearly that1 since the king holds his title from ,god1 it is surely his duty to suit his decisions to divine examples2 and the same is true of all who are appointed to pass judgment1 both clerks and laymen4 ,for we no longer have opportunity to ask counsel on any point from ,god's own lips1 as ,moses could2 wherefore men should live according to the examples that were set in those days when it was possible to inquire of ,god ,himself what ,his will was on any matter4 ,therefore1 a king ought to keep these examples frequently upon his lips and before his eyes1 and such other examples1 too1 as may give insight for his own decisions4 ,the most favorable time for such meditation is at night or in the early morning when he is sated with sleep4 ,but when the hour to rise comes and it is time for the king to hear the hours1 it is his duty to go to church and listen attentively to the mass and to join in the prayers and in chanting the psalms if he knows them4 ,like every other ,christian man who is at prayers1 the king ought to attend with as much devotion as if he stood in the presence of ,god and spoke to ,god ,himself4 ,he should call to mind the words that ,david uttered when he spoke in this wise3 8,i shall ever see the ,lord before my face1 for ,he is always at my right hand40#cjg ,footnote #cjg3 ,probably from ,psalms1 xvi1 #h 7,vulgate1 xv1 #h73 8,i have set the ,lord always before me1 because ,he is at my right hand44440 ,a king should begin his prayer by showing ,god that he holds the true faith4 ,next he should make clear that he gives thought to his earthly dominion and the divine power of ,god4 ,thereupon he must confess his sins and misdeeds to ,god1 making clear to ,him that he does not consider himself as having come without guilt or as if defending his cause4 ,next he must beg mercy and forgiveness for the transgressions that he has confessed4 ,he must also show ,god humbly that he regards himself as coming before ,his knees as a thrall or a servant1 though ,god has exalted him to power among men4 ,he must not fail to remember others besides himself in prayer3 his queen1 if he has one1 who is appointed to rule and defend the land with him2 his bishops and all other learned men who are to aid him in maintaining ,christianity1 and1 therefore1 owe the duty to offer prayers for him and for all the other people of the kingdom4 ,he ought also to remember all his other lords and knights in his prayer and all the warriors who assist him in the government4 ,likewise he must remember the husbandmen1 the householders1 and all his other subjects who maintain his kingdom by labor or other gainful effort4 ,he should1 therefore1 remember all1 men and women1 for it is their duty to offer up holy prayers for him every day4 ,and1 if he likes1 he may use daily the following prayer1 which is in the form that ,i have given1 but he must pray as devoutly as if he were speaking to ,god ,himself2 and these are the words of the prayer4 8,o ,thou most merciful ,god1 eternal ,father6 ,o ,thou most honored ,conqueror1 ,jesus ,christ1 the only begotten ,son of ,god6 ,o ,thou most gentle ,comforter1 ,holy ,spirit6 ,o ,thou perpetual fount of wisdom and complete and unshaken faith1 ,holy ,trinity6 ,o ,thou indivisible ,unity1 one omnipotent1 unchangeable ,god3 ,thou ,who sittest above the highest summits of heaven and lookest into the hidden depths below6 ,for no creature can escape ,thy dominion1 though it should wish to flee from ,thy wrath4 ,even though ,i should mount to heaven1 ,thou art there before me2 and though ,i crawl down into the lowest hiding places of hell1 ,thy spiritual dominion is there2 and though ,i were to fly upon the wings of the winds and hide beyond the uttermost boundaries of the ocean solitudes1 even there ,thy right hand would seize me and lead me back into ,thy control4 ,for ,thy mind has numbered the sands driven by the winds and by the power of the ocean about all the earth1 and ,thine eye knows all the drops of the dewy rain4 ,therefore1 ,i implore ,thee1 ,o my ,lord1 do not enter into the seat of judgment with me1 ,thy servant1 to search out my righteousness2 and do not number the multitude of my sins1 but turn ,thy face away from mine iniquities and cleanse me from my secret faults and wash away all my guilt4 ,for my sins are great and lie heavy upon my head2 they are so many that they seem numberless to me in their multitude1--sins that ,i have committed in vain thinking1 in foolish words1 in neglecting ,thy commandments and forgetting ,thy holy law in every way1 in indiscreet testimony and thoughtless oaths1 in judging unjustly between men1 in excessive avarice1 and in all manner of useless and evil works4 ,i acknowledge and confess to ,thee1 ,o ,lord1 calling all ,thy saints to witness1 that ,i am so guilty of misdeeds and evil works1 that ,i am already condemned by the multitude of my transgressions1 unless ,i may share in the benefits of the exceeding abundance of ,thy mercy and of the good and meritorious intercessions of my ,lady1 the holy ,virgin ,mary1 and of all the saints in whom ,thou hast been well pleased since the world began4 ,for the misdeeds and all the iniquity that ,i have committed from my childhood to this day are uncovered and revealed unto ,thee1 even though ,i might wish to conceal and not confess them2 for short-sighted frailty was not ashamed to pursue its evil desires before ,thy face4 ,but1 ,o ,lord1 inasmuch as ,thou dost not delight in them who are destroyed in sin1 but wouldst rather that they should live and be led aright1 and because ,thou knowest that man is frail and without strength like the dust of the earth or the crumbling leaf1 unless ,thou strengthen him with the power of ,thy mercy1 therefore1 ,i implore ,thee1 do not punish me with the swift judgment of ,thy wrath2 but let ,thy divine patience give me time and will to repent and ability to do penance4 ,take away from me1 ,o ,lord1 envy and pride1 despair and stubbornness1 injustice and violence1 and detestable gluttony2 cleanse me from the seven cardinal sins and the cursed vices which spring from them4 ,give me1 ,o ,lord1 love and constant hope1 true faith and humility1 wisdom and justice1 and ample strength to do ,thy will at all times4 ,give me the seven cardinal gifts of the ,holy ,spirit with all the blessed fruitage that grows out of these2 for ,i am ,thy handiwork1 created in ,thine image1 ,thy thrall begotten in sin by ,thy servant1 the son of ,thy handmaiden4 ,but ,thy mercy has appointed me to ,thine office and has exalted me1 though unworthy1 to the royal dignity and the sacred chieftainship2 and ,thou hast appointed me to judge and to govern ,thy holy people4 ,therefore1 ,i pray ,thee1 give more heed to the needs of ,thy holy people1 which ,thou hast appointed me to rule over1 than to my merits2 but give me the right understanding1 self-control and sense of justice1 eloquence1 purpose1 and good intentions1 so that ,i may be able to judge and determine the causes of rich and poor in such a way that ,thou wilt be pleased1 while they rejoice that justice is done among them4 ,and ,i pray ,thee1 ,o ,lord6 to pour out ,thy spirit of upright understanding upon all my councillors and helpers who assist me in maintaining the government4 ,to my queen1 whom ,thou hast joined to me with the bonds of marriage1 and above all to the hallowed stewards and servants of holy church1 the most eminent priest1 the bishop of ,rome1 and all our bishops1 abbots1 and rulers1 to our priests and to all the learned men who are in their charge1--to all these1 ,o ,lord1 give a chaste and upright spirit1 so that they may show their good works and set ,thy people good examples and give them right instruction4 ,to the governors and to all those who assist me in guiding and defending the realm1 give rightmindedness1 abhorrence of evil ways1 and the appreciation and love of good morals4 ,make mine enemies truly repentant of their evil and wickedness1 cause them to desist from their ferocity1 and turn them to a true friendship4 ,to ,thy people and all the commonalty give knowledge and a will to love ,thee1 the true ,god1 a right obedience to their superiors1 good peace and rich harvests1 and security from enemies4 ,remember1 ,o ,lord1 in ,thy holy mercy1 all the races of mankind for whom our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 ,thine only begotten son1 shed his blood in redemption1 whether they be still living in this world or called home in holy patience by ,thy commands4 ,to those1 ,o ,lord1 who are blinded by error and ignorance and therefore cannot discern ,thy ,holy ,trinity1 send ,thy spirit of insight1 that they may know and understand that ,thou art the true ,god and none other2 for no one may approach ,thee except ,thy holy compassion draws him to ,thy love4 ,and be not wroth with me1 ,thy servant1 ,o ,lord1 because ,i have dared to speak with ,thee at this time1 even though ,i continue in prayer1 but incline ,thy compassionate ear and hear and grant what ,i pray for in ,thine abundant kindness4 ,i pray ,thee1 ,o ,lord1 never to give me into the hands of mine enemies because of my misdeeds1 or to let me become their victim or captive1 and never to let mine enemies rejoice in my misfortunes1 whether in body or in spirit1 visible or invisible2 but if ,i do aught against ,thy holy will and commandments1 take me in ,thy right hand and chastise me1 though not according to my deserts but according to the lenient judgment of ,thy mercy2 and give me abundant power and resolute strength to oppose all antagonism and all deception4 ,let me suffer no greater temptations than my weakness can resist2 let me not end my days in a sudden death2 and do not call me out of this world before ,i shall have repented and rightly atoned for all my sins2 and when the strivings of this world have ceased1 let me rest eternally with ,thee and ,thy saints4 ,and from my heart ,i pray ,thee1 ,o ,lord1 to give me a lawful heir begotten of my loins1 whom it may please ,thee in ,thy mercy to set after my time in the seat of honor where ,thou hast placed me2 and let my high-seat never pass into the power of other dynasties1 but only to such as shall spring from me1 the son inheriting from the father in every case4 ,and grant1 ,o ,lord1 ,i pray ,thee1 that no branches that have sprung from me shall wither or decay2 and let them not follow after foolish men into error and neglect1 but give them insight and wisdom to understand and to know ,thy sacred law1 and power and a good purpose to love ,thee and ,thy commands4 ,for ,thou only art the true ,god1 ,who liveth and reigneth forever1 world without end4 ,amen40#cjh ,footnote #cjh3 ,this prayer is a translation of a ,latin original which the author has incorporated and given in full4 ,both the original and the author's translation are given in the manuscripts4 ,now this prayer that you have just heard is one which the king may offer up1 if he wishes1 with such other psalms and prayers as he knows4 ,and though he may not always repeat this prayer1 he should1 nevertheless1 pray according to the plan that is outlined in this prayer4 ,and this ,i verily believe to be his duty every day1 until he has heard the hours and the mass1 if he means to observe what belongs to his dignity and to his official duties4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lv ,a ,,further ,,discussion ,,of ,,the ,,king',s ,,business ,,especially ,,his ,,judicial ,,duties ,son4 ,i believe you have now cleared up for me what you think ought to be a king's business1 at night after the season for sleep is past while he is meditating upon the needs of his realm and subjects1 and in the morning when he goes to church or to devotional services2 and it seems to me that these occupations are both useful and important1 so much so that they are indispensable4 ,now that you have shown me what he should be employed with in the night and early in the morning1 ,i wish to ask you to continue and to point out what he should be occupied with during the day3 whether it is your opinion that he should ponder the needs of his kingdom while awake at night in order that he may be able to spend the day with greater freedom1 after the custom which ,i hear that kings now follow in most places1 either in riding out with hawks or in joining the chase with dogs1 or in some other form of diversion1 as ,i hear that kings are in the habit of doing in most countries2 or whether you think that he should be otherwise employed1 if he does as he ought to do1 and that kings seek these diversions more for the sake of recreation than because their rank demand it4 ,father4 ,i surely do believe1 with respect to what you have just asked about1 that kingship was established and appointed to look after the needs of the whole realm and people rather than for sport and vain amusements4 ,nevertheless1 a king must be allowed to seek diversion now and then1 either with hawks1 hounds1 horses1 or weapons1 so that his health and agility at arms or in any form of warfare may be preserved4 ,his chief business1 however1 is to maintain an intelligent government and to seek good solutions for all the difficult problems and demands which come before him4 ,and you shall know of a truth that it is just as much the king's duty to observe daily the rules of the sacred law and to preserve justice in holy judgments as it is the bishop's duty to preserve the order of the sacred mass and all the canonical hours4 ,son4 ,i am inquiring so closely into these things for the reason that many believe the royal dignity to have been founded for such pleasure-giving splendor and unrestrained amusement as kings may desire4 ,but now ,i see clearly from your remarks that a king ought constantly to labor in the yoke of ,god2 wherefore it seems to me that he must have a great burden to support every day in the serious interest that he must show when the needs of his subjects are presented to him4 ,therefore ,i wish to ask you once more to show me clearly what should be a king's duty after the hours have been observed4 ,father4 ,it was the custom of old at the time when the royal office was established and enjoyed its greatest splendor1 that1 when a king no longer stood in fear of his enemies but sat in complete security among his henchmen1 he selected a splendid house where he could set up his high-seat1 which was also to serve as his judgment seat2 and this throne he adorned with every form of royal decoration4 ,then the king sat down upon it and observed in what glory and splendor he sat4 ,next he began to ponder in what way he must occupy this glorious high-seat1 so as not to be driven from it with dishonor in spite of his exalted position either because of injustice or malice1 indiscretion or folly1 inordinate ambition1 arrogance1 or excessive timidity4 ,now it looks most reasonable to me that1 whereas kingship was originally established in this way as we have just pointed out1 a king should continue to maintain the arrangement which was made in the beginning4 ,and as soon as the king comes into this seat which we have just mentioned and has reflected upon all those things which we have just told about1 it becomes his duty to pass judgment in the suits and on the needs of his people1 if they are presented to him4 ,but when there is no official business brought before him1 he should meditate on the source of holy wisdom and study with attentive care all its ways and paths4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lvi ,,the ,,speech ,,of ,,wisdom ,son4 ,i beg you1 sire1 not to be displeased with me1 though ,i ask thoughtless and stupid questions2 but it looks to me like a difficult task to search out the very sources of wisdom and learn its ways and paths4 ,and therefore ,i wish to ask you to tell me something about this form of study1 so that ,i may1 if possible1 derive some insight from it4 ,father4 ,it ought not to cause displeasure to have one inquire closely into subjects which one is not likely to understand without some direction4 ,but ,god's mercy reveals and makes known many things to mankind which would be largely hidden from them1 if ,he were unwilling to have them revealed4 ,and many things which were formerly concealed in ,his own knowledge ,he has made known to us1 because ,he wishes man to take a profitable interest in the wealth of knowledge which he draws from the divine treasures4 ,but as a guide toward this interest which we have just mentioned one should take special note of the words that ,wisdom used concerning herself when she spoke in these terms3 8,i am begotten of ,god's own heart2 ,i have proceeded from the mouth of the ,highest2 and ,i have ordered all things4#cji ,the spirit of ,god moved over empty space1 and we separated light from darkness2 we appointed hours and times1 days and nights1 years and winters and everlasting summer4 ,we built a star-lit throne for the ,king of heaven2 yea1 ,god did nothing except in my far-seeing presence4 ,together we weighed the lightness of the air and the gravity of the earth2 we hung the ponderous sphere of earth in the thin air and strengthened the firmament of heaven with mighty forces4 ,we commanded the blazing sun to adorn the brow of day with shining beams2 but the inconstant moon we bade illumine the darkness of night with its pale sheen4 ,we created a comely man in our image4 ,god also beautified the face of the earth with trees and herbs yielding manifold fruits2 ,he called forth the beauties of the sky in the form of birds of many kinds2 and he concealed multitudes of fishes of many sorts in the depths of the waters4 ,he also commanded the four-footed beasts to multiply upon earth into many and divers species4 ,he girded the entire circle of the earth with a roaring ocean and briny streams4 ,he commanded fresh waters to flow forth in steep cascades over the face of the land1 and built the foundations of the earth with numerous passages1 that the flowing waters might always be able to fulfil the duties assigned them2 and ,he commanded the light vapors to carry heavy waters through the heights of the air by means of enticing warmth4 ,further ,he bade the wind-swollen clouds pour forth cool showers over the face of the earth4 ,and the ,maker of all things bade me oversee the whole artifice of the divine handiwork4 ,then ,i moved briskly with treading foot over the mountain top2 ,i fared lightly over smooth vales and level fields2 ,i strode with toilsome and heavy step over the rough billows2 and ,i measured the width of the level ocean with gentle tread4 ,pressing forward with stiffened knee1 ,i walked upon the wings of the stormy winds4 ,with gentle speech ,i taught the silent calm its pleasing manner4 ,i traced my path through the heights of heaven and the expanse of the air2 ,i scanned the curved circle of the restless ocean2 and ,i paced and measured the entire globe of the sphere-shaped earth4 ,i traveled over hills and mountains2 ,i ran over fields and meadows and level valleys2 and ,i gave honey-like dew to all the blossoming herbs4 ,i passed among thorns and bushes and through forests of every kind and gave sweet blossoms to the fruit-bearing trees4 ,i pitched my tent in a shadowless beam of light and went forth from this fair shelter arrayed like a bridegroom and glad like a mighty giant rejoicing in the race4#caj ,but mortal idols envied me1 found me guilty1 and condemned me to die4 ,in wrath ,i descended to the lowest valleys and overturned the strongholds of the mighty ones in mine anger4 ,with violence ,i shattered the metal gates of the strong castles and broke the firm iron pillars and the thick bars of iron4 ,i took gold and gems and jewels1 the plunder of warfare1 and then journeyed gladly to the higher abodes with priceless booty4 ,i traveled through farms and villages and parishes offering the poor a share in my wealth4 ,i offered the husbandman fruitful corn and partnership with me4 ,i comfort the sorrowing2 ,i give rest to the weary1 drink to the thirsty1 and food to the hungry4 ,happy is he who drinks from my cup1 for my beverage has an unfailing sweetness4 ,i journey through castles and cities and marts2 ,i run over houses1 markets1 and streets2 ,i call with a clear and friendly voice1 offering food1 entertainment1 and harmless amusement4 ,happy is he who goes to my table1 for my meat has a more pleasing savour than the sweetest perfume2 my drink is sweeter than honey and clearer than any wine2 tuneful music is heard at my table in sweet and beautiful melody2 there are songs and poems such as rarely are heard1 merriment and gladness1 and pure joy unmixed with grief4 ,happy is he who shall live in my house1 for in my house are seven great pillars which join together the entire vault under a good roof2 they stand upon a floor placed on immovable foundations and they fortify all the walls with great strength4 ,in each of these pillars may be found the seven liberal arts of study4 ,furthermore1 my house is strewn with fragrant grasses and lovely herbs2 it is hung with beauty and elegance1 and splendor in every form4 ,among the humble ,i am a pleasant companion1 but toward the proud ,i am stern and haughty4 ,in every school ,i am the principal teacher and ,i am the highest form of eloquence in every law court4 ,i am the wisest among lawyers and the chief justice on every bench4 ,happy is he who is found to be a sincere companion of mine2 for ,i am constantly with my companions guarding them from all perils4 ,happy is he who suffers no disgrace from me1 for my wrath kindles a fire in its passion which burns even to the lowest depths2 some day it will consume the foundations of the hills and swallow up the earth with its teeming life4 ,where can he hide who seeks to escape from me8 ,the spirit of ,god fills the entire home-circle and searches out the meaning and the interpretation of all knowledge40 ,footnote #cji3 ,cf4 ,proverbs1 viii1 #bb ff42 see also1 among the 8,apochrypha10 ,ecclesiasticus 7,the ,wisdom of ,jesus the son of ,sirach71 xxiv1 #e ff4 ,footnote #caj3 ,an echo of ,psalms1 xix1 #e4 ,the speech that you have now heard is one which ,wisdom has spoken about herself2 there are others like it1 but loftier1 which are not repeated here4 ,for ,king ,solomon and ,jesus the son of ,sirach have written with much skill a great many sermons of the kind that ,wisdom has spoken about herself in divers ways4 ,but if we were to mention all the speeches that can be found in their writings1 our conversation would suffer a great delay2 and it seems unnecessary at this time to bring into our talk any lengthy discussion of those things that ,wisdom has said about herself4 ,however1 it is the duty of every king to know thoroughly all the accounts that ,wisdom has given of herself or wise men like those just mentioned have written1 and each day to ponder some part of those speeches1 if the duties of his office leave him any time for that4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lvii ,,difficult ,,duties ,,of ,,the ,,king',s ,,judicial ,,office ,,with ,,illustrations ,son4 ,since it clearly is the official duty of a king to be well informed in all science1 it is quite evident that to acquire the knowledge which you have just now discussed must be of the highest importance2 for it seems likely that he will be able to gather much insight from it1 whether he wishes to meditate on the greatness of divine power or on the needs of men4 ,now since you do not care to discuss these matters further1 ,i will ask you to continue your remarks with a few words about what a king ought to consider before passing judgments1 when he comes into the judgment seat to determine the causes of men4 ,father4 ,it is indeed his duty1 as you have remarked1 to look carefully into all those speeches that we have now spoken and to study them thoroughly1 for this reason1 that if he unravels them with care in his thoughts1 he will surely find in them1 if he has understanding1 nearly all those things which pertain to divine power and which show how ,god has distributed his gifts among men and other created beings4 ,for every king and every other discreet man can learn in this way what he actually is1 and what he ought to be1 if he wishes to achieve what ,god has intended for him4 ,you also ask how a king should weigh the judgments that he renders in the disputes of men2 but ,i have given a brief reply to that question in an earlier talk1 when ,i told how ,god passed judgment after ,his covenant with ,adam was broken1 and what judges ,he brought with ,him to the judgment seat4 ,i also gave many examples to show how ,god ordered ,his verdicts in certain cases of a later time1 those of ,king ,pharaoh and all the others who were named later in that conversation2 and every king ought surely to weigh what is found in those examples4 ,he must also consider with care whether a case calls for severity and punishment or whether the doom should be tempered2 for the judgments ought not to be equally severe in all cases4 ,and every sentence should be kept within the bounds of justice and fairness2 and here ,i may cite another example1 if you like4 ,there is something told of a certain king1 which ,i find most fitting to illustrate this point4 ,this king was a man of fame and power1 thoroughly learned in all knowledge and just in all his decisions4 ,every day there came before him a large number of men whose difficulties he had to settle2 and every day he sat a long time on the judgment seat to determine the suits of his people1 and with him sat the wise men1 whom he had found to be the most discreet and best prepared for such duties4 ,but whenever the king sat in this assembly with the wise men whom he had summoned to serve with him1 armed knights stood about the house to make sure that he could sit in perfect security4 ,the king had many sons1 one of whom1 however1 was the dearest of all2 for this son loved especially to be near his father whenever possible1 and he frequently sat on the judgment seat with him4 ,it was in the king's nature to be slow in reaching decisions2 and it was said among men of quick minds that he would surely be able to settle the law suits and speak his verdicts more promptly1 if he were truly wise4 ,this remark was approved by the king's son and by many others among the wise men2 and so often was the saying repeated that the king himself got news of it4 ,now it happened at one time that the king was indisposed after a bleeding2 and just then a number of men came to bring their disputes before the king4 ,he then sent for his son1 the one who was in the habit of sitting in judgment with him1 and said to him3 8,summon the wise men who are accustomed to sit in judgment with me and go into my judgment hall and take my seat for to-day1 and determine as many of the law suits as you possibly can get over40 ,it was done as the king commanded4 ,and when the cases were presented to those men1 it looked to them as if they could decide the suits in a hurry4 ,but when the king's son was ready to determine the disputes which had been brought before him1 he thought he saw three young men coming forward1 handsome yet terrible in appearance4 ,two of them sat down at his feet1 one on either side4 ,one was occupied with a set of writings in which were written out all the cases that were to be settled that day1 one case in each document4 ,the other was busy with balances2 and these appeared so delicate that1 if a little hair was laid upon them1 they would be disturbed4 ,the one who had the balances held them up1 while the other1 who had the documents1 laid the writings which favored him who had brought the suit into one scale and the writing in his behalf who was to reply in the other2 but it looked as if the scales would never balance4 ,then the king's son thought he saw that certain documents were brought out in which the decisions and formal verdicts were drawn up1 just as he had intended to render judgment and all the wise men had advised4 ,but even after these writings had been laid in the scales1 they were as far from balancing as before4 ,when the king's son saw these things1 he looked to see what the third young man was doing1 and saw that he stood near with a drawn sword as if ready to strike4 ,the sword was keen-edged and terrible1 and the edges looked to him as if they were both on fire4 ,then he saw clearly that1 if he passed judgment before the scales balanced1 the sword of the young man would immediately smite his neck4 ,just then he glanced down before his feet1 and there he saw the earth open downwards2 underneath he saw the gaping jaws of hell1 as if waiting for him to come there4 ,but when he saw these things1 he ceased speaking and rendering judgments4 ,when the wise men reminded him that there were suits to be settled1 he called them to him1 and everyone who came saw all these things that we have now described4 ,after that none dared to pronounce judgment1 for the scales of the young man never balanced1 and no suit was settled on that day4 ,but thereafter no man thought it strange if the king was slow in pronouncing his decisions4 ,another and similar example is found in what ,i told you earlier in our conversation1 when we spoke about a city in ,ireland called ,themar2#caa and ,i shall repeat that story in part1 if you wish4 ,this was the leading city in ,ireland and the king had his chief residence there2 and no one knew of a finer city on earth4 ,though the inhabitants were heathen at that time and did not know the true faith about ,god1 they were firm in the belief that there could be no deviation from righteousness in judgment on the part of the king who dwelt in ,themar2 for no decision was pronounced in ,ireland which they could consider just before the king at ,themar had passed upon it4 ,now at one time it came to pass that a case was brought before the king who sat in ,themar in which his friends and kinsmen were interested on the one side1 while men whom the king disliked had a part on the other side2 and the king shaped the verdict more according to his own will than to justice4 ,and this soon became evident1 for three days later the royal hall and all the other houses that the king occupied were overturned1 so that the foundations pointed upward1 while the walls and the battlements pointed down into the earth2 and the inhabitants immediately began to desert the city and it was never occupied after that4 ,now from these accounts you are to conclude that ,god permits such things to be revealed to men1 because ,he wishes them to understand that such an outcome is daily prepared in a spiritual and invisible manner for men who refuse to render just and right judgments1 if they are appointed to determine the suits of men4 ,footnote #caa3 ,c4 xi4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lviii ,,the ,,same ,,subject ,,continued ,son4 ,these examples apply very well to such men as are avaricious or obstinate or both4 ,father4 ,you shall know of a truth1 that wherever justice is sold for money or is stricken down by arrogance1 divine revenge and punishment1 physical or spiritual1 will surely come2 and an instance of this can be cited1 if it is desired4 ,there was a prominent citizen in ,athens named ,stephen2 he was judge in all those cases that arose within the city2 he was not known as an unjust man4 ,now it came to pass that ,stephen departed this life1 and two groups of angels came to meet him1 the one wishing to support his cause1 the other charging him with much and heavy guilt and wishing to lead him with them to death4 ,but whereas a dispute arose between them and neither side would yield1 one of the angels proposed that they should lead ,stephen before the ,judge and let the dispute be settled by ,his judgment4 ,when they came into court1 the accusing lawyers cried out saying that they had a grave charge against ,stephen1 namely1 that he had taken a plot of ground from the church of ,saint ,lawrence by an unjust decree4 ,but the judge said that the saint should decide that case1 seeing that he was the one robbed4 ,now just as ,saint ,lawrence came up to hear how the suit was going forward1 one of the angels said to ,stephen3 8,why do you not call the holy priest ,justin1 whom you honored so highly as to have a chapel built for him near your hall and whom you have served in many things8 ,he surely will be able to assist you somewhat in these your troubles40#cab ,justin came at the moment when the suit was being brought up before ,saint ,lawrence2 and after the case had been stated1 the saint asked why ,stephen had plundered him and deprived his church of land4 ,stephen replied that he did not render that unjust decision purposely1 but really thought it was a just decision4 ,then ,saint ,lawrence gripped ,stephen in the side and pinched him very hard4 ,but ,justin interceded for him1 begging the saint to show mercy in this cause1 both because of his intercession and because ,stephen did not know that he had given an unjust decision4 ,while ,saint ,lawrence was pinching his side1 ,stephen had a feeling that even if he were to suffer torture for a similar space of time in hell1 he would find it no more painful than the clutching of ,saint ,lawrence4 ,but as soon as ,justin interceded for ,stephen1 the saint released him and forgave the offence4#cac ,footnote #cab3 ,according to the legend the priest ,justin assisted at the funeral of ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,heilagra ,manna ,sgur1 ,i1 #dcj4 ,footnote #cac3 ,a somewhat different version of this story is given in the ,legenda ,aurea of ,jacques de ,voragine1 who quotes the 8,miracles of the ,virgin ,mary40 ,when the prosecutors heard that this indictment had failed1 they shouted even more loudly1 saying that they had still greater charges against ,stephen4 ,so they set forth that a ,roman whose name was ,tarquin had come to ,athens1 and since he was an alien and had no kindred there1 he thought that he might need help from ,stephen in his important affairs1 seeing that ,stephen was judge and ruler over the whole city2 and he gave ,stephen a fine horse on condition that he was to have justice and equity4 ,then the ,judge decreed that1 if ,stephen had sold justice for money1 he should follow that profit to destruction4 ,but when ,stephen was questioned whether this charge was true or not1 he denied the accusation and declared that he could not remember ever having taken fee or gift for justice4 ,now since ,stephen had denied the charge1 it was ordered that ,tarquin himself should be called to straighten the matter4 ,when ,tarquin came1 he declared that this was not a true charge against ,stephen2 for he asserted that ,stephen had never taken fees for justice so far as he knew4 8,but having come there a stranger10 said ,tarquin1 8,i thought that ,i might need the good will of such a man and gave him the horse on my own volition and not at his request40 ,when the accusers heard that they would surely fail in this indictment too1 they cried even more loudly1 saying that they had a new charge against ,stephen1 much greater than either of the others4 ,they asserted that he had arbitrarily and illegally saved three men from the death penalty1 whom both law and equity and a just sentence would have condemned4 ,when ,stephen was asked whether he was guilty of this charge1 he admitted that he had saved the men from death1 but declared that he had always regretted having saved them by arbitrary and illegal means4 ,then the ,judge decreed that1 if he had rescued men from death by violence whom justice had condemned to die1 he must suffer death for it1 unless he would do penance where the offence was committed4 ,then the priest ,justin asked ,saint ,lawrence to help in ,stephen's defense1 seeing that he had forgiven him the matter that he had against him and no indictment had been found true except the one that was now being considered4 ,so ,lawrence and ,justin went in haste to the queen and1 falling at her feet1 begged her to request this favor1 that the verdict be modified so that ,stephen might be allowed to do penance in the place where he had offended4 ,when the queen interceded for ,stephen1 her request was granted4 ,thereupon he was brought back to ,athens1 and he arose at the moment when his body was to be carried to the grave4 ,he lived three winters after that and did penance for his guilt according to the instruction of the bishop who was in charge of that city4 ,there are many such examples that could be brought up in this talk1 if it were thought necessary2 and you should now conclude from what ,i set forth in my last speech that the judgments passed here must be carefully scrutinized1 and that it is very important for those who are appointed to be judges to make sure whether the decisions are properly stated and the findings correct4 ,for you heard how precisely the decrees were weighed before the king's son1 when the scales were held up before him but would never balance2 and how he was threatened with death1 if he should pronounce a different judgment from the one that would balance the scales4 ,you also heard how ,god punished the king and the city of ,themar1 because the king had distorted a just decision4 ,though the people did not hold the true faith about ,god1 ,he punished the deed nevertheless1 because they believed that a wrong decision could never come from ,themar4 ,and in the last example you heard how ,stephen was held to account for all the dooms that he had pronounced1 and suffered a reprimand for having taken a gift from a friend2 and he was condemned to die for having saved men from death1 though many would regard that as a good rather than an evil deed4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lix ,,when ,,judgments ,,should ,,be ,,severe ,,and ,,when ,,they ,,should ,,be ,,merciful ,son4 ,the more examples of this sort ,i hear1 the more difficult seems the position of those who are appointed to judge4 ,i will ask you1 therefore1 to indicate some test by which ,i can know when the judgments ought to be severe and when they should be more lenient4 ,father4 ,it is difficult to state that in definite terms3 still1 all causes that are brought before the men who have authority to judge will be decided in some way4 ,but ,i believe that a purpose to judge as they think is right will do the most to keep them from falling into guilt before ,god4 ,for ,stephen was acquitted of the charge that he had caused the church of ,saint ,lawrence to forfeit land by the fact that he did not know that his decision was wrong2 and yet he did not wholly escape punishment1 though in some respects he was punished less than he would have been1 if he had known that his verdict was wrong4 ,now there are four things which he who goes into the judgment hall must leave outside and never allow to come into the judgment seat with him or even inside the door4 ,the first is avarice2 the second1 enmity2 the third1 obstinacy2 the fourth1 friendship4 ,for you heard that ,stephen was ordered to disclose whether he had accepted a gift from ,tarquin and had promised to secure justice for him in return for the fee4 ,and the judgment was1 that if he had sold justice for money1 he should follow the fee to destruction4 ,you heard this1 too1 that he was condemned to die for having saved men from death by force and in defiance of law4 ,you also heard in the earlier account how the king and the city of ,themar perished because the king1 being friendly to one side and very hostile to the other1 had distorted a just decision4 ,now for such reasons those four things must be excluded1 lest any one of them should cause a righteous doom to be distorted4 ,you have also asked when the sentence should be lenient and when severe1 and that question can now be answered in a few words4 ,careful account should be taken of the circumstances of the man's case who is accused4 ,if a charge is brought against one who is anxious to keep the peace but is driven to violence by the selfishness and arrogance of another1 and1 regretting his guilt1 is anxious to atone for it1--if such are the circumstances1 there should be lenient judgment in his case4 ,likewise1 if a man breaks the law who is ignorant and does not know that he is transgressing1 and would not have done the deed had he known it to be contrary to law1 his case1 too1 calls for a lenient sentence4 ,even when the ugliest cases that are known among men1 such as theft and robbery1 come up1 one should investigate how the crime came about4 ,if a man is so hard bestead that he can get no food either by begging or buying and cannot get work1 while hunger and his physical nature drive him beyond endurance1 the judge should be lenient with him1 even though he be taken in guilt2 and whenever necessity drives a man into crime and law-breaking1 the judgment should be tempered4 ,however1 if the accused are men who have been led into crime by insolence1 ambition1 avarice1 or selfishness1 the dooms ought to be severe1 though justice and the law of the land must be observed in every instance4 ,and in cases like those to which we have just referred the sentence should be as severe as the law permits2 while in the cases mentioned earlier the law should be applied with due allowance for the difficulties that were at hand4 ,if the distress that led to the trouble is considered great1 the judgment should be tempered accordingly4 ,but if a king or any ruler who is a judge and has power to punish1 takes life as a punishment1 he should always do it with great reluctance1 in his heart lamenting the death and ill-fortune of the offender4 ,he must take heed1 however1 lest he slay out of his own cruelty or in anger and hatred for the one who is to die4 ,let him slay him in just punishment and out of love for those who live after2 because he believes that they will live in greater security and lead better lives after having seen the death and troubles of such a one2 and because he intends that the fear and terror which the misfortunes of another have brought upon him shall guide those to rectitude and good morals1 whom nature is unable to guide because of their excessive ambition or stupidity4 ,a famous man1 an upright and excellent emperor1 once ordained respecting the decrees of kings1 that if a king should become so angry with any one that he planned his death1 and if his guilt were not so evident that he could with justice be condemned at once to an immediate death1 that man should be kept in the king's garth or in custody forty days before his case should be finally determined4#cad ,and it would be well if every king would observe this enactment1 in order that he might frame his decisions with regard for reason and justice and not in sudden anger4 ,if a man is convicted of an offence for which law and justice impose a fine but not death1 the king1 or the lord who governs the land1 shall seize his wealth1 not because he loves and covets the money1 but because a just penalty and the laws of the land demand it4 ,if all these things which we have now set forth are carefully observed1 ,i believe that those who are appointed to be judges will suffer no great reproaches from ,god4 ,footnote #cad3 ,this is probably an allusion to the edict of ,theodosius ,,ii 8which interposes a salutary interval of thirty days between the sentence and the execution40 ,gibbon1 ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire1 ,,iii1 #agf2 ,mommsen and ,meyer 7editors71 ,theodosiani ,libri ,,xvi1 ,i1 part #b1 #ejc 7viii1 #dj3ac74 ,the edict was probably a part of the penance exacted from the ,emperor after his massacre of the ,thessalonians4 ,see ,ambrosius ,saga in ,heilagra ,manna ,sgur1 ,i1 #dj4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lx ,,the ,,same ,,subject ,,continued ,son4 ,it seems reasonable that a land1 which is placed in charge of a ruler who attends carefully to these things1 will be well governed2 and the people ought to show proper appreciation of his government4 ,still with your permission ,i shall now ask about certain matters that interest me concerning rightful verdicts4 ,you referred to an order given by an emperor as to punishments decreed by a king 7which looks to me like good law71 that a man who had incurred the king's wrath should be given a reprieve of forty days in the king's custody1 lest a verdict be rendered too quickly in his case and in violent anger2 and it seems to me that a king will need to possess much good nature1 if he is to spare a man in his anger4 ,but even so righteous and holy a man as ,moses was could not control his wrath on that day1 when he came in anger to the people of ,israel2 for ,i am told that his wrath rose to such violence that he dashed the two tables of stone1 which he bore in his arms and upon which ,god ,himself had written the ten commandments of ,his law with ,his own fingers1 against a rock and broke them into fragments in his fury2 and rushing at once to arms1 he and the men who were with him slew many hundred persons that day4#cae ,i have also heard that ,david in sudden wrath ordered the man1 who came from the battle in which ,saul fell1 bringing the tidings that ,saul was dead1 to be slain immediately2#caf and he did not order him to be kept for further inquiry4 ,footnote #cae3 ,exodus1 xxxii4 ,footnote #caf3 ,,ii ,samuel1 i4 ,father4 ,remember what ,i called to your attention in an earlier remark1 namely1 that these laws are intended for men who do not fall into such evident transgressions that a rightful verdict can condemn them to immediate death4 ,but when ,moses came away from ,god1 he knew ,god's wrath toward all the people of ,israel1 and consequently did a deed of kindness and not of hatred when by this chastisement he turned them from error and evil ways2 just as ,i have told you that a king in punishing should be moved by kindness and not by hatred4 ,for all penalties that are inflicted because of hatred are murder2 while punishment inflicted for the sake of love and justice is a holy deed and not murder4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lxi ,,concerning ,,capital ,,punishment ,son4 ,now1 if you permit1 ,i wish to ask more fully about penalties2 for few men1 indeed1 are able to comprehend how it can be a good1 holy1 and loving deed to take a man's life2 wherefore ,i with many others on the outside should like to have you explain briefly how it can be a good and proper deed to slay men in righteous punishment2 inasmuch as all gentle and peaceful persons have a great aversion to manslaughter1 regarding it as evil and sinful4 ,father4 ,the subjects that we are now discussing are clearly illustrated in the case of ,moses4 ,holy man as he was and meek and right-minded in every way1 had he known that his act of punishment was sinful like any other slaughter1 he would not have ordered it4 ,but if he had been so zealous in his obstinate wrath that he had done this deed in anger rather than for the sake of justice1 ,god's righteousness would surely have punished him with a severe chastisement and stern revenge for the great slaughter that he committed4 ,for ,moses commanded every man who took up arms with him to spare none1 neither father nor brother nor other kinsmen1 if they had been guilty of the deed that had called ,god's anger down upon them4 ,moses showed a threefold righteousness in this chastisement3 for those who were with him in the slaughter sanctified their hands in the blood of those whom they slew1 since in their deed they rendered obedience to their leader and fulfilled the sacred laws4 ,those who survived regretted their sins and turned their hearts to penitence for having broken the law1 while those who were slain were cleansed in their penance and in the pangs which they suffered when they died4 ,and it was much better for them to suffer a brief pain in death than a long torture in hell4 ,of the same character are the penalties that kings impose2 for a king cleanses himself in the blood of the unjust1 if he slays them as a rightful punishment to fulfil the sacred laws4 ,moreover1 there are many capable men who fear punishment alone1 and would commit crimes if they were not in terror of the king's revenge4 ,but one who is to suffer punishment will confess his sins and repent of his misdeeds2 though if he did not see a sudden death prepared for him1 he would show no repentance4 ,he is1 therefore1 saved by his repentance and the pangs which he suffers in his death4 ,and it is better for him to suffer a brief punishment here than endless agony and torture2 for ,god never punishes the same sin twice4 ,consequently the king's punishment becomes a good and kind deed toward all those who are subject to him1 for he would rather have the one who is to be punished suffer a brief pain here for his wickedness than to be lost forever1 in the world to come4 ,through this kindness he also saves the righteous and peaceable from the avarice and the wickedness of the violent4 ,we may1 therefore1 conclude that punishment is a good deed1 if it is exacted according to a righteous verdict2 for ,king ,saul was deposed from his kingship because he failed to punish according to ,god's orders at the time when he invaded the kingdoms of ,amalek and the ,amorites4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lxii ,,the ,,same ,,subject ,,continued ,son4 ,now ,i wish to ask you why ,david slew the man of whom we spoke earlier1 him who brought the tidings that ,saul had fallen1 and whether he slew him justly or did it from sudden anger4 ,father4 ,when the man had told these tidings1 ,david asked how he knew them4 ,and he said that he had lifted up weapons against ,saul at the king's own request4 ,when ,david heard this1 he spoke thus3 8,a wretched creature you are1 who dared to lay hands on the ,lord's anointed2 and it is better for you to suffer a swift punishment here than to have this crime pursue you into everlasting hell40 ,thereupon ,david ordered him to be slain4 ,but when he who had hoped to receive a joyous welcome and good gifts for his tidings1 saw that death was to be his reward1 he repented that he had falsely imputed this crime to himself and would gladly have withdrawn his words1 if he had been permitted to do so4 ,but ,david spoke thus3 8,your own testimony condemns you and not ,i2 for you have charged yourself with this murder of the ,lord's anointed40 ,we have other and similar instances in the case of the men who slew ,ishbosheth1 the son of ,saul1 hoping thereby to win ,david's friendship2 and they fared to ,david with the news that they had slain his enemy who had planned to rise up against him and his kingship4 ,but when ,david heard these tidings he answered in this wise2 8,wretches you are for this deed1 having slain your lord1 though you were ,ishbosheth's own men2 you have committed a vile and treacherous crime in laying hands upon your lord1 and you have not acted as if you were my men and did this out of loyalty to me4 ,now it will be necessary for you to suffer a swift revenge and a prompt punishment1 lest this deed draw you into everlasting torment40 ,then ,david ordered his men to cut off their hands and feet and afterwards to hang them beside a pool in a city called ,hebron4#cag ,footnote #cag3 ,,ii ,samuel1 iv4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lxiii ,,the ,,judgments ,,of ,,god ,,illustrated ,,by ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,david ,,and ,,saul ,son4 ,i will venture to ask one more question about those cases in which it seems to me that ,god has passed rather strange sentences4 ,i am asking chiefly because ,i find it hard to understand what reason or circumstance can have caused the difference in these decrees which ,i now intend to bring up4 ,you stated earlier in your speech that ,god deprived ,saul of his kingdom because he was too lenient in cases of homicide1 though a man will think that this was no great offence1 as it is easy enough to slay multitudes if that be regarded a better deed than to let them live4 ,still1 this leniency proved such a grievous fault that ,god said ,he regretted having chosen ,saul king over his people1 and immediately threatened--what ,he later carried out--that the kingship should never be transmitted to his descendants2 and immediately1 though ,saul was still living1 ,he appointed another to be king after his days4 ,but after ,david had become king1 he committed a crime which will scarcely seem less when reflected upon2 for he committed adultery with the wife of ,uriah his knight1 a good and faithful man1 and afterwards contrived his death1 not as a just penalty but because he wanted his wife4 ,but later1 when ,nathan the prophet pointed out the sin to ,david and he confessed1 he was forgiven at once2 indeed1 it seemed as if his kingship was more stable after that time than before4 ,now ,i do not know which is the worse crime1 to kill an innocent man and violate his wife1 or to let the guilty have their lives4 ,many a man1 who is ignorant as to the reason why1 may indeed imagine that ,god loved ,david more than ,saul1 and that ,david's crime was counted less for that reason4 ,but inasmuch as ,god always judges according to justice and without regard to persons1 it would be sinful to hold wrong ideas about this2 and it would be well if you could add a few words in explanation1 unless you think that my questions are stupid4 ,it may also be that great lords who are chosen to be judges will get a better insight into these things1 if they are clearly expressed4 ,father4 ,this question is of such a character that it will demand an extended answer1 if it is to be fully understood4 ,but since it has been brought up1 ,i shall be glad to answer it as far as ,i can and as briefly as ,i can4 ,first it is necessary to recall what ,i said in an earlier speech when we talked about dooms1--when they should be severe and when lenient3 ,i then brought out the fact that if a good and peace-loving man should fall into sin and his deed should seem evil to him and he were anxious to do penance1 then the judgment ought to be merciful in his case on account of human nature2 for human nature is so frail that no one can be so careful as never to fall into sin4 ,but some add to their offence by taking pride in it1 and they are not careful to avoid falling into another sin4 ,now ,david was of all men the most adroit in the use of weapons in warfare and he was by nature quite severe in righteous chastisement2 but he was a kind-hearted man1 friendly toward everyone1 and sympathetic toward all who suffered misfortunes4 ,he was also trustworthy in every respect1 honest and faithful in friendship and in all his promises1 and so virtuous that he would allow nothing vicious about his person1--indeed his like was not found among all the people of ,israel2 for when ,god chose ,david to be king1 ,he testified in these words1 saying that ,he had found a man after ,his own heart4 ,but human frailty caused him to fall in the matter that we mentioned earlier3 he violated ,uriah's wife4 ,but after he had fallen into this transgression and when he was once more alone1 he repented deeply1 sighing and weeping4 ,inasmuch as the rules of the law would condemn this crime as a shameful reproach1 if it were rumored among the people1 ,david planned to keep the matter quiet1 letting ,god see his repentance but keeping the people in ignorance of his offence1 lest they should take his misdeed as an example and regard it as less serious to fall into sin and transgression if they knew of his guilt4 ,so ,david sought to hide his guilt by a crafty design3 for as soon as he learned that ,bathsheba1 ,uriah's wife1 was pregnant1 he sent for ,uriah1 and hoping to avoid taking his life1 he ordered him to lie with his wife so that the offspring might be known as his1 while ,david would atone in secret for the sin of his whoredom and never afterward come near ,uriah's wife4 ,but when he found that ,uriah happened to be unwilling to lie with his wife1 he contrived to conceal his sin from men1 though he increased it in the sight of ,god4 ,later1 when ,nathan the prophet charged ,david with all this guilt1 he answered as if condemning himself1 speaking these words3 8,so heavy and evil is my transgression that ,i am worthy of death because of this thing2 a wretch am ,i to have set such an example before ,god's people1 over whom ,he has appointed me ruler and judge2 rather would ,i now suffer a speedy death than have this misdeed pursue me to hell4 ,now since ,i have set an evil example before the people of ,god by my sin1 ,i am ready to suffer punishment according to the ,lord's will as a warning to the people not to fall into such transgression40 ,but when ,truth and ,justice saw ,david's penitence1 they permitted ,mercy to pass the judgment2 for the prophet ,nathan replied in this wise3 8,god sees your repentance1 and ,he does not desire you to suffer death for your sin1 but ,he will punish you with an endurable chastisement for this deed before you die40 ,now you must know that ,god did not forgive ,david's crime so completely as to excuse him from just punishment2 for this was the first penalty that the king suffered from ,god3 the child which he had begotten with ,bathsheba was a man child and very lovely1 wherefore ,david much desired that it might live2 but it did not please ,god to let him enjoy the child which he had begotten in such a sinful way4 ,nevertheless1 ,david lay seven days upon the earth in the raiment of mourning1 fasting and imploring ,god to let the child live4 ,but ,god would not hear his prayer1 and the child expired on the seventh day4#cah ,and this was the second punishment1 that ,god refused to let ,david build him a temple2#cai ,god even called him a murderer1 because he had deprived ,uriah of life4 ,but for the adultery which he had committed with ,uriah's wife1 he had to suffer this disgrace1 that his son ,absalom1 in the sight of all the people1 went in unto ,david's concubines and thus dishonored his father before all the people4#cbj ,footnote #cah3 ,the story of ,david's great sin concerning ,bathsheba and ,uriah and its consequences is told in ,,ii ,samuel1 xi-xii1 but it is probable that the author's source is some ,biblical paraphrase rather than the ,vulgate itself4 ,footnote #cai3 ,i ,chronicles1 xxii1 #h4 ,footnote #cbj3 ,,ii ,samuel1 xvi1 #ba-bb4 ,you have also asked which crime was the worse1 that ,david caused ,uriah to be slain without guilt and seduced his wife1 or that ,saul refused to kill so many people of ,amalek2 and you shall know of a truth that ,saul's crime was the greater2 for no offence is graver than to be disobedient toward one's superiors1 as ,saul was4 ,and you may observe even at this day among cloister folk1 that if a monk is disobedient toward his abbot1 where an abbot rules the cloister1 or toward the prior1 where such a one controls1 he is forthwith expelled from the holy order and from the monastery and is thenceforth regarded as a layman4 ,likewise1 if a priest refuses to obey his superior the bishop1 he is at once deprived of clerical honors1 and the right to say mass is taken from him as well as all other official duties4 ,in the same way1 if a bishop1 be he humble or powerful1 refuses to obey his superior1 he is immediately shorn of his dignity and all his office2 and after that he is regarded among learned men as any other layman unworthy of any distinction4 ,and it ought to be even more evident that it could not prosper ,saul to be disobedient to such a lord as ,god ,himself1 when he was ordered to invade ,amalek and the land of the ,amorites and to slay all that was living4 ,god took ,his rod of punishment and placed it in ,saul's hands1 bidding him execute ,his wrath and spare nothing that was living2 to burn fortified cities1 farmsteads1 clothing1 and whatever else there was2 to lay the entire land in ruins and thus cleanse it with sword and ax and fire4 ,saul1 however1 carried out the vengeance that he was charged with in another way1 by destroying everything that was lacking in beauty or value2 but whatever seemed to him to be beautiful1 valuable1 and worth possessing he spared1 brought home to his country1 and distributed among his men4 ,but when ,samuel came to ,saul and showed him the wrath of ,god1 ,saul spoke as if excusing himself3 8,praise be to ,god1 for ,i have fulfilled ,his command3 ,i invaded ,amalek and visited the entire kingdom with fire and sword2 but ,king ,agag ,i have brought with me1 wishing to honor ,god's command by slaying him here1 if ,he wills that he die4 ,fat oxen and fine sheep ,i have brought hither to sacrifice such to ,god as are acceptable to ,him2 and the children of the chief men ,i have brought hither to be kept in bondage and distress1 doing fitting service for ourselves40 ,then ,samuel replied3 8,how can ,god now accept that as a sacrifice which ,he has ,himself cursed in ,his anger8 ,for ,god demands a blessed and not an accursed sacrifice2 and you shall know of a surety that obedience is more pleasing to ,god than any sacrifice40 ,truth stood by and said3 8,what need is there to conceal the motive that induced ,saul to neglect doing as ,god commanded him8 ,saul imagined himself so firmly established in his kingship that he could order these things more according to his own liking than to ,god's command2 he showed excessive pride in failing to remember who had given him the power4 ,and this is the reason why he took good horses1 oxen1 sheep1 and much else of value1 that he might satisfy the greed of his knights and the rapacity of his other warriors rather than carry out the commands of ,god4 ,and he spoke falsely when he said that he had brought horses and sheep and other things of value into his kingdom to sacrifice them to ,god2 for he knew that a cursed sacrifice was not acceptable to ,god40 ,then the decision was left to ,justice and she decreed in this wise3 8,whereas ,god took ,his rod of punishment1 and placing it in ,saul's hands bade him execute the divine wrath upon a cursed people1 let that punishment now come upon ,saul and his family which he failed to visit upon those whom ,god had commanded him to carry it out upon4 ,but the same rod of punishment that was given to ,saul to shake over others1 another shall now hold and shake over ,saul and all his kin4 ,and because he wished in his avarice to possess the riches that were forbidden him1 let him now forfeit those riches that were given to him before40#cba ,but the reason why ,justice passed such a severe judgment upon ,saul was that ,god knew his disposition thoroughly4 ,for it was in ,saul's nature to be proud and stubborn in the face of ,god2 and as soon as he thought himself firmly established in his kingdom1 he became greedy and avaricious1 as is evident from this account4 ,footnote #cba3 ,on this episode see ,i ,samuel1 xv4 ,now there was this difference between the tempers of ,david and ,saul3 when ,nathan the prophet charged ,david with sin1 he spoke reproachfully of his fault1 almost as if condemning himself1 and implored mercy1 though willing to suffer punishment1 as if prepared to accept with gratitude any terms which ,god might impose for his misdeed2 therefore he won favor through the lenient judgment of ,mercy4 ,yet1 his son died because of ,uriah's death1 though ,david himself did not die2 and for violating ,uriah's wife he suffered a great disgrace in that his son dishonored him in the sight of all the people4 ,but when ,samuel accused ,saul of his crime1 he replied as if defending his cause and praised himself for having done so well and spoke in this wise3 8,praise be to ,god1 for ,i have done what ,he commanded20 though he knew in his own mind that anything else was nearer the truth4 ,therefore he was stricken by the sentence of ,justice1 ,god seeing his arrogant boasting and lying excuses4 ,but his arrogance and envy became even more evident after he discovered that ,god was angry with him2 for ,saul fell ill2 and now and then madness came upon him1 so that he had to be watched when the malady troubled him4 ,then it was learned that if a man could be found who could play the harp well before him1 he would find relief and the illness would afflict him less4 ,so they found a lovely youth whose name was ,david1 the son of ,jesse in ,bethlehem1 who knew how to strike the harp skilfully2 he came to the king1 and whenever the malady came upon ,saul1 ,david1 standing before him1 struck the harp and the illness departed immediately4 ,but when ,saul discovered that the malady was less severe1 he loved ,david highly and made him his shield bearer4#cbb ,samuel1 however1 had already anointed him king in secret1 no one knowing it but his father and his brothers4 ,david remained with ,saul many days and served him faithfully2 and all men perceived that ,god was with him in all his doings4 ,saul1 too1 was well disposed toward him at first3 he gave him his daughter and assigned him a troop to command4#cbc ,but after ,saul had won his great victory over the ,philistines and ,david had slain the giant ,goliath and they were returning from the warfare1 women came forth from cities and fortresses1 dancing toward them and singing praises to them for their victory4 ,and the burden of their song was this1 that ,saul had conquered a thousand but ,david ten thousand4#cbd ,when ,saul heard this he was seized with wrath and envy toward ,david and said in his own thoughts3 8,now ,i perceive that ,god has chosen this man to take the kingdom after me instead of my sons2 but ,i shall try to upset this plan if ,i can1 though so cleverly that no one shall perceive that ,i kill him intentionally40 ,a few days later ,saul's habitual illness came upon him2 but ,david took his harp and1 standing before him1 played as was his wont to relieve the king's illness4 ,saul had a javelin in his hand which he threw at ,david1 aiming to drive it through him and pin him to the wall of the room4 ,thus he had planned to avoid responsibility for the murder by leading the people to think he had done it in frenzy and not with evil intent4 ,david escaped and found security from that peril4 ,but when ,saul saw that ,david had escaped and he had not caught him1 he sent him on frequent forays among heathen people in the hope that he would be slain in warfare4 ,but the more frequently ,david went out into battle1 the more frequent victories and the greater honors did he win2 and ,god magnified him before the eyes of all the people4 ,and the more ,saul saw him prosper1 the more he envied him4#cbe ,footnote #cbb3 ,i ,samuel1 xvi1 #ad-bc4 ,footnote #cbc3 ,ibid41 xviii1 #ab-ba4 ,footnote #cbd3 ,ibid41 xviii1 #f-i4 ,footnote #cbe3 ,cf4 ,i ,samuel1 xix1 #h-aa4 ,now you can imagine the state of ,king ,saul's mind3 he could say nothing against ,david1 only what was good4 ,but since he perceived that ,god loved ,david much because of his humility and loyalty1 he envied him as ,cain envied his brother ,abel because ,god loved him4 ,indeed1 ,saul's enmity toward ,david became so evident that he could not conceal his intentions to kill him4 ,then ,jonathan1 ,saul's son1 reminded the king that it would be a sin to slay an innocent man1 speaking in this wise3 8,my lord1 why are you angry with your servant ,david8 ,if there is any guilt on his part that may be injurious to your kingdom or dignity1 every man who is with you here will seek his life2 and we can seize him whenever we like1 for he is not on his guard against us1 knowing himself to be guiltless4 ,he has served you long and has been faithful in all things2 he fought against great odds when he slew ,goliath1 and ,god rescued your entire kingdom through ,david's wonderful victory1 which he won fighting unarmed against a giant4 ,he has waited upon you in your distressing illness2 and wherever you have placed him at the head of the host1 he has brought a vigorous defense to your kingdom1 and no one knows that he has been anything but loyal4 ,therefore conquer your wrath1 sire1 and do not fall into such an evident sin of murder before ,god as to slay an innocent man40#cbf ,saul1 however1 became only the more wrathful and charged with treason his son and everyone else who spoke a good word for ,david4 ,footnote #cbf3 ,cf4 ,i ,samuel1 xix1 #d-g4 ,david fled from ,king ,saul's wrath with a few men1 but provided with neither clothes nor weapons4 ,he came to the city called ,nob1 the bishop of which was ,ahimelech1 a son of ,ahitub the bishop2 but ,ahitub was the son of ,ichabod1 the son of ,phineas1 the son of ,eli the bishop4 ,when ,david came to the bishop ,ahimelech1 he pretended to be traveling on an important mission for ,king ,saul1 and asked him to give him and his men something to eat and to furnish him with weapons4 ,the bishop ,ahimelech gave him such victuals as he had1 but weapons he had none to give him except the sword that had belonged to ,goliath2 and this he gave him1 for he did not know that he was a fugitive1 but believed he was traveling on the king's errand1 as he had said4 ,but so fierce was ,saul's hatred toward ,david1 that as soon as he learned that the bishop ,ahimelech had given him food1 he seized the bishop and all his kinsmen and charged them with treason4 ,the bishop replied to the charge in this wise3 8,my lord1 ,i confess that ,i gave ,david what food ,i had and the weapon that ,i had1 for he said he was traveling on an important errand on your behalf4 ,why should ,i not give hospitality to a man like ,david1 who is the best and the most highly esteemed of all the men that you have about you except your sons1 and who is furthermore your own son-in-law and has been faithful to you in all things8 ,never have ,i had any design against you or your honor4 ,do not think1 my lord1 that ,i1 your servant1 have plotted with ,david against your will2 ,i could not know why ,david traveled in such distress1 for he told me that you had sent him with important errands2 nor did ,i know that he had fallen into any guilt against you40 ,then ,saul replied in fierce anger3 8,this ,i swear that you shall perish to-day1 you and all your kin40 ,thereupon he caused the bishop to be slain along with eighty-five other men1 all of whom were robed in the priestly dignity4 ,after that he ordered all who dwelt in the city of ,nob to be slain1 even women and children1 and had the city burned4#cbg ,footnote #cbg3 ,on the fate of ,ahimelech and the inhabitants of ,nob1 cf4 ,i ,samuel1 xxi1 #a-i2 xxii1 #i-ai4 ,now ,i have revealed to you the ferocity which ,god found in ,saul's heart when he removed him from the kingship1 and which later became evident in what you have now heard and in much else of like import1 though ,i have told this only4 ,the displeasure which the king incurred from ,god fell so heavily upon him1 for the reason that ,god saw in his heart the fierce avarice which later began to appear4 ,now he wanted to kill ,david1 though innocent1 because he found that ,god loved him2 and he slew the bishop1 though guiltless1 and so fierce was he that he slew everything in the city that had life and afterward burned the city4 ,but where ,god had commanded him to use severity of this sort1 there he had spared2 here1 however1 he slew ,god's servants in defiance of ,god's command4 ,but in ,david's case ,god passed a more lenient judgment for the reason that1 just as he perceived the ferocity in ,saul's heart1 he found true repentance and clemency in ,david's heart1 as ,i shall now show you4 ,there was a son of the bishop ,ahimelech1 ,abiathar by name1 who was hid in a cave when all those were slain of whom ,i have just spoken4 ,abiathar fled to ,david and told him all these happenings4 ,but when ,david heard these tidings1 he sighed and spoke thus in deep sorrow3 8,may ,god in ,his mercy forgive me for this slaughter1 for ,i have too great a share in it1 having eaten your father's bread4 ,and now since you have come hither1 abide with me2 and if ,god permits me to live1 ,he will also protect you with me1 and let whatever ,god wishes happen to us both40 ,thereupon ,david elevated him to the bishop's office which his father had held4 ,but when ,david's kinsmen learned that he was abiding in the forest1 they joined him with a large force counting not fewer than four hundred men2 and from that time on ,david grew in strength as ,god willed4#cbh ,he camped among the hills with this force and made repeated attacks on ,saul's enemies1 but never on the king himself or his men4 ,but whenever ,saul learned where ,david lay concealed1 he marched out to seek him1 intending to slay him4 ,footnote #cbh3 ,i ,samuel1 xxii1 #a-b1 #bj-bc4 ,then it happened once1 when ,david and his men were hiding in a large cave1 that ,saul entered this alone on a necessary errand4 ,then said ,david's companions3 8,now ,god has fulfilled what ,he has promised you and has delivered your enemy into your hands2 be sure to secure this quarry40 ,david stole up and cut a piece off ,saul's mantle1 though the king was not aware of it1 and returned to his comrades4 ,then ,david's companions said to him3 8,if you are unwilling to lay your own hand upon him1 let us kill him40 ,david replied3 8,my crime would be as great before ,god1 whether ,i do it myself or bid others do it4 ,god keep me and all our companions from such a sin as to lay hands upon the ,lord's anointed4 ,he is my master and ,i served him long2 he is also the ,lord's anointed and it would be a great crime1 if ,i were to lay hands upon him1 for ,i have no revenge to take either for father or brother or any other kinsman2 nor is it as if he had taken the throne which he sits upon from my kinsmen with violence or deceit2 but ,god chose him to it and sanctified him to ,his service1 honoring him with ,his own name4 ,wherefore it is right that ,he ,who appointed him to the kingship should deprive him of it according to ,his will1 but not ,i in vengeful audacity4 ,and ,i swear this day that ,god alone shall call him1 whether by demanding his soul or by causing him to fall in battle before his enemies2 but as for my hands1 they shall let him live many days4 ,but ,i regret deeply that ,i injured his garment if he shall feel hurt or dishonored because of it40 ,when ,saul had departed and returned to his host1 ,david ran up on a hill and cried3 8,my lord1 ,king ,saul6 can you hear80 ,but when ,saul turned to hear what this man said1 ,david bent both knees to the earth and bowing before the king said to him3 8,those men do ill who tell you1 my lord1 that ,i mean to be your enemy2 for now ,i have evidence here in my hand that your life was in my power to-day1 when you left all your host and entered the cave alone2 and it was no less in my power to injure your life than your clothes1 for here ,i have in my hand a large piece of the skirt of your mantle4 ,now let ,god judge between us4 ,you see how they have told lying tales1 who say that ,i have striven after your life40 ,saul appreciated these facts fully1 for ,david spoke the truth2 and he promised that he would nevermore hate ,david4#cbi ,but not many days passed before ,saul went out again to seek ,david1 as he did constantly after that4 ,now it came to pass another time1 when ,saul had made a wearisome journey in search of ,david1 that sleep came upon the king and all his host4 ,and ,david went into the camp where ,saul lay1 but none was aware of it4 ,the man who accompanied him was named ,abishai and he said to ,david3 8,now you can see that ,god surely intends to deliver your enemy into your hands1 and it is not advisable to refuse what ,god ,himself offers you4 ,i will thrust my spear through him1 if you will permit me1 and then we shall return to our men40 ,david answered3 8,god has done this to tempt me and to see whether ,i would lay my hands on ,his anointed4 ,now ,i must answer as before1 that ,god shall tear the kingship from him1 either by demanding his soul or by causing him to fall before his enemies2 but as for my hands1 they shall let him live many days2 for ,i have no revenge to cherish against him1 either for plunder or for the loss of kinsmen1 except such as was incurred while he was cleansing the land with righteous punishment2 and it is neither my proper business nor that of anyone else to take revenge for such2 for it is a more serious matter than even a wise man can conceive to lay hands on the ,lord's anointed1 who is dedicated and hallowed to ,god4 ,let us take his saddle-cup and his spear for a proof1 and then let us return to our forces40#ccj ,footnote #cbi3 ,the story of ,david and ,saul at ,en-gedi is told in ,i ,samuel1 xxiv4 ,footnote #ccj3 ,cf4 ,i ,samuel1 xxvi4 ,now you will understand the character of both ,king ,saul and ,david from what ,i have just told you4 ,david knew that he was chosen of ,god to govern1 that he was the ,lord's anointed1 consecrated and hallowed to ,god no less than ,saul was4 ,he also knew that ,god had rejected ,saul4 ,and ,god delivered ,saul into ,david's hands1 so that he could have taken ,saul's life at any time1 if he had wished4 ,david showed great faithfulness and humility in this1 that every time he saw ,saul1 he bowed before him and saluted him as any other unhallowed layman would1 who had not been set apart for chieftainship4 ,although ,saul lay in wait for his life1 ,david continued to serve him1 and worried the king's enemies as much as he could4 ,on the other hand1 ,saul had nothing against ,david except that he knew ,god had chosen him to be king2 and he showed great wickedness and fierce hatred in striving to slay an innocent man1 one who served him faithfully4 ,he likewise displayed an inordinate vanity in wishing to make away with a man whom ,god ,himself had chosen to rule after him4 ,for these reasons ,god passed a severe judgment in ,saul's case2 for ,he saw in ,saul's heart what men could not perceive1 though subsequently ,god made this fact evident to the sight of men4 ,but in ,david's case ,god was more lenient1 for the reason that ,he found him always humble and faithful in everything1 as ,he made clear to men later on4 ,there is further evidence of this in the fact1 that as soon as ,david learned that ,saul and his son ,jonathan had fallen1 he and all his host lamented in great sorrow1 and ,david spoke these words3 8,be ye cursed1 ye mountains of ,gilboa6 ,may ,god nevermore send rain or dew or growing grass upon you1 for you led ,king ,saul and his son ,jonathan along treacherous paths in their flight across your summits and refused to show them serviceable highways1 whereby they could save their lives from the hands of the foeman2 nor did you provide them with sheltering ramparts upon your heights4 ,it is a bitter sorrow for all the people of ,israel1 that splendid chieftains like ,saul and ,jonathan should pass away from council and government4 ,great strength and power have perished this day1 when such excellent princes are fallen as ,saul and ,jonathan were1 and the many good knights with many good weapons and much good armor who have perished with them4 ,let the lesser men beware of ,god's wrath1 since ,he has allowed the heathen to lay hands on ,his anointed4 ,let the multitude bewail a loss like this1 that such excellent rulers should fall before the heathen40#cca ,such words and many more like them ,david spoke that day1 and thus he lamented their death rather than rejoiced in the fact that the realm had fallen to him and into his keeping4 ,from this you will observe how upright he was1 how honest and free from faults4 ,but whenever human nature caused him to fall into sin1 he forthwith showed keen repentance1 imploring ,god's mercy and compassion2 and ,god gave heed at once to his honest regret4 ,footnote #cca3 ,cf4 ,david's lament in ,,ii ,samuel1 i3 #ag-bg4 ,the author has made but slight use of ,david's own language4 ,earlier in our conversation we have told how ,absalom1 ,king ,david's son1 raised the whole land in revolt against his father4 ,but when ,david's captains happened to meet ,absalom in battle and ,david learned of his death1 he cried out in these words3 8,what shall it profit me to live1 an aged man who grows weaker day by day1 now that you1 my son ,absalom1 are dead in the flowertime of youth8 ,would to ,god that ,i could die now and that you my son might live60#ccb ,david was never so bitter against other men but that he would rather suffer death himself than see another's death1 except where he saw that punishment was inflicted on the demand of justice4 ,this was shown again at one time when ,david's entire kingdom incurred the wrath of ,god1 and a pestilence came upon the realm1 so violent that people perished by thousands4 ,when the plague approached the city of ,jerusalem1 ,david beheld the angel1 who was smiting the people1 standing between heaven and earth with a blazing sword4 ,and when he saw the angel with the sword lifted as if ready to strike1 he placed his neck under the edge and said3 8,i beg thee1 ,o ,lord1 that this sword be rather turned against my neck than that more of ,god's people shall now be slain1 and that my ,lord's wrath may fall upon me1 who am guilty and worthy of punishment1 and upon my family rather than that ,god's people shall be rooted out on my account40 ,as soon as ,god saw ,david's regret and heard his very acceptable prayer1 ,he commanded the angel to desist from slaying the people1 and forthwith the plague ceased everywhere in the kingdom4#ccc ,footnote #ccb3 ,cf4 ,,ii ,samuel1 xviii1 #cc4 ,footnote #ccc3 ,cf4 ,,ii ,samuel1 xxiv4 ,from these and many other similar instances you will now observe how full of grace and goodness ,david was toward all men4 ,and just as ,god saw kindliness1 mercy1 and humility in his heart1 ,he saw avarice1 ferocity1 and unmeasured pride in ,saul's heart2 consequently every fault was graver before ,god in ,saul's case than in ,david's2 for the men were unlike4 ,david was the meekest and the most merciful of men1 and whenever he fell into any fault he implored ,god to spare him2 but ,saul grew fiercer and more envious the more sins he fell into and the nearer he saw ,god's wrath approaching4 ,now if you think that these answers have led you to a clearer understanding of the matters that you have asked about1 ,i believe it will not be necessary to discuss these subjects any further4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lxiv ,,illustrations ,,from ,,the ,,judgments ,,of ,,solomon ,son4 ,i see clearly now from what you told in your last speech that the judgments were lenient in ,david's case1 because he regretted the sins into which he fell1 but more severe in ,saul's case1 because he was less disposed to do penance for his misdeeds4 ,now there are certain other matters which ,i am much interested in and which ,i shall ask about with your permission1 namely those events that occurred after ,david's death4 ,once when two women came before ,king ,solomon1 quarreling about a child1 the king ordered the child to be hewn in pieces and half given to each of them3#ccd now ,i wish to ask whether1 if neither of the women had spoken up1 the king would have hewn the child asunder or not4 ,footnote #ccd3 ,see ,i ,kings1 iii1 #af-bh4 ,father4 ,the king ordered the child to be divided because he knew of a surety that the one who was the mother would not be willing to have the child divided4 ,son4 ,i asked whether the king would have divided the child if the mother had kept silence4 ,father4 ,if the mother had been so void of mercy that she would not ask him to spare the child1 the king would have divided it between them4 ,son4 ,would it not look to you like plain murder1 if he had slain an innocent child1 seeing that it was not for punishment8 ,father4 ,it would indeed have been murder if he had killed the child2 still1 the guilt would not have been with the king but with the mother1 if she had failed to beg mercy for her child1 when she heard the king render a fair judgment in their case1 which she realized would mean the child's death2 therefore the guilt would be hers if she withheld the motherly pity which could save the child4 ,son4 ,what do you think about the death of ,joab and ,adonijah1 whom ,king ,solomon slew8 ,was that a righteous judgment or not8 ,and why did ,king ,solomon cause ,shimei to be slain for cursing his father ,david1 seeing that ,david had already forgiven ,shimei this offence8 ,father4 ,if ,king ,solomon had done this except as lawful punishment1 ,god would have visited him with a worthy penalty as for murder4 ,but after he had done all this1 ,god revealed ,himself to him in a dream and bade him choose whatever gift he might wish4 ,but ,solomon asked ,god to give him wisdom and insight into righteous judgments4 ,then ,god answered him in this wise3 8,if this choice were given to the multitude1 there would be many who would choose riches and power1 or a long life1 or peace1 or success in warfare4 ,but because thou hast chosen this thing1 thou shalt receive what thou hast chosen and likewise all the other gifts that ,i have enumerated40 ,from this you will observe how well ,god is pleased with righteousness in judgments2 for ,god gave ,solomon all the supreme gifts1 because he chose equity as his part4 ,and you will understand that1 if he had slain those others unjustly1 ,god would not have given him such excellent gifts as ,he did give him4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lxv ,,solomon',s ,,decision ,,in ,,the ,,case ,,of ,,shimei ,son4 ,what you have just said does indeed seem reasonable4 ,if ,solomon had been led to execute these men through selfishness and injustice1 he would not have received such excellent gifts from ,god1 as were given to him after that deed was done4 ,still1 if ,i may1 ,i should like to ask you to point out how righteous dooms are worked out1 in order that ,i may understand more clearly1 and others too who may hear it1 how ,solomon could execute ,shimei by righteous decree1 when his father ,david had already forgiven him the offence4#cce ,footnote #cce3 ,the story of ,shimei is told in ,,ii ,samuel1 xvi1 #e-h2 xix1 #af-bc2 ,i ,kings1 ii1 #h-i1 #cf-df4 ,father4 ,solomon did this out of regard for justice rather than from cruelty1 and for the following reasons4 ,when ,shimei cursed ,david1 he did it out of impudence and malice1 and for no just cause2 but when he begged ,david for mercy1 he asked it more because of fear than of repentance1 for he was afraid that ,david would take his life as the sacred law demanded4 ,but when he implored mercy ,david replied in these words3 8,i shall not slay you this time1 since you implore my grace2 but keep in mind that you will be punished for this deed1 unless you atone in true repentance40 ,in these words ,david pointed out to ,shimei that he ought to atone with loving friendship for the words that he had spoken in sheer hatred4 ,shimei1 however1 lived the rest of his days in such a manner that1 while no one found him to cherish enmity toward ,david1 it never appeared that he made returns in friendship for ,david's mercy in permitting him to live when the law demanded his death4 ,but when he came before ,solomon after ,david's death1 the king said to him3 8,remember1 ,shimei1 that you cursed the ,lord's anointed2 and it has not appeared that you have truly regretted it since4 ,but this shall be a covenant between us as a reminder to repentance on your part1 that you shall not enjoy such complete freedom as one who has never fallen into this sin4 ,now you have large and beautiful dwellings and many houses here in ,jerusalem and you may live in peace within the city1 enjoying all your possessions according to your desire2 but if you ever go outside the city1 the punishment of the law shall come upon your head1 since you did not take thought to repent before ,i reminded you40 ,when the king had ceased speaking1 ,shimei expressed himself as thankful for this agreement and said that he should find but little inconvenience in being forbidden to leave the city1 if he might remain secure in the king's friendship within the city and enjoy all his possessions4 ,three years later1 however1 ,shimei forgot this agreement and went outside the city to seek diversion1#ccf as if proud of his audacity in violating the covenant4 ,but as soon as these tidings were told to the king1 he ordered ,shimei to be seized and brought before him1 and he said to him3 8,you have forgotten to be ashamed of having broken the agreement which we two made as a reminder that you owe repentance for having cursed the ,lord's anointed4 ,there is1 therefore1 a double guilt upon your head now2 and it will be better for you to suffer a brief punishment here1 so that others may be warned by your misfortune1 than that this crime should follow you into eternal death1 and others become bolder in such evil1 if you die unpunished40 ,then the king ordered him to be killed and buried outside the city as a reminder and warning to others never to break a covenant4 ,footnote #ccf3 ,according to the ,scriptural story ,shimei left ,jerusalem to bring back two runaway servants4 ,i ,kings1 ii1 #ci-dj4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lxvi ,,solomon',s ,,judgment ,,in ,,the ,,case ,,of ,,adonijah ,,and ,,his ,,followers ,son4 ,now ,i wish to ask you why ,solomon caused his brother ,adonijah to be put to death for requesting ,abishag to be his wife4 ,father4 ,adonijah had earlier1 as you may have heard1 led an uprising against his father4 ,when ,david had become an aged man and was very decrepit because of his many years1 ,adonijah appointed himself to be king without his father's knowledge1 and made a festive banquet as newly consecrated king4 ,he sent heralds running through the streets with pipes and drums to proclaim throughout the city that ,adonijah was now the king4 ,the chief men who were with him in this plot were ,joab1 ,david's chief captain and his kinsman1 and ,abiathar the bishop1 and many other lords4 ,but when ,zadoc the bishop1 ,nathan the prophet1 ,benaiah the captain1 and ,bathsheba the queen came as if in deep sorrow to tell ,david what great undertakings were hidden from him1 he remained silent for some time but sighed heavily4 ,at last he spoke as from a heart full of grief and said3 8,my sons are not minded like me1 for ,i served ,king ,saul many days1 though he sought after my life4 ,and yet ,god had chosen me to be king1 for ,he was angry with ,king ,saul2 but ,i awaited the judgment of ,god by which he would be deprived of his kingdom2 but ,i would not condemn him1 though he was mine adversary4 ,now my son has done that to me which ,i would not do to mine enemy4 ,but because ,adonijah has taken the kingship to which ,god ,himself appointed me1 even before ,i had renounced it or ,he ,who had chosen me had removed me1 he shall fall in disgrace from this dignity1 as that one fell who in arrogant pride raised the first rebellion against his ,lord40 ,then ,david said to ,zadoc the bishop3 8,take my mule and harness him with all the accoutrements with which he was arrayed when ,i rode him in all my glory and set my son ,solomon upon him2 and taking ,nathan the prophet with you and ,benaiah the captain and all my most loyal chiefs and knights1 ride to the tabernacle of the ,lord in ,zion#ccg and there anoint my son ,solomon king4 ,then take my own trumpet and let it be sounded throughout the city with a festive sound to proclaim that ,solomon is king by the will of ,god and ,david's choice4 ,after that you shall bring my son ,solomon to me that ,i may welcome the newly appointed king to my throne40 ,when ,david had ceased speaking1 ,zadoc the bishop did all those things that the king had commanded4 ,and when ,solomon returned arrayed in all the tokens of royalty1 ,david rose to receive him1 bowed before him1 and blessed him in these words3 8,praise be to ,thee1 ,o ,god1 that ,thou wert pleased to exalt me from my low estate to such high honors as ,i now enjoy1 and hast helped me in many perils1 and now after much trouble and long toil hast brought me the consolation that mine eyes should behold the one sprung from my loins whom ,thou hast ,thyself chosen to sit in the seat of honor to which ,thou didst formerly appoint me1 according to ,thy promises1 ,o ,lord4 ,now ,i pray ,thee1 ,o ,lord1 give this young man ,david's glory and understanding in double and threefold measure1 make him a perfect ruler to govern ,thy holy people according to ,thy will40 ,then ,david kissed ,solomon and said to him3 8,the ,god ,who rules the heavens multiply peace to you above all the kings upon earth and give you blessings and the fruits of earth and perfect happiness40#cch ,when he had ended this speech and benediction1 ,david said to ,solomon3 8,because ,i find that ,god has given you wisdom and understanding1 ,i charge you to govern wisely and justly1 though somewhat severely1 lest the kingdom should seem to be lacking in government because of your faint-heartedness4 ,but temper the severity of punishment1 lest you be thought too stern and merciless4 ,remember your kinsman ,joab1 however1 who has served me long and with much labor2 but it is not fitting that the sinful deeds which he has committed should follow him to hell3 for he slew two excellent captains who were in my peace1 ,abner and ,amasa1 who had served ,king ,saul with great fidelity4 ,and there are many others whom he slew in his overweening pride1 but not in lawful chastisement4 ,and it is better to let him suffer a brief punishment here than that he should be lost eternally because of these crimes4 ,keep also my promise to ,shimei1 though he cursed me when ,i fled from the violence of your brother ,absalom2 but keep it in such a way that he will be reminded to do penance for his misdeeds1 lest the curse be forever upon his head which he incurred when he cursed me an innocent man4 ,let kinship temper your wrath against your brother ,adonijah1 if you see that he regrets his treasonable uprising against his father4 ,remember that the bishop ,abiathar lost his father and all his kinsmen1 because he gave me food1 when ,i came to ,nob a fugitive from the face of ,king ,saul4 ,abiathar deserves well for this1 too1 that he followed me and bore the ark of ,god before me1 when ,i fled from the face of your brother ,absalom4 ,but do not forget to give him a reminder to repentance for joining your brother ,adonijah in treasonable designs against me1 lest this offence should follow him to his death4 ,be manly1 strong1 and severe1 but with moderation4 ,do the will of ,god in all things1 and both temporal and eternal joys shall be added to you40#cci ,footnote #ccg3 ,error for ,gihon4 ,footnote #cch3 ,on the subject of ,adonijah's rebellion and ,solomon's triumphant accession see ,i ,kings1 i4 ,the author has used little more than the outline of the story as given in the ,bible4 ,footnote #cci3 ,cf4 ,i ,kings1 ii1 #a-aa4 ,in the ,biblical story ,david's charge to ,solomon comes after the day of ,solomon's accession1 and not1 as the author has it1 during the day4 ,then said ,david to ,zadoc the bishop and ,nathan the prophet3 8,go now and prepare a banquet and lead ,king ,solomon into my hall and let him sit in my high-seat amid festive joys40 ,and they did everything as ,david bade them4 ,but when ,adonijah's feast was ended1 the guests heard singing and piping and all forms of merriment1 as if a new joy had come into the city4 ,when ,adonijah asked what the merry-making signified1 whether the rejoicing was in his honor or new tidings had come1 it was told him that ,david had himself given ,solomon his title and all the royal honors and had chosen him to be king2 and that ,solomon was already hallowed as king and sitting upon ,david's throne in festive raiment2 and that all the people rejoiced in the news as on a merry holiday4 ,when ,adonijah heard this report1 great terror came upon him and all those who were with him in this conspiracy1 and they fled every man to his house4 ,but ,adonijah fled to the tabernacle of the ,lord and laid his hand upon the sacred altar1 as if taking vows of chastity and service in ,god's holy tabernacle4 ,thereupon he sent a man to the king1 saying3 8,here shall ,i die1 unless my lord ,king ,solomon will promise and assure me that he will not slay me1 his servant1 for the evil that ,i have done40 ,then ,king ,solomon replied3 8,adonijah is my brother by kinship2 therefore ,i will gladly spare him1 if he will show true repentance for stirring up treason and rebellion against his father ,david2 and ,i will bear this burden with him before ,god on the condition that he must always continue loyal1 humble1 and free from deceit4 ,but if any treasonable ambitions be found in him1 he may expect a swift revenge to come upon his head4 ,let him now go home to his possessions and enjoy them as long as he keeps what is now decreed40#cdj ,footnote #cdj3 ,cf4 ,i ,kings1 i1 #da-ec4 ,when the hour of ,david's death was approaching1 ,solomon frequently visited his father2 and when the king had departed this life1 he mourned for him many days1 he and all the lords in the kingdom2 and he buried him with every form of royal pomp and at a vast outlay4 ,but after ,david's death1 ,adonijah begged ,bathsheba the queen to ask ,king ,solomon to give him ,abishag to wife4 ,the facts respecting ,abishag were these3 when ,king ,david grew old1 chills entered into his flesh1 so that clothes were not sufficient to keep him warm2 ,abishag was a young virgin1 the fairest maid in the kingdom and of the best and noblest family2 she was brought to ,king ,david's bed to lie close to him and warm him and cherish him1 in the hope that the king might draw warmth from her soft and blossoming form and from his desire for the fair virgin4 ,david loved her highly with a perfect affection1 but as a foster-mother1 not as a wife4 ,and for this reason ,abishag won such great honor that she came to be regarded as the first queen and she ranked above all the other queens in the eyes of the people2 and thus her dignity was sanctified by ,david's embraces4 ,but ,adonijah had a purpose in seeking this marriage after ,david's decease1 for he hoped in this way to obtain the kingship by deceitful intrigue2 inasmuch as all the people would say1 if he married ,abishag1 that he was most worthy to sit on ,david's throne who was most worthy to mount his bed and lie in the arms which ,david had hallowed with his very self4 ,he also presumed1 as seemed reasonable1 that the brothers and all the kinsmen of ,abishag would rather have him as king1 if she were his1 than a man who was not bound to them in this way4 ,queen ,bathsheba undertook ,adonijah's errand and afterwards went to seek an interview with her son ,king ,solomon4 ,as soon as she had entered the royal hall1 the king rose to meet his mother and led her to a seat at his side4 ,then the queen revealed her errand1 speaking thus3 8,i have a little favor to ask of you1 but ,i will not reveal the request before you promise to grant it40 ,the king replied3 8,you are my mother1 and ,i cannot refuse what you wish to ask2 and ,i surely intend that you shall have what you have come to ask for4 ,but it surely behooves you to keep in mind that you should ask only for what ,i may freely grant40 ,then said ,bathsheba the queen to the king3 8,i have come to ask you to give your brother ,adonijah ,abishag to wife40 ,then ,king ,solomon replied in great wrath3 8,what is at the bottom of this request that ,abishag be given to ,adonijah8 ,if you prefer that he should have the kingship rather than ,i1 then ask the kingdom for him2 for you know that my brother ,adonijah is older than ,i and once assumed the royal title1 being chosen by the chief lords before my father had appointed me to be ruler in obedience to the will of ,god4 ,joab the most powerful of the lords and captains and ,abiathar the bishop have evidently continued plotting with him even to this day4 ,abishag is of the noblest kinship in the city and the whole realm2 furthermore1 she is honored by all as the first queen because of the care that she gave my father in his old age4 ,if she is given to ,adonijah to be his wife1 the people will regard him as most worthy to sit in ,david's seat1 since he is thought worthy to lie in the bed and in the arms in which ,david himself lay4 ,now when ,adonijah had committed treason against his father1 ,i offered to share the responsibility for his sin before ,god because of our kinship4 ,but now he has repeated and trebled the treason against me1 his brother1 which he first committed against his father4 ,therefore ,i swear by the ,god ,who has placed me on ,david's throne that ,adonijah shall suffer for his guilt1 as shall every one of the others who are with him in this traitorous project40 ,then ,king ,solomon said to ,benaiah the captain3 8,go and slay my brother ,adonijah1 for ,i would rather have him suffer a swift penalty here1 such as the rules of the holy law provide for treason against one's lord1 than to have him carry a traitor's guilt to hell4 ,slay also ,joab my kinsman1 for twice he committed vile offences against ,king ,david1 when he slew ,abner and ,amasa1 two renowned captains1 though they were in ,david's peace and protection4 ,but his third and greatest crime is this1 that he was traitor to ,david when he gave ,adonijah the royal title2 surely he will be lost forever in the world to come1 unless he shall do penance in this world by suffering a lawful punishment40#cda ,footnote #cda3 ,cf4 ,i ,kings1 ii1 #ac ff4 ,in this case ,king ,solomon gives clear proof that it is quite permissible to break vows and promises1 if what has been asked or granted is contrary to what is right4 ,he granted what his mother ,bathsheba the queen had come to request before he knew what it was2 but as soon as he was aware that the prayer was a perilous one1 he slew the man who had originally made the request4 ,benaiah did as ,king ,solomon commanded and slew ,adonijah4 ,but just as ,joab the captain and ,abiathar the bishop had shared in the plans to give ,adonijah the royal title1 they also had a share in his plan to ask for ,abishag to wife2 and when they heard of ,adonijah's death1 they foresaw their own destruction4 ,benaiah seized ,abiathar the bishop and led him before ,king ,solomon2 but ,joab fled to ,god's tabernacle and laid his hand upon the sacred horn of the altar1 as if taking vows of chastity and service in ,god's holy tabernacle4 ,benaiah came to ,god's sanctuary and said3 8,come forth1 ,joab1 the king commands you to come forth out of ,god's tabernacle40 ,but ,joab replied3 8,i have come hither into ,god's protection1 and ,i will suffer death here1 if ,i cannot remain in security40 ,then ,benaiah reported his answer to the king through his messenger2 and when the messenger came before the king bringing the bishop ,abiathar and related all these things1 ,king ,solomon said to him3 8,give my command to ,benaiah to slay ,joab wherever he be found1 for his deeds and the decrees of the sacred law slay him and not we40 ,benaiah did as ,king ,solomon commanded and slew ,joab where he then stood4#cdb ,footnote #cdb3 ,cf4 ,i ,kings1 ii1 #bh-cd4 ,but the king spoke in this wise to the bishop ,abiathar3 8,you know that you have deserved death according to the rules of the holy law2 but whereas you lost your father and all your kinsmen in ,nob in a single day1 because your father had given my father ,david food1 and whereas you also bore the ark of ,god before my father when he fled before the face of my brother ,absalom1 therefore it is right that for once you should profit from this and not suffer a sudden death4 ,and for this once you shall purchase your life on the following terms1 which you must keep as a constant reminder that you owe penance for the treason which you committed against ,david3 go now to your own fields and abide there as a husbandman and enjoy all your possessions1 on the condition1 however1 that you remain a tiller of the soil4 ,but if you ever stretch forth your hand to perform any priestly service or office1 the righteous penalty of the sacred law shall surely come upon your head40#cdc ,abiathar went home and did as the king commanded and lived many days2 but ,shimei died three years later1 because he failed to keep what had been commanded1 as we have already told4 ,footnote #cdc3 ,cf4 ,i ,kings1 ii1 #bf-bg4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lxvii ,,why ,,solomon ,,broke ,,his ,,promise ,,of ,,peace ,,and ,,security ,,to ,,joab ,son4 ,there are still a few points which1 it seems to me1 ,i have not examined sufficiently4 ,how did it occur to ,solomon to break peace with ,joab1 seeing that he had fled into ,god's protection and into the house1 the only one in all the world1 that was dedicated to ,god8 ,churches have now been built in almost every part of the world1 and it is considered an evil deed to slay a man who has sought sanctuary4 ,but ,i have thought that the honor of ,god's holy house would be the more zealously guarded the fewer such houses were4 ,another matter which ,i wish to ask about is this3 how did it occur to ,solomon to promise what his mother might request and then to break his promise8 ,i should have thought that a wise man like ,solomon would have ascertained what the request was likely to be before he gave his promise1 and thus avoid recalling his promise1 if the request were not to his liking4 ,father4 ,i stated in an earlier speech that he who makes a request should be discreet and ask such things only as are proper and may be freely granted2 and all those favors that are wisely asked and granted in like manner ought to remain valid and undisturbed4 ,but ,solomon set a good and profitable example in this case1 when he wisely withdrew the gift that his mother had indiscreetly requested1 though he had already granted it4 ,the following example which is evil and belongs to a much later date was set by ,herod3 once when he was feasting in ,galilee he promised to give his step-daughter whatever she might ask2 and on her mother's advice she demanded the head of ,john the ,baptist4#cdd ,herod knew that ,john was an innocent and holy man and deeply regretted that he had made this promise4 ,but his repentance bore no fruit1 inasmuch as he was not careful to withdraw the gift wisely which she had requested foolishly2 nay more1 he did the evil deed that she had suggested4 ,consequently all were destroyed1 the women because of their request and ,herod because of his gift4 ,king ,solomon1 however1 thought it better to face his mother's wrathful temper for refusing wisely what he had promised hastily1 than to suffer the injury that follows the great crime of allowing foolish and sinful petitions4 ,on the other hand1 you should understand clearly that it is never proper for a man to be fickle in promises1 and the greater the man1 the less fitting it is4 ,but no man is allowed to grant anything that may give rise to crime and sin1 even though he has already promised to do so4 ,footnote #cdd3 ,cf4 ,matthew xiv1 #a-ab2 ,mark1 vi1 #af-bi4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lxviii ,a ,,discussion ,,of ,,promises3 ,,when ,,they ,,must ,,be ,,kept ,,and ,,when ,,they ,,should ,,be ,,withdrawn ,son4 ,now ,i wish to ask you to tell me somewhat more clearly how far one should keep what he has pledged and how far he may refuse to carry out what he has promised4 ,father4 ,when a lord is asked to grant a favor and the meaning of the request is made clear to him1 he ought to ponder carefully what it is that he is asked to do and whether it will bring him injury or honor4 ,if he sees that he can grant it without damage to himself1 he ought next to consider the person to whom he is to give what has been asked1 and how much may be given in each case1 lest he should have an experience like that of ,herod1 which has already been related4 ,for ,herod did not consider fully the merits of the one who made the request1 or the occasion1 or how much he ought to give4 ,there was this difficulty1 too1 in ,herod's case1 that he was drunk when he made the promise2 he had made a great banquet for all his lords1 and he failed to consider the occasion2 for it was not proper for him to make gifts while drunk1 since one who is drunk will rarely be moderate in making gifts4 ,he also failed to observe moderation in this1 that he gave such an unusual gift to his step-daughter1 a woman who was not of his kin1 for he spoke in these terms3 8,whatsoever you ask ,i will give you1 though you ask half of my kingdom40 ,you will observe from this that he was half-mad from drink when he spoke1 for his step-daughter had honored him merely by beating the drum before him1 and her music was entitled to a much smaller reward than the one promised4 ,nor was it fitting for him to leave the form of the request as well as of the gift to the tongues of others1 as he did when he spoke as follows3 8,whatsoever you ask you shall have1 though you ask half of my kingdom40 ,but if he had spoken in this wise3 8,whatever you ask with discretion and in moderation you shall receive1 if ,i can give it10 then he would have spoken wisely and well1 and it would have remained with him whether to grant or to refuse4 ,it now remains to point out what sort of gifts a ruler may properly give1 when he is asked to do so4 ,any request may be granted which will bring honor and help to him who asks and will bring no damage to the lord who gives or to any one else4 ,thus if a lord is asked to give assistance or money1 he may well give it1 unless his honor should be discredited by the gift2 and he may properly give both the labor and the money so long as he gives them to such as are worthy of great honors4 ,but when one is asked to grant a request that would debase or dishonor him1 he must refuse it2 and even though he should make a promise thoughtlessly1 it is to be wisely withdrawn4 ,and if a man bestows a generous gift on one who shows little appreciation of it and is in no wise worthy to have a long and continued possession of an important gift1 inasmuch as he does not show proper appreciation1 this gift1 too1 should be withdrawn2 for in this case the man's own thoughtlessness and lack of discernment take the gift from him and not the fickleness of him who gave4 ,and if one who desired a gift has obtained it through falsehood and deceitful pretence1 that gift is also to be withdrawn1 even though it has been granted2 and in this case the man's own fraud and deceit take the gift from him and not the fickleness of him who promised and gave it4 ,but a prince who means to be cautious in making gifts must consider carefully what is requested1 and what sort of man has made the request4 ,and since all do not deserve equally great gifts1 one must consider how great a gift each one deserves and on what occasion a gift may be given4 ,then it shall be said but very seldom that he who gave has withdrawn his gift or that he has been found to be fickle-minded4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lxix ,,concerning ,,the ,,kingship ,,and ,,the ,,church ,,and ,,the ,,king',s ,,responsibility ,,to ,,god ,son4 ,now ,i wish to ask what good reasons there are which would justify ,king ,solomon's act in causing ,joab to be slain in ,god's holy tabernacle while he was clinging to ,god's sacred altar4 ,why did he not order him to be brought away first and slain afterwards8 ,father4 ,the matter about which you have now inquired cannot be made clear without a lengthy explanation1 which will seem more like a comment than a proper continuation of the conversation in which we are now engaged4 ,when ,solomon concluded that it was better to slay ,joab where he then was than to bring him away1 he was not without good grounds for his decision2 for he did not wish to fall into such a sin as ,king ,saul fell into when he brought sacrifices to ,god's holy altar4 ,now ,solomon did not wish to make this a pretext that he intended to bring gifts or sacrifices to ,god's holy altar1 as if he were carrying out episcopal functions2 nor did he wish to take away by force or violence anything that had come so near ,god's holy altar as ,joab then was1 inasmuch as he was clinging to the sacred altar4 ,but ,solomon pondered the whole matter in his own mind3 8,it is my duty to carry out the provisions of the sacred law1 no matter where the man happens to be whose case is to be determined2 but it is not my duty to remove a man by force or violence who has fled to the holy place2 for all just decisions are in truth ,god's decisions and not mine4 ,and ,i know of a surety that ,god's holy altar will not be defiled or desecrated by ,joab's blood1 for it will be shed in righteous punishment and as a penance for him1 but not in hatred as in the case of an unjust verdict40 ,in this decision ,king ,solomon illustrated the division of duties that ,god made between ,moses and ,aaron2 and he did not wish to disturb this arrangement1 lest he should fall into disfavor with ,god4 ,for ,god had marked out their duties in such a way that ,moses was to watch over the rules of the holy law1 while ,aaron was to care for the sacrifices that might come to the sacred altar4#cde ,and you shall know of a truth that this arrangement ought by right to stand even at this day2 and you may be able to see this more clearly1 if ,i add a few words in explanation4 ,for the reason is this1 that ,god has established two houses upon earth1 each chosen for a definite service4 ,the one is the church2 in fact we may give this name to both1 if we like1 for the word church means the same as judgment hall1 because there the people meet and assemble4 ,these two houses are the halls of ,god1 and ,he has appointed two men to keep watch over them4 ,in one of these halls ,he has placed ,his table1 and this is called the house of bread2 for there ,god's people gather to receive spiritual food4 ,but in the other hall ,he has placed ,his holy judgment seat2 and there the people assemble to hear the interpretation of ,god's holy verdicts4 ,and ,god has appointed two keepers to guard these houses3 the one is the king1 the other the bishop4 ,footnote #cde3 ,see ,exodus1 xxviii4 ,now the king is appointed to keep watch over the sacred house in which the holy seat is placed and to keep the holy verdicts of ,god4 ,in temporal matters he is to judge between men and in such a way that the reward of eternal salvation may be given to him and to all others who after his day uphold the decisions that have been justly rendered4 ,into his hands ,god has also committed the sword of punishment with which to strike when the need arises1 just as ,king ,solomon did when he laid ,joab under the sword of chastisement1 with many others whom he subjected to righteous penalties1 as we have already told4 ,the king1 then1 must always strike1 not in hatred but for righteous punishment4 ,but if he slay any one out of hatred1 it is murder1 and he will have to answer for it as murder before ,god4 ,you shall also know of a truth that no one is allowed to pluck away any of those things that ,god from the beginning has assigned to ,his hall and high-seat2 for that would be to rob ,god ,himself and ,his holy judgment seat and to disturb arrogantly the arrangement which ,god has made4 ,and every one who is assigned to this seat should ponder in deep thought what plea he shall have to present when he comes before his own ,judge2 for every man who comes in his turn before the ,highest ,judge1 having been steward in ,his hall1 may confidently expect ,him to employ some mode of address like the following3 8,thou bearest ,mine own name1 for thou art both king and judge as ,i am2 therefore ,i demand that thou render account for thy stewardship1 inasmuch as thou art the appointed judge and leader of ,my people40 ,wherefore each one will need to prepare after long reflection and with great care what he is to reply when he comes before the ,judge4 ,if the archangel1 in whom there is no sign of weakness1 gives his answer with fear and trembling1 when he is called upon to render account for his services to our ,lord and ,king1 one can imagine what fear and trembling will come upon a frail and sinful man1 when he is asked to render account for his stewardship in the presence of ,god4 ,but he who has had this hall in his keeping will first of all be asked how he has dealt out justice among men2 and if he is unable to give a satisfactory account1 he may expect to hear this sentence3 8,thou wicked thrall1 since thou hast not observed justice in thy verdicts1 thou shalt fare thither where all verdicts are evil2 for thine own mouth has assigned thee to this place1 inasmuch as it was not ashamed to deliver dishonest judgments40 ,but if he can defend the justice of his decisions with good reasons1 he shall find joy in his stewardship and hear these words3 8,inasmuch as thou hast always observed equity as a judge1 it is fitting that thou shouldst enjoy a righteous verdict on every count40 ,he will then be asked further on what some of his actions were based2 and after that he will have to show how discreetly and carefully he has kept all those things which ,god in the beginning committed to this judgment seat4 ,but if he has not kept all those things which ,god in the beginning assigned to the holy seat of judgment1 he will be brought face to face with those who have done their duty well1 such as ,melchisedek or ,moses or ,david or others who have observed these things as faithfully as those named4 ,then he will hear these words spoken3 8,if thou hadst been as thoughtful and solicitous as these were in maintaining the honors which ,i joined in the beginning to ,my holy judgment seat1 thou wouldst have received the same rewards as these enjoy4 ,but now thou shalt be deprived of an honor here as great as the honor which thou didst take without right from ,my judgment seat2 and to that degree shalt thou be regarded less in worth and merit than those who have kept these honors unimpaired which ,i entrusted to them4 ,when thou wert given charge of ,my judgment seat1 it was not intended that thou shouldst have power to dispose of services1 honors1 and holy dignities in a manner different from the one that ,i established in the beginning4 ,for this office was not given thee as an everlasting inheritance1 but it was committed to thee for a time only1 that thou mightest obtain an eternal reward1 if thou didst guard it faithfully4 ,thou wert given power to distribute worldly riches1 gold and silver1 though with discretion1 but not to dispose of the honors and glories of ,my holy judgment seat40 ,but if it is found that he has been discreet in his charge1 he shall have cause to rejoice in his stewardship2 he will1 however1 be examined in various lines4 ,he will be asked how he has used the rod of punishment which was given into his hands2 and it is very important that justice shall have been strictly observed in penalties1 lest it go so ill with him as with ,king ,saul1 who failed to inflict a just penalty which ,god had commanded him to execute on the people who dwelt in ,amalek1 but slew unjustly the bishop ,ahimelech and all the priests in ,nob4 ,but if it should go so ill with him who is thus called to account for penalties inflicted1 that he is found to have stumbled in matters like those just mentioned and in which ,king ,saul fell1 he will soon hear these words3 8,lead him yonder where ,king ,saul and ,herod and ,nero and others like them abide1 and let him dwell there with them1 seeing that he wished to be like them in cruelty40 ,still1 if in some cases he has been merciful in sentence and punishment and if there is good reason why he should escape the reproaches that we have just mentioned1 those facts will not be forgotten4 ,for then he shall find happiness in all his stewardship and very soon shall hear this greeting3 8,thou art welcome1 thou faithful servant and good friend1 for thou hast loyally kept a slight temporal dignity2 now thou shalt come into joyful possession of a great honor1 constant and everlasting1 wholly free from sorrow and danger40 ,happy is he who is permitted to hear these words2 but wretched is he who shall hear those words of wrath which we quoted earlier4 ,but no one needs to doubt that everyone who shall be called to account for his office and stewardship will be addressed in one of these two ways4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,lxx ,,the ,,authority ,,of ,,kings ,,and ,,bishops4 ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,second ,,part ,son4 ,i see clearly that one who is to watch over the rules of the sacred law and deal out justice in all cases is surely assigned a very difficult task4 ,it is also evident that ,king ,solomon could not be called to account for having ,joab slain in ,god's tabernacle1 inasmuch as he slew him for a just punishment1 not out of enmity or in hatred1 as ,cain slew his brother ,abel4 ,god's tabernacle was not defiled by ,joab's blood1 seeing that it was not shed in hatred2 but the earth was defiled by ,abel's blood1 because it was shed in hatred4 ,and ,i understand fully that the sin and the desecration are caused by the hatred and not by the punishment4 ,but now you have spoken of two halls which ,god has dedicated to ,his service upon earth1 and there are certain things that concern these about which ,i wish to inquire4 ,you have stated that in one of them ,god has placed ,his judgment seat2 you have discussed that and also the office of him who is in charge of it4 ,you have also said that in the other hall is ,god's table1 from which all ,god's people shall take spiritual food2 and you added that the bishop has been appointed keeper of this hall4 ,now ,i wish to ask you why ,king ,solomon removed ,abiathar the bishop from the office that had been assigned to him1 namely that of keeper of the hall to which ,i have just referred1 and removed him so completely that he was never afterwards allowed to put forth his hand to the episcopal office1 but was to live from that time on as a churl or a plowboy4 ,but ,i have thought that neither of these two keepers can have authority to remove the other from the office which has been committed to him4 ,therefore ,i should like to have you point out a few considerations which will make clear how ,king ,solomon could remove the bishop ,abiathar from his office without incurring reproof from ,god4 ,father4 ,i called your attention to these facts to remind you that both these halls are ,god's houses and both king and bishop the servants of ,god and keepers of these houses2 but they do not own them in the sense that they can take anything away from them that was assigned to them in the beginning4 ,therefore the king must not pluck anything away from the house which the bishop has in his keeping1 for neither should rob the other4 ,and there should be no plundering of one by the other1 but each ought to support the other for the same ,one owns both houses1 namely ,god4 ,i have also told you that ,god has given the rod of punishment into the hands of both the king and the bishop4 ,the rod of punishment that has been committed to the king is a two-edged sword3 with this sword it is his duty to smite to the death everyone who tries to take anything away from the sacred hall of which he is the guardian4 ,but the king's sword is two-edged for the reason that it is also his duty to guard the house which is in the bishop's keeping1 if the bishop is unable to defend it with his own rod of punishment4 ,the bishop shall have his rod of punishment in his mouth1 and he shall smite with words but not with hands like the king4 ,and the bishop shall strike his blow in the following manner3 if any one attempt to dishonor the sacred hall that is in his care1 he shall refuse him the table which is placed in this holy house and the holy sustenance which is taken from this table4 ,but when ,king ,solomon deprived ,abiathar the bishop of the episcopal office and dignity1 he said that ,abiathar's own guilt deprived him and not he4 ,since he had decreed that ,david should forfeit his throne before ,god had ordered it1 and had chosen another king to replace ,david1 while he was still living1 it was right to deprive him of the episcopal office1 seeing that he wanted to rob ,david of the royal office4 ,saul's guilt1 on the other hand1 when he had slain the bishop ,ahimelech and all the priests in the city of ,nob1 was a grievous burden1 because he had done this without just cause4 ,but even if ,king ,solomon should have killed the bishop ,abiathar1 he would have been without guilt2 for the bishop had deprived the house of ,god of the lord whom ,god ,himself had appointed keeper of the holy judgment seat4 ,the bishop ,abiathar had no right either to appoint or to remove any one1 as was later made evident2 for ,david chose the one whom he wished to be king in his stead1 and the choice which ,abiathar had made was of no effect4 ,abiathar the bishop obtained the episcopal office through the will of ,david who appointed him to it4 ,now you are to understand that there is this difference between the business of a king and the duties of a bishop3 the bishop is appointed to be the king's teacher1 counsellor1 and guide1 while the king is appointed to be a judge and a man of severity in matters of punishment1 to the great terror of all who are subject to him4 ,nevertheless1 the bishop wields a rod of punishment as well as the king4 ,there is this difference1 however1 between the king's sword and that of the bishop1 that the king's sword always bites when one strikes with it1 and bites to great injury when it is used without right1 while it serves him well whom it may strike when it is rightfully used4 ,but the bishop's sword bites only when it is used rightfully2 when it is wrongfully used1 it injures him who smites with it1 not him who is stricken4 ,when the bishop strikes rightfully1 however1 his sword wounds even more deeply than the king's4 ,but this subject we shall discuss more fully at some other time1 if it is thought advisable4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,bibliography ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,bibliography ,,adam ,,of ,,bremen3 ,gesta ,hammenburgensis ,ecclesias ,pontificum1 ed4 ,j4 ,m4 ,lappenberg 7,mon4 ,ger4 ,hist4 ,scriptures1 ,,vii71 ,hanover1 #ahdf4 ,adventures of ,suibhne ,geilt1 translated by ,j4 ,g4 ,o',keefe 7,irish ,text ,society1 ,,xii71 ,london1 #aiac4 ,,alexander ,,neckam3 ,de ,naturis ,rerum ,libri ,duo1 ed4 ,thomas ,wright 7,rolls ,series1 ,no4 #cd71 ,london1 #ahfc4 ,,asher1 ,g4 ,m43 ,henry ,hudson the ,navigator 7,hakluyt ,society71 ,london1 #ahfj4 ,,bede3 ,opera ,omnia 7,migne1 ,patrologia ,latina1 ,,xc-,,xcv71 ,paris1 #ahej-ea4 ,,bernard 7,saint73 ,opera ,omnia 7,migne1 ,patrologia ,latina1 ,,clxxxii-,,clxxxv71 ,paris1 #ahed4 ,,blom1 ,,otto3 ,bemrkninger om ,kongespeilets ,affattelsestid 7,aarbger for ,nordisk ,oldkyndighed og ,historie71 ,copenhagen1 #ahfg4 ,,blom1 ,,otto3 ,lodbssen fra ,vedelspang 7,aarbger for ,nordisk ,oldkyndighed og ,historie71 ,copenhagen1 #ahgb4 ,,bull1 ,,edvard3 ,interdiktet mot ,sverre 7,historisk ,tidsskrift1 ,femte ,rkke1 ,,iii71 ,christiania1 #aiae4 ,,capella1 see ,martianus ,capella4 ,,clauss,n1 ,,peder3 ,norrigis ,bescriffuelse1 ,copenhagen1 #afcc4 ,corpus ,poeticum ,boreale1 ed4 ,gudbrand ,vigfusson and ,f4 ,york ,powell1 ,oxford1 #ahhc1 #b vols4 ,,cosmas3 ,the ,christian ,topography of ,cosmas1 an ,egyptian ,monk1 translated by ,j4 ,w4 ,mc,crindle1 ,london1 #ahig4 ,,daae1 ,,ludvig3 ,studier angaaende ,kongespeilet 7,aarbger for ,nordisk ,oldkyndighed og ,historie71 ,copenhagen1 #ahif4 ,elucidarium1 see ,honorius of ,autun4 ,elucidarius 7,annaler for ,nordisk ,oldkyndighed og ,historie71 ,copenhagen1 #aheb 7,danish translation71 #ahec 7,icelandic text74 ,,falk1 ,,hjalmar3 ,altnordische ,waffenkunde 7,skrifter utgit af ,videnskapsselskapet1 ,,ii1 ,historisk-filosofisk ,klasse71 ,christiania1 #aiae4 ,,figgis1 ,,john ,,neville3 ,the ,theory of the ,divine ,right of ,kings1 ,cambridge1 #ahif4 ,,giraldus ,,cambrensis3 ,opera1 ed4 ,j4 ,s4 ,brewer1 ,james ,f4 ,dimock1 and ,g4 ,f4 ,warner 7,rolls ,series1 ,no4 #ba71 ,london1 #ahfa-ia1 #h vols4 ,,geelmuyden1 ,,hans3 ,om ,stedet for ,kongespeilets ,forfattelse 7,arkiv for ,nordisk ,filologi1 ,i71 ,christiania1 #ahhc4 ,,gibbon1 ,,edward3 ,the ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire1 ed4 ,j4 ,b4 ,bury1 ,london1 #aiab4 ,,gjerset1 ,,knut3 ,history of the ,norwegian ,people1 ,new ,york1 #aiae1 #b vols4 ,hkonar ,saga1 ed4 ,gudbrand ,vigfusson and ,g4 ,w4 ,dasent1 ,icelandic ,sagas1 ,,ii1 ,,iv 7,rolls ,series1 ,no4 #hh71 ,london1 #ahhg-id1 #b vols4 ,,heffermehl1 ,a4 ,v43 ,presten ,ivar ,bodde 7,historiske ,skrifter ,tilegnede og ,overleverede ,professor ,dr4 ,ludvig ,daae71 ,christiania1 #aijd4 ,heilagra ,manna ,sgur1 ed4 ,c4 ,r4 ,unger1 ,christiania1 #ahgg1 #b vols4 ,,heinzel1 ,,richard3 ,excurs ber den ,mythus von den vier ,tchtern ,gottes 7,zeitschrift fr deutsches ,alterthum1 ,neue ,folge1 ,v71 ,berlin1 #ahgd4 ,,herrmann1 ,,paul3 ,island in ,vergangenheit und ,gegenwart1 ,leipzig1 #aijg1 #b vols4 ,,hertzberg1 ,,ebbe3 ,den frste norske ,kongekroning 7,historisk ,tidsskrift1 ,fjerde ,rkke1 ,,iii71 ,christiania1 #aije4 ,,honorius ,,of ,,autun3 ,opera ,omnia 7,migne1 ,patrologia ,latina1 ,,clxxii71 ,paris1 #ahed4 ,,hovgaard1 ,,william3 ,the ,voyages of the ,norsemen to ,america1 ,new ,york1 #aiad4 ,,hudson1 ,,henry1 see ,,asher4 ,,hugh ,,of ,,saint ,,victor3 ,opera ,omnia 7,migne1 ,patrologia ,latina1 ,,clxxv-,,clxxvii71 ,paris1 #ahed4 ,,isidore 7,saint7 of ,seville3 ,opera ,omnia 7,migne1 ,patrologia ,latina1 ,,lxxxi-,,lxxxiv71 ,paris1 #ahej4 ,,jacobus ,,de ,,voragine3 ,the ,golden ,legend1 ed4 ,george ,v4 ,o',neill1 ,cambridge1 #aiad4 ,kongespegelen1 translated by ,k4 ,audne1 ,oslo ,christiania1 #aiji-ac4 ,kongespeilet i ,uddrag1 translated by ,chr4 ,dorph1 ,copenhagen1 #ahib4 ,kongespeilet1 ed4 ,r4 ,keyser1 ,p4 ,a4 ,munch1 and ,c4 ,r4 ,unger1 ,christiania1 #ahdh4 ,kongs-skuggsio1 ,det ,kongelige ,speil1 ,speculum ,regale1 ed4 ,halfdan ,einersen1 ,sore1 #agfh4 ,konungs ,skuggsj1 ed4 ,george ,t4 ,flom 7,published by the ,university of ,illinois71 ,urbana1 #aiae4 ,,larson1 ,,laurence ,m43 ,the ,household of the ,norwegian ,kings in the ,thirteenth ,century 7,american ,historical ,review1 ,,xiii71 #aijh4 ,,larson1 ,,laurence ,m43 ,scientific ,knowledge in the ,north in the ,thirteenth ,century 7,publications of the ,society for the ,advancement of ,scandinavian ,study1 ,i1 ,no4 #d71 #aiac4 ,macrobius1 ed4 ,f4 ,eyssenhardt1 ,leipzig1 #ahic4 ,martianus ,capella1 ed4 ,f4 ,eyssenhardt1 ,leipzig1 #ahff4 ,meregarto1 ,denkmler deutscher ,poesie und ,prosa1 ed4 ,k4 ,mllenhoff and ,w4 ,scherer1 ,berlin1 #ahib4 ,,meter1 ,,kuno3 ,irish ,memorabilia in the ,speculum ,regale 7riu1 ,,iv71 #aiaj4 ,,munch1 ,,peter ,,andreas3 ,det norske ,folks ,historie1 ,christiania1 #aheb-fc1 #h vols4 ,,nansen1 ,,fridtjof3 ,in ,northern ,mists1 ,london1 #aiaa1 #b vols4 ,,nennius3 ,the ,irish ,version of the ,historia ,britonum of ,nennius1 ed4 ,james ,henthorn ,todd and ,algernon ,herbert 7,irish ,archeological ,society71 ,dublin1 #ahdh4 ,norges gamle ,love indtil #achg1 ed4 ,r4 ,keyser1 ,p4 ,a4 ,munch1 ,gustav ,storm1 and ,ebbe ,hertzberg1 ,christiania1 #ahdf-ie1 #e parts4 ,,olafsen1 ,o43 ,falkefangsten i ,norge 7,historisk ,tidsskrift1 ,femte ,rkke1 ,,iii71 ,christiania1 #aiae4 ,,olson1 ,,julius ,e4 and ,e4 ,g4 ,,bourne 7editors73 ,the ,northmen1 ,columbus1 and ,cabot 7,original ,narratives of ,early ,american ,history71 ,new ,york1 #aijf4 ,,oman1 ,,charles3 ,a ,history of the ,art of ,war in the ,middle ,ages1 ,london1 #aije4 ,,paris1 ,,matthew3 ,chronica ,majora1 ed4 ,h4 ,r4 ,luard 7,rolls ,series1 ,no4 #eg71 ,london1 #ahgb-hd1 #g vols4 ,,petit ,,de ,,juleville1 ,l43 ,les ,mystres1 ,paris1 #ahhj1 #b vols4 ,,petrus ,,alfonsus3 ,discipline ,clericalis 7,migne1 ,patrologia ,latina1 ,,clcvii71 ,paris1 #ahed4 ,,petrus ,,comestor3 ,historia ,scholastica 7,migne1 ,patrologia ,latina1 ,,cxcviii71 ,paris1 #ahee4 ,,pliny1 ,c43 ,plinii ,secundi ,naturalis ,historiae ,libri ,,xxxvii1 ed4 ,julius ,sillig1 ,hamburg1 #ahea-eh4 ,,rabanus ,,maurus3 ,opera ,omnia1 7,migne1 ,patrologia ,latina1 ,,cvii-,,cxii71 ,paris1 #ahea-eb4 ,reliquiae ,antiquae1 ed4 ,thomas ,wright and ,james ,orchard ,halliwell1 #ahda-dc1 #b vols4 ,,riant1 ,,paul3 ,expditions et ,plerinages des ,scandinaves en ,terre ,sainte1 ,paris1 #ahfe4 ,rotuli ,litterarum ,clausarum1 ed4 ,t4 ,hardy 7,record ,commission ,publications71 ,london1 #ahcc1 #b vols4 ,,ruge1 ,,sophus3 ,geschichte des ,zeitalters der ,entdeckungen1 ,berlin1 #ahha4 ,,scherer1 ,w43 ,die vier ,tchter ,gottes 7,zeitschrift fr deutsches ,alterthum1 ,neue ,folge1 ,,ix71 ,berlin1 #ahgg4 ,,solinus3 ,collectanea ,rerum ,memorabilium1 ed4 ,th4 ,mommsen1 ,berlin1 #ahie4 ,speculum ,regale1 ed4 ,oscar ,brenner1 ,munich1 #ahhh4 ,,steenstrup1 ,i4 ,,japetus ,s43 ,hvad er ,kongespeilets 8,havgjerdinger80 7,aarbger for nordisk ,oldkyndighed og ,historie71 ,copenhagen1 #ahga4 ,stjrn1 ,gammelnorsk ,bibelhistorie1 ed4 ,c4 ,r4 ,unger1 ,christiania1 #ahfb4 ,,storm1 ,,gustav3 ,brudstykke af en latinsk ,oversttelse af ,kongespeilet fra det #ad;de ,aarhundrede 7,arkiv for ,nordisk ,filologi1 ,i71 ,christiania1 #ahhc4 ,,storm1 ,,gustav 7editor73 ,en ,tale mod ,biskopperne1 ,christiania1 #ahhe4 ,,storm1 ,,gustav3 ,om ,tidsforholdet mellem ,kongespeilet og ,stjrn samt ,barlaams ,saga 7,arkiv for ,nordisk ,filologi1 ,,iii71 ,christiania1 #ahhf4 ,theodosiani ,libri xvi4441 ed4 ,th4 ,mommsen et ,paulus ,m4 ,meyer1 ,berlin1 #aije1 #c parts4 ,vulgate3 ,biblia ,sacra4441 ed4 ,p4 ,michael ,hetzenauer1 ,oeniponte ,innsbruck1 #aijf4 ,,weiss1 ,h4 ,j4 ,k43 ,kostmekunde1 ,stuttgart1 #ahfj-gb1 #e vols4 ,,zarncke1 ,,friedrich3 ,der ,priester ,johannes1 ,leipzig1 #ahgi4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,index ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,,index ,aaron1 high priest in ,israel1 #bhj1 #bhd1 #ceh4 ,abbot1 #bid1 #cbe4 ,abel1 #ccj1 #cfc4 ,abiathar1 ,hebrew priest1 #df1 #dg1 #ccc1 #cdd1 #cdg1 #cea-cec1 #cfc-cfe4 ,abiram1 ,hebrew rebel1 #bgi1 #bhc4 ,abishag1 ,david's wife1 #cdd1 #cdh-cea4 ,abishai1 ,david's companion1 #cce4 ,abner1 ,hebrew captain1 #cdf1 #cea4 ,absalom1 ,david's son1 #cbe1 #cch1 #cdf1 #cdg4 ,acrifolium 7aquifolium71 #ajg4 ,adam1 #beb-beg1 #bfa1 #bff-bgc4 ,adam von ,bremen1 #ai note4 8,address to the ,norwegian ,people10 ,king ,sverre's1 #ci-df1 #di1 #eh1 #ei4 ,adonijah1 ,david's son1 #df1 #fd1 #cda1 #cdd1 #cde1 #cdg-cea4 ,agag1 king of ,amalek1 #cbf4 ,ahasuerus1 ,persian king1 #bcg-bdj1 #bdd4 ,ahimelech1 ,hebrew priest1 #cca-ccc1 #cfb1 #cfe4 ,albertus ,magnus1 medieval schoolman1 #b4 ,ale-springs1 #acd4 ,alexander ,neckam1 medieval scientist1 #ab1 #ah4 ,alfonso the ,wise1 ,spanish king1 #ca4 ,amalek1 ,amalekites1 #eb1 #bgi1 #bhc1 #cai1 #cbe1 #cbf1 #cfb4 ,amasa1 ,hebrew captain1 #cdf1 #cea4 ,amorites1 #cai1 #cbf4 ,andenes1 headland in ,lofoten1 #ih4 ,angels1 #bfa-bfc1 #cji1 #cch1 #cfj4 ,ant1 ,habits of the1 #ib4 ,apples1 ,st4 ,kevin's1 #aac2 of knowledge1 #beb1 #bec1 #bee1 #bfd-bff4 ,apulia1 ,southern ,italy1 #if1 #ig4 ,arctic1 ,marvels of the1 #ba1 #aje1 #aai-abf1 #ace-ada4 ,armor1 #bag-bbj4 ,arnamagnean collection1 #fe1 #fh4 ,artaxerxes1 ,persian king1 #bcg4 ,arthurian legends1 #b1 #c4 ,asp1 serpent in ,paradise1 #bfd4 ,athens1 #cji1 #caj1 #cab4 ,augustine1 ,saint1 #dj4 ,aura1 #agb4 ,bacon1 ,roger1 medieval scientist1 #b4 ,balances of justice1 ,the1 #cjf1 #cjg4 ,baleen whale1 #abj4 ,basking sharks1 #abb note4 ,bathsheba1 ,uriah's wife1 #cbc-cbe1 #cdd1 #cdh-cea2 see ,uriah4 ,beaked whale1 #abj1 #abc4 ,beams used in warfare1 #baf1 #bbd1 #bbe4 ,beard1 how trimmed and worn at court1 #ahb4 ,bearded seal1 #adj4 ,bears in ,greenland1 #adc4 ,beasts1 ,instincts of1 #ia1 #ib1 #aaa1 #aab4 ,bede1 medieval writer1 #e1 #af note1 #ah1 #bj1 #adg note1 #beg note4 ,beluga1 a sort of whale1 #abj note4 ,benaiah1 ,hebrew captain1 #cdd1 #cde1 #cea1 #ceb4 ,bengjerd 7,berengaria71 ,danish queen1 #ca4 ,bergen1 #bf1 #df4 ,bernard1 ,saint1 #beg note4 ,bethany1 ,hebrew town1 #bhi4 ,bethlehem1 ,hebrew town1 #cbi4 ,birchshanks1 anti-clerical faction in ,norway1 #cg1 #eb1 #fa1 #fc1 #fd4 ,birds1 ,joy of1 at coming of spring1 #ij1 #ia4 ,birger1 ,swedish earl1 #d1 #cj4 ,birka1 old ,swedish town1 #hb note4 ,bishops1 ,political claims of1 #cf-ch1 #ee2 hostile to the monarchy1 #dj1 #dg1 #ed2 subordinate to the king1 #agd1 #age1 #ceb1 #cec1 #cfd-cff2 authority of1 #ceh1 #cei1 #cfc-cff2 mention of1 #aag1 #agh1 #bda1 #bhj1 #bha1 #bia1 #bid1 #cbe1 #cbf1 #cca1 #cdd1 #cde4 ,bjarkey code1 a municipal law1 #ha4 ,bjarkudal bog1 ,norwegian marvel1 #ajd4 ,blandina 7,slieve ,bloom mountains in ,iceland71 #ajg4 ,blom1 ,otto1 ,captain in ,danish artillery1 #cb1 #fb1 #fc4 ,blood fine1 #fa4 ,blubber-cutters1 #aai4 8,bluemen0 7negroes71 #cj4 ,brnhoved1 ,battle of1 #c4 ,brattices1 #bbb4 ,breastplate1 #bai4 ,breeches for mounted warriors1 #bai4 ,breeding1 ,good1 #bbg-bbi4 ,brendan1 ,irish saint1 #abe note4 ,brenner1 ,otto1 editor of ,speculum ,regale1 #fi4 8,briar10 weapon for defense1 #bbc4 ,british ,isles1 #bi4 ,broadax1 #bae4 ,caaing whale1 #aai4 ,caesar1 ,christ's submission to1 #dc1 #bdh1 #bdi4 ,cain1 #ccj1 #cfc4 ,caltrop1 device used in warfare1 #bae4 ,cap1 hat1 or coif1 ,when not to wear a1 #ahb1 #ahd1 #bbg4 ,capella1 ,martianus1 encyclopedist1 #e1 #adg note4 ,cassiodorus1 encyclopedist1 #e4 ,castles1 ,weapons for attacking or defending1 #bbj-bbf4 ,cat1 siege engine1 #bba1 #bbb4 ,chansons de geste1 #b4 ,cherubim1 #bgj4 ,chess1 #hc1 #bbh4 ,christiania1 #fh4 ,christiania edition of the ,king's ,mirror1 #fb1 #fh1 #fi1 #ga4 ,christina1 ,norwegian princess1 #ca4 ,christopher1 ,danish king1 #cj4 ,church1 ,the1 relation of1 to the monarchy1 #ce-ch1 #ee1 #ceg-cff2 ambitions of1 #cf1 #cg2 opposed by ,king ,sverre1 #dj4 ,claussn1 ,peder1 ,norwegian writer1 #fe4 ,climate of ,iceland and ,greenland1 #ae1 #if1 #adc1 #adh1 #adi1 #aec2 of ,ireland1 #bc1 #bd1 #aje1 #ajf2 affected by changes in the sun's course1 #if-ii4 ,cloena 7,clonmacnois71 ,irish borough1 #aaf1 #aag4 ,clothes1 #aha1 #ahb1 #bai1 #bbg1 #bed1 #bga4 ,coal1 ,use of1 in warfare1 #bae4 ,cologne1 #bh4 ,conduct1 ,rules of1 #hj-hc1 #he1 #ahb-ahi1 #bje-baa1 #bbg1 #bbh4 ,constantine1 #bdj-bdd4 ,conversation1 ,rules governing1 #ahf-aia1 #bji1 #baj1 #bbg4 ,copenhagen1 #ff1 #fg1 #fh4 8,corse seal10 #aci4 ,cosmas1 ,egyptian monk and writer1 #ah note4 ,court1 ,the royal1 customs of1 #gc1 #agc1 #agf-agi1 #ahc1 #bjh-baa2 promotion at1 #afi2 fashions at1 #aha-ahf2 speech and conversation at1 #ahf1 #ahg2 habits suitable to life at1 #bjh-baj4 ,courtesy1 ,rules of1 #aa1 #bbg1 #bbh2 see ,court4 ,crafts and professions1 #gc1 #gh4 ,craton1 ,roman philosopher1 #bdb-bde4 ,crossbow1 #bae1 #bbj4 ,croziermen1 clerical faction in ,norway1 #cg1 #ch1 #ed1 #ef4 ,crusades1 ,importance of1 for the spread of culture1 #bg1 #cb1 #cc4 ,culture in the medieval ,north1 #bf-ca4 ,curtain1 a type of fortification1 #bbb4 ,cyrus1 #bcg4 ,daae1 ,ludvig1 ,norwegian historian1 #dd1 #eg1 #fb4 ,dagmar 7,dragomir71 ,danish queen1 #ca4 ,dante1 #di4 ,dart1 #bae4 ,dathan1 ,hebrew rebel1 #bgi1 #bhc4 ,david1 king of ,israel1 #db1 #df1 #eb1 #bdi1 #bge1 #bgf1 #bgh1 #bha1 #bhd1 #bij1 #bia1 #cag1 #cbj-cdb1 #cdd-ceb1 #cfa1 #cfe4 ,dearth and failure of crops and morals1 #cc1 #aic-bjd4 ,death penalty1 #cah-cba4 ,defensor ,pacis1 #di4 ,de ,monarchia1 #di4 ,denmark1 #c1 #cj1 #ch1 #fg4 ,dialogs of ,gregory the ,great1 #abg1 #acj4 ,dice1 ,warning against1 #hc1 #bbh4 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,running on1 #ajc1 #ajd4 ,skule1 ,norwegian earl and duke1 #ca1 #ce1 #dh1 #eb1 #fc1 #fd4 ,society for the ,advancement of ,scandinavian ,study1 ,the1 #gj4 ,solinus1 #ai note4 ,solomon1 ,hebrew king1 #df1 #dg1 #fd1 #cjc1 #cdj-ced1 #ceg1 #ceh1 #cfc-cfe4 8,song of the ,high ,one10 ,eddic poem1 #ej4 ,sor1 ,danish city1 #ff1 #fg4 ,sor edition of the ,king's ,mirror1 #fa1 #fe-fh1 #gj1 #abj note4 ,spain1 #ca4 8,spear whale10 #abj4 ,speculum ,ecclesiae1 #g4 ,speculum ,majus1 #f4 ,speculum ,naturale1 #g4 ,speculum ,perfectionis1 #g4 ,speculum ,regale1 #f-i1 #ag1 #ai1 #bb1 #be1 #dc1 #de1 #di1 #ej1 #ef1 #ei1 #fa1 #ff1 #fh-gj1 #gd1 #aja note2 see ,king's ,mirror4 ,speculum ,regis1 #h4 ,speculum ,regum1 #h4 ,speculum ,stultorum1 #g4 ,sperm1 #abd4 ,sperm whale1 #aba4 ,springs1 ,marvelous1 #ajg4 ,staff slings1 #bac1 #bae1 #bba4 ,steenstrup1 ,i4 ,japetus ,s41 ,danish scientist1 #acg note4 ,stephen1 ,athenian judge1 #cji-cac4 ,stockholm1 #hb note4 ,storm1 ,gustav1 ,norwegian historian1 #fb4 ,strindsea1 ,battle of1 #eh4 ,suibhne ,geilt1 ,irish legendary character1 #aaf note4 ,sulphur1 ,use of1 in warfare1 #bae1 #bbe4 ,sun1 ,the1 office of1 #hg1 #cjj2 effect of1 on the winds1 #hg-hi1 #aeh-afj2 changes in the course of1 #ib-ii1 #ajd1 #adi1 #aee1 #aef2 influence of1 on climate1 #if-ii4 ,surcingle1 #bah4 ,sverre1 ,norwegian king1 #cd1 #cg-ci1 #dg1 #ed-fa4 ,sweden1 #c1 #d1 #cj1 #fe4 ,swords of kings and bishops1 #cfd-cff4 ,sylvester1 pope and saint1 #bda4 ,table service and manners1 #hj1 #baj1 #baa1 #bbg1 #bbh4 ,tar1 ,use of1 in warfare1 #bbe ,tara1 #aac note2 see ,themar4 ,tarquin1 ,roman citizen1 #caj1 #caa1 #cac1 #cad4 ,thegn1 ,king's1 #fa4 ,thegn money1 #afh1 #aga4 ,themar1 ,irish borough1 #aac-aae1 #cjh1 #cab1 #cad4 ,theodoric1 #c4 ,theodosius ,,ii1 ,roman emperor1 #caf note4 ,thieves1 ,the two1 at the crucifixion1 #bhb1 #bhe4 ,thomas ,aquinas1 medieval philosopher and theologian1 #b4 ,tides1 #ab1 #af1 #ag1 #hc1 #hf1 #ib-id4 ,time1 ,divisions of1 #aa1 #af1 #ic-ie4 ,tools for ship repairs1 #hd4 ,topographia ,hibernica of ,giraldus ,cambrensis1 #bb1 #bc4 ,torment1 ,places of1 in ,sicily and ,iceland1 #acj1 #aca4 ,towers for siege warfare1 #bae1 #baf1 #bba1 #bbe4 ,trebuckets1 siege engines1 #bbj1 #bbb4 ,trondhjem1 #bf1 #df1 #ei1 #fd1 #ff2 see ,nidaros4 ,truth1 divine virgin1 #beb1 #bed1 #bee1 #beg-bei1 #bgh1 #bgi1 #bha1 #bhc1 #bhe1 #bhg1 #cbd4 ,tunis1 #ca4 ,turnpikes for use in defensive warfare1 #bbc4 ,ulster1 #ajg note4 ,unas1 a ,faroese1 #cg4 ,unger1 ,carl ,r41 editor of the ,king's ,mirror1 #fh4 ,ur1 ,hebrew high priest1 #bhj1 #bhd4 ,uriah1 ,hebrew warrior1 #ec1 #bha1 #cbb-cbe1 #cbh4 ,utrecht1 #bh4 ,vaag1 fishing village in ,lofoten1 #ih4 ,valdemar the ,victorious1 ,danish king1 #c1 #d1 #ca4 ,valladolid1 #ca4 ,vashti1 ,persian queen1 #bcg1 #bch1 #bdj1 #bdc1 #bdd4 ,venomous animals unable to live in ,ireland1 #ajf4 ,vincent of ,beauvais1 encyclopedist1 #e4 ,volcanic fires1 #ag1 #ba1 #abf-abi1 #acj1 #aca4 ,vows and promises1 when to be kept and when broken1 #cec-ceg4 ,vulgate1 #i4 ,wadmol1 cloth for sail repair1 #hd4 ,walrus1 #ba1 #adj1 #ada4 8,war-beams10 #bae4 ,warfare1 ,private1 #ej1 #bca4 ,weapons suitable for warfare on land1 #bac1 #bad1 #bag-bbf2 on board ships1 #bad-bag4 ,whalebone1 #abd4 ,whales1 #ah1 #ba1 #aai-abd1 #aci1 #adj1 #ade4 ,white bears1 #adc4 ,white whale1 #abj4 ,william1 king's chaplain1 #bi1 #eg4 ,william of ,sabina1 cardinal1 #ca1 #ee4 ,willow1 ,miracle of the1 #aab1 #aac4 ,winds1 ,covenant of the1 #hg-hi1 #aeh-afa2 importance of1 in navigation1 #aej1 #afj4 ,wisdom1 ,source and beginning of1 #gg1 #gh1 #bcj1 #bii1 #cjj2 nature of1 #bbi-bcd1 #cjj1 #cjb1 #cjc2 speech of1 #cjj-cjc4 ,woden1 #ej4 ,wolves1 ,men turned into1 #aae2 in ,greenland1 #adc4 ,woman taken in adultery1 #bha1 #bhb4 ,year1 ,divisions of the1 #id4 ,zadoc1 ,hebrew priest1 #cdd-cdg4 ,zenophilus1 ,roman prince1 #bdb-bde4 ,zion 7,gihon71 #cde4 ,zones of heat and cold1 #ae1 #af1 #adg1 #adh1 #aec-aee1 #afb4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,missing or obscured punctuation was silently corrected4 ,typographical errors were silently corrected4 ,inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were made consistent only when a predominant form was found in this book4 ,text that was in italics is enclosed by underscores 7italics74